,illu/ration3 ,eight ,cyl9d] 8,v0 ,type ,curtiss ,a]o ,motor ,hav+ ,two ,r[s ( ,f\r ,cyl9d]s ,p] ,r[4 ,! ,c>buretor is ,%[n at ! ,left ,h& ,l[] ,corn] ,bel[ ! ,motor4 ,= ,front ,elevation ,see ,fig4 ,f-#c on ,page #bc4 ,,practical ,,h& ,,book ( ,,gas1 ,,oil ,,& ,,/eam ,,eng9es ,,/ation>y1 ,,m>9e1 ,,traction ,,gas ,,burn]s1 ,,oil ,,burn]s1 ,,etc4 ,,f>m1 ,,traction1 ,,automobile1 ,,locomotive ,a simple1 practical & compreh5sive book on ! con/ruction1 op]ation & repair ( all k9ds ( eng9es4 ,deal+ ) ! v>i\s p>ts 9 detail & ! v>i\s types ( eng9es & also ! use ( diff]5t k9ds ( fuel4 ,by ,,john ,b4 ,,ra?bun1 ,consult+ ,gas ,eng9e]1 ,editor 8,ignition10 ,in/ructor ,*icago ,te*nical ,college1 ,au?or ,gas ,eng9e ,tr\bles & ,in/allation4 ,publi%$ by ,,*>les ,c4 ,,?ompson ,,co4 ,,*icago1 ,u4 ,s4 ,a4 ,copyright #aiaf ,,*>les ,c4 ,,?ompson ,,co4 ,copyright ,,mcmxiii ,,*>les ,c4 ,,?ompson ,,co4 ,practical ,h& ,book ,gas1 ,oil ,/eam ,eng9es ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,table ( ,cont5ts ,,*apt] ,i--,,heat ,,& ,,p[] ,heat ,en]gy--,me*anical ,equival5t ( ,heat--,expansion ,heat ,units--,heat ,eng9es--,effici5cy--,ext]nal & ,int]nal ,combu/ion ,eng9es--,compression--,work+ ,m$ium #e ,,*apt] ,,ii--,,fuels ,calorific ,values ( ,fuels--,solid1 ,liquid & ,gase\s ,fuels--,k]os5e--,gasol9e--,crude ,oil--,produc] ,gas--,illum9at+ ,gas--,coal--,b5zol #bg ,,*apt] ,,iii--,,work+ ,,cycles ,def9itions ( ,cycle--,f\r ,/roke ,cycle--,two ,/roke ,cycle--,two ,port1 ,two ,/roke--,?ree ,port1 ,?ree ,/roke--,rev]s+--,scav5g+--,junk] ,two ,/roke ,cycle #eh ,,*apt] ,,iv--,,indicator ,,diagrams ,practical ,use ( ! ,indicator--,pressure ,measurem5t--,read+ ! ,c>d--,f\r ,/roke ,cycle ,c>d--,defects 9 ,practical ,work+--,two ,/roke ,cycle ,c>d--,diesel ,c>d--,effects ( ,mixture--,effects ( ,ignition #gb ,,*apt] ,v--,,typical ,,f\r ,,/roke ,,cycle ,,eng9es ,s+le ,cyl9d]--,f\r ,cyl9d] ,automobile--,oppos$ ,type--,v ,type--,t&em--,tw9 ,t&em--,rot>y ,cyl9d]--,radial ,diesel--,knight--,argyle--,rot>y ,valve #hg ,,*apt] ,,vi--,,typical ,,two ,,/roke ,,cycle ,,eng9es ,two ,port--,?ree ,port--,m>9e--,controll$ ,port--,a]onautic--,oe*ehaus]--,gnome ,rot>y ,two ,/roke1 ,ko]t+ #add ,,*apt] ,,vii--,,oil ,,eng9es ,elyria--,m>9e ,diesel--,in/allation--,aspiration ,types--,fairbanks ,morse--,k]os5e--,c>buretion ,diesel--,semi ,diesel--,combu/ion ( ,heavy ,oils #afj ,,*apt] ,,viii--,,ignition ,,sy/ems ,hot ,tube ,sy/em--,l[ ,t5sion ,sy/em--,high ,t5sion ,sy/em--,details ( ,make & ,break ,batt]ies--,l[ ,t5sion ,magnetos--,high ,t5sion ,magnetos--,coils--,adju/m5t--,tr\bles #aie ,,*apt] ,,ix--,,c>buretors ,pr9ciples ( ,c>buretion--,jet ,c>buretors--,wat] ,jacket+--,fuel ,supply--,diff]5t ,types ( ,auto ,c>buretors--,adju/m5t ,c>buretor ,tr\bles #bga ,,*apt] ,x--,,lubrication ,=c$ ,fe$--,spla% ,sy/em--,oil ,pumps--,lubrication ,tr\bles #bhe ,,*apt] ,,xi--,,cool+ ,,sy/ems ,evaporation ,sy/ems--,radiators--,air ,cool+ #bii ,,*apt] ,,xii--,,spe$ ,,gov]nors ,automobiles--,/ation>y--,adju/m5t--,mix ture--,control--,hit & ,miss--,mix$ ,sy/ems #cjh ,,*apt] ,,xiii--,,tractors ,gasol9e & ,oil ,tractors--,me*anism ( ,v>i\s ,types #cbd ,,*apt] ,,xiv ,/eam ,tractors #cdi ,,*apt] ,,xv--,,oil ,,burn]s ,combu/ion--,high ,pressure ,sy/em--,l[ ,pressure ,sy/em--,mix$ ,sy/em--,burn]s = ,furnaces1 ,locomotives1 etc4 #cfc ,gas1 ,oil & ,/eam ,eng9es ,,*apt] ,i ,,heat ,,& ,,p[] 7#a7 ,! ,heat ,eng9e4 ,heat eng9es1 ( :i* ! /eam eng9e & gas eng9e are ! mo/ prom95t examples1 are devices by :i* heat en]gy is trans=m$ into me*anical p[] or motion4 ,9 all heat eng9es1 ?is trans=mation ( en]gy is accompli%$ by t prop]ty ( heat kn[n z 8expansion10 by :i* an increase or decrease ( temp]ature causes a correspond+ increase or decrease 9 volume ( ! mat]ial subject$ to ! v>y+ temp]atures4 ,! sub/ance ^: expansion & contraction actuates ! heat eng9e is kn[n z ! 8work+ m$ium10 & may be ei!r a solid1 liquid1 or a gas4 ,! ext5t to :i* ! work+ m$ium is exp&$ dep5ds n only ^u ! *ange ( temp]ature b also on its composition4 ,9 all practical heat eng9es1 ! heat en]gy is develop$ by ! process ( combu/ion1 :i* is a *emical comb9ation ( ! oxyg5 ( ! air ) c]ta9 sub/ances1 su* z coal or gasol9e1 kn[n z 8fuels40 ,! heat produc+ elem5ts ( ! fuels are g5]ally comp\nds ( c>bon & hydrog51 :i* :5 oxydiz$ or burnt by ! oxyg5 =m products t are unlike ei!r ( ! orig9al compon5ts4 ,x is due to ?is *emical *ange t heat en]gy is evolv$1 = ! heat repres5ts ! en]gy exp5d$ by ! sun 9 build+ up ! fuel 9 its orig9al =m1 & z en]gy c nei!r be creat$ nor de/roy$1 heat en]gy is lib]at$ :5 ! fuel is decompos$4 ,! heat en]gy ?us lib]at$ is appli$ to ! expansion ( ! work+ m$ium to obta9 its equival5t 9 ! =m ( me*anical p[]4 ,dur+ ! p]iod ( expansion1 ! heat obta9$ by ! combu/ion is absorb$ by ! work+ m$ium 9 proportion to its increase 9 volume1 & z ?is increase is proportional to ! me*anical ef=t ex]t$ by ! eng9e1 x w be se5 t ! output ( ! eng9e 9 "w is a measure ( ! heat appli$ to ! m$ium4 ,! quantity ( heat absorb$ by ! m$ium repres5ts ! en]gy requir$ to set ! molecules ( ! m$ium into _! new positions 9 ! great] volume1 or to increase _! pa?s ( travel4 ,9 ! conv]sion ( heat1 ea* heat unit appli$ to ! m$ium results 9 ! production ( #ggh foot p\nds ( en]gy1 provid+ t !re are no heat or frictional losses4 ,9 explanation ( ^! t]ms or units1 we wi% to say1 t ! unit ( heat quantity1 call$ ! ,,briti% ,,!rmal ,,unit is ! quantity ( heat requir$ to raise "o p\nd ( wat]1 "o degree ,fahr5heit1 & ! ,,foot ,,p\nd is ! "w requir$ to raise "o p\nd ?r\gh ! v]tical di/ance ( "o foot4 ,z ! ,briti% ,!rmal ,unit #ggh foot p\nds x is equival5t to ! "w requir$ to raise #ggh p\nds "o foot or "o p\nd #ggh feet1 or any o!r product ( feet & p\nds equal to ! figure #ggh4 ,z liquids exp& m ?an solids ) a giv5 temp]ature1 & gases m ?an ei!r1 ! me*anical "w return$ = a giv5 am\nt ( !rmal en]gy 7! ,,effici5cy7 w be great] ) an eng9e us+ gas z a work+ m$ium ?an "o us+ a solid or liquid work+ m$ium4 ,! /eam eng9e & ! gas eng9e are bo? examples ( heat eng9es us+ gase\s work+ m$iums1 ! m$ium 9 ! /eam eng9e be+ wat] vapor & 9 ! gas eng9e1 air & ! gase\s products ( combu/ion4 ,= ?is reason ! work+ m$ium w be consid]$ z a gas 9 ! succe$+ *apt]s4 ,practically ! only way ( obta9+ me*anical ef=t f an exp&+ gas is to enclose x 9 a cyl9d] 7c7 fitt$ ) a freely slid+ plung] or pi/on 7p7 z %[n 9 ,fig4 #a4 ,two positions ( ! pi/on are %[n1 "o at ,m indicat$ by ! dott$ l9es1 & "o at ,n indicat$ by ! full l9es4 ,x w be assum$ t ! space betwe5 ! cyl9d] head ,p & ! pi/on at ,m repres5ts ! volume ( ! gas be=e x is heat$ & exp&$1 & t ! volume betwe5 ,o & ,n repres5ts ! volume aft] heat+ & expansion h occurr$4 ,! vessel ,b repres5ts a *amb] conta9+ air t is p]iodically heat$ by ! lamp ,l1 & :i* is connect$ to ! work+ cyl9d] ,c by ! pipe ,o4 ,illu/ration3 ,figs4 #a-b-c4 ,%[+ ,expansion 9 an ,ext]nal ,combu/ion ,eng9e1 ! ,cycle ( ,op]ations 9 an ,int]nal ,combu/ion ,eng9e1 & ! ,pressure ,diagram ( ! ,latt] ,eng9e ,giv+ ! ,pressures at ,v>i\s ,po9ts 9 ! ,/roke4 ,) ! pi/on at ,m1 ! lamp ,l is light$ & plac$ "u ! retort ,b :i* results 9 ! imm$iate expansion ( ! air 9 ,b4 ,! exp&$ air passes ?r\gh ,o into ! cyl9d]1 & if suffici5t heat is suppli$1 ex]ts pressure aga9/ ! pi/on s9ce x occupies mu* m ?an its orig9al volume4 ,provid+ t ! friction ( ! device & ! load on ! %aft ,s are l[ en\gh ! pressure on ! pi/on w1 move x to ! position ,n 9 ! direction ( ! arr[1 ?us accompli%+ me*anical "w4 ,! motion ( ! pi/on revolves ! crank to :i* x is connect$ by ! rod ,x f ,d to ,e4 ,dur+ ! trip f ,m to ,n ! volume ( gas has greatly increas$ be+ suppli$ cont9u\sly ) heat f ! lamp4 ,z a consid]able am\nt ( heat has be5 radiat$ f ! cyl9d] dur+ ! pi/on travel1 & a consid]able portion ( ! me*anical "w lo/ ?r\gh ! friction ( ! pi/on on ! cyl9d] walls1 & by ! crank1 n all ( ! heat units are repres5t$ at ! crank z me*anical ef=t4 ,because ( ! limit+ l5g? ( ! cyl9d]1 & ! temp]ature limits ( ! lamp x is n possible to exp& ! work+ m$ium & increase ! temp]ature indef9itely1 !re=e !re mu/ be a po9t :]e ! application ( heat mu/ cease & ! temp]ature be r$uc$ 9 ord] to br+ ! gas back to its orig9al volume & ! pi/on to its orig9al position s t ! expansion may be repeat$4 ,?is condition results 9 a v consid]able loss ( heat & p[] 9 addition to ! losses previ\sly m5tion$1 z ! heat tak5 f ! m$ium to r$uce x to its orig9al volume is ?r[n away z f> z ! production ( p[] is conc]n$4 ,to return ! pi/on to its =m] position )\t exp5d+ en]gy on ! eng9e1 ! volume & pressure may be r$uc$ ei!r by all[+ ! gas to escape to ! atmosph]e by means ( a valve1 or by remov+ ! lamp & cool+ ! air by ! application ( wat]1 b 9 any case ! heat ( ! air is lo/ & ! effici5cy ( ! eng9e r$uc$4 ,to increase ! effici5cy ( ! eng9e & r$uce ! loss j m5tion$1 ne>ly all heat eng9es1 ei!r /eam or gas1 h ! work+ m$ium at ! highe/ temp]ature = only a small portion ( ! /roke1 aft] :i* no heat is suppli$ to ! cyl9d]4 ,z ! pressure =ces ! pi/on =w>d ! volume increases1 & z no m heat is suppli$1 bo? ! pressure & ! temp]ature cont9ue to decrease until ! end ( ! /roke is rea*$1 ?us utiliz+ ! great] "p ( ! heat 9 ! expansion4 ,s9ce ! temp]ature at ! end ( ! /roke is comp>atively l[1 v little heat is reject$ :5 ! valve is op5$ = ! return /roke4 ,?is loss w\ld be ! lea/ :5 ! temp]ature ( ! gas at ! end ( ! /roke 0 equal to ! temp]ature ( ! surr\nd+ air4 ,) bo? ! int]nal & ext]nal temp]atures equal1 !re w\ld be no diff]5ce betwe5 ! pressure ( ! gas 9 ! cyl9d] & t ( ! surr\nd+ air4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #a-;a4 ,fairbanks-,morse ,two ,cyl9d]1 ,type 8,r ,e0 ,/ation>y ,eng9e ,direct ,connect$ to a ,dynamo4 ,x w be se5 f ! example j giv5 t ! heat eng9e p]=ms me*anical "w by dropp+ ! work+ m$ium f a high to a l[ temp]ature1 z x receives ! m$ium at a high temp]ature f ! lamp & rejects x at atmosph]ic temp]ature aft] deliv]+ a small p]c5tage ( useful "w4 ,?is may be comp>$ to a wat] :eel :i* receives ! work+ m$ium 7wat]7 at a high pressure & rejects x at a l[] pressure4 ,c>ry+ ?is comp>ison /ill fur!r1 x is evid5t t an increase 9 ! range ( ! work+ temp]atures 7high & l[7 w\ld increase ! output ( ! heat eng9e 9 ! same way t an increase 9 ! range ( pressures w\ld increase ! output ( ! wat] :eel4 ,! temp]ature at :i* ! eng9e receives ! work+ m$ium & ! temp]ature at :i* x is reject$ det]m9es ! numb] ( heat units t are available = conv]sion into me*anical en]gy1 & !re=e1 if ! range be increas$ by ei!r rais+ ! upp] limit ( temp]ature or by r$uc+ ! l[] limit1 or by ! comb9$ increase & decrease ( ! limits1 ! available heat w be increas$4 ,bas$ on ! temp]ature range1 ! maximum possible effici5cy ( ! heat eng9e may be express$ by ! ratio-- ,reception ,temp]ature--,rejection ,temp]ature ,e ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ------ ,reception ,temp]ature ,?is maximum def9$ by ,c>not e/abli%es a limit t c be exce$$ by no eng9e1 :atev] ! con/ruction or work+ m$ium4 ,accord+ to ! me?ods adopt$ 9 apply+ ! heat ( combu/ion to ! work+ m$ium1 heat eng9es are divid$ into two g5]al classes1 7#a7 ,ext]nal combu/ion eng9es1 7#b7 ,int]nal combu/ion eng9es4 ,! expressions 8,int]nal0 or 8,ext]nal0 ref] to ! po9t at :i* combu/ion takes place 9 reg>d to ! work+ cyl9d]1 ?us an int]nal combu/ion eng9e is "o 9 :i* ! combu/ion takes place 9 ! work+ cyl9d]1 & an ext]nal combu/ion eng9e is "o 9 :i* ! combu/ion takes place outside ( ! work+ cyl9d]4 ,! /eam eng9e is an example ( an ext]nal combu/ion eng9e1 ! fuel be+ burn$ 9 ! furnace ( a boil] :i* is indep5d5t ( ! eng9e cyl9d] prop]4 ,z ! fuel is burn$ directly 9 ! cyl9d] ( a gas eng9e x is commonly kn[n z an int]nal combu/ion eng9e4 ,an ext]nal combu/ion eng9e1 su* z ! /eam eng9e is subject to _m s]i\s heat losses because ( ! indirect me?od by :i* ! heat is suppli$ to ! work+ cyl9d]1 aside f ! losses 9 ! cyl9d]4 ,mu* ( ! heat goes up ! smoke /ack & mu* is radiat$ f ! boil] sett+s & ! /eam pipes t lead to ! eng9e4 ,! greate/ loss h[ev] is due to ! fact t ! range ( temp]atures 9 ! work+ cyl9d] is v l[ comp>$ to ! temp]atures atta9$ 9 ! boil] furnace1 = x is practically impossible to h a great] range ?an #cej;,f to #ajj;,f ) a /eam eng9e1 :ile ! furnace temp]atures may run up to #bejj;,f & ev5 beyond4 ,high temp]atures ) a /eam eng9e result 9 ! developm5t ( enorm\s pressures1 a temp]ature ( #edg;,f correspond+ to an absolute pressure ( #ajjj p\nds p] squ>e in*4 ,?is pressure w\ld require an extremely heavy & ineffici5t eng9e because ( ! t]rific /ra9s set up 9 ! mov+ p>ts4 ,! pressures e/abli%$ by air z a work+ m$ium are v mu* l[] ?an ^? produc$ by air or any p]man5t gas at ! same temp]ature1 & = ?is reason x is possible to exce$ a work+ temp]ature ( ov] #cjjj;,f 9 ! cyl9d] ( a gas eng9e )\t meet+ ) excessive pressures4 ,?is high work+ temp]ature is "o ( ! reasons ( ! extremely high effici5cy ( ! gas eng9e4 ,9 ord] to compete ) ! gas eng9e f ! /&po9t ( effici5cy1 ! /eam eng9e build]s h resort$ to sup]-heat+ ! /eam aft] x has left ! boil] 9 ord] to increase ! temp]ature range 9 ! cyl9d]4 ,by apply+ additional heat to ! /eam aft] x has pass$ out ( contact ) ! wat] x is possible to obta9 up to #fjj;,f )\t mat]ial increase 9 ! pressure1 b ! practical ga9s h n be5 great en\gh to approa* ! gas eng9e ) its #cjjj;,f4 ,aft] rea*+ 8 maximum temp]ature at ?is comp>atively l[ pressure1 ! /eam eng9e] has /ill to elim9ate a numb] ( o!r losses t d n obta9 ) ! gas eng9e4 ,s9ce ! radiation losses ( a burn+ fuel are proportional to ! "t requir$ = burn+1 x is evid5t t ! rate ( combu/ion has mu* to d ) ! effici5t developm5t ( ! heat conta9$ 9 x1 & x is true t rapid combu/ion develops m useful heat f a giv5 fuel ?an sl[4 ,9 ! gas eng9e ! combu/ion is practically in/antane\s ) a l[ radiation loss1 b 9 ! /eam eng9e ! rate is sl[1 & ) ! excess ( air t mu/ necess>ily be suppli$1 a great "p ( ! value ( ! fuel is lo/ be=e rea*+ ! wat] 9 ! boil]4 ,! temp]ature ( ! m$ium det]m9es ! effici5cy ( ! eng9e & z rapid combu/ion increases ! temp]ature x is evid5t t ! gas eng9e aga9 has ! be/ ( ! problem4 ,9 ! case ( ! gas eng9e :]e ! fuel 79 gase\s =m7 is drawn directly into ! work+ cyl9d] 9 intimate contact ) ! work+ m$ium 7air7 & 9 ! correct proportions = complete combu/ion1 ea* p>ticle ( fuel1 :5 ignit$1 applies its heat to ! adjac5t p>ticle ( air in/antly & increases its volume ) a m9imum loss by radiation4 ,a gas eng9e is practically a /eam eng9e ) ! furnace plac$ directly 9 ! work+ cyl9d] ) all int]v5+ work+ m$iums remov$1 ! gases ( combu/ion act+ z ! work+ m$ium4 ,x d]ives its p[] f ! in/antane\s combu/ion ( a mixture ( fuel & air 9 ! cyl9d]1 ! expansion ( :i* causes pressure on ! pi/on4 ,"u ! influ5ce ( ! pressure on ! pi/on1 ! crank is turn$ ?r\gh ! connect+ rod & deliv]s p[] to ! belt :eel :]e x is available = driv+ ma*9]y4 ,:e!r ! fuel be ( solid1 liquid1 or gase\s orig9 x is always introduc$ into ! cyl9d] 9 ! =m ( a gas4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #a-;b4 ,! ,engli% ,adams ,automobile ,motor 7,end ,view71 ,%[+ ! ,magneto ,driv5 by ,spiral ,ge>s at ,"r ,angles to ! ,crank-,%aft4 7#c7 ,combu/ion ,9 ! ,cyl9d]4 ,z ! work+ m$ium 9 an int]nal combu/ion eng9e is 9 direct contact ) ! fuel x mu/ n only be un9flammable b x mu/ also be capable ( su/a9+ combu/ion & mu/ h a great expansion = a giv5 temp]ature range4 ,s9ce atmosph]ic air possesses all ( ^! qualifications 9 addition to be+ pres5t 9 all places 9 unlimit$ quantities x is natural t x %\ld be us$ exclusively z ! work+ m$ium = gas eng9es4 ,unlike ! vapor work+ m$ium 9 a /eam eng9e ! m$ium 9 ! gas eng9e n only acts 9 an expansive capacity b also z an oxydiz+ ag5t = burn+ ! fuel1 & !re=e mu/ be> a def9ite relation to ! quantity ( ! fuel 9 ! cyl9d] to insure complete combu/ion4 ,9 ! gas eng9e ! use ( gase\s fuel is imp]ative s9ce !re mu/ be no solid residue exi/+ 9 ! cyl9d] aft] combu/ion & also = ! reason t ! fuel mu/ be 9 a v f9ely subdivid$ /ate 9 ord] t ! combu/ion %all proce$ ) ! greate/ possible rapidity4 ,9 addition to ! above requirem5ts ! introduction ( a solid fuel into ! cyl9d] w\ld involve almo/ unsurm\ntable me*anical problems 9 reg>d to fuel measurem5t = ! v>y+ loads on ! eng9e4 ,?is limits ! fuel to c]ta9 hydroc>bon or comp\nds ( hydrog5 & c>bon 9 gase\s =m ( :i* ! foll[+ are ! mo/ common examples3 7a7 ,,c>buret$ ,,air consi/+ ( a mixture ( atmosph]ic air & ! vapor ( "s hydroc>bon 7liquid7 su* z gasol9e1 k]os5e or alcohol4 7b7 ,,oil ,,gas =m$ by ! di/illation ( "s heavy1 nonvolatile oil1 or ! di/illation ( t> or p>aff9e4 7c7 ,,natural ,,gas obta9$ f natural accumulations occurr+ 9 subt]ranean pockets 9 v>i\s p>ts ( ! c\ntry4 7d7 ,,coal ,,gas1 made artificially by ! di/illation ( coal1 commonly call$ 8illum9at+0 gas4 7e7 ,,produc] ,,gas1 "s times kn[n z 8fuel gas10 produc$ by ! incomplete combu/ion ( coal 9 a =m ( furnace call$ a 8produc]40 7f7 ,,bla/ ,,furnace ,,gas1 ! unconsum$ gas f ! furnaces us$ 9 smelt+ iron1 some:at simil> to produc] gas b l[] 9 heat value4 ,x %\ld be not$ t !re is no ess5tial diff]5ce betwe5 eng9es us+ a p]man5t gas or an oil z 9 ei!r case ! fuel is s5t into ! cyl9d] 9 ! =m ( a vapor4 ,9 ! case ( oil fuel1 ! vapor is =m$ by an appliance ext]nal to ! eng9e prop]4 ,9 ?is book1 ! heat action ( an eng9e us+ "o =m ( fuel applies equally to ! eng9e us+ ano!r4 ,! selection ( a p>ticul> fuel = use ) a gas eng9e dep5ds n only ^u its value 9 produc+ heat1 b also ^u its co/1 ! ease ) :i* x meets ! peculi> conditions "u :i* ! eng9e is to "w1 & its accessibility4 ,neglect+ = ! mom5t1 all ( ! items t d n affect ! op]ation ( ! eng9e f a p[] produc+ /&po9t1 ! pr9cipal requirem5t ( a fuel is ! production ( a high temp]ature 9 ! cyl9d] s9ce ! output is directly proportional to ! temp]ature range4 ,s9ce a v consid]able mass ( air is to be rais$ to ?is high temp]ature1 ! heat value1 or ,,calorific ,,value ( ! fuel 9 ,briti% ,!rmal units is ( z mu* importance z ! temp]ature atta9$ 9 ! combu/ion4 ,! calorific value ( diff]5t fuels v>y widely :5 bas$ ei!r on ! cubic foot or p\nd1 & a consid]able v>iation exi/s ev5 among fuels ( ! same class ow+ to ! diff]5t me?ods ( production or to ! natural conditions exi/+ at ! m9e or well f :i* !y orig9at$4 ,! pr9cipal elem5ts ( gas eng9e fuels1 c>bon & hydrog51 exi/ 9 _m diff]5t comb9ations & proportions1 & require diff]5t quantities ( air z oxyg5 = _! combu/ion because ( ?is diff]5ce 9 *emical /ructure4 ,s9ce complete combu/ion is nev] obta9$ "u practical work+ conditions1 ! actual evolution ( heat & ! actual temp]atures are always mu* l[] ?an ^? indicat$ by ! ,,calorimet] or heat measur+ device4 ,besides ! loss ( heat due to imp]fect combu/ion1 !re are _m o!r losses su* z ! loss by radiation1 connection1 & sl[ burn+1 ! latt] be+ ! pr9cipal cause ( l[ combu/ion temp]atures4 ,f ! /atem5ts 9 ! =ego+ p>agraphs x w be se5 t ! !oretical or absolute calorific value ( a fuel is n always a true index to its effici5cy 9 ! eng9e4 ,complete combu/ion results 9 ! c>bon ( ! fuel be+ r$uc$ to c>bon dioxide 7,,co#b7 & ! hydrog5 to wat] 7,h#b,o71 ) ! lib]ation ( atmosph]ic nitrog5 t 0 previ\sly comb9$ ) ! fuel1 & "s oxyg54 ,! r$uction ( ! fuel to c>bon dioxide & wat] produces e heat unit available s9ce ! latt] comp\nds repres5t ! l[e/ /ate to :i* ! fuel c be burn$4 ,c>bon h[ev] may be burn$ to an int]m$iate /ate )\t ! production ( its entire calorific cont5ts :5 !re is n suffici5t oxyg5 pres5t to ?or\ghly consume ! fuel4 ,incompletely consum$ c>bon produces a gas1 c>bon monoxide1 z a product ( combu/ion1 & a quantity ( solid c>bon 9 a f9ely subdivid$ /ate kn[n z 8soot40 ,unlike ! products ( complete combu/ion1 bo? ! c>bon monoxide & soot may be burn$ to a l[] /ate ) a production ( additional heat :5 furni%$ ) suffici5t oxyg51 bo? ! soot & ! monoxide be+ r$uc$ to c>bon dioxide dur+ ! process4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 ,f-#b4 ,sunbeam ,eng9e ) ,six ,cyl9d]s ,ca/ 8,en ,bloc0 79 "o piece74 ,at ! ,"r & ,"u ! ,exhau/ ,pipe is ! ,compress$ ,air ,/>t+ ,motor t ,/>ts ! ,motor ,?r\gh ! ,ge> ,tee? ,%[n on ,fly:eel4 ,f 8,int]nal ,combu/ion40 ,z ! soot & monoxide h a calorific value x is evid5t t mu* ( ! heat ( ! fuel is wa/$ if !y are exhau/$ f ! cyl9d] )\t fur!r burn+ at ! end ( ! /roke4 ,to ga9 e possible heat unit x is necess>y to furni% suffici5t oxyg5 or air to r$uce ! fuel to its l[e/ /ate4 ,z ! free oxyg5 & nitrog5 conta9$ 9 ! fuel are )\t fuel value1 _! rejection f ! cyl9d] occasions no loss except = t heat :i* !y take f ! cyl9d] by virtue ( _! high temp]ature4 ,) complete combu/ion ! ,,temp]ature atta9$ increases ) ! rate ( burn+1 :ile ! numb] ( heat units develop$ rema9 ! same ) any rate ( combu/ion4 ,because ( ! conditions "u :i* ! fuel is burn$ 9 ! gas eng9e ! fuel is burn$ almo/ in/antane\sly ) ! result t high temp]atures are rea*$ ) fuels ( comp>atively l[ calorific value4 ,) a giv5 gas ! rate ( combu/ion is increas$ ) an increase 9 ! temp]ature ( ! gas be=e ignition & rema9s con/ant = all mixtures ( ?is gas 9 ! same proportion :5 ! initial temp]ature is ! same4 ,! rate ( combu/ion also v>ies ) ! composition ( ! gas1 hydrog5 burn+ m rapidly ?an me?ane4 ,z a rule x might be /at$ t ! rate ( burn+ decreases ) ! specific gravity ( ! gas1 ! light gases su* z hydrog5 burn ) almo/ explosive rapidity1 :ile ! heavi] gases su* z c>bon dioxide are incombu/ible or h a z]o rate ( combu/ion4 ,9 practice an increas$ rate ( burn+ is obta9$ by heat+ ! *>ge be=e ignition by a process t w be expla9$ lat]4 ,ano!r factor gov]n+ ! output ( an eng9e ) a giv5 size cyl9d] is ! am\nt ( air requir$ to burn ! fuel4 ,! quantity ( air necess>y = ! combu/ion ( ! fuel det]m9es ! am\nt ( fuel t c be drawn into a giv5 cyl9d] volume1 & z we are dep5d5t ^u ! fuel = ! expansion x is evid5t t ) two fuels ( ! same calorific value1 ! "o requir+ ! lea/ air w develop ! mo/ p[]4 ,s9ce ! air requir$ to burn hydrog5 gas is only "o f\r? ( t requir$ to burn ! same am\nt ( me?ane x is cle> t m hydrog5 c be burn$ 9 ! cyl9d] ?an me?ane4 ,?is great increase 9 output due to ! hydrog5 *>ge is h[ev]1 consid]ably (fset by ! great] calorific value ( ! me?ane4 ,%\ld ! air be 9 excess ( t requir$ = complete combu/ion1 or %\ld a great quantity ( incombu/ible gas1 su* z nitrog5 be pres5t 9 ! mixture1 ! fuel w be completely burn$1 b ! spe$ ( burn+ w be r$uc$ ow+ to ! dilution4 ,z ! air is increas$ beyond ! prop] proportions ! explosions become weak] & weak] z ! gas becomes lean] until ! eng9e /ops entirely4 ,because ( ! fact t x is impossible 9 practice to s ?or\ghly mix ! gas & air t ea* p>ticle ( gas is 9 contact ) a p>ticle ( air1 ! volume ( air us$ = ! combu/ion is mu* great] ?an t !oretically requir$4 ,a ,,slight excess ( air1 mak+ a lean mixture1 increases ! effici5cy ( combu/ion al?\gh x r$uces ! temp]ature & pressure atta9$ 9 ! cyl9d]4 ,?is is due to ! fact t :ile ! temp]ature ( ! mixture is l[] ?an ) ! !oretical mixture ! temp]ature ( ! burn+ gas itself is mu* high]4 ,a mixture t is too lean to burn at ord9>y temp]atures w respond readily to ! ignition sp>k if ! temp]ature or pressure is rais$4 7#d7 ,compression4 ,9 ! practical gas eng9e ! gas is n ignit$ at ! beg9n+ ( ! suction /roke by :i* x is drawn into ! cyl9d]1 b is compress$ 9 ! front end ( ! cyl9d] by ! return /roke ( ! pi/on1 & !n ignit$4 ,! process ( compression adds greatly to ! p[] output ( a giv5 siz$ cyl9d] & increases ! effici5cy ( ! fuel & expansion4 ,9 ord] to und]/& ! relation t ! compression be>s to ! expansion let u ref] to ,fig4 #b 9 :i* ,c is ! work+ cyl9d]1 ,p ! pi/on & ,g ! crank4 ,:ile ! pi/on is mov+ t[>ds ! crank 9 ! direction ( ! arr[ ,a x draws ! mixture1 indicat$ by ! m>ks x x x x x1 into ! cyl9d]1 ! quantity be+ proportional to ! position ( ! pi/on4 ,9 ?is p>ticul> case let u assume t ! area ( ! pi/on is #ej squ>e in*es & t ! entire /roke 7,b7 ( ! pi/on is #ab in*es4 ,to prev5t confusion due to consid]ations ( heat loss we w fur!r assume t ! cyl9d] is con/ruct$ ( non-conduct+ mat]ial4 ,) ! pi/on at ! position ,h1 midway betwe5 ,j & ,i1 ! volume ,d is fill$ ) ! explosive mixture at atmosph]ic pressure & a temp]ature ( #ejj absolute4 ,s9ce ,d #f in*es & ! area ( ! pi/on is #ej squ>e in*es1 ! volume ,d is equal to #f #ej #cjj cubic in*es1 & ! entire volume is #b #cjj #fjj cubic in*es4 ,on ignit+ ?is mixture 7at atmosph]ic pressure7 ! temp]ature w rise imm$iately1 say to #ajjj;,f ) ! pi/on at ,h4 ,accord+ to a law gov]n+ ! expansion ( gases1 kn[n z ,gay-,lussac's ,law1 ! expansion 7v ,t7_/t ,v :]e v ! initial volume ( ! gas be=e ignition #cjj cubic in*es2 t ! temp]ature be=e ignition #ejj absolute2 ,v ! volume ( ! gas aft] expansion2 & ,t temp]ature aft] ignition #ajjj absolute4 ,ins]t+ ! values 9 num]ical =m we h z ! f9al volume3--7#cjj #ajjj7_/ejj #fjj cubic in*es ! volume aft] expansion1 or twice ! orig9al volume ( gas4 ,?is means t ! expansion is capable ( driv+ ! pi/on f ,h to ,i be=e ! pressure is r$uc$ aga9 to atmosph]ic pressure4 ,z ! volume is exp&$ to twice t ( ! orig9al volume at atmosph]ic pressure 7#ad4g p\nds p] squ>e in*71 ! pressure aga9/ ! pi/on be=e x />ts mov+ w be #b #ad4g #bi4d p\nds p] squ>e in*4 ,let u n[ consid] ! case 9 :i* ! *>ge is compress$ be=e ignition occurs & comp>e ! expansion & pressure e/abli%$ ) t produc$ by ignition at atmosph]ic pressure4 ,to produce ! compression ! pi/on w travel ?r\gh ! entire /roke to ! position ,i on ! suction /roke fill+ ! entire cyl9d] volumes ( #fjj cubic in*es ) ! mixture4 ,on ! return /roke ! pi/on /ops at ,h1 r$uc+ ! orig9al volume ( #fjj cubic in*es to #cjj cubic in*es1 d\bl+ ! pressure ( ! gas4 ,! initial & f9al temp]atures w be consid]$ z be+ ! same z ^? 9 ! fir/ example1 #ejj & #ajjj4 ,f ,gay-,lussac's ,law--7v ,t7_/t ,v & sub/itut+ ! num]ical values 7#fjj #ajjj7_/ejj #abjj cubic in*es1 or ! exp&$ volume w be f\r times ! compress$ volume1 or f\r times ! initial volume ( ! fir/ case :]e ! gas 0 ignit$ at atmosph]ic pressure4 ,x %\ld be not$ h[ev]1 t :ile ! expansion has be5 greatly increas$ by ! compression1 t ?is is n all ga91 z equival5t "w has be5 exp5d$ 9 compress+ ! *>ge4 ,) ! exception ( d\bl+ ! fuel tak5 into ! cyl9d]1 & consequ5tly d\bl+ ! output = a c]ta9 cyl9d] capacity1 !re has be5 no increase 9 fuel effici5cy except t due to conditions o!r ?an ! m]e r$uction 9 volume4 ,9 ! second case ! volume 0 increas$ f\r fold :i* result$ 9 a pi/on pressure ( #d #ad4g #eh4h p\nds p] squ>e in* be=e ! pi/on increas$ ! volume by mov+ f ,h to ,i4 ,! "w done by ! eng9e on ! *>ge 9 compress+ is conv]t$ into heat en]gy caus+ a rise 9 ! temp]ature ( ! gas4 ,?is w\ld n be a loss z x w\ld reappe> z me*anical en]gy on ! return /roke ( ! pi/on ?r\gh its exp&+ effect on ! gas4 ,?is heat w\ld1 9 effect1 be add$ to ! temp]ature due to ignition1 & ! sum w\ld produce its equival5t expansion4 ,! temp]ature due to ! combu/ion may be det]m9$ by rev]s+ ,gay-,lussac's ,law-- t ,i ,pt -- -- or ,t ---- p ,p p ,:]e t initial temp]ature2 ,t temp]ature combu/ion2 ,p pressure aft] combu/ion2 p pressure be=e combu/ion4 ,because ( ! fact t ! act ( compress+ ! *>ge 9 ! cyl9d] be=e ignition increases ! temp]ature ( ! work+ m$ium1 ! compression w increase ! spe$ ( combu/ion & effici5cy ( ! fuel z ! rate ( combu/ion increases ) ! initial temp]ature4 ,?is increas$ temp]ature due to initial compression ( c\rse results 9 a great] temp]ature range & output due to ! increas$ rate ( burn+1 & ?is rate ( combu/ion may be v>i$ = diff]5t fuels by *ang+ ! compression pressure4 ,9 a previ\s p>agraph x 0 expla9$ t ! fuel effici5cy 0 increas$ by a slight dilution or excess ( air1 & t :ile ! temp]ature & pressure ( ! mixture 7 r$uc$ by ! dilution ! temp]ature ( ! fuel 0 increas$1 provid$ t ! inflammability 0 n decreas$4 ,compression af=ds a means ( us+ dilute mixtures )\t loss ( inflammability1 z ! heat ga9$ by ! compression re/ores ! inflammability lo/ by ! effects ( dilution4 ,increas$ compression pressures increases ! possible range ( dilution1 s t extremely lean gases & mixtures may be us$ ) success ) appropriately high compression4 ,z an example ( ?is fact we c ref] to ! eng9e us+ bla/ furnace gas1 a fuel t is s lean t x _c be ignit$ "u atmosph]ic pressure4 ,by increas+ ! pi/on spe$1 ! heat ( ! compression c be made m effective z ! gas lies 9 contact ) ! cyl9d] walls = a %ort] "t :i* ( c\rse r$uces ! heat to ! jacket wat]4 7#e7 ,effici5cy & ,heat ,losses4 ,up to ! pres5t "t we h consid]$ an eng9e 9 :i* !re is no heat loss or loss f friction1 b 9 ! actual eng9e su* losses are l>ge & t5d to mat]ially r$uce ! values ( heat & pressure to be obta9$ f a fuel ) a giv5 calorific cont5t4 ,apply+ ! rule = heat eng9es giv5 9 a previ\s section :]e ! effici5cy is-- ,t - t ,e ---------- ,t ,we h ! !oretical effici5cy ( a gas eng9e1 neglect+ friction1 loss to ! cyl9d] walls1 & loss ?r\gh ! rejection ( heat ) ! exhau/ gas1 equal to-- #aifj - #ebj ,e -------------------- #gc4e p]c5t4 #aifj ,9 sub/itut+ ! num]ical values 9 ! above calculation x 0 assum$ t ! temp]ature ( ! burn+ mixture w\ld be #aejj ,f above z]o1 & t ! exhau/ temp]ature w\ld be z l[ z #fj4 ,s9ce ! calculation is made f absolute z]o1 :i* is #dfj bel[ ! z]o m>k$ on our !rmomet]s1 ! temp]ature ( ! burn+ *>ge1 ,t #aejj #dfj #aifj above absolute z]o4 ,simil>ly ! absolute temp]ature ( ! exhau/ w\ld be1 t #fj #dfj #ebj absolute4 ,! application ( ! absolute temp]atures w be se5 f ! calculation = effici5cy4 ,! value giv51 #gc4e p] c5t1 x %\ld be und]/ood is ! !oretical effici5cy & is at lea/ #bj p] c5t above ! be/ results obta9$ 9 practice4 ,! be/ record t we h _h to date1 is t e/abli%$ by a ,diesel eng9e :i* return$ #dh4b p] c5t ( ! calorific value ( ! fuel 9 ! =m ( me*anical en]gy4 ,9 ord] t ! read] may h "s idea ( ! losses t occur 9 ! eng9e1 & _! ext5t we submit ! foll[+ table4 ,^! are ! results ( actual te/s obta9$ f diff]5t s\rces & repres5t eng9es built = diff]5t s]vices & ( v>i\s capacities3 ,,losses--,,data ,automobile,/ation>y,/ation>y ,motor ,eng9e ,eng9e ,horse-p[] #cj4 #bjj #ajjj ,loss at p] ,heat lo/ to jacket wat] #ce4h #ca4j #bigj ,b4,t4,u4,horse-p[] 9 ,b4,t4,u4's ,heat lo/ 9 exhau/ #bd4f #cj4j #bhce ,b4,t4,u4 ,friction loss #h4f #f4e #haj ,b4,t4,u4 ,heat lo/ by radiation #ae4d #h4b #edj ,b4,t4,u4 ,heat available z p[] #bgjj ,b4,t4,u4 ,effici5cy 7p] c5t7 #ae4f #bd4c ,fuel ,gasol9e ,produc] ,gas ,! rem>kable effici5cy ( ! ,diesel eng9e is due pr9cipally to ! extremely high compression pressure1 :i* 0 f #ejj to #fjj p\nds p] squ>e in*4 ,:5 ?is is comp>$ to ! #fj to #gj p\nds compression pressure us$ ) automobile eng9es x is easy to see :]e ! ,diesel ga9s its effici5cy4 ,x is evid5t t z mu* dep5ds on ! mann] 9 :i* ! fuel is us$ 9 ! eng9e z on ! calorific value ( ! fuel4 7#f7 ,expansion ( ! ,*>ge4 ,:5 an explosive mixture is ignit$ 9 ! cyl9d] ) ! pi/on fix$ 9 "o position ?us mak+ ! volume con/ant1 ! increase ( temp]ature is accompani$ by an increase ( pressure4 ,if ! pi/on is n[ all[$ to move =w>d increas+ ! volume1 ! increase ( volume decreases ! pressure4 ,s9ce 9 ! op]ation ( ! gas eng9e ! pi/on cont9u\sly exp&s ! volume on ! work+ /roke x is evid5t t !re is no po9t 9 ! /roke :]e ! pressures are equal1 & t ! pressure is ! lea/ at ! end ( ! /roke1 x be+ und]/ood ( c\rse t no additional heat is suppli$ to ! m$ium aft] ! pi/on beg9s its /roke4 ,?is di/ribution ( pressure 9 ! cyl9d] 9 relation to ! pi/on position is be/ repres5t$ graphically by means ( a diagram z %[n by ,fig4 #c1 9 :i* ,k is ! cyl9d] & ,p ! pi/on4 ,above ! cyl9d] is %[n ! diagram ,,hgde ! l5g? ( :i* 7,,he7 is equal to ! /roke ( ! pi/on %[n by 7,,bc74 ,int]sect+ ! l9e ,,hi are v]tical l9es1 ,a1 a1 b1 c1 ,c1 :i* repres5t c]ta9 positions ( ! pi/on 9 its /roke4 ,! height ( ! diagram ,h ,g repres5ts to scale ! maximum explosion pressure 9 p\nds p] squ>e in*1 & ! l9e ,,hg is drawn imm$iately above ! pi/on position ,b :i* is at ! inn] end ( ! /roke4 ,to ! left ( ! l9e ,,hs is drawn a scale ( pressures ,,ml divid$ 9 p\nds p] squ>e in* s t ! pressures may be read (f ( ! pressure curve ,,gd4 ,! l9e ,,ji repres5ts atmosph]ic pressure1 & ! divisions on ,,ml1 ( c\rse1 beg9 f ?is l9e & increase z we g up ! column4 ,z an example 9 ! use ( ! scale we f9d t ! po9t ,f is at #ej p\nds pressure above ! atmosph]ic l9e ,,ji4 ,we w consid] t ! cle>ance space ,,ab is full ( mixture at ! po9t ,b1 & t x is mov$ t[>d ! left to ! po9t ,c fill+ ! space ,,ac full ( mixture at atmosph]ic pressure4 ,! location ( ! pi/on on ! diagram is %[n by ,d & ,e4 ,! op5+ ?r\gh :i* ! gas 0 suppli$ to ! cyl9d] is n[ clos$1 & ! pi/on />ts on its compression /roke1 mov+ f ,c to ,a4 ,z ! volume is r$uc$ f ,,ac to ,,ab1 !re is an increase ( pressure :i* is %[n graphically by ! ris+ l9e ,,ef4 ,?is l9e rises gradually f ! l9e ,,ji 9 proportion to ! r$uction 9 volume until ! pi/on rea*es ! end ( ! compression /roke at ,b1 at :i* po9t ! compression is at a maximum4 ,! ext5t ( ?is pressure is %[n by ! l5g? ( ,,hf :i* on ref]r+ to ! scale ( pressure at ! left w be f\nd to be #ej p\nds p] squ>e in*4 ,ignition n[ occurs & ! pressure increases in/antly f ! compression pressure at ,f to ! maximum pressure at ,g :i* on ref]r+ to ! scale w be f\nd to equal #bjj p\nds4 ,! actual increase ( pressure due to ignition above ! compression pressure w be %[n by ! l5g? ( ! l9e ,,fg :i* is equal to #aej p\nds4 ,z ! pressure is n[ e/abli%$ aga9/ ! pi/on x w beg9 to move =w>d ) an increase ( volume & a correspond+ decrease 9 pressure1 until x rea*es ! po9t ,c4 ,?is po9t at ! end ( ! /roke is indicat$ on ! diagram by ,d :i* by ref]5ce to ! scale w be f\nd equal to #be p\nds above atmosph]e4 ,an exhau/ valve is n[ op5$ all[+ ! gas to escape to ! atmosph]e :i* r$uces ! pressure in/antly f ,d to ,e on ! atmosph]ic l9e4 ,expansion along ! l9e ,,gd is n complete z ! pressure is n decreas$ to atmosph]ic pressure 9 ! cyl9d] :i* means t !re is a consid]able loss ( heat 9 ! exhau/4 ,9 practice ! expansion is nev] complete1 b ends consid]ably above atmosph]ic pressure z %[n4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 ,f-#c4 ,front ,elevation ( ,curtiss 8,v0 ,type ,a]onautical ,motor4 ,?is is ! ,front ,view ( ! ,motor ,%[n 9 ! ,frontispiece4 ,see ,*apt] ,v = ,description ( ?is ,type ( ,motor4 ,complete expansion is %[n by ! dott$ l9e ,,ge :i* t]m9ates at ,e on ! atmosph]ic l9e4 ,by foll[+ ! v]tical l9es up f ! po9ts a1 b1 c1 & d1 ! pressures correspond+ to ^! pi/on positions c be f\nd by measur+ ! di/ance ( ! curve f ! atmosph]ic l9e1 on ! giv5 l9es a1 b1 c or d4 ,to f9d ! pressure at ! position a1 = in/ance1 foll[ upw>ds along ! l9e a to ! po9t c on ! curve1 ! l5g? ( ! l9e ef f ! curve to ! atmosph]ic repres5ts ! pressure1 :i* by ref]5ce to ! scale ,,ml w be f\nd equal to #abe p\nds4 ,! pressure at any o!r po9t c be f\nd 9 a l mann]4 ,compression pressures may be f\nd at any po9t by measur+ f ! atmosph]ic l9e to ! compression curve ,,fe along ! giv5 l9e4 ,x w be not$ t ! combu/ion is s quick t ! pressure rises 9 a /raight l9e along ,,gh1 indicat+ t combu/ion 0 complete be=e ! pi/on _h "t to />t on ! outw>d /roke4 ,! expansion curves ,,ge & ,,gd are simil> to ! compression curve ,,fe4 ,) ! actual eng9e ! %ape ( ! ideal c>d z %[n by ,fig4 #c is sometimes consid]ably de=m$ ow+ to ! effects ( defective valves1 leaks1 or improp]ly tim$ ignition4 ,pressure curves ( actual eng9es are ( ! greate/ value z !y %[ ! conditions )9 ! cyl9d] at a glance & make x possible to detect losses due to leaks1 poor valve sett+s1 etc4 ,^! curves are trac$ by means ( ! ,,indicator :i* is an in/rum5t consi/+ ( a small cyl9d] :i* is connect$ to ! cyl9d] ( ! eng9e1 & an oscillat+ drum t is driv5 to & fro by ! eng9e pi/on4 ,! pi/on 9 ! indicator cyl9d] is provid$ ) a spr+ t gov]ns its movem5ts & communicates its motion to a record+ p5cil ?r\gh a sy/em ( lev]s4 ,! spr+ is ( su* /r5g? t a pressure ( s _m p\nds p] squ>e in* 9 ! cyl9d] causes ! p5cil to draw a l9e ( a def9ite l5g?1 ?is l9e be+ equival5t to ! pressure l9e ,,gh 9 ,fig4 #c4 ,a piece ( pap] is wrapp$ ab\t ! indicator drum1 & ! drum is atta*$ to ! pi/on 9 su* a mann] t x turns a c]ta9 am\nt = e pi/on position1 ! complete /roke ( ! pi/on turn+ ! drum ?r\gh ab\t ?ree-qu>t]s ( a revolution4 ,rotation ( ! drum traces ! horizontal l9es ( ! diagram & ! movem5t ( ! pi/on draws ! v]tical l9es1 s ! comb9$ movem5ts ( ! drum & pi/on records ! pressures & pi/on positions z %[n by ,fig4 #c4 ,s9ce ! movem5t ( ! indicator pi/on repres5ts ! pressures 9 ! cyl9d] to scale x is possible to compute ! p[] develop$ 9 ! cyl9d] z ! output 9 me*anical units is equal to ! product ( ! av]age =ce act+ on ! pi/on multipli$ by ! spe$ ( ! pi/on 9 feet p] m9ute4 ,?is product ( ! =ce & velocity 7kn[n z 8foot p\nds p] m9ute07 divid$ by #cc1jjj 7"o horse-p[] #cc1jjj foot p\nds7 gives ! output ( ! eng9e1 9 horse-p[]4 ,z ! pressure on ! pi/on fluctuates ?r\gh\t ! /roke1 x w\ld be wrong to consid] ! =ce1 9 ! calculation = p[] z be+ equal to ! explosion pressure1 & s ! effective pressure is tak5 z be+ ! av]age ( all ! pressures f ! po9t ( explosion to ! exhau/4 ,! av]age pressure or 8mean effective pressure0 z x is call$ is comput$ f ! indicator diagram by divid+ x into a numb] ( equal p>ts along ! horizontal l9e1 add+ ! l5g?s ( ! pressure l9es su* z ,,*1 ,,cf1 etc41 & divid+ ! total l5g? by ! numb] ( ! l9es4 ,aft] ! av]age height ( ! diagram is ?us det]m9$1 ! av]age l5g? is multipli$ by ! scale ( ! indicator or ! pressure t is %[n by x p] in*4 ,illu/ration3 ,fairbanks-,morse ,gasol9e ,pump+ ,eng9e4 ,pump is ,ge> ,driv5 ,f ! ,eng9e ,crank-,%aft at ,r$uc$ ,spe$4 ,kn[+ ! mean effective pressure1 ! total pressure on ! pi/on1 or ! =ce is f\nd by multiply+ ! area ( ! pi/on 9 squ>e in*es by ! av]age pressure p] squ>e in*4 ,?is product is multipli$ by ! pi/on spe$ 9 feet p] m9ute & is divid$ by ! product ( ! numb] ( /rokes to ! explosion & ! quantity #cc1jjj4 ,%\ld !re be m ?an "o cyl9d] ! result is multipli$ by ! numb] ( cyl9d]s1 & ?is is multipli$ by #b 9 ! case ( a d\ble act+ eng9e4 ,/at$ z a =mula ?is rule becomes3 ,a ,p #b,r ,l ,n ,o ,h4,p4 ---------------------------------------- ---- #ccjjj ,c ,:5 ,a ,area ( pi/on 9 squ>e in*es4 ,p ,av]age or mean effective pressure p] squ>e in*4 ,ab\t #ge p\nds = ,gasol9e ,eng9es4 ,see ,table on ,page #ca4 ,r ,revolutions p] m9ute4 ,l ,/roke ( pi/on 9 feet4 ,n ,numb] ( cyl9d]s4 ,o #b :5 eng9e is d\ble act+1 t is :5 explosions occur on bo? sides ( ! pi/on4 ,c ,numb] ( /rokes p] explosion4 ,c #d 9 a f\r cycle eng9e1 & #b 9 a two cycle4 ,x %\ld be specially not$ t ! area ( ! pi/on is giv5 9 squ>e in*es & ! /roke ( ! pi/on 9 feet4 ,! numb] ( revolutions p] m9ute1 ,r1 is multipli$ by two 9 ord] to obta9 ! numb] ( /rokes1 z !re are two /rokes p] revolution4 ,:5 ! eng9e gov]ns its spe$ by dropp+ explosions to meet v>y+ loads1 ! quantity ,c %\ld be omitt$ & ! explosions c\nt$4 99 99 99 99 99 ,due to ! fact t ! incom+ *>ge ( ! mixture is exp&$ by ! heat ( ! passages1 a full *>ge comput$ at atmosph]ic temp]ature is nev] obta9$ 9 ! cyl9d] & = ?is reason ! gas %\ld be kept z cold z possible be=e ent]+ ! passages 9 ord] to obta9 ! maximum output4 ,friction due to re/rict$ passages & valve op5+s also r$uces ! am\nt ( mixture available4 ,small exhau/ valves & pipes prev5t ! gases f escap+ freely to ! atmosph]e & produces a back pressure on ! pi/on :i* cuts d[n ! effective pressures4 ,all ( ^! items are record$ by ! indicator & makes x possible to make alt]ations t w increase ! output ( ! eng9e4 ,because ( ! r$uc$ atmosph]ic pressures at high altitudes ! output & compression are r$uc$ = e foot ( elevation above sea level4 ,z ! weight ( ! atmosph]e is r$uc$1 less mixture is drawn into ! cyl9d]4 ,tak+ ! output ( ! eng9e z #ajj p] c5t at sea level1 x is r$uc$ to less ?an #fb p] c5t at an elevation ( #ae1jjj feet4 ,,*apt] ,,ii ,,fuels ,,& ,,combu/ion 7#g7 ,combu/ion4 ,! ph5om5on call$ combu/ion by :i* we obta9 ! heat en]gy necess>y = ! op]ation ( ! int]nal combu/ion eng9e is a *emical comb9ation ( ! air ) ! fuel4 ,?is process results 9 heat & "s light :i* is equal 9 quantity to ! en]gy requir$ to sep>ate ! fuel comp\nd into its elem5ts or to build x up 9 its pres5t =m f ! orig9al elem5ts4 ,if ! process is comp>atively sl[1 ! comp\nd is call$ a fuel1 if x is in/antane\s x is call$ an explosive4 ,"s sub/ances produce me*anical =ce ?r\gh an in/ant1 )\t ! evolution ( mu* heat1 due to ! dis9tegration ( an un/able comp\nd4 ,! effect ( ! latt] type ( :i* dynamite is an example is /atic1 t is to say1 x is n capable ( produc+ p[]1 b only pressure4 ,= ?is reason1 comp\nds hav+ an in/antane\s effect )\t ! ability to produce ! pressure ?r\gh a di/ance1 or an expansion1 are n consid]$ z suitable fuels = a heat eng9e4 ,a fuel is ess5tially a sub/ance :i* is capable ( g5]at+ heat1 :i* is a =m ( en]gy1 & n /atic pressure4 ,! heat eng9e is an in/rum5t :i* trans=ms ?is en]gy into p[] :i* is aga9 dissipat$ into heat ?r\gh ! friction ( ! eng9e itself & by ! load t x drives4 ,?is is an illu/ration ( ! physical law t 8en]gy c nei!r be creat$ nor de/roy$10 t is1 ! heat en]gy develop$ by ! fuel is conv]t$ into me*anical en]gy :i* is aga9 trans=m$ into heat en]gy ?r\gh friction4 ,x %\ld be und]/ood t fuel belongs to t class ( sub/ances t w n burn nor evolve en]gy "u any temp]ature1 pressure1 or %ock1 )\t an outside supply ( oxyg54 ,?is is ! *>act]i/ic prop]ty ( all fuels us$ ) ! int]nal combu/ion eng9e4 ,ea* elem5t1 su* z c>bon & hydrog51 9 a comp\nd fuel1 develops a c]ta9 def9ite am\nt ( heat dur+ _! complete combu/ion1 & at ! close ( ! process c]ta9 comp\nds are =m$ t repres5t ! l[e/ *emical =m ( ! comp\nd4 ,to re/ore ! products ( combu/ion to _! orig9al =m z fuel w\ld require an exp5diture ( en]gy equal to t giv5 out 9 ! combu/ion4 ,:ile all sub/ances t are capable ( oxydization or combu/ion c be made to lib]ate heat en]gy1 x does n foll[ t all ( !m c be successfully us$ z fuels4 ,a fuel suitable = ! production ( p[] mu/ be *eap1 accessible & ( small bulk1 & mu/ burn rapidly4 ,su* fuels mu/ also be products ( nature t require no exp5diture ( en]gy 9 _! prep>ation or completion4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 ,f-#d4 ,fairbanks-,morse ,produc] ,plant & ,eng9e1 ,connect$ = ,op]ation4 ,9 practical "w1 ! natural fuels are coal1 m9]al oils1 natural gas1 & wood1 :i* are comp\nds ( ! elem5ts c>bon & hydrog54 ,:5 ^! fuels are burn$ to _! l[e/ =ms ! products ( combu/ion consi/ ( c>bon dioxide & wat]1 ! fir/ be+ ! result ( ! oxydization ( c>bon1 & ! latt] a comp\nd ( oxyg5 & hydrog54 ,9 solid fuels1 su* z coal1 a portion ( ! comp\nd consi/s ( free c>bon & ! rema9d] ( a comp\nd ( c>bon & hydrog5 kn[n z a ,,hydroc>bon4 ,9 liquid fuels !re is little1 if any1 free c>bon1 ! great] proportion be+ 9 ! =m ( a hydroc>bon comp\nd4 ,natural gas is a hydroc>bon comp\nd4 ,x %\ld be not$ t a def9ite am\nt ( oxyg5 is requir$ = ! complete combu/ion ( ! fuel elem5ts1 & t a small] am\nt ( oxyg5 ?an t call$ = by ! fuel elem5t results 9 incomplete combu/ion1 :i* produces a product ( high] =m ?an t produc$ by ! complete r$uction4 ,! product ( incomplete combu/ion repres5ts a small] evolution ( heat ?an t ( ! complete process1 b if reburn$ 9 a fre% supply ( oxyg5 ! sum ( ! second combu/ion toge!r ) t ( ! fir/ w equal ! heat ( ! complete oxydization4 ,:5 pure c>bon is incompletely burn$ ! product is c>bon monoxide 7,,co7 in/ead ( c>bon dioxide 7,,co#b74 ,c>bon completely burn$ to c>bon dioxide produces #ad1ejj ,briti% !rmal units p] p\nd ( c>bon1 :ile ! incomplete combu/ion to c>bon monoxide evolves only #d1deb ,briti% !rmal units1 or less ?an "o-?ird ( ! heat produc$ by ! complete combu/ion4 ,!oretically "o p\nd ( c>bon requires #b4ff p\nds ( oxyg5 to burn x to c>bon dioxide4 ,on supply+ additional oxyg51 ! c>bon monoxide may be burn$ to c>bon dioxide & ! rema9d] ( ! heat may be recov]$1 or #aj1jdh ,briti% !rmal units4 ,:5 a hydroc>bon1 ei!r solid1 liquid or gase\s is burn$ ) insuffici5t oxyg51 solid c>bon is precipitat$ toge!r ) l[] hydroc>bons1 & t>4 ,9 an int]nal combu/ion eng9e ! precipitat$ solid c>bon is evid5t 9 ! =m ( smoke4 ,s9ce ! c>bon & hydrog5 elem5ts ( a fuel exi/ 9 _m diff]5t proportions & conditions 9 coal & oil1 diff]5t am\nts ( oxyg5 are requir$ = ! consumption ( diff]5t fuels4 ,x %\ld also be borne 9 m9d t a great] quantity ( air is requir$ = ! combu/ion ( a fuel ?an oxyg51 z ! air is greatly dilut$ by an in]t gas1 nitrog51 :i* w n support combu/ion4 ,because ( ! impossibility ( obta9+ p]fectly homog5\s mixtures ( air & ! fuel1 a great] quantity ( air is us$ 9 practice ?an is !oretically requir$4 ,9 a /eam eng9e ! fuel c be us$ 9 any =m1 solid1 liquid1 or gase\s1 b 9 an int]nal combu/ion1 x mu/ be 9 ! =m ( a gas no matt] :at may h be5 ! =m ( ! prim>y fuel4 ,=tunately !re is no fuel :i* may n be trans=m$ into a gas by "s process if n already 9 a gase\s /ate4 ,! petroleum products are vaporiz$ by ei!r ! heat ( ! atmosph]e or by spray+ !m on a hot surface4 ,coal is conv]t$ into a gas by di/ill+ x 9 a retort or by incomplete combu/ion4 ,! heat en]gy develop$ by a gas :5 burn+ 9 ! op5 air dep5ds on its *emical combu/ion1 b its me*anical equival5t 9 p[] :5 burn$ 9 ! cyl9d] ( ! eng9e dep5ds n only ^u its composition b ^u ! conditions "u :i* x is burn$ z /at$ 9 ! *apt] devot$ to ! subject ( heat eng9es4 7#h7 ,gase\s ,fuels4 ,:ile ! calorific values ( ! diff]5t gases giv5 9 ! accompany+ table are approximately correct = gases burn+ 9 ! op5 air at atmosph]ic pressure !y develop widely diff]5t values 9 ! cyl9d] ( an eng9e because ( ! effects ( compression & preheat+4 ,! table s]ves1 h[ev]1 z an index to ! relative values ( ! fuels "u ord9>y conditions )\t compression4 ,:ile natural gas has ne>ly eight times ! calorific value ( produc] gas 9 ! op5 air1 its actual heat value 9 ! cyl9d] is only ab\t #de p] c5t great]4 ,:ile acetyl5e has an exce$+ly high calorific value & explodes five times z fa/ z gasol9e gas1 x develops only #bj p] c5t m p[] 9 ! same cyl9d]4 ,ano!r item affect+ ! value ( a gas is ! rate at :i* x burns1 :i* is 9 "p a *>act]i/ic ( ! fuel & p>tly a factor ( ! conditions "u :i* x is burnt4 ,?is subject is treat$ ( 9 ! *apt] devot$ to ! heat eng9e4 ,! calorific value ( a gas may ei!r be comput$ f its *emical composition or by burn+ x 9 an in/rum5t kn[n z a calorimet]4 ,a gas calorimet] consi/s ( a small boil] or heat+ tank :i* is c>efully cov]$ ) "s non-conduct+ mat]ial s z to prev5t a loss ( heat to ! atmosph]e4 ,! gas "u te/ is burn$ 9 ! boil] ^: ext5d$ surface cat*es z mu* ( ! heat z possible & transf]s x to ! wat] 9 ! boil]4 ,! weight ( ! wat] heat$ & its temp]ature are tak5 :5 a c]ta9 am\nt ( ! gas has be5 burn$ 7say #ajj cubic feet71 & f ?is data1 ! heat units p] cubic foot ( gas are comput$4 ,,fuel ,,gases4 ,,gas ,b4,t4,u4 ,cubic ,feet ( ,air ,usual ,ratio p] ,requir$ to ,burn #a ,cubic ,compression( ,gas ,cubic ,foot ( ,gas ,lbs4 p] to ,air ,foot ,sq4 ,in* ,actual ,!oretical ,natural ,gas #ajjj4 #ab4fj #i #acja-ab4f ,natural ,gas #ajjj4 #aaja-f ,coal ,gas #fej4 #i4jj #e4he #hja-i ,produc] #adj4 #a4bj #a4he #afja-a4b ,an?racite ,produc] #afj4 #c4bj #b4bj ,bitum9\s ,wat] ,gas #bij4 #c4fj #b4bj 7,unc>b47 ,wat] ,gas #ejj4 #h4ej #e4ae #a4h 7,c>b47 ,bla/ ,furnace #id4 #a4aj #j4gj #agj ,gas ,acetyl5e #aejj4 #bj4jj #ab4fj ,gasol5e ,vapor #ebj4,see ,table ( ,liquid ,fuels #gja4ab ,gasol5e ,vapor #ebj4,see ,table ( ,liquid ,fuels #gja4h ,gasol5e ,vapor #ebj4,see ,table ( ,liquid ,fuels #gja4f ,k]os5e ,vapor ,see ,table ( ,liquid ,fuels #fja4h ,coke ,ov5 ,gas #ebj4 #g4 #e4d ,alcohol #ahj ,,gas ,explosion,temp]ature ,ignition ,weight,c&le ,mean ,pressure ( ,temp]ature p] ,p[] ,effective 9 ,lbs4 ,combu/ion ,f ,cubic ,pressure p] ,sq4 ,f ,foot1 ,94 ,lbs4 ,natural ,gas #cge #aajj4jdei #id4jj ,natural ,gas #bde #ajjj #gb4jj ,coal ,gas #bhe #abjj4jce #ah4jj #he4jj ,produc] #cfj #adej4jfe #hh4jj ,an?racite ,produc] #acej ,bitum9\s ,wat] ,gas 4#jdd 7,unc>b47 ,wat] ,gas #bb4jj 7,c>b47 ,bla/ ,furnace #aefj4jhj #gg4e ,gas ,acetyl5e ,gasol5e ,vapor #bde #ahfe #aeej #gi4jj ,gasol5e ,vapor #cfj #biej #ibe #hb4jj ,gasol5e ,vapor #daj #cafj #iaj #hd4ej ,k]os5e ,vapor #bhe #ide #he4jj ,coke ,ov5 ,gas 4#jdb ,alcohol #dej ,z a ,briti% !rmal unit is ! am\nt ( heat requir$ to raise ! temp]ature ( "o p\nd ( wat] ?r\gh "o ,fahr5heit degree 7at ab\t #ci4a ,f471 ! total heat p] cubic foot ( gas z obs]v$ by ! calorimet] is equal to ! weight ( ! wat] multipli$ by its rise 9 temp]ature 9 degrees1 divid$ by ! numb] ( cubic feet ( gas burn$ 9 ! calorimet]4 ,s9ce a ,briti% !rmal unit is equal to #ggh foot p\nds 9 me*anical en]gy1 its me*anical equival5t is equal to ! numb] ( ,briti% !rmal units multipli$ by #ggh4 ,ano!r diff]5ce betwe5 ! actual & !oretical results obta9$ is t due ! p]fect combu/ion 9 ! calorimet] & ! imp]fect combu/ion 9 ! eng9e4 ,s9ce "s gases require m air = _! combu/ion ?an o!rs1 less ( ! fir/ gas w be tak5 into ! cyl9d] on a *>ge ?an ! latt]1 :i* t5ds /ill fur!r to balance ! heat+ effect ( ri* & lean gases 9 ! cyl9d]4 7#i7 ,gasify+ ,coal4 ,coal ,gas or ,illum9at+ ,gas is g5]at$ by bak+ ! coal 9 a clos$ retort or *amb] out ( contact ) ! air s t no combu/ion takes place ei!r complete or incomplete4 ,! hydroc>bon gases & t>s are set free f ! coal z p]man5t gases & are !n pip$ to a gas hold] aft] go+ ?r\gh v>i\s purify+ processes to remove ! t>s1 oils1 moi/ure & du/4 ,! free or solid "p ( ! coal rema9s 9 ! retort 9 ! =m ( coke1 :i* is aga9 burn$ = fuel4 ,because ( its high c>bon cont5t1 coal gas burns ) a yell[i%-:ite flame & is ext5sively us$ = light+ purposes1 h5ce ! "n illum9at+ gas4 ,9 _m ways coal gas is an ideal fuel = p[] purposes z x has a high calorific value 7#fej-gej ,b4,t4,u4 p] cubic ft471 is suppli$ by ! illum9at+ company at practically a con/ant pressure1 & is uni=m 9 quality4 ,its only drawback is its comp>atively high co/4 ,?is gas is always obta9$ f ! city s]vice ma9s z its prep>ation is too exp5sive & complicat$ = ! gas eng9e own]4 ,because ( its co/1 ! use ( coal gas is re/rict$ to small eng9es4 7#aj7 ,wat] ,gas4 ,wat] gas is made by bl[+ air ?r\gh a ?ick b$ ( "s coal t is l[ 9 hydroc>bons until ! coal becomes inc&esc5t1 ! gases t are =m$ are all[$ to escape to ! atmosph]e4 ,at ?is po9t a jet ( /eam is bl[n into ! inc&esc5t b$1 :i* is brok5 up into its elem5ts1 oxyg5 & hydrog51 by ! heat ( ! fuel4 ,z !re is no air pres5t ! oxyg5 comb9es ) ! c>bon ( ! fuel to =m c>bon monoxide :ile ! hydrog5 goes free4 ,bo? ( ^! gases1 c>bon monoxide & hydrog51 are collect$ & suppli$ to ! eng9e4 ,! production ( wat] gas is int]mitt5t1 z ! /eam bla/ cools d[n ! fuel b$1 & requires fur!r bl[+ be=e m /eam c be pass$4 ,:ile ?is gas has a l[] heat+ value ?an coal gas1 x is mu* *eap] to make & all ( ! coal is consum$ 9 ! process4 ,wat] gas is high 9 hydrog5 & is too 8snappy0 = gas eng9es2 ! hydrog5 places a limit on ! all[able compression4 ,= ea* ?\s& feet ( wat] gas g5]at$1 approximately #bd p\nds ( wat] are requir$4 ,by ! introduction ( hydroc>bons or vaporiz$ oil1 illum9at+ value is giv5 to wat] gas1 ?is process is call$ c>buretion4 ,c>buret$ gas is n usually us$ = p[]1 z x is exp5sive1 & is n proportionately high 9 heat+ value4 7#aa7 ,bla/ ,furnace ,gas4 ,_m /eel companies are utiliz+ ! unconsum$ gas ( ! bla/ furnaces = p[]4 ,bla/ furnace gas is ( v l[ calorific value1 r>ely if ev]1 exce$+ #he ,b4,t4,u4 p] cubic foot4 ,?is all[s ( v high compression1 :i* greatly increases ! actual p[] deliv]$ by ! eng9e4 ,a smelt] produces approximately #hh1jjj cubic feet ( gas p] ton ( iron smelt$4 ,bla/ furnace gas is s lean t x _c be burn$ satisfactorily "u a boil]2 ! high compression ( ! gas eng9e makes its use possible4 7#ab7 ,produc] ,gas4 ,produc] gas :i* is g5]at$ by ! incomplete combu/ion ( fuels 9 a deep b$ is ! mo/ commonly us$ gas = eng9es hav+ a capacity ( #ej horsep[] & ov]1 because ( ! simplicity & economy ( its production4 ,:ile produc] gas has be5 obta9$ f practically e solid fuel1 ( :i* coal1 coke1 wood1 lignite1 peat1 & *>coal are examples1 ! fuel mo/ g5]ally us$ is ei!r coal or coke4 ,:ile produc] gas is mu* l[] 9 calorific value ?an ei!r natural or illum9at+ gas x gives admirable results 9 ! gas eng9e & is a mu* *eap] fuel ?an coal gas 9 units above #ej horse-p[] capacity4 ,! fuel is completely burn$ to a% 9 ! produc] )\t ! int]m$iate coke product t exi/s 9 ! manufacture ( coke4 ,a produc] consi/s ( ?ree indep5d5t elem5ts z %[n by ,fig4 ,f-#f2 ! ,,produc] or g5]ator 7,a71 ! /eam boil] 7,b71 & ! ,,scrubb] or purifi] 7,c74 ,! inc&esc5t fuel 7,f7 9 ! =m ( a cone lies on ! grate b>s 7,g7 at ! l[] end ( ! produc]4 ,above ! burn+ fuel is a deep b$ ( coal 7,d7 :i* rea*es to ! top ( ! produc] at :i* po9t x is admitt$ to ! b$ ?r\gh ! *>g+ valve or gate 7,h74 ,! gas result+ f ! combu/ion 9 ! produc] is drawn out ( ! tank ?r\gh ! gas outlet pipe 7,e7 by ! suction ( ! eng9e4 ,! air = ! combu/ion is drawn up ?r\gh an op5+ 9 ! a% pit 7,j7 by ! eng9e4 ,:5 ! oxyg5 ( ! air /rikes ! inc&esc5t fuel on ! grate x comb9es ) a portion ( x =m+ c>bon dioxide 7,,co#b7 :i* is an incombu/ible gas1 b on pass+ ?r\gh ! burn+ fuel above ?is po9t1 "o atom ( ! oxyg5 9 ! ,,co#b recomb9es ) ! fuel =m+ ! combu/ible gas--c>bon monoxide 7,,co74 ,because ( ! di/ill+ effect ( ! heat 9 ! b$1 ! volatile hydroc>bons ( ! coal are set free & m+le ) ! ,,co =m$ by ! combu/ion4 ,! produc] gas consi/s1 !re=e1 pr9cipally ( ,,co1 ) a c]ta9 proportion ( ! volatile hydroc>bons ( ! coal su* z m>% gas1 e?yl5e1 & "s oil vapor4 ,s9ce ! hydroc>bons are easily cond5s$ on com+ into contact ) ! coal walls ( ! pip+1 to =m tr\ble mak+ t>s & oils1 !y mu/ ei!r be wa%$ out ( ! gas 9 ! purifi] or pass$ aga9 ?r\gh ! high temp]ature zone to conv]t !m into p]man5t gases4 ,9 ! usual produc]1 ! hydroc>bons are reheat$1 z !y =m a consid]able p]c5tage ( ! heat ( ! gas4 ,aft] ! volatile con/itu5ts are reheat$1 ! gases pass ?r\gh ! boil] 7,b71 :i* absorbs ! heat ( ! gas 9 g5]at+ /eam1 & f ?is po9t ! gases ent] ! scrubb] :]e ! du/ & ! residual t>s are remov$4 ,! scrubb]1 :i* is a sort ( filt]1 is an important factor 9 ! g5]at+ plant1 = if ! du/ & dirt 7 all[$ to pass into ! cyl9d] ( ! eng9e x w\ld only be a "q ( a %ort "t until ! valves & cyl9d] w\ld be gr\nd to pieces4 ,:5 ! /eam f ! boil] is all[$ to fl[ into ! a% pit ( ! produc] & up ?r\gh ! inc&esc5t fuel1 ! heat sep>ates ! wat] vapor into its two elem5ts1 oxyg5 & hydrog54 ,! oxyg5 set free comb9es ) ! c>bon 9 ! coal =m+ m c>bon monoxide1 :ile ! hydrog5 :i* is unaffect$ by ! combu/ion adds to ! heat value ( ! gas4 ,! la/ additions to ! combu/ion due to ! disassociation ( ! /eam are really :at is kn[n z 8wat] gas40 ,a limit$ am\nt ( /eam may be admitt$ cont9u\sly 9 ?is mann] )\t l[]+ ! temp]ature ( ! fuel bel[ ! gasify+ po9t1 & its pres5ce is b5eficial = x n only provides m ,,co & hydrog5 b produces x )\t introduc+ atmosph]ic nitrog54 ,! /eam is also a great aid 9 prev5t+ ! =mation ( cl9k]s on ! grate b>s4 ,s9ce ! air us$ 9 burn+ ! fuel 9 ! fir/ reaction conta9s ab\t #gi p] c5t ( nitrog51 :i* is an in]t gas1 ! produc] gas is greatly dilut$ by ?is unavoidable admixture1 :i* acc\nts = its l[ calorific value4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 ,f-#f4 ,diagram ( ,suction ,gas ,produc] ,%[+ ! ,g5]ator1 ,boil] & ,wa%]4 ,:ile ! air requir$ = ! combu/ion ( ! fuel is drawn ?r\gh ! produc] by ! suction ( ! eng9e 9 ! example %[n 7,,suction ,,produc]71 !re is a type 9 common use call$ a ,,pressure ,,produc] 9 :i* ! air is suppli$ "u pressure to ! a% pit by a small bl[]1 :i* causes a cont9u\s fl[ ( gas above atmosph]ic pressure4 ,gas produc]s are divid$ into two classes3 suction produc]s & pressure produc]s4 ,! suction produc] pres5ts ! foll[+ advantages3 #a4 ,! pipe l9e is always less ?an atmosph]ic pressure1 h5ce no leaks ( gas to ! air are possible4 #b4 ,! regulation ( ! gas supply is automatic4 #c4 ,no gas /orage tank is requir$4 #d4 ,! production ( gas beg9s & /ops ) ! eng9e4 #e4 ,uni=m quality ( gas4 ,! suction produc] is limit$ to p[] application & _c be us$ :]e ! gas is to be us$ = heat+1 z 9 furnaces1 ov5s1 etc41 or :]e ! eng9e is at a di/ance f ! produc]1 unless pump$ to its de/9ation4 ,! pressure produc] does n yield a uni=m quality ( gas1 h5ce requires a /orage tank :]e l[ quality gas w bl5d ) gas ( high] calorific values & produce a gas ( fairly uni=m quality4 ,! pressure produc] is adapt$ to ! use ( all grades ( fuels1 su* z bitum9\s coal & lignite4 ,an?racite coal conta9s little volatile matt] & is an ideal fuel = ! manufacture ( produc] gas1 :ile bitum9\s coal ) its high p]c5tage ( volatile matt] & t>1 requires m effici5t scrubb+1 z ^! sub/ances mu/ be remov$ f ! gas4 ,on />t+ ! produc] %[n by ,fig4 #f1 ! produc] is fill$ ) ! prop] am\nt ( k9dl+ & coal1 & a bla/ ( air is s5t into ! a% pit by a small bl[]1 ! products ( combu/ion be+ s5t ?r\gh ! by-pass /ack 7,k7 until ! escap+ gas becomes ( ! quality requir$ = ! op]ation ( ! eng9e4 ,! by-pass valve is n[ clos$1 & ! gas is =c$ ?r\gh ! scrubb] to ! eng9e until ! entire sy/em is fill$ ) gas4 ,:5 good gas appe>s at ! eng9e te/ cock ! eng9e is />t$1 & ! bl[] /opp$1 ! gas n[ be+ circulat$ by ! eng9e pi/on4 ,! volume ( gas g5]at$ by ! produc] is always equal to t requir$ by ! eng9e s t no gas receiv] or res]voir is requir$4 ,because ( ! friction ( ! gas 9 pass+ ?r\gh ! fuel1 scrubb] & pip+1 its pressure at ! eng9e is always consid]ably bel[ t ( ! atmosph]e1 :i* ( c\rse r$uces ! am\nt ( *>ge tak5 into ! cyl9d]4 ,because ( ! weak gas & ! l[ pressure 9 ! pip+1 x is necess>y to c>ry a mu* high] compression ) produc] gas ?an ) natural or illum9at+ gas4 ,! effici5cy ( a produc] is f #ge to #he p] c5t1 t is1 ! produc] w furni% gas t has a calorific value ( an av]age ( #hj p] c5t ( ! calorific value ( ! fuel f :i* x is made1 ! rema9+ #ae to #bj p] c5t be+ consum$ 9 p]=m+ ! combu/ion4 ,?is is f> above ! effici5cy ( ! furnace 9 a /eam boil]1 z an almo/ !oretically exact am\nt ( air c be suppli$ 9 ! produc] to effect ! combu/ion1 :ile 9 ! boil] furnace ab\t t5 times ! !oretical am\nt is pass$ ?r\gh ! fuel b$ to burn x4 ,heat+ up ?is enorm\s volume ( air to ! temp]ature ( ! products ( combu/ion consumes a l>ge am\nt ( fuel & r$uces ! effici5cy ( ! furnace consid]ably4 ,because ( ! r$uction 9 ! air supply1 a gas fir$ furnace is always m effici5t ?an "o fir$ ) coal4 ,produc] gas ) #cjj1jjj ,briti% !rmal units p] ?\s& cubic feet1 & oil hav+ #acj1jjj ,briti% !rmal units p] gallon w result 9 #a1jjj cubic feet ( gas be+ equal to ab\t #b4cj gallons ( fuel oil4 ,if ! gas is to be us$ = heat+ ov5s or furnaces 9 connection ) ! g5]ation ( p[]1 ! "* ( ! fuel w be det]m9$ to a great ext5t by ! requirem5ts ( ! ov5s & by ! type ( produc] us$1 z ea* fuel w give ! gas c]ta9 prop]ties4 ,?us gas us$ = fir+ crock]y w n be suitable = use 9 op5 he>? /eel furnaces1 z ! impurities 9 ! v>i\s fuels may h an injuri\s effect on ! manufactur$ product4 ,! co/ ( ! fuel1 co/ ( transportation1 heat value1 purity1 & ease ( h&l+ are all factors 9 ! selection ( a fuel4 ,! size & condition ( a fuel is also ( importance4 ,exce$+ly l>ge lumps & f9e du/ are bo? objectionable4 ,wet fuel r$uces ! effici5cy ( ! produc]1 z ! wat] mu/ be evaporat$1 ?is caus+ a s]i\s heat loss4 ,) c>eful att5tion a produc] gas eng9e w develop a horse-p[] h\r on f #a to #a p\nds ( an?racite pea coal1 & 9 _m in/ances ! consumption has be5 less ?an ?is figure4 ,! effici5cy 9 dropp+ f full load to half load v>ies by little1 "o te/ %[+ a consumption ( #a4a p\nds ( coal p] horse-p[] h\r at full load & #a4f p\nds ( coal at half load4 ,produc] gas p[] is ne>ly z *eap z wat] p[]1 9 fact ! produc] gas eng9e has displac$ at lea/ two wat] plants to ! writ]'s k4 ,accord+ to an e/imate made by a well kn[n au?ority1 ,mr4 ,b+ham1 x is possible = a produc] gas eng9e to g5]ate p[] = only 4#a ( "o c5t m p] ,k4,w4 h\r ?an x is g5]at$ at ,niag>a ,falls4 ,accord+ to ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,bureau ( ,m9es1 8,! te/s 9 ! gas produc] h %[n t _m fuels ( s l[ grade z to be practically valueless = /eam+ purposes1 su* z slack coal1 bone coal & lignite1 may be economically conv]t$ into produc] gas & may ?us g5]ate suffici5t p[] to r5d] !m ( high comm]cial value4 8,x is e/imat$ t on an av]age ea* coal te/$ 9 ! produc]-gas plant develop$ two & "o-half times ! p[] t x w\ld develop 9 ! ord9>y /eam-boil] plant4 8,x 0 f\nd t ! l[-grade lignite ( ,nor? ,dakota develop$ z mu* p[] :5 conv]t$ into produc] gas z did ! be/ ,we/ ,virg9ia bitum9\s coals burn$ "u ! /eam boil]4 8,inve/igations into ! wa/e ( coal 9 m9+ h %[n t x probably aggregates #bej1jjj1jjj to #cjj1jjj1jjj tons ye>ly1 ( :i* at lea/ "o-half might be sav$4 ,x has be5 demon/rat$ t ! l[-grade coals1 high 9 sulphur & a%1 n[ left und]gr\nd1 c be us$ economically 9 ! gas produc] = ! ultimate production ( p[]1 heat & light1 & %\ld1 !re=e1 be m9$ at ! same "t z ! high-grade coal4 8,z a smoke prev5t]1 ! gas produc] is "o ( ! mo/ effici5t devices on ! m>ket1 & fur!rmore1 x r$uces ! fuel consumption n #aj to #ae p] c5t1 z claim$ = ! ord9>y smoke prev5t+ device (f]$ = use 9 /eam plants1 b #ej to #fj p] c5t40 7#ac7 ,produc] ,gas ,f ,peat4 ,! production ( gas f peat hav+ a l[ wat] cont5t 7up to ab\t #bj p] c5t7 = use 9 suction gas eng9es has already met ) consid]able success 9 ,g]many1 b = a numb] ( ye>s ef=ts h be5 made to utilize peat ) a wat] cont5t z high z #ej to #fj p] c5t & ?us elim9ate ! co/ly process ( dry+ ! raw mat]ial4 ,difficulties h be5 enc\nt]$ 9 prev5t+ a loss ( heat ?r\gh radiation & o!r causes1 & 9 gett+ rid ( ! du/ & t> vapors c>ri$ ov] by ! gases to ! eng9e2 b great /rides h be5 made rec5tly 9 ov]com+ ^! ob/acles4 ,peat ) a wat] cont5t up to #fj p] c5t has be5 f\nd to be a suitable fuel4 ,ow+ to its great porosity & l[ specific gravity x pres5ts a l>ge combu/ion surface 9 ! g5]ator1 s t ! oxyg5 9 ! air us$ z a draft c easily unite ) ! c>bon ( ! peat4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 ,f-#g4 ,g]man ,produc] = ,g5]at+ ,produc] ,gas f ,peat4 ,"o ( ! great difficulties is to elim9ate ! t> vapors t clog up _m ( ! work+ p>ts ( ! eng9e4 ,! pass+ ( ! gas ?r\gh ! wet coke wa%]s & dry sawdu/ cleans]s does n appe> to h ?or\ghly rem$i$ ! evil4 ,ef=ts 7 !re=e made to remove ! t>-=m+ p>ticles ( ! gas 9 ! g5]ator itself or to r5d] !m h>mless4 ,t ( ! ,akti5-,gesells*aft ,gorlitz] ,mas*95bau ,ansalt und ,eiss5giess]ei ( ,gorlitz1 0 display$ at ! exposition at ,pos5 9 #aiaa4 ,! gas f ! g5]at+ plant 0 employ$ 9 a gas suction eng9e ( #cjj horse-p[] us$ to drive a dynamo = develop+ ! electric en]gy = ! exposition4 ,! fuel us$ 0 peat ) a wat] cont5t ( ab\t #dj p] c5t4 ,! effici5cy & economy results obta9$ 7 v promis+4 ,! advantages claim$ = ! ,gorlitz eng9e are t ! sulphur\s gases & ^? conta9+ great quantities ( t> products are drawn d[n by ! suction ( ! eng9e ?r\gh burn+ masses ( peat & ?us rid ( _! delet]i\s con/itu5ts4 ,! air = ! combu/ion purposes is well heat$ be=e ent]+ ! combu/ion *amb]1 !reby produc+ economical results4 ,x is claim$ also t ! gas produc$ by its sy/em is s free f impurities t ! clean+ & dry+ app>atus may be ( ! simple/ k9d4 ,9 ,/ahl und ,eis51 an ab/ract is giv5 ( a pap] by ,c>l ,he9z describ+ a peat gas produc]1 built by ! ,go]litz] ,mas*95bauan/alt4 ,we are indebt$ to ,metallurgical & ,*emical ,eng9e]+ = ! translation ( ?is pap]3 ,air & fuel ent] ! produc] at ! top1 & ! gas exit is 9 ! c5t] ( ! bottom s t ! air is =c$ to pass ?r\gh ! c5t] ( ! produc]1 decompos+ ! volatile matt] into gases ( calorific value4 ,! moi/ure :i* is pres5t 9 ! peat fuel 9 consid]able quantities mu/ be tak5 into consid]ation4 ,= its decomposition :i* pass+ ?r\gh ! hot-fire zone only a c]ta9 am\nt ( heat is available4 ,x is1 !re=e1 important t ! heat f ! gasification be fully utiliz$4 ,!re are two k9ds ( heat losses 9 a gas produc]1 due to radiation & to ! s5sible heat ( escap+ gases4 ,bo? ^! am\nts ( heat1 h[ev]1 are utiliz$ accord+ to ! special design ( ?is produc]4 ,! air circulates fir/ ?r\gh ! l[] conduit & comes s 9 contact ) ! w>m scrubb] wat]4 ,a "p ( ! air :i* has be5 preheat$ is c>ri$ upw>ds ?r\gh ! pipe ,a 9 ! c5t] ( ! produc] :]e x is ?or\ghly preheat$ by ! hot gases & ent]s !n ! air sup]heat] ,b 9 :i* ! temp]ature rises to a /ill high] degree4 ,! o!r "p ( ! air passes ?r\gh ! feet ( ! produc] into an air jacket :i* envelops ! :ole %ell ( ! produc] & ent]s f9ally ! produc] by ! rev]s+ valve ,c on top ( ! produc]4 ,9 ?is way ! out] surface ( ! produc] is ma9ta9$ at a temp]ature h>dly high] ?an t ( ! surr\nd+ air4 ,! escap+ gases are cool$ d[n s f> t ! gas outlet into ! scrubb] may be t\*$ by h&4 ,all ord9>y heat losses are ?us made use ( 9 ! gasification process4 ,if !re is a l>ge excess ( moi/ure 9 peat1 ! process is some:at modifi$ by regulat+ bo? air supplies 9 su* a way t ! gasification 9 ! upp] "p ( ! fuel-b$ takes place 9 two directions1 "o d[nw>ds & ! o!r upw>ds4 ,x seems t a cont5t ( #hj p] c5t moi/ure & #bj p] c5t dry fuel 9 ! peat is ab\t ! limit p]mitt+ evaporation ( ! wat]1 b x is1 ( c\rse1 impossible to obta9 9 ?is case a gas ( calorific value4 ,! modification ( ! process = v wet fuel is z foll[s3 ,:5 ! fire on top ( ! fuel b$ appe>s to disappe>1 ! heat] op5s ! /ack & valve ,d4 ,valve ,c is !n clos$1 to prev5t air f ent]+ on top4 ,! preheat$ air ent]s by ,d caus+ a d[n draft combu/ion due to ! suction ( ! gas eng9e & an upw>d combu/ion due to ! draft 9 ! /ack4 ,! moi/ure is evaporat$ & escapes ?r\gh ! /ack4 ,:5 ! fire has burn$ ?r\gh at ! top1 ! valve is swit*$ ov]4 ,! bad smell+ gases ris+ f ! scrubb] ent] ! produc] toge!r ) air & are !re consum$4 ,9 comm]cial use at ! exhibition 9 ,pos5 ! :ole plant work$ cont9u\sly day & night & clean+ ( ! gas eng9es 0 necess>y only e ?ree mon?s4 ,slagg+ ( a%es is done dur+ ! op]ation ( ! produc]1 )\t any nuisance f du/4 ,! highe/ p]c5tage ( moi/ure 9 peat gasifi$ 0 #ej p] c5t4 ,! fuel consumption p] horse-p[] h\r is #b4b lb4 7#a kg47 ( peat4 ,c>eful te/s made by ,pr(4 ,ba]1 ( ,breslau1 %[$ t ) a co/ ( peat ( #a p] ton ! kw-h\r at ! swit*bo>d co/s #j4ae c5t4 7#ad7 ,crude ,oil ,produc]s4 ,! developm5t ( ! crude oil gas produc]1 = :i* !re is great dem&1 9 oil regions remote f ! coal field1 has be5 exce$+ly sl[ b x is believ$ t def9ite progress has rec5tly be5 made along ?is l9e4 ,! mo/ rec5t notes on ?is subject relate to ! ,gr9e oil produc]4 ,9 ?is type /eam spray is us$ = atomiz+ ! oil :i* is introduc$ into ! upp] "p ( ! g5]ator :]e p>tial combu/ion takes place4 ,! d[ndraft pr9ciple is !n appli$ & ! hydroc>bon brok5 up & ! t> fix$ by pass+ ?r\gh a b$ ( inc&esc5t coke4 ,mr4 ,gr9e reports t a p[] plant us+ "o ( ^! produc]s has be5 9 op]ation a ye> 9 ,cali=nia4 ,) crude oil z a fuel co/+ #ie c5ts p] b>rel1 or #b4c c5ts p] gallon1 ! plant is report$ to develop ! same am\nt ( p[] p] gallon ( crude z is ord9>ily develop$ by ! /&>d int]nal combu/ion eng9e op]at+ on di/illates at #g c5ts p] gallon4 ,includ+ ! co/ ( fuel1 labor1 supplies1 int]e/1 depreciation & taxes1 ,mr4 ,gr9e /ates ! co/ p] b4h4p4 h\r to be #j4gf c5ts = a plant ( #ajj h4p4 rat+4 7#ae7 ,op]ation ( ,produc]s4 ,a good produc] op]ator is simply a good fireman1 he mu/ "k h[ to keep a uni=m b$ ( coal & h[ to draw ! fire4 ,:ile !re are _m ?\s&s ( m5 runn+ produc] plants )\t previ\s me*anical tra9+1 !re are n[ b few /eam eng9e]s runn+ /eam eng9es ( ! same capacity b :at h _h at lea/ two ye>s' tra9+ & suffici5t me*anical k to pass an exam9ation & obta9 a lic5se4 ,:ile a consid]able am\nt ( skill is necess>y to obta9 ! be/ effici5cy f a produc]1 x is a knack t is easily acquir$ 9 a %ort "t by 8/ick+ ar\nd0 ! plant4 ,skill 9 op]at+ a produc] consi/s *iefly 9 keep+ ! "r sort ( a fire )\t damage to ! l9+ by pok+ d[n a%es & cl9k]s4 ,:5 a new plant is in/all$1 ! manufactur] g5]ally s5ds an in/ructor to op]ate ! plant = a %ort "t s t ) a few days runn+ 9 8 h&s any man ) ord9>y intellig5ce c ov]come ! difficulties :i* arise f "t to "t4 ,:ile !re are _m types ( produc]s1 ! ma9 diff]5ce w be f\nd 9 ! "* ( ! draft1 t is :e!r x is up1 d[n1 or crossways4 ,d[n draft produc]s are g5]ally us$ ) bitum9\s coals1 z ! t>s & oils t emanate f ! coal are drawn ?r\gh ! fire :i* conv]ts !m into a p]man5t gas1 & avoids ! difficulty ( remov+ great quantities ( ! t> f ! produc]4 ,an up draft produc] w n d ?is z ! gas is drawn directly into ! ma9s )\t com+ into contact ) ! fire4 ,?is w\ld result 9 consid]able exp5se due to ! frequ5t clean+4 ,an?racite coal :i* does n conta9 mu* t> c be us$ successfully 9 an up draft produc]4 ,a compromise betwe5 ! up draft & d[n draft produc] is _h 9 ! ,,d\ble ,,zone produc]1 :i* 8burns ! c&le at bo? ends0 z x 71 a fire be+ at bo? ! top & bottom ( ! produc]4 ,ne>ly any class ( fuel may be us$ ) ?is type4 ,x %\ld be rememb]$ t a hot fire & fuel are requir$ = ! manufacture ( gas1 & t ! a% pit & grate mu/ be kept cle> ( ! a%es & cl9k]s t n only r$uce ! temp]ature ( ! fire1 b also r$uce ! gas available at ! cyl9d] by increas+ ! friction4 ,%ak+ d[n & clean+ out w 9 ne>ly e in/ance />t a buck+ produc] into op]ation4 ,:5 op]at+ "u full load a mu* hott] fire is requir$ ?an :5 op]at+ "u a r$uc$ load1 or ! produc] w n furni% ! necess>y gas4 ,accord+ to ! size ( ! produc]1 ! dep? ( ! inc&esc5t fuel w run f #cj in*es 9 ! l>ge sizes to #ae in*es 9 ! small]4 ,aft] be+ *>g$ up1 suction produc]s w cont9ue to give gas 9 suffici5t quantities ) ! b$ at half ?is dep?4 ,?is is only possible ) a hot produc]1 & :5 no fuel is be+ f$1 z ! fe$+ ( a cold *>ge w r$uce ! output4 ,a /eady dep? ( fire %\ld be kept to ma9ta9 a uni=m quality ( gas4 ,9 suction produc]s c>eful wat* %\ld be kept = leaks1 z ! gas be+ bel[ atmosph]ic pressure gives no outw>d signs ( dilution4 ,if wat] seals are us$ 9 ! sy/em !y %\ld be giv5 c>eful att5tion4 ,:5 us+ coals t are ri* 9 t> or hydroc>bons1 or ) fuels t h mu* f9e du/1 consid]able tr\ble is _h ) "s types ( produc]s due to 8cak+0 or to ! adhesion ( ! coal p>ticles to ! walls ( ! produc]s or to _! adhesion to "o ano!r4 ,9 ! latt] case ! 8/ick9ess0 ( ! fuel prev5t ! prop] fe$4 ,?is difficulty may (t5 be ov]come by a *ange 9 ! rate ( fe$+ or by regulat+ ! dep? ( ! inc&esc5t b$4 ,porosity ( ! fuel1 & ! rate at :i* ! air is suppli$ to ! produc] det]m9es ! dep? ( ! inc&esc5t b$4 ,p>ticul> c>e %\ld be tak5 t ! bla/ or draft occurs ev5ly ov] ! fire surface1 & t no holes occur 9 ! fire :i* w cause m rapid combu/ion 9 "o spot ?an 9 ano!r4 ,neglect ( ?is precaution n only causes a wa/e ( fuel b (t5 results 9 ! fuel 8ar*+0 & prev5t+ fur!r fe$4 ,! produc] %\ld be s proportion$ t at full load1 ! rate ( combu/ion does n exce$ #bd p\nds ( fuel p] squ>e foot ( produc] area p] h\r4 ,9 8 rese>*es1 ,pr(essor ,bone 7,iron & ,/eel ,in/itute1 ,may1 #aijg7 has %[n t up to #j4cb lbs4 ( /eam p] lb4 ( coal c be completely decompos$ 9 a produc]1 b t1 f #j4de lbs4 to #j4ee lbs4 %\ld be us$1 approximately #hj m4 ,n[1 9 consid]+ ! "q ( ! prop] proportion ( /eam = ! production ( gas = p[] purposes we mu/ be> 9 m9d t z mu* heat z possible %\ld be utiliz$ 9 ! produc] itself4 ,"s manufactur]s ( plant g s f> z to /ate t z mu* z #a lb4 ( /eam p] lb4 ( coal %\ld be us$1 b we are safe 9 say+ t #j4e lb4 to #j4g lb4 %\ld be ! figure = a p[] plant4 ,! common practice is to use a bla/ saturation ( #ee :5ev] ! cl9k]+ "* ( ! coal r5d]s x possible4 ,?is figure corresponds to ab\t 4#eg ( /eam p] lb4 ( coal gasifi$4 ,x is ( ! utmo/ importance t ! proportion ( /eam & air %\ld be con/ant1 & ! be/ figure be+ det]m9$1 x %\ld n be v>i$ to any degree4 ,x is equally important t ! fuel dep? %\ld be left con/ant4 ,by ?is ,i mean t n only %\ld ! coal 9 ! produc] be kept at a specific level1 b ! position ( ! fire on ! a% b$ %\ld be kept z ne> z possible a fix$ po9t4 ,a%es %\ld be drawn at regul> int]vals1 or1 if desir$1 cont9u\sly by me*anical means4 ,fur!r1 ! supply ( air & /eam %\ld be regul>ly di/ribut$1 s t ! velocity ( ! gases ?r\gh ! fuel %all be z ne>ly z possible regul> across its :ole area4 ,9 "s cases ! by-products ( a produc]1 su* z ammonia1 t>1 etc41 h a comm]cial value1 & if a l>ge am\nt ( gas is g5]at$ x w sometimes pay to select a fuel t is ri* 9 ^! p>ticul> sub/ances4 7#af7 ,coal4 ,coal :i* is ! basis ( produc] gas1 is compos$ g5]ally speak+ ( ! combu/ible matt]1 moi/ure1 a% & sulphur4 ,! combu/ible elem5t may be subdivid$ into ! ,,hydroc>bons1 ,,or ,,volatiles1 & ! solid fix$ c>bon4 ,! exact composition ( coal is g5]ally giv5 by :at is kn[n z ,,proximate analysis1 :i* analysis divides ! con/itu5ts ( ! coal into five gr\ps1 viz43 ,,moi/ure1 ,,volatiles1 ,,fix$ ,,c>bon1 ,,a%1 & ,,sulphur4 ,ultimate analysis resolves ! coal into its ultimate *emical elem5ts1 su* z hydrog51 c>bon1 nitrog51 sulphur1 etc41 & be+ a difficult & t$i\s process x is n mu* us$4 ,! proximate analysis gives all ! necess>y in=mation & takes less "t to p]=m4 ,,values ,,( ,,coal ,location ( ,m9e ,,proximate ,,analysis ,calorific ,value 9 ,b4,t4,u4 p] ,lb4 ( ,coal ,moi/ure,volatile ,fix$ ,a% ,sulphur ,matt] ,c>bon ,,an?racite ,nor!rn ,pa4 #c4ci #d4da #hc4cj #h4ag 4#gc #ac1bjj ,ea/]n ,pa4 #c4gj #c4jg #hf4db #f4ah 4#fc #ac1ddj ,we/]n ,pa4 #c4ab #c4gf #ha4fj #aj4fa 4#ec #ab1hge ,,semi-,,an?racite #a4be #h4ae #hc4cj #f4bg #a4fc #ac1ijj ,,semi-,,bitum9\s ,p5nsylvania 4#hj #ae4fj #gg4dj #e4ce 4#he #ad1ijj ,p5nsylvania #a4ee #af4de #ga4ej #h4fc #a4hg #ad1bjj ,pocahontas ,va4 #a4jj #ba4jj #bd4dj #c4jb 4#eh #ae1ajj ,we/ ,virg9ia 4#ij #ag4hc #gg4gj #c4cj 4#bg #ae1bcj ,,bitum9\s ,y\ghiogh5y ,pa4 #a4jj #cf4ej #ei4jj #b4ei 4#hf #ad1djj ,sample ,no4 #b #a4bj #cj4ah #ei4jj #h4hd 4#gh #ad1djj ,hock+ ,valley #f4e #ce4jf #dh4hj #h4je #a4ei #ab1ajj ,k5tucky #d4jj #cd4jj #ed4gj #g4jj 4#jc #ab1hjj ,indiana #h4jj #cj4bj #ed4bj #g4fj #ab1ejj ,ill9ois #aj4ej #cf4ae #cg4jj #ab4ij #c4de #aj1ejj ,colorado #f4jj #ch4ja #dg4ij #h4ji #ab1bjj ,,lignite #i4jj #db4bf #dd4cj #c4bg #a4ah #aa1jjj ,! ,,calorific ,,value ( a fuel may be calculat$ f its analysis1 or may be det]m9$ by means ( ! ,,calorimet] f a sample ( ! coal2 ! latt] me?od is ! mo/ reliable4 ,table gives approximately ! calorific values1 & ! proximate analysis ( sev]al repres5tative coals f v>i\s sections ( ! c\ntry4 ,! values giv5 9 ! table are n exact1 z ! coal f ea* locality v>ies consid]ably 9 quality1 b ! figures w indicate :at may be expect$ f ea* type ( coal4 ,connellsville1 ,pa41 ,coke has a calorific value ( approximately #ac1jjj ,b4,t4,u4's p] p\nd1 conta9s no volatile matt]1 & has an approximate cont5t ( #aj a%4 ,coke is a valuable fuel = ! gas produc]1 b is r exp5sive4 ,x is clean & ! abs5ce ( volatile matt] r$uces ! 