,a ,,text-,,book ,,( ,,pap]-,,mak+2 ,,by ,c4 ,f4 ,,cross ,,& ,e4 ,j4 ,,bevan 7#ahhh7 ,illu/ration3 ,,cotton4 #ej4 ,,l954 #ej4 ,,esp>to4 #ej4 ,,me*anical ,,wood-,,pulp4 #ej4 ,,*emical ,,wood-,,pulp4 #ej4 ,a ,,text-,,book ,,( ,,pap]-,,mak+4 ,,by ,c4 ,f4 ,,cross ,,& ,e4 ,j4 ,,bevan4 ,illu/ration ,e4 ,f4 ,n4 ,,spon1 #abe1 ,,/r&1 ,,london4 ,,new ,,york3 #ce1 ,,murray ,,/reet4 #ahhh4 ,,preface4 ,! practical portion ( ! pres5t "w has 9 "p already appe>$ z an article1 by "o ( ! au?ors1 9 #8,spons' ,encyclopdia ( ! ,indu/rial ,arts4' ,s9ce its publication1 h[ev]1 _m & important improvem5ts h be5 introduc$ 9 ?is1 z 9 o!r bran*es ( ! art ( pap]-mak+1 :i* necessitat$ consid]able additions to ! orig9al article4 ,x has at ! same "t be5 to a great ext5t re-writt51 &1 z ! au?ors hope1 improv$4 ,our object 9 writ+ ?is book has be5 to br+ be=e /ud5ts & o!rs ! pr9ciples ^u :i* sci5tific pap]-mak+ %\ld be conduct$1 a concise exposition ( :i* has n1 we believe1 be5 hi!rto attempt$4 ,consid]able prom95ce has be5 giv5 to ?is aspect ( ! subject1 possibly at ! exp5se ( :at "s may consid] m ess5tial details4 ,a belief 9 ! importance ( a ?or\gh sci5tific tra9+ = pap]-mak]s has dictat$ ! /yle & purpose ( ! book4 ,we h n ?\ght x necess>y to ent] into m9ute details respect+ ! con/ruction ( ma*9]y1 c42 = ^! ! read] is ref]r$ to su* works z ,h(mann's ,treatise on ! ,manufacture ( ,pap]4 ,mu* ( ! sci5tific portion is "h publi%$ = ! fir/ "t4 ,"p ( x has already appe>$ 9 ! =m ( pap]s read be=e v>i\s societies4 ,! *apt] relat+ to ! ,treatm5t ( ,wood =m$ ! subject ( an essay1 :i* obta9$ ! prize (f]$ by ! ,scotti% ,pap]-mak]s' ,association1 9 connection ) ! ,ed9burgh ,=e/ry ,exhibition1 #ahhd4 ,we w\ld "h express our obligations to ,messrs4 ,g4 & ,w4 ,b]tram1 ,messrs4 ,masson1 ,scott1 & ,b]tram1 ,messrs4 ,rckn] & ,co41 & o!rs1 = _! c\rtesy 9 furni%+ u ) ! draw+s f :i* ! illu/rations 7 prep>$2 to ,dr4 ,c4 ,r4 ,a4 ,wright1 ,f4,r4,s41 :o k9dly communicat$ ! sub/ance ( ! *apt] on ! ,action ( ,cuprammonium on ,cellulose2 to ,mr4 ,c>l ,*ri/5s51 = draw+s & in=mation reg>d+ ! manufacture ( me*anical wood-pulp2 also to ! foll[+ fri5ds1 among o!rs1 :o h1 9 v>i\s ways1 r5d]$ u important assi/ance3--,messrs4 ,r4 ,c4 ,m5zies1 ,c4 ,m4 ,k+1 ,g4 ,e4 ,davis1 ,a4 ,beck)1 & ,c4 ,beadle4 ,f9ally1 we w\ld t5d] our ?anks to ,mr4 ,c4 ,g4 ,w>n=d ,lock = ! c>e he has be/[$ on ! edit+ ( ! book4 ,! index+ & ! ,*apt] on ,/ati/ics are entirely 8 production4 ,c4 ,f4 ,,cross & ,e4 ,j4 ,,bevan4 #d1 ,,new ,,c\rt1 ,,l9coln',s-,,inn1 ,w4,c4 ,,cont5ts4 ,,introductory ,,note 4 4 4 #a ,,*apt] ,i4 ,,cellulose--,,! ,,*emical ,,prop]ties ,,( ,,typical ,,memb]s ,,( ,,! ,,cellulose ,,gr\p1 ,,) ,,ref]5ce ,,to ,,_! ,,natural ,,hi/ory 4 4 4 #d ,,*apt] ,,ii4 ,,physical ,,/ructure ,,( ,,fibres--,,microscopical ,,exam9ation 4 4 4 #cj ,,*apt] ,,iii4 ,,*emical ,,analysis ,,( ,,plant ,,sub/ances 4 4 4 #db ,,*apt] ,,iv4 ,,an ,,acc\nt ,,( ,,! ,,*emical ,,& ,,physical ,,*>act]i/ics ,,( ,,! ,,pr9cipal ,,raw ,,mat]ials 4 4 4 #df ,,*apt] ,v4 ,,processes ,,= ,,isolat+ ,,cellulose ,,f ,,plant ,,sub/ances 4 4 4 #fb ,,*apt] ,,vi4 ,,special ,,treatm5t ,,( ,,v>i\s ,,fibres--,,boil]s1 ,,boil+ ,,processes1 ,c4 4 4 4 #gi ,,*apt] ,,vii4 ,,blea*+ 4 4 4 #aaj ,,*apt] ,,viii4 ,,beat+ 4 4 4 #aag ,,*apt] ,,ix4 ,,load+1 ,,siz+1 ,,col\r+1 ,c4 4 4 4 #abg ,,*apt] ,x4 ,,pap] ,,ma*9es1 ,,h&-,,made ,,pap] 4 4 4 #add ,,*apt] ,,xi4 ,,cal5d]+1 ,,cutt+1 ,c4 4 4 4 #afg ,,*apt] ,,xii4 ,,cau/ic ,,soda1 ,,recov]$ ,,soda1 ,c4 4 4 4 #agg ,,*apt] ,,xiii4 ,,! ,,te/+ ,,( ,,pap]1 ,,me*anical1 ,,*emical1 ,,& ,,microscopical 4 4 4 #aic ,,*apt] ,,xiv4 ,,g5]al ,,*emical ,,analysis ,,= ,,pap]-,,mak]s 4 4 4 #bje ,,*apt] ,,xv4 ,,site ,,= ,,pap]-,,mill--,,wat] ,,purification 4 4 4 #baj ,,*apt] ,,xvi4 ,,action ,,( ,,cuprammonium ,,on ,,cellulose--,,willesd5 ,,pap] 4 4 4 #bag ,,*apt] ,,xvii4 ,,/ati/ics 4 4 4 #bba ,,*apt] ,,xviii4 ,,bibliography 4 4 4 #bbi ,,*apt] ,,xix4 ,,add5da 4 4 4 #bca ,,index 4 4 4 #bcc #a ,,pap]-,,mak+4 ,,introductory ,,note4 ,! raw mat]ials ( ! pap]-mak] are prim>ily ! vegetable fibr\s sub/ances2 9 addition to ^! !re are v>i\s articles :i* are employ$ z auxili>ies1 ei!r 9 ! prep>atory or f9i%+ processes to :i* ^! fibr\s mat]ials1 or ! web ( pap] are subject$4 ,! latt] class are ( subsidi>y importance1 m especially f our pres5t po9t ( view4 ,9 insi/+ ^u ! recognition ( fir/ pr9ciples1 we _c ov]rate ! importance ( a ?or\gh grasp ( ! con/itution ( ! plant fibres1 z ! necess>y f\ndation = ! intellig5t conduct ( pap]-mak+1 & to ?is subject we w at once proce$4 ,c>eful /udy ( a mature plant w %[ t x is made up ( /ructural elem5ts ( two k9ds1 viz4 fibres & cells1 :i*1 to use a r\gh p>allel1 we may lik5 9 function to ! bricks & mort> ( a h\se4 ,x is ! =m] :i* admit ( ! _m ext5d$ uses1 ) :i* we are famili>1 9 ! arts ( sp9n+ & weav+1 & :i* con/itute ! fabrics :i* are ! mo/ indisp5sable to our civilis$ life4 ,= ! mo/ "p1 z we "k1 fibres & cells are aggregat$ toge!r into comp\nd tissues1 & a process ( sep>ation is !re=e a necess>y prelim9>y to ! utilisation ( ! =m]4 ,! cotton fibre is ! only important exception to ?is g5]al condition ( di/ribution4 ,"h we h ! se$ envelope or p]isp]m1 conv]t$ into a mass #b ( fibres1 & ^! by a spontane\s process accompany+ ! rip5+1 s isolat$ z to be imm$iately available4 ,next 9 ord] 9 po9t ( simplicity ( isolation1 are ^? fibr\s masses1 or tissues1 :i*1 al?\gh compon5ts ( complex /ructures1 exhibit a great] cohesion ( _! con/itu5t fibres ?an adhesion to ! contigu\s cellul> tissues ) :i* !y g to build up ! plant4 ,into su* a tissue ! 8ba/10 or inn] b>k lay] ( %rubs & trees1 m especially ^? ( tropical & sub-tropical regions1 frequ5tly develops1 & x is1 9 fact1 ?is ba/ tissue1 graduat+ 9 respect ( cohesion ( its con/itu5t fibres1 f a close network su* z we h spok5 (1 to a collection ( individual fibres or fibre-bundles dispos$ 9 p>allel s]ies1 :i* supplies ! great] "p ( ! m valuable ( ! textile & pap]-mak+ fibres2 we may in/ance flax1 hemp1 & jute1 ea* ( :i* is ! basis ( an enorm\s indu/ry4 ,accord+ to ! degree ( adhesion ( ! ba/ to ! contigu\s tissues1 or1 9 ano!r aspect1 accord+ to its less] aggregate developm5t1 s is ! difficulty ( isolation & ! necessity ( us+ processes auxili>y to ! me*anical sep>ation ( ! tissue4 ,x is wor?y ( note "h t ! ,japanese pap] ) :i* we are 9 ^! times s famili>1 is prep>$ by ! mo/ primitive means f ! ba/ ( a mulb]ry 7,br\ssonetia papyrif]a72 ! isolat$ tissue1 consi/+ ( a close network ( fibres1 is simply cut & hamm]$ to produce a surface ( ! requisite ev5ness1 & ! production ( a web ( pap] is complete4 ,9 isolat+ ! ba/ fibres employ$ 9 ! textile indu/ries1 a prelim9>y p>tial dis9tegration ( ! plant /em is br\ght ab\t by ! process ( /eep+ or rett+1 by :i* ! sep>ation ( fibre f fle% or cellul> tissue is mu* facilitat$4 ,la/ 9 ord] ( simplicity ( di/ribution1 we h ! fibres kn[n to ! botani/ z ! fibro-vascul> bundles ( leaves & monocotyl$on\s /ems1 ^! bundles be+ irregul>ly di/ribut$ ?r\gh ! ma9 cellul> mass1 & consequ5tly1 by reason ( adhesion !reto1 mu* m #c difficult ( isolation4 ,= ?is & o!r reasons1 m or less 9 correlation ) natural function1 we %all f9d ?is class ( raw mat]ial l[e/ 9 value to ! pap]-mak]4 ,x is necess>y at ?is /age to po9t out t ! "w ( ! pap]-mak] & t ( ! textile manufactur] are complem5t>y "o to ! o!r1 & ! supply ( fibr\s raw mat]ial is correspond+ly divid$3 x may be said1 inde$1 t ! pap] indu/ry subsi/s ^u ! rejecta ( ! textile manufactures4 ,! work+ up ( discont9u\s fibre elem5ts into ?read1 :i* is ! purpose ( ! complicat$ op]ations ( ! sp9n]1 is condition$ by ! l5g? & /r5g? ( ^! ultimate fibres4 ,pap]-mak+1 on ! o!r h&1 requires t ! raw mat]ial %all be previ\sly r$uc$ to ! condition ( m9ute subdivision ( ! con/itu5t fibres1 & !re=e c avail itself ( fibr\s raw mat]ial altoge!r valueless to ! sp9n]1 & ( textile mat]ials :i* f any cause h become ( no value z su*4 ,to ! raw mat]ials ( ! pap]-mak]1 :i* we h briefly outl9$ above1 we mu/ !re=e add1 z a supplem5t>y class1 textiles ( all k9ds1 su* z rags1 rope1 & ?read4 ,hav+ ?us acquir$ a g5]al idea ( ! s\rces ( our raw mat]ials1 we mu/ /udy m closely ! sub/ances !mselves1 & fir/ ( all we mu/ inve/igate !m z we %\ld any o!r *emical sub/ance1 i4e4 we mu/ get to und]/& ! nature & prop]ties ( ! matt] ( :i* ! vegetable fibres are compos$4 ,:ile ^! exhibit c]ta9 v>iations1 :i* are consid]able1 ! sub/ances pres5t a suffici5t *emical uni=mity to w>rant _! be+ designat$ "u a class "n3 ?is "n is cellulose4 ,! prototype ( ! celluloses is ! cotton fibre4 #d ,,*apt] ,i4 ,,cellulose3 ,,! ,,*emical ,,prop]ties ,,( ,,typical ,,memb]s ,,( ,,! ,,cellulose ,,gr\p1 ,,) ,,ref]5ce ,,to ,,_! ,,natural ,,hi/ory4 ,plants are s f> built up ( cellulose t x may be call$ ! mat]ial basis ( ! vegetable _w4 ,plant tissues1 h[ev]1 seldom1 if ev]1 consi/ ( pure cellulose1 b conta9 besides1 o!r products ( gr[? ei!r *emically comb9$ ) ! cellulose or me*anically b\nd up ) ! tissue1 :i* are1 accord+ to ! nature ( _! union1 removable ei!r by means ( fundam5tal *emical resolution or by ! application ( simple solv5ts4 ,a g5]al me?od = ! isolation ( cellulose consi/s 9 expos+ ! moi/ tissue to ! action ( *lor9e gas or ( brom9e wat] 9 ! cold1 & subsequ5tly boil+ 9 dilute ammonia2 repeat+ ?is treatm5t until ! alkal9e solution no long] dissolves any?