,,the ,,theory ,,and ,,practice ,,of ,,brewing4 ,,by ,,michael ,,combrune1 ,,brewer4 ,,originally ,,published ,,with ,,permission ,,of ,,the ,,master1 ,,wardens1 ,,and ,,court ,,of ,,assistants ,,of ,,the ,,worshipful ,,company ,,of ,,brewers4 ,a ,,new ,,edition4 ,,corrected ,,and ,,greatly ,,enlarged ,,by ,,the ,,author4 ,,london3 ,,printed ,,for ,,vernor ,,and ,,hood1 ,,longman ,,and ,,rees1 ,,cutrell ,,and ,,martin1 ,,and ,j4 ,,walker1 ,by ,j4 ,wright1 ,st4 ,john's ,square1 ,clerkenwell4 #ahjd4 ,,to ,,doctor ,,peter ,,shaw1 ,,physician ,,to ,,his ,,majesty1 ,,fellow ,,of ,,the ,,royal ,,college ,,of ,,physicians ,,of ,,london1 ,,and ,,of ,,the ,,royal ,,society4 ,,sir1 ,the brewing of malt liquors has hitherto been conducted by such vague traditional maxims1 that an attempt to establish its practice on truer and more fixed principles must1 like every new essay1 be attended with difficulties4 ,your works1 ,sir1 will be lasting monuments1 not only of your great abilities1 but also of your zeal for the improvement of the arts1 manufactures1 and commerce of your country4 ,you will therefore permit me to place under your patronage this treatise1 which1 if it can boast no other merit1 has that of having been undertaken and finished by your advice and counsel4 ,some favor1 ,i hope1 will be shewn for this distant endeavour to imitate the laudable example you have set1 and whatever be the success1 ,i shall ever glory in the opportunity it has given me of professing myself publicly1 ,sir1 ,your most obedient1 ,and most obliged humble ,servant1 ,,michael ,,combrune4 ,hampstead1 ,middlesex1 ,december #ae1 #agfa4 ,,the ,,contents4 ,page ,,part ,i4 ,explanation of technical terms1 #a ,,section ,i4 ,of ,fire1 #ac ,,section ,,ii4 ,of ,air1 #ai ,,section ,,iii4 ,of ,water1 #bd ,,section ,,iv4 ,of ,earth1 #cc ,,section4 ,v4 ,of ,menstruums or ,dissolvents1 #cd ,,section ,,vi4 ,of the ,thermometer1 #ci ,,section ,,vii4 ,of the ,vine1 its fruits1 and juices1 #ej ,,section ,,viii4 ,of fermentation in general1 #ff ,,section ,,ix4 ,of artificial fermentation1 #hj ,,section ,x4 ,of the nature of ,barley1 #hi ,,section ,,xi4 ,of ,malting1 #id ,,section ,,xii4 ,of the different ,properties of ,malt1 and of the number of its fermentable ,parts1 #aac ,,section ,,xiii4 ,observations on defective ,malts1 #aca ,,part ,,ii4 ,,section ,i4 ,of the heat of the ,air1 as it relates to the practical part of ,brewing1 #ade ,,section ,,ii4 ,of ,grinding1 #aeg ,,section ,,iii4 ,of ,extraction1 #afj ,,section ,,iv4 ,of the nature and properties of ,hops1 #bja ,,section ,v4 ,of the lengths necessary to form malt liquors of the several denominations1 #bag ,,section ,,vi4 ,method of calculating the height in the ,copper at which worts are to go out1 #bbj ,,section ,,vii4 ,of ,boiling1 #bbd ,,section ,,viii4 ,of the quantity of ,water wasted2 and of the application of the preceding rules to two different processes of ,brewing1 #bcj ,,section ,,ix4 ,of the division of the ,water for the respective ,worts and ,mashes1 and of the heat adequate to each of these1 #bcd ,,section ,x4 ,an enquiry into the volume of ,malt1 in order to reduce the ,grist to liquid measure1 #bec ,,section ,,xi4 ,of the proportion of cold ,water to be added to that which is on the point of boiling1 in order to obtain the desired heat in the extract1 #bga ,,section ,,xii4 ,of ,mashing1 #bhf ,,section ,,xiii4 ,of the incidents1 which cause the heat of the extract to vary from the calculation1 the allowances they require1 and the means to obviate their effects1 #bhi ,,section ,,xiv4 ,of the disposition of the ,worts when turned out of the ,copper1 the thickness they should be laid at in the ,backs to cool1 and the heat they should retain for fermentation1 under the several circumstances1 #cjd ,,section ,,xv4 ,of ,yeast1 its nature and contents1 and of the manner and quantities in which it is to be added to the ,worts1 #caa ,,section ,,xvi4 ,of practical fermentation1 and the management of the several sorts of ,malt liquors1 to the period at which they are to be cleansed1 or put into the casks1 #cah ,,section ,,xvii4 ,of the signs generally directing the processes of ,brewing1 and their comparison with the foregoing ,theory and ,practice1 #cbg ,,section ,,xviii4 ,an enquiry1 into what may be1 at all times1 a proper stock of ,beer1 and the management of it in the cellars1 #cca ,,section ,,xix4 ,of ,precipitation1 and other remedies1 applicable to the diseases incident to ,beers1 #ccd ,,section ,,xx4 ,of ,taste1 #cdb ,appendix1 #cdi ,,the ,,preface4 ,the difference that appears in the several processes of brewing1 though executed with the same materials1 by the same persons1 and to the same intent1 is generally acknowledged4 ,the uneasiness this must occasion to those who are charged with the directive part of the business1 cannot be small3 and the more desirous they are of well executing the duty incumbent on them1 the greater is their disappointment1 when frustrated in their hopes4 ,to remove this uncertainty1 no method seems preferable to that of experiments1 as it is by this means alone1 any art whatever can be established upon a solid foundation3 but these require caution1 perseverance1 and expence2 they must be multiplied and varied both for the same and for different purposes4 ,the operations of nature elude superficial enquiries1 where we have few or no principles for our guides1 many experiments are made1 which tend only to confound or deceive4 ,effects seen1 without a sufficient knowledge of their causes1 often are neglected1 or viewed in an improper light1 seldom faithfully reported1 and1 for want of distinguishing the several circumstances that attend them1 many times become the support of old prejudices1 or the foundation of new ones4 ,whoever is attentive to the practical part of brewing1 will soon be convinced that heat1 or fire1 is the principal agent therein1 as this element1 used in a greater or less degree1 or differently applied1 is the occasion of the greatest part of the variety we perceive4 ,it is but a few years since the thermometer has been found to be an instrument sufficiently accurate for any purposes where the measure of heat is required4 ,and1 as it is the only one with which we are enabled to examine the processes of brewing1 and to account for the difference in the effects1 a theory of the art1 founded on practice1 must be of later date than the discovery of the instrument that guides us to the principles4 ,so long since as the year #agda1 ,i began this research1 and never neglected any opportunity to consult the artists of the trade1 or to try such experiments as ,i conceived might be conducive to the purpose4 ,it is needless1 perhaps shameful1 to mention their number1 or to speak of the many disappointments ,i met with in this pursuit4 ,error admits of numberless combinations4 ,truth alone is simple1 and confirmed by continuity4 ,at last1 flattering myself with having collected the true theory1 assisted and encouraged by men of abilities1 ,i thought it fit the public should judge whether ,i had succeeded in my endeavours2 and in #ageh the ,essay on ,brewing was submitted to them1 either for their approbation1 or that the errors therein might be pointed out4 ,i have had no reason to repent of my temerity1 though perhaps the novelty1 more than the merit of this performance1 engaged the attention1 ,i may add the favor and advice of some good judges4 ,they have allowed my principles to be at least plausible1 and their agreement with practice has since repeatedly convinced me they were not far from truth4 ,the ,essay just mentioned1 revised and corrected1 naturally forms the first part or theory of the present treatise4 ,the second part is entirely practical4 ,after giving a short idea of the whole process1 ,i resume its different branches in as many chapters1 and endeavour in such manner to guide the practitioner1 that he may1 in every part1 at all times1 and under a variety of circumstances1 know what he is to do1 and seldom1 if ever1 to be disappointed in his object4 ,from the investigation of so extensive a business1 some benefit1 it is hoped1 must accrue to the public2 from the process of brewing being carried on in a just and uniform manner1 our malt liquors1 probably1 will in time better deserve the name of wine4 ,boerhaave1 ,shaw1 ,macquer1 and most of the great masters in chymistry are far from limiting that name to the liquors produced from the juice of the grape3 they extend it to all fermented vegetable juices1 which1 on distillation1 yield an ardent spirit1 and look on the strength and faculty wine has to cherish nature1 and preserve itself1 to be in proportion to the quantity it possesses of this liquid1 generally termed spirit of wine4 ,this1 when thoroughly pure and dephlegmated1 is one and the same1 whatever different vegetable it is produced from4 ,barley wines possess the same spiritous principle1 which is the preservative part of the most valuable foreign wines1 with a power of being brewed superior or inferior to them in quality1 and the other constituent parts of beer1 beside this ardent spirit1 will not1 ,i believe1 be esteemed less wholesome than those which make up the whole of grape wine4 ,the reasons why ,great ,britain hath not hitherto furnished foreign nations with this part of her product1 but more especially her seamen1 are obvious4 ,our mariners1 when at home1 do not dislike beer1 either as to their palates1 or its effects on their constitution2 but when abroad1 spiritous liquors1 or new wines1 often the product of an enemy's country1 are substituted in lieu thereof4 ,the disuse of beers1 on these occasions1 has been owing to the uncertainty of the principles on which they were brewed2 the maintaining them sound in long voyages and in hot climates1 could not sufficiently be depended upon2 and it has been supposed they could not be procured at so easy a rate as wines1 brandies1 or rums1 purchased abroad4 ,the first of these objections1 the author hopes1 by this work1 to remove2 and1 were all the duties to be allowed on what would be brewed for this purpose1 our seamen might be furnished with beer stronger than ,spanish wine1 and at a less expence1 the mean price of malt and hops being taken for seven years4 ,it is true that1 in times of peace1 the seamen in his ,majesty's service are not very numerous1 but the number of those then employed by merchants is considerable4 ,i should not have presumed to mention this1 but on account of the encouragement given to the exportation of corn1 and to many manufactures of ,british growth or ,british labor4 ,it is computed that1 in ,england and ,wales1 are brewed three millions five hundred thousand quarters of malt yearly1 for which purpose upwards of one hundred and fifty thousand weight of hops are used4 ,the improvement of the brewery might become a means of increasing the consumption of the growth of our country1 viz4 of barley1 to more than one hundred thousand quarters1 and of hops to between fourteen and fifteen thousand weight annually4 ,whether this be an object deserving the attention of the legislative power1 or of the landed interest1 and what might be the proper means to put it successfully in practice1 are considerations which do not belong to this place2 it being sufficient here to point out1 how universally beneficial it is to establish the art of brewing on true and invariable principles4 ,this being the first attempt1 that has been made1 to reduce this art to rules and principles1 the ,author hopes he has a just claim to the indulgence of the public1 for any errors he unwillingly may have adopted2 far from believing that there is no room left for future improvements1 he recommends it to those1 who1 blessed with superior talents and more leisure than himself1 may be inclined to try their skill in the same field1 to watch closely the steps of ,,nature2 after the strictest enquiry made1 it will be found1 the success of brewing beers and ales wholly depends on a true imitation of the wines she forms4 ,this second edition1 it may be observed1 in many respects1 differs considerably from the first4 ,i have endeavoured to convert to use every advice1 every opinion ,i received1 and having put these to the test of farther practice1 flatter myself it will be found improved4 ,a ,,copy ,,of ,,doctor ,,shaw',s ,,letter4 ,,on ,,perusing ,,the ,,essay ,,before ,,mentioned4 ,,dear ,,sir1 ,i ,,have1 with pleasure and improvement1 read over your manuscript2 and should be glad to see some other trades as justly reduced to rules as you have done that of brewing3 which would not only be making a right application of philosophical knowledge1 but1 at the same time1 accommodate human life1 in many respects1 wherein it is still deficient4 ,perhaps your example may excite some able men1 to give us their respective trades1 in the form of so many arts4 ,for my own part1 having long wished to see some attempts of this kind1 for the good of society in general1 ,i cannot but be particularly pleased with the nature1 design1 and execution of your essay1 and am1 ,dear ,sir1 ,your obliged ,friend1 ,and humble ,servant1 ,,peter ,,shaw4 ,pall-,mall1 ,july #bj1 #ageh4 ,,an ,,explanation ,,of ,,the ,,technical ,,terms4 ,the intent of every brewer1 when he forms his drink1 is to extract the fermentable parts of the malt1 in the most perfect manner2 to add hops1 in such proportion as experience teaches him will preserve and ameliorate the beer2 and to employ just so much yeast as is sufficient to obtain a complete fermentation4 ,perhaps it may be said1 these particulars are already sufficiently understood1 and that it would be a much more useful work to publish remedies for the imperfections1 or diseases1 beer is naturally or accidentally subject to1 and which at present are deemed incurable4 ,but if the designs just now mentioned be executed according to the rules of chymistry1 such imperfections and such diseases not existing1 the remedies will not be wanted2 for beer brewed upon true principles1 is1 neither naturally nor accidentally1 subject to many disorders often perceived in it4 ,hence it is evident1 that some knowledge of chymistry is absolutely necessary to complete the brewer1 as1 without the informations acquired from that science1 he must be unqualified to lay down rules for his practice1 and to secure to himself the favor of the public2 for which purpose1 and to make this treatise useful to those concerned in the practical part of brewing1 it has been thought adviseable to avoid1 as much as possible1 the technical terms of art1 to prefix an explanation of those that necessarily occur1 and1 in as short a manner as possible1 to trace the properties of fire1 air1 water1 and earth1 as far as they relate to the subject4 ,,acids are all those things which taste sour1 as vinegar1 juice of lemons1 spirit of nitre1 spirit of salt1 the oil and spirit of vitriol1 c4 and are put in a violent agitation1 by being mixed with certain earths1 or the ashes of vegetables4 ,an acid enters1 more or less1 into the composition of all plants1 and is produced by1 or rather is the last effect of1 fermentation4 ,mixed in a due proportion with an alkali1 it constitutes a neutral salt1 that is1 a salt wherein neither the acid nor alkali prevail4 ,acids are frequently termed acid salts1 though generally they appear under a fluid form4 ,,alkalies1 or alkaline salts1 are of a nature directly contrary to the acids1 and generally manifest themselves by effervescing therewith3 they have an urinous taste1 and are produced from the ashes of vegetables1 and by several other means4 ,they1 as well as testaceous and calcarious substances1 are frequently made use of by coopers1 to absorb the acid parts of stale beer1 by them called softning4 ,,air is a thin elastic fluid1 surrounding the globe of the earth2 it is absolutely necessary to the preservation both of animal and vegetable life1 and for the exciting and carrying on fermentation4 ,,alcohol is the pure spirit of wine1 generally supposed to be without the least particle of water or phlegm4 ,,animals are organized bodies1 endued with sensation and life4 ,minerals are said to grow and increase1 plants to grow and live1 but animals only to have sensation4--,animal substances cannot ferment so as to produce by themselves a vinous liquor2 but there may be cases wherein some of their parts rather help than retard the act of fermentation4#a ,,atmosphere is that vast collection of air1 with which the earth is surrounded to a considerable height4 ,,attraction is an indefinite term1 applicable to all actions whereby bodies tend towards one another1 whether by virtue of their weight1 magnetism1 electricity1 or any other power4 ,it is not1 therefore1 the cause determining some bodies to approach one another1 that is expressed by the word attraction1 but the effect itself4 ,the space1 through which this power extends1 is called the sphere of attraction4 ,,blacking is a technical term used by coopers1 to denote sugar that is calcined1 until it obtains the colour that occasions the name4 ,,brewing is the operation of preparing beers and ales from malt4 ,,boiling may thus be accounted for4 ,the minute particles of fuel being by fire detached from each other1 and becoming themselves fire1 pass through the pores of the vessel1 and mix with the fluid4 ,these1 being perpetually in an active state1 communicate their motion to the water3 hence arises1 at first1 a small intestine motion1 and from a continued action in the first cause1 the effect is increased1 and the motion of the liquor continually accelerated2 by degrees1 it becomes sensibly agitated1 but the particles of the fire1 acting chiefly on the particles that compose the lowest surface of the water1 give them an impulse upwards1 by rendering them specifically lighter1 so as to determine them to ascend1 according to the laws of equilibrium4 ,hence there is a constant flux of water from the bottom to the top of the vessel1 and reciprocally from the top to the bottom4 ,this appears to be the reason why water is hot at the top sooner than at the bottom1 and why an equal heat cannot be distributed through the whole4 ,the thermometer therefore can be of little service1 to determine immediately the degree of heat1 especially in large vessels1 on which account it is better for brewers to heat a certain quantity just to the act of boiling1 and to temper it1 by adding a sufficient quantity of cold water4 ,boiling water is incapable of receiving any increase of heat1 though acted on by ever so great a fire1 unless the atmosphere becomes heavier1 or the vapours of the water be confined4 ,it occasions the mercury to rise1 according to ,farenheit's scale1 to #bab degrees4 ,,charr4 ,a body is said to be charred when1 by fire1 its volatile or most active parts are drove out2 its coarse oils1 by the same means1 placed chiefly on the external parts2 and so deprived of color as to be quite black4 ,,cleansing is the act of removing the beer from the ton1 where it was first fermented1 into the casks4 ,,cloudy is an epithet joined to such beers1 which1 from the violent heat given to the water that brewed them1 are loaded with more oils than can be attenuated by fermentation1 and incorporated with the water2 from whence a muddy and grey oil is seen floating on the surface of the liquor1 though the body is often transparent2 this oil is frequently extracted in such quantity as to exceed the power of any known menstruum4 ,,cohesion is that action by which the particles of the same body adhere together1 as if they were but one4 ,,cold is a relative term in opposition to heat4 ,its greatest degree is not known1 and it is supposed that the colder a body is1 the less is the agitation of its internal parts4 ,,colour2 a greater or less degree of heat causes different colours in most bodies1 and from a due observation of the colour of malt1 we may determine what degree of heat it has been impressed with4 ,,density expresses the closeness1 compactness1 or near approach of the parts of a body to one another3 the more a body weighs in proportion to its bulk1 the greater is its density4 ,gold is the densest body in nature1 because there is none known of the same bulk1 which weighs so much4 ,,earth is that fossil matter or element1 whereof our globe partly consists4 ,,ebullition is the boiling or bubbling of water1 or any other liquor1 when the fire has forced itself a passage through it4 ,brewers suppose water to be just beginning to boil1 when they perceive a small portion of it forced from the bottom upwards in a right line1 so as to disturb the surface3 when the liquor is in this state1 they call it through1 or upon the point of ebullition4 ,the vulgar notion that the water is hotter at this time than when it boils1 is without any foundation4 ,,effervescence is a sudden agitation1 arising in certain bodies upon mixing them together2 this agitation most commonly generates heat4 ,,elasticity1 or springiness1 is that property of bodies1 by which they restore themselves to their former figure1 after any pressure or distension4 ,,expansion is the swelling or increase of the bulk of bodies from heat1 or any other cause4 ,,extract consists of the parts of a body separated from the rest1 by cold or hot water4 ,,fermentation is a sensible internal motion of the particles of a mixture3 by the continuance of this motion1 the particles are gradually removed from their former situation1 and1 after some visible separation1 joined together again in a different order and arrangement1 so as to constitute a new compound4 ,no liquors are capable of inebriating1 except those that have been fermented4 ,,fixed ,,bodies are those1 which1 consisting of grosser parts1 cohering by a strong attraction1 and by that means less susceptible of agitation1 can neither be separated nor raised1 without a strong heat1 or perhaps not without fermentation4 ,,fire is only known by its properties1 of which the chief are to penetrate and dilate all solid and fluid bodies4 ,,freezing ,,point is the degree of cold1 at which water begins to be formed into ice1 which1 according to ,farenheit's scale1 is expressed by #cb4 ,,foxed is a technical term1 used by brewers1 to indicate beers in a putrid state4 ,,gums are concreted vegetable juices1 which transude through the bark of certain trees1 and harden upon the surface2 they easily dissolve in water1 and by that means distinguish themselves from balsams or resins4 ,,hermetically ,,sealed is a particular method of stopping the mouth of vessels1 so close that the most subtil spirit cannot fly out1 which is done by heating the neck of the bottles1 till it is just ready to melt1 and then with hot pinchers twisting it close together4 ,,homogeneous is an appellation given to such parts or subjects1 which are similar or of the same nature and properties4 ,,isinglass is a preparation from a fish called huso1 somewhat bigger than the sturgeon2 a solution of which in stale beer is used1 to fine or precipitate other beers3 it is imported from ,russia by the ,dutch1 and from them to us4 ,,light consists of particles of matter inconceivably small1 capable of exciting in us the sensation of colours1 by being reflected from every point of the surface of luminous bodies2 but1 notwithstanding they are so exceeding small1 ,sir ,isaac ,newton found means to divide a single ray into seven distinct parts1 viz4 red1 orange1 yellow1 green1 blue1 indigo1 and violet4 ,,malt1 in general1 is any sort of grain1 first germinated1 and then dried1 so as to prevent any future vegetation3 that generally used1 is made of barley1 which experience has found to be the fittest for the purpose of brewing4 ,,medium is that space1 through which a body in motion passes3 air is the medium through which the bodies near the earth move2 water is the medium wherein fish live2 glass affords a medium or a free passage to light4--,this term is also made use of1 to express the mean of two numbers1 and sometimes the middle between several quantities4 ,,musts are the unfermented juices of grapes1 or of any other vegetable substances4 ,,menstruum is any fluid1 which is capable of interposing its parts between those of other bodies1 and in this manner either dissolves them perfectly1 or extracts some part of them4 ,,oil is an unctuous1 inflammable substance1 drawn from several animal and vegetable substances4 ,,precipitation4 ,isinglass dissolved becomes a glutinous and heavy body2 this put into malt liquors intended to be fined1 carries down1 by its weight1 all those swimming particles1 which prevent its transparency2 and this act is called fining1 or precipitation4 ,,repulsion2 8,doctor ,knight defines it to be that cause which makes bodies mutually endeavour to recede from each other1 with different forces at different times40 ,in this case they are placed beyond the sphere of each other's attraction or cohesion1 and mutually fly from each other4 ,,resins1 or balsams1 are the oils of vegetables inspissated and combined with a proportion of the acid salts2 as well as they mix with any spirituous liquor1 as little are they soluble in water2 but they become so1 either by the intervention of gums or soaps1 or by the attenuating virtue of fermentation4 ,,salts are substances sharp and pungent1 which readily dissolve in water1 and from thence1 by evaporation1 crystallise and appear in a solid form4 ,they easily unite together1 and form different compounds4 ,thus salts1 composed of acids and alkalies1 partake of both1 and are called neutral4 ,,sett3 a grist of malt is by brewers said to be sett1 when1 instead of separating for extraction1 it runs in clods1 increases in heat1 and coagulates4 ,this accident is owing to the over quantity of fire in the water1 applied to any of the extractions4 ,the air included in the grist1 which is a principal agent in resolving the malt1 being thereby expelled1 the mass remains inert1 and its parts1 adhering too closely together1 are with difficulty separated4 ,though an immediate application of more cold water to the grist is the only remedy1 yet1 as the cohesion is speedy and strong1 it seldom takes effect4--,new malts1 which have not yet lost the heat they received from the kiln1 are most apt to lead the brewer into this error1 and generally in the first part of the process4 ,,sugar1 or saccharine salts1 are properly those that come from the sugar canes2 many plants1 fruits and grains give sweet juices reducible to the same form2 they are supposed to be acids smoothed over with oils2 all vegetable sweets are capable of fermenting spontaneously when crude2 if boiled1 they require an addition of yeast to make them perform that act4 ,malt1 or its extracts1 have all the properties of saccharine salts4 ,,sulphur4 ,though by sulphur is commonly understood the mineral substance called brimstone1 yet in chymistry it is frequently used to signify in general any oily substance1 inflammable by fire1 and1 without some saline addition1 indissoluble in water4 ,,soap ,,or ,,saponaceous ,,juices4 ,common soap is made of oil mixed with alkaline salts3 this mixture causes a froth on being agitated in water4 ,the oils of vegetables are1 in some degree1 mixed with their salts2 and according to the nature of these salts1 appear either resinous or saponaceous1 that is1 soluble or indissoluble in water4-- ,sugar is a kind of soap1 rendering oil miscible with water2 and therefore all bodies1 from which saccharine salts are extracted1 may be termed saponaceous4 ,,vegetable is a term applied to plants1 considered as capable of growth1 having vessels and parts for this purpose1 but generally supposed to be without sensation4 ,,vinegar is an acid penetrating liquor1 prepared from wine1 beer1 cyder1 or a must1 which has been fermented as far as it was capable4 ,,vitriol is1 in general1 a metalline substance combined with the strongest acid salt known4 ,this acid1 being separated from the metal1 differs in nothing from that which is extracted from alum or brimstone4 ,it is improperly called spirit of vitriol1 when diluted with water1 and1 with as little propriety1 oil1 when free from it4 ,,volatile ,,bodies are those1 which1 either from their smallness or their form1 do not cohere very strongly together1 and being most susceptible of those agitations1 which keep liquors in a fluid state1 are most easily separated and rarified into vapour1 with a gentle heat1 and on the contrary condensed and brought down with cold4 ,,wine is a brisk1 agreeable1 spirituous1 fluid cordial1 formed from fermented vegetable bodies4 ,in this sense beers and ales may be called1 and really are1 barley wines4 ,,worts are the unfermented extracts of malt4 ,,yeast is both the flowers and lees of a fermented wort1 the former of these being elastic air enveloped in a subject less strong and less consistent than the latter4 ,,principles ,,of ,,the ,,theory ,,of ,,brewing4 ,,section ,i4 ,,of ,,fire4 ,though fire is the chief cause and principle of almost every change in bodies1 and though persons untaught in chymistry imagine they understand its nature1 yet1 certain it is1 few subjects are so incomprehensible1 or elude so much our nicest research4 ,the senses are very inadequate judges of it2 the eye may be deceived1 and suppose no fire in a bar of iron1 because it does not appear red1 though at the same time it may contain enough to generate pain3 the touch is equally unfaithful1 for a body1 containing numberless particles of heat1 will to us feel cold1 if it is much more so than ourselves4 ,the great and fundamental difference among philosophers1 in respect to the nature of fire1 is1 whether it be originally such1 formed by the ,creator himself1 at the beginning of things2 or whether it be mechanically producible in bodies1 by inducing some alteration in the particles thereof4 ,it is certain that heat may be generated in a body1 by attrition2 but whether it existed there before1 or was caused immediately by the motion1 is a matter of no great import to the art of brewing2 for the effects1 with which we are alone concerned1 are the same4 ,fire expands all bodies1 both solid and fluid4 ,if an iron rod just capable of passing through a ring of the same metal1 is heated red-hot1 it will be increased in length1 and so much swelled as not to be able to pass through the ring1 as before3#b if a fluid is put into a bellied glass1 with a long slender neck1 and properly marked1 the fluid1 by being heated1 will manifestly rise to a considerable height4 ,the expansion of fluids1 by heat1 is different in different fluids2 with some exceptions1 it may be said to be in proportion to their density4 ,pure rain water1 gradually heated to ebullition1 is expanded one #bfth part of its bulk1#c so that #bg gallons of boiling water1 will1 when cold1 measure no more than #bf1 and #bg gallons of boiling wort will not yield so much1 because worts contain many oily particles1 which1 though less dense than water1 have the property of being more expansible3 hence we see the reason why a copper1 containing a given number of barrels of wort1 when cold1 is not capable to hold the same of beer1 when boiling4 ,bodies are weakened or loosened in their texture by fire3 the hardest1 by an increased degree of heat1 will liquify and run2 and vegetables are resolved and separated by it into their constituent parts4 ,it must be owned vegetables seem at first1 on being exposed to the fire1 to become rigid or stiff2 but this is owing to the evaporation of the aqueous particles1 which prevented a closer adhesion of the solid matter4 ,it is only in this manner fire strengthens some bodies which before were weak4 ,that the texture of bodies should be loosened by fire1 seems a consequence of expansion2 for a body cannot be expanded but by its particles receding farther from one another2 and if these be not able to regain the situation they had when cold1 the body will remain looser in its texture than before it suffered the action of fire4 ,this is the case of barley when malted4 ,fire may be conveyed through most bodies1 as air1 water1 ashes1 sand1 c4 ,the effect seems to be different according to the different conveyances4 ,a difference appears between boiling and roasting1 yet they answer the same purpose1 that of preserving the subject2 and this1 in proportion to the degree of heat it has suffered4 ,a similar variety appears1 even to our taste1 from the different conveyance of fire to malt3 for acids having a great tendency to unite with water1 if this element does not naturally contain any itself1 is the reason why a great heat is conveyed through water1 and applied to extract the virtues of pale malt2 the water gaining from the grain some of these salts1 or possessing them itself1 the effect of this great aqueous heat is not to imprint on the palate a nauseous burnt taste1 as is the case of great heats1 when conveyed through air to the same grain4 ,the salts the water has obtained1 or perhaps had1 being sheathed by the oils it draws from the malt1 rather become saccharine1 which cannot be the case when oils are acted upon by a strong heat1 entirely void of any such property2 but malt1 the more it is dried1 the longer is it capable of maintaining itself in a sound state1 and the liquor brewed with it will1 in proportion to its dryness1 keep the longer sound1 the hotter the water is1 applied to malt1 provided its heat doth not exceed the highest extracted degree1 the more durable and sound will the extract be4 ,the last consideration of fire or heat1 relative to brewing1 is the knowledge of its different degrees1 and how to regulate them4 ,till of late1 chymists and all others1 were much to seek in this respect2 they distinguished more or less fire in a very vague and indeterminate manner1 as the first1 second1 third1 and fourth degree of heat1 meaning no precise heat1 or heat measured by any standard2 but1 by the invention of the thermometer1 we are enabled to regulate our fires with the utmost precision4 ,thermometers are formed on different scales2 and therefore1 when any degree of heat is mentioned1 in order to avoid confusion1 the scale made use of should be indicated4 ,i have constantly employed ,fahrenheit's1 as it is the most perfect1 and the most generally received4 ,according to this instrument1#d by the author of it1 an artificial cold was made so as the mercury stood at #gb divisions below the first frost4 ,the gentlemen of the ,french ,academy1 in the winter of the year #agcf1 observed1 at ,torneao1 ,latitude #fe #ea1 the natural cold to be #cc degrees below #j3 these are proofs there are colds much more intense than the first frost1 or #cb degrees1 where water first begins to harden into ice2 from #cb to #ij degrees are the limits of vegetation1 according to the different plants that receive those or the intermediate heats4 ,the #djth degree is marked by ,boerhaave as the first fermentable heat1 and the #hjth as the last3 #dg degrees ,i have found to be generally the medium heat of ,london1 throughout the year1 in the shade2 #ih degrees is said to be that of our bodies when in health1 as from #aje to #aab are its degrees when in a fever4 ,hay stacked with too much moisture1 when turned quite black1 in the heart of the rick1 indicated a heat of #afe degrees4 ,at #age the purest and highest-rectified spirits of wine boil1 and at this degree ,i have found well-grown malts to charr1 at #bab degrees water boils1 at #fjj quicksilver and oil of vitriol4 ,gold1 silver1 iron1 and most other metals in fusion exceed this heat2 greater still than any known is the fire in the focus of the burning lens of ,tschirnhausen1 or of the concave mirror made by ,villette2 they are said to volatilise metals and vitrify bricks4 ,thus far experiments have reached2 but how much more1 or how much less1 the power of this element extends1 will probably be forever hid from mankind4 ,,section ,,ii4 ,,of ,,air4 ,none of the operations1 either of nature or art1 can be carried on without the action or assistance of air4 ,it is a principal agent in fermentation2 and therefore brewers ought to be well acquainted with its principal properties and powers4 ,by air we mean a fluid1 scarcely perceptible to our senses1 and discovering itself only by the resistance it makes to bodies4 ,we find it every where incumbent on the surface of the globe1 rising to a considerable height1 and commonly known by the name of atmosphere4 ,the weight of air is to that of water as #a to #hej1 and its gravitating force equal to that of a column of water of #cc feet high2 so that an area of one foot square receives1 from air1 a pressure equal to #bjhj pounds weight4 ,elasticity is a property belonging only to this element1 and this quality varies in proportion to the compressing weights4 ,we scarcely find this element1 7any more than the others7 in a pure state2 one thousandth part of common air1 says ,boerhaave1 consists of aqueous1 spiritous1 oily1 saline1 and other particles scattered through it4--,these are not1 or but little1 compressible1 and in general prevent fermentation3 consequently1 where the air is purest1 fermentation is best carried on4 ,the same author suspects1 that the ultimate particles of air cohere together1 so as not easily to insinuate themselves into the smallest pores1 either of solids or fluids4 ,hence1 those acquainted with brewing1 easily account1 why very hot water1 which forces strong and pinguious particles from malt1 forms at the same time extracts unfavourable for fermentation1 as oils are an obstruction to the free entrance of air2 and1 from an analogous reason1 extracts which are much less impressed with fire1 in them fermentation is so much accelerated1 that the whole soon becomes sour4 ,air1 like other bodies1 is expanded and rarified by heat1 and exerts its elasticity in proportion to the number of degrees of fire it has received2 the hotter therefore the season is1 the more active and violent will the fermentation be4 ,air abounds with water1 and is perpetually penetrating and insinuating itself into every thing capable of receiving it4 ,its weight1 or gravitating force1 must necessarily produce numberless effects4 ,the water contained in the air is rendered more active by its motion2 hence the saline1 gummous1 and saponaceous particles it meets with are loosened in their texture1 and1 in some degree1 dissolved4 ,as principles similar to these are the chief constituent parts of malt1 the reason is obvious why such1 which are old1 or have lain a proper time exposed to the influence of the air1 dissolve more readily1 or1 in other words1 yield a more copious extract than others4 ,all bodies in a passive state1 remaining a sufficient time in the same place1 become of the same degree of heat with the air itself4 ,on this account the water1 lying in the backs used by brewers1 is nearly of the same degree of heat as the thermometer shews the open air in the shade to be4 ,when this instrument indicates a cold below the freezing point1 or #cb degrees1 if the water does not then become ice1 the reason is1 because it has not been exposed long enough to be thoroughly affected by such a cold4 ,for water does not immediately assume the same degree of temperature with the air1 principally on account of its density1 also from its being pumped out of deep and hot wells1 from its being kept in motion1 and from many other incidents4 ,under these circumstances1 no great error can arise to estimate its heat equal to #ce degrees4 ,air is not easily expelled from bodies1 either solid or fluid4 ,water requires two hours boiling to be discharged of the greatest part of its air4 ,that it may be thus expelled by heat appears from hence2 water1 if boiled the space abovementioned1 instead of having any air bubbles when it is froze1 as ice commonly has1 becomes a solid mass like crystal4 ,worts or musts1 as they contain great quantities of salts and oils1 require a greater degree of heat to make them boil3 consequently more air is expelled from boiling worts1 than from boiling water in the same time2 and as air doth not instantaneously re-enter those bodies1#e when cold1 they would never ferment of themselves4 ,were it not for the substitute of yeast1 to supply the deficiency of air lost by boiling1 they would fox or putrify1 for want of that internal elastic air1 which is absolutely necessary to fermentation4 ,as air joined to water contributes so powerfully to render that fluid more active1 that water which has endured fire the least time1 provided it be hot enough1 will make the strongest extracts4 ,though there is air in every fluid1 it differs in quantity in different fluids2 so that no rule can be laid down for the quantity of air1 which worts should contain4--,probably the quantity1 sufficient to saturate one sort1 will not be an adequate proportion for another4 ,air in this manner encompasses1 is in contact with1 confines1 and compresses all bodies4 ,it insinuates itself into their penetrable passages1 exerts all its power either on solids1 or fluids1 and finding in bodies some elements to which it has a tendency1 unites with them4 ,by its weight and perpetual motion1 it strongly agitates those parts of the bodies in which it is contained1 rubs1 and intermixes them intimately together4 ,by disuniting some1 and joining others1 it produces very singular effects1 not easily accomplished by any other means4--,that this element has such surprising powers1 is evident from the following experiment4 8,fermentable parts duly prepared and disposed in the vacuum of ,mr4 ,boyle's air-pump will not ferment1 though acted upon by a proper heat2 but1 discharging their air1 remain unchanged40 ,,section ,,iii4 ,,of ,,water4 ,as water is perpetually an object of our senses1 and made use of for most of the purposes of life1 it might be imagined the nature of this element was perfectly understood3 but they who have enquired into it with the greatest care1 find it very difficult to form a just idea of it4 ,one reason of this difficulty is1 water is not easily separated from other bodies1 or other bodies from water4 ,hartshorn1 after having been long dried1 resists a file more than iron2 yet1 on distillation1 yields much water4 ,i have already observed1 that air is intimately mixed with1 and possibly never entirely separated from it1 but in a vacuum2 how is it possible then ever to obtain water perfectly pure8 ,in its most perfect state1 we understand it to be a liquor very fluid1 inodorous1 insipid1 pellucid1 and colourless1 which1 in a certain degree of cold1 freezes into a brittle1 hard1 glassy ice4 ,lightness is reckoned a perfection in water1 that which weighs less being in general the purest4 ,hence the great difficulty of determining the standard weight it should have4 ,fountain1 river1 or well waters1 by their admixture with saline1 earthy1 sulphureous1 and vitriolic substances1 are rendered much heavier than in their natural state2 on the other hand1 an increase of heat1 or an addition of air1 by varying the expansion1 diminishes the weight of water4 ,a pint of rain-water1 supposed to be the purest1 is said to weigh #ae ounces1 #a drachm1 and #ej grains1 but1 for the reasons just now mentioned1 this must differ in proportion as the seasons of the year do from each other4 ,another property of water1 which it has in common with other liquors1 is its fluidity1 which is so great1 that a very small degree of heat1 above the freezing point1 makes it evaporate4 ,experiments to ascertain the proportion steamed away of the quantity of water used in brewing1 is an object worthy of the artist's curiosity2 but the purer the water is1 the more readily it evaporates4 ,sea-water1 which is supposed to contain one fortieth part of salt1 more forcibly resists the power of fire1 and wastes much less1 than that which is pure4 ,the ultimate particles of this element1 ,boerhaave believed to be much less than those of air1 as water passes through the pores and interstices of wood1 which never transmit the least elastic air2 nor is there1 says he1 any known fluid1 7fire excepted1 which forces itself through every subject7 whose parts are more penetrating than those of water4 ,yet as water is not an universal dissolver1 there are vessels which will contain it1 though they will let pass even the thick syrup of sugar1 for sugar makes its way by dissolving the tenacious and oily substance of the wood1 which water cannot do4 ,water1 when fully saturated by fire1 is said to boil1 and by the impulse of that element1 comes under a strong ebullition4 ,just before this violent agitation takes place1 ,i have already observed1 it occupies one seventy-sixth more space than when cold3 so the brewer who would be exact1 when he intends to reduce his liquor to a certain degree of heat1 must allow for this expansion1 abating therefrom the quantity of steam exhaled4 ,as water1 by boiling1 may be said to be filled or saturated with fire1 so may it be with any other substance capable of being dissolved therein2 but1 though it will dissolve only a given quantity of any particular substance1 it may1 at the same time1 take in a certain proportion of some other4 ,four ounces of pure rain water will melt but one ounce of common salt1 and after taking this as the utmost of its quantity1 it will still receive two scruples of another kind of salt1 viz4 nitre4 ,in like manner the strongest extract of malt is capable of receiving the properties belonging to hops3 but in a limited proportion4 ,this appears from the thin bitter pelicle1 that often swims on the surface of the first wort of brown beers1 which commonly are overcharged with hops1 by putting the whole quantity of them at first therein2 the wort not being capable of suspending all that the heat dissolves1 it no sooner cools but these parts rise on the top4 ,this may serve as a hint to prevent this error1 by suffering the first wort to have no more hops boiled therein than it can sustain3 but as this incident must vary1 in proportion to the heat of the extracts and quantity of water used1 some few experiments are necessary to indicate the due proportion for the several sorts of drink4 ,this however should always be extended to the utmost1 for the first wort1 which1 from its nature and constituent parts1 stands most in need of the preservative quality the hops impart4 ,water acts very differently1 as a menstruum1 according to the quantity of fire it contains3 consequently its heat is a point of the utmost importance with regard to brewing1 and should be properly varied according to the dryness and nature of the malt1 according as it is applied either in the first or last mashes1 and in proportion also to the time the beer is intended to be kept4 ,these ends1 we hope to shew1 are to be obtained to a degree of numerical certitude4 ,nutrition cannot be carried on without water1 though likely water itself is not the matter of nourishment1 but only the vehicle4 ,water is as necessary to fermentation as heat or air4 ,the farmer1 who stacks his hay or corn before it is sufficiently dried1 soon experiences the terrible effects of too much moisture1 or water1 residing therein3 all vegetables therefore intended to be long kept1 ought to be well dried4 ,the brewer should carefully avoid purchasing hops that are slack bagged1 or kept in a moist place1 or malt that has been sprinkled with water soon after it was taken from the kiln4 ,by means of the moisture1 an internal agitation is raised in the corn1 which agitation1 though soon stopped1 for want of a sufficient quantity of air1 yet1 the heat thereby generated remaining1 every adventitious seed1 fallen from the air1 and resting on the corn1 begins to grow1 and forms a moss1 which dies1 and leaves a putrid musty taste behind1 always prevailing1 more or less1 in beer made from such grain4 ,that water is by no means an universal solvent1 as some people have believed1 has been already observed4 ,it certainly does not act as such on metals1 gems1 stones1 and many other substances3 it is not in itself capable of dissolving oils1 but is miscible with highly rectified spirits of wine1 or alchohol1 which is the purest vegetable oil in nature4 ,all saponaceous bodies1 whether artificial or natural1 fixed or volatile1 readily melt therein2 and as many parts of the malt are dissoluble in it1 they must either be1 or become by heat1 of the nature of soap1 that is1 equally miscible with oils and water4 ,when a saponaceous substance is dissolved in water1 it lathers1 froths1 and bears a head2 hence1 in extracts of malt1 we find these signs in the underback4 ,weak and slack liquors1 which contain the salts of the malt without a sufficient quantity of the oils1 yield no froth4 ,somewhat like this happens1 when the water for the extract is over-heated1 for then as more oils are extracted than are sufficient to balance the salts1 the extract comes down as before1 with little or no froth or head4 ,this sameness of appearance1 from two causes directly opposite to each other1 has many times misled the artist1 and shews the necessity there is to employ means less liable to error4 ,this might be a proper place to observe the difference between rain1 spring1 river1 and pond waters2 but as the art of brewing is very little affected by the difference of waters1 if they be equally soft1 but rather depends on the due regulation of heat2 and as soft waters are found in most places1 and become more alike1 when heated to the degree necessary to form extracts from malt2 it is evident1 that any sort of beer or ale may be brewed with equal success1 where malt and hops can be procured proper for the respective purposes4 ,if hitherto prejudice and interest have appropriated to some places a reputation for particular sort of drinks1 it has arose from hence2 the principles of the art being totally unknown1 the event depended on experience only1 and lucky combinations were more frequent where the greatest practice was4 ,thus1 for want of knowing the true reason of the different properties observed in the several drinks1 the cause of their excellencies or defects was ignorantly attributed to the water made use of1 and the inhabitants of particular places soon found an advantage1 in availing themselves of this local reputation4 ,but just and true principles1 followed by as just a practice1 must render the art more universal1 and add dignity to the profession1 by establishing the merit of our barley wines on knowledge1 not on opinion void of judgment4 ,to place this truth in a fuller light1 and to communicate to the brewer the readiest means to examine any waters he may have occasion to use1 ,i have extracted from ,doctor ,lucas's ,essay on ,waters1 the experiments he made on the ,thames1 ,new ,river1 and ,hampstead company's waters1 but without closely adhering to the accuracy this gentleman prescribed to himself2 such exactness much better suiting a man of his abilities3 for the purposes of brewing it is not of absolute necessity4 ,experiments on the ,thames1 ,new ,river1 and ,hampstead ,waters1 which in general are in use in the ,cities of ,london and ,westminster4 ,subjects ,thames1 at ,inferences ,new ,river4 ,hampstead4 employed4 ,somerset from the ,house4 experiments on ,thames water4 ,quantity of ,quantity of ,in #bd hours insoluble insoluble discharges air1 matter in one matter in one lets some light pint1 one pint1 one sediment fall1 grain and a grain and a and grows half4 half4 clearer4 ---------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ,quantity of ,quantity of ,quantity of water used water used water used two ounces4 two ounces4 two ounces4 ,twenty drops ,produced--a ,a small ,produced a ,produced1 #ast syrup of sea-green4 quantity of paler green4 a sea-green2 violets4 alkaline upon standing1 principle4 heightens2 in #ab hours becomes yellowish4 ---------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ,infusion of ,a pink color ,a calcarious ,a paler pink2 ,a pink bloom2 campechy wood heighten to earth dis- but heightens upon standing to a dark crimson4 solved in a as ,thames4 heightens2 after orange4 marine acid1 fades1 and perhaps comesto the something of a color of old volatil ,canary ,wine4 alkaly1 whence the water appears unfit for the scarlet dye4 ---------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ---------- #a grain of ,a pink bloom ,confirms the ,the same as ,a very beautiful cochinelle1 heightens to preceding the ,thames crimson2 in powder4 crimson2 fadesexperiment4 water4 heightens upon to a pale standing2 in #ab muddy purple1 hours suffers letting fall no diminution obscure green of color4 clouds4 ---------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ,alcaline lye1 ,slight milky ,charged with ,less milky1 ,of alkaline lye #e drops4 cloud2 becomesterrine parts1with less used ten drops4 milky all dissolved by sediment4 --,worked no over2 a light means of an sensible change sediment of acid2 at high in this water4 pale earth water more coats the acid in the glass1 and is water than at found at low1 and the bottom4 alkaline principle in this river more at low water than at high4 ---------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ,solution of ,a pearl- ,confirms the ,less milky2 no,mixes smoothly1 ,soap4 colored former coagulation4 and causes a milkiness1 observation4 slight but no lactescence4 coagulation4 ---------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ,a diluted acid,no perceptible,shews an ,no sensible ,upon standing of vitriol4 change4 alkaly not change4 shews some air predominant4 bubbles1 and seems somewhat brighter4 ---------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ,mercury ,no change2 ,the quantity ,the same ,the same sublimate upon standing1of alkaly in- appearance as appearance1 but dissolved in a mother of considerable4 ,thames2 ratherrather slighter pure water1 pearl colored slighter than any of the #aj drops4 pellicle precipitation4other two4 covered the surface2 the liquor beneath slightly milky4 ---------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ,a solution of ,pale clouds at,shews some ,the same as ,upon dropping1 mercury in theevery drop2 absorbent ,thames1 but no change acid of nitre4#ast white and earth1 by slighter4 appears2 upon milky1 then means of an standing grows yellowish acid1 milky1 then to four drops suspended in a pale yellow1 more got the the water4 with a slight same color pearl-colored all over2 upon pellicle2 shews standing1 a no air nor slight pale sediment2 the pellicle glass slightly arose1 and a coated upon muddy ochre- standing2 colored precipitated sediment fairly4 subsided4 ---------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ,a solution of ,a bright milky,confirms the ,the same as ,the same as lead in cloud1 which1 preceding ,thames1 but in,new ,river4 distilled growing more observation4 a lower vinegar1 at opac and degree4 every drop as white1 far as #d subsided2 upon drops4 being stirred1 had a milky opacity all over2 upon standing1 threw up a pale pellicle1 and let fall white precipitate4 ---------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ,a solution of ,caused a ,shews some ,the same ,pale bluish silver in the pearled portion of effects1 but white clouds2 acid of nitre1milkiness2 sea-salt1 of slighter2 the the #d drops4 upon standing which the precipitate ofprecipitate1 subsided a ,thames has a pale violet a bluish slate violet purple more at high color4 color1 thinly colored water than at covered the precipitate4 low4 sides and bottom of the glass4 ,all these waters appear to be sufficiently pure for the common uses of life2 the difference between them is very trivial1 if any3 those of ,hampstead approach nearest to the simple state this element is to be wished for4 ,although it cannot be said to have an immediate relation to this work1 yet it may not1 perhaps1 be disagreeable or useless here to add the quantities of water the cities of ,london and ,westminster1 and the adjacent buildings1 are daily supplied with4 ,from the ,new ,river ,company #eghig ,tons per ,day4 ,london ,bridge1 #hejj ,chelsea1 #agdj ,hampstead1 #abjj ,york ,buildings1 #hdi ,hartshorn ,lane1 #bje ------ #gjcia ,tons required every #bd hours4 ,,section ,,iv4 ,,of ,,earth4 ,regularity requires some notice should