,,consid]ations ,,on ,,repres5tative    
,,gov]nm5t  ,by ,john ,/u>t ,mill       
,au?or ,( ,a ,sy/em ,( ,logic1          
,ratioc9ative ,& ,inductive             
,r$actor's note3 ,italics are indicat$  
by und]scores surr\nd+ ! italiciz$ text4
  ,footnotes initially f\nd ?r\gh\t !   
text h be5 numb]$ & plac$ at ! end ( !  
text4     ,preface   ,^? :o h done me ! 
honor ( read+ my previ\s writ+s w       
probably receive no /rong impression (  
novelty f ! pres5t volume2 = ! pr9ciples
 are ^? to :i* ,i h be5 work+ up dur+ ! 
great] "p ( my life1 & mo/ ( ! practical
 sugge/ions h be5 anticipat$ by o!rs or 
by myself4 ,!re is novelty1 h[ev]1 9 !  
fact ( br++ !m toge!r1 & exhibit+ !m 9  
_! connection1 & also1 ,i believe1 9 mu*
 t is br\ght =w>d 9 _! support4 ,sev]al 
( ! op9ions at all ev5ts1 if n new1 are 
= ! pres5t z little likely to meet )    
g5]al acceptance z if !y 74  ,x seems to
 me1 h[ev]1 f v>i\s indications1 & f    
none m ?an ! rec5t debates on ,re=m (   
,p>liam5t1 t bo? ,cons]vatives &        

,lib]als 7if ,i may cont9ue to call !m  
:at !y /ill call !mselves7 h lo/        
confid5ce 9 ! political cre$s :i* !y    
nom9ally pr(ess1 :ile nei!r side appe>s 
to h made any progress 9 provid+ itself 
) a bett]4 ,yet su* a bett] doctr9e mu/ 
be possible2 n a m]e compromise1 by     
splitt+ ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! two1 b      
some?+ wid] ?an ei!r1 :i*1 9 virtue (   
its sup]ior compreh5siv5ess1 might be   
adopt$ by ei!r ,lib]al or ,cons]vative  
)\t r5\nc+ any ?+ :i* he really feels to
 be valuable 9 8 own cre$4 ,:5 s _m feel
 obscurely ! want ( su* a doctr9e1 & s  
few ev5 flatt] !mselves t !y h atta9$ x1
 any "o may )\t presumption1 (f] :at 8  
own ?\ghts1 & ! be/ t he kn[s ( ^? (    
o!rs1 are able to contribute t[>ds its  
=mation4     ,,li/ ,,( ,,cont5ts        
,,*ap4  ,i4   ,to ,:at ,ext5t ,=ms (    
,gov]nm5t ,are a ,matt] ( ,*oice4       
,,*ap4  ,,ii4   ,! ,crit]ion ( a ,good  
,=m ( ,gov]nm5t4  ,,*ap4  ,,iii4   ,t ! 
,ideally ,be/ ,=m ( ,gov]nm5t is        
,repres5tative   ,gov]nm5t4  ,,*ap4     

,,iv4   ,"u ,:at ,social ,conditions    
,repres5tative ,gov]nm5t is             
,inapplicable4  ,,*ap4  ,v4   ,( !      
,prop] ,functions ( ,repres5tative      
,bodies4  ,,*ap4  ,,vi4   ,( !          
,infirmities & ,dang]s to ,:i*          
,repres5tative ,gov]nm5t   ,is ,liable4 
,,*ap4  ,,vii4   ,( ,true & ,false      
,democracy2 ,repres5tation ( ,all1 &    
,repres5tation ( ! ,majority ,only4     
,,*ap4  ,,viii4   ,( ! ,ext5sion ( !    
,suffrage4  ,,*ap4  ,,ix4   ,%\ld ,!re  
,be ,two ,/ages ( ,election8  ,,*ap4    
,x4   ,( ! ,mode ( ,vot+4  ,,*ap4  ,,xi4
   ,( ! ,duration ( ,p>liam5ts4  ,,*ap4 
,,xii4   ,ought ,pl$ges to ,be ,requir$ 
f ,memb]s ( ,p>liam5t4  ,,*ap4  ,,xiii4 
,( a ,second ,*amb]4  ,,*ap4  ,,xiv4    
,( ! ,executive 9 a ,repres5tative      
,gov]nm5t4  ,,*ap4  ,,xv4   ,( ,local   
,repres5tative ,bodies4  ,,*ap4  ,,xvi4 
,( ,nationality z ,connect$ )           
,repres5tative ,gov]nm5t4  ,,*ap4       
,,xvii4   ,( ,f$]al ,repres5tative      
,gov]nm5ts4  ,,*ap4  ,,xviii4   ,( !    

,gov]nm5t ( ,dep5d5cies by a ,free      
,/ate4     ,*apt] ,i--,to ,:at ,ext5t   
,=ms ( ,gov]nm5t are a ,matt] ( ,*oice4 
,all speculations conc]n+ =ms ( gov]nm5t
 be> ! impress1 m or less exclusive1 (  
two conflict+ !ories respect+ political 
in/itutions2 or1 to speak m prop]ly1    
conflict+ conceptions ( :at political   
in/itutions are4  ,by "s m9ds1 gov]nm5t 
is conceiv$ z /rictly a practical art1  
giv+ rise to no que/ions b ^? ( means & 
an end4 ,=ms ( gov]nm5t are assimilat$  
to any o!r exp$i5ts = ! atta9m5t ( human
 objects4 ,!y are reg>d$ z :olly an     
affair ( inv5tion & contrivance4 ,be+   
made by man1 x is assum$ t man has !    
*oice ei!r to make !m or n1 & h[ or on  
:at patt]n !y %all be made4 ,gov]nm5t1  
accord+ to ?is conception1 is a problem1
 to be work$ l any o!r "q ( bus9ess4 ,! 
fir/ /ep is to def9e ! purposes :i*     
gov]nm5ts are requir$ to promote4 ,!    
next1 is to inquire :at =m ( gov]nm5t is
 be/ fitt$ to fulfill ^? purposes4 ,hav+
 satisfi$ ourselves on ^! two po9ts1 &  

asc]ta9$ ! =m ( gov]nm5t :i* comb9es !  
greate/ am\nt ( good ) ! lea/ ( evil1   
:at fur!r rema9s is to obta9 !          
concurr5ce ( our c\ntrym51 or ^? = :om !
 in/itutions are int5d$1 9 ! op9ion :i* 
we h privately arriv$ at4 ,to f9d ! be/ 
=m ( gov]nm5t2 to p]suade o!rs t x is ! 
be/2 &1 hav+ done s1 to /ir !m up to    
insi/ on hav+ x1 is ! ord] ( ideas 9 !  
m9ds ( ^? :o adopt ?is view ( political 
philosophy4 ,!y look ^u a con/itution 9 
! same light 7diff]5ce ( scale be+ all[$
 =7 z !y w\ld ^u a /eam pl[1 or a ?re%+ 
ma*9e4  ,to ^! /& oppos$ ano!r k9d (    
political reason]s1 :o are s f> f       
assimilat+ a =m ( gov]nm5t to a ma*9e1 t
 !y reg>d x z a sort ( spontane\s       
product1 & ! sci5ce ( gov]nm5t z a bran*
 7s to speak7 ( natural hi/ory4 ,accord+
 to !m1 =ms ( gov]nm5t are n a matt] (  
*oice4 ,we mu/ take !m1 9 ! ma91 z we   
f9d !m4 ,gov]nm5ts c n be con/ruct$ by  
prem$itat$ design4 ,!y are n made1 b    
gr[4 ,our bus9ess ) !m1 z ) ! o!r facts 
( ! univ]se1 is to acqua9t ourselves )  

_! natural prop]ties1 & adapt ourselves 
to !m4 ,! fundam5tal political          
in/itutions ( a p are consid]$ by ?is   
s*ool z a sort ( organic gr[? f ! nature
 & life ( t p2 a product ( _! habits1   
in/9cts1 & unconsci\s wants & desires1  
sc>cely at all ( _! delib]ate purposes4 
,_! w has _h no "p 9 ! matt] b t ( meet+
 ! necessities ( ! mom5t by !           
contrivances ( ! mom5t1 :i*             
contrivances1 if 9 suffici5t con=mity to
 ! national feel+s & "*1 commonly la/1  
&1 by successive aggregation1 con/itute 
a polity suit$ to ! p :o possess x1 b   
:i* x w\ld be va9 to attempt to         
sup]9duce ^u any p ^: nature &          
circum/ances _h n spontane\sly evolv$ x4
  ,x is difficult to decide :i* ( ^!    
doctr9es w\ld be ! mo/ absurd1 if we    
c\ld suppose ei!r ( !m held z an        
exclusive !ory4 ,b ! pr9ciples :i* m5   
pr(ess1 on any controv]t$ subject1 are  
usually a v incomplete expon5t ( !      
op9ions !y really hold4 ,no "o believes 
t e p is capable ( work+ e sort (       

in/itution4 ,c>ry ! analogy ( me*anical 
contrivances z f> z we w1 a man does n  
*oose ev5 an in/rum5t ( timb] & iron on 
! sole gr\nd t x is 9 itself ! be/4 ,he 
consid]s :e!r he possesses ! o!r        
requisites :i* mu/ be comb9$ ) x to r5d]
 its employm5t advantage\s1 &1 9        
p>ticul> :e!r ^? by :om x w h to be     
work$ possess ! k & skill necess>y = its
 managem5t4 ,on ! o!r h&1 nei!r are ^?  
:o speak ( in/itutions z if !y 7 a k9d (
 liv+ organisms really ! political      
fatali/s !y give !mselves out to be4 ,!y
 d n pret5d t mank9d h absolutely no    
range ( *oice z to ! gov]nm5t !y w live 
"u1 or t a consid]ation ( ! consequ5ces 
:i* fl[ f diff]5t =ms ( polity is no    
elem5t at all 9 decid+ :i* ( !m %\ld be 
pref]r$4 ,b1 ?\gh ea* side greatly      
exagg]ates its own !ory1 out (          
opposition to ! o!r1 & no "o holds )\t  
modification to ei!r1 ! two doctr9es    
correspond to a deep-seat$ diff]5ce     
betwe5 two modes ( ?\ght2 & ?\gh x is   
evid5t t nei!r ( ^! is entirely 9 ! "r1 

yet x be+ equally evid5t t nei!r is     
:olly 9 ! wrong1 we mu/ endeav\r to get 
d[n to :at is at ! root ( ea*1 & avail  
ourselves ( ! am\nt ( tru? :i* exi/s 9  
ei!r4  ,let u rememb]1 !n1 9 ! fir/     
place1 t political in/itutions 7h[ev] ! 
proposition may be at times ignor$7 are 
! "w ( m5--owe _! orig9 & _! :ole       
exi/5ce to human w4 ,m5 did n wake on a 
summ] morn+ & f9d !m sprung up4 ,nei!r d
 !y resemble trees1 :i*1 once plant$1   
are aye gr[+ :ile m5 are sleep+4 ,9 e   
/age ( _! exi/5ce !y are made :at !y are
 by human volunt>y ag5cy4 ,l all ?+s1   
!re=e1 :i* are made by m51 !y may be    
ei!r well or ill made2 judgm5t & skill  
may h be5 ex]cis$ 9 _! production1 or ! 
rev]se ( ^!4 ,& aga91 if a p h omitt$1  
or f outw>d pressure h n _h x 9 _! p[]  
to give !mselves a con/itution by !     
t5tative process ( apply+ a corrective  
to ea* evil z x arose1 or z ! suff]]s   
ga9$ /r5g? to resi/ x1 ?is ret>dation ( 
political progress is no d\bt a great   
disadvantage to !m1 b x does n prove t  

:at has be5 f\nd good = o!rs w\ld n h   
be5 good also = !m1 & w n be s /ill :5  
!y ?9k fit to adopt x4  ,on ! o!r h&1 x 
is also to be borne 9 m9d t political   
ma*9]y does n act ( itself4 ,z x is fir/
 made1 s x has to be work$1 by m51 & ev5
 by ord9>y m54 ,x ne$s1 n _! simple     
acquiesc5ce1 b _! active p>ticipation2 &
 mu/ be adju/$ to ! capacities &        
qualities ( su* m5 z are available4 ,?is
 implies ?ree conditions4 ,! p = :om !  
=m ( gov]nm5t is int5d$ mu/ be will+ to 
accept x1 or1 at lea/ n s unwill+ z to  
oppose an insurm\ntable ob/acle to its  
e/abli%m5t4 ,!y mu/ be will+ & able to d
 :at is necess>y to keep x /&+4 ,& !y   
mu/ be will+ & able to d :at x requires 
( !m to enable x to fulfill its         
purposes4 ,! ^w d is to be und]/ood z   
includ+ =be>ances z well z acts4 ,!y mu/
 be capable ( fulfill+ ! conditions (   
action & ! conditions ( self-re/ra9t1   
:i* are necess>y ei!r = keep+ ! e/abli%$
 polity 9 exi/5ce1 or = enabl+ x to     
a*ieve ! ends1 its conduciv5ess to :i*  

=ms its recomm5dation4  ,! failure ( any
 ( ^! conditions r5d]s a =m ( gov]nm5t1 
:atev] favorable promise x may o!rwise  
hold out1 unsuitable to ! p>ticul> case4
  ,! fir/ ob/acle1 ! repugnance ( ! p to
 ! p>ticul> =m ( gov]nm5t1 ne$s little  
illu/ration1 because x nev] c 9 !ory h  
be5 ov]look$4 ,! case is ( p]petual     
occurr5ce4 ,no?+ b =eign =ce w\ld induce
 a tribe ( ,nor? ,am]ican ,indians to   
submit to ! re/ra9ts ( a regul> &       
civiliz$ gov]nm5t4 ,! same might h be5  
said1 ?\gh some:at less absolutely1 ( ! 
b>b>ians :o ov]ran ! ,roman ,empire4 ,x 
requir$ c5turies ( "t1 & an entire *ange
 ( circum/ances1 to discipl9e !m into   
regul> ob$i5ce ev5 to _! own lead]s1 :5 
n actually s]v+ "u _! bann]4 ,!re are   
nations :o w n volunt>ily submit to any 
gov]nm5t b t ( c]ta9 families1 :i* h f  
"t immemorial _h ! privilege ( supply+  
!m ) *iefs4 ,"s nations c\ld n1 except  
by =eign conque/1 be made to endure a   
mon>*y2 o!rs are equally av]se to a     
republic4 ,! h9drance (t5 am\nts1 = ! "t

 be+1 to impracticability4  ,b !re are  
also cases 9 :i*1 ?\gh n av]se to a =m (
 gov]nm5t--possibly ev5 desir+ x--a p   
may be unwill+ or unable to fulfill its 
conditions4 ,!y may be incapable (      
fulfill+ su* ( !m z are necess>y to keep
 ! gov]nm5t ev5 9 nom9al exi/5ce4 ,?us a
 p may pref] a free gov]nm5t2 b if1 f   
indol5ce1 or c>elessness1 or c[>dice1 or
 want ( public _s1 !y are unequal to !  
ex]tions necess>y = pres]v+ x2 if !y w n
 fight = x :5 x is directly attack$2 if 
!y c be delud$ by ! artifices us$ to    
*eat !m out ( x2 if1 by mom5t>y         
disc\ragem5t1 or tempor>y panic1 or a   
fit ( en?usiasm = an individual1 !y c be
 induc$ to lay _! lib]ties at ! feet ev5
 ( a great man1 or tru/ him ) p[]s :i*  
enable him to subv]t _! in/itutions--9  
all ^! cases !y are m or less unfit =   
lib]ty2 & ?\gh x may be = _! good to h  
_h x ev5 = a %ort "t1 !y are unlikely   
long to enjoy x4 ,aga91 a p may be      
unwill+ or unable to fulfill ! duties   
:i* a p>ticul> =m ( gov]nm5t requires ( 

!m4 ,a rude p1 ?\gh 9 "s degree alive to
 ! b5efits ( civiliz$ society1 may be   
unable to practice ! =be>ances :i* x    
dem&s2 _! passions may be too viol5t1 or
 _! p]sonal pride too exact+1 to =ego   
private conflict1 & leave to ! laws !   
av5g+ ( _! real or suppos$ wrongs4 ,9   
su* a case1 a civiliz$ gov]nm5t1 to be  
really advantage\s to !m1 w require to  
be 9 a consid]able degree despotic2 "o  
ov] :i* !y d n !mselves ex]cise control1
 & :i* imposes a great am\nt ( =cible   
re/ra9t ^u _! actions4 ,aga91 a p mu/ be
 consid]$ unfit = m ?an a limit$ &      
qualifi$ fre$om :o w n co-op]ate        
actively ) ! law & ! public au?orities 9
 ! repression ( evil-do]s4 ,a p :o are m
 dispos$ to %elt] a crim9al ?an to      
appreh5d him2 :o1 l ! ,h9doos1 w p]jure 
!mselves to scre5 ! man :o has robb$ !m1
 r ?an take tr\ble or expose !mselves to
 v9dictiv5ess by giv+ evid5ce aga9/ him2
 :o1 l "s nations ( ,europe d[n to a    
rec5t date1 if a man poni>ds ano!r 9 !  
public /reet1 pass by on ! o!r side1    

because x is ! bus9ess ( ! police to    
look to ! matt]1 & x is saf] n to       
int]f]e 9 :at does n conc]n !m2 a p :o  
are revolt$ by an execution1 b n %ock$  
at an assass9ation--require t ! public  
au?orities %\ld be arm$ ) mu* /]n] p[]s 
( repression ?an else:]e1 s9ce ! fir/   
indisp5sable requisites ( civiliz$ life 
h no?+ else to re/ on4 ,^! deplorable   
/ates ( feel+1 9 any p :o h em]g$ f     
savage life1 are1 no d\bt1 usually !    
consequ5ce ( previ\s bad gov]nm5t1 :i*  
has taught !m to reg>d ! law z made =   
o!r ends ?an _! good1 & its adm9i/rators
 z worse enemies ?an ^? :o op5ly violate
 x4 ,b1 h[ev] little blame may be due to
 ^? 9 :om ^! m5tal habits h gr[n up1 &  
h[ev] ! habits may be ultimately        
conqu]able by bett] gov]nm5t1 yet1 :ile 
!y exi/1 a p s dispos$ c n be gov]n$ ) z
 little p[] ex]cis$ ov] !m z a p ^:     
sympa?ies are on ! side ( ! law1 & :o   
are will+ to give active assi/ance 9 its
 en=cem5t4 ,aga91 repres5tative         
in/itutions are ( little value1 & may be

 a m]e in/rum5t ( tyranny or intrigue1  
:5 ! g5]ality ( electors are n          
suffici5tly int]e/$ 9 _! own gov]nm5t to
 give _! vote1 or1 if !y vote at all1 d 
n be/[ _! suffrages on public gr\nds1 b 
sell !m = money1 or vote at ! beck ( "s 
"o :o has control ov] !m1 or :om =      
private reasons !y desire to propitiate4
 ,popul> election ?us practic$1 in/ead (
 a security aga9/ misgov]nm5t1 is b an  
additional :eel 9 its ma*9]y4  ,besides 
^! moral h9drances1 me*anical           
difficulties are (t5 an insup]able      
imp$im5t to =ms ( gov]nm5t4 ,9 ! anci5t 
_w1 ?\gh !re might be1 & (t5 01 great   
individual or local indep5d5ce1 !re c\ld
 be no?+ l a regulat$ popul> gov]nm5t   
beyond ! b\nds ( a s+le city-community2 
because !re did n exi/ ! physical       
conditions = ! =mation & propagation ( a
 public op9ion1 except among ^? :o c\ld 
be br\ght toge!r to discuss public      
matt]s 9 ! same agora4 ,?is ob/acle is  
g5]ally ?\ght to h ceas$ by ! adoption (
 ! repres5tative sy/em4 ,b to surm\nt x 

completely1 requir$ ! press1 & ev5 !    
newspap] press1 ! real equival5t1 ?\gh n
 9 all respects an adequate "o1 ( !     
,pnyx & ! ,=um4 ,!re h be5 /ates (      
society 9 :i* ev5 a mon>*y ( any great  
t]ritorial ext5t c\ld n subsi/1 b       
unavoidably broke up into petty         
pr9cipalities1 ei!r mutually indep5d5t1 
or held toge!r by a loose tie l !       
feudal3 because ! ma*9]y ( au?ority 0 n 
p]fect en\gh to c>ry ord]s into effect  
at a great di/ance f ! p]son ( ! rul]4  
,he dep5d$ ma9ly ^u volunt>y fidelity = 
! ob$i5ce ev5 ( 8 army1 nor did !re exi/
 ! means ( mak+ ! p pay an am\nt ( taxes
 suffici5t = keep+ up ! =ce necess>y to 
compel ob$i5ce ?r\gh\t a l>ge t]ritory4 
,9 ^! & all simil> cases1 x mu/ be      
und]/ood t ! am\nt ( ! h9drance may be  
ei!r great] or less4 ,x may be s great z
 to make ! =m ( gov]nm5t "w v ill1 )\t  
absolutely preclud+ its exi/5ce1 or     
h9d]+ x f be+ practically pref]able to  
any o!r :i* c be _h4 ,?is la/ "q ma9ly  
dep5ds ^u a consid]ation :i* we h n yet 

arriv$ at--! t5d5cies ( diff]5t =ms (   
gov]nm5t to promote ,progress4  ,we h n[
 exam9$ ! ?ree fundam5tal conditions ( !
 adaptation ( =ms ( gov]nm5t to ! p :o  
are to be gov]n$ by !m4 ,if ! support]s 
( :at may be t]m$ ! naturali/ic !ory (  
politics1 mean b to insi/ on ! necessity
 ( ^! ?ree conditions2 if !y only mean t
 no gov]nm5t c p]man5tly exi/ :i* does n
 fulfill ! fir/ & second conditions1 &1 
9 "s consid]able measure1 ! ?ird2 _!    
doctr9e1 ?us limit$1 is inconte/able4   
,:atev] !y mean m ?an ?is appe>s to me  
unt5able4 ,all t we are told ab\t !     
necessity ( an hi/orical basis =        
in/itutions1 ( _! be+ 9 h>mony ) !      
national usages & "*1 & ! l1 means ei!r 
?is1 or no?+ to ! purpose4 ,!re is a    
great quantity ( m]e s5tim5tality       
connect$ ) ^! & simil> phrases1 ov] &   
above ! am\nt ( rational mean+ conta9$ 9
 !m4 ,b1 consid]$ practically1 ^! alleg$
 requisites ( political in/itutions are 
m]ely s _m facilities = realis+ ! ?ree  
conditions4 ,:5 an in/itution1 or a set 

( in/itutions1 has ! way prep>$ = x by !
 op9ions1 ta/es1 & habits ( ! p1 !y are 
n only m easily induc$ to accept x1 b w 
m easily le>n1 & w be1 f ! beg9n+1 bett]
 dispos$1 to d :at is requir$ ( !m bo? =
 ! pres]vation ( ! in/itutions1 & = br++
 !m into su* action z enables !m to     
produce _! be/ results4 ,x w\ld be a    
great mi/ake 9 any legislator n to %ape 
8 measures s z to take advantage ( su*  
pre-exi/+ habits & feel+s :5 available4 
,on ! o!r h&1 x is an exagg]ation to    
elevate ^! m]e aids & facilities into   
necess>y conditions4 ,p are m easily    
induc$ to d1 & d m easily1 :at !y are   
already us$ to2 b p also le>n to d ?+s  
new to !m4 ,famili>ity is a great help2 
b mu* dwell+ on an idea w make x        
famili>1 ev5 :5 /range at fir/4 ,!re are
 abundant in/ances 9 :i* a :ole p h be5 
eag] = untri$ ?+s4 ,! am\nt ( capacity  
:i* a p possess = do+ new ?+s1 & adapt+ 
!mselves to new circum/ances2 is itself 
"o ( ! elem5ts ( ! "q4 ,x is a quality 9
 :i* diff]5t nations1 & diff]5t /ages ( 

civilization1 diff] mu* f "o ano!r4 ,!  
capability ( any giv5 p = fulfill+ !    
conditions ( a giv5 =m ( gov]nm5t c n be
 pron\nc$ on by any sweep+ rule4 ,k ( ! 
p>ticul> p1 & g5]al practical judgm5t & 
sagacity1 mu/ be ! guides4  ,!re is also
 ano!r consid]ation n to be lo/ sight (4
 ,a p may be unprep>$ = good            
in/itutions2 b to k9dle a desire = !m is
 a necess>y "p ( ! prep>ation4 ,to      
recomm5d & advocate a p>ticul>          
in/itution or =m ( gov]nm5t1 & set its  
advantages 9 ! /ronge/ light1 is "o ( ! 
modes1 (t5 ! only mode )9 rea*1 (       
educat+ ! m9d ( ! nation n only =       
accept+ or claim+1 b also = work+1 !    
in/itution4 ,:at means _h ,italian      
patriots1 dur+ ! la/ & pres5t g5]ation1 
( prep>+ ! ,italian p = fre$om 9 unity1 
b by incit+ !m to dem& x8 ,^?1 h[ev]1 :o
 und]take su* a task1 ne$ to be duly    
impress$1 n solely ) ! b5efits ( !      
in/itution or polity :i* !y recomm5d1 b 
also ) ! capacities1 moral1             
intellectual1 & active1 requir$ = work+ 

x2 t !y may avoid1 if possible1 /irr+ up
 a desire too mu* 9 advance ( !         
capacity4  ,! result ( :at has be5 said 
is1 t1 )9 ! limits set by ! ?ree        
conditions s (t5 adv]t$ to1 in/itutions 
& =ms ( gov]nm5t are a matt] ( *oice4   
,to inquire into ! be/ =m ( gov]nm5t 9 !
 ab/ract 7z x is call$7 is n a *im]ical1
 b a highly practical employm5t (       
sci5tific intellect2 & to introduce into
 any c\ntry ! be/ in/itutions :i*1 9 !  
exi/+ /ate ( t c\ntry1 are capable (1 9 
any tol]able degree1 fulfill+ !         
conditions1 is "o ( ! mo/ rational      
objects to :i* practical ef=t c address 
itself4 ,e ?+ :i* c be said by way (    
disp>ag+ ! efficacy ( human w & purpose 
9 matt]s ( gov]nm5t might be said ( x 9 
e o!r ( its applications4 ,9 all ?+s !re
 are v /rict limits to human p[]4 ,x c  
only act by wield+ "s "o or m ( ! =ces (
 nature4 ,=ces1 !re=e1 t c be appli$ to 
! desir$ use mu/ exi/2 & w only act     
accord+ to _! own laws4 ,we c n make !  
riv] run backw>ds2 b we d n !re=e say t 

wat]mills are n made1 b gr[4 ,9         
politics1 z 9 me*anics1 ! p[] :i* is to 
keep ! eng9e go+ mu/ be s\ght = outside 
! ma*9]y2 & if x is n =?com+1 or is     
insuffici5t to surm\nt ! ob/acles :i*   
may reasonably be expect$1 ! contrivance
 w fail4 ,?is is no peculi>ity ( !      
political art2 & am\nts only to say+ t x
 is subject to ! same limitations &     
conditions z all o!r arts4  ,at ?is po9t
 we are met by ano!r objection1 or !    
same objection 9 a diff]5t =m4 ,! =ces1 
x is cont5d$1 on :i* ! great] political 
ph5om5a dep5d1 are n am5able to !       
direction ( politicians or philosoph]s4 
,! gov]nm5t ( a c\ntry1 x is affirm$1   
is1 9 all sub/antial respects1 fix$ &   
det]m9$ be=eh& by ! /ate ( ! c\ntry 9   
reg>d to ! di/ribution ( ! elem5ts (    
social p[]4 ,:atev] is ! /ronge/ p[] 9  
society w obta9 ! gov]n+ au?ority2 & a  
*ange 9 ! political con/itution c n be  
durable unless prec$$ or accompani$ by  
an alt]$ di/ribution ( p[] 9 society    
itself4 ,a nation1 !re=e1 c n *oose its 

=m ( gov]nm5t4 ,! m]e details1 &        
practical organization1 x may *oose2 b !
 ess5ce ( ! :ole1 ! seat ( ! supreme    
p[]1 is det]m9$ = x by social           
circum/ances4  ,t !re is a portion (    
tru? 9 ?is doctr9e ,i at once admit2 b  
to make x ( any use1 x mu/ be r$uc$ to a
 di/9ct expression & prop] limits4 ,:5 x
 is said t ! /ronge/ p[] 9 society w    
make itself /ronge/ 9 ! gov]nm5t1 :at is
 meant by p[]8 ,n !ws & s9ews2 o!rwise  
pure democracy w\ld be ! only =m (      
polity t c\ld exi/4 ,to m]e muscul>     
/r5g?1 add two o!r elem5ts1 prop]ty &   
intellig5ce1 & we are ne>] ! tru?1 b f> 
f hav+ yet rea*$ x4 ,n only is a great] 
numb] (t5 kept d[n by a less1 b ! great]
 numb] may h a prepond]ance 9 prop]ty1 &
 individually 9 intellig5ce1 & may yet  
be held 9 subjection1 =cibly or o!rwise1
 by a m9ority 9 bo? respects inf]ior to 
x4 ,to make ^! v>i\s elem5ts ( p[]      
politically influ5tial !y mu/ be        
organiz$2 & ! advantage 9 organization  
is necess>ily ) ^? :o are 9 possession (

 ! gov]nm5t4 ,a mu* weak] p>ty 9 all o!r
 elem5ts ( p[] may greatly prepond]ate  
:5 ! p[]s ( gov]nm5t are ?r[n into !    
scale2 & may long reta9 its pr$om9ance  
?r\gh ?is alone3 ?\gh1 no d\bt1 a       
gov]nm5t s situat$ is 9 ! condition     
call$ 9 me*anics un/able equilibrium1 l 
a ?+ balanc$ on its small] end1 :i*1 if 
once di/urb$1 t5ds m & m to dep>t f1    
in/ead ( rev]t+ to1 its previ\s /ate4   
,b !re are /ill /rong] objections to ?is
 !ory ( gov]nm5t 9 ! t]ms 9 :i* x is    
usually /at$4 ,! p[] 9 society :i* has  
any t5d5cy to conv]t itself into        
political p[] is n p[] quiesc5t1 p[]    
m]ely passive1 b active p[]2 9 o!r      
words1 p[] actually ex]t$2 t is to say1 
a v small portion ( all ! p[] 9 exi/5ce4
 ,politically speak+1 a great "p ( all  
p[] consi/s 9 w4 ,h[ is x possible1 !n1 
to compute ! elem5ts ( political p[]1   
:ile we omit f ! computation any ?+ :i* 
acts on ! w8 ,to ?9k t1 because ^? :o   
wield ! p[] 9 society wield 9 ! end t ( 
gov]nm5t1 !re=e x is ( no use to attempt

 to influ5ce ! con/itution ( ! gov]nm5t 
by act+ on op9ion1 is to =get t op9ion  
is itself "o ( ! greate/ active social  
=ces4 ,"o p]son ) a belief is a social  
p[] equal to n9ety-n9e :o h only        
int]e/s4 ,!y :o c succe$ 9 creat+ a     
g5]al p]suasion t a c]ta9 =m ( gov]nm5t1
 or social fact ( any k9d1 des]ves to be
 pref]r$1 h made ne>ly ! mo/ important  
/ep :i* c possibly be tak5 t[>d rang+ ! 
p[]s ( society on its side4 ,on ! day :5
 ! protom>tyr 0 /on$ to dea? at         
,j]usalem1 :ile he :o 0 to be ! ,apo/le 
( ! ,g5tiles /ood by cons5t+ unto 8     
dea?1 w\ld any "o h suppos$ t ! p>ty ( t
 /on$ man 7 !n & !re ! /ronge/ p[] 9    
society8 ,& has n ! ev5t prov$ t !y 7 s8
 ,because !irs 0 ! mo/ p[]ful ( !n exi/+
 beliefs4 ,! same elem5t made a monk (  
,witt5b]g1 at ! meet+ ( ! ,diet (       
,worms1 a m p[]ful social =ce ?an !     
,emp]or ,*>les ! ,fif?1 & all ! pr9ces  
!re assembl$4 ,b ^!1 x may be said1 are 
cases 9 :i* religion 0 conc]n$1 &       
religi\s convictions are some?+ peculi> 

9 _! /r5g?4 ,!n let u take a case purely
 political1 :]e religion1 if conc]n$ at 
all1 0 *iefly on ! los+ side4 ,if any "o
 requires to be conv9c$ t speculative   
?\ght is "o ( ! *ief elem5ts ( social   
p[]1 let him be?9k himself ( ! age 9 :i*
 !re 0 sc>cely a ?rone 9 ,europe :i* 0 n
 fill$ by a lib]al & re=m+ k+1 a lib]al 
& re=m+ emp]or1 or1 /range/ ( all1 a    
lib]al & re=m+ pope2 ! age ( ,fr$]ic !  
,great1 ( ,ca!r9e ! ,second1 ( ,joseph !
 ,second1 ( ,pet] ,leopold1 ( ,b5$ict   
,,xiv41 ( ,ganganelli1 ( ,pombal1 (     
,d',ar&a2 :5 ! v ,b\rbons ( ,naples 7   
lib]als & re=m]s1 & all ! active m9ds   
among ! noblesse ( ,france 7 fill$ ) !  
ideas :i* 7 soon aft] to co/ !m s de>4  
,surely a conclusive example h[ f> m]e  
physical & economic p[] is f be+ ! :ole 
( social p[]4 ,x 0 n by any *ange 9 !   
di/ribution ( mat]ial int]e/s1 b by !   
spread ( moral convictions1 t negro     
slav]y has be5 put an end to 9 ! ,briti%
 ,empire & else:]e4 ,! s]fs 9 ,russia   
owe _! emancipation1 if n to a s5tim5t (

 duty1 at lea/ to ! gr[? ( a m enlight5$
 op9ion respect+ ! true int]e/ ( ! /ate4
 ,x is :at m5 ?9k t det]m9es h[ !y act2 
& ?\gh ! p]suasions & convictions (     
av]age m5 are 9 a mu* great] degree     
det]m9$ by _! p]sonal position ?an by   
reason1 no little p[] is ex]cis$ ov] !m 
by ! p]suasions & convictions ( ^? ^:   
p]sonal position is diff]5t1 & by !     
unit$ au?ority ( ! in/ruct$4 ,:51 !re=e1
 ! in/ruct$ 9 g5]al c be br\ght to      
recognize "o social arrangem5t1 or      
political or o!r in/itution1 z good1 &  
ano!r z bad--"o z desirable1 ano!r z    
condemnable1 v mu* has be5 done t[>ds   
giv+ to ! "o1 or )draw+ f ! o!r1 t      
prepond]ance ( social =ce :i* enables x 
to subsi/4 ,& ! maxim1 t ! gov]nm5t ( a 
c\ntry is :at ! social =ces 9 exi/5ce   
compel x to be1 is true only 9 ! s5se 9 
:i* x favors1 in/ead ( disc\rag+1 !     
attempt to ex]cise1 among all =ms (     
gov]nm5t practicable 9 ! exi/+ condition
 ( society1 a rational *oice4    ,*apt] 
,,ii--,! ,crit]ion ( a ,good ,=m (      

,gov]nm5t4   ,! =m ( gov]nm5t = any giv5
 c\ntry be+ 7)9 c]ta9 def9ite           
conditions7 am5able to *oice1 x is n[ to
 be consid]$ by :at te/ ! *oice %\ld be 
direct$2 :at are ! di/9ctive *>act]i/ics
 ( ! =m ( gov]nm5t be/ fitt$ to promote 
! int]e/s ( any giv5 society4  ,be=e    
ent]+ into ?is inquiry1 x may seem      
necess>y to decide :at are ! prop]      
functions ( gov]nm5t2 =1 gov]nm5t       
altoge!r be+ only a means1 ! eligibility
 ( ! means mu/ dep5d on _! adaptation to
 ! end4 ,b ?is mode ( /at+ ! problem    
gives less aid to its inve/igation ?an  
might be suppos$1 & does n ev5 br+ !    
:ole ( ! "q into view4 ,=1 9 ! fir/     
place1 ! prop] functions ( a gov]nm5t   
are n a fix$ ?+1 b diff]5t 9 diff]5t    
/ates ( society2 mu* m ext5sive 9 a     
backw>d ?an 9 an advanc$ /ate4 ,&1      
secondly1 ! "* ( a gov]nm5t or set (    
political in/itutions c n be suffici5tly
 e/imat$ :ile we conf9e our att5tion to 
! legitimate sph]e ( gov]nm5tal         
functions2 =1 ?\gh ! goodness ( a       

gov]nm5t is necess>ily circumscrib$ )9 t
 sph]e1 its badness unhappily is n4 ,e  
k9d & degree ( evil ( :i* mank9d are    
susceptible may be inflict$ on !m by _! 
gov]nm5t1 & none ( ! good :i* social    
exi/5ce is capable ( c be any fur!r     
realiz$ ?an z ! con/itution ( ! gov]nm5t
 is compatible )1 & all[s scope =1 its  
atta9m5t4 ,n to speak ( indirect        
effects1 ! direct m$dl+ ( ! public      
au?orities has no necess>y limits b ^? (
 human life1 & ! influ5ce ( gov]nm5t on 
! well-be+ ( society c be consid]$ or   
e/imat$ 9 ref]5ce to no?+ less ?an !    
:ole ( ! int]e/s ( humanity4  ,be+ ?us  
oblig$ to place be=e ourselves1 z ! te/ 
( good & bad gov]nm5t1 s complex an     
object z ! aggregate int]e/s ( society1 
we w\ld will+ly attempt "s k9d (        
classification ( ^? int]e/s1 :i*1 br++  
!m be=e ! m9d 9 def9ite gr\ps1 might    
give indication ( ! qualities by :i* a  
=m ( gov]nm5t is fitt$ to promote ^?    
v>i\s int]e/s respectively4 ,x w\ld be a
 great facility if we c\ld say ! good ( 

society consi/s ( su* & su* elem5ts2 "o 
( ^! elem5ts requires su* conditions1   
ano!r su* o!rs2 ! gov]nm5t1 !n1 :i*     
unites 9 ! greate/ degree all ^!        
conditions1 mu/ be ! be/4 ,! !ory (     
gov]nm5t w\ld ?us be built up f !       
sep>ate !orems ( ! elem5ts :i* compose a
 good /ate ( society4  ,un=tunately1 to 
enum]ate & classify ! con/itu5ts (      
social well-be+1 s z to admit ( !       
=mation ( su* !orems is no easy task4   
,mo/ ( ^? :o1 9 ! la/ or pres5t         
g5]ation1 h appli$ !mselves to !        
philosophy ( politics 9 any compreh5sive
 _s1 h felt ! importance ( su* a        
classification1 b ! attempts :i* h be5  
made t[>d x are z yet limit$1 s f> z ,i 
am aw>e1 to a s+le /ep4 ,!              
classification beg9s & ends ) a p>tition
 ( ! exig5cies ( society betwe5 ! two   
heads ( ,ord] & ,progress 79 !          
phraseology ( ,fr5* ?9k]s72 ,p]man5ce & 
,progression1 9 ! words ( ,col]idge4    
,?is division is plausible & s$uctive1 f
 ! app>5tly clean-cut opposition betwe5 

its two memb]s1 & ! rem>kable diff]5ce  
betwe5 ! s5tim5ts to :i* !y appeal4 ,b  
,i appreh5d t 7h[ev] admissible =       
purposes ( popul> disc\rse7 ! di/9ction 
betwe5 ,ord]1 or ,p]man5ce & ,progress1 
employ$ to def9e ! qualities necess>y 9 
a gov]nm5t1 is unsci5tific & incorrect4 
,=1 fir/1 :at are ,ord] & ,progress8    
,conc]n+ ,progress !re is no difficulty1
 or none :i* is app>5t at fir/ sight4   
,:5 ,progress is spok5 ( z "o ( ! wants 
( human society1 x may be suppos$ to    
mean ,improvem5t4 ,t is a tol]ably      
di/9ct idea4 ,b :at is ,ord]8 ,sometimes
 x means m1 sometimes less1 b h>dly ev] 
! :ole ( :at human society ne$s except  
improvem5t4  ,9 its n>r[e/ acceptation1 
,ord] means ,ob$i5ce4 ,a gov]nm5t is    
said to pres]ve ord] if x succe$s 9     
gett+ itself obey$4 ,b !re are diff]5t  
degrees ( ob$i5ce1 & x is n e degree t  
is comm5dable4 ,only an unmitigat$      
despotism dem&s t ! individual citiz5   
%all obey unconditionally e m&ate (     
p]sons 9 au?ority4 ,we mu/ at lea/ limit

 ! def9ition to su* m&ates z are g5]al1 
& issu$ 9 ! delib]ate =m ( laws4 ,ord]1 
?us und]/ood1 expresses1 d\btless1 an   
indisp5sable attribute ( gov]nm5t4 ,^?  
:o are unable to make _! ord9ances      
obey$1 c n be said to gov]n4 ,b1 ?\gh a 
necess>y condition1 ?is is n ! object ( 
gov]nm5t4 ,t x %\ld make itself obey$ is
 requisite1 9 ord] t x may accompli% "s 
o!r purpose4 ,we are /ill to seek :at is
 ?is o!r purpose1 :i* gov]nm5t ought to 
fulfill ab/ract$ly f ! idea (           
improvem5t1 & :i* has to be fulfill$ 9 e
 society1 :e!r /ation>y or progressive4 
,9 a s5se some:at m enl>g$1 ,ord] means 
! pres]vation ( peace by ! cessation (  
private viol5ce4 ,ord] is said to exi/  
:]e ! p ( ! c\ntry h1 z a g5]al rule1   
ceas$ to prosecute _! qu>rels by private
 =ce1 & acquir$ ! habit ( ref]r+ !      
decision ( _! disputes & ! r$ress ( _!  
injuries to ! public au?orities4 ,b 9   
?is l>g] use ( ! t]m1 z well z 9 ! =m]  
n>r[ "o1 ,ord] expresses r "o ( !       
conditions ( gov]nm5t1 ?an ei!r its     

purpose or ! crit]ion ( its excell5ce2 =
 ! habit may be well e/abli%$ ( submitt+
 to ! gov]nm5t1 & ref]r+ all disput$    
matt]s to its au?ority1 & yet ! mann] 9 
:i* ! gov]nm5t deals ) ^? disput$       
matt]s1 & ) ! o!r ?+s ab\t :i* x conc]ns
 itself1 may diff] by ! :ole int]val :i*
 divides ! be/ f ! wor/ possible4  ,if  
we int5d to comprise 9 ! idea ( ,ord]   
all t society requires f its gov]nm5t   
:i* is n includ$ 9 ! idea ( ,progress1  
we mu/ def9e ,ord] z ! pres]vation ( all
 k9ds & am\nts ( good :i* already exi/1 
& ,progress z consi/+ 9 ! increase ( !m4
 ,?is di/9ction does compreh5d 9 "o or !
 o!r section e ?+ :i* a gov]nm5t c be   
requir$ to promote4 ,b1 ?us und]/ood1 x 
af=ds no basis = a philosophy (         
gov]nm5t4 ,we c n say t1 9 con/itut+ a  
polity1 c]ta9 provisions ought to be    
made = ,ord] & c]ta9 o!rs = ,progress1  
s9ce ! conditions ( ,ord]1 9 ! s5se n[  
indicat$1 & ^? ( ,progress1 are n       
opposite1 b ! same4 ,! ag5cies :i* t5d  
to pres]ve ! social good :i* already    

exi/s are ! v same :i* promote !        
increase ( x1 & vice v]s1 ! sole        
diff]5ce be+1 t a great] degree ( ^?    
ag5cies is requir$ = ! latt] purpose ?an
 = ! =m]4  ,:at1 = example1 are !       
qualities 9 ! citiz5s individually :i*  
conduce mo/ to keep up ! am\nt ( good   
conduct1 ( good managem5t1 ( success &  
prosp]ity1 :i* already exi/ 9 society8  
,e body w agree t ^? qualities are      
indu/ry1 integrity1 ju/ice1 & prud5ce4  
,b are n ^!1 ( all qualities1 ! mo/     
conducive to improvem5t8 & is n any gr[?
 ( ^! virtues 9 ! community 9 itself !  
greate/ ( improvem5ts8 ,if s1 :atev]    
qualities 9 ! gov]nm5t are promotive (  
indu/ry1 integrity1 ju/ice1 & prud5ce1  
conduce alike to p]man5ce & to          
progression1 only !re is ne$$ m ( ^?    
qualities to make ! society decid$ly    
progressive ?an m]ely to keep x p]man5t4
  ,:at1 aga91 are ! p>ticul> attributes 
9 human be+s :i* seem to h a m especial 
ref]5ce to ,progress1 & d n s directly  
sugge/ ! ideas ( ,ord] & ,pres]vation8  

,!y are *iefly ! qualities ( m5tal      
activity1 ent]prise1 & c\rage4 ,b are n 
all ^! qualities fully z mu* requir$ =  
pres]v+ ! good we h z = add+ to x8 ,if  
!re is any ?+ c]ta9 9 human affairs1 x  
is t valuable acquisitions are only to  
be reta9$ by ! cont9uation ( ! same     
en]gies :i* ga9$ !m4 ,?+s left to take  
c>e ( !mselves inevitably decay4 ,^? :om
 success induces to relax _! habits (   
c>e & ?\ghtfulness1 & _! will+ness to   
enc\nt] disagreeables1 seldom long reta9
 _! good =tune at its height4 ,! m5tal  
attribute :i* seems exclusively d$icat$ 
to ,progress1 & is ! culm9ation ( !     
t5d5cies to x1 is ,orig9ality1 or       
,inv5tion4 ,yet ?is is no less necess>y 
= ,p]man5ce1 s9ce1 9 ! inevitable *anges
 ( human affairs1 new inconv5i5ces &    
dang]s cont9ually gr[ up1 :i* mu/ be    
enc\nt]$ by new res\rces & contrivances1
 9 ord] to keep ?+s go+ on ev5 only z   
well z !y did be=e4 ,:atev] qualities1  
!re=e1 9 a gov]nm5t1 t5d to enc\rage    
activity1 en]gy1 c\rage1 orig9ality1 are

 requisites ( ,p]man5ce z well z (      
,progress1 only a some:at less degree ( 
!m w1 on ! av]age1 suffice = ! =m]      
purpose ?an = ! latt]4  ,to pass n[ f ! 
m5tal to ! outw>d & objective requisites
 ( society3 x is impossible to po9t out 
any contrivance 9 politics1 or          
arrangem5t ( social affairs1 :i*        
conduces to ,ord] only1 or to ,progress 
only2 :atev] t5ds to ei!r promotes bo?4 
,take1 = in/ance1 ! common in/itution ( 
a police4 ,ord] is ! object :i* seems   
mo/ imm$iately int]e/$ 9 ! effici5cy (  
?is "p ( ! social organization4 ,yet1 if
 x is effectual to promote ,ord]1 t is1 
if x represses crime1 & enables e "o to 
feel 8 p]son & prop]ty secure1 c any    
/ate ( ?+s be m conducive to ,progress8 
,! great] security ( prop]ty is "o ( !  
ma9 conditions & causes ( great]        
production1 :i* is ,progress 9 its mo/  
famili> & vulg>e/ aspect4 ,! bett]      
repression ( crime represses !          
dispositions :i* t5d to crime1 & ?is is 
,progress 9 a some:at high] s5se4 ,!    

release ( ! individual f ! c>es &       
anxieties ( a /ate ( imp]fect protection
 sets 8 faculties free to be employ$ 9  
any new ef=t = improv+ 8 own /ate & t ( 
o!rs1 :ile ! same cause1 by atta*+ him  
to social exi/5ce1 & mak+ him no long]  
see pres5t or prospective enemies 9 8   
fell[ creatures1 fo/]s all ^? feel+s (  
k9dness & fell[%ip t[>ds o!rs1 & int]e/ 
9 ! g5]al well-be+ ( ! community1 :i*   
are su* important p>ts ( social         
improvem5t4  ,take1 aga91 su* a famili> 
case z t ( a good sy/em ( taxation &    
f9ance4 ,?is w\ld g5]ally be class$ z   
belong+ to ! prov9ce ( ,ord]4 ,yet :at c
 be m conducive to ,progress8 ,a        
f9ancial sy/em :i* promotes ! "o1       
conduces1 by ! v same excell5ces1 to !  
o!r4 ,economy1 = example1 equally       
pres]ves ! exi/+ /ock ( national weal?1 
& favors ! creation ( m4 ,a j           
di/ribution ( burd5s1 by hold+ up to e  
citiz5 an example ( morality & good     
consci5ce appli$ to difficult adju/m5ts1
 & an evid5ce ( ! value :i* ! highe/    

au?orities atta* to !m1 t5ds 9 an em95t 
degree to educate ! moral s5tim5ts ( !  
community1 bo? 9 respect ( /r5g? & (    
discrim9ation4 ,su* a mode ( levy+ !    
taxes z does n imp$e ! indu/ry1 or      
unnecess>ily int]f]e ) ! lib]ty ( !     
citiz51 promotes1 n ! pres]vation only1 
b ! increase ( ! national weal?1 &      
enc\rages a m active use ( ! individual 
faculties4 ,& vice v]s1 all errors 9    
f9ance & taxation :i* ob/ruct !         
improvem5t ( ! p 9 weal? & morals1 t5d  
also1 if ( suffici5tly s]i\s am\nt1     
positively to impov]i% & demoralize !m4 
,x holds1 9 %ort1 univ]sally1 t :5 ,ord]
 & ,p]man5ce are tak5 9 _! wide/ s5se = 
! /ability ( exi/+ advantages1 !        
requisites ( ,progress are b !          
requisites ( ,ord] 9 a great] degree2 ^?
 ( ,p]man5ce m]ely ^? ( ,progress 9 a   
some:at small] measure4  ,9 support ( ! 
position t ,ord] is intr9sically diff]5t
 f ,progress1 & t pres]vation ( exi/+ & 
acquisition ( additional good are       
suffici5tly di/9ct to af=d ! basis ( a  

fundam5tal classification1 we %all      
p]haps be rem9d$ t ,progress may be at !
 exp5se ( ,ord]2 t :ile we are acquir+1 
or /riv+ to acquire1 good ( "o k9d1 we  
may be los+ gr\nd 9 respect to o!rs2 ?us
 !re may be progress 9 weal?1 :ile !re  
is det]ioration 9 virtue4 ,grant+ ?is1  
:at x proves is1 n t ,progress is       
g5]ically a diff]5t ?+ f ,p]man5ce1 b t 
weal? is a diff]5t ?+ f virtue4         
,progress is p]man5ce & some?+ m2 & x is
 no answ] to ?is to say t ,progress 9 "o
 ?+ does n imply ,p]man5ce 9 e ?+4 ,no m
 does ,progress 9 "o ?+ imply ,progress 
9 e ?+4 ,progress ( any k9d includes    
,p]man5ce 9 t same k9d3 :5ev] ,p]man5ce 
is sacrific$ to "s p>ticul> k9d (       
,progress1 o!r ,progress is /ill m      
sacrific$ to x2 & if x be n wor? !      
sacrifice1 n ! int]e/ ( ,p]man5ce alone 
has be5 disreg>d$1 b ! g5]al int]e/ (   
,progress has be5 mi/ak54  ,if ^!       
improp]ly contra/$ ideas are to be us$  
at all 9 ! attempt to give a fir/       
comm5cem5t ( sci5tific precision to !   

notion ( good gov]nm5t1 x w\ld be m     
philosophically correct to leave out ( !
 def9ition ! ^w ,ord]1 & to say t ! be/ 
gov]nm5t is t :i* is mo/ conducive to   
,progress4 ,= ,progress includes ,ord]1 
b ,ord] does n include ,progress4       
,progress is a great] degree ( t ( :i*  
,ord] is a less4 ,ord]1 9 any o!r s5se1 
/&s only = a "p ( ! pr]equisites ( good 
gov]nm5t1 n = its idea & ess5ce4 ,ord]  
w\ld f9d a m suitable place among !     
conditions ( ,progress1 s9ce1 if we w\ld
 increase our sum ( good1 no?+ is m     
indisp5sable ?an to take due c>e ( :at  
we already h4 ,if we are endeav\r+ aft] 
m ri*es1 our v fir/ rule %\ld be1 n to  
squ&] uselessly our exi/+ means4 ,ord]1 
?us consid]$1 is n an additional end to 
be reconcil$ ) ,progress1 b a "p & means
 ( ,progress itself4 ,if a ga9 9 "o     
respect is pur*as$ by a m ?an equival5t 
loss 9 ! same or 9 any o!r1 !re is n    
,progress4 ,conduciv5ess to ,progress1  
?us und]/ood1 includes ! :ole excell5ce 
( a gov]nm5t4  ,b1 ?\gh metaphysically  

def5sible1 ?is def9ition ( ! crit]ion ( 
good gov]nm5t is n appropriate1 because1
 ?\gh x conta9s ! :ole ( ! tru?1 x      
recalls only a "p4 ,:at is sugge/$ by ! 
t]m ,progress is ! idea ( mov+ onw>d1   
:]eas ! mean+ ( x "h is q z mu* !       
prev5tion ( fall+ back4 ,! v same social
 causes--! same beliefs1 feel+s1        
in/itutions1 & practices--are z mu*     
requir$ to prev5t society f retrograd+ z
 to produce a fur!r advance4 ,7 !re no  
improvem5t to be hop$ =1 life w\ld n be 
! less an unceas+ /ruggle aga9/ causes (
 det]ioration1 z x ev5 n[ is4 ,politics1
 z conceiv$ by ! anci5ts1 consi/$ :olly 
9 ?is4 ,! natural t5d5cy ( m5 & _! works
 0 to deg5]ate1 :i* t5d5cy1 h[ev]1 by   
good in/itutions virtu\sly adm9i/]$1 x  
might be possible = an indef9ite l5g? ( 
"t to c\nt]act4 ,?\gh we no long] hold  
?is op9ion2 ?\gh mo/ m5 9 ! pres5t age  
pr(ess ! contr>y cre$1 believ+ t !      
t5d5cy ( ?+s1 on ! :ole1 is t[>d        
improvem5t1 we ought n to =get t !re is 
an incessant & ev]-fl[+ curr5t ( human  

affairs t[>d ! worse1 consi/+ ( all !   
follies1 all ! vices1 all ! neglig5ces1 
indol5ces1 & sup95esses ( mank9d1 :i* is
 only controll$1 & kept f sweep+ all    
be=e x1 by ! ex]tions :i* "s p]sons     
con/antly1 & o!rs by fits1 put =? 9 !   
direction ( good & wor?y objects4 ,x    
gives a v insuffici5t idea ( !          
importance ( ! /riv+s :i* take place to 
improve & elevate human nature & life to
 suppose t _! *ief value consi/s 9 !    
am\nt ( actual improvem5t realiz$ by _! 
means1 & t ! consequ5ce ( _! cessation  
w\ld m]ely be t we %\ld rema9 z we are4 
,a v small dim9ution ( ^? ex]tions w\ld 
n only put a /op to improvem5t1 b w\ld  
turn ! g5]al t5d5cy ( ?+s t[>d          
det]ioration1 :i*1 once begun1 w\ld     
proce$ ) increas+ly rapidity1 & become m
 & m difficult to *eck1 until x rea*$ a 
/ate (t5 se5 9 hi/ory1 & 9 :i* _m l>ge  
portions ( mank9d ev5 n[ grovel2 :5     
h>dly any ?+ %ort ( sup]human p[] seems 
suffici5t to turn ! tide1 & give a fre% 
comm5cem5t to ! upw>d movem5t4  ,^!     

reasons make ! ^w ,progress z unapt z ! 
t]ms ,ord] & ,p]man5ce to become ! basis
 = a classification ( ! requisites ( a  
=m ( gov]nm5t4 ,! fundam5tal anti!sis   
:i* ^! words express does n lie 9 ! ?+s 
!mselves1 s mu* z 9 ! types ( human "*  
:i* answ] to !m4 ,!re are1 we "k1 "s    
m9ds 9 :i* caution1 & o!rs 9 :i*        
boldness1 pr$om9ates2 9 "s1 ! desire to 
avoid imp]ill+ :at is already possess$  
is a /rong] s5tim5t ?an t :i* prompts to
 improve ! old & acquire new advantages2
 :ile !re are o!rs :o lean ! contr>y    
way1 & are m eag] = future ?an c>eful ( 
pres5t good4 ,! road to ! ends ( bo? is 
! same2 b !y are liable to w&] f x 9    
opposite directions4 ,?is consid]ation  
is ( importance 9 compos+ ! p]sonnel (  
any political body3 p]sons ( bo? types  
ought to be includ$ 9 x1 t ! t5d5cies ( 
ea* may be temp]$1 9 s f> z !y are      
excessive1 by a due proportion ( ! o!r4 
,!re ne$s no express provision to insure
 ?is object1 provid$ c>e is tak5 to     
admit no?+ inconsi/5t ) x4 ,! natural & 

spontane\s admixture ( ! old & ! "y1 (  
^? ^: position & reputation are made &  
^? :o h !m /ill to make1 w 9 g5]al      
suffici5tly answ] ! purpose1 if only ?is
 natural balance is n di/urb$ by        
artificial regulation4  ,s9ce !         
di/9ction mo/ commonly adopt$ = !       
classification ( social exig5cies does n
 possess ! prop]ties ne$ful = t use1 we 
h to seek = "s o!r lead+ di/9ction bett]
 adapt$ to ! purpose4 ,su* a di/9ction  
w\ld seem to be indicat$ by !           
consid]ations to :i* ,i n[ proce$4  ,if 
we ask ourselves on :at causes &        
conditions good gov]nm5t 9 all its      
s5ses1 f ! humble/ to ! mo/ exalt$1     
dep5ds1 we f9d t ! pr9cipal ( !m1 ! "o  
:i* transc5ds all o!rs1 is ! qualities (
 ! human be+s compos+ ! society ov] :i* 
! gov]nm5t is ex]cis$4  ,we may take1 z 
a fir/ in/ance1 ! adm9i/ration ( ju/ice2
 ) ! m propriety1 s9ce !re is no "p (   
public bus9ess 9 :i* ! m]e ma*9]y1 !    
rules & contrivances = conduct+ !       
details ( ! op]ation1 are ( su* vital   

consequ5ce4 ,yet ev5 ^! yield 9         
importance to ! qualities ( ! human     
ag5ts employ$4 ,( :at efficacy are rules
 ( proc$ure 9 secur+ ! ends ( ju/ice if 
! moral condition ( ! p is su* t !      
witnesses g5]ally lie1 & ! judges & _!  
subord9ates take bribes8 ,aga91 h[ c    
in/itutions provide a good municipal    
adm9i/ration if !re exi/s su* indiff]5ce
 to ! subject t ^? :o w\ld adm9i/]      
hone/ly & capably c n be induc$ to s]ve1
 & ! duties are left to ^? :o und]take  
!m because !y h "s private int]e/ to be 
promot$8 ,( :at avail is ! mo/ broadly  
popul> repres5tative sy/em if ! electors
 d n c>e to *oose ! be/ memb] (         
,p>liam5t1 b *oose him :o w sp5d mo/    
money to be elect$8 ,h[ c a             
repres5tative assembly "w = good if its 
memb]s c be b\ght1 or if _! excitability
 ( temp]am5t1 uncorrect$ by public      
discipl9e or private self-control1 makes
 !m incapable ( calm delib]ation1 & !y  
resort to manual viol5ce on ! floor ( ! 
,h\se1 or %oot at "o ano!r ) rifles8    

,h[1 aga91 c gov]nm5t1 or any jo9t      
conc]n1 be c>ri$ on 9 a tol]able mann]  
by p s envi\s t1 if "o among !m seems   
likely to succe$ 9 any ?+1 ^? :o ought  
to coop]ate ) him =m a tacit comb9ation 
to make him fail8 ,:5ev] ! g5]al        
disposition ( ! p is su* t ea*          
individual reg>ds ^? only ( 8 int]e/s   
:i* are selfi%1 & does n dwell on1 or   
conc]n himself =1 8 %>e ( ! g5]al       
int]e/1 9 su* a /ate ( ?+s good gov]nm5t
 is impossible4 ,! influ5ce ( defects ( 
intellig5ce 9 ob/ruct+ all ! elem5ts (  
good gov]nm5t requires no illu/ration4  
,gov]nm5t consi/s ( acts done by human  
be+s2 & if ! ag5ts1 or ^? :o *oose !    
ag5ts1 or ^? to :om ! ag5ts are         
responsible1 or ! look]s-on ^: op9ion   
ought to influ5ce & *eck all ^!1 are m]e
 masses ( ignorance1 /upidity1 & baleful
 prejudice1 e op]ation ( gov]nm5t w g   
wrong2 :ile1 9 proportion z ! m5 rise   
above ?is /&>d1 s w ! gov]nm5t improve 9
 quality up to ! po9t ( excell5ce1      
atta9able b n[h]e atta9$1 :]e ! (fic]s (

 gov]nm5t1 !mselves p]sons ( sup]ior    
virtue & intellect1 are surr\nd$ by !   
atmosph]e ( a virtu\s & enlight5$ public
 op9ion4  ,! fir/ elem5t ( good         
gov]nm5t1 !re=e1 be+ ! virtue &         
intellig5ce ( ! human be+s compos+ !    
community1 ! mo/ important po9t (       
excell5ce :i* any =m ( gov]nm5t c       
possess is to promote ! virtue &        
intellig5ce ( ! p !mselves4 ,! fir/ "q 9
 respect to any political in/itutions is
 h[ f> !y t5d to fo/] 9 ! memb]s ( !    
community ! v>i\s desirable qualities1  
moral & intellectual1 or r 7foll[+      
,b5?am's m complete classification7     
moral1 intellectual1 & active4 ,!       
gov]nm5t :i* does ?is ! be/ has e       
likelihood ( be+ ! be/ 9 all o!r        
respects1 s9ce x is on ^! qualities1 s  
f> z !y exi/ 9 ! p1 t all possibility ( 
goodness 9 ! practical op]ations ( !    
gov]nm5t dep5ds4  ,we may consid]1 !n1 z
 "o crit]ion ( ! goodness ( a gov]nm5t1 
! degree 9 :i* x t5ds to increase ! sum 
( good qualities 9 ! gov]n$1            

collectively & individually1 s9ce1      
besides t _! well-be+ is ! sole object (
 gov]nm5t1 _! good qualities supply !   
mov+ =ce :i* works ! ma*9]y4 ,?is       
leaves1 z ! o!r con/itu5t elem5t ( !    
m]it ( a gov]nm5t1 ! quality ( ! ma*9]y 
itself2 t is1 ! degree 9 :i* x is adapt$
 to take advantage ( ! am\nt ( good     
qualities :i* may at any "t exi/1 & make
 !m in/rum5tal to ! "r purposes4 ,let u 
aga9 take ! subject ( judicature z an   
example & illu/ration4 ,! judicial sy/em
 be+ giv51 ! goodness ( ! adm9i/ration (
 ju/ice is 9 ! comp\nd ratio ( ! wor? ( 
! m5 compos+ ! tribunals1 & ! wor? ( !  
public op9ion :i* influ5ces or controls 
!m4 ,b all ! diff]5ce betwe5 a good & a 
bad sy/em ( judicature lies 9 !         
contrivances adopt$ = br++ :atev] moral 
& intellectual wor? exi/s 9 ! community 
to be> ^u ! adm9i/ration ( ju/ice1 &    
mak+ x duly op]ative on ! result4 ,!    
arrangem5ts = r5d]+ ! *oice ( ! judges  
su* z to obta9 ! highe/ av]age ( virtue 
& intellig5ce2 ! salut>y =ms ( proc$ure2

 ! publicity :i* all[s obs]vation &     
criticism ( :atev] is amiss2 ! lib]ty ( 
discussion & c9sure ?r\gh ! press2 !    
mode ( tak+ evid5ce1 accord+ z x is well
 or ill adapt$ to elicit tru?2 !        
facilities1 :atev] be _! am\nt1 = obta9+
 access to ! tribunals2 ! arrangem5ts = 
detect+ crimes & appreh5d+ (f5d]s-all ^!
 ?+s are n ! p[]1 b ! ma*9]y = br++ !   
p[] into contact ) ! ob/acle2 & ! ma*9]y
 has no action ( itself1 b )\t x ! p[]1 
let x be ev] s ample1 w\ld be wa/$ & (  
no effect4 ,a simil> di/9ction exi/s 9  
reg>d to ! con/itution ( ! executive    
dep>tm5ts ( adm9i/ration4 ,_! ma*9]y is 
good1 :5 ! prop] te/s are prescrib$ = ! 
qualifications ( (fic]s1 ! prop] rules =
 _! promotion2 :5 ! bus9ess is          
conv5i5tly di/ribut$ among ^? :o are to 
transact x1 a conv5i5t & me?odical ord] 
e/abli%$ = its transaction1 a correct & 
intelligible record kept ( x aft] be+   
transact$2 :5 ea* individual kn[s = :at 
he is responsible1 & is kn[n to o!rs z  
responsible = x2 :5 ! be/-contriv$ *ecks

 are provid$ aga9/ neglig5ce1           
favoritism1 or jobb]y 9 any ( ! acts ( !
 dep>tm5t4 ,b political *ecks w no m act
 ( !mselves ?an a bridle w direct a     
horse )\t a rid]4 ,if ! *eck+           
function>ies are z corrupt or z neglig5t
 z ^? :om !y ought to *eck1 & if !      
public1 ! ma9spr+ ( ! :ole *eck+ ma*9]y1
 are too ignorant1 too passive1 or too  
c>eless & inatt5tive to d _! "p1 little 
b5efit w be d]iv$ f ! be/ adm9i/rative  
app>atus4 ,yet a good app>atus is always
 pref]able to a bad4 ,x enables su*     
insuffici5t mov+ or *eck+ p[] z exi/s to
 act at ! greate/ advantage2 & )\t x1 no
 am\nt ( mov+ or *eck+ p[] w\ld be      
suffici5t4 ,publicity1 = in/ance1 is no 
imp$im5t to evil1 nor /imulus to good1  
if ! public w n look at :at is done2 b  
)\t publicity1 h[ c\ld !y ei!r *eck or  
enc\rage :at !y 7 n p]mitt$ to see8 ,!  
ideally p]fect con/itution ( a public   
(fice is t 9 :i* ! int]e/ ( ! function>y
 is entirely co9cid5t ) 8 duty4 ,no m]e 
sy/em w make x s1 b /ill less c x be    

made s )\t a sy/em1 aptly devis$ = !    
purpose4  ,:at we h said ( ! arrangem5ts
 = ! detail$ adm9i/ration ( ! gov]nm5t  
is /ill m evid5tly true ( its g5]al     
con/itution4 ,all gov]nm5t :i* aims at  
be+ good is an organization ( "s "p ( ! 
good qualities exi/+ 9 ! individual     
memb]s ( ! community = ! conduct ( its  
collective affairs4 ,a repres5tative    
con/itution is a means ( br++ ! g5]al   
/&>d ( intellig5ce & hone/y exi/+ 9 !   
community1 & ! individual intellect &   
virtue ( its wise/ memb]s1 m directly to
 be> ^u ! gov]nm5t1 & inve/+ !m ) great]
 influ5ce 9 x ?an !y w\ld h "u any o!r  
mode ( organization2 ?\gh1 "u any1 su*  
influ5ce z !y d h is ! s\rce ( all good 
t !re is 9 ! gov]nm5t1 & ! h9drance ( e 
evil t !re is n4 ,! great] ! am\nt ( ^! 
good qualities :i* ! in/itutions ( a    
c\ntry succe$ 9 organiz+1 & ! bett] !   
mode ( organization1 ! bett] w be !     
gov]nm5t4  ,we h n[1 !re=e1 obta9$ a    
f\ndation = a tw(old division ( ! m]it  
:i* any set ( political in/itutions c   

possess4 ,x consi/s p>tly ( ! degree 9  
:i* !y promote ! g5]al m5tal advancem5t 
( ! community1 includ+ "u t phrase      
advancem5t 9 intellect1 9 virtue1 & 9   
practical activity & effici5cy1 & p>tly 
( ! degree ( p]fection ) :i* !y organize
 ! moral1 intellectual1 & active wor?   
already exi/+1 s z to op]ate ) ! greate/
 effect on public affairs4 ,a gov]nm5t  
is to be judg$ by its action ^u m5 & by 
its action ^u ?+s2 by :at x makes ( !   
citiz5s1 & :at x does ) !m2 its t5d5cy  
to improve or det]iorate ! p !mselves1 &
 ! goodness or badness ( ! "w x p]=ms = 
!m1 & by means ( !m4 ,gov]nm5t is at    
once a great influ5ce act+ on ! human   
m9d1 & a set ( organiz$ arrangem5ts =   
public bus9ess3 9 ! fir/ capacity its   
b5eficial action is *iefly indirect1 b n
 !re=e less vital1 :ile its mis*iev\s   
action may be direct4  ,! diff]5ce      
betwe5 ^! two functions ( a gov]nm5t is 
n1 l t betwe5 ,ord] & ,progress1 a      
diff]5ce m]ely 9 degree1 b 9 k9d4 ,we   
mu/ n1 h[ev]1 suppose t !y h no intimate

 connection ) "o ano!r4 ,! in/itutions  
:i* insure ! be/ managem5t ( public     
affairs practicable 9 ! exi/+ /ate (    
cultivation t5d by ?is alone to ! fur!r 
improvem5t ( t /ate4 ,a p :i* _h ! mo/ j
 laws1 ! pure/ & mo/ effici5t           
judicature1 ! mo/ enlight5$             
adm9i/ration1 ! mo/ equitable & lea/    
on]\s sy/em ( f9ance1 compatible ) !    
/age x _h atta9$ 9 moral & intellectual 
advancem5t1 w\ld be 9 a fair way to pass
 rapidly into a high] /age4 ,nor is !re 
any mode 9 :i* political in/itutions c  
contribute m effectually to ! improvem5t
 ( ! p ?an by do+ _! m direct "w well4  
,& rev]sely1 if _! ma*9]y is s badly    
con/ruct$ t !y d _! own p>ticul> bus9ess
 ill1 ! effect is felt 9 a ?\s& ways 9  
l[]+ ! morality & dead5+ ! intellig5ce &
 activity ( ! p4 ,b ! di/9ction is      
nev]!less real1 because ?is is only "o (
 ! means by :i* political in/itutions   
improve or det]iorate ! human m9d1 & !  
causes & modes ( t b5eficial or injuri\s
 influ5ce rema9 a di/9ct & mu* wid]     

subject ( /udy4  ,( ! two modes (       
op]ation by :i* a =m ( gov]nm5t or set (
 political in/itutions affects ! welf>e 
( ! community--its op]ation z an ag5cy (
 national education1 & its arrangem5ts =
 conduct+ ! collective affairs ( !      
community 9 ! /ate ( education 9 :i* !y 
already are1 ! la/ evid5tly v>ies mu*   
less1 f diff]5ce ( c\ntry & /ate (      
civilization1 ?an ! fir/4 ,x has also   
mu* less to d ) ! fundam5tal con/itution
 ( ! gov]nm5t4 ,! mode ( conduct+ !     
practical bus9ess ( gov]nm5t1 :i* is be/
 "u a free con/itution1 w\ld g5]ally be 
be/ also 9 an absolute mon>*y1 only an  
absolute mon>*y is n s likely to        
practice x4 ,! laws ( prop]ty1 =        
example2 ! pr9ciples ( evid5ce &        
judicial proc$ure2 ! sy/em ( taxation & 
( f9ancial adm9i/ration1 ne$ n          
necess>ily be diff]5t 9 diff]5t =ms (   
gov]nm5t4 ,ea* ( ^! matt]s has pr9ciples
 & rules ( its own1 :i* are a subject ( 
sep>ate /udy4 ,g5]al jurisprud5ce1 civil
 & p5al legislation1 f9ancial &         

comm]cial policy1 are sci5ces 9         
!mselves1 or1 r1 sep>ate memb]s ( !     
compreh5sive sci5ce or art ( gov]nm5t2 &
 ! mo/ enlight5$ doctr9es on all ^!     
subjects1 ?\gh n equally likely to be   
und]/ood & act$ on "u all =ms (         
gov]nm5t1 yet1 if und]/ood & act$ on1   
w\ld 9 g5]al be equally b5eficial "u !m 
all4 ,x is true t ^! doctr9es c\ld n be 
appli$ )\t "s modifications to all /ates
 ( society & ( ! human m9d2 nev]!less1  
by f> ! great] numb] ( !m w\ld require  
modifications solely ( detail to adapt  
!m to any /ate ( society suffici5tly    
advanc$ to possess rul]s capable (      
und]/&+ !m4 ,a gov]nm5t to :i* !y w\ld  
be :olly unsuitable mu/ be "o s bad 9   
itself1 or s oppos$ to public feel+1 z  
to be unable to ma9ta9 itself 9 exi/5ce 
by hone/ means4  ,x is o!rwise ) t      
portion ( ! int]e/s ( ! community :i*   
relate to ! bett] or worse tra9+ ( ! p  
!mselves4 ,consid]$ z in/rum5tal to ?is1
 in/itutions ne$ to be radically        
diff]5t1 accord+ to ! /age ( advancem5t 

already rea*$4 ,! recognition ( ?is     
tru?1 ?\gh = ! mo/ "p empirically r ?an 
philosophically1 may be reg>d$ z ! ma9  
po9t ( sup]iority 9 ! political !ories (
 ! pres5t above ^? ( ! la/ age1 9 :i* x 
0 cu/om>y to claim repres5tative        
democracy = ,engl& or ,france by        
argum5ts :i* w\ld equally h prov$ x !   
only fit =m ( gov]nm5t = ,b$\9s or      
,malays4 ,! /ate ( diff]5t communities1 
9 po9t ( culture & developm5t1 ranges   
d[nw>ds to a condition v little above ! 
highe/ ( ! bea/s4 ,! upw>d range1 too1  
is consid]able1 & ! future possible     
ext5sion va/ly great]4 ,a community c   
only be develop$ out ( "o ( ^! /ates    
into a high] by a conc\rse ( influ5ces1 
among ! pr9cipal ( :i* is ! gov]nm5t to 
:i* !y are subject4 ,9 all /ates ( human
 improvem5t ev] yet atta9$1 ! nature &  
degree ( au?ority ex]cis$ ov]           
individuals1 ! di/ribution ( p[]1 & !   
conditions ( comm& & ob$i5ce1 are ! mo/ 
p[]ful ( ! influ5ces1 except _! religi\s
 belief1 :i* make !m :at !y are1 &      

enable !m to become :at !y c be4 ,!y may
 be /opp$ %ort at any po9t 9 _! progress
 by defective adaptation ( _! gov]nm5t  
to t p>ticul> /age ( advancem5t4 ,& ! "o
 indisp5sable m]it ( a gov]nm5t1 9 favor
 ( :i* x may be =giv5 almo/ any am\nt ( 
o!r dem]it compatible ) progress1 is t  
its op]ation on ! p is favorable1 or n  
unfavorable1 to ! next /ep :i* x is     
necess>y = !m to take 9 ord] to raise   
!mselves to a high] level4  ,?us 7to    
repeat a =m] example71 a p 9 a /ate (   
savage indep5d5ce1 9 :i* e "o lives =   
himself1 exempt1 unless by fits1 f any  
ext]nal control1 is practically         
incapable ( mak+ any progress 9         
civilization until x has le>n$ to obey4 
,! indisp5sable virtue1 !re=e1 9 a      
gov]nm5t :i* e/abli%es itself ov] a p ( 
?is sort is t x make itself obey$4 ,to  
enable x to d ?is1 ! con/itution ( !    
gov]nm5t mu/ be ne>ly1 or q despotic4 ,a
 con/itution 9 any degree popul>1       
dep5d5t on ! volunt>y surr5d] by !      
diff]5t memb]s ( ! community ( _!       

individual fre$om ( action1 w\ld fail to
 en=ce ! fir/ lesson :i* ! pupils1 9 ?is
 /age ( _! progress1 require4           
,accord+ly1 ! civilization ( su* tribes1
 :5 n ! result ( juxtaposition ) o!rs   
already civiliz$1 is almo/ always ! "w (
 an absolute rul]1 d]iv+ 8 p[] ei!r f   
religion or milit>y pr[ess--v (t5 f     
=eign arms4  ,aga91 unciviliz$ races1 & 
! brave/ & mo/ en]getic /ill m ?an !    
re/1 are av]se to cont9u\s labor ( an   
unexcit+ k9d4 ,yet all real civilization
 is at ?is price2 )\t su* labor1 nei!r c
 ! m9d be discipl9$ into ! habits       
requir$ by civiliz$ society1 nor !      
mat]ial _w prep>$ to receive x4 ,!re    
ne$s a r>e concurr5ce ( circum/ances1 & 
= t reason (t5 a va/ l5g? ( "t1 to      
reconcile su* a p to indu/ry1 unless !y 
are = a :ile compell$ to x4 ,h5ce ev5   
p]sonal slav]y1 by giv+ a comm5cem5t to 
indu/rial life1 & en=c+ x z ! exclusive 
occupation ( ! mo/ num]\s portion ( !   
community1 may accel]ate ! transition to
 a bett] fre$om ?an t ( fight+ & rap9e4 

,x is almo/ ne$less to say t ?is excuse 
= slav]y is only available 9 a v e>ly   
/ate ( society4 ,a civiliz$ p h f> o!r  
means ( imp>t+ civilization to ^? "u _! 
influ5ce2 & slav]y is1 9 all its        
details1 s repugnant to t gov]nm5t (    
law1 :i* is ! f\ndation ( all mod]n     
life1 & s corrupt+ to ! ma/]-class :5 !y
 h once come "u civiliz$ influ5ces1 t   
its adoption "u any circum/ances :atev] 
9 mod]n society is a relapse into worse 
?an b>b>ism4  ,at "s p]iod1 h[ev]1 ( _! 
hi/ory1 almo/ e p1 n[ civiliz$1 h       
consi/$1 9 majority1 ( slaves4 ,a p 9 t 
condition require to raise !m out ( x a 
v diff]5t polity f a nation ( savages4  
,if !y are en]getic by nature1 &        
especially if !re be associat$ ) !m 9 ! 
same community an indu/ri\s class :o are
 nei!r slaves nor slave-own]s 7z 0 !    
case 9 ,greece71 !y ne$1 probably1 no m 
to insure _! improvem5t ?an to make !m  
free3 :5 fre$1 !y may (t5 be fit1 l     
,roman fre$m51 to be admitt$ at once to 
! full rights ( citiz5%ip4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 

is n ! normal condition ( slav]y1 & is  
g5]ally a sign t x is becom+ obsolete4  
,a slave1 prop]ly s call$1 is a be+ :o  
has n le>n$ to help himself4 ,he is1 no 
d\bt1 "o /ep 9 advance ( a savage4 ,he  
has n ! fir/ lesson ( political society 
/ill to acquire4 ,he has le>n$ to obey4 
,b :at he obeys is only a direct comm&4 
,x is ! *>act]i/ic ( born slaves to be  
incapable ( con=m+ _! conduct to a rule 
or law4 ,!y c only d :at !y are ord]$1 &
 only :5 !y are ord]$ to d x4 ,if a man 
:om !y fe> is /&+ ov] !m & ?reat5+ !m ) 
puni%m5t1 !y obey2 b :5 8 back is turn$1
 ! "w rema9s undone4 ,! motive det]m9+  
!m mu/ appeal1 n to _! int]e/s1 b to _! 
in/9cts2 imm$iate hope or imm$iate      
t]ror4 ,a despotism1 :i* may tame !     
savage1 w1 9 s f> z x is a despotism1   
only confirm ! slaves 9 _! incapacities4
 ,yet a gov]nm5t "u _! own control w\ld 
be entirely unmanageable by !m4 ,_!     
improvem5t c n come f !mselves1 b mu/ be
 sup]9duc$ f )\t4 ,! /ep :i* !y h to    
take1 & _! only pa? to improvem5t1 is to

 be rais$ f a gov]nm5t ( w to "o ( law4 
,!y h to be taught self-gov]nm5t1 & ?is1
 9 its initial /age1 means ! capacity to
 act on g5]al in/ructions4 ,:at !y      
require is n a gov]nm5t ( =ce1 b "o (   
guidance4 ,be+1 h[ev]1 9 too l[ a /ate  
to yield to ! guidance ( any b ^? to :om
 !y look up z ! possessors ( =ce1 ! sort
 ( gov]nm5t fitte/ = !m is "o :i*       
possesses =ce1 b seldom uses x2 a p>5tal
 despotism or ari/ocracy1 resembl+ ! ,/4
 ,simonian =m ( ,socialism2 ma9ta9+ a   
g5]al sup]9t5d5ce ov] all ! op]ations ( 
society1 s z to keep be=e ea* ! s5se ( a
 pres5t =ce suffici5t to compel 8       
ob$i5ce to ! rule laid d[n1 b :i*1 ow+  
to ! impossibility ( desc5d+ to regulate
 all ! m9uti ( indu/ry & life1          
necess>ily leaves & induces individuals 
to d mu* ( !mselves4 ,?is1 :i* may be   
t]m$ ! gov]nm5t ( lead+-/r+s1 seems to  
be ! "o requir$ to c>ry su* a p ! mo/   
rapidly ?r\gh ! next necess>y /ep 9     
social progress4 ,su* appe>s to h be5 ! 
idea ( ! gov]nm5t ( ! ,incas ( ,p]u1 &  

su* 0 t ( ! ,jesuits ( ,p>aguay4 ,i ne$ 
sc>cely rem>k t lead+-/r+s are only     
admissible z a means ( gradually tra9+ !
 p to walk alone4  ,x w\ld be out (     
place to c>ry ! illu/ration fur!r4 ,to  
attempt to inve/igate :at k9d ( gov]nm5t
 is suit$ to e kn[n /ate ( society w\ld 
be to compose a treatise1 n on          
repres5tative gov]nm5t1 b on political  
sci5ce at l>ge4 ,= our m limit$ purpose 
we borr[ f political philosophy only its
 g5]al pr9ciples4 ,to det]m9e ! =m (    
gov]nm5t mo/ suit$ to any p>ticul> p1 we
 mu/ be able1 among ! defects &         
%ortcom+s :i* belong to t p1 to di/+ui% 
^? t are ! imm$iate imp$im5t to         
progress--to discov] :at x is :i* 7z x  
77 /ops ! way4 ,! be/ gov]nm5t = !m is !
 "o :i* t5ds mo/ to give !m t = want (  
:i* !y c n advance1 or advance only 9 a 
lame & lopsid$ mann]4 ,we mu/ n1 h[ev]1 
=get ! res]vation necess>y 9 all ?+s :i*
 h = _! object improvem5t or ,progress1 
namely1 t 9 seek+ ! good :i* is ne$$1 no
 damage1 or z little z possible1 be done

 to t already possess$4 ,a p ( savages  
%\ld be taught ob$i5ce1 b n 9 su* a     
mann] z to conv]t !m into a p ( slaves4 
,& 7to give ! obs]vation a high]        
g5]ality7 ! =m ( gov]nm5t :i* is mo/    
effectual = c>ry+ a p ?r\gh ! next /age 
( progress w /ill be v improp] = !m if x
 does ?is 9 su* a mann] z to ob/ruct1 or
 positively unfit !m =1 ! /ep next      
beyond4 ,su* cases are frequ5t1 & are   
among ! mo/ melan*oly facts 9 hi/ory4 ,!
 ,egyptian hi]>*y1 ! pat]nal despotism (
 ,*9a1 7 v fit in/rum5ts = c>ry+ ^?     
nations up to ! po9t ( civilization :i* 
!y atta9$4 ,b hav+ rea*$ t po9t1 !y 7   
br\ght to a p]man5t halt = want ( m5tal 
lib]ty & individuality--requisites (    
improvem5t :i* ! in/itutions t _h c>ri$ 
!m ?us f> entirely incapacitat$ !m f    
acquir+--& z ! in/itutions did n break  
d[n & give place to o!rs1 fur!r         
improvem5t /opp$4 ,9 contra/ ) ^!       
nations1 let u consid] ! example ( an   
opposite "* af=d$ by ano!r & a          
comp>atively insignificant ,ori5tal p--!

