,,h&book ,,( ,,railroad ,,con/ruction2 ,,= ,,! ,,use ,,( ,,am]ican ,,eng9e]s4 ,,conta9+ ,,! ,,necess>y ,,rules1 ,,tables1 ,,& ,,=mul ,,= ,,! ,,location1 ,,con/ruction1 ,,equipm5t1 ,,& ,,managem5t ,,( ,,railroads1 ,,z ,,built ,,9 ,,! ,,unit$ ,,/ates4 ,) #aeh ,illu/rations ,,by ,,george ,l4 ,,vose1 ,,civil ,,eng9e] 8,,rules ,,!mselves ,,oblige ,,u ,,to ,,reflect1 ,,t ,,we ,,may ,,see ,,:e!r ,,we ,,h ,,n ,,dep>t$ ,,f ,,!m40--,,napoleon4 ,,bo/on ,,& ,,cambridge3 ,,james ,,munroe ,,& ,,company4 #aheg4 ,ent]$ accord+ to ,act ( ,congress1 9 ! ye> #aheg1 by ,,james ,,munroe ,,& ,,company1 ,9 ! ,cl]k's ,(fice ( ! ,di/rict ,c\rt ( ! ,di/rict ( ,massa*usetts4 ,,cambridge3 ,,all5 ,,& ,,f>nham1 ,,pr9t]s4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,preface4 ,! object ( ?is "w is to give 9 ! pla9e/ possible mann] all in/ructions1 rules1 & tables necess>y = ! location1 con/ruction1 equipm5t1 & managem5t ( railroads4 ,z a g5]al ?+1 ,am]ican eng9e]s are n educat$ = _! bus9ess2 & :5 !y d possess a k ( pure sci5ce1 !y are at a loss h[ to apply x4 ,! read] is presum$ acqua9t$ ) ! elem5ts ( ari?metic1 geometry1 algebra1 & me*anics3 be+ ?us provid$1 he w1 by a p]usal ( :at foll[s1 be enabl$ to correctly proportion bridges1 ( wood1 /one1 & iron3 abutm5ts1 pi]s1 reta9+ walls1 sup]/ructure1 & locomotive eng9es2 & to plan & lay out1 execute1 & e/imate any description ( "w occurr+ ^u railroads4 ,z ! object has be5 m to be useful ?an orig9al1 ! be/ eng9e]+ writ]s & exp]im5t]s h be5 consult$2 among :om are1--,gau!y1 ,navi]1 ,vieat1 ,tr$gold1 ,b>l[1 ,tott51 ,fairbairn1 ,hodgk9son1 ,cl>k1 & ,l>dn]4 ,also a great numb] ( reports by ,am]ican civil eng9e]s ^u railroad matt]s4 ,if assumptions take ! place ( demon/ration1 x w be on good au?ority4 ,read]s w be> 9 m9d t ! "w is a 8h&book10 & n a 8treatise40 ,x is int5d$ m z an (fice companion ?an z a text-book = /ud5ts4 ,x w give 9 all cases ! actual num]ical result ne$$1 :e!r x be ! scantl+ ( a bridge *ord1 ! ?ickness ( a wall1 or ! dim5sions ( a locomotive boil]4 ,9 connection1 x w be f\nd conv5i5t to use ! works ( ,trautw9e & ,h5ck1 on ,field ,"w3 ( ,lieut5ant ,smi?1 on ,topography2 ,davies1 on ,survey+2 & ,gurley1 on ! ,use ( ,in/rum5ts4 ,any "o wi%+ a complete treatise on ! pr9ciples ( bridge con/ruction is ref]r$ to ! excell5t "w ( ,h]mann ,haupt4 ,i take ?is opportunity ( he>tily ?ank+ ! eng9e]s :o 9 _m ways h aid$ 9 mak+ ! "w1 z x is believ$1 ( "s wor?4 ,g4 ,l4 ,v4 ,,g5]al ,,table ,,( ,,cont5ts4 ,page ,,introduction #a ,,*apt] ,i4-- ,,reconnoissance #ab ,,ii4-- ,,survey #bd ,,iii4-- ,,location #da ,,iv4-- ,,prelim9>y ,,op]ations #ee ,v4-- ,,lay+ ,,out ,,"w #hi ,,vi4-- ,,e>?work #ig ,,vii4-- ,,rockwork #aae ,,viii4-- ,,wood5 ,,bridg+ #abb ,,ix4-- ,,iron ,,bridg+ #aib ,x4-- ,,/one ,,bridg+ #bcc ,,xi4-- ,,masonry #bdh ,,xii4-- ,,f\ndations #bfa ,,xiii4-- ,,sup]/ructure #bgb ,,xiv4-- ,,equipm5t #cjb ,,xv4-- ,,/ations #djc ,,xvi4-- ,,managem5t #dac ,,app5dix #dei ,,analytical ,,index4 ,,introduction4 ,,page ,rise & progress ( railroads #a ,influ5ce ( railroads #c ,safety ( railroad travell+ #e ,prelim9>y op]ations #e ,me*anical pr9ciples ( locomotion #f ,det]m9ation ( "* ( road #g ,gauge #h ,g5]al e/abli%m5t ( r\te #aj ,,*apt] ,i4 ,,reconnoissance4 ,g5]al topography #ab ,b>ometrical levell+ #ah ,,*apt] ,,ii4 ,,survey4 ,topographical sket*+ #bd ,g5]al e/abli%m5t ( grades #cb ,equat+ = grades #cd ,comp>ison ( survey$ l9es #ci ,,*apt] ,,iii4 ,,location4 ,alignm5t #da ,f9al adju/m5t ( grades #df ,comp>ison ( locat$ l9es #dg ,,*apt] ,,iv4 ,,prelim9>y ,,op]ations4 ,specification #ee ,contract #ha ,solicit #hd ,bid #he ,comp>ison ( bids #hg ,,*apt] ,v4 ,,lay+ ,,out ,,"w4 ,slopes #hi ,culv]ts #ij ,masonry #ia ,tunnels #ie ,,*apt] ,,vi4 ,,e>?work4 ,=m ( railroad sections #ig ,excavation & embankm5t #ajd ,transport ( mat]ial #ajf ,av]age haul #ajf ,dra9age #aji ,me?od ( conduct+ con/ruction op]ations #aaa ,,*apt] ,,vii4 ,,rockwork4 ,rock excavation #aae ,bla/+ & qu>ry+ #aae-aag ,tunnell+ #aah ,,*apt] ,,viii4 ,,wood5 ,,bridg+4 ,( ! =ces at "w 9 bridges #abb ,ext5sion #abc ,compression #abc ,cross /ra9 #abd ,detrusion #abf ,/r5g? ( mat]ials #abf ,rules = practice #aca ,( ! truss #aci ,( ! ar* #afi ,( ! road-way #agd ,lat]al brac+ #age ,pile bridg+ #agh ,tre/l+ #ahj ,draw bridges #aha ,c5tres #ahb ,,*apt] ,,ix4 ,,iron ,,bridges4 ,nature & /r5g? ( iron #aib ,classification ( iron bridges #aid ,iron truss frames #aie ,susp5sion bridges #bjc ,boil] plate bridges #bbc ,,*apt] ,x4 ,,/one ,,bridg+4 ,( ! wat]-way #bcc ,=m ( ! ar* #bcf ,?ickness ( v\ssoirs #bch ,=m & ?ickness ( abutm5ts #bci ,=m & dim5sions ( pi]s #bde ,,*apt] ,,xi4 ,,masonry4 ,/one #bdh ,cem5ts1 mort>s1 & concretes #bdi ,con/ruction ( ar*es1 w+s1 & p>apet #bec ,culv]ts & dra9s #bee ,reta9+ walls #bef ,,*apt] ,,xii4 ,,f\ndations4 ,pile driv+1 common sy/em #bfb ,mit*ell's screw pile #bff ,potts's atmosph]ic sy/em #bff ,c(f]-dam #bfg ,caisson #bfi ,,*apt] ,,xiii4 ,,sup]/ructure4 ,timb] "w #bgc ,rail section #bgf ,*airs & jo9ts #bhb ,frogs #bij ,swit*es #bid ,sid+s & cross+s #bih ,elevation ( ext]ior rail #bih ,,*apt] ,,xiv4 ,,equipm5t4 ,,"p ,i4 ,,locomotives4 ,introduction #cjb ,bir? & gr[? ( ! locomotive #cjb ,! ,engli% locomotive ( #ahej #cjd ,! ,am]ican locomotive ( #ahee #cje ,g5]al description #cjf ,me*anical & physical pr9ciples #cab ,resi/ance to ! motion ( tra9s #cab ,traction & adhesion #caf ,fuel #cag ,g5]ation ( /eam #ccj ,application ( /eam #ccf ,boil] proportions & dim5sions #cdj ,rules & tables = practice #ced ,adaptation ( locomotives to ! movem5t ( tra9s #cfj ,classification ( eng9es #cga ,,"p ,,second4 ,,c>s4 ,:eels & axles #cif ,classification ( c>s #djj ,ret>d+ ( tra9s #dja ,,*apt] ,,xv4 ,,/ations4 ,classification ( build+s #djc ,location ( build+s #djc ,t]m9al pass5g] h\se #djc ,t]m9al freight h\se #dje ,eng9e h\se & appurt5ances #dje ,way pass5g] & freight h\se #djg ,wood %$ & tank #djg ,,*apt] ,,xvi4 ,,managem5t4 ,organization ( employees #dac ,duties ( employees #dae ,numb] ( tra9s to be us$ #dah ,am\nt ( s]vice ( eng9es #dah ,exp5ses1 receipts1 pr(its #dbj ,express tra9s #dbh ,comp>ative co/ ( work+ heavy & light tra9s #dcd ,bran* roads #dcf ,reproduction ( road & ( /ock #dcg ,work+ railroads by contract #dci ,classification ( freight #dci ,"t tables #ddc ,locomotive regi/]s #ddd ,electric telegraph #ded ,new ,york & ,erie ,railroad #def ,,app5dix4 ,a4--,decimal ,ari?metic #dei ,b4--,algebraic =mul #dfa ,c4--,weights & measures #dfd ,d4--,value ( ! ,birm+ham gauges #dfe ,e4--,locomotive boil]s #dff ,f4--,effect ( grades on ! co/ ( work+ #dfh ,g4--,=m = a locomotive specification #dga ,h4--,relative co/ ( transport by railroad & by /age #dgf ,i4--,=m = exp]im5tal trips ) locomotives #dgh ,k4--,prop] weight = locomotives #dgi ,,additions1 ,,alt]ations1 ,,& ,,corrections4 ,! read] is p>ticul>ly reque/$ to apply ! foll[+ errata be=e p]us+ ! "w4 ,!y are p>tly mi/akes 9 pr9t+1 & p>tly errors 9 ! orig9al ,,ms4 ,! only excuse ! writ] c (f] = ! numb] is1 t1 be+ engag$ 9 ,miss\ri1 :ile 8 publi%]s 7 9 ,bo/on1 he has be5 prev5t$ f see+ a s+le pro(-%eet 9 "t = its correction4 ,page #e1 l9e #g1 = 8#dii4iii10 read 8#dii1iii40 -- #e1 l4 #i1 = 8#di4iii10 read 8#di1iii40 -- #aj1 l4 #a1 = 8c be10 read 8c nev] be40 -- #ab to #bc1 head+s1 = 8reconnoitre10 read 8reconnoissance40 -- #ah1 l4 #bd1 = 8#cf4i10 read 8#cf4h40 -- #ai1 l4 #f1 = 8table ,b10 read 8table ,d40 -- #bd1 l4 #a1 = 8any ?+10 read 8e ?+40 -- #be1 l4 #ag1 = 8horizontal l9e m m m10 read 8l9e #a1 #b1 #c10 etc4 -- #bf1 l4 #b1 = 8l&10 read 8level40 -- #bg1 l4 #a1 = 8at ! place10 read 8at ! "r place40 -- #bh1 l4 #bi1 = 8reconnoitre10 read 8reconnoissance40 -- #cj1 l4 #c1 = 8,a c d ,b10 read 8,a ,c ,d ,b40 -- #cb1 l4 #b1 ! po9t m 9 ! cut1 is "o :ole division above ,c2 x %\ld be only ?ree f\r?s ( a division4 -- #ch1 l4 #aj f bottom1 = 8#bgf10 read 8#bfh40 -- #ci1 l4 #aj f bottom1 = 8#adb4ac10 read 8#adc4ac02 & la/ l9e1 = 8#eh4df10 read 8#dh4df40 -- #dj1 l4 #g1 = 8#ajcaj1ffg10 read 8#aj1bgg1ccc40 -- #db1 l4 #i1 = 8,?us10 read 8,^!40 -- #db1 l4 #h f bottom1 = 8#b4ha or #b #dh4f0 read 8#b4hf or #b4ea4f40 -- #dc1 l4 #bg1 = 8,h5cke10 read 8,h5ck40 -- #dg1 #dh1 #di1 = 8,mc,cullum10 read 8,mc,callum40 -- #dg1 l4 #ah1 = 8di/ance10 read 8resi/ance40 -- #dh1 l4 #f1 = 8infr++10 read 8imp++02 l9e #i1 = 8slack+10 read 8%ackl+02 l4 #h f bottom1 = 8increas$10 read 8increases40 -- #ej1 l4 #ag1 = 8#aaj #ae4fj10 read 8#aaj #ae4fb40 -- #eb1 l4 #ae1 = 8#de4ei10 read 8#de4di02 also l4 #ag1 = 8#aacb10 read 8#aa4cb40 -- #eh1 l4 #aj1 = 8( size10 read 8& size40 -- #eh1 l4 #e f bottom1 = 8"o c5t10 read 8_/#ajj ( a c5t40 -- #fa1 l4 #c1 = 8are necess>y10 read 8are n necess>y40 -- #fc1 l4 #bh1 = 8/ret*es10 read 8/ret*]s40 -- #fe1 l4 #ae1 = 8sp&$10 read 8sp&rel40 -- #ga1 l4 #f f bottom1 = 8left10 read 8let40 -- #gc1 l4 #ai1 = 8*a9s10 read 8*airs40 -- #gd1 l4 #e1 = 8across ties10 read 8on cross-ties40 -- #gd1 l4 #ab1 = 8#bh in*es10 read 8#bg in*es40 -- #ge1 l4 #ah1 = 8l&10 read 8haul40 -- #gf1 l4 #h1 = 8top10 read 8bottom10 & = 8*>r$ :510 read 8*>r$ :]e40 -- #gf1 l4 #aa1 = 8twop5ny10 read 8t5p5ny40 -- #gh1 l4 #a & #b1 = 8base10 read 8basis40 -- #hd1 l4 #ac1 = 8z10 read 8or40 -- #hi1 l4 #f1 = 8,:5ev]10 read 8,:]ev]02 l4 #ab1 = 8,lett+10 read 8,sett+40 -- #ij1 l4 #d1 = 8co/10 read 8cut40 -- #ic1 l4 #f1 = 8#cg & #ch10 read 8#cf & #cg40 -- #ie1 l4 #a1 = 8bea*10 read 8b5*02 l4 #c1 = 8to s10 read 8s to02 l4 #ac1 = 8b be+ #aj ft4 back ( #b is 444 #ajj4jj10 read 8b be+ #aj ft4 back ( #b is #j4a ft4 high] ?an #b1 or 444 #ajj4aj40 -- #ajb1 l4 #a1 head ( middle col41 = 8,slopes #a10 read 8,slopes #a40 -- #ajc1 l4 #d f bottom1 = 8& t5 feet10 read 8& "o end t5 feet40 -- #ajd1 l4 #i1 = 8any10 read 8v40 -- #ajh1 l4 #i1 = 8,elwood10 read 8,ellwood40 -- #aae1 l4 #e1 = 8a loam10 read 8a b]m02 l4 #af1 = 8a r5t10 read 8a v5t40 -- #aag1 l4 #g1 = 8volcanic10 read 8voltaic40 -- #aag1 l4 #i1 = 8,r\nd ,drum10 read 8,r\nd ,d[n40 -- #aag1 l4 #ah1 = 8,col4 ,pusel+10 read 8,col4 ,pasley40 -- #aah1 l4 #b1 = 8,maillefaut10 read 8,maillef]t40 -- #aah1 l4 #af1 = 8ins]t10 read 8inv]t40 -- #aah1 l4 #be1 = 8quo9t$10 read 8gr\t$40 -- #aai1 l4 #cj1 = 8furni%$10 read 8f9i%$40 -- #abj1 ,table1 = 8,no*i/+o10 read 8,no*i/ongo02 = 8,supp]ton10 read 8,sapp]ton02 & = 8,black ,rock1 ,w4 ,s40 read 8,black ,rock1 ,u4 ,s40 -- #aba1 l4 #ai1 = 8,bel*+ly10 read 8,ble*+ly40 -- #abe1 9 table at bottom1 = 8#ij_/fi10 read 8#ij_/ff10 & = 8#adj1 #bj_/adj1 #bj_/afj or #j4ac10 read 8#aaa1 #bj_/aaa1 #bj_/aca1 or #j4ae40 -- #abf1 l4 #a1 = 8ext5sive10 read 8ext5sile40 -- #abg1 l4 #aj1 = 8#fg1bjj10 read 8#fe1bea40 -- #abg1 l4 #bf1 = 8,hodgek9son10 read 8,hodgk9son40 -- #abh1 l4 #d1 = 8#abjjj10 read 8#aajjj40 -- #abh1 l4 #ae & #bb1 = 8,hodgek9son10 read 8,hodgk9son40 -- #abi1 l4 #e1 = 8#abjjj10 read 8#aajjj40 -- #abi1 l4 #b f bottom1 = 8,sun ,wood10 read 8,ironwood40 -- #acj1 l4 #g1 = 8,,wl#b #d,sbd#b10 read 8,,wl #d,sbd#b40 -- #aca1 l4 #i1 = 8wood #adc10 read 8wood #acc40 -- #acd1 9 art4 #afd1 = 8#gjj10 read 8#ieb40 -- #acf1 = example !re giv51 place ! foll[+3-- ,span #cj feet1 ,:5ce-- ,l5g? #cd feet1 ,l5g? #cd feet1 ,load #aj tons at c5tre4 ,span #cj feet1 ,dep? #be in*es1 ,l[] flange #cb4eh squ>e in*es1 ,upp] flange #e4cd squ>e in*es1 a 7#f #aj #ab #cj7_/7bf 7#cd #ab7_/af7 #cb4eh & #cb4eh_/f4a #e4cd4 -- #ada1 la/ l9e1 ,fig4 #fc ,a 0 omitt$2 x is ! same z fig4 #ajb1 page #bjj1 inv]t$4 -- #adb1 la/ l9e1 = 8span10 read 8spans40 -- #adf1 head ( col4 #g1 = 8,top ,wa%]10 read 8,?ickness ( ,wa%]40 -- #aej1 aft] l9e #i1 ,figs4 #fg ,d & #fg ,e 7page #aec7 %\ld be ins]t$4 -- #aea1 l4 #c1 = 8,w #bbdi10 etc41 read 8,w #bbdj10 etc4 -- #aea1 l4 #ah1 = 8opposite to #ca1daf1 is ! diam4 #a10 read 8opposite to #da1dae1 is ! diam4 #a40 -- #aea1 l4 #ai1 = 8#a10 read 8#a40 -- #aed1 la/ l9e1 = 8tubul>10 read 8tabul>40 -- #aef1 l4 #d f bottom1 = 8wa%] b&10 read 8wa%] us$40 -- #afd1 l4 #aj to #ad1 inclusive4 ,! fir/ numb] ( ratios %\ld be #bj in/ead ( #ae4 -- #aff1 l4 #aa1 = 8#fi ,b10 read 8#fi ,a40 -- #aga1 head ( col4 #e ( table1 = 8,rod ( ,ar*10 read 8,rad4 ( ,ar*40 -- #agc1 l4 #be1 = 8ability10 read 8/ability40 -- #agc1 l4 #cb1 = 8,:5ce10 read 8,:]e40 -- #age1 l4 #h1 = 8triangul>10 read 8diagonal40 -- #agh1 l4 #c1 = 8article10 read 8outside40 -- #ahd1 l4 #d f bottom1 = 8b>ri]s10 read 8v\ssoirs40 -- #ahg1 fig4 #if is upside d[n2 also1 fig4 #ig1 page #ahh1 & fig4 #ih1 page #ahi4 -- #aic1 l4 #d1 col4 #c ( table1 = 84#jjjjjfge10 read 84#jjjjjfhe02 also1 l4 #af1 col4 #e1 = 8/ra9+10 read 8%e>+02 l4 #g f bottom1 = 8#ae1jjj10 read 8#ah1jjj20 & l4 #f f bottom1 = 8#ge1jjj10 read 8#aje1jjj40 -- #aii1 l4 #g f bottom1 = 8#bj1acb10 read 8#bj1cab40 -- #bjj1 l4 #d1 = 8,a ,c10 read 8,a ,g02 & l4 #f1 = 8t on ,a ,r10 read 8t on ,a ,k40 -- #bjb1 l4 #g1 = 8on page #aic10 read 8on page #ach40 -- #bjd1 l4 #e f bottom1 = 8v>i$ l9e10 read 8v]s$ s9e40 -- #bjg1 l4 #e & #f1 = 8,f ,g1 ,g ,e1 9 place ( ,e ,f1 ,e ,c10 read 8,g ,l1 ,g ,e1 9 place ( ,f ,l1 ,f ,c40 -- #baj1 9 place ( 8f 7,f7_/7#dph710 put 8,d 7,v#b - d#b7 - 7l#b - d#b74 :]e ,d depression1 l half l5g? ( curve be=e elongation1 ,v half l5g? ( curve aft] elongation1 d half di/ance betwe5 po9ts ( susp5sion40 ,omit ! rema9d] ( ! p>agraph4 -- #baa1 omit ! #f? & #g? l9es1 & 9 place ( =mula !re giv51 use t on page #baj1 7z correct$17 ,v be+ ! l5g? ( semi-curve z elongat$ by heat in/ead ( by t5sion2 ! elongations1 bo? by heat & t5sion1 be+ f\nd by table on page #aic4 -- #bab1 l4 #b1 = 8#eaj4fi10 read 8#eaj4hj10 :i* result1 ( c\rse1 runs ?r\gh ! :ole example4 -- #bac & #bad4 ,! rem>ks "u 8,an*or+ ,masonry10 are evid5tly wrong ?r\gh\t3 #a/1 ! :ole t5sion %\ld be divid$ by two1 in/ead ( f\r1 z half ( ! :ole t5sion acts at ea* po9t ( susp5sion2 #b;d1 no r$uction %\ld be made = ! direction ( ! pull+ =ce4 ,"o half ( ! t5sion is #c1cba1bej lbs42 :i* is resi/$ by a column ( masonry ( #c1cba1bej_/afj #bj1geh cubic feet1 or #bj #bj #eb feet1 or by a mass #ae #ae #ia feet4 -- #bad1 l4 #f1 = 8#efa1ebg10 read 8#efb1edb40 -- #bae1 l4 #ad f bottom1 = 8,,/iff5+ ,,t[]s10 read 8,,/iff5+ ,,trusses40 -- #bbe1 l4 #ad1 = 8#aid10 read 8#aic40 -- #bbf1 l4 #c1 = 8see page #abh10 read 8see page #aic40 -- #bbg1 l4 #d1 = 8det5sional10 read 8detrusional40 -- #bbh1 9 place ( equations at l4 #af1 put 8,r a ,r 7#b d t701 :5ce d 7,r a7_/7#b,r t72 :]e a area ( rivet1 d di/ance1 t plate ?ickness4 -- #bbi1 9 art4 #bdb1 ! /r5g?s ( 8wr\ght iron10 h be5 tak5 = ^? ( 8boil] plate02 t is1 #aa1jjj = #g1ejj1 & #ae1jjj = #ab1gdj1 :i* is wrong4 -- #bca1 l4 #ba1 = 8*opp$10 read 8dropp$40 -- #bcd1 l4 #d1 = 8jo9t10 read 8j40 -- #bce1 l4 #ad1 = 8#j4jaf feet10 read 8#j4jdg feet40 -- #bcf1 l4 #i1 = 8c>e10 read 8ease40 -- #bcg1 l4 #c f bottom1 = 8repres5t+10 read 8sep>at+40 -- #bda1 l4 #b1 = 8localities10 read 8locality40 -- #bdb1 l4 #g1 omit 8& c e1 ! p>apets40 -- #bdc1 l4 #i1 = 8embankm5t10 read 8abutm5t40 -- #bdd1 l4 #i1 = 8is ?us10 read 8is f\nd ?us40 -- #bde1 l4 #ag1 = 8latt]10 read 8batt]40 -- #bdi1 l4 #bc1 = 8common hydraulic10 read 8common mort>1 hydraulic40 -- #bdi1 l4 #bg1 = 8argyle magnesia10 read 8argil1 magnesia40 -- #bea1 l4 #af1 = 8#g to #b10 read 8#a to #b40 -- #bed1 la/ l41 = 8corn]s10 read 8c\rses40 -- #bef1 l4 #ac1 = 8=m$10 read 8f\nd40 -- #beh1 art4 #bgf1 9 place ( 8#bj_/b #ae #a #ajj #bj_/c10 put 8#bj #ae #a #ajj #b #bj_/c10 :]e #b repres5ts ! ratio betwe5 ,ca #f1 & #f-b2 ?us1 #bj #ae #a #ajj #f4f_/ab #bj_/c #aaa1aaa1 = ! ov]?r[+ =ce 9 place ( #ajj1jjj4 ,! ov]?r[+ =ce is ?us l>ge1 because ! maximum weight ( e>? has be5 assum$ to press aga9/ ! wall ) its :ole =ce1 no all[ance be+ made = friction4 ,9 practice1 #d_/aj ( ! height has be5 f\nd amply ?ick = walls reta9+ ord9>y e>?4 -- #bfb1 la/ l4 b "o1 = 8sup]/ratum10 read 8sub/ratum40 -- #bfd1 9 example1 l4 #e1 = 8#bf1ffg10 read 8#dh1jjj40 -- #bff1 l4 #be1 = 8,godw910 read 8,goodw940 -- #bff1 l4 #bf1 = 8,!re1 s&s10 read 8,^! s&s40 -- #bfg1 l4 #bb1 = 8bottom10 read 8prop] level40 -- #bha1 l4 #d f bottom1 = 8curve10 read 8cone40 -- #bhb1 l4 #bj1 = 8,daniel10 read 8,david40 -- #bhb1 l4 #d f bottom1 = 8cup10 read 8cap40 -- #bhd1 l4 #aj1 & #bhe1 l4 #h1 = 8compress$ rails10 read 8comp\nd rails40 -- #bhe1 l4 #e1 = 8ext5sion10 read 8ext5sile40 -- #bhi1 inv]t col4 #a ( table1 s t x %all read-- ,at #ajj place ! rails 9 contact4 ,at #ij at a di/ance ( 4#jjacf feet1 or #j4jaf in*es4 ,at #hj at a di/ance ( 4#jjbgb feet1 or #j4jcb in*es ,etc4 -- #bhi1 la/ l41 = 8levell$10 read 8bevell$40 -- #bia1 la/ l41 = 8a c1 #d4h10 read 8a c1 ,l #h40 -- #bib1 l4 #i1 = 8e h & d k10 read 8e ,l & d k02 same p4 l4 #f f bottom1 = 8a1 #i is ?ree1 etc40 read 8a b is ?ree10 etc4 -- #bic1 l4 #f & #g1 = 8i g1 e h1 b b1 #h1 #i1 ,a s #gi10 read 8i g1 e h1 a c1 b c40 -- #bif1 l4 #ad1 = 8,r#b - 7,r - #h7b10 read 8,r#b - 7,r - g7#b40 -- #cjc1 art4 #bii1 = 8,m4 ,leguire10 read 8,m4 ,segu940 -- #cjf1 l4 #b1 = 8,r4 ,r4 ,g410 read 8,r4 ,k4 & ,g40 -- #cad1 l4 #b1 = 8,d4 ,r4 ,cl>k10 read 8,d4 ,k4 ,cl>k40 -- #cbj1 l4 #a1 = 8,railroad1 ?ree p\nds 7,p5nsylvania710 read 8,railroad 7,p5nsylvania71 ?ree p\nds40 -- #cbj1 l4 #g1 = 8coal10 read 8coke40 -- #cca1 ne> bottom1 = 8,! area is1 !re=e1 ,sides1 twice l5g?1 etc41 read 8,sides1 twice l5g? by height1 etc41 ,back1 twice height1 etc41 ,back1 height by wid?1 etc41 ,front1 twice height1 etc41 ,front1 height by wid?1 etc41 ,top1 twice l5g?1 etc410 ,top1 l5g? by wid?1 etc40 -- #ccd1 l4 #ae1 = 8#dd4g lbs410 read 8#ad4g lbs40 -- #cce1 l4 #g1 = 8,railway ,me*anics10 read 8,railway ,ma*9]y40 -- #cce1 l4 #aj1 = 8two velocities10 read 8l[ velocities40 -- #ccf1 la/ l41 = 8ent]+ "p10 read 8ent]+ port40 -- #cda1 l4 #aa1 = 8prop]ties10 read 8proportions40 -- #cda1 la/ l41 = 8,nollan10 read 8,nollau40 -- #cdf1 l4 #ag1 = 8"p10 read 8port10 & = 8con/ruction10 read 8contraction40 -- #cee1 l4 #g1 = 8#fcjj10 read 8#eagj02 & l4 #i1 = 8#af1ije10 read 8#ae1gge40 -- #cfc1 l4 #ag1 = 8#dd #b #hj10 read 8#dd #b #hh40 -- #cfc1 l4 #ah1 = 8#ed #c #ajc10 read 8#ed #c #afc40 -- #cfg1 l4 #af1 = 8#ae4j_/aj10 read 8#ae4j_/af10 -- #cfh1 l4 #ae1 = 8u #ace10 read 8n #ace10 etc4 -- #cgj1 l4 #g1 = 8feet10 read 8p] c5t40 -- #cgf1 = 8#aijij10 read 8#aijej40 -- #chd1 9 la/ "p ( example1 = 8#ebhj_/7d #c4adaf7 #d #cgcjj10 read 8#be #ebhj_/7d #c4adaf7 #d #cgcdh40 -- #dba1 bottom l9e1 = 8decision10 read 8division40 -- #dbc & #dbd1 9 table1 = 8c\nt10 read 8co/40 -- #dbg1 l4 #cb1 = 8:i*10 read 8we40 -- #dbh1 l4 #d1 transpose 8,dr4 ,l>dn]1 7#ahej170 to ! end ( l9e #c4 -- #ddc1 l4 #bh1 = 8valuation10 read 8solution40 -- #ddf1 l4 #aa1 = 8atta9$10 read 8obta9$40 -- #dei1 l4 #bj1 = 8,hectametre10 read 8,hectometre40 -- #dei1 l4 #ba1 = 8,ridometre10 read 8,kilometre40 -- #dfa1 l4 #g1 = 8less ?an a1 or o10 read 8less a1 or #j40 -- #dfh1 l4 #cj1 = 8fractions10 read 8functions40 -- #dgd1 l4 #ah1 = 8,balbett10 read 8,babbitt40 -- #dgi1 l4 #aj1 = 8"o six?1 ) mu* less10 read 8"o six?2 ) s&1 mu* less40 ,,h&book ,,( ,,railroad ,,con/ruction4 ,,introduction4 8,!y build n m]ely roads ( e>? & /one1 z ( old1 b !y build iron roads3 & n cont5t ) horses ( fle%1 !y are build+ horses ( iron1 su* z nev] fa9t nor lose _! brea?40--,,dr4 ,,bu%nell4 ,,rise ,,& ,,progress ,,( ,,railroads4 #a4 ,9 #ahbe1 ! ,/ockton & ,d>l+ton ,railroad 7,engl&71 0 op5$4 ,9 #ahbg1 ! ,qu9cy 7( ,massa*usetts71 & ,mau*-,*unk 7,p5nsylvania71 7 complet$4 ,9 #ahbi1 ! ,liv]pool & ,man*e/] road1 7,engl&71 0 f9i%$4 ,9 #ahcc1 a road 0 op5$ f ,*>le/on1 7,s\? ,c>ol9a71 to ,augu/a 7,georgia74 ,9 #ahdj1 ,belgium op5$ #aij miles ( railroad4 ,9 #ahdc1 ! railroad f ,p>is to ,r\5 7,france71 0 complet$4 ,9 #ahdd1 ,belgium f9i%$ h] sy/em ( #cdg miles4 ,9 #ahdf1 ,russia op5$ a railroad f ! ,wolga to ! ,don4 ,9 #ahdg1 ,g]many _h 9 op]ation #b1hbh miles4 ,9 #aheb1 ! ,mosc[ & ,/4 ,pet]sburg road 0 f9i%$4 #b4 ,9 #ahef1 ! ,unit$ ,/ates ( ,am]ica _h 9 op]ation #bc1jjj miles1 & 9 progress #ag1jjj miles2 employ+ #f1jjj locomotive eng9es1 #aj1jjj pass5g] & #gj1jjj freight c>s2 co/+ 9 all ab\t #gej1jjj1jjj ( doll>s2 runn+ annually #aad1jjj1jjj miles1 & transport+ #abc millions ( pass5g]s1 & #cj millions ( tons ( freight p] annum2 p]=m+ a pass5g] mileage ( #d1gej1jjj1jjj1 & a freight mileage ( #c1jjj1jjj1jjj4 #c4 ,by mileage is meant ! product ( miles run1 by tons or by pass5g]s c>ri$4 ,?us1 #ejj p]sons c>ri$ #ajj miles1 & #gej p]sons c>ri$ #ge miles1 give a pass5g] mileage ( #ejj #ajj #gej #ge #ajf1bej4 #d4 ,! rate ( progress 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates has be5 z foll[s3-- ,9 #ahbh1 !re 7 #c miles4 ,9 #ahcj1 #da miles4 ,9 #ahdj1 #b1afg miles4 ,9 #ahej1 #g1cee miles4 ,9 #ahef1 #bc1bdb miles4 ,at ! pres5t "t1 ,janu>y #a1 #aheg1 !re is probably1 9 r\nd numb]s1 #be1jjj miles ( complet$ road1 or en\gh to ext5d entirely ar\nd ! _w4 ,z reg>ds ! ratio ( complet$ road to population1 & z reg>ds ! actual l5g? ( railroad 9 op]ation1 ! ,unit$ ,/ates /& be=e any o!r c\ntry4 ,,influ5ce ,,( ,,railroads4 #e4 ,! effect ( a judici\s sy/em ( railroads ^u any community is to increase consumption & to /imulate ! production ( agricultural products2 to di/ribute m g5]ally ! population1 to cause a balance betwe5 supply & dem&1 & to increase bo? ! am\nt & safety ( travell+4 ,x is /at$ t )9 two ye>s aft] ! op5+ ( ! ,new ,york & ,erie ,railroad1 x 0 c>ry+ m agricultural produce ?an ! entire quantity :i* _h be5 rais$ ?r\gh\t ! tribut>y c\ntry be=e ! road 0 built4 #f4 ,! foll[+ table1 cut f a ,*icago pap]1 %[s ! effect ( railroad transport ^u ! co/ ( gra9 9 t m>ket3-- ,,:eat4 ,,corn4 ,by ,r4 ,r4 ,by ,wagon4,by ,r4 ,r4 ,by ,wagon4 ,at m>ket1 #di4ej #di4ej #be4fj #be4fj #aj miles1 #di4be #dh4jj #bd4be #bc4bf #ej miles1 #dh4ge #db4jj #bd4jj #ag4be #ajj miles1 #dh4jj #cd4ej #bc4be #i4ge #aej miles1 #dg4be #bg4jj #bb4ej #b4be #bjj miles1 #df4ej #ai4ej #ba4ge #j4jj #bej miles1 #de4ge #ab4jj #ba4jj #j4jj #cjj miles1 #de4jj #d4ej #bj4be #j4jj #ccj miles1 #dd4ee #j4jj #ai4hj #j4jj ,?us a ton ( corn c>ri$ two hundr$ miles1 co/s1 p] wagon transport1 m ?an x br+s at m>ket2 :ile mov$ by railroad1 x is wor? #ba4ge p] ton4 ,also :eat w n be> wagon transport ( ?ree hundr$ & ?irty miles2 :ile mov$ t di/ance by railroad x is wor? #dd4ee p] ton4 #g4 ,by railroads1 l>ge cities are suppli$ ) fre% meats & vegetables1 butt]1 eggs1 & milk4 ,an unheal?y increase ( d5sity ( population is prev5t$1 by enabl+ bus9ess m5 to live five1 t51 or fifte5 miles away f ! city & yet d bus9ess !re94 ,! am\nt ( ?is diffusion is z ! squ>e ( ! spe$ ( transport4 ,if a p]son walks f\r miles p] h\r1 & suppos+ "o h\r all[$ = pass+ f ! h\se to ! place ( bus9ess1 he _c live at a great] di/ance ?an f\r miles f 8 "w4 ,! area1 !re=e1 :i* may be liv$ 91 is ! circle ( :i* ! radius is f\r1 ! diamet] eight1 & ! area fifty & "o qu>t] squ>e miles4 ,if by horse "o c g eight miles p] h\r1 ! diamet] becomes sixte5 miles1 & area two hundr$ & "o squ>e miles2 &1 if by railroad he moves ?irty miles p] h\r1 ! diamet] becomes sixty miles1 & ! area #b1hbg squ>e miles4 ,! effect ( su* diffusion is pla9ly se5 ab\t ,bo/on1 7,massa*usetts74 ,p :o 9 #ahcj 7 mo/ly conf9$ to ! city1 n[ live 9 ,dor*e/]1 ,milton1 ,d$ham1 ,roxbury1 ,brookl9e1 ,brighton1 ,cambridge1 ,*>le/[n1 ,som]ville1 ,*elsea1 ,lynn1 & ,salem2 places di/ant f two to ?irte5 miles4 #h4 ,9 railroads1 z 9 o!r labor sav+ 7& labor produc+7 ma*9es1 ! innovation has be5 l\dly decri$4 ,b ?\gh x does r5d] "s classes ( labor useless1 & ?r[ out ( employm5t "s p]sons1 x creates new labor f> m ?an ! old1 & gives mu* m ?an x takes away4 ,tw5ty ye>s ( exp]i5ce %[s t ! dim9i%$ co/ ( transport by railroad inv>iably augm5ts ! am\nt ( comm]ce transact$1 & 9 a mu* l>g] ratio ?an ! r$uction ( co/4 ,x is e/imat$ by ,dr4 ,l>dn]1 t #cjj1jjj horses work+ daily 9 /ages w\ld be requir$ to p]=m ! pass5g] traffic alone1 :i* took place 9 ,engl& dur+ ! ye> #ahdh4 ,x is conclud$1 also1 f reliable returns1 t c\ld ! :ole numb] ( pass5g]s c>ri$ by railroad1 h be5 transport$ by /age1 ! excess ( co/ by t me?od above t by railroad w\ld h be5 #dj1jjj1jjj4 ,,safety ,,( ,,railroad ,,travell+4 #i4 ,if we "k t 9 a giv5 "t ! :ole di/ance travell$ by pass5g]s 0 #ejj1jjj miles1 & t 9 su* "t !re occurr$ "o fatal accid5t1 x foll[s t :5 a p]son travels "o mile1 ! *ances are #dii1iii aga9/ "o ( los+ life4 ,if he travel t5 miles1 ! *ances are #di1iii aga9/ "o1 or t5 times z _m ( meet+ ) loss ( life2 & g5]ally ! *ances ( accid5t are z ! di/ance travell$4 ,9 #ahee1 ! :ole numb] ( miles run by pass5g]s 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates 01 9 r\nd numb]s1 #d1gej1jjj1jjj1 :ile !re 7 kill$ "o hundr$ & sixte52 or "o 9 e #da1jjj1jjj1 v ne>ly4 7,! ratio 9 ,engl& is "o 9 e #fe1jjj1jjj47 ,n[ if = ea* #djj1jjj miles travell$ by /age pass5g]s1 7a di/ance equal to sixte5 times r\nd ! _w17 "o pass5g] 0 kill$1 & if ! :ole railroad mileage c\ld be work$ by /ages1 !re w\ld be annually #aa1hge lives lo/2 or "o hundr$ times ! numb] annually lo/ by railroad4 ,?us x w\ld be "o hundr$ times saf] to travel by railroad ?an by /age4 ,! dang] ( /eamboat travell+ is f> great] ?an by /age4 ,,prelim9>y ,,op]ations4 #aj4 ,! fir/ /ep to be tak5 9 />t+ a railroad ent]prise1 is ! *oice ( a bo>d ( directors 7provisional71 ^: duty is to f9d all t c be kn[n ( ! comm]cial1 f9ancial1 & agricultural nature ( ! c\ntry to be trav]s$4 ,to det]m9e z ne> z possible its ability to build & support a road2 & to obta9 ! necess>y legislative enactm5ts4 #aa4 ,! det]m9ation ( ! increase ( traffic :i* ! road may be expect$ to excite1 is a difficult matt]4 ,!re c be few rules giv5 = proce$+ 9 su* an inquiry4 ,x seems v easy to prove by :at roads h done1 t any project w be pr(itable4 ,an ab/ract ( a report lately publi%$1 tries to prove t a road w pay =ty-five & "o half p] c5t4 net2 ! work+ exp5ses be+ assum$ at only ?irte5 & "o half p] c5t4 ( ! gross receipts4 ,! error "h lies 9 assum+ ! work+ exp5ses too l[1 z few roads 9 ! c\ntry h be5 work$ = less ?an =ty p] c5t42 a m common ratio be+ fifty "o-hundr$?s ( ! gross receipts4 ,n "o half ( railroads are built = ! orig9al e/imate4 ,9 few cases has suffici5t all[ance be5 made = ! sacrifice und]gone 9 negotiat+ ! companies' securities4 ,all g5]al in/ructions t c be giv5 relat+ to ! det]m9ation ( prospective pr(its1 are1 to keep ! e/imate ( con/ruct+ & work+ exp5ses high1 & t ( ! assum$ traffic l[2 n s l[1 h[ev]1 z to require a too lightly built road4 ,,me*anical ,,pr9ciples ,,( ,,locomotion4 #ab4 ,! sup]iority :i* ! mod]n railroad possesses ov] ! common1 ,mc,adam1 plank1 or turnpike-road1 consi/s1 fir/1 9 ! r$uction ( ! resi/ance to motion1 & second1 9 ! application ( ! locomotive /eam-eng9e4 #ac4 ,! effect ( grades ( a giv5 incl9e ^u a railroad is relatively m ?an ^u common roads2 = z ! absolute resi/ance on a level decreases1 ! relative resi/ance ( grades augm5ts3 :5ce to obta9 ! full b5efit ( ! sy/em1 we mu/ r$uce mu* m ! grades & curvature ^u a railroad1 ?an on a common road4 ,= example1 if ! resi/ance to mov+ "o ton ^u a level ^u a railroad 0 t5 p\nds1 & ^u a common road =ty p\nds1 :]e a tw5ty-?ree feet grade w\ld be admissible ^u ! =m]1 we might use an incl9e ( n9ety-?ree feet p] mile ^u ! latt]4 #ad4 ,! resi/ance to ! motion ( railroad tra9s increases rapidly ) ! spe$2#a :5ce ! grades ( a pass5g] road :]e a high av]age spe$ is us$1 may be /eep] ?an ^? ( a road do+ a freight bus9ess *iefly4 ,footnote #a3 ,see *apt] ,,xiv4 ,,det]m9ation ,,( ,,"* ,,( ,,road4 #ae4 ,^u a correct idea ( :at ! road ought to be1 dep5ds 9 a great degree its success4 ,! am\nt ( capital exp5d$ ^u ! r$uction ( ! natural surface1 dep5ds ^u ! expect$ am\nt ( traffic4 ,! traffic rema9+ ! same1 ! great] ! capital exp5d$ 9 r$uc+ grades & curvature1 ! less w be ! work+ exp5se2 & ! less ! con/ruction capital1 ! great] t = ma9t5ance4 ,! limit ( exp5diture mu/ be su* z to r5d] ! sum ( con/ruction & ma9ta9+ capital a m9imum4 ,! bad effect ( grades ^u ! co/ ( ma9ta9+ & ( work+ railroads1 is n s great z _m suppose4 ,( ! :ole co/ ( work+1 only ab\t =ty p] c5t4 c be *>g$ to locomotive p[]2 & ( ?is1 n m ?an sixty-two p] c5t4 is effect$ by grades4#b ,footnote #b3 ,see app5dix ,f4 #af4 ,! degree ( curvature to be admitt$ ^u any road dep5ds some:at ^u ! spe$s at :i* tra9s are to be run4 ,! l>g] ! radius ( curvature1 ! great] may be ! spe$2 at ! same "t ! elevation ( ! ext]ior rail ^u curves may be less1 & !re=e m adapt$ to freight tra9s4 ,high rates ( spe$ are consid]$ ^u "s compet+ roads necess>y2 b are1 ev5 9 su* cases1 necess>y evils4 ,! we> ( c>s & ( eng9es1 ( p]man5t way & ( bridges1 increase 9 a rapid ratio ) ! velocity4 ,! maximum spe$ = freight tra9s %\ld nev] exce$ fifte5 miles p] h\r1 or = pass5g] tra9s f tw5ty to tw5ty-five miles p] h\r4#c ,footnote #c3 ,see *apt] ,,xvi4 #ag4 ,! agricultural nature ( ! c\ntry & its comm]cial position1 w det]m9e ! nature ( ! traffic1 :e!r pass5g] or freight1 & also ! am\nt4 ,! am\nt & nature ( ! traffic w limit ! curvature1 & w p>tially det]m9e ! arrangem5t ( grades4 ,,gauge4 #ah4 ,! "q ( broad & n>r[ gauge has l$ to mu* discussion1 & bo? plans claim among _! advocates "s ( ! be/ eng9e]s4 ,! n>r[ gauge 7,am]ican & ,engli%17 is f\r feet eight & "o half in*es 7f inside to inside ( rail74 ,! maximum adopt$1 is 7! ,great ,we/]n ( ,engl&7 sev5 feet4 ,! ,am]ican maximum 7,new ,york & ,erie1 & ,ohio & ,mississippi7 is six feet4 ,!re is also 9 ,am]ica f\r feet t5 in*es1 five feet1 & five feet six in*es4 ,! advantage ( ! broad gauge = a road do+ an ext5sive bus9ess1 is ! increas$ /[age room 9 freight c>s1 ?us r5d]+ admissible %ort] tra9s2 by :i* ! locomotive p[] is m directly appli$ on curves4 ,m com=table pass5g] c>s1 7! same l5g? ( c> ( c\rse accommodates ! same numb] ( pass5g]s74 ,! disadvantages ( a wide gauge are1 increas$ exp5se ( cutt+1 embank+1 bridg+1 & masonry2 increas$ exp5se ( eng9es1 c>s1 rails1 sleep]s1 & all ma*9]y2 m we> & te> ^u curves1 by reason ( great] diff]5ce betwe5 ! l5g?s ( inn] & out] rails1 & increas$ atmosph]ic resi/ance to fa/ tra9s1 f increas$ bulk4 #ai4 ,! g5]al conclusion arriv$ at by a commission appo9t$ by ! ,great ,we/]n ,railway ,company1 7,engl&17 consi/+ ( ,messrs4 ,ni*olas ,wood1 ,j4 ,k4 ,brunel1 & ,john ,hawk%aw1 01 t f\r feet1 eight & "o half in*es 0 r n>r[1 b /ill en\gh = a c]ta9 class ( roads2 t two or ?ree in*es made no mat]ial diff]5ce2 t sev5 feet 0 too wide = any road2 t ! weight ( ! broad gauge eng9e1 comp>$ ) ! small increase ( p[]1 0 a s]i\s evil2 t eng9es c\ld be run ) p]fect safety ^u ! n>r[ gauge at any spe$ f ?irty to sixty miles p] h\r1 & t no m _h be5 atta9$ ^u ! broad2 t roll+ friction 0 less ^u ! broad1 ow+ to ! increas$ diamet] ( :eels1 b t friction f curves & atmosph]ic resi/ance 0 great]4 #bj4 ,d4 ,k4 ,cl>k1 9 8,railway ,ma*9]y10 p4 #cjj1 #cja1 makes ! resi/ance z d$uc$ f exp]im5ts made ^u bo? ! f\r feet1 eight & "o half in*es1 & ! sev5 feet gauge1 consid]ably great] ^u ! =m] ?an on ! latt]2 b z ! n>r[ gauge trials 7 made ^u a curv$ road1 ) rails 9 a bad /ate1 9 av]age wea!r1 :ile ^? ^u ! broad 7 made 9 good wea!r1 ^u a good & /raight l9e1 he leaves ! gauge "q op51 & uses ! same =mula = all wid?s4 #ba4 ,want ( increas$ p[]1 c be an apology = increas$ gauge1 until ! capacity ( ! n>r[ gauge has be5 fill$4 ,! /ronge/ eng9es 9 ! _w are ^u ! f\r feet1 eight & "o half in* gauge4 ,no eng9es 9 ,am]ica surpass or comp>e = absolute /r5g?1 ) ^? ^u ! ,baltimore & ,ohio ,railroad4 ,! mo/ p[]ful pass5g] eng9e ev] built = high spe$s1 is ,crampton's eng9e 8,liv]pool10 7,london & ,nor?-we/]n ,railroad1 ,engl&17 gauge f\r feet1 eight & "o half in*es4 ,,g5]al ,,e/abli%m5t ,,( ,,r\te4 #bb4 ,! /raight & level l9e connect+ any two po9ts1 is ( c\rse ! be/ = ! complet$ road2 b ?is is seldom practicable4 ,way t[ns mu/ be accommodat$ to a c]ta9 ext5t2 b ! ma9 l9e %\ld n be l5g!n$ on t acc\nt1 unless ! traffic & capital furni%$ by su* t[n is n only suffici5t to pay = ! con/ruction & ma9t5ance ( ! extra l5g?1 b also to c>ry ! entire ?r\gh traffic ov] su* increas$ di/ance4 ,if ! t[n is unable to support su* a burd51 x may be able to build & ma9ta9 a bran*4 #bc4 ,r\tes plac$ ^u ! imm$iate bank ( a l>ge /ream1 are g5]ally cross$ by a great numb] ( deep gorges1 :i* s]ve to dra9 ! side l&s4 #bd4 ,r\tes plac$ ^u slop+ l&1 :5 ! axis ( ! road & ! natural desc5t are at "r angles to ea* o!r1 are m subject to slides ?an :5 plac$ ^u plateaus or 8bottoms40 #be4 ,l9es cross+ ! divid+ ridges ( sep>ate wat]s1 rise & fall a great deal2 ?us r5d]+ necess>y a /rong motive p[] to "w ! road4 ,su* roads are ! ,we/]n ( ,massa*usetts1 pass+ f ! valley ( ! ,connecticut at ,spr+field1 to ! ,hudson ,riv] valley at ,gre5bu%4 ,also ^? roads cross+ ! ,alleghanies4 ,& su* w be ! ,pacific road1 cross+ fir/ ! ,rocky ,m\nta9s to ! ,great ,bas91 & second1 ! ,si]ra ,nevada into ! ,sacram5to valley4 ,,*apt] ,i4 ,,reconnoissance4 #bf4 ,! object ( ! reconnoitre is to f9d approximately ! place = ! road1 7i4 e4 )9 half ( a mile17 to f9d ! g5]al =m ( ! c\ntry1 & to *oose t "p :i* ) ref]5ce to ! expect$ traffic1 %all give ! be/ gradi5ts2 to det]m9e ! elevations ( summits ^u compet+ r\tes2 &1 9 f9e1 to prep>e ! way = ! survey4 ,,g5]al ,,topography4 #bg4 ,! g5]al topography ( a c\ntry may be asc]ta9$ by ref]5ce to ,/ate maps1 :]e su* exi/1 & :5 n1 by rid+ ov] ! di/rict4 ,! direction & size ( wat]c\rses1 w %[ at once ! position ( summits4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #a4 #bh4 ,wat] fl[+ z 9 fig4 #a1 indicates a fall f ,b to ,e2 & also trav]se slopes f a a & c c to d d4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #b4 #bi4 ,fig4 #b %[s a brok5 ridge a a a f :i* ! wat] fl[s 9 bo? directions2 & 9 g5]al1 ! s\rces ( /reams po9t t[>ds ! high] l&s4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #c4 #cj4 ,if x be requir$ to jo9 ! po9ts ,a & ,d by railroad1 7fig4 #c47 x may be bett] to pass at once f ,a ?r\gh ,b & ,c1 ?an to g by ! /reams ,f ,e1 ,f ,e4 ,by ! latt] r\te ! road w\ld asc5d all ( ! way f ,a to ,e2 & desc5d f ,e to ,d4 ,by ! fir/ if x requires /eep gradi5ts to rise f ,a to ,b1 & to fall f ,c to ,d1 /ill if ! section ,b ,c is a plateau1 & if ! rise betwe5 ,a & ,b & ,a & ,e is ! same1 by gr\p+ ! grades at ,b & ,c we may s adapt ! motive p[]1 z to take ! same tra9 f ,a to ,d )\t break+4 ,! g5]al arrangem5t ( grades by ! l9e ,a ,b ,c ,d is !n z fig4 #d2 & ,a ,f ,e ,e ,f ,d1 z 9 fig4 #e4 ,! sav+ 9 ?is case is by l5g?1 z ! same am\nt ( p[] is requir$ to ov]come a giv5 asc5t4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #d4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #e4 #ca4 ,valleys g5]ally rise mu* fa/] ne> _! s\rce1 ?an at any po9t l[] d[n2 also ! wid? increases z we approa* ! deb\*4 ,fig4 #f %[s ! cross sections ( a valley f its s\rce to ! m\?4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #f4 #cb4 ,9 ! case ( p>allel valleys runn+ 9 ! same direction1 ! =m w be z 9 fig #g4 ,let #a #b1 #a #b1 etc41 repres5t a datum level1 or a horizontal plane pass+ ?r\gh ! l[e/ po9t4 ,! l9e a b1 %[s ! height ( ! bottom at ,b2 c d t at ,d1 e f t at ,e1 & g h t at ,c4 ,! brok5 l9es i1 k1 l1 m1 n1 %[ ! g5]al =m ( ! l&4 ,n[ by ! r\te m m m m1 f ,a to ,f1 we h ! pr(ile m m m m1 fig4 #h1 by n n n n1 ! pr(ile n n n n1 & by o o o1 ! pr(ile o o o4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #g4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #h4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #i4 #cc4 ,9 ! case ( p>allel valleys runn+ 9 opposite directions1 z 9 fig4 #i1 we h ! =m !re %[n2 & ! pr(iles correspond+ to ! sev]al l9es are %[n 9 fig4 #aj4 ,z we %\ld always adopt ! l9e giv+ ! lea/ rise & fall1 o!r ?+s be+ equal1 x is pla9 :i* l9e on ! plan we mu/ foll[4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aj4 #cd4 ,9 pass+ f ,a to ,b1 figs4 #aa & #ab1 by ! sev]al l9es c1 d1 e1 f1 we h ! pr(iles %[n at c1 d1 e1 f1 f :i* x appe>s1 t ! ne>] we cross to ! heads ( /reams1 ! less is ! diff]5ce ( heights4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aa4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ab4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ab 7a74 #ce4 ,if we wi% to g f ,a to ,b1 fig4 #ab 7a71 we %\ld ( c\rse take fir/ ! /raight l9e2 b be+ oblig$ to avoid ! hill ,c1 on arriv+ at d1 we %\ld n try to recov] t l9e at e1 b proce$ at once to ,b4 ,also z we are oblig$ to pass ?r\gh d1 we ought to g directly to d & n by ! way ( c2 & ! same idea is repeat$ betwe5 ,a & d2 ! la/ l9e be+ ,a b d ,b4 ,few rules c be giv5 9 ! *oice ( r\tes4 ,practice only w enable ! eng9e] to f9d ! be/ location = a railroad4 ,,b>ometrical ,,levell+4 #cf4 ,! relative height ( summits1 ! rate ( fall ( /reams1 & absolute elevation1 )9 a few feet1 may be easily1 rapidly1 & *eaply f\nd by ! b>omet]4 ,?is also af=ds an excell5t *eck ^u subsequ5t levell+ op]ations4 ,! results ?us obta9$ dep5d ^u ! physical prop]ty1 t ! d5sity ( ! air decreases z ! squ>e ( ! height4 #cg4 ,! b>omet] is a glass tube1 p>tly fill$ ) m]cury1 hav+ a vacuum 9 ! upp] "p4 ,by x ! exact d5sity ( ! air at any po9t is det]m9$4 ,accompany+ are two !rmomet]s2 "o atta*$1 %[+ ! temp]ature ( ! b>omet]2 ! o!r deta*$1 %[+ ! atmosph]ic temp]ature4 #ch4 ,kn[+ n[ ! mann] ( f9d+ ! d5sity ( ! air at any two po9ts1 & also ! relation betwe5 d5sity & height1 ! op]ation ( levell+ by ! b>omet] is v simple4 ,! modus op]&i is z foll[s1 7see tables ,a1 ,b1 ,c1 & ,d73-- ,let u h ! notes4 ,b>om4 ,atta*$ ,!rm4 ,deta*$ ,!rm4 ,upp] ,/ation1 #bi4ge #bh4e #bg4i ,l[] ,/ation1 #bf4hj #cf4h #cf4c ,latitude #df ,n4 ,we h by table ,a1 aga9/ ! b>4 po9t1 #bi4ge1 #fajh4f also by table ,a1 aga9/ ! b>4 po9t1 #bf4hj1 #ebgf4f ------------ ,! diff]5ce #hcb4j ,diff4 ( atta*$ !rm4 #cf4h- #bh4e #h4c 7table ,b7 -#ab4b ------------ #hai4h ,d\ble ! sum ( deta*$ !rmomet]s multipli$ by #a_/ajjj ( #hai4h is #b7bg4i #cf4c7 4#haih #aje4c ------------ #ibe4a ,correction 7see table ,c7 = lat4 #df ,n4 & approximate height #ibe4a #c4a ------------ #ibh4b ,f9al correction by table ,d4 ,! b>omet] at ! l[] /ation be+ #bf4hj1 & ! tabul> numb] aga9/ #bg4ef be+ #j4bb1 t = #bf4hj w be #j4ca1 & we h #ajjj to 4#ca z #ibh4b to #j4bhg1 or #j4c1 :i* add to #ibh4b & we h z ! f9al height #ibh4e metres1 or #ibh4e #c4bh #cjde4dh feet4 ,! tables above ref]r$ to1 are ^? ( ,mr4 ,oltman1 & are consid]$ z ! mo/ conv5i5t & reliable ( any publi%$4 ,,table ,a4 ,engli% ,in*es4 ,metres4 #ad4ef #dah4e #ad4fa #ddj4j #ad4fe #dfa4e #ad4fh #dhb4i #ad4gb #ejd4b #ad4gf #ebe4d #ad4hj #edf4f #ad4hd #efg4h #ad4hh #ehh4i #ad4ib #fji4i #ad4if #fcj4i #ae4jj #fea4h #ae4jd #fgb4g #ae4jh #fic4e #ae4ab #gad4c #ae4af #gce4j #ae4bj #gee4f #ae4bd #ggf4b #ae4bh #gif4h #ae4ca #hag4c #ae4ce #hcg4h #ae4ci #heh4b #ae4dc #hgh4e #ae4dg #hih4h #ae4ea #iai4j #ae4ee #ici4b #ae4ei #iei4c #ae4fc #igi4d #ae4fg #iii4e #ae4ga #ajai4e #ae4ge #ajci4d #ae4gi #ajei4c #ae4hc #ajgi4a #ae4hg #ajih4i #ae4ia #aaah4f #ae4ie #aach4c #ae4ih #aaeg4i #af4jb #aagg4e #af4jf #aaig4a #af4aj #abaf4f #af4ad #abcf4j #af4ah #abee4d #af4bb #abgd4h #af4bf #abid4a #af4cj #acac4c #af4cd #accb4e #af4ch #acea4g #af4db #acgj4h #af4df #achi4i #af4ej #adjh4i #af4ed #adbg4i #af4eg #addf4h #af4fa #adfe4g #af4fe #adhd4g #af4fi #aejc4d #af4gc #aebb4b #af4gg #aedj4h #af4ha #aeei4e #af4he #aegh4b #af4hi #aeif4h #af4ic #afae4c #af4ig #afcc4h #ag4ja #afeb4b #ag4je #afgj4f #ag4ji #afhi4j #ag4ac #agjg4c #ag4ag #agbe4f #ag4bj #agdc4h #ag4bd #agfb4a #ag4bh #aghj4c #ag4cb #agih4d #ag4cf #ahaf4e #ag4dj #ahcd4e #ag4dd #aheb4e #ag4dh #ahgj4d #ag4eb #ahhh4c #ag4ef #aijf4b #ag4fj #aibd4j #ag4fd #aida4h #ag4fh #aiei4f #ag4gb #aigg4c #ag4gf #aiid4i #ag4gi #bjab4f #ag4hc #bjcj4b #ag4hg #bjdg4h #ag4ia #bjfe4c #ag4ie #bjhb4h #ag4ii #bajj4b #ah4jc #baag4f #ah4jg #bace4j #ah4aa #baeb4c #ah4ae #bafi4f #ah4ai #bahf4i #ah4bc #bbjd4a #ah4bg #bbba4c #ah4ca #bbch4d #ah4ce #bbee4e #ah4ci #bbgb4f #ah4db #bbhi4f #ah4df #bcjf4f #ah4ej #bcbc4f #ah4ed #bcdj4e #ah4eh #bceg4d #ah4fb #bcgd4b #ah4ff #bcia4a #ah4gj #bdjg4i #ah4gd #bdbd4f #ah4gh #bdda4c #ah4hb #bdeh4j #ah4hf #bdgd4f #ah4ij #bdia4c #ah4id #bejg4i #ah4ih #bebd4c #ai4jb #bedj4h #ai4je #beeg4c #ai4ji #begc4g #ai4ac #beij4b #ai4ag #bejf4f #ai4ba #bfbb4i #ai4be #bfci4b #ai4bi #bfee4d #ai4cc #bfga4f #ai4cg #bfhg4i #ai4da #bgjd4a #ai4de #bgbj4b #ai4di #bgcf4c #ai4ec #bgeb4c #ai4eg 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#bg4dd #edfa4e #bg4dh #edgb4i #bg4eb #edhd4c #bg4ef #edie4g #bg4fj #eejg4a #bg4fd #eeah4d #bg4fh #eebi4h #bg4gb #eeda4a #bg4gf #eeeb4d #bg4hj #eefc4g #bg4hd #eege4j #bg4hg #eehf4b #bg4ia #eeig4e #bg4ie #efjh4g #bg4ii #efai4f #bh4jc #efca4a #bh4jg #efdb4b #bh4aa #efec4d #bh4ae #effd4f #bh4ai #efge4g #bh4bc #efhf4h #bh4bg #efig4i #bh4ca #egji4j #bh4ce #egbj4a #bh4ci #egca4a #bh4dc #egdb4a #bh4df #egec4a #bh4ej #egfd4b #bh4ed #egge4a #bh4eh #eghf4a #bh4fb #egig4a #bh4ff #ehjh4j #bh4gj #ehai4j #bh4gd #ehbi4i #bh4gh #ehdj4h #bh4hb #ehea4g #bh4hf #ehfb4e #bh4ij #ehgc4d #bh4id #ehhd4b #bh4ih #ehid4i #bi4jb #eije4h #bi4jf #eiaf4g #bi4ji #eibg4e #bi4ac #eich4b #bi4ag #eidi4j #bi4ba #eiei4g #bi4be #eigj4d #bi4bi #eiha4b #bi4cc #eiia4i #bi4cg #fjjb4e #bi4da #fjac4b #bi4de #fjbc4h #bi4di #fjcd4d #bi4ec #fjde4a #bi4eg #fjee4g #bi4fa #fjff4c #bi4fe #fjgf4i #bi4fi #fjhg4e #bi4gb #fjih4j #bi4gf #fajh4f #bi4hj #faai4a #bi4hd #fabi4f #bi4hh #fadj4a #bi4ib #faej4f #bi4if #fafa4a #cj4jj #faga4e #cj4jd #fahb4j #cj4jh #faib4d #cj4ab #fbjb4h #cj4af #fbac4b #cj4bj #fbbc4f #cj4bd #fbcd4j #cj4bh #fbdd4d #cj4cb #fbed4g #cj4ce #fbfe4j #cj4ci #fbge4d #cj4dc #fbhe4g #cj4dg #fbif4j #cj4ea #fcjf4b #cj4ee #fcaf4e #cj4ei #fcbf4g #cj4fc #fccg4j #cj4fg #fcdg4b #cj4ga #fceg4d #cj4ge #fcfg4f #cj4gi #fcgg4h #cj4hc #fchh4j #cj4hg #fcih4b #cj4ia #fdjh4c #cj4id #fdah4e #cj4ih #fdbh4f #ca4jb #fdch4g #ca4jf #fddh4h ,,table ,b4 ,deg4#d ,met4 #j4b #j4c #j4d #j4f #j4f #j4i #j4h #a4b #a4j #a4e #a4b #a4h #a4d #b4a #a4f #b4c #a4h #b4f #b4j #b4i #b4b #c4b #b4d #c4e #b4f #c4h #b4h #d4a #c4j #d4d #c4b #d4g #c4d #e4j #c4f #e4c #c4h #e4f #d4j #e4i #d4b #f4b #d4d #f4e #d4f #f4h #d4h #g4a #e4j #g4d #e4b #g4f #e4d #g4i #e4f #h4b #e4h #h4e #f4j #h4h #f4b #i4a #f4d #i4d #f4f #i4g #f4h #aj4j #g4j #aj4c #g4b #aj4f #g4d #aj4i #g4f #aa4b #g4h #aa4e #h4j #aa4h #h4b #ab4a #h4d #ab4d #h4f #ab4f #h4h #ab4i #i4j #ac4b #i4b #ac4e #i4d #ac4h #i4f #ad4a #i4h #ad4d #aj4j #ad4g #aj4b #ae4j #aj4d #ae4c #aj4f #ae4f #aj4h #ae4i #aa4j #af4b #aa4b #af4e #aa4d #af4h #aa4f #ag4a #aa4h #ag4d #ab4j #ag4f #ab4b #ag4i #ab4d #ah4b #ab4f #ah4e #ab4h #ah4h #ac4j #ai4a #ac4b #ai4d #ac4d #ai4g #ac4f #bj4j #ac4h #bj4c #ad4j #bj4f #ad4b #bj4i #ad4d #ba4b #ad4f #ba4e #ad4h #ba4h #ae4j #bb4a #ae4b #bb4d #ae4d #bb4g #ae4f #bb4i #ae4h #bc4b #af4j #bc4e #af4b #bc4h #af4d #bd4a #af4f #bd4d #af4h #bd4g #ag4j #be4j #ag4b #be4c #ag4d #be4f #ag4f #be4i #ag4h #bf4b #ah4j #bf4e #ah4b #bf4h #ah4d #bg4a #ah4f #bg4d #ah4h #bg4g #ai4j #bh4j #ai4b #bh4b #ai4d #bh4e #ai4f #bh4h #ai4h #bi4a #bj4j #bi4d ,footnote #d3 ,! degrees ref] to ! c5tigrade !rmomet]4 ,,table ,c4 ,approximate #j #ae #dj #ee ,height4 #bjj #a4b #a4j #j4f #j4d #djj #b4d #b4b #a4d #j4h #fjj #c4d #c4b #b4j #a4b #hjj #d4e #d4c #b4h #a4g #ajjj #e4g #e4c #c4d #b4b #abjj #g4j #f4d #d4b #b4f #adjj #h4b #g4f #d4h #c4j #afjj #i4b #h4h #e4f #c4d #ahjj #aj4d #i4h #f4c #c4h #bjjj #aa4f #aa4j #g4j #d4b #bbjj #ab4h #ab4a #g4f #d4f #bdjj #ad4j #ac4c #h4d #e4a #bfjj #ae4b #ad4d #i4b #e4f #bhjj #af4e #ae4f #aj4j #f4b #cjjj #ag4g #af4h #aj4h #f4f #cbjj #aj4a #ah4j #aa4e #g4j #cdjj #bj4e #ai4c #ab4d #g4g #cfjj #ba4h #bj4d #ac4d #h4b #chjj #bc4a #ba4f #ad4c #h4g #djjj #bd4f #bb4i #ae4a #i4d #dbjj #be4i #bd4c #ae4i #aj4a #ddjj #bg4e #be4h #af4i #aj4h #dfjj #bh4i #bg4a #ah4j #aa4e #dhjj #cj4d #bh4d #ai4j #ab4a #ejjj #ca4h #bi4h #ai4i #ab4g #ebjj #cc4j #ca4j #bj4h #ac4c #edjj #cd4c #cb4d #ba4g #ac4i #efjj #ce4g #cc4g #bb4f #ad4e #ehjj #cg4a #ce4j #bc4f #ae4a #fjjj #ch4e #cf4c #bd4f #ae4g ,,table ,d4 ,b>ometrical ,metres ,height #ae4ge #a4ga #ag4gb #a4ci #ai4fh #a4aa #ba4fe #j4hf #bc4fb #j4fc #be4ei #j4db #bg4ef #j4bb #bi4ec #j4jc ,,*apt] ,,ii4 ,,survey4 ,,topographical ,,sket*+4 #ci4 ,topographical draw+ includes e ?+ relat+ to an accurate repres5tation ^u pap]1 ( any piece ( gr\nd4 ,! /ate ( cultivation1 roads1 t[n1 c\nty1 & /ate b\nd>ies1 & all else t occurs 9 nature4 ,! sket*+ necess>y 9 railroad survey+1 h[ev]1 does n embrace all ( ?is1 b only ! del9eation ( /reams & ! undulations ( gr\nd )9 t limit :i* affects ! road1 p]haps #ejj feet on ea* side ( ! l9e4 ,! mak+ ( su* sket*es consi/s 9 trac+ ! irregul> l9es =m$ by ! int]section ( ! natural surface1 by a sy/em ( horizontal planes1 at a v]tical di/ance ( five1 t51 fifte51 or tw5ty feet1 accord+ to ! accuracy requir$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ac4 #dj4 ,suppose t we wi% to repres5t ^u a horizontal surface a "r cone4 ,! base m m1 fig4 #ac1 is %[n by ! circle ( :i* ! diamet] is m1 m4 ,if ! elevation is cut by ! horizontal planes a a1 b b1 c c1 ! int]section ( ^! planes ) ! conical surface is %[n by ! circles a1 b1 c1 9 plan4 ,! less we make ! horizontal di/ances1 on plan1 betwe5 ! circles1 ! less also w be ! v]tical di/ance betwe5 ! planes4 ,wi%+ to f9d ! elevation ( any l9e :i* exi/s on plan1 z #a1 #b1 #c1 #c1 #b1 #a1 we h only to f9d ! int]section ( ! v]ticals drawn ?r\gh ! po9ts #a1 #b1 #c1 #c1 #b1 #a1 & ! elevation l9es a a1 b b1 c c2 ?is gives u ! curve #d1 #e1 #f1 #g1 #f1 #e1 #d4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ad4 #da4 ,aga91 9 fig4 #ad1 ! cone is oblique1 :i* causes ! circles on plan to become ecc5tric & elliptic4 ,hav+ giv5 ! l9e #a1 #b1 #c1 z be=e1 we f9d x ^u ! elevation 9 ! same mann]4 #db4 ,9 ! section ( regul> & full l9$ figures1 ! horizontal & v]tical projections are also regul> & full l9$2 b 9 a brok5 surface l ! gr\nd1 ! l9es become q irregul>4 ,suppose we wi% to %[ on plan ! hill ( :i* we h ! plan1 fig4 #ae1 & ! sections figs4 #af1 #ag1 & #ah4 ,let ,,ad be ! pr(ile 7made ) ! level7 ( ! l9e ,,ad on plan1 fig4 #ae4 ,b ,e t ( ,b ,e1 & ,c ,f t ( ,,cf4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ae4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #af4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ag4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ah4 ,to =m ! plan f ! pr(iles proce$ z foll[s3-- ,int]sect ea* ( ! pr(iles by ! horizontal planes a a1 b b1 c c1 d d1 equidi/ant v]tically4 ,9 ! pr(ile ,a ,d1 fig4 #ah1 drop a v]tical on to ! base l9e f ea* ( ! int]sections a1 b1 c1 d1 d1 c1 b1 a4 ,make n[ ,a #a1a #b1 #b #c1 #c #d1 etc41 on ! plan equal to ! same on ! pr(ile4 ,next draw1 on ! plan1 ! l9e ,b ,e1 at ! "r place & at ! prop] angle ) ,a ,d2 & hav+ f\nd ! di/ances ,b #a1 #a #b1 #b #c1 etc41 z be=e1 transf] !m to ! l9e ,b ,e on plan4 ,proce$ 9 ! same mann] ) ! l9e ,c ,f4 ,! po9ts a a a1 b b b1 c c c1 are evid5tly at ! same height above ! base ^u ! pr(iles1 :5ce ! int]sections ( ^! l9es ) ! surface l9e or #a #a #a1 #b #b #b1 #c #c #c1 etc41 on ! plan1 are also at ! same height above ! base2 & an irregul> l9e trac$ ?r\gh ! po9ts #a #a #a1 or #b #b #b1 w %[ ! int]section ( a horizontal plane1 ) ! natural surface4 ,:5 z at ,a we obs]ve ! cont\r l9es ne> to ea* o!r1 we conclude t ! gr\nd is /eep4 ,& :5 ! di/ances are l>ge1 z at #f1 #g1 #h1 we "k t ! gr\nd falls g5tly4 ,?is is pla9ly se5 bo? on plan & pr(ile4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ae4 ,hav+ n[ ! topographical sket*1 fig4 #ae1 we may easily d$uce !refrom at any po9t a pr(ile4 ,if we w\ld h a pr(ile ( ,g ,e1 on plan1 ^u an indef9ite l9e ,g ,e1 fig4 #ai1 we set (f ,g #a1 #a #b1 #b #c1 #c #d1 etc41 equal to ! same di/ances on ! plan4 ,f ^! po9ts draw v]ticals int]sect+ ! horizontals a a1 b b1 c c2 & la/ly1 ?r\gh ! int]sections draw ! brok5 l9e 7surface l9e or pr(ile7 a1 b1 c1 d1 d1 c1 b1 a4 ,?us we see h[ complete a k ( ! gr\nd a correct topographical sket* gives4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ai4 #dc4 ,field sket*es = railroad "w are g5]ally made by ! eye4 ,! field book be+ rul$ 9 squ>es repres5t+ "o hundr$ feet ea*4 ,:5 we ne$ a m accurate sket* ?an ?is me?od gives1 we may cross section ! gr\nd ei!r by rods or ) ! level4 ,by mak+ a v detail$ map ( a survey1 & fill+ 9 ) sket*es ( ?is k9d1 ! location may be made ^u pap] & aft]w>ds transf]r$ to ! gr\nd4 ,s f> we h dealt ) b "o summit2 b ! mode ( proce$+ is precisely ! same :5 appli$ to a gr\p or range ( hills1 or inde$ to any piece ( gr\nd4 #dd4 ,z a g5]al ?+1 ! int]section ( ! horizontal planes ) ! natural surface 7cont\r l9es7 are concave to ! l[] l& 9 depressions1 & convex to ! l[] l& on spurs & elevations4 ,?us at ,b ,b ,b b b1 fig4 #bj1 ^u ! spurs1 we h ! l9es convex to ! /ream2 & 9 ! holl[s c c c1 ! l9es are concave to ! bottom4 #de4 ,hav+ by reconnoissance f\nd approximately ! place = ! road1 we proce$ to run a trial l9e by compass4 ,9 do+ ?is we *oose ! app>5t be/ place1 /ake out ! c5tre l9e1 make a pr(ile ( x1 & sket* 9 ! topography "r & left4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bj4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ba4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bb4 ,suppose t by do+ s we h obta9$ ! plan & pr(ile %[n 9 figs4 #ba & #bb1 :]e ,a a a ,b is ! pr(ile ( ,a ,c ,d ,b1 on ! plan4 ,! l[e/ l9e ( ! valley ?\gh q mod]ately incl9$ at fir/1 f ,a to ,c1 rises q fa/ f ,c to ! summit2 & z ! incl9ation becomes great]1 ! cont\r l9es become ne>] to ea* o!r4 ,n[ t ! l9e may asc5d uni=mly f ,a to ! summit1 ! horizontal di/ances betwe5 ! cont\r l9es mu/ be equal2 ?is equality is effect$ by caus+ ! survey$ l9e to cut ! cont\rs squ>e at #a1 #b1 #c1 #d1 & obliquely at #e1 #h1 #aj4 ,?us we obta9 ! pr(ile ,a #e #e ,b4 ,illu/ration3 ,figs4 #bc & #bd4 #df4 ,hav+ giv5 ! plan & pr(ile1 figs4 #bc & #bd1 :]e ,a ,c ,d ,b repres5ts ! b$ ( ! /ream1 9 pr(ile1 if x 7 requir$ to put ! uni=mly incl9$ l9e ,a m m ,b1 ^u ! plan1 we %\ld proce$ z foll[s4 ,take ! horizontal di/ance ,a m f ! pr(ile1 & ) ,a 7on plan7 z a c5tre1 describe ! arc #a1 #c4 ,! po9t m on ! pr(ile is evid5tly ?ree f\r?s ( a division above ! b$ ( ! /ream4 ,s on ! plan we mu/ trace ! arc #a1 #c1 until we come to a1 :i* is ?ree f\r?s ( b c1 f b4 ,aga91 m is n9e & "o half divisions above m4 ,f a1 ) a radius m n on pr(ile1 describe ! arc #d1 #e1 #f4 ,n[1 z on ! pr(ile1 9 go+ f m to m1 we cross n9e cont\r l9es1 & come ^u ! t5? at m1 s on ! plan we mu/ cross n9e cont\r l9es & come ^u ! t5?1 & at ! same "t ^u ! arc #d1 #e1 #f4 ,proce$+ 9 ?is way1 we f9d ,a1 a1 b1 ,b1 on ! plan1 z correspond+ to ,a m m ,b on ! pr(ile4 ,to e/abli% 9 ?is mann] any p>ticul> grade1 we h fir/ to place x ^u ! pr(ile1 & next to transf] x to ! plan4 #dg4 ,x may be rememb]$ z a g5]al ?+1 t ! /eepe/ l9e is t :i* cuts ! cont\r l9e at "r angles2 ! cont\r l9e itself is level1 & z we v>y betwe5 ^! limits we v>y ! incl9e4 ,,g5]al ,,e/abli%m5t ,,( ,,grades4 #dh4 ,consid]able has be5 writt5 ^u ! relation :i* ought to exi/ betwe5 ! maximum grade1 & ! direction ( ! traffic4 ,"s h giv5 =mul = obta9+ ! rate & direction ( incl9es z dep5d+ ^u ! capacity ( p[]4 ,?is seems go+ q too f>1 z ! nature ( ! gr\nd & ( ! traffic g5]ally fix ^! 9 advance4 #di4 ,betwe5 two places :i* are at ! same absolute elevation1 !re %\ld be z little rise & fall z possible4 #ej4 ,betwe5 po9ts at diff]5t elevations1 we %\ld if possible h no rise :ile desc5d+1 & consequ5tly no fall :ile on ! asc5t4 #ea4 ,"s eng9e]s express !mselves v mu* 9 favor ( long levels & %ort b /eep incl9es4 ,!re are cases :]e ! mom5tum acquir$ ^u "o grade1 or ^u a level1 assi/s ! tra9 up ! next incl9e4 ,! di/ance on ! rise dur+ :i* mom5tum la/s1 is n v great4 ,a tra9 9 desc5d+ a plane does n receive a con/ant increase ( available mom5tum1 b arrives at a c]ta9 spe$1 :]e by increas$ resi/ance & by add$ effect ( gravity1 ! motion becomes ne>ly regul>4 ,up to ?is po9t ! mom5tum acquir$ is useful1 b n beyond4 ,any road be+ divid$ into locomotive sections1 ! section giv5 to any "o eng9e %\ld be su* z to require a con/ant exp5diture ( p[] z ne>ly z possible2 i4 e41 "o section1 or ! run ( "o eng9e1 %\ld n embrace long levels & /eep grades4 ,if an eng9e c c>ry a load ov] a sixty feet grade1 x w be too heavy to "w ! same load ^u a level economically4 ,x is be/ to gr\p all ( ! necess>ily /eep grades 9 "o place1 & also ! easy portions ( ! road2 !n by prop]ly adapt+ ! locomotives ! co/ ( p[] may be r$uc$ to a m9imum4 ,z to long levels & %ort incl9es ! same p[] is requir$ to ov]come a giv5 rise1 b q a diff]5ce may be made 9 ! means us$ to surm\nt t asc5t4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #be4 #eb4 ,suppose we h ! pr(iles ,a ,e ,d & ,a ,b ,d1 fig4 #be4 ,! resi/ance f ,a to ,d by ! cont9u\s tw5ty feet grade is ! same z ! :ole resi/ance f ,a to ,b & f ,b to ,d4 ,! reason = pref]r+ ,a ,e ,d is1 t an eng9e to take a giv5 load f ,b to ,d w\ld be unnecess>ily heavy = ! section ,a ,b2 :ile ! same p[] mu/ be ex]t$ at ea* po9t1 ( ,a ,e ,d4 ,also ! return by ,a ,e ,d is made by a small & con/ant exp5diture ( p[]1 be+ all ( ! way aid$ by gravity2 :ile 9 desc5d+ by ,b1 we h m aid f gravity ?an we require f ,d to ,b1 aft] :i* we h none4 ,:5 ! di/ances ,a ,b1 ,b ,c1 are sixty & tw5ty miles 9 place ( six & two1 we may consid] ! grades gr\p$ at ,b ,d1 & use a heavi] eng9e at t po9t1 z we %\ld h>dly f9d eighty miles admitt+ ( a cont9u\s & uni=m grade4 ,,equat+ ,,= ,,grades4 #ec4 ,9 comp>+ ! relative advantages ( sev]al l9es hav+ diff]5t sy/ems ( grades1 x is cu/om>y to r$uce !m all to ! level l9e involv+ an equal exp5diture ( p[]4 ,! "q is to f9d ! v]tical rise1 consum+ an am\nt ( p[] equal to t exp5d$ ^u ! horizontal unit ( l5g?4 ,?is has be5 e/imat$ by eng9e]s all ! way f tw5ty to sev5ty feet4 ,= simple comp>ison x does n matt] mu* :at numb] is us$ if x is ! same 9 all cases2 b to f9d ! equival5t horizontal l5g? to any location1 reg>d mu/ be _h to ! nature ( ! expect$ traffic4 ,! elem5ts ( ! problem are1 ! l5g?1 ! incl9ation or ! total rise & fall1 & ! resi/ance to ! motion ( ! tra9 ^u a level1 :i* latt] dep5ds ^u ! spe$ & ! /ate ( ! rails & ma*9]y4 ,f *apt] ,,xiv4 we h ! foll[+ resi/ances to ! motion ( tra9s ^u a level3-- ,velocity1 9 miles1 p] h\r4 ,resi/ance1 9 lbs4 p] ton4 #aj #h4f #ae #i4c #bj #aj4c #be #aa4f #cj #ac4c #dj #ag4c #ej #bb4f #fj #bg4a #ajj #ff4e ,! p[] exp5d$ ^u any road is ( c\rse ! product ( ! resi/ance p] unit ( l5g?1 by ! numb] ( units4 ,call+ ,r ! resi/ance p] unit ^u a level1 & ,r ! resi/ance p] unit on any grade1 & designat+ ! l5g?s by ,l & ,l1 t !re %all be 9 bo? cases an equal exp5diture ( p[]1 we mu/ h ,,rl ,r,l1 :5ce ! level l5g? mu/ be ,l 7,l,r7_/,r4 ,?us assum+ ! resi/ance on a level z tw5ty lbs4 p] ton1 t on a fifty feet grade is #bj #ej_/ebhj ( #bbdj1 or #bj #ba4b or #da4b1 & if ! l5g? ( ! incl9$ l9e is t5 miles1 ! equival5t level l5g? is ,l 7#da4b #ebhjj7_/bj #ajhgfh feet1 or #bj4f miles4 ,also #aj miles #da4b lbs4 #dab1 & #bj4f miles #bj lbs4 #dab4 #ed4 ,! above may be some:at abridg$ z foll[s3 ,let ,r be ! resi/ance on a level4 ,! resi/ance due to any grade is express$ by ,w #a_/;a1 :]e #a_/;a is ! fraction %[+ ! grade1 & ,w ! weight ( ! load4 ,! v]tical height 9 feet1 to ov]come :i* we mu/ exp5d an am\nt ( p[] suffici5t to move ! tra9 "o mile on a level1 mu/ be su* t ,w #a_/;a ,r1 or #a_/;a ,r_/,w2 & to f9d ! numb] by :i* to equate1 we h only to place ! values ( ,r & ,w 9 ! =mula4 ,= example1 let ! spe$ be tw5ty miles p] h\r1 ! correspond+ resi/ance is #aj4c lbs4 p] ton4 ,w be+ "o ton1 or #bbdj lbs41 we h #a_/;a ,r_/,w #aj4c_/bbdj #a_/bah ( #ebhj1 7! numb] ( feet 9 "o mile17 #a_/bah ( #ebhj #bd feet4 ,9 ! same mann] we h ,spe$1 9 miles1 p] h\r4 ,equat+ numb]4 #ae #bb #bj #bd #cj #cb #dj #da #ej #ec #fj #fg #ajj #aee ,?us :5 we take ! spe$ z ?irty miles p] h\r1 = ea* ?irty-two feet rise we %all consume an am\nt ( p[] suffici5t to move ! tra9 "o mile on a level4 ,9 desc5d+1 ! grade in/ead ( be+ an ob/acle1 becomes an aid2 inde$ ! incl9e may be su* z to move ! tra9s indep5d5tly ( ! /eam p[]4 ,?us if on acc\nt ( asc5d+ grades we increase ! equat$ l5g?1 s also 9 desc5d+ we mu/ r$uce ! l5g?4 ,! am\nt ( r$uction is n1 h[ev]1 ! rev]se ( ! increase 9 asc5d+1 z aft] ?irty or =ty feet any additional fall p] mile in/ead ( be+ an advantage is an evil2 z too mu* gravity obliges u to run d[n grades ) brakes on4 ,tw5ty-five feet p] mile is suffici5t to all[ ! tra9 to roll d[n1 & any m ?an ?is is ( v little use4 ,!re=e = e mile ( grade desc5d+ at ! rate ( tw5ty-five feet p] mile we may d$uct "o mile 9 equat+1 & = e mile ( grade desc5d+ twelve & "o half feet p] mile d$uct a proportional am\nt2 b = any m fall p] mile ?an tw5ty-five feet1 no all[ance %\ld be made2 i4 e41 if we desc5d at ! rate ( =ty feet p] mile1 we may d$uct "o mile 9 equat+ = ! tw5ty-five feet ( fall1 & ?r[ aside ! rema9+ fifte5 feet4 #ee4 ,?is is a common me?od ( equat+ = grades1 & repres5ts a l5g? :i* is proportional to ! p[] exp5d$1 b n proportional to ! co/ ( work+1 z ! ratios ( p[] exp5d$ & co/ ( work+ "u diff]5t conditions are v diff]5t1 d\ble p[] requir+ only tw5ty p] c5t4 m work+ capital4 ,! above rules1 !re=e1 require a correction4 ,! co/ ( work+ a p[] repres5t$ by unity be+ express$ by #ajj2 ,t ( work+ a p[] #b is express$ by #abe2 ,t ( work+ a p[] #c is express$ by #aej2 ,t ( work+ a p[] #d is express$ by #age2 ,t ( work+ a p[] #e is express$ by #bjj4 7,see ,app5dix ,f47 ,n[ ! resi/ance on a level be+ at a velocity ( tw5ty miles p] h\r1 #aj4c lbs4 p] ton by ! =mula #a_/;a ,r_/,w1 ! v]tical height 9 feet caus+ a d\ble exp5diture ( p[] is tw5ty-f\r2 b z above1 ! :ole exp5se ( a d\ble p[] is increas$ by only tw5ty-five p] c5t42 we %\ld n add "o mile = tw5ty-f\r feet rise1 b "o f\r? ( a mile only1 or "o mile = ea* n9ety-six feet2 & by correct+ our =m] table 9 ?is mann]1 we h ! foll[+ table3-- ,spe$1 9 miles1 p] h\r4 ,equat+ numb]4 #ae #hh #bj #if #be #aaj #cj #abh #dj #afd #ej #bab #fj #bfh #ajj #fbj ,s mu* = equat+ = ! asc5ts4 ,9 desc5d+1 we h all[$ "o mile r$uction = ea* mile ( tw5ty-five feet ( desc5d+ grade2 b z 9 asc5d+ we correct ! fir/ made table1 s 9 desc5d+ we mu/ also correct z foll[s4 ,if we ne$$ no /eam p[] ei!r :ile desc5d+ or aft]w>ds1 we %\ld only save wood & wat]2 z a g5]al ?+ ! fire mu/ be kept up :ile desc5d+1 & ! only ga9 is a small "p ( ! exp5se ( fuel2 s small1 9 f9e1 t ) ! exception ( roads :i* incl9e = ! :ole or a great "p ( _! l5g?1 no r$uction %\ld be made4 ,,comp>ison ,,( ,,survey$ ,,l9es4 #ef4 ,! requisite data = an approximate comp>ison ( l9es are1 ! measur$ l5g?1 total rise1 total fall4 ,let ! l5g? ( l9e ,a be #ajj miles1 ,let ! l5g? ( l9e ,b be #ij miles1 ,:ole rise on ,a #bjjj feet1 ,:ole rise on ,b #eajj feet1 ,:ole fall on ,a #abjj feet1 ,:ole fall on ,b #dcjj feet4 ,assume ! numb] by :i* to equate1 z n9ety-six1 & we %all h ,l9e ,a4 ,asc5d+1 #ajj #bjjj_/if #abj4hc ,desc5d+1 #ajj #abjj_/if #aab4ej ------------ ,sum #bcc4cc ,mean #aaf4ff ,l9e ,b4 ,asc5d+1 #ij #eajj_/if #adc4ac ,desc5d+1 #ij #dcjj_/if #acd4hj ------------ ,sum #bgf4ic ,mean #ach4df ,! mean equat$ l5g? ( ,a is #aaf4ff ,! measur$ l5g? ( ,a is #ajj4jj ------------ ,! diff]5ce #af4ff ,! mean equat$ l5g? ( ,b is #ach4df ,! measur$ l5g? ( ,b is #ij4jj ------------ ,! diff]5ce #dh4df4 ,! co/ ( con/ruction be+ assum$ z ! actual l5g?1 & t ( work+ z ! equat$ l5g?1 we h ! f9al approximate comp>ison ?us3-- ,assume ! con/ruction co/ z #be1jjj p] mile1 & ! co/ ( ma9t5ance #d1jjj p] mile1 & we h ,! l9e ,a to ! l9e ,b z #ajj #bejjj 7#aaf4ff #djjj7 #ajj_/f #aj1bgg1ccc1 is to #ij #bejjj 7#ach4df #djjj7 #ajj_/f #aa1dhj1ffg2 or ,a is to ,b z #aj4c to #aa4e ne>ly1 al?\gh ! l9e ,a is t5 miles long] ?an ,b4 ,,*apt] ,,iii4 ,,location4 ,,alignm5t4 #eg4 ,! brok5 l9e furni%$ by ! survey is ( c\rse unfit = ! c5tre l9e ( a railroad4 ,! angles require to be r\nd$ (f to r5d] ! passage f "o /raight portion to ! o!r easy4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bf4 #eh4 ,let ,a ,x ,b1 fig4 #bf1 repres5t ! angle =m$ by any two tang5ts :i* x is requir$ to connect by a circul> curve4 ,x is pla9 t kn[+ ! angle ( deflection ( ! l9es ,a ,x1 ,b ,x1 we obta9 also ! angles ,a ,c ,x1 ,x ,c ,b4 ,! mann] ( lay+ ^! curves ^u ! gr\nd is by plac+ an angul> in/rum5t at any po9t ( ! curve1 z at ,a1 & lay+ (f ! p>tial angles ,e ,a a1 ,e ,a ,m1 ,e ,a ,g1 etc41 :i* comb9$ ) ! correspond+ di/ances ,a a1 a ,m1 ,m ,g1 fix po9ts 9 ! curve4 ,^! small *ords are g5]ally assum$ at "o hundr$ feet1 except 9 curves ( small radius 7five hundr$ feet7 :5 !y are tak5 less4 ,! only calculation necess>y 9 lay+ out curves1 is1 kn[+ ! p>tial deflection to f9d ! correspond+ *ord1 or kn[+ ! *ord1 to get ! p>tial angle4 ,z ! radius ( t curve ( :i* ! angle ( deflection is #a is #egcj feet1 ! degree ( curvature = any o!r radius is easily f\nd4 ,?us ! radius #bhfe has a degree ( curvature p] "o hundr$ feet ( #egcj_/bhfe #b2 aga91 #egcj_/bjjj #b4hf or #b #ea4f4 ,! radius correspond+ to any angle is f\nd by rev]s+ ! op]ation4 ,if ! angle is #c #cj1 or #baj1 we h 7#egcj #fj7_/baj #afcg feet radius4 ,! foll[+ figures %[ ! angle ( deflection = *ords "o hundr$ feet long1 correspond+ to diff]5t radii3-- ,angle ( deflection4 ,radius1 9 feet4 or #ae #bbibj4j or #cj #aadfj4j or #de #gfdj4j #a or #fj #egcj4j #a #dehe4j #a #chbj4j #a #cbgd4j #b #bhfe4j #b #bbib4j #c #aiaj4j #c #afcg4j #d #adcc4j #d #abgd4j #e #aadf4j #e #ajdb4j #f #iee4d #f #hbb4j #g #hai4j #g #gfd4e #h #gaf4h #aj #egc4g ,po9ts 9 any curve may also be fix$ by ord9ates1 z a b1 ,m ,d1 ,g ,f1 or by ,e a1 ,k ,m1 etc4 ,= ! details ( locat+1 ( runn+ simple & comp\nd curves1 & ( ! calculations !re=1 ! read] is ref]r$ to ! works ( ,trautw9e1 & ( ,h5ck4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bg4 #ei4 ,suppose n[ t we h ! survey$ l9es m m1 & n n1 fig4 #bg1 "o ( :i* is to be f9ally adju/$ to ! gr\nd4 ,! %orte/ l9e is ! /raight "o1 :i* is g5]ally impracticable4 ,! mo/ level l9e is ! cont\r l9e1 :i* is also impracticable4 ,betwe5 ^! two lies ! "r l9e1 :i* is to be f\nd by an in/rum5tal location4 ,! l9e ,a n n n n ,b1 on ! plan1 gives ! pr(ile ,a n n n n ,b4 ,! l9e ,a m m m m ,b gives ! pr(ile ,a m m m m ,b1 :ile ! f9ally adju/$ l9e ,a #a #b #c #d #e #f gives ! pr(ile ,a #a #b #c #d #e #f ,b4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bh4 #fj4 ,aga91 9 fig4 #bh1 ! /raight l9e ,a n n n ,b gives ! pr(ile ,a n n n ,b1 requir+ ei!r /eep grades or a great deal ( "w4 ,by fitt+ ! l9e to ! gr\nd1 z by ! l9e ,a a b c d 444 m n o ,b1 we obta9 ! pr(ile ,a a b c 444 m n o ,b4 ,,f9al ,,adju/+ ,,( ,,grades4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bi4 #fa4 ,! g5]al arrangem5t ( incl9es mu/ n be int]f]$ ) to save "w1 b a l>ge "p ( ! excavation & embankm5t may be sav$ by break+ up long grades s z n to affect mat]ially ! "* ( ! road4 ,^u "s l9es ! grades mu/ necess>ily undulate1 z 9 fig4 #bi4 ,! diff]5ce 9 ! am\nt ( "w is pla9ly se54 ,! /eepe/ grades ?us appli$ mu/ n be great] ?an ! rul+ grade ^u ! travel ( "o eng9e4 #fb4 ,9 long & %all[ cuts & fills1 ! be/ plan is to place ! grade l9e q high1 avoid+ mu* cutt+1 & to make ! embankm5ts f side cutt+s1 7dit*+74 ,banks mu/ at lea/ be plac$ two or ?ree feet above ! natural surface1 fir/ to prev5t ! sn[ f lodg+ too mu* ^u ! rails1 second1 to insure dra9+4 #fc4 ,sn[ f5ces are mu* us$ 9 ! nor!rn p>ts ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,^! are high pieces ( lattice-"w1 made r\ghly1 b well brac$2 f eight to twelve feet high1 & /&+ f sixty to "o hundr$ feet f ! road4 ,! object ( ! f5ce is to break ! curr5t ( ! w9d1 & cause x to precipitate its sn[4 ,close f5ces effect ! object no bett] ?an ! op5 ones1 are m liable to bl[ d[n1 & co/ m4 #fd4 ,9 locat+ a road :i* is to h a d\ble track ev5tually1 reg>d mu/ be paid to ?is fact 9 side-hill "w4 ,! fir/ track %\ld1 if possible1 be s plac$ z n to require mov+ :5 ! d\ble l9e is put on4 ,,comp>ison ,,( ,,locat$ ,,l9es4 #fe4 ,9 ?is comp>ison !re is an elem5t :i* does n ent] ! approximate comp>ison ( survey$ l9es1 curvature4 ,! resi/ance aris+ f ?is cause has nev] be5 accurately det]m9$4 ,mr4 ,mc,callum e/imates ! resi/ance at "o half p\nd p] degree ( curvature p] "o hundr$ feet2 i4 e41 ! resi/ance due to curvature on a #d curve1 w\ld be two lbs4 p] ton1 7see report ( ,septemb] #cj1 #ahee74 ,mr4 ,cl>k e/imates ! resi/ance due to curves ( "o mile radius & "u1 z #f4c lbs4 p] ton1 or tw5ty p] c5t4 ( ! :ole resi/ance4 ,! av]age radius enc\nt]$1 !re=e1 by ,mr4 ,cl>k1 w\ld be1 at ,mr4 ,mc,callum's e/imate1 #f4c_/j4e #ab ne>ly1 or #dgg4e feet4 ,s small a radius is by no means all[able ^u ,engli% roads2 ?us ! e/imate ( ,mr4 ,cl>k & ( ,mr4 ,mc,callum diff] consid]ably4 ,exp]im5ts might easily be made ) ! dynamomet] ^u diff]5t curves1 by :i* we might f9d v ne>ly ! correct resi/ance caus$ by curves4 ,! curvature on any road _c be adju/$ to tra9s mov+ at diff]5t spe$s4 #ff4 ,! tractive p[] acts always tang5t to ! curve at ! po9t :]e ! eng9e is1 & ?us t5ds to pull ! c>s aga9/ ! inn] rail4 ,! tang5tial =ce1 g5]at$ by ! motion ( ! c>s1 t5ds to keep ! flanges ( ! :eels aga9/ ! out] rail2 & only :5 a j balance is made betwe5 ! tractive & tang5tial =ces1 ! :eel w run )\t imp++ on ei!r rail1 7! :eel be+ prop]ly con$74 ,= ^! =ces to balance1 !re mu/ be a fix$ ratio betwe5 ! weight ( a c> & ! spe$1 7n ! weight ( a tra91 z ! %ackl+ all[s ! c>s to act ne>ly indep5d5tly1 "s inde$ rubb+ h>d = a mom5t aga9/ ! rail1 :ile ! next c> is work+ at ease74 ,:5ev] ! "r proportion is dep>t$ f1 z x ne>ly always is1 7& p]haps necess>ily 9 "s cases17 ^u railroads1 ! :eels w rub aga9/ "o rail or ! o!r4 ,?us on any road :]e ! spe$ on ! same curve1 or ! radii ( curvature "u ! same spe$1 diff]1 !re mu/ be loss ( p[]1 & dragg+ or pu%+ aga9/ ! rails4 #fg4 ,we are oblig$ to elevate ! out] rail 7see *apt] ,,xiii471 = ! fa/e/ tra9s1 & ! sl[] tra9s on su* roads w !re=e always drag aga9/ ! inn] rails4 ,?us 9 practice we g5]ally f9d ! inside ( ! out] rail mo/ worn on pass5g] roads1 & ! inside ( ! inn] rail ^u *iefly freight roads4 #fh4 ,x has be5 ! practice ( "s eng9e]s 9 equat+ = curvature1 to add "o f\r? ( a mile to ! measur$ l5g? = ea* #cfj ( curvature1 disreg>d+ ! radius1 z ! l5g? ( circumf]5ce increases inv]sely z ! degree ( curvature4 #fi4 ,n[ 9 equat+ = grades1 9 d\bl+ ! p[] we d n d\ble ! exp5se ( work+4 ,we h[ev] increase x m by curvature ?an we d by grades1 because besides requir+ d\ble p[]1 ! we> & te> ( c>s & rails & all ma*9]y is increas$ ^u curves1 :i* is n ! case ^u grades4 #gj4 ,! analysis ( exp5se 79 ,app5dix ,f47 ^u ! ,new ,york sy/em ( roads1 gives ! foll[+3-- ,locomotives1 #dj p] c5t4 ,c>s1 #bj p] c5t4 ,way & works1 #ae p] c5t4 ---- or 9 all1 #ge p] c5t4 ,n[ ea* #cfj w be equal to #ge_/ajj ( "o qu>t] ( a mile1 or #ge_/djj ( a mile2 :5ce ! numb] ( degrees :i* %all cause an exp5se equal to "o /raight & level mile1 w be #aibj4 #ga4 ,! numb] ( degrees by ,mr4 ,mc,callum's e/imate w\ld be ?us3-- ,! resi/ance ^u a level be+ t5 lbs4 p] ton1 & t due to curves "o half p\nd p] ton1 p] degree p] "o hundr$ feet2 ! l5g? ( a #b curve to equal "o mile w be #aj lbs4_/#a lb41 or t5 miles4 ,also t5 miles1 or #ecj hundr$ feet by #b is #ajfj4 #gb4 ,aga91 by ,mr4 ,cl>k's resi/ance ( tw5ty p] c5t4 ( ! level resi/ance1 ^u curves av]ag+ #b1 we h z ! l5g? ( #b curve #aj_/b #e miles1 or #bfe hundr$ feet1 :i* by #b gives #ecj4 #gc4 ,av]ag+ ! fir/ & la/1 we h z ! numb] ( degrees :i* %\ld be consid]$ z caus+ an am\nt ( exp5se equal to "o /raight & level mile1 #abbe1 :i* av]ag+ ) ! e/imat$ resi/ance by ,mr4 ,mc,callum1 gives f9ally #aadb z caus+ an exp5se equal to "o /raight & level mile1 or1 9 r\nd numb]s1 #aadj4 #gd4 ,suppose n[ t we w\ld "k :i* ( ! l9es bel[ to *oose4 ,l9e ,a4 ,l9e ,b4 ,description4 #ajj miles1 #aaj miles1 ,actual l5g?1 #ejjj feet1 #cjjj feet1 ,rise1 #cejj feet1 #aejj feet1 ,fall1 #cfjj #ijjj ,degrees ( curvature4 ,assum+ ! spe$ z tw5ty miles p] h\r1 ! numb] by :i* to equate = grades1 see *apt] ,,ii41 is n9ety-six1 also ! numb] ( degrees = curvature #aadj1 :5ce1 ,l9e ,a asc5d+ #ajj #eb4a #c4af #aee4bf #adg4df ,l9e ,a desc5d+ #ajj #cf4e #c4af #aci4ff ,l9e ,b asc5d+ #aaj #ca4be #g4hi #adi4ad #ada4ca1 ,l9e ,b desc5d+ #aaj #ae4fb #g4hi #acc4di & if ! co/ ( con/ruction is z ! actual1 & ! co/ ( ma9ta9+ & work+ z ! mean equat$ l5g?1 we h1 z a f9al comp>ison1 ,a to ,b z #ajj #adg4df to #aaj #ada4ca1 or z #bdg4df to #bea4ca4 ,"h ! extra grades on ! "o h& ne>ly equal ! curvature & ! extra l5g? on ! o!r h&4 #ge4 ,z a fur!r example 9 ! comp>ison ( compet+ l9es1 let u take ! actual case ( ! location ( ! ea/]n "p ( ! ,new ,york & ,erie ,railroad4 ,x 0 que/ion$ :i* ( ! two l9es betwe5 ,b+hampton & ,deposit %\ld be adopt$1 & also betwe5 ! m\? ( ,callicoon ,creek & ,port ,j]vis4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cj4 ,betwe5 ,a & c1 fig4 #cj1 7 locat$ ! l9es %[n 9 ! sket*1 "o foll[+ ! ,susquehanna riv] f ,a to ,b1 !nce cross+ ! divid+ ridge betwe5 t riv] & ! ,delaw>e to ,deposit 7c74 ,! o!r pass+ up ! ,*5ango riv] to a1 !nce cross+ fir/ ! summit ,m to ! ,susquehanna at ,l1 & second ! summit ,k1 to ,deposit 7c74 ,! elem5ts ( ! two l9es are z foll[s3-- ,a r\te1 ,a ,b c4 ,b r\te1 ,a ,m ,k c4 ,l5g?1 #ci4bi #dc4eh ,rise ,a to c1 #edj4jj #ajhg4jj ,rise c to ,a1 #cie4jj #icf4jj ,:ole rise & fall1 #ice4jj #bjbc4jj ,degrees ( curvature1 #bcga4jj #cbec4jj ,e/imat$ co/1 #gdf1ijj4jj #fbh1fjj4jj ,assum+ ! numb] by :i* to equate = grades1 z #if1 & ! equat+ numb] ( degrees ( curvature z #aadj2 equat+ = grades & curvature 9 bo? directions1 we h1 ,r\te ,a4 ,a to c4 ,mean1 #df4be4 #ci4bi #edj_/if #bcga_/aadj #ci4bi #e4fc #b4jh #dg4jj ,r\te ,a4 c to ,a4 #ci4bi #cie_/if #bcga_/aadj #ci4bi #d4ab #b4jh #de4di ,r\te ,b4 ,a to c4 ,mean1 #ef4if4 #dc4eh #ajhg_/if #cbec_/aadj #dc4eh #aa4cb #b4he #eg4ge ,r\te ,b4 c to ,a4 #dc4eh #icf_/if #cbec_/aadj #dc4eh #i4ge #b4he #ef4ah ,assum+ ! co/ ( work+ & ( ma9ta9+ z #d1jjj p] mile1 we h ,! co/ ( build+ ,a to ,b z #gdf1ijj to #fbh1fjj ,! co/ ( op]at+ ,a to ,b z 7#df4be #djjj7 #ajj_/f to 7#ef4if #djjj7 #ajj_/f1 or z #c1jhc1ccd to #c1gig1ccd -------------------- -------------------- & ! sum z #c1hcj1bcd #d1dbe1icd giv+ ! pref]5ce ( #eie1gjj to ! r\te ,a ,b c1 not)/&+ t ! e/imate !reon exce$s t on ,b by #aah1cjj4 ,! r\te ,a ,b c 0 adopt$4 ,aga91 x 0 d\btful :e!r to adopt ! r\te ,e ,f1 9 go+ f ,d to ,g1 or ! l9e ,i ,h4 ,! foll[+ are ! elem5ts ( ! two l9es3-- ,i ,h4 ,e ,f4 ,measur$ l5g?1 #fa4ad #eh4ec ,rise ,d to ,g1 #aahg #ded ,rise ,g to ,d1 #ajdi #caf ,degrees curve1 #gfji #dehh ,e/imat$ co/1 #a1jid1iej #a1dif1dcj ,! mean equat$ l5g?s are z foll[s3-- ,l9e ,i ,h4 ,d to ,g4 ,mean1 #gi4df1 #fa4ad #aahg_/if #gfji_/aadj #fa4ad #ab4cf #f4fh #hj4ah ,l9e ,i ,h4 ,g to ,d4 #fa4ad #ajdi_/if #gfji_/aadj #fa4ad #aj4ic #f4fh #gh4ge ,l9e ,e ,f4 ,d to ,g4 ,mean1 #ff4ef4 #eh4ec #ded_/if #dehh_/aadj #eh4ec #d4gc #d4jb #fg4bh ,l9e ,e ,f4 ,g to ,d4 #eh4ec #caf_/if #dehh_/aadj #eh4ec #c4bi #d4jb #fe4hd ,! comp>ison z to co/ is ,i ,h to ,e ,f z #a1jid1iej to #a1dif1dcj1 & z to work+1 ,i ,h to ,e ,f z 7#gi4df #djjj7 #ajj_/f to 7#ff4ef #djjj7 #ajj_/f1 & ! sum z #a1jid1iej to #a1dif1dcj #e1big1ccd #d1dcg1ccd -------------------- -------------------- or #f1cib1bhd to #e1icc1gfd ,al?