be taken of this element4 ,the great writer on chymistry1 so often mentioned1 defines it to be a simple1 hard1 friable1 fossil body1 fixed in the fire1 but not melting in it1 nor dissoluble in water1 air1 alcohol1 or oil4 ,these are the characters of pure earth1 which1 no more than any of the other elements1 comes within our reach1 free from admixture4 ,though it is one of the component parts of all vegetables1 yet as1 designedly1 it is never made use of in brewing1 except sometimes for the purpose of precipitation2 it is unnecessary to say any thing more upon it3 whoever desires to be farther informed concerning its properties may consult all1 or any of the authors before mentioned4 ,,section ,v4 ,,of ,,menstruums ,,or ,,dissolvents4 ,by menstruums is understood a body which1 in a fluid or subtilised state1 is capable of interposing its small parts betwixt the small parts of other bodies4 ,this act so obviously relates to the art of brewing1 especially where the extracting of the malt and the boiling of the hops are concerned1 that it should not be passed unheeded by4 ,the doctrine of menstruums1 as laid down by ,boerhaave1 seems most intelligible and applicable to our purpose4 ,he says1 the solutions of bodies in general are the effect only of attraction and repulsion1 between the particles of the menstruums and those of the body dissolved1 the whole action depending on the relation between these two2 of consequence1 there cannot be any body1 natural or artificial1 which1 without distinction1 will dissolve all bodies whatsoever2 nor is the cause assignable why certain menstruums dissolve certain bodies3 the effects of alcaline1 acid1 neutral1 fixed1 or volatile salts1 any more than those of oils1 water1 alcohol1 fire1 or air1 are not to be accounted for by any general rule1 that universally holds true2 nor even1 in many cases1 doth the dissolution of a body depend on the purity or simplicity of the menstruum3 the nearest path then to success1 is cautiously to apply every menstruum we know of to the body whose solvent we want to discover4 ,the elements of fire and air greatly promote the action and effect of menstruums1 and in this light they are admitted as such4 ,water dissolves most salts1 all the natural sapos of plants1 and the ripe juices of fruits2 for in these1 the oils1 salts1 and spirit of the vegetables1 are accurately mixed and concreted together1 and malts1 having the same constituent parts with them1 this element becomes a proper menstruum to extract this grain3 though malts1 by being dried with heats which greatly exceed what is necessary to bring barley to a state of maturity1 do1 from hence1 require greater1 though determinate heats1 yet inferior to that at which water boils2 but such heats must be applied in proportion to their dryness1 to extract their necessary parts4 ,even earths1 by the intervention of acids1 dissolve in water2 but having treated of the four elements already1 as far as we conceived was requisite for the art of brewing1 we shall1 in this chapter1 confine ourselves to oils and salts1 and view these acting as menstruums only4 ,to the definition already given of oils1 it may be necessary to add1 in general1 they contain some water1 and a volatile acid salt2 that they receive different appellations1 and have different properties in proportion to their respective spissitudes4 ,oils from vegetables are obtained by expression1 infusion1 and distillation2 in either of which methods1 a too great heat is to be avoided1 as this gives them a prejudicial rancidness1 and where water does not interpose1 alters their color until thereby they are turned black4 ,in general oils unite with themselves1 but1 excepting alcohol1 not with water1 unless when combined with salts1 for salts attract water1 and so they do oils3 hence arises many elegant preparations both natural and artificial1 from which wines are formed4 ,the power of oils in dissolving bodies is in a proportion to their heat1 and being capable1 when pure1 of receiving a quantity of fire equal to #fjj degrees1 it is not surprising this liquid should mix with gums and with resinous bodies2 but the color of these1 and of every subject when thrown into boiling oils1 changes in proportion to the impression made on them by heat1 either to a yellow1 a red1 or a black4 ,oils which are inspissated1 or thickened by heat1 are termed balsams4 ,do not the oils of malt1 from the heat they have undergone1 resemble these8 and from the circumstance of their having endured a heat superior to that necessary for putrefaction1 may they not be suspected to possess a volatile alcaline salt8 ,beyond doubt1 the extracts from malt 7though they boil at a heat of #bah degrees only7 yet do they1 in great measure1 dissolve hops1 which are gum resinous4 ,salt may well be denominated a menstruum1 as it is easily diluted with water2 fixed alcaline salts we have already seen appear to be the produce of fire alone4--,such are never distinguished in the composition of vegetables in their natural state2 though a volatile alcalious salt 7the effect of heat equal or superior to that necessary for putrefaction7 is found in many1 and especially in such as are putrified4 ,the power of a fixed alcali as a solvent is great1 applied 7says ,boerhaave7 to animal1 vegetable1 or fossil concretions1 so far as they are oils1 balsams1 gummy1 resinous1 or of gummy resinous nature1 and therefore concreted from oily substances3 these1 this salt intimately opens1 attenuates1 and resolves3 disposing them to be perfectly miscible with water3 oils of alcohol leaving however the impression of taste naturally belonging to this salt4 ,vegetable acid salt dissolves animal1 vegetable1 fossil1 and metalline substances1 except mercury1 silver1 and gold4 ,in most terrestrial vegetables this salt is evident2 ripe mealy corn has the least indication of it1 yet extracts therefrom1 when fermented1 and sometimes before they are fermented1 discover sensibly their acidity4 ,sea-plants in general have not their roots inserted in the earth at the bottom of the sea1 and these in distillation yield an oily volatile alcali2 but more subtil than the native acids of vegetables1 are the vinous acids produced by fermentation2 they dissolve equally most matters put into them1 and render the whole homogene4 ,into a must or wort1 when under this act1 by means of an elosaccharum1 might be introduced the choicest flavors1 and the aromatics of the ,indies be applied to heighten the taste and flavor of our barley wines4 ,the laws of ,england at present subsisting are indeed opposite to any improvement of this sort1 from the apprehensions of abuse3 but where elegance alone is intended1 undoubtedly the merit of our beers and ales might thereby be increased4 ,as such1 this is a part of chymical knowledge well worth the enquiry and attention of the brewer4 ,neutral salts have already been mentioned2 these are very various1 and very different when acting as menstruums4 ,resins and gum-resins are generally said to be most effectually dissolved by alcohol2 but ,boerhaave informs us1 that sal-amoniac 7a very salutary subject and a neutral salt7 if boiled with gums1 resins1 or the gum-resins of vegetables1 intimately resolves1 and disposes them to be conveniently mixed in aqueous and fermenting spiritous menstruums4 ,of this class of salts thus much is sufficient4 ,this observation perhaps is of too much consequence to escape the notice of the artist4 ,,section ,,vi4 ,,of ,,the ,,thermometer4 ,this instrument is designed for measuring the increase or decrease of heat4 ,by doing it numerically1 it fixes in our minds the quantity of fire1 which any subject1 at any time1 is impregnated with4 ,if different bodies are brought together1 though each possesses a different degree of heat1 it teaches us to discover what degree of heat they will arrive at when thoroughly mixed1 supposing effervescence to produce no alteration in the mixture4 ,the inventor of this admirable instrument is not certainly known1 though the merit of the discovery has been ascribed to several great men1 of different nations1 in order to do them and their countries honor4 ,it came to us from ,italy1 about the beginning of the sixteenth century4 ,the first inventors were far from bringing this instrument to its present degree of perfection4 ,as it was not then hermetically sealed1 the contained fluid was1 at the same time1 influenced by the weight of the air1 and by the expansion of heat4 ,the academy of ,florence added this improvement to their thermometers1 which soon made them more generally received2 but1 as the highest degree of heat of the instrument1 constructed by the ,florentine gentlemen1 was fixed by the action of the strongest rays of the sun in their country1 this vague determination1 varying in almost every place1 and the want of a fixed universal scale1 rendered all the observations made with such thermometers of little use to us4 ,boyle1 ,halley1 ,newton1 and several other great men1 thought this instrument highly worthy of their attention4 ,they endeavoured to fix two invariable points to reckon from1 and1 by means of these1 to establish a proper division4 ,monsieur des ,amontons is said to have first made use of the degree of boiling water1 for graduating his mercurial thermometers4 ,fahrenheit1 indeed1 found the pressure of the air1 in its greatest latitude1 would cause a variation of six degrees in that point2 he therefore concluded1 a thermometer made at the time when the air is in its middle state1 might be sufficiently exact for almost every purpose4 ,long before the heat of boiling water was settled as a permanent degree1 many means were proposed to determine another4 ,the degree of temperature in a deep cave or cellar1 where no external air could reach1 was imagined by many a proper one2 but what that degree truly was1 and whether it was fixed and universal1 was found too difficult to be determined4 ,at last the freezing point of water was thought of1 and though some doubts arose1 with ,dr4 ,halley and others1 whether water constantly froze at the same degree of cold1 ,dr4 ,martine has since1 by several experiments1 proved this to be beyond all doubt1 and this degree is now received for as fixed a point as that of boiling water4 ,these two degrees being thus determined1 the next business was the division of the intermediate space on some scale1 that could be generally received4 ,though there seemed to be no difficulty in this1 philosophers of different countries have not been uniform in their determinations1 and that which is used in the thermometer at present the most common1 and1 in other respects1 the most perfect1 is far from being the simplest4 ,the liquid wherewith thermometers were to be filled1 became the object of another enquiry4 ,sir ,isaac ,newton employed1 for this purpose1 linseed oil2 but this1 being an unctuous body1 is apt to adhere to the sides of the glass1 and1 when suddenly affected by cold1 for want of the parts which thus stick to the sides1 does not shew the true degree4 ,tinged water was employed by others2 but this freezing1 when ,fahrenheit's thermometer points #cb degrees1 and boiling1 when it rises to #bab1 was1 from thence1 incapable of denoting any more intense cold or heat4 ,spirit of wine1 which endures much cold without stagnating1 was next made use of2 but this liquor1 being susceptible of no greater degree of heat than that which1 in ,fahrenheit's scale1 is expressed by #age1 could be of no service where boiling water was concerned4 ,at last the properest fluid1 to answer every purpose1 was found to be mercury4 ,this had never been known to freeze#f2 and not to boil under a heat of #fjj degrees1 and is free from every inconveniency attending other liquors4 ,as the instrument is entirely founded on this principle1 that heat or fire expands all bodies1 as cold condenses them1 there was a necessity of employing a fluid easy to be dilated4 ,a quantity of it is seated in one part in the bulb4 ,this being expanded by heat1 is pushed forward into a fine tube1 or capillary cylinder1 so small1 that the motion of the fluid in it is speedy and perceptible4 ,some thermometers have been constructed with their reservoir composed of a larger cylinder2 but in general1 at present1 they are made globular4 ,the smaller the bulb is1 the sooner it is heated through1 and the finer the tube1 the greater will be the length of it1 and the more distinct the degrees4 ,it is scarcely possible that any glass cylinder1 so very small1 should be perfectly regular2 the quicksilver1 during the expansion1 passing through some parts of the tube wider than others1 the degrees will be shorter in the first case1 and longer in the latter4 ,if the divisions1 therefore1 are made equal between the boiling and freezing points1 a thermometer1 whose cylinder is irregular1 cannot be true4 ,to rectify this inconveniency1 the ingenious ,mr4 ,bird1 of ,london1 puts into the tube about the length of an inch of mercury2 and measuring1 with a pair of compasses1 the true extent of this body of quicksilver in one place1 he moves it from one end to the other1 carefully observing where it increases or diminishes in length1 thereby ascertaining the parts1 and how much the degrees are to be varied4 ,by this contrivance1 his thermometers are perfectly accurate1 and exceed all that were ever made before4 ,i shall not trouble my reader with numerous calculations that have been made1 to express the quantity of particles of the liquor contained in the bulb1 in order to determine how much it is dilated4 ,this1 ,dr4 ,martine seems to think a more curious than useful enquiry4 ,it is sufficient1 for our purpose1 to know how the best thermometers ought to be constructed3 they who have leisure and inclination1 may be agreeably entertained by the author last cited4 ,by observing the rise of the mercury in the thermometer1 during any given time1 as1 for instance1 during the time of the day1 we ascertain the degree and value of the heat of every part of the day1 from whence may be fixed the medium of the whole time1 or any part thereof4 ,by repeated experiments1 it appears1 the medium heat of most days is usually indicated at eight o'clock in the morning1 if the instrument is placed in the shade1 in a northern situation1 and out of the reach of any accidental heat4 ,though water is not so readily affected as air by heat and cold1 yet1 as all bodies long exposed in the same place1 become of the same degree of heat with the air itself1 no great error can arise from estimating water1 in general1 to be of the same heat as the air1 at eight o'clock in the morning1 in the shade4 ,the thermometer teaches us that the heat of boiling water is equal to #bab degrees1 and by calculation we may know what quantity of cold water is necessary to bring it to any degree we choose2 so1 notwithstanding the instrument cannot be used in large vessels1 where the water is heating1 yet1 by the power of numbers1 the heat may be ascertained with the greatest accuracy4 ,the rule is this3 multiply #bab1 the heat of boiling water1 by the number of barrels of water thus heated1 7suppose #bb7 and the number of barrels of cold water to be added to the former1 7suppose #aj17 by the heat of the air at eight o'clock1 7suppose #ej17 add these two products together1 and divide by the sum of the barrels2 the quotient shews the degree of heat of the water mixed together4 #bab heat of boiling water4 #bb barrels to be made to boil4 ---- #dbd #ej deg4 heat of air at eight4 #dbd #aj barrels of cold water4 ---- --- #bb #dffd #ejj #aj #ejj -- ---- sum #cb7 #eafd7afa degrees will be the heat of the water of barrels #cb when mixed together4 ---- #aif #aib ---- #dd #cb ---- #ab ,the calculation may be extended to three or more bodies1 provided they be brought to the same denomination4 ,suppose #cb barrels of water to be used where there is a grist of #bj quarters of malt1 if these #bj quarters of malt are of a volume or bulk equal to #aa barrels of water1 and the malt1 by having lain exposed to the air1 is of the same degree of heat with the air1 in order to know the heat of the mash1 the calculation must be thus continued4 #afa heat of water #ej degrees of heat of malt #cb barrels of water #aa barrels1 volume of malt ---- --- #ccc #eej #dhc ---- #cb water #eafc #aa malt #eej -- ---- #dc 7 #egac 7#acb degrees1 which will be the heat of #dc the mash4 ---- #ada #abi ---- #abc #hf ---- #cg ,we shall meet hereafter with some incidents1 which occasion a difference in the calculations made for the purpose of brewing1 but of these particular mention will be made in the practical part4 ,the thermometer1 by shewing the different degrees of heat of each part of the year1 informs us1 at the same time1 how necessary it is the proportions of boiling water to cold should be varied to effect an uniform intent2 also that the heat of the extracts of small beer should differ proportionably as the heats of the seasons do3 it assists us to fix the quantity of hops necessary to be used at different times2 how much yeast is requisite1 in each term of the year1 to carry on a due fermentation2 and what variation is to be made in the length of time that worts ought to boil4 ,indeed1 without this knowledge1 beers1 though brewed in their due season1 cannot be regularly fermented1 and whenever they prove good1 so often may it be said fortune was on the brewer's side4 ,beers are deposited in cellars1 to prevent their being affected by the variations of heat and cold in the external air4 ,by means of the thermometer1 may be determined the heat of these cellars1 the temper the liquor is kept in1 and whether it will sooner or later come forward4 ,the brewing season1 and the reason why such season is fittest for brewing1 can only be discovered by this instrument4 ,it points out likewise our chance for success1 when necessity obliges us to brew in the summer months4 ,as all vegetable fermentation is carried on in heats1 between two settled points1 we are1 by this instrument1 taught to put our worts together at such a temperature1 as they shall neither be evaporated by too great a heat1 nor retarded by too much cold4 ,if curiosity should lead us so far1 we might likewise determine1 by it1 the particular strength of each wort1 or of every mash2 for if water boils at #bab degrees1 oil at #fjj1 and worts be a composition of water1 oil and salt2 the more the heat of a boiling wort exceeds that of boiling water1 the more oils and salts must it contain1 or the stronger is the wort4 ,a given quantity of hops1 boiled in a given quantity of water1 must have a similar effect1 consequently the intrinsic value of this vegetable may1 in the same manner1 be ascertained4 ,the more the malts are dried1 the more do they alter in color1 from a white to a light yellow1 next to an amber1 farther on to a brown1 until the color becomes speckled with black2 in which state we frequently see it4 ,if more fire or heat is continued1 the grain will at last charr1 and become intirely black4 ,by observing the degrees of heat necessary to induce these alterations1 we may1 by the mere inspection of the malt1 know with what degree of fire it has been dried2 and fixing upon such which best suits our purpose1 direct1 with the greatest accuracy1 not only the heat of the first mash1 but the mean heat the whole brewing should be impressed with to answer our intent1 circumstances of the greatest consequence to the right management of the process4 ,if ,i had not already said enough to convince the brewer of the utility of this instrument1 how curious he ought to be in the choice1 and how well acquainted with the use of it1 ,i should add the heat gained by the effervescing of malt1 is to be determined by it alone2 the quantity of heat lost by mashing1 by the water in its passage from the copper to the mash ton1 and by the extract coming down into the underback1 these can be found by no other method2 and1 above all1 that there is no other means to know with certainty the heat of every extract4 ,i know very well good beers were sometimes1 perhaps often1 made before the thermometer was known1 and still is1 by many who are entirely ignorant of it2 but this1 if not wholly the effect of chance1 cannot be said to be very distant from it4 ,they who carry on this process1 unassisted by principles and the use of the thermometer1 must admit they are frequently unsuccessful1 whereas did they carefully and with knowledge apply this instrument1 they certainly would not be disappointed4--,it is equally true1 the brewing art1 for a long space of time1 has been governed by an ill-conveyed tradition alone2 if lucky combinations have sometimes flattered the best practitioners1 faulty drinks have as often made them feel the want of certain and well established rules4 ,it is just as absurd for a brewer to refuse the use of the thermometer1 as it would be for an architect to reject the informations of his plummet and rule1 and to assert they were unserviceable because the first house1 and probably many others1 were built without their assistance4 ,,section ,,vii4 ,,of ,,the ,,vine1 ,,its ,,fruits1 ,,and ,,juices4 ,after these short accounts of the principles and instrument necessary to the right understanding of the brewing art1 we should now draw near to the particular object of this treatise1 but as the most successful method to investigate it1 must be first to inspect the great and similar example nature has set before us1 our time will not be lost by making this enquiry4 ,any fermented liquor1 that1 in distillation1 yields an inflammable spirit miscible with water1 may be called wine1 whatever vegetable matter it is produced from4--,as beer and ales contain a spirit exactly answerable to this definition1 brewing may justly be called the art of making wines from corn4 ,those1 indeed1 which are the produce of the grape1 have a particular claim to the name1 either because they are the most ancient and the most universal1 or that a great part of their previous preparation is owing to the care of nature itself4 ,by observing the agents she employs1 and the circumstances under which she acts1 we shall find ourselves enabled to follow her steps1 and to imitate her operations4 ,most grapes contain juices1 which1 when fermented1 become in time as light and pellucid as water1 and are possessed of fine spiritous parts1 sufficient to cherish1 comfort1 and even inebriate4 ,but these properties of vinosity are observed not to be equally perfect in the fruits of all vines2 some of them are found less1 others not at all proper for this purpose4 ,it is therefore necessary to examine the circumstances which attend the forming and ripening of those grapes1 whose juices produce the finest liquors of the kind4 ,all grapes1 when they first bud forth1 are austere and sour1 therefore of a middle nature4 ,and this can be no other than the effect of the autumnal remaining sap1 mixed with the new raised vernal one1 the consequence of which mixture will be found greatly to merit our inquiry4 ,as far as our senses can judge1 at first1 it appears that the juice1 in this state1 consists of somewhat more than an acid combined with a tasteless water4 ,when the fruit is ripe1 it becomes full of a rich1 sweet1 and highly flavoured juice4 ,the color1 consistency1 and taste of which shew1 that1 by the power of heat1 a considerable quantity of oil has been raised1 and1 sheathing the salts1 is the reason of its saccharine taste and saccharine properties4 ,in ,england1 grapes are probably produced under the least heat they can be raised by4 ,they discover themselves in their first shape1 about ,june1 when the medium heat of the twenty-four hour's shade is #eg1fj4 ,this1 with what more should be added for the effect of the sun's beams1 are the degrees of heat which first introduce the juices into this fruit4 ,the highest degrees of heat1 in the countries where grapes come to perfect maturity1 have been observed to be1 in various parts of ,italy1 ,spain1 and ,greece #ajj1 and at ,montpelier #hh1 in the shade2 to which1 according to ,dr4 ,lining's observations1 #bj degrees must be added for the effect of the sun's beams4 ,the greatest heat in ,italy will then amount to #abj degrees1 and in the south of ,france to #ajh4 ,these approach nearly to the strongest heats observed in the hottest climates1 which1 in ,astracan1 ,syria1 ,senegal1 and ,carolina1 were from #abd to #abf degrees4 ,those countries1 where the heat is greatest1 in general produce the richest fruits1 that is1 the most impregnated with sweet1 thick and oily juices4 ,we are told1 among the ,tockay wine-hills1 there is one which1 directly fronting the south1 and being the most exposed to the sun1 yields the sweetest and richest grapes4 ,it is called the sugar-hill1 and the delicious wines extracted from this particular spot1 are all deposited in the cellars of the imperial family4 ,those grapes1 some in the ,canaries1 some in other places1 being suffered to remain the longest on the tree1 with their stems half cut through1 by this means procure their juices to be highly concentrated1 and produce that species of sweet1 oily1 balmy wines1 which1 from this operation1 are called sack1 a derivation of the ,french word sec or dry4 ,in all distillations of unfermented vegetables1 water and acid salts rise first4 ,a more considerable degree of fire is required for the elevation of oils1 and a still greater one for the lixivial salts1 which render those oils miscible with water4 ,a plant1 exposed to a very gentle heat1 at first yields a water which contains the perfect smell of the vegetable blended with a subtile oil2 if more heat be added1 an heavier oil will come over3 from some a volatile alkali1 from others a phlegm will rise1 which gradually grows acid2 and1 last of all1 with the farther assistance of fire1 the black1 thick1 empyreumatic sulphur4 ,nature1 in a less degree1 may be said to place a like series of events before our eyes1 in the forming and maturating of grapes1 and it is by imitating what she does1 that the inhabitants of different countries may improve the advantages of their soil and of their air4 ,in order to illustrate the doctrine1 that grapes are endued with various properties1 in proportion to the heat of the air they have been exposed to1 let us remember what ,boerhaave has observed1 that1 in very hot weather1 the oleous corpuscles of the earth are carried up into the air1 and1 descending again1 cause the showers and dews in summer to be very different from the pure snow of winter4 ,the first are acrid1 and disposed to froth1 the last is transparent and insipid4 ,hence summer rain1 or rain falling in hot seasons1 is always fruitful1 whereas in cold weather it is scarcely so at all4 ,in winter the air abounds with acid parts1 neither smoothed by oils nor rarified by heat3 cold is the condensing power1 as heat is the opener of nature4 ,in summer1 the air1 dilating itself1 penetrates every where1 and gives to the rain a disposition to froth1 occasioned by the admixture of oleous and arial particles4 ,thus the acid salts1 either previously existing1 or by the vernal heat introduced into the grapes1 and necessary to their preservation1 are neutralized by coming in contact with the juices the foregoing autumn produced2 after which a hotter sun1 covering or blending these juices with oils1 changes the whole into a saccharine form4 ,in proportion as these acids are more or less sharp1 and counterbalanced by a greater or lesser quantity of oils1 the juices of grapes approach more or less to the state of perfection1 which fermentation requires4 ,there are many places1 as ,jamaica1 ,barbadoes1 c4 in which experience shews the vine cannot be cultivated to advantage4 ,by comparing the heat of these places with those in ,italy and ,montpelier1 it appears this defect is not owing to excessive heats1 but to their constancy and uniformity2 the temperature of the air of these countries seldom being so low as the degree necessary for the first production of the fruit4 ,whenever the cultivation of the vine is attempted in these parts of the ,west ,indies1 the grapes1 on their first appearance1 are shaded and skreened from the beams of the sun1 which1 in their infancy1 they are not able to bear4 ,hence we learn1 though nature employs both the autumnal and vernal seasons1 yet there are lesser heats with which she prepares the first juice of grapes1 a stronger power of the sun she requires to form the fruit1 and a greater than either to ripen it4 ,we have investigated the lowest degrees of heat1 in which grapes are produced1 and nearly the highest they ever receive to ripen them4 ,let us call the first the germinating degrees1 and the last those of maturation4 ,if nearly #eh be the lowest of the one1 and #abf the highest of the other1 and if a certain power of acids is necessary for the germination of the grapes1 which must be counterbalanced by an equal power of oils raised by the heat of the sun for their maturation1 then the medium of these two numbers1 or #ib1 maybe said to be a degree at which this fruit cannot possibly be produced1 and inferior to that by which it should be maturated4 ,at ,panama the lowest degree of heat in the shade is #gb1 to which #bj being added1 for the sun's beams1 the sum will be #ib1 and consequently no grapes can grow there1 except the vines be placed in the shade4 ,if we recollect that we can scarcely make wine1 which will preserve itself1 of grapes produced in ,england1 we shall be induced to think1 that the reason of this defect is the want of the high degrees of heat4 ,our sun seldom raises the thermometer to #ajj degrees1 and that but for a short continuance4 ,our medium heat is far inferior to #ib1 and hence we see1 at several distant terms in summer1 new germinated grapes1 but seldom any perfectly ripe4 ,these observations1 the use of which1 in brewing1 we will endeavour to apply1 likewise point out to us1 what part of our plantations are fit to produce this fruit1 and to what degree of perfection4 ,a research made for each constituent part forming grapes1 as well as the proportion they bear to one another1 at first sight1 appears to be an eligible method to discover the nature of wines2 but in every vegetable their parts are mixed and interwoven1 and every degree of heat1 acting on them1 finds these so blended1 as to render their division too imperfect for such enquiry to be made with sufficient accuracy1 to deduce therefrom the rules of an art4 ,in the producing1 ripening1 and fermenting the juice of the grapes1 as well as in forming beers and ales1 the element of fire so superlatively influences and governs every progressive act1 as to occasion some remarkable difference in their appearance3 from1 hence1 then1 we may expect the information we want1 and be enabled to discover the laws by which ,nature forms her wines4 ,when the constituent parts of a subject are to be estimated by heat alone1 the number of degrees comprehended between the first heat which formed it1 and the last which brought it to a perfect state1 must express the whole of its constituent parts4 ,complete finished substances1 must have been benefited by the whole latitude of degrees applicable thereto2 and in proportion as part of the whole latitude is wanting1 will their nature be different1 and themselves less perfect4 ,this variety is remarkable in the fruit we are now treating of4 ,a country endued with the lowest germinating1 and with the highest maturating degrees of heat for grapes1 would produce them in the utmost perfection2 that is1 they would possess all the several properties they could obtain from this circumstance2 consequently such are capable of forming wines that would preserve themselves a very long time1 and would also become spontaneously fine4 ,from the several heats we have observed that this fruit is capable of enduring1 it is reasonable to believe the greatest number of degrees of heat employed to form all their constituent parts1 must be where1 during the whole space of vegetation1 the heat in the shade varies from #fj to #ajf degrees1 and constitutes a difference of #df degrees4 ,so great a latitude1 ordered by nature1 most certainly denotes the general utility of the plant4 ,the climate of the southern part of ,france approaches nearest to this2 but ,spanish wines are richer2 their grapes are formed by a warmer sun2 their vernal and maturating heats exceed those of ,france2 but1 at the same time1 their wines are more stubborn1 and1 to be made fine1 require the help of precipitation4 ,this variety increases according to the heat of climates3 thus we see wines which come from the coast of ,africa1 whose richness and stubbornness are beyond the reach of any menstruum employed to fine them4 ,let us endeavour to reduce this apparent inconstancy to rule1 in order to assist our art4--,if the lowest heat which forms the grape1 in the southern parts of ,france1 be #fj degrees1 and if #hh degrees1 in the shade1 be the mean of their maturating heat1 the difference between #fj and #hh1 or #bh degrees1 is the number which includes the constituent parts of grapes in this country1 as these degrees imply the whole space of their progress4 ,if like juices were to be imitated by art1 as in our hot-houses1 it is clear half the number of the degrees of heat which form the whole of the constituent parts1 or #ad1 deducted from #gd1 the mean heat of their whole vegetation1 would give #fj1 for the first heat to be employed1 and this to be raised1 for maturation1 to #hh1 the greatest heat1 nature in this case1 permits1 or #ad degrees to be added to the same whole mean4 ,to liken the wines of ,spain1 where the autumnal and vernal heats are greater than in ,france1 the heat forming the first juices must be more1 as also the maturating heats2 but with such practice1 the number of constituent degrees would be found to be fewer1 and spontaneous brightness could no more be expected1 than it is found1 in their wines4 ,a strict enquiry after the heats first and last applied to grapes1 is of such consequence to ascertain the principles by which malt liquor should be formed1 that1 though grapes produced in ,england scarcely make wines which can maintain themselves sound1 yet1 as the rule is universal1 even from them we shall be able to establish not only its certainty1 but also the application of the number of the degrees found between the heats which germinate the fruit1 and those which ripen them4 ,from twelve years observation1 we have found the mean heat in the shade1 from the #ast of ,june1 to the #aeth1 when grapes with us first ,deg4 bud forth1 to be #eg4fj ,our greatest heat1 under like circumstances1 from the #aeth to the #cast of ,july1 to be #fa4aj ----- ,their difference1 #c4ej ----- ,their medium1 #ei4ce ----- ,if1 from their medium1 #ei4ce1 we subtract #a4ge1 half their difference1 or half their constituent parts1 we must have left #eg4fj for the germinating heat2 and if to their medium1 #ei4ce1 we add #a4ge1 half the number of their constituent parts1 we shall have #fa4aj1 the highest mean heat1 in the shade1 at the time the richest juices of our grapes are formed4 ,it is true1 in ,july1 nor even in the following months1 when the heat continues nearly alike1 our grapes are not ripe1 nor gathered2 the properties raised by our greatest sunshine1 as yet have not reached the fruit1 and though the mean heat of the air in ,september and ,october is less1 yet it is sufficient to place in the grapes the juices raised by the preceding hot sun1 which concentrate and grow richer1 by remaining on the plant1 though1 for want of a sufficient heat1 they do not reach that perfection obtained in warmer climates4 ,the want of grapes in many parts both of ,america and ,africa1 and the reason we gave for this1 7,see page #ee17 warrants the truth of the division we have just now made1 between the germinating and maturating heats2 and if the effects caused by a hot sun do not immediately benefit the fruit1 by a parity of reason1 after the grapes are gathered1 the plant must possess1 7and surely for some longer space1 by a continued heat1 equal1 and often superior1 to the vernal sun17 juices which ,nature is too frugal not usefully to apply2 these juices1 we apprehend1 assist in forming the embryo of the leaves which are fully to expand the ensuing year1 and serve1 by their oleaginous quality1 to preserve these and the whole plant during the cold of the winter2 which cold1 at the same time that it contracts the pores of the vine1 condenses and thickens these richer juices1 from whence few1 if any of them1 are lost or expended by perspiration4 ,the heat of the following spring renews their activity1 when blending with those this season attracts1 the leaves open1 the flowers appear1 and the fruit forms4 ,thus far we conceive the act of germination extends1 provided for and assisted both by the autumnal and vernal heats1 and which1 in point of power1 are nearly equal and uniform4 ,the heat of the sun1 during summer months1 and if to this we add the more constant heat at the roots of the vine1 retained there by the density of the earth2 these 7though superior to the germinating heat7 produce a like uniformity for maturating the fruit3 thus nature1 in order to implant in wines an original even taste1 and to facilitate the fermentable act1 amidst the great variety that appears to us in the heat of the air1 seems1 upon the whole1 to act by steady and equal motions2 or rather1 perhaps1 this is the best manner by which we can reduce to rule2 the inconstancy of the atmosphere4 ,i am sensible these facts had been represented in a more natural light1 had ,i observed the degrees of heat impressed on the vine in every season of the year2 the difference of the sun's heat1 in every hour of the day1 a variety exceeding that in the shade2 that between night and day2 the aspect of the plant2 the heat of the earth at its surface1 as well as at the roots of the vine2 all these would have increased the circumstances to a prodigious extent2 which1 though perhaps requisite to satisfy philosophic investigation1 might1 from their number and variety1 have been the means rather to induce us to error1 than to discover the general rules by which nature acts4 ,from the above-related process we are taught1 that nature1 in forming wines1 is not confined to a certain fixed number of degrees1 but admits1 for this act1 of a considerable latitude1 according to the extent of which the wines vary in taste and properties2 and that she affects an equality of heat in each period of vegetation2 from whence the brewer is taught1 if he form his malt-liquors with four mashes1 as in the autumn and spring the vine is impressed with heats nearly uniform1 so ought his two first mashes to be2 the third1 in imitation of the high heat of summer1 should be much hotter1 and the heat of his last mash the same with this2 and this general rule has been found universally true1 for beers expected to preserve themselves sound a sufficient time2 and admits but of a proportional variation1 when fewer or more mashes are employed1 as the degrees of heat denominating the constituent parts of the grain1 must be applied in proportion to the quantity of water used to each mash2 but in malt liquors speedily to be drank1 or when we deviate greatly from the more perfect productions of nature1 we are then compelled to swerve from her rules2 a practice never profitable1 and which nothing but necessity can justify4 ,the nature of the soil proper for the vine1 might1 in another work1 be a very useful enquiry4 ,it will be sufficient here1 barely to hint at the effect1 which lixivial soils produce in musts4 ,the ,portugueze1 when they discovered the ,island of ,madeira in #adbj1 set fire to the forests1 with which it was totally covered4 ,it continued to burn for the space of seven years1 after which the land was found extremely fruitful1 and yielding such wines1 as1 at present1 we have from thence1 though in greater plenty4 ,it is very difficult to fine these wines1 and1 though the climate of this island is more temperate than that of the ,canaries1 the wines are obliged to be carried to the ,indies and the warmer parts of the globe1 to be purged1 shook1 and attenuated1 before they can arrive to an equal degree of fineness with other wines2 were the ,portugueze acquainted with what may be termed the artificial method of exciting periodical fermentation1 much or the whole of this trouble might be avoided4 ,hence we see1 that soils impregnated with alkaline salts will produce musts able to support themselves longer1 and to resist acidity more1 than other soils1 under the same degree of heat4 ,grapes have the same constituent parts as other vegetables4 ,the difference between them1 as to their tastes and properties1 consists in the parts being mixed in different proportions4 ,this arises1 either from their absorbent vessels more readily attracting some juices than others1 or from their preparing them otherwise1 under different heats and in different soils4 ,we find1 says ,dr4 ,hales1 by the chymical analysis of vegetables1 that their substance is composed of sulphur1 volatile salts1 water1 and earth1 which principles are endued with mutual attracting powers4 ,there enters likewise in the composition1 a large portion of air1 which has a wonderful property of attracting in a fixed1 or of repelling in an elastic state1 with a power superior to vast compressing forces4 ,it is by the infinite combinations1 actions1 and reactions of these principles1 that all the operations in animal and vegetable bodies are effected4--,boerhaave1 who is somewhat more particular with regard to the constituent parts of vegetables1 says1 that they contain an oil mixed with a salt in form of a sapo1 and that a saponaceous juice arises from the mixture of water with the former4 ,thus we see1 from the composition of grapes1 that they have all the necessary principles to form a most exquisite liquor1 capable1 by a gentle heat1 to be greatly attenuated4 ,they abound with elastic air1 water1 oils1 acid1 and neutral salts1 and even saponaceous juices4--,the air contained in the interstices of fluids is more in quantity than is commonly apprehended4 ,sir ,isaac ,newton has proved that water has forty times more pores than solid parts2 and the proportion1 likely1 is not very different in vegetable juices4 ,when the fruit is in its natural entire state1 the viscidity of the juices1 and their being enveloped by an outward skin1 prevent the expansion of the inclosed air2 it lies as it were inactive4 ,in this forced state1 it causes no visible motion1 nor are the principles1 thus confined1 either subjected to any apparent impressions of the external atmosphere1 or so intimately blended as when they are expressed4 ,a free communication of the external air1 with that contained in the interstices of the liquor1 is required to form a perfect mixture4 ,by what means this is effected1 what alterations it produces1 or1 in general1 in what manner the juice of the grape becomes wines1 must be the subject of our next inquiry4 ,the process of a perfect fermentation is undoubtedly the same 7where the due proportions of the constituent parts1 forming the must1 are exactly kept7 whatever vegetable juices it is excited in4 ,for this reason1 we will observe the progress of this act in beers and ales1 these being subjects we are more accustomed to1 and where the characters appear more distinct1 in order to apply what may be learned from thence to our chief object1 the business of the brewer4 ,,section ,,viii4 ,,of ,,fermentation ,,in ,,general4 ,vegetable fermentation is that act1 by which oils and earth1 naturally tenacious1 by the interposition of salts and heats1 are so much attenuated and divided1 as to be made miscible with1 and to be suspended in1 an homogeneous pellucid fluid2 which1 by a due proportion of the different principles1 is preserved from precipitation and evaporation4 ,according to ,boerhaave1 a less heat than forty degrees leaves the mass in an inert state1 and the particles fall to the bottom in proportion to their gravity2 a greater heat than eighty degrees disperses them too much1 and leaves the residuum a rancid1 acrimonious1 putrid mass4 ,it is certainly very difficult1 if not impossible1 to discover the true and adequate cause of fermentation4 ,but1 by tracing its several stages1 circumstances1 and effects1 we may perhaps perceive the agents and means employed by nature to produce this singular change2 a degree of knowledge1 which1 we hope1 is sufficient to answer our practical purposes4 ,the must1 when just pressed from the grapes1 is a liquid1 composed of neutral and lixivial salts1 oils of different spissitude1 water1 earth1 and elastic air4 ,these1 irregularly ranged1 if ,i may be permitted the expression1 compose a chaos of wine4 ,soon after the liquor is settled1 a number of air bubbles arise1 and at first adhere to the sides of the containing vessel2 their magnitude increases as they augment in number1 so that at last they cover the whole surface of the must4 ,it has been long suspected1 and1 if ,i mistake not1 demonstrated1 that an acid1 of which all others are but so many different species1 is universally dispersed through1 and continually circulating in1 the air2 and that this is one of nature's principal agents1 in maturating and resolving of bodies4 ,musts1 like other bodies1 being porous1 the circulating acids very powerfully introduce themselves therein by the pressure of the atmosphere1 in proportion as the pores are more or less expanded by the heat they are exposed to4 ,the particles of acids are supposed by ,newton to be endued with a great attractive force1 in which their activity consists4 ,by this force1 they rush towards other bodies1 put the fluid in motion1 excite heat1 and violently separate some particles in such manner as to generate or expel air1 and consequently bubbles4 ,from hence it appears that1 as soon as the acid particles of the air are admitted into the must1 they act on the oils1 and excite a motion somewhat like the effervescence generated1 when acids and oils come in contact1 though in a less degree4 ,this motion is the cause of heat1 by which the included elastic air1 being rarefied1 occasions the bubbles to ascend towards the surface4--,these1 by the power of attraction1 are drawn to the sides of the vessel2 at first they are small and few1 but increase1 both in number and magnitude1 as the effect of the air continues1 till1 at last1 they spread over the whole surface4 ,the first stage of vegetable fermentation shews itself to be a motion excited by the acids floating in the air1 acting on the oleous parts of the liquor1 which motion gives an opportunity to the divided minute parts of air1 dispersed throughout the whole1 to collect themselves in masses3 from hence they become capable to exert their elasticity1 and to free themselves from the must4 7,see ,arbuthnot on air p4 #aaf47 ,it may1 perhaps1 be proper to observe1 that all musts1 which ferment spontaneously1 contain for this purpose a large portion of elastic air4 ,bubbles still continue to rise after the must is entirely covered with them2 and a body of bladders is formed1 called1 by the brewers1 the head of the drink2 as the bubbles increase1 the head rises in height1 but the oils of the must1 being as yet of different spissitudes1 those which are least tenacious soon emit their air2 others1 somewhat stronger1 being rarefied by the fermenting heat1 rise on the surface higher than the rest1 while such aerial bubbles as are more dense1 take their place below them4 ,from hence1 and from the constituent parts of the drink not being as yet intimately mixed1 the head takes an uneven and irregular shape1 and appears like a beautiful piece of rock work4 ,after this1 it requires some time1 and it is by degrees1 that the particles dispose themselves in their due order1 to be farther attenuated by the act of fermentation1 which1 when effected1 the saline1 oily1 and spiritous parts become perfectly miscible with the water4 ,the head of the liquor then is more level2 heterogeneous bodies1 as dirt1 straw1 corks1 c4 assisted by bubbles of air adhering to them1 are now buoyed on the surface1 and should be skimmed off1 lest1 when the liquor becomes more light and spiritous1 they should subside4 ,about this time1 such parts of the must as are too course to be absorbed in the wine 7as they consist chiefly of pinguious oils1 mixed with earth1 though they strongly envelope much elastic air7 from their weight1 sink to the bottom1 and form the lees4 ,but the internal motion increasing1 the air bubbles grow larger2 some1 not formed of parts so strong as the others1 which generally are the first1 burst and strengthen the rest2 and thereby a heat is retained in the fermenting liquor1 which carries the act on to a farther degree4 ,the particles of the must become more pungent and spiritous1 because more fine and more active2 some of the most volatile ones fly off2 hence1 that subtle and dangerous vapor1 called gas1 which extinguishes flame and suffocates animals4 ,the wine1 by these repeated acts1 being greatly attenuated1 is at last unable to support1 on its surface1 the weight of such a quantity of froth1 rendered more dense by the repeated explosions of the air bubbles4 ,now1 lest the liquor should be fouled by the falling in of the froth1 it is put in vessels having only a small aperture1 where it continues to ferment1 with a slower and less perceptible motion1 which gradually diminishing until it reaches the period when it neither attracts or repels air1 it admits of its communication with it to be cut off2 not that thereby1 in a strict sense1 the fermentation can be said to be completely ended3 the least heat is sufficient to renew1 or rather to continue the act1 more especially if by any means the atmosphere can gain any admittance1 however small4 ,the alteration caused in the liquor1 by the pressure of the external air1 from the very first of its fermenting1 not only occasions the particles of the must to form themselves in their due order1 but also1 by the weight and action of that element1 grinds and reduces them into smaller parts4 ,from hence they more intimately blend with each other1 the wine becomes of an equal and even taste1 and if the constituent parts of the must be in a perfect proportion1 it will continue to ferment1 until1 these being disposed and ranged in right lines1 a fine and pellucid fluid is produced4 ,that this operation subsists1 even after the liquor becomes fine1 is evident2 for every fretting is a continuance of fermentation1 though often almost imperceptible4 ,thus1 the component parts of the liquor are continually reduced to a less volume1 the oils become more attenuated1 and less capable of retaining elastic air4 ,as these frettings are often repeated1 it is impossible to determine1 by any rule1 the exact state in which wine should be1 in order to be perfect for use4 ,it would seem1 however1 that the more minutely the parts are reduced1 the more their pungency will appear1 and the easier their passage be in the human frame4 ,both wines and beers1 when new1 possess more elastic air1 than when meliorated by age2 to be wholesome1 they must be possessed of the whole of the fermentable principles4 ,for these reasons1 beers and ales1 when substituted for wines in common1 and more especially when given to the sick1 should always be brewed from entire malt3 for the last extracts1 possessing but the inferior virtues of the grain1 have by so much less the power to become light1 spiritous1 and transparent4 ,wines never totally remain inactive2 fermentation in some degree continues1 and in time the oils1 by being greatly attenuated1 volatilise1 fly off1 and permit a readier admission of the external air into the drink4 ,in proportion as this circumstance takes place1 the latent acids of the liquor shew themselves1 the wine becomes sour1 and in this state is termed vinegar4 ,its last stage or termination is1 when the remaining active principles1 which the vinegar possessed1 being evaporated in the air1 a pellicle forms itself on the surface of the liquor1 and dust and seeds1 which always float in the atmosphere1 depositing themselves thereon1 strengthen this film into a crust1 on which grows moss1 and many other small plants4 ,these vegetables1 together with the air1 exhaust the watery parts2 after which no signs of fermentable principles remain but1 like the rest of created beings1 all their virtues being lost1 what is left is a substance resembling common earth4 ,upon the whole1 then1 it appears1 that a liquor fit for fermentation must be composed of water1 acids smoothed over with oils1 or saccharine salts1 and a certain portion of elastic air2 the heat of the air the liquor is fermented in1 must be in proportion to the density of its oils2 and lastly1 that the pores are to be expanded by slow degrees1 lest the air1 by being admitted too hastily1 should cause an effervescence rather than a fermentation1 and occasion the whole to become sour4 ,wines1 therefore1 fermented in countries where the autumn is hot1 require their oils to be more pinguious1 than where the season is cooler4 ,for the same reason beers are best made1 when the air is at forty degrees of heat1 or below the first fermentable point1 because the brewer1 in this case1 can put his wort to work1 at a heat of his own chusing1 which will not be increased by that of the air2 on the contrary1 when1 by its internal motion1 the heat becomes greater1 it will again be abated and regulated by the cold of the medium4 ,the pores of a wort are expanded in proportion to the heat it is impressed with2 on which account common small beer1 brewed in summer1 when the air and acids more easily insinuate themselves into the liquor1 ought to be enriched with oils obtained by hotter extracts1 to sheath these salts2 and in winter the contrary method must be pursued4 ,from this history of fermentation1 we can1 with propriety1 account for the many accidents and varieties that accompany this act2 and a comparative review of some of them may not be unnecessary4 ,a cold air1 closing the pores of the liquor1 always retards1 and sometimes stops1 fermentation2 heat1 on the contrary1 constantly forwards this act2 but1 if carried too high1 immediately prevents it4 ,a must1 loaded with oils1 will ferment with more difficulty than one which abounds with acids2 it likewise is longer before it becomes perfectly fine2 but1 when once so1 will be more lasting4 ,if the quantities of oil are increased1 they will exceed the power both of the acids naturally contained in the must1 and of those absorbed from the air in fermenting2 the liquor will therefore require a longer time before it becomes pellucid1 unless assisted by precipitation3 and there may be cases where even precipitation cannot fine it4 ,these considerations naturally lead us to a general division of wines into three classes3 ,first1 of such as soon grow fine1 and soon become acid1 being the growth of cold countries4 ,secondly1 of those which1 by a due proportion of heat1 both when the grapes germinate1 and when they come to maturity1 form a perfect must2 and not only preserve themselves1 but1 in due time1 7more especially when assisted by precipitation17 become transparent2 and1 thirdly1 of such as1 having taken their first form under the highest degrees of germination1 7as ,i termed them7 are replete with oils1 disappoint the cooper1 and render the application of menstruums useless1 unless in such quantities as to change the very nature of the wine4 ,this remarkable difference in wines appears chiefly to arise from the climate2 and it will confirm the observation before made1 that1 as wines are neither naturally nor uniformly perfect1 they must be subject to many diseases4 ,all vegetable substances possess fermentable principles1 though in a diversity of proportions2 for those juices only1 whose constituent parts approach to the proportion necessary for the act of fermentation1 can be made into wines4 ,i would not1 however1 from what ,i have attributed to a difference of heat in different climates1 be understood1 as if ,i thought that