 ,jews4 ,!y1 too1 _h an absolute mon>*y 
& a hi]>*y1 & _! organiz$ in/itutions 7 
z obvi\sly ( sac]dotal orig9 z ^? ( !   
,h9doos4 ,^! did = !m :at 0 done = o!r  
,ori5tal races by _! in/itutions--subdu$
 !m to indu/ry & ord]1 & gave !m a      
national life4 ,b nei!r _! k+s nor _!   
prie/s ev] obta9$1 z 9 ^? o!r c\ntries1 
! exclusive m\ld+ ( _! "*4 ,_! religion1
 :i* enabl$ p]sons ( g5ius & a high     
religi\s tone to be reg>d$ & to reg>d   
!mselves z inspir$ f heav51 gave exi/5ce
 to an ine/imably preci\s unorganiz$    
in/itution--! ,ord] 7if x may be s t]m$7
 ( ,prophets4 ,"u ! protection1 g5]ally 
?\gh n always effectual1 ( _! sacr$ "*1 
! ,prophets 7 a p[] 9 ! nation1 (t5 m   
?an a mat* = k+s & prie/s1 & kept up1 9 
t little corn] ( ! e>?1 ! antagonism (  
influ5ces :i* is ! only real security = 
cont9u$ progress4 ,religion1            
consequ5tly1 0 n !re :at x has be5 9 s  
_m o!r places--a consecration ( all t 0 
once e/abli%$1 & a b>ri] aga9/ fur!r    
improvem5t4 ,! rem>k ( a di/+ui%$       

,hebrew1 ,m4 ,salvador1 t ! ,prophets 71
 9 ,*ur* & ,/ate1 ! equival5t ( ! mod]n 
lib]ty ( ! press1 gives a j b n an      
adequate conception ( ! "p fulfill$ 9   
national & univ]sal hi/ory by ?is great 
elem5t ( ,jewi% life2 by means ( :i*1 ! 
canon ( inspiration nev] be+ complete1 !
 p]sons mo/ em95t 9 g5ius & moral feel+ 
c\ld n only d5\nce & reprobate1 ) !     
direct au?ority ( ! ,almighty1 :atev]   
appe>$ to !m des]v+ ( su* treatm5t1 b   
c\ld give =? bett] & high]              
int]pretations ( ! national religion1   
:i* !nce=? became "p ( ! religion4      
,accord+ly1 :oev] c dive/ himself ( !   
habit ( read+ ! ,bible z if x 0 "o book1
 :i* until lately 0 equally invet]ate 9 
,*ri/ians & 9 unbeliev]s1 sees )        
admiration ! va/ int]val betwe5 !       
morality & religion ( ! ,p5tateu*1 or   
ev5 ( ! hi/orical books 7! unmi/akable  
"w ( ,hebrew ,cons]vatives ( ! sac]dotal
 ord]71 & ! morality & religion ( !     
prophecies--a di/ance z wide z betwe5 ^!
 la/ & ! ,gospels4 ,conditions m        

favorable to ,progress c\ld n easily    
exi/2 accord+ly1 ! ,jews1 in/ead ( be+  
/ation>y l o!r ,asiatics1 71 next to !  
,greeks1 ! mo/ progressive p (          
antiquity1 &1 jo9tly ) !m1 h be5 !      
/>t+-po9t & ma9 propell+ ag5cy ( mod]n  
cultivation4  ,x is1 !n1 impossible to  
und]/& ! "q ( ! adaptation ( =ms (      
gov]nm5t to /ates ( society1 )\t tak+   
into acc\nt n only ! next /ep1 b all !  
/eps :i* society has yet to make2 bo? ^?
 :i* c be =ese51 & ! f> wid] indef9ite  
range :i* is at pres5t out ( sight4 ,x  
foll[s1 t to judge ( ! m]its ( =ms (    
gov]nm5t1 an ideal mu/ be con/ruct$ ( ! 
=m ( gov]nm5t mo/ eligible 9 itself1 t  
is1 :i*1 if ! necess>y conditions exi/$ 
= giv+ effect to its b5eficial t5d5cies1
 w\ld1 m ?an all o!rs1 favor & promote1 
n "s "o improvem5t1 b all =ms & degrees 
( x4 ,?is hav+ be5 done1 we mu/ consid] 
:at are ! m5tal conditions ( all sorts  
necess>y to enable ?is gov]nm5t to      
realize its t5d5cies1 & :at1 !re=e1 are 
! v>i\s defects by :i* a p is made      

incapable ( reap+ its b5efits4 ,x w\ld  
!n be possible to con/ruct a !orem ( !  
circum/ances 9 :i* t =m ( gov]nm5t may  
wisely be introduc$2 & also to judge1 9 
cases 9 :i* x _h bett] n be introduc$1  
:at inf]ior =ms ( polity w be/ c>ry ^?  
communities ?r\gh ! int]m$iate /ages :i*
 !y mu/ trav]se be=e !y c become fit = !
 be/ =m ( gov]nm5t4  ,( ^! inquiries1 ! 
la/ does n conc]n u "h1 b ! fir/ is an  
ess5tial "p ( our subject2 = we may1 )\t
 ra%ness1 at once enunciate a           
proposition1 ! pro(s & illu/rations (   
:i* w pres5t !mselves 9 ! ensu+ pages1 t
 ?is ideally be/ =m ( gov]nm5t w be f\nd
 9 "s "o or o!r v>iety ( !              
,repres5tative ,sy/em4    ,*apt]        
,,iii--,t ! ideally be/ ,=m ( ,gov]nm5t 
is ,repres5tative ,gov]nm5t4   ,x has   
long 7p]haps ?r\gh\t ! entire duration (
 ,briti% fre$om7 be5 a common =m (      
spee*1 t if a good despot c\ld be       
insur$1 despotic mon>*y w\ld be ! be/ =m
 ( gov]nm5t4 ,i look ^u ?is z a radical 
& mo/ p]nici\s misconception ( :at good 

gov]nm5t is1 :i*1 until x c be got rid  
(1 w fatally vitiate all our            
speculations on gov]nm5t4  ,!           
supposition is1 t absolute p[]1 9 ! h&s 
( an em95t individual1 w\ld insure a    
virtu\s & intellig5t p]=mance ( all !   
duties ( gov]nm5t4 ,good laws w\ld be   
e/abli%$ & en=c$1 bad laws w\ld be      
re=m$2 ! be/ m5 w\ld be plac$ 9 all     
situations ( tru/2 ju/ice w\ld be z well
 adm9i/]$1 ! public burd5s w\ld be z    
light & z judici\sly impos$1 e bran* (  
adm9i/ration w\ld be z purely & z       
intellig5tly conduct$ z ! circum/ances (
 ! c\ntry & its degree ( intellectual & 
moral cultivation w\ld admit4 ,i am     
will+1 = ! sake ( ! argum5t1 to conc$e  
all ?is1 b ,i mu/ po9t out h[ great !   
concession is1 h[ mu* m is ne$$ to      
produce ev5 an approximation to ^!      
results ?an is convey$ 9 ! simple       
expression1 a good despot4 ,_!          
realization w\ld 9 fact imply1 n m]ely a
 good mon>*1 b an all-see+ "o4 ,he mu/  
be at all times in=m$ correctly1 9      

consid]able detail1 ( ! conduct & work+ 
( e bran* ( adm9i/ration1 9 e di/rict ( 
! c\ntry1 & mu/ be able1 9 ! tw5ty-f\r  
h\rs p] day1 :i* are all t is grant$ to 
a k+ z to ! humble/ labor]1 to give an  
effective %>e ( att5tion & sup]9t5d5ce  
to all p>ts ( ?is va/ field2 or he mu/  
at lea/ be capable ( disc]n+ & *oos+    
out1 f among ! mass ( 8 subjects1 n only
 a l>ge abundance ( hone/ & able m51 fit
 to conduct e bran* ( public            
adm9i/ration "u sup]vision & control1 b 
also ! small numb] ( m5 ( em95t virtues 
& tal5ts :o c be tru/$ n only to d )\t t
 sup]vision1 b to ex]cise x !mselves ov]
 o!rs4 ,s extraord9>y are ! faculties & 
en]gies requir$ = p]=m+ ?is task 9 any  
supportable mann]1 t ! good despot :om  
we are suppos+ c h>dly be imag9$ z      
cons5t+ to und]take x unless z a refuge 
f intol]able evils1 & a transitional    
prep>ation = some?+ beyond4 ,b ! argum5t
 c d )\t ev5 ?is imm5se item 9 ! acc\nt4
 ,suppose ! difficulty vanqui%$4 ,:at   
%\ld we !n h8 ,"o man ( sup]human m5tal 

activity manag+ ! entire affairs ( a    
m5tally passive p4 ,_! passivity is     
impli$ 9 ! v idea ( absolute p[]4 ,!    
nation z a :ole1 & e individual compos+ 
x1 are )\t any pot5tial voice 9 _! own  
de/9y4 ,!y ex]cise no w 9 respect to _! 
collective int]e/s4 ,all is decid$ = !m 
by a w n _! own1 :i* x is legally a     
crime = !m to disobey4 ,:at sort ( human
 be+s c be =m$ "u su* a regim58 ,:at    
developm5t c ei!r _! ?9k+ or _! active  
faculties atta9 "u x8 ,on matt]s ( pure 
!ory !y might p]haps be all[$ to        
speculate1 s long z _! speculations ei!r
 did n approa* politics1 or _h n !      
remote/ connection ) its practice4 ,on  
practical affairs !y c\ld at mo/ be only
 suff]$ to sugge/2 & ev5 "u ! mo/       
mod]ate ( despots1 none b p]sons (      
already admitt$ or reput$ sup]iority    
c\ld hope t _! sugge/ions w\ld be kn[n  
to1 mu* less reg>d$ by1 ^? :o _h !      
managem5t ( affairs4 ,a p]son mu/ h a v 
unusual ta/e = intellectual ex]cise 9 & 
= itself :o w put himself to ! tr\ble ( 

?\ght :5 x is to h no outw>d effect1 or 
qualify himself = functions :i* he has  
no *ance ( be+ all[$ to ex]cise4 ,! only
 suffici5t incitem5t to m5tal ex]tion1 9
 any b a few m9ds 9 a g5]ation1 is !    
prospect ( "s practical use to be made (
 its results4 ,x does n foll[ t ! nation
 w be :olly de/itute ( intellectual p[]4
 ,! common bus9ess ( life1 :i* mu/      
necess>ily be p]=m$ by ea* individual or
 family = !mselves1 w call =? "s am\nt (
 intellig5ce & practical ability1 )9 a  
c]ta9 n>r[ range ( ideas4 ,!re may be a 
select class ( savants :o cultivate     
sci5ce ) a view to its physical uses or 
= ! pleasure ( ! pursuit4 ,!re w be a   
bureaucracy1 & p]sons 9 tra9+ = !       
bureaucracy1 :o w be taught at lea/ "s  
empirical maxims ( gov]nm5t & public    
adm9i/ration4 ,!re may be1 & (t5 has    
be51 a sy/ematic organization ( ! be/   
m5tal p[] 9 ! c\ntry 9 "s special       
direction 7commonly milit>y7 to promote 
! gr&eur ( ! despot4 ,b ! public at l>ge
 rema9 )\t in=mation & )\t int]e/ on all

 great] matt]s ( practice2 or1 if !y h  
any k ( !m1 x is b a dilettante k1 l t  
:i* p h ( ! me*anical arts :o h nev]    
h&l$ a tool4 ,nor is x only 9 _!        
intellig5ce t !y suff]4 ,_! moral       
capacities are equally /unt$4 ,:]ev] !  
sph]e ( action ( human be+s is          
artificially circumscrib$1 _! s5tim5ts  
are n>r[$ & dw>f$ 9 ! same proportion4  
,! food ( feel+ is action2 ev5 dome/ic  
affection lives ^u volunt>y good (fices4
 ,let a p]son h no?+ to d = 8 c\ntry1 & 
he w n c>e = x4 ,x has be5 said ( old t 
9 a despotism !re is at mo/ b "o        
patriot1 ! despot himself2 & ! say+ re/s
 on a j appreciation ( ! effects (      
absolute subjection ev5 to a good & wise
 ma/]4 ,religion rema9s2 & "h1 at lea/1 
x may be ?\ght1 is an ag5cy t may be    
reli$ on = lift+ m5's eyes & m9ds above 
! du/ at _! feet4 ,b religion1 ev5      
suppos+ x to escape p]v]sion = !        
purposes ( despotism1 ceases 9 ^!       
circum/ances to be a social conc]n1 &   
n>r[s into a p]sonal affair betwe5 an   

individual & 8 ,mak]1 9 :i* ! issue at  
/ake is b 8 private salvation4 ,religion
 9 ?is %ape is q consi/5t ) ! mo/ selfi%
 & contract$ egoism1 & id5tifies ! vot>y
 z little 9 feel+ ) ! re/ ( 8 k9d z     
s5suality itself4  ,a good despotism    
means a gov]nm5t 9 :i*1 s f> z dep5ds on
 ! despot1 !re is no positive oppression
 by (fic]s ( /ate1 b 9 :i* all !        
collective int]e/s ( ! p are manag$ =   
!m1 all ! ?9k+ t has relation to        
collective int]e/s done = !m1 & 9 :i* _!
 m9ds are =m$ by1 & cons5t+ to1 ?is     
abdication ( _! own en]gies4 ,leav+ ?+s 
to ! gov]nm5t1 l leav+ !m to ,provid5ce1
 is synonym\s ) c>+ no?+ ab\t !m1 &     
accept+ _! results1 :5 disagreeable1 z  
visitations ( ,nature4 ,) ! exception1  
!re=e1 ( a few /udi\s m5 :o take an     
intellectual int]e/ 9 speculation = its 
own sake1 ! intellig5ce & s5tim5ts ( !  
:ole p are giv5 up to ! mat]ial int]e/s1
 & :5 ^! are provid$ =1 to ! amusem5t & 
ornam5tation ( private life4 ,b to say  
?is is to say1 if ! :ole te/imony (     

hi/ory is wor? any ?+1 t ! era (        
national decl9e has arriv$2 t is1 if !  
nation _h ev] atta9$ any ?+ to decl9e f4
 ,if x has nev] ris5 above ! condition (
 an ,ori5tal p1 9 t condition x cont9ues
 to /agnate2 b if1 l ,greece or ,rome1 x
 _h realiz$ any ?+ high]1 ?r\gh ! en]gy1
 patriotism1 & enl>gem5t ( m9d1 :i*1 z  
national qualities1 are ! fruits solely 
( fre$om1 x relapses 9 a few g5]ations  
into ! ,ori5tal /ate4 ,& t /ate does n  
mean /upid tranquillity1 ) security     
aga9/ *ange = ! worse2 x (t5 means be+  
ov]run1 conqu]$1 & r$uc$ to dome/ic     
slav]y ei!r by a /rong] despot1 or by ! 
ne>e/ b>b>\s p :o reta9 along ) _!      
savage rud5ess ! en]gies ( fre$om4  ,su*
 are n m]ely ! natural t5d5cies1 b !    
inh]5t necessities ( despotic gov]nm5t2 
f :i* !re is no outlet1 unless 9 s f> z 
! despotism cons5ts n to be despotism2 9
 s f> z ! suppos$ good despot ab/a9s f  
ex]cis+ 8 p[]1 &1 ?\gh hold+ x 9 res]ve1
 all[s ! g5]al bus9ess ( gov]nm5t to g  
on z if ! p really gov]n$ !mselves4     

,h[ev] little probable x may be1 we may 
imag9e a despot obs]v+ _m ( ! rules &   
re/ra9ts ( con/itutional gov]nm5t4 ,he  
might all[ su* fre$om ( ! press & (     
discussion z w\ld enable a public op9ion
 to =m & express itself on national     
affairs4 ,he might suff] local int]e/s  
to be manag$1 )\t ! int]f]5ce (         
au?ority1 by ! p !mselves4 ,he might ev5
 surr\nd himself ) a c\ncil or c\ncils (
 gov]nm5t1 freely *os5 by ! :ole or "s  
portion ( ! nation1 reta9+ 9 8 own h&s !
 p[] ( taxation1 & ! supreme legislative
 z well z executive au?ority4 ,7 he to  
act ?us1 & s f> abdicate z a despot1 he 
w\ld d away ) a consid]able "p ( ! evils
 *>act]i/ic ( despotism4 ,political     
activity & capacity = public affairs    
w\ld no long] be prev5t$ f gr[+ up 9 !  
body ( ! nation1 & a public op9ion w\ld 
=m itself1 n ! m]e e*o ( ! gov]nm5t4 ,b 
su* improvem5t w\ld be ! beg9n+ ( new   
difficulties4 ,?is public op9ion1       
indep5d5t ( ! mon>*'s dictation1 mu/ be 
ei!r ) him or aga9/ him2 if n ! "o1 x w 

be ! o!r4 ,all gov]nm5ts mu/ displease  
_m p]sons1 & ^! hav+ n[ regul> organs1 &
 be+ able to express _! s5tim5ts1       
op9ions adv]se to ! measures ( gov]nm5t 
w\ld (t5 be express$4 ,:at is ! mon>* to
 d :5 ^! unfavorable op9ions happ5 to be
 9 ! majority8 ,is he to alt] 8 c\rse8  
,is he to def] to ! nation8 ,if s1 he is
 no long] a despot1 b a con/itutional   
k+2 an organ or fir/ m9i/] ( ! p1       
di/+ui%$ only by be+ irremovable4 ,if n1
 he mu/ ei!r put d[n opposition by 8    
despotic p[]1 or !re w arise a p]man5t  
antagonism betwe5 ! p & "o man1 :i* c h 
b "o possible end+4 ,n ev5 a religi\s   
pr9ciple ( passive ob$i5ce & "r div9e   
w\ld long w>d (f ! natural consequ5ces (
 su* a position4 ,! mon>* w\ld h to     
succumb1 & con=m to ! conditions (      
con/itutional royalty1 or give place to 
"s "o :o w\ld4 ,! despotism1 be+ ?us    
*iefly nom9al1 w\ld possess few ( !     
advantages suppos$ to belong to absolute
 mon>*y1 :ile x w\ld realize 9 a v      
imp]fect degree ^? ( a free gov]nm5t1   

s9ce1 h[ev] great an am\nt ( lib]ty !   
citiz5s might practically enjoy1 !y c\ld
 nev] =get t !y held x on suff]ance1 &  
by a concession :i*1 "u ! exi/+         
con/itution ( ! /ate might at any mom5t 
be resum$2 t !y 7 legally slaves1 ?\gh (
 a prud5t or indulg5t ma/]4  ,x is n mu*
 to be wond]$ at if impati5t or         
disappo9t$ re=m]s1 groan+ "u ! imp$im5ts
 oppos$ to ! mo/ salut>y public         
improvem5ts by ! ignorance1 !           
indiff]5ce1 ! untractabl5ess1 ! p]v]se  
ob/9acy ( a p1 & ! corrupt comb9ations (
 selfi% private int]e/s1 arm$ ) ! p[]ful
 weapons af=d$ by free in/itutions1 %\ld
 at times sigh = a /rong h& to be> d[n  
all ^! ob/acles1 & compel a recalcitrant
 p to be bett] gov]n$4 ,b 7sett+ aside !
 fact t = "o despot :o n[ & !n re=ms an 
abuse1 !re are n9ety-n9e :o d no?+ b    
create !m7 ^? :o look 9 any su*         
direction = ! realization ( _! hopes    
leave out ( ! idea ( good gov]nm5t its  
pr9cipal elem5t1 ! improvem5t ( ! p     
!mselves4 ,"o ( ! b5efits ( fre$om is t 

"u x ! rul] c n pass by ! p's m9ds1 &   
am5d _! affairs = !m )\t am5d+ !m4 ,if x
 7 possible = ! p to be well gov]n$ 9   
spite ( !mselves1 _! good gov]nm5t w\ld 
la/ no long] ?an ! fre$om ( a p usually 
la/s :o h be5 lib]at$ by =eign arms )\t 
_! own co-op]ation4 ,x is true1 a despot
 may educate ! p1 & to d s really w\ld  
be ! be/ apology = 8 despotism4 ,b any  
education :i* aims at mak+ human be+s   
o!r ?an ma*9es1 9 ! long run makes !m   
claim to h ! control ( _! own actions4  
,! lead]s ( ,fr5* philosophy 9 !        
eighte5? c5tury _h be5 educat$ by !     
,jesuits4 ,ev5 ,jesuit education1 x     
seems1 0 suffici5tly real to call =? !  
appetite = fre$om4 ,:atev] invigorates !
 faculties1 9 h[ev] small a measure1    
creates an increas$ desire = _! m       
unimp$$ ex]cise2 & a popul> education is
 a failure if x educates ! p = any /ate 
b t :i* x w c]ta9ly induce !m to desire1
 & mo/ probably to dem&4  ,i am f> f    
condemn+1 9 cases ( extreme exig5cy1 !  
assumption ( absolute p[] 9 ! =m ( a    

tempor>y dictator%ip4 ,free nations h1 9
 times ( old1 conf]r$ su* p[] by _! own 
*oice1 z a necess>y m$ic9e = diseases ( 
! body politic :i* c\ld n be got rid (  
by less viol5t means4 ,b its acceptance1
 ev5 = a "t /rictly limit$1 c only be   
excus$1 if1 l ,solon or ,pittacus1 !    
dictator employs ! :ole p[] he assumes 9
 remov+ ! ob/acles :i* deb> ! nation f !
 enjoym5t ( fre$om4 ,a good despotism is
 an altoge!r false ideal1 :i*           
practically 7except z a means to "s     
tempor>y purpose7 becomes ! mo/ s5seless
 & dang]\s ( *im]as4 ,evil = evil1 a    
good despotism1 9 a c\ntry at all       
advanc$ 9 civilization1 is m noxi\s ?an 
a bad "o1 = x is f> m relax+ & en]vat+  
to ! ?\ghts1 feel+s1 & en]gies ( ! p4 ,!
 despotism ( ,augu/us prep>$ ! ,romans =
 ,tib]ius4 ,if ! :ole tone ( _! "* _h n 
fir/ be5 pro/rat$ by ne>ly two g5]ations
 ( t mild slav]y1 !y w\ld probably h _h 
_s en\gh left to rebel aga9/ ! m odi\s  
"o4  ,!re is no difficulty 9 %[+ t !    
ideally be/ =m ( gov]nm5t is t 9 :i* !  

sov]eignty1 or supreme controll+ p[] 9 !
 la/ resort1 is ve/$ 9 ! entire         
aggregate ( ! community1 e citiz5 n only
 hav+ a voice 9 ! ex]cise ( t ultimate  
sov]eignty1 b be+1 at lea/ occasionally1
 call$ on to take an actual "p 9 !      
gov]nm5t by ! p]sonal dis*>ge ( "s      
public function1 local or g5]al4  ,to   
te/ ?is proposition1 x has to be exam9$ 
9 ref]5ce to ! two bran*es into :i*1 z  
po9t$ out 9 ! la/ *apt]1 ! inquiry into 
! goodness ( a gov]nm5t conv5i5tly      
divides itself1 namely1 h[ f> x promotes
 ! good managem5t ( ! affairs ( society 
by means ( ! exi/+ faculties1 moral1    
intellectual1 & active1 ( its v>i\s     
memb]s1 & :at is its effect 9 improv+ or
 det]iorat+ ^? faculties4  ,! ideally   
be/ =m ( gov]nm5t1 x is sc>cely necess>y
 to say1 does n mean "o :i* is          
practicable or eligible 9 all /ates (   
civilization1 b ! "o :i*1 9 !           
circum/ances 9 :i* x is practicable &   
eligible1 is att5d$ ) ! greate/ am\nt ( 
b5eficial consequ5ces1 imm$iate &       

prospective4 ,a completely popul>       
gov]nm5t is ! only polity :i* c make out
 any claim to ?is "*4 ,x is pre-em95t 9 
bo? ! dep>tm5ts betwe5 :i* ! excell5ce (
 a political ,con/itution is divid$4 ,x 
is bo? m favorable to pres5t good       
gov]nm5t1 & promotes a bett] & high] =m 
( national "* ?an any o!r polity        
:atsoev]4  ,its sup]iority 9 ref]5ce to 
pres5t well-be+ re/s ^u two pr9ciples1 (
 z univ]sal tru? & applicability z any  
g5]al propositions :i* c be laid d[n    
respect+ human affairs4 ,! fir/ is1 t ! 
rights & int]e/s ( e or any p]son are   
only secure f be+ disreg>d$ :5 ! p]son  
int]e/$ is himself able1 & habitually   
dispos$ to /& up = !m4 ,! second is1 t !
 g5]al prosp]ity atta9s a great] height1
 & is m widely diffus$1 9 proportion to 
! am\nt & v>iety ( ! p]sonal en]gies    
enli/$ 9 promot+ x4  ,putt+ ^! two      
propositions into a %ape m special to _!
 pres5t application--human be+s are only
 secure f evil at ! h&s ( o!rs 9        
proportion z !y h ! p[] ( be+1 & are1   

self-protect+2 & !y only a*ieve a high  
degree ( success 9 _! /ruggle ) ,nature 
9 proportion z !y are self-dep5d5t1     
rely+ on :at !y !mselves c d1 ei!r      
sep>ately or 9 conc]t1 r ?an on :at o!rs
 d = !m4  ,! =m] proposition--t ea* is !
 only safe gu>dian ( 8 own rights &     
int]e/s--is "o ( ^? elem5t>y maxims (   
prud5ce :i* e p]son capable ( conduct+ 8
 own affairs implicitly acts ^u :]ev] he
 himself is int]e/$4 ,_m1 inde$1 h a    
great dislike to x z a political        
doctr9e1 & are fond ( hold+ x up to     
obloquy z a doctr9e ( univ]sal          
selfi%ness4 ,to :i* we may answ]1 t     
:5ev] x ceases to be true t mank9d1 z a 
rule1 pref] !mselves to o!rs1 & ^? ne>e/
 to !m to ^? m remote1 f t mom5t        
,communism is n only practicable1 b !   
only def5sible =m ( society1 & w1 :5 t  
"t arrives1 be assur$ly c>ri$ into      
effect4 ,= my own "p1 n believ+ 9       
univ]sal selfi%ness1 ,i h no difficulty 
9 admitt+ t ,communism w\ld ev5 n[ be   
practicable among ! lite ( mank9d1 & may

 become s among ! re/4 ,b z ?is op9ion  
is any ?+ b popul> ) ^? def5d]s ( exi/+ 
in/itutions :o f9d fault ) ! doctr9e ( !
 g5]al pr$om9ance ( self-int]e/1 ,i am  
incl9$ to ?9k !y d 9 reality believe t  
mo/ m5 consid] !mselves be=e o!r p4 ,x  
is n1 h[ev]1 necess>y to affirm ev5 ?us 
mu* 9 ord] to support ! claim ( all to  
p>ticipate 9 ! sov]eign p[]4 ,we ne$ n  
suppose t :5 p[] resides 9 an exclusive 
class1 t class w kn[+ly & delib]ately   
sacrifice ! o!r classes to !mselves3 x  
suffices t1 9 ! abs5ce ( its natural    
def5d]s1 ! int]e/ ( ! exclud$ is always 
9 dang] ( be+ ov]look$2 &1 :5 look$ at1 
is se5 ) v diff]5t eyes f ^? ( ! p]sons 
:om x directly conc]ns4 ,9 ?is c\ntry1 =
 example1 :at are call$ ! work+-classes 
may be consid]$ z exclud$ f all direct  
p>ticipation 9 ! gov]nm5t4 ,i d n       
believe t ! classes :o d p>ticipate 9 x 
h 9 g5]al any int5tion ( sacrific+ !    
work+ classes to !mselves4 ,!y once _h t
 int5tion2 witness ! p]sev]+ attempts s 
long made to keep d[n wages by law4 ,b 9

 ! pres5t day1 _! ord9>y disposition is 
! v opposite3 !y will+ly make           
consid]able sacrifices1 especially ( _! 
pecuni>y int]e/1 = ! b5efit ( ! work+   
classes1 & err r by too lavi% &         
indiscrim9at+ b5efic5ce2 nor d ,i       
believe t any rul]s 9 hi/ory h be5      
actuat$ by a m s9c]e desire to d _! duty
 t[>ds ! poor] portion ( _! c\ntrym54   
,yet does ,p>liam5t1 or almo/ any ( !   
memb]s compos+ x1 ev] = an in/ant look  
at any "q ) ! eyes ( a work+ man8 ,:5 a 
subject arises 9 :i* ! labor]s z su* h  
an int]e/1 is x reg>d$ f any po9t ( view
 b t ( ! employ]s ( labor8 ,i d n say t 
! work+ m5's view ( ^! que/ions is 9    
g5]al ne>] to ! tru? ?an ! o!r1 b x is  
sometimes q z ne>2 & 9 any case x ought 
to be respectfully li/5$ to1 in/ead (   
be+1 z x is1 n m]ely turn$ away f1 b    
ignor$4 ,on ! "q ( /rikes1 = in/ance1 x 
is d\btful if !re is s mu* z "o among ! 
lead+ memb]s ( ei!r ,h\se :o is n firmly
 conv9c$ t ! reason ( ! matt] is        
unqualifi$ly on ! side ( ! ma/]s1 & t ! 

m5's view ( x is simply absurd4 ,^? :o h
 /udi$ ! "q "k well h[ f> ?is is f be+ !
 case1 & 9 h[ diff]5t1 & h[ inf9itely   
less sup]ficial a mann] ! po9t w\ld h to
 be argu$1 if ! classes :o /rike 7 able 
to make !mselves he>d 9 ,p>liam5t4  ,x  
is an adh]5t condition ( human affairs t
 no int5tion1 h[ev] s9c]e1 ( protect+ ! 
int]e/s ( o!rs c make x safe or salut>y 
to tie up _! own h&s4 ,/ill m obvi\sly  
true is x t by _! own h&s only c any    
positive & durable improvem5t ( _!      
circum/ances 9 life be work$ out4 ,?r\gh
 ! jo9t influ5ce ( ^! two pr9ciples1 all
 free communities h bo? be5 m exempt f  
social inju/ice & crime1 & h atta9$ m   
brilliant prosp]ity ?an any o!rs1 or ?an
 !y !mselves aft] !y lo/ _! fre$om4     
,contra/ ! free /ates ( ! _w1 :ile _!   
fre$om la/$1 ) ! cotempor>y subjects (  
mon>*ical or olig>*ical despotism3 !    
,greek cities ) ! ,p]sian satrapies2 !  
,italian republics & ! free t[ns (      
,fl&]s & ,g]many1 ) ! feudal mon>*ies ( 
,europe2 ,switz]l&1 ,holl&1 & ,engl&1 ) 

,au/ria or ante-revolution>y ,france4   
,_! sup]ior prosp]ity 0 too obvi\s ev]  
to h be5 ga9say$2 :ile _! sup]iority 9  
good gov]nm5t & social relations is     
prov$ by ! prosp]ity1 & is manife/      
besides 9 e page ( hi/ory4 ,if we       
comp>e1 n "o age ) ano!r1 b ! diff]5t   
gov]nm5ts :i* coexi/$ 9 ! same age1 no  
am\nt ( disord] :i* exagg]ation itself c
 pret5d to h exi/$ amid/ ! publicity ( !
 free /ates c be comp>$ = a mom5t ) !   
contemptu\s trampl+ ^u ! mass ( ! p :i* 
p]vad$ ! :ole life ( ! mon>*ical        
c\ntries1 or ! disgu/+ individual       
tyranny :i* 0 ( m ?an daily occurr5ce "u
 ! sy/ems ( plund] :i* !y call$ fiscal  
arrangem5ts1 & 9 ! secrecy ( _!         
frightful c\rts ( ju/ice4  ,x mu/ be    
ackn[l$g$ t ! b5efits ( fre$om1 s f> z  
!y h hi!rto be5 enjoy$1 7 obta9$ by !   
ext5sion ( its privileges to a "p only (
 ! community2 & t a gov]nm5t 9 :i* !y   
are ext5d$ imp>tially to all is a       
desid]atum /ill unrealiz$4 ,b1 ?\gh e   
approa* to ?is has an indep5d5t value1 &

 9 _m cases m ?an an approa* c\ld n1 9 !
 exi/+ /ate ( g5]al improvem5t1 be made1
 ! p>ticipation ( all 9 ^! b5efits is ! 
ideally p]fect conception ( free        
gov]nm5t4 ,9 proportion z any1 no matt] 
:o1 are exclud$ f x1 ! int]e/s ( !      
exclud$ are left )\t ! gu>anty accord$  
to ! re/1 & !y !mselves h less scope &  
enc\ragem5t ?an !y might o!rwise h to t 
ex]tion ( _! en]gies = ! good ( !mselves
 & ( ! community1 to :i* ! g5]al        
prosp]ity is always proportion$4  ,?us  
/&s ! case z reg>ds pres5t well-be+--!  
good managem5t ( ! affairs ( ! exi/+    
g5]ation4 ,if we n[ pass to ! influ5ce (
 ! =m ( gov]nm5t ^u "*1 we %all f9d !   
sup]iority ( popul> gov]nm5t ov] e o!r  
to be1 if possible1 /ill m decid$ &     
indisputable4  ,?is "q really dep5ds ^u 
a /ill m fundam5tal "o1 viz41 :i* ( two 
common types ( "*1 = ! g5]al good (     
humanity1 x is mo/ desirable %\ld       
pr$om9ate--! active or ! passive type2 t
 :i* /ruggles aga9/ evils1 or t :i*     
endures !m2 t :i* b5ds to circum/ances1 

or t :i* endeav\rs to make circum/ances 
b5d to itself4  ,! commonplaces (       
morali/s & ! g5]al sympa?ies ( mank9d   
are 9 favor ( ! passive type4 ,en]getic 
*>act]s may be admir$1 b ! acquiesc5t & 
submissive are ^? :i* mo/ m5 p]sonally  
pref]4 ,! passiv5ess ( our neighbors    
increases our s5se ( security1 & plays  
into ! h&s ( our wilfulness4 ,passive   
*>act]s1 if we d n happ5 to ne$ _!      
activity1 seem an ob/ruction ! less 9   
our own pa?4 ,a cont5t$ "* is n a       
dang]\s rival4 ,yet no?+ is m c]ta9 ?an 
t improvem5t 9 human affairs is :olly ! 
"w ( ! uncont5t$ *>act]s2 &1 moreov]1 t 
x is mu* easi] = an active m9d to       
acquire ! virtues ( pati5ce1 ?an = a    
passive "o to assume ^? ( en]gy4  ,( !  
?ree v>ieties ( m5tal excell5ce1        
intellectual1 practical1 & moral1 !re   
nev] c\ld be any d\bt 9 reg>d to ! fir/ 
two1 :i* side _h ! advantage4 ,all      
intellectual sup]iority is ! fruit (    
active ef=t4 ,ent]prise1 ! desire to    
keep mov+1 to be try+ & accompli%+ new  

?+s = our own b5efit or t ( o!rs1 is !  
p>5t ev5 ( speculative1 & mu* m (       
practical1 tal5t4 ,! intellectual       
culture compatible ) ! o!r type is ( t  
feeble & vague description :i* belongs  
to a m9d t /ops at amusem5t or at simple
 contemplation4 ,! te/ ( real & vigor\s 
?9k+1 ! ?9k+ :i* asc]ta9s tru?s in/ead (
 dream+ dreams1 is successful           
application to practice4 ,:]e t purpose 
does n exi/1 to give def9it5ess1        
precision1 & an intelligible mean+ to   
?\ght1 x g5]ates no?+ bett] ?an !       
my/ical metaphysics ( ! ,py?agoreans or 
! ,v$s4 ,) respect to practical         
improvem5t1 ! case is /ill m evid5t4 ,! 
"* :i* improves human life is t :i*     
/ruggles ) natural p[]s & t5d5cies1 n t 
:i* gives way to !m4 ,! self-b5efit+    
qualities are all on ! side ( ! active &
 en]getic "*1 & ! habits & conduct :i*  
promote ! advantage ( ea* individual    
memb] ( ! community mu/ be at lea/ a "p 
( ^? :i* conduce mo/ 9 ! end to !       
advancem5t ( ! community z a :ole4  ,b  

on ! po9t ( moral pref]ability1 !re     
seems at fir/ sight to be room = d\bt4  
,i am n ref]r+ to ! religi\s feel+ :i*  
has s g5]ally exi/$ 9 favor ( ! inactive
 "*1 z be+ m 9 h>mony ) ! submission due
 to ! div9e w4 ,*ri/ianity1 z well z o!r
 religions1 has fo/]$ ?is s5tim5t2 b x  
is ! pr]ogative ( ,*ri/ianity1 z reg>ds 
?is & _m o!r p]v]sions1 t x is able to  
?r[ !m (f4 ,ab/ract$ly f religi\s       
consid]ations1 a passive "*1 :i* yields 
to ob/acles in/ead ( /riv+ to ov]come   
!m1 may n inde$ be v useful to o!rs1 no 
m ?an to itself1 b x might be expect$ to
 be at lea/ in(f5sive4 ,cont5tm5t is    
always c\nt$ among ! moral virtues4 ,b x
 is a complete error to suppose t       
cont5tm5t is necess>ily or naturally    
att5dant on passivity ( "*2 & useless x 
is1 ! moral consequ5ces are mis*iev\s4  
,:]e !re exi/s a desire = advantages n  
possess$1 ! m9d :i* does n pot5tially   
possess !m by means ( its own en]gies is
 apt to look ) hatr$ & malice on ^? :o  
d4 ,! p]son be/irr+ himself ) hopeful   

prospects to improve 8 circum/ances is !
 "o :o feels good-w t[>ds o!rs engag$ 91
 or :o h succe$$ 9 ! same pursuit4 ,&   
:]e ! majority are s engag$1 ^? :o d n  
atta9 ! object h _h ! tone giv5 to _!   
feel+s by ! g5]al habit ( ! c\ntry1 &   
ascribe _! failure to want ( ef=t or    
opportunity1 or to _! p]sonal ill luck4 
,b ^? :o1 :ile desir+ :at o!rs possess1 
put no en]gy into /riv+ = x1 are ei!r   
incessantly grumbl+ t =tune does n d =  
!m :at !y d n attempt to d = !mselves1  
or ov]fl[+ ) envy & ill-w t[>ds ^? :o   
possess :at !y w\ld l to h4  ,9         
proportion z success 9 life is se5 or   
believ$ to be ! fruit ( fatality or     
accid5t & n ( ex]tion 9 t same ratio    
does envy develop itself z a po9t (     
national "*4 ,! mo/ envi\s ( all mank9d 
are ! ,ori5tals4 ,9 ,ori5tal morali/s1 9
 ,ori5tal tales1 ! envi\s man is        
rem>kably prom95t4 ,9 real life1 he is !
 t]ror ( all :o possess any ?+          
desirable1 be x a palace1 a h&some *ild1
 or ev5 good heal? & spirits3 ! suppos$ 

effect ( 8 m]e look con/itutes !        
all-p]vad+ sup]/ition ( ! evil eye4     
,next to ,ori5tals 9 envy1 z 9 activity1
 are "s ( ! ,s\!rn ,europeans4 ,!       
,spani>ds pursu$ all _! great m5 ) x1   
embitt]$ _! lives1 & g5]ally succe$$ 9  
putt+ an e>ly /op to _! successes4 #a ,)
 ! ,fr5*1 :o are ess5tially a ,s\!rn p1 
! d\ble education ( despotism &         
,ca?olicism has1 9 spite ( _! impulsive 
temp]am5t1 made submission & endurance !
 common "* ( ! p1 & _! mo/ receiv$      
notion ( wisdom & excell5ce2 & if envy (
 "o ano!r1 & ( all sup]iority1 is n m   
rife among !m ?an x is1 ! circum/ance   
mu/ be ascrib$ to ! _m valuable         
c\nt]act+ elem5ts 9 ! ,fr5* "*1 & mo/ ( 
all to ! great individual en]gy :i*1    
?\gh less p]si/5t & m int]mitt5t ?an 9 !
 self-help+ & /ruggl+ ,anglo-,saxons1   
has nev]!less manife/$ itself among !   
,fr5* 9 ne>ly e direction 9 :i* !       
op]ation ( _! in/itutions has be5       
favorable to x4  ,!re are1 no d\bt1 9   
all c\ntries1 really cont5t$ *>act]s1 :o

 n m]ely d n seek1 b d n desire1 :at !y 
d n already possess1 & ^! naturally be> 
no ill-w t[>ds su* z h app>5tly a m     
favor$ lot4 ,b ! great mass ( seem+     
cont5tm5t is real discont5t1 comb9$ )   
indol5ce or self-indulg5ce1 :i*1 :ile   
tak+ no legitimate means ( rais+ itself1
 delights 9 br++ o!rs d[n to its own    
level4 ,& if we look n>r[ly ev5 at !    
cases ( innoc5t cont5tm5t1 we p]ceive t 
!y only w9 our admiration :5 !          
indiff]5ce is solely to improvem5t 9    
outw>d circum/ances1 & !re is a /riv+ = 
p]petual advancem5t 9 spiritual wor?1 or
 at lea/ a dis9t]e/$ zeal to b5efit     
o!rs4 ,! cont5t$ man1 or ! cont5t$      
family1 :o h no ambition to make any "o 
else happi]1 to promote ! good ( _!     
c\ntry or _! neighborhood1 or to improve
 !mselves 9 moral excell5ce1 excite 9 u 
nei!r admiration nor approval4 ,we      
rightly ascribe ?is sort ( cont5tm5t to 
m]e unmanl9ess & want ( _s4 ,! cont5t   
:i* we approve is an ability to d       
*e]fully )\t :at c n be _h1 a j         

appreciation ( ! comp>ative value (     
diff]5t objects ( desire1 & a will+     
r5unciation ( ! less :5 incompatible ) !
 great]4 ,^!1 h[ev]1 are excell5ces m   
natural to ! "*1 9 proportion z x is    
actively engag$ 9 ! attempt to improve  
its own or "s o!r lot4 ,he :o is        
cont9ually measur+ 8 en]gy aga9/        
difficulties1 le>ns :at are !           
difficulties insup]able to him1 & :at   
are ^? :i*1 ?\gh he might ov]come1 !    
success is n wor? ! co/4 ,he ^: ?\ghts &
 activities are all ne$$ =1 & habitually
 employ$ 91 practicable & useful        
ent]prises1 is ! p]son ( all o!rs lea/  
likely to let 8 m9d dwell ) brood+      
discont5t ^u ?+s ei!r n wor? atta9+1 or 
:i* are n s to him4 ,?us ! active1      
self-help+ "* is n only intr9sically !  
be/1 b is ! likelie/ to acquire all t is
 really excell5t or desirable 9 !       
opposite type4  ,! /riv+1 g-ahead "* (  
,engl& & ! ,unit$ ,/ates is only a fit  
subject ( disapprov+ criticism on acc\nt
 ( ! v second>y objects on :i* x        

commonly exp5ds its /r5g?4 ,9 itself x  
is ! f\ndation ( ! be/ hopes = ! g5]al  
improvem5t ( mank9d4 ,x has be5 acutely 
rem>k$ t :5ev] any ?+ goes amiss1 !     
habitual impulse ( ,fr5* p is to say1   
,il faut de la pati5ce2 & ( ,engli% p1  
,:at a %ame6 ,! p :o ?9k x a %ame :5 any
 ?+ goes wrong--:o ru% to ! conclusion t
 ! evil c\ld & ought to h be5 prev5t$1  
are ^? :o1 9 ! long run1 d mo/ to make !
 _w bett]4 ,if ! desires are l[ plac$1  
if !y ext5d to little beyond physical   
com=t1 & ! %[ ( ri*es1 ! imm$iate       
results ( ! en]gy w n be mu* m ?an !    
cont9ual ext5sion ( man's p[] ov]       
mat]ial objects2 b ev5 ?is makes room1 &
 prep>es ! me*anical appliances = !     
greate/ intellectual & social           
a*ievem5ts2 & :ile ! en]gy is !re1 "s   
p]sons w apply x1 & x w be appli$ m & m1
 to ! p]fect+1 n ( outw>d circum/ances  
alone1 b ( man's inw>d nature4          
,inactivity1 unaspir+ness1 abs5ce (     
desire1 are a m fatal h9drance to       
improvem5t ?an any misdirection ( en]gy1

 & is t ?r\gh :i* alone1 :5 exi/+ 9 !   
mass1 any v =midable misdirection by an 
en]getic few becomes possible4 ,x is    
?is1 ma9ly1 :i* reta9s 9 a savage or    
semi-savage /ate ! great majority ( !   
human race4  ,n[ !re c be no k9d ( d\bt 
t ! passive type ( "* is favor$ by !    
gov]nm5t ( "o or a few1 & ! active      
self-help+ type by t ( ! _m4            
,irresponsible rul]s ne$ ! quiesc5ce ( !
 rul$ m ?an !y ne$ any activity b t :i* 
!y c compel4 ,submissiv5ess to !        
prescriptions ( m5 z necessities (      
nature is ! lesson inculcat$ by all     
gov]nm5ts ^u ^? :o are :olly )\t        
p>ticipation 9 !m4 ,! w ( sup]iors1 & ! 
law z ! w ( sup]iors1 mu/ be passively  
yield$ to4 ,b no m5 are m]e in/rum5ts or
 mat]ials 9 ! h&s ( _! rul]s :o h w1 or 
_s1 or a spr+ ( int]nal activity 9 ! re/
 ( _! proce$+s1 & any manife/ation ( ^! 
qualities1 in/ead ( receiv+ enc\ragem5t 
f despots1 has to get itself =giv5 by   
!m4 ,ev5 :5 irresponsible rul]s are n   
suffici5tly consci\s ( dang] f ! m5tal  

activity ( _! subjects to be desir\s (  
repress+ x1 ! position itself is a      
repression4 ,endeav\r is ev5 m          
effectually re/ra9$ by ! c]ta9ty ( its  
impot5ce ?an by any positive            
disc\ragem5t4 ,betwe5 subjection to ! w 
( o!rs & ! virtues ( self-help &        
self-gov]nm5t !re is a natural          
incompatibility4 ,?is is m or less      
complete accord+ z ! bondage is /ra9$ or
 relax$4 ,rul]s diff] v mu* 9 ! l5g? to 
:i* !y c>ry ! control ( ! free ag5cy (  
_! subjects1 or ! sup]session ( x by    
manag+ _! bus9ess = !m4 ,b ! diff]5ce is
 9 degree1 n 9 pr9ciple2 & ! be/ despots
 (t5 g ! greate/ l5g?s 9 *a9+ up ! free 
ag5cy ( _! subjects4 ,a bad despot1 :5 8
 own p]sonal indulg5ces h be5 provid$ =1
 may sometimes be will+ to let ! p      
alone2 b a good despot insi/s on do+ !m 
good by mak+ !m d _! own bus9ess 9 a    
bett] way ?an !y !mselves "k (4 ,!      
regulations :i* re/rict$ to fix$        
processes all ! lead+ bran*es ( ,fr5*   
manufactures 7 ! "w ( ! great ,colb]t4  

,v diff]5t is ! /ate ( ! human faculties
 :]e a human be+ feels himself "u no o!r
 ext]nal re/ra9t ?an ! necessities (    
nature1 or m&ates ( society :i* he has 8
 %>e 9 impos+1 & :i* x is op5 to him1 if
 he ?9ks !m wrong1 publicly to diss5t f1
 & ex]t himself actively to get alt]$4  
,no d\bt1 "u a gov]nm5t p>tially popul>1
 ?is fre$om may be ex]cis$ ev5 by ^? :o 
are n p>tak]s 9 ! full privileges (     
citiz5%ip2 b x is a great additional    
/imulus to any "o's self-help &         
self-reliance :5 he />ts f ev5 gr\nd1 & 
has n to feel t 8 success dep5ds on !   
impression he c make ^u ! s5tim5ts &    
dispositions ( a body ( :om he is n "o4 
,x is a great disc\ragem5t to an        
individual1 & a /ill great] "o to a     
class1 to be left out ( ! con/itution2  
to be r$uc$ to plead f outside ! door to
 ! arbit]s ( _! de/9y1 n tak5 into      
consultation )94 ,! maximum ( !         
invigorat+ effect ( fre$om ^u ! "* is   
only obta9$ :5 ! p]son act$ on ei!r is1 
or is look+ =w>d to becom+1 a citiz5 z  

fully privileg$ z any o!r4 ,:at is /ill 
m important ?an ev5 ?is matt] ( feel+ is
 ! practical discipl9e :i* ! "* obta9s f
 ! occasional dem& made ^u ! citiz5s to 
ex]cise1 = a "t & 9 _! turn1 "s social  
function4 ,x is n suffici5tly consid]$  
h[ little !re is 9 mo/ m5's ord9>y life 
to give any l>g5ess ei!r to _!          
conceptions or to _! s5tim5ts4 ,_! "w is
 a r\t9e2 n a labor ( love1 b (         
self-int]e/ 9 ! mo/ elem5t>y =m1 !      
satisfaction ( daily wants2 nei!r ! ?+  
done1 nor ! process ( do+ x1 introduces 
! m9d to ?\ghts or feel+s ext5d+ beyond 
individuals2 if in/ructive books are )9 
_! rea*1 !re is no /imulus to read !m2  
&1 9 mo/ cases1 ! individual has no     
access to any p]son ( cultivation mu*   
sup]ior to 8 own4 ,giv+ him some?+ to d 
= ! public supplies1 9 a measure1 all ^!
 defici5cies4 ,if circum/ances all[ !   
am\nt ( public duty assign$ him to be   
consid]able1 x makes him an educat$ man4
 ,not)/&+ ! defects ( ! social sy/em &  
moral ideas ( antiquity1 ! practice ( ! 

dica/]y & ! ecclesia rais$ !            
intellectual /&>d ( an av]age ,a!nian   
citiz5 f> beyond any ?+ ( :i* !re is yet
 an example 9 any o!r mass ( m51 anci5t 
or mod]n4 ,! pro(s ( ?is are app>5t 9 e 
page ( our great hi/orian ( ,greece2 b  
we ne$ sc>cely look fur!r ?an to ! high 
quality ( ! addresses :i* _! great      
orators deem$ be/ calculat$ to act )    
effect on _! und]/&+ & w4 ,a b5efit ( ! 
same k9d1 ?\gh f> less 9 degree1 is     
produc$ on ,engli%m5 ( ! l[] middle     
class by _! liability to be plac$ on    
juries & to s]ve p>i% (fices1 :i*1 ?\gh 
x does n occur to s _m1 nor is s        
cont9u\s1 nor introduces !m to s great a
 v>iety ( elevat$ consid]ations z to    
admit ( comp>ison ) ! public education  
:i* e citiz5 ( ,a!ns obta9$ f h]        
democratic in/itutions1 makes !m        
nev]!less v diff]5t be+s1 9 range (     
ideas & developm5t ( faculties1 f ^? :o 
h done no?+ 9 _! lives b drive a quill1 
or sell goods ov] a c\nt]4 ,/ill m      
salut>y is ! moral "p ( ! in/ruction    

af=d$ by ! p>ticipation ( ! private     
citiz51 if ev5 r>ely1 9 public          
functions4 ,he is call$ ^u1 :ile s      
engag$1 to weigh int]e/s n 8 own2 to be 
guid$1 9 case ( conflict+ claims1 by    
ano!r rule ?an 8 private p>tialities2 to
 apply1 at e turn1 pr9ciples & maxims   
:i* h = _! reason ( exi/5ce ! g5]al     
good2 & he usually f9ds associat$ ) him 
9 ! same "w m9ds m famili>iz$ ?an 8 own 
) ^! ideas & op]ations1 ^: /udy x w be  
to supply reasons to 8 und]/&+1 &       
/imulation to 8 feel+ = ! g5]al int]e/4 
,he is made to feel himself "o ( !      
public1 & :atev] is _! int]e/ to be 8   
int]e/4 ,:]e ?is s*ool ( public _s does 
n exi/1 sc>cely any s5se is ent]ta9$ t  
private p]sons1 9 no em95t social       
situation1 owe any duties to society    
except to obey ! laws & submit to !     
gov]nm5t4 ,!re is no unselfi% s5tim5t ( 
id5tification ) ! public4 ,e ?\ght or   
feel+1 ei!r ( int]e/ or ( duty1 is      
absorb$ 9 ! individual & 9 ! family4 ,! 
man nev] ?9ks ( any collective int]e/1 (

 any objects to be pursu$ jo9tly ) o!rs1
 b only 9 competition ) !m1 & 9 "s      
measure at _! exp5se4 ,a neighbor1 n be+
 an ally or an associate1 s9ce he is    
nev] engag$ 9 any common und]tak+ = jo9t
 b5efit1 is !re=e only a rival4 ,?us ev5
 private morality suff]s1 :ile public is
 actually ext9ct4 ,7 ?is ! univ]sal &   
only possible /ate ( ?+s1 ! utmo/       
aspirations ( ! lawgiv] or ! morali/    
c\ld only /ret* to make ! bulk ( !      
community a flock ( %eep innoc5tly      
nibbl+ ! grass side by side4  ,f ^!     
accumulat$ consid]ations1 x is evid5t t 
! only gov]nm5t :i* c fully satisfy all 
! exig5cies ( ! social /ate is "o 9 :i* 
! :ole p p>ticipate2 t any p>ticipation1
 ev5 9 ! smalle/ public function1 is    
useful2 t ! p>ticipation %\ld e :]e be z
 great z ! g5]al degree ( improvem5t ( !
 community w all[2 & t no?+ less c be   
ultimately desirable ?an ! admission (  
all to a %>e 9 ! sov]eign p[] ( ! /ate4 
,b s9ce all c n1 9 a community exce$+ a 
s+le small t[n1 p>ticipate p]sonally 9  

any b "s v m9or portions ( ! public     
bus9ess1 x foll[s t ! ideal type ( a    
p]fect gov]nm5t mu/ be repres5tative4   
,*apt] ,,iv--,"u :at ,social ,conditions
 ,repres5tative ,gov]nm5t is            
,inapplicable4   ,we h recogniz$ 9      
repres5tative gov]nm5t ! ideal type ( ! 
mo/ p]fect polity = :i*1 9 consequ5ce1  
any portion ( mank9d are bett] adapt$ 9 
proportion to _! degree ( g5]al         
improvem5t4 ,z !y range l[] & l[] 9     
developm5t1 t =m ( gov]nm5t w be1       
g5]ally speak+1 less suitable to !m1    
?\gh ?is is n true univ]sally2 = !      
adaptation ( a p to repres5tative       
gov]nm5t does n dep5d s mu* ^u ! place  
!y occupy 9 ! g5]al scale ( humanity z  
^u ! degree 9 :i* !y possess c]ta9      
special requisites2 requisites1 h[ev]1 s
 closely connect$ ) _! degree ( g5]al   
advancem5t1 t any v>iation betwe5 ! two 
is r ! exception ?an ! rule4 ,let u     
exam9e at :at po9t 9 ! desc5d+ s]ies    
repres5tative gov]nm5t ceases altoge!r  
to be admissible1 ei!r ?r\gh its own    

unfitness or ! sup]ior fitness ( "s o!r 
regim54  ,fir/1 !n1 repres5tative1 l any
 o!r gov]nm5t1 mu/ be unsuitable 9 any  
case 9 :i* x c n p]man5tly subsi/--i4e41
 9 :i* x does n fulfill ! ?ree          
fundam5tal conditions enum]at$ 9 ! fir/ 
*apt]4 ,^! 71 #a4 ,t ! p %\ld be will+  
to receive x4 #b4 ,t !y %\ld be will+ & 
able to d :at is necess>y = its         
pres]vation4 #c4 ,t !y %\ld be will+ &  
able to fulfill ! duties & dis*>ge !    
functions :i* x imposes on !m4  ,!      
will+ness ( ! p to accept repres5tative 
gov]nm5t only becomes a practical "q :5 
an enlight5$ rul]1 or a =eign nation or 
nations :o h ga9$ p[] ov] ! c\ntry1 are 
dispos$ to (f] x ! boon4 ,to individual 
re=m]s ! "q is almo/ irrelevant1 s9ce1  
if no o!r objection c be made to _!     
ent]prise ?an t ! op9ion ( ! nation is n
 yet on _! side1 !y h ! ready & prop]   
answ]1 t to br+ x ov] to _! side is ! v 
end !y aim at4 ,:5 op9ion is really     
adv]se1 its ho/ility is usually to !    
fact ( *ange r ?an to repres5tative     

gov]nm5t 9 itself4 ,! contr>y case is n 
inde$ unexampl$2 !re has sometimes be5 a
 religi\s repugnance to any limitation (
 ! p[] ( a p>ticul> l9e ( rul]s2 b1 9   
g5]al1 ! doctr9e ( passive ob$i5ce meant
 only submission to ! w ( ! p[]s t be1  
:e!r mon>*ical or popul>4 ,9 any case 9 
:i* ! attempt to introduce repres5tative
 gov]nm5t is at all likely to be made1  
indiff]5ce to x1 & inability to und]/&  
its processes & requirem5ts1 r ?an      
positive opposition1 are ! ob/acles to  
be expect$4 ,^!1 h[ev]1 are z fatal1 &  
may be z h>d to be got rid ( z actual   
av]sion2 x be+ easi]1 9 mo/ cases1 to   
*ange ! direction ( an active feel+ ?an 
to create "o 9 a /ate previ\sly passive4
 ,:5 a p h no suffici5t value =1 &      
atta*m5t to1 a repres5tative            
con/itution1 !y h next to no *ance (    
reta9+ x4 ,9 e c\ntry1 ! executive is ! 
bran* ( ! gov]nm5t :i* wields ! imm$iate
 p[]1 & is 9 direct contact ) ! public2 
to x1 pr9cipally1 ! hopes & fe>s (      
individuals are direct$1 & by x bo? !   

b5efits1 & ! t]rors1 & pre/ige (        
gov]nm5t are ma9ly repres5t$ to ! public
 eye4 ,unless1 !re=e1 ! au?orities ^:   
(fice x is to *eck ! executive are back$
 by an effective op9ion & feel+ 9 !     
c\ntry1 ! executive has always ! means (
 sett+ !m aside or compell+ !m to       
subs]vi5ce1 & is sure to be well        
support$ 9 do+ s4 ,repres5tative        
in/itutions necess>ily dep5d = p]man5ce 
^u ! read9ess ( ! p to fight = !m 9 case
 ( _! be+ endang]$4 ,if too little valu$
 = ?is1 !y seldom obta9 a foot+ at all1 
& if !y d1 are almo/ sure to be ov]?r[n 
z soon z ! head ( ! gov]nm5t1 or any    
p>ty lead] :o c mu/] =ce = a c\p de ma91
 is will+ to run "s small risk =        
absolute p[]4  ,^! consid]ations relate 
to ! fir/ two causes ( failure 9 a      
repres5tative gov]nm5t4 ,! ?ird is :5 ! 
p want ei!r ! w or ! capacity to fulfill
 ! "p :i* belongs to !m 9 a             
repres5tative con/itution4 ,:5 nobody1  
or only "s small fraction1 feels !      
degree ( int]e/ 9 ! g5]al affairs ( !   

/ate necess>y to ! =mation ( a public   
op9ion1 ! electors w seldom make any use
 ( ! "r ( suffrage b to s]ve _! private 
int]e/1 or ! int]e/ ( _! locality1 or ( 
"s "o ) :om !y are connect$ z adh]5ts or
 dep5d5ts4 ,! small class :o1 9 ?is /ate
 ( public feel+1 ga9 ! comm& ( !        
repres5tative body1 = ! mo/ "p use x    
solely z a means ( seek+ _! =tune4 ,if !
 executive is weak1 ! c\ntry is di/ract$
 by m]e /ruggles = place2 if /rong1 x   
makes itself despotic1 at ! *eap price (
 appeas+ ! repres5tatives1 or su* ( !m z
 are capable ( giv+ tr\ble1 by a %>e ( !
 spoil2 & ! only fruit produc$ by       
national repres5tation is1 t 9 addition 
to ^? :o really gov]n1 !re is an        
assembly qu>t]$ on ! public1 & no abuse 
9 :i* a portion ( ! assembly are int]e/$
 is at all likely to be remov$4 ,:51    
h[ev]1 ! evil /ops "h1 ! price may be   
wor? pay+ = ! publicity & discussion    
:i*1 ?\gh n an inv>iable1 are a natural 
accompanim5t ( any1 ev5 nom9al1         
repres5tation4 ,9 ! mod]n k+dom (       

,greece1 = example1 x c h>dly be d\bt$1 
t ! place-hunt]s :o *iefly compose !    
repres5tative assembly1 ?\gh !y         
contribute little or no?+ directly to   
good gov]nm5t1 nor ev5 mu* temp] !      
arbitr>y p[] ( ! executive1 yet keep up 
! idea ( popul> rights1 & conduce       
greatly to ! real lib]ty ( ! press :i*  
exi/s 9 t c\ntry4 ,?is b5efit1 h[ev]1 is
 entirely dep5d5t on ! coexi/5ce ) !    
popul> body ( an h]$it>y k+4 ,if1 in/ead
 ( /ruggl+ = ! favors ( ! *ief rul]1 ^! 
selfi% & sordid factions /ruggl$ = !    
*ief place itself1 !y w\ld c]ta9ly1 z 9 
,spani% ,am]ica1 keep ! c\ntry 9 a /ate 
( *ronic revolution & civil w>4 ,a      
despotism1 n ev5 legal1 b ( illegal     
viol5ce1 w\ld be alt]nately ex]cis$ by a
 succession ( political adv5tur]s1 & !  
"n & =ms ( repres5tation w\ld h no      
effect b to prev5t despotism f atta9+ ! 
/ability & security by :i* alone its    
evils c be mitigat$ or its few          
advantages realiz$4  ,! prec$+ are !    
cases 9 :i* repres5tative gov]nm5t c n  

p]man5tly exi/4 ,!re are o!rs 9 :i* x   
possibly might exi/1 b 9 :i* "s o!r =m (
 gov]nm5t w\ld be pref]able4 ,^! are    
pr9cipally :5 ! p1 9 ord] to advance 9  
civilization1 h "s lesson to le>n1 "s   
habit n yet acquir$1 to ! acquisition ( 
:i* repres5tative gov]nm5t is likely to 
be an imp$im5t4  ,! mo/ obvi\s ( ^!     
cases is ! "o already consid]$1 9 :i* ! 
p h /ill to le>n ! fir/ lesson (        
civilization1 t ( ob$i5ce4 ,a race :o h 
be5 tra9$ 9 en]gy & c\rage by /ruggles )
 ,nature & _! neighbors1 b :o h n yet   
settl$ d[n into p]man5t ob$i5ce to any  
common sup]ior1 w\ld be little likely to
 acquire ?is habit "u ! collective      
gov]nm5t ( _! own body4 ,a repres5tative
 assembly drawn f among !mselves w\ld   
simply reflect _! own turbul5t          
insubord9ation4 ,x w\ld refuse its      
au?ority to all proce$+s :i* w\ld       
impose1 on _! savage indep5d5ce1 any    
improv+ re/ra9t4 ,! mode 9 :i* su*      
tribes are usually br\ght to submit to !
 prim>y conditions ( civiliz$ society is

 ?r\gh ! necessities ( w>f>e1 & !       
despotic au?ority indisp5sable to       
milit>y comm&4 ,a milit>y lead] is !    
only sup]ior to :om !y w submit1 except 
occasionally "s prophet suppos$ to be   
inspir$ f above1 or conjur] reg>d$ z    
possess+ miracul\s p[]4 ,^! may ex]cise 
a tempor>y asc5dancy1 b z x is m]ely    
p]sonal1 x r>ely effects any *ange 9 !  
g5]al habits ( ! p1 unless ! prophet1 l 
,mohamm$1 is also a milit>y *ief1 & goes
 =? ! arm$ apo/le ( a new religion2 or  
unless ! milit>y *iefs ally !mselves ) 8
 influ5ce1 & turn x into a prop = _! own
 gov]nm5t4  ,a p are no less unfitt$ =  
repres5tative gov]nm5t by ! contr>y     
fault to t la/ specifi$--by extreme     
passiv5ess1 & ready submission to       
tyranny4 ,if a p ?us pro/rat$ by "* &   
circum/ances c\ld obta9 repres5tative   
in/itutions1 !y w\ld inevitably *oose _!
 tyrants z _! repres5tatives1 & ! yoke  
w\ld be made heavi] on !m by !          
contrivance :i* prim facie might be     
expect$ to light5 x4 ,on ! contr>y1 _m a

 p has gradually em]g$ f ?is condition  
by ! aid ( a c5tral au?ority1 ^:        
position has made x ! rival1 & has end$ 
by mak+ x ! ma/]1 ( ! local despots1 &  
:i*1 above all1 has be5 s+le4 ,fr5*     
hi/ory1 f ,hugh ,capet to ,ri*elieu &   
,l\is ,,xiv41 is a cont9u$ example ( ?is
 c\rse ( ?+s4 ,ev5 :5 ! k+ 0 sc>cely s  
p[]ful z _m ( 8 *ief feudatories1 !     
great advantage :i* he d]iv$ f be+ b "o 
has be5 recogniz$ by ,fr5* hi/orians4   
,to him ! eyes ( all ! locally oppress$ 
7 turn$2 he 0 ! object ( hope & reliance
 ?r\gh\t ! k+dom1 :ile ea* local        
pot5tate 0 only p[]ful )9 a m or less   
conf9$ space4 ,at 8 h&s1 refuge &       
protection 7 s\ght f e "p ( ! c\ntry    
aga9/ fir/ "o1 !n ano!r ( ! imm$iate    
oppressors4 ,8 progress to asc5dancy 0  
sl[2 b x result$ f successively tak+    
advantage ( opportunities :i* (f]$      
!mselves only to him4 ,x 01 !re=e1 sure2
 &1 9 proportion z x 0 accompli%$1 x    
abat$1 9 ! oppress$ portion ( !         
community1 ! habit ( submitt+ to        

oppression4 ,! k+'s int]e/ lay 9        
enc\rag+ all p>tial attempts on ! "p ( !
 s]fs to emancipate !mselves f _! ma/]s1
 & place !mselves 9 imm$iate            
subord9ation to himself4 ,"u 8          
protection num]\s communities 7 =m$ :i* 
knew no "o above !m b ! k+4 ,ob$i5ce to 
a di/ant mon>* is lib]ty itself comp>$ )
 ! dom9ion ( ! "l ( ! neighbor+ ca/le2 &
 ! mon>* 0 long compell$ by necessities 
( position to ex]t 8 au?ority z ! ally r
 ?an ! ma/] ( ! classes :om he _h aid$ 9
 affect+ _! lib]ation4 ,9 ?is mann] a   
c5tral p[]1 despotic 9 pr9ciple1 ?\gh   
g5]ally mu* re/rict$ 9 practice1 0 ma9ly
 in/rum5tal 9 c>ry+ ! p ?r\gh a necess>y
 /age ( improvem5t1 :i* repres5tative   
gov]nm5t1 if real1 w\ld mo/ likely h    
prev5t$ !m f ent]+ ^u4 ,!re are p>ts (  
,europe :]e ! same "w is /ill to be     
done1 & no prospect ( its be+ done by   
any o!r means4 ,no?+ %ort ( despotic    
rule or a g5]al massacre c\ld effect !  
emancipation ( ! s]fs 9 ! ,russian      
,empire4  ,! same passages ( hi/ory     

=cibly illu/rate ano!r mode 9 :i*       
unlimit$ mon>*y ov]comes ob/acles to !  
progress ( civilization :i*             
repres5tative gov]nm5t w\ld h _h a      
decid$ t5d5cy to aggravate4 ,"o ( !     
/ronge/ h9drances to improvem5t1 up to a
 r advanc$ /age1 is an invet]ate _s (   
locality4 ,portions ( mank9d1 9 _m o!r  
respects capable (1 & prep>$ = fre$om1  
may be unqualifi$ = amalgamat+ into ev5 
! smalle/ nation4 ,n only may jeal\sies 
& antipa?ies repel !m f "o ano!r1 & b>  
all possibility ( volunt>y union1 b !y  
may n yet h acquir$ any ( ! feel+s or   
habits :i* w\ld make ! union real1      
suppos+ x to be nom9ally accompli%$4 ,!y
 may1 l ! citiz5s ( an anci5t community1
 or ^? ( an ,asiatic village1 h _h      
consid]able practice 9 ex]cis+ _!       
faculties on village or t[n int]e/s1 & h
 ev5 realiz$ a tol]ably effective popul>
 gov]nm5t on t re/rict$ scale1 & may yet
 h b sl5d] sympa?ies ) any ?+ beyond1 & 
no habit or capacity ( deal+ ) int]e/s  
common to _m su* communities4 ,i am n   

aw>e t hi/ory furni%es any example 9 :i*
 a numb] ( ^! political atoms or        
corpuscles h coalesc$ into a body1 &    
le>n$ to feel !mselves "o p1 except     
?r\gh previ\s subjection to a c5tral    
au?ority common to all4 #b ,x is ?r\gh !
 habit ( def]r+ to t au?ority1 ent]+    
into its plans & subs]v+ its purposes1 t
 a p su* z we h suppos$ receive into _! 
m9ds ! conception ( l>ge int]e/s common 
to a consid]able geographical ext5t4    
,su* int]e/s1 on ! contr>y1 are         
necess>ily ! pr$om9ant consid]ation 9 ! 
m9d ( ! c5tral rul]2 & ?r\gh !          
relations1 m or less intimate1 :i* he   
progressively e/abli%es ) ! localities1 
!y become famili> to ! g5]al m9d4 ,! mo/
 favorable concurr5ce ( circum/ances "u 
:i* ?is /ep 9 improvem5t c\ld be made   
w\ld be "o :i* %\ld raise up            
repres5tative in/itutions )\t           
repres5tative gov]nm5t2 a repres5tative 
body or bodies1 drawn f ! localities1   
mak+ itself ! auxili>y & in/rum5t ( !   
c5tral p[]1 b seldom attempt+ to ?w>t or

 control x4 ,! p be+ ?us tak51 z x 71   
into c\ncil1 ?\gh n %>+ ! supreme p[]1 !
 political education giv5 by ! c5tral   
au?ority is c>ri$ home1 mu* m           
effectually ?an x c\ld o!rwise be1 to ! 
local *iefs & to ! population g5]ally1  
:ile1 at ! same "t1 a tradition is kept 
up ( gov]nm5t by g5]al cons5t1 or at    
lea/1 ! sanction ( tradition is n giv5  
to gov]nm5t )\t x1 :i*1 :5 consecrat$ by
 cu/om1 has s (t5 put a bad end to a    
good beg9n+1 & is "o ( ! mo/ frequ5t    
causes ( ! sad fatality :i* 9 mo/       
c\ntries has /opp$ improvem5t 9 s e>ly a
 /age1 because ! "w ( "s "o p]iod has   
be5 s done z to b> ! ne$ful "w ( ! ages 
foll[+4 ,mean:ile1 x may be laid d[n z a
 political tru?1 t by irresponsible     
mon>*y r ?an by repres5tative gov]nm5t c
 a multitude ( insignificant political  
units be weld$ into a p1 ) common feel+s
 ( cohesion1 p[] en\gh to protect itself
 aga9/ conque/ or =eign aggression1 &   
affairs suffici5tly v>i\s & consid]able 
( its own to occupy wor?ily & exp& to   

fit proportions ! social & political    
intellig5ce ( ! population4  ,= ^!      
sev]al reasons1 k+ly gov]nm5t1 free f ! 
control 7?\gh p]haps /r5g!n$ by !       
support7 ( repres5tative in/itutions1 is
 ! mo/ suitable =m ( polity = ! e>lie/  
/ages ( any community1 n except+ a city 
community l ^? ( anci5t ,greece2 :]e1   
accord+ly1 ! gov]nm5t ( k+s1 "u "s real1
 b no o/5sible or con/itutional control 
by public op9ion1 did hi/orically prec$e
 by an unkn[n & probably great duration 
all free in/itutions1 & gave place at   
la/1 dur+ a consid]able lapse ( "t1 to  
olig>*ies ( a few families4  ,a hundr$  
o!r infirmities or %ortcom+s 9 a p might
 be po9t$ out :i* pro tanto disqualify  
!m f mak+ ! be/ use ( repres5tative     
gov]nm5t2 b 9 reg>d to ^! x is n equally
 obvi\s t ! gov]nm5t ( ,"o or a ,few    
w\ld h any t5d5cy to cure or alleviate !
 evil4 ,/rong prejudices ( any k9d2     
ob/9ate adh]5ce to old habits2 positive 
defects ( national "*1 or m]e ignorance1
 & defici5cy ( m5tal cultivation1 if    

preval5t 9 a p1 w be 9 g5]al fai?fully  
reflect$ 9 _! repres5tative assemblies2 
& %\ld x happ5 t ! executive            
adm9i/ration1 ! direct managem5t (      
public affairs1 is 9 ! h&s ( p]sons     
comp>atively free f ^! defects1 m good  
w\ld frequ5tly be done by !m :5 n hamp]$
 by ! necessity ( c>ry+ ) !m ! volunt>y 
ass5t ( su* bodies4 ,b ! m]e position ( 
! rul]s does n 9 ^!1 z x does 9 ! o!r   
cases :i* we h exam9$1 ( itself inve/ !m
 ) int]e/s & t5d5cies op]at+ 9 !        
b5eficial direction4 ,f ! g5]al         
weaknesses ( ! p or ( ! /ate (          
civilization1 ! ,"o & 8 c\ncillors1 or !
 ,few1 are n likely to be habitually    
exempt2 except 9 ! case ( _! be+        
=eign]s1 belong+ to a sup]ior p or a m  
advanc$ /ate ( society4 ,!n1 inde$1 !   
rul]s may be1 to almo/ any ext5t1       
sup]ior 9 civilization to ^? ov] :om !y 
rule2 & subjection to a =eign gov]nm5t (
 ?is description1 not)/&+ its inevitable
 evils1 is (t5 ( ! greate/ advantage to 
a p1 c>ry+ !m rapidly ?r\gh sev]al /ages

 ( progress1 & cle>+ away ob/acles to   
improvem5t :i* might h la/$ indef9itely 
if ! subject population _h be5 left     
unassi/$ to its native t5d5cies &       
*ances4 ,9 a c\ntry n "u ! dom9ion (    
=eign]s1 ! only cause adequate to       
produc+ simil> b5efits is ! r>e accid5t 
( a mon>* ( extraord9>y g5ius4 ,!re h   
be5 9 hi/ory a few ( ^! :o1 happily =   
humanity1 h reign$ long en\gh to r5d] "s
 ( _! improvem5ts p]man5t1 by leav+ !m  
"u ! gu>dian%ip ( a g5]ation :i* _h gr[n
 up "u _! influ5ce4 ,*>lemagne may be   
cit$ z "o in/ance2 ,pet] ! ,great is    
ano!r4 ,su* examples h[ev] are s        
unfrequ5t t !y c only be class$ ) !     
happy accid5ts :i* h s (t5 decid$ at a  
critical mom5t :e!r "s lead+ portion (  
humanity %\ld make a sudd5 />t1 or s9k  
back t[>ds b>b>ism--*ances l ! exi/5ce (
 ,!mi/ocles at ! "t ( ! ,p]sian         
invasion1 or ( ! fir/ or ?ird ,william (
 ,orange4 ,x w\ld be absurd to con/ruct 
in/itutions = ! m]e purpose ( tak+      
advantage ( su* possibilities1          

especially z m5 ( ?is calibre1 9 any    
di/+ui%$ position1 d n require despotic 
p[] to enable !m to ex]t great influ5ce1
 z is evid5c$ by ! ?ree la/ m5tion$4 ,! 
case mo/ requir+ consid]ation 9 ref]5ce 
to in/itutions is ! n v uncommon "o 9   
:i* a small b lead+ portion ( !         
population1 f diff]5ce ( race1 m        
civiliz$ orig91 or o!r peculi>ities (   
circum/ance1 are m>k$ly sup]ior 9       
civilization & g5]al "* to ! rema9d]4   
,"u ^? conditions1 gov]nm5t by !        
repres5tatives ( ! mass w\ld /& a *ance 
( depriv+ !m ( mu* ( ! b5efit !y might  
d]ive f ! great] civilization ( !       
sup]ior ranks1 :ile gov]nm5t by !       
repres5tatives ( ^? ranks w\ld probably 
rivet ! degradation ( ! multitude1 &    
leave !m no hope ( dec5t treatm5t except
 by ridd+ !mselves ( "o ( ! mo/ valuable
 elem5ts ( future advancem5t4 ,! be/    
prospect ( improvem5t = a p ?us compos$ 
lies 9 ! exi/5ce ( a con/itutionally    
unlimit$1 or at lea/ a practically      
prepond]ant au?ority 9 ! *ief rul] ( !  

dom9ant class4 ,he alone has by 8       
position an int]e/ 9 rais+ & improv+ !  
mass1 ( :om he is n jeal\s1 z a         
c\nt]poise to 8 associates1 ( :om he is2
 & if =tunate circum/ances place beside 
him1 n z controll]s b z subord9ates1 a  
body repres5tative ( ! sup]ior ca/e1    
:i*1 by its objections & que/ion+s1 & by
 its occasional outbreaks ( _s1 keeps   
alive habits ( collective resi/ance1 &  
may admit ( be+1 9 "t & by degrees1     
exp&$ into a really national            
repres5tation 7:i* is 9 sub/ance !      
hi/ory ( ! ,engli% ,p>liam5t71 ! nation 
has !n ! mo/ favorable prospects (      
improvem5t :i* c well occur to a        
community ?us circum/anc$ & con/itut$4  
,among ! t5d5cies :i*1 )\t absolutely   
r5d]+ a p unfit = repres5tative         
gov]nm5t1 s]i\sly incapacitate !m f     
reap+ ! full b5efit ( x1 "o des]ves     
p>ticul> notice4 ,!re are two /ates ( ! 
incl9ations1 intr9sically v diff]5t1 b  
:i* h some?+ 9 common1 by virtue ( :i*  
!y (t5 co9cide 9 ! direction !y give to 

! ef=ts ( individuals & ( nations2 "o   
is1 ! desire to ex]cise p[] ov] o!rs2 ! 
o!r is dis9cl9ation to h p[] ex]cis$ ov]
 !mselves4 ,! diff]5ce betwe5 diff]5t   
portions ( mank9d 9 ! relative /r5g? (  
^! two dispositions is "o ( ! mo/       
important elem5ts 9 _! hi/ory4 ,!re are 
nations 9 :om ! passion = gov]n+ o!rs is
 s mu* /rong] ?an ! desire ( p]sonal    
indep5d5ce1 t = ! m]e %ad[ ( ! "o !y are
 f\nd ready to sacrifice ! :ole ( ! o!r4
 ,ea* "o ( _! numb] is will+1 l !       
private soldi] 9 an army1 to abdicate 8 
p]sonal fre$om ( action into ! h&s ( 8  
g5]al1 provid$ ! army is triumphant &   
victori\s1 & he is able to flatt]       
himself t he is "o ( a conqu]+ ho/1 ?\gh
 ! notion t he has himself any %>e 9 !  
dom9ation ex]cis$ ov] ! conqu]$ is an   
illusion4 ,a gov]nm5t /rictly limit$ 9  
its p[]s & attributions1 requir$ to hold
 its h&s f ov]m$dl+1 & to let mo/ ?+s g 
on )\t its assum+ ! "p ( gu>dian or     
director1 is n to ! ta/e ( su* a p2 9 _!
 eyes ! possessors ( au?ority c h>dly   

take too mu* ^u !mselves1 provid$ !     
au?ority itself is op5 to g5]al         
competition4 ,an av]age individual among
 !m pref]s ! *ance1 h[ev] di/ant or     
improbable1 ( wield+ "s %>e ( p[] ov] 8 
fell[-citiz5s1 above ! c]ta9ty1 to      
himself & o!rs1 ( hav+ no unnecess>y p[]
 ex]cis$ ov] !m4 ,^! are ! elem5ts ( a p
 ( place-hunt]s1 9 :om ! c\rse (        
politics is ma9ly det]m9$ by            
place-hunt+2 :]e equality alone is c>$  
=1 b n lib]ty2 :]e ! conte/s ( political
 p>ties are b /ruggles to decide :e!r ! 
p[] ( m$dl+ 9 e ?+ %all belong to "o    
class or ano!r1 p]haps m]ely to "o knot 
( public m5 or ano!r2 :]e ! idea        
ent]ta9$ ( democracy is m]ely t ( op5+  
(fices to ! competition ( all in/ead ( a
 few2 :]e1 ! m popul> ! in/itutions1 ! m
 innum]able are ! places creat$1 & ! m  
mon/r\s ! ov]gov]nm5t ex]cis$ by all ov]
 ea*1 & by ! executive ov] all4 ,x w\ld 
be z unju/ z x w\ld be ung5]\s to (f]   
?is1 or any ?+ approa*+ to x1 z an      
unexagg]at$ picture ( ! ,fr5* p2 yet !  

degree 9 :i* !y d p>ticipate 9 ?is type 
( "* has caus$ repres5tative gov]nm5t by
 a limit$ class to break d[n by excess (
 corruption1 & ! attempt at             
repres5tative gov]nm5t by ! :ole male   
population to end 9 giv+ "o man ! p[] ( 
consign+ any numb] ( ! re/1 )\t trial1  
to ,lambessa or ,cay5ne1 provid$ he     
all[s all ( !m to ?9k !mselves n exclud$
 f ! possibility ( %>+ 8 favors4 ,! po9t
 ( "* :i*1 beyond any o!r1 fits ! p (   
?is c\ntry = repres5tative gov]nm5t1 is 
t !y h almo/ univ]sally ! contr>y       
*>act]i/ic4 ,!y are v jeal\s ( any      
attempt to ex]cise p[] ov] !m n         
sanction$ by long usage & by _! own     
op9ion ( "r2 b !y 9 g5]al c>e v little =
 ! ex]cise ( p[] ov] o!rs4 ,n hav+ !    
smalle/ sympa?y ) ! passion = gov]n+1   
:ile !y are b too well acqua9t$ ) !     
motives ( private int]e/ f :i* t (fice  
is s\ght1 !y pref] t x %\ld be p]=m$ by 
^? to :om x comes )\t seek+1 z a        
consequ5ce ( social position4 ,if       
=eign]s und]/ood ?is1 x w\ld acc\nt to  

!m = "s ( ! app>5t contradictions 9 !   
political feel+s ( ,engli%m52 _!        
unhesitat+ read9ess to let !mselves be  
gov]n$ by ! high] classes1 c\pl$ ) s    
little p]sonal subs]vi5ce to !m1 t no p 
are s fond ( resi/+ au?ority :5 x       
ov]/eps c]ta9 prescrib$ limits1 or s    
det]m9$ to make _! rul]s always rememb] 
t !y w only be gov]n$ 9 ! way !y        
!mselves l be/4 ,place-hunt+1 accord+ly1
 is a =m ( ambition to :i* ! ,engli%1   
consid]$ nationally1 are almo/ /rang]s4 
,if we except ! few families or         
connections ( :om (ficial employm5t lies
 directly 9 ! way1 ,engli%m5's views (  
advancem5t 9 life take an altoge!r      
diff]5t direction--t ( success 9 bus9ess
 or 9 a pr(ession4 ,!y h ! /ronge/      
di/a/e = any m]e /ruggle = (fice by     
political p>ties or individuals2 & !re  
are few ?+s to :i* !y h a great] av]sion
 ?an to ! multiplication ( public       
employm5ts2 a ?+1 on ! contr>y1 always  
popul> ) ! bureaucracy-ridd5 nations ( !
 ,cont95t1 :o w\ld r pay high] taxes ?an

 dim9i%1 by ! smalle/ fraction1 _!      
individual *ances ( a place = !mselves  
or _! relatives1 & among :om a cry =    
retr5*m5t nev] means abolition ( (fices1
 b ! r$uction ( ! sal>ies ( ^? :i* are  
too consid]able = ! ord9>y citiz5 to h  
any *ance ( be+ appo9t$ to !m4    ,*apt]
 ,v--,( ! ,prop] ,functions (           
,repres5tative ,bodies4   ,9 treat+ (   
repres5tative gov]nm5t1 x is above all  
necess>y to keep 9 view ! di/9ction     
betwe5 its idea or ess5ce1 & ! p>ticul> 
=ms 9 :i* ! idea has be5 clo!d by       
accid5tal hi/orical developm5ts1 or by !
 notions curr5t at "s p>ticul> p]iod4   
,! mean+ ( repres5tative gov]nm5t is1 t 
! :ole p1 or "s num]\s portion ( !m1    
ex]cise ?r\gh deputies p]iodically      
elect$ by !mselves ! ultimate controll+ 
p[]1 :i*1 9 e con/itution1 mu/ reside   
some:]e4 ,?is ultimate p[] !y mu/       
possess 9 all its complet5ess4 ,!y mu/  
be ma/]s1 :5ev] !y please1 ( all !      
op]ations ( gov]nm5t4 ,!re is no ne$ t !
 con/itutional law %\ld itself give !m  

?is ma/]y4 ,x does n 9 ! ,briti%        
,con/itution4 ,b :at x does give        
practically am\nts to ?is3 ! p[] ( f9al 
control is z ess5tially s+le1 9 a mix$ &
 balanc$ gov]nm5t1 z 9 a pure mon>*y or 
democracy4 ,?is is ! portion ( tru? 9 ! 
op9ion ( ! anci5ts1 reviv$ by great     
au?orities 9 our own "t1 t a balanc$    
con/itution is impossible4 ,!re is almo/
 always a balance1 b ! scales nev] hang 
exactly ev54 ,:i* ( !m prepond]ates is n
 always app>5t on ! face ( ! political  
in/itutions4 ,9 ! ,briti% ,con/itution1 
ea* ( ! ?ree co-ord9ate memb]s ( !      
sov]eignty is inve/$ ) p[]s :i*1 if     
fully ex]cis$1 w\ld enable x to /op all 
! ma*9]y ( gov]nm5t4 ,nom9ally1 !re=e1  
ea* is inve/$ ) equal p[] ( ?w>t+ &     
ob/ruct+ ! o!rs2 & if1 by ex]t+ t p[]1  
any ( ! ?ree c\ld hope to bett] its     
position1 ! ord9>y c\rse ( human affairs
 =bids u to d\bt t ! p[] w\ld be        
ex]cis$4 ,!re c be no "q t ! full p[]s (
 ea* w\ld be employ$ def5sively if x    
f\nd itself assail$ by "o or bo? ( !    

o!rs4 ,:at1 !n1 prev5ts ! same p[]s f   
be+ ex]t$ aggressively8 ,! unwritt5     
maxims ( ! ,con/itution--9 o!r words1 ! 
positive political morality ( ! c\ntry2 
& ?is positive political morality is :at
 we mu/ look to if we w\ld "k 9 :om !   
really supreme p[] 9 ! ,con/itution     
resides4  ,by con/itutional law1 ! cr[n 
c refuse its ass5t to any act (         
,p>liam5t1 & c appo9t to (fice & ma9ta9 
9 x any m9i/]1 9 opposition to !        
remon/rances ( ,p>liam5t4 ,b !          
con/itutional morality ( ! c\ntry       
nullifies ^! p[]s1 prev5t+ !m f be+ ev] 
us$2 &1 by requir+ t ! head ( !         
adm9i/ration %\ld always be virtually   
appo9t$ by ! ,h\se ( ,commons1 makes t  
body ! real sov]eign ( ! /ate4  ,^!     
unwritt5 rules1 :i* limit ! use ( lawful
 p[]s1 are1 h[ev]1 only effectual1 &    
ma9ta9 !mselves 9 exi/5ce on condition (
 h>monis+ ) ! actual di/ribution ( real 
political /r5g?4 ,!re is 9 e con/itution
 a /ronge/ p[]--"o :i* w\ld ga9 !       
victory if ! compromises by :i* !       