\gh ! co/ ( ,e ,f is #dja1dhj m ?an t ( ,i ,h1 ! l9e ,e ,f 0 adopt$4 ,,*apt] ,,iv4 ,,prelim9>y ,,op]ations4 ,,specification4 #gf4 ,! object ( ?is pap] is to def9e exactly ! t]ms ( ! contract z reg>ds execution ( "w4 ,e ?+ !re9 %\ld be express$ 9 a mann] s pla9 z to leave no room = misund]/&+4 ,a ,,& ,b ,,railroad4 #gg4 ,specification = ,graduation4 ,,l9e4 ,! c5tre ( ! road-b$ to con=m correctly to ! c5tre l9e ( ! railroad1 z /ak$ out or o!rwise indicat$ on ! gr\nd1 & to its appropriate curvatures & grades z def9$ & describ$ by ! eng9e]2 & ! contractor %all make su* deviations f ^! l9es or grades at any "t1 z ! said eng9e] may require4 ,! road-b$ to con=m to ! cross section :i* %all be giv5 or describ$1 or to su* o!r in/ructions z may be giv5 z h]e9aft] limit$2 & ! same ( ! dit*es & slopes ( ! "w1 & ( all op]ations p]t95t to ! satisfactory p]=mance ( ! graduation or masonry on ! "p or p>ts ( ! l9e contract$ =4 ,,cle>+4 ,! gr\nd =m+ ! base ( all embankm5ts1 & five feet beyond ! foot ( ! slopes ( all embankm5ts1 to be cle>$ z close to ! surface z practicable1 ( all timb]1 sapl+s1 bru%1 logs1 /umps1 or o!r p]i%able mat]ial4 ,! valuable timb] to be laid aside1 beyond ! cle>+ z direct$ by ! eng9e]1 ! re/ to be burn$1 if ?is c be done safely1 o!rwise to be mov$ beyond ! limits ( ! cle>$ gr\nd4 ,! gr\nd = t5 feet beyond ! top l9es ( all slopes ( cutt+s %all be cle>$ 9 l mann]1 ( all timb] & sapl+s4 ,:]ev] additional gr\nd has to be tak5 9 wid5+ excavations to obta9 mat]ials1 or 9 wid5+ embankm5ts to dispose ( surplus mat]ial1 or 9 grad+ = turn\ts or depot gr\nds1 an additional am\nt ( gr\nd %all be cle>$ 9 l mann]2 & :5 direct$ by ! eng9e]1 :]ev] additional space is requir$ = outside dit*+1 or = alt]ations ( roads or wat]c\rses1 or o!rwise4 ,,grubb+4 ,all /umps & l>ge roots )9 t5 feet ( ! grade l9e %all be grubb$ out to ! entire wid? ( ! "w1 & mov$ at lea/ t5 feet beyond ! slopes4 ,! co/ ( all cle>+ & grubb+ is includ$ 9 ! price = e>? "w1 :i* price is also und]/ood to include all cle>+ & grubb+ necess>y 9 borr[+ pits1 spoil banks1 road cross+s1 alt]ations ( roads & wat]c\rses1 ! =mation ( dit*es or o!rwise4 ,! necess>y cle>+ & grubb+ 9 all cases to be kept complet$ five hundr$ feet 9 advance ( any "w 9 progress4 ,,muck+4 ,:]ev] mud1 muck1 or simil> s(t mat]ial occurs 9 excavations or embankm5ts1 )9 two feet ( subgrade1 x %all be remov$ & replac$ by compact e>? or gravel4 ,,grade4 ,! grade l9es on ! pr(iles %[ ! true grade1 & correspond ) a l9e two in*es bel[ ! bottom ( ! iron rail ( ! sup]/ructure4 ,:at is call$ subgrade corresponds ) a l9e plac$ eighte5 in*es bel[ ! grade4#e ,footnote #e3 ,! di/ance betwe5 grade & subgrade dep5ds some:at ^u ! climate1 b is g5]ally betwe5 "o & two feet4 ,see *ap4 ,,xiii4 ,,wid? ,,( ,,road1 ,,& ,,slopes4 ,! wid? ( road-way1 unless o!rwise direct$1 %all be tw5ty-two feet wide at grade 9 e>? excavations1 & eighte5 feet wide 9 rock excavations4 ,bo? rock & e>? %all be tak5 out eighte5 in*es bel[ grade = ! entire wid? ( road-way4 ,! bottom+ to be replac$ by gravel1 brok5 /one1 or spawls1 9 su* mann] z %all be direct$ by ! eng9e]1 leav+ ! necess>y dit*es ( ! wid? & dep? direct$ on ei!r side4 ,! contractor w n be paid = any rock excavat$ beyond ! slope l9es ( "o to eight f ! requir$ wid?1 or = any e>? excavat$ beyond slope l9es ( "o & "o half horizontal to "o v]tical1 unless direct$ by ! eng9e] to move additional rock or e>?4 ,,bla/+4 ,all bla/+ %all be done at ! risk ( ! fir/ p>ty1 :o %all be liable to ! second p>ties1 or to ! railroad company1 = any damages incurr$ 9 consequ5ce1 to dwell+-h\ses1 individuals1 or o!rwise4 ,,dit*es4 ,:5ev] requir$1 dit*es %all be cut along ! tops ( ! slopes1 ( ! =m & size & 9 ! position direct$4 ,,surplus ,,mat]ial4 ,:5ev] ! e>? or rock requir$ = ! adjo9+ embankm5ts exce$s ! am\nt 9 ! neighbor+ excavations1 ! contractor1 :5 requir$1 %all increase ! wid? ( said excavations1 z direct$ by ! eng9e]1 to a suffici5t wid? = a d\ble track1 provid$ t ?is additional wid? %all n be ext5d$ s z to produce an av]age haul ( m ?an eight hundr$ l9eal feet1 on said borr[$ /uff4 ,& :5ev] ! e>? or rock to be mov$ f any cut exce$s 9 am\nt ! adjo9+ embankm5ts1 7unless else:]e want$17 x %all be appli$ to wid5+ ! embankm5t to a wid? = a d\ble track1 )9 ! same limits ( haul2 b = a great] haul ?an eight hundr$ feet1 ! contractor %all be paid _/#ajj ( a c5t p] y>d p] hundr$ feet ( excess4 ,,borr[ ,,pits4 ,:]e ! excavation does n furni% suffici5t mat]ial to make ! adjo9+ embankm5ts1 borr[ pits may be op5$4 ,b no e>? %all be deposit$ 9 spoil banks nor borr[ pits op5$ )\t ! k & cons5t ( ! sup]9t5d+ eng9e]1 :o %all take c>e t su* op]ations are arrang$ s z n to damage ! road or its slopes1 nor int]f]e ) ! wid5+ ( ! road-b$ at a future "t = additional tracks4 ,,mat]ial ,,to ,,be ,,sav$4 ,if mat]ials be f\nd 9 ! excavations applicable to useful purposes1 su* z build+ /one1 lime/one1 gravel1 m9]als1 etc41 !y %all be laid aside 9 su* place z ! eng9e] may direct1 = use1 to be appli$ !n or subsequ5tly to ! con/ruction ( ! road "u ! conditions ( ^! specifications & ( ! contract4 ,,classification ,,( ,,mat]ials4 ,e>?--e ?+ except solid & loose rock4 ,loose rock--all b\ld]s & deta*$ masses ( rock measur+ ov] "o cubic foot 9 bulk & less ?an five cubic y>ds4 ,solid rock1 includes all "w 9 l$ge1 :i* requires drill+ & splitt+1 & all loose rocks conta9+ m ?an five cubic y>ds4 ,! prices = excavation include all e>? or rock excavat$ 9 dit*+1 bottom+1 borr[+1 road cross+s1 alt]ations ( road cross+s & wat] *annels1 & ! con/ruction ( tempor>y roads1 provid$ ! av]age di/ance haul$ on ea* section1 be ! same z /at$ on ! s*$ule "h annex$2 b if ! actual av]age haul on any section is f\nd1 on completion1 to h be5 great] or less ?an ! di/ance /at$1 a correspond+ addition or d$uction %all be made1 ( "o c5t p] cubic y>d p] hundr$ feet :i* ! actual haul exce$s or falls %ort ( t /at$4 ,,embankm5ts4 ,! embankm5ts to be =m$ fifte5 feet wide on ! surface1 unless o!rwise direct$1 ) slopes ( "o & "o half horizontal to "o v]tical4 ,:]ev] ! embankm5t is =m$ f dit*+ on ei!r side1 su* dit*+1 & ! cre/ ( ! slopes !re( %all 9 no case approa* )9 six feet1 nor )9 d\ble ! dep? ( dit*1 ( ! foot ( ! prop] embankm5t slope1 all[+ always on "o side = a d\ble track2 & no s(t mud or muck %all be all[$ to ent] ! bank4 ,:]ev] wat]c\rses or new *annels = riv]s require to be =m$1 !y %all n approa* )9 once & "o half ( ! dep? ( su* /ream1 plus tw5ty-five feet4 ,c>e %all be tak5 9 =m+ embankm5ts to exclude all p]i%able mat]ial4 ,,subsid5ce4 ,to all[ = ! aft] settlem5t ( mat]ials on embankm5ts1 !y %all1 :5 deliv]$ to & accept$ by ! second p>ties1 be f9i%$ to ! full wid? to ! foll[+ heights above subgrades1 namely3 all banks bel[ five feet 9 height to be f9i%$ ?ree in*es above subgrade2 at t5 feet 9 dep?1 five in*es2 at tw5ty feet1 six in*es2 & tw5ty-eight feet1 sev5 in*es2 at ?irty-five feet1 eight in*es2 & at =ty feet 9 dep?1 n9e in*es above grade2 & int]m$iate heights 9 proportion2 ! eng9e] hav+ ! p[] to *ange ^! proportions at 8 discretion4 ,,extra ,,excavation ,,& ,,embankm5t4 ,:5ev] x is consid]$ necess>y to increase ! wid? ( ! road-way = turn\ts1 wat] /ations1 or depot gr\nds1 :e!r 9 excavation or embankm5t1 su* "w %all be done at ! contract prices1 z may be direct$4 ,! op5+ ( f\ndation pits 9 simple excavation1 :]e c(f]-dams or su* l exp$i5ts are n necess>y1 & 9 places :]e su* exp$i5ts are necess>y1 all excavation above ! wat] l9e %all also be done at su* increase or decrease ( ! contract price z %all be deem$ prop] by ! eng9e]4 ,,embank+ ,,at ,,bridges ,,& ,,culv]ts4 ,! contractor = e>?work %all n c>ry =w>d 9 ! usual way any embankm5ts )9 fifty feet ( any piece ( masonry1 f9i%$ or 9 progress1 7c\nt+ f ! bottom ( ! slopes17 b %all 9 e su* case h ! e>? :eel$ to ! walls or abutm5ts1 & c>efully ramm$ to su* wid? & dep?1 & 9 su* mann] z may be direct$1 :5 ! embankm5t may be c>ri$ on z usual4 ,! exp5se att5dant ^u any damage or rebuild+ ( mason "w1 consequ5t on neglect ( ^! directions1 %all be *>g$ to ! acc\nt ( ! fir/ p>ty4 ,9 case ! mason "w %all n be f9i%$ :5 ! embankm5t approa*es x1 ! contractor %all erect a tempor>y /ructure to c>ry ov] ! e>?1 & proce$ ) ! embankm5t on ! opposite side2 & ! exp5se ( said /ructure %all be paid by1 & *>g$ to1 ! contractor = masonry1 9 case su* contractor %all h delay$ beyond ! prop] or requir$ "t1 ! con/ruction ( ! mason "w2 b if ! mason "w c\ld n h be5 ready 9 season = ! bank1 !n %all ! exp5se belong to ! contractor = ! e>?work1 ^: price = graduation is und]/ood to compreh5d all su* cont+5cies4 ,= ! above "w ( :eel+ & ramm+ effici5tly ! e>? ar\nd any piece ( masonry1 ! contractor %all be paid ---- c5ts p] cubic y>d1 by ! eng9e]'s measurem5t4 ,,roads ,,& ,,wat]c\rses4 ,! fir/ p>ty is to make good & conv5i5t road cross+s :]ev] direct$1 & %all also make su* alt]ations ( exi/+ roads1 or wat]c\rses1 or riv] *annels1 or su* new pieces ( ^! p]t95t ! section und]tak5 by him1 z may be requir$1 & %all be paid = su* "w1 :e!r e>?1 rock1 or masonry1 ! prices1 & no m1 applicable to ?is contract4 ,& su* road cross+s or o!r alt]ations ref]r$ to1 he %all make at & )9 su* times & 9 su* =m & mann] z ! eng9e] %all direct2 & :5ev] ! op]ations ( ! fir/ p>ty int]f]e ) a travell$ road1 public or private1 ei!r by cross+ or by mak+ requir$ alt]ations on x1 ! fir/ p>ty %all s op]ate z to af=d at all times a safe & free passage to ! public travel2 & ! fir/ p>ty %all be liable = any damage to :i* ! second p>ties or ! railroad company may become lawfully liable by reason ( 8 neglect to ma9ta9 a safe & prop]ly protect$ passage = ! curr5t travel4 ,,balla/+4 ,:]e gravel is us$ = ! balla/+ ( ! road-b$1 x %all be ( a quality satisfactory to ! eng9e]1 & %all be spread ^u ! road-b$ to ! wid? & dep? requir$4 ,:5 brok5 /one is us$1 x %all be ( durable quality1 & %all be brok5 s z to pass ?r\gh a r+ ( ?ree in*es 9 diamet]4 ,! quantity w be measur$ 9 ! road-b$ z f9i%$1 & ! contractor w be requir$ to keep ! dit*es trimm$ & cle>4 ,,rip-,,rap1 ,,or ,,rubble ,,slopes4 ,! fir/ p>ty %all di/ribute rubble /one ov] ! slopes ( e>? embankm5ts1 :5ev] requir$ to d s1 to protect said slopes f ! action ( wat]4 ,su* /one to be arrang$ by compet5t h&s1 & laid to su* ?ickness1 & ) /ones ( su* size1 z %all be direct$4 ,:]e ! contractor has rock 9 ! neighbor+ cutt+s :i* is available1 x %all be res]v$ & appli$ to ?is purpose2 & :5 n1 good rock %all be obta9$ :]e ! contractor c conv5i5tly get x4 ,,measurem5ts4 ,all e>? or rock necess>ily mov$ to complete ! grad+ ( ?is contract accord+ to direction1 w be measur$ 9 excavation only2 & if ! contractor 7) ! cons5t ( ! eng9e]17 %\ld f9d x conv5i5t to wa/e e>? f an excavation1 in/ead ( c>ry+ x to its prop] embankm5t1 & to borr[ at "s ne>] po9t e>? = said embankm5t to replace t :i* 0 wa/$1 he %all be paid = ! e>? f ! orig9al excavation 9 ! ord] ( its mo/ economical arrangem5t = ! second p>ties4 ,all e>? mov$ f borr[+ pits %all also be measur$ 9 excavation only4 #gh4 ,specification = ,masonry4 ,,fir/ ,,class ,,masonry4 ,fir/ class masonry w apply to bridge abutm5ts exce$+ tw5ty-five feet 9 height1 to ! r+ /ones ( ar*es1 & to ! pi]s ( bridges 9 runn+ wat]4 ,! /one %all be laid at ! rate ( "o head] to two /ret*]s1 dispos$ s z to make effici5t bond4 ,no head] to be less ?an =ty in*es long1 & no /ret*] to be less ?an eighte5 in*es 9 wid?4 ,no /one less ?an twelve in*es 9 ?ickness1 no /one to h a great] height ?an wid?1 all /ones to be plac$ ^u ! natural b$4 ,! masonry ?r\gh\t to h hamm] dress$ b$s & jo9ts4 ,v]tical jo9ts to be cont9u$ back at lea/ t5 in*es f ! face ( ! wall4 ,! mort> jo9ts on ! face n to exce$ "o f\r? ( an in* 9 ?ickness4 ,! /one to be laid ) reg>d to break+ jo9ts 9 ! adjo9+ c\rses4 ,! /one mu/ be dress$ complete be=e lay+1 & n be mov$ aft] be+ plac$ 9 ! mort>4 ,! face w n be tool$1 b only r\ghly hew$1 except = "o half in* f ! b$s & jo9ts1 :]e x w be hamm]$4 ,! r+ /ones ( ar*es %all h b$s to con=m to ! radius ( ! ar*1 ) ! end jo9ts v]tical1 & be made to set smoo?ly on ! c5t]+1 ) ! b$s ) ! prop] incl9ation4 ,ea* /one mu/ ext5d ?r\gh ! :ole ?ickness ( ! ar*1 & n be less ?an eight in*es ?ick on ! intrados4 ,no spawls or p9n]s w be admitt$4 ,! r+ /one %all be dim5sion "w1 accord+ to ! plans furni%$1 ! b$s & jo9ts be+ truly dress$1 b ! faces left r\gh4 ,all fir/ class "w %all be c>efully laid 9 good cem5t mort>1 7see ,art4 ,cem5t74 ,ea* /one be=e be+ laid %all be c>efully clean$ & moi/5$2 & masonry built 9 hot wea!r %all be protect$ f ! sun z fa/ z laid1 by cov]+ ) bo>ds4 ,cop+s %all be built ( /one ( equal ?ickness1 neatly dress$ & laid4 ,all fir/ class masonry %all be well po9t$ ) cem5t po9t+4 ,,second ,,class ,,masonry4 ,to be appli$ to abutm5ts less ?an tw5ty-five feet high1 r+ & face walls ( bridges & culv]ts1 & to pi]s n 9 runn+ wat]1 %all consi/ ( /ones cut 9 b$ & build to a uni=m ?ickness ?r\gh\t1 be=e be+ laid1 b n hamm]$2 !y %all be laid on a level b$1 & h v]tical jo9ts cont9u$ back at "r angles at lea/ eight in*es f ! face ( ! wall4 ,! "w ne$ n be c>ri$ up 9 regul> c\rses1 b %all be well bond$1 hav+ "o head] = e ?ree /ret*]s1 & n m ?an "o ?ird ( ! /ones %all conta9 less ?an two cubic feet1 or be less ?an n9e in*es ?ick2 & none ( t ?ird %all conta9 less ?an "o & "o half cubic feet1 or be less ?an six in*es ?ick4 ,no m small /ones %all be us$ ?an necess>y to make ev5 b$s1 ! :ole to be laid 9 cem5t mort> & po9t$4 ,,?ird ,,class ,,masonry4 ,applicable to culv]ts1 & to ! sp&rel back+ ( ar*es1 %all consi/ ( /rong & well built rubble masonry1 laid dry = culv]ts1 b wet = back+4 ,! culv]ts to be ( su* =m & dim5sions z ! eng9e] may direct4 ,! f\ndation c\rses ( ! side walls to consi/ ( l>ge flat /ones1 f eight to t5 in*es 9 ?ickness1 laid s z to give a solid & regul> basis = ! side walls4 ,! side walls to be laid ) s\nd /one1 & ( suffici5t size1 & ) b$s hav+ a fair be>+ surface & good bond4 ,! cov]+ /one = culv]ts be+ n less ?an t5 in*es ?ick = two feet culv]ts1 twelve in*es = ?ree feet culv]ts1 & fifte5 in*es = f\r feet culv]ts2 to be free f flaw or defect1 & to h a well b$d$ re/ ^u ea* side wall1 ( n less ?an twelve in*es = two & ?ree feet culv]ts2 & n less ?an fifte5 in*es = l>g] ones4 ,9 case su* /one _c be obta9$1 a dry rubble ar* may be ?r[n in/ead1 well p9n$ & back$2 b ! price = ! ar* %all n be m ?an ! g5]al price = ?ird class masonry1 ) an all[ance = ! c5t]+4 ,,f\r? ,,class ,,masonry4 ,applicable to cattle-gu>ds1 pavem5t ( culv]ts1 & slope & protection walls1 %all consi/ ( /ones ( n less ?an "o cubic foot 9 cont5ts1 s laid & bond$ z to give ! greate/ degree ( /r5g? 9 pref]5ce to appe>ance2 be+ laid :5 direct$ ) b$s p]p5dicul> to ! incl9$ face4 ,pavem5ts "u culv]ts %all be made by excavat+ "o foot 9 dep? ( t "p to be pav$1 :i* space %all be fill$ ) flat /ones "o foot wide1 set on edge1 close toge!r1 & made to pres5t an ev5 upp] face4 ,,timb] ,,& ,,plank ,,f\ndations4 ,timb] & plank f\ndations require ! b$s to be p]fectly well levell$1 & timb] ( su* dim5sions1 & s laid1 z %[n by ! plans2 to be well b$d$ & br\ght to an ev5 & level top surface4 ,! spaces betwe5 !m to be fill$ & well ramm$ ) su* mat]ial z ! eng9e] may direct4 ,on ^! timb]s planks %all be laid1 & tr5ail$ or spik$ if requir$4 ,! mat]ials %all be ( quality & %ape approv$ by ! eng9e]1 & ! price %all be 9 full = mat]ial & labor 9 lay+ ! :ole 9 a ?or\gh & workmanlike mann]4 ,,pil+4 ,pil+ may be us$ ei!r z be>+ piles = f\ndations1 or = pil$ bridges4 ,9 ! =m] case !y w be bid = by ! runn+ foot driv51 & 9 ! latt] by ! /ick ( tw5ty-five feet 9 l5g?4 ,! piles 9 ei!r case mu/ be /raight r\nd timb]1 ( a quality approv$ by ! eng9e]1 n less ?an t5 in*es 9 diamet] at ! small end1 b>k$1 & prop]ly b&$ & po9t$ = driv+4 ,!y %all be driv5 9 su* places1 & to su* dep?s z requir$1 & ! heads cut (f squ>e1 or f9i%$ ) a t5on to receive caps1 z may be requir$4 ,be>+ piles w be cut (f s f> bel[ ! l[e/ wat] t any timb] f\ndation laid !reon %all be at all times entirely imm]s$4 ,,cem5t4 ,cem5t :5 us$ %all be ( ! be/ quality1 hydraulic1 newly manufactur$1 well h\s$ & pack$1 & s pres]v$ until requir$ = use4 ,& none %all be us$ 9 ! "w until te/$ & approv$ by ! eng9e]4 ,,cem5t ,,mort>4 ,! proportion ( s& & cem5t = con/ruction %all be "o ( cem5t1 to two ( clean1 %>p s&1 unless 9 special cases ! eng9e] direct o!rwise1 = :i* due all[ance %all be made4 ,x %all be us$ directly aft] mix+1 & none rema9+ on h& ov] night %all be remix$4 ,,lime ,,mort>4 ,lime mort> 7:i* 9 all cases %all conta9 cem5t71 w consi/1 unless o!rwise direct$1 ( two p>ts ( be/ quick lime1 "o ( cem5t1 & five ( s&2 ! ord9>y mort> ( lime & s& be+ fir/ prop]ly made1 & ! cem5t ?r[n 9 & ?or\ghly mix$ imm$iately be=e us+4 ,,concrete4 ,:5ev] concrete is requir$ to be us$1 x %all be =m$ ( clean brok5 /one1 cem5t1 & %>p1 clean s&4 ,! /one1 :i* %all be ( satisfactory quality1 %all be brok5 s z to pass ?r\gh a r+ ?ree in*es 9 diamet]4 ,! cem5t & s& %all be ?or\ghly mix$ 9 ! proportions already describ$ = cem5t mort>4 ,?us prep>$1 x %all be c>efully mix$ ) ! brok5 /one 9 ! proportion ( "o ( mort> to two or two & "o half ( brok5 /one1 z ! eng9e] ^u exp]im5t %all det]m9e1 & %all be imm$iately laid c>efully 9 its place1 & well ramm$4 ,! concrete %all be protect$ on ! sides by bo>ds1 & be all[$ to rema9 undi/urb$ aft] lay+ until x is prop]ly set2 & 9 special cases ! eng9e] %all direct ! mode ( application4 ,= ! prop] prep>ation & lay+ ( su* concrete1 !re %all be paid ! price applicable to second class masonry4 ,! contractor %all furni% all tools & plank necess>y to ! op]ation4 ,,po9t+4 ,all masonry 9 cem5t or lime w be f9i%$ ) a good po9t+ ( cem5t1 )\t extra *>ge4 ,,brickwork4 ,:5 bricks are requir$1 or all[$ to be us$1 !y %all consi/ ( s\nd1 h>d-burn$ brick1 laid 9 cem5t1 or common mort>1 z direct$1 & no s(t or salmon brick w be admitt$2 & none b regul> bricklay]s mu/ be employ$4 ,,c5t]+ ,,& ,,back+4 ,! :ole top ( all ar*es1 :e!r brick or /one1 %all be f9i%$ by pla/]+ ) a good coat ( cem5t1 s z to prev5t ! p]colation ( wat]1 & turn x away f ! ar*4 ,! c5t]+ %all be su* z ! eng9e] approves ( 9 e respect1 & %all n be remov$ until he directs4 ,! co/ ( back+ to be includ$ 9 ! price bid4 ,= ar*es ( m ?an tw5ty-five feet span1 comp5sation %all be made1 at ! eng9e]'s e/imate1 = ! extra value & co/ ( ! c5t]+ prop] = l>ge ar*es4 ,,g5]al ,,provision4 #gi4 ,! eng9e] res]ves ! "r to require ! :ole or any "p ( ! above describ$ "w ( masonry to be laid 9 cem5t1 lime1 mort>1 or dry1 at 8 discretion4 ,fir/ & second class masonry1 & brickwork1 w be bid = at prices = lay+ 9 cem5t1 f :i* w be d$uct$ fifty c5ts p] y>d if laid 9 lime mort>1 & "o doll> if laid dry4 ,?ird & f\r? class masonry at prices = lay+ dry1 to :i* w be add$ fifty c5ts p] y>d if laid 9 lime mort>1 & "o doll> if laid 9 cem5t4 ,,scaffold+4 #hj4 ,no?+ %all be all[$ = workman%ip or timb] ( any scaffold+ us$ 9 ! con/ruction ( timb] bridges1 or 9 c>ry+ up abutm5ts1 pi]s1 c(f]-dams1 or o!rwise4 ,%\ld ! timb] us$ 9 any c(f]-dam be c>ri$ away by floods1 ! r5ewal ( x %all fall ^u ! fir/ p>ty4 ,,f\ndations4 #ha4 ,! f\ndations = all /ructures %all be execut$ by ! contractor = masonry 9 su* mann] & to su* dep? z to secure a safe & secure f\ndation1 ( :i* ! eng9e] w judge4 ,if a natural f\ndation _c be procur$ at a reasonable dep?1 !n ! contractor %all prep>e su* artificial f\ndation z ! eng9e] may direct4 ,! /uff mov$ f ! f\ndations1 if ( ! prop] quality1 %all be deposit$ 9 ! adjo9+ embankm5t1 provid$ ! site = said embankm5t has be5 cle>$ ( all p]i%able mat]ial4 ,s mu* ( ! /uff z %all n be fit = ! embankm5t1 & all roots1 /umps1 etc41 %all be deposit$ beyond ! limits ( ! cle>+1 s z n to ob/ruct roads1 wat]c\rses1 or dit*es4 ,= ! e>? mov$ f su* f\ndations1 & = all e>? us$ accord+ to direction1 9 ! con/ruction ( c(f]-dams1 !re %all be paid ---- c5ts p] cubic y>d4 ,:5ev] x may be necess>y to pump or bale wat] 9 ! f\ndations1 ! contractor %all furni% ! pumps or buckets1 & all scaffold+ & app>atus necess>y to "w !m4 ,he %all be all[$ ! net co/ ( all labor employ$ 9 ! op]ations ( pump+ or bal+ wat]1 & %all make a mon?ly return to ! eng9e] ( ! value ( su* labor1 provid$ t ^! op]ations are conduct$ 9 an economical mann]1 ) effici5t m51 pumps1 & tools1 "u ! direction & to ! satisfaction ( ! eng9e]4 ,he %all also be all[$ su* comp5sation = ! use ( ! pumps & app>atus1 & = sup]9t5d5ce1 z ! eng9e] %all judge to be fair & reasonable4 ,,tre/le ,,"w4 #hb4 ,includes all wood5 /ructures commonly us$ z sub/itutes = abutm5ts & pi]s1 & = f>m passes1 etc41 etc4 ,^! %all be built accord+ to ! plans furni%$1 & directions giv5 by ! eng9e]1 ( s\nd1 durable mat]ial1 to be approv$ by him4 ,! price bid %all be by ! ?\s& feet bo>d measure1 & w be consid]$ z 9 full = all mat]ial except iron1 & = ! labor ( build+ & erect+ complete4 ,! iron us$ w be ( ! be/ ,am]ican1 & ! workman%ip ( approv$ quality4 ,! bids w be by ! p\nd1 & w cov] all co/ ( mat]ial & ! labor incid5t to its use4 ,spikes & nails :5 us$ w be furni%$ by ! contractor at co/4 ,,bridg+4 #hc4 ,contractors may submit plans = bridg+ 9 connection )1 or sep>ate f _! bids2 b ! eng9e] ( ! company may reject su* plans if he *oose1 & sub/itute o!rs1 :i* if ! contractor decl9e build+ at ! approv$ prices1 may be let to o!r p>ties4 ,9 e case1 ! exact mann] ( build+1 erect+1 adju/+1 & f9i%+ bridges1 & ! det]m9ation ( ! nature & am\nt ( mat]ial1 w be specifi$ by ! eng9e]4 ,! price bid mu/ be by ! runn+ foot ( ! :ole l5g? ( bridge1 z erect$ & f9i%$ complete4 #hd4 ,specifications = ,sup]/ructure4 ,,subsills4 ,to ma9ta9 ! track 9 good adju/m5t until embankm5ts are settl$1 subsills w be laid on c]ta9 banks1 & likewise 9 cuts :]e ! imp]fect nature ( ! bottom+ may1 9 ! op9ion ( ! eng9e]1 r5d] !m exp$i5t4 ,^! subsills to be fairly b$d$ 9 ! e>? or balla/+1 & c>efully adju/$ & ramm$ s z to correspond ) ! grade l9es giv5 by ! eng9e]4 ,an additional piece ( sill1 f\r feet long1 %all be laid at ea* jo9t ( ! subsill1 ei!r "u ! sill1 or alongside1 z may be direct$4 ,! sills w be ( #c #i plank1 9 l5g? ( twelve1 fifte51 eighte51 & tw5ty-"o feet2 ( :i* "o f\r? may be bel[ fifte51 "o f\r? bel[ eighte51 & "o f\r? bel[ tw5ty-"o feet4 ,! plank mu/ be squ>e at ! ends1 & ( s\nd1 durable mat]ial1 & n h m ?an two in*es wane on "o end only4 ,!re w be ab\t #be1jjj feet1 bo>d measure1 laid p] mile :]e x may be requir$1 & #ffj jo9t sills1 #c #i in*es1 & f\r feet long4 ,:5 ! dep? ( /uff to be mov$ to admit ! subsills exce$s six in*es1 an all[ance %all be made = extra labor1 ! am\nt ( :i* %all be not$ by ! assi/ants on _! receiv+ notice ( su* extra labor f ! contractor or 8 ag5t4 ,,cross ,,ties4 ,! cross ties %all be ( :ite1 black1 or yell[ oak1 burr oak1 *e/nut1 r$ elm1 black walnut1 or o!r s\nd timb] ( suitable "* 9 ! op9ion ( ! eng9e]4 ,eight feet long1 & n m ?an ?ree in*es out ( /raight1 hewn to a smoo? surface on two p>allel plane faces six in*es ap>t1 ! faces be+ n less ?an sev5 in*es wide = at lea/ half ( ! numb]1 & ! rema9d] n less ?an six in*es wide4 ,! ties %all be c>efully & solidly laid on ! subsills1 or balla/+1 or e>? previ\sly prop]ly prep>$1 s z to give ! true planes requir$ by ! rails1 :e!r on /raight or curv$ l9es4 ,!y %all be laid at ! rate ( eight ties to ea* eighte5 feet rail4 ,all imp]fect ties %all be exclud$ by ! tracklay+ p>ty4 ,! surface ( ! ties to be fai?fully adju/$ to ! grades giv51 & to ! web ( ! rail2 & ! rail to be truly laid & firmly spik$ s z to correspond neatly to ! alignm5t ( ! road4 ,!re w be ab\t #b1ejj ties requir$ p] mile ( road4 ,,*airs ,,& ,,jo9ts4 ,:5 *airs are us$1 !y %all be su* z direct$ by ! eng9e]1 & furni%$ by ! company1 & %all be well & accurately plac$ & spik$ 9 su* mann] & position z requir$4 ,:5 *airs are us$1 ! l>ge/ ties %all be select$ = ! jo9ts4 ,:5 ! jo9t is made by fi%+1 !re w be no tie directly "u ! jo9t4 ,,rails4 ,! rails w weigh ab\t sixty p\nds p] l9eal y>d4 ,no rail %all be laid on ! tang5ts :i* is 9 any way twi/$ or b5t4 ,x %all be ! duty ( ! fir/ p>ty to correct & make true any crook$ rails receiv$ by him1 also to b5d to ! prop] curve1 & 9 su* a mann] z n to affect ! /r5g? ( ! b>1 all rails laid 9 curves4 ,pun*+ ( rails1 & cutt+1 w also be done by ! contractor4 ,,track ,,lay+4 ,! mat]ials compos+ ! track w be furni%$ by ! company1 & x w be laid 9 ! be/ mann] accord+ to ! conditions foll[+4 ,! track w be laid on cross-ties1 & ! ties at ! prop] places on subsills4 ,:]e ! sills are us$1 !y w be laid ) f\r feet blocks at ! jo9ts1 & ) six feet blocks at ! rail jo9ts1 ! :ole be+ set to _! places by /akes1 & by ! eng9e]'s directions1 & maul$ d[n to a p]fect be>+1 be+ settl$ at lea/ half an in* by maul+4 ,! cross ties w be plac$ uni=mly di/ant1 7tw5ty-eight in*es f c5tre to c5tre74 ,! iron mu/ be s cut or select$ t ! jo9ts ( ! p>allel rails %all be )9 two in*es ( be+ opposite to ea* o!r2 no jo9t tie be+ all[$ a great] am\nt ( askew ?an ?is1 :e!r on tang5ts or curves4 ,a slip ( metal %all be ins]t$ at ! rail jo9ts :ile lay+1 to keep ! rails ap>t suffici5tly to all[ = expansion1 :i* ?ickness1 7dep5d+ ^u ! temp]ature17 %all be fix$ by ! eng9e]4 ,not*es to be cut at ! c5tre ( ea* b>1 to correspond ) half a spike1 to prev5t longitud9al motion ( ! rails4 ,ea* jo9t *air to be fa/5$ ) f\r spikes4 ,two spikes at ea* end ( ea* tie ^u /raight l9es & ^u curves ( less ?an #a1ejj feet radius at ! out] end ( ! tie two spikes outside & "o inside1 & at ! inn] end two spikes outside & "o inside ( ! rail4 ,^u curves ! out] rail to be rais$ by su* an am\nt1 dep5d+ on ! radius ( curvature1 z ! eng9e] may direct4 ,,turn\ts4 ,! contractor to put 9 su* turn\ts & sid+s1 ) ! necess>y frogs & swit*es1 z may be requir$2 ! frogs & swit*es to be firmly & truly plac$ 9 position s z to "w easily4 ,,fill+ ,,& ,,dit*+4 ,! /uff mov$ 9 b$d+ ! sills & ties1 to be plac$ betwe5 ! latt]4 ,! dit*es to be prop]ly clean$ out aft] ! track is laid2 ! fill+ nev] to rise high] ?an ! top ( ! cross tie4 ,any surplus /uff to be mov$ out ( ! cuts1 or if on embankm5t1 to be ?r[n ov] ! bank1 leav+ ! track & road-b$ 9 a neat & workmanlike %ape4 ,,deliv]y ,,( ,,mat]ials4 ,! ties & sills to be deliv]$ at "s po9t on ! road z ne> z possible to ! places :]e !y are to be us$1 9 no case requir+ m ?an "o ?\s& feet ( haul2 to be s pil$ z easily to be c\nt$ & inspect$4 ,! bids = ties w be by ! piece2 ! proposal /at+ ! numb] & conditions2 ! sills to be bid = by ! ?\s&1 bo>d measure4 ,all mat]ial furni%$ 9 connection ) track lay+ to be deliv]$ 9 su* mann] & "t z to comply 9 good season ) ! contract = lay+ ! rails4 ,,measurem5t ,,( ,,track4 ,! measurem5t ( track laid %all include ! turn\ts1 measur+ f heel to heel ( swit*4 ,no extra all[ance be+ made = putt+ 9 frogs or swit* ma*9]y4 #he4 ,specification = ,f5c+4 ,bids = f5c+ w be by ! runn+ foot1 or mile1 includ+ bo? sides ( ! road4 ,:]e requir$1 x w consi/ ( po/s plac$ eight feet ap>t f c5tre to c5tre1 set ?ree feet into ! gr\nd1 ei!r by digg+ or bor+1 & n by maul+4 ,! po/s %all be ( oak1 elm1 *e/nut1 or o!r durable wood1 n less ?an eight in*es 9 diamet] at ! bottom1 b>k$ & *>r$ :]e put into ! gr\nd4 ,! bo>ds to be #f #a in*es1 & to squ>e sixte5 feet long1 to be plac$ six in*es ap>t v]tically1 & fa/5$ to ! po/s ) t5p5ny nails at ea* be>+1 & break+ jo9t ) ea* o!r4 ,!re w be five b>s 9 dep?1 ! top ( ! upp]mo/ be+ five feet f ! gr\nd4 ,9 side hill & 9 gr\nd liable to slide1 p>ticul> c>e %all be tak5 to place ! po/s firmly 9 ! gr\nd4 ,at cattle gu>ds1 ! f5ce w be turn$ 9 to ! prop] di/ance1 & su* arrangem5t made z to prev5t ! passage ( animals4 #hf4 ,g5]al ,provisions4 ,,classification4 ,! classification ( mat]ial excavat$ w be ref]r$ to ! eng9e]1 9 all cases :]e ! nature ( ! mat]ial is que/ion$1 & 8 judgm5t tak5 !reon4 ,also all mat]ial us$ 9 /ructures w be submitt$ to ! inspection ( ! eng9e] or 8 assi/ants4 ,,quantities ,,& ,,qualities ,,approximate4 ,! quantities & qualities ( "w pres5t$ 9 ! s*$ule are m]ely approximate1 & ! in=mation giv5 on ! maps & pr(iles 9 relation !reto is accord+ to ! be/ pres5t k4 ,! company reta9s ! "r to *ange at any "t dur+ ! progress ( ! "w1 ! alignm5t1 grades1 & wid? ( ! road1 or any "p !re(2 & also ! limits ( ! sections1 or to alt] ! "*1 v>y ! dim5sions1 or *ange ! location ( /ructures1 or sub/itute "o k9d ( "w or mat]ial = ano!r1 or to omit entirely1 :5 f\nd necess>y1 or to require to be built :]e n n[ contemplat$2 & ! contractor %all c>ry into effect all su* alt]ations :5 requir$1 )\t ! contract prices be+ !reby affect$1 unless ! aggregate value ( all "w contemplat$ by ! contract be *ang$ full tw5ty p] c5t41 9 :i* case a fair all[ance1 ei!r = ! company or ! contractor1 %all be made by ! eng9e]4 ,9 case1 h[ev]1 ! aggregate value ( ! "w be *ang$ by ov] tw5ty p] c5t4 ( ! orig9al am\nt1 & ! contractor be n satisfi$ ) ! alt]$ comp5sation1 !n said contractor may ?r[ up said contract1 on condition1 t )9 t5 days aft] receiv+ notice f ! eng9e] ( su* alt]ation1 he give writt5 notice to ! eng9e] or ! company ( 8 desire to d s4 ,9 :i* case1 z 9 o!r cases ( ?r[+ up ! contract1 he %all z soon z desir$1 give peaceable possession to ! company or _! ag5ts2 leav+ also 9 _! possession any tools or ma*9]y ^u :i* !y h advanc$ any ?+2 & ! company may !n settle ) ! contractor on ! measure ( damages :i* ei!r %all suff]4 ,,basis ,,= ,,e/imat+ ,,effect ,,( ,,*anges4 ,! basis = e/imat+ any *anges z above m5tion$ is und]/ood to be ! s*$ule exhibit$ at ! lett+4 ,,no ,,liquor1 ,,& ,,good ,,ord]4 ,! contractor %all n sell1 or all[ to be sold or br\ght )9 ! limits ( 8 "w any spiritu\s liquors1 & w 9 e way disc\nt5ance _! use by p]sons 9 8 employ4 ,he w d all 9 8 p[] by 8 own act1 or by assi/+ ! (fic]s ( ! c\nty1 or ( ! corporation1 9 ma9ta9+ ! laws & su* regulations z conduce to good ord] & peaceable progress1 & prev5t encroa*m5t on ! rights ( p]sons or prop]ty2 & he %all dis*>ge f 8 s]vice1 :5 requir$ by ! eng9e]1 any disord]ly1 dang]\s1 insubord9ate1 or incompet5t p]son1 & refuse to receive into 8 employ any :o may h be5 dis*>g$ = su* cause f o!r p>ts ( ! "w4 ,,mon?ly ,,e/imates4 ,measurem5ts & e/imates %all be made by ! eng9e] once 9 ea* mon?1 by means ( :i* may be kn[n approximately ! am\nt ( "w done1 & ! contractor %all be entitl$ to paym5t !re= at su* rates bel[ 8 contract prices z ! eng9e] or presid5t ( ! company deems exp$i5t2 x be+ und]/ood t ! contractor has no claim on acc\nt ( any mat]ial n laid 9 its place 9 ! road-way1 or = labor be/[$ !reon2 & ! quantities %all be e/imat$ f ! dim5sions :5 s laid1 ?\gh on ! advice ( ! eng9e]1 advances may be made on su* mat]ial :5 deliv]$ = use1 9 :i* case x becomes ! prop]ty ( ! company1 9 ! contractor's c>e & keep+1 & he becomes liable = its loss or injury4 ,,extra ,,"w4 ,no claim = extra "w or = "w n provid$ = 9 ! contract %all be all[$1 unless a writt5 ord] to p]=m su* "w %all h be5 giv5 by ! eng9e]2 or t ! "w be subsequ5tly c]tifi$ by him1 & ! c]tificate produc$ at ! "t ( dem&+ ! paym5t ( ! mon?ly e/imate next aft] su* "w %all h be5 p]=m$4 ,,sub-,,contracts4 ,! contractor w be requir$ to p]=m ! "w himself1 & no sub-contracts reliev+ him f ! responsibility ( a prop] p]=mance ( 8 contract w be p]mitt$1 unless by ! writt5 cons5t ( ! presid5t ( ! company4 ,& no moneys %all be paid to any su* sub-contractor = "w or mat]ials1 )\t suffici5t au?ority f ! pr9cipal contractor4 ,,:5 ,,"w ,,to ,,be ,,comm5c$4 ,on ! acceptance ( a proposal1 ! *ief eng9e] w give notice !re( to ! p]son propos+1 by lett] direct$ to 8 /at$ address2 & 9 tw5ty days f ! date ( su* notice1 provid$ !re be no imp$im5t on ! "p ( ! company1 or 9 tw5ty days aft] su* imp$im5t is remov$ if !re be1 ! "w %all be begun ) an adequate =ce1 & f t "t be prosecut$ vigor\sly until its completion4 ,,h[ ,,to ,,progress4 ,x %all be und]/ood t prop] progress is n made1 if ! am\nt ( "w done 9 ea* mon? is n 9 due proportion to ! total am\nt to be done up to ! "t fix$ = completion by ! contract2 9 :i* case ! eng9e] %all call ! att5tion ( ! contractor 7or :oev] may be 9 *>ge ( ! "w if ! contractor be abs5t17 to ! fact1 & /ate to him :at additional ex]tion is necess>y to be made1 & :at fur!r =ce is requir$1 9 su* reasonable "t z may be prescrib$4 ,,putt+ ,,on ,,m ,,=ce4 ,9 default ( ! contractor's mak+ su* additional ex]tion1 & supply+ su* =ce1 ! *ief eng9e]1 or presid5t ( ! company may h su* =ce s5t to ! "w1 & ! necess>y build+s may be erect$ to receive !m at ! contractor's *>ge & exp5se1 :o %all receive ! said =ce 9 8 employ1 & "w x at :atev] price x may h be5 f\nd necess>y to employ x1 )\t dim9i%+ ! previ\s =ce ( ! "w1 & reg>d+ always su* extra =ce z if employ$ by himself4 ,,causes ,,= ,,det5tion4 ,!re %all be no claim = det5tion on acc\nt ( "w n be+ laid out1 unless a writt5 notice ?ree days 9 advance1 t x is requir$1 %all h be5 giv5 to ! eng9e]2 & ! damage = su* det5tion %all be e/imat$ by ! eng9e]4 ,! "r ( way %all be furni%$ by ! company1 b if x fail to d s = any p>ticul> place1 damages = det5tion %all n be claim$ unless ! contractor be deta9$ full tw5ty days aft] he %all h giv5 writt5 notice to ! eng9e] ( 8 wi% to comm5ce "w at su* place4 ,!n ! eng9e] may ei!r e/imate to him ! am\nt ( damage :i* he %all take z satisfactory1 or he may ext5d ! "t ( ! completion ( su* "w by z _m days beyond ! contract "t1 z ! contractor is deta9$ beyond ! tw5ty days foll[+ 8 notice to ! eng9e]4 ,,! ,,eng9e]4 ,9 all cases :]e ! ^w 8eng9e]0 is us$1 ! eng9e] 9 *>ge ( con/ruction is meant2 b ! directions ( any subord9ate eng9e] %all be obey$ :5 giv5 9 reg>d to any ( ! ord9>y op]ations1 or :]e !y are evid5tly 9 accordance ) ! specifications1 or :5 transmitt+ ! ord]s ( 8 sup]iors4 ,9 o!r cases !y may be ref]r$ to ! resid5t eng9e]1 & f9ally to ! *ief eng9e]1 he be+ ! au?oriz$ (fic]1 at ! "t act+ 9 t capacity4 ,,contractor4 ,! ^w 8contractor0 applies to & includes all p]sons contract+ jo9tly1 any "o ( :om %all be consid]$ ! au?oriz$ ag5t = & 9 behalf ( 8 associates1 & emp[]$ to receipt paym5t ( moneys1 receive & act ^u ord]s4 ,,! ,,contract4 #hg4 ,?is is ! mutually b9d+ legal article ( agreem5t betwe5 ! contractor & ! company1 specify+ ! times ( complet+1 mann] ( paym5t1 & describ+ ! "w :i* is to be done4 ,?us3-- ,a ,,& ,b ,,railroad ,,company4 ,contract4 ,graduation on sections ,a ,c ,d1 ,masonry on sections ,a ,c ,d1 ,balla/+ on sections ,a ,c ,d1 ,bridg+ on sections ,a ,x ,t1 ,f5c+ on sections ,o ,o ,o1 ,sills & ties on sections ,o ,o ,o1 ,track lay+ on sections ,o ,o ,o4 ,contractors4 ,articles ( agreem5t made & conclud$ ?is fir/ day ( ,janu>y1 ,a4 ,d4 #aheg1 betwe5 ---- ( ! fir/ "p1 & ! ,a & ,b ,railroad ,company ( ! second "p1 be+ a company duly incorporat$ by ! ,/ate ( ---- ( ! second "p1 :]eby x is mutually agre$ z foll[s1 namely3 ,! said p>ty_/p>ties ( ! fir/ "p h]eby agree to & ) ! said p>ty ( ! second "p t he_/!y w p]=m 9 a sub/antial & workmanlike mann] ! foll[+ "w1 namely3-- ,! "w "h describ$4 ,! said "w to be p]=m$ & complet$ agreeably to ! directions & to ! approval ( ! *ief eng9e] ( said company = ! "t be+1 & subject to all ! g5]al provisions ( ! specification atta*$ to & =m+ a "p ( ?is agreem5t1 & also subject to su* ( ! special provisions ( said specifications z are applicable to ! "w h]eby contract$ =4 ,& 9 consid]ation ( ! full & fai?ful p]=mance by ! said p>ty_/p>ties ( ! fir/ "p ( ?is agreem5t on 8_/_! "p1 ! said p>ty ( ! second "p h]eby agrees to pay = ! same 9 ! "t & 9 ! mann] h]e9aft] m5tion$1 at ! rates z foll[s1 namely3-- ,"h ins]t ! items & correspond+ prices4 ,x is mutually agre$ t ?is contract applies only to ^? items to :i* prices are atta*$1 & t :]e x embraces bo? labor & mat]ials introduc$ 9 ! "w1 su* prices are 9 full comp5sation !re= :5 introduc$ 9 ! mann] requir$4 ,:5 x embraces mat]ials only1 su* prices are 9 full comp5sation = ! mat]ials & ! labor necess>y to deliv] ! same to ! company1 & :5 x embraces labor only1 su* prices are 9 full comp5sation = su* labor1 & e incid5t to its complete & prop] p]=mance4 ,9 e case ! e/imate = asc]ta9+ ! am\nt ( comp5sation %all be made by ! eng9e] f ! actual "w1 f ! mat]ial furni%$1 or f t on :i* ! labor contract$ = is be/[$4 ,x is also agre$ t p>tial paym5ts %all be made f "t to "t dur+ ! progress ( ! "w z foll[s3-- ,times & mann] ( paym5t4 ,& t 9 ?irty days aft] ! contract is fully complet$ to ! satisfaction ( ! *ief eng9e] ( ! company = ! "t be+1 & ! "w is surr5d]$ to & accept$ by ! company1 a f9al measurem5t & e/imate !re( %all be made "u ! direction ( ! *ief eng9e]1 & be duly c]tifi$ by him1 on ! return ( :i* to ! presid5t ( ! company ! :ole am\nt !n f\nd to be due to ! said p>ty_/p>ties ( ! fir/ "p %all be paid to him_/!m on dem& z foll[s3-- ,ins]t mode ( paym5t4 ,& x is also h]eby fur!r agre$1 t bank-bills curr5t 9 ! ,/ate ( ---- %all be accept$ = ca% 9 paym5t = all claims "u ?is contract4 ,& ! said p>ty_/p>ties ( ! fir/ "p fur!r agree_/agrees t 9 tw5ty days aft] he_/!y %all be notifi$ to d s1 z provid$ = 9 said specifications1 he_/!y w beg9 ! "w h]eby contract$ to be p]=m$1 ) a =ce ( all k9ds suffici5t = its completion 9 ! "t h]e9 prescrib$1 & t he_/!y w f9i% & deliv] ! same to ! company fully complet$ 9 all its p>ts z foll[s3-- 99 99 99 99 99 ,& ! said specifications h]eunto annex$ are h]eby made a compon5t "p ( ?is contract & 7except s f> z any provision !re9 may n be p]t95t to ! subject-matt] ( ! contract or may be specially modifi$ h]e917 %all be look$ to 9 asc]ta9+ ! mean+1 ext5t1 & purport ( ?is agreem5t1 & 9 det]m9+ ! rights1 p[]s1 duties1 privileges1 & obligations ( ! contract+ p>ties z to any p>ticul> embrac$ !re94 ,9 virtue :]e( ! said p>ty_/p>ties ( ! fir/ "p has_/h h]eunto set 8_/_! h& & seal1 & ! said p>ty ( ! second "p h caus$ _! presid5t to subscribe 8 "n & affix ! corporate seal ( ! company h]eto1 all done 9 triplicate ! day & ye> fir/ above writt54 ,contractor's "n1 ,,seal4 ,presid5t's "n1 ,,seal4 ,,solicit ,,= ,,bids4 #hh4 ,! approximate e/imates1 plans1 & pr(iles be+ made1 & o!r prelim9>ies settl$1 proposals = execut+ "w are solicit$ by ! public pap]s4 ,?us3-- ,,new ,,york1 ,janu>y #a1 #aheg4 ,(fice ( ! ,a & ,b ,railroad ,company4 ,proposals = execut+ ! graduation1 bridg+1 masonry1 & track lay+1 & = ! supply ( mat]ials ^u ! ,a & ,b railroad w be receiv$ at ?is (fice until ! #ca/ day ( ,janu>y1 #aheg4 ,plans1 pr(iles1 & s*$ules ( am\nts ( "w may be se51 & blank bids obta9$ by application at ?is (fice4 ,all proposals mu/ be direct$ to ! *ief eng9e] ( ! ,a & ,b ,railroad ,company4 ,no bids w be receiv$ aft] ,janu>y #ca/1 at #ab1 ,m4 ,p] ord]1 ,c4 ,d41 ,secret>y ,a & ,b ,r4 ,r4 ,co4 ,,=m ,,= ,a ,,bid4 #hi4 ,t propos]s may make _! bids 9 a conv5i5t =m = comp>ison1 a blank1 some:at l ! foll[+1 is giv5 !m to fill out4 ,numb] ( ,section4 ,sec4 ,sec4 ,sec4 ,sec4 #a4 #b4 #c4 #d4 ,l5g? 9 miles4 #a #a #a #a ,graduation4 ,cle>+ & grubb+1 ,price p] acre1 ,co/ on ! section1 ,e>? excavation1 ,price p] y>d1 ,co/ on ! section1 ,loose rock excavation1 ,price p] y>d1 ,co/ on ! section1 ,solid rock excavation1 ,price p] y>d1 ,co/ on ! section1 ,av]age haul on section1 ,balla/+1 ,price p] y>d1 ,co/ on ! section1 ,:ole co/ ( graduation1 ,masonry4 ,fir/ class masonry1 ,price p] y>d1 ,co/ on ! section1 ,second class masonry1 ,price p] y>d1 ,co/ on ! section1 ,?ird class masonry1 ,price p] y>d1 ,co/ on ! section1 ,f\ndation timb]1 ,co/ p] ,m41 b'd measure1 ,co/ on ! section1 ,excavation = f\ndation1 ,price p] y>d1 ,co/ on ! section1 ,rip rap1 ,price p] y>d1 ,co/ on ! section1 ,:ole co/ ( masonry1 ,bridg+4 ,detail$ z above1 ,track lay+4 ,f5c+4 ,?is =m be+ fill$ out1 evid5tly gives ! co/ ( ea* or all ( ! items ^u any "o or all ( ! sections1 ! co/ ( all ! items ^u any "o section be+ at ! foot ( t section1 & ! :ole co/ ( any "o item at ! extreme "r & on ! l9e ( t item4 ,on ! bottom ( ! =m is pr9t$1 8,! und]sign$ hav+ read ! specifications1 & made due exam9ation1 h]eby proposes to ! ,a & ,b ,railroad ,company1 to p]=m ! "w 9 ! above s*$ule1 to :i* he_/!y has_/h set figures1 at ^? prices & "u ! conditions describ$1 & ^u acceptance ( ?is proposal by ! company1 b9ds_/b9d himself_/!mselves to ent] into a writt5 contract to t effect1 & to furni% ! requir$ security4 ,"n1 ,address1 ,"n ( ,surety1 ,address ( ,surety40 ,,comp>ison ,,( ,,bids4 #ij4 ,! bids be+ receiv$1 are comp>$ z foll[s3-- ,"n ( ,graduation4 ,masonry4 bidd]4 ,sec4 ,sec4 ,sec4 ,sec4 ,total4,sec4 ,sec4 ,sec4 ,sec4 ,total4 #a4 #b4 #c4 #d4 #a4 #b4 #c4 #d4 ,a ,b ,c ,"n ( ,bridg+4 ,sup]/ructure4 bidd]4 ,sec4 ,sec4 ,sec4 ,sec4 ,total4,sec4 ,sec4 ,sec4 ,sec4 ,total4 #a4 #b4 #c4 #d4 #a4 #b4 #c4 #d4 ,a ,b ,c ,"n ( ,f5c+4 ,gr& bidd]4 ,total4 ,sec4 ,sec4 ,sec4 ,sec4 ,total4 #a4 #b4 #c4 #d4 ,a ,b ,c ,f :i* ! names may be easily select$ ei!r = "o or m sections1 = any or all ( ! items1 t %all give ! lea/ co/4 ,,*apt] ,v4 ,,lay+ ,,out ,,"w4 #ia4 ,! runn+ ( ! l9e consi/s 9 plac+ a /ake at e "o hundr$ feet ^u tang5ts1 & at e fifty feet di/ance ^u %>p curves2 also a p]man5t po/ at ea* tang5t po9t1 & at po9ts ( comp\nd & rev]s$ curvature4 ,?is is ! c5tre l9e1 ! axis ( ! road1 & ! base ( all field op]ations4 ,:]ev] ! "w is go+ on1 ! c5tre p9s %\ld be ref]r$ to fix$ po9ts outside ( ! gr\nd occupi$ by ! road4 #ib4 ,! fir/ op]ation 9 prep>+ = excavation is to place side /akes at "o half ! wid? ( road-b$ plus ! dit*1 on ea* side ( ! c5tre l9e4 ,,slopes4 #ic4 ,sett+ out slopes is a t]m appli$ to lay+ (f ^u ! gr\nd1 on ea* side ( ! c5tre1 ! di/ance to :i* ! slope1 comm5c+ at ! out] edge ( ! dit*1 w ext5d1 dep5d+ ^u ! angle ( slope1 wid? ( road-b$ & dit*1 & dep? ( cutt+4 ,!re are "h five di/9ct cases :i* may occur3-- ,9 embankm5t :5 ! natural surface is horizontal4 ,9 embankm5t :5 ! natural surface is incl9$4 ,9 excavation :5 ! natural surface is horizontal4 ,9 excavation :5 ! natural surface is incl9$4 ,9 mix$ "w 7side hill17 :5 ! road-b$ is p>tly 9 cut & p>tly 9 fill4 ,9 bo? excavation & embankm5t1 :5 ! natural surface is horizontal1 we h only to add ! cut1 9 feet & decimals1 multipli$ by ! slope1 to "o half ! wid? ( road-b$ plus dit*4 ,?us suppose ! cut is #bj4ee feet1 half ! road-b$1 #aj4be feet1 dit*1 #c4jj feet1 slope #a horizontal to #a v]tical1 & we h 7#bj4ee #a7 #aj4be #c4j #dd4jge feet4 ,:5 ! gr\nd is incl9$ transv]sely to ! axis ( ! road1 fir/ assume a po9t ^u ! gr\nd1 7app>5tly "r7 f9d its height above grade ) ! level1 multiply ?is by ! slope & add "o half ! di/ance betwe5 ! out] edge ( dit*es1 & see h[ ne> x comes to ! measur$ di/ance f ! c5tre to ! assum$ po9t2 if )9 a foot1 x w answ]2 if n1 a second trial w fix ! place4 ,,culv]ts4 #id4 ,! l5g? ( any /ructure pass+ "u a railroad embankm5t is ,l - #b,rh1 :]e ,l is ! di/ance betwe5 slope /akes1 ,r incl9ation ( slopes1 h ! height ( /ructure f ! natural surface4 ,?us1 suppose ! di/ance betwe5 slope /akes to be #ajj feet1 slope #a to #a1 & h #aj feet1 we h ,l #ajj - 7#aj #a #b7 #ajj - #cj #gj feet4 ,! l5g? ( an oblique /ructure w ( c\rse be great] ?an t ( "o at "r angles to ! road2 ! l5g? dep5d+ ^u ! obliquity4 ,,masonry4 #ie4 ,!re are eight g5]al cases :i* may occur 9 lay+ out su* /ructures z bridge abutm5ts ) w+s4 #a4 ,a "r bridge on a level tang5t4 #b4 ,a "r bridge on a level curve4 #c4 ,a skew bridge on a level tang5t4 #d4 ,a skew bridge on a level curve4 #e4 ,a "r bridge on an incl9$ tang5t4 #f4 ,a "r bridge on an incl9$ curve4 #g4 ,a skew bridge on an incl9$ tang5t4 #h4 ,a skew bridge on an incl9$ curve4 ,& ^! eight cases w v>y aga9 accord+ to ! natural surface ( ! gr\nd1 :e!r horizontal1 or incl9$ transv]sely4 #if4 ,! g5]al position ( w+ walls & g5]al =m ( ! l9e inclos+ ! base ( ! bridge1 is %[n f fig4 #ca to fig4 #ch4 ,fig4 #ca repres5ts case "o4 ,! po9ts ,a1 ,b1 ,c1 ,d1 are fix$ by squ>es f ! c5tre l9e at ,e ,f1 ,g ,h4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ca4 ,fig4 #cb repres5ts case two4 ,! w+s #c;c1 #d;d1 mu/ evid5tly h a diff]5t incl9ation f ,a#a1 ,b#b4 ,! po9ts ,a1 ,b1 c1 d1 #a1 #b1 #c1 #d1 z be=e1 are laid (f by squ>es f a tang5t to ! curve4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cb4 ,fig4 #cc expla9s itself4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cc4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cd4 ,fig4 #cd1 case five4 ,"h ! w+s ,a#a1 ,c#d1 are ! same1 z also ,b#b1 ,d#c1 ! =m] be+ long]1 on acc\nt ( ! great] dep? ( ! fill4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ce4 ,fig4 #ce1 case sev54 ,"h ea* w+ is peculi>2 ! figure be+ a comp\nd ( figs4 #cc & #cd4 ,illu/ration3 ,figs4 #cf & #cg4 ,figs4 #cf & #cg1 case #h4 ,?is is ! mo/ difficult ( all4 ,no two w+s h ! same l5g? or incl9ation on plan4 ,! natural surface be+ horizontal1 ! l9e inclos+ ! bridge is ,a ,b ,c ,d4 ,if ! natural surface desc5d$ f ,c to ,a1 ! position tak5 w\ld be ,a1 ,b1 ,c1 ,d4 ,fig4 #cg is ! elevation ( ! position ,a ,b ,c ,d4 ,! sev]al po9ts are laid (f f ! l9e n1 n4 ,! g5]al mann] ( fix+ ! l9es ( figures #ca to #ch1 is to assume ! angle ( "s "o w+1 z ,a #a1 9 fig4 #cd1 to draw ,a ,c p>allel to ,e ,f2 & f ,c1 ! int]section ( ,a ,c ) ! base ( ! embankm5t1 ,c #d gives ! o!r w+4 ,local circum/ances w ( c\rse (t5 fix at once ! l5g? & angle ( ! w+s4 ,^u simple curves1 z 9 fig4 #cb1 ! l9es ,a c & ,b d are made radial4 #ig4 ,9 curv+ a viaduct1 ! axes ( ! pi]s are made radial to ! c5tre ( ! locat$ curve1 & ! planes ( ! spr++ l9es are made p>allel to ! axes ( ! ar*es4 ,! pi] ?us becomes a w$ge1 & %\ld be /r5g!n$ by a />l+1 ^u ! outside ( ! curve1 to resi/ ! resultant ( ! ?ru/s ( two adjo9+ ar*es4 #ih4 ,we %\ld nev] try to /ake out ! exact horizontal projection ( a complicat$ piece ( "w ^u r\gh gr\nd1 b only ! tr5*es1 :i* be+ cut1 give a horizontal surface to "w ^u4 ,9 plac+ ! /akes1 we mu/ be c>eful to h !m s f> outside ( ! "w t !y w rema9 undi/urb$ :ile op]ations are go+ on4 ,! pegs = cutt+ pits & tr5*es may be plac$ at ! angles ( ! latt]1 b ! work+ pegs mu/ be s plac$ t ! l9es /ret*$ f "o to ! o!r w def9e ! masonry4 ,all measurem5ts made 9 lay+ out "w %\ld be made by graduat$ rods1 & c>efully *eck$4 #ii4 ,9 f\nd+ pi]s1 & 9 aquatic op]ations g5]ally1 two /akes ^u ! %ore1 or a fix$ transit1 w def9e any l9e 9 ! wat]4 ,two transits w def9e po9ts4 #ajj4 ,a p]man5t b5* m>k %\ld be c>efully fix$ at ea* /ructure1 f :i* its levels may be obta9$4 #aja4 ,9 adju/+ oblique bridges1 c>e mu/ be tak5 s to place ! bridge seats t ! floor beams %all lie 9 a correct plane1 & n be at all w>p$ or w9d+4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ch4 #ajb4 ,z an example ( lay+ out "w ) reg>d to heights1 take ! case ( fig4 #ch4 ,let ! grade ( ! c5tre l9e be "o 9 #ajj1 ! angle ( obliquity #de1 ! wid? ( bridge tw5ty feet1 & span on ! skew "o hundr$ feet4 ,requir$ ! elevations ( ! po9ts a1 b1 c1 d4 ,assume ! height ( 7#b7 z #ajj4jj ,t ( 7#c7 w be #ii4jj b be+ #aj ft4 back ( #b is #j4a ft4 high] ?an #b1 or #ajj4aj & d #j4a feet less ?an 7#b7 or #ii4ij also a #ii4jj #j4aj1 or #ii4aj & c #ii4jj - #j4aj1 or #ih4ij ,,tunnels4 #ajc4 ,! ma9ta9+ a correct c5tre l9e ?r\gh tunnels is g5]ally consid]$ difficult4 ,! fix+ ( ! l9e 9 deep %afts requires great c>e1 ow+ to ! %ort di/ance betwe5 ! only two fix$ po9ts1 t c be transf]r$ f ! surface to ! bottom ( ! pit4 ,?is is a matt] ( manual skill & ( in/rum5tal manipulation4 ,!re is no difficulty 9 align+ ! upp] ends ( two plumb-l9es2 & ! l[] ones w c]ta9ly be gov]n$ by _! position4 ,! foll[+ me?od has be5 f\nd to answ] e purpose4 ,let ! op5+ ( ! %aft be t5 feet 9 diamet]4 ,place two horizontal b>s at "r angles to ! road across ! op5+1 ^u :i* slide blocks hold+ ! upp] end ( ! plumb-l9es4 ,adju/ ^! l9es1 at ! surface1 ) a transit2 & :5 fix$1 place iron p9s at ! po9t m>k$ by ! plumbs at ! bottom ( ! %aft4 ,^u ^! p9s fix ! exact c5tres4 ,= keep+ ! l9e 9 ! %aft head+s1 a /raight rod1 ) /eel po9ts at ea* end1 %\ld be us$1 :i* be+ plac$ ^u ! iron c5tre p9s1 fixes ! c5tre l9e ( ! tunnel4 ,:5 ! tunnel is curv$1 ! l9e %\ld be laid (f by (fsets f ! tang5t to ! curve at ! %aft4 ,by ?is me?od po9ts at t5 feet di/ance may be fix$ )9 #a_/ajj ( an in*1 a diff]5ce ( :i* w\ld cause an error ( ( an in* p] "o hundr$1 or an in* p] ?\s& feet4 ,,*apt] ,,vi4 ,,e>?work4 ,,=m ,,( ,,railroad ,,sections4 #ajd4 ,! read] is presum$ to be acqua9t$ ) ! mann] ( f9d+ ! areas & cubes ( simple geometric figures & bodies4 ,! foll[+ fifte5 figures %[ ! =ms :i* may be tak5 by ! cross section ( a railroad 9 cutt+2 = embankm5t inv]t ! same4 ,!y are easily sep>able into simple figures4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ci4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dj4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #da4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #db4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dc4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dd4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #de4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #df4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dg4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dh4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #di4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ej4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ea4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #eb4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ec4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ed4 #aje4 ,! =mation ( tables = ! am\nt ( e>? 9 level cutt+ is v simple4 ,! area ( ! foll[+ section1 :]e ,b is ! base1 & ,r ! horizontal dim5sion ( ! slope1 is 7,b ,b #b,r7_/#b h1 or 7#b;,b #b,r7_/#b h1 or f9ally 7,b ,r7 h1 i4 e41 ! base ( a rectangle by its height4 ,multiply ?is by #ajj & divide ! product by #bg2 or divide by #bg_/ajj1 & we h ! cubic am\nt 9 a prism "o hundr$ feet long4 ,! road-b$ be+ n9ete5 feet wide1 & slopes "o & a half to "o1 ! =mula = ! am\nt ( a prism "o hundr$ feet long is 77#ai #a;h7h7_/#j4bg1 & assum+ ! base ( rock cutt+ z eighte5 feet1 & slope "o qu>t] to "o1 & embankm5t eighte5 feet at subgrade1 we h1 rock1 77#gb h7h7_/#a4jh1 & embankm5t1 77#ah #a;h7h7_/#j4bg1 ! figure be+ inv]t$ = embankm5t4 ,= a prism ( t5 or ( "o ?\s& feet 9 l5g?1 we h only to move ! decimal po9t4 ,9 =m+ a table1 proce$ z foll[s3-- h ,b #a;h 7,b #a;h7 h 77,b #a;h7 h7_/#j4bg a b c d a b c d an bn cn dn4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ee4 ,x is evid5t f inspection ( fig4 #ee1 t c exce$s co by h #br2 & t c exce$s c by h #br2 & s on z f> z we g2 ?is increase be+ con/ant1 we h !n to f9d ! area ( c1 & = ! area c c d\ble c1 & add ! increm5t2 :5ce ! rule3-- ,hav+ f\nd ! increase 7:i* v>ies ) ! angle ( ! slope7 = ! second section1 add ! increase to twice ! fir/4 ,= ! ?ird1 add twice ! increase to ?ree times ! fir/2 & = ! n?1 add n - #a times ! increm5t to n times ! fir/ area1 or algebraically call+ a ! fir/ area1 a ! second1 a ! ?ird1 an ! n? area1 & we h ,! fir/ area a a2 ,! second area #b;a i a2 ,! ?ird area #c;a #b;i a2 ,! n? area na 7n - #a7;i an4 ,we might op]ate at once ^u ! cubic cont5ts1 b = ! l5g? to :i* "s decimals run2 "s inde$ circulat+4 #ajf4 ,! table ?us made may be ( ! foll[+ =m3-- ,cut 7or fill71 9 feet4 ,cubic y>ds ,e>?4 ,cubic y>ds ,rock4 ,slopes #a to #a4 ,slopes to #a4 #a #gf #fh #b #afc #acg #c #bfa #bjh #d #cga #bhb #e #dia #cef #f #fbb #dcc #g #hjb #eab #h #iai #eic #i #ajhc #fge #aj #abfj #gei i4 e41 cut be+ eight feet1 ea* "o hundr$ feet l5g? gives n9e hundr$ & n9ete5 cubic y>ds2 "o ?\s& feet1 #iaij y>ds1 & t5 feet ( l5g? #ia4i cubic y>ds4 #ajg4 ,! prec$+ sy/em is int5d$ only = approximate e/imates4 ,let "o p]son read (f ! cuts or fills f ! pr(ile1 a second give ! correspond+ numb] ( y>ds by ! table made z above1 :ile a ?ird sets ! figures d[n2 be+ c>eful to sep>ate ! cuts f ! fills4 ,= f9al measurem5ts1 none b ! prismoidal =mula %\ld be us$2 ! l5g? ( ! prismoids be+ tak5 at ea* "o hundr$ feet1 & ne>] :5 ! gr\nd is r\gh4 #ajh4 ,z an example ( ! comp>ative am\nts giv5 by ! above =mula1 & by ! common me?od ( av]ag+ end areas1 take ! foll[+1 ! slopes be+ #a to #a4 ,base4 ,di/ance4 ,cut4 ,end ,area4 ,mean ,area4 ,middle ,area4 #bj #j #j #jjj #jjj #jjj #bj #ej #e #acg #jfi #jei #bj #ej #aj #cej #bdd #bcf #bj #ej #ae #fcg #dic #dhc #bj #ej #jj #jjj #cah #bcf ,by av]ag+ end areas we h #ej #fi #c1dej #ej #bdd #ab1bjj #ej #dic #bd1fej #ej #cah #ae1ijj ,sum1 #ef1bjj4 ,& by ! prismoidal =mula1 #ej #cje #ej #a1beg #ej #b1ffi #ej #a1gee ,sum #bii1cjj #f #di1jjj1 & #ef1bjj - #di1jjj #g1bjj cubic feet 9 favor ( ! me?od ( end areas4 #aji4 ,! prismoidal =mula is algebraically 77a a #d;a7_/#f7,l c1 :5 ,l l5g?1 c cubic cont5ts1 a area ( "o end1 a area ( o!r end1 a middle area2 or1 v]bally1 to ! sum ( ! end areas add f\r times ! middle area1 & multiply ! result by "o six? ( ! l5g?2 ! middle area be+ ! area made ^u ! mean height ( ! two ends4 ,?us if ! l5g? is "o hundr$ feet1 & "o end t5 feet high1 ! o!r tw5ty feet high1 & slopes "o & a half to "o1 ! cubic am\nt is1 7! base be+ tw5ty-two feet17 77#bb #bb #cj7_/b #aj7 77#bb #bb #fj7_/b #bj7 77#bb #bb #de7_/b #ae #d7 #ajj4_/f ,,excavation ,,& ,,embankm5t4 #aaj4 ,"s writ]s h consid]$ t ! grades ( a road %\ld be s adju/$ z to equalize ! cutt+ & ! fill+4 ,! total rise & fall might n be mu* affect$ by ?is1 b ! me*anical effect ( grades might4 ,a p]fect balance betwe5 ! cuts & fills is n to be desir$4 ,! :ole co/ ( e>?work mu/ be a m9imum1 & x is (t5 *eap] to wa/e & borr[1 ?an to make v long hauls1 & to =m ! grade l9e by int]*ange ( mat]ial on ! pr(ile only4 #aaa4 ,! transv]se slopes dep5d ^u ! nature ( ! soil 9 :i* ! cut is made4 ,gravel w /& at a slope ( "o & a half horizontal to "o v]tical1 & 9 "s cases "o & a qu>t]1 or ev5 "o to "o4 ,clay /&s ne>ly v]tical = "s "t1 b f9ally assumes a v flat slope1 9 "s cases two1 ?ree1 & ev5 f\r horizontal to "o v]tical4 ,9 places :]e a /ratum ( clay und]lies m reliable e>?1 to avoid a v long slope1 x may be economical to support ! clay by a wall1 & to slope ! e>? only4 #aab4 ,c>e %\ld be tak5 9 e case to secure good dra9age & to protect ! slopes by surface dra9s at ! top4 ,! dra9s 9 long cuts %\ld be slightly incl9$ to insure ! runn+ (f ( ! wat]4 ,a fall ( t5 feet p] mile is en\gh2 five w answ] 9 _m cases4 ,on side hill cuts a surface dra9 along ! top ( ! upp] slope w d good s]vice4 ,on _m high embankm5ts1 cat*wat] dra9s1 comm5c+ at ! road-b$ & gradually slop+ to ! base1 w prev5t1 9 a great degree1 cutt+ ( ! bank4 #aac4 ,embankm5ts1 :5 made rapidly1 %\ld be f9i%$ to ! full wid?1 some:at above true grade1 to all[ = ! aft] settlem5t4 7,see specification47 #aad4 ,! foll[+ all[ances h be5 made = ! %r9kage ( mat]ial 9 "s p>ts ( ,am]ica4 ,light1 s&y e>? #j4ab ,clayey e>? #j4aj ,gravelly e>? #j4jh ,gravel & s& #j4ji ,loam #j4ab ,clay #j4aj ,clay puddl$ #j4be ,wet surface e>? #j4ae ,! bulk ( qu>ri$ rock on ! contr>y increases f tw5ty-five to fifty p] c5t4 #aae4 ,:5 embankm5ts are c>ri$ up sl[ly1 9 lay]s ( ?ree or f\r feet at a "t1 ! aft] settl+ is v little2 :5 c>ri$ up all at once x w be m4 ,! full wid? mu/ be kept1 ev5 above ! requir$ height4 ,fig4 #ef %[s ! =ms ( a bank bo? be=e & aft] settlem5t4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ef4 ,! be/ me?od ( =m+ a bank ( bad mat]ial is to ram ! lay]s z 9 fig4 #eg2 ?us ! t5d5cy is to consolidate by settl+1 & n to de/roy ! "w by slid+4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #eg4 ,,transport ,,( ,,mat]ial4 #aaf4 ,9 ! =mation ( embankm5ts x is n always advisable to make ! :ole bank f an adjo9+ cut or cuts4 ,! l5g? ( haul may be too long4 ,9 ?is case x is cu/om>y to wa/e a "p ( ! cut & to borr[ e>? f "s ne>] po9t = ! bank4 ,t ! transport %all be effect$ 9 ! mo/ economical mann]1 ! product ( ! cube ( e>?1 by ! mean di/ance1 7! di/ance betwe5 ! c5tres ( gravity1 ( excavation & embankm5t7 mu/ be a m9imum4 ,to det]m9e ! !oretical m9imum exp5se1 ! problem becomes v complicat$ on acc\nt ( ! great numb] ( v>iable elem5ts ent]+ !re92 & ! result obta9$ is applicable only to a p>ticul> case4 ,local circum/ances m ?an any o!r ?+1 det]m9e ! position ( a borr[ pit1 & ! pa? ov] :i* ! mat]ial is to be transport$4 ,,( ,,! ,,av]age ,,haul4 #aag4 ,to f9d ! co/ ( ! movem5t ( e>? on any section1 we mu/ h1 ! total am\nt ( e>? to be mov$1 & ! av]age haul2 ! latt] be+ ! di/ance ?r\gh :i*1 if ! :ole am\nt 7 mov$1 ! co/ w\ld be ! same z ! sum ( ! co/s ( mov+ ! p>tial am\nts _! respective di/ances4 ,to f9d ! av]age haul proce$ z foll[s3 ,fir/1 f9d ! di/ance betwe5 ! c5tres ( gravity ( ea* mass bo? be=e & aft] mov+1 :i* may be done ) suffici5t accuracy = practice by inspection ( ! pr(ile4 ,next1 #aah4 ,divide ! sum ( ! products ( ! p>tial am\nts by _! respective hauls1 by ! total am\nt2 ! result is ! av]age haul 9 feet4 ,or algebraically1 repres5t+ ! p>tial am\nts by m1 m1 m1 m1 ! respective hauls by d1 d1 d1 d1 ! total am\nt by ,s1 & ! av]age haul by ,d1 we h 7md md md md7_/,s ,d4 ,example4--,let column #a %[ ! p>tial am\nts 9 cubic y>ds4 ,column #b ! correspond+ hauls4 #a1jjj #bjj #bjj1jjj #b1jjj #cjj #fjj1jjj #e1jjj #djj #b1jjj1jjj #h1jjj #fjj #d1hjj1jjj ------------ ------------------ #af1jjj #g1fjj1jjj & #g1fjj1jjj_/af1jjj #dge feet av]age haul4 ,pro(4--,assume ! co/ ( mov+ #a1jjj y>ds "o foot z t5 c5ts1 ! co/s ( ! sep>ate masses are #a1jjj y>ds #bjj feet is #bj4jj #b1jjj y>ds #cjj feet is #fj4jj #e1jjj y>ds #djj feet is #bjj4jj #h1jjj y>ds #fjj feet is #dhj4jj -------------- ,sum1 #gfj4jj also ! co/ ( mov+ #af1jjj y>ds #dge feet is #af #dge #aj #gfj4jj4 #aai4 ,! movem5t ( e>? is effect$ by %ovels1 b>r[s1 horses & c>ts1 or by c>s4 ,9 r\nd numb]s we c move e>? ,by %ovels alone #aj to #bj feet1 ,by b>r[s alone #bj to #ajj feet1 ,by c>ts #ajj to #ejj feet1 ,by c>s #ejj to #e1jjj feet1 ,z ! haul increases1 ! numb] ( vehicles ( transport rema9+ ! same1 ! numb] ( excavators mu/ decrease4 ,e>?s easily remov$ d n admit ( s l>ge a haul1 ) a giv5 numb] ( excavators1 z h>d e>?s4 ,! nature ( ! gr\nd1 =m ( c>ts1 k9d ( horses1 season ( ! ye>1 & price ( labor are "s ( ! elem5ts ent]+ ! problem ( transport4 ,! be/ illu/ration ( ! matt] w be f\nd among ! v able writ+s ( ,ellwood ,morris1 ,esq41 ,c4 ,e41 9 ! ,j\rnal ( ! ,frankl9 ,in/itute4 ,kn[+ ! value ( wages1 ! nature ( ! e>? & l5g? ( haul1 x is easy to see :at mode ( transport mu/ h ! pref]5ce4 ,,contractor',s ,,measurem5ts4 #abj4 ,! price ( execut+ any piece ( "w is paid to ! contractor at /at$ int]vals1 g5]ally once ea* mon?4 ,! am\nt ( "w done at ^! p>tial paym5ts is obta9$ by in/rum5tal ref]5ce to ! gr\nd4 ,t[>ds ! completion ( op]ations ! mo/ correct & easie/ me?od ( f9d+ ! rate ( progress is to d$uct ! am\nt already done f ! total z giv5 by prim>y measurem5t4 ,! full price is n paid to ! contractor1 b a p]c5tage is kept back1 :i* insures a fai?ful p]=mance ( "w4 ,x is impossible to e/abli% a pro rata price at fir/1 ow+ to ! unc]ta9 nature ( ! "w2 :at appe>s to be e>? may be rock4 ,by d$uct+ a maximum price e/imate = all b "o ( ! items1 an approximate pro rata value = t "o may be det]m9$4 ,an analysis ( co/ w def9e ! m9imum limit = advantage to ! contractor2 & ! pro rata value less ! p]c5tage1 ! maximum = ! company's b5efit4 ,,dra9+4 #aba4 ,:5 a level is to be dra9$1 or ! wat] c>ri$ (f f ! surface ( a swamp1 ! fir/ po9t to be asc]ta9$ is ! location ( ! l[e/ outfall4 ,! direction 9 :i* aquatic plants lie %[ ! natural fall ( ! wat]1 ^! always po9t+ d[n /ream4 ,:5 ! mo/ available outlet has be5 decid$ ^u1 a ma9 dra9 %\ld be set out1 f :i* oblique bran*es are to be cut1 po9t+ 9 ! direction ( ! curr5t2 into ^! all m9or cuts are to be collect$ s t ! :ole di/rict may be equally dra9$4 ,! fall %\ld be greate/ at ! mo/ remote po9ts1 decreas+ z ! am\nt ( wat] increases4 ,l>ge & deep riv]s run suffici5tly fa/ :5 ! fall is "o foot p] mile4 ,= small riv]s1 d\ble t is necess>y4 ,dit*es & ord9>y dra9s require eight feet p] mile4 ,:5 ! wat] is made to pass away f ! surface1 x %\ld fl[ v gradually1 t ! sides & bottom ( ! dit*es may n be worn away by friction2 x %\ld be 9 con/ant motion t ! *annel may be kept clean & increase 9 velocity z x proce$s4 ,:5 ! surface is a p]fect level1 ! dra9s %\ld ( c\rse be made /raight4 ,aft] ! quantity ( wat] has be5 det]m9$ by c>eful obs]vation1 ! section ( ! ma9 & bran*es mu/ be fix$1 s t reg>d+ bo? _! areas & velocities1 ! ma9 dra9 w n be ov]*>g$4 ,to facilitate ! curr5t1 ! sides %\ld be incl9$ ab\t "o & a qu>t] to "o2 & ! bread? ( base %\ld be two ?irds ( ! dep? ( wat]4 ,^! results are obta9$ f ! practice ( ,engli% eng9e]s1 :o h giv5 a great deal ( att5tion to ! subject4 ,dra9s cut ?r\gh bogs1 may h sides ne>ly1 if n q v]tical1 z ! fibres ( plants =m+ ! soil resi/ ! action ( ! wat]4 ,,subsoil ,,dra9+4 ,geology has assi/$ ?is op]ation v mat]ially by r5d]+ u acqua9t$ ) ! quality & nature1 z well z ( ! succession ( /rata4 ,! soils :i* are imp]vi\s are usually ! heavie/1 & ! por\s are ^? ( light] quality4 ,clays1 :5 !y receive wat]1 w only "p ) x by evaporation1 :5 left 9 a natural /ate2 & !re=e to make su* a surface fit = a useful end requires consid]able +5uity1 & (t5 great exp5se4 ,su* a soil is n r5d]$ un/able by und]gr\nd spr+s1 & may be effectually dra9$ by bor+ ?r\gh1 & lett+ ! wat] (f into an "u /ratum1 :5 ?is is ( a por\s nature4 ,:5 l& ab\nds ) spr+s1 or is subject to ! ooz+ out ( subt]rane\s wat]1 dra9+ is effect$ 9 a diff]5t mann]4 ,spr+s h _! orig9 9 ! accumulation ( ra9 wat]1 :i* fall+ ^u ! e>?1 aft] pass+ ! por\s /rata1 lodges ^u ! imp]vi\s1 & glides along ! slop+ surface until x crops out1 g5]ally 9 "s valley :]e x =ms a wat]c\rse4 ,desc5d+ /reams are easily tak5 c>e ( by collect+ !m into a body be=e !y rea* ! l[ l&s4 ,:5 a morass is to be dra9$1 ! /rata ^u :i* x reposes %\ld be exam9$1 & if1 z is (t5 ! case1 a lay] ( clay int]v5es betwe5 ! sub/ratum & ! mossy cov]+1 :i* holds ! wat]1 by tapp+ ?is 9 well *os5 places1 ! :ole w s9k away4 ,a f9e example ( embankm5t ^u a bad bottom 0 p]=m$ by ,mr4 ,/eph5son1 on ! ,great ,we/]n ,railroad1 ,engl&1 at ! cross+ ( ,*atmoss4 ,?is moss 0 s s(t t cattle c\ld n walk ^u x1 & an iron b> sank into x by its own weight4 ,! moss 0 fir/ ?or\ghly dra9$ by a sy/em ( longitud9al & cross dra9s1 & ! embankm5t made ( ! lighte/ mat]ial possible--! dri$ moss itself4 ,)\t ?is treatm5t1 ! moss w\ld h sank b5ea? ! bank alone2 x n[ supports ! passage ( ! heavie/ railroad tra9s4 ,,me?od ,,( ,,conduct+ ,,op]ations4 #abb4 ,! organization ( ! eng9e] corps ^u a railroad is z foll[s1 diff]+ some:at 9 diff]5t p>ts ( ! c\ntry4 ,! ,*ief ,eng9e] has entire *>ge ( all ! "w1 ( all assi/ants1 appo9t+ & dismiss+ memb]s ( ! corps1 design+ ( all /ructures1 mak+ ( specifications1 & ( all me*anical op]ations incid5t to ! ?or\gh1 correct1 & timely con/ruction ( ! road2 & %\ld be able also to specify1 g5]ally1 ! am\nt & "* ( ! equipm5t ne$$4 ,! ,resid5t ,eng9e] has *>ge ( ! detail$ con/ruction ( f tw5ty-five to fifty miles ( road1 accord+ to ! nature ( ! "w1 be+ responsible to ! *ief eng9e] = ! prop] execution ( ! ord]s f headqu>t]s2 he returns to ! *ief eng9e] a mon?ly acc\nt ( ! exact condition ( 8 "w1 bo? z to ! am\nt execut$1 & also t rema9+ to be done4 ,! assi/ants ( ! resid5t eng9e] are a levell] & transit man2 to :om1 "u 8 sup]vision1 is ! duty ( lay+ out1 measur+1 & e/imat+ ! "w4 ,! levell] has ) him "o or m rodm54 ,! transit man1 two *a9m51 & "o or m axem54 ,9 "s cases1 add$ to ! above are inspectors ( masonry1 bridg+1 & sup]/ructure4 ,^! are necess>y only :5 ! road embraces a great numb] ( me*anical /ructures2 too _m to leave ! prop] "t to ! resid5t eng9e] = 8 o!r duties4 ,once ea* mon? ! exact am\nt ( graduation1 bridg+1 & masonry execut$ is obta9$ by ! resid5t & 8 assi/ants4 ,! *ief eng9e] applies ! prices to ^! am\nts1 & ! p]c5tage d$uction be+ made1 ! e/imate is ready = ! treasur]4 #abc4 ,! ab/ract prep>$ f ! mon?ly e/imate %\ld %[ cle>ly1 )\t unnecess>y figures1 ! am\nt ( "w complet$1 & also t rema9+ to be done4 ,= conv5i5ce1 ! v>i\s blanks us$ on railroads %\ld fold to ! same =m & size4 ,! blanks are1 ,! ,contract1 ,! ,specification1 ,! ,resid5t ,eng9e]'s ,mon?ly ,return1 ,! ,assi/ant's ,weekly & ,mon?ly ,returns1 ,! ,=ce ,return1 ,! ,pay ,roll1 ,v\*]s4 ,! contract & specification are giv5 9 *apt] ,,iv4 ,! resid5t's mon?ly return to ! *ief eng9e] is some:at z foll[s3-- ,mon?ly return ( "w done on ! fir/ division ( ! ,a & ,b ,railroad1 = ! mon? end+ ----1 %[+ also ! :ole am\nt ( "w up to ----2 also ! pres5t e/imate = completion4 ,section4 ,contractor4 #a ,,graduation4 ,cle>+ & ,grubb+4 ,excavation4 ,9 ,july4 ,total to date4 ,9 ,july4 ,total to date4 ,acres4,price4,am't4,acres4,pr4,am't4,y> ds4,pr4,am't4,y>ds4,pr4,am't4 #ae #ajj #aejj #cjj #ajjcjjjjddjjj #aj #ddjj #ajjjjjaj #ajjjj ,,masonry4 ,f\n- ,f\n- ,fir/ ,class4 ,second ,?ird dation 9 dation ,class4 ,class4 ,excava- ,timb]4 tion4 ,9 ,tot4 ,9 ,tot4 ,9 ,tot4 ,9 ,tot4 ,9 ,july4 ,total to date4,ju- to ,ju- to ,ju- to ,ju- to ly4date4ly4date4ly4date4ly4date4 ,yds4,pr4,am't4,yds4,pr4,am't4 ,,bridg+ ,,& ,,timb]work4 ,truss ,bridges4 ,pile ,/r+] ,tre/l+4 ,bridges4 ,bridges4 ,9 ,july4 ,total to date4 ,feet4 ,c4 ,am't4,feet4 ,c4 ,am't4 ,,sup]/ructure ,,& ,,f5c+4 ,sup]/ructure4 ,f5c+4 ,9 ,total ,9 ,july4 ,total to date4 ,july4 to date4 ,miles4 ,price4 ,am't4 ,miles4 ,price4 ,am't4 ,,value ,,( ,,"w ,,& ,,paym5ts ,,made4 ,value ( ,"w ,am\nt paid ,:ole value ,:ole am\nt ,am\nt left 9 ,july4 9 ,july4 to date4 paid4 due4 ,,value ,,( ,,labor4 ,=eman & ,labor]s4 ,c>ts ) ,c>ts ) ,:ole value4 ,me*anics4 ,horses4 ,ox54 ,,recapitulation4 ,value ( "w done 9 ,value ( "w up to ,rema9+ ,value4 ,july4 date4 ,! resid5t eng9e]'s assi/ants return to him weekly a /atem5t ( ! am\nt & value ( ! =ce employ$ ^u ! sev]al sections1 & mon?ly ! exact am\nt ( "w done on ! same1 = ea* ( :i* !re %\ld be a blank4 ,! above =ms may be pr9t$ & fold$ 9 #hvo41 or may be ! cont9u\s head+s ( a l>ge %eet4 ,,*apt] ,,vii4 ,,rockwork4 ,,rock ,,excavation4 #abe4 ,! sides ( rock excavation are sometimes cut to a small slope1 z "o f\r? or "o fif? horizontal to "o v]tical1 & sometimes cut q p]p5dicul>ly4 ,! e>?1 :5 x occurs1 :i* cov]s ! rock1 is fir/ tak5 out at ! prop] slope2 a b]m ( "o or two feet be+ left betwe5 ! foot ( ! e>? & ! cre/ ( ! rock4 #abf4 ,rock is tak5 out "o or two feet bel[ grade1 z well z e>?1 to all[ ! introduction ( ! necess>y balla/4 ,,bla/+ ,,& ,,qu>ry+4 #abg4 ,! mo/ common mode ( remov+ rock is by bla/+2 = ?is holes are drill$ by /eel-edg$ jump]s1 work$ ei!r by h& or by /eam4 ,! fir/ object 9 cutt+ a passage ?r\gh rock1 is to op5 a work+ face1 s z to get ! necess>y l9es ( lea/ resi/ance1 7?is l9e is t by :i* ! p[d] f9ds ! lea/ opposition to a v5t at "r angles to ! l5g? ( ! drill72 ^! l9es %\ld1 if possible1 be at "r angles to ! b$s ( /ratification2 ! holes %\ld be drill$ p>allel to ! seams ( ! rock1 z ! p[d] w !n lift (f ! /rata4 ,9 work+ a v]tical face1 x may be be/ to bla/ out ! l[] "p fir/1 & s und]m9e ! ov]hang+ mass4 #abh4 ,! am\nt ( p[d] 9 diff]5t *>ges to produce proportional results %\ld be z ! cube ( ! l9e ( lea/ resi/ance2 = example3-- #bc is to #d oz4 z #cc is #ac oz41 or #h to #d z #bg to #ac2 & g5]ally1 ,l#c 3 w 33 ,l#c 3 w2 :5ce w 7w,l#c7_/,l#c4 #abi4 ,! foll[+ *>ges correspond+ to l9es ( lea/ resi/ance are f ! works ( ,sir ,john ,burgoyne4 ,l9e ( lea/ resi/ance4 ,*>ge ( p[d]4 #b feet1 #j lbs4 #d oz4 #d feet1 #b lbs4 #j oz4 #f feet1 #f lbs4 #ab oz4 #h feet1 #af lbs4 #j oz4 #acj4 ,aft] ! p[d]$ /one is remov$1 ! p[d] is plac$ 9 ! l[] "p ( ! hole2 aft] :i* a wad ( turf1 or "s o!r light mat]ial1 foll[s2 next ! tamp+ ( p[d]$ brick1 dri$ clay1 or some?