vegetables are more or less acid1 more or less sulphureous1 or in general more or less fermentable1 merely from the heat of the country they grow in4 ,this1 though likely one of the principal causes of their being so1 is by no means the only one2 the form and constitution of the plant is another4 ,in very hot climates1 we find acid fruits1 such as limes1 tamarinds1 lemons1 and oranges2 the proportions of fermentable principles in these fruits are such1 as to render them incapable of making sound wines1 though their juices may1 in some degree1 be susceptible of fermentation4 ,in countries greatly favored by the sun1 some vines and other fruit trees there are1 which attract the acids from the air1 and possibly from the earth1 so greedily1 that1 when their juices are fermented1 they soon become sour4 ,on the contrary1 in cold climates1 we see warm aromatic vegetables grow1 as hops1 horse-raddish1 camomile1 wormwood1 c4 whose principles cannot1 without difficulty1 and perhaps not perceptibly1 be brought to ferment4 ,but these instances must be accounted the extremes on each sides2 for in cold1 as well as in hot countries1 fruits are produced susceptible of a perfect natural fermentation3 with us1 for example1 apples2 some species of which are endued with such austere and aromatic qualities1 that their expressed juices ferment spontaneously1 until they become pellucid1 and are capable of remaining in a sound state many years4 ,from hence it appears1 that proper subjects1 which will naturally ferment1 for making wines1 may be found in almost every climate4 ,england1 says ,boerhaave1 on this account1 is remarkably happy3 her fruits are capable of producing a great variety of wines1 equal in goodness to many imported1 were not our tastes but too often subservient1 not to reason1 but to custom and prejudice4 ,a similar want of perfection to that observed in wines1 may be noticed in our beers and ales1 and it chiefly has its origin in the different degrees of heat the malt has been impressed with1 both in drying and extracting2 where1 in the processes of malting and brewing1 a sufficient heat has not been maintained1 the liquor undoubtedly must become acid2 in proportion as the contrary is the case1 or that the beer is overcharged with hops1 if this is in no great excess1 it retains still a greater tendency to fermentation than to putrefaction1 acids not being wanting1 but only enveloped4 ,in this case1 time will get the better of the disease2 like to the wines made from the growth of too hot a sun1 these liquors1 at a certain period1 sicken1 smell rancid1 and have a disagreeable taste1 but1 by long standing1 they begin to fret1 and1 receiving more acids from the air1 recover their former health1 and improve in taste4 ,but should the quantity of oils exceed this last proportion1 in wines formed from corn1 the must1 instead of fermenting1 would putrify1 even though1 by some means1 elastic air has been driven into them4 ,in this case1 the over proportion of the oil1 and its tenacity1 prevents the entrance of the acids1 the wort receives no enlivening principle from without1 and the air1 at first conveyed into it1 is enveloped with oils so tenacious as to be incapable of action4 ,nothing so much accelerates putrefaction as heat1 moisture1 and a stagnating air2 and all substances corrupt1 sooner or later1 in proportion to the inactivity of the contained air1 to the want of a proper vent1 and to the closeness of their confinement4 ,besides these cases1 beers and ales1 as well as wines1 sometimes are vapid and flat1 without being sour2 this does not so much arise from the imbibing the air of the atmosphere1 as from their fermenting1 generating and casting off too much air of their own4 ,to prevent this accident1 they are best preserved in cool cellars1 where their active invigorating principles are kept within due bounds1 and not suffered to fly off4 ,these facts ought to convince us of the truth1 deduced by ,dr4 ,hales1 from many experiments1 that there is a great plenty of air incorporated in the substance of vegetables1 which1 by the action of fermentation1 is roused into an elastic state1 and is as instrumental to produce this act1 as it is necessary to the life and being of animals4 ,i should here close this short and imperfect account2 but as1 in the art of brewing1 there is no part so difficult1 and at the same time so important to be in some measure understood1 as the cause and effects of fermentation2 and as the examination of this act1 in all the different lights in which it offers itself to our notice1 can hardly be thought uninteresting1 these few detached thoughts ,i hope will be allowed of4 ,the effect of the act of fermentation on liquors is1 so to attenuate the oils2 as to cause them to become spiritous1 and easily inflammable4 ,when a wine is dispossessed of such oils1 which is nearly the case in vinegar1 far from possessing a heating or inebriating quality1 it refreshes and becomes a remedy against intoxication4 ,the term of fermentation ought1 perhaps1 only to be applied to that operation which occasions the expressed juices of vegetables to become wine3 but as several acts have assumed the same name1 it may not be improper here to notice the difference between them4 ,vegetation1 one of them1 is that operation of nature wherein more air is attracted than repelled4 ,i believe all that has been said above1 concerning the juice of grapes1 is a convincing proof thereof4 ,fermentation is1 where the communication of the external and internal air of a must is open1 and in a perfect state2 when the power of repelling1 is equal to that of attracting1 air4 ,putrefaction is when1 by the power of strong oils1 or otherwise1 the communication between the external and the internal air of the must is cut off1 so that the liquor neither attracts the one nor repels the other1 but1 by an intestine motion1 the united particles separate and tend to fly off4 ,effervescence is when1 by the power of attraction1 the particles of matter so hastily rush into contact1 as to generate a heat which expels the enclosed air2 and this more or less in proportion to the motion excited4 ,,section ,,ix4 ,,of ,,artificial ,,fermentation4 ,by what has been said1 it appears1 that1 though fermentation is brought on by uniform causes1 and productive of similar effects1 it is subject to many varieties1 both in respect to its circumstances and to its perfection4 ,one difference is obvious1 and seems to deserve our attention1 as it furnishes a useful division between natural and artificial fermentation4 ,the first rises spontaneously1 and requires nothing to answer all the necessary purposes1 but the perfection of the juices1 and the advantage of a proper heat4 ,the other1 at first sight less perfect1 wants the assistance of ferments1 or substitutes1 without which the act could1 either not at all1 or very imperfectly1 be excited4 ,there are undoubtedly liquors1 which1 though they have of themselves a tendency to fermentation1 and are naturally brought to it1 yet1 from some defect in the proportions of their constituent parts1 either do not acquire a proper transparency1 or cannot maintain themselves in a sound state for a sufficient time4 ,these disadvantages1 inbred with them1 can hardly ever be entirely removed2 they gain very little1 especially the latter1 from age1 and therefore are really inferior to liquors1 which require the assistance of substituted ferments1 to become real wines4 ,in some artificial fermentations1 the ferments are so duly and properly supplied1 and so intimately blended with the liquor1 that in the end they approach very near to1 and even vie with1 the most perfect natural wines4 ,were ,i to enter into a more minute detail1 it might be shewn1 that wines1 when transported from a hot climate to a cold one1 are often hurt and checked in the progress of the repeated frettings they require2 from whence they become or remain imperfect1 unless racked off from their grosser lees1 or precipitated with strong menstruums2 whereas beers may be so brewed1 as to be adapted either to a hot or a cold region1 not only without any disadvantage1 but with considerable improvements4 ,hitherto ,i have considered grapes as a most pulpous fruit1 sufficient to furnish the quantity of water necessary for extracting its other parts2 but the natives of the countries where this fruit abounds1 in order to preserve them1 as near as possible in their primitive state1 after they are gathered1 suspend them in barns1 or place them in ovens1 to dry4 ,thus1 being in great measure divested of their aqueous parts1 these grapes remain almost inactive1 and without juices sufficient to form wines4 ,in all bodies1 the various proportions of their constituent parts produce different effects2 hence they remain more or less in a durable state1 and tend either to inaction1 fermentation1 or putrefaction4 ,now1 by a judicious substitution of such parts as shall be wanting1 they are nearly1 if not wholly1 restored to their pristine nature1 as may be proved by the observations and experiments communicated to the public by ,dr4 ,pringle4 ,thus grapes1 though dried and exported from their natural climate to another1 by the addition of water only1 ferment spontaneously1 and form wines very near alike to such as they would have produced before4 ,it may1 with confidence1 be said1 that1 when any considerable difference appears1 it arises from the injudicious manner in which the water is administered1 from the fruit not being duly macerated1 or from want of such heat being conveyed to the water and fruit1 as the juices would have had1 if they had been expressed out of the grapes when just gathered2 often from the whimsical mixture of other bodies therewith1 and perhaps too from the quantity of brandy1 which is always put to wines abroad1 to prevent their fretting on board a ship4 ,upon the whole1 though1 from what just now has been observed1 some small difference must take place1 it rather proves than contradicts the fact1 that1 a due quantity of water being applied to dry raisins1 an extract may be formed1 which will be impregnated with all the necessary constituent parts the grapes had in them when ripe upon the vine1 consequently will spontaneously ferment1 and make a vinous liquor4 ,water then1 in this case1 becomes a substitute1 and the liquors produced in this manner may be accounted of the first class of artificial wines4 ,vegetables1 in their original state1 are divisible into the pulpous and farinaceous kinds1 both possessing the same constituent parts1 though in different proportions4 ,if from the farinaceous such parts be taken away as they superabound in1 and others be added1 of which they are defective1 these vegetables may1 by such means1 be brought to resemble1 in the proportion of their parts1 more especially in their musts1 the natural wines ,i have before been treating of3 and these being universally acknowledged to be the standard of wines1 the nearer any fermented liquor approaches thereto1 by its lightness1 transparency1 and taste1 the greater must its perfection be4 ,to enquire which of the pulpous or which of the farinaceous kinds of vegetables are fittest for the purpose of wine-making1 would here be an unnecessary digression4 ,experience1 the best guide1 hath1 on the one side1 given the preference to the fruit of the vine1 and on the other to barley4 ,to make a vinous liquor from barley1 having all the properties of that produced from the grape1 is a task1 which can only be compassed by rendering the wort of these1 similar to the must of the other4 ,as malt liquors require the addition of other substitutes1 besides water1 to1 become perfect wines1 they can only be ranked in the second class of artificial fermentation4 ,these substitutes are properly called ferments1 and merit the brewer's closest attention4 ,ferments1 in general1 such as yeast1 flowers or lees of wine1 honey1 the expressed juices of ripe fruits1 are subjects more or less replete with elastic air1 and convey the same to musts1 which stand in need thereof4 ,boerhaave has ranged these1 and several others1 in different classes1 according to their different powers1 or rather in proportion to the quantity of air they contain for this purpose4 ,the juice of the grape1 when fermented1 forms more lees than the extracts of malt4 ,may we not1 from thence1 infer that1 in the fruit1 the elastic air is both more abundant1 and contained in a greater number of stronger1 though smaller1 vesicles1 than it is in the malt8 ,the barley1 being first saturated with water1 germinated only1 and then dried with a heat far exceeding that which ripened it1 or that which fermentation admits of1 has its air in part driven out4 ,the expulsion of air from the worts of beers and ales is still farther effected by the long boiling they undergo4 ,hence the necessity of replacing the lost elastic air1 in order that these extracts may become fermentable4 ,this is effected by means of the yeast1 which1 consisting of a collection of small bubbles1 filled with air1 and ready to burst by a sufficient heat1 becomes the ferment1 which facilitates the change of the wort into a vinous liquor4 ,the musts of malt generally produce two gallons of yeast from eight bushels of the grain1 whereas1 in the coldest fermentable weather1 and for the speediest purpose1 one gallon of yeast is sufficient to work this quantity of malt4 ,much elastic air still remains in beer1 or wine from corn1 after the first part of the fermentation is over2 for the liquor1 separated from the yeast above mentioned1 is1 at the time of this separation1 neither flat1 vapid1 nor sour2 but as yeast1 the lees and flowers of malt liquors are of a weaker texture than those of grapes1 all artificial fermentations should be carried on in the coolest and slowest manner possible3 and beers1 but more especially such as are brewed from high-dried1 brown malts1 7the heat of whose extracts approaches much nearer to that which dried the grain1 than is the case in brewing pale malt7 ought not to be racked from their lees1 as it is frequently practised for natural wines1 unless1 on account of some defect1 they are to be blended with fresh worts under a new fermentation4 ,as all ferments are liable to be tainted1 great care ought to be taken in the choice of them1 every imperfection in the ferment being readily communicated to the must4 ,it would not1 therefore1 be an improper question to be determined by physicians1 whether1 in a time of sickness1 the use of those which have been made in infected places ought to be permitted1 and whether1 at all times1 a drink fermented in a pure and wholesome air is not preferable to that which is made among fogs1 smoke1 and nauseous stenches4#g ,wines from corn are distinguished by two appellations1 viz41 those of ale and beer4 ,as each of these liquors have suffered in character1 either from prejudice or want of a sufficient enquiry1 it may be proper to levy the objections made against their use1 before we enquire into the means of forming them4 ,the most certain sign of the wholesomeness of wines is transparency and lightness2 yet some1 which are rich1 more especially ales1 though perfectly fine1 have been said to be viscid4--,transparency appears indeed in many wines1 before the oils are attenuated to their highest perfection1 and some viscidity may therefore be consistent with some degree of brightness4 ,where the power of the oils and the salts are equal1 which is denoted by the transparency of the liquor1 viscidity can only arise from the want of age3 this cannot be said to be a defect in1 but only misapplication of the liquor1 by being used too soon4 ,that beers retain igneous or fiery particles1 seems equally a mistake4 ,malt dried to keep1 has undoubtedly its particles removed by fire1 so far as the cohesion of them is thereby destroyed1 otherwise it would not be in a fit state to preserve itself sound1 or readily to be extracted4 ,for this reason1 when the grain comes in contact with the water1 which is to resolve it1 an effervescent heat is generated1 which adds to the extracting power1 and should be looked on by the brewer as an auxiliary help2 but it is impossible that the malt1 or the must1 should ever inclose and confine the whole or part of fire employed to form them4 ,fire is of so subtile a nature1 that its particles1 when contained in a body1 continually tend to fly off1 and mix with the surrounding air2 so that only an equal degree1 with what is in the atmosphere1 can be continued in the grain1 or any liquor whatever1 after it has been1 for some time1 exposed thereto4--,brown beers1 made from malt more dried than any other1 from experience1 are found to be less heating than liquors brewed from pale malt2 which probably arises from hence1 that brown beers contain a less quantity of elastic air than pale beers1 as pale malt liquors contain less than wines1 produced from vegetables in their natural state3 and as malt liquors contain their elastic air in bubbles of a weaker consistence than those made from the juices of the grape1 the effect of beer1 when taken in an over-abundant quantity1 is neither of so long a continuance1 nor so powerful as that of wine1 supposing the quality and quantity of each to be equal4 ,this may appear to some persons to be the effect of prejudice1 yet it is but a justice due to the produce of my country1 to add1 that some physicians have given it as their opinion1 that strong drinks from malt are less pernicious than those produced from grapes4 ,as far as these gentlemen have1 ,i hope ,i may advance1 without being thought guilty of assuming too much1 or countenancing debauch1 by pointing out the wines that occasion the fewest disorders4 ,,section ,x4 ,,of ,,the ,,nature ,,of ,,barley4 ,barley is a spicated1 oblong1 ventricose seed1 pointed at each end1 and marked with a longitudinal furrow4 ,the essential constitution of the parts1 in all plants1 says ,dr4 ,grew1 is the same3 thus this seed1 like those which have lobes1 is furnished with radical vessels1 which1 having a correspondence with the whole body of the corn1 are always ready1 when moistened1 to administer support to the plume of the embryo1 usually called the acrospire4 ,these radical vessels1 at first1 receive their nourishment from a great number of glandules dispersed almost every where in the grain1 whose pulpous parts strain and refine this food1 so as to fit it to enter the capillary tubes2 and such an abundant provision is made for the nourishment of the infant plant1 that the same author says1 these glandules take up more than nine tenths of the seed4 ,barley is sown about ,march1 sooner or later1 according to the season or soil that is to receive it1 and generally housed from ten to twenty weeks after4 ,most plants1 which so hastily perform the office of vegetation1 are remarkable for having their vessels proportionably larger2 and that these may be thus formed1 the seed must contain a greater quantity of tenacious oils1 in proportion to those seeds1 whose vessels being smaller1 require more time to perform their growth and come to maturity4 ,this grain1 as may be observed1 grows and ripens with the lower degrees of natural heat2 from whence1 and from the largeness of the size of its absorbent vessels1 it must receive a great portion of acid parts4 ,it is said to be viscid1 though1 at the same time1 a great cooler1 water boiled with it being often drunk as such2 and1 however it be prepared1 it never heats the body when unfermented4 ,from these circumstances1 of its being viscous and replete with acids1 it would at first appear to be a most unfit vegetable1 from which vinous liquors1 to be long kept1 should be made2 and1 indeed1 the extracts from it1 in its original state1 are not only clammy1 but soon become sour4 ,when the grain is at full maturity1 its constituent parts seem to be differently disposed than when in a state of vegetation4 ,by germination alone all its principles are put in action2 the fibrous parts possess themselves of a great quantity of tenacious oils1 leaving the glandules and finer vessels replete with water1 salts1 and the purest sulphur4 ,if1 in this state1 the corn is placed in such a situation1 that1 by heat1 the acid and watery parts may be evaporated1 the more such heat is suffered to affect it1 the more dry1 and less acid1 will the corn become2 its parts will be divided--its viscidity removed2 its taste becomes saccharine1 by the acids being sheathed or covered over with oils2 and these last be rendered more tenacious in proportion to the greater quantity of heat they are made to endure4 ,this process1 regularly carried on1 is termed malting1 and will hereafter be explained more at large4 ,but1 before we enter thereon1 it is necessary to consider the state of the grain as it comes from the field4--,when mowed1 though1 upon the whole1 it may be said to be ripe1 yet every individual part1 or every corn1 cannot be so4 ,in some seasons1 this inequality is so remarkable1 as to be distinguished by the eye4 ,the difference in the situation1 the soil1 and the weather1 the changes of the winds1 the shelter some parts of the field have had from such winds1 are sufficient to account for this1 and a much greater variety4 ,when the greater part of the corn is supposed to have come to maturity1 it is cut and stacked2 the ripest parts having the least moisture1 and the fewest acids1 as the greenest abound in both4 ,in this state the unripe grains of the corn communicate1 to such as are more dry1 their moisture and acid parts1 which1 coming in contact with their oils1 an agitation ensues1 more or less gentle1 in proportion to the power of the acids and water2 and from hence is generated a heat1 the degree whereof is with difficulty determined4 ,when this sweating in the mow is kept within its proper limits1 the whole heap of the corn1 after this internal emotion is over1 becomes of one equable dryness1 and is not discoloured2 but if the grain be put together too wet or too green1 the effervescence occasioned thereby will produce such a violent intestine heat1 as to charr and blacken the greatest part thereof1 nay often make it burst into actual flame4 ,the effect which a moderate and gentle heat has on the corn1 is that of driving the oils towards the external parts of its vessels and skin3 by this means1 it becomes more capable to preserve itself against the injuries of the weather4 ,the more it is in this state1 the backwarder will it be to germinate1 when used to this purpose2 and if this act is carried too far1 or to somewhat like what we have just now mentioned1 the plume and root of the enclosed embryo must be scorched1 the corn become inert1 and incapable of vegetation4 ,this effect is produced by a motion sufficient to remove the particles of the grain from each other beyond their sphere of attraction2 and the heat1 by which this motion is excited1 has been found1 in malted corn1 to be at about #abj degrees4 ,it is likely1 that vegetables1 in general1 are susceptible of a large latitude in this respect1 according to their different textures4 ,the degree of heat just now mentioned may1 perhaps1 be applicable to barley alone2 the seeds of some grapes endure #abf degrees of heat1 and may be capable of being impressed with more1 and yet vegetate4 ,but1 with corn1 if their oils have endured so great a heat1 as thereby to be discolored1 the seed can by no means be revived4 ,the color of the grain properly indicates the healthy state of the embryo1 or future plant2 but this1 more immediately1 is the business of the farmer and maltster1 than that of the brewer4 ,thus1 though it may be disadvantageous to the maltster to steep grain which has not sweated in the mow1 as1 for want of this1 it will not equally imbibe the water2 so barley1 that is over-heated1 or mow burnt1 cannot be fit for his purpose4 ,it is1 in fact1 scarcely possible that any large quantity of barley1 from the same stack1 should make equally perfect malt1 as1 on its being put together1 the heat generated is always greatest in the centre of the rick1 and considerably more there than in its exterior parts4 ,,section ,,xi4 ,,of ,,malting4 ,this process is intended to furnish proper means1 for setting the constituent principles of the grain in motion3 so that the oils1 which before served to defend the several parts1 may be enabled to take their proper stations4--,this is effected by steeping the barley in water1 where it strongly attracts moisture1 as all dry bodies do2 but it requires some time before the grain is fully saturated therewith4#h ,two or three days1 more or less1 are necessary1 in proportion to the heat of the air2 for vegetables receive the water only1 by its straining through the outward skin1 and absorbent vessels1 and their pores are so very fine1 that they require this element to be reduced almost to a vapor1 before it can gain admittance4 ,heat hath not only the property of expanding these pores1 but perhaps also that of adding to the water a power more effectually to insinuate itself4 ,by the water gaining admittance into the corn1 a great quantity of air is expelled from it1 as appears from the number of bubbles which arise on its surface when in contact with the grain1 though yet much remains therein4 ,a judgment is formed that the corn is fully saturated1 so as not to be able to imbibe any more water1 from its turgidity and pulpousness1 which occasions it readily to give way to an iron rod dropped perpendicularly therein4 ,at this time the water is let to run1 or drawn off1 the grain taken out of the cistern1 and laid in a regular heap1 in height about two feet4 ,we have before accounted why moist vegetables1 when stacked together1 grow hot2 so doth this heap of barley4 ,the heat1 assisted by the moisture1 puts in motion the acids1 oils1 and elastic air remaining in the corn1 and these not only mollify and soften the radical vessels1 but1 with united power1 force the juices from the glandular parts into the roots1 which are thereby disposed to expand themselves1 and impowered to convey nourishment to the embryo enveloped in the body of the grain4 ,the corn in this heap1 or couch1 is however not suffered to acquire so great a degree of heat1 as to carry on germination too fast1 by which not only the finer but also the coarser oils would be raised and entangled together1 and the malt when made become bitter and ill tasted2 but before the acrospire is perceived to lengthen1 the barley is dispersed in beds on the floor of the malt house1 and1 from being at first spread thin1 gradually1 as it dries1 and as the germination is thereby checked in its progress1 it is thrown into larger bodies2 so that1 at the latter part of this operation1 which generally employs two days1 much of the moisture is evaporated1 its fibres are spread1 and the acrospire near coming through the outward skin of the barley4 ,by these signs the malster is satisfied that every part of the barley has been put in motion and separated4 ,it is of great consequence1 in making of malt1 that the grain be dried by a very slow and gradual heat3 for this purpose it is now thrown into a large heap1 and there suffered to grow sensibly hot1 as it will in about #bj or #cj hours3 thus prepared for drying1 in this lively and active condition1 it is spread on the kiln2 where1 meeting with a heat superior to that requisite for vegetation1 its farther growth is stopped2 though1 in all probability1 from the gentleness of the first fire it ought to be exposed to1 none of the finer vessels are1 by this sudden change1 rent or torn1 but1 by drying1 only the cohesion of its parts removed1 rendered inactive1 and put in a preservative state4 ,often1 to a fault1 the drying of a kiln of malt is performed in #f or #h hours3 it would be to the advantage of the grain that more than double this time was employed for any intent whatever4 ,it may here be observed1 that those oils1 which in part form the roots1 being with them pushed out from the body of the corn1 and dried by heat1 are lost to any future wort1 not being soluble in water2 which is likewise true of those oils which are contained in the shoot or plume2 so that the internal part of the malt has remaining in it a greater proportion of salts to the oils than before1 consequently are less viscid1 more saccharine1 and easier to be extracted4 ,in this process1 the acid parts of the grain1 though they are the most ponderous1 yet being very attractive of water1 become weaker1 and1 by the continued heat of the kiln1 are volatilized and evaporated with the aqueous steam of the malt4 ,thus1 by malting1 the grain acquires new properties1 and these vary at the different stages of dryness2 in the first it resembles the fruits ripened by a weaker sun1 and in the last those which are the growth of the hottest climates4 ,when the whiteness of the barley has not been greatly changed by the heat it has been kept in1 it is called pale malt1 from its having retained its original color2 but when the fire in the kiln has been made more vehement1 or kept up a longer time1 it affects both the oils and the salts of the grain1 in proportion to the degree of the heat1 and to the time it has been maintained1 and thus occasions a considerable alteration in the color4 ,actual blackness seldom is1 and ought never to be1 suffered in malts2 but in proportion to the intenseness of the fire they have been exposed to1 the nearer do they come to that tinge1 and from the different brown they shew1 receive their several denominations4 ,the condition the barley was gathered in1 whether green or ripe1 is also clearly discernible when it is malted4 ,if gathered green1 it rather loses than gains in quantity2 for the stock of oils in unripe corn being small1 the whole is spent in germination1 from whence the malt becomes of a smaller body1 appears shrivelled1 and is often unkindly1 or hard4 ,that1 on the contrary1 which hath come to full maturity1 increases by malting1 and if properly carried through the process1 appears plump1 bright1 clean1 and1 on being cracked1 readily yields the fine mealy parts1 so much desired by the brewer4 ,the malts1 when dried to the pitch intended by the maker1 are removed from the kiln into a heap4 ,their heat gradually diminishes1 and1 from the known properties of fire1 flies off1 and disperses itself in the ambient air1 sooner or later1 as the heap is more or less voluminous2 perhaps too in some proportion to the weight of the malt1 and as the fire has caused it to be more or less tenacious4 ,nor can it be supposed that any of its parts are capable of retaining the fire in such a manner as not to suffer it to get away4 ,so subtile an element cannot be confined1 much less be kept in a state of inactivity1 and imperceptible to our senses4 ,bars of iron1 or brass1 even of a considerable size1 when heated red hot1 cool and lose their fire1 though their texture is undoubtedly much closer than that of malt or barley4 ,the experiments made by ,dr4 ,martine1 on the heating and cooling of several bodies1 leave no room to doubt of this fact1 which ,i should not be so particular about1 nor in some measure repeat1 was it not to explain the technical phrase used by brewers1 when they say1 malts are full of fire1 or want fire4 ,hence a prejudice hath by some been conceived against drinks made from brown malts1 though they have been many months off the kiln1 and have no more heat in them1 either whole or ground1 than the air they are kept in4 ,the truth of the matter is1 that1 in proportion as malts are dried1 their particles are more or less separated from one another1 their cohesion is thereby broke1 and1 coming in contact with another body1 such as water1 strongly attract from it the uniting particles they want4 ,the more violent this intestine motion is1 the greater is the heat just then generated1 though not durable4 ,an effect somewhat similar to what happens on malt being united with water1 must occur on the grain being masticated2 and the impression made on the palate most probably gave rise to the technical expression just taken notice of4 ,the minute circumstances of the process of malting will be more readily conceived from what will hereafter be said4 ,the effects that fire will have1 at several degrees1 on what1 from having been barley1 is now become malt1 are more particularly the concern of the brewer2 and that these differ1 both as to the color and properties1 is certain4 ,a determinate degree of heat produces1 on every body1 a certain alteration1 and hence1 as the action of fire is stronger or weaker1 the effect will not be the same as what it would have been in any other degree4 ,barleys1 at a medium1 may be said to lose1 by malting1 one fourth part of their weight1 including what is separated from them by the roots being skreened off3 but this proportion varies1 according as they are more or less dried4 ,as the acrospire1 and both the outward and inward skins of the grain are not dissoluble in water1 the glandular or mealy substance is certainly very inconsiderable in volume and weight3 but as in this alone are contained the fermentable principles of the grain1 it deserves our utmost attention4 ,we have before seen1 that wines1 beers1 and ales1 after the first fermentation1 are meliorated through age by the more refined and gentle agitations they undergo1 and which often are not perceptible to our senses4 ,to secure this favorable effect1 we must form worts capable of maintaining themselves1 for some time1 in a sound state4 ,this quality1 however1 if not originally in the malt1 is not to be expected in the liquor4 ,some objections have been raised against this method of arguing1 and these aided by prejudices1 often more powerful than the objections themselves4 ,it is therefore necessary1 as malting may be esteemed the foundation of all our future success1 to enquire after the best and properest methods of succeeding in this process4 ,let us1 for this purpose1 reassume the consideration of the grain1 as it comes from the mow1 trace it to the kiln1 and observe every change it undergoes by the action of the fire1 from the time that it receives the first degree of preservation1 to that when it is utterly altered and nearly destroyed4 ,barley in the mow1 though there its utmost heat should not much exceed #ajj degrees1 may be extracted or brewed without malting4 ,this the distiller's practice daily evinces2 but then the extracts1 made from this unchanged corn1 are immediately put in the still after the first fermentation1 else they would not long remain in a sound state4 ,nor is this method practicable in summer time1 as the extracts would turn sour1 before they were sufficiently cooled to ferment4 ,it is true1 by this means1 all the charge of the malt duty is saved2 but our spirits thereby are greatly inferior to those of the ,french4--,boerhaave recommends the practice of that nation1 which is to let the wines ferment1 subside1 and be drawn off fine from the lees1 before they are distilled4 ,was this rule observed in ,england1 distillation would be attempted only from malted grain1 which1 if properly extracted for this purpose1 the difference in the spirit would soon shew how useful and necessary it is to give wines 7either from grapes or corn7 time to be softened1 and to gain some degree of vinosity before they are used to this intent4 ,but might not barleys be dried without being germinated8 ,undoubtedly they might2 but as they abound with many acids and strong oils1 they would require a heat more intense than malt does1 before they were sufficiently penetrated1 and then the oleaginous parts would become so compact1 and so resinous1 as nearly to acquire the consistence of a varnish1 scarcely to be mollified by the hottest water1 and hardly ever to be entirely dissolved by that element4 ,barley then ungerminated1 either in its natural state or when dried1 is not fit for the purpose of making wines2 but when1 by germination1 the coarser oils are expelled1 and the mealy parts of the grain become saccharine1 might not this suffice1 and where is the necessity of the grain being dried by fire8 ,i shall not dwell on the impossibility of stopping germination at a proper period1 without the assistance of fire1 so that sufficient quantities of the grain1 thus prepared1 may always be provided for the purposes of brewing2 nor even insist upon the difficulty of grinding such grain1 as1 in this case1 it would be spongy and tough4 ,i think it sufficient to mention solely the unfitness of this imperfect malt1 for the purpose it is to be applied to1 that of forming beers and ales capable of preserving themselves for some time4 ,we should find so many acids blended with the water still remaining in the grain1 that1 in the most favorable seasons for brewing1 they would often render all our endeavors abortive1 and1 in summer time1 make it impracticable to obtain from them sound extracts in any manner whatever4 ,i have heard of a project of germinating grain1 and drying it by the heat of the sun1 in summer time1 in order1 by this means1 to save the expence of fuel4 ,though the hottest days in ,england may be thought sufficient for this act1 as well as for making hay1 yet1 as barley and grass are not of equal densities1 the effects would not be the same4 ,this1 however1 is not the only objection3 as the corn1 after a sufficient germination1 should be made inactive1 this very hot season1 favorable1 in appearance1 to one part of the process1 would rather forward1 than stop or retard1 vegetation2 for the barley1 by this heat1 would shoot and come forward so fast as to entangle too much the constituent principles of the grain with one another1 and drive the coarser ill-tasted oils among the finer sweet mealy parts1 which alone1 in their utmost purity1 are the subject required for such as would obtain good drinks4 ,there often appears in mankind a strange disposition to wish for the gifts of ,providence1 in a different manner than they have been allotted to us4 ,the various schemes ,i have just now mentioned1 if ,i mistake not1 have sprung from the desire of having beers and ales of the same appearance with white wines4 ,but as they are naturally more yellow or brown1 when brewed from malts dried by heats equal or superior to that which constitutes them such1 all such projects1 by which we endeavour to force some subjects to be of a like color with others1 are but so many attempts against nature1 and the prosecution of them must commonly be attended with disappointments4 ,it is true1 that though the germinated grain be dried slack1 yet2 if they are speedily used1 and brewed in the most proper season1 they may make a tolerable drink1 which will preserve itself sound for some time3 but the proportion1 which should be kept between the heat which dried the malt1 and that which is to extract it1 cannot1 in this case1 be truly ascertained2 and1 as the grain will be more replete with air1 water1 and acids1 than it ought to be1 the drink1 even supposing the most fortunate success1 and that it does not soon turn acid1 will still be frothy1 and therefore greatly wanting in salubrity2 for an excess in any of the fermentable principles must always be hurtful4 ,barley then1 to be made fit for the purpose of brewing1 must be malted2 that is1 it must be made to sprout or germinate with degrees of heat nearly equal to those which the seed should be impressed with when sown in the ground2 and it must be dried with a heat superior to that of vegetation1 and capable of checking it4 ,how far germination should be carried on1 we have already seen2 the law seems to be fixed universally1 as to the extent of the acrospire3 the degree of dryness admits of a larger latitude1 the limits of which shall be the subject of our next enquiry4 ,malt dried in so low a degree1 as that the vegetative power is not entirely destroyed1 on laying together in a heap1 will generate a considerable degree of heat1 germinate afresh1 and send forth its plume or acrospire quite green4 ,the ultimate parts of the nourishing principles are then within each other's power of acting1 else this regermination could not take place2 and such grain cannot be said to be malted1 or in a preservative state4 ,bodies1 whose particles are removed1 by heat1 beyond their sphere of attraction1 can no more germinate2 but1 coming in contact with other bodies1 as malt with water1 they effervesce4 ,the grain we are now speaking of first shews this act of effervescence1 when it has been thoroughly impressed with a heat of #abj degrees1 and a little before its color1 from a white1 begins to incline to the yellow4 ,such are the malts1 which are cured in a manner to be able to maintain themselves sound1 though in this state1 and at this degree of dryness1 they possess as much air1 and as many acid and watery particles1 as their present denomination can admit of4 ,this therefore may be termed the first or lowest degree of drying this grain for malt4 ,to discover the last or greatest degree of heat it is capable of enduring1 the circumstance to guide us to it1 though equally true1 is not so near at hand as effervescence1 which helped us to the first4 ,we must therefore have recourse to the observation of that heat1 which wholly deprives the grain of its principal virtues4 ,dr4 ,shaw observes1 alcohol is one of the most essential parts of wine2 when absent1 the wine loses its nature1 and1 when properly diffused1 it is a certain remedy for most diseases incident to wines1 and keeps them sound and free from corruption2 from whence was derived the method of preserving vegetable and animal substances4--,the same excellent author had before this observed1 that no subjects but those of the vegetable kingdom are found to produce this preserving spirit4 ,is alcohol1 then1 a new body1 created by fermentation and distillation2 or did it originally1 though latently1 reside in the vegetable8 ,i have for a good while been satisfied1 by experiments1 says ,boerhaave1 that all other inflammable bodies are so only as they contain alcohol in them1 or1 at least1 something that1 on account of its fineness1 is exceedingly like it2 the grosser parts thereof1 that are left behind1 after a separation of this subtile one1 being no longer combustible4 ,now1 as the same author has clearly proved#i that fire1 by burning combustible bodies1 as well as by distilling them1 separates their different inflammable principles1 according to their various degrees of subtilty1 the alcohol residing in the barley1 when exposed to such a degree of heat as would cause it to boil1 i4 e4 #age degrees1 must make great efforts to disengage itself from the grain4 ,is it not1 therefore1 natural to conclude1 that1 in a body like malt1 whose parts have been made to recede from one another1 7from whence it is porous1 and easily affected by fire17 prepared for fermentation1 or the making a vinous liquor1 this event will probably happen at the same time when the body of the grain has been ultimately divided by fire1 or that malt charrs8 and if this is true1 may not charring be termed the last degree of dryness1 when1 even somewhat before it takes place1 the acid parts and finest oils1 which are necessary for forming a fermentable must1 fly off1 and cannot be recovered4--,charring seems to be a crisis in solid bodies1 somewhat analogous to ebullition in fluids2 both being thereby perfectly saturated with fire1 their volatile and spiritous parts tend to fly off4 ,in charring1 the subject being ultimately divided by fire1 the constituent principles are set at liberty1 and escape in the atmosphere1 in proportion to their several degrees of subtilty1 and to the fire which urged them4 ,in boiling they are equally divided1 and incline to disperse2 but1 even the more volatile1 being surrounded with water1 a medium much denser than themselves1 they are caught up therein1 and1 by the violent motion caused in boiling1 entangled with it1 and with other parts it contains1 so as not to be extricated or divided therefrom except by the act of fermentation4 ,now1 as liquors boil with a greater or less fire in proportion to their tenacity and gravity1 solid bodies may likewise be charred by various proportions of heat4 ,the whole body of the barley1 as its different parts are of different texture1 cannot1 at the same instant1 become black1 nor1 where any quantity of the grain is under similar circumstances1 if not equally germinated1 can the whole charr with the same degree4 ,to the several reflections1 before made1 ,i thought proper to add the surer help of experience4 ,i therefore made the following trial1 with all the care ,i was capable of4 ,if the effects of it appear satisfactory1 by gaining two limited and distant degrees1 we may determine and fix the properties of the intermediate spaces1 in proportion to their expansion4 ,in an earthen pan1 of about two feet diameter1 and three inches deep1 ,i put as much of the palest malt1 unequally grown1 as filled it on a level to the brim4 ,this ,i placed over a little charcoal1 lighted in a small stove1 and kept continually stirring it from bottom to top4 ,at first it did not feel so damp as it did about half an hour after4 ,in about an hour more1 it began to look of a bright orange color on the outside1 and appeared more swelled than before4 ,every one is sensible that a long-continued custom makes us sufficient judges of colors1 and this sense in a brewer is sufficiently exercised4 ,then ,i masticated some of the grain1 and found them to be nearly such as are termed brown malts4 ,on stirring1 and making a heap of them1 towards the middle1 ,i placed therein1 at about half depth1 the bulb of my thermometer2 it rose to #adj degrees3 the malt felt very damp1 and had but little smell4 ,at #afe degrees1 ,i examined it in the same manner as before1 and could perceive no damp2 the malt was very brown1 and on being chewed1 some few black specks appeared4 ,many corns1 nearest the bottom1 were now become black1 and burnt2 ,i placed my thermometer nearly there1 and it rose to #age degrees3 but1 as the particles of fire1 ascending from the stove1 act on the thermometer1 in proportion to the distance of the situation it is placed in1 through the whole experiment an abatement of five degrees should be allowed1 as near as ,i could estimate4--,putting1 a little after1 my thermometer in the same position1 where about half the corns were black1 it shewed #ahj degrees4 ,i now judged that the water was nearly evaporated1 and observed the heap grew black apace4 ,again1 in the centre of the heap1 raised in the middle of the pan1 ,i found the thermometer at #ahj degrees2 the corn tasted burnt1 the surface appeared1 about one half part a full brown1 and the rest black4 ,on being masticated1 still some white specks appeared1 which ,i observed to proceed from those barley-corns which had not been thoroughly germinated1 and whose parts cohering more closely together1 the fire1 at this degree1 had not penetrated4 ,the thermometer was now more various1 as it was nearer to1 or farther from1 the bottom2 and1 in my opinion1 all the true-made malt was charred1 for their taste was insipid1 they were brittle1 and their skins parting from the kernel4 ,i1 nevertheless1 continued the experiment1 and1 at #aij degrees1 still found some white specks on chewing the grain2 the acrospire always appearing of a deeper black1 or brown1 than the outward skin2 the corn1 at this juncture1 fried at the bottom of the pan4 ,i still increased the fire2 and the thermometer1 placed in the middle1 between the bottom of the pan1 and the upper edge of the corn1 shewed #baj degrees4 ,the malt hissed1 fried1 and smoked abundantly4 ,though1 during the whole process1 the grain had been kept stirring1 yet1 on examination1 the whole was not equally affected by the fire4 ,a great part thereof was reduced to perfect cinders1 easily crumbling to dust between the fingers1 some of a very black hue1 without gloss1 some very black1 with oil shining on the outside4 ,upon the whole1 two thirds of the corn were perfectly black1 and the rest of a deep brown1 but more or less so1 as the grains were hard1 steely1 or imperfectly germinated4 ,this was easily discovered by the length of the shoot3 most of the grains seemed to have lost their cohesion1 and had a taste resembling that of high-roasted coffee4 ,in the last stage of charring the malt1 ,i placed over it a wine glass inverted1 into which arose a pinguious oily matter1 and tasted very salt4 ,it may1 perhaps1 not be unnecessary to say1 that the length of time this experiment took up1 was four hours1 and that the effect it had1 both on myself1 and on the person who attended me1 was such as greatly resembled that of inebriation4 ,though1 from this experiment1 the degree of heat at which malt charrs1 is not fixed with the utmost precision1 yet we see that black specks appeared1 when the thermometer was at #afe degrees2 some of the corns were entirely black at #age1 others at #ahj4 ,in proportion as fire causes a deficiency of color1 it must occasion a want of fermentable properties1 the whole of which are certainly dispersed1 when the grain becomes of an absolute black4 ,thus we may conclude1 with an exactness surely sufficient for the purposes of brewing1 that true germinated malts are charred in heats1 at about #age degrees3 as these correspond to the heat at which pure alcohol1 or the finest spirit of the grain itself1 boils1 it seems to require this heat1 wholly to extricate itself from the more tenacious parts of the corn2 which1 when deprived of this etherial enlivening principle1 remains inert1 incapable of forming a fermentable must or wort1 and indicates to us1 that the constituent parts of vegetables may be resolved by heats1 equal to those between the first degree which formed them1 and the last1 which ultimately destroys their properties2 though the extracts will possess different qualities or virtues1 according to the determinate heat which is applied4 ,,section ,,xii4 ,,of ,,the ,,different ,,properties ,,of ,,malt1 ,,and ,,of ,,the ,,number ,,of ,,its ,,fermentable ,,parts4 ,the consequences resulting from the before-mentioned experiment have already been hinted at4 ,but it is necessary to trace them farther1 and to shew how much they tend to the information and use of the brewer4 ,germinated barleys1 so little dried1 as that their particles remain within their sphere of attraction1 are not in a preservative state1 and therefore cannot properly be termed malts4 ,the first degree of dryness1 which constitutes them such1 as we have seen before1 is that which occasions them to cause some effervescence4 ,this cannot be effected1 when they are dried with less than #abj degrees of heat2 the highest that leaves them white4 ,when urged by a fire of #age degrees1 they are charred1 black1 and totally void of fermentable principles4 ,now this difference of heat1 being #ee degrees1 and producing in the grain so great an alteration1 as from white to black1 the different shades or colors1 belonging to the intermediate degrees1 cannot1 with a little practice1 be easily mistaken4 ,white1 we know1 from ,sir ,isaac ,newton's experiments1 is a composition of all colors1 as black is owing to the absence of them4 ,these two terms indicate the extremes of the dryness of malt4 ,the color1 which the medium heat impresses upon it1 is brown1 which1 being compounded of yellow and red1 the four tinges which shade malt differently1 may be said to be white1 yellow1 red and black4 ,the following table1 constructed on these principles1 will1 on chewing the grain1 readily inform the practitioner of the degree to which his malts have been dried4 ,it is true some doubts have arisen1 whether the increase of heat is by equal divisions 7according to the scales marked on thermometers7 or whether the degrees should not rather be in proportional parts3 but if the effect of fire on bodies 7as every experiment shews7 is exactly corresponding to the expansion it is the cause of1 this undetermined question in no wise affects the brewery4 ,a ,,table of the different ,degrees of the ,dryness of ,malt1 with the ,changes of ,color occasioned by each ,increase of the ,degrees4 ,degrees4 #aai ,white ,white #abd ,w4 ,w4 ,yellow ,white turning to a light ,yellow4 #abi ,w4 ,w4 ,y4 ,y4 ,yellow4 #acd ,w4 ,w4 ,y4 ,y4 ,red1 ,high yellow4 #ach ,w4 ,w4 ,y4 ,y4 ,r4 ,r4 ,amber4 #adc ,w4 ,y4 ,y4 ,r4 ,r4 ,light brown4 #adh ,y4 ,y4 ,r4 ,r4 ,brown4 #aeb ,y4 ,r4 ,r4 ,high brown4 #aeg ,y4 ,r4 ,r4 ,black1 ,brown inclining to black4 #afb ,y4 ,r4 ,r4 ,b4 ,b4 ,high brown1 speckled with black4 #afg ,r4 ,r4 ,b4 ,b4 ,half brown1 half black4 #aga ,r4 ,b4 ,b4 ,coffee color4 #agf ,black1 ,black4 ,n4 ,b4 ,the several letters against each degree1 it is apprehended1 will help in practice to fix the color4 ,the foregoing table not only enables us to judge of the dryness of the malt by its color1 but also1 when a grist is composed of several sorts of malt1 to foresee the effect of the whole when blended together by extraction4 ,some small error may possibly occur in judgments thus formed upon the report of our senses2 but as malt occupies different volumes1 in proportion to its dryness1 if1 in the practice of brewing1 upon mixing the water with the malt1 the expected degree is observed1 such parcel of malt may be said to have been judged of rightly1 in regard to its dryness4 ,so that the first trial either confirms or corrects our opinion thereof4 ,though malt1 dried to #abj degrees1 is in a preservative state1 yet is it the least so as malt3 it then possesses the whole of its fermentable principles1 which1 if not impeded in the extraction1 would be very speedy and active3 the duration of the worts to be formed from grain so low dried1 must entirely depend on the power given to the water by heat1 to draw from the malt1 oils of such consistence as shall sheath and retard the hasty effects of the fermentable parts4 ,by extraction1 then1 malted grain1 even so low dried as this1 may1 with very hot waters1 and with the farther assistance of hops1 be made to produce beers1 which for years will be capable of maintaining themselves sound1 or for a long time to resist the effects of the hottest climates4 ,they may also1 by a less heat being given to the extracting water1 and blended with less hops1 form drinks1 which shall be fit for use in so short a time as a week1 and perhaps a term much shorter3 hence we see the degree of heat which dried the malt1 and the degree of heat given to the water to extract it4 ,the mean of these numbers 7making an allowance for the quantity of hops used7 is that which directs us to fix the properties and duration of the wort4 ,in one sense1 then1 we may consider malt1 so low dried as this1 as being such as would in the shortest time furnish us with a fermented liquor1 and in another1 such as would yield the most delicate and strongest drink4 ,when malt charrs1 and becomes black1 its parts are ultimately divided2 it has lost the principles fit to form a fermentable wort1 and which it once possessed4 ,the degree of heat1 prior to that which produces this effect1 is the last which still retains any part of the fermentable properties4 ,in worts from malt thus highly impressed by fire1 fermentation would proceed with so slow and reluctant a pace1 that1 in this case1 they might be said to be in the utmost state of preservation4 ,no term can be fixed for their duration4 ,a liquor of this sort1 brewed with the greatest heat it would admit of1 in the extracting water1 might keep many years1 and become rather accommodated to the temperature of the place it was deposited in1 than to its own constituent parts4 ,experience has shewn1 that drinks1 impressed by the drying and extracting heat1 with a medium of #adh degrees1 with a proper addition of hops1 at the end of eighteen months1 have been found sound1 and in a drinkable state2 and at this degree we find the middling brown4--,from these two extremes1 and on these principles1 the following table is formed1 exhibiting the length of time drinks made from malt1 impressed with each respective degree of heat1 properly brewed1 in the most favourable season1 will require1 before they come to their due perfection to be