,con/itution habitually works 7 susp5d$1
 & !re came a trial ( /r5g?4            
,con/itutional maxims are adh]$ to1 &   
are practically op]ative1 s long z !y   
give ! pr$om9ance 9 ! ,con/itution to t 
"o ( ! p[]s :i* has ! prepond]ance (    
active p[] out ( doors4 ,?is1 9 ,engl&1 
is ! popul> p[]4 ,if1 !re=e1 ! legal    
provisions ( ! ,briti% ,con/itution1    
toge!r ) ! unwritt5 maxims by :i* !     
conduct ( ! diff]5t political au?orities
 is 9 fact regulat$1 did n give to !    
popul> elem5t 9 ! ,con/itution t        
sub/antial supremacy ov] e dep>tm5t ( ! 
gov]nm5t :i* corresponds to its real p[]
 9 ! c\ntry1 ! ,con/itution w\ld n      
possess ! /ability :i* *>act]izes x2    
ei!r ! laws or ! unwritt5 maxims w\ld   
soon h to be *ang$4 ,! ,briti% gov]nm5t 
is ?us a repres5tative gov]nm5t 9 !     
correct s5se ( ! t]m2 & ! p[]s :i* x    
leaves 9 h&s n directly acc\ntable to ! 
p c only be consid]$ z precautions :i* !
 rul+ p[] is will+ %\ld be tak5 aga9/   
its own errors4 ,su* precautions h exi/$

 9 all well-con/ruct$ democracies4 ,!   
,a!nian ,con/itution _h _m su*          
provisions1 & s has t ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4
  ,b :ile x is ess5tial to repres5tative
 gov]nm5t t ! practical supremacy 9 !   
/ate %\ld reside 9 ! repres5tatives ( ! 
p1 x is an op5 "q :at actual functions1 
:at precise "p 9 ! ma*9]y ( gov]nm5t1   
%all be directly & p]sonally dis*>g$ by 
! repres5tative body4 ,great v>ieties 9 
?is respect are compatible ) ! ess5ce ( 
repres5tative gov]nm5t1 provid$ !       
functions are su* z secure to !         
repres5tative body ! control ( e ?+ 9 ! 
la/ resort4  ,!re is a radical di/9ction
 betwe5 controll+ ! bus9ess ( gov]nm5t &
 actually do+ x4 ,! same p]son or body  
may be able to control e ?+1 b c n      
possibly d e ?+2 & 9 _m cases its       
control ov] e ?+ w be m p]fect ! less x 
p]sonally attempts to d4 ,! comm&] ( an 
army c\ld n direct its movem5ts         
effectually if he himself f\ght 9 !     
ranks or l$ an assault4 ,x is ! same )  
bodies ( m54 ,"s ?+s c n be done except 

by bodies2 o!r ?+s c n be well done by  
!m4 ,x is "o "q1 !re=e1 :at a popul>    
assembly %\ld control1 ano!r :at x %\ld 
itself d4 ,x %\ld1 z we h already se51  
control all ! op]ations ( gov]nm5t4 ,b1 
9 ord] to det]m9e ?r\gh :at *annel ?is  
g5]al control may mo/ exp$i5tly be      
ex]cis$1 & :at portion ( ! bus9ess (    
gov]nm5t ! repres5tative assembly %\ld  
hold 9 its own h&s1 x is necess>y to    
consid] :at k9ds ( bus9ess a num]\s body
 is compet5t to p]=m prop]ly4 ,t alone  
:i* x c d well x ought to take p]sonally
 ^u itself4 ,) reg>d to ! re/1 its prop]
 prov9ce is n to d x1 b to take means = 
hav+ x well done by o!rs4  ,= example1 !
 duty :i* is consid]$ z belong+ m       
peculi>ly ?an any o!r to an assembly    
repres5tative ( ! p is t ( vot+ ! taxes4
 ,nev]!less1 9 no c\ntry does !         
repres5tative body und]take1 by itself  
or its delegat$ (fic]s1 to prep>e !     
e/imates4 ,?\gh ! supplies c only be    
vot$ by ! ,h\se ( ,commons1 & ?\gh !    
sanction ( ! ,h\se is also requir$ = !  

appropriation ( ! rev5ues to ! diff]5t  
items ( ! public exp5diture1 x is !     
maxim & ! uni=m practice ( !            
,con/itution t money c be grant$ only on
 ! proposition ( ! cr[n4 ,x has1 no     
d\bt1 be5 felt t mod]ation z to ! am\nt1
 & c>e & judgm5t 9 ! detail ( its       
application1 c only be expect$ :5 !     
executive gov]nm5t1 ?r\gh ^: h&s x is to
 pass1 is made responsible = ! plans &  
calculations on :i* ! disbursem5ts are  
gr\nd$4 ,p>liam5t1 accord+ly1 is n      
expect$1 nor ev5 p]mitt$1 to orig9ate   
directly ei!r taxation or exp5diture4   
,all x is ask$ = is its cons5t1 & ! sole
 p[] x possesses is t ( refusal4  ,!    
pr9ciples :i* are involv$ & recogniz$ 9 
?is con/itutional doctr9e1 if foll[$ z  
f> z !y w g1 are a guide to ! limitation
 & def9ition ( ! g5]al functions (      
repres5tative assemblies4 ,9 ! fir/     
place1 x is admitt$ 9 all c\ntries 9 :i*
 ! repres5tative sy/em is practically   
und]/ood1 t num]\s repres5tative bodies 
ought n to adm9i/]4 ,! maxim is gr\nd$ n

 only on ! mo/ ess5tial pr9ciples ( good
 gov]nm5t1 b on ^? ( ! successful       
conduct ( bus9ess ( any description4 ,no
 body ( m51 unless organiz$ & "u comm&1 
is fit = action1 9 ! prop] s5se4 ,ev5 a 
select bo>d1 compos$ ( few memb]s1 & ^! 
specially conv]sant ) ! bus9ess to be   
done1 is always an inf]ior in/rum5t to  
"s "o individual :o c\ld be f\nd among  
!m1 & w\ld be improv$ 9 "* if t "o p]son
 7 made ! *ief1 & all ! o!rs r$uc$ to   
subord9ates4 ,:at c be done bett] by a  
body ?an by any individual is           
delib]ation4 ,:5 x is necess>y or       
important to secure he>+ & consid]ation 
to _m conflict+ op9ions1 a delib]ative  
body is indisp5sable4 ,^? bodies1 !re=e1
 are frequ5tly useful1 ev5 =            
adm9i/rative bus9ess1 b 9 g5]al only z  
advis]s2 su* bus9ess be+1 z a rule1     
bett] conduct$ "u ! responsibility ( "o4
 ,ev5 a jo9t-/ock company has always 9  
practice1 if n 9 !ory1 a manag+         
director2 its good or bad managem5t     
dep5ds ess5tially on "s "o p]son's      

qualifications1 & ! rema9+ directors1 :5
 ( any use1 are s by _! sugge/ions to   
him1 or by ! p[] !y possess ( wat*+ him1
 & re/ra9+ or remov+ him 9 case (       
misconduct4 ,t !y are o/5sibly equal    
%>es ) him 9 ! managem5t is no          
advantage1 b a consid]able set-(f aga9/ 
any good :i* !y are capable ( do+3 x    
weak5s greatly ! s5se 9 8 own m9d1 & 9  
^? ( o!r p1 ( t individual              
responsibility 9 :i* he %\ld /& =?      
p]sonally & undivid$ly4  ,b a popul>    
assembly is /ill less fitt$ to adm9i/]1 
or to dictate 9 detail to ^? :o h ! *>ge
 ( adm9i/ration4 ,ev5 :5 hone/ly meant1 
! int]f]5ce is almo/ always injuri\s4 ,e
 bran* ( public adm9i/ration is a skill$
 bus9ess1 :i* has its own peculi>       
pr9ciples & traditional rules1 _m ( !m n
 ev5 kn[n 9 any effectual way1 except to
 ^? :o h at "s "t _h a h& 9 c>ry+ on !  
bus9ess1 & none ( !m likely to be duly  
appreciat$ by p]sons n practically      
acqua9t$ ) ! dep>tm5t4 ,i d n mean t !  
transaction ( public bus9ess has esot]ic

 my/]ies1 only to be und]/ood by !      
initiat$4 ,its pr9ciples are all        
intelligible to any p]son ( good s5se1  
:o has 9 8 m9d a true picture ( !       
circum/ances & conditions to be dealt )2
 b to h ?is he mu/ "k ^? circum/ances & 
conditions2 & ! k does n come by        
intuition4 ,!re are _m rules ( ! greate/
 importance 9 e bran* ( public bus9ess  
7z !re are 9 e private occupation71 (   
:i* a p]son fre% to ! subject nei!r kn[s
 ! reason or ev5 suspects ! exi/5ce1    
because !y are int5d$ to meet dang]s or 
provide aga9/ inconv5i5ces :i* nev]     
ent]$ into 8 ?\ghts4 ,i h kn[n public   
m51 m9i/]s ( m ?an ord9>y natural       
capacity1 :o1 on _! fir/ introduction to
 a dep>tm5t ( bus9ess new to !m1 h      
excit$ ! mir? ( _! inf]iors by ! air )  
:i* !y ann\nc$ z a tru? hi!rto set at   
n\ght1 & br\ght to light by !mselves1   
some?+ :i* 0 probably ! fir/ ?\ght ( e  
body :o ev] look$ at ! subject1 giv5 up 
z soon z he _h got on to a second4 ,x is
 true t a great /atesman is he :o kn[s  

:5 to dep>t f traditions1 z well z :5 to
 adh]e to !m2 b x is a great mi/ake to  
suppose t he w d ?is bett] = be+        
ignorant ( ! traditions4 ,no "o :o does 
n ?or\ghly "k ! modes ( action :i*      
common exp]i5ce has sanction$ is capable
 ( judg+ ( ! circum/ances :i* require a 
dep>ture f ^? ord9>y modes ( action4 ,! 
int]e/s dep5d5t on ! acts done by a     
public dep>tm5t1 ! consequ5ces liable to
 foll[ f any p>ticul> mode ( conduct+ x1
 require = weigh+ & e/imat+ !m a k9d (  
k1 & ( specially ex]cis$ judgm5t1 almo/ 
z r>ely f\nd 9 ^? n br$ to x1 z !       
capacity to re=m ! law 9 ^? :o h n      
pr(essionally /udi$ x4 ,all ^!          
difficulties are sure to be ignor$ by a 
repres5tative assembly :i* attempts to  
decide on special acts ( adm9i/ration4  
,at its be/1 x is inexp]i5ce sitt+ 9    
judgm5t on exp]i5ce1 ignorance on k2    
ignorance :i*1 nev] suspect+ ! exi/5ce (
 :at x does n "k1 is equally c>eless &  
sup]cili\s1 mak+ light (1 if n res5t+1  
all pret5sions to h a judgm5t bett] wor?

 att5d+ to ?an its own4 ,?us x is :5 no 
int]e/$ motives int]v5e2 b :5 !y d1 !   
result is jobb]y m unblu%+ & audaci\s   
?an ! wor/ corruption :i* c well take   
place 9 a public (fice "u a gov]nm5t (  
publicity4 ,x is n necess>y t ! int]e/$ 
bias %\ld ext5d to ! majority ( !       
assembly4 ,9 any p>ticul> case x is ( t5
 en\gh t x affects two or ?ree ( _!     
numb]4 ,^? two or ?ree w h a great]     
int]e/ 9 mislead+ ! body ?an any o!r (  
its memb]s are likely to h 9 putt+ x "r4
 ,! bulk ( ! assembly may keep _! h&s   
clean1 b !y c n keep _! m9ds vigilant or
 _! judgm5ts disc]n+ 9 matt]s !y "k no?+
 ab\t2 & an indol5t majority1 l an      
indol5t individual1 belongs to ! p]son  
:o takes mo/ pa9s ) x4 ,! bad measures  
or bad appo9tm5ts ( a m9i/] may be *eck$
 by ,p>liam5t2 & ! int]e/ ( m9i/]s 9    
def5d+1 & ( rival p>tisans 9 attack+1   
secures a tol]ably equal discussion2 b  
quis cu/odiet cu/odes8 :o %all *eck !   
,p>liam5t8 ,a m9i/]1 a head ( an (fice1 
feels himself "u "s responsibility4 ,an 

assembly 9 su* cases feels "u no        
responsibility at all2 = :5 did any     
memb] ( ,p>liam5t lose 8 seat = ! vote  
he gave on any detail ( adm9i/ration8   
,to a m9i/]1 or ! head ( an (fice1 x is 
( m importance :at w be ?\ght ( 8       
proce$+s "s "t h5ce1 ?an :at is ?\ght ( 
!m at ! in/ant2 b an assembly1 if ! cry 
( ! mom5t goes ) x1 h[ev] ha/ily rais$  
or artificially /irr$ up1 ?9ks itself & 
is ?\ght by e body1 to be completely    
exculpat$1 h[ev] disa/r\s may be !      
consequ5ces4 ,besides1 an assembly nev] 
p]sonally exp]i5ces ! inconv5i5ces ( its
 bad measures until !y h rea*$ !        
dim5sions ( national evils4 ,m9i/]s &   
adm9i/rators see !m approa*+1 & h to be>
 all ! annoyance & tr\ble ( attempt+ to 
w>d !m (f4  ,! prop] duty ( a           
repres5tative assembly 9 reg>d to matt]s
 ( adm9i/ration is n to decide !m by its
 own vote1 b to take c>e t ! p]sons :o h
 to decide !m %all be ! prop] p]sons4   
,ev5 ?is !y c n advantage\sly d by      
nom9at+ ! individuals4 ,!re is no act   

:i* m imp]atively requires to be p]=m$  
"u a /rong s5se ( individual            
responsibility ?an ! nom9ation to       
employm5ts4 ,! exp]i5ce ( e p]son       
conv]sant ) public affairs be>s out !   
ass]tion t !re is sc>cely any act       
respect+ :i* ! consci5ce ( an av]age man
 is less s5sitive2 sc>cely any case 9   
:i* less consid]ation is paid to        
qualifications1 p>tly because m5 d n "k1
 & p>tly because !y d n c>e =1 !        
diff]5ce 9 qualifications betwe5 "o     
p]son & ano!r4 ,:5 a m9i/] makes :at is 
meant to be an hone/ appo9tm5t1 t is1 :5
 he does n actually job x = 8 p]sonal   
connections or 8 p>ty1 an ignorant p]son
 might suppose t he w\ld try to give x  
to ! p]son be/ qualifi$4 ,no su* ?+4 ,an
 ord9>y m9i/] ?9ks himself a miracle (  
virtue if he gives x to a p]son ( m]it1 
or :o has a claim on ! public on any    
acc\nt1 ?\gh ! claim or ! m]it may be ( 
! mo/ opposite description to t requir$4
 ,il fallait un calculateur1 ce fut un  
danseur qui l'obt9t1 is h>dly m ( a     

c>icature ?an 9 ! days ( ,fig>o2 & !    
m9i/] d\btless ?9ks himself n only      
blameless1 b m]itori\s1 if ! man dances 
well4 ,besides1 ! qualifications :i* fit
 special individuals = special duties c 
only be recogniz$ by ^? :o "k !         
individuals1 or :o make x _! bus9ess to 
exam9e & judge ( p]sons f :at !y h done1
 or f ! evid5ce ( ^? :o are 9 a position
 to judge4 ,:5 ^! consci5ti\s           
obligations are s little reg>d$ by great
 public (fic]s :o c be made responsible 
= _! appo9tm5ts1 h[ mu/ x be )          
assemblies :o c n8 ,ev5 n[1 ! wor/      
appo9tm5ts are ^? :i* are made = ! sake 
( ga9+ support or dis>m+ opposition 9 ! 
repres5tative body2 :at might we expect 
if !y 7 made by ! body itself8 ,num]\s  
bodies nev] reg>d special qualifications
 at all4 ,unless a man is fit = !       
gall[s1 he is ?\ght to be ab\t z fit z  
o!r p = almo/ any ?+ = :i* he c (f]     
himself z a c&idate4 ,:5 appo9tm5ts made
 by a public body are n decid$1 z !y    
almo/ always are1 by p>ty connection or 

private jobb+1 a man is appo9t$ ei!r    
because he has a reputation1 (t5 q      
undes]v$1 = g5]al ability1 or (t5] = no 
bett] reason ?an t he is p]sonally      
popul>4  ,x has nev] be5 ?\ght desirable
 t ,p>liam5t %\ld itself nom9ate ev5 !  
memb]s ( a cab9et4 ,x is en\gh t x      
virtually decides :o %all be prime      
m9i/]1 or :o %all be ! two or ?ree      
individuals f :om ! prime m9i/] %all be 
*os54 ,9 do+ ?is1 x m]ely recognizes !  
fact t a c]ta9 p]son is ! c&idate ( !   
p>ty ^: g5]al policy comm&s its support4
 ,9 reality1 ! only ?+ :i* ,p>liam5t    
decides is1 :i* ( two1 or at mo/ ?ree1  
p>ties or bodies ( m5 %all furni% !     
executive gov]nm5t3 ! op9ion ( ! p>ty   
itself decides :i* ( its memb]s is      
fitte/ to be plac$ at ! head4 ,accord+  
to ! exi/+ practice ( ! ,briti%         
,con/itution1 ^! ?+s seem to be on z    
good a foot+ z !y c be4 ,p>liam5t does n
 nom9ate any m9i/]1 b ! cr[n appo9ts !  
head ( ! adm9i/ration 9 con=mity to !   
g5]al wi%es & incl9ations manife/$ by   

,p>liam5t1 & ! o!r m9i/]s on !          
recomm5dation ( ! *ief2 :ile e m9i/] has
 ! undivid$ moral responsibility (      
appo9t+ fit p]sons to ! o!r (fices (    
adm9i/ration :i* are n p]man5t4 ,9 a    
republic1 "s o!r arrangem5t w\ld be     
necess>y2 b ! ne>] x approa*$ 9 practice
 to t :i* has long exi/$ 9 ,engl&1 ! m  
likely x w\ld be to "w well4 ,ei!r1 z 9 
! ,am]ican republic1 ! head ( !         
executive mu/ be elect$ by "s ag5cy     
entirely indep5d5t ( ! repres5tative    
body2 or ! body mu/ cont5t itself ) nam+
 ! prime m9i/]1 & mak+ him responsible =
 ! *oice ( 8 associates & subord9ates4  
,9 all ^! consid]ations1 at lea/        
!oretically1 ,i fully anticipate a g5]al
 ass5t2 ?\gh1 practically1 ! t5d5cy is  
/rong 9 repres5tative bodies to int]f]e 
m & m 9 ! details ( adm9i/ration1 by    
virtue ( ! g5]al law1 t :oev] has !     
/ronge/ p[] is m & m tempt$ to make an  
excessive use ( x2 & ?is is "o ( !      
practical dang]s to :i* ! futurity (    
repres5tative gov]nm5ts w be expos$4  ,b

 x is equally true1 ?\gh only ( late &  
sl[ly beg9n+ to be ackn[l$g$1 t a num]\s
 assembly is z little fitt$ = ! direct  
bus9ess ( legislation z = t (           
adm9i/ration4 ,!re is h>dly any k9d (   
intellectual "w :i* s mu* ne$s to be    
done n only by exp]i5c$ & ex]cis$ m9ds1 
b by m9ds tra9$ to ! task ?r\gh long &  
labori\s /udy1 z ! bus9ess ( mak+ laws4 
,?is is a suffici5t reason1 7 !re no    
o!r1 :y !y c nev] be well made b by a   
committee ( v few p]sons4 ,a reason no  
less conclusive is1 t e provision ( a   
law requires to be fram$ ) ! mo/        
accurate & long-sight$ p]ception ( its  
effect on all ! o!r provisions2 & ! law 
:5 made %\ld be capable ( fitt+ into a  
consi/5t :ole ) ! previ\sly exi/+ laws4 
,x is impossible t ^! conditions %\ld be
 9 any degree fulfill$ :5 laws are vot$ 
clause by clause 9 a miscellane\s       
assembly4 ,! incongruity ( su* a mode ( 
legislat+ w\ld /rike all m9ds1 7 x n t  
our laws are already1 z to =m &         
con/ruction1 su* a *aos1 t ! confusion &

 contradiction seem incapable ( be+ made
 great] by any addition to ! mass4 ,yet 
ev5 n[1 ! utt] unfitness ( our          
legislative ma*9]y = its purpose is mak+
 itself practically felt e ye> m & m4 ,!
 m]e "t necess>ily occupi$ 9 gett+ ?r\gh
 bills1 r5d]s ,p>liam5t m & m incapable 
( pass+ any1 except on deta*$ & n>r[    
po9ts4 ,if a bill is prep>$ :i* ev5     
attempts to deal ) ! :ole ( any subject 
7& x is impossible to legislate prop]ly 
on any "p )\t hav+ ! :ole pres5t to !   
m9d71 x hangs ov] f session to session  
?r\gh %e] impossibility ( f9d+ "t to    
dispose ( x4 ,x matt]s n ?\gh ! bill may
 h be5 delib]ately drawn up by !        
au?ority deem$ ! be/ qualifi$1 ) all    
appliances & means to boot2 or by a     
select commission1 *os5 = _! conv]sancy 
) ! subject1 & hav+ employ$ ye>s 9      
consid]+ & dige/+ ! p>ticul> measure3 x 
c n be pass$1 because ! ,h\se ( ,commons
 w n =ego ! preci\s privilege ( t9k]+ x 
) _! clumsy h&s4 ,! cu/om has ( late be5
 to "s ext5t introduc$1 :5 ! pr9ciple ( 

a bill has be5 affirm$ on ! second      
read+1 ( ref]r+ x = consid]ation 9      
detail to a select committee2 b x has n 
be5 f\nd t ?is practice causes mu* less 
"t to be lo/ aft]w>ds 9 c>ry+ x ?r\gh ! 
committee ( ! :ole ,h\se3 ! op9ions or  
private crot*ets :i* h be5 ov]rul$ by k 
always insi/ on giv+ !mselves a second  
*ance be=e ! tribunal ( ignorance4      
,inde$1 ! practice itself has be5 adopt$
 pr9cipally by ! ,h\se ( ,lords1 !      
memb]s ( :i* are less busy & fond (     
m$dl+1 & less jeal\s ( ! importance ( _!
 individual voices1 ?an ^? ( ! elective 
,h\se4 ,& :5 a bill ( _m clauses does   
succe$ 9 gett+ itself discuss$ 9 detail1
 :at c depict ! /ate 9 :i* x comes out (
 committee6 ,clauses omitt$ :i* are     
ess5tial to ! work+ ( ! re/2 incongru\s 
ones ins]t$ to conciliate "s private    
int]e/1 or "s crot*ety memb] :o ?reat5s 
to delay ! bill2 articles foi/$ 9 on !  
motion ( "s scioli/ ) a m]e smatt]+ ( ! 
subject1 lead+ to consequ5ces :i* !     
memb] :o introduc$ or ^? :o support$ !  

bill did n at ! mom5t =esee1 & :i* ne$  
an am5d+ act 9 ! next session to correct
 _! mis*iefs4 ,x is "o ( ! evils ( !    
pres5t mode ( manag+ ^! ?+s1 t ! expla9+
 & def5d+ ( a bill1 & ( its v>i\s       
provisions1 is sc>cely ev] p]=m$ by !   
p]son f ^: m9d !y emanat$1 :o probably  
has n a seat 9 ! ,h\se4 ,_! def5se re/s 
^u "s m9i/] or memb] ( ,p>liam5t :o did 
n frame !m1 :o is dep5d5t on cramm+ =   
all 8 argum5ts b ^? :i* are p]fectly    
obvi\s1 :o does n "k ! full /r5g? ( 8   
case1 nor ! be/ reasons by :i* to       
support x1 & is :olly incapable ( meet+ 
un=ese5 objections4 ,?is evil1 z f> z   
gov]nm5t bills are conc]n$1 admits (    
rem$y1 & has be5 rem$i$ 9 "s            
repres5tative con/itutions1 by all[+ !  
gov]nm5t to be repres5t$ 9 ei!r ,h\se by
 p]sons 9 its confid5ce1 hav+ a "r to   
speak1 ?\gh n to vote4  ,if t1 z yet    
consid]able1 majority ( ! ,h\se (       
,commons :o nev] desire to move an      
am5dm5t or make a spee* w\ld no long]   
leave ! :ole regulation ( bus9ess to ^? 

:o d2 if !y w\ld be?9k !mselves t bett] 
qualifications = legislation exi/1 & may
 be f\nd if s\ght =1 ?an a flu5t tongue1
 & ! faculty ( gett+ elect$ by a        
con/itu5cy1 x w\ld soon be recogniz$ t1 
9 legislation z well z adm9i/ration1 !  
only task to :i* a repres5tative        
assembly c possibly be compet5t is n t (
 do+ ! "w1 b ( caus+ x to be done2 (    
det]m9+ to :om or to :at sort ( p x %all
 be confid$1 & giv+ or )hold+ ! national
 sanction to x :5 p]=m$4 ,any gov]nm5t  
fit = a high /ate ( civilization w\ld h 
z "o ( its fundam5tal elem5ts a small   
body1 n exce$+ 9 numb] ! memb]s ( a     
cab9et1 :o %\ld act z a ,commission (   
,legislation1 hav+ = its appo9t$ (fice  
to make ! laws4 ,if ! laws ( ?is c\ntry 
71 z surely !y w soon be1 revis$ & put  
into a connect$ =m1 ! ,commission (     
,codification by :i* ?is is effect$ %\ld
 rema9 z a p]man5t in/itution1 to wat*  
ov] ! "w1 protect x f det]ioration1 &   
make fur!r improvem5ts z (t5 z requir$4 
,no "o w\ld wi% t ?is body %\ld ( itself

 h any p[] ( enact+ laws2 ! ,commission 
w\ld only embody ! elem5t ( intellig5ce 
9 _! con/ruction2 ,p>liam5t w\ld        
repres5t t ( w4 ,no measure w\ld become 
a law until expressly sanction$ by      
,p>liam5t2 & ,p>liam5t1 or ei!r h\se1   
w\ld h ! p[] n only ( reject+ b ( s5d+  
back a bill to ! commission =           
reconsid]ation or improvem5t4 ,ei!r h\se
 might also ex]cise its initiative by   
ref]r+ any subject to ! commission1 )   
directions to prep>e a law4 ,!          
commission1 ( c\rse1 w\ld h no p[] (    
refus+ its in/rum5tality to any         
legislation :i* ! c\ntry desir$4        
,in/ructions1 concurr$ 9 by bo? h\ses1  
to draw up a bill :i* %\ld effect a     
p>ticul> purpose1 w\ld be imp]ative on !
 commission]s1 unless !y pref]r$ to     
resign _! (fice4 ,once fram$1 h[ev]1    
,p>liam5t %\ld h no p[] to alt] !       
measure1 b solely to pass or reject x2  
or1 if p>tially disapprov$ (1 remit x to
 ! commission = reconsid]ation4 ,!      
commission]s %\ld be appo9t$ by ! cr[n1 

b %\ld hold _! (fices = a "t c]ta91 say 
five ye>s1 unless remov$ on an address f
 ! two ,h\ses ( ,p>liam5t1 gr\nd$ ei!r  
on p]sonal misconduct 7z 9 ! case (     
judges71 or on refusal to draw up a bill
 9 ob$i5ce to ! dem&s ( ,p>liam5t4 ,at !
 expiration ( ! five ye>s a memb] %\ld  
cease to hold (fice unless reappo9t$1 9 
ord] to provide a conv5i5t mode ( gett+ 
rid ( ^? :o _h n be5 f\nd equal to _!   
duties1 & ( infus+ new & y\ng] blood    
into ! body4  ,! necessity ( "s         
provision correspond+ to ?is 0 felt ev5 
9 ! ,a!nian ,democracy1 :]e1 9 ! "t (   
its mo/ complete asc5dancy1 ! popul>    
,ecclesia c\ld pass psephisms 7mo/ly    
decrees on s+le matt]s ( policy71 b     
laws1 s call$1 c\ld only be made or     
alt]$ by a diff]5t & less num]\s body1  
r5ew$ annually1 call$ ! ,nomo!t1 ^: duty
 x also 0 to revise ! :ole ( ! laws1 &  
keep !m consi/5t ) "o ano!r4 ,9 !       
,engli% ,con/itution !re is great       
difficulty 9 introduc+ any arrangem5t   
:i* is new bo? 9 =m & 9 sub/ance1 b     

comp>atively little repugnance is felt  
to ! atta9m5t ( new purposes by an      
adaptation ( exi/+ =ms & traditions4 ,x 
appe>s to me t ! means might be devis$ (
 enri*+ ! ,con/itution ) ?is great      
improvem5t ?r\gh ! ma*9]y ( ! ,h\se (   
,lords4 ,a commission = prep>+ bills    
w\ld 9 itself be no m an innovation on !
 ,con/itution ?an ! ,bo>d = !           
adm9i/ration ( ! ,poor ,laws1 or !      
,inclosure ,commission4 ,if1 9          
consid]ation ( ! great importance &     
dignity ( ! tru/1 x 7 made a rule t e   
p]son appo9t$ a memb] ( ! ,legislative  
,commission1 unless remov$ f (fice on an
 address f ,p>liam5t1 %\ld be a pe] =   
life1 x is probable t ! same good s5se &
 ta/e :i* leave ! judicial functions ( !
 pe]age practically to ! exclusive c>e (
 ! law lords w\ld leave ! bus9ess (     
legislation1 except on que/ions involv+ 
political pr9ciples & int]e/s1 to !     
pr(essional legislators2 t bills        
orig9at+ 9 ! ,upp] ,h\se w\ld always be 
drawn up by !m2 t ! gov]nm5t w\ld       

devolve on !m ! fram+ ( all its bills2 &
 t private memb]s ( ! ,h\se ( ,commons  
w\ld gradually f9d x conv5i5t1 & likely 
to facilitate ! pass+ ( _! measures     
?r\gh ! two h\ses1 if1 in/ead ( br++ 9 a
 bill & submitt+ x directly to ! h\se1  
!y obta9$ leave to introduce x & h x    
ref]r$ to ! ,legislative ,commission2 = 
x w\ld1 ( c\rse1 be op5 to ! ,h\se to   
ref] = ! consid]ation ( t body n a      
subject m]ely1 b any specific proposal1 
or a ,draft ( a ,bill 9 ext5so1 :5 any  
memb] ?\ght himself capable ( prep>+ "o 
su* z ought to pass2 & ! ,h\se w\ld     
d\btless ref] e su* draft to !          
commission1 if only z mat]ials1 & = !   
b5efit ( ! sugge/ions x might conta91 z 
!y w\ld1 9 l mann]1 ref] e am5dm5t or   
objection :i* might be propos$ 9 writ+  
by any memb] ( ! ,h\se aft] a measure _h
 left ! commission]s' h&s4 ,! alt]ation 
( bills by a committee ( ! :ole ,h\se   
w\ld cease1 n by =mal abolition1 b by   
desuetude2 ! "r n be+ ab&on$1 b laid up 
9 ! same arm\ry ) ! royal veto1 ! "r (  

)hold+ ! supplies1 & o!r anci5t         
in/rum5ts ( political w>f>e1 :i* no "o  
desires to see us$1 b no "o likes to "p 
)1 le/ !y %\ld any "t be f\nd to be /ill
 ne$$ 9 an extraord9>y em]g5cy4 ,by su* 
arrangem5ts z ^!1 legislation w\ld      
assume its prop] place z a "w ( skill$  
labor & special /udy & exp]i5ce2 :ile ! 
mo/ important lib]ty ( ! nation1 t ( be+
 gov]n$ only by laws ass5t$ to by its   
elect$ repres5tatives1 w\ld be fully    
pres]v$1 & made m valuable by be+ deta*$
 f ! s]i\s1 b by no means unavoidable   
drawbacks :i* n[ accompany x 9 ! =m (   
ignorant & ill-consid]$ legislation4    
,in/ead ( ! function ( gov]n+1 = :i* x  
is radically unfit1 ! prop] (fice ( a   
repres5tative assembly is to wat* &     
control ! gov]nm5t2 to ?r[ ! light (    
publicity on its acts2 to compel a full 
exposition & ju/ification ( all ( !m :i*
 any "o consid]s que/ionable2 to c9sure 
!m if f\nd condemnable1 &1 if ! m5 :o   
compose ! gov]nm5t abuse _! tru/1 or    
fulfill x 9 a mann] :i* conflicts ) !   

delib]ate s5se ( ! nation1 to expel !m f
 (fice1 & ei!r expressly or virtually   
appo9t _! successors4 ,?is is surely    
ample p[]1 & security en\gh = ! lib]ty (
 ! nation4 ,9 addition to ?is1 !        
,p>liam5t has an (fice n inf]ior ev5 to 
?is 9 importance2 to be at once !       
nation's ,committee ( ,grievances & its 
,congress ( ,op9ions2 an ar5a 9 :i* n   
only ! g5]al op9ion ( ! nation1 b t ( e 
section ( x1 &1 z f> z possible1 ( e    
em95t individual :om x conta9s1 c       
produce itself 9 full light & *all5ge   
discussion2 :]e e p]son 9 ! c\ntry may  
c\nt ^u f9d+ somebody :o speaks 8 m9d z 
well or bett] ?an he c\ld speak x       
himself--n to fri5ds & p>tisans         
exclusively1 b 9 ! face ( oppon5ts1 to  
be te/$ by adv]se controv]sy2 :]e ^? ^: 
op9ion is ov]rul$1 feel satisfi$ t x is 
he>d1 & set aside n by a m]e act ( w1 b 
= :at are ?\ght sup]ior reasons1 &      
comm5d !mselves z su* to !              
repres5tatives ( ! majority ( ! nation2 
:]e e p>ty or op9ion 9 ! c\ntry c mu/]  

its /r5g?1 & be cur$ ( any illusion     
conc]n+ ! numb] or p[] ( its adh]5ts2   
:]e ! op9ion :i* prevails 9 ! nation    
makes itself manife/ z prevail+1 &      
m>%als its ho/s 9 ! pres5ce ( !         
gov]nm5t1 :i* is ?us enabl$ & compell$  
to give way to x on ! m]e manife/ation1 
)\t ! actual employm5t ( its /r5g?2 :]e 
/atesm5 c assure !mselves1 f> m c]ta9ly 
?an by any o!r signs1 :at elem5ts (     
op9ion & p[] are gr[+ & :at decl9+1 &   
are enabl$ to %ape _! measures ) "s     
reg>d n solely to pres5t exig5cies1 b to
 t5d5cies 9 progress4 ,repres5tative    
assemblies are (t5 taunt$ by _! enemies 
) be+ places ( m]e talk & bav>dage4 ,!re
 has seldom be5 m misplac$ d]ision4 ,i  
"k n h[ a repres5tative assembly c m    
usefully employ itself ?an 9 talk1 :5 ! 
subject ( talk is ! great public int]e/s
 ( ! c\ntry1 & e s5t5ce ( x repres5ts ! 
op9ion ei!r ( "s important body ( p]sons
 9 ! nation1 or ( an individual 9 :om "s
 su* body h repos$ _! confid5ce4 ,a     
place :]e e int]e/ & %ade ( op9ion 9 !  

c\ntry c h its cause ev5 passionately   
plead$1 9 ! face ( ! gov]nm5t & ( all   
o!r int]e/s & op9ions1 c compel !m to   
li/51 & ei!r comply1 or /ate cle>ly :y  
!y d n1 is 9 itself1 if x answ]$ no o!r 
purpose1 "o ( ! mo/ important political 
in/itutions t c exi/ any :]e1 & "o ( !  
=emo/ b5efits ( free gov]nm5t4 ,su*     
talk+ w\ld nev] be look$ ^u )           
disp>agem5t if x 7 n all[$ to /op do+2  
:i* x nev] w\ld1 if assemblies knew &   
ackn[l$g$ t talk+ & discussion are _!   
prop] bus9ess1 :ile do+1 z ! result (   
discussion1 is ! task n ( a miscellane\s
 body1 b ( individuals specially tra9$  
to x2 t ! fit (fice ( an assembly is to 
see t ^? individuals are hone/ly &      
intellig5tly *os51 & to int]f]e no fur!r
 ) !m1 except by unlimit$ latitude (    
sugge/ion & criticism1 & by apply+ or   
)hold+ ! f9al seal ( national ass5t4 ,x 
is = want ( ?is judici\s res]ve t popul>
 assemblies attempt to d :at !y c n d   
well--to gov]n & legislate--& provide no
 ma*9]y b _! own = mu* ( x1 :5 ( c\rse e

 h\r sp5t 9 talk is an h\r )drawn f     
actual bus9ess4 ,b ! v fact :i* mo/     
unfits su* bodies = a c\ncil (          
legislation1 qualifies !m ! m = _! o!r  
(fice--namely1 t !y are n a selection ( 
! greate/ political m9ds 9 ! c\ntry1 f  
^: op9ions little c\ld ) c]ta9ty be     
inf]r$ conc]n+ ^? ( ! nation1 b are1 :5 
prop]ly con/itut$1 a fair sample ( e    
grade ( intellect among ! p :i* is at   
all entitl$ to a voice 9 public affairs4
 ,_! "p is to indicate wants1 to be an  
organ = popul> dem&s1 & a place ( adv]se
 discussion = all op9ions relat+ to     
public matt]s1 bo? great & small2 &1    
along ) ?is1 to *eck by criticism1 &    
ev5tually by )draw+ _! support1 ^? high 
public (fic]s :o really conduct ! public
 bus9ess1 or :o appo9t ^? by :om x is   
conduct$4 ,no?+ b ! re/riction ( !      
function ( repres5tative bodies )9 ^!   
rational limits w enable ! b5efits (    
popul> control to be enjoy$ 9           
conjunction ) ! no less important       
requisites 7gr[+ ev] m important z human

 affairs increase 9 scale & 9           
complexity7 ( skill$ legislation &      
adm9i/ration4 ,!re are no means ( comb9+
 ^! b5efits except by sep>at+ !         
functions :i* gu>anty ! "o f ^? :i*     
ess5tially require ! o!r2 by disjo9+ !  
(fice ( control & criticism f ! actual  
conduct ( affairs1 & devolv+ ! =m] on ! 
repres5tatives ( ! ,_m1 :ile secur+ = ! 
latt]1 "u /rict responsibility to !     
nation1 ! acquir$ k & practic$          
intellig5ce ( a specially tra9$ &       
exp]i5c$ ,few4  ,! prec$+ discussion ( !
 functions :i* ought to devolve on !    
sov]eign repres5tative assembly ( !     
nation w\ld require to be foll[$ by an  
inquiry into ^? prop]ly ve/$ 9 ! m9or   
repres5tative bodies1 :i* ought to exi/ 
= purposes t reg>d only localities4 ,&  
su* an inquiry =ms an ess5tial "p ( !   
pres5t treatise2 b _m reasons require   
its po/ponem5t1 until we h consid]$ !   
mo/ prop] composition ( ! great         
repres5tative body1 de/9$ to control z  
sov]eign ! enactm5t ( laws & !          

adm9i/ration ( ! g5]al affairs ( !      
nation4    ,*apt] ,,vi--,( !            
,infirmities & ,dang]s to :i*           
,repres5tative ,gov]nm5t is ,liable4    
,! defects ( any =m ( gov]nm5t may be   
ei!r negative or positive4 ,x is        
negatively defective if x does n        
conc5trate 9 ! h&s ( ! au?orities p[]   
suffici5t to fulfill ! necess>y (fices (
 a gov]nm5t1 or if x does n suffici5tly 
develop by ex]cise ! active capacities &
 social feel+s ( ! individual citiz5s4  
,on nei!r ( ^! po9ts is x necess>y t mu*
 %\ld be said at ?is /age ( our inquiry4
  ,! want ( an am\nt p[] 9 ! gov]nm5t   
adequate to pres]ve ord] & all[ (       
progress 9 ! p is incid5t r to a wild & 
rude /ate ( society g5]ally ?an to any  
p>ticul> =m ( political union4 ,:5 ! p  
are too mu* atta*$ to savage indep5d5ce 
to be tol]ant ( ! am\nt ( p[] to :i* x  
is = _! good t !y %\ld be subject1 !    
/ate ( society 7z already obs]v$7 is n  
yet ripe = repres5tative gov]nm5t4 ,:5 !
 "t = t gov]nm5t has arriv$1 suffici5t  

p[] = all ne$ful purposes is sure to    
reside 9 ! sov]eign assembly2 & if en\gh
 ( x is n intru/$ to ! executive1 ?is c 
only arise f a jeal\s feel+ on ! "p ( ! 
assembly t[>d ! adm9i/ration1 nev]      
likely to exi/ b :]e ! con/itutional p[]
 ( ! assembly to turn !m out ( (fice has
 n yet suffici5tly e/abli%$ itself4     
,:]ev] t con/itutional "r is admitt$ 9  
pr9ciple & fully op]ative 9 practice1   
!re is no fe> t ! assembly w n be will+ 
to tru/ its own m9i/]s ) any am\nt ( p[]
 really desirable2 ! dang] is1 on !     
contr>y1 le/ !y %\ld grant x too        
ungrudg+ly1 & too indef9ite 9 ext5t1    
s9ce ! p[] ( ! m9i/] is ! p[] ( ! body  
:o make & :o keep him s4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 v
 likely1 & is "o ( ! dang]s ( a         
controll+ assembly1 t x may be lavi% (  
p[]s1 b aft]w>ds int]f]e ) _! ex]cise2  
may give p[] by :olesale1 & take x back 
9 detail1 by multipli$ s+le acts (      
int]f]5ce 9 ! bus9ess ( adm9i/ration4 ,!
 evils aris+ f ?is assumption ( ! actual
 function ( gov]n+1 9 lieu ( t (        

criticis+ & *eck+ ^? :o gov]n1 h be5    
suffici5tly dwelt ^u 9 ! prec$+ *apt]4  
,no safegu>d c 9 ! nature ( ?+s be      
provid$ aga9/ ?is improp] m$dl+1 except 
a /rong & g5]al conviction ( its        
injuri\s "*4  ,! o!r negative defect :i*
 may reside 9 a gov]nm5t1 t ( n br++    
into suffici5t ex]cise ! individual     
faculties1 moral1 intellectual1 &       
active1 ( ! p1 has be5 exhibit$ g5]ally 
9 sett+ =? ! di/9ctive mis*iefs (       
despotism4 ,z betwe5 "o =m ( popul>     
gov]nm5t & ano!r1 ! advantage 9 ?is     
respect lies ) t :i* mo/ widely diffuses
 ! ex]cise ( public functions2 on ! "o  
h&1 by exclud+ fewe/ f ! suffrage2 on ! 
o!r1 by op5+ to all classes ( private   
citiz5s1 s f> z is consi/5t ) o!r       
equally important objects1 ! wide/      
p>ticipation 9 ! details ( judicial &   
adm9i/rative bus9ess2 z by jury-trial1  
admission to municipal (fices1 &1 above 
all1 by ! utmo/ possible publicity &    
lib]ty ( discussion1 :]eby n m]ely a few
 individuals 9 succession1 b ! :ole     

public1 are made1 to a c]ta9 ext5t1     
p>ticipants 9 ! gov]nm5t1 & %>]s 9 !    
in/ruction & m5tal ex]cise d]iv$ f x4 ,!
 fur!r illu/ration ( ^! b5efits1 z well 
z ( ! limitations "u :i* !y mu/ be aim$ 
at1 w be bett] def]r$ until we come to  
speak ( ! details ( adm9i/ration4  ,!   
positive evils & dang]s ( !             
repres5tative1 z ( e o!r =m ( gov]nm5t1 
may be r$uc$ to two heads3 fir/1 g5]al  
ignorance & incapacity1 or1 to speak m  
mod]ately1 insuffici5t m5tal            
qualifications1 9 ! controll+ body2     
secondly1 ! dang] ( its be+ "u !        
influ5ce ( int]e/s n id5tical ) ! g5]al 
welf>e ( ! community4  ,! =m] ( ^!      
evils1 defici5cy 9 high m5tal           
qualifications1 is "o to :i* x is       
g5]ally suppos$ t popul> gov]nm5t is    
liable 9 a great] degree ?an any o!r4 ,!
 en]gy ( a mon>*1 ! /ead9ess & prud5ce (
 an ari/ocracy1 are ?\ght to contra/ mo/
 favorably ) ! vacillation &            
%ortsight$ness ( ev5 ! mo/ qualifi$     
democracy4 ,^! propositions1 h[ev]1 are 

n by any means s well f\nd$ z !y at fir/
 sight appe>4  ,comp>$ ) simple mon>*y1 
repres5tative gov]nm5t is 9 ^! respects 
at no disadvantage4 ,except 9 a rude    
age1 h]$it>y mon>*y1 :5 x is really su*1
 & n ari/ocracy 9 disguise1 f> surpasses
 democracy 9 all ! =ms ( incapacity     
suppos$ to be *>act]i/ic ( ! la/4 ,i    
say1 except 9 a rude age1 because 9 a   
really rude /ate ( society !re is a     
consid]able gu>anty = ! intellectual &  
active capacities ( ! sov]eign4 ,8      
p]sonal w is con/antly enc\nt]+ ob/acles
 f ! willfulness ( 8 subjects1 & (      
p[]ful individuals among _! numb]4 ,!   
circum/ances ( society d n af=d him mu* 
temptation to m]e luxuri\s              
self-indulg5ce2 m5tal & bodily activity1
 especially political & milit>y1 are 8  
pr9cipal excitem5ts2 & among turbul5t   
*iefs & lawless foll[]s he has little   
au?ority1 & is seldom long secure ev5 ( 
8 ?rone1 unless he possesses a          
consid]able am\nt ( p]sonal d>+1        
dext]ity1 & en]gy4 ,! reason :y ! av]age

 ( tal5t is s high among ! ,h5ries &    
,edw>ds ( our hi/ory may be read 9 !    
tragical fate ( ! second ,edw>d & !     
second ,ri*>d1 & ! civil w>s &          
di/urbances ( ! reigns ( ,john & 8      
incapable successor4 ,! tr\bl$ p]iod ( !
 ,re=mation also produc$ sev]al em95t   
h]$it>y mon>*s--,elizabe?1 ,h5ri        
,quatre1 ,gu/avus ,adolphus2 b !y 7     
mo/ly br$ up 9 adv]sity1 succe$$ to !   
?rone by ! unexpect$ failure ( ne>]     
heirs1 or _h to cont5d ) great          
difficulties 9 ! comm5cem5t ( _! reign4 
,s9ce ,european life assum$ a settl$    
aspect1 any ?+ above m$iocrity 9 an     
h]$it>y k+ has become extremely r>e1    
:ile ! g5]al av]age has be5 ev5 bel[    
m$iocrity1 bo? 9 tal5t & 9 vigor ( "*4  
,a mon>*y con/itutionally absolute n[   
only ma9ta9s itself 9 exi/5ce 7except   
tempor>ily 9 ! h&s ( "s active-m9d$     
usurp]7 ?r\gh ! m5tal qualifications ( a
 p]man5t bureaucracy4 ,! ,russian &     
,au/rian gov]nm5ts1 & ev5 ! ,fr5*       
gov]nm5t 9 its normal condition1 are    

olig>*ies ( (ficials1 ( :om ! head ( !  
/ate does little m ?an select ! *iefs4  
,i am speak+ ( ! regul> c\rse ( _!      
adm9i/ration2 = ! w ( ! ma/] ( c\rse    
det]m9es _m ( _! p>ticul> acts4  ,!     
gov]nm5ts :i* h be5 rem>kable 9 hi/ory =
 su/a9$ m5tal ability & vigor 9 !       
conduct ( affairs h g5]ally be5         
ari/ocracies4 ,b !y h be51 )\t any      
exception1 ari/ocracies ( public        
function>ies4 ,! rul+ bodies h be5 s    
n>r[1 t ea* memb]1 or at lea/ ea*       
influ5tial memb] ( ! body1 0 able to    
make1 & did make1 public bus9ess an     
active pr(ession1 & ! pr9cipal          
occupation ( 8 life4 ,! only            
ari/ocracies :i* h manife/$ high gov]n+ 
capacities1 & act$ on /eady maxims (    
policy ?r\gh _m g5]ations1 are ^? (     
,rome & ,v5ice4 ,b1 at ,v5ice1 ?\gh !   
privileg$ ord] 0 num]\s1 ! actual       
managem5t ( affairs 0 rigidly conc5trat$
 9 a small olig>*y )9 ! olig>*y1 ^: :ole
 lives 7 devot$ to ! /udy & conduct ( ! 
affairs ( ! /ate4 ,! ,roman gov]nm5t    

p>took m ( ! "* ( an op5 ari/ocracy l   
our own4 ,b ! really gov]n+ body1 !     
,s5ate1 0 9 exclusively compos$ ( p]sons
 :o _h ex]cis$ public functions1 & _h   
ei!r already fill$1 or 7 look+ =w>d to  
fill ! highe/ (fices ( ! /ate1 at ! p]il
 ( a sev]e responsibility 9 case (      
incapacity & failure4 ,:5 once memb]s ( 
! ,s5ate1 _! lives 7 pl$g$ to ! conduct 
( public affairs2 !y 7 n p]mitt$ ev5 to 
leave ,italy except 9 ! dis*>ge ( "s    
public tru/2 & unless turn$ out ( !     
,s5ate by ! c5sors = "* or conduct deem$
 disgraceful1 !y reta9$ _! p[]s &       
responsibilities to ! end ( life4 ,9 an 
ari/ocracy ?us con/itut$1 e memb] felt 8
 p]sonal importance entirely b\nd up ) !
 dignity & e/imation ( ! commonweal? :i*
 he adm9i/]$1 & ) ! "p he 0 able to play
 9 its c\ncils4 ,?is dignity & e/imation
 7 q diff]5t ?+s f ! prosp]ity or       
happ9ess ( ! g5]al body ( ! citiz5s1 & 7
 (t5 :olly incompatible ) x4 ,b !y 7    
closely l9k$ ) ! ext]nal success &      
aggr&isem5t ( ! /ate2 & x 01            

consequ5tly1 9 ! pursuit ( t object     
almo/ exclusively1 t ei!r ! ,roman or ! 
,v5etian ari/ocracies manife/$ !        
sy/ematically wise collective policy & !
 great individual capacities = gov]nm5t 
= :i* hi/ory has des]v$ly giv5 !m cr$it4
  ,x ?us appe>s t ! only gov]nm5ts1 n   
repres5tative1 9 :i* high political     
skill & ability h be5 o!r ?an           
exceptional1 :e!r "u mon>*ical or       
ari/ocratic =ms1 h be5 ess5tially       
bureaucracies4 ,! "w ( gov]nm5t has be5 
9 ! h&s ( gov]nors by pr(ession1 :i* is 
! ess5ce & mean+ ( bureaucracy4 ,:e!r ! 
"w is done by !m because !y h be5 tra9$ 
to x1 or !y are tra9$ to x because x is 
to be done by !m1 makes a great diff]5ce
 9 _m respects1 b none at all z to !    
ess5tial "* ( ! rule4 ,ari/ocracies1 on 
! o!r h&1 l t ( ,engl&1 9 :i* ! class :o
 possess$ ! p[] d]iv$ x m]ely f _!      
social position1 )\t be+ specially tra9$
 or devot+ !mselves exclusively to x 7& 
9 :i*1 !re=e1 ! p[] 0 n ex]cis$         
directly1 b ?r\gh repres5tative         

in/itutions olig>*ically con/itut$71 h  
be51 9 respect to intellectual end[m5ts1
 mu* on a p> ) democracies2 t is1 !y h  
manife/$ su* qualities 9 any consid]able
 degree only dur+ ! tempor>y asc5dancy  
:i* great & popul> tal5ts1 unit$ ) a    
di/+ui%$ position1 h giv5 to "s "o man4 
,!mi/ocles & ,p]icles1 ,wa%+ton &       
,jeff]son1 7 n m completely exceptions 9
 _! sev]al democracies1 & 7 assur$ly mu*
 m spl5did exceptions1 ?an ! ,*a?ams &  
,peels ( ! repres5tative ari/ocracy (   
,great ,brita91 or ev5 ! ,sullys &      
,colb]ts ( ! ari/ocratic mon>*y (       
,france4 ,a great m9i/]1 9 ! ari/ocratic
 gov]nm5ts ( mod]n ,europe1 is almo/ z  
r>e a ph5om5on z a great k+4  ,!        
comp>ison1 !re=e1 z to ! intellectual   
attributes ( a gov]nm5t has to be made  
betwe5 a repres5tative democracy & a    
bureaucracy2 all o!r gov]nm5ts may be   
left out ( ! acc\nt4 ,& "h x mu/ be     
ackn[l$g$ t a bureaucratic gov]nm5t has1
 9 "s important respects1 greatly !     
advantage4 ,x accumulates exp]i5ce1     

acquires well-tri$ & well-consid]$      
traditional maxims1 & makes provision = 
appropriate practical k 9 ^? :o h !     
actual conduct ( affairs4 ,b x is n     
equally favorable to individual en]gy ( 
m9d4 ,! disease :i* afflicts            
bureaucratic gov]nm5ts1 & :i* !y usually
 die (1 is r\t9e4 ,!y p]i% by !         
immutability ( _! maxims1 &1 /ill m1 by 
! univ]sal law t :atev] becomes a r\t9e 
loses its vital pr9ciple1 &1 hav+ no    
long] a m9d act+ )9 x1 goes on revolv+  
me*anically1 ?\gh ! "w x is int5d$ to d 
rema9s undone4 ,a bureaucracy always    
t5ds to become a p$antocracy4 ,:5 !     
bureaucracy is ! real gov]nm5t1 ! _s ( !
 corps 7z ) ! ,jesuits7 be>s d[n !      
individuality ( its m di/+ui%$ memb]s4  
,9 ! pr(ession ( gov]nm5t1 z 9 o!r      
pr(essions1 ! sole idea ( ! majority is 
to d :at !y h be5 taught2 & x requires a
 popul> gov]nm5t to enable ! conceptions
 ( ! man ( orig9al g5ius among !m to    
prevail ov] ! ob/ructive _s ( tra9$     
m$iocrity4 ,only 9 a popul> gov]nm5t    

7sett+ ap>t ! accid5t ( a highly        
intellig5t despot7 c\ld ,sir ,r[l& ,hill
 h be5 victori\s ov] ! ,po/-(fice4 ,a   
popul> gov]nm5t in/all$ him 9 !         
,po/-(fice1 & made ! body1 9 spite (    
itself1 obey ! impulse giv5 by ! man :o 
unit$ special k ) individual vigor &    
orig9ality4 ,t ! ,roman ari/ocracy      
escap$ ?is *>act]i/ic disease ( a       
bureaucracy 0 evid5tly ow+ to its popul>
 elem5t4 ,all special (fices1 bo? ^? :i*
 gave a seat 9 ! ,s5ate & ^? :i* 7 s\ght
 by s5ators1 7 conf]r$ by popul>        
election4 ,! ,russian gov]nm5t is a     
*>act]i/ic exemplification ( bo? ! good 
& bad side ( bureaucracy3 its fix$      
maxims1 direct$ ) ,roman p]sev]ance to !
 same unfl9*+ly-pursu$ ends f age to    
age2 ! rem>kable skill ) :i* ^? ends are
 g5]ally pursu$2 ! frightful int]nal    
corruption1 & ! p]man5t organiz$        
ho/ility to improvem5ts f )\t1 :i* ev5 !
 autocratic p[] ( a vigor\s-m9d$ emp]or 
is seldom or nev] suffici5t to ov]come2 
! pati5t ob/ructiv5ess ( ! body be+ 9 ! 

long run m ?an a mat* = ! fitful en]gy (
 "o man4 ,! ,*9ese gov]nm5t1 a          
bureaucracy ( ,m&>9s1 is1 z f> z kn[n to
 u1 ano!r app>5t example ( ! same       
qualities & defects4  ,9 all human      
affairs1 conflict+ influ5ces are requir$
 to keep "o ano!r alive & effici5t ev5 =
 _! own prop] uses2 & ! exclusive       
pursuit ( "o good object1 ap>t f "s o!r 
:i* %\ld accompany x1 ends n 9 excess ( 
"o & defect ( ! o!r1 b 9 ! decay & loss 
ev5 ( t :i* has be5 exclusively c>$ =4  
,gov]nm5t by tra9$ (ficials c n d = a   
c\ntry ! ?+s :i* c be done by a free    
gov]nm5t1 b x might be suppos$ capable (
 do+ "s ?+s :i* free gov]nm5t ( itself c
 n d4 ,we f9d1 h[ev]1 t an outside      
elem5t ( fre$om is necess>y to enable x 
to d effectually or p]man5tly ev5 its   
own bus9ess4 ,& s1 also1 fre$om c n     
produce its be/ effects1 & (t5 breaks   
d[n altoge!r1 unless means c be f\nd (  
comb9+ x ) tra9$ & skill$ adm9i/ration4 
,!re c\ld n be a mom5t's hesitation     
betwe5 repres5tative gov]nm5t1 among a p

 9 any degree ripe = x1 & ! mo/ p]fect  
imag9able bureaucracy4 ,b x is1 at !    
same "t1 "o ( ! mo/ important ends (    
political in/itutions1 to atta9 z _m ( !
 qualities ( ! "o z are consi/5t ) !    
o!r2 to secure1 z f> z !y c be made     
compatible1 ! great advantage ( !       
conduct ( affairs by skill$ p]sons1 br$ 
to x z an intellectual pr(ession1 along 
) t ( a g5]al control ve/$ 91 & s]i\sly 
ex]cis$ by1 bodies repres5tative ( !    
entire p4 ,mu* w\ld be done t[>ds ?is   
end by recogniz+ ! l9e ( sep>ation1     
discuss$ 9 ! prec$+ *apt]1 betwe5 ! "w (
 gov]nm5t prop]ly s call$1 :i* c only be
 well p]=m$ aft] special cultivation1 & 
t ( select+1 wat*+1 &1 :5 ne$ful1       
controll+ ! gov]nors1 :i* 9 ?is case1 z 
9 all o!rs1 prop]ly devolves1 n on ^? :o
 d ! "w1 b on ^? = ^: b5efit x ought to 
be done4 ,no progress at all c be made  
t[>ds obta9+ a skill$ democracy1 unless 
! democracy are will+ t ! "w :i*        
requires skill %\ld be done by ^? :o    
possess x4 ,a democracy has en\gh to d 9

 provid+ itself ) an am\nt ( m5tal      
compet5cy suffici5t = its own prop] "w1 
t ( sup]9t5d5ce & *eck4  ,h[ to obta9 & 
secure ?is am\nt is "o ( ! que/ions to  
tak5 into consid]ation 9 judg+ ( ! prop]
 con/itution ( a repres5tative body4 ,9 
proportion z its composition fails to   
secure ?is am\nt1 ! assembly w encroa*1 
by special acts1 on ! prov9ce ( !       
executive2 x w expel a good1 or elevate 
& uphold a bad m9i/ry2 x w connive at1  
or ov]look 9 !m1 abuses ( tru/1 w be    
delud$ by _! false pret5ses1 or w )hold 
support f ^? :o endeav\r to fulfill _!  
tru/ consci5ti\sly2 x w c\nt5ance or    
impose a selfi%1 a caprici\s &          
impulsive1 a %ort-sight$1 ignorant1 &   
prejudic$ g5]al policy1 =eign & dome/ic2
 x w abrogate good laws1 or enact bad   
ones2 let 9 new evils1 or cl+ ) p]v]se  
ob/9acy to old2 x w ev51 p]haps1 "u     
mislead+ impulses1 mom5t>y or p]man5t1  
emanat+ f itself or f its con/itu5ts1   
tol]ate or connive at proce$+s :i* set  
law aside altoge!r1 9 cases :]e equal   

ju/ice w\ld n be agreeable to popul>    
feel+4 ,su* are among ! dang]s (        
repres5tative gov]nm5t1 aris+ f a       
con/itution ( ! repres5tation :i* does n
 secure an adequate am\nt ( intellig5ce 
& k 9 ! repres5tative assembly4  ,we    
next proce$ to ! evils aris+ f !        
preval5ce ( modes ( action 9 !          
repres5tative body1 dictat$ by s9i/]    
int]e/s 7to employ ! useful phrase      
introduc$ by ,b5?am71 t is1 int]e/s     
conflict+ m or less ) ! g5]al good ( !  
community4  ,x is univ]sally admitt$ t1 
( ! evils incid5t to mon>*ical &        
ari/ocratic gov]nm5ts1 a l>ge proportion
 arise f ?is cause4 ,! int]e/ ( ! mon>*1
 or ! int]e/ ( ! ari/ocracy1 ei!r       
collective or t ( its individual memb]s1
 is promot$1 or !y !mselves ?9k t x w be
 promot$1 by conduct oppos$ to t :i* !  
g5]al int]e/ ( ! community requires4 ,! 
int]e/1 = example1 ( ! gov]nm5t is to   
tax heavily2 t ( ! community is to be z 
little tax$ z ! necess>y exp5ses ( good 
gov]nm5t p]mit4 ,! int]e/ ( ! k+ & ( !  

gov]n+ ari/ocracy is to possess &       
ex]cise unlimit$ p[] ov] ! p2 to en=ce1 
on _! "p1 complete con=mity to ! w &    
pref]5ces ( ! rul]s4 ,! int]e/ ( ! p is 
to h z little control ex]cis$ ov] !m 9  
any respect z is consi/5t ) atta9+ !    
legitimate ends ( gov]nm5t4 ,! int]e/1  
or app>5t & suppos$ int]e/ ( ! k+ or    
ari/ocracy1 is to p]mit no c5sure (     
!mselves1 at lea/ 9 any =m :i* !y may   
consid] ei!r to ?reat5 _! p[] or s]i\sly
 to int]f]e ) _! free ag5cy4 ,! int]e/ (
 ! p is t !re %\ld be full lib]ty (     
c5sure on e public (fic]1 & on e public 
act or measure4 ,! int]e/ ( a rul+      
class1 :e!r 9 an ari/ocracy or an       
ari/ocratic mon>*y1 is to assume to     
!mselves an endless v>iety ( unju/      
privileges1 sometimes b5efit+ _! pockets
 at ! exp5se ( ! p1 sometimes m]ely t5d+
 to exalt !m above o!rs1 or1 :at is !   
same ?+ 9 diff]5t words1 to degrade o!rs
 bel[ !mselves4 ,if ! p are disaffect$1 
:i* "u su* a gov]nm5t !y are v likely to
 be1 x is ! int]e/ ( ! k+ or ari/ocracy 

to keep !m at a l[ level ( intellig5ce &
 education1 fom5t diss5sions among !m1 &
 ev5 prev5t !m f be+ too well (f1 le/ !y
 %\ld wax fat1 & kick1 agreeably to !   
maxim ( ,c>d9al ,ri*elieu 9 8 celebrat$ 
,te/am5t ,politique4 ,all ^! ?+s are = !
 int]e/ ( a k+ or ari/ocracy1 9 a purely
 selfi% po9t ( view1 unless a           
suffici5tly /rong c\nt]-int]e/ is creat$
 by ! fe> ( provok+ resi/ance4 ,all ^!  
evils h be51 & _m ( !m /ill are1 produc$
 by ! s9i/] int]e/s ( k+s &             
ari/ocracies1 :]e _! p[] is suffici5t to
 raise !m above ! op9ion ( ! re/ ( !    
community2 nor is x rational to expect1 
z a consequ5ce ( su* a position1 any o!r
 conduct4  ,^! ?+s are sup]abundantly   
evid5t 9 ! case ( a mon>*y or an        
ari/ocracy2 b x is sometimes r          
gratuit\sly assum$ t ! same k9d (       
injuri\s influ5ces d n op]ate 9 a       
democracy4 ,look+ at democracy 9 ! way 9
 :i* x is commonly conceiv$1 z ! rule ( 
! num]ical majority1 x is surely        
possible t ! rul+ p[] may be "u !       

dom9ion ( sectional or class int]e/s1   
po9t+ to conduct diff]5t f t :i* w\ld be
 dictat$ by imp>tial reg>d = ! int]e/ ( 
all4 ,suppose ! majority to be :ites1 ! 
m9ority negroes1 or vice v]s3 is x      
likely t ! majority w\ld all[ equal     
ju/ice to ! m9ority8 ,suppose ! majority
 ,ca?olics1 ! m9ority ,prote/ants1 or ! 
rev]se2 w !re n be ! same dang]8 ,or let
 ! majority be ,engli%1 ! m9ority ,iri%1
 or ! contr>y3 is !re n a great         
probability ( simil> evil8 ,9 all       
c\ntries !re is a majority ( poor1 a    
m9ority :o1 9 contradi/9ction1 may be   
call$ ri*4 ,betwe5 ^! two classes1 on _m
 que/ions1 !re is complete opposition ( 
app>5t int]e/4 ,we w suppose ! majority 
suffici5tly intellig5t to be aw>e t x is
 n = _! advantage to weak5 ! security ( 
prop]ty1 & t x w\ld be weak5$ by any act
 ( arbitr>y spoliation4 ,b is !re n a   
consid]able dang] le/ !y %\ld ?r[ ^u !  
possessors ( :at is call$ realiz$       
prop]ty1 & ^u ! l>g] incomes1 an unfair 
%>e1 or ev5 ! :ole1 ( ! burd5 (         

taxation1 & hav+ done s1 add to ! am\nt 
)\t scruple1 exp5d+ ! proce$s 9 modes   
suppos$ to conduce to ! pr(it &         
advantage ( ! labor+ class8 ,suppose1   
aga91 a m9ority ( skill$ labor]s1 a     
majority ( unskill$3 ! exp]i5ce ( _m    
,trade ,unions1 unless !y are greatly   
calumniat$1 ju/ifies ! appreh5sion t    
equality ( e>n+s might be impos$ z an   
obligation1 & t piecework1 & all        
practices :i* enable sup]ior indu/ry or 
abilities to ga9 a sup]ior rew>d1 might 
be put d[n4 ,legislative attempts to    
raise wages1 limitation ( competition 9 
! labor m>ket1 taxes or re/rictions on  
ma*9]y1 & on improvem5ts ( all k9ds t5d+
 to disp5se ) any ( ! exi/+ labor--ev51 
p]haps1 protection ( ! home produc]     
aga9/ =eign indu/ry--are v natural 7,i d
 n v5ture to say :e!r probable7 results 
( a feel+ ( class int]e/ 9 a gov]n+     
majority ( manual labor]s4  ,x w be said
 t none ( ^! ?+s are = ! real int]e/ ( !
 mo/ num]\s class3 to :i* ,i answ]1 t if
 ! conduct ( human be+s 0 det]m9$ by no 

o!r int]e/$ consid]ations ?an ^? :i*    
con/itute _! real int]e/1 nei!r mon>*y  
nor olig>*y w\ld be su* bad gov]nm5ts z 
!y are2 = assur$ly v /rong argum5ts may 
be1 & (t5 h be51 adduc$ to %[ t ei!r a  
k+ or a gov]n+ s5ate are 9 mu* ! mo/    
enviable position :5 rul+ ju/ly &       
vigilantly ov] an active1 weal?y1       
enlight5$1 & high-m9d$ p4 ,b a k+ only  
n[ & !n1 & an olig>*y 9 no kn[n in/ance1
 h tak5 ?is exalt$ view ( _!            
self-int]e/2 & :y %\ld we expect a l(ti]
 mode ( ?9k+ f ! labor+ classes8 ,x is n
 :at _! int]e/ is1 b :at !y suppose x to
 be1 t is ! important consid]ation )    
respect to _! conduct2 & x is q         
conclusive aga9/ any !ory ( gov]nm5t t x
 assumes ! num]ical majority to d       
habitually :at is nev] done1 nor expect$
 to be done1 save 9 v exceptional cases1
 by any o!r deposit>ies ( p[]--namely1  
to direct _! conduct by _! real ultimate
 int]e/1 9 opposition to _! imm$iate &  
app>5t int]e/4 ,no "o1 surely1 c d\bt t 
_m ( ! p]nici\s measures above enum]at$1

 & _m o!rs z bad1 w\ld be = ! imm$iate  
int]e/ ( ! g5]al body ( unskill$        
labor]s4 ,x is q possible t !y w\ld be =
 ! selfi% int]e/ ( ! :ole exi/+ g5]ation
 ( ! class4 ,! relaxation ( indu/ry &   
activity1 & dim9i%$ enc\ragem5t to sav+ 
:i* w\ld be _! ultimate consequ5ce1     
might p]haps be little felt by ! class (
 unskill$ labor]s 9 ! space ( a s+le    
lifetime4 ,"s ( ! mo/ fatal *anges 9    
human affairs h be51 z to _! m manife/  
imm$iate effects1 b5eficial4 ,!         
e/abli%m5t ( ! despotism ( ! ,cs>s 0 a  
great b5efit to ! entire g5]ation 9 :i* 
x took place4 ,x put a /op to civil w>1 
abat$ a va/ am\nt ( malv]sation &       
tyranny by prtors & proconsuls2 x fo/]$ 
_m ( ! graces ( life1 & intellectual    
cultivation 9 all dep>tm5ts n political2
 x produc$ monum5ts ( lit]>y g5ius      
dazzl+ to ! imag9ations ( %all[ read]s (
 hi/ory1 :o d n reflect t ! m5 to :om ! 
despotism ( ,augu/us 7z well z ( ,lor5zo
 de' ,m$ici & ( ,l\is ,,xiv47 owes its  
brilliancy 7 all =m$ 9 ! g5]ation       

prec$+4 ,! accumulat$ ri*es1 & ! m5tal  
en]gy & activity produc$ by c5turies (  
fre$om1 rema9$ = ! b5efit ( ! fir/      
g5]ation ( slaves4 ,yet ?is 0 !         
comm5cem5t ( a rgime by ^: gradual      
op]ation all ! civilization :i* _h be5  
ga9$ ins5sibly fad$ away1 until !       
empire1 :i* _h conqu]$ & embrac$ ! _w 9 
its grasp s completely lo/ ev5 its      
milit>y effici5cy t invad]s :om ?ree or 
f\r legions _h always suffic$ to co]ce 7
 able to ov]run & occupy ne>ly ! :ole ( 
its va/ t]ritory4 ,! fre% impulse giv5  
by ,*ri/ianity came b j 9 "t to save    
arts & lett]s f p]i%+1 & ! human race f 
s9k+ back into p]haps endless night4    
,:5 we talk ( ! int]e/ ( a body ( m51 or
 ev5 ( an individual man1 z a pr9ciple  
det]m9+ _! actions1 ! "q :at w\ld be    
consid]$ _! int]e/ by an unprejudic$    
obs]v] is "o ( ! lea/ important p>ts ( !
 :ole matt]4 ,z ,col]idge obs]ves1 ! man
 makes ! motive1 n ! motive ! man4 ,:at 
x is ! man's int]e/ to d or refra9 f    
dep5ds less on any outw>d circum/ances  

?an ^u :at sort ( man he is4 ,if y wi%  
to "k :at is practically a man's int]e/1
 y mu/ "k ! ca/ ( 8 habitual feel+s &   
?\ghts4 ,e body has two k9ds (          
int]e/s--int]e/s :i* he c>es = & int]e/s
 :i* he does n c>e =4 ,e body has selfi%
 & unselfi% int]e/s1 & a selfi% man has 
cultivat$ ! habit ( c>+ = ! =m] & n c>+ 
= ! latt]4 ,e "o has pres5t & di/ant    
int]e/s1 & ! improvid5t man is he :o    
c>es = ! pres5t int]e/s & does n c>e = !
 di/ant4 ,x matt]s little t on any      
correct calculation ! latt] may be ! m  
consid]able1 if ! habits ( 8 m9d lead   
him to fix 8 ?\ghts & wi%es solely on ! 
=m]4 ,x w\ld be va9 to attempt to       
p]suade a man :o beats 8 wife &         
ill-treats 8 *ildr5 t he w\ld be happi] 
if he liv$ 9 love & k9dness ) !m4 ,he   
w\ld be happi] if he 7 ! k9d ( p]son :o 
c\ld s live2 b he is n1 & x is probably 
too late = him to become t k9d ( p]son4 
,be+ :at he is1 ! gratification ( 8 love
 ( dom9e]+ & ! indulg5ce ( 8 f]oci\s    
temp] are to 8 p]ceptions a great] good 

to himself ?an he w\ld be capable (     
d]iv+ f ! pleasure & affection ( ^?     
dep5d5t on him4 ,he has no pleasure 9 _!
 pleasure1 & does n c>e = _! affection4 
,8 neighbor1 :o does1 is probably a     
happi] man ?an he2 b c\ld he be p]suad$ 
( ?is1 ! p]suasion w\ld1 mo/ likely1    
only /ill fur!r exasp]ate 8 malignity or
 8 irritability4 ,on ! av]age1 a p]son  
:o c>es = o!r p1 = 8 c\ntry1 or =       
mank9d1 is a happi] man ?an "o :o does  
n2 b ( :at use is x to prea* ?is doctr9e
 to a man :o c>es = no?+ b 8 own ease or
 8 own pocket8 ,he c n c>e = o!r p if he
 w\ld4 ,x is l prea*+ to ! worm :o      
crawls on ! gr\nd h[ mu* bett] x w\ld be
 = him if he 7 an eagle4  ,n[ x is a    
univ]sally obs]v$ fact t ! two evil     
dispositions 9 "q1 ! disposition to     
pref] a man's selfi% int]e/s to ^? :i*  
he %>es ) o!r p1 & 8 imm$iate & direct  
int]e/s to ^? :i* are indirect & remote1
 are *>act]i/ics mo/ especially call$ =?
 & fo/]$ by ! possession ( p[]4 ,! mom5t
 a man1 or a class ( m51 f9d !mselves ) 

p[] 9 _! h&s1 ! man's individual int]e/1
 or ! class's sep>ate int]e/1 acquires  
an entirely new degree ( importance 9 _!
 eyes4 ,f9d+ !mselves wor%ipp$ by o!rs1 
!y become wor%ipp]s ( !mselves1 & ?9k   
!mselves entitl$ to be c\nt$ at a hundr$
 times ! value ( o!r p1 :ile ! facility 
!y acquire ( do+ z !y l )\t reg>d to    
consequ5ces ins5sibly weak5s ! habits   
:i* make m5 look =w>d ev5 to su*        
consequ5ces z affect !mselves4 ,?is is !
 mean+ ( ! univ]sal tradition1 gr\nd$ on
 univ]sal exp]i5ce1 ( m5's be+ corrupt$ 
by p[]4 ,e "o kn[s h[ absurd x w\ld be  
to inf] f :at a man is or does :5 9 a   
private /ation1 t he w be & d exactly ! 
l :5 a despot on a ?rone2 :]e ! bad p>ts
 ( 8 human nature1 in/ead ( be+ re/ra9$ 
& kept 9 subord9ation by e circum/ance (
 8 life & by e p]son surr\nd+ him1 are  
c\rt$ by all p]sons1 & m9i/]$ to by all 
circum/ances4 ,x w\ld be q z absurd to  
ent]ta9 a simil> expectation 9 reg>d to 
a class ( m52 ! ,demos1 or any o!r4 ,let
 !m be ev] s mode/ & am5able to reason  

:ile !re is a p[] ov] !m /rong] ?an !y1 
we ought to expect a total *ange 9 ?is  
respect :5 !y !mselves become ! /ronge/ 
p[]4  ,gov]nm5ts mu/ be made = human    
be+s z !y are1 or z !y are capable (    
spe$ily becom+2 & 9 any /ate (          
cultivation :i* mank9d1 or any class    
among !m1 h yet atta9$1 or are likely   
soon to atta91 ! int]e/s by :i* !y w be 
l$1 :5 !y are ?9k+ only ( self-int]e/1 w
 be almo/ exclusively ^? :i* are obvi\s 
at fir/ sight1 & :i* op]ate on _! pres5t
 condition4 ,x is only a dis9t]e/$ reg>d
 = o!rs1 & especially = :at comes aft]  
!m1 = ! idea ( po/]ity1 ( _! c\ntry1 or 
( mank9d1 :e!r gr\nd$ on sympa?y or on a
 consci5ti\s feel+1 :i* ev] directs !   
m9ds & purposes ( classes or bodies ( m5
 t[>ds di/ant or unobvi\s int]e/s2 & x c
 n be ma9ta9$ t any =m ( gov]nm5t w\ld  
be rational :i* requir$ z a condition t 
^! exalt$ pr9ciples ( action %\ld be !  
guid+ & ma/] motives 9 ! conduct (      
av]age human be+s4 ,a c]ta9 am\nt (     
consci5ce & ( dis9t]e/$ public _s may   

fairly be calculat$ on 9 ! citiz5s ( any
 community ripe = repres5tative         
gov]nm5t4 ,b x w\ld be ridicul\s to     
expect su* a degree ( x1 comb9$ ) su*   
intellectual disc]nm5t1 z w\ld be pro(  
aga9/ any plausible fallacy t5d+ to make
 t :i* 0 = _! class int]e/ appe> !      
dictate ( ju/ice & ( ! g5]al good4 ,we  
all "k :at speci\s fallacies may be urg$
 9 def5se ( e act ( inju/ice yet propos$
 = ! imag9>y b5efit ( ! mass4 ,we "k h[ 
_m1 n o!rwise fools or bad m51 h ?\ght x
 ju/ifiable to repudiate ! national     
debt4 ,we "k h[ _m1 n de/itute ( ability
 & ( consid]able popul> influ5ce1 ?9k x 
fair to ?r[ ! :ole burd5 ( taxation ^u  
sav+s1 "u ! "n ( realiz$ prop]ty1 all[+ 
^? ^: prog5itors & !mselves h always    
sp5t all !y receiv$1 to rema91 z a rew>d
 = su* exempl>y conduct1 :olly untax$4  
,we "k :at p[]ful argum5ts1 ! m dang]\s 
because !re is a portion ( tru? 9 !m1   
may be br\ght aga9/ all inh]itance1     
aga9/ ! p[] ( beque/1 aga9/ e advantage 
:i* "o p]son seems to h ov] ano!r4 ,we  

"k h[ easily ! uselessness ( almo/ e    
bran* ( k may be prov$ to ! complete    
satisfaction ( ^? :o d n possess x4 ,h[ 
_m1 n altoge!r /upid m51 ?9k ! sci5tific
 /udy ( languages useless1 ?9k anci5t   
lit]ature useless1 all erudition        
useless1 logic & metaphysics useless1   
poetry & ! f9e arts idle & frivol\s1    
political economy purely mis*iev\s8 ,ev5
 hi/ory has be5 pron\nc$ useless &      
mis*iev\s by able m54 ,no?+ b t         
acqua9tance ) ext]nal nature1           
empirically acquir$1 :i* s]ves directly 
= ! production ( objects necess>y to    
exi/5ce or agreeable to ! s5ses1 w\ld   
get its utility recogniz$ if p _h ! lea/
 enc\ragem5t to disbelieve x4 ,is x     
reasonable to ?9k t ev5 mu* m cultivat$ 
m9ds ?an ^? ( ! num]ical majority c be  
expect$ to be1 w h s delicate a         
consci5ce1 & s j an appreciation ( :at  
is aga9/ _! own app>5t int]e/1 t !y w   
reject ^! & ! innum]able o!r fallacies  
:i* w press 9 ^u !m f all qu>t]s z soon 
z !y come into p[]1 to induce !m to     

foll[ _! own selfi% incl9ations &       
%ort-sight$ notions ( _! own good1 9    
opposition to ju/ice1 at ! exp5se ( all 
o!r classes & ( po/]ity8  ,"o ( !       
greate/ dang]s1 !re=e1 ( democracy1 z ( 
all o!r =ms ( gov]nm5t1 lies 9 ! s9i/]  
int]e/ ( ! hold]s ( p[]3 x is ! dang] ( 
class legislation1 ( gov]nm5t int5d$ =  
7:e!r really effect+ x or n7 ! imm$iate 
b5efit ( ! dom9ant class1 to ! la/+     
detrim5t ( ! :ole4 ,& "o ( ! mo/        
important que/ions dem&+ consid]ation 9 
det]m9+ ! be/ con/itution ( a           
repres5tative gov]nm5t is h[ to provide 
efficaci\s securities aga9/ ?is evil4   
,if we consid] z a class1 politically   
speak+1 any numb] ( p]sons :o h ! same  
s9i/] int]e/--t is1 ^: direct & app>5t  
int]e/ po9ts t[>ds ! same description ( 
bad measures--! desirable object w\ld be
 t no class1 & no comb9ation ( classes  
likely to comb9e1 %all be able to       
ex]cise a prepond]ant influ5ce 9 !      
gov]nm5t4 ,a mod]n community1 n divid$  
)9 itself by /rong antipa?ies ( race1   

language1 or nationality1 may be        
consid]$ z 9 ! ma9 divisible into two   
sections1 :i*1 9 spite ( p>tial         
v>iations1 correspond on ! :ole ) two   
div]g5t directions ( app>5t int]e/4 ,let
 u call !m 79 brief g5]al t]ms7 labor]s 
on ! "o h&1 employ]s ( labor on ! o!r2  
includ+1 h[ev]1 along ) employ]s ( labor
 n only retir$ capitali/s & ! possessors
 ( inh]it$ weal?1 b all t highly paid   
description ( labor]s 7su* z !          
pr(essions7 ^: education & way ( life   
assimilate !m ) ! ri*1 & ^: prospect &  
ambition x is to raise !mselves into t  
class4 ,) ! labor]s1 on ! o!r h&1 may be
 rank$ ^? small] employ]s ( labor :o by 
int]e/s1 habits1 & educational          
impressions are assimilat$ 9 wi%es1     
ta/es1 & objects to ! labor+ classes1   
compreh5d+ a l>ge proportion ( petty    
tradesm54 ,9 a /ate ( society ?us       
compos$1 if ! repres5tative sy/em c\ld  
be made ideally p]fect1 & if x 7        
possible to ma9ta9 x 9 t /ate1 its      
organization mu/ be su* t ^! two        

classes1 manual labor]s & _! aff9ities  
on "o side1 employ]s ( labor & _!       
aff9ities on ! o!r1 %\ld be1 9 !        
arrangem5t ( ! repres5tative sy/em1     
equally balanc$1 ea* influ5c+ ab\t an   
equal numb] ( votes 9 ,p>liam5t2 s9ce1  
assum+ t ! majority ( ea* class1 9 any  
diff]5ce betwe5 !m1 w\ld be ma9ly gov]n$
 by _! class int]e/s1 !re w\ld be a     
m9ority ( ea* 9 :om t consid]ation w\ld 
be subord9ate to reason1 ju/ice1 & !    
good ( ! :ole2 & ?is m9ority ( ei!r1    
jo9+ ) ! :ole ( ! o!r1 w\ld turn ! scale
 aga9/ any dem&s ( _! own majority :i* 7
 n su* z ought to prevail4 ,! reason :y1
 9 any tol]able con/itut$ society1      
ju/ice & ! g5]al int]e/ mo/ly 9 ! end   
c>ry _! po9t1 is t ! sep>ate & selfi%   
int]e/s ( mank9d are almo/ always       
divid$2 "s are int]e/$ 9 :at is wrong1 b
 "s1 also1 h _! private int]e/ on ! side
 ( :at is "r2 & ^? :o are gov]n$ by     
high] consid]ations1 ?\gh too few & weak
 to prevail alone1 usually1 aft]        
suffici5t discussion & agitation1 become