+ f ! tissue or fibre4 ,! cellulose is !n wa%$ ) wat]1 alcohol1 & e!r1 & dri$4 ,obta9$ 9 ?is way1 or 9 ! =m ( blea*$ cotton1 or ( ,sw$i% filt] pap]1 x is a :ite sub/ance1 m or less opaque1 reta9+ ! microscopic features ( ! tissue or fibre f :i* x has be5 isolat$4 ,its sp4 gr4 is #abe-ade4 ,its elem5t>y composition is express$ by ! p]c5tage numb]s 7,s*ulze7 ,c #ddj #ddb ,h #fc #fd ,o #dig #did or by ! correspond+ empirical =mula1 viz4 ,c#f;,h#aj,o#e4 ,^! numb]s repres5t ! composition ( ! a%-free cellulose4 ,ne>ly all celluloses conta9 a c]ta9 proportion1 #e h[ev] small1 ( m9]al con/itu5ts1 & ! union ( ^! ) ! organic portion ( ! fibre or tissue is ( su* a nature t ! a% left on ignition pres]ves ! =m ( ! orig9al4 ,x is only 9 ! gr[+ po9t ( c]ta9 "y %oots t ! cellulose tissue is free f m9]al con/itu5ts4 7,h(mei/]47 ,z already indicat$1 cellulose is insoluble 9 all simple solv5ts2 x is1 h[ev]1 dissolv$ by c]ta9 reag5ts1 b only by virtue ( a prec$+ *emical modification4 ,an exception to ?is is to be f\nd1 p]haps1 9 ! ammoniacal solution ( cupric oxide 7,s*weitz]'s reag5t71 9 :i* x dissolves )\t ess5tial modification1 be+ recov]$ by precipitation1 9 a =m :i* is *emically id5tical ) ! orig9al1 ?\gh diff]+1 ( c\rse1 9 be+ /ructureless1 or amorph\s4 ,?is reag5t may be employ$ 9 a v>iety ( =ms1 b ! foll[+ me?od ( us+ x is to be recomm5d$ z ! mo/ c]ta9 9 its results4 ,! sub/ance to be op]at$ ^u is intimately mix$ ) copp] turn+s 9 a tube :i* is n>r[$ bel[ & provid$ ) a /opcock4 ,/rong ammonia is p\r$ ^u ! cont5ts ( ! tube &1 aft] be+ all[$ to /& = "s m9utes1 is drawn (f & return$ to ! tube2 ! op]ation is sev]al times repeat$ until ! solution ( ! sub/ance is effect$4 ,9 ord] to facilitate ! oxidation ( ! copp] by ! atmosph]ic oxyg51 a curr5t ( air may be aspirat$ ?r\gh ! app>atus4 ,! solution ( ! oxide prep>$ 9 ?is way is m effective 9 its action on cellulose ?an t obta9$ by dissolv+ ! precipitat$ hydrate 9 ammonia4 ,cellulosic tissues 9 contact ) ?is reag5t are se5 to und]go a disaggregation ( _! fibres1 :i* swell up1 become gelat9\s1 & disappe> 9 solution4 ,on add+ an acid to ! visc\s solution1 a precipitate ( ! amorph\s cellulose is obta9$ 9 ! =m ( a jelly resembl+ hydrat$ alum9a2 aft] wa%+ & dry+1 x =ms a br[ni%1 brittle1 horny mass4 ,! cellulose is also precipitat$ ^u simply dilut+ ! visc\s solution ) wat] & all[+ x to /& #f #h-aj days 9 a clos$ vessel4 ,f ?is obs]vation x 0 inf]r$ by ,erdmann t ! cellulose c\ld n be consid]$ z dissolv$ 9 ! /rict s5se ( ! ^w1 b ! exp]im5ts ( ,cram] ^u ! osmotic prop]ties ( ! solution prov$ ?is inf]5ce to be unf\nd$1 & t cellulose is actually dissolv$ by ! ammoniacal solution ( copp] oxide4 ,on treat+ ! ammonio-cupric solution ( cellulose ) metallic z9c1 ?is metal precipitates ! copp]1 replac+ x 9 ! solution1 & produc+ ! correspond+ ammonio-z9cic solution ( cellulose1 :i* is col\rless4 ,"s ( ^! solutions are lvo-gyrate4 ,cellulose1 9 ^? =ms to :i* ! application ( ! t]m has be5 hi!rto re/rict$1 is a comp>atively in]t sub/ance1 & its reactions are consequ5tly few4 ,"o ( ^! is available = ! id5tification ( cellulose1 & is *iefly us$ 9 ! microscopical exam9ations ( tissues3 ?is is its reaction ) iod9e4 ,cellulose is n col\r$ blue by a solution ( iod9e except+ "u ! simultane\s influ5ce ( hydriodic acid1 potassium iodide1 sulphuric acid1 phosphoric acid1 or z9c iodide or *loride4 ,! solution is prep>$ 9 ! foll[+ way3 z9c is dissolv$ to saturation 9 hydro*loric acid1 & ! solution is evaporat$ to sp4 gr4 #bj2 to #ij p>ts ( ?is solution are add$ #f p>ts potassium iodide dissolv$ 9 #aj p>ts ( wat]2 & 9 ?is solution iod9e is dissolv$ to saturation4 ,by ?is solution cellulose is col\r$ in/antly a deep-blue or violet4 ,= ! id5tification ( cellulose 9 ! gross1 m]e inspection is usually suffici5t2 confirmatory evid5ce is af=d$ by an obs]vation ( ! action ( ! ammonio-copp] reag5t1 & ( ! abs5ce ( reaction ) *lor9e wat]4 7,see p4 #ah47 ,cellulose 9 its e>li] /ages ( elaboration has no action ^u light2 b ) age x acquires ! prop]ty ( d\ble refraction1 n1 z has be5 %[n by exp]im5t1 by virtue ( its /ate ( aggregation1 b ( its molecul> con/itution 