+ simil>1 & f9ally a /opp] ( wet clay1 or "s o!r firm sub/ance4 ,a hole is left ?r\gh all1 communicat+ ) ! p[d] by ramm+ ! tamp+ ar\nd a wire2 ?r\gh ?is hole a fuse is ins]t$ by :i* to light ! *>ge4 ,! mo/ p]fect tamp+ w\ld (f] a resi/ance z great z t by ! natural rock4 ,a great improvem5t ^u ! above me?od is ! s& bla/2 ! p[d] is put 91 & ! hole fill$ ) loose1 dry s&1 simply p\r$ 9 & settl$ by a g5tle /irr+1 b n at all ramm$2 ! explosion ( ! p[d] spreads ! s& z a w$ge1 & causes ! p[] ( ! bla/ to be ex]t$ sideways4 ,9 "s cases a small cone ( wood has be5 plac$ 7base d[n7 9 ! hole ) ! s&1 :i* aids v mu* 9 /opp+ ! exit ( ! bla/ ?r\gh ! drill4 #aca4 ,( late ye>s an admirable me?od ( light+ l>ge *>ges simultane\sly has be5 employ$1 namely1 voltaic electricity4 #acb4 ,a gigantic example ( ! application ( ?is me?od has be5 furni%$ by ! ,engli% eng9e]s 9 ov]?r[+ a portion ( ,r\nd ,d[n ,cliff1 ab\t two miles f ,dov]1 7,engl&74 ,two *amb]s1 #ac #e #d1 & "o #aj #e #d feet 7 cut 9 ! rock4 ,)9 ^! 7 plac$ fifty bags ( p[d]1 am\nt+ 9 all to eight & "o half tons4 ,! *>ges 7 light$ by ! voltaic sy/em1 by :i* op]ation a mass ( rock 7*alk7 #chj #cfj #hj feet1 am\nt+ to #djj1jjj cubic y>ds1 0 ?r[n into ! sea1 & by :i* !re 0 e/imat$ to h be5 sav$ ne>ly #dj1jjj4 #acc4 ,! foll[+ table f ,colonel ,pasley's memor&a on m9+1 %[s ! capacity ( diff]5t drills = p[d]1 by weight1 & also ! dep? ( holes ( diff]5t diamet]s1 to conta9 "o p\nd ( p[d]4 ,diamet] ( hole ,ounces ( p[d] ,p[d] 9 "o ,dep? ( hole 9 9 in*es4 9 "o in* foot deep4 in*es to conta9 dep?4 "o p\nd4 lbs4 oz4 #a #j4d #j #e4j #ch4b #a #j4i #j #aa4c #af4i #b #a4g #a #d4a #i4e #b #b4f #a #ae4d #f4a #c #c4g #b #ac4b #d4b #c #e4a #c #ac4e #c4a #d #f4g #e #j4d #b4d #d #h4d #f #e4g #a4i #e #aj4e #g #ac4f #a4e #e #ab4g #i #h4j #a4c #f #ae4a #aa #d4i #a4j #acd4 ,bla/+ "u wat] has be5 practis$ to "s ext5t1 & ) great success by ,messrs4 ,maillef]t & ,raasl(f1 bo? 9 ,new ,york h>bor & 9 ! ,/4 ,lawr5ce ,riv]4 ,! me?od is m]ely to explode bodies ( p[d] ^u ! surface ( ! rock1 ! wat] itself be+ a suffici5t s\rce ( reaction to ! bla/4 ,,tunnell+4 #ace4 ,tunnels are driv5 ?r\gh hills to avoid v deep cutt+4 ,:5 9 rock ( a solid nature1 ! ro( supports itself2 b :5 9 e>? or 9 loose rock1 an artificial ar*$ l9+ becomes necess>y4 ,figs4 #eh & #ei %[ sections 9 bo? rock & e>?2 ! inv]t b b is plac$ 9 a b$ ( concrete4 ,9 excavat+ e>?1 a tempor>y ro( is made use ( :ile ! "w is 9 progress1 :i* is aft]w>ds replac$ by an ar* ( brick or /one4 ,! back ( ! ar* mu/ be closely w$g$1 gr\t$1 & ! e>? well ramm$ 94 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #eh4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ei4 ,! great disadvantages att5d+ ! con/ruction ( tunnels are want ( air1 light1 room1 & dra9age4 ,to facilitate ! latt] requirem5t1 a v light grade may be introduc$2 ?is may easily be done1 z !y g5]ally occur on summits1 or on ! approa* to summits2 #a_/ajjj or five feet p] mile is suffici5t4 ,9 work+ a tunnel :i* is ^u a grade1 "o end naturally dra9s itself if ! approa* is tak5 out2 ! o!r dra9s ! wrong way1 to meet :i* ob/acle we mu/ resort to pumps :i* foll[ ! "w1 keep+ always 9 ! l[e/ place1 or by s9k+ a well at ! %aft ?r\gh :i* ! wat] is rais$ to ! surface4 ,! v5tilation ( tunnels is effect$ by draw+ (f ! bad air :5 a fre% supply mu/ ent]4 #acf4 ,9 tak+ out ! rock1 ! exp5se w dep5d mu* ^u ! nature & /ratification ( ! rock enc\nt]$4 ,,%afts4 #acg4 ,9 tunnels ( consid]able l5g?1 a long "t w\ld be consum$ 9 work+ f ! ends only4 ,9 su* cases x is cu/om>y to s9k %afts at ! mo/ conv5i5t places 7! %all[e/ :5 at ! prop] di/ance17 & to comm5ce at ! bottom ( ^! to "w bo? ways4 ,?is op]ation involves consid]able exp5se1 z all dra9+1 v5tilat+1 & removal ( excavat$ mat]ials mu/ be effect$ ?r\gh ! %aft4 ,9 leav+ op5+s = ! exit ( smoke & = admission ( light 9 artificial ar*es1 reg>d mu/ be _h to _! position4 ,!y %\ld be at ! spr++ r ?an at ! cr[n ( ! ar*1 z !y w ?us less affect ! /r5g? ( ! masonry4 ,! approa*es ( tunnels 9 cities & 9 o!r places :]e appe>ance is ( importance1 are f9i%$ ) face cop+ & w+s4 #ach4 ,tunnels1 :5 conduct$ 9 ! mo/ exp$iti\s mann]1 require = _! completion a long "t4 ,! foll[+ table %[s ! rate ( progress ^u "s ( ! mo/ important tunnels ( ,am]ica4 ,"n ( ,tunnel4 ,av]age daily ,l5g? 9 advance1 9 feet4 ,"t 9 days4 feet4 99,p5n ,railroad1 #c1fab #fig #e4ah 99,k+wood ,b4 ,o4 ,r4 ,r4 #d1ajj #gej #e4dg ,bo>d ,tree ,b4 ,o4 ,r4 ,r4 #b1bej #fge #c4cb 99,well+1 ,b4 ,o4 ,r4 ,r4 #a1bdj #ebd #b4cg ,pacific ,railroad1 #gjj #baj #c4cc ,pittsburgh & ,connelsville1 7e/imat$7 #d1ejj #haj #e4ef ---------- ,g5]al av]age daily advance1 9 feet1 #d4bje ,^? m>k$ 99 be+ = a d\ble track4 ,! foll[+ table also gives ! "t & co/ ( o!r tunnels 9 diff]5t p>ts ( ! _w4 ,"n & ,mat]ial4 ,daily location ( ,l5g?,"t av]age ,co/ tunnel4 9 9 9 p] feet4 days4 feet4 ,section4 foot4 ,n]!1 ,france1 ,h>d lime/one#ae1aec ---- #bi #bf ,riqu]al1 ,*alk ,france1 #ah1fbcb1aci #h4gbf #bf #ci4hi ,p\illy1 ,france1,*alk clay #aj1ibhb1ejd #d4dbj #bjaac4if ,ars*]ville1 ---- ,france1 #g1cdha1hgh #c4ibf #bf #fh4ch ,maurage1 ,france1---- #ae1gebb1jhe #g4ebe #be #id4dc ,rolleboise1 ,*alk ,france1 #h1fgj #fbf #ac4ibe #be #fb4ih ,r\le1 ,france1 ---- #e1fde #ebb #aj4hbe #be #fb4ih ,lioran1 ,france1 ---- #d1edhb1jhg #b4bba #ba #ef4ih ,kilsby1 ,engl&1,clay & s& #g1bcca1beb #e4hbg #bcaid4ca ,bel*+ly1 ,blue clay ,engl&1 #c1igb #fbf #f4cbd #be #ajb4hf ,?ames ,m$way1,*alk ,eng'd1 #aa1hhj #ici #ab4fcj #ch #de4ei ,box1 ,engl&1 ,m>ble1 free/one & m>l #i1fhja1beb #g4gce #ci #adh4ae ,h>eca/le1 ,rock & s& ,engl&1 #h1ggh #ici #i4cad #af #eg4je ,no*i/ongo1 ,clay & m>l ,mexico1 #ba1fei #bhg #ge4dac #aa ---- ,bliswor?1 ,rock & clay ,engl&1 #i1bdjb1aia #d4baf #ah #bc4ah ,sapp]ton1 ,rock ,engl&1 #ab1ijja1hgh #f4iae #ae #ab4dd ,black ,rock1 ,u4 ,greywacke ,s4 slate #a1icb ---- ----#ai #ag #gg4ah ,blaisy1 ,france1 ,*alk & clay#ac1deea1jdc #ab4ibf #bfacf4jf ,edge ,hill1 ,clay ,engl&1 free/one #f1fjj ---- ----#bb #af #cj4ae ,littleb\rg1 ---- ,engl&1 #h1fjg #eij #ad4fbg #bd #abi4fa ,woodhead1 ,mill/one ,engl&1 #ae1hdja1hjj #h4h ---- ---- ,! co/ p] cubic y>d = excavat+ tunnels 9 "s places has be5 z foll[s3-- ,"n4 ,mat]ial4 ,co/ p] cubic y>d4 ,blackrock1 ,u4 ,s4 h>d greywacke slate1 #f4fj ,lehigh1 ,u4 ,s4 v h>d granite1 #d4cf ,s*uylkill1 ,u4 ,s4 slate1 #b4jj ,union1 ,u4 ,s4 slate1 #b4jh ,blue ,ridge1 ,u4 ,s4 ----1 #d4jj ,! ,blue ,ridge tunnel on ! ,virg9ia ,c5tral ,railroad is #d1bhj feet long1 made = a s+le track1 #ba #ae feet4 ,l9+ ab\t f\r feet ?ick4 ,excavation :]e l9+ is us$ is #bf #bc4 ,! ,hoosac tunnel 7,massa*usetts7 is propos$ to be f\r & "o half miles long1 #bc #bb feet section4 ,to h two %afts eight hundr$ & fifty & sev5 hundr$ & fifty feet deep1 & t5 feet 9 diamet]4 ,artificial v5tilation becomes necess>y 9 head+s ov] f\r hundr$ & fifty or five hundr$ feet 9 l5g?4 ,! co/ ( ! %afts ( ! ,ble*+ly tunnel1 7,engl&17 n9ety-sev5 feet deep1 & t5 & "o half feet 9 diamet]1 cut ?r\gh blue clay1 & l9$1 0 #fh4dd p] y>d d[n4 ,! %afts ( ! ,blaisy tunnel av]age five hundr$ feet deep1 ?r\gh clay & *alk & loose e>?1 7be+ l9$17 co/ #aci4aa p] y>d d[n4 ,! %afts ( ! ,black ,rock tunnel1 "o hundr$ & ?irty-n9e feet deep1 9 h>d slate1 co/ #ah4gb p] cubic y>d4 ,,*apt] ,,viii4 ,,wood5 ,,bridges4 #aci4 ,wood5 bridg+1 ow+ to its *eapness & fitness = univ]sal application1 has be5 & is be+ adopt$ 9 all p>ts ( ! c\ntry4 ,almo/ any v>iety ( =m may be se5 ^u our railroads1 & ?\gh less durable ?an /one or iron1 x may ) prop] precaution be made to la/ a long "t4 ,,( ,,! ,,=ces ,,at ,,"w ,,9 ,,bridges4 #adj4 ,!re are f\r di/9ct /ra9s to :i* a piece ( timb] or a b> ( metal may be expos$1 ea* ( :i* t5ds to de/roy ! piece 9 a diff]5t mann]4 ,! am\nt & "* ( ^! /ra9s1 dep5d ^u ! position ( ! b> or beam1 & ^u ! direction ( ! =ce4 ,a beam may be pull$ ap>t by /ret*+1--,t5sion4 ,x may be de/roy$ by cru%+1--,compression4 ,x may be brok5 transv]sely1--,cross /ra94 ,x may be cru%$ across ! gra91--,detrusion4 ,,t5sion4 #ada4 ,if "o ?\s& p\nds 7 hung f ! end ( a susp5d$ timb]1 s t ! direction ( ! weight co9cides ) ! axis ( ! timb]1 !n w ! t5sion ^u ! beam be "o ?\s& p\nds4 ,if ! direction ( ! =ce is v]tical1 & ! beam is incl9$1 !n ! /ra9 is increas$ by z mu* z ! diagonal ( incl9ation exce$s ! v]tical2 = example1 let "o ?\s& p\nds be susp5d$ f ! l[] end ( a beam t5 feet long1 incl9$ at an angle ( #de4 ,! diagonal be+ t51 ! v]tical w be #g4jg feet1 & ! /ra9 is increas$ z foll[s3-- #g4jg to #aj z #a1jjj to #a1dad lbs4 ,z ! angle ( incl9ation1 f ! horizontal1 increases1 ! /ra9 f a giv5 load decreases1 until ! beam is v]tical1 :5 a weight acts ) its lea/ p[]4 ,,compression4 #adb4 ,if a v]tical po/ is load$ ) "o ?\s& p\nds1 ! compressive /ra9 ^u t po/ w also be "o ?\s& p\nds4 ,if a po/ is incl9$1 ! am\nt ( /ra9 is increas$1 z notic$ 9 ! case ( t5sion1 & to ! same am\nt1 t is1 dep5d+ ^u ! incl9ation4 ,a piece ( wood or metal act+ z a po/1 or pill>1 mu/ n only be able to resi/ cru%+1 b also b5d+ or bulg+ lat]ally4 #adc4 ,a cyl9d] ( :i* ! l5g? is only sev5 or eight times ! diamet]1 w n bulge by any =ce t c be appli$ to x longitud9ally1 b w split4 ,:5 ! l5g? exce$s ?is1 x w be de/roy$ by a simil> movem5t to t produc$ by a cross /ra94 ,:5 ! l5g? ( a ca/-iron pill> is ?irty diamet]s1 ! fracture is produc$ by b5d+ alone2 :5 less1 p>tly by b5d+ & p>tly by fracture4 ,:5 ! column is ca/ holl[1 & enl>g$ t[>ds ! middle1 ! /r5g? is increas$ 9 a v great ratio4 #add4 ,! =mula = f9d+ ! weight :i* any beam act+ z a po/1 w support be=e b5d+1 is1 accord+ to ,b>l[1 :o consid]s ! weight z v>y+ inv]sely z ! l5g?1 z foll[s3-- 7,,wl#b7_/7hj;,e7 bd#c1 & ! value ( ,w is 7bd#c #hj;,e7_/7,l#b71 & ! weight be+ giv51 & ! sectional dim5sions assum$1 we h d 77,,wl#b7_/7hj;,eb771 & b 7,,wl#b7_/7hj;,ed#c71 ,:]e ,w repres5ts ! weight 9 p\nds1 ,l repres5ts ! l5g? 9 feet1 ,e repres5ts a con/ant1 d repres5ts ! dep? 9 in*es1 b repres5ts ! bread? 9 in*es4 ,,cross ,,/ra94 #ade4 ,! am\nt ( /ra9 caus$ by any weight appli$ 9 a transv]se direction1 to a beam support$ at bo? ends1 is z ! bread?1 z ! l5g? inv]sely1 & z ! squ>e ( ! dep?4 ,:atev] depression takes place1 t5ds to %ort5 ! upp]1 & to ext5d ! "u-side2 :5ce ! fibres ( ! top "p suff] compression1 & ^? ( ! bottom ext5sion4 ,! am\nts ( compression & ext5sion mu/ ( c\rse be equal1 & !re=e if any mat]ial resi/s ^! two /ra9s 9 a diff]5t degree1 ! numb] ( fibres oppos+ ea* w also be diff]5t4 ,! top be+ compress$1 :ile ! bottom is ext5d$1 ( c\rse at "s po9t )9 ! beam !re exi/s a l9e :i* suff]s nei!r compression nor ext5sion4 ,! position ( ?is l9e 7! neutral axis7 dep5ds ^u ! relative p[] ( ! mat]ial to oppose ! /ra9s1 ^u its =m & ^u its position4 ,?us if wood resi/s two ?\s& p\nds p] squ>e in* ( ext5sion1 & "o ?\s& p\nds ( compression1 ! axis w be twice z f> f ! top z f ! bottom4 ,9 "s mat]ials ! neutral axis *anges its place :ile ! b> is at "w2 ?us wr\ght iron1 aft] be+ a little compress$1 w be> a great deal m compression ?an :5 9 its orig9al /ate2 also ! l[] fibres1 aft] be+ ext5d$1 w resi/ less ?an at fir/2 ! effect ( :i* two actions is to move ! neutral axis up4 #adf4 ,! foll[+ table %[s ! relative resi/+ p[]s ( wood1 wr\ght & ca/-iron2 ) ! correspond+ positions ( ! axis1 ) suffici5t accuracy = practice4 ,di/ance ( axis ,mat]ial4 ,resi/ance to ,resi/ance to ,ratio4 f top1 9 ext5sion4 compression4 fractions ( ! dep?4 ,wr\ght iron1 #ij #ff #ij_/ff #ij_/aef or #j4eh ,ca/-iron1 #bj #aaa #bj_/aaa #bj_/aca or #j4ae ,wood1 #b #a #b_/a or #j4ff ,?us 9 beams subject$ to a cross /ra91 z well z to a direct ext5sile or compressive "o1 ! resi/ance is effect$ by ! incompressibility & inext5sibility ( ! mat]ial4 #adg4 ,! =mula = dim5sion+ any beam to support a giv5 weight transv]sely is ,s 7#d;bd#b7_/;e1 ,:]e ,s repres5ts ! ultimate /r5g? 9 lbs4 b repres5ts ! bread? 9 in*es1 d repres5ts ! dep? 9 in*es1 e repres5ts ! l5g? 9 in*es1 ,,detrusion4 #adh4 ,detrusion1 or cru%+ across a fix$ po9t1 is su* z occurs :]ev] a brace abuts aga9/ a *ord1 or :]e a bridge be>s ^u a bol/] or wall plate2 also ! %e>+ ( bolts1 p9s1 & rivets4 ,,g5]al ,,resi/ance ,,( ,,mat]ials4 #adi4 ,! resi/ance to ext5sion1 to compression1 7z reg>ds simple cru%+17 & to detrusion1 is z ! area ( cross section2 i4 e41 if we d\ble ! area1 we d\ble ! /r5g?4 ,! resi/ance to a cross /ra9 is z ! bread?1 z ! l5g? inv]sely1 & z ! squ>e ( ! dep?2 i4 e4 if we d\ble ! bread? we d\ble ! /r5g?2 if we d\ble ! l5g?1 we divide ! /r5g? by two2 & if we d\ble ! dep?1 we multiply ! /r5g? by f\r4 ,,actual ,,/r5g? ,,( ,,mat]ials4 #aej4 ,any mat]ial w be> a mu* l>g] load = a %ort "t ?an = a long "o4 ,! weight t does n s injure mat]ials z to r5d] !m unsafe1 is f "o ?ird to "o f\r? only ( ! ultimate /r5g?4 ,?r\gh\t ! pres5t "w "o f\r? w be ! mo/ t w 9 any case be us$4 ,,wr\ght ,,iron4 #aea4 ,ext5sion4 lbs4 p] squ>e in*4 ,mean ( #ag exp]im5ts by ,b>l[ 7p4 #bgj7 #fb1gbj ,weisba*'s ,me*anics 7,vol4 ii41 p4 #ga7 #fj1ejj ,ov]man's ,me*anics1 7p4 #djh1 #dji7 #fa1ccc ,br[n1 ,r5nie1 & ,tel=d1 7mean7 #fe1bea ------------ ,! mean #fb1dea ------------ ,r$uc+ by #d = safety #ae1fac ,or 9 r\nd numb]s #ae1jjj lbs4 p] squ>e in*1 is ! resi/ance ( wr\ght iron to ext5sion1 to be us$ 9 practice4 #aeb4 ,compression4--,great discrepancies appe> among writ]s on ! /r5g? ( mat]ials1 z to ! compressive /r5g? ( wr\ght iron4 ,?\gh all e/imate ! resi/ance to compression1 z great z to ext5sion1 yet no "o 9 summ+ up ! g5]al result ( exp]im5t1 places ! =m] at m ?an f #ej to #ge p] c5t4 ( ! latt]4 ,william ,fairbairn gives1 z ! relative resi/ances to ext5sion & compression 9 b>s appli$ z gird]s1 #b to #a4 ,we h by ,weisba* #ef1jjj ,we h by ,rondelet #gj1jjj ,we h by ,hodgk9son #fe1jjj ------------ ,! mean #fc1ffg ------------ ,r$uc+ by #d #ae1iag ------------ ,9 r\nd numb]s #af1jjj lbs4 p] squ>e in*4 ,z f> z practice is any guide1 f #h1jjj to #ab1jjj p\nds p] in* is ! mo/ to be us$4 ,! ratio ( #ij to #ff1 seems to express v ne>ly ! action z 9 ! mo/ reliable /ructures2 :i* w1 !re=e1 be adopt$1 or #aa1jjj p\nds p] squ>e in* ne>ly4 ,! resi/ance to compression is v mu* great] aft] wr\ght iron has be5 some:at compress$4 ,,ca/-,,iron4 #aec4 ,ext5sion4--,?is mat]ial is seldom us$ to resi/ a t5sile =ce4 ,t ! tables may be complete1 h[ev]1 ! foll[+ is giv53-- ,by ,weisba* #bj1jjj p\nds4 ,by ,b>l[ #ah1bcc p\nds4 ,by ,ov]man #bj1jjj p\nds4 ,by ,r5nie #ah1jjj p\nds4 ,by ,hodgk9son #af1egg p\nds4 ,by ! ,briti% ,iron ,commission #ae1gaa p\nds4 ------------ ,! mean #ah1jhg p\nds4 ------------ ,r$uc+ by #d #d1ebb p\nds4 ------------ ,9 r\nd numb]s #d1ejj p\nds4 #aed4 ,compression4 ,by ,weisba* #aji1hjj p\nds4 ,by ,hodgk9son #ajg1ebj p\nds4 ,by ,iron ,commission #ajj1jjj p\nds4 ,/irl+'s t\gh5$ #acj1jjj p\nds4 -------------- ,mean ( ,common #aje1ggc p\nds4 -------------- ,mean ( ,/irl+'s #acj1jjj p\nds4 -------------- ,r$uc+ by #d = safety 7,common7 #bf1ddc p\nds4 -------------- ,r$uc+ by #d = safety 7,/irl+'s7 #cb1ejj p\nds4 -------------- ,9 r\nd numb]s 7,common7 #be1jjj p\nds4 -------------- ,9 r\nd numb]s 7,/irl+'s7 #cj1jjj p\nds4 #aee4 ,foll[+ are giv5 ! cond5s$ results ( ! prec$+ figures1 :i* may be reli$ ^u z giv+ p]fectly safe dim5sions 9 practice4 ,wr\ght ,iron4 ,ca/-,iron4 #ae1jjj #d1ejj ,t5sile /r5g?1 #aa1jjj #be1jjj ,compressive /r5g?4 ,= additional rem>ks on iron1 see *ap4 ,,ix4 #aef4 ,nature & ,/r5g? ( ,am]ican ,woods4 ,"n ( ! ,weight p] ,resi/ance ,resi/ance ,value ( wood4 cubic foot4 to to ,s4 ,ela/icity4 ,ext5sion4 ,compression4 ,:ite ,p9e #bf #ab1jjj #f1jjj #a1bbi ---- ,yell[ ,p9e #ca #ab1jjj #f1jjj #a1ahe ---- ,pit* ,p9e #df #ab1jjj #f1jjj #a1gbg #d1ijj ,r$ ,p9e #ce #ab1jjj #f1jjj #a1ebg #g1cei ,virg9ia ,p9e #cg #ab1jjj #f1jjj #a1def ---- ,spruce #dh #ab1jjj #f1jjj #a1jcf ---- ,l>* #cc #ab1jjj #f1jjj #ijg #b1dfe ,tam>ack #bf #ab1jjj #f1jjj #ijg ---- ,:ite ,c$> #bb #h1jjj #d1jjj #gff ---- ,canada ,balsam #cd #ab1jjj #f1jjj #a1abc ---- ,:ite ,oak #dh #ae1jjj #g1ejj #a1gdc #h1eie ,r$ ,oak #da #ae1jjj #g1fjj #a1fhg ---- ,live ,oak #gb #ae1jjj #g1bjj #a1hfb ---- ,:ite ,bee* #dd #ah1jjj #i1ajj #a1chj #e1dag ,r$ ,bee* #dh #ah1jjj #i1jjj #a1gci ---- ,bir* #dd #ae1jjj #g1jjj #a1ibh ---- ,black ,bir* #da #ae1jjj #g1bjj #b1jfa ---- ,yell[ ,bir* #cf #ae1jjj #g1bjj #a1cce ---- ,a% #ch #af1jjj #h1ajj #a1gie #f1eha ,black ,a% #ce #af1jjj #h1jjj #hfa ---- ,swamp ,a% #eg #af1jjj #h1jjj #a1afe ---- ,hickory #ea #ae1jjj #g1bjj #b1abi ---- ,butt]nut #ed #ae1jjj #g1fjj #a1dfe ---- ,ironwood #ed #af1jjj #h1ajj #a1hjj ---- ,rock ,elm #de #af1jjj #h1jaa #a1igj #b1gii ,! mean t5sile /r5g? ( wood is #ad1jhj lbs4 ,r$uc+ by #d = safety #c1ebj lbs4 ,r$uc+ = want ( season+ #b1jjj lbs4 ,! r$uc$ mean compressive /r5g? #a1jjj lbs4 ,r$uc$ resi/ance to detrusion #aej lbs4 ,ratio ( t5sile to compressive /r5g? #b to #a4 ,mean value ( ,s 9 =mula 7,,wl #d,sbd#b7 = ! woods mo/ us$ 9 practice #a1bej4 #aeg4 ,! lat]al adhesion ( fir 0 f\nd1 by ,b>l[1 to be six hundr$ p\nds p] squ>e in*4 7,lat]al adhesion is ! resi/ance :i* ! fibres (f] to slid+ pa/ ea* o!r 9 ! direction ( ! gra92 z1 9 pull+ (f ! top ( a po/ :]e x is halv$ on to ! *ord47 #aeh4 ,z reg>ds ! nature ( timb]1 season+1 "t ( cutt+1 etc41 al?\gh ^! are important items1 /ill1 g5]ally1 comm]cial consid]ations outbalance all else4 ,! mo/ complete treatise on ! nature ( woods1 is 8,du ,hamel1 ,lexploitation des bois20 f :i* x appe>s t ! be/ oaks1 elms1 & o!r l>ge trees1 are ! product ( good l&s1 r dry ?an moi/4 ,!y h a f9e1 cle> b>k1 ! sap is ?9n] 9 proportion to ! diamet] ( ! trunk1 ! lay]s are less ?ick1 b m adh]5t ! "o to ano!r2 & m uni=m ?an ^? ( trees gr[+ on moi/ places4 ,! gra9 ( ! latt] may look v f9e & compact1 b microscopic exam9ation %[s ! pores to be full ( glut54 ,! d5sity ( ! same species ( timb]1 9 ! same climate1 b on diff]5t soils1 w v>y z #g to #e2 & ! /r5g?1 bo? be=e & aft] season+1 z #e to #d4 ,9 trees n beyond _! prime1 ! d5sity ( ! butt is to t ( ! top1 z #d to #c2 & ( c5tre to circumf]5ce1 z #g to #e4 ,aft] maturity1 ! rev]se occurs 9 bo? cases4 ,oak1 9 season+1 loses f to ( its weight2 b its /r5g? is increas$ f #cj to #dj p] c5t4 ,,g5]al ,,table ,,( ,,! ,,nature ,,( ,,mat]ials4 #aei4 ,! t5sile /r5g? ( wr\ght iron assum$ z #a1jjj4 ,weight ,sum divid$ ,mat]ial4 ,t5sion4 ,compression4 ,cross ,sum4 p] by weight ,/ra94 cubic p] cub4 ft4 ft4 ,ca/-,iron #cjj #a1fff #ca4fh #a1iig4fh #dej #d4d ,wr\ght ,iron #a1jjj #gcc #ee4dj #a1ghh4dj #dhj #c4g ,wood #acc #ff #e4fj #bjd4fj #cj #f4h ,! advantage possess$ by iron ov] wood1 is 9 durability only4 ,! above figures %[ h[ mu* m ( ! /r5g? ( ! mat]ial is consum$ by its own weight 9 iron ?an 9 wood4 ,9 actual practice1 h[ev]1 ! me?od ( mak+ jo9ts & o!r details (t5 r5d] iron ! lighte/ mat]ial4 ,,rules ,,= ,,practice4 ,,t5sion4 #afj4 ,! t5sile /r5g? ( any mat]ial1 is express$ by ! =mula ,t ,sa1 ,:]e ,t repres5ts ! :ole /r5g?1 ,s repres5ts ! /r5g? p] squ>e in*1 a repres5ts ! area ( section 9 in*es4 :5ce ! necess>y area ( section ( any mat]ial to resi/ a t5sile /ra91 is f\nd by ! foll[+ rules3-- ,wr\ght ,iron a ,w_/#ae1jjj1 ,ca/-,iron a ,w_/#d1ejj1 ,wood a ,w_/#b1jjj4 ,,compression4 #afa4 ,wr\ght ,iron a ,w_/#ab1jjj1 ,ca/-,iron a ,w_/#be1jjj1 ,wood a ,w_/#a1jjj4 ,,cross ,,/ra94 #afb4 ,! p[] ( any mat]ial to resi/ a cross /ra91 is %[n by ! =mula ,w 7#dsbd#b7_/,l1 ,:]e ,w repres5ts ! break+ weight 9 p\nds1 s repres5ts ! con/ant 9 ! table ( woods1 b repres5ts ! bread? 9 in*es1 d repres5ts ! dep? 9 in*es1 & ,l repres5ts ! l5g? 9 in*es1 & to r$uce ! load to "o f\r? ( ! break+ weight ,w 7#dsbd#b7_/7d,l71 & f9ally1 by sub/itut+ = #ds1 #d #a1bej1 7#a1bej ( ! table ( woods17 we h ,w 7#ejjj;bd#b7_/7d,l74 ,also1 kn[+ ! weight to be support$1 & requir+ ! dim5sions1 we take out ! values ( d & b1 & h d 77,w #d,l7_/7#ejjj;b77 ! dep?1 b 7,w #d,l7_/7#ejjj;d#b7 ! bread?4 ,z an example ( ! use ( ! =mula1 take ! foll[+3-- ,let ! span1 or l5g?1 be #bj feet1 ,! bread? #ab in*es1 & dep? #ah1 requir$ ! load4 ,! =mula ,w 7#ejjj;bd#b7_/7d,l7 becomes ,w 7#ejjj #ab #ahb7_/d #bdj #bj1bej lbs4 ,aga91 ! weight to be support$ be+ #ae1jjj lbs41 l5g? #cj feet1 bread? #af in*es1 ! =mula = ! dep? becomes d 77#aejjj #addj7_/7ejjj #af77 7#bgj7 #af in*es1 also1 b 7#aejjj #addj7_/7ejjj #bef7 #bafjjjjj_/abhjjjj #af in*es4 ,,ca/-,,iron4 #afc4 ,! =mula1 expressive ( ! /r5g? ( a ca/-iron beam1 is #hej;bd#b ,,wl1 f :i* we h b 7,,lw7_/7#hej;d#b7 ! bread?1 & d 77,l ,w7_/7#hej;b77 ! dep?4 ,,wr\ght ,,iron4 #afd4 #ieb;bd#b ,,wl1 :5ce b 7,,wl7_/7#gjj;d#b7 ! bread?1 & d 77,,lw7_/7#gjj;b77 ! dep?4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fj4 #afe4 ,mr4 ,hodgek9son f\nd1 t by arrang+ ! mat]ial 9 a ca/-iron beam1 z 9 fig4 #fj1 t ! resi/ance p] unit ( section 0 increas$ ov] t ( a simple rectangul> beam1 9 ! ratio ( #dj to #bc4 ,he makes ! g5]al proportion ( su* gird]s z foll[s3-- ,l5g? #af ,height #a ,area ( top flange #a4j ,area ( l[] flange #f4a ,9 ?is consummate disposition ( mat]ial1 ! areas ( top & bottom flanges are made inv]sely proportional to ! p[] ( ca/-iron to resi/ compression & ext5sion4 #aff4 ,mr4 ,fairbairn f\nd1 t 9 wr\ght iron flang$ gird]s1 7"u :i* come ! v>i\s rails1 *ap4 ,,xiii417 ! top web %\ld conta9 d\ble ! area ( ! l[] "o4 ,?is agrees ) ! conclusion adopt$ on page #abi1 z wr\ght iron resi/s m ext5sion ?an compression4 #afg4 ,9 ca/-iron gird]s1 on no acc\nt %\ld !re be introduc$ webs1 or op5+s ( any k9d1 ei!r f economic or ornam5tal motives2 z ! uni=mity ( cool+ is !reby v mu* oppos$4 #afh4 ,mr4 ,hodgek9son gives1 z ! result ( 8 exp]im5ts1 ! foll[+ =mula = dim5sion+ ! ca/-iron gird] above ref]r$ to4 ,w 7#bf;ad7_/,l1 ,:]e ,w is ! break+ weight 9 tons1 a ! area ( ! bottom flange1 d ! dep? ( ! gird] 9 in*es1 ,l ! l5g? 9 in*es4 ,z x is n consid]$ safe to load a ca/-iron beam ) m ?an "o six? ( ! break+ load1 ! =mula may be express$ z foll[s3-- ,w 7#bf;ad7_/#f,l1 = ! weight 9 tons :i* may be safely borne1 & trans=m+ a 7#f,,wl7_/#bf;d = ! area ( ! l[] flange4 ,example4--,requir$ ! dim5sions ( a ca/-iron beam1 ( ,mr4 ,hodgek9son's =m1 = a span ( ?irty feet1 to support a load ( t5 tons at ! c5tre4 ,span #cj feet1 ,:5ce-- ,l5g? #cd feet1 ,l5g? #cd feet1 ,load #aj tons at c5tre4 ,span #cj feet1 ,dep? #be in*es1 ,l[] flange #cb4eh squ>e in*es1 ,upp] flange #e4cd squ>e in*es1 a 7#f #aj #ab #cj7_/7bf 7#cd #ab7_/af7 #cb4eh & #cb4eh_/f4a #e4cd4 & ! area ( ! top flange w be #cf_/f #f1 :5ce ! foll[+ dim5sions3-- ,l5g? #cj feet1 ,dep? #bc in*es1 ,l[] flange #cf squ>e in*es1 ,upp] flange #f squ>e in*es1 ,,( ,,po/s4 #afi4 ,a po/ may be v well able to resi/ ! compressive /ra9 ?r[n ^u x by any load1 b may bulge1 or b5d1 lat]ally4 ,! =mula by :i* beams are dim5sion$ = ?is requirem5t1 *anges ) ! mat]ial1 & ) ! =m ( section4 ,= rectangul> po/s ( wood1 we h ! =mula bel[4 ,w 7#bbdj;bd#c7_/7,l#b71 ,:]e ,w repres5ts ! weight 9 lbs41 :i* may be safely borne1 b repres5ts ! bread? 9 in*es1 d repres5ts ! dep? 9 in*es1 & ,l repres5ts ! l5g? 9 feet4 #agj4 ,! value ( ! =mula = ! /r5g? ( ca/-iron po/s1 seems to dep5d m ^u ! au?ority consult$ ?an ^u ! nature ( iron4 ,= example1 assume ! l5g? ( a po/ z tw5ty feet1 & ! diamet] z t5 in*es2 ! load :i* may be safely borne is1 accord+ to six diff]5t au?orities1 z foll[s3-- ,a #d1jjj1jjj ,b #aha1ajj ,c #cgj1jjj ,d #idj1jjj ,e #cjg1bdb ,f #cjj1jjj & assum+ ! l5g? z t5 feet1 & diamet] z t5 in*es1 we h ,a #h1jjg1ejj ,b #bjd1ejj ,c #a1ddb1ejj ,d #c1fdj1jjj ,e #a1agj1jjj ,f #fjj1jjj %[+ n only a great diff]5ce 9 ! unit resi/ance tak51 b also 9 ! effect ( ! ratio betwe5 ! l5g? & diamet]4 ,su* be+ ! discrepancy1 !re w be giv5 no =mula2 b 9 place ( su*1 ! table foll[+1 :i* is calculat$ f ! rules lea/ oppos$ to exp]im5tal evid5ce4 ,,table ,,%[+ ,,! ,,load ,,9 ,,p\nds ,,safely ,,borne ,,by ,,ca/-,,iron ,,columns4 ,,holl[ ,,cyl9d]s4 ,diame- ,l5g? or height 9 feet4 t] 9 in*es #f #h #aj #ab #ae #ah #bj #bb #bd #b #fjjj #ejjj #djjj #cjjj #bejj #ahjj #aejj #acjj #aajj #c #afjjj #adjjj #acjjj #aajjj #ijjj #gjjj #fjjj #ejjj #ejjj #d #cjjjj #bijjj #bfjjj #bdjjj #bbjjj #ahjjj #afjjj #adjjj #acjjj #e #ejjjj #cgjjj #dejjj #dbjjj #cijjj #cgjjj #cajjj #bhjjj #bfjjj #f #eijjj #egjjj #eejjj #ebjjj #dijjj #ddjjj #dajjj #chjjj #cfjjj #gajajjj #iijjj #ifjjj #ibjjj #hhjjj #hajjj #gfjjj #gbjjj #fhjjj #hacajjjabijjjabfjjjabbjjjaahjjjajijjjaj ejjjajjjjj #ifjjj #iafijjjafgjjjafdjjjafjjjjaefjjjadfjjjad ajjjacfjjjacajjj #ajbajjjjbjjjjjbjjjjjbjjjjjaijjjjahjjjja hjjjjagjjjjagjjjj #aabejjjjbejjjjbdjjjjbdjjjjbdjjjjbcjjjjb bjjjjbbjjjjbajjjj #abcjjjjjcjjjjjbijjjjbijjjjbijjjjbgjjjjb gjjjjbfjjjjbfjjjj #addejjjjdcjjjjdajjjjchjjjjcgjjjjcejjjjc cjjjjcbjjjjcjjjjj #afebjjjjejjjjjdhjjjjdfjjjjddjjjjdbjjjjd jjjjjcgjjjjcejjjj #ahfejjjjfcjjjjfajjjjeijjjjefjjjjebjjjjd gjjjjdcjjjjdjjjjj #bjhjjjjjgfjjjjgdjjjjfijjjjfejjjjeijjjje djjjjdijjjjdejjjj ,diame- #f #h #aj #ab #ae #ah #bj #bb #bd t] 9 in*es ,l5g? or height 9 feet4 ,,table ,,%[+ ,,! ,,load ,,9 ,,p\nds ,,safely ,,borne ,,by ,,ca/-,,iron ,,columns4 ,h ,,& ,,sections4 ,metal ,l5g? or height 9 feet4 ?ick- ness4 #f #h #aj #ab #ae #ah #bj #bb #bd #djjj #cjjj #bdjj #ahjj #adjj #aajj #ajjj #ijj #hjj #abjjj #aajjj #ajjjj #ijjj #hjjj #gjjj #ejjj #djjj #cjjj #bejjj #bcjjj #bajjj #ahjjj #afjjj #acjjj #abjjj #ijjj #fjjj #cfjjj #cdjjj #cajjj #bhjjj #bejjj #bcjjj #bajjj #bjjjj #ahjjj #djjjj #chjjj #cgjjj #cfjjj #cejjj #cdjjj #cbjjj #cjjjj #bhjjj #ac_/af #fjjjj #eijjj #ehjjj #egjjj #efjjj #edjjj #ecjjj #eajjj #dijjj #ajjjjj #ihjjj #ifjjj #idjjj #iajjj #hhjjj #hcjjj #ghjjj #gjjjj #aadjjjjacjjjjabfjjjabjjjjaadjjjaajjjjaj fjjjajjjjj #ijjjj #aaijjjjahjjjjagjjjjafjjjjaejjjjadjjjjac jjjjabejjjabjjjj #abcjjjjbbjjjjbajjjjbjjjjjaijjjjahjjjjag jjjjafjjjjaejjjj #abhjjjjbfjjjjbejjjjbdjjjjbcjjjjbbjjjjbj jjjjaijjjjahjjjj #acfjjjjcbjjjjcajjjjcjjjjjbijjjjbhjjjjbg jjjjbfjjjjbdjjjj #bdfjjjjdcjjjjdjjjjjcgjjjjcejjjjccjjjjca jjjjcjjjjjbhjjjj #befjjjjecjjjjeajjjjdhjjjjddjjjjdajjjjch jjjjcejjjjccjjjj #cfjjjjjehjjjjeejjjjebjjjjejjjjjdfjjjjdc jjjjdjjjjjchjjjj ,metal #f #h #aj #ab #ae #ah #bj #bb #bd ?ick- ness4 ,l5g? or height 9 feet4 ,,( ,,! ,,truss4 #aga4 ,! mo/ simple bridge t c\ld be built1 consi/s ( a s+le piece ( timb] plac$ across ! op5+ to be spann$4 ,?is =m is applicable to spans "u tw5ty feet4 ,! prop] dim5sions are f\nd by ! =mula3-- d 77#dw,l7_/7#ejjj;b77 ! dep?4 ,example4--,! dep? ( a beam ( tw5ty feet span1 & twelve in*es wide1 to support a load ( tw5ty ?\s& two hundr$ & fifty lbs4 is d 77#d #bj1bej #bj #ab7_/7ejjj #ab77 #ah in*es4 ,a beam #ab #ah1 & ( #bj feet span1 w !re=e be> safely a load ( #bj1bej lbs41 appli$ at ! c5tre4 ,9 ?is mann] is =m$ ! foll[+ table1 giv+ ! scantl+ ( /icks = railroad /r+] bridges1 ( tw5ty feet span & "u4 ,span4 ,bread?4 ,dep?4 #e #ab #ab #aj #ab #ac #ab #ab #ae #ae #ab #ah #ah #ab #bj #bj #ab #ba in*es4 ,! fir/ scantl+s exce$ ! requirem5t ( ! rule1 b are none too l>ge to resi/ ! %ocks to :i* su* /icks are expos$4 ,cross-ties ( plank1 #b or #c by #f or #h in*es1 & plank braces und]nea?1 7z %[n 9 ! fig4 at ! end ( *apt] ,,viii417 %\ld be bolt$ to ! ma9 timb]s2 ! same bolt pass+ ?r\gh ! tie beam & plank4 ,! longitud9al pieces %\ld be firmly not*$ & bolt$ to ! wall-plates1 & ^! latt] ei!r built 9 or scrib$ on to ! masonry4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fa4 #agb4 ,= a span ( f #bj to #ej feet1 we may use ! comb9ation %[n 9 fig4 #fa4 ,! piece ,a ,b1 mu/ be s /rong z n to yield betwe5 ,a & ,d1 or ,d & ,b4 ,! pieces ,c ,e mu/ be /iff en\gh to resi/ ! load com+ ^u !m :i* is z foll[s4 ,a locomotive eng9e ( ! heavie/ class w n exce$ fifty tons weight1 ea* pair ( driv+ :eels w support t5 tons1 & on ea* side five tons1 #bbdj #e #aa1bjj lbs42 or to all[ = %ocks & extra /ra9s1 #ae1jjj lbs4 ,ea* brace1 !n1 mu/ support sev5 ?\s& five hundr$ p\nds1 :i* = compression simply w\ld require only sev5 & "o half squ>e in*es ( sectional area2 b ! brace be+ incl9$1 ! /ra9 is increas$ z foll[s3-- ,a ,e to ,e ,c z #g1ejj to ,x4 ,& ,a ,e be+ t5 feet1 & ,a ,d fifte5 feet1 ,e ,c becomes eighte5 feet1 :5ce #aj to #ah z #g1ejj to #ac1ejj lbs42 :i* w\ld require only ?irte5 & "o half in*es = compression1 or a piece #d #c4 ,b is ?is en\gh = flexure8 ,on page #abd ! load :i* may be safely borne1 by a rectangul> po/ ( wood1 is %[n by ! =mula ,w 7#bbdj;bd#c7_/7,l#b74 ,sub/itut+ = b & d1 ! dim5sions #d #d1 we h ,w 7#bbdj #d #dc7_/7ahb71 or #egc1ddj_/cbd1 #a1ggj1 :i* is evid5tly too small4 ,plac+ #f #g1 = b d1 we h ,w 7#bbdj #f #gc7_/7ahb7 #ad1bbg2 exce$+ by a small am\nt ! requirem5t4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fb4 #agc4 ,x is evid5tly immat]ial :e!r we support ! po9t ,d ^u ,c1 or susp5d x z 9 fig4 #fb1 provid$ we prev5t any motion 9 ! feet ( ! incl9es ,a c ,b c4 ,abutt+ !m aga9/ ,a ,b1 ?r[s a t5sion aga9/ ,a ,b1 f\nd z foll[s3-- ,repres5t+ by c ,d1 ! appli$ weight1 draw ,d ,e p>allel to c ,b2 also ,e f p>allel to ,a ,b2 ,e f is ! t5sion4 ,! graphic con/ruction gives results ne> en\gh = practice4 ,rigor\sly we h ,a c ,d1 simil> to ,e c f2 also1 ,a c1 to ,e c1 z ,a ,d1 to ,e f2 & ,ef 7,ec ,,ad7_/7,ac74 ,:5 a d & c d are diff]5tly incl9$1 proce$ z foll[s4 ,see fig4 #ajb1 p4 #bjj inv]t$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fc4 ,let d b repres5t ! weight2 e h %[s ! t5sion4 ,! triangles a c d1 & a b e1 are simil>2 z also e b h & d b c2 :5ce b e 7a b1 c d7_/7a c71 & e h 7c b1 b e7_/7d c7 t5sion4 ,9 practice place w = b d2 i4 e4 ! actual weight4 ,9 ?is plan1 if ! *ord is able to resi/ ! cross /ra9 betwe5 ,a & ,d1 x w also resi/ ! t5sion4 ,?is cross /ra9 is f\nd by ! =mula already giv5 & illu/rat$4 #agd4 ,f :at prec$es1 we h ! foll[+ dim5sions = bridges su* z are %[n 9 figs4 #fa & #fb4 ,! details ( #fb1 at f & c1 & at ,e1 #fa1 are %[n 9 figs4 #fb ,a1 #fb ,b1 & #fa ,c4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fb ,a4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fb ,b4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fb ,c4 ,span4 ,rise4 ,a ,b4 ,c ,e4 ,rod b4 #bj #h #ab #ab 7#e #h7--b #a in*es4 #be #aj #ab #ae 7#e #i7--b #a in*es4 #cj #ab #ab #ah 7#e #aj7--b #a in*es4 #ce #ac #ab #bj 7#e #aj7--b #a in*es4 #dj #ad #ad #ba 7#e #ab7--b #a in*es4 #de #ae #ad #bb 7#f #ab7--b #a in*es4 #ej #af #ad #bd 7#f #ab7--b #a in*es4 ,! braces1 7column #d17 be+ 9 pairs & block$ toge!r4 ,9 spans exce$+ tw5ty-five feet1 ! braces d f1 & ! rods f g1 %\ld nev] be omitt$4 ,! size ( ! rod g f1 is f\nd by consid]+ ,a1 d1 f1 z a small bridge4 #age4 ,9 all light bridges1 l ! "o "u consid]ation1 all p>ts %\ld be fa/5$ by bolts1 to prev5t spr++ by reaction4 ,a bridge ) b little in]tia1 or dead weight1 t5ds to jump up :5 ! eng9e has pass$ ov] x4 ,fa/5+ takes ! place ( weight 9 a l>ge span4 ,z soon z ! rise admits1 ! po9ts ,c1 on ea* side ( ! bridge1 %\ld be connect$ to resi/ lat]al motion4 ,:5 ! height is n en\gh = ?is1 ! same po9ts may be jo9$ to a floor beam ext5d$ out beyond ! truss4 ,?\gh ! dim5sions are giv5 = ?is plan up to fifty feet span1 x is v seldom advisable to g beyond tw5ty-five or ?irty feet2 z frames consi/+ ( a few long timb]s are n s rigid1 & free f vibration1 z ^? made ( a great] numb] ( %ort pieces4 #agf4 ,9 ext5d+ ?is sy/em "o hundr$ or two hundr$ feet1 we see at once t ! pieces ,a c1 ,b c1 w\ld become v long & w\ld ne$ to be made l>ge & heavy4 ,we %\ld always s proportion any beam 9 a bridge t x is at once able to resi/ all ( ! sev]al /ra9s to :i* x may be expos$1 )\t be+ unnecess>ily l>ge4 ,z to compression1 ! above sy/em might be ext5d$ to almo/ any am\nt2 b ! braces w\ld yield by flexure4 ,in/ead ( produc+ ! braces ,a c1 ,a c1 fig4 #fd1 to _! int]section1 we /op at c & c1 ins]t c c2 to prev5t ! approa* ( ^! po9ts1 susp5d ! po9ts ,b & ,b f c & c1 & comm5ce aga9 ) ! braces ,b ,d1 ,b ,d2 & s on z f> z necess>y4 ,to prev5t ! backw>d motion ( ! po9ts ,b1 & ,b1 ei!r ! *ord ,a ,a1 or ! c\nt]-braces m1 m1 are necess>y4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fd4 ,! pieces ,a c1 ,ac mu/ support all ( ! load1 includ+ ! weight ( ! bridge1 ly+ )9 ! rectangle ,b c1 ,b c4 ,! next set ( braces mu/ su/a9 t "p ( ! load only :i* comes ov] ! c5tre ( ! bridge4 ,?us ! braces %\ld decrease 9 size z ! c5tre is approa*$4 ,! rods c ,b1 c ,b1 mu/ resi/ a t5sion equal 9 am\nt to ! pressure on ! braces1 only be+ v]tical !y d n ne$ ! increase giv5 to ! braces on acc\nt ( _! incl9ation4 #agg4 ,!re is ano!r me?od ( /iff5+ a beam1 z %[n 9 figs4 #fe & #ff1 by truss+ rods1 & a po/4 ,! dim5sions be+ ! same1 ! =ces 9 bo? cases w be equal4 ,! second1 fig4 #ff1 leaves ! passage b5ea? ! bridge cle>4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fe4 ,! t5sion on ! rods ,a c1 ,b c1 fig4 #ff1 t5ds to draw ! po9ts ,a & ,b toge!r1 an ef=t :i* is resi/$ by ! top *ord ,a ,b4 ,9 ext5d+ ?is sy/em1 z 9 art4 #agf1 ! rods become ei!r v long1 or v l>ge1 f ! small angle ( incl9ation2 evils :i* rem$i$ z be=e1 by support+ ! po/ c ,b1 fig4 #fd1 f ! foot ( ! fir/ rod1 fig4 #fd1 & comm5c+ aga9 f c4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ff4 ,to prev5t ! motion ( ! triangle c ,b ,g1 fig4 #fd1 ab\t ! angle ,b1 we mu/ introduce ei!r ! upp] *ord c c1 or ! c\nt] rod c ,a4 ,if ! l[] *ord is omitt$ ! rod ,d ,b mu/ be ( ! same size z ,e ,b4 ,9 ?is truss1 ei!r ! top or ! l[] *ord simply may !oretically be omitt$1 due all[ance be+ made 9 ! size ( ! rods4 ,9 practice x is nev] advisable to omit ei!r1 z bo? are requir$ = lat]al brac+1 & = support ( ! road-way4 ,hav+ said ?us mu* ( ! g5]al ideas t apply to all bridges1 let u n[ look at "s ( ! plans mo/ 9 use2 & to become famili> ) ! subject1 "w out ! dim5sions ( an example ( ea* k9d4 #agh4 ,z rods1 nuts1 & wa%]s are us$ 9 all bridges1 ! foll[+ table may n be out ( place3-- ,column #a gives ! diamet] ( rod4 ,column #b /r5g? at #ae1jjj lbs4 p] squ>e in*4 ,column #c ! weight p] l9eal foot4 ,column #d side ( ! squ>e nut4 ,column #e ! ?ickness ( ! same4 ,column #f ! dim5sions ( wa%]s4 ,column #g ! ?ickness ( wa%]s4 ,column #h bread? 7side to side7 six-sid$ nut4 ,column #i bread? 7across angles7 six-sid$ nut4 ,column #aj ?ickness ( six-sid$ nut4 ,column #aa numb] ( screw ?reads p] in*4 ,column #ab gives ! diamet] ( rod4 #a #b #c #d #e #f ,diamet]4,/r5g?,weight,squ>e,?ickness4,s qu>e ( ,rod4 p] ,nut4 ( ,foot4 ,wa%]4 #b1idj #j4ff #a #b #f1fcj #a4di #a #c #a #aa1gge #b4fe #b #a #d #a #ad1iaj #c4cf #b #a #d #a #ah1dje #d4ag #b #a #e #a #bb1bfj #e4jb #b #a #e #a #bf1eje #e4ig #b #a #f #a #ca1jie #g4ja #b #a #f #a #cf1jge #h4ac #c #a #g #a #da1dae #i4cc #c #a #g #b #dg1acj #aj4fb #c #a #h #b #ec1aij #ab4jj #c #b #h #b #ei1fdj #ac4dj #d #b #i #b #ff1dej #ae4jj #d #b #i #b #gc1fbj #af4gj #d #b #aj #a #b #c #d #e #f #a #g #h #i #aj #aa #ab ,diamet]4 ,top ,six- ,six- ,six- ,screw4,diamet]4 ,wa%]4,sid$,sid$ ,sid$ ,nut4 ,nut4 ,nut4 #a #a #i_/af #ab #a #b #aj #a #a #b #a #h #a #a #b #bg_/af #a #g #a #a #bbaa_/af #ag_/ab #g #a #a #b #b #ag_/af #f #a #a #b #caaa_/af #f #a #a #b #ce_/afaac_/af #e #a #a #c #c #b #e #a #a #c #c #b #d #a #b #c #d #b #d #b #b #c #dc_/af #b #d #b #b #c #df_/af #b #d #b #b #d #d #b #d #b #b #d #d #b #c #b #a #g #h #i #aj #aa #ab #agi4 ,let u n[ assume ! foll[+ data3-- ,span #bjj feet1 ,rise 7c5tre to c5tre ( *ords7 #be feet1 ,wid? #bj feet1 ,l5g? ( panel #ae feet1 ,weight 7bridge & load7 p] l9eal ft4 #d1jjj lbs4 ,,h[e',s ,,bridge4 ,fig4 #fg4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fg4 ,l[] ,*ords4--,! t5sion1 at ! c5tre ( ! l[] *ord1 is f\nd by divid+ ! product ( ! weight ( ! :ole bridge & load by ! span1 by eight times ! height1 or ,t 7,w ,s7_/7#h;h71 :i* becomes1 ) ! above data1 ,t 7#hjjjjj #bjj7_/bjj #hjj1jjj lbs4 ,"h ! t5sion & ! total weight are equal1 a result :i* c occur only :5 ! rise is "o eigh? ( ! span4 ,?is is ! be/ ration betwe5 ^! dim5sions1 z !n ! horizontal & v]tical =ces are equal4 ,z to ! proportion ( ! panel1 7or ! rectangle inclos$ by ! *ords & any two adjac5t po/s17 ! ratio ( base to height %\ld be su* z to make ! incl9ation ( diagonal ab\t #ej f ! horizontal2 if mu* less1 ! timb]s become l>ge & heavy2 & if m1 ! numb] ( pieces is unnecess>ily increas$4 ,! braces at ! end ( a long span1 may be ne>] to ! v]tical ?an ^? ne> ! c5tre1 z !y h m "w to d4 ,if ! end panel be made twice z high z long1 & ! c5tre panel squ>e1 ! int]m$iates v>y+ z _! di/ance f ! end1 a good ar*itectural effect is produc$4 ,to det]m9e ! size ( ! l[] *ords1 to resi/ ! above #hjj1jjj p\nds ( t5sion1 proce$ z foll[s3 ,ea* side truss w support "o half ( ! :ole load1 or #djj1jjj p\nds2 :i*1 at #b1jjj p\nds p] in*1 w require #bjj squ>e in*es ( section4 ,f\r /icks ( #h #ab in*es1 give an area ( #chd squ>e in*es1 :i* mu/ be r$uc$ z foll[s3 ,d$uct #gb squ>e in*es = ! area cut out by ! splic+ blocks1 #dj in*es = ! bolts connect+ ! pieces1 #bh in*es = ins]t+ ! foot blocks1 & #aj in*es = ins]t+ ! wa%]1 & we h rema9+ #bcd squ>e in*es2 :i* exce$s by a little ! exact dem&4 ,?is excess 7ab\t "o sev5?7 is a necess>y all[ance = accid5tal /ra91 to :i* all bridges are subject$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fg ,a4 ,! splices us$ 9 bridge fram+ are %[n 9 fig4 #fg ,a & fig4 #fg ,b4 ,= ! fir/1 ! dep? ( ins]tion & l5g? ( ! block dep5d ^u ! t5sion ^u ! *ord4 ,! foll[+ dim5sions h be5 mu* us$ & are p]fectly reliable3-- ,span ( ,bridge4 ,a ,c ,b ,c ,c ,d ,feet4 ,feet4 ,in*es4 ,feet4 #ej #a4jj #a #a4ej #ajj #a4be #b #b4jj #aej #a4ge #b #b4be #bjj #b4jj #c #b4ge ,!re is no ne$ ( cutt+ m ?an "o not*1 z 9 ! figure2 ! resi/ance ( ! triangles is !reby less5$1 & ! "w increas$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fg ,b4 ,9 fig4 #fg ,b1 ! rods mu/ ( c\rse be able to resi/ ! t5sion ^u ! "o piece :i* is cut4 ,upp] ,*ord4--,! upp] *ords ( a bridge suff] compression1 to ! same am\nt num]ically1 z ! t5sion on ! l[] *ord2 z :atev] t5sion is ?r[n by any brace ^u ! l[] *ord1 reacts z j s mu* compression ^u ! upp]4 ,9 ! case at h&1 #hjj1jjj lbs4 9 all1 or #djj1jjj on ea* *ord4 ,! resi/ance to compression be+ "o ?\s& p\nds p] in*1 r5d]s necess>y f\r hundr$ in*es ( section to ea* *ord2 f\r pieces #h #ab give 9 all ?ree hundr$ & eighty-f\r in*es ( section1 :i* requires no r$uction1 z ! :ole *ord press+ toge!r & be+ prop]ly fram$ is n weak5$ by splic+4 ,! splic+ blocks 9 ! upp] are m]ely pla9 pieces1 ins]t$ "o half in*1 ! only duty be+ to keep ! /icks at ! prop] horizontal di/ance4 ,! spaces betwe5 ! pieces %\ld be l>ge en\gh to all[ ! rods to pass )\t cutt+ ! *ords2 7two in*es answ]s e purpose74 ,! bolts = splic+1 h no v great /ra9 to be>4 ,9 small spans f to 1 & 9 l>ge bridges f to an in* is en\gh4 ,! object 9 fram+ a built beam = a bridge *ord1 is to make a /ick :i* %all be uni=mly /rong4 ,?is is done by cutt+ ! pieces 9 ! c5tre ( ! panel1 & by hav+ no two jo9ts 9 ei!r *ord 9 "o panel2 ?\gh 9 long spans ?is _c always be done4 ,figs4 #fg ,d & #fg ,e 7page #aec7 ,,braces4 ,! :ole load be+ #hjj1jjj p\nds1 ,ea* truss supports #djj1jjj p\nds1 ,ea* set ( braces #bjj1jjj p\nds1 ,ea* brace 7!re be+ #d7 #ej1jjj p\nds1 :i* mu/ be increas$ = incl9ation z foll[s3 ,! l5g? ( diagonal is tw5ty-n9e feet1 7! height be+ tw5ty-five & l5g? #ae17 :5ce #be to #bi z #ej1jjj to #eh1jjj lbs42 :i* w\ld ne$ fifty-eight squ>e in*es1 or #g #h = compression2 :i*1 h[ev]1 is q too small = flexure4 #ab #ab plac$ 9 ! =mula gives ,w 7#bbdj bd#c7_/7,l#b71 or ,w 7#bbdj #ab #agbh7_/hda #ee1bif lbs4 ,9 practice1 small] braces ?an #ab #ab w\ld answ]1 because ! f\r braces 9 a set may be fa/5$ toge!r1 mak+ a po/ ( f\r pieces #h #ab1 or 9 all a built po/ ( #dd #ab in*es2 twelve be+ ! dep?1 :5ce ,w 7#bbdj #dd #agbh7_/hda #bjb1eaa lbs42 ! =ty-f\r in*es be+ made by block+ ! braces f\r in*es ap>t4 ,! second set ( braces are to be treat$ 9 ! same mann]1 ! weight to be support$ be+ only ! rectangle includ$ by ^? braces2 i4 e4 ! :ole bridge & load less ! two end panels4 ,z ! c5tre ( ! span is approa*$1 ! pressure on ! braces becomes v small2 & ! scantl+ ( ! braces w be r$uc$ to ab\t #f #g in*es4 ,,rods4 ,! weight ^u ! fir/ set ( rods is ! same z t ^u ! end sets ( braces2 9 ! pres5t case #hjjjjj #b #djjjjj on ea* side truss1 & #djjjjj #b #bjjjjj on ea* end2 & if !re are five rods 9 ea* set1 ea* rod be>s #dj1jjj lbs4 ,ref]r+ to ! table on p4 #adf1 opposite to #da1dae lbs41 is ! diamet] #a in*es2 :5ce ! fir/ set mu/ conta9 five rods1 ( #a in*es diamet]4 ,! second set decrease 9 size z ! weight is less5$ by ! two end panels4 ,! nut & wa%] = ! rod are also f\nd 9 ! same table4 ,,c\nt]brac+4 #ahj4 ,:5 a load is plac$ on ! po9t ,c1 fig4 #fd1 ! truss t5ds to s9k at t po9t1 & a correspond+ rise takes place at ,c4 ,?is motion *anges ! figure ,a ,b ,c ,e1 f a rectangle to an oblique angl$ figure2 ! diagonal ,e ,b be+ %ort5$1 & ,a ,c l5g!n$4 ,?is motion is easily *eck$ by ! introduction ( ! c\nt] brace ,e ,b4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fd4 ,! action :i* ?is timb] is call$ ^u to resi/1 be+ caus$ by ! mov+ or v>iable load on "o panel1 ! brace mu/ resi/ ! load com+ !reon1 7say fifte5 feet17 & is ?us ! same size z ! brace at ! c5tre ( ! span4 ,! c\nt] braces may be s conf9$ betwe5 ! braces1 at ! int]section1 z n to move lat]ally or v]tically1 b mu/ n be fa/5$ to ! braces2 because ! action ( ! sep>ate timb]s is ?us trammell$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fg ,c4 ,! mann] ( adju/+ ! braces & c\nt] braces to ! *ord is %[n 9 fig4 #fg ,c4 ,x 0 =m]ly ! cu/om to abut ! braces aga9/ a block on "o side ( ! *ord1 & to screw ! rod aga9/ a block on ! opposite side2 ! :ole /ra9 act+ to cru% ! *ord crosswise4 ,?is has be5 rem$i$ by ! arrangem5t %[n 9 ! figure1 ! two blocks be+ ca/ 9 "o piece & connect$ by a small holl[ cyl9d] pass+ betwe5 ! *ord /icks4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fg ,d4 ,fig4 #fg ,e4 ,?is sy/em is kn[n z ,h[e's bridge1 & may be se5 9 almo/ any section ( ! c\ntry2 & ?\gh 9 _m cases badly proportion$1 & ( bad mat]ial1 if prop]ly made answ]s a v good end4 ,! foll[+ table has be5 =m$ = ! use ( eng9e]s & build]s1 giv+1 toge!r ) ! table ( nuts & wa%]s1 all dim5sions requir$4 ,span4 ,rise4 ,panel4 ,*ords4 ,end ,c5tre ,end ,c5tre braces4braces4 rod4 rod4 #ej #aj #gb--h #aj #gb #e #e #b--a #b--a #ge #ab #ib--h #aj #hb #e #e #b--a #b--a #ajj #ae #aac--h #aj #ib #f #f #b--a #b--a #aej #bj #acd--h #ab #ajb #f #g #c--b #c--a #bjj #be #aed--h #af #abb #g #g #e--b #e--a ,,pratt',s ,,bridge4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fh4 #aha4 ,assume ! foll[+ data = an example3-- ,span #ajj feet4 ,rise #ab feet4 ,panel #aj feet4 ,weight p] l9eal ft4 #b1ejj lbs4 ,! t5sion on ! l[]1 or ! compression on ! upp] *ord1 w be 7#bejjjj #ajj7_/if #bfj1dag lbs4 ,! mann] ( dim5sion+ ! *ord1 & ( splic+1 is ! same z already describ$ = ,h[e's4 ,,susp5sion ,,rods4 ,! fir/ sets ( rods1 ,a ,b1 ,a ,b1 mu/ su/a9 ! :ole weight ( ! bridge & load2 :i* is #bej1jjj lbs4 ,ea* side #abe1jjj lbs42 & ea* end set ( rods #fb1ejj lbs42 & if ea* set has f\r rods1 ea* rod mu/ support #ae1fbe lbs4 ,! rod be+ incl9$1 ?is am\nt is increas$ by ! foll[+ proportion3-- #ab 7height7 to #ae4h 7diagonal7 z #ae1fbe to #bj1egc lbs4 ,?is is half-way betwe5 ! tabul> numb]s = rods ( #a & #a in*es 9 diamet]2 #a w !re=e answ]4 ,! next set ( rods mu/ be consid]$ z support+ ! :ole load1 less ! two end panels1 & s on z already expla9$ = ,h[e's bridge4 ,! mann] ( apply+ ! rods to ! *ords is %[n 9 fig4 #fh ,a4 ,! bevel block %\ld be connect$ ) ! block at ! foot ( ! po/1 s z to prev5t cru%+ ! *ord4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fh ,a4 ,,c\nt] ,,rods4 ,z bo? top & bottom *ords are always us$ 9 ?is bridge1 ! c\nt] rods h only ! v>iable load on "o panel to resi/4 ,! action is1 9 am\nt1 ! same z t on ! c\nt] braces 9 ,h[e's bridge2 b acts 9 a diff]5t direction1 & 9 ! o!r diagonal4 ,! weight ( a pass+ load _c be m ?an two ?\s& p\nds p] l9eal foot4 ,! panel be+ t5 feet long1 ! :ole weight com+ on two sets ( c\nt] rods1 7"o set 9 ea* side truss17 is tw5ty ?\s& p\nds2 or t5 ?\s& p\nds on ea* set2 & if !re are put ?ree rods 9 ea* set1 we h #c1ccc p\nds p] rod1 :i* increase = incl9ation z foll[s3-- #ab 3 #ae4h 33 #cccc 3 #dchi lbs41 requir+ a rod ( ?ree f\r?s in* diamet]4 ,! po/s 9 ?is /ructure1 correspond to ! braces 9 ! ,h[e bridge2 only be+ v]tical1 !y ne$ n be s l>ge4 #ahb4 ,! foll[+ table gives all ! dim5sions necess>y = proportion+ ?is truss4 ,span4 ,rise4 ,*ords4 ,end ,c po/4 ,end ,c rod4 ,c\nt] po/4 rod4 rod4 #ej #ajb--h #aj #e #e #db #b--a #b--a #a--a #ge #abb--h #aj #f #f #eb #b--a #b--a #a--a #ajj #aec--h #aj #g #g #fb #b--a #b--a #b--a #abe #ahc--h #aj #h #h #fb #c--a #c--a #b--a #aej #bad--h #ab #i #i #fb #c--b #c--a #c--a #bjj #bdd--h #afaj #aj #fb #e--a #e--a #c--a ,& ! foll[+1 ! sizes ( c\nt] rods1 = diff]5t panels4 ,l5g? ( ,height ( ,approximate panel4 panel4 diagonal ( ,diamet] ( ! rod4 panel4 ,"o 9 a ,two p] ,?ree p] set4 set4 set4 #aj #ab #af #a #a #aa #ac #ag #a #a #a #ab #ad #ah #a #a #a #ac #ae #bj #a #a #a #ad #af #ba #a #a #a #ae #ah #bc #a #a #a #af #ba #bf #b #a #a #ah #be #bg #b #a #a ,! advantage possess$ by ?is bridge1 ov] ,h[e's plan1 is t ! panel diagonals may be adju/$ by ! screws2 by :i* control is _h ov] ! =m ( ! truss1 & ( ! duty done by ! sev]al p>ts4 ,*ange ( =m _c be _h by work+ ^u v]ticals4 ,h[e's bridge mu/ be adju/$ by w$g+ ! braces & ! c\nt] braces4 #ahc4 ,! mann] ( draw+ ! bevel block 9 ?is bridge1 is %[n 9 fig4 #fh b4 ,! proportions ( ! block dep5d ^u ! proportions ( ! panel2 & ! dim5sions1 ^u ! size ( wa%] us$4 ,let ,c ,c be ! c5tre l9e ( ! po/1 & ,a ,b ! *ord4 ,let o m1 & o n1 be ! panel diagonals1 & ,h & y1 ! l5g? ( ! wa%]s4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fh ,b4 ,! dep? ( ins]tion ( ! block into ! *ord1 dep5ds ^u ! horizontal /ra9 ^u x4 ,9 a span ( "o hundr$ & fifty feet1 ) ! rods at an angle ( #ej1 two in*es h be5 f\nd ample at ! end ( ! truss1 & "o half in* at c5tre4 ,f ,d1 p]p5dicul> to m m1 lay (f ,d ,e2 equal to ,h1 also f ,e1 at "r angles to n n1 make ,e ,e y4 ,f ,e draw ! v]tical ,e ,l4 ,! /ra9 ^u ! rod o m1 be+ repres5t$ by o m2 & t ^u o n1 by o n1 ! resultant is %[n1 bo? 9 direction & am\nt1 by o ,v4 ,x is n necess>y t ?is %\ld pass ?r\gh ! c5tre ( ! po/1 z ! excess ( t5sion on o m1 ov] t on o n1 is absorb$ by ! l[] *ord4 ,,note4--,screw+ up truss bridges1 is a m sci5tific op]ation ?an is g5]ally suppos$4 ,_m build]s comm5ce at ea* end1 & lift ! bridge f ! scaffold+4 ,by ?is me?od ! great] "p ( ! load is (t5 borne by a few ( ! end sets ( rods4 ,! bett] me?od is to beg9 at ! c5tre & "w bo? ways t[>ds ! ends1 be+ sure t ea* set ( rods does its duty be=e ! next is t\*$4 ,! lift to be made by ea* set ( rods1 %\ld fir/ be calculat$1 & te/$ :ile screw+ up1 ) ! level4 ,,lattice ,,bridges4 #ahd4 ,t[n's lattice1 consi/s ( a simple lattice-"w ( plank1 #c #ab in*es1 tre5ail$ toge!r at an angle ( =ty1 =ty-five1 or fifty degrees4 ,x possesses great /iffness1 )\t by any means hav+ ! mat]ial dispos$ 9 ! be/ mann]4 ,su* bridges might well be made by ! mile1 & cut (f to ord] accord+ to ! span4 ,! improv$ lattice1 by ,h]mann ,haupt1 ,esq41 ,c4 ,e41 avoids all ( ! evils att5dant ^u ! common lattice1 & gives a v *eap1 /rong1 & rigid bridge4 ,9 ?is plan ! braces are plac$ 9 pairs1 ) v]tical tie planks betwe5 !m2 by :i* ! twi/+ se5 9 ! common lattice1 is remov$4 ,! braces are also br\ght to ! v]tical1 z ! po9t ( support is rea*$1 by :i* a good be>+ is giv5 to ! end sets ( timb]s4 ,to v>y ! size ( ! braces1 z ! /ra9 ^u !m decreases1 w\ld be bo? inconv5i5t & exp5sive2 b ! same effect may be produc$ by v>y+ ! di/ance betwe5 !m1 mak+ x great] z ! c5tre is approa*$4 ,s4 ,w4 ,,hall',s ,,wood5 ,,truss ,,& ,,ar* ,,bridge4 ,inv]t+ ,mr4 ,haupt's design = a lattice ( improv$ con/ruction1 7:i* consi/s ( v]tical ties & incl9$ braces17 we h ! base ( ! above-nam$ bridge2 :]e ! incl9$ timb]s are us$ to resi/ t5sion1 z bel[4 ,?is be+ a v good plan1 & ! arrangem5t = build+ be+ su* z to secure ! ?or\gh execution ( ! "w 9 its mo/ m9ute detail2 x is ?\ght be/ to extract at "s l5g? f a lett] f ! inv5tor1 dat$ ,july #ca/1 #ahef1 n h[ev] be+ conf9$ to ! matt] !re94 ,! fir/ claim1 is = a new =m ( truss1 =m$ ( po/s v]tical1 or ne>ly s1 & t5sion pieces1 incl9+ d[nw>ds t[>d ! c5tre2 ?us diff]+ f ne>ly all o!r plans4 ,timb] resi/s d\ble z mu* ext5sion z compression2 & :5 l>ge en\gh to resi/ ! simple t5sion1 does n h to be increas$ z 9 resi/+ compression = flexure2 b requires a l>g] all[ance = jo9ts1 z t5sion t5ds to pull ! jo9ts ap>t1 :ile compression =ces !m toge!r4 ,! foll[+ result 0 obta9$1 %[+ ! sup]ior /r5g? ( timb] "w 9 resi/+ by t5sion4 ,two models1 conta9+ ! same am\nt ( timb]1 7 te/$4 ,! "o built ) v]tical ties & braces1 broke by crippl+ ! brace1 "u #b1djj lbs42 :ile t con/ruct$ ) v]ticals & susp5d]s1 incl9+ t[>ds ! c5tre1 su/a9$ #d1bjj lbs4 ) no visible *ange ( =m4 ,! second claim is = m effici5t be>+s & connections ?an common1 & ?is ) less cutt+ away ( timb]4 ,! ar* & ar* braces h a full1 fair be>+ at top & bottom4 ,! fir/ sets ( t5sion braces1 7^? ext5d+ f ! top ( ! ar* braces t[>ds ! c5tre17 are su/a9$ by two p9s at ea* jo9t2 :i* gives six p9 be>+s1 or twelve = "o set ( braces1 ( six in*es ea*1 7! p9 be+ two in*es 9 diamet]1 & plank ?ree in*es ?ick17 equal 9 all1 to sev5ty-two in*es ( be>+ surface at lea/1 = ea* five feet l9eal ( bridge1 or "o hundr$ & =ty-f\r in*es = t5 feet4 ,! ?ird claim1 is t ! be>+s1 at jo9ts1 are c5tral1 & t ! %r9kage ( ! timb] is t[>ds & n f !m z 9 _m plans4 ,! p9 holes are bor$ by ma*9]y smoo? & true2 ! tre5ails :5 ( wood are ( season$ oak or locu/1 turn$ to a p]fect fit1 & :5 ( iron are made holl[4 ,^! bridges1 aft] ?ree ye>s1 /& )9 an in* ( _! %ape z fram$ )\t exception4 ,"o inde$ support+ an aqu$uct1 :i* ?r[s ^u ! truss a con/ant load ( #b tons p] foot1 n includ+ ! weight ( ! bridge1 )\t any app>5t settl+4 ,! connections be+ fa/1 prev5t reaction & vibration f v>iable loads1 ! /ra9s 9 ?is case are rev]s$1 ! bridge t5d+ to spr+ up in/ead ( settl+4 ,! f\r? claim1 is = ! small brace connect+ ! l[] ) ! int]m$iate *ord2 by :i* additional connections are obta9$1 & small] timb]s r5d]$ available4 ,! fif? claim1 is ! =mation ( a /rong] *ord ?an by ! plan ( us+ a few l>ge /icks4 ,! *ord be+ made ( a great numb] ( small pieces1 ! /r5g? is ( c\rse less affect$ at any "o po9t1 by a jo9t1 ?an :5 only a few pieces are us$4 ,9 ! bridges built by ! above eng9e]1 are to be se5 "s ( ! mo/ p]fect built beams 9 ! c\ntry4 ,! foll[+ conditions be+ obs]v$1 ! mo/ uni=m1 & highe/ av]age /r5g? possible is obta9$4 ,fir/4 ,to cut b "o /ick 9 any "o panel4 ,second4 ,to cut no /ick at ! c5tre ( ! bridge4 ,?ird4 ,to place e jo9t 9 ! middle ( ! collat]al piece4 ,! *ords are cut by two r[s ( p9s1 two in*es ea*2 & if ! *ord be fifte5 in*es1 ! cutt+ at c5tre1 :]e !re is no jo9t1 is b f\r fifte5?s ( ! :ole section4 ,to resi/ ! p>t+ ( any two /icks1 !re is ! resi/ance to %e>+ ( n9ety-six p9s2 & ! section ( ea* be+ ?ree squ>e in*es1 ! :ole resi/ance is two hundr$ & eighty-eight in*es ( area4 ,if ! int]m$iate *ord has ! same numb]1 ! :ole area to resi/ %e>+1 9 ! l[] *ord1 is five hundr$ & sev5ty-six squ>e in*es4 ,! be>+ surface ( ea* p9 9 ! *ord /ick is #b #c in*es1 or six in*es2 & #if #f #egf3 & 9 bo? *ords #aaeb in*es4 ,sq4 94 ,! :ole *ord timb]1 7bo? *ords17 is 7#f #c #ad71 #beb ,9 ! int]m$iate *ord1 7#f #c #ab71 #baf ------ ,:ole timb] section1 #dfh ,d$uct #d p9s = bo? *ords1 #dfh - 7#d #b #c #f7 or #dfh - #add #cbd ,d$uct = jo9ts #c #aj #c #h or #cbd - #ed1 ,squ>e in*es ( available area4 #bgj ,comp>+ ! am\nt ?us cut away ) t cut away 9 o!r plans1 we h ! foll[+ figures2-- ,a4 ,hall's ,bridge1 7actual bridge17 #cj_/ajj ,b4 ,h[e's bridge1 7actual bridge17 #ce_/ajj ,c4 ,page #afc1 7,h&book ,r4 ,r4 ,con/ruction17 #ci_/ajj ,d4 ,mc,callum's1 7,susquehanna bridge17 #eh_/ajj ,! six? claim1 is ! peculi>ly conv5i5t =m = apply+ an ar*1--! sup]iority consi/+ 9 conv5i5ce = atta*m5t2 9 ! connections be+ less affect$ by %r9kage ?an :5 po/s are lock$ into ar*es2 9 ! timb]s n be+ weak5$ by cutt+4 ,! ar* is load$ ) ! t5sion timb]s1 inw>dly1 & acts z a g5]al ar* brace1 transf]r+ at once all ( ! sev]al t5sions to ! abutm5t1 ?us really comb9+ ! ar* ) ! truss4 ,! liability ( ?is plan to decay1 c]ta9ly appe>s to be less ?an t ( mo/ plans ( wood5 bridges n[ 9 use2 z w be pla9ly se5 by obs]v+ ! position ( ! jo9ts2 fall+ ra9 f9ds a mu* easi] access to almo/ any o!r jo9t ?an ! p9 hole4 ,! timb] "w be+ made ( plank1 all ! timb]s are small1 & are ?us mu* m likely to be s\nd4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fi4 ,! bridges built ^u ?is plan ^u ! ,alleghany ,valley1 & ^u ! ,williamsport & ,elmira roads1 illu/rate pla9ly ! design4 #ahe4 ,apply+ ar* braces to lattice bridges1 has sugge/$ ,! ,ar*-brace truss bridge1 9 :i* ! :ole /r5g? lies 9 a s]ies ( diff]5tly incl9$ braces1 ext5d+ f ! abutm5t to ! head ( ea* po/2 a v light lattice be+ us$ to prev5t reaction1 or z a c\nt]-brace or /iff5]4 ,see fig4 #fi4 ,9 trusses consi/+ ( a s]ies ( triangles1 :5 ! span is l>ge1 7#aej to #bjj feet17 ! imm5se weight com+ at ! feet ( ! second & ?ird sets ( braces1 causes settl+ or depress+ at tw5ty or ?irty feet (f f ! abutm5t1 :i* c h>dly be remov$4 ,! rem$y = su* settl+1 is to transf] ! load at once to ! abutm5t2 :i* is completely done 9 ! above-nam$ bridge4 ,ea* brace does its duty directly & well4 ,be=e ! lattice-"w is fa/5$1 ! bridge %\ld be load$ ) a maximum load4 ,!n by fa/5+ ! diagonals1 ! recoil is prev5t$2 & ! effect ( a pass+ load is to ease ! c\nt]brac+ lattice1 )\t o!rwise affect+ ! truss4 ,,note4--,a model ( ?is bridge1 made by ! writ]1 ( ! foll[+ dim5sions3-- ,l5g?1 #g feet4 ,height1 #a foot4 ,wid?1 #a in*4 ,*ords1 in*4 ,braces1 in*4 ,lattice1 #a_/af in*4 ,support$ #b1ejj lbs4 at c5tre1 besides a v>iable load ( #aej lbs4 appli$ z a roll+ weight 9 ! mo/ disadvantage\s mann]4 ,x repres5t$ a span ( "o hundr$ & fifty feet1 & accord+ to ,weisba*'s =mula = te/+ a model1 prov$ ! actual /ructure1 7z f> z c be prov$ by a model17 bo? /rong & rigid to any desir$ am\nt4 ,! longe/ bridge ev] built ^u ?is pr9ciple1 0 t ( ,s*affhaus51 ov] ! ,rh9e1 :i* _h a s+le span ( ?ree hundr$ & n9ety feet4 ,?is bridge 0 n /iff1 hav+ no lattice1 b 0 v /rong4 ,b4 ,h4 ,latrobe1 ,esq4 has adopt$ ?is =m ^u ! ,baltimore & ,ohio ,railroad4 ,! calculations = ! p>ts ( ?is bridge are z foll[s3-- ,! ,span be+ #aej feet1 ,! ,rise #bj feet1 ,! ,panel #ae feet1 ,weight p] foot ( bridge & load #c1jjj lbs4 ,! half numb] ( panels is five2 ! diagonals ( :i*1 neglect+ fractions1 are 7#bjb #aeb7 #be feet1 7#bjb #cjb7 #cg feet1 7#bjb #deb7 #di feet1 7#bjb #fjb7 #fd feet1 7#bjb #geb7 #gh feet4 ,! weight ^u ea* ( ^! sets ( braces1 is ! weight ( ! l5g? ( "o panel2 :i*1 9 ! pres5t case1 is #c1jjj #ae #de1jjj lbs4 ,z !re is a brace "u ea* *ord /ick1 & assum+ f\r /icks 9 ea* *ord1 we divide by eight1 & h1 9 r\nd numb]s1 #f1jjj lbs4 p] brace2 & correct+ = incl9ation1 z foll[s1 we h ! numb]s bel[4 #bj 3 #be 33 #fjjj 3 #ajjjj #bj 3 #cg 33 #fjjj 3 #aejjj #bj 3 #di 33 #fjjj 3 #bjjjj #bj 3 #fd 33 #fjjj 3 #bejjj #bj 3 #gh 33 #fjjj 3 #cjjjj4 ,! la/ column has ! sev]al weights com+ ^u ! diff]5t braces at _! sev]al incl9ations2 to resi/ :i*1 ! scantl+ might be v small1 = compression1 b flexure requires l>g] dim5sions4 ,^! braces %\ld be conf9$ lat]ally & v]tically1 z !y pass ea* po/1 b n connect$ !re)2 z ?is w\ld n p]mit a free action ( ! brace1 )\t /ra9+ transv]sely ! po/4 ,! l5g? ( beam1 !re=e1 9 :i* flexure is to be *eck$1 is ! di/ance betwe5 po/s 9 any panel4 ,9 panel ,no4 #a1 x w be #be feet4 ,9 panel ,no4 #b1 x w be #ah feet4 ,9 panel ,no4 #c1 x w be #ag feet4 ,9 panel ,no4 #d1 x w be #af feet4 ,9 panel ,no4 #e1 x w be #af feet4 & apply+ ! =mula 7#bbdj;bd#c7_/7,l#b7 ,w we get1 9 r\nd numb]s1 ! foll[+ dim5sions1 ! braces be+ bolt$ & block$ toge!r3-- ,= ! #a/ panel1 #be feet long1 #h #aj ,= ! #b;d panel1 #cg feet long1 #h #aj ,= ! #c;d panel1 #di feet long1 #h #aj ,= ! #d? panel1 #fd feet long1 #h #aj ,= ! #e? panel1 #gh feet long1 #h #aj4 ,= ! lattice-"w1 a d\ble c\rse on ea* side ( ea* truss1 9 long spans1 7#aej to #bjj feet72 & a s+le c\rse 9 %ort] spans1 ( #c #f plank1 tre5ail$ at int]sections1 is ample4 ,,g5]al ,,table ,,( ,,dim5sions ,,= ,,ar* ,,brace ,,truss4 ,span4 ,rise4 ,*ords4 ,ties4 ,braces4 ,lattice4 #ej #aj #b-h #aj #a-h #aj #b-f #fb #i or #c #f #ge #ab #b-h #aj #a-h #aj #b-f #fb #i or #c #f #ajj #ae #c-h #aj #b-h #aj #c-f #fb #i or #c #f #aej #bj #d-h #ab #c-h #aj #d-f #hb #i or #c #f #bjj #be #d-h #af #c-h #aj #d-f #ib #i or #c #f ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fi ,k4 ,fig4 #fi ,a4 ,fig4 #fi ,a1 %[s ! me?od ( br++ ! ar* braces to ! *ord4 ,to f9d ! dim5sions ( ! ca/-iron block1 make a complete draw+ ( all ( ! braces1 at _! prop] angles1 & !n draw 9 ! block ar\nd ! feet1 z %[n 9 fig4 #fi ,a4 ,,note4--,! c5tre ( pressure ( ! braces 9 fig4 #fi ,a1 is n1 z might seem1 at ,c2 because ! v]tical compon5ts ( ! =ces1 com+ d[n ! brace1 are mu* less 9 ! braces at small angles ?an 9 ^? at ! end ( ! span4 ,! load appli$ to ea* brace be+ ! same1 & ! incl9es be+ f\nd1 we f9d ! c5tre ( pressure1 or ! c5tre ( bridge seat z foll[s3-- ,! l5g? ( ! brace is to ! v]tical height1 z ! appli$ load to ! v]tical pressure4 ,9 fig4 #fi ,a1 we h ! foll[+ l5g?s ( braces3 a1 #be2 b1 #cg2 c1 #di2 d1 #fd2 e1 #gh2 f1 #ib2 & g1 #ajf2 & ! weights correspond+ ?us1 a1 #be 3 #bj 33 #fjjj 3 #dhjj4 b1 #cg 3 #bj 33 #fjjj 3 #cbdc4 c1 #di 3 #bj 33 #fjjj 3 #bdej4 d1 #fd 3 #bj 33 #fjjj 3 #ahgj4 e1 #gh 3 #bj 33 #fjjj 3 #aedj4 f1 #ib 3 #bj 33 #fjjj 3 #acjd4 g1 #ajf 3 #bj 33 #fjjj 3 #aacb4 ,9 fig4 #fi ,a1 assume ! foot ( ! fif? brace 7,b7 z ! c5tre ( pressure1 & add+ ! mom5ts1 7or products ( v]tical compon5ts on ! braces by _! di/ance f ,b17 & we h ! sum on ! l& side #ah1ibh1 & on ! wat] side #af1icj2 %[+ t ! c5tre is tak5 too f> f ! l& side4 ,9 ! same mann] ,a w be f\nd too f> f ! l& side4 ,a ?ird trial w give ! place4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fi ,b4 ,fig4 #fi ,c4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fi ,d4 ,fig4 #fi ,e4 ,fig4 #fi ,f4 ,fig4 #fi ,g4 ,fig4 #fi ,h4 ,fig4 #fi ,b1 %[s ! mann] ( splic+ ! ar* braces3 be+ subject$ to compression1 !y are splic$ 9 ! same mann] z ! upp] *ords4 ,fig4 ,c1 %[s ! l[] *ord splic$4 ,figs4 ,d & ,e1 ! connection ( ! po/s1 *ord1 & lattice4 ,figs4 ,f1 ,g1 & ,h1 ! ca/+ = apply+ ! upp] end ( ! ar* brace to ! *ord4 ,fig4 #fi ,k1 ! me?od ( support+ ! tracks at ! end ( ! span1 :]e ! ar* braces w n all[ ! floor beams to be> ^u ! l[] *ord4 ,,mccallum',s ,,pat5t ,,railroad ,,bridge4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gj4 #ahf4 ,?is bridge repres5ts a class ( /ructures 9 :i* ! upp] *ord is curv$ upw>ds 7#g feet 9 #bjj 9 ! ,susquehanna bridge1 ,new ,york & ,erie ,railroad71 :i* curv$ *ord has ! effect ( di/ribut+ an appli$ load at once to all ( ! braces directly1 by means ( ! *ord1 z well z indirectly1 by means ( ! braces1 z 9 ! common trusses4 ,to ?is bridge is appli$ ! ar* braces ,a ,b1 ,a ,b1 fig4 #gj1 :i* s]ves to aid ! #b;d1 #c;d1 & #d? pair ( diagonal braces 9 be>+ _! load4 ,! great di/ribut+ p[] ( ! curv$ *ord1 is %[n by ! fact t a bridge ( #abe feet span1 actually support$ a railroad tra9 be=e ! diagonal brac+ 0 introduc$4 ,! :ole /ra9 0 ?r[n ?r\gh ! curv$ *ord & ar* braces to ! abutm5ts4 ,! bridge is c\nt]brac$ by ! pieces d d & d d1 adju/able by screws at ! ends4 ,! foll[+ te/ 0 appli$ to a span ( #aij feet ( ?is plan ( bridge4 ,plac+ ! load z ne> z possible to ! c5tre1 ! foll[+ deflections 7 produc$4 ,load4 ,deflection4 #da4dj tons1 #j4jac feet1 #ie4ce tons1 #j4jch feet1 #adj4gj tons1 #j4jfa feet1 #ahg4bj tons1 #j4jfa feet4 ,^u remov+ ! load1 ! bridge entirely recov]$ its =m4 #ahg4 ,z ! span increases1 ! b5efit d]iv$ f ! curv$ *ord also augm5ts2 & ?\gh 9 ! latt] "p ( ! pres5t *apt] its application to small spans is %[n1 x may n be wor? :ile to adopt x4 ,bridges transf]r+ ! load directly1 f ea* panel to ! abutm5t1 w\ld n be aid$1 to an am\nt wor? ! increas$ exp5se1 by adopt+ ! curv$ top *ord4 ,9 case ( any settl+ at ! c5tre ( ! span1 ! rev]se effect is se5 f t produc$ 9 a truss ) horizontal *ords2 i4 e41 :5 ! ends ( ! upp] *ords 9 ! latt] draw 91 ^? ( ! =m] pu% out2 & :5 9 su* bridges1 ar* braces are n us$1 ! top *ords ( adjo9+ spans mu/ be w$g$ ap>t1 9 place ( ty+ toge!r z 9 common plans1 ov] ! c5tre ( ! pi]s4 ,,! ,,ar*4 #ahh4 ,! ar* has be5 appli$ to long spans = a great :ile1 & :5 c>e has be5 tak5 to prev5t flexure1 answ]s v well4 ,! repair ( su* bridges1 if any ( ! ar* timb]s decay1 is difficult2 b is effect$1 9 ! l>ge/ ar*es4 ,! mo/ correct ideas on wood5 ar* bridge build+1 are to be f\nd 9 ,weibek+'s ,traite d'une p>te ess5tial de con/ruire les gr&es p5ts en *>p5te4 ,?is eng9e]1 7,g5]al ,director ( ,roads & ,bridges 9 ,bav>ia17 has built a great numb] ( wood5 ar*es ( ! be/ description1 :i* %[ him to be ma/] ( bo? ! sci5ce & ! art4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ga4 ,! g5]al plan ( 8 bridges is %[n 9 fig4 #ga4 ,!y consi/ ( curv$ ribs =m$ ( long pieces sc>f$ & bolt$ toge!r1 f :i* ! road-way is support$ by po/s4 ,! bridges ( ,neucettr+91 ,freys+91 ,bamb]g1 ,s*>d+1 ,w]ta*1 ,vil%ov51 & ,alt5m>kt1 all te/ify to ! good judgm5t ( ?is man4 ,! spans v>y f "o hundr$ to two hundr$ feet2 & ! wid? f tw5ty-five to ?irty-two feet4 ,! proportions :i* he gives = ! ratio ( rise to span1 are valuable2 z !y are ! result ( 8 own exp]i5ce4 ,he /ates1 g5]ally1 t "o t5? ( ! span is ! be/ rise2 b t = conv5i5ce1 x is bett] to keep x l[]4 ,! foll[+ table %[s ! dim5sions he has adopt$ 9 practice4 #ahi4 ,"n4 ,span4 ,rise4 ,wid?4 ,rad4 ( ,scantl+ ,ar*4 ( ,ar*4 ,bamb]g1 #bjh #af4icb #dbb #ac #ae ,s*>d+1 #aid #ah4hbe #beh #ab #ae ,vil%ov51 #agi #aa4abg #cgh #ac #ae ,freys+91 #aec #aa4fbe #bdf #ab #ad ,ettr+91 #aci #h4jbe #cje #ab #ae ,ers+91 #abf #g4jbe #bhe #aa #ad ,augsb]g1 #aad #aj4fbe #aeh #ab #ad ,neucettr+91 #ajc #f4hbe #bjj #ac #ae ,! la/ column %[s ! scantl+ ( ! ar* timb]s2 ^! be+ plac$ ?ree deep1 9 spans ( less ?an #aej feet2 & 9 l>g] spans1 #c deep at c5tre1 & #e deep at ends4 ,mr4 ,weibek+'s =mula = det]m9+ ! scantl+ ( ribs1 is z foll[s3-- 77,w 7,s_/#b7b7_/,rn74#jjaa ,scantl+ 9 sq4 ft4 ,:]e ,r is ! rise ( ! ar*2 n1 ! numb] ( ribs2 ,w1 wid? ( bridge2 & ,s1 span ( bridge4 ,,example4--,requir$ ! scantl+ ( ! ribs ( a bridge ( #cjj feet span1 #bj feet wide1 & #cj feet high4 ,! =mula becomes1-- 7#bj #bbejj7_/cj 4#jjaa #af sq4 feet ( section1 ( all ( ! ar*es2 or two p>allel ar*es1 #b feet wide1 by #c feet deep ea*4 ,f #ajj to #aej feet span1 he makes ! rise #a_/bj span1 ,f #aej to #bjj feet span1 he makes ! rise #a_/ah span1 ,f #bjj to #cjj feet span1 he makes ! rise #a_/ae span1 ,f #cjj to #djj feet span1 he makes ! rise #a_/ad span1 ,f #djj to #ejj feet span1 he makes ! rise #a_/ac span4 #aij4 ,! bridge built by ,mr4 ,burr across ! ,delaw>e at ,tr5ton1 ,new ,j]sey1 is a good specim5 ( an ar*4 ,x is compos$ ( :ite p9e planks1 f ?irty-five to fifty feet long1 & ( a scantl+ #d #ab4 ,^! planks are laid close toge!r1 break+ jo9t1 hav+ an entire dep? ( ?ree feet4 ,! ar*es are /iff5$ by horizontal tie beams1 support+ ! road-way1 & by diagonal brac+4 ,! spans are #afj1 #ahj1 & #bjj feet1 & ! rise tw5ty-sev5 feet4 #aia4 ,! bridge ov] ! ,susquehanna1 at ,columbia1 built 9 ! same mann]1 consi/s ( tw5ty-n9e ar*es1 ea* two hundr$ feet cle> span1 support$ on two abutm5ts & tw5ty-eight /one pi]s4 ,! cle> wat]-way ( ?is bridge is #e1hjj feet2 & ! entire l5g?1 includ+ pi]s & abutm5ts1 "o & "o f\r? miles4 ,!re are ?ree sets ( ar*es1 :i* all[ ( two c>riage roads & "o railroad1 ! :ole wid? be+ ?irty feet4 #aib4 ,an ar* to support a pass+ railroad tra9 mu/ be v rigid4 ,x is cu/om>y to connect !m ) a light truss1 :i* effectually c\nt] braces ! ar*1 & prev5ts t *ange ( =m :i* w\ld o!rwise take place2 dep5d+ entirely ^u ! ar* = /r5g?4 ,:]ev] ! load is appli$1 ! ar* t5ds to s9k1 & a correspond+ rise takes place at ! opposite po9t4 ,a load plac$ at ,e1 fig4 #ga1 settles ! ar* at t po9t & causes x to rise at ,c4 ,a load plac$ at ! curve ( ! ar* depresses ! c5tre1 & elevates ! haun*es4 ,to c\nt]act ^! movem5ts a light1 /iff5+ frame may be us$1 its /r5g? be+ able to resi/ ! v>iable load pass+ ov] ! bridge4 ,! /ra9 ?r[n by ! ar* ^u ! truss1 advances f ! opposite end to meet ! tra91 passes x at ! c5tre1 & f9ally goes (f f ! bridge beh9d ! load4 ,:5 ! ar* is ! truss1 or :5 a truss is made ) curv$ *ords1 ! c\nt]act+ effect ( ! truss is n completely obta9$4 ,we %\ld n dep5d ^u ! curv$ *ord z an ar*1 b only z a memb] ( ! truss4 #aic4 ,_m comb9ations ( ar* & truss h be5 built 9 ,am]ica = railroad bridges4 ,! pr9ciple ( connect+ ! two sy/ems is by "s ?