 /rong en\gh to turn ! balance 9 favor (
 ! body ( private int]e/s :i* is on !   
same side ) !m4 ,! repres5tative sy/em  
ought to be s con/itut$ z to ma9ta9 ?is 
/ate ( ?+s2 x ought n to all[ any ( !   
v>i\s sectional int]e/s to be s p[]ful z
 to be capable ( prevail+ aga9/ tru? &  
ju/ice1 & ! o!r sectional int]e/s       
comb9$4 ,!re ought always to be su* a   
balance pres]v$ among p]sonal int]e/s z 
may r5d] any "o ( !m dep5d5t = its      
successes on c>ry+ ) x at lea/ a l>ge   
proportion ( ^? :o act on high] motives1
 & m compreh5sive & di/ant views4       
,*apt] ,,vii--,( ,true & ,false         
,democracy2 ,repres5tation ( ,all1 &    
,repres5tation ( ! ,majority only4   ,x 
has be5 se5 t ! dang]s incid5t to a     
repres5tative democracy are ( two k9ds3 
dang] ( a l[ grade ( intellig5ce 9 !    
repres5tative body1 & 9 ! popul> op9ion 
:i* controls x2 & dang] ( class         
legislation on ! "p ( ! num]ical        
majority1 ^! be+ all compos$ ( ! same   
class4 ,we h next to consid] h[ f> x is 

possible s to organize ! democracy z1   
)\t int]f]+ mat]ially ) ! *>act]i/ic    
b5efits ( democratic gov]nm5t1 to d away
 ) ^! two great evils1 or at lea/ to    
abate !m 9 ! utmo/ degree atta9able by  
human contrivance4  ,! common mode (    
attempt+ ?is is by limit+ ! democratic  
"* ( ! repres5tation ?r\gh a m or less  
re/rict$ suffrage4 ,b !re is a previ\s  
consid]ation :i*1 duly kept 9 view1     
consid]ably modifies ! circum/ances :i* 
are suppos$ to r5d] su* a re/riction    
necess>y4 ,a completely equal democracy1
 9 a nation 9 :i* a s+le class composes 
! num]ical majority1 c n be dive/$ (    
c]ta9 evils2 b ^? evils are greatly     
aggravat$ by ! fact t ! democracies :i* 
at pres5t exi/ are n equal1 b           
sy/ematically unequal 9 favor ( !       
pr$om9ant class4 ,two v diff]5t ideas   
are usually conf\nd$ "u ! "n democracy4 
,! pure idea ( democracy1 accord+ to its
 def9ition1 is ! gov]nm5t ( ! :ole p by 
! :ole p1 equally repres5t$4 ,democracy1
 z commonly conceiv$ & hi!rto practic$1 

is ! gov]nm5t ( ! :ole p by a m]e       
majority ( ! p exclusively repres5t$4 ,!
 =m] is synonym\s ) ! equality ( all    
citiz5s2 ! latt]1 /rangely conf\nd$ ) x1
 is a gov]nm5t ( privilege 9 favor ( !  
num]ical majority1 :o alone possess     
practically any voice 9 ! /ate4 ,?is is 
! inevitable consequ5ce ( ! mann] 9 :i* 
! votes are n[ tak51 to ! complete      
disfran*isem5t ( m9orities4  ,!         
confusion ( ideas "h is great1 b x is s 
easily cle>$ up t "o w\ld suppose !     
slighte/ indication w\ld be suffici5t to
 place ! matt] 9 its true light be=e any
 m9d ( av]age intellig5ce4 ,x w\ld be s 
b = ! p[] ( habit2 ow+ to :i*1 ! simple/
 idea1 if unfamili>1 has z great        
difficulty 9 mak+ its way to ! m9d z a  
f> m complicat$ "o4 ,t ! m9ority mu/    
yield to ! majority1 ! small] numb] to !
 great]1 is a famili> idea2 & accord+ly1
 m5 ?9k !re is no necessity = us+ _!    
m9ds any fur!r1 & x does n occur to !m t
 !re is any m$ium betwe5 all[+ ! small] 
numb] to be equally p[]ful ) ! great]1 &

 blott+ out ! small] numb] altoge!r4 ,9 
a repres5tative body actually delib]at+1
 ! m9ority mu/ ( c\rse be ov]rul$2 & 9  
an equal democracy 7s9ce ! op9ions ( !  
con/itu5ts1 :5 !y insi/ on !m1 det]m9e  
^? ( ! repres5tative body71 ! majority (
 ! p1 ?r\gh _! repres5tatives1 w outvote
 & prevail ov] ! m9ority & _!           
repres5tatives4 ,b does x foll[ t !     
m9ority %\ld h no repres5tatives at all8
 ,because ! majority ought to prevail   
ov] ! m9ority1 mu/ ! majority h all !   
votes1 ! m9ority none8 ,is x necess>y t 
! m9ority %\ld n ev5 be he>d8 ,no?+ b   
habit & old association c reconcile any 
reasonable be+ to ! ne$less inju/ice4 ,9
 a really equal democracy1 e or any     
section w\ld be repres5t$1 n            
disproportionately1 b proportionately4  
,a majority ( ! electors w\ld always h a
 majority ( ! repres5tatives1 b a       
m9ority ( ! electors w\ld always h a    
m9ority ( ! repres5tatives4 ,man = man1 
!y w\ld be z fully repres5t$ z !        
majority4 ,unless !y are1 !re is n equal

 gov]nm5t1 b a gov]nm5t ( inequality &  
privilege3 "o "p ( ! p rule ov] ! re/3  
!re is a "p ^: fair & equal %>e (       
influ5ce 9 ! repres5tation is )held f   
!m1 contr>y to all j gov]nm5t1 b1 above 
all1 contr>y to ! pr9ciple ( democracy1 
:i* pr(esses equality z its v root &    
f\ndation4  ,! inju/ice & violation (   
pr9ciple are n less flagrant because ^? 
:o suff] by !m are a m9ority1 = !re is n
 equal suffrage :]e e s+le individual   
does n c\nt = z mu* z any o!r s+le      
individual 9 ! community4 ,b x is n only
 a m9ority :o suff]4 ,democracy1 ?us    
con/itut$1 does n ev5 atta9 its o/5sible
 object1 t ( giv+ ! p[]s ( gov]nm5t 9   
all cases to ! num]ical majority4 ,x    
does some?+ v diff]5t2 x gives !m to a  
majority ( ! majority1 :o may be1 & (t5 
are1 b a m9ority ( ! :ole4 ,all         
pr9ciples are mo/ effectually te/$ by   
extreme cases4 ,suppose1 !n1 t1 9 a     
c\ntry gov]n$ by equal & univ]sal       
suffrage1 !re is a conte/$ election 9 e 
con/itu5cy1 & e election is c>ri$ by a  

small majority4 ,! ,p>liam5t ?us br\ght 
toge!r repres5ts little m ?an a b>e     
majority ( ! p4 ,?is ,p>liam5t proce$s  
to legislate1 & adopts important        
measures by a b>e majority ( itself4    
,:at gu>anty is !re t ^! measures accord
 ) ! wi%es ( a majority ( ! p8 ,ne>ly   
half ! electors1 hav+ be5 outvot$ at !  
hu/+s1 h _h no influ5ce at all 9 !      
decision2 & ! :ole ( ^! may be1 a       
majority ( !m probably are1 ho/ile to ! 
measures1 hav+ vot$ aga9/ ^? by :om !y h
 be5 c>ri$4 ,( ! rema9+ electors1 ne>ly 
half h *os5 repres5tatives :o1 by       
supposition1 h vot$ aga9/ ! measures4 ,x
 is possible1 !re=e1 & ev5 probable1 t !
 op9ion :i* has prevail$ 0 agreeable    
only to a m9ority ( ! nation1 ?\gh a    
majority ( t portion ( x :om !          
in/itutions ( ! c\ntry h erect$ into a  
rul+ class4 ,if democracy means ! c]ta9 
asc5dancy ( ! majority1 !re are no means
 ( insur+ t1 b by all[+ e individual    
figure to tell equally 9 ! summ+ up4    
,any m9ority left out1 ei!r purposely or

 by ! play ( ! ma*9]y1 gives ! p[] n to 
! majority1 b to a m9ority 9 "s o!r "p (
 ! scale4  ,! only answ] :i* c possibly 
be made to ?is reason+ is1 t z diff]5t  
op9ions pr$om9ate 9 diff]5t localities1 
! op9ion :i* is 9 a m9ority 9 "s places 
has a majority 9 o!rs1 & on ! :ole e    
op9ion :i* exi/s 9 ! con/itu5cies obta9s
 its fair %>e ( voices 9 !              
repres5tation4 ,& ?is is r\ghly true 9 !
 pres5t /ate ( ! con/itu5cy2 if x 7 n1 !
 discordance ( ! ,h\se ) ! g5]al s5tim5t
 ( ! c\ntry w\ld soon become evid5t4 ,b 
x w\ld be no long] true if ! pres5t     
con/itu5cy 7 mu* enl>g$1 /ill less if   
made co-ext5sive ) ! :ole population2 = 
9 t case ! majority 9 e locality w\ld   
consi/ ( manual labor]s2 & :5 !re 0 any 
"q p5d+ on :i* ^! classes 7 at issue ) !
 re/ ( ! community1 no o!r class c\ld   
succe$ 9 gett+ repres5t$ any :]e4 ,ev5  
n[1 is x n a great grievance t 9 e      
,p>liam5t a v num]\s portion ( !        
electors1 will+ & anxi\s to be          
repres5t$1 h no memb] 9 ! ,h\se = :om !y

 h vot$8 ,is x j t e elector (          
,m>ylebone is oblig$ to be repres5t$ by 
two nom9ees ( ! ve/ries1 e elector (    
,f9sbury or ,lambe? by ^? 7z is g5]ally 
believ$7 ( ! publicans8 ,! con/itu5cies 
to :i* mo/ ( ! highly educat$ & public  
spirit$ p]sons 9 ! c\ntry belong1 ^? ( !
 l>ge t[ns1 are n[1 9 great "p1 ei!r    
unrepres5t$ or misrepres5t$4 ,! electors
 :o are on a diff]5t side 9 p>ty        
politics f ! local majority are         
unrepres5t$4 ,( ^? :o are on ! same     
side1 a l>ge proportion are             
misrepres5t$2 hav+ be5 oblig$ to accept 
! man :o _h ! greate/ numb] ( support]s 
9 _! political p>ty1 ?\gh 8 op9ions may 
diff] f !irs on e o!r po9t4 ,! /ate (   
?+s is1 9 "s respects1 ev5 worse ?an if 
! m9ority 7 n all[$ to vote at all2 =   
!n1 at lea/1 ! majority might h a memb] 
:o w\ld repres5t _! own be/ m9d2 :ile   
n[1 ! necessity ( n divid+ ! p>ty1 = fe>
 ( lett+ 9 its oppon5ts1 induces all to 
vote ei!r = ! fir/ p]son :o pres5ts     
himself we>+ _! colors1 or = ! "o br\ght

 =w>d by _! local lead]s2 & ^!1 if we   
pay !m ! complim5t1 :i* !y v seldom     
des]ve1 ( suppos+ _! *oice to be        
unbiass$ by _! p]sonal int]e/s1 are     
compell$1 t !y may be sure ( mu/]+ _!   
:ole /r5g?1 to br+ =w>d a c&idate :om   
none ( ! p>ty w /rongly object to--t is1
 a man )\t any di/9ctive peculi>ity1 any
 kn[n op9ions except ! %ibbole? ( !     
p>ty4 ,?is is /rik+ly exemplifi$ 9 !    
,unit$ ,/ates2 :]e1 at ! election (     
,presid5t1 ! /ronge/ p>ty nev] d>es put 
=w>d any ( its /ronge/ m51 because e "o 
( ^!1 f ! m]e fact t he has be5 long 9 !
 public eye1 has made himself           
objectionable to "s portion or o!r ( !  
p>ty1 & is !re=e n s sure a c>d = rally+
 all _! votes z a p]son :o has nev] be5 
he>d ( by ! public at all until he is   
produc$ z ! c&idate4 ,?us1 ! man :o is  
*os51 ev5 by ! /ronge/ p>ty1 repres5ts  
p]haps ! real wi%es only ( ! n>r[ m>g9  
by :i* t p>ty outnumb]s ! o!r4 ,any     
section ^: support is necess>y to       
success possesses a veto on ! c&idate4  

,any section :i* holds out m ob/9ately  
?an ! re/ c compel all ! o!rs to adopt  
its nom9ee2 & ?is sup]ior p]t9acity is  
unhappily m likely to be f\nd among ^?  
:o are hold+ out = _! own int]e/ ?an = t
 ( ! public4 ,speak+ g5]ally1 ! *oice ( 
! majority is det]m9$ by t portion ( !  
body :o are ! mo/ timid1 ! mo/ n>r[-m9d$
 & prejudic$1 or :o cl+ mo/ t5aci\sly to
 ! exclusive class-int]e/2 & ! electoral
 rights ( ! m9ority1 :ile useless = !   
purposes = :i* votes are giv51 s]ve only
 = compell+ ! majority to accept !      
c&idate ( ! weake/ or wor/ portion (    
!mselves4  ,t1 :ile recogniz+ ^! evils1 
_m %\ld consid] !m z ! necess>y price   
paid = a free gov]nm5t1 is 9 no way     
surpris+2 x 0 ! op9ion ( all ! fri5ds ( 
fre$om up to a rec5t p]iod4 ,b ! habit (
 pass+ !m ov] z irrem$iable has become s
 invet]ate1 t _m p]sons seem to h lo/ ! 
capacity ( look+ at !m z ?+s :i* !y w\ld
 be glad to rem$y if !y c\ld4 ,f        
despair+ ( a cure1 !re is too (t5 b "o  
/ep to d5y+ ! disease2 & f ?is foll[s   

dislike to hav+ a rem$y propos$1 z if ! 
propos] 7 creat+ a mis*ief in/ead ( (f]+
 relief f "o4 ,p are s inur$ to ! evils 
t !y feel z if x 7 unreasonable1 if n   
wrong1 to compla9 ( !m4 ,yet1 avoidable 
or n1 he mu/ be a purbl9d lov] ( lib]ty 
on ^: m9d !y d n weigh2 :o w\ld n       
rejoice at ! discov]y t !y c\ld be      
disp5s$ )4 ,n[1 no?+ is m c]ta9 ?an t ! 
virtual blott+ out ( ! m9ority is no    
necess>y or natural consequ5ce ( fre$om2
 t1 f> f hav+ any connection )          
democracy1 x is diametrically oppos$ to 
! fir/ pr9ciple ( democracy1            
repres5tation 9 proportion to numb]s4 ,x
 is an ess5tial "p ( democracy t        
m9orities %\ld be adequately repres5t$4 
,no real democracy1 no?+ b a false %[ ( 
democracy1 is possible )\t x4  ,^? :o h 
se5 & felt1 9 "s degree1 ! =ce ( ^!     
consid]ations1 h propos$ v>i\s exp$i5ts 
by :i* ! evil may be1 9 a great] or less
 degree1 mitigat$4 ,"l ,john ,russell1 9
 "o ( 8 ,re=m ,bills1 introduc$ a       
provision t c]ta9 con/itu5cies %\ld     

return ?ree memb]s1 & t 9 ^! ea* elector
 %\ld be all[$ to vote only = two2 &    
,mr4 ,disraeli1 9 ! rec5t debates1      
reviv$ ! memory ( ! fact by reproa*+ him
 = x1 be+ ( op9ion1 app>5tly1 t x befits
 a ,cons]vative /atesman to reg>d only  
means1 & to dis[n scornfully all        
fell[-feel+ ) any "o :o is betray$1 ev5 
once1 into ?9k+ ( ends4 #c ,o!rs h      
propos$ t ea* elector %\ld be all[$ to  
vote only = "o4 ,by ei!r ( ^! plans1 a  
m9ority equall+ or exce$+ a ?ird ( !    
local con/itu5cy1 w\ld be able1 if x    
attempt$ no m1 to return "o out ( ?ree  
memb]s4 ,! same result might be atta9$ 9
 a /ill bett] way if1 z propos$ 9 an    
able pamphlet by ,mr4 ,james ,g>?       
,m>%all1 ! elector reta9$ 8 ?ree votes1 
b 0 at lib]ty to be/[ !m all ^u ! same  
c&idate4 ,^! s*emes1 ?\gh inf9itely     
bett] ?an none at all1 are yet b        
make%ifts1 & atta9 ! end 9 a v imp]fect 
mann]1 s9ce all local m9orities ( less  
?an a ?ird1 & all m9orities1 h[ev]      
num]\s1 :i* are made up f sev]al        

con/itu5cies1 w\ld rema9 unrepres5t$4 ,x
 is mu* to be lam5t$1 h[ev]1 t none ( ^!
 plans h be5 c>ri$ into effect1 z any ( 
!m w\ld h recogniz$ ! "r pr9ciple1 &    
prep>$ ! way = its m complete           
application4 ,b real equality (         
repres5tation is n obta9$ unless any set
 ( electors am\nt+ to ! av]age numb] ( a
 con/itu5cy1 :]ev] 9 ! c\ntry !y happ5  
to reside1 h ! p[] ( comb9+ ) "o ano!r  
to return a repres5tative4 ,?is degree (
 p]fection 9 repres5tation appe>$       
impracticable until a man ( great       
capacity1 fitt$ alike = l>ge g5]al views
 & = ! contrivance ( practical          
details--,mr4 ,?omas ,h>e--_h prov$ its 
possibility by draw+ up a s*eme = its   
accompli%m5t1 embodi$ 9 a ,draft ( an   
,act ( ,p>liam5t2 a s*eme :i* has !     
almo/ unp>allel$ m]it ( c>ry+ out a     
great pr9ciple ( gov]nm5t 9 a mann]     
approa*+ to ideal p]fection z reg>ds !  
special object 9 view1 :ile x atta9s    
incid5tally sev]al o!r ends ( sc>cely   
inf]ior importance4  ,accord+ to ?is    

plan1 ! unit ( repres5tation1 ! quota ( 
electors :o w\ld be entitl$ to h a memb]
 to !mselves1 w\ld be asc]ta9$ by !     
ord9>y process ( tak+ av]ages1 ! numb] (
 vot]s be+ divid$ by ! numb] ( seats 9 !
 ,h\se2 & e c&idate :o obta9$ t quota   
w\ld be return$1 f h[ev] great a numb] (
 local con/itu5cies x might be ga!r$4 ,!
 votes w\ld1 z at pres5t1 be giv5       
locally2 b any elector w\ld be at lib]ty
 to vote = any c&idate1 9 :atev] "p ( ! 
c\ntry he might (f] himself4 ,^?        
electors1 !re=e1 :o did n wi% to be     
repres5t$ by any ( ! local c&idates1    
might aid by _! vote 9 ! return ( !     
p]son !y lik$ be/ among all ^? ?r\gh\t !
 c\ntry :o _h express$ a will+ness to be
 *os54 ,?is w\ld s f> give reality to ! 
electoral rights ( ! o!rwise virtually  
disfran*is$ m9ority4 ,b x is important t
 n ^? alone :o refuse to vote = any ( ! 
local c&idates1 b ^? also :o vote = "o (
 !m & are defeat$1 %\ld be enabl$ to f9d
 else:]e ! repres5tation :i* !y h n     
succe$$ 9 obta9+ 9 _! own di/rict4 ,x is

 !re=e provid$ t an elector may deliv] a
 vot+ pap] conta9+ o!r names 9 addition 
to ! "o :i* /&s =emo/ 9 8 pref]5ce4 ,8  
vote w\ld only be c\nt$ = "o c&idate2 b 
if ! object ( 8 fir/ *oice fail$ to be  
return$1 f n hav+ obta9$ ! quota1 8     
second p]haps might be m =tunate4 ,he   
may ext5d 8 li/ to a great] numb] 9 !   
ord] ( 8 pref]5ce1 s t if ! names :i* /&
 ne> ! top ( ! li/ ei!r c n make up !   
quota1 or are able to make x up )\t 8   
vote1 ! vote may /ill be us$ = "s "o :om
 x may assi/ 9 return+4 ,to obta9 ! full
 numb] ( memb]s requir$ to complete !   
,h\se1 z well z to prev5t v popul>      
c&idates f engross+ ne>ly all !         
suffrages1 x is necess>y1 h[ev] _m votes
 a c&idate may obta91 t no m ( !m ?an ! 
quota %\ld be c\nt$ = 8 return2 !       
rema9d] ( ^? :o vot$ = him w\ld h _!    
votes c\nt$ = ! next p]son on _!        
respective li/s :o ne$$ !m1 & c\ld by _!
 aid complete ! quota4 ,to det]m9e :i* (
 a c&idate's votes %\ld be us$ = 8      
return1 & :i* set free = o!rs1 sev]al   

me?ods are propos$1 into :i* we %all n  
"h ent]4 ,he w\ld1 ( c\rse1 reta9 !     
votes ( all ^? :o w\ld n o!rwise be     
repres5t$2 & = ! rema9d]1 draw+ lots1 9 
default ( bett]1 w\ld be an             
unobjectionable exp$i5t4 ,! vot+ pap]s  
w\ld be convey$ to a c5tral (fice1 :]e !
 votes w\ld be c\nt$1 ! numb] ( fir/1   
second1 ?ird1 & o!r votes giv5 = ea*    
c&idate asc]ta9$1 & ! quota w\ld be     
allott$ to e "o :o c\ld make x up1 until
 ! numb] ( ! ,h\se 0 complete2 fir/     
votes be+ pref]r$ to second1 second to  
?ird1 & s =?4 ,! vot+ pap]s1 & all !    
elem5ts ( ! calculation1 w\ld be plac$ 9
 public repositories1 accessible to all 
:om !y conc]n$2 & if any "o :o _h obta9$
 ! quota 0 n duly return$1 x w\ld be 9 8
 p[] easily to prove x4  ,^! are ! ma9  
provisions ( ! s*eme4 ,= a m m9ute k (  
its v simple ma*9]y1 ,i mu/ ref] to ,mr4
 ,h>e's ,treatise on ! ,election (      
,repres5tatives 7a small volume ,publi%$
 9 #ahei71 & to a pamphlet by ,mr4 ,h5ry
 ,fawcett1 publi%$ 9 #ahfj1 & entitl$   

,mr4 ,h>e's ,re=m ,bill simplifi$ &     
expla9$4 ,?is la/ is a v cle> & concise 
exposition ( ! plan1 r$uc$ to its       
simple/ elem5ts by ! omission ( "s (    
,mr4 ,h>e's orig9al provisions1 :i*1    
?\gh 9 !mselves b5eficial1 we're ?\ght  
to take m f ! simplicity ( ! s*eme ?an  
!y add$ to its practical advantages4 ,! 
m ^! works are /udi$1 ! /rong]1 ,i      
v5ture to pr$ict1 w be ! impression ( ! 
p]fect feasibility ( ! s*eme & its      
transc5dant advantages4 ,su* & s num]\s 
are ^!1 t1 9 my conviction1 !y place    
,mr4 ,h>e's plan among ! v greate/      
improvem5ts yet made 9 ! !ory & practice
 ( gov]nm5t4  ,9 ! fir/ place1 x secures
 a repres5tation1 9 proportion to       
numb]s1 ( e division ( ! electoral body3
 n two great p>ties alone1 ) p]haps a   
few l>ge sectional m9orities 9 p>ticul> 
places1 b e m9ority 9 ! :ole nation1    
consi/+ ( a suffici5tly l>ge numb] to   
be1 on pr9ciples ( equal ju/ice1 entitl$
 to a repres5tative4 ,secondly1 no      
elector w\ld1 z at pres5t1 be nom9ally  

repres5t$ by "s "o :om he _h n *os54 ,e 
memb] ( ! ,h\se w\ld be ! repres5tative 
( a unanim\s con/itu5cy4 ,he w\ld       
repres5t a ?\s& electors1 or two ?\s&1  
or five ?\s&1 or t5 ?\s&1 z ! quota     
might be1 e "o ( :om w\ld h n only vot$ 
= him1 b select$ him f ! :ole c\ntry2 n 
m]ely f ! assortm5t ( two or ?ree p]haps
 rott5 oranges1 :i* may be ! only *oice 
(f]$ to him 9 8 local m>ket4 ,"u ?is    
relation ! tie betwe5 ! elector & !     
repres5tative w\ld be ( a /r5g? & a     
value ( :i* at pres5t we h no exp]i5ce4 
,e "o ( ! electors w\ld be p]sonally    
id5tifi$ ) 8 repres5tative1 & !         
repres5tative ) 8 con/itu5ts4 ,e elector
 :o vot$ = him w\ld h done s ei!r       
because he is ! p]son1 9 ! :ole li/ (   
c&idates = ,p>liam5t1 :o be/ expresses !
 vot]'s own op9ions1 or because he is "o
 ( ^? ^: abilities & "* ! vot] mo/      
respects1 & :om he mo/ will+ly tru/s to 
?9k = him4 ,! memb] w\ld repres5t       
p]sons1 n ! m]e bricks & mort> ( !      
t[n--! vot]s !mselves1 n a few ve/rym5  

or p>i% notabilities m]ely4 ,all1 h[ev]1
 t is wor? pres]v+ 9 ! repres5tation (  
places w\ld be pres]v$4 ,?\gh !         
,p>liam5t ( ! nation ought to h z little
 z possible to d ) purely local affairs1
 yet1 :ile x has to d ) !m1 !re ought to
 be memb]s specially commission$ to look
 aft] ! int]e/s ( e important locality2 
& ^! !re w\ld /ill be4 ,9 e locality :i*
 conta9$ _m m vot]s ?an ! quota 7& !re  
probably ought to be no local           
consititu5cy :i* does n71 ! majority    
w\ld g5]ally pref] to be repres5t$ by "o
 ( !mselves2 by a p]son ( local k1 &    
resid+ 9 ! locality1 if !re is any su*  
p]son to be f\nd among ! c&idates1 :o is
 o!rwise eligible z _! repres5tative4 ,x
 w\ld be ! m9orities *iefly1 :o1 be+    
unable to return ! local memb]1 w\ld    
look out else:]e = a c&idate likely to  
obta9 o!r votes 9 addition to _! own4   
,( all modes 9 :i* a national           
repres5tation c possibly be con/itut$1  
?is "o af=ds ! be/ security = !         
intellectual qualifications desirable 9 

! repres5tatives4 ,at pres5t1 by        
univ]sal admission1 x is becom+ m & m   
difficult = any "o :o has only tal5ts & 
"* to ga9 admission into ! ,h\se (      
,commons4 ,! only p]sons :o c get elect$
 are ^? :o possess local influ5ce1 or   
make _! way by lavi% exp5diture1 or :o1 
on ! invitation ( ?ree or f\r tradesm5  
or attorneys1 are s5t d[n by "o ( ! two 
great p>ties f _! ,london clubs1 z m5 ^:
 votes ! p>ty c dep5d on "u all         
circum/ances4 ,on ,mr4 ,h>e's sy/em1 ^? 
:o did n l ! local c&idates w\ld fill up
 _! vot+ pap]s by a selection f all !   
p]sons ( national reputation on ! li/ ( 
c&idates ) ^: g5]al political pr9ciples 
!y 7 9 sympa?y4 ,almo/ e p]son1 !re=e1  
:o _h made himself 9 any way honorably  
di/+ui%$1 ?\gh devoid ( local influ5ce1 
& hav+ sworn allegiance to no political 
p>ty1 w\ld h a fair *ance ( mak+ up !   
quota1 & ) ?is enc\ragem5t su* p]sons   
might be expect$ to (f] !mselves 9      
numb]s hi!rto undream$ (4 ,hundr$s (    
able m5 ( indep5d5t ?\ght1 :o w\ld h no 

*ance :atev] ( be+ *os5 by ! majority ( 
any exi/+ con/itu5cy1 h by _! writ+s1 or
 _! ex]tions 9 "s field ( public        
usefulness1 made !mselves kn[n & approv$
 by a few p]sons 9 almo/ e di/rict ( !  
k+dom2 & if e vote t w\ld be giv5 = !m 9
 e place c\ld be c\nt$ = _! election1 !y
 might be able to complete ! numb] ( !  
quota4 ,9 no o!r way :i* x seems        
possible to sugge/ w\ld ,p>liam5t be s  
c]ta9 ( conta9+ ! v lite ( ! c\ntry4  ,&
 x is n solely ?r\gh ! votes ( m9orities
 t ?is sy/em ( election w\ld raise !    
intellectual /&>d ( ! ,h\se ( ,commons4 
,majorities w\ld be compell$ to look out
 = memb]s ( a mu* high] calibre4 ,:5 !  
individuals compos+ ! majority w\ld no  
long] be r$uc$ to ,hobson's *oice1 (    
ei!r vot+ = ! p]son br\ght =w>d by _!   
local lead]s1 or n vot+ at all2 :5 !    
nom9ee ( ! lead]s w\ld h to enc\nt] !   
competition n solely ( ! c&idate ( !    
m9ority1 b ( all ! m5 ( e/abli%$        
reputation 9 ! c\ntry :o 7 will+ to     
s]ve1 x w\ld be impossible any long] to 

foi/ ^u ! electors ! fir/ p]son :o      
pres5ts himself ) ! cat*words ( ! p>ty 9
 8 m\?1 & ?ree or f\r ?\s& p\nds 9 8    
pocket4 ,! majority w\ld insi/ on hav+ a
 c&idate wor?y ( _! *oice1 or !y w\ld   
c>ry _! votes some:]e else1 & ! m9ority 
w\ld prevail4 ,! slav]y ( ! majority to 
! lea/ e/imable portion ( _! numb]s w\ld
 be at an end2 ! v be/ & mo/ capable ( !
 local notabilities w\ld be put =w>d by 
pref]5ce2 if possible1 su* z 7 kn[n 9 "s
 advantage\s way beyond ! locality1 t _!
 local /r5g? might h a *ance ( be+      
=tifi$ by /ray votes f else:]e4         
,con/itu5cies w\ld become competitors = 
! be/ c&idates1 & w\ld vie ) "o ano!r 9 
select+ f among ! m5 ( local k &        
connections ^? :o 7 mo/ di/+ui%$ 9 e o!r
 respect4  ,! natural t5d5cy (          
repres5tative gov]nm5t1 z ( mod]n       
civilization1 is t[>ds collective       
m$iocrity3 & ?is t5d5cy is increas$ by  
all r$uctions & ext5sions ( ! fran*ise1 
_! effect be+ to place ! pr9cipal p[] 9 
! h&s ( classes m & m bel[ ! highe/     

level ( in/ruction 9 ! community4 ,b1   
?\gh ! sup]ior intellects & *>act]s w   
necess>ily be outnumb]$1 x makes a great
 diff]5ce :e!r or n !y are he>d4 ,9 !   
false democracy :i*1 in/ead ( giv+      
repres5tation to all1 gives x only to ! 
local majorities1 ! voice ( ! in/ruct$  
m9ority may h no organs at all 9 !      
repres5tative body4 ,x is an admitt$    
fact t 9 ! ,am]ican democracy1 :i* is   
con/ruct$ on ?is faulty model1 !        
highly-cultivat$ memb]s ( ! community1  
except su* ( !m z are will+ to sacrifice
 _! own op9ions & modes ( judgm5t1 &    
become ! s]vile m\?pieces ( _! inf]iors 
9 k1 d n ev5 (f] !mselves = ,congress or
 ! ,/ate ,legislatures1 s c]ta9 is x t  
!y w\ld h no *ance ( be+ return$4 ,_h a 
plan l ,mr4 ,h>e's by good =tune sugge/$
 itself to ! enlight5$ & dis9t]e/$      
f\nd]s ( ! ,am]ican ,republic1 ! f$]al &
 /ate assemblies w\ld h conta9$ _m ( ^! 
di/+ui%$ m51 & democracy w\ld h be5 sp>$
 its greate/ reproa* & "o ( its mo/     
=midable evils4 ,aga9/ ?is evil ! sy/em 

( p]sonal repres5tation propos$ by ,mr4 
,h>e is almo/ a specific4 ,! m9ority (  
in/ruct$ m9ds scatt]$ ?r\gh ! local     
con/itu5cies w\ld unite to return a     
numb]1 proportion$ to _! own numb]s1 ( !
 v able/ m5 ! c\ntry conta9s4 ,!y w\ld  
be "u ! /ronge/ inducem5t to *oose su*  
m51 s9ce 9 no o!r mode c\ld !y make _!  
small num]ical /r5g? tell = any ?+      
consid]able4 ,! repres5tatives ( !      
majority1 besides t !y w\ld !mselves be 
improv$ 9 quality by ! op]ation ( !     
sy/em1 w\ld no long] h ! :ole field to  
!mselves4 ,!y w\ld inde$ outnumb] !     
o!rs1 z mu* z ! "o class ( electors     
outnumb]s ! o!r 9 ! c\ntry3 !y c\ld     
always outvote !m1 b !y w\ld speak &    
vote 9 _! pres5ce1 & subject to _!      
criticism4 ,:5 any diff]5ce arose1 !y   
w\ld h to meet ! argum5ts ( ! in/ruct$  
few by reasons1 at lea/ app>5tly1 z     
cog5t2 & s9ce !y c\ld n1 z ^? d :o are  
speak+ to p]sons already unanim\s1      
simply assume t !y are 9 ! "r1 x w\ld   
occasionally happ5 to !m to become      

conv9c$ t !y 7 9 ! wrong4 ,z !y w\ld 9  
g5]al be well-mean+ 7= ?us mu* may      
reasonably be expect$ f a fairly-*os5   
national repres5tation71 _! own m9ds    
w\ld be ins5sibly rais$ by ! influ5ce ( 
! m9ds ) :i* !y 7 9 contact1 or ev5 9   
conflict4 ,! *ampions ( unpopul>        
doctr9es w\ld n put =? _! argum5ts m]ely
 9 books & p]iodicals1 read only by _!  
own side2 ! oppos+ ranks w\ld meet face 
to face & h& to h&1 & !re w\ld be a fair
 comp>ison ( _! intellectual /r5g? 9 !  
pres5ce ( ! c\ntry4 ,x w\ld !n be f\nd  
out :e!r ! op9ion :i* prevail$ by c\nt+ 
votes w\ld also prevail if ! votes 7    
weigh$ z well z c\nt$4 ,! multitude h   
(t5 a true in/9ct = di/+ui%+ an able man
 :5 he has ! means ( display+ 8 ability 
9 a fair field be=e !m4 ,if su* a man   
fails to obta9 any portion ( 8 j weight1
 x is ?r\gh in/itutions or usages :i*   
keep him out ( sight4 ,9 ! old          
democracies !re 7 no means ( keep+ out (
 sight any able man3 ! bema 0 op5 to    
him2 he ne$$ nobody's cons5t to become a

 public advis]4 ,x is n s 9 a           
repres5tative gov]nm5t2 & ! be/ fri5ds (
 repres5tative democracy c h>dly be )\t 
misgiv+s t ! ,!mi/ocles or ,demo/h5es ^:
 c\ncils w\ld h sav$ ! nation1 might be 
unable dur+ 8 :ole life ev] to obta9 a  
seat4 ,b if ! pres5ce 9 ! repres5tative 
assembly c be insur$ ( ev5 a few ( !    
fir/ m9ds 9 ! c\ntry1 ?\gh ! rema9d]    
consi/ only ( av]age m9ds1 ! influ5ce ( 
^! lead+ spirits is sure to make itself 
ins5sibly felt 9 ! g5]al delib]ations1  
ev5 ?\gh !y be kn[n to be1 9 _m         
respects1 oppos$ to ! tone ( popul>     
op9ion & feel+4 ,i am unable to conceive
 any mode by :i* ! pres5ce ( su* m9ds c 
be s positively insur$ z by t propos$ by
 ,mr4 ,h>e4  ,?is portion ( ! assembly  
w\ld also be ! appropriate organ ( a    
great social function1 = :i* !re is no  
provision 9 any exi/+ democracy1 b :i* 9
 no gov]nm5t c rema9 p]man5tly          
unfulfill$ )\t condemn+ t gov]nm5t to   
infallible deg5]acy & decay4 ,?is may be
 call$ ! function ( ,antagonism4 ,9 e   

gov]nm5t !re is "s p[] /rong] ?an all ! 
re/2 & ! p[] :i* is /ronge/ t5ds        
p]petually to become ! sole p[]4 ,p>tly 
by int5tion & p>tly unconsci\sly1 x is  
ev] /riv+ to make all o!r ?+s b5d to    
itself1 & is n cont5t :ile !re is any ?+
 :i* makes p]man5t head aga9/ x1 any    
influ5ce n 9 agreem5t ) its _s4 ,yet1 if
 x succe$s 9 suppress+ all rival        
influ5ces1 & m\ld+ e ?+ aft] its own    
model1 improvem5t1 9 t c\ntry1 is at an 
end1 & decl9e comm5ces4 ,human          
improvem5t is a product ( _m factors1 & 
no p[] ev] yet con/itut$ among mank9d   
includes !m all3 ev5 ! mo/ b5efic5t p[] 
only conta9s 9 itself "s ( ! requisites 
( good1 & ! rema9d]1 if progress is to  
cont9ue1 mu/ be d]iv$ f "s o!r s\rce4   
,no community has ev] long cont9u$      
progressive b :ile a conflict 0 go+ on  
betwe5 ! /ronge/ p[] 9 ! community & "s 
rival p[]2 betwe5 ! spiritual & temporal
 au?orities2 ! milit>y or t]ritorial & !
 indu/ri\s classes2 ! k+ & ! p2 !       
or?odox & religi\s re=m]s4 ,:5 ! victory

 on ei!r side 0 s complete z to put an  
end to ! /rife1 & no o!r conflict took  
its place1 fir/ /agnation foll[$1 & !n  
decay4 ,! asc5dancy ( ! num]ical        
majority is less unju/1 &1 on ! :ole1   
less mis*iev\s ?an _m o!rs1 b x is      
att5d$ ) ! v same k9d ( dang]s1 & ev5 m 
c]ta9ly2 = :5 ! gov]nm5t is 9 ! h&s (   
,"o or a ,few1 ! ,_m are always exi/5t z
 a rival p[]1 :i* may n be /rong en\gh  
ev] to control ! o!r1 b ^: op9ion &     
s5tim5t are a moral1 & ev5 a social     
support to all :o1 ei!r f conviction or 
contr>iety ( int]e/1 are oppos$ to any (
 ! t5d5cies ( ! rul+ au?ority4 ,b :5 !  
democracy is supreme1 !re is no ,"o or  
,few /rong en\gh = diss5ti5t op9ions &  
injur$ or m5ac$ int]e/s to lean ^u4 ,!  
great difficulty ( democratic gov]nm5t  
has hi!rto seem$ to be1 h[ to provide 9 
a democratic society--:at circum/ances h
 provid$ hi!rto 9 all ! societies :i* h 
ma9ta9$ !mselves ahead ( o!rs--a social 
support1 a po9t d'appui1 = individual   
resi/ance to ! t5d5cies ( ! rul+ p[]2 a 

protection1 a rally+-po9t1 = op9ions &  
int]e/s :i* ! asc5dant public op9ion    
views ) disfavor4 ,= want ( su* a po9t  
d'appui1 ! old] societies1 & all b a few
 mod]n ones1 ei!r fell into dissolution 
or became /ation>y 7:i* means sl[       
det]ioration7 ?r\gh ! exclusive         
pr$om9ance ( a "p only ( ! conditions ( 
social & m5tal well-be+4  ,n[1 ?is great
 want ! sy/em ( ,p]sonal ,repres5tation 
is fitt$ to supply 9 ! mo/ p]fect mann] 
:i* ! circum/ances ( mod]n society admit
 (4 ,! only qu>t] 9 :i* to look = a     
supplem5t1 or complet+ corrective to !  
in/9cts ( a democratic majority1 is !   
in/ruct$ m9ority2 b1 9 ! ord9>y mode (  
con/itut+ democracy1 ?is m9ority has no 
organ3 ,mr4 ,h>e's sy/em provides "o4 ,!
 repres5tatives :o w\ld be return$ to   
,p>liam5t by ! aggregate ( m9orities    
w\ld af=d t organ 9 its greate/         
p]fection4 ,a sep>ate organization ( !  
in/ruct$ classes1 ev5 if practicable1   
w\ld be invidi\s1 & c\ld only escape f  
be+ (f5sive by be+ totally )\t influ5ce4

 ,b if ! lite ( ^! classes =m$ "p ( !   
,p>liam5t1 by ! same title z any o!r (  
its memb]s--by repres5t+ ! same numb] ( 
citiz5s1 ! same num]ical fraction ( !   
national w--_! pres5ce c\ld give umbrage
 to nobody1 :ile !y w\ld be 9 ! position
 ( highe/ vantage1 bo? = mak+ _! op9ions
 & c\ncils he>d on all important        
subjects1 & = tak+ an active "p 9 public
 bus9ess4 ,_! abilities w\ld probably   
draw to !m m ?an _! num]ical %>e ( !    
actual adm9i/ration ( gov]nm5t2 z !     
,a!nians did n confide responsible      
public functions to ,cleon or ,hyp]bolus
 7! employm5t ( ,cleon at ,pylos &      
,amphipolis 0 purely exceptional71 b    
,nicias1 & ,!ram5es1 & ,alcibiades 7 9  
con/ant employm5t bo? at home & abroad1 
?\gh kn[n to sympa?ize m ) olig>*y ?an )
 democracy4 ,! in/ruct$ m9ority w\ld1 9 
! actual vot+1 c\nt only = _! numb]s1 b 
z a moral p[] !y w\ld c\nt = mu* m1 9   
virtue ( _! k1 & ( ! influ5ce x w\ld    
give !m ov] ! re/4 ,an arrangem5t bett] 
adapt$ to keep popul> op9ion )9 reason &

 ju/ice1 & to gu>d x f ! v>i\s          
det]iorat+ influ5ces :i* assail ! weak  
side ( democracy1 c\ld sc>cely by human 
+5uity be devis$4 ,a democratic p w\ld 9
 ?is way be provid$ ) :at 9 any o!r way 
x w\ld almo/ c]ta9ly miss--lead]s ( a   
high] grade ( intellect & "* ?an itself4
 ,mod]n democracy w\ld h its occasional 
,p]icles1 & its habitual gr\p ( sup]ior 
& guid+ m9ds4  ,) all ?is array (       
reasons1 ( ! mo/ fundam5tal "*1 on !    
affirmative side ( ! "q1 :at is !re on !
 negative8 ,no?+ t w su/a9 exam9ation1  
:5 p c once be induc$ to be/[ any real  
exam9ation ^u a new ?+4 ,^? inde$1 if   
any su* !re be1 :o1 "u pret5se ( equal  
ju/ice1 aim only at sub/itut+ ! class   
asc5dancy ( ! poor = t ( ! ri*1 w (     
c\rse be unfavorable to a s*eme :i*     
places bo? on a level4 ,b ,i d n believe
 t any su* wi% exi/s at pres5t among !  
work+ classes ( ?is c\ntry1 ?\gh ,i w\ld
 n answ] = ! effect :i* opportunity &   
demagogic artifices may h]eaft] h 9     
excit+ x4 ,9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 :]e !     

num]ical majority h long be5 9 full     
possession ( collective despotism1 !y   
w\ld probably be z unwill+ to "p ) x z a
 s+le despot or an ari/ocracy4 ,b ,i    
believe t ! ,engli% democracy w\ld z yet
 be cont5t ) protection aga9/ ! class   
legislation ( o!rs1 )\t claim+ ! p[] to 
ex]cise x 9 _! turn4  ,among ! o/5sible 
objectors to ,mr4 ,h>e's s*eme1 "s      
pr(ess to ?9k ! plan unworkable2 b ^!1 x
 w be f\nd1 are g5]ally p :o h b>ely    
he>d ( x1 or h giv5 x a v slight &      
cursory exam9ation4 ,o!rs are unable to 
reconcile !mselves to ! loss ( :at !y   
t]m ! local "* ( ! repres5tation4 ,a    
nation does n seem to !m to consi/ (    
p]sons1 b ( artificial units1 ! creation
 ( geography & /ati/ics4 ,p>liam5t mu/  
repres5t t[ns & c\nties1 n human be+s4  
,b no "o seeks to annihilate t[ns &     
c\nties4 ,t[ns & c\nties1 x may be      
presum$1 are repres5t$ :5 ! human be+s  
:o inhabit !m are repres5t$4 ,local     
feel+s c n exi/ )\t somebody :o feels   
!m1 nor local int]e/s )\t somebody      

int]e/$ 9 !m4 ,if ! human be+s ^: feel+s
 & int]e/s ^! are h _! prop] %>e (      
repres5tation1 ^! feel+s & int]e/s are  
repres5t$ 9 common ) all o!r feel+s &   
int]e/s ( ^? p]sons4 ,b ,i c n see :y ! 
feel+s & int]e/s :i* arrange mank9d     
accord+ to localities %\ld be ! only "o 
?\ght wor?y ( be+ repres5t$2 or :y p :o 
h o!r feel+s & int]e/s1 :i* !y value m  
?an !y d _! geographical ones1 %\ld be  
re/rict$ to ^! z ! sole pr9ciple ( _!   
political classification4 ,! notion t   
,york%ire & ,middlesex h rights ap>t f  
^? ( _! inhabitants1 or t ,liv]pool &   
,exet] are ! prop] objects ( !          
legislator's c>e1 9 contradi/9ction !   
population ( ^? places1 is a curi\s     
specim5 ( delusion produc$ by words4  ,9
 g5]al1 h[ev]1 objectors cut ! matt]    
%ort by affirm+ t ! p ( ,engl& w nev]   
cons5t to su* a sy/em4 ,:at ! p ( ,engl&
 are likely to ?9k ( ^? :o pass su* a   
summ>y s5t5ce on _! capacity ( und]/&+ &
 judgm5t1 deem+ x sup]flu\s to consid]  
:e!r a ?+ is "r or wrong be=e affirm+ t 

!y are c]ta9 to reject x1 ,i w n        
und]take to say4 ,= my own "p1 ,i d n   
?9k t ! p ( ,engl& h des]v$ to be1 )\t  
trial1 /igmatiz$ z insurm\ntably        
prejudic$ aga9/ any ?+ :i* c be prov$ to
 be good ei!r = !mselves or = o!rs4 ,x  
also appe>s to me t :5 prejudices p]si/ 
ob/9ately1 x is ! fault ( nobody s mu* z
 ( ^? :o make a po9t ( proclaim+ !m     
insup]able1 z an excuse to !mselves =   
nev] jo9+ 9 an attempt to remove !m4    
,any prejudice :atev] w be insurm\ntable
 if ^? :o d n %>e x !mselves truckle to 
x1 & flatt] x1 & accept x z a law (     
nature4 ,i believe1 h[ev]1 t (          
prejudice1 prop]ly speak+1 !re is 9 ?is 
case none except on ! lips ( ^? :o talk 
ab\t x1 & t !re is 9 g5]al1 among ^? :o 
h yet he>d ( ! proposition1 no o!r      
ho/ility to x ?an ! natural & heal?y    
di/ru/ atta*+ to all novelties :i* h n  
be5 suffici5tly canvass$ to make g5]ally
 manife/ all ! pros & cons ( ! "q4 ,!   
only s]i\s ob/acle is ! unfamili>ity3   
?is1 inde$1 is a =midable "o1 = !       

imag9ation mu* m easily reconciles      
itself to a great alt]ation 9 sub/ance  
?an to a v small "o 9 names & =ms4 ,b   
unfamili>ity is a disadvantage :i*1 :5  
!re is any real value 9 an idea1 x only 
requires "t to remove2 & 9 ^! days (    
discussion & g5]ally awak5$ int]e/ 9    
improvem5t1 :at =m]ly 0 ! "w ( c5turies 
(t5 requires only ye>s4    ,*apt]       
,,viii--,( ! ,ext5sion ( ! ,suffrage4   
,su* a repres5tative democracy z has n[ 
be5 sket*$--repres5tative ( all1 & n    
solely ( ! majority--9 :i* ! int]e/s1 ! 
op9ions1 ! grades ( intellect :i* are   
outnumb]$ w\ld nev]!less be he>d1 & w\ld
 h a *ance ( obta9+ by weight ( "* &    
/r5g? ( argum5t an influ5ce :i* w\ld n  
belong to _! num]ical =ce--?is          
democracy1 :i* is alone equal1 alone    
imp>tial1 alone ! gov]nm5t ( all by all1
 ! only true type ( democracy1 w\ld be  
free f ! greate/ evils ( ! falsely-call$
 democracies :i* n[ prevail1 & f :i* !  
curr5t idea ( democracy is exclusively  
d]iv$4 ,b ev5 9 ?is democracy1 absolute 

p[]1 if !y *ose to ex]cise x1 w\ld re/ )
 ! num]ical majority1 & ^! w\ld be      
compos$ exclusively ( a s+le class1     
alike 9 biases1 prepossessions1 & g5]al 
modes ( ?9k+1 & a class1 to say no m1 n 
! mo/ highly cultivat$4 ,! con/itution  
w\ld !re=e /ill be liable to !          
*>act]i/ic evils ( class gov]nm5t2 9 a  
f> less degree1 assur$ly1 ?an t         
exclusive gov]nm5t by a class :i* n[    
usurps ! "n ( democracy1 b /ill "u no   
effective re/ra9t except :at might be   
f\nd 9 ! good s5se1 mod]ation1 &        
=be>ance ( ! class itself4 ,if *ecks (  
?is description are suffici5t1 !        
philosophy ( con/itutional gov]nm5t is b
 solemn trifl+4 ,all tru/ 9 con/itutions
 is gr\nd$ on ! assurance !y may af=d1 n
 t ! deposit>ies ( p[] w n1 b t !y c n  
misemploy x4 ,democracy is n ! ideally  
be/ =m ( gov]nm5t unless ?is weak side (
 x c be /r5g!n$2 unless x c be s        
organiz$ t no class1 n ev5 ! mo/ num]\s1
 %all be able to r$uce all b itself to  
political insignificance1 & direct !    

c\rse ( legislation & adm9i/ration by   
its exclusive class int]e/4 ,! problem  
is to f9d ! means ( prev5t+ ?is abuse   
)\t sacrific+ ! *>act]i/ic advantages ( 
popul> gov]nm5t4  ,^! tw(old requisites 
are n fulfill$ by ! exp$i5t ( a         
limitation ( ! suffrage1 involv+ !      
compulsory exclusion ( any portion ( !  
citiz5s f a voice 9 ! repres5tation4    
,among ! =emo/ b5efits ( free gov]nm5t  
is t education ( ! intellig5ce & ( !    
s5tim5ts :i* is c>ri$ d[n to ! v l[e/   
ranks ( ! p :5 !y are call$ to take a "p
 9 acts :i* directly affect ! great     
int]e/s ( _! c\ntry4 ,on ?is topic ,i h 
already dwelt s emphatically t ,i only  
return to x because !re are few :o seem 
to atta* to ?is effect ( popul>         
in/itutions all ! importance to :i* x is
 entitl$4 ,p ?9k x fanciful to expect s 
mu* f :at seems s slight a cause--to    
recognize a pot5t in/rum5t ( m5tal      
improvem5t 9 ! ex]cise ( political      
fran*ises by manual labor]s4 ,yet1      
unless sub/antial m5tal cultivation 9 ! 

mass ( mank9d is to be a m]e vision1 ?is
 is ! road by :i* x mu/ come4 ,if any "o
 supposes t ?is road w n br+ x1 ,i call 
to witness ! entire cont5ts ( ,m4 de    
,tocqueville's great "w1 & especially 8 
e/imate ( ! ,am]icans4 ,almo/ all       
travel]s are /ruck by ! fact t e        
,am]ican is 9 "s s5se bo? a patriot & a 
p]son ( cultivat$ intellig5ce2 & ,m4 de 
,tocqueville has %[n h[ close !         
connection is betwe5 ^! qualities & _!  
democratic in/itutions4 ,no su* wide    
diffusion ( ! ideas1 ta/es1 & s5tim5ts (
 educat$ m9ds has ev] be5 se5 else:]e1  
or ev5 conceiv$ z atta9able4 ,yet ?is is
 no?+ to :at we might look = 9 a        
gov]nm5t equally democratic 9 its       
unexclusiv5ess1 b bett] organiz$ 9 o!r  
important po9ts4 ,= political life is   
inde$ 9 ,am]ica a mo/ valuable s*ool1 b 
x is a s*ool f :i* ! able/ tea*]s are   
exclud$2 ! fir/ m9ds 9 ! c\ntry be+ z   
effectually %ut out f ! national        
repres5tation1 & f public functions     
g5]ally1 z if !y 7 "u a =mal            

disqualification4 ,! ,demos1 too1 be+ 9 
,am]ica ! "o s\rce ( p[]1 all ! selfi%  
ambition ( ! c\ntry gravitates t[>ds x1 
z x does 9 despotic c\ntries t[>ds !    
mon>*2 ! ,p1 l ! despot1 is pursu$ )    
adulation & sycophancy1 & ! corrupt+    
effects ( p[] fully keep pace ) its     
improv+ & ennobl+ influ5ces4 ,if1 ev5 ) 
?is alloy1 democratic in/itutions       
produce s m>k$ a sup]iority ( m5tal     
developm5t 9 ! l[e/ class ( ,am]icans1  
comp>$ ) ! correspond+ classes 9 ,engl& 
& else:]e1 :at w\ld x be if ! good      
portion ( ! influ5ce c\ld be reta9$ )\t 
! bad8 ,& ?is1 to a c]ta9 ext5t1 may be 
done1 b n by exclud+ t portion ( ! p :o 
h fewe/ intellectual /imuli ( o!r k9ds f
 s ine/imable an introduction to l>ge1  
di/ant1 & complicat$ int]e/s z is af=d$ 
by ! att5tion !y may be induc$ to be/[  
on political affairs4 ,x is by political
 discussion t ! manual labor]1 ^:       
employm5t is a r\t9e1 & ^: way ( life   
br+s him 9 contact ) no v>iety (        
impressions1 circum/ances1 or ideas1 is 

taught t remote causes1 & ev5ts :i* take
 place f> (f1 h a mo/ s5sible effect ev5
 on 8 p]sonal int]e/s2 & x is f         
political discussion & collective       
political action t "o ^: daily          
occupations conc5trate 8 int]e/s 9 a    
small circle r\nd himself1 le>ns to feel
 = & ) 8 fell[-citiz5s1 & becomes       
consci\sly a memb] ( a great community4 
,b political discussions fly ov] ! heads
 ( ^? :o h no votes1 & are n endeav\r+  
to acquire !m4 ,_! position1 9 comp>ison
 ) ! electors1 is t ( ! audi5ce 9 a c\rt
 ( ju/ice comp>$ ) ! twelve m5 9 !      
jury-box4 ,x is n _! suffrages t are    
ask$1 x is n _! op9ion t is s\ght to be 
influ5c$2 ! appeals are made1 ! argum5ts
 address$1 to o!rs ?an !m2 no?+ dep5ds  
on ! decision !y may arrive at1 & !re is
 no necessity & v little inducem5t to !m
 to come to any4 ,:oev]1 9 an o!rwise   
popul> gov]nm5t1 has no vote1 & no      
prospect ( obta9+ x1 w ei!r be a p]man5t
 malcont5t1 or w feel z "o :om ! g5]al  
affairs ( society d n conc]n2 = :om !y  

are to be manag$ by o!rs2 :o has no     
bus9ess ) ! laws except to obey !m1 nor 
) public int]e/s & conc]ns except z a   
look]-on4 ,:at he w "k or c>e ab\t !m f 
?is position may p>tly be measur$ by :at
 an av]age woman ( ! middle class kn[s &
 c>es ab\t politics comp>$ ) h] husb& or
 bro!rs4  ,indep5d5tly ( all ^!         
consid]ations1 x is a p]sonal inju/ice  
to )hold f any "o1 unless = ! prev5tion 
( great] evils1 ! ord9>y privilege (    
hav+ 8 voice reckon$ 9 ! disposal (     
affairs 9 :i* he has ! same int]e/ z o!r
 p4 ,if he is compell$ to pay1 if he may
 be compell$ to fight1 if he is requir$ 
implicitly to obey1 he %\ld be legally  
entitl$ to be told :at =2 to h 8 cons5t 
ask$1 & 8 op9ion c\nt$ at its wor?1 ?\gh
 n at m ?an its wor?4 ,!re ought to be  
no p>iahs 9 a full-gr[n & civiliz$      
nation2 no p]sons disqualifi$ except    
?r\gh _! own default4 ,e "o is degrad$1 
:e!r aw>e ( x or n1 :5 o!r p1 )\t       
consult+ him1 take ^u !mselves unlimit$ 
p[] to regulate 8 de/9y4 ,& ev5 9 a mu* 

m improv$ /ate ?an ! human m9d has ev]  
yet rea*$1 x is n 9 nature t !y :o are  
?us dispos$ ( %\ld meet ) z fair play z 
^? :o h a voice4 ,rul]s & rul+ classes  
are "u a necessity ( consid]+ ! int]e/s 
& wi%es ( ^? :o h ! suffrage2 b ( ^? :o 
are exclud$1 x is 9 _! option :e!r !y w 
d s or n2 &1 h[ev] hone/ly dispos$1 !y  
are1 9 g5]al1 too fully occupi$ ) ?+s   
:i* !y mu/ att5d to to h mu* room 9 _!  
?\ghts = any ?+ :i* !y c ) impunity     
disreg>d4 ,no arrangem5t ( ! suffrage1  
!re=e1 c be p]man5tly satisfactory 9 :i*
 any p]son or class is p]emptorily      
exclud$--9 :i* ! electoral privilege is 
n op5 to all p]sons ( full age :o desire
 to obta9 x4  ,!re are1 h[ev]1 c]ta9    
exclusions1 requir$ by positive reasons1
 :i* d n conflict ) ?is pr9ciple1 & :i*1
 ?\gh an evil 9 !mselves1 are only to be
 got rid ( by ! cessation ( ! /ate ( ?+s
 :i* requires !m4 ,i reg>d x z :olly    
inadmissible t any p]son %\ld p>ticipate
 9 ! suffrage )\t be+ able to read1     
write1 &1 ,i w add1 p]=m ! common       

op]ations ( ari?metic4 ,ju/ice dem&s1   
ev5 :5 ! suffrage does n dep5d on x1 t !
 means ( atta9+ ^! elem5t>y acquirem5ts 
%\ld be )9 ! rea* ( e p]son1 ei!r       
gratuit\sly1 or at an exp5se n exce$+   
:at ! poore/1 :o c e>n _! own liv+1 c   
af=d4 ,if ?is 7 really ! case1 p w\ld no
 m ?9k ( giv+ ! suffrage to a man :o    
c\ld n read1 ?an ( giv+ x to a *ild :o  
c\ld n speak2 & x w\ld n be society t   
w\ld exclude him1 b 8 own laz9ess4 ,:5  
society has n p]=m$ its duty by r5d]+   
?is am\nt ( in/ruction accessible to    
all1 !re is "s h>d%ip 9 ! case1 b x is a
 h>d%ip t ought to be borne4 ,if society
 has neglect$ to dis*>ge two solemn     
obligations1 ! m important & m          
fundam5tal ( ! two mu/ be fulfill$ fir/2
 univ]sal tea*+ mu/ prec$e univ]sal     
enfran*isem5t4 ,no "o b ^? 9 :om an     
priori !ory has sil5c$ common s5se w    
ma9ta9 t p[] ov] o!rs1 ov] ! :ole       
community1 %\ld be imp>t$ to p :o h n   
acquir$ ! commone/ & mo/ ess5tial       
requisities = tak+ c>e ( !mselves--=    

pursu+ intellig5tly _! own int]e/s1 & ^?
 ( ! p]sons mo/ ne>ly alli$ to !m4 ,?is 
argum5t1 d\btless1 might be press$      
fur!r1 & made to prove mu* m4 ,x w\ld be
 em95tly desirable t o!r ?+s besides    
read+1 writ+1 & ari?metic c\ld be made  
necess>y to ! suffrage2 t "s k ( !      
con=mation ( ! e>?1 its natural &       
political divisions1 ! elem5ts ( g5]al  
hi/ory1 & ( ! hi/ory & in/itutions ( _! 
own c\ntry1 c\ld be requir$ f all       
electors4 ,b ^! k9ds ( k1 h[ev]         
indisp5sable to an intellig5t use ( !   
suffrage1 are n1 9 ?is c\ntry1 nor      
probably any :]e save 9 ! ,nor!rn ,unit$
 ,/ates1 accessible to ! :ole p1 nor    
does !re exi/ any tru/wor?y ma*9]y =    
asc]ta9+ :e!r !y h be5 acquir$ or n4 ,! 
attempt1 at pres5t1 w\ld lead to        
p>tiality1 *ican]y1 & e k9d ( fraud4 ,x 
is bett] t ! suffrage %\ld be conf]r$   
indiscrim9ately1 or ev5 )held           
indiscrim9ately1 ?an t x %\ld be giv5 to
 "o & )held f ano!r at ! discretion ( a 
public (fic]4 ,9 reg>d1 h[ev]1 to read+1

 writ+1 & calculat+1 !re ne$ be no      
difficulty4 ,x w\ld be easy to require f
 e "o :o pres5t$ himself = regi/ry t he 
%\ld1 9 ! pres5ce ( ! regi/r>1 copy a   
s5t5ce f an ,engli% book1 & p]=m a sum 9
 ! rule ( ?ree2 & to secure1 by fix$    
rules & complete publicity1 ! hone/     
application ( s v simple a te/4 ,?is    
condition1 !re=e1 %\ld 9 all cases      
accompany univ]sal suffrage2 & x w\ld1  
aft] a few ye>s1 exclude none b ^? :o   
c>$ s little = ! privilege1 t _! vote1  
if giv51 w\ld n 9 g5]al be an indication
 ( any real political op9ion4  ,x is    
also important1 t ! assembly :i* votes !
 taxes1 ei!r g5]al or local1 %\ld be    
elect$ exclusively by ^? :o pay some?+  
t[>ds ! taxes impos$4 ,^? :o pay no     
taxes1 dispos+ by _! votes ( o!r p's    
money1 h e motive to be lavi% & none to 
economize4 ,z f> z money matt]s are     
conc]n$1 any p[] ( vot+ possess$ by !m  
is a violation ( ! fundam5tal pr9ciple (
 free gov]nm5t1 a sev]ance ( ! p[] (    
control f ! int]e/ 9 its b5eficial      

ex]cise4 ,x am\nts to all[+ !m to put _!
 h&s into o!r p's pockets = any purpose 
:i* !y ?9k fit to call a public "o1 :i*1
 9 ! great t[ns ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 is   
kn[n to h produc$ a scale ( local       
taxation on]\s beyond example1 & :olly  
borne by ! weal?i] classes4 ,t          
repres5tation %\ld be coext5sive )      
taxation1 n /opp+ %ort ( x1 b also n go+
 beyond x1 is 9 accordance ) ! !ory (   
,briti% in/itutions4 ,b to reconcile    
?is1 z a condition annex$ to !          
repres5tation1 ) univ]sality1 x is      
ess5tial1 z x is on _m o!r acc\nts      
desirable1 t taxation1 9 a visible %ape1
 %\ld desc5d to ! poore/ class4 ,9 ?is  
c\ntry1 & 9 mo/ o!rs1 !re is probably no
 labor+ family :i* does n contribute to 
! indirect taxes1 by ! pur*ase ( tea1   
c(fee1 sug>1 n to m5tion n>cotics or    
/imulants4 ,b ?is mode ( defray+ a %>e (
 ! public exp5ses is h>dly felt3 ! pay]1
 unless a p]son ( education &           
reflection1 does n id5tify 8 int]e/ ) a 
l[ scale ( public exp5diture z closely z

 :5 money = its support is dem&$        
directly f himself2 & ev5 suppos+ him to
 d s1 he w\ld d\btless take c>e t1 h[ev]
 lavi% an exp5diture he might1 by 8     
vote1 assi/ 9 impos+ ^u ! gov]nm5t1 x   
%\ld n be defray$ by any additional     
taxes on ! articles :i* he himself      
consumes4 ,x w\ld be bett] t a direct   
tax1 9 ! simple =m ( a capitation1 %\ld 
be levi$ on e gr[n p]son 9 ! community2 
or t e su* p]son %\ld be admitt$ an     
elector on all[+ himself to be rat$     
extra ord9em to ! assess$ taxes2 or t a 
small annual paym5t1 ris+ & fall+ ) !   
gross exp5diture ( ! c\ntry1 %\ld be    
requir$ f e regi/]$ elector1 t s e "o   
might feel t ! money :i* he assi/$ 9    
vot+ 0 p>tly 8 own1 & t he 0 int]e/$ 9  
keep+ d[n its am\nt4  ,h[ev] ?is may be1
 ,i reg>d x z requir$ by fir/ pr9ciples 
t ! receipt ( p>i% relief %\ld be a     
p]emptory disqualification = ! fran*ise4
 ,he :o c n by 8 labor suffice = 8 own  
support1 has no claim to ! privilege (  
help+ himself to ! money ( o!rs4 ,by    

becom+ dep5d5t on ! rema9+ memb]s ( !   
community = actual subsi/5ce1 he        
abdicates 8 claim to equal rights ) !m 9
 o!r respects4 ,^? to :om he is indebt$ 
= ! cont9uance ( 8 v exi/5ce may ju/ly  
claim ! exclusive managem5t ( ^? common 
conc]ns to :i* he n[ br+s no?+1 or less 
?an he takes away4 ,z a condition ( !   
fran*ise1 a t]m %\ld be fix$1 say five  
ye>s previ\s to ! regi/ry1 dur+ :i* !   
applicant's "n has n be5 on ! p>i% books
 z a recipi5t ( relief4 ,to be an       
unc]tificat$ bankrupt1 or to h tak5 !   
b5efit ( ! ,insolv5t ,act1 %\ld         
disqualify = ! fran*ise until ! p]son   
has paid 8 debts1 or at lea/ prov$ t he 
is n n[1 & has n = "s long p]iod be51   
dep5d5t on eleemosyn>y support4         
,non-paym5t ( taxes1 :5 s long p]si/$ 9 
t x c n h aris5 f inadv]t5ce1 %\ld      
disqualify :ile x la/s4 ,^! exclusions  
are n 9 _! nature p]man5t4 ,!y exact su*
 conditions only z all are able1 or     
ought to be able1 to fulfill if !y      
*oose4 ,!y leave ! suffrage accessible  

to all :o are 9 ! normal condition ( a  
human be+2 & if any "o has to =ego x1 he
 ei!r does n c>e suffici5tly = x to d = 
its sake :at he is already b\nd to d1 or
 he is 9 a g5]al condition ( depression 
& degradation 9 :i* ?is slight addition1
 necess>y = ! security ( o!rs1 w\ld be  
unfelt1 & on em]g+ f :i* ?is m>k (      
inf]iority w\ld disappe> ) ! re/4  ,9 ! 
long run1 !re=e 7suppos+ no re/rictions 
to exi/ b ^? ( :i* we h n[ treat$71 we  
might expect t all1 except t 7x is to be
 hop$7 progressively dim9i%+ class1 !   
recipi5ts ( p>i% relief1 w\ld be 9      
possession ( votes1 s t ! suffrage w\ld 
be1 ) t slight abatem5t1 univ]sal4 ,t x 
%\ld be ?us widely exp&$ is1 z we h se51
 absolutely necess>y to an enl>g$ &     
elevat$ conception ( good gov]nm5t4 ,yet
 9 ?is /ate ( ?+s1 ! great majority (   
vot]s 9 mo/ c\ntries1 & emphatically 9  
?is1 w\ld be manual labor]s1 & ! tw(old 
dang]1 t ( too l[ a /&>d ( political    
intellig5ce1 & t ( class legislation1   
w\ld /ill exi/ 9 a v p]il\s degree4 ,x  

rema9s to be se5 :e!r any means exi/ by 
:i* ^! evils c be obviat$4  ,!y are     
capable ( be+ obviat$ if m5 s9c]ely wi% 
x2 n by any artificial contrivance1 b by
 c>ry+ out ! natural ord] ( human life1 
:i* recomm5ds itself to e "o 9 ?+s 9 :i*
 he has no int]e/ or traditional op9ion 
runn+ c\nt] to x4 ,9 all human affairs1 
e p]son directly int]e/$1 & n "u        
positive tutelage1 has an admitt$ claim 
to a voice1 & :5 8 ex]cise ( x is n     
inconsi/5t ) ! safety ( ! :ole1 c n     
ju/ly be exclud$ f x4 ,b 7?\gh e "o     
ought to h a voice7 t e "o %\ld h an    
equal voice is a totally diff]5t        
proposition4 ,:5 two p]sons :o h a jo9t 
int]e/ 9 any bus9ess diff] 9 op9ion1    
does ju/ice require t bo? op9ions %\ld  
be held ( exactly equal value8 ,if )    
equal virtue1 "o is sup]ior to ! o!r 9 k
 & intellig5ce--or if ) equal           
intellig5ce1 "o excels ! o!r 9 virtue--!
 op9ion1 ! judgm5t ( ! high] moral or   
intellectual be+ is wor? m ?an t ( !    
inf]ior2 & if ! in/itutions ( ! c\ntry  

virtually ass]t t !y are ( ! same value1
 !y ass]t a ?+ :i* is n4 ,"o ( ! two1 z 
! wis] or bett] man1 has a claim to     
sup]ior weight3 ! difficulty is 9       
asc]ta9+ :i* ( ! two x is2 a ?+         
impossible z betwe5 individuals1 b1 tak+
 m5 9 bodies & 9 numb]s1 x c be done ) a
 c]ta9 approa* to accuracy4 ,!re w\ld be
 no pret5se = apply+ ?is doctr9e to any 
case :i* c ) reason be consid]$ z "o (  
individual & private "r4 ,9 an affair   
:i* conc]ns only "o ( two p]sons1 t "o  
is entitl$ to foll[ 8 own op9ion1 h[ev] 
mu* wis] ! o!r may be ?an himself4 ,b we
 are speak+ ( ?+s :i* equally conc]n !m 
bo?2 :]e1 if ! m ignorant does n yield 8
 %>e ( ! matt] to ! guidance ( ! wis]   
man1 ! wis] man mu/ resign 8 to t ( ! m 
ignorant4 ,:i* ( ^! modes ( gett+ ov] ! 
difficulty is mo/ = ! int]e/ ( bo?1 &   
mo/ con=mable to ! g5]al fitness ( ?+s8 
,if x be deem$ unju/ t ei!r %\ld h to   
give way1 :i* inju/ice is greate/8 t !  
bett] judgm5t %\ld give way to ! worse1 
or ! worse to ! bett]8  ,n[ national    

affairs are exactly su* a jo9t conc]n1 )
 ! diff]5ce t no "o ne$s ev] be call$ ^u
 = a complete sacrifice ( 8 own op9ion4 
,x c always be tak5 into ! calculation1 
& c\nt$ at a c]ta9 figure1 a high]      
figure be+ assign$ to ! suffrages ( ^?  
^: op9ion is entitl$ to great] weight4  
,!re is n 9 ?is arrangem5t any ?+       
necess>ily invidi\s to ^? to :om x      
assigns ! l[] degrees ( influ5ce4       
,entire exclusion f a voice 9 ! common  
conc]ns is "o ?+3 ! concession to o!rs (
 a m pot5tial voice1 on ! gr\nd ( great]
 capacity = ! managem5t ( ! jo9t        
int]e/s1 is ano!r4 ,! two ?+s are n     
m]ely diff]5t1 !y are incomm5surable4 ,e
 "o has a "r to feel insult$ by be+ made
 a nobody1 & /amp$ z ( no acc\nt at all4
 ,no "o b a fool1 & only a fool ( a     
peculi> description1 feels (f5d$ by !   
ackn[l$gm5t t !re are o!rs ^: op9ion1 & 
ev5 ^: wi%1 is entitl$ to a great] am\nt
 ( consid]ation ?an 84 ,to h no voice 9 
:at are p>tly 8 own conc]ns is a ?+ :i* 
nobody will+ly submits to2 b :5 :at is  

p>tly 8 conc]n is also p>tly ano!r's1 & 
he feels ! o!r to und]/& ! subject bett]
 ?an himself1 t ! o!r's op9ion %\ld be  
c\nt$ = m ?an 8 own accords ) 8         
expectations1 & ) ! c\rse ( ?+s :i* 9   
all o!r affairs ( life he is accu/om$ to
 acquiese 94 ,x is only necess>y t ?is  
sup]ior influ5ce %\ld be assign$ on     
gr\nds :i* he c compreh5d1 & ( :i* he is
 able to p]ceive ! ju/ice4  ,i ha/5 to  
say t ,i consid] x entirely             
inadmissible1 unless z a tempor>y       
make%ift1 t ! sup]iority ( influ5ce %\ld
 be conf]r$ 9 consid]ation ( prop]ty4 ,i
 d n d5y t prop]ty is a k9d ( te/2      
education1 9 mo/ c\ntries1 ?\gh any ?+ b
 proportional to ri*es1 is on ! av]age  
bett] 9 ! ri*] half ( society ?an 9 !   
poor]4 ,b ! crit]ion is s imp]fect2     
accid5t has s mu* m to d ?an m]it )     
enabl+ m5 to rise 9 ! _w2 & x is s      
impossible = any "o1 by acquir+ any     
am\nt ( in/ruction1 to make sure ( !    
correspond+ rise 9 /ation1 t ?is        
f\ndation ( electoral privilege is      

always1 & w cont9ue to be1 supremely    
odi\s4 ,to connect plurality ( votes )  
any pecuni>y qualification w\ld be n    
only objectionable 9 itself1 b a sure   
mode ( compromis+ ! pr9ciple1 & mak+ its
 p]man5t ma9t5ance impracticable4 ,!    
democracy1 at lea/ ( ?is c\ntry1 are n  
at pres5t jeal\s ( p]sonal sup]iority1 b
 !y are naturally & mu/ ju/ly s ( t :i* 
is gr\nd$ on m]e pecuni>y circum/ances4 
,! only ?+ :i* c ju/ify reckon+ "o      
p]son's op9ion z equival5t to m ?an "o  
is individual m5tal sup]iority1 & :at is
 want$ is "s approximate means (        
asc]ta9+ t4 ,if !re exi/$ su* a ?+ z a  
really national education or a tru/wor?y
 sy/em ( g5]al exam9ation1 education    
might be te/$ directly4 ,9 ! abs5ce (   
^!1 ! nature ( a p]son's occupation is  
"s te/4 ,an employ] ( labor is on !     
av]age m intellig5t ?an a labor]2 = he  
mu/ labor ) 8 head1 & n solely ) 8 h&s4 
,a =eman is g5]ally m intellig5t ?an an 
ord9>y labor]1 & a labor] 9 ! skill$    
trades ?an 9 ! unskill$4 ,a bank]1      

m]*ant1 or manufactur] is likely to be m
 intellig5t ?an a tradesman1 because he 
has l>g] & m complicat$ int]e/s to      
manage4 ,9 all ^! cases x is n ! hav+   
m]ely und]tak5 ! sup]ior function1 b !  
successful p]=mance ( x1 t te/s !       
qualifications2 = :i* reason1 z well z  
to prev5t p]sons f engag+ nom9ally 9 an 
occupation = ! sake ( ! vote1 x w\ld be 
prop] to require t ! occupation %\ld h  
be5 p]sev]$ 9 = "s l5g? ( "t 7say ?ree  
ye>s74 ,subject to "s su* condition1 two
 or m votes might be all[$ to e p]son :o
 ex]cises any ( ^! sup]ior functions4 ,!
 lib]al pr(essions1 :5 really & n       
nom9ally practic$1 imply1 ( c\rse1 a    
/ill high] degree ( in/ruction2 & :]ev] 
a suffici5t exam9ation1 or any s]i\s    
conditions ( education1 are requir$ be=e
 ent]+ on a pr(ession1 its memb]s c\ld  
be admitt$ at once to a plurality (     
votes4 ,! same rule might be appli$ to  
graduates ( univ]sities2 & ev5 to ^? :o 
br+ satisfactory c]tificates ( hav+     
pass$ ?r\gh ! c\rse ( /udy requir$ by   

any s*ool at :i* ! high] bran*es ( k are
 taught1 "u prop] securities t ! tea*+  
is real1 & n a m]e pret5se4 ,! local or 
middle class exam9ation = ! degree (    
associate1 s laudably & public-spirit$ly
 e/abli%$ by ! ,univ]sity ( ,ox=d1 & any
 simil> ones :i* may be in/itut$ by o!r 
compet5t bodies 7provid$ !y are fairly  
op5 to all com]s71 af=d a gr\nd on :i*  
plurality ( votes might ) great         
advantage be accord$ to ^? :o h pass$ ! 
te/4 ,all ^! sugge/ions are op5 to mu*  
discussion 9 ! detail1 & to objections  
:i* x is ( no use to anticipate4 ,! "t  
is n come = giv+ to su* plans a         
practical %ape1 nor %\ld ,i wi% to be   
b\nd by ! p>ticul> proposals :i* ,i h   
made4 ,b x is to me evid5t t 9 ?is      
direction lies ! true ideal (           
repres5tative gov]nm5t2 & t to "w t[>ds 
x by ! be/ practical contrivances :i* c 
be f\nd is ! pa? ( real political       
improvem5t4  ,if x be ask$ to :at l5g? !
 pr9ciple admits ( be+ c>ri$1 or h[ _m  
votes might be accord$ to an individual 

on ! gr\nd ( sup]ior qualifications1 ,i 
answ]1 t ?is is n 9 itself v mat]ial1   
provid$ ! di/9ctions & gradations are n 
made arbitr>ily1 b are su* z c be       
und]/ood & accept$ by ! g5]al consci5ce 
& und]/&+4 ,b x is an absolute condition
 n to ov]pass ! limit prescrib$ by !    
fundam5tal pr9ciple laid d[n 9 a =m]    
*apt] z ! condition ( excell5ce 9 !     
con/itution ( a repres5tative sy/em4 ,! 
plurality ( votes mu/ on no acc\nt be   
c>ri$ s f> t ^? :o are privileg$ by x1  
or ! class 7if any7 to :i* !y ma9ly     
belong1 %all outweigh by means ( x all !
 re/ ( ! community4 ,! di/9ction 9 favor
 ( education1 "r 9 itself1 is f>!r &    
/rongly recomm5d$ by its pres]v+ !      
educat$ f ! class legislation ( !       
un$ucat$2 b x mu/ /op %ort ( enabl+ !m  
to practice class legislation on _! own 
acc\nt4 ,let me add1 t ,i consid] x an  
absolutely necess>y "p ( ! plurality    
s*eme t x be op5 to ! poore/ individual 
9 ! community to claim its privileges1  
if he c prove t1 9 spite ( all          

difficulties & ob/acles1 he is1 9 po9t (
 intellig5ce1 entitl$ to !m4 ,!re ought 
to be volunt>y exam9ations at :i* any   
p]son :atev] might pres5t himself1 might
 prove t he came up to ! /&>d ( k &     
ability laid d[n z suffici5t1 & be      
admitt$1 9 consequ5ce1 to ! plurality ( 
votes4 ,a privilege :i* is n refus$ to  
any "o :o c %[ t he has realiz$ !       
conditions on :i* 9 !ory & pr9ciple x is
 dep5d5t1 w\ld n necess>ily be repugnant
 to any "o's s5tim5t ( ju/ice2 b x w\ld 
c]ta9ly be s if1 :ile conf]r$ on g5]al  
presumptions n always infallible1 x 7   
d5i$ to direct pro(4  ,plural vot+1 ?\gh
 practic$ 9 ve/ry elections & ^? (      
poor-law gu>dians1 is s unfamili> 9     
elections to ,p>liam5t t x is n likely  
to be soon or will+ly adopt$2 b z ! "t w
 c]ta9ly arrive :5 ! only *oice w be    
betwe5 ?is & equal univ]sal suffrage1   
:oev] does n desire ! la/ c n too soon  
beg9 to reconcile himself to ! =m]4 ,9 !
 mean "t1 ?\gh ! sugge/ion1 = ! pres5t1 
may n be a practical "o1 x w s]ve to m>k

 :at is be/ 9 pr9ciple1 & enable u to   
judge ( ! eligibility ( any indirect    
means1 ei!r exi/+ or capable ( be+      
adopt$1 :i* may promote 9 a less p]fect 
mann] ! same end4 ,a p]son may h a d\ble
 vote by o!r means ?an t ( t5d]+ two    
votes at ! same hu/+s2 he may h a vote 9
 ea* ( two diff]5t con/itu5cies2 & ?\gh 
?is exceptional privilege at pres5t     
belongs r to sup]iority ( means ?an (   
intellig5ce1 ,i w\ld n aboli% x :]e x   
exi/s1 s9ce1 until a tru] te/ (         
education is adopt$1 x w\ld be unwise to
 disp5se ) ev5 s imp]fect a "o z is     
af=d$ by pecuni>y circum/ances4 ,means  
might be f\nd ( giv+ a f>!r ext5sion to 
! privilege1 :i* w\ld connect x 9 a m   
direct mann] ) sup]ior education4 ,9 any
 future ,re=m ,bill :i* l[]s greatly !  
pecuni>y conditions ( ! suffrage1 x     
might be a wise provision to all[ all   
graduates ( univ]sities1 all p]sons :o h
 pass$ cr$itably ?r\gh ! high] s*ools1  
all memb]s ( ! lib]al pr(essions1 &     
p]haps "s o!rs1 to be regi/]$           

specifically 9 ^? *>act]s1 & to give _! 
votes z su* 9 any con/itu5cy 9 :i* !y   
*oose to regi/]2 reta9+1 9 addition1 _! 
votes z simple citiz5s 9 ! localities 9 
:i* !y reside4  ,until !re %all h be5   
devis$1 & until op9ion is will+ to      
accept1 "s mode ( plural vot+ :i* may   
assign to education z su* ! degree (    
sup]ior influ5ce due to x1 & suffici5t z
 a c\nt]poise to ! num]ical weight ( !  
lea/ educat$ class1 = s long ! b5efits (
 completely univ]sal suffrage c n be    
obta9$ )\t br++ ) !m1 z x appe>s to me1 
m ?an equival5t evils4 ,x is possible1  
inde$ 7& ?is is p]haps "o ( !           
transitions ?r\gh :i* we may h to pass 9
 our progress to a really good          
repres5tative sy/em71 t ! b>ri]s :i*    
re/rict ! suffrage might be entirely    
level$ 9 "s p>ticul> con/itu5cies1 ^:   
memb]s1 consequ5tly1 w\ld be return$    
pr9cipally by manual labor]s2 ! exi/+   
electoral qualification be+ ma9ta9$     
else:]e1 or any alt]ation 9 x be+       
accompani$ by su* a gr\p+ ( !           