7,sa*s74 #g ,animal ,cellulose4--,! mantles ( _m ( ! mollusca1 e4g4 ! ,pyrosomid1 ,salpid1 & ,phallusia mammill>is1 conta9 a resi/ant sub/ance :i*1 aft] isolation by *emical treatm5t1 has be5 f\nd to be id5tical bo? 9 composition & prop]ties ) vegetable cellulose4 ,cellulose has also be5 /at$ to occur 9 deg5]at$ human sple5 & 9 c]ta9 p>ts ( ! bra94 ,comp\nds ( ,cellulose4--,! *emical in]tness ( cellulose is a matt] ( ev]yday exp]i5ce 9 ! laboratory1 :]e x fulfils ! important function ( a filt]+ m$ium 9 ! great] numb] ( sep>ations ( solids f liquids4 ,its comb9ations ) acids & ) basic oxides are1 z might be expect$1 few & ( little /ability4 ,x has be5 %[n by ,mills t cellulose 7cotton7 9 common ) c]ta9 o!r organic fibr\s sub/ances1 :5 imm]s$ 9 dilute solutions ( ! acids or basic oxides1 cond5ses ^! bodies )9 itself at ! exp5se ( ! surr\nd+ solution1 :i* is proportionately weak5$4 ,?is effect ( conc5tration is suffici5tly uni=m & con/ant to lead u to assign x to a *emical cause1 & ! view is /r5g!n$ by a consid]ation ( ! relative effects ^u ! v>i\s acids & bases :i* h be5 inve/igat$1 & br\ght to ! foll[+ num]ical expression3--,weight ( cotton #c grm4 7) #fi p] c5t4 ,h#b,o & #jje p] c5t4 a%7--i4e4 #bhic anhydr\s fibre4 ,/r5g? ( solution ab\t #je grm4 ( ! reag5t 9 #bej cc4 ,temp4 ,"t4 ,weight absorb$4 ,h#b,,s#d #d ,c4 7#ci ,f47 #c m9 #jjjdie ,h,cl #jjjgcc ,na,o,h #jjbjbj ,! molecul> ratio ( ! absorption1 9 ! two latt]1 is #c ,h,cl 3 #aj ,na,o,h1 & x is notewor?y t ! same ratio 0 obs]v$ = silk4 ,cellulose removes b>ium hydrate f its solution 9 waf] to =m ) x an insoluble comp\nd4 ,on add+ lead acetate to ! solution ( cellulose 9 ! ammonio-copp] reag5t1 s prep>$ z to conta9 no c>bonate1 a #h precipitate is obta9$ consi/+ ( a comp\nd ( cellulose ) lead oxide1 b 9 v>iable proportions4 ,! comp\nd ,c#f;,h#aj,o#e,pb,o is =m$ by ! action ( f9ely-divid$ lead oxide ^u ! above solution4 ,q rec5tly x has be5 %[n 7,o',%ea1 ,*em4 ,news1 ,may #bh?1 #ahhf7 t :5 dilute solutions ( lead are pass$ ?r\gh ord9>y filt] pap]1 a c]ta9 am\nt is reta9$ :i* _c be remov$ by wa%+4 ,cellulose does n comb9e ) metallic salts1 a fact :i* has be5 e/abli%$ incid5tally to rese>*es ^u ! mode ( action ( mordants4 ,! comb9ations ( cellulose ) acid radicles 7e!real salts7 are bo? def9ite & /able4 ,triacetyl ,cellulose ,c#f;,h#g 7,c#b;,h#c,o7#c ,o#e is =m$ by treat+ cellulose ) six times its weight ( acetic anhydride at #ahj ,c4 7#cef ,f474 ,! product ( ! reaction is a syrupy solution f :i* ! comp\nd 9 "q sep>ates on dilution ) wat] z a :ite floccul5t precipitate4 ,triacetyl cellulose is insoluble 9 alcohol & 9 e!r1 b soluble 9 glacial acetic acid4 ,x is easily saponifi$ by boil+ ) a solution ( potassium hydrate1 ! cellulose be+ reg5]at$4 ,no d]ivative conta9+ m ?an ?ree acetyl gr\ps has be5 obta9$2 b a mixture ( ! mono-& di-acetyl cellulose is =m$ 9 treat+ cellulose ) only twice its weight ( acetic anhydride1 ! =mation ( ^! bodies be+ unatt5d$ by _! solution4 ,:5ev] cellulose1 9 any =m1 is br\ght into contact ) /rong nitric acid at a l[ temp]ature1 a nitro product1 or a nitrate1 is =m$4 ,! ext5t ( ! nitration dep5ds ^u ! conc5tration ( ! acid1 on ! "t ( contact ( ! cellulose ) x1 & on ! /ate ( ! physical division ( ! cellulose itself4 ,knop1 & also ,kam>s*1 & ,he]51 f\nd t a mixture ( sulphuric acid & nitric acid also =m$ nitrates ( cellulose2 & /ill lat] 7#ahdg71 ,millon & ,gaud9 employ$ a mixture ( sulphuric acid & nitrates ( soda or pota%1 :i* !y f\nd to h ! same effect4 #i ,sev]al well *>act]is$ nitrates h be5 =m$1 b x is a v difficult matt] to prep>e any "o 9 a /ate ( purity1 & )\t admixture ( a high] or l[] nitrat$ body4 ,! foll[+ are kn[n3-- ,hexa-nitrate1 ,c#ab;,h#ad,o#d7,,no#c7f1a gun cotton4 ,9 ! =mation ( ?is body1 nitric acid ( sp4 gr4 #ae1 & sulphuric acid ( sp4 gr4 #ahd are mix$1 9 v>y+ proportions1 ab\t #c ( nitric to #a ( sulphuric 7sometimes ?is proportion is rev]s$71 & cotton is imm]s$ 9 ?is at a temp]ature n exce$+ #aj ,c4 7#ej ,f47 = #bd h\rs3 #ajj p>ts ( cellulose yield ab\t #age ( cellulose nitrate4 ,! hexa-nitrate s prep>$ is insoluble 9 alcohol1 e!r1 or mixtures ( bo?1 9 glacial acetic acid or 9 me?yl alcohol4 ,acetone dissolves x v sl[ly4 ,?is is ! mo/ explosive gun-cotton4 ,x ignites at #afj-agj ,c4 7#cbj-cch ,f474 ,accord+ to ,ed] ! mixtures ( nitre & sulphuric acid d n give ?is nitrate4 ,ord9>y gun cotton may conta9 z mu* z #ab p] c5t4 ( nitrates soluble 9 e!r-alcohol4 ,! hexa-nitrate seems to be ! only "o q insoluble 9 e!r-alcohol4 ,footnote #a3 ,to repres5t ! s]ies ( cellulose nitrates s z to avoid fractional proportions1 ! ord9>y empirical =mula is d\bl$ & ! nom5clature has ref]5ce to ?is d\ble molecule4 ,p5ta-nitrate1 ,c#ab;,h#ae,o#e7,,no#c7e4 ,?is composition has be5 v commonly ascrib$ to gun-cotton4 ,x is difficult1 if n impossible1 to prep>e x 9 a /ate ( purity by ! direct action ( ! acid on cellulose4 ,! be/ me?od is ! "o devis$ by ,ed]1 mak+ use ( ! prop]ty discov]$ by de ,vrij1 t gun-cotton 7hexa-nitrate7 dissolves 9 nitric acid at ab\t #hj-ij ,c4 7#agf-aid ,f47 & is precipitat$1 z ! p5tanitrate1 by conc5trat$ sulphuric acid aft] cool+ to #j ,c4 7#cb ,f472 aft] mix+ ) a l>g] volume ( wat]1 & wa%+ ! precipitate ) wat] & !n ) alcohol1 x is dissolv$ 9 e!r-alcohol1 & aga9 precipitat$ ) wat]1 :5 x is obta9$ pure4 ,?is nitrate is insoluble 9 alcohol1 b dissolves readily #aj 9 e!r-alcohol1 & slightly 9 acetic acid4 ,/rong pota% solution conv]ts ?is nitrate into ! di-nitrate1 ,c#ab;,h#ah,o#h 7,,no#c7b4 ,! tetra- & tri-nitrates 7collodion pyroxyl9e7 are g5]ally =m$ toge!r :5 cellulose is treat$ ) a m dilute nitric acid1 & at a high] temp]ature1 & = a mu* %ort] "t 7#ac to #bj m9utes71 ?an 9 ! =mation ( ! hexa-nitrate4 ,x is n possible to sep>ate !m1 z !y are soluble to ! same ext5t 9 e!r-alcohol1 acetic e!r1 acetic acid or wood _s4 ,on treatm5t ) conc5trat$ nitric & sulphuric acids1 bo? ! tri-& tetra-nitrates are conv]t$ into p5ta-nitrate & hexa-nitrate4 ,pota% & ammonia conv]t !m into di-nitrate4 ,cellulose di-nitrate1 ,c#ah;,h#ac,o#h 7,,no#c7b always results z ! f9al product ( ! action ( alkalis on ! o!r nitrates1 & also f ! action ( hot1 some:at dilute1 nitric acid on cellulose4 ,! di-nitrate is v soluble 9 e!r-alcohol1 acetic e!r1 & 9 absolute alcohol4 ,fur!r action ( alkalis on ! di-nitrate results 9 a complete decomposition ( ! molecule1 "s organic acids & t>ry matt]s be+ =m$4 ,! reactions & resolution products ( ?is body h1 h[ev]1 be5 b slightly /udi$1 & app>5tly n at all ) ! view to elucidate any?+ respect+ ! con/itution ( cellulose itself4 ,cellulose & ,*lor9e4--,dry *lor9e gas has no action ^u cellulose1 b ! pres5ce ( wat] det]m9es an indirect oxidis+ action4 ,?is oxidis+ action results f ! decomposition ( wat] by *lor9e ) =mation ( hydro*loric acid & lib]ation ( oxyg54 ,! reaction1 h[ev]1 c only take place 9 ! pres5ce ( light4 ,cellulose & ,oxyg54--,:5 cotton is expos$ = "s "t to ! action ( a solution ( blea*+ p[d]1 9 ! cold1 & ) access ( air1 e4g4 :5 a piece ( :ite calico is moi/5$ ) ! solution1 squeez$ out & expos$ to ! air1 x is f\nd to und]go gradual dis9tegration accompani$ by a *ange 9 composition1 & an elem5t>y #aa analysis ( ! product %[s x to conta9 less c>bon & m oxyg5 ?an ! orig9al cellulose4 ,! foll[+ p]c5tage numb]s indicate ! composition ( ^! oxidis$ d]ivatives ( cellulose1 & ! progress ( ! oxidation3-- #ab h\rs' exposure4 #bd h\rs' exposure4 ,c #dcgh #dcdg #dcjj #dbij ,h #ehe #fac #fbh #fah ,o #ejcg #ejdj #ejgb #ejib ,o!r oxidis+ ag5ts produce simil> results2 ev5 by exposure to air & light1 cellulose is sl[ly conv]t$ into ^! oxidis$ d]ivatives4#b ,f _! mode ( =mation1 !y h be5 t]m$ oxycelluloses1 & to di/+ui% !m f a s]ies ( m highly oxidis$ d]ivatives1 produc$ by ! action ( nitric acid ^u cellulose1 :i* !y nev]!less resemble 9 _m ( _! *>act]i/ics1 ! prefix is employ$4 ,! foll[+ are ! di/+ui%+ features ( ! oxycelluloses z repres5t$ by ! m extreme ( ! above m5tion$ products4 ,x r$uces ,fehl+'s solution at ! boil+ temp]ature1 & ! cupr\s oxide is deposit$ ^u ! fibre 9 a /ate ( intimate union1 produc+ ! effect ( an orange dye4 ,x attracts ! basic col\r+ matt]s f _! solutions & is dy$ to a full %ade1 ! dep? ( col\r be+ proportionate to ! am\nt ( oxidation to :i* ! cellulose has be5 subject$4 ,see also p4 #dc4 ,treat$ ) a w>m solution ( ph5ylhydraz9e salts 9 wat]1 x is col\r$ a bright lemon-yell[4 ,its mo/ rem>kable prop]ty is its attraction = ! vanadium comp\nds1 :i* is s p[]ful t comb9ation may be prov$ to take place :5 ?is elem5t 9 ! =m ( *loride is pres5t$ to ! oxycellulose 9 an aque\s solution conta9+ n m ?an #a 9 #a1jjj1jjj1jjj1jjj p>ts4 ,footnote #b3 ,witz4 ,bull4 ,soc4 ,ind4 ,r\51 ,x4 #daf1 & ,,xi4 #ahi4 ,! oxycellulose result+1 z already indicat$1 f ! action ( dilute nitric acid ^u cellulose1 w be subsequ5tly consid]$1 "u ! head ( ! decompositions ( cellulose1 to :i* ! reaction :i* we h be5 consid]+ may be reg>d$ z transitional4 #ab ,decomposition ( ,cellulose4--,acids4--,( ! decomposition ( cellulose by artificial means1 i4e4 by ! action ( reag5ts1 ! mo/ important are ^? :i* disclose ! relation%ip :i* x be>s to ! gr\p ( s-call$ c>bo-hydrates4 ,cellulose is1 inde$1 a highly elaborat$ c>bo-hydrate1 diff]+ f dextr9 & />*1 n s mu* 9 its ess5tial con/itution z 9 ! molecul> arrangem5t :i* has be5 impress$ ^u x 9 & ?r\gh ! life ( ! plant4 ,!re are num]\s obs]vations 9 biological sci5ce :i* demon/rate ! close connection1 & 9 _m cases ! physiological equival5ce ( ! memb]s ( ?is natural gr\p1 :i* includes ! sug>s1 dextr91 />*es1 & cellulose4 ,! foll[+ facts %[ ! con/itutional or *emical ties :i* und]lie _! int]dep5d5ce4 ,amyloid4--,:5 cotton is treat$ ) #cj times its weight ( sulphuric acid some:at dilut$ 7#a "p ,h#b,o1 #d p>ts ,h#b,,s#d7 x quickly dissolves1 ! solution be+ at fir/ gelat9\s1 becom+ aft]w>ds syrupy4 ,on p\r+ ?is solution into wat]1 a :ite floccul5t precipitate is =m$1 consi/+ ( a sub/ance closely resembl+ ! cellulose f :i* x is d]iv$1 diff]+1 inde$1 only 9 be+ amorph\s1 & 9 be+ col\r$ blue by iod9e4 ,?is sub/ance1 f its resemblance to />*1 has be5 call$ amyloid4 ,:5 suffici5tly dehydrat$ x con/itutes a swoll5 />*y mass1 :i* dries to a brittle transp>5t solid4 ,?is trans=mation appe>s to consi/ 9 a simple hydration ( ! cellulose molecule1 ?us3-- ,cellulose4 ,amyloid4 #b 7,c#f;,h#aj,o#e7 ,h#b,o ,c#ab;,h#bb,o#aa4 ,! modification ( cellulose1 :i* occurs on ! conv]sion ( unsiz$ pap] into ! s-call$ p>*m5t pap]1 by exposure = a %ort "t to ! action ( /rong sulphuric acid1 & subsequ5t wa%+ & dry+1 consi/s d\btless 9 a sup]ficial conv]sion ( ! cellulose into amyloid1 or a body closely resembl+ x4 ,hydracellulose4--,closely relat$ 9 composition to ! above #ac describ$ amyloid1 is ! sub/ance call$ hydracellulose1 into :i* cellulose is conv]t$ by exposure = "s "t to ! action ( mod]ately /rong sulphuric1 or hydro*loric acids 7sp4 gr4 #ace74 ,?is sub/ance is also =m$ by ! action ( v weak acids1 if ! exposure ( ! cellulose be suffici5tly prolong$4 ,its =mation is accompani$ by ! complete dis9tegration ( ! cellulose4 ,if ! action ( /rong sulphuric acid be prolong$1 a fur!r modification ensues1 dextr9 or sug> be+ =m$4 ,^! products h n be5 suffici5tly /udi$ to h e/abli%$ _! exact id5tity ) any ( ! sub/ances kn[n "u ^! gr\p-names4 ,! dextr9 has a close resemblance to ! dextr9 obta9$ f />*2 ! sug> is susceptible ( f]m5tation2 b beyond ?is no?+ specific is kn[n ( ^! bodies4 ,_! g5]al prop]ties1 h[ev]1 & mode ( =mation1 suffici5tly e/abli% ! fact t cellulose itself is con/itut$ ( simil> molecules4 ,! action ( z9c *loride solution ^u cellulose is simil> to t ( sulphuric acid4 ,cellulose 9 contact ) iron1 & 9 pres5ce ( air & moi/ure1 is conv]t$ into a sug> & a gummy sub/ance1 :i* latt] is conv]t$ into a sug> on boil+ ) dilute acids4 ,oxidis$ by potassium p]manganate or bi*romate 9 pres5ce ( acetic acid1 x is conv]t$ into glucose1 dextr91 & =mic acid4 ,cellulose & nitric acid3 ,oxycellulose4#c--,on dige/+ cellulose ) nitric acid 7sp4 gr4 #ac7 at #ajj ,c4 7#bab ,f471 a consid]able quantity ( oxalic acid is =m$2 b aft] prolong$ dige/ion1 a residue rema9s1 :i* yields b v sl[ly to ! action ( ! acid4 ,?is sub/ance1 :i* is :ite & floccul5t1 :5 ?r[n ^u a filt] & wa%$ ) wat]1 comb9es ) ! latt] to =m a gelat9\s hydrate4 ,x dissolves 9 dilute alkalis1 b )\t =m+ a /able comp\nd ) ! base4 ,x usually am\nts to ab\t #cj p] c5t4 ( ! cellulose act$ ^u4 ,its elem5t>y composition is express$ by ! =mula #ad ,c#ah;,h#bf,o#af 7,c #dcd1 ,h #ec p] c5t474 ,treat$ ) a mixture ( conc5trat$ sulphuric & nitric acids1 x dissolves1 &1 on p\r+ ! solution into wat]1 ! comp\nd ,c#ah;,h#bc,o#ac7,,no#c7c sep>ates z a :ite floccul5t precipitate4 ,9 its ess5tial prop]ties !re=e oxycellulose exhibits a close resemblance to cellulose itself4 ,?is oxycellulose is di/+ui%$ f ! memb]s ( ! cellulose gr\p by dissolv+ 9 conc5trat$ sulphuric acid ) developm5t ( a p9k col\r4 ,x appe>s to /& 9 v close relation%ip to ! gr\p ( pectic sub/ances1 :i* are oxidis$ d]ivatives ( cellulose4 ,footnote #c3 ,cross & ,bevan1 ,*em4 ,soc4 ,j\rn41 xliii4 p4 #bc4 ,alkalis4--,conc5trat$ solutions ( ! cau/ic alkalis 9 ! cold attack & dis9tegrate cellulose b sl[ly4 ,! action is 9 _m cases m]ely sup]ficial4 ,dilute solutions ( ! alkalis are )\t action ^u cellulose ev5 at ! boil+ temp]ature1 unless ! condition ( oxidation is sup]-add$2 9 ?is case1 acid bodies are f\nd4 ,! extreme product ( ! oxidation ( cellulose 9 pres5ce ( ! cau/ic alkalis is oxalic acid2 ?is acid has inde$ be5 prep>$ on ! comm]cial scale by ! 