used4 ,equally as with hot extracting waters1 low dried pale malt may be made to yield beers which will long continue in a sound state2 so high dried malt1 acted upon by cooler and low extracting water1 may be made to furnish a wort soon fit for use1 though less agreeable and more inelegant4 ,it might here be asked1 why1 then1 at any time1 is malt dried with heats exceeding #abj degrees8 ,in answer to this1 it might justly be said1 it would be very difficult for the malster exactly to hit this point of drying1 without deviating from it either on the one side or on the other2 and suppose this difficulty removed1 still he could not be certain every individual grain was equally affected3 if the drying was less than #abj degrees1 the malt1 by receiving the moist impressions of the air1 would regerminate1 and be spoiled4 ,before the use of hops1 malt was high dried1 as a means to keep the extracts sound4 ,to eradicate an ancient custom or prejudice requires a long time4 ,this1 and the conveniency of keeping malts1 was the reason why1 for many years1 it was in general dried to excess2 an error which for some time past has been losing ground1 as no reason at present subsists1 why malts should exceed in color a light amber4 ,a ,,table1 shewing the age beers will require1 before being used1 when brewed from malts1 which1 in drying and extracting1 have been impressd with a medium heat corresponding to the following degrees4 ,degrees4 ,shortest time ,longest time ,shortest time with the with #ab lb4 with #ab lb4 fewest quantity of of hops4 of hops4 hops possible4 #aai #b ,weeks #abd #a ,month #c ,months ,brewed #b ,weeks #abi #c ,months #f ,months in the #d ,weeks #acd #d ,months #i ,months proper #f ,weeks #ach #faj ,months #ab ,months season #f ,weeks #adc #g ,months #ab ,months ,brewed #d ,weeks #adh #i ,months #ab ,months in #b ,weeks summer #aeb #aj ,months #ah ,months #aeg #ah ,months #b ,years #afb #b ,years #afg #aga #agf ,it must be observed1 that the foregoing table is constructed on the supposition1 that these different sorts of malt are brewed1 fermented with the utmost care1 with waters heated to extract it1 in proportion to the dryness of the grain1 and to intent of time there set down1 and with an adequate addition of hops2 an ingredient which shall be considered in its proper place4 ,what is meant by the water being heated to extract malt in proportion to the dryness of the grain1 may merit some explanation4 ,grapes1 when ripe1 carry with them the water they have received1 both during their growing state1 and that of their maturity4 ,this quantity is sufficient to form their musts with4 ,to dried grapes or raisins1 water is added1 to supply what they have lost2 and for the same reason it is requisite in regard to malt3 but as grapes stand in no need of artificial fire1 to give to their fermentative principles a due proportion1 so what they produce themselves1 or cold water applied to them1 when dry1 is a sufficient menstruum4 ,but barleys1 wanting the assistance of a great heat to bring their parts to the necessary proportion1 require1 when malt1 a similar or rather a greater heat to resolve them3 without which1 experiment shews1 the flour of the grain would come away undissolved1 and thus considerably impoverish the grist4--,should1 on the other hand1 too great a heat be applied1 an equal loss would be sustained1 from some of the finer parts being coagulated or blended with oils1 tenacious beyond the power of fermentation to exhibit them4 ,the proportioning therefore the heat of the water to the dryness of the malt1 more especially to obtain from the grain the whole strength it is capable of yielding1 as well as to cause the drink to preserve itself sound its intended time1 is of real necessity4 ,well-brewed drinks should not only preserve themselves sound their due space1 in order to be meliorated by time2 they should likewise be fine and transparent4--,these circumstances prove the artist's skill and care1 as well as the salubrity of the drink2 and are the surest signs of a well-formed must1 and of a perfect fermentation4 ,if then the rules for obtaining these ends can be deduced from the foregoing principles and experiments1 we may flatter ourselves with possessing a theory1 which will answer our expectations in practice4 ,according to the laws of nature discovered by ,sir ,isaac ,newton1 the spaces between the parts of opaque bodies are filled with mediums of different densities1 and the discontinuity of parts1 each in themselves transparent1 is the principal cause of their opacity4 ,salts in powder1 or infused in an improper medium1 will intercept the light2 gums make a muddy compound1 when joined to spirits2 and oils1 unassisted by salts1 refuse to be incorporated with water4 ,musts1 therefore1 whose constituent parts are not capable of being dissolved by water into one homogeneous body1 are not fit1 either for a perfect fermentation1 or a pellucid drink4 ,length of time1 which improves beers and wines1 often rectifies our errors in this respect2 for the oils being1 by various frettings1 more attenuated1 and more intimately mixed1 the liquor is frequently restored1 and becomes of itself pellucid4 ,yet ,i never found this to succeed1 where the error upon the whole of the dryness of the malt1 and the heat of the extracts1 exceeded the medium by #aj degrees4 ,art has also1 in some measure1 concurred with nature to remedy this defect4 ,when beers or wines have been suffered to stand1 till they are rather in an attracting than in a repelling state1 that is1 when their fermentations and frettings apparently stand still2 then1 if they do not become spontaneously fine1 they may be precipitated1 by mixing with them a more ponderous fluid4 ,the floating particles1 that occasioned the foulness1 are1 by this means1 made to subside to the bottom1 and leave a limpid wine3 but the power of dissolved isinglass1 the ingredient generally used for this purpose1 seldom takes effect1 when the error exceeds the medium1 as before1 by more than #aj degrees4 ,other ingredients1 indeed1 have been used1 which carry this power near #aj degrees farther4 ,it is not my province to determine1 whether such be salutary3 undoubtedly it would be better if there were no occasion for them4 ,beyond these limits1 precipitation has no effect2 the liquor1 which cannot be fined thereby1 if attempted1 by increasing the quantity of the precipitants1 will be overpowered by the menstruum1 and injured in its taste4 ,how frequent this last case of cloudiness is1 would answer no purpose in this place to enquire4 ,the use of doubtful ingredients1 and such errors as have been mentioned1 need no longer blemish the art1 when a constant and happy practice1 will be both the effect and the proof of a solid and experimental theory4 ,beers which become bright of themselves1 or by time alone1 as well as those precipitated either by dissolved isinglass1 or by more powerful means1 each possess their respective properties in a certain latitude or number of degrees2 and as these effects arise wholly from the heats employed in drying the malts1 and in forming the extracts1 the following table will be of use to point out the limits1 within which each drink may be obtained4 ,a ,,table1 shewing the tendency beers have to become fine1 when the malt1 in drying and extracting1 has been impressed with heats1 the medium of which answers to the following degrees1 supposed to be brewed and kept in the most eligible manner4 ,deg4 #aai ,white1 ,immediately4 ,latitude of #abd ,inclining to yellow1 musts which fine #abi ,yellow1 #b ,months4 spontaneously4 #acd ,high yellow1 #d ,months4 #ach ,amber1 #f ,months4 ,latitude of #adc ,light brown1 #h ,months4 musts which #adh ,brown1 #aj ,months4 fine by precipitation4 #aeb ,high brown1 #ab ,months4 #aeg ,brown1 inclining to #ad ,months4 ,latitude of black1 heats which cannot form #afb ,high brown speckled #af ,months4 musts1 so as with black1 to answer the intent #afg ,half brown half #ah ,months4 of becoming black1 wholesome #aga ,coffee color1 #bj ,months4 beer4 #agf ,black1 ,the difference between the heat for forming grapes1 and the greatest heat which ripened them1 affords to us the number of degrees answerable to their constituent parts3 the investigation of barley1 in like manner1 though less important to our purpose1 yet may1 with some propriety1 be admitted4 ,upon examination it will be found1 barley ears1 and the new grain begins to form 7being still in possession of its flower7 about the same time with us as grapes do1 in ,june2 when we found the mean heat of the air in the shade to be #eg4fj degrees4 ,barleys in general are mowed from ,august to ,september2 so that1 in their growth1 they are benefited by the whole of our summer's heat1 and for like reasons as in page #ei1 we estimate this #fa4aj degrees3 #c4ej degrees then would be the number of their constituent parts1 taken from the degrees of heat in the shade1 and which perhaps would be different if the actual sun-shine heat and what is reflected from the earth1 were accounted for4 ,barleys are annuals1 unbenefited by the whole of the autumn sun2 but1 after being mowed1 they are stacked1 retaining still much of their straw1 leaves1 and outward skins4 ,in these heaps they heat1 more or less1 according to the condition in which they were housed2 and which heat may reach to #abj degrees or more1 but in general is equal1 or somewhat superior1 to that of our bodies4 ,the properties of the grain1 by this means improved1 ripen1 and from hence are more capable of preserving themselves4 ,this might be a reason why a farther allowance should be made to the number of degrees denoting their constituent parts3 how much1 by a very great number of observations1 made from the germination1 ripening1 to the stacking of the barley1 in many years1 and in many cases1 might probably be ascertained2 but the difficulty of doing this1 and afterwards the impossibility of complying with the information such enquiries would afford1 and the little need there is for it1 as nature has allowed a considerable latitude for our deviating from what may be styled perfection1 without any sensible injury3 these circumstances render such enquiries unnecessary1 if not fruitless4 ,vegetables1 but more particularly barley1 from their first origin to such time as they might be ultimately separated by fire1 may be divided into different periods1 according to the distinct properties belonging to each1 7and each of these require again a more exact enquiry47 ,barley is under the act of germination1 so long as the acrospire or stem is within the outward skin of the parent corn2 this excluded1 it vegetates so long as it receives nourishment by the interposition of its roots4 ,it may be said to be in a state of concentration1 when receiving but little or no support from the earth1 yet it is acted upon by such heats as do not exceed what it might bear in the vegetative period2 and in that of inaction1 when1 by the power of heat1 it is placed in a passive state4 ,now malt is barley germinated1 and1 by a quick transition1 is impressed with heats superior to those admitted in vegetation1 and such as places the corn in a state of inaction4 ,in the beginning of the process of malting1 the more tenacious oils1 together with some salts1 are excluded from the body of the grain1 to form the vessels requisite to forward the growth of the future plant4 ,what remains in the parent grain 7that choice food1 at first necessary to the infant barley7 are saccharine salts1 alone applicable to the brewer's purpose1 and of the nature and quantity of which1 he ought to be well acquainted4 ,to retain these1 and prevent a waste thereof1 the germinated corn is placed in such heat1 as destroys the union between its parts1 from whence it becomes inactive4 ,when this intent is obtained by the least heat capable of effecting it1 the malt retains both its color1 and the whole of its properties4 ,vegetables1 in no part of their growth1 are ever affected by heats so great as to disperse their constituent parts2 on the contrary1 by natural heats1 in general they are improved4 ,the whole of their elements then1 must be measured from the first degrees which form them1 to the last which procure their highest perfection2 and in climates where they are not benefited by the whole of such heat1 their properties must be accounted only so many degrees1 as in such places are between the extremes of their germination and maturation4 ,alike with malt1 their whole number of constituent parts1 denoted by degrees of heat1 must be so many as are comprehended between that degree which leaves it in possession of the whole of their elements1 and the first heat which excludes a part2 for malt more dried than this1 being less perfect1 and losing some of its properties1 fewer must remain4 ,the degree of heat which in malt divides the period of germination from that of inaction1 we have found to be #aai2 the grain then is perfectly white1 and shews little if any sign of effervescence2 the first change1 fire occasions therein1 is to impress it with a light yellow color2 this takes place at #abi degrees of heat1 an alteration which can proceed from no other cause1 but1 in removing its original whiteness1 to have expelled some of its primitive parts4 ,the difference then between these two numbers of #aj1 specifies1 in degrees of ,fahrenheit's scale1 the number of properties constituting barley1 malt4 ,it must be confessed this is establishing a principle of the art of brewing1 upon the uncertain report of our senses1 as perhaps our sight may deceive us in fixing this change of color exactly at #abi degrees2 but we know white and black to be the two extremes of the dryness of malt1 and that the middle color between them is brown1 which being compounded of yellow and red1 these four tinges1 equally divided1 as we have done in the foregoing tables1 will corroborate our fixing the teint of yellow at this degree4 ,the table shewing the tendency beers have to become fine1 was formed from experiments made on brewings1 whose governing medium heats were from #acd to #adh1 the proportion in point of time given by these1 justifies the division between immediate pellucidity1 at #aai1 and that taking place at two months1 or #abi degrees4 ,so from hence we may be satisfied1 however an absolute perfection cannot be depended upon1 yet this being the most exact division our senses afford1 it approaches so near to truth1 that if any mistake remains1 it can be but trivial1 compared to the latitude of errors1 fermentation and time correct4 ,but this number1 #aj degrees1 denoting the quantity of fermentable parts1 must lessen in proportion as a continued1 or a greater heat deprives the grain of more properties4 ,a speedy spontaneous pellucidity is the effect of the whole fermentable parts2 malt affected by heat1 conveyed either through air or water1 or through both1 7so the medium of these exceeds not #ach degrees17 if assisted by the acids gained to the drink by long standing1 such will obtain transparency4 ,beers1 then1 intended to be formed of themselves to become fine1 in the calculations used to discover their elements1 so many of the members of the constituent parts must be implied1 as corresponds with the time the beer is intended to be kept2 but when beers are made intentionally to require precipitation to become fine1 in such proportion as we purpose to impress opacity on the drink1 we must1 in the calculations made to discover the temperature of the extracts1 imply only so many of the constituent parts1 as correspond to the medium heat which will occasion this foulness4 ,these few observations shew the necessity of establishing this fundamental doctrine1 the use of which will obviously appear in practice4 ,thus does the success of this art depend on the instrument so often mentioned1 which1 by indicating the expansions caused by different heats1 becomes a sure guide in our operations4 ,i shall now close this account1 by comparing with the principles here laid down1 the defects which we1 but too often1 meet in barley when malted4 ,,section ,,xiii4 ,,observations ,,on ,,defective ,,malts4 ,in the preceding enquiry1 some of the defects of malt have been occasionally mentioned3 but as a perfect knowledge of the grain1 especially when it has undergone this process1 is a matter of no small concern to the brewer1 ,i shall now bring such defects into distinct view1 both to compare them with the foregoing principles1 and that the knowledge of them may be more at hand1 on every occasion1 when wanted4 ,every different degree of heat acting on bodies causes a different effect3 and this varies also1 as such heat is more or less hastily applied4 ,the growth of vegetables is in general submitted to these laws3 but yet ,i conceive there is some difference between germination and vegetation1 which ,i beg leave to point out4 ,the former seems to be the act caused by heat and moisture1 while the plume or acrospire is still enveloped within the teguments of the parent corn1 and it is most perfectly performed by the gentlest action1 and consequently by the least heat1 that is capable of moving the different principles in their due order4 ,vegetation1 again1 is that act which takes place when the plant issues forth1 and1 being rendered stronger by the impressions of the air1 becomes capable of resisting its inclemencies1 or the warmth of the sun-shine4 ,germination is the only act necessary for malting1 the intention being solely to put in motion the principles of the grain1 and not to rear up the embryo to a plant4 ,now1 as this begins in barley at the degree where the water first becomes fluid1 or nearly so1 the cold season1 when the thermometer shews from about #cb to #dj degrees1 would seem the most proper for this purpose4 ,how far its latitude may with propriety be extended1 experience alone can determine4 ,maltsters continue to work so long as they think the season permits1 and leave off generally in ,may1 when the heat of the water extends at a medium from #ej to #ee degrees4 ,but the nearer they come to this medium1 with the greater disadvantage must they malt3 as1 by such warmth1 the vessels of the corn are much distended1 the motion of the fluids violent1 and the finer parts too apt to fly off4 ,thus the coarser oils gaining admittance1 the glandular parts become filled with an impure and less delicate sulphur1 which1 instead of a sweet1 inclines to a bitter1 taste4 ,this is so manifest1 and so universally experienced1 that1 in general1 brewers carefully avoid purchasing what is termed latter-made malts4 ,malt1 which has not had a sufficient time to shoot1 so that its plume may have reached to the extent of the inward skin of the barley1 remains overburthened with too large a quantity of earth and oils1 which otherwise would have been expended in the acrospire and radical vessels4 ,all those parts of the corn which have not been separated1 and put in motion by the act of germination1 will1 when laid on the kiln to dry1 harden and glutinize3 no greater part thereof will be soluble in water1 than so far as the stem or spire of the barley rises to1 or very little farther1 and as much as is wanting thereof will be lost to the strength of the drink4 ,when malt is suffered to grow too much1 or until the spire is shot through the skin of the barley1 which is not often the case1 though all that is left be malt1 that is1 containing salts dissoluble in water1 yet as too large a portion of oils has been expended out of the grain1 such malts cannot be fit to brew drinks for long keeping4--,there is1 besides1 a real loss of the substance of the corn1 occasioned by its being overgrown4 ,malt1 the germination of which has reached and been stopped at the proper period1 and has been duly worked upon the floors1 if not sufficiently dried on the kiln1 even though the fire be excited to a proper heat1 retains many watery parts4 ,the corn1 when laid together1 will be apt to germinate afresh1 perhaps to heat so as to take fire2 should not this extreme be the case1 at least it must grow mouldy1 and communicate an ill flavor to the drink4 ,malt1 well grown1 and worked as before1 but over-dried1 though with a proper degree of heat1 will become of so tenacious a nature1 as to require a long time before it can admit of the outward impressions of the air to relax or mellow it1 that is1 before it is fit to be brewed with all the advantages it otherwise would have2 and in proportion as it has black specks on being masticated1 so much of its parts being charred is a diminution to the strength of the liquor1 besides impressing it with a burnt or nauseous taste4 ,malt1 dried on a kiln not sufficiently heated1 must require proportionably a longer time to receive the proper effect of the fire2 the want of which will bring it into the same state as malt not thoroughly dried4 ,if too quick or fierce a fire be employed1 instead of gently evaporating the watery parts of the corn1 it torrifies the outward skin1 divides it from the body of the grain1 and so rarifies the inclosed air as to burst the vessels4 ,such is called blown malt1 and1 by the internal expansion1 occupies a larger space than it ought4 ,if the fire be continued1 it causes its constituent parts to harden to the consistence of a varnish1 or changes it into a brittle substance1 from whence the malt is said to be steely and glassy3 it dissolves but in a small proportion1 is very troublesome and dangerous in brewing1 and frequently occasions a total want of extraction2 by the brewery termed1 setting the grist4 ,malt1 just1 or but lately1 taken from the kiln1 remains warm for a considerable time4 ,until the heap becomes equally cool with the surrounding air1 it cannot be said to be mellow1 or in a fit state to be brewed3 its parts being harsh and brittle1 the whole of its substance cannot be resolved1 and the proper heat of the water1 which should be applied to it for that purpose1 is therefore more difficult to be ascertained4 ,the practice of those maltsters1 who sprinkle water on malt newly removed from the kiln1 to make it appear as having been made a long space of time1 or1 as they say1 to plump it1 is a deceit which cannot too much be exposed4 ,by this practice1 the circumstance of the heat1 and harshness of the malt1 is only externally1 and in appearance1 removed1 and the purchaser grossly imposed on4 ,the grain1 by being moistened1 occupies a greater volume1 and1 if not speedily used1 soon grows mouldy1 heats1 and is greatly damaged4 ,the direct contrary is the case of malt which has been made a long time3 the dampness of the air has relaxed it1 and so much moisture has insinuated itself into the grain1 that some doubt must arise how much hotter the mash should1 for this reason1 be4 ,yet1 supposing no distemper1 such as being mouldy1 heated1 or damaged by vermin1 it is observed1 malt1 under this circumstance1 may more certainly be helped in brewing1 than those just abovementioned4 ,from what has been said1 it appears how necessary it is to procure malt which has been properly steeped1 germinated to its true pitch1 and dried by a gentle1 moderate heat1 so as the moisture of the corn be duly evaporated1 then cured by just so much fire as to enable it to preserve itself a due time1 without being blown or burnt4 ,how easy it is to regulate this process in the cistern1 in the couch1 on the floors1 and on the kiln1 when the malster1 intends no artifice to save his excise1 ,i need not say2 but with what certainty and ease the whole might be carried on by the help of the thermometer1 ,i leave such to determine as are modest enough to think1 that the art may be brought to more accurate rules than those of the bare report of our unassisted senses4 ,as such rules may easily be deduced from the principles here laid down1 ,i shall not be more particular in shewing their application1 as not being my immediate purpose1 nor my business as a brewer3 nor have ,i leisure1 or the conveniency of a malt house1 to make experiments of this sort2 yet with truth it may be said1 that such as would not be disappointed in their brewing1 must take care not to be deceived in their malt4 ,this1 however1 being but too frequently the case1 we should constantly be on our guard against its defects1 and know how to correct them4 ,if it is treated in the same manner as if it was perfect1 the well-malted parts alone will be digested4 ,if too slack dried1 it may be corrected by an addition of heat1 if over-dried1 or injured by fire1 it may proportionably be helped4 ,by applying the thermometer to the extracts1 more particularly to the first1 the brewer thereby will be informed1 to a sufficient degree of exactness1 of the defects he can mend1 and hardly be ever at a loss for the properest means to work the grain to the greatest advantage4 ,as far as we have proceeded in our enquiry1 though some satisfaction must arise from our being enabled to account for the greater part of the process of brewing1 yet it may be observed1 even with the assistance of the thermometer1 as yet a geometrical exactness1 in many respects1 has not been attained2 but nature1 when the interest and necessities of mankind are the object1 apparently has supplied our wants1 and rectified our defects4 ,in this art1 fermentation1 when allowed to display itself1 corrects all our errors to a considerable latitude1 though as yet1 of this act1 it may be said we scarcely conceive its cause1 or properly discern its effects4 ,,part ,,ii4 ,,the ,,practice ,,of ,,brewing4 ,before ,i enter upon the practical1 and indeed most important1 part of this work1 it will not be improper to give a distinct1 though general1 view of the different parts it is to consist of4 ,to extract from malt a liquor1 which1 by the help of fermentation1 may acquire the properties of wine1 is the general object of the brewer1 and the rules of that art are the subject of these sheets4 ,an art truly very simple1 if1 according to vulgar opinion1 it consisted in nothing else than applying warm-water to malt1 mashing these together1 multiplying the taps at discretion1 boiling the extracts with a few hops1 suffering the worts to cool1 adding yeast to make it ferment1 and trusting to time1 cellars1 and nostrums1 for its taste1 brightness1 and preservation6 ,a few notes and observations1 such as are too often found to be foisted under the articles of beer and brewing1 in some books of agriculture and others of cookery1 might be sufficient1 were the place and constitution of the air always the same1 the materials and vessels employed entirely similar1 and lastly1 the malt drinks intended for the same use and time2 but1 as every one of these particulars is liable to variations1 and can be complied with1 only by the application of different determinate heats2 was the artist to submit himself to loose1 vague1 and erroneous directions1 like those above mentioned1 they would only serve to deceive him1 and his case would be but little mended1 if he trusted to indefinite signs1 and insufficient maxims1 in his deviation from them4 ,a more certain foundation has been laid down in the first part of this treatise1 and the principles there established will1 ,i trust1 in all cases1 answer our ends1 provided we make use of proper means to settle their application4 ,the most elegible means to effect this1 must be to follow1 as near as possible1 such plan1 which the rational brewer would1 in every particular circumstance1 sketch to himself1 before he proceeded to business4 ,his first attention ought to be directed not only to the actual heat of the weather1 but also to that which may be expected in the season of the year he is in4 ,the grinding of his malt must be his next object1 and as the difference of the drinks greatly depends upon that of the extracts1 he cannot but chuse to have distinct ideas of what may be expected from the amount of the heat of them4 ,hops1 which are added as a preservative to the extracts form too important a part to be employed without a sufficient knowledge of their power4 ,the strength of malt liquors depending principally on their quantity or lengths1 it is necessary to ascertain the heights in the copper1 to answer what1 on this account1 is intended4 ,the difference in boiling1 for different drinks or seasons2 the loss of water by evaporation2 the proper division of the whole quantity of this element employed1 and1 in proportion to such division1 that of the heat to be given in each part of the process2 the means to ascertain these degrees1 by determining what quantity of cold water is to be added to that1 which is at the point of ebullition1 come afterwards under his consideration4 ,the manner and time of mashing1 the many expected incidents which must produce some small variations between the actual and the calculated heat of his extracts1 it will be incumbent upon him to make a proper estimation and allowance for4 ,to dispose of the worts in such forms and at such depths1 as may render the influence of the ambient air the easiest and most efficacious1 and then1 by the addition of yeast1 to provide the drink with that internal and most powerful agent it had lost in boiling1 are the next requisites4 ,fermentation1 which follows1 and which the brewer retards or forwards according to his intentions1 completes the whole process2 after these necessary precautions1 to compare his operations with those of the most approved practitioners in his art1 and to find himself able to account for those signs and established customs1 which before were loosely described1 authoritatively dictated1 and never sufficiently determined or explained1 must be to him an additional satisfaction4 ,as precipitation is requisite in certain cases1 the common methods for effecting it should be known1 and likewise the means practised among coopers to correct the real or imagined errors of the brewer1 in order to render the drink agreeable to the palate of the consumers1 will naturally lead him to consider what true taste is1 and by employing the means1 by which it may safely be obtained and improved1 he will have done all in his power1 to answer his customers expectation1 and to secure his success4 ,this arrangement1 which appears the most simple1 is that1 which the reader will find observed in the following sections4 ,the proper illustrations of tables and examples have not been omitted1 and from the complete plans for brewing1 under two forms of the most dissimilar kind1 it will be found the rules are adapted to all circumstances1 and applicable to every purpose4 ,i must here add somewhat in justification1 for publishing what may be said to be the mysteries of an art1 often too cautiously precluded from the sight and attention of the public2 but every art and science whatever have equally been laid open1 and from such communication received greater improvements1 and become more useful to mankind in general1 and the professors of them in particular4 ,if attention is given to the rules and practice here laid down1 it will be found that the brewer1 from the large quantities he manufactures1 from repeated experience1 from the conveniency of his utensils1 and more than all1 from the interest he has to be well acquainted with his business1 is most likely to be successful1 in preference to any one else1 and therefore can have no reason to be displeased on being presented with a theory and practice1 which1 far from being the sole right of the brewery1 the discovery of the principles were certainly the property of the author and of his friends1 whose names would do his work honor if mentioned4 ,from the application of these principles1 being convinced of their exactness and facility in practice1 he offers his labor to a trade he esteems1 with no other view than the hope he entertains of being of some service to it and to the public4 ,if1 notwithstanding repeated endeavours1 some things1 in this treatise1 should appear out of their places2 others1 in more than one2 if redundancies1 chiefly occasioned by the natural temptation of accounting for particular appearances1 have not always been avoided2 if inaccuracies should now and then have escaped me1 let it be remembered 7by the good-natured it certainly will7 that1 in new and intricate subjects1 digressions and repetitions are in some measure allowable1 that an over-fulness is preferable to an affected and often obscure brevity1 and that the improvement of the art1 rather than the talent of writing1 must be the brewer's merit1 and was my only aim4 ,,section ,i4 ,,of ,,the ,,heat ,,of ,,the ,,air1 ,,as ,,it ,,relates ,,to ,,the ,,practical ,,part ,,of ,,brewing4 ,in and about the city of ,london1 the most intense cold that has been observed is #ad degrees1 and the greatest heat has made the thermometer rise1 in the shade1 to #hi4 ,within these limits are comprehended all the fermentable degrees1 and consequently those necessary for carrying on the process of brewing4 ,if the lowest degree proper for fermentation be #dj1 and the highest #hj1 the medium of these two would1 at first sight1 appear to be the fittest for this purpose2 but the internal motion1 necessary to carry on fermentation1 excites a heat superior to the original state of the must by #aj degrees4 ,hence1 if #fj degrees be the highest eligible heat a fermenting must should arise to1 #ej should be the highest for a wort to be let down at1 to begin this act2 which heat can only be obtained1 when that of the air is equal thereto1 so that it denotes the highest natural heat for beers and ales to be properly fermented4 ,with regard to the other extreme1 or the lowest heat1 however cold the air may be1 as the worts1 which form both beers and ales1 gain1 by boiling1 a degree greatly superior to any allowed of in fermentation1 it is constantly in the artist's power to adapt his worts to a proper state4 ,the brewing season1 then1 may justly be esteemed all that part of the year in which the medium heat of the day is at or below #ej degrees3 this1 in our climate1 is from the beginning of ,october to the middle of ,may1 or #cb weeks2 the most elegible period of time for brewing all kinds of beers4 ,but1 as many incidents often make it necessary to extend these limits1 the only time for venturing to comply therewith is1 when the medium heat of the season is at #ee degrees2 by which1 six weeks more may be obtained4 ,but1 under these circumstances1 the quantity of beer brewed should be less1 that the worts may cool more readily1 by being thinner spread2 and1 to gain more time1 the brewing is best carried on with two worts only3 taking these precautions1 and beginning early in the morning1 the first wort1 by laying long enough in the coolers1 will1 towards evening1 be brought to a heat of #ee degrees4 ,the night1 in this season of the year1 being generally colder by #aj or #ab degrees than the medium heat of the whole #bd hours1 the second worts may be reduced to a cold of #dc degrees3 the mean of #ee and #dc1 being #di degrees1 would be the real heat of the worts in the ton2 and with #aj degrees more1 7the heat gained by fermentation17 still it would not reach #fj degrees1 the highest fermentable heat1 beers intended to preserve themselves long should arrive to2 but so near would it be to this1 and so little is the uniformity of the heat of the air to be relied on1 that necessity alone can justify the practice of brewing such drinks1 when the heat of the air is so high as #ee1 consequently1 where it exceeds this1 it should never be attempted4 ,as the extractions are made by heats far superior to any natural ones1 though the actual temperature of the air neither adds to1 nor diminishes from1 their strength1 yet it is to be known for the following reason4 ,the proper heat given to the mash is by means of cold added to boiling water2 and cold water generally is of no other heat than that of the air itself4 ,indeed1 when the cold is so intense1 as to occasion a frost1 and to change water into ice1 that which is then used for brewing1 being mostly drawn from deep wells1 or places where frost never1 or but seldom1 takes place1 may be estimated at #ce degrees1 and this will be sufficiently exact4 ,the following table shews the temperature of the air for every season in the year1 and confirms what ,i have just now said concerning the season proper for brewing1 and the actual heat of the water4 ,it was deduced from many years' observations1 made with very accurate instruments1 at eight o'clock in the morning1 the time in which the heat is supposed to be the medium of that of the whole day4 ,a table1 shewing the medium heat1 for every ,season of the year1 in and about ,london1 deduced from observations made from #agec to #agfe1 at eight o'clock each morning4 ,degrees4 ,january #a #cf #ch ,july #a #fj #eb to #ae to #ae to #ca #cd #ig to #ca #fj #bi ,february #a #ce #ea ,august #a #ei #hi to #ad to #ae to #bh #ch #aa to #ca #eh #dh ,march #a #cg #ii ,septemb4 #a #ee #ag to #ae to #ae to #ca #ci #gb to #cj #ed #ac ,april #a #dc #ac ,october #a #dh #ff to #ae to #ae to #cj #df #jd to #ca #df #gb ,may #a #di #je ,novemb4 #a #db #bf to #ae to #ae to #ca #ec #fg to #cj #ci #dj ,june #a #eg #bj ,decemb4 #a #ch #fa to #ae to #ae to #cj #ei #ad to #ca #cg #ed ,to ascertain the authority of this table1 and to make it useful to several purposes1 ,i have carried to decimals the mean numbers resulting from my observations4--,but such an exactness has been found1 in the practice of brewing1 to be more troublesome than necessary4 ,i have therefore constructed another table1 similar to the former1 but where the fractions are omitted1 and the whole numbers carried on from five to five4 ,the heats of the latter end of ,october1 and beginning of ,november1 have here been set down rather higher than they really are2 as1 at this time of the year1 the hops fit to brew with are old and weak1 and ,i could not devise any means more easy to allow for their want of strength4 ,a ,,table1 shewing the medium heat of the air1 in and about ,london1 for every season of the year1 applicable to practice4 ,degrees4 ,degrees4 ,january #a ,july #a to #ae #ce to #ae #fj to #ca #ce to #ca #fj ,february #a ,august #a to #ad #ce to #ae #fj to #bh #dj to #ca #fj ,march #a ,septemb4 #a to #ae #dj to #ae #ee to #ca #dj to #cj #ee ,april #a ,october #a to #ae #de to #ae #ej to #cj #de to #ca #ej ,may #a ,novemb4 #a to #ae #ej to #ae #de to #ca #ej to #cj #dj ,june #a ,december #a to #ae #fj to #ae #dj to #cj #fj to #ca #ce ,as nothing is so inconstant as the heat of the air1 we are not to be surprised when it deviates from the progression specified in the table4 ,the flowing water used in the brewery1 at the coldest seasons1 we have fixed at #ce degrees1 and the highest heat in the air1 to carry on the process for beers brewed for long keeping1 at #ee degrees4 ,the length proper to be drawn1 or the quantity of beer to be made from each quarter of malt being fixed1 the brewer1 at any time1 has it in his power to make calculations for brewings1 supposing the mean heat of the air to be at #ce1 at #dj1 at #de1 at #ej and even at any degree of heat whatever1 so as never to be unprovided for any season4 ,water1 being a body more dense than air1 requires some time to receive the impressions either of heat or cold1 for which reason the medium heat of the shade of the preceding day1 will most conveniently govern this part of the process1 unless some very extraordinary change should happen in the atmosphere4 ,this must make the business of the artist1 in this respect1 very easy1 as1 in the course of his practice1 he will have only to correct the little changes that occasional incidents give rise to2 and the calculations will answer all his purposes so long as the lengths of beer to be brewed from the same quantity of malt remain unaltered1 and with very little variation and trouble1 when the coppers employed1 by being changed1 are of different dimensions4 ,the best method to know the true heat of cold water1 would be to keep a very accurate and distinct thermometer1 in the liquor back2 but as this1 in every place1 is not to be expected1 and inaccuracies must arise from a change in the air1 to prevent their consequences in practice1 we must have recourse to experience4 ,this has taught us that a difference of #h degrees1 between the actual heat of the water1 and that from which the brewing was computed1 will produce1 in the first extract1 a difference of four degrees4 ,most brewers' coppers1 though they vary in their dimensions1 are generally made in proportions nearly uniform2 the effect of one inch of cold water more or less1 will therefore nearly answer alike1 that is1 it will alter the heat of the tap1 by #d degrees4 ,but this will only hold good in such cases1 where the water is in the same proportion to the volume of the grist4 ,in brewing brown beers1 or porter1 three worts are generally made2 the extracts therefore must be of different lengths from what they are in beers brewed at two worts only4 ,in this case1 the quantity of water for the first wort1 is less than it otherwise would be2 and what must be allowed for the first mash1 to wet the malt1 is so much as to occasion the second1 or piece liquor1 to be proportionably less also2 as it is of great consequence1 if the first tap doth not answer to its proper degree1 that the second should be brought to such a heat1 as to make up the medium of the first and second extracts1 the second1 or piece liquor1 by reason of its shortness1 is more conveniently1 and more exactly tempered in the little copper2 and one inch cooling in1 is in this case found1 both by calculation and experience1 to occasion a difference of one degree of heat only in the mash4 ,one of the principal attentions1 in forming beers and ales of any sort whatever1 is that they may come to their most perfect state1 at the time they are intended to be used4 ,common small beer is required to be in order1 from one to four weeks1 and as it is impossible to prejudge the accidental variations1 as to heat and cold1 that may happen in any one season of the year1 it is rational to act up to what a long experience has shown1 is to be expected1 and to mix such quantity of cold water with that1 which is made to come to ebullition1 as to bring the extract to the degree fixed for each particular season1 let the heat1 at the time of brewing1 vary therefrom1 in any degree whatever4 ,in treating on the subject of air1 in the former part of this work1 ,i observed the effect it had in penetrating the parts of the malt1 or in the technical term used by brewers1 in slacking it4 ,as such is the case1 when the grain is entire and whole1 it is more so when ground1 and experience teaches us1 that1 when malt has been about #bd hours from the mill1 the dampness it has imbibed is equal to half an inch more of cold water added to that which is to be made to boil for the first liquor1 and produces therefore a diminution of #d degrees in the heat of the tap#aa4 ,an effect1 somewhat resembling this1 is caused by the impression of the air on the utensils of a brewhouse1 which are not daily used2 the heat received from a foregoing process has expanded their pores1 and rendered them more susceptible of cold and moisture4 ,from this circumstance1 the heat of the first mash will be affected in a proportion equal to half an inch less cooling in1 or in the space of #bd hours1 to #d degrees of heat4 ,the time of the day1 in which the first extract is made1 becomes another consideration2 for as #h o'clock in the morning is the time of the medium heat in the whole #bd hours1 the other hours will give different degrees4 ,when a first mash is made about #d o'clock in the morning1 the following table shews the difference between the heat at #d and #h2 that of the other hours1 in the like case1 may be learned by observation4 ,it has been observed1 that1 in the cold months1 from the sun's power being less1 the heat of the day and night are more uniform1 and also that the coldest part of the #bd hours is about half an hour1 or an hour before sun-rising4 ,i have judged it convenient to place1 in the same table1 the several incidents affecting the first extract4 ,,incidents occasioned by the air affecting the heat of the first extract1 to be noticed more particularly1 when small beer is brewed1 as the quantity of water is then greatest1 and the mash more susceptible of its impressions4 ,morning at #d o'clock99 ,january #j ,utensils1 for want of being used1 in #bd hours ,february #j lose #d degrees of heat1 equal to half an inch of ,march4 #b cold water4 ,malt1 which has been ,april #d ground #bd hours1 imbibes moisture equivalent ,may #f to half an inch1 which lessens the heat ,june #h by #d degrees4 ,the difference between ,july #aj the actual heat of the air1 and that naturally ,august #h expected is to be allowed in proportion of ,september #f #h degrees to one inch cooling in4 ,october #d ,malts1 from having been long kept1 or old1 ,november #b become considerably slacked4 ,december #j 99 ,colder by so many degrees than at eight o'clock in the morning4 ,before we quit this subject1 it may not be improper to observe1 that1 in the hottest season1 and in the hottest part of the day1 the difference between the heat of the air in the shade1 and that in the sun's beams in and about ,london1 is nearly #af degrees1 and also that cellars or repositories for beers1 are1 in winter1 generally hotter by ten degrees1 than the external air2 and in summer1 colder1 by five4 ,,section ,,ii4 ,,of ,,grinding4 ,malt must be ground1 in order to facilitate the action of the water on the grain1 which otherwise would be obstructed by the outward skins4 ,every corn should be cut1 but not reduced to a flour or meal1 for1 in this state1 the grist would not be easily penetrable4 ,it is therefore sufficient that every grain be divided into two or three parts1 nor is there any necessity for varying this1 for one sort of drink more than another4 ,in every brewing the intention of grinding is the same2 and the transparency of the liquor1 mentioned by some on this occasion1 depends1 by no means1 on the cut of the corn4 ,it has been a question1 whether the motion of the mill did not communicate some heat to the malt2 should this be the case1 it can be but in a very small degree2 and1 what may arise from hence1 will be lost by shooting the grain out of the sacks1 or uncasing the grist into the mash ton4 ,of late years it has been recommended1 instead of grinding the malt1 to bruise it between two iron cylinders3 if1 by this means1 some of the fine mealy parts are prevented from being lost in air1 it must be very inconsiderable1 and1 perhaps1 not equal to the disadvantage of the water not coming in immediate contact with the flour of the grain4 ,in brewing1 not all1 but only a certain portion of the constituent parts of the malt are requisite2 these1 heated water alone is sufficient to procure1 so that1 upon the whole1 the difference between bruising and grinding the grain can be of no great consequence4 ,we have before observed1 malt1 by being ground and exposed for some time to the air1 more readily imbibes moisture than when whole1 and the dampness1 thus absorbed1 being in reality so much cold water1 a grist1 that has been long ground1 is capable of being impressed with hotter waters than otherwise it would require4 ,in country places1 where the quantity brewed consists only of a few bushels of malt1 and make so small a volume as to be incapable to maintain an uniform heat1 where the people are ignorant1 that a certain degree is necessary to form a proper extract with2 and where1 instead of this1 boiling water is indifferently applied1 the effects of these errors are in some measure prevented1 by grinding the malts a considerable time1 as a month or six weeks before the brewing1 and by the excess of fire readily escaping from so small a quantity4 ,this method1 from the inconstant state of the air1 and from the impossibility of acting up to rule1 must be very uncertain and fortuitous1 so that few or no arguments are necessary to explode it4 ,the truth is1 the merit of country ales1 so often mentioned1 proceeds from the forbearing to use the drink1 but when it is in the fittest state4 ,thus time not only corrects the errors of the operators1 but also gives them1 in the eyes of the consumers1 the credit of an extraordinary knowledge and unmerited ability4 ,,section ,,iii4 ,,of ,,extraction4 ,fire impressed on malt1 either through air or water1 it is true1 has similar effects as to preservation1 but the fact is not the same as to taste3 the sweet1 the burnt flavor1 or the proportion of both1 the malt originally had1 sensibly appear in the extracts2 but water heated to excess will not1 in extracting pale malt1 communicate to the worts an empyreumatic taste2 whether this proceeds from some acid parts1 still residing in the heated waters1 which might help the attenuated oils to tend towards a sweet1 or from other reasons1 is not easily determinable2 certain it is1 the foundation of taste in malt liquors is in the malt itself4 ,the basis of all wines is a sweet3 this circumstance for brewing beers agreeable to the palate must always be attended to4 ,next to this1 it is required that the liquor should possess all the strength1 it can fittingly be made susceptible of4 ,pale malt1 as it retains the whole virtue of the grain1 yields the strongest beers4 ,the finest oils being fittest for fermentation1 malt dried by fierce heats1 in a great measure loses these1 and what remains are not only coarser oils1 less miscible with water1 but such as bring with them the impressed taste of fire4 ,to answer the purposes of taste1 strength1 and preservation1 from what has been said it appears1 that the extracting water must be of a heat superior to that which dried the malt2 no other rule appears to direct in this1 than to make choice of malt of such dryness1 the delicacy of which has not been removed by fire1 and such as will1 at the same time1 admit of a sufficient number of superior degrees of heat1 to extract all its fermentable parts2 that is 7see page #abd7 malt whose dryness is nearly #ai degrees less than the mean of the drying and extracting heats applicable to the purpose intended4 ,as #aai degrees1 the first heat forming pale malt1 and at which it possesses the whole of its sweetness and virtues1 may be said to be the lowest degree of dryness in the grain to form keeping beers with1 so #ach degrees1 above which the native whiteness of the grain is so subdued1 as to remain but in a very small proportion1 is the highest dried malt fit to be used for any purpose2 from these premises the following table is formed1 to shew the degree of dryness of malt1 where taste and strength are equally consulted1 to brew drinks capable of keeping themselves sound a long time1 at any medium required4 ,the proper choice of malt ,i thought necessary to point out1 previous to entering more at large on the subject of extraction4 ,this table1 it must be observed1 is in no wise directive for brewing common small beer1 soon to be expended1 that liquor depending on many other circumstances1 of which notice will be taken immediately under that head4 ,a ,,table1 shewing the proper dryness of ,malt1 applicable to the mean of the drying and extracting heats under which keeping malt liquors should be formed4 ,mean degrees of dryness of malt ,color of malt expressed and heat of extracts4 in degrees4 #ach #aai #adj #aba #adb #abc #add #abe #adf #abg #adh #acj #aej #acb #aeb #acd #aee #acf #aeg #ach ,the subject to be resolved having been examined as to its dryness1 we now come to the immediate matter for which this section was intended4 ,extraction is a solution of part1 or the whole1 of a body1 made by means of a menstruum4 ,in brewing1 it is chiefly the mealy substance of the grain that is required to be resolved2 fire and water combined are sufficient to perform this act4 ,water properly is the receptacle of the parts dissolved1 and fire the power1 which conveys into it a greater or less proportion of them4 ,when all the parts necessary to form a vinous liquor are not employed1 or when more than are required for this purpose are extracted1 the liquors must vary in their constituent parts1 and consequently be different in their effects4 ,this difference arises either from heat alone1 or from the manner of applying it2 and the properties of beers and ales will admit of as many varieties as may be supposed in the quantity of the heat1 and in its application4 ,but as the useful differences are alone necessary to the brewer1 they may be reduced to the four following modes of extraction4 ,first1 that which is most perfect1 and for which malt is chose of such dryness1 in which it with certainty possesses the whole of its constituent parts1 and the extracts are made with such heats1 as to give the beer an opportunity to be improved by time1 and to become of itself fine and transparent4 ,secondly1 that from which1 in order to obtain every advantage of time1 strength1 and flavor1 such extracts are produced as cannot become pellucid of themselves1 but require precipitation4 ,thirdly1 that which is intended soon to become intense1 where soundness and transparency are for some short time expected1 but not always obtained1 because brewed in every season of the year1 and deprived of the advantages which age and better managements procure to the first4 ,fourthly1 that where the advantages of strength and pellucidity are to be procured in a very short space4 ,these four modes of resolving the grain1 being the fundamental elements on which almost every specie of drink is brewed1 ,i must observe1 the two first may be said to be an exact imitation of natural wines1 in forming which1 the principles we have laid down may fully be applied4 ,the third is the effect of necessity1 by which we are deprived of that time nature directs for properly producing fermented liquors1 and where we are subjected to many disadvantageous circumstances2 to guard against the consequences of which1 we must rely1 in some measure1 upon opinion formed from observation alone2 and the fourth may be said to be art too precipitately carried on4 ,before ,i treat of them separately1 it is requisite to mention a few general rules applicable to all4 ,in the enquiry we made of the means which nature employs to form the juices of grapes1 we found two remarkable circumstances3 the first1 a necessary lesser heat for the production of the fruit1 and the second1 a much greater for its maturation2 the former useful to incline the must to fermentation1 the latter to raise therein such oils as should maintain it for some time in a sound state4 ,but in all wines1 an evenness of taste is requisite to affect the palate with an elegant sensation2 and it may be observed1 the autumn and spring heats being nearly equal2 so the first juices of grapes are formed by almost1 uniform impressions2 the summer heats1 though stronger1 act upon the same principle2 for though the grapes remain upon the vine some part of the autumn1 perhaps in this space they gain little more than the juices prepared by the summer's sun3 from whence the tastes of wine are more simple than otherwise they would be4 ,thus are we directed1 that a first wort shall have the least share of heat of the whole brewing1 and the last wort the greatest2 intermediate worts2 if any2 must be proportioned to both1 and if several mashes of extracts are made to compose a wort1 these must be equal as to their heat1 being careful at the same time to preserve to the process the medium heat which is to govern the whole4 ,by this means1 we shall obtain our intended purpose2 and place into the drink one and the same smooth taste4 ,in the table#ab shewing the different effects produced in the grain by the different degrees of heat1 the numbers1 with respect to beers1 express1 not only the mean of the degrees of dryness the malt had1 with those also of heat in the extracting liquors1 but also is implied the power communicated by the hops1 that is1 it imparts to us1 the idea of the whole combination4 ,as malt liquors are made with different views1 so must the principles on which they are formed be varied4 ,beers intended long to be kept1 require more heat in their extracts1 in order to produce such oils1 or so many in quantity from the grain1 as shall retard and delay the quick effects of fermentation2 and malt liquors1 which are soon to be brought into use1 claim an opposite management4 ,this is imitating nature1 for we have before observed#ac1 the hotter the autumnal1 the vernal and maturating heats are1 with more power do the wines resist the impressions of time and the air2 and we traced the rule which governed this variety1 by an enquiry into the number of degrees required to form the juices of grapes1 and applied their number to discover the first and last heats they were impressed with4 ,in calculations to find out the heat to be given to water properly to resolve the malt1 the same method must be followed1 it being equally necessary here to employ only such a proportion of the number of degrees which constitute the whole of the fermentable principles in malt that are needful to the purpose we would answer4 ,we have said malts continue in possession of all their constituent parts from their first degree of dryness1 #aai to #abi4 ,by age alone beers obtain spontaneous pellucidity1 when urged in the whole of their process with a heat so great as #ach degrees1 precipitation or art extends it to near #aeg degrees1 after which neither the acid parts furnished by the air1 nor art avails3 an obstinate foulness is the result2 from whence it may be concluded1 that at or beyond this heat1 so great a part of the fermentable principles is dispersed1 as what remains in the grain has not power sufficient to produce transparency4 ,the following table1 founded on these principles1 will hereafter be found directive to fix the first and last heats to be given to the extracts of malt4 ,a ,,table1 shewing the quantity of fermentable principles residing in malts at their several degrees of dryness1 or1 the number of constituent parts which form beers in proportion to their properties#ad1 specified in degrees1 and to be used in calculations1 made to ascertain the proper heats to be given to the first and last extracts of malt4 ,mean degrees of heat ,constituent affecting malt4 parts4 #aai #aj #abd #i #abi #h #acd #g #ach #g #adc #f #adh #e #aeb #e #aeg #d #afb #c #afg #b #aga #a #age #j ,though beers and ales are divided into strong and small1 this division regards only the proportion of the vehicle1 and not that of the constituent parts4 ,the same means1 as to the heat of the extracts1 must be employed1 to form small beers1 capable of preserving themselves sound for some time1 as are used to make strong drinks3 for though a small liquor possesses more aqueous parts1 the oils and salts of the malt are only more diluted1 not altered in their proportions1 and this causes but a very small difference in the duration of the liquor4 ,it now remains to apply these rules1 deduced from the theory1 to the several sorts of malt liquors1 which answer to the four modes of extraction1 just before laid down4 ,the first and most perfect is1 when the malt is chosen of such dryness1 and the extracts made with such heats1 as give the beers an opportunity of being improved by time1 and slow fermentations1 to become spontaneously bright and transparent4 ,under this head1 may be comprehended all pale keeping strong1 and all pale keeping small beers4 ,from its name1 regard must be had to the color of the malt1 and such only used1 as is dried the least1 or by #aaiae degrees of heat4 ,the hops should likewise be pale1 and their quantity used in proportion to the time the drink is intended to be kept2 suppose1 in this case1 it is #aj months1 #ajlb4 of fine hops1 for every quarter of malt1 will be required4 ,the highest degree of heat1 or rather the medium of the highest dryness in malt1 with the mean heat of the several extractions1 to admit of spontaneous pellucidity1 we have seen in the foregoing table 7page #abd7 to be #ach degrees1 and this medium is chosen1 as it answers not only the intent of long keeping1 but of brightness also4 ,from the medium degree of the malt's dryness1 and of the heat of the extracts1 to determine the heat of the first and the last extract1 and the value in degrees of the quantity of hops to be used1 for brewing pale strong and pale small beers1 intended to be kept about ten months before they are used1 and expected to become self-transparent4 #aai ,malt's dryness4 ----- #ach ,mean of malt's dryness1 heat of extracts1 and value of hops4 #c ,degrees1 value of #aj lb4 of hops4 ----- #ace ,mean of malt's dryness and heat of extracts4 ,for the first liquor4 #ace ,as before4 #c-a_/b ,half the number of the constituent degrees1 answerable to #ach degrees1 the mean heat of the whole process1 to be subtracted#af4 ------- #aca-a_/b ,degrees governing the first extracts4 ------- #aai ,malt's dryness4 #add ,first rule to discover the heat of the first extract4 ------- #bfc ------- #aca-a_/b ,as above4 ------- ,for the last liquor4 #ace ,as before4 #c-a_/b ,half the number of the constituent degrees1 to be ------- added1 to find #ach-a_/b ,the degrees governing the last extract4 ------- #aai ,malt's dryness4 #aeh ,first rule to discover the heat of last mash4 ------- #bgg ------- #ach-a_/b ,as above4 ------- ,the elements for forming pale strong and pale small beers1 intended to be kept1 are therefore as follows3 ,malt's ,value of ,whole ,first ,last dryness4 hops4 medium4 heat4 heat4 #aai #c #ach #add #aeh #b #b heat lost at the time the extract separates from the grist4 ,the proof of this is as follows3 #add ,heat of the first extract4 #aeh ,heat of last extract4 ------- #cjb ------- #aea ,mean heat of extracts4 #aai ,malt's dryness4 ------- #bgj ------- #ace ,mean heat of ,malt's dryness1 and of heat of extracts4 #c ,value of hops4 ------- #ach ,whole mean given as above4 ------- ,it is necessary to add #b degrees to the heat of every mash1 such being the mean of #d degrees1 constantly lost in every extract1 at the time they are separated from the grist1 and exposed to the impressions of the air4 ,the second mode of extraction is1 that1 in which every advantage which can be procured from the corn1 from art1 and from time is expected2 this produces such drinks1 as cannot become spontaneously pellucid1 but require the help of precipitation4 ,the improvement1 which every fermented liquor gains by long standing1 is very considerable2 the parts of the grain1 which give spirit to the wine1 being1 by repeated fermentations1 constantly attenuated1 not only become more light and pungent1 but more wholesome4 ,if1 in order to give to beers more of the preservative quality1 greater quantities of oils are extracted1 in proportion to the salts1 transparency cannot take place2 but1 when the heat employed for this purpose does not exceed certain limits1 this defect may easily be remedied1 and the drink be fined by precipitation2 as time enables it to take up part of the very oils1 which at first prevented its transparency1 it will1 by long standing1 and by precipitation1 become both brighter and stronger4 ,where the demand for a liquor is constant and considerable1 but the quantity required not absolutely certain1 it ought to be brewed in such manner that time may increase its merit1 and precipitation render it almost immediately ready for use4 ,these circumstances distinguish this class of extraction1 and justify the preference given to porter or brown beer1 which comes under the mode we are now treating of4 ,though transparency in beers is a sure sign of the salts and oils being in an exact proportion1 it is in no wise a proof of the justness of taste3 for strong salts acting on strong oils may produce pellucidity1 but the delicacy and pungency of taste1 depend on the finer oils and the choicest salts being wholly preserved1 these best admitting of fermentation1 and most perfectly becoming miscible with the liquor1 the more volatile oils and salts of the grain if excluded1 by the malt being too high dried1 the consequence in the beer must be1 an heavy and rancid taste4 ,the less dried the malts are1 which are brewed for beers to be long kept1 the hotter are the extracts required to be1 but this greater heat being communicated to the grain through water1 an element eight hundred times more dense than air1 the finer parts of the corn1 though acted upon by an heat which in air would disperse them1 by this means are retained4 ,it appears1 by the table 7page #abd7 that drinks brewed from malts1 affected by heats1 whose medium is #adh degrees1 and with twelve pounds of hops to every quarter of malt1 require from #f to #ab months with precipitation to become bright2 this is the age generally appointed for brown beers to be drank at1 and by the table1 page #acc1 we find the proper malts where the medium heat of the whole process is #adh degrees1 must be such as have been dried with #acj degrees to form this liquor1 whose color as yet is expected to be full or brown1 without being deprived of more valuable qualifications4 ,in the drink before examined1 the number of degrees which constitute the properties of malt1 affected by a mean heat of #ach or #g degrees1 were employed1 they being intended to become1 in time1 spontaneously bright2 but1 as this quality in the present case is required only with the assistance of precipitation1 the number #e1 in the table1 shewing the constituent parts remaining in the grain at every degree of dryness1 7page #afh7 as this corresponds to the medium #adh1 is undoubtedly that which must answer our purpose1 both as to the nature and to the time this liquor is in general made use of4 ,these conditions being premised1 the proper degrees of the first and last extract for porter will be found by the same rules as were used before4 #acj ,degrees1 malt's dryness4 ------- #adh ,degrees1 whole medium intended4 ------- #d ,degrees1 value of hops1 fractions omitted4 ------- #add ,mean of malt's dryness and heat of extracts4 ------- ,for the first extract4 #add ,as before4 #b-a_/b ,half the number of the constituent degrees to be deducted4 ------- #ada-a_/b ,mean of malt's dryness1 and of the heat of the first extract4 ------- #acj ,malt's ,dryness4 #aec ,rule to discover the first heat4 ------- #bhc ------- #ada-a_/b ,as above4 ,for the last extract4 #add ,as before4 #b-a_/b ,half the number of the constituent degrees to be added4 ------- #adf-a_/b ,mean of malt's dryness1 and of the heat of the last extract4 ------- #acj ,malt's dryness4 #afc ,rule to discover the last heat4 ------- #bic ------- #adf-a_/b ,as above4 ,the elements for brewing brown strong beers1 with two degrees added to the first and last extracts1 for what is lost at their parting from the malt1 independent of its farther division into the respective mashes4 ,malt's ,value of ,medium heat of the ,first ,last dryness4 hops4 extracts1 malt's heat4 heat4 heat4 dryness1 and value of hops4 #acj #d #adh #aee #afe ,brown beers1 brewed with malt so low dried as #acj degrees1 twenty years since1 would have appeared very extraordinary1 and most likely1 at that time1 when a heaviness and blackness in the drink formed its principal merit1 would have been a sufficient reason to condemn the practice2 but strength and elegance being now more attended to1 have justified the brewer1 in making porter1 to employ malt of such degree of dryness1 as he shall think will best answer these purposes4 ,as high liquors used to extract low dried malt will form a must capable to preserve itself equally a long time1 as an adequate liquor used to high dried malt doth2 and the first of these methods having greatly the advantage of the other in point of taste1 as #acj degrees of dryness in malt is one1 from its change of color1 where part of its finer principles may be supposed to be evaporated4 ,it may not be amiss to enquire if there be not reasons why malt1 less affected by fire1 should be used for manufacturing this commodity4 ,the medium of the malt's dryness1 and of the heat of the extracts1 together with the value of the hops which are to make porter1 is #adh degrees4 ,this1 because precipitation has been found convenient and necessary for this drink1 yet1 when at the proper age1 it has undergone this last operation1 it is supposed to shew itself in its best form2 bright1 well-tasted1 and strong2 that is1 in such state as drink should be1 which becomes spontaneously transparent1 and is capable of preserving itself a long time1 if from #adh degrees4 ,the value of the oils yielded by the hops 7,see page #ahj7 is deducted1 #d degrees4 --- ,will remain1 #add ,and by table 7page #afb7 we find a must under the mean of #add degrees should be formed with malt dried to #abe degrees1 with this circumstance the elements of brewing porter will be as follows4 #abe ,malt's dryness4 ---- #adh ,degrees1 whole medium intended4 #d ,value of hops4 ---- #add ,mean of malt's dryness1 and heat of extracts4 ,for the first extract4 #add ,as before4 ------- #b-a_/b ,half the number of constituent parts1 to be deducted4 ------- #ada-a_/b ,mean of malt's dryness1 and of the heat of the first extract4 ------- #abe ,malt's dryness4 #aeh ,rule to discover the first heat4 ------- #bhc ------- #ada-a_/b ,as above4 ,for the last extract4 #add ,as before4 #b-a_/b ,half the number of constituent parts1 to be added4 ------- #adf-a_/b ,mean of malt's dryness1 and of the heat of the last extract4 ------- #abe ,malt's dryness4 #afh ,rule to discover the last heat4 ------- #bic ------- #adf-a_/b ,as above4 ,elements for brewing porter with malt dried to #abe degrees1 and two degrees added to the first and to the last extracts1 for what heat is lost at their parting from the malt1 but this1 independent of a farther allotment of this heat to the respective mashes4 ,malt's ,value ,medium of the heat of ,first ,last dryness4 of hops4 the extracts1 malt's mash4 mash4 dryness1 and value of hops4 #abe #d #adh #afj #agj ,whether any attempt to improve this liquor1 by using malt of less dryness than #abe degrees1 may ever be put in practice1 is very uncertain2 porter1 if brewed with malts so low as #aai degrees1 probably would succeed2 for1 in this case1 the last mash1 according to the foregoing rules1 would be at the #agdth degree1 at which the spirit of the grain could not be dispersed1 and probably the result would be1 a more delicate1 more strong1 and more vinous liquor4 ,it may be observed1 that #d degrees are charged for the quantity of hops used2 as this number corresponds to the quantity proper to form beer of this denomination4 ,a greater or a less proportion of hops is sometimes allowed to this drink1 on account of its better1 or inferior quality1 of the necessity there may be to render it fit for use in a shorter time than that which is commonly allowed--from nine to twelve months1 and1 lastly1 of old1 stale1 or otherwise defective drinks1 blended1 with new guiles4 ,in these cases1 which cannot be too rare1 the errors should be corrected only by the addition of hops1 and no alteration be made1 either in the dryness of the malts1 or in the heat of the extracts4 ,the third mode of extraction is that which intends spontaneous transparency1 but not a durable liquor4 ,under this head is comprehended common small beer1 soon to be drank4 ,common small beer is supposed to be ready for use1 in winter1 from two to six weeks1 and in the heat of summer1 from one week to three4 ,its strength is regulated by the different prices of malt and of hops2 its chief intent is to quench thirst1 and its most essential properties are1 that in the winter it should be fine1 and in the summer sound4 ,this liquor is chiefly used in and about great trading cities1 such as ,london1 where1 for want of a sufficient quantity of cellar room1 drinks cannot be stowed1 which1 by long and slow fermentations1 would come to a greater degree of perfection4 ,the duration of this kind of liquor being short1 and there being a necessity of brewing it in every season of the year1 dividing it into very small quantities1 easily affected in its conveyance by the external heat3 generally neglected1 and placed in repositories influenced by every change of air1 the incidents attending it1 and the methods for carrying on the process must be more uncertain1 various1 and complicated1 than those of any other liquor made from malt4 ,the incidents attending this specie of malt liquor are so many1 so short of existence1 so contrary to one another1 and often so different from what should be expected in the different periods of the year1 that an attempt to guard1 in a just proportion1 against every one of them1 and against what may happen1 and oftentimes does not1 must be fruitless4 ,after many endeavours of this sort1 which terminated in a doubtful success1 we have found it most eligible to form these drinks in proportion to the principal circumstances constantly attending them1 and the result was more fortunate1 as1 in general1 the drink was able to maintain itself against that variety of temperature it met with in the places allotted to it4 ,in proportion as it is brewed1 in a hot or in a cold season1 we must employ every means1 either to repel or to attract the acids circulating in the air2 for this purpose1 the degree of dryness in the malt1 the quantity of hops1 the heat of the extracts1 and the degree of temperature the wort is suffered to ferment with1 must vary as such seasons do4 ,the success1 in brewing common small beer1 greatly depends on its fermentation being retarded or accelerated1 in proportion to the heat of the air1 and expansion being the principal effect of heat1 was a wort of this sort suffered1 in winter1 to be so cold as #dj degrees1 the air would1 with difficulty1 if at all1 penetrate the must1 or put it in action4 ,this slow fermentation would not permit the beer to be ready at the time required4--,for these reasons1 brewers let down their worts1 in that season1 at #fj degrees1 whereas1 in summer1 the air of the night is made use of to get them as cold as possible1 by which means a part of them may be #ab degrees colder than the medium of the heat of the day1 and the whole of the worts nearly #e degrees1 in the space of #bd hours4 ,the choice of the malt1 as to its dryness and color1 for brewing this liquor1 should be varied in proportion to the several seasons1 but custom requires it should be kept nearly to an uniform color4 ,for this reason1 when the air is so cold as the lowest fermentable degree1 a greater dryness than #aai degrees is required2 but the dryness of malt forming only one part of the process1 the proper medium directing the whole must be brought to its true degree1 by the heat given to the extracts4 ,in the height of summer1 malt dried to #acj degrees seems to be the best1 as it unites the properties of speedy readiness1 preservation1 and transparency1 and these several characters are1 at that time1 requisite in this liquor4 ,to come as near as possible to the inclination of the consumers1 or to maintain as near as may be an uniform color1 if in the hottest season malt dried to #acj is best for this purpose1 the mean between this and #aai1 the first degree that constitutes malt1 must answer nearest every intent1 when the heat of the air is at #dj degrees4 ,upon this footing1 the following table will1 from the proportion of these two extremes1 shew the color of the grain for every season of the year4 ,heat in the ,malt's ,value of hops air4 dryness4 in degrees4 #ce #abb #a #dj #abd #a #de #abe #a #ej #abg #a #ee #abi #a-a_/b #fj #acj #b ,if common small beer was immediately to be used after being brewed and fermented1 and it was free from the incidents1 most of which we have just now enumerated1 no hops would be required1 and the medium degree of the whole process would be that of the lowest dried malt1 #aai1 to be employed when the heat of the air was at its first fermentable degree1 or #dj1 as1 with adequate malts1 this would make the liquor that would be ready in the least space1 and1 at the same time1 yield its constituent parts2 but if small beer was intended to be kept some short time1 brewed without hops1 and not liable to any accidents1 and the process to be carried through1 in a heat of air equal to the highest fermentable degree1 or #hj1 in this case the governing medium for the whole process must be the utmost heat the grain is able to endure1 where malt charrs1 or #age degrees4 ,as malt liquors are principally affected by heat1 we will first proportion the medium heat1 directive of each process1 for every fermentable degree1 without any regard had to any incident whatever1 ,fermentable ,mean heats to govern degrees4 the processes4 #dj #aai #de #abf #ej #acc #ee #adj #fj #adg #fe #aed #gj #afa #ge #afh #hj #age ,now the principal heats affecting common small beer1 with regard to its duration1 are the degree of heat under which the beer is at first fermented1 that of the air when brewed1 and when conveyed from place to place1 and that of the cellar where it is deposited2 let us1 in regard to these heats1 take the mean of the circumstances this drink is liable to1 at the time when the air is at the first fermentable degree1 and at the time when the season is hottest 7taking for this the medium heat of the whole #bd hours47 ,having these two extremes1 and making a fit allowance for the hops employed1 we shall be able1 from the above table1 to fix the medium heat that should govern the several processes for making common small beer in every season of the year4 ,i observed1 in page #ahc1 that when the heat of the air is #dj degrees1 brewers set the worts of common small beer to be fermented1 at a heat of #fj2 add to this #aj degrees more heat1 excited by the fermentable action1 makes #gj ,the heat of the air we fixed for the first extreme1 was the first fermentable heat1 #dj ,in page #aef1 we said cellars in winter were generally ten degrees hotter than the air1 but we observed1 those employed for this use1 were the worst of the kind1 subjected to exterior impressions1 or perhaps other defects1 for which reason we here set this heat only at #df ---- ,divided by the number of circumstances #c 7 #aef ---- #eb is the mean of the principal incidents affecting small beer in this season1 and1 by the foregoing table1 this degree indicates a medium to govern the whole process #acf1 to which must be added1 for preservative effect bestowed by the hops used1 #a degree more1 which makes it at this heat in the air #acg degrees4 ,when the mean heat of the whole #bd hours is #fj degrees1 7see page #aej7 if1 as in page #ahc1 by the advantage of the evening and night to cool the wort1 an abatement of #e degrees is obtained1 the whole of the heat is #ee degrees1 add to this only #h degrees more1 because at this time the beer is divided1 and put in casks long before the first fermentable act is compleated1 and their real heat will be ,the medium heat of the air in the hottest season 7page #aej7 #fj ,in page #aef we say1 the heat of the cellars in summer time is generally #e degrees colder than the exterior air1 but these being the worst of the kind1 may certainly be thought somewhat more exposed1 though not so much affected in summer as in winter1 when there are fewer culinary fires1 for this reason we fix their heat at #ef --- ,divided by the number of observations #c 7 #agi --- #ei is the mean of these incidents affecting the small beer at this season1 and by the foregoing table it indicates a medium heat to govern the whole process #adf degrees1 to which1 if two degrees more be added1 for the effect of the hops1 7as experience teaches us six pounds of hops in summer scarcely are so powerful as three pounds in winter7 it will give us for the mean of the heats drying the malt1 those impressed in the extracts1 together with the allowance made for the hops #adh degrees4 ,spontaneous pellucidity is always expected in this drink1 although the time allotted to gain this in general is much too short2 to forward this intent as far as possible1 without hazarding the soundness of the drink1 in the computations to determine the heats of the first and last extracts1 the whole number of constituent parts of malt or #aj degrees are employed4 ,having premised these rules1 the heats for the first and last extracts are to be found by like operations before made use of1 an example of which we shall state2 and knowing the mean heats required for two distinct distant processes1 in proportion to these ,i shall form a table1 for brewing this drink in every season of the year4 ,when the air is at #dj1 the degree of dryness fixed for malts to be used for common small beer is #abd1 the quantity of hops three pounds per quarter1 the medium of their dryness and the heat of the extracts1 together with the value of the hops added thereto1 is #acg degrees4 #abd ,malt's dryness4 #acg ,medium intended4 #acg #a ,value of hops4 ---- #acf ,mean of ,malt's dryness1 and heat of extracts4 ---- ,for the first extract4 #acf ,as before4 #e ,half the number of the whole constituent degrees1 to be deducted4 7,see p4 #afh47 ---- #aca ---- #abd ,malt's dryness4 #ach ,rule to discover the first heat4 --- #bfb --- #aca ,as above4 ,for the last extract4 #acf ,as before4 #e ,half the number of the whole constituent degrees1 to be added4 7,see p4 #afh47 --- #ada --- #abd ,malt's dryness4 #aeh ,rule to discover the last heat4 --- #bhb --- #ada ,as above4 --- ,the proof4 #ach ,heat of the first extract4 #aeh ,heat of the last extract4 ---- #bif ---- #adh ,mean heat of extracts4 #abd ,malt's dryness4 ---- #bgb ---- #acf ,mean of ,malt's dryness and heat of extracts4 #a ,value of hops4 ---- #acg ,medium intended1 as above4 ---- ,the elements for forming common small beer1 when the heat of the air is at #dj degrees1 independent of the proper division of this heat1 adequate to each ,mash4 ,malt's ,value of ,whole ,first ,last dryness4 hops4 medium4 heat4 heat4 #abd #a #acg #ach #aeh #b #b ,the medium of the heat lost in the mash ton1 amounting to two degrees1 is added to the heat of the first and last mash1 in the following table4 ,a ,,table of the elements for forming common small beer1 at every degree of heat in the air1 with the allowance of two degrees of heat1 in the first and last extractions4 ,heat ,malt's ,value of ,medium heat ,first ,last of air4 dryness4 hops4 of the heat4 heat4 processes4 #ce #abb #a #ace #ach #aeh #dj #abd #a #acg #adj #afj #de #abe #a #adj #ade #afe #ej #abg #a #adc #adi #afi #ee #abi #a-a_/b #adf #aeb #agb #fj #acj #b #adh #aed #agd ,from due observation of this table1 it appears1 how necessary it is for brewers to be acquainted1 not only with the daily temperature of the air1 but also with the medium heat of such spaces of time1 wherein a drink like this is expected to preserve itself4 ,this ,i have estimated for every #ad days2 7page #aej7 but as the event may not always exactly correspond with our expectations1 an absolute perfection in this drink1 as to its transparency and soundness1 is not to be expected4 ,it greatly depends on the care and attention given to it1 and on the temperature and quiescent state of the cellars it is placed in4 ,the first of these circumstances is often neglected1 and the other hardly ever obtained1 as the places1 where common small beer is kept1 are generally the worst of the kind4 ,in keeping beers1 every circumstance is assistant to form them so as to obtain elegance in taste1 strength1 and pellucidity1 either spontaneously or by precipitation1 but in common small beer2 from the shortness of its duration2 and from the many complicated incidents that occur2 only the medium of the effect of these can be attended to2 which governing medium1 in general1 differs so much from those which form more exact fermentable proportions1 that in these extracts1 there cannot be expected that near resemblance to natural wines1 which1 under more favorable management1 it is capable of4 ,the fourth mode of extraction is that1 which1 by conveying a heat1 equal to what is practised for keeping pale strong1 and keeping pale small beers1 to the liquors commonly known by the names of pale ale1 amber1 or twopenny1 the softest and richest taste malt can possibly yield1 and which makes them resemble wines formed from grapes ripened by the hottest sun1 though by artfully exciting periodical fermentations1 they are1 in a very short time1 made to become transparent4 ,as wines have1 in general1 been named from the town or city1 in the neighbourhood of which the grapes1 from which they are made1 are found growing1 this has1 though with less reason1 been the case1 with our numerous class of soft beers and ales4 ,these topical denominations can indeed constitute no real1 at least no considerable difference1 since the birth-place of any drink is the least of all distinctions1 where the method of practice1 the materials employed1 and the heat of the climate1 are nearly the same4 ,ales are not required to keep a long time2 so the hops bestowed on them1 though they should always be of the finest color1 and best quality1 are proportionably fewer in the winter than in the summer4 ,the reason is1 that the consumption made of this liquor in cold weather1 is generally for purl#ag1 whereas1 in summer1 as it is longer on draught1 it requires a more preservative quality4 ,the properties of this liquor are1 that it should be pale2 its strength and taste principally depend on the malt1 and its transparency should be the effect of fermentation1 accelerated by every means1 which will not be hurtful to it4 ,malt capable of yielding the strongest extracts1 is such whose dryness does not exceed #abj degrees2 and #ach we have seen to be the highest mean of the extracts1 and of the dryness of the malt to admit of pellucidity1 without precipitation2 the hops used1 being only so many as are necessary to resist the heat of the seasons the ale is brewed in1 may in general be estimated in value1 one degree2 from these premises1 the elements for brewing this drink1 will be found by the same rules as before1 where #aj degrees are supposed to be equal to the whole of the constituent parts1 and the whole of these are employed to accelerate its coming to perfection4 #abj ,degrees of malt's dryness4 ---- #ach ,degrees1 whole medium intended4 #a ,value of hops4 ---- #acg ,mean of malt's dryness1 and heat of extracts4 ,for the first extract4 #acg ,as before4 #e ,half the number of the whole constituent degrees to be deducted4 ---- #acb ,mean of malt's dryness1 and of the heat of first extract4 ---- #abj ,malt's dryness4 #add ,rule to discover the first heat4 ---- #bfd ---- #acb ,as above4 ,for the last extract4 #acg ,as before4 #e ,half the number of the whole constituent degrees to be added4 ---- #adb ,mean of malt's dryness and of the heat of last extract4 ---- #abj ,malt's dryness4 #afd ,rule to discover the last heat of last extract4 ---- #bhd ---- #adb ,as above4 ,the elements for brewing pale ale or amber1 with the allowance of #b degrees for the heats lost in the extracts4 ,malt's ,value of ,medium of ,heat of ,heat of dryness4 hops4 the whole4 first mash4 last mash4 #abj #a #ach #adf #aff ,the time this liquor is intended to be kept1 should entirely be governed by the quantity of hops used therein2 for this ale being required to become spontaneously fine1 the medium of the whole1 or #ach degrees1 cannot be exceeded4 ,in and about ,london1 and in some counties in ,england1 these ales1 by periodical fermentations1 are made to become fine1 sooner than naturally they would do1 and often1 in a shorter time than one week4 ,the means of doing this1 by beating the yeast into the drink1 as it is termed1 has by some been greatly blamed1 and thought to be an ill practice4 ,an opinion that the yeast dissolved in the drink1 and thereby made it unwholesome1 prevailed2 and some brewers1 erroneously led by this1 and yet willing that their commodity should appear of equal strength with such as had undergone repeated fermentations1 have been induced to add ingredients to their worts1 if not of the most destructive nature1 at least very unwholesome4 ,the plain truth is1 that1 by returning the elastic air in the fermenting ale1 the effects of long keeping are greatly imitated1 though with less advantage as to flavor and to strength2 but as this case relates to fermentation1 we shall have hereafter an opportunity of explaining it more at large4 ,it is under this class1 that the famous ,burton ale may be ranked1 and1 if ,i do not mistake1 it will be found1 that its qualities and intrinsic value will be the same1 when judiciously brewed in ,london1 or elsewhere1 from whence it may be exported at much cheaper rates to ,russia and other parts1 than when it is increased in price by a long and chargeable land-carriage4 ,when drinks are made so strong as these generally are1 only two mashes can take place1 by which the whole virtue of the malt not being expended1 small beer is made after these ales4 ,the purest and most essential parts of the grain being extracted1 it is not to be expected1 from an impoverished grist1 that beers can be made to possess all their necessary constituent parts1 or to keep so long1 as where fresh malt is used2 but the sort of small beer1 which answers best to the brewer1 and is most salubrious for the consumer1 must be1 by the addition of fresh hops1 to form the remaining strength into keeping small beer1 the greater quantity of hops necessary to be allowed1 beside those boiled in the ale1 is #b-a_/d pounds for every barrel intended to be made4 ,as much more water must be employed1 for this small beer1 besides its length1 as will steam away in two hours boiling1 and #a_/h of a barrel per quarter of malt1 for waste4 ,the heat regulating the extract of small1 will be found by the following rule4 #ach ,medium heat intended for keeping small beer4 #b ,value of hops4 ---- #acf ,mean of malt's dryness and heat of extract4 ---- #abj ,malt's dryness4 #aebah;,heat of the mash for keeping small after amber1 one mash1 and one wort4 ---- #bgb ---- #acf ,as above4 ,all the hops after these two brewings1 as those added for the keeping small beer have been boiled but in one wort1 are in value1 for the next guile of beer1 equal to #a_/aj of fresh hops4 ,we should now put an end to this section1 but1 as other drinks are brewed besides those here particularly treated of1 we shall just mention them1 to shew how their different processes are reducible to the rules just laid down4 ,brown ale is a liquor1 whose length is generally two barrels from one quarter of malt1 and which is not intended for preservation4 ,it is heavy1 thick1 foggy1 and therefore justly grown in disuse4 ,the hops used in this1 differ in proportion to the heats of the season it is brewed in1 but are generally nearly half the quantity of what is employed1 at the same times1 for common small beer4 ,the system it ought to be brewed upon is not different from that of this last liquor2 the medium of the malt's dryness1 and heat of the extracts1 are the same for each degree of heat in the air1 and it requires the same management when under fermentation4 ,but though common pale small beer and brown ale are so much alike in their theory1 yet1 from the difference of the dryness of the malt1 which1 for brown ale1 is constantly so high as #acj degrees1 the practice will appear greatly different4 ,small beer is made after this ale1 by the same rules as that made after pale ale or amber2 the malt must1 in that case1 be valued according to its original dryness1 and the medium governing the process be the same as for small beer1 and as if no extract had been taken from the grain4 ,no small beer brewed after ales can ever be equal in goodness to such as are brewed from entire grists2 but that which is made after brown ale1 from the grain being so highly dried1 and nearly exhausted1 is neither nourishing or fit to quench thirst4 ,brown stout is brewed with brown malt1 as amber is with pale2 the system for brewing these liquors is the same1 allowing for the difference in the dryness of the malt4 ,the overstrength of this drink has been the reason of its being discontinued1 especially since porter or brown beer has been brought to a greater perfection4--,that which is brewed with an intent of being long kept1 should be hopped in proportion to the time proposed1 or the climate it is to be conveyed to4 ,old hock requires the same proportion of hops as are used in keeping pale strong1 or keeping pale small beer2 but more or less1 according to the time it is intended to be kept before it becomes fit for use4 ,the length is about two barrels1 from a quarter of the palest and best malt4 ,as spontaneous pellucidity is required1 its whole medium must not exceed #ach degrees1 for the drying and extracting heat4 ,the management of it1 when fermenting1 is under the same rules with keeping small beer1 or those which are allowed a due time to become of themselves pellucid4 ,dorchester beers1 both strong and small1 range under the same head4 ,they are brewed from barleys well germinated1 but not dried to the denomination of malt4 ,the rule of the whole #ach degrees for the governing medium1 must1 even with this grain1 be observed to form these drinks2 but1 from the slackness of the malt1 and the quantities of salt and wheaten flour mixed with the liquor1 when under fermentation1 proceed its peculiar taste1 its mantling1 and its frothy property4 ,,section ,,iv4 ,,of ,,the ,,nature ,,and ,,properties ,,of ,,hops4 ,the constituent parts of malt1 like those of all vegetable sweets1 are so inclined to fermentation1 that1 when once put in motion1 it is difficult to retard their progress1 retain their preservative qualities1 and prevent their becoming acid4 ,among the many means put in practice1 to check this forwardness of the malt1 none promised so much success as blending with the extracts1 the juices of such vegetables as1 of themselves1 are not easily brought to fermentation4 ,hops were selected for this purpose1 and experience has confirmed their wholesomeness and efficacy4 ,hops are an aromatic1 grateful bitter1 endued with an austere and astringent quality1 and guarded by a strong resinous oil4 ,the aromatic parts are volatile1 and disengage themselves from the plant with a small heat4 ,to preserve them1 in the processes of brewing1 the hops should be put into the copper as soon as possible1 and be thoroughly wetted with the first extract1 while the heat of the wort is at the least1 and the fire under the copper has little or no effect thereon4 ,whoever will be at the trouble to see this performed1 by the means of rakes1 or otherwise1 will be made sensible1 that flavor is retained1 which1 when the wort comes to boil1 is otherwise constantly dissipated in the air4 ,the bitter is of a middle nature1 or semivolatile3 it requires more fire to extract it1 than the aromatic part1 but not so much as the austere or astringent4 ,hence it is plain1 that the principal virtues of this plant are best obtained by decoction1 the austere parts not exhibiting themselves1 but when urged by so violent and long continued boiling1 as is seldom1 or never practised in the brewery4 ,it would be greatly satisfactory to fix1 from experiments1 the degrees of heat1 that first disperse the aromatic1 next the bitter1 and lastly the austere parts2 as it is likely1 by this means1 a more easy and certain method of judging of the true value and condition of hops1 than any yet known1 might be discovered4 ,this vegetable is so far from being1 by itself1 capable of a regular and perfect fermentation1 that1 on the contrary1 its resinous parts retard the aptness which malt has to this act4 ,hops1 from hence1 keep barley-wines sound a longer space of time1 and1 by repeated and slow frettings1 give an opportunity to the particles of the liquor to be more separated and comminuted4 ,fermented liquors acquire1 by this means1 a greater pungency1 even though it was admitted they received no additional strength from this mixture1 the direct contrary of which might easily be made to appear4 ,hops1 then1 are not only the occasion of an improvement of taste1 but an increase of strength4 ,dr4 ,grew seems to think the bitter of the hops may be increased by a greater degree of dryness2 but1 perhaps1 this is only one of the means of their retaining longer this quality1 which undoubtedly decreases through age1 in a proportion1 as near as can be guessed1 of from #aj to #ae per cent4 yearly4 ,the varieties of the soils in which hops are planted1 may have some share in the inequality we perceive in them4 ,they seem to be much benefited by the sea air4 ,whoever will try similar processes with the#ai ,worcestershire and ,kentish hops1 will soon perceive the difference1 and the general opinion strengthens this assertion1 as the county of ,kent alone produces nearly half the quantity of hops used in this kingdom4 ,the sooner and the tighter hops are strained1 after having been bagged1 the better will they preserve themselves4 ,the opinion that they increase in weight1 if not strained until after ,christmas1 may be true1 but will not recommend the practice2 the hops imbibe the moisture of the winter air1 which1 when the weather grows drier1 is lost again1 together with some of the more spiritous parts4 ,nor is this the greatest damage occasioned by this delay1 as hops1 by being kept slack bagged in a damp season1 too often become mouldy4 ,hops may be divided into ordinary and strong1 and into old and new4 ,the denomination of old is first given to them1 one year after they have been bagged4 ,new ordinary hops1 when of equal dryness1 are supposed to be nearly alike in quality1 with old strong ones4 ,the different teints1 with which hops are affected from the fire of the kiln1 afford in brewing the best rule for adapting their color to that of the malt2 in general the finest hops are the least1 but the most carefully1 dried4 ,to extract the resinous parts of the hops1 it is necessary they should be boiled4 ,the method of disposing them is generally to put the whole quantity1 in the first wort1 which1 being always made with waters less hot than the succeeding extracts1 possesses the greatest share of acids1 and is in want of the largest proportion of resins and bitters to defend it4 ,the virtue of the hops is not entirely lost by once boiling1 there remains still enough to bitter and preserve the second wort4 ,but where the first wort is short of itself1 and a large quantity of hops are required for the whole1 it is needless and wasteful to put more in at once than it can absorb1 the overplus of which appears by a thin bitter pellicle floating on the wort when laid to cool in the backs4 ,no particular rules can be given to avoid this inconveniency1 as the nature and quantity of the worts on one side1 and the strength of the hops on the other1 must occasion a difference in the management1 easily determinable by experience4 ,when waters1 not sufficiently hot1 have been used1 the wort1 for want of the proper quantity of oils1 readily admits of the external impressions of the air1 and is easily excited to a strong and tumultuous fermentation1 which disperses the bitter particles1 and diminishes the effects of the hops4 ,the virtue of this plant is therefore retained in the drinks1 in proportion to the heat of the extracts1 and the slowness of the fermentation4 ,but beers being a composition of malt1 hops1 and water1 united by heat1 and the properties of this combination being judged of by the medium of the whole number of degrees of fire made use of in the process1 as we brought the virtues of malt to this denomination1 it is also essential to reduce those of hops4 ,after many tedious calculations and experiments1 made with this view1 and unnecessary here to mention1 we were obliged to have recourse to a more simple and probable hypothesis1 and confirm the truth thereof by repeated experiments1 the relation of which1 as it becomes here necessary1 will shew the necessity we were under to take a general view of the whole process before we attempted to ascertain this point4 ,in the table shewing the mean heat of the air applicable to practice1 the greatest cold is #ce degrees1 and in this season we observed1 7page #aef7 the repositories of beers were more warm than this by #aj degrees1 which makes the greatest cold of cellars to be #de degrees2 in the same table the highest heat is #fj1 when cellars are #e degrees colder than the external airs1 the utmost difference then in the temperature of cellars is #aj degrees1 and this takes place in #f months1 so that the whole variety of heat beers deposited for keeping undergo in one twelvemonth is #bj degrees4 ,there is no specie of beer1 in brewing of which it is requisite the artist should be more attentive to alter his process in proportion to the change of heat in the air1 than common small beer1 which1 though brewed in every season1 is constantly expected to be in an uniform order for use4 ,in the preceding section1 in the table directing this variety1 we find a difference of five degrees of heat in the air1 requires an alteration in medium heat of the whole process of #c degrees1 and as it is from the mean heat of the dryness of the malt1 of the heat of the extracts1 and of the value of hops in degrees1 that we are to discover the quantity of fire to be given to the extracts1 this can be done only by deducting from such medium so much as it is affected by the properties of the hops4 ,just before we have seen1 that the whole of the variety of heat beers deposited in cellars to keep twelve months undergo1 amounts to #bj degrees1 these1 in a proportion of #e to #c1 would be #ab1 without being scrupulously exact4 ,hops1 with regard to their proportion in the whole process1 must be admitted to be one third part thereof1 and1 in this case1 of the proportion1 #ab1 now found1 only #d degrees would be what they contribute towards preserving the drink #ab months3 the quantity of hops necessary to maintain beers in a sound state this space of time1 we have found to be twelve pounds2 this quantity then is equal to #d degrees of the medium heat of the whole process4 ,on these grounds we repeatedly tried the experiment in a variety of brewings made for different purposes1 and never found any inconveniencies from the estimating hops in such like proportion4 ,hops should be used in proportion to the time the liquors are intended to be kept1 and to the heat of the air in which they are fermented4 ,the quantity requisite to preserve beers twelve months1 experience has shewn to be#bjtwelve pounds1 of a good quality1 joined to one quarter of malt1 and when the heat of the air is at #dj degrees1 three pounds to every quarter has been found sufficient to preserve drinks from four to six weeks1 as six pounds are to keep them the same term when the thermometer is so high as #fj degrees4 ,from these facts1 founded on informations obtained from long practice1 we shall hereafter ascertain the proper quantities to be used in all cases4 ,having premised these observations1 sufficiently accurate for the government of this art1 the construction as well as utility of the following tables will be obvious4 ,a ,,table of the value of the hops1 expressed in degrees1 to be added to the medium of the dryness of the malt1 and of the heat of the extracts4 ,hops4 ,new or strong4 ,pale1 low dried1 or old4 #ae lb4 equal #e #c-c_/d #ab #d #c #h #b #b #d #a #a ,a ,,table of the quantity of hops requisite for every quarter of ,malt brewed for porter1 supposed to be fit for use from eight to twelve months4 lb4 ,old ordinary hops started over old beer1 #ad per ,qr4 ,ditto1 neat guiles1 #ab-a_/b ,strong good old hops1 when started over old beer1 #ab-a_/b ,ditto1 neat guiles1 #ab ,new strong hops1 when started over old beer1 #ab ,ditto1 neat guiles1 #aa-a_/b ,new ordinary hops started over old beer1 #ab-a_/b ,ditto1 neat guiles1 #ab ,n4,b4 ,the quantity of old beer to be blended with new is here supposed never to exceed one eighth part of the whole4 ,a ,,table of the quantity of hops requisite for common small beer1 for each quarter of malt1 in every season4 ,heat in the air4 ,new hops4 ,old hops4 lb4 oz4 lb4 oz4 #ce #b #h #b #h #dj #c #j #c #j #de #c #h #c #h #ej #d #d #d #h #ee #e #j #e #h #fj #f #j #f #h #fe #f #ab #gj #g #h #ge #h #d #hj #i #j ,the medium heat of the hottest days in ,england1 in the shade1 seldom1 at any time1 exceeds #fj degrees1 but ,i continued the table proportionably1 as what is here set down is from repeated experiments1 and from thence it appears1 at the lowest fermentable degree of heat1 three pounds of hops are required for each quarter of malt2 at the highest1 nine pounds of hops should be allowed for the same quantity2 this1 in some measure1 determines the effect of a greater activity in fermentation4 ,a ,,table of the quantity of hops necessary to each quarter of malt1 in brewing amber or two-penny4 ,heat in the air4 ,new hops4 ,old hops4 lb4 oz4 lb4 oz4 #ce #b #h #b #h #dj #c #j #c #j #de #c #h #c #h #ej #d #j #d #d #ee #d #h #d #ab #fj #e #j #e #d ,amber is a liquor which1 by repeated periodical fermentations1 is so attenuated1 as to be soon fit for use1 and1 by its strength1 is supposed to resist the impressions of the air longer than common small beer1 especially in winter2 for this reason1 it wants fewer hops than that drink does1 and in the summer both require equal quantities1 on account of the fermentation of amber being carried to a greater degree4 ,the hops once boiled in amber1 but used afterwards for small beer1 may be estimated equal to one fourth of their original quality4 ,when twelve shilling small beer is made after amber1 the quality of the hops used should at least be equal in value to the quantity of ten pounds fresh hops to every five barrels of beer1 when brewed from entire grists of malt for this purpose4 ,a ,,table of the quantity of hops necessary for each quarter of malt1 in brewing ,burton ale4 ,this liquor requires fewer hops than such ales as are more diluted by water3 as it is always brewed in the winter1 the quantities here set down are for the number of months it is supposed to be kept1 before it is drank or bottled4 ,months4 lb4 oz4 #a #a #j #b #a #h #c #b #j #d #b #h #e #c #j #f #c #h #g #d #j #h #d #h #i #e #j #aj #e #h #aa #f #j #ab #f #h ,though common amber1 keeping amber1 and ,burton ales require the same degree of heat to govern the whole of their processes1 yet some small difference will be found in the heats of their extracts1 on account of the different quantity of hops used4 ,besides the use of hops for keeping the musts of malt1 they may also1 with great propriety1 be employed both to strengthen and preserve sound the extracts4 ,one or two pounds1 in a net suspended in the water the mash is to be formed with1 are sufficient for this purpose4 ,though the purchasing the materials1 used in manufacture1 does not immediately relate to its practical part1 yet as1 in this case1 it is of great importance to the brewer to know what stock it is prudent for him to keep1 of an ingredient equally necessary and variable in its value1 ,i hope the attempt of a calculation on this subject1 will easily be pardoned4 ,the amount of the duty upon hops1 for sixteen years1 from #agdh to #agfe1 was 4#a1aga1bbg1 which sum1 estimating the duty at #bas4 per bag1 gives #a1aae1ded bags1 used in that time4 ,at the beginning and expiration of this interval1 hops sold at such high prices1 as no considerable stock can be supposed to have remained in hand1 viz4 from 4#h to 4#aj per hundred4 ,if1 therefore1 to the aforesaid quantity of #a1aae1ded bags1 which may be supposed to have served for the whole consumption during this period1 we add what may have escaped paying duty#ba1 the annual consumption of hops may be estimated at #gj1jjj bags1 including what is exported to ,ireland or elsewhere4 ,from these premises1 the following table was constructed1 which1 though not capable of absolute certainty1 may be of some service to the brewers1 in informing them of the quantities1 that probably remain in hand at any time1 and the stock which prudence will suggest to them to lay in4 ,a ,,table1 shewing the medium price ,hops should bear1 in proportion to the growth1 and determining the quantity to be purchased1 in proportion to the stock in hand4 ,prices of hops ,stock of new and ,quantity of at a medium#bb1 old hops in the hops equal to per cwt4 whole kingdom1 as many weeks after the harvest4 consumption4 #cj ,shill4 #acjjjj bags1 #gj #ce #abejjj #fe #dj #abjjjj #fa #de #aaejjj #eg #ej #aajjjj #ec #ee #ajejjj #dg #fj #ajjjjj #dd #gj #iejjj #dj #hj #ijjjj #cf #ij #hejjj #cb #ajj #hjjjj #bh #aaj #gejjj #bd #abj #gejjj #bj #acj #gjjjj #af #adj #fgjjj #ab #aej #fejjj #h #afj #fbjjj #d #agj #fjjjj #ahj #egjjj #aij #eejjj #bjj #ebjjj ,this chapter should not be dismissed without reminding the brewery1 of the gross imposition they submit to in purchasing hops4 ,the tare which justice requires to be allowed in the sale of all packed merchandize1 by the hop-factors is refused1 who exact payment for the bagging1 at the same price as for the commodity itself4 ,if the consumption of hops1 in ,england1 is yearly #agb1bfh cwt4 and these be packed one half in bags and the other half in pockets1 taking the mean price of hops to be #cl4 #ads4 per cwt4 in this case the consumers are defrauded at least of #ci1hcdl4 per annum2 that1 on a just regulation of this matter1 the commodity itself would rise in price1 there is not the least foundation for4 ,the present practice of monopolizing hops1 by much too frequent1 is a farther reason to induce the brewery to exert the influence they ought to have with superior power1 to obtain a right so justly due to them4 ,,section ,v4 ,,of ,,the ,,lengths ,,necessary ,,to ,,form ,,malt-,,liquors ,,of ,,the ,,several ,,denominations4 ,by length1 in the brewery1 is understood the quantity of drink made from one quarter of malt4 ,beers and ales differ in this respect2 and the particular strength allowed to every sort of drink1 varies also somewhat1 according to the prices of the materials4 ,this increase or abatement is1 however1 never such as to make the profits certain or uniform2 for the value of the grain being sometimes double of what it is at other times1 a proportionable diminution in strength1 can by no means take place4 ,it might be expected to find here tables determining the differences in strength and quality of each drink1 in proportion to their prices1 and the expences of the brewer4 ,but this1 for many reasons1 would be inconvenient1 and in some respects impracticable4 ,he1 who chuses to be at this trouble1 ought not only to take into the account1 the prices of malt and hops1 but the hazards in the manufacturing them1 those of leakage1 of bad cellars1 and of careless management1 the frequent returns1 attended with many losses1 the wearing out of utensils1 and especially of casks1 which last article1 engrosses at least one fifth of the brewer's capital1 the charges of servants1 horses1 and carriages1 for the delivery of the drinks1 the duties paid immediately to the government1 without any security for the reimbursement1 the large stock and credit necessary to carry on this trade1 and many other incidents1 hardly to be estimated with a sufficient accuracy1 and never alike to every brewer4 ,in general it appears1 when malt and hops are sold at mean prices1 the value of what is employed of these1 is equal to the charge attending the manufacture1 or of about half the value of the drinks4 ,hence this conclusion1 sensibly felt by every honest trader1 that1 from change of circumstances1 the reputation of the profits has outlived the reality of them1 and that a trade1 perhaps the most useful to the landed interest1 to the government1 and to the public1 of any1 seems distinguished from all1 by greater hazards1 and less encouragement4 ,but1 in a treatise like this1 where only the rules upon which true brewing is founded1 are laid down1 ,i would avoid any thing that might1 though undesignedly1 give handle to invidious reflections1 and ill-timed controversies4 ,i therefore content myself with setting down the latitudes of the lengths which should be made for drinks of every denomination4 ,lengths of beers1 according