con/itu5cies z to prev5t ! labor+ class 
f becom+ prepond]ant 9 ,p>liam5t4 ,by   
su* a compromise1 ! anomalies 9 !       
repres5tation w\ld n only be reta9$1 b  
augm5t$2 ?is1 h[ev]1 is n a conclusive  
objection2 = if ! c\ntry does n *oose to
 pursue ! "r ends by a regul> sy/em     
directly lead+ to !m1 x mu/ be cont5t ) 
an irregul> make%ift1 z be+ greatly     
pref]able to a sy/em free f             
irregul>ities1 b regul>ly adapt$ to     
wrong ends1 or 9 :i* "s ends equally    
necess>y ) ! o!rs h be5 left out4 ,x is 
a f> grav] objection1 t ?is adju/m5t is 
incompatible ) ! int]community ( local  
con/itu5cies :i* ,mr4 ,h>e's plan       
requires2 t "u x e vot] w\ld rema9      
imprison$ )9 ! "o or m con/itu5cies 9   
:i* 8 "n is regi/]$1 &1 unless will+ to 
be repres5t$ by "o ( ! c&idates = ^?    
localities1 w\ld n be repres5t$ at all4 
,s mu* importance d ,i atta* to !       
emancipation ( ^? :o already h votes1 b 
^: votes are useless1 because always    
outnumb]$--s mu* %\ld ,i hope f !       

natural influ5ce ( tru? & reason1 if    
only secur$ a he>+ & a compet5t         
advocacy1 t ,i %\ld n despair ( !       
op]ation ev5 ( equal & univ]sal         
suffrage1 if made real by ! proportional
 repres5tation ( all m9orities1 on ,mr4 
,h>e's pr9ciple4 ,b if ! be/ hopes :i* c
 be =m$ on ?is subject 7 c]ta9ties1 ,i  
%\ld /ill cont5d = ! pr9ciple ( plural  
vot+4 ,i d n propose ! plurality z a ?+ 
9 itself undesirable1 :i*1 l ! exclusion
 ( "p ( ! community f ! suffrage1 may be
 tempor>ily tol]at$ :ile necess>y to    
prev5t great] evils4 ,i d n look ^u     
equal vot+ z among ! ?+s :i* are good 9 
!mselves1 provid$ !y c be gu>d$ aga9/   
inconv5i5ces4 ,i look ^u x z only       
relatively good2 less objectionable ?an 
inequality ( privilege gr\nd$ on        
irrelevant or adv5titi\s circum/ances1 b
 9 pr9ciple wrong1 because recogniz+ a  
wrong /&>d1 & ex]cis+ a bad influ5ce on 
! vot]'s m9d4 ,x is n useful1 b hurtful1
 t ! con/itution ( ! c\ntry %\ld decl>e 
ignorance to be entitl$ to z mu*        

political p[] z k4 ,! national          
in/itutions %\ld place all ?+s t !y are 
conc]n$ ) be=e ! m9d ( ! citiz5 9 !     
light 9 :i* x is = 8 good t he %\ld     
reg>d !m2 & z x is = 8 good t he %\ld   
?9k t e "o is entitl$ to "s influ5ce1 b 
! bett] & wis] to m ?an o!rs1 x is      
important t ?is conviction %\ld be      
pr(ess$ by ! /ate1 & embodi$ 9 !        
national in/itutions4 ,su* ?+s con/itute
 ! _s ( ! in/itutions ( a c\ntry2 t     
portion ( _! influ5ce :i* is lea/ reg>d$
 by common1 & especially by ,engli%     
?9k]s1 ?\gh ! in/itutions ( e c\ntry1 n 
"u great positive oppression1 produce m 
effect by _! _s ?an by any ( _! direct  
provisions1 s9ce by x !y %ape ! national
 "*4 ,! ,am]ican in/itutions h impr9t$  
/rongly on ! ,am]ican m9d t any "o man  
7) a :ite sk97 is z good z any o!r2 & x 
is felt t ?is false cre$ is ne>ly       
connect$ ) "s ( ! m unfavorable po9ts 9 
,am]ican "*4 ,x is n small mis*ief t !  
con/itution ( any c\ntry %\ld sanction  
?is cre$2 = ! belief 9 x1 :e!r express  

or tacit1 is almo/ z detrim5tal to moral
 & intellectual excell5ce any effect :i*
 mo/ =ms ( gov]nm5t c produce4  ,x may1 
p]haps1 be said1 t a con/itution :i*    
gives equal influ5ce1 man = man1 to !   
mo/ & to ! lea/ in/ruct$1 is nev]!less  
conducive to progress1 because ! appeals
 con/antly made to ! less in/ruct$      
classes1 ! ex]cise giv5 to _! m5tal     
p[]s1 & ! ex]tions :i* ! m in/ruct$ are 
oblig$ to make = enlight5+ _! judgm5t & 
ridd+ !m ( errors & prejudices1 are     
p[]ful /imulants to _! advance 9        
intellig5ce4 ,t ?is mo/ desirable effect
 really att5ds ! admission ( ! less     
educat$ classes to "s1 & ev5 to a l>ge  
%>e ( p[]1 ,i admit1 & h already        
/r5u\sly ma9ta9$4 ,b !ory & exp]i5ce    
alike prove t a c\nt] curr5t sets 9 :5  
!y are made ! possessors ( all p[]4 ,^? 
:o are supreme ov] e ?+1 :e!r !y be ,"o1
 or ,few1 or ,_m1 h no long] ne$ ( !    
arms ( reason2 !y c make _! m]e w       
prevail2 & ^? :o c n be resi/$ are      
usually f> too well satisfi$ ) _! own   

op9ions to be will+ to *ange !m1 or li/5
 )\t impati5ce to any "o :o tells !m t  
!y are 9 ! wrong4 ,! position :i* gives 
! /ronge/ /imulus to ! gr[? (           
intellig5ce is t ( ris+ into p[]1 n t ( 
hav+ a*iev$ x2 & ( all re/+-po9ts1      
tempor>y or p]man5t1 9 ! way to         
asc5dancy1 ! "o :i* develops ! be/ &    
highe/ qualities is ! position ( ^? :o  
are /rong en\gh to make reason prevail1 
b n /rong en\gh to prevail aga9/ reason4
 ,?is is ! position 9 :i*1 accord+ to ! 
pr9ciples we h laid d[n1 ! ri* & ! poor1
 ! mu* & ! little educat$1 & all ! o!r  
classes & d5om9ations :i* divide society
 betwe5 !m1 ought z f> z practicable to 
be plac$2 & by comb9+ ?is pr9ciple ) !  
o!rwise j "o ( all[+ sup]iority ( weight
 to sup]iority ( m5tal qualities1 a     
political con/itution w\ld realize t k9d
 ( relative p]fection :i* is alone      
compatible ) ! complicat$ nature ( human
 affairs4  ,9 ! prec$+ argum5t =        
univ]sal b graduat$ suffrage1 ,i h tak5 
no acc\nt ( diff]5ce ( sex4 ,i consid] x

 to be z entirely irrelevant to         
political rights z diff]5ce 9 height or 
9 ! color ( ! hair4 ,all human be+s h ! 
same int]e/ 9 good gov]nm5t2 ! welf>e ( 
all is alike affect$ by x1 & !y h equal 
ne$ ( a voice 9 x to secure _! %>e ( its
 b5efits4 ,if !re be any diff]5ce1 wom5 
require x m ?an m51 s9ce1 be+ physically
 weak]1 !y are m dep5d5t on law &       
society = protection4 ,mank9d h long    
s9ce ab&on$ ! only premises :i* w       
support ! conclusion t wom5 ought n to h
 votes4 ,no "o n[ holds t wom5 %\ld be 9
 p]sonal s]vitude2 t !y %\ld h no ?\ght1
 wi%1 or occupation b to be ! dome/ic   
drudges ( husb&s1 fa!rs1 or bro!rs4 ,x  
is all[$ to unm>ri$1 & wants b little ( 
be+ conc$$ to m>ri$ wom5 to hold        
prop]ty1 & h pecuni>y & bus9ess int]e/s 
9 ! same mann] z m54 ,x is consid]$     
suitable & prop] t wom5 %\ld ?9k1 &     
write1 & be tea*]s4 ,z soon z ^! ?+s are
 admitt$1 ! political disqualification  
has no pr9ciple to re/ on4 ,! :ole mode 
( ?\ght ( ! mod]n _w is1 ) increas+     

emphasis1 pron\nc+ aga9/ ! claim (      
society to decide = individuals :at !y  
are & are n fit =1 & :at !y %all & %all 
n be all[$ to attempt4 ,if ! pr9ciples (
 mod]n politics & political economy are 
good = any ?+1 x is = prov+ t ^! po9ts c
 only be rightly judg$ ( by !           
individuals !mselves2 & t1 "u complete  
fre$om ( *oice1 :]ev] !re are real      
div]sities ( aptitude1 ! great] numb] w 
apply !mselves to ! ?+s = :i* !y are on 
! av]age fitte/1 & ! exceptional c\rse w
 only be tak5 by ! exceptions4 ,ei!r !  
:ole t5d5cy ( mod]n social improvem5ts  
has be5 wrong1 or x ought to be c>ri$   
out to ! total abolition ( all          
exclusions & disabilities :i* close any 
hone/ employm5t to a human be+4  ,b x is
 n ev5 necess>y to ma9ta9 s mu* 9 ord]  
to prove t wom5 %\ld h ! suffrage4 ,7 x 
z "r z x is wrong t !y %\ld be a        
subord9ate class1 conf9$ to dome/ic     
occupations & subject to dome/ic        
au?ority1 !y w\ld n ! less require !    
protection ( ! suffrage to secure !m f !

 abuse ( t au?ority4 ,m51 z well z wom51
 d n ne$ political rights 9 ord] t !y   
may gov]n1 b 9 ord] t !y may n be       
misgov]n$4 ,! majority ( ! male sex are1
 & w be all _! lives1 no?+ else ?an     
labor]s 9 corn-fields or manufactories2 
b ?is does n r5d] ! suffrage less       
desirable = !m1 nor _! claim to x less  
irresi/ible1 :5 n likely to make a bad  
use ( x4 ,nobody pret5ds to ?9k t woman 
w\ld make a bad use ( ! suffrage4 ,!    
wor/ t is said is t !y w\ld vote z m]e  
dep5d5ts1 ! bidd+ ( _! male relations4  
,if x be s1 s let x be4 ,if !y ?9k =    
!mselves1 great good w be done2 & if !y 
d n1 no h>m4 ,x is a b5efit to human    
be+s to take (f _! fett]s1 ev5 if !y d n
 desire to walk4 ,x w\ld already be a   
great improvem5t 9 ! moral position (   
wom5 to be no long] decl>$ by law       
incapable ( an op9ion1 & n entitl$ to a 
pref]5ce1 respect+ ! mo/ important      
conc]ns ( humanity4 ,!re w\ld be "s     
b5efit to !m individually 9 hav+ some?+ 
to be/[ :i* _! male relatives c n exact1

 & are yet desir\s to h4 ,x w\ld also be
 no small matt] t ! husb& w\ld          
necess>ily discuss ! matt] ) 8 wife1 & t
 ! vote w\ld n be 8 exclusive affair1 b 
a jo9t conc]n4 ,p d n suffici5tly       
consid] h[ m>k$ly ! fact t %e is able to
 h "s action on ! outw>d _w indep5d5tly 
( him1 raises h] dignity & value 9 a    
vulg> man's eyes1 & makes h] ! object ( 
a respect :i* no p]sonal qualities w\ld 
ev] obta9 = "o ^: social exi/5ce he c   
entirely appropriate4 ,! vote itself1   
too1 w\ld be improv$ 9 quality4 ,! man  
w\ld (t5 be oblig$ to f9d hone/ reasons 
= 8 vote1 su* z might induce a m upright
 & imp>tial "* to s]ve ) him "u ! same  
bann]4 ,! wife's influ5ce w\ld (t5 keep 
him true to 8 own s9c]e op9ion4 ,(t51   
inde$1 x w\ld be us$1 n on ! side (     
public pr9ciple1 b ( ! p]sonal int]e/ or
 worldly vanity ( ! family4 ,b1 :]ev]   
?is w\ld be ! t5d5cy ( ! wife's         
influ5ce1 x is ex]t$ to ! full already 9
 t bad direction1 & ) ! m c]ta9ty1 s9ce 
"u ! pres5t law & cu/om %e is g5]ally   

too utt] a /rang] to politics 9 any s5se
 9 :i* !y involve pr9ciple to be able to
 realize to h]self t !re is a po9t (    
honor 9 !m2 & mo/ p h z little sympa?y 9
 ! po9t ( honor ( o!rs1 :5 _! own is n  
plac$ 9 ! same ?+1 z !y h 9 ! religi\s  
feel+s ( ^? ^: religion diff]s f !irs4  
,give ! woman a vote1 & %e comes "u !   
op]ation ( ! political po9t ( honor4 ,%e
 le>ns to look on politics z a ?+ on :i*
 %e is all[$ to h an op9ion1 & 9 :i*1 if
 "o has an op9ion1 x ought to be act$   
^u2 %e acquires a s5se ( p]sonal        
acc\ntability 9 ! matt]1 & w no long]   
feel1 z %e does at pres5t1 t :atev]     
am\nt ( bad influ5ce %e may ex]cise1 if 
! man c b be p]suad$1 all is "r1 & 8    
responsibility cov]s all4 ,x is only by 
be+ h]self enc\rag$ to =m an op9ion1 &  
obta9 an intellig5t compreh5sion ( !    
reasons :i* ought to prevail ) !        
consci5ce aga9/ ! temptations ( p]sonal 
or family int]e/1 t %e c ev] cease to   
act z a di/urb+ =ce on ! political      
consci5ce ( ! man4 ,h] indirect ag5cy c 

only be prev5t$ f be+ politically       
mis*iev\s by be+ ex*ang$ = direct4  ,i h
 suppos$ ! "r ( suffrage to dep5d1 z 9 a
 good /ate ( ?+s x w\ld1 on p]sonal     
conditions4 ,:]e x dep5ds1 z 9 ?is & mo/
 o!r c\ntries1 on conditions ( prop]ty1 
! contradiction is ev5 m flagrant4 ,!re 
some?+ m ?an ord9>ily irrational 9 !    
fact t :5 a woman c give all ! gu>antees
 requir$ f a male elector1 indep5d5t    
circum/ances1 ! position ( a h\sehold] &
 head ( a family1 paym5t ( taxes1 or    
:atev] may be ! conditions impos$1 ! v  
pr9ciple & sy/em ( a repres5tation bas$ 
on prop]ty is set aside1 & an           
exceptionally p]sonal disqualification  
is creat$ = ! m]e purpose ( exclud+ h]4 
,:5 x is add$ t 9 ! c\ntry :]e ?is is   
done a woman n[ reigns1 & t ! mo/       
glori\s rul] :om t c\ntry ev] _h 0 a    
woman1 ! picture ( unreason & sc>cely   
disguis$ inju/ice is complete4 ,let u   
hope t z ! "w proce$s ( pull+ d[n1 "o   
aft] ano!r1 ! rema9s ( ! m\ld]+ fabric (
 monopoly & tyranny1 ?is "o w n be ! la/

 to disappe>2 t ! op9ion ( ,b5?am1 (    
,mr4 ,samuel ,bailey1 ( ,mr4 ,h>e1 & _m 
o!r ( ! mo/ p[]ful political ?9k]s ( ?is
 age & c\ntry 7n to speak ( o!rs71 w    
make its way to all m9ds n r5d]$        
obdurate by selfi%ness or invet]ate     
prejudice2 & t1 be=e ! lapse ano!r      
g5]ation1 ! accid5t ( sex1 no m ?an !   
accid5t ( sk91 w be deem$ a suffici5t   
ju/ification = depriv+ its possessor ( !
 equal protection & j privileges ( a    
citiz54    ,*apt] ,,ix--,%\ld !re be    
,two ,/ages ( ,election8   ,9 "s        
repres5tative con/itutions1 ! plan has  
be5 adopt$ ( *oos+ ! memb]s ( !         
repres5tative body by a d\ble process1 !
 prim>y electors only *oos+ o!r         
electors1 & ^! elect+ ! memb] (         
,p>liam5t4 ,?is contrivance 0 probably  
int5d$ z a slight imp$im5t to ! full    
sweep ( popul> feel+1 giv+ ! suffrage1 &
 ) x ! complete ultimate p[]1 to ! ,_m1 
b compell+ !m to ex]cise x ?r\gh ! ag5cy
 ( a comp>atively few1 :o1 x 0 suppos$1 
w\ld be less mov$ ?an ! ,demos by ! gu/s

 ( popul> passion2 & z ! electors1 be+  
already a select body1 might be expect$ 
to exce$ 9 intellect & "* ! common level
 ( _! con/itu5ts1 ! *oice made by !m 0  
?\ght likely to be m c>eful & enlight5$1
 & w\ld1 9 any case1 be made "u a great]
 feel+ ( responsibility ?an election by 
! masses !mselves4 ,?is plan ( filt]+1 z
 x 71 ! popul> suffrage ?r\gh an        
int]m$iate body admits ( a v plausible  
def5se2 s9ce x may be said1 ) great     
appe>ance ( reason1 t less intellect &  
in/ruction are requir$ = judg+ :o among 
our neighbors c be mo/ safely tru/$ to  
*oose a memb] ( ,p>liam5t ?an :o is     
himself fitte/ to be "o4  ,9 ! fir/     
place1 h[ev]1 if ! dang]s incid5t to    
popul> p[] may be ?\ght to be 9 "s      
degree less5$ by ?is indirect managem5t1
 s also are its b5efits2 & ! latt]      
effect is mu* m c]ta9 ?an ! =m]4 ,to    
enable ! sy/em to "w z desir$1 x mu/ be 
c>ri$ into effect 9 ! _s 9 :i* x is     
plann$2 ! electors mu/ use ! suffrage 9 
! mann] suppos$ by ! !ory1 t is1 ea* (  

!m mu/ n ask himself :o ! memb] (       
,p>liam5t %\ld be1 b only :om he w\ld   
be/ l to *oose "o = him4 ,x is evid5t t 
! advantages :i* indirect is suppos$ to 
h ov] direct election require ?is       
disposition ( m9d 9 ! vot]1 & w only be 
realiz$ by 8 tak+ ! doctr9e au s]ieux1 t
 8 sole bus9ess is to *oose ! *oos]s1 n 
! memb] himself4 ,! supposition mu/ be1 
t he w n occupy 8 ?\ghts ) political    
op9ions & measures or political m51 b w 
be guid$ by 8 p]sonal respect = "s      
private individual1 to :om he w give a  
g5]al p[] ( attorney to act = him4 ,n[  
if ! prim>y electors adopt ?is view ( _!
 position1 "o ( ! pr9cipal uses ( giv+  
!m a vote at all is defeat$2 ! political
 function to :i* !y are call$ fails (   
develop+ public _s & political          
intellig5ce1 ( mak+ public affairs an   
object ( int]e/ to _! feel+s & ( ex]cise
 to _! faculties4 ,! supposition1       
moreov]1 involves inconsi/5t conditions2
 = if ! vot] feels no int]e/ 9 ! f9al   
result1 h[ or :y c he be expect$ to feel

 any 9 ! process :i* leads to x8 ,to wi%
 to h a p>ticul> individual = 8         
repres5tative 9 ,p>liam5t is possible to
 a p]son ( a v mod]ate degree ( virtue &
 intellig5ce1 & to wi% to *oose an      
elector :o w elect t individual is a    
natural consequ5ce2 b = a p]son :o does 
n c>e :o is elect$1 or feels b\nd to put
 t consid]ation 9 abeyance1 to take any 
int]e/ :atev] 9 m]ely nam+ ! wor?ie/    
p]son to elect ano!r accord+ to 8 own   
judgm5t1 implies a zeal = :at is "r 9 ! 
ab/ract1 an habitual pr9ciple ( duty = !
 sake ( duty1 :i* is possible only to   
p]sons ( a r high grade ( cultivation1  
:o1 by ! v possession ( x1 %[ t !y may  
be1 & des]ve to be1 tru/$ ) political   
p[] 9 a m direct %ape4 ,( all public    
functions :i* x is possible to conf] on 
! poor] memb]s ( ! community1 ?is surely
 is ! lea/ calculat$ to k9dle _! feel+s1
 & holds out lea/ natural inducem5t to  
c>e = x1 o!r ?an a virtu\s det]m9ation  
to dis*>ge consci5ti\sly :atev] duty "o 
has to p]=m2 & if ! mass ( electors c>$ 

en\gh ab\t political affairs to set any 
value on s limit$ a p>ticipation 9 !m1  
!y w\ld n be likely to be satisfi$ )\t  
"o mu* m ext5sive4  ,9 ! next place1    
admitt+ t a p]son :o1 f 8 n>r[ range (  
cultivation1 c n judge well ( !         
qualifications ( a c&idate = ,p>liam5t1 
may be a suffici5t judge ( ! hone/y &   
g5]al capacity ( somebody :om he may    
depute to *oose a memb] ( ,p>liam5t =   
him1 ,i may rem>k1 t if ! vot]          
acquiesces 9 ?is e/imate ( 8            
capabilities1 & really wi%es to h !     
*oice made = him by a p]son 9 :om he    
places reliance1 !re is no ne$ ( any    
con/itutional provision = ! purpose2 he 
has only to ask ?is confid5tial p]son   
privately :at c&idate he _h bett] vote  
=4 ,9 t case ! two modes ( election     
co9cide 9 _! result1 & e advantage (    
indirect election is obta9$ "u direct4  
,! sy/ems only div]ge 9 _! op]ation if  
we suppose t ! vot] w\ld pref] to use 8 
own judgm5t 9 ! *oice ( a repres5tative1
 & only lets ano!r *oose = him because !

 law does n all[ him a m direct mode (  
action4 ,b if ?is be 8 /ate ( m9d2 if 8 
w does n g along ) ! limitation :i* !   
law imposes1 & he desires to make a     
direct *oice1 he c d s not)/&+ ! law4   
,he has only to *oose z elector a kn[n  
p>tisan ( ! c&idate he pref]s1 or "s "o 
:o w pl$ge himself to vote = t c&idate4 
,& ?is is s mu* ! natural work+ (       
election by two /ages1 t1 except 9 a    
condition ( complete political          
indiff]5ce1 x c sc>cely be expect$ to   
act o!rwise4 ,x is 9 ?is way t !        
election ( ! ,presid5t ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates
 practically op]ates4 ,nom9ally1 !      
election is indirect2 ! population at   
l>ge does n vote = ! ,presid5t2 x votes 
= electors :o *oose ! ,presid5t4 ,b !   
electors are always *os5 "u an express  
engagem5t to vote = a p>ticul> c&idate2 
nor does a citiz5 ev] vote = an elector 
because ( any pref]5ce = ! man2 he votes
 = ! ,breck9ridge ticket or ! ,l9coln   
ticket4 ,x mu/ be rememb]$ t ! electors 
are n *os5 9 ord] t !y may se>* ! c\ntry

 & f9d ! fitte/ p]son 9 x to be         
,presid5t or to be a memb] ( ,p>liam5t4 
,!re w\ld be some?+ to be said = !      
practice if ?is 7 s2 b x is n s1 nor ev]
 w be1 until mank9d 9 g5]al are (       
op9ion1 ) ,plato1 t ! prop] p]son to be 
intru/$ ) p[] is ! p]son mo/ unwill+ to 
accept x4 ,! electors are to make *oice 
( "o ( ^? :o h (f]$ !mselves z c&idates1
 & ^? :o *oose ! electors already "k :o 
^! are4 ,if !re is any political        
activity 9 ! c\ntry1 all electors :o c>e
 to vote at all h made up _! m9ds :i* ( 
^! c&idates !y w\ld l to h1 & w make t !
 sole consid]ation 9 giv+ _! vote4 ,!   
p>tisans ( ea* c&idate w h _! li/ (     
electors ready1 all pl$g$ to vote = t   
individual2 & ! only "q practically ask$
 ( ! prim>y elector w be1 :i* ( ^! li/s 
he w support4  ,! case 9 :i* election by
 two /ages answ]s well 9 practice is :5 
! electors are n *os5 solely z electors1
 b h o!r important functions to dis*>ge1
 :i* precludes _! be+ select$ solely z  
delegates to give a p>ticul> vote4 ,?is 

comb9ation ( circum/ances exemplifies   
itself 9 ano!r ,am]ican in/itution1 !   
,s5ate ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,t assembly1 !
 ,upp] ,h\se1 z x 71 ( ,congress1 is    
consid]$ to repres5t n ! p directly1 b !
 ,/ates z su*1 & to be ! gu>dian ( t    
portion ( _! sov]eign rights :i* !y h n 
ali5at$4 ,z ! int]nal sov]eignty ( ea*  
/ate is1 by ! nature ( an equal         
f$]ation1 equally sacr$ :atev] be ! size
 or importance ( ! /ate1 ea* returns to 
! ,s5ate ! same numb] ( memb]s 7two71   
:e!r x be little ,delaw>e or ! ,empire  
,/ate ( ,new ,york4 ,^! memb]s are n    
*os5 by ! population1 b by ! ,/ate      
,legislatures1 !mselves elect$ by ! p ( 
ea* /ate2 b z ! :ole ord9>y bus9ess ( a 
legislative assembly1 int]nal           
legislation & ! control ( ! executive1  
devolves ^u ^! bodies1 !y are elect$ ) a
 view to ^? objects m ?an to ! o!r2 & 9 
nam+ two p]sons to repres5t ! /ate 9 !  
f$]al ,s5ate !y = ! mo/ "p ex]cise _!   
own judgm5t1 ) only t g5]al ref]5ce to  
public op9ion necess>y 9 all acts ( !   

gov]nm5t ( a democracy4 ,! elections ?us
 made h prov$ em95tly successful1 & are 
conspicu\sly ! be/ ( all ! elections 9 !
 ,unit$ ,/ates1 ! ,s5ate inv>iably      
consi/+ ( ! mo/ di/+ui%$ m5 among ^? :o 
h made !mselves suffici5tly kn[n 9      
public life4 ,aft] su* an example1 x c n
 be said t indirect popul> election is  
nev] advantage\s4 ,"u c]ta9 conditions x
 is ! v be/ sy/em t c be adopt$4 ,b ^?  
conditions are h>dly to be obta9$ 9     
practice except 9 a f$]al gov]nm5t l t (
 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 :]e ! election c be   
intru/$ to local bodies ^: o!r functions
 ext5d to ! mo/ important conc]ns ( !   
nation4 ,! only bodies 9 any analog\s   
position :i* exi/1 or are likely to     
exi/1 9 ?is c\ntry1 are !               
municipalities1 or any o!r bo>ds :i* h  
be5 or may be creat$ = simil> local     
purposes4 ,few p]sons1 h[ev]1 w\ld ?9k x
 any improvem5t 9 our ,p>liam5t>y       
con/itution if ! memb]s = ! ,city (     
,london 7 *os5 by ! ald]m5 & ,common    
,c\ncil1 & ^? = ! bor\gh ( ,m>ylebone   

av[$ly1 z !y already are virtually1 by !
 ve/ries ( ! compon5t p>i%es4 ,ev5 if ^?
 bodies1 consid]$ m]ely z local bo>ds1 7
 f> less objectionable ?an !y are1 !    
qualities t w\ld fit !m = ! limit$ &    
peculi> duties ( municipal or p>o*ial   
dile%ip are no gu>anty ( any special    
fitness to judge ( ! comp>ative         
qualifications ( c&idates = a seat 9    
,p>liam5t4 ,!y probably w\ld n fulfill  
?is duty any bett] ?an x is fulfill$ by 
! inhabitants vot+ directly2 :ile1 on ! 
o!r h&1 if fitness = elect+ memb]s (    
,p>liam5t _h to be tak5 into            
consid]ation 9 select+ p]sons = ! (fice 
( ve/rym5 or t[n c\ncillors1 _m ( ^? :o 
are fitte/ = t m limit$ duty w\ld       
inevitably be exclud$ f x1 if only by ! 
necessity !re w\ld be ( *oos+ p]sons ^: 
s5tim5ts 9 g5]al politics agre$ ) ^? ( !
 vot]s :o elect$ !m4 ,! m]e indirect    
political influ5ce ( t[n-c\ncils has    
already l$ to a consid]able p]v]sion (  
municipal elections f _! int5d$ purpose1
 by mak+ !m a matt] ( p>ty politics4 ,if

 x 7 "p ( ! duty ( a man's book-keep] or
 /ew>d to *oose 8 physician1 he w\ld n  
be likely to h a bett] m$ical att5dant  
?an if he *ose "o = himself1 :ile he    
w\ld be re/rict$ 9 8 *oice ( a /ew>d or 
book-keep] to su* z might1 )\t too great
 dang] to 8 heal?1 be intru/$ ) ! o!r   
(fice4  ,x appe>s1 !re=e1 t e b5efit (  
indirect election :i* is atta9able at   
all is atta9able "u direct2 t su* ( !   
b5efits expect$ f x z w\ld n be obta9$  
"u direct election w j z mu* fail to be 
obta9$ "u indirect2 :ile ! latt] has    
consid]able disadvantages peculi> to    
itself4 ,! m]e fact t x is an additional
 & sup]flu\s :eel 9 ! ma*9]y is no      
trifl+ objection4 ,its decid$ inf]iority
 z a means ( cultivat+ public _s &      
political intellig5ce has already be5   
dwelt ^u2 & if x _h any effective       
op]ation at all--t is1 if ! prim>y      
electors did to any ext5t leave to _!   
nom9ees ! selection ( _! ,p>liam5t>y    
repres5tative1 ! vot] w\ld be prev5t$ f 
id5tify+ himself ) 8 memb] ( ,p>liam5t1 

& ! memb] w\ld feel a mu* less active   
s5se ( responsibility to 8 con/itu5ts4  
,9 addition to all ?is1 ! comp>atively  
small numb] ( p]sons 9 ^: h&s1 at la/1 !
 election ( a memb] ( ,p>liam5t w\ld    
reside1 c\ld n b af=d great additional  
facilities to intrigue1 & to e =m (     
corruption compatible ) ! /ation 9 life 
( ! electors4 ,! con/itu5cies w\ld      
univ]sally be r$uc$1 9 po9t ( conv5i5ces
 = brib]y1 to ! condition ( ! small     
bor\ghs at pres5t4 ,x w\ld be suffici5t 
to ga9 ov] a small numb] ( p]sons to be 
c]ta9 ( be+ return$4 ,if x be said t !  
electors w\ld be responsible to ^? :o   
elect$ !m1 ! answ] is obvi\s1 t1 hold+  
no p]man5t (fice or position 9 ! public 
eye1 !y w\ld risk no?+ by a corrupt vote
 except :at !y w\ld c>e little =1 n to  
be appo9t$ electors aga93 & ! ma9       
reliance mu/ /ill be on ! p5alties =    
brib]y1 ! insuffici5cy ( :i* reliance1 9
 small con/itu5cies1 exp]i5ce has made  
notori\s to all ! _w4 ,! evil w\ld be   
exactly proportional to ! am\nt (       

discretion left to ! *os5 electors4 ,!  
only case 9 :i* !y w\ld probably be     
afraid to employ _! vote = ! promotion (
 _! p]sonal int]e/ w\ld be :5 !y 7      
elect$ "u an express pl$ge1 z m]e       
delegates1 to c>ry1 z x 71 ! votes ( _! 
con/itu5ts to ! hu/+s4 ,! mom5t ! d\ble 
/age ( election began to h any effect1 x
 w\ld beg9 to h a bad effect4 ,& ?is we 
%all f9d true ( ! pr9ciple ( indirect   
election h[ev] appli$1 except 9         
circum/ances simil> to ^? ( ! election (
 s5ators 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4  ,x is      
unnecess>y1 z f> z ,engl& is conc]n$1 to
 say m 9 opposition to a s*eme :i* has  
no f\ndation 9 any ( ! national         
traditions4 ,an apology may ev5 be      
expect$ = say+ s mu* aga9/ a political  
exp$i5t :i* p]haps c\ld n1 9 ?is c\ntry1
 mu/] a s+le adh]5t4 ,b a conception s  
plausible at ! fir/ glance1 & = :i* !re 
are s _m prec$5ts 9 hi/ory1 might       
p]haps1 9 ! g5]al *aos ( political      
op9ions1 rise aga9 to ! surface1 & be   
br\ght =w>d on occasions :5 x might be  

s$uctive to "s m9ds2 & x c\ld n1 !re=e1 
ev5 if ,engli% read]s 7 alone to be     
consid]$1 be pass$ altoge!r 9 sil5ce4   
,*apt] ,x--,( ! ,mode ( ,vot+4   ,! "q (
 greate/ mom5t 9 reg>d to modes ( vot+  
is t ( secrecy or publicity1 & to ?is we
 w at once address ourselves4  ,x w\ld  
be a great mi/ake to make ! discussion  
turn on s5tim5talities ab\t skulk+ or   
c[>dice4 ,secrecy is ju/ifiable 9 _m    
cases1 imp]ative 9 "s1 & x is n c[>dice 
to seek protection aga9/ evils :i* are  
hone/ly avoidable4 ,nor c x be          
reasonably ma9ta9$ t no cases are       
conceivable 9 :i* secret vot+ is        
pref]able to public2 b ,i mu/ cont5d t  
^! cases1 9 affairs ( a political "*1   
are ! exception1 n ! rule4  ,! pres5t is
 "o ( ! _m in/ances 9 :i*1 z ,i h       
already _h occasion to rem>k1 ! _s ( an 
in/itution1 ! impression x makes on !   
m9d ( ! citiz51 is "o ( ! mo/ important 
p>ts ( its op]ation4 ,! _s ( vote by    
ballot--! int]pretation likely to be put
 on x 9 ! m9d ( an elector1 is t !      

suffrage is giv5 to him = himself--= 8  
p>ticul> use & b5efit1 & n z a tru/ = ! 
public4 ,= if x is inde$ a tru/1 if !   
public are entitl$ to 8 vote1 are n !y  
entitl$ to "k 8 vote8 ,?is false &      
p]nici\s impression may well be made on 
! g5]ality1 s9ce x has be5 made on mo/ (
 ^? :o ( late ye>s h be5 conspicu\s     
advocates ( ! ballot4 ,! doctr9e 0 n s  
und]/ood by its e>li] promot]s2 b !     
effect ( a doctr9e on ! m9d is be/ %[n1 
n 9 ^? :o =m x1 b 9 ^? :o are =m$ by x4 
,mr4 ,bright & 8 s*ool ( democrats ?9k  
!mselves greatly conc]n$ 9 ma9ta9+ t !  
fran*ise is :at !y t]m a "r1 n a tru/4  
,n[ ?is "o idea1 tak+ root 9 ! g5]al    
m9d1 does a moral mis*ief outweigh+ all 
! good t ! ballot c\ld d1 at ! highe/   
possible e/imate ( x4 ,9 :atev] way we  
def9e or und]/& ! idea ( a "r1 no p]son 
c h a "r 7except 9 ! purely legal s5se7 
to p[] ov] o!rs3 e su* p[]1 :i* he is   
all[$ to possess is morally1 9 ! fulle/ 
=ce ( ! t]m1 a tru/4 ,b ! ex]cise ( any 
political function1 ei!r z an elector or

 z a repres5tative1 is p[] ov] o!rs4 ,^?
 :o say t ! suffrage is n a tru/1 b a   
"r1 w sc>cely accept ! conclusions to   
:i* _! doctr9e leads4 ,if x is a "r1 if 
x belongs to ! vot] = 8 own sake1 on :at
 gr\nd c we blame him = sell+ x1 or us+ 
x to recomm5d himself to any "o :om x is
 8 int]e/ to please8 ,a p]son is n      
expect$ to consult exclusively ! public 
b5efit 9 ! use he makes ( 8 h\se1 or 8  
?ree p] c5t4 /ock1 or any ?+ else to :i*
 he really has a "r4 ,! suffrage is     
inde$ due to him1 among o!r reasons1 z a
 means to 8 own protection1 b only aga9/
 treatm5t f :i* he is equally b\nd1 s f>
 z dep5ds on 8 vote1 to protect e "o ( 8
 fell[-citiz5s4 ,8 vote is n a ?+ 9 :i* 
he has an option2 x has no m to d ) 8   
p]sonal wi%es ?an ! v]dict ( a juryman4 
,x is /rictly a matt] ( duty2 he is b\nd
 to give x accord+ to 8 be/ & mo/       
consci5ti\s op9ion ( ! public good4     
,:oev] has any o!r idea ( x is unfit to 
h ! suffrage2 its effect on him is to   
p]v]t1 n to elevate 8 m9d4 ,in/ead (    

op5+ 8 he>t to an exalt$ patriotism & ! 
obligation ( public duty1 x awak5s &    
n\ri%es 9 him ! disposition to use a    
public function = 8 own int]e/1         
pleasure1 or caprice2 ! same feel+s &   
purposes1 on a humbl] scale1 :i* actuate
 a despot & oppressor4 ,n[ an ord9>y    
citiz5 9 any public position1 or on :om 
!re devolves any social function1 is    
c]ta9 to ?9k & feel1 respect+ !         
obligations x imposes on him1 exactly   
:at society appe>s to ?9k & feel 9      
conf]r+ x4 ,:at seems to be expect$ f   
him by society =ms a /&>d :i* he may    
fall bel[1 b :i* he w seldom rise above4
 ,& ! int]pretation :i* he is almo/ sure
 to put ^u secret vot+ is t he is n b\nd
 to give 8 vote ) any ref]5ce to ^? :o  
are n all[$ to "k h[ he gives x2 b may  
be/[ x simply z he feels incl9$4  ,?is  
is ! decisive reason :y ! argum5t does n
 hold1 f ! use ( ! ballot 9 clubs &     
private societies to its adoption 9     
p>liam5t>y elections4 ,a memb] ( a club 
is really1 :at ! elector falsely        

believes himself to be1 "u no obligation
 to consid] ! wi%es or int]e/s ( any "o 
else4 ,he decl>es no?+ by 8 vote b t he 
is or is n will+ to associate1 9 a mann]
 m or less close1 ) a p>ticul> p]son4   
,?is is a matt] on :i*1 by univ]sal     
admission1 8 own pleasure or incl9ation 
is entitl$ to decide2 & t he %\ld be    
able s to decide x )\t risk+ a qu>rel is
 be/ = e body1 ! reject$ p]son includ$4 
,an additional reason r5d]+ ! ballot    
unobjectionable 9 ^! cases is t x does n
 necess>ily or naturally lead to ly+4 ,!
 p]sons conc]n$ are ( ! same class or   
rank1 & x w\ld be consid]$ improp] 9 "o 
( !m to press ano!r ) que/ions z to h[  
he _h vot$4 ,x is f> o!rwise 9          
,p>liam5t>y elections1 & is likely to   
rema9 s z long z ! social relations exi/
 :i* produce ! dem& = ! ballot--z long z
 "o p]son is suffici5tly ! sup]ior (    
ano!r to ?9k himself entitl$ to dictate 
8 vote4 ,& :ile ?is is ! case1 sil5ce or
 an evasive answ] is c]ta9 to be con/ru$
 z pro( t ! vote giv5 has n be5 t :i* 0 

desir$4  ,9 any political election1 ev5 
by univ]sal suffrage 7& /ill m obvi\sly 
9 ! case ( a re/rict$ suffrage71 ! vot] 
is "u an absolute moral obligation to   
consid] ! int]e/ ( ! public1 n 8 private
 advantage1 & give 8 vote1 to ! be/ ( 8 
judgm5t1 exactly z he w\ld be b\nd to d 
if he 7 ! sole vot]1 & ! election dep5d$
 ^u him alone4 ,?is be+ admitt$1 x is at
 lea/ a prim facie consequ5ce t ! duty (
 vot+1 l any o!r public duty1 %\ld be   
p]=m$ "u ! eye & criticism ( ! public2 e
 "o ( :om has n only an int]e/ 9 its    
p]=mance1 b a good title to consid]     
himself wrong$ if x is p]=m$ o!rwise ?an
 hone/ly & c>efully4 ,und\bt$ly nei!r   
?is nor any o!r maxim ( political       
morality is absolutely inviolable2 x may
 be ov]rul$ by /ill m cog5t             
consid]ations4 ,b its weight is su* t ! 
cases :i* admit ( a dep>ture f x mu/ be 
( a /rik+ly exceptional "*4  ,x may     
unque/ionably be ! fact1 t if we        
attempt1 by publicity1 to make ! vot]   
responsible to ! public = 8 vote1 he w  

practically be made responsible = x to  
"s p[]ful individual1 ^: int]e/ is m    
oppos$ to ! g5]al int]e/ ( ! community  
?an t ( ! vot] himself w\ld be1 if1 by !
 %ield ( secrecy1 he 7 releas$ f        
responsibility altoge!r4 ,:5 ?is is !   
condition1 9 a high degree1 ( a l>ge    
proportion ( ! vot]s1 ! ballot may be ! 
small] evil4 ,:5 ! vot]s are slaves1 any
 ?+ may be tol]at$ :i* enables !m to ?r[
 (f ! yoke4 ,! /ronge/ case = ! ballot  
is :5 ! mis*iev\s p[] ( ! ,few ov] ! ,_m
 is increas+4 ,9 ! decl9e ( ! ,roman    
republic1 ! reasons = ! ballot 7        
irresi/ible4 ,! olig>*y 0 ye>ly becom+  
ri*] & m tyrannical1 ! p poor] & m      
dep5d5t1 & x 0 necess>y to erect /rong] 
& /rong] b>ri]s aga9/ su* abuse ( !     
fran*ise z r5d]$ x b an in/rum5t ! m 9 !
 h&s ( unpr9cipl$ p]sons ( consequ5ce4  
,z little c x be d\bt$ t ! ballot1 s f> 
z x exi/$1 _h a b5eficial op]ation 9 !  
,a!nian con/itution4 ,ev5 9 ! lea/      
un/able ( ! ,grecian commonweal?s1      
fre$om might be = ! "t de/roy$ by a s+le

 unfairly obta9$ popul> vote2 & ?\gh !  
,a!nian vot] 0 n suffici5tly dep5d5t to 
be habitually co]c$1 he might h be5     
brib$ or intimidat$ by ! lawless        
outrages ( "s knot ( individuals1 su* z 
7 n uncommon ev5 at ,a!ns among ! y\? ( 
rank & =tune4 ,! ballot 0 9 ^! cases a  
valuable in/rum5t ( ord]1 & conduc$ to !
 ,eunomia by :i* ,a!ns 0 di/+ui%$ among 
! anci5t commonweal?s4  ,b 9 ! m advanc$
 /ates ( mod]n ,europe1 & especially 9  
?is c\ntry1 ! p[] ( co]c+ vot]s has     
decl9$ & is decl9+2 & bad vot+ is n[    
less to be appreh5d$ f ! influ5ces to   
:i* ! vot] is subject at ! h&s ( o!rs1  
?an f ! s9i/] int]e/s & discr$itable    
feel+s :i* belong to himself1 ei!r      
individually or z a memb] ( a class4 ,to
 secure him aga9/ ! fir/1 at ! co/ (    
remov+ all re/ra9t f ! la/1 w\ld be to  
ex*ange a small] & a dim9i%+ evil = a   
great] & increas+ "o4 ,on ?is topic1 &  
on ! "q g5]ally z applicable to ,engl&  
at ! pres5t date1 ,i h1 9 a pamphlet on 
,p>liam5t>y ,re=m1 express$ myself 9    

t]ms :i*1 z ,i d n feel t ,i c improve  
^u1 ,i w v5ture "h to transcribe4       
,?irty ye>s ago x 0 /ill true t 9 !     
election ( memb]s ( ,p>liam5t ! ma9 evil
 to be gu>d$ aga9/ 0 t :i* ! ballot w\ld
 exclude--co]cion by l&lords1 employ]s1 
& cu/om]s4 ,at pres5t1 ,i conceive1 a   
mu* great] s\rce ( evil is ! selfi%ness1
 or ! selfi% p>tialities ( ! vot]       
himself4 ,a base & mis*iev\s vote is n[1
 ,i am conv9c$1 mu* (t5] giv5 f ! vot]'s
 p]sonal int]e/1 or class int]e/1 or "s 
mean feel+ 9 8 own m9d1 ?an f any fe> ( 
consequ5ces at ! h&s ( o!rs2 & to ^!    
influ5ces ! ballot w\ld enable him to   
yield himself up1 free f all s5se ( %ame
 or responsibility4  ,9 times n long    
gone by1 ! high] & ri*] classes 7 9     
complete possession ( ! gov]nm5t4 ,_!   
p[] 0 ! ma/] grievance ( ! c\ntry4 ,!   
habit ( vot+ at ! bidd+ ( an employ] or 
( a l&lord 0 s firmly e/abli%$ t h>dly  
any ?+ 0 capable ( %ak+ x b a /rong     
popul> en?usiasm1 seldom kn[n to exi/ b 
9 a good cause4 ,a vote giv5 9          

opposition to ^? influ5ces 0 !re=e1 9   
g5]al1 an hone/1 a public-spirit$ vote2 
b 9 any case1 & by :atev] motive        
dictat$1 x 0 almo/ sure to be a good    
vote1 = x 0 a vote aga9/ ! mon/] evil1 !
 ov]rul+ influ5ce ( olig>*y4 ,c\ld !    
vot] at t "t h be5 enabl$1 ) safety to  
himself1 to ex]cise 8 privilege freely1 
ev5 ?\gh nei!r hone/ly nor intellig5tly1
 x w\ld h be5 a great ga9 to re=m1 = x  
w\ld h brok5 ! yoke ( ! !n rul+ p[] 9 ! 
c\ntry--! p[] :i* _h creat$ & :i*       
ma9ta9$ all t 0 bad 9 ! in/itutions & ! 
adm9i/ration ( ! /ate--! p[] ( l&lords &
 bor\ghmong]s4  ,! ballot 0 n adopt$2 b 
! progress ( circum/ances has done & is 
do+ m & m1 9 ?is respect1 ! "w ( !      
ballot4 ,bo? ! political & ! social /ate
 ( ! c\ntry1 z !y affect ?is "q1 h      
greatly *ang$1 & are *ang+ e day4 ,!    
high] classes are n n[ ma/]s ( ! c\ntry4
 ,a p]son mu/ be bl9d to all ! signs ( !
 times :o c\ld ?9k t ! middle classes   
are z subs]vi5t to ! high]1 or ! work+  
classes z dep5d5t on ! high] & middle1 z

 !y 7 a qu>t] ( a c5tury ago4 ,! ev5ts (
 t qu>t] ( a c5tury h n only taught ea* 
class to "k its own collective /r5g?1 b 
h put ! individuals ( a l[] class 9 a   
condition to %[ a mu* bold] front to ^? 
( a high]4 ,9 a majority ( cases1 ! vote
 ( ! electors1 :e!r 9 opposition to or 9
 accordance ) ! wi%es ( _! sup]iors1 is 
n n[ ! effect ( co]cion1 :i* !re are no 
long] ! same means ( apply+1 b !        
expression ( _! own p]sonal or political
 p>tialities4 ,! v vices ( ! pres5t     
electoral sy/em are a pro( ( ?is4 ,!    
gr[? ( brib]y1 s l\dly compla9$ (1 & !  
spread ( ! contagion to places =m]ly    
free f x1 are evid5ce t ! local         
influ5ces are no long] p>am\nt2 t !     
electors n[ vote to please !mselves1 & n
 o!r p4 ,!re is1 no d\bt1 9 c\nties & 9 
! small] bor\ghs1 a l>ge am\nt ( s]vile 
dep5d5ce /ill rema9+2 b ! temp] ( !     
times is adv]se to x1 & ! =ce ( ev5ts is
 con/antly t5d+ to dim9i% x4 ,a good    
t5ant c n[ feel t he is z valuable to 8 
l&lord z 8 l&lord is to him2 a prosp]\s 

tradesman c af=d to feel indep5d5t ( any
 p>ticul> cu/om]4 ,at e election ! votes
 are m & m ! vot]'s own4 ,x is _! m9ds1 
f> m ?an _! p]sonal circum/ances1 t n[  
require to be emancipat$4 ,!y are no    
long] passive in/rum5ts ( o!r m5's      
w--m]e organs = putt+ p[] into ! h&s ( a
 controll+ olig>*y4 ,! electors !mselves
 are becom+ ! olig>*y4  ,exactly 9      
proportion z ! vote ( ! elector is      
det]m9$ by 8 own w1 & n by t ( somebody 
:o is 8 ma/]1 8 position is simil> to t 
( a memb] ( ,p>liam5t1 & publicity is   
indisp5sable4 ,s long z any portion ( ! 
community are unrepres5t$1 ! argum5t ( !
 ,*>ti/s aga9/ ballot 9 conjunction ) a 
re/rict$ suffrage is unassailable4 ,!   
pres5t electors1 & ! bulk ( ^? :om any  
probable ,re=m ,bill w\ld add to !      
numb]1 are ! middle class1 & h z mu* a  
class int]e/1 di/9ct f ! work+ classes1 
z l&lords or great manufactur]s4 ,7 !   
suffrage ext5d$ to all skill$ labor]s1  
ev5 ^! w\ld1 or might1 /ill h a class   
int]e/ di/9ct f ! unskill$4 ,suppose x  

ext5d$ to all m5--suppose t :at 0 =m]ly 
call$ by ! misappli$ "n ( univ]sal      
suffrage1 & n[ by ! silly title (       
manhood suffrage1 became ! law2 ! vot]s 
w\ld /ill h a class int]e/ z di/+ui%$ f 
wom54 ,suppose t !re 7 a "q be=e !      
,legislature specially affect+ wom5--z  
:e!r wom5 %\ld be all[$ to graduate at  
univ]sities2 :e!r ! mild p5alties       
inflict$ on ruffians :o beat _! wives   
daily almo/ to dea?'s door %\ld be      
ex*ang$ = some?+ m effectual2 or suppose
 t any "o %\ld propose 9 ! ,briti%      
,p>liam5t :at "o /ate aft] ano!r 9      
,am]ica is enact+1 n by a m]e law1 b by 
a provision ( _! revis$ ,con/itutions2 t
 m>ri$ wom5 %\ld h a "r to _! own       
prop]ty--are n a man's wife & daught]s  
entitl$ to "k :e!r he votes = or aga9/ a
 c&idate :o w support ^! propositions8  
,x w ( c\rse be object$ t ^! argum5ts'  
d]ive all _! weight f ! supposition ( an
 unju/ /ate ( ! suffrage3 t if ! op9ion 
( ! non-electors is likely to make !    
elector vote m hone/ly or m b5eficially 

?an he w\ld vote if left to himself1 !y 
are m fit to be electors ?an he is1 &   
ought to h ! fran*ise2 t :oev] is fit to
 influ5ce electors is fit to be an      
elector2 t ^? to :om vot]s ought to be  
responsible %\ld be !mselves vot]s1 &1  
be+ su*1 %\ld h ! safegu>d ( ! ballot1  
to %ield !m f ! undue influ5ce ( p[]ful 
individuals or classes to :om !y ought n
 to be responsible4  ,?is argum5t is    
speci\s1 & ,i once ?\ght x conclusive4  
,x n[ appe>s to me fallaci\s4 ,all :o   
are fit to influ5ce electors are n1 = t 
reason1 fit to be !mselves electors4    
,?is la/ is a mu* great] p[] ?an ! =m]1 
& ^? may be ripe = ! m9or political     
function :o c\ld n z yet be safely tru/$
 ) ! sup]ior4 ,! op9ions & wi%es ( !    
poore/ & rude/ class ( labor]s may be v 
useful z "o influ5ce among o!rs on !    
m9ds ( ! vot]s1 z well z on ^? ( !      
,legislature1 & yet x might be highly   
mis*iev\s to give !m ! prepond]ant      
influ5ce1 by admitt+ !m1 9 _! pres5t    
/ate ( morals & intellig5ce1 to ! full  

ex]cise ( ! suffrage4 ,x is precisely   
?is indirect influ5ce ( ^? :o h n !     
suffrage ov] ^? :o h1 :i*1 by its       
progressive gr[?1 s(t5s ! transition to 
e fre% ext5sion ( ! fran*ise1 & is !    
means by :i*1 :5 ! "t is ripe1 !        
ext5sion is peacefully br\ght ab\t4 ,b  
!re is ano!r & a /ill deep]             
consid]ation1 :i* %\ld nev] be left out 
( ! acc\nt 9 political speculations4 ,! 
notion is itself unf\nd$ t publicity1 & 
! s5se ( be+ answ]able to ! public1 are 
( no use unless ! public are qualifi$ to
 =m a s\nd judgm5t4 ,x is a v sup]ficial
 view ( ! utility ( public op9ion to    
suppose t x does good only :5 x succe$s 
9 en=c+ a s]vile con=mity to itself4 ,to
 be "u ! eyes ( o!rs--to h to def5d     
oneself to o!rs--is nev] m important ?an
 to ^? :o act 9 opposition to ! op9ion (
 o!rs1 = x obliges !m to h sure gr\nd ( 
_! own4 ,no?+ has s /eady+ an influ5ce z
 work+ aga9/ pressure4 ,unless :5 "u !  
tempor>y sway ( passionate excitem5t1 no
 "o w d t :i* he expects to be greatly  

blam$ =1 unless f a preconceiv$ & fix$  
purpose ( 8 own1 :i* is always evid5ce (
 a ?\ghtful & delib]ate "*1 &1 except 9 
radically bad m51 g5]ally proce$s f     
s9c]e & /rong p]sonal convictions4 ,ev5 
! b>e fact ( hav+ to give an acc\nt ( _!
 conduct is a p[]ful inducem5t to adh]e 
to conduct ( :i* at lea/ "s dec5t acc\nt
 c be giv54 ,if any "o ?9ks t ! m]e     
obligation ( pres]v+ dec5cy is n a v    
consid]able *eck on ! abuse ( p[]1 he   
has nev] _h 8 att5tion call$ to !       
conduct ( ^? :o d n feel "u ! necessity 
( obs]v+ t re/ra9t4 ,publicity is       
inappreciable1 ev5 :5 x does no m ?an   
prev5t t :i* c by no possibility be     
plausibly def5d$--?an compel            
delib]ation1 & =ce e "o to det]m9e1 be=e
 he acts1 :at he %all say if call$ to   
acc\nt = 8 actions4  ,b1 if n n[ 7x may 
be said71 at lea/ h]eaft]1 :5 all are   
fit to h votes1 & :5 all m5 & wom5 are  
admitt$ to vote 9 virtue ( _! fitness1  
!n !re c no long] be dang] ( class      
legislation2 !n ! electors1 be+ !       

nation1 c h no int]e/ ap>t f ! g5]al    
int]e/3 ev5 if individuals /ill vote    
accord+ to private or class inducem5ts1 
! majority w h no su* inducem5t2 & z !re
 w !n be no non-electors to :om !y ought
 to be responsible1 ! effect ( ! ballot1
 exclud+ none b ! s9i/] influ5ces1 w be 
:olly b5eficial4  ,ev5 9 ?is ,i d n     
agree4 ,i c n ?9k t ev5 if ! p 7 fit =1 
& _h obta9$ univ]sal suffrage1 ! ballot 
w\ld be desirable4 ,fir/1 because x c\ld
 n1 9 su* circum/ances1 be suppos$ to be
 ne$ful4 ,let u only conceive ! /ate (  
?+s :i* ! hypo!sis implies3 a p         
univ]sally educat$1 & e gr[n-up human   
be+ possess$ ( a vote4 ,if1 ev5 :5 only 
a small proportion are electors1 & !    
majority ( ! population almo/ un$ucat$1 
public op9ion is already1 z e "o n[ sees
 t x is1 ! rul+ p[] 9 ! la/ resort1 x is
 a *im]a to suppose t ov] a community :o
 all read1 & :o all h votes1 any p[]    
c\ld be ex]cis$ by l&lords & ri* p aga9/
 _! own incl9ation1 :i* x w\ld be at all
 difficult = !m to ?r[ (f4 ,b1 ?\gh !   

protection ( secrecy w\ld !n be ne$less1
 ! control ( publicity w\ld be z ne$ful 
z ev]4 ,! univ]sal obs]vation ( mank9d  
has be5 v fallaci\s1 if ! m]e fact ( be+
 "o ( ! community1 & n be+ 9 a position 
( pron\nc$ contr>iety ( int]e/ to !     
public at l>ge1 is en\gh to insure !    
p]=mance ( a public duty1 )\t ei!r !    
/imulus or ! re/ra9t d]iv$ f ! op9ion ( 
our fell[-creatures4 ,a man's own       
p>ticul> %>e ( ! public int]e/1 ev5 ?\gh
 he may h no private int]e/ draw+ him 9 
! opposite direction1 is n1 z a g5]al   
rule1 f\nd suffici5t to make him d 8    
duty to ! public )\t o!r ext]nal        
inducem5ts4 ,nei!r c x be admitt$ t1 ev5
 if all _h votes1 !y w\ld give _! votes 
z hone/ly 9 secret z 9 public4  ,!      
proposition t ! electors1 :5 !y compose 
! :ole ( ! community1 c n h an int]e/ 9 
vot+ aga9/ ! int]e/ ( ! community1 w be 
f\nd1 on exam9ation1 to h m s\nd ?an    
mean+ 9 x4 ,?\gh ! community1 z a :ole1 
c h 7z ! t]ms imply7 no o!r int]e/ ?an  
its collective int]e/1 any or e         

individual 9 x may4 ,a man's int]e/     
consi/s ( :atev] he takes an int]e/ 94  
,e body has z _m diff]5t int]e/s z he   
has feel+s2 lik+s or dislik+s1 ei!r ( a 
selfi% or ( a bett] k9d4 ,x c n be said 
t any ( ^!1 tak5 by itself1 con/itutes  
'8 int]e/3' he is a good man or a bad   
accord+ z he pref]s "o class ( 8 int]e/s
 or ano!r4 ,a man :o is a tyrant at home
 w be apt to sympa?ize ) tyranny 7:5 n  
ex]cis$ ov] himself72 he w be almo/     
c]ta9 n to sympa?ize ) resi/ance to     
tyranny4 ,an envi\s man w vote aga9/    
,ari/ides because he is call$ ! ,j4 ,a  
selfi% man w pref] ev5 a trifl+         
individual b5efit to 8 %>e ( ! advantage
 :i* 8 c\ntry w\ld d]ive f a good law1  
because int]e/s peculi> to himself are  
^? :i* ! habits ( 8 m9d bo? dispose him 
to dwell on & make him be/ able to      
e/imate4 ,a great numb] ( ! electors w h
 two sets ( pref]5ces--^? on private &  
^? on public gr\nds4 ,! la/ are ! only  
ones :i* ! elector w\ld l to av[4 ,! be/
 side ( _! "* is t :i* p are anxi\s to  

%[1 ev5 to ^? :o are no bett] ?an       
!mselves4 ,p w give di%one/ or mean     
votes f lucre1 f malice1 f pique1 f     
p]sonal rivalry1 ev5 f ! int]e/s or     
prejudices ( class or sect1 m readily 9 
secret ?an 9 public4 ,& cases exi/--!y  
may come to be m frequ5t--9 :i* almo/ ! 
only re/ra9t ^u a majority ( knaves     
consi/s 9 _! involunt>y respect = !     
op9ion ( an hone/ m9ority4 ,9 su* a case
 z t ( ! repudiat+ /ates ( ,nor?        
,am]ica1 is !re n "s *eck to !          
unpr9cipl$ vot] 9 ! %ame ( look+ an     
hone/ man 9 ! face8 ,s9ce all ?is good  
w\ld be sacrific$ by ! ballot1 ev5 9 !  
circum/ances mo/ favorable to x1 a mu*  
/rong] case is requisite ?an c n[ be    
made out = its necessity 7& ! case is   
cont9ually becom+ /ill weak]7 to make   
its adoption desirable4 #d  ,on ! o!r   
debateable po9ts connect$ ) ! mode (    
vot+1 x is n necess>y to exp5d s _m     
words4 ,! sy/em ( p]sonal repres5tation1
 z organiz$ by ,mr4 ,h>e1 r5d]s necess>y
 ! employm5t ( vot+ pap]s4 ,b x appe>s  

to me indisp5sable t ! signature ( !    
elector %\ld be affix$ to ! pap] at a   
public poll+-place1 or if !re be no su* 
place conv5i5tly accessible1 at "s (fice
 op5 to all ! _w1 & 9 ! pres5ce ( a     
responsible public (fic]4 ,! proposal   
:i* has be5 ?r[n out ( all[+ ! vot+     
pap]s to be fill$ up at ! vot]'s own    
resid5ce1 & s5t by ! po/1 or call$ = by 
a public (fic]1 ,i %\ld reg>d z fatal4  
,! act w\ld be done 9 ! abs5ce ( !      
salut>y & ! pres5ce ( all ! p]nici\s    
influ5ces4 ,! brib] might1 9 ! %elt] (  
privacy1 behold ) 8 own eyes 8 b>ga9    
fulfill$1 & ! intimidator c\ld see !    
extort$ ob$i5ce r5d]$ irrevocably on !  
spot2 :ile ! b5efic5t c\nt]-influ5ce ( !
 pres5ce ( ^? :o knew ! vot]'s real     
s5tim5ts1 & ! inspir+ effect ( ! sympa?y
 ( ^? ( 8 own p>ty or op9ion1 w\ld be   
%ut out4 #e  ,! poll+ places %\ld be s  
num]\s z to be )9 easy rea* ( e vot]1 & 
no exp5ses ( conveyance1 at ! co/ ( !   
c&idate1 %\ld be tol]at$ "u any pretext4
 ,! infirm1 & !y only on m$ical         

c]tificate1 %\ld h ! "r ( claim+        
suitable c>riage conveyance at ! co/ ( !
 /ate or ( ! locality4 ,hu/+s1 poll     
cl]ks1 & all ! necess>y ma*9]y (        
elections1 %\ld be at ! public *>ge4 ,n 
only ! c&idate %\ld n be requir$1 he    
%\ld n be p]mitt$ to incur any b a      
limit$ & trifl+ exp5se = 8 election4    
,mr4 ,h>e ?9ks x desirable t a sum ( #ej
 %\ld be requir$ f e "o :o places 8 "n  
on ! li/ ( c&idates1 to prev5t p]sons :o
 h no *ance ( success1 & no real        
int5tion ( attempt+ x1 f becom+ c&idates
 9 wantonness or f m]e love ( notoriety1
 & p]haps c>ry+ (f a few votes :i* are  
ne$$ = ! return ( m s]i\s aspirants4    
,!re is "o exp5se :i* a c&idate or 8    
support]s c n help incurr+1 & :i* x c   
h>dly be expect$ t ! public %\ld defray 
= e "o :o may *oose to dem& x--t ( mak+ 
8 claims kn[n to ! electors1 by         
adv]tisem5ts1 plac>ds1 & circul>s4 ,=   
all necess>y exp5ses ( ?is k9d ! #ej    
propos$ by ,mr4 ,h>e1 if all[$ to be    
drawn ^u = ^! purposes 7x might be made 

#ajj if requisite71 ought to be         
suffici5t4 ,if ! fri5ds ( ! c&idate     
*oose to g to exp5se = committees &     
canvass+1 !re are no means ( prev5t+ !m2
 b su* exp5ses out ( ! c&idates's own   
pocket1 or any exp5ses :atev] beyond !  
deposit ( #ej 7or #ajj71 %\ld be illegal
 & puni%able4 ,if !re appe>$ any        
likelihood t op9ion w\ld refuse to      
connive at falsehood1 a decl>ation on   
oa? or honor %\ld be requir$ f e memb]1 
on tak+ 8 seat1 t he _h n exp5d$1 nor   
w\ld exp5d1 money or money's wor? beyond
 ! #ej1 directly or indirectly1 = !     
purposes ( 8 election2 & if ! ass]tion 7
 prov$ to be false or ! pl$ge to h be5  
brok51 he %\ld be liable to ! p5alties (
 p]jury4 ,x is probable t ^? p5alties1  
by %[+ t ! ,legislature 0 9 e>ne/1 w\ld 
turn ! c\rse ( op9ion 9 ! same          
direction1 & w\ld h9d] x f reg>d+1 z has
 hi!rto done1 ?is mo/ s]i\s crime aga9/ 
society z a v5ial peccadillo4 ,:5 once  
?is effect has be5 produc$1 !re ne$ be  
no d\bt t ! decl>ation on oa? or honor  

w\ld be consid]$ b9d+4 #f ,op9ion       
tol]ates a false disclaim] only :5 x    
already tol]ates ! ?+ disclaim$4 ,?is is
 notori\sly ! case ) reg>d to electoral 
corruption4 ,!re has nev] yet be51 among
 political m51 any real & s]i\s attempt 
to prev5t brib]y1 because !re has be5 no
 real desire t elections %\ld n be      
co/ly4 ,_! co/l9ess is an advantage to  
^? :o c af=d ! exp5se by exclud+ a      
multitude ( competitors2 & any ?+1 h[ev]
 noxi\s1 is *]i%$ z hav+ a cons]vative  
t5d5cy1 if x limits ! access to         
,p>liam5t to ri* m54 ,?is is a root$    
feel+ among our legislators ( bo?       
political p>ties1 & is almo/ ! only po9t
 on :i* ,i believe !m to be really      
ill-int5tion$4 ,!y c>e comp>atively     
little :o votes1 z long z !y feel assur$
 t none b p]sons ( _! own class c be    
vot$ =4 ,!y "k t !y c rely on !         
fell[-feel+ ( "o ( _! class ) ano!r1    
:ile ! subs]vi5ce ( n\veaux enri*is :o  
are knock+ at ! door ( ! class is a /ill
 sur] reliance2 & t no?+ v ho/ile to !  

class int]e/s or feel+s ( ! ri* ne$ be  
appreh5d$ "u ! mo/ democratic suffrage1 
z long z democratic p]sons c be prev5t$ 
f be+ elect$ to ,p>liam5t4 ,b1 ev5 f _! 
own po9t ( view1 ?is balanc+ ( evil by  
evil1 in/ead ( comb9+ good ) good1 is a 
wret*$ policy4 ,! object %\ld be to br+ 
toge!r ! be/ memb]s ( bo? classes1 "u   
su* a t5ure z %all induce !m to lay     
aside _! class pref]5ces1 & pursue      
jo9tly ! pa? trac$ by ! common int]e/1  
in/ead ( all[+ ! class feel+s ( ! ,_m to
 h full sw+ 9 ! con/itu5cies1 subject to
 ! imp$im5t ( hav+ to act ?r\gh p]sons  
imbu$ ) ! class feel+s ( ! ,few4  ,!re  
is sc>cely any mode 9 :i* political     
in/itutions are m morally mis*iev\s--"w 
great] evil ?r\gh _! _s--?an by         
repres5t+ political functions z a favor 
to be conf]r$1 a ?+ :i* ! deposit>y is  
to ask = z desir+ x = himself1 & ev5 pay
 = z if x 7 design$ = 8 pecuni>y b5efit4
 ,m5 are n fond ( pay+ l>ge sums = leave
 to p]=m a labori\s duty4 ,plato _h a   
mu* ju/] view ( ! conditions ( good     

gov]nm5t :5 he ass]t$ t ! p]sons :o %\ld
 be s\ght out to be inve/$ ) political  
p[] are ^? :o are p]sonally mo/ av]se to
 x1 & t ! only motive :i* c be reli$ on 
= induc+ ! fitte/ m5 to take ^u !mselves
 ! toils ( gov]nm5t is ! fe> ( be+      
gov]n$ by worse m54 ,:at mu/ an elector 
?9k :5 he sees ?ree or f\r g5tlem51 none
 ( !m previ\sly obs]v$ to be lavi% ( _! 
money on projects ( dis9t]e/$ b5efic5ce1
 vy+ ) "o ano!r 9 ! sums !y exp5d to be 
enabl$ to write ,m4,p4 aft] _! names8   
,is x likely he w suppose t x is = 8    
int]e/ !y incur all ?is co/8 ,& if he =m
 an uncomplim5t>y op9ion ( _! "p 9 !    
affair1 :at moral obligation is he      
likely to feel z to 8 own8 ,politicians 
are fond ( treat+ x z ! dream (         
en?usia/s t ! electoral body w ev] be   
uncorrupt3 truly en\gh1 until !y are    
will+ to become s !mselves2 = !         
electors1 assur$ly1 w take _! moral tone
 f ! c&idates4 ,s long z ! elect$ memb]1
 9 any %ape or mann]1 pays = 8 seat1 all
 endeav\rs w fail to make ! bus9ess (   

election any ?+ b a selfi% b>ga9 on all 
sides4 ,s long z ! c&idate himself1 & ! 
cu/oms ( ! _w1 seem to reg>d ! function 
( a memb] ( ,p>liam5t less z a duty to  
be dis*>g$ ?an a p]sonal favor to be    
solicit$1 no ef=t w avail to implant 9  
an ord9>y vot] ! feel+ t ! election ( a 
memb] ( ,p>liam5t is also a matt] (     
duty1 & t he is n at lib]ty to be/[ 8   
vote on any o!r consid]ation ?an t (    
p]sonal fitness4  ,! same pr9ciple :i*  
dem&s t no paym5t ( money = election    
purposes %\ld be ei!r requir$ or tol]at$
 on ! "p ( ! p]son elect$1 dictates     
ano!r conclusion1 app>5tly ( contr>y    
t5d5cy1 b really direct$ to ! same      
object4 ,x negatives :at has (t5 be5    
propos$ z a means ( r5d]+ ,p>liam5t     
accessible to p]sons ( all ranks &      
circum/ances--! paym5t ( memb]s (       
,p>liam5t4 ,if1 z 9 "s ( our colonies1  
!re are sc>cely any fit p]sons :o c af=d
 to att5d to an unpaid occupation1 !    
paym5t %\ld be an indemnity = loss ( "t 
or money1 n a sal>y4 ,! great] latitude 

( *oice :i* a sal>y w\ld give is an     
illusory advantage4 ,no remun]ation :i* 
any "o w\ld ?9k ( atta*+ to ! po/ w\ld  
attract to x ^? :o 7 s]i\sly engag$ 9   
o!r lucrative pr(essions1 ) a prospect (
 succe$+ 9 !m4 ,! occupation ( a memb] (
 ,p>liam5t w\ld !re=e become an         
occupation 9 itself1 c>ri$ on1 l o!r    
pr(essions1 ) a view *iefly to its      
pecuni>y returns1 & "u ! demoraliz+     
influ5ces ( an occupation ess5tially    
prec>i\s4 ,x w\ld become an object (    
desire to adv5tur]s ( a l[ class2 & #feh
 p]sons 9 possession1 ) t5 or tw5ty     
times z _m 9 expectancy1 w\ld be        
incessantly bidd+ to attract or reta9 ! 
suffrages ( ! electors1 by promis+ all  
?+s1 hone/ or di%one/1 possible or      
impossible1 & rival+ ea* o!r 9 p&]+ to !
 meane/ feel+s & mo/ ignorant prejudices
 ( ! vulg>e/ "p ( ! cr[d4 ,! auction    
betwe5 ,cleon & ! sausage-sell] 9       
,ari/ophanes is a fair c>icature ( :at  
w\ld be always go+ on4 ,su* an          
in/itution w\ld be a p]petual bli/]     

appli$ to ! mo/ peccant p>ts ( human    
nature4 ,x am\nts to (f]+ #feh prizes = 
! mo/ successful flatt]]1 ! mo/ adroit  
mislead] ( a body ( 8 fell[-c\ntrym54   
,"u no despotism has !re be5 su* an     
organiz$ sy/em ( tillage = rais+ a ri*  
crop ( vici\s c\rti]%ip4 #g ,:51 by     
reason ( pre-em95t qualifications 7z may
 at any "t happ5 to be ! case71 x is    
desirable t a p]son entirely )\t        
indep5d5t means1 ei!r d]iv$ f prop]ty or
 f a trade or pr(ession1 %\ld be br\ght 
into ,p>liam5t to r5d] s]vices :i* no   
o!r p]son accessible c r5d] z well1 !re 
is ! res\rce ( a public subscription2 he
 may be support$ :ile 9 ,p>liam5t1 l    
,&rew ,m>vel1 by ! contributions ( 8    
con/itu5ts4 ,?is mode is unobjectionable
 = su* an honor w nev] be paid to m]e   
subs]vi5cy3 bodies ( m5 d n c>e s mu* = 
! diff]5ce betwe5 "o sycophant & ano!r z
 to g to ! exp5se ( 8 ma9t5ance 9 ord]  
to be flatt]$ by t p>ticul> individual4 
,su* a support w only be giv5 9         
consid]ation ( /rik+ & impressive       

p]sonal qualities1 :i*1 ?\gh no absolute
 pro( ( fitness to be a national        
repres5tative1 are "s presumption ( x1  
&1 at all ev5ts1 "s gu>anty = !         
possession ( an indep5d5t op9ion & w4   
,*apt] ,,xi--,( ! ,duration (           
,p>liam5ts4   ,aft] h[ long a t]m %\ld  
memb]s ( ,p>liam5t be subject to        
re-election8 ,! pr9ciples involv$ are "h
 v obvi\s2 ! difficulty lies 9 _!       
application4 ,on ! "o h&1 ! memb] ought 
n to h s long a t5ure ( 8 seat z to make
 him =get 8 responsibility1 take 8      
duties easily1 conduct !m ) a view to 8 
own p]sonal advantage1 or neglect ^?    
free & public conf]5ces ) 8 con/itu5ts  
:i*1 :e!r he agrees or diff]s ) !m1 are 
"o ( ! b5efits ( repres5tative gov]nm5t4
 ,on ! o!r h&1 he %\ld h su* a t]m (    
(fice to look =w>d to z w enable him to 
be judg$1 n by a s+le act1 b by 8 c\rse 
( action4 ,x is important t he %\ld h ! 
greate/ latitude ( individual op9ion &  
discretion compatible ) ! popul> control
 ess5tial to free gov]nm5t2 & = ?is     

purpose x is necess>y t ! control %\ld  
be ex]cis$1 z 9 any case x is be/       
ex]cis$1 aft] suffici5t "t has be5 giv5 
him to %[ all ! qualities he possesses1 
& to prove t !re is "s o!r way ?an t ( a
 m]e ob$i5t vot] & advocate ( _!        
op9ions1 by :i* he c r5d] himself1 9 !  
eyes ( 8 con/itu5ts1 a desirable &      
cr$itable repres5tative4 ,x is          
impossible to fix1 by any univ]sal rule1
 ! b\nd>y betwe5 ^! pr9ciples4 ,:]e !   
democratic p[] 9 ! con/itution is weak  
or ov]-passive1 & requires /imulation2  
:]e ! repres5tative1 on leav+ 8         
con/itu5ts1 ent]s at once into a c\rtly 
or ari/ocratic atmosph]e1 ^: influ5ces  
all t5d to deflect 8 c\rse into a       
diff]5t direction f ! popul> "o1 to tone
 d[n any democratic feel+s :i* he may h 
br\ght ) him1 & make him =get ! wi%es & 
gr[ cool to ! int]e/s ( ^? :o *ose him1 
! obligation ( a frequ5t return to !m = 
a r5ewal ( 8 commission is indisp5sable 
to keep+ 8 temp] & "* up to ! "r m>k4   
,ev5 ?ree ye>s1 9 su* circum/ances1 are 

almo/ too long a p]iod1 & any long] t]m 
is absolutely inadmissible4 ,:]e1 on !  
contr>y1 democracy is ! asc5dant p[]1 & 
/ill t5ds to increase1 requir+ r to be  
mod]at$ 9 its ex]cise ?an enc\rag$ to   
any abnormal activity2 :]e unb\nd$      
publicity1 & an ev]-pres5t newspap]     
press give ! repres5tative assurance t 8
 e act w be imm$iately kn[n1 discuss$1 &
 judg$ by 8 con/itu5ts1 & t he is always
 ei!r ga9+ or los+ gr\nd 9 ! e/imation1 
:ile1 by ! same means1 ! influ5ce ( _!  
s5tim5ts1 & all o!r democratic          
influ5ces1 are kept con/antly alive &   
active 9 8 own m9d1 less ?an five ye>s  
w\ld h>dly be a suffici5t p]iod to      
prev5t timid subs]vi5cy4 ,! *ange :i*   
has tak5 place 9 ,engli% politics z to  
all ^! features expla9s :y annual       
,p>liam5ts1 :i* =ty ye>s ago /ood       
prom95tly 9 front ( ! cre$ ( ! m advanc$
 re=m]s1 are s little c>$ = & s seldom  
he>d ( at pres5t4 ,x des]ves            
consid]ation t1 :e!r ! t]m is %ort or   
long1 dur+ ! la/ ye> ( x ! memb]s are 9 

position 9 :i* !y w\ld always be if     
,p>liam5ts 7 annual2 s t1 if ! t]m 7 v  
brief1 !re w\ld virtually be annual     
,p>liam5ts dur+ a great proportion ( all
 "t4 ,z ?+s n[ are1 ! p]iod ( sev5 ye>s1
 ?\gh ( unnecess>y l5g?1 is h>dly wor?  
alt]+ = any b5efit likely to be produc$1
 especially s9ce ! possibility1 always  
imp5d+1 ( an e>li] dissolution keeps !  
motives = /&+ well ) con/itu5ts always  
be=e ! memb]'s eyes4  ,:atev] may be !  
t]m mo/ eligible = ! duration ( ! m&ate1
 x might seem natural t ! individual    
memb] %\ld vacate 8 seat at ! expiration
 ( t t]m f ! day ( 8 election1 & t !re  
%\ld be no g5]al r5ewal ( ! :ole ,h\se4 
,a great deal might be said = ?is sy/em 
if !re 7 any practical object 9         
recomm5d+ x4 ,b x is condemn$ by mu*    
/rong] reasons ?an c be alleg$ 9 its    
support4 ,"o is1 t !re w\ld be no means 
( promptly gett+ rid ( a majority :i* _h
 pursu$ a c\rse (f5sive to ! nation4 ,! 
c]ta9ty ( a g5]al election aft] a       
limit$1 :i* w\ld (t5 be a ne>ly expir$  

p]iod1 & ! possibility ( x at any "t :5 
! m9i/] ei!r desires x = 8 own sake1 or 
?9ks t x w\ld make him popul> ) !       
c\ntry1 t5d to prev5t t wide div]g5ce   
betwe5 ! feel+s ( ! assembly & ^? ( !   
con/itu5cy1 :i* might subsi/ indef9itely
 if ! majority ( ! ,h\se _h always      
sev]al ye>s ( _! t]m /ill to run--if x  
receiv$ new infusions drop by drop1 :i* 
w\ld be m likely to assume ?an to modify
 ! qualities ( ! mass !y 7 jo9$ to4 ,x  
is z ess5tial t ! g5]al s5se ( ! ,h\se  
%\ld accord 9 ! ma9 ) t ( ! nation z is 
t di/+ui%$ individuals %\ld be able1 )\t
 =feit+ _! seats1 to give free utt]ance 
to ! mo/ unpopul> s5tim5ts4 ,!re is     
ano!r reason1 ( mu* weight1 aga9/ !     
gradual & p>tial r5ewal ( a             
repres5tative assembly4 ,x is useful t  
!re %\ld be a p]iodical g5]al mu/] (    
oppos+ =ces to gauge ! /ate ( ! national
 m9d1 & asc]ta91 beyond dispute1 !      
relative /r5g? ( diff]5t p>ties &       
op9ions4 ,?is is n done conclusively by 
any p>tial r5ewal1 ev5 :]e1 z 9 "s ( !  