8scrubb+0 problem to a m9imum4 ,small coal su* z buck:eat & pea conta9 a mu* high] p]c5tage ( moi/ure ?an giv5 9 ! table1 runn+ f #e to #aj high] ?an ! giv5 values4 ,bitum9\s coal is high 9 hydroc>bons or volatiles :i* cond5se easily & =m t>4 ,if ! t> is n remov$ or conv]t$ into a p]man5t gas1 x w clog ! passages ( ! produc] & ! eng9e & cause tr\ble4 ,! removal ( ! t> & a% f a gas is call$ ,,scrubb+1 & is p]=m$ by a device mu* resembl+ a filt]4 ,an?racite coal & coke are l[ 9 volatiles or hydroc>bons1 & !re=e d n cause tr\ble ) t> deposits4 ,a high p]c5tage ( volatile matt] also causes tr\ble by ! t> cem5t+ ! p>ticles ( fuel toge!r4 ,?is int]f]es ) ! prop] action ( ! produc]4 ,fuels hav+ a high p]c5tage ( a% call = p]fect filt]+ or 8scrubb+0 z su* fuels w fill ! gas passages ) du/4 ,du/ %\ld be kept out ( ! eng9e at all co/s1 = ! du/ ev5 9 a quantity w cause we> 9 ! cyl9d]4 ,dep5d+ on ! quality ( ! fuel1 bitum9\s coal w produce ab\t #d p\nds ( ammonia & #ab gallons ( t> ) ab\t #e ( sulphur4 ,an?racite coal w produce approximately six p\nds ( t>1 & two p\nds ( ammonia ) traces ( sulphur4 ,loose ,an?racite coal requires approximately #dj cubic feet ( /orage space p] ton ( #bbdj p\nds & weighs ab\t #ef p\nds p] cubic foot 7m>ket sizes74 ,loose ,bitum9\s coal requires approximately #de cubic feet ( /orage space p] ton ( #bbdj p\nds1 & weighs ab\t #eb p\nds p] cubic foot 9 m>ket sizes4 ,dry coke requires approximately #he cubic feet ( /orage space p] ton ( #bbdj p\nds1 & weighs ab\t #bf p\nds p] cubic foot4 7#ag7 ,fuel ,oils4 ,crude oil1 a natural product1 is ! base ( ! fuels mo/ commonly us$ 9 int]nal combu/ion eng9es1 especially 9 ! small] sizes4 ,f ?is comp\nd ! foll[+ d]ivatives are obta9$ by ! process ( di/illation1 a sep>ation possible because ( ! diff]5t boil+ po9ts ( ! v>i\s oils4 ,z ea* d]ivative or ,,di/illate has a diff]5t boil+ po9t1 ! temp]ature ( ! crude oil is ma9ta9$ at ! boil+ po9t ( t product t is desir$1 & ! result+ vapor is cond5s$4 ,! foll[+ li/ is n any:]e ne> complete = !re are sev]al hundr$ di/9ctly diff]5t di/illates1 b x conta9s ^? t are ( ! mo/ int]e/ to ! eng9e man4 #a4 ,crude ,oil4 #b4 ,gasol9e4 #c4 ,naph?a4 #d4 ,sol> ,oil4 #e4 ,k]os5e4 ,! specific gravity ( ! crude oil z obta9$ 9 ! field w range f #ab to #ef ,beaum scale4 ,! crude f ,p5nsylvania w av]age #dj ,beaum :ile t f ,texas w av]age #bj4 ,! accompany+ table w give ! calorific values & g5]al prop]ties ( ! pr9ciple liquid fuels4 ,x %\ld be not$ t ! weight or d5sity ( ! liquids is giv5 9 t]ms ( specific gravity or ,beaum scale1 9 :i* ! ,,specific ,,gravity ( ! fuel is ! ratio ( its weight p] unit volume to ! weight ( an equival5t volume ( wat]4 ,! specific gravity ( a liquid is g5]ally det]m9$ by an in/rum5t kn[n z a ,,hydromet] :i* consi/s ( a glass tube seal$ at bo? ends c>ry+ a graduat$ scale on ! upp] portion ( ! /em1 & a balla/ weight ( %ot or m]cury at ! bottom4 ,! hydromet] is float$ 9 ! liquid to be te/$1 & ! l[] ! specific gravity1 ! l[] ! hydromet] s9ks1 & vice v]sa4 ,! specific gravity ( ! liquid is read directly f ! graduation on ! /em t are on a level ) ! surface ( ! liquid "u te/4 ,z 9 ! case ( !rmomet]s1 hydromet]s are all graduat$ 9 two diff]5t scales1 ! specific gravity scale & ! ,beaum scale4 ,! specific gravity scale reads at #a4jj :5 float$ on di/ill$ wat]1 & ! ,beaum at #aj4jj :5 float$ on ! same liquid4 ,a diff]5ce 9 temp]ature affects ! d5sity ( a liquid1 h5ce all hydromet]s are graduat$ = a /&>d temp]ature ( #fj;,f unless o!rwise specifi$4 ,= a diff]5ce ( #aj;,f !re is a v>iation ( "o degree gravity 9 ! ,beaum scale1 & = a diff]5ce ( #bj;,f 9 temp]ature !re is a *ange ( "o degree on ! specific gravity scale4 ,if ! temp]ature diff]s f #fj;,f1 ! correspond+ correction %\ld be made 9 ! read+4 ,to conv]t ! ,beaum read+ 7,b7 to t]ms ( ! specific gravity scale 7,s7 use ! foll[+ =mula3 #adj ,s -------------- specific gravity4 #acj ,b #adj ,b ------ ,beaum scale4 ,s ,,prop]ties ,,( ,,oils ,degrees ,specific ,weight ,b4,t4,u4',s ,b4,t4,u4',s ,beaum ,gravity p] gal4 p] lb4 p] gal4 ,gasol9e #fg4b 4#gabe #e4icb #baabj #abe1bhd ,heavy naph?a #fd4f 4#gbaf #f4jaa #bjebg #abc1chh ,k]os5e #dh4h 4#ghdh #f4ech #bjjah #acj1hgg ,w4 ,virg9ia crude #dj4j 4#hbea #f4hgd #aigff #ace1hga ,p5n4 fuel oil #ca4i 4#hffj #g4bae #aifef #ada1hah ,kansas crude #bi4j 4#hhaf #g4cde #aidce #adb1gej ,fuel oil #bb4g 4#iagf #g4fde #aiajc #adf1jdb ,cali=nia crude #bb4e 4#ibdh #g4gaj #ahggi #add1ghf ,cali=nia crude #ae4b 4#ifdf #h4jcf #ahehi #adi1cha ,alcohol1 #ie #da4i 4#haf #f4gih #ajejj #ga1chj ,x w be not$ t ! petroleum products conta9 an enorm\s am\nt ( heat en]gy1 ne>ly #be m ?an t ( ! same weight ( pure c>bon4 ,x w also be not$ t ! light] products su* z gasol9e1 k]os5e1 etc41 h m heat p] p\nd b less p] gallon ?an ! heavi] oils4 ,?is is r confus+ at fir/1 b z w be se5 aft] delib]ation t ! heavi] fuel is ! mo/ economical s9ce ! lea/ is us$ p] horse-p[]1 & is b\ght by ! gallon4 ,! calorific values giv5 9 ! table are obta9$ by a calorimet]1 & are burnt 9 ! op5 air1 & consequ5tly h a diff]5t heat+ value :5 "u compression 9 ! cyl9d] ( ! eng9e4 ,9 all cases ! liquids are vaporiz$ be=e be+ introduc$ 9 ! cyl9d]1 ! m volatile liquids su* z gasol9e be+ conv]t$ into vapor at atmosph]ic temp]ature1 & ! heavi] non-volatiles by be+ spray$ into a heat$ vessel or preheat$ air4 ,! p]c5tage ( liquid fuel conta9$ 9 a cubic foot ( air vapor mixture dep5ds on ! temp]ature1 ! boil+ po9t ( ! liquid & ^u ! pressure & humidity4 ,gasol9e consi/s pr9cipally ( comp\nds ( ! me?ane s]ies1 ! "o repres5tative ( gasol9e be+ ,hexane 7,c#f;,h#ad74 ,x requires #ae4e p\nds ( air = combu/ion !oretically & ab\t #aj p] c5t4 m 9 practice4 ,! =mation ( gasol9e vapor produces a drop 9 temp]ature ( #ej;,f1 & %\ld be heat$ #ajj;,f above ! atmosph]e = ! be/ results4 ,! volume ( air requir$ = ! combu/ion is ab\t #aib cubic feet4 ,) alcohol at #bj c5ts p] gallon & gasol9e at #ab c5ts ! numb] ( ,b4,t4,u4's = "o c5t 9 ! case ( alcohol is #ceid & #ibfe 9 ! case ( gasol9e4 ,9 ! eng9e ! diff]5ce is n s great ow+ to ! diff]5ce 9 compression pressures4 7#ah7 ,t> = ,fuel4 ,because ( ! increas+ int]e/ 9 ! ,diesel type eng9e & ! l[ grade fuels t x has made possible1 we quote ! specifications laid d[n by ,dr4 ,rudolph ,diesel1 ! inv5tor1 be=e ! ,engli% ,in/itution ( ,eng9e]s4 7#a47 ,t>-oils %\ld n conta9 m ?an a trace ( con/itu5ts insoluble 9 xylol4 ,! te/ on ?is is p]=m$ z foll[s3--#be grammes 7#j4hh oz4 av47 ( oil are mix$ ) #be cm4#c 7#a4ebe cub4 947 ( xylol1 %ak5 & filt]$4 ,! filt]-pap] be=e be+ us$ is dri$ & weigh$1 & aft] filtration has tak5 place x is ?or\ghly wa%$ ) hot xylol4 ,aft] re-dry+ ! weight %\ld n be increas$ by m ?an #j4a gr4 7#b47 ,! wat] cont5ts %\ld n exce$ #a p] c5t4 ,! te/+ ( ! wat] cont5ts is made by ! well-kn[n xylol me?od4 7#c47 ,! residue ( ! coke %\ld n exce$ #c p] c5t4 7#d47 ,:5 p]=m+ ! boil+ analysis1 at lea/ #fj p] c5t4 by volume ( ! oil %\ld be di/ill$ on heat+ up to #cjj ,c4 ,! boil+ & analysis %\ld be c>ri$ out accord+ to ! rules laid d[n by ! ,tru/4 7,g]man ,t> ,production ,tru/ on ,ess5-,ruhr47 7#e47 ,! m9imum calorific p[] mu/ n be less ?an #h1hjj cal4 p] kg4 ,= oils ( less calorific p[] ! pur*as] has ! "r ( d$uct+ #b p] c5t ( ! net price ( ! deliv]$ oil1 = ea* #ajj cal4 bel[ ?is m9imum4 7#f47 ,! fla%-po9t1 z det]m9$ 9 an op5 crucible by ,von ,holde's me?od = lubricat+ oils1 mu/ n be bel[ #fe ,c4 7#g47 ,! oil mu/ be q fluid at #ae ,c4 ,! pur*as] has n ! "r to reject oils on ! gr\nd t emulsions appe> aft] five m9utes' /irr+ :5 ! oil is cool$ to #h4 ,pur*as]s %\ld be urg$ to fit _! oil-/or+ tanks & oil-pipes ) w>m+ arrangem5ts to r$issolve emulsions by ! temp]ature fall+ bel[ #ae ,c4 7#h47 ,if emulsions h be5 caus$ by ! cool+ ( ! oils 9 ! tank dur+ transport1 ! pur*as] mu/ r$issolve !m by means ( ?is app>atus4 ,insoluble residues may be d$uct$ f ! weight ( oil suppli$4 ,coal t> oil is ! di/illate ( ! t> obta9$ f gas works1 f :i* all valuable comm]cial mat]ials su* z anil9e h be5 remov$4 ,coal oil t> is also kn[n z creosote oil & an?rac5e oil1 ! heat value ( :i* is n q #af1jjj ,b4,t4,u4 p] p\nd4 7#ai7 ,residual ,oils4 ,residual oil is ! residue left aft] ! light] oils h be5 di/ill$ f ! petroleum1 :i* be=e ! adv5t ( ! ,diesel eng9e 7 useless4 ,residual oil :i* 0 h>dly fluid at ord9>y temp]atures has be5 successfully us$ 9 ! ,diesel & semi-,diesel types ( eng9es1 by preheat+ x be=e admission to ! inlet valves4 ,! enorm\sly increas$ dem& = gasol9e has result$ 9 a great increase ( ! =m]ly useless residual oil s t x is possible t ! dem& = gasol9e w make ! production ( ! residual great en\gh s t x c be s]i\sly consid]$ z a fuel4 7#bj7 ,gasol9e4 ,gasol9e is by ! f> ! mo/ widely us$ fuel = int]nal combu/ion eng9es because ( its great volatility & ! ease ) :i* x =ms inflammable mixtures ) ! air at ord9>y temp]atures4 ,ano!r po9t 9 its favor is ! fact t x burns ) a m9imum ( sooty or t>ry deposits1 )\t a disagreeable smell ) mod]ate compression pressures & )\t preheat+ ?r\gh a wide range ( air ratios4 ,gasol9e is a product ( crude oil f :i* x is obta9$ by a process ( di/illation1 & z x =ms b a small p]c5tage ( ! crude oil x is rapidly becom+ m & m exp5sive z ! dem& increases4 ,"s ,p5nsylvania crude oils w yield z mu* z #bj p] c5t ( _! weight 9 gasol9e1 :ile ! l[ grade ,texas & ,cali=nia crudes v seldom conta9 m ?an #c p] c5t4 ,:5 consid]$ z a t]m apply+ to "s specific product1 ! ^w 8,gasol9e0 is a v flexible expression z x cov]s a wide range ( specific gravities1 boil+ po9ts1 & compositions1 ! latt] items dep5d+ on ! dem& = ! fuel & ! ta/e ( ! manufactur]4 ,s9ce ! specific gravity ( gasol9e is a factor t det]m9es its suitability = ! eng9e1 at lea/ 9 reg>d to its evaporat+ p[] or volatility1 x is grad$ accord+ to its d5sity 9 ,beaum degrees z det]m9$ by ! hydromet]4 ,accord+ to ?is scale gasol9e w range f #he to #fj ,beaum1 & ev5 l[]1 al?\gh #fj is suppos$ to m>k ! l[e/ limit & to =m ! divid+ l9e betwe5 gasol9e & naph?a4 ,! d5sity ( ! gasol9e 9 ,beaum degrees is an index to ! volatility1 = ! high] ! degree z indicat$ on ! hydromet]1 ! high] is ! volatility at a giv5 temp]ature1 consequ5tly a high degree gasol9e w give a bett] mixture at a l[ temp]ature ?an "o ( a l[ degree4 ,9 cold wea!r all gasol9e %\ld be te/$ ) a hydromet] :5 pur*as$ to insure a grade t w be volatile en\gh = easy />t+ :5 ! eng9e is cold4 ,9 cold wea!r ! gasol9e %\ld n be l[] ?an #fh1 & = ! be/ results %\ld be above #gb1 at lea/ = />t+ ! eng9e4 ,good gasol9e %\ld evaporate rapidly & %\ld produce q a degree ( cold :5 a small am\nt is spread on ! palm ( ! h&1 & x %\ld leave nei!r a greasy feel+ nor a disagreeable odor aft] its evaporation4 ,! high gravity gasol9e is ( c\rse ! mo/ exp5sive1 z !re is less ( x 9 a gallon ( ! crude oil f :i* x is made2 gasol9e ( #gf ,beaum be+ approximately #ae;c4 p] gallon 9 c>load lots1 :ile naph?a ( #eh ,beaum br+s #h;c4 p] gallon4 ,! calorific value ( gasol9e increases z ! gravity ,beaum decreases p] gallon2 #he gasol9e hav+ approximately #aac1jjj ,b4,t4,u4 p] gallon :ile #eh naph?a has an approximate value ( #abb1jjj ,b4,t4,u4 p] gallon4 ,! calorific value rema9s ne>ly con/ant p] p\nd = all gravities4 ,x %\ld be rememb]$ t heat is absorb$ 9 evaporat+ gasol9e z well z 9 evaporat+ wat]1 & t effects ( cold wea!r are greatly increas$ by ! am\nt ( heat absorb$1 7or cold produc$7 by ! vaporization ( ! fuel4 ,:ile ! heat absorb$ by evaporat+ a giv5 quantity ( gasol9e is only 4#de p] c5t ( t absorb$ by an equal am\nt ( wat]1 x is a fact t ?is heat mu/ be suppli$ f "s s\rce to prev5t a r$uction 9 ! vapor d5sity4 ,9 />t+ ! eng9e1 ! heat ( evaporation is suppli$ by ! atmosph]e1 & %\ld ! temp]ature ( ! air be bel[ t requir$ = a giv5 vapor d5sity1 ! eng9e w refuse to />t4 ,by ! use ( two tanks & a ?ree way valve1 x is possible to use two grades ( fuel3 "o tank conta9+ high gravity gasol9e1 & ! o!r l[ gravity2 ! high gravity be+ us$ = />t+ ! eng9e 9 cold wea!r1 & ! *eap]1 l[ gravity1 be+ us$ = cont9u\s runn+ aft] ! eng9e is w>m$ up--! *ange ( fuels be+ made by ?r[+ ov] ! ?ree way valve4 ,! ,,vapor ,,d5sity ( gasol9e vapor is ! ratio ( ! weight ( ! vapor comp>$ ) ! weight ( an equal volume ( dry air at ! same temp]ature4 ,if ! weight ( a cubic foot ( gasol9e vapor is divid$ by ! weight ( a cubic foot ( air at ! same temp]ature ! result w be ! vapor d5sity ( ! gasol9e vapor4 ,comp>$ to air1 ! gasol9e vapor is q heavy s t if a small quantity ( gasol9e is p\r$ on ! top ( a table1 ! vapor w fl[ ov] ! edge ( ! table & drop to ! floor :]e x w rema9 until x has unit$ ) ! air by ! process ( diffusion4 ,exp]im5ts h %[n t pure1 dry gasol9e vapor has a d5sity ( ab\t #c4bh1 or 9 o!r words weighs #c4bh times z mu* z an equal volume ( dry air4 ,?is weight ( c\rse is ! weight ( pure vapor :i* is consid]ably heavi] ?an ! mixture ( vapor & air t is us$ 9 ! cyl9d] ( ! eng9e4 ,dampness1 or ! pres5ce ( wat] vapor 9 ! air r$uces ! quantity ( gasol9e vapor tak5 up by ! air1 b only by a small am\nt1 ! maximum diff]5ce be+ only ab\t #b p] c5t4 ,s9ce x is v likely t ! wat] vapor is brok5 up into its orig9al elem5ts1 oxyg5 & hydrog51 by ! heat ( ! combu/ion x is likely t !re is no heat loss due to ! vapor pass+ out ?r\gh ! exhau/4 ,! pr9cipal tr\ble due to dampness is ! mixture ( wat] & liquid gasol9e caus$ by ! cond5sation ( ! wat] vapor4 ,all gasol9es & oils conta9 wat] to a m or less degree1 h5ce provision %\ld be made = ! dra9+ ( ! wat] :i* collects 9 ! bottom ( ! tank4 ,wat] 9 liquid fuels is ! cause ( mu* tr\ble4 ,wat] 9 gasol9e may be detect$ by dropp+ scrap+s f an indelible p5cil into a sample ( ! suspect$ fluid4 ,if wat] is pres5t 9 any quantity ! gasol9e w assume a violet color4 ,9 fill+ a supply tank ) gasol9e1 a *amois filt] or *amois l9$ funnel %\ld always be us$1 z ! *amois sk9 all[s ! gasol9e to pass b reta9s ! wat] & impurities conta9$ !re94 ,!re are _m funnels ( ?is type n[ on ! m>ket4 ,! rate at :i* gasol9e burns dep5ds on ! am\nt ( surface pres5t$ to ! air by ! fluid1 = a giv5 quantity ( gasol9e burns fa/] 9 a wide %all[ vessel ?an 9 a deep j>4 ,s9ce a spray ( m9ute p>ticles pres5ts an enorm\sly great] surface ?an ! liquid its burn+ spe$ is correspond+ly great]1 & z a true vapor has an almo/ limitless area1 its spe$ is mu* great] ?an t ( ! spray1 ! combu/ion "u ! latt] condition be+ almo/ in/antane\s4 ,besides ! "q ( subdivision ( ! liquid1 ! rate ( combu/ion also dep5ds on ! intimacy ( contact ( ! vapor ) ! air & on ! pressure appli$ to ! vapor z previ\sly expla9$ "u ! head ( 8,,compression0 9 ano!r *apt]4 ,,c>buret+ ,,air1 or produc+ an explosive mixture ( gasol9e vapor & air is accompli%$ by two diff]5t me?ods1 fir/ by pass+ ! air ov] ! surface ( ! liquid1 or by pass+ x ?r\gh ! liquid 9 bubbles2 second by spray+ ! liquid into ! air4 ,! latt] is ! me?od mo/ g5]ally 9 use at ! pres5t "t1 ! spray be+ =m$ by ! suction ( ! intake air ^u ! op5 end ( ! spray nozzle4 ,! vapor d5sity ( ! mixture ?us =m$ dep5ds on ! suction ( ! air & ^u ! nozzle op5+1 ei!r ( :i* may be v>i$ 9 ! mod]n c>buretor to v>y ! ri*ness ( ! mixture4 ,z a sugge/ion to ! us]s ( gasol9e we app5d ! foll[+ rem>ks4 ,gasol9e vapor w readily comb9e ) air to =m explosive mixtures1 at ord9>y temp]ature4 ,?is prop]ty at once makes x ! mo/ suitable fuel & ! mo/ dang]\s to h&le4 ,nev] fill tanks or expose gasol9e to ! air 9 ! pres5ce ( an op5 flame1 or d n attempt to det]m9e ! am\nt ( gasol9e 9 a tank ) ! aid ( a mat*4 ,!re are a numb] ( p :o h successfully accompli%$ ?is feat1 & a v great numb] :o h n4 ,be v sp>+ 9 ! use ( mat*es ar\nd a gasol9e eng9e2 !re are su* ?+s z leaks4 ,always c>efully replace ! /opp] or fill] cap 9 a gasol9e tank aft] fill+4 ,nev] use ! same funnel = wat] & gasol9e1 & avoid any possibility ( wat] f9d+ its way into ! tank4 ,if y d succe$ 9 ignit+ a quantity ( free gasol9e1 d n attempt to ext+ui% ! fire ) wat]4 ,p\r+ wat] on burn+ gasol9e spreads ! fire4 ,ext+ui% x ) e>? or s&1 or by ! use ( "o ( ! dry p[d] ext+ui%]s n[ on ! m>ket4 ,wat] may be remov$ f gasol9e by plac+ a few lumps ( desiccat$ calcium *loride 9 ! tank1 ! am\nt dep5d+ on ! quantity ( wat]4 ,calcium *loride1 has a great capacity = absorb+ wat]1 & 9 a %ort space ( "t w absorb all ( ! moi/ure conta9$ 9 ! tank4 ,! be/ way to introduce ! *loride is to wrap ! lumps 9 a %eet ( wire gauze & l[] into tank ) a wire1 ! wire all[+ x to be easily remov$ :5 saturat$ ) wat]4 7#ba7 ,b5zol4 ,b5zol has be5 us$ to "s ext5t 9 ,europe z a fuel1 its use be+ due to ! rapidly increas+ co/ ( gasol9e4 ,b5zol is a di/illate ( coal t>1 & is a by-product ( ! coke indu/ry4 ,9 ,engl& b5zol br+s approximately ! same price z gasol9e 7call$ petrol71 b b5zol proves economical = ! reason t x develops m p[] p] gallon4 ,b5zol is n z volatile z gasol9e1 b is suffici5tly volatile to all[ ( easy motor />t+4 ,b5zol is also us$ = d5atur+ alcohol4 7#bb7 ,alcohol4 ,alcohol is ( vegetable orig91 be+ ! result ( ! de/ructive di/illation ( v>i\s k9ds ( />*y plants or vegetables4 ,/>* is ! base ( alcohol4 ,z a fuel1 alcohol has mu* 9 its favor1 z x causes no c>bon deposit1 has smokeless & odorless exhau/1 c /& high compression1 & requires less cool+ wat] ?an gasol9e1 z ! heat loss is less ?r\gh ! cyl9d] walls1 & = ?is reason x is m effici5t fuel ?an gasol9e4 ,at ! pres5t "t ! price ( alcohol prohibits its g5]al use4 ,9 ord] t alcohol equal gasol9e 9 price p] horse-p[] h\r1 x %\ld sell = #aj;c4 p] gallon1 ! price ( gasol9e be+ #ae;c4 p] gallon4 ,alcohol c be us$ 9 any ord9>y gasol9e eng9e ) readju/m5t ( c>buretor & ! compression4 ,! nozzle 9 ! c>buretor has to be ( l>g] bore = alcohol ?an = gasol9e1 & ! compression = alcohol 9 ! neighborhood ( #ahj p\nds p] squ>e in*4 ,! inlet air %\ld be heat$ to ab\t #bhj;,f = alcohol fuel2 approximately #f ( ! heat ( ! alcohol is requir$ = its vaporization4 ,alcohol is mu* saf] to h&le ?an gasol9e ow+ to its l[ volatility4 #ij alcohol has a calorific value ( #aj1ajj ,b4,t4,u4 p] p\nd1 its specific gravity be+ 4#hae4 ,,wood1 or ,,me?yl alcohol is made by di/ill+ ! />* conta9$ 9 ! fibres ( "s species ( wood 7,poison\s74 ,,gra91 or ,,e?yl alcohol is ! result ( ! di/illation ( ! />* conta9$ 9 gra9s1 potatoes1 molasses1 etc4 ,,e?yl1 or ,,gra9 alcohol r5d]$ unfit = dr9k+ by ! addition ( c]ta9 sub/ances1 is call$ ,,d5atur$ ,,alcohol4 ,! process ( d5atur+ does n affect ! calorific value ( alcohol to any ext5t4 7#bc7 ,k]os5e ,oil4 ,k]os5e is a fractional di/illate ( crude oil :i* has a consid]ably high] vaporiz+ temp]ature ?an gasol9e4 ,x does n =m an inflammable mixture ) ! air at ord9>y temp]atures1 b is vaporiz$ 9 practice by spray+ x into a *amb] heat$ to above #bjj;,f4 ,k]os5e =ms a great] p]c5tage ( crude oil ?an gasol9e & z !re has be5 less dem& = x up to ! pres5t "t x is mu* *eap]4 ,p5nsylvania crude oil produces only #bj p] c5t ( gasol9e :ile ! k]os5e cont5ts w av]age ne>ly #db p] c5t accord+ to figures at h&4 ,k]os5e has a v high calorific value p] gallon1 #h4e gallons ( k]os5e hav+ ! same heat+ effect z #aj gallons ( gasol9e4 ,because ( its high calorific value & its l[ co/ p] gallon1 _m types ( eng9es h be5 develop$ = its use dur+ ! la/ few ye>s1 sev]al ( :i* h be5 v successful4 ,be=e ! adv5t ( ! mod]n k]os5e eng9e mu* difficulty 0 exp]i5c$ ) ! fuel because ( its high vaporiz+ temp]ature & its t5d5cy to c>bonize 9 ! cyl9d]1 b z ! price ( gasol9e cont9u$ to rise1 ! inv5tive g5ius ( ! gas eng9e build] ov]came ^! tr\bles s t ! k]os5e eng9e is n[ z reliable z any =m ( prime mov]4 ,illu/ration3 ,k]os5e ,vaporiz] on ,fairbanks-,morse ,eng9e4 ,! ,eng9e is ,/>t$ on ,gasol9e & ,:5 ,hot1 ! ,k]os5e ,fe$ is ,turn$ on4 ,any gasol9e eng9e w run on k]os5e1 aft] a mann]1 if ! eng9e is ?or\ghly heat$ to insure ! vaporization ( ! k]os5e1 & if ! fuel is heat$ 9 ! c>buretor4 ,su* an arrangem5t is make-%ift1 h[ev]1 & is n productive ( good results 9 cont9u\s s]vice4 ,if k]os5e is to be us$ z a regul> fuel1 a k]os5e eng9e %\ld be us$ to avoid vaporiz+ & c>boniz+ difficulties z well z ! sooty1 (f5sive exhau/1 & ! loss ( fuel repres5t$ by ! soot4 ,_m k]os5e eng9es are arrang$ to />t on gasol9e1 &1 aft] becom+ heat$1 h ! runn+ fe$ ( k]os5e admitt$ ?r\gh a ?ree way valve4 ,! gasol9e fe$ is !n /opp$4 ,! above arrangem5t admits ( easy />t+ 9 all wea!rs & temp]atures4 ,9 ! ,diesel eng9e !re is no evaporat+ ( fuel1 & no deposits ( c>bon because ( ! high temp]ature ( ! combu/ion *amb]4 ,) eng9es t draw ! mixture ( vapor & air into ! cyl9d] !re are sev]al me?ods ( apply+ heat to ! liquid1 & ! combu/ion ( ! vapor ?us =m$ is p]fect$ by ! injection ( wat] into ! combu/ion *amb]4 ,x has be5 f\nd by exp]im5t t a small am\nt ( wat] vapor introduc$ into ! cyl9d] ( a k]os5e eng9e makes ! eng9e run m smoo?ly & prev5ts a smoky exhau/ & c>bon deposits 9 ! cyl9d]4 ,! wat] is introduc$ into ! cyl9d] ?r\gh an atomiz] 9 ! =m ( a mi/ or fog1 ! p>ticles ( wat] be+ 9 a v f9ely subdivid$ /ate4 ,illu/ration3 ,k]os5e ,vaporiz] on ,fairbanks-,morse ,v]tical ,eng9e4 ,/>t$ on ,k]os5e ,directly by ,heat+ ,vaporiz] ) ,tor*4 ,! deposits ( free c>bon 7soot7 caus$ by ! 8crack+0 or decomposition ( ! k]os5e vapor be=e ignition1 due to ! high temp]ature ( ! cyl9d]1 are burnt to c>bon dioxide by ! oxyg5 ( ! wat] :i* is also set free by ! heat ( ! cyl9d]4 ,?is produces an odorless gas 7,,co#b7 :i* indicates complete combu/ion4 ,besides ! increase ( fuel effici5cy due to ! wat] vapor1 ! cyl9d] is m ?or\ghly cool$ & is m effici5tly lubricat$ because ( ! r$uction 9 temp]ature4 ,,*apt] ,,iii ,,work+ ,,cycles 7#bd7 ,requirem5ts ( ! ,eng9e4 ,9 ord] t an int]nal combu/ion eng9e %all op]ate & develop p[] cont9u\sly ! foll[+ r\t9e ( ev5ts mu/ occur 9 ! cyl9d] 9 ! foll[+ ord]1 no matt] :at ! type ( eng9e4 7#a7 ,! cyl9d] mu/ be fill$ ) a combu/ible mixture ( air & gase\s fuel at z ne>ly atmosph]ic pressure z possible4 7#b7 ,! mixture mu/ be compress$ 9 ord] to develop ! value ( ! fuel4 7#c7 ,ignition mu/ take place at ! end ( ! compression /roke or at ! highe/ po9t ( compression4 7#d7 ,complete combu/ion ( ! fuel mu/ foll[ ! ignition ( ! *>ge1 ) an increase ( temp]ature & pressure :i* w act on ! pi/on to ! end ( ! p[] /roke4 7#e7 ,aft] ! pi/on has complet$ ! work+ /roke ! products ( combu/ion mu/ be eject$ f ! cyl9d] completely to make way = ! admission ( ! new combu/ible mixture4 ,) ! exception ( ! ,diesel eng9e :i* 7#a7 fills ! cyl9d] ) pure air )\t ! fuel1 & 7#b7 injects ! fuel aft] compression1 all int]nal combu/ion eng9es n only p]=m ea* ( ^! op]ations b proce$ ) ev5ts 9 ! ord] giv5 z well4 ,! accompli%m5t ( ! five acts is call$ a 8cycle ( ev5ts10 or a 8,,cycle10 & ! s]ies is p]=m$ 9 diff]5t ways 9 diff]5t types ( eng9es4 ,9 ! op]ation ( ! eng9e1 ! s]ies ( ev5ts occur ov] & ov] aga91 always 9 ! same ord]1 #a-b-c-d-e1 #a-b-c-d-e1 #a-b-c-d-e1 etc4 ,! five ev5ts are g5]ally giv5 9 t]ms ( ! numb] ( /rokes ( ! pi/on tak5 to accompli% ! complete r\t9e1 ?us a two /roke cycle eng9e p]=ms ! s]ies 9 two /rokes1 & a f\r /roke cycle eng9e 9 f\r /rokes1 & s on4 ,9 ord] to obta9 ! b5efits ( high compression1 p]fect scav5g+ ( ! products ( combu/ion f ! cyl9d] & p]fect mixtures1 a great v>iety ( eng9es h be5 develop$ 9 :i* ! numb] ( /rokes tak5 to accompli% ! five ev5ts v>ies4 ,9 "s eng9es ! cycle is accompli%$ 9 two /rokes1 9 o!r eng9es x is accompli%$ 9 six /rokes1 b 9 ! great majority ( cases ! cycle is p]=m$ 9 ei!r two or f\r /rokes1 & z ^! are by f> ! mo/ common r\t9es1 we w conf9e our description to eng9es ( ^! types4 7#be7 ,f\r ,/roke ,cycle ,eng9e4 ,! f\r /roke cycle eng9e1 "s times improp]ly call$ ! 8f\r cycle0 eng9e is ! mo/ widely us$ type = all classes ( s]vice1 except possibly = m>9e "w4 ,its ext5d$ use is due to its sup]ior scav5g+1 high effici5cy & reliability1 al?\gh x is some:at m complicat$ ?an ! two /roke cycle type4 ,its ability to function prop]ly "u a wide v>iation ( spe$ has driv5 ! two /roke cycle type out ( ! automobile field1 & its _m admirable *>act]i/ics h cut a wide swa? 9 ! m>9e field1 ! /ronghold ( ! two /roke cycle type4 ,a f\r /roke cycle eng9e p]=ms ! cycle ( ev5ts 9 f\r /rokes or two revolutions1 only "o ( ! /rokes be+ a p[] ( work+ /roke4 ,9 a s+le cyl9d] eng9e ! explosion 9 ! work+ /rokes supplies en\gh p[] to ! fly-:eel to c>ry ! eng9e & its load ?r\gh ! rema9+ ?ree /rokes4 ,?us ! en]gy /or$ 9 ! fly :eel is suffici5t to c>ry n only ! load dur+ ! idle /rokes b to 8inhale0 & compress ! *>ge z well4 ,due to ! long int]val t exi/s betwe5 explosions1 !y are correspond+ heavy & are productive ( heavy /ra9s 9 ! eng9e & are ! cause ( consid]able vibration4 ,to r$uce ! ill effects ( ! heavy int]mitt5t bl[s1 ! majority ( automobile & /ation>y eng9es are provid$ ) two or m cyl9d]s1 ! p[] be+ equally divid$ among !m4 ,9 a f\r cyl9d] eng9e1 !re are f\r times z _m impulses z 9 a s+le cyl9d] eng9e & ! bl[ dealt by ! individual cyl9d] is only "o-qu>t] z great4 ,:ile a s+le cyl9d] eng9e has an impulse only once 9 e o!r revolution1 ! f\r cyl9d] has two impulses 9 "o revolution4 ,besides ! advantages ga9$ by increas+ ! impulses1 ! me*anical balance ( a multiple cyl9d] eng9e is always bett] ?an t ( a s+le & is also mu* light] 9 weight s9ce less mat]ial is requir$ to resi/ %ocks ( ! explosions4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #d4 ,diagrammatic ,view ( ,f\r ,/roke ,cycle ,eng9e ) ! ,pi/on 9 ,v>i\s ,positions ,correspond+ ) ! ,five ,ev5ts4 ,diagram ,a--,suction4 ,diagram ,b--,compression4 ,diagram ,c--,ignition4 ,diagram ,d--,work+ ,/roke4 ,diagram ,e--,release4 ,diagram ,f--,scav5g+ ,/roke4 ,eng9es ) m ?an f\r cyl9d]s h 8ov]lapp+0 impulses1 t is "s cyl9d] on ! eng9e is always deliv]+ p[]1 = be=e "o cyl9d] rea*es ! end ( ! /roke1 ano!r has fir$ its *>ge & has />t$ to deliv] p[]4 ,?us ! impulses 8ov]lap0 "o ano!r1 & ! result is an ev5 & smoo? application ( p[] & a m9imum ( /ra9 is impos$ on ! eng9e4 ,a]onautical & spe$ boat eng9e build]s h c>ri$ ! multiple cyl9d] idea to an extreme because ( ! nature ( _! "w4 ,eight cyl9d] a]onautical eng9es are v common & !re are sev]al built hav+ sixte5 cyl9d]s4 ,! latt] type ( eng9e gives eight impulses p] revolution4 ,to avoid a great multiplicity ( cyl9d]s1 & to save on floor space1 ! great majority ( heavy duty /ation>y eng9es are built d\ble act+1 t is an explosion occurs alt]nately 9 ei!r end ( ! cyl9d]4 ,9 effect1 a d\ble act+ cyl9d] is ! same ?+ z a two cyl9d] s+le act+ eng9e1 z x gives twice ! numb] ( impulses obta9$ ) a s+le act+ cyl9d]4 ,! ord] 9 :i* ! ev5ts occur 9 a f\r /roke cycle eng9e is z foll[s3 ,,/roke #a4 ,fir/ outw>d /roke ( ! pi/on causes a p>tial vacuum 9 ! combu/ion *amb] ?us draw+ a *>ge ( combu/ible gas into ! cyl9d] ?r\gh ! op5 inlet valve4 ,! exhau/ valve is clos$4 ,see diagram ,a 9 ,fig4 #d4 7,suction ,/roke47 ,,/roke #b4 ,inlet valve closes at ! end ( ! suction /roke & ! pi/on />ts on ! inw>d /roke compress+ ! *>ge 9 ! combu/ion *amb]4 ,see diagram ,b4 7,compression ,/roke47 ,at ! end ( ! compression /roke1 or a little be=e1 ! sp>k 8,s0 occurs caus+ ! ignition ( ! *>ge4 ,see diagram ,c4 ,,/roke #c4 ,work+ ,/roke4 ,z ! pressure is n[ e/abli%$ 9 ! cyl9d]1 ! pi/on moves d[n on ! work+ /roke =c+ ! crank ar\nd aga9/ ! load & supply+ suffici5t en]gy to ! fly :eel to c>ry ! eng9e ?r\gh ! ?ree idle /rokes4 ,see diagram ,d4 ,:5 ! pi/on rea*es ! end ( ! work+ /roke1 or a little be=e1 ! exhau/ valve op5s to r$uce ! pressure & to all[ ! great] "p ( ! burnt gas to escape4 ,see diagram ,e4 ,,/roke #d4 ,scav5g+ ,/roke4 ,! exhau/ valve rema9s op5 & ! inw>dly mov+ pi/on expels ! rema9d] ( ! burnt gas ?r\gh ! exhau/ valve1 cle>+ ! cyl9d] = ! next fre% *>ge ( mixture4 ,see diagram ,f4 ,! next /roke is ! suction /roke expla9$ "u 8,/roke #a40 ,9 all ( ! diagrams ! crank is suppos$ to turn 9 a "r h&$ direction z indicat$ by ! arr[1 ! pi/on mov+ 9 ! direction %[n by ! arr[ "u ! pi/on head4 ,! valves are op]at$ by cams on an int]m$iate %aft kn[n z ! 8cam %aft40 ,z ! valves g ?r\gh _! s]ies ( movem5ts 9 two revolutions ( ! crank %aft1 & z ! cam %aft mu/ p]=m all ( ^! op]ations 9 "o revolution1 x is evid5t t ! cam %aft mu/ run at exactly "o-half ! crank-%aft spe$4 ,?is *ange ( spe$ is accompli%$ by means ( ge>+ betwe5 ! cam %aft & crank-%aft f :i* ! cam %aft is driv54 ,9 "s eng9es1 notably ! ,diesel eng9e1 pure air is drawn into ! cyl9d] on /roke ,no4 #a in/ead ( ! entire mixture4 ,fuel is suppli$ 9 ?is type imm$iately aft] ! end ( ! compression /roke4 ,:ile an electric sp>k is %[n z ! ignit+ m$ium 9 ! diagrams1 ! ignition is sometimes p]=m$ by a hot tube1 or simply by ! heat ( ! compression z 9 ! ,diesel eng9e4 ,9 ! slid+ sleeve type ( f\r /roke cycle motor1 ! poppet or lift+ type ( valve z %[n 9 ,fig4 #d1 is replac$ by a peculi> type ( slide valve simil> 9 action to ! slide valves us$ on /eam eng9es1 except t x is cyl9drical 9 =m & entirely surr\nds ! pi/on4 ,:ile !re is a *ange 9 ! =m ( ! valve1 & 9 a numb] ( small details1 ! gases are drawn into ! cyl9d]1 compress$1 ignit$1 & releas$ 9 exactly ! same way & 9 ! same rotation1 z 9 ! poppet valve eng9e j describ$4 ,a description ( ! ,knight eng9e :i* is ! mo/ prom95t example ( ! slide sleeve motor w be f\nd 9 a succe$+ *apt]4 ,s9ce ! success ( ! slide valve type has be5 ackn[l$g$ by _m prom95t automobile manufactur]s1 !re h be5 sev]al simil> types plac$ on ! m>ket1 "s ) two sleeves & "s ) "o1 b 9 all cases ! design]s h _h b two po9ts 9 view1 t is quiet runn+ & free passages4 7#bf7 ,two ,/roke ,cycle ,eng9e4 ,two /roke cycle eng9es p]=m ! five ev5ts ( aspiration 7suction71 compression1 ignition1 expansion & release 9 two /rokes or "o revolution4 ,provid+ t ^! ev5ts are p]=m$ z effici5tly z 9 ! f\r /roke cycle eng9e1 x is evid5t t ) equal cyl9d] capacity1 ! two /roke cycle eng9e w\ld h twice ! output ( a f\r /roke cycle s9ce x gives twice ! numb] ( impulses p] revolution4 ,un=tunately x is impossible to atta9 twice ! output ( ! f\r /roke cycle type ) ! small two /roke eng9es built at ! pres5t "t because ( _! imp]fect scav5g+ & poor fuel economy4 ,9 ! l>g] two /roke eng9es1 ! pumps & bl[]s us$ = scav5g+ ! cyl9d]s consume a consid]able p]c5tage ( ! output4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #e4 ,diagram ( ,two ,port--,two ,/roke ,cycle ,eng9e1 ,%[+ ! ,ev5ts 9 ! ,crank-,case & ,cyl9d]4 ,a g5]al classification ( ! two /roke cycle eng9e is n s simple a matt] z t ( ! f\r /roke because ( ! diff]5ces 9 con/ruction ( l>ge & small sizes4 ,?is diff]5ce betwe5 ! l>ge /ation>y eng9e & ! small type commonly us$ on boats is due to ! ef=ts ( ! build]s ( ! l>ge eng9e to obta9 great fuel economy1 :ile ! *ief endeavors ( ! build]s ( small eng9es is to build a simple & reliable eng9e = ! use ( inexp]i5c$ p]sons4 ,:ile ! small] type ( two /roke eng9e 7less ?an #be horse-p[]7 has n be5 us$ 9 /ation>y practice to any ext5t1 ow+ to ! defects j nam$1 or on automobiles1 x has be5 widely us$ on motor boats1 a s]vice = :i* x is peculi>ly adapt$4 ,its ext5d$ use on boats is due to ! fact t 9 su* s]vice x runs at practically a con/ant spe$ & works aga9/ a /eady load1 ! conditions t are mo/ favorable to ! type4 ,) automobiles :]e ! motor spe$ is con/antly v>y+1 z well z ! load1 ?is type ( motor is n flexible en\gh to meet ! cont9ually v>y+ conditions4 ,! small two /roke motors are divid$ into two pr9cipal classes1 ! two port & ?ree port type1 dep5d+ on ! me?od by :i* ! *>ge is transf]r$ to ! cyl9d]4 ,no valves are us$ 9 ! cyl9d]s ( ei!r type = ! admission or release ( ! gases4 ,z ! two /rokes ( ! cycle are ! compression /roke & work+ /roke1 x is evid5t t ! *>ge mu/ be introduc$ into ! cyl9d] by means o!r ?an by ! suction ( ! pi/on & at a "t :5 !re is no pressure 9 ! cyl9d]4 ,?is is accompli%$ by a prelim9>y compression ( ! *>ge 9 ! crank case :i* places ! mixture "u suffici5t pressure to =ce x into ! cyl9d] at ! end ( ! work+ /roke & at ! same "t to displace ! burnt gases left f ! previ\s explosion4 ,x %\ld be not$ t ! incom+ mixture is a sub/itute = bo? ! suction & scav5g+ /rokes ( ! f\r /roke cycle eng9e4 ,a diagrammatic view ( a two port1 two /roke cycle eng9e is %[n by ,fig4 #e1 9 :i* ,p is ! pi/on1 ,c ! crank case1 ,i ! transf] port1 ,v ! inlet valve1 ,e ! exhau/1 & ,s ! sp>k plug = ignit+ ! *>ge4 ,x %\ld be not$ t !re are no valves 9 ! cyl9d] & only ?ree mov+ p>ts4 ,! cycle ( ev5ts = ! two port type is z foll[s3 ,,/roke #a4 ,we w consid] ! pi/on to be mov+ up on ! compression /roke z %[n 9 view 7,a71 compress+ ! mixture 9 ! combu/ion *amb] ,d4 ,:ile mov+ upw>ds 9 ! direction ( ! arr[1 ! pi/on creates a vacuum 9 ! crank case ,c draw+ fre% mixture into ! crank case4 ,! pi/on at ?is "t is cov]+ ! op5+ ( ! transf] port ,i & ! exhau/ port ,e s t ! compress$ mixture 9 ! cyl9d] _c escape4 ,on rea*+ ! end ( ! compression /roke1 a sp>k occurs at ,s :i* drives ! pi/on d[n & turns ! crank t[>ds ! "r z %[n by ! arr[4 ,,/roke #b4 ,:5 ! pi/on uncov]s ! exhau/ port ,e on its d[nw>d work+ /roke z %[n by view ,b1 ! exhau/ gases be+ "u pressure ru% out into ! atmosph]e z %[n by ! arr[s1 & relieve ! pressure 9 ! cyl9d]4 ,"s ( ! burnt gas rema9s 9 ! cyl9d] at atmosph]ic pressure z !re is no scav5g+ action up to ?is po9t4 ,:ile ! pi/on has mov$ d[n on ! work+ /roke x has compress$ ! mixture 9 ! crank case ready = admission to ! cyl9d]4 ,! valve ,v prev5ts ! escape ( ! gas dur+ ! compression4 ,on rea*+ ! end ( ! /roke ! pi/on uncov]s ! transf] port :i* all[s ! compress$ mixture 9 ! crank case to ru% into ! cyl9d] ?r\gh ,i1 z %[n by view ,c4 ,ow+ to ! %ape ( ! deflector plate ,z on ! pi/on head1 ! /ream ( mixture issu+ f ,i is ?r[n up t[>d ! top ( ! cyl9d]1 z %[n by ! arr[s1 & consequ5tly sweeps ! rema9d] ( ! burnt gas be=e x ?r\gh ! exhau/ port ,e4 ,9 ?is way ! fre% mixture f ! crank case scav5ges ! cyl9d] & fills x 9 "o op]ation4 ,be+ fill$ ) gas1 ! pi/on n[ moves up on ! compression /roke = ! next explosion z %[n by view ,a4 ,un=tunately ! scav5g+ action ( ! incom+ gas is n complete = ! :irl+ motion ( ! *>ge causes x to mix ) ! residual gas to a c]ta9 ext5t :i*1 ( c\rse1 r$uces ! heat+ effect ( ! fuel & r$uces ! p[] output4 ,ano!r factor t r$uces ! output ( ?is type ( eng9e is ! loss ( explosive mixture ?r\gh ! exhau/ port at l[ eng9e spe$s ) an op5 ?rottle4 ,9 ?is case1 ! pi/on spe$ be+ l[1 "p ( ! mixture has "t to pass ov] ! deflector plate & ?r\gh ! exhau/ op5+ be=e ! pi/on closes ! exhau/ port4 ,at v high spe$s ! *>ge is dilut$ by a consid]able quantity ( burnt gas :i* has n _h "t to escape ?r\gh ! port caus+ a fur!r loss ( p[]4 ,) ! ?rottle ne>ly clos$ on a light load1 ! impact ( ! incom+ mixture is s slight t ! p]c5tage ( exhau/ gas left 9 ! cyl9d] is v high4 ,?is dilution is s great t ) mod]ately l[ spe$s 7easily )9 ! capacity ( ! f\r /roke cycle eng9e7 x is ei!r impossible to ignite ! *>ge or x is impossible to ignite two 9 succession4 ,9 m>9e s]vice :]e ! loads are con/ant1 & ! spe$s fairly uni=m1 !re is b little tr\ble f ! la/ m5tion$ s\rce1 & z ! fuel is usually a small] item ?an ! repair bill1 ! simplicity ( ! small two /roke eng9e ) its fre$om f me*anical tr\bles usually gives satisfactory results 9 ! h&s ( ! novice4 7#bg7 ,?ree ,port--,two ,/roke ,cycle ,eng9e4 ,! pr9cipal diff]5ce betwe5 ! ?ree port & two port types ( ! two /roke cycle eng9e is 9 ! mann] 9 :i* ! *>ge is admitt$ to ! crank case = ! initial compression4 ,9 ! two port motor1 z previ\sly describ$1 ! *eck valve 8,v0 op5s to admit ! *>ge1 & closes dur+ its compression 9 ord] to prev5t its escape ?r\gh ! op5+ by :i* x 0 admitt$ to ! cyl9d]4 ,) ! ?ree port type !re is no *eck valve 9 ! crank case1 ! admission & ! ret5tion ( ! *>ge be+ controll$ by ! movem5t ( ! pi/on 9 practically ! same way t ! pi/on controls ! op5+ & clos+ ( ! exhau/ & transf] ports 9 ! cyl9d]4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #f4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #g ,figs4 #f-g4 ,diagram ( ,?ree ,port--,two ,/roke ,cycle ,eng9e 9 ,two ,positions4 ,by ! pi/on control ( ! gases 9 ! crank case1 ! valve is elim9at$1 :i* makes "o less mov+ "p to cause tr\ble & exp5se1 & p]mits ! use ( ! same type ( c>buretor t is us$ on ! f\r /roke cycle eng9e4 ,z ! *eck valve op5s & closes at a high spe$1 7twice t ( ! valves on a f\r /roke cycle eng9e71 !re is consid]able we> on ! valve seats due to ! cont9u\s bang+1 :i* results f9ally 9 a loss ( ! initial compression4 ,:5 ! initial compression is r$uc$ 9 ?is way ! eng9e loses p[] because ( ! r$uction ( ! *>ge 9 ! cyl9d]4 ,:ile ! ?ree port type is free f valve leakage tr\bles1 x has a /eady loss due to ! high vacuum t exi/s 9 ! crank *amb] :5 ! pi/on is on its upw>d /roke4 ,?is vacuum drags aga9/ ! pi/on & absorbs a consid]able am\nt ( p[] until ! pi/on rea*es ! upp] end ( ! /roke4 ,at ?is po9t ! inlet port is op5$ & ! vacuum is brok5 by ! ru% ( ! mixture ?r\gh ! inlet port4 ,besides ! p[] loss1 ! vacuum has a bad effect on ! lubrication ( ! ma9 crank %aft be>+4 ,illu/ration3 ,elevation ( ,fairbanks-,morse ,?ree-,port ,two ,/roke ,m>9e ,motor ,%[+ ,w>m+ ,device = ,c>buretor ,air4 ,describ$ by /rokes1 ! cycle ( ev5ts 9 ! ?ree port1 two /roke cycle eng9e is z foll[s3 ,,/roke #a4 ,9 ,fig4 #f1 ! pi/on is %[n at ! end ( ! compression /roke ) ignition tak+ place 9 ! combu/ion *amb] ,c4 ,! pressure due to ! expansion drives ! pi/on d[n on ! work+ /roke at ! same "t caus+ ! initial compression ( ! mixture 9 ! crank case z %[n by ,fig4 #g4 ,! gas 9 ! crank case _c escape dur+ compression z ! inlet port ,a is cov]$ by ! pi/on4 7a7 ,z ! pi/on desc5ds1 its upp] edge uncov]s ! exhau/ port ,d1 all[+ ! great] portion ( ! exhau/ gases to escape & r$uces ! pressure 9 ! cyl9d] to t ( ! atmosph]e4 7b7 ,desc5d+ a little f>!r1 ! top ( ! pi/on uncov]s ! op5+ ( ! transf] port ,b1 all[+ ! compress$ gases 9 ! crank case to ent] ! cyl9d] z %[n by ! arr[s4 ,^! gases1 guid$ by ! deflector plate on ! top ( ! pi/on are ?r[n upw>dly1 z %[n by ! arr[s1 & sweep ! residual burnt gases be=e !m ?r\gh ! exhau/ port4 ,! cyl9d] is n[ fill$ ) ! combu/ible mixture ready = compression4 ,,/roke #b4 ,! pi/on n[ moves up on ! compression /roke1 compress+ ! *>ge 9 ! cyl9d] & at ! same "t creates a vacuum 9 ! crank-case4 ,j be=e ! pi/on rea*es ! end ( ! exhau/ /roke1 ! l[] edge ( ! pi/on uncov]s ! inlet port ,a 7,see ,fig4 #g71 :i* all[s ! mixture f ! c>buretor to fl[ into ! p>tial vacuum & fill ! crank case ready = ! next initial compression4 ,:5 ! end ( ! /roke is rea*$1 ! *>ge 9 ! combu/ion *amb] ,c is fir$ & ! cycle is repeat$4 ,x %\ld be not$ t ! incom+ gas & ! initial compression are controll$ entirely by ! action ( ! l[] edge ( ! pi/on on ! inlet port ,a4 7#bh7 ,rev]s+ ,two ,cycle ,motors4 ,z ! admission & exhau/ 9 ! two /roke cycle eng9e ea* occur once p] revolution1 & are controll$ directly by ! pi/on position at opposite ends ( ! /roke1 x is evid5t t ! direction ( rotation is n affect$ by gas control or valve tim+1 z 9 ! case ( ! f\r /roke cycle eng9e4 ,! factor t does det]m9e ! direction ( rotation 9 ! two /roke eng9e is ! "t at :i* ignition occurs 9 reg>d to ! angul> position ( ! crank4 ,by *ang+ ! relation betwe5 ! crank position at ! end ( ! compression /roke & ! "t at :i* ! sp>k occurs1 x is possible to rev]se ! eng9e ev5 :5 x is runn+4 ,%\ld ! eng9e be /&+ /ill 9 ! position %[n by ,fig4 #f1 ) ! crank on ! dead c5t]1 :5 ignition occurr$1 !re w\ld be no m t5d5cy to turn ! crank to ! "r ?an to ! left1 provid+ ( c\rse1 t !re 0 no effect f ! mom5tum ( a revolv+ fly :eel4 ,if ignition occurr$ ) ! crank incl9$ ev] s little t[>d ! "r1 ! pressure ( ! pi/on w\ld =ce ! crank d[nw>ds 9 a "r h&$ direction4 ,if ! crank 7 incl9$ to ! left1 ! t5d5cy w\ld be = left h&$ rotation4 ,if ! ignition sy/em 7 arrang$ s t ! sp>k occurr$ :5 ! crank 0 incl9$ t[>ds ! "r e "t t ! pi/on came up on ! compression /roke1 we %\ld h cont9u\s rotation 9 a "r h& direction4 ,by %ift+ ! sequ5ce ( ! sp>k s t x occurr$ ) ! crank on ! left we w\ld cause ! eng9e to /op & rev]se to left h&$ rotation4 ,?is is exactly ! me?od us$ 9 rev]s+ two /roke motors 9 practice1 ! *ange 9 ! ignition be+ accompli%$ by advanc+ or ret>d+ ! me*anism t dispat*es ! sp>k 78,tim]0 or 8,commutator074 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 ,f-#i4 ,cross ,section ( ,fairbanks-,morse ,?ree ,port--,two ,/roke ,cycle ,eng9e1 ) ,p>ts ,nam$4 ,?is is an advantage n possess$ by ! f\r /roke cycle eng9e ( ! ord9>y type1 z ! cams & valve me*anism require rev]sal z well z a rev]sal ( ! ignition sy/em4 ,?is relation betwe5 ! valve action & rotation 9 a f\r /roke cycle eng9e may be illu/rat$ by ! foll[+ example4 ,consid] ! pi/on at ! end ( ! compression /roke 9 an eng9e design$ = "r h& rotation4 ,aft] ignition1 "u ! prop] conditions1 ! pi/on w\ld desc5d turn+ ! crank to ! "r until x rea*$ ! bottom ( ! /roke1 at :i* po9t ! exhau/ valve w\ld op5 & relieve ! pressure 9 ! cyl9d]4 ,let u n[ consid] an attempt at rev]s+ ! eng9e by caus+ ! sp>k to occur be=e ! pi/on rea*$ ! end ( ! compression /roke ) ! crank /ill incl9$ t[>d ! left4 ,9 ?is case ! pi/on w\ld =ce ! crank d[n 9 a left h& direction until x rea*$ ! end ( ! /roke4 ,! exhau/ valve w\ld n op5 to relieve ! pressure1 z ! exhau/ cam w\ld be mov+ away f ! valve rod in/ead ( t[>d x4 ,%\ld ! crank sw+ a little pa/ ! dead c5t]1 because ( its mom5tum1 ! inlet valve w\ld be op5$ in/ead ( ! exhau/1 & ! cont5ts ( ! cyl9d] w\ld %oot ?r\gh ! intake pipe & c>buretor4 ,?is w\ld br+ matt]s to a close z f> z rotation 0 conc]n$4 ,! op5+ ( ! inlet valve on ! rev]s$ work+ /roke w\ld occur z ! inlet valve closes "o /roke1 or "o-half revolution1 be=e ! end ( ! compression /roke4 ,z ! eng9e turn$ backw>d "o-half revolution1 ! inlet cam w\ld aga9 be br\ght into contact ) ! inlet valve rod1 op5+ ! valve & all[+ ! burn$ gases to pass ?r\gh ! c>buretor4 ,%\ld ! pressure be suffici5tly r$uc$ by inlet valve to all[ ! pi/on to rea* ! end ( ! second /roke1 x w\ld />t on ! ?ird /roke by inhal+ a 8*>ge0 ( burnt gas ?r\gh ! exhau/ valve :i* w\ld n[ be op54 7#bi7 ,scav5g+ ,eng9es4 ,z ! pi/on does n sweep out all ! cyl9d] volume because ( ! space left at ! end ( ! cyl9d] = compression1 m or less burn$ gas rema9s 9 ! combu/ion *amb] :i* dilutes ! active mixture tak5 9 on ! suction /roke4 ,n only are ! residual gases useless 9 g5]at+ heat b !y also occupy a consid]able space 9 ! cyl9d] t might o!rwise be fill$ ) a heat produc+ mixture4 ,_! dilut+ effect also prev5ts ! complete combu/ion ( a c]ta9 p]c5t ( ! fuel actually tak5 into ! cyl9d] = :i* ! burnt gas is incapable ( support+ combu/ion4 ,! am\nt ( burnt gas rema9+ 9 ! cyl9d] dep5ds ^u ! cycle ( ! eng9e & also ^u ! valve tim+ & size ( ! exhau/ pip+4 ,9 ! f\r /roke cycle eng9e ! volume ( residual gas is equal to ! volume ( ! combu/ion *amb]1 9 ! two /roke cycle x v>ies f "o-t5? to "o-?ird ( ! entire cyl9d] volume1 dep5d+ on ! load & spe$4 ,) correct design & free exhau/ passages1 ! gas held 9 ! cle>ance space ( a f\r /roke cycle eng9e is at a pressure consid]ably bel[ t ( ! atmosph]e1 & consequ5tly its actual volume is ev5 less ?an ! volume ( ! combu/ion *amb]4 ,_m sy/ems h be5 devis$ = ! purpose ( cle>+ ! cyl9d] ( burnt gas 9 ord] to m9imize ! loss ( fuel 9 l>ge eng9es1 b ow+ to _! complication h nev] be5 successfully appli$ to small eng9es ( ! automobile or m>9e types4 ,9 g5]al1 ! 8scav5g+0 is accompli%$ by pump+ out ! cle>ance space at ! end ( ! scav5g+ /roke1 :ile fre% air is admitt$ to ! cyl9d] ?r\gh ! inlet valves1 or by bl[+ out ! cle>ance space by a bla/ ( pure air furni%$ f an air pump atta*$ to ! eng9e4 ,!re h be5 sev]al sy/ems propos$ by :i* ! gas 9 ! cyl9d] is )drawn by ! in]tia ( ! exhau/ gas 9 specially design$ ejectors1 & by ! compression ( fre% air 9 ! crank case ( ! eng9e4 ,! =m] sy/em kn[n z 8organ pipe ejection10 is by f> ! simple/ me?od ( all z ! ejector is simply a tube )\t mov+ p>ts1 & x also possesses ! additional advantage ( r$uc+ ! back pressure on ! pi/on4 ,un=tunately ^! advantages are obta9$ only at c]ta9 loads1 & ) c]ta9 velocities ( ! exhau/ gases1 :i* makes x impossible to obta9 ev5 approximately correct scav5g+ at o!r loads & spe$s4 ,:5 air pumps are us$ = scav5g+1 a great p]c5tage ( ! economy obta9$ is (fset by ! p[] requir$ to op]ate ! pumps4 ,9 addition to ! frictional losses ( ! pumps1 are ! increas$ ma9t5ance *>ges & repair bills4 ,,*apt] ,,iv ,,indicator ,,diagrams 7#ce7 ,g5]al ,description4 ,a brief description ( ! indicator z a means ( record+ ! pressures 9 ! cyl9d] ( a simple heat eng9e 9 relation to ! pi/on position 0 giv5 9 p>agraph 7#f71 ,*apt] ,i1 & z ?is in/rum5t is s peculi>ly adapt$ to locat+ ! ev5ts tak+ place 9 ! cyl9d] we w devote "s space on its application to ! practical gas eng9e cycles describ$ 9 ! prec$+ *apt]4 ,s9ce ea* ev5t 9 ! cycle is accompani$ by a correspond+ increase or r$uction 9 pressure1 ! beg9n+ or end ( an ev5t w be indicat$ on ! diagram by a *ange 9 ! v]tical height ( ! curve above ! atmosph]ic l9e1 at "s p>ticul> pi/on position4 ,! pi/on position w be 9 ! same relation to ! total /roke z ! p5cil position w be to ! horizontal l5g? ( ! c>d4 ,if ! ev5t1 = example1 z indicat$ by a drop 9 pressure1 be at ! c5t] ( ! c>d1 x w %[ t ! drop 9 pressure took place :5 ! pi/on 0 9 ! c5t] ( ! cyl9d] or at mid-/roke4 ,%\ld ! pressure *ange at a po9t "o-qu>t] ( ! c>d l5g? f ! />t+ po9t ( ! p5cil1 x %[s t ! ev5t took place 9 ! cyl9d] :5 ! pi/on _h accompli%$ ! fir/ qu>t] ( its /roke1 & s on4 ,x %\ld be not$ t horizontal di/ances on ! indicator c>d d5ote pi/on positions1 & ! v]tical di/ances1 pressures4 ,z expla9$ 9 a =m] p>agraph ! l5g? ( ! v]tical l9es repres5ts c]ta9 def9ite pressures1 ea* in* ( l5g? repres5t+ s _m p\nds z p] squ>e in*1 ! exact am\nt p] in* dep5d+ on ! indicator spr+ /r5g? or adju/m5t4 ,to make ?is po9t cle>1 all ( ! indicator diagrams %[n 9 ?is *apt] w be provid$ ) a scale ( pressures at ! left ( ! diagram by :i* ! pressure at any po9t may be accurately measur$ (f = practice4 ,x %\ld be not$ t po9ts on ! curves :i* are above ! atmosph]ic l9e repres5t positive pressures above ! atmosph]e1 & t ! po9ts ly+ bel[ ! atmosph]ic l9e repres5t p>tial vacuums :i* may be express$ z be+ s _m p\nds p] squ>e in* bel[ ! atmosph]e4 ,! vacuum pressures indicate ! ext5t ( ! 8suction0 creat$ by ! pi/on :5 draw+ 9 a *>ge ( air & gas4 ,/raight v]tical l9es %[ t ! increase ( pressure along t l9e has be5 practically in/antane\s 9 reg>d to ! pi/on velocity1 = if ! pressure increas$ at a sl[ rate ?is l9e w\ld be incl9$ t[>d ! direction 9 :i* ! pi/on 0 mov+1 z ! pi/on w\ld h mov$ a consid]able di/ance horizontally :ile ! p5cil 0 mov+ v]tically4 ,?is incl9ation ( ! v]tical l9e gives an idea ( ! rate at :i* ! pressure increases 9 relation to ! pi/on spe$1 ! great] ! incl9ation1 ! sl[] is ! rate ( pressure increase4 ,/raight horizontal l9es t lie p>allel to ! atmosph]ic l9e d5ote a con/ant pressure or vacuum4 ,! rate at :i* horizontal l9es desc5d or incl9e to ! atmosph]ic l9e repres5ts ! rate at :i* ! pressure increases or decreases1 9 respect to ! pi/on position 7n pi/on velocity74 ,a /eep curve repres5ts a rapid expansion or compression f "o pi/on position to ! next4 ,a wav+ or rippl+ l9e indicates vibration due to valve *att]+ or explosion vibrations4 ,a /raight incl9$ l9e %[s t ! pressure is decreas+ or increas+ 9 direct proportion to ! pi/on position4 7#cf7 ,diagram ( ,f\r ,/roke ,cycle ,eng9e4 ,by ref]r+ to p>agraph #be1 ,*apt] ,,iii1 x w be se5 t ! five ev5ts ( suction1 compression1 ignition1 expansion & exhau/ are accompli%$ 9 f\r /rokes1 9 ! foll[+ ord]3 ,/roke #a4 ,suction--7,mixture drawn into cyl9d]74 ,/roke #b4 ,compression--7,mixture compress$74 ,/roke #c4 ,ignition4 ,expansion 7work+ /roke74 ,/roke #d4 ,exhau/--7,scav5g+ /roke74 ,^! ev5ts ) ! pressures incid5t to ea* drawn to "s relative scale are %[n graphically 9 ,fig4 #aj by f\r l9es repres5t+ ! f\r /rokes ( ! pi/on4 ,9 ord] to %[ ! relation betwe5 ! diagram & ! pi/on1 a sket* ( ! cyl9d] ) a /roke equal to ! l5g? ( ! diagram is %[n directly b5ea? ! curve4 ,! v]tical l9e ,,ij is ! scale ( pressures 7some:at exagg]at$ 9 ord] t ! small vacuum & scav5g+ pressures %all be cle>ly %[n74 ,! l9e m>k$ 8atmosph]e0 repres5ts atmosph]ic pressure & x is f ?is l9e t all measurem5ts ( pressure are tak54 ,illu/ration3 ,figs4 #aj-aa-ab4 ,%[+ ,respectively a ,typical ,f\r ,/roke ,diagram1 ,ret>d$ ,combu/ion & ,ret>d$ ,sp>k4 ,consid] ! pi/on />t+ on ! suction /roke1 ! pi/on mov+ f ! position ,l to ,k1 or f left to "r4 ,! movem5t creates a p>tial vacuum 9 ! combu/ion *amb] ,n :i* is %[n on ! diagram z ! di/ance ,,oa1 equal to #b p\nds bel[ atmosph]e accord+ to ! pressure scale4 ,! suction l9e rema9s at ?is di/ance bel[ ! atmosph]ic l9e until )9 a %ort di/ance ( ! end ( ! /roke :5 x rises to meet ! atmosph]ic l9e at ,b :5 ! pi/on rea*es ! end ( ! /roke at ,k4 ,?is rise at ! end ( ! /roke is due to ! fact t ! pi/on moves m sl[ly :5 approa*+ ! end ( ! /roke :ile ! velocity ( ! incom+ gases rema9s ne>ly con/ant s t ! pi/on ex]ts no pull nor suction4 ,on ! diagram ! entire suction /roke is repres5t$ by ,,ab4 ,! pi/on n[ returns on ! compression /roke f ,k to ,j compress+ ! mixture 9 ! combu/ion *amb] ,n4 ,on ! diagram ?is /roke is %[n beg9n+ at ,b1 ) ! pressure sl[ly ris+ until ! pressure is a maximum at ! po9t ,c at ! end ( ! /roke4 ,dur+ ! compression1 ! pressure has ris5 f t ( ! atmosph]e at ,b to #abe p\nds pressure at ,c z %[n by ! scale4 ,at a po9t slightly be=e ,c is rea*$1 ignition occurs1 & ! pressure rapidly rises f ,c to ,d1 due to ! expansion ( ! heat$ gas4 ,9 ?is case ! combu/ion is practically in/antane\s z %[n by ! /raight1 v]tical combu/ion l9e ,,cd4 ,at ,d ! pi/on />ts on ! work+ /roke f left to "r increas+ ! volume ( ! gas & at ! same "t dim9i%+ ! pressure because ( ! expansion until ! maximum pressure ( #djj p\nds p] squ>e in* at ,d is r$uc$ to #cj p\nds p] squ>e in* at ,e1 ! l9e ,,de be+ call$ ! expansion l9e4 ,dur+ ?is "t ! heat$ gas has be5 p]=m+ "w on ! pi/on4 ,at ,e ! exhau/ valve op5s & ! pressure drops f ,e to ,t1 a po9t /ill ab\t #aj p\nds above atmosph]ic pressure4 ,!oretically ! pressure %\ld drop in/antly f ,e to atmosph]e1 or f #cj p\nds p] squ>e in* to z]o1 b practically ?is is impossible because ( ! back pressure due ! sl[ escape ( ! exhau/ gases ?r\gh ! comp>atively small valve op5+s & exhau/ pipes4 ,s9ce consid]able pressure is ex]t$ by ! pi/on on ! return /roke 9 =c+ ! gases out ( ! exhau/ valve1 ! exhau/ l9e ,,to on ! diagram is ne>ly #aj p\nds above ! atmosph]ic pressure f ,t to ,o4 ,at a po9t ne> ,o1 ! pi/on sl[s up on ne>+ ! end ( ! /roke s ! gases h m "t to escape ?r\gh ! valves1 & ! pressure drops to ! atmosph]e1 ready = ! succe$+ suction /roke4 ,x %\ld be not$ t ! po9ts ,a1 ,b1 ,e1 & ,f repres5t p]iods ( valve action4 ,at ,a ! inlet valve op5s2 at ,b ! inlet closes2 at ,e ! exhau/ op5s2 at ,f ! exhau/ closes1 & at ,a ! inlet aga9 op5s at ! beg9n+ ( ! suction /roke ,,ab4 ,t ?is is true is app>5t f ! fact ! inlet mu/ op5 at ! beg9n+ ( ! suction /roke1 & bo? valves mu/ be clos$ f ! po9t ,b to ! po9t ,e 9 ord] to prev5t ! escape ( ! compress$ *>ge & exp&$ gases f ! cyl9d]4 ,at ! end ( ! work+ /roke ! exhau/ valve mu/ lib]ate ! gases & rema9 op5 to ! end ( ! scav5g+ /roke to elim9ate ! residual gas :ile ! clos$ inlet valve prev5ts ! burnt gases f be+ =c$ ?r\gh ! inlet pipe & c>buretor4 ,z %[n on ! diagram1 ! exhau/ valve closes at ! same "t t ! inlet op5s1 z ,f1 & ,o bo? occur on ! same v]tical l9e ,,dl4 ,?is is true !oretically1 b ow+ to ! diff]5t conditions met 9 practice1 ! actual sett+ ( ! valves may v>y slightly f t %[n on ! diagram4 ,"s mak]s ( high spe$ eng9es op5 ! inlet slightly be=e ! exhau/ closes z x is claim$ t ! in]tia ( ! exhau/ gas pass+ ?r\gh ! exhau/ pipe creates a slight vacuum t is an aid 9 fill+ ! cyl9d] ) a fre% *>ge4 ,x %\ld be borne 9 m9d t ?is condition only exi/s :5 ! pi/on has come to re/ & ex]ts no pressure on ! exhau/ gas4 ,! vacuum is due to ! velocity in]tia ( ! gas aft] x has be5 r$uc$ to atmosph]ic pressure4 ,o!r mak]s close ! exhau/ valve a v little be=e ! inlet op5s1 b no matt] :at ! sett+1 ! diff]5ce 9 ! "t ( op5+ & clos+ is v small1 & ! results obta9$ probably diff] by an almo/ negligible am\nt4 ,dur+ ! suction & scav5g+ /rokes1 ! fly :eel ( ! eng9e is exp5d+ en]gy on ! gas s9ce x is mov+ a consid]able volume at a fairly high pressure4 ,9 ! case ( ! scav5g+ /roke1 ! pi/on is work+ aga9/ #aj p\nds back pressure1 :i* on a #aj in* pi/on w\ld am\nt to a =ce ( #ghe p\nds4 ,) ! #b p\nd vacuum ! drag on ! pi/on w\ld am\nt to #aeg p\nds1 no small item :5 ! velocity ( ! pi/on is consid]$4 ,( c\rse ! pressure ( #aj p\nds p] squ>e in* is r high1 b x is (t5 atta9$ ) long & dirty exhau/ pipes4 ,x is items ( ?is nature t cut into ! effici5cy ( ! eng9e1 & increase ! fuel bills1 & x is only by ! indicator t we c det]m9e ! ext5t ( su* 8leaks0 & rem$y !m4 ,s9ce ! area ( ! indicator c>d repres5ts ! p[] ( ! eng9e1 x is evid5t t we lose ! p[] repres5t$ by ! area includ$ 9 ! rectangle ,,febo on ! scav5g+ /roke plus ! area ,,boa on ! suction /roke4 ,! area includ$ 9 ,,bco repres5ts ! "w tak5 f ! eng9e 9 compress+ ! *>ge1 b ?is is return$ to u dur+ ! next /roke plus ! b5efits ga9$ by compress+ ! mixture4 ,! arr[s %[ ! direction 9 :i* ! pi/on is mov+ dur+ t ev5t4 ,an actual eng9e does n foll[ ! =m ( ! diagram %[n by ,fig4 #aj exactly because ( c]ta9 conditions met ) 9 practice su* z imp]fect mixtures1 faulty valve & ignition tim+1 small valve areas or leakage4 ,! combu/ion 9 ! real eng9e is nei!r in/antane\s nor complete b x approximates ! 8,,ideal0 cycle j describ$ m or less closely ) a high compression & a fairly well proportion$ mixture4 7#cg7 ,detect+ ,faults ,) ! ,indicator4 ,= ! be/ results ! gas mu/ be completely ignit$ at ! po9t ( maximum compression1 & ! pressure mu/ be e/abli%$ on ! dead c5t]1 s t ! indicator c>d w %[ a /raight & v]tical combu/ion l9e4 ,z all gases require a c]ta9 l5g? ( "t 9 :i* to burn1 ! ignition %\ld h ,,lead1 t is1 %\ld be />t$ be=e ! end ( ! /roke s t combu/ion w be complete at dead c5t]4 ,! am\nt ( ignition lead requir$ dep5ds on ! fuel & ! compression4 ,9 ,fig4 #aj ! po9t ( ignition 7,i7 is %[n z occurr+ be=e ! end ( ! compression at 7,c71 :i* insures a /raight combu/ion l9e ,,cd4 ,) a lean or sl[ burn+ gas1 t is1 a gas sl[] ?an us$ on ! diagram1 combu/ion w\ld n be complete at ! end ( ! /roke if ! same po9t ( ignition 7 us$4 ,?is effect is %[n by ,fig4 7#aa71 9 :i* ! full l9e diagram ,,bcde repres5ts ! ideal diagram 7,y71 & ,,bcfg repres5ts ! sl[ burn+ mixture ) ! same po9t ( ignition 7,x74 ,! compression curves ( bo? diagrams are co9cid5t z f> z ,c1 ! ideal diagram %oot+ /raight up at ?is po9t & ! weak mixture diagram /ay+ at ! same level4 ,:5 "u ! influ5ce ( ! mixture 7,x7 ! pi/on />ts f left to "r & rea*es ! po9t ,f be=e ! sl[ burn+ gas rea*es its maximum pressure4 ,dur+ ?is "p ( ! /roke !re has be5 v little pressure on ! pi/on & x w be notic$ t ! maximum pressure is f> bel[ t ( ! ideal diagram4 ,?is l[ maximum is due pr9cipally to ! r$uc$ compression "u :i* ! gas has be5 burn+1 f ,c to ,f4 ,illu/ration3 ,figs4 #ac-ad4 ,! ,fir/ ,diagram 7#ac7 ,%[s a ,two ,port ,two ,/roke ,diagram1 ! ,second ,%[s a ,typical ,diesel ,c>d4 ,z ! gas has b a small "p ( ! /roke left 9 :i* to exp&1 ! pressure at ! po9t ( release is mu* high] ?an ! release pressure ( ! ideal diagram1 :i* means t a consid]able am\nt ( heat & pressure h be5 wa/$ ?r\gh ! exhau/ pipe4 ,besides ! heat loss1 ! high temp]ature ( ! escap+ gas has a bad effect on ! exhau/ valve & passage4 ,! great volume ( gas pass+ ?r\gh ! exhau/ valve also increases ! back pressure on ! scav5g+ /roke4 ,delay$ or ret>d$ ignition w cause a l[ combu/ion pressure & sl[ combu/ion ) any type ( fuel or compression pressure z w be se5 f ,fig4 #ab4 ,9 ?is case ! compression pressures ( ! ideal diagram ,y & ! diagram ,x %[+ ! ret>d$ sp>k are ( c\rse ! same1 ! compression l9e ext5d+ f ,b to ,c 9 ! direction ( ! arr[s4 ,at ,c ! ignition occurs = curve ,y1 & ! pressure imm$iately rises to ,d4 ,9 ! case ( curve ,x1 ignition does n occur until ! po9t ,i is rea*$1 ! compression fall+ on ! l9e ,,ci ) ! =w>d movem5t ( ! pi/on z f> z ! po9t ,i4 ,at ?is po9t ! compression pressure is v l[ :i* results 9 ! sl[ combu/ion indicat$ by ! slant ( ! combu/ion l9e ,,if4 ,! po9t ( maximum pressure ,f is mu* bel[ ,d ( ! ideal curve1 & z !re is no opportunity = complete expansion dur+ ! re/ ( ! /roke1 ! release pressure is high caus+ a great heat loss4 ,if runn+ on a ,,late or ,,ret>d$ sp>k is cont9u$ = any l5g? ( "t ! excessive heat t passes out ( ! exhau/ w de/roy ! valves4 ,x is app>5t t = ! be/ results1 ! sp>k %\ld occur slightly be=e ignition 9 ord] to ga9 ! effects ( ! compression1 & a high work+ pressure on ! pi/on4 ,x is also evid5t t ! po9t ( ignition %\ld be v>i$ = diff]5t mixtures t h diff]5t rates ( burn+4 ,) eng9es t gov]n _! spe$s by ?rottl+ or by *ang+ ! quality ( ! mixture x is necess>y = ! be/ results1 to v>y ! po9t ( ignition ) ea* quality ( fuel t is admitt$ by ! gov]nor4 ,! ret>d & advance ( ! ignition is v necess>y on an automobile eng9e because ( ! ?rottl+ control & con/ant v>iation ( ! load & spe$4 ,all automobili/s "k ( ! heat+ tr\bles caus$ by runn+ on a ret>d$ sp>k4 7#ch7 ,two ,/roke ,cycle ,diagram4 ,9 ! two /roke cycle diagram1 ! l9es %[+ ! suction & scav5g+ /rokes are miss+ if ! indicator is appli$ only to ! work+ cyl9d]4 ,/>t+ at ! beg9n+ ( ! work+ /roke z at ,a 9 ,fig4 #ac1 ! gas exp&s dur+ ! work+ /roke until ! pi/on uncov]s ! exhau/ port at ,b :]e ! pressure drops to ,c4 ,a slight travel uncov]s ! inlet port ) ! pressure /ill above atmosph]e due to ! pressure 9 ! crank case fill+ ! cyl9d]4 ,! crank case pressure cont9ues f ,c to ,d or to ! end ( ! /roke1 ! pressure dropp+ slightly at ! latt] po9t4 ,! compression /roke n[ takes place ) ! pi/on mov+ f "r to left1 ! compression pressure rea*+ a maximum at ,f4 ,ignition occurs slightly be=e ! po9t ( greate/ compression1 at ,i1 & ! exp&$ gas increases 9 pressure until ! po9t ,a is rea*$4 ,f ?is po9t ! same cycle ( ev5ts is repeat$4 ,because ( ! dilution ( ! *>ge by ! burnt gases ( ! prec$+ combu/ion1 ! mixture burns sl[ly z w be se5 f ! incl9$ combu/ion l9e ,,fa4 ,due to ?is delay$ combu/ion1 ! pi/on travels ! di/ance ,s on ! work+ /roke be=e ! pressure rea*es a maximum4 ,?is diagram is typical ( ! small m>9e type ( two /roke cycle eng9e :i* has no fur!r scav5g+ ?an t p]=m$ by ! ru% ( ! ent]+ mixture4 ,! diagram ( ! pressures & vacuums 9 ! crank case are simil> to ^? ( suction & compression 9 ! f\r /roke cycle type4 7#ci7 ,diagram ( ,diesel ,eng9e4 ,a diagram ( ! ,diesel eng9e is diff]5t 9 _m p>ticul>s f t ( an ord9>y gas eng9e1 z w be se5 f ! diagram 9 ,fig4 #ad4 ,! pressures rise 9 an ev51 gradual l9e f ! end ( ! compression curve1 & in/ead ( hav+ a %>p peak at ! end ( ! combu/ion1 z 9 a gas eng9e1 ! top ( ! curve is broad & greatly resembles ! indicator diagram ( a /eam eng9e4 ,! compression curve con/itutes a great] proportion ( ! pressure l9e ?an t ( a /eam eng9e1 ! rise ( pressure due to ! ignition be+ v slight 9 comp>ison to ! height ( ! compression curve4 ,!re is no explosion 9 ! usual s5se ( ! ^w1 only a slight increase 9 pressure z di/+ui%$ f ! rapid combu/ion 9 ! gas eng9e4 ,/>t+ at ! beg9n+ ( ! compression /roke at ,h1 ! pressure ( ! pure air *>ge increases to ab\t #ejj p\nds to ! squ>e in* at ,i1 ! po9t at :i* ! fuel is inject$4 ,f ,i to ,c is ! increase ( pressure due to ! combu/ion4 ,! pressure /ays at a con/ant height f ,c to ,d z ! fuel supply is cont9u$ betwe5 ^! po9ts1 & is cut (f :5 ! pi/on rea*es ! position ,d4 ,x w be se5 t ! admission ( ! fuel ?r\gh ! di/ance ,a cov]s a consid]able proportion ( ! work+ /roke1 & t ! po9ts ( fuel injection & ignition are co9cid5t4 ,f ! po9t ( fuel cut-(f at ,d expansion beg9s & is cont9u$ 9 ! usual mann] to ,f1 ! po9t ( release4 ,:5 ! load is increas$1 ! p]iod ( oil injection is also increas$1 ! o!r ev5ts rema9+ con/ant4 ,%\ld ! light load require an oil injection p]iod z %[n by ,a1 ! great] load w\ld require injection = ! p]iod ,b4 ,9 ! latt] case1 ! expansion l9e w\ld be ,,eg1 :i* w\ld produce a diagram hav+ a great] area ?an ! l9e ,,df1 & !re w\ld be a great increase 9 ! release pressure ,,gh z well4 ,x w be se5 f ! diagram t ! quantity ( air tak5 into ! cyl9d] & ! compression pressure rema9 con/ant ) any load1 & t = ?is reason x is possible to h a con/ant po9t ( ignition1 or r po9t ( fuel injection4 ,z !re is no mixture compress$1 !re are no difficulties enc\nt]$ at light loads due to att5uat$ mixtures4 ,an excess ( air ov] t requir$ to burn ! fuel is also pres5t at e load )9 ! range ( ! eng9e4 ,= ! sake ( simplicity1 ! suction & scav5g+ l9es on ! ,diesel eng9e h be5 omitt$1 b !y are ! same 9 all respects z ! correspond+ l9es %[n 9 ! diagram1 ,fig4 #ad4 7#dj7 ,gas ,turb9e ,developm5t4 ,9 ! attempt to ga9 me*anical simplicity1 small weight1 & dim9utive size ( ! /eam turb9e1 _m able exp]im5t]s h endeavor$ to obta9 an int]nal combu/ion motor 9 :i* ! en]gy ( ! exp&+ gas is conv]t$ into me*anical p[] by its reaction on a blad$ :eel1 b s f> ! problem is f> f be+ solv$4 ,9 #aijf two exp]im5tal turb9es 7 built by ,r5 ,arm5g& & ,m4 ,lemale1 ( ! con/ant pressure type1 "o ( :i* develop$ #cj ,brake horse-p[] & ! o!r #cjj horse-p[]4 ,a #be horse-p[] ,de ,laval /eam turb9e 0 alt]$ by ,arm5g& says ,dugald ,cl]k s t x op]at$ ) compress$ air in/ead ( /eam4 ,! compress$ air 0 pass$ into a combu/ion *amb] toge!r ) measur$ quantities ( gasol9e vapor1 & ! mixture 0 ignit$ by an inc&esc5t plat9um wire z x ent]$ ! *amb]1 ?us ma9ta9+ a con/ant pressure ) cont9u\s combu/ion4 ,ar\nd ! c>borundum l9$ combu/ion *amb] 0 imb$d$ a coil 9 :i* /eam 0 g5]at$ by ! heat ( ! burn+ gas1 ! /eam be+ us$ to r$uce ! temp]ature ( ! gas f #ahjj;,c to ab\t #djj z x issu$ f ! orifice & came into contact ) ! runn+ :eel4 ,! work+ m$ium 0 !re=e compos$ ( two elem5ts1 ! products ( combu/ion & ! /eam at ! comp>atively l[ temp]ature ( #djj;,c4 ,! con/ant pressure ma9ta9$ 9 ! combu/ion *amb] 0 ab\t #aj atmosph]es1 & ! hot gases 7 all[$ to exp& ?r\gh a conical ,lava jet 9 :i* ! expansion produc$ a high velocity1 & r$uc$ ! temp]ature ( ! fluid4 ,at ?is r$uc$ temp]ature & high velocity ! gases imp+$ ^u ! ,laval :eel1 & rotat$ ! :eel 9 ! same way z /eam w\ld h done4 ,! exp]im5ts %[$ t "u ^! conditions ! total p[] obta9$ f ! turb9e sep>ate f ! compressor 0 d\ble t necess>y to drive ! compressor4 ,9 ! l>ge #cjj ,h4 ,p4 turb9e ! fir/ "p ( ! combu/ion *amb] 0 l9$ ) c>borundum1 back$ by s&1 b ! second "p 0 surr\nd$ by a coil ?r\gh :i* wat] 0 circulat$4 ,! wat] kept ! temp]ature ( ! combu/ion *amb] )9 safe limits1 & aft] absorb+ heat1 x pass$ also ar\nd ! jet nozzle1 & 0 dis*>g$ into ! passage lead+ to ! jet1 & !re conv]t$ into /eam by ! hot gases4 ,a mixture ( products ( combu/ion & /eam ?us imp+$ ^u ! turb9e :eel4 ,! exp&+ jet 0 arrang$ to conv]t ! :ole ( ! en]gy into motion be=e ! fluid /ruck ! :eel2 ! temp]ature 0 ?us r$uc$ to a m9imum be=e ! gases t\*$ ! blades4 ,not)/&+ ?is1 ! :eel itself _h passages ?r\gh :i* cool+ wat] fl[$1 & ea* blade 0 suppli$ ) a holl[ into :i* wat] f\nd its way4 ,9 ! l>ge turb9e ! compressor 0 m\nt$ on ! turb9e sp9dle2 x 0 ( ! ,rateau type1 & consi/$ ( an inv]t$ turb9e ( f\r /ages1 :i* deliv]$ ! compress$ air f9ally to ! combu/ion *amb] at a pressure ( #aab lb4 p] sq4 94 absolute4 ,! effici5cy ( ?is turb9e compressor 0 f\nd to be ab\t #fe p] c5t4 ,! total effici5cy ( ! comb9$ turb9e & compressor 0 l[1 z ! fuel consumption am\nt$ to ne>ly #c4i lb4 ( gasol9e p] ,b4 ,h4 ,p4 h\r4 ,an ord9>y gasol9e eng9e ) a mod]ate compression c readily give its p[] at ! rate ( #j4e lb4 ( gasol9e p] ,b4 ,h4 ,p4 h\r4 ,! comb9$ turb9e & compressor 0 /at$ to h run at #d1jjj ,r4 ,p4 ,m4 & to h develop$ #cjj ,h4 ,p4 ov] & above ! negative "w absorb$ by ! compressor4 ,a gas turb9e 9 :i* !re 0 no compression 0 built 9 ! foll[+ ye> by ,m4 ,k>ovod9e :i* gave #a4f horsep[] at a spe$ ( ab\t #aj1jjj revolutions p] m9ute4 ,x conta9$ f\r explosion *amb]s hav+ f\r jets actuat+ a s+le turb9e :eel1 :i* :eel 0 ( ! ,laval type1 ab\t #f in*es diamet]1 hav+ a spe$ ( #aj1jjj ,r4 ,p4 ,m4 ,! explosion *amb]s 7 v]tical1 & _h a wat] jacket surr\nd+ ! l[] end4 ,! upp] portion conta9$ ! ignit+ plug on "o side1 & ! dis*>ge pipe connect+ ) ! exp&+ jet on ! o!r4 ,9 ! l[] wat]-jacket$ "p !re 0 provid$ a circul> cov]1 held 9 place by a screw$ cap4 ,?is circul> plate 0 p]=at$ ) _m holes1 & x c>ri$ a light /eel plate valve ( ! flap or h++ type1 :i* pull$ d[n by a spr+ conta9$ )9 ! admission passage4 ,?is spr+ c\ld be adju/$1 & ! lift ( ! valve 0 regulat$ by means ( a set screw pass+ diagonally ?r\gh ! wat] jacket4 ,air 0 admitt$ at "o side by a pipe lead+ into ! valve inlet *amb] & a correspond+ passage or pipe admitt$ gasol9e & air or gas to mix ) ! air be=e rea*+ ! ?9 plate valve4 ,adju/+ contrivances 7 suppli$ 9 bo? air & fuel ducts4 ,to />t ! app>atus1 an air bla/ 0 =c$ ?r\gh ! valve1 c>ry+ ) x suffici5t gasol9e vapor to make ! mixture explosive4 ,! electrical ignit] 0 />t$1 & ! sp>k kept pass+ cont9u\sly4 ,:5ev] ! inflammable mixture rea*$ ! upp] "p ( ! combu/ion *amb] ignition took place1 & ! pressure rose 9 ! ord9>y way1 due to gase\s explosion4 ,! gases 7 !n dis*>g$ ?r\gh ! pipe & nozzle on ! ,laval :eel4 ,! cool+ ( ! flame aft] explosion & ! mom5tum ( ! mov+ gas column r$uc$ ! pressure )9 ! explosion *amb] to ab\t #b lb4 p] sq4 94 bel[ atmosph]e4 ,air & gasol9e vapor !n fl[$ 9 to fill up ! *amb]1 & z soon z ! mixture rea*$ ! ignit]1 explosion aga9 occurr$4 ,9 ?is way a s]ies ( explosions 0 automatically obta9$1 & a s]ies ( gase\s dis*>ges 0 made ^u ! turb9e :eel4 ,diagrams tak5 f ! explosion *amb] %[$ a fall 9 pressure dur+ suction ( #b lb4 p] sq4 942 ignition occurr$ :ile ! pressure 0 l[1 & ! pressure rapidly rose to ab\t #a #a-c atmosph]es absolute4 ,! pressure propell+ ! gas column & jet 0 ?us only #e lb4 p] sq4 94 above atmosph]e4 ,! pressure rapidly fell1 & ! :ole process 0 repeat$ aga94 ,accord+ to ! diagrams tak51 a complete oscillation requir$ ab\t #j4jbf second1 s t ab\t #dj explosions p] second 7 obta9$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ae4 ,cross-,section ( ! ,combu/ion ,*amb] ( ! ,holzw>? ,gas ,turb9e4 ,f ! ,sci5tific ,am]ican4 ,! mo/ promis+ type ( turb9e t has be5 built to date is t design$ by ,hans ,holzw>?1 an eng9e] ( "s prom95ce 9 ! /eam turb9e field4 ,a #ajjj horse-p[] ma*9e has be5 built at ?is writ+ & z exp]im5tal ma*9es g has made mo/ rem>kable p]=mance4 ,! turb9e 9 g5]al arrangem5t outw>dly resembles ! ,curtis /eam turb9e1 9 t ! turb9e :eel rotates 9 a horizontal plane1 ! sp9dle or %aft is v]tical & a dynamo is m\nt$ on ?is sp9dle above ! turb9e4 ,9 ! ,holzw>? turb9e t5 combu/ion *amb]s are provid$1 ea* ( a pe> or bag %ape4 ,!y are arrang$ 9 a circle ar\nd ! :eel1 & are ca/ s z to =m ! base ( ! ma*9e4 ,! :eel is ( ! ,curtis type1 ) two r[s ( mov+ & "o r[ ( /ation>y blades4 ,9 ?is turb9e ! en]gy ( ! fuel is lib]at$ int]mitt5tly by successive explosions1 in/ead ( by cont9u\s combu/ion1 & 9 mu* ! same way t ! explosions occur 9 a reciprocat+ eng9e4 ,te/s made on ! new ma*9e h %[n t x is 9 no way inf]ior 9 effici5cy to ! ord9>y type ( motor1 & t at full load1 ! weight p] horse-p[] is only ab\t "o-qu>t] ( t ( ! reciprocat+ eng9e4 ,! weight factor1 z is well kn[n1 is ( ! utmo/ importance 9 m>9e s]vice & %\ld prove ( value to ! m>9e eng9e]1 if ?is alone 7 its only *>act]i/ic4 ,any ( ! ord9>y p[] gases may be us$ ) success1 z well z vaporiz$ liquid fuels1 & ! l[] grade oils su* z crude & k]os5e h giv5 mu* bett] results 9 ! turb9e1 ?an 9 reciprocat+ eng9es1 ev5 at ?is e>ly /age ( its developm5t4 ,z ! heat losses are mu* small] ?an met ) 9 ord9>y practice1 ! temp]ature is high]1 :i*1 ( c\rse1 greatly facilitates ! vaporization ( ! l[] grade liquids4 ,mr4 ,holzw>? does n give ! dim5sions ( 8 turb9e :eel1 b f ! draw+s & "s ( ! velocities giv5 by him x appe>s to be ab\t #a m4 9 ext]nal diamet]4 ,! l[] "p ( ea* combu/ion *amb] c>ries gas & air inlet valves1 & ! upp] "p c>ries a nozzle arrang$ to cause ! gases to imp+e ^u ! fir/ r[ ( mov+ blades4 ,?is nozzle is connect$ to & disconnect$ f ! combu/ion *amb] by means ( an +5i\sly op]at$ valve4 ,! explosion *amb]s are *>g$ ) a mixture ( gas & air1 :i* appe>s to atta9 a pressure ( ab\t two atmosph]es )9 ! *amb] be=e explosion4 ,! air & gas are suppli$ "u suffici5t pressure f turb9e compressors1 actuat$ by /eam rais$ f ! wa/e heat ( ! explosion & ! gases ( combu/ion1 s t :atev] "w is done 9 compression is obta9$ by ?is reg5]ative action1 & does n put any negative "w ^u ! turb9e itself4 ,! combu/ion *amb]s are fir$ 9 s]ies1 by means ( high-t5sion jump sp>k ignition4 ,ref]r+ to ! cut1 ! explosion *amb] ,a is fill$ int]mitt5tly ) ! explosive mixture at a l[ pressure 7ab\t #h to #ab p\nds p] squ>e in*74 ,:5 ignition has occurr$1 ! pressure ( explosion op5s ! nozzle valve ,f1 all[+ ! compress$ gases to fl[ ?r\gh ! nozzle ,g to ! blad$ turb9e ,h1 on :i* ! en]gy is to be exp5d$4 ,! expansion ( ! heat$ gases 9 ! nozzle r$uces ! pressure to t ( ! exhau/1 ) ! result+ increase 9 ! velocity ( ! gas4 ,by means ( fre% air1 ! nozzle valve ,f is kept op5 ?r\gh\t ! expansion & scav5g+ p]iods4 ,aft] ! expansion has be5 complet$1 ! air t is =c$ ?r\gh ! valve ,d1 at a l[ pressure1 ?or\ghly scav5ges or removes ! residual burn$ gases left 9 ! combu/ion *amb] & nozzle1 =c+ x into ! exhau/4 ,:5 ! scav5g+ has be5 complet$1 ! nozzle valve & ! air valve ,d are clos$4 ,! combu/ion *amb] ,a is n[ fill$ ) pure cold air1 :i* n only enables a fre% *>ge ( gas to be introduc$ into ! *amb] b :i* also aids 9 keep+ ! *amb] cool4 ,pure fuel gas1 or atomiz$ oil1 is n[ inject$ ?r\gh ! fuel valve ,e1 =m+ an explosive mixture ready = ! ensu+ cycle ( ev5ts4 ,a numb] ( ^! *amb]s are arrang$ ar\nd ! turb9e :eel 9 ord] to h a uni=m application ( p[]1 by hav+ ! sev]al *amb]s work+ int]mitt5tly4 ,?is is 9 effect1 ! same proposition z increas+ ! numb] ( cyl9d]s on a reciprocat+ eng9e4 ,,*apt] ,v ,,typical ,,f\r ,,/roke ,,cycle ,,eng9es 7#da7 ,ess5tial ,p>ts ( ! ,gas ,eng9e4 ,on all gas eng9es ( accept$ type are f\nd c]ta9 devices necess>y = ! p]=mance ( ! ev5ts or cycles outl9$ 9 ! prec$+ section4 ,= ! sake ( simplicity ^! devices are treat$ z a "p complete 9 itself4 ,! details ( con/ruction1 & ! ref9em5ts f\nd necess>y 9 ! actual con/ruction w be describ$ 9 ! succe$+ *apt]s4 ,! names & purpose ( ^! ess5tial compon5ts1 & _! relation to ! op]ation ( ! eng9e z a :ole1 w be f\nd 9 ! foll[+ outl9e3 #a4 ,! ,,c>buretor is a device ^: purpose is to vaporize ! liquid fuel1 & mix ! vapor ?or\ghly & 9 correct proportions ) ! air requir$ = ! combu/ion1 9 ! eng9e cyl9d]4 ,! combu/ible mixture ?us =m$ is drawn into ! cyl9d] ( ! f\r /roke cycle eng9e or into ! crank *amb] ( ! two /roke cycle eng9e4 ,,g5]ator ,,valves or ,,mix+ ,,valves are simil> to ! c>buretor 9 pr9ciple b are slightly diff]5t 9 detail4 #b4 ,! ,,cyl9d] is ! conta9+ vessel 9 :i* ! combu/ion & expansion ( ! gas takes place4 ,! cyl9d] z its "n w\ld sugge/ has a circul> op5+ or bore ext5d+ f end to end1 ! bore be+ smoo?ly f9i%$ to receive ! reciprocat+ pi/on4 #c4 ,! ,,pi/on is a plung] or movable plug fitt+ ! bore closely en\gh to prev5t ! escape ( gas1 b at ! same "t is capable ( slid+ freely to & fro4 ,:5 pressure is e/abli%$ 9 ! cyl9d] f ! combu/ion1 pressure is also ex]t$ on ! end ( ! pi/on t5d+ to =ce x out ( ! cyl9d]4 ,! ext5t ( ?is =ce is gov]n$ by ! area ( ! end ( ! pi/on & also by ! pressure ( ! gas4 ,?us ! purpose ( ! pi/on is to conv]t ! pressure ( ! exp&+ gas into direct me*anical =ce1 & also to trans=m ! increas+ volume ( gas into motion4 ,ano!r1 & no less important function ( ! pi/on is to compress ! combu/ible gas 9 ! upp] end ( ! cyl9d] = ignition4 ,illu/ration3 ,pi/on & ,connect+ ,rod ( ! ,/urtevant ,a]o ,motor1 ,%[+ ,?ree ,pi/on ,r+s4 #d4 ,! ,,connect+ ,,rod 7,sometimes call$ ! ,pitman7 transmits ! pressure on ! pi/on to ! crank1 ! connect+ rod be+ ! means ?r\gh :i* ! to & fro motion ( ! pi/on is transmitt$ into ! rot>y motion ( ! crank2 its action be+ simil> to t ( ! human arm turn+ ! crank ( a pump or w9dlass4 #e4 ,! ,,crank receives ! pressure & motion ( ! pi/on f ! connect+ rod1 *ang+ ! reciprocat+ motion ( ! pi/on into ! rot>y motion requir$ by ! ma*9]y :i* ! eng9e drives4 ,9 ! majority ( cases ! crank revolves1 :ile ! cyl9d] /&s /ill1 b 9 "s ( ! rec5tly develop$ a]onautic motors ?is is rev]s$1 ! cyl9d]s revolv+ ) ! crank /ation>y4 ,! relative motion1 h[ev]1 is ! same 9 bo? cases4 7#f47 ,! ,,crank ,,%aft1 ( :i* ! crank is an integral "p1 transmits ! rot>y motion ( ! crank to ! driv+ pulley4 7#g47 ,! admission & release ( ! gases to & f ! cyl9d] are controll$ by ! ,,inlet ,,valve & ,,exhau/ ,,valve1 respectively1 9 a f\r /roke cycle eng9e4 ,! valves are m]ely gates1 all[+ ! gas to fl[1 or /opp+ x1 at ! prop] int]vals1 dep5d+ on ! ev5t tak+ place at t "t 9 ! cyl9d]4 ,9 ! two /roke cycle eng9e !re are no valves1 ! admission & release ( ! gas be+ controll$ by ! position ( ! pi/on1 & ! op5+s cut 9 ! cyl9d] walls4 #f4 ,,ignition or ! fir+ ( ! combu/ible *>ge is accompli%$ by ! ,,ignition ,,sy/em4 ,9 mo/ mod]n eng9es ! mixture is ignit$ :5 x is "u ! greate/ pressure or at ! end ( ! /roke4 ,= maximum effici5cy ! mixture %\ld be ignit$ :5 x is "u ! greate/ pressure or compression4 ,! "t at :i* ignition occurs is also controll$ by ! ignition sy/em4 #g4 ,! ,,gov]nor regulates ! spe$ ( ! eng9e2 ei!r by *ang+ ! ri*ness ( ! mixture1 by *ang+ ! numb] ( work+ /rokes 9 a giv5 "t or by alt]+ ! quantity ( gas admitt$ to ! cyl9d]1 or sometimes by a comb9ation ( ^! me?ods4 #h4 ,! ,,belt ,,:eels or ,,pulleys are ! means ( transmitt+ ! p[] ( ! eng9e to ! "w to be p]=m$4 ,! eng9e is g5]ally connect$ to ! driv5 ma*9]y by a belt connect+ ! eng9e pulley ) ! pulley ( ! driv5 ma*9e4 #i4 ,! ,,fly ,,:eels by reason ( _! mass & _! mom5tum1 /ore up a portion ( ! en]gy exp5d$ dur+ ! work+ /roke1 & return x to ! eng9e 9 ord] to c>ry x ?r\gh ! idle /rokes ( compression1 admission & expulsion4 ,9 "s eng9es ! fly :eels s]ve 9 d\ble ! capacity z pulleys4 #aj4 ,! ,,base or ,,frame ( ! eng9e acts z a f\ndation = ! v>i\s work+ p>ts1 hold+ !m 9 _! prop] positions4 7#db7 ,application ( ! ,f\r ,/roke ,pr9ciple4 ,:ile ! five ev5ts ( e comm]cial f\r /roke cycle eng9e are accompli%$ 9 exactly ! same ord]1 or r\t9e z expla9$ 9 p>agraph 7#h71 ,*apt] #c1 ! actual design & me?od ( apply+ ! cycle v>ies greatly 9 diff]5t makes ( eng9es4 ,?is great diff]5ce 9 ! details ( con/ruction (t5 makes x difficult = ! novice to id5tify ! cycle ( op]ations 9 t p>ticul> eng9e4 ,! diff]5t =ms ( valve ge>s t are us$ to p]=m ! same functions 9 ! cycle are good examples ( ! v>iation 9 design1 "s mak]s us+ ! poppet or disc type1 "s ! slid+ sleeve1 & o!rs ! rot>y type4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #af4 ,ball ,be>+ ,crank ,%aft1 ,pi/ons & ,connect+ ,rods ( ! 