to the excise gauges1 observed within the bills of mortality1 or the ,winchester measure4 ,lengths of common small beer4 #d-a_/d ,barrels to #e-a_/d1 ,lengths of keeping small beer4 #d-c_/d ,barrels to #e-a_/b1 ,lengths of amber1 or pale ale4 from one quarter #a-a_/b ,barrel to #a-c_/d1 of malt4 ,lengths of brown strong1 or porter4 #b-a_/d ,barrels to #b-c_/d1 ,lengths of ,burton ale4 #a ,barrel to #a-a_/d1 ,,section ,,vi4 ,,method ,,of ,,calculating ,,the ,,height ,,in ,,the ,,copper ,,at ,,which ,,worts ,,are ,,to ,,go ,,out4 ,the expected quantities1 or lengths of beer and ale1 can only be found by determining at what height in the copper the worts must be when turned out4 ,brewers have several methods of expressing to what part they would have the worts reduced by boiling4 ,brass1 is the technical appellation for the upper rim of the copper2 it is a fixed point1 from which the estimation generally takes place1 either by inches1 or by the nails1 which rivet the parts of the copper together4 ,these last are not very equal1 either in the breadth of their heads1 or their distances from each other4 ,inches then1 though not specified on the copper1 but determined by the application of a gauge1 on which they are marked1 claim the preference4 ,the necessity of coppers being gauged1 and the contents of what they contain on every inch1 both above and below brass1 must appear in a stronger light1 the nearer we bring the art to exactness4 ,the following tables will shew the most useful manner in which ,i conceive this gauging should be specified4 ,gauges of ,coppers4 ,great ,copper1 set up ,nov4 #cj1 ,little ,copper1 set up ,aug4 #c1 #agej4 #agec4 #bc;,b4 ,f4 ,g4 ,b4 ,f4 ,g4 #ag #ae #c #d ,full #ae #aa #b #g #af #ae #b #a #ad #aa #a #e #ae #ae #j #e #ac #aa #j #c #ad #ad #b #h #ab #aj #c #a #ac #ad #a #d #aa #aj #a #g #ab #ac #c #g #aj #aj #j #f ,inches #aa #ac #b #c ,inches #i #i #c #d ,above #aj #ac #j #f ,above #h #i #b #b ,brass4 #i #ab #c #b ,brass4 #g #i #j #h #h #ab #a #e #f #h #c #f #g #ab #j #a #e #h #b #e #f #aa #b #d #d #h #a #c ,current #e #aa #j #h #c #h #j #a #d #aj #c #c ,current #b #g #b #g of #c #aj #a #g #a #g #a #e #b #aj #j #b of ,brass #g #j #e ,little #a #i #b #f #a #f #c #e ,brass #i #a #a ,great #b #f #b #e ,copper #a #h #c #h #c #f #a #e #b #h #b #f ,copper #d #f #j #e ,allowed4 ,inches #c #h #a #d ,inches #e #e #c #e ,below #d #h #j #b ,allowed4 ,below #f #e #b #e ,brass4 #e #g #b #h ,brass4 #g #e #a #e #f #g #a #f #h #e #j #e #g #g #j #d #i #d #c #d #h #f #c #c #aj #d #b #e #i #f #b #b #aa #d #a #f ,by the foregoing table1 it is seen that my great copper holds nearly nine barrels of water to brass1 and as the difference of the volume between boiling worts1 of most denominations1 and cold water1 is nearly as #g to #i1 the quantity it will yield of boiling worts will be but seven barrels4 ,the diameter of this copper1 just above brass1 is sixty-eight inches1 at a medium1 and at that mean it holds twelve gallons seven pints of cold water1 or nearly eleven gallons of boiling worts1 upon an inch4 ,hops macerated1 by being twice boiled1 take up for every six pound weight a volume1 in the copper1 equal to four gallons and a half of water1 or a pin4 ,in a copper1 the gauges of which have just been set down1 it is required to know what number of inches a length of twenty-four barrels must go out at1 with fifteen pounds of hops1 the guile of beer to be brewed at two worts4 #bd ,barrels1 length of beer4 #ad ,barrels1 for two full brass1 ---- #aj #cd ,numbers of gallons to a barrel accounted by the excise1 out of the bills of mortality4 ---- #dj ,hops twice put in #aelb4 is #cj #cj ---- ---- #flb4 #cj #cdj ---- ,gallons of #bb #e boiling wort ---- ,equal to gallons #d-a_/b upon an inch #aa #cfb ---- ---- #bb ---- #cc ,inches above brass1 the two worts to go out together4 ,when three worts are boiled1 the amount of three full brasses must be deducted from the length2 and as the hops go into the copper three times1 they become more macerated1 and take up much less room4 ,the proportion is then nearly thirteen or fourteen pounds of hops for each four gallons and a half4 ,thus in coppers1 which have never been tried or used1 we are able1 by the gauges alone1 to determine our lengths2 but1 as their circumferences are not always exact1 and the worts are of very different strengths1 we should never neglect such trials as may bring us nearer to accuracy and truth4 ,,section ,,vii4 ,,of ,,boiling4 ,it has been a question1 whether boiling is necessary to a wort2 but as hops are of a resinous quality1 the whole of their virtues are not yielded by extraction2 decoction or boiling is as needful as the plant itself1 and is1 together with extraction and fermentation1 productive of that uniformity of taste in the compound1 which constitutes good beer4 ,worts are composed of oils1 salts1 water1 and perhaps some small portion of earth1 from both the malt and hops4 ,oils are capable of receiving a degree of heat much superior to salts1 and these again surpass1 in this respect1 the power of water4 ,before a wort can be supposed to have received the whole of the fire it can admit of1 such a degree of heat must arise1 as will be in a proportion to the quantity of the oils1 the salts1 and the water4 ,when this happens1 the wort may be said to be intimately mixed1 and to have but one taste4 ,the fire1 made fiercer1 would not increase the heat1 or more exactly blend together the constituent parts2 this purpose once obtained1 the boiling of the wort is completed4 ,it follows from thence1 that some worts will boil sooner than others1 receive their heat in a less time1 and be saturated with less fire2 but1 as it is impossible1 and1 indeed1 unnecessary1 to estimate exactly the quantities of oils1 salts1 and water contained in each different wort1 it is out of our power previously to fix1 for any one1 the degree of heat it is capable of4 ,this renders the thermometer in this case useless1 and obliges us to depend entirely on experiment1 and to observe the signs which accompany the act of ebullition4 ,fire1 as before has been mentioned1 when acting upon bodies1 endeavours to make its way through them in right lines4 ,a wort set to boil1 makes a resistance to the effort of fire1 in proportion to the different parts it is composed of4 ,the watery particles are1 it is imagined1 the first1 which are saturated with fire1 and becoming lighter in this manner1 endeavour to rise above the whole4 ,the salts are next1 and last of all the oils4 ,from this struggle proceeds the noise heard when the wort first boils1 which proves how violently it is agitated1 before the different principles are blended one with another4 ,while this vehement ebullition lasts1 we may be sure that the wort is not intimately mixed1 but when the fire has penetrated and united the different parts1 the noise abates1 the wort boils smoother1 the steam1 instead of clouding promiscuously as it did at first round the top of the copper1 rises more upright1 in consequence of the fire passing freely in direct lines through the drink1 and when the fierceness of it drives any part of the drink from the body of the wort1 the part so separated ascends perpendicularly4 ,such are the signs by which we may be satisfied the first wort1 or the strongest part of the extracts1 has been so affected by the fire1 as to become nearly of one taste4 ,if1 at this time1 it is turned out of the copper1 it appears pellucid1 and forms no considerable sediment4 ,the proper time for the boiling of a wort hitherto has been determined1 without any regard to these circumstances2 hence the variety of opinions on this subject2 greater1 perhaps1 than on any other part of the process4 ,while some brewers would confine boiling to so short a space as five minutes1 there are others who believe two hours absolutely requisite4 ,the first allege1 that the strength of the wort is lost by long boiling2 but this argument will not hold good against the experiment of boiling a wort in a still1 and examining the collected steam1 which appears little else than mere water4 ,those who continue boiling the first wort a long time1 do it in order to be satisfied that the fire has had its due effect1 and that the hops have yielded the whole of their virtue4 ,they judge of this by the wort curdling1 and depositing flakes like snow4 ,if a quantity of this sediment is collected1 it will be found to the taste both sweet and bitter1 and if boiled again in water1 the decoction1 when cold1 will ferment1 and yield a vinous liquor4 ,these flakes1 therefore1 contain part of the strength of the wort2 they consist of the first and choicest principles of the malt and hops1 and1 by their subsiding1 become of little or no use4 ,it appears1 from these circumstances1 that boiling a first wort too short or too long a time1 is equally detrimental1 that different worts require different times1 and these times can only be fixed by observation4 ,the first wort having received1 by the assistance of the fire1 a sufficient proportion of bitter from the hops1 is separated therefrom4 ,the hops1 being deprived of part of their virtues1 are1 on the other hand1 enriched with some of the glutinous particles of the malt4 ,they are afterwards1 a second1 and sometimes a third time1 boiled with the following extractions1 and thereby divested not only of what they had thus obtained1 but also of the remaining part of their preservative qualities4 ,the thinness and fluidity of these last worts render them extremely proper for this purpose4 ,their heat is never so intense as that of the first1 when boiling2 for1 as they consist of fewer oils1 they are incapable of receiving so great a degree of heat4 ,this deficiency can only be made up by doubling or tripling the space of time the first wort boiled1 so that what is wanted in the intenseness of heat1 may be supplied from its continuance4 ,the following table is constructed from observations made according to the foregoing rules4 ,a ,,table shewing the time each wort requires to boil for the several sorts of beer1 in every season4 ,vertical heading-- ,d3 ,degrees of heat in the air4 ,brown beer1 keeping ,small beer4 pale strong and keeping keeping small beer4 small small after after amber ,burton amber4 amber ,d hours hours hours4 hours hours hours4 hours hours hours hours #ce #a #b #d #a_/b #a #b #a_/b #a_/b #a #b #dj #a #b #d #a_/b #a #b #a_/b #a_/b #a #b #de #a #b #d #a_/b #a #b #a_/b #a_/b #a #b #ej #a #b #d #a_/b #a #b #a_/b #a_/b #a #b #ee #b #d #a-a_/b #c #c_/d #c_/d #a #b #fj #b #d #a-a_/b #c #c_/d #a #a-a_/b #b #a wort #b wort#bd #c wort#a wort #b wort #c wort4 ,it may1 perhaps1 be objected1 that1 by a long boiling of the last worts1 the rough and austere parts of the hops may be extracted1 and give a disagreeable taste to the liquor2 but it should be observed1 this only happens1 either in beers to be long kept1 or in such as are brewed in very hot weather4 ,in the first case the roughness wears off by age1 and grows into strength1 and in the last1 it is a check to the proneness musts have in such seasons to ferment4 ,one observation more is necessary under this head2 most coppers1 especially such as are made in ,london1 and set by proper workmen1 waste or steam away1 by boiling1 about three or four inches of the contained liquor1 in each hour4 ,the quantity wasted being found on trial1 and knowing how much water the copper holds upon an inch1 what is steamed away by boiling in each brewing1 may easily be estimated4 ,,section ,,viii4 ,of the ,quantity of ,water wasted2 and of the ,application of the preceding ,rules to two different processes of ,brewing4 ,waste water1 in brewing1 is that part which1 though employed in the process1 yet does not remain in the beers or ales when made4 ,under this head is comprehended the water steamed away in the boiling of the worts2 that which is lost by heating for the extracts2 that which the utensils imbibe when dry2 that which necessarily remains in the pumps and underback2 and more than all1 the water which is retained in the grist4 ,the fixing to a minute exactness how much is thus expended1 is both impossible and unnecessary4 ,every one of the articles just now mentioned varies in proportion to the grist1 to the lengths made1 to the construction and order of the utensils1 and to the time employed in making the beer4 ,to these different causes of the steam being lessened or increased1 might be added every change in the atmosphere4 ,however1 as1 upon the whole1 the quantity of water lost varies from no reason so much1 as from the age and dryness of the malt1 experience is1 in this case1 our sole and surest guide4 ,i have1 in the following table1 placed under every mode of brewing1 how much ,i have found necessary to allow for these several wastes and evaporations4 ,brown strong and pale strong beers4 ,barrels pins4#be ,for old malts allow #a #e per quarter4 ,for new#bf malts #b #j per quarter4 ,keeping small and common small beers4 ,for either new or old malt allow #b #d per quarter4 ,amber or pale ales4 ,for either new or old malt allow #a #e per quarter4 ,keeping small or common small after amber4 ,allow for waste #j #b per quarter4 ,it is now time to begin the account of two brewings1 which admit of the greatest variety1 both in themselves1 and in the season of the year4 ,the same processes will be carried on1 in the sequel of this work1 until they be completed4#bg ,on the tenth of ,july a brewing for common small beer is to be made with #f quarters of malt4 ,by page #aej the medium heat of the air at this time is #fj degrees4 ,by page #ahd the malt to be used for this purpose should be in dryness at #acj degrees4 ,by page #baj the proper quantity of new hops is #f pounds per quarter4 ,the length1 according to the excise gauge without the bills of mortality1 may be rated at #e barrels #a_/h per quarter1 or from the whole grist at #cj barrels #c_/d4 ,see page #bai4 ,by page #bbb1 the inches required in the copper1 to bring out this length1 at #b worts1 will be1 for coppers as gauged page #bba1 #ef inches in the #b worts above brass4 ,the state of this part of the brewing is1 therefore1 six quarters of malt dried to #acj degrees1 #cf pounds of hops for #cj barrels #c_/d to go out at #ef inches above brass4 #cj-c_/d ,length ,boiling by page #bbh #a wort #a hour #a_/b or #e inches4 #e-a_/d #b wort #c hours or #i inches4 #ae waste water page #bca ---- #ea barrels2 whole quantity of water to be used4 ,and by page #aia we find the heat of the first extract to be #aed degrees1 and the heat of the last #agd degrees4 ,the other brewing1 of which ,i purpose to lay down the process in this treatise1 is one for brown beer or porter of #aa quarters of malt1 to be brewed on the #bjth of ,february4 ,by page #aej the medium heat of the air at this time is #dj degrees4 ,by page #agd the malt for this purpose should be at #acj degrees4 ,by page #bji the quantity of hops is #ab pounds per quarter4 ,the length ,i would fix for this liquor1 according to the excise gauge without the bills of mortality1 is #b barrels and #d pins from a quarter1 or from the whole grist #bg barrels #a_/b4 ,see page #bai4 ,by page #bbb1 the inches required1 in a copper1 such as ,i have specified page #bba1 to bring out this length at #c worts1 are #ca above brass4 ,the state of this brewing1 so far as we have considered it1 is therefore #aa quarters malt dried to #acj degrees1 #acb pounds of hops for #bg barrels #a_/b to go out at #ca inches above brass4 #bg-a_/b barrels the length1 boiling by page #bbh4 #a wort #a hour or #d inches4 #b wort #b hours or #f inches4 #h-a_/d #c wort #d hours or #ab inches4 #ah waste water page #bca old ------ malt #a-e_/h per quarter4 #ed barrels1 whole quantity of water to be used4 ,and by page #agg we find the heat of the first extract to be #aee degrees1 and the heat of the last extract #afe4 ,,section ,,ix4 ,of the ,division of the ,water for the respective ,worts and ,mashes1 and of the ,heat adequate to each of these4 ,that the whole quantity of water1 as well as that of heat required1 ought not1 in any brewing1 at once to be applied to the grist1 is obvious1 both from reason1 and from the example of nature1 who1 in forming the juice of the grape1 divides the process1 and increasing successively both the moisture and the heat1 gives time to each degree to have its complete effect4 ,a division of the water and heat to form malt liquors is equally necessary1 but previous to this division the following general rules may be laid down4 ,the grist1 if possible1 is at no time to be left with less water than what will cover the malt1 to put all its parts in action4 ,in the first mashes for strong beer1 an allowance is to be made for nearly as much water as the grist will imbibe2 and1 lastly1 the whole quantity of water used in brewing should be divided1 in a proportion analogous to that of the degrees of heat4 ,processes for brewing are carried on either with one copper or with two4 ,though the first of these methods is almost out of use1 it may be necessary to give an example or two of the division of the water used in this case1 the doing which will point out the absurdity of this practice4 ,in brewing with one copper1 scarcely more than three mashes can be made2 otherwise the time taken up in boiling the worts1 and preparing the subsequent waters for extraction1 would be so long1 as to cause the grist to lose great part of its heat1 and1 in warm weather1 perhaps1 to become sour4 ,the whole water required might naturally be divided into three equal parts1 was it not for the quantity at first imbibed by the grist2 but as1 in this way of brewing1 the best management is to make the first wort of one mash1 and the second wort of the other two1 it will be found necessary to allow1 for the first extracting water1 four parts out of seven of the whole quantity required1 and to divide the remainder equally for the other two mashes4 ,thus1 if the whole quantity of water required was fifty-one barrels1 the lengths of the extracting waters would be as follow3 #a ,liquor #b ,liquor #c ,liquor4 #bi---------aa-------------aa ,barrels4 #a ,wort4 v #b ,wort4 ,the water imbibed and retained by the malt is allowed for in this computation1 which will be found just to every purpose1 for small beer brewed in one copper only4 ,but in strong beers and ales1 with three mashes1 whether brewed at one1 two1 or three worts1 the case will be somewhat different1 as care should always be taken to reserve for every mash a sufficient quantity of water to apply to the grist4 ,for this reason1 no greater proportion ought to be used in the first mash than that of three parts out of seven1 as the volume of the malt is in a greater proportion to the quantity of water than in the preceding case4 ,if1 therefore1 the whole quantity of water used was thirty-five barrels1 the length of the liquors would be3 #a ,liquor #b ,liquor #c ,liquor4 #ae #aj #aj ,barrels4 ,employing only one copper1 must from hence appear1 and is allowed to be1 bad management2 for1 in some part or other of the process1 however well contrived1 the business must stand still1 and consequently the extracts be injured1 by the air continually affecting them4 ,the best and most usual practice1 and that which here will be set in example1 is to brew with two coppers4 ,other rules consequently are necessary to be observed1 and ,i shall be more particular in the explanation of them4 ,to preserve order1 and to convey our ideas in the clearest manner1 we shall make use of the four modes of brewing we mentioned1 in the fourth section4 ,the first of these1 which implies keeping pale strong and keeping pale small beers to become spontaneously fine1 are best brewed with two worts and four mashes1 to allow for what is imbibed by the grist1 and what is steamed away during the first part of the process1 four sevenths of the whole of the water employed1 and consequently a like proportion of the number of the degrees which constitute the difference between the first and last heats of the whole brewing1 are required for the first wort1 and the remainder to the last or second4 ,the proportion as to the water is permanent1 but having now only a division of heat in a progressive state1 for the temperature to be given to the extracts1 to put in practice the principles laid down in pages #fd1 #fe2 the first wort1 however1 composed of several mashes1 must be of one uniform heat1 though less than that of the second1 whose extracts1 though more powerful1 must1 notwithstanding1 be of equal heat among themselves4 ,according to the rules laid down in section #h1 the whole quantity of water requisite for a guile of keeping pale strong1 or keeping pale small beer1 is fifty-one barrels4 ,in page #aga1 we found1 including the heat lost at the time the extract separates from the grist1 the first heat to form this process to be #add degrees1 and the last #aeh degrees2 the quantity of water1 and the difference between these two degrees1 are required to be divided in such proportions as are best applicable to the purpose we intend4 ,water #ea ,barrels1 multiplied by #d ---- ,divided by #g7 #bjd ---- ,gives #bi ,barrels for the first ,wort1 and this deducted from #ea1 ,leaves #bb ,barrels for the second ,wort4 ,the twenty-nine barrels1 equally divided between the two first mashes1 is fourteen barrels and a half for each2 and the twenty-two barrels1 equally divided between the two last mashes1 is eleven barrels for each4 ,the last heat for pale keeping beers is #afj degrees4 ,and the first is #adf degrees4 ---- ,their difference is #ad ,this1 as above1 multiplied by #d ---- ,and divided by #g7 #ef ---- ,leaves #h degrees4 the proportion to be allotted to the first wort1 and #f degrees1 the remainder1 to the last1 in a regular progressive state2 the elements for this brewing would stand as under4 ,malt's ,value of ,whole ,first ,second ,third ,fourth dryness4 hops4 medium4 mash4 mash4 mash4 mash4 ,degrees #aai #c #ach #adf #aed #aeg #afj ,barrels #ad-a_/b #ad-a_/b #aa #aa ,but more exactly1 to imitate the fermented liquors formed by nature1 our first wort1 answering to the germinating part of her process must be of one uniform heat in the extracts1 as must likewise our second wort3 7,see page #afe7 the mean1 then1 of the progressive heats of the first wort will be that which must be applied both to the first and second mashes1 and the mean of the progressive heats of the second wort1 that which must direct the third and fourth mashes2 from whence are deduced ,elements for forming keeping pale strong and keeping pale small beers4 ,malt's ,value of ,whole ,first ,second ,third ,fourth dryness4 hops4 medium4 mash4 mash4 mash4 mash4 ,degrees #aai #c #ach #aej #aej #aeh-a_/b #aeh-a_/b ,barrels #ad-a_/b #ad-a_/b #aa #aa ,first wort4 ,second wort4 ,that this method of applying the heats to the mashes corresponds to the medium heat which is to govern the whole process1 the circumstances required in page #afe1 the following operation will prove4 #bi ,barrels1 the first wort4 ,heated to #aej ---- #adej #bi ---- #dcej ---- #bb ,barrels1 the second wort4 ,heated to #aeh-a_/b ------ #aa #agf #aaj #bb ------ ,whole #cdhg quantity #dcej of water1 ------ ,barrels #ea 7#ghcg7 #aec ,the mean heat of the #d mashes4 #ea #b ,deducted for the heat lost at the ---- ---- tap4 #bgc #aea ,heat of the tap's spending4 #bee #aai ,malt's dryness4 ---- ---- #ahg #bgj #aec ---- ---- #ace ,mean heat of ,malt's dryness and of the extracts4 #c ,value of hops4 ---- #ach ,mean heat of the whole process4 ---- ,admitting of the necessary variations in the medium heats which are to govern processes for different purposes1 and of those in the number of degrees forming the constituent parts of the must1 in proportion as the drinks are to be formed1 either to become spontaneously fine1 or made so by precipitation1 or intended for a longer or shorter duration4 ,this rule will be found universally true1 when beers are brewed with two worts3 but when1 for the benefit of the drink1 or on account of the smallness of the utensils1 as is often the case1 when the second mode of extraction is put in practice1 we are obliged to carry on the process with three worts1 these proportions must necessarily be altered1 and the following have1 in this case1 been found most advantageous4 ,the first and second wort ought to have two thirds of the water2 the first wort two thirds of this quantity1 the second the remainder of this1 and the third wort one third part of the whole4 ,porter or brown beer is the sort of drink1 in which this division is most commonly observed4 ,let the whole quantity of water to be used be that of the brewing1 of which the elements have been laid down1 7page #bcc7 or #ed barrels4 #ed #b ---- #c7 #ajh ---- #cf #b ---- #c7 #gb ---- #bd ,barrels of water for the first wort4 #ab ,barrels for the second wort4 #ah ,barrels for the third wort4 ---- #ed ---- ,the last degree for this drink is1 with malt dried to #acj degrees1 #afe ,degrees4 ,the first1 as per page #agh #aee ,degrees4 ---- ,their difference #aj ,degrees4 #b ---- #c7 #bj ---- #g #b ---- #c7 #ad ---- #e ,heat of first wort4 ,five degrees to be proportioned in the first wort1 and these deducted from #g degrees1 the number allowed for the first and second wort1 there remains two degrees for the second wort2 and seven degrees deducted from ten1 the whole difference1 leaves three degrees1 to be proportioned in the third and last wort4 ,a grist of eleven quarters of malt is too large1 to admit of the water allowed for the first wort to be equally divided between the first and second mash2 therefore1 rather than use the whole #bd barrels in one mash1 a sufficient quantity only must be applied to the first mash1 both to work it1 and to get as much of the extract to come down1 as will save the bottom of the copper it is to be pumped into4 ,by this management1 there will be enough left to form the second extract with1 or what by the brewers is termed the piece liquor4 ,the exact quantity of water the first mash should have1 might be referred to the following section1 but the order we have laid down1 will excuse our anticipating thereon4 ,it has been found1 and will hereafter be proved1 that a volume of eleven quarters of malt1 dried to #acj degrees1 is equal to #f1cb barrels of liquid measure1 that malt in general requires twice its volume of water to wet it1 and this quantity of water is retained after every tap is spent4 #f1cb ,barrels1 volume of the #aa quarters of malt4 #c ------ #ah1if #f1cb ------ #ab1fd ,barrels of water imbibed by the grist1 which1 deducted from #bd1jj ,whole quantity of water allowed for the first wort4 ------ ,remains #c7 #aa1cf ,extract1 which will be yielded from the first and second mash4 #c1gh ,length of the first piece1 which is sufficient to save the copper4 ------ #c1gh #ab1fd ,quantity imbibed as above4 ------ #af1db ,quantity of water for the first mash4 #g1eh ,quantity of water for the second mash4 ------ #bd1jj ,the elements of this brewing1 as we have them 7page #agh7 placed in a progressive state1 will be as under1 where the quantity of water allowed for the first wort is divided into two mashes1 according to the circumstances just now taken notice of1 where the second wort is formed by one entire mash1 and the water allotted for the third wort is separated equally into two parts1 for the two last mashes1 and when the ten degrees of heat1 the difference between the first and last heats employed1 are as near as possible proportioned to the lengths of the worts4 ,malt's ,value ,whole ,first ,second ,third ,fourth ,fifth dryness4 of hops4 medium4 mash4 mash4 mash4 mash4 mash4 ,deg4 #acj #d #adh #aee #afj #afb #afd #afe ,barrels #af #h #ab #i #i ,but1 for the reasons alleged in page #bcf1 they admit of the following variation4 ,elements for brewing brown beer or porter4 ,malt's ,value ,whole ,first ,second ,third ,fourth ,fifth dryness4 of hops4 medium4 mash4 mash4 mash4 mash4 mash4 ,deg4 #acj #d #adh #aeg-a_/b #aeg-a_/b #afb #afd #afe ,barrels #af #h #ab #i #i v v v #a wort #b wort #c wort4 ,and1 if proved as before1 the same correspondence will be found with the medium governing heat4 ,the third mode of extraction is intended for a drink which is soon to be ready for use1 in which1 in the coldest season of the year1 transparency is expected1 and1 in the hottest months1 soundness3 to procure these intents1 we have already shewn 7page #aia7 it was necessary to vary the medium heats governing these several processes1 in proportion as the seasons of the year differed as to heat and cold4 ,our present business is a proper division of the whole quantity of water necessary for brewing1 into the respective worts and mashes1 and to apply to each1 the adequate degree of heat3 one single example will suffice for the operation1 and the whole variety this drink is subjected to1 will be expressed in the table subjoined4 ,the general practice to brew common small beer1 and which is best1 is to form it with two worts and four mashes1 and1 in this case1 as was before practised for keeping pale beers1 in order to allow for the water at first absorbed by the grist2 four sevenths of the whole quantity is required for the first wort1 and the remainder for the second wort1 dividing these quantities again into equal parts1 for their respective mashes4 ,as a speedy spontaneous pellucidity is expected in every season of the year1 and as every means for producing this without affecting the soundness of the drink1 must be put in practice1 the whole number of constituent parts are not only applied1 but likewise the progressive heats suffered to take place3 for here1 through necessity1 we are compelled to forsake the rules nature pointed out1 7as in pages #fd1 #fe72 the reasons why are obvious2 this drink receives no benefit by the slow progress nature recommends1 and therefore very little by the impressions of time4 ,in page #bcb1 we found the whole quantity of water to be used for the brewing there specified1 fifty-one barrels1 and in page #aia1 we find when the heat of the air is at #fj1 the first heat is #aed1 the last #agd degrees4 ,water #ea ,barrels1 multiplied by #d ---- ,divided by #g7 #bjd ---- ,gives #bi for the first ,wort1 and this deducted from #ea1 ,leaves #bb for the second ,wort4 ,the twenty-nine barrels1 divided into the first and second mashes1 will be fourteen barrels and a half for each2 and the twenty-two barrels1 equally divided between the third and fourth mashes1 is eleven barrels each4 ,the last heat for this brewing of common small beer is 7see page #aia7 #agd degrees4 ,the first heat1 #aed degrees4 ---- ,their difference #bj ,multiplied by #d ---- ,and divided by #g7 #hj ---- ,leaves 7to avoid fractions7 nearly #ab degrees1 to be proportioned in the first wort1 and #h degrees1 the remainder of the #bj1 to the second wort1 in a regular progressive state3 the elements for this brewing are3 ,malt's ,value of ,whole ,first ,second ,third ,fourth dryness4 hops4 medium4 mash4 mash4 mash4 mash4 ,degrees #acj #b #adh #aed #aff #agj #agd ,barrels #ad-a_/b #ad-a_/b #aa #aa v v ,first wort4 ,second wort4 ,the quantity of water used for brewing small beer is in proportion to the largeness of the grist1 and the price of the grain2 this admitting of almost an endless variety1 it is needless to pursue it3 but the dryness of the malt1 the value of the hops1 the medium governing the processes1 and the heat of the extracts being fixed1 and constant degrees of heat in proportion to that of the air1 ,i have constructed the following table1 which will be found useful to the practitioner in every season of the year4 ,heat of ,malt's ,value of ,whole ,first ,second ,third ,fourth air4 dryness4 hops4 medium4 mash4 mash4 mash4 mash4 #ce #abb #a #ace #ach #aej #aed #aeh #dj #abd #a #acg #adj #aeb #aef #afj #de #abe #a #adj #ade #aeg #afa #afe #ej #abg #a #adc #adi #afa #afe #afi #ee #abi #a-a_/b #adf #aeb #afd #afh #agb #fj #acj #b #adh #aed #aff #agj #agd ,the last business of this section is to divide the quantity of water requisite to brew pale ales or amber1 and to apply to such divisions their necessary degrees of heat4 ,this liquor is rather an effort of art1 than an exact imitation of nature1 as in it the greatest transparency1 joined to the greatest strength1 is expected in a very short time4 ,to obtain these ends1 the whole number of the constituent properties of malt and two mashes only are employed4 ,in the first1 in order to favor its pellucidity1 the lowest adequate extracting degree must be used2 and in the second1 to cause the malt to yield the whole of its necessary parts1 the highest fitting heat must be applied2 the whole of the process is1 nevertheless1 subjected to the governing medium heat of #ach degrees1 the highest which admits of voluntary brightness4 ,but where a drink is formed with two mashes only1 and boiled off in one entire wort1 to keep the due proportion between the quantity of water used1 and the heat required in the extracts1 and at the same time to allot the proper quantity for what is imbibed by the grist1 the most convenient division found1 will be three-fifths of the whole quantity of water to be applied to the first mash1 and the remaining two-fifths to the other4 ,i know to this1 custom may be objected1 that the first mash for amber should be a stiff one1 in order the better to retain the heat2 but this1 in the division here proposed1 may equally be obtained by a proper allowance made in the attemperating of the water1 without affecting the proportion of the heats required1 as otherwise must be the case4 ,from #h quarters of malt to make #ac barrels of fine ale4 #ac ,length4 #a_/b ,boiling half hour4 #ab-a_/b ,waste water4 ------ #bf ,whole water employed1 multiplied by #c ------ ,divided by #e7 #gh ,gives #af ,barrels for the first mash1 and leaves #aj ,barrels for the second mash1 the lowest heat being required in the first extract1 and the highest in the last1 according to page #aid2 for the #af barrels it will be #add1 and for the #aj barrels it will contain #afd degrees4 ,but as the heat of the air occasions a difference in the quantities of hops to be used1 and as from hence the extracts are somewhat varied3 it has been judged convenient to add the following table3 ,a ,,table of the elements for forming pale ale or amber1 at every degree of heat in the air1 with the allowance of two degrees of heat1 in the first and last extractions4 ,heat of ,malt's ,value of ,medium heat of the extracts1 ,first ,last air4 dryness4 hops4 and of malt's dryness4 heat4 heat4 #ce #abj #a_/b #ach #adg #afg #dj #abj #c_/d #ach #adf #afg #de #abj #a #ach #adf #aff #ej #abj #a-a_/b #ach #ade #afe #ee #abj #a-a_/b #ach #ade #afe #fj #abj #b #ach #add #afd ,in summer time1 it is sometimes thought better to brew this drink with malts more dried2 for conveniency sake1 ,i here insert two examples4 ,heat of ,malt's ,value of ,whole ,heat of ,heat of air4 dryness4 hops4 ,medium4 first mash4 last mash4 #fj #abb #b #ach #adb #afb #fj #abd #b #ach #adj #afj ,for the management of small beer made after amber1 see page #aig4 ,thus having shewn how to ascertain the quantities of the malt1 the hops1 the water1 and the heat to be used1 and to proportion them to each other1 as the good or bad properties of beers arise from the extracts1 and fire is the governing agent1 we must now seek the means to administer the right portion of heat1 and so to temper the water that is to form the extracts1 as not to be disappointed of our intentions4 ,in the calculations made for this purpose1 not only the water in the copper1 but the value and effect of the grist1 as to heat and cold1 must be considered4 ,,section ,x4 ,an enquiry into the ,volume of ,malt1 in order to reduce the ,grist to liquid ,measure4 ,the gallon1 by which malt is measured1 though less1 is nearly of the same capacity with that1 which is used for beer or water4 ,the quarter of malt1 contains #fd gallons of this measure1 and the barrel1 within the bills of mortality1 according to the gauges used by the excise1 contains #cf gallons1 but without the bills1 #cd2 though the first quantity is the measure for sale throughout the kingdom4 ,hence it would appear1 that proportioning the grain to the barrel of water would be no difficult undertaking4 ,this however is so far from being the case1 that1 after having made use of several calculations to help us to the true proportions1 we shall find1 they want the corroborating proofs of actual experience1 to be entirely depended upon4 ,the ultimate parts of water are so very small1 as to make this1 as well as all other liquids1 appear to the eye one continued uniform body1 without any interstices4 ,this cannot be said of malt laying together either whole or ground2 there are numbers of vacancies between the corns1 when whole1 and between the particles when ground1 but for our present purpose the volume occupied by any quantity of malt is properly no more1 than the space which would be occupied by every individual corn1 either whole or cut asunder1 were they as closely joined together as water4 ,to determine1 with precision1 the quantity of cold water to be added to that1 which is brought to the boiling point1 7an act by the brewers called cooling in7 it is necessary to know1 what proportion a quarter of malt bears to the measure of a barrel of water4 ,several operations will be found requisite to come to this knowledge2 viz4 to take several gauges of different brewings1 more especially in the first part of the process2 to be well acquainted with the degree of dryness of the malt used1 the heat of the first extract1 and the quantity of liquor the mash tun holds upon every inch2 to find out what degrees of expansion are produced by the different degrees of heat in the first mash1 how much less water the mash tun holds upon an inch when hot1 than it does when cold1 what quantity of water is lost by evaporation1 and in what proportion at the several terms of the process4 ,in order to put this in practice1 the gauges of the following brewings were taken4 #e quarters of malt dried to #abe degrees4 ,b4#bh ,f4 ,g4 ,the quantity of water used for the first mash was #ab #b #c ,the malt and water gauged together in the mash tun just before the tap was #be1 #jj inches4 set ,allowance for the space under the false bottom boards of the mash tun1 as near #j1 #ff inches4 as could be computed ,the goods gauged in the mash tun1 after the first tap was spent #ae1 #da inches4 ,b4 ,f4 ,g4 ,first piece gauged in the copper #h #j #b ,b4 ,f4 ,g4 ,the water employed for the second mash was #ab #b #c ,the grist gauged with this water just before the tap was set #cj1 #fb inches4 ,and just after the tap was spent #ae1 #fc inches4 ,b4 ,f4 ,g4 ,the first wort consisting of these two pieces gauged in the copper #ba #b #j ,b4 ,f4 ,g4 ,the water used for the third mash was #h #c #f ,just before the tap was set the grist with this gauged in the mash tun #bd1 #fj inches ,and just after the tap was spent #ae1 #bj inches4 ,b4 ,f4 ,g4 ,the water used for the fourth mash was #h #c #f ,the mash gauged just before the tap was set #bd1 #fj inches4 ,and just after the tap was spent #ae1 #af inches4 ,the heat of the first extract was #acf degrees1 to which adding two degrees1 for what is lost by the tap spending1 the true heat of the mash is #ach degrees4 ,the first extract1 before it is blended with hops1 may be estimated to be nearly as strong as a first wort of common small beer4 ,this1 when under a strong ebullition1 raised the thermometer to #baf degrees1 and seven barrels of such a wort1 when boiling1 occupied an equal space with nine barrels of cold water1 at the mean temperature of #fj degrees4 ,now1 if the degrees of expansion follow the proportion of those of heat1 the following table1 constructed upon this supposition1 will shew how many barrels of cold water would be necessary to occupy the same space with seven barrels of wort of different heats4 ,degrees of heat4 ,barrels of cold water4 ,barrels of wort4 #baf #i1jj #g #bjf #h1hg #g #aif #h1ge #g #ahf #h1fb #g #agg #h1ej #g #afg #h1cg #g #aeh #h1be #g #adh #h1ab #g #ach #h1jj #g #abg #g1hg #g #aai #g1ge #g ,the quantity of water evaporated in a brewing1 when not in immediate contact with fire1 is more considerable than it is generally apprehended to be2 after repeated trials1 ,i have found that what was lost in this manner amounted nearly to one fifth4 ,now since the heat of the first tap was #ach degrees1 and my mash tun holds #bj1be gallons upon an inch1 the following proportion may be deduced from the preceding table4 ,if #h------------g----------------bj1be #g1jj -------- #h1jj7 #ada1gejj -------- #ag1ga ,gallons1 and this is the true quantity contained in one inch1 at a heat of #ach degrees4 ,the quantity of water used for the first mash1 was #ab;,b4 #b;,f4 #c;,g4 or #dbh gallons1 of which one fifth is supposed to be steamed away1 when the first liquor is gone through the whole process of the extraction3 but as the gauges of the malt and water together are taken before the tap is set1 in the beginning of the process1 the whole evaporation ought not to be deduced1 and one sixth seems to be a sufficient allowance on this account4 ,we may therefore suppose #ceg gallons to be in the mash tun at the time of gauging1 which number being divided by #ag1ga1 will shew how many inches are taken up by the water at that heat4 #ag1ga7ceg1jjjj7bj1ae #cedb -------- #bhjj #agga -------- #ajbij #hhee -------- #adce ,the mash gauged just before the tap was set1 #be1jj ,inches4 ,allowed for the space under false bottoms1 #j1ff ----- #be1ff ,deduct the inches taken up by the water1 #bj1ae ----- ,remainder for the five quarters of malt1 #e1ea ,inches4 or #a1aj inch for one quarter4 ,this number being multiplied by #ag1ga1 the quantity of gallons contained upon one inch at this heat1 will give #ai1dh gallons for the volume of one quarter of this malt4 ,there now remains nothing but to bring a barrel of water of #cd gallons1 under like circumstances1 as to expansion and evaporation1 with these #ai1dh gallons1 with this difference only1 that as the proportion required is1 at the time the water and malt first come in contact1 and not after the mash has been worked1 a less allowance for steaming will be sufficient1 and may well be fixed at one seventh4 ,gauge within the bills of ,gauge without the bills of mortality4 mortality4 ,if #g1jj #h1jj #cf ,if #g1jj #h1jj #cd #cf #cd ----- ----- #dhjj #cbjj #bdjj #bdjj ----- ----- #g1jj7bhh1jj #g1jj7bgb1jj ----- ----- #da1ad #ch1he #e1hg ,lost by steam4 #e1ee ,lost by steam4 ----- ----- #ce1bd #cc1cj ,the barrel of water reduced2 and as #ai1dh gallons1 under the same circumstances1 were found equal to one quarter of malt1 the following division will shew the proportion1 between them4 #ai1dh7ce1bdjj7a1ha #ai1dh7cc1cjjj7a1gj #aidh #aidh ------ ------ #aegfj #achbj #aeehd #acfcf ------ ------ #agfj #ahd #aidh ------ ,thus1 in malt dried to #abe degrees1 the quantity of #a1gj quarters is required to make a volume equal to #cd gallons1 or a barrel of water1 according to the excise gauging without the bills of mortality2 and the quantity of #a1ha quarters is required to make a volume equal to #cf gallons1 or a barrel of water1 according to the excise gauging within the bills of mortality4 ,the more the malt has been dried1 the larger the interstices are between its parts2 the quantity of water it admits will consequently be greater than what is absorbed by such as is less dry4 ,more of this last malt will be necessary to make a volume1 equal to that of the barrel of water2 and every different degree of dryness must cause a variety in this respect4 ,it will therefore be proper to repeat the operation with a high-dried grist4 ,gauges of a brewing of eight quarters of malt dried to #adj degrees4 ,b4 ,f4 ,g4 ,the water used for the first mash1 #aa #b #d ,malt and water gauged together in the #bf1be ,inches4 mash1 just before the tap was set1 ,allowed for the space under the false bottom #j1ff ,inches4 of the mash tun1 ,goods gauged in the mash tun after the #bb1cf ,inches first tap was spent1 ,b4 ,f4 ,g4 ,first piece gauged in the copper1 #e #j #j ,b4 ,f4 ,g4 ,the water for the second mash was #aa #b #d ,the mash gauged just before the tap was set1 #ce1gj ,inches4 ,just after the tap was spent1 #bb1ai ,inches4 ,b4 ,f4 ,g4 ,the wort made of these two pieces gauged in the copper1 #ag #j #j ,b4 ,f4 ,g4 ,the water used for the third mash was #h #c #f ,the mash gauged just before the tap was set #ca1aj ,inches4 ,and just after the tap was spent1 #ba1gg ,inches4 ,b4 ,f4 ,g4 ,the water used for the fourth mash was #h #c #f ,the mash gauged just before the tap was set #cj1ej ,inches4 ,and just after the tap was spent #ba1fj ,inches4 ,the heat of the first extract was #adb degrees4 ,now1 by the table of expansions 7page #bef74 ,g4 ,if #h1je #g1j #bj1be of cold water1 upon #gjj an inch in mash tun4 ------- #h1je7adagejj7ag1fj will be the real #hje quantity of water ----- upon an inch in the #fabe mash tun1 when heated #efce to #adb degrees4 ----- #dijj #dhcj ----- #gjj ,b4 ,f4 ,g4 ,quantity of water in the first mash1 #aa #b #d #cd ---- #dd #cc #ag #d ---- #cie ,deduction for the evaporation at this period1 one sixth1 #fe1hc ------ #cbi1ag true quantity of the water for the first mash1 which must be divided by the real quantity of water contained upon an inch in the mash tun4 #ag1fj7cbi1agjj 7#ah1gj inches taken up #agfj in the mash tun1 by ------ the water used in #aecag the first mash4 #adjhj ------ #abcgj #abcbj ------ #ej ,the mash gauged just before the tap was set #bf1be ,inches4 ,allowed for the space under the false bottoms #j1ff ------ #bf1ia ,inches taken up by the water of the first mash #ah1gj ------ ,space occupied by these #h quarters of malt #h7 #h1ba ,inches of ------ mash tun4 ,space occupied by one quarter #a1jb #ag1fj ------ #fabj #gad #ajb ------- #ag1iebj ,gallons of water equal in volume to one quarter of this malt4 ,excise gauge without the bills of mortality4 ,if #g1jj #h1je #cd #cd ------ #cbbj #bdae ------ #g1jj7bgc1gj ------ #ci1aj ,expansion of the barrel of water1 out of which #a_/gth1 #e1eh1 is to be deducted for evaporation4 ------ ,remains1 #cc1eb for the barrel of water reduced1 which the quarter of malt1 or #ag1ie1 is to be compared to4 ,excise gauge within the bills of mortality4 ,if #g1jj #h1je #cf #cf ----- #dhcj #bdae ------ #g1jj7bhi1hj7da1dd ,expansion of one barrel of #bhjj water1 ----- #eib #a_/gth to be deducted for evaporation4 #ihj ---- #gjj #ce1eb ,barrel of water reduced1 ----- which the quarter of malt1 #bhjj or #ag1ie is to be compared #bhjj to4 ----- #ag1ie7cc1ebjj7a1hf ,quantity of malt dried to #adj degrees #agie equal to one barrel of water4 ----- #aeegj #adcfj ----- #abajj #ajggj ----- #accj #ag1ie7ce1cgjj7a1ig ,quantity of malt dried to #adj degrees1 #agie equal to one barrel of ------ water1 according to the excise #agdbj gauge within the bills of mortality4 #afaee ------ #abfej #abefe ------ ,having found the volume of malt at two distant terms of dryness1 we might divide the intermediate degrees in the same manner as we have done before1 could the certainty of these calculations be entirely depended upon2 but as some allowances have been made without immediate proof1 how near soever truth the result thereof may from experiments appear1 it may be proper to point out what is wanting to make our suppositions satisfactory4 ,some part of the calculation depends on the quantity evaporated2 this1 in the same space of time1 may be more or less1 as the fire under the water is brisk or slow1 or as the weight of the atmosphere differs4 ,the gauges are taken at the time the malt and water are in contact1 and more or less water may be imbibed in proportion1 both of the dryness and age of the malt2 water as a fluid1 malt as a porous solid body1 must differ in their expansion1 but in what proportion is to me unknown2 effervescence may be another cause of want of exactness2 the different cut the malt has had in the mill1 its being or not being truly prepared1 and lastly the difference as to time1 of the mashing or standing of the grist1 prevent our relying wholly upon the calculation4 ,it is1 however1 not improbable that some of these incidents correct one another4 ,since #a1gj quarter of malt dried to #abe degrees are equal to one barrel of water1 and #a1hf quarter of malt dried to #adj have the same volume1 the difference being but #af parts out of #ajj1 the whole of the error cannot be very great1 and one quarter six bushels of malt may1 at a medium1 be estimated of the same volume with one barrel of water4 ,but1 as experience is the surest guide1 ,i have1 from a very great number of different brewings1 collected the following proportions1 and repeatedly found them to be true4 ,i have added1 in the table1 the weight malt ought to have1 at every degree of dryness4 ,a ,,table shewing the quantity of malt of every degree of dryness1 equal to the volume of one barrel of water1 and of the mean weight of one quarter in proportion to its dryness4 ,excise gauge ,excise gauge ,degree of without the bills4 within the bills4 ,weight in dryness4 ,volume of grain4 ,volume of grain4 pounds4 ,barley #hj #a1ef #a1ei #cgf #ajj #a1fb #a1fc #cjf #aje #a1fb #a1fg #cja #aaj #a1fe #a1ga #bif #aae #a1fg #a1ge #bia ,malt #aai #a1fh #a1gi #bhf #abd #a1ga #a1hc #bha #abi #a1gd #a1hg #bgf #acd #a1gg #a1ia #bga #ach #a1hj #a1ie #bff #adc #a1hc #b1jj #bfa #adh #a1hf #b1jc #bef #aeb #a1hi #b1jg #bea #aeg #a1ib #b1aa #bdf #afb #a1ie #b1ae #bda #afg #a1ih #b1ai #bcf #aga #b1ja #b1bc #bca #agf #b1jd #b1bg #bbf ,with a table thus constructed1 it is very easy to reduce every grist to its proper volume of water4 ,suppose those of the brewings we have already mentioned2 that of the small beer consists of #f quarters of malt dried to #acj degrees1 the proportion of which in the table is as #a1ge to #a4 ,quarter of malt4 ,barrel of water4 ,malt4 ,water4 ,if #a1ge #a #f #c1db4 ,these six quarters of malt occupy therefore an equal volume with #c1db barrels of water4 ,a brown beer grist of #aa quarters dried to #acj degrees2 the proportion of this in the table is as #a1gd to #a4 ,malt4 ,water4 ,malt4 ,water4 ,if #a1gd #a #aa #f1cb ,the volume of these #aa quarters of malt is therefore the same with that of #f1cb barrels of water1 and the whole being brought to one denomination1 we are enabled to find the heat of the first mash2 but the effervescence occasioned by the union of the malt and water must prevent this calculation being strictly true1 the consideration of which shall take place hereafter4 ,the circumstances are different in the other mashes3 the waters used for these1 meet a grist already saturated1 and the volume is increased beyond the quantity found for dry malt4 ,the quantity to be allowed for this increase cannot be determined by our former calculations1 and new trials are to be made1 in order to fix upon the true proportion4 ,gauging is undoubtedly the most certain method of proceeding in these researches2 but even this becomes less sure1 on account of the expansion1 evaporation1 effervescence1 and other incidents already mentioned4--,our errors however cannot be very considerable1 when we deduce our conclusions from numerous and sufficiently varied experiments4 ,the volume of the grist of pale malt was found1 after the parting of the first extract1 to be #ae1da inches1 though the space occupied by the malt1 when dry1 was only #e1ea inches3 and the volume of the brown grist1 at the same period1 was #bb1cf inches1 though the dry malt filled only a space of #h1ba inches4 ,the proportion in both these cases1 and in all those which ,i have tried1 answers nearly to one third1 so that the volume of the grist1 in the second and all subsequent mashes1 may be estimated at three times the bulk of the malt when dry1 and this is sufficiently accurate for the operations of brewing1 in which1 for conveniency sake1 the application of whole numbers should be effected4 ,as it is found1 by the gauges1 that the goods1 after the several taps are spent1 remain sensibly of the same volume1 or at least very little diminished2 may we not conclude1 the parts absorbed by the water1 in which the virtue of the grain and the strength of the beer consist1 are contained in an amazing small compass8 ,it is indeed true that hot waters and repeated mashes do swell somewhat the hulls and skins of the malt1 but no allowance made for this increase will be sufficient1 to remove the cause of our surprise4 ,,section ,,xi4 ,of the ,proportion of cold ,water to be added to that which is on the point of ,boiling1 in ,order to obtain the desired heat in the ,extract4 ,the degree of heat1 which causes water to boil is determined1 by ,farenheit's scale1 to #bab4 ,it is in our power to give to any part of the extracting water this degree of heat2 and by adding to it a sufficient proportion of water of an equal heat with that of the air1 and blending these two quantities with the grist1 to bring the whole to the required temperature4 ,the rules for obtaining this end are extremely simple1 and cannot be unknown to those1 who are skilled in arithmetical operations4 ,but as our view is to render this part of our work generally useful1 we think it will be proper briefly to lay down these rules1 and to illustrate them by the examples of our two brewings4 ,rule to ascertain the heat of the first ,mash4 ,let a express the degree of boiling water1 b the actual heat of the air1 c the required degree for the extract1 m the whole quantity of water to be used1 n the volume of the malt2 x1 that part of the water1 which is to be made to boil1 will be determined by the following equation4 ----- ----- c - b m n x ---------------------- a - b ,the quantity of water used1 added 77 to the volume of the grist4 ,their sum 7z7 multiplied 77 by the heat required1 less 7-7 the heat of the air4 ,this produce divided 77 by the heat of boiling water 7#bab7 less 7-7 the heat of the air will quote how much is to be made to boil or brought through 7#bab7 that is how high the copper is to be charged1 the remainder of the length of the whole liquor for this mash1 is the quantity to be cooled in4 ,the first example is that of a brewing of small beer1 when the heat of the air is at #fj1 7see page #bcb47 ,the volume of the #f quarters of malt was estimated at #c1db barrels1 7see page #bfh27 the first liquor is #ad-a_/b barrels1 7see page #bdg7 and the heat required for the first mash #aed degrees1 7see page #bdg47 ,first ,mash4 m #ad1ej ,barrels of water n #c1db ,volume of grist ------ m n #ag1ib c #aed ,heat of the first mash1 #id b #fj ,heat of the air1 ---- ---- 7a7 heat of c - b #id boiling water1 #bab #gafh b heat of the air1 #fj #afabh ---- ------ a - b #aeb 7#afhddh 7#aajh barrels of water1 to #aeb be made to boil out of ---- the #ad #a_/b barrels which #afd are allotted for the first #aeb mash4 ,the incidents to ---- be mentioned1 are not #abdh considered in this calculation4 #abaf ---- ,the next example of a brewing is that of a grist of eleven quarters of malt for porter or brown beer2 the medium heat of the air is forty degrees1 the volume of the grist1 #f1cb barrels1 7see page #bfh7 the first liquor to mash with sixteen barrels1 7see page #bde7 and the heat expected in the mash1 one hundred and fifty-seven and a half#bi degrees4 7,see page #bde74 ,first ,mash of brown strong beer4 #af1jj ,barrels of water #f1cb ,volume of malt ----- #aeg ,heat required in the mash1 vide page #bdg4 #bb1cb #aag #dj ,heat of the air4 ------ ----- ,heat of boiling #aefbd #aag water1 #bab #bbcb ----- ,heat of air1 #dj #bbcb ----- ------- #agb 7#bfaadd 7#ae1ah barrels of water1 to be #agb made to boil out of the #af barrels4 ----- #hia #hfj ----- #cad #acbd ----- ,iwill give one proof of the certainty of this rule1 by setting down the state of this first mash from it4 #ae1ah #bab ------- #cjcf #aeah #cjcf ------- ,a4 #cbah1af ,number of degrees of heat in #ad1ff barrels of boiling water4 #af1jj ,barrels of water to first mash4 #ae1ah ,barrels made to boil4 ------ 1#hb ,barrel to cool in4 #dj ,heat of cold water4 ,b4 #cb1hj ,number