,fr5* con/itutions1 a l>ge fraction--a  
fif? or a ?ird--g out at once4  ,!      
reasons = all[+ to ! executive ! p[] (  
dissolution w be consid]$ 9 a subsequ5t 
*apt]1 relat+ to ! con/itution &        
functions ( ! executive 9 a             
repres5tative gov]nm5t4    ,*apt]       
,,xii--,ought ,pl$ges to be ,requir$ f  
,memb]s ( ,p>liam5t8   ,%\ld a memb] ( !
 legislature be b\nd by ! in/ructions ( 
8 con/itu5ts8 ,%\ld he be ! organ ( _!  
s5tim5ts1 or ( 8 own8 _! ambassador to a
 congress1 or _! pr(essional ag5t1      
emp[]$ n only to act = !m1 b to judge = 
!m :at ought to be done8 ,^! two !ories 
( ! duty ( a legislator 9 a             
repres5tative gov]nm5t h ea* its        
support]s1 & ea* is ! recogniz$ doctr9e 
( "s repres5tative gov]nm5ts4 ,9 ! ,dut*
 ,unit$ ,prov9ces1 ! memb]s ( !         
,/ates-,g5]al 7 m]e delegates2 & to su* 
a l5g? 0 ! doctr9e c>ri$1 t :5 any      
important "q arose :i* _h n be5 provid$ 
= 9 _! in/ructions1 !y _h to ref] back  
to _! con/itu5ts1 exactly z an          

ambassador does to ! gov]nm5t f :i* he  
is accr$it$4 ,9 ?is & mo/ o!r c\ntries  
:i* possess repres5tative con/itutions1 
law & cu/om w>rant a memb] ( ,p>liam5t 9
 vot+ accord+ to 8 op9ion ( "r1 h[ev]   
diff]5t f t ( 8 con/itu5ts2 b !re is a  
float+ notion ( ! opposite k9d1 :i* has 
consid]able practical op]ation on _m    
m9ds1 ev5 ( memb]s ( ,p>liam5t1 & (t5   
makes !m1 indep5d5tly ( desire =        
popul>ity or conc]n = _! re-election1   
feel b\nd 9 consci5ce to let _! conduct 
on que/ions on :i* _! con/itu5ts h a    
decid$ op9ion be ! expression ( t op9ion
 r ?an ( _! own4 ,ab/ract$ly f positive 
law1 & f ! hi/orical traditions ( any   
p>ticul> p1 :i* ( ^! notions ( ! duty ( 
a repres5tative is ! true "o8  ,unlike !
 que/ions :i* we h hi!rto treat$1 ?is is
 n a "q ( con/itutional legislation1 b (
 :at may m prop]ly be call$             
con/itutional morality--! e?ics (       
repres5tative gov]nm5t4 ,x does n s mu* 
conc]n in/itutions z ! temp] ( m9d :i* !
 electors ought to br+ to ! dis*>ge ( _!

 functions1 ! ideas :i* %\ld prevail z  
to ! moral duties ( an elector2 =1 let !
 sy/em ( repres5tation be :at x may1 x w
 be conv]t$ into "o ( m]e delegation if 
! electors s *oose4 ,z long z !y are    
free n to vote1 & free to vote z !y l1  
!y c n be prev5t$ f mak+ _! vote dep5d  
on any condition !y ?9k fit to annex to 
x4 ,by refus+ to elect any "o :o w n    
pl$ge himself to all _! op9ions1 & ev51 
if !y please1 to consult ) !m be=e vot+ 
on any important subject n =ese51 !y c  
r$uce _! repres5tative to _! m]e        
m\?piece1 or compel him 9 honor1 :5 no  
long] will+ to act 9 t capacity1 to     
resign 8 seat4 ,& s9ce !y h ! p[] ( do+ 
?is1 ! !ory ( ! ,con/itution ought to   
suppose t !y w wi% to d x1 s9ce ! v     
pr9ciple ( con/itutional gov]nm5t       
requires x to be assum$ t political p[] 
w be abus$ to promote ! p>ticul>        
purposes ( ! hold]2 n because x always  
is s1 b because su* is ! natural t5d5cy 
( ?+s1 to gu>d aga9/ :i* is ! especial  
use ( free in/itutions4 ,h[ev] wrong1   

!re=e1 or h[ev] fooli%1 we may ?9k x 9 !
 electors to conv]t _! repres5tative    
into a delegate1 t /ret* ( ! electoral  
privilege be+ a natural & n improbable  
"o1 ! same precautions ought to be tak5 
z if x 7 c]ta94 ,we may hope t !        
electors w n act on ?is notion ( ! use (
 ! suffrage2 b a repres5tative gov]nm5t 
ne$s to be s fram$ t ev5 if !y d1 !y    
%all n be able to effect :at ought n to 
be 9 ! p[] ( any body ( p]sons--class   
legislation = _! own b5efit4  ,:5 x is  
said t ! "q is only "o ( political      
morality1 ?is does n ext5uate its       
importance4 ,que/ions ( con/itutional   
morality are ( no less practical mom5t  
?an ^? relat+ to ! con/itution itself4  
,! v exi/5ce ( "s gov]nm5ts1 & all t    
r5d]s o!rs endurable1 re/s on !         
practical obs]vance ( doctr9es (        
con/itutional morality2 traditional     
notions 9 ! m9ds ( ! sev]al con/itut$   
au?orities1 :i* modify ! use t might    
o!rwise be made ( _! p[]s4 ,9 unbalanc$ 
gov]nm5ts--pure mon>*y1 pure ari/ocracy1

 pure democracy--su* maxims are ! only  
b>ri] :i* re/ra9s ! gov]nm5t f ! utmo/  
excesses 9 ! direction ( its *>act]i/ic 
t5d5cy4 ,9 imp]fectly balanc$ gov]nm5ts1
 :]e "s attempt is made to set          
con/itutional limits to ! impulses ( !  
/ronge/ p[]1 b :]e t p[] is /rong en\gh 
to ov]/ep !m ) at lea/ tempor>y         
impunity1 x is only by doctr9es (       
con/itutional morality1 recogniz$ &     
su/a9$ by op9ion1 t any reg>d at all is 
pres]v$ = ! *ecks & limitations ( !     
con/itution4 ,9 well-balanc$ gov]nm5ts1 
9 :i* ! supreme p[] is divid$1 & ea* %>]
 is protect$ aga9/ ! usurpations ( !    
o!rs 9 ! only mann] possible1 namely1 by
 be+ arm$ = def5se ) weapons z /rong z !
 o!rs c wield = attack1 ! gov]nm5t c    
only be c>ri$ on by =be>ance on all     
sides to ex]cise ^? extreme p[]s1 unless
 provok$ by conduct equally extreme on !
 "p ( "s o!r %>] ( p[]2 & 9 ?is case we 
may truly say t only by ! reg>d paid to 
maxims ( con/itutional morality is !    
con/itution kept 9 exi/5ce4 ,! "q (     

pl$ges is n "o ( ^? :i* vitally conc]n !
 exi/5ce ( repres5tative gov]nm5ts1 b x 
is v mat]ial to _! b5eficial op]ation4  
,! laws c n prescribe to ! electors !   
pr9ciples by :i* !y %all direct _!      
*oice1 b x makes a great practical      
diff]5ce by :at pr9ciples !y ?9k !y     
ought to direct x2 & ! :ole ( t great "q
 is involv$ 9 ! inquiry :e!r !y %\ld    
make x a condition t ! repres5tative    
%all adh]e to c]ta9 op9ions laid d[n =  
him by 8 con/itu5ts4  ,no read] ( ?is   
treatise c d\bt :at conclusion1 z to ?is
 matt]1 results f ! g5]al pr9ciples :i* 
x pr(esses4 ,we h f ! fir/ affirm$1 &   
unv>y+ly kept 9 view1 ! coequal         
importance ( two great requisites (     
gov]nm5t--responsibility to ^? = ^:     
b5efit political p[] ought to be1 &     
always pr(esses to be1 employ$2 & jo9tly
 !re)1 to obta91 9 ! greate/ measure    
possible1 = ! function ( gov]nm5t1 !    
b5efits ( sup]ior intellect1 tra9$ by   
long m$itation & practical discipl9e to 
t special task4 ,if ?is second purpose  

is wor? atta9+1 x is wor? ! necess>y    
price4 ,sup]ior p[]s ( m9d & pr(\nd /udy
 are ( no use1 if !y d n sometimes lead 
a p]son to diff]5t conclusions f ^? :i* 
are =m$ by ord9>y p[]s ( m9d )\t /udy2 &
 if x be an object to possess           
repres5tatives 9 any intellectual       
respect sup]ior to av]age electors1 x   
mu/ be c\nt$ ^u t ! repres5tative w     
sometimes diff] 9 op9ion f ! majority ( 
8 con/itu5ts1 & t :5 he does1 8 op9ion w
 be ! (t5e/ "r ( ! two4 ,x foll[s t !   
electors w n d wisely if !y insi/ on    
absolute con=mity to _! op9ions z !     
condition ( 8 reta9+ 8 seat4  ,!        
pr9ciple is ?us f> obvi\s2 b !re are    
real difficulties 9 its application1 &  
we w beg9 by /at+ !m 9 _! greate/ =ce4  
,if x is important t ! electors %\ld    
*oose a repres5tative m highly in/ruct$ 
?an !mselves1 x is no less necess>y t   
?is wis] man %\ld be responsible to !m2 
9 o!r words1 !y are ! judges ( ! mann] 9
 :i* he fulfils 8 tru/2 & h[ are !y to  
judge1 except by ! /&>d ( _! own        

op9ions8 ,h[ are !y ev5 to select him 9 
! fir/ in/ance b by ! same /&>d8 ,x w n 
d to *oose by m]e brilliancy--by        
sup]iority ( %[y tal5t4 ,! te/s by :i*  
an ord9>y man c judge be=eh& ( m]e      
ability are v imp]fect2 su* z !y are1 !y
 h almo/ exclusive ref]5ce to ! arts (  
expression1 & little or none to ! wor? (
 :at is express$4 ,! latt] c n be inf]r$
 f ! =m]2 & if ! electors are to put _! 
own op9ions 9 abeyance1 :at crit]ion    
rema9s to !m ( ! ability to gov]n well8 
,nei!r1 if !y c\ld asc]ta91 ev5         
infallibly1 ! able/ man1 ought !y to    
all[ him altoge!r to judge = !m1 )\t any
 ref]5ce to _! own op9ions4 ,! able/    
c&idate may be a ,tory1 & ! electors    
,lib]als2 or a ,lib]al1 & !y may be     
,tories4 ,! political que/ions ( ! day  
may be ,*ur* que/ions1 & he may be a    
,high-,*ur*man or a ,rationali/1 :ile !y
 may be ,diss5t]s or ,evangelicals1 &   
vice v]s4 ,8 abilities1 9 ^! cases1     
might only enable him to g great] l5g?s1
 & act ) great] effect1 9 :at !y may    

consci5ti\sly believe to be a wrong     
c\rse2 & !y may be b\nd1 by _! s9c]e    
convictions1 to ?9k x m important t _!  
repres5tative %\ld be kept1 on ^! po9ts1
 to :at !y deem ! dictate ( duty1 ?an t 
!y %\ld be repres5t$ by a p]son ( m ?an 
av]age abilities4 ,!y may also h to     
consid]1 n solely h[ !y c be mo/ ably   
repres5t$1 b h[ _! p>ticul> moral       
position & m5tal po9t ( view %all be    
repres5t$ at all4 ,! influ5ce ( e mode (
 ?9k+ :i* is %>$ by numb]s ought to be  
felt 9 ! ,legislature2 & ! ,con/itution 
be+ suppos$ to h made due provision t   
o!r & conflict+ modes ( ?9k+ %all be    
repres5t$ likewise1 to secure ! prop]   
repres5tation = _! own mode may be ! mo/
 important matt] :i* ! electors on !    
p>ticul> occasion h to att5d to4 ,9 "s  
cases1 too1 x may be necess>y t !       
repres5tative %\ld h 8 h&s ti$ to keep  
him true to _! int]e/1 or r to ! public 
int]e/ z !y conceive x4 ,?is w\ld n be  
ne$ful "u a political sy/em :i* assur$  
!m an indef9ite *oice ( hone/ &         

unprejudic$ c&idates2 b "u ! exi/+      
sy/em1 9 :i* ! electors are almo/ always
 oblig$1 by ! exp5ses ( election & !    
g5]al circum/ances ( society1 to select 
_! repres5tative f p]sons ( a /ation 9  
life widely diff]5t f !irs1 & hav+ a    
diff]5t class int]e/1 :o w affirm t !y  
ought to ab&on !mselves to 8 discretion8
 ,c we blame an elector ( ! poor]       
classes1 :o has only ! *oice among two  
or ?ree ri* m51 = requir+ f ! "o he     
votes = a pl$ge to ^? measures :i* he   
consid]s z a te/ ( emancipation f !     
class int]e/s ( ! ri*8 ,x w1 moreov]1   
always happ5s to "s memb]s ( ! electoral
 body to be oblig$ to accept !          
repres5tative select$ by a majority ( _!
 own side4 ,b1 ?\gh a c&idate ( _! own  
*oos+ w\ld h no *ance1 _! votes may be  
necess>y to ! success ( ! "o *os5 = !m1 
& _! only means ( ex]t+ _! %>e (        
influ5ce on 8 subsequ5t conduct may be  
to make _! support ( him dep5d5t on 8   
pl$g+ himself to c]ta9 conditions4  ,^! 
consid]ations & c\nt]-consid]ations are 

s intimately int]wov5 ) "o ano!r2 x is s
 important t ! electors %\ld *oose z _! 
repres5tatives wis] m5 ?an !mselves1 &  
%\ld cons5t to be gov]n$ accord+ to t   
sup]ior wisdom1 :ile x is impossible t  
con=mity to _! own op9ions1 :5 !y h     
op9ions1 %\ld n ent] l>gely into _!     
judgm5t z to :o possesses ! wisdom1 & h[
 f> its presum$ possessor has v]ifi$ !  
presumption by 8 conduct1 t x seems q   
impracticable to lay d[n = ! elector any
 positive rule ( duty2 & ! result w     
dep5d less on any exact prescription or 
au?oritative doctr9e ( political        
morality ?an on ! g5]al tone ( m9d ( !  
electoral body 9 respect to ! important 
requisite ( def]5ce to m5tal sup]iority4
 ,individuals & peoples :o are acutely  
s5sible ( ! value ( sup]ior wisdom are  
likely to recognize x1 :]e x exi/s1 by  
o!r signs ?an ?9k+ exactly z !y d1 & ev5
 9 spite ( consid]able diff]5ces (      
op9ion2 & :5 !y h recogniz$ x !y w be f>
 too desir\s to secure x1 at any        
admissible co/1 to be prone to impose _!

 own op9ion z a law ^u p]sons :om !y    
look up to z wis] ?an !mselves4 ,on !   
o!r h&1 !re is a "* ( m9d :i* does n    
look up to any "o2 :i* ?9ks no o!r      
p]son's op9ion mu* bett] ?an its own1 or
 ne>ly s good z t ( a hundr$ or a ?\s&  
p]sons l itself4 ,:]e ?is is ! turn (   
m9d ( ! electors1 !y w elect no "o :o is
 n1 or at lea/ :o does n pr(ess to be1 !
 image ( _! own s5tim5ts1 & w cont9ue   
him no long] ?an :ile he reflects ^?    
s5tim5ts 9 8 conduct2 & all aspirants to
 political honors w endeav\r1 z ,plato  
says 9 ! ,gorgias1 to fa%ion !mselves   
aft] ! model ( ! ,demos1 & make !mselves
 z l to x z possible4 ,x c n be d5i$ t a
 complete democracy has a /rong t5d5cy  
to ca/ ! s5tim5ts ( ! electors 9 ?is    
m\ld4 ,democracy is n favorable to !    
rev]5tial _s4 ,t x de/roys rev]5ce = m]e
 social position mu/ be c\nt$ among !   
good1 n ! bad "p ( its influ5ces1 ?\gh  
by do+ ?is x closes ! pr9cipal s*ool (  
rev]5ce 7z to m]ely human relations7 :i*
 exi/s 9 society4 ,b also democracy1 9  

its v ess5ce1 insi/s s mu* m =cibly on !
 ?+s 9 :i* all are entitl$ to be        
consid]$ equally ?an on ^? 9 :i* "o     
p]son is entitl$ to m consid]ation ?an  
ano!r1 t respect = ev5 p]sonal          
sup]iority is likely to be bel[ ! m>k4  
,x is = ?is1 among o!r reasons1 ,i hold 
x ( s mu* importance t ! in/itutions ( !
 c\ntry %\ld /amp ! op9ions ( p]sons ( a
 m educat$ class z entitl$ to great]    
weight ?an ^? ( ! less educat$2 & ,i    
%\ld /ill cont5d = assign+ plurality (  
votes to au!nticat$ sup]iority (        
education 7 x only to give ! tone to    
public feel+1 irrespective ( any direct 
political consequ5ces4  ,:5 !re does    
exi/ 9 ! electoral body an adequate s5se
 ( ! extraord9>y diff]5ce 9 value betwe5
 "o p]son & ano!r1 !y w n lack signs by 
:i* to di/+ui% ! p]sons ^: wor? = _!    
purposes is ! greate/4 ,actual public   
s]vices w naturally be ! =emo/          
indication3 to h fill$ po/s ( magnitude1
 & done important ?+s 9 !m1 ( :i* !     
wisdom has be5 ju/ifi$ by ! results2 to 

h be5 ! au?or ( measures :i* appe> f _! 
effects to h be5 wisely plann$2 to h    
made pr$ictions :i* h be5 ( v]ifi$ by ! 
ev5t1 seldom or nev] falsifi$ by x2 to h
 giv5 advice1 :i* :5 tak5 has be5 foll[$
 by good consequ5ces--:5 neglect$1 by   
bad4 ,!re is d\btless a l>ge portion (  
unc]ta9ty 9 ^! signs ( wisdom2 b we are 
seek+ = su* z c be appli$ by p]sons (   
ord9>y disc]nm5t4 ,!y w d well n to rely
 mu* on any "o indication1 unless       
corroborat$ by ! re/1 &1 9 _! e/imation 
( ! success or m]it ( any practical     
ef=t1 to lay great /ress on ! g5]al     
op9ion ( dis9t]e/$ p]sons conv]sant ) ! 
subject matt]4 ,! te/s :i* ,i h spok5 ( 
are only applicable to tri$ m51 among   
:om mu/ be reckon$ ^? :o1 ?\gh untri$   
practically1 h be5 tri$ speculatively2  
:o1 9 public spee* or 9 pr9t1 h discuss$
 public affairs 9 a mann] :i* proves t  
!y h giv5 s]i\s /udy to !m4 ,su* p]sons 
may1 9 ! m]e "* ( political ?9k]s1 h    
exhibit$ a consid]able am\nt ( ! same   
titles to confid5ce z ^? :o h be5 prov$ 

9 ! position ( practical /atesm54 ,:5 x 
is necess>y to *oose p]sons :olly       
untri$1 ! be/ crit]ia are1 reputation = 
ability among ^? :o p]sonally "k !m1 & !
 confid5ce plac$ & recomm5dations giv5  
by p]sons already look$ up to4 ,by te/s 
l ^!1 con/itu5cies :o suffici5tly value 
m5tal ability1 & eag]ly seek = x1 w     
g5]ally succe$ 9 obta9+ m5 beyond       
m$iocrity1 & (t5 m5 :om !y c tru/ to    
c>ry on public affairs accord+ to _!    
unfett]$ judgm5t2 to :om x w\ld be an   
affront to require t !y %\ld give up t  
judgm5t at ! behe/ ( _! inf]iors 9 k4   
,if su* p]sons1 hone/ly s\ght1 are n to 
be f\nd1 !n inde$ ! electors are ju/ifi$
 9 tak+ o!r precautions1 = !y c n be    
expect$ to po/pone _! p>ticul> op9ions1 
unless 9 ord] t !y may be s]v$ by a     
p]son ( sup]ior k to _! own4 ,!y w\ld d 
well1 inde$1 ev5 !n1 to rememb] t :5    
once *os51 ! repres5tative1 if he       
devotes himself to 8 duty1 has great]   
opportunities ( correct+ an orig9al     
false judgm5t ?an fall to ! lot ( mo/ ( 

8 con/itu5ts2 a consid]ation :i* g5]ally
 ought to prev5t !m 7unless compell$ by 
necessity to *oose "s "o ^: imp>tiality 
!y d n fully tru/7 f exact+ a pl$ge n to
 *ange 8 op9ion1 or1 if he does1 to     
resign 8 seat4 ,b :5 an unkn[n p]son1 n 
c]tifi$ 9 unmi/akable t]ms by "s high   
au?ority1 is elect$ = ! fir/ "t1 !      
elector c n be expect$ n to make        
con=mity to 8 own s5tim5ts ! prim>y     
requisite4 ,x is en\gh if he does n     
reg>d a subsequ5t *ange ( ^? s5tim5ts1  
hone/ly av[$1 ) its gr\nds undisguis$ly 
/at$1 z a p]emptory reason = )draw+ 8   
confid5ce4  ,ev5 suppos+ ! mo/ tri$     
ability & ackn[l$g$ em95ce ( "* 9 !     
repres5tative1 ! private op9ions ( !    
electors are n to be plac$ entirely 9   
abeyance4 ,def]5ce to m5tal sup]iority  
is n to g ! l5g? (                      
self-annihilation--abnegation ( any     
p]sonal op9ion4 ,b :5 ! diff]5ce does n 
relate to ! fundam5tals ( politics1     
h[ev] decid$ ! elector may be 9 8 own   
s5tim5ts1 he ought to consid] t :5 an   

able man diff]s f him !re is at lea/ a  
consid]able *ance ( 8 be+ 9 ! wrong1 & t
 ev5 if o!rwise1 x is wor? :ile to give 
up 8 op9ion 9 ?+s n absolutely ess5tial1
 = ! sake ( ! ine/imable advantage (    
hav+ an able man to act = him 9 ! _m    
matt]s 9 :i* he himself is n qualifi$ to
 =m a judgm5t4 ,9 su* cases he (t5      
endeav\rs to reconcile bo? wi%es by     
induc+ ! able man to sacrifice 8 own    
op9ion on ! po9ts ( diff]5ce2 b = ! able
 man to l5d himself to ?is compromise is
 treason aga9/ 8 especial               
(fice--abdication ( ! peculi> duties (  
m5tal supremacy1 ( :i* x is "o ( ! mo/  
sacr$ n to des]t ! cause :i* has !      
clamor aga9/ x1 nor to deprive ( 8      
s]vices ^? ( 8 op9ions :i* ne$ !m ! mo/4
 ,a man ( consci5ce & kn[n ability %\ld 
insi/ on full fre$om to act z he 9 8 own
 judgm5t deems be/1 & %\ld n cons5t to  
s]ve on any o!r t]ms4 ,b ! electors are 
entitl$ to "k h[ he means to act2 :at   
op9ions1 on all ?+s :i* conc]n 8 public 
duty1 he int5ds %\ld guide 8 conduct4   

,if "s ( ^! are unacceptable to !m1 x is
 = him to satisfy !m t he nev]!less     
des]ves to be _! repres5tative2 & if !y 
are wise1 !y w ov]look1 9 favor ( 8     
g5]al value1 _m & great diff]5ces betwe5
 8 op9ions & _! own4 ,!re are "s        
diff]5ces1 h[ev]1 :i* !y c n be expect$ 
to ov]look4 ,:oev] feels ! am\nt (      
int]e/ 9 ! gov]nm5t ( 8 c\ntry :i*      
befits a freeman1 has "s convictions on 
national affairs :i* are l 8 life-blood2
 :i* ! /r5g? ( 8 belief 9 _! tru?1      
toge!r ) ! importance he atta*es to !m1 
=bid him to make a subject ( compromise1
 or po/pone to ! judgm5t ( any p]son1   
h[ev] greatly 8 sup]ior4 ,su*           
convictions1 :5 !y exi/ 9 a p1 or 9 any 
appreciable portion ( "o1 are entitl$ to
 influ5ce 9 virtue ( _! m]e exi/5ce1 & n
 solely 9 t ( ! probability ( _! be+    
gr\nd$ 9 tru?4 ,a p c n be well gov]n$ 9
 opposition to _! prim>y notions ( "r1  
ev5 ?\gh ^! may be 9 "s po9ts errone\s4 
,a correct e/imate ( ! relation :i* %\ld
 subsi/ betwe5 gov]nors & gov]n$ does n 

require ! electors to cons5t to be      
repres5t$ by "o :o int5ds to gov]n !m 9 
opposition to _! fundam5tal convictions4
 ,if !y avail !mselves ( 8 capacities ( 
useful s]vice 9 o!r respects at a "t :5 
! po9ts on :i* he is vitally at issue ) 
!m are n likely to be moot$1 !y are     
ju/ifi$ 9 dismiss+ him at ! fir/ mom5t  
:5 a "q arises involv+ ^!1 & on :i* !re 
is n s assur$ a majority = :at !y deem  
"r z to make ! diss5t+ voice ( t        
p>ticul> individual unimportant4 ,?us   
7,i m5tion names to illu/rate my mean+1 
n = any p]sonal application7 ! op9ions  
suppos$ to be ent]ta9$ by ,mr4 ,cobd5 & 
,mr4 ,bright on resi/ance to =eign      
aggression might be ov]look$ dur+ !     
,crimean w>1 :5 !re 0 an ov]:elm+       
national feel+ on ! contr>y side1 &     
might yet v prop]ly lead to _! rejection
 by ! electors at ! "t ( ! ,*9ese qu>rel
 7?\gh 9 itself a m d\btful "q71 because
 x 0 !n = "s "t a moot po9t :e!r _! view
 ( ! case might n prevail4  ,z ! g5]al  
result ( :at prec$es1 we may affirm t   

actual pl$ges %\ld n be requir$ unless1 
f unfavorable social circum/ances or    
family in/itutions1 ! electors are s    
n>r[$ 9 _! *oice z to be compell$ to fix
 x on a p]son presumptively "u !        
influ5ce ( p>tialities ho/ile to _!     
int]e/3 ,t !y are entitl$ to a full k ( 
! political op9ions & s5tim5ts ( !      
c&idate2 & n only entitl$1 b (t5 b\nd to
 reject "o :o diff]s f !mselves on ! few
 articles :i* are ! f\ndation ( _!      
political belief3 t1 9 proportion to !  
op9ion !y ent]ta9 ( ! m5tal sup]iority (
 a c&idate1 !y ought to put up ) 8      
express+ & act+ on op9ions diff]5t f    
!irs on any numb] ( ?+s n includ$ 9 _!  
fundam5tal articles ( belief3 t !y ought
 to be unremitt+ 9 _! se>* = a          
repres5tative ( su* calibre z to be     
intru/$ ) full p[] ( obey+ ! dictates ( 
8 own judgm5t3 t !y %\ld consid] x a    
duty :i* !y owe to _! fell[-c\ntrym51 to
 d _! utmo/ t[>d plac+ m5 ( ?is quality 
9 ! ,legislature1 & t x is ( mu* great] 
importance to !mselves to be repres5t$  

by su* a man ?an by "o :o pr(esses      
agreem5t 9 a great] numb] ( _! op9ions2 
= ! b5efits ( 8 ability are c]ta91 :ile 
! hypo!sis ( 8 be+ wrong & _! be+ "r on 
! po9ts ( diff]5ce is a v d\btful "o4   
,i h discuss$ ?is "q on ! assumption t !
 electoral sy/em1 9 all t dep5ds on     
positive in/itution1 con=ms to !        
pr9ciples laid d[n 9 ! prec$+ *apt]s4   
,ev5 on ?is hypo!sis1 ! delegation !ory 
( repres5tation seems to me false1 & its
 practical op]ation hurtful1 ?\gh !     
mis*ief w\ld 9 t case be conf9$ )9 c]ta9
 b\nds4 ,b if ! securities by :i* ,i h  
endeav\r$ to gu>d ! repres5tative       
pr9ciple are n recogniz$ by !           
,con/itution2 if provision is n made = !
 repres5tation ( m9orities1 nor any     
diff]5ce admitt$ 9 ! num]ical value (   
votes1 accord+ to "s crit]ion ( ! am\nt 
( education possess$ by ! vot]s--9 t    
case1 no words c exagg]ate ! importance 
9 pr9ciple ( leav+ an unfett]$          
discretion to ! repres5tative2 = x w\ld 
!n be ! only *ance1 "u univ]sal         

suffrage1 = any o!r op9ions ?an ^? ( !  
majority to be he>d 9 ,p>liam5t4 ,9 t   
falsely call$ democracy :i* is really ! 
exclusive rule ( ! op]ative classes1 all
 o!rs be+ unrepres5t$ & unhe>d1 ! only  
escape f class legislation 9 its n>r[e/1
 & political ignorance 9 its mo/ dang]\s
 =m1 w\ld lie 9 su* disposition z !     
un$ucat$ might h to *oose educat$       
repres5tatives1 & to def] to _! op9ions4
 ,"s will+ness to d ?is might reasonably
 be expect$1 & e ?+ w\ld dep5d ^u       
cultivat+ x to ! highe/ po9t4 ,b1 once  
inve/$ ) political omnipot5ce1 if !     
op]ative classes volunt>ily concurr$ 9  
impos+ 9 ?is or any o!r mann] any       
consid]able limitation ^u _! self-op9ion
 & self-w1 !y w\ld prove !mselves wis]  
?an any class possess$ ( absolute p[]   
has %[n itself1 or1 we may v5ture to    
say1 is ev] likely to %[ itself "u t    
corrupt+ influ5ce4    ,*apt] ,,xiii--,( 
a ,second ,*amb]4   ,( all topics relat+
 to ! !ory ( repres5tative gov]nm5t1    
none h be5 ! subject ( m discussion1    

especially on ! ,cont95t1 ?an :at is    
kn[n z ! "q ( ! ,two ,*amb]s4 ,x has    
occupi$ a great] am\nt ( ! att5tion (   
?9k]s ?an _m que/ions ( t5 times its    
importance1 & has be5 reg>d$ z a sort ( 
t\*/one :i* di/+ui%es ! p>tisans (      
limit$ f ^? ( uncontroll$ democracy4 ,= 
my own "p1 ,i set little value on any   
*eck :i* a ,second ,*amb] c apply to a  
democracy o!rwise un*eck$2 & ,i am      
incl9$ to ?9k t if all o!r con/itutional
 que/ions are rightly decid$1 x is (    
comp>atively little importance :e!r !   
,p>liam5t consi/s ( two ,*amb]s or only 
( "o4  ,if !re are two *amb]s1 !y may   
ei!r be ( simil> or ( dissimil>         
composition4 ,if ( simil>1 bo? w obey ! 
same influ5ces1 & :atev] has a majority 
9 "o ( ! h\ses w be likely to h x 9 !   
o!r4 ,x is true t ! necessity ( obta9+ !
 cons5t ( bo? to ! pass+ ( any measure  
may at times be a mat]ial ob/acle to    
improvem5t1 s9ce1 assum+ bo? ! h\ses to 
be repres5tative & equal 9 _! numb]s1 a 
numb] slightly exce$+ a f\r? ( ! entire 

repres5tation may prev5t ! pass+ ( a    
bill2 :ile1 if !re is b "o h\se1 a bill 
is secure ( pass+ if x has a b>e        
majority4 ,b ! case suppos$ is r        
ab/ract$ly possible ?an likely to occur 
9 practice4 ,x w n (t5 happ5 t1 ( two   
h\ses simil>ly compos$1 "o w be almo/   
unanim\s1 & ! o!r ne>ly equally divid$2 
if a majority 9 "o rejects a measure1   
!re w g5]ally h be5 a l>ge m9ority      
unfavorable to x 9 ! o!r2 any           
improvem5t1 !re=e1 :i* c\ld be ?us      
imp$$1 w\ld 9 almo/ all cases be "o :i* 
_h n mu* m ?an a simple majority 9 !    
entire body1 & ! wor/ consequ5ce t c\ld 
ensue w\ld be to delay = a %ort "t !    
pass+ ( ! measure1 or give rise to a    
fre% appeal to ! electors to asc]ta9 if 
! small majority 9 ,p>liam5t correspond$
 to an effective "o 9 ! c\ntry4 ,!      
inconv5i5ce ( delay1 & ! advantages ( ! 
appeal to ! nation1 might be reg>d$ 9   
?is case z ab\t equally balanc$4  ,i    
atta* little weight to ! argum5t (t5e/  
urg$ = hav+ two ,*amb]s--to prev5t      

precipitancy1 & compel a second         
delib]ation2 = x mu/ be a v             
ill-con/itut$ repres5tative assembly 9  
:i* ! e/abli%$ =ms ( bus9ess d n require
 _m m ?an two delib]ations4 ,!          
consid]ation :i* tells mo/1 9 my        
judgm5t1 9 favor ( two ,*amb]s 7& ?is ,i
 d reg>d z ( "s mom5t71 is ! evil effect
 produc$ ^u ! m9d ( any hold] ( p[]1    
:e!r an individual or an assembly1 by ! 
consci\sness ( hav+ only !mselves to    
consult4 ,x is important t no set (     
p]sons %\ld be able1 ev5 tempor>ily1 to 
make _! sic volo prevail )\t ask+ any "o
 else = 8 cons5t4 ,a majority 9 a s+le  
assembly1 :5 x has assum$ a p]man5t     
"*--:5 compos$ ( ! same p]sons          
habitually act+ toge!r1 & always assur$ 
( victory 9 _! own ,h\se--easily becomes
 despotic & ov]we5+ if releas$ f !      
necessity ( consid]+ :e!r its acts w be 
concurr$ 9 by ano!r con/itut$ au?ority4 
,! same reason :i* induc$ ! ,romans to h
 two consuls makes x desirable !re %\ld 
be two ,*amb]s--t nei!r ( !m may be     

expos$ to ! corrupt+ influ5ce ( undivid$
 p[] ev5 = ! space ( a s+le ye>4 ,"o ( !
 mo/ indisp5sable requisites 9 !        
practical conduct ( politics1 especially
 9 ! managem5t ( free in/itutions1 is   
conciliation2 a read9ess to compromise2 
a will+ness to conc$e some?+ to         
oppon5ts1 & to %ape good measures s z to
 be z little (f5sive z possible to      
p]sons ( opposite views2 & ( ?is salut>y
 habit1 ! mutual give & take 7z x has   
be5 call$7 betwe5 two h\ses is a        
p]petual s*ool--useful z su* ev5 n[1 &  
its utility w\ld probably be ev5 m felt 
9 a m democratic con/itution ( !        
,legislature4  ,b ! h\ses ne$ n bo? be (
 ! same composition2 !y may be int5d$ z 
a *eck on "o ano!r4 ,"o be+ suppos$     
democratic1 ! o!r w naturally be        
con/itut$ ) a view to its be+ "s re/ra9t
 ^u ! democracy4 ,b its efficacy 9 ?is  
respect :olly dep5ds on ! social support
 :i* x c comm& outside ! ,h\se4 ,an     
assembly :i* does n re/ on ! basis ( "s 
great p[] 9 ! c\ntry is ineffectual     

aga9/ "o :i* does4 ,an ari/ocratic ,h\se
 is only p[]ful 9 an ari/ocratic /ate ( 
society4 ,! ,h\se ( ,lords 0 once !     
/ronge/ p[] 9 our ,con/itution1 & !     
,commons only a *eck+ body2 b ?is 0 :5 !
 b>ons 7 almo/ ! only p[] out ( doors4  
,i c n believe t1 9 a really democratic 
/ate ( society1 ! ,h\se ( ,lords w\ld be
 ( any practical value z a mod]ator (   
democracy4 ,:5 ! =ce on "o side is      
feeble 9 comp>ison ) t on ! o!r1 ! way  
to give x effect is n to draw bo? out 9 
l9e1 & mu/] _! /r5g? 9 op5 field ov]    
aga9/ "o ano!r4 ,su* tactics w\ld insure
 ! utt] defeat ( ! less p[]ful4 ,x c    
only act to advantage by n hold+ itself 
ap>t1 & compell+ e "o to decl>e himself 
ei!r ) or aga9/ x1 b tak+ a position    
among ! cr[d r ?an 9 opposition to x1 & 
draw+ to itself ! elem5ts mo/ capable ( 
ally+ !mselves ) x on any giv5 po9t2 n  
appe>+ at all z an antagoni/ body1 to   
provoke a g5]al rally aga9/ x1 b work+ z
 "o ( ! elem5ts 9 a mix$ mass1 infus+   
its leav51 & (t5 mak+ :at w\ld be !     

weak] "p ! /rong]1 by ! addition ( its  
influ5ce4 ,! really mod]at+ p[] 9 a     
democratic con/itution mu/ act 9 & ?r\gh
 ! democratic ,h\se4  ,t !re %\ld be1 9 
e polity1 a c5tre ( resi/ance to !      
pr$om9ant p[] 9 ! ,con/itution--& 9 a   
democratic con/itution1 !re=e1 a nucleus
 ( resi/ance to ! democracy--,i h       
already ma9ta9$2 & ,i reg>d x z a       
fundam5tal maxim ( gov]nm5t4 ,if any p  
:o possess a democratic repres5tation   
are1 f _! hi/orical antec$5ts1 m will+  
to tol]ate su* a c5tre ( resi/ance 9 !  
=m ( a ,second ,*amb] or ,h\se ( ,lords 
?an 9 any o!r %ape1 ?is con/itutes a    
/rong] reason = hav+ x 9 t %ape4 ,b x   
does n appe> to me ! be/ %ape 9 itself1 
nor by any means ! mo/ efficaci\s = its 
object4 ,if !re are two h\ses1 "o       
consid]$ to repres5t ! p1 ! o!r to      
repres5t only a class1 or n to be       
repres5tative at all1 ,i c n ?9k t1 :]e 
democracy is ! rul+ p[] 9 society1 !    
second ,h\se w\ld h any real ability to 
resi/ ev5 ! ab]rations ( ! fir/4 ,x     

might be suff]$ to exi/ 9 def]5ce to    
habit & association1 b n z an effective 
*eck4 ,if x ex]cis$ an indep5d5t w1 x   
w\ld be requir$ to d s 9 ! same g5]al _s
 z ! o!r ,h\se2 to be equally democratic
 ) x1 & to cont5t itself ) correct+ !   
accid5tal ov]sights ( ! m popul> bran* (
 ! ,legislature1 or compet+ ) x 9 popul>
 measures4  ,! practicability ( any real
 *eck to ! asc5dancy ( ! majority dep5ds
 h5ce=? on ! di/ribution ( /r5g? 9 ! mo/
 popul> bran* ( ! gov]n+ body2 & ,i h   
indicat$ ! mode 9 :i*1 to ! be/ ( my    
judgm5t1 a balance ( =ces might mo/     
advantage\sly be e/abli%$ !re4 ,i h also
 po9t$ out t1 ev5 if ! num]ical majority
 7 all[$ to ex]cise complete pr$om9ance 
by means ( a correspond+ majority 9     
,p>liam5t1 yet if m9orities also are    
p]mitt$ to enjoy ! equal "r due to !m on
 /rictly democratic pr9ciples1 ( be+    
repres5t$ proportionally to _! numb]s1  
?is provision w insure ! p]petual       
pres5ce 9 ! ,h\se1 by ! same popul>     
title z its o!r memb]s1 ( s _m ( ! fir/ 

intellects 9 ! c\ntry1 t )\t be+ 9 any  
way b&$ ap>t1 or inve/$ ) any invidi\s  
pr]ogative1 ?is portion ( ! national    
repres5tation w h a p]sonal weight mu* m
 ?an 9 proportion to its num]ical /r5g?1
 & w af=d1 9 a mo/ effective =m1 ! moral
 c5tre ( resi/ance :i* is ne$$4 ,a      
second ,*amb]1 !re=e1 is n requir$ = ?is
 purpose1 & w\ld n contribute to x1 b   
might ev51 9 "s degree1 t5d to          
compromise x4 ,if1 h[ev]1 = ! o!r       
reasons already m5tion$1 ! decision 7   
tak5 t !re %\ld be su* a ,*amb]1 x is   
desirable t x %\ld be compos$ ( elem5ts 
:i*1 )\t be+ op5 to ! imputation ( class
 int]e/s adv]se to ! majority1 w\ld     
incl9e x to oppose itself to ! class    
int]e/s ( ! majority1 & qualify x to    
raise its voice ) au?ority aga9/ _!     
errors & weaknesses4 ,^! conditions     
evid5tly are n f\nd 9 a body con/itut$ 9
 ! mann] ( our ,h\se ( ,lords4 ,s soon z
 conv5tional rank & individual ri*es no 
long] ov]awe ! democracy1 a ,h\se (     
,lords becomes insignificant4  ,( all   

pr9ciples on :i* a wisely cons]vative   
body1 de/9$ to mod]ate & regulate       
democratic asc5dancy1 c\ld possibly be  
con/ruct$1 ! be/ seems to be t          
exemplifi$ 9 ! ,roman ,s5ate1 itself !  
mo/ consi/5tly prud5t & sagaci\s body t 
ev] adm9i/]$ public affairs4 ,!         
defici5cies ( a democratic assembly1 :i*
 repres5ts ! g5]al public1 are !        
defici5cies ( ! public itself1 want (   
special tra9+ & k4 ,! appropriate       
corrective is to associate ) x a body ( 
:i* special tra9+ & k %\ld be !         
*>act]i/ics4 ,if "o ,h\se repres5ts     
popul> feel+1 ! o!r %\ld repres5t       
p]sonal m]it1 te/$ & gu>ante$ by actual 
public s]vice1 & =tifi$ by practical    
exp]i5ce4 ,if "o is ! ,p's ,*amb]1 ! o!r
 %\ld be ! ,*amb] ( ,/atesm5--a c\ncil  
compos$ ( all liv+ public m5 :o h pass$ 
?r\gh important political (fice or      
employm5t4 ,su* a ,*amb] w\ld be fitt$ =
 mu* m ?an to be a m]ely mod]at+ body4  
,x w\ld n be exclusively a *eck1 b also 
an impell+ =ce4 ,9 its h&s1 ! p[] (     

hold+ ! p back w\ld be ve/$ 9 ^? mo/    
compet5t1 & :o w\ld !n be mo/ incl9$ to 
lead !m =w>d 9 any "r c\rse4 ,! c\ncil  
to :om ! task w\ld be intru/$ ( rectify+
 ! p's mi/akes w\ld n repres5t a class  
believ$ to be oppos$ to _! int]e/1 b    
w\ld consi/ ( _! own natural lead]s 9 ! 
pa? ( progress4 ,no mode ( composition  
c\ld approa* to ?is 9 giv+ weight &     
efficacy to _! function ( mod]ators4 ,x 
w\ld be impossible to cry d[n a body    
always =emo/ 9 promot+ improvem5ts z a  
m]e ob/ructive body1 :atev] am\nt (     
mis*ief x might ob/ruct4  ,7 ! place    
vacant 9 ,engl& = su* a ,s5ate 7,i ne$  
sc>cely say t ?is is a m]e hypo!sis71 x 
might be compos$ ( "s su* elem5ts z !   
foll[+3 ,all :o 7 or _h be5 memb]s ( !  
,legislative ,commission describ$ 9 a   
=m] *apt]1 & :i* ,i reg>d z an          
indisp5sable +r$i5t 9 a well con/itut$  
popul> gov]nm5t4 ,all :o 7 or _h be5    
*ief ju/ices1 or heads ( any ( ! sup]ior
 c\rts ( law or equity4 ,all :o _h =    
five ye>s fill$ ! (fice ( puisne judge4 

,all :o _h held = two ye>s any cab9et   
(fice2 b ^! %\ld also be eligible to !  
,h\se ( ,commons1 &1 if elect$ memb]s ( 
x1 _! pe]age or s5atorial (fice %\ld be 
held 9 susp5se4 ,! condition ( "t is    
ne$$ to prev5t p]sons f be+ nam$ cab9et 
m9i/]s m]ely to give !m a seat 9 !      
,s5ate2 & ! p]iod ( two ye>s is sugge/$1
 t ! same t]m :i* qualifies !m = a      
p5sion might entitle !m to a s5ator%ip4 
,all :o _h fill$ ! (fice (              
comm&]-9-*ief2 & all :o1 hav+ comm&$ an 
army or a fleet1 _h be5 ?ank$ by        
,p>liam5t = milit>y or naval successes4 
,all gov]nors g5]al ( ,india or ,briti% 
,am]ica1 & all :o _h held = t5 ye>s any 
colonial gov]nor%ips4 ,! p]man5t civil  
s]vice %\ld also be repres5t$2 all %\ld 
be s5ators :o _h fill$1 dur+ t5 ye>s1 ! 
important (fices ( "u-secret>y to !     
,treasury1 p]man5t "u-secret>y ( ,/ate1 
or any o!rs equally high & responsible4 
,! functions conf]r+ ! s5atorial dignity
 %\ld be limit$ to ^? ( a legal1        
political1 or milit>y or naval "*4      

,sci5tific & lit]>y em95ce are too      
indef9ite & disputable3 !y imply a p[] (
 selection1 :]eas ! o!r qualifications  
speak = !mselves2 if ! writ+s by :i*    
reputation has be5 ga9$ are unconnect$ )
 politics1 !y are no evid5ce ( ! special
 qualities requir$1 :ile1 if political1 
!y w\ld enable successive m9i/ries to   
deluge ! ,h\se ) p>ty tools4  ,!        
hi/orical antec$5ts ( ,engl& r5d] x all 
b c]ta9 t1 unless 9 ! improbable case ( 
a viol5t subv]sion ( ! exi/+            
,con/itution1 any second ,*amb] :i* c\ld
 possibly exi/ w\ld h to be built on !  
f\ndation ( ! ,h\se ( ,lords4 ,x is out 
( ! "q to ?9k practically ( aboli%+ t   
assembly1 to replace x by su* a ,s5ate z
 ,i h sket*$ or by any o!r2 b !re might 
n be ! same insup]able difficulty 9     
aggregat+ ! classes or categories j     
spok5 ( to ! exi/+ body 9 ! "* ( pe]s = 
life4 ,an ult]ior1 & p]haps1 on ?is     
supposition1 a necess>y /ep1 might be1 t
 ! h]$it>y pe]age %\ld be pres5t 9 !    
,h\se by _! repres5tatives in/ead (     

p]sonally3 a practice already e/abli%$ 9
 ! case ( ! ,scot* & ,iri% pe]s1 & :i* !
 m]e multiplication ( ! ord] w probably 
at "s "t or o!r r5d] inevitable4 ,an    
easy adaptation ( ,mr4 ,h>e's plan w\ld 
prev5t ! repres5tative pe]s f repres5t+ 
exclusively ! p>ty :i* has ! majority 9 
! pe]age4 ,if1 = example1 "o            
repres5tative 7 all[$ = e t5 pe]s1 any  
t5 might be admitt$ to *oose a          
repres5tative1 & ! pe]s might be free to
 gr\p !mselves = t purpose z !y pleas$4 
,! election might be ?us conduct$3 ,all 
pe]s :o 7 c&idates = ! repres5tation (  
_! ord] %\ld be requir$ to decl>e       
!mselves su*1 & ent] _! names 9 a li/4  
,a day & place %\ld be appo9t$ at :i*   
pe]s desir\s ( vot+ %\ld be pres5t1 ei!r
 9 p]son1 or1 9 ! usual ,p>liam5t>y     
mann]1 by _! proxies4 ,! votes %\ld be  
tak51 ea* pe] vot+ = only "o4 ,e c&idate
 :o _h z _m z t5 votes %\ld be decl>$   
elect$4 ,if any "o _h m1 all b t5 %\ld  
be all[$ to )draw _! votes1 or t5 ( !   
numb] %\ld be select$ by lot4 ,^! t5    

w\ld =m 8 con/itu5cy1 & ! rema9d] ( 8   
vot]s w\ld be set free to give _! votes 
ov] aga9 = "s "o else4 ,?is process %\ld
 be repeat$ until 7s f> z possible7 e   
pe] pres5t ei!r p]sonally or by proxy 0 
repres5t$4 ,:5 a numb] less ?an t5      
rema9$ ov]1 if am\nt+ to five !y might  
/ill be all[$ to agree on a             
repres5tative2 if few] ?an five1 _!     
votes mu/ be lo/1 or !y might be p]mitt$
 to record !m 9 favor ( somebody already
 elect$4 ,) ?is inconsid]able exception1
 e repres5tative pe] w\ld repres5t t5   
memb]s ( ! pe]age1 all ( :om _h n only  
vot$ = him1 b select$ him z ! "o1 among 
all op5 to _! *oice1 by :om !y 7 mo/    
desir\s to be repres5t$4 ,z a           
comp5sation to ! pe]s :o 7 n *os5       
repres5tatives ( _! ord]1 !y %\ld be    
eligible to ! ,h\se ( ,commons2 a ju/ice
 n[ refus$ to ,scot* pe]s1 & to ,iri%   
pe]s 9 _! own "p ( ! k+dom1 :ile !      
repres5tation 9 ! ,h\se ( ,lords ( any b
 ! mo/ num]\s p>ty 9 ! pe]age is d5i$   
equally to bo?4  ,! mode ( compos+ a    

,s5ate :i* has be5 "h advocat$ n only   
seems ! be/ 9 itself1 b is t = :i*      
hi/orical prec$5t & actual brilliant    
success c to ! greate/ ext5t be plead$4 
,x is n h[ev] ! only feasible plan t    
might be propos$4 ,ano!r possible mode (
 =m+ a ,second ,*amb] w\ld be to h x    
elect$ by ! ,fir/2 subject to !         
re/riction t !y %\ld n nom9ate any ( _! 
own memb]s4 ,su* an assembly1 emanat+1 l
 ! ,am]ican ,s5ate1 f popul> *oice only 
once remov$1 w\ld n be consid]$ to cla% 
) democratic in/itutions1 & w\ld        
probably acquire consid]able popul>     
influ5ce4 ,f ! mode ( its nom9ation1 x  
w\ld be peculi>ly unlikely to excite !  
jeal\sy (1 or to come into ho/ile       
collision ) ! popul> ,h\se4 ,x w\ld1    
moreov] 7due provision be+ made = !     
repres5tation ( ! m9ority71 be almo/    
sure to be well compos$1 & to comprise  
_m ( t class ( highly capable m5 :o1    
ei!r f accid5t or = want ( %[y          
qualities1 _h be5 unwill+ to seek1 or   
unable to obta91 ! suffrages ( a popul> 

con/itu5cy4  ,! be/ con/itution ( a     
,second ,*amb] is t :i* embodies !      
greate/ numb] ( elem5ts exempt f ! class
 int]e/s & prejudices ( ! majority1 b   
hav+ 9 !mselves no?+ (f5sive to         
democratic feel+4 ,i repeat1 h[ev]1 t ! 
ma9 reliance = temp]+ ! asc5dancy ( !   
majority c be plac$ 9 a ,second ,*amb] (
 any k9d4 ,! "* ( a repres5tative       
gov]nm5t is fix$ by ! con/itution ( !   
popul> ,h\se4 ,comp>$ ) ?is1 all o!r    
que/ions relat+ to ! =m ( gov]nm5t are  
insignificant4    ,*apt] ,,xiv--,( !    
,executive 9 a ,repres5tative ,gov]nm5t4
   ,x w\ld be out ( place 9 ?is treatise
 to discuss ! "q into :at dep>tm5ts or  
bran*es ! executive bus9ess ( gov]nm5t  
may mo/ conv5i5tly be divid$4 ,9 ?is    
respect ! exig5cies ( diff]5t gov]nm5ts 
are diff]5t2 & !re is little probability
 t any great mi/ake w be made 9 !       
classification ( ! duties :5 m5 are     
will+ to beg9 at ! beg9n+1 & d n hold   
!mselves b\nd by ! s]ies ( accid5ts :i*1
 9 an old gov]nm5t l ours1 has produc$ !

 exi/+ division ( ! public bus9ess4 ,x  
may be suffici5t to say t !             
classification ( function>ies %\ld      
correspond to t ( subjects1 & t !re %\ld
 n be sev]al dep>tm5ts indep5d5t ( "o   
ano!r1 to sup]9t5d diff]5t p>ts ( ! same
 natural :ole1 z 9 our own milit>y      
adm9i/ration d[n to a rec5t p]iod1 & 9 a
 less degree ev5 at pres5t4 ,:]e !      
object to be atta9$ is s+le 7su* z t (  
hav+ an effici5t army71 ! au?ority      
commission$ to att5d to x %\ld be s+le  
likewise4 ,! entire aggregate ( means   
provid$ = "o end %\ld be "u "o & ! same 
control & responsibility4 ,if !y are    
divid$ among indep5d5t au?orities1 !    
means ) ea* ( ^? au?orities become ends1
 & x is ! bus9ess ( nobody except ! head
 ( ! gov]nm5t1 :o has probably no       
dep>tm5tal exp]i5ce1 to take c>e ( !    
real end4 ,! diff]5t classes ( means are
 n comb9$ & adapt$ to "o ano!r "u !     
guidance ( any lead+ idea2 & :ile e     
dep>tm5t pu%es =w>d its own requirem5ts1
 reg>dless ( ^? ( ! re/1 ! purpose ( !  

"w is p]petually sacrific$ to ! "w      
itself4  ,z a g5]al rule1 e executive   
function1 :e!r sup]ior or subord9ate1   
%\ld be ! appo9t$ duty ( "s giv5        
individual4 ,x %\ld be app>5t to all !  
_w :o did e ?+1 & ?r\gh ^: default any  
?+ 0 left undone4 ,responsibility is    
null :5 nobody kn[s :o is responsible2  
nor1 ev5 :5 real1 c x be divid$ )\t be+ 
weak5$4 ,to ma9ta9 x at its highe/1 !re 
mu/ be "o p]son :o receives ! :ole      
praise ( :at is well done1 ! :ole blame 
( :at is ill4 ,!re are1 h[ev]1 two modes
 ( %>+ responsibility2 by "o x is only  
enfeebl$1 by ! o!r absolutely de/roy$4  
,x is enfeebl$ :5 ! concurr5ce ( m ?an  
"o function>y is requir$ to ! same act4 
,ea* "o among !m has /ill a real        
responsibility2 if a wrong has be5 done1
 none ( !m c say he did n d x2 he is z  
mu* a p>ticipant z an accomplice is 9 an
 (f5se3 if !re has be5 legal crim9ality1
 !y may all be puni%$ legally1 & _!     
puni%m5t ne$s n be less sev]e ?an if !re
 _h be5 only "o p]son conc]n$4 ,b x is n

 s ) ! p5alties any m ?an ) ! rew>ds (  
op9ion2 ^! are always dim9i%$ by be+    
%>$4 ,:]e !re has be5 no def9ite legal  
(f5se1 no corruption or malv]sation1    
only an error or an imprud5ce1 or :at   
may pass = su*1 e p>ticipator has an    
excuse to himself & to ! _w 9 ! fact t  
o!r p]sons are jo9tly involv$ ) him4    
,!re is h>dly any ?+1 ev5 to pecuni>y   
di%one/y1 = :i* m5 w n feel !mselves    
almo/ absolv$1 if ^? ^: duty x 0 to     
resi/ & remon/rate h fail$ to d x1 /ill 
m if !y h giv5 a =mal ass5t4  ,9 ?is    
case1 h[ev]1 ?\gh responsibility is     
weak5$1 !re /ill is responsibility3 e "o
 ( ^? implicat$ has 9 8 individual      
capacity ass5t$ to1 & jo9$ 9 ! act4 ,?+s
 are mu* worse :5 ! act itself is only t
 ( a majority--a bo>d delib]at+ ) clos$ 
doors1 nobody kn[+1 or1 except 9 "s     
extreme case1 be+ ev] likely to "k1 :e!r
 an individual memb] vot$ = ! act or    
aga9/ x4 ,responsibility 9 ?is case is a
 m]e "n4 ,bo>ds1 x is happily said by   
,b5?am1 are scre5s4 ,:at ! ,bo>d does is

 ! act ( nobody1 & nobody c be made to  
answ] = x4 ,! ,bo>d suff]s1 ev5 9       
reputation1 only 9 its collective "*2 & 
no individual memb] feels ?is fur!r ?an 
8 disposition leads him to id5tify 8 own
 e/imation ) t ( ! body--a feel+ (t5 v  
/rong :5 ! body is a p]man5t "o1 & he is
 w$d$ to x = bett] = worse2 b !         
fluctuations ( a mod]n (ficial c>e] give
 no "t = ! =mation ( su* an esprit de   
corps1 :i*1 if x exi/s at all1 exi/s    
only 9 ! obscure ranks ( ! p]man5t      
subord9ates4 ,bo>ds1 !re=e1 are n a fit 
in/rum5t = executive bus9ess1 & are only
 admissible 9 x :51 = o!r reasons1 to   
give full discretion>y p[] to a s+le    
m9i/] w\ld be worse4  ,on ! o!r h&1 x is
 also a maxim ( exp]i5ce t 9 ! multitude
 ( c\ncillors !re is wisdom1 & t a man  
seldom judges "r1 ev5 9 8 own conc]ns1  
/ill less 9 ^? ( ! public1 :5 he makes  
habitual use ( no k b 8 own1 or t ( "s  
s+le advis]4 ,!re is no necess>y        
incompatibility betwe5 ?is pr9ciple & ! 
o!r4 ,x is easy to give ! effective p[] 

& ! full responsibility to "o1 provid+  
him :5 necess>y ) advis]s1 ea* ( :om is 
responsible only = ! op9ion he gives4   
,9 g5]al1 ! head ( a dep>tm5t ( !       
executive gov]nm5t is a m]e politician4 
,he may be a good politician1 & a man ( 
m]it2 &1 unless ?is is usually ! case1 !
 gov]nm5t is bad4 ,b 8 g5]al capacity1 &
 ! k he ought to possess ( ! g5]al      
int]e/s ( ! c\ntry1 w n1 unless by      
occasional accid5t1 be accompani$ by    
adequate1 & :at may be call$ pr(essional
 k ( ! dep>tm5t ov] :i* he is call$ to  
preside4 ,pr(essional advis]s mu/ !re=e 
be provid$ = him4 ,:]ev] m]e exp]i5ce & 
atta9m5ts are suffici5t--:]ev] !        
qualities requir$ 9 a pr(essional advis]
 may possibly be unit$ 9 a s+le         
well-select$ individual 7z 9 ! case1 =  
example1 ( a law (fic]71 "o su* p]son = 
g5]al purposes1 & a /aff ( cl]ks to     
supply k ( details1 meet ! dem&s ( !    
case4 ,b1 m frequ5tly1 x is n suffici5t 
t ! m9i/] %\ld consult "s "o compet5t   
p]son1 &1 :5 himself n conv]sant ) !    

subject1 act implicitly on t p]son's    
advice4 ,x is (t5 necess>y t he %\ld1 n 
only occasionally1 b habitually1 li/5 to
 a v>iety ( op9ions1 & in=m 8 judgm5t by
 ! discussions among a body ( advis]s4  
,?is1 = example1 is emphatically        
necess>y 9 milit>y & naval affairs4 ,!  
milit>y & naval m9i/]s1 !re=e1 &        
probably sev]al o!rs1 %\ld be provid$ ) 
a ,c\ncil1 compos$1 at lea/ 9 ^? two    
dep>tm5ts1 ( able & exp]i5c$ pr(essional
 m54 ,z a means ( obta9+ ! be/ m5 = !   
purpose "u e *ange ( adm9i/ration1 !y   
ought to be p]man5t2 by :i* ,i mean t !y
 ought n1 l ! ,lords ( ! ,admiralty1 to 
be expect$ to resign ) ! m9i/ry by :om  
!y 7 appo9t$2 b x is a good rule t all  
:o hold high appo9tm5ts to :i* !y h ris5
 by selection1 & n by ! ord9>y c\rse (  
promotion1 %\ld reta9 _! (fice only = a 
fix$ t]m1 unless reappo9t$1 z is n[ !   
rule ) /aff appo9tm5ts 9 ! ,briti% army4
 ,?is rule r5d]s appo9tm5ts some:at less
 likely to be jobb$1 n be+ a provision =
 life1 & ! same "t af=ds a means1 )\t   

affront to any "o1 ( gett+ rid ( ^? :o  
are lea/ wor? keep+1 & br++ 9 highly    
qualifi$ p]sons ( y\ng] /&+1 = :om !re  
might nev] be room if dea? vacancies1 or
 volunt>y resignations 7 wait$ =4  ,!   
c\ncils %\ld be consultative m]ely1 9   
?is s5se1 t ! ultimate decision %\ld re/
 undivid$ly ) ! m9i/] himself2 b nei!r  
ought !y to be look$ ^u1 or to look ^u  
!mselves z ciph]s1 or z capable ( be+   
r$uc$ to su* at 8 pleasure4 ,! advis]s  
atta*$ to a p[]ful & p]haps self-will$  
man ought to be plac$ "u conditions :i* 
make x impossible = !m1 )\t discr$it1 n 
to express an op9ion1 & impossible = him
 n to li/5 to & consid] _!              
recomm5dations1 :e!r he adopts !m or n4 
,! relation :i* ought to exi/ betwe5 a  
*ief & ?is description ( advis]s is v   
accurately hit by ! con/itution ( !     
,c\ncil ( ! ,gov]nor ,g5]al & ^? ( !    
diff]5t ,presid5cies 9 ,india4 ,^!      
c\ncils are compos$ ( p]sons :o h       
pr(essional k ( ,indian affairs1 :i* !  
gov]nor g5]al & gov]nors usually lack1 &

 :i* x w\ld n be desirable to require ( 
!m4 ,z a rule1 e memb] ( c\ncil is      
expect$ to give an op9ion1 :i* is (     
c\rse v (t5 a simple acquiesc5ce2 b if  
!re is a diff]5ce ( s5tim5t1 x is at !  
option ( e memb]1 & is ! inv>iable      
practice1 to record ! reasons ( 8       
op9ion1 ! gov]nor g5]al1 or gov]nor1 do+
 ! same4 ,9 ord9>y cases ! decision is  
accord+ to ! s5se ( ! majority2 !       
c\ncil1 !re=e1 has a sub/antial "p 9 !  
gov]nm5t2 b if ! gov]nor g5]al1 or      
gov]nor1 ?9ks fit1 he may set aside ev5 
_! unanim\s op9ion1 record+ 8 reasons4  
,! result is1 t ! *ief is individually &
 effectively responsible = e act ( !    
gov]nm5t4 ,! memb]s ( c\ncil h only !   
responsibility ( advis]s2 b x is always 
kn[n1 f docum5ts capable ( be+ produc$1 
& :i*1 if call$ = by ,p>liam5t or public
 op9ion always are produc$1 :at ea* has 
advis$1 & :at reasons he gave = 8       
advice2 :ile1 f _! dignifi$ position1 & 
o/5sible p>ticipation 9 all acts (      
gov]nm5t1 !y h ne>ly z /rong motives to 

apply !mselves to ! public bus9ess1 & to
 =m & express a well-consid]$ op9ion on 
e "p ( x1 z if ! :ole responsibility    
re/$ ) !mselves4  ,?is mode ( conduct+ !
 highe/ class ( adm9i/rative bus9ess is 
"o ( ! mo/ successful in/ances ( !      
adaptation ( means to ends :i* political
 hi/ory1 n hi!rto v prolific 9 works (  
skill & contrivance1 has yet to %[4 ,x  
is "o ( ! acquisitions ) :i* ! art (    
politics has be5 enri*$ by ! exp]i5ce ( 
! ,ea/ ,india ,company's rule2 &1 l mo/ 
( ! o!r wise contrivances by :i* ,india 
has be5 pres]v$ to ?is c\ntry1 & an     
am\nt ( good gov]nm5t produc$ :i* is    
truly wond]ful consid]+ ! circum/ances &
 ! mat]ials1 x is probably de/9$ to p]i%
 9 ! g5]al holocau/ :i* ! traditions (  
,indian gov]nm5t seem fat$ to und]go    
s9ce !y h be5 plac$ at ! m]cy ( public  
ignorance & ! presumptu\s vanity (      
political m54 ,already an outcry is     
rais$ = aboli%+ ! c\ncils z a sup]flu\s 
& exp5sive clog on ! :eels ( gov]nm5t2  
:ile ! clamor has long be5 urg5t1 & is  

daily obta9+ m c\nt5ance 9 ! highe/     
qu>t]s1 = ! abrogation ( ! pr(essional  
civil s]vice1 :i* bre$s ! m5 t compose !
 c\ncils1 & ! exi/5ce ( :i* is ! sole   
gu>anty = _! be+ ( any value4  ,a mo/   
important pr9ciple ( good gov]nm5t 9 a  
popul> con/itution is t no executive    
function>ies %\ld be appo9t$ by popul>  
election1 nei!r by ! votes ( ! p        
!mselves1 nor by ^? ( _! repres5tatives4
 ,! entire bus9ess ( gov]nm5t is skill$ 
employm5t2 ! qualifications = ! dis*>ge 
( x are ( t special & pr(essional k9d   
:i* c n be prop]ly judg$ ( except by    
p]sons :o h !mselves "s %>e ( ^?        
qualifications1 or "s practical exp]i5ce
 ( !m4 ,! bus9ess ( f9d+ ! fitte/ p]sons
 to fill public employm5ts--n m]ely     
select+ ! be/ :o (f]1 b look+ out = !   
absolutely be/1 & tak+ note ( all fit   
p]sons :o are met )1 t !y may be f\nd :5
 want$--is v labori\s1 & requires a     
delicate z well z highly consci5ti\s    
disc]nm5t2 & z !re is no public duty :i*
 is 9 g5]al s badly p]=m$1 s !re is none

 = :i* x is ( great] importance to en=ce
 ! utmo/ practicable am\nt ( p]sonal    
responsibility1 by impos+ x z a special 
obligation on high function>ies 9 !     
sev]al dep>tm5ts4 ,all subord9ate public
 (fic]s :o are n appo9t$ by "s mode (   
public competition %\ld be select$ on ! 
direct responsibility ( ! m9i/] "u :om  
!y s]ve4 ,! m9i/]s1 all b ! *ief1 w     
naturally be select$ by ! *ief2 & ! *ief
 himself1 ?\gh really designat$ by      
,p>liam5t1 %\ld be1 9 a regal gov]nm5t1 
(ficially appo9t$ by ! cr[n4 ,!         
function>y :o appo9ts %\ld be ! sole    
p]son emp[]$ to remove any subord9ate   
(fic] :o is liable to removal1 :i* ! f> 
great] numb] ought n to be1 except =    
p]sonal misconduct1 s9ce x w\ld be va9  
to expect t ! body ( p]sons by :om !    
:ole detail ( ! public bus9ess is       
transact$1 & ^: qualifications are      
g5]ally ( mu* m importance to ! public  
?an ^? ( ! m9i/] himself1 w devote      
!mselves to _! pr(ession1 & acquire ! k 
& skill on :i* ! m9i/] mu/ (t5 place    

entire dep5d5ce1 if !y are liable at any
 mom5t to be turn$ adrift = no fault1 t 
! m9i/] may gratify himself1 or promote 
8 political int]e/1 by appo9t+ somebody 
else4  ,to ! pr9ciple :i* condemns !    
appo9tm5t ( executive (fic]s by popul>  
suffrage1 ought ! *ief ( ! executive1 9 
a republican gov]nm5t1 to be an         
exception8 ,is x a good rule :i*1 9 !   
,am]ican ,con/itution1 provides = !     
election ( ! ,presid5t once 9 e f\r ye>s
 by ! entire p8 ,! "q is n free f       
difficulty4 ,!re is unque/ionably "s    
advantage1 9 a c\ntry l ,am]ica1 :]e no 
appreh5sion ne$s be ent]ta9$ ( a c\p    
d'tat1 9 mak+ ! *ief m9i/]              
con/itutionally indep5d5t ( !           
legislative body1 & r5d]+ ! two great   
bran*es ( ! gov]nm5t1 :ile equally      
popul> bo? 9 _! orig9 & 9 _!            
responsibility1 an effective *eck on "o 
ano!r4 ,! plan is 9 accordance ) t      
s$ul\s avoidance ( ! conc5tration (     
great masses ( p[] 9 ! same h&s1 :i* is 
a m>k$ *>act]i/ic ( ! ,am]ican f$]al    

,con/itution4 ,b ! advantage1 9 ?is     
in/ance1 is pur*as$ at a price above all
 reasonable e/imates ( its value4 ,x    
seems f> bett] t ! *ief magi/rate 9 a   
republic %\ld be appo9t$ av[$ly1 z !    
*ief m9i/] 9 a con/itutional mon>*y is  
virtually1 by ! repres5tative body4 ,9 !
 fir/ place1 he is c]ta91 :5 ?us        
appo9t$1 to be a m em95t man4 ,! p>ty   
:i* has ! majority 9 ,p>liam5t w\ld !n1 
z a rule1 appo9t its own lead]1 :o is   
always "o ( ! =emo/1 & (t5 ! v =emo/    
p]son 9 political life2 :ile ! ,presid5t
 ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 s9ce ! la/ survivor 
( ! f\nd]s ( ! republic disappe>$ f !   
sc5e1 is almo/ always ei!r an obscure   
man1 or "o :o has ga9$ any reputation he
 may possess 9 "s o!r field ?an         
politics4 ,& ?is1 z ,i h be=e obs]v$1 is
 no accid5t1 b ! natural effect ( !     
situation4 ,! em95t m5 ( a p>ty1 9 an   
election ext5d+ to ! :ole c\ntry1 are   
nev] its mo/ available c&idates4 ,all   
em95t m5 h made p]sonal enemies1 or1 h  
done some?+1 or at ! l[e/1 pr(ess$ "s   

op9ion obnoxi\s to "s local or o!r      
consid]able division ( ! community1 &   
likely to tell ) fatal effect ^u ! numb]
 ( votes2 :]eas a man )\t antec$5ts1 (  
:om no?+ is kn[n b t he pr(esses ! cre$ 
( ! p>ty1 is readily vot$ = by its      
entire /r5g?4 ,ano!r important          
consid]ation is ! great mis*ief (       
un9t]mitt$ electione]+4 ,:5 ! highe/    
dignity 9 ! /ate is to be conf]r$ by    
popul> election once 9 e few ye>s1 !    
:ole int]v5+ "t is sp5t 9 :at is        
virtually a canvass4 ,presid5t1 m9i/]s1 
*iefs ( p>ties1 & _! foll[]s1 are all   
electione]]s3 ! :ole community is kept  
int5t on ! m]e p]sonalities ( politics1 
& e public "q is discuss$ & decid$ )    
less ref]5ce to its m]its ?an to its    
expect$ be>+ on ! presid5tial election4 
,if a sy/em _h be5 devis$ to make p>ty  
_s ! rul+ pr9ciple ( action 9 all public
 affairs1 & create an inducem5t n only  
to make e "q a p>ty "q1 b to raise      
que/ions = ! purpose ( f\nd+ p>ties ^u  
!m1 x w\ld h be5 difficult to contrive  

any means bett] adapt$ to ! purpose4  ,i
 w n affirm t x w\ld at all times &     
places be desirable t ! head ( !        
executive %\ld be s completely dep5d5t  
^u ! votes ( a repres5tative assembly z 
! prime m9i/] is 9 ,engl&1 & is )\t     
inconv5i5ce4 ,if x 7 ?\ght be/ to avoid 
?is1 he might1 ?\gh appo9t$ by          
,p>liam5t1 hold 8 (fice = a fix$ p]iod1 
indep5d5t ( a ,p>liam5t>y vote1 :i* w\ld
 be ! ,am]ican sy/em m9us ! popul>      
election & its evils4 ,!re is ano!r mode
 ( giv+ ! head ( ! adm9i/ration z mu*   
indep5d5ce ( ! ,legislature z is at all 
compatible ) ! ess5tials ( free         
gov]nm5t4 ,he nev] c\ld be unduly       
dep5d5t on a vote ( ,p>liam5t if he _h1 
z ! ,briti% prime m9i/] practically has1
 ! p[] to dissolve ! ,h\se & appeal to !
 p2 if1 in/ead ( be+ turn$ out ( (fice  
by a ho/ile vote1 he c\ld only be r$uc$ 
by x to ! alt]native ( resignation or   
dissolution4 ,! p[] ( dissolv+ ,p>liam5t
 is "o :i* ,i ?9k x desirable he %\ld   
possess1 ev5 "u ! sy/em by :i* 8 own    

t5ure ( (fice is secur$ to him = a fix$ 
p]iod4 ,!re ought n to be any           
possibility ( t deadlock 9 politics :i* 
w\ld ensue on a qu>rel break+ out betwe5
 a presid5t & an assembly1 nei!r ( :om1 
dur+ an int]val :i* might am\nt to ye>s1
 w\ld h any legal means ( ridd+ itself (
 ! o!r4 ,to get ?r\gh su* a p]iod )\t a 
c\p d'tat be+ attempt$1 on ei!r side or 
on bo?1 requires su* a comb9ation ( !   
love ( lib]ty & ! habit ( self-re/ra9t z
 v few nations h yet %[n !mselves       
capable (2 & ?\gh ?is extremity 7       
avoid$1 to expect t ! two au?orities    
w\ld n p>alyze ea* o!r's op]ations is to
 suppose t ! political life ( ! c\ntry w
 always be p]vad$ by a _s ( mutual      
=be>ance & compromise1 imp]turbable by !
 passions & excitem5ts ( ! ke5e/ p>ty   
/ruggles4 ,su* a _s may exi/1 b ev5 :]e 
x does !re is imprud5ce 9 try+ x too f>4
  ,o!r reasons make x desirable t "s p[]
 9 ! /ate 7:i* c only be ! executive7   
%\ld h ! lib]ty ( at any "t1 & at       
discretion1 call+ a new ,p>liam5t4 ,:5  

!re is a real d\bt :i* ( two cont5d+    
p>ties has ! /ronge/ foll[+1 x is       
important t !re %\ld exi/ a             
con/itutional means ( imm$iately te/+ ! 
po9t & sett+ x at re/4 ,no o!r political
 topic has a *ance ( be+ prop]ly att5d$ 
to :ile ?is is undecid$2 & su* an       
int]val is mo/ly an int]regnum =        
purposes ( legislative or adm9i/rative  
improvem5t1 nei!r p>ty hav+ suffici5t   
confid5ce 9 its /r5g? to attempt ?+s    
likely to provoke opposition 9 any qu>t]
 t has ei!r direct or indirect influ5ce 
9 ! p5d+ /ruggle4  ,i h n tak5 acc\nt ( 
! case 9 :i* ! va/ p[] c5traliz$ 9 !    
*ief magi/rate1 & ! insuffici5t atta*m5t
 ( ! mass ( ! p to free in/itutions1    
give him a *ance ( success 9 an attempt 
to subv]t ! ,con/itution1 & usurp       
sov]eign p[]4 ,:]e su* p]il exi/s1 no   
fir/ magi/rate is admissible :om !      
,p>liam5t c n1 by a s+le vote1 r$uce to 
a private /ation4 ,9 a /ate ( ?+s hold+ 
out any enc\ragem5t to t mo/ audaci\s & 
pr(ligate ( all brea*es ( tru/1 ev5 ?is 

entir5ess ( con/itutional dep5d5ce is b 
a weak protection4  ,( all (fic]s (     
gov]nm5t1 ^? 9 ^: appo9tm5t any         
p>ticipation ( popul> suffrage is ! mo/ 
objectionable are judicial (fic]s4 ,:ile
 !re are no function>ies ^: special &   
pr(essional qualifications ! popul>     
judgm5t is less fitt$ to e/imate1 !re   
are none 9 ^: case absolute imp>tiality1
 & fre$om f connection ) politicians or 
sections ( politicians1 are ( any ?+ l  
equal importance4 ,"s ?9k]s1 among o!rs 
,mr4 ,b5?am1 h be5 ( op9ion t1 al?\gh x 
is bett] t judges %\ld n be appo9t$ by  
popul> election1 ! p ( _! di/rict ought 
to h ! p[]1 aft] suffici5t exp]i5ce1 (  
remov+ !m f _! tru/4 ,x c n be d5i$ t ! 
irremovability ( any public (fic] to :om
 great int]e/s are intru/$ is 9 itself  
an evil4 ,x is f> f desirable t !re %\ld
 be no means ( gett+ rid ( a bad or     
incompet5t judge1 unless = su*          
misconduct z he c be made to answ] = 9 a
 crim9al c\rt1 & t a function>y on :om s
 mu* dep5ds %\ld h ! feel+ ( be+ free f 

responsibility except to op9ion & 8 own 
consci5ce4 ,! "q h[ev] is1 :e!r1 9 !    
peculi> position ( a judge1 & suppos+ t 
all practicable securities h be5 tak5 = 
an hone/ appo9tm5t1 irresponsibility1   
except to 8 own & ! public consci5ce1   
has n1 on ! :ole1 less t5d5cy to p]v]t 8
 conduct ?an responsibility to !        
gov]nm5t or to a popul> vote4 ,exp]i5ce 
has long decid$ ?is po9t 9 ! affirmative
 z reg>ds responsibility to ! executive1
 & ! case is q equally /rong :5 !       
responsibility s\ght to be en=c$ is to !
 suffrages ( electors4 ,among ! good    
qualities ( a popul> con/itu5cy1 ^?     
peculi>ly incumb5t ^u a judge1 calmness 
& imp>tiality1 are n numb]$4 ,happily1 9
 t int]v5tion ( popul> suffrage :i* is  
ess5tial to fre$om !y are n ! qualities 
requir$4 ,ev5 ! quality ( ju/ice1 ?\gh  
necess>y to all human be+s1 & !re=e to  
all electors1 is n ! inducem5t :i*      
decides any popul> election4 ,ju/ice &  
imp>tiality are z little want$ = elect+ 
a memb] ( ,p>liam5t z !y c be 9 any     

transaction ( m54 ,! electors h n to    
aw>d some?+ :i* ei!r c&idate has a "r   
to1 nor to pass judgm5t on ! g5]al m]its
 ( ! competitors1 b to decl>e :i* ( !m  
has mo/ ( _! p]sonal confid5ce1 or be/  
repres5ts _! political convictions4 ,a  
judge is b\nd to treat 8 political      
fri5d1 or ! p]son be/ kn[n to him1      
exactly z he treats o!r p2 b x w\ld be a
 brea* ( duty1 z well z an absurdity1 if
 an elector did s4 ,no argum5t c be     
gr\nd$ on ! b5eficial effect produc$ on 
judges1 z on all o!r function>ies1 by ! 
moral jurisdiction ( op9ion2 = ev5 9 ?is
 respect1 t :i* really ex]cises a useful
 control ov] ! proce$+s ( a judge1 :5   
fit = ! judicial (fice1 is n 7except    
sometimes 9 political cases7 ! op9ion ( 
! community g5]ally1 b t ( ! only public
 by :om 8 conduct or qualifications c be
 duly e/imat$1 ! b> ( 8 own c\rt4 ,i mu/
 n be und]/ood to say t ! p>ticipation (
 ! g5]al public 9 ! adm9i/ration (      
ju/ice is ( no importance2 x is ( !     
greate/2 b 9 :at mann]8 ,by ! actual    

dis*>ge ( a "p ( ! judicial (fice 9 !   
capacity ( jurym54 ,?is is "o ( ! few   
cases 9 politics 9 :i* x is bett] t ! p 
%\ld act directly & p]sonally ?an ?r\gh 
_! repres5tatives1 be+ almo/ ! only case
 9 :i* ! errors t a p]son ex]cis+       
au?ority may commit c be bett] borne ?an
 ! consequ5ces ( mak+ him responsible = 
!m4 ,if a judge c\ld be remov$ f (fice  
by a popul> vote1 :oev] 0 desir\s (     
supplant+ him w\ld make capital = t     
purpose out ( all 8 judicial decisions2 
w\ld c>ry all ( !m1 z f> z he f\nd      
practicable1 by irregul> appeal be=e a  
public op9ion :olly incompet5t1 = want (
 hav+ he>d ! case1 or f hav+ he>d x )\t 
ei!r ! precautions or ! imp>tiality     
belong+ to a judicial he>+2 w\ld play ^u
 popul> passion & prejudice :]e !y      
exi/$1 & take pa9s to ar\se !m :]e !y   
did n4 ,& 9 ?is1 if ! case 7 int]e/+1 & 
he took suffici5t tr\ble1 he w\ld       
infallibly be successful1 unless ! judge
 or 8 fri5ds desc5d$ into ! ar5a1 & made
 equally p[]ful appeals on ! o!r side4  

,judges w\ld end by feel+ t !y risk$ _! 
(fice ^u e decision !y gave 9 a case    
susceptible ( g5]al int]e/1 & t x 0 less
 ess5tial = !m to consid] :at decision 0
 j1 ?an :at w\ld be mo/ applaud$ by !   
public1 or w\ld lea/ admit ( insidi\s   
misrepres5tation4 ,! practice introduc$ 
by "s ( ! new or revis$ ,/ate           
,con/itutions 9 ,am]ica1 ( submitt+     
judicial (fic]s to p]iodical popul>     
re-election1 w be f\nd1 ,i appreh5d1 to 
be "o ( ! mo/ dang]\s errors ev] yet    
committ$ by democracy2 &1 7 x n t !     
practical good s5se :i* nev] totally    
des]ts ! p ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates is said to 
be produc+ a reaction1 likely 9 no long 
"t to lead to ! retraction ( ! error1 x 
might ) reason be reg>d$ z ! fir/ great 
d[nw>d /ep 9 ! deg5]ation ( mod]n       
democratic gov]nm5t4  ,) reg>d to t l>ge
 & important body :i* con/itutes !      
p]man5t /r5g? ( ! public s]vice1 ^? :o d
 n *ange ) *anges ( politics1 b rema9 to
 aid e m9i/] by _! exp]i5ce &           
traditions1 in=m him by _! k ( bus9ess1 

& conduct (ficial details "u 8 g5]al    
control--^?1 9 %ort1 :o =m ! class (    
pr(essional public s]vants1 ent]+ _!    
pr(ession z o!rs d :ile "y1 9 ! hope (  
ris+ progressively to its high] grades z
 !y advance 9 life--x is evid5tly       
inadmissible t ^! %\ld be liable to be  
turn$ out1 & depriv$ ( ! :ole b5efit (  
_! previ\s s]vice1 except = positive1   
prov$1 & s]i\s misconduct4 ,n1 ( c\rse1 
su* del9qu5cy only z makes !m am5able to
 ! law1 b volunt>y neglect ( duty1 or   
conduct imply+ untru/wor?9ess = !       
purposes = :i* _! tru/ is giv5 !m4      
,s9ce1 !re=e1 unless 9 case ( p]sonal   
culpability1 !re is no way ( gett+ rid (
 !m except by qu>t]+ !m on ! public z   
p5sion]s1 x is ( ! greate/ importance t 
! appo9tm5ts %\ld be well made 9 ! fir/ 
in/ance2 & x rema9s to be consid]$ by   
:at mode ( appo9tm5t ?is purpose c be/  
be atta9$4  ,9 mak+ fir/ appo9tm5ts1    
little dang] is to be appreh5d$ f want (
 special skill & k 9 ! *oos]s1 b mu* f  
p>tiality1 & private or political       

int]e/4 ,be+ all appo9t$ at ! comm5cem5t
 ( manhood1 n z hav+ le>n$1 b 9 ord] t  
!y may le>n1 _! pr(ession1 ! only ?+ by 
:i* ! be/ c&idates c be discrim9at$ is  
pr(ici5cy 9 ! ord9>y bran*es ( lib]al   
education2 & ?is c be asc]ta9$ )\t      
difficulty1 provid$ !re be ! requisite  
pa9s & ! requisite imp>tiality 9 ^? :o  
are appo9t$ to inquire into x4 ,nei!r ! 
"o nor ! o!r c reasonably be expect$ f a
 m9i/]1 :o mu/ rely :olly on            
recomm5dations1 &1 h[ev] dis9t]e/$ z to 
8 p]sonal wi%es1 nev] w be pro( aga9/ ! 
solicitations ( p]sons :o h ! p[] (     
influ5c+ 8 own election1 or ^: political
 adh]5ce is important to ! m9i/ry to :i*
 he belongs4 ,^! consid]ations h        
introduc$ ! practice ( submitt+ all     
c&idates = fir/ appo9tm5ts to a public  
exam9ation1 conduct$ by p]sons n engag$ 
9 politics1 & ( ! same class & quality )
 ! exam9]s = honors at ! ,univ]sities4  
,?is w\ld probably be ! be/ plan "u any 
sy/em2 & "u our ,p>liam5t>y gov]nm5t x  
is ! only "o :i* af=ds a *ance1 ,i d n  

say ( hone/ appo9tm5t1 b ev5 ( ab/95ce f
 su* z are manife/ly & flagrantly       
pr(ligate4  ,x is also absolutely       
necess>y t ! exam9ations %\ld be        
competitive1 & ! appo9tm5ts giv5 to ^?  
:o are mo/ successful4 ,a m]e pass      
exam9ation nev]1 9 ! long run1 does m   
?an exclude absolute dunces4 ,:5 ! "q1 9
 ! m9d ( an exam9]1 lies betwe5 blight+ 
! prospects ( an individual & p]=m+ a   
duty to ! public :i*1 9 ! p>ticul>      
in/ance1 seldom appe>s ( fir/ rate      
importance1 & :5 he is sure to be       
bitt]ly reproa*$ = do+ ! fir/1 :ile 9   
g5]al no "o w ei!r "k or c>e :e!r he has
 done ! latt]1 ! balance1 unless he is a
 man ( v unusual /amp1 incl9es to ! side
 ( good-nature4 ,a relaxation 9 "o      
in/ance e/abli%es a claim to x 9 o!rs1  
:i* e repetition ( indulg5ce makes x m  
difficult to resi/2 ea* ( ^!1 9         
succession1 becomes a prec$5t = m1 until
 ! /&>d ( pr(ici5cy s9ks gradually to   
some?+ almo/ contemptible4 ,exam9ations 
= degrees at ! two great ,univ]sities h 

g5]ally be5 z sl5d] 9 _! requirem5ts z  
^? = honors are try+ & s]i\s4 ,:]e !re  
is no inducem5t to exce$ a c]ta9 m9imum1
 ! m9imum comes to be ! maximum3 x      
becomes ! g5]al practice n to aim at m2 
& z 9 e ?+ !re are "s :o d n atta9 all  
!y aim at1 h[ev] l[ ! /&>d may be pit*$1
 !re are always sev]al :o fall %ort ( x4
 ,:51 on ! contr>y1 ! appo9tm5ts are    
giv5 to ^?1 among a great numb] (       
c&idates1 :o mo/ di/+ui% !mselves1 & :]e
 ! successful competitors are class$ 9  
ord] ( m]it1 n only ea* is /imulat$ to d
 8 v utmo/1 b ! influ5ce is felt 9 e    
place ( lib]al education ?r\gh\t !      
c\ntry4 ,x becomes ) e s*oolma/] an     
object ( ambition & an av5ue to success 
to h furni%$ pupils :o h ga9$ a high    
place 9 ^! competitions1 & !re is h>dly 
any o!r mode 9 :i* ! /ate c d s mu* to  
raise ! quality ( educational           
in/itutions ?r\gh\t ! c\ntry4 ,?\gh !   
pr9ciple ( competitive exam9ations =    
public employm5t is ( su* rec5t         
introduction 9 ?is c\ntry1 & is /ill s  

imp]fectly c>ri$ out1 ! ,indian s]vice  
be+ z yet ne>ly ! only case 9 :i* x     
exi/s 9 its complet5ess1 a s5sible      
effect has already begun to be produc$  
on ! places ( middle-class education1   
not)/&+ ! difficulties :i* ! pr9ciple   
has enc\nt]$ f ! disgracefully l[ exi/+ 
/ate ( education 9 ! c\ntry1 :i* ^! v   
exam9ations h br\ght into /rong light4  
,s contemptible has ! /&>d ( acquirem5t 
be5 f\nd to be1 among ! y\?s :o obta9 ! 
nom9ation f ! m9i/]1 :i* entitles !m to 
(f] !mselves z c&idates1 t ! competition
 ( su* c&idates produces almo/ a poor]  
result ?an w\ld be obta9$ f a m]e pass  
exam9ation2 = no "o w\ld ?9k ( fix+ !   
conditions ( a pass exam9ation s l[ z is
 actually f\nd suffici5t to enable a "y 
man to surpass 8 fell[-c&idates4        
,accord+ly1 x is said t successive ye>s 
%[ on ! :ole a decl9e ( atta9m5ts1 less 
ef=t be+ made1 because ! results ( =m]  
exam9ations h prov$ t ! ex]tions !n us$ 
7 great] ?an w\ld h be5 suffici5t to    
atta9 ! object4 ,p>tly f ?is decrease ( 

ef=t1 & p>tly because1 ev5 at !         
exam9ations :i* d n require a previ\s   
nom9ation1 consci\s ignorance r$uces !  
numb] ( competitors to a m]e h&ful1 x   
has s happ5$ t ?\gh !re h always be5 a  
few in/ances ( great pr(ici5cy1 ! l[] "p
 ( ! li/ ( successful c&idates repres5ts
 b a v mod]ate am\nt ( acquirem5t2 & we 
h x on ! ^w ( ! commission]s t ne>ly all
 :o h be5 unsuccessful h ow$ _! failure 
to ignorance1 n ( ! high] bran*es (     
in/ruction1 b ( its v humble/           
elem5ts--spell+ & ari?metic4  ,!        
outcries :i* cont9ue to be made aga9/ ^!
 exam9ations by "s ( ! organs ( op9ion  
are (t51 ,i regret to say1 z little     
cr$itable to ! good fai? z to ! good    
s5se ( ! assailants4 ,!y proce$ p>tly by
 misrepres5tation ( ! k9d ( ignorance   
:i*1 z a matt] ( fact1 actually leads to
 failure 9 ! exam9ations4 ,!y quote )   
emphasis ! mo/ recondite que/ions #h :i*
 c be %[n to h be5 ev] ask$1 & make x   
appe> z if unexceptionable answ]s to all
 ^! 7 made ! s9e qu non ( success4 ,yet 

x has be5 repeat$ to satiety t su*      
que/ions are n put because x is expect$ 
( e "o t he %\ld answ] !m1 b 9 ord] t   
:oev] is able to d s may h ! means (    
prov+ & avail+ himself ( t portion ( 8  
k4 ,x is n z a gr\nd ( rejection1 b z an
 additional means ( success1 t ?is      
opportunity is giv54 ,we are !n ask$    
:e!r ! k9d ( k suppos$ 9 ?is1 t1 or !   
o!r "q1 is calculat$ to be ( any use to 
! c&idate aft] he has atta9$ 8 object4  
,p diff] greatly 9 op9ion z to :at k is 
useful4 ,!re are p]sons 9 exi/5ce1 & a  
late ,=eign ,secret>y ( ,/ate is "o (   
!m1 :o ?9k ,engli% spell+ a useless     
accompli%m5t 9 a diplomatic atta* or a  
cl]k 9 a gov]nm5t (fice4 ,ab\t "o ?+ !  
objectors seem to be unanim\s1 t g5]al  
m5tal cultivation is n useful 9 ^!      
employm5ts1 :atev] else may be s4 ,if1  
h[ev] 7z ,i presume to ?9k71 x is       
useful1 or if any education at all is   
useful1 x mu/ be te/$ by ! te/s mo/     
likely to %[ :e!r ! c&idate possesses x 
or n4 ,to asc]ta9 :e!r he has be5 well  

educat$1 he mu/ be int]rogat$ 9 ! ?+s   
:i* he is likely to "k if he has be5    
well educat$1 ev5 ?\gh n directly p]t95t
 to ! "w to :i* he is to be appo9t$4 ,w 
^? :o object to 8 be+ que/ion$ 9        
classics & ma!matics1 tell u :at !y w\ld
 h him que/ion$ 98 ,!re seems1 h[ev]1 to
 be equal objection to exam9+ him 9 ^!1 
& to exam9+ him 9 any ?+ b ^!4 ,if !    
,commission]s--anxi\s to op5 a door (   
admission to ^? :o h n gone ?r\gh !     
r\t9e ( a gramm>-s*ool1 or :o make up = 
! smallness ( _! k ( :at is !re taught  
by great] k ( some?+ else--all[ m>ks to 
be ga9$ by pr(ici5cy 9 any o!r subject (
 real utility1 !y are reproa*$ = t too4 
,no?+ w satisfy ! objectors b free      
admission ( total ignorance4  ,we are   
triumphantly told t nei!r ,clive nor    
,well+ton c\ld h pass$ ! te/ :i* is     
prescrib$ = an aspirant to an eng9e]    
cadet%ip2 z if1 because ,clive &        
,well+ton did n d :at 0 n requir$ ( !m1 
!y c\ld n h done x if x _h be5 requir$4 
,if x be only meant to in=m u t x is    

possible to be a great g5]al )\t ^! ?+s1
 s x is )\t _m o!r ?+s :i* are v useful 
to great g5]als4 ,alex&] ! ,great _h    
nev] he>d ( ,vauban's rules1 nor c\ld   
,julius ,cs> speak ,fr5*4 ,we are next  
in=m$ t book-worms1 a t]m :i* seems to  
be held applicable to :oev] has !       
smalle/ t9cture ( book-k1 may n be good 
at bodily ex]cises1 or h ! habits (     
g5tlem54 ,?is is a v common l9e ( rem>k 
) dunces ( condition2 b1 :atev] ! dunces
 may ?9k1 !y h no monopoly ( ei!r       
g5tlemanly habits or bodily activity4   
,:]ev] ^! are ne$$1 let !m be inquir$   
into & sep>ately provid$ =1 n to !      
exclusion ( m5tal qualifications1 b 9   
addition4 ,mean:ile1 ,i am cr$ibly in=m$
 t 9 ! ,milit>y ,academy at ,woolwi* !  
competition cadets are z sup]ior to ^?  
admitt$ on ! old sy/em ( nom9ation 9 ^! 
respects z 9 all o!rs2 t !y le>n ev5 _! 
drill m quickly1 z inde$ might be       
expect$1 = an intellig5t p]son le>ns all
 ?+s soon] ?an a /upid "o2 & t 9 g5]al  
demeanor !y contra/ s favorably ) _!    