8,maximotor10 9 ,_! ,relative ,positions4 ,multiple cyl9d] eng9es v>y 9 ! cyl9d] gr\p+ or arrangem5t1 ! arrangem5t & numb] ( cyl9d]s dep5d+ on ! s]vice = :i* ! eng9e is int5d$1 ! am\nt ( vibration p]missible1 or ! weight4 ,! "q ( spe$ also introduces modifications 9 ! design1 b no matt] :at valve arrangem5t is adopt$ or :at gr\p+ ( cyl9d]s is us$1 a f\r /roke cycle eng9e p]=ms ! five ev5ts ( suction1 compression1 ignition1 expansion & exhau/ 9 f\r /rokes1 9 ea* & e cyl9d]4 ,) ! exception ( fuel injection 7:i* 9 reality corresponds to ! ignition ev5t7 9 ! f\r /roke ,diesel eng9e1 ! indicator c>ds ( all f\r /roke cycle eng9es passes ! same *>act]i/ics z ! diagram %[n 9 ,fig4 #aj4 ,9 ?is *apt]1 ! eng9e w be describ$ )\t reg>d to ! fuel us$1 or to ! means adopt$ 9 vaporiz+ x1 = ! vaporiz+ appliances are consid]$ z be+ ext]nal to ! eng9e prop]1 except 9 "s ( ! heavy oil eng9es1 & z ! fuel is gasifi$ be=e ent]+ ! cyl9d] ! "q ( fuel does n affect ! g5]al con/ruction ( ! eng9e4 ,! majority ( eng9es are readily conv]t$ f gasol9e to g>s1 or 9 "s cases k]os5e1 by *anges 9 ! vaporiz+ device1 & ) ! exception ( *ang+ ! compression pressure1 little fur!r alt]ation is ne$$4 ,s9ce ! vaporization & admission ( ! heavi] oils1 su* z crude oil & k]os5e has a m intimate relation to ! eng9e ?an ! use ( gasol9e or gas1 ! heavy oil eng9es w be describ$ 9 a sep>ate *apt] 9 ord] t ! process ( oil burn+ may be m fully expla9$4 ,x %\ld n be und]/ood t ! cycle1 or pr9ciple ( ! oil eng9e diff]s f t ( any o!r eng9e1 b t ! vaporiz] =ms su* a close connection ) ! eng9e prop] t !y mu/ be describ$ z "o unit4 7#dc7 ,horizontal ,s+le ,cyl9d] ,eng9e4 ,an example ( a mod]n s+le cyl9d] eng9e op]at+ on ! f\r /roke cycle pr9ciple is ! 8,mu5zel0 eng9e %[n 9 ,section by ,fig4 #ag4 ,x is ( ! s+le act+ type1 t is1 ! pressure ( ! gases acts only on ! left end ( ! pi/on :i* reciprocates 9 a horizontal direction4 ,surr\nd+ ! cyl9d] 9 :i* ! pi/on slides1 is ! wat] jacket 7%[n by ! %ort horizontal da%es7 :i* keeps ! cyl9d] walls f becom+ ov]heat$ by ! successive explosions ( ! mixture4 ,! cool+ wat] is pump$ into ! jacket ?r\gh ! pipe %[n ov] ! cyl9d]1 & fl[s out ( ! jacket ?r\gh an outlet ne> ! bottom ( ! cyl9d]4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ag4 ,longitud9al ,section ,?r\gh ! ,mu5zel ,horizontal ,eng9e4 ,bo? ! inlet & exhau/ valves are situat$ 9 an ext5d$ portion ( ! combu/ion *amb] to ! left ( ! pi/on1 ! upp] valve be+ ! inlet & ! l[] valve1 ! exhau/4 ,! valves are held on _! seats by means ( coil spr+s t act on ! upp] ends ( ! valve spr+s4 ,admission ( ! explosive mixture is controll$ by ! upp] valve1 & ! release ( ! burnt gases by ! l[]4 ,pipes at ! bottom ( ! cyl9d] m>k$ 8,gas ,supply0 & 8,exhau/0 convey ! gases to & f ! inlet & exhau/ valves respectively4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ah4 ,elevation ( ,mu5zel ,eng9e ,%[+ ,lay ,%aft & ,valve ,connections4 ,! inlet valve1 & ! inlet valve spr+ are held 9 "o unit by a removable metal h\s+ kn[n z a 8,valve ,cage01 :i* is arrang$ s t ! cage1 valve1 & spr+ may be remov$ z "o piece f ! cyl9d] ca/+ :5 ! valves ne$ att5tion by remov+ a few bolts4 ,z ! cage is directly ov] ! exhau/ valve1 & is consid]ably l>g] 9 diamet]1 x is possible to remove ! exhau/ valve ?r\gh ! op5+ left by ! removal ( ! inlet valve cage4 ,bo? valves are surr\nd$ by a wat] jacket1 z are ! passages t lead to !m4 ,bo? ! inlet & exhau/ valves are op5$ & clos$ at ! prop] mom5ts 9 ! /roke by means ( cams m\nt$ on ! horizontal cam %aft %[n by ,fig4 #ah ?r\gh a sy/em ( lev]s4 ,! cam %aft is ! %aft runn+ p>allel to ! eng9e b$ f ! crank-%aft to ! end ( ! cyl9d] & turns at "o-half ! spe$ ( ! crank-%aft4 ,at a po9t directly bel[ ! inlet valve 9 ,fig4 #ah1 w be se5 an enl>gem5t on ! %aft on :i* re/s ! rod runn+ f ! inlet valve to ! cam %aft4 ,?is is ! cam4 ,a cyl9drical cas+ %[n above ! cyl9d] conta9s ! gov]nor :i* ma9ta9s a con/ant spe$ at all loads by op]at+ a valve 9 ! intake pipe :i* v>ies ! quantity ( mixture ent]+ ! cyl9d] 9 proportion to ! load4 ,! gov]nor is driv5 f ! cam-%aft by spiral ge>s4 ,! ignit] :i* furni%es ! sp>k = ignit+ ! gas is locat$ betwe5 ! two valves at ! extreme left ( ! combu/ion *amb] 7,fig4 #ag74 ,x %\ld be not$ t ! cyl9d] head :i* closes ! left end ( ! cyl9d]1 & :i* c>ries ! valves is sep>ate f ! ma9 body ( ! ,cyl9d]4 ,by unscrew+ ! bolts t hold x to ! cyl9d]1 ! head may be remov$ :5 x becomes necess>y to remove dirt & c>boniz$ oil f ! combu/ion *amb]1 or :5 x becomes necess>y to remove ! pi/on4 ,! cyl9d] b>rel 9 :i* ! pi/on works may also be remov$ ?r\gh ! op5+ left by ! pi/on head :5 x becomes worn1 & ano!r b>rel or l9] may be sub/itut$1 ?us practically r5ew+ ! eng9e at a small fraction ( ! co/ ( a new cyl9d]4 ,! l9] is fa/5$ firmly to ! out] cyl9d] ca/+ at ! left b is free to slide back & =? 9 ! ca/+ at ! "r h& end1 ?is end be+ provid$ ) a pack$ jo9t4 ,?is play giv5 to ! l9] all[s x to exp& & contract freely ) ! diff]5t *anges ( temp]ature )\t caus+ /ra9s ei!r 9 ! cyl9d] or 9 ! l9]4 7#dd7 ,multiple ,cyl9d] ,eng9es4 ,s9ce ! p[] ex]t$ by a s+le cyl9d] f\r /roke cycle eng9e is int]mitt5t1 ! explosive =ce ex]t$ on ea* p[] /roke is mu* heavi] ?an w\ld be ! case if ! p[] application 7 cont9u\s1 z ! explosions mu/ be heavi] to comp5sate = ! idle p]iods4 ,to r$uce ! /ra9 on ! eng9e & ! vibration z well & to obta9 an ev5 turn+ mom5t x has be5 cu/om>y to provide m ?an "o cyl9d] on eng9e ( ov] #aj horse-p[] capacity4 ,9 ?is way ! total p[] is divid$ among a numb] ( cyl9d]s1 & z no two cyl9d]s are "u ignition at any "o "t ! turn+ mom5t is m ev51 ! vibration is less1 & ! /ra9 on ! eng9e is consid]ably r$uc$4 ,divid+ ! p[] 9 ?is way makes x possible to r$uce ! weight ( ! eng9e z less mat]ial is requir$ to resi/ ! /ra9s & a small fly-:eel may be us$ because ( ! ev5 eng9e torque4 ,9 ord] to ga9 ! full b5efit ( ?is r$uction 9 weight1 ! build]s ( a]onautic motors h c>ri$ ! multiplication ( cyl9d]s to an extreme1 ! ,anto9ette = example hav+ sixte5 cyl9d]s4 ,eng9es hav+ m ?an six cyl9d]s ex]t a cont9u\s pull z ! impulses 8ov]lap10 t is1 ignition occurs 9 "o cyl9d] be=e ano!r cyl9d] 9 ! s]ies ends its work+ /roke4 ,! great] ! numb] ( cyl9d]s1 ! m cont9u\s w be ! torque or turn+ mom5t4 ,! multiple cyl9d] eng9e may be consid]$ z a gr\p ( s+le cyl9d] eng9es connect$ toge!r1 & receiv+ _! fuel f a common s\rce1 ! only diff]5ce betwe5 ! s+le & multiple be+ 9 ! inlet & exhau/ pip+ & ! ignition sy/em4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 ,f-#ab4 ,six ,cyl9d] ,maximotor4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 ,f-#ac4 ,f\r ,cyl9d] ,buffalo ,motor = ,m>9e ,s]vice4 ,z a s+le cyl9d] f\r /roke cycle eng9e has "o work+ impulse 9 e two revolutions1 a two cyl9d] eng9e w h an impulse = e revolution z !re are twice z _m impulses 9 ! same "t4 ,x %\ld be rememb]$ t ! numb] ( impulses giv5 p] revolution by a f\r /roke cycle eng9e is equal to ! numb] ( cyl9d]s divid$ by two4 ,?us1 a six cyl9d] eng9e has #f #b #c impulses p] revolution1 & an eight cyl9d]1 #h #b #d impulses1 provid+ ( c\rse1 t ! eng9e is s+le act+4 ,arrangem5t ( ! cyl9d]s v>ies ) ! s]vice = :i* ! eng9e is int5d$ & ! p]fection ( balance t is requir$1 ! pr9cipal arrangem5ts be+ ! 8,v10 ! 8upright10 ! oppos$1 ! 8radial10 8t&em10 & 8tw940 ,! upright eng9e has ! cyl9d]s all on "o side ( ! crank-%aft 9 a /raight l9e1 z 9 ! f\r cyl9d] automobile eng9e4 ,9 ?is =m1 ea* cyl9d] has an individual crank ?r[ ! numb] ( ?r[s be+ equal to ! numb] ( cyl9d]s4 ,?is eng9e is fairly well balanc$ 9 ! f\r1 six & eight cyl9d] types1 z "o-half ( ! connect+ rods & ?r[s are up1 :ile ! o!r half are d[n1 b z ! connect+ rods d n all make equal angles ) ! c5t] l9e ( ! cyl9d] at ! same "t !re is a slight unbalance 9 ! f\r & six cyl9d] types4 ,because ( ! ignition sequ5ce1 two cyl9d] v]tical motors are 9 no bett] balance ?an ! s+le cyl9d] type s9ce bo? crank ?r[s & connect+ rods are on ! same side ( ! %aft at ! same "t4 ,= ?is reason ! two cyl9d] eng9e is mo/ commonly built 9 ! oppos$ type :i* gives p]fect balance4 ,9 8,v0 type arrangem5t1 "o-half ( ! cyl9d]s are set at an angle ( ab\t #ij ) ! re/ ( ! cyl9d]s1 or 9 ! two cyl9d] 8,v0 ! cyl9d]s are set 9 ! same plane1 p]p5dicul> to ! %aft1 at angle v>y+ f #eg to #ij4 ,! 8,v0 type arrangem5t is adopt$ :]e light weight & compactness are ! pr9cipal requirem5ts1 z ! weight & l5g? are bo? r$uc$ by putt+ ! cyl9d]s opposite to "o ano!r by pairs1 ! 8,v0 be+ practically "o-half ! l5g? ( an upright hav+ ! same numb] ( cyl9d]s4 ,?is arrangem5t p]mits ! use ( "o-half ! numb] ( crank ?r[s us$ 9 ! v]tical type z ea* crank ?r[ acts = two cyl9d]s4 ,= ! reason t bo? ! cyl9d]s ( a two cyl9d] 8,v0 act on a common crank ?r[1 ! two cyl9d] 8,v0 is 9 no bett] balance ?an a s+le cyl9d] eng9e4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ah-;a4 ,g4 ,h4 ,h4 ,d\ble ,act+ ,t&em ,cyl9d] ,eng9e 7,g]man74 ,x w be ,not$ t an ,inlet & ,exhau/ ,valve ,are ,plac$ at ,bo? ,ends ( ,ea* ,cyl9d]4 ,! ,exhau/ ,valves ,are ,bel[ & ! ,inlets ,above ! ,cyl9d]s4 ,z ?is ,eng9e is ( ! ,f\r ,/roke ,cycle ,type1 ,ea* ,cyl9d] ,gives ,"o ,impulse p] ,revolution1 or ,two ,impulses p] ,revolution = ,bo? ,cyl9d]s4 ,! ,pi/on & ,pi/on ,rod ,are ,bo? ,cool$ by ,wat]1 & ,are ,support$ by ! ,cross ,heads s t ,_! ,weight is ,tak5 ,(f ! ,cyl9d] ,bore4 ,an 8oppos$0 type eng9e is 9 ! mo/ p]fect me*anical balance ( any eng9e z ! crank %afts & connect+ rods are n only on opposite sides ( ! crank-%aft1 b make equal angles ) ! c5t] l9e ( ! cyl9d]s z well1 at all po9ts 9 ! revolution4 ,! explosive impulses occur at equal angles 9 ! revolution z 9 ! f\r & six cyl9d] v]tical type4 ,an oppos$ eng9e may be consid]$ z a 8,v0 hav+ a cyl9d] angle ( #ahj4 ,9 ! oppos$ type1 "o crank ?r[ is provid$ = ea* cyl9d]1 ! pi/ons ( ! opposite cyl9d]s travel+ 9 opposite directions at ! same "t4 ,a 8radial0 or 8,fan0 type motor1 z ! "n w\ld sugge/ has ! cyl9d]s arrang$ 9 "o or two r[s ar\nd ! crank case1 ea* cyl9d] be+ on a radial l9e pass+ ?r\gh ! c5t] ( ! cyl9d] ) "o crank ?r[ = ea* r[4 ,! ,gnome eng9e illu/rat$ else:]e 9 ! book is an example ( ?is type1 ! sev5 equally spac$ cyl9d]s act+ on a common crank ?r[4 ,:5 m ?an sev5 cyl9d]s are us$ on ?is eng9e1 z 9 ! f\rte5 cyl9d] eng9e1 two cranks are provid$1 ea* crank s]v+ sev5 cyl9d]s4 ,?is arrangem5t cuts d[n ! weight ( a motor enorm\sly because ( ! %ort crank %aft & case4 ,) ! ignition prop]ly tim$ & ! cyl9d]s correctly spac$ ! fir+ impulses occur at equal angles4 8,t&em0 cyl9d]s are employ$ only on /ation>y eng9es1 ! cyl9d]s be+ plac$ on ! same c5t] l9e1 "o 9 front ( ! o!r1 & :5 ?is arrangem5t is adopt$ x is ! usual practice to make ! cyl9d]s d\ble act+4 ,! two pi/ons are connect$ by a rod kn[n z ! 8pi/on rod0 :i* ext5ds f ! re> end ( "o cyl9d] into ! front ( ! foll[+ cyl9d]4 ,t&em cyl9d]s require too mu* room = use on automobiles or motor boats1 & = ?is reason are seldom se5 9 ?is s]vice4 ,! 8tw90 eng9e is a modification ( ! v]tical cyl9d] arrangem5t1 bo? cyl9d]s be+ on ! same side ( ! %aft & 9 l9e ) "o ano!r4 ,x is ! type mo/ g5]ally us$ on v l>ge /ation>y eng9es t h m ?an "o cyl9d]1 & in/ead ( be+ v]tical z 9 _! prototype are g5]ally laid horizontally4 ,s9ce ! tw9 eng9e is g5]ally d\ble act+1 ! crank ?r[s are plac$ on opposite sides ( ! %aft4 7#de7 ,f\r ,cyl9d] ,v]tical ,auto ,motor4 ,a common type ( f\r cyl9d] v]tical motor is %[n by ,fig4 #ai1 :i* is ( ! type commonly us$ on automobiles4 ,9 ord] to %[ ! g5]al con/ruction ( ! cyl9d]1 ea* cyl9d] is cut ?r\gh at a diff]5t po9t4 ,! cyl9d] at ! extreme left is %[n 9 elevation1 or z we w\ld see x f ! outside4 ,9 ! second cyl9d] f ! left1 ! section is tak5 ?r\gh ! valve *amb]1 :i* projects f ! side ( ! cyl9d]4 ,a section ?r\gh ! c5t] ( ! cyl9d] is %[n on ! ?ird cyl9d]1 & ! f\r? cyl9d] is 9 elevation4 ,on cyl9d] ,no4 #a1 7left7 is se5 ! exhau/ pipe 7#cb7 & ! inlet pipe 7#ca7 ent]+ to valve *amb] & connect$ to ! exhau/ valve & inlet valve respectively4 ,! pipes are held 9 place by ! clamp or 8crab0 7#cc74 ,! exhau/ pipe connects ) ! exhau/ valve ( ea* cyl9d]1 & t]m9ates at ! f\r? cyl9d] z %[n by 7#cb74 ,screw$ into ! top ( ! valve *amb] on cyl9d] ,no4 #a are ! two sp>k plugs 7#cd7 & ! relief cock 7#ce74 ,ref]r+ to cyl9d] ,no4 #b1 ! inlet valve 7#db7 is %[n at ! left ( ! *amb] & ! exhau/ valve also %[n by 7#db7 is %[n at ! "r4 ,above ! valves are ! sp>k plugs 7#cd7 :i* project into ! space above ! valves4 ,press+ aga9/ ! l[] ends ( ! valve /ems & hold+ ! valves tight on _! seats are ! spr+s 7#dd7 :i* fit into ! wa%]s 7#de7 fa/5$ to ! /ems4 ,! valve /ems t]m9ate 9 a nut at 7#dh74 ,! valve /em guides 7#dc7 =m a support = ! valves & at ! same "t =m an air tight connection = ! /ems to slide 94 ,imm$iately b5ea? ! /ems are ! pu% rods 7#df7 :i* are provid$ ) an adju/m5t 7#dh7 at ! upp] end1 & a roll] 7#di7 at ! l[] end4 ,! roll]s 7#di7 re/ directly on ! cams m\nt$ on ! cam %aft 7#bg71 & z ! irregul> cams revolve1 ! pu% rods are mov$ up & d[n :i* 9 turn act on ! valve /ems & raise ! valves at ! prop] mom5t4 ,! cams raise ! valves & ! spr+s close !m4 ,! two cams 7exhau/ & inlet7 appe> z two rectangul> enl>gem5ts on ! %aft 7#bg74 ,! be>+s 7#ec71 support ! cam %aft1 "o be+ suppli$ = ea* cyl9d]4 ,at ! extreme left ( ! crank %aft is %[n ! half "t ge> 7#bj7 :i* me%es ) ! ge> on ! crank-%aft & drives ! cams4 ,next to ?is ge> is ! l>ge cam %aft be>+ #bf4 ,x %\ld be not$ t ! section ?r\gh ! valve *amb] tak5 on cyl9d] ,no4 #b is at a po9t consid]ably back f ! c5t] l9e ( ! cyl9d]s & n 9 ! same plane z ! section %[n on cyl9d] ,no4 #c1 :i* is tak5 ?r\gh ! c5t] l9e ( ! cyl9d]s4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ai4 ,cross-,section ,?r\gh ,typical ,f\r ,cyl9d] ,automobile ,eng9e4 ,c\rtesy ( ! ,*icago ,te*nical ,college4 ,9 ! section ( cyl9d] ,no4 #c1 we see ! wat] space surr\nd+ ! upp] portion ( ! cyl9d] ) ! op5+ 7#cg7 connect$ to ! wat] manifold 7#cf71 ?r\gh :i* ! wat] leaves ! cyl9d] & passes to ! radiator4 ,at ! l[] end ( ! /roke is ! pi/on1 "o-half ( :i* is %[n 9 section & "o-half 9 elevation s t int]nal & ext]nal appe>ance may be readily se54 ,! pi/on p9 7#fj7 is locat$ approximately 9 ! c5t] ( ! pi/on to :i* x is secur$ by means ( ! set-screw 7#fa74 ,by means ( ! connect+ rod 7#ef71 ! motion ( ! pi/on is transmitt$ to ! crank-%aft ?r[ 7#ed71 bo? ends ( :i* are provid$ ) bronze bu%+s 7#ei7 & 7#eh71 fitt+ on ! pi/on p9 & crank-p9 respectively4 ,betwe5 ea* crank ?r[ are ! ma9 crank %aft be>+s 7#ee7 :i* are provid$ ) ! bronze bu%+s 7#ed74 ,bel[ ! connect+ rod ends is ! small drip tr\gh conta9+ oil into :i* ! pipes on ! rod ends dip :5 pass+ ar\nd ! l[] end ( ! /roke4 ,:5 ! pipes ent] ! oil puddle a small am\nt ( lubricat+ oil is driv5 into ! crank-p9 be>+ because ( ! =ce ( impact1 ?is =ce also caus+ oil to spla% ab\t 9 ! crank case = ! lubrication ( ! ma9 crank %aft be>+s & cam %aft4 ,9 ord] to ma9ta9 a con/ant level ( oil 9 ! puddle s t ! be>+s %all receive a con/ant supply ( oil1 a small ov]fl[ op5+ is plac$ 9 ! c5t] ( ! puddle :i* all[s an excess ( oil to ov]fl[ into ! return oil sump bel[4 ,?is excess ( oil dra9s by gravity back to ! oil circulat+ pump 7#gc71 at ! "r :i* aga9 =ces ! oil to ! v>i\s be>+s4 ,9 ?is way1 ! same oil is us$ ov] & ov] aga9 until x becomes unfit = lubricat+ purposes because ( dirt or decomposition4 ,! oil pump is driv5 f ! cam-%aft ?r\gh ! level ge>s 7#ff7 & ! v]tical %aft 7#gb74 ,to ! "r ( ! oil pump is ! fly-:eel 7#ge7 :i* furni%es ! p[] = ! idle /rokes ( ! eng9e4 ,at ! upp] end ( ! v]tical %aft t drives ! oil pump is an ext5sion 7#fh7 :i* passes ?r\gh ! be>+ 7#gj7 & drives ! ignition tim] %[n at ! top ( ! h\s+ 7#fi74 ,! tim] controls ! p]iod ( ignition 9 ! cyl9d]s 9 reg>d to ! pi/on position s t ! sp>k occurs at ! end ( ! compression /roke4 ,at ! extreme left ( ! eng9e is ! radiator fan 7#a7 :i* is driv5 f ! crank-%aft pulley 7#af71 ! belt 7#aj71 & ! fan pulley 7#aabb74 ,?is fan increases ! am\nt ( cold air t is drawn ?r\gh ! radiator1 7m\nt$ to ! left ( ! eng9e7 & increases its capacity = cool+ ! jacket wat] ( ! eng9e4 ,! wat] circulat+ pump is locat$ on ! opposite side ( ! motor4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ai-;a4 ,buda ,f\r ,cyl9d] ,automobile ,motor4 ,c>buretor ,side4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ai-;b4 ,buda ,motor1 ,pump ,side1 ,cyl9d]s 8,en ,bloc40 ,9 ?is motor bo? ! inlet & exhau/ valves are locat$ on ! same side ( ! cyl9d] :i* arrangem5t classifies ! eng9e z an 8,l0 type1 ! ext5d$ valve pockets =m+ an 8,l0 ) ! c5t] l9e ( ! cyl9d]4 ,9 ! motor %[n by ,figs4 ,f-#ad-;,f-#ae1 ! inlet & exhau/ valves are on opposite sides ( ! cyl9d] z %[n 9 ! cross-section1 :i* classifies ! motor z a 8,t0 type1 z ! valve *amb]s toge!r ) ! cyl9d] =ms a 8,t40 ,! latt] type ( motor has sev]al advantages ov] ! 8,l0 type1 b z x requires two cam %afts1 "o = ! inlet & "o = ! exhau/ valves1 x is n adopt$ by ! build]s ( ! *eap] grades ( automobiles4 ,s9ce ! exhau/ valves are on ! opposite side ( ! cyl9d]1 9 ! 8,t0 type1 ! inlet air is n exp&$ nor ! output dim9i%$ by ! heat ( ! exhau/ passages4 ,! pip+ is less complicat$ :i* p]mits ( a m effective arrangem5t ( ! c>buretor & magneto4 ,s9ce ! pip+ 9 ! latt] type c be arrang$ to bett] advantage1 less back pressure is ! result4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 ,f-#ad4 ,cross-,section ,?r\gh ,wiscons9 ,truck ,motor4 8,t0 ,type4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 ,f-#ae4 ,longitud9al ,?r\gh ,wiscons9 ,truck ,motor4 ,z 9 ! previ\s case1 ! valves are act$ on directly by ! cams & pu% rods1 "o cam %aft be+ provid$ on ea* side ( ! cyl9d]s4 ,9 ord] to r$uce ! noise made by ! pu% rods & spr+s1 all ( ! spr+s are enclos$ by %eet metal h\s+s or tubes4 ,! circulat+ pump is %[n at ! left ne>ly on a l9e ) ! left h& cam %aft1 ! pump outlet be+ incl9$ t[>d ! cyl9d] s t x ent]s ! wat] jacket "u ! exhau/ valves4 ,wat] leaves ! jacket by ! pipe %[n on ! cyl9d] tops4 ,f ! longitud9al section x w be se5 t ! cyl9d]s are ca/ 9 pairs1 two cyl9d]s to ! pair1 in/ead ( s+ly z 9 ! previ\s case4 ,! l>ge pipe cross+ at ab\t ! c5t] ( ! cyl9d]s is ! exhau/ pipe 7%[n 9 front ( ! left pair71 & ! pipe %[n "u ! exhau/ is ! wat] inlet pipe f ! circulat+ pump4 ,x w be se5 f ! longitud9al section t ! ma9 crank-%aft be>+s are fa/5$ to ! upp] half ( ! crank case1 & are entirely indep5d5t ( ! l[] half :i* acts simply z an oil %ield4 ,?is con/ruction all[s ! oil %ield 7l[] half7 to be remov$ )\t di/urb+ ! adju/m5t ( ! be>+s1 :5 x becomes necess>y to inspect ! int]nal me*anism4 ,illu/ration3 ,six ,cyl9d] ,rut5b] ,automobile ,motor1 ) ,cyl9d]s ,ca/ 9 ,pairs4 ,l>ge removable plates cov] ! top ( ! wat] jackets s t x is a simple matt] to clean out ! wat] space 9 case t x becomes coat$ ) deposits f ! wat]4 ,?is is an important feature z a great _m ( ! heat+ tr\bles may be ov]come by hav+ access to ! int]ior ( ! wat] jacket4 ,! wat] outlet pipes connect ) ! jacket cov]s4 ,bo? cam %afts are driv5 by ! ge>s at ! "r :i* connect ) ! crank %aft p9ion4 ,fan is belt driv5 f an ext5sion to ! cam %aft4 ,all be>+s are suppli$ ) oil by a high pressure =ce fe$ pump1 ! crank p9s receiv+ _! supply ?r\gh *annels drill$ 9 ! crank %aft & p91 :i* 9 turn are connect$ to ! oil supply ( ! ma9 be>+s1 no dep5d5ce be+ plac$ on a spla% sy/em4 ,aft] leav+ ! be>+s1 ! oil drops into ! crank case & dra9s into ! sump %[n at ! left ( ! longitud9al section4 ,f ! sump1 ! oil returns to ! oil pump f :i* po9t x is return$ to ! circulat+ sy/em "u high pressure4 7#df7 ,/ation>y ,f\r ,cyl9d] ,eng9e4 ,an ,engli% /ation>y eng9e1 ! ,br[ett-,l9dly1 simil> 9 _m respects to ! automobile eng9es j describ$1 is %[n 9 longitud9al & cross-section by ,figs4 #bj & #ba4 ,?is is ( ! 8,l0 type ( valve arrangem5t1 b in/ead ( hav+ ! valves side by side z 9 ! prec$+ case1 ! inlet valve is plac$ ov] ! exhau/ z w be se5 f ! cross-section view4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ba4 ,cross-,section ,?r\gh ,br[ett-,l9dly ,eng9e4 ,! exhau/ valve is op]at$ directly f ! cam %aft by ! pu% rod z 9 ! auto eng9es1 b ! inlet valve receives its motion ?r\gh a long v]tical rod & horizontal lev]1 ! latt] be+ locat$ on ! cyl9d] head z %[n by ! longitud9al section4 ,a supplem5t>y valve is m\nt$ loosely on ! /em ( ! inlet valve1 & ?is valve is held aga9/ ! seat ( ! gas inlet port by a %ort spr+4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bj4 ,section ,?r\gh ,br[ett-,l9dly ,f\r ,cyl9d] ,/ation>y ,eng9e4 ,a coll> on ! ma9 valve sp9dle op5s ?is gas valve1 &1 by adju/+ ! position1 a c]ta9 am\nt ( lag c be giv51 s t air fir/ ent]s ! cyl9d] & !n1 by fur!r travel ( ! ma9 valve1 ! gas valve op5s & ! comb9$ *>ge is tak5 94 ,?is prev5ts any 8back fires0 z ! gas & air are entirely sep>at$ until !y ent] ! cyl9d]4 ,/>t+ is effect$ by means ( compress$ air1 & is entirely automatic4 ,no compression release is provid$1 z ?is is unnecess>y "u ! sy/em adopt$4 ,by op5+ ! ma9 compress$ air valve compress$ air is admitt$ to two valve boxes plac$ und]nea? ! cam %aft1 & ! pressure ( air raises ! valves aga9/ _! lev]s & cams4 ,%\ld ! swell on ! cam be opposite a lev] z x w be 9 ! correct />t+ position1 ! valve _c close1 & ! compress$ air !n passes to ! cyl9d] ?r\gh a *eck valve on ! face ( ! cyl9d]1 & ! eng9e />ts4 ,! automatic *eck all[s ! cyl9d]s to take 9 a *>ge ( mixture on ! second /roke & fir+ takes place imm$iately4 ,:5 ! explosion pressure is great] ?an ! air pressure ! *eck rema9s clos$ & no m />t+ air ent]s ! cyl9d]4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ba-;a4 ,section ,?r\gh ,cyl9d] ( ,fairbanks-,morse ,type 8,r ,e0 ,eng9e1 ) ,valves 9 ! ,head4 ,gov]n+ is effect$ by v>y+ bo? ! quantity & quality ( ! mixture4 ,! ma9 valve1 plung]1 & rod spr+s1 & all spr+s on ! valves & valve motion1 are arrang$ to be 9 compression4 ,! exhau/ valves are ( ca/-iron1 & are fitt$ ) r5ewable seats 9 ! cyl9d]s4 ,! admission valves are ( nickel /eel1 & are arrang$ 9 boxes1 :i*1 :5 remov$ f ! cyl9d]s1 provide ! ports :i* give access to & space = ! removal ( ! exhau/ valves :i* are )drawn v]tically4 ,=c$ lubrication is fitt$ ?r\gh\t all be>+s1 valves1 plung] guides1 gov]nor1 cam %aft1 etc41 ! oil "u pressure be+ suppli$ by two valveless pumps1 ei!r ( :i* is suffici5t to ma9ta9 ! work+ pressure ( oil4 ,! normal output ( ! eng9e is #djj brake horse-p[]1 ) an all[able ov]load ( #dj horse-p[] = h\r4 ,! exhau/ pipe is wat] jacket$1 ea* section be+ suppli$ f ! small pump %[n at ! end ( ! cross section4 ,d\ble ignition is provid$ = an em]g5cy1 by two high t5sion magnetos1 ea* ( :i* is connect$ to a sep>ate set ( plugs4 ,:5 />t+ ! eng9e1 an ord9>y sp>k coil & /orage batt]y are us$ until ! eng9e gets up to spe$1 :5 ! coil is cut out & ! magneto is ?r[n 94 7#dg7 ,! 8,v0 ,type ,motor4 ,an example ( ! 8,v0 type motor is %[n by ,fig4 #bb1 :i* is a front elevation ( ! ,fronti] a]onautic motor1 a type t occupies a m9imum ( space ) a m9imum ( weight4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bb4 ,end ,elevation ( ,fronti] #h ,cyl9d] 8,v0 ,type ,motor4 ,! cyl9d]s are ca/ sep>ately & are furni%$ ei!r ) iron or copp] wat] jackets1 ! copp] jackets be+ deposit$ ov] ! cyl9d] b>rels by an electrolytic process 9 mu* ! same way z t ( ! celebrat$ ,fr5* ,anto9ette4 ,bolts pass+ ?r\gh flanges on ! bottom ( ! cyl9d] fa/5 !m to ! base4 ,a special alum9um alloy is us$ = ! base :i* is ca/ 9 a s+le piece ) webs to receive ! be>+s4 ,a unit crank-case insures p]fect alignm5t1 prev5ts a great] "p ( ! oil leakage1 & =ms a mu* /rong] con/ruction ?an ! usual split patt]n4 ,a *amb] is provid$ = ! cam %aft at ! apex ( ! case ?r\gh :i* issue ! pu%-rods4 ,%afts & pi/on p9s are holl[4 ,all pu% rods are adju/able = we> & h /eel balls runn+ on ! cams :i* elim9ate ! possibility ( mis-tim+ ?r\gh we>4 ,lubrication is by a bronze pump ge>$ f ! crank-%aft & is connect$ to an oil tank locat$ 9 ! base f :i* ! oil is =c$ ?r\gh ! crank-%aft up ?r\gh ! holl[ connect+ rods to ! pi/on p9s1 !nce to ! cyl9d] walls1 ! surplus return+ to ! tank 9 :i* ! /ra9] is locat$4 ,! circulat+ pump is driv5 f ! cam %aft z %[n 9 ! cut & supplies ! cyl9d]s & radiator ) wat] ?r\gh ! copp] wat] manifolds :i* are design$ to give an equal supply to ea* cyl9d]4 ,exhau/ manifolds are ( seamless /eel tub+4 ,! cyl9d]s are #d bore #d /roke1 & develop #fj to #gj horse-p[] at #a1ajj revolutions p] m9ute1 :i* spe$ has be5 atta9$ ) an #h-;foot #f-;in* propell] hav+ a pit* ( #e feet4 ,)\t radiator or propell]1 ! iron jacket$ motor weighs #cab p\nds1 & copp] jacket$ weighs #bij p\nds1 ! latt] mak+ a diff]5ce ( #bb p\nds 9 ! weight4 ,a high t5sion ,bos* magneto is us$ :i* is m\nt$ on a pad ca/ on ! top ( ! crank-case & is driv5 f a ge> me%+ ) ! cam %aft ge>4 ,connection is made f ! magneto to plugs plac$ ov] ! inlet valves 9 ! valve caps4 ,a #ajj horse-p[] a]o eng9e ( ! 8,v0 type is %[n by ,figs4 #bc-bd-be1 :i* is built by ! ,all ,briti% ,eng9e ,company = ! a]onautical bran* ( ! ,engli% ,w> ,dep>tm5t4 ,x has eight cyl9d]s ( #e in* bore1 by #d in* /roke1 & develops its rat$ horse-p[] at #a1bjj revolutions p] m9ute4 ,data f 8,a]o10 ,london4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bc4 ,longitud9al ,section ,?r\gh ,a4 ,b4 ,c4 #ajj ,horse-,p[] 8,v0 ,motor4 ,! crank%aft1 :i* is ( ?ree p] c5t nickel *rome /eel1 hav+ an ultimate t5sile /r5g? ( #aeg1jjj lbs4 p] sq4 941 is ( di/9ctly l>ge diamet]1 & is c>ri$ 9 pla9 be>+s l9$ ) :ite metal4 ,x is provid$ ) f\r ?r[s1 ea* crank p9 be+ arrang$ to take ! big end be>+s ( two connect+ rods f cyl9d]s on opposite sides ( ! crank case4 ,!re is a be>+ betwe5 ea* ?r[1 & 9 ord] to r$uce ! ov]all l5g? ( ! eng9e ! cyl9d]s are /agg]$ on ! crank case4 ,! ,h section connect+ rods are /amp$ out ( /eel hav+ a t5sile /r5g? ( #ij1jjj lbs4 p] sq4 941 & = ! purpose ( lubrication a hole is drill$ f end to end d[n ! c5t] ( ! web4 ,z m5tion$ be=e1 ! cyl9d]s are /agg]$1 & !re is no ov]hang+ ( ! big end be>+s at ! po9t ( atta*m5t to ! connect+ rod4 ,! be>+s !mselves are l9$ ) :ite metal4 ,! small end be>+s are provid$ ) phosphor bronze bu%es1 & ! pi/on p9 is ( /eel bor$ out holl[ & h>d5$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bd4 ,valves & ,valve ,motion ( ,a4 ,b4 ,c4 ,motor4 78,a]o10 ,london47 ,a v int]e/+ detail ( ! eng9e is ! comb9ation ( ! wat] outlet pipe f ! top ( ! cyl9d] ) ! be>+s = ! rock+ arms 7:i* are /eel /amp+s7 actuat+ ! valves4 ,?is is %[n 9 ,fig4 #be4 ,a holl[ /eel column is bolt$ to ! top ( ! cyl9d] & protrudes f ! wat] jacket1 :i* is fa/5$ to x ) ! usual %runk r+4 ,to ?is column is atta*$ a holl[ ,t %ap$ pipe ( phosphor bronze1 ! column ( ! ,t piece =m+ ! outlet = ! wat]4 ,on "o arm ( ! ,t piece ! exhau/ rock] takes its be>+ & on ! o!r ! inlet rock]4 ,ea* ,t piece arm is connect$ to its fell[ on ! next cyl9d] by means ( rubb] pip4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #be4 ,end ,elevation ( ,a4 ,b4 ,c4 ,motor4 ,a small bracket project+ f ! ,t piece =ms a saddle on :i* ! valve spr+ re/s4 ,?is is a pla9 semi-elliptical leaf spr+ :i* works bo? valves4 ,x is slott$ at ea* end & slightly turn$ up s z to engage ) a cott] p9 pass$ ?r\gh a slot 9 ! end ( ! valve /em4 ,! crank case is ( r unusual design1 be+ absolutely circul> 9 section & ma*9$ all ov]4 ,x is practically a tube ) flang$ portions bolt$ on to =m ! ends4 ,hav+ no horizontal jo9ts1 x is /rong & easily kept oil tight4 ,?ree radial arms1 ) slight webs & re9=c$ ) /eel columns d[n ! c5t]1 support ea* be>+4 ,! crank case is c>ri$ by f\r feet1 :i* are arrang$ to accommodate ?ree diff]5t wid?s ( eng9e be>]4 ,to ! =e end ( ! crank case is bolt$ a long conical alum9um nose c>ry+ at its extremity a comp\nd pu% & pull ball be>+ #f 94 9 diamet]1 :i* supports an ext5sion %aft bolt$ to ! crank%aft by means ( a flang$ c\pl+4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bd-;a4 8,sixte50 ,cyl9d] ,favata ,radial ,type ,a]o ,motor1 ,consi/+ ( ,f\r ,gr\ps ( ,two ,cyl9d]s ,p] ,gr\p4 ,cyl9d]s are ( ! ,d\ble ,act+ ,type & are ,/ation>y4 ,at ! out] end ( ?is ext5sion is a flange to :i* ! propell] is bolt$1 b ! arrangem5t is specially devis$ to make quick deta*m5t possible4 ,! boss ( ! propell] has a holl[ hub & is plate bolt$ p]man5tly to x by twelve bolts4 ,! direct nose is int]*angeable ) a spe$ r$uction ge> s t ! propell] c be driv5 at a l[] spe$ ?an ! eng9e4 ,fitt+ ?is ge> nose raises ! c5t] l9e ( ! propell]-%aft "s #e 94 ,! ge>s are c>ri$ on sub/antial ball be>+s1 pla9 be>+s be+ us$ also 9 su* a way t !y take up ! load if ! ball be>+s ?r\gh any cause %\ld fail4 ,! r$uction is by means ( sil5t *a9s4 ,! arrangem5t ( ! ge> :eels is pla9 f ! draw+1 & x w be notic$ t !re is no int]m$iate :eel betwe5 ! crank%aft p9ion & ! cam%aft :eel1 :i* are ( /eel & phosphor bronze respectively4 ,a sep>ate ge> :eel is provid$ on ! cam%aft = driv+ ! magneto4 ,! wat] & oil pumps are c>ri$ l[ d[n outside ! crank case1 & are driv5 by int]m$iate :eels at d\ble ! eng9e spe$4 ,! %afts are jo9$ toge!r ?r\gh ,oldham c\pl+s1 s t x is possible to remove ! pumps sep>ately4 ,bo? ^! pumps are ( ! ge> type4 ,! cam%aft is made 9 "o piece ) ! cams1 & is h>d5$1 be+ drill$ out = lightness4 ,x is enclos$ 9 a cas+ ( /eel tube1 :i* is practically sep>ate f ! crank case1 be+ atta*$ !reto at "o end by ! tim+ ge> case & at ! o!r by a saddle4 ,! cam%aft is c>ri$ 9 six be>+s4 ,an int]e/+ po9t is ! fact t ! ge> :eels are bolt$ to flanges on ! %afts in/ead ( be+ atta*$ by keys4 ,c>ri$ 9 ! tube directly above ! cam%aft is a second %aft =m+ ! fulcrum ( ! rock+ arms = ! cam roll]s4 ,a v int]e/+ po9t is ! provision ( an arrangem5t = lift+ ! exhau/ valves4 ,! little rock+ arms c>ry+ ! roll]s :i* be> ^u ! cams are provid$ ) webs1 p>allel ) ! cam%aft & betwe5 x & ! %aft c>ry+ ! rock]s is a ?ird %aft1 ! sides ( :i* normally j cle> ! webs ( ! rock+ arms on ei!r side4 ,?is %aft is provid$ ) w$ge %ape pieces along x1 s t by slid+ x along ! w$ges lift ! rock+ arms cle> ( ! cams1 & ?us1 ?r\gh ! tappet rods & rock]s1 ! valves !mselves are op5$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bf4 ,me/a ,eng9es on ,te/ ,floor4 ,n ! lea/ int]e/+ p>ticul> ( ?is eng9e is ! ?or\gh way 9 :i* ! lubrication is c>ri$ out4 ,f\r ( ! bolts :i* atta* ! caps ( ! ma9 be>+s are prolong$ ?r\gh ! bottom ( ! crank case1 & s]ve to c>ry a deta*able oil sump :i* holds suffici5t oil = a run ( six h\rs4 ,z already m5tion$1 ! oil pump is driv5 at twice ! eng9e spe$1 & ma9ta9s a pressure ( some?+ l #aaj p\nds p] squ>e in*4 ,x deliv]s directly into a /raight /eel tube plac$ along ! bottom ( ! crank case1 & f ?is tube a v]tical tubul> connection is tak5 to ea* ( ! caps ( ! ma9 be>+s4 ,! crank%aft & crank p9s are holl[1 &1 z 9 ! previ\s eng9e1 9 ! holl[ portions tubes ( a slightly small] diamet] are plac$1 ! tubes be+ exp&$ ov] at ! ends1 s t clos$ annul> spaces are =m$ :i* are us$ z lubrication leads4 ,! lubricat+ oil passes ?r\gh ! ma9 be>+s into ^! annul> spaces 9 ! %afts1 f !m to ! annul> spaces 9 ! crank p9s1 & s to ! big-end be>+s4 ,f ! big-end be>+s x travels up ! connect+ rods to ! gudgeon p9s4 ,x is int]e/+ to note at ?is po9t t ! connect+ rods "w 9 slots 9 ! crank case :i* j all[ suffici5t cle>ance = _! travel1 9 ord] to prev5t ! flood+ ( oil into ! cyl9d]s4 ,a /eel-l9$ oil lead is tak5 up to ! saddle :i* supports ! tubul> cam%aft cas+ at ! propell] end ( ! crank case4 ,! be>+s c>ry+ ! cam%aft are cut away at _! l[] edges cle> ( ! tube s t ! oil c fl[ along ! full l5g? ( ! cas+1 ! level be+ suffici5t to all[ ! cams to dip4 ,precautions are tak5 to keep oil f fl[+ out ( ! be>+s1 & ! cas+ ov] ! ge>s is specially arrang$ to prev5t ! oil f flood+ bel[4 7#dh7 ,me/a ,gas ,eng9es4 ,! ,me/a f\r /roke cycle1 d\ble act+ gas eng9e1 built by ! ,me/a ,ma*9e ,co41 ,pittsburgh1 is an excell5t example ( ,am]ican big eng9e practice4 ,me/a eng9es are built 9 sizes f #djj horse-p[] up to ! l>ge/ us$1 & is built ei!r 9 t&em or tw9 t&em units4 ,:ile ! eng9e does n diff] widely 9 ei!r pr9ciple or con/ruction f eng9es ( ! same size x has sev]al features wor?y ( note t are n f\nd on o!r eng9es4 ,up to ! m$ium sizes1 ! cyl9d]s are ca/ 9 "o piece1 ! l>ge/ cyl9d]s be+ made 9 two p>ts ( ca/ /eel ) air furnace iron bu%+s4 ,! c5tral "p ( ! cyl9d] is op5 z w be se5 f ! cuts1 & is cov]$ ) a ca/ iron split b& bolt$ at ! c5t] l9e4 ,! valve *amb]s are locat$ directly opposite "o ano!r on a v]tical c5t] l9e1 ! inlet valve be+ at ! top & ! exhau/ valve at ! bottom4 ,?is arrangem5t gives a bett] di/ribution ( ! mixture1 increases ! output ) giv5 size ( cyl9d] & equalizes ! /resses occasion$ by ! explosions4 ,z ! eng9e is d\ble act+ 9 all cases !re is "o inlet & "o exhau/ at ea* end ( ! cyl9d]4 ,bo? ! inlet valve & ! correspond+ exhau/ valve on ea* end ( ! cyl9d] are op]at$ by a s+le ecc5tric on ! horizontal lay-%aft %[n runn+ bel[ & p>allel to ! cyl9d]s4 ,! regulat+ valves :i* are controll$ by ! action ( ! gov]nor are p]fectly balanc$ aga9/ ! pressure 9 ! cyl9d] :i* results 9 a v small resi/ance to ! gov]nor action1 !re=e no oil relay nor simil> complications are requir$4 ,any ( ^! valves are easily remov$ = cle>+1 a po9t ( great importance :5 runn+ on a gas t is lad5 ) t> or o!r impurities4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bg4 ,end ,view ( ,me/a ,eng9e4 ,! *rome-vanadium pi/on rod c>ries ! pi/ons float+ free f ! cyl9d] walls r$uc+ ! we> on ! bore1 :ile ! pi/on r+s ma9ta9 a gas tight contact ) ! cyl9d] walls4 ,ea* pi/on rod is made 9 two halves1 ! jo9t betwe5 ! sections be+ made betwe5 ! cyl9d]s at :i* po9t ! rods are support$ by an int]m$iate cross-head & guide4 ,bo? p>ts ( ! rod are int]*angeable4 ,! pi/ons are made 9 "o ca/+4 ,z w be se5 f ! accompany+ cuts ! front end ( ! pi/on rod is c>ri$ by a cross-head :i* relieves ! pressure on ! pi/on & pack+ gl&s4 ,spe$ regulation is p]=m$ by ! gov]nor by controll+ bo? ! quantity & ! quality ( ! mixture4 ,indep5d5t valves 9 ! gas & air passages are actuat$ by ! gov]nor accord+ to *anges 9 ! load4 ,?is me?od ( control comb9es all ( ! good features ( quantity & quality regulation4 ,make & break ignition is us$1 ) ! ignit] trip ge> s design$ z to all[ all ( ! ignit]s to be tim$ f "o lev]1 or adju/$ indep5d5tly z ! case may require4 ,ea* combu/ion *amb] is suppli$ ) two ignit]s1 "o at ! top & "o at ! bottom1 :i* insures regul> & rapid combu/ion & !re=e gives a maximum ( effici5cy & reliability4 ,compress$ air is introduc$ into ! cyl9d]s = />t+ at a p]iod correspond+ to ! p[] /roke 9 normal op]ation4 ,?is is accompli%$ by cam op]at$ poppet valves locat$ 9 ! air ma9 & *eck valves 9 ! cyl9d]s4 ,by ?is sy/em ! eng9e c be />t$ & put on full load 9 less ?an "o m9ute4 7#di7 ,knight ,slid+ ,sleeve ,motor4 ,! ,knight motor 0 ! fir/ f\r /roke cycle automobile motor to employ an annul> slide valve 9 place ( ! usual poppet valve4 ,its success has l$ to ! developm5t ( sev]al o!r motors ( a simil> type :i* foll[ ! con/ruction ( ! orig9al eng9e m or less closely4 ,be+ free f ! slap bang ( eight to twelve cam actuat$ poppet valves :i* hamm] on _! seats at ! rate ( a ?\s& bl[s p] m9ute1 ! ,knight motor is free f noise & vibration4 ,in/ead ( ! jump+ ( a numb] ( small p>ts1 !re is only ! sl[ slid+ ( ! sleeves ov] well lubricat$ surfaces4 ,!y make no noise because !y /rike no?+ & c cause no vibration because !y are a p]fect slid+ fit 9 _! respective cyl9d]s4 ,besides insur+ noiseless op]ation1 ! valves increase ! output1 effici5cy & flexibility ( ! motor = !y are positively driv5 & are n affect$ 9 tim+ by fluctuations 9 ! spe$4 ,! we> ( ! reciprocat+ increases ! effici5cy ( ! sleeve in/ead ( de/roy+ x4 ,) poppet valves at high spe$s1 ! valves d n seat prop]ly 9 relation to ! crank position ow+ to ! in]tia ( ! valves & to ! gradual weak5+ ( ! valve spr+s :i* delays ! clos+ ( ! valves4 ,c>bon also gets on ! seats ( ! poppet valves & prev5ts prop] closure4 ,^! faults _c exi/ ) slid+ sleeves :5 !y are once set "r z !y are positively driv5 ?r\gh a crank & connect+ rod4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bh4 ,section ,?r\gh ,knight ,motor ,%[+ ! ,sleeves1 ,ecc5trics1 & ,automatic ,adju/m5t = ,lubrication4 ,inlet is at ! ,"r1 ,exhau/ at ! ,left4 ,at high eng9e spe$s ! velocity ( ! exhau/ & inlet gases is v high 9 ! poppet valve type due to ! _m re/rictions & turns 9 ! passages :i* causes back pressure & a consid]able loss ( p[]4 ,) ! slid+ sleeve type an ideal =m ( combu/ion *amb] is possible & ! passages to & f ! *amb] are %ort & direct4 ,v l>ge port areas ) a l[ gas velocity are also possible4 ,! sleeves are m effectively cool$ ?an ! poppet type1 be+ 9 direct contact ) ! wat] cool$ walls = _! entire l5g?4 ,because ( ! l>ge port areas1 ! cyl9d]s receive a full *>ge ( mixture1 & z a result ! eng9e accel]ates & gets "u way ) rem>kable ease4 ,illu/ration3 ,figs4 #bh-bi-cj4 ,%[+ ,sleeve ,positions on ! ,inlet ,/roke4 7,knight ,motor47 ,! arrangem5t ( ! slide valves1 or sleeves1 is %[n by ,fig4 #bh1 :i* also gives an idea ( ! cyl9d] =m1 & ! location ( ! pi/on4 ,fitt+ ! eng9e cyl9d] closely1 "o )9 ! o!r1 are ! two slid+ valve sleeves1 & )9 ! inn] sleeve slides ! p[] pi/on4 ,illu/ration3 ,figs4 #ca-cb-cc4 ,%[+ ,sleeve ,positions on ! ,exhau/ ,/roke4 ,ea* sleeve has two slots cut 9 x1 "o on ea* side1 :i* =m an outlet & inlet = ! exhau/ & inlet gases respectively4 ,:5 ! slots on ! intake side ( bo? ! out] & ! inn] sleeves regi/]1 or come opposite to "o ano!r1 & also opposite to ! intake pipe1 a *>ge ( gas is drawn into ! cyl9d]4 ,aft] ! explosion has tak5 place1 ! slid+ motion ( ! sleeves br+s ! o!r two op5+s1 on ! exhau/ side1 opposite to "o ano!r1 & opposite ! exhau/ pipe1 :i* all[s ! burnt gas to escape to ! atmosph]e ?r\gh ! exhau/ manifold4 ,! sleeves are driv5 f cranks on ! half-"t %aft %[n at ! side ( ea* cut1 ?r\gh ! small connect+ rods1 :i* gives !m a reciprocat+ motion4 ,l ! cam %aft on a poppet valve motor1 ! lay %aft runs at half ! crank %aft spe$1 s9ce ! eng9e is ( ! f\r-/roke cycle type4 ,! l[] ends ( ! sleeves1 to :i* ! connect+ rods are fa/5$1 are made ?ick] ?an ! portion )9 ! cyl9d]1 & are heavily ribb$ = /r5g? 9 ! ov]hang4 ,! sleeves are ( ! same composition ( ca/ iron z ! cyl9d] & are provid$ ) oil grooves cut 9 _! out] surfaces = gas pack+1 & ! di/ribution ( oil4 ,leakage betwe5 ! inn] sleeve1 & ! cyl9d] head is prev5t$ by a pack+ r+1 or 8junk0 r+ t is fa/5$ to ! bottom ( ! inw>dly project+ cyl9d] head4 ,! junk r+ n only prev5ts ! leakage ( gas dur+ ! explosion1 b x also s]ves ano!r purpose4 ,! exhau/ ports or slots 9 ! inn] sleeve are above ! junk r+ dur+ ! explosion1 9 :i* position !y are protect$ f contact ) ! burn+ gas4 ,! life ( valves is greatly increas$ by ?is protection4 ,x w be not$ t ! entire surface ( ! sleeves is 9 contact ) wat] jacket$ surfaces1 mak+ p]fect lubrication & smoo? work+ possible4 ,! two sp>k plugs = ! dual ignition sy/em are %[n 9 ! depress$ cyl9d] head4 ,complete wat] jacket+ encircles ! cyl9d]s1 cyl9d] heads1 ! circulation area enclos+ ! plugs & ! gas passages s t a uni=m heat is ma9ta9$ ! entire l5g? ( ! pi/on travel4 ,! half-"t %aft1 ! magneto1 & ! wat] pump are driv5 by a sil5t *a9 f ! crank case2 ?is drive be+ f\nd sup]ior to ! ge>s commonly us$ = ?is class ( "w4 ,! cranks on ! half-"t %aft are made 9 "o integral piece ) ! %aft4 ,al?\gh ! pi/on on ! ,/odd>d-,dayton ,knight motor has a /roke ( #e in*es1 x is sc>cely z mu* z ?is consid]$ z friction produc+ travel1 because ! inn] sleeve 9 :i* x re/s moves d[n 9 ! same direction #a in*es4 ,?is di/ribution ( ! work+ /roke to two surfaces r$uces ! we> on ! side ( ! sleeve caus$ by ! angul>ity or ?ru/ ( ! ma9 connect+ rod4 ,on ! compression /roke1 bo? out] & inn] sleeves g up 9 ! same direction z ! pi/on1 ! inn] sleeve mov+ ! fa/]4 ,on ! exhau/ /roke & suction /roke ! sleeves move 9 a direction opposite to ! direction ( ! pi/on1 b on ^! /rokes !re is v little "w p]=m$ by ! pi/on & consequ5tly little ?ru/ is produc$ on ! sleeves & walls ( ! cyl9d]4 ,x is a valuable feature to h ! sleeves desc5d ) ! pi/on on ! work+ /roke because ?is is ! /roke 9 :i* ! pi/on has ! greate/ am\nt ( side ?ru/4 ,! up & d[n movem5t ( ! sleeves is v little comp>$ ) t ( ! pi/on4 ,a /roke ( #e in*es gives a pi/on spe$ ( #iaf feet p] m9ute at a spe$ ( #a1jjj revolutions p] m9ute4 ,! /roke ( ! sleeves is #a in*es & its spe$ is b #ic4g feet p] m9ute1 or a little m ?an "o-t5? t ( ! pi/on4 ,?is fact makes ! problem ( lubrication a feasible "o1 ! sl[-movem5t ( ! sleeves di/ribut+ ! oil ?or\ghly betwe5 !m z well z betwe5 ! out] sleeves & ! cyl9d] walls4 ,! action ( ! valves1 & _! position at diff]5t po9ts 9 ! cycle1 is %[n 9 diagrammatic =m by ,figs4 #bh-bi-cj-ca-cb-cc1 ! p>ticul> ev5t to :i* ea* diagram ref]s be+ m>k$ at ! foot ( ! cuts4 ,! direction ( ! sleeve movem5t is indicat$ by ! arr[s at ! bottom ( ! sleeves4 ,p>ticul> att5tion %\ld be paid to ! position ( ! slots 9 ! sleeves4 ,! fir/ ?ree diagrams %[ ! position ( ! inlet slots t gov]n ! admission ( ! combu/ible gas f ! c>buretor4 ,fig4 #bh %[s ! slots com+ toge!r to =m an op5+ 9 ! inlet port z ! l[] edge ( ! out] sleeve sep>ates f ! upp] edge ( ! inn] sleeve4 ,! out] sleeve is n[ mov+ rapidly d[nw>d :ile ! inn] sleeve is sl[ly ris+1 & z _! motion is opposite ! op5+ is quickly =m$4 ,fig4 #bi %[s ! full op5+ ) ! slots 9 regi/]4 ,:5 clos+ 7,fig4 #cj7 ! out] sleeve is ne>ly /ation>y :ile ! inn] sleeve is ris+ rapidly4 ,:5 ! inn] sleeve port is cov]$ by ! l[] edge ( ! junk r+1 ! valve op5+ is clos$1 ! slot 9 ! out] sleeve rema9+ opposite ! inlet op5+4 ,! exhau/ port op5s 7,fig4 #ca7 :5 ! l[] edge ( ! slot 9 ! inn] sleeve leaves ! junk r+ 9 ! cyl9d] head1 ! sleeve mov+ rapidly d[nw>d at ! mom5t ( op5+4 ,to obta9 a rapid op5+ ( ! exhau/1 ! ports are arrang$ s t ! inn] sleeve is j ab\t to rea* its maximum spe$ at ! "t ( op5+4 ,! out] sleeve closes ! port 7,fig4 #cc71 closure />t+ :5 ! upp] edge ( ! out] sleeve co9cides ) ! l[] edge ( ! cyl9d] wall port4 ,at ?is "t ! out] sleeve is travel+ d[nw>d at maximum spe$1 s t ! clos+ ( ! exhau/ is z rapid z ! op5+4 ,! lubrication ( ! ,knight motor is accompli%$ by :at is kn[n z ! movable dam sy/em1 :i* ov]comes ! t5d5cy ( ! motor to ov]-lubricate4 ,a movable tr\gh is plac$ "u ea* connect+ rod1 9 ! crank case1 t is connect$ to ! c>buretor ?rottle lev] 9 su* a way t ! op5+ & clos+ ( ! ?rottle raises & l[]s ! tr\ghs4 ,:5 ! ?rottle is op5$1 rais+ ! tr\ghs1 ! po9ts on ! ends ( ! connect+ rods dip deep] into ! oil :i* creates a spla%+ ( oil on ! l[] ends ( ! slid+ sleeves4 ,9 ?is way ! oil is f$ to ! eng9e 9 direct proportion to ! load & ! heat produc$ 9 ! cyl9d]4 ,:5 ! motor is ?rottl$ d[n1 ! po9ts b>ely dip into ! oil4 ,an excess ( oil is f$ to ! tr\ghs by an oil pump1 :i* keeps !m con/antly ov]fl[+4 ,! ov]fl[ is caught 9 ! pumps locat$ 9 ! crank case1 & return$ to ! circulation s t x is us$ ov] & ov] aga94 ,claims ( great effici5cy are made = ?is sy/em1 !re hav+ be5 _m te/s made %[+ #gej miles p] gallon ( oil1 :ile ev5 z high z #a1bjj miles p] gallon has be5 made "u favorable conditions4 ,! oil pump is conta9$ 9 ! crank case1 & is ( ! ge> type1 insur+ positive action4 ,! pump also acts z a di/ribut]1 a slot be+ cut 9 "o ( ! ge>s :i* regi/] successively ) ea* ( ! six oil leads4 ,9 ?is way x is possible to obta9 ! full pump pressure 9 ea* lead %\ld !y become ob/ruct$ 9 any way4 ,9 ! upp] half ( ! crank case are cor$ passageways ?r\gh :i* ! air passes be=e rea*+ ! c>buretor4 ,^! passages n only elim9ate ! ru%+ s\nd ( ! intake air1 b also =m an effici5t me?od ( w>m+ ! air suppli$ to ! c>buretor & cool+ ! crank-case4 ,x is possible to furni% w>m air aft] ! eng9e has be5 idle = sev]al h\rs1 z ! oil 9 ! crank case rema9s w>m long] ?an any o!r "p ( ! eng9e4 7#ej7 ,reeves ,slide ,sleeve ,valve4 ,a simple & compact =m ( slide sleeve valve ge> has be5 develop$ 9 ,engl& t is ( m ?an pass+ int]e/4 ,x p]mits ( a maximum area = bo? ! inlet & exhau/ gases :i* ( c\rse keeps ! velocity & back pressure at a m9imum = a giv5 valve lift4 ,! small lift also insures noiseless op]ation & a small am\nt ( we>4 ,! sleeve is balanc$ at ! end ( ! work+ /roke4 ,! combu/ion *amb] is ne>ly hemisph]ical 9 %ape :i* r$uces ! heat loss to ! walls4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cd4 ,reeves ,slide ,valve ,ge>4 ,ref]r+ to ! section ( ! end ( cyl9d] giv5 9 ! diagram1 7#cd7 ,a is an op5-end$ wat]-jacket$ cyl9d] 9 :i* ! pi/on ,b works4 ,at ! upp] end ( ! cyl9d] is atta*$ a r+ ,c =m+ an ext5sion ( ! /ation>y cyl9drical head ,d c>ry+ ! sp>k+ plug4 ,at ! l[] end ( ! head ,d is provid$ a seat+ ,e = ! slid+ cyl9drical inlet valve ,f1 :i* takes its be>+ ar\nd ! circul> head4 ,?is inlet valve is provid$ ) exp&+ r+s ,g to keep x gas-tight4 ,surr\nd+ ! inlet valve ,f is a second cyl9drical exhau/ valve ,h1 :i* is provid$ ) an angul> seat+ at ,j4 ,! out] circumf]5ce ( ! cyl9drical exhau/ valve ,h be>s aga9/ ! walls ( ! cyl9d]4 ,ca/ 9 ! cyl9d] is an annul> space ,k communicat+ ) a passage ,l = ! admission ( ! inlet gases4 ,^! pass ?r\gh suitable ports cut 9 ! sides ( ! exhau/ valve ,h & ! inlet valve ,f1 s t !y are free to pass ?r\gh ! space made :5 ! inlet valve ,f is l[]$ f its seat4 ,a simil> type ( annul> space ,m is ca/ 9 ! cyl9d] 9 connection ) an op5+ ,o = ! passage ( ! exhau/ gas :5 ! cyl9drical valve ,h is rais$ f its seat+ at ,j4 ,! cyl9d] head is n wat] jacket$ z ! build] /ates t ! cont9ual passage ( ! intake gases keeps x reasonably cool4 ,! exhau/ passages are ?or\ghly wat] cool$4 7#ea7 ,argyll ,s+le ,sleeve ,motor4 ,! ,argyll slid+ sleeve automobile motor is unique 9 ! fact t only "o sleeve is us$ to control bo? ! inlet & exhau/ gases in/ead ( ! two sleeves commonly us$ on ! ,knight motor4 ,?is sleeve1 in/ead ( hav+ ei!r a purely v]tical or horizontal motion1 has a peculi> comb9ation ( ! two1 t is to say1 x moves a c]ta9 am\nt 9 rotation )9 ! cyl9d]1 & an equal am\nt v]tically1 ! comb9$ motion con/itut+ an ellipse4 ,! ext]nal appe>ance ( ! eng9e is %[n by ,fig4 #ce1 :i* w give an idea ( ! g5]al arrangem5t ( ! cyl9d]s1 ports & pip+4 ,9 ,fig4 #cf1 is %[n ! successive movem5ts & ev5ts det]m9$ by ! sleeve1 & ! me?od ( op5+ & clos+ ! inlet & exhau/ ports by ! elliptical movem5t ( ! sleeve4 ,! %ad$ ports are "o ( ! inlet & "o ( ! outlet ports1 respectively1 :i* are ca/ 9 ! cyl9d] wall1 & are aft]w>ds ma*9$ true4 ,! dott$ port1 :i* *anges its position 9 ea* diagram1 is "o ( ! ports 9 ! mov+ sleeve1 its position 9 ea* ( ! figures is m>k$ by ! ev5t t is occurr+ 9 ! cyl9d] at t "t4 ,9 diagram #a1 ! %ad$ port to ! "r is ! exhau/ port1 & ! %ad$ port to ! left1 ! inlet1 ?is relative arrangem5t be+ true1 ( c\rse1 9 ea* ( ! succe$+ diagrams4 ,x w be not$1 t 9 ! position %[n1 9 ! exhau/ /roke 7beg9n+ ( /roke71 ! sleeve port has j />t$ on its d[nw>d /roke1 mov+ also a trifle to ! "r z x progresses4 ,its progress to ! "r may be m cle>ly se5 by consult+ diagram #b1 = ! movem5t4 ,by consult+ ! o!r five figures x w be se5 t ! dott$ port1 9 its relation to ! %ad$ ports1 fir/ moves out to ! "r1 & !n rev]ses1 mov+ to ! left1 & ?is comb9$ ) ! up & d[n movem5t con/itutes an elliptical pa?4 ,9 diagram #f ! exhau/ is clos$1 & ! inlet port has j begun to op51 ! dott$ port n[ />t+ to move out to ! left1 & to rise4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ce4 ,elevation ( ,argyll ,s+le ,sleeve ,motor f ,! ,motor1 ,london4 ,9 diagram #aj1 ! inlet is ne>ly clos$1 ! sleeve port pass+ away f ! cyl9d] ports to ! wat] jacket$ portion ( ! cyl9d] above4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cf4 ,valve ,motion ,diagram ( ,argyll ,motor ,%[+ ! ,valve ,positions at ,diff]5t ,p>ts ( ! ,work+ ,/roke4 ,?is s]ies ( diagrams %[s ! op]ation ( ! duplicat$ port ( ! sleeve 7:i* port is ! "o %[n dott$7 9 relation ) "o ( ! inlet ports & "o ( ! exhau/ ports 9 ! cyl9d] wall1 ! latt] ports be+ m>k$ respectively ,i & ,e4 ,! elliptical movem5t ref]r$ to 9 ! text c be trac$ by foll[+ ! diff]5t positions ( ! dott$ port 9 ! sleeve4 ,9 ! top r[ ( diagrams x is se5 to come d[nw>ds & also to move ov] to ! left1 :il/ 9 ! l[] set x rises--be>+ /ill to ! left--until1 aft] ,fig4 #aj1 x goes high] up = ! compression & explosion /rokes1 dur+ :i* x be>s ov] to ! "r & comes d[n aga9 ready to comm5ce once m ! cycle1 z 9 ,fig4 #a4 ,! o!r ports 9 ! cyl9d] wall are ! same z ^? %[n1 & ! o!r ports 9 ! sleeve are ak9 9 %ape to half ( ! dott$ port1 b !y are )\t ! little tongue cut 9 ! base ( ?is d\ble purpose port4 ,?is little tongue 9 ! duplicat$ port is design$ to give z mu* lead to ! exhau/ op5+ z possible1 )\t int]f]+ ) ! correct tim+ ( ! inlet port4 ,! way 9 :i* x j misses int]f]+ ) ! clos+ ( ! inlet port is se5 9 ,fig4 #aj4 ,we are indebt$ to 8,! ,motor0 = ^! cuts4 7#ec7 ,/urtevant ,a]onautical ,motor4 ,! cyl9d]s ( ! ,/urtevant a]onautical motor are ( ! 8,l0 type & are ca/ sep>ately ) ! cyl9d] b>rel & wat] jacket 9 "o integral ca/+4 ,a special iron is us$ = ^! ca/+s t has an ultimate t5sile /r5g? ( #dj1jjj p\nds p] squ>e in*4 ,! valves :i* are easily accessible ?r\gh valve cov]s1 are op]at$ directly f ! cam %aft )\t valve rock]s4 ,a holl[ cam %aft is us$ ) integral cams to insure a maximum ( /r5g? ) a m9imum ( weight1 & be>+s are plac$ betwe5 ea* set ( cams4 ,a bronze ge> fitt$ on ! cam %aft me%es ) a ge> on ! crank %aft )\t int]m$iate idl]s4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #da4 ,six ,cyl9d] ,/urtevant ,a]o ,motor4 ,l ! cam %aft1 ! crank is bor$ out f end to end ) a propell] flange appli$ on a tap] at "o end ( ! %aft4 ,a be>+ is provid$ betwe5 ea* ?r[ ) an additional ?ru/ be>+ at ! =w>d end ( ! %aft :i* may be arrang$ to take ei!r ! ?ru/ or ! pull ( ! propell]4 ,lubricat+ oil is appli$ to all ! be>+s "u a pressure ( tw5ty p\nds p] squ>e in*1 ?is pressure be+ ma9ta9$ by a ge> pump atta*$ directly to ! end ( ! cam %aft4 ,! oil is transf]r$ f ! pump to ! be>+s ?r\gh passages ca/ 9 ! base1 no pip+ be+ us$4 ,oil ent]s ! holl[ crank %aft at ! ma9 be>+s & is conduct$ ?r\gh ! arms to ! connect+ rod be>+s4 ,! oil fly+ f ! crank %aft falls into ! oil sump at ! bottom ( ! case :]e x is cool$ be=e be+ us$ aga94 ,a second ge> pump 9 t&em ) ! fir/ takes ! oil f ! sump & =ces x ?r\gh a filt] into ! tank4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dc4 ,crank ,%aft ( ,/urtevant ,motor4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #db4 ,crank ,case ( ,/urtevant ,motor4 ,?is sy/em enables ! use ( a m effici5t filt] ?an ) ! suction type & elim9ates any dang] ( its becom+ clogg$ & /opp+ ! oil supply1 s9ce1 9 ! ev5t ( su* an occurr5ce ! pump w\ld furni% suffici5t pressure to bur/ ! filt]4 ,h[ev]1 ! filt] is p>ticul>ly accessible & may be in/antly remov$ = clean+ )\t di/urb+ ! oil4 ,! tank regul>ly fitt$ to ! motor holds suffici5t oil = ?ree h\rs' use4 ,if ! eng9e is requir$ to op]ate = a long] "t )\t opportunity = repl5i%+ ! oil supply1 a l>g] tank c be us$4 ,z no oil is all[$ to accumulate 9 ! base ) ?is sy/em ( lubrication1 ! motor c be op]at$ cont9u\sly at an angle4 ,wat] circulation is ma9ta9$ by a c5trifugal pump ( l>ge capacity1 ! impell] ( :i* is m\nt$ directly on an ext5sion ( ! crank %aft1 elim9at+ ! usual be>+s & its grease cup4 ,! ignition is provid$ by a high-t5sion ,mea magneto1 its special con/ruction p]mitt+ ! motor to be />t$ "u a ret>d$ sp>k avoid+ ! dang] ( back kick f ! propell]4 ,! cyl9d] & all expos$ p>ts are r5d]$ absolutely wea!r-pro( by means ( a heavy coat ( nickel plat+4 7#ed7 ,! ,rotat+ ,cyl9d] ,motor4 ,:ile x is ! common belief t ! rot>y cyl9d] gasol9e motor is ( ,fr5* orig9 x may safely be said t ?is type ( motor 0 9 actual use 9 ,am]ica = sev]al ye>s be=e x ev5 rea*$ ! exp]im5tal /age 9 ,europe4 ,! ,adams-,f>well ,company ( ,dubuque1 ,i[a1 7 driv+ automobiles successfully ) a rot>y cyl9d] motor be=e ,orville ,wright flew at ,=t ,mey]1 ,va4 ,al?\gh ! orig9al ,f>well motor m ?an prov$ its "r to exi/5ce by fai?ful s]vice "u ! mo/ exact+ conditions1 ! motor nev] receiv$ ! consid]ation t x des]v$1 probably because ( its great div]g5ce f :at is kn[n z 8accept$ practice40 ,9 ,europe no su* prejudice exi/$1 & consequ5tly ! type made rapid /rides1 al?\gh1 to ! writ]'s belief1 ! ,european model is inf]ior 9 _m ways to ! orig9al ,am]ican type4 ,! fact t ?is type ( motor holds practically all ( ! _w's aviation records speaks = its practicability 9 spite ( its unusual con/ruction4 ,) ! rot>y motor1 ! cyl9d]s & crank case revolve ab\t a /ation>y crank %aft1 ! latt] "p n only s]v+ z a po9t ( reaction ( ! cyl9d]s b z a support & intake pipe z well4 ,s9ce ! crank ?r[ rema9s /ation>y1 ! cyl9d]s & pi/ons revolve ab\t two diff]5t c5t]s1 ! cyl9d]s revolv+ ab\t ! crank case & ! pi/ons & connect+ rods ab\t ! crank p94 ,s9ce ! pi/ons1 cyl9d]s1 & connect+ rods mu/ necess>ily revolve toge!r1 z "o unit1 !re is absolutely no reciprocat+ motion 9 reg>d to ! crank %aft except = a v slight movem5t due to ! diff]5ce 9 angul>ity ( ! connect+ rods4 ,! motion ( all ! p>ts is /rictly rot>y 9 e s5se1 except = ! relation ( ! pi/ons to ! cyl9d]s1 & ! motion is z cont9u\s z 9 a turb9e4 ,?is insures fre$om f vibration4 ,z ! cyl9d]s & crank case h consid]able in]tia !re is no ne$ ( ! add$ weight ( a fly-:eel4 ,! movem5t ( ! pi/on 9 ! cyl9d] bore is br\ght ab\t by ! diff]5ce 9 ! c5t]s ab\t :i* ^! p>ts revolve4 ,?is gives cyl9d] displacem5t )\t ! rev]sal ( /resses or %ock or j>4 ,because ( ! revolv+ cyl9d]s1 ! mixture is suppli$ to ! crank case ?r\gh a holl[ %aft1 ! gas be+ drawn into ! cyl9d] on ! suction /roke ?r\gh an inlet valve plac$ 9 ! head ( ! pi/on4 ,z a rule1 ! exhau/ is direct to ! air ?r\gh ! exhau/ valves & )\t manifolds or muffl]s4 ,! motion ( ! cyl9d]s ?r\gh ! air multiplies ! effici5cy ( ! radiat+ ,f9s4 7#ee7 ,! ,gyro ,rot>y ,motor4 ,9 ! ,gyro motor1 made by ! ,gyro ,motor ,company ( ,wa%+ton1 ,d4 ,c41 are embodi$ all ( ! pr9ciples ( ! typical revolv+ motor1 b ) ext5sive improvem5ts 9 ! design & 9 ! details4 ,x weighs #c p\nds p] horse-p[]1 complete4 ,?is light weight is due to ! design ( ! motor & to ! use ( alloy /eels1 & is atta9$ )\t sacrific+ /r5g? or durability4 ,ea* cyl9d] is ma*9$ out ( a heavy #c p] c5t tubul> nickle /eel =g+ t weighs ne>ly #dj p\nds4 ,aft] ! metal is remov$ & ! cyl9d] work$ d[n to size1 ! %ell weighs b #f p\nds4 ,! radiat+ ribs on ! outside ( ! cyl9d] are ma*9$ out ( ! solid b>1 & are arrang$ 9 helicoid or screw-l =mation ar\nd ! cyl9d] b>rel4 ,?is adds to ! /r5g? ( ! cyl9d] & also aids 9 ! circulation ( ! air4 ,! comp>ative ?ickness ( ! cyl9d] wall may be se5 f ,fig4 #dd4 ,! /iff5+ effect ( ! radiat+ ribs w also be not$4 ,! crank case to :i* ! cyl9d]s are fa/5$ is ( vanadium /eel1 & is divid$ into two p>ts4 ,9 addition to support+ ! cyl9d]s1 ! crank case also s]ves z a mix+ *amb] = ! gasol9e & air4 ,by remov+ ! bolts se5 betwe5 ea* cyl9d]1 ! entire work+ me*anism c be laid b>e = inspection4 ,! ext]ior ( ! case c>ries ! exhau/ valve me*anism & ! ignition di/ribut]4 ,! crank %aft is a nickel /eel =g+ ) an ela/ic limit ( #aaj1jjj p\nds4 ,x is bor$ holl[ ?r\gh\t its l5g? & s]ves z an intake manifold by convey+ ! mixture f ! c>buret]1 atta*$ to its out] end1 to ! crank case4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #de4 ,section ,?r\gh ,rot>y ,gyro ,motor4 ,! intake valves 9 ! heads ( ! pi/on are me*anically op]at$ by a specially pat5t$ movem5t :i* consi/s ( two p>ts1 a c\nt]-balanc+ memb]1 & an op]at+ memb]4 ,! c\nt] balance balances ! valve aga9/ ! di/urb+ influ5ce ( ! c5trifugal =ce1 :ile ! op]at+ memb]1 :i* is fa/5$ to ! connect+ rod1 controls ! op5+ or clos+ ( ! valve by ! angul> position ( ! connect+ rod4 ,?is valve action insures a full op5+ ( ! valve & a full *>ge dur+ practically all ( ! suction /roke4 ,!re are two sep>ate pa?s provid$ = ! exhau/ gases1 "o be+ ?r\gh ! auxili>y exhau/ ports at ! end ( ! /roke1 & ! o!r pa? ?r\gh ! exhau/ valve locat$ 9 ! cyl9d] head4 ,! auxili>y ports may be se5 9 ! cross-section directly bel[ ! pi/on head 9 cyl9d]s #d & #e4 ,! auxili>y ports are uncov]$ by ! pi/on at ! inn] end ( ! work+ /roke1 & x is at ?is po9t t ! great] p]c5tage ( ! exhau/ leaves ! cyl9d]4 ,^! ports or holes are =m$ on a project+ annul> r+ 9 :i* en\gh mat]ial is provid$ to make up = ! /r5g? lo/ by bor+ ! ports4 ,z ^! ports are1 9 ! majority ( cases1 bor$ at an acute angle ) ! c5t] l9e ( ! cyl9d]1 x is impossible = ! cyl9d] oil to escape4 ,all exhau/ valves are op]at$ by lev]s & pu% rods connect$ to a cam me*anism on ! outside ( ! crank case4 ,a s+le cam r+ op]ates all ( ! valves except :]e a /ep-by-/ep compression is desir$4 ,! exhau/ me*anism is provid$ ) a simple device by :i* ! clos+ ( ! exhau/ valve may be delay$ ?r\gh any portion ( ! exhau/ /roke1 ?us r$uc+ ! compression & add+ to ! facility ( crank+4 ,! motor is />t$ ) ! compression entirely releas$ 9 :i* condition x c be spun ab\t its %aft ) ease4 ,aft] giv+ ! motor its initial sp91 ! compression & sp>k are ?r[n 9 & ! eng9e beg9s its normal op]ation4 ,! compression release lev] may be us$ = />t+ or sl[ runn+ & 9 cutt+ (f ! p[] reg>dless ( ! ignition advance or ret>d4 ,"o connect+ rod1 call$ ! 8ma/]0 rod1 is an integral "p ( ! spid] t conta9s ! ball be>+s ( ! crank p91 ?us controll+ ! angul> relation betwe5 ! connect+ rods & cyl9d]s4 ,! rema9+ six rods are1 ( c\rse1 articulat$ on ! spid] by p9s s t ! rods may move 9 reg>d to ! spid] :5 9 diff]5t p>ts ( ! /roke4 ,! %ell ( ! pi/ons is ( a f9e grade ( iron1 v ?9 & ela/ic1 s t x may con=m readily to ! outl9e ( ! cyl9d] bore4 ,! head ( ! pi/on consi/s pr9cipally ( ! intake valve cage1 ! cage c>ry+ ! pi/on p9 z well z ! valve4 ,oil is suppli$ by a positive pump t measures ! lubricant 9 exact proportion to ! load on ! eng9e4 ,bo? ! oil & ! gasol9e mixture ent] ! crank case ?r\gh ! holl[ crank %aft & m+le 9 ! =m ( a vapor4 ,?is oil mi/ rea*es e mov+ "p & results 9 p]fect lubrication4 ,! pi/ons are provid$ ) oil %ields :i* c>ry ! oil directly to ! cyl9d] walls & prev5t ! loss ( oil ?r\gh ! exhau/ valve4 ,ignition is p]=m$ by a high t5sion magneto ?r\gh a di/ribut] :i* directs ! curr5t to ! prop] cyl9d]4 ,z 9 all rot>y eng9es1 ! ,gyro has an unev5 numb] ( cyl9d]s 7#c1 #e1 & #g7 9 ord] t ! cyl9d]s receive fir+ impulses ?r\gh equal angles ( rotation4 ,an ev5 di/ribution ( fir+ is impossible ) an ev5 numb] ( cyl9d]s1 z two adjac5t cyl9d]s out ( six alt]nately fire toge!r & !n #ahj ap>t4 ,?is produces a v j]ky turn+ movem5t1 & is productive ( mu* vibration4 ,9 ! sev5 cyl9d] motor ! magneto is driv5 by ge>s hav+ a ratio ( #d to #g1 & ! high t5sion curr5t is di/ribut$ to ! cyl9d]s by #g bru%es1 ! leads f ! bru%es be+ tak5 direct to ! sp>k plugs4 7#ef7 ,gnome ,rot>y ,motor4 ,! ,gnome 0 ! fir/ rot>y aviation motor built 9 ,europe & is /ill "o ( ! mo/ capable flight motors abroad z its _m victories & records prove4 ,x is built 9 f\r sizes1 #ej1 #gj1 #ajj1 & #adj horse-p[]1 ! #ej & #gj horse-p[] motors hav+ #g cyl9d]s1 & ! #ajj & #adj horsep[]1 hav+ #ad cyl9d]s1 :i* consi/ ( two r[s ( #g cyl9d]s p] r[4 ,! cyl9d]s ( all sizes rotate ab\t a /ation>y crank %aft :ile ! pi/ons rotate 9 a circle1 ! c5t] ( :i* is ! crank p94 ,vibration is practically elim9at$ at high spe$ z ! pi/ons d n reciprocate 9 ! ord9>y s5se ( ! ^w1 b simply revolve 9 a circle1 ! reciprocat+ relation betwe5 ! cyl9d]s & pi/ons be+ obta9$ by ! diff]5ce 9 ! c5t]s ( ! two revolv+ sy/ems4 ,! cool+ effect ( ! radiat+ ribs is greatly increas$ by ! air circulation set up by ! rotation ( ! cyl9d]s4 ,?is me?od ( cool+ introduces a great loss ( p[] due to ! bl[] action ( ! cool+ ribs1 ?is loss (t5 am\nt+ to #ae p] c5t ( ! output ( ! eng9e4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ej4 ,cross-,section ,?r\gh ! ,sev5 ,cyl9d] ,rot>y ,gnome ,motor1 ,%[+ ! ,crank ,%aft ,arrangem5t & ,valves4 ,! crank %aft is /ation>y & acts z a support = ! eng9e1 "o end be+ fa/5$ into a support+ spid] :i* =ms a "p ( ! a]oplane frame4 ,! crank %aft is holl[ & also s]ves to conduct ! mixture f ! c>buretor fa/5$ at its out] end to ! crank-case ( ! motor4 ,only "o crank ?r[ is provid$ on ! sev5 cyl9d] eng9e z ! cyl9d]s are all arrang$ 9 "o plane :i* passes ?r\gh ! c5t] ( ! crank ?r[4 ,9 ! f\rte5 cyl9d] eng9e :]e ! cyl9d]s are 9 two r[s1 !re are two crank ?r[s1 "o = ea* r[ ( cyl9d]s4 ,! sev5 cyl9d]s are arrang$ radially1 z w be se5 9 ,fig4 #ej1 ea* be+ spac$ at an equal di/ance f ! crank %aft & at equal angles ) "o ano!r1 ! arrangem5t 9 g5]al be+ simil> to t ( ! 8,gyro0 motor %[n 9 ! prec$+ section4 ,all cyl9d]s are turn$ out ( solid =g$ /eel b>s1 ! cyl9d] walls be+ only #a4b millimet]s ?ick aft] ! ma*9+ op]ation4 ,?is results 9 ! /ronge/ & lighte/ cyl9d] possible to build1 z all sup]flu\s mat]ial is remov$ & ! *ances ( defects 9 ! mat]ial are r$uc$ to a m9imum z ! "* ( ! metal is reveal$ by ! ext5d$ ma*9+ op]ations4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ea4 ,fir+ ,diagram ( ,sev5 ,cyl9d] ,rot>y ,motor4 ,on ,/>t+ at ,cyl9d] ,no4 #a1 & ,foll[+ ! ,zig-,zag ,l9e 9 ! ,direction ( ! ,arr[s1 x ,w be ,se5 t ,ignition ,occurs at ,e o!r ,cyl9d] at ev5 ,int]vals ,?r\gh ,two ,revolutions1 ,end+ at ,cyl9d] ,no4 #a4 ,z ! motor op]ates on ! f\r /roke cycle sy/em1 an odd numb] ( cyl9d]s is *os5 9 ord] t ! fir+ may be c>ri$ out ?r\gh equal angles 9 ! revolution to obta9 a uni=m turn+ movem5t4 ,s9ce a f\r /roke motor mu/ complete two revolutions be=e all ( ! cyl9d]s h fir$1 or complet$ _! r\t9e ( ev5ts1 x is evid5t t ! numb] ( cyl9d]s mu/ be odd 9 ord] to br+ ! la/ cyl9d] into fir+ position 9 ! la/ revolution4 ,:5 sev5 cyl9d]s are us$1 ! cyl9d] are fir$ alt]nately z !y pass a giv5 fix$ po9t1 t is1 "o cyl9d] is fir$1 ! next skipp$1 ! ?ird fir$1 & ! f\r? skipp$1 & s on ar\nd ! circle1 s t ! fir+ ord] 9 t]ms ( ! cyl9d] numb]s is #a1 #c1 #e1 #g1 #b1 #d1 #f4 ,! cyl9d]s fir$ 9 ! fir/ revolution 9 ord] are #a1 #c1 #e1 #g1 & 9 ! second revolution1 #g1 #b1 #d1 #f1 ! cyl9d] #g be+ common to bo? revolutions4 ,! cyl9d]s are numb]$ accord+ to _! position on ! eng9e1 & ,,n accord+ to ! fir+ sequ5ce4 ,see ,fig4 #ea4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #eb4 ,fir+ ,diagram ( ,six ,cyl9d] ,rot>y ,motor4 ,on ,foll[+ ! ,zig-,zag ,l9e x ,w be ,se5 t ,all ( ! ,cyl9d]s ,are ,n ,fir$ at ,equal ,int]vals4 ,9 ,"s ,cases ,two ,adjac5t ,cyl9d]s ,fire 9 ,sequ5ce1 & 9 ,o!rs ,two or ,?ree ,spaces are ,jump$4 ,) a six cyl9d] eng9e x is possible to fire ! cyl9d]s 9 two ways1 ! fir/ be+ 9 direct rotation2 #a1 #b1 #c1 #d1 #e1 #f ?us obta9+1 six impulses 9 ! fir/ revolution1 & none 9 ! second4 ,! second me?od is to fire !m alt]nately1 #a1 #c1 #e1 #b1 #d1 #f1 9 :i* case ! eng9e w h turn$ ?r\gh equal angles betwe5 impulses #a & #c1 & #c & #e1 b ?r\gh a great] angle betwe5 #e & #b1 & ev5 aga9 betwe5 #b & #d1 & #d & #f4 ,see ,fig4 #eb4 ,mixture is drawn into ! cyl9d] by ! suction ( ! pi/on ?r\gh an inlet valve 9 ! pi/on head1 9 practically ! same way z 9 ! 8,gyro0 motor1 b unlike ! latt] motor1 ! valve is lift$ by ! suction 7automatic valve7 & n by ! me*anical actuation ( ! connect+ rod4 ,! inlet valve is balanc$ aga9/ ! effects ( c5trifugal =ce by a small c\nt]-weight 9 ! pi/on head1 & ! valve is held normally on its seat by a flat spr+ act+ on ! valve /em4 ,! gases are br\ght into ! crank case f ! c>buretor ?r\gh ! holl[ crank-%aft z describ$ else:]e4 ,see ,fig4 #ec4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ec4 ,longitud9al ,section ,?r\gh ,gnome ,rot>y ,motor4 ,all exhau/ valves are locat$ 9 ! cyl9d] head & are actuat$ by long pu% rods t are mov$ by individual cams 9 an ext5sion ( ! crank case4 ,! exhau/ valves are c\nt]-balanc$ aga9/ c5trifugal =ce & are reta9$ on _! seats by a flat spr+4 ,! c\nt] weights d n entirely ov]come ! effects ( ! c5trifugal =ce b all[ a slight excess to exi/ :i* w p]mit ! eng9e to run ) a brok5 spr+4 ,all ( ! exhau/ gases escape directly to ! atmosph]e )\t pip+ or muffl]s4 ,ow+ to ! fact t ! advanc+ or lead+ face ( ! cyl9d] is cool] ?an ! trail+ face1 ! cyl9d] bore is ?r[n out ( l9e by ! diff]5ce 9 expansion betwe5 ! two sides4 ,because ( ?is di/ortion ( ! bore1 a special =m ( pi/on r+ is us$1 :i*1 by its flexibility1 adapts itself to v>iations 9 ! bore4 ,^! r+s are ( brass & are %ap$ l ! pump lea!rs ( a wat] pump s t ! pressure ( ! explosion act+ on ! inside ( ! r+ t5ds to =ce ! ?9 %ell aga9/ ! cyl9d]4 ,9 spite ( ?is precaution1 ! compression pressure is v l[ at ! be/1 9 ! mo/ ( cases n ov] #de p\nds p] squ>e in*4 ,! exhau/ valve screws into ! end ( ! cyl9d] & may be remov$1 complete ) its seat1 = ! frequ5t regr9d+ necess>y to effici5t op]ation4 ,aft] ! cyl9d]s are gr\nd ) ! greate/ c>e & accuracy1 ! f9i%+ is c>ri$ /ill fur!r by we>+-9 ! cyl9d] ) an actual pi/on c>ry+ an 8obturateur0 or pi/on r+4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ed4 ,gnome ,motor on ,te/+ ,/&4 ,f ,sci5tific ,am]ican4 ,! bu%+ into :i* ! sp>k plug screws is n integral ) ! cyl9d] z 9 a ca/ con/ruction1 b is weld$ into ! side ( ! cyl9d] head by means ( ! autog5\s process4 ,x is also evid5t t ?is con/ruction enables ! inlet valves to be easily remov$1 s9ce ^! screw into ! pi/on head4 ,bo? inlet & exhau/ valves 9 ! ,gnome eng9e are remov$ ) ! greate/ ease1 special socket wr5*es be+ suppli$ = ! purpose4 ,! ca/or oil1 :i* is us$ z a lubricant1 & ! gasol9e1 are f$ by a positive act+ pi/on pump to ! holl[ crank %aft4 ,! lubricant & fuel !n pass ?r\gh ! automatic inlet valve 9 ! head ( ! cyl9d]4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ee4 ,gnome ,motor ,runn+ ,on ,te/ ,/&4 ,f ,sci5tific ,am]ican4 ,! sp>k produc$ by ! high t5sion magneto is l$ to ! prop] cyl9d] ?r\gh a bru% t presses on a revolv+ r+ ( insulat+ mat]ial 9 :i* is imb$d$ #g metallic segm5ts1 "o ( ! segm5ts be+ connect$ to a correspond+ cyl9d]4 ,z ! di/ributor r+ revolves ! segm5ts come into contact ) ! bru% 9 ! prop] ord]4 ,! magneto is /ation>y & is support$ by a bracket 9 an inv]t$ position4 ,a p9ion on ! magneto %aft me%es ) a l>ge ge> m\nt$ on ! revolv+ crank case s t ! armature ( ! magneto always be>s a positive relation to ! pi/on position4 ,z ! eng9e requires sev5 sp>ks = e two revolutions1 or #c sp>ks p] revolution x is evid5t t ! magneto mu/ turn #a4ge times z fa/ z ! eng9e1 if ! magneto is ( ! ord9>y type t g5]ates two sp>ks p] revolution4 ,9 o!r words ! magneto spe$ is to ! eng9e spe$ z #g is to #d4 ,illu/ration3 ,! 8,indian0 ,rot>y ,a]o ,motor4 ,! arrangem5t ( connect+ rods is int]e/+1 ! big end ( "o rod be+ =m$ into a cage = ! reception ( ! crank-p9 ball race4 ,! out] circumf]5ce ( ! cage c>ries ! p9s to :i* ! o!r six connect+ rods are fa/5$4 ,x is necess>y t "o rod be integral ) ! cage to prev5t its rotation 9 reg>d to ! cyl9d]s4 ,annul> ball be>+s are us$ on bo? ! ma9 be>+s1 = ! ?ru/ be>+ to take ! ?ru/ ( ! propell]1 & on ! l>ge end ( ! ma/] connect+ rod4 ,! l>ge ends ( ! auxili>y connect+ rods & ! small ends ( all ! rods h pla9 be>+s4 ,,*apt] ,,vi ,,two ,,/roke ,,cycle ,,eng9es 7#cj7 ,! ,junk] ,two ,/roke ,cycle ,eng9e4 ,! ,junk] two /roke cycle eng9e /&s unique among ! l>ge /ation>y units n only 9 ! pr9ciple ( its work+ cycle b 9 its con/ruction z well1 & :ile x may be consid]$ freaki% :5 comp>$ to /&>d practice x has prov$ its value 9 _m ,european in/allations4 ,! combu/ion occurs 9 ! c5t] ( an op5 end$ cyl9d] betwe5 two pi/ons t are =c$ 9 opposite directions by ! expansion ( ! gas1 & z !re is a s+le act+ pi/on 9 ea* end ( ! cyl9d] at ! end ( ! /roke1 !re is no ne$ ( /uff+ boxes1 cyl9d] heads or valves4 ,x is app>5t t by mov+ ! pi/ons 9 opposite directions1 ! effective pi/on velocity is twice t ( ! actual velocity ( ei!r ( ! pi/ons1 & t x is !re=e possible to ga9 a high heat effici5cy at high pi/on velocities ) a l[ rate ( rotation4 ,! d\ble pi/ons increase ! scav5g+ effects1 r$uce ! losses to ! cool+ wat] & increase ! effici5cy at light loads4 ,a m>k$ r$uction 9 weight ov] ! f\r /roke cycle eng9e is made possible because ( ! abs5ce ( valves & valve ge>4 ,?is eng9e is ( ! inject$ fuel type t is ! fuel is spray$ into ! combu/ion *amb] aft] ! completion ( ! compression /roke 9 a mann] simil> to ! ,diesel eng9e4 ,by prolong+ ! injection ( fuel aft] ! pi/on has />t$ on ! outw>d work+ /roke x is possible to ma9ta9 ! maximum pressure due to ! combu/ion = a consid]able p]iod4 ,?is gives an indicator c>d t is v simil> to t ( a /eam eng9e z ! flat top ( ! ,junk]'s c>d due to ! cont9u$ combu/ion & pressure corresponds to ! admission l9e ( ! /eam eng9e4 ,z ignition is caus$ by ! high temp]ature ( ! compression1 almo/ any l[ grade oil may be us$ ev5 d[n asphaltum oils & coal t>4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #h4 ,! ,junk] ,two ,/roke ,cycle ,eng9e4 ,9 ,fig4 #h five pi/on positions correspond+ to five ev5ts are %[n by ! diagrams a1 b1 c1 d1 e4 ,f ! diagrams "o may also get an idea ( ! arrangem5t ( ! pr9cipal p>ts ( ! eng9e & _! relation to "o ano!r4 ,p & ,p#b are ! two pi/ons1 ,c ! op5 end$ cyl9d]1 ,g ! connect+ rod ( ! inn] pi/on ,p1 ,h-,h ! two connect+ rods ( ! pi/on ,p#b1 ,i-,i ! side rods ( ! pi/on ,p#b1 & ,v is ! ?ree ?r[ crank %aft :i* is act$ on by ! ?ree connect+ rods ,h-,h-,g4 ,! pi/on ,p#b is connect$ to ! side rods ?r\gh ! yoke ,y4 ,x w be not$ t ! crank ?r[s controll+ ! pi/on ,p#b are #ahj f ! crank connect$ to pi/on ,p1 :i* causes ! pi/ons to move 9 opposite directions4 ,) ! pi/ons toge!r at ! inn] dead c5t]1 ! space betwe5 !m is fill$ ) highly compress$ air f ! previ\s combu/ion /roke4 ,at ?is po9t ! fuel is inject$ into ! highly heat$ air1 & ! expansion ( ! *>ge beg9s1 ! combu/ion proce$+ "u con/ant pressure dur+ ! fir/ "p ( ! /roke1 or dur+ t "p ( ! /roke 9 :i* ! fuel is admitt$ to ! cyl9d]4 ,:5 ! supply ( fuel is cut (f ! work+ /roke cont9ues by ! increase ( volume1 or expansion ( ! gas1 ! gases be+ r$uc$ to ne>ly atmosph]ic pressure at ! end ( ! /roke ) ! pi/ons at ! position %[n by diagram 7b74 ,at ?is po9t ! pi/on ,p is j op5+ ! edge ( ! exhau/ port ,m1 all[+ ! products ( combu/ion to escape to ! atmosph]e ?r\gh ! annul> exhau/ passage t surr\nds ! port ,m4 ,z ! pi/ons cont9ue to move outw>ds ! gases cont9ue to issue f ! exhau/ port at practically atmosph]ic pressure until ! position %[n by diagram 7c7 is rea*$ by pi/on ,p#b4 ,at ?is po9t ,p#b is j op5+ ! inlet port ,n all[+ fre% air to ent] ! cyl9d] = ! purpose ( scav5g+ ! eng9e4 ,! passage ( ! air ?r\gh ! intake port ,n & out ?r\gh ! exhau/ port ,m cont9ues until ! pi/ons pass ! out] dead c5t]1 %[n by diagram 7d71 & beg9 to come back on ! return /roke4 ,9 diagram 7e7 ! pi/ons h travel$ f> en\gh to close bo? ports1 & z ! space betwe5 !m is fill$ ) pure air f t furni%$ by ! port ,n1 ! pi/ons w cont9ue to move t[>d "o ano!r on ! compression /roke4 ,:5 !y h rea*$ ! end ( _! travel z %[n by diagram ,a1 ! fuel is inject$ into ! cyl9d] & combu/ion occurs due to ! temp]ature ( ! high compression temp]ature4 ,?is is ! complete cycle ( ev5ts made 9 two /rokes1 & x w be not$ t ! cycle has be5 accompli%$ )\t ! use ( valves4 ,! compress$ air = scav5g+ ! cyl9d] is provid$ by air pumps t are driv5 f ! connect+ rods by a l9k motion4 ,"o l[ pressure pump = ! scav5g+ & "o high pressure pump = spray+ ! fuel into ! cyl9d] aga9/ compression are provid$4 ,z ! inside ( ! pi/on is always expos$ to ! atmosph]e ?r\gh ! op5 ends ( ! cyl9d] & is nev] expos$ to ! heat ( combu/ion1 p]fect cool+ is secur$1 & z a matt] ( c\rse1 p]fect lubrication4 ,9 ! two cyl9d] eng9e 9 :i* f\r pi/ons are us$1 ! cyl9d]s are arrang$ 9 t&em ) ! two adjac5t pi/ons1 & ! two out] pi/ons connect$ respectively4 ,9 fact ! second cyl9d] pi/ons are duplicates ( ^? j %[n & are connect$ to ! l9kage 9 su* a mann] z to h ! correspond+ pi/ons 9 "o cyl9d] act ) ! correspond+ pi/ons 9 ! second4 7#cd7 ,ko]t+ ,two ,/roke ,cycle ,eng9e4 ,"o ( ! mo/ prom95t ( ! two /roke cycle scav5g+ eng9es built = heavy /ation>y s]vice is ! ,ko]t+ eng9e4 ,because ( its peculi> scav5g+ arrangem5t1 & z x is ( ! d\ble act+ type1 x w s]ve to illu/rate ! cycle ( t class ( eng9e equipp$ ) indep5d5t air pumps4 ,sev]al ( ^! eng9es are 9 use 9 ,europe t h an output ( ov] #d1jjj horse-p[]1 ! g5]al arrangem5t ( :i* is ! same z %[n 9 ! accompany+ diagram ,fig4 ,f-#aa4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 ,f-#aa4 ,ko]t+ ,two ,/roke ,cycle ,eng9e ) ,scav5g+ & ,*>g+ ,cyl9d]s4 ,s9ce ! eng9e is d\ble act+1 two simil> combu/ion *amb]s are provid$ at ea* end ( ! pi/on z %[n by ,c & ,c#a1 & z ea* ( ! *amb]s gives "o impulse p] revolution because ( ! two /roke cycle1 ! s+le cyl9d] %[n 9 ! figure deliv]s two impulses p] revolution to ! crank-%aft4 ,9 ord] to h "o exhau/ port s]ve = bo? combu/ion *amb]s1 ! annul> port ,e is plac$ 9 ! c5t] ( ! cyl9d] s t x is alt]nately op5$ to ,c & !n ,c#a z ! pi/on travels to & fro1 ! port be+ cov]$ by ! pi/on at int]m$iate po9ts 9 its travel4 ,z ! pi/on mu/ cov] ! port = a consid]able portion ( ! /roke1 x is made v long1 ne>ly z long z ! /roke4 ,! pi/on rod ,r t connects ! pi/on ) ! crank passes ?r\gh ! cyl9d] head ( *amb] ,c#a1 surr\nd$ by a gas tight pack+ t prev5ts ! leakage ( ! *>ge f ,c#a4 ,unlike ! ord9>y type ( two /roke cycle eng9e1 ! two combu/ion *amb]s are provid$ ) me*anically op]at$ inlet valves1 ,v-,v#a-,v#b-,v#c t are op5$ at def9ite po9ts 9 ! /roke by ! lay %aft ,x :i* is driv5 f ! crank %aft4 ,z ! exhau/ port ,e s]ves all ( ! functions ( an exhau/ valve1 !re are no valves provid$ at ?is po9t4 ,exhau/ pipes connect$ to ,e c>ry ! burnt gases to ! atmosph]e4 ,two auxili>y air pumps ( ! d\ble act+ type are provid$1 %[n at ,a & ,a#b1 "o pump+ gas & ! o!r air4 ,!y are driv5 f ! crank-%aft ?r\gh ! connect+ rod ,y1 & are proportion$ s t toge!r !y =ce a mixture ( ! correct proportion = complete combu/ion into ! work+ cyl9d] at a pressure ( ab\t t5 p\nds p] squ>e in*4 ,air & gas are compress$ on "o side ( ea* pump pi/on 9 ! spaces ,b & ,b#b1 & ! air & gas are drawn 9 on ! o!r side z at ,h & ,h#b4 ,! connections f ! compressor cyl9d]s to ! work+ cyl9d] are arrang$ s t ! two crank ends ( ! compressor cyl9d]s dis*>ge into ! crank end ( ! work+ cyl9d]1 & ! front ends ( ! compressors dis*>ge into ! front end ( ! work+ cyl9d]1 ! exact mom5t ( dis*>ge be+ controll$ by ! inlet valves ,v-,v#a-,v#b-,v#c4 ,! pumps are arrang$ s t only pure air is admitt$ at fir/ 9 ord] to =ce ! products ( combu/ion ?r\gh ! exhau/ port s t !y w n contam9ate ! foll[+ mixture ( air & gas4 ,! inlet valve op5s imm$iately aft] ! pi/on ( ! work+ cyl9d] uncov]s ! port ,e & r$uces ! pressure ( ! burnt gases to t ( ! atmosph]e4 ,by ! action ( ! admission control1 ! scav5g+ air fir/ admitt$1 is prev5t$ f mix+ ) ! residual gas f ! previ\s explosion1 & 9 ! same way ! device prev5ts ! loss ( fuel ?r\gh ! exhau/ ports1 ?us ov]com+ ! pr9cipal objections ( ! simple two /roke types describ$ e>li] 9 ?is *apt]4 ,! compressor cyl9d]s provide only en\gh air & mixture = "o /roke & no res]voir is provid$ = a surplus ( air or mixture4 ,z ! pi/on moves =w>d1 on ! compression /roke & cov]s ! exhau/ port1 ! inlet valves also close1 & ! compressor pi/ons arrive at ! end ( _! /roke s t no m air or mixture is deliv]$ to ! inlet valves4 ,at ! end ( ! compression /roke ignition occurs & ! expansion or work+ /roke beg9s4 ,! pi/on aga9 moves to ! "r on ! work+ /roke until ! front edge uncov]s ! port ,e :]e ! exhau/ gases escape to ! atmosph]e4 ,! valve ge> on ! gas compress+ cyl9d] is arrang$ s t no gas is deliv]$ to ! inlet valves ( ! work+ cyl9d] until ! air cyl9d] has provid$ suffici5t air to insure p]fect scav5g+ ( ! products ( combu/ion1 ?is prev5t+ ! fuel f becom+ contam9at$ ) ! burnt gas4 ,spe$ regulation = v>y+ loads is effect$ by %ift+ ! valve ge> ( ! gas pump s t ! gas is deliv]$ at an e>li] or lat] p]iod 9 ! /roke ( ! work+ pi/on1 ?us caus+ a v>iation 9 ! quantity ( gas deliv]$ to ! work+ cyl9d]4 ,?is is controll$ by ! gov]nor directly on ! valve ge> ( ! pump or ^u a by-pass 9 ! pump cyl9d] or bo?4 ,! by-pass1 :5 op5 returns all ( ! gas 9 ! passage lead+ to ! inlet valve1 t is beyond a c]ta9 pressure to ! cyl9d]1 s t ! gas is deliv]$ to ! cyl9d] at a con/ant pressure1 & !re=e 9 proportion to ! load & po9t ( cut (f4 ,?is me?od ( gov]n+ produces a mixture t v>ies 9 ri*ness ) ! diff]5t loads t are c>ri$ by ! eng9e1 b z ! air ent]s ! cyl9d] fir/ & is prev5t$ f mix+ to any ext5t ) ! gas by ! %ape ( ! cyl9d] heads1 ! ignit+ value ( ! mixture is n di/urb$ p>ticul>ly z ! ri* gas rema9s 9 ! cyl9d] heads & 9 contact ) ! ignit]s4 ,l all l>ge eng9es1 ! ,ko]t+ is />t$ by compress$ air tak5 f a res]voir4 ,a special />t+ valve is provid$ = ea* end ( ! cyl9d] :i* is op]at$ f ! cam %aft by means ( an ecc5tric4 ,! air valves may be ?r[n 9 or out ( ge> by a clut*4 7#eg7 ,two ,/roke ,cycle ,rail ,motor ,c>s4 ,a unique application ( ! two /roke cycle motor w be se5 9 ,fig4 #ef :i* %[s a ,fairbanks-,morse two /roke cycle motor direct connect$ to ! driv+ :eel ( a railway motor c>4 ,! ?ree cyl9d]s are m\nt$ betwe5 ! driv+ :eel ) ! ends ( ! axle t]m9at+ 9 ! crank cases ( ! motors4 ,access to ! be>+s is _h ?r\gh a cov] on ! crank-case4 ,! simplicity ( ?is motor & its fre$om f valves1 cams1 spr+s1 ge>s1 & o!r tr\ble caus+ p>ts makes x p>ticul>ly adapt$ = ! s]vice t x p]=ms 9 ! h&s ( unskill$ track labor]s4 ,z !re is no wat] to freeze or leak1 & z ! lubricant is mix$ ) gasol9e1 ! c> ne$s v little m att5tion ?an ! old type h& c>4 ,! c> is />t$ by op5+ ! gasol9e supply cock1 clos+ ! ignition swit*1 & pu%+ ! c> along ! track until ! fir/ explosion occurs4 ,! spe$ is controll$ 9 ! usual mann] by means ( ! sp>k advance & ?rottle4 ,z ! motor is ( ! two /roke cycle type1 x may be rev]s$ by simply *ang+ ! position ( ! tim] )\t ! use ( ! ge>s4 ,! spe$ is ! same 9 ei!r direction4 ,by ! use ( ?ree cyl9d]s1 ?ree impulses are obta9$ p] revolution :i* gives a di/ribution ( p[] equal to t ( ! ord9>y six cyl9d]1 f\r /roke cycle automobile motor4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ef4 ,two ,/roke ,cycle ,fairbanks ,motor = ,driv+ ,railway ,section ,c>s4 ,= l>g] c>s built = c>ry+ l>ge gangs ( m51 a ?ree cyl9d] motor is us$ :i* drives ?r\gh a clut* & ge>s1 simil> to t us$ on automobiles4 ,x is locat$ ne> ! c5t] ( ! axle & is support$ on a frame t is indep5d5t ( ! c> prop]4 ,?is motor unit is easily remov$ f ! c> = inspection ) all ( ! p>ts intact4 ,a univ]sal c\pl+ is provid$ on ! motor %aft to prev5t /ra9s due to *anges 9 ! alignm5t f be+ ?r[n into ! motor4 ,! motor ( ?is c> is />t$ ) a crank1 & may be left /&+ ) ! motor runn+4 ,z ) ! two cyl9d] c>1 ! eng9e is rev]sible1 & is lubricat$ by mix+ ! lubricat+ oil ) ! gasol9e4 7#eh7 ,rotat+ ,cyl9d] ,two ,/roke ,cycle ,motor4 ,an unusual type ( two /roke cycle eng9e is t design$ by ,m4 ,f>cot = a]onautic "w4 ,x is ( ! rotat+ cyl9d] type 9 :i* ! cyl9d]s rotate ab\t a /ation>y crank%aft1 & unlike all previ\s two /roke motors1 :e!r ( ! revolv+ or /ation>y cyl9d] type1 no initial compression is p]=m$ ei!r 9 ! crank-case or o!rwise4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fc4 ,f>cot ,rot>y ,two ,/roke ,motor4 ,und\bt$ly ! two-cycle rotat+ multi-cyl9d] eng9e has a future :5 "s ( ! p>ticul>ly difficult design+ problems involv$ 9 its production h be5 successfully tackl$4 ,crank case compression has _h its devotees1 b s f> x has entail$ ! use ( a l[ compression1 ow+ l>gely to ! difficulties involv$ 9 lubricat+ ! be>+s & ma9ta9+ gas-tight jo9ts1 besides o!r defects4 ,"s ( ^! b>ri]s appe> to h be5 surm\nt$ 9 ?is design4 ,fig4 #fc ( ! accompany+ draw+s is a sectional side elevation ( ! eng9e1 :i*1 x w be se51 is simil> 9 g5]al disposition to ! usual arrangem5t ( ! rotat+ cyl9d] type4 ,9 ?is p>ticul> case1 h[ev]1 ! %ort end ,a ( ! /ation>y crank%aft is r$uc$ 9 diamet] at ,b1 & on ?is "p are m\nt$ ball be>+s ,c c>ry+ ! circul> cas+ ( a rotat+ c5trifugal bl[] ,d4 ,to ! inn] end ( ! hub ( ?is bl[] is atta*$ a ge> :eel ,e1 ! tee? ( :i* me% ) small int]m$iate p9ions c>ri$ on a spid] ,f atta*$ to ! crank%aft4 ,^! p9ions are 9 turn driv5 by an int]nally too!d r+ ,g atta*$ to ! hub ( ! crank case ,h4 ,?us ! bl[] ,d is driv5 9 ! opposite direction to ! crank-case & at a high] spe$4 ,9 ! int]ior ( ! bl[] cas+ radial blades ,k are provid$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fd4 ,f>cot ,fan ,plates4 ,a holl[ annul> cas+ ,l is bolt$ to ! cyl9d]s1 & communicates ) _! int]iors by means ( inlet ports ,m cov]$ & uncov]$ by ! pi/ons4 ,! bl[] cas+ ,d has on ei!r side circumf]5tially flang$ r+s ,n1 :i* are a runn+ fit 9 circul> regi/] slots provid$ 9 ! annul> cas+ ,l & its cov] plate ,p1 9 ord] to provide a gas-tight jo9t betwe5 ! opposite revolv+ cas+s ,d & ,l4 ,fan blades ,q are also provid$ 9 ! cas+ ,l to accel]ate /ill fur!r ! incom+ gas4 ,! arrangem5t ( ! two sets ( blades is made cle> 9 ! sectional sket* 7,fig4 #fd74 ,x w be realiz$ t by means ( ?is comp\nd bl[] device a consid]able pressure c be atta9$4 ,! crank%aft is drill$ to provide a fe$ = ! gasol9e1 :i* is atomiz$ by a device ,r 9 ! l>ge c5tral op5+ ( ! bl[] cas+ ,d by means ( pressure f$ f ! annul> cas+ ,l ?r\gh suitable leads ,s4 ,z ea* pi/on ne>s ! bottom ( its /roke1 exhau/ ports ,t1 provid$ ) expansion cones = ! purpose ( increas+ ! velocity ( ! exhau/ gases1 are op5$4 ,! inlet port ,m is !n uncov]$1 & ! compress$ *>ge ru%es into ! combu/ion *amb]4 ,! g5]al design ( ! eng9e is made pla9 by ,fig4 #fc1 b !re is "o o!r po9t to :i* ref]5ce %\ld be made1 & t is ! provision ( r+s ,v1 "o on ei!r side ( ! cyl9d]s1 to enhance ! /r5g? ( ! con/ruction4 ,al?