of degrees of heat in #a1cd barrels of cold water4 #ae1ah ,boiling water4 1#hb ,cold water4 #f1cb ,volume of grist4 ------ ,c4 #bb1cb ,barrels1 volume of the whole mash4 #f1cb ,barrels1 volume of the #aa quarters of malt4 1#dj ,heat of the grist4 ------ #beb1hj ,number of degrees of heat in the grist4 #cb1hj ,b4 #cbah1af ,a4 ------- ,c4 #bb1cb 7 #cejcgf 7#aeg degrees of heat required in the #bbcb first mash1 as above4 ------- #abgag #aaafj -------- #aeegf #aefbd ----- ,so long as the mixture consists only of two quantities of different heat1 as is always the case of the first mash1 the preceding solution takes place4 ,but in the second and other mashes1 where three bodies are concerned1 each of different heat1 viz4 the boiling water1 the cold water1 and the mash1 are to be mixed1 and brought to a determinate degree1 the rule must be different2 yet1 like the former1 it is the same with what is used in similar cases of allaying1 when different metals are to be melted down into a compound of a certain standard1 or different ingredients of different value to be blended1 in order to make a mixture of a determinate price4 ,what the different density of the metals1 or the different value of the ingredients are1 in these cases1 the different degrees of heat of the boiling water1 the grist1 and the air1 are in this4 ,rule to ascertain the heat of the second mash1 and of the subsequent ones4 ,let the same letters stand for the things they signified before1 and d express the actual heat of the grist1 then will ----- ----- x c - b m c - d n ------------------------- a - b or in plain terms1 the heat required less 7-7 the heat of the air1 multiplied 77 by the quantity of water used4 ,the heat required less 7-7 the heat of the goods1 multiplied 77 by the volume of the goods4 ,their sum 7z7 divided 77 by the heat of boiling water1 7#bab7 less 7-7 the heat of the air4 ,will quote the quantity to be made to boil1 or to be brought through 7#bab7 the remainder part of the whole liquor for the mash is consequently the quantity to be cooled in4 ,we may now collect the circumstances of the two brewings1 and find the quantity of boiling water1 required for their second and subsequent mashes1 exclusively of the incidents which will hereafter be mentioned4 ,the first mash for the six quarters of small beer1 had #aed degrees of heat1 but this and every mash loses1 in the time the extract is parting from it1 #d degrees1 which reduces the heat to #aej degrees4 ,the volume of this grist1 in its dry state1 was #c1db barrels1 but now1 by being expanded1 and having imbibed much water1 it occupies three times that space1 or #aj1bf barrels2 the air is supposed to continue in the same state of #fj degrees of heat4 ,the length and heat to be given to the three remaining mashes1 are as follows4 7,see page #bdg47 ,degrees of heat1 #aed #aff #agj #agd ,barrels of water1 #ad-a_/b #ad-a_/b #aa #aa ,liquors1 #ast #b;d #c;d #dth v v #a wort4 #b wort4 ,second ,mash for ,small ,beer4 c #aff ,heat required in the mash4 d #aej ,heat of the goods4 ---- c - d #af n #ajbf ,volume of the goods4 ----- #if #cb #afj ------ c - d n #afdaf ------ c #aff ,heat required in the mash4 b #fj ,heat of the air4 ------ c - b #ajf m #adej ,barrels of water4 ------ #ecjj #dbd #ajf -------- c - b m #aecgjj c - d n #afdaf -------- a - b #aeb7agjaaf7aa1ai ,barrels of water to be made to #aeb boil out of the quantity allotted a #bab ----- for the second mash4 b #fj #aha --- #aeb #aeb ----- #bia #aeb ----- #acif #acfh ,third ,mash4 #agj ,heat of mash4 #agj ,heat of #crd mash4 #fj ,heat of air4 #afb ,heat of goods4 ---- ---- #aaj #h #aajj ,barrels of water #ajbf ,volume of grist4 ------ #c;d mash4 ---- #aajjj #hbjh #aaj ------ #abajjj #hbjh ------- #aeb7abibjh7h1ej ,barrels to be made to boil out of the #abaf quantity of water allowed for the ------ third mash4 #gfj #gfj ----- #h ,fourth ,mash4 #agd ,heat of #dth mash4 #agd ,heat of #dth mash4 #fj ,heat of air4 #aff ,heat of goods4 ------ ----- #aad #h #aa1jj ,barrels of water #ajbf ,volume of goods4 ------ for #dth mash4 ----- #aadjj #dh #aad #af ------ #hj #abedjj ------- #hbjh #hbjh ------ #aeb7accfjh7hgi ,barrels to be made to boil out of the #abaf quantity of water allowed for the ------ fourth mash4 #abjj #ajfd ----- #acfh #acfh ----- ,the liquors of this brewing of common small beer1 when the mean heat of the air is #fj degrees1 must therefore be ordered in the following manner 7the incidents hereafter to be noticed1 excepted47 #a ,liqr4 #b ,liqr4 #c ,liqr4 #d ,liqr4 ,lengths of liquors1 #ad-a_/b #ad-a_/b #aa #aa ------ ------ ------ ------ ,boiling water2 barrels1 #aa #aa-a_/b #h-a_/b #h-c_/d ,cold water2 barrels1 #c-a_/b #c-a_/d #b-a_/b #b-a_/d ------ ------ ------ ------ #ad-a_/b #ad-a_/d #aa #aa ------ ------ ------ ------ ,the heat of the first mash for the #aa quarters of brown beer1 was #aeg degrees1 7see page #bde7 and after the parting of the extract from it1 #aec2 the volume of the grist1 in its dry state1 was valued at #f1cb barrels of water1 7see page #bfh7 but1 for the reasons before mentioned1 it now occupies three times that space1 or #ah1if barrels4 ,the air is supposed to continue at #dj degrees1 and the length and heat to be given to the different mashes1 were determined as follows3 7see page #bde47 ,degree of heat1 #aeg #aeh #afb #afd #afe ,barrels of water1 #af #h #ab #i #i ,liquors2 #ast #b;d #c;d #dth #eth v v v #a wort4 #b wort4 #c wort4 ,second ,mash of ,porter1 or brown strong4 #bab ,boiling water4 #dj ,heat of air4 --- #agb #aeh ,heat of #bnd mash4 #aec ,heat of the grist or goods4 ---- #e #ahif ,volume of goods ---- #aeh ,heat of #bnd mash #cj #dj ,heat of air #de ---- #dj #aah #e #h1jj ,barrels of ------ ------ water4 #idhj #iddjj #idhj ------ #agb7ajchhj7f1jc ,barrels of water to be made to boil for #ajcb the second mash4 ------ #fhj #eaf ---- ,third ,mash4 #bab ,heat of boiling water4 #dj ,heat of air4 ---- #agb #afb ,heat of #crd mash4 #aed ,heat of goods4 ------ #afb ,heat of #crd mash4 #h #dj ,heat of air4 #ah1if ---- ------ #abb #dh #ab1jj ,bar4 of water4 #gb ------- #fd #adfdjj #h #aeafh ------ ---------- #aeafh #agb7afaefh7i1de ,barrels of water to be made to boil for #aedh third mash4 ------ #ggf #fhh ------ #hhh #hfj ------ ,fourth ,mash4 #afd ,heat of #dth mash4 #aeh ,heat of goods4 ----- #f #ah1if ,volume of grist wetted4 #afd ,heat of #dth mash4 ----- #dj ,heat of air4 #cf ------ #ed #abd #dh #i1jj ,bars4 of water4 #f ------- ------- #aaafjj #aacgf #aacgf ------- ------- #agb7abbigf7g1ad ,barrels of water to be made to boil for #abjd the fourth mash4 ------ #beg #agb ------ #hef #fhh ------ #afh ,fifth ,mash4 #afe ,heat of #eth ,mash4 #afj ,heat of ,goods4 ---- #e #ah1if #afe ,heat of #eth mash4 ----- #dj ,heat of air4 #cj ---- #de #abe #dj #i1jj ,barrels of water4 #e ------- ------ #aadejj #idhj #idhj ------- #agb7abcihj7g1bj ,barrels of water to be made to boil for #abjd the #eth mash4 ------ #ceh #cdd ------ #adj ,the liquors of this brewing of brown beer must therefore be ordered in the following manner3 ,barrels of boiling water1 #ae-a_/d #f #i-a_/b #g #g ,barrels of cold water1 #c_/d #b #b-a_/b #b #b ------ ---- -------- ---- ---- #af #h #ab #i #i ,liquors1 #ast4 #bnd4 #crd4 #dth4 #eth4 ,what in the brewery is generally called cooling in1 must be settled for this brewing according to the number of barrels of cold water specified as above1 the incidents hereafter to be noticed excepted4 ,each of these calculations may be proved in the same manner as was done before4 ,this method of discovering the proportion of water to be cooled in1 deserves1 on account of its plainness and utility1 to be preferred to any other1 which depend only upon the uncertain determination of our senses4 ,,section ,,xii4 ,,of ,,mashing4 ,of late years1 great progress has been made towards perfecting the construction and disposition of brew-house utensils1 which seem to admit of very little farther improvement4 ,the great copper1 in which the waters for two of the extracts receive their temperature1 is built very near the mash tun1 so that the liquid may readily be conveyed to the ground malt1 without losing any considerable heat4 ,a cock is placed at the bottom of the copper1 which being opened1 lets the water have its course1 through a trunk1 to the real bottom of the mash tun4 ,it soon fills the vacant space1 forces itself a passage through many holes made in a false bottom1 which supports the grist1 and1 as the water increases in quantity1 it buoys up the whole body of the corn4 ,in order to blend together the water and the malt1 rakes are first employed4 ,by their horizontal motion1 less violent than that of mashing1 the finest parts of the flower are wetted1 and prevented from being scattered about1 or lost in the air4 ,but as a more intimate penetration and mixture are necessary1 oars are afterwards made use of4 ,they move nearly perpendicularly1 and by their beating1 or mashing1 the grains of the malt are bruised1 and a thorough imbibition of the water procured4 ,the time employed in this operation cannot be settled with an absolute precision4 ,it ought to be continued1 till the malt is sufficiently incorporated with the water1 but not so long as till the heat necessary to the grist be lessened4 ,as bodies cool more or less speedily1 in proportion to their volume1 and the cohesion of their parts1 a mash which has but little water1 commonly called a stiff mash1 requires a longer mashing to be sufficiently divided1 and1 from its tenacity1 is less liable to lose its heat4 ,this accounts for the general rule1 that the first mash ought always to be the longest4 ,after mashing1 the malt and water are suffered to stand together unmoved1 generally for a space of time equal to that they were mashed in4 ,was the extract drawn from the grain as soon as the mashing is over1 many of the particles of the malt would be brought away undissolved1 and the liquor be turbid1 though not rich4 ,but1 by leaving it some time in contact with the grain1 without any external motion1 many advantages are gained4 ,the different parts of the extract acquire an uniform heat1 the heaviest and most terrestrial subside1 the pores being opened1 by heat1 imbibe more readily the water1 and give way to the attenuation and dissolution of the oils4 ,when the tap comes to be set1 or the extract to be drawn from the grist1 as the bottom of the mash is become more compact1 the liquor is a longer time in its passage through it1 is in a manner strained1 and consequently extracts more strength from the malt1 and becomes more homogeneous and transparent4 ,such are the reasons why the grist should not only be mashed pretty long1 but likewise be suffered to rest an equal time4 ,it is the practice of most brewers1 and experience shews it is best1 to rake the first mash half an hour1 to mash it one hour more1 and to suffer it to stand one hour and a half4 ,the next extract is commonly mashed three quarters of an hour1 and stands the same space of time2 the third1 and all that follow1 are allowed one half hour each1 both for mashing and standing4 ,the heat of the grist being in this manner equally spread1 and the infusion1 having received all the strength from the malt1 which such a heat could give it1 after every mashing and standing1 is let out of the tun4 ,this1 undoubtedly1 is the fittest time to observe whether our expectations have been answered4 ,the thermometer is the only instrument proper for this purpose1 and ought to be placed1 or held1 where the tap is set1 adjoining to the mouth of the underback cock4 ,the observation is best made1 when the extract has run nearly half2 and as1 by it1 we are to judge with what success the process is carried on1 it is necessary to examine every incident1 which may cause a deviation from the calculated heat4 ,,section ,,xiii4 ,of the ,incidents1 which cause the ,heat of the ,extract to vary from the ,calculation1 the allowances they require1 and the means to obviate their effects4 ,by incidents1 ,i understand such causes as effect either the malt1 the water1 or the mash1 during the time the brewing is carrying on1 so as to occasion their heat to differ from what is determined by calculation4 ,as these might frequently be a reason of disappointment1 an inquiry into their number and effects will not only furnish means to prevent and rectify the errors they occasion1 but also serve to confirm this practice4 ,in our researches on the volume of malt1 some notice was taken of the increase of bodies by heat1 and the loss occasioned by evaporation4 ,water1 when on the point of ebullition1 occupies the largest space it is susceptible of2 but contracting again1 when cold water is added to it1 the true volume of both1 when mixed together1 remains uncertain1 and may cause a difference between the calculated and real degree of heat4 ,this cause1 however1 producing an effect opposite to1 and balanced in part by evaporation1 becomes so inconsiderable1 as hardly to deserve any farther consideration4 ,water1 just on the point of ebullition1 may be esteemed heated to #bab degrees4 ,though1 by the continuation of the fire1 or by any other cause#cj1 the heat never goes beyond this1 yet was cold water added to that1 which violently boils1 the degree expected from the mixture would be exceeded2 for the cold water absorbing the superfluous quantity of fire1 which otherwise flies off1 becomes hot itself1 and frustrates the intent4 ,the time1 therefore1 of adding the cold water to the hot is immediately before the ebullition begins1 or when it is just ended2 and in proportion as we deviate from this practice1 the heat in the extract will differ from the calculated degree4 ,the water1 for every mash1 should1 as near as possible1 be got ready to boil1 and be cooled in just before it is to be used4 ,a liquor1 which remains a long time after the ebullition is over1 and the fire has been damped up1 loses part of its heat1 if cold water is applied to it1 the effect cannot be the same as it would have been at first4 ,on the contrary1 if the liquor is got ready too soon1 and cold water immediately added to it1 in order to gain the proper degree of temperature1 by leaving the mixture long together1 though the fire is stopped up1 more heat than necessary will be received from the copper and brickwork1 especially if the utensils are large4 ,in both cases1 the degree in the extract will not answer the intent4 ,the effect of effervescence next deserves our consideration1 but this takes place only when the water first comes in contact with the malt4 ,germinated grains must1 to become malt1 be dried so1 that their particles are made to recede from one another1 thus deprived of the parts1 to which their union was due1 when they come in contact with other bodies1 7as water7 they strongly attract the unitive particles they want1 and excite an intestine motion1 which generates heat4 ,this motion and this heat are more active in proportion as the grain has more strongly been impressed by fire1 and the extracting water is hotter4 ,a large quantity of liquor applied to the grist is less heated than a small one1 by the power of effervescence4 ,the least quantity of water1 necessary to shew that power1 must be just so much as the malt requires to be saturated1 which we have seen to be double the volume of the grain4 ,when more water than this is applied to the grist1 the real effervescing heat is by so much lessened1 being dispersed in more than a sufficient space4 ,a table shewing the heat of effervescence for every degree of dryness in the malt1 can only be formed from observations4 ,to apply this table to practice1 and to find out1 for any quantity of water used in the first mash1 the degrees of heat produced by effervescence1 three times the volume of the grist must be multiplied by the number expressing the effervescing heat for malt of such a degree of dryness1 and this produce be divided by the real volume of the whole mash4 ,a ,,table shewing the heat occasioned by the effervescing of malt1 for its several degrees of dryness4 ,dryness ,heat of of malt4 effervescence4 #aai #j #abd #c-a_/b #abi #g #acd #aj-a_/b #ach #ad #adc #ag-a_/b #adh #ba #aeb #bd-a_/b #aeg #bh #afb #ca #afg #ce #aga #ch-a_/b #agf #dj ,malt dried only to #aai degrees1 raises no effervescence1 and the strongest is generated by malt dried to #agf degrees2 the heat produced by this amounts to #dj degrees1 but the number of effervescing degrees1 in this or any other case1 are reached but from success attending our endeavours1 ultimately to penetrate the malt by heated water1 or not until the grist is perfectly saturated1 which1 in point of time1 generally takes up the whole space of the first mashing and standing2 the air1 therefore1 cannot cause any diminution of heat1 an incident which affects considerably every subsequent mash4 ,the little copper being more distant from the mash tun than the other1 the water there prepared1 in its passage to the goods1 loses some part of its heat4 ,and in proportion to the quantity of water used1 to the number of the extracts that have been made1 and according as the mashes have more or less consistency1 in the same time do they part with more or less of their heat4 ,observations made separately upon strong and small beer1 have shewn the proportions of this loss to be as follows3 ,for strong beer4 ,mashes #b;d #c;d #dth #eth ,heat lost #h #ab #h #h ,for small beer4 ,mashes #b;d #c;d #dth ,heat lost #h #af #bj ,a grist not perfectly malted1 or one which contains many hard corns1 disappoints the expectation of the computed degree1 as the volume cannot be such as was estimated from an equal dryness of true germinated grain4 ,it has been observed1 that1 in perfect malt1 the shoot is very near pressing through the exterior skin4 ,by so much as it is deficient in this particular1 must it be accounted only as dried barley1 or hard corn4 ,i know no better way of judging what proportion of the corn is hard to what is malted1 than by putting some in water1 the grains not sufficiently grown will sink to the bottom4 ,were this to be done in a glass cylinder1 the proportion between the hard and malted corn might be found with exactness4--,the unmalted parts being estimated with regard to their volume1 as barley1 a quarter of them will be to the barrel of water as #a1ef to #aca4 ,supposing1 therefore1 that1 in the brown beer grist1 before mentioned1 the proportion of hard corns is of two quarters out of eleven1 to discover the true volume of such a grist1 the following rule may be used4 #b quarters of hard malt #i quarters of true malt #a1ef volume of #a1gd volume at #acj of ---- #a quarter ----- dryness #c1ab #ae1ff #c1ab volume of #b quarters of hard corn ,total -------- numb4 #aa7 #ah1gh 7#a1gj true volume of one quarter of this malt to one barrel of water1 and consequently the eleven quarters will fill a space equal to that of #f1dg barrels4 ,by means of this rule1 we may find what increase of heat any proportion of hard corns will occasion1 as will be seen in the following table4 ,proportions of hard corns #a_/d #a_/f #a_/h #a_/af #a_/cb of the grist ,greater heat of the mash #d #c #b #a #a_/b degrees4 ,but the brewing of such malt ought to be avoided as much as possible1 as the hard parts afford no strength to the extract4 ,if a grist is not well and thoroughly mashed1 the heat not being uniformly distributed in the different parts of the extract1 the liquor of the thermometer1 when placed in the running stream of the tap1 will fluctuate1 and1 at different times1 shew different degrees of heat4 ,in this case1 the best way is to take the mean of several observations1 and to estimate that to be the true heat of the mash4 ,if the gauges of the coppers are not exactly taken1 a variation must be expected4 ,though the small and hourly variations in the state of the atmosphere have but little influence upon our numbers1 a difference will be observed in any considerable and sudden changes either of the heat or of the weight of the air4 ,our instruments1 and in particular the thermometer1 are supposed to be well constructed and graduated4 ,if the water cooled in with is more or less hot than estimated1 or if the time of mashing or standing is either more or less than was allowed for1 the computation must be found to vary from the event4 ,while the malt is new1 if the fire it has received from the kiln has not sufficiently spent itself1 this additional heat is not easily accounted for4 ,this is likewise the case1 when malt is laid against the hot brickwork of coppers2 and1 on the contrary1 a loss of dryness may be occasioned1 if the store rooms are damp4 ,the artist should be attentive to all these incidents2 the not pointing them out might appear neglectful2 enumerating more would exceed the bounds of use4 ,small grists brewed in large utensils lose their heats more readily1 by laying thin1 and greatly exposed to the air2 and1 on the contrary1 a less allowance1 for the loss of heat1 is required in large grists1 and to which the utensils are in proportion4 ,this really is the only difference between brewings carried on in large public brewhouses1 and those made in small private places1 in other respects constructed upon the same plan1 and with an equal care4 ,prejudice has propagated an idea1 that where the grists are large1 and the utensils in proportion1 stronger extracts could be forced from the malt1 in proportion to the quantity1 and that more delicate beers could be made in smaller vessels less frequently used4 ,these assertions1 from what has been said1 will1 ,i hope1 need no farther enquiry3 the degrees of heat for the extracts are fixed for every intent1 and it cannot be advantageous1 by any means1 to deviate from them4 ,brewings will most probably succeed in all places1 where the grist is not so large as to exceed the bounds of man's labour1 and not so small as to prevent the heat from being uniformly maintained4 ,the disadvantages are great on all sides1 when a due proportion is not observed between the utensils and the works carried on4 ,it will now be proper to continue the delineation of our two brewings1 and to put all the circumstances relating to them under one point of view4 ,a brewing for porter or brown strong beer1 computed for #dj degrees of heat in the air4 #aa quarters of malt1 dried to #acj degrees1 #acb pounds of hops for #bg barrels #a_/b1 to go out at #c worts1 #ca ,inches above brass4 ,volume of grist #f1cb ,water for first mash #af1jj ------ #bb1cb #f1cb ,volume of grist #f effervescing degrees4 #c #c degrees for hard corns4 ----- ---- #ah1if #i degrees equal to #b #g ,effervescence1 per inches #a_/d less cooling table4 in for the first mash1 ------- 7see page #aeb47 #bb1cb7 #acb1gb 7#f degrees of heat gained in the first mash #accib by effervescence4 ,mashes #ast #b;d #c;d #dth #eth ,deg4 of heat1 #aeg #aeh #afb #afd #afe ,see p4 #bhj4 ,barrels of water used1 #af #h #ab #i #i ,see p4 #bhd4 ,quantity cooled in by calculation1 #c_/d #b #b-a_/b #b #b ,see p4 #bhd4 ,boiling water by ------ ------ ------ ----- ----- calculation2 barrels1 #ae-a_/d #f #i-a_/b #g #g ,allowances #cb;,g4 ,c4 ,l4 ,c4 ,l4 ,c4 ,l4 ,c4 for incidents1#cc,less #b inches #a_/d4 more #b in4 more #c in4 more #b in4 ,l4 ,c4 more #b in4 ,c ,c ,c #cd ,a brewing for common small beer1 computed for #fj degrees of heat in the air4 #f quarters of malt dried to #acj degrees2 #cf pounds of hops2 #cj barrels #c_/d to go out #ef inches above brass4 ,grist #c1db ,water 7#ad1ej ------- ,volume #ag1ib of grist #c1db #c ----- #aj1bf #d for effervescence4 #g effervescing degree #a for hard corns for malt at #acj #c for new malt hot ----- 7see table page #bib47 -- #h to be deduced #ag1ib7 #ga1hb 7#d degrees of heat from the first #gafh gained in the mash cooling in4 ----- by effervescence4 #ad ,mashes #ast #b;d #c;d #dth ,deg4 of heat4 #aed #aff #agj #agd ,see p4 #bdh4 ,whole quantity of water used1 barrels #ad-a_/b #ad-a_/b #aa #aa ,see p4 #bhj4 ,quantity to be cooled in1 barrels #c-a_/b #c-a_/d #b-a_/b #b-a_/d ,see p4 #bhj4 ,boiling water by calculation ------ ------ ------ ------ charged1 barrels #aa #aa-a_/d #h-a_/b #h-c_/d ,see p4 #bhj4 ,allowances for #ce ,b ,b #cf incidents2 ,g4 ,c4 ,g4 ,c4 ,l4 ,c4 ,l4 ,c4 inches2 less #b2 more #b2 more #d2 more #e4 ,these computations1 perhaps1 will appear more troublesome than they really are2 but1 besides the facility which exercise always gives for operations of this kind1 the satisfaction of proceeding upon known principles1 will1 ,i hope1 encourage the practitioner to prefer certitude to doubt4 ,one advantage must greatly recommend it1 and at the same time secure the uniformity of our malt liquors2 tables for each sort and season may be made beforehand1 and will serve as often as the circumstances are the same4 ,the trouble of the computations will by that means be saved1 and by collecting together different brewings of the same kind1 the artist will1 at any time1 have it in his power to see what effect the least deviation from his rules had upon his operations1 and to what degree of precision he may hope to arrive4 ,that nothing may be wanting in this work1 to facilitate the intelligence thereof1 ,i shall insert the method of keeping the account of actual brewings1 made according to the computations ,i have here successively traced down4 ,the first column contains the charges of the coppers1 and the numbers computed2 the next1 the brewings made from these numbers1 with their dates1 and the degrees of heat found by observation2 the variations occasioned by unforeseen incidents are supposed to be allowed for1 at cooling in1 by the artist1 upon the principle1 that each inch of cooling in answers to four degrees of heat4 ,noting in this manner the elements of every brewing we make1 when the drink comes into a fit state for use1 we are enabled to compare our practice with the principles which directed it2 by this means1 experiments constantly before our eyes will be the most certain and best foundation for improvement4 ,small ,beer4 ,heat of air #fj ,degrees4 #f quarters of ,malt1 #cflb4 of ,hops1 for #cj ,barrels #c_/d1 to go out #ef ,inches above ,brass4 ,observations4 #agfj4 #agfj4 #agfj4 #agfa4 #agfa4 ,june ,june ,aug4 ,july ,july #bg4 #cj4 #c4 #c4 #e4 #ast ,liquor4 ,charge great copper1 #b inches #a_/b above brass2 cool in to #ac inches #a_/b above brass1 #aea #adi #aej #aec #aej rake #a_/b hour1 mash #a hour1 stand #a hour #a_/b1 heat of the extract intended #aej degrees4 #b;d ,liquor4 ,charge great copper #g inches above brass1 cool in to #ac inches #a_/b above brass1 mash #c_/d hour1 stand #c_/d hour1 #afa #afc #afc #adh #afb heat intended #afb degrees--#a wort came in #cc inches above brass1 boiled #a hour #a_/b1 went out #bh inches above brass4 #c;d ,liquor4 ,charge little copper #h inches #a_/b above brass1 cool in to #ac inches above brass1 #aff #afe #afe #afg #afe mash #a_/b hour1 stand #a_/b hour1 heat expected #aff degrees4 #dth ,liquor4 ,charge little copper #aj inches #a_/b above brass1 cool in to #ac inches above brass1 mash #a_/b hour1 stand #a_/b hour1 #afi #agb #agj #aga #agc heat expected #agj degrees--#b wort came in #ci inches above brass1 boiled down to #bh inches above brass4 ,length #ca barrels4 ,porter4 ,heat of the ,air #dj ,degrees4 #aa quarters of ,malt1 #acblb4 of ,hops for #bg ,barrels #a_/b1 to go out at #c ,worts1 #ca ,inches above ,brass4 #agfa1 #agfa1 #agfa1 ,nov4 #bj4 ,nov4 #bb4 ,nov4 #be4 #dc #ce #dj #ast ,liquor4 ,charge great copper #ac inches above brass1 cool in to #ag inches #a_/b above brass1 rake #aec #aea #aed #a_/b hour1 mash #a hour1 stand #a hour #a_/b1 extract expected #aec degrees4 #b;d ,liquor4 ,charge little copper #b inches #a_/b below brass1 cool in to #c inches above brass1 mash #c_/d hour1 stand #c_/d hour1 heat expected #aee #aeg #aec at the tap #aed degrees--#a wort came in great copper #af inches above brass1 boiled #a hour1 went out #ac inches above brass4 #c;d ,liquor4 ,charge little copper #aj inches above brass1 cool in to #af inches above brass1 mash #a_/b hour1 stand #a_/b hour1 the tap to #aeg #aeg #aeh come down #aeh degrees--#b wort came in great copper #aa inches above brass1 boiled #b hours1 went out #e inches above brass4 #dth ,liquor4 ,charge little copper #a inch #a_/b above brass1 cool in to #f inches #a_/d above brass1 mash #a_/b #afj #afa #afj hour1 stand #a_/b hour1 to come down #afj degrees4 #eth ,liquor4 ,charge little copper #a inch #a_/b above brass1 cool in to #f inches #a_/d above brass1 mash #a_/b hour1 stand #a_/b hour1 tap to come #afa #afj #afa down at#afa degrees--#c wort came in #be;inches above brass1 went out #ac inches above brass4 ,length #bg barrels #c_/d4 ,,section ,,xiv4 ,of the disposition of the ,worts when turned out of the ,copper1 the thickness they should be laid at in the ,backs to cool1 and the heat they should retain for fermentation1 under the several circumstances4 ,when a process of brewing is regularly carried on with two coppers1 the worts come in course to boil1 as the extracts which formed them are produced4 ,it would be tedious and unnecessary to describe the minutest parts of the practice2 which1 in some small degree1 varies as brewing offices are differently constructed1 or the utensils are differently arranged4 ,without the assistance of a brewhouse1 it is perhaps impossible to convey to the imagination the entire application of the rules before laid down1 but with one1 ,i hope they need little1 if any1 farther explanation4 ,the worts1 when boiled1 are musts possessing an intended proportion of all the fermentable principles1 except air2 this was expelled by fire1 and until their too great heat is removed1 cannot be administered to them4 ,in musts1 which spontaneously ferment1 the external air excites in their oils an agitation1 which1 heating and opening the pores of the liquor1 expands and puts in action the internal air they possess4 ,the case is not exactly the same with regard to those musts which require ferments4 ,the air wanted in boiled worts must be supplied by the means of yeast4 ,was the heat of the wort such1 as to occasion the immediate bursting of all the air bubbles contained in the yeast1 an effervescence rather than a fermentation would ensue4 ,now a heat superior to #hj degrees has this effect1 and is therefore one of the boundaries in artificial fermentation2 #dj degrees of heat1 for want of being sufficient to free the air inclosed in the yeast bubbles1 and to excite their action1 is the other4 ,within these limits1 must the wort be cooled to2 and the precise degree1 which varies according to the different circumstances they are in1 and to the intent they are to be applied to1 is1 together with the means of procuring this heat1 the purport of this section4 ,worts1 when in the copper1 boil at a heat somewhat superior to that of #bab degrees2 the more this is exceeded1 the stronger the liquor is4 ,the instant the wort is suffered to go out of the copper1 it loses more heat than in any other equal space of time after it has been exposed to the air4 ,in the course of the natural day1 or in #bd hours1 the heat of the air varies sometimes1 7especially in summer7 as much as #bj degrees4 ,if the wort1 after having reached the lowest heat in this interval1 was suffered to remain in the coolers1 till the return of a greater in the air1 it would be influenced by this increase1 expand1 and be put in action2 and1 should there be at this time any elastic air in any part of the coolers1 which sometimes happens1 either from the sediment of former worts1 from the backs not being clean swept1 or from the wood being old and spungy1 the wort supposed to be left to cool1 will1 by receiving the additional heat from the air1 and blending with the incidental elastic air adhering to the coolers1 bring on1 in a lower degree1 the act of fermentation2 an accident by the artist called the backs being set4 ,for this reason1 a wort should never be suffered to lay so long as to be exposed to the hazard of this injury1 which generally may happen in somewhat more than twelve hours4 ,thus are we directed to spread or lay our worts so thin in the backs1 as they may come to their due temperature within this space2 in summer it is sufficient if the backs be covered2 in winter a depth of two inches may oftentimes be allowed with safety4 ,from the inclination of the coolers or backs to the place1 where the worts run off1 from their largeness1 or from the wind and air warping them1 a wort seldom1 perhaps never1 lays every where at an equal depth1 and cannot therefore become uniformly cold in the same space of time4 ,this renders the use of the thermometer difficult1 though not impracticable4 ,to supply the want of this instrument with some degree of certainty1 the hand intended to feel the worts1 is brought to the heat of the body1 by placing it in the bosom1 until it has fully received it4 ,then dipping the fingers into the liquor1 we judge1 by the sensation it occasions1 whether it is come to a proper degree of coolness to be fermented4 ,as the external parts of our bodies are generally of about #ij degrees of heat1 some degree of cold must be felt1 before the worts are ready for the purpose of fermentation4 ,but that degree varies for different drinks1 and in different seasons4 ,i will endeavour to point out the rules to form a judgment for the heat of small beer worts4 ,a greater precision1 both for that and for other drinks1 will be found in the following table4 ,in ,july and ,august1 no other rule can be given1 than that the worts be got as cold as possible4 ,the same rule holds good in ,june and ,september1 except the season is unnaturally cold4 ,in ,may and ,october1 worts should be let down nearly thirty degrees colder than the hand2 in ,april1 ,november1 and ,march1 the worts should be about twenty degrees colder than the hand1 and only ten in ,january1 ,february and ,december4 ,it may perhaps be thought that the heats here specified are great1 but worts cool as they run from the backs to the working tuns1 they are also affected by the coldness of the tuns themselves1 and perhaps these circumstances are not so trivial1 but that an allowance should be made for them4 ,in general1 the heat of no must should exceed #fj degrees1 because fermentation increases this or any other degree1 in proportion to that1 under which this particular part of the process begins4 ,to render the thermometer more useful1 and to suit it to our conveniency1 we have before supposed every first mash for common small beer to be made at four o'clock in the morning3 in this case1 and where the worts are not laid to cool at more than one inch in depth1 the following table may be said to be a measure of time1 the first and last worts for this drink should be let down at4 ,a ,,table1 shewing nearly the times the first and last worts of common small beers should be let down in the working tuns1 supposing the first mash of the brewing to be made at four o'clock in the morning1 and no uncommon change happens in the heat of the air4 ,vertical headings-- ,a3 ,heat of the air at #h o'clock in the morning4 ,b3 ,hours in the afternoon1 same day as brewing began4 ,c3 ,hours in the afternoon4 ,d3 ,hours of the next morning4 ,a ,air4 #ast ,wort4 ,b #bnd ,wort4 ,c #cj #c o'clock4 #e o'clock #ce #c-a_/b #f-a_/b #dj #d-a_/d #h #de #d-c_/d #i-a_/d #ej #e-a_/b #aa-a_/b #ee #f-a_/b #a-a_/b ,d #fj #g-a_/b #b-a_/b #fe #h #b-a_/b #gj #h-a_/b #c #ge #i #c #hj #i #d ,small beer worts being nearly alike in consistency1 the necessary variations from this table must be less frequent4 ,it is true1 some difference may happen from the exposition of a brewhouse1 or from other circumstances1 admitting more or less freely the intercourse of the air1 and be such as might alter1 upon the whole1 the times set down in the preceding page4 ,brown beer worts1 which are more thick and glutinous1 and especially amber worts1 which are stronger still1 will require other and longer terms to come to their due temperature1 to be fermented at2 but when once observed and noted1 according to various degrees of heat in the air1 at #h o'clock each morning1 the conveniency of these observations must be such1 in this business1 which requires long watchings and attendance1 that no arguments are necessary to recommend what is rather indulgence than industry4 ,a ,,table shewing the degrees of heat worts should be at1 to be let down from the coolers into the working tuns1 according to the several degrees of heat in the air4 ,heat of the air4 ,common small4 ,all-keeping beers4 ,amber or ales4 #be #ge #ei #ee #cj #gj #ef #ed #ce #fe #ec #ec #dj #fj #ej #eb #de #ee #ej #ea #ej #ej #ej #ej #ee ,in these cases1 when the medium heat of the air #fj is greater than that which the worts should ferment at1 the cold of the night must be made use of1 to bring them as near as possible to their temperature4 ,it has been observed1 that the coldest part of the natural day is about one hour before sun rising4 ,the consequences of worts being set to ferment at1 in an undue heat1 are the following4 ,in strong beers1 or such as are intended for long keeping1 if the worts be too cold1 a longer time is required for their fermentation1 and the drinks grow fine with more difficulty2 if1 on the contrary1 they are too hot1 acidity1 and a waste of some of the spiritous parts must ensue4 ,either of these disadvantages appears more conspicuous in common small beer1 as1 in winter1 this drink is seldom kept a sufficient time to correct the defect1 and in summer1 from being too hot1 it becomes putrid1 or1 in the terms of the brewery1 is hereby foxed4 ,,section ,,xv4 ,of ,yeast1 its nature1 and contents1 and of the manner and quantities in which it is to be added to the worts4 ,musts1 or worts1 though ever so rich1 when unfermented1 yield no spirit by distillation1 nor inebriate1 if drank in any quantity4 ,the oils1 as yet not sufficiently attenuated for this purpose1 become so only by fermentation4 ,air is absolutely necessary for this process1 in the course of which1 some of the aerial parts mixing with1 and being enveloped by1 oils greatly thinned1 are enclosed in vesicles not sufficiently strong to resist the force of elasticity1 or prevent a bursting and explosion4 ,in the progress of the act1 the air joins with oils both coarser1 and charged with earthy particles1 a coat is formed capable of resisting its expansion1 and if the bubbles cannot come to a volume sufficient to be floated in and upon the liquor1 they sink to the bottom1 and take the appellation of lees of wine4 ,between these two extremes1 there is another case1 when the bubbles are sufficiently strong to hold the air1 but not weighty enough to sink4 ,after floating in1 they emerge1 and are buoyed upon the surface of the liquor1 and there remaining entire1 are termed the flowers of wine4 ,both lees and flowers are1 therefore1 vesicles formed out of the must1 filled with elastic air1 and1 either separately1 or when mixed together1 they obtain the general denomination of yeast4 ,we have often mentioned the power of fire1 in driving the air out of worts4 ,yeast1 fraught with the principle now wanted for fermentation1 is1 therefore1 the properest subject to be added to the must2 but its texture is various1 in proportion to the different heats of the extracts it was formed from4 ,keeping drinks1 extracted with hotter waters1 yield yeast1 the oils of which have a greater spissitude4 ,it is consequently slower1 more certain1 and most fit to promote a cool and gentle fermentation4 ,that1 on the contrary1 which is produced from small beer1 being weak1 and acting at once1 is apt to excite a motion like that of effervescence2 such yeast ought1 therefore1 not to be used1 but when there is no possibility to obtain the other4 ,the longer wines or beers are under the first act of fermentation1 the greater variety will be found in the texture of the bubbles1 which compose their flower and lees4 ,wines made out of grapes1 in general1 require a time somewhat longer than the worts of malt1 before this first period is at an end2 and we have seen1 that in them fermentation first brings forth air bubbles1 whose constituent parts are most tender1 and afterwards some that are of a stronger texture4 ,as malt liquors require a less time to ferment1 their bubbles are more similar3 on this account1 the whole quantity of yeast necessary to a wort should not be applied at once1 lest the air bladders1 bursting nearly in the same time1 should prevent that gradual action1 which seems to be the aim of nature in all her operations4 ,keeping beers1 formed from low dried malts1 occasion the greatest variety of heat in the extracts1 and from hence these musts form yeast1 whose bubbles differ most in magnitude and strength4 ,a drink1 then1 properly made from pale malt1 nearly resembles natural wines1 especially when they are so brewed as to require precipitation to become transparent4 ,cleansing is dividing the drink into several casks2 this checks the motion occasioned by fermentation1 and consequently retards it4 ,to prevent this from being too sensibly felt1 some yeast should be put to the drink1 before it is removed into the casks4 ,as the constituent parts1 in strong beers1 are more tenacious than in small1 and require a greater motion to entertain the fermentation1 the drinks1 before they be thus divided1 should1 besides the addition of the yeast1 be well roused with a scoop1 or by some other means1 for one hour4 ,this not only blends all the parts together1 but attenuates and heats the liquor1 and makes it more ready to begin to ferment again1 when in the casks4 ,one sixth part of the whole of the yeast used is generally reserved for this purpose2 and the remainder is equally divided as the worts are let down4 ,it must be observed1 that this stirring1 though as necessary to small1 as to strong drinks1 is only to be continued for a space of time proportioned to their strength4 ,we have before seen1 when a grist of malt is entirely extracted to form common small beer1 soon to be expended1 one gallon of yeast to eight bushels of grain affords a sufficient supply of air to perfect the fermentation4 ,this takes place when the heat of the air is at #dj degrees1 but1 at the highest fermentable degree1 experience shews1 that half that quantity is as much as is necessary4 ,for some ales1 the whole virtue of the malt is not extracted1 and what remains is appropriated to the making of small beer3 the quantity of yeast used for these drinks must be only in proportion to the strength extracted4 ,from these premises1 the following tables have been formed1 exhibiting the quantity of yeast proper for the several sorts of drinks1 at the different heats of the air4 ,a ,,table shewing the quantities of yeast necessary for common small beer in every season4 ,heat of ,pints of yeast to one the air4 quarter of malt4 #ce #i #dj #h ,the whole quantity of yeast to be #de #h put into the first wort4 #ej #g --------------------------------------- #ee #g ,the first wort to have #c_/d #fj #f ,the second wort to have #a_/d #fe #f --------------------------------------- #gj #e ,the first wort to have one half of the #ge #e whole quantity4 #hj #d ,the second wort to have the remainder4 ,a ,,table shewing the quantities of yeast necessary for all keeping drinks1 both brown and pale1 small and strong4 ,heat of ,pints of yeast to the worts#cg4 one quarter of malt4 #cj #f #ce #f #dj #f #de #f #ej #f #ee #e #fj #ech #fe #d #gj #d #ge #c #hj #c ,a ,,table shewing the quantities of yeast necessary for amber and all sorts of ales1 after which small beer is made4 ,heat ,pints of yeast of the air4 to one quarter of malt4 #cj #g-a_/b #ce #g #dj #g #de #f-a_/b #ej #f #ee #e-a_/b #fj #e #fe #d-a_/b #gj #d #ge #c-a_/b #hj #c ,this table is founded on the supposition that1 the virtue or strength extracted from one quarter of malt for amber1 is equal to #e_/f of the whole4 ,in every heat of the air1 the quantity of yeast to be used for common small beer made after ale1 must be one fifth part of the quantity which the ale required1 the additional strength obtained from reboiling the hops1 requiring further proportion2 if1 for keeping small beer1 nearly in the proportion of six pints of yeast to five barrels of beer1 this will be found to correspond with the rule delivered in the foregoing table4 ,,section ,,xvi4 ,of practical ,fermentation1 and the management of the several sorts of ,malt ,liquors1 to the period1 at which they are to be cleansed or put into the ,casks4 ,the laws of fermentation are universal and uniform2 and when it proceeds regularly1 its different periods are known by the different appearances of the fermenting liquor4 ,as a particular appellation is given to each of these1 it may not be unnecessary here to describe them4 #a4 ,the first sign of a wort fermenting is a fine white line1 composed of very small air bubbles1 attached to the sides of the tun2 the wort is then said to have taken yeast4 #b4 ,when these air bubbles are extended over the whole surface of the must1 it is said to be creamed over4 #c4 ,bubbles continuing to rise1 a thin crust is formed2 but as the fermentation advances rather faster near the sides of the tun1 than in the middle1 this crust is continually repelled2 from which arises the denomination of the wort parting from the tun side4 #d4 ,when the surface becomes uneven1 as if it were rock work1 this stage of fermentation1 which has no particular use1 is distinguished by its height4 #e4 ,when the head becomes lighter1 more open1 more uniform1 and of a greater depth1 being round or higher in the middle1 than in any other part1 and seeming to have a tendency still to rise1 the liquor is denominated to be of so many inches1 head not fit to cleanse4 #f4 ,this head having risen to its greatest height1 begins to sink1 to become hollow in the middle1 and1 at the same time1 more solid1 the colours changing to a stronger yellow or brown2 the wort is then said to be fit to cleanse4 ,after this1 no farther distinctions are made2 if the fermentation is suffered to proceed in the tun1 the head continues to sink1 and the liquor is often injured4 ,as the denominations and tastes of liquors brewed from malt are numerous1 it is impossible to specify each separate one2 we shall therefore only particularize such sorts of drinks1 as were taken notice of in the section of extraction1 they being most in use2 but1 from what will be said concerning them1 the method of managing any other malt liquor may easily be deduced4 ,spontaneous pellucidity arises from a due proportion of the oils to the salts1 in the worts1 but the advantage of long keeping depends not only on the quantity of oils and hops the musts possess1 but also on the fermentation being carried on in a slow and cool manner4 ,all drinks1 intended long to be kept1 are therefore best formed in cold weather1 and made to receive their yeast at such temperature1 as is set forth in the table4 ,the yeast is to be divided in proportion to the quantities of wort let down1 until the whole1 being mixed together1 receives its allotted portion1 except so much as is to be put in just before cleansing4 ,under these circumstances1 drinks1 which are brewed for keeping1 are suffered to go through the first process of fermentation1 till they are so attenuated1 that the liquor becomes light1 and the head1 or the yeast1 laying on the surface of the beer1 begins to sink4 ,when1 or somewhat before1 this head has fallen to nearly half the greatest height it reached to1 a remarkable vinous smell is perceived1 and the liquor1 at this term1 is to be put into casks1 being first well roused with the remaining part of the yeast1 in the manner mentioned in the preceding section4 ,by the description given of the origin of yeast1 it appears that it is formed rather of the coarser oils of the worts4 ,if the cleansing is not done when the head is sunk down to half the greatest height it rose to1 by falling lower1 some part of these coarser oils return into the beer1 then under fermentation1 and gives it a flat1 greasy taste1 technically termed yeast bitten4 ,when1 on the contrary1 beers or ales are removed too soon from the first tumultuous fermentation1 for want of having been sufficiently attenuated1 and from not having deposited their lees1 nor thrown up in flowers their coarser oils1 they are less vinous1 than otherwise they would have been1 appear heavy1 aley1 and are said not to have their body sufficiently opened4 ,the fermentation of common small beer is1 through necessity1 carried on so hastily1 that it is hardly possible to wait for the signs1 which direct the cleansing of other beers4 ,this drink being generally brewed and fermented within twenty four hours1 its state1 with regard to fermentation1 is best judged of1 by the quantity of its froth or head at the time of cleansing1 which1 in proportion to the heat of the air1 may be determined by the following table4 ,a ,,table shewing the depth of head1 which common small beer should have to be properly cleansed1 in every season of the year4 ,heat ,head on the beer of the air4 in the tun4 #be ,degrees #f inches4 #cj #e #ce #d-a_/d #dj #c-a_/b #de #b-c_/d #ej #b #ee #a-a_/b #fj #a #fe #c_/d #gj #a_/b #ge #a_/d #hj just taken4 ,as it is chiefly by the action of the air that wines are formed1 if we contrive to shift this powerful agent on the surface of a must under fermentation1 and to convey it more forcibly and hastily into the wort1 its efficacy will be renewed1 the fermentation accelerated1 the liquor quickly become transparent1 and soon be brought to the state of maturity age might slowly make it arrive at4 ,amber1 or pale ales1 require the hottest extracts pellucidity admits of to be made strong1 and at the same time soft and smooth to the palate2 but1 as ales do not admit of any large quantity of hops1 which would alter their nature1 there is a necessity to perform hastily the act of fermentation1 and to carry it on to a higher degree than is common in other malt drinks4 ,the method of exciting and conducting repeated fermentations1 with success1 is perhaps not only the most difficult1 but the most curious1 part of the process1 ,i shall therefore conclude1 with an account of it1 what ,i have to say with regard to the practice of fermentation4 ,the amber wort being let down1 at its proper degree of heat1 into the fermenting tun1 out of the whole quantity of yeast allowed for this drink1 in the table1 page #cag1 one seventh part must be kept to be used as hereafter shall be mentioned4 ,suppose the heat of the air is at #dj degrees1 and eight quarters of malt have been brewed for this purpose2 the whole of the yeast required is seven gallons1 from which one is to be reserved4#ci ,of the six remaining gallons1 one half1 or three1 are to be put to the wort oh its first coming down1 when the whole must be well roused1 or mixed1 thoroughly to disperse the enlivening principle the yeast conveys1 hereby to prevent putrefaction1 or foxing in any part1 and of the last three gallons1 about three quarts must be added to the drink1 every twelve hours1 until it ferments to the highest pitch of the period mentioned in article #e1 page #cai4 ,this successive putting in of yeast is called#dj;feeding the drink2 before and about the time the head is got to this height1 all the dirt or foul yeast1 that rises on the surface1 must be carefully skimmed off2 it is easily distinguished from the pure white froth1 by its color1 and by the sinking of the head occasioned by its weight4 ,length of time might attenuate some of these coarser oils1 in a less artificial fermentation1 but as this help is not to be waited for1 and every obstacle to pellucidity must be removed1 the brewer's attention to this point cannot be too great4--,the head of the drink having reached its utmost height1 the reserved gallon of yeast is to be used1 in order to give to the ale a sufficient power to bear the repeated fermentations it is to undergo1 by being beat in1 every two hours1 with a jett or scoope1 for one quarter of an hour1 so that the head on the drink is each time to be reduced to the least height it is capable of4 ,this striking in being continued1 the drink will periodically require it1 and be damaged if it be neglected4 ,after it has undergone more or less of these fermentations1 in proportion to the heats of the worts and of the air1 the brewer is carefully to observe1 when the head ceases to rise to its accustomed height1 and then to examine the drink1 by having the jett filled with it at the bottom1 and brought through the whole body to the top1 a small part of which being poured in a handgatherer1 he will see whether the lees form themselves in large white flakes1 and readily subside1 and be informed1 by the taste1 whether the sweet of the wort is gone off1 and the ale become vinous4 ,if these two circumstances concur1 the drink is to be beat in with the jett as before1 but not roused as porter or other beers are2 for the lees1 which in this drink are in greater quantity1 would1 by this management1 so intimately be mixed with it1 as with difficulty to separate themselves again1 if at all4 ,it is then time to cleanse it2 but the casks1 at all times1 more especially in summer1 must be well filled up with clean drink1 that is1 part of the very drink1 which was cleansed1 avoiding that produced in the stillings1 as this1 for want of standing a sufficient time1 is always yeasty1 and the yeast1 being greatly attenuated by the working of the drink1 easily dissolves in the ale1 and renders it foul and ill-tasted4 ,as the right forming of amber ales is looked upon to be the highest pitch of the art of pale beer brewing1 ,i have dwelt longer on this article than otherwise it might seem necessary1 to shew the connexion there is between every sort of malt liquors3 but it should be observed1 the same method of fermenting it1 is to be practised both winter and summer1 varying only the quantities of yeast in proportion to the season2 for where1 in winter time1 this drink is fed with three quarts of yeast every twelve hours1 half a gallon will answer the same intent in summer4 ,upon the whole1 the process is contrived to accelerate fermentation1 yet1 the more coolly and gently it is performed1 the better will the ales be4 ,i have before hinted1 if ,madeira wines were fermented in this manner1 they would sooner become fit for use1 more especially as they need no ferment to excite them4 ,however1 this method of forming drink to be soon fit for use1 has1 either through interest or prejudice1 been taxed with being unwholesome1 but upon what grounds1 ,i must confess ,i could never yet discover1 as no reason of any moment has ever been alledged for this assertion4 ,,section ,,xvii4 ,of the signs generally directing the processes of ,brewing1 and their comparison with the forgoing ,theory and ,practice4 ,we have now brought our barley wines into the casks1 and this on principles1 it is thought1 agreeable and consonant to each other4 ,as the charge of novelty may be alledged1 to invalidate what has been offered1 it is but just to pay so much regard to a long1 and1 upon the whole1 successful practice1 as to recite1 if not all1 at least the principal maxims and signs in brewing1 which hitherto have guided the artist4 ,by comparing these with the present method1 they will not only illustrate each other1 but perhaps cause both to be better understood2 and though1 with respect to the art itself1 this may be thought rather a curious than an instructive part1 yet we may learn1 from hence1 that such practice1 which long experience has proved to be right1 will always correspond with true theory4 #a4 ,when a white flour settles1 either in the underback or copperback1 which sometimes is the case of a first extract1 it is a sure sign such an extract has not been made sufficiently hot1 or1 in technical terms1 that the liquor has been taken too slack4 ,malt1 when dried1 has its oils made tenacious1 in proportion to the power of heat it has been affected with2 the grain1 though ground1 if the water for the extraction is not at least as hot as what occasioned this tenaciousness1 must remain in great measure undissolved in the first extract1 and