pr$ecessors1 t ! au?orities ( !         
in/itutions are impati5t = ! day to     
arrive :5 ! la/ rema9s ( ! old leav5    
%all h disappe>$ f ! place4 ,if ?is be  
s1 & x is easy to asc]ta9 :e!r x is s1 x
 is to be hop$ we %all soon h he>d = !  
la/ "t t ignorance is a bett]           
qualification ?an k = ! milit>y1 &1     
=tiori1 = e o!r pr(ession1 or t any "o  
good quality1 h[ev] little app>5tly     
connect$ ) lib]al education1 is at all  
likely to be promot$ by go+ )\t x4      
,?\gh ! fir/ admission to gov]nm5t      
employm5t be decid$ by competitive      
exam9ation1 x w\ld 9 mo/ cases be       
impossible t subsequ5t promotion %\ld be
 s decid$2 & x seems prop] t ?is %\ld   
take place1 z x usually does at pres5t1 
on a mix$ sy/em ( s5iority & selection4 
,^? ^: duties are ( a r\t9e "* %\ld rise
 by s5iority to ! highe/ po9t to :i*    
duties m]ely ( t description c c>ry !m1 
:ile ^? to :om functions ( p>ticul>     
tru/1 & requir+ special capacity1 are   
confid$1 %\ld be select$ f ! body on !  

discretion ( ! *ief ( ! (fice4 ,& ?is   
selection w g5]ally be made hone/ly by  
him if ! orig9al appo9tm5ts take place  
by op5 competition1 = "u t sy/em 8      
e/abli%m5t w g5]ally consi/ (           
individuals to :om1 b = ! (ficial       
connection1 he w\ld h be5 a /rang]4 ,if 
among !m !re be any 9 :om he1 or 8      
political fri5ds & support]s1 take an   
int]e/1 x w be b occasionally1 & only :5
 to ?is advantage ( connection is add$1 
z f> z ! initiatory exam9ation c\ld te/ 
x1 at lea/ equality ( real m]it2 &1     
except :5 !re is a v /rong motive to job
 ^! appo9tm5ts1 !re is always a /rong "o
 to appo9t ! fitte/ p]son1 be+ ! "o :o  
gives to 8 *ief ! mo/ useful assi/ance1 
saves him mo/ tr\ble1 & helps mo/ to    
build up t reputation = good managem5t (
 public bus9ess :i* necess>ily & prop]ly
 r$\nd to ! cr$it ( ! m9i/]1 h[ev] mu* !
 qualities to :i* x is imm$iately ow+   
may be ^? ( 8 subord9ates4    ,*apt]    
,,xv--,( ,local ,repres5tative ,bodies4 
,x is b a small portion ( ! public      

bus9ess ( a c\ntry :i* c be well done or
 safely attempt$ by ! c5tral au?orities2
 & ev5 9 our own gov]nm5t1 ! lea/       
c5traliz$ 9 ,europe1 ! legislative      
portion at lea/ ( ! gov]n+ body busies  
itself f> too mu* ) local affairs1      
employ+ ! supreme p[] ( ! ,/ate 9 cutt+ 
small knots :i* !re ought to be o!r &   
bett] means ( unty+4 ,! enorm\s am\nt ( 
private bus9ess :i* takes up ! "t (     
,p>liam5t & ! ?\ghts ( its individual   
memb]s1 di/ract+ !m f ! prop]           
occupations ( ! great c\ncil ( ! nation1
 is felt by all ?9k]s & obs]v]s z a     
s]i\s evil1 &1 :at is worse1 an increas+
 "o4  ,x w\ld n be appropriate to !     
limit$ design ( ?is treatise to discuss 
at l>ge ! great "q1 9 no way peculi> to 
repres5tative gov]nm5t1 ( ! prop] limits
 ( gov]nm5tal action4 ,i h said else:]e 
#i :at seem$ to me mo/ ess5tial respect+
 ! pr9ciples by :i* ! ext5t ( t action  
ought to be det]m9$4 ,b aft] subtract+ f
 ! functions p]=m$ by mo/ ,european     
gov]nm5ts ^? :i* ought n to be und]tak5 

by public au?orities at all1 !re /ill   
rema9s s great & v>i\s an aggregate (   
duties1 t1 if only on ! pr9ciple (      
division ( labor1 x is indisp5sable to  
%>e !m betwe5 c5tral & local au?orities4
 ,n solely are sep>ate executive (fic]s 
requir$ = purely local duties 7an am\nt 
( sep>ation :i* exi/s "u all gov]nm5ts71
 b ! popul> control ov] ^? (fic]s c only
 be advantage\sly ex]t$ ?r\gh a sep>ate 
organ4 ,_! orig9al appo9tm5t1 ! function
 ( wat*+ & *eck+ !m1 ! duty ( provid+ or
 ! discretion ( )hold+ ! supplies       
necess>y = _! op]ations1 %\ld re/1 n ) !
 national ,p>liam5t or ! national       
executive1 b ) ! p ( ! locality4 ,t ! p 
%\ld ex]cise ^! functions directly &    
p]sonally is evid5tly inadmissable4     
,adm9i/ration by ! assembl$ p is a relic
 ( b>b>ism oppos$ to ! :ole _s ( mod]n  
life2 yet s mu* has ! c\rse ( ,engli%   
in/itutions dep5d$ on accid5t1 t ?is    
primitive mode ( local gov]nm5t rema9$ !
 g5]al rule 9 p>o*ial matt]s up to !    
pres5t g5]ation2 &1 hav+ nev] be5       

legally aboli%$1 probably subsi/s       
unalt]$ 9 _m rural p>i%es ev5 n[4 ,!re  
rema9s ! plan ( repres5tative           
sub-,p>liam5ts = local affairs1 & ^! mu/
 h5ce=? be consid]$ z "o ( ! fundam5tal 
in/itutions ( a free gov]nm5t4 ,!y exi/ 
9 ,engl& b v incompletely1 & ) great    
irregul>ity & want ( sy/em2 9 "s o!r    
c\ntries mu* less popul>ly gov]n$1 _!   
con/itution is f> m rational4 ,9 ,engl& 
!re has always be5 m lib]ty b worse     
organization1 :ile 9 o!r c\ntries !re is
 bett] organization b less lib]ty4 ,x is
 necess>y1 !n1 t1 9 addition to !       
national repres5tation1 !re %\ld be     
municipal & provisional repres5tations2 
& ! two que/ions :i* rema9 to be resolv$
 are1 h[ ! local repres5tative bodies   
%\ld be con/itut$1 & :at %\ld be ! ext5t
 ( _! functions4  ,9 consid]+ ^!        
que/ions1 two po9ts require an equal    
degree ( our att5tion3 h[ ! local       
bus9ess itself c be be/ done1 & h[ its  
transaction c be made mo/ in/rum5tal to 
! n\ri%m5t ( public _s & ! developm5t ( 

intellig5ce4 ,9 an e>li] "p ( ?is       
inquiry ,i h dwelt 9 /rong              
language--h>dly any language is /rong   
en\gh to express ! /r5g? ( my           
conviction--on ! importance ( t portion 
( ! op]ation ( free in/itutions :i* may 
be call$ ! public education ( ! citiz5s4
 ,n[ ( ?is op]ation ! local adm9i/rative
 in/itutions are ! *ief in/rum5t4       
,except by ! "p !y may take z jurym5 9 !
 adm9i/ration ( ju/ice1 ! mass ( !      
population h v little opportunity ( %>+ 
p]sonally 9 ! conduct ( ! g5]al affairs 
( ! community4 ,read+ newspap]s1 &      
p]haps writ+ to !m1 public meet+s1 &    
solicitations ( diff]5t sorts address$  
to ! political au?orities1 are ! ext5t (
 ! p>ticipation ( private citiz5s 9     
g5]al politics dur+ ! int]val betwe5 "o 
,p>liam5t>y election & ano!r4 ,?\gh x is
 impossible to exagg]ate ! importance ( 
^! v>i\s lib]ties1 bo? z securities =   
fre$om & z means ( g5]al cultivation1 ! 
practice :i* !y give is m 9 ?9k+ ?an 9  
action1 & 9 ?9k+ )\t ! responsibilities 

( action1 :i* ) mo/ p am\nts to little m
 ?an passively receiv+ ! ?\ghts ( "s "o 
else4 ,b 9 ! case ( local bodies1       
besides ! function ( elect+1 _m citiz5s 
9 turn h ! *ance ( be+ elect$1 & _m1    
ei!r by selection or by rotation1 fill  
"o or o!r ( ! num]\s local executive    
(fices4 ,9 ^! positions !y h to act =   
public int]e/s1 z well z to ?9k & to    
speak1 & ! ?9k+ c n all be done by      
proxy4 ,x may be add$ t ^! local        
functions1 n be+ 9 g5]al s\ght by !     
high] ranks1 c>ry d[n ! important       
political education :i* !y are ! means (
 conf]r+ to a mu* l[] grade 9 society4  
,! m5tal discipl9e be+ ?us a m important
 feature 9 local conc]ns ?an 9 ! g5]al  
affairs ( ! /ate1 :ile !re are n su*    
vital int]e/s dep5d5t on ! quality ( !  
adm9i/ration1 a great] weight may be    
giv5 to ! =m] consid]ation1 & ! latt]   
admits mu* m frequ5tly ( be+ po/pon$ to 
x ?an 9 matt]s ( g5]al legislation & !  
conduct ( imp]ial affairs4  ,! prop]    
con/itution ( local repres5tative bodies

 does n pres5t mu* difficulty4 ,!       
pr9ciples :i* apply to x d n diff] 9 any
 respect f ^? applicable to ! national  
repres5tation4 ,! same obligation exi/s1
 z 9 ! case ( ! m important function1 = 
mak+ ! bodies elective2 & ! same reasons
 op]ate z 9 t case1 b ) /ill great] =ce1
 = giv+ !m a widely democratic basis2 ! 
dang]s be+ less1 & ! advantages1 9 po9t 
( popul> education & cultivation1 9 "s  
respects ev5 great]4 ,z ! pr9cipal duty 
( ! local bodies consi/s ( ! imposition 
& exp5diture ( local taxation1 !        
electoral fran*ise %\ld ve/ 9 all :o    
contribute to ! local rates1 to !       
exclusion ( all :o d n4 ,i assume t !re 
is no indirect taxation1 no octroi      
duties1 or t1 if !re are1 !y are        
supplem5t>y only1 ^? on :om _! burd5    
falls be+ also rat$ to a direct         
assessm5t4 ,! repres5tation ( m9orities 
%\ld be provid$ = 9 ! same mann] z 9 !  
national ,p>liam5t1 & !re are ! same    
/rong reasons = plurality ( votes2 only 
!re is n s decisive an objection1 9 !   

inf]ior z 9 ! high] body1 to mak+ !     
plural vot+ dep5d 7z 9 "s ( ! local     
elections ( our own c\ntry7 on a m]e    
money qualification2 = ! hone/ & frugal 
disp5sation ( money =ms s mu* l>g] a "p 
( ! bus9ess ( ! local ?an ( ! national  
body1 t !re is m ju/ice z well z policy 
9 all[+ a great] proportional influ5ce  
to ^? :o h a l>g] money int]e/ at /ake4 
,9 ! mo/ rec5tly e/abli%$ ( our local   
repres5tative in/itutions1 ! ,bo>ds (   
,gu>dians1 ! ju/ices ( peace ( ! di/rict
 sit ex (ficio along ) ! elect$ memb]s1 
9 numb] limit$ by law to a ?ird ( !     
:ole4 ,9 ! peculi> con/itution ( ,engli%
 society1 ,i h no d\bt ( ! b5eficial    
effect ( ?is provision4 ,x secures !    
pres5ce 9 ^! bodies ( a m educat$ class 
?an x w\ld p]haps be practicable to     
attract ?i!r on any o!r t]ms2 & :ile !  
limitation 9 numb] ( ! ex (ficio memb]s 
precludes !m f acquir+ pr$om9ance by m]e
 num]ical /r5g?1 !y1 z a virtual        
repres5tation ( ano!r class1 hav+       
sometimes a diff]5t int]e/ f ! re/1 are 

a *eck ^u ! class int]e/s ( ! f>m]s or  
petty %opkeep]s :o =m ! bulk ( ! elect$ 
gu>dians4 ,a simil> comm5dation c n be  
giv5 to ! con/itution ( ! only prov9cial
 bo>ds we possess1 ! ,qu>t] ,sessions1  
consi/+ ( ! ju/ices ( peace alone1 on   
:om1 ov] & above _! judicial duties1 "s 
( ! mo/ important p>ts ( ! adm9i/rative 
bus9ess ( ! c\ntry dep5d = _! p]=mance4 
,! mode ( =mation ( ^! bodies is mo/    
anomal\s1 !y be+ nei!r elect$1 nor1 9   
any prop] s5se ( ! t]m1 nom9at$1 b hold+
 _! important functions1 l ! feudal     
lords to :om !y succe$$1 virtually by "r
 ( _! acres2 ! appo9tm5t ve/$ 9 ! cr[n  
7or1 speak+ practically1 9 "o (         
!mselves1 ! "l lieut5ant7 be+ made use (
 only z a means ( exclud+ any "o :o x is
 ?\ght w\ld d discr$it to ! body1 or1 n[
 & !n1 "o :o is on ! wrong side 9       
politics4 ,! in/itution is ! mo/        
ari/ocratic 9 pr9ciple :i* n[ rema9s 9  
,engl&2 f> m s ?an ! ,h\se ( ,lords1 = x
 grants public money & disposes (       
important public int]e/s1 n 9           

conjunction ) a popul> assembly1 b      
alone4 ,x is clung to ) proportionate   
t5acity by our ari/ocratic classes1 b is
 obvi\sly at v>iance ) all ! pr9ciples  
:i* are ! f\ndation ( repres5tative     
gov]nm5t4 ,9 a ,c\nty ,bo>d !re is n !  
same ju/ification z 9 ,bo>ds ( ,gu>dians
 = ev5 an admixture ( ex (ficio ) elect$
 memb]s1 s9ce ! bus9ess ( a c\nty be+ on
 a suffici5tly l>ge scale to be an      
object ( int]e/ & attraction to c\ntry  
g5tlem51 !y w\ld h no m difficulty 9    
gett+ !mselves elect$ to ! ,bo>d ?an !y 
h 9 be+ return$ to ,p>liam5t z c\nty    
memb]s4  ,9 reg>d to ! prop]            
circumscription ( ! con/itu5cies :i*    
elect ! local repres5tative bodies1 !   
pr9ciple :i*1 :5 appli$ z an exclusive &
 unb5d+ rule to ,p>liam5t>y             
repres5tation1 is inappropriate1 namely 
community ( local int]e/s1 is "h ! only 
j & applicable "o4 ,! v object ( hav+ a 
local repres5tation is 9 ord] t ^? :o h 
any int]e/ 9 common :i* !y d n %>e ) !  
g5]al body ( _! c\ntrym5 may manage t   

jo9t int]e/ by !mselves1 & ! purpose is 
contradict$ if ! di/ribution ( ! local  
repres5tation foll[s any o!r rule ?an ! 
gr\p+ ( ^? jo9t int]e/s4 ,!re are local 
int]e/s peculi> to e t[n1 :e!r great or 
small1 & common to all its inhabitants2 
e t[n1 !re=e1 )\t di/9ction ( size1     
ought to h its municipal c\ncil4 ,x is  
equally obvi\s t e t[n ought to h b "o4 
,! diff]5t qu>t]s ( ! same t[n h seldom 
or nev] any mat]ial div]sities ( local  
int]e/2 !y all require to h ! same ?+s  
done1 ! same exp5ses incurr$2 &1 except 
z to _! *ur*es1 :i* x is probably       
desirable to leave "u simply p>o*ial    
managem5t1 ! same arrangem5ts may be    
made to s]ve = all4 ,pav+1 light+1 wat] 
supply1 dra9age1 port & m>ket           
regulations1 c n1 )\t great wa/e &      
inconv5i5ce1 be diff]5t = diff]5t qu>t]s
 ( ! same t[n4 ,! subdivision ( ,london 
into six or sev5 indep5d5t di/ricts1 ea*
 ) its sep>ate arrangem5ts = local      
bus9ess 7sev]al ( !m )\t unity (        
adm9i/ration ev5 )9 !mselves71 prev5ts !

 possibility ( consecutive or           
well-regulat$ co-op]ation = common      
objects1 precludes any uni=m pr9ciple = 
! dis*>ge ( local duties1 compels !     
g5]al gov]nm5t to take ?+s ^u itself :i*
 w\ld be be/ left to local au?orities if
 !re 7 any ^: au?ority ext5d$ to !      
entire metropolis1 & answ]s no purpose b
 to keep up ! fanta/ical trapp+s ( t    
union ( mod]n jobb+ & antiquat$ fopp]y1 
! ,corporation ( ! ,city ( ,london4     
,ano!r equally important pr9ciple is1 t 
9 ea* local circumscription !re %\ld be 
b "o elective body = all local bus9ess1 
n diff]5t bodies = diff]5t p>ts ( x4    
,division ( labor does n mean cutt+ up e
 bus9ess into m9ute fractions2 x means !
 union ( su* op]ations z are fit to be  
p]=m$ by ! same p]sons1 & ! sep>ation ( 
su* z c be bett] p]=m$ by diff]5t       
p]sons4 ,! executive duties ( ! locality
 d inde$ require to be divid$ into      
dep>tm5ts = ! same reason z ^? ( !      
/ate--because !y are ( div]s k9ds1 ea*  
requir+ k peculi> to itself1 & ne$+1 =  

its due p]=mance1 ! undivid$ att5tion ( 
a specially qualifi$ function>y4 ,b !   
reasons = subdivision :i* apply to !    
execution d n apply to ! control4 ,!    
bus9ess ( ! elective body is n to d !   
"w1 b to see t x is prop]ly done1 & t   
no?+ necess>y is left undone4 ,?is      
function c be fulfill$ = all dep>tm5ts  
by ! same sup]9t5d+ body1 & by a        
collective & compreh5sive f> bett] ?an  
by a m9ute & microscopic view4 ,x is z  
absurd 9 public affairs z x w\ld be 9   
private1 t e workman %\ld be look$ aft] 
by a sup]9t5d5t to himself4 ,! gov]nm5t 
( ! cr[n consi/s ( _m dep>tm5ts1 & !re  
are _m m9i/]s to conduct !m1 b ^? m9i/]s
 h n a ,p>liam5t apiece to keep !m to _!
 duty4 ,! local1 l ! national ,p>liam5t1
 has = its prop] bus9ess to consid] !   
int]e/ ( ! locality z a :ole1 compos$ ( 
p>ts all ( :i* mu/ be adapt$ to "o      
ano!r1 & att5d$ to 9 ! ord] & ratio ( _!
 importance4 ,!re is ano!r v weighty    
reason = unit+ ! control ( all ! bus9ess
 ( a locality "u "o body4 ,! greate/    

imp]fection ( popul> local in/itutions1 
& ! *ief cause ( ! failure :i* s (t5    
att5ds !m1 is ! l[ calibre ( ! m5 by :om
 !y are almo/ always c>ri$ on4 ,t ^!    
%\ld be ( a v miscellane\s "* is1 inde$1
 "p ( ! usefulness ( ! in/itution2 x is 
t circum/ance *iefly :i* r5d]s x a s*ool
 ( political capacity & g5]al           
intellig5ce4 ,b a s*ool supposes tea*]s 
z well z s*ol>s3 ! utility ( !          
in/ruction greatly dep5ds on its br++   
inf]ior m9ds into contact ) sup]ior1 a  
contact :i* 9 ! ord9>y c\rse ( life is  
altoge!r exceptional1 & ! want ( :i*    
contributes m ?an any ?+ else to keep ! 
g5]ality ( mank9d on "o level ( cont5t$ 
ignorance4 ,! s*ool1 moreov]1 is        
wor?less1 & a s*ool ( evil in/ead (     
good1 if1 ?r\gh ! want ( due            
surveillance1 & ( ! pres5ce )9 itself ( 
a high] ord] ( *>act]s1 ! action ( !    
body is all[$1 z x s (t5 is1 to deg5]ate
 into an equally unscrupul\s & /upid    
pursuit ( ! self-int]e/ ( its memb]s4   
,n[ x is q hopeless to induce p]sons ( a

 high class1 ei!r socially or           
intellectually1 to take a %>e ( local   
adm9i/ration 9 a corn] by piecemeal1 z  
memb]s ( a ,pav+ ,bo>d or a ,dra9age    
,commission4 ,! entire local bus9ess (  
_! t[n is n m ?an a suffici5t object to 
induce m5 ^: ta/es incl9e !m1 & ^: k    
qualifies !m = national affairs1 to     
become memb]s ( a m]e local body1 &     
devote to x ! "t & /udy :i* are necess>y
 to r5d] _! pres5ce any ?+ m ?an a scre5
 = ! jobb+ ( inf]ior p]sons1 "u ! %elt] 
( _! responsibility4 ,a m]e ,bo>d (     
,works1 ?\gh x compreh5d ! entire       
metropolis1 is sure to be compos$ ( !   
same class ( p]sons z ! ve/ries ( !     
,london p>i%es2 nor is x practicable1 or
 ev5 desirable1 t su* %\ld n =m !       
majority2 b x is important = e purpose  
:i* local bodies are design$ to s]ve1   
:e!r x be ! enlight5$ & hone/ p]=mance (
 _! special duties1 or ! cultivation ( !
 political intellig5ce ( ! nation1 t e  
su* body %\ld conta9 a portion ( ! v be/
 m9ds ( ! locality1 :o are ?us br\ght   

into p]petual contact1 ( ! mo/ useful   
k9d1 ) m9ds ( a l[] grade1 receiv+ f !m 
:at local or pr(essional k !y h to give1
 &1 9 return1 inspir+ !m ) a portion (  
_! own m enl>g$ ideas1 & high] & m      
enlight5$ purposes4  ,a m]e village has 
no claim to a municipal repres5tation4  
,by a village ,i mean a place ^:        
inhabitants are n m>k$ly di/+ui%$ by    
occupation or social relations f ^? ( ! 
rural di/ricts adjo9+1 & = ^: local     
wants ! arrangem5ts made = ! surr\nd+   
t]ritory w suffice4 ,su* small places h 
r>ely a suffici5t public to furni% a    
tol]able municipal c\ncil3 if !y conta9 
any tal5t or k applicable to public     
bus9ess1 x is apt to be all conc5trat$ 9
 "s "o man1 :o !reby becomes ! dom9ator 
( ! place4 ,x is bett] t su* places %\ld
 be m]g$ 9 a l>g] circumscription4 ,!   
local repres5tation ( rural di/ricts w  
naturally be det]m9$ by geographical    
consid]ations1 ) due reg>d to ^?        
sympa?ies ( feel+ by :i* human be+s are 
s mu* aid$ to act 9 conc]t1 & :i* p>tly 

foll[ hi/orical b\nd>ies1 su* z ^? (    
c\nties or prov9ces1 & p>tly community (
 int]e/ & occupation1 z 9 agriculture1  
m>itime1 manufactur+1 or m9+ di/ricts4  
,diff]5t k9ds ( local bus9ess require   
diff]5t areas ( repres5tation4 ,!       
,unions ( p>i%es h be5 fix$ on z ! mo/  
appropriate basis = ! repres5tative     
bodies :i* sup]9t5d ! relief ( indig5ce2
 :ile1 = ! prop] regulation ( highways1 
or prisons1 or police1 a l>ge ext5t1 l t
 ( an av]age c\nty1 is n m ?an          
suffici5t4 ,9 ^! l>ge di/ricts1 !re=e1 !
 maxim1 t an elective body con/itut$ 9  
any locality %\ld h au?ority ov] all !  
local conc]ns common to ! locality1     
requires modification f ano!r pr9ciple1 
z well z f ! compet+ consid]ation ( !   
importance ( obta9+ = ! dis*>ge ( !     
local duties ! highe/ qualifications    
possible4 ,= example1 if x be necess>y  
7z ,i believe x to be7 = ! prop]        
adm9i/ration ( ! poor-laws t ! area (   
rat+ %\ld n be m ext5sive ?an mo/ ( !   
pres5t ,unions1 a pr9ciple :i* requires 

a ,bo>d ( ,gu>dians = ea* ,union1 yet1 z
 a mu* m highly qualifi$ class ( p]sons 
is likely to be obta9able = a ,c\nty    
,bo>d ?an ^? :o compose an av]age ,bo>d 
( ,gu>dians1 x may1 on t gr\nd1 be      
exp$i5t to res]ve = ! ,c\nty ,bo>ds "s  
high] descriptions ( local bus9ess1 :i* 
might o!rwise h be5 conv5i5tly manag$ )9
 itself by ea* sep>ate ,union4  ,besides
 ! controll+ c\ncil or local            
sub-,p>liam5t1 local bus9ess has its    
executive dep>tm5t4 ,) respect to ?is1 !
 same que/ions arise z ) respect to !   
executive au?orities 9 ! /ate1 & !y may1
 = ! mo/ "p1 be answ]$ 9 ! same mann]4  
,! pr9ciples applicable to all public   
tru/s are 9 sub/ance ! same4 ,9 ! fir/  
place1 ea* executive (fic] %\ld be s+le1
 & s+ly responsible = ! :ole ( ! duty   
committ$ to 8 *>ge4 ,9 ! next place1 he 
%\ld be nom9at$1 n elect$4 ,x is        
ridicul\s t a surveyor1 or a heal?      
(fic]1 or ev5 a collector ( rates %\ld  
be appo9t$ by popul> suffrage4 ,! popul>
 *oice usually dep5ds on int]e/ ) a few 

local lead]s1 :o1 z !y are n suppos$ to 
make ! appo9tm5t1 are n responsible = x2
 or on an appeal to sympa?y1 f\nd$ on   
hav+ twelve *ildr51 & hav+ be5 a        
rate-pay] 9 ! p>i% = ?irty ye>s4 ,if1 9 
cases ( ?is description1 election by !  
population is a f>ce1 appo9tm5t by !    
local repres5tative body is little less 
objectionable4 ,su* bodies h a p]petual 
t5d5cy to become jo9t-/ock associations 
= c>ry+ into effect ! private jobs ( _! 
v>i\s memb]s4 ,appo9tm5ts %\ld be made  
on ! individual responsibility ( !      
*airman ( ! body1 let him be call$      
mayor1 *airman ( ,qu>t] ,sessions1 or by
 :atev] o!r title4 ,he occupies 9 !     
locality a position analog\s to t ( !   
prime m9i/] 9 ! /ate1 & "u a well       
organiz$ sy/em ! appo9tm5t & wat*+ ( !  
local (fic]s w\ld be ! mo/ important "p 
( 8 duty2 he himself be+ appo9t$ by !   
c\ncil f its own numb]1 subject ei!r to 
annual re-election1 or to removal by a  
vote ( ! body4  ,f ! con/itution ( !    
local bodies1 ,i n[ pass to ! equally   

important & m difficult subject ( _!    
prop] attributions4 ,?is "q divides     
itself into two p>ts3 :at %\ld be _!    
duties1 & :e!r !y %\ld h full au?ority  
)9 ! sph]e ( ^? duties1 or %\ld be      
liable to any1 & :at1 int]f]5ce on ! "p 
( ! c5tral gov]nm5t4  ,x is obvi\s1 to  
beg9 )1 t all bus9ess purely local--all 
:i* conc]ns only a s+le locality--%\ld  
devolve ^u ! local au?orities4 ,! pav+1 
light+1 & cleans+ ( ! /reets ( a t[n1 &1
 9 ord9>y circum/ances1 ! dra9+ ( its   
h\ses1 are ( little consequ5ce to any b 
its inhabitants4 ,! nation at l>ge is   
int]e/$ 9 !m 9 no o!r way ?an t 9 :i* x 
is int]e/$ 9 ! private well-be+ ( all   
its individual citiz5s4 ,b among !      
duties class$ z local1 or p]=m$ by local
 function>ies1 !re are _m :i* might )   
equal propriety be t]m$ national1 be+ ! 
%>e belong+ to ! locality ( "s bran* ( !
 public adm9i/ration 9 ! effici5cy ( :i*
 ! :ole nation is alike int]e/$3 !      
jails1 = in/ance1 mo/ ( :i* 9 ?is c\ntry
 are "u c\nty managem5t2 ! local police2

 ! local adm9i/ration ( ju/ice1 mu* (   
:i*1 especially 9 corporate t[ns1 is    
p]=m$ by (fic]s elect$ by ! locality1 & 
paid f local funds4 ,none ( ^! c be said
 to be matt]s ( local1 z di/+ui%$ f     
national importance4 ,x w\ld n be a     
matt] p]sonally indiff]5t to ! re/ ( !  
c\ntry if any "p ( x became a ne/ (     
robb]s or a focus ( demoralization1 ow+ 
to ! maladm9i/ration ( its police2 or   
if1 ?r\gh ! bad regulations ( its jail1 
! puni%m5t :i* ! c\rts ( ju/ice int5d$  
to inflict on ! crim9als conf9$ !re9 7:o
 might h come f1 or committ$ _! (f5ses  
91 any o!r di/rict7 might be d\bl$ 9    
int5sity or l[]$ to practical impunity4 
,! po9ts1 moreov]1 :i* con/itute good   
managem5t ( ^! ?+s are ! same e :]e2 !re
 is no good reason :y police1 or jails1 
or ! adm9i/ration ( ju/ice %\ld be      
diff]5tly manag$ 9 "o "p ( ! k+dom & 9  
ano!r1 :ile !re is great p]il t 9 ?+s s 
important1 & to :i* ! mo/ in/ruct$ m9ds 
available to ! /ate are n m ?an         
adequate1 ! l[] av]age ( capacities :i* 

alone c be c\nt$ on = ! s]vice ( !      
localities might commit errors ( su*    
magnitude z to be a s]i\s blot ^u !     
g5]al adm9i/ration ( ! c\ntry4 ,security
 ( p]son & prop]ty1 & equal ju/ice      
betwe5 individuals1 are ! fir/ ne$s (   
society & ! prim>y ends ( gov]nm5t3 if  
^! ?+s c be left to any responsibility  
bel[ ! highe/1 !re is no?+ except w> &  
treaties :i* requires a g5]al gov]nm5t  
at all4 ,:atev] are ! be/ arrangem5ts = 
secur+ ^! prim>y objects %\ld be made   
univ]sally obligatory1 &1 to secure _!  
en=cem5t1 %\ld be plac$ "u c5tral       
sup]9t5d5ce4 ,x is (t5 useful1 & ) !    
in/itutions ( our own c\ntry ev5        
necess>y1 f ! sc>city1 9 ! localities1 (
 (fic]s repres5t+ ! g5]al gov]nm5t1 t ! 
execution ( duties impos$ by ! c5tral   
au?ority %\ld be intru/$ to function>ies
 appo9t$ = local purposes by ! locality4
 ,b exp]i5ce is daily =c+ ^u ! public a 
conviction ( ! necessity ( hav+ at lea/ 
inspectors appo9t$ by ! g5]al gov]nm5t  
to see t ! local (fic]s d _! duty4 ,if  

prisons are "u local managem5t1 ! c5tral
 gov]nm5t appo9ts inspectors ( prisons1 
to take c>e t ! rules laid d[n by       
,p>liam5t are obs]v$1 & to sugge/ o!rs  
if ! /ate ( ! jails %[s !m to be        
requisite1 z !re are inspectors (       
factories & inspectors ( s*ools1 to wat*
 ov] ! obs]vance ( ! ,acts ( ,p>liam5t  
relat+ to ! fir/1 & ! fulfillm5t ( !    
conditions on :i* /ate assi/ance is     
grant$ to ! latt]4  ,b if ! adm9i/ration
 ( ju/ice1 police & jails includ$1 is   
bo? s univ]sal a conc]n1 & s mu* a matt]
 ( g5]al sci5ce1 indep5d5t ( local      
peculi>ities1 t x may be1 & ought to be1
 uni=mly regulat$ ?r\gh\t ! c\ntry1 &   
its regulation en=c$ by m tra9$ &       
skillful h&s ?an ^? ( purely local      
au?orities1 !re is also bus9ess1 su* z !
 adm9i/ration ( ! poor-laws1 sanit>y    
regulation1 & o!rs1 :i*1 :ile really    
int]e/+ to ! :ole c\ntry1 c n1          
consi/5tly ) ! v purposes ( local       
adm9i/ration1 be manag$ o!rwise ?an by !
 localities4 ,9 reg>d to su* duties1 !  

"q arises h[ f> ! local au?orities ought
 to be tru/$ ) discretion>y p[]1 free f 
any sup]9t5d5ce or control ( ! /ate4    
,to decide ?is "q1 x is ess5tial to     
consid] :at is ! comp>ative position ( !
 c5tral & ! local au?orities z capacity 
= ! "w1 & security aga9/ neglig5ce or   
abuse4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 ! local         
repres5tative bodies & _! (fic]s are    
almo/ c]ta9 to be ( a mu* l[] grade (   
intellig5ce & k ?an ,p>liam5t & !       
national executive4 ,secondly1 besides  
be+ !mselves ( inf]ior qualifications1  
!y are wat*$ by1 & acc\ntable to an     
inf]ior public op9ion4 ,! public "u ^:  
eyes !y act1 & by :om !y are criticiz$1 
is bo? m limit$ 9 ext5t & g5]ally f>    
less enlight5$ ?an t :i* surr\nds &     
admoni%es ! highe/ au?orities at !      
capital1 :ile ! comp>ative smallness ( !
 int]e/s involv$ causes ev5 t inf]ior   
public to direct its ?\ghts to ! subject
 less int5tly & ) less solicitude4 ,f>  
less int]f]5ce is ex]cis$ by ! press &  
by public discussion1 & t :i* is ex]cis$

 may ) mu* m impunity be disreg>d$ 9 !  
proce$+s ( local ?an 9 ^? ( national    
au?orities4 ,?us f>1 ! advantage seems  
:olly on ! side ( managem5t by ! c5tral 
gov]nm5t2 b1 :5 we look m closely1 ^!   
motives ( pref]5ce are f\nd to be       
balanc$ by o!rs fully z sub/antial4 ,if 
! local au?orities & public are inf]ior 
to ! c5tral ones 9 k ( ! pr9ciples (    
adm9i/ration1 !y h ! comp5satory        
advantage ( a f> m direct int]e/ 9 !    
result4 ,a man's neighbors or 8 l&lord  
may be mu* clev]] ?an himself1 & n )\t  
an indirect int]e/ 9 8 prosp]ity1 b1 =  
all t1 8 int]e/s w be bett] att5d$ to 9 
8 own keep+ ?an 9 !irs4 ,x is fur!r to  
be rememb]$ t1 ev5 suppos+ ! c5tral     
gov]nm5t to adm9i/] ?r\gh its own       
(fic]s1 its (fic]s d n act at ! c5tre1 b
 9 ! locality2 & h[ev] inf]ior ! local  
public may be to ! c5tral1 x is ! local 
public alone :i* has any opportunity (  
wat*+ !m1 & x is ! local op9ion alone   
:i* ei!r acts directly ^u _! own        
conduct1 or calls ! att5tion ( !        

gov]nm5t to ! po9ts 9 :i* !y may require
 correction4 ,x is b 9 extreme cases t !
 g5]al op9ion ( ! c\ntry is br\ght to   
be> at all ^u details ( local           
adm9i/ration1 & /ill m r>ely has x !    
means ( decid+ ^u !m ) any j            
appreciation ( ! case4 ,n[ ! local      
op9ion necess>ily acts f> m =cibly ^u   
purely local adm9i/rators4 ,!y1 9 !     
natural c\rse ( ?+s1 are p]man5t        
resid5ts1 n expect+ to be )drawn f !    
place :5 !y cease to ex]cise au?ority 9 
x2 & _! au?ority itself dep5ds1 by      
supposition1 on ! w ( ! local public4 ,i
 ne$ n dwell on ! defici5cies ( ! c5tral
 au?ority 9 detail$ k ( local p]sons &  
?+s1 & ! too great engrossm5t ( its "t &
 ?\ghts by o!r conc]ns to admit ( its   
acquir+ ! quantity & quality ( local k  
necess>y ev5 = decid+ on compla9ts1 &   
en=c+ responsibility f s great a numb] (
 local ag5ts4 ,9 ! details ( managem5t1 
!re=e1 ! local bodies w g5]ally h !     
advantage1 b 9 compreh5sion ( !         
pr9ciples ev5 ( purely local managem5t1 

! sup]iority ( ! c5tral gov]nm5t1 :5    
rightly con/itut$1 ought to be          
prodigi\s1 n only by reason ( ! probably
 great p]sonal sup]iority ( !           
individuals compos+ x1 & ! multitude (  
?9k]s & writ]s :o are at all times      
engag$ 9 press+ useful ideas ^u _!      
notice1 b also because ! k & exp]i5ce ( 
any local au?ority is b local k &       
exp]i5ce1 conf9$ to _! own "p ( ! c\ntry
 & its modes ( managem5t1 :]eas ! c5tral
 gov]nm5t has ! means ( kn[+ all t is to
 be le>n$ f ! unit$ exp]i5ce ( ! :ole   
k+dom1 ) ! addition ( easy access to t (
 =eign c\ntries4  ,! practical          
conclusion f ^! premises is n difficult 
to draw4 ,! au?ority :i* is mo/         
conv]sant ) pr9ciples %\ld be supreme   
ov] pr9ciples1 :ile t :i* is mo/        
compet5t 9 details %\ld h ! details left
 to x4 ,! pr9cipal bus9ess ( ! c5tral   
au?ority %\ld be to give in/ruction1 ( !
 local au?ority to apply x4 ,p[] may be 
localiz$1 b k1 to be mo/ useful1 mu/ be 
c5traliz$2 !re mu/ be some:]e a focus at

 :i* all its scatt]$ rays are collect$1 
t ! brok5 & color$ lights :i* exi/      
else:]e may f9d !re :at is necess>y to  
complete & purify !m4 ,to e bran* (     
local adm9i/ration :i* affects ! g5]al  
int]e/ !re %\ld be a correspond+ c5tral 
organ1 ei!r a m9i/]1 or "s specially    
appo9t$ function>y "u him1 ev5 if t     
function>y does no m ?an collect        
in=mation f all qu>t]s1 & br+ ! exp]i5ce
 acquir$ 9 "o locality to ! k ( ano!r   
:]e x is want$4 ,b !re is also some?+ m 
?an ?is = ! c5tral au?ority to d4 ,x    
ought to keep op5 a p]petual            
communication ) ! localities--in=m+     
itself by _! exp]i5ce1 & !m by its own2 
giv+ advice freely :5 ask$1 volunte]+ x 
:5 se5 to be requir$2 compell+ publicity
 & recordation ( proce$+s1 & en=c+      
ob$i5ce to e g5]al law :i* !            
,legislature has laid d[n on ! subject (
 local managem5t4 ,t "s su* laws ought  
to be laid d[n few are likely to d5y4 ,!
 localities may be all[$ to mismanage _!
 own int]e/s1 b n to prejudice ^? (     

o!rs1 nor violate ^? pr9ciples ( ju/ice 
betwe5 "o p]son & ano!r ( :i* x is !    
duty ( ! /ate to ma9ta9 ! rigid         
obs]vance4 ,if ! local majority attempts
 to oppress ! m9ority1 or "o class      
ano!r1 ! /ate is b\nd to int]pose4 ,=   
example1 all local rates ought to be    
vot$ exclusively by ! local             
repres5tative body2 b t body1 ?\gh      
elect$ solely by rate-pay]s1 may raise  
its rev5ues by impo/s ( su* a k9d1 or   
assess !m 9 su* a mann]1 z to ?r[ an    
unju/ %>e ( ! burd5 on ! poor1 ! ri*1 or
 "s p>ticul> class ( ! population3 x is 
! duty1 !re=e1 ( ! ,legislature1 :ile   
leav+ ! m]e am\nt ( ! local taxes to !  
discretion ( ! local body1 to lay d[n   
au?oritatively ! mode ( taxation & rules
 ( assessm5t :i* alone ! localities %all
 be p]mitt$ to use4 ,aga91 9 !          
adm9i/ration ( public *>ity1 ! indu/ry &
 morality ( ! :ole labor+ population    
dep5ds1 to a mo/ s]i\s ext5t1 ^u adh]5ce
 to c]ta9 fix$ pr9ciples 9 aw>d+ relief4
 ,?\gh x belongs ess5tially to ! local  

function>ies to det]m9e :o1 accord+ to  
^? pr9ciples1 is entitl$ to be reliev$1 
! national ,p>liam5t is ! prop] au?ority
 to prescribe ! pr9ciples !mselves2 & x 
w\ld neglect a mo/ important "p ( its   
duty if x did n1 9 a matt] ( su* grave  
national conc]n1 lay d[n imp]ative      
rules1 & make effectual provision t ^?  
rules %\ld n be dep>t$ f4 ,:at p[] (    
actual int]f]5ce ) ! local adm9i/rators 
x may be necess>y to reta91 = ! due     
en=cem5t ( ! laws1 is a "q ( detail into
 :i* x w\ld be useless to ent]4 ,! laws 
!mselves w naturally def9e ! p5alties1 &
 fix ! mode ( _! en=cem5t4 ,x may be    
requisite1 to meet extreme cases1 t !   
p[] ( ! c5tral au?ority %\ld ext5d to   
dissolv+ ! local repres5tative c\ncil or
 dismiss+ ! local executive1 b n to mak+
 new appo9tm5ts or susp5d+ ! local      
in/itutions4 ,:]e ,p>liam5t has n       
int]f]$1 nei!r ought any bran* ( !      
executive to int]f]e ) au?ority2 b z an 
advis] & critic1 an en=c] ( ! laws1 & a 
d5\nc] to ,p>liam5t or ! local          

con/itu5cies ( conduct :i* x deems      
condemnable1 ! functions ( ! executive  
are ( ! greate/ possible value4  ,"s may
 ?9k t1 h[ev] mu* ! c5tral au?ority     
surpasses ! local 9 k ( ! pr9ciples (   
adm9i/ration1 ! great object :i* has be5
 s mu* insi/$ on1 ! social & political  
education ( ! citiz5s1 requires t !y    
%\ld be left to manage ^! matt]s by _!  
own1 h[ev] imp]fect lights4 ,to ?is x   
might be answ]$ t ! education ( !       
citiz5s is n ! only ?+ to be consid]$2  
gov]nm5t & adm9i/ration d n exi/ = t    
alone1 great z its importance is4 ,b !  
objection %[s a v imp]fect und]/&+ ( !  
function ( popul> in/itutions z a means 
( political in/ruction4 ,x is b a poor  
education t associates ignorance )      
ignorance1 & leaves !m1 if !y c>e = k1  
to grope _! way to x )\t help1 & to d   
)\t x if !y d n4 ,:at is want$ is !     
means ( mak+ ignorance aw>e ( itself1 & 
able to pr(it by k2 accu/om+ m9ds :i* "k
 only r\t9e to act ^u1 & feel ! value ( 
pr9ciples2 tea*+ !m to comp>e diff]5t   

modes ( action1 & le>n1 by ! use ( _!   
reason1 to di/+ui% ! be/4 ,:5 we desire 
to h a good s*ool1 we d n elim9ate !    
tea*]4 ,! old rem>k1 ,z ! s*oolma/] is1 
s w be ! s*ool1 is z true ( ! indirect  
s*ool+ ( gr[n p by public bus9ess z ( ! 
s*ool+ ( y\? 9 academies & colleges4 ,a 
gov]nm5t :i* attempts to d e ?+ is aptly
 comp>$ by ,m4 ,*>les de ,rmusat to a   
s*oolma/] :o does all ! pupils' tasks = 
!m2 he may be v popul> ) ! pupils1 b he 
w tea* !m little4 ,a gov]nm5t1 on ! o!r 
h&1 :i* nei!r does any ?+ itself t c    
possibly be done by any "o else1 nor %[s
 any "o else h[ to d any ?+1 is l a     
s*ool 9 :i* !re is no s*oolma/]1 b only 
pupil-tea*]s :o h nev] !mselves be5     
taught4    ,*apt] ,,xvi--,(             
,nationality1 z connect$ )              
,repres5tative ,gov]nm5t4   ,a portion (
 mank9d may be said to con/itute a      
nationality if !y are unit$ among       
!mselves by common sympa?ies :i* d n    
exi/ betwe5 !m & any o!rs--:i* make !m  
co-op]ate ) ea* o!r m will+ly ?an ) o!r 

p1 desire to be "u ! same gov]nm5t1 &   
desire t x %\ld be gov]nm5t by !mselves1
 or a portion ( !mselves1 exclusively4  
,?is feel+ ( nationality may h be5      
g5]at$ by v>i\s causes4 ,sometimes x is 
! effect ( id5tity ( race & desc5t4     
,community ( language & community (     
religion greatly contribute to x4       
,geographical limits are "o ( its       
causes4 ,b ! /ronge/ ( all is id5tity ( 
political antec$5ts2 ! possession ( a   
national hi/ory1 & consequ5t community (
 recollections2 collective pride &      
humiliation1 pleasure & regret1 connect$
 ) ! same incid5ts 9 ! pa/4 ,none ( ^!  
circum/ances1 h[ev]1 are ei!r           
indisp5sable or necess>ily suffici5t by 
!mselves4 ,switz]l& has a /rong s5tim5t 
( nationality1 ?\gh ! cantons are (     
diff]5t races1 diff]5t languages1 &     
diff]5t religions4 ,sicily has hi!rto   
felt itself q di/9ct 9 nationality f    
,naples1 not)/&+ id5tity ( religion1    
almo/ id5tity ( language1 & a           
consid]able am\nt ( common hi/orical    

antec$5ts4 ,! ,flemi% & ! ,walloon      
prov9ces ( ,belgium1 not)/&+ div]sity ( 
race & language1 h a mu* great] feel+ ( 
common nationality ?an ! =m] h ) ,holl&1
 or ! latt] ) ,france4 ,yet 9 g5]al !   
national feel+ is proportionally weak5$ 
by ! failure ( any ( ! causes :i*       
contribute to x4 ,id5tity ( language1   
lit]ature1 &1 to "s ext5t1 ( race &     
recollections1 h ma9ta9$ ! feel+ (      
nationality 9 consid]able /r5g? among ! 
diff]5t portions ( ! ,g]man "n1 ?\gh !y 
h at no "t be5 really unit$ "u ! same   
gov]nm5t2 b ! feel+ has nev] rea*$ to   
mak+ ! sep>ate /ates desire to get rid (
 _! autonomy4 ,among ,italians1 an      
id5tity f> f complete ( language &      
lit]ature1 comb9$ ) a geographical      
position :i* sep>ates !m by a di/9ct l9e
 f o!r c\ntries1 &1 p]haps m ?an e ?+   
else1 ! possession ( a common "n1 :i*   
makes !m all glory 9 ! pa/ a*ievem5ts 9 
arts1 arms1 politics1 religi\s primacy1 
sci5ce1 & lit]ature1 ( any :o %>e ! same
 designation1 give rise to an am\nt (   

national feel+ 9 ! population :i*1 ?\gh 
/ill imp]fect1 has be5 suffici5t to     
produce ! great ev5ts n[ pass+ be=e u1  
not)/&+ a great mixture ( races1 &      
al?\gh !y h nev]1 9 ei!r anci5t or mod]n
 hi/ory1 be5 "u ! same gov]nm5t1 except 
:ile t gov]nm5t ext5d$ or 0 ext5d+      
itself ov] ! great] "p ( ! kn[n _w4     
,:]e ! s5tim5t ( nationality exi/s 9 any
 =ce1 !re is a prim facie case = unit+  
all ! memb]s ( ! nationality "u ! same  
gov]nm5t1 & a gov]nm5t to !mselves ap>t4
 ,?is is m]ely say+ t ! "q ( gov]nm5t   
ought to be decid$ by ! gov]n$4 ,"o     
h>dly kn[s :at any division ( ! human   
race %\ld be free to d if n to det]m9e )
 :i* ( ! v>i\s collective bodies ( human
 be+s !y *oose to associate !mselves4   
,b1 :5 a p are ripe = free in/itutions1 
!re is a /ill m vital consid]ation4     
,free in/itutions are next to impossible
 9 a c\ntry made up ( diff]5t           
nationalities4 ,among a p )\t           
fell[-feel+1 especially if !y read &    
speak diff]5t languages1 ! unit$ public 

op9ion necess>y to ! work+ (            
repres5tative gov]nm5t c n exi/4 ,!     
influ5ces :i* =m op9ions & decide       
political acts are diff]5t 9 ! diff]5t  
sections ( ! c\ntry4 ,an altoge!r       
diff]5t set ( lead]s h ! confid5ce ( "o 
"p ( ! c\ntry & ( ano!r4 ,! same books1 
newspap]s1 pamphlets1 spee*es1 d n rea* 
!m4 ,"o section does n "k :at op9ions or
 :at in/igations are circulat+ 9 ano!r4 
,! same incid5ts1 ! same acts1 ! same   
sy/em ( gov]nm5t1 affect !m 9 diff]5t   
ways1 & ea* fe>s m injury to itself f ! 
o!r nationalities ?an f ! common arbit]1
 ! /ate4 ,_! mutual antipa?ies are      
g5]ally mu* /rong] ?an jeal\sy ( !      
gov]nm5t4 ,t any "o ( !m feels aggriev$ 
by ! policy ( ! common rul] is suffici5t
 to det]m9e ano!r to support t policy4  
,ev5 if all are aggriev$1 none feel t !y
 c rely on ! o!rs = fidelity 9 a jo9t   
resi/ance2 ! /r5g? ( none is suffici5t  
to resi/ alone1 & ea* may reasonably ?9k
 t x consults its own advantage mo/ by  
bidd+ = ! favor ( ! gov]nm5t aga9/ !    

re/4 ,above all1 ! gr& & only reliable  
security 9 ! la/ resort aga9/ !         
despotism ( ! gov]nm5t is 9 t case      
want+--! sympa?y ( ! army ) ! p4 ,!     
milit>y are ! "p ( e community 9 :om1 f 
! nature ( ! case1 ! di/9ction betwe5 _!
 fell[-c\ntrym5 & =eign]s is ! deepe/ & 
/ronge/4 ,to ! re/ ( ! p =eign]s are    
m]ely /rang]s2 to ! soldi]1 !y are m5   
aga9/ :om he may be call$1 at a week's  
notice1 to fight = life or dea?4 ,!     
diff]5ce to him is t betwe5 fri5ds &    
enemies--we may almo/ say betwe5        
fell[-m5 & ano!r k9d ( animals2 =1 z    
respects ! enemy1 ! only law is t ( =ce1
 & ! only mitigation ! same z 9 ! case (
 o!r animals--t ( simple humanity4      
,soldi]s to ^: feel+s half or ?ree f\r?s
 ( ! subjects ( ! same gov]nm5t are     
=eign]s w h no m scruple 9 m[+ !m d[n1 &
 no m desire to ask ! reason :y1 ?an !y 
w\ld h 9 do+ ! same ?+ aga9/ decl>$     
enemies4 ,an army compos$ ( v>i\s       
nationalities has no o!r patriotism ?an 
devotion to ! flag4 ,su* armies h be5 ! 

execution]s ( lib]ty ?r\gh ! :ole       
duration ( mod]n hi/ory4 ,! sole bond   
:i* holds !m toge!r is _! (fic]s & !    
gov]nm5t :i* !y s]ve1 & _! only idea1 if
 !y h any1 ( public duty1 is ob$i5ce to 
ord]s4 ,a gov]nm5t ?us support$1 by     
keep+ its ,hung>ian regim5ts 9 ,italy & 
its ,italian 9 ,hung>y1 c long cont9ue  
to rule 9 bo? places ) ! iron rod (     
=eign conqu]ors4  ,if x be said t s     
broadly-m>k$ a di/9ction betwe5 :at is  
due to a fell[-c\ntryman & :at is due   
m]ely to a human creature is m wor?y (  
savages ?an ( civiliz$ be+s1 & ought1 ) 
! utmo/ en]gy1 to be cont5d$ aga9/1 no  
"o holds t op9ion m /rongly ?an myself4 
,b ?is object1 "o ( ! wor?ie/ to :i*    
human endeav\r c be direct$1 c nev]1 9 !
 pres5t /ate ( civilization1 be promot$ 
by keep+ diff]5t nationalities ( any ?+ 
l equival5t /r5g? "u ! same gov]nm5t4 ,9
 a b>b>\s /ate ( society ! case is      
sometimes diff]5t4 ,! gov]nm5t may !n be
 int]e/$ 9 s(t5+ ! antipa?ies ( ! races1
 t peace may be pres]v$ & ! c\ntry m    

easily gov]n$4 ,b :5 !re are ei!r free  
in/itutions1 or a desire = !m1 9 any ( !
 peoples artificially ti$ toge!r1 !     
int]e/ ( ! gov]nm5t lies 9 an exactly   
opposite direction4 ,x is !n int]e/$ 9  
keep+ up & env5om+ _! antipa?ies1 t !y  
may be prev5t$ f coalesc+1 & x may be   
enabl$ to use "s ( !m z tools = !       
enslavem5t ( o!rs4 ,! ,au/rian c\rt has 
n[ = a :ole g5]ation made ^! tactics its
 pr9cipal means ( gov]nm5t1 ) :at fatal 
success1 at ! "t ( ! ,vi5na insurrection
 & ! ,hung>ian conte/ ! _w kn[s too     
well4 ,happily !re are n[ signs t       
improvem5t is too f> advanc$ to p]mit   
?is policy to be any long] successful4  
,= ! prec$+ reasons1 x is 9 g5]al a     
necess>y condition ( free in/itutions t 
! b\nd>ies ( gov]nm5ts %\ld co9cide 9 ! 
ma9 ) ^? ( nationalities4 ,b sev]al     
consid]ations are liable to conflict 9  
practice ) ?is g5]al pr9ciple4 ,9 ! fir/
 place1 its application is (t5 preclud$ 
by geographical h9drances4 ,!re are p>ts
 ev5 ( ,europe 9 :i* diff]5t            

nationalities are s locally int]m+l$ t x
 is n practicable = !m to be "u sep>ate 
gov]nm5ts4 ,! population ( ,hung>y is   
compos$ ( ,magy>s1 ,slovaks1 ,croats1   
,s]bs1 ,r\mans1 & 9 "s di/ricts ,g]mans1
 s mix$ up z to be incapable ( local    
sep>ation2 & !re is no c\rse op5 to !m b
 to make a virtue ( necessity1 &        
reconcile !mselves to liv+ toge!r "u    
equal rights & laws4 ,_! community (    
s]vitude1 :i* dates only f ! de/ruction 
( ,hung>ian indep5d5ce 9 #ahdi1 seems to
 be rip5+ & dispos+ !m = su* an equal   
union4 ,! ,g]man colony ( ,ea/ ,prussia 
is cut (f f ,g]many by "p ( ! anci5t    
,pol&1 & be+ too weak to ma9ta9 sep>ate 
indep5d5ce1 mu/1 if geographical        
cont9uity is to be ma9ta9$1 be ei!r "u a
 non-,g]man gov]nm5t1 or ! int]v5+      
,poli% t]ritory mu/ be "u a ,g]man "o4  
,ano!r consid]able region 9 :i* !       
dom9ant elem5t ( ! population is ,g]man1
 ! prov9ces ( ,c\rl&1 ,e/honia1 &       
,livonia1 is condemn$ by its local      
situation to =m "p ( a ,slavonian /ate4 

,9 ,ea/]n ,g]many itself !re is a l>ge  
,slavonic population2 ,bohemia is       
pr9cipally ,slavonic1 ,silesia & o!r    
di/ricts p>tially s4 ,! mo/ unit$ c\ntry
 9 ,europe1 ,france1 is f> f be+        
homog5e\s3 indep5d5tly ( ! fragm5ts (   
=eign nationalities at its remote       
extremities1 x consi/s1 z language &    
hi/ory prove1 ( two portions1 "o occupi$
 almo/ exclusively by a ,gallo-,roman   
population1 :ile 9 ! o!r ! ,franki%1    
,burgundian1 & o!r ,teutonic races =m a 
consid]able +r$i5t4  ,:5 prop] all[ance 
has be5 made = geographical exig5cies1  
ano!r m purely moral & social           
consid]ation (f]s itself4 ,exp]i5ce     
proves t x is possible = "o nationality 
to m]ge & be absorb$ 9 ano!r2 & :5 x 0  
orig9ally an inf]ior & m backw>d portion
 ( ! human race1 ! absorption is greatly
 to its advantage4 ,nobody c suppose t x
 is n m b5eficial to a ,breton1 or a    
,basque ( ,fr5* ,nav>re1 to be br\ght   
into ! curr5t ( ! ideas & feel+s ( a    
highly civiliz$ & cultivat$ p--to be a  

memb] ( ! ,fr5* nationality1 admitt$ on 
equal t]ms to all ! privileges ( ,fr5*  
citiz5%ip1 %>+ ! advantages ( ,fr5*     
protection1 & ! dignity & pre/ige (     
,fr5* p[]--?an to sulk on 8 own rocks1 !
 half-savage relic ( pa/ times1 revolv+ 
9 8 own little m5tal orbit1 )\t         
p>ticipation or int]e/ 9 ! g5]al movem5t
 ( ! _w4 ,! same rem>k applies to !     
,wel%man or ! ,scotti% ,highl&] z memb]s
 ( ! ,briti% nation4  ,:atev] really    
t5ds to ! admixture ( nationalities1 & !
 bl5d+ ( _! attributes & peculi>ities 9 
a common union1 is a b5efit to ! human  
race4 ,n by ext+ui%+ types1 ( :i*1 9 ^! 
cases1 suffici5t examples are sure to   
rema91 b by s(t5+ _! extreme =ms1 &     
fill+ up ! int]vals betwe5 !m4 ,! unit$ 
p1 l a cross$ bre$ ( animals 7b 9 a /ill
 great] degree1 because ! influ5ces 9   
op]ation are moral z well z physical71  
inh]its ! special aptitudes & excell5ces
 ( all its prog5itors1 protect$ by !    
admixture f be+ exagg]at$ into !        
neighbor+ vices4 ,b1 to r5d] ?is        

admixture possible1 !re mu/ be peculi>  
conditions4 ,! comb9ations (            
circum/ances :i* occur1 & :i* effect !  
result1 are v>i\s4  ,! nationalities    
br\ght toge!r "u ! same gov]nm5t may be 
ab\t equal 9 numb]s & /r5g?1 or !y may  
be v unequal4 ,if unequal1 ! lea/ num]\s
 ( ! two may ei!r be ! sup]ior 9        
civilization1 or ! inf]ior4 ,suppos+ x  
to be sup]ior1 x may ei!r1 ?r\gh t      
sup]iority1 be able to acquire asc5dancy
 ov] ! o!r1 or x may be ov]come by brute
 /r5g? & r$uc$ to subjection4 ,?is la/  
is a %e] mis*ief to ! human race1 & "o  
:i* civiliz$ humanity ) "o accord %\ld  
rise 9 arms to prev5t4 ,! absorption (  
,greece by ,mac$onia 0 "o ( ! greate/   
mis=tunes :i* ev] happ5$ to ! _w2 t (   
any ( ! pr9cipal c\ntries ( ,europe by  
,russia w\ld be a simil> "o4  ,if !     
small] nationality1 suppos$ to be ! m   
advanc$ 9 improvem5t1 is able to ov]come
 ! great]1 z ! ,mac$onians1 re-en=c$ by 
! ,greeks1 did ,asia1 & ! ,engli%       
,india1 !re is (t5 a ga9 to             

civilization1 b ! conqu]ors & ! conqu]$ 
c n 9 ?is case live toge!r "u ! same    
free in/itutions4 ,! absorption ( !     
conqu]ors 9 ! less advanc$ p w\ld be an 
evil3 ^! mu/ be gov]n$ z subjects1 & !  
/ate ( ?+s is ei!r a b5efit or a        
mis=tune1 accord+ z ! subjugat$ p h or h
 n rea*$ ! /ate 9 :i* x is an injury n  
to be "u a free gov]nm5t1 & accord+ z ! 
conqu]ors d or d n use _! sup]iority 9 a
 mann] calculat$ to fit ! conqu]$ = a   
high] /age ( improvem5t4 ,?is topic w be
 p>ticul>ly treat$ ( 9 a subsequ5t      
*apt]4  ,:5 ! nationality :i* succe$s 9 
ov]p[]+ ! o!r is bo? ! mo/ num]\s & !   
mo/ improv$1 & especially if ! subdu$   
nationality is small1 & has no hope (   
reass]t+ its indep5d5ce1 !n1 if x is    
gov]n$ ) any tol]able ju/ice1 & if !    
memb]s ( ! m p[]ful nationality are n   
made odi\s by be+ inve/$ ) exclusive    
privileges1 ! small] nationality is     
gradually reconcil$ to its position1 &  
becomes amalgamat$ ) ! l>g]4 ,no        
,bas-,breton1 nor ev5 any ,alsatian1 has

 ! smalle/ wi% at ! pres5t day to be    
sep>at$ f ,france4 ,if all ,iri%m5 h n  
yet arriv$ at ! same disposition t[>ds  
,engl&1 x is p>tly because !y are       
suffici5tly num]\s to be capable (      
con/itut+ a respectable nationality by  
!mselves1 b pr9cipally because1 until ( 
late ye>s1 !y _h be5 s atroci\sly gov]n$
 t all _! be/ feel+s comb9$ ) _! bad    
ones 9 r\s+ bitt] res5tm5t aga9/ !      
,saxon rule4 ,?is disgrace to ,engl& &  
calamity to ! :ole empire has1 x may be 
truly said1 completely ceas$ = ne>ly a  
g5]ation4 ,no ,iri%man is n[ less free  
?an an ,anglo-,saxon1 nor has a less %>e
 ( e b5efit ei!r to 8 c\ntry or to 8    
individual =tunes ?an if he 7 sprung f  
any o!r portion ( ! ,briti% dom9ions4 ,!
 only rema9+ real grievance ( ,irel&1 t 
( ! ,/ate ,*ur*1 is "o :i* half1 or     
ne>ly half ! p ( ! l>g] isl& h 9 common 
) !m4 ,!re is n[ next to no?+1 except ! 
memory ( ! pa/1 & ! diff]5ce 9 !        
pr$om9ant religion1 to keep ap>t two    
races p]haps ! mo/ fitt$ ( any two 9 !  

_w to be ! complet+ c\nt]p>t ( "o ano!r4
 ,! consci\sness ( be+ at la/ treat$ n  
only ) equal ju/ice1 b ) equal          
consid]ation1 is mak+ su* rapid way 9 ! 
,iri% nation z to be we>+ (f all feel+s 
t c\ld make !m ins5sible to ! b5efits   
:i* ! less num]\s & less weal?y p mu/   
necess>ily d]ive f be+ fell[-citiz5s    
in/ead ( =eign]s to ^? :o are n only _! 
ne>e/ neighbors1 b ! weal?ie/1 & "o ( ! 
free/1 z well z mo/ civiliz$ & p[]ful   
nations ( ! e>?4  ,! cases 9 :i* !      
greate/ practical ob/acles exi/ to !    
bl5d+ ( nationalities are :5 !          
nationalities :i* h be5 b\nd toge!r are 
ne>ly equal 9 numb]s & 9 ! o!r elem5ts (
 p[]4 ,9 su* cases1 ea*1 confid+ 9 its  
/r5g?1 & feel+ itself capable ( ma9ta9+ 
an equal /ruggle ) any ( ! o!rs1 is     
unwill+ to be m]g$ 9 x2 ea* cultivates )
 p>ty ob/9acy its di/9ctive             
peculi>ities2 obsolete cu/oms1 & ev5    
decl9+ languages1 are reviv$1 to deep5 !
 sep>ation2 ea* deems itself tyranniz$  
ov] if any au?ority is ex]cis$ )9 itself

 by function>ies ( a rival race2 &      
:atev] is giv5 to "o ( ! conflict+      
nationalities is consid]$ to be tak5 f  
all ! re/4 ,:5 nations ?us divid$ are "u
 a despotic gov]nm5t :i* is a /rang] to 
all ( !m1 or :i*1 ?\gh sprung f "o1 yet 
feel+ great] int]e/ 9 its own p[] ?an 9 
any sympa?ies ( nationality1 assigns no 
privilege to ei!r nation1 & *ooses its  
in/rum5ts indiff]5tly f all1 9 ! c\rse (
 a few g5]ations id5tity ( situation (t5
 produces h>mony ( feel+1 & ! diff]5t   
races come to feel t[>ds ea* o!r z      
fell[-c\ntrym51 p>ticul>ly if !y are    
disp]s$ ov] ! same tract ( c\ntry4 ,b if
 ! era ( aspiration to free gov]nm5t    
arrives be=e ?is fusion has be5 effect$1
 ! opportunity has gone by = effect+ x4 
,f t "t1 if ! unreconcil$ nationalities 
are geographically sep>ate1 & especially
 if _! local position is su* t !re is no
 natural fitness or conv5i5ce 9 _! be+  
"u ! same gov]nm5t 7z 9 ! case ( an     
,italian prov9ce "u a ,fr5* or ,g]man   
yoke71 !re is n only an obvi\s          

propriety1 b1 if ei!r fre$om or concord 
is c>$ =1 a necessity = break+ !        
connection altoge!r4 ,!re may be cases 9
 :i* ! prov9ces1 aft] sep>ation1 might  
usefully rema9 unit$ by a f$]al tie2 b x
 g5]ally happ5s t if !y are will+ to    
=ego complete indep5d5ce1 & become      
memb]s ( a f$]ation1 ea* ( !m has o!r   
neighbors ) :om x w\ld pref] to connect 
itself1 hav+ m sympa?ies 9 common1 if n 
also great] community ( int]e/4         
,*apt] ,,xvii--,( ,f$]al ,repres5tative 
,gov]nm5ts4   ,portions ( mank9d :o are 
n fitt$ or n dispos$ to live "u ! same  
int]nal gov]nm5t may (t51 ) advantage1  
be f$]ally unit$ z to _! relations )    
=eign]s1 bo? to prev5t w>s among        
!mselves1 & = ! sake ( m effectual      
protection aga9/ ! aggression ( p[]ful  
/ates4  ,to r5d] a f$]ation advisable   
sev]al conditions are necess>y4 ,! fir/ 
is t !re %\ld be a suffici5t am\nt (    
mutual sympa?y among ! populations4 ,!  
f$]ation b9ds !m always to fight on !   
same side2 & if !y h su* feel+s t[>d "o 

ano!r1 or su* div]sity ( feel+ t[>d _!  
neighbors t !y w\ld g5]ally pref] to    
fight on opposite sides1 ! f$]al tie is 
nei!r likely to be ( long duration1 nor 
to be well obs]v$ :ile x subsi/s4 ,!    
sympa?ies available = ! purpose are ^? (
 race1 language1 religion1 &1 above all1
 ( political in/itutions1 z conduc+ mo/ 
to a feel+ ( id5tity ( political int]e/4
 ,:5 a few free /ates1 sep>ately        
insuffici5t = _! own def5se1 are hemm$ 9
 on all sides by milit>y or feudal      
mon>*s1 :o hate & despise fre$om ev5 9 a
 neighbor1 ^? /ates h no *ance = pres]v+
 lib]ty & its bless+s b by a f$]al      
union4 ,! common int]e/ aris+ f ?is     
cause has 9 ,switz]l&1 = sev]al         
c5turies1 be5 f\nd adequate to ma9ta9   
effici5tly ! f$]al bond1 9 spite n only 
( diff]5ce ( religion :5 religion 0 !   
gr& s\rce ( irreconcilable political    
enmity ?r\gh\t ,europe1 b also 9 spite (
 great weakness 9 ! con/itution ( !     
f$]ation itself4 ,9 ,am]ica1 :]e all !  
conditions = ! ma9t5ance ( union exi/$  

at ! highe/ po9t1 ) ! sole drawback (   
diff]5ce ( in/itutions 9 ! s+le b mo/   
important article ( slav]y1 ?is "o      
diff]5ce goes s f> 9 ali5at+ f ea* o!r's
 sympa?ies ! two divisions ( ! ,union z 
to be n[ actually effect+ ! disruption (
 a tie ( s mu* value to !m bo?4  ,a     
second condition ( ! /ability ( a f$]al 
gov]nm5t is t ! sep>ate /ates be n s    
p[]ful z to be able to rely = protection
 aga9/ =eign encroa*m5t on _! individual
 /r5g?4 ,if !y are1 !y w be apt to ?9k t
 !y d n ga91 by union ) o!rs1 !         
equival5t ( :at !y sacrifice 9 _! own   
lib]ty ( action2 & consequ5tly1 :5ev] ! 
policy ( ! conf$]ation1 9 ?+s res]v$ to 
its cognizance1 is diff]5t f t :i* any  
"o ( its memb]s w\ld sep>ately pursue1 !
 int]nal & sectional brea* w1 ?r\gh     
abs5ce ( suffici5t anxiety to pres]ve ! 
,union1 be 9 dang] ( go+ s f> z to      
dissolve x4  ,a ?ird condition1 n less  
important ?an ! two o!rs1 is t !re be n 
a v m>k$ inequality ( /r5g? among !     
sev]al contract+ /ates4 ,!y c n1 inde$1 

be exactly equal 9 res\rces2 9 all      
f$]ations !re w be a gradation ( p[]    
among ! memb]s2 "s w be m popul\s1 ri*1 
& civiliz$ ?an o!rs4 ,!re is a wide     
diff]5ce 9 weal? & population betwe5    
,new ,york & ,rhode ,isl&2 betwe5 ,b]ne1
 & ,zug or ,gl>is4 ,! ess5tial is1 t !re
 %\ld n be any "o /ate s mu* m p[]ful   
?an ! re/ z to be capable ( vy+ 9 /r5g? 
) _m ( !m comb9$4 ,if !re be su* a "o1 &
 only "o1 x w insi/ on be+ ma/] ( ! jo9t
 delib]ations2 if !re be two1 !y w be   
irresi/ible :5 !y agree2 & :5ev] !y     
diff]1 e ?+ w be decid$ by a /ruggle =  
asc5dancy betwe5 ! rivals4 ,?is cause is
 alone en\gh to r$uce ! ,g]man ,bund to 
almo/ a nullity1 indep5d5tly ( its      
wret*$ int]nal con/itution4 ,x effects  
none ( ! real purposes ( a conf$]ation4 
,x has nev] be/[$ on ,g]many a uni=m    
sy/em ( cu/oms1 nor s mu* z a uni=m     
co9age1 & has s]v$ only to give ,au/ria 
& ,prussia a legal "r ( p\r+ 9 _! troops
 to assi/ ! local sov]eigns 9 keep+ _!  
subjects ob$i5t to despotism1 :ile1 9   

reg>d to ext]nal conc]ns1 ! ,bund w\ld  
make all ,g]many a dep5d5cy ( ,prussia  
if !re 7 no ,au/ria1 & ( ,au/ria if !re 
7 no ,prussia2 &1 9 ! mean "t1 ea* petty
 pr9ce has little *oice b to be a       
p>tisan ( "o or ! o!r1 or to intrigue ) 
=eign gov]nm5ts aga9/ bo?4  ,!re are two
 diff]5t modes ( organiz+ a f$]al union4
 ,! f$]al au?orities may repres5t !     
gov]nm5ts solely1 & _! acts may be      
obligatory only on ! gov]nm5ts z su*1 or
 !y may h ! p[] ( enact+ laws & issu+   
ord]s :i* are b9d+ directly on          
individual citiz5s4 ,! =m] is ! plan ( !
 ,g]man s-call$ ,conf$]ation1 & ( !     
,swiss ,con/itution previ\s to #ahdg4 ,x
 0 tri$ 9 ,am]ica = a few ye>s          
imm$iately foll[+ ! ,w> ( ,indep5d5ce4  
,! o!r pr9ciple is t ( ! exi/+          
,con/itution ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 & has   
be5 adopt$ )9 ! la/ doz5 ye>s by !      
,swiss ,conf$]acy4 ,! ,f$]al ,congress (
 ! ,am]ican ,union is a sub/antive "p ( 
! gov]nm5t ( e individual /ate4 ,)9 !   
limits ( its attributions1 x makes laws 

:i* are obey$ by e citiz5 individually1 
executes !m ?r\gh its own (fic]s1 &     
en=ces !m by its own tribunals4 ,?is is 
! only pr9ciple :i* has be5 f\nd1 or :i*
 is ev] likely to produce an effective  
f$]al gov]nm5t4 ,a union betwe5 !       
gov]nm5ts only is a m]e alliance1 &     
subject to all ! cont+5cies :i* r5d]    
alliances prec>i\s4 ,if ! acts ( !      
,presid5t & ( ,congress 7 b9d+ solely on
 ! gov]nm5ts ( ,new ,york1 ,virg9ia1 or 
,p5nsylvania1 & c\ld only be c>ri$ into 
effect ?r\gh ord]s issu$ by ^? gov]nm5ts
 to (fic]s appo9t$ by !m1 "u            
responsibility to _! own c\rts ( ju/ice1
 no m&ates ( ! f$]al gov]nm5t :i* 7     
disagreeable to a local majority w\ld   
ev] be execut$4 ,requisitions issu$ to a
 gov]nm5t h no o!r sanction or means (  
en=cem5t ?an w>1 & a f$]al army w\ld h  
to be always 9 read9ess to en=ce !      
decrees ( ! f$]ation aga9/ any          
recalcitrant /ate1 subject to !         
probability t o!r /ates1 sympa?iz+ ) !  
recusant1 & p]haps %>+ its s5tim5ts on !

 p>ticul> po9t 9 dispute1 w\ld )hold _! 
cont+5ts1 if n s5d !m to fight 9 ! ranks
 ( ! disob$i5t ,/ate4 ,su* a f$]ation is
 m likely to be a cause ?an a prev5tive 
( int]nal w>s2 & if su* 0 n its effect 9
 ,switz]l& until ! ev5ts ( ! ye>s       
imm$iately prec$+ #ahdg1 x 0 only       
because ! f$]al gov]nm5t felt its       
weakness s /rongly t x h>dly ev]        
attempt$ to ex]cise any real au?ority4  
,9 ,am]ica1 ! exp]im5t ( a f$]ation on  
?is pr9ciple broke d[n 9 ! fir/ few ye>s
 ( its exi/5ce1 happily :ile ! m5 (     
enl>g$ k & acquir$ asc5dancy :o f\nd$ ! 
indep5d5ce ( ! ,republic 7 /ill alive to
 guide x ?r\gh ! difficult transition4  
,! ,f$]ali/1 a collection ( pap]s by    
?ree ( ^! em95t m51 writt5 9 explanation
 & def5se ( ! new f$]al ,con/itution    
:ile /ill await+ ! national acceptance1 
is ev5 n[ ! mo/ in/ructive treatise we  
possess on f$]al gov]nm5t4 ,9 ,g]many1 !
 m imp]fect k9d ( f$]ation1 z all "k1   
has n ev5 answ]$ ! purpose ( ma9ta9+ an 
alliance4 ,x has nev]1 9 any ,european  

w>1 prev5t$ s+le memb]s ( ! conf$]ation 
f ally+ !mselves ) =eign p[]s aga9/ !   
re/4 ,yet ?is is ! only f$]ation :i*    
seems possible among mon>*ical /ates4 ,a
 k+1 :o holds 8 p[] by inh]itance1 n by 
delegation1 & :o c n be depriv$ ( x1 nor
 made responsible to any "o = its use1  
is n likely to r5\nce hav+ a sep>ate    
army1 or to brook ! ex]cise ( sov]eign  
au?ority ov] 8 own subjects1 n ?r\gh    
him1 b directly by ano!r p[]4 ,to enable
 two or m c\ntries "u k+ly gov]nm5t to  
be jo9$ toge!r 9 an effectual           
conf$]ation1 x seems necess>y t !y %\ld 
all be "u ! same k+4 ,engl& & ,scotl& 7 
a f$]ation ( ?is description dur+ !     
int]val ( ab\t a c5tury betwe5 ! union (
 ! cr[ns & t ( ! ,p>liam5ts4 ,ev5 ?is 0 
effective1 n ?r\gh f$]al in/itutions1 = 
none exi/$1 b because ! regal p[] 9 bo? 
,con/itutions 0 s ne>ly absolute z to   
enable ! =eign policy ( bo? to be %ap$  
accord+ to a s+le w4  ,"u ! m p]fect    
mode ( f$]ation1 :]e e citiz5 ( ea*     
p>ticul> /ate owes ob$i5ce to two       

gov]nm5ts1 t ( 8 own /ate & t ( !       
f$]ation1 x is evid5tly necess>y n only 
t ! con/itutional limits ( ! au?ority ( 
ea* %\ld be precisely & cle>ly def9$1 b 
t ! p[] to decide betwe5 !m 9 any case (
 dispute %\ld n reside 9 ei!r ( !       
gov]nm5ts1 or 9 any function>y subject  
to x1 b 9 an umpire indep5d5t ( bo?4    
,!re mu/ be a ,supreme ,c\rt ( ,ju/ice1 
& a sy/em ( subord9ate c\rts 9 e /ate ( 
! ,union1 be=e :om su* que/ions %all be 
c>ri$1 & ^: judgm5t on !m1 9 ! la/ /age 
( appeal1 %all be f9al4 ,e /ate ( !     
,union1 & ! f$]al gov]nm5t itself1 z    
well z e function>y ( ea*1 mu/ be liable
 to be su$ 9 ^? c\rts = exce$+ _! p[]s1 
or = non-p]=mance ( _! f$]al duties1 &  
mu/ 9 g5]al be oblig$ to employ ^? c\rts
 z ! in/rum5t = en=c+ _! f$]al rights4  
,?is involves ! rem>kable consequ5ce1   
actually realiz$ 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 t a 
c\rt ( ju/ice1 ! highe/ f$]al tribunal1 
is supreme ov] ! v>i\s gov]nm5ts1 bo?   
/ate & f$]al1 hav+ ! "r to decl>e t any 
law made1 or act done by !m1 exce$s !   

p[]s assign$ to !m by ! f$]al           
,con/itution1 &1 9 consequ5ce1 has no   
legal validity4 ,x 0 natural to feel    
/rong d\bts1 be=e trial _h be5 made1 h[ 
su* a provision w\ld "w2 :e!r ! tribunal
 w\ld h ! c\rage to ex]cise its         
con/itutional p[]2 if x did1 :e!r x w\ld
 ex]cise x wisely1 & :e!r ! gov]nm5ts   
w\ld cons5t to submit peaceably to its  
decision4 ,! discussions on ! ,am]ican  
,con/itution1 be=e its f9al adoption1   
give evid5ce t ^! natural appreh5sions 7
 /rongly felt2 b !y are n[ entirely     
quiet$1 s9ce1 dur+ ! two g5]ations & m  
:i* h subsequ5tly elaps$1 no?+ has      
occurr$ to v]ify !m1 ?\gh !re h at times
 be5 disputes ( consid]able acrimony1 & 
:i* became ! badges ( p>ties1 respect+ !
 limits ( ! au?ority ( ! f$]al & /ate   
gov]nm5ts4 ,! em95tly b5eficial work+ ( 
s s+ul> a provision is probably1 z ,m4  
de ,tocqueville rem>ks1 9 a great       
measure attributable to ! peculi>ity    
inh]5t 9 a c\rt ( ju/ice act+ z         
su*--namely1 t x does n decl>e ! law eo 

nom9e & 9 ! ab/ract1 b waits until a    
case betwe5 man & man is br\ght be=e x  
judicially1 involv+ ! po9t 9 dispute2 f 
:i* arises ! happy effect t its         
decl>ations are n made 9 a v e>ly /age (
 ! controv]sy2 t mu* popul> discussion  
usually prec$es !m2 t ! ,c\rt decides   
aft] he>+ ! po9t fully argu$ on bo?     
sides by lawy]s ( reputation2 decides   
only z mu* ( ! "q at a "t z is requir$  
by ! case be=e x1 & its decision1 in/ead
 ( be+ volunte]$ = political purposes1  
is drawn f x by ! duty :i* x c n refuse 
to fulfil1 ( disp5s+ ju/ice imp>tially  
betwe5 adv]se litigants4 ,ev5 ^! gr\nds 
( confid5ce w\ld n h suffic$ to produce 
! respectful submission ) :i* all       
au?orities h yield$ to ! decisions ( !  
,supreme ,c\rt on ! int]pretation ( !   
,con/itution1 7 x n t complete reliance 
has be5 felt1 n only on ! intellectual  
pre-em95ce ( ! judges compos+ t exalt$  
tribunal1 b on _! entire sup]iority ov] 
ei!r private or sectional p>tialities4  
,?is reliance has be5 9 ! ma9 ju/ifi$2 b

 !re is no?+ :i* m vitally imports !    
,am]ican p ?an to gu>d ) ! mo/ wat*ful  
solicitude aga9/ e ?+ :i* has ! remote/ 
t5d5cy to produce det]ioration 9 !      
quality ( ?is great national in/itution4
 ,! confid5ce on :i* dep5ds ! /ability (
 f$]al in/itutions has be5 = ! fir/ "t  
impair$ by ! judgm5t decl>+ slav]y to be
 ( common "r1 & consequ5tly lawful 9 !  
,t]ritories :ile n yet con/itut$ z      
/ates1 ev5 aga9/ ! w ( a majority ( _!  
inhabitants4 ,! ma9 pill> ( ! ,am]ican  
,con/itution is sc>cely /rong en\gh to  
be> _m m su* %ocks4  ,! tribunals :i*   
act z umpires betwe5 ! f$]al & ! /ate   
gov]nm5ts naturally also decide all     
disputes betwe5 two /ates1 or betwe5 a  
citiz5 ( "o /ate & ! gov]nm5t ( ano!r4  
,! usual rem$ies betwe5 nations1 w> &   
diplomacy1 be+ preclud$ by ! f$]al      
union1 x is necess>y t a judicial rem$y 
%\ld supply _! place4 ,! ,supreme ,c\rt 
( ! f$]ation disp5ses int]national law1 
& is ! fir/ great example ( :at is n[ "o
 ( ! mo/ prom95t wants ( civiliz$       

society1 a real int]national tribunal4  
,! p[]s ( a f$]al gov]nm5t naturally    
ext5d n only to peace & w>1 & all       
que/ions :i* arise betwe5 ! c\ntry &    
=eign gov]nm5ts1 b to mak+ any o!r      
arrangem5ts :i* are1 9 ! op9ion ( !     
/ates1 necess>y to _! enjoym5t ( ! full 
b5efits ( union4 ,= example1 x is a     
great advantage to !m t _! mutual       
comm]ce %\ld be free1 )\t ! imp$im5t (  
fronti] duties & cu/om-h\ses4 ,b ?is    
int]nal fre$om c n exi/ if ea* /ate has 
! p[] ( fix+ ! duties on int]*ange (    
commodities betwe5 itself & =eign       
c\ntries1 s9ce e =eign product let 9 by 
"o /ate w\ld be let into all ! re/2 &   
h5ce all cu/om duties & trade           
regulations 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates are made  
or repeal$ by ! f$]al gov]nm5t          
exclusively4 ,aga91 x is a great        
conv5i5ce to ! /ates to h b "o co9age1 &
 b "o sy/em ( weights & measures1 :i* c 
only be insur$ if ! regulation ( ^!     
matt]s is intru/$ to ! f$]al gov]nm5t4  
,! c]ta9ty & cel]ity ( po/-(fice        

communication is imp$$1 & its exp5se    
increas$1 if a lett] has to pass ?r\gh  
half a doz5 sets ( public (fices1       
subject to diff]5t supreme au?orities3 x
 is conv5i5t1 !re=e1 t all po/-(fices   
%\ld be "u ! f$]al gov]nm5t2 b on su*   
que/ions ! feel+s ( diff]5t communities 
are liable to be diff]5t4 ,"o ( !       
,am]ican /ates1 "u ! guidance ( a man :o
 has display$ p[]s z a speculative      
political ?9k] sup]ior to any :o has    
appe>$ 9 ,am]ican politics s9ce ! au?ors
 ( ! ,f$]ali/1 #aj claim$ a veto = ea*  
/ate on ! cu/om laws ( ! f$]al          
,congress2 & t /atesman1 9 a po/hum\s "w
 ( great ability1 :i* has be5 pr9t$ &   
widely circulat$ by ! ,legislature (    
,s\? ,c>ol9a1 v9dicat$ ?is pret5sion on 
! g5]al pr9ciple ( limit+ ! tyranny ( ! 
majority1 & protect+ m9orities by       
admitt+ !m to a sub/antial p>ticipation 
9 political p[]4 ,"o ( ! mo/ disput$    
topics 9 ,am]ican politics dur+ ! e>ly  
"p ( ?is c5tury 0 :e!r ! p[] ( ! f$]al  
gov]nm5t ought to ext5d1 & :e!r by !    