\gh ! difficulty ( compression appe>s to h be5 clev]ly tackl$ 9 ?is inv5tion1 ! possibility ( ! compress$ mixture 9 ! inlet cas+ & bl[] becom+ ignit$ at ! mom5t ( admission by a residue ( exhau/ gas 9 ! combu/ion *amb] /ill exi/s4 ,h[ev]1 ! effect ( su* a backfire %\ld n prove q s s]i\s z 9 "s designs4 ,ap>t f o!r consid]ations1 ow+ to ! l>ge area ( ! bl[] intake1 su* an occurr5ce %\ld m]ely h a m or less ela/ic brak+ effect4 7#fj7 ,gnome ,radial ,two ,/roke ,motor4 ,! build]s ( ! fam\s ,gnome f\r /roke cycle rot>y motor1 ,sequ9 ,frres1 h rec5tly develop$ a radial two /roke cycle motor t bids fair to supplant _! orig9al type4 ,ref]r+ to ! diagrammatic cross-sections :i* %[ only a s+le cyl9d] unit1 a v long tubul> pi/on w be se5 t is divid$ into two indep5d5t *amb]s1 ,a & ,b4 ,bo? *amb]s are plac$ 9 communication ) ! outside space1 ,c & ,d4 ,! upp] end ( ! pi/on is cont9u$ above ! top division head ( ! *amb] ,a1 & ! ext5sion is provid$ ) ! slot ,f4 ,ne> ! c5t] ( ! pi/on1 ! walls ( ! pi/on are run out into a flat circul> plate or trunk pi/on ,e1 :i* is ! actual pi/on head t receives ! =ce ( ! explosion4 ,! pi/on ,e reciprocates 9 ! l>ge cyl9d] ,h1 :i* is r$uc$ at its upp] end to ! diamet] ( ! ma9 pi/on b>rel1 = :i* x af=ds a slid+ support1 or guide1 & also s]ves to aid ! exhau/ port closure4 ,! l[] end ( ! cyl9d] ,h is enl>g$ 9 diamet] z %[n by ,k s t a cle> annul> space is left betwe5 ! cyl9d] walls & ! pi/on head ,e1 :5 ! latt] is at ! bottom ( ! /roke4 ,! cyl9d] diamet] is !n r$uc$ to ! diamet] ( ! ma9 pi/on b>rel4 ,! motor op]ates z foll[s3 ,suppose ! pi/on to be asc5d+ 7,fig4 #a71 compress+ ! mixture above ! pi/on head 9 ! cyl9d] ,e1 & at ! same "t ! volume ( ! space ,m1 bel[ ,e1 is be+ increas$ until ! pi/on rea*es ! position %[n 9 ,fig4 #b4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fe4 ,gnome ,rot>y ,two ,/roke ,motor ,diagram4 ,diagrams #a & #b4 ,ref]r+ to ,fig4 #a2 ! int]ior *amb] ,a ( ! pi/on is 9 direct communication ?r\gh ! holes ,c ) ! space ,m1 consequ5tly z ! pi/on goes up1 a p>tial vacuum w be =m$ 9 ^! two *amb]s4 ,:5 ! pi/on rea*es ! top ( its /roke z %[n 9 ,fig4 #b1 ! holes ,d 9 ! l[] end ,b ( ! pi/on are uncov]$ z !y rise into ! increas$ diamet] ( ! cyl9d]1 & !re=e ! mixture is suck$ 9 f ! crank case until ! *amb]s ,a & ,m are fill$ to atmosph]ic pressure4 ,! sp>k n[ occurs at ! plug ,s1 & ! explosion takes place1 driv+ ! pi/on d[nw>ds z %[n by ,fig4 #c1 j be=e ! exhau/ takes place4 ,! volume ( ! *amb] ,m has n[ be5 decreas$ ) ! result t ! mixture w h be5 compress$ into ! *amb] ,a4 ,9 ,fig4 #d1 ! pi/on has n[ rea*$ ! bottom ( ! /roke1 & ! ports ,f h op5$ z ! slots c>ry bel[ ! upp] end ( ! cyl9d] :]e ! bore is increas$4 ,at ! same "t1 z ! pi/on plate ,e passes ! bottom ( ! cyl9d] ,h into ! enl>g$ diamet] ,k1 ! compress$ mixture 9 ,a & ,m ru%es ?r\gh ! annul> space op5$ ar\nd ,e into ! combu/ion *amb] & drives out ! residual burn$ gases :i* /ill rema9 aft] ! explosion4 ,on />t+ ! second revolution ! pi/on rises & ! cycle repeats z %[n by ,fig4 #a4 ,illu/ration3 ,gnome ,rot>y1 ,diagrams #c & #d4 ,?is eng9e may be built ) any numb] ( ! cyl9d] units describ$1 pref]ably ) an unev5 numb]1 z 9 ! case ( ! ,gnome radial f\r /roke cycle1 & ) twice ! numb] ( impulses ( ! f\r /roke type a v uni=m turn+ movem5t %\ld be _h4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fd-;b4 ,rob]ts ,two ,/roke ,a]o ,motor ,us+ a ,rotat+ ,tubul> ,valve t ,controls ! ,mixture f ! ,c>buretor s t x ,ent]s ,only ,"o ,crank ,case at a ,"t4 ,?is ,gives ,ea* ,cyl9d] an ,equal ,*>ge ( ,gas4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fd-;c4 ,rob]ts ,di/ributor ,valve4 ,! ,ports ,are ,cut 9 ! ,valve s t ,only ,"o ,crank ,case is 9 ,communication ) ! ,c>buretor at ,any ,"o ,"t4 ,! ,c5tral ,hole ,connects ) ! ,c>buretor4 ,s9ce ! valves are ! p>ts t give ! mo/ tr\ble 9 ! f\r-/roke cycle ,gnome1 ?is motor %\ld be bett] adapt$ = aviation ?an ! orig9al type ( ,gnome4 7#fb7 ,v>iable ,spe$ ,two ,/roke ,motor4 ,a v>iable spe$ two /roke cycle motor is describ$ by ,c4 ,francis ,j5k9s 9 ! ,sci5tific ,am]ican t seems to solve _m ( ! problems enc\nt]$ 9 design+ a two /roke cycle motor = automobile purposes4 ,z is well kn[n1 ! pres5t design ( ! crank-case compression type is wa/eful ( fuel1 & ignites irregul>ly at l[ spe$s & light runn+1 & z ne>ly all automobiles are well ?rottl$ = a great] portion ( ! "t x means t ?is type ( motor is work+ "u ! greate/ disadvantage4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ff4 ,j5k9s ,two ,/roke ,cycle ,motor4 ,s9ce ! great] "p ( ! tr\ble is due to ! dilution ( *>ge by ! residual gases1 & z ! sp>k plug ( ! motor is situat$ 9 ! mo/ dilut$ portion ( ! gas1 x w\ld seem t a *ange ( sp>k plug location1 or a *ange 9 ! circulation ( ! fre% mixture 9 ! cyl9d] w\ld be a great aid 9 rem$y+ ! difficulty4 ,) ! sp>k cont9ually 9 contact ) fre% undilut$ mixture x w\ld be possible to run x z l[ spe$s z ) ! f\r /roke motor1 ) a correspond+ increase 9 ! effici5cy1 & opportunity to run ) a con/ant advance ( ! po9t ( ignition4 ,?is is accompli%$ by any or all ( ! foll[+ conditions3 7#a47 ,by keep+ good gas sep>ate f bad4 7#b47 ,by plac+ ! sp>k ne> ! intake port4 7#c47 ,by leav+ ! plug 9 its pres5t position & deflect+ ! fre% gas to meet x4 7#d47 ,by *ang+ ! location ( ! inlet port4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #eh-;a4 ,two ,cyl9d] ,m>9e ,eng9e1 ( ! ,two ,/roke ,type4 ,built by ,fairbanks-,morse & ,company4 ,9 ! motor inv5t$ & describ$ by ,mr4 ,j5k9s1 ! me?od giv5 by 7#d7 is adopt$ z %[n by ,fig4 #ff1 9 :i* ! sp>k plug is plac$ at ! po9t ( admission ( ! gas & 9 a conf9$ passage4 ,! op]ation ( ! motor is z foll[s3 ,c>buret$ gas is drawn into crank-case f ! c>buretor 7n %[n7 9 ! usual mann]1 i4 e41 by ! upw>d movem5t ( ! pi/on2 & by its d[nw>d movem5t is =c$ ?r\gh ! rectangul> port 9 ! wall ( ! pi/on into ! combu/ion passage )9 ! wat]-jacket :5 ! port 9 ! pi/on wall regi/]s ) ! l[] end ( ?is combu/ion passage1 & drives ahead ( x ! bad gas rema9+ aft] ! previ\s explosion4 ,if ! ?rottle is wide op5 ! combu/ion space above ! pi/on w be completely fill$1 & on ! ignition ( ! *>ge ! maximum pressure w be ex]t$ on ! pi/on4 ,if1 h[ev]1 ! ?rottle is b slightly op51 ! combu/ion passage only may be fill$ & none ov]fl[ into ! combu/ion space above ! pi/on4 ,?is small *>ge w be j z effici5t 9 proportion to its volume z 0 ! l>ge *>ge1 = x 0 compress$ to practically ! same ext5t & none 0 mix$ ) ! bad gas ( ! previ\s explosion4 ,x w1 !re=e1 be obvi\s t ! sp>k-plug is always swept by ! fre% *>ge1 be x l>ge or small1 & ! ignition w be j z c]ta9 9 "o case z 9 ! o!r1 al?\gh ! *>ge & consequ5t impulse may be only j suffici5t to keep ! eng9e turn+ ov]1 & )\t miss+ a s+le explosion4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fd-;d4 ,rob]ts ,cyl9d] ,%[+ ,cellul> ,scre5 9 ! ,intake ,port4 ,?is ,scre5 ,prev5ts ,crank ,case ,fires by ,*ill+ ! ,cyl9d] ,flame ,be=e x ,ent]s ! ,crank ,case4 ,9 ! motor built to te/ & demon/rate ?is design1 provision 0 made = a second sp>k-plug to be locat$ 9 ! top ( ! cyl9d] = spe$ "w1 if ?is 0 f\nd necess>y4 ,no opportunity has yet be5 _h = mak+ track te/s1 ?\gh )\t regret1 z ?is two-cycle motor w run idle )\t miss+ or 8/utt]+10 :i* 0 ! ?+ h]et(ore impossible4 ,,*apt] ,,vii ,,oil ,,eng9es 7#ca7 ,diesel ,oil ,eng9e4 ,! ,diesel eng9e m>ks ! greate/ progress 9 ! int]nal combu/ion field made 9 ! la/ few ye>s4 ,x m>ks a di/9ct advance 9 bo? !rmal effici5cy1 & 9 ! "* ( ! fuel t x has made a comm]cial possibility4 ,by ! use ( *eap fuel h]et(ore unavailable = any type ( prime mov]1 su* z ! asphaltum residual oils1 coal t>1 etc41 x has l[]$ ! co/ ( p[] production to a po9t :]e x is unapproa*$ by any type ( heat eng9e4 ,besides its !rmal effici5cy1 ! eng9e is free f ! annoyances due to delicacy ( ! auxili>y appliances su* z ! c>buretor1 & ignition sy/em :i* are indisp5sable ) ! ord9>y type ( gasol9e eng9e4 ,?is eng9e belongs to t type ( eng9e 9 :i* combu/ion takes place at con/ant pressure 7,brayton ,cycle71 t is ! combu/ion pressure is ma9ta9$ at a con/ant value = a consid]able di/ance on ! work+ /roke ( ! pi/on4 ,?is me?od diff]s f ! ,otto cycle 9 :i* ! combu/ion proce$s at a con/ant volume1 or ! type 9 :i* combu/ion is complet$ be=e ! pi/on moves =w>d on ! work+ /roke4 ,9 ! ,diesel cycle ! fir/ /roke ( ! pi/on draws pure air into ! cyl9d]2 ! pi/on !n moves =w>d on ! compression /roke1 compress+ ! air to #ejj or #fjj p\nds p] squ>e in* & rais+ ! temp]ature ( ! air to ab\t #a1jjj degrees ,c1 ! exact temp]ature & pressure dep5d+ on ! "* ( ! fuel us$ 9 ! eng9e4 ,! high pressure is obta9$ by us+ a small cle>ance space 9 ! end ( ! cyl9d]4 ,at ! end ( ! compression /roke a spray ( oil is inject$ into ! cyl9d] :i* is in/antly ignit$ by ! high temp]ature ( ! compress$ air4 ,! oil cont9ues to burn z long z x is spray$ into ! cyl9d]1 ?is p]iod be+ f "o-qu>t] to "o-?ird ( ! work+ /roke4 ,aft] ! oil is cut (f1 ! hot gas is exp&$ to ! end ( ! /roke at :i* po9t ! pressure is v consid]ably r$uc$ due to ! me*anical "w p]=m$4 ,x %\ld be not$ t ! type ( eng9e j describ$ p]=ms ! complete cycle 9 f\r /rokes1 ! f\r? /roke be+ ! scav5g+ /roke z 9 ! ord9>y f\r /roke cycle eng9e4 ,:ile ! f\r /roke cycle type ( ,diesel eng9e is by f> ! mo/ common type1 x is also built z a two /roke cycle t is simil> to ! two /roke cycle gas eng9e previ\sly describ$ except t pure air is receiv$ & compress$ 9 ! air compressor 9 place ( ! combu/ible mixture4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #i4 ,cross ,section ( ,f\r ,/roke ,cycle ,diesel ,eng9e4 ,! ,c5t] ,valve is ! ,fuel ,admission ,valve4 ,x w be not$1 t z !re is no fuel 9 ! cyl9d] dur+ ! compression /roke t !re is no dang] f preignition f an ov] heat$ *>ge1 nor is !re tr\ble f decompos$ fuels due to a gradually increas+ temp]ature s (t5 met ) 9 oil eng9es t compress ! entire mixture4 ,z ! cle>ance space is exceptionally small !re is a m9imum ( residual gas held 9 ! cyl9d] aft] ! explosion ) ! result t ! fuel is completely consum$1 & t a full *>ge is tak5 into ! cyl9d]4 ,! spe$ & output are regulat$ by controll+ ! po9t 9 ! work+ /roke at :i* ! oil spray is cut (f1 & z ?is has no effect on ! maximum pressure develop$ 9 ! cyl9d]1 z 9 ! case ( ! ord9>y gas eng9e control1 ! pressure *>ge "u v>y+ loads is n s sev]e4 ,because ( ! high compression1 & ! cont9u$ combu/ion1 !re is a v gradual increase ( pressure4 ,s9ce ! am\nt ( pure air admitt$ to ! cyl9d] is ! same at no load z at full load !re is always suffici5t air = ! complete combu/ion ( ! fuel1 & z !re is a con/ant compression pressure !re is a con/ant ignition temp]ature & con/ant quantity ( ! work+ m$ium4 ,because ( ! high compression obta9$ by ! ,diesel type1 x has an effici5cy t is f> beyond t ( any o!r =m ( int]nal combu/ion motor4 ,illu/ration3 ,fuel ,nozzle ( ! ,ko]t+ ,diesel ,eng9e ,%[+ ,op]at+ ,cam & ,lev]1 & ,compress$ ,air ,connection4 ,s9ce ! fuel is introduc$ gradually into ! combu/ion *amb] ! combu/ion pressure rises v sl[ly s t x is n an explosive eng9e 9 any s5se ( ! ^w1 ! combu/ion pressure ris+ /eadily f ! compression pressure to ! maximum 9 proportion to ! supply ( fuel4 ,9 ! ord9>y type ( gas eng9e ) a compression pressure ( f #fj to #gj p\nds p] squ>e in* ! pressure rises abruptly to ab\t ?ree & "o-half times ! compression pressure1 ) a correspond+ly rapid drop 9 ! pressure on ! expansion /roke4 ,9 ! ,diesel eng9e ! drop ( pressure 9 expansion is mu* m gradual1 ! indicator diagram expansion curve be+ ne>ly horizontal4 ,! uni=m pressures ?us obta9$ result 9 smoo? action & ev5 driv+ p[]1 obta9$ ) no o!r type ( eng9e4 ,illu/ration3 ,fuel ,pump ( ,ko]t+ ,diesel ,eng9e ) ,op]at+ ,cam4 ,z ! fuels us$ v>y f ! lighte/ hydroc>bons to ! heavie/ crude oils1 !re are _m types ( oil injection valves 9 use1 ! valves be+ 9 g5]al divid$ into two classes1 ^? 9 :i* ! oil is vaporiz$ me*anically by ! pressure ( a =ce pump1 & ^? 9 :i* ! fuel is vaporiz$ by ! atomiz+ effect ( compress$ air4 ,atomization by compress$ air is h[ev]1 ! mo/ common me?od s9ce less tr\ble is exp]i5c$ ) ! air pumps ?an ) ! liquid =ce pumps4 ,! compress$ air is suppli$ by pumps t are ei!r op]at$ by ! ma9 eng9e or by an indep5d5t compressor eng9e4 ,! fuel valve is a plug screw$ into ! cyl9d] conta9+ an inw>dly op5+ *eck valve 9 ! inw>d end4 ,! hole 9 ! c5t] ( ! plug receives ! oil *>ge "u a few p\nds pressure f ! tanks1 dur+ ! compression /roke ( ! eng9e1 & at ! end ( ! compression /roke1 a bla/ ( air at a pressure ( ab\t #bej p\nds above ! compression pressure bl[s x into ! cyl9d] 9 ! =m ( a f9e spray4 ,injection valves ( ! =c$ fe$ type consi/ ( a plug ) a small passage & a ne$le valve = regulat+ ! spray4 ,fuel is pump$ into ! valve at ab\t #bej p\nds above ! compression pressure ( ! eng9e by a small s+le act+ pump :i* is built s t ! l5g? ( ! /roke may be adju/$ to meet ! load4 ,9 practice ! l5g? ( /roke is regulat$ by ! gov]nor1 s t ! full cont5ts ( ! pump are deliv]$ at full load1 & a r$uc$ am\nt ) a %ort /roke at small loads4 ,on issu+ f ! fuel nozzle1 ! liquid /rikes a gauze scre5 by :i* x is brok5 up into v f9e spray4 ,fluidity is practically ! only factor t gov]ns ! quality ( fuel t may be us$ ) ! eng9e1 s9ce exceptionally heavy oils & t>s _c be successfully spray$4 ,9 ,fig4 #i is %[n a cross-section ( a ,diesel eng9e cyl9d] 9 :i* ! c5t] valve 9 ! cyl9d] head is ! fuel valve1 & ! valves to ! "r & left are ! air inlet & exhau/ valves respectively4 ,! two latt] valves correspond to ! inlet & exhau/ valves ( ! ,otto cycle eng9e4 ,compress$ air is us$ 9 />t+ ! eng9e1 :i* is admitt$ to ! cyl9d] ?r\gh an auxili>y valve :i* is op]at$ by a />t+ cam on ! cam %aft4 ,by ?is me*anism1 high pressure air is furni%$ to ! cyl9d] dur+ a portion ( ! work+ /roke1 turn+ x ov] on ! fir/ few revolutions z a common air eng9e4 ,z soon z ! eng9e picks up spe$1 ! />t+ valves are ?r[n out ( op]ation1 & ! eng9e proce$s on its regul> work+ cycle ) ! oil fuel4 ,:5 us$ = m>9e purposes 9 sizes ov] #ajj horse-p[]1 :]e x is n possible to use rev]se ge>s1 ! ,diesel eng9e :e!r ( ! two /roke cycle or f\r /roke cycle type mu/ be made rev]sible4 ,?is may be accompli%$ by ei!r ( two me?ods1 fir/1 by *ang+ ! angul> position ( ! cams 9 reg>d to ! pi/on position1 & second by us+ two sets ( cams1 "o be+ = "r h& rotation & ! o!r = left h&4 ,:5 a s+le cam is us$1 ! relation ( ! cam %aft on :i* ! oil pump cams & oil valve cams are locat$1 is advanc$ or ret>d$ 9 respect to ! crank %aft by means ( slid+ ! two spiral ge>s t drive ! cam %aft1 ov] "o ano!r1 9 a direction p>allel to _! axes4 ,! spiral ge>s are mov$ back & =? by a h& controll$ rev]se lev]4 ,?is type is us$ pr9cipally on ! two /roke cycle type ( eng9e z !re are n s _m factors to cont5d ) z on ! f\r /roke cycle4 ,) d\ble cams1 ! sy/em almo/ inv>iably us$ ) ! f\r /roke cycle eng9e1 ! cams may be m\nt$ ei!r on "o %aft1 or ! ahead cams on "o cam %aft & ! rev]se cams on ano!r4 ,:5 two %afts are us$ !y are arrang$ s t ei!r set ( cams may be swung "u ! valve lift]s by sw++ ! %afts 9 a radial direction by brackets4 ,! s+le type ( cam %aft is usually mov$ back & =? 9 a direction p>allel to its axis1 ! ahead cams com+ "u ! valve lifts at "o position1 & ! rev]se cams at ! o!r4 ,9 ! f\r /roke cycle ,diesel x is evid5t t n only ! relations ( ! oil pump & oil valves mu/ be *ang$ 9 respect to ! pi/on position b ! relations ( ! air inlet & exhau/ valves mu/ be *ang$ z well4 ,?is necessitates d\ble cams = ! inlet & exhau/ valves 9 ord] to rev]se rotation4 ,compress$ air = />t+ & injection is g5]ally suppli$ by a ?ree /age air compressor or a compressor 9 :i* ! pressure is built up 9 ?ree diff]5t /eps1 ! second cyl9d] tak+ ! air f ! dis*>ge ( ! fir/1 & ! ?ird cyl9d] tak+ ! air f ! second1 & compress+ x to ab\t #bej p\nds above ! compression pressure ( ! eng9e4 ,p]fect scav5g+ is possible ) ?is eng9e because ( ! l>ge excess ( air suppli$ dur+ ! suction /roke & ! p]iod ( injection4 ,on ! m>9e type ! air pumps & wat] circulat+ pumps occupy ab\t ! same am\nt ( space z ! cond5s] & circulat+ pumps ( a /eam eng9e hav+ ! same outputs4 ,9 a rec5t te/ made ) an ,atlas-,diesel eng9e x 0 f\nd t #aa p] c5t ( ! output 0 lo/ 9 driv+ ! air pumps or m ?an #ej p] c5t ( ! total loss by friction & impact4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fg4 ,cross-,section ,?r\gh ! ,work+ ,cyl9d]s ( ! ,m4 ,s4 ,monte ,p5ado ,two ,/roke ,cycle ,diesel ,eng9e4 ,f ! ,motor ,%ip1 ,london4 ,unlike ! ord9>y gasol9e eng9e 9 :i* an increase ( spe$ increases ! output 9 an almo/ direct proportion1 ! output ( ! ,diesel eng9e decreases :5 ! spe$ rises beyond a c]ta9 limit due to imp]fect combu/ion at spe$s mu* ov] #cej revolutions p] m9ute4 ,because ( ?is fact x has be5 practically impossible to apply ! type to automobile s]vice :i* ord9>ily requires a spe$ ( f #djj to #hjj revolutions p] m9ute "u ord9>y conditions4 ,9 addition to ! spe$ limitations1 ! ,diesel eng9e weighs approximately #gj p\nds p] horse-p[] aga9/ an av]age weight ( #ag p\nds p] horse-p[] ) ! ord9>y type ( gasol9e automobile motor4 ,( c\rse ^! objections may be ov]come 9 "t1 z ! eng9e is only 9 its infancy1 & ! two /roke cycle ,diesel has n yet be5 fully develop$1 b at ! pres5t "t x does n seem probable t ?is eng9e w ev] be an active competitor ( ! gasol9e automobile motor1 at lea/ f ! /&po9t ( flexibility4 ,z ! ,diesel eng9e dep5ds entirely ^u compression = its op]ation1 x is necess>y t all ( ! p>ts su* z ! pi/ons1 valves1 etc41 %all be p]fectly fitt$ & air tight "u extremely high pressures4 ,! c>eful workman%ip requir$ = su* fitt+ & ! adju/m5ts make ! ,diesel mu* m exp5sive to build ?an ! ord9>y type ( gas eng9e1 & = ?is reason ! fir/ co/ & ov]head *>ges cut into ! fuel item to a consid]able ext5t4 ,a description ( ! ,diesel eng9es w be f\nd 9 ! *apt] devot$ to oil eng9es4 7#fc7 ,diesel ,eng9e 7,m>9e ,type74 ,z a practical example ( a ,diesel eng9e1 :i* 0 describ$ 9 ,*apt] ,,iii1 we w give a brief description ( ! two #hej horse-p[] ,diesel eng9es in/all$ 9 ! c>go vessel 8,m4 ,s4 ,monte ,p5$o10 :i* 7 built by ,sulz] ,bro!rs ( ,w9t]?ur1 ,switz]l&4 ,we are indebt$ to ! ,motor ,%ip1 ,london1 = ! details4 ,! eng9es are ( ! two /roke cycle1 s+le act+ type1 ) f\r work+ cyl9d]s1 a d\ble act+ scav5g+ pump cyl9d]1 & a ?ree /age ignition compressor cyl9d]4 ,! bore ( ! work+ cyl9d]s is #ah4h in*es1 & ! /roke #bg in*es4 ,:ile ! crank case is ( ! enclos$ type1 !re are two sets ( cov]s :i* c be easily remov$ = inspection :ile ! eng9e is runn+1 = z ! scav5g+ pump p]=ms ! "w ( ! crank case ( ! ord9>y two /roke cycle eng9e !re is no ne$ ( a tight case to reta9 ! compression4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fh4 ,cross-,section ,?r\gh ! ,air ,cyl9d]s ( ! ,two ,/roke ,diesel ,motors on ! ,m4 ,s4 ,monte ,p5ado4 ,! scav5g+ pump is m\nt$ on "o end ( ! eng9e & is driv5 f ! crank-%aft1 ! cross-head ( ! pump =m+ "o piece ) ! pi/on ( ! l[ pressure cyl9d] ( ! injection air cyl9d]4 ,all ( ! compressor /ages are wat] cool$ & fitt$ ) automatic valves4 ,! d\ble act+ scav5g+ pump has a pi/on valve driv5 by a l9k motion = rev]s+ x :5 ! eng9e is rev]s$4 ,! air ent]s ! pump ?r\gh ! top valve *amb] f a pipe lead+ into ! eng9e room4 ,! air dis*>ges a pressure ( ab\t #c p\nds p] squ>e in* 9 a head] t passes 9 front ( all f\r work+ cyl9d]s4 ,by means ( a valve ! air ent]+ ! l[ pressure /age ( ! compressor c be tak5 ei!r f ! atmosph]e or f ! dis*>ge ( ! scav5g+ pump2 tak+ ! air f ! latt] all[s ( a great] weight ( air tak5 by ! compressor & consequ5tly a high] compression = use 9 em]g5cies4 ,z 9 ! ord9>y type ( two /roke cycle eng9e1 two indep5d5t sets ( exhau/ ports are us$1 "o set be+ = ! scav5g+ air & ! o!r = ! exhau/ gases1 bo? sets be+ at ! end ( ! /roke z usual4 ,! air inlet ports are divid$ into two gr\ps1 h[ev]1 "o gr\p be+ controll$ by ! pi/on ( ! work+ cyl9d]1 & ! o!r gr\p by an indep5d5t pi/on valve driv5 f ! cam-%aft4 ,bo? sets ( ports connect ) ! ma9 scav5g+ air head]4 ,by means ( ! valve controll$ ports x is possible to admit scav5g+ air ev5 aft] ! o!r ports are clos$ by ! pi/on1 :i* greatly increases ! scav5g+ effect4 ,) ! air at #c p\nds pressure ! air f ! valve controll$ ports ?r[ ! scav5g+ air to ! top ( ! cyl9d] ev5 aft] ! exhau/ ports are clos$4 ,?is valve is provid$ ) a rev]se me*anism4 ,a s+le cam is us$ = op]at+ ! fuel inlet valve & ! air />t+ valve1 & ! rev]sal ( ! eng9e is obta9$ by turn+ ! cam %aft ?r\gh a small angle relative to ! crank-%aft1 :i* ( c\rse also rev]ses ! lead ( ! fuel valve4 ,/>t+ is accompli%$ by compress$ air1 ) ! air valve lev] on ! cam1 & ! fuel valve lev] (f4 ,aft] turn+ ?r\gh a few revolutions1 ! air valve lev]s are rais$1 & ! fuel lev]s dropp$ back on ! cams :i* results 9 ! eng9e tak+ up its regul> cycle4 ,by mov+ ! tappet rod ( ! fuel valve out ( or into a v]tical position1 ! "t ( ! fuel valve op5+ is regulat$ & ! am\nt ( air is controll$4 ,?is movem5t is normally p]=m$ by a compress$ air motor1 b 9 an em]g5cy h& :eels may be us$4 ,"o ( ^! s]ves to rotate ! cam%aft ?r\gh ! requir$ angle 9 ord] to set ! cams 9 ! positions = a/]n or ahead runn+ & also rev]ses ! l9k motion ( ! scav5g+ pump valve by ! rotation ( %aft1 z m5tion$ above4 ,! o!r auxili>y motor op]ates ! fuel & />t+ air valves by mov+ ! small sp9dle longitud9ally to br+ ! tappet lev] ( ! air valve ab\t ! requir$ cam = ahead or rev]se & also lifts ?is or ! fuel valve tappet rod (f its cam1 accord+ z x is desir$ to run on fuel or air4 ,! sp9dle on :i* ! valve lev]s are pivot$ is 9 two p>ts1 divid$ at ! c5t]4 ,?is is to all[ two ( ! cyl9d]s to run on air :il/ ! o!r two are runn+ on fuel1 &1 z c be se5 f ! dial :]e ! po9t] indicates ! position1 9 />t+ up1 :e!r a/]n or ahead1 fir/ two cyl9d]s are put on air1 !n f\r on air1 next two on air & two on fuel1 & f9ally all f\r on fuel4 ,?is all[s v rapid atta9m5t ( full spe$4 ,! am\nt ( fuel ent]+ ea* cyl9d] c be regulat$ sep>ately by small h& :eels4 ,bel[ ! fuel pumps are arrang$ ?ree auxili>y pumps1 two ( ^! be+ oil pumps = ! oil circulation1 :il/ ! o!r is ( ! pi/on cool+ wat]4 ,on ! left ( ! eng9e & driv5 9 a simil> mann] f ! cross-head by l9ks are ?ree o!r pumps1 "o = ! circulat+ wat] & ! o!r = ! g5]al wat] supply ( ! %ip4 ,lubrication = ! cyl9d]s is furni%$ by #h small pumps1 j above ! wat] pumps1 two oil pumps be+ provid$ = ea* cyl9d]4 ,z ! supply pipe is divid$ into two p>ts1 ! oil rea*es ! cyl9d] at f\r po9ts 9 its circumf]5ce4 ,f\r oil pumps are provid$ = ! air compressor4 ,f\r /eel columns are provid$ = ! support ( ea* cyl9d] 9 addition to ! ca/ iron frame ( ! base1 & by ?is means ! explosion /resses are transmitt$ directly to ! b$ plate4 ,! ca/ iron columns provide guide surfaces = ! cross-head %oes4 ,! guides are all wat] cool$4 7#fd7 ,! ,m4,a4,n4 ,diesel ,eng9e4 ,! ,mas*95fabrik ,augsburg-,nrnb]g1 ,a4 ,g41 a ,g]man firm h built "s rem>kably l>ge ,diesel eng9es bo? ( ! v]tical & horizontal types4 ,! peculi> m]its ( ! horizontal type ( ,diesel eng9e ( :i* ! ,m4,a4,n4 company are pione]s are /ill op5 to discussion at pres5t1 b !re is no d\bt b :at ?is type w be ! ultimate =m ( v l>ge eng9es :5 c]ta9 alt]ations are made 9 ! design4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fi4 ,horizontal ,m4 ,a4 ,n4 ,diesel ,eng9e at ! ,halle ,municipal ,plant4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gj4 ,high ,spe$ ,mirlees-,diesel ,eng9e4 ,9 ,fig4 #fi is %[n a #b1jjj brake-horse-p[] horizontal ,m4,a4,n4 ,diesel eng9e ( ! f\r /roke cycle type :i* is in/all$ at ! ,halle ,municipal ,electricity ,works1 ,halle1 ,g]many4 ,x is ( ! d\ble act+ type ) tw9-t&em cyl9d]s giv+ f\r work+ impulses p] revolution4 ,?is eng9e 0 in/all$ 9 addition to ! six produc] gas eng9es already 9 place to take ! peak load ( ! /ation at diff]5t times dur+ ! day1 ! gas eng9es meet+ ! normal /eady dem&4 ,?is firm has built _m ?\s&s ( ! v]tical type ( ,diesel eng9e ( all sizes1 & has rec5tly in/all$ #ac eng9es ( #d1ejj brake horse-p[] = op]at+ ! ,kreff tramways4 ,! company is n[ build+ cyl9d]s giv+ outputs ( f #a1bjj to #a1ejj brake horse-p[] p] cyl9d]1 giv+ outputs ( f #e1jjj to #f1jjj horse-p[] 9 t&em tw9 type eng9es4 ,z w be se5 f ! cut1 ! horizontal ,diesel eng9e is rem>kably free f complicat$ valve ge>4 7#fe7 ,mirlees-,diesel ,eng9es4 ,! ,mirlees-,diesel eng9e is built by ! ,engli% firm1 ,mirlees1 ,bick]ton & ,day bo? = /ation>y & m>9e s]vice4 ,a g5]at+ plant consi/+ ( two1 #bjj horse-p[] ,mirlees eng9es direct connect$ to ,siem5s g5]ators has be5 in/all$ 9 ! municipal plant at ,dundalk z %[n by ,fig4 #ga4 ,on te/ ^! units consum$ #j4fdg p\nds ( oil p] horse-p[] at full load & #j4gjd p\nds p] horse-p[] at half load ) a regulation ( #c4bd p] c5t f full load to no load4 ,all ( ! eng9es built by ?is firm are ( ! f\r /roke cycle type4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ga4 ,mirlees-,diesels at ,dundalk4 7#ff7 ,willans-,diesel ,eng9es4 ,! ,willans-,diesel eng9es built by ! ,willans & ,rob9son ,company ( ,rugby1 ,engl&1 are 9 sizes up to #djj brake horsep[]1 & run at spe$s up to #bej revolutions p] m9ute4 ,!y are all ( ! f\r /roke cycle type & are appli$ pr9cipally to ! driv+ ( electric g5]ators4 ,! cut %[s "o ( ! f\r1 #bhj horse-p[] units suppli$ to ! ,alranza ,company & ! ,ros>io ,nitrate ,works 9 ,s\? ,am]ica4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gb4 ,willans ,v]tical ,diesel ,eng9e4 ,unlike ! ,mirlees eng9e1 ! ,willans has an individual frame = ea* cyl9d] z 9 /eam eng9e practice4 ,l ! /eam eng9e frame1 ! bottom is left op5 = ! inspection ( ! connect+ rod ends & ! ma9 be>+s :i* is a mo/ desirable feature4 ,! air compressor & pumps are arrang$ 9 a mo/ compact =m at ! left end ( ! crank-%aft f :i* ! pipes may be se5 issu+ to ! f\r cyl9d]s4 ,! valves & ov] head ge> are ( ! conv5tional type1 :i*1 ) ! exception ( a few m9or details are ! same z ^? on ! rec5tly develop$ ,sulz]-,diesel4 ,! individual gr\p+ ( ! cyl9d] units has _m desirable features & %\ld1 we believe1 be m ext5sively copi$4 7#fg7 ,in/allation & ,consumption ( ,diesel ,plant4 ,an ,engli% gas-electric /ation 0 complet$ at ,egham1 ,engl&1 t is a good example ( ! *anges t h be5 made rec5tly 9 ! electricity supply abroad1 ) ,diesel p[]4 ,! g5]at+ plant comprises two #id ,k4 ,w4 ,diesel eng9es built by ,mirrlees1 ,bick]ton & ,day1 direct connect$ to s+le phase alt]nators g5]at+ at #b1jjj volts4 ,! excit]s are direct connect$ to ! ma9 %aft1 & ! plant is capable ( g5]at+ an ov]load ( #aj p] c5t = two h\rs4 ,space has be5 left = ! in/allation ( two m units ( a l>g] size4 ,! foll[+ fuel consumption 0 gu>ante$ = a load ( unity p[] factor1 & ! (ficial te/s %[ slightly bett] figures ?an ! gu>antee4 ,full load #j4fh lb4 oil p] ,k4 ,w4 ,h4 ,?ree-qu>t] load #j4gb lb4 oil p] ,k4 ,w4 ,h4 ,half load #j4gi lb4 oil p] ,k4 ,w4 ,h4 ,qu>t] load #a4ae lb4 oil p] ,k4 ,w4 ,h4 ,illu/ration3 ,cross-,section ,?r\gh ,egham1 ,engl& ,municipal ,plant4 ,p>ticul> att5tion has be5 giv5 to ! wat] supply = ! jackets ( ! eng9es2 ! circulation be+ by two electrically driv51 direct connect$ c5trifugal pumps1 "o ( :i* is a sp>e4 ,a ,little ,company's cool] has be5 in/all$1 :i* consi/s ( a horizontal cyl9drical *amb]1 ! l[] "p ( :i* conta9s wat]4 ,9 ! tank are arrang$ a numb] ( conc5tric metal cyl9d]s spac$ ab\t -in* ap>t1 & 9 sev]al sections1 t are c>ri$ on a sl[ly revolv+ %aft1 driv5 f ! fan %aft4 ,! cyl9d]s are all ( ! same l5g?1 & are op5 at bo? ends4 ,! l[] half ( ! cyl9d]s dips into ! wat] 9 ! cas+1 & z !y revolve1 a ?9 film ( wat] on ea* side ( ! plate is c>ri$ into ! upp] portion ( ! cas+ :]e x meets a bla/ ( cold air f ! fan4 ,! fan is driv5 f ! circulat+ pumps1 & passes ! air ?r\gh ! *amb] 9 a direction opposite to t ( ! wat]1 baffles be+ plac$ s t correct circulation is ma9ta9$4 ,! small loss is made up by connect+ ! ball cock 9 ! tanks ) ano!r tank *>g$ f ! works well by means ( a self-/>t+ rot>y pump1 electrically driv54 ,v little p[] is requir$ = ! pumps & cool]4 ,fuel oil is /or$ 9 a tank outside ! build+1 ! oil be+ suppli$ to ! tanks f an oil wagon by means ( a small h& pump4 ,oil is tak5 f ! tanks & =c$ into ! eng9e room by a rot>y pump1 f :i* x ent]s two graduat$ tanks locat$ 9 ! ro( ( ! /ation4 ,! graduations on ! tanks all[ ! consumption ( oil to be c>efully record$ by alt]nately fill+ & empty+ ! two auxili>y fuel tanks4 ,! entire build+ is electrically heat$1 & ! kit*5 ( ! flat above ! /ation is equipp$ ) an electric cook+-/ove = ! use ( "o ( ! eng9e]s :o make x 8 resid5ce4 ,,diesel ,,horse-,,p[] ,,=mula ,p4 ,a4 ,holliday1 9 ! ,eng9e]1 d]ives a new =mula = comput+ ! horse-p[] ( ! f\r /roke cycle1 s+le-act+ eng9e4 ,= ea* horse-p[] develop$ by ^! eng9es ab\t #ba1jjj cubic in*es ( displacem5t is necess>y1 p] m9ute4 ,d ,cyl9d] bore 9 in*es4 ,s ,/roke 9 in*es4 ,m4,p4,s4 ,mean pi/on spe$ 9 feet p] m9ute4 ,r ,ratio ( /roke to bore4 ,n ,revolutions p] m9ute1 !n 7,b4,h4,p4 #bbbj7 ,d -------------------------------- ,m4,p4,s4 #f ,m4,p4,s4 ,kn[+ ! value ( ,d1 ,n ---------------- ,s ,= high spe$1 l[ ratio 7,r71 f\r /roke cycle eng9es1 approximately #bb1jjj cubic in*es displacem5t p] m9ute is requir$4 7#b1ccj ,b4,h4,p47 ,d ------------------------------ ,m4,p4,s4 ,9 bo? =mulae1 ! air compressor = fuel injection is includ$4 7#cb7 ,semi-,diesel ,type ,eng9e4 ,9 ! 8,semi-,diesel0 ,type ,eng9e ! oil is inject$ into ! cyl9d] at ! po9t ( greate/ compression 9 ! same mann] z 9 ! ,diesel eng9e1 & l ! ,diesel x compresses only pure air4 ,9 reg>d to ! compression pressure1 h[ev]1 x /&s midway betwe5 ! pressure ( ! ,diesel eng9e & t ( ! ord9>y 8aspirat+0 type oil eng9e1 z ! compression av]ages ab\t #aej p\nds p] squ>e in*4 ,:ile ?is is a mu* high] pressure ?an t c>ri$ by ! ord9>y k]os5e eng9e :i* compresses a mixture ( k]os5e vapor & air1 x is n suffici5tly high to ignite ! oil spray by ! increase 9 temp]ature due to ! compression1 b ignites ! *>ge by means ( a r$ hot bulb or plate plac$ 9 ! combu/ion *amb]4 ,?is type ( eng9e is built bo? 9 ! two /roke & f\r /roke cycle types1 ! ev5ts occurr+ 9 ! same ord] z 9 ! two /roke & f\r /roke ,diesel types1 t is1 pure air is drawn into ! cyl9d] on ! suction /roke 7f\r /roke cycle7 or is =c$ 9 at ! beg9n+ ( ! compression /roke 7two /roke cycle71 & is compress$ 9 ! combu/ion *amb]4 ,at ! end ( ! compression /roke1 ! fuel is inject$ aga9/ ! r$ hot bulb or plate by :i* ! *>ge is ignit$4 ,expansion foll[s on ! work+ /roke aft] ! fuel is cut (f1 & release occurs at ! end ( ! /roke4 ,fuel oil is suppli$ to ! spray nozzles by a gov]nor controll$ pump hav+ a v>iable /roke or by compress$ air z 9 ! ,diesel eng9e1 mak+ ! supply ( fire proportional to ! load4 ,a sep>ate pump is g5]ally suppli$ = ea* cyl9d]1 :i* is capable ( develop+ a pressure ( ab\t #djj p\nds p] squ>e in*4 ,sev]al ( ! ,semi-,diesel type eng9es h wat] spray$ into ! cyl9d] = ! purpose ( cool+ ! cyl9d] & pi/on1 & z an aid 9 ! combu/ion4 ,?is wat] spray increases ! output ( a giv5 size cyl9d] by ! am\nt ( ! /eam =m$ by ! heat ( ! cyl9d] & pi/on walls1 & by ! increas$ rate ( combu/ion4 ,! am\nt ( wat] suppli$ to ! cyl9d] is equal1 approximately to ! am\nt ( fuel oil4 ,! wat] connection is made 9 ! air intake pipe s t ! wat] spray & ! intake air are drawn into ! cyl9d] at ! same "t4 ,!re is v little diff]5ce 9 ! effici5cy ( ! ,diesel & ,semi-,diesel 9 favor ( ! true ,diesel type = bo? h accompli%$ records ( a brake horse-p[] h\r on 4#de p\nd ( crude oil 9 units ( ! same capacity4 ,neglect+ ! "q ( effici5cy ! ,semi-,diesel has _m advantages :i* are due pr9cipally to ! diff]5ces 9 compression pressures4 ,valve & pi/on p]fection 9 reg>d to leakage is n z ess5tial ) ! semi-type z ) ! ,diesel1 z ! =m] is n dep5d5t on compression = its ignition4 ,?is means t ! ,semi-,diesel has a l[] fir/ co/ & a l[] ma9t5ance exp5se4 ,its l[ compression pressure makes />t+ possible )\t ! use ( compress$ air ) eng9es ( a consid]able horse-p[]4 ,z ! explosion pressure is mu* l[] ?an ) ! ,diesel type !re is less /ra9 on ! work+ p>ts & lubrication is mu* m easily p]=m$4 ,comp>$ ) ! ord9>y type ( k]os5e eng9e ! ,semi-,diesel is mu* m positive 9 its action z ! oil is sure to ignite :5 spray$ on ! hot surface ( ! bulb or plate :5 "u ! comp>atively high compression4 ,9 ! eng9e :]e ! air is mix$ ) ! vaporiz$ fuel be=e x is drawn into ! cyl9d]1 x is difficult to obta9 p]fect combu/ion because ( ! unc]ta9 mixtures obta9$ on v>y+ loads by ! ?rottl+ me?od ( gov]n+4 ,at light loads ! only difficulty enc\nt]$ ) ! ,semi-,diesel type is t ( keep+ ! ignit+ surface hot en\gh to fire all ( ! *>ges4 ,9 ! majority ( cases ! two /roke cycle type ( ,semi-,diesel eng9es compress ! scav5g+ air 9 ! crank *amb] 9 ! same way t a two /roke cycle gasol9e motor p]=ms ! initial compression1 al?\gh !re are sev]al makes t compress ! air 9 an enl>g$ portion ( ! cyl9d] bore by :at is kn[n z a 8trunk0 pi/on4 ,?is initial compression det]m9es ! spe$ ( ! eng9e1 ! pressure limit+ ! "t 9 :i* ! air trav]ses ! cyl9d] bore & sweeps out ! burnt gases ( ! previ\s explosion4 7#fh7 ,de ,la ,v]gne ,oil ,eng9es4 ,two types ( f\r /roke cycle oil eng9es are built by ! ,de ,la ,v]gne ,ma*9e ,company1 :i* diff] pr9cipally 9 ! me?od & p]iod ( inject+ ! fuel into ! cyl9d]4 ,:ile bo? types compress only pure air 9 ! work+ cyl9d]1 ! oil is inject$ 9 a heat$ vaporiz] dur+ ! suction /roke 9 ! small] eng9e 7type ,,ha71 & is inject$ directly into ! combu/ion *amb] ( ! l>g] eng9e 7type ,,fh7 at ! po9t ( greate/ compression4 ,?is fuel tim+ classifies ! type ,,fh z a semi-,diesel1 :ile type ,,ha comes "u ! head ( t class ( eng9es kn[n z aspirators4 ,illu/ration3 #gf-;a4 ,elevation ( ,de ,la ,v]gne ,oil ,eng9e1 ,semi-,diesel ,type4 ,class ,f ,h4 ,semi-,diesel 7,type ,,fh7 ,dur+ ! suction /roke1 air is drawn into ! cyl9d] ?r\gh ! inlet valve locat$ on ! top ( ! cyl9d] head1 & on ! return1 or compression /roke1 ! air is compress$ to ab\t #cjj p\nds p] squ>e in* 9 ! combu/ion *amb]4 ,! compression heats ! air to a high temp]ature :i* is /ill fur!r increas$ by contact ) ! hot walls ( a ca/ iron vaporiz] ,d1 %[n by ,fig4 #gf-;b4 ,at ! completion ( ! compression1 ! fuel is inject$ 9 a highly atomiz$ /ate by compress$ air ?r\gh ! spray nozzle ,f1 ! spray be+ ?r[n into ! vaporiz]4 ,illu/ration3 #gf-;b4 ,cross-,section ( ,type ,f ,h1 ,de ,la ,v]gne ,oil ,eng9e4 ,! vapor =m$ by ! contact ( ! spray ) ! walls ( ! vaporiz] mixes ) ! compress$ air 9 ! combu/ion *amb] & is ignit$ at ! in/ant ( fuel admission by ! comb9$ temp]atures ( ! vaporiz] & compression pressure4 ,z ! fuel is n inject$ until ! prop] in/ant = ignition1 x is possible to obta9 a relatively high compression )\t dang] ( ! *>ge preignit+4 ,! oil is suppli$ to ! nozzle by a fuel pump "u pressure4 ,! atomiz+ air takes ! oil at pump pressure & p]=ms ! actual injection4 ,details ( ! spray valve are %[n by ,fig4 #gf1 9 :i* ! oil & air are ent]$ at a pressure ( ab\t #fjj p\nds p] squ>e in*4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gf4 ,de ,la ,v]gne ,spray ,nozzle4 ,! air & oil ent] ! nozzle at opposite sides ( ! cyl9d] ,b :i* fits snugly into ! valve body ,a4 ,z ! air & oil proce$ side by side along ! outside ( ,b1 !y are =c$ to pass ?r\gh a s]ies ( *amb]s connect$ by a sy/em ( f9e diagonal *annels on ! surface ( ,b :i* results 9 a v f9e subdivision & intimate mixture4 ,! *>ge is admitt$ to ! cyl9d] by a sort ( ne$le valve ab\t "o-half in* 9 diamet] :i* is provid$ ) a spr+ t holds x clos$ on its seat z %[n by ,c1 9 ,fig4 #gf4 ,! ne$le is s con/ruct$ t x may be readily remov$ at any "t = inspection4 ,! spray valve is locat$ on ! "r h& side ( ! valve *amb] directly opposite ! vaporiz] & is op]at$ by an indep5d5t cam on ! cam%aft4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gf-;c4 ,de ,la ,v]gne ,gov]nor & ,fuel ,pump4 ,! vaporiz] consi/s ( an iron ?imble hav+ ribs on ! inside to increase ! radiat+ surface4 ,9 />t+1 ! vaporiz] is heat$ = a few mom5ts until x rea*es ! temp]ature necess>y = vaporiz+ ! fuel1 b aft] ! eng9e is runn+1 ! bla/ lamp is remov$ & ! temp]ature is ma9ta9$ by ! heat g5]at$ by ! combu/ion ( ! successive *>ges4 ,s9ce ! fuel is ignit$ at ! in/ant t x makes contact ) ! vaporiz]1 x is possible to accurately adju/ ! po9t ( ignition by adju/+ ! position ( ! fuel cam on ! cam%aft4 ,air = spray+ ! fuel is suppli$ by a two /age air compressor t is driv5 f ! crank%aft by an ecc5tric4 ,! air compress$ by ! fir/ /age is /or$ 9 tanks at ab\t #aej p\nds pressure = />t+ ! eng9e4 ,! second /age compresses ! air to ab\t #fjj p\nds pressure1 b is correspond+ly small 9 volumetric capacity s9ce x h&les only en\gh air to spray ! oil :i* am\nts to ab\t #b p] c5t ( ! cyl9d] volume4 ,a gov]nor controll$ butt]fly valve 9 ! air intake pipe regulates ! am\nt ( air tak5 9 on ! second /age to suit ! v>y+ *>ges ( oil inject$ at ea* load4 ,9 />t+ by compress$ air1 a quick op5+ lev] op]at$ valve on ! cyl9d] head is us$ to admit air f ! tanks to turn ! eng9e ov] until ! fir/ explosion takes place4 ,if ! vaporiz] is suffici5tly heat$ by ! tor*1 ! explosion occurs dur+ ! fir/ revolution ( ! crank %aft4 ,at a po9t ab\t #he p] c5t ( ! expansion /roke1 ! exhau/ valve is op5$1 & ! products ( combu/ion are expell$ into ! atmosph]e4 ,:5 />t+1 ! compression may be reliev$ by %ift+ ! />t+ lev] f ! exhau/ cam to ! auxili>y />t+ cam provid$ = t purpose4 ,spe$ regulation is affect$ by a ,h>tung gov]nor1 driv5 f ! cam%aft1 :i* actuates ! oil supply pump ?r\gh lev]s by %ift+ ! po9t ( contact betwe5 ! pump lev]s & its actuat+ cam4 ,?is l5g!ns or %ort5s ! /roke ( ! pump 9 accordance ) ! requirem5ts ( ! load4 ,! type ,,fh eng9es are built 9 bo? s+le & tw9 cyl9d]s rang+ f #ij to #ahj horse-p[] 9 ! s+le cyl9d] type to #cfj horse-p[] 9 ! tw94 ,s9ce ! fuel injection ( ! small] eng9e type ,,ha diff]s f t j describ$1 x w be describ$ sep>ately 9 ! foll[+ section4 ,! ,de ,la ,v]gne ,oil ,eng9e 7,type ,,ha7 ,9 ! small f\r /roke cycle ,de ,la ,v]gne ,oil ,eng9e1 ! fuel is inject$ into a heat$ vaporiz] dur+ ! suction /roke 9 su* a way t ! vapor & intake air d n =m a mixture 9 ! cyl9d] prop]4 ,on ! return /roke ( ! pi/on1 ! compression ( ! pure air takes place :i* =ces ! air into ! vaporiz] & into intimate contact ) ! oil vapor4 ,?is =ms an explosive mixture :i* ignites & =ces ! pi/on outw>dly on ! work+ /roke4 ,! release & scav5g+ are p]=m$ 9 a simil> mann] to t ( a f\r /roke cycle gas eng9e4 ,bo? ! inlet & exhau/ valves are ( ! me*anically op]at$ poppet type1 & z bo? ! inlet & exhau/ gases pass ?r\gh ! same passage1 ! ent]+ air is heat$ to a comp>atively high temp]ature4 ,! injection pump receives ! fuel f a con/ant level /& pipe or tank1 locat$ ne> ! eng9e & injects ! fuel into ! vaporiz] ?r\gh a spray nozzle4 ,! vaporiz] is a bulb %ap$ vessel t is connect$ ) ! cyl9d] ?r\gh a %ort po/ & really =ms a "p ( ! combu/ion *amb]4 ,s9ce no wat] jacket surr\nds ! vaporiz]1 x rema9s at a high temp]ature & vaporizes ! oil at ! in/ant ( its injection4 ,because ( ! residual gases rema9+ 9 ! *amb]1 ignition does n occur until air is =c$ ?r\gh ! passage by ! compression4 ,! air inlet valve & ! fuel injection valve are op5$ at ! same in/ant by a cam lev] t also op]ates ! pump4 ,on ! compression /roke1 ! air :i* is at a pressure ( approximately #ge p\nds p] squ>e in* ent]s ! vaporiz]1 & ignition occurs1 p>tly because ( ! increas$ heat due to ! compression & p>tly because ( ! supply ( additional oxyg54 ,int]nal ribs provid$ 9 ! vaporiz] greatly increase ! heat radiat+ surface & add to ! ?or\ghness ) :i* ! atomiz$ oil is vaporiz$4 ,s9ce no mixture ( air & fuel takes place 9 ! cyl9d] prop]1 sudd5 *anges 9 ! load d n affect ! ignition ( ! *>ge z ! heat$ surfaces are surr\nd$ ) comp>atively ri* gas "u all conditions4 ,be=e ! eng9e is />t$1 ! vaporiz+ *amb] is heat$ to a dull r$ heat by means ( a bla/ tor* 9 ord] to vaporize ! oil = ! fir/ /roke4 ,z soon z ! eng9e is runn+1 ! lamp is cut out & ! temp]ature is ma9ta9$ by ! heat ( ! successive explosions4 ,! combu/ion atta9$ by ?is me?od is v complete ev5 ) ! heavie/ fuels1 & :atev] c>bon deposit is =m$ occurs 9 ! vaporiz] f :i* x is easily remov$4 ,! contract$ op5+ ( ! vaporiz] passage effectually prev5ts ! solid matt] f work+ 9 ! bore or valves4 ,a ,port]-type fly ball gov]nor ma9ta9s a con/ant spe$ at v>y+ loads by regulat+ ! quantity ( fuel supply to ! vaporiz]1 ! air intake rema9+ con/ant4 ,a by-pass valve1 controll$ by ! gov]nor divides ! oil suppli$ by ! pump1 into two bran*es1 "o ( :i* leads to ! spray nozzle & ! o!r to ! supply tank4 ,9 ! case :]e all ( ! oil is n suppli$ to ! vaporiz] because ( a light load1 ! by-pass valve w return ! surplus to ! tank1 ?us ma9ta9+ a con/ant pressure at ! spray nozzle4 ,:5 op]at+ "u ord9>y loads1 ! gov]nor op5s only ! small inside valve :i* regulates ! am\nt ( oil inject$ into ! vaporiz]4 ,b %\ld ! eng9e spe$ up1 due to a sudd5 *ange 9 ! load1 ! gov]nor w n only op5 ! small valve b also ! l>ge conc5tric valve1 9 :i* case all ( ! oil w return to ! tank4 ,! mak]s gu>antee ! foll[+ spe$ v>iation limits "u ! diff]5t loads4 ,ord9>y ,v>iation #b p] c5t4 ,full load to "o-qu>t] load #d p] c5t4 ,full load to no load #e p] c5t4 7#fi7 ,op]at+ ,co/s ( ! ,semi-,diesel ,type4 ,z ! semi-,diesel type eng9e w op]ate successfully on ! l[e/ grades ( crude oils1 ) an effici5cy t comp>es favorably ) ! true ,diesel type1 ! op]at+ exp5ses are v mu* l[] ?an ) ! gas or gasol9e eng9e4 ,) ! same fuels1 ! semi-,diesel w %[ great] net sav+ ?an ! ,diesel ) a l[ load factor1 z ! fuel sav+ is n eat5 up by ! high fir/ co/1 & ov]head *>ges ( ! true ,diesel4 ,we/]n crude oils ) a specific gravity ( 4#ifj 7#af ,beaum7 are be+ us$ daily ) ?is type ( eng9e :ile ne>ly e build] ( ! semi-,diesel type w gu>antee results ) oils up to #ah ,beaum 74#idh ,specific ,gravity74 ,fuel ( ?is grade w co/ any:]e f #a c5ts to #c c5ts p] gallon 9 tank c> lots1 dep5d+ on ! di/ance ( ! eng9e f ! wells or ref9]y4 ,) fuel oil weigh+ #g p\nds p] gallon1 an eng9e consum+ 4#fe p\nds p] horse-p[] h\r 7a usual gu>antee7 at full load1 ! co/ ( a horse-p[] h\r deliv]$ at ! %aft w be 4#bf c5t ) fuel at #c c5ts p] gallon4 ,?is ! l[e/ fuel exp5se ( any prime mov] ev5 ) /eam or gas units ( great p[]4 ,9 a tw5ty-f\r h\r te/ ( a ,de ,la ,v]gne oil eng9e runn+ on #ai ,beaum oil1 ! consumption 0 consid]ably bel[ ! figure assum$ above1 be+ 4#ejh p\nds p] horse-p[] h\r4 ,ev5 ! eng9e 0 exce$$ 9 a te/ made on a #age horse-p[] eng9e by ,dr4 ,waldo1 :i* gave a consumption ( 4#cdg p\nds ( oil p] horse-p[] h\r ) oil ( 4#hf ,specific ,gravity4 ,! foll[+ is a tabulation ( reports receiv$ by ! ,de ,la ,v]gne ,ma*9e ,company f ! ,snead ,iron ,works1 giv+ ! co/ ( p[] at _! plant "u actual work+ conditions ext5d+ ov] a p]iod ( tw5ty-f\r mon?s4 ,! plant consi/$ ( a #ag #bg in* ,de ,la ,v]gne semi-,diesel type eng9e ( #ahj horse-p[] rat$ capacity1 ! load factor be+ #ed4b p] c5t4 ,! total p[] produc$ dur+ ! record 0 #eeb1bag horse-p[] h\rs1 ) a work+ p]iod ( #ehh days4 ,fuel #bh4h ,beaum #g4ce p\nds p] gallon4 ,,tabulation ,items ,total ,co/ ,co/ p] ,co/ p] ,k4,w4 ,h\r ,h4,p4 ,h\r ,fuel ,oil1 #ch1baa gallons #hei4ge 4#jjbcb 4#jjaee ,lubricat+ ,oil #bbh4gb 4#jjjfa 4#jjjda ,miscellane\s ,/ores & ,repairs #abc4bj 4#jjjcb 4#jjjbb ,labor & ,att5dance #acfa4db 4#jjcfh 4#jjbdf -------------- -------------- -------------- ,total 4#jjfic 4#jjdfd ,fuel oil us$ 4#gfa p\nds p] ,k4 ,w4 h\r 4#ejh p\nds p] horse-p[] h\r4 ,comput+ f ! load factor ( #ed4b p] c5t1 ! co/ ( p[] produc$ "u ! above conditions w\ld be #i4cj p] horse-p[] ye>1 or #ac4ih p] kil[att ye>4 ,?is result is obta9$ by assum+ t ! horse-p[] h\rs w\ld be increas$ f #eeb1bag to #a1jgg1ced1 or 9 proportion to ! actual load factor1 ! p]iod1 ( c\rse be+ ! same 9 bo? cases4 7#gj7 ,elyria ,semi-,diesel ,type4 ,a type ( semi-,diesel type oil eng9e has be5 rec5tly develop$ by ! ,elyria ,gas ,p[] ,co41 ,elyria1 ,o41 t pres5ts _m features ( int]e/4 ,x op]ates on ! two /roke cycle pr9ciple1 & ) ! exception ( ! spray nozzle has no valves 9 ! work+ cyl9d]4 ,! pr9ciple ( ! semi-,diesel type cycle z di/+ui%$ f ! true ,diesel eng9e1 0 describ$ 9 ,*apt] ,,iii1 z hav+ ! foll[+ *>act]i/ics4 7#a7 ,fuel injection4 7#b7 ,m$ium compression pressure4 7#c7 ,hot plate ignition4 7#d7 ,an effici5cy approximat+ t ( ! true ,diesel type4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gg4 ,work+ ,cyl9d] ( ,elyria ,oil ,eng9e4 ,x is claim$ t ! *ange f ! ord9>y f\r /roke cycle ,diesel cycle has be5 accompli%$ ) practically no loss ( !rmal effici5cy1 & t ! elim9ation ( ! _m mov+ p>ts ( t type has done away ) _m ( ! op]at+ difficulties4 ,by ! introduction ( a false pi/on end & an unjacket$ cyl9d] head1 ! loss ( effici5cy due to ! l[] compression is comp5sat$ by ! r$uction ( heat loss to ! jacket wat]4 ,because ( ! high temp]ature x is possible to burn ! heavie/ fuels ) a maximum pressure n exce$+ #djj p\nds p] squ>e in*1 & )\t tr\ble due to miss$ ignition at light loads4 ,) a giv5 cyl9d] capacity ?is heat+ effect has increas$ ! output ab\t #ge p] c5t4 ,! loss due to ! friction ( ! scav5g+ app>atus causes a fuel consumption ( approximately #aj p]c5t m ?an a /&>d f\r /roke ,diesel4 ,unlike ! ,diesel1 ?is eng9e automatically controls ! quantity ( injection air admitt$ to ! cyl9d] at diff]5t loads1 ! air correspond+ ) ! am\nt ( fuel inject$4 ,?is is 9 m>k$ contra/ ) ! ,diesel eng9e :i* admits a con/ant volume ( air at all loads4 ,9 place ( ! usual crank-case compression ( ! scav5g+ air met ) 9 ! ord9>y two /roke cycle eng9e1 ! initial compression 9 ! ,elyria eng9e is p]=m$ by a 8diff]5tial pi/on0 :i* acts 9 an enl>g$ portion ( ! cyl9d] bore4 ,?is con/ruction increases ! volumetric effici5cy f #gj p]c5t1 9 ! case ( ! m>9e type1 to well ov] #ij p]c5t1 & x also does away ) ! bad effect ( ! compression on ! lubrication ( ! ma9 crank %aft be>+s4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gh4 ,compressor ,cyl9d] ( ,elyria ,oil ,eng9e4 ,! work+ pi/on & diff]5tial pi/on z %[n by ,fig4 #gg is sep>ate ca/+s fa/5$ toge!r by f\r /uds1 & ! pi/on p9 is c>ri$ by ! diff]5tial pi/on :i* acts z a cross-head1 tak+ all ( ! side ?ru/ f ! ma9 pi/on4 ,! work+ pi/on is easily tak5 f ! cyl9d] by remov+ ! cyl9d] head & ! f\r nuts t fa/5 x to ! diff]5tial pi/on ca/+4 ,! displacem5t ( ! diff]5tial pi/on is approximately #a4i times ! displacem5t ( ! work+ pi/on :i* is m ?an en\gh = ?or\ghly scav5g+ ! cyl9d] & supply+ air = combu/ion4 ,! air suction is controll$ by a pi/on valve :i* elim9ates mu* ( ! loss enc\nt]$ 9 ! m>9e type ( two /roke cycle4 ,9 ! figure may be se5 ! sep>ate or auxili>y pi/on head :i* is bolt$ to ! pi/on prop]1 a con/ruction t greatly increases ! work+ temp]ature1 & all[s a symmetrical =m ( pi/on4 ,by remov+ ! cap ov] ! inlet port1 x is possible to inspect ! condition ( ! six pi/on r+s ) remov+ ! pi/on f ! cyl9d]4 ,because ( ! clean burn+ ( ! fuel lubrication is easily effect$ by ! =ce pump :i* supplies oil at ?ree po9ts ar\nd ! cyl9d] wall4 ,?ree /ages ( compression are employ$ = provid+ ! air = fuel injection1 ! fir/ /age be+ accompli%$ by ! diff]5tial pi/on1 & ! rema9+ two /ages by a sep>ate air pump driv5 by an ecc5tric f ! crank%aft4 ,?is cyl9d] also supplies ! air = />t+ ! eng9e1 ! air be+ tak5 f ! second /age & pip$ to ! /orage tank4 ,! suction ( ! second /age pump :i* receives its air f ! diff]5tial pump 7fir/ /age7 is controll$ automatically s t x is possible to keep ! supply tank at any desir$ pressure reg>dless ( ! pressure or am\nt ( air us$ = ! fuel injection4 ,air f ! tank 7at approximately #bjj p\nds pressure7 is pip$ to ! suction side ( ! ?ird /age air pump4 ,9 ?is suction l9e is a valve1 controll$ by ! gov]nor1 :i* regulates ! am\nt ( air admitt$ to ! injection nozzle1 & also ! am\nt4 ,?is pressure at ! nozzle w v>y f #ejj p\nds p] squ>e in* to #ajjj p\nds dep5d+ on ! load & ! nature ( ! fuel4 ,! high pressure air travels directly f ! pump to ! fuel valve cas+1 & is equipp$ ) a safety valve & pressure gauge4 ,! fuel pump is driv5 by a ,rites ,in]tia ,gov]nor locat$ 9 ! fly-:eel :i* v>ies ! /roke ( ! pump plung] & gives a correct proportion ( fuel to ! load4 ,?is type ( gov]nor has be5 ext5sively us$ on high spe$ eng9es & is exce$+ accurate4 ,! fuel pump may be disconnect$ f ! gov]nor drive1 & op]at$ by h& :5 x is necess>y to provide fuel = />t+4 ,! spray or injection valve is op]at$ by a cam1 :i* lifts ! valve at ! prop] mom5t 9 a v simple mann]4 ,! valve prop] is made ( a s+le piece ( /eel ) op5+s ( ample size1 s t !re is no dang] ( clogg+ ) ! heavie/ fuels4 ,z ! valve only lifts #a_/af ( an in*1 ! am\nt ( "w requir$ to op]ate ! valve is v small4 ,/>t+ is accompli%$ by spray+ cold gasol9e into ! cyl9d] ?r\gh ! fuel valve 9 ! same mann] t ! heavi] oil is f$ dur+ op]ation1 & ! ignition is p]=m$ by a high t5sion coil & batt]ies4 ,no sp>k "t device is us$1 s t a cont9u\s %[] ( sp>ks is ?r[n into ! mixture dur+ ! />t+ p]iod4 ,)9 a m9ute aft] ! eng9e is />t$1 ! ignition swit* may be op5$1 ! gasol9e cut (f1 & ! heavy oil turn$ on = cont9u\s runn+ on full load4 ,/>t+ by an electric sp>k avoids ! inconv5i5ce & dang] ( tor* />t+ ) a retort4 ,cool+ wat] is admitt$ ar\nd ! compressor cyl9d] f :i* po9t x goes to ! work+ cyl9d]1 & is !re dis*>g$4 ,less wat] is requir$ = ?is type ( eng9e ?an = ! ord9>y gasol9e eng9e1 = ) ! wat] ent]+ at #fj;,f1 only #c gallons p] horse-p[] h\r is us$4 ,) fuel oil weigh+ #g4cc p\nds p] gallon ! mak]s claim a fuel consumption ( 4#fe p\nds p] horse-p[] at ! rat$ load4 ,! am\nt ( cyl9d] oil us$ does n exce$ #a p9t p] #ajj horse-p[] h\rs1 :ile ! loss ( ! be>+ oil is extremely small because ( ! return sy/em4 7#ga7 ,rem+ton ,oil ,eng9e4 ,! ,rem+ton ,oil ,eng9e is a v]tical oil eng9e op]at+ on ! ?ree port1 two /roke cycle1 & is an oil eng9e 9 ! /rict mean+ ( ! ^w1 ! oil consum$ be+ introduc$ into ! combu/ion *amb] z a liquid & gasifi$ )9 ?is *amb]4 ,! me?od ( gasify+ & ignit+ ! *>ge ( oil 9 ! ,rem+ton ,oil ,eng9e is unique4 ,only clean air unmix$ ) any *>ge1 is tak5 into ! crankcase4 ,?is air is aft]w>ds pass$ up into ! cyl9d] & compress$ until its temp]ature has rais$ to a po9t high en\gh to vaporize ! oil :i* is inject$ into x4 ,! *>ge ( oil is !n atomiz$ into ?is hot compress$ air & turns imm$iately into a vapor1 :i* f9ds itself well mix$ ) ! *>ge ( air1 comes 9 contact ) a fir+ p9 recess$ 9 ! head1 ignite & burns4 ,?is me?od ( hav+ ! oil well gasifi$ & mix$ ) air be=e ignition beg9s1 prev5ts ! =mation ( c>bon :i* is =m$ :5 oil n well gasifi$ & mix$ ) air comes sudd5ly 9 contact ) v hot surfaces4 ,?is p]fect sy/em ( gasify+ ! oil has ! effect n only ( prev5t+ ! =mation ( c>bon 9 ! cyl9d]1 b also ( increas+ ! mean effective pressure & !re=e decreas+ ! am\nt ( fuel necess>y = do+ a c]ta9 am\nt ( "w4 ,! eng9e passes ?r\gh its cycle ( op]ations smoo?ly1 & does n h to be con/ruct$ ) excessive weight4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gi4 ,cross-,section ( ,rem+ton ,oil ,eng9e4 ,! ,rem+ton ,eng9e is ( ! valveless type1 deliv]+ a p[] impulse 9 ea* cyl9d] = ea* revolution ( fly:eel4 ,! gases are mov$ 9 & out ( ! cyl9d] ?r\gh ports uncov]$ by ! movem5t ( ! pi/on1 :i* itself p]=ms also ! function ( a pump4 ,on ! up /roke ( ! pi/on a p>tial vacuum is creat$ 9 ! enclos$ crankcase1 caus+ air to ru% 9 :5 ! bottom ( ! pi/on uncov]s ! inlet port se5 directly "u ! exhau/ port 7#bc71 ,fig4 #gi4 ,on ! next d[n /roke ?is air is compress$ 9 ! crankcase to ab\t f\r or five p\nds pressure p] squ>e in*4 ,mean:ile ! mixture ( oil vapor & air already 9 ! cyl9d] is burn+ & exp&+4 ,:5 ! pi/on approa*es ! end ( its d[n /roke1 x uncov]s ! exhau/ port 7#bc71 p]mitt+ ! burnt *>ge to escape1 until its pressure rea*es t ( ! atmosph]e4 ,directly aft]w>d ! transf] port on ! opposite side ( ! cyl9d] is uncov]$ by ! pi/on1 !reby all[+ a portion ( ! air compress$ 9 ! crankcase to ru% into ! cyl9d]1 :]e x is deflect$ upw>ds by ! %ape ( ! top ( ! pi/on & caus$ to fill ! cyl9d]1 !reby expell+ ! rema9d] ( ! burnt *>ge4 ,! pi/on n[ />ts upw>d1 compress+ ! fre% *>ge ( air into ! hot cyl9d] head4 ,ne> ! end ( ! /roke1 a small oil pump1 m\nt$ on ! crankcase & controll$ by ! gov]nor1 injects ! prop] am\nt ( oil ?r\gh ! nozzle 7#ac71 into ! compress$ & heat$ air4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hj4 ,rem+ton ,spray ,nozzle4 ,?is oil is atomiz$ 9 a v]tical direction ?r\gh a hole ne> ! end ( ! nozzle4 ,x is !re=e vaporiz$ & gasifi$ be=e !re is a possibility ( its rea*+ ! cyl9d] walls4 ,! spray ( oil is ignit$ by ! nickel /eel plug 7#ab71 :i* is kept r$ hot by ! explosions because ! iron walls surr\nd+ x are protect$ f radiation by ! hood 7#aa74 ,by ! burn+ ( ! oil spray 9 ! air ! pressure is gradually increas$ & ! pi/on =c$ d[nw>d1 ?is be+ ! p[] or impulse /roke4 ,ne> ! end ( ! d[n /roke1 ! exhau/ port is aga9 uncov]$ & ! burnt gases dis*>g$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ha4 ,fuel ,pump & ,me*anism ( ,rem+ton ,oil ,eng9e4 ,! op]ations above describ$ take place 9 ! cyl9d] & crankcase ) e revolution4 ,ea* up/roke ( ! pi/on draws fre% air into ! crankcase & compresses ! air transf]r$ to ! cyl9d]4 ,ea* d[n /roke is a p[] /roke1 & at ! same "t compresses ! air 9 ! crankcase prep>atory to transf]r+ x to ! cyl9d] by its own pressure at ! end ( ! /roke4 ,! same volume ( air ent]s ! cyl9d] "u all conditions1 & ! p[] is regulat$ by modify+ ! /roke ( ! oil pump1 :i* may be done by h& or automatically by ! gov]nor 9 ! fly:eel4 ,a sep>ate fuel pump is provid$ = ea* cyl9d] :5 multiple cyl9d]s are us$1 mak+ x absolutely c]ta9 t ea* cyl9d] %all receive ! same am\nt ( fuel = a position ( ! control lev]4 ,:5 />t+ ! eng9e1 ! holl[ ca/ iron prong ris+ f ! cyl9d] head is heat$ by a k]os5e tor*1 & :5 hot1 a s+le *>ge ( oil is admitt$ to ! cyl9d] by work+ ! h& pump4 ,! fly:eel is n[ turn$ backw>d1 !reby compress+ ! *>ge :i* ignites ! fuel be=e ! pi/on rea*es ! highe/ position4 ,aft] be+ />t$ ! eng9e1 ! tor* may be ext+ui%$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hb4 ,two ,cyl9d] ,rem+ton ,oil ,eng9e ,direct ,connect$ to ,dynamo4 ,! gov]nor is ( ! c5trifugal type4 ,x has an ,l-%ap$ weight1 pivot$ to ! piece atta*$ to ! fly:eel4 ,z ! eng9e spe$ increases1 ! weight t5ds to sw+ outw>d t[>d ! fly:eel rim1 & !reby moves ! arm atta*$ to x s z to %ift ! cam along ! crank%aft t[>d ! left4 ,?is cam turns ) ! %aft1 & op]ates ! k]os5e oil pump4 ,accord+ to ! position ( ! cam on ! %aft1 x w imp>t to ! pump plung] a long or a %ort /roke1 !reby inject+ m or less oil into ! cyl9d]4 ,! lev] pivot$ on ! bracket moves ) ! cam & is us$ = controll+ ! eng9e's spe$ by h&4 ,to /op ! eng9e ! h&le ( ! lev] is pull$ t[>ds ! fly:eel1 !reby int]rupt+ ! pump action altoge!r4 ,! h&le ( ! control lev] c be fitt$ ) an adju/able spe$ regulator :5 requir$4 ,?is device is = use on m>9e eng9es to enable ! op]ator to sl[ d[n ! eng9e4 ,! spe$ regulator does n int]f]e ) ! action ( ! gov]nor b acts 9 conjunction ) x4 ,:atev] ! spe$ ( ! eng9e may be1 x is "u ! control ( ! gov]nor4 ,! eng9e c be controll$ f ! pilot h\se if su* an arrangem5t is desirable4 ,! fuel pump is made ( bronze4 ,! valves are made ( bronze & are design$ ) v l>ge areas4 ,! plung] is made ( tool /eel4 ,a bronze cup /ra9] is atta*$ to ! l[] end ( ! pump to prev5t s$im5t or =eign matt] f rea*+ ! pump valves4 ,z a result ( ! c>e us$ 9 its con/ruction1 ! fuel pump is n only v s5sitive 9 measur+ ! oil requir$ by ! gov]nor1 b is also v /rong & durable4 ,! nozzle ?r\gh :i* ! fuel is atomiz$ into ! cyl9d] is ?or\ghly wat] jacket$ to prev5t ! =mation ( c>bon )9 ! nozzle4 ,x is s con/ruct$ t ! wat] jacket spaces & fuel spaces c be op5$ = inspection4 ,lubrication ( all ! important be>+ jo9ts is effect$ by a me*anical =ce fe$ oil]1 pressure fe$ oil] or by gravity sight fe$ oil]s1 dep5d+ ^u ! s]vice = :i* ! eng9e is design$4 ,oil is f$ 9 ?is mann] to ! pi/on1 ! ma9 be>+s & ! crankp9 be>+s4 ,! oil = ! crankp9 is dropp$ f a tube into an int]nally flang$ r+ atta*$ to ! crank by :i* x is c>ri$ by c5trifugal =ce to a hole drill$ diagonally ?r\gh ! crank & crankp9 to ! c5tre ( ! be>+4 ,?is insures t all ! oil int5d$ = ! crankp9 %all rea* x4 ,?is feature1 z well z ! use ( ! sight fe$ oil] itself1 is 9 l9e ) ! be/ mod]n high spe$ eng9e practice1 & is an important factor 9 ! reliability ( ! eng9e4 ,,*apt] ,,viii ,,ignition ,,sy/ems 7#gc7 ,pr9ciples ( ,ignition4 ,x is ! purpose ( ! ignition sy/em to raise a small portion ( ! mixture to ! combu/ion temp]ature1 or ! temp]ature at :i* ! air & fuel w />t to ent] into *emical comb9ation4 ,:5 combu/ion is once />t$ 9 a compress$ combu/ible gas x w spread ?r\gh\t ! mass no matt] h[ small ! orig9al portion inflam$4 ,! rate at :i* ! flame spreads ?r\gh ! combu/ion *amb] dep5ds ^u ! compression pressure1 ! ri*ness ( ! mixture1 ! nature ( ! fuel & ^u ! numb] ( po9ts at :i* x is ignit$4 ,9 practice p]fect ignition is seldom realiz$4 ,?is is due n only to ! ignition sy/em itself b to poor mixture proportions1 imp]fect vaporiz+ ( ! fuel1 & l[ compression2 all ( :i* t5d to a sl[ burn+ mixture ) ! att5dant losses4 ,! be/ ignition sy/em w be t :i* w cause ! ignition to occur inv>iably at ! po9t ( highe/ compression & :i* w supply ample heat to />t ! process ( combu/ion ) a cold cyl9d]1 imp]fect mixtures1 & l[ compressions4 ,an effici5t & reliable ignition sy/em is )\t a d\bt ! mo/ important unit 9 ! con/ruction ( a gas eng9e4 ,z ignition sy/ems h improv$ & become m reliable1 s has ! gas eng9e become m widely us$ & appreciat$1 & 9 almo/ a direct proportion to ^! improvem5ts4 ,_m +5i\s ignition sy/ems h be5 propos$1 b only two ( ^! h met ) any degree ( success 9 practice2 i4 e41 electrical ignition & ignition by means ( ! hot tube4 ,sponge plat9um has ! peculi> prop]ty ( ignit+ jets ( hydrog5 gas1 or hydroc>bons1 )\t ! aid ( heat2 ?is is due to ! cond5s+ effect ( ! plat9um on ^! gases4 ,x 0 propos$ to ignite ! gase\s *>ge ( ! gas eng9e by means ( ! plat9um sponge 7catalytic ignition7 b ! sy/em prov$ a failure because ( ! clogg+ ( ! pores 9 ! sponge by f9e p>ticles ( soot4 ,dr4 ,otto employ$ an op5 flame :i* 0 introduc$ into ! mixture by means ( a slide valve4 ,?is met ) only a fair measure ( success4 ,c]ium1 ,lan?um & sev]al o!r r>e metals cause a consid]able sp>k :5 br\ght into contact ) iron or /eel4 ,! objection to ?is me?od 0 ! exp5se ( ! ,c]ium plugs :i* requir$ frequ5t r5ewal4 ,! writ] rememb]s a qua9t attempt at fir+ ! *>ge by means ( a piece ( fl9t & /eel2 ! failure ( ?is is obvi\s4 ,! ,diesel ,eng9e1 a great success f a !rmodynamic /&po9t1 is fir$ by means ( ! heat produc$ by ! compression ( air1 ! fuel be+ spray$ into air :i* is compress$ to sev]al hundr$ p\nds pressure4 ,mr4 ,victor ,l\ghe$ proposes ignition by means ( a plat9um wire r5d]$ inc&esc5t by a curr5t ( electricity4 ,! plan s\nds feasible1 b we are /ill wait+ to be %[n4 ,electric ignition is applicable to all classes ( eng9es2 9 fact ?is sy/em made ! v>iable spe$ eng9e z us$ on automobiles1 etc41 a possibility1 z accurate tim+ ) ! electric sp>k cov]s ! range f ! l[e/ possible spe$ to spe$s ( #d1ejj revolutions p] m9ute & ov]4 7#gd7 ,advance & ,ret>d4 ,:ile ! combu/ion ( ! mixture is extremely rapid "u favorable conditions1 !re is1 nev]!less1 a p]ceptible lapse betwe5 ! in/ant ( ignition & ! f9al pressure e/abli%$ by ! heat ( ! combu/ion4 ,= ?is reason x is necess>y t ignition %\ld be />t$ a c]ta9 l5g? ( "t be=e ! pressure is requir$ if we are to expect a maximum pressure at a def9ite po9t 9 ! /roke ( ! pi/on4 ,! am\nt by :i* ! "t ( ignition prec$es t ( combu/ion is call$ ! ,,advance1 & is usually giv5 9 t]ms ( angul> degrees made by ! crank 9 travel+ f ! "t ( ignition to "t ( maximum pressure4 ,s9ce ! pressure is always requir$ at ! extreme end ( ! compression /roke1 ! degree ( advance is giv5 z ! angle made by ! c5t] l9e ( ! cyl9d] ) ! c5t] l9e ( ! crank at ! in/ant ( ignition4 ,%\ld ! advance be giv5 z #aj1 = example1 x is meant t ! crank is /ill #aj f complet+ ! compression :5 ignition occurs4 ,ow+ to v>iations 9 ! ri*ness ( ! mixture1 & *anges 9 ! compression pressure1 due to ?rottl+ ! incom+ *>ge1 ! rate ( inflammation v>ies f "t to "t "u v>y+ loads4 ,to keep ! maximum pressure at a giv5 po9t "u ^! conditions x is necess>y to v>y ! po9t ( ignition to correspond ) ! increase or decrease ( inflammation4 ,?is v>iation ( advance to meet v>y+ loads is approximat$ by ! gov]nor 9 "s eng9es1 & manually 9 o!rs4 ,! advance ( an automobile is an example ( manual ignition control4 ,%\ld ! po9t ( ignition v>y f ! !oretical po9t x w result 9 a loss ( fuel & p[]1 & = ?is reason ! ignition %\ld be "u at lea/ an approximate control4 ,a wide v>iation 9 eng9e spe$ has a v consid]able effect on ! ignition po9t z !re is less "t 9 :i* to burn ! mixture at high pi/on spe$s1 & consequ5tly ! ignition mu/ be fur!r advanc$ to insure complete combu/ion at ! end ( ! /roke4 ,?is fact is evid5t to ^? :o h driv5 automobiles4 ,%\ld ! ignition occur too e>ly1 s t combu/ion is complete be=e ! pi/on rea*es ! end ( ! /roke1 !re w be a loss ( p[] due to ! t5d5cy ( ! pressure to rev]se ! rotation ( ! eng9e4 ,:5 />t+ an eng9e1 ov]-advanc$ ignition w ?r[ ! crank ov] 9 ! rev]se direction f :i* x is int5d$ to g1 & w n only prev5t ! eng9e f com+ up to spe$ b w prove dang]\s to ! op]ator4 ,due to ! effects ( in]tia & self induction 9 sev]al types ( ignition app>atus1 a great] advance w be requir$ ?an t dem&$ by ! combu/ion rate ( ! mixture4 ,?is sluggi%ness ( ! app>atus 9 respond+ to ! pi/on position is call$ ignition ,,lag4 ,! total advance requir$ to h ! combu/ion complete at ! end ( ! /roke is equal to ! advance requir$ by ! burn+ spe$ plus ! ignition lag4 ,s9ce lag is pr9cipally due to in]tia effects1 x is mu* great] at high spe$s ?an at l[1 & x !re=e causes an additional advance at high spe$s4 ,caus+ ! ignition to occur be=e ! crank rea*es ! upp] dead c5t] is call$ ,,advanc$ ,,ignition1 caus+ x to occur aft] ! pi/on has rea*$ ! upp] dead c5t]1 or :5 on ! outw>d /roke1 is call$ ,,ret>d$ ,,ignition4 ,ignition is ret>d$ :5 />t+ an eng9e to prev5t x f tak+ its initial turn 9 ! wrong direction4 ,z ! combu/ion takes place aft] ! compression1 ) ! pi/on mov+ on ! work+ /roke1 9 ret>d1 x is impossible = ! pressure to =ce ! pi/on 9 any direction b ! "r "o4 ,excessively ret>d$ ignition w cause a p[] loss & w also cause ov]heat+ ( ! cyl9d] & valves z ! combu/ion is sl[]4 7#ge7 ,preignition4 ,preignition :i* is 9 effect ! same z ov]-advanc$ ignition z due to causes )9 ! cyl9d] su* z inc&esc5t c>bon deposits or ?9 %>p edges 9 ! cyl9d] t h become inc&esc5t ?r\gh ! heat ( ! successive explosions4 ,preignition is v objectionable s9ce x causes heavy /ra9s on ! eng9e p>ts & causes a loss ( p[] 9 ! same way z ov]-advanc$ ignition4 ,any condition t causes ! preignit+ ( ! *>ge %\ld be remov$ imm$iately4 7#gf7 ,misfir+4 ,! failure ( ! ignition app>atus to ignite e *>ge is call$ ,,misfir+4 ,?is miss+ n only causes a wa/e ( fuel & a loss ( p[] b x also causes an increas$ /ra9 on ! eng9e p>ts because ( ! viol5ce ( ! explosion foll[+ ! miss$ /roke4 ,! heavy explosion is due to ! fact t ! /roke foll[+ ! 8miss0 is m ?or\ghly scav5g$ by ! two admissions ( ! mixture ?an ! ord9>y work+ /roke1 & consequ5tly conta9s a m active *>ge4 7#gg7 ,hot ,tube ,ignition4 ,a combu/ible gas may be ignit$ by br++ x into contact ) surface heat$ to1 or above ! ignition temp]ature4 ,x is ^u ?is pr9ciple t hot tube ignition is bas$4 ,9 practice ?is surface is provid$ by ! bore ( a tube :i* is 9 communication ) ! *>ge 9 ! cyl9d]1 ! out] end ( ! tube be+ clos$ or /opp$ up4 ,ar\nd ?is tube is an asbe/os-l9$ *imney :i* causes ! flame f ! ,buns5 burn] to come into contact ) ! tube & also prev5ts draughts ( air f *ill+ x4 ,a ,buns5 burn] is locat$ ne> ! base ( ! tube & ma9ta9s x at bright r$ heat4 ,! gas = ! burn] is suppli$ f a s\rce ext]nal to ! eng9e4 ,:5 ! fuel us$ is gasol9e1 a gasol9e burn] is us$1 :i* is f$ f a small supply tank locat$ five or six feet above ! burn]4 ,dur+ ! admission /roke1 ! hot tube is fill$ ) ! non-combu/ible gases rema9+ f ! previ\s explosion1 !re=e1 ! fre% ent]+ gases _c come into contact ) ! hot walls ( ! tube & cause a premature explosion1 be=e ! *>ge is compress$4 ,z ! compression ( ! new *>ge proce$s1 ! fre% gas is =c$ f>!r & f>!r into ! tube & at ! highe/ po9t ( compression x has p5etrat$ f> en\gh to come into contact ) ! hot portion4 ,at ?is po9t ! explosion occurs4 ,! tube be+ ( small bore1 does n all[ ( ! burnt gases m+l+ ) ! fre% )9 ! tube2 ! wa/e gases 9 ! tube act+ z a regulat+ cu%ion4 ,! di/ance ( travel ( ! new mixture is proportional to ! compression1 h5ce ! explosion does n occur until a c]ta9 degree ( compression is atta9$4 ,! l5g? ( ! tube requir$ = a giv5 eng9e is a matt] ( exp]im5t1 z is also ! location ( ! heat$ portion4 ,high compression naturally =ces ! mixture f>!r into ! tube ?an l[1 !re=e ! flame %\ld come into contact ) ! tube at a po9t ne>] ! out] end ) high compression ?an ) a l[ compression4 ,%ort5+ ! tube causes advanc$ ignition1 z ! mixture rea*es ! heat$ portion soon]1 or e>li] 9 ! /roke1 because ( ! decreas$ cu%ion+ effect ( ! residue gases 9 ! tube4 ,! l5g? ( tube & location ( maximum heat zone %\ld be s proportion$ t combu/ion w take place at ! highe/ compression4 ,mov+ flame to out] end ( ! tube ret>ds ignition4 ,mov+ ! flame t[>d ! cyl9d] advances x4 ,:ile ! hot tube is ! acme ( simplicity 9 con/ruction1 x is n ! easie/ ?