\ght bad1 z !y c h>dly be made to be> equal p>ts ( ! load2 :5ce ea* mu/ h m ?an half ! necess>y /r5g? ( ! :ole4 ,o!rs ma9ta9 t by a prop] arrangem5t ( p>ts a p]fect adju/m5t may be made1 by :i* ! load may be plac$ m or less on ei!r4 ,!re seems to be no v good reason :y ! two sy/ems %\ld be comb9$1 z ei!r may be made /rong en\gh to be> ! l>ge/ loads4 ,bo? ar*es & ar* braces1 h[ev]1 are v usefully appli$ to bridges :i* h be5 made too light4 #aid4 ,! mann] ( apply+ ar*es is well %[n 9 ! bridges ( ! ,p5nsylvania ,c5tral ,railroad1 built by ,h]mann ,haupt1 ,esq4 ,^! bridges are on ,h[e's plan1 to :i* h be5 add$ /rong wood5 ar*es4 ,! sy/ems are connect$ by adju/+ ! c\nt] braces aga9/ ! ar* by set screws4 ,! arrangem5t is simple & effectual4 ,! "n ( ! build] is suffici5t to w>rant ! /ability ( ! bridge4 #aie4 ,h[ev] nicely we may =m an ar*1 x w settle m or less :5 ! scaffold+ is remov$1 accord+ to its flatness2 :i* depression increases ) "t4 ,mr4 ,weibek+ expresses x 9 in*es z foll[s3-- #j4hjf,r_/,s ,:]e ,r1 %[s ! rise1 & ,s1 %[s ! span4 ,to all[ = ?is settl+1 ! curve :5 laid d[n on ! plat=m = build+ ! ar*1 %\ld be made a little m convex ?an ! complet$ ar* is requir$ to be2 ! am\nt ( excess be+ t %[n by ! =mula4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gb4 ,z a bridge compos$ ( a curv$ rib :5 ! span is l>ge yields at ,d1 ,c1 & ,e1 fig4 #ga1 :5 ! load is appli$ 9 ! middle1 ! /r5g? mu/ ( c\rse be increas$ by increas+ ! dep? ( ! rib2 & n to make ?is too heavy1 a fram$ or built beam %\ld be us$ z 9 fig4 #gb4 ,"h x mu/ be rememb]$ t ! two ribs mu/ be s fram$ z to resi/ bo? t5sion & compression2 = :5 a load is plac$ at ,d1 ! l[] rib w be ext5d$ at d1 & compress$ at c1 & e2 :ile ! upp] "o w be compress$ at ,d1 & ext5d$ at ,c & ,e4 ,,( ,,! ,,road-,,way4 #aif4 ,! floor+ ( any sy/em is ab\t ! same2 consi/+ ( transv]se floor beams1 plac$ ei!r on ! top or bottom *ords1 7accord+ z ! road-way is m or less elevat$ above ! wat]-way17 :i* support longitud9al timb]s1 ^u :i* are plac$ cross-ties4 ,9 "s cases1 two curves ( diagonal plank h be5 plac$ across ! floor beams1 spik$ at "r angles to ea* o!r1 by :i* ! bridge is consid]ably /iff5$ lat]ally4 ,g5]al dim5sions = ! floor may be ?us3-- ,transv]se timb]s1 #c feet f c5tre to c5tre1 #h #ad ,track /r+s1 not*$ #b in*es to floor beams1 #ab #ad ,cross-ties plac$ "o foot ap>t1 7cle>17 #c #f ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gc4 ,,lat]al ,,brac+4 #aig4 ,to prev5t vibration 9 a horizontal direction1 a sy/em ( diagonal brac+ is necess>y4 ,! *ief pressure ^u ^! braces is caus$ by w9d2 & may be f\nd by consid]+ ! bridge z turn$ ov] ^u ! side1 & load$ ) a weight equal to ! maximum pressure ( ! w9d1 :i* may be tak5 z =ty p\nds p] squ>e foot4 ,x is unnecess>y to v>y ! size ( ^! braces1 except 9 v long spans1 :5 !y %\ld increase f ! c5tre to ! ends4 ,= %ort spans1 7less ?an "o hundr$ feet17 a brace #e #e is l>ge en\gh4 ,= l>g] spans #g #g is suffici5t4 #aih4 ,diagonal brac+1 :5 x c be introduc$1 is a v desirable "p ( a bridge4 ,:5 ! road is on ! l[] *ord ?is _c h place 9 full1 b may be appli$ z 9 fig4 #gd4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gd4 ,by increas+ ! height ( truss 9 any bridge1 ! t5sion & compression on ! *ords is less5$2 b ! l5g? ( po/s & rods is increas$4 ,z a g5]al ?+1 "o eigh? ( ! span gives ! be/ results4 #aii4 ,9 fram+ a l>ge bridge1 x is cu/om>y to cut ! top *ord /icks a little long] ?an to dim5sion2 to all[ = compression 9 settl+4 #bjj4 ,bridges 9 expos$ situations h be5 sometimes bl[n (f f ! masonry4 ,if a bridge slides (f f ! masonry1 ! :ole =ce ( ! w9d mu/ be fifte5 tw5ty-f\r?s ( ! :ole weight ( ! bridge2 b if1 z is g5]ally ! case1 ! masonry is r\gh1 7& n hamm]$17 no am\nt ( w9d w cause ! bridge to slide4 ,! bridge w upset1 turn+ ab\t its l[] edge1 :5 ! :ole pressure ( ! w9d1 multipli$ by half ! height ( truss1 ov]balances ! :ole weight1 multipli$ by ! half wid?4 ,9 v expos$ places ! rod ,a ,d1 fig4 #gd1 answ]s a v good end2 :5 ! road is ^u ! upp] *ord1 & a rod f ,b to ! masonry1 :5 ^u ! l[]4 ,,oblique ,,bridges4 #bja4 ,! effect ( runn+ a tra9 ov] a skew bridge1 is to depress "o side be=e ! o!r2 z ! load comes ^u ! c5tre ( "o truss be=e x does ^u ! opposite "o4 ,?is produces a side rock+ 9 ! eng9e1 dang]\s alike to ! bridge & to itself4 ,! floor timb]s transf]r+ ! load to ! *ords %\ld n be at "r angles to ! axis ( ! road1 b p>allel to ! abutm5t4 ,?us 9 fig4 #ge1 a :eel at ,b1 ?r[s "o ?ird ( its weight ^u ! abutm5t at ,e2 & two ?irds ^u ! *ord at ,c2 :ile 9 fig4 #ge ,a1 ! :eel at ,b1 ?r[s two ?irds ( ! load ^u ,c1 b "o ?ird also ^u ,d4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ge4 ,fig4 #ge ,a4 #bjb4 ,9 a v long1 oblique span1 ! floor timb]s may be arrang$ z 9 fig4 #gf1 t is1 incl9$ at ! entrance & exit ( ! bridge1 b at "r angles at ! middle ( ! span4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gf4 #bjc4 ,! pres]vation ( timb] 9 wood5 bridges may be accompli%$ by cov]+ ) bo>ds1 :itewa%+1 pa9t+1 & by ,kyaniz+4 ,cov]+ & :itewa%+ are ! be/1 if c>e is tak5 to prev5t dry rot by giv+ a good circulation ( air ab\t ! timb]s4 ,! oil 9 pa9ts prev5ts ! escape ( moi/ure f )9 z well z ! entrance ( t f )\t2 & %\ld n be us$ unless ! wood is well season$4 ,! be/ plan is to ?or\ghly :itewa% & cov] ! frame ( ! bridge1 & to pa9t ! outside ( ! cov]+4 #bjd4 ,9 fram+ two or m cont9u\s spans1 ! *ords %\ld always be connect$ ov] ! pi]s2 z !re is ?us giv5 some?+ = ! upp] *ords to pull aga9/1 & a c\nt] ?ru/ = ! l[]4 #bje4 ,bridges %\ld nev]1 :5 x c be avoid$1 be plac$ ei!r ^u a curve or ^u a grade2 p>ticul>ly ^u ! =m]1 z ! effect ( a load is !reby v mu* increas$1 9 ! fir/ case caus+ a lat]al1 & 9 ! second a v]tical %ock4 ,,pile ,,bridg+4 #bjf4 ,9 %all[ wat]1 9 m>%es1 & 9 simil> situations1 :]e an embankm5t w\ld be exp5sive1 pile bridg+ is v useful4 ,inde$1 :5ev] we are at lib]ty to ob/ruct ! passage b5ea? ! road1 x is well to adopt ?is sy/em1 unless ov] tw5ty feet high4 ,x is *eap] ?an any o!r1 easi] to repair1 ! p>ts are q indep5d5t ( ea* o!r1 & su* bridges la/ full z long z o!r wood5 /ructures4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gg4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gh4 ,diff]5t plans = pile bridg+ are giv5 9 figs4 #gg to #hb4 ,figs4 #gg to #ha %[ plans = tempor>y pile "w1 to be us$ dur+ con/ruction4 ,no?+ light] ?an fig4 #hb1 ought to be p]man5tly us$4 ,a pile bridge ^u a curve may ne$ /rong] lat]al brac+ ^u ! convex1 ?an ^u ! concave side ( ! curve2 & also 9 runn+ wat]2 9 :i* cases1 su* a =m z fig4 #ha may d good s]vice4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gi4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hj4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ha4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hb4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hb ,a4 7,= pile-driv+1 & = prop] dim5sions1 see *ap4 ,,xii47 ,,tre/l+4 #bjg4 ,tre/l+ is a sy/em ( v]tical po/s1 & ( caps & braces1 us$ bo? = tempor>y & = p]man5t works2 tempor>ily to pass a road ov] l[ gr\nd :]e embankm5ts are to be made1 & p]man5tly ov] deep1 dry gorges1 :]e ! am\nt ( e>?work or masonry w\ld be too great4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hc4 ,am]ican railroads %[ all sizes & arrangem5ts ( tre/l+1 f tw5ty to two hundr$ feet high4 ,figs4 #hc & #hd %[ tempor>y works1 & fig4 #he p]man5t4 ,! ma9 "p ( ! design 9 tre/les is to connect ! sev]al po/s & caps by well-=m$ triangles2 ! equilat]al be+ ! be/4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hd4 ,! f9e/ example ( ?is sy/em ( build+ is ! ,g5esee high bridge1 ov] ,g5esee ,riv] ne> ,portageville1 on ! ,buffalo & ,new ,york ,railroad2 built by ,h4 ,c4 ,seym\r1 ,esq4 ,x is eight hundr$ feet long1 & two hundr$ & ?irty feet above ! riv]4 ,x has eight /one pi]s1 ?irty feet high1 ^u :i* are plac$ tre/les "o hundr$ & n9ety feet high1 sev5ty-five feet wide at base1 & tw5ty-five at top4 ,^u ! top ( all is plac$ a bridge f\rte5 feet high4 ,to build ?is viaduct 0 us$ #a1ejj1jjj feet1 bo>d measure ( timb]1 :i* cov]$1 :5 /&+1 two hundr$ & fifty acres2 also1 sixty tons ( bolts4 ,! :ole "t occupi$ 9 build+ 0 b eighte5 mon?s1 ! :ole co/ be+ #adj1jjj4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #he4 ,,drawbridges4 #bjh4 ,9 cross+ riv]s or bays op5 to navigation1 x is requir$ f any companies build+ a bridge1 to leave a free passage = %ipp+4 ,?is is done by mak+ t "p ( ! bridge ov] ! *annel movable2 7a draw74 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hf4 ,draws may lift up1 7be+ c\nt]balanc$17 may slide back ^u ! fix$ "p ( ! bridge1 or may turn on a pivot4 ,fig4 #hf %[s a draw mu* us$ at pres5t1 & answ]+ e purpose4 ,ea* half ( ! movable "p mu/ be calculat$ z a small bridge4 ,! rods c c c support ! ov]hang+ "p ( ! draw :ile op54 ,! :ole revolves ^u a c5tre p9 & a set ( roll]s4 ,,c5tres4 #bji4 ,c5tres are tempor>y wood5 frames1 us$ 9 ! con/ruction ( /one ar*es4 ,_! duty is to hold ! masonry1 :ile x is unable to support itself4 ,= ar*es f five to fifte5 feet span1 a c5tre made ( bo>ds or planks1 fig4 #hg1 is all t is necess>y4 ,= long] spans1 :5 ! gr\nd b5ea? ! ar* c be us$1 ! =m1 fig4 #hh1 answ]s well4 ,:5 !re is no support b ! abutm5ts or pi]s1 some?+ simil> to fig4 #hi mu/ be adopt$4 ,?is is ! plan adopt$ by ,george ,r5nie1 *ief eng9e] at ! ,wat]loo bridge ov] ! ,?ames at ,london4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hg4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hh4 ,c5tres are /ra9$ 9 a diff]5t mann] z ! ar* progresses2 fir/ at ! haun*es1 & la/ at ! cr[n4 ,excess ( weight at any po9t causes a settl+ at su*1 & a rise takes place at "s o!r place4 ,by load+ ! ar* tempor>ily1 su* motions are *eck$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hi4 ,^! frames are plac$ v]tically ^u ! pieces ,f ,f1 :i* be+ connect$ ) ! braces ,d ,d by ! fold+ w$ges c c1 admit ( adju/m5t ( ! height ( ! c5tre4 ,! di/ance betwe5 ! ribb$ frames dep5ds ^u ! =m ( ! ar*1 & ! span1 or ^u ! weight to be support$2 v>y+ f "o to f\r feet4 ,! c5tres are cov]$ ) a c\rse ( n>r[ plank1 plac$ p>allel ) ! axis ( ! ar*1 ^u :i* ! v\ssoirs re/4 #baj4 ,! me?od ( putt+ a bridge ^u ! masonry is %[n 9 figs4 #ij1 & #ia2 ! =m] :5 ! road-way is ^u ! upp]1 & ! latt] :5 ^u ! l[] *ord4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ij4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ia4 #baa4 ,9 figs4 #ib to #ajj1 are giv5 sev]al plans = spans f five to sev5ty-five feet4 ,fig4 #ib1 %[s ! simple beam brac$ b5ea? ) diagonal plank2 ! bolts pass+ ?r\gh ! ties1 /r+]s1 & braces4 ,! /r+]s are bolt$ to ! wall plates1 & :5 ! bridge is ^u a curve not*$ also1 by cutt+ ! bol/]4 ,fig4 #ib ,a %[s ! plan4 ,?is =m answ]s = op5+s f five to tw5ty feet4 ,f fifte5 to ?irty feet1 we may use figs4 #id1 #ie1 #if1 & #ig4 ,f tw5ty-five1 to fifty & sixty feet1 figs4 #ic1 #ig1 & #ih4 ,& f fifty to sev5ty-five feet1 figs4 #ii & #ajj4 ,! foll[+ tables give reliable dim5sions = bridges ^u ! above plans4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ib4 #e to #bj feet4 ,fig4 #ib ,a4 ,span4 ,bol/]s4 ,/r+]s4 ,ties4 ,braces4 ,bolts4 #e #ab #ab #ab #ab #f #aj #b #aj #a in* #aj #ab #ab #ab #ac #f #aj #b #aj #a in* #ae #ad #ad #ab #ah #f #aj #b #aj #a in* #bj #ad #ad #ab #bd #f #aj #b #aj #a in* ,! ties be+ not*$ ?ree in*es on to ! /r+]s1 )\t cutt+ ! latt]4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ie4 #ae to #cj feet4 ,span4 ,rise4 ,bol/]4 ,/r+]4 ,braces4 ,rod4 #ae #f #ab #ab #ab #ab #b--e #f #a in* #bj #g #ad #ad #ab #ab #b--e #h #a in* #be #h #ad #ad #ab #ae #b--e #i #a in* #cj #aj #ae #ae #ab #ah #b--e #aj #a in* ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #if4 #ae to #cj feet4 ,span4 ,rise4 ,/r+]4 ,po/4 ,rod4 #ae #e #ab #ab #h #h #a #bj #f #ab #ac #i #i #a #be #g #ab #ae #aj #aj #a #cj #h #ab #ah #aj #ab #a ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #id4 #ae to #cj feet4 ,span4 ,rise4 ,/r+]4 ,braces4 ,rods4 ,lattice4 #ae #e #b--h #h #b--e #e #a #b #f #bj #f #b--h #i #b--e #f #a #b #h #be #g #b--h #aj #b--e #h #a #b #i #cj #i #b--h #ab #b--e #i #a #b #aj ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ig4 #ae to #cj feet4 ,span4 ,rise4 ,/r+]4 ,po/4 ,rods4 ,braces4 #ae #e #b--h #h #h #h #a #d #e #bj #f #b--h #i #i #i #a #d #f #be #g #b--h #aj #aj #aj #a #e #f #cj #i #b--h #ab #aj #ab #a #f #f ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ic4 #be to #ej feet4 ,span4 ,rise4 ,*ords4 ,braces4 ,po/s4 ,rods4 #be #h #b--f #h #f #f #f #h #a #dj #aj #b--g #i #f #g #h #h #a #ej #aj #b--h #aj #f #h #h #aj #a ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ig4 #be to #ej feet4 ,span4 ,rise4 ,*ords4 ,po/s4 ,braces4 ,rods4 #be #h #b--f #h #h #h #e #e #a or #b-- #dj #aj #b--g #i #i #i #e #h #a or #b--a #ej #aj #b--h #aj #aj #aj #f #h #a or #b--a ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ih4 #be to #ej feet4 ,span4 ,rise4 ,*ords4 ,po/s4 ,braces4 ,rods4 #be #h #b--f #h #f #h #e #e #b--a or #a--a #dj #aj #b--g #i #f #i #e #h #b--a or #a--a #ej #aj #b--h #aj #f #ab #e #aj #b--a or #a--a ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ii4 #ej to #ge feet4 ,span4 ,rise4 ,*ord4 ,po/s4 ,braces4 ,lattice4 #ej #h #b--h #aj #a--h #aj #b--f #g #b #f #fj #i #b--h #aj #a--h #aj #b--f #g #b #f #ge #aj #c--h #aj #b--h #aj #c--f #h #b #f ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ajj4 #ej to #ge feet4 ,span4 ,rise4 ,*ords4 ,po/s4 ,braces4 ,c5tre ,rods4 braces4 ,no4 #a4 ,no4 #b4 #ej #h #b--h #aj #a--h #aj #b--f #g #e #e #a #a #fj #i #b--h #aj #a--h #aj #b--f #g #e #e #a #a #ge #aj #c--h #aj #b--h #aj #b--f #h #e #f #a #a #bab4 ,9 dim5sion+ small bridges1 l ! above1 9 e/imat+ ! maximum load1 m reg>d mu/ be giv5 to ! weight ( mom5t>y loads ?an 7z 9 l>ge bridges7 ! weight p] l9eal foot1 z ! weight ( ! bridge itself1 :5 "u fifty or sixty feet span1 is inconsid]able4 ,! greate/ load t c come ^u a s+le po/ or rod1 is t f ! driv+ :eels ( a locomotive4 ,if ! :ole eng9e weighs =ty tons1 !re w be t5 tons on ea* pair ( driv]s1 or five tons or #aa1bjj lbs4 on ea* :eel2 :i*1 be+ appli$ ov] a l5g? ( t5 feet only1 may be consid]$ z at a s+le po9t1 & all p>ts mu/ be able to be> su* load4 ,9 l>ge spans1 :]e ! weight is great1 if ! truss is /rong en\gh to support ! bridge & load1 x w safely resi/ ! effects ( a sudd5 application ( pass+ tra9s4 ,,note4--,on ! ,/atic & ,dynamic deflection ( ,bridges4 ,consid]able v>iance ( op9ion exi/s z to ! relative deflection ( bridges1 produc$ by /ation>y & by mov+ loads4 ,nei!r exp]im5t nor !ory has exactly settl$ ! po9t4 ,exp]im5ts ^u ! ,elwell bridge1 7,epsom & ,croydon ,railway1 ,engl&74 ,velocity 9 feet p] second4 ,deflection 9 in*es4 #j #j4bae #be #j4bae #ca #j4bcj #cb #j4bbe #ed #j4bde #ge #j4bce ,! bridge be+ a ca/-iron gird] ( =ty-eight feet span1 load ?irty-n9e tons4 ,exp]im5ts on ! ,god/one bridge1 7,s4 ,e4 ,r4 ,r4 ,engl&74 ,velocity 9 feet p] second4 ,deflection 9 in*es4 #j #j4ai #bb #j4bc #dj #j4bb #gc #j4be ,ca/-iron gird]1 ?irty feet span1 load ?irty-?ree tons4 ,mr4 ,w4 ,h4 ,b>l[1 7,eng47 obs]v$1 8t 9 case ( a timb] viaduct1 a freight tra91 at a l[ spe$1 produc$ a c]ta9 deflection2 b an extra tra91 ) a mu* light] eng9e1 seem$ to pu% ! bridge l a wave be=e x40 ,! ,britannia tubul> bridge 0 depress$ ?ree f\r?s ( an in* by two locomotives & a tra9 ( two hundr$ & eighty tons /&+ /ill2 b at sev5ty miles p] h\r1 ! deflection 0 s5sibly less4 ,,*apt] ,,ix4 ,,iron ,,bridges4 8,a little k is a dang]\s ?+40 #bac4 ,)9 ! pa/ t5 ye>s iron has be5 br\ght ext5sively into use = railroad bridg+2 & :5 employ$ by ^? :o und]/& its *emical & me*anical nature is unequall$ = /r5g?1 durability1 & elegance ( appe>ance2 b :51 z is too (t5 ! case 9 ,am]ica1 x is intru/$ to m5 :o nei!r "k nor c>e = any ?+ b ! price !y get = x1 no?+ c be m unsafe4 ,no mat]ial requires s complete a k ( its prop]ties1 to be safely us$1 z ca/-iron4 ,,nature ,,& ,,/r5g? ,,( ,,iron4 #bad4 ,! table bel[ %[s ! prop]ties ( ! sev]al descriptions ( iron us$ 9 eng9e]+4 ,wr\ght ,ca/-,iron4,iron ,wire4 ,boil] ,designation ( ! ,iron4 ,plate4 quality4 #dhj #dej ---- #dhj,weight p] cubic foot 9 lbs4 ,resi/ance to #aejjj #dejj #bejjj #abgdj ext5sion 9 lbs4 p] sq4 in*4 ,resi/ance to #aajjj #bejjj ---- #gejj compression 9 lbs4 p] sq4 94 ,expansion p] degree 4#jjjjjff 4#jjjjjfjh 4#jjjjjfhe 4#jjjjjff ,fahr5heit 9 l5g?s4 4#jjjjjjjdbd4jjjjjjajf4jjjjjjjddf4jjjjjj jebd;,ext5sion p] lb4 p] squ>e in*4 4#jjjjjjadi4jjjjjjjhc ---- 4#jjjjjjahi;,compression p] lb4 p] squ>e in*4 ,ratio ( ext5sive to #ij to #ff #bj to #aaa ---- #abg to #ge compressive /r5g?4 ,resi/ance to #abejj #agejj ---- ---- detrusion1 or %e>+4 #ee #ca ---- ----,relative transv]se /r5g?4 ,column f\r ref]s to boil] plate :5 built into tubes4 ,aft] wr\ght iron has become a little compress$1 its p[] to resi/ a cru%+ =ce is v mu* increas$4 #bae4 ,! t5acity ( wr\ght iron is increas$ by heat+4 ,exp]im5ts ^u ?irty v>ieties gave ! foll[+ mean result1 ! temp]ature rang+ f #ejj to #gjj ,fahr5heit4 ,/r5g? :5 ,cold4 ,hot4 ,cool$4 #fj1jjj #fd1jjj #gj1jjj #baf4 ,/irl+'s process ( t\gh5+ ca/-iron1 by ! addition ( malleable scrap1 increases ! /r5g? 9 ! foll[+ ratio3-- ,! mean t5sile /r5g? ( ca/-iron be+ #ah1jjj lbs4 ,& ! compressive /r5g? be+ #aje1jjj lbs4 ,:5 ,/irl+-t\gh5$ ! t5sile /r5g? is #bc1jjj lbs4 ,& ! compressive /r5g? #acj1jjj lbs4 ,! /r5g? ( ca/-iron increases rapidly up to ! twelf? or fifte5? reca/+1 :5 x is ne>ly d\bl$2 aft] ! fifte5? melt+ ! /r5g? decreases4 #bag4 ,wr\ght iron expos$ = "s "t to vibration1 z 9 ! case ( railroad axles1 or iron :i* has be5 wr\ght ) light hamm]s1 loses its t\ghness & becomes 8%ort10 7cry/all9e74 ,! fibre may be re/or$ 9 su* cases by reheat+ & cool+ sl[ly4 #bah4 ,,g5]al ,,ratios ,,( ,,! ,,/r5g? ,,( ,,iron4 ,t5sion4 ,compression4 ,cross ,/ra94 ,ca/1 #cjj #a1fff #ca4fh ,wr\ght1 #a1jjj #gcc #ee4dj ,,( ,,! ,,/r5g? ,,( ,,boil] ,,plates4 #bai4 ,! /r5g? ( roll$ boil] plates is no great] 9 ! direction ( ! fibres ?an crosswise1 b is m regul>2 :5ce ! l5g? ( ! fibre mu/ be plac$ z ne>ly z possible ) ! direction ( ! =ce4 ,a mean ( twelve exp]im5ts1 by ,mr4 ,fairbairn1 gives ! t5sile /r5g? ( wr\ght iron plates z #ej1ifj lbs4 p] squ>e in*2 & ! compressive /r5g? ( plates1 :5 built into tubes1 z #cj1dfd lbs41 or = safe use 9 practice1 = ext5sion1 #ab1gdj lbs41 & = compression1 #g1ejj lbs4 ,9 ! rem>ks ^u gird] bridges ! matt] ( rivet+ w be consid]$4 ,,classification ,,( ,,iron ,,bridges4 #bbj4 ,iron bridges may be classifi$ z foll[s3-- ,^? entirely ( ca/-iron1 or ,ar* & ,gird] bridge4 ,^? ( wr\ght iron alone1 or ,tubul> & ,gird]4 ,^? ( iron wire1 or ,susp5sion bridges4 ,^? ( ca/ & wr\ght iron1 or ,truss$ bridges4 ,! ord] 9 :i* ^! bridges may be plac$ z reg>ds co/ ( con/ruction1 & ext5t ( application1 is z foll[s3-- ,numb]4 ,span4 ,description ( bridge4 #a #aj to #ej feet ,ca/-iron gird]4 #b #ej to #bjj feet ,ca/ & wr\ght comb9ations4 #c #bjj to #bjjj feet ,susp5sion4 #d #bjj to #ejj feet ,ca/ ar*4 #e #be to #ajj feet ,boil] plate gird]4 #f #ajj to #ejj feet ,tubul>4 ,numb]s #b1 #c1 & #e1 are ! =ms :i* are 9 use ^u ,am]ican roads4 ,no4 #a1 is v liable to failure1 requires mu* m k & c>e 9 build+1 & is f> m exp5sive ?an a wood5 truss1 or truss$ gird]4 ,no4 #d1 is v exp5sive1 & causes a great] ob/ruction to ! wat]-way ?an any o!r4 ,! enorm\s exp5se ( ,no4 #f1 %\ld1 & w prev5t its adoption 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,let u look at ! pr9ciples ( con/ruction ( numb]s #b1 #c1 & #e4 ,,comb9ations ,,( ,,ca/ ,,& ,,wr\ght ,,iron4 #bba4 ,"u ?is head come all ( ! iron truss$ frames us$ 9 ?is c\ntry4 ,z be=e obs]v$1 skill 9 bridge con/ruction consi/s 9 us+ always t mat]ial :i* ) ! lea/ exp5se is ! be/ able to resi/ ! p>ticul> /ra9 to :i* x may be expos$4 ,?us wr\ght iron mu/ always be us$ to resi/ t5sion1 & ca/-iron compression4 ,po/s1 braces1 & upp] *ords %\ld always be ca/1 :ile ties & l[] *ords %\ld be made ( wr\ght iron4 ,! /r5g? ( a railroad bridge mu/ be su* z to resi/ all extra %ocks & /ra9s1 su* z are produc$ by d]ailm5t ( eng9es1 & breakage ( axles2 also incid5tal /ra9s aris+ f *ange ( =m by expansion & contraction ( ! metal1 & f high w9ds & gales4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aja4 ,e "p ( a bridge n resi/+ "s =ce is worse ?an useless1 z x adds to ! weight4 ,lightness n only increases ! economy directly1 b indirectly by remov+ a "p ( ! p]man5t load4 #bbb4 ,=emo/ 9 class numb] two /&s ,w5del ,bollman's ,iron ,susp5sion & truss$ bridge4 ,= simplicity ( con/ruction & directness ( action1 ?is bridge is unsurpass$4 ,! weight at ea* po/ is transf]r$ at once to ! abutm5t or pi]4 ,! upp] *ord is ( ca/ iron1 holl[1 octagonal )\t1 & circul> )94 ,! po/s consi/ ( an ca/+1 ! c5tral web ca/ op5 & ! flanges :ole4 ,! top is adju/$ to ! *ord1 & ! bottom to ! t5sion or susp5d+ rods4 ,^! latt] are ( wr\ght iron1 rectangul> 9 section1 jo9$ :5 ! l5g? requires x by an eye bolt4 ,ea* set aft] leav+ ! foot ( ! po/1 passes ?r\gh ! *air at ,a ,b1 fig4 #aja1 & is secur$ by a nut4 ,! junction ( ! t5sion rod ,a ,c1 & ! c\nt] rod ,b ,c1 is atta*$ indirectly to ! foot ( ! po/ by a p5dulum or l9k2 :i* s]ves to equalize ! effect ( expansion ^u ! rods4 ,vibration & reaction are prev5t$ by ! panel diagonal ties ,d ,h1 & ,c ,e4 ,! floor is support$ by flanges at ! foot ( ea* po/4 ,! lat]al brac+ consi/s ( a sy/em ( holl[ ca/-iron po/s1 & ( wr\ght diagonal tie rods4 ,a l[] *ord is pla9ly unnecess>y1 its place be+ tak5 by ! rods ,c ,b1 ,f ,b1 ,f ,a1 ,g ,a4 ,a bridge ( ?is description ^u ! ,baltimore & ,ohio ,railroad ( ! foll[+ dim5sions1 ,cle> span1 #abd feet ,l5g? ( top *ord1 #abh feet ,l5g? ( panel1 #ae feet ,height ( truss1 #ag feet ,wid?1 #af feet ,lbs4 ( ca/-iron1 #fe1acg ,lbs4 ( wr\ght iron1 #cc1ebg ,:ole weight1 #ih1ffd ,weight p] l9eal foot1 #gif 0 subject$ to ! foll[+ te/s4 ,?ree locomotives ) t5d]s atta*$1 & weigh+ 9 all "o hundr$ & tw5ty-two tons1 7ne>ly "o ton p] foot17 7 run ov] ! bridge at eight miles p] h\r1 :5 ! deflection at c5tre 0 "o & ?ree eigh?s in*es1 & at ! fir/ po/ n9e sixte5?s ( an in*4 ,! foll[+ te/s 7 appli$ to a bridge ( sev5ty-six feet span ^u ! ,wa%+ton bran* ( ! same road3 ,an eng9e & t5d] weigh+ =ty tons1 caus$ a deflection ( five eigh?s ( an in*4 ,a fa/ pass5g] tra9 deflect$ ! bridge n9e sixte5?s ( an in*4 ,two eng9es & t5d]s1 back to back1 at re/1 & weigh+ 9 all #gg tons1 caus$ a deflection ( #aa_/af in*1 ,! same at t5 miles p] h\r1 #ac_/af in*1 ,eng9es head to head at f\r miles p] h\r1 #ac_/af in*1 ,eng9es head to head at eight miles p] h\r1 #ac_/af in*1 ,eng9es head to head at tw5ty miles p] h\r1 #ad_/af in*4 ,! extreme expansion ( ! "o hundr$ & tw5ty-eight feet *ord f heat1 0 five sixte5?s ( an in* at ea* end1 or five eigh?s ( an in* 9 all1 or #a_/bdeg? ( ! l5g?2 & t )\t ! slighte/ d]angem5t ( masonry4 ,! rod ,c ,b1 be+ five times z long z ,c ,a1 exp&s five times z mu*1 b at ! same "t ! l5g?s ,d ,a1 ,d ,b1 be+ s ne>ly proportional to ,c ,a1 & ,c ,b1 exp& also 9 ! ratio ( "o to five2 & ?us no bad result is exp]i5c$4 ,! e/imate ( /ra9s ^u ?is bridge is extremely simple2 ! :ole consi/+ ( z _m sep>ate sy/ems z !re are po/s4 ,ea* set ( rods su/a9 a rectangle equal to "o panel1 i4 e41 ! two adjac5t half panels4 ,?us ,a ,c1 & ,c ,b1 support ! rectangle m m1 m m1 ! rods ,a ,f1 ,f ,b1 ! rectangle n n1 n n4 ,all[ance mu/ ( c\rse be made = ! incl9ation ( ! rods4 ,! dim5sions ( ! c5tral pair w ( c\rse be ! same2 b ^? ( ! o!r sets w v>y4 ,! diagonals ,d ,h1 & ,h ,l1 prev5t reaction2 & mu/ be able to resi/ ! action produc$ by ! v>iable load ^u "o panel 7z notic$ 9 ,*apt] ,,viii74 ,any load1 "o at ,c ,d = example1 gives to ! po/s a t5d5cy to revolve on ,a1 z a c5tre t[>ds ! abutm5t2 to oppose :i*1 !re mu/ be a =ce 9 ! opposite direction4 ,! mo/ prop] direction 9 :i* to resi/ su* motion is ! l9e ,c ,k1 i4 e41 ! l9e ( ! l[] *ord4 ,9 ?is bridge !re is no l[] *ord1 b 9 place ( su* are put ! rods ,a ,g1 ,a ,k1 ,b ,h1 & ,b ,c2 :i* prev5t ! *ange ( =m 7by ! motion ( ! triangle7 & act aga9/ ! upp] *ord4 ,z an example ( ! e/imate ( /ra9s ^u ?is bridge take ! foll[+4 ,span1 #ij feet4 ,rise1 #ah feet4 ,panel1 #ae feet4 ,weight p] l9eal foot1 #b1ejj lbs4 ,:ole weight1 #bbe1jjj lbs4 ,weight on ea* side truss1 #aab1ejj lbs4 ,weight on ea* po/1 #ah1gej lbs4 ,! weight borne by ea* sy/em1 i4 e41 "o po/ & ! two support+ rods1 is #ah1gej lbs4 ,! /ra9 to be resi/$ by any "o rod dep5ds ^u its incl9ation4 ,! foll[+ figures %[ ! elem5ts ( ! truss 9 "q3-- ,section ,rod4 ,l5g?4 ,appli$ weight4 ,increas$ ( ! /ra94 b> 9 in*es4 ,a ,b #ij4j ,c ,d #ah4j ,a ,c #bc4d 7#ahgej - #cabe7 #aefbe :i* by #bc4d_/ah #bjcab #a ,a ,h #ce4j 7#ahgej #fj7_/ij #abejj :i* by #ce_/ah #bdcjf #a ,a ,f #dh4e 7#ahgej #de7_/ij #icge :i* by #dh4e_/ah #bebfj #a ,a ,k #fb4f 7#ahgej #cj7_/ij #fbej :i* by #fb4f_/ah #bagcf #a ,a ,g #gg4f 7#ahgej #ae7_/ij #cabe :i* by #gg4f_/ah #acdgb #a ,column #a1 gives ! "n ( ! rod2 col4 #b1 ! calculat$ diagonal l5g?2 col4 #d1 ! appli$ weight1 7! v>y+ weight by reason ( ! v>y+ incl9ation7 f\nd by multiply+ ! :ole weight ^u "o panel or po/ by ! di/ance ( t po/ f ! abutm5t1 & divid+ ! product by ! span4 7,?us ! load appli$ to ,a ,g is 7,w ,,ib7_/,s1 t on ,a ,k is 7,w ,,bx7_/,s1 & s on47 ,col4 #f1 %[s ! increase f\nd by col4 #e on acc\nt ( incl9ation z notic$ 9 ,*ap4 ,,viii42 & f9ally1 col4 #d gives ! necess>y sectional area ( ! b>s or rods4 ,! compression on ! top *ord is evid5tly ! sum ( ! compressions ( ! sep>ate sy/ems2 ! compression f any "o sy/em is z foll[s1 fig4 #ajb4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ajb4 ,let a d1 c d be ! rods1 & a b c ! *ord2 also b d1 ! po/2 n[ if d b repres5ts ! weight1 e h %[s ! t5sion on a l[]1 or ! compression on an upp] *ord2 ! triangles a c d & a b e are simil>2 z also e b h & d b c2 :5ce be 7ab cd7_/7ac72 & eh 7cb be7_/7dc7 compression4 ,num]ically we h ! foll[+ figures3-- ,9 ! fir/ sy/em1 be 7#ae #gg4f7_/ij #ac1 also eh 7#ge #ac7_/gg4f #ab4 ,9 ! second sy/em1 be 7#cj #fb4f7_/ij #ba1 also eh 7#fj #bj7_/fb4f #bj4 ,9 ! ?ird sy/em1 be 7#de #dh4e7_/ij #bd1 also eh 7#de #bd7_/dh4e #bc1 t is1 ! compression f ! sy/em ,a ,c ,b1 is to ! weight on ! po/1 z twelve is to ! l5g? ( ! po/2 or actually #ah to #ab z #ah1gej to compression2 :5ce compression 7#ahgej #ab7_/ah #abejj 9 sy/em "o1 & 9 ! second sy/em #ah to #bj z #ahgej to #bjhcc4 ,9 ! c5tral sy/em1 #ah to #bc z #ahgej to #bdjjj4 ,d\bl+ ! sum ( ! fir/ & second sy/ems1 & add+ !reto ! c5tral1 we h #b7abejj #bjhcc7 #bdjjj #ijfff lbs41 z ! :ole compression ^u "o side ( ! bridge4 ,z to compression only1 ?is w\ld require a section ( ab\t f\r squ>e in*es ( ca/-iron1 :i* may be obta9$ by a tube ( f\r & "o half in*es inside1 & five in*es outside diamet]4 ,we may h[ev] ne$ to increase ?is am\nt to resi/ flexure1 or transv]se /ra9s2 9 :i* case ! l5g? ( tube 9 "o panel is to be reg>d$ z ! height ( a po/1 or ! l5g? ( a beam2 & ! size w be f\nd by ! table on page #ach4 ,ea* po/ mu/ be> #ah1gej lbs41 & ^! be+ ( ca/-iron1 to resi/ flexure1 by ! same table above ref]r$ to1 %\ld1 if made z a holl[ cyl9d]1 be a little ov] f\r in*es 9 diamet]1 & "o half in* ?ick2 & if ( or section1 %\ld h a squ>e ( ne>ly five in*es4 ,! floor+ w be dim5sion$ by ! rules giv5 9 ,*apt] ,,viii4 = s+le beams4 ,!re is no?+ ab\t ?is bridge to burn1 9 case ( fire1 except ! floor2 & t might easily be made ( iron4 ,to use ! words ( ! inv5tor1 8,! p]man5t pr9ciple 9 bridge build+ su/a9$ ?r\gh\t ?is mode ( /ructure1 & 9 :i* !re is su* ga9 9 competition ) any o!r1 namely1 ! direct transf] ( weight to ! abutm5t1 r5d]s ! calculation simple1 ! exp5se c]ta91 & facilitates ! erection ( secure1 economical1 & durable /ructures40 ,,:ipple',s ,,iron ,,bridges4 #bbc4 ,! bridges built by ! above-nam$ eng9e] are 9 all respects well proportion$1 rigid1 safe1 & durable4 ,ca/-iron is us$ z a top *ord1 & wr\ght iron is employ$ to resi/ ! t5sile =ces4 ,! plan put up ^u ! ,new ,york & ,erie ,railroad1 consi/s ( a holl[ ca/-iron top *ord1 circul> 9 section4 ,l[] *ords ( wr\ght iron rods4 ,po/s ca/ cruci=m 9 section4 ,diagonal t5sion rods1 z 9 ,pratt's bridge1 7,*apt] ,,viii474 ,! :ole /ructure is 9 iron exactly :at ! above-nam$ bridges are 9 wood2 & ! me?od ( calculation is ! same4 ,= spans n exce$+ "o hundr$ feet1 ?is =m answ]s e purpose z a railroad bridge4 ,x is op5 to ! same objection 9 l>g] spans z are all trusses transf]r+ ! load by a s]ies ( triangles ?r\gh :i* ! weight passes successively1 namely1 ! effect ( an enorm\s pressure at ! feet ( ! second & ?ird pairs ( braces1 :i* %\ld be tak5 up by ar* braces1 z 9 fig4 #fi2 or by rods f ! top ( ! abutm5t pill>s to ! feet ( ! second & ?ird sets ( po/s4 ,a span ( ?is plan1 ^u ! ,new ,york & ,erie ,railroad1 ( =ty feet1 & :i* weigh$ only ?ree tons1 support$ a load ( fifte5 hundr$ p\nds p] l9eal foot = two days2 :5 ! bridge _h settl$ ne>ly "o half in*4 ,a load ( rails weigh+ #acah lbs4 p] foot 7( bridge7 0 !n roll$ ov]1 ^u a truck )\t spr+s1 ?us mak+ ! :ole load upw>ds ( #b1hjj lbs4 p] foot1 :5 ! :ole deflection 0 ?ree f\r?s ( an in*4 ,^u remov+ ! load ! bridge return$ to its orig9al position1 )9 "o f\r? ( an in*4 ,,susp5sion ,,bridges4 #bbd4 ,susp5sion bridges ( l>ge span h be5 g5]ally consid]$ z entirely unfit = railroad purposes2 b ,john ,a4 ,roebl+ has prov$ ! contr>y by erect+ a wire susp5sion railroad bridge ( eight hundr$ feet cle> span across ,niag>a ,riv]2 :i* ) heavy loads & viol5t gales has %[n itself to be bo? /iff & /rong to any desir$ am\nt4 ,! con/ruction ( a bridge ^u any o!r plan w\ld h be5 h>dly possible at ! site ( ,mr4 ,roebl+'s ,niag>a bridge1 !re be+ no opportunity = scaffold+ or = pi]s1 pontoons or hydraulic presses4 ,! simple road-way support$ by cables1 possesses great /r5g? ) v little /iffness4 ,x mu/ be accompani$ by /ays & trusses to *eck vibration4 ,no bridge involves m simple calculations1 & 9 none c we proce$ ) m absolute safety1 ?an 9 ! wire susp5sion4 ,european susp5sion bridges are g5]ally =m$ ( cables made by l9k+ b>s ( wr\ght iron toge!r4 ,?is me?od is m exp5sive & m liable to failure ?an ! ,am]ican plan ( =m+ cables ( iron wire4 ,an app>5tly good b> may be defective inside1 :ile we are sure ( e compon5t fibre ( ! cable2 inde$ x is v little tr\ble to te/ ea* wire z x is laid into ! cable4 ,! p>ts to be consid]$ 9 proportion+ a susp5sion bridge are ,! an*or+ masonry1 ,! an*or *a9s1 ,! t[]s & plate1 ,! susp5sion cables1 ,! susp5d+ rods1 ,! /iff5+ arrangem5t1 ,! road-way4 ,! data giv5 9 ! con/ruction ( a bridge ( ?is description are ,! span1 ,! load to be support$4 ,! assum$ data ,! v]s$ s9e ( ! cable1 ,! wid?4 ,& ! requir$ elem5ts ,! l5g? ( cable1 ,l5g?s ( susp5d+ rods1 ,angle ( tang5t ( cable at po9t ( susp5sion ) axis ( t[]1 ,t5sion ^u ! cables1 ,section ( ! an*or irons1 ,am\nt ( an*or+ masonry1 ,size ( ! t[]s1 ,dim5sions ( truss+ & ( road-way4 ,,( ,,! ,,cables4 #bbe4 ,! curve =m$ by ! cable ( a susp5sion bridge lies betwe5 ! p>abola & ! cat5>y4 ,:5 load$ ! curve is ne>ly ! =m]1 & :5 unload$ ! latt]4 ,problem #a4 ,giv5 ! horizontal di/ance betwe5 ! po9ts ( susp5sion & ! v]s$-s9e1 to f9d ! l5g? ( ! cable1 fig4 #ajc4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ajc4 ,repres5t ,c ,e by b1 & ,e ,f by a1 & ! l5g? ( ! semi-curve is ,l b#a 7a_/b7#b4 ,let ! half span be five hundr$ feet1 & ! v]s$-s9e or deflection eighty feet1 ! =mula becomes ,l #ejja 7#hj_/ejj7b #ejj #a4jaga #ejh4ee feet1 :i* is ! half l5g? ( cables betwe5 t[]s4 ,problem #b4 #bbf4 ,to f9d ! l5g? ( ! susp5d+ rods4 ,call+ ,e ! horizontal di/ance betwe5 ! v]tical susp5d]s1 we h ! =mula ,x 7,y#b7_/7;b#b7 a1 9 :i* we place ,e1 #b;,e1 #c;,e1 etc41 9 place ( ,y1 ?us call+ ! rods "o hundr$ feet ap>t1 we h ,c5tre4 ,rod #a4 ,rod #b4 #j 7,e#b7_/7;b#b7 a 7#d;,e#b7_/7;b#b7 a #j 7#ajjb7_/7ejjb7 #hj 7#bjjb7_/7ejjb7 #hj #j #c4bj #ab4hj ,rod #c4 ,rod #d4 ,rod #e4 7#i;,e#b7_/7;b#b7 a 7#af;,e#b7_/7;b#b7 a7#be;,e#b7_/7;b#b7 a 7#cjjb7_/7ejjb7 #hj 7#djjb7_/7ejjb7 #hj 7#ejjb7_/7ejjb7 #hj #bh4hj #ea4bj #hj4jj ,problem #c4 #bbg4 ,to f9d ! angle ,e ,c ,g1 fig4 #ajc4 ,! =mula = ! angle betwe5 ! axis ( ! t[]1 & ! tang5t to ! curve ( ! cable at ! po9t ( susp5sion is tang a ,e ,c ,g 7#b;a7_/b4 ,span be+ "o ?\s& feet1 b is five hundr$2 & a be+ eighty feet1 we h tang ,e ,c ,g #afj_/ejj log #afj - log #ejj3 or #b4bjdabj - #b4fihigj tang #i4ejeaej #ag #de ,e ,c ,g4 ,also1 #ij - #ag #de #gb #ae angle ,g ,c ,a1 or ,a ,c ,h4 ,:5 ! po9ts ( susp5sion are n at ! same elevation1 we proce$ 9 ! same mann]3 only us+ ,g ,l1 ,g ,e1 9 place ( ,f ,l1 ,f ,c1 9 fig4 #ajc ,a4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ajc ,a4 ,t ! resultant ( ! =ces act+ ^u ! top ( ! t[] may be v]tical1 ! angles ,g ,c ,a1 & ,a ,c ,h1 fig4 #ajc1 mu/ be equal2 if n1 ! masonry mu/ be s arrang$ z to cause ! resultant to pass ?r\gh ! c5tre ( gravity4 ,:5 m ?an "o span is us$1 & ! op5+s are unequal1 t ! int]m$iate pi] or pi]s %all n be pull$ ov]1 ! cable ( ! l>ge/1 & consequ5tly heavie/ span1 mu/ h a great] incl9ation f ! horizontal ?an t ( ! %ort] span2 ! product ( ! t5sions by _! respective incl9ations mu/ be equal4 ,mr4 ,roebl+'s plan 9 connect+ sev]al spans1 is to atta* ! cables ( adjac5t spans to a p5dulum ^u ! pi]1 by :i* arrangem5t ! diff]5ce 9 t5sion ^u ! diff]5t cables sw+s ! p5dulums1 )\t rack+ ! masonry4 ,problem #d4 #bbh4 ,giv5 ! weight p] foot ( bridge & load1 to f9d ! t5sion at ! l[e/ po9t ( ! curve4 ,! =mula = ! m9imum t5sion1 t at ! v]tex ,f ( ! curve1 is ,t 7ph#b7_/7b;f72 :]e p is ! weight p] foot ( bridge & load1 h ! half di/ance betwe5 ! po9ts ( susp5sion1 & f ! v]s$-s9e4 ,?us ! span be+ "o ?\s& feet1 ! v]s$-s9e eighty feet1 & ! load p] l9eal foot six ?\s& lbs41 ! =mula becomes ,t 7#fjjj #ejjb7_/afj #icgejjj lbs4 or #dahe tons4 ,! maximum t5sion is at ! po9ts ( support1 & is express$ by ! =mula ,t 77ph7_/7#b;f77h#b #d;f#b3 :i*1 9 ! case be=e u1 becomes ,t 77#fjjj #ejj7_/afj7ejjb #d #hjb #dcie tons4 #bbi4 ,! object ( ! an*or+ is to connect ! cable ) a resi/ance ^u ! l& side1 :i* %all m ?an balance ! weight & mom5tum ( ! bridge & load ^u ! opposite side4 ,! an*or+ ( ! ,niag>a bridge consi/s ( an iron *a9 made ( flat l9ks1 #g feet long1 #g in*es wide1 & #a4d in*es ?ick2 ! *a9 l9ks consi/ alt]nately ( six & ( sev5 ( ^! b>s2 see fig4 #ajd4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ajd4 ,9 ! ,frib\rg bridge 7,switz]l&7 ! an*orage is made z 9 fig4 #aje1 7see p4 #bbj17 by a cable 9 place ( ! *a94 ,9 ,m4 ,navi]'s susp5sion bridge at ,p>is1 ov] ! ,se9e1 ! an*orage dep5d$ some:at ^u ! natural cohesion ( ! e>? =m+ ! bank ( ! riv]1 & ?is be+ de/roy$ by ! bur/+ ( a wat]-pipe 9 ! vic9ity1 ! bridge fell4 ,:5 !re is no natural rock = an an*orage1 ! masonry ( ! %aft mu/1 by its own weight1 resi/ ! t5sion4 #bcj4 ,! height ( ! t[]s mu/ be at lea/ z mu* z ! v]s$-s9e ( ! cable4 ,_! duty is to support ! :ole bridge & load4 ,! bread? & ?ickness ( ^! columns mu/ be det]m9$ m ) a view to oppos+ lat]al1 ?an d[nw>d /ra9s4 ,! =m] result f ! horizontal vibrations ( ! bridge caus$ by ! action ( ! w9d4 ,tremor & vibration caus$ by a pass+ load1 t5d to pull ! t[]s into ! riv]4 ,! section = weight only might be v small4 ,f ! practice ( ! be/ build]s1 a mean section ( "o fif? ( ! height seems to give ! be/ results2 ?us1 if a t[] is sixty feet high1 ! mean ?ickness %\ld be twelve feet2 or ! top be+ #h #h feet1 ! bottom %\ld be #af #af feet4 ,if ! bridge is s little brac$ lat]ally z to sw+1 a dang]\s mom5tum w be g5]at$ :i* w\ld v mu* increase ! /ra91 bo? ^u ! masonry & ^u ! cables4 #bca4 ,! object ( ! /iff5+ truss is to transf] ! weight appli$ at any "o po9t ov] a consid]able l5g?1 & to prev5t vibration4 ,its dim5sions %\ld1 !re=e1 be ^? ( ! c\nt]brac+ 9 an ord9>y truss4 ,any appli$ load produces a c]ta9 depression 9 ! bridge3 to use ! words ( ,mr4 ,roebl+1 8e tra9 t passes ov] ! bridge causes an actual elongation ( ! cables1 & consequ5tly produces a depression4 ,if ! tra9 is long1 & cov]s ne>ly ! :ole l5g? ( ! bridge1 & is uni=mly load$1 ! depression w be uni=m4 ,if ! tra9 is %ort1 & cov]s only a "p ( ! floor1 ! depression w be less g5]al & m local2 & w be ! jo9t result ( an elongation ( ! cables1 & ( a di/urbance ( ! equilibrium4 ,depressions w be 9 direct proportion to ! loads1 & indirectly z ! l5g? ( tra940 ,! am\nt ( depression dep5ds on ! elongation ( ! cables2 ! elongation ^u ! l5g?4 ,! depression is %[n by ! =mula ,d 7,v#b - d#b7 - 7l#b - d#b74 :]e ,d depression1 l half l5g? ( curve be=e elongation1 ,v half l5g? ( curve aft] elongation1 d half di/ance betwe5 po9ts ( susp5sion40 ,! effect ( heat1 by exp&+ ! cables1 is also to depress ! road-way2 ! am\nt be+ %[n by ! expression ,d 7,v#b - d#b7 - 7l#b - d#b74 ,v be+ ! l5g? ( semi-curve z elongat$ by heat in/ead ( by t5sion2 ! elongations1 bo? by heat & t5sion1 be+ f\nd by table on page #aic4 ,^u ! top ( ! t[]s is plac$ a pair ( ca/-iron plates sep>at$ by roll]s2 ! upp] plate 7! saddle7 is ?us enabl$ to move ov] ! l[] "o :5 pull$ ei!r way by ! movem5t ( ! cables4 ,! l5g? ( ! half cable betwe5 t[]s be+ g5]ally great] ?an ! di/ance f ! top ( ! t[] to ! an*or+1 exp&s m1 :5 ! saddle moves t[>ds ! l& side4 ,! dim5sions ( ^! ca/+s mu/ be suffici5t to resi/ ! :ole weight ( bridge & load4 #bcb4 ,z an example ( ! prec$+ =mula1 take ! foll[+3-- ,assume ! span z #a1jjj feet4 ,height ( t[]s #ajj feet4 ,deflection ( cables #ij feet4 ,weight p] foot 7l9eal7 ( bridge #b1ejj lbs4 ,weight p] foot 7l9eal7 ( load #b1jjj lbs4 ,:ole weight p] foot #d1ejj lbs4 ,total weight #d1ejj1jjj lbs4 ,,cables4 ,! =mula = ! half l5g? ( cables betwe5 tops ( t[]s is ,l b#a 7a_/b7#b1 :i* becomes ,l #ejja 7#ij_/ejj7b #eaj4hj1 :i* d\bl$1 is #ajba4ch4 ,to ?is add d\ble ! di/ance f ! top ( t[] to ! an*orage1 7see page #bjf17 :i* is f\nd z foll[s3-- tang ,e ,c ,g 7#b;a7_/b4 ,also1 tang ,e ,c ,g log #b;a - log b1 or #b4beebgc - #b4fihigj tang #i4eefcjc ( :i* ! angle is #ai #dh & #ij - #ai #dh is #gj #ab angle ,g ,c ,a or ,a ,c ,h4 ,! height ( ! t[] be+ "o hundr$ feet1 & ! angle at ! t[] #gj #ab1 we h ,s9 #ai #dh #i1ebi1hfd ,s9 #ij #jj #aj1jjj1jjj log height 7#ajj7 #b1jjj1jjj log di/ance 7#bie4b7 #b1dgj1acf :i* d\ble1 & we h #eij4d2 f9ally1 add twice ! bread? ( ! tops ( ! t[]s1 & ! :ole l5g? ( cable is1 f an*orage to an*orage1 #ajba4ch #eij4dj #af #afbg4gh feet4 ,! =mula = ! maximum t5sion1 7t at ! po9t ( susp5sion17 is ,t 77ph7_/7#b;f777h#b #d;f#b71 :i* becomes ,t 77#dejj #ejj7_/ahj77bejjjj #cbdjj7 #biff tons4 ,numb] #aj iron wire 7#bj feet p] lb47 w support #a1fdh lbs4 p] /r&2 ?is is ! ultimate /r5g?2 ! maximum load = safety is #djj lbs4 p] /r&2 :5ce #b1iff tons1 or #f1fdb1ejj lbs4 w require #af1fjf /r&s2 & if we use two cables1 ea* mu/ h #h1cjc wires2 or f\r cables ( #d1aea ea*4 ,! p]man5t load on susp5sion bridges %\ld nev] be m ?an "o six? ( ! ultimate /r5g?2 "o eigh? is a good /&>d4 ,! accid5tal load %\ld nev] exce$ "o fif? ( ! :ole /r5g? ( ! cables4 ,! p]man5t weight support$ by ! ,niag>a bridge is only "o twelf? ( ! ultimate /r5g? ( ! cables4 ,,an*or ,,*a9s4 ,! maximum t5sion be+ #f1fdb1ejj lbs4 ! :ole section ( ! f\r an*or+s w ne$ to be #ffdbejj_/aejjj #ddc in*es1 or #aaa squ>e in*es = ea* %aft2 :i* is obta9$ by elev5 l9ks t5 in*es wide & "o in* ?ick4 ,if we s atta* ! an*or *a9s to ! masonry z to r$uce ! t5sion "o f\r? at ! fir/ ar*1 7see ,frib\rg an*or+17 we may fa/5 ?ree b>s ( ! *a9 at t po9t1 & desc5d f ! fir/ to ! second ar* ) eight b>s2 & leav+ two b>s at t po9t1 proce$ to ! bottom ) ! rema9+ six4 ,:]e !re is no natural rock to build ! masonry into or aga9/1 en\gh artificial /one mu/ be put d[n to balance ! bridge & load4 ,,an*or+ ,,masonry4 ,! entire weight ( ! bridge & load be+ #d1ejj1jjj lbs4 & ! :ole t5sion1 z above f\nd1 #f1fdb1ejj lbs41 or ^u ea* t[] #c1cba1bej lbs42 ?is is ! t5sion t5d+ to draw ! masonry out ( ea* %aft4 ,?is t5sion mu/ be r$uc$ on acc\nt ( ! incl9ation ( ! pull+ =ce4 ,! t[] is "o hundr$ feet high4 ,! di/ance on ! l9e ( t5sion f ! top ( ! t[] to ! an*or+1 z already f\nd1 is #bie4b feet2 :5ce ! actual ef=t to move ! an*or masonry1 is ?us1 #bie4b to #ajj z #a1ffj1fbe to ! ef=t or #efb1edb lbs4 ,if rock weighs #afj lbs4 p] cubic foot1 :i* is resi/$ by a column ( masonry ( #c1cba1bej_/afj #bj1geh cubic feet1 or #bj #bj #eb feet1 or by a mass #ae #ae #ia feet4 ,,t[]s4 ,! height ( t[]s be+ "o hundr$ feet1 & ! mean ?ickness be+ "o fif? ( ! height1 we h mean section #bj #bj2 or top #ab #ab1 & base #bh #bh4 ,,susp5d+ ,,rods4 ,assum+ ! horizontal di/ances betwe5 ! c5tres ( ! v]tical susp5d]s z five feet1 _! l5g?s1 !n1 w be f\nd by =mula ,x 7,y#b7_/7;b#b7 a2 & plac+ = ,y#b ! di/ances #e1 #aj1 #ae1 #bj1 etc41 we h1 comm5c+ at ! c5tre1 ,c5tre4 #e #aj #ae #j #eb_/ejjb #ijajb_/ejjb #ijaeb_/ejjb #ij #j 4#jji 4#jcf 4#jha ,c5tre4 #bj #be #cj #j #bjb_/ejjb #ijbeb_/ejjb #ijcjb_/ejjb #ij #j 4#add 4#bbe 4#cfj ,c5tre4 #ce #dj #de #j #ceb_/ejjb #ijdjb_/ejjb #ijdeb_/ejjb #ij #j 4#dij 4#egf 4#gbi ,c5tre4 #ej d #j #ejb_/ejjb #ij7;d#b7_/7;b#b7 a #j 4#ijj h & s on1 until we arrive at ! t[]4 ,:atev] di/ance above or bel[ ! v]tex ( ! curve ! road-way is plac$1 is ( c\rse con/ant1 to be add$ to or tak5 f ! above l5g?s4 ,! mann] ( putt+ 9 any camb] is simple bo? 9 !ory & practice4 ,! /ra9 ^u ! susp5d]s is m]ely ! direct weight ( ! road-way & load4 ,if ?is is #c1ejj lbs4 p] foot1 ! five feet support$ by two rods 7"o ea* side7 w weigh #ag1ejj lbs42 ea* rod or wire rope mu/ hold #h1gej lbs42 ?is c be done by a section ( "o half in* area4 ,= extra /ra9s1 h[ev]1 on s l>ge a span z #a1jjj feet1 "o in* ( area is n too l>ge4 ,,( ,,! ,,/iff5+ ,,trusses1 ,,gird]s1 ,,& ,,/ays4 ,! object ( ! gird]s support+ ! rails is to diffuse ! appli$ weight2 ^! gird]s may be made ( a ,h[e truss f\r or five feet deep1 by truss$ gird]s1 only simply deep & /iffly fram$ track /r+s4 ,!y %\ld be able to di/ribute ! load appli$ at "o po9t at lea/ fifte5 or tw5ty feet4 ,! side trusses transf] to a /ill great] ext5t any appli$ load4 ,mr4 ,roebl+ e/imates ! comb9$ effect ( trusses & gird]s 9 ! ,niag>a bridge z transf]r+ ! weight ( a locomotive ov] a l5g? ( two hundr$ feet4 ,?is transf]r+ c\nt]acts ! local depression4 ,! ,niag>a truss is =m$ by a sy/em ( v]tical po/s1 five feet ap>t1 & diagonal rods pass+ f ! top ( ! fir/ po/ to ! foot ( ! fif?2 ! incl9ation be+ #de1 spreads ! weight plac$ ^u any "o pair ( po/s ov] twice ! height ( ! truss1 or ab\t =ty feet4 ,z to ! actual dim5sions ( ! gird]s support+ ! rails1 if we int5d !m to spread an appli$ weight ov] =ty feet1 !y mu/ be z /iff z a bridge ( =ty feet span4 ,& z reg>ds ! truss1 if we w\ld effectually di/ribute ! appli$ weight & *eck vibration1 ! truss+ %\ld be z /rong z ! c\nt]brac+ 9 a l>ge span ^u ! ord9>y plans4 ,! pr9ciple ( truss+ a susp5sion bridge may be ?us expla9$4 ,see fig4 #ajf4 ,suppose t 9 place ( support+ ! ?ree trusses ,d s w1 s m m1 & m m d1 ^u pi]s at w & m1 we susp5d ^! po9ts f ! cable ,a c ,b4 ,! cable is flexible1 & :5 we apply a load at m1 ! truss w assume ! position ,d s c n d1 b betwe5 ,d & s1 s & n1 n & d1 ! truss w be q /iff4 ,:at we require1 !n1 is to make ! figure o p m m1 incapable ( *ang+ its =m1 :i* is done by diagonal brac+4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ajf4 #bcc4 ,und\bt$ly ! f9e/ specim5 ( a bridge ( l>ge span ^u ! susp5sion pr9ciple1 or inde$ ^u any pr9ciple1 is t built by ,john ,a4 ,roebl+1 across ! ,niag>a ,riv]1 a %ort di/ance bel[ ! falls4 ,! dim5sions bel[ ( ?is admirable /ructure are f ! f9al report ( ! above-nam$ eng9e]4 ,l5g? ( bridge f c5tre to c5tre ( t[] #hba #d ,l5g? ( floor betwe5 t[]s #hjj ft4 ,numb] ( wire cables #d ,diamet] ( ea* #aj ,solid wire section ( ea* cable #fj4dj sq4 94 ,total section ( f\r cables #bda4fj sq4 94 ,:ole section ( l[] l9ks ( an*or irons #bgf sq4 94 ,:ole section ( upp] l9ks ( an*or irons #cgb sq4 94 ,ultimate /r5g? ( *a9s #aa1ijd tons4 ,:ole numb] ( wires 9 cables #ad1efj ,av]age /r5g? ( a wire #a1fdh lbs4 ,ultimate /r5g? ( f\r cables #ab1jjj tons4 ,p]man5t weight support$ by cables #a1jjj tons4 ,result+ t5sion #a1haj tons4 ,l5g? ( an*or *a9s #ff ft4 ,l5g? ( upp] cables #a1bfa ft4 ,l5g? ( l[] cables #a1aic ft4 ,deflection ( upp] cables 7mean temp]ature7 #ed ft4 ,deflection ( l[] cables 7mean temp]ature7 #fd ft4 ,numb] ( susp5d]s #fbd ,aggregate /r5g? ( susp5d]s #ah1gbj tons4 ,numb] ( ov]-floor /ays #fd ,aggregate /r5g? #a1ibj tons4 ,numb] ( riv] /ays #ef ,aggregate /r5g? #a1fhj tons4 ,elevation ( grade above mean wat] #bde ft4 ,dep? ( riv] #bjj ft4 ,co/ ( ! bridge #djj1jjj4 #bca4 ,! foll[+ items are extract$ f ! report above ref]r$ to3-- 8,! tra9s ( ! ,new ,york ,c5tral1 & ,canada ,great ,we/]n ,railroads h cross$ regul>ly at ! rate ( ?irty trips p] day = five mon?s4 7,at pres5t ov] two ye>s47 8,a load ( =ty-sev5 tons caus$ a depression at ! c5tre ( five & a half in*es4 8,an eng9e ( tw5ty-?ree tons weight1 ) f\r driv+ :eels1 depress$ ! bridge at ! c5tre #j4c feet4 ,! depression imm$iately "u ! eng9e 0 "o in*2 ! effect ( :i* ext5d$ "o hundr$ feet4 8,! depression caus$ by an eng9e & tra9 ( c>s is s mu* diffus$ z sc>cely to be notic$4 8,a load ( ?ree hundr$ & tw5ty-six tons produc$ a deflection ( #j4hb feet only4 ,! ,conway tubul> bridge deflects #j4be feet "u ?ree hundr$ tons2 ! span be+ only "o half t ( ! ,niag>a bridge4 8,! specifi$ te/ = ! wire 01 t a /r& /ret*$ ov] two po/s f\r hundr$ feet ap>t %\ld n break at a great] deflection ?an n9e in*es2 also1 t x %\ld )/& b5d+ squ>e & reb5d+ ov] a pair ( pli]s )\t rupture4 ,?is te/ corresponds to a t5sile /ra9 ( #ij1jjj lbs4 p] squ>e in*1 or ,i1#cjj lbs4 p] wire ( tw5ty feet p] p\nd40 ,! wire is pres]v$ f oxidation by coat+ ) l9se$ oil & pa9t4 ,^u ! durability ( wire cables employ$ = susp5sion bridges ! foll[+ fact came to light3 ,^u tak+ d[n ! cables ( ! footbridge1 put up 9 #ahdh1 by ,mr4 ,ellet1 ! wire 0 f\nd s little impair$ t ,mr4 ,roebl+ did n hesitate to "w x into ! new cables2 also1 ! orig9al oil 0 f\nd to be /ill s(t & 9 good condition1 hav+ be5 up six ye>s4 ,t iron-"w ly+ "u gr\nd has be5 completely cov]$ ) cem5t gr\t1 z ?is is f\nd by ! above-nam$ eng9e] to be an effectual gu>d aga9/ oxidation4 ,eng9e]s wi%+ to /udy ! details ( ! ,niag>a bridge1 w f9d ! f9al report ( ,mr4 ,roebl+ full ( valuable matt]1 bo? z reg>ds ! mak+ ( cables1 an*or+1 /iff5+1 & ! effect ( pass+ tra9s4 ,,note4--,?is eng9e] is at pres5t engag$ ^u a /ill great] "w1 namely1 a railroad susp5sion bridge across ,k5tucky ,riv]1 ( #a1bbd feet span1 #cjj feet above ! wat]4 ,!re is no l[] road-way 9 ?is bridge1 ! cross section be+ a triangle base upw>ds4 #bce4 ,,note4--,! ,britannia tubul> bridge1 across ! ,m5ai ,/raits1 is d\btless a great "w1 & also an enorm\sly extravagant "o4 ,if no o!r /ructure 7 possible x w\ld be admissible2 b x is equall$ 9 /r5g? & by f> surpass$ 9 economy by ,mr4 ,roebl+'s sy/em ( truss$ susp5sion bridges4 ,! co/ ( mat]ial alone 9 "o span ( ! ,britannia bridge1 ( #dfj feet1 exce$s ! entire co/ ( ! ,niag>a bridge ( #hjj feet span2 add to ?is t we are sure ( ! /r5g? ( wire cables1 b n ( tubes1 & t ! #hjj feet span ( ! ,niag>a bridge weighs only #a1jjj tons 9 itself aga9/ #a1djj 9 a #dfj feet span ( tube1 & x w n be difficult to prove ! sup]iority ( ! susp5sion ov] ! tubul> sy/em2 ?us1 ,a susp5sion bridge ( #hjj feet span co/s #djj1jjj4 ,a tubul> bridge ( #dfj feet span co/s #ejj1jjj4 ,:5 we d\ble ! l9e> dim5sions we increase ! weight by ! cube2 & ! co/ ( a tube is v ne>ly z ! weight2 :5ce a tubul> bridge ( #hjj feet span w co/ #b #b #b1 or eight times #ejj1jjj1 or #d1jjj1jjj aga9/ #djj1jjj4 ,?us1 ,susp5sion #djj1jjj #a ,tubul> #d1jjj1jjj #aj ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aje4 ,fig4 #aje1 %[s ! an*or+ ( ! ,frib\rg bridge4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ajg4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ajh4 ,fig4 #ajg1 ! mann] ( fa/5+ ! gr\nd /ays ( ! ,niag>a bridge4 ,fig4 #ajh1 connection betwe5 cable & susp5d]4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aji4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aji ,a4 ,figs4 #aji1 #aji ,a1 ano!r me?od ( effect+ ! same4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aaj4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aaa4 ,fig4 #aab4 ,fig4 #aaj1 floor beam atta*m5t to susp5d]4 ,figs4 #aaa1 #aab1 floor beam atta*m5t 9 ,niag>a bridge4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aac4 ,fig4 #aac1 connection ( l& & wat] cables 9 ,frib\rg bridge4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aad4 ,fig4 #aad ,a4 ,figs4 #aad1 #aad ,a1 fa/5+ ( cables at ,g1 7fig4 #aje74 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aae4 ,fig4 #aae1 ,mr4 ,roebl+'s p5dulum connection = ! cables ( two adjac5t spans4 ,,boil] ,,plate ,,bridges4 ,spans f #be to #ajj feet4 #bcf4 ,^! /ructures fulfil e requirem5t ( safe1 durable1 & rigid bridges2 be+ op5 h[ev] to ! cont+5cy att5dant ^u all simil> /ructures ( wr\ght iron1 namely1 ! becom+ cry/all9e :5 expos$ to vibration4 ,"t only w %[ :e!r ?is is a suffici5t cause = _! non-adoption4 ,ea* side truss consi/s z x 7 ( a top & bottom *ord connect$ by a v]tical web4 ,! :ole be+ ( wr\ght iron1 requires t ! section ( ! upp] *ord %\ld be to t ( ! l[]1 z n9ety to sixty-six4 ,! g5]al plan ( su* bridges is %[n 9 fig4 #aaf4 ,?is is ! pat5t wr\ght iron gird] bridge ( ,mr4 ,fairbairn4 ,! upp] *ord is =m$ by connect+ ! f\r plates a a a a1 by angle irons4 ,! web is =m$ ei!r by a s+le or a d\ble plate1 /iff5$ lat]ally by ,t iron plac$ at ! v]tical plate jo9ts1 z %[n g5]ally at ,b1 & detail$ at ,c & ,d2 or by a pair ( plates sep>at$ by a space z at ,b1 ?us =m+ a rectangul> tube4 ,! l[] *ord is made by b5d+ horizontally ! l[] "p ( ! web1 & to ! flanges ?us =m$ rivet+ ! plate m m4 ,! susp5d+ rod f is appli$ to ! upp] *ord by a wa%] z at ,e4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aaf4 ,! c5tral connect+ web1 act+ z d ! braces & ties 9 a wood5 truss1 %\ld be m /iff at ! ends ( ! span ?an at ! c5tre4 ,?is is easily effect$ by jo9+ ! web plates t[>ds ! end by /rong] ,t irons ?an at ! c5tre4 ,! jo9ts = ! rib1 or ! v]tical plates1 ei!r s+le or d\ble1 are %[n 9 figs4 ,c & ,d4 ,an example ( ! ne$ ( su* increas$ /iffness t[>ds ! ends1 0 giv5 to ! exp]im5t]s ^u ! ,britannia model tube1 :i* 7tube7 0 f\nd to yield by buckl+ ne> ! ends ( ! span soon] ?an else:]e4 ,?us advis$1 ! v]tical plates 7 made ?ick] z ! end ( ! span 0 approa*$4 ,exam9ation ( ! pr9ciples ( proportion+ a common wood5 truss w\ld h %[n ?is )\t exp]im5t4 ,! t5sile & compressive /r5g? ( roll$ boil] plates 7by ! table on page #aic17 is1 ext5sion #ab1gdj lbs4 p] squ>e in*1 compression #g1ejj lbs4 ,! /r5g? ( su* "w dep5ds 9 a v great measure ^u ! size & disposition ( rivets4 ,9 plates expos$ to compression1 ! /r5g? is n s mu* affect$ by rivet+ z 9 ^? subject$ to t5sile /ra9s2 z to :atev] am\nt ! plate is cut away1 by ! same am\nt is ! resi/ance to t5sion r$uc$4 #bcg4 ,mr4 ,fairbairn f\nd t to obta9 ! maximum /r5g? ( rivet$ plates1 ! section ( ! rivets %\ld equal t ( ! plates1 t is1 9 a plate f\r in*es wide1 if !re are two rivets1 ! area ( ea* mu/ be "o in*2 or ! diamet] #a in*es2 ?us leav+ a section ( #d - #b #a in*es1 :i* divid$ by f\r gives sev5 sixte5?s ( an in* z ! di/ance f ! edge ( ! plate to ! side ( ! fir/ rivet2 & sev5 eigh?s ( an in* betwe5 rivets4 ,if ! bolt yields by %e>+1 ! rim is de/roy$ by detrusion1 or cru%+ across ! fibres4 ,t ! rivets & plates may be equally /rong1 _! products ( area ( section by ! actual /r5g? p] unit ( area mu/ be equal4 ,! detrusive /r5g? ( wr\ght iron 7see page #aic7 is #ab1ejj lbs4 p] in*1 :5ce ! proportion #ab1ejj 3 #ae1jjj 33 #a 3 d :]e #a is ! resi/+ l5g? ( ! plate at "r angles to t5sion1 & d1 ! sum ( rivet diamet]s4 ,?us suppose we h a plate #ac4b in*es wide1 to be fa/5$ ) n9e rivets ( #j4h in* diamet]2 we h #i #j4h #g4b d1 & ! above proportion becomes #ae1jjj 3 #ab1jjj 33 #g4b to #f in*es1 :i* is ! l5g? ( plate section at "r angles to t5sion4 ,z !re are n9e rivets1 !re w be eight spaces betwe5 !m1 & "o space at ea* edge ( ! plate1 half z l>ge z ^? betwe52 or r$uc+ all to ! same size1 #h #b #af1 #af #b #ah2 & z ! :ole plate section aft] pun*+ is six in*es1 #f_/ah 4#cc or in* = ! edge space1 & two ?irds in* betwe5 rivets4 ,proce$+ ?us1 ! result comp>es ) ! practice ( ,mr4 ,fairbairn z foll[s3-- ,diamet] ( rivet4 ,di/ance betwe5 rivets4 ,mr4 ,fairbairn in*1 or #j4fbe in*1 #j4h ,h&book in*1 or #j4fff in*1 #j4h ,! diff]5ce betwe5 ! results1 or #j4jda in*1 less ?an "o sixte5? in*1 w be p>tially absorb$ by ! rem>k ( ,mr4 ,fairbairn t ! area ( ! rivet %\ld be ne>ly z mu* z t ( ! plate1 & p>tly by ! diff]5ce 9 results %[+ ! detrusional =ce ( iron4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aag4 #bch4 ,9 exp]im5t+ to det]m9e ! resi/ance ( rivets1 ,mr4 ,fairbairn f\nd t by ! common plan ( rivet+1 fig4 #aag1 ! /r5g? ( plates :5 :ole1 s+le1 & d\ble rivet$1 0 z foll[s1 ! section ( ! pun*$ plate be+ 9 ea* case equal to t ( ! :ole "o4 ,:ole plate1 #ajj4 ,s+le rivet$1 #ef4 ,d\ble rivet$1 #gj4 ,?is loss ( /r5g? made him fe>ful ( ! ability ( ! t5sion plates ( ! ,britannia bridge to d _! duty2 & he 0 l$ to adopt :at he t]ms 8*a9 rivet+10 :i* consi/s 9 plac+ ! rivets z 9 fig4 #aah1 or 9 ! same l9e ( t5sion4 ,! /r5g? ( plates ?us made he consid]s z great at ! jo9ts z else:]e4 #bci4 ,z to ! diamet] ( rivets1 we h ! foll[+ results ( ! practice ( ! be/ ,engli% eng9e]s4 ,?ickness ( plate1 1 #e_/af1 1 #g_/af1 1 #i_/af1 1 #aa_/af1 4 ,diamet] ( rivet1 1 #f_/h1 1 #a1 #a1 #a1 #a1 #a1 #a4 #bdj4 ,z to ! di/ance 9 ! direction ( ! =ce f rivet to rivet1 also f ! fir/ rivet to ! plate end1 we ga!r ! foll[+ f ! be/ execut$ works 9 boil] plate4 ,see fig4 #aah4 ,plates expos$ to compression1 cb #b diam41 df #a diam4 ,plates expos$ to ext5sion1 cb #b diam41 df #b diam4 ! diamet] be+ t ( ! rivet4 ,! di/ance at "r angles to ! =ce has already be5 giv54 #bda4 ,if we knew ! lat]al adhesion ( roll$ plates1 t is1 ! resi/ance ( ! fibres to slid+ horizontally pa/ ea* o!r2 we %\ld det]m9e ! di/ance ( rivets 9 ! direction ( t5sion z foll[s3-- ,let ,r1 equal ! resi/ance p] unit ( area = detrusion or %e>+1 ,r ! lat]al adhesion ( roll$ plates1 & we %\ld h ,r a ,r 7#b d t72 :5ce d 7,r a7_/7#b,r t72 :]e a area ( rivet1 d di/ance1 t plate ?ickness4 also #b;d d 7,r d7_/7,r72 & #b;d 7,r d7_/7,r7 - d2 :5ce d 7,r d7_/7,r7 - d_/#b & f9ally d 7,r d7_/7,r7 - d suppos+ ! piece #a1 #b1 #c1 #d1 fig4 #aah1 to split out4 ,! diamet] ( ! semi-sph]ical head ( ! rivet %\ld be ?ree times ! ?ickness ( ! plate to be rivet$2 t ( ! conical head f\r times2 & ! height ( bo? ( ! heads1 "o & "o half ! plate ?ickness4 #bdb4 ,examples ( ! application ( ! prec$+ rem>ks4 ,suppose we wi% to build a boil] plate bridge ( "o hundr$ feet span1 twelve feet rise1 weight ( bridge & load #ccjj lbs4 p] l9eal foot4 ,! t5sion by =mula ,t 7,,ws7_/7#h;h7 7see ,*ap4 ,,viii47 becomes #ccjjjjjj_/if #cdc1gej lbs4 ,ea* side truss w be> "o half ( ?is or #aga1hge lbs41 & z wr\ght iron resi/s elev5 ?\s& p\nds ( compression p] squ>e in*1 ! requir$ section ( ! top *ord w be #agahge_/gejj #bb4i squ>e in*es4 ,also ! l[] *ord resi/+ fifte5 ?\s& p\nds p] squ>e in*1 mu/ h #agahge_/abgdj #ac4e squ>e in*es ( area ne>ly4 ,if we make ! tube at top ( "o f\r? in* iron1 & #h #aj in*es2 fa/5+ ! plates by "o f\r? in* angle iron1 f\r in*es on ! side1 ! section becomes ,"o top plate #aj #b squ>e in*es4 ,"o bottom plate #aj #b squ>e in*es4 ,two side plates #h #d squ>e in*es4 ,f\r angle irons #h #h squ>e in*es4 -- ,9 all1 #ag squ>e in*es4 ,9 ! l[] *ord1 if we b5d ! web plates 7( in*7 s z to =m a flange ( eighte5 in*es 9 wid?1 & to t rivet a bottom plate #ah 1 we %all h ,9 ! flanges1 #ah #f ,bottom plate1 #ah #d ------ ,9 all1 #aa ,! web act+ z bo? ties & braces1 mu/ be able to support ! foll[+ load4 ,:ole weight ( bridge & load is1 9 r\nd numb]s1 #cdd1jjj lbs4 ,"o half1 #agb1jjj lbs4 ,& ^u ea* end ( ! truss1 #hf1jjj lbs4 to resi/ :i*1 at elev5 ?\s& p\nds p] squ>e in*1 requires eight in*es ne>ly1 reg>d+ ! plate z a brace4 ,n[ ! side ( ! bridge be+ "o hundr$ feet long1 & twelve feet wide1 w conta9 any sy/em ( brac+ t we *oose to draw !reon4 ,suppose1 = example1 t we *alk a l9e ^u ! erect$ bridge repres5t+ an ar*-brace1 ext5d+ f ! end to ! c5tre4 ,su* a brace has actual exi/5ce 9 ! bridge2 & ! same idea holds good = any sy/em ( braces t may be assum$4 ,we ought1 !re=e1 to take ! mo/ disadvantage\s sy/em t c h place1 & giv+ su* a good be>+ ^u ! abutm5t1 e/imate its wid? & ?ickness4 ,suppose t we draw a natural size repres5tation ( ,h[e's bridge1 ! end braces mu/ support a load ( eighty-six ?\s& p\nds1 :i* at elev5 ?\s& lbs4 p] in*1 requires a section ( ne>ly eight in*es2 & if ! plate is "o half in* ?ick1 ! brace mu/ be sixte5 in*es deep4 ,! mann]1 h[ev]1 9 :i* ! plate w\ld yield is by bulg+ lat]ally2 :i* is to be *eck$ by ! be=e-m5tion$ ,t connect+ irons at ! sides4 ,x may be ?\ght t ! above me?od ( consid]+ ! plates z braces1 w\ld give v little ?ickness by assum+ v wide plates4 ,! answ] to ?is is1 t ! side plates mu/ n be s ?9 z to ne$ m /iff5+ angle irons by weight1 ?an a ?ick] plate ) less /iff5+4 ,( c\rse ! weight %\ld be m9imum4 #bdc4 ,z an actual example ( ?is plan we h ! foll[+1 built by ,mr4 ,fairbairn = ! ,blackburn & ,bolton ,railroad1 across ! ,le$s & ,liv]pool ,canal4 ,span1 #fj feet1 ,l5g?1 #ff feet1 ,end be>+s1 ea*1 #c feet1 ,rise1 #e feet1 ,wid?1 #bh feet1 = a d\ble track4 ,top *ord ( ?ree eigh?s iron1 web ( five sixte5?s1 l[] flange ( ?ree eigh?s1 & v]tical web plates /iff5$ by ,t irons4 ,?is bridge 0 te/$ z foll[s3-- ,?ree eng9es1 weigh+ tw5ty tons ea*1 runn+ f five to tw5ty-five miles p] h\r1 deflect$ ! bridge 4#jbe feet4 ,two w$ges1 "o in* high1 be+ plac$ ^u ! rails1 & ! eng9es be+ dropp$ f t height1 ! bridge 0 deflect$ at ! c5tre 4#jce ft42 ) w$ges ( "o & "o half in*es ! deflection 0 4#jde ft4 ,! co/ ( ?is bridge 79 ,engl&7 0 e/imat$ by ,mr4 ,fairbairn at #d1ejj1 :ile t ( a ca/-iron bridge ( ! same span 0 #g1aej4 #bdd4 ,example #b4--,man*e/]1 ,%effield1 & ,l9coln%ire ,railroad 7,engl&7 ,bridge1 at ,ga9sbor\gh1 on ! riv] ,tr5t4 ,two spans1 ea* "o hundr$ & fifty-f\r feet4 ,rise twelve feet4 ,top *ord1 d\ble rectangul> tube1 #cf #af in*es1 v]tical web z be=e1 & horizontal plate = ! l[] *ord4 ,! floor beams are wr\ght iron gird]s1 cruci=m 9 section1 t5 in*es wide1 & "o foot ?ree in*es 7#ae7 deep1 plac$ f\r feet ap>t4 #bde4 ,example #c4--;,fifty-five feet boil] plate bridge1 built by ,james ,millholl&1 9 #ahdg1 = ! ,baltimore & ,susquehanna ,railroad ,company4 ,ea* truss consi/s ( two v]tical plates #ee #f feet1 =m$ ( plates ?irty-eight in*es wide by six feet deep1 ! plates be+ fa/5$ toge!r by bolts pass+ ?r\gh ca/-iron sockets4 ,! l[] *ord is =m$ by rivet+ two b>s #e in*es to ea* side ( ea* truss plate2 mak+ 9 all eight4 ,top *ord--"o b> ( ! same size on ea* side ( ea* plate1 compression be+ made up by a wood5 *ord betwe5 ! plates4 ,height ( bridge1 six feet2 l5g?1 fifty-five feet2 wid?1 six feet2 weight1 f\rte5 tons2 co/1 #b1bjj1 or =ty doll>s p] foot4 ,! inv5tor ?9ks ?irty doll>s p] foot en\gh :5 a consid]able am\nt ( su* bridg+ is want$4 ,,note4--,:ite1 buff1 or "s light color %\ld be us$ 9 pa9t+ iron bridges1 z su* ?r[ (f1 & d n absorb heat f ! sun4 ,,*apt] ,x4 ,,/one ,,bridges4 ,a complete treatise on /one bridg+ w\ld be ( little practical value to ! ,am]ican eng9e]1 & w\ld occupy too mu* ( ! necess>ily small space all[$ "h4 ,! object 9 ! pres5t *apt] is to give ! mann] ( dim5sion+ /one ar*es ( f t5 to sixty feet span1 & ( proportion+ reta9+ walls1 pi]s1 & abutm5ts4 ,,contraction ,,( ,,! ,,wat]-,,way4 #bdf4 ,9 build+ a bridge across a /ream1 we mu/ be c>eful n to ob/ruct ! wat]-way s z to prev5t free passage to ! highe/ floods4 ,reg>d mu/ be _h to ?is 9 fix+ ! size ( ! spans1 & ! ?ickness & numb] ( ! pi]s4 ,by contract+ ! wid? ( ! /ream ! velocity is increas$ b5ea? ! ar*es1 ! same am\nt ( wat] be+ oblig$ to pass ?r\gh a small] space1 & :5 ! bottom is ( su* a nature z to yield to ?is action1 !re is dang] ( ! f\ndation be+ und]m9$4 ,if ! =m & size ( ! pi]s be s arrang$ z n to increase ! velocity1 su* dang] w be avoid$ & floods w pass )\t h>m4 ,9 bridges cross+ navigable /reams1 if ! bottom is n de/roy$ ! velocity may be made s great z to imp$e navigation4 #bdg4 ,! foll[+ table is f ,gau!y1 ,con/ruction des ,ponts1 %[+ ! velocities :i* are j 9 equilibrium ) ! mat]ial compos+ ! bottom ( ! /ream4 ,/ate ( ! wat]4 ,velocity 9 feet p] second4 ,nature ( bottom4 ,torr5ts1 #aj #j ,l>ge rocks4 ,floods1 #c #c ,loose rocks4 ,common1 #c #j ,gravel & /ones4 ,regul>1 #b #j ,f9e gravel4 ,mod]ate1 #a #j ,s&4 ,sl[1 #j #f ,clay4 ,v sl[1 #j #c ,common e>?4 #bdh4 ,if b repres5ts ! wid? ( ! natural wat]-way2 c1 t z r$uc$ by ! /ructure2 ,v1 ! velocity ( ! /ream 9 ! natural /ate2 !n ! augm5t$ velocity is express$ by ,w m,v7b_/c72 & c 7mb,v7_/,w2 :]e m is a con/ant quantity express+ ! contraction :i* takes place 9 pass+ ! n>r[ place1 :i*1 accord+ to ,du-,buat1 is #a4ji2 b dep5d+ some:at ^u ! =m ( ! bridge pi]s2 adopt+ :i* value1 we h ,w #a4ji,v7b_/c72 & c 7#a4ji;b,v7_/,w4 ,example4--,let ! bottom be gravel1 ! wid? ( ! natural wat]-way "o hundr$ feet1 ! velocity "o foot p] second3 n[ = a gravel bottom ! velocity mu/ n exce$ two feet p] second1 :5ce c 7#a4ji #ajj #a7_/b #ed feet2 :i* is ! wid? ( ! contract$ wat]-way2 & #ajj - #ed1 or #de feet may be occupi$ by pi]s or o!r ob/ructions4 ,! am\nt ( fall :i* ! wat] suff]s 9 pass+ ! pi] is f\nd by ! foll[+ =mula1 ! notation be+ ! same1 fall 77,v#bm#b;b#b7 - c#b7_/7fd;c#b7 ,?us ! velocity be+ "o foot p] second1 m be+ #a4ji & b #ajj2 also1 c #ed1 we h 7#a #a #a4ji #a4ji #ajj #ajj7 - 7#ed #ed7 fall ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- -------------- #j4jdg ft4 #fd #ed #ed ,! velocity ( a riv] is greate/ at its surface & at ! c5tre ( ! /ream4 ,9 ! same riv] ! velocity is ne>ly z ! squ>e root ( ! dep?2 ?us ! surface velocity be+ kn[n1 t = any o!r dep? may be easily f\nd4 ,! velocity ( /reams %\ld always be not$ at ! times ( ! highe/ floods4 ,= measur+ ! velocity ( runn+ wat] a bottle en\gh fill$ ) wat] to ma9ta9 an upright position1 ) a small rod plac$ ?r\gh ! /opp] hav+ a r$ flag ^u ! upp] end1 answ]s v well4 ,velocities ( und]curr5ts may also be measur$ by s load+ ! bottle z to cause x to float two1 f\r1 six1 or t5 feet bel[ ! surface4 ,,( ,,! ,,=m ,,( ,,! ,,ar*4 #bdi4 ,!re are ?ree g5]al =ms :i* may be giv5 to ! intrados ( a /one ar*4 ,semicircul>1 or "o hundr$ & eighty degrees4 ,segm5tal1 less ?an "o hundr$ & eighty degrees4 ,basket h&le1 ne>ly elliptical1 be+ =m$ by a numb] ( circul> curves4 ,full c5tre 7semicircul>7 ar*es (f] ! advantages ( great solidity & ease ( con/ruction2 b unless ! spr++ l9es are high1 contract consid]ably ! wat]-way4 ,segm5tal ar*es give ! free/ passage to ! wat]1 are easily built1 b ?r[ a great horizontal /ra9 ^u ! abutm5ts4 ,! basket h&le gives free passage to ! wat]1 :5 n too flat are v /rong1 are easily adju/able to diff]5t ratios betwe5 ! span & ! di/ance betwe5 grade & ! spr+ l9e1 & except mak+ ! c5tres1 are easily built4 ,:atev] ! =m ( ! ar*1 ! l9e ( ar* spr++ %\ld n be bel[ high wat]4 ,! mann] ( trac+ ! full c5tre & segm5tal curves is too simple to ne$ rem>k4 #bej4 ,9 trac+ ! basket h&le curve1 ! foll[+ conditions mu/ be obs]v$3-- ,! tang5ts at spr++ mu/ be v]tical4 ,! summit tang5t mu/ be horizontal4 ,! curve at spr++ mu/ inclose ! ellipse4 ,! radius ( summit mu/ n be great] ?an ! span4 ,! numb] ( ar*es compos+ ! curve mu/ n be less ?an ?ree1 nor m ?an elev52 & mu/ be unev54 ,p]ronet's f9e bridge ( ,neuilly1 ov] ! ,se9e at ,p>is1 has elev5 c5tres4 ,9 spans ( sixty feet & "u1 x is unnecess>y to use m ?an five c5tres4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aai4 #bea4 ,! ?ree c5tr$ curve is describ$ z foll[s1 fig4 #aai3-- ,let ,a ,b repres5t ! span1 & c ,d ! rise1 ) c z a c5tre & c ,a z radius1 describe ! quadrant ,a ,f ,e2 make ! angle ,a ,c ,f #fj4 ,p>allel to ,f ,e draw ,d ,g1 & p>allel to ,f ,c draw ,g ,k4 ,h is ! c5tre1 & ,a ,g ! arc ( ! spr++ curve2 also ,,gd is ! arc1 & ,k ! c5tre ( ! summit curve4 ,,! ,,five ,,c5tr$ ,,curve4 #beb4 ,! common con/ruction ( ! five c5tr$ curve leaves ! radii ( ! extreme curves to be assum$4 ,! foll[+ me?od fixes all ( ! dim5sions :5 ! span & rise are giv53-- ,let c ,b be half ! span & c ,d ! rise4 ,jo9 ,d ,b4 ,draw n ,k ?r\gh n p]p5dicul> to ,d ,b4 ,make ,b a equal to c ,d4 ,also c e to c a4 ,draw e ,k o & ,k a m4 ,k ,h & ,k are ! c5tres1 & ,h m & ,h o ! l9es sep>at+ ! sev]al curves4 ,= spans ( f tw5ty-five to "o hundr$ feet1 ! five c5tr$ ar* answ]s e purpose2 mak+ a /rong & well proportion$ /ructure4 ,,?ickness ,,( ,,v\ssoirs1 7,,r+ ,,/ones74 #bec4 ,! ?ickness ( ! v\ssoir1 or ar* /one1 dep5ds ^u ! =m & size ( ! ar*1 ! nature ( ! masonry1 & ! "* ( ! /one4 ,no au?ority gives m reliable results ?an ,gau!y1 :o1 = /one ( av]age quality1 ) hamm] dress$ b$s1 laid 9 cem5t1 gives ! foll[+ proportions betwe5 ! span & dep? ( key3-- ,= spans "u six feet ! dep? %\ld be ?irte5 in*es4 ,f six to fifty feet1 #ac in*es plus #a_/dh ( ! span4 ,f fifty to "o hundr$ feet1 #a_/bd ( ! span4 ,= ov] "o hundr$ feet1 #a_/bd ( #ajj plus #a_/dh ( ! rema9d]4 ,?us = a span ( "o hundr$ & n9ety-six feet we h 7#ajj #ab7_/bd 7#if #ab7_/dh1 or1 #ej #bd equal 9 all to sev5ty-f\r in*es1 or six feet & two in*es2 :5ce ! foll[+ table3-- ,span ( ar* 9 feet4 ,?ickness ( v\ssoir 9 in*es4 #f #ac #j #ac #h #ac #b #ae #aj #ac #c #af #ab #ac #c #af #ae #ac #d #ag #ah #ac #e #ah #bj #ac #f #ai #be #ac #g #bj #cj #ac #h #ba #ce #ac #i #bb #dj #ac #aj #bc #de #ac #aa #bd #ej #ac #ac #bf #fj #cj in*es4 ,,?ickness ,,& ,,=m ,,( ,,abutm5ts4 #bed4 ,! above dep5d ^u ! span & =m ( ! ar*1 ! height ( ! abutm5t1 & "* ( ! masonry4 ,diff]5t me?ods ( det]m9+ ! ?ickness ( an abutm5t h f "t to "t be5 giv52 sev]al v correct rules h be5 arriv$ at1 b difficult ( application4 ,! mo/ simple rule is giv5 by ,hutton 9 ! c\rse ( ma!matics edit$ by ,ru!r=d2 x is z foll[s3-- ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #abj4 ,let ,a ,b1 ,c ,d1 fig4 #abj1 be "o half ( ! ar* & ,a ,g ,f ! abutm5t4 ,f ! c5tre ( gravity ,k ( ! ar*1 draw ! v]tical ,k ,l2 !n ! weight ( ! ar* 9 ! direction ,k ,l w be to ! horizontal ?ru/1 z ,k ,l to ,l ,a4 ,= ! weight ( ! ar* 9 ! direction ,k ,l1 ! horizontal ?ru/ ,l ,a1 & ! ?ru/ ,k ,a w be z ! ?ree sides ( ! triangle ,k ,l1 ,l ,a1 ,k ,a2 s t if m d5otes ! weight ( ! ar*1 7,,la7_/7,,kl7 m1 w be its =ce 9 ! direction ,l ,a1 & 7,,la7_/7,,kl7 ,,ga m its effect on ! lev] ,g ,a to ov]turn ! wall1 or cause x to revolve ab\t ! po9t ,f4 ,aga91 ! weight or area ( ! pi] is z ,,ef ,,fg1 & !re=e ,,ef ,,fg ,,fg1 or ,,fg#b ,,ef1 is its effect ^u ! lev] ,,fg1 to resi/ an ov]?r[4 ,n[ t ! abutm5t & ! ar* %all be 9 equilibrium ^! two effects mu/ be equal to ea* o!r2 :5ce we mu/ h ,,fg#b ,,ef 7,,la7_/7,,rl7 ,,ga m2 :5ce ,,fg 77#b;,,ga ,,la7_/7,,ef ,,rl7 m74 ,! foll[+ table has be5 calculat$ = ! use ( build]s & eng9e]s1 giv+ ! ?ickness ( abutm5ts = diff]5t spans & heights4 #bee4 ,,?ickness ,,( ,,rectangul> ,,abutm5ts4 ,semicircul> ar*4 ,basket-h&le ar*4 ,! height be+4 ,span4 #e #h #aj #ae #e #h #aj #ae #f #c #c #c #c #c #d #d #e #h #c #d #d #d #d #d #e #f #aj #d #e #e #e #d #e #f #g #ae #d #e #e #f #e #f #g #h #bj #e #e #f #g #f #g #h #i #be #e #f #f #g #g #g #h #i #cj #f #g #h #h #h #h #i #aj #ce #f #g #h #i #i #i #aj #aa #dj #g #g #h #i #i #aj #aa #ab #de #g #h #i #aj #aj #aj #aa #ab #ej #h #i #aj #aa #aj #aa #ab #ac ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aba4 ,fig4 #aba ,b4 ,fig4 #aba ,a4 #bef4 ,! =m ( a bridge abutm5t w dep5d ^u ! locality & ^u ! use to :i* ! bridge is to be put1 :e!r us$ = a railroad1 or = common travel2 :e!r ne> a l>ge city1 or 9 a location :]e appe>ance ne$ n be reg>d$4 ,:]e a riv] acts dang]\sly ^u a %ore1 w+ walls w be necess>y4 ,^! w+s may be curv$ or /raight1 & may be simply ! abutm5t produc$1 or may be swung ar\nd into ! bank at any requir$ angle1 until ! w+$ abutm5t1 z 9 figs4 #aba1 #aba ,a1 #aba ,b1 becomes ! ,u abutm5t1 fig4 #abd2 or by mov+ ! walls1 ,w & ,w1 p>allel to !mselves1 takes ! =m ( ! ,t abutm5t1 fig4 #abb4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #abb4 ,! curv$ w+1 9 fig4 #aba1 be+ ar*$1 requires a little less ?ickness1 b at ! same "t is long]4 ,b ,b1 %[ ! bridge seats4 ,! slope ( ! w+s may be batt]$ ) an incl9$ cop+1 or (f-sett$ at ea* c\rse4 ,w+ walls1 subject$ to special /ra9s or to p>ticul> curr5ts ( wat]1 require positions & =ms accord+ly4 ,9 skew bridges1 z 9 ,*ap4 ,v41 ! w+1 at ! acute angle1 is long] & incl9es less f ! face ( ! abutm5t ?an t at ! obtuse angle4 ,! m ! w+ dep>ts f ! face l9e & sw+s r\nd into ! slope1 ! great] ! ?ru/ becomes ^u x1 z ! c5tre ( pressure is rais$2 ! ?ru/ becomes a maximum :5 ! w+ is incl9$ f =ty-five to sev5ty degrees f ! face ( ! abutm5t4 ,! body ( an abutm5t1 z well z any o!r reta9+ wall1 may be mu* /rong] by giv+ x a trapezoidal in/ead ( a rectangul> section1 z ! resi/+ lev]age is !reby mu* increas$4 ,abutm5ts may be to advantage buttress$ 9 ord] to resi/ special /ra9s1 z 9 case ( ! ar*es or braces ( wood5 bridges4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #abc4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #abd4 #beg4 ,railroad abutm5ts except = a d\ble track1 require b little bread? on top1 except :]e ! truss itself re/s4 ,! common ,t abutm5t orig9at$ by ,capta9 ,john ,*ilde1 & n[ 9 v ext5sive use1 seems to fulfil any requirem5t ( a good abutm5t1 see fig4 #abb1 page #bdb4 ,b ,b is ! bridge seat1 & ! mass ,t ,t takes ! place ( w+s4 ,! diff]5ce ( level ( ! top & ( ! bridge seat dep5ds ^u ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! height ( ! be>+ ( ! l[] *ord ( ! bridge1 & grade4 ,! l9e ( contact betwe5 ! e>? & ! wall is %[n by s s s s4 ,! l5g? ( ! top ( ! masonry is f\nd ?us4 ,suppose ! slope to be "o & "o half to "o1 & ! :ole height ?irty feet1 ! :ole horizontal l5g? ( slope is !n =ty-five feet2 f ?is we take ! sum ( ! horizontal di/ances1 s s & s s1 & suppose ^! to be1 respectively1 six & eight feet1 we h ! :ole op]ation ?us3-- #cj #a - #f #h #de - #ad #ca feet4 ,x may be advisable 9 v high abutm5ts to light5 ! masonry by an ar*$ op5+ z 9 fig4 #abc4 ,! walls1 also1 ( ! ,u abutm5t 7see fig4 #abd71 :5 l>ge1 may be pi]c$ ) ar*es to save masonry4 ,probably ! *eape/ mode ( br++ a bridge to ! embankm5t is t %[n 9 fig4 #abe2 ,a be+ ! bridge seat = ! ma9 truss1 & ,b t = ! truss$ gird]4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #abe4 ,,pi]s4 #beh4 ,! ?ickness ( a pi] may be consid]$ ei!r z dep5d+ ^u ! weight ( ! sup]/ructure1 or z resi/+ ! ?ru/ ( ar*es or braces4 ,= ! fir/ requirem5t1 v little ?ickness w\ld suffice2 = ! second1 x may require to be consid]able4 ,! objection to ?ick pi]s is ! exp5se1 & ! contract+ too mu* ! wat]-way2 ! b5efit1 a l>ge be>+ surface1 & 9 /one bridges :]e !re are sev]al cont9u\s spans1 a sav+ ( c5tr+2 z :]e ! pi]s are n able to resi/ ! ?ru/ ( ! ar*es1 !y mu/ all be c>ri$ up at once4 #bei4 ,pi]s support+ truss bridges1 require v little ?ickness provid$ a good f\ndation is obta9$4 ,! foll[+ table %[s ! suffici5t dim5sions = ! pi]s ( wood5 or iron truss$ bridges1 :5 ! masonry is good4 7,see ,fir/ ,class ,masonry1 specification1 ,*ap4 ,,iv47 ,f t5 to tw5ty feet 9 height ! batt] is assum$ at "o twelf?2 f tw5ty to fifty feet 9 height at "o tw5ty-f\r?4 ,span4 ,l5g? ( bridge seat4 ,wid? ( seat4 #bj to #dj feet1 #bj feet1 #d feet1 #dj to #fj feet1 #bj feet1 #d feet1 #fj to #hj feet1 #bb feet1 #e feet1 #hj to #ajj feet1 #bc feet1 #e feet1 #ajj to #abe feet1 #bc feet1 #f feet1 #abe to #aej feet1 #bd feet1 #f feet1 #aej to #bjj feet1 #bd feet1 #g feet4 #bfj4 ,^u ! =m ( ! up-/ream end ( ! pi]1 or ! />l+1 dep5ds1 9 a consid]able degree1 ! contraction ( ! wat]-way4 ,9 sluggi% wat] ! =m is n ( mu* importance1 b 9 swift fl[+ riv]s a great deal dep5ds ^u ! *oice4 ,! =ms 9 use are ! rectangle1 ! rectangle t]m9at$ by "r-l9$ triangles1 & ! same t]m9at$ by curv$-l9$ triangles1 & f9ally ! ellipse4 ,! latt] is t :i* causes ! lea/ di/urbance to ! wat]1 b is also ! mo/ co/ly4 ,! effect ( gyration at ! %\ld]1 des]ves notice1 z x may be ! cause ( ! ru9 ( ! f\ndation :5 ! bottom is ( yield+ mat]ial4 ,riv] b$s be+ por\s1 spr+s "w up ?r\gh !m ) a =ce equal to ! :ole dep? ( wat]2 & :5ev] !re is a means ( escape = su*1 its pressure w act upw>ds aga9/ any /ructure t comes )9 its rea*2 & if f\r or five feet deep1 is capable ( mov+ enorm\s weights4 ,su* spr+s gave a great deal ( tr\ble at ! f\ndation ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,dry ,dock1 at ,brooklyn1 ,n4 ,y4 ,:5 *eck$ 9 "o place !y bur/ up 9 ano!r1 & to proce$ ) ! "w x 0 necess>y to all[ !m a passage ?r\gh :i* to fl[4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #abf4 #bfa4 ,h[ev] prop] x may be to give to pi]s ! prop] =m to cause z little contraction z possible to ! wat]1 x is no less necess>y to give !m /r5g? to oppose ! %ocks to :i* !y are subject f float+ ice1 timb] & %ipp+4 ,! be/ me?od ( break+ up ice1 :5 x comes 9 l>ge masses1 is by incl9+ ! front ( ! pi]1 z %[n 9 fig4 #abf4 ,! angle ( ! front be+ incl9$ f #cj to #ej4 ,! ice runn+ up ?is slope breaks by its own weight1 & falls (f on ei!r side4 ,! f\ndations ( pi]s may be protect$ by %eet pil+1 7see *ap4 ,,xii417 or ! bottom1 if s(t1 may be dr$g$ out = a few feet & fill$ 9 ) loose rock4 ,! =m ( ! d[n-/ream end is n ( s mu* importance z ( ! upp] "o1 b des]ves consid]ation2 z :5 ! wat] is swift or ! bottom s(t & yield+1 ! eddies caus$ by %>p angles we> ^u ! soil 9 a dang]\s mann]4 ,,*apt] ,,xi4 ,,masonry4 ,,/ones4 #bfb4 ,! v>ieties ( ?is mat]ial mo/ commonly us$ 9 eng9e]+ op]ations are granites1 lime/ones1 s&/ones1 slates1 brick1 & artificial /ones2 ! latt] be+ made by comp\nd+ clays1 limes1 & cem5ts4 ,rock tak5 f ! surface1 :i* has be5 expos$ to ! atmosph]e1 is ( an inf]ior quality to t f\nd at a dep? :]e x has be5 expos$ to a /rong pressure2 & is consequ5tly d5s]4 ,!re=e1 9 op5+ a qu>ry x is advisable to excavate ^u a hill-side & come at once to ! s\nd /one4 ,rock is g5]ally f\nd 9 b$s1 divid$ by jo9ts or seams1 at :i* ! natural adhesion is brok5 & ! lay]s are easily sep>at$4 ,:5 ! qu>ry %[s no natural l9e ( sep>ation1 "o may be produc$ by drill+ a l9e ( holes at equal di/ances f ea* o!r1 into :i* conical /eel p9s are driv51 & ! /one splits2 ! p9s be+ plac$ 9 ! plane ( ! requir$ seam4 #bfc4 ,/one is us$ almo/ entirely to resi/ a compressive /ra92 z 9 ! v\ssoirs ( an ar*1 or 9 ! c\rses ( a pi]4 ,! resi/ance ( /one to cru%+1 is z foll[s3-- ,p\nds p] squ>e in*4 ,granite #aj1jjj to #af1jjj ,lime/one #ab1jjj to #ad1jjj ,s&/one #aj1jjj ,m>ble #i1jjj to #ad1jjj ,firm1 h>d burn$ brick #b1fjj ,yell[ burn$ brick #a1ejj ,r$ brick #a1bjj ,pale-r$ brick #ijj ,*alk #gej #bfd4 ,:5 /one _c be f\nd1 brick =ms an excell5t sub/itute2 be+ made f clay e>?s1 :i* c be f\nd 9 almo/ any locality4 ,bricks are well fitt$ = nice "w1 are *eap1 & easy ( transport4 ,! ,fr5*1 at ,algi]s1 h us$ concrete1 ramm$ 9 boxes s z to make l>ge cubes & o!r %apes4 ,! /ructures built ( ?is mat]ial are f\nd to be v ne>ly if n q z /rong z ^? ( natural rock4 ,,limes1 ,,cem5ts1 ,,mort>s1 ,,& ,,concretes4 #bfe4 ,no?