8fusion0 ( cellulosic sub/ances1 ) mixture ( sodium & potassium hydrates4 ,malic acid has be5 obta9$ z an int]m$iate product ( ?is decomposition4 ,by potassium p]manganate 9 pres5ce ( potassium hydrate1 bo? 9 solution1 f9ely divid$ cellulose is oxidis$ to a syrupy mixture ( acids resembl+ 9 composition & prop]ties ,frmy's meta-pectic acid4 ,a simil> decomposition is effect$ by conc5trat$ solutions ( ! hypo*lorites1 employ$ cold4 ,wat] at ,high ,temp]ature4--,cellulose itself is only slightly affect$ by exposure to a temp]ature ( #bjj ,c4 7#cib ,f47 b 9 contact ) wat] at ?is temp]ature1 9 seal$ glass#d mo/ "p into d>k br[n insoluble products1 a portion1 h[ev]1 pass+ into solution 9 ! wat]1 imp>t+ to x a deep yell[ col\r4 ,a l>ge quantity ( c>bonic acid is #ae =m$1 & ! solution conta9s 9 addition to =mic acid an appreciable quantity ( pyrocate*ol4 ,! =mation ( ?is aromatic sub/ance f cellulose is1 p]haps1 ! mo/ noticeable feature ( ! decomposition4 ,footnote #d3 ,! action ( alkal9e sub/ances dissolv$ f ! glass mu/ be tak5 into acc\nt 9 ?is decomposition4 ,decomposition by means ( f]m5ts1 c4--,! soluble f]m5t ( ! foxglove has be5 f\nd to conv]t cellulose into glucose & dextr94 ,! fluid f ! v]mi=m app5dix ( ! rabbit has also be5 f\nd to dige/ cellulose ) lib]ation ( m>% gas & =mation ( a soluble comp\nd :i* r$uces cupric oxide 9 alkal9e solution4 ,humus4--,9 ! natural decay ( cellulosic /ructures a l>ge quantity ( m>% gas is =m$1 & solid products are =m$1 :i* are usually kn[n z humic or ulmic sub/ances4 ,^! bodies are amorph\s1 are l>gely dissolv$ by alkal9e solutions1 & are attack$ by *lor9e gas 9 pres5ce ( moi/ure1 yield+ yell[ col\r$ *lor9at$ d]ivatives ^: composition has a g5]al resemblance to ! *lor9at$ comp\nds obta9$ f ! comp\nd celluloses1 to be h]eaft] describ$4 ,! mo/ important "p :i* ulmic sub/ances play 9 ! economy ( nature1 is 9 ! composition ( soils4 ,x is d\btful :e!r !y act directly z f]tilis]s1 b by _! action ^u ! m9]al con/itu5ts ( soils !y contribute to ! supply ( ^! necess>y elem5ts ( gr[? to ! plant4 ,syn!sis ( ,cellulose4--,a trans=mation ( c]ta9 soluble c>bo-hydrates into cellulose1 :i* may be reg>d$ z a proximate syn!sis ( cellulose1 has rec5tly be5 br\ght to light4 ,?is is set up spontane\sly 9 beet-juice1 & results 9 ! =mation ( a h>d :ite sub/ance1 insoluble 9 boil+ dilute pota%1 soluble 9 ! ammonio-copp] reag5t1 conv]t$ by sulphuric acid into dextr9 & sug>1 & by nitric acid into oxalic acid4 ,on add+ "s ( ^! cellulose lumps to a solution ( pure cane-sug>1 a fur!r trans=mation ( ! sac*>ose into ! same sub/ance is br\ght ab\t4 ,at ! same "t !re is simultane\sly produc$ a gummy sub/ance1 :i* is precipitat$ by #af alcohol z a :ite amorph\s ca\t*\c-l mass1 ( ! same composition z cellulose1 b swell+ up ) wat]1 & o!rwise diff]+ 9 its physical prop]ties f cellulose4 ,?is latt] sub/ance is also =m$ by ! action ( dia/a/e ^u a solution ( sac*>ose4 ,! process ( cellulosic f]m5tation may be repres5t$ by ! equation3 n4 7,c#ab;,h#bb,o#aa7 n4 7,c#f;,h#aj,o#e7 n4 7,c#f;,h#ab,o#f7 ,sac*>ose4 ,cellulose4 ,glucose4 ,a simil> trans=mation takes place "u ! influ5ce ( c]ta9 fatty se$s1 e4 g4 ^? ( rape & colza2 & x is probable t ! =mation ( cellulose 9 liv+ plants may take place at ! exp5se ( sac*>ose & "u ! influ5ce ( f]m5ts4 ,9 support ( ?is x has be5 e/abli%$ t 9 ! sug>-cane1 ! =mation ( wood--i4e4 cellulose--is accompani$ p>i passu by a decrease 9 sac*>ose4 ,m rec5tly1 ,a4 ,br[n 7,*em4 ,soc4 ,j\rn41 #dcb1 #ahhf7 has inve/igat$ ! =mation ( cellulose by ! 8v9eg> plant0 gr[+ 9 solutions ( ! c>bo-hydrates1 e4 g4 dextrose 9 yea/-wat]4 ,! cells elaborate an extra-cellul> fibr91 :i* acts z a 8cell-collect+ m$ium10 & !y possess !re=e a two-sid$ activity1 i4e4 ! prop]ty above m5tion$1 9 addition to _! /rictly f]m5tative activity4 ,! cellulose film 9 "q 0 f\nd to conta9 #ej to #fj p] c5t4 ( pure cellulose4 ,x is notewor?y t 9 a solution ( levulose ! gr[? ( ! 