deposit itself as just now was mentioned4 #b4 ,the first extract should always have some froth or head in the underback4 ,the oils and salts of the malt1 being duly mixed1 form a saponaceous body1 the character of which is that1 on being shook1 it bears a froth on its surface4 #c4 ,the head or froth in the underback appearing red1 blue1 purple1 or fiery1 shews the liquors to have been taken too hot4 ,the hotter the water is1 when applied to the malt1 the more must the extract abound with oils1 and consequently be more capable to reflect colors in a strong manner4 ,but how precarious this method of estimating the quality of an extract is1 in comparison to that which the thermometer affords1 will appear from the following observation of ,sir ,isaac ,newton3 8,saponaceous bubbles will1 for a while1 appear tinged with a variety of colors1 which are agitated by the external air1 and those bubbles continue until such time as1 growing excessive thin1 by the water trickling down their sides1 and being no longer able to retain the enclosed air1 they burst40 ,now as these bubbles vary in their density1 in proportion to their duration1 the colors they reflect must continually change1 and therefore it is not possible to form an accurate judgment of the condition and saponaceousness of the extracts1 by the appearance of their froth4 #d4 ,when the grist feels slippery1 it generally is a sign that the liquors have been taken too high4 ,this appearance proceeds from an over quantity of oil being extracted1 and is the effect of too much heat4 #e4 ,beer ought always to work kind1 out of the cask1 when cleansed1 but the froth1 in summer time1 will be somewhat more open than in winter4 ,the higher and hotter the extracting water is1 the more oils doth it force into the must2 when a wort is full charged with oils1 the fermentation is neither so strong nor so speedy1 and consequently the froth1 especially the first1 is thin1 open1 and weak4 ,this improves as the liquor is more attenuated1 and heat1 which expands all bodies1 must rarify the yeasty vesicles1 the principal part of which is elastic air2 but this open head1 even in summer time1 improves to one more kind1 as the first1 the most active period of fermentation1 draws nearer to its conclusion4 ,however vague and indeterminate these signs are1 it would not be impossible to bring them to some degree of precision2 but1 upon the whole1 this method would increase our difficulties1 and yet1 as to certitude1 be inferior to the rules we have endeavoured to establish1 we think it unnecessary to pursue any farther a research most likely neither entertaining nor useful4 ,,section ,,xviii4 ,an enquiry into what may be1 at all times1 a proper stock of ,beer1 and the management of it in the cellars4 ,the business of a brewer is not confined to the mere manufacture of his commodity2 his concerns1 as a trader1 deserve no less regard1 and1 in a treatise like this1 should not be entirely omitted4 ,as it is a fault not to have a sufficient stock of beers it the cellars1 to serve the customers1 it is one also to have more than is needful4 ,by the first of these errors1 the beers would be generally new and ill disposed for precipitation2 by the other1 quantities of stale beer must remain1 which1 becoming hard1 will at last turn stale1 and be unfit for use1 unless blended with new brewed beers1 to their detriment4 ,these faults1 if continued1 may in time affect a whole trade1 and ought therefore carefully to be avoided4 ,for these reasons1 the whole quantity to be moved1 or expected to be supplied from the brewer's store cellars1 during the space of one twelvemonth1 should be calculated1 as near as possible2 half this quantity ought to be the stock kept up from ,november to ,may inclusive1 and nearly one third part thereof be remaining in ,september4 ,from hence a table may be formed1 by which it will be easy1 at one view1 to know the quantity that should be maintained at every season of the year1 and to avoid almost every inconveniency1 which otherwise must arise4 ,suppose1 for example1 the number of casks expected to be moved in a year1 to be #cbj butts1 and #bdh puncheons1 the store cellars ought to be supplied1 as to time and quantity1 in the following proportion4 ,butts4 ,puncheons4 ,january #afj #abd ,february #afj #abd ,march #afj #abd ,april #afj #abd ,may #afj #abd ,june #adf #aac ,july #acc #ajc ,august #abj #ic ,september #ajg #hb ,october #acc #ajc ,november #afj #abd ,december #afj #abd ,after beers have been started in the cellars1 the casks should be well and carefully stopped down1 as soon as the repelling force of fermentation is so much lessened1 as not to be able to oppose this design4 ,otherwise the elastic air1 which is the vivifying principle of the drink1 being lost1 it would become vapid1 and flat2 and if left a long time in this condition1 perhaps grow sour4 ,it has already been observed1 that cellars1 in winter1 are more hot than the exterior air by #aj degrees1 and more cold in summer by #e degrees4 ,but besides this general difference1 repositories of beer vary surprisingly in their temperature2 from the nature of the soil in which they are built1 from their exposition to the sun1 or from other incidental causes4 ,as heat is a very powerful agent in accelerating fermentation1 it is by no means surprising1 not only that some cellars do ripen drinks much sooner than others1 but also that a difference is often perceived in the same cellar4 ,the persons entrusted with the choice of beers1 with which the customers are to be served1 should not be satisfied to send out their guiles in the progressive order in which they were brewed1 but ought1 on every occasion1 to note any alteration that happens in the drink1 as this is doing justice both to the commodity1 and to the consumer1 who has a constant right to expect his beer in due order4 ,section ,,xix4 ,of ,precipitation1 and other remedies1 applicable to the diseases incident to ,beers4 ,no accident can be so detrimental as leaky or stinking casks1 which lose or spoil the whole or part of the contained drink4 ,the necessity of having1 on these occasions1 a remedy at hand1 was undoubtedly the reason1 why coopers were first introduced in store cellars4 ,constant practice might have qualified their palates so as to make them competent judges of the tastes of wines and beers1 and to enable them to know which were the fittest for immediate use4 ,the preparing or forcing them for this service1 was a matter1 which the profit gained thereby made them ready enough to undertake4 ,chymists1 whom they consulted on this occasion1 gave them some informations1 from whence the coopers became the possessors of a few nostrums1 the effects of which they were supposed to have experienced4 ,but1 ignorant of the causes of most1 if not all the defects they undertake to remedy1 and unacquainted with the constituent parts of beers1 it is not to be expected that their success should be constant and uniform4 ,the brewer1 earnest to do his duty1 and to excel1 ought to keep a particular account of every brewing2 by this means he best can tell how he formed the drink1 and ought consequently1 in any disorder1 to be prepared to direct the properest remedy4 ,the intent of this treatise has been to discover the means by which errors may be avoided4 ,chymical applications are intended to remedy those errors1 which may be occasioned either by carelessness or accident4 ,the wholesomeness or propriety of the applications1 which will be indicated1 must be left to the judgment of my readers2 it is most likely that there is sufficient room for improvement1 and we might expect it from those1 whose profession it is to study every thing1 that may be conducive to the safety of mankind4 ,whatever vegetables wines are produced from1 whenever they deviate from the respective perfection1 a well-conducted fermentation might have made them arrive at1 they may be said to be distempered4 ,foulness1 or want of transparency1 is not the least evil1 but1 according to its degree1 it obtains various appellations1 and requires different helps4 ,from what has been said1 nothing can be more plain1 than that it is always in our power to form beers and ales1 which will be bright4 ,yet porter or brown beer is constantly so brewed as to need precipitation3 the reasons for this management have before been offered4 ,were we to wait till the liquor became transparent by age1 a more real disorder would ensue1 that of acidity4 ,precipitation is then serviceable1 especially when beers are to be removed from one cellar to another1 a short space of time before they are to be used4 ,by being shook1 and the lees mixed with the liquor1 a strong acid taste is conveyed therein1 and the power of subsiding1 which is wanted1 renders the forcing them1 in that case1 of absolute necessity4 ,in beers brewed with liquors sufficiently heated1 no flatness is occasioned thereby2 as the case is1 under like circumstances1 with liquors produced by low extracts1 from grain not sufficiently dried4 ,the degree of foulness in porter should however be limited2 its bounds ought not to exceed the power of one gallon of dissolved isinglass1 to a butt4 ,isinglass is dissolved in stale beer1 and strained through a sieve1 so as to be of the consistence of a jelly4 ,the beer is set in motion with a stick1 which reaches one third part down the cask1 before and after this jelly is put in2 and a few hours should be sufficient to obtain the desired effect4 ,we have before observed1 that this quantity of jelly of isinglass is equal to a medium of #aj degrees dryness in the malt1 and heat of the extracts4 ,when the opacity exceeds this1 the liquor is termed stubborn2 the same quantity of dissolved isinglass repeated1 is often sufficient1 if not1 six ounces of the oil of vitriol are mixed with it4 ,an effervescence is1 by this addition1 produced2 the oils of the drink become more attenuated1 and the weight added to the precipitating matter1 is a means to render it more efficacious4 ,instead of the oil of vitriol1 six or eight ounces of the concrete of vitriol1 pounded and mixed with the isinglass1 are sometimes used with success4 ,a foulness in beer beyond that which is called stubborn1 gives to the drink the denomination of grey beer4 ,this arises from the oils which float upon the surface1 and which the liquor has not been able to absorb4 ,in this case1 the same methods as before mentioned are repeated2 the quantity of dissolved isinglass is often increased to three gallons1 that of vitriol to more than #ab ounces1 and sometimes a small quantity of aqua fortis is added to these ingredients4 ,the next stage of opacity is cloudiness2 when the cooper confesses that the distemper exceeds the power of his menstruums1 and that his attempts extend no farther than to hide the evil1 tournsol and cochineal1 were they not so expensive1 might in this case be used with success2 but what is less known1 and would greatly answer the intent of hiding the dusky colour of the drink1 is madder2--about three or four ounces of this is the proper quantity for a butt of beer4 ,calcined treacle1 by the coopers called blacking1 from its acidity1 is of some small service1 for1 by coloring the drink1 it somewhat lessens the grey hue thereon2 a quart is generally used in a butt2 and1 to prevent the defect in the beer being noticed by the consumer1 the practice is to put thereon what is called a good cauliflowered head4 ,this might be done by using as much pounded salt of steel as will lay upon a shilling2 but the difference in price between this salt and copperas makes the last generally to be preferred4 ,the strong froth on the top of the pot1 and that which foams about it1 together with somewhat of a yellow cast1 are often mistaken for the signs of a superior merit and strength1 though1 in fact1 they are those of deceit4 ,a little reflection that the natural froth of beer cannot be yellow1 nor continue a long time1 especially if the liquor has some age1 would soon cure mankind of this prejudice4 ,cloudy beers1 under these circumstances1 though not cured1 are generally consumed4 ,beers become sick1 from their having so large a portion of oils1 as to prevent the free admission of the external air into them4 ,the want of this enlivening element makes them appear flat1 though not vapid4 ,such beers should not1 if possible1 be brought immediately into use1 as age alone would effect their cure4 ,but when this cannot be complied with1 every means that will put the beer upon the fret1 or under a new fermentation1 must be of service4 ,by pitching a butt head over head1 the lees of the beer1 which contain a large proportion of air1 being mixed again with the drink1 help to bring on this action1 and to remove the sickness4 ,burnt hartshorn shavings1 to the quantity of two-penny-worth1 put into a butt1 are often of use4 ,balls made with eight ounces of the finest flower1 and kneaded with treacle1 convey likewise air to the drink1 and promote its briskness4 ,beers1 by long standing1 often acquire so powerful an acid1 as to become disagreeable4 ,the means of correcting this defect is by alkaline1 or testaceous substances1 and in general by all those which have the property of absorbing acids4 ,to a butt of beer in this condition1 from four to eight ounces of calcined powder of oyster-shells may be put1 or from six to eight ounces of salt of wormwood4 ,sometimes a penny-worth or two of whiting is used1 and often twenty or thirty stones of unslacked lime2 these are better put in separately1 than mixed with the isinglass4 ,from two to six pounds of treacle used to one butt of beer1 has a very powerful effect1 not only to give a sweet fulness in the mouth1 but to remove the acidity of the drink4 ,treacle is the refused sweet of the sugar baker1 part of the large quantities of lime used in refining sugars1 undoubtedly enter in its composition1 and is the occasion of its softening beers4 ,in proportion as beers are more or less forward1 from two to four ounces of salt of wormwood and salt of tartar1 together with one ounce of pounded ginger1 are successfully employed4 ,all these substances absorb acids1 but they leave a flatness in the liquor1 which in some measure is removed by the use of ginger4 ,sometimes1 in summer1 when beer is wanted for use1 we find it on the fret2 as it is then in a repelling state1 it does not give way to the finings1 so as to precipitate4 ,for this1 about two ounces of cream of tartar are mixed with the isinglass1 and if not sufficient1 four ounces of oil of vitriol are added to the finings next used1 in order to quiet the drink4 ,some coopers attempt to extend their art so far as to add strength to malt liquors2 but let it be remembered1 that the principal constituent parts of beer should be malt and hops4 ,when strength is given to the liquor by any other means1 its nature is altered1 and then it is not beer we drink4 ,treacle in large quantities1 the berries of the ,cocculus ,indicus1 the grains of paradise1 or the ,indian ginger pounded fine1 and mixed with a precipitating substance1 are said to produce this extraordinary strength4 ,it would be well if the attempts made to render beers strong by other means than by hops and malt1 were to be imputed to none but coopers2 ,cocculus ,indicus1 and such like ingredients1 have been known to be boiled in worts1 by brewers who were more ambitious to excel the rest of the trade1 than to do justice to the consumers4 ,were it not that pointing out vice is often the means to forward the practice of it1 ,i could add to this infamous catalogue1 more ingredients1 it were to be wished practitioners never knew either the name or nature of1 for fining1 softening1 and strengthening4 ,formerly brown beers were required to be of a very dark brown1 inclinable to black4 ,as this color could not be procured by malt properly dried1 the juice of elder berries was frequently mixed with the isinglass4 ,this juice afterwards gave way to calcined sugar2 both are needless1 as time and knowledge remove our prejudices1 when the malt and hops have been properly chosen2 and applied to their intended purpose4 ,such are the remedies chiefly made use of for brown beers4 ,drinks formed from pale malts are always supposed to become spontaneously fine1 and when they are so1 by being bottled1 they are saved from any farther hazard4 ,as it is impossible for any fermented liquor to be absolutely at rest1 the reason of beers being preserved by this method1 is1 thereby they are deprived of a communication with the air1 and1 without risk1 gain all the advantages which age1 by slow degrees1 procures1 and which art can never imitate4 ,were we as curious in our ales and beers as we are in the liquors we import1 did we give to the produce of our own country the same care and attendance which we bestow on foreign wines1 we might enjoy them in a perfection at present scarcely known1 and perhaps cause foreigners to give to our beers a preference to their own growth4 ,,section ,,xx4 ,,of ,,taste#da4 ,doctor ,grew1 who has treated of this matter1 divides taste into simple and compound2 he mentions the different species of the first1 and calculates the various combinations of the latter1 the number of which exceeds what at first might be expected4 ,without entering into this detail1 ,i think that the different tastes residing in the barleys1 or formed by their being malted1 and brewed with hops1 may be reduced to the following2 the acid1 which is a simple taste2 the sweet1 which is an acid smoothed with oils2 the aromatic1 which is the compound of a spiritous acid1 and a volatile sulphur2 the bitter1 which1 according to our author1 is produced by an oil well impregnated either with an alkaline or an acid salt1 shackled with earth2 the austere1 which is both astringent and bitter2 and1 lastly1 the nauseous and rank1 which is1 at least in part1 sometimes found in beers1 which have either been greatly affected by fire1 or1 by long age1 have lost their volatile sulphurs2 and have nothing left but the thicker and coarser oils1 resembling the empyreumatic dregs of distilled liquors not carefully drawn4 ,the number of circumstances on which the taste of fermented liquors depends1 are so various1 that perhaps there never were any two brewings1 or any two vintages1 which produced drinks exactly similar4 ,but as1 in this case1 as well as in many others1 the varieties may be reduced under some general classes2 the better to distinguish them1 let us enquire which taste belongs to different malt liquors1 according to the several circumstances in which they are brewed4 ,in beers and ales1 the acid prevails in proportion as the malt has been less dried1 and heat was wanting in the extracting water4 ,the sweet will be the effect of a balance preserved between the acids and the oils4 ,when1 by the means of hotter waters1 oils more tenacious are extracted from the grain1 whereby the more volatile sulphur is retained1 the taste becomes higher in relish1 or aromatic4 ,if the heat is still increased1 the acids1 and the most volatile oils1 will in part be dissipated1 and in part be so enveloped with stronger oils1 as the bitter of the hops appears more distinct4 ,a greater degree of fire will impress the liquor with an austere1 rough1 or harsh taste2 and a heat beyond this so affects the oils of the grain1 as to cause the extracts to be nauseous to the palate4 ,besides these1 there may be other causes which produce some variation in taste2 as a superior dryness in the hops2 an irregularity in the ordering of the heat of the extracts2 too great an impetuosity or slowness in the fermentation2 the difference of seasons in which the drink is kept2 but as these causes affect the liquor1 in a low degree1 in comparison to the drying and extracting heats of the grain1 an enquiry into their consequences is not absolutely material4 ,beers or ales1 formed of pale malt1 in which a greater portion of acids is contained1 with less tenacious oils1 are not only more proper to allay thirst1 but in general more aromatic than brown drinks4 ,the oils of these last1 being1 by the effect of fire1 rendered more compact1 and more tenacious of the terrestrial parts raised with them1 are attended with something of an austere and rank taste4 ,this seems to be the reason why brown beers require more time1 after they have been fermented1 to come to their perfection4 ,the air1 by degrees1 softens and attenuates their oils1 and1 by causing the heterogeneous particles to subside1 makes them at last1 unless charring heats have been used1 pleasing to the palate1 whereas they were before austere1 rank1 and perhaps nauseous4 ,by means of the thermometer1 we have endeavoured to fix the different colors of malt1 the duration of the principal sorts of drink1 and the tendency each has to become transparent4 ,the same instrument cannot probably have the same use1 when applied to distinguish the different tastes1 as these depend on a variety of causes not easy to be ascertained4 ,yet something of this nature may be attempted1 upon the following principles4 ,as the chief circumstance which produces a variety of tastes in malt liquors1 is fire or heat acting on the malt and hops1 and the effect of the air1 put in motion by the same element1 the table here subjoined may point out what tastes are in general occasioned by the combination of these two causes4 ,a ,,table determining the tastes of ,malt ,liquors4 ,heat of ,dryness and ,predominant the air4 extracting heat4 tastes4 #hj #aai ,acid4 #gf #abd ,ac4 ac4 sweet4 #gc #abi ,ac4 sw4 #gj #acd ,ac4 sw4 sw4 bitter4 #ff #ach ,sw4 sw4 bitter4 #fc #adc ,sw4 bit4 #fj #adh ,bit4 bit4 aromatic4 #ef #aeb ,bit4 arom4 #ec #aeg ,bit4 arom4 austere4 #ej #afb ,arom4 aust4 aust4 #df #afg ,aust4 aust4 nauseous4 #dc #aga ,aust4 nau4 #dj #agf ,nauseous4 ,the first column of the table shews the fermentable degrees reversed1 as the hotter the season is1 the more fermented drinks tend to acidity1 the direct contrary of which is the consequence of an increase in the heat1 malt or hops are dried or extracted with4 ,the assistance of this table1 though small1 ought perhaps not to be entirely slighted1 as it seems at least to shew that the useful is seldom separated from the elegant1 and that a medium between extremes is most agreeable both to the operations of nature1 and the constitution of our organs4 ,the impressions of tastes are less in proportion as the drinks are weak4 ,the strongest wine yields the most acid vinegar4 ,time wears away this acidity much sooner1 than it doth the nauseousness occasioned by vehement heats4 ,this circumstance shews how necessary it is1 in the beginning of the process of brewing1 to avoid extracts which are too weak1 as from hence1 in its conclusion1 such would be required whose great heat would render the drink rank and disagreeable4 ,that proportion between the salts and the oils1 which constitutes soundness and pellucidity1 is most pleasing to the taste1 and seems to be the utmost perfection of the art4 ,as the sun never occasions a heat capable of charring the fruits of the vine1 we never meet with wines endued with a taste resembling the empyreumatic1 which we have here represented4 ,this error1 being inexcusable in any liquor1 ought carefully to be guarded against1 and1 from what has here been said1 we should learn this important truth1 that nature is the best guide1 and that1 by imitating1 as near as possible1 her operations1 we shall never be disappointed in our ends4 ,,appendix4 ,though this work has already been carried to a great length1 ,i hope those of my readers1 who may have done me the honor to go attentively through the whole of it1 will pardon me the addition of a few incidental thoughts and queries4 ,the chain of arts is so well connected1 that researches originally intended for the illustration of any one of them1 can hardly fail of throwing some light upon others4 #a4 ,the seed of plants cannot be put in a fitter place1 for perfect vegetation1 than when buried under ground1 at a depth sufficient to defend the young shoots from the vicissitudes of heat and cold1 and the disadvantage of too much moisture4 ,the manuring of the earth1 and the steeping the seed into solutions of salts1 have been found1 in some cases1 to increase the strength of the grain1 to correct its original defects1 and to prevent the noxious impressions of a vicious ground4 ,plants are made to germinate in water alone1 and this experiment so successfully carried on every winter1 in warm apartments1 may still be improved by dissolving salts in the water4--,could the barley used for malting be put in the ground1 its growth would be more natural1 and its oils becoming more miscible with water1 by the saline nourishment derived from the earth1 might yield more vinous1 more strong1 and more lasting liquors4 ,but as this method is impracticable1 would it be impossible to increase the efficacy of that which is used8 ,consult ,home on agriculture3 might not either nitre or salt petre be added to the water1 with which the grain is moistened8 are they not used with success to manure land8 ,are not solutions of them in water employed by the farmer to steep his sowing seed8 ,i barely mention these as some of the substances1 that might be employed in the malting of barley1 and am far from thinking there are none other4 ,perhaps different salts should be used1 according to the nature of the soil1 from which the corn was produced2 but a variety of experiments seems to be required1 in order to discover how far art might in this case imitate and improve nature4 #b4 ,a small quantity of malt1 at all times1 but especially when brewed in large vessels1 parts too readily with the heat which extraction requires2 and1 on the contrary1 if the quantity of malt be very great1 the heat may not be uniformly spread4 ,a forward beer inclinable to acidity is often the result of too short a grist2 a thick1 stubborn1 and rank liquor many times is produced from too large a one4 ,every advantage may be had in brewing1 properly1 five or six quarters of malt2 it is difficult to succeed if the number exceeds fifty4 #c4 ,the strong pungent volatile spirit1 which exhales from a must1 when under full fermentation1 has been supposed to be a loss1 which might be prevented2 and accordingly attempts have been made to retain these flying impetuous particles1 by stopping the communication between the atmosphere and the fermenting drink4 ,that there is a dispersion of spirits is beyond doubt1 and that these exhaling vapors consist of the finest oils1 which the heat forces out of the must1 is equally certain4 ,but this loss seems to be abundantly repaid by the stronger oils1 which the same degree of heat attenuates and substitutes1 in a larger quantity1 to the former4 ,the last oils could never come under the form of a vinous liquor1 but by a power1 which sooner or later dissipates some of the first4 ,pale ales or amber not only lay1 for many days1 exposed to the open air1 but suffer1 by the periodical renewal of the action of the air1 every two or four hours1 a much more considerable loss of spirits1 than when fermentation is carried on uniformly4 ,yet experience shews1 that so many oils are1 by this method1 attenuated1 that the strength acquired greatly surpasses that which is lost4 #d4 ,the practice of fermenting by compression1 recommended to distillers1 seems1 on this account1 less useful1 than might be concluded from theory alone2 the intent of the distiller1 as well as of the brewer1 is to extract the greatest quantity of spiritous oils4 ,it is impossible to ferment a must in vacuo2 air is absolutely necessary to carry on this operation1 even a superabundant quantity of oils admitted into the must1 by obstructing the free admission of the air1 impedes fermentation1 prevents the wine from reaching pellucidity1 and sometimes is the occasion of its becoming putrid4 #e4 ,when the purest spirit is intended to be drawn from the grain1 the fermented wash ought to be suffered to settle1 till it becomes transparent4 ,the dispatch1 with which the distillery is generally carried on1 often prevents this useful circumstance taking place1 and occasions a want of vinosity in the liquor4 ,in many cases1 the extraordinary charges of extracting the grist from malted corn1 in the manner1 which has been directed for drinks intended a short space to be kept1 and of suffering the fermented wash to be meliorated by time1 until it becomes vinous and spontaneously transparent1 might be abundantly repaid4 ,yet1 if hurry must be a part of the distiller's business1 he should at least make such extractions as admit of the speediest fermentation and the readiest pellucidity4 ,he cannot expect corn spirits to equal the brandies of ,france1 unless his worts are similar to the wines distilled in that kingdom1 where those used for this purpose are weak1 fine1 and tending to acidity4#db ,he would therefore secure to himself the greatest probability of success1 if he employed only malted corn in his grist1 this of the best kind1 well germinated to form a saccharine basis1 slack dried1 and resolved1 with weak extracts1 to preserve into the must a proper proportion of vinosity4 ,if he intended this wash to be formed into a pure spirit1 it should be allowed time to become transparent2 he might regulate his extracts by such heats as have been fixed for common small beer1 brewed when the heat of the air is at the lowest fermentable degree1 though perhaps heats less than these1 when dispatch is required1 might better answer his purpose1 especially as the length used in the distillery is nearly the same with that which brewers use for the liquor here referred to4 ,with hot waters to attempt to force from the grain more strength or more oils1 than such as will form a clean tasteless spirit1 is1 in the distillery1 a real loss and a fundamental error4 ,by too strong heats1 more oils are forced into the must than can be converted in spirits2 and fermentation being1 by this over charge1 in some measure1 clogged and impeded1 a less yield is made1 and the liquor obtained of a rank and often empyreumatic taste4 #f4 ,why are the brandies of ,spain inferior to those prepared in ,france8 ,the wines of the last country are the growth of a weaker sun2 they contain no more oils than can be assimilated by fermentation1 and form a clean1 dry1 nutty spirit4 ,the ,spanish wines abounding with more oleaginous than acid parts1 this over proportion becomes not only useless1 but hurtful in the still1 and produces the rankness observed in ,spanish brandies4 ,the cleanness of the spirit arises1 in great measure1 from the weakness of the must1 and its vinosity from a less proportion of oils to the salts4 ,this seems to be the reason why the most grateful spirits are produced from wines unable to bear the sea1 or to be long kept4 #g4 ,the native spirits of vegetables1 says ,boerhaave1 are separated by heats between #id degrees1 and #bab4 ,to obtain the whole of these1 the fire must be gradually increased2 for a superior heat dissipates the spirits raised by an inferior one4 ,such parts as might be obtained by #ajj degrees1 are lost if the heat applied be much greater4 ,it is true1 the parts of vegetables immersed in water1 cannot so easily be dissipated as if they were in open air1 yet1 by the rarefaction of the liquid1 a proportional evaporation1 however small1 must ensue1 or the oils raised by a greater heat may so effectually envelope the finer ones1 as to make them hardly perceptible either to our smell or taste4 ,thus1 though heated water is able to extract all the virtues residing in the vegetables1 the different application of the fire will alter not only their proportions1 but their properties also1 when we consider that pure spirit of wine boils at so low a heat as #age degrees4 ,if the above principles be true1 that surely must be the cleanest spirit which is brought over in the slowest and coolest manner2 and it is more than probable1 if the rules here laid down be put in practice1 the grain of ,england will be found to yield spirits that may vie with the brandies of ,france1 be more pure than those of the ,indies1 and excel those of ,holland4 #h4 ,the vinegar maker is equally concerned with the distiller in the brewing process4 ,vinegar is produced in the last stage of fermentation1 when a gross1 tartareous1 unctous matter1 consisting of the coarser oils extracted either from the grain or the grapes1 generally falls to the bottom of the liquor1 and no longer prevents its acidity1 or affects its flavor4 ,though the best vinegar proceeds either from the strongest wines or beers1 this strength consists in the quantity of fermentable principles1 and not in that of mere oleaginous parts4 ,by properly adapting the extracting waters1 this hurtful impediment may be removed1 and the vinegar from malt liquors become as neat and as strong as that which is made from wine4 #i4 ,as the acid taste of vinegar is the effect of a continued fermentation1 many people have thought it immaterial how speedily the first parts of the operation were carried on4 ,but violent fermentations not only dissipate some of the fine oils1 which should be retained in the vinegar1 but also cause the must to tend towards putrefaction4 ,boerhaave1 after he has directed a frequent transvasion of the liquor1 observes that1 whenever the weather or the workhouse is very hot1 it is often necessary to fill the half emptied vessels every twelve hours1 not only to procure a supply of acids from the air1 but also to cool the wine1 and check the too violent fermentation1 which arising in the half full casks1 might dissipate the volatile spirits1 before they are properly secured and entangled by the acid4 ,hence the liquor might be sour indeed1 but at the same time flat1 and would never become a sharp and strong vinegar4 #aj4 ,application and uses have frequently been found for materials1 which before were supposed to be of no value4 ,the grains1 after the brewer has drawn his worts out of them1 are generally used for the feeding of cattle2 but ,i do not know that hops1 after boiling1 have been employed to any purpose4 ,is there nothing more left in this vegetable1 after it has imparted the virtue wanted to the beer8 ,all plants burnt in open air yield alkaline salts1 though in a greater or less quantity1 according to the quality of the plants4 ,boerhaave says that those which are austere1 acid1 or aromatic1 yield in their ashes a great abundance of salts1 and these being put in fusion1 and mixed with flint or sand1 run into glass4 ,hops thrown1 after decoction1 in no great quantity on the fire1 cause the coals to vitrify1 or as it is generally termed1 to run into clinkers4 ,if therefore the remains of the hops were burnt in open air1 or in a proper furnace1 it seems most likely that no inconsiderable quantity of somewhat like pot ashes might be obtained1 and this1 considering the many tun weight of hops employed in large cities1 and thrown away as useless1 might become an object of private emolument to the brewer1 and of public benefit to the kingdom4 ,,finis4 ,,footnotes3 #a ,vide ,dr4 ,pringle's experiments in his book of observations on the diseases of the army1 p4 #cej1 #cea seq4 #b ,there is a very singular exception in regard to iron itself1 in this respect4 ,it is only a certain degree of heat that expands this metal2 7and that much less than any other either more or less dense7 when melted1 it occupies a less space than when in a solid form4 ,this ought to caution us against an entire dependence on general rules1 by which nature doth not appear to be wholly restricted4 ,see ,mem4 de l',acad4 des ,scienc4 p4 #bgc4 #c ,see ,dr4 ,lewis's ,philosophical ,commerce of ,arts1 p4 #db4 #d ,see ,martine's ,dissertation on ,heat4 ,what the degree of cold was which fixed mercury at ,st4 ,petersburg1 ,i do not recollect4 #e ,it requires seven or eight days4 7,see ,dissertation sur la glace par ,mons4 de ,mayran47 ,paris edition1 #agdi4 ,page #aia4 #f ,lately1 indeed1 by such intense cold as can only be procured with the greatest art1 and in the coldest climates1 mercury is said to have been stagnated1 or fixed4 #g ,by ,dr4 ,hales's experiments made for discovering the proportion of air generated from different bodies1 it appears that raisin wine1 absorbed1 in fermenting1 a quantity of air equal to nearly one third of its volume2 and ale1 under the like circumstances1 absorbed one fifth4 #h ,in the northern part of ,england1 the usual time of steeping barley in the cistern is about #hj hours4 #dj bushels of barley wetted #a hour1 will guage then in the couch #dj bushels1 that is1 if drained from its exterior moisture4 #dj bushels ---- #bj hours1 ---- ---- #db-a_/b bushels4 #dj bushels ---- #dj hours1 ---- ---- #de bushels4 #dj bushels ---- #fj hours1 ---- ---- #dg-a_/b bushels4 #dj bushels ---- #hj hours1 ---- ---- #ej bushels4 ,here the barley is supposed to be fully saturated with the water2 and these #dj bushels of barley1 guaged 7after #hj hours wetting in the cistern7 in the couch1 will be #ej bushels2 but when again guaged on the floor1 from the effect of the roots1 and sometimes the shoots1 occasioning the corn to lie hollow1 here the #dj bushels of barley will shew as #hj bushels4 ,vide ,ramsbottom1 page #aac1 c4 #i ,boerhaave ,elem4 of ,chym4 ,vol4 ,i4 p4 #aie-aii4 ,exp4 #h1 #i1 #aj1 #aa1 #ab1 and #ac4 #aj ,when the medium heat of the dryness of the malt1 and of the heat of the extracts1 are so high as to require the liquors to be forced or precipitated1 in order to become pellucid1 part of the oils which supported them sound1 being carried down by the precipitant1 they will be less capable of preserving themselves1 after having been precipitated1 than they were before4 #aa ,i chose this manner of expressing the quantity of moisture received in ground malt from the air1 as it is the most easy for the direction of the first extract4 #ab ,part ,i4 ,sect ,,xii4 p4 #abd4 #ac ,see page #ef4 #ad ,for the properties answerable to the degrees1 see page #abd4 #ae ,it may be observed that1 in the first and last degrees for drying malt1 sometimes we say one degree more1 sometimes a degree less4--,the experiments we have made do not admit of a geometrical exactness1 nor does the practice of brewing require it2 small errors in beers are effectually removed by age1 and these variations have often been adopted in the tables1 for the conveniency of dividing into whole numbers4 #af ,see p4 #abd4 #ag ,purl1 is pale ale1 in which bitter aromatics1 such as wormwood1 orange peel1 c4 are infused1 used by the labouring people1 chiefly in cold mornings1 and a much better and wholesomer relief to them1 than spiritous liquors4 #ah #aeb1 to which #b degrees must be added1 for what is lost in the extracts coming away1 or #aed degrees1 being the heat of the mash for keeping small beer1 after amber2 as this number is less than #aff degrees1 the last mash of the amber1 consequently1 in the computation made1 to find how much of the quantity of the liquor used1 is to be made to boil1 to give the true degree of heat to the mash of small1 the difference of heat required in this mash1 #aed1 and the heat of the goods #afb or #h1 is to be multiplied by the volume of the goods1 and the product in this case subtracted2 whereas1 in the operations for brewing1 whose heat gradually increased every mash1 it is to be added4 #ai ,we had rather attribute to this cause1 the inferior quality of the ,worcestershire hops1 than to what is reported4 ,that some planters in that county suffer their hops to be so ripe on the poles1 that they become very brown before they are gathered3 to recover their color1 on the fire of the kiln they strew brimstone1 which brings them to a fine yellow2 the dryness and harshness this acid occasions1 they correct by sprinkling the hops with milk1 from whence they bag closer1 and require little straining1 but two ingredients more pernicious to the forming good beers1 perhaps1 could not have been thought of1 than milk and brimstone4 #bj ,this rule only takes place for such climates as are of the same heat with ours2 for when drinks are brewed to be expended in more southern countries1 or to undergo long voyages1 twenty pounds of hops to one quarter of malt have been used with success4 #ba ,if1 of the whole quantity of hops grown in one year1 one half is put into bags1 whose tare is one tenth of their whole weight1 and the other half is put in pockets1 whose tare is one fortieth of their whole weight2 if the excise office allows one tenth for tare upon the whole1 and the excise or weighing officers1 are content with one ninth1 as by their marks1 and the weight when sold to the brewer1 appears to be the fact2 then somewhat like one twentieth part more hops are grown1 than what pays duty1 or than the excise officers report to be the case4 #bb ,forty shillings per hundred weight1 are supposed to be the mean difference between new and old hops1 and ought to be estimated in proportion to the quantity of old left in hand1 and that of new hops grown1 in order to ascertain the value of the last4 #bc ,b4 stands for ,barrels1 ,f4 for ,firkins1 ,g4 for ,gallons4 #bd ,when there are but two worts in brown strong1 keeping strong1 keeping pale small1 or common small1 the boiling is to be observed as marked for the second and third worts4 #be ,the small cask1 called a pin1 is one eighth part of a barrel4 #bf ,by new malt1 ,i understand such1 as has not lost the whole of the heat received on the kiln1 and by old1 such as is of equal heat with the air1 or such which has laid a sufficient time to imbibe part of its moisture4 #bg ,at the time when the first edition of this work was published1 porter or brown beers were brewed with very high dried malts2 experience has shewn to the generality of the trade and to the author1 this practice to be erroneous1 the reasons why have before1 and perhaps hereafter will again1 be spoken of4 ,in compliance with this improvement 7though between the two proposed brewings1 so great a variety will not appear7 ,i have founded my calculations for porter1 on malts dried so as best will answer this purpose4 #bh ,b4 stands for barrels1 ,f4 for firkins1 ,g4 for gallons1 and the numbers past the comma1 where the inches are expressed1 for decimals2 #cd gallons are here allowed to the barrel1 in compliance to the excise gauging1 as these calculations were made without the bills4 #bi ,the half degree omitted in this mash will be added to the next4 #cj ,different quantities of water are differently affected by the same portion of fire2 when the ebullition is just over1 and the surface of the liquor is become smooth2 if some of it is1 by a cock1 drawn from the bottom of the copper1 where the coldest water always is1 the remaining part1 having a greater proportion of fire than before1 again begins to boil1 though not affected by any increase of heat4 #ca ,see page #bfg4 #cb ,g4 ,c4 stands for great copper1 ,l4 ,c4 stands for little copper4 #cc ,deduction from the first mash for heat created by effervescence and hard corns4 ,see the calculation above4 #cd ,additions to the mashes on account of heat lost1 by the liquor coming from little copper1 and by mashing and standing4 ,see page #bic4 #ce ,the charge of the first liquor is for #aa barrels1 with a deduction of #b inches1 according to the gauges of the coppers1 page #bba4 ,these two inches answer to the #h degrees of heat for the effervescence1 hard corns1 and new malt4 ,see computation above4 #cf ,the second and following mashes are to be charged with as many more inches of boiling water1 as answer to the fourth part of the number of degrees of heat lost by the refrigeration of the mashes4 ,see page #bid4 #cg ,in beers intended for long keeping1 the fermentation is to be governed by the heat of the worts or musts1 more than by that of the exterior air4 #ch ,a must or wort1 when under fermentation1 from its internal motion1 increases in heat #aj degrees1 and no keeping beers1 when under this act1 should exceed a heat of #fj degrees2 for this reason1 worts of this sort should at first be set to ferment at a heat of #ej degrees1 and #ej degrees is nearly the mean of the heats these liquors are impressed with1 when deposited in cellars1 from the time of their being formed1 to that of their coming into use4 ,their long continuance in this state is the reason why six pints of yeast per quarter of malt is a sufficient quantity to be used when the heat of the air is at or below #ej degrees4 ,if1 through necessity1 processes of this sort are to be carried on when the mean heat of the natural day is more than this1 the quantities indicated in the table will be the fittest rule4 #ci ,though the air bubbles produced from malt liquors are more uniform1 as to their size or consistence1 than those of natural wines1 yet they are not perfectly so2 for this reason1 and because it requires a greater power to cause a wort or must of malt to ferment1 than it does to keep this act continued1 after it is once begun1 it is necessary1 at first1 to apply such a sufficient quantity of yeast as will obtain this purpose2 therefore1 one half of the remaining six gallons of yeast is put to the wort on its first coming down4 #dj ,the yeast or air bubbles produced from natural wines1 vary not only in their consistence1 but also in their volume2 so that1 in their act of fermentation1 a progressive effect is the consequence of this want of uniformity4 ,the yeast or air bubbles of barley wines are more uniform2 to imitate nature1 it is necessary to apply this principle of fermentation by degrees1 to cause a progressive effect only4 ,feeding of drink is the only means to gain this end2 thereby the newly applied yeast maintains the drink in its required agitation1 in a similar manner as the increased heat and action raised by fermentation causes the air bubbles in natural wines to act and explode1 in proportion to their consistence1 and to the quantity of elastic air the bubbles contain2 and so requisite it is periodically to apply more yeast to this sort of liquor1 or regularly to feed it with this enlivening principle1 that1 in very hot weather1 when this1 through carelessness1 has been omitted1 ,i have known this ale to become foxed or putrefied1 and could attribute this accident to no other cause but to a neglect of this sort1 as the worts had been regularly brewed1 laid thin in the coolers1 received all the cold the night could give them1 and the tun in which the drink was worked was perfectly clean4 #da ,i confess this chapter is rather a matter of curiosity1 an effusion of fancy1 than of any use to me known2 if ,i have suffered it to remain1 it has been to shew that when we have long reflected upon a subject1 our ideas often lead us beyond power of practice2 and with this farther view1 that1 perhaps1 it may become of service in the hands of some more ingenious and more penetrating artist than myself4 ,however1 if ,i trouble my reader with it1 it may be said to be in imitation of an author far superior to myself in rank and knowledge4 #db ,it must be observed1 the wines of ,france in general make the best brandies1 and of these1 such which justly are termed green wines1 7and soon would become acid7 this leads us to the nature of the grain1 and of the extractions to procure an equal1 pure1 nutty spirit4 ,barley1 dried scarcely to the denomination of malt1 and extracted with the lowest medium1 or perhaps one inferior to this1 most likely would answer this purpose4 ,i have tried the experiment in a very imperfect manner1 and found it answer beyond expectation4 ,,index4 ,a4 ,page ,acids1 what1 #b ,air1 principal agent in fermentation1 #ai1 #bc ---- why it slacks malt1 #bj ---- is not easily expelled from bodies1 #ba ---- expelled from worts by long boiling1 #hd ---- heat of1 relative to brewing1 #ade ,alcohol1 what1 #b ---- most effectually dissolves resins1 #ch ,algebraic rules of proportion for mixing cold and hot water1 #bga-bhe ,alkali1 what1 #b ---- its great power as a solvent1 #cg ,b4 ,backs being set1 reason1 #cjf ,barley1 defined1 #hi ---- viscous and replete with acids1 #ij ---- consequence of its germinating1 #ij ---- its state in the field1 #ia ---- ,effect of heating in the mow1 #ib ---- heat which destroys its vegetative power1 #ib1 #ic ---- mow-burned1 unfit for malting1 #ic ---- how much it loses by malting1 #ajj ---- may be dried without germinating1 #ajb ,beers1 why deposited in cellars1 #dg ---- best brewed in pure air1 #he1 #hf ,bird1 ,mr4 his thermometer1 #dc ,body of a wort not opened1 what1 #cbj1 #cba ,boiling1 how effected1 #c ---- necessary for worts1 and management1 #bbd ,brandies of ,france and ,spain compared1 #cec ,brown ale1 what1 #aih ---- stout1 what1 #aii ,burton ale1 what1 #aif ,c4 ,cellars1 temperature1 #aef1 #ahf ---- management of beer1 #cca ,cleansing keeping beers1 #cai ---- common small1 #cba ---- amber1 #cbe ,cloudy beer1 how to be treated1 #ccg ,cocculus ,indicus1 infamous practice of using it1 #cdj ,cold greatest1 at ,london1 #ade ,cooling-in explained1 #bed ,coppers1 method of calculating heights1 #bbj ,d4 ,division of water for a brewing1 #bce-bci ,dorchester beer1 what1 #bjj ,e4 ,earths defined1 #cc ---- sometimes used in precipitation1 #cc ,effervescence1 whence1 #gi ,elements1 for forming pale beers1 #agb ---- brown do41 #agg ---- porter1 #agh1 #ahj1 #bde ---- small beer1 #aij1 #bdh ---- purl1 #aid ,elements for forming amber1 #aie1 #bea ---- keeping small beer1 #aig ---- pale keeping strong and small1 #bci ,expansion1 singular exception in1 #ad ---- differs in different fluids1 #ah ---- of water just boiling1 #bf ,experiments on ,thames1 ,new ,river1 and ,hampstead water1 #ca ,extraction defined1 #afj ---- four different modes1 #afc ---- #ast mode1 #afi ---- #b;d ----1 #agc ---- #c;d ----1 #aha ---- #dth ----1 #aib ,extracts under and over-heated shew similar signs1 #bi ,f4 ,feeding drink1 what1 #cbc ,fermentation1 what1 #f1 #ff ---- its several stages1 #ff-gc ---- its effects1 #gh ---- term too generally applied1 #gh ---- artificial1 defined1 #hj ---- signs and effects1 #cah ,ferments1 what1 #hd ,fining beers1 #ccf ,fire1 nature and properties1 #ac ---- expands all bodies1 #ad ---- how it strengthens some bodies1 #ae ---- loosens the texture of malt1 #ae ---- preserves bodies1 #ae ---- how to regulate its degrees1 #af ,flowers of wine1 what1 #caa ,foxed1 what1 #g ,g4 ,germinating heats of ,france1 ,spain1 c41 #eg-ei ---- ,england1 #ei ,grapes1 their taste in different states1 #ea ---- under what heat produced and ripened1 #ea1 #ee ---- why not produced at ,jamaica1 #ed1 #fj ---- how to discover their properties1 #fd ,grey beer1 how to be treated1 #ccg ,grinding malt1 #aeg ,h4 ,hard corns1 heat they cause in mashes1 #bie ,heat1 medium of ,london1 #ag1 #ade1 #adh1 #aej ---- dissolves more parts than water can contain1 #bf ---- difference in shade and sun1 #eb1 #aef ---- greatest at ,london1 in the shade1 #ade ,hops1 nature and properties1 #bja ---- whence difference of ,worcestershire ,kentish1 #bjc ---- useful in extraction1 #bac ---- calculation to regulate purchasing1 #ac ---- imposition on purchasers1 #baf ---- volume estimated when boiled1 #bbb ---- perhaps useful after being boiled1 #cef ,i4 ,incidents causing heat of extracts to vary from calculation1 #bhi ,isinglass1 what1 #g ---- use and application1 #ccf ,l4 ,lees of wine1 what1 #caa ,lengths in brewing1 explanation1 #bag ,m4 ,malting1 process1 #id1 #abf ,malts1 alter in color the more they are dried1 #dh ---- incapable of retaining more fire than is in external air1 #ii ---- cannot be made in hot weather1 #ajc ---- first degree of heat that constitutes them1 #aje ---- degree which charrs them1 #ajg ---- effect different degrees has upon them1 #ajh-aab ---- properties1 #aac ---- defective1 #aca-acg ---- their virtue in wort contained in amazing small space1 #bgj ,mashes1 four1 their different heats1 #fb ---- last heat1 #bic ,mashing1 #bhf ,maturating and germinating heats1 #eg-ei ,menstruums1 doctrine of1 #cd-ch ---- water1 oils1 and salts1 the principal in brewing1 #ce ,must from grapes1 constituent parts1 #ff ,o4 ,oils1 constituent principles1 #ce ,old hock1 what1 #aii ,p4 ,precipitation1 what1 #i ---- a remedy for diseased beer1 #ccd ,processes of two brewings computed1 #bga ---- reduced to one point of view1 #big-cjc ,purl1 what1 #aic ,putrefaction1 whence1 #gh ,r4 ,rain1 which most fruitful1 #ec1 #ed ,remedies for diseased beer1 #ccd ,s4 ,salts1 a principal menstruum1 #cf1 #cg ---- their nature1 #cg1 #ch ,sealing hermetically1 how performed1 #g ,sick beers1 how to be treated1 #cch ,signs general1 directing the processes in brewing1 #cbg ,spirits' pungent1 exhaling from a fermenting must1 #cej1 #cea ---- of malt might equal those of wine1 #ceb ,spontaneous pellucidity1 how produced1 #cai ,stale beers1 how to be treated1 #cci ,steeping barley1 how practised in the north1 #id ,stock of beer proper1 #cca ,stubborn beers1 how to be treated1 #ccg ,t4 ,table of changes of color in malt by heat1 #aae ---- shewing the age beers will require with medium heats1 #aai ---- shewing the tendency beers have to become fine1 #abd ---- shewing medium heat at ,london at eight in the morning1 #adh ,table shewing medium heat of the air at ,london1 #aej ---- of incidents affecting heat in brewing1 #aee ---- shewing proper dryness of malt1 #afb ---- shewing the quantity of fermentable principles residing in malt1 #afh ---- to determine heat of first and last extract1 #agj ---- ditto for porter1 #age ---- shewing color of grain1 #ahd ---- shewing medium heat of each process1 #ahe ---- shewing heat of first and last extracts in common small beer1 #aia ---- shewing value of hops in degrees1 #bjh ---- shewing the quantity of hops to a quarter of malt in porter1 #bji ---- ditto common small beer1 #baj ---- ---- amber1 #baa ---- ---- ,burton ale1 #bab ---- shewing the medium price hops should bear1 #bae ---- of lengths1 #bai ---- of gauges of coppers1 #bba ---- of time of boiling each beer1 #bbh ---- of volume of malt to reduce grist to liquid measure1 #bed ---- shewing great evaporation of water in brewing1 #bef ---- shewing volume of malt equal to one barrel of water1 #bfg ---- of effervescence of malt1 #bib ---- shewing the times worts should be let down1 #cjh ---- shewing heat at which they should be let down1 #cji ---- shewing depth of head in cleansing small beer1 #cba ---- determining taste of malt liquors1 #cde ,taste1 reason of the difference in malt liquors1 #cdb ,technical terms explained1 #a-ab ,thermometer1 when first known in ,england1 #ci ---- its improvements1 #dj-dc ---- assists to discover the heat of bodies when blended1 #de ---- discovers the strength of a wort1 #dg ---- ---- quality of hops1 #dh ---- absurdity of brewers to reject it1 #di ,times proper for brewing1 #adf ,two brewings1 circumstances relating to them brought into one point of view1 #big-cjc ,v4 ,vegetables1 why fit for wines1 #gd-gf ,vinegar of beer equal to that of wine1 #cee ---- best made from strongest liquors1 #cee ,w4 ,waste water in brewing each beer1 #bcj-bcc ,water1 its expansion by boiling1 #ad ---- becomes of equal heat with the air1 #ba ---- at what degree it changes to ice1 #ba ---- boiled1 its appearance when froze1 #ba ---- which makes the strongest extracts1 #bb ---- being light1 a good property1 #bd ---- great quantities evaporated in brewing1 #be ---- its ultimate parts less than those of air1 #be ---- necessary to fermentation1 #bg ---- excellency of drinks too often attributed to1 #bi ---- how examined1 #cj ---- its division into worts and mashes1 #bcd-beb ,water1 boiling--the proper state and time for cooling in1 #bij ,wines1 general definition1 #ej ---- ,tockay and ,canary1 #eb ---- ,madeira1 #fc ---- the most certain signs of their wholesomeness1 #hf ---- their basis1 #afj ,worts1 sometimes over-hopped1 #bg ---- height in coppers cast up to fix the length1 #bbc ---- cooling-management1 #cjd ,y4 ,yeast1 replaces the air lost by boiling worts1 #bb ---- heat at which it acts1 #cje ---- nature and contents1 #caa ---- quantity for small beer1 #cae ---- ---- strong beer and porter1 #caf ---- ---- ales and amber1 #cag ---- bitten1 what1 #cbj