+ to prop]ly adju/1 z ! adju/m5t dep5ds on compression1 temp]ature ( ! tube1 & ! quality ( ! mixture4 ,any ( ^! v>iables may cause improp] fir+4 ,! hot tube is r an exp5sive type ( ignition ) high pric$ fuel1 z ! burn] consumes a consid]able am\nt ( gas1 & is burn+ cont9u\sly dur+ ! idle /rokes z well z dur+ ! "t ( fir+4 ,x is practically impossible to obta9 satisfactory results f a hot tube on an eng9e t regulates its spe$ by v>y+ ! mixture or compression1 z eng9es runn+ on a light load w n h suffici5t compression to cause ! mixture to come into contact ) ! hot surface1 ! eng9e misfir+ on light loads4 ,! tubes are made ( porcela91 nickel /eel alloy1 or common gas pipe1 & are ( v>i\s diamet]s & l5g?s4 ,all ( ^! mat]ials h _! faults4 ,porcela9 be+ v brittle1 is liable to breakage4 ,gas pipe burns out & corrodes rapidly4 ,nickel alloy is n liable to breakage1 is n s susceptible to corrosion z iron1 b is f> f be+ a p]man5t fixture4 ,tim+ valves are a feature ( "s sy/ems ( hot tube ignition1 :i* correct to a c]ta9 ext5t ! irregul>ity ( fir+ ( ! pla9 type ( tube4 ,! tim+ valve is introduc$ 9 ! passage connect+ ! cyl9d] & tube1 & prev5ts ! gas 9 ! cyl9d] f com+ into contact ) ! heat$ surface until ignition is desir$4 ,! valve is op]at$ by means ( me*anism connect+ x ) ! crank %aft4 ,x is evid5t t ) suffici5t compression 9 ! cyl9d]1 ! "t ( ignition c be obta9$ ) c]ta9ty4 ,?is me*anism is r complicat$1 & subject to we>1 & ! advantage ga9$ by ! fix$ po9t ( ignition is (fset by me*anical complication & consequ5t tr\ble4 ,! action ( hot tube ignit]s is erratic & _! use is n advisable unless "u unusual conditions4 ,! op5 flame us$ 9 heat+ ! tube is a con/ant m5ace1 z x is surr\nd$ by inflammable vapors4 ,?is feature alone condemns x 9 ! eyes ( ! insurance und]writ]s2 9 _m places ! use ( ! hot tube is prohibit$ bo? by ! und]writ]s & city ord9ances4 ,! above inh]5t defects ( hot tubes are supplem5t$ by breakage1 8bl[+10 & clogg+ ( ! tube or passage ) soot & products ( corrosion1 ea* factor ( :i* w cause misfir+4 ,9 case ( misfir+1 aft] det]m9+ t ! tube is n brok5 or clogg$ ) soot or dirt1 see t ! eng9e is be+ suppli$ ) ! prop] mixture2 t y are obta9+ ! prop] compression2 & t ! ,buns5 burn] is deliv]+ a bright blue flame on ! tube at ! prop] po9t4 ,nev] all[ ! burn] to develop a yell[ sooty flame4 ,a yell[ flame indicates t insuffici5t air is be+ admitt$ to ! burn]4 ,rememb] t an ov]heat$ tube is quickly de/roy$1 & w cause misfir+ z surely z an und]heat$ tube4 ,regulate ! gas supply to ! burn]4 ,a small leak ne> ! out] end ( ! tube w de/roy ! cu%ion+ effect ( ! burnt gas1 & h5ce w cause premature fir+ ( ! *>ge4 ,procure a new tube4 ,_m eng9es are provid$ ) a slid+ burn] & *imney :i* all[s ( "s adju/m5t ( ! flame on ! tube4 ,9 cases ( p]si/5t misfir+1 move ! *imney "o way or ! o!r4 ,x may improve ! ignition4 7#gh7 ,electrical ,ignition4 ,ignition by means ( an electric sp>k is by f> ! mo/ satisfactory me?od z x makes accurate tim+ & prompt />t+ possible4 ,x is ! mo/ reliable ( all sy/ems & is easily inspect$ & adju/$ by anyone hav+ ev5 a rudim5t>y idea ( electricity or ! gas eng9e4 ,= ?is reason electric ignition is us$ on practically all mod]n eng9es 7) ! exception ( ! ,diesel types74 ,! sp>k is caus$ by ! curr5t jump+ an op5+ or gap 9 ! conduct+ pa? ( ! curr5t1 & ! ignition ( ! *>ge is obta9$ by plac+ ?is cap 9 ! mid/ ( ! combu/ible mixture to :i* ! sp>k communicates its heat4 ,! me?od ( produc+ ! sp>k gap1 & ! me?od by :i* ! curr5t is =c$ to jump ! gap1 divides ! electrical ignition sy/em into two pr9cipal classes3 7#a7 ,! ,,make ,,& ,,break1 or ,,l[ ,,t5sion sy/em4 7#b7 ,! ,,jump ,,sp>k or ,,high ,,t5sion sy/em4 ,9 ei!r sy/em ! sp>k is produc$ by ! electrical friction ( ! curr5t pass+ ?r\gh ! high resi/ance ( ! gas 9 ! sp>k gap4 ,! inc&esc5t vapor 9 ! gap =m$ by ?is increase ( temp]atures causes ! fla% t is kn[n z ! sp>k4 ,! temp]ature ( ! gap dep5ds pr9cipally ^u ! curr5t fl[+ ?r\gh x1 ! am\nt ( heat develop$ be+ proportional to ! squ>e ( ! curr5t4 ,!re is ( c\rse a practical limit to ! am\nt ( curr5t us$ 9 ! ignition app>atus to produce sp>k heat4 ,! limit is g5]ally set by consid]ations ( ! life ( ! batt]y furni%+ ! curr5t1 exp5se ( g5]at+ ! curr5t1 & ! life ( ! contact po9ts betwe5 :i* ! sp>k occurs4 ,! heat develop$ by an electric curr5t is proportional to ! am\nt ( resi/ance (f]$ to its fl[ & ! /r5g? ( ! curr5t employ$4 ,! great] ! resi/ance1 ! m heat develop$4 ,! resi/ance ( copp] wire 7! usual conduct+ pa?71 be+ v l[ causes little rise 9 temp]ature1 b ! air 9 ! op5+ or break has a resi/ance ( _m ?\s&s ( times ! resi/ance ( ! copp]2 h5ce ! curr5t pass+ across ! op5+ sp>k or gap raises ! air to an exce$+ly high temp]ature4 ,) a comp>atively heavy curr5t fl[+ across ! break1 ! temp]ature develop$ is high en\gh to boil or vaporize any metal 9 contact ) ! sp>k or flame1 r5d]+ ! metallic vapors inc&esc5t4 ,) suffici5t curr5t1 ! ends ( ! wires :i* con/itute ! break may be melt$ away4 ,= ! successful & cont9u\s op]ation ( ! eng9e x is imp]ative t ends ( ! conduct+ pa? or t]m9als be made ( a metal ( a high fus+ po9t 9 ord] to )/& ! heat ( ! sp>k & also t ! curr5t be kept to z l[ a value z possible4 ,9 actual con/ruction ! sp>k gap t]m9als are g5]ally made ( plat9um or plat9o-iridium1 or an alloy ( high fus+ po9t4 ,iron is sometimes us$1 b det]iorates rapidly4 ,nickel /eel la/s long] ?an common iron or /eel b is n z durable z plat9um or its alloys4 ,z ! temp]ature ( ! electric sp>k or arc is approximately #g1ejj ,f41 & ! ignition temp]ature ( an ord9>y ri* gas at #gj lbs4 compression is #a1ajj ,f41 x is evid5t t ! quantity ( curr5t = ignition may be kept to an exce$+ly l[ value4 ,high compression increases ! resi/ance ( ! sp>k gap1 & requires high] electrical pressure to =ce a giv5 curr5t across a gap ( giv5 l5g?4 7#gi7 ,s\rces ( ,curr5t4 ,! electric curr5t t causes ! ignition sp>k is usually g5]at$ or suppli$ by "o ( ! ?ree foll[+ me?ods3-- #a4 ,by ! prim>y batt]y :i* conv]ts ! *emical en]gy ( metal1 & "s corrod+ fluid1 into electrical en]gy1 by *emical means4 #b4 ,by ! magneto or dynamo t conv]ts me*anical "w or en]gy into electrical en]gy ?r\gh ! me?od ( magnetic induction4 #c4 ,by ! /orage or second>y batt]y :i* acts z a res]voir or /orage tank = curr5t t has be5 g5]at$ by ei!r ( ! two above me?ods4 ,a /orage batt]y simply returns electrical en]gy t has be5 exp5d$ on x by an ext]nal g5]ator4 ,a /orage batt]y does n really g5]ate electricity b z x is (t5 us$ z a s\rce ( curr5t = an ignition sy/em1 we w consid] x z a g5]ator4 ,curr5t produc]s t conv]t *emical or me*anical en]gy into electrical en]gy are call$ prim>y g5]ators1 & are repres5t$ by ! prim>y batt]y & dynamo4 ,! above me?ods are us$ = g5]at+ curr5t = ei!r ! high or l[ t5sion sy/ems4 ,electricity may also be produc$ by friction1 b z su* curr5t is )\t heat value x is n us$ = ignition purposes4 ,electricity produc$ by friction is call$ /atic electricity4 ,prim>y & /orage batt]ies always deliv] a direct or cont9u\s curr5t ( electricity1 t is a curr5t :i* fl[s cont9ually 9 "o direction4 ,dynamos are usually made to furni% a direct curr5t1 b c be built to deliv] ei!r direct or alt]nat+4 ,alt]nat+ curr5t1 unlike ! cont9u\s curr5t1 *anges ! direction ( its fl[ p]iodically2 fl[+ fir/ 9 "o direction & !n 9 ! o!r1 ! fl[ alt]nat+ 9 equal p]iods ( "t4 ,magnetos be+ a special =m ( dynamo c furni% ei!r class ( curr5t1 b ) few exceptions are built = g5]at+ alt]nat+ curr5t4 ,ei!r curr5t may be us$ = ignition purposes = ei!r high or l[ t5sion sy/ems4 ,alt]nat+ curr5t has sev]al advantages n possess$ by ! cont9u\s curr5t1 :5 us$ = ignition purposes4 ,! pr9cipal advantages are3 #a4 ,alt]nat+ curr5t does n transf] ! electrode metal ( contact po9ts1 & consequ5tly causes less tr\ble ) vibrators & 8make0 & 8break0 ignitors4 #b4 ,magnetos g5]at+ alt]nat+ curr5t are less complicat$1 h few] p>ts to get out ( ord]1 & are *eap] to keep 9 repair4 #c4 ,alt]nat+ curr5t is n liable to burn out sp>k coils or ov]heat ) an excessive voltage4 #d4 ,alt]nat+ curr5t g5]ators c be us$ at any spe$ )\t ! use ( gov]nors4 ,illu/ration3 #dc-;a4 ,! ,esselb ,rot>y ,a]o ,motor4 ,f\r ,pi/ons are ,conta9$ 9 ! ,r+ ,%ap$ ,cyl9d] at ! ,left ,:i* are s ,connect$ ) ,cranks & ,ge>s 9 ! ,ge> ,box t ! ,pi/ons & ! ,cyl9d] ,rotate 9 ,opposite ,directions4 ,z ! ,pi/ons ,rotate !y also ,oscillate ,back & ,=? 9 ,reg>d to ,"o ,ano!r1 s t ! ,work+ & ,compression ,/rokes are ,p]=m$4 ,f ,a]o ,london4 ,:5 in/all+ an ignition sy/em give due consid]ation to ! reliability ( ! s\rce ( curr5t4 ,! gas eng9e is no m reliable ?an its s\rce ( curr5t4 ,failure ( ! curr5t means ! failure ( ! eng9e4 7#hj7 ,prim>y ,batt]ies4 ,curr5t is produc$ 9 a prim>y batt]y by ! *emical action ( a fluid kn[n z an ,,electrolyte ^u two dissimil> metals or solids kn[n z ! electrodes4 ,"o ( ! electrodes1 ! negative1 is usually made ( z9c :i* is m readily attack$ by ! electrolyte ?an ! positive electrode4 ,z ! metal ( ! negative electrode is dissolv$ & passes into ! solution dur+ ! process ( curr5t g5]ation1 ! electrolyte is also exhau/$4 ,! production ( curr5t is accompani$ by ! lib]ation ( hydrog5 gas f ! electrolyte f :i* x is displac$ by ! z9c tak5 into solution4 ,:5 ! electrodes are imm]s$ 9 ! electrolyte1 & ! out] ends ( ! electrodes are connect$ ) a wire1 a curr5t w fl[ f ! positive electrode to ! negative ?r\gh ! wire1 & f ! negative to ! positive electrode ?r\gh ! fluid4 ,x w be se5 t to complete ! circuit betwe5 ! electrodes x is necess>y t ! curr5t fl[s ?r\gh ! electrolyte4 ,electrical en]gy is actually g5]at$ 9 ! prim>y batt]y by ! *emical combu/ion ( ! negative electrode 9 ! same way t heat en]gy is develop$ by ! burn+ ( a fuel4 ,by connect+ ! b9d+ po/s ( ! electrodes to ! two wires ( ! ext]nal circuit1 a curr5t w fl[ ?r\gh ! circuit z long z ! electrodes rema9 undissolv$1 or until ! positive electrode is cov]$ ) hydrog5 gas bubbles4 ,! bubbles ( gas t5d to insulate ! positive electrode f ! electrolyte or fluid1 ?us break+ ! circuit ?r\gh ! fluid1 & /opp+ ! fl[ ( curr5t4 ,?is action is kn[n z pol>ization4 ,:5 a batt]y is pol>iz$1 ! only rem$y is to disconnect x f ! circuit & all[ x to re/ or recup]ate4 ,! great] ! curr5t drawn f a batt]y1 ! m rapid ! pol>ization1 & x is evid5t t if ! batt]y is to be us$ = long p]iods1 pol>ization mu/ be elim9at$1 or ! curr5t mu/ be consid]ably r$uc$ 9 volume4 ,a batt]y t deliv]s a small curr5t has a mu* great] capacity 9 amp]e h\rs ?an a batt]y t has a high] rate ( dis*>ge4 ,! great] ! dis*>ge rate ! long] mu/ be ! re/ p]iods4 ,a batt]y t is design$ = cont9u\s s]vice1 or = deliv]+ heavy curr5ts ( long duration1 is call$ a clos$-circuit batt]y4 ,pol>ization is elim9at$ 9 clos$ circuit batt]ies by v>i\s me?ods1 ! usual me?ods be+ to place "s sub/ance 9 ! electrolyte t w de/roy ! hydrog5 film2 or by pack+ "s solid oxidiz+ mat]ial ar\nd ! positive electrode t w absorb ! hydrog52 or by mak+ ! positive electrode ( "s mat]ial t w de/roy ! hydrog5 z soon z x is develop$4 ,batt]ies t are capable ( be+ op]at$ only = %ort p]iods1 on acc\nt ( pol>ization1 are call$ op5 circuit batt]ies4 ,op5 circuit batt]ies are *eap] & m simple ?an clos$ circuit batt]ies4 ,= ignition purposes1 a batt]y is made t is a compromise betwe5 ! clos$ & op5 circuit cells1 ?is be+ a batt]y 9 :i* ! pol>ization is only p>tially suppress$4 ,z ! dem& = curr5t on an ignition batt]y is small ) comp>atively long re/s betwe5 contacts1 ! compromise batt]y answ]s ! purpose & is fairly *eap4 ,all prim>y batt]ies are 9 reality wet batt]ies1 = ! reason t x w\ld be impossible to cause a *emical reaction & a curr5t ) a dry electrolyte4 ,! action ( dry & wet batt]ies is id5tical4 ,!re are _m types ( wet batt]y 9 use = v>i\s purposes1 b few ( !m are adapt$ = gas eng9e ignition because ( a t5d5cy to pol>ize or because ( ! co/ ( ma9t5ance4 ,all wet batt]ies are n suitable = portable or automobile eng9es because ( ! slopp+ ( ! liquid electrolyte & ! dang] ( break+ ! conta9+ j>s4 ,_! weight & bulk is also a drawback4 ,if ! electrolyte or ! electrodes be made ( impure mat]ial local curr5ts w be g5]at$4 ,^! curr5ts decrease ! life ( ! cell )\t produc+ any useful curr5t 9 ! ignition circuit4 ,due to ! det]iorat+ effects ( ! local curr5ts1 batt]ies /&+ idle = sev]al mon?s w (t5 be f\nd to be completely dis*>g$ & wor?less )\t hav+ done any useful "w4 ,9 ! bett] grade ( cells ?is loss is r$uc$ to a m9imum4 ,a type ( wet batt]y us+ a solution ( cau/ic soda = an electrolyte1 & hav+ z9c & copp] oxide electrodes1 is ext5sively us$ = /ation>y ignition purposes1 & is ! mo/ satisfactory type ( wet cell = cont9u\s "w ) ?is class ( eng9e4 ,! cau/ic soda batt]y is ( ! ,,clos$ circuit type1 & is capable ( furni%+ a /rong uni=m curr5t )\t dang] ( pol>ization4 ,! hydrog5 bubbles :i* cause pol>ization are oxidiz$ or elim9at$ by ! copp] oxide electrode z soon z !y are =m$4 ,! hydrog5 comb9es ) ! oxyg5 ( ! copp] oxide =m+ wat]4 ,! copp] oxide is gradually r$uc$ to metallic copp] by ! reaction ) ! hydrog51 & 9 ! c\rse ( "t requires r5ewal4 ,! copp] oxide elem5t is r exp5sive & _c be obta9$ z readily z ! electrodes us$ 9 o!r cells4 ,x w be not$ t bo? electrodes are consum$ 9 ! cau/ic batt]y1 ! consumption ( ! z9c furni%+ ! curr5t1 & ! r$uc+ ( ! oxide furni%+ ! *emical en]gy = depol>iz+ ! cell4 7#ha7 ,dry ,batt]ies4 ,dry batt]ies are by f>1 ! mo/ conv5i5t & economical =m ( prim>y batt]y to use1 = !re is no fluid to slop & leak1 ! fir/ co/ is l[1 ! output is l>ge = ! weight1 & la/ b n lea/1 ! cell c be ?r[n away :5 exhau/$ )\t great monet>y loss4 ,?is does away ) ! exp5se & annoyance ( *ang+ wet cells1 a factor t w be appreciat$ by ^? t are f> f a s\rce ( *emical supplies4 ,s9ce ! adv5t ( ! automobile ! use ( dry cells has ext5d$ s t !y may be obta9$ 9 almo/ any c\ntry t[n or village4 ,:ile ! cell is n dry1 /rictly speak+1 ! solution is held 9 su* a way t x _c slop ar\nd 9 ! cell nor leak out ( ! seal4 ,! only fault ( a dry cell is its t5d5cy to det]iorate ) age because ( ! con/ant contact ( ! electrolyte ) ! electrodes4 ,! negative electrode ( ! dry cell 7z9c7 is 9 ! =m ( a cup :i* s]ves z a conta9+ vessel = ! electrolyte & ! depol>iz]4 ,! electrolyte is usually compos$ ( a solution ( ammonium *loride1 ) a small p]c5tage ( z9c sulphate1 ?is fluid be+ held by "s absorb5t mat]ial su* z blott+ pap]1 or pap] pulp4 ,! electrolyte is appli$ to ! electrodes by means ( ! saturat$ blott+ pap]1 :i* is also us$ to l9e ! z9c conta9]1 ?us provid+ insulation betwe5 ! electrodes4 ,a rod ( solid c>bon :i* =ms ! positive electrode is plac$ 9 ! c5t] ( ! conta9]1 & ! space betwe5 ! rod & ! z9c is pack$ solidly ) granulat$ c>bon1 ! blott+ pap] l9+ prev5t+ contact ( ! z9c ) ! c>bon4 ,pulv]iz$ manganese dioxide is mix$ ) ! granulat$ c>bon = a depol>iz]4 ,illu/ration3 ,brookes ,f\r ,cyl9d] ,gasol9e ,eng9e ,direct ,connect$ to ,dynamo4 ,aft] ! z9c conta9] is fill$ ) ! electrolyte & pulv]iz$ c>bon1 ! top ( ! conta9] is clos$ h]metically by means ( seal+ wax4 ,granulat$ c>bon is us$ = x pres5ts a l>ge surface to ! electrolyte1 r$uces ! int]nal resi/ance ( ! cell1 & !re=e increases ! curr5t output ( ! batt]y4 ,z soon z ! batt]y />ts g5]at+ curr5t1 pol>ization beg9s1 ) ! lib]ation ( hydrog5 gas4 ,if ! cell is dis*>g$ at a high rate1 ! manganese dioxide w be unable to absorb all ( ! gas1 & consequ5tly pressure w be erect$ )9 ! cell4 ,! great] ! rate ( dis*>ge1 ! great] w be ! am\nt ( hydrog5 set free1 & ! high] ! pressure4 ,if a %ort circuit exi/s = any l5g? ( "t1 ! pressure ( ! excess hydrog5 w spe$ily ru9 x1 z ! cell w puff up1 or ev5 bur/ "u ! pressure4 ,if ! rate ( dis*>ge be kept s l[ t all ( ! gas w be absorb$ by ! manganese1 z soon z g5]at$1 ! cell w furni% a /eady curr5t until ! elem5ts ( ! cell or ! electrolyte are exhau/$4 ,! /eady curr5t limit1 or non-pol>iz+ limit is ab\t "o-half amp]e & if long life ( ! cell is expect$1 ! curr5t dra9 %\ld be less ?an ?is am\nt4 ,a good sp>k coil w develop a satisfactory sp>k on a qu>t] to "o-half amp]e1 s t ! dem& ( a good coil is well )9 ! safe limits ( batt]y capacity4 ,! voltage ( ! av]age dry cell :5 9 good condition is #a4e volts on op5 circuit4 ,:5 ! cell is old or exhau/$1 ! voltage falls rapidly :5 any dem& = curr5t is made on ! cell1 & ! voltage also v>ies ) ! rate ( curr5t fl[1 ! voltage decreas+ ) an increase ( curr5t4 ,z !re is n mu* diff]5ce 9 voltage betwe5 a new & old cell :5 on op5 circuit1 x w be se5 t ! ammet] giv+ ! curr5t output w give a m accurate det]m9ation ( ! condition ( ! batt]y4 ,! voltage is indep5d5t ( ! size ( cell4 ,! batt]y %[+ ! greate/ amp]age is n necess>ily ! be/ = g5]al use1 z cells hav+ an unusually high curr5t capacity are g5]ally %ort liv$4 ,! /rong electrolyte us$ 9 high amp]e batt]ies causes !m to burn out or det]iorate rapidly :5 n 9 use4 ,"u ord9>y conditions1 a correctly proportion$ ,no4 #f ignition cell %\ld %[ a curr5t ( f fifte5 to tw5ty amp]es on %ort circuit :5 ! cell is new1 al?\gh high] results may be obta9$ safely ) "s makes ( cells4 ,:ile ! voltage is ! same = all sizes ( batt]ies1 & dep5ds on ! mat]ial us$ 9 ! con/ruction1 ! amp]es increase ) ! size ( ! cell1 & ! area ( ! electrodes4 ,if a cell does n %[ m ?an t5 amp]es on %ort circuit1 x %\ld be ?r[n out & ano!r sub/itut$ = x1 z ! cell is liable to g out ( commission at any m9ute :5 rea*+ ?is po9t ( exhau/ion4 ,a small batt]y te/+ voltmet] or ammet] %\ld be 9 ! kit ( e gas eng9e op]ator us+ a batt]y = ignition1 z ! exact condition ( a vital "p ( ! p[] plant c be det]m9$ quickly & ) accuracy4 ,= dry batt]ies an ammet] is pref]able2 = /orage batt]ies a voltmet] mu/ be us$4 ,:5 buy+ dry batt]ies insi/ on hav+ new1 fre% cells1 z any batt]y depreciates 9 value ) age4 ,nev] take a cell )\t te/+ x1 z x is ! practice ( deal]s to "w (f _! old /ock on unsuspect+ cu/om]s4 ,exam9e ! batt]y closely = ! mak]s' dates1 & if ! batt]y is sev]al mon?s old1 x is probable t ! electrolyte is dri$ up or t ! electrodes are wa/$ ?r\gh long cont9u$ local action4 ,z heat /imulates *emical action 9 ! cell1 !y %\ld be /or$ 9 a cool place to ret>d ! wa/+ action z mu* z possible4 ,"u all conditions1 ! cell %\ld be kept dry1 s9ce ! moi/ure t is deposit$ on ! cell =ms a clos$ circuit = ! curr5t :i* soon exhau/s ! batt]y4 ,cold ret>ds *emical action 9 ! cell & consequ5tly r$uces ! output 9 z]o wea!r to su* an ext5t t />t+ is frequ5tly impossible4 ,multiple cyl9d] eng9es exhau/ a batt]y quick] ?an ^? ) a s+le cyl9d]1 z !re are m curr5t impulses 9 a giv5 "t & consequ5tly m curr5t is us$4 ,a batt]y may be comp>$ ) a bottle t holds a c]ta9 quantity ( fluid4 ,if ! wat] is all[$ to drip out sl[ly x w la/ = a long "t1 b if all[$ to fl[ 9 a cont9u\s /ream w soon be exhau/$4 ,) badly design$ or poorly adju/$ sp>k coil1 ! dem& on ! batt]ies is great] ?an ) "o t is 9 prop] condition4 ,an eng9e t runs cont9u\sly exhau/s a batt]y fa/] ?an "o t is run at long int]vals4 ,always op5 ! batt]y swit* :5 ! eng9e is to be idle = any l5g? ( "t1 z ! eng9e may h /opp$ ) ! ignit] 9 contact1 all[+ ! batt]y to exp5d its en]gy uselessly4 ,te/ batt]ies imm$iately aft] a run1 z ! batt]ies w recov] aft] /&+ a :ile1 & w %[ a fictiti\s value4 ,a weak1 p>tially exhau/$ batt]y w cause a poor sp>k t w result 9 misfir+ or a loss ( p[]4 ,x is poor economy to attempt runn+ an eng9e on a weak batt]y4 ,an eng9e may run on a weak batt]y = a %ort "t1 & !n gradually decrease 9 spe$ until x comes to a full /op4 ,misfir+ is g5]ally 9 evid5ce z ! eng9e dies d[n4 ,9 case ( an em]g5cy1 weak batt]ies may be made to run an eng9e ( an automobile or boat to its de/9ation1 by /opp+ ! eng9e frequ5tly & all[+ ! batt]ies to recup]ate dur+ ! idle p]iods4 ,a batt]y t is tempor>ily weak5$ by h>d s]vice or by a tempor>y %ort circuit w usually revive or p>tially recov] its /r5g? if all[$ to 8re/0 = a %ort "t until ! hydrog5 is absorb$ by ! depol>iz+ mat]ial4 ,! life ( a dry cell c be ext5d$ = a few h\rs by pun*+ a hole 9 ! seal+ wax on ! top ( ! batt]y1 & p\r+ wat]1 or a solution ( wat] & sal-ammoniac into ! cell4 ,?is w r$uce ! int]nal resi/ance & increase ! curr5t4 ,! batt]ies w run "u ^! conditions = a %ort "t only1 & new cells %\ld be procur$ at ! e>lie/ possible mom5t4 ,no old cell c be made z good z new by any me?od4 ,nev] drop ! cells on ! floor nor subject !m to h>d usage me*anically1 = if ! active mat]ial is loos5$1 ! curr5t output w be r$uc$4 ,a %ort circuit ?r\gh a clos$ swit* ) ! eng9e /opp$ or a loose dangl+ wire w put ! cells beyond repair4 ,if ! b9d+ screw on ! c>bon electrode does n make good contact ) ! c>bon1 tight5 x to decrease ! resi/ance4 ,fa/5 ! connect+ wires firmly "u ! b9d+ screws & keep ! connections clean4 ,9 ! abs5ce ( an ammet]1 a r\gh e/imate ( ! condition ( ! cell may be made by fa/5+ a %ort wire tightly 9 ! z9c b9d+ po/1 & t\*+ ! c>bon surface lightly & int]mitt5tly ) ! free end ( ! wire4 ,:5 contact is made ) ! free end ( ! wire1 a small puff ( smoke w arise & a r$ sp>k w be se5 if ! cell is 9 good condition4 ,sometimes ! contact made on ! c>bon w produce only a small black r+ on ! surface ( ! electrode4 ,?is indicates a batt]y t is ne>ly exhau/$1 & "o :i* is good = only a few m h\rs ( s]vice4 ,:5 a numb] ( cells are connect$ toge!r 9 su* a way t !y collectively =m a s+le s\rce ( curr5t1 ! gr\p is call$ a batt]y1 & ! result+ voltage & amp]es ( ! gr\p dep5ds on ! way 9 :i* ! cells are int]connect$4 ,x is possible to connect ! cells ( a batt]y 9 su* a way t total voltage ( ! gr\p or batt]y is equal to ! sum ( ! voltages ( ! individual cells4 ,a batt]y connect$ 9 ?is mann] is said to be connect$ 9 s]ies4 ,:ile ! voltage ( a batt]y is increas$1 by s]ies connection1 ! numb] ( amp]es is ! same z t giv5 by a s+le cell1 ! same curr5t fl[+ ?r\gh ! set4 7#hb7 ,s]ies & ,multiple ,connections4 ,fig4 #hf %[s ! cells connect$ 9 s]ies1 ! c>bon t]m9al ( "o cell be+ connect$ to ! z9c t]m9al ( ! second4 ,! c>bon ( ! second cell is connect$ to ! z9c ( ! ?ird1 & s on ?r\gh\t ! s]ies1 ! two rema9+ t]m9als ( ! batt]y be+ connect$ ) ! ignition circuit4 ,! numb] ( watts or p[] develop$ by ! gr\p is equal to ! sum ( ! outputs ( ! sep>ate cells4 ,if ! voltage ( ea* cell %[n 9 diagram is #a4e volts1 ! total voltage ( ! gr\p ( five cells w be #a4e #e #g4e volts1 & if ! curr5t ( a s+le cell is #ae amp]es1 ! curr5t output ( ! gr\p w be #ae amp]es1 or ! same z t ( a s+le cell4 ,almo/ all ignition app>atus n[ on ! m>ket requires six volts = its op]ation1 s ) cells hav+ a voltage ( #a4e volts su* app>atus w\ld call = f\r cells 9 s]ies1 z #f #a4e #d4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hf4 ,five ,cells 9 ,s]ies4 ,ow+ to ! increase ( int]nal resi/ance caus$ by s]ies connections x is usual to add "o m cell ?an is !oretically requir$1 mak+ a gr\p ( five cells to supply ! six volts requir$4 ,a l>ge numb] ( cells w give a hott] sp>k ?an a small]1 b ! excessive curr5t causes ! contact po9ts ( ! ignit] or vibrator to burn (f rapidly & also ha/5s ! de/ruction ( ! cells !mselves4 ,batt]ies connect$ 9 su* a way t ! total amp]es ( ! gr\p is increas$ )\t increas$ voltage are said to be connect$ 9 multiple or p>allel4 ,:5 batt]ies are connect$ 9 multiple1 ! total curr5t 9 amp]es is equal to ! sum ( ! amp]es deliv]$ by ! sep>ate cells2 &1 :ile ! curr5t 9 amp]es is increas$ by multiple connection1 ! voltage ( ! gr\p rema9s equal to t ( a s+le cell4 ,if ea* cell connect$ 9 multiple has an electromotive =ce ( #a4e volts1 & c deliv] #ae amp]es1 ! total curr5t deliv]$ by ?is sy/em ( connection w be #ae #e #ge amp]es ) five cells1 & ! electromotive =ce w be #a4e volts z 9 ! case ( ! s+le cell4 ,by connect+ batt]ies 9 multiple1 ! resi/ance is r$uc$1 all[+ a maximum fl[ ( curr5t4 ,! dem& on ! individual cells is r$uc$ by multiple connection1 z ea* cell only furni%es a small "p ( ! total curr5t4 ,! great] ! numb] ( cells1 ! less w be ! curr5t requir$ p] cell1 ) a giv5 total curr5t4 ,z ! life ( a batt]y dep5ds entirely ^u ! rate at :i* x is dis*>g$1 x is necess>y1 = economical reasons1 to keep ! curr5t p] cell z small z possible1 !re=e ! multiple sy/em w\ld prove ( value z x r$uces ! load to ! smalle/ possible limit4 ,en\gh cells %\ld be plac$ 9 multiple to r$uce ! curr5t to less ?an a qu>t] ( an amp]e p] cell4 ,! cells %[n w n h suffici5t voltage to op]ate ord9>y ignition app>atus requir+ a pot5tial ( six volts1 h5ce ! multiple sy/em mu/ be modifi$ 9 ord] to h an increas$ voltage1 & at ! same "t secure ! advantages ( multiple connections4 7#hc7 ,multiple-,s]ies ,connections4 ,a compromise is affect$ by ! multiple s]ies sy/em ( connections 9 :i* are comb9$ ! advantages ( bo? ! s]ies & multiple sy/ems ( connection4 ,?is arrangem5t all[s suffici5t voltage to op]ate #f volt app>atus & at ! same "t r$uces ! rate ( dis*>ge on ! individual cells4 ,! s]ies-multiple batt]y %[n 9 ! diagram #hh consi/s ( f\r gr\ps ( batt]ies connect$ 9 multiple1 ea* gr\p ( :i* consi/s ( five cells t are connect$ 9 s]ies4 ,! curr5t & voltage 9 ! v>i\s bran*es is %[n 9 ! diagram4 ,! s]ies-multiple sy/em is adapt$ = use ) multiple cyl9d] eng9es1 z eng9es ) m ?an "o cyl9d] cause a sev]e dra9 on ! ignition sy/em4 ,arrang+ ! s]ies gr\ps 9 p>allel increases ! life & effici5cy ( ! cells4 ,if an effici5t coil is us$1 ! dra9 ( a s+le cyl9d] is n too great to be met ) a s+le set ( s]ies cells4 ,if possible ! set %\ld be provid$ ) a duplicate1 s t ! load c\ld be transf]r$ f "o set to ! o!r at prop] int]vals by means ( a d\ble ?r[ swit*4 ,) a s+le set ( batt]ies 9 s]ies ! work+ life ( ! cells w be approximately tw5ty h\rs "u ord9>y conditions4 ,) f\r gr\ps ( f\r cells 9 s]ies1 ! life ( ! cell w be approximately #afj h\rs1 or eight times ! life ( ! s+le set "u simil> conditions4 ,:ile ! co/ ( ! cells w be only f\r times t ( ! s+le set1 x w be se5 t ! co/ ( batt]y upkeep is halv$ by r$uc+ ! dem& on ! cells4 ,sometimes duplicate sets ( s]ies multiple connect$ batt]ies are us$ = heavy duty eng9es1 ! eng9e runn+ on "o set = a :ile & !n on ! o!r1 all[+ ! fir/ set to ?or\ghly recup]ate be=e x is aga9 ?r[n 9 s]vice1 by means ( ! d\ble ?r[ swit*4 ,:5 batt]ies are multiple or s]ies-multiple connect$ !y %\ld be ( ! same size & make & ( ! same voltage4 ,if ! cells are ( diff]5t voltages useless local curr5ts w circulate among ! cross-connections1 %ort5+ ! life ( ! batt]y & r$uc+ ! output4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hh4 ,cells 9 ,multiple ,s]ies4 ,9 connect+ a dry cell use a good grade ( rubb] insulat$ wire1 pref]ably wire ) a /r&$ conductor1 z x is less liable to break or loos5 at ! b9d+ screw ( ! batt]y4 ,c>efully remove ! insulation f ! end ( ! wire t is to be fa/5$ "u ! b9d+ screw ( ! batt]y4 ,scrape x until x is bright & p]fectly free f dirt be=e fa/5+ x 9 ! batt]y t]m9al4 ,nev] all[ a dirty or corrod$ connection or a loose wire to exi/4 ,an op5 batt]y circuit or loose connection w /op eng9e sudd5ly1 or w prev5t />t+4 ,! batt]y connections %\ld be screw$ d[n tight ) ! pli]s1 c>e be+ tak5 t ! screws are n brok5 by ! tight5+ process4 ,see t fray$ ends ( ! wire d n project beyond ! b9d+ screw to :i* !y are connect$ & make contact ) o!r cells or metal objects4 ,be sure t no insulation gets betwe5 ! contact braces ( ! b9d+ screw4 7#hd7 ,op]ation ( ,dry ,cells4 ,! foll[+ h9ts %\ld be obs]v$ to obta9 ! be/ results ) dry cells4 7#a7 ,nev] remove ! pap] jackets f ! cells4 7#b7 ,nev] lay tools or o!r metallic objects on top ( ! cells = ?is w cause a 8%ort0 t w quickly exhau/ !m4 7#c7 ,d n connect old & new cells toge!r1 especially ) ! multiple-s]ies sy/em ( connections1 = ! old cells w limit ! output ( ! new1 or else w cause cross-curr5ts t w exhau/ all ( !m4 7#d7 ,:5 tr\ble develops 9 ! batt]y1 te/ ea* cell sep>ately & remove ! faulty cells4 ,d n reject all ( ! batt]y because ( "o or two dead cells4 7#e7 ,place ! cells 9 a wood5 box t w protect !m f dirt or moi/ure1 & if possible divide ! box (f into pigeon holes ) a cell 9 ea* hole4 ,= ! be/ protection aga9/ moi/ure1 ! box %\ld be boil$ 9 p>aff9e4 7#f7 ,provide a batt]y swit* on ! box t w cut bo? leads f ! cells completely out ( circuit :5 ! eng9e is /opp$4 7#g7 ,nev] place a dry cell 9 a box t has conta9$ /orage cells unless ! box has be5 ?or\ghly wa%$ out1 = ! residual acid ( ! batt]y w de/roy ! z9c elem5ts4 7#h7 ,make all connections firmly ) well insulat$ wire & take c>e t ! wire does n make contact ) any "p ( ! batt]y except t to :i* x is connect$4 7#i7 ,keep ! batt]y dry4 7#he7 ,/orage ,batt]ies4 ,! purpose ( ! /orage batt]y is to /ore or accumulate ! curr5t g5]at$ by a dynamo until s t ! curr5t w be available :5 ! dynamo is n runn+4 ,a /orage cell does n 8/ore0 curr5t 9 ! same way t wat] is held 9 a tank1 b returns ! en]gy exp5d$ on x ?r\gh ! *emical *anges caus$ 9 ! cell by ! curr5t4 ,:5 ! *>g+ curr5t passes ?r\gh ! /orage batt]y *emical *anges are produc$ 9 ! electrodes & electrolyte1 & ! en]gy exp5d$ on ! cell is 9 ! =m ( lat5t *emical en]gy1 9 :i* /ate x rema9s until ! electrodes are connect$ ) "o ano!r by a wire or "s o!r conduct+ m$ium4 ,:5 ! electrodes are connect$ ?r\gh an ext]nal circuit1 ! electrolyte acts on ! electrodes caus+ !m to assume _! orig9al composition4 ,z !y pass into _! previ\s *emical condition ! lat5t *emical en]gy is conv]t$ into electrical en]gy4 ,! curr5t ?us produc$ may be us$ 9 ! same way z 9 a prim>y cell4 ,:5 dis*>g+1 ! action ( a /orage batt]y is simil> to t ( a prim>y batt]y1 ! curr5t be+ produc$ by ! action ( a fluid on two dissimil> electrodes4 ,in/ead ( supply+ new elem5ts :5 ! batt]y is dis*>g$1 z 9 ! case ( ! prim>y cell1 ! elem5ts are br\ght back to _! orig9al /ate by pass+ a curr5t ?r\gh ! cell 9 ! opposite direction to t ( ! dis*>ge4 ,!re are sev]al comb9ations ( mat]ials :i* may be us$ 9 ! mak+ ( /orage batt]y electrodes & electrolytes1 b ) ! exception ( ! lead sulphuric batt]y & ! new ,edison batt]y none h prov5 a comm]cial success4 ,! mo/ common type ( /orage or second>y cell is ! lead-sulphuric type 9 :i* ! electrolyte is dilute sulphuric acid & ! electrodes are lead plates1 cov]$ ) a *emical composition kn[n z ! active mat]ial4 ,^! plates usually consi/ ( a lead grid1 or lattice frame 9 ! pockets ( :i* is pa/$ ! active mat]ial4 ,! pockets or lattice b>s ( ! plates are = ! purpose ( support+ ! active mat]ial :i* is ( a weak & spongy nature4 ,! active mat]ial on ! positive plate is usually li?>ge1 :ile t on ! negative plate is r$ lead4 ,aft] *>g+1 ! active mat]ial on ! positive plate is *ang$ to lead p]oxide by ! action ( ! curr5t1 & ! active mat]ial on ! negative plate is *ang$ into spongy metallic p]oxide4 ,! composition ( ! active mat]ial on ! plates det]m9es ! direction ( fl[ ( ! dis*>ge1 or second>y curr5t4 ,! curr5t fl[s f ! positive plate to ! negative ?r\gh ! ext]nal circuit4 ,:5 fully *>g$1 & 9 good condition1 ! positive & negative plates may be readily di/+ui%$ by _! colors1 ! positive plate be+ a d>k br[n or *ocolate color1 & ! negative a slate or grey color4 ,! positive active mat]ial is h>d1 :ile ! negative may be easily cut into by ! f+] nail4 ,! d5sity ( ! mat]ial *anges slightly ) ! *>ge1 z ! mat]ial exp&s dur+ ! dis*>ge4 ,! problem ( hold+ ! active mat]ial securely to ! plates dur+ expansion & contraction has be5 a h>d "o to solve1 ea* manufactur] hav+ "s favorite =m ( grid or mat]ial plug to :i* he p9s 8 fai?4 ,:ile great improvem5ts h be5 made 9 ?is direction1 x is c]ta9 t we h n yet rea*$ p]fection4 ,loose active mat]ial w cause %ort circuits & w r$uce ! output ( ! cell2 loose active mat]ial frequ5tly ru9s a cell4 ,! curr5t capacity ( a /orage batt]y dep5ds on ! area ( ! plates or electrodes1 & 9 ord] to increase ! capacity ( a batt]y1 & consequ5tly ! area1 x is usual to use a numb] ( plates connect$ 9 p>allel4 ,a numb] ( small plates ( a giv5 area are to be pref]r$ to two l>ge plates ( ! same area1 z ! batt]y w be ( a m conv5i5t size4 ,cu/om>ily !re is "o m negative plate ?an positive1 s t ! extreme end plates 9 a cell are negative1 z ! positive & negative plates alt]nate ) ea* o!r :5 assembl$4 ,an ignition batt]y usually consi/s ( two negative plates & "o positive4 ,cells us$ = p[] purposes h z high z sixty plates4 ,a s+le cell ( /orage batt]y %\ld %[ ab\t two volts :5 fairly well *>g$4 ,if m ?an two volts are desir$ m cells %\ld be connect$ 9 s]ies4 ,! total voltage w be equal to ! numb] ( cells1 9 s]ies1 multipli$ by ! voltage p] cell4 ,! voltage p] cell %\ld nev] be all[$ to drop bel[ #a4g volts1 z ! cell is likely to be de/roy$ :5 op]at$ ) a l[ voltage4 ,re*>ge z soon z ! voltage drops to #a4h volts4 ,! ord9>y six volt ignition batt]y consi/s ( ?ree sep>ate cells connect$ 9 s]ies1 :i* are encas$ 9 "o protect+ box4 ,! plates are prev5t$ f t\*+ ea* o!r )9 ! cell by means ( a p]=at$ %eet ( h>d rubb] t is ins]t$ 9 ! space betwe5 ! plates4 ,! p]=ations all[ ! liquid to circulate betwe5 ! plates4 ,! /orage batt]y is furni%$ z /&>d equipm5t ) sev]al well kn[n gas eng9e build]s1 & its use is advocat$ by ne>ly all4 ,:5 us$ 9 connection ) a l[ t5sion direct curr5t magneto two indep5d5t s\rces ( curr5t are at h&1 ei!r ( :i* w ignite ! eng9e 9 an em]g5cy4 ,) ! magneto-/orage batt]y comb9ation1 x is possible to obta9 a few small lights at any "t1 :e!r ! eng9e is runn+ or n1 & ! eng9e is always ready to />t on ! fir/ 8ov]0 ) ! /orage batt]y & a good mixture4 ,if a magneto is n us$1 difficulty is sometimes exp]i5c$ 9 obta9+ a suitable s\rce ( *>g+ curr5t1 z _m localities d n possess direct curr5t plants4 ,batt]ies may be *>g$ f ! direct curr5t excit] 9 an alt]nat+ curr5t /ation1 or may be *>g$ by an alt]nat+ curr5t rectifi] su* z is us$ by automobile g>ages4 ,! pr9cipal objections to ! /orage cell are3 inconv5i5ce ( *>g+2 sulphat+ ( cell :5 /&+ )\t a *>ge2 ease ) :i* ! cell is ru9$ by %ort circuits2 ! damage caus$ by ! spill+ ( ! electrolyte2 & ! fact t ! cell gives no w>n+ ( fail+ or dis*>g$ condition4 ,s9ce ! composition ( ! plates dep5ds on ! direction 9 :i* ! curr5t fl[s ?r\gh ! cell1 x is obvi\s1 t an alt]nat+ curr5t :i* p]iodically *anges its direction ( fl[ w fir/ *>ge ! plates & !n dis*>ge !m alt]nately4 ,! result ( an attempt at *>g+ ) alt]nat+ curr5t w\ld be t ! plates w\ld be 9 ! same or a worse condition 9 a %ort space ( "t ?an !y 7 at ! beg9n+4 ,9 *>g+ a /orage cell c>e %\ld be tak5 to det]m9e ! "* ( ! curr5t1 especially :5 ! cell is to be *>g$ f a magneto4 ,:5 "u *>ge1 ! cell is connect$ to ! *>g+ circuit 9 su* a way t ! curr5t fl[s backw>ds ?r\gh ! cell or 9 a direction opposite to t :5 ! cell is dis*>g+4 7#hf7 ,c>e ( ! ,/orage ,cell4 ,! /orage batt]y %\ld nev] be left 9 an un*>g$ condition ) ! acid electrolyte 9 ! cell1 = ! solution w quickly attack ! un*>g$ plates & comb9e ) !m to =m lead sulphate4 ,z lead sulphate has a high electrical resi/ance & is insoluble 9 ! electrolyte ! sulphate coat+ w r$uce ! output or if pres5t 9 excess1 ru9 ! cell4 ,! sulphate appe>s z a :ite coat+ on ! surface ( ! plates4 ,! only rem$y = ?is condition at ! h&s ( ! av]age eng9e op]ator is a prolong$ *>ge1 or ov] *>ge1 at a sl[ rate4 ,!re are sev]al *emical processes b !y are too complicat$ = ! av]age man4 ,z s$im5t collects on ! bottom ( ! batt]y j>s1 & is liable to cause a %ort circuit1 ! plates %\ld be held ab\t half an in* f ! bottom ( ! j>4 ,c>e %\ld be tak5 t ! cells ( ! /ation>y type ( batt]y are kept dry & clean4 ,d n all[ dirt to drop into ! solution z x is liable to de/roy ! cell4 ,a volt met] %\ld be us$ to det]m9e ! condition ( ! batt]y1 & %\ld be us$ frequ5tly4 ,an ammet] %\ld nev] be us$ on a /orage batt]y1 z x is ( v l[ resi/ance1 & w\ld probably cause a ru% ( curr5t t w\ld de/roy bo? ! batt]y & ! in/rum5t4 ,nev] %ort circuit a /orage batt]y1 ev5 = an in/ant1 z excessive curr5t w cause ! plates to buckle1 or w loos5 ! active mat]ial on ! plates4 ,! plates are imm]s$ 9 ! electrolyte1 :i* %\ld cov] ! entire plate or active surface4 ,if ! solution does n cov] ! plate1 ! capacity ( ! cell w be r$uc$4 ,plates t are p>tially cov]$ ) solution det]iorate rapidly f 8sulphat+40 ,?is is caus$ by ! air & acid act+ on ! damp inactive portion ( ! plate4 ,usually ! electrolyte consi/s ( a dilute solution ( sulphuric acid & wat]1 b 9 "s ignition cells ! solution is 8solidifi$0 by "s sub/ance to ab\t ! consi/5cy ( table jelly4 ,! object ( ?is ?ick5$ solution is to prev5t ! solution f slopp+ & leak+ :5 ! batt]y is be+ transport$4 ,! solution us$ 9 a /orage batt]y is exce$+ly corrosive 9 its action1 & if spill$ on metal or wood w de/roy x imm$iately4 ,c>e %\ld be tak5 9 h&l+ ! electrolyte4 ,a cell %\ld nev] be dis*>g$ bel[ #a4g volts = bel[ ?is po9t1 ! plates are likely sulphate4 ,:5 ! solution is replac$ by fre%1 or wat] is add$ = ! purpose ( re/or+ ! electrolyte to its orig9al level1 use only di/ill$ wat]1 free f metallic salts & susp5d$ matt]4 ,_m p 8te/0 _! cells by snapp+ a wire across ! t]m9als to 8see if !re is a good sp>k40 ,no?+ c\ld be m injuri\s to ! batt]y1 & z ?is te/ indicates no?+1 ! practice %\ld be discont9u$4 ,make all y\r te/s ei!r ) a hydromet] or a voltmet]1 ! latt] is pref]able 9 ! av]age case4 ,! electrolyte is a solution conta9+ approximately #aj ( *emically pure sulphuric acid & #ij ( di/ill$ wat]4 ,! specific gravity ( ! fluid %\ld be f #a1baj to #a1bab 9 all cases4 ,a /&>d batt]y hydromet] %\ld be us$ by all /orage batt]y us]s to asc]ta9 ! exact d5sity ( ! solution z ! specific gravity is a direct index to ! condition ( ! cell4 ,a gasol9e hydromet] is useless = a /orage batt]y4 ,:5 mix+ ! electrolyte x %\ld be plac$ 9 a glass or porcela9 j>1 & ! process %\ld nev] be p]=m$ 9 ! batt]y j> 9 ! pres5ce ( ! plates4 ,! solution is v active *emically & %\ld n be br\ght into contact ) metallic or organic sub/ances because ( ! dang] ( contam9at+ ! fluid4 ,! acid %\ld always be p\r$ into ! wat] 9 a ?9 /ream :ile ! mixture is be+ /irr$ ) a glass or porcela9 rod4 ,p\r+ ! wat] into ! acid is likely to produce an explosion & %\ld !re=e be c>efully avoid$4 ,z ! acid heats ! wat] dur+ ! mix+ ! hydromet] read+ %\ld n be tak5 until ! heat caus$ by ! fir/ addition ( acid has be5 r$uc$ to t ( ! room4 ,tak+ a read+ ) a hot solution w give inaccurate results1 unless1 ( c\rse1 ! read+ is r$uc$ to normal by ! me?od describ$ 9 a previ\s *apt]4 ,:5 ! read+ has be5 tak5 & f\nd to be correct & ! solution has be5 r$uc$ to ! temp]ature ( ! room1 ! electrolyte may be p\r$ into ! cell ?r\gh ! fill] op5+s 9 ! top ( ! cell4 ,p\r into ea* cell suffici5t fluid to cov] ! plates b avoid fill+ ! cell to ! top1 or flood+ x4 ,at ! end ( ! *>g+ "t giv5 by ! mak]1 )draw a sample ( ! electrolyte by means ( a syr+e & te/ ! specific gravity4 ,?is %\ld n be ov] #a1bij = a fully *>g$ cell1 & if ! solution exce$s ?is am\nt1 pure wat] %\ld be add$ until ! prop] po9t is rea*$4 ,always correct ! specific gravity 9 ?is way e "t ! batt]y is *>g$ z evaporation & int]nal *emical *anges cause ! d5sity to *ange f "t to "t4 ,! voltage ( a good /orage batt]y w be ab\t #b4a volts :5 fully *>g$4 ,ov]*>g+ is wa/eful & f9ally de/roys ! cell1 ! effects be+ simil> to ^? caus$ by excessive dis*>ges1 t is1 buckl$ plates & loos5$ active mat]ial4 ,ov]*>g+ a sulphat$ batt]y may cure ! tr\ble1 a little ov]*>g+ at int]vals be+ bett] ?an a long cont9u$ ov]*>ge4 ,an increase 9 ! specific gravity ( ! electrolyte ( f #cj to #ej degrees1 ) a correspond+ rise ( voltage1 %[s t ! cell is fully *>g$4 ,aft] ! *>g+ is complet$ remove all ( ! solution spill$ on ! batt]y1 pref]ably by wa%+1 & wipe bone dry4 ,if ! solution is high] 9 ! air1 remove ! excess ) ! syr+e4 7#hg7 ,make & ,break ,sy/em 7,l[ ,t5sion74 ,:5 a circuit c>ry+ a curr5t is op5$ or brok5 at any place 9 its l5g?1 an electric sp>k w occur at ! po9t at :i* ! wires or contacts are sep>at$4 ,?is is due to :at might be t]m$ ! 8mom5tum0 ( ! curr5t :i* causes x to p]si/ 9 its c\rse ev5 to ! ext5t ( jump+ ov] a %ort di/ance ( ! highly resi/ant air 9 ! gap4 ,! size & heat ( ! sp>k may be increas$ by plac+ a coil ( copp] wire 9 s]ies ) ! circuit t has an iron core 9 ! c5t] ( ! turns4 ,?is coil increases ! t5d5cy ( ! curr5t to jump ! gap1 or 9 o!r words increases ! mom5tum ( ! circuit4 ,ea* sep>ation ( ! t]m9als ( ! circuit causes b a s+le sp>k1 s t 9 ord] to obta9 ano!r ! t]m9als mu/ be aga9 br\ght into contact & ! curr5t ree/abli%$ 9 ! circuit be=e ! circuit is aga9 op5$4 ,?us ! function ( ! make & break ignit] is to alt]nately make & break ! circuit 9 ! pres5ce ( ! combu/ible mixture4 ,to obta9 ! greate/ sp>k & mo/ c]ta9 ignition1 ! contact po9ts %\ld be op5$ ) ! greate/ possible spe$1 an action t is accompli%$ 9 ! actual eng9e by spr+s & trigg]s4 ,a typical cyl9drical make & break coil consi/+ ( an iron wire core surr\nd$ by a co>se copp] wire core is %[n by ,fig4 #ia4 ,at "o end ( ! coil w be se5 ! two t]m9al screws by :i* x is connect$ ) ! circuit4 ,ano!r make & break coil is %[n by ,fig4 #ib1 :i* has ! same type ( w9d+1 b diff]s 9 hav+ ! core wire coil ext5d$ beyond ! w9d+ & heads4 ,by closely exam9+ ! cut1 ! iron wires w be se5 9 ! project+ core tube at ! left end ( ! coil4 ,a flat base is also provid$ = fa/5+ x to a /ation>y f\ndation4 ,a typical make & break ignit] is %[n by ,fig4 #ic1 toge!r ) ! usual circuit consi/+ ( a prim>y coil & batt]y4 ,9 ?is figure1 ,a & ,c are ! two electrodes provid$ ) plat9um contact po9ts ,n & ,o respectively4 ,! electrode ,a is /ation>y & is insulat$ f ! iron cas+ ,k by ! insulat+ wa%] ,h1 & ! insulat+ bu%+ or tube ,i4 ,! electrode ,c is oscillat$ int]mitt5tly by ! eng9e ?r\gh its %aft ,e1 & ! trigg] ,g1 ! spr+s ,s s]v+ to snap ! plat9um contact ,o away f ,n at ! prop] mom5t4 ,?is electrode 7,c7 is 9 electrical connection ) ! %ell ,k1 & ! eng9e frame at all times1 & is provid$ ) a brass bu%+ ,f = a be>+ surface4 ,! out] conta9+ cas+ ,k is bolt$ to ! combu/ion *amb] ( ! eng9e by ! bolts ,,ll1 s t ! electrodes ,a & ,c project into ! combu/ion *amb]4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ia4 ,k+/on ,cyl9drical ,make & ,break ,coil4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ib4 ,k+/on ,make & ,break ,coil4 ,%ort ,type4 ,curr5t f ! batt]y ,r passes ?r\gh ! coil w9d+ ,p to ! coil t]m9al ,u f :i* x passes f ,v to ! ignit] b9d+ po/ ,j4 ,f ,j x fl[s along ! rod ,d to ! /ation>y electrode ,a4 ,s9ce ! rod ,d is surr\nd$ by ! insulat+ wa%]s & tube ,h1 ,t & ,i1 ! curr5t _c escape directly to ! cas+ ,k4 ,) ! two plat9um po9ts ,n & ,o 9 contact1 ! curr5t fl[s ?r\gh ,c to ! %ell ,k f :i* po9t x fl[s back to ! batt]y ,r ?r\gh ! conduct+ pa? ,v1 complet+ ! circuit4 ,! great] portion ( ! pa? ,v consi/s ( ! eng9e frame4 ,:5 ! electrode is mov$ 9 ! direction ( arr[ ,b1 ! curr5t is op5$ & a sp>k occurs at ! po9t ( sep>ation ,m1 9 contact ) ! gas 9 ! combu/ion *amb]4 ,! electrode ,c be+ connect$ ) ! eng9e frame is said to be 8gr\nd$40 ,if ! /ation>y electrode ,a 7 n insulat$ f ! ca/+ ,k1 ! curr5t w\ld pass directly f ! t]m9al ,j back to ! batt]y ,r )\t pass+ ?r\gh ! contact po9ts at all1 & consequ5tly no sp>k w\ld be produc$ on ! sep>ation ( ! po9ts4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ic4 ,diagram ( ,ignit] & ,connections4 ,a pu% rod :i* is actuat$ by a cam on ! eng9e1 engages ) ! trigg] ,g1 & causes ! sp>k to occur :5 ! pi/on is on ! end ( ! compression /roke4 ,9 ne>ly all eng9es1 ! relation betwe5 ! "t ( ! sp>k & ! pi/on position c be regulat$ to suit ! requirem5ts = advance & ret>d4 ,?is adju/m5t is necess>y 9 ord] t ! sp>k may be v>i$ to meet ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! />t+ & runn+ requirem5ts4 ,:ile ! ignition %\ld be consid]ably advanc$ :ile runn+1 x is necess>y to ret>d x :5 />t+1 z ! eng9e is liable to 8kick back0 ) an advanc$ sp>k4 ,?is advance & ret>d device %\ld be accessible :ile ! eng9e is runn+1 & ! op]ator %\ld be able to control ! po9t ( ignition at all times4 ,_m m5 h be5 s]i\sly injur$ by ! lack ( ?is device or by neglect+ to use x4 ,! contact po9ts make contact only = a %ort "t be=e ! sp>k is requir$ 9 ord] to r$uce ! am\nt ( curr5t to ! m9imum1 & !re=e increase ! life ( ! batt]ies4 ,! duration ( ! 8make0 or contact %\ld be z %ort z possible4 ,prolong$ contact weak5s ! batt]ies & causes !m to run d[n rapidly4 ,= ! same reason ! electrodes %\ld rema9 sep>at$ until ! make is actually requir$4 ,a c]ta9 p]iod ( contact is necess>y1 h[ev]1 to all[ ! sp>k coil to 8build up10 b ) a prop]ly design$ coil ! "t requir$ is v %ort4 ,"s eng9es provide a device t cuts out ! ignition curr5t altoge!r dur+ ! idle /rokes4 ,?is adds mat]ially to ! life ( ! batt]ies4 ,! ignit] %\ld be locat$ ne> ! inlet valve1 z ! cold incom+ gases t5d to keep x cool & clean1 besides insur+ ! pres5ce ( combu/ible gas ar\nd ! ignit] electrodes4 ,improp] plac+ ( ! ignit] w greatly r$uce ! effici5cy ( ! eng9e4 ,avoid plac+ ! ignit] 9 a pocket1 or 9 ! pa? ( ! exhau/ gases4 ,! make & break ignition sy/em has _m good features1 b _c successfully be appli$ to eng9es runn+ ov] #ejj revolutions p] m9ute1 nor c x be appli$ to eng9es ( less ?an #c ,h4 ,p4 z ! p>ts w\ld be too small & delicate to be durable4 ,! make & break ignit] produces ! l>ge/ & 8hotte/0 sp>k ( any type ( ignition1 & is especially desirable = l>ge or sl[ runn+ eng9es4 ,be+ op]at$ at a l[ voltage1 x is n z easily affect$ by moi/ure1 poor insulation1 or dirt z ! high t5sion or jump sp>k sy/em1 nor is x liable to give ! op]ator su* a viol5t 8%ock40 ,eng9es gov]n+ by ! 8hit & miss0 sy/em h a device t cuts out ! curr5t dur+ ! 8miss$0 p[] /rokes4 ,?is effects a consid]able sav+ 9 batt]y curr5t1 especially on light loads :5 ! eng9e misses a great numb] ( /rokes4 ,:ile possess+ _m po9ts ( m]it1 ! make & break sy/em is op5 to sev]al s]i\s objections3 #a4 ,due to ! high combu/ion temp]ature !re is excessive we> ( ! work+ p>ts 9 ! cyl9d]1 ?is we> causes a *ange 9 ! ignition tim+4 #b4 ,! l[ voltage us$ 9 ! make & break sy/em calls = p]fect contact ( ! electrodes 9 ! cyl9d]4 ,?is contact is (t5 int]f]$ ) or entirely prev5t$ by ! accumulation ( c>boniz$ oil & soot deposit$ on ! surfaces4 #c4 ,! we> ( ! op]at+ sp9dle or %aft1 :i* passes ?r\gh ! cyl9d] wall causes leakage1 :i* 9 turn causes a loss ( compression 9 ! cyl9d]4 #d4 ,! we> ( ! ext]nal op]at+ me*anism produces a *ange 9 ! tim+4 ,! edge ( ! f+]s1 wip] blades1 etc41 t5d to cause an advance 9 ! ignition z a g5]al rule1 ) ! att5dant dang] ( brok5 crank %afts4 #e4 ,! sy/em is me*anically complicat$1 correct op]ation call+ = con/ant c>e z to adju/m5t4 ,all ignition app>atus we>s 9 ! c\rse ( "t & *anges ! tim+ ( ! eng9e4 ,! electrodes & pu%-rods we> & require readju/m5t4 ,g5]ally ! t5d5cy ( worn p>ts is to advance ! ignition4 ,?is *ange 9 tim+ occurs s gradually t ! op]ator does n notice x until ! eng9e beg9s to p\nd1 or until ! effici5cy has be5 consid]ably r$uc$4 ,:5 ! eng9e is new x is well to m>k ! ignition me*anism 9 su* a way t ! relative positions ( ! crank & ignit] w be %[n at ! "t :5 ! ignit] trips4 ,x w !n be possible = ! op]ator to ref] to ! m>ks at any "t to tell :e!r 8 ignition is occurr+ at ! prop] "t4 ,always m>k ! half-"t ge>s :5 tak+ ! eng9e ap>t = ! diff]5ce ( "o too? :5 reassembl+ w be suffici5t to ?r[ ! eng9e out ( "t4 ,! usual me?od ( m>k+ ! ge>s1 is to c5t] pun*1 or scrat* "o too? on ! small ge>1 & !n m>k ! two tee? ( ! l>ge ge> t lie on ei!r side ( x4 ,) ^! m>ks x is possible to replace ! ge>s 9 _! orig9al & prop] positions4 ,! ignit] %\ld trip1 caus+ ! electrodes to sep>ate j be=e ! end ( ! compression /roke is rea*$1 or j be=e ! crank rea*es ! inn] dead c5t]4 ,! di/ance lack+ ! exact dead c5t] repres5ts ! in/ant ( "t betwe5 ! "t ( ignition & ! actual pressure e/abli%$ by ! combu/ion4 ,z mo/ eng9es h ! ignition consid]ably ret>d$ :5 />t+1 ! ignit] w trip lat] ) ! lev] 9 ! 8/>t0 position ?an :5 9 ! 8runn+0 position4 ,nev] fail to ret>d sp>k :5 />t+ nor =get to advance x :5 eng9e is up to spe$4 ,! actual advance giv5 to an eng9e dep5ds on ! "* ( ! fuel & on ! spe$4 ,an eng9e is said to h an advance ( #aj1 if ! crank lacks #aj ( hav+ made ! inn] dead c5t] at ! "t ( ignition4 ,! mo/ economical po9t ( ignition is easily det]m9$ :5 ! eng9e is runn+ on a /eady load1 by v>y+ ! po9t ( ignition & not+ ! position assum$ by ! gov]nor4 7#hh7 ,op]ation ( ! ,make & ,break ,ignit]4 ,to keep ! ignit] 9 ord]1 & to obta9 ! be/ results ) ! lea/ tr\ble1 ! foll[+ h9ts %\ld be obs]v$3 7#a7 ,clean ! ignit] frequ5tly1 & remove all deposits ( oil & c>bon4 ,= clean+1 ! ignit] mu/ be remov$ f ! cyl9d]1 c>e be+ tak5 to avoid injury to ! pack+ or gasket4 ,graphite du/$ on ! gasket w prev5t x f /ick+ to ei!r ! ignit] or cyl9d]4 7#b7 ,if ! contact po9ts are r\gh1 pitt$1 or cov]$ ) a c>bon deposit1 ! scale %\ld be remov$1 & ! po9ts smoo!d d[n ) a f9e file1 tak+ c>e t ! two faces are fil$ p>allel ) "o ano!r4 7#c7 ,insulat+ wa%]s & tubes %\ld be remov$ & wa%$ 9 gasol9e4 ,! hole ?r\gh :i* ! ignit] rod passes %\ld be scrap$ free f any deposit = mu* tr\ble c be caus$ by a tight work+ %aft4 7#d7 ,exam9e ! hole or bu%+ ?r\gh :i* op]at+ sp9dle passes1 = we>4 ,a worn sp9dle or bu%+ may cause a s]i\s loss ( compression2 replace worn bu%+ at once4 ,see t ! insulation ( ! /ation>y electrode is n brok54 ,if x is injur$ 9 ! slighte/ degree1 replace x ) new4 7#e7 ,(t5 ! sp>k+ po9ts may be clean$ tempor>ily )\t remov+ ! ignit] f ! cyl9d] by pull+ ^u ! outside f+] or trigg] until ! po9ts come toge!r1 & !n pu%+ 9 t[>ds ! cyl9d] sev]al times on ! movable electrode1 :i* slides !m "o on ! o!r1 scrap+ (f ! deposit4 ,?is me?od is only a make %ift4 7#f7 ,aft] remov+ ignit]1 replace all wires1 screw+ !m firmly into place4 ,! ends ( wires & connect+ screws %\ld be p]fectly clean :5 ! connection is made2 to insure p]fect contact1 ! surfaces %\ld be scrap$ or s&-pap]$ until bright & %9+4 ,see t no =eign matt] ( any k9d gets betwe5 ! wires & ! metal ( ! b9d+ screws4 ,:]ev] possible connections %\ld be sold]$4 7#g7 ,a small coil ( ! wire %\ld be made at ! po9t ( connection2 i4 e41 ! wire %\ld be a trifle long] ?an necess>y to rea* ! b9d+ screw1 ! excess wire be+ coil$ up on a p5cil4 ,?is coil all[s ( remov+ ignit]1 all[s = brok5 wire ends & r$uces ! t5d5cy to loos5 ! connection4 7#h7 ,gr\nd wires1 or wires connect$ ) ! frame ( ! eng9e %\ld receive c>eful att5tion4 ,!y are g5]ally fa/5$ "u "s screw or bolt on ! eng9e :i* may become loose or fail to make contact1 ?us op5+ ! entire circuit & caus+ ! eng9e to /op4 ,! gr\nd wires are g5]ally connect$ 9 inaccessible places1 & require all ! m att5tion = ?is reason4 7#i7 ,= ! prim>y ( l[ t5sion wir+1 use only ! be/ grade ( /r&$ rubb] cov]$ wire4 ,a special wire = ignition purposes is on ! m>ket4 ,x is r exp5sive b is j ! ?+ = ! s]vice4 ,nev] use cotton cov]$ or wax$ wire4 ,?is cov]+ af=ds absolutely no protection aga9/ moi/ure or abrasion4 7#aj7 ,z ! voltage ( a prim>y circuit1 or circuit = make & break is v l[1 & ! curr5t comp>atively high1 x is well to h ! copp] z l>ge z possible4 ,x %\ld nev] be less ?an numb] #ad gauge4 ,don't use solid wire if y c obta9 /r&$ conductor4 7,/r&$ wire is made up ( a numb] ( f9e wires :i* are twi/$ into a cable or rope ( ! desir$ size47 7#aa7 ,oil de/roys rubb] insulation & %\ld be kept (f ! wir+4 ,try to locate ! conductors s t !y w be out ( range ( oil ?r[n by ! mov+ p>ts4 7#hi7 ,jump ,sp>k ,sy/em 7,high ,t5sion ,sy/em74 ,due to its simplicity & ! light weight ( its mov+ p>ts1 ! high t5sion ignition sy/em is appli$ to practically all small1 high spe$ eng9es runn+ #ejj ,r4,p4,m4 or ov]4 ,! high t5sion sy/em is also desirable f ! fact t x has no mov+ p>ts 9 ! cyl9d] ( ! eng9e4 ,! pr9cipal objection to ! high t5sion sy/em is ! ease ) :i* ! high voltage curr5t leaks or %ort circuits1 moi/ure be+ fatal to ! op]ation ( a jump sp>k eng9e4 ,in/ead ( produc+ ! sp>k by break+ ! circuit ( a l[ t5sion curr5t1 ! sp>k is produc$ by increas+ ! voltage to su* a po9t t ! curr5t w jump directly across a fix$ gap4 ,to cause ! curr5t to jump ?r\gh ! air requires an extremely high voltage1 & z ! batt]y curr5t is v l[ x is necess>y to introduce a device kn[n z a 8trans=m]0 to /op ! curr5t up to ! requir$ t5sion4 ,9 addition to ! voltage requir$ at atmosph]ic pressure 7ab\t #ej1jjj volt p] in* ( sp>k7 we mu/ also furni% suffici5t pressure to ov]come ! increas$ resi/ance due to ! compression 9 ! cyl9d]4 ,unlike ! sp>k coil us$ on ! l[ t5sion make & break sy/em1 ! induction coil or trans=m] coil has two sep>ate & di/9ct coils1 t are ?or\ghly insulat$ f ea* o!r4 ,"o coil has a few turns ( heavy copp] wire :i* is call$ ! prim>y4 ,! o!r consi/s ( _m ?\s&s ( turns ( v f9e copp] wire1 & is call$ ! second>y4 ,bo? coils are w\nd ar\nd a bundle ( s(t iron wire call$ ! core1 f :i* !y are c>efully insulat$4 ,:5 a batt]y or magneto curr5t fl[s ?r\gh ! prim>y coil1 ! core is magnetiz$1 & ?r[s its magnetic influ5ce ?r\gh ! turns ( ! second>y coil4 ,9 ,fig4 #id ! prim>y coil & ! l[ t5sion batt]y & magneto circuit are repres5t$ by heavy l9es4 ,! second>y coil1 & high t5sion circuit are repres5t$ by light l9es4 ,9 ord] to obta9 a cont9u\s dis*>ge ( sp>ks x is necess>y to make & break ! curr5t 9 ! prim>y coil v rapidly4 ,?is is done by means ( ! int]rupt] or vibrator1 :i* is indicat$ 9 ! diagram by ,v4 ,! int]rupt] consi/s ord9>ily ( a spr+ ,a on :i* is fa/5$ a s(t iron disc ,d & a plat9um contact po9t ,b4 ,:5 ! core is magnetiz$ x attracts ! iron disc ,d :i* is pull$ t[>d ! core1 b5d+ ! spr+ ,a & break+ ! contact betwe5 ! plat9um po9t ,b & ,c4 ,:5 ! contact po9ts are sep>at$1 & ! curr5t brok51 ! core loses its magnetism1 & ! spr+ assumes its normal position1 :i* br+s ! plat9um po9ts ,b & ,c into contact once m1 & ree/abli%es ! curr5t ?r\gh ! prim>y4 ,! core is aga9 magnetiz$ & ! prim>y curr5t is aga9 brok51 & s on4 ,?is make & break ( ! curr5t is ?us accompli%$ automatically1 ! curr5t be+ brok5 _m ?\s&s ( times p] m9ute1 ! vibrator mov+ s fa/ z to cause a cont9u\s hum4 ,z soon z ! curr5t />ts fl[+1 ! magnetic =ce spreads out ?r\gh ! second>y coil & ?reads ?r\gh ! turns ( :i* x is compos$4 ,! in/ant t ! curr5t ceases1 ! magnetic =ce decreases & ! turns are aga9 ?read$ by ! magnetic field on its return to ! core4 ,?us two magnetic waves are s5t ?r\gh ! second>y coil1 "o :5 ! circuit is 8made10 & "o :5 ! circuit is 8brok540 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #id4 ,diagram ( ,high ,t5sion ,coil4 ,:5 a magnetic wave ?reads or spreads ?r\gh ! turns ( a coil ( wire1 a curr5t ( electricity is g5]at$ 9 ! coil1 ! quantity & pressure or voltage ( :i* is proportional to ! int5sity ( ! magnetism1 & to ! numb] ( turns ( wire 9 ! second>y coil4 ,?us x w be se5 t at e make & break ( ! l[ t5sion curr5t 9 ! prim>y coil1 a curr5t is g5]at$ 9 ! second>y4 ,z ! voltage g5]at$ 9 ! second>y is r\ghly proportional to ! numb] ( turns 9 ! second>y1 & z !re are _m ?\s&s ( turns1 x is evid5t t ! voltage 9 ! second>y w be v high4 ,?us by ! use ( ! induction coil1 ! l[ t5sion batt]y curr5t is trans=m$ into a high t5sion curr5t ( suffici5t voltage to break d[n ! high resi/ance ( ! sp>k gap4 ,! cond5s] is %[n at ,l :i* has "o wire lead+ to ! vibrator spr+ ,a1 & "o wire to ! contact screw ,m4 ,! function ( ! cond5s] is to absorb ! sp>k produc$ at ! vibrator po9ts s t ! break is made quickly1 produc+ a maximum sp>k4 ,! int5sity ( ! sp>k dep5ds ^u ! quickness ) :i* ! prim>y curr5t is brok51 & if x 7 n = ! cond5s] ! l5g? & int5sity ( ! sp>k w\ld be greatly r$uc$4 ,?is device consi/s ( alt]nate lay]s ( pap] & t9 foil1 e o!r leaf ( foil be+ alt]nately connect$ to ! vibrator spr+ & to ! contact screw4 ,a me?od ( us+ two indep5d5t sets ( batt]y is %[n 9 ! diagram1 s t ei!r set may be ?r[n into circuit by means ( ! d\ble ?r[ swit* ,o4 ,:5 h&le ,j is 9 contact ) ,e1 ! curr5t ( batt]y set ,h fl[s ?r\gh ! coil z %[n by ! arr[s4 ,:5 ,j is 9 contact ) ,f1 ! batt]y ,c is ?r[n into circuit4 ,! sp>k gap is %[n by ,x1 :i* repres5ts ! sp>k plug 9 ! cyl9d]4 ,9 practice1 ! portion ( ! circuit %[n by ,i-,u is g5]ally =m$ by ! frame ( ! eng9e1 or is gr\nd$4 ,! t]m9al ,p ( ! high t5sion circuit is always gr\nd$ ?r\gh ! ?read$ %ell ( ! sp>k plug1 ! gr\nd$ circuit be+ %[n by ! dott$ l9es4 ,gr\nd+ saves wire & _m connections1 = ) ,p & ,u connect$ to gr\nd x foll[s t "o b9d+ po/ w s]ve ! place ( "o high t5sion & "o prim>y po/1 mak+ ?ree coil connections in/ead ( f\r4 ,9 ord] t ! sp>k w occur 9 ! cyl9d] ( ! eng9e at ! prop] "t1 a swit* mu/ be plac$ 9 ! prim>y circuit ( ! coil1 t w op5 & close ! circuit at prop] int]vals4 ,su* a swit* is call$ a tim]1 & is always driv5 by ! eng9e4 ,! tim] is connect$ to ! eng9e %aft 9 su* a way t contact is made at1 or slightly be=e1 ! "t at :i* ! explosion is requir$1 & z soon z possible aft] sp>k occurs ! curr5t is cut (f4 ,= multiple cyl9d] eng9es x is usual to provide "o coil = ea* cyl9d]1 ! prim>ies ( :i* are controll$ by a s+le tim] & batt]y4 ,a high t5sion wire f ea* coil runs to ! correspond+ cyl9d]4 ,in/ead ( hav+ a numb] ( coils ) a batt]y sy/em1 !re are two or ?ree makes t op]ate ) "o coil 9 comb9ation ) a special device kn[n z a di/ributor :i* controls ! high t5sion curr5t4 ,! high t5sion di/ributor directs ! curr5t to ! prop] cyl9d] t is 9 ! ord] ( fir+1 ! tim+ be+ p]=m$ by a tim] simil> to t us$ ) multiple coils except t a s+le contact sequ5t is suppli$4 7#ij7 ,vibrator ,con/ruction4 ,s9ce ! effici5cy ( ! high t5sion coil dep5ds l>gely on ! con/ruction & effici5cy ( ! vibrator1 ! diff]5t coil mak]s h develop$ v>i\s types ( vibrators t diff] greatly f ! simple device %[n 9 ! coil diagram 9 details4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ie4 ,k+/on ,vibrator4 ,! ma9 objects 9 view 9 ! con/ruction ( a successful vibrator are3 #a4 ,to r$uce ! weight ( ! mov+ "p z mu* z possible 9 ord] to increase ! spe$ ( vibration1 & to make ! trembl] in/antly responsive to ! tim]4 #b4 ,to cause ! contact po9ts to sep>ate z rapidly z possible 9 ord] to cause ! maximum sp>k4 #c4 ,to h ! contacts z h>d & infusible z possible to resi/ we> & ! action ( ! sp>k betwe5 ! contacts4 #d4 ,to make any adju/m5ts t may be requir$1 due to we>1 z simple & accessible z possible4 ,! types ( vibrators are legion1 & we h n ! space to g into ! details ( all ! prom95t makes1 b w illu/rate & describe two well kn[n types4 ,! ,k+/on vibrator made by ! ,kokomo ,electric ,company1 is a good example ( a mod]n vibrator & is %[n 9 detail by ,fig4 #ie4 ,all adju/m5ts betwe5 ! contact po9ts are made by means ( ! contact screw ,a :i* c>ries a plat9um po9t at its inn] end4 ,! reta9+ spr+ ,d keeps ! contact screw f be+ j>r$ out ( place by ! eng9e vibration1 )\t ! use ( lock nuts4 ,turn+ ,a aga9/ ! vibrator1 ! t5sion ( ! spr+ ,b is increas$1 rais+ ! screw decreases ! t5sion4 ,increas+ ! t5sion screw increases ! l5g? & heat ( ! sp>k1 & also increases ! curr5t consumption4 ,at ,n is a sep>ate ?9 iron plate :i* is act$ on by ! magnetiz$ core1 a rivet fa/5+ ! plate to ! ma9 vibrator spr+ is %[n at ! end ( ! spr+4 ,! curr5t ent]s ?r\gh ! lug ,c1 & f ?is po9t ! circuit is ! same z %[n 9 ! coil diagram4 7#ia7 ,op]ation ( ! ,jump ,sp>k ,coil4 ,! sp>k produc$ by a coil 9 good condition %\ld be blue-:ite ) a small p9ki% flame surr\nd+ x1 :5 ! gap is ( an in* or less4 ,! sp>ks %\ld pass 9 a cont9u\s /ream ) ?is l5g? ( gap )\t irregul> /opp+ & />t+ ( ! vibrator4 ,coils giv+ a sputt]+1 weak dis*>ge t causes sp>ks to fly 9 all directions are brok5 d[n & %\ld be rem$i$4 ,! second>y w9d+s ( coils are (t5 punctur$ or brok5 d[n by op]at+ ! coil ) ! high t5sion circuit op51 or by try+ to cause long sp>ks by increas+ ! sp>k gap ov] ( an in* 9 ! op5 air4 ,coils are also brok5 d[n by all[+ excessive curr5ts to fl[ 9 ! prim>y coil4 ,nev] cause a sp>k to jump ov] ( an in*4 ,high compression 9 ! cyl9d] %ort5s ! jump+ di/ance ( a high t5sion sp>k4 ,coils t w cause a /ream ( sp>ks to fl[ across a gap ( an in* 9 ! op5 air are (t5 unable to cause a s+le sp>k to jump a gap ( #a_/cb ( an in* "u a compression ( #hj p\nds p] squ>e in* 9 ! cyl9d]4 ,rememb] t a hot sp>k causes rapid combu/ion1 & w fire a great] range ( mixtures & 8lean]0 *>ges1 ?an a /raggl+1 ?91 weak sp>k4 ,sp>k coils t give poor results ) a long sp>k gap "u high compression are (t5 b5efit$ by ! %ort5+ ( ! sp>k gap4 ,%ort5+ ! gap w increase ! heat ( ! sp>k1 & w insure ! pass+ ( a sp>k ea* "t t ! tim] makes contact4 ,a good coil %\ld h no difficulty 9 ignit+ a piece ( pap] ins]t$ betwe5 ! wires =m+ ! sp>k gap 9 ! op5 air4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #if4 ,k+/on ,da% ,coil4 ,! adju/+ screw af=ds a means ( increas+ or decreas+ ! t5sion ( ! vibrator spr+1 & ! am\nt ( batt]y or magneto curr5t fl[+ ?r\gh ! prim>y coil4 ,increas+ ! t5sion ( ! spr+ requires /rong] magnetization ( ! core to break ! circuit ( ! contact po9ts4 ,?is 9 turn calls = m curr5t f ! batt]y2 h5ce 9 ord] to less5 ! dem& = curr5t on ! batt]y1 ! t5sion %\ld be z little z possible to obta9 ! necess>y sp>k4 ,an increas$ t5sion produces m sp>k z ! magnetization ( ! core is increas$1 b = ! sake ( y\r batt]ies decrease ! t5sion z mu* z possible ) a satisfactory sp>k4 ,almo/ all op]ators h a t5d5cy to run ) too /iff a vibrator1 & h5ce use too mu* curr5t4 ,an effici5t coil %\ld develop a satisfactory sp>k ) to ( an amp]e ( curr5t 9 ! prim>y coil4 ,i h (t5 f\nd coils t w\ld "w well ) amp]e1 t 7 screw$ up s tight t ! coils 7 consum+ #d to #e amp]es or #h to #aj times z mu* z !y %\ld4 ,a batt]y ammet] us$ = te/+ ! curr5t consum$ by coil w save its co/ _m times ov] 9 batt]ies & burnt po9ts if us$ at frequ5t int]vals 9 ! prim>y circuit4 ,an automobile or m>9e eng9e %\ld be te/$ = vibrator adju/m5t 9 ! foll[+ way3 ,adju/ vibrator s t spr+ is r /iff4 ,/>t eng9e & get x ?or\ghly w>m$ up & runn+ at full spe$1 !n sl[ly & gradually decrease ! t5sion ( ! spr+ until misfir+ />ts 92 !n sl[ly increase t5sion until misfir+ /ops4 ,increase ! t5sion no f>!r2 ?is is ! correct adju/m5t4 ,poor vibrator adju/m5t is ! cause ( mu* tr\ble & exp5se z x uses up ! batt]ies & wa/es fuel4 ,! pr9ciples ( correct adju/m5t are simple1 ! adju/m5t easily made1 & !re is no possible excuse = ! high curr5t consumption & rapid batt]y det]ioration met 9 e day practice4 ,! usual practice ( ! av]age op]ator is to tight5 ! vibrator until ! sp>k 7obs]v$ 9 ! op5 air7 is at its maximum4 ,?is is commonly kn[n z 8adju/+ ! coil20 %ortly aft] y he> ( him ?r[+ out 8 batt]ies z no good4 ,aft] once gett+ ! vibrator 9 prop] trim ! e> w give mu* in=mation z to ! adju/m5t4 ,a vibrator adju/$ too lightly w cause 8skipp+0 or misfir+ ) ! consequ5t loss ( p[]4 ,nev] attempt to op]ate a coil t is damp2 ! coil w be ru9$ beyond repair4 ,above all1 d n place ! coil 9 a hot ov5 to dry1 z ! box is fill$ ) wax1 & if ?is is melt$ x w run out & r$uce ! insulation ( ! coil4 ,dry coil gradually4 ,if ! batt]ies are new or too /rong ! vibrator may be held aga9/ ! core ( ! coil s t ! vibrator w n buzz4 ,if ?is is ! case loos5 ! screw until x works at ! prop] spe$4 ,if ! batt]ies are weak1 ! coil may n be magnetiz$ suffici5tly to draw ! vibrator & break ! circuit4 ,if ?is is ! case tight5 ! screw4 ,if ! vibrator refuses to "w ) ! batt]y & wir+ 9 good condition1 & if y are sure t ! curr5t rea*es ! coil1 look = dirty or pitt$ contacts on ! vibrator4 ,%\ld ! contact po9ts be dirty1 clean !m ?or\ghly by scrap+ ) a knife or s&pap]4 ,wat] on ! po9ts w /op ! vibrator1 z w oil or grease4 ,if contact po9ts are ( a uni=m gray color on _! contact surfaces1 & are smoo? & flat )\t holes1 pits or rais$ po9ts1 !y are 9 good condition4 ,if pits1 discolorations or projections are not$1 ! contact surfaces %\ld be br\ght to a squ>e1 ev5 be>+ by means ( a small1 f9e file4 ,! po9t %\ld n come into contact on an edge1 b %\ld be> on ea* o!r ov] _! entire surface4 ,d n use s& pap] to remove pitt+1 z x is almo/ impossible to secure an ev51 flat surface by ?is means4 ,x is be/ to remove ! contact screw & vibrator blade = exam9ation & clean+1 z x is mu* easi] to file ! po9ts squ>e & /raight :5 remov$ f ! coil4 ,be c>eful n to b5d ! vibrator spr+ :5 clean+1 z ! adju/m5t w be impair$4 ,:5 replac+ contact screw & vibrator blade 9 coil1 be c>eful t !y are 9 exactly ! same relative position z !y 7 be=e remov+4 ,also be sure t ! contacts meet & be> uni=mly on _! surfaces4 7#ib7 ,prim>y ,tim]4 ,! duty ( ! prim>y tim] is to close ! prim>y circuit ( ! sp>k coil at1 or a little be=e ! "t at :i* ! explosive ( ! *>ge is requir$4 ,! exact "t at :i* ! tim] closes ! circuit dep5ds on ! load1 ! spe$1 & ! nature ( ! fuel4 ,! lapse ( "t betwe5 ! in/ant t ! tim] closes ! circuit & ! in/ant at :i* ! pi/on rea*es ! end ( ! compression /roke is call$ ! 8advance0 ( ! tim]4 ,:5 ! tim] closes ! circuit aft] ! pi/on rea*es ! end ( ! /roke1 ! tim] is said to be 8ret>d$40 ,! tim] is con/ruct$ s t ! "t ( ignition or ! advance & ret>d c be v>i$ betwe5 wide limits4 ,advanc+ ! sp>k too f> w cause hamm]+ & p[] loss z ! pi/on w "w aga9/ ! pressure ( ! explosion4 ,ret>d+ ! sp>k w cause a loss ( p[]1 z ! compression w be less :5 ! pi/on />ts on ! outw>d /roke2 & also = ! reason t m ( ! heat w be giv5 up to ! cyl9d] walls z ! combu/ion w be sl[]4 ,! pressure 9 ! cyl9d] is less ) ret>d$ ignition4 ,greatly ret>d$ ignition (t5 causes ov]heat+ ( ! cyl9d] walls1 especially ) air cool$ eng9es1 & also ov]heats & de/roys ! seat & valve /em ( ! exhau/ valve4 ,d n expect ! eng9e to develop its rat$ horse-p[] or run effici5tly ) a late1 or ret>d$ sp>k4 ,:5 ! eng9e is in/all$1 & be=e ! tim] we>s or has a *ance to get out ( adju/m5t1 look x ov] c>efully & see :e!r ! mak] has left any m>ks relat+ to ! tim+ ( ! sp>k4 ,if !re are no m>ks1 x is well to det]m9e ! relation betwe5 ! position ( ! pi/on & ! tim]1 z ! effici5cy ( ! eng9e dep5ds to a great degree ^u ! fir+ po9t4 ,tim]s are advanc$ & ret>d$ by p>tially rotat+ ! h\s+ ei!r 9 "o direction or ! o!r4 ,:5 ! tim] is m\nt$ directly on ! cam %aft ) ! cam %aft travel+ 9 a direction opposite to t ( ! crank %aft1 ! tim] w be ret>d$ by mov+ x 9 ! same direction z ! cam %aft travels1 mov+ x aga9/ cam %aft rotation advances ! sp>k4 ,tim]s = two /roke cycle eng9es rotate at crank %aft spe$1 & ! direction ( advance & ret>d v>ies ) ! me?ods adopt$ = driv+ ! tim]4 7#ic7 ,tim] ,con/ruction4 ,fig4 #ig %[s a typical tim] & circuit arrang$ = a f\r cyl9d] eng9e4 ,! device c be arrang$ = any numb] ( cyl9d]s1 h[ev]1 by *ang+ ! numb] ( sectors1 ! sectors be+ equal to ! numb] ( cyl9d]s4 ,!re are tim]s on ! m>ket t diff] f ! "o %[n 9 ! diagram b ! pr9ciple ( op]ation is ! same ) all4 ,! %aft ,e is usually connect$ to ! cam %aft & is electrically gr\nd$ to ! eng9e frame at ,l by means ( ! be>+ 9 :i* ! %aft rotates4 ,! lev] ,f m\nt$ on ! %aft ,e c>ries ! pivot$ arm ,h :i* is free to move on ! pivot to a limit$ ext5t to all[ = we> on ! walls ,w-,w-,w-,w4 ,at "o extremity ( ,h is ! roll] ,i :i* rotates on ! p9 ,j1 z ! roll] runs ar\nd ,w-,w-,w-,w4 ,at ! o!r extremity ( ,h is fa/5$ ! spr+ ,s1 :i* =ces ,i into contact ) ! walls4 ,a-,b-,c-,d are metallic contact sectors ^: connections lead to ! f\r sp>k coils4 ,:5 ! metal roll] ,i comes into contact ) "o ( ! sectors z at ,b1 ! sector is gr\nd$ to ! eng9e frame by ! roll]1 ! curr5t travel+ ?r\gh ! roll] & its p91 ?r\gh lev] ,h & its p91 ?r\gh ! lev] ,f & %aft ,e to gr\nd at ,l1 ! c\rse ( ! curr5t be+ indicat$ by ! arr[s4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ig4 ,tim] ,diagram4 ,z ! %aft ,e rotates & c>ries ) x roll] ,i1 ! roll] makes contact ) ! sectors 9 ord] ,b-,c-,d-,a1 if rotat$ 9 ! direction %[n by arr[1 :i* rotation gr\nds ! prim>y coils ( ! sp>k coils ,r#c-,r#d-,r#a-,r#b 9 succession2 ! connection f ! tim] to ! prim>y be+ to ! prim>y b9d+ po/s ,p#c-,p#d-,p#a-,p#b4 ,a high t5sion sp>k occurs at ea* contact ( ! roll] ) ! sectors1 z ! contact all[s curr5t to fl[ ?r\gh ! prim>y ( ! coils4 ,! high t5sion b9d+ po/s ,s#a-,s#b-,s#c-,s#d are connect$ ) ! sp>k plugs or sp>k gaps ,u#a-,u#b-,u#c-,u#d by means ( high t5sion cables4 ,z soon z ! tim] gr\nds a coil1 ! coil produces a high t5sion sp>k 9 its correspond+ sp>k plug4 ,x is evid5t f ! =ego+ t ! tim] n only det]m9es ! "t at :i* a sp>k w take place1 b x also det]m9es ! cyl9d] 9 :i* ! sp>k w be produc$1 provid+ ( c\rse t a sp>k coil is provid$ = ea* cyl9d]4 ,! contact sectors ,a-,b-,c-,d are insulat$ f ea* o!r by ! insulat+ walls ,w-,w-,w-,w1 ! inn] surface ( :i* provides a pa? on :i* ! contact roll] ,i revolves4 ,! contact sectors & insulat+ walls are encas$ by ! protective h\s+ ,z1 to :i* !y are rigidly fa/5$4 ,! h\s+ ,z c be mov$ back & =? on ! %aft ,e = advance & ret>d1 by means ( ! lev] ,k4 ,! curr5t fl[s f ! batt]y t]m9al ,v 7) ! roll] 9 ! position %[n7 ?r\gh ! swit* ,m1 ?r\gh coil ,r#c1 po/ ,p#c to sector ,b1 f :i* x passes ?r\gh ! roll] ,i1 lev]s ,h & ,f to gr\nd4 ,f ! gr\nd on ! eng9e frame ! curr5t fl[s back to its s\rce1 ! batt]y ,o1 ?us complet+ ! circuit4 ,:5 ! roll] makes contact ) sector ,c1 ! coil ,r#d is en]giz$1 contact ) ,d en]gizes ,r#a1 & s on4 ,no two coils c be ?r[n on simultane\sly z only "o coil is gr\nd$ at a "t4 ,! high t5sion curr5t fl[s f ea* coil to its plug z soon z ! curr5t passes ?r\gh ! prim>y ( t coil4 ,9 "s tim]s1 ! curr5t is tak5 f ! revolv+ arm ?r\gh a sep>ate connection to gr\nd in/ead ( gr\nd+ ! %aft ?r\gh ! be>+s4 ,) ^! tim]s1 ! connection is n affect$ by worn be>+s or an oil film t t5ds to insulate ! %aft f ! be>+s4 7#id7 ,op]ation ( ,tim]s4 ,tim]s frequ5tly cause misfir+ :i* is g5]ally due to dirt or oil gett+ betwe5 ! contacts1 or to ! we> ( ! insulat+ walls ,w-,w-,w-,w1 or to ! we> ( ! mov+ p>ts4 ,dirt or gummy oil w prev5t ! contact com+ toge!r & complet+ ! circuit1 or w clog up ! roll]s or lev]s s t !y _c p]=m _! functions prop]ly4 ,?is w ( c\rse int]f]e ) production ( ! sp>k4 ,! contacts & mov+ p>ts ( ! tim] %\ld be kept z clean z possible1 all dirt & heavy oil be+ remov$ by means ( gasol9e at regul> p]iods4 ,make a practice ( clean+ out ! tim] at int]vals n great] ?an "o mon?2 (t5] if possible4 ,p>ts subject to we>1 su* z ! roll] p9 ,j & ! be>+s %\ld be well lubricat$1 none b ! lighte/ oil be+ employ$ = ?is purpose4 ,heavy grease w gum ! contacts & cause tr\ble4 ,!re %\ld be no r\gh places or %\ld]s on ! contact sectors or on ! walls ,w-,w-,w-,w z r\ghness w cause ! roll] to jump ov] ! high places :i* 9 turn result 9 misfir+4 ,! rem$y is to ma*9e ! surfaces ( ! sectors & walls by gr9d+ or turn+ 9 ! la!4 ,c>e %\ld be tak5 9 ?is op]ation to h ! int]ior p]fectly smoo? & ! sectors p]fectly flu% ) ! walls4 ,repair black or burnt sectors imm$iately by gr9d+ or s& pap]4 ,burnt spots or black5$ surface on ! contact sectors prev5t good contact betwe5 roll] & sector1 sectors %\ld %[ a bright1 %9+ metallic surface4 ,sometimes ! insulation w>ps or swells above ! contacts s t ! roll] jumps ov] ! contacts )\t t\*+ !m1 or if = any reason t contact is made "u ^! conditions1 x is ( a %ort p]iod & results 9 a poor sp>k4 ,tim]s (t5 make good contact :5 />t+1 or at l[ spe$1 & misfire badly at high spe$4 ,?is w be caus$ g5]ally by ! contact sectors or insulation project+ beyond "o ano!r1 ! roll] has "t to make good contact at l[ spe$ b jumps ov] ! sector at high4 ,! roll] ,i may become r\gh or develop a flat /op :i* w cause x to jump ov] ! contact occasionally1 or x may become loose on its be>+ p9 ,j1 caus+ int]mitt5t misfir+4 ,! we>+ or loos5+ ( p9s ,j & ,x result 9 poor contact4 ,%\ld p9 ,j fall out ( ! lev] ,h1 ! roll] w\ld drop out ( ! =k & cause s]i\s damage4 ,?is has happ5$ 9 two cases to my k4 ,%\ld ! spr+ ,g weak5 or break1 contact w be made int]mitt5tly at high spe$1 & no contact at l[4 ,9 ?is case x w\ld probably be impossible to />t ! eng9e4 ,9 case ! spr+ breaks1 a rubb] b& may be us$ tempor>ily4 ,wire connections to ! tim] %\ld be exam9$ frequ5tly z ! cont9ual back & =? movem5t t5ds to twi/ & loos5 ! wire4 ,use /r&$ or flexible wire = ^! connections1 if possible4 ,be=e remov+ ! tim] m>k ! hub & ! %aft s t ! hub c be prop]ly replac$4 ,if ?is is n done ! eng9e w be out ( "t ) ! usual results ( hamm]+ or p[] loss4 ,%\ld ! ge>s :i* drive tim] %aft be remov$1 be sure & m>k ! tee? ( bo? ge>s 9 su* a mann] t !re w be no mi/ake possible 9 reassembl+ !m4 ,m>k a too? on ! small ge> by scrat*+ or ) a c5t] pun* 7! too? select$ %\ld be 9 me% ) ! l>ge ge>74 ,!n m>k ! two tee? ( ! l>ge ge> t lay on ei!r side ( ! m>k$ too? ( ! small ge>4 ,?us x w be easy to locate ! prop] relative position ( ! two ge>s at any "t4 7#ie7 ,high ,t5sion ,sp>k ,plug4 ,! high t5sion sp>k plug is a device t introduces ! sp>k gap & sp>k into ! combu/ion *amb]1 & at ! same "t insulates ! curr5t c>ry+ conductor f ! cyl9d] walls4 ,s9ce ! voltage ( ! jump sp>k curr5t is v high x is evid5t t ! insulation ( ! plugs mu/ be ( a v high ord] & t ?is insulation mu/ be capable ( )/&+ ! high temp]ature ( ! combu/ion *amb]4 ,a cross-section ( a typical plug is %[n by ,fig4 #ih1 toge!r ) its connections & ! c\rse ( ! curr5t1 ! latt] be+ %[n by ! arr[ heads4 ,! electrode ,b ?r\gh :i* ! curr5t ent]s ! cyl9d] is ?or\ghly insulat$ f ! walls by ! porcela9 rod ,c4 ,! porcela9 =ms a gas tight jo9t ) ! ?read$ metal bu%+ ,f at ! po9t ,p1 ! t5sion caus$ by ! electrode ,b & ! nut ,i holds ! porcela9 firmly on its seat at ,p4 ,! nut is support$ by ! porcela9 %ell ,h :i* re/s 9 ! top ( ! metal bu%+ ,f4 ,a wa%] ,l is ins]t$ betwe5 ,h & ,f to insure aga9/ ! leakage ( gas f ! plug %\ld a leak develop at ,p4 ,l be+ a s(t wa%] 7usually asbe/os7 all[s ! porcela9s ,c & ,h to exp& & contract )\t break+4 ,a pack+ wa%] or gasket is also plac$ at ! po9t :]e ! electrode ,b passes ?r\gh ! porcela9 ,h4 ,?is is ! wa%] ,q1 held 9 position by ! nut ,i4 ,?is wa%] is ela/ic & r$uces /ra9 on porcela9 caus$ by ! expansion4 ,! cyl9d] wall ,g has a ?read$ op5+ ,r into :i* ! plug is screw$1 ! ?reads ( ! op5+ correspond+ ) ! ?reads on ! metal sleeve ,e4 ,! plug may be remov$ f ! cyl9d] = exam9ation )\t di/urb+ ! adju/m5t ( ! electrode & porcela9s by unscrew+ x at ,r4 ,all[+ ! curr5t to jump f ! electrode to ! cyl9d] wall via ! metal sleeve saves "o wire & connection1 ! cyl9d] & ! frame ( ! eng9e s]v+ z a return pa? = ! curr5t4 ,?is simplifies ! wir+ & m9imizes ! dang] ( high t5sion %ort circuits4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ih4 ,cross-,section ( ,typical ,sp>k ,plug4 ,by unscrew+ ! ?read$ metal bu%+ ,f x is possible to exam9e ! condition ( ! porcela9 rod ,c at ! po9t :]e x is expos$ to ! heat ( ! cyl9d]4 ,?is inspection c be made )\t di/urb+ ! pack$ jo9ts at ,l or ,q4 ,9 ! high t5sion1 or jump sp>k sy/em1 ! sp>k gap ,d-,k is ( fix$ l5g?1 h5ce !re are no mov+ p>ts or contacts )9 ! cyl9d] to we>1 to cause leakage ( gas1 or to cause a *ange 9 ! tim+4 ,?is advantage is (fset to "s degree by ! difficulty exp]i5c$ 9 ma9ta9+ ! insulation ( ! high t5sion curr5t4 ,! high t5sion curr5t leaves ! sp>k coil ,m at ! b9d+ screw ,n1 fl[s along ! wire ,j1 & ent]s ! sp>k plug at ! b9d+ screw ,a4 ,f ! b9d+ po/ ! curr5t foll[s ! c5tral electrode ,b to its t]m9al at ,d4 ,at ,d a break 9 ! circuit occurs :i* is call$ ! sp>k gap4 ,x is at ?is po9t t ! sp>k occurs1 ! curr5t jump+ f ,d to po9t ,k ?r\gh ! air4 ,po9t ,k is fa/5$ 9 ! ?read$ metal sleeve ,e :i* is 9 turn screw$ into ! cyl9d] wall ,g or gr\nd4 ,f ! gr\nd ! curr5t returns to its s\rce ?r\gh b9d+ po/ ,o to ! coil4 ,! sp>k !re=e occurs inside ( ! cyl9d] wall & 9 contact ) ! combu/ible *>ge1 at ! po9t m>k$ 8sp>k0 9 ! cut4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ii4 ,bos* ,sp>k ,plugs4 ,if ! fuel1 lubricat+ oil1 & air are n suppli$ 9 prop] proportions1 soot w be deposit$ on ! l[] surface ( ! porcela91 & z soot is an excell5t conductor ( high t5sion curr5t1 ! curr5t w foll[ ! soot r ?an ! high resi/ance ( ! sp>k gap1 a condition t w result 9 misfir+ or a complete /oppage ( ! motor4 ,c>boniz$ lubricat+ oil or moi/ure h ! same effect4 ,prev5t+ ! deposits ( soot1 moi/ure & c>boniz$ oil is ! *ief object ( plug manufactur]s1 _m ( :om h br\ght out designs ( m]it4 ,9 fact ! problem ( elim9ation ( soot is ! pr9cipal cause ( ! _m types ( plugs n[ on ! m>ket4 ,:ile _m plugs diff] 9 m9or ref9em5t ( detail f ! typical plug %[n1 ! connections & g5]al con/ruction are ! same 9 all types1 ! sp>k be+ produc$ 9 a gap ( fix$ l5g? :i* is insulat$ f ! cyl9d]4 ,a well kn[n =m ( plug1 ! ,bos*1 is %[n by ,fig4 #ii a-b4 ,9 ?is plug a special mat]ial kn[n z ,/eatite is us$ in/ead ( ! usual porcela94 ,! ?ree ext]nal electrodes surr\nd+ ! c5t] electrode is a p>ticul>ly effici5t arrangem5t1 especially = magnetos4 ,a peculi> =m ( pocket m9imizes ! soot problem4 ,z porcela9 is brittle & is easily brok5 by ! effects ( heat or bl[s1 mica insulation is (t5 us$ 9 place ( ! porcela94 ,! c5tral core ( a mica plug is =m$ by a /ack ( mica wa%]s1 :i* are held 9 place by ! c5tral electrode & ! upp] lock nuts4 ,a poorly con/ruct$ mica plug is easily de/roy$ by a weak1 /ret*+1 electrode1 or by an ov]heat$ cyl9d]4 ,! latt] caus+ ! wa%]s to %r9k & admit oil betwe5 ! lay]s ( mica wa%]s causes a %ort circuit4 ,z soon z ! mica wa%]s loos5 & sep>ate1 !y %\ld be =c$ toge!r by means ( ! mica lock nuts on ! top ( ! plug4 ,if by any reason ! mica core becomes saturat$ ) oil1 x is be/ to obta9 a new "o1 z x is almo/ impossible to remove ! oil by simple means op5 to ! av]age op]ator4 ,! *ief value ( a mica plug lies 9 its t\ghness & me*anical /r5g?1 a good mica plug be+ practically inde/ructible4 ,:5 heat$1 porcela9 does n exp& at ! same rate z ! metal sleeves1 h5ce 9 poorly design$ or imp]fect plugs1 heavy /ra9s are ?r[n on ! delicate porcela9s :i* causes !m to crack4 ,:5 a crack develops x provides a lodg+ place = soot & c>bon :i* ( c\rse causes a %ort circuit4 ,%\ld a compression leak occur ?r\gh faulty pack+ betwe5 ! porcela9 & sleeve1 x %\ld be imm$iately tight5$ up = ev5tually x w leak en\gh to de/roy ! plug or r$uce ! output ( ! eng9e4 ,:5 ord]+ a plug be sure t y "k ! size & type requir$ by y\r eng9e4 ,"s eng9es require a long] plug to rea* ! combu/ion *amb] ?an o!rs4 ,nev] in/all a %ort] plug ?an t orig9ally furni%$ ) ! eng9e4 ,be sure t ! plug is n too long z x may int]f]e ) ! action ( ! valves or may be damag$ by !m4 ,plugs are furni%$ ) sev]al ?reads & taps1 i4 e43 in* pipe ?read 7,g5]ally us$ on /ation>y eng9es74 ,metric ,?read 7,g5]ally us$ on import$ autos74 in* ,a4 ,l4 ,a4 ,m4 ,/&>d 7,us$ on ,dome/ic automobiles74 ,us+ a plug 9 a hole tapp$ ) ! wrong ?read w de/roy ! ?read 9 ! cyl9d] ca/+ & cause compression leaks4 7#if7 ,c>e ( ,sp>k ,plug4 ,porcela9s are (t5 brok5 by screw+ ! plug too tightly 9 a cold cyl9d]1 z ! cyl9d] exp&s :5 heat$ & cru%es ! frail plug4 ,a plug in/all$ 9 ?is mann] is difficult to remove z ! exp&$ walls grip ! ?read4 ,! plug %\ld be screw$ 9 j en\gh to prev5t ! leakage ( gas4 ,a %ort ?9 wr5* %\ld be us$ 9 screw+ ! plug home su* z a bicycle wr5*4 ,a wr5* ( ?is type is s %ort t x w be almo/ impossible to ex]t too mu* =ce1 & w be ?9 en\gh to avoid any possible injury to ! pack+ nut4 ,bad leaks may be detect$ by a hiss+ s\nd t is 9 /ep ) ! spe$ ( ! eng9e1 small leaks may be detect$ by p\r+ a few drops ( wat] ar\nd ! jo9t4 ,if a leak exi/s bubbles w pass up ?r\gh ! wat] & %[ its location4 ,plugs are m easily remov$ f a cold cyl9d] ?an a hot4 ,if ! plug /icks :5 ! eng9e is cold & is impossible to remove ) a mod]ate pressure on ! wr5* squirt a few drops ( k]os5e ar\nd ! ?reads4 ,nev] ex]t any =ce on ! porcela9 or insulation4 ,! high t5sion cables %\ld be connect$ to ! plugs by means ( "s type ( 8,snap ,t]m9al10 su* t]m9als may be _h f automobile deal]s4 ,^! t]m9als make a firm contact ) ! plug & d n j> loose f ! plug by ! vibration ( ! eng9e4 ,!y are easily disconnect$ :5 ! inspection ( ! plug becomes necess>y1 & are g5]ally a mo/ desirable atta*m5t4 ,! high t5sion cable %\ld be firmly connect$ to ! plug t]m9al "u all circum/ances4 ,a loose connection w cause misfir+ or w br+ ! eng9e to an abrupt halt4 ,if snap t]m9als are n us$ ! plug b9d+ screw %\ld be screw$ d[n tightly on ! wire4 ,:5 mak+ connections see t ! wire is bright & clean1 & t fray$ ends ( ! wire d n project beyond ! plug & make contact ) o!r p>ts ( ! eng9e4 ,a l>ge p]c5tage ( high t5sion ignition tr\bles are due to %ort circuits 9 ! sp>k plug :i* are g5]ally caus$ by deposits on ! surface ( ! plug insulation4 ,soot or oil may be remov$ f ! plug by scrubb+ ! porcela9 & ! int]ior ( ! *amb] ) gasol9e appli$ by a too? bru%4 ,exam9e ! plug = cracks1 & if any are f\nd1 replace ! porcela9 or ?r[ ! plug away4 ,a crack$ porcela9 is always a cause ( tr\ble4 ,to te/ a plug = %ort circuits1 remove x f ! cyl9d]1 reconnect ! wire1 & lay ! sleeve ( ! plug on "s bright metal "p ( ! eng9e 9 su* a way t only ! ?read$ portion is 9 contact ) ! metal ( ! eng9e4 ,close ! swit* & see if sp>ks pass ?r\gh ! gap4 ,if no sp>ks appe>1 & if ! coil is op]at+ prop]ly1 clean ! plug4 ,z an additional te/ = ! condition ( ! coil1 hold ! end ( ! high t5sion cable ab\t in* f ! metal ( ! eng9e :ile ! coil is op]at+4 ,if a heavy dis*>ge ( sp>ks takes place betwe5 ! end ( ! cable & ! metal ( ! eng9e1 ! coil is 9 good condition4 ,if a p>tial %ort circuit exi/s1 ! sp>k at ! gap w be weak & )\t heat2 ! result w be int]mitt5t1 or misfir+ ) a loss ( p[]4 ,moi/ure 9 ! cyl9d] is a common cause ( plug %ort circuits1 ! moi/ure com+ f leaks 9 ! wat] jacket or f ! cond5sation ( gases 9 a cold cyl9d]4 ,a drop ( wat] may bridge ! sp>k gap1 all[+ ! curr5t to fl[ f "o electrode to ! o!r )\t caus+ a sp>k4 ,if a cl\d ( blui% :ite smoke has be5 issu+ f ! exhau/ pipe be=e ! misfir+ />t$1 y w probably f9d t ! tr\ble is due to soot$ or %ort circuit$ plug4 ,! rem$y is to decrease ! am\nt ( lubricat+ oil f$ to ! cyl9d]4 ,:5 a magneto is us$ ! int5se heat ( ! sp>k causes m9ute p>ticles ( metal to be torn f ! electrodes & deposit$ on ! insulation z a f9e metallic du/4 ,?is w ( c\rse cause a %ort circuit & mu/ be remov$4 ,%ort circuits are sometimes caus$ by ! magneto curr5t melt+ ! electrodes & dropp+ small beads ( ! metal betwe5 ! conductors4 ,all metallic p>ticles %\ld be remov$ f ! plug4 ,:ile a sp>k plug may %[ a fair sp>k 9 ! op5 air te/1 x w n always produce a satisfactory sp>k 9 ! cyl9d] on acc\nt ( ! increas$ resi/ance ( ! sp>k gap due to compression4 ,compression increases ! resi/ance ( ! sp>k gap enorm\sly & ?91 highly resi/+ c>bon films t w\ld cause v little leakage 9 ! op5 air w entirely %ort circuit ! gap "u high pressure1 ! curr5t tak+ ! easie/ pa? :i* 9 ! latt] case is ! c>bon deposit4 ,9 ord] to produce conditions 9 ! op5 air te/ simil> to ^? 