+ is m important 9 ! con/ruction ( masonry ?an good cem5t2 & g5]ally1 no "p ( con/ruction is intru/$ to m ignorant p]sons4 ,"u ! above head are to be consid]$ limes1 cem5ts1 s&s1 common mort>1 hydraulic mort>1 & concrete4 #bff4 ,lime is obta9$ by burn+ (f ! c>bonic acid f ! pure lime/ones2 :5 x is put up 9 air tight b>rels & is unslack$ lime4 ,natural cem5ts are compos$ ( pure lime mix$ ) argil1 magnesia1 iron1 & manganese4 ,artificial cem5ts are prep>$ by mix+ ) pure lime1 calc9$ clay1 =ge scales1 p[d]$ bricks :i* are und]burnt1 & o!r mat]ials ( l nature4 ,cem5ts made ?us artificially1 are z good z ^? naturally hydraulic4 ,lime is t]m$ ri*1 poor1 hydraulic1 & em95tly hydraulic1 accord+ to its prop]ties4 ,ri* or fat limes are ^? :i* d\ble _! volume 9 slack+ & dissolve 9 fre% wat] to ! la/ p>ticle4 ,!y absorb ab\t #cjj p] c5t4 ( _! weight ( wat]4 ,poor limes d n mu* increase _! volume1 d n dissolve completely1 & absorb #bjj p] c5t4 ( wat]4 ,hydraulic limes set 9 fifte5 or tw5ty days aft] imm]sion1 & cont9ue to h>d5 z !y gr[ old]4 ,aft] "o ye> _! consi/5cy is ab\t t ( h>d soap4 ,em95tly hydraulic limes set 9 five or six days1 & cont9ue to h>d54 ,limes are said to set :5 !y w be>1 )\t depression1 a rod ( #a_/bj ( an in* diamet] load$ ) t5 or twelve ounces4 ,,note4--,! foll[+ te/ 0 appli$ to e t5? cask ( ,ros5dale cem5t us$ ^u ! masonry ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,dry ,dock at ! ,brooklyn 7,n4 ,y47 ,navy ,y>d4 ,cakes two in*es 9 diamet] & ?ree f\r?s ( an in* 9 ?ickness1 aft] be+ imm]s$ five days1 7 requir$ to be> a rod ( "o tw5ty-f\r? ( an in* diamet] load$ ) fifty lbs4 ,two bricks unit$ ) ! cem5t & imm]s$ five days1 7 requir$ to resi/ "o hundr$ lbs4 be=e sep>at+4 ,! foll[+ %[s ! progress ( h>d5+4 ,! =ce requir$ to ?ru/ a rod "o tw5ty-f\r? ( an in* 9 diamet] ?r\gh a cake ?ree f\r?s ( an in* 9 ?ickness1 01 aft] #bd h\rs1 #fe lbs4 #dh h\rs1 #gj lbs4 #gb h\rs1 #ge lbs4 #ae days1 #aej lbs4 #ej days1 #cij lbs4 ,,s&4 #bfg4 ,s& is ! product ( ! decomposition ( granitic & s*i/ose rocks1 & weighs1 p] unit ( bulk1 some:at less ?an "o half ( ! rock produc+ x2 ow+ to ! spaces betwe5 ! gra9s4 ,! am\nt ( lime necess>y to fill ^! spaces mu/ be kn[n be=e we c =m a solid mass ) ! lea/ lime4 ,! am\nt ( void may be f\nd by fill+ a measure ) s&1 & !n p\r+ 9 wat]3 ! volume ( wat] is t ( ! spaces4 ,9 pebbles ( "o half in* 9 diamet] ! void am\nts to ab\t "o half1 9 gravel ab\t five twelf?s1 9 common s& two fif?s1 & 9 v f9e s&1 "o ?ird4 ,clean %>p s& obta9$ f ! b$s ( riv]s is ! be/ = mort>s4 #bfh4 ,9 mix+ ! +r$i5ts = mort>1 ! lime is fir/ spread on a plat=m & wet by spr9kl+ ) wat]1 :i* causes x to give (f a great deal ( heat & vapor1 & fall into a p[d]4 ,! s& is !n appli$1 & ! :ole br\ght ) wat] to a consi/5t pa/e4 ,! proportions = common mort> = dry "w are ,s&1 #a to #b ,lime1 #a ,x is well always to use a small quantity ( cem5t2 ! p>ts :i* h 9 practice be5 f\nd p]fectly satisfactory are ,cem5t1 #a ,lime1 #c ,s&1 #f ,= hydraulic mort> ! foll[+ proportions h be5 us$ ) success3-- ,cem5t1 #b ,s&1 #c #bfi4 ,concrete is made by mix+ brok5 /one1 brick1 or %ells1 ) cem5t mort>2 x is us$ = f\ndations1 back+ ( ar*es1 & = mak+ artificial /one4 ,! common proportions are ,cem5t1 #a or #b ,s&1 #a or #c ,brok5 /one1 #e or #aj ,! cem5t & s& are fir/ mix$ z = cem5t mort>2 ! brok5 /one is add$ & ! :ole well mix$ & imm$iately appli$ be=e x has "t to set4 ,bo? concrete & cem5t mort> %\ld be made z requir$ = use1 & 9 no case appli$ aft] /&+ ov] ?ree h\rs4 ,,fla%+ ,,mort>4 #bgj4 ,fla%+ consi/s ( a ?9 coat ( cem5t mort> made ) a v l>ge "p ( cem5t4 ,x is us$ to protect ! face ( walls expos$ to ! wet2 su* z ! top ( ar*es4 ,/one liable to dis9tegration may be protect$ by fla%+4 ,,po9t+ ,,mort>4 #bga4 ,po9t+ is us$ to protect ! jo9ts ( masonry1 & is made by mix+ cem5t & s& ) a m9imum ( wat]4 ,! jo9t is fir/ cut out to ! dep? ( f "o half to "o in*1 c>efully bru%$ clean1 moi/5$ ) wat]1 & fill$ ) ! mort>1 :i* is well rubb$ ) a /eel tool4 ,to give ar*itectural effect1 pla/] ( ,p>is 7,gypsum7 is sometimes us$ 9 po9t+4 ,,gr\t4 #bgb4 ,gr\t is ?9-temp]$ mort>1 compos$ almo/ entirely ( cem5t & wat]4 ,x is run into ! jo9ts1 & is useful 9 fill+ crevices 9 masonry :i* _c be fill$ ) mort>4 ,,con/ruction ,,( ,,ar*es4 #bgc4 ,! f\ndations be+ secur$1 & ! pi]s & abutm5ts be+ c>ri$ up to ! spr++ l9e ( ! ar*1 ! c5tres are c>efully adju/$ to _! places & ! ar* is comm5c$4 ,:5 ! v\ssoirs beg9 to be> ^u ! c5tre 7:i* is :5 ! angle ( ! jo9t ) ! horizontal is great] ?an ! angle ( repose ( "o /one ^u ano!r71 ! frame is liable to *ange ( =m1 7p>ticul>ly :5 ! ar* is flat17 :i* mu/ be provid$ = by c\nt] load+ ! c5tre 9 v>i\s po9ts z ! "w proce$s4 ,great c>e %\ld be tak5 to make ea* /one po9t 9 ! direction ( ! radius ( ! ar*4 ,to d ?is effectually1 _! ?ickness %\ld be m>k$ ^u ! out] rib ( ! c5tre4 ,! l9e ( ! jo9t may !n be fix$ by a /raight-edge plac$ bo? on ! c5tre & ! rib m>k1 or by a template s cut t :5 "o side is level ! o!r %all /& at ! prop] angle4 ,excess ( weight ^u "o side ( ! c5tre causes a depression at t po9t1 & a correspond+ rise at ! opposite side ( ! ar*4 ,bo? sides be+ load$1 ! haun*es settle1 & ! cr[n rises4 ,! po9t :]e ! c5tre is fir/ load$ w det]m9e ! po9t :]e ! frame is to be tempor>ily weight$4 ,su* precautions1 h[ev]1 ne$ only to be tak5 9 ar*es ( ov] fifty feet span1 unless ! curve is q flat4 ,! key/one %\ld be put into ! prop] place1 b n driv5 until ! re/ is f9i%$4 ,! back jo9ts are !n closely w$g$ & cem5t$ ) ?9 temp]$ mort>1 & ! :ole is left to set4 ,! masonry ( ! sp&rels is br\ght up to ab\t "o f\r? ! height ( ! ar*1 or en\gh to prev5t by _! weight any *ange ( =m ( ! curve4 ,! c5tres are !n /ruck & ! s(fit & v\ssoir jo9ts clean$ & po9t$4 ,! fac+ & road-way may next be c>ri$ up2 ! p>apet cop+ & dra9s f9i%$ (f2 & ! :ole po9t$4 ,p>apets are %[n 9 figs4 #abg & #abh4 ,! sp&rels1 fig4 #abi1 may be c>ri$ up solid or holl[2 _! weight mu/ be en\gh to /iff5 suffici5tly ! ar*4 ,x %\ld1 at lea/1 be c>ri$ up solid to ! l9e c c c2 ! %ad$ mass be+ ( well-cem5t$ rubble4 ,above ?is ! fill+ may be ( masonry1 solid or ar*$1 or ev5 ( well-ramm$ lay]s ( e>?4 ,! road-way %\ld1 9 all cases1 be well dra9$1 t ! wat] may n s9k ?r\gh to ! masonry4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #abg4 ,fig4 #abh4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #abi4 ,! app>atus = h&l+ /one 7cranes1 lewises1 & d]ricks7 is mu* bett] und]/ood by inspection ?an by description4 ,:]ev] walls support masses ( e>?1 ! ?ru/ may be some:at less5$ by ramm+ ! e>? beh9d ! wall 9 lay]s incl9+ backw>d4 ,9 lay+ up ! c\rses ea* %\ld be well clean$ & moi/5$ be=e ! mort> is laid ^u x4 ,:5 a /one has be5 once plac$ ^u ! mort> b$1 x %\ld n be mov$ at all lat]ally1 b may be g5tly maul$ on top4 ,,culv]ts ,,& ,,dra9s4 #bgd4 ,small culv]ts are made by cov]+ two side walls ) l>ge flat /ones2 ! bottom be+ pav$ ) /one at lea/ n9e in*es deep1 laid dry4 ,! g5]al dim5sions ( su* /ructures dep5d some:at ^u ! class ( masonry1 b z ?is is g5]ally ! ?ird or f\r?1 w n v>y mu*4 ,op5+4 ,side walls4 ,cov]4 ,heads4 #b #b #c #b #ab #b #aj #b #c #c #c #ab #c #aj #c #c #c #c #ab #c #aa #c #d #c #d #ae #d #ab #d #d #c #d #ae #d #ac #d #e #c #e #ah #e #ae #e #e #d #e #ah #e #af #e #f #d #f #ah #f #ah ,figs4 #acj1 #aca1 & #acb1 %[ plans = culv]ts ( f #e to #be feet span4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #acj4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aca4 ,fig4 #acb4 ,,reta9+ ,,walls4 #bge4 ,a wall made to su/a9 a mass ( e>? or wat]1 to resi/ ov]?r[1 requires a c]ta9 ?ickness4 ,a body ( e>? assumes :at is t]m$ ! natural slope1 ! incl9ation ( :i* dep5ds ^u ! adhesion ( ! soil1 b may be tak5 z "o & "o half horizontal1 to "o v]tical1 7#a to #a71 z an av]age4 ,! problem is1 kn[+ ! height ( ! wall & ! =m ( ! mass ( e>? to be support$1 to f9d ! ?ickness ( ! wall4 ,let ,a ,b #f ,f1 repres5t ! ?ickness ( ! wall4 ,its c5tre ( gravity is at ,o1 & is horizontally project$ at m4 ,! c5tre ( gravity ( ! ?ru/+ triangle ( e>?1 ,b #d #f1 is ,c1 7f\nd by ! cutt+ ( l9es jo9+ any two angles to ! c5tre ( ! opposite sides17 is horizontally project$ at ,ca1 & ! horizontal compon5t ( ! ?ru/ is ex]t$ at #b1 t5d+ to ov]?r[ ! wall ) a lev]age1 #f #b4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #acc4 ,! ov]?r[+ p[] is1 !n1 ! area ( ! triangle ,b#df ! weight ( ! unit ( area ! lev]age #f #b4 ,& ! resi/+ p[]1 ! area ,,ab ,b#f ! weight ( a unit ( area by "o half bread?1 or m #f2 or1 call+ w ! weight ( ! wall1 & w t ( ! triangle1 ,b #d #f1 & ,l & ,l ! lev]age respectively ( ! wall to resi/ & ( ! e>? to ov]?r[2 we mu/ h at lea/ w,l w,l1 & to insure /ability1 w,l w,l or1 ,l 7w,l7_/w1 & z ,l half base f9ally1 ! ?ickness1 or #b,l 7#bw,l7_/w #bgf4 ,example4--,let ! height ( wall be tw5ty feet1 slope "o & "o half to "o2 if a cubic foot ( e>? weighs "o hundr$ lbs41 & ( masonry1 "o hundr$ & sixty lbs41 we h ! ov]?r[+ =ce1 #bj #ae #a #ajj #b #bj_/c1 & ! resi/+ =ce1 7assum+ ! ?ickness z eight feet1 9 ord] to get ! area71 #bj #h #a #afj #h_/b4 ,or p]=m+ ! op]ations1 ,= ov]?r[+1 #ajj1jjj lbs4 ,= resi/+1 #ajb1djj lbs4 ,if ! wall 9 place ( reta9+ only ! mass ,b #d #f1 reta9s ! bank ,b ,e ,fa1 ! pressure w evid5tly be increas$4 ,! c5tre ( gravity ( ! trapezoid ,b ,e ,fa #f1 is at ,c1 :i* is horizontally project$ at ,ca1 & ! horizontal compon5t ( ! ?ru/ acts at #c ) ! lev]age #fc4 ,any sup]9cumb5t load1 z a tra9 ( c>s at ,e ,fa1 w aga9 increase ! pressure1 n only by reason ( weight1 b f %ocks & vibration4 ,= resi/+ lat]al pressure1 ! b$s ( masonry are be/ :5 r\gh dress$4 ,= v]tical loads1 hamm] dress$ b$s are ! be/4 ,! lev]age ( resi/ance is v mu* increas$ by batt]+ ! wall 9 front1 z at ,a ,d4 ,! c5tre ( gravity is !n horizontally project$ at m1 b ! di/ance ,d m is mu* great] ?an ,f m4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #acd4 ,! am\nt ( masonry rema9+ ! same1 by decreas+ ! top1 & increas+ ! base1 ! /r5g? is v mu* increas$4 ,:5 reta9+ walls are expos$ to %ocks or pressures special directions1 !y may be v mu* aid$ by buttresses oppos+ directly su* =ces1 z 9 fig4 #acd4 ,! increase ( /r5g? ?us made by a small bulk ( masonry is v great4 ,all abutm5ts1 w+-walls1 & side walls ( culv]ts1 come "u ! head ( reta9+ walls4 ,:5 ! face ( ! wall does n by its position admit ( buttresses1 z 9 fig4 #acd1 x may be dovetail$ into ! e>?2 ! latt] be+ firmly ramm$ ar\nd ! masonry1 z 9 fig4 #ace4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ace4 #bgg4 ,! weight ( ! diff]5t e>?s & /ones are %[n 9 ! foll[+ table4 ,"n ( mat]ial4 ,weight p] cubic foot4 ,brick1 common #ig to #abe ,brick1 /ock #aae to #ace ,brickwork1 7av]age17 #ij to #ie ,*alk1 #add to #aff ,granite1 #afd to #ahg ,m>ble1 #aaa to #aag ,mort>1 7hair17 dry #hj to #hf ,puzzolano1 #afj to #agh ,slate1 #aeg to #ahj ,/one1 7av]age17 #adj to #aej ,clay1 7common17 #aaj to #abe ,clay & gravel1 #aej to #agj ,e>?1 common1 #ie to #abf ,gravel1 #ajj to #aaj ,quick-lime1 #ej to #ee ,qu>tz s&1 #agj to #age ,common s&1 #hh to #ic ,%+le1 #hh to #ib ,e>?1 loose #ij to #ie ,/one "w1 7hewn17 9 wall1 #afj to #age ,/one "w1 7unhewn17 9 wall1 #abe to #adj ,,*apt] ,,xii4 ,,f\ndations4 #bgh4 ,f\ndations may be divid$ into f\r classes4 ,^? on firm1 dry l&4 ,^? on unfirm dry l&4 ,^? on solid bottom1 "u wat]4 ,^? on unfirm bottom1 "u wat]4 ,f\ndations ^u firm dry l& require only to be plac$ at a suffici5t dep? to be out ( ! way ( fro/2 v>y+ f "o foot 9 ! ,s\!rn1 to two & ?ree feet 9 ! ,middle1 & f\r & five feet 9 ! ,nor!rn ,/ates4 ,! fir/ c\rse %\ld consi/ ( small1 flat /ones plac$ dry1 b well pack$ by h&1 ^u ! bottom2 ^u ! top ( ?is lay]1 ! mort>$ or cem5t masonry %\ld be comm5c$4 ,! object ( ! fir/ c\rse ( small /ones is to apply ! weight ( ! sup]9cumb5t masonry z equally z possible to ! gr\nd4 ,all b\ld]s & r\nd$ /ones %\ld be c>efully kept out ( ! f\ndation4 ,unfirm soils are prep>$ by driv+ piles1 ^u :i* a plat=m hold+ ! masonry is plac$2 or by plac+ ! l[] c\rses directly ^u ! heads ( ! piles4 ,s& piles are made ei!r by driv+ & )draw+ a wood5 pile & fill+ ! hole ?us made ) s&2 or by digg+ tr5*es & fill+ su* ) s&4 ,! appli$ weight is ?us spread ov] ! entire surface ( ! sides & bottom1 in/ead ( be+ plac$ ^u ! bottom only4 ,:5 ! weight ( a heavy /ructure is ?r[n ^u a few small po9ts ( support1 !y may be made ! pi]s & abutm5ts ( a s]ies ( inv]t$ ar*es1 by :i* ! :ole surface b5ea? ! /ructure is made to assi/ 9 be>+ ! load4 ,f\ndations ^u yield+ or s&y & wet soils may be secur$ by pil+ ar\nd ! :ole /ructure2 by :i* ! e>? is kept f spread+4 ,f\ndations ^u dry l& d n g5]ally give mu* tr\ble to ! eng9e]2 b op]ations c>ri$ on "u wat] require all ! sci5ce & pati5ce t he is ma/] (4 #bgi4 ,?ree me?ods ( f\nd+ "u wat] may be notic$1 ,by driv+ piles4 ,by c(f]-dam4 ,by caisson4 ,9 v %all[ wat]1 :]e no dang] arises f contract+ ! wat]-way1 we may ?r[ 9 loose /ones until ! surface is rea*$2 & comm5ce !reon ! l[] c\rses ( ! masonry4 ,?is is t]m$ 8,enrockm5t40 ,,pile ,,driv+4 ,?is op]ation has = its object ! consolidation ( naturally weak bottoms2 = piles driv5 close toge!r t5d to prev5t t compression t might take place "u a heavy /ructure4 ,piles may resi/ ei!r by friction aga9/ ! soils ?r\gh :i* !y are driv51 or by be>+ ^u a firm sub/ratum at too great a dep? to be rea*$ by uncov]+4 ,piles driv5 9 clay h sometimes act$ z a conductor to wat]1 :i*1 ins9uat+ itself along ! side ( ! wood1 produc$ settl+ :i* w\ld n o!rwise h tak5 place4 ,exp]i5ce has %[n t f\r feet ap>t f c5tre to c5tre1 :5 !re is a good sub/ratum1 is ne> en\gh to be> ! heavie/ loads4 ,! fact t a pile refuses to ent] fur!r1 does n %[ t x has rea*$ a b$ /rong en\gh to be> ! requir$ load2 = ?\gh x may be> ^u a solid bottom1 or resi/ p5etration by side friction1 :5 ! load has be5 = "s "t ^u ! pile1 x may be f\nd too weak to /&4 ,piles h 9 "s cases refus$ to ent] ! gr\nd f ! bl[ ( a #a1ejj lbs4 ram1 fall+ tw5ty feet1 :5 fir/ driv51 & h aft]w>ds gone d[n ?ree feet f a ram ( #a1jjj lbs4 ,! foll[+ =mula1 %[+ ! resi/ance :i* a pile %\ld (f]1 is giv5 by ,weisba* 9 ,me*anics ( ,eng9e]+1 ,vol4 ,i4 p4 #bhe4 ,fir/1 :5 ! ram rema9s ^u ! pile aft] ! bl[1 ,p s 7,g#b ,h7_/7,g ,g74 ,&1 second1 :5 ! ram does n rema9 ^u ! pile1 ,p s 7,g_/7,g ,g77#b ,,gh ,example4--,a pile weigh+ five hundr$ lbs4 is driv5 two feet1 by =ty bl[s ( a #a1jjj lbs4 ram fall+ six feet4 ,requir$ ! weight :i* may be safely support$ by ! pile )\t fur!r p5etration4 ,! notation 9 ! =mula above is ?us1 ,g ! weight ( ! pile4 ,g ! weight ( ! ram4 ,h ! fall ( ! ram4 s p5etration p] bl[4 ,p ! weight 9 lbs4 ,! p5etration p] bl[ w be #b_/dj or 4#je feet2 & ! =mula = ! second case 7#ajjj_/7ajjj #ejj77b 7#ejj #f7_/4je #dh1jjj lbs4 ,( :i* "o t5? or "o twelf? only is ! maximum load :i* %\ld be plac$ ^u ! pile p]man5tly4 ,! sure/ te/ ( ! p[] ( a pile is to load x tempor>ily1 :5 ! "t & place admit4 ,p]ronet consid]$ fifty tons1 or #aab1jjj lbs4 z n too great = a twelve in* pile2 & all[$ tw5ty-five tons = a pile ( n9e in*es 9 diamet]4 ,t ! po9t ( ! pile may n be %att]$ by contact ) ! h>d e>?1 an iron %oe is sometimes fitt$ to ! l[] end2 & t ! head may n split1 an iron r+ is driv5 on to ! top4 ,! =ce ( ! bl[ giv5 by a ram dep5ds ^u ! weight ( ! ram or monkey1 & ^u ! velocity at :i* x /rikes ! pile2 ! velocity dep5ds ^u ! height f :i* x falls4 ,! velocities ( bodies fall+ freely be+ z ! times1 & ! spaces fall5 ?r\gh z ! squ>es ( ! times1 we h ! foll[+ rules2 & f !m ! table succe$+4 ,giv5 ! velocity ( a body to f9d ! space ?r\gh :i* x mu/ fall1 77,velocity 9 feet p] second7_/#h7b space 9 feet4 ,?us a weight to acquire a velocity ( two hundr$ feet p] second1 mu/ fall ?r\gh a height ( 7#bjj_/h7b #fbe feet4 ,giv5 ! space fall5 ?r\gh1 to f9d ! velocity4 7height 9 feet #fd4c7 velocity 9 feet p] second4 ,?us ! velocity ( a body fall+ tw5ty feet w be 7#bj #fd4c7 #cf feet p] second4 ,mom5tum is ! product ( weight by velocity2 !re=e1 to f9d ! =ce ( ! bl[ giv5 by a ram ( giv5 weight1 fall+ a giv5 height1 we f9d1 fir/1 ! velocity by rule two4 ,also1 giv5 ! weight ( ram1 ! necess>y velocity to produce any requir$ effect be+ f\nd1 x is easy to f9d ! height1 & ! rev]se4 ,examples4--,suppose we h a ram weigh+ #b1jjj lbs4 & wi% to /rike a bl[ ( #be1jjj lbs42 ! velocity mu/ be #bejjj_/bjjj #ab feet p] second2 & to acquire t velocity1 ! height fall5 mu/ be 7rule "o7 7#ab_/h7b #b4dc feet4 ,aga91 if we h a pile-eng9e :i* admits ( a fall ( fifte5 feet1 & we wi% to /rike a bl[ ( #ah1jjj lbs41 we fir/ f9d ! velocity 7rule two7 ?us3-- 7#ae #fd4c7 #ca feet p] second ne>ly1 :5ce ! weight #ahjjj_/ca #eha lbs4 ,! =m ( ! common pile-eng9e is too well kn[n to ne$ description4 ,mr4 ,nasmy?'s sy/em ( pile-driv+ consi/s 9 =c+ ! pile into ! gr\nd by a great numb] ( bl[s foll[+ ea* o!r 9 rapid succession4 ,piles 7 driv5 by 8 eng9e at ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,dry ,dock1 at ,brooklyn1 7,n4 ,y417 z foll[s3 ,a pile 0 sunk fifty-sev5 feet by a hamm] ( #d1ejj lbs42 x 0 driv5 =ty-two feet 9 sev5 m9utes by ?ree hundr$ & sev5ty-?ree bl[s4 ,,mit*ell',s ,,screw ,,pile4 ,mit*ell's screw pile is a ca/-iron column1 ar\nd ! l[] "p ( :i* is a spiral flange4 ,x is screw$ into ! gr\nd1 & (f]s great resi/ance to v]tical pressure1 on acc\nt ( ! l>ge be>+ surface obta9$4 ,,dr4 ,,potts',s ,,atmosph]ic ,,sy/em4 #bhj4 ,all me?ods ( plac+ f\ndations 9 difficult positions mu/ yield to ! above plan1 :i* consi/s 9 exhau/+ ! air f a holl[ ca/-iron cyl9d]2 :5 ! pressure ^u ! surface ( ! gr\nd1 outside ( ! cyl9d]1 =ces ! e>? imm$iately "u ! pile to its int]ior2 at ! same "t ! pile s9ks into ! op5+ ?us made1 bo? by its weight & by ! atmosph]ic pressure f ! outside4 ,! e>? is mov$ f ! int]ior ( ! pile2 & :5 sunk to ! necess>y dep?1 ! int]ior is fill$ ) concrete4 ,a v successful application ( ! above sy/em 0 made at ! ,goodw9 ,s&s1 at ! m\? ( ! ,?ames ,riv]1 7,engl&74 ,^! s&s *ange _! position ) e viol5t /orm1 & are yet s compact t a /eel b> c\ld be driv5 only eight feet ) a sl$ge hamm]2 & a po9t$ rod ?ree in*es 9 diamet]1 :5 sunk ?irte5 feet deep1 requir$ =ty-six bl[s f a "o hundr$ lbs4 ram fall+ t5 feet to drive x "o in*4 ,b a holl[ pile two & a half feet 9 diamet] 0 sunk sev5ty-eight feet1 at ! rate ( t5 feet p] h\r = a "p ( ! "t4 ,9 case ( meet+ ) rock1 ! pile may be conv]t$ into a div+-bell1 & ! ob/ruction mov$4 ,! pile is ca/ 9 l5g?s ( t5 or twelve feet1 & flang$ toge!r ) cem5t$ jo9ts4 ,9 f\nd+ a bridge at ,ro*e/]1 7,engl&17 a pile ( ?is nature 0 load$ ) ?irty tons ( iron rails1 :i* caus$ a settlem5t ( ?ree f\r?s ( an in*4 ,! rails be+ remov$ & ! air exhau/$1 by a s+le ef=t ! pile desc5d$ six & a half feet4 ,"o hundr$ tons ( rails 7 !n plac$ ^u ! pile1 :5 ! settlem5t 0 aga9 ?ree f\r?s ( an in*4 7,?is small depression 0 ow+ to ! compression ( ! soil47 ,! piles support+ ! ,%annon bridge1 on ! ,midl& ,great ,we/]n ,railroad1 7,engl&17 7 sunk by ?is sy/em2 & are t5 feet 9 diamet]1 & fill$ ) concrete4 ,aft] wood5 piles h be5 driv51 !y are cut (f at ! prop] level to receive ! l[] c\rses ( ! masonry4 ,9 "s cases squ>e timb] caps are plac$ ^u ! pile heads1 & !reon a plank floor4 ,9 o!rs1 ! spaces betwe5 ! piles are fill$ ) cem5t & concrete4 ,,c(f]-,,dam4 #bha4 ,9 f\nd+ 9 wat] f five to tw5ty-five feet deep1 a contrivance call$ a 8c(f]-dam10 is sometimes us$4 ,x is =m$ by driv+ a d\ble or triple r[ ( piles ar\nd ! f\ndation2 :i* r[s are made wat] tight1 ei!r by tongu$ & groov$ squ>e piles1 or by r\nd piles1 to :i* is fa/5$ a %ea?+ ( plank4 ,! space betwe5 ! c\rses ( pil+ is empti$ ( wat] & pack$ closely ) clay or o!r mat]ial imp]vi\s to wat]4 ,! int]ior ( ! dam is !n pump$ dry & ! masonry laid z on dry l&4 ,! ?ickness ( ! dam dep5ds ^u ! dep? ( wat]2 ! pressure ^u ! l[] "p be+ ( c\rse mu* great] ?an t at ! upp]4 ,if x 0 consid]$ z a mass resi/+ by its weight1 ov]?r[ f ! pressure ( ! wat]1 ! ?ickness w\ld be easily calculat$4 ,?us1 if ! wat] is tw5ty feet deep ! :ole hydro/atic pressure ^u ea* l9eal foot ( ! dam is #bj #a #aj #fb #ab1ejj lbs42 & z ! weight ( wat] increases 9 ! ord] ( ! t]ms ( an ari?metical progression1 z also ! pressure1 x may be express$ by ! elem5ts ( a triangle1 ( :i* ! height is ! dep?2 & z ! c5tre ( gravity ( a triangle is at two ?irds ( ! height f ! v]tex1 ! pressure may be reg>d$ z conc5trat$ at "o ?ird ( ! dep? f ! bottom2 & ! lev]age ( ! above #ab1ejj lbs4 is #bj_/c #f4fg feet2 & ! ov]?r[+ =ce is #hc1cge lbs4 ,! resi/+ =ce ( a clay dam tw5ty feet high & t5 feet ?ick1 w\ld be #bj #aj #aaj #aj_/b #aaj1jjj lbs4 ,det]m9+ ! ?ickness ?us1 w\ld make ! dam1 :5 9 deep wat]1 v ?ick2 & x is g5]ally be/ to brace ! inside aga9/ ! gr\nd1 & :5 ! masonry w admit1 aga9/ t4 ,dams ( ! foll[+ ?ickness h prov$ p]fectly secure3-- ,dep? ( wat]4 ,?ickness4 #f feet4 #c feet4 #aj feet4 #e feet4 #ae feet4 #h feet4 #bj feet4 #ab feet4 #be feet4 #ad feet4 ,! be/ =m = a l>ge c(f]-dam is circul>1 or elliptical2 z ! pressure is ?us resi/$ m equally 9 all places ?an :5 !re are flat sides & angles 9 ! plan4 ,to keep ! dam dry :ile ! "w is go+ on1 pumps are rigg$ along "o side ( ! dam ! l[] ends ( :i* are plac$ 9 a tr5* or well :i* dra9s ! bottom4 ,! pi]s ( ! ,victoria bridge at ,montreal1 7,canada17 are put d[n by c(f]-dams4 ,"s ( ! pi]s be+ 9 b few feet ( wat]1 & ^u a rocky bottom1 :i* did n admit ( ! driv+ ( piles2 ! dams = su* 7 built 9 sections1 float$ to ! site & an*or$4 ,,f\ndation ,,by ,,caisson4 #bhb4 ,9 deep wat] ! c(f]-dam becomes v exp5sive1 on acc\nt ( ! size & l5g? ( ! pil+1 & ! quantity ( brac+ requir$4 ,9 su* cases rec\rse is _h to ! caisson2 :i* is simply a box 9 :i* ! masonry is built1 & aft]w>ds sunk to ! propos$ site4 ,! mann] ( putt+ d[n a piece ( masonry by caisson w be/ be %[n by an example4 ,suppose we wi% to s9k a pi] ?irty feet long1 tw5ty feet high1 & six feet wide1 9 tw5ty feet ( wat]4 ,let ! caisson bottom be ( two c\rses ( squ>e #ab #ab timb]s1 fa/5$ /rongly at "r angles to ea* o!r4 ,let ! c\rses ( masonry be two feet ?ick4 ,assume ! weight ( a cubic foot ( /one z "o hundr$ & sixty lbs41 a cubic foot ( wood at ?irty1 & ( wat] sixty-two lbs4 p] foot4 ,e float+ body w s9k until x has displac$ a quantity ( wat] equal to its own weight4 ,if ! bottom is t5 feet wide & ?irty-five feet long1 x w weigh #ce #aj #b #cj #ba1jjj lbs4 "o c\rse ( masonry weighs #cj #f #b #ajj #eg1fjj lbs4 "o c\rse ( side timb]s1 #ab #ab1 :i* are laid ^u ! sides ( ! raft1 7#b #ce #b #h7 #cj #b1ehj lbs4 ,n[ load ! bottom ) "o c\rse ( masonry & ?ree c\rses ( side timb]s1 & we h ,/one #eg1fjj lbs4 ,bottom ( caisson #ba1jjj lbs4 ,?ree side c\rses #g1gdj lbs4 ------------ ,9 all3 #hf1cdj lbs4 :i* divid$ by #fb1 gives #a1cib2 :i* divid$ by ! area ( ! caisson bottom1 gives #acib_/cej #c4ih or ne>ly f\r feet1 = ! dep? at :i* ! caisson w float4 ,?is leaves ! sides "o foot above ! wat] surface4 ,putt+ on a second c\rse ( masonry & ?ree m side c\rses ( timb]1 we h ,floor #ba1jjj lbs4 ,two c\rses masonry #aae1bjj lbs4 ,six side c\rses #ae1dhj lbs4 -------------- ,9 all #aea1fhj lbs4 :i* divid$ by #fb1 & by #cej1 gives sev5 feet v ne>ly2 leav+ ! top "o foot above ! surface4 ,9 ! same mann] we proce$ until ! caisson gr\nds ^u ! b$1 :i* has be5 previ\sly prep>$1 ei!r by pile-driv+ or by dr$g+4 ,! bottom be+ rea*$1 ! sides are tak5 (f1 & ! masonry rema9s ^u ! floor4 ,! caisson may at any "t be gr\nd$ by fill+ ) wat]1 & may be rais$ aga9 by pump+ out4 ,! masonry may be laid ei!r f b>ges or rafts at ! site1 or at ! %ore4 ,guide piles are necess>y to insure ! desc5t 9 ! prop] mann]1 & to prev5t ov]turns4 ,9 lay+ /one "u wat]1 x is to be rememb]$ t masonry subm]g$ loses #fb_/ajj ne>ly ( its weight1 & is consequ5tly m liable to be injur$ by %ocks ?an :5 above ! surface4 ,,*apt] ,,xiii4 ,,sup]/ructure4 #bhc4 ,no?+ aids m ! prop] accompli%m5t ( any object ?an a correct idea ( :at is want$4 ,! foll[+ def9ition is giv5 by ,mr4 ,w4 ,b4 ,adams1 ( :at good sup]/ructure %\ld be3-- 8,! pr9cipal requirem5ts ( p]man5t way are3 ,t x %all be well dra9$1 especially 9 contiguity to ! sub/ructure2 t ! weight & damag+ p[] ( ! locomotives & roll+ /ock %\ld be consid]$ ! data = calculation2 t ! /r5g?1 h>dness1 & t5acity ( rails1 & ! immobility ( ! sub/ructure %\ld be adapt$ to ! h>de/ "w to :i* ! railway is to be subject$2 t ! sub/ructure %\ld h an am\nt ( be>+ surface proportion$ to ! load to be borne1 & ! nature ( ! rail & balla/2 & a suffici5tly fair hold 9 ! gr\nd to prev5t loos5ess or lat]al motion1 f ! side lur*es ( ! eng9es & tra9s2 t ! rails %\ld possess s mu* v]tical & lat]al /iffness1 ei!r 9 !mselves or 9 _! fa/5+s1 z to prev5t all deflection2 & h suffici5t h>dness ( surface n to lam9ate or to dis9tegrate b5ea? ! roll+ loads2 also1 to h suffici5t bread? or tread surface to dim9i% ! cru%+ effect ( ! :eels4 8,!y %\ld be z smoo? z possible1 to prev5t concussion1 & be laid at ! prop] angle1 & ! curves regul>ly b5t1 s z to insure ! accurate tread ( ! :eels4 ,! jo9ts %\ld be s made t ! rails may practically become cont9u\s b>s1 yet ) fre$om to contract & exp& )\t be+ too loose4 ,& ) all ?is !re %\ld be int]pos$ betwe5 ! rails & ! solid gr\nd1 "s m$ium suffici5tly ela/ic to absorb ! effect ( ! bl[s ( ! :eels1 )\t be+ cru%$ or =c$ d[n into ! balla/1 & yet /iff en\gh to keep ! upp] surface ( ! rails 9 a uni=m plane40 ,,timb]work4 #bhd4 ,! timb]-"w support+ ! rails consi/s ei!r ( cross ties ( wood1 hewn flat on top & bottom1 ( dim5sions f #f #g to #g #i1 & #b or #c feet long] ?an gauge2 or ( longitud9al saw$ timb]s rectangul> 9 section1 plac$ directly b5ea? ! rail1 & giv+ x a be>+ ?r\gh\t ! :ole l5g?4 ,longitud9al be>+s seem to possess no advantage ov] cross ties1 b are subject to "s decid$ disadvantages4 ,9 case ( removal1 two rails at lea/ mu/ be tak5 up to admit ( ! replac+ a timb]2 :ile ) cross ties any "o may be tak5 out & replac$ )\t ev5 affect+ ! imm$iate pass+ ( a tra94 ,a cont9u$ be>+ is no bett] ?an a brok5 "o1 z ! /r5g? ( ! timb] itself (f]s v little resi/ance to ! weight ( a locomotive4 ,/r5g? is n to be expect$ 9 ! timb]-"w2 x is only ! ela/ic m$ium betwe5 ! rail & ! gr\nd s]v+ to ma9ta9 ! rail 9 a prop] position4 ,! /r5g? is 9 ! rail4 ,! di/ance at :i* to place cross ties dep5ds ^u ! weight ( eng9es trav]s+ ! road1 ! nature ( ! balla/1 & ! /r5g? ( ! rail2 some:]e betwe5 two & f\r feet f c5tre to c5tre4 ,! am\nt ( sup]ficial be>+ :i* ! timb]-"w ought to give p] l9eal foot ( rail1 is diff]5tly e/imat$ by diff]5t eng9e]s4 ,^u ! #d #h gaug$ roads ( ,am]ica1 #a squ>e feet p] l9eal foot ( rail has be5 all[$4 ,sev]al ( ! ,engli% roads give ! foll[+3-- ,"n ( road4 ,gauge4 ,squ>e feet p] l9eal foot ( rail4 ,london & ,n4 ,w4 ,railway1 #d #h #c ,great ,we/]n1 #g #j #b ,s4 & ,w4 ( ,irel&1 #e #c #c ,midl& ,g4 ,w4 ( ,irel&1 #e #c #bg_/ab ,if ties are made eight in*es wide1 & eight feet long2 we h ! foll[+ am\nts ( be>+ surface p] l9eal foot ( ! rail ) diff]5t di/ances ( ! ties4 ,di/ance ,c to ,c ( tie4 ,sup]ficial feet p] l94 foot4 #b #b4ff #b #b4ac #c #a4gh #c #a4ec ,( c\rse ! long] ! tie is made ! great] may be ! di/ance betwe51 provid$ ! rail w be> x4 ,mr4 ,pet] ,b>l[1 9 8 report ( ,augu/1 #ahce1 to ! directors ( ! ,liv]pool & ,man*e/] ,railway1 fixes ! foll[+ dim5sions = sup]/ructure4 ,di/ance betwe5 insides ( ties be+ #c #c #i #d #e #f ,weight 9 lbs4 p] y>d4 #ej #ei #fa #fg #gi ,dep? ( rail 9 in*es4 #d #d #d #e #ee_/af ,at ! "t ^! dim5sions 7 giv51 h[ev]1 mu* less weight 0 appli$ to ! rails ?an at ! pres5t day4 ,z ! be>+ is increas$1 ! rail mu/ become heavi] & m exp5sive2 b ! numb] & co/ ( ! ties is less5$4 ,! report above ref]r$ to1 concludes t five feet be>+s1 involv+ heavi] rails1 w\ld co/ no m1 aft] ! road b$ is consolidat$1 ?an %ort] ones2 b t on embankm5ts & s(t subsoils1 x w\ld be at fir/ some:at m exp5sive4 #bhe4 ,! object ( ! balla/ is1 fir/1 to transf] ! appli$ load ov] a l>ge surface2 second1 to hold ! timb]-"w 9 place1 horizontally2 & ?ird1 to c>ry away ! ra9 wat] f ! sup]/ructure2 x also furni%es ! means ( adju/+ ! timb]-"w to ! prop] position4 ,x %\ld be at lea/ "o half way up ! dep? ( ! tie1 & deep en\gh bel[ ! "u surface to prev5t ! timb] be+ =c$ d[n by ! pass+ weight4 ,f v>i\s obs]vations x appe>s t !re %\ld be "o & a half times ! dep? ( ! tie ( balla/1 b5ea? ! "u surface2 or ! :ole dep? ( balla/ %\ld be f two to two & "o half times ! dep? ( tie4 ,= balla/1 brok5 /one1 gravel1 or o!r dry1 durable1 & por\s mat]ial1 is suitable4 ,a p]fectly inela/ic road b$ is n to be desir$4 ,some?+ is necess>y to absorb ! %ocks giv5 by ! :eels1 & prev5t _! reaction aga9/ ! ma*9]y4 ,to supply ?is am\nt ( ela/icity1 & to transmit ! weight ev5ly to ! gr\nd1 is ! duty ( ! balla/ & timb]-"w4 ,( late ye>s !re has be5 appli$1 9 ,engl&1 ca/-iron hemisph]ical b[ls1 design$ to take ! place ( bo? tie & *air4 ,su* answ]s v well :5 !re is no lack ( balla/1 & :]e wood5 ties are wor? f sev5ty-five c5ts to "o doll> ea*4 ,,section ,,( ,,! ,,rail4 #bhf4 ,a good rail mu/ be able to act z a gird]1 or support]1 betwe5 ! ties1 z a lat]al guide ^u curves2 & mu/ possess a top surface ( suffici5t h>dness & size to resi/ ! roll+ we> ( ! :eels4 ,lbs4 p] y>d4 ,tons p] mile4 7#b1bdj lbs474 ,"o squ>e in* ( rail section weighs1 #i4i #ae4gb ,two in*es ( rail section weighs1 #ai4h #ca4db ,?ree in*es ( rail section weighs1 #bi4g #dg4ad ,f\r in*es ( rail section weighs1 #ci4f #fb4hd ,five in*es ( rail section weighs1 #di4e #gh4ef ,six in*es ( rail section weighs1 #ei4d #id4bh ,sev5 in*es ( rail section weighs1 #fi4c #aaj4jj ,eight in*es ( rail section weighs1 #gi4b #abd4ej ,n9e in*es ( rail section weighs1 #hi4a #adj4ja ,t5 in*es ( rail section weighs1 #ii4j #aee4eg ,s+le l9e ( ,d\ble l9e ( rails4 rails4 ,?us1 at sixty doll>s p] ton1 ea* squ>e in* ( section co/s #idc4bj p] mile1 or #id1cbj p] "o hundr$ miles1 :5ce ! necessity ( roll+ ! rail to ! =m :i* %all give ! greate/ /r5g? ) ! lea/ weight4 ,! sections mo/ 9 use 9 ,am]ica are %[n 9 fig4 #acf1 & #acg4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #acf4 ,fig4 #acf gives ! mo/ direct be>+1 is compact1 & br+s ! fibres at top & bottom m directly 9 opposition ) ! compressive & ext5sive /ra9s4 ,! top ( ! rail be+ curv$ to a radius ( t5 or twelve in*es1 ! load is appli$ ne>ly to a s+le po9t2 :5ce ! :ole resi/ance 9 fig4 #acg1 dep5ds ^u ! lat]al resi/ance ( ! piece a b c d to be+ pu%$ d[n4 ,an objection is sometimes made to fig4 #acf1 on ! gr\nd t x splits (f on ! l9e n n3 ?is w n be ! case :5 ! head is jo9$ to ! web by a prop] curve1 z 9 fig4 #acf4 ,?is splitt+ (f happ5s full z (t5 9 fig4 #acg z may be se5 :]e x is 9 use2 & x might be suppos$ to act 9 t mann]2 because if ! weight is transf]r$ at all f ! po9t ( application to ! web1 x mu/ be 9 ! direction e f4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #acg4 ,! rails 9 pres5t use ^u our roads1 weigh f fifty to sev5ty-five lbs4 p] l9eal y>d2 & are laid ^u cross ties plac$ at a di/ance ( f two & "o half to f\r feet f c5tre to c5tre4 ,,( ,,! ,,actual ,,dim5sions ,,( ,,rails4 ,dige/+ c>efully ! results ( ! exp]im5ts ( ,b>l[1 ,fairbairn1 & ,hodgek9son1 & ! exp]i5ce ( ,mr4 ,w4 ,b4 ,adams1 & o!r ,engli% eng9e]s2 also ! conclusions arriv$ at by ! ,b]l9 ,conv5tion ( #ahej1 appo9t$ to det]m9e ! be/ =m ( section1 we come to ! foll[+ limit+ dim5sions4 ,,! ,,head4 ,mr4 ,b>l[ limits ! wid? ( head at two & "o half in*es z ! maximum2 ! ,b]l9 ,conv5tion1 at two & "o f\r? in*es2 ,w4 ,b4 ,adams1 at two & "o half2 & all ( ! above recomm5d support+ ! edges ( ! head well f ! rib4 ,,! ,,v]tical ,,rib4 ,! exp]im5ts ( ! ,prussian eng9e]s fix ! ?ickness = a rail f\r in*es high1 at "o half ( an in*1 & a rail f\r & "o half in*es high1 at #j4f or #f_/aj in*4 ,mr4 ,b>l[ makes x six t5?s ( an in* = a f\r & "o half in* rail1 & #j4ge1 or ?ree f\r?s in* = a rail f\r & five eigh?s in*es high1 & = f\r & ?ree f\r?s in*es high1 #j4h1 eight t5?s in*4 ,,! ,,bottom ,,flange4 ,! use ( ?is is m = be>+ & fa/5+1 ?an = support+ /r5g?4 ,! ,prussian eng9e]s make ?ree & "o half in*es an ample base = a rail five in*es high4 ,! edge = "o half or ?ree f\r?s ( an in*1 %\ld be ne>ly horizontal1 or p>allel ) ! base1 to all[ ! spike to h a good be>+4 ,,( ,,! ,,incl9ation4 ,z ! tread ( ! :eel is conical1 ! top ( ! rail mu/ be incl9$ to fit ?is cone1 o!rwise ! we> w come ^u ! inn] edge ( ! rail only4 ,?is may be done 9 two ways2 by plac+ ! rail base level1 & incl9+ ! v]tical axis ( ! cross section ( ! rail1 & mak+ ! tread squ>e ) t axis2 or by mak+ ! rail section true1 & incl9+ ! base1 ei!r by cutt+ ! tie1 or by a w$ge plac$ betwe5 ! rail & ! tie4 ,,( ,,! ,,head ,,curvature4 ,if ! top surface ( ! rail 7 p]fectly flat1 & ! :eel tire does n happ5 to fit x exactly1 7f want ( ! prop] position ( ! rail1 by settl+1 or o!r cause17 ! :eel w be> entirely ^u "o edge1 & w\ld soon de/roy ! rail4 ,to rem$y ?is1 a slight convexity is giv5 to ! top4 ,mr4 ,cl>k 79 ,r4 ,r4 ,ma*471 recomm5ds ! top to be curv$ to a radius ( t5 or twelve in*es4 ,,( ,,! ,,v]tical ,,dep? 7,,height7 ,,( ,,! ,,rail4 ,mr4 ,b>l['s g5]al results are z foll[3-- ,di/ance f inside to inside ( tie4 ,height ( rail4 #c #j #d #c #i #d #d #j #d #e #j #e #f #j #ea_/af ,9 ! ,london edition 7#ahcf7 ( ,b>l['s ,/r5g? ( ,mat]ials1 page #djb1 9 a report to ! ,london & ,birm+ham ,railway ,co41 ^u ! be/ =m & ^u ! /r5g? ( rails2 aft] a c>efully conduct$ set ( exp]im5ts1 & an elaborate !oretical d$uction ( results1 ! writ] comes to ! foll[+ five sections ( rails possess+ ! maximum /r5g?1 ) ! lea/ weight4 ,dim5sions4 ,no4 #a4 ,no4 #b4 ,no4 #c4 ,no4 #d4 ,no4 #e4 ,height1 #d #d #d #e #ee_/af ,bread? at top1 #b #b #b #b #b ,dep? ( top1 #a #a #a #a #a ,?ickness ( rib1 #j4f #j4ge #j4h #j4he #a4j ,wid? ( l[] flange1 #a #a #a #a #a ,dep? ( l[] flange1 #a #a #a #a #a ,weight p] y>d1 #ea4d #eh4h #fa4b #fg4d #gi ,di/ance ,c4 to ,c4 ( ties1 #c #ci #d #e #f ,?is table %[s ! ratio ( mat]ial :i* %\ld be plac$ 9 ! top & bottom4 ,) ! above dim5sions1 & jo9+ ! curve ( ! head to ! rib at two & "o f\r? in*es f ! top ( ! head1 we obta9 a /rong & well-%ap$ rail1 ) ! lea/ mat]ial possible4 ,see fig4 #acf4 ,z an example ( ! application ( ! above1 ! table bel[ has be5 =m$1 %[+ f\r /&>d =ms1 :i* w be f\nd to unite all ( ! requirem5ts ( good rails2 ! g5]al =m be+ t ( fig4 #acf4 ,dim5sions4 ,! weight ( ! rail be+1 9 lbs41 #fj #fe #gj #ge ,wid? ( head1 #b #b #b #b ,rad4 ( top1 #ab #ab #ab #ab ,height ( rail1 #d #d #d #d ,?ickness ( rib1 #j4f #j4f #j4fe #j4g ,bread? ( base1 #c #c #c #d ,dep? ( head at po9t ,a ,b1 #b #b #b #b ,?ickness at edge ( l[] web1 & ! foll[+ figures %[ ! weights :i* %\ld be appli$ to diff]5tly spac$ sleep]s4 ,di/ance c5tre to c5tre ( tie4 ,di/ance cle>4 ,weight ( rail4 #a feet1 #a feet1 #fj lbs4 p] y>d4 #b feet1 #a feet1 #fj lbs4 p] y>d4 #b feet1 #a feet1 #fj lbs4 p] y>d4 #b feet1 #b feet1 #fj lbs4 p] y>d4 #b feet1 #b feet1 #fe lbs4 p] y>d4 #c feet1 #b feet1 #fe lbs4 p] y>d4 #c feet1 #b feet1 #gj lbs4 p] y>d4 #c feet1 #c feet1 #ge lbs4 p] y>d4 ,! am\nt ( incl9ation or bevel to be giv5 to ! cross section ( ! rail1 dep5ds directly ^u ! cone ( ! :eel1 & indirectly ^u ! gauge ( ! track4 7,see ,*apt] ,,xiv4 "p #b47 ,! radius ( curvature be+ av]ag$ at #b1 or #b1hfe feet1 ,feet or ,in*es4 ,= ! #d #h gauge x %\ld be 4#jjag 4#jbj ,= ! #e gauge1 4#jjag 4#jbj ,= ! #e gauge1 4#jjai 4#jbb ,= ! #f gauge1 4#jjba 4#jbe 9 ! wid? ( ! rail1 or two & "o half in*es4 ,! above dim5sions embrace all ( ! be/ results ( exp]im5t & exp]i5ce1 & at ! same "t satisfy ! conditions dem&$ by ! me*anical & physical nature ( ! mat]ial--iron4 ,,*airs ,,& ,,jo9ts4 #bhg4 ,! *airs mo/ common at pres5t are made ( a wr\ght iron plate1 ) two lips1 ei!r cut & pun*$ up1 or =g$ up1 to hold ! l[] web ( ! rail4 ,su* *airs weigh f six to t5 p\nds ea*1 & are less liable to break ?an ! common =m ( ca/-iron *airs4 ,x is probable t a ca/-iron *air may be made1 h[ev]1 ) prop]ly %ap$ lips1 & s holl[$ out z to be at once /rong & light4 7,see ,cl>ke's ,r4 ,r4 ,ma*9]y1 8,p]man5t ,way407 ,( late ! *air ( ,mr4 ,david ,l4 ,davis1 ( ,d$ham1 ,mass41 has attract$ consid]able att5tion1 & bids fair to be ! means ( obta9+ a bett] rail surface ?an has h]et(ore be5 possible4 ,?is g5tleman has be5 = tw5ty ye>s ,road-ma/] ( ! ,bo/on & ,provid5ce ,railroad1 & has _h ample opportunity = consid]+ ! subject ( track lay+ 9 e respect4 ,! rail be>s ^u a cap ( wr\ght iron1 :i* re/s ^u a piece ( rubb]1 ly+ 9 ! *air4 ,! te/imony ( ! lead+ manag]s ( ! ,new ,engl& ,railroads be>s witness ( ! excell5ce ( ! arrangem5t4 ,! practice ( not*+ ea* end ( ! rail causes ! expansion to be ex]t$ directly aga9/ ! fa/5+s1 :i* %\ld n be ! case4 ,"s po9t %\ld be fix$ longitud9ally1 to resi/ ! end %ocks f ! :eel4 ,?is po9t %\ld be ei!r ! c5tre or "o end ( ! rail4 ,end *airs may hold ! rail lat]ally1 & v]tically1 b n longitud9ally4 ,! weake/ "p ( ! track is t1 :]e1 to resi/ ! concussions ( ! :eels x %\ld be /ronge/1 namely1 at ! jo9t3 "h we lose ! /r5g? ( ! rail & dep5d entirely ^u ! tie4 ,! flatt5$ ends ( rails :i* h be5 laid = a few ye>s %[ ! bad effect ( ! common jo9t4 ,! complete rem$y = ?is is1 s splic+ ! rail t x is z /rong at ! jo9t z else:]e4 ,! me?od t]m$ 8fi%+10 is n mu* m exp5sive ?an ! ord9>y me?od ( jo9t+1 x is p]fectly effectual1 & has _h ! te/ ( long & successful use4 ,x consi/s 9 bolt+ a plate two & "o half feet long1 two & "o half or ?ree in*es wide1 & f "o ?ird to "o half in* ?ick1 to ! ends ( bo? rails mak+ ! jo9t2 "o plate be+ plac$ on ea* side4 ,! plates are convex$ a little f ! rail z 9 fig4 #ach1 s t be+ sprung by screw+ on ! nuts1 ! latt] %all n "w loose by ! vibration ( ! rail4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ach4 ,9 ! above arrangem5t !re is no tie bel[ ! jo9t1 b ! latt] lies midway betwe5 two sleep]s4 ,ano!r me?od ( 8fi%+0 is1 to place a piece ( or iron b5ea? ! rail1 bolt+ x firmly to ! l[] flanges4 ,9 bolt+ rails toge!r at ! ends1 ! bolt holes mu/ be cut a little l>g] ?an ! bolt1 to all[ = ! expansion ( ! iron4 ,! effect ( ! jo9t ^u ! pass+ c>riage1 is ! jump+ motion2 ! middle ( ea* rail be+ a summit1 & ! end a depression1 7! /r5g? at ! jo9t be+ tak5 away72 & if ! jo9ts are n opposite to ea* o!r1 !re is g5]at$ a v injuri\s & dang]\s side rock+4 ,figs4 #ach1 #ach ,a1 & #ach ,b1 %[ ! me?ods ( fi%+4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ach ,a4 ,fig4 #ach ,b4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aci4 ,to avoid ! we> caus$ by frequ5t jo9ts1 v>i\s =ms ( comp\nd rails h be5 propos$2 consi/+ ( two or m p>ts break+ jo9t4 ,"o =m has be5 contriv$ 9 :i* ! section is v]tically halv$2 ano!r ( ?ree p>ts1 a head plac$ on top ( a d\ble v]tical web4 ,fig4 #aci %[s :at w\ld seem to answ] any purpose 7if comp\nd rails are at all all[able74 ,! jo9t is "h divid$ into f\r p>ts1 s t ! /r5g? ( ! b> at any po9t is r$uc$ only "o f\r?4 ,9 bolt+ ! p>ts toge!r ! jo9ts %\ld be left op5 en\gh 7see 9 advance7 to all[ = contraction2 & ! bolt-holes1 z be=e notic$1 %\ld be long] ?an ! bolts4 7,?is enl>gem5t1 ext5d+ only 9 ! direction ( contraction1 & n 9 ! l9e ( ! =ce47 ,! upp] "p ( su* a rail %\ld be h>d5$ to resi/ ! roll+ ( ! :eels1 :ile ! webs mu/ possess ! /r5g? to act z a gird]4 ,x is que/ionable :e!r1 by divid+ ! rail1 p>ticul>ly :5 x is done horizontally1 we d n prev5t ! mutual ext5sile & compressive actions :i* ought to h place 9 ! top & bottom2 = we _c make ! bolts p]fectly tight because ( expansion4 ,"s ( ! comp\nd rails :i* h be5 laid 9 ,am]ica h giv5 good results1 o!rs h n4 ,mr4 ,w4 ,b4 ,adams obs]ves1 t a compress$ rail to be z /rong z a sixty p\nd :ole rail1 mu/ weigh n9ety lbs4 p] y>d4 ,"s eng9e]s h propos$ su* a rail t :5 "o side becomes worn x may be turn$ ov] s t ! l[] may become ! upp] table4 ,?is is q wrong 9 pr9ciple2 z :5 ! l[] fibres h be5 subject$ = "s "t to ext5sion1 !y are entirely unfitt$ to oppose compression4 ,,( ,,! ,,life ,,( ,,rails4 #bhh4 ,! "t :i* a rail w la/1 dep5ds ^u ! =m & weight1 & on ! quality ( ! iron2 & ^u ! numb]1 weight1 & spe$ ( eng9es & c>s pass+ ov] x4 ,,note4--,! effect ( quality is altoge!r too little reg>d$ 9 ,am]ica4 ,h[ wor?y ( att5tion x is may be se5 by ! foll[+4 ,^u ! same road 7 us$ two k9ds ( sev5ty-two p\nd rails1 ea* five in*es deep1 & hav+ a be>+ surface ( #b4g in*es 9 wid?4 ,! "o 0 worn out ) a tonnage ( #da1jjj1jjj tons1 ! o!r ( #bb1jjj1jjj tons2 ! diff]5ce be+ entirely 9 ! quality ( ! iron4 ,^u ! ,philadelphia & ,read+ ,railroad !re h be5 us$ =ty-five p\nd rails ( reheat$ & ref9$ iron1 :i* h la/$ = eighte5 ye>s2 & t ) a v heavy traffic ^u !m4 ,:ile ^u o!r ,am]ican roads1 ,engli% sixty p\nd rails h requir$ r5ew+ 9 "o1 two1 ?ree1 & f\r ye>s4 ,! durability ( rails is practically indep5d5t ( "t1 & dep5ds entirely ^u ! am\nt ( "w done4 ,! repairs ( iron1 dep5d+ ^u flaws & o!r physical defects1 w be great] at ! comm5cem5t ( op]ations ?an aft]w>ds4 ,aft] ! fir/ "o or two ye>s ! regul> depreciation beg9s4 ,! fir/ ,liv]pool & ,man*e/] rail weigh$ ?irty-five lbs4 p] y>d1 & ! locomotive sev5 & a half tons4 ,z ! traffic increas$1 s did ! necess>y weight ( eng9es1 & a correspond+ increase 9 ! /r5g? & weight ( rails 0 also r5d]$ necess>y4 ,9 #ahca1 ! av]age weight ( eng9es ) t5d]s 0 eighte5 tons4 ,9 #ahee1 ! maximum eng9e ) t5d]1 fuel1 & wat] weigh$ sixty tons2 & 9 l mann] ! rails increas$ f ?irty-five to eighty-five lbs4 p] y>d4 ,messrs4 ,/eph5son & ,locke1 9 a report to ! ,london & ,nor?-we/]n ,railroad ,company1 9 #ahdi1 recomm5d ! adoption 9 future ( an eighty-five lb4 rail4 ,^u ! roads ( ,belgium are us$ rails ( fifty-five & sixty-f\r lbs4 p] y>d2 b x is ass]t$ t an eighty lb4 rail w\ld all[ ( t5 times m traffic4 ,= ! av]age ( ,am]ican roads1 :5 ! iron is good1 79 quality17 fifty-five1 sixty1 & at mo/ sixty-five lbs41 w probably be f\nd ample = ! heavie/ traffic3 ! rail be+ ( ! =m already giv51 & support$ on ties n m ?an two & a half feet f c5tre to c5tre4 ,mr4 ,belpaire1 7( ! ,belgium eng9e]s17 concludes1 f _m exp]im5ts1 t 9 sixty miles1 ea* eng9e abrades #b4b lbs42 ea* empty c> #d oz42 & ea* ton ( load #a4d oz42 ! am\nts be+ 9 direct ratio to ! sev]al weights4 ,capta9 ,hui%1 ( ! ,london & ,nor?-we/]n ,railroad1 7,engl&17 e/imates 7,report ( ,april1 #ahdi7 t fifty tra9s p] day1 or #ah1bej tra9s p] annum1 = tw5ty ye>s1 w\ld we> out a sev5ty lb4 rail4 ,! ,belgian eng9e]s h conclud$ t #c1jjj tra9s p] annum1 = "o hundr$ & tw5ty ye>s1 w\ld we> out a fifty-five lb4 rail4 ,n[ #abj #c1jjj #cfj1jjj ,belgian1 & #bj #ah1bej #cfe1jjj ,engli%1 a v satisfactory co9cid5ce1 z ! diff]5t obs]v]s did n "k ( ea* o!r's proce$+s4 ,! diff]5ce1 #e1jjj tra9s1 be+ acc\nt$ = by ! use ( heavi] eng9es ^u ! roads ( ,engl&4 ,f ! above results ! foll[+ table is =m$1 %[+ ! life ( rails "u f two to "o hundr$ tra9s p] day4 ,am]ican roads be+ less nicely f9i%$1 z reg>ds ! road-b$1 w ( c\rse we> out rails fa/] ?an ! roads ( ,europe4 ,! table w s]ve z a base = e/imates4 ,tra9s p] day4 ,tra9s p] ye>4 ,no4 ( ye>s' life ( rails4 #b #fjj #fjd #d #a1bjj #cjb #f #a1hjj #bja #h #b1djj #aea #aj #c1jjj #aba #ab #c1fjj #ajj #ad #d1bjj #hf #af #d1hjj #ge #ah #e1djj #fg #bj #f1jjj #fj #cj #i1jjj #dj #dj #ab1jjj #cj #fj #ah1jjj #bj #hj #bd1jjj #ae #ajj #cj1jjj #ab ,probably "o half ( ! above numb]s ( ye>s w\ld %[ ! full life ( rails ^u ,am]ican roads4 ,z ^? rails :i* are mo/ us$ we> out ! soone/1 !y %\ld be made accord+ly heavi]4 ,su* are ^? at depot gr\nds & at sid+s4 ,,note4--,f ! reports ( ! ,read+ 7,p5n47 ,railroad x appe>s t 9 #ahdf #aec_/bji ( ! damag$ rails 7 split2 & t 9 #ahde #bhe_/bie 7 split4 ,z reg>ds ! quality ( railroad iron1 x is g5]ally notori\sly bad1 & its mak]s "k x z well z ^? :o buy x4 ,railroad companies are n will+ to pay = good iron4 ,comp>isons betwe5 ,am]ican & ,engli% iron am\nt to little4 ,fir/ rate iron c be made 9 ,engl& or 9 ,am]ica1 & s c t :i* w la/ ab\t two ye>s4 ,"t w conv9ce companies t ! mo/ exp5sive iron is ! *eape/4 ,,table ,,( ,,! ,,weight ,,p] ,,mile ,,( ,,diff]5t ,,rails4 ,weight 9 lbs4 ,tons p] mile4 ,tons p] mile4 p] y>d4 7#b1jjj lbs47 7#b1bdj lbs47 #ej #dd4jj #ci4bi #ee #dh4jj #dc4ba #fj #eb4hj #dg4ai #fb #ed4ef #dh4ga #fd #ef4cb #ej4bh #ff #eh4je #ea4hf #fh #ei4hd #ec4dc #gj #fa4fj #ee4jj #gb #fc4cf #ef4eg #gd #fe4ab #eh4ad #gf #ff4hh #ei4ga #gh #fh4fd #fa4bh #hj #gj4dj #fb4hf ,,track-,,lay+4 #bhi4 ,z wr\ght iron exp&s #j4jjjjjfh ( its l5g? p] degree 7,fahr5heit7 ( heat1 a *ange ( #acj w cause ! foll[+ expansions3-- ,9 a #ae feet rail 4#jace ft4 ,9 a #ah feet rail 4#jafb ft4 ,9 a #bj feet rail 4#jagf ft4 & t ! track may be kept 9 ! "r v]tical & horizontal l9e1 rails laid 9 cold wea!r mu/ n be plac$ 9 contact2 b sep>at$ by space en\gh to all[ expansion to take place4 ,9 hot wea!r !y may be plac$ close toge!r4 ,call+ #ajj ! maximum & -#cj ! m9imum1 we =m ! foll[+ table = ! av]age l5g?s ( rail1 7#bj feet74 ,at #ajj place ! rails 9 contact4 #ij at a di/ance ( 4#jjacf feet 4#jaf in*es4 #hj at a di/ance ( 4#jjbgb feet 4#jcb in*es4 #gj at a di/ance ( 4#jjdjh feet 4#jdi in*es4 #fj at a di/ance ( 4#jjedd feet 4#jfe in*es4 #ej at a di/ance ( 4#jjfhj feet 4#jhb in*es4 #dj at a di/ance ( 4#jjhaf feet 4#jib in*es4 #cj at a di/ance ( 4#jjieb feet 4#aad in*es4 #bj at a di/ance ( 4#jajhh feet 4#aca in*es4 #aj at a di/ance ( 4#jabbd feet 4#adg in*es4 #j at a di/ance ( 4#jacfj feet 4#afc in*es4 -#aj at a di/ance ( 4#jadif feet 4#agi in*es4 -#bj at a di/ance ( 4#jafcb feet 4#aif in*es4 -#cj at a di/ance ( 4#jagfh feet 4#bab in*es4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #adj4 ,! prop] di/ance ( rails may be fix$ by ! use ( ! /eel plates %[n 9 figs4 #adj & #adj ,a1 :i* are m>k$ ) ! temp]ature1 accord+ to _! ?ickness1 z 9 ! above table4 ,to incl9e ! rail base may be us$1 :5 ! rail is n bevell$1 w$ges "o foot long & six in*es wide1 spik$ ) ! rail to ! tie4 ,:5 ! *airs are ( ca/-iron1 !y may be ca/ to ! requir$ slope4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #adj ,a4 ,,frogs4 #bij4 ,:5 "o l9e ( rail crosses ano!r1 a contrivance call$ a frog is us$2 see figs4 #ada & #adb4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ada4 ,t ! :eel may run smoo?ly f a to c1 fig4 #ada1 ! rail b f mu/ be cut at ,d1 & ! rail a c mu/ be cut at ! same po9t4 ,cutt+ ! two gives ! =m %[n 9 ! figure1 & fur!r develop$ 9 fig4 #adb4 ,9 ord] t ! flange ( ! :eel %all n leave ! l9e a c1 :5 at ! break ,d1 ! gu>d rail m m is us$ to conf9e ! opposite :eel4 ,x %\ld be plac$ at a di/ance ( two in*es f1 & p>allel )1 ! ma9 rail g g1 f opposite six in*es bel[ ! frog po9t at s1 to six in*es above ! %\ld] at s4 ,f ! ends ( ! p>allel l9e n n ! gu>d rail %\ld g5tly curve away at bo? ends4 ,?us ! :eel w be gradually br\ght into ! "r l9e1 kept s until ! break 9 ! rail is pass$1 & f9ally easily releas$4 ,to place & ma9ta9 ! gu>d rail 9 ! "r position1 x is well to put bo? x & ! ma9 rail into a d\ble *air1 :i* is spik$ to ! sleep]4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #adb4 ,! =m & dim5sions ( ! ca/-iron frog dep5ds ^u ! angle at :i* ! cutt+ rails cross1 & ^u ! size ( ! :eel tire4 ,to draw ! frog1 proce$ z foll[s3-- ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #adb ,a4 ,let a c b be ! angle4 ,p>allel ) & two in*es f b c draw d e1 e be+ 9 a c produc$4 ,9 ! same mann] fix ! po9t g4 ,at ! wid? ( ! rail head 7f #b to #b in*es7 draw1 p>allel to a c1 ,l #h4 ,! po9t #h is ! limit to ! solid /eel4 ,at d\ble ! rail wid?1 or #d in*es1 draw1 also1 p>allel to a c1 #af4 #f2 #e4 #f is ! limit ( ! flat /eel1 g5]ally ab\t half an in* 9 ?ickness4 ,?is is ! lea/ am\nt ( /eel all[able2 x is be/ to /eel ! :ole tongue1 & all ( t "p ( ! w+s act$ ^u by ! :eels4 ,! geometric po9t is g5]ally v ?91 & is omitt$ to a di/ance f> en\gh back to make ! po9t a ?ird or half an in* wide1 :i* is r\nd$ (f2 e ,l & d k are made two & a half in*es2 z also f m & g n2 k #aj & m #aa are made six or sev5 in*es1 & jo9$ to d & f by a curve1 abrupt at fir/1 b aft]w>ds m g5tle4 ,! di/ances1 #e a & #f b mu/ be su* t a #i is ?ree & "o eigh? in*es1 7dep5d+ ^u ! bread? ( rail base17 o m is f ?ree to f\r in*es4 ,at ! o!r end ( ! frog e h mu/ be en\gh to make s t at lea/ an in*1 :5 e h & i g are f ?ree to f\r in*es2 i m be+1 z at ! o!r end1 ?ree or f\r in*es4 ,! /eel plates ,n ,n are "o half in* 9 ?ickness4 ,! surface1 ,n1 is two in*es above ! bottom1 ,m4 ,! l[] plate1 ,m1 is two in*es ?ick4 ,a ,b1 ,c ,d1 & ,e ,f are six or sev5 in*es wide1 & "o in* ?ick4 ,! spike holes #aa_/af squ>e1 ! spike be+ "o half in*4 ,! %>p edges1 i g1 e h1 a c1 b c1 %\ld be r\nd$ (f to fit ! :eel at ,a1 fig4 #adb ,a4 ,! surface ( ! tongue ,n #i %\ld be =m$ to a d\ble incl9e to fit ! :eel cone4 ,,note4--,fig4 #adb ,a gives ! %ape & dim5sions ( ! l>ge/ tires4 ,ano!r me?od ( mak+ a frog is to cut & weld ! rails a & b ( ! track1 z 9 fig4 #adc4 ,! cont9uations ( ^! rails are b5t z %[n 9 ! figure4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #adc4 ,! :ole angle is plac$ ^u a firm wood5 be>+4 ,!re is no weak] "p ( ! track ?an ! frog4 ,to make up ! /r5g? at su* places a heavy longitud9al timb] twelve feet long w answ] a good end4 ,,swit*es4 #bia4 ,! object ( ! swit* is to adju/ a s+le l9e ( rails to two or m pairs1 s t any two l9es may be made cont9u\s4 ,! =m 9 g5]al use consi/s ( two rails1 z at a b1 a b1 fig4 #add1 mov+ ^u a & a z c5tres4 ,"h ! tang5t po9t ( ! turn\t curve is at c4 ,! data giv5 = ! swit* are ! l5g? ( swit* rail & ! motion at ! toe 7c7 7:i* det]m9e ! direction ( ! />t+ tang5t7 & ! radius ( curvature ( ! turn\t curve4 ,! requir$ elem5ts are1 ! angle ( frog at b & ! di/ance f a to ! po9t ( ! frog4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #add4 ,! foll[+ =mula & table are by ,josiah ,hunt1 ,esq41 7at pres5t *ief eng9e] ( ! ,hannibal & ,/4 ,joseph ,railroad1 ,mo474 ,! =mula 0 fir/ publi%$ 9 ,appleton's ,me*anics' ,magaz9e1 vol4 #a1 p4 #ege4 ,d #b7;g - s7 7cot4 ,s cot4 ,f7_/7cot4 ,s cot4 ,f74 ,:]e ,s angle ( swit*4 ,f angle ( frog4 s ! movem5t4 g ! gauge4 ,example4--,h[ f> f ! toe ( ! swit* is ! po9t ( ! frog1 ! gauge be+ #d #h1 ! rail tw5ty feet long1 & mov+ five in*es2 ! frog be+ six feet long1 six in*es wide across ! head1 & ?ree in*es at ! m\?8 ,we h ,d #b7d4gjh - 4#dag7 7#bdj_/e #gb_/7f #c77_/7bdj_/e #gb_/7f #c77 or1 ,d #h4ehb 7#dh #h7_/7dh #h7 #eh4he feet4 ,9 lay+ ! rails1 ! di/ance f ! po9t to ! end ( ! frog 7t[>ds ! swit*7 is to be tak5 f ! above4 ,table %[+ ! di/ance betwe5 ! frog & swit*1 gauge #d #h1 movem5t ( swit*-rail five in*es4 ,frog six in*es across head1 & ?ree in*es at m\?4 ,ma9 track be+ /raight4 ,l5g? ( frog4 ,,l5g? ,,( ,,swit* ,,rail4 #ab #ad #af #ah #bj #bb #c #bi4abi4gcj4acj4dcj4gcj4i #c #cc4ccd4jcd4ece4jce4cce4f #d #cg4cch4bch4hci4dci4hdj4b #d #da4adb4bdc4jdc4gdd4cdd4g #e #dd4hdf4adg4adg4idh4edi4a #e #dh4cdi4hea4jea4ieb4gec4b #f #ea4gec4ded4hee4ief4heg4f #f #ee4jef4ieh4eei4hfj4hfa4g #g #eh4afj4cfb4afc4dfd4gfe4g #g #fa4bfc4ffe4ffg4bfh4efi4f #bib4 ,:5 ! swit* rail is %ort1 ! angle betwe5 ! ma9 l9e & ! swit* rail1 :5 swit*$1 is consid]able2 & causes q a %ock to ! pass+ eng9e4 ,! swit* %[n 9 fig4 #ade rem$ies ! evil1 makes ! ma*9]y compact1 & ! calculation simple4 ,! tang5t po9t ( ! turn\t curve is at n n 7! usual heel74 ,9 place ( adju/+ ! s+le to ! d\ble l9e ( rails1 ! d\ble is adju/$ to ! s+le l9e4 ,! data giv5 are ! gauge & radius ( curve2 & z be=e1 ! elem5ts requir$ ! frog angle & di/ance f swit* to frog po9t4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ade4 ,n[ ,rad4#b - 7,rad4 less gauge7#b di/ance#b1 or ,r#b - 7,r - g7#b ,d#b1 & ,d 7,r#b - 7,r - g7#b74 ,! angle ( frog is also ,s9 angle ( frog 7,s9 #ij log ,d7_/7log ,r74 ,! l5g? ( ?is swit* rail dep5ds ^u ! radius ( curvature4 ,! di/ance betwe5 ! two rails at ,s mu/ be en\gh to admit ! :eel flange1 t is1 at lea/ two in*es4 ,let ,a ,b1 fig4 #adf1 be ! /raight rail2 ,e ,d ! curv$ "o4 ,draw ,g ,h p>allel ) & two in*es di/ant f ! inn] edge ( ,a ,b4 ,no po9t ( ! curv$ rail mu/ fall )9 ,g ,h2 :5ce ,e is ! turn+-po9t1 & ,e ,d ! l5g?1 f\nd z foll[s4 ,let ,r equal ! radius ( curve to outside ( out] rail2 d equal two in*es plus wid? ( rail1 or i e1 & ,d equal ,d ,e4 ,!n ,d 7,r#b - 7,r - d7#b74 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #adf4 ,example4--,let ! radius ( out] rail be five hundr$ feet1 & ! gauge five feet4 ,we h1 !n1 ! di/ance 7,a47 ,d 7#ejjb - #dieb7 #gb feet1 v ne>ly4 ,also1 ,s9 ,e ,c ,d 7,s9 #ij log ,d7_/7log ,r71 7,b47 or 7,s9 #ij log #gb7_/7log #ejj7 #h #ag1 & ! l5g? ( swit* 7,c47 7#ejjb - #dii4feb7 #ah feet ne>ly4 ,five hundr$ feet is1 !re=e1 ab\t ! longe/ radius = :i* su* swit*es %\ld be us$4 ,,sid+s ,,& ,,cross+s4 ,cross+s occur :]e two tracks cross1 & consi/ ( f\r frogs1 ) ! correspond+ gu>d rails1 z 9 fig4 #adg4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #adg4 ,,elevation ,,( ,,! ,,ext]ior ,,rail4 #bic4 ,! motion ( a tra9 ( c>s ar\nd a curve is accompani$ by a tang5tial =ce1 dep5d+ 9 am\nt ^u ! velocity ( ! tra9 & ! radius ( curvature4 ,?is =ce t5ds to ?r[ ! c>s f ! track2 & is c\nt]act$ by elevat+ ! ext]ior rail4 ,! c5trifugal =ce ( any body 9 motion 9 a curv$ l9e is %[n by ! =mula 7,,wv#b7_/7cb,r74 ,:]e ,w is ! weight 9 lbs4 ,v ! velocity 9 feet p] second4 ,r ! radius ( curvature1 & #cb ! accel]at+ =ce ( gravity4 ,! =ce t5d+ to ?r[ ! c> f ! rail is n c5trifugal b tang5tial1 b x matt]s n :e!r ! body is kept 9 position by t5sion ^u ! inside or by compression on ! outside2 ! am\nt ( ! =ce is ! same4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #adh4 ,! horizontal projection ( ! c5tre ( gravity ( ! c>1 :5 at re/1 is at c1 fig4 #adh1 & :5 9 motion ! direction ( ! weight %\ld be a b2 & ! incl9ation1 c a b1 mu/ be su* t a b w be p]p5dicul> to c a2 to effect :i*1 c b %\ld be to a b z ! weight to ! tang5tial =ce2 or ,e be+ ! elevation ( ! rail1 g ! gauge1 ,w ! weight1 & c ! tang5tial =ce2 we h ,e 3 g 33 c 3 ,w1 or ,e 7cg7_/,w1 & c be+ 7,,wv#b7_/7cb,r72 f9ally ,e 77,,wv#b7_/7cb,r77g_/,w or 7,v#b;g7_/7#cb,r7 ,e4 ,:]e ,w weight ( a c>4 ,v spe$ ( tra9 9 feet p] second4 g gauge ( road4 ,r radius ( curve4 ,e elevation ( out] rail 9 feet & decimals4 g & ,r are ! only fix$ quantities 9 ! =mula2 & ! av]age weight & spe$ ( a c> mu/ be assum$4 ,exam9ation ( ! =mula %[s h[ important x is t all tra9s %\ld run at su* a velocity z to dem& ! same elevation ( rail4 ,! absolute elevation mu/ be arrang$ to meet ! requirem5t ( ! fa/e/ tra9s2 & o!r tra9s mu/ con=m1 ev5 at a disadvantage4 ,,note4--,! subject ( ! me*anics ( trav]s+ railroad curves1 is yet q 9 ! d>k4 ,! action ( ! tra91 z caus$ by its own mom5tum1 is tang5tial2 :ile ! action ( ! eng9e t5ds to pull ! c>s aga9/ ! inn] rail1 be+ oppos$ to ! fir/ motion4 ,?is might require a r$uction ( ! elevation giv5 by ! =mula :5 ! eng9e is ex]t+ a /rong tractive p[]1 b :5 runn+ )\t /eam ! full elevation is ne$$1 7see *apt] ,,iii47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #adi4 ,9 lay+ & ma9ta9+ ! rails to ! prop] elevation1 a cl9omet] atta*$ to a rail gauge1 z 9 fig4 #adi1 answ]s a good end3 ! small arc be+ graduat$ accord+ to ! diff]5t elevations requir$ by curves ( diff]5t radii4 ,?us ! index ( ! level be+ plac$ at #b1 :5 ! rails are fitt$ to ,a & ,b1 ! elevation is correct = a #b curve2 or = a curve ( #b1hfe feet radius4 ,! diff]5ce 9 gauge ( "o foot makes a diff]5ce 9 ! elevation ( b #j4jji feet1 or ab\t ( an in*4 ,! foll[+ table is calculat$ = ! av]age ( ! diff]5t gauges 9 use1 ?us1-- #d4g #e4j #e4e #f4j ------------ #d7ba4b ------------ ,av]age gauge1 #e4c feet4 ,,table ,,( ,,elevation ,,( ,,out] ,,rail4 ,radius ( curve ,,elevation ,,( ,,out] ,,rail ,,9 ,,feet ,,& ,,decimals1 ,,! 9 feet1 be+ ,,velocity ,,9 ,,miles ,,p] ,,h\r ,,be+ #aj4 #ae4 #bj4 #be4 #cj4 #dj4 #bej 4#acj #ejj 4#jgj #a1jjj 4#jcg 4#jgi #b1jjj 4#jah 4#jdj 4#jgd 4#aaa #c1jjj 4#jac 4#jbf 4#jdh 4#jgd 4#ajf #d1jjj 4#jji 4#jbj 4#jcg 4#jeh 4#jgi 4#aed #e1jjj 4#jjg 4#jaf 4#jca 4#jde 4#jfe 4#aai #f1jjj 4#jjf 4#jac 4#jbd 4#jcg 4#jec 4#jie #g1jjj 4#jje 4#jaa 4#jba 4#jcc 4#jdf 4#jhf #h1jjj 4#jjd 4#jaj 4#jah 4#jbi 4#jci 4#jgg #aj1jjj 4#jjc 4#jjh 4#jaj 4#jbb 4#jcb 4#jei ,,*apt] ,,xiv4 ,,equipm5t4 ,,"p ,i4 ,,locomotives4 ,z ! locomotive eng9e is ! p[] by :i* railroads are work$1 & z its proportions & dim5sions are s intimately connect$ ) ! physical "* ( ! road1 x is ?\ght prop] to take space en\gh at ?is po9t to exam9e ! g5]al pr9ciples ( its con/ruction1 & ( its adaptation to ! "w requir$ ( x ^u railroads4 ,"u ! g5]al pr9ciples1 we recognize ! production & consumption ( /eam1 ! disposition ( weight ^u ! sev]al pairs ( :eels :i* %all secure ! necess>y adhesion1 ! application ( ! p[] g5]at$ 9 ! boil] to ! mov+ ( ! :eels1 & t g5]al arrangem5t ( p>ts :i* %all r5d] ! use ( p[] economical4 ,,bir? ,,& ,,gr[? ,,( ,,! ,,locomotive4 #bid4 ,! fir/ idea ( ! application ( /eam to locomotion1 is due to ! un=tunate ,solomon de ,caus1 ( ,norm&y 7,france71 :o 0 conf9$ 9 a madh\se = insi/+ t /eam c\ld be made to move :eel$ c>riages4 #bie4 ,9 ! ye> #aghd1 ,william ,murdo*1 ! fri5d & assi/ant ( ,james ,watt1 built a non-cond5s+ /eam locomotive eng9e1 on a scale ( ab\t "o in* p] foot1 hav+ ,cyl9d]s1 #b in*es1 ,:eels1 #i in*es1 & ,weight1 #aj lbs4 ,?is little eng9e1 h[ev]1 accompli%$ ! spe$ ( t5 miles p] h\r4 #bif4 ,9 #ahjb1 ,ri*>d ,treve?ick pat5t$ ! application ( ! non-cond5s+ /eam-eng9e to ! propell+ ( c>riages on railroads2 8 eng9e 0 fitt$ ) "o horizontal cyl9d]1 :i* appli$ its p[] to ! :eels by means ( spur ge>4 #big4 ,9 #ahbe1 ! truck 0 fir/ appli$1 to relieve ! driv+ :eels ( a "p ( ! weight1 & to enable ! eng9e to pass freely ar\nd curves4 #bih4 ,9 #ahbg1 ,timo?y ,hackwor? appli$ ! bla/ pipe1 = ! purpose ( draft4 ,he appli$1 also1 spr+ balances to ! safety-valves1 & us$ ! wa/e /eam to heat ! fe$ wat]4 ,?is eng9e drew "o hundr$ tons1 at five miles p] h\r1 & =ty-five tons on a fifty feet grade4 #bii4 ,9 #ahbh1 ,m4 ,segu9 7,france7 introduc$ ! multitubul> boil]4 #cjj4 ,9 #ahbi1 ! directors ( ! ,liv]pool & ,man*e/] ,railroad (f]$ a premium = ! be/ locomotive1 :i* %\ld draw ?ree times its own weight1 at t5 miles miles p] h\r4 ,! 8,rocket10 by ,rob]t ,/eph5son1 ( ,newca/le on ,tyne1 0 ! successful competitor1 & drew ! load requir$1 sev5ty miles1 at an av]age spe$ ( #ac4h miles p] h\r2 its maximum velocity 0 tw5ty-n9e miles p] h\r2 x evaporat$ #e4d lbs4 ( wat] p] p\nd ( coke1 & #ah4bd cubic feet p] h\r ( wat]4 #cja4 ,f #ahcj to #ahdj1 ! *anges t 7 made 7 r ^? ( dim5sion1 proportion1 & arrangem5t1 ?an ( ess5tial elem5ts ( /eam produc+4 #cjb4 ,9 #ahdj1 sev]al truck frame eng9es 7 s5t to ,engl& f ! ,norris ,works ( ,philadelphia4 ,^! locomotives w\ld draw a load ( "o hundr$ & tw5ty tons ov] a sixte5 feet grade1 at ! rate ( tw5ty miles p] h\r4 #cjc4 ,9 #ahde1 ! ,great ,we/]n ,railroad1 ( ,engl&1 0 suppli$ ) an eng9e ( tw5ty-two tons weight1 hav+ cyl9d]s #ae #ah1 :eels #g feet1 heat+ surface #hbi squ>e feet4 ,?is locomotive c>ri$ sev5ty-six & "o half tons at a velocity ( fifty-n9e miles p] h\r4 ,! consumption ( coke 0 #ce4c lbs4 p] mile1 & ( wat]1 #bja4e cubic feet p] h\r4 ,,! ,,engli% ,,locomotive ,,( #ahej4 #cjd4 ,! 8ne plus ultra0 = ! sev5 feet gauge 7,great ,we/]n ,railway7 by ,goo*1 has inside cyl9d]s #ah #bd in*es1 "o pair ( eight feet driv+ :eels1 grate area tw5ty-"o squ>e feet4 ,fire-box surface1 "o hundr$ & fifty-?ree feet4 ,?ree hundr$ & five two in* tubes1 giv+ #a1gii feet ( surface4 ,total heat+ surface1 #a1ieb squ>e feet4 ,weight ( eng9e1 empty1 ?irty-"o tons2 ( t5d]1 eight & "o half tons2 :ole weight ) wood & wat]1 fifty tons4 ,evaporat+ p[]1 ?ree hundr$ cubic feet ( wat] p] h\r4 ,?is eng9e c draw two hundr$ & ?irty-six tons1 at =ty miles p] h\r4 ,! maximum = ! ,london & ,nor?