,con/itution x did ext5d1 to mak+ roads 
& canals at ! co/ ( ! ,union4 ,x is only
 9 transactions ) =eign p[]s t !        
au?ority ( ! f$]al gov]nm5t is (        
necessity complete4 ,on e o!r subject ! 
"q dep5ds on h[ closely ! p 9 g5]al wi% 
to draw ! f$]al tie2 :at portion ( _!   
local fre$om ( action !y are will+ to   
surr5d]1 9 ord] to enjoy m fully !      
b5efit ( be+ "o nation4  ,respect+ !    
fitt+ con/itution ( a f$]al gov]nm5t )9 
itself1 mu* ne$ n be said4 ,x ( c\rse   
consi/s ( a legislative bran* & an      
executive1 & ! con/itution ( ea* is     
am5able to ! same pr9ciples z t (       
repres5tative gov]nm5ts g5]ally4 ,z     
reg>ds ! mode ( adapt+ ^! g5]al         
pr9ciples to a f$]al gov]nm5t1 !        
provision ( ! ,am]ican ,con/itution     
seems exce$+ly judici\s1 t ,congress    
%\ld consi/ ( two h\ses1 & t :ile "o (  
!m is con/itut$ accord+ to population1  
ea* /ate be+ entitl$ to repres5tatives 9
 ! ratio ( ! numb] ( its inhabitants1 ! 
o!r %\ld repres5t n ! citiz5s1 b ! /ate 

gov]nm5ts1 & e /ate1 :e!r l>ge or small1
 %\ld be repres5t$ 9 x by ! same numb] (
 memb]s4 ,?is provision precludes any   
undue p[] f be+ ex]cis$ by ! m p[]ful   
/ates ov] ! re/1 & gu>antees ! res]v$   
rights ( ! /ate gov]nm5ts by mak+ x     
impossible1 z f> z ! mode (             
repres5tation c prev5t1 t any measure   
%\ld pass ,congress unless approv$ n    
only by a majority ( ! citiz5s1 b by a  
majority ( ! /ates4 ,i h be=e adv]t$ to 
! fur!r incid5tal advantage obta9$ (    
rais+ ! /&>d ( qualifications 9 "o ( !  
h\ses4 ,be+ nom9at$ by select bodies1 ! 
,legislatures ( ! v>i\s /ates1 ^: *oice1
 = reasons already indicat$1 is m likely
 to fall on em95t m5 ?an any popul>     
election--:o h n only ! p[] ( elect+    
su*1 b a /rong motive to d s1 because ! 
influ5ce ( _! /ate 9 ! g5]al            
delib]ations mu/ be mat]ially affect$ by
 ! p]sonal weight & abilities ( its     
repres5tatives--! ,s5ate ( ! ,unit$     
,/ates1 ?us *os51 has always conta9$    
ne>ly all ! political m5 ( e/abli%$ &   

high reputation 9 ! ,union2 :ile ! ,l[] 
,h\se ( ,congress has1 9 ! op9ion (     
compet5t obs]v]s1 be5 g5]ally z         
rem>kable = ! abs5ce ( conspicu\s       
p]sonal m]it1 z ! ,upp] ,h\se = its     
pres5ce4  ,:5 ! conditions exi/ = !     
=mation ( effici5t & durable f$]al      
unions1 ! multiplication ( !m is always 
a b5efit to ! _w4 ,x has ! same salut>y 
effect z any o!r ext5sion ( ! practice (
 co-op]ation1 ?r\gh :i* ! weak1 by      
unit+1 c meet on equal t]ms ) ! /rong4  
,by dim9i%+ ! numb] ( ^? petty /ates :i*
 are n equal to _! own def5se1 x weak5s 
! temptations to an aggressive policy1  
:e!r work+ directly by arms1 or ?r\gh ! 
pre/ige ( sup]ior p[]4 ,x ( c\rse puts  
an end to w> & diplomatic qu>rels1 &    
usually also to re/rictions on comm]ce1 
betwe5 ! /ates compos+ ! ,union2 :ile1 9
 ref]5ce to neighbor+ nations1 !        
increas$ milit>y /r5g? conf]r$ by x is (
 a k9d to be almo/ exclusively available
 = def5sive1 sc>cely at all = aggressive
 purposes4 ,a f$]al gov]nm5t has n a    

suffici5tly conc5trat$ au?ority to      
conduct ) mu* effici5cy any w> b "o (   
self-def5se1 9 :i* x c rely on !        
volunt>y co-op]ation ( e citiz52 nor is 
!re any ?+ v flatt]+ to national vanity 
or ambition 9 acquir+1 by a successful  
w>1 n subjects1 nor ev5 fell[-citiz5s1 b
 only new1 & p]haps tr\blesome indep5d5t
 memb]s ( ! conf$]ation4 ,! w>like      
proce$+s ( ! ,am]icans 9 ,mexico 0      
purely exceptional1 hav+ be5 c>ri$ on   
pr9cipally by volunte]s1 "u ! influ5ce (
 ! migratory prop5sity :i* prompts      
individual ,am]icans to possess !mselves
 ( unoccupi$ l&1 & /imulat$1 if by any  
public motive1 n by t ( national        
aggr&izem5t1 b by ! purely sectional    
purpose ( ext5d+ slav]y4 ,!re are few   
signs 9 ! proce$+s ( ,am]icans1         
nationally or individually1 t ! desire (
 t]ritorial acquisition = _! c\ntry z   
su* has any consid]able p[] ov] !m4 ,_! 
hank]+ aft] ,cuba is1 9 ! same mann]1   
m]ely sectional1 & ! ,nor!rn ,/ates1 ^? 
oppos$ to slav]y1 h nev] 9 any way      

favor$ x4  ,! "q may pres5t itself 7z 9 
,italy at its pres5t upris+7 :e!r a     
c\ntry :i* is det]m9$ to be unit$ %\ld  
=m a complete or a m]ely f$]al union4 ,!
 po9t is sometimes necess>ily decid$ by 
! m]e t]ritorial magnitude ( ! unit$    
:ole4 ,!re is a limit to ! ext5t (      
c\ntry :i* c advantage\sly be gov]n$1 or
 ev5 ^: gov]nm5t c be conv5i5tly        
sup]9t5d$ f a s+le c5tre4 ,!re are va/  
c\ntries s gov]n$2 b !y1 or at lea/ _!  
di/ant prov9ces1 are 9 g5]al deplorably 
ill adm9i/]$1 & x is only :5 !          
inhabitants are almo/ savages t !y c\ld 
n manage _! affairs bett] sep>ately4    
,?is ob/acle does n exi/ 9 ! case (     
,italy1 ! size ( :i* does n come up to t
 ( sev]al v effici5tly gov]n$ s+le /ates
 9 pa/ & pres5t times4 ,! "q !n is1 :e!r
 ! diff]5t p>ts ( ! nation require to be
 gov]n$ 9 a way s ess5tially diff]5t t x
 is n probable ! same ,legislature1 & ! 
same m9i/ry or adm9i/rative body1 w give
 satisfaction to !m all4 ,unless ?is be 
! case1 :i* is a "q ( fact1 x is bett] =

 !m to be completely unit$4 ,t a totally
 diff]5t sy/em ( laws & v diff]5t       
adm9i/rative in/itutions may exi/ 9 two 
portions ( a c\ntry )\t be+ any ob/acle 
to legislative unity1 is prov$ by ! case
 ( ,engl& & ,scotl&4 ,p]haps1 h[ev]1 ?is
 undi/urb$ coexi/5ce ( two legal sy/ems 
"u "o unit$ ,legislature1 mak+ diff]5t  
laws = ! two sections ( ! c\ntry 9      
adaptation to ! previ\s diff]5ces1 might
 n be s well pres]v$1 or ! same         
confid5ce might n be felt 9 its         
pres]vation1 9 a c\ntry ^: legislators  
are m possess$ 7z is apt to be ! case on
 ! ,cont95t7 ) ! mania = uni=mity4 ,a p 
hav+ t unb\nd$ tol]ation :i* is         
*>act]i/ic ( ?is c\ntry = e description 
( anomaly1 s long z ^? ^: int]e/s x     
conc]ns d n feel aggriev$ by x1 af=d$ an
 exceptionally advantage\s field = try+ 
?is difficult exp]im5t4 ,9 mo/ c\ntries1
 if x 0 an object to reta9 diff]5t      
sy/ems ( law1 x might probably be       
necess>y to reta9 di/9ct legislatures z 
gu>dians ( !m1 :i* is p]fectly          

compatible ) a national ,p>liam5t & k+1 
or a national ,p>liam5t )\t a k+1       
supreme ov] ! ext]nal relations ( all ! 
memb]s ( ! body4  ,:5ev] x is n deem$   
necess>y to ma9ta9 p]man5tly1 9 !       
diff]5t prov9ces1 diff]5t sy/ems (      
jurisprud5ce1 & fundam5tal in/itutions  
gr\nd$ on diff]5t pr9ciples1 x is always
 practicable to reconcile m9or          
div]sities ) ! ma9t5ance ( unity (      
gov]nm5t4 ,all t is ne$ful is to give a 
suffici5tly l>ge sph]e ( action to !    
local au?orities4 ,"u "o & ! same c5tral
 gov]nm5t !re may be local gov]nors1 &  
prov9cial assemblies = local purposes4  
,x may happ51 = in/ance1 t ! p ( diff]5t
 prov9ces may h pref]5ces 9 favor (     
diff]5t modes ( taxation4 ,if ! g5]al   
,legislature c\ld n be dep5d$ on = be+  
guid$ by ! memb]s = ea* prov9ce 9       
modify+ ! g5]al sy/em ( taxation to suit
 t prov9ce1 ! ,con/itution might provide
 t z _m ( ! exp5ses ( ! gov]nm5t z c\ld 
by any possibility be made local %\ld be
 defray$ by local rates impos$ by !     

prov9cial assemblies1 & t ^? :i* mu/ (  
necessity be g5]al1 su* z ! support ( an
 army & navy1 %\ld1 9 ! e/imates = !    
ye>1 be apportion$ among ! diff]5t      
prov9ces accord+ to "s g5]al e/imate (  
_! res\rces1 ! am\nt assign$ to ea* be+ 
levi$ by ! local assembly on ! pr9ciples
 mo/ acceptable to ! locality1 & paid en
 bloc into ! national treasury4 ,a      
practice approa*+ to ?is exi/$ ev5 9 !  
old ,fr5* mon>*y1 s f> z reg>d$ ! pays  
d'tats1 ea* ( :i*1 hav+ cons5t$ or be5  
requir$ to furni% a fix$ sum1 0 left to 
assess x ^u ! inhabitants by its own    
(fic]s1 ?us escap+ ! gr9d+ despotism ( !
 royal int5dants & subdlgus2 & ?is      
privilege is always m5tion$ z "o ( !    
advantages :i* ma9ly contribut$ to r5d] 
!m1 z "s ( !m 71 ! mo/ fl\ri%+ prov9ces 
( ,france4  ,id5tity ( c5tral gov]nm5t  
is compatible ) _m diff]5t degrees (    
c5tralisation1 n only adm9i/rative1 b   
ev5 legislative4 ,a p may h ! desire & !
 capacity = a clos] union ?an "o m]ely  
f$]al1 :ile yet _! local peculi>ities & 

antec$5ts r5d] consid]able div]sities   
desirable 9 ! details ( _! gov]nm5t4 ,b 
if !re is a real desire on all h&s to   
make ! exp]im5t successful1 !re ne$s    
seldom be any difficulty 9 n only       
pres]v+ ^! div]sities1 b giv+ !m !      
gu>anty ( a con/itutional provision     
aga9/ any attempt at assimilation except
 by ! volunt>y act ( ^? :o w\ld be      
affect$ by ! *ange4    ,*apt]           
,,xviii--,( ! ,gov]nm5t ( ,dep5d5cies by
 a ,free ,/ate4   ,free /ates1 l all    
o!rs1 may possess dep5d5cies1 acquir$   
ei!r by conque/ or by colonization1 &   
our own is ! greate/ in/ance ( ! k9d 9  
mod]n hi/ory4  ,x is a mo/ important "q 
h[ su* dep5d5cies ought to be gov]n$4   
,x is unnecess>y to discuss ! case (    
small po/s1 l ,gibralt>1 ,ad51 or       
,heligol&1 :i* are held only z naval or 
milit>y positions4 ,! milit>y or naval  
object is 9 ?is case p>am\nt1 & !       
inhabitants c n1 consi/5tly ) x1 be     
admitt$ to ! gov]nm5t ( ! place1 ?\gh !y
 ought to be all[$ all lib]ties &       

privileges compatible ) t re/riction1   
includ+ ! free managem5t ( municipal    
affairs1 &1 z a comp5sation = be+       
locally sacrific$ to ! conv5i5ce ( !    
gov]n+ /ate1 %\ld be admitt$ to equal   
rights ) its native subjects 9 all o!r  
p>ts ( ! empire4  ,outly+ t]ritories (  
"s size & population1 :i* are held z    
dep5d5cies1 t is1 :i* are subject1 m or 
less1 to acts ( sov]eign p[] on ! "p ( !
 p>am\nt c\ntry1 )\t be+ equally        
repres5t$ 7if repres5t$ at all7 9 its   
,legislature1 may be divid$ into two    
classes4 ,"s are compos$ ( p ( simil>   
civilization to ! rul+ c\ntry1 capable  
(1 & ripe =1 repres5tative gov]nm5t1 su*
 z ! ,briti% possessions 9 ,am]ica &    
,au/ralia4 ,o!rs1 l ,india1 are /ill at 
a great di/ance f t /ate4  ,9 ! case (  
dep5d5cies ( ! =m] class1 ?is c\ntry has
 at l5g? realiz$1 9 r>e complet5ess1 !  
true pr9ciple ( gov]nm5t4 ,engl& has    
always felt "u a c]ta9 degree (         
obligation to be/[ on su* ( h] outly+   
populations z 7 ( h] own blood &        

language1 & on "s :o 7 n1 repres5tative 
in/itutions =m$ 9 imitation ( h] own2 b1
 until ! pres5t g5]ation1 %e has be5 on 
! same bad level ) o!r c\ntries z to !  
am\nt ( self-gov]nm5t :i* %e all[$ !m to
 ex]cise ?r\gh ! repres5tative          
in/itutions t %e conc$$ to !m4 ,%e      
claim$ to be ! supreme arbit] ev5 ( _!  
purely int]nal conc]ns1 accord+ to h]   
own1 n _! ideas ( h[ ^? conc]ns c\ld be 
be/ regulat$4 ,?is practice 0 a natural 
coroll>y f ! vici\s !ory ( colonial     
policy--once common to all ,europe1 & n 
yet completely rel9qui%$ by any o!r     
p--:i* reg>d$ colonies z valuable by    
af=d+ m>kets = our commodities t c\ld be
 kept entirely to ourselves2 a privilege
 we valu$ s highly t we ?\ght x wor?    
pur*as+ by all[+ to ! colonies ! same   
monopoly ( our m>ket = _! own           
productions :i* we claim$ = our         
commodities 9 !irs4 ,?is notable plan = 
enri*+ !m & ourselves by mak+ ea* pay   
enorm\s sums to ! o!r1 dropp+ ! greate/ 
"p by ! way1 has be5 = "s "t ab&on$4 ,b 

! bad habit ( m$dl+ 9 ! int]nal gov]nm5t
 ( ! colonies did n at once die out :5  
we rel9qui%$ ! idea ( mak+ any pr(it by 
x4 ,we cont9u$ to torm5t !m1 n = any    
b5efit to ourselves1 b = t ( a section  
or faction among ! coloni/s2 & ?is      
p]si/5ce 9 dom9e]+ co/ u a ,canadian    
rebellion be=e we _h ! happy ?\ght (    
giv+ x up4 ,engl& 0 l an ill br\ght-up  
eld] bro!r1 :o p]si/s 9 tyranniz+ ov] ! 
y\ng] ones f m]e habit1 till "o ( !m1 by
 a spirit$ resi/ance1 ?\gh ) unequal    
/r5g?1 gives him notice to desi/4 ,we 7 
wise en\gh n to require a second w>n+4  
,a new era 9 ! colonial policy ( nations
 began ) ,"l ,durham's ,report2 !       
imp]i%able memorial ( t nobleman's      
c\rage1 patriotism1 & enlight5$         
lib]ality1 & ( ! intellect & practical  
sagacity ( its jo9t au?ors1 ,mr4        
,wakefield & ! lam5t$ ,*>les ,bull]4 #aa
  ,x is n[ a fix$ pr9ciple ( ! policy ( 
,great ,brita91 pr(ess$ 9 !ory &        
fai?fully adh]$ to 9 practice1 t h]     
colonies ( ,european race1 equally ) !  

p>5t c\ntry1 possess ! fulle/ measure ( 
int]nal self-gov]nm5t4 ,!y h be5 all[$  
to make _! own free repres5tative       
con/itutions by alt]+ 9 any mann] !y    
?\ght fit ! already v popul>            
con/itutions :i* we _h giv5 !m4 ,ea* is 
gov]n$ by its own ,legislature &        
executive1 con/itut$ on highly          
democratic pr9ciples4 ,! veto ( ! cr[n &
 ( ,p>liam5t1 ?\gh nom9ally res]v$1 is  
only ex]cis$ 7& t v r>ely7 on que/ions  
:i* conc]n ! empire1 & n solely !       
p>ticul> colony4 ,h[ lib]al a           
con/ruction has be5 giv5 to ! di/9ction 
betwe5 imp]ial & colonial que/ions is   
%[n by ! fact t ! :ole ( ! unappropriat$
 l&s 9 ! regions beh9d our ,am]ican &   
,au/ralian colonies h be5 giv5 up to !  
uncontroll$ disposal ( ! colonial       
communities1 ?\gh !y might1 )\t         
inju/ice1 h be5 kept 9 ! h&s ( ! imp]ial
 gov]nm5t1 to be adm9i/]$ = ! greate/   
advantage ( future emigrants f all p>ts 
( ! empire4 ,e colony has ?us z full p[]
 ov] its own affairs z x c\ld h if x 7 a

 memb] ( ev5 ! loose/ f$]ation1 & mu*   
full] ?an w\ld belong to x "u !         
,con/itution ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 be+ free
 ev5 to tax at its pleasure !           
commodities import$ f ! "m c\ntry4 ,_!  
union ) ,great ,brita9 is ! slighte/ k9d
 ( f$]al union2 b n a /rictly equal     
f$]ation1 ! "m c\ntry reta9+ to itself !
 p[]s ( a f$]al gov]nm5t1 ?\gh r$uc$ 9  
practice to _! v n>r[e/ limits4 ,?is    
inequality is1 ( c\rse1 z f> z x goes1 a
 disadvantage to ! dep5d5cies1 :i* h no 
voice 9 =eign policy1 b are b\nd by !   
decisions ( ! sup]ior c\ntry4 ,!y are   
compell$ to jo9 ,engl& 9 w> )\t be+ 9   
any way consult$ previ\s to engag+ 9 x4 
,^? 7n[ happily n a few7 :o ?9k t ju/ice
 is z b9d+ on communities z x is on     
individuals1 & t m5 are n w>rant$ 9 do+ 
to o!r c\ntries1 = ! suppos$ b5efit ( _!
 own c\ntry1 :at !y w\ld n be ju/ifi$ 9 
do+ to o!r m5 = _! own b5efit1 feel ev5 
?is limit$ am\nt ( con/itutional        
subord9ation on ! "p ( ! colonies to be 
a violation ( pr9ciple1 & h (t5 occupi$ 

!mselves 9 look+ out = means by :i* x   
may be avoid$4 ,) ?is view x has be5    
propos$ by "s t ! colonies %\ld return  
repres5tatives to ! ,briti%             
,legislature1 & by o!rs t ! p[]s ( our  
own1 z well z ( _! ,p>liam5ts1 %\ld be  
conf9$ to int]nal policy1 & t !re %\ld  
be ano!r repres5tative body = =eign &   
imp]ial conc]ns1 9 :i* la/ ! dep5d5cies 
( ,great ,brita9 %\ld be repres5t$ 9 !  
same mann]1 & ) ! same complet5ess z    
,great ,brita9 itself4 ,on ?is sy/em !re
 w\ld be a p]fectly equal f$]ation      
betwe5 ! "m c\ntry & h] colonies1 !n no 
long] dep5d5cies4  ,! feel+s ( equity & 
conceptions ( public morality f :i* ^!  
sugge/ions emanate are wor?y ( all      
praise1 b ! sugge/ions !mselves are s   
inconsi/5t ) rational pr9ciples (       
gov]nm5t t x is d\btful if !y h be5     
s]i\sly accept$ z a possibility by any  
reasonable ?9k]4 ,c\ntries sep>at$ by   
half ! globe d n pres5t ! natural       
conditions = be+ "u "o gov]nm5t1 or ev5 
memb]s ( "o f$]ation4 ,if !y _h         

suffici5tly ! same int]e/s1 !y h n1 &   
nev] c h1 a suffici5t habit ( tak+      
c\ncil toge!r4 ,!y are n "p ( ! same    
public2 !y d n discuss & delib]ate 9 !  
same ar5a1 b ap>t1 & h only a mo/       
imp]fect k ( :at passes 9 ! m9ds ( "o   
ano!r4 ,!y nei!r "k ea* o!r's objects1  
nor h confid5ce 9 ea* o!r's pr9ciples ( 
conduct4 ,let any ,engli%man ask himself
 h[ he %\ld l 8 de/9ies to dep5d on an  
assembly ( :i* "o ?ird 0 ,briti%        
,am]ican1 & ano!r ?ird ,s\? ,african &  
,au/ralian4 ,yet to ?is x mu/ come if   
!re 7 any ?+ l fair or equal            
repres5tation2 & w\ld n e "o feel t !   
repres5tatives ( ,canada & ,au/ralia1   
ev5 9 matt]s ( an imp]ial "*1 c\ld n "k 
or feel any suffici5t conc]n = !        
int]e/s1 op9ions1 or wi%es ( ,engli%1   
,iri%1 & ,scot*8 ,ev5 = /rictly f$]ative
 purposes ! conditions d n exi/ :i* we h
 se5 to be ess5tial to a f$]ation4      
,engl& is suffici5t = h] own protection 
)\t ! colonies1 & w\ld be 9 a mu*       
/rong]1 z well z m dignifi$ position1 if

 sep>at$ f !m1 ?an :5 r$uc$ to be a s+le
 memb] ( an ,am]ican1 ,african1 &       
,au/ralian conf$]ation4 ,ov] & above !  
comm]ce :i* %e might equally enjoy aft] 
sep>ation1 ,engl& d]ives little         
advantage1 except 9 pre/ige1 f h]       
dep5d5cies1 & ! little %e does d]ive is 
q outweigh$ by ! exp5se !y co/ h]1 & !  
dissem9ation !y necessitate ( h] naval &
 milit>y =ce1 :i*1 9 case ( w>1 or any  
real appreh5sion ( x1 requires to be    
d\ble or treble :at w\ld be ne$$ = !    
def5se ( ?is c\ntry alone4  ,b1 ?\gh    
,great ,brita9 c\ld d p]fectly well )\t 
h] colonies1 & ?\gh1 on e pr9ciple (    
morality & ju/ice1 %e ought to cons5t to
 _! sep>ation1 %\ld ! "t come :51 aft]  
full trial ( ! be/ =m ( union1 !y       
delib]ately desire to be dissev]$1 !re  
are /rong reasons = ma9ta9+ ! pres5t    
slight bond ( connection s long z n     
disagreeable to ! feel+s ( ei!r p>ty4 ,x
 is a /ep1 z f> z x goes1 t[>ds univ]sal
 peace & g5]al fri5dly co-op]ation among
 nations4 ,x r5d]s w> impossible among a

 l>ge numb] ( o!rwise indep5d5t         
communities1 &1 moreov]1 h9d]s any ( !m 
f be+ absorb$ into a =eign /ate1 &      
becom+ a s\rce ( additional aggressive  
/r5g? to "s rival p[]1 ei!r m despotic  
or clos] at h&1 :i* might n always be s 
unambiti\s or s pacific z ,great        
,brita94 ,x at lea/ keeps ! m>kets ( !  
diff]5t c\ntries op5 to "o ano!r1 &     
prev5ts t mutual exclusion by ho/ile    
t>iffs :i* none ( ! great communities ( 
mank9d except ,engl& h yet outgr[n4 ,& 9
 ! case ( ! ,briti% possessions x has ! 
advantage1 especially valuable at !     
pres5t "t1 ( add+ to ! moral influ5ce & 
weight 9 ! c\ncils ( ! _w ( ! p[] :i*1 (
 all 9 exi/5ce1 be/ und]/&s lib]ty--&1  
:atev] may h be5 its errors 9 ! pa/1 has
 atta9$ to m ( consci5ce & moral        
pr9ciple 9 its deal+s ) =eign]s ?an any 
o!r great nation seems ei!r to conceive 
z possible or recognize z desirable4    
,s9ce1 !n1 ! union c only cont9ue1 :ile 
x does cont9ue1 on ! foot+ ( an unequal 
f$]ation1 x is important to consid] by  

:at means ?is small am\nt ( inequality c
 be prev5t$ f be+ ei!r on]\s or         
humiliat+ to ! communities occupy+ !    
less exalt$ position4  ,! only          
inf]iority necess>ily inh]5t 9 ! case is
 t ! "m c\ntry decides1 bo? = ! colonies
 & = h]self1 on que/ions ( peace & w>4  
,!y ga91 9 return1 ! obligation on ! "m 
c\ntry to repel aggressions direct$     
aga9/ !m2 b1 except :5 ! m9or community 
is s weak t ! protection ( a /rong] p[] 
is indisp5sable to x1 reciprocity (     
obligation is n a full equival5t =      
non-admission to a voice 9 !            
delib]ations4 ,x is ess5tial1 !re=e1 t 9
 all w>s1 save ^? :i*1 l ! ,caffre or   
,new ,zeal& w>s1 are incurr$ = ! sake ( 
! p>ticul> colony1 ! coloni/s %\ld n    
7)\t _! own volunt>y reque/7 be call$ on
 to contribute any ?+ to ! exp5se except
 :at may be requir$ = ! specific local  
def5se ( _! ports1 %ores1 & fronti]s    
aga9/ invasion4 ,moreov]1 z ! "m c\ntry 
claims ! privilege1 at h] sole          
discretion1 ( tak+ measures or pursu+ a 

policy :i* may expose !m to attack1 x is
 j t %e %\ld und]take a consid]able     
portion ( ! co/ ( _! milit>y def5se ev5 
9 "t ( peace2 ! :ole ( x1 s f> z x      
dep5ds ^u a /&+ army4  ,b !re is a      
means1 /ill m effectual ?an ^!1 by :i*1 
& 9 g5]al by :i* alone1 a full equival5t
 c be giv5 to a small] community = s9k+ 
its individuality1 z a sub/antive p[]   
among nations1 9 ! great] individuality 
( a wide & p[]ful empire4 ,?is "o       
indisp5sable1 &1 at ! same "t1 suffici5t
 exp$i5t1 :i* meets at once ! dem&s (   
ju/ice & ! gr[+ exig5cies ( policy1 is  
to op5 ! s]vice ( gov]nm5t 9 all its    
dep>tm5ts1 & 9 e "p ( ! empire1 on      
p]fectly equal t]ms1 to ! inhabitants ( 
! colonies4 ,:y does no "o ev] he> a    
brea? ( disloyalty f ! ,isl&s 9 !       
,briti% ,*annel8 ,by race1 religion1 &  
geographical position !y belong less to 
,engl& ?an to ,france2 b1 :ile !y enjoy1
 l ,canada & ,new ,s\? ,wales1 complete 
control ov] _! int]nal affairs & _!     
taxation1 e (fice or dignity 9 ! gift ( 

! cr[n is freely op5 to ! native (      
,gu]nsey or ,j]sey4 ,g5]als1 admirals1  
pe]s ( ! ,unit$ ,k+dom are made1 & !re  
is no?+ :i* h9d]s prime m9i/]s to be    
made f ^? insignificant isl&s4 ,! same  
sy/em 0 comm5c$ 9 ref]5ce to ! colonies 
g5]ally by an enlight5$ colonial        
secret>y1 too e>ly lo/1 ,sir ,william   
,moleswor?1 :5 he appo9t$ ,mr4 ,h9ckes1 
a lead+ ,canadian politician1 to a ,we/ 
,indian gov]nm5t4 ,x is a v %all[ view (
 ! spr+s ( political action 9 a         
community :i* ?9ks su* ?+s unimportant  
because ! numb] ( ^? 9 a position       
actually to pr(it by ! concession might 
n be v consid]able4 ,t limit$ numb] w\ld
 be compos$ precisely ( ^? :o h mo/     
moral p[] ov] ! re/2 & m5 are n s       
de/itute ( ! s5se ( collective          
degradation z n to feel ! )hold+ ( an   
advantage f ev5 "o p]son1 because ( a   
circum/ance :i* !y all h 9 common ) him1
 an affront to all4 ,if we prev5t !     
lead+ m5 ( a community f /&+ =? to ! _w 
z its *iefs & repres5tatives 9 ! g5]al  

c\ncils ( mank9d1 we owe x bo? to _!    
legitimate ambition & to ! j pride ( !  
community to give !m 9 return an equal  
*ance ( occupy+ ! same prom95t position 
9 a nation ( great] p[] & importance4 ,7
 ! :ole s]vice ( ! ,briti% cr[n op5$ to 
! natives ( ! ,ionian ,isl&s1 we %\ld   
he> no m ( ! desire = union ) ,greece4  
,su* a union is n desirable = ! p1 to   
:om x w\ld be a /ep backw>d 9           
civilization2 b x is no wond] if ,corfu1
 :i* has giv5 a m9i/] ( ,european       
reputation to ! ,russian ,empire1 & a   
presid5t to ,greece itself be=e !       
arrival ( ! ,bav>ians1 %\ld feel x a    
grievance t its p are n admissable to ! 
highe/ po/s 9 "s gov]nm5t or o!r4  ,?us 
f> ( ! dep5d5cies ^: population is 9 a  
suffici5tly advanc$ /ate to be fitt$ =  
repres5tative gov]nm5t2 b !re are o!rs  
:i* h n atta9$ t /ate1 & :i*1 if held at
 all1 mu/ be gov]n$ by ! dom9ant c\ntry1
 or by p]sons delegat$ = t purpose by x4
 ,?is mode ( gov]nm5t is z legitimate z 
any o!r1 if x is ! "o :i* 9 ! exi/+ /ate

 ( civilization ( ! subject p mo/       
facilitates _! transition to a high]    
/age ( improvem5t4 ,!re are1 z we h     
already se51 conditions ( society 9 :i* 
a vigor\s despotism is 9 itself ! be/   
mode ( gov]nm5t = tra9+ ! p 9 :at is    
specifically want+ to r5d] !m capable ( 
a high] civilization4 ,!re are o!rs1 9  
:i* ! m]e fact ( despotism has inde$ no 
b5eficial effect1 ! lessons :i* x tea*es
 hav+ already be5 only too completely   
le>n$1 b 9 :i*1 !re be+ no spr+ (       
spontane\s improvem5t 9 ! p !mselves1 _!
 almo/ only hope ( mak+ any /eps 9      
advance dep5ds on ! *ances ( a good     
despot4 ,"u a native despotism1 a good  
despot is a r>e & transitory accid5t2 b 
:5 ! dom9ion !y are "u is t ( a m       
civiliz$ p1 t p ought to be able to     
supply x con/antly4 ,! rul+ c\ntry ought
 to be able to d = its subjects all t   
c\ld be done by a succession ( absolute 
mon>*s1 gu>ante$ by irresi/ible =ce     
aga9/ ! prec>i\sness ( t5ure att5dant on
 b>b>\s despotisms1 & qualifi$ by _!    

g5ius to anticipate all t exp]i5ce has  
taught to ! m advanc$ nation4 ,su* is ! 
ideal rule ( a free p ov] a b>b>\s or   
semi-b>b>\s "o4 ,we ne$ n expect to see 
t ideal realiz$2 b1 unless "s approa* to
 x is1 ! rul]s are guilty ( a d]eliction
 ( ! highe/ moral tru/ :i* c devolve ^u 
a nation2 & if !y d n ev5 aim at x1 !y  
are selfi% usurp]s1 on a p> 9 crim9ality
 ) any ( ^? ^: ambition & rapacity h    
sport$ f age to age ) ! de/9y ( masses (
 mank9d4  ,z x is already a common1 & is
 rapidly t5d+ to become ! univ]sal      
condition ( ! m backw>d populations to  
be ei!r held 9 direct subjection by ! m 
advanc$1 or to be "u _! complete        
political asc5dancy1 !re are 9 ?is age (
 ! _w few m important problems ?an h[ to
 organize ?is rule1 s z to make x a good
 in/ead ( an evil to ! subject p1       
provid+ !m ) ! be/ atta9able pres5t     
gov]nm5t1 & ) ! conditions mo/ favorable
 to future p]man5t improvem5t4 ,b ! mode
 ( fitt+ ! gov]nm5t = ?is purpose is by 
no means s well und]/ood z ! conditions 

( good gov]nm5t 9 a p capable ( gov]n+  
!mselves4 ,we may ev5 say t x is n      
und]/ood at all4  ,! ?+ appe>s p]fectly 
easy to sup]ficial obs]v]s4 ,if ,india  
7= example7 is n fit to gov]n itself1   
all t seems to !m requir$ is t !re %\ld 
be a m9i/] to gov]n x1 & t ?is m9i/]1 l 
all o!r ,briti% m9i/]s1 %\ld be         
responsible to ! ,briti% ,p>liam5t4     
,un=tunately ?is1 ?\gh ! simple/ mode ( 
attempt+ to gov]n a dep5d5cy1 is ab\t ! 
wor/1 & betrays 9 its advocates a total 
want ( compreh5sion ( ! conditions (    
good gov]nm5t4 ,to gov]n a c\ntry "u    
responsibility to ! p ( t c\ntry1 & to  
gov]n "o c\ntry "u responsibility to ! p
 ( ano!r1 are two v diff]5t ?+s4 ,:at   
makes ! excell5ce ( ! fir/ is1 t fre$om 
is pref]able to despotism3 b ! la/ is   
despotism4 ,! only *oice ! case admits  
is a *oice ( despotisms1 & x is n c]ta9 
t ! despotism ( tw5ty millions is       
necess>ily bett] ?an t ( a few or ( "o2 
b x is q c]ta9 t ! despotism ( ^? :o    
nei!r he>1 nor see1 nor "k any ?+ ab\t  

_! subjects1 has _m *ances ( be+ worse  
?an t ( ^? :o d4 ,x is n usually ?\ght t
 ! imm$iate ag5ts ( au?ority gov]n bett]
 because !y gov]n 9 ! "n ( an abs5t     
ma/]1 & ( "o :o has a ?\s& m press+     
int]e/s to att5d to4 ,! ma/] may hold !m
 to a /rict responsibility1 en=c$ by    
heavy p5alties1 b x is v que/ionable if 
^? p5alties w (t5 fall 9 ! "r place4  ,x
 is always "u great difficulties1 & v   
imp]fectly1 t a c\ntry c be gov]n$ by   
=eign]s1 ev5 :5 !re is no extreme       
disp>ity 9 habits & ideas betwe5 ! rul]s
 & ! rul$4 ,=eign]s d n feel ) ! p4 ,!y 
c n judge1 by ! light 9 :i* a ?+ appe>s 
to _! own m9ds1 or ! mann] 9 :i* x      
affects _! feel+s1 h[ x w affect !      
feel+s or appe> to ! m9ds ( ! subject   
population4 ,:at a native ( ! c\ntry1 ( 
av]age practical ability1 kn[s z x 7 by 
in/9ct1 !y h to le>n sl[ly1 &1 aft] all1
 imp]fectly1 by /udy & exp]i5ce4 ,!     
laws1 ! cu/oms1 ! social relations = :i*
 !y h to legislate1 in/ead ( be+ famili>
 to !m f *ildhood1 are all /range to !m4

 ,= mo/ ( _! detail$ k !y mu/ dep5d on !
 in=mation ( natives1 & x is difficult =
 !m to "k :om to tru/4 ,!y are fe>$1    
suspect$1 probably dislik$ by !         
population2 seldom s\ght by !m except = 
int]e/$ purposes2 & !y are prone to ?9k 
t ! s]vilely submissive are ! tru/wor?y4
 ,_! dang] is ( despis+ ! natives2 t ( !
 natives is1 ( disbeliev+ t any ?+ !    
/rang]s d c be int5d$ = _! good4 ,^! are
 b a "p ( ! difficulties t any rul]s h  
to /ruggle )1 :o hone/ly attempt to     
gov]n well a c\ntry 9 :i* !y are        
=eign]s4 ,to ov]come ^! difficulties 9  
any degree w always be a "w ( mu* labor1
 requir+ a v sup]ior degree ( capacity 9
 ! *ief adm9i/rators1 & a high av]age   
among ! subord9ates2 & ! be/            
organization ( su* a gov]nm5t is t :i* w
 be/ insure ! labor1 develop ! capacity1
 & place ! highe/ specim5s ( x 9 !      
situations ( greate/ tru/4              
,responsibility to an au?ority :i* has  
gone ?r\gh none ( ! labor1 acquir$ none 
( ! capacity1 & = ! mo/ "p is n ev5 aw>e

 t ei!r1 9 any peculi> degree1 is       
requir$1 c n be reg>d$ z a v effectual  
exp$i5t = accompli%+ ^! ends4  ,!       
gov]nm5t ( a p by itself has a mean+ & a
 reality1 b su* a ?+ z gov]nm5t ( "o p  
by ano!r does n & c n exi/4 ,"o p may   
keep ano!r z a w>r5 or pres]ve = its own
 use1 a place to make money 91 a        
human-cattle f>m to be work$ = ! pr(it (
 its own inhabitants2 b if ! good ( !   
gov]n$ is ! prop] bus9ess ( a gov]nm5t1 
x is utt]ly impossible t a p %\ld       
directly att5d to x4 ,! utmo/ !y c d is 
to give "s ( _! be/ m5 a commission to  
look aft] x1 to :om ! op9ion ( _! own   
c\ntry c nei!r be mu* ( a guide 9 !     
p]=mance ( _! duty1 nor a compet5t judge
 ( ! mode 9 :i* x has be5 p]=m$4 ,let   
any "o consid] h[ ! ,engli% !mselves    
w\ld be gov]n$ if !y knew & c>$ no m    
ab\t _! own affairs ?an !y "k & c>e ab\t
 ! affairs ( ! ,h9doos4 ,ev5 ?is        
comp>ison gives no adequate idea ( !    
/ate ( ! case2 = a p ?us indiff]5t to   
politics altoge!r w\ld probably be      

simply acquiesc5t1 & let ! gov]nm5t     
alone2 :]eas 9 ! case ( ,india1 a       
politically active p l ! ,engli%1 amid  
habitual acquiesc5ce1 are e n[ & !n     
int]f]+1 & almo/ always 9 ! wrong place4
 ,! real causes :i* det]m9e ! prosp]ity 
or wret*$ness1 ! improvem5t or          
det]ioration ( ! ,h9doos1 are too f> (f 
to be )9 _! k54 ,!y h n ! k necess>y =  
suspect+ ! exi/5ce ( ^? causes1 mu* less
 = judg+ ( _! op]ation4 ,! mo/ ess5tial 
int]e/s ( ! c\ntry may be well adm9i/]$ 
)\t obta9+ any ( _! approbation1 or     
mismanag$ to almo/ any excess )\t       
attract+ _! notice4 ,! purposes = :i* !y
 are pr9cipally tempt$ to int]f]e1 &    
control ! proce$+s ( _! delegates1 are (
 two k9ds4 ,"o is to =ce ,engli% ideas  
d[n ! ?roats ( ! natives2 = in/ance1 by 
measures ( proselytism1 or acts         
int5tionally or un9t5tionally (f5sive to
 ! religi\s feel+s ( ! p4 ,?is          
misdirection ( op9ion 9 ! rul+ c\ntry is
 in/ructively exemplifi$ 7! m s1 because
 no?+ is meant b ju/ice & fairness1 & z 

mu* imp>tiality z c be expect$ f p]sons 
really conv9c$7 by ! dem& n[ s g5]al 9  
,engl& = hav+ ! ,bible taught1 at !     
option ( pupils or ( _! p>5ts1 9 !      
gov]nm5t s*ools4 ,f ! ,european po9t (  
view no?+ c we> a fair] aspect1 or seem 
less op5 to objection on ! score (      
religi\s fre$om4 ,to ,asiatic eyes x is 
q ano!r ?+4 ,no ,asiatic p ev] believes 
t a gov]nm5t puts its paid (fic]s &     
(ficial ma*9]y into motion unless x is  
b5t ^u an object2 & :5 b5t on an object1
 no ,asiatic believes t any gov]nm5t1   
except a feeble & contemptible "o1      
pursues x by halves4 ,if gov]nm5t s*ools
 & s*oolma/]s taught ,*ri/ianity1 :atev]
 pl$ges might be giv5 ( tea*+ x only to 
^? :o spontane\sly s\ght x1 no am\nt (  
evid5ce w\ld ev] p]suade ! p>5ts t      
improp] means 7 n us$ to make _! *ildr5 
,*ri/ians1 or1 at all ev5ts1 outca/s f  
,h9dooism4 ,if !y c\ld1 9 ! end1 be     
conv9c$ ( ! contr>y1 x w\ld only be by !
 entire failure ( ! s*ools1 s conduct$1 
to make any conv]ts4 ,if ! tea*+ _h !   

smalle/ effect 9 promot+ its object1 x  
w\ld compromise n only ! utility & ev5  
exi/5ce ( ! gov]nm5t education1 b p]haps
 ! safety ( ! gov]nm5t itself4 ,an      
,engli% ,prote/ant w\ld n be easily     
induc$1 by disclaim]s ( proselytism1 to 
place 8 *ildr5 9 a ,roman ,ca?olic      
sem9>y2 ,iri% ,ca?olics w n s5d _!      
*ildr5 to s*ools 9 :i* !y c be made     
,prote/ants2 & we expect t ,h9doos1 :o  
believe t ! privileges ( ,h9dooism c be 
=feit$ by a m]ely physical act1 w expose
 !irs to ! dang] ( be+ made ,*ri/ians6  
,su* is "o ( ! modes 9 :i* ! op9ion ( ! 
dom9ant c\ntry t5ds to act m injuri\sly 
?an b5eficially on ! conduct ( its      
deput$ gov]nors4 ,9 o!r respects1 its   
int]f]5ce is likely to be (t5e/ ex]cis$ 
:]e x w be mo/ p]t9aci\sly dem&$1 & t   
is1 on behalf ( "s int]e/ ( ! ,engli%   
settl]s4 ,engli% settl]s h fri5ds at    
home1 h organs1 h access to ! public2 !y
 h a common language1 & common ideas )  
_! c\ntrym52 any compla9t by an         
,engli%man is m sympa!tically he>d1 ev5 

if no unju/ pref]5ce is int5tionally    
accord$ to x4 ,n[ if !re be a fact to   
:i* all exp]i5ce te/ifies1 x is t1 :5 a 
c\ntry holds ano!r 9 subjection1 !      
individuals ( ! rul+ p :o resort to !   
=eign c\ntry to make _! =tunes are ( all
 o!rs ^? :o mo/ ne$ to be held "u p[]ful
 re/ra9t4 ,!y are always "o ( ! *ief    
difficulties ( ! gov]nm5t4 ,arm$ ) !    
pre/ige & fill$ ) ! scornful ov]be>+ness
 ( ! conqu]+ nation1 !y h ! feel+s      
inspir$ by absolute p[] )\t its s5se (  
responsibility4 ,among a p l t ( ,india1
 ! utmo/ ef=ts ( ! public au?orities are
 n en\gh = ! effectual protection ( !   
weak aga9/ ! /rong2 & ( all ! /rong1 !  
,european settl]s are ! /ronge/4 ,:]ev] 
! demoraliz+ effect ( ! situation is n 9
 a mo/ rem>kable degree correct$ by !   
p]sonal "* ( ! individual1 !y ?9k ! p ( 
! c\ntry m]e dirt "u _! feet3 x seems to
 !m mon/r\s t any rights ( ! natives    
%\ld /& 9 ! way ( _! smalle/ pret5sions2
 ! simple/ act ( protection to !        
inhabitants aga9/ any act ( p[] on _! "p

 :i* !y may consid] useful to _!        
comm]cial objects !y d5\nce1 & s9c]ely  
reg>d z an injury4 ,s natural is ?is    
/ate ( feel+ 9 a situation l !irs1 t1   
ev5 "u ! disc\ragem5t :i* x has hi!rto  
met ) f ! rul+ au?orities1 x is         
impossible t m or less ( ! _s %\ld n    
p]petually break out4 ,! gov]nm5t1      
itself free f ?is _s1 is nev] able      
suffici5tly to keep x d[n 9 ! "y & raw  
ev5 ( its own civil & milit>y (fic]s1   
ov] :om x has s mu* m control ?an ov] ! 
indep5d5t resid5ts4 ,z x is ) ! ,engli% 
9 ,india1 s1 accord+ to tru/wor?y       
te/imony1 x is ) ! ,fr5* 9 ,algi]s2 s ) 
! ,am]icans 9 ! c\ntries conqu]$ f      
,mexico2 s x seems to be ) ! ,europeans 
9 ,*9a1 & already ev5 9 ,japan3 !re is  
no necessity to recall h[ x 0 ) !       
,spani>ds 9 ,s\? ,am]ica4 ,9 all ^!     
cases1 ! gov]nm5t to :i* ^! private     
adv5tur]s are subject is bett] ?an !y1 &
 does ! mo/ x c to protect ! natives    
aga9/ !m4 ,ev5 ! ,spani% gov]nm5t did   
?is1 s9c]ely & e>ne/ly1 ?\gh            

ineffectually1 z is kn[n to e read] (   
,mr4 ,helps' in/ructive hi/ory4 ,_h !   
,spani% gov]nm5t be5 directly acc\ntable
 to ,spani% op9ion1 we may "q if x w\ld 
h made ! attempt1 = ! ,spani>ds1        
d\btless1 w\ld h tak5 "p ) _! ,*ri/ian  
fri5ds & relations r ?an ) pagans4 ,!   
settl]s1 n ! natives1 h ! e> ( ! public 
at home2 x is !y ^: repres5tations are  
likely to pass = tru?1 because !y alone 
h bo? ! means & ! motive to press !m    
p]sev]+ly ^u ! inatt5tive & un9t]e/$    
public m9d4 ,! di/ru/ful criticism ) :i*
 ,engli%m51 m ?an any o!r p1 are 9 !    
habit ( scann+ ! conduct ( _! c\ntry    
t[>ds =eign]s1 !y usually res]ve = !    
proce$+s ( ! public au?orities4 ,9 all  
que/ions betwe5 a gov]nm5t & an         
individual1 ! presumption 9 e           
,engli%man's m9d is t ! gov]nm5t is 9 ! 
wrong4 ,& :5 ! resid5t ,engli% br+ !    
batt]ies ( ,engli% political action to  
be> ^u any ( ! bulw>ks erect$ to protect
 ! natives aga9/ _! encroa*m5ts1 !      
executive1 ) _! real b fa9t velleities (

 some?+ bett]1 g5]ally f9d x saf] to _! 
,p>liam5t>y int]e/1 &1 at any rate1 less
 tr\blesome1 to give up ! disput$       
position ?an to def5d x4  ,:at makes    
matt]s worse is t1 :5 ! public m9d is   
invok$ 7z1 to its cr$it1 ! ,engli% m9d  
is extremely op5 to be7 9 ! "n ( ju/ice 
& philan?ropy 9 behalf ( ! subject      
community or race1 !re is ! same        
probability ( its miss+ ! m>k2 = 9 !    
subject community also !re are          
oppressors & oppress$--p[]ful           
individuals or classes1 & slaves        
pro/rate be=e !m2 & x is ! =m]1 n !     
latt]1 :o h ! means ( access to !       
,engli% public4 ,a tyrant or s5suali/ :o
 has be5 depriv$ ( ! p[] he _h abus$1 &1
 in/ead ( puni%m5t1 is support$ 9 z     
great weal? & spl5dor z he ev] enjoy$2 a
 knot ( privileg$ l&hold]s1 :o dem& t ! 
/ate %\ld rel9qui% to !m its res]v$ "r  
to a r5t f _! l&s1 or :o res5t z a wrong
 any attempt to protect ! masses f _!   
extortion--^! h no difficulty 9 procur+ 
int]e/$ or s5tim5tal advocacy 9 !       

,briti% ,p>liam5t & press4 ,! sil5t     
myriads obta9 none4  ,! prec$+          
obs]vations exemplify ! op]ation ( a    
pr9ciple--:i* might be call$ an obvi\s  
"o1 7 x n t sc>cely anybody seems to be 
aw>e ( x--t1 :ile responsibility to !   
gov]n$ is ! greate/ ( all securities =  
good gov]nm5t1 responsibility to        
somebody else n only has no su* t5d5cy1 
b is z likely to produce evil z good4 ,!
 responsibility ( ! ,briti% rul]s (     
,india to ! ,briti% nation is *iefly    
useful because1 :5 any acts ( ! gov]nm5t
 are call$ 9 "q1 x insures publicity &  
discussion2 ! utility ( :i* does n      
require t ! public at l>ge %\ld         
compreh5d ! po9t at issue1 provid$ !re  
are any individuals among !m :o d2 = a  
m]ely moral responsibility n be+        
responsibility to ! collective p1 b to e
 sep>ate p]son among !m :o =ms a        
judgm5t1 op9ions may be weigh$ z well z 
c\nt$1 & ! approbation or disapprobation
 ( "o p]son well v]s$ 9 ! subject may   
outweigh t ( ?\s&s :o "k no?+ ab\t x at 

all4 ,x is d\btless a useful re/ra9t ^u 
! imm$iate rul]s t !y c be put ^u _!    
def5se1 & t "o or two ( ! jury w =m an  
op9ion wor? hav+ ab\t _! conduct1 ?\gh t
 ( ! rema9d] w probably be sev]al       
degrees worse ?an none4 ,su* z x is1 ?is
 is ! am\nt ( b5efit to ,india f !      
control ex]cis$ ov] ! ,indian gov]nm5t  
by ! ,briti% ,p>liam5t & p4  ,x is n by 
attempt+ to rule directly a c\ntry l    
,india1 b by giv+ x good rul]s1 t !     
,engli% p c d _! duty to t c\ntry2 & !y 
c sc>cely give x a worse "o ?an an      
,engli% cab9et m9i/]1 :o is ?9k+ (      
,engli%1 n ,indian politics2 :o does n  
rema9s long en\gh 9 (fice to acquire an 
intellig5t int]e/ 9 s complicat$ a      
subject2 ^u :om ! factiti\s public      
op9ion got up 9 ,p>liam5t1 consi/+ ( two
 or ?ree flu5t speak]s1 acts ) z mu* =ce
 z if x 7 g5u9e2 :ile he is "u none ( ! 
influ5ces ( tra9+ & position :i* w\ld   
lead or qualify him to =m an hone/      
op9ion ( 8 own4 ,a free c\ntry :i*      
attempts to gov]n a di/ant dep5d5cy1    

inhabit$ by a dissimil> p1 by means ( a 
bran* ( its own executive1 w almo/      
inevitably fail4 ,! only mode :i* has   
any *ance ( tol]able success is to gov]n
 ?r\gh a delegat$ body ( a comp>atively 
p]man5t "*1 all[+ only a "r ( inspection
 & a negative voice to ! *angeable      
adm9i/ration ( ! /ate4 ,su* a body did  
exi/ 9 ! case ( ,india2 & ,i fe> t bo?  
,india & ,engl& w pay a sev]e p5alty = !
 %ortsight$ policy by :i* ?is int]m$iate
 in/rum5t ( gov]nm5t 0 done away )4  ,x 
is ( no avail to say t su* a delegat$   
body c n h all ! requisites ( good      
gov]nm5t2 above all1 c n h t complete & 
ov]-op]ative id5tity ( int]e/ ) ! gov]n$
 :i* x is s difficult to obta9 ev5 :]e !
 p to be rul$ are 9 "s degree qualifi$  
to look aft] _! own affairs4 ,real good 
gov]nm5t is n compatible ) ! conditions 
( ! case4 ,!re is b a *oice (           
imp]fections4 ,! problem is1 s to       
con/ruct ! gov]n+ body t1 "u !          
difficulties ( ! position1 x %all h z   
mu* int]e/ z possible 9 good gov]nm5t1 &

 z little 9 bad4 ,n[ ^! conditions are  
be/ f\nd 9 an int]m$iate body4 ,a       
delegat$ adm9i/ration has always ?is    
advantage ov] a direct "o1 t x has1 at  
all ev5ts1 no duty to p]=m except to !  
gov]n$4 ,x has no int]e/s to consid]    
except !irs4 ,its own p[] ( d]iv+ pr(it 
f misgov]nm5t may be r$uc$--9 ! late/   
,con/itution ( ! ,ea/ ,india ,company x 
0 r$uc$--to a s+ul>ly small am\nt2 & x c
 be kept entirely cle> ( bias f !       
individual or class int]e/s ( any "o    
else4 ,:5 ! home gov]nm5t & ,p>liam5t   
are sway$ by su* p>tial influ5ces 9 !   
ex]cise ( ! p[] res]v$ to !m 9 ! la/    
resort1 ! int]m$iate body is ! c]ta9    
advocate & *ampion ( ! dep5d5cy be=e !  
imp]ial tribunal4 ,! int]m$iate body1   
moreov]1 is1 9 ! natural c\rse ( ?+s1   
*iefly compos$ ( p]sons :o h acquir$    
pr(essional k ( ?is "p ( _! c\ntry's    
conc]ns2 :o h be5 tra9$ to x 9 ! place  
itself1 & h made its adm9i/ration ! ma9 
occupation ( _! lives4 ,furni%$ ) ^!    
qualifications1 & n be+ liable to lose  

_! (fice f ! accid5ts ( home politics1  
!y id5tify _! "* & consid]ation ) _!    
special tru/1 & h a mu* m p]man5t int]e/
 9 ! success ( _! adm9i/ration1 & 9 !   
prosp]ity ( ! c\ntry :i* !y adm9i/]1 ?an
 a memb] ( a cab9et "u a repres5tative  
con/itution c possibly h 9 ! good       
gov]nm5t ( any c\ntry except ! "o :i* he
 s]ves4 ,s f> z ! *oice ( ^? :o c>ry on 
! managem5t on ! spot devolves ^u ?is   
body1 _! appo9tm5t is kept out ( !      
vortex ( p>ty & ,p>liam5t>y jobb+1 &    
fre$ f ! influ5ce ( ^? motives to !     
abuse ( patronage = ! rew>d ( adh]5ts1  
or to buy (f ^? :o w\ld o!rwise be      
oppon5ts1 :i* are always /rong] )       
/atesm5 ( av]age hone/y ?an a           
consci5ti\s s5se ( ! duty ( appo9t+ !   
fitte/ man4 ,to put ?is "o class (      
appo9tm5ts z f> z possible out ( h>m's  
way is ( m consequ5ce ?an ! wor/ :i* c  
happ5 to all o!r (fices 9 ! /ate2 =1 9 e
 o!r dep>tm5t1 if ! (fic] is unqualifi$1
 ! g5]al op9ion ( ! community directs   
him 9 a c]ta9 degree :at to d2 b 9 !    

position ( ! adm9i/rators ( a dep5d5cy  
:]e ! p are n fit to h ! control 9 _!   
own h&s1 ! "* ( ! gov]nm5t entirely     
dep5ds on ! qualifications1 moral &     
intellectual1 ( ! individual            
function>ies4  ,x c n be too (t5 repeat$
 t1 9 a c\ntry l ,india1 e ?+ dep5ds on 
! p]sonal qualities & capacities ( !    
ag5ts ( gov]nm5t4 ,?is tru? is ! c>d9al 
pr9ciple ( ,indian adm9i/ration4 ,! day 
:5 x comes to be ?\ght t ! appo9tm5t (  
p]sons to situations ( tru/ f motives ( 
conv5i5ce1 already s crim9al 9 ,engl&1 c
 be practic$ ) impunity 9 ,india1 w be !
 beg9n+ ( ! decl9e & fall ( our empire  
!re4 ,ev5 ) a s9c]e int5tion ( pref]r+ !
 be/ c&idate1 x w n d to rely on *ance =
 supply+ fit p]sons4 ,! sy/em mu/ be    
calculat$ to =m !m4 ,x has done ?is     
hi!rto2 & because x has done s1 our rule
 9 ,india has la/$1 & be5 "o ( con/ant1 
if n v rapid improvem5t 9 prosp]ity &   
good adm9i/ration4 ,z mu* bitt]ness is  
n[ manife/$ aga9/ ?is sy/em1 & z mu*    
eag]ness display$ to ov]?r[ x1 z if     

educat+ & tra9+ ! (fic]s ( gov]nm5t = _!
 "w 7 a ?+ utt]ly unreasonable &        
indef5sible1 an unju/ifiable int]f]5ce )
 ! rights ( ignorance & inexp]i5ce4 ,!re
 is a tacit conspiracy betwe5 ^? :o w\ld
 l to job 9 fir/-rate ,indian (fices =  
_! connections "h1 & ^? :o1 be+ already 
9 ,india1 claim to be promot$ f ! indigo
 factory or ! attorney's (fice to       
adm9i/] ju/ice or fix ! paym5ts due to  
gov]nm5t f millions ( p4 ,! monopoly ( !
 civil s]vice1 s mu* inveigh$ aga9/1 is 
l ! monopoly ( judicial (fices by ! b>2 
& its abolition w\ld be l op5+ ! b5* 9  
,we/m9/] ,hall to ! fir/ com] ^: fri5ds 
c]tify t he has n[ & !n look$ into      
,black/one4 ,7 ! c\rse ev] adopt$ ( s5d+
 m5 f ?is c\ntry1 or enc\rag+ !m 9 go+  
out1 to get !mselves put into high      
appo9tm5ts )\t hav+ le>n$ _! bus9ess by 
pass+ ?r\gh ! l[] ones1 ! mo/ important 
(fices w\ld be ?r[n to ,scot* c\s9s &   
adv5tur]s1 connect$ by no pr(essional   
feel+ ) ! c\ntry or ! "w1 held to no    
previ\s k1 & eag] only to make money    

rapidly & return home4 ,! safety ( !    
c\ntry is1 t ^? by :om x is adm9i/]$ be 
s5t out 9 y\?1 z c&idates only1 to beg9 
at ! bottom ( ! ladd]1 & asc5d high] or 
n1 z1 aft] a prop] int]val1 !y are prov$
 qualifi$4 ,! defect ( ! ,ea/ ,india    
,company's sy/em 0 t1 ?\gh ! be/ m5 7   
c>efully s\ght out = ! mo/ important    
po/s1 yet1 if an (fic] rema9$ 9 !       
s]vice1 promotion1 ?\gh x might be      
delay$1 came at la/ 9 "s %ape or o!r1 to
 ! lea/ z well z to ! mo/ compet5t4 ,ev5
 ! inf]ior 9 qualifications among su* a 
corps ( function>ies consi/$1 x mu/ be  
rememb]$1 ( m5 :o _h be5 br\ght up to _!
 duties1 & _h fulfill$ !m = _m ye>s1 at 
l[e/ )\t disgrace1 "u ! eye & au?ority (
 a sup]ior4 ,b1 ?\gh ?is dim9i%$ ! evil1
 x 0 nev]!less consid]able4 ,a man :o   
nev] becomes fit = m ?an an assi/ant's  
duty %\ld rema9 an assi/ant all 8 life1 
& 8 juniors %\ld be promot$ ov] him4 ,) 
?is exception1 ,i am n aw>e ( any real  
defect 9 ! old sy/em ( ,indian          
appo9tm5ts4 ,x _h already receiv$ !     

greate/ o!r improvem5t x 0 susceptible  
(1 ! *oice ( ! orig9al c&idates by      
competitive exam9ation1 :i*1 besides !  
advantage ( recruit+ f a high] grade (  
indu/ry & capacity1 has ! recomm5dation 
t "u x1 unless by accid5t1 !re are no   
p]sonal ties betwe5 ! c&idates = (fices 
& ^? :o h a voice 9 conf]r+ !m4  ,x is 9
 no way unju/ t public (fic]s ?us       
select$ & tra9$ %\ld be exclusively     
eligible to (fices :i* require specially
 ,indian k & exp]i5ce4 ,if any door to !
 high] appo9tm5ts1 )\t pass+ ?r\gh !    
l[]1 be op5$ ev5 = occasional use1 !re w
 be su* incessant knock+ at x by p]sons 
( influ5ce t x w be impossible ev] to   
keep x clos$4 ,! only except$ appo9tm5t 
%\ld be ! highe/ "o ( all4 ,! ,vic]oy ( 
,briti% ,india %\ld be a p]son select$ f
 all ,engli%m5 = 8 great g5]al capacity 
= gov]nm5t4 ,if he h ?is1 he w be able  
to di/+ui% 9 o!rs1 & turn to 8 own use1 
t special k & judgm5t 9 local affairs   
:i* he has n himself _h ! opportunity ( 
acquir+4 ,!re are good reasons :y !     

vic]oy %\ld n be a memb] ( ! regul>     
s]vice4 ,all s]vices h1 m or less1 _!   
class prejudices1 f :i* ! supreme rul]  
ought to be exempt4 ,nei!r are m51 h[ev]
 able & exp]i5c$1 :o h pass$ _! lives 9 
,asia1 s likely to possess ! mo/ advanc$
 ,european ideas 9 g5]al /atesman%ip1   
:i* ! *ief rul] %\ld c>ry out ) him1 &  
bl5d ) ! results ( ,indian exp]i5ce4    
,aga91 be+ ( a diff]5t class1 &         
especially if *os5 by a diff]5t         
au?ority1 he w seldom h any p]sonal     
p>tialities to w>p 8 appo9tm5ts to      
(fice4 ,?is great security = hone/      
be/[al ( patronage exi/$ 9 r>e p]fection
 "u ! mix$ gov]nm5t ( ! cr[n & ! ,ea/   
,india ,company4 ,! supreme disp5s]s (  
(fice--! gov]nor g5]al & gov]nors--7    
appo9t$1 9 fact ?\gh n =mally1 by !     
cr[n1 t is1 by ! g5]al gov]nm5t1 n by ! 
int]m$iate body1 & a great (fic] ( !    
cr[n probably _h n a s+le p]sonal or    
political connection 9 ! local s]vice1  
:ile ! delegat$ body1 mo/ ( :om _h      
!mselves s]v$ 9 ! c\ntry1 _h1 & 7 likely

 to h1 su* connections4 ,?is gu>anty =  
imp>tiality w\ld be mu* impair$ if !    
civil s]vants ( gov]nm5t1 ev5 ?\gh s5t  
out 9 boyhood z m]e c&idates =          
employm5t1 %\ld come to be furni%$1 9   
any consid]able proportion1 by ! class (
 society :i* supplies vic]oys &         
gov]nors4 ,ev5 ! initiatory competitive 
exam9ation w\ld !n be an insuffici5t    
security4 ,x w\ld exclude m]e ignorance 
& incapacity2 x w\ld compel y\?s (      
family to />t 9 ! race ) ! same am\nt ( 
in/ruction & ability z o!r p2 ! /upide/ 
son c\ld n be put into ! ,indian s]vice1
 z he c be into ! ,*ur*2 b !re w\ld be  
no?+ to prev5t undue pref]5ce aft]w>ds4 
,no long]1 all equally unkn[n & unhe>d (
 by ! arbit] ( _! lot1 a portion ( !    
s]vice w\ld be p]sonally1 & a /ill      
great] numb] politically1 9 close       
relation ) him4 ,memb]s ( c]ta9         
families1 & ( ! high] classes &         
influ5tial connections g5]ally1 w\ld    
rise m rapidly ?an _! competitors1 & be 
(t5 kept 9 situations = :i* !y 7 unfit1 

or plac$ 9 ^? = :i* o!rs 7 fitt]4 ,!    
same influ5ces w\ld be br\ght into play 
:i* affect promotions 9 ! army2 & ^?    
alone1 if su* miracles ( simplicity !re 
be1 :o believe t ^! are imp>tial1 w\ld  
expect imp>tiality 9 ^? ( ,india4 ,?is  
evil is1 ,i fe>1 irrem$iable by any     
g5]al measures :i* c be tak5 "u ! pres5t
 sy/em4 ,no su* w af=d a degree (       
security comp>able to t :i* once fl[$   
spontane\sly f ! s-call$ d\ble gov]nm5t4
  ,:at is acc\nt$ s great an advantage 9
 ! case ( ! ,engli% sy/em ( gov]nm5t at 
home has be5 its mis=tune 9 ,india--t x 
grew up ( itself1 n f preconceiv$       
design1 b by successive exp$i5ts1 & by !
 adaptation ( ma*9]y orig9ally creat$ = 
a diff]5t purpose4 ,z ! c\ntry on :i*   
its ma9t5ance dep5d$ 0 n ! "o out ( ^:  
necessities x grew1 its practical       
b5efits did n come home to ! m9d ( t    
c\ntry1 & x w\ld h requir$ !oretic      
recomm5dations to r5d] x acceptable4    
,un=tunately1 ^! 7 exactly :at x seem$  
to be de/itute (2 & und\bt$ly ! common  

!ories ( gov]nm5t did n furni% x ) su*1 
fram$ z ^? !ories h be5 = /ates (       
circum/ances diff]+ 9 all ! mo/         
important features f ! case conc]n$4 ,b 
9 gov]nm5t z 9 o!r dep>tm5ts ( human    
ag5cy1 almo/ all pr9ciples :i* h be5    
durable 7 fir/ sugge/$ by obs]vation (  
"s p>ticul> case1 9 :i* ! g5]al laws (  
nature act$ 9 "s new or previ\sly       
unnotic$ comb9ation ( circum/ances4 ,!  
in/itutions ( ,great ,brita91 & ^? ( !  
,unit$ ,/ates1 h ! di/9ction ( sugge/+  
mo/ ( ! !ories ( gov]nm5t :i*1 ?r\gh    
good & evil =tune1 are n[1 9 ! c\rse (  
g5]ations1 reawak5+ political life 9 !  
nations ( ,europe4 ,x has be5 ! de/9y ( 
! gov]nm5t ( ! ,ea/ ,india ,company to  
sugge/ ! true !ory ( ! gov]nm5t ( a     
semi-b>b>\s dep5d5cy by a civiliz$      
c\ntry1 & aft] hav+ done ?is1 to p]i%4  
,x w\ld be a s+ul> =tune if1 at ! end ( 
two or ?ree m g5]ations1 ?is speculative
 result %\ld be ! only rema9+ fruit (   
our asc5dancy 9 ,india2 if po/]ity %\ld 
say ( u t1 hav+ /umbl$ accid5tally ^u   

bett] arrangem5ts ?an our wisdom w\ld   
ev] h devis$1 ! fir/ use we made ( our  
awak5$ reason 0 to de/roy !m1 & all[ !  
good :i* _h be5 9 c\rse ( be+ realiz$ to
 fall ?r\gh & be lo/ f ignorance ( !    
pr9ciples on :i* x dep5d$4 ,d meliora2 b
 if a fate s disgraceful to ,engl& & to 
civilization c be av]t$1 x mu/ be ?r\gh 
f> wid] political conceptions ?an m]ely 
,engli% or ,european practice c supply1 
& ?r\gh a mu* m pr(\nd /udy ( ,indian   
exp]i5ce & ( ! conditions ( ,indian     
gov]nm5t ?an ei!r ,engli% politicians1  
or ^? :o supply ! ,engli% public )      
op9ions1 h hi!rto %[n any will+ness to  
und]take4   ,! ,end     ,footnotes3     
,footnote #a3 ,i limit ! expression to  
pa/ "t1 because ,i w\ld say no?+        
d]ogatory ( a great1 & n[ at la/ a free1
 p1 :o are ent]+ into ! g5]al movem5t ( 
,european progress ) a vigor :i* bids   
fair to make up rapidly ! gr\nd !y h    
lo/4 ,no "o c d\bt :at ,spani% intellect
 & en]gy are capable (2 & _! faults z a 
p are *iefly ^? = :i* fre$om & indu/rial

 ardor are a real specific4  ,footnote  
#b3 ,italy1 :i* alone c be quot$ z an   
exception1 is only s 9 reg>d to ! f9al  
/age ( its trans=mation4 ,! m difficult 
previ\s advance f ! city isolation (    
,flor5ce1 ,pisa1 or ,milan1 to !        
prov9cial unity ( ,tuscany or ,lomb>dy1 
took place 9 ! usual mann]4  ,footnote  
#c3 ,?is blund] ( ,mr4 ,disraeli 7f :i*1
 greatly to 8 cr$it1 ,sir ,john ,pak+ton
 took an opportunity soon aft] ( sep>at+
 himself7 is a speak+ in/ance1 among _m1
 h[ little ! ,cons]vative lead]s und]/& 
,cons]vative pr9ciples4 ,)\t presum+ to 
require f political p>ties su* an am\nt 
( virtue & disc]nm5t z t !y %\ld        
compreh5d1 & "k :5 to apply1 ! pr9ciples
 ( _! oppon5ts1 we may yet say t x w\ld 
be a great improvem5t if ea* p>ty       
und]/ood & act$ ^u its own4 ,well w\ld x
 be = ,engl& if ,cons]vatives vot$      
consi/5tly = e ?+ cons]vative1 &        
,lib]als = e ?+ lib]al4 ,we %\ld n !n h 
to wait long = ?+s :i*1 l ! pres5t & _m 
o!r great measures1 are em95tly bo? ! "o

 & ! o!r4 ,! ,cons]vatives1 z be+ by !  
law ( _! exi/5ce ! /upide/ p>ty1 h mu* !
 greate/ s9s ( ?is description to answ] 
=2 & x is a melan*oly tru?1 t if any    
measure 7 propos$ on any subject truly1 
l>gely1 & f>-sight$ly cons]vative1 ev5  
if ,lib]als 7 will+ to vote = x1 ! great
 bulk ( ! ,cons]vative p>ty w\ld ru%    
bl9dly 9 & prev5t x f be+ c>ri$4        
,footnote #d3 ,?\ghts on ,p>liam5t>y    
,re=m1 #bnd ed4 p4 #cb-cf4  ,footnote   
#e3 ,?is exp$i5t has be5 recomm5d$ bo?  
on ! score ( sav+ exp5se & on t ( obta9+
 ! votes ( _m electors :o o!rwise w\ld n
 vote1 & :o are reg>d$ by ! advocates ( 
! plan z a p>ticul>ly desirable class ( 
vot]s4 ,! s*eme has be5 c>ri$ into      
practice 9 ! election ( poor-law        
gu>dians1 & its success 9 t in/ance is  
appeal$ to 9 favor ( adopt+ x 9 ! m     
important case ( vot+ = a memb] ( !     
,legislature4 ,b ! two cases appe> to me
 to diff] 9 ! po9t on :i* ! b5efits ( ! 
exp$i5t dep5d4 ,9 a local election = a  
special k9d ( adm9i/rative bus9ess1 :i* 

consi/s ma9ly 9 ! disp5sation ( a public
 fund1 x is an object to prev5t ! *oice 
f be+ exclusively 9 ! h&s ( ^? :o       
actively conc]n !mselves ab\t x2 = !    
public int]e/ :i* atta*es to ! election 
be+ ( a limit$ k9d1 & 9 mo/ cases n v   
great 9 degree1 ! disposition to make   
!mselves busy 9 ! matt] is apt to be 9 a
 great measure conf9$ to p]sons :o hope 
to turn _! activity to _! own private   
advantage2 & x may be v desirable to    
r5d] ! int]v5tion ( o!r p z little on]\s
 to !m z possible1 if only = ! purpose (
 swamp+ ^! private int]e/s4 ,b :5 !     
matt] 9 h& is ! great bus9ess ( national
 gov]nm5t1 9 :i* e "o mu/ take an int]e/
 :o c>es = any ?+ out ( himself1 or :o  
c>es ev5 = himself intellig5tly1 x is   
mu* r an object to prev5t ^? f vot+ :o  
are indiff]5t to ! subject1 ?an to      
induce !m to vote by any o!r means ?an t
 ( awak5+ _! dormant m9ds4 ,! vot] :o   
does n c>e en\gh ab\t ! election to g to
 ! poll is ! v man :o1 if he c vote )\t 
t small tr\ble1 w give 8 vote to ! fir/ 

p]son :o asks = x1 or on ! mo/ trifl+ or
 frivol\s inducem5t4 ,a man :o does n   
c>e :e!r he votes is n likely to c>e mu*
 :i* way he votes2 & he :o is 9 t /ate (
 m9d has no moral "r to vote at all2    
s9ce1 if he does s1 a vote :i* is n !   
expression ( a conviction1 c\nts = z    
mu*1 & goes z f> 9 det]m9+ ! result z "o
 :i* repres5ts ! ?\ghts & purposes ( a  
life4--,?\ghts1 etc41 p4 #ci4  ,footnote
 #f3 ,sev]al ( ! witnesses be=e !       
,committee ( ! ,h\se ( ,commons 9 #ahfj1
 on ! op]ation ( ! ,corrupt ,practices  
,prev5tion ,act1 "s ( !m ( great        
practical exp]i5ce 9 election matt]s1 7 
favorable 7ei!r absolutely or z a la/   
resort7 to ! pr9ciple ( requir+ a       
decl>ation f memb]s ( ,p>liam5t1 & 7 (  
op9ion t1 if support$ by p5alties1 x    
w\ld be1 to a great degree1 effectual4  
7,evid5ce1 pp4 #df1 #ed-g1 #fg1 #abc1   
#aih-bjb1 #bjh47 ,! *ief commission] ( !
 ,wakefield ,inquiry said 79 ref]5ce    
c]ta9ly to a diff]5t proposal71 ,if !y  
see t ! ,legislature is e>ne/ ^u !      

subject1 ! ma*9]y w "w4444 ,i am q sure 
t if "s p]sonal /igma 7 appli$ ^u       
conviction ( brib]y1 x w\ld *ange !     
curr5t ( public op9ion 7pp4 #bf & #cb74 
,a di/+ui%$ memb] ( ! committee 7& ( !  
pres5t cab9et7 seem$ to ?9k x v         
objectionable to atta* ! p5alties (     
p]jury to a m]ely promissory z di/+ui%$ 
f an ass]tory oa?2 b he 0 rem9d$ t ! oa?
 tak5 by a witness 9 a c\rt ( ju/ice is 
a promissory oa?2 & ! rejo9d] 7t !      
witness's promise relates to an act to  
be done at once1 :ile ! memb]'s w\ld be 
a promise = all future "t7 w\ld only be 
to ! purpose if x c\ld be suppos$ t !   
swe>] might =get ! obligation he _h     
ent]$ into1 or c\ld possibly violate x  
unaw>es3 cont+5cies :i*1 9 a case l !   
pres5t1 are out ( ! "q4  ,a m sub/antial
 difficulty is1 t "o ( ! =ms mo/        
frequ5tly assum$ by election exp5diture 
is t ( subscriptions to local *>ities or
 o!r local objects2 & x w\ld be a /rong 
measure to enact t money %\ld n be giv5 
9 *>ity )9 a place by ! memb] = x4 ,:5  

su* subscriptions are bon fide1 !       
popul>ity :i* may be d]iv$ f !m is an   
advantage :i* x seems h>dly possible to 
d5y to sup]ior ri*es4 ,b ! greate/ "p ( 
! mis*ief consi/s 9 ! fact t money s    
contribut$ is employ$ 9 brib]y1 "u !    
euphoni\s "n ( keep+ up ! memb]'s       
int]e/4 ,to gu>d aga9/ ?is1 x %\ld be "p
 ( ! memb]'s promissory decl>ation t all
 sums exp5d$ by him 9 ! place1 or = any 
purpose connect$ ) x or ) any ( its     
inhabitants 7) ! exception p]haps ( 8   
own hotel exp5ses7 %\ld pass ?r\gh ! h&s
 ( ! election auditor1 & be by him 7& n 
by ! memb] himself or 8 fri5ds7 appli$  
to its decl>$ purpose4  ,! pr9ciple (   
mak+ all lawful exp5ses ( a *>ge1 n ^u !
 c&idate1 b ^u ! locality1 0 upheld by  
two ( ! be/ witnesses 7pp4 #bj1 #fe-gj1 
#bgg74  ,footnote #g3 ,z ,mr4 ,lorim]   
rem>ks1 by creat+ a pecuni>y inducem5t  
to p]sons ( ! l[e/ class to devote      
!mselves to public affairs1 ! call+ ( ! 
demagogue w\ld be =mally inaugurat$4    
,no?+ is m to be deprecat$ ?an mak+ x ! 

private int]e/ ( a numb] ( active p]sons
 to urge ! =m ( gov]nm5t 9 ! direction (
 its natural p]v]sion4 ,! indications   
:i* ei!r a multitude or an individual c 
give :5 m]ely left to _! own weaknesses1
 af=d b a fa9t idea ( :at ^? weaknesses 
w\ld become :5 play$ ^u by a ?\s&       
flatt]]s4 ,if !re 7 #feh places ( c]ta91
 h[ev] mod]ate emolum5t1 to be ga9$ by  
p]suad+ ! multitude t ignorance is z    
good z k1 & bett]1 x is t]rible odds t  
!y w\ld believe & act ^u !              
lesson4--7,article 9 ,fras]'s ,magaz9e =
 ,april1 #ahei1 head$ ,rec5t ,writ]s on 
,re=m47  ,footnote #h3 ,n always1 h[ev]1
 ! mo/ recondite2 = "o ( ! late/ d5\nc]s
 ( competitive exam9ation 9 ! ,h\se (   
,commons _h ! nivet to produce a set (  
almo/ elem5t>y que/ions 9 algebra1      
hi/ory1 & geography1 z a pro( ( !       
exorbitant am\nt ( high sci5tific       
atta9m5t :i* ! ,commission]s 7 s wild z 
to exact4  ,footnote #i3 ,on ,lib]ty1   
conclud+ *apt]2 &1 at great] l5g?1 9 !  
f9al *apt] ( ,pr9ciples ( ,political    

,economy4  ,footnote #aj3 ,mr4 ,calh\n4 
,footnote #aa3 ,i am speak+ "h ( !      
adoption ( ?is improv$ policy1 n1 (     
c\rse1 ( its orig9al sugge/ion4 ,! honor
 ( hav+ be5 its e>lie/ *ampion belongs  
unque/ionably to ,mr4 ,roebuck4