9 ! cyl9d] we mu/ devise "s me?od ( increas+ ! resi/ance ( ! sp>k gap 9 ! op5 air above any possible resi/ance t c\ld be (f]$ by ! c>bon film4 ,plac+ a %eet ( mica or h>d rubb] betwe5 ! electrodes1 or 9 ! sp>k gap1 w increase ! resi/ance to ! requir$ degree4 ,if ! sp>k plug is 9 good condition ! sp>k w jump f ! insulat$ t]m9al to ! %ell :5 ! mica is 9 ! sp>k gap1 b if a %ort circuit exi/s ! curr5t w g ?r\gh x )\t caus+ a sp>k4 ,x is assum$ t ! batt]y & coil are 9 good condition :5 mak+ ! above te/4 ,if ! electrodes or sp>k po9ts are dirty !y %\ld be clean$ ) f9e s& pap]1 special att5tion be+ paid to ! surfaces f :i* ! sp>k issues4 ,:5 reassembl+ ! plug1 see t all ( ! wa%]s & gaskets are replac$ & t ! l5g? ( ! sp>k gap is un*ang$4 ,a little *ange 9 ! sp>k gap may make a great *ange 9 ! sp>k4 ,a good sp>k is blue :ite ) a fa9t r$di% flame surr\nd+ x4 ,:5 ! dis*>ge is int]mitt5t or sputt]s 9 all directions1 ei!r ! coil or ! plug are p>tially %ort circuit$4 ,always h a sp>e plug on h&4 ,ord9>ily ! l5g? ( ! gap or ! di/ance betwe5 ! electrodes %\ld be ab\t #a_/cb in* = batt]ies1 & a trifle less = magnetos4 ,a silv] dime is a good gauge = ! gap4 ,if ! eng9e misfires ) ! coil & batt]ies 9 good condition1 try ! effects ( %ort5+ ! gap a trifle1 usually ?is w rem$y ! difficulty4 ,exhau/$ batt]ies may be made op]ative tempor>ily by clos+ up ! plug gap to #a_/fd in* or ev5 less4 ,%ort5+ ! gap increases ! heat ( ! sp>k & no?+ is ga9$ by hav+ x ov] #a_/cb in*4 ,almo/ all high t5sion magnetos h visible safety sp>k gaps t %[ in/antly ! pres5ce ( an op5 circuit 9 ! second>y or high t5sion circuit4 ,if an op5 circuit exi/s1 a /ream ( sp>ks w fl[ across ! safety sp>k gap at l[ spe$4 ,to det]m9e ! cyl9d] t is misfir+ 9 a f\r cyl9d] eng9e proce$ z foll[s3 ,remove cov] on sp>k coil1 & hold d[n "o vibrator spr+ firmly aga9/ ! core :ile ! eng9e is runn+4 ,if ! eng9e spe$ is n decreas$ by cutt+ ?is coil out ( action1 x is probable t ?is is ! coil connect$ to ! misfir+ cyl9d]4 ,n[ release ?is vibrator & proce$ to ! next coil1 & hold its vibrator d[n4 ,if ?is decreases ! spe$ ( ! eng9e y may be sure t ! fir/ coil is 9 ! defective circuit4 ,if ! vibrator buzzes on ! coil "u inspection ! tr\ble w be f\nd 9 ! plug4 ,cutt+ out a coil connect$ to an active cyl9d] decreases ! spe$ ( ! eng9e4 ,cutt+ out ! coil connect$ ) a dead cyl9d] makes no diff]5ce4 7#ig7 ,magnetos4 ,a magneto is a device t conv]ts ! me*anical en]gy receiv$ f ! eng9e into electrical en]gy1 ! electricity ?us produc$ be+ us$ to ignite ! *>ge 9 ! eng9e4 ,?is appliance does away ) all ( ! tr\bles incid5t to a rapidly det]iorat+ *emical batt]y & produces a mu* hott] & uni=m sp>k4 ,a magneto is especially desirable ) multiple cyl9d] eng9es :]e ! dem& = curr5t is almo/ cont9u\s1 z ! am\nt ( curr5t deliv]$ by ! magneto has no effect on its life or ^u ! quality ( ! sp>k4 ,! pr9cipal p>ts ( ! g5]at+ sy/em ( ! magneto are ! magnets1 ! armature1 ! armature w9d+1 & ! curr5t collect+ device1 ( :i* ! armature & its w9d+s are ! rotat+ p>ts4 ,! production ( curr5t 9 ! magneto is ! result ( mov+ or rotat+ ! armature coil 9 ! magnetic field ( =ce ( ! magnets4 ,:5 any conductor is mov$ 9 a space t is "u ! influ5ce ( a magnet a curr5t is g5]at$ 9 ! conductor :i* fl[s 9 a direction p]p5dicul> to ! direction ( motion4 ,! value ( ! curr5t ?us g5]at$ dep5ds on ! /r5g? ( ! magnetic field1 ! spe$ ) :i* x is cut1 & ! numb] ( conductors cutt+ x t are connect$ 9 s]ies4 ,r\ghly1 ! voltage is d\bl$1 ) an increase ( twice ! =m] spe$1 & ) all o!r ?+s equal1 ! voltage is d\bl$ by d\bl+ ! numb] ( conductors connect$ 9 s]ies4 ,by employ+ p[]ful magnets1 & a l>ge numb] ( conductors 7turns ( wire7 on ! armature x is possible to obta9 suffici5t voltage = ! ignition sy/em at a comp>atively l[ spe$4 ,! numb] ( amp]es deliv]$ dep5ds pr9cipally ^u ! int]nal resi/ance ( ! armature & ! ext]nal circuit1 & n on ! numb] ( conductors1 nor directly ^u ! /r5g? ( ! field4 ,= ?is reason1 l[ voltage ma*9es t are int5d$ to deliv] a great amp]age h only a few conductors ( l>ge cross section1 :ile high t5sion ma*9es h a great numb] ( conductors ( small size4 ,9 all cases ! magneto1 or ignition dynamo mu/ be consid]$ simply z a g5]ator ( curr5t 9 ! same way t a batt]y is a s\rce ( curr5t s9ce ! curr5t g5]at$ by !m is utiliz$ 9 precisely ! same way4 ,! class ( ignition sy/em on :i* ! magneto is us$ det]m9es ! class ( ! magneto4 ,! l[ t5sion magneto is us$ pr9cipally = ! make & break sy/em1 al?\gh x is sometimes us$ 9 connection ) a high t5sion sp>k coil or trans=m$ 9 ! same way t a batt]y is us$ ) a vibrator coil4 ,! high t5sion magneto is us$ exclusively ) ! jump sp>k sy/em & high t5sion sp>k plug4 ,^! classes are aga9 subdivid$ into ! direct & alt]nat+ curr5t divisions1 dep5d+ on ! "* ( ! curr5t furni%$ by ! magneto4 ,briefly a cont9u\s curr5t is "o t fl[s cont9ually 9 "o direction :ile an alt]nat+ curr5t p]iodically rev]ses its direction ( fl[4 ,z ! alt]nat+ curr5t magneto is ! mo/ commonly us$ type1 we w conf9e our description to ?is class ( magneto4 ,! alt]nat+ curr5t magneto is mu* ! simple/ =m ( ma*9e z x has no commutator1 complicat$ armature w9d+1 nor field magnet coils1 & 9 "s types ! bru%es & revolv+ wire are elim9at$4 ,z ! magnetic flux ( an alt]nat+ magneto is *ang$ 9 value1 t is increas$ & decreas$1 twice p] revolution1 x foll[s t ! curr5t *anges its direction twice = e revolution ( ! armature4 ,ea* *ange 9 ! direction ( curr5t fl[ is call$ an alt]nation4 ,! voltage develop$ 9 ea* alt]nation or p]iod ( fl[ is n uni=m1 ! voltage be+ l[ at ! />t ( ! alt]nation1 rapidly increas+ 9 voltage until x is a maximum at ! middle1 & !n rapidly decreas+ to z]o1 f :i* po9t ! curr5t rev]ses 9 direction4 ,z we h two su* alt]nations1 9 a %uttle type magneto1 p] revolution we h two po9ts at :i* ! maximum voltage occurs2 t is 9 ! c5t] ( ea* alt]nation4 ,^! high voltage po9ts are call$ ! peak ( ! wave & consequ5tly ! sp>k+ devices %\ld op]ate at ! peak ( ! wave or at ! po9t ( highe/ voltage4 ,! sp>k !re=e %\ld occur :5 ! %uttle or inductors are at a c]ta9 fix$ po9t 9 ! revolution at :i* po9t ! peak ( ! wave occurs4 ,! peak ( ! wave occurs :5 ! %uttle is be+ pull$ or turn$ away f ! magnets4 ,9 :at is kn[n z ! 8%uttle type0 alt]nat+ curr5t magneto1 ! g5]at+ coil is w\nd 9 ! op5+ ( an 8,h0 type armature4 ,?is iron armature core is fa/5$ rigidly to ! driv+ %aft & revolves ) x4 ,z ! armature revolves1 x is necess>y to collect ! curr5t t is g5]at$ by means ( a bru% t slides on a contact button ,b1 ! button be+ connect$ to "o end ( ! w9d+4 7#ih7 ,l[ ,t5sion ,magneto4 ,! w9d+ ( ! l[ t5sion magneto consi/s ( a few turns ( v heavy wire or copp] /rip1 "o end ( :i* is gr\nd$ to ! armature %aft & ! o!r pass+ ?r\gh ! holl[ %aft f :i* x is insulat$4 ,! end ( ! insulat$ wire is connect$ to ! contact button 7,b7 on :i* ! curr5t collect+ bru% presses4 ,z "o end ( ! w9d+ is gr\nd$1 "o bru%1 & "o connect+ wire is sav$ z ! curr5t returns to ! magneto ?r\gh ! frame ( ! magneto4 ,z ! %uttle revolves betwe5 ! magnet poles ! magnetism is caus$ to alt]nate ?r\gh ! iron ( ! armature1 ?us caus+ ! curr5t to alt]nate 9 direction & fluctuate 9 value4 ,s9ce !re are only two po9ts at :i* ! maximum curr5t c be collect$ dur+ a revolution ) ! alt]nat+ curr5t magneto1 x is necess>y to drive x positively ?r\gh ge>s1 or a direct connection to ! %aft s t ?is maximum po9t ( voltage w always occur at ! same po9t 9 reg>d to ! pi/on position4 ,if x is driv5 by belt )\t reg>d to ! position ( ! pi/on1 x is likely t !re w be _m times t ! voltage is z]o or too l[ 9 value :5 ! sp>k is requir$ 9 ! cyl9d]4 ,alt]nat+ curr5t magnetos mu/ be positively driv51 & ! armature mu/ be connect$ to ! eng9e s t ! peak ( ! wave occurs at1 or a little be=e ! end ( ! compression /roke4 ,) ?is type ( magneto ! only po9t t is likely to give tr\ble is ! po9t at :i* ! bru% makes contact ) ! contact button4 ,if ! bru% %\ld /ick or n make contact1 or if ! button is dirty or ru/y1 ! curr5t w n fl[2 ?is po9t %\ld always be giv5 att5tion4 ,outside ( ?is ! only att5tion necess>y is to keep ! be>+s oil$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aja4 ,sumt] ,magneto ,advanc$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ajb4 ,sumt] ,magneto ,ret>d$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ajc4 ,sumt] ,magneto on ,horizontal ,eng9e4 ,fig4 #aja & ,fig4 #ajb %[ ! ,sumt] l[ t5sion magneto z arrang$ = make & break ignition4 ,! armature & its connections are ( exactly ! same type z t %[n 9 ! previ\s diagram4 ,! magnets & frame are arrang$ to tilt back & =? s t ! peak ( ! wave w occur at ! advanc$ & ret>d$ positions ( ! ignit]4 ,?is arrangem5t all[s ! full voltage ( ! magneto to be obta9$ at any po9t )9 ! range ( ! ignitor1 an important item :5 />t+ ! eng9e or runn+ at l[ spe$4 ,:5 m\nt$ on ! eng9e1 z %[n by ,fig4 #ajc1 ! magnets are provid$ ) an op]at+ rod t is m>k$ 8/>t0 & 8run40 ,:5 ! p9 on ! eng9e b$ is engag$ "u 8/>t10 ! magneto is ret>d$1 :5 ! p9 is "u 8run0 x is advanc$4 ,a numb] ( int]m$iate po9ts are provid$ at :i* ! op]at+ arm is held fa/ by too? engagem5ts z %[n 9 ! slott$ h&le4 ,z %[n 9 ! illu/ration ! magneto is fully advanc$4 ,! ge>s by :i* ! magneto is driv5 are cle>ly %[n 9 ! cut1 ! ratio betwe5 ! ge> on ! crank %aft & t on ! magneto %aft be+ exactly #b to #a4 ,"o lead is c>ri$ to ! make & break ignit] 9 ! cyl9d] head1 ! curr5t be+ return$ ?r\gh ! b$ ( ! eng9e4 ,! same make ( magneto is %[n m\nt$ on a v]tical eng9e 9 ,fig4 #ajd4 ,9 ?is case ! magneto is positively driv5 f ! crank %aft ( ! eng9e by a *a94 ,! s+le conductor runn+ f ! magneto to ! cyl9d] heads is cle>ly %[n4 ,to />t ! eng9e1 ! ignit] is set 9 ! usual mann] & ! magneto tilt$ to />t+ position1 z %[n 9 ! illu/ration4 ,! eng9e is !n />t$ 9 ! usual mann] &1 :5 runn+1 ! ignit] is *ang$ to runn+ position1 & ! magneto is tilt$ outw>dly4 ,x is n important :i* is *ang$ fir/1 ! magneto or ! ignit]4 ,x is easy to rememb] ! 8/>t+0 & runn+ 8position0 ( ! magneto1 ! runn+ position always be+ t 9 :i* ! magnetos are tilt$ 9 ! direction opposite to t 9 :i* ! eng9e runs4 7#ii7 ,c>e ( ,l[ ,t5sion ,magnetos4 7#a7 ,avoid sett+ a magneto on an iron or /eel plate1 unless /at$ o!rwise 9 ! manufactur]'s directions1 z 9 "s makes ! magnetism w be %ort circuit by iron or /eel & w r$uce ! output4 7#b7 ,d n j> magnets or magneto unnecess>ily1 = ?is t5ds to weak5 ! magnets4 7#c7 ,nev] remove ! magnets if x c possibly be avoid$4 ,if ?is mu/ be done1 m>k ! magnets & ge>s s t !y may be replac$ 9 exactly ! same position4 ,if y\r magneto refuses to g5]ate aft] reassembl+ x is probable t !y are rev]s$ 9 position or t ! magnetism has be5 knock$ out ( !m :ile (f ( ! magneto4 7#d7 ,z soon z ! magnets are remov$1 or bett] be=e1 place a plate ( iron or /eel across bo? ends ( ! magnet4 ,don't leave ! magnets )\t ?is keep] = any l5g? ( "t or !y w lose _! magnetism4 ,! be/ plan is to leave ! magnets alone4 7#e7 ,rememb] t ! runn+ cle>ance betwe5 ! magnets & armature is v small1 only a few ?\s&?s ( an in*1 & t any error 9 replac+ ! be>+s 9 _! prop] position w cause ! armature to b9d 9 ! tunnel4 ,h&le armature c>efully & d n lay x 9 a dirty place z a b5t %aft or grit 9 ! armature tunnel w fix x p]man5tly4 7#f7 ,mo/ all magnetos are practically wat] pro(1 b don't exp]im5t ) ! hose4 7#g7 ,make all connections firmly & h ! wire clean "u ! b9d+ po/s4 7#h7 ,only a few drops ( oil are ne$$ at long int]vals1 don't neglect to oil !m1 b above all d n dr[n !m ) oil4 7#i7 ,exam9e ! bru% occasionally & clean (f all oil & dirt4 7#aj7 ,:5 replac+ ! magneto on ! eng9e aft] its removal see t ! ge>s are me%$ 9 ! =m] position4 ,be/ to m>k ! tee? be=e removal4 7#ajj7 ,high ,t5sion ,magnetos4 ,! 8true0 high t5sion type magneto is complete 9 itself1 requir+ no jump sp>k coil nor tim]1 ! high t5sion curr5t be+ g5]at$ directly 9 ! coils c>ri$ by ! armature4 ,?is arrangem5t r$uces ! wir+ problem to a m9imum1 z ! only wires requir$ are ^? lead+ directly to ! sp>k plugs1 & "o l[ t5sion wire connect+ ! cut\t swit* us$ = /opp+ ! eng9e4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aje4 ,s+le ,cyl9d] ,high ,t5sion ,bos* ,magneto4 ,! armature ( ?is type ( magneto c>ries two indep5d5t w9d+s1 "o ( a few turns ( co>se wire call$ ! prim>y coil1 & ! o!r consi/+ ( ?\s&s ( turns ( extremely f9e wire call$ ! second>y coil4 ,x is 9 ! latt] coil t ! high t5sion curr5t is g5]at$4 ,! tim] is connect$ directly to ! armature %aft1 & is an integral "p ( ! magneto4 ,all prim>y connections are !re=e made )9 ! magneto4 ,belts or friction drives _c be us$ ) ?is type ( magneto4 ,z !re are no vibrators or indep5d5t coils us$1 ! sp>k occurs exactly at ! in/ant t ! tim] op]ates or breaks ! prim>y circuit4 ,x w be not$ t ! sp>k is produc$ ) ?is magneto :5 ! prim>y circuit is brok5 by ! tim]1 in/ead ( made z is ! case ) batt]y coils1 or coils us$ ) l[ t5sion magnetos4 ,!re is no lag & consequ5tly ! "t ( ignition is n affect$ by v>iations 9 ! eng9e spe$1 :i* requires an advance & ret>d ( ! sp>k ) batt]ies & vibrator coils4 ,:5 us$ ) multiple cyl9d] eng9es ! high t5sion magneto is provid$ ) a di/ributor1 :i* connects ! high t5sion curr5t ) ! diff]5t cyl9d]s 9 _! prop] fir+ ord]4 ,! tim] det]m9es ! "t at :i* ! sp>k is to occur & ! di/ributor det]m9es ! cyl9d] 9 :i* ! sp>k is to take place4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ajf4 ,connecticut ,high ,t5sion ,magneto4 ,! sp>ks deliv]$ by ! high t5sion magneto are true flames or arcs ( int5se heat1 & exi/ 9 ! sp>k gap = an appreciable l5g? ( "t4 ,x is evid5t t su* flames possess a mu* great] ignit+ value ?an in/antane\s /atic sp>k deliv]$ by ! high t5sion sp>k coil us$ ) ! batt]y or op]at$ by ! l[ t5sion magneto1 & are capable ( fir+ mu* weak] mixtures4 ,l l[ t5sion magnetos1 ! true high t5sion type may be ( ei!r ! inductor or %uttle w\nd class4 ,all high t5sion magnetos are positively connect$ or ge>$ to ! eng9e 9 su* a mann] t !re is a fix$ relation betwe5 "t ( ! curr5t impulse produc$ by ! magneto & ! fir+ position ( ! eng9e pi/on4 ,! curr5t is g5]at$ on ! same pr9ciple z 9 ! l[ t5sion %uttle type2 t is1 by a coil ( wire revolv+ 9 ! magnetic field e/abli%$ by p]man5t magnets4 ,dur+ ea* revolution ( ! armature1 two sp>ks are produc$ at an angle ( #ahj f ea* o!r4 ,! advance & ret>d ( ! sp>k is obta9$ by means ( ! tim+ lev] :i* %ifts ! tim] h\s+ back & =? :i* results 9 ! prim>y curr5t be+ int]rupt$ e>li] or lat] 9 ! revolution ( ! armature4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ajg4 ,longitud9al ,section ,?r\gh ,bos* ,high ,t5sion ,magneto4 ,! tim+ lev] c turn ?r\gh an angle ( #dj measur$ on ! armature sp9dle1 & ! angle ( advance = multiple eng9es is z foll[s3 ,advance = #a cyl9d] #dj ,advance = #b cyl9d]s #dj ,advance = #c cyl9d]s #ej ,advance = #d cyl9d]s #dj ,advance = #f cyl9d]s #bg ,a tim] is us$ ) ! magneto on a 8jump sp>k0 sy/em 9 ! same way z ) a batt]y1 provid+ a vibrat+ coil is us$4 ,9 "o type ( magneto ! ,connecticut1 ! coil is "p ( ! magneto1 & is fa/5$ to ! magneto frame4 ,?is type ( magneto uses a non-vibrat+ coil1 & produces b a s+le sp>k ea* "t ! prim>y circuit is brok5 by ! magneto tim]4 ,z ! tim] on ?is type is driv5 by ! magneto %aft1 x is evid5t t ! magneto mu/ be 8tim$0 ) ! eng9e1 or mu/ h its armature %aft connect$ to ! %aft ( ! eng9e 9 su* a mann] t ! tim] contact is brok51 & ! s+le sp>k produc$ at ! in/ant t ignition is requir$ 9 ! cyl9d]4 ,unlike ! dynamo1 ! alt]nat+ curr5t magneto _c be us$ ) a /orage batt]y1 ! alt]nat+ curr5t produc+ no *emical *ange 9 ! electrodes ( ! batt]y4 ,illu/ration3 ,f\r ,cyl9d] 8,d#d0 ,high ,t5sion ,bos* ,magneto ,%[+ ,di/ributor4 ,! ,bos* high t5sion magneto is a typical high t5sion magneto hav+ ! prim>y & second>y w9d+s w\nd directly on ! armature %aft1 !re be+ no ext]nal second>y coil4 ,! end ( ! prim>y w9d+ is connect$ to ! plate 7#a7 ,fig4 #ajg1 :i* conducts ! curr5t to ! plat9um screw ( ! circuit break] 7#c74 ,p>ts 7#b7 & 7#c7 are insulat$ f ! break] disc 7#d71 :i* is 9 electrical contact ) ! armature core & frame4 ,:5 ! circuit break] contacts are toge!r ! prim>y w9d+ is %ort circuit$1 & :5 !y are sep>at$ ! curr5t is brok5 & ! sp>k occurs4 ,! break] contacts are simply two plat9um po9t$ lev]s t are sep>at$ & br\ght toge!r by ! action ( a cam z !y revolve4 ,a cond5s] 7#h7 is provid$ = ! circuit break] to suppress ! sp>k & to increase ! rapidity ( ! 8break40 ,! second>y w9d+ ( f9e wire is a cont9uation ( ! prim>y w9d+1 & ! second>y is w\nd directly ov] ! prim>y4 ,! out] end ( ! second>y connects ) ! slip r+ 7#i7 on :i* slides ! c>bon bru% 7#aj71 :i* conducts ! high t5sion curr5t f ! armature4 ,?is bru% is insulat$ f ! frame by ! insulation 7#aa74 ,f 7#aj7 ! curr5t is l$ ?r\gh ! bridge 7#ab7 ?r\gh ! c>bon bru% 7#ac7 to ! di/ributor bru% 7#ae74 ,metal segm5ts are imb$d$ 9 ! di/ributor 7#af71 ! numb] ( :i* corresponds to ! numb] ( cyl9d]s4 ,z ! bru% rotates1 x makes consecutive contact ) ea* ( ! segm5ts 9 turn & !re=e leads ! curr5t to ! cyl9d]s 9 _! fir+ ord]4 ,wires f ! cyl9d]s are connect$ to sockets t 9 turn connect ) ! segm5ts4 ,! disc driv+ ! di/ributor bru% 7#ae7 is ge>$ f ! armature %aft 9 su* a way t ! armature turns twice = e revolution ( ! di/ributor1 :5 f\r cyl9d]s are fir$1 & ?ree times = ! di/ributors once :5 six cyl9d]s are fir$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ajh4 ,bos* ,high ,t5sion ,circuit4 ,! voltage ( ! curr5t g5]at$ 9 ! second>y coil by ! rotation ( ! armature is increas$ by ! int]ruption ( ! prim>y circuit caus$ by ! op5+ ( ! contact break]4 ,at ! in/ant ( int]ruption ( ! prim>y circuit ! high t5sion sp>k is produc$ at ! sp>k plug4 ,z ! sp>k mu/ occur 9 ! cyl9d] ( ! eng9e at a c]ta9 position ( ! pi/on1 x is necess>y t ! int]rupt] act at a po9t correspond+ to a def9ite position ( ! pi/on1 consequ5tly ?is type ( magneto mu/ be driv5 positively f ! motor by means ( ge>s1 or directly f ! %aft4 ,^! magnetos run 9 only "o direction4 ,?is runn+ direction %\ld be giv5 :5 magneto is ord]$1 z be+ 8clockwise0 or 8c\nt]-clockwise0 :5 look+ at ! driv+ end ( ! magneto4 ,! magneto = ! s+le & d\ble cyl9d] eng9es has no di/ributor1 ! high t5sion curr5t be+ l$ directly f ! armature4 ,! circuit diagram ( ! ,bos* f\r cyl9d] magneto is %[n by ,fig4 #ajh1 ! w9d+ & plug connections be+ cle>ly %[n4 ,:5 connect+ ! magneto c>e %\ld be tak5 to h ! di/ributor & plug connections arrang$ s t ! cyl9d]s w fire 9 ! prop] ord]4 7#aja7 ,bos* ,oscillat+ ,high ,t5sion ,magneto4 ,! oscillat+ type ( magneto is us$ on sl[ spe$ heavy duty eng9es t move too sl[ly = ! ord9>y type ( magneto4 ,9 ! oscillat+ type ! armature is giv5 a %ort angul> sw+ by ! action ( a tripp+ device op]at$ by ! eng9e :i* results 9 an int5se sp>k at ! l[e/ spe$s4 ,magneto type 8#bi0 is con/ruct$ ) two p[]ful /eel magnets1 :ile magneto type 8#cj0 is provid$ ) ?ree2 an armature ( ! %uttle type is arrang$ to oscillate betwe5 _! pole-%oes4 ,! magneto is actuat$ by a rotat+ cam or o!r suitable device1 :i* moves ! armature #cj f its normal position :5ev] ignition is requir$4 ,to p]mit ?is movem5t1 a trip lev] is m\nt$ ^u ! tap]$ end ( ! armature %aft1 ?is trip lev] be+ held 9 a def9ite position by ! t5sion ( ! spr+ or spr+s #a4 ,! trip lev] is only suppli$ :5 specially ord]$1 b ea* magneto is provid$ ) ! necess>y spr+s & spr+ bolts4 ,:5 ! trip lev] is mov$ f its normal position by ! op]at+ me*anism1 ! spr+s are ext5d$1 & :5 ! op]at+ me*anism releases ! trip lev]1 ! lat] returns ! trip lev] & armature to _! normal position1 ?is movem5t result+ 9 ! production ( a sp>k+ curr5t 9 ! armature w9d+4 ,! w9d+ ( ! armature is compos$ ( two p>ts1 "o be+ ! prim>y w9d+1 :i* consi/s ( a few turns ( heavy wire1 & ! o!r ! second>y w9d+1 :i* consi/s ( _m turns ( f9e wire4 ,! t5sion ( ! curr5t produc$ by ! oscillation ( ! armature is increas$ by clos+ ! prim>y circuit at a c]ta9 position 9 its movem5t1 & !n int]rupt+ x by means ( ! break]4 ,at ! mom5t ( ! int]ruption1 an arc-l sp>k is =m$ at ! sp>k plug & ignition occurs4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aji4 ,elevation ( ,bos* ,oscillat+ ,magneto = ,sl[ ,spe$ ,eng9es4 ,high ,t5sion ,type4 ,on cam %aft 7c7 two cams are m\nt$ side by side4 ,"o ( ^! cams 7a7 is to be us$ = />t+ ! motor1 or = ! ret>d$ sp>k position1 :ile ! second 7b7 is to be us$ = op]ation1 or = ! full advance position4 ,^! cams are m\nt$ on a sleeve1 :i* may be mov$ longitud9ally on ! %aft1 s t ! trip lev] may be op]at$ by cam 7a7 or cam 7b7 z desir$4 ,! sleeve is caus$ to rotate ) ! %aft by a key4 ,betwe5 ! cam 7b7 & a fix$ coll> 7f7 a spiral spr+ is arrang$1 :i* t5ds to ma9ta9 ! sleeves 9 ! position :5 ! cam 7b7 is 9 op]ation4 ,a /op coll> is also provid$ to limit ! movem5t ( ! sleeve beyond ?is full advance position4 ,ov] ?is coll> is fitt$ a h& :eel1 :i*1 9 ! position illu/rat$ 9 ! diagram1 acts toge!r ) ! coll> z a /op4 ,ar\nd ! coll> is a circul> key-way1 & a brass bolt is locat$ 9 ! h& :eel to lock into ?is key-way :5 ! h& :eel is pu%$ into ! position indicat$ by ! dott$ l9es4 ,?is movem5t ( ! :eel =ces ! cam sleeve =w>d1 & br+s ! ret>d$ cam 7a7 into ! op]at+ position to p]mit ! eng9e to be />t$4 7#ajb7 ,! ,mea ,high ,t5sion ,magneto4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aaj4 ,diagram ( ,oscillat+ ,magneto1 ,%[+ ,cam & ,trigg] ,arrangem5t4 ,! l[ t5sion w9d+ ( ! ord9>y type ( magneto is %ort-circuit$ by a break] :i* op5s at c]ta9 po9ts ( ea* revolution ) ! result t a high voltage is g5]at$ across ! high t5sion w9d+ at ! mom5t ( ! break1 & a sp>k produc$ across ! sp>k gap 9 ! cyl9d] to :i* x is connect$4 ,! quality ( ?is sp>k1 or 9 o!r words ! heat value1 dep5ds among o!r factors ^u ! p>ticul> position ( ! armature 9 relation to ! magnetic field at ! mom5t ! sp>k is produc$4 ,z ! armature 9 ?is type ( magneto is 9 a favorable position = obta9+ a sp>k twice e revolution1 two sp>ks c be obta9$ p] revolution4 ,! tim+ ( ! sp>k is accompli%$ by op5+ ! break] e>li] or lat]1 by %ift+ ! break] h\s+ naturally ) ! unavoidable result t if ! position ( ! magnetic field rema9s /ation>y1 ! relative position betwe5 armature & field at ! mom5t ( ! break mu/ v>y4 ,s9ce1 h[ev]1 z expla9$ above1 ! quality ( ! sp>k dep5ds ^u ?is relative position1 x is app>5t t a good sp>k1 c1 ) a /ation>y magnetic field1 be produc$ only at "o p>ticul> tim+4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aaa4 ,side ,elevation ( 8,mea0 ,magneto1 ,%[+ ! ,magnets1 & ,cradle 9 ,:i* ! ,magneto ,sw+s ,:5 ,advanc$ & ,ret>d$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aab4 ,longitud9al ,section ( 8,mea0 ,high ,t5sion ,magneto4 ,! result ( ^! conditions are kn[n to ev]ybody famili> ) automobiles4 ,!y are ! difficulty ( crank+ a motor on "o ( ! av]age high t5sion magnetos1 if ! sp>k is fully ret>d$1 & ( op]at+ ! motor on ! magneto at v l[ spe$1 p>ticul>ly :5 x is ov]load$1 z = example1 9 hill climb+4 ,attempts h !re=e be5 made to obta9 ! sp>k1 indep5d5t ( ! tim+1 always at ! same favorable position ( ! armature4 ,! di/9ct innovation & improvem5t incorporat$ 9 ! ,mea magneto consi/s 9 bell %ap$ magnets 7,fig4 #aaa7 plac$ horizontally & 9 ! same axis ) ! armature1 in/ead ( ! cu/om>y horse-%oe magnets plac$ at "r angle to ! armature4 ,?is at once makes possible & practicable ! simultane\s advance & ret>d ( magnets & break] in/ead ( ! advance & ret>d ( ! break] alone z ! magnets may be mov$ to & fro ) ! break] h\s+4 ,x w be se5 t z a result ( ?is new dep>ture ! relative position ( armature & field at ! mom5t ( sp>k+ is absolutely ma9ta9$1 & ! same quality ( sp>k is !re=e produc$1 no matt] :at ! tim+ may be4 ,fur!rmore1 ! range ( tim+1 :i* ) ! horse-%oe type ( magneto is limit$ to #aj or #ae at l[ spe$s 7i4 e4 at spe$s at :i* a ret>d$ sp>k is ( value7 becomes limit$ only by ! necessity ( supply+ a suitable support = ! magnets4 ,) ! /&>d types ( ,mea magnetos describ$ 9 ! foll[+1 ?is range v>ies f ab\t #de to #gj1 b if necess>y ?is range c be increas$ to any am\nt desir$4 ,! bell-%ap$ magnets are fix$ to ! cas+ :i* is m\nt$ on a base suppli$ ) ! magneto4 ,! tim+ is alt]$ by turn+ ! cas+ & magnets toge!r on ! base4 ,fig4 #aab %[s a longitud9al section ( a f\r cyl9d] ,mea magneto4 ,! armature ,f ) ! ball be>+s #ag-ah rotates 9 ! bell-%ap$ magnets #ajj1 ! poles ( ! magnets be+ on a horizontal l9e opposite ! armature #a4 ,! armature is ( ! ord9>y ,h type iron core w\nd ) a d\ble w9d+ ( heavy prim>y & f9e second>y wire4 ,on ! armature are m\nt$ ! cond5s] #ab1 ! high t5sion collector r+ #d1 & ! l[ t5sion circuit break] #bf-ci4 ,! circuit break] consi/s ( a disc #bg on :i* are m\nt$ ! %ort plat9um #cc1 ! o!r contact po9t #cd is movable & is support$ by a spr+ #cj :i* is fa/5$ to ! insulat$ plate #bh m\nt$ on disc #bg4 ,fib] roll] #ca 9 connection ) cam disc #dj :i* is provid$ ) two cams is locat$ inside ! break]4 ,revolv+ ) ! armature ! roll] presses aga9/ ! spr+ support$ "p ( ! break] :5ev] x rolls ov] ! two cams :i* ( c\rse is twice p] revolution4 ,illu/ration3 ,magneto ( ,rob]ts ,motor 9 ,advanc$ ,position4 ,illu/ration3 #aab-;a4 ,advance & ,ret>d ,me*anism ,us$ 9 ! ,rob]ts ,motors4 ,! ,magneto is ,driv5 by a ,helical ,ge> f ! ,small ,p9ion4 ,by ,%ift+ ! ,ge> ,back & ,=? on ! ,p9ion1 ! ,armature ( ! ,magneto is ,advanc$ or ,ret>d$ 9 ,reg>d to ! ,pi/on ,position4 ,! ,reason = ?is ,*ange ,w be ,se5 f ! ,cuts by ,not+ ! ,position ( ! ,l[] ,helix4 ,inspection ( ! break] po9ts is made easy by an op5+ 9 ! side ( ! break] box4 ,! box is clos$ by a cov] #gd support+ at its c5tre ! c>bon hold] #dg by means ( :i* ! c>bon #df is press$ aga9/ screw #bd4 ,?is latt] screw connects ) "o end ( ! l[ t5sion w9d+ :ile ! o!r end is connect$ to ! core ( ! armature4 ,x w1 !re=e1 be se5 t ! break] ord9>ily %ort-circuits ! l[ t5sion w9d+ & t ?is %ort-circuit is brok5 only :5 ! break] op5s2 x w also be app>5t t :5 ! screw #bd is gr\nd$ ?r\gh t]m9al #ej & ! l[-t5sion swit* to :i* x is connect$1 ! l[-t5sion w9d+ rema9s p]man5tly %ort-circuit$1 s t ! magneto w n sp>k4 ,! entire break] c be remov$ by loos5+ screw #bd4 ,! high t5sion curr5t is collect$ f collector r+ #d by means ( bru% #gg & bru% hold] #gf1 :i* are support$ by a removable cov] #ia :i* also supports ! l[ t5sion gr\nd+ bru% #gh provid$ to relieve ! ball be>+s ( all curr5t :i* might be injuri\s4 ,cov] #ia also c>ries ! safety gap #hi :i* protects ! armature f excessive voltages 9 case ! magneto becomes disconnect$ f ! sp>k plugs4 ,! di/ributor consi/s ( ! /ation>y "p #gj & ! rotat+ "p #fj :i* is driv5 f ! armature %aft ?r\gh /eel & bronze ge>s #g & #gb4 ,! curr5t rea*es ?is di/ributor f c>bon #gg ?r\gh bridge #hd & c>bon #fi4 ,x is conduct$ to bru%es #fh plac$ at "r angles to ea* o!r & mak+ contact alt]nately ) f\r contact plates emb$d$ 9 "p #gj4 ,^! plates are connect$ to contact holes 9 ! top ( ! di/ributor1 into :i* ! t]m9als ( cables lead+ to ! diff]5t cyl9d]s are plac$4 ,9 ! front plate ( ! magneto is provid$ a small w9d[1 beh9d :i* appe> numb]s engrav$ on ! di/ributor ge> :i* correspond to ! numb] ( ! cyl9d] ! magneto is fir+4 ,?is indicator is ( great value z x all[s a sett+ or resett+ aft] tak+ out1 )\t ! necessity ( op5+ up ! magneto to f9d out :]e ! di/ributor makes contact4 ,! magneto prop] is m\nt$ 9 ! base #ec :i* is bolt$ to ! motor frame & ! arrangem5t is su* t ! magneto c be remov$ f its base by remov+ ! top p>ts #fj;a & #fj;b ( ! two be>+s4 ,! v>iation 9 tim+ is affect$ by turn+ ! magneto prop] 9 ! /ation>y base :i* is accompli%$ by ! sp>k lev] connections atta*$ to "o ( ! side lugs #hh4 ,! sp>k is advanc$ by turn+ ! magneto opposite to rotation & is ret>d$ by turn+ x ) rotation4 ,"o cyl9d] magnetos are simil> to ! f\r cyl9d] except t ! di/ributor & ge>s are omitt$4 7#ajc7 ,! ,wico ,high ,t5sion ,ignit]4 ,! ,wico ignit] produces a sp>k simil> to t ( ! conv5tional high t5sion magneto except t ! heat ( ! sp>k is indep5d5t ( ! eng9e spe$4 ,9 o!r respects x is v diff]5t f ! types describ$ 9 ! prec$+ pages = its motion is reciprocat+ in/ead ( be+ rot>y1 & because all ( ! wire is /ation>y1 ! only movem5t be+ t ( ! iron core t passes ?r\gh ! c5t] ( ! fields4 ,! fact t ! sp>k is ( ! same int5sity at all spe$s makes ?is device p>ticul>ly desirable 9 />t+ ! eng9e at :i* "t ! mixture is always ( ! poore/ quality4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aac4 ,wico ,ignit]4 ,high ,t5sion ,reciprocat+ ,type4 ,x is v simple1 & is )\t cond5s]s1 contact po9ts or prim>y w9d+s1 & has no p>ts t require adju/m5t4 ,! curr5t is g5]at$ by ! reciprocat+ movem5t ( two s(t iron armatures %[n z a b> across ! bottom ( ! two coils1 :i* move alt]nately into & out ( contact ) ! ends ( ! s(t iron cores4 ,! movem5t ( ^! armatures 9 ! upw>d direction is produc$ by ! motion ( ! eng9e & ! spe$ ( ?is movem5t is1 ( c\rse1 proportional to ! spe$ ( ! eng9e4 ,! d[nw>d movem5t1 :i* produces ! sp>k1 is caus$ by ! action ( a spr+1 is mu* m rapid ?an ! upw>d movem5t & entirely indep5d5t ( ! spe$ ( ! eng9e4 ,! magnets are made ( tung/5 /eel1 %[n z two b>s across ! top ( ! coils1 h>d5$ & magnetiz$ & are fa/5$ by ma*9e screws to ! ca/ iron pole pieces1 :i* s]ve to c>ry ! magnetic l9es ( =ce f ! poles ( ! magnets to ! s(t iron cores4 ,! cores1 :i* fit into slots mill$ 9 ! pole pieces1 are lam9at$ or built up ( ?9 %eets ( s(t iron1 ea* %eet be+ a cont9u\s piece1 ! full l5g? ( ! core4 ,ea* core1 ext5ds f j bel[ ! top armature1 d[n ?r\gh ! pole piece1 & coil to j above ! bottom armature4 ,ea* armature consi/s ( a numb] ( lam9ations or %eets ( s(t iron m\nt$ on a spool %ap$ bu%+1 :i*1 9 turn1 is loosely fitt$ onto ! squ>$ end ( ! armature b>4 ,! armature b> is support$ ) a slid+ fit 9 a box %ap$ guide :i* is fa/5$ 9 ! case4 ,on ! out] ends ( ! armature b> are spiral spr+s held 9 place by cup %ap$ wa%]s & reta9+ p9s1 ! comb9ation mak+ a self-lock+ fa/5+ simil> to ! famili> valve spr+ fa/5+ us$ almo/ univ]sally on gas eng9es4 ,^! spr+s be> aga9/ ! armatures & t5d to =ce !m aga9/ ! %\ld]s ( ! armature b>4 ,! coils ea* h a simple high t5sion w9d+ ( _m turns1 ?or\ghly insulat$ & protect$ aga9/ me*anical injury4 ,!y are connect$ toge!r 9 s]ies by means ( a metal /rip1 ?us mak+ "o cont9u\s w9d+4 ,9 ! s+le cyl9d] ignit]1 "o end ( ! w9d+ is gr\nd$ to ! case ( ! ignit]1 :ile ! o!r end is connect$ to ! heavily insulat$ lead wire4 ,?is lead wire passes out ?r\gh a /uff+ box1 pack$ ) wick+ & ?or\ghly wat] tight1 direct to ! sp>k plug 9 ! cyl9d]4 ,9 ! two cyl9d] ma*9e no gr\nd connection is us$1 b bo? ends ( ! w9d+ are connect$ to lead wires pass+ out ( ! case to ! sp>k plugs4 ,! action ( ! ignit] is z foll[s3--,z ! driv+ b>1 ?r\gh its connection ) ! eng9e1 is mov$ d[nw>d to its limit ( travel1 c>ry+ ! lat* ) x1 ! %\ld] on ! side ( ! lat* snaps "u ! head ( ! lat* block4 ,z ! motion rev]ses ! lat* c>ries ! lat* block & armature b> upw>d4 ,! l[] armature1 be+ 9 contact ) ! /ation>y cores1 _c rise ) ! armature b>1 b ! l[] armature spr+ is compress$ betwe5 its reta9+ wa%] & ! armature1 :ile ! b> rises & c>ries ) x ! upp] armature1 :i* be>s aga9/ ! upp] %\ld]s on ! b>4 ,z ! driv+ b> cont9ues its upw>d motion ! upp] end ( ! lat* meets ! l[] end ( ! tim+ w$ge &1 z ! w$ge is held /ation>y by ! tim+ quadrant1 a fur!r movem5t ( ! lat* causes x to be pu%$ aside until ! %\ld] on ! lat* cle>s ! lat* block & releases x4 ,z ! l[] armature spr+ is at ?is "t ex]t+ a pressure betwe5 ! armature b> & cores ?r\gh ! m$ium ( ! l[] armature1 ! in/ant ! lat* block is releas$1 ! armature b> is quickly pull$ d[nw>d1 c>ry+ ! upp] armature ) x4 ,j be=e ! motion ( ! upp] armature is /opp$ by its com+ 9 contact ) ! cores1 ! l[] %\ld]s on ! armature b> come 9 contact ) ! l[] armature1 &1 z ! b> has acquir$ consid]able velocity1 its mom5tum c>ries ! l[] armature away f ! cores aga9/ ! pressure ( ! upp] armature spr+1 :i* ?us acts z a buff] to gradually /op ! movem5t ( ! armature b>4 ,! armature b> f9ally settles 9 a c5tral position4 ,! tim+ ( ! sp>k is accompli%$ by releas+ ! armature b> e>li] or lat] 9 ! /roke4 ,?is is done by %ift+ ! position ( ! ecc5tric tim+ quadrant1 :i* 9 turn v>ies ! position ( ! w$ge s t ! lat* /rikes x e>li] or lat] 9 ! /roke4 ,! tim+ quadrant is furni%$ ) sev]al not*es into "o ( :i* ! top ( ! w$ge re/s1 ?us hold+ ! quadrant 9 ! desir$ position4 ,! motion %\ld pref]ably be tak5 f an ecc5tric on ! cam %aft ( a s+le cyl9d] f\r cycle eng9e1 or ! crank %aft ( a s+le cyl9d] two cycle or a two cyl9d] f\r cycle eng9e4 ,on a two cyl9d] f\r cycle eng9e1 x is sometimes m conv5i5t to drive ! ignit] f ! cam %aft1 us+ a two ?r[ cam to produce ! requir$ numb] ( sp>ks4 ,9 ?is case ! %ape ( ! cam %\ld be su* z to duplicate ! motion ( ! ecc5tric4 ,t is1 x %\ld />t ! driv+ b> sl[ly f its l[] position1 move x mo/ rapidly at mid /roke & br+ x to re/ gradually at ! upp] end ( ! /roke1 exactly z is done by ! ecc5tric motion4 ,:5 an ecc5tric is already on ! eng9e ! motion may be tak5 f x to an ignit] ) a driv+ b> ?r\gh a prop]ly proportion$ lev] t w give ! requir$ l5g? ( /roke4 ,:]e a plung] pump is us$ on ! eng9e ! motion c usually be tak5 f ! pump rod4 ,:]e an ecc5tric has to be provid$ especially = ! ignit]1 ! driv+ b> is g5]ally us$ ) its roll] runn+ on ! ecc5tric4 7#ajd7 ,/>t+ ,on ,magneto ,sp>k4 ,a f\r-cyl9d] eng9e 9 good condition w come to re/ ) ! pi/ons approximately midway on ! /roke & balanc$ betwe5 ! compression ( ! compress+ cyl9d] & ( ! p[] cyl9d]4 ,:5 ! cyl9d]s ( su* an eng9e are *>g$ ) a prop] mixture1 ! eng9e w />t by ! ignition ( ! mixture conta9$ 9 ! compress+ cyl9d]1 = ! pressure produc$ by ! ignit$ gas w be suffici5t to rotate ! crank%aft4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aad4 ,bos* ,dual ,sy/em4 ,x is ess5tial1 = ! ignition sy/em to be s arrang$ t a sp>k c be produc$ at any po9t 9 ! pi/on travel1 & 9 ?is ! ,bos* dual1 duplex & two indep5d5t sy/ems are successful4 ,! ,bos* dual sy/em1 ,fig4 #aad1 is "p ( ! equipm5t ( _m ( ! c>s & eng9es m>ket$1 & is compos$ ( two sep>ate & di/9ct ignition sy/ems1 "o supply+ ignition by direct high-t5sion magneto1 & ! o!r by a batt]y & high-t5sion coil4 ,^! two sy/ems consi/ 9 reality ( b two ma9 p>ts2 ! dual magneto1 incorporat+ a sep>ate batt]y tim]1 & ! s+le unit dual coil ) its batt]y4 ,! sp>k+ curr5t f ei!r batt]y or magneto is br\ght to ! magneto di/ributor1 s t ! only p>ts us$ 9 common are ! di/ributor & ! sp>k plugs2 ! common use ( ! latt] = bo? magneto & batt]y sy/ems is cause = ! popul>ity ( ! dual sy/em = motors hav+ provision = only "o set ( plugs4 ,9 bo? ! magneto & ! batt]y sides ! sp>k is produc$ on ! break+ ( ! circuit1 & ! coil is s arrang$ t by press+ a button :5 ! swit* is 9 ! batt]y position1 an int5se vibrator sp>k is produc$ 9 ! cyl9d] dur+ t p]iod :5 ! circuit break] is op51 :i* w be ! case dur+ ! fir/ ?ree-f\r?s ( ! p[] /roke4 ,! curr5t is transmitt$ to ! di/ributor & passes ?r\gh ! sp>k plug ( ! cyl9d] t is on ! p[] /roke4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aae4 ,bos* ,duplex ,break]4 ,%\ld ! eng9e come to a /op 9 su* a position t ! batt]y tim] is clos$1 x w n be possible to produce a vibrator sp>k by ! press+ ( ! button1 b ! releas+ ( ! button w produce a s+le contact sp>k t w ignite ! mixture & ?us />t ! eng9e4 ,?us if ! eng9e %\ld /op 9 "s odd position1 & ! sp>k is produc$ :5 ! pi/on is slightly be=e top c5t]1 = in/ance1 !re w be a slight rev]se impulse :i* w br+ ano!r cyl9d] on ! p[] /roke & into ! ignition circuit4 ,! eng9e w !reupon take up its cycle 9 ! prop] direction4 ,9 ! ,bos* duplex sy/em ! coil is 9 s]ies ) ! magneto armature1 b ! sp>k is produc$ "u ! same condition1 t is1 on ! break+ ( ! circuit4 ,9 consequ5ce ! ,bos* duplex sy/em w p]mit ! production ( a sp>k dur+ ! fir/ ?ree-qu>t]s ( ! p[] /roke by ! press+ ( ! pu% button set on ! swit* plate4 ,illu/ration3 ,! ,h]z ,high ,t5sion ,magneto 9 ,:i* ! ,magnets are ,built up ( ,?9 ,/eel ,plates ,)\t ,pole ,pieces 7,f\r ,cyl9d] ,type74 ,! ,bos* two indep5d5t sy/em is compos$ ( a sep>ate ,bos* batt]y sy/em & a sep>ate ,bos* magneto4 ,al?\gh ! op]ation ( ! coil is some:at simil> to t ( ! dual sy/em1 ! nature ( ! batt]y sy/em is su* z to require arrangem5ts = two sep>ate sets ( sp>k plugs4 ,! coil is n unlike t suppli$ ) ! dual sy/em 9 t by press+ a button locat$ on ! swit* plate a s]ies ( int5se sp>ks may be produc$ 9 ! cyl9d] at all advantage\s po9ts ( ! p[] /roke4 ,,*apt] ,,ix ,,c>buretors 7#aje7 ,pr9ciples ( ,c>buretion4 ,! c>buretor is a device = conv]t+ volatile liquid fuels1 su* z gasol9e1 alcohol1 k]os5e1 etc41 into an explosive vapor4 ,besides vaporiz+ ! liquid1 ! c>buretor also controls ! proportion ( ! fuel to ! air requir$ = its combu/ion4 ,! mixture produc$ by ! c>buretor mu/ be a uni=m gas & n a simple spray to accompli% ! be/ results = complete & in/antane\s combu/ion4 ,prop] combu/ion _c be atta9$ ) any ( ! fuel 9 a liquid /ate z all ( ! fuel conta9$ 9 a liquid p>ticle _c come into contact ) ! consum+ air4 ,x is ( ! utmo/ importance to h ! air & fuel 9 correct proportions s t ! fuel may be completely consum$ )\t dang] ( int]f]+ ) ! ignition by an excess ( air4 ,) few exceptions mod]n gasol9e c>buretors are ( ! nozzle type 9 :i* ! liquid is brok5 up into an extremely f9e subdivid$ /ate by ! suction ( ! eng9e pi/on4 ,?is f9e spray is !n fully vaporiz$ or gasifi$ by ! heat drawn f ! surr\nd+ intake air t is drawn ?r\gh ! c>buretor & into ! cyl9d] on ! suction /roke4 ,ow+ to ! l[ grade fuels n[ on ! m>ket & to ! con/antly v>y+ atmosph]ic conditions x is seldom possible to obta9 a p]fect vapor 9 ! correct proportions1 & = ?is reason mu* heat is lo/ t w\ld be available 7 ! mixture p]fect4 ,c>buretors = automobiles & boats v>y 9 detail f ^? us$ on /ation>y eng9es due pr9cipally to ! diff]5ce 9 matt]s ( spe$4 ,a /ation>y eng9e runs at a con/ant spe$ :i* makes adju/m5t comp>atively easy1 :ile automobile eng9es h a wide range ( spe$s & loads mak+ x v difficult to ma9ta9 ! correct mixture at all po9ts 9 ! range4 ,! diff]5ce 9 ! fuel & air adju/m5ts = v>y+ ( spe$s m>ks ! pr9cipal diff]5ce betwe5 /ation>y & automobile c>buretors4 ,!re are _m types ( successful c>buretors on ! m>ket1 s _m 9 fact t we h room = ! description ( only ?ree or f\r ( ! mo/ prom95t1 b we w say t ! well kn[n c>buretors are bas$ on ! same pr9ciples & diff] only 9 matt]s ( detail4 ,a cross-sectional view ( ! well kn[n ,s*ebl] ,type ,d c>buretor is %[n by ,fig4 #aaf1 & is ( ! type commonly us$ on automobile motors & boats4 ,illu/ration3 ,,model 8,d0 ,fig4 #aaf4 ,cross-,section ,?r\gh ,type 8,d0 ,s*ebl] ,c>buretor4 7#ajf7 ,s*ebl] ,c>buretor4 ,! c>buretor is connect$ to ! intake ( ! eng9e by pipe screw$ into ! op5+ ,r1 ! gas pass+ f ! c>buretor to ! eng9e ?r\gh ?is op5+4 ,d is ! spray nozzle :i* op5s into ! float *amb] ,b1 ! op5+ ( ! nozzle be+ regulat$ by ne$le valve ,e :i* controls ! quantity ( gasol9e fl[+ into ! mix+ *amb] ,c4 ,on ! suction /roke ( ! eng9e1 air is drawn ?r\gh ! upp] left h& op5+1 pa/ ! p>tially op5 auxili>y air valve ,a1 pa/ ! ne$le valve ,d1 ?r\gh ! mix+ *amb] ,c1 & into ! eng9e ?r\gh ,r4 ,! suction ( ! eng9e produces a p>tial vacuum 9 ! mix+ *amb] ,c :i* causes ! gasol9e to issue f ! nozzle ,d1 9 ! =m ( a f9e spray :i* is tak5 up by ! air pass+ ?r\gh ! passage ,h1 & is tak5 into ! eng9e ?r\gh ,r1 ?or\ghly mix$4 ,! am\nt ( mixture ent]+ ! eng9e1 & consequ5tly ! eng9e spe$ is regulat$ by ! ?rottle valve ,k1 op]at$ by ! lev] ,p4 ,9 ord] t ! am\nt ( spray giv5 by ! nozzle ,d be con/ant x is necess>y t ! level1 or height ( ! gasol9e 9 ! nozzle be con/ant4 ,! level is ma9ta9$ by means ( ! float ,f1 :i* op5s1 or closes ! gasol9e supply valve ,h1 op5+ x & all[+ gasol9e to ent] :5 ! level is l[1 & clos+ ! valve :5 ! level is high4 ,! c>buretor is connect$ to ! gasol9e supply tank1 by pipe connect$ to ! inlet ,g1 ?r\gh :i* ! gasol9e fl[s into ! float *amb] ,b4 ,! float *amb] c>ries a small am\nt ( gasol9e on :i* ! float ,f re/s4 ,! ri*ness ( ! mixture is controll$ by op5+ or clos+ ! nozzle ne$le valve ,e1 :i* passes ?r\gh ! c5t] ( ! nozzle ,d4 ,! float ,f surr\nds ! nozzle 9 ord] to keep ! level ( ! liquid con/ant :5 ! c>buretor is tilt$ out ( ! horizontal by climb+ hills1 or by ! rock+ ( ! boat :5 us$ on a m>9e eng9e4 ,a dra9 cock ,t is plac$ at ! bottom ( ! float *amb] = ! purpose ( remov+ any wat]1 or s$im5t t may collect 9 ! bottom ( ! float *amb]4 ,at l[ spe$s1 ! auxili>y air valve ,a lies tight on its seat1 all[+ a con/ant op5+ = ! incom+ air ?r\gh ! space %[n at ! bottom ( ! valve4 ,:5 ! spe$ ( ! eng9e is mu* increas$1 ! vacuum is increas$ 9 ! mix+ *amb] ,c1 :i* ov]comes ! t5sion ( ! air valve spr+ ,o & all[s ! valve to op5 & admit m air to ! mix+ *amb]4 ,! action ( ! auxili>y air valve keeps ! mixture uni=m at diff]5t eng9e spe$s1 z x t5ds to keep ! vacuum con/ant 9 ! mix+ *amb]4 ,:5 ! eng9e spe$ increases1 ! fl[ ( gasol9e is great]1 & consequ5tly m air w be requir$ to burn x2 ?is additional air is furni%$ by ! automatic action ( ! valve1 & :5 once adju/$1 comp5sates accurately = ! diff]5t eng9e spe$s4 ,! gasol9e is g5]ally suppli$ by a tank elevat$ at lea/ six in*es above ! level ( ! fluid 9 ! float *amb]2 al?\gh 9 "s cases ! gasol9e is suppli$ by air pressure on a tank situat$ bel[ ! level ( ! c>buretor4 ,9 "s types ( ,s*ebl] c>buretors1 ! float *amb] ,b is surr\nd$ by a wat] jacket t is suppli$ ) hot wat] f ! cyl9d] jackets ( ! eng9e4 ,?is keeps ! gasol9e w>m s t x evaporates readily "u any atmosph]ic conditions4 ,! quantity ( air admitt$ to ! c>buretor is controll$ by an air valve %[n 9 ! air intake by ! dott$ l9es4 ,?is is adju/$ by h& = a p>ticul> eng9e & is seldom t\*$ aft]w>d4 ,:5 />t+ ! eng9e x is necess>y to h a v ri* mixture = ! fir/ few revolutions1 ?is mixture be+ obta9$ by 8flood+0 ! c>buretor4 ,on ! ,s*ebl] c>buretor ! mix+ *amb] is flood$ by depress+ ! 8tickl]0 or flu%+ p9 ,v4 7#ajg7 ,two ,cycle ,c>buretors4 ,ne>ly any type ( c>buretor c be us$ on a two port1 two /roke1 cycle eng9e provid+ a *eck valve is plac$ betwe5 ! crank case & c>buretor to prev5t ! crank-case compression f =c+ its cont5ts back ?r\gh ! inlet passages4 ,a great _m manufactur]s make special c>buretors = two /roke motors t h ! *eck valve built into ! c>buretor itself4 ,) ?ree port two /roke cycle eng9es a *eck valve is n necess>y z ! pi/on 9 ?is type ( eng9e p]=ms ?is duty4 ,9 t class ( vaporiz]s kn[n z mix+ valves1 ! valve t controls ! fl[ ( gasol9e blocks ! air passage 9 su* a way t an additional *eck valve is n necess>y4 7#ajh7 ,k+/on ,c>buretors4 ,! ,k+/on ,c>buretor %[n by ,fig4 #aag diff]s f ! ,s*ebl] 9 _m details1 ! pr9cipal diff]5ce be+ 9 ! con/ruction ( ! spray nozzle & ! con/ruction ( ! auxili>y air valve4 ,! ?rottle valve ,e controls ! exit ( ! mixture ?r\gh ! eng9e connection ,c :i* is an ext5sion ( ! mix+ *amb]4 ,! spray nozzle ,j :i* is surr\nd$ by a hood or tube is controll$ by ! ne$le valve ,a :i* is ?read$ into ! top ( ! mix+ *amb]1 ?is latt] adju/m5t be+ lock$ into place by a button head screw & a slot 9 ! ca/+4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aag4 ,cross-,section ,?r\gh ,k+/on ,c>buretor ,%[+ ,balls ,us$ = ,auxili>y ,air ,valves4 ,surr\nd+ ! nozzle tube or hood is a curv$ re/riction 9 ! air intake passage1 is kn[n z a ,v5turi tube1 :i* insures a con/ant relation betwe5 ! air & fuel supplies4 ,z ! action ( ! ,v5turi tube is r complicat$1 x w n be tak5 up 9 detail4 ,air is suppli$ to ! ,v5turi passage ?r\gh ! intake 7,d74 ,an annul> float 7,k7 surr\nds ! mix+ *amb] t acts on ! gasol9e supply valve 7,i7 ?r\gh a %ort lev] arm4 ,?is valve is accessible = clean+ on ! removal ( ! cap ,h t cov]s ! valve *amb]4 ,gasol9e ent]s ! float *amb] ?r\gh ! fuel pipe ,g1 & ent]s ! spray nozzle ?r\gh ! two ports 9 ! base ( ! mix+ *amb]4 ,! auxili>y air valve is a p>ticul>ly novel feature ( ?is c>buretor1 z no spr+s nor disc valves are us$ 9 its con/ruction4 ,five balls 7,m7 ( diff]5t weights & sizes act z air valves1 ! balls cov]+ ! inlet ports 7,l7 "u normal op]ation4 ,z ! spe$ increases1 ! balls are lift$ (f _! seats 9 ord] ( _! weight or size by ! increase 9 suction4 ,) a slight increase ( suction1 ! lighte/ ball cov]+ ! smalle/ hole is lift$ fir/1 a fur!r increase 9 suction lifts ! next l>ge/ ball :i* /ill fur!r increases ! auxili>y air intake1 & s on until at ! highe/ spe$ all ( ! balls are (f _! seats4 ,access to ! ball valves is _h ?r\gh ! valve caps 7,n74 ,! con/ant supply inlet is circul> & may be set at any desir$ angle1 z c ! float *amb] & gasol9e supply connection4 ,control & adju/m5t are entirely by ! ne$le valve4 7#aji7 ,! ,feps ,c>buretor4 ,! ,feps c>buretor has ! ma9 ne$le valve surr\nd$ by a ,v5turi *amb] z 9 ! prec$+ case1 ! ne$le valve adju/m5t be+ made ?r\gh a lev] on ! left ( ! mix+ *amb]4 ,an auxili>y nozzle directly "u ! auxili>y air valve at ! "r1 connects ) ! float *amb] & furni%es an additional mixture ( gasol9e & air = hill climb+ & high spe$ "w :5 ! lea!r fac$ auxili>y air valve lifts f its seat4 ,! adju/m5t = ?is auxili>y jet is %[n at ! "r ( ! air valve *amb]4 ,= int]m$iate spe$s1 ! air valve alone is 9 action4 ,no controll+ spr+s are us$ on ! air valve :i* insures positive action & s5sitive control ( ! air4 ,a float surr\nd+ ! ,v5turi tube controls ! fuel valve ?r\gh ! usual lev] arm4 ,a wire gauze /ra9] plac$ 9 ! fuel *amb] to ! left prev5ts dirt & wat] f be+ drawn into ! nozzle1 & z ?is /ra9] easily remov$ x is a simple matt] to clean & prev5t ! tr\bles due to dirty fuel4 ,by clos+ ! upp] valve 9 ! v]tical eng9e connection ! vacuum is increas$ 9 ! manifold :5 />t+ ! eng9e4 ,?is increase ( vacuum draws gasol9e f ! float *amb] & primes ! eng9e mak+ ! eng9e easy to />t 9 cold wea!r4 ,! tube ?r\gh :i* ! gasol9e is drawn = prim+ is ! small crook$ tube b5d+ ov] ! float & t]m9at+ above ! />t+ valve4 ,bel[ ?is valve is ! ?rottle valve :i* controls ! mixture 9 ! ord9>y mann]4 ,! adju/m5t = int]m$iate spe$s is made by ! c5t] knurl$ ?umb-screw %[n ov] ! air valve *amb] :i* controls ! travel ( auxili>y air valve4 ,9 effect ?is is a d\ble c>buretor1 "o jet = high spe$ & "o = l[4 7#aaa7 ,gasol9e ,/ra9]s4 ,mu* tr\ble is caus$ 9 c>buretors by dirt1 wat] & s$im5t1 collect+ 9 ! small passages & ob/ruct+ ! fl[ ( ! gasol9e4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aai4 ,! ,excelsior ,c>buretor 9 ,:i* ! ,air is ,regulat$ by a ,ball :i* ,lies 9 ! ,tap]+ ,v5turi ,tube4 ,an ,increase ( ,suction ,lifts ! ,ball & ,all[s ,m ,air to ,pass4 ,! purpose ( ! gasol9e /ra9] is to prev5t any wat] or =eign matt] f be+ c>ri$ into ! c>buretor1 & ?is device %\ld be us$ on e eng9e if ! own] wi%es to be free f c>buretor tr\bles4 7#aab7 ,in/all+ ,gasol9e ,c>buretors4 7#a7 ,use brass or copp] pipe f ! tank to c>buretor if possible to avoid tr\ble f dirt & flakes ( ru/4 7#b7 ,:5 in/all+ a gasol9e tank be sure t ! bottom ( ! tank is at lea/ six in*es above ! c>buretor to insure a good fl[4 7#c7 ,! tank %\ld be provid$ ) an air v5t hole1 or ! gasol9e w n fl[ because ( ! vacuum 9 ! top ( ! tank4 7#d7 ,all tanks %\ld be provid$ ) a dra9 cock at ! l[e/ po9t s t wat] & dirt may be easily remov$4 7#e7 ,clean out ! tank ?or\ghly be=e fill+ ) gasol9e to avoid clogg$ c>buretors4 7#f7 ,pipes f ! tank to c>buretor %\ld nev] be plac$ ne> exhau/ pipes or hot surfaces = ! gasol9e vapor may prev5t ! fe$+ ( gasol9e4 7#g7 ,clean out pipes be=e us+4 7#h7 ,if common ?read$ pipe jo9ts are us$ on ! gasol9e pip+1 use common soap 9 place ( r$ lead4 7#aac7 ,in/all+ ! ,c>buretor4 ,! c>buretor %\ld be plac$ z ne> to ! cyl9d] z possible1 ! %ort] ! pipe1 ! less ! am\nt ( vapor cond5s$ 9 ! manifold4 ,) multi-cyl9d] eng9es ! c>buretor %\ld be s situat$1 t is1 an equal di/ance f ea* cyl9d]1 s t ea* cyl9d] w inhale an equal am\nt ( vapor4 ,! intake op5+ ( ! pipe %\ld be plac$ ne> "o ( ! cyl9d]s1 or draw w>m air (f ! surface ( ! exhau/ pipe 9 ord] t gasol9e w evaporate readily 9 cold wea!r1 & =m a uni=m mixture at v>y+ temp]atures4 ,great c>e %\ld be tak5 to prev5t any air leaks 9 ! c>buretor1 or intake manifold connections1 z a small leak w greatly r$uce ! /r5g? ( ! mixture & cause irregul> runn+4 ,always use a gasket betwe5 ! valves ( a flang$ connection & keep ! bolts tight4 ,if a braz$ %eet brass manifold is us$1 look out = cracks 9 ! braz+4 ,leaks may be detect$ 9 ! connections by spurt+ a little wat] on ! jo9ts1 & turn+ ! eng9e ov] on ! suction /roke4 ,if ! wat] is suck$ 9 ! leaks %\ld be repair$ at once4 ,make sure :5 plac+ gaskets1 t ! gasket does n ob/ruct ! op5+ 9 ! pipe1 & t x is securely fa/5$ s t x is n drawn 9 by ! suction4 ,nev] all[ ! c>buretor to support any weight1 z ! %ell is easily sprung :i* w result 9 leak+ ne$le valves4 ,,c>buretor ,,adju/m5t4 ,:5 adju/+ ! c>buretor ( multiple cyl9d] eng9e1 x is advisable to op5 ! muffl] cut\t 9 ord] t ! "* ( ! exhau/ may be se5 or he>d4 ,) ! muffl] op51 ! color ( ! exhau/ %\ld be not$4 ,) a ,,purple flame y may be sure t ! adju/m5t is ne>ly correct = t load & spe$2 a yell[ flame indicates too mu* air2 a ?9 blue flame too mu* gasol9e1 & is n ! be/ = p[]4 ,be=e />t+ = ! adju/m5t te/1 try ! compression1 & ! sp>k4 ,if ! compression is poor1 try ! effects ( a little oil on ! pi/on1 :i* may be introduc$ into ! cyl9d] ?r\gh ! prim+ cup4 ,x w be well to dilute ! oil to ab\t "o-half ) k]os5e4 ,aft] all tr\ble ) all ! p>ts are cle>1 y may />t ! eng9e4 ,turn on ! gasol9e at ! tank1 & aft] /&+ a mom5t see :e!r !re is any dripp+ at ! c>buretor1 if !re is1 ! tr\ble w probably be due to a leaky float1 dirt 9 ! float valve1 or to poor float adju/m5t4 ,locate ! leak & rem$y x be=e proce$+ fur!r4 ,dirt on ! seat ( ! ne$le valve may sometimes be remov$ by 8flood+0 ! c>buretor1 :i* is done by hold+ d[n ! 8tickl]0 lev] = a few seconds1 caus+ ! gasol9e to ov]fl[1 & wa% out ! dirt4 ,if ! motor has be5 /&+ = a "t x w\ld be well to 8prime0 ! motor by admitt+ a little gasol9e into ! cyl9d] ?r\gh ! prim+ cup1 or by pu%+ ! tickl] a c\ple ( times s z to slightly flood ! c>buretor4 ,n[ turn on ! sp>k & turn ov] ! eng9e = ! />t1 tak+ c>e t ! ?rottle is j a little f>!r op5 ?an its fully clos$ position4 ,if ! eng9e takes a few explosions & /ops1 y w f9d ! nozzle1 or t "s "p ( ! fuel pip+ is clogg$ :i* w /op ! eng9e4 ,if ! motor gradually sl[s d[n1 & /ops1 ) ,,black ,,smoke issu+ f ! end ( ! exhau/ pipe1 or ,,misfires badly1 ! mixture is ,,too ,,ri*1 & %\ld be r$uc$ by cutt+ d[n ! gasol9e supply by means ( ! ne$le valve adju/+ screw4 ,if x /ops quickly1 ) a ,,backfire1 or explosion at ! supply ( gasol9e %\ld be ,,increas$ by adju/+ ! m\? ( ! c>buretor1 ! mixture is ,,too ,,lean1 & ! ne$le valve4 ,9 all cases be sure t ! auxili>y valves are clos$ :5 ! eng9e is runn+ sl[ly1 ) ! ?rottle clos$1 z 9 ! above te/4 ,if !y are op5 at l[ spe$1 ! mixture w be weak5$ & ! te/ w be ( no avail4 ,aft] adju/+ ! ne$le valve z above until ! eng9e is runn+ 7) ?rottle 9 ! same p>tially clos$ position71 turn ! valve sl[ly 9 "o direction or ! o!r until ! motor seems to be runn+ at its be/4 ,dur+ ! above te/s ! sp>k %\ld be left ret>d$ ?r\gh\t ! adju/m5t1 & ! ?rottle %\ld n be mov$4 ,! c>buretor %\ld n[ be te/$ = high spe$ adju/m5t1 by op5+ ! ?rottle wide 7sp>k advanc$71 & obs]v+ ! action ( ! motor4 ,if ! eng9e back-fires ?r\gh ! c>buretor at high spe$1 x indicates t ! mixture is too weak :i* may be due to ! auxili>y air valve spr+ t5sion be+ too weak & all[+ an excess ( air to be admitt$4 ,increase ! t5sion ( ! spr+1 & if ?is does n rem$y matt]s1 admit a little m fuel to /r5g!n ! mixture by means ( ! ne$le valve adju/m5t4 ,d n t\* ! ne$le valve if y c possibly avoid x1 or ! high-spe$ adju/m5t1 z ! fuel adju/m5t w be di/urb$ = l[ spe$4 ,if ! eng9e misfires1 ) l\d reports at ! exhau/1 does n run smoo?ly1 or emits cl\ds ( black smoke at high spe$1 ! eng9e is n receiv+ en\gh air 9 ! auxili>y air valve1 consequ5tly ! t5sion ( ! spr+ %\ld be r$uc$4 ,back fir+ ?r\gh ! c>buretor d5otes a weak mixture4 ,tr\ble 9 cold wea!r may be caus$ ei!r by sl[ evaporation ( ! gasol9e1 or by wat] 9 ! fuel t freezes & ob/ructs ! pip+ or nozzle4 ,9 cold wea!r a high] gravity ( gasol9e %\ld be us$ ?an 9 summ]1 z x evaporates m readily1 & !re=e =ms a combu/ible gas ! rate at l[] temp]atures4 ,to increase ! rate ( evaporation ( ! gasol9e1 x %\ld be plac$ 9 a bottle & held 9 hot wat] = a "t be=e p\r+ x into ! c>buretor or tank1 or ! air inlet w>m$ ) a tor*4 ,! cyl9d] wat] jacket %\ld always be fill$ ) hot wat] be=e try+ to />t ! eng9e1 & w prev5t ! gas f cond5s+ on ! cold walls ( ! cyl9d]4 ,(t5 good results may be _h by wrapp+ a clo? or t[el ar\nd ! c>buretor1 t has be5 dipp$ 9 hot wat]4 ,! cyl9d] ( an air-cool$ eng9e may be w>m$ by g5tly apply+ ! heat ( a tor* to ! ribs1 or by wrapp+ hot clo?s ab\t x4 ,! tank1 pip+1 & c>buretor %\ld be dra9$ m frequ5tly 9 cold wea!r ?an 9 hot1 to prev5t any accumulation ( wat] f freez+1 & /opp+ ! fuel supply4 ,a gasol9e /ra9] %\ld always be suppli$ on ! fuel l9e1 & %\ld be regul>ly dra9$4 ,! motor may (t5 be made to />t 9 cold wea!r by cutt+ out ! sp>k1 & crank+ ! eng9e two or ?ree revolutions ) ! ?rottle wide op54 ,! ?rottle %\ld n[ be clos$ )9 ( its fully clos$ position1 ! ignition curr5t turn$ on1 & ! eng9e crank$ = />t+4 ,?is sy/em w v seldom fail ( success at ! fir/ attempt4 ,c>buretor flood+ is %[n by ! dripp+ ( gasol9e f ! c>buretor1 & :i* results 9 too mu* gasol9e 9 ! mixture4 ,flood+ may be caus$ by dirt accumulat+ "u float valve1 by a leak+ float 7,copp] ,float71 by ,wat] ,logg$ ,float 7,%ellac worn (f ,cork ,float71 by float adju/m5t caus+ too high a level ( gasol9e1 by leak+ float valve1 by cutt+ out ignition :5 eng9e is runn+ full spe$1 by ru/ or corrosion /ick+ float valve lev]1 by float b9d+ 9 *amb]1 by float be+ out ( ! horizontal1 by float valve b9d+ 9 guide1 by excessive pressure on gasol9e1 or by tickl] lev] held aga9/ float cont9u\sly4 ,dirt accumulat$ "u float valve may sometimes be flu%$ out by depress+ tickl] lev] sev]al times2 if ?is does n suffice1 ! cap ov] ! valve mu/ be remov$1 & ! orifice clean$ by wip+ ) a clo?4 ,,leak+ ,,float ,,valves %\ld be regr\nd ) gr\nd glass or v f9e s&2 nev] use em]y z ! p>ticles w become imb$d$ 9 ! metal1 :i* w be ! cause ( worse leaks4 ,%\ld ! %ellac be worn (f ( a cork float all[+ ! gasol9e to p5etrate ! pores ( ! cork1 a new float %\ld be in/all$1 z x is a d\btful policy = own] to give ! float an additional coat ( %ellac4 ,,misfir+ ,,at ,,l[ ,,spe$4 ,if ! c>buretor _c be adju/$ to run ev5ly on l[ spe$ aft] mak+ all possible adju/m5ts ) ! ne$le valve1 ! tr\ble is probably due to air leaks betwe5 ! c>buretor & eng9e1 caus$ by brok5 gaskets1 crack$ braz+ 9 ! intake manifold1 or by leaks ar\nd ! valve /em dilut+ ! mixture4 ,,incorrect ,,valve ,,tim+ w cause miss+1 especially on multiple cyl9d] eng9es1 z ! c>buretor _c furni% mixture to sev]al cyl9d]s t h diff]5t individual tim+4 ,look = air leaks ar\nd ! sp>k edge op5+s1 & be sure t all valves seat gas tight4 ,always be sure t ! auxili>y air valve rema9s clos$ at l[ spe$s1 z a valve t op5s at too l[ a spe$ w surely cause misfir+ z x dilutes ! mixture4 ,,miss+ 9 "o cyl9d] may be caus$ by an air leak 9 t cyl9d]4 ,,wat] 9 gasol9e w cause misfir+1 especially 9 freez+ wea!r1 z x ob/ructs ! fl[ ( fuel to ! c>buretor4 ,! c>buretor & tank %\ld be dra9$ at regul> int]vals1 & if possible1 a /ra9] %\ld be introduc$ 9 ! gasol9e l9e4 ,,clogg$ ,,nozzle4 ,p>ticles ( loose dirt 9 ! nozzle w occasion an int]mitt5t fl[ ( gasol9e t w result 9 misfir+4 ,! nozzle %\ld be clean$ ) a small wire run back & =? ?r\gh\t ! op5+4 ,,clogg$ ,,air ,,v5t 9 ! float *amb] w *ange ! level ( ! fuel1 & w ei!r 8/>ve0 ! eng9e1 or flood ! c>buretor4 ,! air 9 ! float *amb] is a v small hole1 & is likely to clog4 ,,hot ,,fuel ,,pipe4 ,if ! fuel pipe t connects ! tank ) ! c>buretor1 becomes hot1 due to its proximity to ! exhau/ pipe ( cyl9d]s1 vapor w be =m$ 9 ! pipe t w int]f]e ) ! fl[ ( fuel4 ,,dirt ,,"u ,,auxili>y ,,air ,,valve w prev5t ! valve f seat+ prop]ly1 caus+ ! eng9e to misfire at l[ spe$4 ,,cracks ,,or ,,leaks 9 intake pipe or gaskets w cause int]mitt5t leaks ( air & spasms ( misfir+4 ,old cracks t h be5 braz$ w sometimes op5 & close alt]nately caus+ baffl+ cases ( spasmodic misfir+4 ,,dirt ,,9 ,,air ,,intake w *ange ! air ratio1 & ! increas$ suction w cause a great] fl[ ( gasol9e4 ,d n place ! end ( ! inlet pipe 9 a du/y place1 nor :]e oil c be spla%$ into x by ! eng9e4 ,clean out p]iodically4 8,,load+ ,,up0 ( ! inlet pip+ 9 cold wea!r on light load is caus$ by ! mixture cond5s+ 9 ! intake pipe4 ,! only rem$y is to keep ! pip+ w>m1 or to heat ! inlet air4 ,,clogg$ ,,ov]fl[ ,,pipe1 ) eng9es equipp$ ) pump supply w cause flood+1 z ! fuel does n return rapidly en\gh to ! tank4 7#aad7 ,k]os5e ,vaporiz] = ,motorcycles4 ,an +5i\s vaporiz+ device has be5 design$ = ! use ( k]os5e z a fuel = motorcycle eng9es1 by ! ,m4 ,g4 & ,g4 ,motor ,pat5ts ,syndicate1 ,ltd41 ,engl&1 is describ$ 9 ,motor ,cycl+4 ,! device consi/s ( a comm9ut]1 or vaporiz]1 :i* screws into ! sp>kl+-plug hole 9 ! cyl9d]1 ! plug be+ transf]r$ to an ap]ture 9 ! vaporiz]1 a fe$] = regulat+ ! supply ( fuel to ! vaporiz]1 & a ?rottle & air b>rel1 or mix+ *amb]1 = ! purpose ( proportion+ ! am\nt ( air & gas suppli$ to ! eng9e1 & = controll+ ! spe$ ( ! ma*9e z 9 an ord9>y c>buretor4 ,! fe$] receives ! fuel--9 ?is case k]os5e--al?\gh any heavy oil c be us$ ) almo/ equally good results4 ,! fe$] answ]s a purpose simil> to ! ord9>y float *amb] ( ! c>buretor1 i4 e41 to regulate ! am\nt ( k]os5e x is requir$ to pass ?r\gh ! vaporiz]4 ,x consi/s ( a small *amb] m\nt$ ^u ! end ( a pipe lead+ to ! vaporiz]4 ,k]os5e is f$ to ?is device by a copp] pipe f ! tank1 & ent]s at ! l[e/ po9t ?r\gh a #c_/af-;in* hole or jet4 ,?is is cov]$ by a small valve1 op]at$ by eng9e suction4 ,! lift ( ?is valve c be adju/$ by ! ins]tion ( wa%]s to suit any p>ticul> size ( eng9e1 j z "o w\ld use v>i\s size jets to suit ei!r a l>ge or small eng9e4 ,"o ( ! greate/ advantages ( ! device lies 9 ! size ( ?is ap]ture or jet1 inasmu* z x _c possibly *oke up ) grit1 & ev5 wat] w pass ?r\gh & n /op ! op]ation ( ! c>buretor4 ,at ! top ( ! fe$] is an air hole1 :i* admits j suffici5t air to pass ! k]os5e ?r\gh ! vaporiz]1 ! reason = ?is be+ t ! heat ( ! vaporiz] %all only act ^u ! fuel1 ! mixture aft]w>ds be+ balanc$ by air be+ admitt$ ?r\gh ! mix+ *amb]4 ,aft] ! k]os5e leaves ! fe$] x passes ?r\gh a pipe to ! vaporiz]4 ,?is consi/s ( a gunmetal body ) cool+ ribs ca/ on ! outside1 :il/ ?r\gh ! c5t] runs a ?9 copp] tube ( -in* diamet] & only #bj gauge1 :i* w\ld really melt dur+ ! heat ( combu/ion 7 x n = ! fact ( ! fuel pass+ ?r\gh x4 ,! heat d]iv$ f ?is =mation ( vaporiz] is approximately #a1jjj degrees ,fahr4 ,inside ! c5tral tube is a /rip-/eel spiral1 :i* s]ves ! d\ble purpose ( giv+ a c5trifugal motion to ! fuel1 & at ! same "t =m+ a support] = ! tube1 prev5t+ x cru%+ "u ! =ce ( ! explosions4 ,x is1 ( c\rse1 und]/ood t ! inside ( ! fe$+ tube is entirely isolat$ f ! combu/ion *amb]4 ,! sp>k+ plug is screw$ into ! wall ( ! vaporiz]1 :i* is n[ really an ext5sion ( ! combu/ion *amb]4 ,obvi\sly ?is slightly r$uces ! compression ( ! eng9e1 :i*1 h[ev]1 is a necess>y feature :5 k]os5e is us$ z a fuel4 ,aft] pass+ ?r\gh ?is device ! k]os5e is ?or\ghly vaporiz$1 & ! vapor is l$ ?r\gh a flexible pipe to ! ?rottle *amb]2 ?is tak+ ! place ( an ord9>y c>buretor & be+ fitt$ to ! induction pipe4 ,!re are two slides1 op]at$ by ,b[d5 lev]s f ! h&le-b>1 "o be+ = ! ma9 air intake & ! o!r = ! gas4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aba-;a4 ,! ,engli% ,a/] ,electric ,light+ ,unit4 ,und\bt$ly ! greate/ claim = ?is vaporiz] is ! fact t practically no c>bon deposit =ms ^u ! inside ( ! cyl9d] or on ! pi/on4 ,:at little deposit is =m$ takes ! %ape ( small1 s(t flakes1 :i*1 in/ead ( adh]+ to ! cyl9d] walls1 break away be=e !y h atta9$ any size & are bl[n ?r\gh ! exhau/ valve4 ,altoge!r1 ?is device seems to h f9ally solv$ ! problem ( us+ k]os5e z a fuel on air-cool$ eng9es1 especially if ! c>bon deposit difficulty has be5 f9ally ov]come4 ,! device 0 fitt$ to a #c h4p4 ,mat*less ) a ,:ite & ,poppe eng9e4 ,9 ord] to />t up1 a small gasol9e tank1 hold+ ab\t "o half-p9t ( gasol9e1 is fitt$ "u ! ma9 tank & communicates ) ! fe$]4 ,half a m9ute is all t is necess>y runn+ on gasol9e1 :5 ! k]os5e c be turn$ on4 ,! ma*9e w\ld fire at a walk+ pace1 & c\ld also be accel]at$ up to #ee m4p4h4 ,,*apt] ,x ,,lubrication 7#aaf7 ,g5]al ,notes on ,lubrication4 ,no matt] h[ c>efully ! surface ( a %aft or be>+ may be f9i%$1 !re always rema9s a slight r\ghness or burr ( metal1 :i* al?\gh ( microscopic proportions is productive ( friction or we>4 ,ea* m9ute projection ( metal on a dry %aft acts exactly z a la! tool1 :5 ! %aft revolves 9 cutt+ a groove 9 ! /ation>y be>+4 ,s9ce !re are a multitude ( ^! projections 9 a j\rnal1 ! we> w\ld be v rapid1 & w\ld 9 a %ort "t completely de/roy ei!r ! %aft or be>+1 no matt] h[ highly f9i%$ 9 ! beg9n+4 ,:5 lubricat+ oil is introduc$ into a be>+ x imm$iately cov]s ! rubb+ surface1 & z ! oil has a consid]able resi/ance to be+ de=m$1 or is 8/iff10 x sep>ates ! surface ( ! %aft f t ( ! be>+ = a di/ance equal to ! ?ickness ( ! oil film4 ,) ord9>y lubricants ?is di/ance is m ?an en\gh to raise ! irregul>ities ( ! %aft out ( engagem5t ) ^? ( ! be>+4 ,?is prop]ty ( 8/iffness0 9 ! oil is kn[n z 8viscosity40 ,! value ( viscosity v>ies greatly ) diff]5t grades ( oil1 & also ) ! temp]ature ) ! result t ! all[able pressure on ! oil p] squ>e in* also v>ies4 ,) oils ( l[ viscosity a small pressure p] squ>e in* on ! be>+ w squeeze x out1 & all[ ! two metallic surfaces to come aga9/ into contact1 caus+ we> & friction1 :ile an oil ( great] viscosity w successfully resi/ ! pressure4 ,! life & satisfactory op]ation ( ! eng9e dep5ds almo/ entirely ^u ! lubricant & ! devices t apply x to ! be>+s4 ,excessive we> & *ange 9 ! adju/m5ts are ne>ly always ! result ( defective lubricat+ devices or a poor lubricant4 ,! pr9cipal lubricants are3 7#a7 ,solid lubricants su* z graphite1 soap/one1 or mica4 7#b7 ,semi-solid lubricants su* z vasel9e1 tall[1 & soap emulsions1 or greases comp\nd$ ( animal fats1 vegetable & m9]al oils2 & 7#c7 ,liquid lubricants1 su* z sp]m oil1 or "o ( ! products ( petroleum1 ! latt] m$ium be+ ! class ( lubricant mo/ suitable = int]nal combu/ion eng9es1 ow+ to its comb9+ ! qualities ( a high fla%-po9t ) a comp>ative fre$om f ei!r acidity or cau/icity4 ,oils ( animal or vegetable orig9 %\ld nev] be us$ ) gas eng9e z ! high temp]atures enc\nt]$ w *> & r5d] !m useless4 ,tall[ & l>d oil are especially to be avoid$1 at lea/ 9 a pure /ate4 ,9 ! cyl9d] only ! be/ grade ( ,,gas ,,eng9e cyl9d] oil %\ld be us$1 :i* accord+ to diff]5t mak]s has a fla% po9t rang+ f #ejj to #gjj degrees4 ,us+ *eap oil 9 ! cyl9d] is an exp5sive luxury4 ,9 g5]al1 ! oils hav+ ! highe/ fla% po9ts h also ! objectionable t5d5cy ( caus+ c>bon deposits 9 ! combu/ion *amb] & r+s :i* is productive ( preignition & compression leakage4 ,! l[] fla% oils h a t5d5cy to vaporize & to c>ry (f ) ! exhau/ :i* w leave ! walls insuffici5tly lubricat$ unless an excessive am\nt is f$ to ! cyl9d]4 ,by />t+ ) samples ( well kn[n br&s recomm5d$ by ! build] ( ! eng9e x w be an easy matt] to f9d :i* is ! *eape/ & gives ! be/ results4 ,9 figur+ ! co/ ( oil d n take ! co/ p] gallon z a basis1 b ! co/ = s _m h\rs ( runn+1 or bett] yet ! numb] ( horse-p[] h\rs4 ,unless y are fond ( buy+ replacem5ts & new p>ts d n /9t on ! oil supply4 ,on ! o!r h&1 an excess ( oil %\ld be avoid$ z ?is means n only a wa/e ( oil ?r\gh ! exhau/ pipe1 b tr\ble ) c>bon deposits & ignition tr\bles z well4 ,f\l ignit]s1 misfir+1 & /uck pi/on r+s are ! inevitable result ( a flood ( lubricat+ oil4 ,:5 a :iti% yell[ cl\d ( smoke appe>s at ! end ( ! exhau/ pipe1 cut d[n ! oil fe$4 ,! exhau/ %\ld be colorless & practically odorless4 ,too mu* oil _c be f$ to ! ma9 be>+s ( ! crank %aft if ! wa/e oil is caught1 filt]$ & return$ to ! be>+s by a circulat+ sy/em1 = ! flood ( oil n only insures ample lubrication b removes ! heat g5]at$ z well4 ,! be>+s require a mu* light] oil1 ( a l[] fire te/ ?an ! cyl9d] oil4 ,x is evid5t t its viscosity is a mo/ important elem5t1 z x det]m9es ! all[able pressure on ! %aft4 ,! viscosity ( an oil v>ies ) ! temp]ature & is greatly r$uc$ at cyl9d] heat4 ,a comp>ative te/ ( ! viscosity or load be>+ qualities ( an oil may be made by mak+ bubbles ) x by means ( a clay pipe2 ! l>g] ! bubble1 ! high] ! viscosity ( ! oil4 ,diff]5t sizes ( be>+s1 & be>+ pressures1 call = oils ( diff]5t viscosities1 & consequ5tly an oil t w\ld be suitable = "o eng9e w\ld n answ] = ano!r2 heavy bodi$ oils be+ us$ = heavy be>+ pressures1 & light ?9 oil = small high spe$ be>+s4 ,! be/ way to det]m9e ! value ( an oil = a p>ticul> %aft be>+ is by exp]im5t1 att5tion be+ paid to its adaptability = ! fe$+ devices us$4 ,! compression atta9$ 9 a gas eng9e cyl9d] dep5ds to a c]ta9 ext5t ^u ! body ( ! cyl9d] oil1 = _m eng9es t leak compression pa/ ! r+s ) ?9 oil w "w satisfactorily ) a heavy visc\s oil t cl+s tightly to ! surfaces4 ,an eng9e w (t5 lose compression :5 an oil ( poor quality is us$4 ,air cool$ eng9e cyl9d]s require an oil ( heavi] body ?an wat] cool$ because ( ! high] temp]ature ( ! cyl9d] walls4 ,gum & /icky residue are usually =m$ by animal oils or adult]ants add$ to ! num]al oil base4 ,oils conta9+ free acids %\ld be avoid$ z !y n only corrode & et* ! be>+1 b also clog ! oil pipes or fe$s ) ! products ( ! corrosion4 ,free acid is left f ! ref9+ process1 & may be det]m9$ by means ( litmus pap] ins]t$ into ! oil4 ,if ! litmus pap] turns r$ aft] com+ into contact ) ! oil1 acid is pres5t1 & ! oil %\ld be reject$4 ,! foll[+ are ! *>act]i/ics ( an oil suitable = use on an eng9e3 7a7 ,! oil mu/ be visc\s en\gh to prop]ly support ! be>+s or to prev5t leakage pa/ ! pi/on r+s4 7b7 ,x %\ld be ?9 en\gh s t x c be prop]ly h&l$ by ! oil pumps1 or drip freely 9 ! oil cups4 7c7 ,x %\ld n =m heavy deposits ( oil 9 ! cyl9d] & cause ! =mation ( 8gum40 7d7 ,x %\ld conta9 no free acid4 ,ord9>ily a good grade ( fairly heavy ma*9e oil w be suitable = use on ! be>+s ( ! av]age eng9e1 su* z ! cam-%aft & crank-%aft be>+s4 ,only v light clean oil1 or vasel9e %\ld be us$ on ball-be>+s1 z heavy greases & solid lubricants pack 9 ! races & cause b9d+ or breakages4 ,flake graphite is mu* us$ z lubricant1 & too mu* _c be said 9 its favor1 z x furni%es a smoo?1 ev5 coat ov] ! %aft1 fills up small scores & depressions1 & makes ! use ( light oil possible "u heavy be>+ pressures4 ,) graphite1 less oil is us$1 z ! graphite is practically p]man5t1 & %\ld ! oil fail = a "t1 ! graphite coat w provide ! necess>y lubrication until ! fe$ is resum$ )\t dang] ( a scor+ or cutt+4 ,9 fact1 :5 graphite is us$1 ! oil simply acts z m$ium by :i* ! graphite is c>ri$ to ! be>+s4 ,if graphite is inject$ into ! cyl9d] 9 small quantities x greatly improves ! compression1 z x fills up all small cuts & abrasions 9 ! cyl9d] walls4 ,a good mixture to use = be>+s is ab\t #a teaspoonsful ( graphite1 to a p9t ( light ma*9e oil1 ?or\ghly mix$4 ,graphite c be plac$ 9 ! crank *amb] ( a spla% fe$ eng9e1 by means ( an insect p[d] gun4 ,tr\ble ) oil cups is always 9 evid5ce dur+ cold wea!r1 z ! oil congeals1 & does n drip prop]ly into ! be>+s4 ,! fluidity ( ! oil c be increas$ 9 cold wea!r by ! addition ( ab\t t5 p] c5t ( k]os5e to ! oil4 ,if too mu* oil is f$ to ! cyl9d]s1 ! pi/on r+s w be clogg$ ) gum1 & a loss ( compression1 or a tight pi/on w be ! result4 ,an excess ( oil w %ort-circuit ! ignit] or %>p plugs1 & w =m a ?ick deposit 9 ! combu/ion *amb] t w ev5tually result 9 preignition or back-fir+4 ,deposits & gum =m$ 9 ! cyl9d] w cause leaky valves & a loss ( compression4 ,fe$ en\gh oil to insure p]fect lubrication1 b n en\gh to cause light color$ smoke at ! exhau/4 ,lubricat+ sy/ems may be divid$ into ?ree pr9cipal classes3 ,sight-fe$1 spla% sy/em1 & ! =ce fe$ sy/em4 ,sight fe$+ by means ( dripp+ oil cups is too common to require description1 & is us$ on _m /ation>y eng9es1 bo? l>ge & small4 ,! spla% sy/em is 9 g5]al use on small high spe$ eng9es bo? /ation>y1 & ( ! automobile type4 ,! =ce fe$ sy/em 9 :i* oil is f$ "u pressure by a pump is by f> ! mo/ desirable z ! am\nt ( oil f$ is giv5 9 positive quantities proportional to ! eng9e spe$1 & ) suffici5t pressure to =ce x pa/ any ord9>y ob/ructions t may exi/ 9 ! oil pipe4 ,ano!r sy/em t is half spla%1 & half =ce fe$1 is ! pump circulat$ sy/em mu* us$ 9 automobiles4 ,,! ,,spla% ,,fe$ ,,sy/em is ! simple/ ( all1 z ! be>+s are lubricat$ by ! oil spray caus$ by ! connect+ rod end spla%+ ?r\gh an oil puddle locat$ 9 ! bottom ( ! clos$ crank case4 ,! pi/on & cyl9d] are lubricat$ by ! spray1 z well z ! be>+s1 z ! l[] end ( ! pi/on projects into ! crank *amb] at ! mom5t t ! connect+ rod end /rikes ! oil puddle4 ,to ma9ta9 con/ant lubrication1 x is necess>y t ! oil 9 ! puddle be kept at a con/ant height1 or z 9 "s cases be v>i$ 9 su* a way t ! surface ( ! puddle is rais$ & l[]$ 9 proportion to ! load on ! eng9e4 ,9 ! av]age eng9e ! oil level is ma9ta9$ by ov]fl[ pipes or op5+s t all[ any excess ( oil ov] ! fix$ level to fl[ back to ! pump4 ,9 ! ,knight eng9e ! puddles are =m$ 9 movable cups :i* are connect$ ) ! ?rottle 9 su* a way t ! op5+ ( ! ?rottle raises ! oil level & supplies m oil to ! eng9e at ! great] load1 or spe$4 ,oil 9 spla% sy/ems is suppli$ by a l[ pressure pump1 usually ( ! rot>y type1 9 ! base ( ! eng9e4 ,oil f ! pump passes to ! be>+s1 drops into ! puddle1 ov]fl[s ?r\gh ! ov]fl[ op5+1 & returns to ! pump ?r\gh a filt]1 ! same oil be+ us$ ov] & ov] aga9 until exhau/$4 ,?is /ra9] %\ld be remov$ occasionally & ! dirt remov$1 = %\ld x be all[$ to collect x is likely to ob/ruct ! oil supply4 ,! oil %\ld be replac$ be=e x becomes too black or f\l1 ! crank case & be>+s ?or\ghly clean$ ) k]os5e1 & new oil replac$4 ,! supply may be int]rupt$ by ! failure ( ! pump1 caus$ by %e>$ keys or leakage ( air 9 ! suction l9e due to cracks4 ,x w\ld be well to run ! eng9e = a few m9utes ) ! k]os5e 9 ! crank case1 9 ord] t all ( ! oil may be remov$4 ,see t ! dra9 cock is clos$ at ! bottom ( ! cyl9d] or all ( ! oil w be lo/4 ,lock ! valve h&le c>efully s t x _c j> op54 ,if light color$ smoke appe>s 9 int]mitt5t puffs ) a multiple cyl9d] eng9e1 x indicates t "o cyl9d] is receiv+ too mu* oil4 7#aag7 ,=ce ,fe$ ,lubricat+ ,sy/em4 ,! =ce fe$ sy/em is by f> ! mo/ reliable ( all oil+ sy/ems1 z x fe$s uni=mly & cont9u\sly at almo/ any temp]ature1 & aga9/ ! pressure ( practically any ob/ruction 9 ! pipe4 ,! oil is suppli$ by a small pump driv5 f ! eng9e1 ! pump be+ incas$ 9 ! oil tank h\s+4 ,frequ5tly a h& pump is us$ 9 comb9ation ) ! p[] pump :5 />t+ ! eng9e1 or at times :5 ! p[] pump is out ( s]vice4 ,a s+le pump is us$ ) any numb] ( leads1 ea* lead1 or fe$1 hav+ an indep5d5t regulat+ valve & sight fe$1 or a pump unit may be provid$ = ea* lead1 dep5d+ on ! size ( ! eng9e4 7#aah7 ,bos* ,=ce ,fe$ ,oil]4 ,! =ce fe$ ( ! ,bos* ,oil] is s positive 9 "*1 t ! fl[ ( oil is n affect$ by heavy back-pressure due to elb[s & ! diamet] ( ! conduct+ pipes4 ,spr+s1 valves & o!r devices1 :i* w\ld *eck ! fl[ ( oil1 are fundam5tally elim9at$4 ,! am\nt ( oil f$ may be accurately & p]man5tly regulat$4 ,gl&s & o!r pack+s & bu%+s are elim9at$4 ,connect+ rods & all l9ks are elim9at$ by ! direct application ( ! movem5ts ( ! oscillat+ cam disks to ! pump plung]s & pi/on valves4 ,ea* fe$ ( ?is oil] is provid$ ) a sep>ate pump elem5t consi/+ ( a pump body plung] & a pi/on valve1 ! suction & fe$ ducts connect+ directly ) ! pump body ( _! respective elem5ts4 ,) ?is con/ruction1 pump elem5ts may be replac$ or add$4 ,! oil] requires no att5tion o!r ?an to be suppli$ ) oil2 & ! op5+ & clos+ ( ! valves1 pet cocks1 etc41 on />t+ & /opp+ ! ma*9e is r5d]$ unnecess>y4 ,! correct & regul> op]ation ( ! elem5ts may be v]ifi$ by obs]vation ( ! reciprocat+ movem5ts ( ! regulat+ screws4 ,ea* pump plung] is provid$ ) an adju/+ screw ?r\gh :i* ! fe$ may be regulat$ f #j to #j4b cubic c5timet]s = ea* /roke4 ,! ,bos* ,oil] 7,fig4 #aba7 be+ positively driv5 by ! ma*9e t x supplies1 ! oil f$ is 9 all cases proportional to ! eng9e spe$2 ov]loads are ?us automatically tak5 c>e (4 ,! circul> arrangem5t ( ! elem5ts ( ! ,bos* ,oil] p]mits ! device to be driv5 by a s+le %aft1 & ! oil is =c$ ?r\gh ! fe$s f a s+le res]voir to ! requir$ po9ts ( application4 ,a pump elem5t consi/s ( a pump body #a1 a pump plung] #b & a pi/on valve #c1 & is support$ on ! base plate #ac4 ,! elem5ts are arrang$ conc5trically ab\t ! drive %aft 9 su* a mann] t ! pump plung]s =m a circle ar\nd ! circle =m$ by ! pi/on valves4 ,illu/ration3 ,top ,view ( ,bos* ,=ce ,fe$ ,oil]4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aba4 ,cross-,section ,bos* ,oil]4 ,! pump cam disk #bj & ! valve cam disk #bb are set on ! drive %aft at o!r ?an a "r angle ) its axis1 & ! rims ( ! disks are gripp$ by slots =m$ 9 ! heads ( ! pump plung]s & pi/on valves4 ,! relation ( ^! cam disks is su* t ! valve cam disk is #ij 9 advance ( ! plung] cam disk4 ,! valve cam disk is solid on ! drive %aft1 b ! pump cam %aft is loose & driv5 ?r\gh a lug on ! valve cam disk4 ,:5 ! drive ( ! pump is rev]s$1 ! lug on ! valve cam disk frees itself & aga9 takes up ! drive ( ! pump cam disk1 aft] ! drive %aft has made a half revolution4 ,regulat+ screws #d are set 9 ! slott$ heads ( ! pump plung]1 & by means ( ?is ! back-la% or play ( ! cam disk may be regulat$4 ,! regulat+ screws are provid$ ) lock nuts1 & project ?r\gh ! cov] ( ! oil tank h\s+1 be+ expos$ by ! removal ( ! fill] cov] #db4 ,! fill] op5+ is provid$ ) a removable /ra9] to prev5t ! entrance ( =eign p>ticles into ! oil tank4 ,pump %aft #ad is driv5 ?r\gh worm ge> #bc :i* me%es ) worm #bd on drive %aft #be2 drive %aft #be projects f ! oil] h\s+1 & is c\pl$ ) ! driv+ %aft ( ! ma*9e to be lubricat$4 ,base plate #ac is atta*$ to ! oil] cov] by ?ree /ud bolts1 ?us p]mitt+ ! removal ( ! entire oil] me*anism f ! h\s+4 ,! quantity ( oil 9 ! oil tank is %[n by gauge glass #dd4 ,on ! />t+ ( ! ma*9e to :i* ! oil] is atta*$1 ! pump %aft & ! cam disks t x supports are set 9 motion ?r\gh worm #bd & worm ge> #bc4 ,a direct reciprocat+ motion is giv5 to ! pump plung] & to ! pi/on valve by ! rotation ( ! cam disks :i* h a movem5t simil> to t ( ! 