-we/]n ,railroad1 f\r feet1 eight & "o half in*es gauge 7,crampton's pat5t71 has cyl9d]s #ah #bd in*es2 :eels1 eight feet2 two hundr$ two & ?ree sixte5?s in* 7outside diamet]7 tubes2 grate1 tw5ty-"o & "o half squ>e feet2 fire surface1 "o hundr$ & fifty-f\r feet2 tube surface1 #b1acf feet2 :ole heat+ surface1 #b1bij squ>e feet2 weight1 load$1 ?irty-five tons2 twelve tons ^u driv+ :eels2 t5d]1 tw5ty-"o tons1 load$2 :ole weight1 fifty-six tons4 ,,! ,,am]ican ,,locomotive ,,( #ahee4 #cje4 ,! eng9e 8,*>les ,ellet1 ,jr410 drew on ! #i? ( ,augu/1 #ahed1 =ty tons1 ov] a grade ( two hundr$ & sev5ty-five feet p] mile1 & ov] grades ( two hundr$ & ?irty-eight feet1 ^u curves ( ?ree hundr$ feet radius4 ,?is eng9e has :eels f\r & "o half feet 9 diamet] c\pl$ sev5 feet ap>t2 cyl9d]s #ad #bf in*es2 & weighs1 includ+ wood & wat]1 #ec1jeh lbs4 ,?is is a tank locomotive1 ! t5d] is disp5s$ )1 & 9 its room a tank conta9+ "o hundr$ cubic feet ( wat]1 & "o cord ( wood is us$4 ,?is eng9e 0 built by ,ri*>d ,norris & ,son4 ,an eng9e built by ! ,cuyahoga ,/eam ,furnace ,co4 ( ,clevel&1 ,ohio1 p]=m$ ! foll[+ feat4 ,an ord9>y pass5g] tra9 0 c>ri$ "o hundr$ & "o miles1 ov] a total asc5t ( #a1bee feet ( grades1 mak+ tw5ty /ops1 at an av]age spe$ ( tw5ty-five miles p] h\r1 ) a consumption ( only n9ety cubic feet ( wood4 ,! same eng9e drew an av]age load ( ?ree & "o ?ird c>s f\r hundr$ & ?irty miles1 mak+ sev5ty-five /ops1 surm\nt+ a total asc5t ( #e1dci feet1 av]ag+ tw5ty-five miles p] h\r1 ) "o t5d] full ( wood only4 ,9 ! mon?s ( ,july & ,augu/1 #ahef1 two eng9es ^u ! ,pacific ,railroad 7,miss\ri71 "o by ,r4 ,k4 & ,g41 & "o by ,palm ,rob]tson1 ran ea* "o hundr$ & tw5ty-five miles1 ) ?ree pass5g] & "o baggage c>s1 us+ only "o cord ( wood4 ,,note4--,= an int]e/+ example ( :at c be done by ! ,am]ican locomotive1 & an illu/ration ( eng9e]+ peculi>ly ,am]ican1 ! read] is ref]r$ to a description ( ! 8,m\nta9 top track0 at ! ,rock-fi% ,gap cross+ ( ! ,blue ,ridge 7,va471 by ! ,virg9ia ,c5tral ,railroad1 giv5 by ! eng9e] "u ^: direction ! "w 0 propos$ & execut$ 7,*>les ,ellet1 ,esq471 f :i* is extract$ ! foll[+3-- 8,! ea/]n slope is #ab1ejj feet long1 & rises #faj feet2 ! av]age grade be+ #begd_/aj feet1 & ! maximum #biefh_/ajj feet p] mile4 ,! lea/ radius ( curvature #bcd feet2 ^u :i* curve ! grade is #bcgf_/aj feet p] mile4 ,! we/]n slope is #aj1fej feet long1 & falls #dej feet2 ! av]age grade be+ #bbc1 & ! range #bgihd_/ajj feet p] mile4 8,! eng9es1 :i* h tak5 loads rang+ f tw5ty-five to fifty tons up "o slope at sev5 & "o half miles p] h\r1 & d[n ! opposite "o at six miles p] h\r1 mak+ f\r trips ( eight miles p] day = ?ree ye>s1 7 design$ & built by ,m4 ,w4 ,baldw9 ,co41 ,philadelphia1 & h ?ree pair ( =ty-two in* :eels all c\pl$1 ! flange base be+ #i #d1 cyl9d]s #af #bj in*es1 weigh1 ) wood & wat]1 #ee1jjj lbs41 or tw5ty-sev5 & "o half tons4 ,!y run )\t a t5d]1 ! eng9e c>ry+ its own fe$2 ?us ga9+ ! d\ble advantage ( increas+ ! adhesion ( ! eng9e1 & avoid+ ! resi/ance ( a t5d]40 ,,g5]al ,,description4 #cjf4 ,! locomotive is a non-cond5s+1 high pressure eng9e1 work+ at a great] or less degree ( expansion1 accord+ to ! labor to be p]=m$1 & plac$ ^u :eels :i* are s connect$ ) ! pi/on1 t any motion ( ! latt] is communicat$ to ! =m]1 by :i* ! :ole is mov$4 ,! p[] ex]t$ 9 ! cyl9d] & ref]r$ to ! circumf]5ce ( ! driv+ :eel1 is call$ traction2 its am\nt dep5ds ^u ! cyl9d] diamet] & /eam pressure1 ^u ! diamet] ( :eel & /roke1 ?is latt] be+ ! di/ance betwe5 ! :eel c5tre & po9t ( application ( p[]4 ,! means by :i* ! 8traction0 is r5d]$ available = mov+ ! eng9e & its load1 is ! resi/ance :i* ! :eel (f]s to slipp+ on ! rail1 or its bite1 & is call$ adhesion2 x is directly z ! weight appli$ to ! :eels1 b dep5ds also ^u ! /ate ( ! rails4 ,x v>ies f no?+1 :5 !re is ice on ! rail1 to "o fif? ( ! weight ^u ! driv+ :eels :5 ! rail is clean & dry1 & 9 "s cases has rea*$ z high z ne>ly "o ?ird4 ,x %\ld be en\gh to resi/ ! maximum =ce ( traction1 t is1 ! :eel %\ld n slip :5 ! eng9e is do+ its greate/ "w4 ,/eam produc+1 ,traction1 & ,adhesion1 are ! ?ree elem5ts :i* det]m9e ! ability ( an eng9e to p]=m "w4 ,! proportions & dim5sions ( ! ma*9e dep5d ^u ! duty requir$ ( x2 suffici5t adhesion = a requir$ effect %\ld be obta9$ r by a prop] di/ribution1 ?an by increase ( weight4 ,fig4 #aej %[s ! relative position ( p>ts 9 ! locomotive eng9e z at pres5t con/ruct$ 9 ,am]ica4 #a #b1 ,grate ^u :i* ! fuel is plac$4 #a #b #c #d1 ,int]ior fire-box4 #e #f1 ,ext]ior fire-box4 #g #g #h #h1 ,%ell ( ! boil]4 #i #i1 ,boil] flues4 #aj #aa #ab #ac1 ,exhau/ *amb]1 or smoke box4 #ad1 ,/eam dome1 entrance to /eam pipe4 #ae1 ,/eam pipe4 #af1 ,pi/on4 #ah1 ,pi/on rod4 #ai1 ,connect+ rod4 #bj1 ,crank4 #ba1 ,driv+ :eel4 #bb1 ,bla/ pipe4 #bc1 ,*imney4 #bg #bh1 ,lead+ :eels1 support+ ! front end ( ! eng9e1 turn+ on a swivel1 #bi4 #cj1 8,bl[ (f0 safety-valve4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aej4 #cjg4 ,! op]ation ( g5]at+ & apply+ /eam = ! production ( motion is z foll[s3-- ,! boil] & ! space betwe5 ! two fire-boxes be+ fill$ ) wat]1 7high en\gh at lea/ to cov] ! flues & ! top ( ! inn] box17 fire is appli$ to ! fuel plac$ ^u ! grate2 ! heat :i* fills ! fire-box & tubes1 is communicat$ to ! wat] & conv]ts ! same to /eam2 :i* ent]+ ! m\? ( ! pipe1 #ae1 fl[s to ! cyl9d]1 :]e x =ces ! pi/on to ! end ( ! /roke4 ,?is motion is transf]r$ ?r\gh ! connect+ rods & cranks to ! :eels1 :i* revolv+1 move ! eng9e ^u ! rails4 ,at ! same "t ! ecc5trics1 plac$ ^u ! driv+ axle1 give a motion to ! valve ge>1 & !nce to ! valves1 by :i* ! admission ( /eam is /opp$ at ! fir/ end ( ! cyl9d]1 & comm5c$ at ! o!r4 ,! volume ( /eam :i* ent]$ dur+ ! fir/ half /roke is =c$ out ( ! cyl9d] by ! return+ pi/on1 up ! bla/ pipe1 & out at ! *imney1 :]e a vacuum is produc$1 :i* c be suppli$ ) air only f ! *amb] #aj #aa #ab #ac2 aft] a few /rokes ! air is exhau/$ f ! *amb]1 :i* c be refill$ only by ! ext]nal air drawn ?r\gh ! fuel1 furnace1 & tubes4 ,! m complete ?is vacuum1 ! /rong] ! curr5t ( air drawn ?r\gh ! fire1 :i* 7curr5t7 is ! draft4 ,! admission ( fre% air is regulat$ by a damp] plac$ at #b4 ,! fuel is plac$ ^u ! grate by means ( a door 9 ! re> ( ! fire-box4 ,! necess>y height ( wat] is ma9ta9$ 9 ! boil] by pumps work$ by ! eng9e1 9 su* a mann] z to secure at all times ! prop] supply4 ,! proportions & dim5sions ( ! boil]1 ! eng9e1 & ! c>riage1 ) ! rules = obta9+ ! same w be consid]$ %ortly4 ,,duties ,,expect$ ,,( ,,locomotive ,,eng9es4 #cjh4 ,! "w requir$ ( any eng9e dep5ds ^u ! nature & am\nt ( traffic1 & ^u ! physical "* ( ! road4 ,! nature ( ! traffic1 :e!r bulky or compact1 & :e!r requir+ quick or sl[ transport1 det]m9es some:at ! numb] & size ( ! tra9s1 & consequ5tly ! numb] & p[] ( ! eng9es4 ,a road ) /eep grades & %>p curves1 ) ! same am\nt ( traffic1 w ne$ /rong] eng9es ?an a road ) easy grades & l>ge curves4 ,! am\nt ( motive p[] & co/ ( work+ x1 dep5ds 9 a great degree ^u ! disposition ( grades z reg>ds ! direction ( ! traffic movem5t4 ,! mo/ economically work$ road w be ei!r a level "o1 or "o :]e ! bulk ( ! traffic is mov$ d[n hill4 ,! m9]al1 comm]cial1 or agricultural nature ( ! c\ntry1 det]m9es ! direction ( ! traffic1 & ! physical nature1 ! arrangem5t ( ! grades4 ,! diff]5t k9ds ( labor requir$ ( locomotives1 necessitate ! employm5t ( eng9es ( diff]5t proportions2 & ! diff]5t classes ( railways1 require eng9es possess+ diff]5t am\nts ( p[]4 #cji4 ,! classification ( locomotives %\ld be det]m9$ accord+ to ! foll[+ relations4 ,dep>tm5t dep5ds ^u comm]cial duty4 ,division dep5ds ^u "* ( road4 ,ord] dep5ds ^u weight ( tra9s4 ,class dep5ds ^u spe$ ( tra9s4 ,,note4--,! g5]al classification is giv5 at ! end ( ?is *apt]4 ,high rates ( spe$ are g5]ally comb9$ ) light loads1 & heavy tra9s are requir$ to move at ! l[] velocities4 ,great spe$s require ! rapid production & consumption ( a l>ge bulk ( /eam ( b little d5sity2 l>ge :eels & %ort /roke1 t ! ratio ( velocities ( pi/on & :eel may be z great z possible4 ,heavy tra9s consume less /eam by bulk1 p] mile1 b ( a mu* great] d5sity1 & comb9e a long /roke ) a small :eel1 by :i* great lev]age is obta9$4 ,9 g5]al1 eng9es = w9t] use %\ld be heavi] ?an ^? = summ]1 ^u ! same gr\nd1 z natural causes are m liable to resi/ adhesion 9 ! w9t]4 ,! locomotive eng9e may be s proportion$ z to run at any spe$ f t5 to sixty miles p] h\r1 ov] grades f t5 to two hundr$ feet p] mile1 & to c>ry loads f two hundr$ to two ?\s& tons4 ,! rules by :i* ! necess>y dim5sions to p]=m any requir$ duty are fix$1 dep5d ^u ! v simple/ me*anical laws4 ,,note4--,! =mul express+ ! mo/ prop] relations to exi/ betwe5 ! sev]al /eam-produc+ & /eam-consum+ p>ts are m reliable ?an ! ass]tions ( any ma*9i/ 9 ,am]ica1 & ?\gh tak5 f books1 are ! result ( ! exp]i5ce ( ! mo/ able & practical m5 = tw5ty ye>s4 ,op]atives are too apt to despise book k1 =gett+ t ! v k s despis$ is ! result ( m practice ?an a lifetime c af=d !m4 ,railroad manag]s are too apt to receive z indisputable1 ! op9ions ( m5 :o are practical1 simply because !y und]/& no?+ ( pr9ciple4 ,s9ce ! "w ( ,d4 ,k4 ,cl>k 7,engl&7 has appe>$1 any dim5sion f ! beg9n+ to ! end ( a locomotive may be fix$1 to ! eigh? ( an in*1 ) absolute correctness1 & !re is no excuse = dep>t+ f ! prop] proportions4 ,x does n foll[ t because a locomotive does actually />t (f & draw ! tra91 t x is prop]ly made4 ,a race-horse c draw a pl\gh1 & a yoke ( ox5 a 8trott+ buggy10 b ?is is by no means ! correct adaptation ( p[]4 #caj4 ,! elem5ts :i* gov]n ! requirem5ts ( p[] are ,! maximum grades4 ,! weight ( ! tra94 ,! requir$ spe$4 ,& ! elem5ts :i* gov]n our ability to produce ! p[] ne$$1 ,! grate area4 ,! heat+ surface4 ,! cyl9d] diamet]4 ,! /eam pressure4 ,! /roke4 ,! diamet] ( :eels4 ,! weight ^u driv+ :eels4 ,,me*anical ,,& ,,physical ,,pr9ciples ,,gov]n+ ,,! ,,con/ruction ,,( ,,! ,,locomotive ,,eng9e4 ,,resi/ance ,,to ,,! ,,motion ,,( ,,railroad ,,tra9s4 #caa4 ,! exact resi/ance to ! motion ( a railroad tra9 _c be det]m9$1 z "s ( ! elem5ts are s v>iable2 = example1 ! /ate ( ! wea!r4 ,an approximate e/imate1 ne> en\gh = practice1 is easily obta9$4 ,to arrive at correct data ! obs]vations mu/ be made ^u tra9s work+ "u ! same conditions t !y are subject to 9 practice4 ,! :ole resi/ance is made up ( sev]al p>tial resi/ances1 "s ( :i* are con/ant at all spe$s1 & "s ( :i* increase ) ! velocity4 ,! eng9e & t5d] resi/ance is compos$ ( ! friction ( pi/ons1 cross heads1 slide valves1 cranks1 ecc5trics1 pumps1 ! back pressure ( ! bla/1 & v>i\s erratic movem5ts1 roll+1 twi/+1 & pit*+ toge!r ) bo? :eel & axle friction1 :i* is common to ! eng9e & t5d]4 ,! atmosph]ic resi/ance is n due to ! direct action ( ! air ^u ! front & sides ( ! tra9 entirely1 b *iefly to ! exhau/+ action 9 ! re>4 ,! tra9 has1 z x 71 to pull along a l>ge column ( air l ! wat] 9 ! wake ( a %ip2 =m or am\nt ( frontage has little or no effect4 ,! resi/ance dep5ds ^u ! bulk ( ! tra9 & its velocity4 ,a tra9 ) ! same frontage (f]s m resi/ance z its bulk increases4 ,oscillatory resi/ance is caus$ by irregul>ities 9 ! surface ( ! rails1 & increases ) ! velocity1 & also ) increase ( height ( ! c5tre ( gravity ( ! c> or eng9e4 ,frictional resi/ance may be divid$ into :eel & axle friction4 ,t ( ! axle is compos$ ( two p>ts1 ! direct v]tical friction on ! j\rnal1 & ! side friction on ! coll>1 consequ5t ^u lat]al motion4 ,! v]tical friction is indep5d5t ( ! surface press$ or ( velocity1 b is directly proportional to ! pressure1 & ! same rem>k applies to t ( ! coll>s4 ,z ! diamet] ( :eel increases1 ! oscillation is increas$1 ! c5tre ( gravity be+ rais$4 ,! direct cause ( ! v]tical friction is ! weight ( ! c> or eng9e1 & ( ! lat]al irregul>ities 9 ! surface ( ! rails1 :i* cause ! c> to sway f side to side4 ,:eel friction :i* acts betwe5 ! p]iph]y ( ! :eel & ! surface ( ! rail increases ) ! load1 & decreases z ! :eel diamet] augm5ts4 ,= ! total resi/ance to ! motion ( a railroad tra91 ,d4 ,k4 ,cl>k gives ! foll[+ =mula3-- 7,v#b7_/aga #h ,r1 ,:]e ,r is ! resi/ance 9 lbs4 p] ton1 & ,v ! velocity 9 miles p] h\r4 ,f ?is expression we =m ! foll[+ table3-- ,velocity 9 miles p] h\r4 ,resi/ance 9 lbs4 p] ton4 #aj #h4ehe #ab #h4hdb #ae #i4cae #bj #aj4cci #be #aa4fee #cj #ac4bfc #dj #ag4cef #ej #bb4fbj #fj #bi4jeb #ajj #ff4dhj ,f a great numb] ( exp]im5ts made by ,mr4 ,cl>k1 ! relative resi/ance to ! motion ( inside & outside connect$ eng9es is z foll[s3-- ,inside connections #ag ,outside connections #ad ,! effect ( curves1 bad /ate ( ! road1 & adv]se w9ds1 am\nts 7accord+ to ! same au?or7 to ! foll[+ p]c5tages3-- ,bad /ate ( ! road #dj ,curves #bj ,/rong head & side w9ds #bj -- ,9 all #hj ,! resi/ance due to grades dep5ds entirely ^u ! rate ( incl9e1 & is q indep5d5t ( all o!r consid]ations4 ,! relative effect ( grades decreases ) ! absolute increase ( resi/ance on a level4 ,?us common roads admit ( /eep] grades ?an d railroads1 because ! level resi/ance is mu* m ^u ! =m] ?an on ! latt]4 ,! exact det]m9ation ( ! resi/ance due to any grade dep5ds ^u ! v simple me*anical pr9ciple1 regulat+ motion ^u ! incl9$ plane4 ,= ea* foot rise ( grade p] mile1 ! resi/ance p] ton is #bbdj #a_/ebhj4 ,?us ! resi/ance to "o ton ^u a =ty feet grade is #bbdj #dj_/ebhj or #ag lbs4 ,& if we are mov+ at ?irty miles p] h\r ! sum ( all o!r resi/ances is1 by ! =mula1 or ! table at ! end ( ,*apt] ,,xiv41 "p ,i41 #ac4c lbs4 p] ton2 :5ce ! :ole resi/ance to ! motion ( "o ton1 at ?irty miles p] h\r1 ^u a =ty feet grade1 is #ag #ac4c or #cj4c lbs4 & "o hundr$ tons w\ld be "o hundr$ times z mu*4 ,table #a1 at ! end ( ,*apt] ,,xiv41 "p ,i41 gives ! :ole resi/ance to ! motion ( tra9s ( f fifty to "o ?\s& tons1 mov+ at spe$s v>y+ f t5 to "o hundr$ miles p] h\r1 & table #b gives ! resi/ance ^u grades f t5 to "o hundr$ feet p] mile4 ,,traction ,,& ,,adhesion4 #cab4 ,! :ole /eam pressure ^u bo? pi/ons1 ref]r$ by means ( ! crank1 connect+1 & pi/on rods1 & :eel1 to ! rail1 is call$ 8traction40 ,x is ! draw+ p[] ( ! eng9e4 ,its am\nt dep5ds ^u ! diamet] ( cyl9d]1 /eam pressure1 /roke1 & diamet] ( :eel4 ,by increas+ ! /eam pressure1 we increase ! p[]4 ,by increas+ ! cyl9d] diamet]1 we increase ! p[]4 ,by increas+ ! /roke1 we increase ! p[]4 ,by decreas+ ! :eel diamet]1 we increase ! p[]4 ,& by adju/+ ! dim5sions ( ! above p>ts1 we may give any desir$ am\nt ( p[] to ! eng9e4 ,! =mula express+ ! tractive p[] ( an eng9e1 ( any dim5sions1 is 77#b;,a7 ,p #b,s7_/,c4 ,:]e ,a ! area ( "o pi/on4 ,p ! /eam pressure 9 cyl9d] p] squ>e in*1 ,s ! /roke 9 in*es4 ,c ! circumf]5ce ( ! :eel 9 in*es4 ,! =mula is express$ v]bally z foll[s3 ,d\ble ! /roke & multiply x by ! total /eam pressure on bo? pi/ons2 divide ! product by ! circumf]5ce ( ! driv+-:eel 9 in*es4 ,,adhesion4 #cac4 ,z obs]v$ on page #cjg1 ! adhesion or ! bite ( ! :eels ^u ! rail is1 z an av]age1 f "o fif? to "o six? ( ! weight2 "o fif? :5 ! rail is 9 a good /ate1 & less :5 wet or greasy2 we _c dep5d ^u m ?an "o six? 9 practice4 ,!re=e1 if ! tractive p[] ( an eng9e is #c1jjj lbs4 we mu/1 to make x available1 place #c1jjj #f or #ah1jjj lbs4 ^u ^? :eels :i* are connect$ ) ! ma*9]y1 7driv+ :eels74 ,,fuel4 #cad4 ,! fuels employ$ 9 ! locomotive eng9e = ! evaporation ( wat] are wood1 coal1 & coke4 ,9 ,engl& ! latt] is us$ exclusively4 ,9 ,am]ica ! fir/ has1 on acc\nt ( its *eapness1 be5 q g5]ally adopt$2 b ( late railroad companies h be5 turn+ _! att5tion to coal & coke4 ,! imm5se b$s ( coal di/ribut$ ?r\gh\t ! ,unit$ ,/ates w furni% fuel to railroad companies almo/ )\t limit4 ,its position z well z its am\nt w r5d] its adoption practicable 9 ne>ly all ( ! ,/ates4 ,ohio alone conta9s m coal ?an all ( ,great ,brita94 ,! foll[+ table is f ! iron manufacture ( ,fr$]ick ,ov]man4 ,"n ( ,/ate4 ,area ( ,coal-fields4 ,georgia #aej squ>e miles4 ,m>yl& #eej squ>e miles4 ,alabama #c1djj squ>e miles4 ,t5nessee #d1cjj squ>e miles4 ,mi*igan #e1jjj squ>e miles4 ,miss\ri #f1jjj squ>e miles4 ,indiana #g1gjj squ>e miles4 ,ohio #aa1ijj squ>e miles4 ,k5tucky #ac1ejj squ>e miles4 ,p5nsylvania #ae1dcg squ>e miles4 ,virg9ia #ba1aie squ>e miles4 ,ill9ois #dd1jjj squ>e miles4 -------------- ,9 all #acc1acb squ>e miles4 #cae4 ,! foll[+ table 7also f ! works ( ,ov]man7 gives ! nature & evaporative p[] ( ! diff]5t ,am]ican coals4 ,/ate ,/eam ( ,quantity,p]c5tage ,"n ( ,coal4 :]e ,p]c5tage #bab ( heat ( coke by f\nd4( c>bon4evaporat$ by weight4 p] lb4 volume4 ,an?racite4 ,beav] ,mead[1 ,pa4 #hh4i #aj4d #id ,=e/ ,improvem5t1 ,pa4 #ij4g #aj4h #id ,lehigh1 ,pa4 #hi4a #i4f #id ,lackawanna1 ,pa4 #hg4g #aj4g #id ,coke4 ,midlo?ian1 ,va4 #aj4c #ib 4#ff ,cumb]l&1 ,md4 #aj4c #ib 4#ge ,bitum9\s4 ,m>yl&1 ,md4 #gc4e #aa4b #he ,cumb]l&1 ,md4 #gd4c #aa4j #he ,blossburg1 ,pa4 #gc4d #aj4i #he 4#hc ,k>?ans1 ,pa4 #gc4h #i4h #he 4#hh ,cambria ,c\nty1 ,pa4 #fi4d #aj4b #he ,clov] ,hill1 ,va4 #ef4h #h4e #he 4#fh ,tippecanoe1 ,va4 #fd4f #h4e #he ,pittsburgh1 ,pa4 #ee4j #h4i #he 4#fh ,miss\ri1 ,mo4 4#eg #caf4 ,! employm5t ( ! sev]al v>ieties ( wood dep5ds m ^u ! comm]cial ?an ! *emical "*4 ,! foll[+ table %[s ! specific gravity1 ! nature & ! evaporative value ( ! diff]5t species4 ,species4 ,specific,specific,specific,degrees ( ,species4 gravity gravity gravity heat :i* gre54 air kiln may be dri$4 dri$4 g5]at$4 ,hickory1 #cjjj ,hickory4 ,:ite ,oak1 #a4jg #j4ga #j4ff #cjjj ,:ite ,oak4 ,black ,oak1 #cjjj ,black ,oak4 ,r$ ,oak1 #a4je #j4fh #j4ff #cjjj ,r$ ,oak4 ,bee*1 #j4ih #j4ei #j4eh #cjjj ,bee*4 ,bir*1 #j4ij #j4fc #j4eg #cjjj ,bir*4 ,maple1 #j4ij #j4fd #j4fa #cjjj ,maple4 ,yell[ ,p9e1 #bhjj ,yell[ ,p9e4 ,*e/nut1 #cjjj ,*e/nut4 ,pit* ,p9e1 #bhjj ,pit* ,p9e4 ,:ite ,p9e1 #j4hg #j4dg #j4ch #bhjj ,:ite ,p9e4 ,species4 ,specific,specific,specific,degrees ( ,species4 gravity gravity gravity heat :i* gre54 air kiln may be dri$4 dri$4 g5]at$4 ,species4 ,p]c5tage,quantity,weight,relative ,species4 ( ( heat ( "ovalue z ,*>coal4 z to cord fuel4 volume4 9 lbs4 ,hickory1 #dd4fi #be #ddfi #a4jj ,hickory4 ,:ite ,oak1 #ba4fb #be #chba #j4ha ,:ite ,oak4 ,black ,oak1 #bc4hj #be #cbed #j4ga ,black ,oak4 ,r$ ,oak1 #bb4dc #be #cbed #j4fi ,r$ ,oak4 ,bee*1 #cb4cf #be #cbcf #j4fe ,bee*4 ,bir*1 #be ,bir*4 ,maple1 #bg4jj #be #bgjj #j4eg ,maple4 ,yell[ ,p9e1 #bd4fc #bc #bdfc #j4ed ,yell[ ,p9e4 ,*e/nut1 #be4be #be #bccc #j4eb ,*e/nut4 ,pit* ,p9e1 #ai4jd #bc #aijd #j4dc ,pit* ,p9e4 ,:ite ,p9e1 #ah4fh #bc #ahfh #j4db ,:ite ,p9e4 ,species4 ,p]c5tage,quantity,weight,relative ,species4 ( ( heat ( "ovalue z ,*>coal4 z to cord fuel4 volume4 9 lbs4 ,( ! relative value ( wood & coal1 we h ! foll[+ results ( exp]i5ce4 ,9 ! eng9es ( ! ,baltimore & ,ohio ,railway #b4ee lbs4 ( p9e wood 7 f\nd equal to "o p\nd ( ,cumb]l& coal4 ,on ! ,read+ ,railroad 7,p5nsylvania71 ?ree p\nds ( p9e wood equal to "o p\nd ( ,an?racite coal4 ,mr4 ,haswell e/imates ! be/ v>ieties ( wood fuel to conta9 tw5ty p] c5t4 ( c>bon4 ,walt] ,r4 ,johnson f\nd t "o p\nd ( wood1 ^u an av]age1 evaporat$ two & "o half p\nds ( wat]4 ,! av]age p]c5tage ( coke f ,am]ican bitum9\s coal f ! above table is sev5ty-?ree p] c5t41 & ! av]age p]c5tage ( c>bon1 sixty-sev5 & "o half p] c5t4 #cag4 ,! foll[+ table %[s ! relative prop]ties ( good coke1 coal1 & wood4 ,"n ( fuel4 ,coke4,coal4,wood4 ,weight p] cubic foot1 9 lbs4 #fc #hj #cj ,degrees ( heat g5]at$4 #dcjj #djjj #bhjj ,p]c5tage ( c>bon1 9 ! fuel4 #ie #hh #bj ,economic bulk1 or cubic feet requir$ to /[ "o #hj #dd #ajg ton4 ,economic1 or /[age weight p] cubic foot4 #bh #ea #ba ,cubic feet ( air to evaporate "o lb4 ( wat]4 #bb4d #cb #af ,equival5t economic bulk1 to evaporate ! same #ac #aj #fj weight ( wat]4 ,weight ( wat] evaporat$ p] lb4( fuel 9 #h #f #b ord9>y practice4 ,relative value z fuel1 disreg>d+ ! actual #ajj #ga #bi co/4 ,! p[] ( fuel dep5ds ^u ! am\nt ( c>bon 9 x4 ,pure coke is solid c>bon4 ,h5ce its sup]ior value z a heat g5]ator4 ,,( ,,! ,,process ,,( ,,cok+4 #cah4 ,an?racite coal is us$ = locomotive fuel 9 its natural /ate4 ,x is employ$ *iefly ^u ^? roads on ! ea/]n slope ( ! ,alleghanies4 ,! bitum9\s coal lies 9 ! ,mississippi valley1 & may be f\nd any:]e betwe5 ! summits ( ! ,alleghanies & ! ,rocky ,m\nta9s4 ,?is1 9 its natural /ate1 conta9s s mu* pit*y matt] z to r5d] x unfit = locomotive purposes4 ,^u be+ heat$1 x melts1 runs into a mass1 & clogs ! grate2 requir+ frequ5t pok+ & a /rong draft4 ,b :5 ! bitum5 is burnt (f by sl[ & c>eful bak+1 7z describ$ bel[17 no fuel equals x4 ,j z c>boniz$ wood is *>coal1 s c>boniz$ coal is coke4 ,coke is bitum9\s coal depriv$ ( its bitum51 ! raw coal be+ bak$ 9 ov5s hav+ v5ts s regulat$ z to admit air en\gh to *>1 )\t consum+ ! coal4 ,! ov5s be+ clos$ at ! prop] "t1 ! fire is gradually ext+ui%$1 & ! coke1 compact$ into l>ge masses1 requir+ to be brok5 up be=e tak5 out4 ,coal may be cok$ by pil+ loosely 9 heaps1 cov]+ ) e>?1 & fir+ ?r\gh op5+s1 :i*1 aft] =ty or fifty h\rs1 are clos$4 ,9 prep>+ coke1 h[ev]1 9 ! l>ge quantities requir$ = railroads1 & t x may be ( ! v be/ quality1 a good deal ( c>e mu/ be tak54 ,probably 9 no place m or bett] coke is made1 or ! op]ation m skilfully c>ri$ on1 ?an at ! ,camd5-t[n /ation ( ! ,london & ,nor?-we/]n ,railroad1 7,engl&74 ,! company h built eighte5 ov5s1 9 two r[s1 all dis*>g+ _! volatile gases into a horizontal flue t]m9at+ 9 a *imney "o hundr$ & fifte5 feet high2 hav+ an int]nal diamet] ( elev5 feet1 & be+ ?ree feet ?ick1 7mak+ ! ext]nal diamet] sev5te5 feet74 ,! ov5s are elliptical1 #aa #ab feet inside1 ) walls ?ree feet ?ick4 ,! height is t5 feet1 ! fir/ ?ree feet f ! gr\nd be+ solid1 & furni%$ ) a fire brick floor1 on :i* ! coal is plac$4 ,ea* ov5 communicates ) ! flue by an op5+ 9 ! top two & "o half feet by tw5ty-"o in*es2 :i* op5+ is clos$ by an iron damp]1 to regulate ! draft4 ,! op5+s = ! doors are ?ree & "o half feet squ>e outside1 & two & ?ree f\r?s inside1 be+ clos$ ) iron doors f\r & "o half by five feet1 l9$ ) fire brick1 & balanc$ 9 op5+ by c\nt]weights4 7,! object ( ! *imney & horizontal flue is to c>ry ! smoke & unburn$ gases s f> up t !y %all n be a nuisance4 ,9 ,am]ica we might all[ ! smoke ( ea* ov5 to escape ?r\gh a l[ *imney ( its own1 7t5 or twelve feet high17 & save ! co/ ( a l>ge /ack2 l ! cok+ ov5s 9 our f\ndries74 ,! op]ation ( cok+ is c>ri$ on z foll[s3--,ea* alt]nate ov5 is *>g$ betwe5 eight & t5 ,a4 ,m4 e day1 ) ?ree & "o half tons ( good coals4 ,a :isp ( /raw is !n ?r[n 91 :i* takes fire f radiation f ! top1 & inflames ! smoke !n aris+ f ! surface1 by ! reaction ( ! hot sides & bottom ^u ! body ( ! fuel4 ,9 ?is way ! smoke is consum$ at ! v po9t ( ! process1 :]e x w\ld o!rwise be ! mo/ abundant4 ,! cok+ process is a complete combu/ion ( ! volatile pr9ciples ( ! coal4 ,! mass ( coal be+ fir/ k9dl$ at ! surface1 :]e x is suppli$ ) an abundance ( oxyg51 because ! doors 9 front & v5ts 9 ! re> are op51 no m smoke goes f ! *imney ?an f t ( a common kit*5 fire4 ,! gas g5]at$ f ! slightly heat$ coal _c escape de/ruction 9 pass+ up to ! bright flame ( ! ov54 ,any defici5cy 9 oxyg5 = consum+ ! smoke is suppli$ by ! air ent]+ ! grooves ( ! damp]s4 ,z ! cok+ process advances mo/ sl[ly f ! top to ! bottom1 only "o lay] is consum$ at a "t2 :ile ! surface is cov]$ ) r$-hot c9d]s1 ready to consume any p>ticles ( c>burett$ or sulphurett$ hydrog5 gases :i* may escape f bel[4 ,! greate/ mass _c emit m gases ?an ! smalle/ heap4 ,! coke be+ p]fectly fre$ f all smoky & volatile matt]s1 by a calc9ation ( =ty h\rs1 is cool$ d[n to a mod]ate ignition by slid+ 9 ! damp]s & op5+ ! doors1 :i* _h be5 p>tly clos$ dur+ ! latt] "p ( ! op]ation4 ,! coal is n[ conv]t$ into a clean1 cry/all9e1 por\s1 column> mass1 ( a /eel-gray color1 & s h>d z to cut glass4 ,?is is brok5 up & tak5 out--coke4 ,x is sometimes ext+ui%$ by a wat]+-pot4 ,?is is wrong1 x ought n to be wet1 & ev5 m1 ought to be imm$iately %ut up 9 fire-pro( boxes & b9s4 ,ev5 left to itself 9 ! air1 x absorbs moi/ure rapidly1 :i* mu/ be burn$ (f 9 ! boil]2 x %\ld by all means be kept 9 a dry place4 ,mr4 ,woods 7,engl&7 obs]ves1 t coke may absorb z mu* z eight p] c5t4 ( wat] 9 go+ f ! ov5 to ! /oreh\se4 ,! am\nt ( absorption dep5ds ^u ! nature ( ! coke4 ,d4 ,k4 ,cl>k records ! foll[+1 ! coke be+ imm]s$ 9 wat]4 ,no4 #a4 ,close-gra9$ & good1 absorb$ #ad4e p] c5t4 ( wat]4 ,no4 #b4 ,por\s & ord9>y1 absorb$ #ba p] c5t4 ,no4 #c4 ,v close-gra9$ & good1 #i p] c5t4 ,! "t ( cok+ may be /at$ g5]ally z fifty h\rs1 ?\gh x is some:at improv$ by be+ all[$ =ty h\rs m2 ?is gives "t = a bett] consolidation1 & gives a firm]1 bright]1 & m cry/all9e mass4 ,mr4 ,goo*1 ( ! ,great ,we/]n 7,engl&7 ,railroad1 exp]im5t$ ^u ! "t ( cok+ ) ! foll[+ results4 ,9 ov54 ,yield p] ton ( ,wat] evaporat$ ,result4 coal4 p] lb4 ( coke4 #dh h\rs #ab4ga cwt4 #g4a lbs4 #ijb4 #gb h\rs #ab4jj cwt4 #g4g lbs4 #ibd4 ,?us1 ?\gh ! yield p] ton is decreas$ by a great] "t1 ! value ( ! coke p] p\nd is augm5t$1 & ! increase ov]balances ! decrease4 ,fir/rate coal gives f sev5ty-five to eighty p] c5t4 by weight1 ( compact gli/5+ coke1 weigh+ ab\t #ad cwt4 p] *aldron1 7?irty-six bu%els74 ,! bulk is increas$ f t5 to fifty p] c5t4 ,9 break+ out ! coke f ! ov5s1 a great deal is unavoidably r$uc$ too f9e = use 9 ! locomotive furnace "u a /rong draft2 su* may1 h[ev]1 be us$ 9 fir+ up1 9 /&+ /ill1 & at ! /ations4 ,9 tak+ ! coke f ! ov5s x %\ld be sep>at$ into ! ?ree foll[+ classes4 ,l>ge coke4 ,cubes ( #i in*es to ! side4 ,m$ium coke4 ,cubes ( #f in*es to ! side4 ,small coke4 ,cubes ( #c in*es to ! side4 ,pittsburgh coal c>efully cok$ = =ty-eight h\rs1 gives sev5ty-five p] c5t41 by weight1 & "o hundr$ tw5ty-five p] c5t4 by bulk1 ( fir/rate1 firm1 bright1 clean coke4 ,! be/ te/ = coke is to place x 9 wat]4 ,wat]1 weigh+ sixty-two & "o half p\nds p] cubic foot1 %\ld n float good coke1 :i* ought to weigh sixty-?ree p\nds p] cubic foot1 !re=e if ! coke floats x is too light4 ,mu* ( ! bitum9\s coal 9 ! ,mississippi valley does n coke1 b burns up4 ,a l>ge "p cokes mod]ately well1 b n s well z ! ,pittsburgh coal4 ,9 e/imat+ = a comp>ison ( fuels1 ! p>ticul> coal ( any location mu/ be te/$4 ,,( ,,! ,,comp>ative ,,value ,,( ,,wood1 ,,coal1 ,,& ,,coke4 ,?is "q divides itself into two p>ts1 ,! relative co/ ( ! diff]5t fuels1 & ,! relative p[] to produce heat4 #cai4 ,x does n foll[ t because coke 9 ,engl&1 an?racite 9 ,p5nsylvania1 or wood 9 ,new ,engl&1 is ! mo/ economical fuel1 t ei!r ( ! above w be s 9 ,ohio1 ,indiana1 or ,ill9ois1 or because wood is ! *eape/ 9 "s p>ts ( a ,/ate1 t x is s ?r\gh\t1 or ev5 t "o fuel %\ld be appli$ to ! :ole l5g? ( a s+le road4 ,! heat us$ to evaporate wat] 9 ! locomotive boil] is develop$ by combu/ion2 combu/ion is produc$ by *emically comb9+ ! oxyg5 ( ! air ) ! c>bon ( ! fuel2 :5ce1 t mat]ial conta9+ 9 a giv5 co/ ! l>ge/ am\nt ( c>bon w produce heat ! mo/ economically4 ,f ! table on page #cbj1 we see t1 by bulk1 ?irte5 ( coke are equal to sixty ( wood2 t "o p\nd ( coke evaporates eight & "o half p\nds ( wat]2 t "o p\nd ( wood w evaporate two & "o half p\nds ( wat]4 ,tables ( specific gravity give z an av]age weight p] cubic foot ( h>d wood1 ?irty p\nds4 ,a cord ( wood1 by v c>eful measurem5t1 conta9s "o hundr$ cubic feet solid1 or "o hundr$ tw5ty-eight feet z pil$1 tak+ ! av]age size ( wood2 :5ce a cord w weigh ?ree ?\s& p\nds4 ,& we h z ! relative evaporative effici5cy ( a cord ( wood & a ton ( coke1 #bbdj #h #aijdj1 #cjjj #b #gejj4 ,n[ if ! co/ ( a cord ( wood is to ! price ( a ton ( coke z #g1ejj to #ai1jdj1 x is immat]ial :i* we use4 ,z an example ( ! use ( ! above proportion1 :5 ! absolute co/ ( wood1 coal1 coke1 & labor are kn[n1 take ! foll[+4 ,if wood1 cut & ready = burn+1 co/s #c4jj p] cord1 h[ mu* may be giv5 = a ton ( coke8 ,z #g1ejj is to #ai1jdj1 s is #cjj to #gfb1 or #g4fb4 ,f ! same proportion we =m ! foll[+ table4 ,co/ p] cord ( wood ,price t may be paid ready = burn+4 p] ton = coke4 7,c5ts47 7,c5ts47 #bjj #ejh #bbe #ega #bej #fce #bge #fih #cjj #gfb #cbe #hbe #cej #hgg #cge #ieb #djj #ajaf #dbe #ajgi #dej #aadc #dge #abjf #ejj #abgj ,9 ! comp>ison above1 ! maximum evaporative p[] ( wood has be5 us$1 #b lbs41 & ! ord9>y p[] ( coke1 #h lbs4 ( wat] p] p\nd ( fuel4 #cbj4 ,9 mak+ coke 9 l>ge quantities1 ! ov5s %\ld be at ! m9es1 z we ?us save transport+ ! extra weight ( coal ov] coke4 ,! co/ ( mak+ coke1 exclusive ( ! co/ ( ! coal1 is approximately z foll[s3-- #aj ov5s capable ( mak+ annually #e1jjj tons ( coke1 #e1jjj ,%$s1 & app>atus to correspond1 #c1jjj ------------ ,9 all1 #h1jjj ,annual int]e/ at #f p] c5t41 #dhj ,annual co/ ( att5dance1 #b m51 #a1jjj ------------ ,! sum ( :i* is1 #a1dhj ,& ! co/ p] ton1 #j4bif_/aj or 9 r\nd numb]s1 ?irty c5ts p] ton2 & if coal is #a4ej p] ton1 add+ tw5ty-five p] c5t4 we h #a4hg z ! co/ ( coal t w make "o ton ( coke1 to :i* add ! co/ ( mak+ p] ton1 ?irty c5ts1 & we h z ! :ole co/ ( "o ton ( coke #b4ag2 & f ! rule on page #cbg we see t wood mu/ n co/ ov] #j4he p] cord to be z economical z coke at #b4ag2 ( c\rse inf]ior qualities ( coal w give less good coke & *ange ! comp>ison4 ,,combu/ion4 #cba4 ,! combu/ible elem5t 9 all fuels is c>bon2 ! heat necess>y = /eam produc+1 is obta9$ by comb9+ ! c>bon ( ! fuel ) ! oxyg5 ( ! air1 =m+ c>bonic acid gas4 ,c>bonic acid gas consi/s ( ,oxyg5 #af ,p>ts by ,c>bon #f weight4 ,atmosph]ic air consi/s ( ,oxyg5 #h ,p>ts by ,nitrog5 #bh weight4 ,:5ce1 = ! combu/ion ( "o p\nd ( c>bon1 we require ,c>bon #a4jj ,oxyg5 #b4ff ,b to obta9 #b4ff ( oxyg5 f ! atmosph]ic air1 we also use nitrog5 9 ! proportion ( #bh nitrog5 to #h oxyg52 :5ce1 = conv]t+ "o p\nd ( c>bon to c>bonic acid1 we require ,oxyg5 #b4ff ,nitrog5 #i4ca ---------- ,or #aa4ig lbs4 ( atmosph]ic air4 ,f c>eful obs]vations on ! gases pass+ ?r\gh ! *imneys ( well-con/ruct$ boil]s1 oxyg5 is f\nd free1 v>y+ 9 am\nt f "o qu>t] to "o half ( ! quantity necess>y = combu/ion2 ?is is ow+ to ! me*anical ob/ructions to ! p]fect conv]sion ( ! air aris+ f leakage ?r\gh ! fuel4 ,m ?an ! above #aa4ig lbs4 ( air %\ld1 !re=e1 be appli$ to ! fire = ea* p\nd ( c>bon consum$4 ,tw5ty-five p] c5t4 is f\nd by exp]i5ce to be a suffici5t surplus all[ance to conv]t ! c>bon4 ,:5ce1 to #aa4ig add #c4jc ---------- & we h #ae4jj lbs4 ( atmosph]ic air p] lb4 ( c>bon4 ,air weighs 4#jge lbs4 p] cubic foot1 :5ce #ae_/4jge or #bjj cubic feet ( air are necess>y = ! prop] combu/ion ( "o lb4 ( pure c>bon4 ,kn[+ ! necess>y am\nt ( air = "o lb4 ( c>bon1 & also ! p]c5tage ( c>bon 9 ! diff]5t k9ds ( fuel1 x becomes a simple ari?metical op]ation to fix ! bulk ( air requir$ = any species ( coal1 coke1 or wood4 ,! result ( su* a calculation is %[n 9 ! sev5? column ( ! table on page #cbj4 8,!re are two causes :y all ! heat :i* fuel may furni% is n obta9$4 ,fir/1 t ! inflammable gases evolv$ by ! heat are n all consum$ f want ( a suffici5t supply ( oxyg51 ! air drawn ?r\gh ! fire be+ only suffici5t to decompose m fuel ?an :5 decompos$ x c\ld burn1 or supply ) oxyg54 ,! ?ick smoke t escapes f a *imney :5 fre% fuel is ?r[n on a hot fire1 is unconsum$ gas2 decompos$ f ! fuel1 b )\t oxyg5 en\gh to burn--al?\gh !re may h be5 a suffici5t supply ( heat4 ,f ?is cause x is1 p]haps1 t flame is se5 com+ f ! top ( a /eamboat *imney :i* appe>s to be cont9u\s f ! furnace2 b :i*1 9 fact1 is ignit$ by contact ) ! air1 hav+ reta9$ suffici5t heat = t purpose4 8,all smoke-consum+ furnaces are simply means ( admitt+ fre% air to ! unconsum$ gases above ! fire1 :i*1 9 a common *imney1 w effect ! object1 z s l>ge a mass ( smoke reta9s ! necess>y am\nt ( heat4 ,?is only prev5ts ! nuisance ( smoke4 ,to r5d] ! gases ?us reheat$ useful 9 evaporat+ wat]1 ?is supply ( oxyg5 mu/ be add$ :ile ! gases are yet 9 ! flues40 ,?is might seem difficult4 ,mr4 ,mc,connell 7,engl&7 divides ! flues ( 8 locomotives into two p>ts1 connect+ ! front ends ( ! fir/ "p & ! back ends ( ! second "p by a space ( twelve or fifte5 in*es1 7call$ by him a #8combu/ion *amb]1'7 into :i* he admits any requir$ am\nt ( fre% air4 7,see app5dix ,e47 8,a second cause :y ! full value ( ! fuel produc$ is n obta9$ is1 t s mu* is ab/ract$ f ! gases 9 pass+ ?r\gh long tubes1 t !re is n en\gh left to cont9ue combu/ion1 al?\gh ! inflammable gas is /ill !re4 ,t a tube or any sub/ance 9 ! way ( ! hot gases does absorb ! heat en\gh to prev5t ! burn+ ( ! gas1 is prov$ by ! action ( ,davy's ,safety ,lamp2 ?is is a common light surr\nd$ by a wire gauze1 :i* s absorbs ! heat f ! flame z to ext+ui% ! latt] at ! wire2 by apply+ fire above ! gauze1 ! gas is aga9 k9dl$1 %[+ pla9ly t want ( heat above _h qu5*$ ! flame40 ,see ,/ckh>dt's ,*emi/ry2 translation by ,c4 ,h4 ,peirce1 ,m4 ,d41 ,cambridge1 ,mass41 #aheb1 page #aje4 ,we require1 !n1 9 e boil]1 fir/1 to h a suffici5t supply ( oxyg5 to decompose ! fuel2 next1 a quantity above ! fire to consume ! produc$ gases2 ?ird1 su* an arrangem5t ( communicat+ surface t s mu* heat %all n be ab/ract$ f ! gases z to dead5 _! combu/ion1 until j z !y are dis*>g$1 at :i* p]iod !y ought to be consum$4 7,see app5dix ,e47 ,,g5]ation ,,( ,,/eam4 #cbb4 ,! means ( produc+ ! p[] is ( c\rse ( ! fir/ importance4 ,! heat g5]at$ 9 ! fire-box is conduct$ ?r\gh ! tubes to ! exhau/ *amb]2 dur+ :i* passage x is imp>t$ to ! metal1 & f !nce absorb$ by ! adjac5t wat]1 :i* be+ !reby made light]1 rises to ! surface & gives place to a new supply4 ,! duty ( ! furnace is to g5]ate1 & ( ! tubes to communicate1 heat4 ,! p[] ( a pla9 surface to g5]ate /eam1 dep5ds ^u its position & on ! ability ( ! mat]ial to transmit heat ,an exp]im5t record$ 9 ,cl>k's ,railway ,ma*9]y1 gave ! foll[+ results3 ,a cubic metallic box subm]g$ 9 wat] & heat$ f )91 g5]at$ /eam f its upp] surface m ?an twice z fa/ z f ! sides :5 v]tical1 :ile ! bottom yield$ none at all4 ,by slightly incl9+ ! box ! elevat$ side produc$ /eam mu* fa/]1 :ile ! depress$ "o p>t$ s badly ) x z to cause ov]heat+ ( ! metal4 ,act+ ^u ?is result1 mo/ build]s ( eng9es ( ! pres5t day give an incl9ation ( f "o in* to "o qu>t] ( an in* p] foot to ! sides ( ! inn] fire-box4 ,t ! heat %\ld be appli$ 9 ! mo/ effectual mann] to ! wat]1 ! latt] %\ld circulate freely ar\nd ! hot metal1 c>ry+ (f ! heat z soon z x rea*es ! surface4 ,z ! heat is appli$ to ! inside ( ! furnace & tubes1 x mu/1 !re=e1 be ! inside dim5sions :i* det]m9e ! am\nt ( heat+ surface4 ,,note4--,if we multiply ! int]ior surface ( a tube by ! int5sity ( heat appli$1 & divide ! product by ! ext]ior surface1 we %all h ! int5sity at ! outside4 ,we also apply m heat to ! outside ( a tube1 :i*1 pass+ to ! inn] surface1 augm5ts 9 int5sity p] unit ( area4 ,! area ( ! inn] fire-box is n all available = heat+1 b requires to be r$uc$ z foll[s3-- ,= ! fire-door4 ,= ! f]rule area4 ,= ! top /ays4 ,= ! side /ay bolts4 ,! area is1 !re=e1 ,sides1 twice l5g? by height1 less /ay bolts4 ,back1 height by wid?1 less fire-door4 ,front1 height by wid?1 less f]rule area4 ,top1 l5g? by wid?1 less top /ays4 ,,tubes4 #cbc4 ,! tubes or flues1 v>y+ 9 numb] f "o hundr$ to ?ree hundr$1 9 diamet] f "o & a half to ?ree in*es1 & 9 l5g? f eight to sixte5 feet1 furni% ! real communicat+ surface4 ,! am\nt ( heat+ surface ?us obta9$ = any l5g?1 numb]1 & diamet]1 is giv5 9 table #aj1 ,*apt] ,,xiv41 ,"p ,i4 ,! surface ( a s+le tube is f\nd by ! =mula 7,ld#c4adaf7_/add4 ,:]e ,l ! l5g?1 & d ! diamet]1 bo? 9 in*es4 ,! effici5cy ( circul> tubes is a matt] n yet fully und]/ood4 ,!y c]ta9ly give a l>ge am\nt ( surface 9 a small boil]4 ,pamb\r consid]$ ! value ( tube area p] unit ( surface1 9 t]ms ( ! furnace area1 z "o ?ird only2 t is1 ?ree squ>e feet ( tube surface z equal to "o foot ( furnace area1 9 p[] ( g5]at+ /eam4 ,d4 ,k4 ,cl>k makes no di/9ction betwe5 ! two surfaces1 b obs]ves 8!re is reason to believe t 9 ! upp] semicircul> "p ( ea* tube ! effici5cy pr9cipally resides4 ,! w9d+ progressive motion1 obs]vable 9 tubes ( consid]able diamet]1 confirms ?is conclusion1 z x is ) mu* probability due to ! cool+ ( ! upp] portion ( ! gases ( combu/ion1 :i*1 z !y cool also1 become heavi] & desc5d lat]ally1 to make room = ! hott] smoke next ! bottom ( ! flue2 ! g5]al result ( :i* is ! spiral motion ( ! curr5t 9 its progress onw>ds40 ,c]ta9ly ! upp] half ( ! tube w\ld "p mu* easi] ) ! /eam ?an ! "u "o1 ev5 suppos+ ! appli$ heat to be ! same4 ,at page #cdj ( 8,ov]man's ,me*anics10 is ! foll[+3 8,! application ( heat to a concave surface is wrong 9 pr9ciple4 ,! heat 9 gases is conduct$ to o!r bodies1 & among !mselves by convection only4 ,?is quality ( gases causes ! convex =m ( a vessel to be ! mo/ pr(itable 9 absorb+ ! heat ( asc5d+ gases1 because ! motion ( ! gas causes a con/ant *ange ( p>ticles on ! convex body4 ,on a concave surface expos$ to ! influ5ce ( mov+ gases1 b little effect is produc$2 because ! p>ticles ( gas 9 ! concavity are at re/4 ,a plane surface is = ! same reason an imp]fect =m = absorb+ heat2 x mu/ be expos$ at an angle ( #de to obta9 ! be/ effect ( ! heat+ gases4 ,9 all cases if we wi% to obta9 ! be/ effect f ! fuel1 we %\ld expose a convex surface to ! curr5t ( hot air4 ,! direction ( ! motion ( ! hot gases decides ! position ( ! metal :i* is to absorb ! heat2 if ! curr5t is horizontal ! pipes mu/ be v]tical4 ,gases d n convey heat by radiation4 ,tubes & o!r vessels conta9+ wat] mu/ be s plac$ t ! hot gases play ar\nd ! outside4 8,if we lead a curr5t ( hot air ar\nd a cyl9d] we %all obs]ve t a p>ticle ( air plays b a %ort "t ^u its surface1 :5 x gives way to ano!r2 ! p>ticles play almo/ ar\nd ! cyl9d]1 & a conc5tration or increase ( d5sity beh9d ! pipe is ! result4 ,! relative position ( pipes 9 ! range is n indiff]5t1 & ! di/ance ( "o f ! o!r mu/ be relat$ to _! diamet]40 ,! conduct+ p[] ( ! metal compos+ ! fire-box & tubes1 is "o condition :i* limits ! rate ( evaporation1 :5 ! heat is abundant on ! "o side & circulation free on ! o!r1 z ! wat] c]ta9ly c>ries (f ! heat z fa/ z x arrives at ! out] surface4 ,all ! heat %\ld be extract$ if possible f ! gases be=e !y ent] ! smoke box4 ,we %\ld s arrange ! flues1 t )\t s mu* contract+ ! passage = ! exit ( ! gases z to ne$ too /rong a bla/1 yet to conf9e ! gases until _! full value is extract$4 ,sev]al attempts h be5 made to apply ! ideas ( ,cl>k & ,ov]man1 b z yet !y h be5 v indirect & h met ) only mod]ate success4 7,see ,app5dix1 ,e47 ,,evaporation1 ,,pressure1 ,,temp]ature1 ,,& ,,d5sity4 #cbd4 ,! "* ( "w to be done det]m9es ! nature ( ! /eam to be us$4 ,! quantity ( "w to be done %[s ! am\nt ( /eam to be produc$4 ,! am\nt & "* ( ! /eam requir$1 fixes ! dim5sions & proportions ( ! boil]4 ,a cubic foot ( wat]1 at a temp]ature ( #fb1 weighs #fb4cba lbs4 ,a cubic foot ( /eam1 g5]at$ at #bab ,fahr5heit1 "u ! atmosph]ic pressure 7#ad4g lbs4 p] squ>e in*7 weighs 4#jcfff lbs4 ,:5ce "o cubic foot ( wat] boil$ at #bab1 makes #a1gjj cubic feet ( /eam4 ,! total heat ( saturat$ /eam 7/eam produc$ 9 contact ) ! wat]71 consi/s ( two p>ts at all temp]atures2 ! lat5t & ! s5sible4 ,! s5sible heat is t %[n by ! !rmomet]1 & v>ies ) ! pressure4 ,! lat5t heat absorb$ dur+ ! g5]ation ( /eam1 am\nts to ?ree f\r?s ( ! :ole4 ,z ! temp]ature at :i* ! /eam is produc$ increases1 ! bulk produc$ f a giv5 unit ( wat] decreases1 b ! pressure & ! total heat increase4 7,see ,c4 ,r4 ,m4 p4 #ei1 #fa1 ,regnault's exp]im5ts47 ,table #h1 ,*apt] ,,xiv41 ,"p ,i41 gives ! prop]ties ( saturat$ /eam1 produc$ "u pressures v>y+ f fifty to "o hundr$ & fifty p\nds p] squ>e in*4 ,! /eam produc$ ov] wat] is call$ saturat$1 & an application ( heat to an isolat$ volume ( ?is /eam1 raises bo? ! temp]ature & pressure1 ! volume & d5sity rema9+ ! same4 ,! saturation is !n no m1 & ! /eam is sur*>g$4 ,if ! heat be )drawn1 pressure & d5sity fall1 & a precipitation ( wat] takes place4 ,! prim+ ( /eam 9 a cyl9d] is an illu/ration ( ?is4 ,d4 ,k4 ,cl>k1 9 ,railway ,ma*9]y1 urges ! necessity ( ?or\ghly dry+ ! /eam be=e apply+ x to ! pi/ons 9 ?is mann]1 he says1 t5 p] c5t4 may be ga9$ at l[ velocities1 & 9 "s cases =ty p] c5t4 at high spe$s4 ,,motion ,,( ,,/eam ,,9 ,,pipes4 #cbe4 ,/eam may fl[ f any vessel into a vacuum1 into ! op5 air1 or into /eam ( a less d5sity4 ,! velocity ( efflux ( /eam is ! same z t ( a /ream ( wat] fl[+ "u a pressure equal to t ( ! /eam4 ,/eam fl[+ into ! atmosph]e ( c\rse has #ad4g lbs4 p] in* resi/ance to meet1 :i* is equival5t to a r$uction ( #ad4g lbs4 ( its pressure4 ,! foll[+ numb]s %[ ! velocity ( efflux ( /eam into ! op5 air "u diff]5t pressures4 ,pressure4 ,velocity1 9 feet p] second4 #ej #agia #fj #ahch #gj #ahgg #hj #aiai #ij #aicf #ajj #aieg #aaj #aigb #abj #aiij #acj #bjjd ,,loss ,,( ,,pressure ,,caus$ ,,by ,,! ,,motion ,,( ,,/eam4 #cbf4 ,! loss ( p[] suff]$ by ! /eam dur+ its motion f ! boil] to ! cyl9d] is caus$ by cond5sation 9 pass+ ?r\gh cold pipes1 & by friction & %>p b5ds4 ,! total fall t may be caus$ by a comb9ation ( circum/ances is f t5 to fifte5 p] c5t4 at l[ velocities1 & f fifty to sixty p] c5t4 at high spe$s4 ,! fall ( pressure decreases z ! squ>e ( ! velocity ( motion1 t is1 ! fall at a velocity ( #a1fjj feet p] second is f\r times z great z ! fall at a velocity ( eight hundr$ feet4 ,by well protect+ ! /eam pipes & cyl9d]s1 & by dry+1 x may be work$ at ne>ly its initial pressure4 ,,application ,,( ,,/eam4 #cbg4 ,! /eam be+ g5]at$ 9 ! boil]1 & convey$ to ! cyl9d]s1 is admitt$ alt]nately to ! opposite sides ( ! pi/on1 by :i* its reciprocations are produc$4 ,! fir/ valve appli$ to regulat+ ! admission ( /eam to ! cyl9d] 0 s arrang$ t ! /eam 0 admitt$ dur+ ! :ole /roke2 at ! end ( :i*1 +ress /opp$ & egress comm5c$ at ! fir/ end1 & +ress comm5c$ at ! second end simultane\sly2 ?is caus$ an unnecess>y resi/ance to ! return movem5t1 by prev5t+ ! quick escape ( ! fir/ cyl9d]-full1 :i* _h to be pu%$ out1 in/ead ( fl[+ out4 ,! cont9uance ( ! full pressure ^u ! pi/on also1 until ! end ( ! /roke1 caus$ a dang]\s mom5tum to be giv5 to ! reciprocat+ ma*9]y4 ,^! evils are obviat$ by caus+ ! exhau/ passage to op51 & ! ent]+ port to close a little be=e ! end ( ! /roke4 ,?is is effect$ by mov+ ! valve bodily =w>d4 ,n[ x is well asc]ta9$1 t ) v free /eam entrances1 if we all[ ! cyl9d] to be only p>tially fill$1 & !n cause ! /eam to exp& itself1 m "w is accompli%$ ) a giv5 bulk ?an :5 ! cyl9d] is completely fill$4 ,t ! /eam may h "t ?us to exp& itself1 ! return ( ! pi/on mu/ n take place until aft] ! suppression 7! /opp+ ( admission74 #cbh4 ,!re are f\r positions ( ! valve dur+ ea* half /roke1 & ?ree di/9ct actions ( /eam 9 ! same p]iod1 :i* are z foll[s3-- ,position ( valve4 ,action ( /eam4 ,admission 7,a74 ,entrance4 ,suppression4 ,expansion4 ,release4 ,compression4 ,admission 7,b74 ,! long] ! "t betwe5 suppression & release1 ( c\rse ! m complete w be ! expansion4 ,! entire =ce ( ! /eam %\ld n 7ev5 if possible7 be extract$1 z a c]ta9 =ce is necess>y to produce a bla/4 ,! "t ( expansion is regulat$ by ! proportions ( ! valve cov]2 :i* may be s adju/$ z to fix suppression or release at any desir$ "p ( ! /roke4 ,by ! above means any rate ( expansion may be e/abli%$1 b :5 once fix$ w rema9 ! same1 ! valve be+ inv>iably connect$ ) ! ecc5tric1 & ?us p>tak+ ( its motion4 #cbi4 ,! great /ep :i* has be5 tak5 9 locomotive con/ruction s9ce #ahdj is ! inv5tion ( ! 8l9k motion10 by ,williams1 :i*1 p]fect$ by ,h[e1 admits ( v>y+ ! travel ( ! valve1 & ?us us+ ! /eam "u any desir$ rate ( expansion4 ,by ?is arrangem5t1 ! p[] ( regulat+ ! =ce appli$ to ! pi/on1 accord+ to ! "w to be done1 is plac$ 9 ! eng9e]'s h&s1 to be us$ at any "t "u :atev] conditions ! eng9e may be work+4 ,by ?is arrangem5t1 two ecc5trics to ea* cyl9d] are requir$1 7& 9 "s dispositions ( ! l9k1 only "o74 ,fig4 #aej %[s ! g5]al plan ( v>y+ ! expansion4 ,a fix$ relation evid5tly exi/s betwe5 ! po9ts ,a & ,b1 two di/9ct motions are communicat$ by ! ecc5trics ,c & ,d ?r\gh ! rods ,e & ,f1 to ! two ends ,g ,h1 ( ! curv$ l9k ,l2 ! ecc5trics are s adju/$ ^u ! driv+ axle z to cause ! two ends ( ! l9k to move 9 opposite directions1 :5ce at "s po9t midway !re is no motion2 ! l9k is movable 7v]tically7 ^u ! susp5d$ po9t ,l1 s t by br++ ,l to "o end or ! o!r1 ! motion giv5 to ! rod m p>takes ( ! motion ( t ecc5tric :i* is ne>e/ to x4 ,?us ! movem5t ( ! valve may be *eck$1 or ev5 rev]s$ 9 a second1 :ile ! eng9e is 9 motion1 & t )\t sudd5 %ocks4 ,! l9k is mov$ by ! lev]s n n n t]m9at+ 9 ! b> ,o1 plac$ at ! foot bo>d ( ! eng9e 9 rea* ( ! eng9e]4 ,appli$ to ?is is an iron sector h h h made fa/ to ! frame ( ! eng9e4 ,n[ :5 ! po9t ,l is 9 su* a "p ( ! l9k z to place ! valve 9 a position admitt+ /eam = any fraction ( ! /roke1 let ! po9t at :i* ! b> ,o /&s ^u ! sector be m>k$ = t admission2 & s also = any numb] ( diff]5t degrees ( expansion4 ,x is pla9 t ! eng9e] may ?us1 by fix+ ! lev] ,o1 use any p]c5tage ( admission t is requir$2 & may always "k j :at duty ! eng9e is do+4 ,five m9utes' exam9ation ( ! rev]s+ ge> ^u an eng9e w r5d] ! op]ation pla94 #ccj4 ,if we cut ! /eam (f at half /roke & !n all[ x to exp&1 ( c\rse ! mean pressure dur+ ! :ole /roke is less ?an t at ent]+4 ,! effective mean pressure obta9$ by any degree ( expansion is %[n by ! foll[+ =mula1 d$uc$ f a mean ( =ty-n9e exp]im5ts ) ! ,great ,brita9 locomotive1 7,great ,we/]n ,railroad1 ,engl&17 hav+ cyl9d]s #ah #bd4 #ac4e77;a7 - #bh7 mean pressure :]e a is ! p]c5tage ( admission4 ,f ?is =mula1 table #aa is made4 #cca4 ,mr4 ,cl>k d$uces z g5]al results1 f a v ext5sive & c>efully conduct$ sy/em ( exp]im5ts1 ! foll[+4 ,t ! maximum useful admission is sev5ty-five p] c5t4 ,! m9imum useful admission is t5 p] c5t4 ,! greate/ possible ga9 by work+ expansively is "o hundr$ p] c5t41 :i* is effect$ by an admission ( t5 p] c5t4 ,! be/ admission = eng9es hav+ ports #a_/ad ( ! area ( ! pi/on1 & bla/ area f #a_/ac to #a_/af ( pi/on1 at high spe$s 7f ?irty to sixty miles p] h\r7 & ) consid]able loads1 is f sixty to sixty-six p] c5t4 ,) a wid] port & bla/ area1 ! be/ admission is sev5ty-five p] c5t4 ,! resi/ance due to ! back pressure ( ! bla/1 v>ies z ! spe$ squ>$1 & inv]sely z ! squ>e ( ! area ( bla/ orifice4 #ccb4 ,f ! exp]im5ts made by ,daniel ,goo*1 ) ! eng9e 8,great ,brita910 ! foll[+ results appe>4 ,! loss ( fuel at sev5ty-five p] c5t4 admission1 ! bla/ orifice be+ f to #a_/aa ( pi/on at sixty miles p] h\r1 is f to 2 at ?irty or =ty p] c5t4 admission1 ! loss is f to #a_/ej2 & at ?irty miles p] h\r1 7sev5ty-five p] c5t4 admission17 f #a_/aa to #a_/dj4 ,! resi/ance f /eam compress$ 9 ! cyl9d]1 increases ) ! spe$1 & also ) ! degree ( expansion2 x v>ies f eight p] c5t4 9 full ge>1 7sev5ty-five p] c5t417 to tw5ty-eight p] c5t4 at an admission ( =ty p] c5t4 ,at ! highe/ velocities1 ! :ole resi/ance f back pressure is ne>ly ! same = all expansions2 = compression increases z bla/ pressure decreases4 ,! above d$uctions hold good = spe$s "u =ty miles p] h\r1 ) /eam ports at lea/ #a_/ad1 & bla/ orifice f #a_/ab to #a_/ae ( ! pi/on area4 ,,( ,,boil] ,,proportions4 #ccc4 ,! dim5sions ( ,am]ican locomotives seem to dep5d m ^u ! %op :5ce !y come1 ?an ^u any special duty requir$ ( !m4 ,x is n surpris+ t ! utmo/ economy is seldom atta9$ :5 a railroad presid5t ord]s a lot ( locomotives1 f ! *eape/ build]1 to suit 8 own ideas ( an eng9e2 or :5 eng9es are ord]$ by a sup]9t5d5t ( ma*9]y :o does n "k ! diff]5ce betwe5 a sixty foot grade & a level4 ,x is ! affair ( ! company's ag5t & n ( ! ma*9i/ to "k j :at a railroad ne$s4 ,x is a common1 & mo/ absurd practice1 = a man :o is completely ignorant ( ma*9]y to ord] five or t5 eng9es1 )\t ! lea/ reg>d to ! "* ( ! road or ( ! traffic4 #ccd4 ,! p>ticul> *>act]i/ics ( ea* class ( eng9es is entirely a matt] ( figures4 ,!re is no reason :y a g5]al table %\ld n be =m$ embrac+ all divisions1 ord]s1 & classes ( locomotives1 9 :i* ! requirem5ts & g5]al dim5sions correspond+ !reto %\ld be laid d[n = ma*9e %op ref]5ce4 ,su* a table w\ld at once e/abli% a mutual und]/&+ betwe5 railroad companies & build]s4 ,su* a g5]al classification is %[n h]eaft]4 ,! dim5sions ( eng9es are n giv51 z x 0 ?\ght be/ to let ea* p]son fill x up accord+ to 8 own ideas4 ,by s do+ "s valuable g5]al proportions may be arriv$ at4 #cce4 ,?us f> exp]i5ce has be5 ! only guide to proportion 79 ,am]ica at lea/74 ,practice1 9 _m ?+s1 is ! only correct pa? to ! "r results1 b locomotives are too exp5sive = philosophical app>atus2 correct exp]im5ts ^u imp]fect ma*9es w lead to ! means ( avoid+ errors4 ,! foll[+ is ! modus op]&i ( ,d4 ,k4 ,cl>k 9 8 8,railway ,ma*9]y40 ,a numb] ( eng9es ( diff]5t proportions are *os51 & obs]vations made ^u ! am\nts ( fuel & wat] consum$ ^u ! "w done1 & "u :at conditions4 ,^! results are s tabulat$ z to %[ ! effect 9 diff]5ce ( con/ruction ^u ! p]=mance ( ! eng9e1 :5ce ! proportion+ ( p>ts becomes a simple ari?metical op]ation4 ,! r$uction ( exp]im5ts to tables1 & ! d$uction f tables ( =mul1 is a simple op]ation comp>$ ) ! skill & c>e requir$ 9 obs]v+ ! op]ation ( a ma*9e1 subject to s _m di/urbances z a locomotive eng9e 9 rapid motion4 ,none h _h a bett] opportunity ( obs]v+1 h conduct$ exp]im5ts ) m c>e1 or h obta9$ results :i* %[ few] discrepancies ?an ! ,engli% eng9e]s ,cl>k & ,goo*1 & ! ,fr5* & ,g]man obs]v]s ,le ,*atli] & ,nollau4 #ccf4 ,?ree ess5tial p>ts ( ! locomotive are ! grate area1 heat+ surface1 & cyl9d]s4 ,no two writ]s ^u ?is subject arrive at ! same dim5sions to p]=m ! same "w4 ,!y n only diff]1 b diff] widely4 ,!y _c all be "r2 all b "o1 or all mu/ be wrong4 ,am]ican build]s h fix$ ! dim5sions ( _! eng9es by obs]v+ ! p]=mance ( con/ruct$ ma*9es1 n by rules d$uc$ f any sy/ematic exp]im5ts1 b ^u a sy/em ( rem$y+ visible errors4 ,if a *imney diamet] ( t5 in*es is f\nd too small & tw5ty too l>ge1 fifte5 has be5 assum$ z ab\t "r4 #ccg4 ,z an example ( ! diff]5ce 9 ! results obta9$ by diff]5t au?ors1 take ! foll[+3-- ,an eng9e to d ! same "w mu/ h1 accord+ to ,z]ah ,norris4#g ,d4 ,k4 ,d4 ,k4 ,colburn4#f ,cl>k4#h ,cl>k4#i #ah #bb #ah #bb #ah #bb #ah #bb ,cyl9d]s4 #e #e #e #e ,:eels4 #ac4jj #ac4hf #ad4jj #ai4fj ,grate area4 #aaad #hab #acbg #acbg ,heat+ surface4 #bej #cbd #acd #acd ,area ( *imney4 #d #bc #bh #bh ,area ( bla/4 #ei #gc ---- ---- ,/eam room4 #ajj #gc ---- ---- ,wat] room4 ,footnote #f3 ,colburn on ! ,locomotive ,eng9e4 ,footnote #g3 ,norris's ,h&book = ,locomotive ,eng9e]s & ,ma*9i/s4 ,footnote #h3 ,d4 ,k4 ,cl>k's ,railway ,ma*9]y1 calculat$ = coke4 ,footnote #i3 ,d4 ,k4 ,cl>k's ,railway ,ma*9]y1 calculat$ = wood4 ,f ^! figures1 ! "w done be+ ! same1 ,mr4 ,cl>k gives =ty p] c5t1 m grate area ?an ei!r ,colburn or ,norris1 an easi] bla/1 & great] heat+ surface4 ,norris makes ! /eam & wat] room equal1 :ile ,colburn makes ! latt] almo/ d\ble ! =m]4 ,x is to be obs]v$ t ,colburn gives only rules adopt$ by diff]5t build]s1 n v\*+ = _! correctness1 :ile ,norris lays d[n 8 rules z fix$ & "r4 ,! eng9es us$ by ! ,engli% exp]im5t]s 9 _! obs]vations1 v>y 9 dim5sion betwe5 ! foll[+ wide limits1 :5ce ! univ]sal application ( _! results4 ,grate area #i to #bd squ>e feet4 ,fire surface #ej to #ajj squ>e feet4 ,tube surface #djj to #a1jjj squ>e feet4 ,:ole surface #dej to #a1ajj squ>e feet4 ,bla/ orifice #aj to #bj sq4 in*es1 area4 ,spe$ ( eng9e #ab to #bj miles p] h\r4 #cch4 ,! result ( "s sixty exp]im5ts ^u =ty-five diff]5t eng9es 7detail$ 9 ,cl>k's ,railway ,ma*9]y1 page #aef71 gives ! foll[+ =mula1 express+ ! relations :i* ought to exi/ betwe5 grate area1 heat+ surface1 & consumption ( wat]2 t evaporation may be c>ri$ on 9 ! mo/ economical mann]4 ,s 7ac7 #ba4b surface4 ,:]e ,s is ! heat+ surface 9 squ>e feet4 a is ! grate area 9 squ>e feet4 c is ! h\rly consumption ( wat] 9 cubic feet4 ,f :i* we d$uce ! value ( a or c ?us1 a 77,s_/#ba4b7b7_/;c grate area2 & c 77,s_/#ba4b7b7_/;a h\rly wat] consumption4 ,! maximum evaporation :i* %\ld be c>ri$ on p] squ>e foot ( grate is f\nd1 by ,mr4 ,cl>k1 to be sixte5 cubic feet p] h\r4 ,?us1 if we wi% to evaporate #afj cubic feet ( wat] p] h\r1 we mu/ h a grate area ( at lea/ #afj_/af or t5 squ>e feet4 #cci4 ,! above =mula = ! grate area gives ! dim5sion = a coke-burn+ furnace4 ,locomotives burn+ wood or coal require a modification ( ! above1 z foll[s3-- ,to produce a giv5 am\nt ( heat1 a c]ta9 am\nt ( c>bon mu/ be burnt4 ,z wood conta9s mu* less c>bon ?an coke1 a correspond+ly l>g] bulk mu/ be burnt1 & a l>g] grate is necess>y2 n1 h[ev]1 l>g] 9 proportion to ! l>g] bulk ( fuel1 z we may h a deep] wood ?an coke fire4 ,! relative dep? ( fire be+ z ! /[age bulk1 & ! actual dep? ( a coke fire be+ #a4i feet1 t ( a wood fire w be #b4e feet4 ,n[ let ,a be ! numb] ( lbs4 ( coke p] foot ( wat] evaporat$4 ,b ! numb] ( lbs4 ( coal p] foot ( wat] evaporat$4 ,c ! numb] ( lbs4 ( wood p] foot ( wat] evaporat$4 ,call d ! dep? at :i* if is ! mo/ economical to burn coke2 d ! same dep? = coal1 & ! dep? = wood d4 ,!n w ! area ( a coke grate be ,a_/d2 ,( a coal grate ,b_/d2 ,& ( a wood grate ,c_/d4 ,to be able to fix ! prop] grate area = any fuel1 we mu/ "k its evaporative p[]1 & a dep? ( a lay] 9 ! furnace4 ,kn[+ ! absolute value = coke1 x rema9s only to obta9 ! relative value = any o!r4 ,?us f> we h disreg>d$ ! diff]5ce 9 "t ( burn+ wood & coke4 ,to produce a giv5 am\nt ( heat1 we burn a c]ta9 *emical value ( fuel2 a mu* l>g] bulk ( wood ?an ( coke is ne$$4 ,if we burn wood & coke at ! same dep? & 9 ! same "t1 ! grate areas w\ld be proportional to ! bulks ( fuel to produce ! same heat2 b1 fir/1 we burn fuel 9 a dep? proportion$ to ! economic /[age bulk1 or z #b4e to #a4i1 :i* decreases ! wood area2 &1 second1 a lay] ( coke #a4i feet deep burns 9 "o h\r1 :ile a lay] ( wood #bd feet deep burns 9 fifte5 m9utes2 :5ce #fj m4 divid$ by #ae m4 #d lay]s ( #b feet deep ea*1 or 9 all t5 feet1 :i* into ! bulk 7equal to a mass ( coke #a foot squ>e #a4i high7 or #a foot squ>e by #ad high1 gives #ad #aj #a4d2 or1 f9ally1 ! area ( ! wood grate %\ld be #a4d times t ( a grate to burn coke4 ,,( ,,! ,,size ,,& ,,use ,,( ,,! ,,smoke ,,box4 #cdj4 ,! smoke box is ! g5]al t]m9ation ( ! flues1 & ! place :]e ! vacuum is produc$1 :i* causes ! draft4 ,! size ( ! boil] be+ ! same1 ! vacuum v>ies directly z ! bla/ pressure4 ,! p[] ( ! bla/ is ( c\rse affect$ by ! capacity ( ! smoke box4 ,mr4 ,cl>k fixes ! capacity ( ! exhau/ *amb] at ?ree cubic feet p] squ>e foot ( grate4 ,! vacuum 9 ! furnace v>ies f "o to two ?irds ( t 9 ! smoke box4 ,! less ! resi/ance to ! hot gases exp]i5c$ 9 ! flues1 ! less may be ! vacuum4 ,^u ! vacuum dep5ds ! am\nt ( air drawn ?r\gh ! grate2 ^u ! bulk ( air drawn ?r\gh ! grate dep5ds ! combu/ion2 ^u ! combu/ion ! evaporation4 ,:5ce ! evaporation cet4 p>4 dep5ds ! vacuum 9 ! smoke box4 ,! velocity ( any fluid dep5ds ^u ! p[] appli$ to x1 7be+ z ! squ>e root17 ! pressure appli$ to ! gases 9 ! furnace ( a locomotive is ! vacuum 9 ! smoke box2 ?us ! combu/ion or rate ( evaporation is z ! squ>e root ( ?is vacuum4 ,to d\ble ! evaporation x is necess>y to quadruple ! vacuum4 ,,bla/ ,,pipe4 #cda4 ,! bla/ pipe conducts ! wa/e /eam f ! cyl9d]1 :i* drives ! air f ! *imney & produces ! vacuum 9 ! smoke box2 its =m %\ld p]mit ! free/ escape ( ! /eam f ! cyl9d]4 ,! bla/ pipe area %\ld n[h]e be small] ?an ! exit port1 except at ! contraction at ! top4 8,too mu* c>e10 says ,mr4 ,cl>k1 8_c be tak5 to adju/ ! bla/ pipe conc5trically ) ! *imney2 "o half in* has be5 kn[n to spoil ! draft ( a locomotive40 8,! area ( orifice is ! mo/ critical & mo/ important item 9 ! composition ( ! locomotive40 ,= ! =m1 dim5sions1 & influ5ce ( ?is important memb]1 ! read] is ref]r$ to ,cl>k's ,railway ,ma*9]y4 ,z ! grate area increases1 ! bla/ may decrease4 ,! great] ! flue area ! easi] may be ! bla/2 decrease ( smoke box capacity & ( *imney diamet]1 bo? all[ a mild] bla/4 #cdb4 ,! foll[+ proportions are collect$ f ! "w ( ,mr4 ,cl>k4 ,! ord] 9 :i* ! diff]5t p>ts ( ! eng9e /& 9 importance ) relation to ! bla/1 is %[n 9 column #a4 ,! figures %[ ! ratios 7! be/7 :i* may be _h "u ! mo/ favorable circum/ances4 ,grate area #a ,f]rule area 7area ( section ( tubes at back flue %eet7 ,tube1 sectional area ,capacity ( smoke box1 cubic feet #c ,*imney1 height f\r diamet]s1 area ( section #a_/ae ,bla/ orifice #a_/ge ,! vacuum 9 ! smoke box is some:at regulat$ by a damp] plac$ 9 front ( ! a% pan1 by a valve 9 ! *imney1 or by a ,v5etian bl9d cov]+ ! front ends ( ! tubes4 ,,tube ,,section ,,& ,,l5g?4 #cdc4 ,! section ( ! tubes 7crosswise7 is ! space ?r\gh :i* ! hot gases pass (f4 ,by increas+ ! l5g? or decreas+ ! diamet]1 we ( c\rse require a /rong] bla/4 ,t ! /eam may escape z soon z g5]at$1 !re mu/ be a c]ta9 cle>ance betwe5 ! tubes1 :i* ,mr4 ,cl>k fixes z foll[s3-- ,divide ! numb] ( tubes by ?irty & ! result is ! cle>ance 9 eigh?s ( an in*2 or algebraically ,c 77,n_/#cj77_/h cle>ance 9 in*es2 ,or o!rwise ,c ,n_/#bdj cle>ance 9 in*es4 ,,proportions ,,( ,,cyl9d]s ,,& ,,:eels4 #cdd4 ,! above proportions dep5d entirely ^u ! nature & am\nt ( "w to be done1 & ^u ! "* ( ! road4 ,small :eels & long /roke are to be appli$ to heavy tra9s & /eep grades4 ,%ort /roke & l>ge :eels to fa/ tra9s & level roads4 ,!re are "s advantages 9 a long cyl9d]1 ev5 ) a con/ant ratio betwe5 ! /roke & :eel diamet]4 ,! /eam has m "t to exp&2 ! action ( ! ma*9]y is sl[]1 & ! erratic movem5ts ( ! eng9e caus$ by ! movem5t ( ! reciprocat+ ma*9]y are less5$1 at ! same "t ! c5tre ( gravity is rais$ & oscillation increas$4 ,,( ,,! ,,c>riage4 #cde4 ,! arrangem5t ( ! :eels1 axles1 spr+s1 & draw-l9k1 & ! di/ribution ( ! weight ( ! eng9e ^u its sev]al be>+s s z to provide ! necess>y adhesion1 & to run /eadily ^u ! rails1 is a matt] well wor?y ( m att5tion ?an is commonly giv5 to x4 ,! frame is ! base ( ! eng9e1 to :i* e ?+ %\ld be atta*$4 ,! cyl9d]s & ! :eel bo? be+ atta*$ to x1 x ( c\rse becomes ! c\nt]p>t to ! pi/on & connect+ rod2 ! =m] hold+ ! cyl9d] & :eel toge!r1 :ile ! latt] pu%es !m ap>t4 ,! frame %\ld =m a rigid connection betwe5 ! pi/on & ! :eel2 & its /r5g? mu/ be able to resi/ ! :ole p[] ( ! eng9e1 appli$ alt]nately z compression & z ext5sion4 ,! :eels ( a locomotive answ] ?ree sev]al purposes1 & are class$ z foll[s3-- ,lead+ :eels4 ,driv+ :eels4 ,trail+ :eels4 ,! duty ( ! driv+ :eels is to transf] ! p[] ( ! eng9e to ! rails1 by :i* ! motion is produc$4 ,t ( ! lead+ :eels1 to guide ! eng9e2 & t ( ! trail+ :eels1 to support ! aft] end ( ! eng9e4 ,! weight ^u ! driv+ :eels mu/ be en\gh = suffici5t adhesion4 ,t ^u ! lead+ :eels1 suffici5t to guide ! eng9e ^u curves1 7decreas+ z _! di/ance f ! c5tre ( gravity becomes great]1 & increas+ ) ! spe$47 ,! c5tre ( gravity ( an eng9e is g5]ally at a di/ance ( f "o qu>t] to "o six? ( ! l5g? ( ! b>rel f ! furnace horizontally & =w>ds1 & 9 ! l[] "p ( ! b>rel1 v]tically4 ,! weight ^u any "o pair ( :eels is z _! di/ance f ! c5tre ( gravity2 by *ang+ _! position we *ange ! appli$ weight4 ,! flange base#aj mu/ increase z ! eng9e becomes heavi]1 :5 appli$ to fa/ tra9s1 z m lev]age is necess>y to keep x on ! rails4 ,heavy freight eng9es ) f\r or five pairs ( :eels1 & no truck1 we> ! rails & /ra9 !mselves v mu*4 ,we %\ld make ! :eels ( su* v small & ne> toge!r1 9 ord] to contract ! flange base4 ,footnote #aj3 ,:eel base1--,horizontal l5g? betwe5 c5tres ( extreme :eels4 ,flange base1--,horizontal l5g? betwe5 c5tres ( extreme fix$ flang$ :eels4 ,,di/ribution ,,( ,,weight4 #cdf4 ,suppose ! :ole load ^u ! :eels is #fj1jjj lbs4 ,if ! c5tre ( gravity is half-way betwe5 ! :eels 7!re be+ two pairs71 ea* w support #cj1jjj lbs4 ,if ! c5tre ( gravity is twice z ne> to "o axle z to ! o!r1 ! fur!/ "o w support #bj1jjj lbs41 & ! ne>e/ "o #fj1jjj-bj1jjj1 or #dj1jjj lbs4 ,suppose ! eng9e has six po9ts ( support1 or ?ree po9ts 9 ! side elevation1 7! ord9>y f\r driv+ :eels & a truck eng9e74 ,let ! c5tre ( gravity be "o foot beh9d ! middle axle & ! di/ances betwe5 ! :eel c5tres eight feet4 ,! weight ^u ! middle axle be+ ,h1 t ^u ! h9d axle is ,h_/#g1 because t axle is sev5 times m di/ant f ! c5tre ( gravity ?an ! middle "o1 & = ! same reason ! weight ^u ! front axle is ,h_/#i4 ,n[ ,h ,h_/#g ,h_/#i #fj1jjj lbs4 ,:5ce ,h #dg1igf lbs4 ,also1 ,h_/#g #f1hec lbs4 ,& ,h_/#i #e1cca lbs4 ,& ! same laws 7see article ,lev]1 9 any "w on ,me*anics7 apply to any arrangem5t ( :eels & to any position ( c5tre ( gravity4 ,spr+s are employ$ to absorb ! %ocks receiv$ by ! :eels f irregul>ities 9 ! surface ( ! rails4 ,!y mu/ be equally /iff on bo? sides ( ! eng9e1 or lat]al rock+ w be g5]at$4 ,:51 z is g5]ally ! case1 ! spr+s are connect$ by comp5sat+ lev]s1 _! /iffness be+ z ! load ^u !m1 ! arms ( ! connect+ lev] mu/ be inv]sely proportional to ! appli$ weights4 ,! %ock receiv$ by "o :eel is by ! lev] communicat$ to ! :ole f\r1 7or ev5 m :5 !re are su*74 ,! truck spr+s ( "s build]s are also connect$ by an equaliz+ lev]4 ,accord+ to ,mr4 ,cl>k1 n m ?an twelve tons %\ld ev] be plac$ ^u "o axle2 :5ce eng9es requir+ a tractive p[] ( twelve tons & less may be ( ! =m %[n 9 fig4 #aea4 ,betwe5 twelve & tw5ty-f\r tons1 ( ! =m fig4 #aeb2 & ov] ! =ms figs4 #aec1 #aed1 & #aee4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aea4 ,! weight ^u ! lead+ :eels ( fa/ pass5g] eng9es %\ld be z mu* z "o fif? ( ! :ole weight4 ,^u freight eng9es x ne$ n be m ?an "o six?4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aeb4 ,! l9e ( traction ( a locomotive ought to be z ne> z possible at ! same v]tical height z ! driv+ :eel c5tres4 ,if mu* bel[ ?is ! load w t5d to lift ! eng9e (f f ! lead+ :eels1 ^u ! driv]s z a fulcrum1 ?us increas+ ! adhesion & less5+ ! lead+ p[]4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aec4 ,if ! traction b> 7draw l9k7 is above ! :eel c5tres1 x w t5d to lift ! re> ( ! eng9e f ! rails4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aed4 ,! g5]al =m ( eng9es us$ 9 ,am]ica are %[n 9 figs4 #aea1 #aeb1 #aec1 #aed1 & #aee4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aee4 ,fig4 #aea is ! express pass5g] locomotive4 ,fig4 #aeb is ! ord9>y pass5g]1 mail1 & mix$ eng9e4 ,fig4 #aec is ! heavy freight eng9e4 ,we h1 also1 eng9es ) ?ree1 f\r1 & five pairs ( small :eels )\t a truck1 = heavy grades & l>ge am\nts ( "w4 ,,( ,,erratic ,,movem5ts4 #cdg4 ,! erratic movem5ts ( a locomotive 9 motion are due to ?ree sep>ate causes4 ,to ! motion ( ! ma*9]y4 ,to ! arrangem5t ( ! frame & :eels4 ,to ! /ate ( ! surface ( ! rails4 ,^? caus$ by ! motion ( ! ma*9]y are z foll[s3 ,longitud9al =e & aft movem5t1 g5]at$ by ! reciprocations ( ! pi/on rod1 cross head1 connect+ rod1 & crank2 & dep5d+ 9 am\nt ^u ! weights ( ! mov+ p>ts1 /eam pressure1 & velocity ( motion4 ,pit*+ ( ! eng9e1 aris+ f ! oblique action ( ! cross heads ^u ! guides1 :i* t5ds to lift ! front end ( ! eng9e f ! rails2 & dep5ds 9 am\nt ^u ! ratio betwe5 ! /roke & l5g? ( connect+ rod4 ,rock+ lat]ally1 aris+ f ! diff]5ce ( "t ( action ( ! cross heads2 "o act+ ) its greate/ v]tical p[]1 :5 ! opposite "o acts ) none4 ,vibration 9 plan ab\t ! c5tre ( gravity ( eng9e1 produc$ by ! pressure betwe5 ! pi/on & crank p91 & by ! mom5tum ( ! reciprocat+ ma*9]y4 ,?is la/1 comb9$ ) lat]al rock+1 produces s9u\s or spiral motion4 ,! am\nts ( ^! sev]al irregul>ities dep5d consid]ably ^u ! arrangem5t ( c>riage2 t is1 ^u ! position ( :eels2 be+ less z ! base includ$ by ! be>+ po9ts is great]4 ,! influ5ce ( ! /ate ( ! rails is %[n by ! v]tical & lat]al %ocks aris+ f ! rail jo9ts & f bad adju/m5t1 bo? horizontally & v]tically4 ,! am\nts ( ^! irregul>ities increase v rapidly ) ! spe$4 ,le ,*ateli]'s exp]im5ts make !m increase ne>ly z ! squ>e ( ! velocity4 ,longitud9al =e & aft motion is ne>ly balanc$ by apply+ a c\nt]weight to ! :eel1 opposite ! po9t to :i* ! connect+ rod is atta*$4 ,! rem$y = pit*+ consi/s 9 plac+ ! guide b>s "u ! heavie/ "p ( ! eng9e2 by :i*1 a great weight is oppos$ to ! v]tical action ( ! cross heads4 ,crampton's eng9e is q free f ?is di/urbance1 z ! guide b>s are almo/ directly "u ! c5tre ( gravity4 ,! only c\nt]act+ ef=t 7rem$y x is n7 = s9u\s motion yet appli$1 is ext5sion ( :eel & flange base1 ?us giv+ ! guid+ :eels m control ov] ! mass ( ! eng9e4 ,! rem$y1 h[ev]1 :i* applies at once to all ( ! erratic movem5ts1 is r$uction ( spe$1 z :5 we divide ! velocity by two we decrease ! di/urbances ne>ly f\rfold4 ,,review ,,( ,,! ,,=mul ,,& ,,=mation ,,( ,,! ,,tables4 ,no4 #a4 #cdh4 ,giv5 ! weight & velocity ( a tra91 to f9d ! necess>y traction on a level4 ,=mula4 ,w ,r1 ,w be+ ! weight ( ! tra9 9 tons1 & ,r ! resi/ance 9 lbs4 p] ton2 f\nd by ! =mula 7,v#b7_/aga #h ,r4 ,by ?is =mula is =m$ table #a1 giv+ ! traction requir$ to move tra9s ( f fifty to "o ?\s& tons weight1 at spe$s f t5 to "o hundr$ miles p] h\r4 ,no4 #b4 #cdi4 ,to f9d ! traction due to a grade4 ,=mula4 ,w ,r_/,l1 :]e ,w is ! weight ( ! tra9 9 tons1 ,r ! rise1 & ,l ! l5g? ( ! incl9e4 ,by ?is rule is =m$ table #b1 giv+ ! necess>y traction to ov]come grades f t5 to "o hundr$ feet p] mile1 ) loads f "o to "o ?\s& tons4 ,to obta9 ! :ole traction requir$1 add ! am\nts tak5 f tables #a & #b2 ?us ! traction necess>y to draw five hundr$ tons at tw5ty miles p] h\r ov] fifty feet grades is1 ,by table #a1 #e1agj lbs4 ,by table #b1 #aj1fje lbs4 ------------ ,9 all1 #ae1gge lbs4 or1 algebraically1 7,w ,r7 7,,wr_/,l7 ,t1 ! lett]s /&+ = ! same quantities z above4 ,no4 #c4 #cej4 ,to f9d ! weight to place on ! driv+ :eels4 ,=mula4 #f,t1 :]e ,t is ! :ole tractive p[]4 7,table #c47 ,nos4 #d & #e4 ,! tractive p[] ( an eng9e is express$ by ,t 77#b;,a7,p #b,s7_/,c1 ,:]e ,t is ! tractive p[]4 ,p1 /eam pressure 9 lbs4 p] squ>e in*4 ,s1 /roke 9 in*es4 ,c1 circumf]5ce ( :eel 9 in*es4 ,a1 area ( "o pi/on 9 in*es4 ,f ?is =mula we get ! values ( ! sev]al factors z foll[s3-- ,! /eam pressure1 or ,p 7,,tc7_/77#b;,a7#b,s74 7,a47 ,! /roke1 or ,s 7,,ct7_/77#b;,a77#b,p774 7,b47 ,! pi/on area1 or ,a 7,,tc7_/7#d,,sp74 7,c47 ,! :eel circumf]5ce1 or ,c 7#b;,a ,p #b,s7_/,t4 7,d47 ,& f 7,c7 we get ! diamet] ( pi/on by ! foll[+3-- d 7area_/4#ghed74 ,& 9 l mann] f 7,d7 ! diamet] ( :eel by d c_/#c4adaf4 7,see tables #d & #e47 ,no4 #g4 #cea4 ,to f9d ! capacity ( cyl9d]s ( any dim5sion4 ,=mula4 7,d#b 4#ghed ,/roke7_/#agbh4 ,?is gives ! capacity 9 cubic feet4 ,! dim5sions above 7see ,d & ,s7 be+ 9 in*es4 7,table #g47 ,no4 #f4 #ceb4 ,to f9d ! h\rly /eam consumption 9 t]ms ( ! capacity ( "o cyl9d]1 7t is1 ! numb] ( cyl9d]fuls p] h\r74 ,=mula4 ,n7#ebhj_/;c7 #d1 :]e ,n is ! numb] ( miles p] h\r1 c ! :eel circumf]5ce4 7,table #f47 ,no4 #h4 #cec4 ,kn[+ ! h\rly consumption ( /eam1 to r$uce x to wat]4 ,=mula4 ,b_/,n1 ,b be+ ! bulk ( /eam 9 cubic feet1 & ,n ! relative volume ( /eam & wat]4 7,! values ( ,n are giv5 9 table #h47 ,no4 #i4 #ced4 ,kn[+ ! h\rly wat] consumption1 to f9d ! grate area & heat+ surface4 ,fir/1 7,cubic feet ( wat] p] h\r7_/#af grate area 9 squ>e ft4 ,second1 ,s 7ac7 #ba4b heat+ surface1 :]e a is ! grate area1 & c ! h\rly consumption ( wat] 9 cubic feet4 ,f ! same =mula1 ,grate area1 or a 77,s_/#ba4b7b7_/;c ,also wat] consumption1 or c 77,s_/#ba4b7b7_/;a 7,see table #i47 ,no4 #aj4 #cee4 ,to f9d ! necess>y numb] ( tubes to give any am\nt ( heat+ surface4 ,=mula4 ,n ,s_/7,ld71 :5 ,n is ! numb]1 ,s ! requir$ surface1 ,l ! l5g?1 d ! diamet]1 bo? 9 feet1 & #c4adaf4 7,see ,table #aj47 ,no4 #aa4 #cef4 ,to f9d ! mean cyl9d] pressure = any p]c5tage ( admission4 ,=mula4 #ac4e7;a7 - #bh1 :]e a is ! p]c5tage ( admission4 7,see ,table #aa47 ,z to ! int]nal arrangem5t ( ! b>rel ( ! boil]1 we mu/ ( c\rse h ! l5g? ( tubes ! same z t ( ! b>rel1 7t is1 9 ! g5]al plan ( boil]1 "s mak]s h mov$ ! back flue plate ahead74 ,! l5g? ( tubes w ( c\rse be ! same z ! di/ance betwe5 ! tube %eets4 ,! numb] is gov]n$ by _! diamet] & by ! prop] cle>ance1 :i* is f\nd by ! =mula1 7,n_/#cj7_/h 9 eigh?s ( in*es1 or ,n_/#bdj in*es4 ,! upp] fifte5 to eighte5 in*es ( ! b>rel mu/ be left = /eam room4 ,,( ,,! ,,diamet] ,,( ,,b>rel4 #ceg4 ,to f9d ! diamet] ( a b>rel to conta9 a giv5 numb] ( tubes1 ,repres5t ! inside diamet] ( boil] by ,d1 ,diamet] ( "o tube d1 ,cle>ance betwe5 tubes c1 ,numb] ( tubes n1 ,sectional area ( boil]1 9 in*es ,a1 ,wat] section1 9 in*es ,b1 we %all h z ! area ( wat] room p] tube1 7d c7#b1 & ! :ole area ( wat] room1 7d c7#b n1 ! :ole section ( ! b>rel1 ,a_/,b7d c7#bn1 & ! diamet] ( t area1 ,d 777d c7#bn,a_/,b7_/4#ghed7 :i* is ! boil] diamet] 9 in*es1 to :i* add ,d_/#af on ea* side1 or 9 all ,d_/#h z ! room to be left betwe5 ! sides ( ! boil] & fir/ tube4 ,! diamet] f9ds its maximum limit 9 ! gauge less ! two half bread?s ( tire1 & two or ?ree in*es all[ance = atta*m5t to ! frame & o!r me*anical incid5tals4 ,! l5g? mu/ be en\gh to c>ry ! lead+ :eels a suffici5t di/ance f ! c5tre ( gravity ( ! eng9e4 ,,adaptation ,,( ,,! ,,locomotive ,,eng9e ,,to ,,! ,,movem5t ,,( ,,railway ,,tra9s4 #ceh4 ,fir/1 z reg>ds ! nature ( ! traffic4 ,!re are c]ta9 necess>y causes ( a bad application ( p[] ^u railroads2 = example1 :5 ! tra9s are v mu* heavi] 9 "o direction ?an 9 ! o!r1 z we are oblig$ to use ! same eng9e bo? ways1 because :5 x arrives at "o end ( ! road x mu/ g back to />t aga94 ,:]e ! traffic requires to be work$ *iefly up hill1 we use an eng9e mu* heavi] to asc5d ) ! load ?an is necess>y to desc5d )\t a load4 ,diff]5t objects ( transport require diff]5t spe$s4 ,p]i%able freight1 su* z ice1 beef1 pork1 cattle1 c41 requires to be mov$ 9 mu* less "t ?an gra91 lumb]1 fl\r1 coal1 & manufactur$ articles4 ,z a g5]al ?+1 ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! *>act]s ( freight eng9es1 z reg>ds ! nature ( ! traffic1 c be adapt$ only ) a view to am\nt1 disreg>d+ ! nature4 ,) pass5g] traffic1 h[ev]1 !re is a great v>iety ( spe$s made use (1 & consequ5tly may be a great] diff]5ce 9 ! proportions ( eng9es dep5d+ entirely ^u ! nature ( ! traffic4 ,,adaptation ,,z ,,reg>ds ,,! ,,physical ,,"* ,,( ,,! ,,road4 ,! be/ adaptation ( locomotive p[] to any sy/em ( grades1 w\ld be t :i* %\ld r5d] ! mileage a m9imum2 & ?is w be done1 z ne>ly z possible1 by apply+ eng9es1 ! /r5g? ( :i* %all be proportional to ! resi/ance to be ov]come4 ,! be/ mode ( comp>+ diff]5t adaptations ( p[] is by r$uc+ ! grades to a level2 or by equat+ = grades by means ( ! capacity ( motive p[]4 ,?is is done z foll[s3-- ,! l5g? ( an incl9e be+ ,l1 ,! resi/ance on a level be+ ,r1 ,! ratio ( ! resi/ance due to ! grade to ! resi/ance on a level by r1 ,! equival5t horizontal l5g? by ,l1 & we %all h1 7,r r7,l ,l4 ,example4--,let ! l5g? ( a grade be sev5ty-five miles2 ! value ( r ,r_/#c2 & we h 7#c_/c,r,r_/#c7,l 77#d,r7_/#c7ge #ajj miles4 ,let u n[ comp>e ! mileage ( "s ( ! l>ge roads ( ,am]ica1 z giv5 by a good1 & also by a bad adaptation ( p[]4 ,! ,massa*usetts ,we/]n ,railroad may be divid$ into ! f\r sections bel[ 7includ+ ! ,bo/on & ,worce/] road74 ,l5g? miles4 ,maximum grade4 ,bo/on to ,worce/]1 #dd #cj ,worce/] to ,spr+field1 #ed #ej ,spr+field to ,pittsfield1 #eb #hc ,pittsfield to ,albany1 #di #de ,assume ! spe$ ( freight tra9s z fifte5 miles p] h\r1 ! resi/ance on a level w be #i4c lbs41 or = simplicity call x t5 p\nds p] ton4 ,! resi/ance due to a #cj feet grade is #ac lbs4 p] ton4 ,! resi/ance due to a #ej feet grade is #ba lbs4 p] ton4 ,! resi/ance due to a #hc feet grade is #ce lbs4 p] ton4 ,! resi/ance due to a #de feet grade is #ai lbs4 p] ton4 ,& ! value ( r = a #cj feet grade is #ac_/aj lbs4 p] ton4 ,& ! value ( r = a #ej feet grade is #ba_/aj lbs4 p] ton4 ,& ! value ( r = a #hc feet grade is #ce_/aj lbs4 p] ton4 ,& ! value ( r = a #de feet grade is #ai_/aj lbs4 p] ton4 ,& ! relative l5g? ( ! sev]al sections w be1 ,bo/on to ,worce/]1 #aj_/aj #ac_/aj #bc_/aj ( #dd #aja ,worce/] to ,spr+field1 #ca_/aj ( #ed #afi ,spr+field to ,pittsfield1 #de_/aj ( #eb #bcd ,pittsfield to ,albany1 #bi_/aj ( #di #add ------ ------ ,& ! sums1 #bjj #fdh ! equat$ di/ance be+ #c times ! actual l5g?4 ,?is l5g? assumes ! resi/ance ( ! sev]al sections to be = _! :ole l5g? t giv5 by _! maximum grade4 ,?is might seem errone\s2 b its correctness w be se5 :5 x is rememb]$ t ! greate/ load t c be tak5 ov] any section is limit$ by its maximum grade4 ,n[ suppose t ! eng9e employ$ is ( ! foll[+ dim5sions 7z x is v ne>ly74 ,cyl9d]s #af #bj in*es1 ,:eels #ed in*es4 ,assume ! cyl9d] pressure #aaj lbs41 & ! tractive p[] ( ! eng9e is #e1bhg lbs4 ,a load ( #ejj tons1 ^u a #cj feet grade1 requires a #aa1ejj lbs4 traction ( ,^u a #ej feet grade1 #ae1ejj lbs4 ,^u an #hc feet grade1 #bb1ejj lbs4 ,^u a #de feet grade1 #ad1ejj lbs4 ,to move ! above load f ,bo/on to ,worce/] we %\ld #b eng9es1 require ,f ,worce/] to ,spr+field1 #c eng9es1 ,f ,spr+field to ,pittsfield1 #e eng9es1 ,f ,pittsfield to ,albany1 #c eng9es1 ,& ! products ( ! numb] ( eng9es by ! l5g?s ( ! correspond+ divisions1 are ,bo/on to ,worce/]1 #dd #b #hh ,worce/] to ,spr+field1 #ed #c #afc ,spr+field to ,pittsfield1 #eb #e #bfj ,pittsfield to ,albany1 #di #c #adh -------- #ffj ,suppose t by mak+ ! eng9es on ! sev]al sections /rong 9 proportion to ! resi/ance ( ^? sections1 "o eng9e is capable ( tak+ ! :ole load ov] all ( ! grades4 ,! mileage becomes z foll[s3-- ,bo/on to ,worce/]1 #dd #a #dd ,worce/] to ,spr+field1 #ed #a #ed ,spr+field to ,pittsfield1 #eb #a #eb ,pittsfield to ,albany1 #di #a #di ------ #bjj miles4 ,! mileage be=e 0 #ffj miles1 ,& ! sav+ !re=e #djj miles4 or ab\t #gj p] c5t4 ( ! fir/ mileage4 #cei4 ,f a rec5t report ( ! ,new ,york & ,erie ,railroad x appe>s t ! same p[] w draw #bh tons on ! ,we/]n division1 #hj tons on ! ,susquehanna division1 #he tons on ! ,delaw>e division1 & #bj tons on ! ,ea/]n division1 neglect+ ! assi/ance requir$ f ,susquehanna to ,deposite4 ,9 ! foll[+ table are giv5 ! actual l5g?s ( ! sev]al divisions1 & ! sum ( ! products ( ?ree l5g?s bo? by ! relative & a uni=m resi/ance on ea*4 ,miles run ,miles run by ,division4 ,l5g?4 by an an eng9e ,diff]5ce4 eng9e n adapt$4 adapt$4 ,we/]n1 #abh #abh #c4jd #abh #a4j #bfa4ab ,susquehanna1 #aci #aci #a4jf #aci #a4j #h4ce ,delaw>e1 #ajd #ajd #a4jj #ajd #a4j #j4jj ,ea/]n1 #hh #hh #d4be #hh #a4j #bhf4jj ------------ ,sum ( diff]5ces1 #eee4dg miles1 t is1 ! miles run by eng9es adapt$ to ! "w on ! sev]al divisions w be #eee4dg less ?an ! miles run by eng9es n adapt$4 7,see ,app5dix ,f47 ,,p5nsylvania ,,c5tral ,,railroad4 #cfj4 ,! physical "* ( ?is road is z foll[s3-- ,l5g?4 ,max4 grades4 ,philadelphia to ,h>risburg1 #ajf #de ,h>risburg to ,altoona1 #aca #ba ,altoona to ,john/[n1 #dh #ib ,john/[n to ,pittsburgh1 #gh #ec ,! value ( r w be "h #de feet grades1 #ai_/aj #ba feet grades1 #i_/aj #ib feet grades1 #ci_/aj #ec feet grades1 #be_/aj ,:5ce ! equation1 #ajf 7#aj_/aj #ai_/aj7 #cjg #aca 7#aj_/aj #i_/aj7 #bdi #db 7#aj_/aj #ci_/aj7 #bjh #gh 7#aj_/aj #be_/aj7 #bge ------ ------ ,sum1 #ceh ,sum1 #ajci & #ajci - #ceh #fha4 #cfa4 ,on ! ,baltimore & ,ohio ,railroad we h1 ,miles4 ,max4 grade4 ,baltimore to ,h>p]'s ,f]ry1 #hj #hb ,h>p]'s ,f]ry to ,cumb]l&1 #ih #dj ,cumb]l& to ,raccoon1 #hh4b #aaf ,raccoon to #adh miles1 #fj4e #dj #adh miles to ,:eel+1 #ea4c #hj ,& z be=e1 #hj 7#aj_/aj #ce_/aj7 #cfj #ih 7#aj_/aj #ag_/aj7 #bfe #hh4b 7#aj_/aj #di_/aj7 #ebj #fj4e 7#aj_/aj #ag_/aj7 #afc #ea4c 7#aj_/aj #ce_/aj7 #bca ,sum ( ,col4 #a #cgh1 ,sum ( ,col4 #c #aeci2 diff]5ce #aafa4 ,?us by ! mo/ correct adaptation ( p[]1 ^u ! above-nam$ railroads1 ! foll[+ p]c5tages ( mileage may be sav$4 ,massa*usetts ,we/]n1 #gj ,new ,york & ,erie1 #ee ,p5nsylvania ,c5tral1 #fh ,baltimore & ,ohio1 #ge ,( ^! roads ! ,baltimore & ,ohio is t :i* has actually ! be/ adaptation2 & ! ,we/]n road ( ,massa*usetts t :i* has ! wor/4 #cfb4 ,to det]m9e ! actual dim5sions ( ! eng9es :i* %\ld be us$ ^u any road1 f ! tables1 proce$ z foll[s3--,let ! load be "o hundr$ tons1 ! maximum grade ?irty feet p] mile1 & spe$ tw5ty-five miles p] h\r4 ,ref]r+ to ! tables 9 succession we h1 ,by table #a1 ,traction = #ajj tons1 on a level1 at #be miles #a1eej lbs4 p] h\r1 ,by table #b1 ,traction = #ajj tons1 on a #cj feet grade1 #a1bgc lbs4 ---------- ,:ole traction requir$1 #b1hbc lbs4 ,by ! =mula1 table #c1 ! weight ^u ! driv]s mu/ be #bhbc #f #afich lbs41 or #h tons4 ,by table #d1 ) a :eel five feet 9 diamet]1 & a /roke ( tw5ty in*es1 we h ! decimal 4#babb4 ,by table #e1 ! mean cyl9d] pressure be+ sixty p\nds p] in*1 & pi/on twelve in*es 9 diamet]1 we h z ! total pressure ,on bo? pi/ons1 #ac1egb lbs4 ,& f9ally1 #acegb 4#babb #b1hhj lbs4 ,! requirem5t be+ #b1hbc lbs4 ,by table #f1 we see t five feet :eels at tw5ty-five miles p] h\r1 use #cc1fjj cyl9d]s ( /eam p] h\r4 ,by table #g1 ! capacity ( a cyl9d] #ab #bj is #a4ca cubic feet2 also #ccfjj #a4ca #ddjaf cubic feet ( /eam p] h\r4 ,assum+ ! mean cyl9d] pressure at sixty p\nds1 & ! ent]+ pressure at eighty p\nds1 also ! loss 9 pass+ f ! boil] at tw5ty p\nds1 we mu/ g5]ate ! /eam at "o hundr$ p\nds p] squ>e in*4 ,by table #h1 we see t :5 /eam is produc$ "u "o hundr$ p\nds pressure p] in*1 ea* cubic foot ( wat] makes #bic cubic feet ( /eam2 :5ce #ddjaf_/bic #aej1 is ! numb] ( cubic feet ( wat] to be evaporat$ p] h\r4 ,at sixte5 cubic feet ( wat] p] h\r p] squ>e foot ( grate1 we ?us require #ae4j_/af or #i4d feet1 ne>ly2 & by table #i1 we f9d ! heat+ surface necess>y to evaporate #aej cubic feet ( wat] p] h\r1 ) n9e squ>e feet ( grate surface1 to be #ggi squ>e feet2 & by ! =mula1 ) #i4d squ>e feet1 we h1 ,s 7#i4d #aej7 #ba4b #gig squ>e feet1 ! fuel be+ coke2 = wood1 multiply ! grate area 7z m5tion$ be=e7 by #a4d & ! grate area w be #a4d #i4d #ac4af4 ,! tube surface ( c\rse rema9s ! same1 z1 :5 ! necess>y am\nt ( heat is develop$1 ! same surface only is en\gh to apply x to ! wat]4 ,to obta9 #ggi squ>e feet ( heat+ surface1 we see1 by table #aj1 t x is giv5 by #ajj tubes #ag feet long & #a in* diamet]1 or #ajj tubes #af feet long & #a in* diamet]1 or #ajj tubes #ae feet long & #b in* diamet]1 or #ajj tubes #ad feet long & #b in* diamet]1 or #ajj tubes #ab feet long & #b in* diamet]1 or #ajj tubes #ab feet long & #b in* diamet]1 or by consult+ ! table1 & hav+ giv5 ! numb] & l5g?1 ! numb] & diamet]1 or ! l5g? & diamet]1 we may easily f9d ! ?ird factor ( ! surface4 ,?us ! l5g? be+ elev5 feet1 & diamet] two in*es1 #ggi feet is obta9$ by #ggi_/7aa #c4adaf #afg7 #ace tubes4 ,to obta9 ! diamet] ( b>rel to conta9 #ace two in* tubes1 we use ! =mula ,d 77,a_/,bn7dc7#b7_/74ghed774 ,we h already f\nd d #b in*es1 n #ace1 :5ce c w be by =mula1 c ,n_/#bdj #j4ed1 & d c #b4ed1 also1 7d c7#b #f4de1 & #ace #f4de #hga2 & all[+ ?ree f\r?s ( ! boil] cross section to be fill$ ) tubes1 we h1 #d_/c ( #hga #aafa2 also1 #aafa_/4ghed #adgh1 ! squ>e root ( :i* is #ch4e ne>ly1 to :i* add #ch4e_/h or #d4h in*es1 7see page #cei71 & we h #ch4e #d4h #dc4c in*es1 z ! inside diamet] ( boil]1 :5ce ! foll[+ locomotive to meet ! requirem5t z /at$4 ,weight ^u driv+ :eels1 #af1ich lbs41 ,cyl9d]s1 #ab #ab in*es1 ,:eels1 #e feet1 ,tubes1 #ace--aa feet #b in*es1 ,grate1 #ac4af squ>e feet1 ,b>rel1 7inside diamet]17 #dc4c in*es1 & "u ! mo/ favorable circum/ances1 ! *imney may be #dj in*es high1 #ab4g in*es 9 diamet]2 ! bla/ orifice #e4h in*es 9 diamet]2 & ! capacity ( smoke box #ci cubic feet4 #cfc4 ,we may v>y ! tractive p[] ( an eng9e by us+ ! /eam at a great] or less degree ( expansion1 b ! adhesion rema9s ! same4 ,if an eng9e 0 built able to "w a road p>tly level1 & p>tly on /eep grades1 v>y+ ! p[] simply by v>y+ ! expansion1 x w\ld be unnecess>ily heavy = ! easy p>ts ( ! road4 ,! expansive pr9ciple may be advantage\sly employ$ 9 adju/+ ! p[] to ! diff]5ce ( resi/ance on any "o division ( a road1 & also to ! v>y+ load :i* ea* day's traffic w pres5t4 ,suppose we w\ld move a load ( two hundr$ tons ov] ! road bel[2 & suppose1 also1 t we require ! cyl9d] pressures set opposite ! sev]al divisions4 #aj miles1 level1 #fj lbs41 #aj miles1 #aj feet p] mile1 #hj lbs41 #aj miles1 #bj feet p] mile1 #ajj lbs41 #aj miles1 #cj feet p] mile1 #abj lbs4 ,! boil] pressure be+ #aej lbs41 & ! pressure at ent]+ ! cyl9d] #ade lbs41 ,an admission ( #ga p] c5t4 gives a mean pressure ( #abj lbs41 ,an admission ( #ee p] c5t4 gives a mean pressure ( #ajj lbs41 ,an admission ( #dj p] c5t4 gives a mean pressure ( #hj lbs41 ,an admission ( #bh p] c5t4 gives a mean pressure ( #fj lbs41 ,& if ! #a/ not* ( ! sector admits1 #ge p] c5t1 ,& if ! #b;d not* ( ! sector admits1 #gj p] c5t1 ,& if ! #c;d not* ( ! sector admits1 #fe p] c5t1 ,& if ! #d? not* ( ! sector admits1 #fj p] c5t1 ,& if ! #e? not* ( ! sector admits1 #ee p] c5t1 ,& if ! #f? not* ( ! sector admits1 #ej p] c5t1 ,& if ! #g? not* ( ! sector admits1 #de p] c5t1 ,& if ! #h? not* ( ! sector admits1 #dj p] c5t1 ,& if ! #i? not* ( ! sector admits1 #ce p] c5t1 ,& if ! #aj? not* ( ! sector admits1 #cj p] c5t4 ,we %\ld "w ! eng9e z foll[s3-- ,f #j to #aj miles1 use ! #aj? not*1 ,f #aj to #bj miles1 use ! #h? not*1 ,f #bj to #cj miles1 use ! #e? not*1 ,f #cj to #dj miles1 use ! #b;d not*1 ,,application ,,( ,,locomotive ,,eng9es ,,to ,,railroads4 #cfd4 ,dep>tm5t #a4 ,freight4 ,,g5]al ,,classification4 ,ord],ord],ord],ord],ord],ord] ,numb] ( ,maximum ,designation #a #b #c #d #e #f division4 grades4 ( p>ts4 #ej #ajj #bej #ejj #gej #a1jjj tons4tons4tons4tons4tons4tons4 ,grate area4 ,tube #a ,level4 surface4 ,cyl9d]s4 ,:eels4 ,weight4 #b #aj feet p] mile4 #c #bj feet p] mile4 #d #dj feet p] mile4 #e #fj feet p] mile4 #f #hj feet p] mile4 #g #ajj feet p] mile4 ,! spe$ is assum$ f twelve to fifte5 miles p] h\r4 ,! mean cyl9d] pressure is assum$ at sixty lbs4 p] squ>e in*2 ! initial pressure at n9ety p\nds1 & ! boil] pressure at #abj lbs4 p] squ>e in*4 ,! grate areas are design$ = coke2 = wood multiply ! same by #a4d4 #cfe4 ,dep>tm5t #b4 ,pass5g]4 ,ord] #a,ord] #b,ord] #c,ord] #d ,designation ,classification4 #ej #ajj #aej #bjj ( p>ts4 tons4 tons4 tons4 tons4 ,grate area4 ,division #a #be miles ,tube surface4 ,level4 p] h\r4 ,cyl9d]s4 ,:eels4 ,weight4 ,division #b #be miles #bj grades4 p] h\r4 ,division #c #be miles #dj grades4 p] h\r4 ,division #d #be miles #fj grades4 p] h\r4 ,division #e #be miles #hj grades4 p] h\r4 ,division #f #be miles #ajj grades4p] h\r4 ,! eng9es 9 ! ,nor!rn ,/ates require m p[] 9 w9t] ?an 9 summ]4 ,to ! above classification might be add$1 an eng9e = 8mak+ up tra9s10 & simil> /ation "w2 su* an eng9e %\ld be able to />t easily ! extreme weights ( tra9s1 f fifty to "o ?\s& tons1 & %\ld be fitt$ ) a p[] ( v>y+ its adhesion4 ,,=mula4 ,w 7,v#b7_/aga #h ,r4 ,example4 ,! spe$ be+ ?irty miles p] h\r1 & load #bej tons4 ,r w be 77#cj #cj77_/aga #h #bej #ccae lbs4 #cff4 ,table #a4 ,%[+ ! requir$ traction on a level = loads f fifty to "o ?\s& tons1 & = velocities f t5 to "o hundr$ miles p] h\r4 ,velocity4 #ej #ge #ajj #bej #ejj #gej #ajjj ,tons4 ,tons4 ,tons4 ,tons4 ,tons4 ,tons4 ,tons4 #aj #dbi #fdc #heh #badf #dbib #fdce #hehe #ab #ddb #ffc #hhd #bbaj #ddba #ffcj #hhdb #ae #dfe #fih #ica #bcbh #dfeg #fihb #icae #bj #eag #ggc #ajcd #behe #eagj #ggce #be #ehb #hgd #aafe #biab #ehbe #cj #ffc #iid #acbf #ccae #ffcj #dj #hfh #acjb #agcf #dcdj #ej #aaca #afif #bbfb #efee #fj #adeb #bahj #bije #ajj #ccbd #dihf #ffdh ,,=mula4 ,,wr_/,l4 ,example4 ,! tractive p[] to ov]come ! resi/ance ( #gej tons ^u a sixty feet grade is #gej #fj_/ebhj #aijej4 #cfg4 ,table #b4 ,%[+ ! tractive p[] necess>y to ov]come grades f t5 to "o hundr$ feet p] mile ) loads f "o to "o ?\s& tons4 ,grade4#a ,ton4 #ej #ge #ajj #bej #ejj #gej #ajjj ,grade4 ,tons4 ,tons4 ,tons4 ,tons4 ,tons4 ,tons4 ,tons4 #aj #d #bab #cah #dbd #ajfa #baba #caha #dbdj #aj #bj #h #dbd #fcf #hdh #babb #dbdb #fcfb #hdhj #bj #cj #ac #fcf #iee #abgc #cagj #fcfc #iede #abgcj #cj #dj #af #hdh #abgb #afif #dbdd #hdhd #abgbd #afifj #dj #ej #bj #ajfj #aeij #babj #ecje #ajfje #aeije #babjj #ej #fj #bf #abgb #aiaj #bedf #fcdj #abgbf #aijej #bedfj #fj #gj #cj #aejj #bbdj #cjjj #gejj #aejjj #bbdjj #cjjjj #gj #hj #cc #afig #bede #ccic #hdhi #afifi #bedei #cciej #hj #ajj #dj #babj #cahj #dbdj #ajfaj #babaj #cahaj #dbdjj #ajj ,grade4#a ,ton4 #ej #ge #ajj #bej #ejj #gej #ajjj ,grade4 ,tons4 ,tons4 ,tons4 ,tons4 ,tons4 ,tons4 ,tons4 ,,=mula4 #f,t4 ,example4 ,requir$ traction #e1jjj lbs42 ^u driv+ axles ! weight is #ejjj #f #cj1jjj lbs4 #cfh4 ,table #c4 ,giv+ ! weight :i* %\ld be plac$ ^u ! driv+ axles to secure any am\nt ( adhesion2 ! latt] be+ "o six? ( ! weight4 ,requir$ ,weight 9,weight 9 traction4 p\nds4 tons4 #ejj #cjjj #a4cd #ajjj #fjjj #b4fi #bjjj #abjjj #e4cf #cjjj #ahjjj #h4jd #djjj #bdjjj #aj4hj #ejjj #cjjjj #ac4dj #fjjj #cfjjj #af4jg #gjjj #dbjjj #ah4ge #hjjj #dhjjj #ba4dc #ijjj #edjjj #bd4aa #ajjjj #fjjjj #bf4hj #abjjj #gbjjj #cb4ad #adjjj #hdjjj #cg4ej #afjjj #ifjjj #db4hf #ahjjj #ajhjjj #dh4bb #bjjjj #abjjjj #ec4fj ,,=mula4 7#b,s7_/c4 ,:]e ,s /roke4 c circumf]5ce ( :eel1 7bo? 9 in*es47 ,example4 ,let /roke be tw5ty in*es1 & diamet] ( :eel five feet1 ! ratio w be #dj_/ahh4d #j4babb4 #cfi4 ,table ( decimals1 :i*1 multipli$ by ! total pi/on pressures 7table #e7 w give ! traction 9 p\nds1 or ratio betwe5 d\ble /roke & :eel circumf]5ce4 ,table #d4 ,:eel4 ,,/roke ,,9 ,,in*es4 ,:eel4 #ah #bj #bb #bd #bf #bh #cj #cb #cd #cf #c #bgbhcjcacccdcfch #c #c #beecbhcgcabjcdjdcfhh #c #d #bchfbfebbiahcahbcdddcgjh #d #d #bbejbejjbgejcjjjcbejcejjcgej #d #d #baeabcijbeicbhcjcjgacbidcebicgfd #d #d #bjabbbcebdeibfhbbijecabiccebcegechjj #d #e #aiajbabbbccdbedfbgffbigicaibcdjecfagchc je #e #agcfaibibabbbcaebejjbfibbhhecjggcbgccdg ce #f #aeiaagfhaidebabbbcbabejjbfghbhegcjcfcba ef #f #adfhafcbagifaiehbacabbiebdeibfbcbgijbie af #g #acfdaeafaffgahaiaigjbababbgcbdbdbegfbgb gg #g #abgbadadaeefafiaahcaaigbbaadbbedbcidbec eg #h #aaidacbfadagaeibafhhahahaidhbjghbbjhbcc gh ,:eel4 #ah #bj #bb #bd #bf #bh #cj #cb #cd #cf ,:eel4 ,,/roke ,,9 ,,in*es4 ,,=mula4 #b7;d#b 4#ghed p7 ,p4 ,:]e d diamet]4 p pressure p] in*4 ,example4 ,! :ole pressure at "o hundr$ p\nds p] in* on two sixte5 in* pi/ons w be #baf #af #j4ghed #ajj #djbab4 #cgj4 ,table #e4 ,total pressures ^u pi/ons f t5 to tw5ty-f\r in*es 9 diamet]1 & = /eam pressures f fifty to "o hundr$ & fifty p\nds p] squ>e in*4 ,diam4 ,area ( ,,:ole ,,pi/on ,,pressure ,,on ,,bo? ,diam4 ( "o ,,pi/ons1 ,,at ,a ,,p] ,,in* ,,pressure ,,( ( cyl'r4,pi/on4 cyl'r4 #ej #fj #gj #hj #ij #aj #gh4e #giej #idbj #ajiij #abefj #adacj #aj #aa #ie4j #iejj #aadjj #accjj #aebjj #agajj #aa #ab #aac4a #aacaj #acegb #aehcd #ahjif #bjceh #ab #ac #acb4g #acbgj #aeibd #ahefd #babcb #bcijf #ac #ad #aec4i #aecij #ahdfh #baedf #bdfbd #bggjb #ad #ae #agf4g #agfgj #babjd #bdgch #bhbgb #cahjf #ae #af #bja4a #bjaaj #bdacb #bhaed #cbagf #cfaih #af #ag #bbg4j #bbgjj #bgbdj #caghj #cfcbj #djhfj #ag #ah #bed4e #bedej #cjedj #cefcj #djgbj #dehaj #ah #ai #bhc4e #bhcej #cdjbj #cifij #decfj #eajcj #ai #bj #cad4b #cadbj #cggjd #dcihh #ejbgb #efeef #bj #ba #cdf4d #cdfdj #daefh #dhdif #eedbd #fbceb #ba #bb #chj4a #chjaj #defab #ecbad #fjhaf #fhdah #bb #bc #dae4e #daeej #dihfj #ehagj #ffdhj #gdgij #bc #bd #deb4d #debdj #edbhh #fcccf #gbchd #hadcb #bd ,diam4 ,,pi/ons1 ,,at ,a ,,p] ,,in* ,,pressure ,,( ,diam4 ( ( cyl'r4 cyl'r4 #ajj #aaj #abj #acj #adj #aej #aj #aegjj #agbgj #ahhdj #bjdaj #baihj #bceej #aj #aa #aijjj #bjijj #bbhjj #bdgjj #bffjj #bhejj #aa #ab #bbfbj #bdhhb #bgadd #bidjf #cagfh #ccicj #ab #ac #bfedj #biaid #cahdh #cdejb #cgaef #cihaj #ac #ad #cjghj #ccheh #cfgef #djjad #dcjib #dfagj #ad #ae #cecdj #chhgd #dbdjh #eeidb #didgf #ecjaj #ae #af #djbbj #ddbdb #dhbfd #ebjfb #efcjh #fjccj #af #ag #dedjj #diidj #eddhj #eijbj #fcefj #fhajj #ag #ah #ejijj #eeiij #fajhj #ffagj #gabfj #gfcej #ah #ai #efgjj #fbcgj #fhjdj #gcgaj #gichj #hejej #ai #bj #fbhdj #fiabd #gedjh #hafib #hgigf #iebfj #bj #ba #fichj #gfbjh #hcacf #ijjfd #ifiibajcibj #ba #bb #ggjbj #hcfbb #iabbd #ihhbfajfdbhaadjcj #bb #bc #hcajj #iadaj #iigbjajhjcjaafcdjabdfej #bc #bd #ijdhj #iiebhajhegfaagfbfabffgbacegbj #bd ,,=mula4 ,n #ebhj_/;c #d4 ,:]e ,n ! numb]4 c :eel circumf]5ce4 ,example4 ,spe$ tw5ty-five miles p] h\r1 :eels f\r & a half feet1 ! numb] ( cyl9d]s p] h\r is #be #ebhj_/7d #c4adaf7 #d #cgcdh #cga4 ,table #f4 ,%[+ ! h\rly consumption ( /eam 9 t]ms ( ! capacity ( "o cyl9d]1 ) :eels f ?ree & a half to eight feet1 & spe$s f t5 to sixty miles p] h\r4 ,:eel4 ,:eel ,revolutions 9 p] mile4 in*es4 #c #db #dhj #c #de #ddi #d #dh #dba #d #ea #cig #d #ed #cgc #d #eg #cfa #e #fj #ccf #e #ff #cjf #f #gb #bha #f #gh #bei #g #hd #bdj #g #ij #bbd #h #if #baa ,:eel4 ,,numb] ,,( ,,cyl9d]s ,,p] ,,h\r ,,at ,a ,,velocity ,,( #aj #ab #ae #bj #be #cj #dj #ej #fj #c #aibjjbcjdj #c #agifjbaeebbfidj #d #afhdjbjbjhbebfjccfha #d #aehhjaijefbchbjcagfjcigjj #d #adibjagijdbbchjbihdjcgcjj #d #adddjagcbhbaffjbhhhjcfajj #e #bjafjbfhhjccfjj #e #ahcfjbddhjcjfjjcfgbj #f #bbdhjbhajjccgbjddifj #f #bjgbjbeijjcajhjdaddjeahjjfbafj #g #aibjjbdjjjbhhjjchdjjdhjjjegfjj #g #bbdjjbfhhjcehdjddhjjecgfj #h #baajibecbjccgfjdbbjjejfdj ,,=mula4 7,d#b 4#ghed ,/roke7_/#agbh ,c4 ,example4 ,cubic cont5t ( a cyl9d] #ae #bd is 7#ae #ae #j4ghed #bd7_/agbh #b4dd cubic feet4 #cgb4 ,table #g4 ,capacity ( cyl9d]s 9 cubic feet ( f t5 to tw5ty-f\r in*es 9 diamet]1 & f eighte5 to ?irty-six in*es /roke4 ,diam4 ,,capacity ,,( ,,cyl9d]s ,,9 ,,cubic ,,feet1 ,diam4 ( ,,/roke ,,be+ ( cyl'r4 cyl'r4 #ah #bj #bb #bd #bf #bh #cj #cb #cd #cf #aj #jhbjiaajjajiaahabgacfade #aj #aa #jicajdaaeabfacgadhaeiagjaha #aa #ab #aahacaaddaegagjahcaifbjibbbbce #ab #ac #accadiafeahaaigbacbbibdebfabgg #ac #ad #afjaghaifbadbcbbejbfhbhfcjdcbb #ad #ae #ahdbjdbbdbddbfdbhdcjdcbdcddcfd #ae #af #bjhbcbbeebghcjacbdcdgcgjcicdaf #af #ag #bcebfcbhicaecdacfgcicdaiddedga #ag #ah #bfcbidcbccebchadajdcidfhdigebf #ah #ai #cfaciddbgdfjdicebfeeieib #ai #bj #djjdcgdgdeaaedhehefbbfei #bj #ba #dhaebaefafjafdafhagba #ba #bb #ebhegbfafffjgjdgdhgib #bb #bc #fbefgdgbcggbhbahgf #bc #bd #fhagccghehcghhiida #bd #cgc4 ,table #h4 ,giv+ ! volume1 pressure1 temp]ature1 & d5sity ( /eam4 ,relative volume or ,weight ( ,/eam cubic feet,temp]ature4 ,total a cubic ,/eam pressure4 ( /eam1 heat4 foot4 pressure4 wat] be+ #a4 #ej #eeb #bha #abjj #aabi #ej #fj #dfg #bic #abjc #acce #fj #fe #dcd #bih #abje #adcf #fe #gj #djf #cjc #abjf #aece #gj #ge #cha #cjg #abjh #afcf #ge #hj #cei #cab #abji #agcf #hj #ij #cbc #cbj #abab #aibi #ij #ajj #bic #cbh #abad #babg #ajj #aaj #bfi #cce #abaf #bcag #aaj #abj #bdi #cda #abah #beje #abj #acj #bca #cdg #abbj #bfih #acj #adj #baf #cec #abba #bhhe #adj #aej #bjc #ceh #abbc #cjgj #aej ,,=mula4 ,s 7ac7 #ba4b4 ,:]e ,s surface4 a grate area4 c cubic feet ( wat] p] h\r4 ,example4 ,grate area sixte5 squ>e feet1 cubic feet ( wat] p] h\r two hundr$1 surface is 7#af #bjj7 #ba4b #aaii4ib4 #cgd4 ,table #i4 ,%[+ ! necess>y am\nt ( grate area & heat+ surface = an h\rly consumption ( wat]4 ,cubic ft4 ( wat] ,,grate ,,areas ,,9 ,,squ>e ,,feet4 evap'd p] h\r4 #g #h #i #aj #aa #ab #ac #ad #ae #af #ag #ah #ai ,,heat+ ,,surface ,,correspond+ ,,to ,,above ,,grate ,,areas ,,& ,,to ,,side ,,column4 #ajjefaeiifcf #fgj #gjc #gcd #gfd #gic #hba #hdh #hgd #ijj #ibd #aajehhfbhffg #gjb #gcg #ggj #hjb #hca #hfa #hhh #iaf #idc #ifi #abjfadfegfig #gcd #ggj #hje #hcg #hfi #ijj #ibg #ieg #iheajac #acjfcifhcgbe #gfd #hja #hcg #hga #ijd #icf #ife #iifajbeajec #adjffcgjigeb #gic #hca #hfi #ijd #ich #igbajjcajcdajfdajic #aejfhfgcdggi #hba #hfj #ijj #ice #igaajjfajchajgjaajaaaca #afj #gehhje #hdh #hhi #ibg #iffajjdajciajgcaajfaachaafi #agj #ghbhbi #hgd #iaf #ieg #iifajcdajgaaajfaadjaagcabje #ahj #hjehec #ijj #idc #iheajbeajfdaajbaachaagcabjgabdj #aij #hgg #ibd #ifiajacajecajicaacbaafiabjeabdjabgd #bjj #ijj #idh #iieajciajhaaabbaafaaaiiabcfabgbacjg #baj #ibh #igdajaiajfdaajgaadiaahiabbiabfdabihaccf #bbj #ajjjajdbajhiaaccaagfabagabehabiaacbdacf e #bcj #ajaiajfgaaadaaeiabjcabdeabhfacbcaceiaci h #bdj #ajiaaachaahdabbiabgbacadacedacicadca #bej #aaaaaafbabjhabedabihacdaachjadbbadeh #bfj #aahdabcbabghacbcacfgadjfadejadhd #bgj #abjgabefacjcacdiadjaadccadghaeae #bhj #abgiacbgacgdadceadfjaejeaedf #bij #acjbaceaadjjadebadhfaecbaegc #cjj #acgdadbeadfiaeabaeehafjj #cbj #adfiaeafaefdafajafed #cdj #aefdafabafehagjd #cfj #afehagjfaged #chj #agecahjb #djj #ahjjahdh #dbe #dej #dge #ejj ,cubic ft4 ( wat] ,,grate ,,areas ,,9 ,,squ>e ,,feet4 evap'd p] h\r4 #bj #ba #bb #bc #bd #be #bf #bg #bh #bi #cj ,,heat+ ,,surface ,,correspond+ ,,to ,,above ,,grate ,,areas ,,& ,,to ,,side ,,column4 #ajj #idh #igb #iieajagajciajfjajhaaajbaabbaadbaafa #aaj #iidajahajdbajffajhiaaaaaaccaaeeaagfaaig abag #abjajciajfdajhiaaadaachaafbaahdabjgabbi abeaabgb #acjajhaaajgaaccaaeiaahdabjhabcbabeeabgh acjjacbc #adjaabbaaejaaggabjcabbiabedabgiacjcacbg aceaacgd #aejaafaaaijabahabdeabgbabihacbcacejacgc acihadbb #afjaaiiabbiabehabhfacadacdaacfgacicadai adddadfi #agjabcfabffabifacbeacedachbadjiadcfadfb adhhaead #ahjabgbacjcaccdacfdacicadbbadejadghaeje aecbaeeh #aijacjgacciacgjadjaadcaadfaadijaeahaedf aegcafjj #bjjacdaacgdadjfadcgadfhadiiaebiaeehaehf afadafdb #bajacgdadjhaddaadgcaejeaecfaeffaeifafbe afedafhc #bbjadjfaddaadgeaejhaedaaegbafjcafcdaffd aficagbb #bcjadcgadgcaejhaedbaegeafjgafciaffcagja agbdagfa #bdjadfhaejeaedaaegeafjiafdbafgeafibagch agedagii #bejadiiaeccaegbafjfafdbafgeagjiagccaggd agigahcf #bfjaebiaefjafjcafcfafgeagjhagdcaggdahji ahdjahgb #bgjaeegaeibafcdaffhafibagdaaggfahjhahdc ahgeaijh #bhjaehfafbdaffdagjjagchaggdahjiahdbahgg aiajaidc #bijafadafecaficagbiagedahjdahdaahgcaiaj aiciaigg #cjjafdbafhbagbbagehagiiahcdahgbaijdaidc aifhbjaa #cbjafifagchagghahafaheiahidaicbaigjbjjh bjbdbjgh #cdjagdhagibahccahgbaiaeaiedaiicbjcbbjfi bjifbada #cfjahjjahddahhfaibhaigabjabbjejbjijbabh baffbbjd #chjahdhahidaichaihbbjbebjffbajgbadhbahg bbbfbbfd #djjaijjaiddaiijbjcdbjggbabjbafbbbjdbbdd bbhdbcbb #dbeaiejbjadbjefbjggbadbbahgbbbfbbfhbcag bcecbcif #dejbjadbjefbabjbaejbaijbbjjbcjjbccbbcgd bdagbdei #dge #bagebbajbbfhbcajbcecbdafbddebdhjbebc #ejj #bccbbcgjbdabbdeibebcbefebfjh ,,=mula4 ,n ,s_/7,ld7 or ,s_/7,ld#c4adaf74 ,:]e ,s :ole surface1 ,:]e ,l l5g?1 ,:]e d diamet]1 9 feet1 ,:]e #c4adaf1 ,:]e ,n ! numb]4 ,example4 ,diamet] two in*es1 surface #adff1 l5g? f\rte5 feet1 we h1 ,n #adff_/7ad #j4afg #c4adaf7 #bjj4 #cge4 ,table #aj4 ,giv+ ! numb] & dim5sions ( tubes to obta9 any giv5 am\nt ( surface4 ,l'g?4,diam4 ,diam4 ,diam4 ,diam4 ,diam4 ,diam4 ,diam4 ,diam4 ,l'g?4 #a #a #a #b #b #b #b #b #h #cad #ccf #cig #dai #dde #dga #ejd #ebc #h #h #ccd #chi #dbb #dde #dgc #ejj #ece #eef #h #i #ceb #daa #ddg #dga #ejg #ecj #eff #ehh #i #i #cgb #dce #dga #dig #ebc #eei #eig #fba #i #aj #cib #deg #dif #ebd #eef #ehi #fbh #fee #aj #aj #daa #dhj #eba #edi #ehd #fah #fei #fhg #aj #aa #dca #ejc #ede #egf #fab #fdg #fij #gbj #aa #aa #dea #ebf #egj #fjb #fdj #fgg #gba #gec #aa #ab #dga #edi #eie #fbh #ffg #gje #geb #ghf #ab #ab #dij #egb #fbj #fed #fie #gce #ghc #hah #ab #ac #eaj #eie #fde #fha #gbc #gfd #had #hea #ac #ac #ecj #fag #ffi #gjg #gej #gic #hde #hhd #ac #ad #edi #fdj #fie #gcc #ggh #hbc #hgf #iaf #ad #ad #efi #ffc #gai #gei #hjf #heb #ijg #idi #ad #ae #ehi #fhf #gdd #ghe #hcd #hhb #ich #ihb #ae #ae #fjh #gjh #gfi #haa #hfa #iaa #ifi #ajae #ae #af #fbh #gca #gid #hcg #hhi #ida #ajjj #ajdh #af #af #fdh #ged #hai #hfc #iag #iga #ajca #ajha #af #ag #ffh #ggg #hdc #hhi #ide #ajjj #ajfb #aaad #ag ,,=mula4 #ac4e7;a7 - #bh1 :]e a is ! p]c5tage ( admission4 ,example4 ,:at is ! mean pressure1 ) an initial pressure ( "o hundr$ p\nds1 & sixty p] c5t4 admission4 #ac4e7fj7 - #bh 7#ac4e #g4g7 - #bh #gf_/ajj ( #ajj1 or #gf lbs4 #cgf4 ,table #aa4 ,%[+ ! mean cyl9d] /eam pressure = any p]c5tage ( admission1 ! initial pressure be+ f #ej to #aej lbs4 p] in*4 ,initial pressure ,,mean ,,cyl9d] ,,pressure1 ,,admission ,,be+ ,,9 ,,hundr$?s 9 ,,( ,,! ,,/roke4 p\nds4 #aj #ae #bj #be #cj #ce #dj #de #ej #ee #fj #fe #gj #ge #ej #g #ab #af #bj #bc #bf #bh #ca #cc #cf #ch #dj #db #dd #fj #i #ad #ai #bd #bh #ca #cd #cg #dj #dc #df #di #ea #ec #gj #aj #ag #bb #bh #cc #cf #dj #dc #dg #ej #ed #eg #ei #fb #hj #ab #ai #bf #cb #ch #db #da #di #ed #eh #fb #fe #fh #ga #ij #ac #bb #bi #cf #db #dg #ea #ed #fj #fe #fi #gc #gf #hj #ajj #ae #bd #cb #dj #dg #eb #eg #fb #fg #gb #gg #ha #he #hi #aaj #af #bf #ce #dd #eb #eg #fc #fh #gd #gi #he #hi #ic #ih #abj #ah #bi #ch #dh #ef #fb #fh #gd #hj #hf #ia #igajbajg #acj #ai #ca #db #eb #fa #fh #gd #ha #hg #id #iiajeaajaaf #ade #ba #cd #de #ef #fe #gc #hj #hg #idajaajgaacaaiabe #afj #bb #cf #dh #fj #gj #gh #he #icajjajhaadabaabgacd ,,"p ,,ii4 ,,c>s4 ,,:eels ,,& ,,axles4 #cgg4 ,( ! me*anical details ( c> build+ x is n necess>y "h to speak2 b ( ^? matt]s :i* fit a c> = special duty1 & dep5d ^u p>ticul> *>act]i/ics ( any road1 su* z ! gauge1 some?+ mu/ be said4 ,! tr5d ( ! :eel tire1 z rem>k$ 9 ,*apt] ,,xiii41 is n turn$ cyl9drical1 b conical4 ,a p]fectly /raight road w\ld ( c\rse require no cone ^u ! :eels2 ! object ( ! latt] be+ to v>y ! :eel diamet] :5 ^u curves4 ,! g5]al practice is to give a c]ta9 /&>d cone to all :eels1 = all gauges4 ,?is is q wrong1 z w be se5 by ! foll[+ =mula1 :i* is f 8,pamb\r on ! ,locomotive ,eng9e40 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aef4 ,let m m1 fig4 #aef1 repres5t ! out] rail1 & n n ! inn] "o4 ,! circumf]5ces ^u ! same axles mu/ evid5tly v>y z ! l5g? ( ^! curves1 :i* are includ$ betwe5 ! same radii4 ,let ,d1 be ! diamet] ( ! fir/ :eel1 & d1 t ( ! second2 & we %all h1 7mm7_/7nn7 7,d7_/7d71 or o!rwise mm #c4adaf ,d1 & nn #c4adaf d4 ,we h also1 7mm7_/7nn7 7mo7_/7no74 ,express+ ! radius ( curvature by r1 & ! half gauge by e1 ! above proportion may be express$ by 7mm7_/7nn7 7r e7_/7r - e71 & also ,d_/d 7r e7_/7r - e71 & f9ally ,d - d 7#b;e,d7_/7r e74 ,?is equation %[s ! diff]5ce 9 diamet]s t ought to exi/ betwe5 ! inn] & out] :eels1 t ! requir$ effect1 7no dragg+ ( ! out] & no slipp+ ( ! inn] :eel17 is produc$4 ,example4 ,let ! radius ( curvature be #a1jjj feet4 ,! gauge ( ! road1 #f feet4 ,! :eel diamet]1 #d feet4 ,& ! =mula becomes 7#b;ed7_/7r e7 #bd_/ajjc 4#jbd feet1 or 4#bhh in* on bo? :eels1 or #j4add in* = ea* :eel2 :i* = f\r in*es bread?1 gives a curve ( #a_/bh ( ! wid?1 or decimally1 #j4add1 & vulg>ly1 ( an in*4 ,= a ?ree feet :eel1 ! rule gives a cone ( #j4aa in*4 ,,note4--,messrs ,bu% & ,lobdel cone _! :eels #j4jh in*es 9 a f\r in* tire2 or in* p] foot4 ,! =mula above = a ?ree feet :eel1 & #d #h gauge1 gives a curve ( #j4ji in*es4 ,! :eel mo/ us$ ^u ,am]ican roads is made ( ca/-iron1 9 "o piece1 & consi/s ei!r ( two side plates1 connect$ by a hub & rim1 or ( a c5tral plate ribb$ on ! sides4 ,messrs ,:itney & ,son1 7,philadelphia17 pass all _! :eels ?r\gh an anneal+ process1 :i* r5d]s !m mu* less liable to fracture f %ocks & f cold ?an :5 ! :eel is all[$ to cool at once1 :5 hot f ! f\nd]y4 ,! :eels us$ ^u ,engli% roads are made ) a wr\ght iron rim & spokes1 ) a ca/ hub1 ! tire be+1 put on sep>ately4 ,su* :eels are less liable to fracture1 b co/ m ?an ! ,am]ican :eel4 #cgh4 ,a v frequ5t cause ( accid5t ^u railroads1 is ! breakage ( axles4 ,exp]im5ts made at ,wolv]hampton1 7,engl&17 ^u diff]5tly =m$ axles1 %[ v pla9ly t x is q wrong to r$uce ! diamet] ( ! axle at ! middle4 ,t if any v>iation exi/s x %\ld be 9 mak+ ! middle ! l>ge/4 ,t ! effect ( a %\ld] beh9d ! :eel 0 to decrease v mu* ! /r5g?4 ,probably ! /ronge/ & mo/ economical railroad axle1 w\ld be a wr\ght iron tube4 ,c]ta9ly a holl[ axle is mu* /rong] 9 resi/+ t5sion ?an a solid "o conta9+ ! same am\nt ( mat]ial4 ,,note #a4--,?omas ,?orneycr(t1 ( ,wolv]hampton1 ,engl&1 an educat$ man1 & a manufactur] ( railway axles1 obs]ves3--,t ! v>i\s =ms ( axles1 z g5]ally made1 possess )9 !mselves ! elem5ts ( de/ruction4 ,t !re are c]ta9 fix$ pr9ciples to be obs]v$ 9 proportion+ axles1 & t j z su* pr9ciples are dep>t$ f1 j s mu* is liability to failure increas$4 ,he says3--,x is d\btful :e!r ! :eel is ! support & ! j\rnal ! load$ "p1 or ! rev]se4 ,if ! latt] is ! case1 !n ! cone ( ! :eels causes a lat]al /ra91 t5d+ to b5d ! axle2 & %\ld t b5d+ ext5d no fur!r ?an "o half ( ! ela/ic limit1 if long cont9u$1 fracture mu/ result2 & %\ld ! ela/ic limit be exce$$1 ! plane ( ! :eel w be remov$ f t 9 :i* x ought to revolve4 ,! object ( ! fir/ exp]im5t 0 to det]m9e ! effect ( ! =m ( ! longitud9al section ( ! axle ^u its ela/ic limit4 ,by r$uc+ ! diamet] ( ! axle f #de_/af in*es at c5tre1 to #c in*es2 ! limit ( ela/icity 0 r$uc$ f 4#cdc to 4#bcb in*es2 & ! load1 to produce t ela/icity1 f f\rte5 to sev5 tons4 ,exp]im5t second 0 to asc]ta9 ! effect ( a r$uction ( diamet] at ! c5tre1 ^u ! ability to resi/ sudd5 %ocks4 ,"o half ( ! axle 0 made #d in*es 9 diamet] f middle to end1 & ! o!r half 0 r$uc$ f #d to f\r in*es at c5tre4 ,! :eel be+ fix$1 & a ram all[$ to fall ^u ! j\rnal1 :5 ! foll[+ result 0 obta9$4 ,"u =ty-six bl[s1 ! unr$uc$ end 0 b5t to an angle ( eighte5 degrees4 ,"u sixte5 bl[s1 ! r$uc$ end 0 b5t to tw5ty-two degrees4 ,exp]im5t ?ird 0 to asc]ta9 ! effect ( a %\ld] beh9d ! :eel1 "o end be+ turn$ ) a %\ld] ( "o eigh? ( an in*1 z a /op to ! :eel1 ! o!r end turn$ pla94 ,te/$ by hydraulic pressure1 ! %\ld]$ end broke ) sixty tons1 ! pla9 end ) eighty-f\r tons4 ,! object ( ! f\r? exp]im5t 0 to f9d ! influ5ce ( ! position ( ! :eel1 z reg>ds ! end ( ! j\rnal4 ,an axle 0 fa/5$ into a ca/-iron frame1 9 a l9e ) ! neck ( ! j\rnal1 :5 ! latt] 0 broke ) sev5 bl[s ( a ram fall+ t5 feet4 ,! o!r end 0 key$ into ! frame1 ) ! neck ( ! j\rnal project+ #a in*1 & broke at ! tw5ty-f\r? bl[ ( ! same ram1 fall+ t5 feet4 ,! results ( ! trials are ?us summ$ up by ! exp]im5t]3--,t axles %\ld nev] be small] at ! c5tre ?an at ! ends1 b on ! contr>y1 t if a diff]5ce 9 size is made1 ! c5tre %\ld be ! l>ge/4 ,! be/ au?orities on ! /r5g? ( mat]ials1 give ! holl[ tube z ?ree times /rong] 9 resi/+ twi/+1 ?an ! solid b> possess+ ! same weight4 ,?us an axle ) an ext]nal diamet] ( five in*es1 & an int]nal diamet] ( #c in*es1 is ?ree times z /rong z a solid axle ( #c in*es diamet]4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,note #b4--,! foll[+ exp]im5ts 7 prep>$ by ,m4 ,b\rville1 & execut$ by ! ,au/rian gov]nm5t4 ,! app>atus consi/$ ( a b5t axle1 :i* 0 firmly fix$ up to ! elb[ 9 timb]1 & :i* 0 subject$ to torsion by means ( a cog-:eel connect$ ) ! end ( ! horizontal "p4 ,at ea* turn ! angle ( torsion 0 tw5ty-f\r degrees4 ,a %ock 0 produc$ ea* "t t ! b> left "o too? to be rais$ by ! next4 ,an index adapt$ to ! app>atus1 indicat$ ! numb] ( revolutions & %ocks4 ,sev5 axles1 submitt$ to ?is trial1 pres5t$ ! foll[+ results3-- #a/4 ,! movem5t la/$ "o h\r2 #aj1hjj revolutions & #cb1djj %ocks 7 produc$4 ,! axle1 two & six t5?s in*es 9 diamet]1 0 tak5 f ! ma*9e & brok5 by an hydraulic press4 ,no *ange 9 ! texture ( ! iron 0 visible4 #b;d4 ,a new axle1 hav+ be5 tri$ f\r h\rs1 su/a9$ #abi1jjj torsions1 & 0 aft]w>ds brok5 by means ( an hydraulic press4 ,no alt]ation ( ! iron c\ld be discov]$1 by ! nak$ eye1 on ! surface ( rupture2 b tri$ ) a microscope1 ! fibres appe>$ )\t adhesion1 l a bundle ( ne$les4 #c;d4 ,a ?ird axle 0 subject$1 dur+ twelve h\rs1 to #chh1jjj torsions1 & brok5 9 two4 ,a *ange 9 its texture1 & an increas$ size 9 ! gra9 ( ! iron1 0 obs]v$ by ! nak$ eye4 #d?4 ,aft] "o hundr$ & tw5ty h\rs1 & #c1hhh1jjj torsions1 ! axle 0 brok5 9 _m places2 a consid]able *ange 9 its texture 0 app>5t1 :i* 0 m /rik+ t[>ds ! c5tre2 ! size ( ! gra9s dim9i%$ t[>ds ! extremities4 #e?4 ,an axle1 submitt$ to #bc1cbh1jjj torsions dur+ sev5 hundr$ & tw5ty h\rs1 0 completely *ang$ 9 its texture2 ! fracture 9 ! middle 0 cry/all9e1 b n v scaly4 #f?4 ,aft] t5 mon?s1 dur+ :i* ! axle 0 submitt$ to #gh1gcb1jjj torsions & %ocks1 fracture1 produc$ by an hydraulic press1 %[$ cle>ly an absolute trans=mation ( ! /ructure ( ! iron2 ! surface ( rupture 0 scaly l pewt]4 #g?4 ,f9ally1 z a la/ trial1 an axle submitt$ to #abh1cjd1jjj torsions1 pres5t$ a surface ( rupture l t 9 ! prec$+ exp]im5t4 ,! cry/als 7 p]fectly well def9$1 ! iron hav+ lo/ e appe>ance ( wr\ght iron4 ,,classification ,,( ,,c>s4 #cgi4 ,railroad c>s come "u ?ree g5]al heads1 ,^? = pass5g] transport1 ,^? = freight traffic1 ,^? = repairs ( ! road4 #chj4 ,! ,am]ican pass5g] c> consi/s ( a body ab\t fifty feet long1 t5 feet wide1 & sev5 feet high1 conta9+ seats = ab\t sixty pass5g]s1 be+ cu%ion$1 w>m$1 light$1 & v5tilat$4 ,except = emigrants1 second & ?ird class c>s are b little us$ 9 ,am]ica4 ,h\se1 box1 or cov]$ freight c>s1 diff] f ! 8flat10 or plat=m c>1 only 9 hav+ a simple rectangul> h\se1 ab\t six feet high & n9e feet wide1 built ^u ! floor4 ,?is is us$ = ! protection ( su* freight z w n be> exposure2 z furniture1 books1 dry goods1 h>dw>e1 & small ma*9]y4 ,c>riages1 boxes1 bales1 ma/s1 lumb]1 & fuel are c>ri$ by plat=m c>s4 ,bulky ma*9]y1 & fir/ & second class freight too l>ge = ! box c>s1 %\ld be protect$ by t>paul9s4 #cha4 ,! g5]al arrangem5t ( :eels1 spr+s1 & brakes1 is ! same = ! sev]al classes ( c>s1 ! *ief diff]5ce be+ 9 ! ease ( spr+s4 ,ea* c> re/s ^u two 8trucks10 consi/+ ( f\r1 six1 or eight :eels1 s connect$ by lev]s & spr+s1 z be/ to absorb %ocks1 & connect$ ) ! body by a p9 only1 by :i* ! passage ( curves is made q easy4 ,c>s us$ = ! movem5t ( e>? are s arrang$ z to all[ ! body to be tipp$ up1 t ! cont5ts may be quickly 8dump$10 ei!r at ! sides1 ends1 or middle1 z desir$4 #chb4 ,^u "s roads1 a cont9u\s draw b> is pass$ "u ! :ole tra91 ! sev]al c>s be+ atta*$ to x1 & to ea* o!r by safety *a9s only4 ,by adopt+ ?is1 & at ! same "t by spr++ ! buff] beams tight ^u ea* o!r1 ! :ole tra9 becomes "o piece2 & ! j]ks at /opp+ & at />t+ are 9 a great measure avoid$4 ,z lightness comb9$ ) /r5g? is a desid]atum 9 all cases1 x w be f\nd be/ to truss ! longitud9al frame pieces ( ! c> ) rods1 r ?an to use l>ge & heavy beams1 z done by _m build]s4 ,,ret>d+ ,,( ,,tra9s4 #chc4 ,z reg>ds ! mode ( ret>d+ tra9s ( c>s1 ! practice ( apply+ blocks to ! :eels is ju/ly consid]$ by _m z q wrong4 ,! brake %\ld be appli$ to ! rail & n to ! :eel4 ,blocks drawn aga9/ ! :eel are suppli$ ) friction by means ( lev]s work$ by a brakeman1 :o c at pleasure cause ! :eels to slide ^u ! rail4 ,a %oe1 slid+ ^u ! rail1 may be suppli$ ) friction f ! :ole weight ( ! c>4 ,! ret>d+ =ce %\ld be appli$ at once to e c> alike2 if too mu* 9 front1 ! re> c>s are driv5 aga9/ ^? 9 advance2 if too mu* beh9d1 ! tra9 is liable to break4 ,! prop] place = ! brakeman is ^u ! top ( ! tra91 :]e all signals may be quickly se54 ,,*apt] ,,xv4 ,,/ations4 ,,classification ,,( ,,build+s4 #chd4 ,! entire e/abli%m5t ( build+s = op]at+ a railroad1 consi/s ( ! ,t]m9al1,pass5g]1,/ations4 ,freight1 ,way1,pass5g]1,/ations4 ,freight1 ,eng9e h\ses4 ,repair %ops1 7= eng9es74 ,repair %ops1 7= c>s74 ,wood %$s4 ,wat] tanks4 ,& app]ta9+ to ^!1 scales = ! weigh+ ( c>s & freight2 turntables1 transf] tables1 swit* & gate h\ses4 ,,location ,,( ,,build+s4 #che4 ,! location ( ! sev]al build+s m5tion$ above w dep5d ^u ! situation ( ! t]m9us1 ! "* ( ! traffic1 & ! numb] ( tra9s arriv+ & dep>t+4 ,,t]m9al ,,pass5g] ,,h\se4 #chf4 ,! pass5g] h\se %\ld be at ! mo/ conv5i5t po9t ( access to ! p]sons us+ x4 ,! freight build+s %\ld be at ! mo/ conv5i5t po9t = receiv+1 %ipp+1 & di/ribut+ m]*&ise4 ,! eng9e & c> h\ses1 ) ! %ops = repair1 may be plac$ :]e ! l& is *eap1 & s di/ant f dwell+-h\ses z n to cause inconv5i5ce to ! inmates !re( by smoke & noise4 ,! wood %$s1 tanks1 turntables1 etc41 etc41 are g5]ally at ! eng9e h\ses2 weigh scales1 etc41 at ! freight build+s4 #chg4 ,a railroad :i* connects ! int]ior ) a seaport1 w\ld probably br+ two classes ( freight2 "o = export & "o = home consumption4 ,! fir/ %\ld be c>ri$ at once to ! :>ves & load$ into ! %ips ) "o trans%ipm5t2 :ile ! second %\ld be deliv]$ z ne> z possible to ! c5tre ( home trade4 ,! dep>tm5ts ( arrival & dep>ture %\ld be kept q di/9ct1 :5 ! am\nt ( bus9ess transact$ is consid]able2 o!rwise op]at+ w become complicat$4 ,! arrival "p ( a l>ge pass5g] h\se requires a great numb] ( doors1 t exit may be easy to ! l>ge numb] ( pass5g]s t arrive at once4 ,! dep>ture rooms require few doors1 z dep>t+ pass5g]s come s+ly or 9 small bodies4 ,?us1 9 l>ge cities ! front ( a long rectangle is giv5 to dep>ture1 :ile a long side1 communicat+ ) an outside plat=m1 =ms ! arriv+ room4 ,"o ?+ 9 p>ticul> ought to be look$ to by ,am]ican railroad companies1--! arrangem5t ( public vehicles t %all secure travell]s f ! impositions & extortions ( hack-driv]s4 ,no p]son :atev] %\ld h access to any build+ except pass5g]s & ! railroad (ficials4 ,! places ( ! sev]al c>riages1 & ! rates ( pay = ! same1 %\ld be fix$ by ! company2 ! f>e be+ paid by *ecks b\ght by ! travell] f a company ag5t at ! /ation4 ,,t]m9al ,,freight ,,h\se4 #chh4 ,! t]m9al freight h\se %\ld conta9 all ( ! app>atus necess>y = receiv+ & emb>k+ freight4 ,:5 ! c5tral "p ( ! build+ is occupi$ by tracks1 & ! sides by plat=ms1 ! l&+ plat=m %\ld incl9e g5tly f ! c> to ! door2 & t = load+1 f ! door to ! c>4 ,?is arrangem5t facilitates ! h&l+ ( freight4 ,! int]ior ( ! build+ may be divid$ into dep>tm5ts1 ei!r accord+ to ! de/9ation or ! class ( ! freight4 ,,eng9e ,,h\se ,,& ,,appurt5ances4 #chi4 ,a t]m9al eng9e h\se1 ) a table 9 ! c5tre1 to conta9 #aj eng9es1 mu/ be #ade feet 9 diamet]4 #ae eng9es1 mu/ be #aej feet 9 diamet]4 #bj eng9es1 mu/ be #afg feet 9 diamet]4 #be eng9es1 mu/ be #ahc feet 9 diamet]4 #cj eng9es1 mu/ be #bjj feet 9 diamet]4 #ce eng9es1 mu/ be #bag feet 9 diamet]4 #dj eng9es1 mu/ be #bcc feet 9 diamet]4 #de eng9es1 mu/ be #bej feet 9 diamet]4 #ej eng9es1 mu/ be #bfg feet 9 diamet]4 ,! diamet] ( ! table be+ =ty-five feet1 & ! eng9e occupy+1 :5 (f f ! table1 fifty feet4 ,aga91 ?irty-two eng9es w\ld require a diamet] ( 7#cb #aj7_/c4adaf 7#b #ej7 #bjb ne>ly4 ,! eng9es )9 ! h\se may be suppli$ ) wat] f small tanks betwe5 ea* alt]nate pair ( pits1 7ea* tank hold+ five ?\s& gallons17 or ! entire build+ may be furni%$ f a ca/-iron pipe runn+ ar\nd ! :ole1 & be+ 9 connection ) a l>ge tank4 ,9 su* pipe !re %\ld be a gate ov] ! c5tre ( ea* pit1 & ne> its upp] end4 ,x may be conv5i5t to connect all to a s]ies ( small tanks1 by a pipe1 t ! wat] level may be kept ne>ly con/ant4 ,repair %ops = eng9es & = c>s1 may be pla91 rectangul> build+s1 s arrang$ z to accommodate ! necess>y ma*9]y4 ,turntables consi/ ( simply a circul> framework ( wood or iron1 plac$ at ! c5tre ^u a solid iron p9tle :i* be>s ! :ole weight1 & guid$ at ! circumf]5ce by a s]ies ( fifte51 eighte51 or tw5ty :eels f\rte5 or fifte5 in*es 9 diamet]4 ,! :eels are plac$ 9 an indep5d5t spid] frame1 & run ^u a curv$ rail plac$ on ! bottom masonry1 & ! table runs ^u ! top ( ! :eels1 s t ! motion ( ! circumf]5ce ( ! table is d\ble t ( ! :eels4 ,! frame consi/s1 fir/1 ( a pair ( timb]s t5 or twelve in*es wide & fifte5 or sixte5 in*es deep1 ^u :i* ! rails are plac$1 /rongly truss$ s z to ?r[ ! load ^u ! c5tre4 ,at "r angles to ^! are plac$1 at a di/ance ( eight or t5 feet1 timb]s #e #aj1 also truss$1 :i* s]ve to connect ! load m completely ) ! :eels4 ,! :ole is /iff5$ by diagonal brac+1 & is /rongly floor$4 ,! table is turn$ by a p9ion ^u itself1 work+ into a rack fa/5$ to ! f\ndation or to ! side masonry4 ,! trusses1 z also ! c5tre be>+1 %\ld be capable ( adju/m5t v]tically4 ,! co/ ( ! table1 exclusive ( masonry1 is f #a1bjj to #a1hjj4 ,weigh scales are made simil> to1 b /rong] ?an1 ! ord9>y hay-scales1 be+ rigid & /rong en\gh to be> ! weight ( a locomotive4 ,e c> 7freight7 plac$ ^u ! road %\ld h ! numb] & ! exact weight pa9t$ ^u x 9 "s conspicu\s place1 s t ! conta9$ load may1 at any "t1 be f\nd by plac+ ! c> ^u ! scale4 ,,wood ,,%$ ,,& ,,tank4 ,at way /ations ! freight & pass5g] h\ses1 wood & wat] /ation1 may all be comb9$2 ! plan & size dep5d+ ^u ! location & importance ( ! /ation4 ,! relative position ( ! tank1 wood %$1 & pass5g] h\se %\ld be su* t :5 ! t5d] is at ! prop] place = receiv+ its supplies ! c5tre ( a pass5g] tra9 ( ord9>y l5g? %all be at ! pass5g] door4 ,,( ,,! ,,wat] ,,supply4 #cij4 ,! numb] ( eng9es leav+ ! t]m9us ( a road det]m9es ! am\nt ( wat] necess>y at ! pr9cipal /ations2 & ! "* ( ! road & ( ! traffic fixes ! location & size ( ! way wat] /ations4 ,! am\nt ( traffic be+ pretty equally di/ribut$ ov] ! l5g? ( ! road1 ! tanks %\ld be plac$ at equal equat$ di/ances2 ?us ! eng9es w ne$ to wat] at clos] po9ts ^u /eep grades ?an ^u level roads4 ,g5]ally1 h[ev]1 ! wat] is tak5 :]e x c be got1 ! location ( /reams & spr+s fix+ ! place4 ,/eam1 hydraulic1 w9d1 human1 or animal p[] may be employ$ to raise ! wat] to ! tank4 ,(t5times high spr+s w fill ! tanks )\t ! application ( artificial p[]4 ,z we f9d ! liquid wat] 9 nature x is m or less impregnat$ ) vegetable1 gase\s1 & sal9e matt]1 :i* (t5 impairs its fitness = me*anical purposes4 ,^! admixtures are d]iv$ f ! rocks & gr\nd ov] or ?r\gh :i* ! wat] fl[s4 ,! incru/ations :i* =m 9 boil]s are caus$ by ! precipitation ( ! impurities 9 consequ5ce ( ! conc5tration ( wat] 9 ! boil]4 ,!y may be effectually remov$1 no matt] :at _! nature1 by boil+ *>coal 9 ! wat]4 ,if ! wat]1 previ\s to filtration1 c be heat$1 to expel all ! air & c>bonic acid gas1 :i* is (t5 ! solv5t ( ! =eign matt]1 ! filt]+ process w be accel]at$1 & w be m effectual4 ,ra9 wat] is m pure ?an any o!r2 practically1 p]fectly s4 ,riv] wat] comes next to x4 ,spr+ wat] is g5]ally adult]at$ ) basic salts 9 v>i\s =ms1 mo/ ( :i* may be precipitat$ by g5tly heat+ & filt]+ ?r\gh *>coal4 #cia4 ,fig4 #aeg %[s a conv5i5t =m = a tank h\se1 ) pump & heat]4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aeg4 ,a %[s half int]ior section ( ! tank4 ,b1 half elevation ( tank4 ,c1 pump2 ,c1 supply pipe2 d1 suction pipe & /ra9]4 ,e1 heat]4 e1 ! %ort1 & h1 ! long pipe4 ,h1 ! dis*>ge pipe4 ,g1 dis*>ge valve4 ,i1 c\nt] weight = dis*>ge pipe4 ,k1 :eel = weight rope4 ,l1 scale %[+ am\nt ( wat] 9 ! tank4 ,! heat] %[n 9 ! cut is made ( a coil ( two in* pipe ( iron4 ,! %ort pipe desc5ds f )9 six in*es ( ! bottom ( ! tank to )9 two or ?ree feet ( ! floor2 !n b5d+ f\r or five times ar\nd spirally1 turns up ?r\gh ! c5tre ( ! coil1 & runs ?ree or f\r feet into ! tank4 ,a small grate is plac$ 9 ! l[] "p ( ! coil1 & ! :ole app>atus is cas$ 9 %eet iron4 ,by su* an arrangem5t ( pipe1 circulation is obta9$1 & ! wat] 9 ! tank is kept q w>m4 ,! foll[+ rules & tables may be f\nd conv5i5t4 #cib4 ,! velocity ( wat] 9 any pipe necess>y to dis*>ge a giv5 quantity1 9 a fix$ "t1 is express$ by 7#add;,c7_/a4 ,:]e ,c is ! numb] ( cubic feet p] h\r1 & a ! area ( ! pipe4 #cic4 ,! head necess>y to s5d wat] ?r\gh a giv5 l5g? ( pipe1 ( any diamet]1 is %[n by ! =mula ,c_/7,d ,c7 ,h4 ,:]e ,c a con/ant4 ,c con/ant = diamet] ( pipe4 ,d diamet] ( pipe4 ,h heads requir$4 ,! exp]im5tal values ( ,c & ,c are z foll[s3 ,let ,v equal ! velocity 9 feet p] m9ute1 & we h ,v4 ,c4 #fj #h4fb #gj #aa4dj #hj #ad4eh #ij #ag4ie #ajj #ba4ef #abj #bi4gj #adj #ch4ij #aej #dd4jj #ahj #fb4ac ,also1 ! values ( ,c are ,diamet] ( pipe4 ,c4 #b 4#jjj #c 4#jjf #d 4#jbh #e 4#jec #f 4#jgh #g 4#ajd #h 4#acd ,,example ,,( ,,use ,,( ,,prec$+ ,,rules4 ,requir$ ! head ( wat] necess>y to s5d #a1ccc cubic feet ( wat]1 or #aj1jjj gallons p] h\r1 ?r\gh an eight in* pipe "o ?\s& feet long4 ,! velocity by rule "o w be 7#accc #add7_/7hb 4#ghed7 #chah feet p] h\r1 or #fd feet p] m9ute4 ,by rule two 7! value ( ,c = #fj be+ #h4fb1 & = #gj #aa4dj1 t = #fd is #aj ne>ly71 we h #aj_/7h #j4acd7 #a4bc1 :i* multipli$ by t5 7! numb] ( times t "o hundr$ is conta9$ 9 "o ?\s& feet1 ! di/ance71 gives ! result1 twelve in*es or "o foot1 :i* is ! requir$ head2 & if ! entrance to ! tank is tw5ty feet high1 we h1 z ! necess>y head1 #bj #a #ba feet4 #cid4 ,! =mula express+ ! p[] ( an eng9e to raise a giv5 am\nt ( wat] is 7,,wv7_/#ccjjj4 ,:]e ,w is ! weight ( a column ( wat]1 & ,v ! velocity 9 feet p] m9ute2 also #cc1jjj ! expression ( a horse-p[]4 ,= example1 h[ _m horse-p[] mu/ an eng9e possess to raise "o ?\s& cubic feet ( wat] p] h\r ?r\gh a six in* pipe fifty feet high8 ,! velocity w be 7#ajjj #add7_/7fb #j4ghed7 #ejic feet p] h\r1 or eighty-five feet p] m9ute4 ,! weight ( a column ( wat] fifty feet high & six in*es 9 diamet] is 7#fb #j4ghed #ej #ab7_/agbh #fb #fac4f lbs4 ,also1 7#fab #hc7_/ccjjj #a horse-p[] ne>ly4 #cie4 ,among ! pumps n[ 9 use = rais+ wat] at railroad /ations are ,c>p5t]'s rot>y1 ,wor?+ton's1 ,mc,gowan's1 & t ( ,messrs4 ,p]k9s & ,bi%op1 ei!r ( :i* answ]s e purpose4 #cif4 ,,table ,,%[+ ,,! ,,weight ,,& ,,co/ ,,p] ,,foot ,,( ,,ca/-,,iron ,,pipe4 ,diamet] ( ,?ickness ( ,weight ( pipe ,co/ ( pipe bore4 metal4 p] l9eal foot4 p] l9eal foot4 ,in*es4 ,in*es4 ,lbs4 ,c5ts4 #a #c4jf #ae #a #c4fg #ah #a #d4bi #ba #a #g4ha #ci #b #h4gc #dd #b #i4fe #dh #b #ad4gj #gc #b #ae4ic #hj #c #ag4ae #hf ,! weight ( a cubic foot ( ca/-iron be+ #dej lbs41 & ! price be+ five c5ts p] lb4 ,,table ,,%[+ ,,! ,,capacity ,,( ,mc,g,o,w,a,n',s ,,d\ble ,,act+ ,,pumps4 ,"t requir$ to ,explanation4 ,no4 #a4 ,no4 #b4 fill a #ffjj gallons tank4 ,/roke 9 in*es1 #e #h ,h\rs4 ,diamet] ( plung]1 #b #c ,area ( plung]1 #e4bgh 94 #g4gj 94 ,small ,l>ge ,cube ( half /roke 9 #j4aad #j4bhcpump1 ,no4pump1 ,no4 gallons1 #a4 #b4 ,dis*>ge ,at #aj ,full #acf4h #cci4f #di #ai 9 ,at #bj /rokes #bgc4f #fgi4b #bd #aj gallons ,at #cj p] #daj4d #ajah4h #af #g p] h\r4 ,at #dj m9ute4 #edg4b #aceh4d #ab #e ,at #ej #fhd4j #afih4j #aj #d ,at #fj #hbj4h #bjcg4f #h #c ,at #gj #ieg4f #bcgg4b #g #c ,at #hj #ajid4d #bgaf4h #f #b ,at #ij #abca4b #cjeh4d #e #b ,at #ajj #acfh4j #ccif4j #e #b ,,*apt] ,,xvi4 ,,managem5t4 ,all t is requir$ to r5d] ! ef=ts ( railroad companies 9 e respect equal to t ( individuals1 is a rigid sy/em ( p]sonal acc\ntability ?r\gh e grade ( s]vice4--,d4 ,c4 ,mc,callum4 ,,organization ,,( ,,employees4 #cig4 ,railroad managem5t may be divid$ into two gr& dep>tm5ts1-- ,f9ancial managem5t4 ,op]at+ managem5t4 ,! fir/ ( ^! does n prop]ly come into a "w ( ! pres5t k9d4 ,x embraces ! entire sy/em ( acc\nts4 ,its (fic]s are a presid5t1 secret>y1 treasur]1 attorney1 & directors4 #cih4 ,! op]at+ managem5t is subdivid$ z foll[s3-- ,! m]cantile dep>tm5t4 ,! me*anical dep>tm5t4 ,! fir/ embrac+ e ?+ relat+ to ! adju/+ ( t>iffs1 ! transport ( pass5g]s & freight1 ! emb>k+ & deliv]+ ( goods1 & ! weigh+ & measur+1 ticket & receiv+ (fices1 /eamboat1 /age1 & railroad connections4 ,! second1 ! ma9ta9+ ! road-b$1 sup]/ructure1 bridg+1 masonry1 build+s1 & fix$ /ock 9 work+ ord]2 mak+ all repairs1 r5ewals1 enl>gem5ts1 & alt]ations1 & ! pur*ase1 inspection1 ma9ta9+1 & op]at+ ( ! roll+ /ock4 ,^! dep>tm5ts are aga9 divid$ & subdivid$ until we come to ! m9ute/ details4 ,,note4--,t "p ( ,*apt] ,,xvi4 9 italics is extract$1 by p]mission1 f ! elaborate ,report ( ,d4 ,c4 ,mc,callum to ! /ockhold]s ( ! ,new ,york & ,erie ,railroad1 7,m>* #be1 #ahef74 #cii4 ,! foll[+ g5]al pr9ciples gov]n ! =mation ( an effici5t sy/em ( op]ations4 ,fir/4 ,a prop] division ( responsibilities4 ,second4 ,suffici5t p[] conf]r$ to enable ! same to be fully c>ri$ out1 t su* responsibilities may be real 9 _! "*4 ,?ird4 ,! means ( kn[+ :e!r su* responsibilities are fai?fully execut$4 ,f\r?4 ,great promptness 9 ! report ( all d]elictions ( duty1 t evils may at once be correct$4 ,fif?4 ,su* in=mation to be obta9$ ?r\gh a sy/em ( daily reports & *ecks t w n emb>rass pr9cipal (fic]s nor less5 _! influ5ce ) _! subord9ates4 ,six?4 ,! adoption ( a sy/em1 z a :ole1 :i* w n only enable ! g5]al sup]9t5d5t to detect errors imm$iately1 b w also po9t out ! del9qu5t4 #djj4 ,a sy/em ( op]ations to be effici5t & successful %\ld be su* z to give to ! pr9cipal & responsible head ( ! runn+ dep>tm5t a complete daily hi/ory ( details 9 all _! m9uti4 ,)\t su* sup]vision ! procurem5t ( a satisfactory annual /atem5t mu/ be reg>d$ z extremely problematical4 ,! fact t divid5ds are made )\t su* control does n disprove ! position1 z 9 _m cases ! extraord9>ily remun]ative nature ( an ent]prise may insure satisfactory returns "u ! mo/ loose & ineffici5t managem5t4 ,all subord9ates %\ld be acc\ntable to1 & direct$ by1 _! imm$iate sup]iors only4 ,ea* (fic] mu/ h au?ority1 ) ! approval ( ! g5]al sup]9t5d5t1 to appo9t all p]sons = ^: acts he is held responsible1 & to dismiss any subord9ate :5 9 8 judgm5t ! int]e/s ( ! company dem& x4 #dja4 ,! foll[+ table %[s ! rate & direction ( subord9ation = a fir/ class railroad3-- ,section m54 ,sup]9t5d5t ,road-ma/]4,section m54 ( ,road4 ,road-ma/]4,section m54 ,section m54 ,=eman ,ma*9e %op1 ,ma*9i/s4 ,=eman ,blacksmi? %op1 ,blacksmi?s4 ,sup]9t5d5t ,=eman ,c> %op1 ,c>p5t]s1 ( ,ma*9]y4 ,=eman ,pa9t %op1 ,pa9t]s4 ,eng9e]s 7n on tra9s71 ,firem54 ,c>-ma/]s1 ,oil m5 & clean]s4 ,conductors ,brakem54 ,mail ag5ts4 ,eng9e]s 7on tra9s74 ,ticket collectors4 ,g5]al ,sup]9t5d5t,g5]al pass5g],/ation ag5ts4,hackm54 ag5t4 ,swit*m54 ,express ag5ts4 ,police4 ,conductors4 ,brakem54 ,eng9e]s 7on tra9s74 ,g5]al freight ,/ation ag5t4 ag5t4 ,weigh]s4 ,gaug]s4 ,y>d-ma/]s4 ,supply ag5t4 ,cl]ks1 ,team/]s furni%+ supplies4 ,fuel ag5t4 ,all m5 employ$ ab\t ! wood %$s4 ,,duties ,,( ,,employees4 #djb4 ,! ,g5]al ,sup]9t5d5t has entire control ( all ( ! heads ( dep>tm5ts2 he issues 8 ord]s to ! heads only1 & is ! ma9 ag5t = transf]r+ ! resolves ( ! directors to ! op]at+ dep>tm5t1 & ! *annel ?r\gh :i* ! reports ( ! dep>tm5ts g to ! directory4 ,! ,sup]9t5d5t ( ! ,road has complete *>ge ( ! road-b$1 sup]/ructure1 bridg+1 masonry1 & build+s2 also all removals1 enl>gem5ts1 & alt]ations4 ,he %\ld be a ?or\gh civil eng9e]1 able 9 e respect to build a railroad f beg9n+ to end4 ,! ,sup]9t5d5t ( ,ma*9]y has *>ge ( ! pur*ase1 inspection1 repair1 & op]at+ ( all ( ! roll+ & fix$ ma*9]y1 ( %ops1 eng9e h\ses1 turntables1 tanks1 & weigh scales4 ,he is responsible = ! good condition1 prop] adaptation & effici5cy ( ! entire equipm5t ( eng9es & c>s4 ,! ,g5]al ,pass5g] ,ag5t fixes1 "u ! direction ( ! presid5t & g5]al sup]9t5d5t1 ! prices ( pass5g] transportation1 has *>ge ( all conductors1 ticket sell]s1 /ation police1 mail & express ag5ts1 ( /age1 /eamboat1 & railroad connections1 & ( all op]ations incid5t to transport+ pass5g]s4 ,! ,g5]al ,freight ,ag5t has *>ge ( all p]sons occupi$ at all ( ! /ations 9 =w>d+ & receiv+ m]*&ise1 9 measur+ & weigh+1 9 receiv+ money1 & bookkeep+1 /ation ag5ts1 & tra9 h&s4 ,he makes & regulates1 ) ! approval ( ! presid5t & g5]al sup]9t5d5t1 ! t>iff = freights2 contracts ) connect+ roads1 & insures ! b5efits ( su* agreem5ts1 exam9es all claims = damages to freight1 & sees t su* are prop]ly settl$4 ,! ,ag5t = ,wood contracts1 ) ! approval ( ! g5]al sup]9t5d5t1 = ! supply ( ! necess>y am\nt ( fuel2 att5ds ! measurem5t1 inspection1 & deliv]y at ! prop] places2 regi/]s ea* mon? ! am\nt ( fuel suppli$ & us$1 & ! location & am\nt on h&4 ,! ,supply ,ag5t has *>ge ( ! supply ( all mat]ials 9 use 9 all dep>tm5ts2 iron1 timb]1 eng9es1 rails1 bridges1 & e ?+ 9 use ^u ! road2 *>g+ ea* dep>tm5t ) its correct quantity & quality ( mat]ial receiv$4 ,road-ma/]s w h *>ge1 "u ! sup]9t5d5t ( ! road1 ( ! ma9t5ance ( ! road-b$ & sup]/ructure ( divisions ( f tw5ty-five to fifty miles 9 l5g?1 dep5d+ ^u ! c>e t ! road-way may ne$4 ,!y w h *>ge ( gravel tra9s1 & ( wood tra9s1 :i* run "u ! ord]s ( ! sup]9t5d5t ( ! road4 ,!y %\ld pass ov] _! divisions at lea/ once p] day4 ,"u !m are plac$ section m51 hav+ c>e ( t5 miles ea*1 be+ suppli$ ) ! prop] tools & signals4 ,!y mu/ pass ov] _! respective sections at lea/ once p] day 9 a h& c>4 ,!y %\ld see t e swit*1 frog1 *air1 & rail on _! section is 9 prop] ord]1 & report at once any defects1 :i* _c be rem$i$ by !m1 9 ! track1 to ! road-ma/]4 ,eng9e]s are subject to ! sup]9t5d5t ( ma*9]y :5 (f1 & to ! conductor :5 on1 ! tra9s4 ,none b a man well acqua9t$ ) ! details ( ma*9]y1 & :o has s]v$ 9 a locomotive ma*9e %op1 & is 9 e respect temp]ate & /eady1 %\ld fill ?is b]?4 ,=em5 ( ! blacksmi?1 ma*9e1 c>p5t]1 & c> %ops1 are subject to ! sup]9t5d5t ( ma*9]y1 & h *>ge ( ! repairs & clean+ ( ! eng9es1 c>s1 & o!r ma*9]y4 ,c>-ma/]s h *>ge ( ! m5 employ$ 9 clean+1 oil+1 & exam9+ ! c>s & _! :eels4 ,! c>s %\ld be ?or\ghly exam9$ at ! end ( ea* trip1 & at ea* /op1 by an inspector :o accompanies ! tra9 & looks to ! :eels1 axles1 boxes1 & brakes4 ,conductors4--,a conductor ( a tra9 %\ld be a ma*9i/1 a prompt1 active man1 :o %\ld /ation himself on ! top ( ! c>s 9 su* a position z to see ! :ole tra91 & able at any mom5t to communicate ) ! eng9e]4 ,he %\ld direct ! runn+ ( ! tra91 & control ! eng9e] & ! p]son :o takes ! f>es4 ,! latt] %\ld conf9e himself to ! inside ( ! c>s4 ,,numb] ,,( ,,tra9s ,,to ,,be ,,us$4 #djc4 ,?is is det]m9$ by ! quantity & quality ( ! mat]ial to be transport$1 & by ! "* ( ! road4 ,! tra9 %\ld n be s heavy z to be beyond ! p[] ( ! eng9es ^u ! /eepe/ grades1 nor s light z to increase unnecess>ily ! numb]4 ,a road do+ a l>ge pass5g] bus9ess mu/ accommodate ! public z f> z possible z reg>ds ! "t ( dep>ture & arrival1 & ! connections ) o!r roads4 ,a freight road mu/ reg>d m ! "* ( ! road4 ,"s classes ( freight 7ice1 beef1 etc47 d n admit ( delay4 ,z we increase ! numb] ( tra9s1 ! ratio ( "t employ$ 9 actual "w to ! :ole tra9 "u /eam is decreas$1 z !re mu/ be mu* "t lo/ on sid+s 9 wait+ = tra9s to pass4 ,liability to accid5ts is also incurr$4 ,comm]cial circum/ances1 m ?an any o!r1 w det]m9e ! prop] numb] & class ( tra9s4 ,,am\nt ,,( ,,s]vice ,,( ,,eng9es4 #djd4 ,?is is mu* less ?an is g5]ally suppos$4 ,! numb] ( eng9es requir$ to p]=m any am\nt ( "w is consid]ably great] ?an ! numb] actually 9 motion1 because ( liability to accid5t1 "t requir$ = clean+ & repair4 ,! ,new ,york ,/ate ,eng9e]'s ,report = #ahed gives1 z ! numb] ( eng9es on #b1ejj miles1 #ffh1 or "o eng9e p] #c miles4 ,also1 #ffh eng9es run p] annum #aa1cic1jjj miles1 or #ag1jee miles p] annum p] eng9e2 ?us requir+ 4#jjjjehfc ( an eng9e p] mile run p] annum4 ,?is is v ne>ly fifty-five miles p] day1 7#cac days p] annum74 ,also1 #ifh_/bejj gives #bg_/ajj ( an eng9e p] mile ( road1 & ! same report gives ! foll[+3-- ,"o locomotive = #c miles ( road4 ,"o pass5g] c> = #b miles ( road4 ,"o freight c> = #cb_/ajj miles ( road4 ,or ea* mile ne$s #bg_/ajj ( a locomotive4 #dj_/ajj ( a pass5g] c>4 #c freight c>s4 ,or to "o eng9e #gha_/ajj pass5g] c>s1 & #ajgb_/ajj freight c>s4 ,f ,l>dn]'s ,railway ,economy x appe>s t ! av]age daily run ( an eng9e is =ty-two miles1 or sev5ty-five miles p] day1 work+ f\r days 9 ! week4 ,t ! daily s]vice is two h\rs work+1 & ?ree & ?ree qu>t]s h\rs /&+ ) /eam up4 ,! maximum annual mileage m5tion$ by ,l>dn] is t ^u ! ,belgium l9es1 & 0 #ba1gcg4 ,! maximum 9 ,am]ica has be51 z f> z we h be5 able to asc]ta91 #bb1jjj1 & ?is = eighte5 ye>s4 ,,note #a4--,two little eight ton1 f\r :eel$1 ,/eph5son eng9es1 cyl9d]s #aj #af1 f\r & a half feet driv]s1 inside connection1 copp] fire-boxes1 h av]ag$ #bb1jjj miles p] annum1 ) tra9s weigh+ =ty tons exclusive ( eng9e & t5d]1 = eighte5 ye>s1 co/+ ab\t #gjj p] annum ea* = repairs1 or #c4ah c5ts p] mile run1 ^u ! ,bangor & ,oldt[n ,railroad 7,ma9e74 ,,note #b4--;,9 ! ,report ( ! ,railroad ,commission]s ( ! ,/ate ( ,new ,york = ! ye> end+ ,septemb] #cj1 #ahee1 is ! foll[+3-- ,"o eng9e is requir$ = ea* ?ree & a half miles2 or "o eng9e 9 con/ant use = five & a qu>t] miles4 ,! av]age run p] annum by ea* eng9e 9 actual use is #bb1hbc miles2 or #af1cjb to all ( ! eng9es4 ,also1 z reg>ds ! "w done by c>s4 ,effective 9 ,miles p] c>4 ,di/ance run p] con/ant use4 annum p] c>4 ,pass5g]1 #fej #d #de4abf ,baggage1 #bdf #aa ---- ,freight1 #gejj #j4ce #aa4igj ! numb] ( miles be+ #b1fae4 ,,exp5ses1 ,,receipts1 ,,pr(its4 ,,exp5ses4 #dje4 ,am]ican railroad reports z a g5]al ?+ d n analyze ! co/ ( work+4 ,! gross exp5se is giv51 & 9 "s cases is prim>ily divid$4 ,besides ! retrospective use ( a m9ute division ( exp5ses1 :i* enables u to see :at sy/em is ! mo/ economical1 !re is a prospective use1 namely1 ! =mation ( e/imates = future op]ations & a correct base = e/abli%+ t>iffs4 ,if ! circum/ances ( ! traffic rema9 ! same1 an e/imate ( :at ! co/ w be at any "t is easy2 b if !y *ange1 ! data = ! e/imate *ange also4 ,t we may at all times possess ^! data1 we %\ld "k e ye> j ! co/ ( work+ ea* article ( traffic4 ,x is n en\gh t ! gross receipt exce$s ! :ole exp5se2 ev5 !n ! road may be work+ unpr(itably4 ,unless ea* item ( transport pays = itself1 we are tax+ unju/ly "s o!r item1 7except1 inde$1 9 su* cases z adopt+ l[ rates 9 ord] to fill tra9s runn+ 9 "o direction :i* w\ld o!rwise run empty74 ,an analysis ( co/ w also %[ :e!r or n x is be/ to attract an increas$ am\nt ( bus9ess by a r$uction ( rates4 #djf4 ,! :ole co/ ( op]at+ & ( ma9ta9+ a railroad may be g5]ally & specially divid$ z foll[s3-- ,co/ ( ,road-b$4 ,co/ ( ,sup]/ructure4 7,a7 ,int]e/ on con/ruction & equipm5t ,co/ ( ,build+s4 capital4 ,co/ ( ,eng9es4 ,co/ ( ,c>s4 ,fix$ ma*9]y4 ,road-b$4 ,mat]ial4 ,labor4 7,b7 ,ma9t5ance ( way & works4 ,build+s4 ,mat]ial4 ,labor4 ,sup]/ructure4 ,mat]ial4 ,labor4 ,fuel1 oil1 & ,work+4 wa/e4 ,pass5g]4 ,sal>ies4 ,ma9ta9+4 ,mat]ial4 ,labor4 ,locomotives4 ,fuel1 oil1 & ,work+4 wa/e4 ,freight4 ,sal>ies4 ,ma9ta9+4 ,mat]ial4 ,labor4 7,c7 ,ma9t5ance ( ! fix$ & ,w>m+1 roll+ /ock4 ,work+4 light+1 & clean+4 ,pass5g]4 ,oil & wa/e4 ,c>s4 ,ma9ta9+4 ,mat]ial & labor4 ,work+4 ,oil & wa/e4 ,freight4 ,ma9ta9+4 ,mat]ial & labor4 ,fix$ ,9 %ops4 ,ma*9]y4 ,oil & wa/e4 ma*9]y4 ,on road4 ,tanks & ,mat]ials & tables4 labor4 ,conductors4 ,ticket ,sell]s4 ,pass5g]4 ,cl]ks4 ,brakem54 7,d7 ,sal>ies ( h&s employ$ 9 ,port]s4 & ab\t tra9s4 ,conductors4 ,freight4 ,/ation ag5ts4 ,brakem54 ,weigh]s & gaug]s4 ,pass5g]4 ,w>m+ & light+4 ,police4 7,e7 ,/ation exp5ses4 ,freight4 ,w>m+ & light+4 ,police4 ,sal>ies4 ,travell+ exp5ses4 7,f7 ,g5]al sup]9t5d5ce4 ,(fice exp5ses4 ,/ation]y4 ,adv]tis+1 c41 c4 ,! actual g5]al division ( ! op]at+ exp5ses ^u ! ,new ,york ,/ate sy/em ( roads 01 = #ahed1 z foll[s4 7,see ,/ate ,eng9e]'s ,report74 ,way & works1 #a1abc doll>s p] mile ( road4 ,ma*9]y1 #b1jgb doll>s p] mile ( road4 ,sal>ies on & ab\t tra9s1 #fdj doll>s p] mile ( road4 ,/ations1 #cj doll>s p] mile ( road4 ,g5]al sup]9t5d5ce1 #ccc doll>s p] mile ( road4 ---------- ,total1 #d1aih doll>s p] mile ( road4 ,t ! detail$ exp5ses may be *>g$ to ! prop] dep>tm5ts1 & t we may be able to take out ! exact co/ ( work+ any "o class ( tra9s1 or ( c>ry+ any article ( transport1 ! foll[+ =m %\ld be fill$4 #djg4 ,,table ,,%[+ ,,! ,,g5]al ,,& ,,detail$ ,,exp5ses ,,( ,,work+ ,,& ,,ma9ta9+ ,,! ,,railroads ,,( ,,new ,,york ,,/ate1 ,,= #ahed1 ,,& ,,! ,,new ,,york ,,& ,,erie ,,railroad ,,= ,,! ,,ye> ,,end+ ,,septemb] #cj1 #ahee4 ,,way ,,& ,,works4 ,nature ( ! item is %[n ,road-b$4,sup]/ructure4,build+s4,total4 9 horizontal columns4 ,"n ( railroad4 ,co/1 9 doll>s1 p] mile1 #cea #adj #bb;,f4 #eac ^u ,n4 ,y4 ,/ate ,railroads #dec #hh #bg,p4 #efh ,co/ 9 c5ts1 p] ton1 or p] ,f4 pass5g] 4#jbj 4#afa 4#jaj 4#aia p] mile run1 ,n4 ,y4 & ,erie ,railroad4 4#jce 4#bjg 4#jaa ,p4 4#bec ,,notes4 #djg4 ,,table ,,%[+ ,,! ,,g5]al ,,& ,,detail$ ,,exp5ses ,,( ,,work+ ,,& ,,ma9ta9+ ,,! ,,railroads ,,( ,,new ,,york ,,/ate1 ,,= #ahed1 ,,& ,,! ,,new ,,york ,,& ,,erie ,,railroad ,,= ,,! ,,ye> ,,end+ ,,septemb] #cj1 #ahee4 ,,locomotive ,,eng9es1 ,,c>s1 ,,& ,,fix$ ,,ma*9]y4 ,nature ( ! item is %[n ,,locomotive ,,eng9es4 9 horizontal columns4 ,pass5g] ,locomotives4 ,"n ( ,oil railroad4 ,fuel4 & ,sal>ies,:ole4,repairs4,total4 wa/e4 ,co/1 9 doll>s1 p] mile1 ^u ,n4 ,y4 ,/ate ,railroads #cie #ej #adj #ehe #bcg #hbb ,co/ 9 c5ts1 p] ton1 or p] pass5g] p] mile run1 ,n4 ,y4 & ,erie ,railroad4 4#aeg 4#jba 4#ajg 4#bhe 4#aji 4#cid ,,recapitulation4 #djg4 ,,table ,,%[+ ,,! ,,g5]al ,,& ,,detail$ ,,exp5ses ,,( ,,work+ ,,& ,,ma9ta9+ ,,! ,,railroads ,,( ,,new ,,york ,,/ate1 ,,= #ahed1 ,,& ,,! ,,new ,,york ,,& ,,erie ,,railroad ,,= ,,! ,,ye> ,,end+ ,,septemb] #cj1 #ahee4 ,,locomotive ,,eng9es1 ,,c>s1 ,,& ,,fix$ ,,ma*9]y4 ,nature ( ! item is %[n ,,locomotive ,,eng9es4 9 horizontal columns4 ,total ,freight ,locomotives4 co/4 ,"n ( ,oil railroad4 ,fuel4 & ,sal>ies4,:ole4,repairs4,total4 wa/e4 ,co/1 9 doll>s1 p] mile1 ^u ,n4 ,y4 ,/ate ,railroads #bjb #ca #abb #cee #aia #edf #acfh ,co/ 9 c5ts1 p] ton1 or p] pass5g] p] mile run1 ,n4 ,y4 & ,erie ,railroad4 4#bje 4#jah 4#jhj 4#cjc 4#jha 4#chd 4#ggh #djg4 ,,table ,,%[+ ,,! ,,g5]al ,,& ,,detail$ ,,exp5ses ,,( ,,work+ ,,& ,,ma9ta9+ ,,! ,,railroads ,,( ,,new ,,york ,,/ate1 ,,= #ahed1 ,,& ,,! ,,new ,,york ,,& ,,erie ,,railroad ,,= ,,! ,,ye> ,,end+ ,,septemb] #cj1 #ahee4 ,,locomotive ,,eng9es1 ,,c>s1 ,,& ,,fix$ ,,ma*9]y4 ,nature ( ! item is %[n ,,c>s4 9 horizontal columns4 ,pass5g] c>s4 ,"n ( railroad4 ,op]at+4,ma9ta9+4,total4 ,co/1 9 doll>s1 p] mile1 ^u ,n4 ,y4 ,/ate ,railroads #ej #ade #aie ,co/ 9 c5ts1 p] ton1 or p] pass5g] p] mile run1 ,n4 ,y4 & ,erie ,railroad4 4#jbj 4#jgi 4#jii ,,summ>y4 #djg4 ,,table ,,%[+ ,,! ,,g5]al ,,& ,,detail$ ,,exp5ses ,,( ,,work+ ,,& ,,ma9ta9+ ,,! ,,railroads ,,( ,,new ,,york ,,/ate1 ,,= #ahed1 ,,& ,,! ,,new ,,york ,,& ,,erie ,,railroad ,,= ,,! ,,ye> ,,end+ ,,septemb] #cj1 #ahee4 ,,locomotive ,,eng9es1 ,,c>s1 ,,& ,,fix$ ,,ma*9]y4 ,nature ( ,:ole ! item co/ ( is %[n ,,c>s4 ,,fix$ ma*9]y 9 ,,ma*9]y4oil+ on horizontal ! road4 columns4 ,total ,repairs1 co/ oil & ,freight ,c>s4 ( wa/e1 c>s4 labor1 & ma*9]y4 ,"n ( railroad4 ,op]at+4,ma9ta9+4,total4 ,co/1 9 doll>s1 p] mile1 #dd ,f4 #hda ^u ,n4 ,y4 ,/ate ,railroads #de #bjf #bea #ddf #ee ,p4 #ajgb ,co/ 9 c5ts1 p] ton1 or p] pass5g] 4#jae ,f4 4#dff p] mile run1 ,n4 ,y4 & ,erie ,railroad4 4#jbb 4#jde 4#jfg 4#aff 4#jah ,p4 4#eaa #djg4 ,,table ,,%[+ ,,! ,,g5]al ,,& ,,detail$ ,,exp5ses ,,( ,,work+ ,,& ,,ma9ta9+ ,,! ,,railroads ,,( ,,new ,,york ,,/ate1 ,,= #ahed1 ,,& ,,! ,,new ,,york ,,& ,,erie ,,railroad ,,= ,,! ,,ye> ,,end+ ,,septemb] #cj1 #ahee4 ,sal>ies ( ,/ation employees ,g5]al ,gr& exp5ses4 9 & sup]9t5d5ce4 ,total4 ab\t tra9s4 ,co/ p] ,nature ( ,repairs ,conductors4 ,/ation]y4 pass5g] ! item & ,brakem54 ,sal>ies4 or p] is %[n mat]ial4 ,weigh+4 ,(fices4 ton1 p] 9 ,w>m+ ,load+4 ,travell+4 mile run1 horizontal & ,port]s4 ,adv]tis+4 or co/ columns4 light+4 ,wat*m54 ,ag5cies4 p] mile ( road4 ,"n ( railroad4 ,co/1 9 doll>s1 p] mile1 -- #cga #ahj #aije ^u ,n4 ,y4 ,/ate ,railroads -- #bdf #agj #bjef ,co/ 9 c5ts1 p] ton1 or p] pass5g] 4#jbc 4#bdj 4#jde 4#ife p] mile run1 ,n4 ,y4 & ,erie ,railroad4 4#jbf 4#aei 4#jec #a4jjb ,,d$uctions4 #djh4 ,! foll[+ g5]al measures are recomm5d$ by ,l>dn] 9 8 ,railway ,economy1 z be+ ! means ( obta9+ increas$ economy 9 ! work+ ( railroads4 #a/4 ,s to manage ! traffic z to cause ! c>s to c>ry m complete loads4 #b;d4 ,to enc\rage ! transport to long di/ances4 #c;d4 ,to regulate ! t>iff s z to give ! l>ge/ possible numb] ( c>s to ea* eng9e4 #d?4 ,to adju/ ! t>iffs :]e ! bus9ess is *iefly 9 "o direction1 s z to attract return traffic1 t ! c>s may n run )\t a load4 #e?4 ,n to increase ! numb] ( tra9s beyond a reasonable accommodation ( traffic4 #f?4 ,to dim9i% z f> z possible express tra9s1 if x be n practicable to aboli% !m altoge!r4 ,,receipts ,,& ,,pr(its4 #dji4 ,! di/ribution ( exp5ses1 z we h se51 is some:at complicat$1 & is sy/ematically done ^u a v few roads4 ,! classification ( receipts is1 h[ev]1 v easy1 & is prop]ly detail$ 9 ne>ly all railroad reports4 ,^u ! ,new ,york ,/ate railroads1 ! foll[+ 0 ! division = ! ye> #ahed4 ,av]age receipts p] mile ( road1 ,pass5g]s1 #d1jgd4af ,freight1 #c1ggf4gb ,extras1 #dbg4bh ------------------ ,:ole1 #h1bgh4af ,:ole exp5se1 #d1gaj4ad or fifty-sev5 p] c5t4 ( ! receipts4 ,receipts p] mile run by tra9s1 ,pass5g]s1 #a4cb ,freight1 #b4jb ,extras1 #a4fg ---------- ,:ole1 #e4ja ---------- ,av]age1 #a4fg ---------- ,:ole exp5se p] mile run by tra91 #j4ig ,av]age receipts p] pass5g] & p] ton1 p] mile1 ,pass5g]1 #a4ie c5ts1 ,ton1 #b4gi c5ts1 -------- ,av]age ( pass5g] or ton1 #b4cg c5ts1 -------- ,av]age exp5se ( pass5g] or ton1 #a4ch c5ts1 #daj4 ,^u ! ,new ,york & ,erie ,railroad = ! ye> end+ ,septemb] #cj1 #ahef4 ,receipts p] mile ( road1 ,pass5g]s1 #c1cig4cd ,freight1 #g1adc4db ,express & mail1 #cig4hd -------------------- ,:ole1 #aj1ich4fj ,:ole exp5se p] mile ( road1 #e1bfc4jj or =ty-eight p] c5t1 ( ! receipts4 ,receipts p] mile run by tra9s1 ,pass5g]s1 #a4af ,freight1 #b4ac ,av]age receipts p] pass5g] & p] ton1 p] mile1 ,pass5g]1 #b4jb c5ts1 ,ton1 #b4cg c5ts4 #daa4 ,^u ! ,new ,york ,/ate roads1 ,av]age numb] ( pass5g]s p] mile run1 #eg4d ,av]age di/ance travell$ by pass5g]s1 #ha4d ,av]age tons p] mile run1 #ij4j ,av]age di/ance1 :ole numb] ( tons c>ri$1 #agg4j ,l5g?1 #dif miles1 ,freight tonnage1 #aej1fgc1iig miles1 ,pass5g]1 #hd1jfi1cih miles4 #dab4 ,x is ( c\rse an object on e railroad to make ! gross receipts ov]balance ! gross exp5se by ! l>ge/ possible am\nt4 ,! elem5ts :i* det]m9e ! gross receipts are1 ,! *>ge p] mile1 = transport1 ,! numb] ( units transport$1 ,! di/ance c>ri$1 ( :i* ! company's directors c control ! fir/ only1 except z adju/m5t ( rates may attract bus9ess4 ,r$uction ( t>iff1 to a c]ta9 degree1 has ! effect ( increas+ ! receipts by augm5t+ ! numb] ( f>es2 b ! r$uction may be c>ri$ too f>4 ,s1 also1 = a c]ta9 di/ance1 increas$ rates w increase ! :ole receipts2 b 9 ?is case1 also1 ! extreme mu/ be avoid$4 ,! po9t to be arriv$ at is1 evid5tly1 t at :i* ! diff]5ce ( exp5se & receipt is ! greate/1 & ?is is n necess>ily :5 receipts are ! greate/4 ,we c make ! receipts no?