8wobble saw40 ,! relation ( ! cam disk is su* t ! pi/on valve movem5ts are #ij 9 advance ( ! movem5ts ( ! pump plung]s4 ,! pump w run 9 ei!r direction )\t alt]ation4 ,to secure ?is effect a play ( #ij is provid$ betwe5 ! cam disk4 ,:5 cam #bb is driv5 clockwise1 cam disk #bj is driv5 by ! lug :i* me%es ) a lug on disk #bb4 ,! cams are !n 9 su* a relation t ! cam valve disk is #ij 9 advance ( ! pump cam disk4 ,:5 rev]s$1 cam #bj rema9s at re/ until cam #bb cat*es ! lug & cam #bj1 :5 ! drive cont9ues z be=e4 ,! cams are !n 9 ! same relation z previ\sly = z ! valve disk #bb has travel$ ?r\gh #ahj x is evid5t t x is #ij 9 advance ( ! pump disk4 7#aai7 ,ca/or ,oil = ,a]o ,eng9es4 ,ca/or oil is us$ almo/ exclusively 9 ! ,gnome & o!r rot>y eng9es ( ! same type1 b has n be5 p>ticul>ly successful on /ation>y cyl9d]s4 ,*emically1 ca/or oil diff]s f all o!r vegetable or animal oils 9 conta9+ nei!r palmit9 or ole94 ,x is soluble 9 absolute alcohol1 b practically insoluble 9 gasol9e4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! ca/or oil is capable ( dissolv+ small quantities ( m9]al oil1 ! m fluid !y are ! less x absorbs ( !m4 ,b ! insolubility ( ca/or oil 9 m9]al oil disappe>s completely :5 x is mix$ ) ev5 a v small quantity ( ano!r vegetable or animal oil1 su* z colza or l>d oil4 ,an adult]ation may ?us result 9 a s]i\s rev]sal ( ! oil's be/ qualities2 9 fact1 9 s]i\s seizures1 ,ca/or oil does n attack rubb]1 b x conta9s #a to #b p] c5t ( acid fats2 sometimes m4 8,9 my op9ion says a writ] 9 #8,autoc>' ca/or oil c only be us$ 9 fix$ cyl9d]s ) impunity = %ort di/ances & !n ) repeat$ clean+s betwe5 runs1 b on rot>y eng9es ( ! ,gnome type clean+ is almo/ unnecess>y4 ,! reason is t "o _c consi/5tly use ca/or oil ov] & ov] aga91 = ! fact is indisputable t x has a f> great] t5d5cy ?an m9]al oils to absorb oxyg51 & s gradually to increase 9 body & f9ally to gum4 ,:5 once x comm5ces to gum ! c>bonization becomes m rapid1 because ! ?ick5$ & pit*-l oil acts z an insulat+ cov]+ on ! top ( ! pi/ons & ( ! cyl9d]1 & _c get away ) suffici5t rapidity to avoid decomposition & bak+ to a coke4 ,!re=e if ca/or oil is to be us$ on ! ord9>y /ation>y cyl9d] type ( eng9e1 x is necess>y to wa% out ! crank *amb] & to replace ) fre% oil at frequ5t int]vals4 ,on a rot>y eng9e su* z ! ,gnome ?is clean+ is unnecess>y1 because !re is a cont9u\s /ream ( fre% ca/or oil br\ght into ! crank *amb] & !n ?r[n by c5trifugal =ce pa/ ! pi/ons & ?r\gh ! cyl9d] into ! exhau/4 ,?us ! /ream ( oil nev] has suffici5t "t to oxidize fully1 gum or decompose4 ,?is action ( c5trifugal =ce acc\nts = ! l>ge consumption ( oil on ! rot>y eng9e1 & also = ! fact t ! pi/ons & cyl9d]s keep comp>atively clean4 8,9 ?us criticiz+ ! use ( ca/or oil ,i d n wi% x to be inf]r$ t x is n an excell5t lubricant4 ,:at ,i wi% to sugge/ is t 9 ! case ( an int]nal combu/ion eng9e x mu/ be made ) discretion4 ,a po9t 9 favor ( ca/or oil is ! fact t x ma9ta9s its viscosity 9 a rem>kable mann] at high temp]atures1 & t at ^? high temp]atures x has a peculi> creep+ or capill>y action :i* enables x to spread uni=mly ov] ! :ole ( ! metallic surfaces1 :]eas "u ! same conditions a simil>ly bodi$ m9]al oil w\ld be unev5ly di/ribut$ 9 pat*es4 ,ano!r po9t is t ! specific heat ( ca/or oil is consid]ably high] ?an t ( a pure m9]al oil4 ,?is is 9 its favor1 insomu* t x %[s ca/or oil to be a bett] heat remov] ?an a m9]al oil4 8,motori/s & aviators h f "t to "t in=m$ me t !y are us+ ca/or oil1 b h app>5tly be5 "u "s misappreh5sion4 ,i f9d t !y h be5 us+ a br& ( prep>$ oil "u ! impression t x is a specially ref9$ ca/or oil1 or t x is a bl5d ( ca/or oil40 ,illu/ration3 ,produc] ,gas ,eng9e ,plant at ,gtt+51 ,g]many1 ,consi/+ ( ,f\r #c1ejj ,horse-,p[] ,units4 ,a simple me?od = te/+ ! purity ( ca/or oil is at ! disposal ( all4 ,x is kn[n z ! ,f9k5] te/4 ,t5 cubic c5timet]s ( ca/or oil is plac$ 9 a graduate4 ,five times z mu* alcohol1 #ij p] c5t1 is add$ & /irr$ 94 ,! solution %\ld rema9 cle> & brilliant at #ae to #bj degrees ,c4 ,an admixture ( =eign oils1 ev5 if only #e p] c5t1 riles ! solution at ?is temp]ature1 ?\gh n above x4 7#abj7 ,=ce ,fe$ ,tr\bles4 ,! mo/ common tr\ble ) =ce fe$ sy/ems is ! failure ( ! op]ator to remove ! dirt collect$ by ! /ra9]4 ,! oil pip+ %\ld be clean$ out at lea/ once e ye> by means ( a wire & gasol9e1 to remove any gum t may h be5 deposit$4 ,driv+ belts %\ld be kept tight to prev5t slipp+1 & belts t are soak$ ) oil %\ld be clean$ ) gasol9e & readju/$4 ,leak+ pump valves g5]ally ( ! ball type are a common cause ( failure4 ,!y may leak because ( we> or by an accumulation ( grit & dirt on _! seats1 :i* prev5ts ! valves f seat+ prop]ly4 ,if ! valves leak1 ! oil w be =c$ back into ! tank1 or w n be drawn into ! pump cyl9d] at all1 dep5d+ on :e!r ! inlet or dis*>ge valve is ! (f5d]4 ,plung] leakage :i* is r>e w cause oil failure4 ,if ! oil pipes t lead to ! be>+s rub aga9/ any mov+ "p1 or aga9/ a %>p edge1 a hole w be worn 9 ! pipe1 a leak caus$ :i* w prev5t ! oil f rea*+ ! be>+4 ,a d5t$ or 8squa%$0 pipe w prev5t ! fl[ ( oil4 ,! set screw or p9 hold+ ! pulley to ! pump %aft may loos5 & cause x to run idly on ! %aft )\t turn+ ! pump4 ,?is w ( c\rse1 prev5t ! circulation ( oil4 ,! worm & worm :eel may we> s t ! pump is no long] driv5 by ! pulley %aft1 or a poor pipe connection may leak all t ! pump deliv]s4 ,! am\nt ( oil requir$ by ea* lead or be>+ %\ld be c>efully det]m9$ by exp]im5t1 & kept con/antly at ! "r numb] ( drops p] m9ute4 ,! fe$ adju/m5ts j> loose1 & %\ld be inspect$ frequ5tly4 7#aba7 ,oil ,cup ,failure4 ,oil cups %\ld be clean$ out frequ5tly ) gasol9e or k]os5e1 z any gum or l9t w int]f]e s]i\sly ) ! fe$4 ,!y %\ld be adju/$ & fill$ frequ5tly to prev5t any possible *ance ( a hot be>+4 ,oil cups %\ld be z l>ge z possible 9 ord] t !y may be left = consid]able p]iods )\t dang] ( a hot box4 ,cold wea!r affects ! oil fe$ to a consid]able ext5t1 especially ) small oil cups1 & !y %\ld be kept z w>m z possible4 ,:5 heavy oils are us$ a cold draft w /op ! fe$4 ,oils may be made m fluid 9 cold wea!r by ! addition ( ab\t t5 p] c5t ( k]os5e4 7#abb7 ,hot ,be>+s4 ,a hot be>+ is almo/ a sure sign ( insuffici5t oil1 & ! tr\ble %\ld be locat$ & rem$i$ imm$iately4 ,oil pumps /opp+1 clogg$ oil pipes or holes1 froz5 oil1 or oil leaks are common causes ( hot be>+s4 ,nev] all[ an eng9e to run ) a hot be>+ = any l5g? ( "t1 z ! be>+ or pi/on may seize tight & wreck ! eng9e4 ,inspect ! j\rnals frequ5tly to see if !y are above normal temp]ature4 ,a hot1 b9d+ be>+ (t5 causes ! effect ( an ov]load on ! eng9e1 sl[+ x d[n1 & increas+ ! gov]nor & fuel fe$1 ?is is foll[$ 9 a %ort "t by ! be>+ seiz+4 7#abc7 ,cold ,wea!r ,lubrication4 ,x is by no means uncommon tr\ble 9 cold wea!r to f9d excessive fluctuations 9 pressure z ! eng9e spe$ & temp]ature ( ! oil v>ies4 ,?us1 if ! pressure be set correctly ) ! eng9e runn+ fa/1 & :5 j />t$ up1 x w be f\nd1 aft] half-an-h\r's runn+1 t1 ) ! eng9e turn+ sl[ly1 ! pressure is f> too l[1 ow+ to ! oil hav+ become ?94 ,if ! pressure be !n reset1 x may be f\nd on next />t+ up f cold t ! gauge goes h>d ov]1 & may v easily be bur/ if ! eng9e is run fa/4 ,! po9t is "o to :i* _m design]s ( eng9es pay f> too little att5tion1 ?\gh ! difficulty may be v easily gott5 ov]4 ,! secret lies 9 hav+ ! by-pass outlet ( mo/ ample proportions1 s t ! excess ( oil1 h[ev] ?ick1 c get away q easily4 ,if !re is any ?rottl+ ( ! by-pass1 back pressure mu/ result ) consequ5t increase ( ! pressure at :i* ! by-pass valve comes into op]ation4 ,9 o!r words1 ! pressure ( ! ma9 supply to ! be>+s w be increas$4 ,a writ] to 8,! ,motor10 ,london solv$ ?is problem 9 ! foll[+ mann]3 8,orig9ally1 ! by-passage 0 some:at small1 little l>g] ?an ! oil deliv]y pipe to ! eng9e1 :i* 0 ab\t #c_/af in* bore1 & ! result 0 t ! pressure :5 />t+ ) ! oil cold rose to ab\t #be p\nds p] squ>e in*1 & fell to ab\t "o p\nd p] squ>e in* ) ! oil hot & ! eng9e runn+ sl[4 ,x 0 possible1 h[ev]1 to bore out ! by-pass passage & fit a l>g] pipe1 ab\t ?ree times ! area ( ! ma9 deliv]y pipe1 ) ! result t ! oil1 :5 cold1 nev] rose above ab\t #ae p\nds p] squ>e in*1 h[ev] fa/ ! eng9e run4 ,:5 ?or\ghly heat$1 ! normal runn+ pressure 0 ab\t #f p\nds p] squ>e in*1 fall+ to #b p\nds p] squ>e in* ) ! eng9e only j turn+ ov]1 :i* br+s up ! "q ( ! correct work+ pressure4 ,?is w v>y v l>gely ) ! design ( ! eng9e1 b1 broadly speak+1 ! high] ! pressure ! bett] = ! be>+s4 ,! limit+ figure is det]m9$ by ! t5d5cy ( ! eng9e to ?r[ out oil at ! end ( crank%aft be>+s1 & by ! am\nt t gets pa/ ! pi/on r+s4 ,obvi\sly1 an eng9e ) new1 tight be>+s & new pi/on r+s w /& a high] pressure )\t undue wa/e ( oil or excess deposit 9 ! cyl9d] head ?an w an old eng9e ) worn be>+s & slack r+s4 ,&1 aga91 ! "q w be affect$ by ! design ( ! pi/ons4 ,= in/ance1 :]e ! trunk ( ! pi/on is bor$ = lightness1 mu* m oil w get pa/ ! r+s ?an 9 cases :]e a #8solid' trunk is employ$4 ,r\ghly speak+1 #h to #ae p\nds p] squ>e in* is a good figure = a new1 high-spe$ eng9e4 ,an old & worn eng9e1 p>ticul>ly if n ( a high-spe$ type1 may require no m ?an #b to #f p\nds p] squ>e in*40 ,illu/ration3 ,brookes ,gasol9e-,electric ,g5]at+ ,units = ,op]at+ ,se>* ,lights4 ,an ,indep5d5t ,unit is ,us$ = ,ea* ,light4 ,! writ] rec5tly enc\nt]$ a r curi\s difficulty 9 connection ) obta9+ a free by-pass4 ,! return pipe f ! by-pass l$ into ! case c>ry+ ! ge>:eels ( ! cam%aft & magneto drive1 & oil cont9ually flood$ out f ! end ( ! cam%aft & o!r be>+s4 ,! wa/e & mess 7 suffici5tly s]i\s to w>rant inve/igation1 & ! cov] plate ov] ! ge>s 0 accord+ly tak5 (f4 ,x 0 !n notic$ t ! oil deliv]$ to ! ge>:eel case _h only two small holes by :i* to dra9 away to ! crankcase4 ,! fl[ f ! by-pass 0 beyond ! prop] capacity ( ^! holes1 & s ! :ole ge>:eel case became fill$ ) oil "u consid]able pressure1 q possibly #b or #c p\nds p] squ>e in*1 & x 0 n surpris+ t oil exud$ f ! ends ( ! be>+4 ,a few extra limb]-holes1 if "o may borr[ a nautical expression1 7 drill$ ?r\gh to ! crankcase1 & no fur!r tr\ble 0 exp]i5c$4 7#abd7 ,plug ,oil ,holes ,:5 ,pa9t+4 ,:5 ! *assis ( ! c> is repa9t$ x is well to see t all expos$ oil holes are /uff$ ) wa/e to prev5t !m f be+ *ok$4 ,failure to obs]ve ?is precaution may result 9 ! holes be+ clogg$ ) pa9t1 :i* if n remov$ be=e ! c> is />t$1 w prev5t oil rea*+ ! be>+s4 7#abe7 ,oil+ ! ,magneto4 ,nev] oil ! circuit break] or circuit break] me*anism1 unless = a drop ( sp]m oil t may be appli$ to ! cam roll] by means ( a too?pick4 ,if oil gets on ! circuit break] contact po9ts1 x w cause !m to sp>k badly1 result+ 9 pitt+ or de/ruction ( ! po9ts4 ,if ! oil is occasionally appli$ to ! cam roll] or %\ld oil accumulate on break] po9ts1 ! break] %\ld be r9s$ out ) gasol9e to remove ! surplus4 ,pitt$ or c>boniz$ contact po9ts are capable ( caus+ mu* tr\ble1 & gummy oil or dirt w develop ?is tr\ble quick] ?an any o!r cause4 ,use only ! be/ grade ( ?9 sp]m oil on ! ball be>+s4 ,9 ! c\rse ( "t ! circuit break] contact po9ts w we> or burn1 caus+ imp]fect contact1 & too great a sep>ation betwe5 ! po9ts4 ,! contacts %\ld be exam9$ f "t to "t1 & if r\gh or pitt$1 %\ld be dress$ d[n to a flat ev5 be>+ by means ( a dead smoo? file1 & ! di/ance readju/$4 ,! contacts %\ld n be> on a corn] or edge1 b %\ld be> ev5ly ov] _! entire surface to insure a maximum prim>y curr5t & sp>k4 ,,*apt] ,,xi ,,cool+ ,,sy/ems ,! object ( ! cool+ sy/em is n to keep ! cyl9d] cold1 b to prev5t ! heat ( ! successive explosions f heat+ ! cyl9d] walls to a degree t w\ld vaporize ! lubricat+ oil & prev5t satisfactory lubrication ( ! cyl9d] & pi/on4 ,! hott] ! cyl9d] c be kept )\t int]f]+ ) ! lubricat+ oil1 ! high] w be ! effici5cy ( ! eng9e & ! great] ! output ( p[]4 ,to obta9 ! greate/ p[] f an eng9e1 ! heat develop$ by ! combu/ion %\ld be conf9$ to ! gas 9 ord] t ! pressure & expansion be at a maximum1 x is evid5t t ! pressure & p[] w be r$uc$ by ov]-cool+ z ! heat ( ! exp&+ gas w be tak5 f ! cyl9d] & transf]r$ to ! cool+ m$ium4 ,! temp]ature ( ! cyl9d]1 & !re=e ! effici5cy ( ! eng9e is det]m9$ pr9cipally by ! vaporiz+ po9t ( ! lubricat+ oil1 & consequ5tly ! high] ! grade ( ! oil1 ! high] ! all[able temp]ature ( ! cyl9d]4 ,if cold wat] f a hydrant or well be =c$ ar\nd ! wat] jacket rapidly1 ! p[] w be greatly r$uc$ ow+ to ! *ill+ effect on ! exp&+ gas4 ,!re is n mu* dang] 9 keep+ ! cyl9d] ( an air cool$ eng9e too cool1 9 fact ! great difficulty ) ?is type ( eng9e is to keep x cool en\gh to prev5t an excessive loss ( lubricat+ oil4 ,! valves1 p>ticul>ly ! exhau/ valves1 %\ld be surr\nd$ ) suffici5t wat] to keep !m cool z !y are subject$ to m heat ?an any o!r "p ( ! eng9e1 & are liable to wrap or pit4 ,! wat] leav+ ! jacket ( a gasol9e eng9e %\ld n exce$ #afj ,f41 z temp]atures 9 excess ( ?is am\nt cause deposits ( lime scale4 ,:5 possible1 a portion ( ! cool+ wat] %\ld be run into ! exhau/ pipe imm$iately aft] x has complet$ its fl[ ar\nd ! valves & cyl9d]s1 z ! wat] cools ! gas s sudd5ly t ! exhau/ to atmosph]e is r5d]$ almo/ noiseless1 & ! exhau/ pipe is kept mu* cool] & less liable to cause fire by com+ into contact ) combu/ible objects4 ,on "s eng9es ! exhau/ pipe is wat] jacket$ = "s di/ance to prev5t dirty ru/y pipes 9 ! vic9ity ( ! eng9e me*anism & also to prev5t injury to ! op]ator %\ld he come into contact ) ! pipe4 ,small eng9es & m$ium size v]tical eng9es usually h ! wat] jacket ca/ 9 "o piece ) ! cyl9d] ca/+ & o!rs h a sep>ate head t is bolt$ to ! cyl9d]4 ,9 ! latt] type ! wat] fl[s f ! cyl9d] to ! head ?r\gh ports or slots cut 9 ! end ( ! cyl9d] wat] jacket t regi/] ) simil> slots 9 ! jacket ( ! head4 ,?us 9 ?is con/ruction we h n only to pack ! jo9t to prev5t leakage ( gas f ! cyl9d]1 b also to prev5t ! leakage ( cool+ wat] f ! jacket into ! cyl9d]1 or outside4 ,?us !re is always a *ance ( wat] leak+ into ! cyl9d] bore & caus+ tr\ble unless ! pack+ is v c>efully in/all$ & look$ aft]4 ,9 l>ge horizontal eng9es ! gas & wat] jo9ts are nev] made at ! same po9t1 z x w\ld be practically impossible to prev5t leakage into ! cyl9d]s ( su* eng9es4 ,:5 ! cyl9d] & cyl9d] wat] jackets are ca/ 9 "o piece )\t a wat] jo9t at ! junction ( ! cyl9d] & ! head1 ! wat] connection betwe5 ! head & ! cyl9d] be+ made by pipes ext]nal to ! ca/+s4 ,small1 portable1 /ation>y eng9es are sometimes 8,,hopp] ,,cool$10 or cool$ by means ( ! evaporation ( ! wat] conta9$ 9 an op5 wat] jacket t surr\nds ! cyl9d]4 ,! hopp] is m]ely an ext5sion ( ! wat] jacket su* z us$ on all wat] cool$ eng9es1 ! only diff]5ce be+ t ! top ( ! hopp] is op5 p]mitt+ ! free escape ( wat] vapor or /eam to ! atmosph]e4 ,! wat] level %\ld be c>ri$ )9 two in*es f ! top ( ! hopp]4 ,wat] :5 conv]t$ into vapor or /eam absorbs a great quantity ( heat1 & ( c\rse ! /eam c>ries ! heat ( evaporization ) x :5 x escapes to ! atmosph]e4 ,z ! hopp] is op5 to ! air1 ! temp]ature ( ! cyl9d] _c exce$ #bab ,f4 7temp]ature ( boil+ wat]7 z long z !re is suffici5t wat] left to cov] ! cyl9d]4 ,! hopp]s conta9 suffici5t wat] = runs ( sev]al h\rs' duration1 & z ! wat] boils away or evaporates1 x may be repl5i%$ by simply p\r+ m wat] 9 ! top ( ! hopp]4 ,hopp] cool+ is us$ pr9cipally = small portable eng9es :]e ! weight ( a wat] tank or o!r cool+ device w\ld be objectionable & also :]e !re is dang] ( freez+ ! pipes & connections ( o!r sy/ems4 ,! loss ( wat] by evaporization is f 4#c to 4#f ( a gallon p] horsep[] h\r2 t is1 = a #e hp4 eng9e ! loss w\ld be f #a4e to #c gals4 = e h\r t ! eng9e 0 op]at$ "u full load4 ,! cyl9d] & ! wat] jacket are ca/ 9 "o integral piece1 ) no jo9ts ( any k9d 9 ei!r ! combu/ion *amb] or 9 ! wat] jacket4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #abd4 ,air ,cool$ 8,grey ,eagle0 ,a]onautical ,motor4 ,note ! ,dep? ( ,cool+ ,ribs4 ,a sy/em ( cool+ by :i* ! heat ( ! walls is radiat$ to ! air directly )\t ! m$ium ( wat] is (t5 us$ on small high spe$ eng9es1 & is kn[n z 8,,air ,,cool+40 ,?is type ( cyl9d] is surr\nd$ ) radiat+ ribs or spires :i* increases ! radiat+ surface ( ! cyl9d] to ! ext5t t ! requir$ am\nt ( heat is lo/ to all[ ( economical lubrication4 ,?is sy/em is desirable :]e ! weight ( radiators & wat] w\ld be a drawback1 :]e x w\ld be inconv5i5t to obta9 wat]1 or :]e !re w\ld be tr\ble f freez+4 ,an air cool$ motor g5]ally is provid$ ) a fan t increases ! effici5cy ( ! radiat+ surface by *ang+ ! air betwe5 ! ribs4 ,) a]onautical motors su* z ! ,gnome1 & ,gray ,eagle1 %[n by ,fig4 #abd1 ! circulation ( ! air due to ! propell] & ! ru% ( ! a]oplane is suffici5t to ?or\ghly cool ! ma*9e4 ,z a rule1 ! air cool$ motor is made m effici5t 9 fuel consumption ?an ! wat] cool$ type because ( ! high temp]ature ( ! cyl9d] walls4 ,9 fact all eng9es are air cool$ ev5tually1 :e!r ! heat is radiat$ at a high temp]ature by ! fires1 or at a l[] temp]ature ?r\gh ! circulat+ wat] & radiator4 ,:5 ! eng9es are ( ! portable type1 & likely to be us$ out ( conv5i5t rea* ( wat]1 ! hopp] or ,,evaporator ,,tank sy/em is us$1 ! tank sy/em be+ us$ = ! l>g] eng9es4 ,9 effect1 ! tank sy/em is ! same z ! hopp] cool]1 ! heat be+ dissipat$ pr9cipally by evaporation1 al?\gh "s heat is radiat$ f ! surface ( ! tank itself4 ,! diff]5ce betwe5 ! two sy/ems is m]ely "o ( size1 ! tank (f]+ a great] area = ! emission ( heat ?an ! hopp]4 ,a tank-cool$ eng9e has "o pipe runn+ f ! top ( ! cyl9d] to a po9t ne> ! top ( ! tank1 ! bottoms ( ! cyl9d] & tank be+ connect$ toge!r by ano!r pipe4 ,:5 ! wat] becomes heat$ 9 ! cyl9d]1 x exp&s & becomes light] ?an ! cold wat] 9 ! tank & consequ5tly rises to ! surface ( ! wat] 9 ! tank ?r\gh ! upp] pipe4 ,z ! w>m wat] fl[s into ! tank1 x is imm$iately replac$ by ! heavi] cold wat] t fl[s into ! cyl9d] f ! bottom ( ! tank ?r\gh ! l[] pipe4 ,?is successive dis*>ge ( ! heat$ wat] f ! cyl9d] to ! tank sets up a cont9u\s fl[ ( wat] ?r\gh ! wat] jacket ( ! cyl9d]1 :i* transf]s ! excess heat ( ! cyl9d] to ! tank :]e x is dissipat$ to ! atmosph]e by evaporation & radiation4 ,! circulation ( ! cool+ wat] set up by ! action ( heat or ! expansion ( ! wat] is call$ ,natural or ,!rmo ,syphon circulation4 ,cool+ tanks may be us$ pr(itably ) /ation>y eng9es if ! tank c be locat$ s t vapor & /eam produc$ w n be objectionable4 ,if ! tank is us$ inside ( a build+1 ! vapor %\ld be convey$ to ! outside air by means ( a /ack or *imney1 or by means ( a small v5tilat+ fan driv5 by ! eng9e4 ,! wat] consumption ( a cool+ tank is f 4#c to 4#f gallons p] h\r1 ! exact quantity v>y+ ) ! atmosph]ic conditions & temp]ature4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #abd-;a4 ,de ,dion ,bonton 8,v0 ,type1 ,air ,cool$ ,a]o ,motor4 ,! ,cool+ ,air is ,furni%$ by a ,bl[] ,m\nt$ on ! ,crank ,%aft at ! ,re> ( ! ,motor4 ,! ,propell] is ,driv5 f ! ,cam ,%aft4 ,c\rtesy ( ,a]o4 ,= eng9es ( f #aj to #ej horsep[] a batt]y ( cool+ tanks may be us$1 ! numb] dep5d+ on ! size ( ! eng9e4 ,= natural circulation1 ! tank %\ld be in/all$ s t bottom ( ! tank is above ! bottom ( ! cyl9d] = maximum results1 if plac$ mu* l[] ! eng9e %\ld be provid$ ) a circulat+ pump4 ,if wat] is us$ f ! city ma9s f #aj to #ae gallons w be requir$ p] horsep[] h\r1 ! exact quantity v>ies ) ! temp]ature ( ! supply4 ,! wat] f v l>ge /ation>y eng9es is cool$ by all[+ x to trickle d[n ?r\gh a cool+ t[]1 :i* is built some:at l ! scre5 cool] only on a l>g] scale4 ,! object ( ! cool+ t[] is to pres5t ! greate/ possible surface ( wat] to ! air1 ?is is accompli%$ by scre5s or baffles t turn ! wat] ov] & ov] z x falls4 ,! wat]1 well cool$1 f9ally collects 9 a ci/]n at ! base ( ! t[] f :i* x is pump$ back to ! eng9e & ?us is us$ ov] & ov] aga94 ,?is is an ideal sy/em :5 wat] is exp5sive & :5 eng9es ( consid]able p[] are us$4 7#abf7 ,cool+ ,sy/em ,tr\bles4 ,ov]heat+ caus$ by deposits ( scale or lime 9 ! jacket is "o ( ! mo/ common causes ( an excessively hot cyl9d]4 ,:5 h>d wat] conta9+ mu* lime is heat$1 ! lime is deposit$ z a solid on ! walls ( ! vessel =m+ a h>d1 d5se1 non-conduct+ %eet4 ,:5 scale is deposit$ on ! outside ( ! cyl9d] walls x prev5ts ! transf] ( ! heat f ! cyl9d] to ! cool+ wat] & consequ5tly is ! cause ( ! cyl9d] ov]heat+4 ,besides act+ z an insulator or heat1 ! deposit also causes tr\ble by ob/ruct+ ! pipes & wat] passages1 dim9i%+ ! wat] supply & aggravat+ ! tr\ble4 ,scale int]f]es ) ! action ( ! !rmo syphon sy/em m ?an ) a pump1 z ! pressure t5d+ to circulate ! wat] is mu* l[]4 ,:atev] sy/em is us$1 ! scale %\ld be remov$ z (t5 z possible1 ! numb] ( removals dep5d+1 ( c\rse1 on ! 8h>dness0 ( ! wat]4 ,l>ge horizontal eng9es are usually provid$ ) h& holes 9 ! jacket1 ?r\gh :i* access may be _h to ! int]ior surfaces on :i* ! scale collects4 ,"u ^! conditions ! scale may be remov$ by means ( a hamm] & *isel4 ,! scale may be s(t5$ by empty+ half ! wat] f ! jacket & p\r+ 9 a quantity ( k]os5e oil1 ! inlet & outlet pipes be+ /opp$ to prev5t ! escape ( ! oil4 ,! eng9e %\ld n[ be />t$ & run = a few m9utes ) ! mixture ( k]os5e & wat] 9 ! jacket2 no fre% wat] be+ admitt$ dur+ ?is "t4 ,aft] ! mixture has become boil+ hot1 /op ! eng9e & all[ x to cool2 x w be f\nd t ! scale has s(t5$ to ! consi/5cy ( mud1 & may easily be wa%$ out ( ! jacket4 ,! "w ( remov+ ! scale c be r$uc$ to a m9imum by fill+ ! jacket ) a solution ( #a "p ( ,sulphuric ,acid & #aj p>ts ( wat]1 all[+ x to /& ov] night4 ,! scale w be precipitat$ to ! bottom ( ! jacket 9 ! =m ( a f9e p[d] & may be easily wa%$ out 9 ! morn+4 ,if ! jacket wat] is kept at a temp]ature above #ahe ,f4 ! am\nt ( scale deposit$ w be ne>ly d\bl$ ov] t deposit$ at #afj ,f4 ,wa% out s& & dirt occasionally1 a /ra9] locat$ 9 ! pump l9e w help to keep ! jacket cle> & free f =eign matt]4 ,if a solution ( c>bonate ( soda1 or lye1 & wat] are all[$ to /& 9 ! cyl9d] ov] night1 ! deposit w be s(t5$ & ! "w ) ! *isel w be made mu* easi]4 ,if a radiator is us$ 7automobile or a]o eng9e7 ! deposit c be remov$ ) soda1 nev] use acid1 lye1 or k]os5e 9 a radiator or ) an eng9e ) a %eet metal wat] jacket4 ,ob/ructions 9 ,wat] ,pipes4 ,poor wat] circulation may be caus$ by s&1 p>ticles ( scale1 etc41 clogg+ ! wat] pipes1 or by ! det]ioration ( ! inn] walls ( ! rubb] hose connections4 ,sometimes a lay] ( ! rubb]1 or fabric ( ! hose may loos5 f ! re/ & ! ragg$ end may ob/ruct ! passage4 ,a %>p b5d 9 a rubb] hose may result 9 a 8k9k0 & entirely close ! op5+4 ,! pack+ 9 a jo9t may swell1 or a wa%] may n h ! op5+ cut l>ge en\gh1 ei!r case w result 9 a poor circulation4 ,s$im5t is p>ticul>ly liable to collect or =m 9 a pocket1 pipe elb[1 or 9 ! jacket opposite ! pipe op5+4 ,oil %\ld be kept (f ( rubb] hose connections z x w cause !m to det]iorate rapidly1 ?is may f9ally result 9 wat] circulation tr\bles4 ,rubb] pipe jo9ts betwe5 ! eng9e & ! radiator or tanks are advisable z !y d n transmit ! vibration ( ! eng9e1 & h5ce r$uce ! /ra9 on ! pip+4 ,a /ra9] %\ld be provid$ 9 ord] to r$uce ! am\nt ( =eign mat]ial 9 ! wat]4 ,radiators4 ,a clogg$ radiator w give ! same results z a clogg$ jacket ) ! exception t /eam w issue f ! radiator if ! circulation is n p]fect4 ,if ! radiator becomes w>m ov] its entire surface x is evid5t t ! wat] is circulat+1 ! temp]ature be+ a r\gh index ( ! fre$om ( ! wat]1 or ! int]ior condition ( ! surfaces4 ,a leak+ radiator may be tempor>ily repair$ ) a piece ( *ew+ gum4 ,%\ld ! radiator be hot & /eam+ at ! top & rema9 cold at ! bottom = a "t1 x %[s t ! wat] is n circulat+ & t ! jackets on ! cyl9d]s are full ( /eam4 ,su* a condition usually is indicative ( clogg+ betwe5 ! bottom ( ! radiator & pump1 betwe5 ! pump & bottom ( cyl9d]s1 or ( a defective pump4 ,illu/ration3 ,natural ,gas ,plant at ,indep5d5ce1 ,kansas4 ,us$ = ,pump+ ,gas ,f ! ,wells to ,v>i\s ,di/ribut+ ,po9ts4 ,!rmo-syphon radiators are m susceptible to ! effects ( s$im5t & clogg+ ?an ^? circulat$ by pumps4 ,a radiator may fail to cool an eng9e because ( a slipp+ or brok5 belt driv+ ! fan1 or on acc\nt ( a loose pulley or defective belt t5sion adju/]4 ,keep ! belt tight4 ,! fan may /ick on acc\nt ( defective be>+s4 ,radiator may be ,,air ,,b\nd1 due to pockets or b5ds 9 ! pip+ hold+ ! air4 ,rot>y ,pump ,defects4 ,a defective circulat+ pump w cause ov]heat+1 z x w supply little if any wat] to ! jackets4 ,exam9e ! clut* or c\pl+ t drives ! pump & see t ! key or p9 t fa/5s x to ! %aft is 9 place4 ,next see t ! driv+ p9ion & ge> are 9 me% & prop]ly key$ to _! respective %afts4 ,9 "s cases ! %aft has be5 twi/$ (f1 or ! c\pl+ p9 %e>$ ?r\gh by reason ( ! %aft ru/+ to ! pump cas+4 ,worn ge>s or impell]s ,,9 ,,! ,,pump r$uce ! output & cause heat+1 z w a %e>$ driv+ p9 9 ! impell]4 ,we> & bad impell] fits r$uce ! capacity ( ! pump4 ,scale or s$im5t collect+ 9 ! pump sometimes /rips ! p9s or impell] tee?4 ,note ! condition ( ! gaskets or :e!r ! pump %aft is receiv+ ! prop] am\nt ( grease4 ,put a /ra9] 9 pump intake4 ,see t no leak occurs on pump intake pipe4 ,to avoid ! tr\ble & exp5se due to crack$ wat] jackets1 nev] neglect to dra9 ! cyl9d]s & pip+ f all wat] 9 freez+ wea!r4 ,dra9 cocks %\ld be provid$ at ! l[e/ po9ts 9 ! wat] circulat+ sy/em = ?is purpose4 ,x w\ld be well to provide an air cock at ! highe/ po9t 9 ! l9e 9 ord] t all ( ! wat] c dra9 out z soon z ! dra9 cock is op5$4 ,) automobile or portable eng9es x is n always conv5i5t or possible to dra9 ! eng9e e "t t x is /opp$ & consequ5tly we mu/ resort to a 8non-freez+0 mixture or at lea/ a solution t w n solidify "u ord9>y w9t] temp]atures4 ,su* a solution %\ld be *os5 ) c>e1 z _m w cause ! corrosion & de/ruction ( ! jackets & pip+2 ,,nev] ,,use ,,common ,,salt & wat] "u any conditions4 ,wood alcohol & wat] 9 equal p>ts1 is (t5 us$ = automobiles1 b is r exp5sive = portable eng9es hav+ a comp>atively great am\nt ( wat] 9 circulation4 ,unless ! circulat+ sy/em is absolutely air tight1 z x is :5 radiators are us$1 alcohol w be lo/ by evaporation & mu/ be replac$ frequ5tly4 ,! mo/ practical solution = ! av]age eng9e us$1 is made up by dissolv+ ab\t five p\nds ( ,,calcium ,,*loride 9 "o gallon ( wat]4 ,?is mixture w /& a temp]ature ( ab\t #ae ,f bel[ z]o1 & if dilut$ to half ! /r5g? w n freeze above z]o4 ,use ,,calcium ,,*loride1 n ord9>y ,salt 7,sodium ,*loride74 ,,*apt] ,,xii ,,gov]nors ,,& ,,valve ,,ge> 7#abg7 ,hit & ,miss ,gov]n+4 ,:5 ! spe$ ( an eng9e is held con/ant = v>y+ loads by miss+ explosions on ! light loads & increas+ ! numb] = heavy loads1 ! gov]n+ sy/em is said to be ( ! 8hit & miss type40 ,! mixture rema9s con/ant 9 quantity & quality 9 ?is type ( eng9e4 ,a hit & miss gov]nor all[s only en\gh *>ges to be fir$ to keep ! spe$ con/ant4 ,:5 ! load falls (f1 ) a natural t5d5cy on ! "p ( ! eng9e to increase its spe$1 ! gov]nor cuts out ! next explosion by hold+ ! exhau/ valve op5 & ! inlet clos$1 ?us prev5t+ fre% mixture f be+ drawn into ! cyl9d]4 ,) an increase 9 load1 ! gov]nor all[s ! valves to foll[ _! regul> cycle ) ! result t a great] or less numb] are fir$ 9 succession4 ,hit & miss gov]n+ is v economical = only full *>ges ( ! mo/ p]fect mixture are fir$1 & ) %ort exhau/ pipes ! scav5g+ is mu* bett] ?an ) o!r =ms ( gov]n+4 ,! pr9cipal difficulty ) ?is sy/em is t ! regulation is n z p]fect z ) "s o!r types4 7#abh7 ,! ,?rottl+ ,sy/em4 ,unlike ! hit & miss sy/em ( gov]n+1 ! ?rottl+ type ( gov]nor all[s ! eng9e to take an explosion on e work+ /roke1 ! spe$ be+ held con/ant by ei!r regulat+ ! quality or quantity ( ! mixture1 or bo?4 ,?rottle gov]nor p]mits ( close spe$ regulation z ! impulses are m frequ5t & n s viol5t z ) ! hit & miss sy/em4 ,! gov]nor acts directly on ! ?rottle valve1 & at no "t is ! op]at+ me*anism dis5gag$ f ! driv+ cam4 ,! ?rottle gov]nor eng9e is p>ticul>ly well adapt$ = driv+ dynamos1 supply electric light1 z ! uni=m spe$ gives a smoo?1 /eady light )\t ! objectionable flick]+ s likely ) ! hit & miss eng9e4 ,to obta9 ! be/ fuel economy ) a ?rottl+ eng9e1 x %\ld be run close to its rat$ capacity1 z ! poor & imp]fect mixture admitt$ at light loads consid]ably increases ! fuel consumption4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gf-;d4 ,de ,la ,v]gne ,gov]nor4 ,practically all motors ( ! v>iable spe$ type su* z are us$ on automobiles & motor boats are controll$ manually by ! ?rottle2 al?\gh m>9e motors are (t5 fitt$ ) gov]nors to prev5t rac+ :5 ! screw is lift$ out ( ! wat] 9 a heavy sea4 7#abi7 ,! ,controll+ ,gov]nor4 ,! gov]nor prop] dep5ds ^u c5trifugal =ce = its action1 & g5]ally consi/s ( two weights :i* are pivot$ at "o end to a rotat+ %aft driv5 by ! eng9e4 ,:5 ^! weights are rotat$ rapidly ! bottoms are ?r[n outw>dly by ! c5trifugal =ce & t5d to assume a horizontal position4 ,! fa/] ! weights are rotat$1 ! great] w be ! t5d5cy = ! bottoms ( ! weights to come into ! horizontal1 & ! great] w be ! pressure ex]t$ by !m on ! controll+ lev]s connect$ to ! ?rottle4 ,x is evid5t t ! c5trifugal pull on ! weights v>ies directly ) ! spe$ ( rotation & consequ5tly ) ! spe$ ( ! eng9e4 ,! exact relation betwe5 ! travel ( ! weights & ! spe$ ( ! eng9e is controll$ by a spr+ t acts betwe5 arms ca/ on ! weights & ! sp9dle4 ,if a heavy spr+ is us$1 great] spe$ mu/ be atta9$ to move ! weights a giv5 di/ance ?an ) a weak spr+1 z ! c5trifugal =ce mu/ be great]4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #abd-;d4 ,gov]nor & ,gov]nor ,me*anism ( ,fairbanks-,morse ,type 8,r ,e0 ,eng9e4 ,! ,fly-,balls1 ,spr+s1 & ,control ,rods ,are ,%[n on ! ,gov]nor ,/aff4 ,! ,upp] ,end ( ! ,bell ,crank ,goes to ! ,?rottle4 ,! ?rottle valve ( ! eng9e is connect$ by a rod to ! gov]nor ?r\gh a slid+ coll> 9 su* a way t ! movem5t ( ! gov]nor weights due to an ,,increase ( spe$ p>tially closes ! valve until ! spe$ ( ! eng9e is r$uc$4 ,%\ld ! spe$ ( ! eng9es ,,decrease1 ow+ to a heavy load com+ on1 ! spr+ w =ce ! balls to occupy a l[] position :i* w increase ! valve op5+ until ! eng9e aga9 rea*es ! normal spe$ = :i* ! t5sion ( ! spr+ is adju/$4 ,?us ! spe$ ( ! eng9e is kept practically con/ant by ! action ( ! gov]nor 9 op5+ & clos+ ! ?rottle1 :i* 9 turn1 v>ies ! ,,quantity ( mixture admitt$ to ! cyl9d]4 ,! ,,quality ( ! mixture is v>i$ by h&1 9 ! eng9e by means ( cocks 9 bo? ! air & gas pipes4 ,! ,,gov]nor ,,prop] is ( practically ! same con/ruction 9 ! hit & miss eng9e1 ! diff]5ce ( ! two types ly+ 9 ! me?od ( connect+ x to ! controll+ sy/em4 ,9 "o case 7hit & miss7 ! gov]nor controls ! exhau/ valve1 & 9 ! o!r 7?rottl+7 x controls ! quantity ( gas admitt$ by ! ?rottle valve4 ,! spe$ ( ! eng9e may be v>i$ )9 c]ta9 limits by a lev] connect$ to ! valve controll+ rod4 7#acj7 ,types ( ,gov]nors4 ,! types ( gov]nors us$ on ! lead+ makes ( eng9es w be f\nd describ$ & illu/rat$ 9 ,*apt] ,v :i* treats ( ea* eng9e 9 detail4 7#aca7 ,gov]nor ,tr\bles4 ,hit & miss gov]nor tr\bles may be due to ! foll[+ defects3 ,,b9d+ ,,gov]nor ,,coll>1 /uck ) dirt or gummy oil1 w cause ! eng9e to die "u load1 & ov]spe$ on light load4 ,,inlet ,,valve ,,lock may be worn 9 su* a mann] z to prev5t ! valve f seat+ dur+ ! idle /rokes & lose fuel1 or cause ov]spe$+4 ,,det5t ,,lev] ,,knife ,,edge may be worn1 or r\nd$ (f1 s t ! exhau/ valve is n held op5 = ! idle /roke4 ,?is defect w cause ov]spe$+4 ,,spe$ ,,*ang+ ,,lev] may "w loose & cause ! spe$ to v>y erratically4 ,,gov]nor ,,weights may be /uck on p9s ) dirt or gummy oil caus+ eng9e to ov]spe$4 ,,lo/ ,,motion ,,9 ,,gov]nor ,,ge> su* z loose p9s & bu%+s1 worn roll]s1 or be>+ surfaces w cause ! spe$ to v>y cont9u\sly4 ,,lo/ ,,motion on portable eng9es w cause ! eng9e to run normally 9 "o position1 & ov]spe$ 9 ano!r4 ,,weak ,,or ,,brok5 ,,spr+s ,,on ,,gov]nor w cause eng9e to lose spe$ or die d[n altoge!r4 ,spr+s may be /iff5$ by pull+ out ! coils4 ,,dry ,,gov]nor ,,be>+s or jo9ts w cause b9d+ & cause gov]nor to act sluggi%ly4 ,use pl5ty ( lubricant4 ,,worn ,,roll]s may cause a spe$ v>iation4 ,keep ! gov]nor well oil$1 clean1 & free f gum4 ,if ! knife edges are all[$ to slip ov] "o ano!r1 mu* we> is caus$ on ! cams & if all[$ to cont9ue1 soon] or lat] ! eng9e w run away4 ,spr+s w weak5 ) age & h>d usage4 ,) belt driv5 gov]nors see t ! belt is tight & t ! lac+ is 9 good condition = a slack belt may all[ ! eng9e to ov]spe$4 ,i advise t e pur*as] ( an agricultural motor read 8 in/ruction book ) c>e1 t is1 locate all oil holes & note ! action & purpose ( e "p4 ,if 9 d\bt z to any "p ( its use write ! manufactur] ( ! motor4 7#acb7 ,?rottl+ ,gov]nor ,tr\bles4 ,,/ick+ ,,gov]nor ,,valve w cause ! eng9e to ov]spe$2 remove ! gum & dirt4 ,,loose ,,p9s ,,or ,,bu%+s1 or lo/ motion 9 any "p ( ! gov]nor me*anism w cause irregul> motion or runn+2 be sure t ! be>+s & jo9ts are well oil$4 ,,/uck ,,p9s w cause ! eng9e to ov]spe$ on light loads1 & fall d[n on ! normal load1 or cause rac+4 ,,weak ,,or ,,brok5 ,,spr+s w cause ! eng9e to lose spe$ or to lie d[n altoge!r ev5 on light loads4 ,,/iff ,,gov]nor ,,spr+s cause ! eng9e to spe$ up4 ,,slid+ ,,coll> /uck w cause rac+ or a fluctuation 9 ! spe$4 ,keep ! gov]nor well oil$1 clean1 & free f gum4 ,! gov]n+ valve %\ld be remov$ f its c>e frequ5tly & ?or\ghly clean$ ) k]os5e4 ,deposits ( c>bon & gumm$ oil at ?is po9t are dang]\s because ( ! likelihood ( _! caus+ ov]spe$+4 7#acc7 ,valve ,ge> ,arrangem5t4 ,! valve op]at+ me*anism lay-out dep5ds ^u ! cyl9d] & valve arrangem5t1 & consequ5tly v>ies 9 detail ) diff]5t eng9es4 ,illu/ration3 ,ov]head ,valve ,arrangem5t ( ! ,fairbanks-,morse 8,r ,e0 ,eng9e4 ,fig4 ,f-#ad-ae 9 ,*apt] ,v1 %[s ! valve ge> ( an upright eng9e hav+ ! inlet & ! exhau/ valves locat$ 9 pockets plac$ at "o side ( ! cyl9d]4 ,! inlet valve is op]at$ by a valve rod t is actuat$ by ! cam4 ,! exhau/ valve /em is rais$ & l[]$1 directly1 ?r\gh a cam on ! same %aft4 ,! me?od ( driv+ ! valves 9 ?is eng9e is practically /&>d = all v]tical eng9es hav+ ! valves locat$ 9 pockets4 ,?is sy/em is us$ 9 a great] proportion ( automobile eng9es4 ,! oppos$ eng9e has ! cyl9d]s arrang$ on opposite side ( ! crank case1 & makes an exce$+ly well balanc$ & quiet runn+ eng9e2 z !re is no po9t 9 ! revolution :]e ei!r ! crank ?r[s or connect+ rods h an unequal angul>ity1 or diff] 9 velocity4 ,:ile ?is type ( two cyl9d] eng9e is common 9 automobile practice1 x is n (t5 met ) 9 /ation>y "w1 ! cam-box & ! cam be+ directly 9 ! c5t] ( ! crank case4 ,! oppos$ type ( eng9e is p>ticul>ly well adapt$ = a]oplane s]vice z a /eady1 quiet runn+ eng9e is an absolute necessity because ( ! frail con/ruction ( ! a]oplane frame4 7#acd7 ,cam ,%aft ,spe$s4 ,! valves ( ! gas eng9e are op5$ & clos$ by means ( cams or ecc5trics1 t are ge>$ to ! crank%aft1 & :i* also control ! tim+4 ,z a f\r /roke cycle eng9e p]=ms all ( ! ev5ts1 or a complete cycle 9 two revolutions ( ! crank%aft1 x is evid5t t ! cam mu/ g ?r\gh ! r\t9e 9 "o revolution or mu/ revolve at ,,"o-,,half ,,( ,,! ,,crank%aft ,,spe$4 ,!re=e ! cam ge> ratio mu/ be z "o is to two1 ! small] ge> be+ plac$ on ! crank%aft1 ! ge>s be+ kn[n z ! 8half "t ge>s40 ,z a two /roke cycle eng9e goes ?r\gh ! r\t9e ( ev5ts 9 e revolution1 ! cam-%aft mu/ run at crank%aft spe$ s t ! cam outl9e makes "o revolution 9 ! same "t z ! crank4 ,! cam %aft spe$s giv5 "h apply to all eng9es ( ! correspond+ cycle no matt] :e!r ! valves are ( ! poppet1 rot>y or slide-sleeve types4 7#ace7 ,valve ,ge> ,tr\bles4 ,! valve ge> me*anism causes tr\ble pr9cipally ?r\gh ! we> ( ! v>i\s p>ts :i* results 9 a *ange 9 ! valve tim+1 or 9 ! lift ( ! valves4 ,loss ( p[]1 ,,misfir+1 & ov]heat+ are ! result ( su* d]angem5ts4 ,(t5 tr\ble is caus$ 9 reassembl+ ! valve me*anism aft] ! eng9e has be5 torn d[n = repairs1 :i* tr\ble may g5]ally be trac$ to incorrect ge> me%+4 ,! foll[+ li/ w give ! pr9cipal defects due to ! we> ( ! valve me*anism4 7a7 ,,worn ,,cam ,,ge>s *ange tim+ because ( play1 or 8back la%0 9 ! tee?1 or cause a h[l+ or gr9d+ noise1 t w cause ! own] to believe t ! end ( ! eng9e is ne>4 ,,misfir+ & ,,loss ( p[] are probable results ( a *ange 9 ! tim+4 ,if any ( ! tee? are /ripp$ f ! ge> y may be sure t ! tim+ is *ang$4 ,replacem5t ) a new ge> is ! only cure = a worn or brok5 ge>4 7b7 ,,ge>s ,,n ,,9 ,,prop] ,,me% due to an error 9 assembl+ ! ge>s1 w prev5t ! eng9e f be+ />t$1 or cause misfir+ & loss ( p[]4 ,! mak] ( ! eng9e g5]ally m>ks ! tee? t g toge!r1 b if no su* m>ks appe>1 ! own] %\ld c5t] pun* or scrat* !m be=e tak+ d[n ! eng9e4 7c7 ,a ,,ge> ,,slipp+ ,,on ,,! ,,%aft1 due to a miss+ key 9 ! ge>1 or to a loose set-screw w cause all ( ! tr\bles due to a *ange 9 ! tim+4 ,exam9e ! key c>efully1 = dirt (t5 collects 9 ! key-way to su* an ext5t t x is liable to be mi/ak5 = ! key4 ,keys & p9s h %e>$ 9 two1 all[+ ! %aft to slip 9 ! ge>4 7d7 ,,worn ,,cam-,,%aft ,,be>+s are ! cause ( tr\ble1 z !y w *ange bo? ! tim+ & ! lift ( ! valves4 ,if mu* play exi/s 9 ! be>+1 x w prev5t ! valves f lift+ at ! prop] "t1 & w also r$uce ! lift by ! am\nt ( ! play1 :i* sometimes has a consid]able effect on ! free passage ( ! gases4 ,if ! cam-%aft be>+s are ( ! bu%+ type !y %\ld be replac$ ) new pay+ att5tion at ! same "t to ! condition ( ! %aft4 ,if r\gh or %\ld]$ ! %aft %\ld be ma*9$ to a dead smoo? surface4 ,if on a l>ge eng9e & ( ! adju/able type1 ! %ims %\ld be remov$ z requir$ or ! w$ges adju/$4 7e7 ,,loose ,,cams ,,or ,,ecc5trics w *ange ! tim+ because ( lo/ or %e>$ keys4 ,if y\r cams are n integral ) ! %aft1 look !m ov] occasionally & be sure t ! keys are tight4 ,loose cams w produce ?ump+ & gr9d+ & may (t5 be locat$ by ! s\nd4 ,see t ! key-way is n worn :5 fitt+ keys4 ,if ! cams are fitt$ ) tap] p9s x w\ld be well to ream ! hole be=e plac+ new p9s1 z !re is a liability ( ! hole be+ worn oval4 7f7 ,a ,,twi/$ ,,or ,,sprung ,,cam-,,%aft w *ange ! positions ( ! cams relative to "o ano!r1 & n only w *ange ! "t ( all cyl9d]s1 b w *ange _! "t relatively caus+ ! eng9e to run out ( balance1 or produce an unusual vibration4 7g7 ,,worn ,,cams are causes ( a *ange ( tim+ on all types ( eng9es1 & are ! mo/ frequ5t cause ( r$uc$ valve lift ) its consequ5t tr\ble ( ov]heat+4 ,if ! outl9e or cont\r ( a cam is *ang$ ) we> x %\ld be replac$1 if key$ to ! %aft1 z x w be a con/ant s\rce ( tr\ble4 ,if ! cams & cam-%aft are 9 "o integral piece1 x w be necess>y to replace ! entire %aft4 7h7 ,,worn ,,cam ,,roll]s ,,& ,,roll] ,,p9s w r$uce ! lift ( ! valves1 & 9 ! case ( a brok5 or %e>$ p9 w prev5t ! valve f lift+ at all4 ,always replace loose p9s or loose rattl+ roll]4 7i7 ,,pu% ,,rod ,,defects4 ,too mu* cle>ance betwe5 ! pu% rod & valve /em w r$uce ! lift ( ! valves & *ange ! tim+4 ,! cle>ance = small eng9es %\ld be equal to ! ?ickness ( a visit+ c>d1 & = l>ge eng9es is some:at l>g]1 say #a-af4 ,! increase ( cle>ance is due pr9cipally to we>4 ,too small a cle>ance %\ld be avoid$ = ! reason t ! valve /ems exp& ) ! heat & w lift ! valves too soon1 or ev5 p]man5tly until readju/$4 ,brok5 valve spr+s w cause tr\ble1 or lo/ keys t reta9 ! valve spr+ wa%]s4 ,loose adju/+ screws on ! pu% rods or /ripp$ ?reads w delay ! valve op5+4 7j7 ,,tappet ,,lev] ,,defects are g5]ally caus$ by we> or poor adju/m5t4 ,loose p9s or bu%+s1 too mu* cle>ance betwe5 ! tappet & valve /em or brok5 valve spr+s1 or loose adju/+ screws w produce *anges 9 ! tim+ or valve lift4 7k7 ,,b5t ,,valve ,,rod4 ,a b5t valve rod w %ort5 ! travel ( ! valves1 & *ange ! tim+4 7l7 ,,cam ,,lev] ,,or ,,p9 w cause tim+ tr\bles if ! p9 or bu%+ are loose or worn1 by r$uc+ ! travel ( ! valves4 ,:5 occasion arises = ! removal ( valves1 ! opportunity %\ld be tak5 to clean ! /ems & guides1 :i* may be m or less gumm$ ) anci5t oil4 ,fre$om ( valve movem5t is ( extreme importance1 & = ?is reason nei!r ! clean+ nor ! lubrication ( ! /ems & guides %\ld be neglect$4 ,! occasional use ( a little k]os5e w prev5t gummy accumulations1 b c>e %\ld be tak5 n to all[ ! k]os5e to wa% out all ( ! oil & !reby leave ! surfaces dry4 ,a brok5 valve spr+1 ?\gh n a common occurr5ce1 is n an unkn[n possibility4 ,if no sp>e spr+ is at h&1 a plan t c be recomm5d$ is to turn ! brok5 spr+ end = end1 ?us br++ ! f9i%$ ends up toge!r2 ?is w prev5t ! spr+ f %ort5+ by ov]lapp+1 & w9d+ itself toge!r4 7#acf7 ,valve ,tim+4 ,! exact "t at :i* ! valves ( a f\r /roke cycle eng9e op5 & close dep5ds to a great ext5t ^u ! spe$ ( ! eng9e1 ! fuel us$1 ! compression pressure1 & ! relation ( ! bore to ! /roke4 ,z ^! items v>y 9 ne>ly e make ( eng9e !re has appe>$ 9 ! te*nical press1 a great mass ( seem+ly conflict+ data4 ,eng9e spe$ is ! pr9cipal factor 9 det]m9+ ! tim+4 ,correct valve tim+ plays a consid]able "p 9 ! output & effici5cy ( an eng9e1 = if ! inlet valve1 = example1 op5s too late1 ! cyl9d] w n receive a full *>ge4 ,if x op5s too e>ly ! hot gases 9 ! cyl9d] w ignite ! gas 9 ! c>buretor & cause back-fir+4 ,%\ld ! exhau/ op5 too late1 ! ret5tion ( ! hot gas 9 ! cyl9d] is likely to cause ov]heat+4 ,! tim+ ( ! valves is usually express$ 9 degrees ( ! circle describ$ by ! crank-p91 or ! angle =m$ by ! crank ) ! c5t] l9e ( ! cyl9d] at ! "t ! valve is to op5 or close4 7#acg7 ,valve ,sett+ on ,/ation>y ,eng9es4 ,! exhau/ %\ld op5 :5 ! crank lacks #cj ( complet+ ! out] end ( ! p[] /roke1 t is1 ! crank %\ld make an angle ( #cj ) ! c5t] l9e ( ! cyl9d] :5 ! exhau/ valve beg9s to op51 & %\ld be incl9$ ,,away f ! cyl9d]4 ,"s mak]s h ! exhau/ op5 a little lat] 9 ! /roke1 b little is to be ga9$ ) a lat] op5+ z ! ret5tion ( ! *>ge beyond #cj heats ! cyl9d] & does v little t[>ds develop+ p[]4 ,! only advantage ( ! late op5+ is t ! valve op5s aga9/ a l[] pressure & causes slightly less we> on ! p>ts4 ,! exhau/ valve %\ld close #e ,,aft] ! crank has pass$ ! ,,inn] dead c5t] on ! exhau/ or scav5g+ /roke1 al?\gh "s mak]s close ! valve exactly on ! dead c5t]4 ,! #e %\ld be giv5 to all[ ! gas all possible *ance ( escape4 ,! pi/on is said to be on ! inn] dead c5t] :5 x is 9 ! cyl9d] z f> z x w g1 & on ! out] dead c5t] :5 x is on ! c5t] ne>e/ ! crank%aft4 ,! ,,intake valve %\ld op5 ab\t #e ,,aft] ! exhau/ valve closes1 or #aj aft] ! crank passes ! inn] dead c5t]4 ,! inlet valve %\ld ,,nev] op5 be=e ! exhau/ valve closes on a l[ spe$ eng9e4 ,! above tim+ is = eng9es runn+ #aej-fjj ,r4,p4,m4 ,! automatic type ( inlet valve1 ( c\rse1 _c be tim$1 b att5tion %\ld be paid to ! /r5g? & t5sion ( ! spr+ & ! condition ( ! valve /em guides4 ,! inlet valve %\ld close #aj ,,aft] ! crank passes ! out] dead c5t] 9 ord] t ! cyl9d] be fill$ to ! fulle/ possible ext5t4 ,if ! valve clos$ exactly on ! dead c5t] a p>tial vacuum w exi/ & ! *>ge reta9$ 9 ! cyl9d] w be comp>atively small1 b if ! valve rema9s op5 pa/ ?is po9t ! air w\ld h "t to completely fill ! cyl9d] & develop ! capacity ( ! eng9e4 ,! long] ! inlet pipe1 ! long] ! inlet valve op5+4 7#ach7 ,high ,spe$ ,eng9e ,valve ,tim+4 ,! fa/] a motor turns1 all o!r ?+s be+ equal1 ! great] ! am\nt ( advance necess>y ) ! valves1 z ! high] ! spe$ ! less ! "t requir$ to fill or empty ! cyl9d]4 ,9 a %ort /roke high spe$ motor ! exhau/ %\ld close & ! intake op5 z e>ly z possible 9 ord] to admit ! full *>ge4 ,! exhau/ %\ld op5 e>ly to all[ ( ! full escape ( ! gases1 z ! "t all[$ = expulsion is extremely %ort :5 an eng9e runs #a1jjj ,r4,p4,m4 & ! back pressure is liable to be consid]able4 ,! inlet valve ( high spe$ eng9es %\ld rema9 op5 = a consid]able p]iod aft] ! crank passes ! out] dead c5t] on ! suction /roke1 ow+ to ! in]tia ( ! gases :i* t5ds to fill ! cyl9d]4 ,l5g!n+ ! p]iod ( op5+ ( ! inlet valve 9 multiple cyl9d] eng9es produces bett] c>buret+ conditions & r$uces ! v>iations ( pressure 9 ! manifold4 ,,exhau/ ,,valves4 ,! exhau/ valve %\ld beg9 to op5 #dj ,,be=e ! crank rea*es ! ,,out] dead c5t] on ! work+ /roke1 & %\ld close #aj ,,aft] ! crank has pass$ ! inn] dead c5t]4 ,,inlet ,,valves4 ,! inlet valve %\ld op5 #ae ,,aft] ! crank passes ! inn] dead c5t] on ! suction /roke1 & %\ld close #ce aft] ! crank passes ! out] dead c5t]4 ,! inlet valve %\ld nev] op5 be=e ! exhau/ valve closes1 al?\gh ?is is done on sev]al types ( high spe$ a]onautical eng9es4 ,! mak]s ( ^! eng9es claim t ?is practice scav5ges ! combu/ion *amb] m ?or\ghly & makes ! mixture m effective ow+ to ! in]tia ( ! burnt gases =m+ a p>tial vacuum 9 ! combu/ion *amb]4 ,! writ] has nev] be5 able to get satisfactory results ) ?is tim+ & d\bts :e!r x c be accompli%$ successfully4 ,9 tim+ an eng9e great c>e %\ld be tak5 to get ! crank exactly on ! dead c5t]4 7#aci7 ,tim+ ,(fset ,cyl9d]s4 ,! only diff]5ce 9 tim+ eng9es ) (fset cyl9d]s & tim+ ^? ) ! c5t] l9e ( ! cyl9d] 9 direct l9e ) ! crank %aft1 is 9 ! locat+ ( ! dead c5t]4 ,) no (fset1 ! c5t] ( ! cyl9d]1 ! crank p9 & ! crank %aft are all 9 "o direct l9e :5 ! eng9e is on ! dead c5t]4 ,) (fset cyl9d]s ! crank p9 lies to "o side ( ! cyl9d] c5t] l9e :5 on ! dead c5t]1 on ei!r ! inn]1 or ! out] c5t]4 ,to f9d ! c5t] on an (fset eng9e proce$ z foll[s3 ,turn ! eng9e ov] sl[ly until ! crank-p9 rea*es ei!r ! extreme top or bottom po9t ( ! crank circle1 dep5d+ on :i* c5t] is to be det]m9$1 & !n turn v sl[ly until ! c5t]s ( ! pi/on-p91 crank-p91 & crank-%aft are 9 l9e4 ,) ! av]age eng9e ?is w be f\nd a difficult & t$i\s job1 & x w be well to m>k ! dead c5t] on ! fly:eel or o!r conv5i5t po9t to prev5t a repetition ( ! job4 ,! quicke/ me?od ( accompli%+ ! feat is to remove ! sp>k plug or relief cock to ga9 access to ! pi/on1 & ins]t a rod or po9t] 9 ! op5+ ?us provid$4 ,draw ! pi/on back a %ort di/ance f ! end ( ! /roke ) ! po9t] re/+ on ! head ( ! pi/on1 & m>k ?is position ( ! pi/on bo? on ! po9t]1 & on ! fly:eel1 us+ "s /ation>y "p ( ! eng9e z a ref]5ce po9t4 ,n[ turn ! crank ov] ! c5t] l9e until ! pi/on is mov+ 9 ! opposite direction1 & is ! same di/ance f ! end ( ! /roke z %[n by ! m>k on ! po9t]4 ,m>k ?is position on ! fly:eel us+ ! same ref]5ce m>k z be=e4 ,we n[ h two m>ks on ! fly:eel1 & w bisect ! di/ance betwe5 !m1 us+ ! divid+ m>k to obta9 ! c5t]4 ,place ! bisection m>k ev5 ) ! ref]5ce po9t us$ = obta9+ ! two previ\s m>ks on ! fly:eel1 & ! eng9e w be on ! true dead c5t]1 z ! fly:eel is n[ midway betwe5 two po9ts ( equal /roke4 7#adj7 ,auxili>y ,exhau/ ,ports4 ,to decrease ! am\nt ( hot gas & flame pass+ ov] ! exhau/ valve "s mak]s provide _! eng9es ) auxili>y exhau/ ports1 :i* are simil> to ! exhau/ ports us$ on two /roke cycle eng9es4 ,! auxili>y exhau/ consi/s ( a s]ies ( holes drill$ or cor$ ?r\gh a rib on ! cyl9d] wall1 ! holes be+ s situat$ t !y are cov]$ by ! pi/on until x is at ! extreme end ( its outw>d /roke4 ,! holes are n uncov]$ until ! burn+ *>ge has be5 exp&$ & cool$ to ! greate/ ext5t possible 9 ! cyl9d]4 ,z soon z ! pi/on uncov]s ! ports ! great] portion ( ! dead gas escapes in/antly to ! atmosph]e1 c>ry+ ) !m ! great] p]c5tage ( ! heat & flame4 ,! small am\nt ( residual gas t rema9s is =c$ out ?r\gh ! exhau/ valve 9 ! usual mann]1 ?us no flame ev] rea*es ! exhau/ valve4 ,! use ( auxili>y exhau/ ports produces a cool] cyl9d] z ! gas passes ov] ! cyl9d] wall only once1 & consequ5tly is 9 contact ) ! walls only "o-half ( ! "t usual ) ! ord9>y sy/em4 ,! cool cyl9d] less5s ! liability ( ,,preignition & decreases ! consumption ( cool+ wat] & lubricat+ oil4 ,auxili>y exhau/ ports are p>ticul>ly desirable on air cool$ eng9es4 7#ada7 ,valves & ,compression ,leaks--,misfir+4 ,ow+ to ! int5se heat 9 ! cyl9d]1 & ! action ( ! gases on ! valves ! seat+ surfaces become ,,r\gh & ,,pitt$ :i* causes leakage & loss ( compression4 ,exhau/ valves cause ! mo/ tr\ble 9 ?is respect z !y are surr\nd$ by ! hot gases dur+ ! exhau/ /roke & are mu* hott] ?an ! inlet valves4 ,to det]m9e ! value ( ! compression1 turn ! eng9e ov] sl[ly by h&4 ,leak+ inlet valves usually are productive ( ,,back ,,fir+ or ,,explosions ,,9 ,,! ,,c>buretor intake passages1 or 9 ! mix+ valves1 z flame f ! cyl9d] leaks ?r\gh ! valve & fires ! fre% gas 9 ! intake4 ,,misfir+ ,,or ,,l\d ,,explosions at ! end ( ! ,,exhau/ ,,pipe are indicative ( leaky exhau/ valves1 if ! mixture is correct & ! ignition sy/em above suspicion4 ,misfir+ caus$ by leaky exhau/ valves is due to combu/ible mixture escap+ f ! cyl9d] to ! exhau/ pipe & be+ ignit$ by ! succe$+ exhau/ ( ! eng9e4 ,if ! eng9e has m ?an "o cyl9d]1 te/ "o cyl9d] at a "t1 op5+ ! relief valves on ! o!r cyl9d]s4 ,n[ take a wr5* & ,,rotate ! inlet valve on its seat1 = x may be t "s p>ticles ( c>bon or dirt h be5 deposit$ on surface ( ! valve seat :i* prev5ts ! valve f clos+ prop]ly4 ,rotat+ ! valve w usually dislodge ! deposit4 ,try ! compression aga92 if !re is no improvem5t1 rotate ! exhau/ valve on its seat 9 ! same mann]1 & repeat ! te/ = compression4 ,,rotat+ ,,! ,,valves ,,9 ,,?is ,,mann] ,,w ,,(t5 ,,make ,,! ,,removal ,,( ,,! ,,valves ,,unnecess>y4 ,:5 ! valves are clos$ ! end ( ! valve /em %\ld ,,n be 9 contact ) ! ,,pu% ,,rod1 or cam lev]4 ,suitable ,,cle>ance %\ld be all[$ betwe5 ! end ( ! valve /em & ! op]at+ me*anism :5 ! valve is clos$2 ?is cle>ance v>ies f ! ?ickness ( a visit+ c>d on small eng9es to ( an in* on ! l>ge4 ,if ! valve /em is cont9ually 9 contact ) ! pu% rod x _c seat prop]ly & consequ5tly w leak4 ,we> on ! valve seats & regr9d+ r$uces ?is cle>ance1 we> on ! ends ( valve /ems & pu% rods f cont9u\s ?ump+ increases x4 ,keep ! cle>ance con/ant & equal to t :5 ! eng9e 0 new4 ,on _m eng9es ?is cle>ance is adju/able to all[ = we> by lock nuts on ! ends ( ! valve /ems or pu% rods4 ,if ! above attempts h prov$ unsuccessful remove ! exhau/ valve f ! cyl9d]1 if ! valve is 9 a cage1 remove ! entire cage2 ?is may easily be done on mo/ types ( eng9es4 ,always remove ! exhau/ valve fir/ z ! inlet valve r>ely requires att5tion4 ,) small eng9es1 & eng9es hav+ ! valves m\nt$ directly 9 ! cyl9d] head x w be necess>y to remove ! cyl9d] head to ga9 access to ! valves4 ,9 su* a case use c>e :5 op5+ ! pack$ jo9t betwe5 ! cyl9d] & head1 to avoid damag+ ! gasket4 ,! exhau/ valves %\ld be lubricat$ ) ,gas ,eng9e ,cyl9d] ,oil1 nev] ) common ma*9e oil on acc\nt ( gumm+ & /ick+1 or ) gas eng9e cyl9d] oil ?ick5$ ) ,,flake ,,graphite4 ,p[d]$ graphite may be us$ ) success )\t ! addition ( oil1 b oil makes ! application ( ! graphite mu* easi]4 ,a crack$ valve seat1 due to expansion /ra9s or to ! hamm]+ ( ! valve1 is a common cause ( compression leakage1 & is r difficult to locate z ! leakage only occurs "u comp>atively high pressure4 ,leakage may also occur betwe5 ! valve cage & ! cyl9d] ca/+ unless pa9s are tak5 to ?or\ghly clean ! cage & ! bore be=e fa/5+ into place4 ,w>p$ valves are caus$ by ov]heat+1 ! head ( pallet ( ! valve becom+ out ( squ>e ) ! /em1 or by twi/+ on ! valve seat4 ,if w>p$ valves are suspect$ ! high po9t ( ! seat may be det]m9$ by means ( ! foll[+ te/ & %\ld be c>efully fil$ d[n until x is close to a be>+ aft] :i* x may be gr\nd d[n z describ$ "u pitt$ valves4 ,if ! /ems are n[ 9 good condition exam9e ! seat+ surfaces ( ! valve pallets & cage or r+s4 ,! seats %\ld be bright & free f pits1 depressions1 or /reaky blue discolorations4 ,if ! seats are deeply groov$ f long cont9u$ leaks x is be/ to disc>d !m & replace ) new4 ,pitt$ valves1 & ^? slightly groov$ or /reak$ %\ld be regr\nd by ! use ( a little em]y fl\r & tripoli :i* op]ation is p]=m$ z foll[s3 ,lift ! valve f its seat & apply lubricat+ oil to ! seat+ surface1 !n spr9kle a little fl\r or em]y on ! oil$ surface & drop ! valve back on ! seat4 ,d n use co>se em]y nor too mu* ( ! abrasive1 a p9* is en\gh & w gr9d z rapidly z a p\nd4 ,take c>e to drop ! em]y only :]e requir$1 d n spr9kle x ov] ! eng9e or work+ p>ts z x w cause cutt+ & ! de/ruction ( ! be>+s4 ,n[ turn ! valve ar\nd 9 "o direction = ab\t a half doz5 turns & !n 9 ! o!r direction = ! same l5g? ( "t1 alt]nately1 at ! same "t apply+ a mod]ate pressure on ! valve4 ,small valves may be rotat$ ) a l>ge screw driv] ent]$ 9 ! slot f\nd on ! valve plate1 b ! h&ie/ me?od is ) a c>p5t]'s brace 9 :i* is ins]t$ a screw-driv] bit4 ,nev] turn ! valve ar\nd & ar\nd 9 "o direction cont9u\sly z ?is movem5t is liable to cause groov+1 alt]nate ! direction ( rotation frequ5tly ) occasional back & =? movem5ts made 9 a semi-circle4 ,d n press heavily on ! valve1 use only en\gh pressure to insure contact betwe5 ! two seat+ surfaces4 ,! valve %\ld be lift$ occasionally f ! seat to prev5t groov+1 & to r$i/ribute ! abrasive1 & !n dropp$ back1 aft] :i* ! gr9d+ %\ld proce$ z be=e4 ,remove ! valve aft] x turns )\t friction1 wipe x clean1 apply fre% oil & em]y & gr9d once m4 ,:5 ! gr9d+ has remov$ all pits & ridges1 & pres5ts a smoo? ev5 surface1 ! gr9d+ is complete4 ,to te/ = accuracy ( gr9d+ place a little ,prussian ,blue on ! seat1 if ! valve is gr\nd to a p]fect surface ! blue w %[ uni=mly spread ov] ! seat1 if ! gr9d+ is incomplete b>e places %[+ high spots w be se54 ,x is a good plan to f9i% ! gr9d+ by us+ a little ,tripoli ) oil aft] ! em]y has remov$ ! pits & high spots1 z ,tripoli is f9] ?an em]y & w smoo? d[n scrat*es made by ! em]y4 ,aft] ! gr9d+ has be5 p]=m$ to y\r satisfaction1 wa% ! valve1 valve /em1 & guides ?or\ghly ) gasol9e & k]os5e to remove ! small] traces ( em]y1 to prev5t we> & cutt+4 ,:5 ! valves are gr\nd 9 place on ! eng9e /uff up all op5+s or p>ts ( ! cyl9d] to prev5t ! em]y f ga9+ access to ! bore4 ,aft] gr9d+ is complete wipe (f surfaces ?or\ghly & remove wa/e us$ = /uff+4 ,,*apt] ,,xiii ,,tractors ,,& ,,f>m ,,p[] ,because ( our increas$ population1 :i* results 9 a great] plant$ acreage1 & ! sc>city & increas$ co/ ( f>m labor1 f>m+ has rapidly develop$ into an indu/rial sci5ce4 ,:]e =m]ly ! f>m] 0 cont5t to p]=m c]ta9 p>ts ( 8 "w by h&1 he today employs ma*9]y = ! same task1 & is f> m p>ticul> z to ! work+ ( 8 soil & ! co/ ( production p] acre4 ,by ! use ( ma*9]y 8 crop is m>ket$ at less exp5se1 9 a %ort] "t1 & he has m "t 9 :i* to enjoy life ?an ev] be=e4 ,! mod]n gasol9e & oil eng9e has be5 ! greate/ factor contribut+ to ! f>m]'s ease & prosp]ity = x has elim9at$ ! t]rors & drudg]y ( pl[+1 *urn+1 wat]+ /ock1 saw+ wood1 ?re%+1 & has besides giv5 him _m ( ! conv5i5ces ( city life1 su* z runn+ wat] & electric light4 ,! b5efits ( p[] are n only conf]r$ on ! f>m] b 8 wife z well = ! small dome/ic eng9es h sav$ ! back ( ! h\se wife dur+ ! /r5u\s p]iod ( h>ve/ "t4 ,"o ( ! difficulties ( f>m+ is ! necessity ( do+ c]ta9 "w 9 a limit$ "t or else suff]+ a heavy loss4 ,! break+1 ! pl[+1 ! h>ve/+1 & ! ?re%+ ea* mu/ be done at a c]ta9 "t1 (t5 )9 a few days ( ea* o!r 9 ord] to obta9 ! b5efits ( ! be/ wea!r conditions4 ,?re%+ />ts z soon z ! gra9 is ready1 & if ra9 int]f]es ) ! ?re%+1 ! f>m] c />t pl[+ imm$iately if provid$ ) a tractor & !reby ga9 ! und\bt$ b5efits ( fall pl[+4 ,pl[+ at h>ve/ "t has mu* to d ) elim9at+ we$ se$s = ! we$s are turn$ "u :ile gre51 ! se$s spr\t & comm5ce _! gr[? & are w9t] kill$ be=e !y rea* maturity4 ,9 ?is way ! field is practically fre$ f we$s 9 ! spr+4 ,:5 ! wea!r aga9 becomes suitable1 ! ?re%+ may be resum$ & :5 complet$ he c aga9 turn to 8 pl[+4 ,illu/ration3 ,op]ator's ,view ( ! 8,big ,f\r0 ,tractor1 ,%[+ ! ,f\r ,cyl9d] ,eng9e 9 ,place4 ,gas p[] is n to be consid]$ m]ely z a sub/itute = animal p[] = ! eng9e n only p]=ms ! "w ( ! horses b also p]=ms "w t no horse c d1 & does x ) f> less exp5se4 ,9 ! hotte/ wea!r :5 horses are dropp+ 9 ! broil+ sun1 ! tractor moves tirelessly ?r\gh ! fields4 ,e f>m] kn[s ! exp5se atta*$ to keep+ a horse 9 ! idle w9t] p]iod = x mu/ be f$1 wat]$1 & c>$ =1 "w or no "w4 ,:5 ! eng9e is idle x co/s no?+ except = ! int]e/ on ! inve/m5t1 :ile animals gr[ old & are subject to disease :e!r !y "w or n4 ,! "t ( pl[+ & h>ve/ is %ort & requires quick "w1 & cont9u\s "w4 ,horses _c be driv5 at pl[ fa/] ?an "o mile p] h\r1 & _c be work$ m ?an #aj h\rs p] day1 :ile ! tractor "u suitable conditions c travel #b to #c miles p] h\r1 & keep at x tw5ty-f\r h\rs p] day4 ,an ord9>y tractor c break f #bj to #dj acres ( ord9>y loam p] day & w pl[ 9 cultivat$ l& f #dj to #ej acres p] day4 ,! same factors gov]n ! fuel consumption ( a tractor t gov]n ! rate ( pl[+1 t is1 ! "* ( ! soil & ! dep? ( pl[+4 ,on an av]age1 #a to #b gallons ( gasol9e w be us$ 9 break+ an acre ( sod1 & #a to #a gallons ( gasol9e 9 pl[+ /ubble4 ,z k]os5e conta9s ab\t #ah p] c5t m heat p] gallon ?an gasol9e1 ! quantity ( fuel us$ by an oil tractor is correspond+ly less4 ,:5 us$ = pull+ wagons on ! road at ab\t #c miles p] h\r ! fuel consumption w approximate #d gallons p] h\r1 ?is consumption v>y+ ( c\rse ) grades1 etc4 ,?irty horse-p[]1 at ! spe$ giv5 above repres5ts a draw b> pull ( ab\t #i1jjj p\nds1 :i* is equival5t to ! tractive ef=t ( f #cj to #dj horses1 7 x possible to conc5trate ! pull ( s _m horses at a s+le po9t1 at "o "t4 ,x w\ld ( c\rse be impossible = ! horses to ma9ta9 ?is ef=t = z long a "t z ! tractor4 ,on a level road x w take ab\t #ajj p\nds tractive ef=t = ea* #b1jjj p\nds ( weight 9 ! =m ( road wagons 7includ+ ! weight ( ! wagon74 ,! numb] ( wagons t c be drawn ) a giv5 draw b> pull c be easily figur$4 ,:5 pull+ on a grade1 ! effective draw b> pull w be r$uc$ 9 proportion to ! ext5t ( ! grade4 ,:ile no fix$ rule c be giv5 reg>d+ ! numb] ( pl[s t c be h&l$ by a tractor1 ! av]age ma*9e c pull six to eight break+ pl[s & f eight to twelve /ubble pl[s1 dep5d+ on ! "* ( ! soil & ! dep? ( pl[+4 ,:5 ! conditions p]mit ! use ( a great] numb] ( pl[s1 ?an specifi$ above ! am\nt ( "w done w ( c\rse be great]4 ,a tractor c haul f\r t5 foot se$]s & two tw5ty foot h>r[s & cov] #g or #h acres p] h\r at a co/ ( f #ab to #ae c5ts p] acre4 ,at h>ve/ "t ! tractor w also effect a great sav+ 9 "t & exp5se = ! av]age ma*9e w h&le five or six eight foot b9d]s1 mak+ a cut ( ne>ly #ej feet wide1 & ?is c be kept up = #bd h\rs at a /ret*4 ,a tractor ( ! av]age output c h&le any sep>ator1 & ) a #dd cyl9d] ma*9e c turn out f #b1jjj to #c1jjj bu%els ( :eat & #e1jjj bu%els ( oats 9 a t5 h\r run4 ,x w also h&le any ( ! l>ge/ %r$d]s4 ,= irrigation "w1 silo fill+1 & wood cutt+ x is equally effici5t4 7#adb7 ,! ,gas ,tractor4 ,! tractor ( ! int]nal combu/ion type us+ gasol9e or oil z a fuel is mu* m successful ?an ! /eam ma*9e1 bo? f ! /&po9ts ( conv5i5ce & co/ ( op]ation4 ,!re is absolutely no dang] ( fire :atev] ar\nd a gas tractor = ?is reason ! eng9e c be plac$ 9 any position reg>dless ( ! direction ( ! w9d1 :i* w\ld be impracticable ) a /eam eng9e4 ,?is is a great advantage = if ! w9d is all[$ to bl[ directly f ! eng9e to ! sep>ator1 x w be ( great assi/ance to ! pit*]s :o fe$ ! sep>ator4 ,:5 ?re%+ or pl[+ 9 a remote field consid]able difficulty is always exp]i5c$ 9 supply+ ! /eam tractor ) ! enorm\s am\nt ( wat] t x consumes4 ,to supply ! wat] requires a team1 tank wagon & driv]s :i* is a consid]able item 9 ! runn+ exp5se4 ,! small am\nt ( wat] us$ = cool+ ! gas eng9e is r5ew$ once1 or at ! mo/1 twice a day4 ,/eam coal is bulky & requires ! cont9u\s s]vice ( a man & team to keep ?+s mov+1 & ?is exp5se is greatly increas$ by ! exp5se ( ! coal4 ,a gas tractor c be />t$ 9 a v few mom5ts :ile ! eng9e] ( a /eam rig has to />t 9 an h\r or m be=e ! crew to get /eam up1 etc4 ,9 addition to ?is !re is ! usual t$i\s r\t9e ( 8oil+ up10 clean+ ! flues1 etc4 ,!re is absolutely no dang] ( explosions ) ! gas eng9e :i* h prov$ s disa/r\s 9 ! pa/ ) /eam ?re%+ eng9es4 ,) ! gasol9e1 ! op]ator is left free to "w on ! sep>ator z he has no fir+ to d & does n h to conc5trate 8 att5tion on keep+ ! wat] level at ! correct po9t 9 ! gauge glass4 ,! eng9e is automatically lubricat$ 9 all cases s no att5tion is dem&$ on ?is score = x w run smoo?ly h\r aft] h\r )\t ! lea/ att5tion4 ,?is feature elim9ates "o high pric$ man f ! job4 ,on heavy loads ! problem ( keep+ up ! /eam pressure is (t5 a vexati\s "o1 especially if a poor grade ( coal is us$4 ,) a l[] pric$ man z op]ator t5d+ bo? ! sep>ator & ! gas eng9e ! crew ne$ only consi/ ( two pit*]s to fe$ ! ma*9e1 ) a man & team = ea* pit*]4 ,?is small crew is easily accommodat$ at ! f>m]s h\se1 & does n require ! s]vices ( a sep>ate cook & camp equipm5t4 ,) a gasol9e rig ! exp5ses w be approximately z foll[s3 ,eng9e]1 wages & exp5ses #e4jj ,two pit*]s1 at #c4jj #f4jj ,f\r m5 & teams #bj4jj #fj gallons ( gasol9e at #ae;c #i4jj ,lubricat+ oil #a4jj ------------ ,co/ p] day #da4jj ,tak+ #a1ejj bu%els 7:eat7 z a day's "w1 ! co/ ( ?re%+ figures out at #b c5ts p] bu%el4 ,accord+ to data furni%$ by ! ,m4 ,rumely ,company1 :i* is bas$ on an actual te/1 ! total co/ ( pl[+1 se$+1 cutt+ & ?re%+1 includ+ gr\nd r5tal & depreciation1 am\nt$ to #h4fe ) horses & #f4ee ) _! oil tractor4 ,^! figures w ( c\rse v>y 9 individual cases1 b are pr9cipally ( int]e/ 9 %[+ ! comp>ative co/ ( horse & tractor op]ation4 ,) a gasol9e or oil tractor equipp$ ) eng9e pl[s "o man c t5d to bo? ! pl[s & ! eng9e1 al?\gh "s op]ators pref] to h two m51 "o reliev+ ! o!r consequ5tly pl[+ m acres p] day & r$uc+ ! co/ p] acre4 ,9 "s cases "o man is plac$ on ! pl[s & ! o!r on ! eng9e4 ,by runn+ ! tractor tw5ty-f\r h\rs p] day1 ) two %ifts ( m51 a mu* bett] %[+ is made by ! tractor :5 comp>$ ) horse pl[+1 = ) ! latt] me?od x w\ld be necess>y to supply twice ! numb] ( horses4 ,to %[ ! relative m]its ( v>i\s grades ( fuel we w pr9t ! data k9dly furni%$ by ,fairbanks ,morse = a t5 h\r day4 ,,item ,fuel ,oil,k]os5e,gasol9e #c;c #f;c #ae;c #fj ,gallons ,fuel #a4hj #c4ij #i4jj ,lubricants 4#dj 4#dj 4#dj ,eng9e] #c4ej #c4ej #c4ej ,pl[man #b4jj #b4jj #b4jj ,repairs 4#ab 4#ab 4#ab ,co/ to ,pl[ #bd ,acres #g4hb #i4ib #ae4jb ,co/ p] ,acre 4#cb 4#da 4#fc ,pl[+ at ! rate ( #bj acres p] day1 & k]os5e at #f c5ts p] gallon1 ! ,rumely ,company obta9 ! co/ ( pl[+ "o acre z #j4ff4 ,9 ! latt] figure ! int]e/ & depreciation are includ$ :i* w increase ! figures ov] ^? giv5 by ,fairbanks ,morse4 ,x %\ld be und]/ood t ^! co/s are approximate & w v>y consid]ably 9 diff]5t localities & "u v>i\s conditions4 ,oil ,injection ,eng9es4 ,eng9es us+ l[ grade fuels su* z k]os5e1 usually exp]i5ce mu* tr\ble 9 obta9+ a prop] mixture :5 ! fuel is vaporiz$ 9 an ext]nal c>buret] ev5 :5 ! c>buret] is specially design$ = ! heavy oil4 ,?is leads to fuel wa/e1 />t+ tr\bles & cyl9d] c>bonization1 to say no?+ ( ! objections ( an odor\s1 dirty exhau/4 ,to ov]come ! objections ( c>buret+ ! heavy oils x has be5 common practice to inject or aspirate a small am\nt ( wat]1 ! wat] vapor t5d+ to prev5t ! fuel f crack+ & to di/ribute ! temp]ature m uni=mly ?r\gh ! /roke4 ,! injection ( wat] is n a p>ticul>ly desirable feature1 s9ce its use involves "o m adju/m5t & possible s\rce ( tr\ble :5 runn+ on v>iable loads4 ,9 ! semi-,diesel eng9e ! fuel is spray$ directly into ! combu/ion *amb] by me*anical means1 ?us mak+ ! fuel supply to a c]ta9 ext5t indep5d5t ( atmosph]ic & temp]ature conditions4 ,aft] ! injection ! spray is vaporiz$ bo? by ! hot walls ( ! combu/ion *amb] & ! heat ( compression1 ! latt] be+ pr9cipally in/rum5tal 9 caus+ ! ignition ( ! gas4 ,9 ?is case no electrical ignition devices are requir$1 ?us at "o /roke ov]com+ "o ( ! pr9cipal objections to a gas eng9e4 ,until rec5tly ! semi-,diesel eng9es 7 conf9$ to units ( r l>ge size1 ! smalle/ be+ mu* l>g] ?an ! eng9es usually us$ on ! f>m4 ,x is n[ possible1 h[ev]1 to obta9 oil eng9es ( ! fuel injection type 9 v small sizes1 built especially = portable or semi-portable s]vice4 ,n only is x possible to use a *eap] grade ( fuel ) ?is type ( eng9e1 b ! fuel consumption is also less ?an ) ! c>buret+ type4 ,to ?is may be add$ ! advantages ( an eng9e free f ! tr\bles incid5t to ! ignition & c>buret+ sy/ems4 ,good results may be obta9$ ) small injection eng9es on oils runn+ f k]os5e 7#dh gravity7 d[n to #bh gravity1 ! combu/ion 9 all cases be+ complete & )\t excessive c>bon deposits4 ,little tr\ble is caus$ by v>iable loads z long z ! spe$ is kept con/ant4 ,comp>$ ) gasol9e1 ! heavi] fuels are mu* saf] to /ore & h&le1 ow+ to _! high fla% po9ts4 ,! compression ( ! injection eng9e is mu* high] ?an ! old c>buret+ k]os5e eng9e z ! compression heat is us$ 9 a great "p to ignite ! oil vapor4 ,usually ! pressure is 9 excess ( #aej p\nds p] squ>e in*1 ! exact value be+ det]m9$ by ! =m ( ! combu/ion *amb]1 :e!r a hot bulb is us$1 etc4 ,! high compression assi/s 9 increas+ ! economy ( ! eng9e4 ,usually ! pi/on ei!r draws 9 a complete volume ( pure air or draws 9 pure air ?r\gh ! great] "p ( ! induction /roke1 ! spray ei!r />t+ ne> ! end ( ! suction /roke or dur+ ! e>ly "p ( ! compression4 ,:5 a hot bulb is us$ ! oil spray /rikes ! bulb =m+ vapor1 ! increas+ compression caus$ by ! advanc+ pi/on furni%+ ! air = combu/ion & =ces ! mixture into contact ) ! hot walls4 ,ano!r type has no hot bulb1 ! light] con/itu5ts ( ! fuel be+ vaporiz$ & ignit$ by ! compression alone1 _! inflammation s]v+ to k9dle ! ma91 heavy body ( ! oil4 ,9 "s eng9es1 ! combu/ion ( ! light con/itu5ts s]ves to spray ! heavy oil ?r\gh ! valve & into ! combu/ion *amb]4 ,details ( sev]al ( ! mo/ prom95t makes ( oil eng9es are describ$ 9 an e>ly *apt] ( ?is book4 ,z a rule1 ?is class ( oil eng9e does n run well :5 ! spe$ is v>i$ ?r\gh any great range1 nor :5 gov]n$ by a ?rottl+ type gov]nor1 s9ce bo? ( ^! conditions affect ! compression4 ,!y may be ei!r ( ! two or f\r /roke cycle type1 & :5 ( ! latt] !y are mu* m successful ?an a two /roke cycle eng9e us+ a c>buret]4 ,on small eng9es ! fuel consumption w run ab\t #j4g p9t p] brake horsep[] h\r1 ?is consumption decreas+ on l>ge eng9es to ab\t #j4f p9t p] brake horsep[] h\r or ev5 less4 ,illu/ration3 ,oil ,injection ,type4 ,injection pump ,p driv5 by ecc5tric ,e ?r\gh rods ,g-,h draws oil f tank ,k ?r\gh ,m-,n & sprays x into combu/ion *amb] ,r ?r\gh ,o-,q4 ,am\nt ( oil spray$ is controll$ by fly-:eel gov]nor ,w-,w %ift+ ,e on %aft ,s1 ?us v>y+ /roke ( ,p4 ,eng9e is />t$ by heat+ ,r ) tor* ,u & inject+ fir/ oil ) h& lev] ,i4 ,a second pump supplies con/ant level ( oil to ,k1 level be+ obs]v$ 9 glass ,l4 ,c-,c is ! cyl9d]1 & ,f is ! fly-:eel4 ,! accompany+ diagram %[s a diagram ( a typical oil eng9e ( ! injection type1 a pump ,p supply+ ! oil f auxili>y tank to ! hot1 ext5d$ combu/ion *amb] ,r1 ?is *amb] be+ an ext5sion ( ! cyl9d] ,c-,c4 ,oil is kept at a con/ant level 9 ,k by an ov]fl[ pipe1 ! oil ent]+ f ! supply pump ?r\gh pipe ,j1 & ent]+ ! pump ?r\gh ,m at ,n4 ,by gauge glass ,l1 ! op]ator c tell :e!r he has a suffici5t supply ( oil4 ,! injection pump ,p is driv5 f ! ecc5tric ,e 7m\nt$ on ! ma9 %aft ,s7 ?r\gh ! ecc5tric rod ,g & ! rod ,h4 ,! gov]nor weights ,w-,w alt] ! am\nt ( fuel suppli$ by *ang+ ! /roke ( ! pump1 ?us keep+ ! spe$ con/ant "u v>y+ loads4 ,! gov]nor acts by %ift+ ,e 9 relation to ! %aft ,s1 a spr+ ,t controll+ ! ?r[ ( ! gov]nor4 ,! entire gov]nor me*anism is conta9$ 9 ! fly-:eel ,f4 ,to />t1 ! combu/ion *amb] ,r is heat$ by ! tor* ,u1 & aft] ?or\ghly heat$1 ! />t+ fuel is inject$ by means ( ! h& lev] ,i4 ,?is eng9e is ( ! two cycle type ) scav5g+ air furni%$ by crank-case compression4 7#adc7 ,con/ruction ( ,gas ,tractors4 ,a gas tractor may be consid]$ z be+ simply a special application ( ! gasol9e or oil eng9e 9 :i* ! eng9e drives ! road :eels ?r\gh a tra9 ( ge>+ in/ead ( driv+ its load by a belt f ! pulley4 ,f\r int]m$iate me*anisms mu/ be provid$ betwe5 ! eng9e & ! road :eels 9 ord] t ! tractor may prop]ly p]=m its "w4 ,^! devices are kn[n z ! 8clut*10 ! driv+ ge>s1 rev]se ge> & ! 8diff]5tial0 ge>4 ,x %\ld be und]/ood t ^! me*anisms d n *ange ! con/ruction or op]ation ( ! eng9e 9 ! slighte/1 & t ! pr9ciples t apply to ! eng9es describ$ 9 ! previ\s *apt]s apply also to ! eng9e ( ! tractor4 ,! foll[+ w briefly describe ! functions ( ! int]m$iate tra9s 9 _! prop] ord]1 />t+ at ! eng9e4 ,! ,clut*4 ,a tractor is arrang$ to pull its load 9 two diff]5t ways1 fir/ by ! draw b>1 z :5 pull+ pl[s1 & secondly by a belt f ! eng9e pulley z 9 driv+ a ?re%+ ma*9e or circul> saw4 ,9 ! fir/ case x is necess>y to drive ! road :eels ?r\gh ! ge> tra91 & 9 ! second case x is necess>y to disconnect ! road :eels :ile driv+ ! ?re%] or saw4 ,z ! eng9e _c be />t$ :ile "u load x is also necess>y to disconnect ! road :eels to free ! eng9e :ile turn+ x ov] to get ! fir/ explosion4 ,! device t connects & disconnects ! eng9e f ! road :eels is kn[n z ! ,,clut*4 ,?is usually consi/s ( two or m friction surfaces t =m a "p ( ! driv+ ge>1 :i* may be br\ght into frictional contact ) ! eng9e pulley1 :5 x is necess>y to drive ! road :eels4 ,:5 ! two memb]s ( ! clut* are br\ght into contact !y revolve toge!r1 ?us connect+ ! eng9e ) ! driv+ ge>4 ,rev]se ,ge>s4 ,illu/ration3 ,! ,rev]se ,ge> ( ! 8,big ,f\r0 ,tractor4 ,z x is n practicable to rev]se ! direction ( rotation ( ! gas eng9e1 ! rotation ( ! road :eels is rev]s$ by means ( ge>s conta9$ 9 ! driv+ tra94 ,9 "s tractors ! rev]se ge>s are simil> to ^? 9 an automobile1 be+ locat$ 9 ! transmission4 ,9 o!r tractors two bevel p9ions are provid$ t fit loosely on ! eng9e %aft & engage ) a l>ge bevel :eel t =ms "p ( ! driv+ ge>4 ,a slid+ jaw clut* t revolves on ! eng9e %aft is arrang$ s t x c connect ) ei!r ( ! bevel p9ions caus+ !m to rotate ) ! eng9e %aft & drive ! ma9 :eel4 ,z ! two p9ions are on opposite sides ( ! l>ge bevel :eel1 !y run 9 opposite directions 9 reg>d to x1 s t x is possible to rev]se ! l>ge :eel by engag+ ! clut* ) ei!r "o or ! o!r ( ! bevel p9ions4 ,! ,diff]5tial ,ge>4 ,! diff]5tial ge> makes x possible to apply ! same am\nt ( p[] to ea* ( ! road :eels1 & also all[s "o :eel to rotate fa/] ?an ! o!r :5 turn+ ar\nd a corn]4 ,if bo? road :eels 7 rigidly fa/5$ to a s+le rotat+ axle x w\ld be practically impossible to turn a corn] = x w\ld be necess>y = ! eng9e to slip "o or ! o!r ( ! :eels because ( _! diff]5ce 9 spe$1 z ! out] :eels turn fa/] ?an ! inn]4 ,illu/ration3 ,diff]5tial ,ge> ( ! 8,big ,f\r0 ,tractor4 ,! ,driv+ ,ge>4 ,! driv+ ge> consi/s ( a s]ies ( spur ge>s arrang$ = ! purpose ( r$uc+ ! high spe$ & small 8pull0 ( ! motor into ! l[ spe$ & heavy pull ( ! road :eels4 ,?is r$uction 9 spe$ is g5]ally br\ght ab\t by a d\ble sy/em ( %afts1 ! second %aft f ! motor c>ry+ ! diff]5tial ge> & me%es directly ) ! ma/] ge> on ! bull :eel4 ,! fir/ %aft is an idl]4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #abe4 ,fairbanks-,morse ,oil ,tractor1 ,%[+ ,g5]al ,lay\t4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #abf4 ,two ,cyl9d] ,eng9e ( ,fairbanks-,morse ,oil ,tractor4 7#add7 ,fairbanks-,morse ,oil ,tractor4 ,! ,fairbanks-,morse #cj-fj ,horse-p[] ,oil ,tractor gives an effective draw b> pull ( #i1jjj p\nds & develops ov] #fj horse-p[] at ! belt pulley :i* is m ?an suffici5t to drive any f>m ma*9]y4 ,x w op]ate equally well on k]os5e1 di/illate oils1 & gasol9e1 any ( :i* w develop ! rat$ horse-p[]4 ,two =w>d spe$s & "o rev]se are obta9$ by a ge> transmission ( ! automobile type1 ! =w>d spe$s be+ #a & #b miles p] h\r & ! rev]se #a miles4 ,comb9$ ) ! gov]nor v>iation1 x is possible to get ! prop] spe$ = any k9d ( "w4 ,! fuel is spray$ directly into ! cyl9d] ) a spray ( wat]1 ! proportion ( wat] to oil be+ ne>ly equal at full load4 ,z expla9$ 9 ,*apt] ,,vii1 ! wat] spray aids 9 ! combu/ion ( ! heavi] oils1 elim9ates soot & t>ry deposits1 & makes ! eng9e run m smoo?ly because ( ! r$uction ( ! explosion pressure4 ,! spray also r$uces ! temp]ature ( ! cyl9d] & m9imizes ! dang]s ( preignition4 ,! eng9e is ( ! sl[ spe$ type runn+ at a normal spe$ ( #cge revolutions p] m9ute1 & ! two cyl9d]s h a bore & /roke ( #aj #ab in*es4 ,! spe$ regulator suppli$ ) ! eng9e gives an extreme v>iation ( #cjj to #cge ,r4,p4,m4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #abg4 ,fairbanks-,morse ,tractor ,transmission ) ,two ,=w>d ,spe$s & ,"o ,rev]se4 ,! cyl9d]s are ca/ two 9 a block :i* arrangem5t p]mits ( ! bores be+ br\ght close toge!r & gives an easy circulation ( cool+ wat]4 ,! value ( ?is practice has be5 prov$ 9 automobile "w :]e a simple & rigid /ructure is absolutely necess>y4 ,all ( ! valves are 9 ! heads ( ! cyl9d] :i* elim9ates heat radiat+ pockets 9 ! combu/ion *amb]4 ,bo? ! inlet & exhau/ valve are me*anically op]at$ ?r\gh sub/antial pu% rods & valve rock]s1 & are completely surr\nd$ by wat]4 ,l>ge clean out holes are provid$ 9 ! sep>ately ca/ cyl9d] head mak+ x accessible = ! removal ( scale & s$im5t4 ,a s+le cyl9d] head s]ves = bo? cyl9d]s :i* contributes to easy cool+ passages & a s+le arrangem5t ( exhau/ & inlet pip+4 ,! valves are 9 cages bolt$ to ! cyl9d] head 9 su* a way t !y are easily remov$ = inspection )\t di/urb+ ! pip+ or connections4 ,! pi/ons are easily remov$ )\t tak+ ! heads out ( ! cyl9d] or tak+ d[n any %aft+4 ,! valve rock] arms are provid$ ) easily r5ew$ bu%+s & grease cups4 ,z ! eng9e is ( ! f\r /roke cycle type ) bo? cyl9d]s on ! same side ( ! crank-%aft1 only a s+le ?r[ crank %aft is us$1 :i* is )\t int]m$iate be>+s4 ,dual ignition is us$1 ! high t5sion magneto & ! two unit sp>k coils %[n 9 ,fig4 #abf be+ indep5d5t ( "o ano!r s t ei!r ! magneto or batt]y c be us$ = />t+ or = cont9u\s op]ation4 ,! magneto is m\nt$ directly on ! eng9e b$ & is ge> driv5 f ! crank %aft4 ,! ignition advance & ret>d lev] & ignition swit* are m\nt$ on ! eng9e 9 an accessible position4 ,z ! coil is m\nt$ on ! eng9e ! leads are %ort & ! vibrators are directly "u ! sup]vision ( ! op]ator4 ,close spe$ regulation is ma9ta9$ by a ?rottl+ type gov]nor4 ,! volunt>y spe$ v>iation us$ to sl[ ! eng9e d[n to meet c]ta9 conditions enc\nt]$ 9 pl[+ is accompli%$ by a small lev] locat$ at ! end ( ! cyl9d]s4 ,! cool+ wat] is circulat$ ?r\gh ! cyl9d]s by a ge> driv5 c5trifugal pump4 ,f ! cyl9d]s ! wat] ent]s a clos$ radiator ( ! automobile type locat$ at ! front ( ! traction :]e x is cool$ )\t loss4 ,a n9e fe$1 =c$ type oil] is us$ :i* supplies oil to ! cyl9d]s & be>+s1 & also to ! transmission ge>s4 ,ext]nal be>+s :i* are subject$ to du/ are equipp$ ) grease cups4 ,! fuel pump :i* takes its supply f an #hj gallon tank is 9 an accessible position ne> ! op]ator & is provid$ ) a h&le by :i* x is op]at$ :5 />t+ ! eng9e4 ,! clut* :i* is locat$ 9 ! fly:eel at ! "r ( ! eng9e is op]at$ by a lev] on ! footbo>d4 ,all ( ! friction faces & lev]s are arrang$ inside ( ! pulley s t !y are n only protect$ f injury b are prev5t$ f te>+ ! belt %\ld x slip f ! pulley face4 ,a p[]ful foot ) a drum on ! diff]5tial ge> w hold ! outfit on a grade indep5d5t ( ! eng9e4 ,! transmission is ( ! %ift+ ge> type ) h>d5$ /eel ge>s4 ,! transmission ge>s are enclos$ 9 a practically du/ pro( case1 ?is be+ connect$ ) enclos$ crank case & bett] provid+ = air displacem5t ( ! pi/ons4 ,p[] is transmitt$ to ! truck ?r\gh ! clut* on ! left h& side ( ! eng9e1 :i* is op]at$ by comb9$ clut* & %ift+ lev] on ! footbo>d4 ,?is lev] has an int]lock+ device1 arrang$ s t x is impossible = ! op]ator to %ift ! ge>s be=e ! clut* is dis5gag$1 or to engage ! clut* until ! ge>s are completely 9 me%4 ,x is also impossible to get two sets ( ge>+ 9 me% at "o "t & prev5ts any possibility ( /ripp+ ge>s by apply+ ! load on ! corn]s ( ! tee?4 ,! drive :eels are #gh diamet]1 #cj face4 ,^! give a v l>ge be>+ on ! gr\nd :i* is p>ticul>ly desirable :5 us+ ! eng9e = cultivat+ or se$+ on pl[$ gr\nd4 ,! front :eels are #dh 9 diamet]1 #ad face4 ,! :eel base is long & eng9e is easy to guide4 ,! drive :eels are cov]$ by a metal h\s+ :i* protects ! op]ator & ! work+ p>ts ( ! eng9e f du/ & mud4 ,?is eng9e gives a drawb> pull on l[ ge> ( #i1jjj lbs41 :i* w haul f #h to #ab-ad pl[s1 accord+ to ! "* ( ! pl[+4 ,! hit* is plac$ ab\t #ah above ! gr\nd & consi/s ( a heavy b> ext5d+ approximately to ! middle ( ! bull :eels on ea* side1 ?us provid+ = hit*+ ! load mo/ satisfactorily4 7#ade7 ,! ,rumely 8,oil ,pull0 ,tractor4 ,! ,rumely oil-pull tractor is driv5 by a two cyl9d]1 f\r /roke cycle oil eng9e1 hav+ a bore & /roke ( #aj #ab in*es giv+ #cj tractive horse-p[] & #fj horse-p[] at ! pulley4 ,! cyl9d]s are ca/ s+le & are provid$ ) indep5d5t heads4 ,! pi/ons are easily remov$ by unbolt+ ! cyl9d] heads & ! crank end ( ! connect+ rod1 aft] :i* op]ation !y may be pull$ out ^u ! plat=m4 ,! exhau/ & inlet valves are 9 easily removable cages plac$ on ei!r side ( ! cyl9d]4 ,! /ems ( ! valves are at "r angles to ! bore ( ! cyl9d] & op5 directly into ! combu/ion *amb] )\t pockets or ext5sions to ! *amb]4 ,a bell crank rock] arm acts on ! valve /ems :i* 9 turn is actuat$ ?r\gh a pu% rod t ext5ds f ! cam-%aft 9 ! crank *amb]4 ,! cam-%aft1 rock] arms1 valves1 & half "t ge>s are cle>ly %[n by ,fig4 #abh4 ,! h\s+s ( ! inlet valves connect directly ) ! special k]os5e c>buretor made by ! ,rumely ,company4 ,! ,higg9s c>buretor us$ on ^! eng9es is v simple & effective 9 vaporiz+ ! heavi] fuels & has no spr+s nor int]nal me*anism to get out ( ord]4 ,! c>buretor is controll$ directly f ! gov]nor :i* regulates ! air1 wat] & k]os5e requir$ = ! combu/ion1 & has no manual adju/m5ts t ne$ att5tion f ! op]ator4 ,a con/ant fl[ ( k]os5e & wat] is ma9ta9$ ?r\gh ! c>buretor by means ( =ce pumps1 ! level 9 ! device be+ kept con/ant by ov]fl[ pipes ?r\gh :i* ! excess returns to ! supply tanks4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #abh4 ,phantom ,view ( ! ,rumely 8,oil ,pull0 ,eng9e4 ,z 9 ne>ly all types ( l[ compression1 or c>buret+ oil eng9es1 ! ,rumely eng9e receives an injection ( wat] 9 ! cyl9d] to aid ! combu/ion & cool+1 & to r$uce ! initial pressure ( ! explosion4 ,:ile ! initial pressure is r$uc$ by ! wat] vapor1 & ) x ! /ra9 on ! eng9e1 ! mean effective pressure is increas$ because ( ! absorption ( heat f ! walls & ! m p]fect combu/ion4 ,! only mov+ "p 9 ! c>buretor is a s+le plate controll$ by ! gov]nor :i* is produc$ ) "o or m air passages4 ,! gov]nor t op]ates ?is valve is driv5 by ge>s & regulates ! spe$ by ?rottl+ ! *>ge4 ,! spe$ ( ! eng9e c be v>i$ f #cjj to #djj revolutions p] m9ute :ile ! eng9e is runn+4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #abi4 ,higg9s ,oil ,c>buretor4 ,9 ?is eng9e x is a v simple matt] to remove ! crank-case cov] & ! cyl9d] heads & expose ! :ole ( ! work+ me*anism ( ! eng9e4 ,aft] remov+ ! cyl9d] heads & )\t *ang+ 8 position1 ! op]ator c exam9e1 clean1 &1 if necess>y1 regr9d ! valves4 ,also )\t *ang+ position ! op]ator c control 8 rev]se transmission ge>s1 friction clut* = />t+ ! tractor4 ,he is also 9 rea* ( ! ignition app>atus1 gov]nor c>buretor & oil]4 ,! crank case is ca/ 9 "o piece4 ,! be>+s are ca/ integral ) ! crank case1 & are fitt$ ) int]*angeable1 adju/able1 babbitt$ %ells4 ,b9d] caps hold ! be>+s toge!r & keep ! babbitt$ %ells securely 9 position4 ,! design p]mits removal ( b9d] caps = exam9ation ( crank %aft be>+s )\t di/ribut+ ! adju/m5t4 ,! crank case is secur$ to tractor frame by well fitt$ bolts1 !reby avoid+ annoyance f loose bolts & nuts4 ,! crank case is cov]$ ) a %eet /eel lid t %uts out all du/ & dirt4 ,?is cov] c easily be remov$ at any "t by simply unscrew+ ! bolts t hold x 9 place4 ,x is con/ruct$ ) ?is cov] on top in/ead ( on ! side or end1 :i* p]mits ( easy access to any work+ p>ts 9 ! crank case4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #acj4 ,rumely ,oil ,pull ,tractor4 ,to fur!r facilitate ! accessibility to work+ p>ts 9 ! crank case1 a second>y cov] is provid$ :i* c be remov$ 9 a c\ple ( m9utes4 ,?is op5+ is l>ge en\gh to all[ ! op]ator to rea* any po9t )9 ! crank case4 ,all cams are key-seat$ ^u ! cam %aft ) d\ble key-seats1 :i* absolutely prev5t any possibility ( slipp+ or alt]ation 9 ! tim+ ( ! eng9e4 ,! exhau/ & intake valves are me*anically op]at$4 ,! valves are con/ruct$ ) /eel /em1 nickel-/eel heads1 ! :ole be+ highly f9i%$4 ,valve cages are oil cool$1 !reby elim9at+ all possibility ( ! valves ov]heat+ or w>p+4 ,! valves !mselves c be remov$ by simply unscrew+ ! connection4 ,! eng9e is provid$ ) a set ( relief cams by :i* ! compression c be reliev$--?is greatly facilitates ! />t+ ( ! eng9e4 ,! pi/on is equipp$ ) five self-exp&+ r+s4 ,connect+ rod is ( drop-=g$ /eel con/ruction4 ,crank-p9 be>+s are made 9 halves & l9$ ) %ells ( special metal4 ,a comb9ation ( me*anical =ce fe$ & spla% lubrication is employ$4 ,six =ce fe$ tubes ent] ! crank case1 on to ea* be>+1 & two tubes =ce oil into ! cyl9d]4 ,! crank case conta9s two gallons ( oil & is arrang$ s t any surplus may be drawn (f imm$iately4 ,! lubricator has a gauge glass t %[s ! quantity ( oil suppli$ at all times1 & :i* is always 9 view ( ! op]ator4 ,a make & break sy/em 7l[ t5sion7 furni%es ! ignition sp>k1 :i* is suppli$ ) curr5t by a ,bos* l[ t5sion magneto "u normal runn+ conditions1 & a batt]y = />t+ & = use :5 ! magneto fails4 ,! magneto is ( c\rse ge> driv5 s t its armature has a fix$ relation ) ! pi/on position4 ,! ignit]s ( ei!r cyl9d] may be easily remov$ = exam9ation by simply unscrew+ two nuts4 ,oil is us$ z a m$ium = c>ry+ heat f ! cyl9d] walls to ! radiator4 ,9 ! con/ruction ( ! cool] ! company h foll[$ new pr9ciples1 ?us accompli%+ ! desir$ result ) a m9imum am\nt ( metal & liquid4 ,!re is no surplus ( liquid1 j en\gh oil be+ us$ to fill ! cyl9d] jackets1 radiator & circulation pipes4 ,! oil is kept 9 a con/ant fl[ f ! cyl9d]s to ! radiator & back to ! cyl9d]s by a l>ge pump :i* is driv5 by a *a9 direct f ! crank %aft4 ,! radiator is self-conta9$ & w hold ! oil = an indef9ite p]iod4 ,! radiator is compos$ ( a numb] ( sections ( press$ galvaniz$ /eel4 ,oil circulates freely )9 ! sections & ! air is drawn r\nd ! outside4 ,!re is a con/ant fl[ ( oil inside & a con/ant curr5t ( air outside4 ,! eng9e is provid$ ) a smoo?-work+1 effici5t friction clut*1 :i* is easily h&l$ by a plat=m lev] & ) little ex]tion on ! "p ( ! op]ator4 ,! toggle bolts are adju/able s t any we> 9 ! blocks c be tak5 up4 ,! clut* & brake are s connect$ t :5 ! clut* is ?r[n out ! brake is imm$iately appli$ & :5 ?r[n 9 ! brake is releas$4 ,! v>i\s movem5ts ( ! valves & ! ignition me*anism on ! face ( ! fly:eel1 are m>k$ s t "o c *eck up ! tim+ ( ! eng9e4 ,by br++ any "o ( ^! m>ks to co9cide ) ! /ation>y po9t] atta*$ to ! side ( ! crank case1 "o c easily asc]ta9 :e!r ! adju/m5ts & ! tim+ are exact4 ,! crank %aft is support$ by two end1 & "o int]m$iate be>+1 ! latt] be>+ be+ plac$ betwe5 ! two ?r[s ( ! crank %aft4 ,z ! two cyl9d]s are plac$ on ! same side ( ! crank %aft1 ! two ?r[s are also on ! same side ( ! %aft & to balance ^! ?r[s ca/ iron c\nt] weights are bolt$ on ! bottom ( ! crank arms4 ,! be>+s are exceptionally long1 ! total l5g? ( ! ?ree be>+s am\nt+ to m ?an half ! l5g? betwe5 ! out] ends ( ! be>+s4 ,! frame ( ! tractor consi/s ( f\r twelve in* 8,i0 beams securely rivet$ toge!r ) int]m$iate *annel /iff5]s4 ,! ca/ /eel be>+s are rivet$ to ! frame s t ! :ole con/ruction is "o unyield+ mass4 ,! be>+s are 9 halves :i* makes ! removal ( ! %afts an easy task4 ,) ! exception ( ! diff]5tial & ma/] ge>s all ( ! ge>s are cut out ( semi /eel blanks4 ,! fly :eel has a face ( #aa in*es1 & a diamet] ( #cf in*es4 7#adf7 ,! 8,big ,f\r0 ,tractor4 ,! ,big ,f\r tractor diff]s f ! majority ( tractors 9 hav+ a f\r cyl9d] v]tical type motor ( #cj tractive & #fj brake horse-p[] capacity4 ,! cyl9d]s h a bore ( #f in*es & a /roke ( #h in*es4 ,! eng9e runs at ! comp>atively high spe$ ( #dej revolutions p] m9ute4 ,gasol9e is us$ = fuel1 & is vaporiz$ 9 a conv5tional type ( jet c>buretor4 ,bo? ! inlet & ! exhau/ valves are plac$ 9 a pocket at "o side ( ! cyl9d] mak+ :at is kn[n z an 8,l0 eng9e4 ,! cyl9d]s & ! heads are ca/ 9 "o piece1 do+ away ) po9ts betwe5 ! cyl9d]s & heads4 ,! pi/ons & connect+ rods may be remov$ )\t di/urb+ ! cyl9d]s or _! connections by pull+ !m out ?r\gh h& holes 9 ! base ( ! crank case4 ,! f\r ?r[ crank %aft is provid$ ) five be>+s1 ^! int]m$iate be>+s betwe5 ! ?r[s & two end be>+s 9 ! case4 ,! int]ior work+ p>ts ( ! motor are lubricat$ by ! spla% sy/em ) a positive =c$ fe$ oil]4 ,! spla% pools c be adju/$ at a m9ute's notice s t any desir$ oil level c be obta9$4 ,grease cups provide ! lubrication = all be>+s outside ( ! motor4 ,wat] is circulat$ by a direct driv5 c5trifugal pump1 & z ! cool+ wat] is 9 a clos$ sy/em ! same wat] is us$ ov] & ov] aga9 )\t mu* loss1 a bucketful or s a day be+ an ample supply4 ,! tubul> radiator situat$ 9 ! front ( ! tractor is provid$ ) a cool+ fan t is driv5 f ! eng9e 9 a mann] simil> to automobile practice4 ,a high t5sion magneto is ge> driv5 f ! cam %aft1 & is m\nt$ on a rock+ bracket s t ! armature is advanc$ & ret>d$ z well z ! circuit break]4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aca4 ,views ( ! ,f\r ,cyl9d] ,motor ( ! 8,big ,f\r0 ,tractor4 ,note ! ,massive ,con/ruction ,comp>$ ) ,automobile ,practice4 ,an int]nal exp&+ clut* connects ! motor ) ! driv+ ge> by op]at+ on ! inn] run ( ! fly-:eel4 ,! motion ( ! eng9e is transmitt$ to an int]m$iate rev]s+ device ?r\gh bevel ge>s1 ?is be+ necess>y = ! reason t ! crank-%aft runs 8=e & aft10 or p>allel to ! l5g? ( ! tractor4 ,a d\ble act+ jaw clut* engages ) ei!r "o or ! o!r ( a pair ( bevel p9ions t run 9 opposite directions4 ,motion f ! rev]se ge> is transmitt$ directly to ! diff]5t %aft1 & f !re x is transmitt$ to ! ma/] ge>s on ! bull :eels4 ,! diff]5tial %aft is 9 "o piece4 ,illu/ration3 8,big ,f\r10 ,f\r ,cyl9d] ,tractor ,motor4 ,illu/ration3 ,%[+ ! ,position ( ,eng9e on 8,big ,f\r0 ,tractor4 ,! ma9 driv+ :eels are v l>ge :5 comp>$ ) ! :eels ( an ord9>y tractor1 = !y are eight feet 9 diamet] & are proportionately broad4 ,?is no d\bt gives spl5did tractive effect 9 s(t & unev5 fields & mu/ save ! ma*9e f 8/all+0 "u adv]se conditions4 ,ano!r unusual feature is ! automatic /e]+ device us$ 9 pl[+4 ,?is device consi/s ( a long tubul> boom t is fa/5$ to ! swivel$ front axle ( ! tractor & a small :eel fa/5$ to ! out] end ( ! boom4 ,! small :eel rolls 9 ! next furr[ & compels ! tractor to pl[ 9 a l9e p>allel to x4 ,?is /e]s ! tractor m accurately ?an w\ld be possible by h& & at ! same "t enables "o man to op]ate bo? ! eng9e & ! pl[s4 ,illu/ration3 ,! 8,case0 ,gas ,tractor4 ,co/ ( ,gas ,eng9e ,op]ation 7,am]ican74 ,,gas ,,produc] ,,plant4 ,,natural-,,gas ,,eng9e4 ,?ree- ,half ,?ree- ,half ,load4 qu>t] ,load4 ,load4 qu>t] ,load4 ,load4 ,load4 #a ,fuel p] hp-h\r #a4be #a4e #a4h #aj cu4 #ab cu4 #ae cu lb4 lb4 ft4 ft4 ft4 #b ,fuel p] hp-ye> 7#d1ejj #b4e #c4f #de1jjj #ed1jjj #fg1ejj h\rs7 tons #c tons tons cu4 cu4 ft4 cu4 ft4 ft4 #c ,co/ ( fuel #d4jj p] ton #cj c5ts p] #a1jjj cu4 ft4 #d ,co/ ( fuel p] ye> #aj4jj #ab4jj #ad4djac4ej #af4bf #bj4be #e ,co/ ( att5dance p] #j4dj c5t #j4be c5t hp-h\r #f ,co/ ( att5dance p] #ah4jj #aa4be ye> #g ,lubricat+ oil p] #j4jjf p9t #j4jjf p9t hp-h\r #h ,co/ ( oil p] ye> at #j4hd #j4hd #be c5ts p] gal4 #i ,scrubb] & cool+ #h gals4 #e gals4 wat] p] hp-h\r #aj ,co/ ( wat] p] ye> at #cj c5ts p] #a1jjj #a4dd #j4ij cubic feet #aa ,op]at+ exp5ses2 #cj4bh #cb4bh #cd4fhbf4di #bi4ai #cd4bd items1 #d1 #f1 #h & #aj #ab ,sav+ by ,diesel eng9e #e4dc #f4dg #g4ij #a4fd #c4ci #f4ef #ac ,int]e/1 depreciation & ma9t5ance #f #g #b #ae #f #g #b #ae respectively 9 p] c5t ( inve/m5t #ad ,assum+ #hj initial co/ p] hp4 ! #ab4jj #ab4jj ye>ly fix$ *>ges w be ,,l[-,,pressure ,,oil ,,diesel ,,eng9e4 ,,eng9e4 ,?ree- ,half ,?ree- ,half ,load4 qu>t] ,load4 ,load4 qu>t] ,load4 ,load4 ,load4 #a ,fuel p] hp-h\r #a lb4 #a4be #a4fj #j4ej #j4ee #j4fj lb4 lb4 lb4 lb4 lb4 #b ,fuel p] hp-ye> 7#d1ejj #fdc #hjc4e #ajbh4ecba4e #cec4e #chf h\rs7 gals4 gals4 gals4 gals4 gals4 gals4 #c ,co/ ( fuel #c c5ts p] gallon #c c5ts p] gallon #d ,co/ ( fuel p] ye> #ai4cj #bd4aj #cj4hei4fe #aj4fj #aa4eh #e ,co/ ( att5dance p] #j4be c5t #j4cj c5t hp-h\r #f ,co/ ( att5dance p] #aa4be #ac4ej ye> #g ,lubricat+ oil p] #j4jjf p9t #j4jjg p9t hp-h\r #h ,co/ ( oil p] ye> at #j4hd #j4ih #be c5ts p] gal4 #i ,scrubb] & cool+ #e gals4 #d gals4 wat] p] hp-h\r #aj ,co/ ( wat] p] ye> at #cj c5ts p] #a1jjj #j4ij #j4gb cubic feet #aa ,op]at+ exp5ses2 #cb4bi #cg4ji #dc4hdbd4he #be4hj #bf4gh items1 #d1 #f1 #h & #aj #ab ,sav+ by ,diesel eng9e #g4dd #aa4bi #ag4jf 444 444 444 #ac ,int]e/1 depreciation & ma9t5ance #f #g #b #ae #f #aj #c #ai respectively 9 p] c5t ( inve/m5t #ad ,assum+ #hj initial co/ p] hp4 ! #ab4jj #ae4jj ye>ly fix$ *>ges w be ,f a ,pap] ,read ,be=e ! ,am]ican ,in/itute ( ,electrical ,eng9e]s4 ,,*apt] ,,xiv ,,! ,,/eam ,,tractor 7#adg7 ,! ,/eam ,tractor4 ,! /eam tractor consi/s ( ! foll[+ elem5ts1 :i* w take up 9 detail "u sep>ate head+s4 7#a7 ,eng9e prop]1 consi/+ ( ! cyl9d]1 pi/on1 valve motion1 guides1 crank1 fly :eel1 etc4 7#b7 ,boil]--) ! grates1 burn]s1 etc4 7#c7 ,fe$ pump or injector4 7#d7 ,fe$ wat] heat]4 7#e7 ,driv+ ge>1 diff]5tial1 clut*1 etc4 ,z 9 ! case ( ! gas tractor1 ! ma*9e consi/s simply ( a /eam eng9e & its boil] t drive ! road :eels ( ! tractor ?r\gh a ge> tra94 ,) ! /eam tractor ! ge>+ is simplifi$ z ! rev]se is p]=m$ by ! eng9e's valve motion1 & n ?r\gh ge>+4 ,!re is no ne$ ( spe$ *ang+ transmission ge>s 9 ! /eam tractor z ! eng9e is suffici5tly flexible to provide an innum]able numb] ( spe$s by simple ?rottle control4 ,:ile ! fuel mo/ commonly us$ is coal1 /raw & wood1 crude oil is (t5 us$1 ! fuel be+ det]m9$ pr9cipally by ! location ( ! eng9e1 & by its co/ on ! job4 ,! matt] ( fuel %\ld be tak5 into consid]ation :5 ! eng9e is pur*as$ z ! diff]5t grades dem& diff]5t fire box & boil] con/ruction4 ,:5 x is possible to obta9 crude oil at a reasonable figure1 x c]ta9ly %\ld be us$ 9 pref]5ce to all o!rs z liquid fuel is ! mo/ compact1 mo/ easily controll$1 & effici5t ( any4 ,! subject ( oil burn]s is tak5 up lat] 9 ?is *apt]1 a numb] ( types ( :i* are cle>ly illu/rat$4 7#adh7 ,! ,cyl9d] & ,slide ,valve4 ,! /eam eng9e cyl9d] consi/s ess5tially ( a smoo?ly bor$ iron ca/+ 9 :i* a plung] call$ ! 8pi/on0 slides to & fro1 ! cyl9d] act+ n only z a conta9] = ! /eam act+ on ! pi/on b z a guide & support z well4 ,ne$less to say1 ! contact or fit betwe5 ! pi/on & cyl9d] walls mu/ be z p]fect z possible1 tight en\gh to prev5t /eam pass+ ! pi/on1 & free en\gh to all[ ! pi/on to slide )\t unnecess>y friction4 ,! reciprocat+ pi/on is connect$ to ! crank ?r\gh a connect+ rod by :i* ! pressure on ! pi/on is communicat$ to ! crank arm4 ,! pressure ex]t$ on ! crank p9 by ! pi/on dep5ds on ! area ( ! pi/on 79 squ>e in*es7 & ! pressure ( ! /eam on ea* squ>e in* ( ! area4 ,) a giv5 /eam pressure1 ! great] ! area1 ! great] ! =ce t5d+ to turn ! crank4 ,z p[] is ! rate or di/ance ?r\gh :i* ! =ce acts 9 a unit ( "t x is obvi\s t ! p[] develop$ by ! eng9e is equal 79 foot p\nds7 to ! =ce 9 p\nds multipli$ by ! velocity ( ! pi/on 9 feet p] m9ute4 ,s9ce !re are #cc1jjj foot p\nd m9utes 9 a horse-p[]1 ! p[] develop$ by su* a cyl9d] is equal to ! =ce multipli$ by ! pi/on velocity1 divid$ by #cc1jjj4 ,illu/ration ,z ! cyl9d] is necess>ily limit$ 9 l5g? x is evid5t t ! pi/on _c travel 9 "o direction cont9u\sly b mu/ be rev]s$ 9 direction :5 x travels ! l5g? ( ! cyl9d] bore !reby travel+ ! next di/ance 9 ! opposite direction4 ,?is rev]sal ( ! pi/on is accompli%$ by admitt+ ! /eam 9 "o end ( ! cyl9d] & !n into ! o!r1 ?is caus+ ! /eam to act on ! opposite sides ( ! pi/on alt]nately4 ,to e/abli% a diff]5ce ( pressure on ! two pi/on =ces1 ! /eam pressure is reliev$ on "o side :ile ! /eam acts on ! o!r4 ,a typical cyl9d] furni%$ ) ! ord9>y /eam tractor is %[n by ,fig4 #acc1 9 :i* ,t is ! cyl9d]1 ,p ! pi/on & ,r is ! pi/on rod4 ,:5 ! /eam 9 ! cyl9d] end ,e acts 9 ! direction %[n by arr[ ,e1 ! pi/on pulls ! rod ,r 9 ! direction %[n by arr[ ,s1 ! pressure 9 ! cyl9d] end ,d be+ reliev$ to atmosph]ic at ?is "t4 ,! /eam is admitt$ & reliev$ by ! valve ,l :i* slides back & =? on its seat actuat$ by ! valve rod ,,vr4 ,9 ! position %[n1 ! valve ,l is mov+ to ! left z %[n by arr[ ,o4 ,! edge ( ! valve ,n is j op5+ ! /eam port ,g ?r\gh :i* ! cyl9d] end ,f is plac$ 9 communication ) ! /eam fill$ valve *e/ ,a4 ,/eam at boil] pressure fills ! space ,a1 :i* fl[s into ,e pa/ ,n & ?r\gh ,g :5 ! valve op5s & e/abli%es pressure aga9/ ,p1 :i*1 ?r\gh ! pi/on & connect+ rods turns ! crank4 ,! /eam is exhau/$ f ! cyl9d] end ,d1 ?r\gh ! port ,f1 ?r\gh ! exhau/ port ,u1 & out ( ! exhau/ pipe ,x4 ,z w be se5 f ! figure1 ! inside valve edge ,y has mov$ to ! left s t ! port ,f is fully op5$4 ,:5 ! pi/on rea*es ! left h& end ( ! cyl9d]1 ! valve ,l moves to ! "r s t ! end ( ! cyl9d] ,e is connect$ to ! exhau/ port ,v ?r\gh ! cyl9d] port ,g1 ?us all[+ ! /eam 9 ! space ,e to pass out ( ! exhau/ pipe ,x4 ,a fur!r movem5t ( ! valve to ! "r causes ! left edge ,z ( ! valve to uncov] ! cyl9d] port ,f :i* all[s ! /eam to fl[ into ! cyl9d] space ,d & pu% ! pi/on to ! "r4 ,?is motion is c>ri$ on cont9u\sly1 ! valve mov+ 9 a fix$ relation to ! pi/on1 & admits ! /eam & releases x fir/ on "o side ( ! pi/on & !n on ! o!r4 ,! valve %[n is kn[n z a 8,d0 valve & is "o ( a v>iety ( valves furni%$ ) /eam eng9es1 :i*1 h[ev] p]=m exactly ! same functions z ! valve %[n4 ,an 8ecc5tric0 :i* is really a =m ( crank1 drives ! valve to & fro1 ! ecc5tric be+ fa/5$ to ! crank%aft4 ,! full pressure ( ! /eam =ces ! ,d valve d[n on its seat1 & z ! valve is ( consid]able size1 ?is pressure causes mu* friction & p[] loss4 ,9 "s eng9es a 8balanc$0 valve is us$ 9 :i* ! pressure on ! valve is balanc$ by an equal pressure t acts on ! "u side ( ! valve face4 ,balanc$ or unbalanc$1 ! function ( ! slide is to alt]nate ! fl[ ( /eam 9 ! two ends ( ! cyl9d]4 ,/eam is prev5t$ f pass+ ! pi/on into ! opposite end ( ! cyl9d] by ela/ic r+s plac$ 9 grooves on ! pi/on :i* are kn[n z 8pi/on r+s40 ,be+ ?9 & ela/ic ^! r+s in/antly con=m ) any irregul>ity ( ! pi/on bore & effectually /op ! fl[ ( /eam pa/ !m4 ,at ! po9t :]e ! reciprocat+ pi/on rod ,r passes ?r\gh ! cyl9d]1 a /eam tight jo9t is made by ! 8/uff+ box0 or gl& ,h4 ,! space betwe5 ! inn] walls ( ! /uff+ box & ! pi/on rod are ei!r fill$ ) "s description ( fibr\s pack+ or a metallic pack+ t fits ar\nd ! rod 9 ! same mann] t ! pi/on r+s fit 9 ! bore ( ! cyl9d]4 ,! pack+ is arrang$ ar\nd ! valve rod ,,vr 9 ! same mann]4 ,z ! pi/on1 pi/on rod1 & valve slide on _! respective surfaces ) consid]able pressure x is absolutely necess>y t ^! p>ts receive ample lubrication4 ,9 practically all eng9es ! oil is tak5 into ! cyl9d] ) ! /eam 9 ! =m ( drops1 ! oil be+ measur$ out by a sight fe$ lubricator t is tapp$ into ! /eam supply pipe4 ,9 ?is device1 ! oil f ! lubricator res]voir is f$ ?r\gh a regulat+ ne$le valve1 drop by drop1 up ?r\gh a gauge glass s t ! eng9e] c tell ! am\nt ( oil t he is fe$+4 ,! body ( ! lubricator is fill$ ) cond5s$ wat] up to ! level ( ! outlet ?r\gh :i* ! oil passes into ! cyl9d]1 & ! entire lubricator1 res]voir & all is "u boil] pressure at all po9ts4 ,! oil regulat+ valve is plac$ at ! bottom ( ! lubricator1 & z oil is light] ?an wat]1 x floats up f ! valve to ! level ( ! outlet1 ?r\gh ! gauge glass1 & f ! outlet level floats out into ! /eam pipe & mixes ) ! /eam4 ,by float+ ! oil 9 ?is mann]1 ! eng9e] c see e drop t is f$4 7#adi7 ,expansion ( ,/eam4 ,9 ord] to r$uce ! am\nt ( /eam us$1 ! valve does n all[ ! /eam to foll[ ! pi/on at full boil] pressure ?r\gh ! entire /roke1 b cuts x (f at a c]ta9 po9t aft] ! pi/on has />t$ on its travel4 ,z ! volume ( ! /eam is increas$ by ! fur!r travel ( ! pi/on aft] ! po9t ( cut-(f1 ! /eam exp&s 9 volume until ! end ( ! /roke is rea*$1 at :i* po9t ! pressure is naturally mu* bel[ ! initial or boil] pressure4 ,?is r$uction 9 temp]ature & pressure results 9 a wid] work+ temp]ature range ?an w\ld be ! case ) ! /eam foll[+ ! pi/on ?r\gh\t ! /roke1 & z ! /eam is exhau/$ to atmosph]e at a temp]ature mu* l[] ?an t ( ! boil] /eam1 mu* less heat is c>ri$ out ?r\gh ! exhau/4 ,z a g5]al rule1 ! mo/ economical po9t ( cut-(f is at ( ! /roke4 ,eng9es requir+ m /eam ?an is suppli$ at cut-(f 9 ord] to c>ry ! load1 are too highly tax$ = effici5t results4 ,s9ce ! mo/ effici5t po9t ( cut-(f is only ( ! possible /eam travel x is evid5t t an eng9e c c>ry a load mu* great] ?an t = :i* x is rat$1 b x is also evid5t t ?is increas$ capacity is ga9$ at ! exp5se op]at+ economy4 ,we> & te> on ! eng9e p>ts are also duly increas$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #acd4 ,case ,/eam ,tractor4 7#aej7 ,spe$ ,regulation4 ,on /eam tractors a con/ant spe$ is ma9ta9$ by 8?rottl+0 ! /eam1 to meet ! dem&s ( ! load by p>tially re/rict+ ! fl[ ( /eam at light loads & op5+ ! inlet at full load4 ,! valve t controls ! /eam = ! diff]5t loads is controll$ by a 8gov]nor0 :i* dep5ds on ! c5trifugal =ce ex]t$ by two fly-balls4 ,! balls1 or weights are h+$ to a revolv+ sp9dle1 driv5 by ! eng9e1 9 su* mann] t an increase ( spe$ t5ds to /raight5 out & revolve 9 a m ne>ly horizontal plane4 ,! am\nt ( travel ( ! balls = a giv5 spe$ increase1 is gov]n$ by a spr+1 :i* returns !m to a v]tical position :5 ! spe$ decreases4 ,by means ( a simple sy/em ( lev]s1 ! valve is clos$ :5 ! balls fly out1 due to an increase ( spe$1 & is op5$ :5 ! spe$ decreases1 s t ! eng9e w receive ! /eam at a high] pressure & aga9 build up its spe$ to normal4 ,z ! load fluctuates1 ! balls are con/antly mov+ up & d[n1 seek+ a valve position t w keep ! eng9e at a con/ant spe$4 ,spe$ v>iation is g5]ally accompli%$ by increas+ or decreas+ ! t5sion ( ! spr+ t controls ! travel ( ! gov]nor fly balls1 & 9 ! majority ( eng9es ?is may be done )\t /opp+ ! eng9e4 ,ano!r =m ( gov]nor us$ ext5sively on /ation>y eng9es controls ! spe$ by increas+ or decreas+ ! cut-(f4 ,?us ) a heavy load ! cut-(f may occur at ! /roke :ile ) a v light load x may be at #a_/aj /roke4 ,?is is by f> ! mo/ s5sitive & economical =m ( gov]nor1 b on acc\nt ( ! rev]se ge> x is difficult to apply x on a tractor4 7#aea7 ,rev]se ,ge>4 ,z expla9$ "u 8,cyl9d]s0 ! travel ( ! valve be>s a def9ite relation to ! pi/on position s t ! ports may be op5$ & clos$ at ! prop] times4 ,x may be %[n by a r complicat$ diagram t ?is relation ( ! valve toge!r ) t ( ! ecc5tric t drives x is only correct = "o direction ( rotation4 ,= any o!r direction ( rotation ! relation ( ! valve & pi/on position mu/ be *ang$4 ,?is may be done 9 sev]al ways b ! mo/ common types are ! ,/ev5son ,l9k & ! ,wolff slott$ yoke4 ,! ,/ev5son l9k motion us$ on ! majority ( eng9es1 consi/s ( two indep5d5t ecc5trics1 "o be+ fix$ 9 ! relation = =w>d motion & ! o!r = ! rev]se direction4 ,! ends ( ! ecc5tric rods lead+ f ^! ecc5trics are connect$ by a slott$ b> or l9k1 9 :i* a block is plac$ t is connect$ ) ! valve rod4 ,! block is free to slide 9 ! slot ( ! l9ks1 t is1 x may be mov$ f "o end ( ! slot to ! o!r4 ,:5 x is desir$ to h ! eng9e rotate 9 a "r h&$ direction1 = example1 ! l9k is l[]$ s t ! rod f ! =w>d ecc5tric is br\ght directly 9 l9e ) ! block s t ?is ecc5tric alone acts directly on ! valve ?r\gh ! valve /em4 ,:5 ! rev]se is desir$ ! l9k is rais$ until ! rod f ! rev]se ecc5tric is br\ght 9 l9e ) ! block & valve /em1 drive be+ by ! rev]se ecc5tric4 ,:5 ! block is on ! l9k 9 a position betwe5 ! two po9ts m5tion$1 ! valve has less travel & x cuts (f e>li] 9 ! /roke ?an :5 driv5 directly by "o ecc5tric1 = ! motion at an int]m$iate po9t on ! l9k is mu* diff]5t ?an at ! ends ( ! slots4 ,?is fact is tak5 advantage ( 9 op]at+ eng9es ) ! idea ( economy 9 view1 & is kn[n commonly z 8hook+ up0 ! eng9e4 ,! be/ po9t at :i* to 8hook up0 ! eng9e is be/ det]m9$ by exp]im5t1 & is equival5t 9 _m respects to ! problem ( advanc+ & ret>d+ ! sp>k ( a gas eng9e4 ,we e>ne/ly advise an eng9e] ( a traction eng9e to take up ?is subject & det]m9e ! be/ po9t ( cut-(f = diff]5t loads z he w f9d t diff]5t positions make a consid]able diff]5ce 9 8 coal bill4 ,( c\rse ! prop] way is to det]m9e ?is po9t ) a /eam eng9e indicator1 b z few eng9e]s h su* an appliance1 ! "w is g5]ally ( ! cut & try ord]4 ,we> & v>y+ adju/m5t soon *ange ! po9ts m>k$ on ! rev]se sector1 & = economy's sake ^! po9ts %\ld be *eck$ occasionally4 ,9 ! ,wolff motion1 a s+le ecc5tric is us$ = bo? directions ( rotation1 9 connection ) a slott$ l9k4 ,a s+le ecc5tric is securely key$ to ! crank %aft4 ,! ecc5tric /rap has an ext5d$ arm :i* is pivot$ to a block t slides back & =? 9 a curv$ guide4 ,! angle at :i* ! guide /&s ) ! horizontal det]m9es ! direction ( rotation1 ! angle be+ *ang$ by ! rev]se lev]4 ,! degree ( ! angle made by ! block also det]m9es ! po9t ( cut-(f4 ,?is is a v effici5t & simple valve ge>4 ,guides & ,cross-,head4 ,! out] end ( ! pi/on rod is support$ by a slid+ block kn[n z ! 8cross-head0 :i* 9 turn is support$ by ! guides4 ,an oscillat+ rod call$ ! 8connect+ rod0 connects ! reciprocat+ cross-head ) ! crank p91 ?is rod is us$ 9 ! same way z ! connect+ rod ( ! gas eng9e except t x is connect$ to ! cross-head in/ead ( ! pi/on4 ,clut*4 ,! clut* af=ds a means ( connect+ & disconnect+ ! driv+ :eels & eng9e %aft4 ,x is usually ( ! friction type describ$ "u 8,gas ,tractors40 ,by releas+ ! clut* ! eng9e is disconnect$ f ! driv+ ge> s t ! tractor rema9s /ation>y :ile ! eng9e is driv+ a load ?r\gh ! belt4 ,use ( ! ,exhau/ ,/eam4 ,! exhau/ f ! cyl9d]s is us$ 9 two ways1 fir/ to create a draft = ! fire1 & second to heat ! fe$ wat] pump$ into ! boil]4 ,! draft is increas$ by exhau/+ a portion ( ! /eam into a nozzle plac$ directly "u ! /ack4 ,! friction ( ! /eam on ! surr\nd+ air1 draws ! air ) x1 =m+ a p>tial vacuum ov] ! grate at ea* puff1 & 9 ?is way x causes additional air to ru% ?r\gh ! fuel & increases ! temp]ature ( ! combu/ion4 ,z ! load increases ! 8puffs0 increase 9 int5sity due to ! great] t]m9al pressure & ! fire is accel]at$ 9 proportion4 ,?is is a simple b r exp5sive way ( increas+ ! draft4 ,a consid]able proportion ( ! heat 9 ! exhau/ /eam is sav$ by us+ x to heat ! fe$ wat] suppli$ to ! boil]4 ,besides ! sav+ 9 fuel1 affect$ by heat+ ! wat] f /eam t w\ld o!rwise be ?r[n away1 ! /ra9s on ! boil] due to ! injection ( cold wat] are greatly decreas$ z ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! temp]atures ( ! boil+ wat] 9 ! boil] & ! hot fe$ wat] are mu* less ?an 9 ! =m] case4 ,! fe$ wat] heat] consi/s ess5tially ( a s]ies ( tubes 9 a cyl9drical %ell4 ,! tubes are surr\nd$ on ! outside by ! fe$ wat]1 & are fill$ ) ! exhau/ /eam :i* passes f end to end ?r\gh ! tubes4 ,! hot wat] is pump$ f ! heat] into ! boil]4 ,an effici5t fe$ wat] heat] adds greatly to ! /eam+ capacity ( ! boil]4 7#aeb7 ,fe$ ,pump4 ,a small /eam pump is furni%$ = pump+ ! wat] into ! boil]4 ,?is device consi/s ( a small /eam cyl9d] connect$ directly ) ! pump plung] & is absolutely indep5d5t ( ! ma9 eng9e s t x c be us$ :e!r ! eng9e is runn+ or n4 ,! exhau/ ( ! pump %\ld be turn$ into ! fe$ wat] heat] :5 ! eng9e is n runn+ s z to heat ! wat]1 b %\ld be direct$ to atmosph]e :5 ! ma9 exhau/ is pass+ ?r\gh ! heat]4 ,an injector is usually suppli$ ) ! eng9e = fe$+ ! boil] 9 em]g5cies4 ,! injector =ces wat] into ! boil] by means ( a /eam jet :i* is arrang$ s t a high velocity is imp>t$ to ! wat] 9 ! injector nozzle by ! cond5sation ( ! /eam furni%$ by ! jet4 ,9 ?is way wat] is pump$ into ! boil] aga9/ a pressure t is equal to ! pressure ( ! /eam act+ on ! wat]4 ,except = a *eck valve !re are no mov+ p>ts4 ,no fe$ wat] heat] connection is made ) ! injector = ?is device raises ! temp]ature ( ! fe$ to a consid]able temp]ature4 ,! temp]ature is n z high1 h[ev]1 z ! temp]ature ( ! wat] f ! fe$ wat] heat] & pump1 & because ( ! comp>atively l[ temp]ature c\pl$ ) ! fact t live /eam is us$ 9 heat+ ! injector wat]1 x is n an economical me?od ( pump+4 7#aec7 ,! ,boil]4 ,z ! boil]s ( traction eng9es su/a9 ! pull & vibration ( ! eng9e z well z ! /resses due to travel+ ov] r\gh roads 9 addition to ! /eam pressure /ra9s1 !y mu/ be made v sub/antially & ( ! be/ mat]ials4 ,! s]vice ( ! boil] on a traction eng9e is v diff]5t f t met ) 9 /ation>y or locomotive practice = ! tractor seldom receives ! att5tion t is giv5 to ! o!r types & z x goes bump+ ov] ! fields ) ! wat] :ack+ at e jo9t & ! eng9e ru%+ & surg+ at e little grade1 x receives an 8endurance0 te/ e mom5t ( its exi/5ce4 ,a boil] %\ld %[ an inspection pressure consid]ably 9 excess ( t :i* x is int5d$ to c>ry4 ,x %\ld be well /ay$ & brac$1 & %\ld be susp5d$ f ! road :eels 9 su* a way z to be reliev$ f z mu* /ra9 z possible4 ,no transv]se seams %\ld be p]mitt$1 & ! b>rel %\ld be well re9=c$ at ! po9t :]e ! front bol/] is atta*$ z well z at po9ts :]e pipe connections are tapp$ into ! %ell4 ,no l>ge bolts %\ld be tapp$ into ! /eam or wat] space4 ,! tubes %\ld be plac$ s t !y may be easily )drawn or clean$4 ,! location ( ! h& holes & wa%\t holes is also an important item1 = inaccessible h&-holes are an abom9ation4 ,boil] lagg+ or cov]+ is int5d$ to r$uce ! heat loss by radiation1 & = ?is reason x %\ld be ( a good insulat+ mat]ial & %\ld be ?ick en\gh to be effective4 ,! co/ ( jacket+ is m ?an cov]$ by ! sav+ 9 coal1 especially 9 cold wea!r4 ,a /raw-burn+ fire box diff]s f a coal burn] 9 hav+ a fire brick ar* & a %ort] grate1 & 9 hav+ a special *ute on ! fire door = fe$+ ! /raw into ! furnace4 ,aft] a %ort "t1 ! fire brick ar* becomes inc&esc5t1 keep+ ! firebox temp]ature con/ant & produc+ p]fect combu/ion ( ! t>ry vapors di/ill$ f ! /raw4 ,a trap door is provid$ on ! /raw *ute :i* automatically keeps ! outside air f *ill+ ! fire4 7#aed7 ,oil-,burn+ ,/eam ,tractors4 ,z ) ! /raw-burn+ furnace1 a brick ar* is us$ 9 burn+ oil = ! purpose ( prev5t+ fractional di/illation ( ! oil dur+ ! combu/ion4 ,9 "s =ms ( oil furnaces a brick *eck]-"w is us$ t provides a mu* great] surface to ! gases ?an ! ord9>y firebrick ar* & !re=e keeps a /eadi] temp]ature & pressure4 ,brok5 firebrick 9 ! furnace plac$ 9 heaps ) a r por\s =mation is also an aid to combu/ion4 ,) v heavy oils a jet ( /eam 9 ! firebox is ( great assi/ance 9 consum+ ! free c>bon ( ! fuel 7soot74 ,! oil 9 practically all cases is atomiz$ or is brok5 up into a v f9ely subdivid$ /ate by ! action ( a jet ( /eam4 ,! f9] ?is subdivision ! bett] w be ! combu/ion = ! oil p>ticles w be br\ght into m intimate contact ) ! air4 ,provision is also made 9 ! burn] = ei!r :irl+ or /irr+ ! oil vapor ) ! air s t a rapidly burn+ mixture is =m$4 ,9 o!r respects ! oil burn+ eng9e is ! same z ! coal or wood burn]4 7#aee7 ,c>e ( ! ,/eam ,tractor4 ,dur+ ! idle season1 ! eng9e %\ld be well h\s$1 all bright p>ts slu%$ ) grease & ! :ole eng9e c>efully cov]$ ) t>paul9s4 ,a tractor is an exp5sive ma*9e & %\ld be giv5 c>e1 or x w rapidly depreciate & />t giv+ tr\ble4 ,:5 "o consid]s ! abuse & neglect giv5 f>m ma*9]y x is rem>kable t x w "w at all1 let alone give effici5t s]vice4 ,illu/ration3 ,small ,fairbanks-,morse ,motor ,driv+ ,b9d]4 ,be=e />t+ a new eng9e or "o t has be5 idle = a consid]able "t1 all ( ! be>+s & lubricat+ %\ld be ?or\ghly clean$ ) k]os5e oil1 remov+ all grit or gum4 ,aft] clean+1 !y %\ld be ?or\ghly oil$ ) ! prop] grade ( lubricant & !n adju/$ = ! correct runn+ fit1 tak+ c>e t ! be>+s & w$ges are n tak5 up too tight1 nor too _m %ims are tak5 out4 ,be sure t ! op5+s 9 ! lubricat+ cups & oil pipes are n clogg$ & t oil holes 9 ! be>+ bu%+s regi/] ) ^? 9 ! be>+ caps4 ,at po9ts :]e !re are sight fe$ gauge glasses1 ! glasses %\ld be clean$ ) gasol9e & all ( ! jo9ts repack$ ) new pack+4 ,c>eful att5tion %\ld be paid to ! pi/on rod & valve rod pack+ tak+ c>e t x is only tight en\gh to prev5t ! leakage ( /eam & no great]4 ,excessively tight pack+ burns out rapidly1 scores & %\ld]s ! pi/on rod1 mak+ x impossible to keep ! jo9t tight4 ,:5 rods are badly scor$ !y %\ld be tru$ up 9 ! la! tak+ c>e n to take (f too mu* metal on ! f9i%+ cut4 ,:5 r5ew+ fibr\s pack+ be sure t all ( ! old pack+ is remov$ be=e plac+ ! new pack+ 9 ! box4 ,keep ! pack+ well lubricat$ at all times to prev5t we>1 & 9 "s cases x w be advisable to add an oil cup to ! /uff+ box to insure suffici5t lubrication4 ,g ov] ! valve ge> & make sure t !re is no loos5ess or play 9 ! ecc5trics or p9s1 & t all ( ! bolts & keys are tight & 9 place4 ,loose connections 9 ! valve ge> are n only productive ( knocks & we> b also t5d to increase ! fuel consumption ( ! eng9e4 ,:5 possible1 indicator c>ds %\ld be tak5 at int]vals to make sure t ! valves are correctly set4 ,9 a te/ rec5tly made by ! au?or1 ! indicator c>ds %[$ a defective sett+ due to we>1 t :5 correct$ sav$ ! own] ( ! eng9e ab\t #fjj p\nds ( coal p] day1 & z ! coal co/ #i4ej p] ton deliv]$ 9 ! field1 ! sav+ soon paid = ! exp5se ( ! te/4 ,po9ts ( adju/m5t are provid$ on all valve ge>s1 & z !y diff] 9 detail = ea* eng9e we _c give explicit directions = settl+ ! valves1 b w leave ?is po9t = ! direction book ( ! mak]4 ,! gov]nor & gov]nor belt %\ld n[ receive att5tion mak+ sure t !re are no loose po9ts or nuts 9 ! me*anism & t ! gov]nor belt is 9 good condition4 ,defective gov]nor belts are dang]\s ?r\gh ! possibility ( ov] spe$+4 ,slipp+ or oily belts n only increase ! *ances ( fly-:eel explosions1 b also cause a fluctuation 9 ! spe$ :i* is n desirable especially 9 ?re%+1 :]e good results are obta9$ only by a con/ant spe$4 ,make sure t ! safety lev] works prop]ly & %uts (f ! /eam ) a loose or brok5 belt4 ,te/ ! gov]nor valve /em = /ick+ or = r\gh %ots t are likely to cause unev5 runn+4 ,keep ! gov]nor well lubricat$ ) light oil1 & keep ! oil (f ! belt z mu* z possible4 ,gov]nor valve %\ld be c>efully te/$ = tightness & fre$om4 ,! ?rottle valve mu/ be absolutely /eam tight = a leak+ valve is a dang]\s proposition especially 9 /opp+ ! eng9e4 ,x is g5]ally arrang$ s t x c be regr\nd ) pumice /one or crocus p[d] & oil4 ,if ! valve is ( bronze or brass d n use em]y or c>borundum = ! p>ticles w become imb$d$ 9 ! s(t metal & put x 9 a worse condition ?an ev]4 ,pack ! valve /em4 ,a leak+ slide valve is ! cause ( mu* loss ( p[]1 & wa/e ( coal1 & z ! leakage m+les directly ) ! exhau/1 x (t5 rema9s unkn[n until x has ?r[n away a consid]able quantity ( fuel4 ,x is be/ detect$ by block+ ! eng9e ) ! pi/on at mid-/roke & op5+ ! ?rottle valve slightly4 ,if ! cyl9d] dra9 cocks are n[ op5$1 ! leak+ /eam t escapes into ! cyl9d] w be se5 issu+ f ! dra9s4 ,! leakage t passes into ! exhau/ w be se5 escap+ f ! /ack :ile x is practically impossible to h ! valves absolutely tight at all times1 ! /eam %\ld n escape s rapidly t x ro>s ?r\gh ! op5+s4 ,leakage pa/ ! pi/on is ano!r s\rce ( loss t c be detect$ by block+ ! eng9e s t ! pi/on is v ne>1 "o end ( ! /roke1 ) ! valve op5+ "o ( ! cyl9d] ports4 ,any /eam t passes ! pi/on w pass out ( ! exhau/4 ,) an old eng9e x is likely t ! cyl9d] is worn oval1 or t ! valve seat is groov$ or unev51 9 :i* case x w be necess>y to rebore ! cyl9d] & fit new pi/on r+s or reface ! valve seat4 ,brok5 pi/on r+s are (t5 ! s\rce ( leakage1 & if n replac$ ) new at an e>ly date1 are likely to de/roy ! cyl9d] bore z well4 ,brok5 r+s g5]ally make !mselves kn[n by a :eez+ click :5 ! eng9e is runn+4 ,! /eam fe$ pump %\ld be well lubricat$ ) a good grade ( cyl9d] oil & %\ld be well pack$ ar\nd ! pi/on rod especially at ! wat] end4 ,to gu>d aga9/ pump tr\bles a good /ra9] %\ld be provid$ on ! wat] suction l9e to prev5t ! entrance ( /icks & dirt into ! cyl9d]4 ,great c>e %\ld be ex]cis$ 9 keep+ ! suction l9e air tight1 = if any air escapes into ?is l9e no wat] w be lift$4 ,dirt "u ! valves is ! cause ( mu* pump tr\ble1 z a v small p>ticle ( dirt w all[ ! wat] to pass 9 bo? directions ?r\gh ! valves4 ,leak+ pack+ w also de/roy ! vacuum 9 "o end ( ! cyl9d]4 ,= ! be/ results ! pump %\ld be run sl[ly b cont9u\sly1 fe$+ a small am\nt ( wat] at "o "t4 ,?is me?od ( fe$+ all[s ! fe$ wat] heat] to br+ ! wat] up to ! highe/ possible temp]ature :i* r$uces ! fuel consumption & r$uces ! /ra9s on ! boil]4 ,x is a bad policy to let ! wat] get l[ 9 ! boil] & !n 8ram0 full ( cold wat] 9 a c\ple ( m9utes4 ,att5tion %\ld be paid to ! *eck valve t is locat$ betwe5 ! pump & boil]4 ,x %\ld be kept clean & ! valve kept tight & 9 good condition4 ,:5 ! fe$ wat] is h>d a boil] comp\nd %\ld be us$ to r$uce ! am\nt ( scale 9 ! boil] or s(t5 x & make its removal easi]4 ,scale ( #a_/af in* ?ickness w decrease ! effici5cy ( ! boil] by #ab1 & ?is loss increases rapidly ) a fur!r increase 9 ! ?ickness ( ! scale because ( its insulat+ effect on ! tubes4 ,s(t sludges su* z mud & clay may be remov$ by-bl[+ (f or by ! filtration ( ! wat] be=e x is pump$ into ! boil$4 ,lime & magnesia :i* =m fl9t-h>d deposits1 require *emical treatm5t su* z ! addition ( sodium phosphate1 etc4 ,9 any case1 ! deposits wa/e heat & increase ! liability ( burn+ out tubes or bagg+ ! %eets4 ,illu/ration3 ,buffalo ,m>9e ,motor4 ,a solution t has giv5 good results ) wat]s conta9+ lime1 consi/s ( #ej p\nds ( ,sal ,soda & #ce p\nds ( japonica1 dissolv$ 9 #ej gallons ( boil+ wat]4 ,ab\t #a_/dj qu>t is f$ into ! boil] = e horse-p[] 9 #aj h\rs1 ! solution be+ mix$ ) ! fe$ wat]4 ,k]os5e has be5 us$ a great deal to s(t5 scale1 & gives good results if n f$ 9 quantities to exce$ #j4ja qu>t p] horse-p[] day ( #aj h\rs4 ,an excess ( k]os5e is to be gu>d$ aga9/ = x is likely to accumulate 9 spots & cause bagg$ %eets or burn outs4 ,,*apt] ,,xv4 ,,oil ,,burn]s4 7#aef7 ,combu/ion4 ,to obta9 ! full heat value ( a liquid fuel x mu/ be provid$ ) suffici5t air to complete ! combu/ion1 x mu/ be 9 a v f9ely subdivid$ /ate1 or 9 ! =m ( a vapor at ! "t ( ignition1 & x mu/ be ?or\ghly mix$ ) ! air s t e "p ( ! oil is 9 contact :i* its *emical equival5t ( oxyg54 ,failure to comply ) any ( ^! conditions w n only result 9 a wa/e ( fuel b w also be ! cause ( tr\blesome c>bon deposits & soot1 :i* ev5tually w int]f]e ) ! op]ation ( ! burn]4 ,complete combu/ion is mu* m easily atta9$ ) ! light] hydroc>bons su* z gasol9e or nap?a ?an ) crude oil or ! heavi] di/illates1 = !y are m readily vaporiz$ & mix m ?or\ghly ) ! oxyg54 ,only a slight degree ( heat & pressure is requir$ ) gasol9e :ile ) crude oil a high atomiz+ pressure & high temp]ature are requir$ to obta9 a satisfactory flame4 ,9 ! majority ( cases :]e heavy oils are us$ ! fuel is n ev5 completely vaporiz$ b ent]s ! combu/ion *amb] 9 ! =m ( a m or less f9ely atomiz$ spray4 ,! me?ods by :i* ! liquid fuel is brok5 up divides ! burn]s into ?ree prim>y classes4 7#a7 ,,l[ ,,pressure ,,burn]s 9 :i* ! fuel is atomiz$ by a bla/ ( l[ pressure air :i* also supplies a consid]able p]c5tage ( ! air requir$ = combu/ion4 7#b7 ,,high ,,pressure ,,burn] 9 :i* a small jet ( high pressure air or /eam is us$ to atomize ! oil1 ! air = combu/ion be+ suppli$ f a s\rce ext]nal to ! burn]4 7#c7 ,,comb9$ ,,high ,,& ,,l[ ,,pressure ,,burn] 9 :i* ! fuel is atomiz$ by high pressure air or /eam1 & ! great] "p ( ! air = combu/ion is furni%$ by a bl[] at a comp>atively l[ pressure4 ,9 class 7#a7 ! oil is suppli$ to ! burn] "u pressure & by means ( a specially design$ jet is ?r[n aga9/ hot baffle plates or gauze scre5s :]e ! p>tially brok5 up liquid is caught by ! high velocity air & r$uc$ to a /ill f9] spray by its impact aga9/ o!r scre5s or baffles fur!r on 9 ! burn]4 ,?is sy/em is applicable only to ! light & int]m$iate grades ( oils1 su* z gasol9e1 nap?a or k]os5e1 unless heat is appli$ to ! ext]nal cas+ to aid 9 ! vaporization4 ,9 "s cases ! projection ( ! burn] into ! furnace gives satisfactory results1 b ) su* an arrangem5t !re is a t5d5cy to deposit c>bon 9 ! burn] & = ! flame to 8/rike back0 %\ld ! velocity ( ! air fall bel[ a c]ta9 critical po9t4 ,bett] results 7 _h ) ?is type ( burn]1 by ! au?or :5 ! air bla/ 0 preheat$ by pass+ sev]al long l5g?s ( ! intake air pipe ov] a hot "p ( ! furnace1 in/ead ( ent]+ ! burn] nozzle into ! combu/ion *amb] prop]4 ,a well kn[n modification ( ?is type is ! gasol9e tor* us$ by electricians & plumb]s 9 :i* ! gasol9e is spray$ into a p]=at$ hot tube by air pressure 9 ! tank4 ,:5 ! spray =m$ at ! ne$le valve /rikes ! surr\nd+ hot tube x is in/antly vaporiz$ & is mix$ ) ! air pass+ ?r\gh ! p]=ations 9 ! tube4 ,:ile ! air ent]+ ! tube is n =c$ ?r\gh ! op5+s by ext]nal pressure x atta9s suffici5t velocity to aid 9 ! vaporization because ( ! vacuum e/abli%$ by ! jet4 ,?is h[ev] is only en\gh = ! m volatile fuels--su* z gasol9e or b5z9e4 ,! high pressure :i* is by f> ! mo/ commonly us$ ) l[ grade fuels may be divid$ into five pr9cipal types 7a7 ,,atomiz] burn]1 7b7 ,! ,,injector burn]1 7c7 ,,drip fe$ burn]1 7d7 ,,*amb] ,,or ,,int]nal burn]1 7e7 ,,ext]nal ,,bla/ burn]4 ,all ( ^! burn]s break up ! fuel by high pressure air or /eam1 ! types giv5 be+ diff]5t only 9 ! way t ! pressure is appli$ to ! fuel4 ,! atomiz] acts on ! same pr9ciple z ! m$ical or p]fum]y atomiz]1 ! high pressure jet play+ directly across ! op5 end ( ! oil passage z %[n by ,fig4 ,a4 ,z ! vacuum creat$ by ! bla/ is v l[1 & has little effect 9 lift+ ! fuel to ! burn]1 ! oil ei!r is made to fl[ by gravity or by a pump4 ,9 ! figure ! oil 9 ! upp] passage is %[n p\r+ d[n 9 front ( ! air or /eam jet issu+ f ! l[] port4 ,bo? ports are suppli$ by ! pipes %[n by ! circul> op5+s at ! "r4 ,! /eam & oil are controll$ by indep5d5t valves plac$ 9 ! two passages4 ,9 practice ! oil & /eam op5+s at ! end ( ! burn] may be ei!r s+le or multiple r\nd op5+s or long ?9 slots1 ! =m] /yle be+ ! mo/ common4 ,s9ce only a small am\nt ( air is admitt$ ?r\gh ! bla/ nozzle1 f> too little to completely consume ! oil1 ! air = ! combu/ion is admitt$ ?r\gh op5+s 9 ! combu/ion *amb] prop]1 ?is air be+ suppli$ by natural draft or by bl[]4 ,9 "s cases ! burn] is ent]$ into ! furnace ?r\gh an op5+ t is mu* l>g] ?an ! burn] itself4 ,! atmosph]ic air ent]s ?r\gh baffle plates 9 ?is op5+ :i* imp>t a :irl+ motion to ! air t passes ov] ! burn]4 ,?is is ( consid]able aid 9 ma9ta9+ complete combu/ion 9 ! furnace1 & also t5ds to prev5t deposits 9 ! burn]4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ace4 ,%[+ ! ,diff]5t ,classes ( ,oil ,burn]s4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 ,f4 ,mix$ ,pressure ,burn]1 ,us+ ,bo? ,/eam & ,l[ ,pressure ,air4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 ,g4 ,burn] ,us$ by ! ,p5nsylvania ,railroad ,"u ,locomotives4 ,9 ! injector type ( burn] %[n by ,fig4 ,b ! air or /eam nozzle t]m9ates inside ( a %ell & is completely surr\nd$ by ! oil4 ,a mixture ( air & oil issues f ma9 nozzle %[n by 7#b74 ,:5 ! air or /eam bl[s ?r\gh ! inn] op5+1 a p>tial vacuum is =m$ 9 ! space 7#a7 :i* draws ! oil into ! burn] f ! supply pipe4 ,on ent]+ ?is vacu\s space ! oil comes into contact ) ! jet & is bl[n out ?r\gh ! op5+ 7#b7 9 ! =m ( a spray4 ,?is vacuum is high en\gh to lift ! fuel = a consid]able di/ance )\t ! aid ( a pump & = ?is reason is ! type mo/ commonly met ) 9 practice4 ,a boil] or furnace equipp$ ) ?is burn] w lift ! oil directly to ! furnace f ! res]voir 9 ! same way t a fe$ wat] injector w lift wat] into ! boil]4 ,) ! comm]cial injector1 ! position ( ! /eam jet is made adju/able 9 relation to ! ma9 jet to meet diff]5t fe$ conditions4 ,! /eam ent]s ! inn] port ?r\gh ! end ( ! pipe %[n at ! "r4 ,! oil ent]s ! out] port at ! "r ?r\gh a port n %[n4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 ,h4 ,lassoe-,lovels9 ,burn]4 ,fig4 ,c %[s a drip fe$ or 8dribbl+0 burn] 9 :i* ! oil p\rs out ( ! upp] port & ov] ! l[] port ?r\gh :i* ! /eam or air issues4 ,z w\ld be expect$1 ! atomization is n z p]fect ) ?is burn] z ) ! atomiz] or injector type4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 ,i4 ,%e$y ,oil ,burn]1 ,us$ = ,locomotives4 ,a burn] 9 :i* ! oil & /eam mix be=e pass+ out into ! furnace ?r\gh ! f9al op5+ is kn[n z a 8,*amb] burn]10 & is %[n by ,fig4 ,d4 ,9 "s respects1 at lea/ 9 con/ruction1 x is simil> to ! injector burn]1 b x does n possess ! lift+ abilities ( ! latt] because ( ! op5 space 9 front ( ! /eam nozzle4 ,! atomization takes place l>gely )9 ! burn] because ( ! eddy curr5ts ( air & oil vapor creat$ bo? by ! vapor /rik+ ! walls ( ! out] tube & by ! l>ge space 9 :i* x has to circulate be=e pass+ out ( ! orifice4 ,an ext]nal bla/ burn] z %[n by ,fig4 ,e1 9 :i* ! oil is =c$ out ( ! op5+s 7#c-c7 at ! extreme end ( ! burn] atomizes by bl[+ ! oil (f ( ! tube by jets ( /eam direct$ by a s]ies ( annul> op5+s 9 a disc4 ,?is is really a type ( atomiz] burn] z w be se5 by close inspection4 ,?is type mu/ be v c>efully con/ruct$ & ! /eam jets mu/ be kept v clean 9 ord] to h good results = a little v>iation 9 ! pressure or a small p>ticle ( dirt 9 ! op5+s w deflect ! /eam & prev5t a p]fect oil spray4 ,x's "o advantage lies 9 ! fact t ! oil & air are always sep>ate & !re=e m9imize ! dang] ( c>bonization4 ,illu/ration ,x %\ld be not$ t ! figures j %[n 9 ! illu/ration ( ! v>i\s classes ( burn]s are diagrammatic only1 & t _m modifications 9 detail are made 9 ! practical burn] su* z regulat+ valves1 slid+ /eam nozzles1 etc4 ,a burn] mu* us$ 9 /ation>y eng9e practice & ) heat+ furnaces1 :]e air at two or ?ree ounces pressure is available1 is ! mix$ pressure burn] %[n by ,fig4 ,f4 ,9 ?is burn$ /eam or air compress$1 to say #hj p\nds p] squ>e in* is us$ = break+ up ! fuel oil4 ,a bla/ ( air at l[ pressure b ) consid]able volume is us$ to support combu/ion 9 ! furnace4 ,! /eam or compress$ air ent]s ! burn] at 7#e7 & meets ! oil at ! nozzle 7#h7 :]e x is spray$ into ! *amb] 7#i74 ,! oil ent]s ! burn] by ! pipe 7#d71 fl[s into ! annul> passage ar\nd ! /eam nozzle & meets ! /eam at 7#h74 ,x w be not$ t ! /eam nozzle 7#e7 is free to slide back & =? 9 its cas+ s t ! relation betwe5 ! /eam nozzle & spray nozzle may be adju/$ to meet diff]5t op]at+ conditions4 ,?is adju/m5t is affect$ by ! lev]s 7#aj7 at ! end ( ! burn]4 ,! l[ pressure air ent]+ ?r\gh op5+ 7#f7 f ! bl[] passes ar\nd ! *amb] 7#i7 & mixes ) ! oil spray f 7#h7 9 ! mix+ *amb] 7#g74 ,?is causes a viol5t swirl 9 7#g7 ) ! result t a comp>atively intimate mixture ( oil vapor & air is =m$ be=e !y issue into ! furnace4 ,9 _m burn]s ( ?is type a gauze scre5 7#aa7 is plac$ ov] ! m\? ( ! f9al orifice s t back fires are prev5t$ & a /ill bett] mixture is =m$4 ,_m burn]s ( ?is type h be5 built by ! au?or ) v satisfactory results1 & he kn[s ( only "o weak po9t 9 ! type4 ,?is is due to ! fact t if a suffici5t volume ( air is n kept fl[+ ?r\gh ! l[ pressure pipe 7#f71 ! oil vapor may collect 9 ! pip+ ) ! result a back fire w wreck all ( ! l[ pressure connections4 ,to prev5t ?is tr\ble a light galvaniz$ iron weight$ damp] 0 plac$ b5ea? 7#f7 :i* clos$ ! pipe :5 ! pressure fell bel[ a c]ta9 am\nt4 ,s9ce ?is *eck valve 0 plac$ !re 7 no m pipe fires4 ,9 all cases a slid+ damp] %\ld be plac$ 9 ! op5+ s t ! bla/ c be regulat$ to suit ! am\nt ( oil inject$4 ,z ^! burn]s 7 us$ 9 a clos$ build+ cont9u\sly )\t smoke or smell & ) indiff]5t grade ( oil x w be se5 t ! combu/ion 0 z ne>ly p]fect z c\ld be expect$ ) any type ( oil burn]4 ,sev]al ( ^! burn]s 7 made f ord9>y /eam pipe fitt+s )\t /eam nozzle adju/m5t4 ,:ile ! burn]s %[n are arrang$ to give a flat flame 7) ! exception ( burn] ,f7 !y may all be built = a circul> flame by surr\nd+ ! injection nozzle ) a suitable nozzle4 ,a ,,rose or circul> flame is p>ticul>ly desirable = a v]tical boil] :]e x c be made to con=m ) ! circul> %ell & apply ! heat directly to ! tube %eet ?r\gh suitable fire brick baffles4 ,a burn] ( ! injector type %[n by ,fig4 ,g1 has be5 us$ by ! ,p5nsylvania ,railroad ) a consid]able degree ( success4 ,! /eam ent]s ! /eam nozzle at 7#ab7 ?r\gh ! circul> op5+s f :i* po9t x passes ?r\gh ! nozzle 7#ac7 & c>ries ! oil f ! air port 7#ad74 ,! mixture or spray ( /eam & oil passes out ( ! nozzle 7#ae7 into ! furnace4 ,! /eam nozzle is ?read$ into ! cas+ at 7#af71 & is key$ to ! bevel ge> 7#ag74 ,me%+ ) 7#ag7 is ! bevel m\nt$ on ! v]tical /em :i* t]m9ates 9 a h&-:eel 9 ! eng9e]'s cab4 ,by turn+ ! bevels1 ! nozzle turns 9 ! cas+ ?reads caus+ x to move back & =? = ! adju/m5t4 ,9 _m types ( burn]s hav+ a nozzle simil> to 7#ae7 a twi/$ =m ( rifl+ is plac$ 9 ! bore t gives ! escap+ gas a rot>y motion4 ,?is is v effective 9 mix+ ! air & oil vapor & spreads ! flame v close to ! orifice4 ,9 burn]s ( ! *amb] type a spiral vane is sometimes us$ to ga9 ! same effect1 & 9 "o make a rotat+ fan1 is plac$ ne> ! op5+ ( ! out] nozzle :i* gives a sudd5 :irl to ! gases4 ,:ile ?is latt] atta*m5t does all t is claim$ = x :ile x is 9 good repair1 x is v likely to /ick & put ! burn] out ( commission4 ,! ,lassoe-,lovels9 locomotive burn] is %[n by ,fig4 ,h 9 :i* ! gas exits ?r\gh a s]ies ( holes 9 ! end ( ! nozzle 7#bb74 ,! /eam ent]s ! outside cas+1 & unlike ! burn]s j describ$1 entirely surr\nds ! c5tral oil nozzle1 7#bj74 ,! /eam 9 pass+ ?r\gh ! op5+s #ba-bb draws ! oil ?r\gh ! c5tral op5+ 7#bc71 ?is oil nozzle be+ controll$ by ! ne$le valve 7#bd7 :i* t]m9ates 9 ! h&le 7#be74 ,oil ent]s ! oil nozzle ?r\gh ! inlet pipe 7#bf74 ,! ,%e$y oil burn] %[n by ,fig4 ,i has a rectangul> nozzle = a flat flame1 & has no /eam nozzle adju/m5t4 ,oil surr\nds ! /eam nozzle & ent]s ! cas+ ?r\gh ! upp] connection4 ,air ent]s ! l[] port ?r\gh ! l[] op5+ z %[n 9 ! cross-section ( ! burn]4 ,z ! oil fl[s ov] ! tr\gh =m$ by ! /eam nozzle x meets ! jet ( /eam at 7#cj7 & is atomiz$4 ,! air f ! l[] port aids 9 br++ ! combu/ion ne> ! tip ( ! nozzle & !re=e prev5ts c>bon deposits f be+ =m$ 9 ! burn] z well z spread+ ! flame at a wide angle4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,up-,,to-,,date ,,practical ,,h& ,,books ,f9e pap]1 pr(usely illu/rat$1 silk clo? /iff cov]s1 lea!r /yle limp1 all titles 9 gold1 size #ex#h in*es4 ,clo? /yles #a4jj1 lea!r #a4ej4 ,que/ions & ,answ]s = ,automobile ,/ud5ts & ,me*anics4 ,by ,?omas ,h4 ,russell1 ,a4 ,m4 ,m4 ,e4 #fjj ,que/ions & ,answ]s4 ,automobile ,tr\bles & ,h[ to ,rem$y ,!m4 ,by ,*>les ,p4 ,root1 ,ex-,editor ( ,motor ,age4 #bej pages4 ,practical ,h& ,book ( ,gas1 ,oil & ,/eam ,eng9es4 ,by ,john ,b4 ,ra?bun1 ,m4 ,e4 ,all /yles eng9es1 all fuels4 #cgj pages4 ,automobile ,driv+ ,self ,taught4 ,by ,?omas ,h4 ,russell1 ,a4 ,m4 ,m4 ,e4 #bej pages4 ,automobile ,motors & ,me*anism4 ,by ,?omas ,h4 ,russell1 ,a4 ,m4 ,m4 ,e4 #bhj pages4 ,ignition1 ,tim+ & ,valve ,sett+4 ,by ,?omas ,h4 ,russell1 ,a4 ,m4 ,m4 ,e4 #bdj pages4 ,gas ,eng9e ,tr\bles & ,in/allation4 ,by ,john ,b4 ,ra?bun1 ,m4 ,e4 #ddj pages4 ,fly+ ,ma*9es3 ,con/ruction & ,op]ation4 ,by ,w4 ,j4 ,jackman1 ,m4 ,e41 & ,?omas ,h4 ,russell1 ,a4 ,m4 ,m4 ,e4 #bef pages4 ,a ,b ,c ( ! ,motorcycle4 ,by ,w4 ,j4 ,jackman1 ,m4 ,e4 #bef pages4 ,motor ,boats3 ,con/ruction & ,op]ation4 ,by ,?omas ,h4 ,russell1 ,a4 ,m4 ,m4 ,e4 #bhh pages4 ,mov+ ,picture ,mak+ & ,exhibit+4 ,by ,john ,b4 ,ra?bun1 ,m4 ,e4 ,con/ruction ( ,dwell+ ,h\ses & ,bungal[s4 ,by ,u4 ,m4 ,du/man4 ,e/imates & specifications = mod]n l[ pric$ homes4 ,clo? only4 ,du/man's ,book ( ,plans & ,build+ ,con/ruction4 ,by ,u4 ,m4 ,du/man1 ,lic5s$ ,ar*itect4 ,plans1 specifications & e/imates complete ( #aej build+s4 #bdj l>ge #iac pages4 ,clo? /yles only4 ,price #b4jj4 ,,ignition1 ,,tim+ & ,,valve ,,sett+ ,illu/ration ,by ,,?omas ,h4 ,,russell1 ,a4 ,m4 ,m4 ,e4 ,revis$ & ext5d$ by ,,john ,b4 ,,ra?bun1 =m] editor ( 8,ignition & ,accessories40 ,pocket size1 #bdj pages1 fully illu/rat$4 ,a compreh5sive illu/rat$ ,manual ( self-in/ruction = ! use ( ,automobile ,own]s1 ,*auffeurs1 ,aviators1 ,/ation>y ,eng9e ,op]ators1 & ,repair ,m54 ,especially adapt$ = ! use ( driv+ s*ools & /ud5ts4 ,,cont5ts ,common ,batt]y ,sy/ems describ+ ! batt]y1 sp>k coil1 & tim]4 ,_m circuit diagrams & sy/ems4 ,ma/] ,vibrators1 etc4 ,prim>y & ,/orage ,cells--,description1 sy/ems ( connection1 *>g+ circuits1 c>e & repair1 etc4 ,mod]n ,batt]y ,sy/ems--,includ+ ,delco1 ,remy1 ,atwat]-,k5t1 etc4 ,application ( ignition app>atus to self-/>t+ circuit4 ,l[ ,t5sion ,magnetos--,l[ t5sion magnetos z appli$ to ! make & break sy/em4 ,fundam5tal pr9ciples ( ! magneto & its circuits4 ,high ,t5sion ,magnetos--,g5]al circuits ( ,s+le1 ,duplex1 ,dual & ,two ,po9t4 ,%uttle & inductor types4 ,tim+1 ,m\nt+1 ,repair & op]ation4 ,drive spe$s = multi-cyl9d]s4 ,ignition ,tim+--,batt]y sp>k1 magneto1 & ! f\r /roke cycle pr9ciple4 ,fir+ ord] ( multiple cyl9d] eng9es4 ,fir+ ord] ( ! ,gnome ,rot>y ,motor4 ,=d ,c> ,ignition ,sy/em1 etc4 ,valve ,sett+ & ,tim+--,valve lap4 ,cause ( v>iations 9 ! valve sett+ ( diff]5t motors4 ,table ( ,valve ,sett+ & ,tim+ = ,prom95t ,mod]n ,automobiles1 also ( lead+ ,a]o ,motors4 ,valve repairs & adju/m5ts4 ,tim+ ,=d ,c>s1 etc4 ,self-,/>t+ & ,light+--,circuit diagrams & elem5ts ( prom95t self-/>t+ & light+ sy/ems4 ,motor & g5]ator pr9ciples1 con/ruction & repair4 ,common causes ( tr\ble 9 ! wir+1 batt]ies1 & electrical appliances ( ! self-/>t+ sy/em4 ,c> wir+ diagrams = mod]n automobiles4 ,,silk ,,clo?1 ,,gold ,,/amp+ #a4jj ,,flexible ,,lea!r1 ,,gold ,,/amp+ #a4ej ,,automobile ,,tr\bles & ,h[ to ,rem$y ,!m ,illu/ration ,includ+ ,electric ,self-,/>t+ & ,light+ ,sy/ems ) ,wir+ ,diagrams ,by ,,*>les ,p4 ,,root ,=m] ,editor 8,motor ,age0 ,pocket size1 #bef pages1 well illu/rat$4 ,x n only tells y h[ to locate tr\bles1 & make repairs1 b %[s y4 ,,cont5ts ,tr\ble ,*>ts ( ,symptoms & ,causes1 foll[$ by detail$ ,rem$ies writt5 9 pla9 compreh5sive language1 ) _m illu/rative diagrams "u ! foll[+ *apt] heads3 ,back ,fir+1 ,causes & ,rem$y--,bl[ ,backs--,c>buretion ,tr\bles--,compression ,cyl9d] ,tr\bles--,ignition ,tr\bles & ,diagrams--,/orage ,batt]ies--,high ,t5sion ,magneto--,knocks 9 ,cyl9d] or ,ge>+s--,lubrication--,muffl] ,tr\bles--,pi/on ,tr\bles--,loss ( ,p[]--,/>t+ ,tr\bles--,tire ,tr\bles--,valve ,tr\bles--,wat] ,circulation--,non-,freez+ ,mixtures--,/>t+ on ! ,swit*--,noise f ,transmission ,ge>s--,tim] ,tr\ble & ,rem$y--,tr\ble ) ,valve ,tappets--,eng9e ,h>d to ,/>t--,electric ,/>t+ & ,light+ ,tr\bles--,ov]haul & ,repair ( ,c>--,self-,/>t+ & ,light+ ,sy/ems1 etc4 ,,silk ,,clo?1 ,,gold ,,/amp+ #a4jj ,,flexible ,,lea!r1 ,,gold ,,/amp+ #a4ej ,,automobile ,,driv+ ,,self-,,taught ,illu/ration ,by ,,?omas ,h4 ,,russell1 ,m4 ,e41 ,,ll4 ,b4 ,au?or ( 8,ignition1 ,tim+ & ,valve ,sett+40 8,automobile ,motors & ,me*anism0 8,motor ,boats3 ,con/ruction & ,op]ation40 ,an exhau/ive treatise on ! ,managem5t1 ,c>e & ,op]ation ( ,motor ,c>s4 ,pocket size1 #bcj pages1 lib]ally illu/rat$1 h&somely b\nd 9 black seal flexible lea!r1 r\nd corn]s1 r$ edges4 ,,cont5ts ,automobile ,driv+--,g5]al ,in/ructions--,/>t+ ! eng9e--,advanc+ ! sp>k--,h[ to *ange spe$s--,use ( ! ,clut*--,! ,control lev]s--,pr9ciples ( ge> *ang+--,! eng9e z a factor--,use ( brakes--,causes ( irregul> fir+--,to avoid side-slip--,! tire bill--,ge> miss+ 9 spe$ *anges--,eng9e ?ump+--,driv+ on ! brake--,h[ to get ! be/ "w out ( a motor--,skidd+ or side-slip4 ,self-tuition ,9 driv+ ,cont9u$--,! initial trip--,*>g+ tanks--,/>t+ ! eng9e--,manipulat+ ! control--,correct mixture--,*ang+ ge>--,on ! top spe$--,)draw+ ! clut*--,coa/+ slopes--,pick+ up ! ,drive--,driv+ on ! rev]se--,ent]+ & leav+ ! g>age--,aft] ! drive--,road risks4 ,ano!r lesson 9 driv+--,le>n+ ! /e]+ & ,control--,prelim9>y att5tion to c>--,/>t+--,*ang+ ,spe$--,coa/+1 brak+ & rev]s+--,s\rces ( side-slip--,to avoid skidd+--,non-slip devices--,*oice ( ,track--,spe$ limits--,conduct 9 em]g5cies--,driv+ ?r\gh city traffic--,meet+ horses1 cattle & cycli/s4 ,difficulty 9 />t+--,symptoms1 causes & rem$ies4 ,involunt>y /ops--,causes & rem$ies4 ,loss ( p[]--,causes & rem$ies4 ,c>e & ma9t5ance ( motor c>s--,private h\s+--,! g>age--,clean+--,lubricat+--,c>e ( tires4 ,c>e ( a c> on a t\r--,eng9e treatm5t--,ov]haul+ ! ignition app>atus--,accessories & tools = ! t\r--,/abl+ ! c>4 ,lay+ up a c>--,clean+ ! eng9e--,! transmission ge>--,connections & *a9s--,! lubricators--,tire treatm5t--,lay+ up = ! w9t]4 ,gasol5e--,its prop]ties & ,economical ,use--,production ( ,gasol5e--,its di/illation--,specific gravity--,vaporization exp]im5ts--,prop] design & function ( ! c>buret]--,! ton mileage ,me?od ( arriv+ at economy--,quality ( ! fuel4 ,gasol5e h9ts & tips4 ,op]at+ me*anism ( a mod]n c>4 ,*oice ( a c>1 ,etc4--,consid]ations ( price & co/ ( ma9t5ance--,small & l>ge c>s--,new & tri$ types--,second h& c>s4 ,*ange spe$ ge>--,v>i\s =ms--,selective slid+ ge>s--,! ,panh>d & ,m]c$es sy/ems--,gate control me*anism1 etc4 ,don'ts = motor c> driv]s & tire own]s4 ,price1 ,,flexible ,,lea!r #a4ej ,,clo? ,,b9d+ #a4jj ,gas ,eng9e ,tr\bles & ,in/allation ,illu/ration ,by ,j4 ,b4 ,,ra?bun4 ,b4 ,s4 ,c4 ,e4 ,au?or ( 8,comm]cial ,vehicles = ,all ,purposes10 8,oxyg5--,acetyl5e ,weld+10 etc4 #dbj ,pages1 #aej ,detail$ ,l9e ,draw+s & ,illu/rations4 ,a book t %[s y ,,h[ ,,to ,,in/all--,,h[ ,,to ,,op]ate--,,h[ ,,to ,,make ,,imm$iate ,,repairs & ,,h[ ,,to ,,keep ,a ,,gasol5e ,,eng9e ,,runn+4 ,! language is simple--,! illu/rations are cle>4 ,! book is au!ntic--complete--up-to-!-m9ute1 writt5 by an exp]t :o is employ$ daily z a ,consult+ & ,demon/rat+ ,eng9e] & ,in/ructor4 ,no?+ has be5 omitt$--,x conta9s no useless matt]--,j ! cream ( daily exp]i5ce4 ,two ,fold+ ,tr\ble ,*>ts4 ,,cont5ts ,elem5t>y me*anics--,units ( heat & me*anics def9$--,fuels--,behavior ( gases "u ! influ5ce ( heat & pressure--,combu/ion--,"w done by ! expansion ( gases--,composition ( ! *>ge--,! elem5t>y gas eng9e--,functions ( ! cyl9d]1 pi/on connections1 rod & crank--,cycle def9$--,f\r /roke cycle1 two /roke cycle1 six ,/roke cycle def9$--,functions ( ports1 valves1 & cams z appli$ to =ego+ types--,ev5ts 9 cycles--,p]iods ( ignition1 compression1 etc41 outl9$--,multiple cyl9d] eng9es--,crank relations--,ignition--,flame1 catalytic1 hot tube1 electric 7high & l[ t5sion7--,make & break ignition--,batt]ies--,sp>k coils1 dynamos--,magnetos--,wir+ sy/ems--,tim+--discussion ( prom95t makes ( ignition app>atus--,valve ge>s--,practical con/ruction ( valves & valve op]at+ me*anism--,valve tim+ *>ts--,location ( ports 9 two /roke cycle eng9es--,?ree port1 two-/roke cycle eng9es--,mix+ valves--,c>buretors--,manifolds = multi-cyl9d] eng9es--,muffl]s--,exhau/ pots1 etc4--,cool+ sy/ems--,purpose ( cool+ sy/ems--,! radiator--,air cool+--,tank1 hopp] & trays--,circulat+ pumps--,!rmo--,syphon--,wat] vs4 oil--,anti-freez+ solutions--,lubrication--,spla%1 =ce fe$1 exhau/ fe$1 prop]ties ( lubricat+ oils1 grease1 pumps1 /ra9]s1 filt]s1 cups1 connections1 etc4--,details ( approv$ sy/ems--,con/ruction details--,eng9es = v>i\s purposes--,electric light+ eng9es--,dynamos--,/orage batt]ies--,wir+--,swit* ,bo>d--,in/allation--,eng9e room arrangem5t--,f\ndations--,pip+--,%aft+-- ,hang]s1 etc4--,op]ation--,tr\ble ,*>t = location ( tr\bles--,rem$ies = tr\ble--,%op rules--,=mulas--,automobile1 motor boat & a]o motors1 ,tr\ble ,*>t--,accessories--,op]ation1 etc41 etc4 ,price1 ,,flexible ,,lea!r #a4ej ,,clo? ,,b9d+ #a4jj ,,! ,,practical ,,h&book ,,( ,,gas1 ,,oil1 ,,& ,,/eam ,,eng9es ,illu/ration ,,by ,,john ,b4 ,,ra?bun4 ,au?or ( 8,gas ,eng9e ,tr\bles & ,in/allation10 ,editor 8,ignition0--,in/ructor ,*icago ,te*nical ,college4 #cgj ,pages1 #aej ,l9e ,draw+s & ,illu/rations4 ,?is book is ! mo/ complete & up-to-!-m9ute book = ! practical man on ! subjects ( gas1 gasol9e1 oil1 & /eam eng9es4 ,oil burn]s = use 9 /eam eng9es 9 a useful feature4 ,special emphasis is plac$ on f>m tractors & _! op]ation1 bo? oil & /eam driv54 ,! eng9es describ$ are ! late/ types1 & include ! ,diesel1 ,semi-,diesel ,gnome1 ,l[ & ,turb9e types4 ,,cont5ts ,heat & ,p[]4--,fuels--,calorific ,values ( ,fuels--,solid1 ,liquid & ,gase\s ,fuels--,k]os5e--,gasol9e--,crude ,oil--,produc] ,gas--,illum9at+ ,gas--,coal--,b5zol4 ,work+ ,cycles--,def9itions ( ,cycles ,indicator ,diagrams--,practical ,use ( ! ,indicator--,typical ,f\r ,/roke ,cycle ,eng9es--,s+le ,cyl9d]--,f\r ,cyl9d]--,automobile--,oppos$ ,type--,v ,type--,t&em--,tw9 ,t&em--,rot>y ,cyl9d]--,radial--,diesel--,knight--,arg yle--,rot>y ,valve4 ,typical ,two ,/roke ,cycle ,eng9es--,two ,port--,?ree ,port--,m>9e--,controll$ ,port--,a]onautic--,oe*ehaus]--,gnome ,rot>y ,two ,/roke4 ,oil ,eng9es--,elyria--,m>9e ,diesel--,in/allation--,aspiration ,types--,fairbanks ,morse--,k]os5e--,c>buretion--,semi-,die sel--,combu/ion ( ,heavy ,oils4 ,ignition ,sy/ems--,hot ,tube ,sy/em--,l[ ,t5sion ,sy/em--,high ,t5sion ,sy/em--,details ( ,make-&-,break ,batt]ies--,l[ ,t5sion ,magnetos--,high ,t5sion ,magnetos--,coils--,adju/m5t--,tr\bles4 ,c>buretors--,pr9ciples ( ,c>buretion--,jet ,c>buretors--,wat] ,jacket+--,fuel ,supply--,diff]5t ,types ( ,auto ,c>buretors--,adju/m5t--,c>buretor ,tr\bles4 ,lubrication--,=c$ ,spe$--,spla% ,sy/em--,oil ,pumps--,lubrication ,tr\bles4 ,cool+ ,sy/ems--,evaporation ,sy/ems--,radiators--,air ,cool+4 ,spe$ ,gov]nors--,automobiles--,/ation>y--,adj u/m5t--,mixture--,control ,hit & ,miss--,mix$ ,sy/ems4 ,tractors & ,v>i\s ,f>m ,eng9es--,gasol9e & ,oil ,tractors--,me*anism ( ,v>i\s ,types--,/eam ,tractors--,pl[+ & ,?re%+ ,co/s--,pl[+ ,conte/s ,data--,two ,spe$ ,me*anisms--,draw ,b> ,pole--,oil ,c>buretors1 etc4 ,oil ,burn]s--,combu/ion--,high ,pressure ,sy/em--,l[ ,pressure ,sy/em--,mix$ ,sy/em--,burn]s = ,furnaces1 ,locomotives1 ,p5nsylvania ,type1 ,%e$y ,burn]1 ,kir*(f ,burn]1 etc4 ,price1 ,,flexible ,,lea!r #a4ej ,,silk ,,clo? #a4jj ,que/ions & ,answ]s ,= ,automobile ,/ud5ts & ,me*anics ,illu/ration --,by-- ,?omas ,h4 ,russell1 ,a4,m41 ,m4,e4 ,au?or ( 8,automobile ,driv+ ,self-,taught10 8,automobile ,motors & ,me*anism40 8,ignition1 ,tim+ & ,valve ,sett+10 8,motor ,boats3 ,con/ruction & ,op]ation10 etc41 etc4 ,a book ( #fjj ,que/ions & ,answ]s1 adapt$ = tea*+ ,s*ool1 ! ,ma*9e-%op or be=e ! ,bo>d ( ,exam9+ ,eng9e]s4 ,?is is ! l>ge/1 ! late/ & mo/ au!ntic book ( its k9d ^u ! m>ket4 ,prep>$ especially = ,home ,/udy4 #aej pages4 ,b\nd 9 ,clo?1 ,/iff ,cov]s--,9 fact x is a regul> text book4 ,! ,que/ions & ,answ]s 9 ?is book w be f\nd useful by e ,/ud5t & ,me*anic ( ,motor ,c>s & ,motor+1 z a h&y means ( review+ sy/ematic /udy or 9 daily "w4 ,x has long be5 recogniz$ t ! ,"q & ,answ] me?od is mo/ effective 9 fix+ 9 ! memory facts ga9$ by /udy or problems t confront ! ,me*anic 9 8 daily "w2 h5ce x is adapt$ = ! purpose4 ,! m important subjects connect$ ) ,motor ,c>s1 are treat$ individually1 !re be+ a sep>ate set ( ,que/ions & ,answ]s = ea*4 ,= ! great] conv5i5ce ( ! read]1 ! ,que/ions & ! ,answ]s 9 ea* set appe> on sep>ate pages2 ! ,que/ions c ?us be us$ alone = self-in/ruction1 :ile ! ,answ]s if ne$$ are close at h& = ref]5ce4 ,m9or subjects are cov]$ 9 a special ,cate*ism1 :i* deals ) all ! factors :i* g to make up ! p[] plant ( a ,mod]n ,motor ,c>4 ,price1 ,,clo? #a4jj ,,lea!r #a4ej ,,automobile ,,motors ,,& ,,me*anism4 ,illu/ration ,by ,,?omas ,h4 ,,russell1 ,m4 ,e41 ,,ll4 ,b4 ,au?or ( 8,automobile ,driv+ ,self-,taught40 8,ignition1 ,tim+ & ,valve ,sett+40 8,motor ,boats3 ,con/ruction & ,op]ation10 etc ,pocket size1 #bfe pages1 ,blue flexible lea!r1 r\nd corn]s1 r$ edges1 fully illu/rat$ ,,cont5ts ,! ,int]nal ,combu/ion ,eng9e--,pr9ciples & ,con/ruction--,production ( ! fuel mixture--,function ( ! c>buret]--,! cycle ( op]ations--,cyl9d]s1 pi/on & r+s--,%afts & be>+s--,ignition app>atus--,s+le & multi-cyl9d] eng9es--,! two cycle eng9e--,valves & _! functions--,sil5c+ ! exhau/--,eng9e h9ts & tips--,a ,typical ,mod]n ,motor--,detail$ description ( con/ruction--,gov]n+ & ,gov]nors--,! c5trifugal gov]nor--,?rottle valves--,gov]n+ & control--,! hit-or-miss gov]nor--,c>buret]s--,! float-fe$ pr9ciple--,! float *amb] & jet--,v>i\s types ( mod]n con/ruction--,quality ( mixture--,flood+ ! c>buret]--,c>buret] tr\bles & adju/m5ts1 etc4--,transmission ,me*anism--,! ,clut*--,v>i\s =ms 9 use--,positive & friction clut*es--,plate or disk clut*es--,! comb9$ disk & cone type--,exp&+ clut*es--,clut* tr\bles1 etc4--,ge> or ,ge>+--,belt & *a9 ge>+--,friction ge>--,spur or too? ge>+--,spiral1 helical1 worm & bevel ge>+--,epicyclic ge>--,inf9itely v>iable ge>--,diff]5tial or ,balance ,ge>--,its functions--,%afts & _! ,functions--,! crank%aft1 half-spe$ %aft1 c\nt]%aft1 etc4--,lubrication & ,lubricators--,pumps & _! ,purposes--,motor ,misfir+1 ,causes & ,rem$ies--,noises 9 ! ,motor1 ,causes & ,rem$ies--,motor ,ov]heat+1 ,causes & ,rem$ies--,electric ,motors--,pr9ciples & op]ation--,/eam ,c>s--,! eng9e1 g5]ator1 rev]se ge>1 etc4 ,price1 ,,flexible ,,lea!r #a4ej ,,clo? ,,b9d+ #a4jj ,a ,b ,c ( ! ,,motorcycle ,illu/ration ,by ,w4 ,j4 ,,jackman4 ,m4 ,e4 ,au?or ( 8,facts = ,motori/10 8,cru%$ ,/one & ,its ,uses10 & ,simil> ,books4 ,pocket ,size1 #bej pages1 fully ,illu/rat$1 ,lea!r & ,clo?1 ,r\nd ,corn]s1 ,r$ ,edges4 ,a 8,%[ ,h[0 ,book = ,own]s & ,op]ators ( ,motorcycles4 ,,cont5ts ,inception & ,evolution ( ! ,motorcycle--,mod]n ,ma*9es & _! ,vital ,p>ts--,h[ to ,ma/] ! ,me*anism--,production & ,application ( ,motive ,p[]--,con/ruction & ,op]ation ( ! ,c>buret]--,:at ! ,c>buret] ,does--,ignition ,sy/ems--,batt]ies & ,magnetos--,practical ,me?ods ( ,h&l+--,v>i\s ,types ( ,motors--,!ory & ,effect ( ,int]nal ,combu/ion--,tr\bles ( all ,k9ds & ,h[ to ,avoid or ,ov]come ,!m--,lubrication ,me?ods--,transmission or ,drive ,sy/ems--,h[ to ,compute ,horse ,p[]--,relation ( ,p[] & ,spe$--,wea!r ,effects on ,gasol5e ,eng9es--,co/ ( ,ma9t5ance on ,basis ( ,mileage--,"s ,dont's t w save ,"t & ,money--,select+ a ,motorcycle--,h9ts = ! ,buy]--,:at an ,own] %\ld d on receiv+ a ,new ,ma*9e--,! ,fir/ ,ride4 ,price1 ,,flexible ,,lea!r #a4ej ,,clo? ,,b9d+ #a4jj ,,du/man',s ,,plan ,,book & ,,complete ,,mod]n ,,e/imator ( ,,g5]al ,,build+ ,,con/ruction ,by ,u4 ,m4 ,du/man1 ,lic5s$ ,ar*itect1 ,editor ( 8,! ,progressive ,build]40 #bej pages1 #iac in*es1 ,sev]al ,books ,comb9$ 9 ,"o4 ,invaluable to ! ,contractor1 ,build] or ,layman4 ,illu/ration ,clo? ,b9d+1 ,:ite ,foil ,/amp+1 ,price #b4jj ,,cont5ts ,designs & ,sugge/ions--,geometrical ,problems ,illu/rat$--,ro( ,trusses ,illu/rat$--,raft] ,diagrams--,con/ruction ,diagrams--,/air ,"w ,diagrams--,/air & ,h&rail+ ,tables--,w9d[ ,frame ,"w & ,diagrams--,/ore ,front ,problems ,illu/rat$--,brick ,"w ,con/ruction & ,tables--,w9d[ ,frames = ,brick ,walls--,g5]al ,con/ruction ,problems1 ,concrete ,"w1 ,ar*es1 ,brick ,"w1 ,mill ,con/ruction1 ,beams1 ,columns & ,splices1 ,fram+1 ,draft+1 ,prop]ties ( ,woods & ,metals--,pla/]+--,pa9t+--,ro(s--,tables ( ,m5suration--,eng9e]+ ,tables ( ,beams1 ,columns1 ,*annels1 etc4--,tables ( ,raft]s--,build+ ,t]ms--,build]s' ,ari?metic--,h[ to ,read ,plans--,detail$ ,e/imates ( v>i\s me*anical dep>tm5ts--,complete ,detail$ ,specifications ,=m--,concrete ,mix+1 ,con/ruction ( ,h\ses1 ,b>ns1 ,g>ages1 ,silos1 ,sidewalks1 etc4--,photographs1 ,plans & ,elevations ( ,_m ,h\ses1 ,b>ns4 ,public ,build+s1 ,out-build+s1 etc4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,transcrib]',s ,,notes #a4 8,baum0 0 consi/5tly misspell$ z 8,beaum04 ,did n correct4 #b4 ,! spell+ ( words su* z 8di/ributor_/di/ribut]0 & 8c>buretor_/c>buret]0 0 inconsi/5t4 #c4 ,! section & p>agraph numb]s are n always sequ5tial4 #d4 ,*ang$ 8may read0 to 8may be read0 on p4 #bb4 #e4 ,*ang$ 8eng9e is in/rum5t0 to 8eng9e is an in/rum5t0 on p4 #bg4 #f4 ,*ang$ 8use 9 temp]ature0 to 8rise 9 temp]ature0 on p4 #cb4 #g4 ,*ang$ 8air ! same temp]ature0 to 8air at ! same temp]ature0 on p4 #eb4 #h4 ,*ang$ 8alcohol ?an = 9 ! neighborhood0 to 8alcohol 9 ! neighborhood0 on p4 #ee4 #i4 ,*ang$ 8fuel heat$0 to 8fuel is heat$0 on p4 #ef4 #aj4 ,*ang$ 8mov+ ports40 to8mov+ p>ts40 on p4 #fd4 #aa4 ,*ang$ 8read+ = ! succe$+ suction /roke0 to 8ready = ! succe$+ suction /roke0 on p4 #gf4 #ab4 ,*ang$ 8inlet %ots0 to 8inlet slots0 on p4 #abd4 #ac4 ,sil5tly correct$ typographical errors4 #ad4 ,reta9$ ana*roni/ic & non-/&>d spell+s z pr9t$4 #ae4 ,enclos$ italics font 9 und]scores4 #af4 ,enclos$ bold font 9 equals4 #ag4 ,sup]scripts are d5ot$ by a c>et be=e a s+le sup]script "* or a s]ies ( sup]script$ *>act]s enclos$ 9 curly braces1 e4g4 ,mr4 or ,mi/]4 #ah4 ,subscripts are d5ot$ by an und]score be=e a s]ies ( subscript$ *>act]s enclos$ 9 curly braces1 e4g4 ,h#b,o4