+ ei!r by mak+ ! *>ges s l>ge t no?+ c be> !m1 or s small z to vani%4 ,ev5 :5 ! receipts are #j1 we /ill h ! exp5se ( mov+ ! empties4 ,by =m+ a table 9 :i* "o column %all %[ ! diff]5t *>ges1 & ! second ! correspond+ am\nts transf]r$1 ) ! consequ5t receipts & co/ ( work+1 we %all f9d :i* rate ( *>ge w give ! greate/ diff]5ce betwe5 exp5se & receipt4 ,,express ,,tra9s4 #dac4 ,express tra9s are a s\rce ( va/ exp5se1 directly & indirectly1 :i* c nev] be repaid by any practicable t>iff to be levi$ ^u !m4 ,dr4 ,l>dn]1 7#ahej73-- ,resolv$1 ,t ?is meet+ recomm5d ! adoption ( a high] rate ( f>e ^u express pass5g] tra9s1 correspond+ 9 "s degree to ! increas$ co/ ( su* tra9s4--,am]ican ,railroad ,conv5tion ( #ahed4 ,,increas$ ,,co/ ,,( ,,work+4 ,?is is due to ! extra we> & te> ( eng9es1 c>s1 & road1 f increas$ spe$1 & also to ! delays occasion$ to o!r tra9s 9 motion at ! same "t4 ,! influ5ce ( express tra9s is felt n only by !mselves1 b by ne>ly all ! tra9s ^u ! road4 ,,note4--,to det]m9e ! mo/ economical spe$1 reg>d ne$ only be _h to ! v>iable elem5ts ( co/1 namely3 co/ ( p[]1 & ma9t5ance ( sup]/ructure1 & roll+ /ock2 assum+ ! p[] exp5d$ z ! resi/ance1 & ! co/ ( repairs ( ma*9]y & sup]/ructure z ! velocity1 we =m ! foll[+ table3-- ,velocity 9 ,resi/ance ,h\rs con4 ,product ( ,co/ ( miles p] 9 p\nds 9 go+ column #b repairs4 ,result4 h\r4 p] ton4 #cjj miles4 #c4 #aj #h4f #cj #beh #ajj #ceh #ae #i4c #bj #ahf #aej #ccf #bj #aj4c #ae #aed #bjj #ced #be #aa4f #ab #aci #bej #chi #cj #ac4c #aj #acc #cjj #dcc #ce #ae4b #h4fj #aca #cej #dha #dj #ag4c #g4ej #acj #djj #ecj #de #ai4h #f4fg #acb #ej #bb4f #f #acf #fj #bi4a #e #ade #ajj #ff4e #c #bjj ,! result is f\nd by add+ ! product ( columns #b & #c1 or column #d to column #e1 f :i* ! m9imum co/ is se5 to be produc$ by a v little m ?an fifte5 miles p] h\r4 ,! v>iable 7& above assum$7 elem5t is ! rate ( increase ( co/ ( ma9t5ance4 ,all tra9s 9 motion at ! same "t )9 a c]ta9 di/ance ( ! express1 mu/ be kept wait+ ) /eam up1 or be driv5 ) extra velocities 9 ord] to keep out ( ! way4 ,:]e ! "t table is s arrang$ z to call = spe$ ne>ly equal to ! full capacity ( ! eng9e1 x is v obvi\s t ! risks ( failure 9 8mak+ "t0 mu/ be mu* great] ?an at r$uc$ rates2 & :5 !y d occur1 ! ef=ts made to ga9 "t mu/ be correspond+ly great] & unc]ta94 ,a s+le example w be suffici5t to %[ ?is3-- ,a tra9 ^: prescrib$ rate ( spe$ is ?irty miles an h\r1 hav+ lo/ five m9utes ( "t1 & be+ requir$ to ga9 x1 9 ord] to meet & pass an oppos+ tra9 at a /ation t5 miles di/ant1 mu/ necess>ily increase its spe$ to =ty miles an h\r2 & a tra9 ^: prescrib$ rate ( spe$ is =ty miles an h\r1 "u simil> circum/ances1 mu/ increase its spe$ to sixty miles an h\r2 9 ! =m] case x w\ld probably be accompli%$1 :il/ 9 ! latt] x w\ld m probably result 9 failure2 or1 if successful1 x w\ld be s at a fe>ful risk ( accid5t4 ,b a failure 9 ei!r case w\ld h ! effect ( ret>d+ ! movem5t ( ! oppos+ tra91 d]ang+ ! "t ( ^? ( ! same & ( an inf]ior class 9 bo? directions1 involv+1 p]haps1 on ! "p ( ! latt]1 ! necessity ( simil> /ruggles = "t1 & ?us may prove ! prim>y cause ( accid5t to all tra9s ^: movem5ts may h be5 affect$ !reby4 ,! fir/ co/ ( locomotives1 7assum+ ! co/ to increase ) ! weight17 is ?irty p] c5t4 great] = express tra9s1 ?an = ^? ( ! second or ?ird class4 ,! co/ ( repairs be+ assum$ z ! product ( ! weight by di/ance run1 & ?is di/ance be+ ! same1 is z ! weight1 or increas$ ?irty p] c5t4 7,?is assumes ! p[] to be equally well adapt$47 ,! co/ ( c>s does n 7?\gh x ought71 diff] mu* = express or sl[ tra9s2 ! co/ ( repairs w c]ta9ly be increas$4 ,! int]e/ ( con/ruction capital to be *>g$ to expresses1 w be1 _! mileage proportion plus any exp5se :i* may h be5 incurr$ 9 r$uc+ curves & grades2 ! proportion ( repairs ( sup]/ructure1 *>g$ to expresses1 w dep5d on _! weight4 ,! locomotive causes #be_/bi ( ! we> ( rails1 & z ! weight ( ! eng9es is increas$ ?irty p] c5t41 ! increas$ we> w be ( #ae_/eh4 ,! use ( /ations & ( employees co/s no m = express ?an = accommodation tra9s4 ,! repairs ( locomotives w be ne>ly1 if n q1 z ! product ( _! weight by ! di/ance run2 & ?is1 f ! above1 w be ?irty p] c5t4 great] on an express ?an on an ord9>y tra91 ! di/ance be+ ! same4 ,! c>riages = express tra9s ought to be at once /rong] & m conv5i5t ?an ^? = ! sl[] "w1 ! %ocks aris+ f irregul>ities 9 ! rails be+ v mu* great] z velocity increases2 & ! runs be+ v long1 pass5g]s require easi] seats1 ev51 9 "s cases1 accommodation = sleep+4 ,! co/ = repairs1 !re=e1 ( express c>s1 w\ld be some:at great] ?an = any o!rs4 ,,co/ ,,& ,,ma9t5ance ,,( ,,way ,,& ,,works4 ,z ! spe$ is increas$1 ! relative effect ( grade & curves is less5$1 b ! absolute dang] ( pass+ curves is increas$4 ,express tra9s require l>g] radius ( curvature1 or great] elevation ( ext]ior rail ?an o!rs1 :i* extra elevation causes an unnecess>y resi/ance to all o!r tra9s4 ,! rails to resi/ l>ge & heavy :eels mu/ be heavi] & m firmly fa/5$4 ,all bridges & viaducts 7p>ticul>ly if on grades or curves71 w require m /r5g? to resi/ ! increas$ %ocks to :i* !y w be subject4 ,! we> ( rails is ne>ly z ! weight pass+ ov] !m2 ! we> ( rails consequ5t ^u /opp+ & />t+ ! tra9s dep5ds ^u ! mom5tum ( ! tra9 :i* is to be imp>t$ to !m4 ,! proportion1 9 :i* ! work+ exp5ses are di/ribut$ "u ! sev]al heads on ! l>g] railways ( ,great ,brita91 is z foll[s3-- ,direction & managem5t1 #g ,way & works1 #af ,locomotive dep>tm5t1 #ce ,c>s1 #ch ,sundries1 #d ------ #ajj ,& ! p]c5tage ( increase due to fa/ travell+1 to be appli$ to ! sev]al items ( exp5se1 ) ! result+ increase 9 total exp5se1 is %[n bel[4 ,direction & managem5t1 #g #j #j4j ,way & works1 #af #bg #d4c ,locomotive dep>tm5t1 #ce #cj #aj4e ,c>s1 #ch #aj #c4h ,sundries1 #d #j #j4j ------ -------- #ajj #ah4f or #ah p] c5t4 increase1 ne>ly4 ,express tra9s1 z work$ on _m roads1 run at an unnecess>y spe$1 to make up = frequ5t /ops4 ,ov]com+ a long di/ance 9 a %ort "t1 dep5ds z mu* on decrease 9 ! numb] ( /ops1 z increase 9 ! spe$4 ,! foll[+ figures %[ ! effect ( decreas+ ! numb] ( /ops4 ,a tra9 runn+ #djj miles1 & /opp+ once 9 fifty miles1 ea* /op be+ five m9utes1 7includ+ com+ to re/ & />t+17 to pass ov] ! :ole di/ance 9 eight h\rs1 mu/ run fifty-five miles p] h\r4 ,/opp+ once 9 tw5ty miles1 sixty-?ree miles p] h\r4 ,/opp+ once 9 t5 miles1 eighty-six miles p] h\r4 ,! foll[+ table %[s ! velocities ( ! diff]5t classes ( tra9s 9 ,engl&1 ,france1 & ,belgium1 includ+ & exclud+ /ops4 ,,exclud+ ,,/ops4 ,express4 #a/ class4 #b;d class4 #c;d class4 ,engl&1 #dc4i #cb4h #cb4h #be4b miles p] h\r4 ,france1 ---- #bg4e #bd4c #bh4a miles p] h\r4 ,belgium1 ---- #bf4b #be4g #bg4f miles p] h\r4 ,,includ+ ,,/ops4 ,express4 #a/ class4 #b;d class4 #c;d class4 ,engl&1 #cf4e #bd4h #bd4h #ag4e miles p] h\r4 ,france1 ---- #bb4a #ag4i #ai4i miles p] h\r4 ,belgium1 ---- #bj4g #ai4c #ah4a miles p] h\r4 ,! di/ances at :i* ! diff]5t classes ( tra9s /op 9 ! sev]al c\ntries1 are z foll[s3-- ,,tra9s ,,/op ,,once ,,9 #a/ class4 #b;d class4 #c;d class4 ,express4 ,engl&1 #h miles1 #h miles1 #e miles1 #bd miles4 ,france1 #aj miles1 #f miles1 #f miles1 ---- miles4 ,belgium1 #f4h miles1 #e4f miles1 #e miles1 ---- miles4 ,,( ,,! ,,increas$ ,,dang] ,,( ,,fa/ ,,travell+4 ,! causes ( accid5t1 beyond ! control ( pass5g]s1 are ,collision by opposition4 ,collision by ov]tak+4 ,d]ailm5t by misplac$ swit*es & draws4 ,d]ailm5t by ob/acles ^u ! rails4 ,breakage ( ma*9]y4 ,failure ( track or bridges4 ,fire4 ,boil] explosions4 ,^? causes :i* are aggravat$ by fa/ travell+ are ! fir/1 second1 fif?1 & six?2 ! effects ( all are worse at high spe$s ?an at l[4 ,! proportion ( accid5ts due to ea* ( ^! causes1 tak5 at r&om f "o hundr$ cases on ,engli% railways1 are z foll[s3-- ,collision1 #ef ,break+ ( ma*9]y1 #ah ,failure ( ! road1 #ad ,misplac$ swit*es1 #e ,ob/acles on rails1 #f ,boil] explosion1 #a ------ #ajj ,9 collision by opposition1 ! eng9es1 t5d]s1 & baggage c>s mu/ be demoli%$ be=e ! %ock rea*es ! pass5g]s2 9 collision by ov]tak+1 ! eng9e ( ! re> tra9 plunges at once into ! la/ pass5g] c> ( ! lead+ tra92 ! =ce 9 ! la/ case is ! diff]5ce ( ! spe$s1 9 ! =m] ! sum4 ,! increase ( dang] f ?is cause1 att5dant ^u express tra9s1 is due1 fir/1 to ! long] "t requir$ 9 /opp+1 & second1 9 ! great] %ock if collision occurs4 ,breakage ( ma*9]y is m liable to take place :ile :eels are revolv+ #be1jjj times p] h\r1 ?an :5 ! spe$ is less4 ,failure ( ! sup]/ructure ( bridges1 7p>ticul>ly :5 on curves or grades17 is m liable to take place at high ?an at l[ velocities4 ,accid5ts f ob/acles ^u ! track1 f fire1 boil] explosions1 & misplac$ swit*es1 are no m att5dant ^u express ?an ^u o!r tra9s1 b ! consequ5ces are worse ) ! high spe$s4 ,f ! analysis above1 ( "o hundr$ accid5ts1 x appe>s t eighty-eight p] c5t4 ( ! cases are due to ! causes t are aggravat$ by increase ( spe$1 & if we assume ! aggravation ( collision1 & breakage ( ma*9]y1 to be 7spe$ be+ d\bl$7 z two to "o1 ! dang] ( travell+ a fix$ di/ance1 by express1 is eighty-eight p] c5t4 great] ?an by a sl[ tra94 ,,comp>ative ,,co/ ,,( ,,work+ ,,heavy ,,& ,,light ,,tra9s4 #dad4 ,! "q is sometimes ask$1 if x w\ld n be bett] to run a great] numb] ( tra9s & r$uce ! weight ( eng9es4 ,a comp>ison ( co/ is easily made4 ,! co/ ( work+ tra9s consi/s ( ,fuel1 oil1 & wa/e4 ,eng9e-m5's wages4 ,we> ( rails4 ,conductor & brakem54 ,we> ( c>s4 ,suppose we h to move #a1jjj tons p] day ov] any road4 ,if we d x by "o eng9e & #ajj c>s1 ! :ole co/ w be ,"o ,eng9e] #b4jj ,"o ,fireman #a4ej ,"o ,conductor #a4ge ,f\r ,brakem5 #e4jj ------------ #aj4be ,& if we move #a1jjj tons by t5 tra9s ( "o hundr$ tons ea*1 ,t5 ,eng9e-m5 at #b #bj4jj ,t5 ,firem5 at #a #ae4jj ,t5 ,conductors at #a #ag4ej ,t5 ,brakem5 at #a #ab4ej ------------ #fe4jj ,diff]5ce ( sal>ies 9 favor ( ! heavy tra91 ( #ed4ge4 ,z ! :ole weight ^u ! driv]s mu/ be ! same to move a giv5 load by ei!r me?od1 ! only diff]5ce 9 weights ( eng9es w be t ^u ! truck4 ,to lead well a truck mu/ h five tons ^u x4 ,! :ole weight ^u t5 trucks is1 !n1 fifty tons1 & t ^u "o1 five tons1 :i* leaves an excess ( =ty tons to be daily c>ri$ ov] ! road by ! small tra9s4 ,! heavie/ freight eng9e w n co/ ov] #ae1jjj2 ! co/ ( an eng9e to draw "o hundr$ tons _c be less ?an #e1jjj4 #aj #ejjj #ejjjj less #aejjj is #cejjj4 #f_/ajj ( #cejjj is #bajj4 ,add to ?is five times z mu* fuel us$ 9 fir+ up & /&+ ) /eam up1 t5 times z mu* oil+1 clean+1 & repair+1 t5 times z mu* eng9e h\se & %op accommodation2 also t ! c>s 9 frequ5t tra9s are mu* less load$ ?an 9 seldom ones1 increas$ delay & *ance ( accid5t f increas$ numb] ( tra9s1 & e/imat+ all ( !m at #agj4jj p] day1 7! co/ ( ! l>ge eng9e be+ assess$ at #cj p] day1 & t ( ea* ( ! small ones z #bj1 ! daily diff]5ce is #agj17 & we h1 z ! :ole daily increas$ co/ ( work+ t5 small ov] "o l>ge tra91 #agj4jj #ed4ge 7#f_/ajj ( #cejjj7_/cac or #f4ga #bca4df p] day1 or #gb1ddf4ih p] annum1 :i* employs a capital ( #a1bjg1ddi4 ,,bran* ,,roads4 #dae4 ,^! l9es1 :5 belong+ to ! ma9 road1 are g5]ally work$ at a loss2 & :5 indep5d5t1 are a poor inve/m5t4 ,at a meet+ ( ! directors ( ! ,bo/on & ,worce/] 7,mass47 ,railroad 9 ,febru>y1 #ahee1 x 0 decl>$ t out ( six bran*es1 b "o 0 pr(itable4 ,t f\r ( !m gave an income ^u co/ ( f "o & a qu>t] to "o & ?ree qu>t] p] c5t4 ,indep5d5t bran* l9es g5]ally %>e a jo9t bus9ess by ! mileage /&>d2 & "h is :]e !y lose1 = if ! bran* tra9s d n trav]se ! ma9 l9e1 & ! tribute pass5g]s help to fill a tra9 :i* runs at any rate ^u ! ma91 !n ! bran* exp5se ( c>ry+ ! pass5g]s is to t ( ! ma91 z 7say n9ety to t571 & ! bran* %\ld take #ij_/ajj ( ! receipts4 ,9 ?is case ! bran* is *>g$ ) us+ bo? ! c>s & road ( ! ma94 ,if x runs its own c>s ov] ! ma91 7z :5 ! bran* is ne> ! t]m9us17 x %\ld be *>g$ only ) ! we> ( ! road4 ,9 l mann] sev]al roads1 =m+ a cont9u\s l9e1 %\ld n divide ! receipts accord+ to ! mileage2 b accord+ to ! co/ ( work+ t mileage4 ,?us if we h ! cont9u\s l9e bel[1 column "o %[s ! l5g?2 column two1 ! co/ ( build+2 column ?ree1 t ( ma9ta9+2 & column f\r1 ! division ( receipts4 ,division4 ,l5g?4 ,con/ruction ,ma9ta9+ ,result4 ,capital4 ,capital4 #a #h #aj #d #aj #d #ad #b #i #f #c #f #c #i #c #f #g #b #g #b #i #d #aj #d #a #d #a #e ,,reproduction ,,( ,,road ,,& ,,/ock4 #daf4 ,besides ! annual repairs necess>y to ma9ta9 a road 9 prop] work+ ord]1 !re is ne$$ a p]iodic exp5diture = reproduction4 ,evid5tly ! "t w come1 ^u all roads1 :5 rails & sleep]s1 build+s1 bridges1 etc41 ne$ to be replac$4 ,kn[+ ! life ( rails1 we also "k ! annual depreciation1 & f t c easily f9d :at sum mu/ annually be laid aside1 :i* be+ prop]ly inve/$1 %all1 at ! end ( ! life ( ! rail1 toge!r ) its int]e/1 be equal to ! co/ ( r5ew+4 ,,rails4 ,suppose rails to la/ t5 ye>s1 ! annual depreciation is t5 p] c5t4 ,at sixty lbs4 p] y>d we h "o hundr$ & five tons p] mile1 :i*1 at #fj p] ton1 am\nts to #f1cjj4 ,let ! co/ ( r]oll+ & relay+ be #cj p] ton1 ! depreciation is !n #cj p] ton = t5 ye>s1 or #c p] ton p] annum1 or #cae p] mile p] annum4 ,,sleep]s4 ,if sleep]s la/ sev5 ye>s1 & co/ =ty c5ts apiece1 _! annual depreciation p] mile 7at #b1djj p] mile7 w be #ach p] mile 7ne>ly74 ,,bridges4 ,if wood5 bridges co/ #cj p] l9eal foot1 & la/ tw5ty ye>s1 ! annual depreciation p] foot w be #a4ej1 & if !re is t5 feet p] mile ( road1 #ae p] annum p] mile4 ,,extras4 ,all[+ = ! annual depreciation p] mile ( build+s1 f5ces1 etc41 #cc1 we h z ! :ole annual depreciation1 #ejj p] mile2 & ! am\nts :i* ye>ly res]v$ & plac$ at comp\nd int]e/ = ea* ( ! t5 ye>s1 w pay = reproduc+ ! road1 are z foll[s3-- ,at ! end ( ! #a/ ye> #bih ,at ! end ( ! #b;d ye> #cae ,at ! end ( ! #c;d ye> #ccc ,at ! end ( ! #d? ye> #ced ,at ! end ( ! #e? ye> #cgc ,at ! end ( ! #f? ye> #cig ,at ! end ( ! #g? ye> #dag ,at ! end ( ! #h? ye> #ddf ,at ! end ( ! #i? ye> #dgb ,at ! end ( ! #aj? ye> #ejj :i*1 at six p] c5t41 gives1 at ! end ( ! t5? ye>1 #ejj ea*4 ,,note4--,reproduction ( roll+ /ock has be5 prov$ to be no?+ m ?an repairs1 z a locomotive may be fitt$ ) "o & ano!r new "p until none ( ! orig9al ma*9e rema9s4 ,see ,l>dn]'s ,railroad ,economy4 ,z ! bus9ess ^u a railroad increases1 s does ! am\nt ( /ation accommodation necess>y1 & also ( roll+ /ock1 :i* increase %\ld be debit$ to capital1 & n to rev5ue4 ,! p]man5t inve/ors 9 a railroad are 9 favor ( hav+ capital ma9ta9$1 ev5 at ! exp5se ( rev5ue4 ,! tempor>y %>ehold]s1 & ! speculators 9 /ock1 wi% mo/ to produce l>ge divid5ds1 ev5 at a sacrifice ( capital1 & w\ld *>ge no?+ to rev5ue4 ,! rights ( bo? ( ! above classes are to be reg>d$1 z ! road is (t5 built ma9ly by ! ef=ts ( ! tempor>y inve/ors4 ,,work+ ,,railroads ,,by ,,contract4 #dag4 ,an exp]im5t has lately be5 tri$ ^u ! work+ ( railroads :i* bids fair to r$uce v consid]ably ! co/ ( op]at+2 & to r5d] ! ent]prises m pr(itable1 namely1 work+ ! sev]al dep>tm5ts by contract2 t is1 pay+ c]ta9 p]sons a fix$ price = supply+ ! necess>y am\nt ( p[]1 c>s1 or mat]ial p] annum1 ?us br++ into play private int]e/ & individual ent]prise4 ,!re is no d\bt b t by a judici\s sy/em ( ?is k9d1 correctly appli$1 _m roads :i* are n[ wor?less c\ld be made to pay1 :ile ! value ( good roads w\ld be also increas$4 ,,classification ,,( ,,freight4 #dah4 ,freight is classifi$ accord+ to its nature1 ! comm]cial nature ( ! c\ntry trav]s$ by ! road1 & ! direction ( ! pr9cipal m>ket4 ,! di/ribution adopt$ ^u "s ( ! l>ge roads is z foll[s3-- ,,classification ,,( ,,articles4 ,articles m>k$ ?us 99 at own]'s risk4 ,d\ble ,fir/ ,class4 ,baskets1 99 ,b& ,boxes2 99 ,camph5e2 99 ,c>boys1 & cont5ts2 99 ,demijohns1 & cont5ts2 99 ,eggs2 ,fea!rs1 9 bags2 ,furs2 ,hobby ,horses2 ,musical ,in/rum5ts2 99 ,pla/] ( ,p>is1 7ornam5ts72 ,pictures1 9 frames2 ,teazles1 9 casks2 ,wagons1 7*ildr5's72 ,will[ ,w>e4 ,fir/ ,class4 99 ,ale1 9 glass2 99 ,apples1 gre51 pre-paid2 ,bacon1 loose2 ,batt+2 ,bells2 99 ,b]ries1 pre-paid2 99 ,bl9ds1 7w9d[7 9 packages2 ,bonnets2 99 ,books1 9 boxes2 ,boots2 ,bran1 9 bags2 ,brass1 9 %eets & pigs2 ,brass ,ca/+s2 ,brass ,vessels2 ,bread & ,biscuit2 ,brooms1 9 bales or bundles2 ,broom ,h&les1 9 boxes or bundles2 ,bru%es2 ,buffalo ,robes1 pack$2 ,buttons2 99 ,c&ies & ,confection>y1 canvass$2 ,cane2 ,c>ds2 ,c>pet+2 ,caps2 ,*9a ,w>e2 ,*ocolate2 99 ,cig>s1 9 boxes2 ,c9namon2 99 ,clocks1 9 boxes2 ,cocoa2 ,cassia2 ,c(fee1 gr\nd2 ,coll>s2 ,combs2 ,copp]1 9 %eets & pigs2 ,copp] ,vessels2 ,corks2 99 ,cotton1 9 bales2 99 ,cotton ,wa/e2 ,cov]s & ,sieves2 99 ,cranb]ries2 99 ,cutl]y2 ,de] ,sk9s1 9 bundles2 ,doors2 ,dry ,goods2 ,fancy ,goods2 99 ,figs1 9 boxes2 ,fire-arms2 99 ,fi%1 fre%1 pre-paid2 ,fl\r1 9 bags2 ,=ks1 hay & manure2 99 ,fruits1 fre%1 pre-paid2 99 ,game1 pre-paid2 ,g>d5 ,se$s2 ,g+]2 99 ,glass1 9 boxes2 99 ,glass ,w>e1 9 boxes or casks2 ,glue2 99 ,grapes1 pre-paid2 ,gun ,/ocks1 9 boxes or bundles2 ,hair1 9 sacks2 ,hams1 loose2 ,h>ness2 ,hides1 dry2 ,hoe ,h&les2 99 ,holl[ ,w>e2 99 ,honey2 ,hops1 press$2 99 ,ice1 pre-paid2 ,indigo2 ,ink2 ,iron ,ca/+s1 light2 ,ivory2 ,japan ,w>e2 ,jo9]s ,"w2 99 ,lemons1 9 boxes1 canvass$2 99 ,look+-glasses1 well box$2 99 ,ma*9]y1 box$1 light2 ,m>ble1 wr\ght1 at own]'s risk ( breakage2 ,mats2 ,mattrasses1 d\ble1 at #aej p\nds ea*2 ,mattrasses1 s+le1 at #ajj p\nds ea*2 ,mill ,/uffs1 9 bags or casks2 ,measures2 99 ,meat1 fre%1 pre-paid2 ,meat1 9 bulk1 salt$2 ,m$ic9es2 99 ,melons1 pre-paid2 ,moss1 9 sacks2 ,nuts1 9 sacks or casks2 99 ,oranges1 9 boxes1 canvass$1 pre-paid2 99 ,oy/]s1 9 cans or kegs2 ,palm ,leaf1 9 bales2 ,pap]1 br[n wrapp+ & /raw1 7light72 ,pap] ,hang+s2 ,pelts2 99 ,port]1 9 glass2 99 ,p\ltry1 dress$1 pre-paid2 99 ,prunes2 ,rags1 7see second class72 99 ,rais9s2 ,rake ,h&les2 ,rattan2 ,rugs2 ,saddle ,trees2 ,saddl]y2 99 ,sa%1 9 packages2 ,scale ,beams2 ,scy! ,sna?s2 ,%oes2 ,%ovel ,h&les2 ,soap1 fancy2 ,soda2 ,spices2 99 ,spirits ,turp5t9e2 ,/ation]y2 ,/raw ,goods2 ,teas1 7see ?ird class72 ,t9 ,w>e1 9 crates or hhds42 ,toys2 ,trunks1 empty1 #hj p\nds ea*2 ,tubs2 ,turn]s' ,"w2 99 ,vegetables1 pre-paid2 ,v5e]+2 ,wadd+2 ,w>p1 on beams2 ,w>p ,beams2 ,wa/e1 wooll52 ,wax2 ,:alebone2 ,:eelb>r[s2 ,:ips2 ,wick+2 99 ,w9es1 9 baskets or boxes2 99 ,wood5 ,w>e2 ,wool2 ,wooll5s4 ,second ,class4 ,alcoholic ,liquors2 99 ,ale1 9 casks2 ,apples1 dri$2 ,alum2 ,an*ors2 ,anvils2 ,a%es1 pot or pe>l2 ,axes1 9 boxes2 ,axles1 iron2 ,bacon1 pack$2 ,bagg+2 ,b>illa2 ,b>k1 tann]'s1 #a cord p] ton2 ,beans2 99 ,beef1 9 casks or boxes2 ,be]1 9 casks2 ,blea*+ ,salts2 ,bones2 99 ,bottles1 pack$1 7empty72 ,brim/one2 ,burr ,blocks2 ,burlaps1 9 orig9al packages2 99 ,butt]1 9 firk9s2 99 ,c&les1 9 boxes2 ,cannon2 ,canvas2 ,ca/+s1 heavy2 ,cem5t2 ,*a9s2 ,*alk2 ,*air & turn$ ,/uff 9 bales or bdls42 ,cid]1 9 casks2 ,*eese1 9 boxes or casks2 ,clay1 ,coal1 & ,coke1 9 casks or boxes2 ,clov] ,se$2 ,c(fee1 9 sacks2 ,copp]as2 ,cordage2 ,crock]y ,w>e1 well pack$2 ,dome/ics1 9 orig9al packages2 ,dye ,/uffs1 9 woods2 ,e>!n ,w>e1 well pack$2 99 ,fire ,brick2 ,fi%1 dri$ or salt$2 ,flax ,se$2 ,flocks2 ,floor ,clo?1 pa9t$2 ,fl\r1 9 b>rels1 #bj b>rels or less2 ,furnaces2 ,gra91 ( all k9ds2 99 ,gr9d/ones2 ,groc]ies1 g5]ally heavy1 n o!rwise specifi$2 ,gunnies1 9 bales2 ,hoes2 ,hams1 %\ld]s or sides1 9 casks or boxes2 ,h>dw>e1 except ,cutl]y2 99 ,hemp1 9 bales2 ,hemp ,se$2 99 ,hides1 gre52 99 ,high ,w9es2 ,hoops1 %av$ or split1 #c1jjj p\nds p] cord2 ,india ,rubb]2 ,iron1 pig1 bloom1 boil]1 rod1 & b>2 ,iron1 hoop1 %eet1 or bolts2 ,iron1 nuts1 rivets1 & spikes2 ,junk2 ,l>d1 9 b>rels or casks2 ,lead1 %eet1 pig1 or pipe2 ,lea!r2 ,liquors1 9 b>rels or casks2 ,lime1 9 b>rels or casks2 ,m>ble1 unwr\ght1 at own]'s risk ( breakage2 ,meal1 9 bags or casks2 ,molasses2 ,moss1 press$2 ,nails1 9 kegs2 ,oakum1 9 bales2 ,oil1 own]'s risk ( leakage2 ,oil ,cake1 ,oil ,clo?2 99 ,oy/]s1 9 %ell2 ,pa9ts1 dry or 9 oil2 ,pap]1 7:ite17 9 boxes or bundles2 ,pap]1 7heavy br[n & h>dw>e72 ,pa/ebo>d2 ,pepp]2 ,pea*es1 dri$2 ,peas1 9 sacks or casks2 ,pickles1 9 casks2 99 ,pipes1 9 boxes2 ,pit*2 ,pla/]1 9 casks or b>rels2 ,pl\ghs2 ,pork1 pack$2 99 ,port]1 9 casks2 ,potatoes1 9 casks or sacks2 ,rags1 =eign1 press$2 ,rakes2 ,railroad ,*airs & ,spikes2 ,rice2 ,rope2 ,ros92 ,sal]atus2 ,salt1 9 bags or casks2 ,saltpetre2 ,scales1 9 boxes2 ,scy!s1 9 bundles2 ,scy! ,/ones2 ,%ot1 9 bags2 ,%ovels & ,spades2 ,siz+2 ,slate2 ,soap1 7common17 9 boxes2 ,soda3 ,spelt] & ,z9c2 ,spikes1 9 kegs2 ,spirits1 dome/ic2 ,/>*2 ,/eel1 9 boxes or bundles2 ,/eel ,spr+s2 ,/one2 99 ,/one ,w>e1 well pack$2 ,sug>2 ,sumac2 ,tall[1 own]'s risk ( heat2 ,t>2 ,tiles2 ,t91 metal & plate2 ,tobacco1 9 bales1 boxes1 or hhds42 ,t[1 press$1 79 bales17 own]'s risk ( fire2 ,tw9e1 9 bales2 ,vegetable ,roots1 9 sacks or casks2 99 ,v9eg>2 ,wat]1 ,m9]al2 ,:iskey1 9 casks2 ,:ite ,lead2 ,:it+2 99 ,w9e1 9 casks2 ,wire1 9 rolls & casks2 ,woods1 9 %ape1 unf9i%$2 ,woods1 ( value1 namely1 ,mahogany1 ,lignum ,vit1 ,rosewood1 ,*]ry1 ,c$>1 ,walnut1 etc42 ,wool1 =eign1 press$1 9 bales2 ,yam1 press$2 ,z9c & ,spelt]4 ,?ird ,class4 ,includes ! foll[+ articles 9 quantities ( #h1jjj p\nds1 & less ?an #af1jjj p\nds1 9 any "o %ipm5t f "o consignor to "o consignee4 ,same articles %ipp$ 9 l mann]1 9 quantities ( #af1jjj p\nds & upw>ds1 w be tak5 at special rates4 ,an*ors2 ,anvils2 ,a%es1 pot & pe>l1 9 casks2 ,axes1 iron2 ,bacon1 pack$2 ,b>k1 tann]'s1 #a cord p] ton2 ,beans1 9 sacks or casks2 ,beef1 pack$2 ,burr ,blocks2 ,cannon2 ,cem5t1 9 b>rels or casks2 ,*a9 ,cable2 ,cid]2 ,clay2 ,c(fee2 ,copp]1 9 boxes2 ,flaxse$1 9 sacks or casks2 ,fl\r1 9 b>rels2 ,gra91 ( all k9ds2 ,gr9d/ones2 ,hams1 pack$2 ,high ,w9es2 ,iron1 pig1 b>1 bloom1 %eet1 hoop1 or rod2 ,iron ,ca/+s1 heavy2 ,l>d1 9 casks or b>rels2 ,lead1 %eet1 pig1 or pipe2 ,lime1 9 b>rels2 ,m>ble1 unwr\ght1 at own]'s risk ( breakage2 ,molasses2 ,nails1 9 kegs2 ,pla/]1 9 b>rels2 ,pork1 pack$2 ,potatoes1 9 sacks or casks2 ,railroad ,iron1 ,*airs & ,spikes2 ,salt1 9 sacks & b>rels2 ,%ot2 ,slate2 ,spikes1 9 kegs2 ,sug>1 9 casks2 ,teas2 ,tobacco1 9 boxes or hhds42 ,v9eg>1 9 b>rels2 ,:iskey1 9 b>rels4 ,besides ! above regul> articles1 are ! foll[+ special objects ( transport3-- ,/ores2 ,cab9et ,w>e2 ,brick2 ,*>coal2 ,press$ ,hay2 ,broom ,corn2 ,boxes ( ,cig>s2 ,b>rels2 ,bags2 ,corn 9 ! ,e>2 ,p\ltry2 ,look+-glasses2 ,trees & ,%rubb]y2 ,safes2 ,mill-/ones2 ,/eam-eng9es2 ,ma*9]y2 ,agricultural ,implem5ts2 ,lumb]2 ,live-,/ock2 ,c>riages2 ,coal & ,coke4 ,,"t ,,tables4 ,fig4 #aeh1 7see end ( volume74 #dai4 ,! mo/ complete graphic solution ( an eng9e]+ problem1 is d\btless ! "t table ( ,s4 ,s4 ,po/1 ,esq41 *ief eng9e] ( ! ,new ,york & ,erie ,railroad4 ,let ! v]tical l9es repres5t "t 9 spaces ( t5 m9utes ea*1 & ! horizontals1 di/ances1 ! heavy l9es repres5t+ ! sev]al way /ations4 ,suppose n[ t we leave /ation ,a at six1 ,a4 ,m41 & wi% to arrive at ,k at two1 ,p4 ,m41 /opp+ t5 m9utes at ea* /ation2 ! numb] ( way /ations be+ eight1 ! :ole "t consum$ 9 /ops w be #aj #h #hj m9utes4 ,f two1 ,p4 ,m41 & on ! l9e ,k1 g back eighty m9utes or to ,m1 & f ,a draw ,a ,b1 9 ! direction ,a ,m1 :i* cuts ! l9e ,b ,b at ,b1 :i* is f\r miles1 or ?irte5 m9utes f ,a4 ,n[1 z we wait t5 m9utes1 pass along on ! l9e ,b ,b "o division 7t5 m9utes7 to ,b & />t aga9 p>allel to ,a ,b1 arriv+ at ,c at "o & a half h\rs f />t+4 ,proce$+ ?us1 we arrive at ,k at ! requir$ "t4 ,! incl9ation ( ! l9e %[s ! spe$4 ,?us1 if x passes tw5ty horizontal spaces 9 six v]tical divisions1 we h tw5ty miles 9 sixty m9utes1 or tw5ty miles p] h\r4 ,suppose n[ we w\ld />t an express tra9 at eight1 ,a4 ,m41 f ,a to arrive at ,k at "o1 ,p4 ,m41 7see l9e #h ,f17 x w pass ! fir/ tra9 at /ation ,f1 & w run at ! rate ( sev5te5 miles p] h\r f ,a to ,f1 at ! same rate f ,f to ,g1 & at ?irte5 miles p] h\r f ,g to #a4 ,suppose also t we />t a tra9 f ,k at six1 ,a4 ,m41 to arrive at ,a at elev51 ,a4 ,m41 we pass ! be=e-m5tion$ tra9s at ,e & ,d4 ,also a freight tra9 :i* is requir$ to pass ! above nam$ tra9s1 leav+ ,k at eight1 ,a4 ,m41 & arriv+ at ,a at "o1 ,p4 ,m41 w /op t5 m9utes at ,g1 t5 m9utes at ,m1 pass ! fir/ tra9 at ,l1 wait t5 m9utes on a sid+ at two & a half miles f ,l1 & run to ,a at ne>ly a uni=m rate ( spe$4 ,s also may ! motion ( any tra9 be laid d[n & trac$ ?r\gh ! h\rs ( ! day ^u ! table4 ,by plott+ ! pr(ile ( ! road ^u ! l9e ,a ,k1 ! places are %[n at :i* grades w oblige u to use a less spe$4 ,curves also may be %[n by increas+ ! /eepness ( ! grades2 or by mak+ a grade on ! pr(ile :5 ! road is level1 /eep en\gh to involve an am\nt ( p[] equal to t consum$ by ! curve4 ,,locomotive ,,regi/]s4 #dbj4 ,am]ican railroad reports are1 z a g5]al ?+1 q de/itute ( detail$ acc\nts ( ! p]=mance ( ! p[]4 ,"s ( ! l>ge roads1 inde$1 are ( late improv+ 9 ?is respect4 ,t f>es & tolls may be prop]ly appli$ to ! diff]5t articles ( transport1 ! co/ ( mov+ ea* article %\ld be kn[n4 ,su* items z ! sal>ies ( employees1 & repairs ( ma*9]y1 are easily di/ribut$ to ! prop] heads2 b ! correct am\nt ( fuel1 oil1 & wa/e1 to be *>g$ to any dep>tm5t1 is n s evid5t4 ,:at we require is1 ! exact am\nt ( fuel1 oil1 & wa/e us$1 & "w done by ea* eng9e2 to obta9 :i*1 "s sy/em ( regi/]+ ^! quantities mu/ be adopt$4 ,! foll[+ five blanks be+ fill$1 we h all t is requir$3-- ,numb] #a is ! eng9e]'s weekly return to ! ma/] ( ma*9]y1 & gives1 z se51 ! times ( arriv+ at1 & dep>t+ f1 ea* /ation4 ,! fuel %\ld always be ready at ea* /ation = deliv]y1 9 cords & half cords1 or 9 tons & fractions1 :5 coal or coke4 ,x may be deliv]$ ei!r f a small c> plac$ on a pair ( rails at "r angles to ! track1 or f a box hung ^u a crane1 :i* may be at once swung ov] & l[]$ into ! t5d]2 ! box :i* is already 91 be+ fir/ remov$4 ,! latt] me?od gives ! mo/ correct results1 z :atev] fuel is left at ! /ation may be cr$it$ to ! eng9e4 ,! :ole op]ation ( wood+ w\ld n take long] ?an x does to describe x1 & w\ld lead to a sy/ematic & economical me?od ( work+4 ,! tanks & pumps be+ *>g$ to con/ruction1 we may1 )\t mat]ial error1 *>ge ! co/ ( ! wat] supply to ! tra9s accord+ to _! mileage4 ,numb] #b is ! wood regi/]1 %[+ ! am\nt ( fuel deliv]$ to ! sev]al eng9es f ! diff]5t /ations1 & %\ld be weekly sign$ & return$ by ! /ation wood ma/] to ! fuel ag5t4 ,! eng9e]'s fuel receipts 7,no4 #a7 *eck ^! reports4 ,numb] #c is ! conductor's mileage acc\nt1 giv+ ! exact weight left at1 & tak5 f1 ea* /ation2 &1 consequ5tly1 ! load c>ri$ betwe5 /ations1 :i* is *eck$ by ! /ation ma/]'s return4 ,numb] #d is ! mon?ly acc\nt ( ! p]=mance ( eng9es1 compil$ f ! weekly return by ! sup]9t5d5t ( ma*9]y1 & report$ to ! sup]9t5d5t4 ,numb] #e gives ! annual p]=mance ( ea* & all ( ! eng9es ^u ! road1 & is obta9$ f ! mon?ly reports1 & f ^? ( ! repair & transportation dep>tm5ts4 ,! "w done by diff]5t classes ( c>s %\ld be regi/]$ 9 l mann]4 ,kn[+ ! am\nt ( mat]ial us$1 & also ! "w done1 x is easy to f9d ! co/ p] mile ( mov+ any article ( transport1 reg>d ( c\rse be+ _h to ! "* ( ! p>ts ( ! road trav]s$ by ! sev]al eng9es4 ,an eng9e work+ a sixty feet grade %\ld be all[$ m fuel ?an "o :i* works a level only4 ,,numb] #a4 ,a4 & ,b4 ,railroad4 ,report ( am\nt ( mat]ial consum$1 & ( "w done by ,eng9e ,no4 #ej1 dur+ ! week end+ ,july #d1 #ahef4 ----------------1 ,eng9e]4 ,,monday4,"n ( tra94 ,"n ( /ation4 ,"t ( arriv+4 ,"t ( dep>t+4 ,fuel tak54 ,:ole co/ fuel consum$ -------- ,:ole "t "u /eam -------- ,:ole "t runn+ -------- ,& ! same = ea* day ( ! week4 ,,weekly ,,memor&a4 ,cords ( wood us$ -------- ,gallons oil us$ -------- ,p\nds tall[ us$ -------- ,p\nds wa/e us$ -------- ,miles run -------- ,:ole "t runn+ -------- ,:ole "t "u /eam -------- ,"t "u repairs -------- ,co/ ( repairs -------- --------1 ,ma/] ( ,ma*9]y4 ,,numb] #b4 ---- ,,railroad4 ,,am\nt ,,( ,,fuel ,,deliv]$ ,,to ,,eng9es ,,f ---- ,,/ation ,,dur+ ,,week ,,end+ ----4 ,"n ( ,eng9e4 ,a4 ,b4 ,c4 ,d4 ,e4 ,f4 ,g4 ,h4 ,k4 ,total4 ,,monday4 ,morn+4 ,aft]noon4 ,,tuesday4 ,morn+4 ,aft]noon4 ,,w$nesday4 ,morn+4 ,aft]noon4 ,,?ursday4 ,morn+4 ,aft]noon4 ,,friday4 ,morn+4 ,aft]noon4 ,,saturday4 ,morn+4 ,aft]noon4 ,total to ea* eng9e4 ,wood ,/ation ,ma/] ----4 ,,numb] #c4 ,a4 & ,b4 ,railroad4 ,conductor's mileage return1 = week end+ ,july #d1 #ahef1 %[+ "w done by ,eng9e ,no4 #ed4 ,,monday4 ,tra94 ,/ation4 ,c>s tak54 ,c>s left4 ,c>s 9 tra94 ,weight ( tra94 ,eq'd di/ance4 ,eq'd mileage4 ,total equat$ mileage ---- ,& ! same = ea* day ( ! week4 ,,numb] #d4 ,a4 ,,& ,b4 ,,railroad4 ,,p]=mance ,,( ,,locomotive ,,eng9es ,,= ,,mon? ,,end+ ----4 ,miles ,numb]4,use4run4 ,"t4 ,wages4 ,fuel4 ,at ,"u ,co/ ,miles ,work+4re/4repairs4,co/4 p] ,cords4 p] mile4 cord4 ,a4 ,,& ,b4 ,,railroad4 ,,p]=mance ,,( ,,locomotive ,,eng9es ,,= ,,mon? ,,end+ ----4 ,oil1 wa/e1 & tall[4 ,repairs4 ,totals4 ,co/ ,co/ ( p] ,gallons,miles,p\nds,p\nds oil1 mile ( ,co/ ,co/ oil p] ( ( wa/e1 oil1 ,co/4 p] ,co/4 p] us$4 p9t4wa/e4tall[4 & wa/e1 mile4 mile4 tall[4 & tall[4 ,a4 ,,& ,b4 ,,railroad4 ,,p]=mance ,,( ,,locomotive ,,eng9es ,,= ,,mon? ,,end+ ----4 ,comp1 ,"w done4 "w done4 ,freight4 ,pass5g]4 ,co/ ,co/ ,equat$ p] ton ,equat$ p] ton freight p] pass5g] p] mileage4equat$mileage4 equat$ mile4 mile4 ----1 ,g5]al ,sup]9t5d5t4 ,,numb] #e4 ,a4 ,,& ,b4 ,,railroad4 ,,annual ,,report ,,( ,,co/ ,,( ,,ma9t5ance ,,(1 ,,& ,,"w ,,done ,,by ,,! ,,locomotive ,,p[]1 ,,also ,,! ,,co/ ,,p] ,,ton ,,& ,,pass5g] ,,p] ,,mile1 ,,toge!r ,,) ,,! ,,nature ,,& ,,am\nt ,,( ,,repairs1 ,,! ,,dim5sions1 ,,! ,,pres5t ,,/ate ,,( ,,! ,,/ock1 #ahef4 ,"n ( ! ,date ( ,"n orbuild] or ,use to commc'g ,numb] manufactory:i* x "w ( ! f :5ce is ^u eng9e4 b\ght4 appli$4 ! road4 ,,recapitulation1 ,,no4 #a4 ,co/ p] equat$ mile1 p] ton1 ( work+ freight eng9es4 ,eng9e] & fireman4 ,fuel4 ,oil1 tall[1 & wa/e4 ,repairs4 ,total4 ,a4 ,,& ,b4 ,,railroad4 ,,annual ,,report ,,( ,,co/ ,,( ,,ma9t5ance ,,(1 ,,& ,,"w ,,done ,,by ,,! ,,locomotive ,,p[]1 ,,also ,,! ,,co/ ,,p] ,,ton ,,& ,,pass5g] ,,p] ,,mile1 ,,toge!r ,,) ,,! ,,nature ,,& ,,am\nt ,,( ,,repairs1 ,,! ,,dim5sions1 ,,! ,,pres5t ,,/ate ,,( ,,! ,,/ock1 #ahef4 ,,g5]al ,,"* ,,& ,,pr9cipal ,,dim5sions ,,( ,,! ,,eng9es4 ,capacity ( ,weights4 t5d] ,cyl9d'rs4 ,mode ( 9 connection4 gallons4 ,:ole weight,weight ,weight ( ^u ( ! eng9e ! t5d] ,diamet],/roke4 ) driv+ ) ( bore4 fuel :eels4fe$4 & wat]4 ,,recapitulation1 ,,no4 #b4 ,co/ p] equat$ mile1 p] pass5g]1 ( work+ eng9es4 ,eng9e] & fireman4 ,fuel4 ,oil1 tall[1 & wa/e4 ,repairs4 ,total4 ,a4 ,,& ,b4 ,,railroad4 ,,annual ,,report ,,( ,,co/ ,,( ,,ma9t5ance ,,(1 ,,& ,,"w ,,done ,,by ,,! ,,locomotive ,,p[]1 ,,also ,,! ,,co/ ,,p] ,,ton ,,& ,,pass5g] ,,p] ,,mile1 ,,toge!r ,,) ,,! ,,nature ,,& ,,am\nt ,,( ,,repairs1 ,,! ,,dim5sions1 ,,! ,,pres5t ,,/ate ,,( ,,! ,,/ock1 #ahef4 ,numb] ,,g5]al ,,"* ,,& ,,pr9cipal ,,dim5sions ,,( ,,! ( ,,eng9es4 miles run ,relative p[]1 or traction ,driv'g :eels4 at a ,boil] mean cyl9d] pressure ( #ge lbs4 ,:ole ,area ( ,numb]4,diamet]4 ,grateheat+ bla/ area4surface4orifice4 ,a4 ,,& ,b4 ,,railroad4 ,,annual ,,report ,,( ,,co/ ,,( ,,ma9t5ance ,,(1 ,,& ,,"w ,,done ,,by ,,! ,,locomotive ,,p[]1 ,,also ,,! ,,co/ ,,p] ,,ton ,,& ,,pass5g] ,,p] ,,mile1 ,,toge!r ,,) ,,! ,,nature ,,& ,,am\nt ,,( ,,repairs1 ,,! ,,dim5sions1 ,,! ,,pres5t ,,/ate ,,( ,,! ,,/ock1 #ahef4 ,,:ole ,,exp5se ,,( ,,work+ ,,& ,,( ,,ma9ta9+ ,,! ,,locomotives1 ,,& ,,exp5se ,,p] ,,mile4 ,co/ ( eng9em5 ,co/ ( oil1 wa/e1 & tall[4 & firem54 ,miles ,co/ run ,co/ p] ,gallons to ,p\nds,p\nds= oil mile ( oil "o ( ( wa/e1 run = us$4 p9t wa/e tall[ & oil1 ( us$4 us$ tall[4wa/e1 oil4 & tall[4 ,,recapitulation1 ,,no4 #c4 ,( ---- freight eng9es ---- are 9 work+ ord]1 or ---- p] c5t4 ( ! :ole4 ,av]age "w ( an eng9e is ---- days p] annum1 & = ea* day at "w ---- days repair+ & ---- at re/4 ,a4 ,,& ,b4 ,,railroad4 ,,annual ,,report ,,( ,,co/ ,,( ,,ma9t5ance ,,(1 ,,& ,,"w ,,done ,,by ,,! ,,locomotive ,,p[]1 ,,also ,,! ,,co/ ,,p] ,,ton ,,& ,,pass5g] ,,p] ,,mile1 ,,toge!r ,,) ,,! ,,nature ,,& ,,am\nt ,,( ,,repairs1 ,,! ,,dim5sions1 ,,! ,,pres5t ,,/ate ,,( ,,! ,,/ock1 #ahef4 ,,:ole ,,exp5se ,,( ,,work+ ,,& ,,( ,,ma9ta9+ ,,"t ,,( ,,s]vice4 ,,! ,,locomotives1 ,,& ,,exp5se ,,p] ,,mile4 ,"t1 ,"t1 9 9 ,"t ,co/ ( fuel4 ,repairs4 ,total4 days1 days1 :ile ( at "u active re/4repair4 s'vice4 ,co/ ,co/ p] ,total ,cords,co/ p] ,co/ ( mile co/ ( ( mile repairsrun =,total p] fuel fuel4 run ( repairsco/4mile us$4 = eng9e4 ( run4 fuel4 eng9e ,,recapitulation1 ,,no4 #d4 ,same z #c2 = pass5g]1 9 place ( freight eng9es4 ,a4 ,,& ,b4 ,,railroad4 ,,annual ,,report ,,( ,,co/ ,,( ,,ma9t5ance ,,(1 ,,& ,,"w ,,done ,,by ,,! ,,locomotive ,,p[]1 ,,also ,,! ,,co/ ,,p] ,,ton ,,& ,,pass5g] ,,p] ,,mile1 ,,toge!r ,,) ,,! ,,nature ,,& ,,am\nt ,,( ,,repairs1 ,,! ,,dim5sions1 ,,! ,,pres5t ,,/ate ,,( ,,! ,,/ock1 #ahef4 ,,receipts1 ,,or ,,am\nt ,,( ,,"w ,,done ,,by ,,locomotives4 ,pass5g]4 ,m]*&ise4 ,mix$ tra9s4 ,co/ ,co/ ,freight ,co/ ,tons ( p] ton ,c>s p] c>s p] freight,co/ p],mileage7gross7 c>ri$ c> c>ri$ mile c>ri$ton p] ( p] "o p] "o = "o mile = mix$ mile mile4 mile4 mile4 freight mile freight4tra9s4 = c>s4 mix$ tra9s4 ,,recapitulation1 ,,no4 #e4 ,relative co/ p] equat$ mile ( gross to net tons ( freight c>ri$4 ,relative co/ p] equat$ mile ( gross to net tons ( pass5g]s c>ri$4 ,a4 ,,& ,b4 ,,railroad4 ,,annual ,,report ,,( ,,co/ ,,( ,,ma9t5ance ,,(1 ,,& ,,"w ,,done ,,by ,,! ,,locomotive ,,p[]1 ,,also ,,! ,,co/ ,,p] ,,ton ,,& ,,pass5g] ,,p] ,,mile1 ,,toge!r ,,) ,,! ,,nature ,,& ,,am\nt ,,( ,,repairs1 ,,! ,,dim5sions1 ,,! ,,pres5t ,,/ate ,,( ,,! ,,/ock1 #ahef4 ,total equat$ ,comp>ative ,nature ,pres5t mileage effect ( ( condition ( eng9es4 repairs4 ( eng9es4 ma*9]y4 ,g5'l ,sup]9t5d5t4 ,,telegraph4 #dba4 ,! magnetic telegraph has lately come into use z a means ( communication along ! l9es ( long railroads1 & no?+ s]ves bett] ! purposes ( adju/+ ! movem5t ( tra9s1 ( transmitt+ ord]s1 & ( keep+ ! g5]al sup]9t5d5t in=m$ at all h\rs1 ( ! exact condition 9 detail ( ! :ole road1 & ( all its tra9s4 ,! foll[+ is extract$ f ,mr4 ,mc,callum's ,report1 be=e ref]r$ to3-- 8,a s+le track railroad may be r5d]$ m safe & effici5t1 by a prop] use ( ! telegraph1 ?an a d\ble track railroad )\t its aid1--z ! d\ble track c only obviate collisions :i* occur betwe5 tra9s mov+ 9 opposite directions1 :il/ ! telegraph may be us$ effectually 9 prev5t+ !m1 ei!r f tra9s mov+ 9 an opposite1 or ! same direction2 & x is a well e/abli%$ fact d$uc$ f ! hi/ory ( railroads1 bo? 9 ,europe & 9 ?is c\ntry1 t collisions betwe5 tra9s mov+ 9 ! same direction h prov$ by f> ! mo/ fatal & disa/r\s1 & %\ld be ! mo/ c>efully gu>d$ aga9/4 ,i h no hesitation 9 ass]t+1 t a s+le track railroad1 hav+ judici\sly locat$ turn\ts1 equal1 9 ! aggregate1 to "o qu>t] ( its entire l5g?1 & a well-conduct$ telegraph1 w prove to be a m safe & pr(itable inve/m5t ?an a mu* l>g] sum exp5d$ 9 ! con/ruction ( a cont9u\s d\ble track1 op]at$ )\t a telegraph4 8,collisions betwe5 fa/ & sl[ tra9s1 mov+ 9 ! same direction1 are prev5t$ by ! application ( ! foll[+ rule3--#8,! conductor ( a sl[ tra9 w report himself to ! sup]9t5d5t ( ! division1 imm$iately on arrival at a /ation :]e by ! "t table he %\ld be ov]tak5 by a fa/] tra92 & he %all n leave t /ation until ! fa/ tra9 passes1 )\t special ord]s f ! sup]9t5d5t ( ! division4' ,a sl[ tra9 "u su* circum/ances1 may1 at ! discretion ( ! division sup]9t5d5t1 be direct$ to proce$4 ,he1 be+ fully appris$ ( ! position ( ! delay$ tra91 c readily =m an op9ion z to ! propriety ( do+ s1 & ?us1 :il/ ! delay$ tra9 is p]mitt$ to run )\t reg>d to ! sl[ tra91 ! latt] c be kept entirely out ( its way4 8,,note4--,9 mov+ tra9s by telegraph1 no?+ is left to *ance4 ,ord]s are communicat$ to ! conductors & eng9e]s ( ! oppos+ tra9s1 & _! answ]s return$ giv+ _! und]/&+ ( ! ord] be=e ei!r is all[$ to proce$4 8,_! pass+ place is fix$ & det]m9$1 ) ord]s positive & def9$ t nei!r %all proce$ beyond t po9t until aft] ! arrival ( ! o!r2 :]eas1 9 ! abs5ce ( a telegraph1 conductors are gov]n$ by g5]al rules & _! individual und]/&+ ( ! same2 :i* rules are g5]ally to ! effect1 t 9 cases ( det5tion1 ! tra9 arriv+ fir/ at ! regul> pass+ place1 %all1 aft] wait+ a few m9utes1 proce$ cauti\sly1 #8expect+ to meet ! o!r tra91' until !y h met & pass$1 ! "o fail+ to rea* ! #8half way po/' betwe5 /ations be+ requir$ to back 7always a dang]\s exp$i5t71 & ! o!r p]mitt$ to proce$2 ! delay$ tra9 be+ subject$ to ! same rule 9 reg>d to all o!r tra9s ( ! same class x may meet1 ?us pursu+ its haz>d\s & unc]ta9 progress dur+ ! entire trip4 ,! hi/ory ( su* a sy/em furni%es a s]i\s comm5t>y on ! imp]fection ( railroad regulations4 8,! liability to collision "u ! sy/em ref]r$ to has prompt$ ! inv5tion ( v>i\s exp$i5ts = sudd5ly arre/+ ! progress ( tra9s2 & :i* seem to h be5 conceiv$ "u ! impression1 m imag9>y ?an real1 t ! difficulties !y 7 design$ to obviate1 are unavoidable 9 _! "*2 b :i* may1 by ! ex]cise ( ord9>y c>e & ! use ( ! telegraph1 be subject$ to p]fect control4 ,"s ( ^! inv5tions und\bt$ly possess suffici5t m]it to entitle !m to adoption "u any circum/ances1 :il/ o!rs1 = ! above reasons1 are entirely valueless--inde$ x is que/ionable :e!r a reliance on _! use may n 9 _m cases lead to dang]1 by produc+ recklessness1 & ?us increase in/ead ( dim9i% ! evils s\ght to be avoid$40 ,,new ,,york ,,& ,,erie ,,railroad4 #dbb4 ,z a f9e specim5 ( ,am]ican railroad eng9e]+1 & ,am]ican railroad managem5t1 /&s ! above-nam$ l9e1 ext5d+ f ,j]sey ,city to ,lake ,erie1 at ,dunkirk2 embrac+ ) its bran*es #dif miles ( road1 employ+ ov] #a1jjj1jjj doll>s wor? ( labor p] annum1 upw>ds ( #bjj locomotive eng9es1 & ab\t #c1jjj c>s2 e>n+ annually ov] #e1jjj1jjj1 & exp5d+ #b1fhj1jjj doll>s4 ,! :ole co/ ( ! road up to ,septemb] #cj1 #ahee1 01 ) ! equipm5t1 ne>ly #cc1gej1jjj4 ,!re are #abi truss bridges1 am\nt+ 9 all to #ae1fib feet 9 l5g?2 #fd tre/le1 /r+]1 & pile bridges1 ( #e1dhi feet total l5g?2 #c viaducts1 ( l5g? #a1bgd feet 9 all2 #afg ar* culv]ts1 ( f #c to #cj feet span2 #ebg box culv]ts1 f #a to #ab feet span2 #ib wood %$s1 #ad1bjj feet total l5g?2 #dce build+s2 #dcc swit*es1 ( #chg1iad feet available l5g?1 & #ejd1bje feet total l5g?4 ,not)/&+ ! imm5se am\nt ( bus9ess transact$ by su* a road1 s complete is ! organization & managem5t ( employees1 t ! g5]al sup]9t5d5t1 sitt+ 9 8 ,new ,york (fice1 c at any mom5t tell1 )9 "o mile1 :]e ea* c> or eng9e is1 :at x is do+1 ) :at load$1 ! consignor & consignee1 & ! "t ( arriv+ & dep>t+ ! sev]al /ations1 & o!r tra9s2 & ?us at any mom5t may p]ceive & correct faults & remissness1 & 9 reality control ! :ole road4 ,,app5dix4 ,a4 ,,decimal ,,ari?metic4 ,! advantage ( a ,decimal sy/em ( ,ari?metic & ( m5suration1 z appli$ to eng9e]+1 c h>dly be ov]/at$4 ,civil & me*anical eng9e]s bo? use 8p] =ce0 "s decimal expressions1 z #j4ghed1 #c4adaf1 etc41 etc4 ,:y n adopt ! sy/em entirely8 ,all calculations are mu* easi] made decimally1 & measurem5ts made ) m exactness4 ,! mo/ p]fect sy/em ( weights & measures is d\btless t ( ! ,fr5*4 ,all l5g?s are bas$ ^u ! met] z a unit1 & :e!r ! me*anic is mak+ a wat* or a locomotive 8 scale is metrical4 ,! met] is exactly #a_/ajjjjjjj ( ! di/ance f ! pole to ! equator1 & 0 f\nd1 by measur+ a m]idian l9e f ,rhodes to ,dunkirk 7,france71 #egj miles long4 ,! metrical scale is ?us1 ,millimetre 4#jja or #a_/ajjj ,c5timetre 4#ja or #a_/ajj ,decimetre 4#a or ,metre #a4 ,decametre #aj4 ,hectometre #ajj4 ,kilometre #ajjj4 ,myriametre #ajjjj4 ,! metre is #c4bhjhii ft41 or #ci4cgjghh ,engli% in*es4 ,! ,engli% & ,am]ican foot is ( ! y>d2 ! y>d is #cejjj_/ceacic ( a p5dulum vibrat+ seconds at ! latitude ( ,london1 at ! level ( ! sea1 9 a vacuum4 ,! /&>d ,am]ican scale is an eighty-two in* b> made by ,tr\ghton ( ,london = ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,coa/ ,survey4 ,9 civil eng9e]+ ! decimal division is almo/ entirely adopt$2 inde$1 any o!r w\ld lead to almo/ endless calculation4 ,! *a9 is "o hundr$ feet long & divid$ into "o hundr$ l9ks4 ,! tape is graduat$ to feet1 t5?s1 & hundr$?s4 ,! levell+ rod to feet1 t5?s1 hundr$?s1 & ?\s&?s4 ,z ! ,engli% foot is s univ]sally adopt$1 & z x may at any "t be got f a p5dulum1 x might n be be/ to attempt to introduce ! metre1 b ! foot %\ld c]ta9ly be divid$ decimally4 ,! division %\ld be ?us1 4#jja or #a_/ajjj 4#ja or #a_/ajj 4#a or #a4 #aj4 #ajj4 #ajjj4 ?us pres]v+ a con/ant ratio1 & n *ang+ ! proportion at ea* increase or decrease z foll[s3-- #h_/h #a in*4 #ab in*es #a foot4 #af feet #a rod4 #dj rods #a furlong4 #h furlongs #a mile4 #c feet #a y>d4 #f feet #a fa?om4 ,b4 ,,algebraic ,,=mul4 ,z ?is "w may come into ! h&s ( ^? :o are unacqua9t$ ) ! solution ( algebraic problems1 x 0 ?\ght be/ to give ! foll[+3-- a a1 signifies a add$ to a1 or #b a4 a - a1 d5otes a less a1 or #j4 a a1 a multipli$ by a1 or a squ>e1 a#b 7see bel[74 a a1 a divid$ by a1 or #a4 or a_/a a#b1 ! squ>e ( a1 or a a a#c1 ! ?ird p[] ( a1 or a a a4 7a71 ! squ>e root ( a1 or a 7a71 ! cube or ?ird root ( a1 or a 7a b c7_/d1 %[s t ! sum ( a1 b1 & c1 is to be divid$ by d4 7a b c7 d or 7a b c7 d1 d5otes t ! sum ( a1 b1 & c1 is to be multipli$ by d4 ,g5]ally 9 place ( writ+ a b to express multiplication1 we put simply a b4 ,! above signs may be comp\nd$ 9 any mann]2 ?us1 777a b7c7_/d_/m74 ,"h we h1 fir/1 ! product ( c by ! sum ( a & b2 ?is is divid$ by d1 & ?ree qu>t]s ( ! quoti5t is divid$ by m2 &1 f9ally1 ! f\r? root ( ! la/ result is extract$1 :i* is ! value ( ! expression4 ,! foll[+ examples %[ ! use ( =mul4 ,see ,*apt] ,,vi41 on ,e>?work1 art4 ,av]age ,haul3-- ,requir$ ! av]age haul ( sev]al masses ( e>?4 ,let m m m mn repres5t ! sev]al masses1 & d d d dn ! respective hauls2 ,s ! sum ( ! masses1 ,d ! av]age haul1 & we h ,d 7m d m d m d mn dn7_/,s4 ,if we make ! values m #ajj also d #ajj m #bjj d #ej m #cjj d #ge mn #djj dn #bjj ! sum is #ajjj1 & we h ,d 7#ajj #ajj #bjj #ej #cjj #ge #djj #bjj7_/ajjj #abb4e ft4 ,9 ,*apt] ,,viii41 ,wood5 ,bridg+1 we h ! expression ,s 7#d;b d#b7_/l2 & if b #aj d #ab & l #bj ,s becomes 7#d #aj #add7_/bj #bhh4 ,9 ,*apt] ,,ix41 ,iron ,bridges1 we h ,t 7ph7_/7#b;f77h#b #d;f#b72 & mak+ p #djjj h #ejj f #hj we h 77#djjj #ejj7_/7b #hj777ejjb 7#d #hjb77 #fefbbjb4 ,9 ,*apt] ,,xiii41 ,elevation ( ,ext]ior ,rail1 ,e 77,,wv#b7_/7cb,r7_/,w7g1 & :5 ,w #ej ,v #bj g #e ,r #bjjj we h ,e 77#ej #djj7_/7cb #bjjj7_/ej7e #j4jc ,& f9ally1 9 ! latt] "p ( ,*apt] ,,xiv41 we h ! =mula ,d 77n7d c7#b7_/j4ghed7;,a_/,b1 & mak+ n #bjj d #a c #a ,a #d ,b #c we h ,d 7#bjj7b #a7b_/j4ghed7d_/c1 ,n[ #a #a #e_/b & 7#e_/b7b is #be_/d1 also1 #bjj #be_/d #abej1 #abej #d_/c #afff1 #afff #j4ghed #baba1 f9ally1 7#baba7 #ddf v ne>ly4 ,c4 ,,weights ,,& ,,measures4 ,"n ( mat]ial4 ,weight p] cubic foot4 ,air #j4jgg lbs4 ,e>? #aab4 lbs4 ,wat] #fb4e lbs4 ,ice #eh4j lbs4 ,s& #acb4j lbs4 ,clay #abj4j lbs4 ,*alk #aee4j lbs4 ,brick #aaj4j lbs4 ,see ,*ap4 ,,xi41 masonry4 ,brickwork #ie4j lbs4 ,dry mort> #if4j lbs4 ,s&/one #adj4j lbs4 ,lime/one #adb4j lbs4 ,av]age #hf to #aih4 ,granite #age4j lbs4 ,coal1 ,bitum9\s #fj to #hj4j lbs4 ,coal1 ,an?racite #he to #ie4j lbs4 ,coke #ej to #fe4j lbs4 ,coal1 ,cannel #ge to #hj4j lbs4 ,wr\ght ,iron #dhj4j lbs4 ,ca/-,iron #dej4j lbs4 ,/eel #dhg4j lbs4 ,h>d ,wood4 ,gre5 #fb4j lbs4 ,air dri$ #df4j lbs4 ,kiln dri$ #dj4j lbs4 ,s(t ,wood4 ,gre5 #ec4j lbs4 ,air dri$ #cj4j lbs4 ,kiln dri$ #bh4j lbs4 ,weight p] bu%el4 ,:eat #fj lbs4 ,corn on ! cob #gj lbs4 ,corn1 %ell$ #ef lbs4 ,rye #ef lbs4 ,oats #ce lbs4 ,b>ley #dg lbs4 ,potatoes1 ,iri% #fj lbs4 ,potatoes1 ,sweet #ee lbs4 ,beans1 ,:ite #fj lbs4 ,beans1 ,ca/or #df lbs4 ,bran #bj lbs4 ,clov] ,se$ #fj lbs4 ,timo?y #de lbs4 ,hemp #dd lbs4 ,flax #ef lbs4 ,buck:eat #eb lbs4 ,pea*es1 ,dri$ #cc lbs4 ,apples1 ,dri$ #bd lbs4 ,onions #eg lbs4 ,salt1 ,co>se #ej lbs4 ,malt #ch lbs4 ,corn ,meal #dh lbs4 ,salt1 ,f9e #ee lbs4 ,d4 ,,value ,,( ,,! ,,birm+ham ,,gauges4 ,numb]4 ,size 9 in*es4 #j #j4cdj #a 4#cjj #b 4#bhd #c 4#bei #d 4#bch #e 4#bbj #f 4#bjc #g 4#ahj #h 4#aje #i 4#adh #aj 4#acd #aa 4#abj #ab 4#ajj #ac 4#jie #ad 4#jhc #ae 4#jgb #af 4#jfe #ag 4#jeh #ah 4#jdi #ai 4#jdb #bj 4#jce #ba 4#jcb #bb 4#jbh #bc 4#jbe #bd 4#jbb #be 4#jbj #bf 4#jah #bg 4#jaf #bh 4#jad #bi 4#jac #cj 4#jab ,e4 ,,locomotive ,,boil]s4 ,if ! ideas ( ,cl>k & ,ov]man are correct1 ! value ( v]tical flues ) ! wat] inside1 z comp>$ ) horizontal flues ) wat] outside1 is comp>atively z foll[s3 ,"o half ( ! surface ( ! horizontal tube 7! upp] half7 is available1 b ?is half g5]ates /eam twice z fa/ z ! same area ( upright tube surface4 ,?us ! am\nt ( evaporation w be ! same 9 ei!r position1 = ! same absolute tube surface1 n consid]+ ! increas$ diamet] by apply+ ! heat to ! outside1 or ! advantage1 s highly e/imat$ by ,ov]man1 ( apply+ ! heat to ! convex surface4 ,! foll[+ application ( ,montgom]y's v]tical flue boil] to ! locomotive eng9e = heat g5]ation & application1 seems to satisfy ne>ly all requirem5ts4 ,reta9+ ! orig9al furnace %ell1 produce x =w>ds s t x %all j cle> ! driv+ axle1 let ! sides drop to )9 two feet ( ! rail1 & close up ! bottom4 ,next1 inside ( ?is place a rectangul> box :i* %all be a cont9uation ( ! inn] box1 ! top be+ ab\t n9e in*es above ! diametric *ord ( ! semicircul> cr[n1 leav+ a wat] space ( ?ree or f\r in*es betwe5 ! sides & bottom ( ! two boxes4 ,fill ! inn] box ) v]tical tubes1 ! top & bottom be+ flue plates1 ! tubes be+ screw$ 9 at "o end & fitt$ ) a screw ?imble at ! o!r1 may be remov$ = clean+ at any "t & w effectually /ay ! inn] box aga9/ ! enorm\s pressure ^u ! top & bottom4 ,! pressure be+ inside ( ! tubes w t5d to keep ! end jo9ts tight1 :]e1 9 ! common boil]1 ! rev]se is ! case4 ,t ! burn+ gases may reta9 suffici5t heat to burn until !y are dis*>g$1 !re %\ld be less tube surface at ! back ?an at ! front end1 a requirem5t :i* is easily satisfi$ by decreas+ ! numb] & increas+ ! size ( tubes f ! front to ! back end4 ,9 ! common boil] ! f]rule area be+ less ?an ! flue area1 a /rong] bla/ is us$ ?an is really necess>y to draw ! hot gases ?r\gh ! tubes1 :ile 9 ! v]tical tube boil] ! gas area may be equally l>ge at all po9ts4 ,aga91 any am\nt ( oxyg5 may be appli$ to ! gases at any po9t ( _! passage f ! furnace to ! smoke box1 by ! admission ( fre% air to any "p ( ! b>rel4 ,?us ! advantage ( a combu/ion *amb] 7if !re is any7 is obta9$ )\t ! sacrifice ( a s+le in* ( heat+ surface1 z we only require to admit air betwe5 ! tubes & n into !m2 ?is may be done ei!r by holl[ /ay bolts or by l>g] op5+s1 to be op5 or %ut at pleasure4 ,if ! gases 9 pass+ ?r\gh ! boil] are left to !mselves1 we get1 )\t an ef=t1 ! effect produc$ by ,montgom]y's ?ird claim1 namely1 ! application ( ! heat to ! upp] half ( ! tubes2 &1 h[ev] we wi% to apply ! pass+ heat to ! flues1 complete control ov] ! motion ( ! gases may be _h by ! use ( a ,v5etian bl9d damp] 9 ! smoke box1 9 two p>ts2 ! upp] & ! l[] p>ts mov+ indep5d5tly1 all[ u to ?r[ ! heat ^u any "p ( ! l5g? ( ! tubes4 ,( c\rse1 by heat+ mo/ ! upp] "p ( ! flues1 we /& a bett] *ance ( gett+ circulation4 ,x might be object$ t s mu* flat boil] surface w\ld give a =m m liable to explosion ?an ! circul> b>rel4 ,exp]im5ts lately made by ,william ,fairbairn1 7,engl&17 induc$ by ! bur/+ ( a locomotive fire box1 %[ t ! flat surfaces are ! /ronge/ =ms ( ! boil]1 or1 to use 8 own words1 8are conclusive z to ! sup]ior /r5g? ( flat surfaces z comp>$ ) ! top1 or ev5 ! cyl9drical p>ts ( ! boil]40 ,8 exp]im5ts %[ t two plates "o f\r? & ?ree eigh?s in* ?ick1 connect$ by screw /ay bolts f\r in*es f c5tre to c5tre1 w resi/ ov] "o ?\s& lbs4 p] squ>e in*4 ,by su* a plan ( eng9e we may always h any am\nt ( heat+ surface ) a mod]ate siz$ boil]1 & a l[ c5tre ( gravity4 ,! excess ( co/ ( ! eng9e1 above describ$1 ov] ! common =m w\ld be ab\t #ejj1 ! annual int]e/ ( :i* is #cj1 :i* mu/ be sav$ by ! new plan1 7say t5 cords ( wood74 ,any sav+ beyond ?is is pure ga94 ,f4 ,,effect ,,( ,,grades ,,on ,,! ,,co/ ,,( ,,work+ ,,railroads4 ,! co/ ( work+ a railroad w be increas$ by augm5t+ ! /eepness ( grades4 ,fir/1 because ( ! me*anical effect ( ! incl9es2 second1 on acc\nt ( decreas$ capacity ( ! road4 ,! co/ ( ma9ta9+ & work+ a road consi/s ( items1 a few ( :i* are functions ( grades & _m :i* are n4 ,! *ief items :i* are affect$ by grades are1 fuel consumption1 fir/ co/ ( locomotives1 & p]haps we> ( rails1 :]e grades are s /eep z to require s& asc5d+1 & application ( brakes desc5d+1 ! rails w be some:at m worn4 ,:5 n s /eep z ?is ! repair ( sup]/ructure w n be mu* increas$4 ,/eep] incl9es involve ! use ( heavi] eng9es1 or m ( !m4 ,heavy eng9es g5]ally h no m weight on "o pair ( :eels1 & (t5 n s mu*1 z light] ones2 & ?\gh !re is m abrasive p[] on increas$ total roll+ weight1 !re is less deflection ( rails1 by means ( less conc5trat$ loads4 ,x w\ld seem1 !re=e1 t ! effect ( grades ^u ! we> ( sup]/ructure 0 b little1 if n inconsid]able4 ,! fir/ co/ ( eng9es may be increas$ f #a1jjj to #b1ejj to enable !m to "w /eep grades4 ,if ! :eels are ! same size 9 bo? eng9es1 we %\ld require great] /eam pressure1 consequ5tly 7see ,*apt] ,,xiv47 m fuel2 & if ! /eam p[] 0 ! same1 small] :eels or l>g] cyl9d]s1 also requir+ 7,*apt] ,,xiv47 m fuel4 ,9 d\bl+ ! "w done by ! eng9e we by no means d\ble ! am\nt ( fuel consum$1 7see ,*apt] ,,xiv417 b increase x by ab\t n9ety p] c5t4 ,! division ( exp5ses ^u five ( ! l>ge/ ,engli% railroads 0 = a c]ta9 "t z foll[s3-- ,sal>ies #f4hc ,way & works #ae4gf ,locomotives #ce4ae ,c>s #ch4ad ,sundries #c4fi -------------- #ajj4jj ,p]c5tage = eng9es #ce4jj ,^u ! roads ( ,belgium1 ,sal>ies #e4dg ,way & works #bf4fb ,locomotives #di4if ,c>s #ad4hj ,sundries #c4ae -------------- #ajj4jj ,locomotive p]c5tage #ej4jj ,^u ! railroads ( ,new ,york ,/ate 7#b1bjj miles7 7,/ate ,eng9e]'s ,report1 #ahed71 ,sal>ies #aj4jj ,way & works #ae4jj ,locomotives #dj4jj ,c>s #bj4jj ,sundries #ae4jj -------------- #ajj4jj ,locomotive p]c5tage #dj4jj ,av]age p]c5tage ( all ( ! above *>g$ to locomotives #da ( ! :ole locomotive exp5se2 fuel absorbs #fb p]c5t42 & z a d\ble am\nt ( "w requires n9ety p] c5t4 m fuel1 we h1 z ! co/ ( work+ a grade caus+ a d\ble resi/ance 7say tw5ty-five feet p] mile71 #ij_/ajj ( #fb_/ajj ( #db_/ajj1 or v ne>ly #bb p] c5t4 ( ! co/ ( work+ ! tra92 to :i* add m1 int]e/ on locomotive capital1 & we h1 z ! bad effect ( a tw5ty-five feet grade1 :5 ,c locomotive capital1 ,d annual co/ ( work+1 ( #f_/ajj;,c #bb_/ajj;,d4 ,example4 ,locomotive capital #a1jjj1jjj ,co/ ( work+ #bjj1jjj ,annual exp5se ( a level road 7at six p] c5t47 #fj1jjj #bjj1jjj ---------------- #bfj1jjj ,& ^u a road ) cont9u\s #be feet grades #fj1jjj #f1jjj #bjj1jjj #bjj1jjj #bb_/ajj1 or #dd1jjj ---------------- ,total #caj1jjj or #abj p] c5t4 ( ! co/ ( work+ ! level road1 ! increase be+ tw5ty p] c5t41 or all[+ five p] c5t4 = o!r cont+5cies1 tw5ty-five p] c5t42 also ! increase due to a fifty feet grade1 fifty p] c5t42 & s on z long z only "o eng9e is requir$ to draw ! full tra91 7its p[] be+ increas$ by v>y+ its dim5sions74 ,:5 ! tra9 has to be brok5 & two or m eng9es are ne$$1 ! p]c5tage w ( c\rse increase4 ,! po9t at :i* ! tra9 ought to be brok5 may be f\nd easily1 ei!r z dep5d+ ^u ! load or ! grade1 by a comp>ison ( work+ exp5ses4 ,g4 ,,specification ,,= ,a ,,pass5g] ,,locomotive ,,eng9e ,,= ,,! ,a4 ,,& ,b4 ,,railroad4 ,requirem5t4 ,spe$ #bj miles p] h\r1 includ+ /ops2 fuel1 wood2 weight ( tra9 #aej tons2 maximum grade #fj feet p] mile2 %>pe/ curve #c or #a1iaj feet radius2 rail #fj lbs4 p] y>d on ties #b feet f c5tre to c5tre4 ,g5]al ,plan & ,dim5sions4 ,outside connections2 f\r five feet driv+ :eels ) be/ ,ames's tire1 all tires be+ flang$2 level cyl9d]s #ae in*es diamet] ( bore & #bj in* /roke4 ,c5tre-be>+ truck1 ) inside & outside be>+s1 & ,light5] boxes4 ,squ>e wr\ght iron frame well brac$1 #d-cj in* ,:itney & ,sons' ca/-iron truck :eels1 spread #fj in*es c5tre to c5tre4 ,lift+ l9k motion work+ ?r\gh rock]s1 valves describ$ h]eaft]4 ,truck suppli$ ) =e & aft safety *a9s1 & safety beams b5ea? axles4 ,weight on driv]s #cj1jjj lbs41 on truck #aj1jjj lbs4 ,t5d] to be m\nt$ on two trucks1 ea* ( #d-cj in* ,:itney & ,sons' :eels1 spread #ed in*es f c5tre to c5tre4 ,to h squ>e iron frames well brac$ ) outside ,light5] boxes2 tank to hold #a1fjj gallons4 ,detail$ ,specifications4 ,boil]4--,grate #ch in*es wide1 #ed in*es long1 surface #bj above rail1 grate b>s ca/ solid = #f in*es ( ! front end1 to be #d in*es deep1 & in* ?ick1 plac$ in* ap>t 9 ! cle>2 l[] edges *amf]$ on ea* side by a *amf] ( in* deep & in* wide2 c5tre ( grate b>s to be support$ by a wr\ght iron b> #a in* ?ick & #d in*es deep1 atta*$ z 9 draw+4 ,fire-box4--,out] sides ( furnace %ell #ea in*es wide by #fb in*es long2 cr[n #h feet above rail1 to be made ( in* iron plates ) a #af in* neck+ ( angle iron to c>ry ! re> dome2 corn]s to be jo9$ by flanges r\nd$ to a #d in* radius4 ,! cr[n ( ! %ell to be rais$ #i in*es above ! b>rel cr[n1 ! connection be+ made by a slop+ (fset #bj in*es long on top4 ,end plates lap jo9t$ to sides & top2 ! seams jo9+ ! fire-box to ! wai/1 to be d\ble rivet$4 ,furnace to be made ( in* copp] plates1 in* at tubes1 lap jo9t$1 #db in*es wide1 & #ea in*es long inside2 side wat] spaces to be #c in*es cle> at ! bottom1 wid5+ 7by slop+ inw>ds ! sides ( ! furnace7 to #d in*es at ! top ( inn] box2 front spaces #d in*es1 re> spaces #d in*es at bottom & #e in*es at top4 ,doorway made ) a wr\ght iron r+ fa/5$ ) in* rivets1 door ( in* plate ) in* %ield4 ,furnace jo9$ to %ell ) in* copp] /ay bolts1 screw$ & rivet$ at bo? ends1 plac$ #dd in*es f c5tre to c5tre4 ,eight ro(-ribs laid wid?wise ( ! cr[n ( ! furnace1 be+ ea* #f in*es deep & in* ?ick1 d\ble weld$ at ! ends & rivet$ at ! c5tre1 held d[n by ,t head bolts #e in*es betwe5 c5tres1 b>s to be rais$ above ! cr[n %eet by in* ?imbles4 ,dome op5+1 neckl+ to be made ( angle iron :i* %all be connect$ ) ! ro(-ribs by #d-a in* /ays1 connect$ & plac$ z 9 ! draw+4 ,! back & tube %eets ( ! furnace are flang$ ov] on top2 ! cr[n is flang$ d[nw>ds on ! sides1 b n on ! back & front4 ,"o dome is plac$ on ! cr[n ( fire-box %ell #bf in*es diamet] & #bd in*es high2 op5+ ( dome into boil] #af in*es diamet]4 ,l[] "p ( dome ( wr\ght1 top ( ca/-iron1 put on ) a gr\nd jo9t4 ,furnace & %ell to be connect$ at bottom by a wr\ght iron b> #c in*es wide1 #b in*es deep4 ,! :ole boil] to be ?or\ghly caulk$ inside & out4 ,b>rel ( in* be/ ,philadelphia /amp$ *>coal iron1 #dd in*es diamet] outside ( ma9 cr[n next ! fire-box1 & #dc in*es next ! smoke box end1 #aj feet long ) #c in* angle irons at ends4 ,front dome ( in* plate work$ 9 "o piece1 #bc in*es diamet]4 ,end plates ( boil] /ay$ ) six #a in* rods1 cott]$ into blocks1 rivet$ to plates2 b>rel plates rivet$ ) in* rivets1 & #a in* pit*4 ,smoke box1 #b #d long1 same diamet] z b>rel1 ( #c_/af in* plates well rivet$1 bolt$ to ! angle iron s z to be easily remov$ = inside repairs2 front tube %eet #f_/h in*4 ,tubes1 #adj two in* 7outside7 diamet] ,no4 #i ?ickness at fire end1 ,no4 #ad at smoke end #aj feet long1 plac$ in* ap>t4 ,! smoke box end ( tubes to be clos$ at pleasure by a v5etian bl9d damp]4 ,*imney ( in* iron outside1 diamet] #af in*es1 top #f #f above cr[n ( b>rel1 fitt$ ) prop] /ack1 cone1 & sp>k]4 ,a% pan ( in* plate made ) #a in* angle iron1 & b& on upp] edge1 fitt$ ) doors bo? be=e & beh9d1 #g in*es deep & rid+ #f in*es cle> ( ! rail4 ,/eam pipes1 #f in* pipes ( ,no4 #aj copp] runn+ ! :ole l5g? ( ! boil]1 connect$ at ! domes ) #e in* ca/-iron /& pipes4 ,ca/-iron bran* pipes 9 smoke box lead+ to valve *e/s1 #e in*es diamet]4 ,?rottle to be 9 a ca/-iron *e/ 9 smoke box1 z %[n 9 draw+1 hav+ an area at lea/ z l>ge z ! /eam port4 ,*anges ( direction 9 pipes to be made by curves & n by angles4 ,exhau/ pipe ( ,no4 #aj copp]1 #e in*es diamet] at l[] end1 fitt$ ) a v>iable bla/ orifice1 rang+ f eight to f\r squ>e in*es area1 to be inclos$ 9 a petticoat pipe4 ,cyl9d]s1 #ae in*es bore1 & long en\gh = a #bj in* /roke1 or #bh in*es f outside to outside ( gr\nd faces1 ca/+ in* ?ick1 cov]s #a in* ?ick1 plac$ level & firmly bolt$ to ma9 frame & to horizontal truss brace1 z %[n 9 draw+2 heads to g on ) gr\nd jo9t4 ,valve seat to h /eam ports #ad #a in*es2 exhau/ port #ad #b in*es2 outside lap ( valve in*1 inside no?+2 #a_/af in* lead on #d in* ?r[ ( valve1 gradually increas+ z ! ?r[ is r$uc$1 to scant #e_/af4 ,/eam *e/s bolt$ to a level face1 gr\nd jo9t ) in* bolts pit*$ #d in*es4 ,valve motion4--,%ift+ l9k ) lift+ %aft1 sector1 lev]1 rock]1 etc41 ( ! mo/ approv$ =m2 f\r solid ecc5trics ( #e in*es ?r[1 fa/5$ to axle by f\r squ>e end$ set screws press+ h>d5$ /eel dies1 cut ) %>p grooves on _! ends1 aga9/ ! axle2 ! friction ( ! dies aga9/ ! axle hold+ ! ecc5tric 9 place4 ,ecc5tric /raps ( ca/-iron1 ) oil caps ca/ on1 & groov$ out inside s z to %ut ov] ! ecc5tric & exclude du/4 ,l9k =g$ solid & case h>d5$1 #ag in*es by #b in*es inside ! slot2 ?ickness ( iron all ar\nd ! slot #a in*es1 :ole lat]al ?ickness #b in*es4 ,ecc5tric rods ( iron #c in*es deep1 #e feet betwe5 c5tres1 fa/5$ to l9k & to ecc5tric1 z %[n 9 ! draw+4 ,l9k curv$ to a radius #f in*es less ?an ! di/ance betwe5 ! c5tre ( driv+ axle & c5tre ( l9k at mid ge>4 ,! l9ks1 boxes1 /ack1 etc41 to be ( wr\ght iron1 case h>d5$4 ,pi/ons ) "o outside composition r+ & two circumf]5tial grooves fill$ ) ,babbitt metal1 & "o inside r+ ( wr\ght iron2 outside r+ cut obliquely at "o place ) a small wr\ght iron flap on ea* edge to prev5t leakage ( /eam at ! po9t ( division4 ,gl&s ( pi/on & valve rod /uff boxes ( ca/-iron ) tight brass or composition bu%+s4 ,frame =g$ f good scrap #db in*es1 ! ma9 b> be+ /raight f end to end ) p$e/als weld$ on2 ! re> end piece to be a heavy =g$ foot plate1 ! front end an oak beam #gad in*es plac$ on ! flat side4 ,all ! p$e/als on "o side hav+ adju/able keys4 ,flat boil] braces av]ag+ #d in*es ) broad palms rivet$ to ! boil]2 ! atta*m5t at ! furnace to be made by ! ,rog]s expansion brace1 details ( ! frame z 9 ! draw+2 frame to be plac$ true :]ev] ne$$ to receive ! work+ p>ts ( ! eng9e4 ,:eels1 axles1 & spr+s4--,f\r ca/-iron driv+ :eels tir$ ) be/ flang$ ,ames's tires #b in*es ?ick1 diamet] ) tire five feet1 tires to be turn$ to a true cone ( 4#jgb in*es p] :eel1 :eels to be truly balanc$4 ,re/ scrap or bloom axles1 front #g & re> #f in*es 9 diamet]1 be>+s #h in*es long1 coll>s ( ca/-iron held by set screws1 axles to be cyl9drical & n small] at ! c5tre ?an at ! end4 ,f\r spr+s ( sev5te5 /eel plates1 ea* #d #dj in*es2 equaliz+ lev] betwe5 spr+s4 ,inside be>+ spr+s ( truck hung f equaliz]1 :i* latt] be>s ^u ! axle boxes4 ,slides1 pumps1 connect+ rods1 etc41 etc4--,slides1 flat wr\ght iron b>s #c #a in*es1 case h>d5$4 ,cross head be>+ ( ca/-iron #af in*es long & #b in*es ?ick4 ,pumps1 full /roke brass pumps #e_/af in* ?ick ) #a in* plung]s1 ram ( wr\ght iron ) an eye fix$ on cross head & work$ by x4 ,wat]ways 9 body #b in*es1 9 valves #a in*es4 ,?ree ball valves ) #b in* holl[ balls1 "o = suction & two = deliv]y2 pipes in* ?ick1 #b in*es diamet]1 suction ( iron1 deliv]y ( copp]1 cock ( brass on deliv]y pipe work$ by rod at cab4 ,air *amb] on =c+ side ( pump equal to capacity ( b>rel2 on suction side half ! same4 ,flat connect+ rods =g$ f solid piles )\t welds4 ,babbett l9$ boxes ^u all /ub ends4 ,/raps held on ea* by two bolts1 "o key to ea* be>+4 ,safety-valves1 "o to be #c in*es diamet]1 plac$ on ! re> dome1 & "o =w>d1 #d in*es diamet]1 bo? to be well fitt$ & suppli$ ) ! prop] beams & spr+ balances4 ,b>rel to be cov]$ ) hair felt+ in* ?ick1 to be furni%$ ) a ,russia iron jacket4 ,cyl9d]s to be protect$ by an in* felt coat & cas$ 9 brass4 ,! eng9e to h all ! usual fixtures1 bell1 :i/le1 gauges1 heat]1 pet1 bl[-(f1 & o!r cocks1 "n plates1 oil cups1 s&box1 tools1 oil cans1 etc41 etc4 ,pilot to be #e feet long1 ( flat horizontal wood5 b>s #b #d in*es ) a heavy c5tre piece1 ! :ole to be well hung & firmly brac$4 ,cab to be neatly built1 ) a project+ cornice1 & w9d[s1 doors1 etc41 to be furni%$ 9 ! be/ mann]4 ,! :ole eng9e to be well pa9t$ & v>ni%$4 ,! draw b> to be /rongly atta*$ to ! frame ( ! eng9e at #cj in*es above ! rail1 & connect$ by a d\ble elliptical spr+ to ! c5tre beam ( ! t5d]4 ,t5d]4--,tank to hold #a1fjj gallons1 top & side plates in*1 & bottom plate in* well rivet$ & caulk$ inside & out4 ,brakes to apply f a s+le :eel to ea* side ( all ( ! :eels1 t is1 at sixte5 po9ts2 brake blocks hung ) safety *a9s & spr+s to c>ry !m away f ! :eels4 ,"o spr+ #bf in*es long1 ( t5 lev]s #c #e_/af in*es ov] ea* :eel4 ,frame ( season$ oak #aj #d in*es1 c5tre beam #e #bj in*es4 ,! :ole to be ?or\ghly pa9t$ & v>ni%$4 ,g5]al ,provision4 ,all ( ! mat]ial1 bo? ( eng9e & t5d]1 to be ( ! v be/ quality1 & all ( ! con/ruction done 9 ! mo/ ?or\gh & workmanlike mann]4 ,! eng9e & t5d] be+ 9 e respect equal to ! be/ t has h]et(ore be5 s5t f ! ---- %ops4 ,= m detail$ in=mation1 see plans accompany+4 ,h4 ,,relative ,,co/ ,,( ,,transport ,,by ,,railroad ,,& ,,by ,,/age4 ,too great a r$uction ( ! co/ ( travel 0 bo? expect$ ( & giv5 by railroad companies at ! comm5cem5t ( ! sy/em1 z ! foll[+ w %[3-- ,vot$1 8,t ! directors are h]eby e>ne/ly & urg5tly reque/$ =?) to increase ! rates ( transportation1 bo? = pass5g]s & freight1 9 all cases 9 :i*1 9 _! op9ion1 !y are n[ too l[1 & h]eaft] to decl9e all bus9ess t w n give to ! corporation a full remun]ation = exp5ses & a fair pr(it = its transportation40 ,:y ! railroad rates %\ld h be5 plac$ s l[1 x w\ld be h>d to %[4 ,! co/ ( mov+ eight pass5g]s by /age "o hundr$ miles1 w\ld be some:at z foll[s4 ,let a common road co/ "o ?\s& doll>s p] mile1 & suppose ! /age travel to use "o t5? ( ! capital exp5d$2 ! daily int]e/ = "o trip is 7#ajj #ajjj #f_/ajj7_/cfe #aj or #a4fd ,t5 horses & "o /age1 7#aejj #ejj #f_/ajj7_/cfe or #j4cc ,daily sal>y ( driv] & /able h&s1 #e4jj ,daily int]e/ on /able co/1 repairs1 c41 c41 #a4jc ---------- ,:ole co/ ( mov+ #h pass5g]s #ajj miles1 #h4jj ,co/ ( mov+ "o pass5g] "o mile1 4#ja ,aga94 ,let a railroad co/ #be1jjj p] mile1 "o hundr$ miles co/ #b1ejj1jjj1 & if we run t5 tra9s p] day ! daily int]e/1 at six p] c5t41 = "o tra9 is 7#bejjjjj #f_/ajj7_/cfe #aj #da4aj ,a locomotive co/s #aj1jjj1 ,two c>s co/ #d1jjj1 & 7#adjjj #f_/ajj7_/cfe is #b4cj ,& ! daily co/ ( road & equipm5t1 #dc4dj divide by #ajj1 = ! c5t p] mile1 #j4dc ,! av]age numb] ( pass5g]s c>ri$ 9 "o c>1 7see ,new ,york ,/ate ,eng9e]'s ,report17 is #ag2 two c>s1 #cd1 :5ce #dc_/cd #a c5ts ,! daily co/ p] mile1 p] pass5g]1 is !n1 = ! use ( ! road & equipm5t1 #a c5ts ,! co/ ( ma9ta9+ & work+ is1 p] pass5g]1 p] mile1 7see ,new ,york ,/ate ,eng9e]'s ,report = #ahed47 #a c5ts ,:5ce ! :ole co/ ( c>ry+ "o pass5g] "o mile ^u a railroad w be #bg_/ab c5ts ,! relative co/ ( transport is1 !n1 ?us1 ,by /age1 #a c5t ,by railroad1 #bg_/ab c5ts & ! relative *>ge ?us1 ,by /age1 #e c5ts ,by railroad1 #c c5ts ,& ! comp>ative pr(it z #e less #a1 or #d2 to #c less #bg_/ab1 or #e_/ab2 or z #a to #i4f4 ,i4 ,,=m ,,= ,,record+ ,,! ,,results ,,( ,,exp]im5tal ,,trips ,,) ,,locomotives4 ,9 comp>+ ! "w done by diff]5t locomotives1 we mu/ "k n only ! relative am\nts ( mat]ial consum$1 b also ! exact nature ( ! "w done1 z dep5d+ ^u spe$1 load1 curves1 & grades4 ,! foll[+ blank1 :5 fill$1 has be5 f\nd to give complete in=mation1 = comp>ison4 ,/ation1 ---- ,"t ( arriv+1 ---- ,"t ( dep>t+1 ---- ,"t runn+1 ---- ,"t /&+1 ---- ,di/ance1 ---- ,rise1 ---- ,fall1 ---- ,degrees ( curvature1 ---- ,equat$ di/ance1 ---- ,c>s tak51 ---- ,c>s left1 ---- ,load betwe5 /ations1 ---- ,equat$ mileage ( tra91 ---- ,gauge pressure1 ---- ,not* ( sector1 ---- ,fuel us$1 ---- ,wat] us$1 ---- ,lbs4 ( fuel p] gallon ( wat]1 ---- ,lbs4 ( fuel p] equat$ mileage1 p] ton or p] pass5g]1 ---- ,comp>ative effect1 ---- ,k4 ,,prop] ,,weight ,,( ,,locomotives4 ,to move a giv5 load ! eng9e requires a c]ta9 am\nt ( p[]2 to ex]t su* p[] !re is ne$$ load en\gh on ! driv]s to prev5t slipp+ on ! rail4 ,?is load v>ies f ?ree times ! tractive p[]1 79 ! be/ /ate ( ! rails17 to t5 times ! tractive p[]1 & ev5 m1 79 ! wor/ /ate74 ,a fair work+ av]age 7)\t s&71 be+ "o six?2 ) s&1 mu* less4 ,s& mu/ be us$ ^u grades & ^u bad rails4 ,to f9d !n ! prop] weight1 we h only to e/imate ! tractive p[] ^u ! h>de/ po9t ( ! road1 & multiply x by six4 ,examples4 ,h[ heavy an eng9e is ne$$ to draw two hundr$ tons 7includ+ eng9e & t5d]7 at tw5ty miles p] h\r ov] sixty feet grades8 ,! resi/ance on a level is #bjj 77#bj #bj7_/aga #h7 #b1jfj p\nds4 ,! resi/ance due to ! grade #bjj 7#fj_/ebhj #bbdj7 #e1bjj p\nds4 ,! resi/ance due to curves #bjj #e #a1jjj p\nds4 ------------ ,& ! :ole resi/ance1 #h1bfj p\nds4 :i* multipli$ by #f1 is #di1efj p\nds4 or #bb4a tons1 to :i* add #e tons z ! necess>y load ^u ! truck1 & ! :ole weight is #bg4a tons1 :i* is ! necess>y weight ( an eng9e to draw #bjj tons ov] #fj feet grades1 at #bj miles p] h\r4 ,or1 g5]ally1 ,let ,w ,weight ( eng9e1 t5d]1 & tra91 9 tons1 ,let ,v ,spe$ 9 miles p] h\r1 ,let a_/b ,fraction express+ ! grade1 ,let c ,resi/ance1 9 p\nds p] ton due to ! %>pe/ curve1 :i*1 assume z #e lbs41 z we h no reliable data1 & we h1 z ! weight ( ! eng9e1 ,w7,v#b_/aga #h7 a_/b #bbdj #ef_/bbdj weight ( eng9e exclusive ( weight on truck4 ,if we assume ! adhesion z "o f\r? ( ! weight on ! driv]s1 & load #aej tons1 spe$ tw5ty miles p] h\r1 & grade =ty feet p] mile1 ! above =mula becomes1 #aej77bj #bj7_/aga #h7 7#dj_/ebhjbbdj7 #ed_/bbdj n9e tons ne>ly4 ,to :i* add five tons1 & we h z ! :ole weight1 f\rte5 tons4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aeh4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,transcrib]',s ,,notes #a4 ,made corrections li/$ 9 ,errata beg9n+ on p4 xv4 #b4 ,did n correct ! error = page #cb l9e #b z x ref]r$ to ! cut r ?an ! text4 #c4 ,*ang$ 8area #b1hbg miles0 to 8area #b1hbg squ>e miles0 on p4 #d4 #d4 ,add$ 8,,g5]al ,,topography0 subhead+ on p4 #ab4 #e4 ,*ang$ 8#aadhj4ffg0 to 8#aa1dhj1ffg0 on p4 #dj4 #f4 ,*ang$ 8 #e1big4ccd #d1dcg4ccd0 to 8 #e1big1ccd #d1dcg1ccd0 on p4 #ed4 #g4 ,add$ 8,,slopes0 subhead+ on p4 #hi4 #h4 ,add$ 8,,=m ,,( ,,railroad ,,sections0 subhead+ on p4 #ig4 #i4 ,add$ 8,,rock ,,excavation0 & 8,,bla/+ ,,& ,,qu>ry+0 subhead+s on p4 #aae4 #aj4 ,add$ 8,,sid+s ,,& ,,cross+s0 subhead+ on p4 #bih4 #aa4 ,*ang$ 8#ah4bd cubic feet p] h\r0 to 8#ah4bd cubic feet p] h\r ( wat]0 on p4 #cjd4 #ab4 ,*ang$ all commas to decimals 9 ! table's "r-h& column titl$ 8,resi/ance 9 lbs4 p] ton0 on p4 #cad to agree ) ! previ\s expression4 #ac4 ,add$ 8,,ret>d+ ,,( ,,tra9s0 subhead+ on p4 #dja4 #ad4 ,add$ 8,,classification ,,( ,,build+s01 8,,location ,,( ,,build+s01 & 8,,t]m9al ,,pass5g] ,,h\se0 subhead+s on p4 #djc4 #ae4 ,add$ 8,,t]m9al ,,freight ,,h\se0 & 8,,eng9e ,,h\se ,,& ,,appurt5ances0 subhead+s on p4 #dje4 #af4 ,add$ 8,,wood ,,%$ ,,& ,,tank0 subhead+ on p4 #djg4 #ag4 ,sil5tly correct$ typographical errors4 #ah4 ,reta9$ ana*roni/ic & non-/&>d spell+s z pr9t$4 #ai4 ,enclos$ italics font 9 und]scores4 #bj4 ,enclos$ bold font 9 pilcr[ signs4 #ba4 ,sup]scripts are d5ot$ by a c>et be=e a s+le sup]script "* or a s]ies ( sup]script$ *>act]s enclos$ 9 curly braces1 e4g4 ,mr4 or ,mi/]4