8plant0 is unatt5d$ by f]m5tative action1 #cc p] c5t4 ( ! sub/ance be+1 on ! o!r h&1 trans=m$ into cellulose4 ,modifications ( ,cellulose 9 ! ,plant4 ,comp\nd ,celluloses4--,x has be5 already /at$ t cellulose occurs 9 nature = ! mo/ "p 9 a =m diff]5t f t 9 :i* we h hi!rto consid]$ x1 viz4 ei!r comb9$ or mix$ ) o!r sub/ances :i* are ( su* a nature t !y may be remov$ by a *emical process1 m or less simple4 ,"o ( ! mo/ *>act]i/ic ( ^! modifi$ celluloses con/itutes ! jute fibre1 ! isolat$ ba/ ( an ,indian plant1 #ag :i* has an enorm\s indu/rial application = ! co>s] textile purposes4 ,! *emi/ry ( jute ?r[s light on ! c\rse ( lignification1 ! process by :i* cellulose is modifi$ into wood1 & 9 /udy+ x 9 pref]5ce to wood we h ! advantage ( /udy+ a simple tissue4 ,l cellulose1 jute dissolves 9 cuprammonia1 & is simil>ly act$ ^u by ! conc5trat$ acids4 ,by nitric acids x is conv]t$ into nitric e!rs1 :i* are yell[ col\r$1 b 9 o!r respects closely resemble ! pyroxyl9s4 ,!y are entirely soluble 9 acetone4 ,jute diff]s f cellulose 9 ! foll[+ respects3 its p]c5tage composition 7exclud+ a%7 is ,c #dgj #dhj p] c5t4 ,h #ei #eg ,o #dga #dfc ,x is h>%] to ! t\*1 & its col\r v>ies f grey to br[n2 x comb9es directly ) ! great] numb] ( ! organic col\r+ matt]s1 remov+ !m f solution1 i4e41 becom+ dy$ ) !m2 x is col\r$ deep yell[ by imm]sion 9 a solution ( anil9e sulphate2 moi/5$ ) a solution ( phloroglucol & aft]w>ds ) hydro*loric acid1 x gives a deep r$ coloration2 ) pyrrol also 9 pres5ce ( hydro*loric acid x gives a deep c>m9e col\r2 x is attack$ & p>tially conv]t$ into soluble products by a numb] ( reag5ts :i* h no action1 "u simil> conditions1 ^u cellulose4 ,c]ta9 ( ^! we mu/ consid] m 9 detail4 ,iod9e4--,jute absorbs iod9e f its solution 9 potassium iodide4 ,?is action is *>act]i/ic ( all lignifi$ tissues1 ! quantity ( iod9e tak5 up be+ proportional to ! am\nt ( lignification4 ,if ! physical conditions rema9 ! same1 ! am\nts ( iod9e absorb$ w be f\nd to be con/ant = ea* p>ticul> fibre4 ,?is con/ancy po9ts to ! =mation ( a def9ite *emical comp\nd1 probably resembl+ ! blue comp\nd ( />* & iod9e4 ,?is prop]ty may be made available = ! e/imation ( ! #ah am\nt ( me*anical wood-pulp 9 pap]s2 x w be m fully consid]$ else:]e4 ,brom9e4--,jute1 expos$ to ! action ( brom9e wat] 9 ! cold1 comb9es ) ! halog51 be+ oxidis$ at ! same "t1 & ! products may be dissolv$ by boil+ ! modifi$ fibre 9 weak alkal9e solutions4 ,on repeat+ ?is treatm5t f\r or five times1 a residue ( cellulose is ultimately obta9$1 am\nt+ to #gb or #gc p] c5t4 ( ! orig9al fibre3 ! cellulose is obta9$ 9 ! =m ( ! dis9tegrat$ fibre elem5ts4 ,on all[+ ! halog5 to act 9 pres5ce ( an alkali1 i4e41 z hypobromite1 n only is its action int5sifi$ & accel]at$1 b its modus op]&i m cle>ly reveal$4 ,! *ief products are 9 ?is case1 c>bonic acid1 brom(orm ,c,h,br#c 7:i* may be isolat$ by di/illation71 & cellulose4 ,at ! same "t ! yield ( cellulose is consid]ably less ?an by ! =m] me?od1 ! cellulose itself be+ attack$ by ! hypobromite4 ,*lor9e4--,dry *lor9e gas has no action ^u jute ev5 :5 ! temp]ature is rais$ to #adj ,c4 7#bhd ,f471 b ! pres5ce ( moi/ure det]m9es rapid comb9ation1 at ord9>y temp]ature1 accompani$ by evolution ( heat4 ,! col\r ( ! jute *anges to a bright yell[1 :i*1 on treatm5t ( ! fibre ) a solution ( sodium sulphite1 gives place to a pure mag5ta4 ,?is reaction is *>act]i/ic ( all lignifi$ tissues1 & is a valuable aid 9 ! micro-*emical exam9ation ( plant /ructures4 ,= ?is purpose1 ! reag5t may be employ$ 9 ! =m ( *lor9e wat]2 ! sections or small fragm5ts to be exam9$ are all[$ to rema9 9 ?is solution a %ort "t1 & !n m\nt$ = obs]vation 9 a dilute solution ( sodium sulphite4 ,by comb9ation ) *lor9e ! fibre sub/ance or ligno-cellulose is p>tially resolv$4 ,alcohol dissolves away f ! *lor9at$ fibre1 a bright yell[ sub/ance1 :i* is precipitat$ 9 yell[ flocks on p\r+ ! solution into wat]4 ,?is *lor9at$ d]ivative has ! composition ,c#ai;,h#ah;,cl#d,o#i4 ,by ?is =mula1 z well z by its col\r reactions1 & by its yield+ protocate*uic acid on fusion ) pota%1 x is #ai %[n to be relat$ to ! trihydric ph5ols1 & to ! tann9s :i* are d]ivatives ( ^!4 ,aft] dissolv+ away ?is comp\nd by exhau/ive treatm5t ) alcohol1 ! fibre /ill gives a brilliant reaction ) sodium sulphite1 %[+ t a portion is /ill held back 9 comb9ation ) ! cellulose1 or cellulose residue4 ,on treat+ ! residual fibre ) boil+ nitric acid1 a consid]able quantity ( *loropicr9 ,c,cl#c,,no#b is =m$1 & x is probable t ! union ( ! molecule ,c#ai;,h#ah;,cl#d,o#i ) ! cellulose may be effect$ by ! aldehyde#e molecule ,c,cl#c;,,coh2 ea* gr\p be+ conta9$ 9 ! orig9al lignocellulose1 ! action ( ! *lor9e t5d+ to di/urb ! atomic equilibrium & to re>range ! atoms into gr\ps1 :i* 9 _! modifi$ =m h less mutual coh]5ce4 ,if ! *lor9at$ fibre be directly boil$ ) ! sodium sulphite solution1 its resolution into cellulose & soluble non-cellulose d]ivatives is complete3 & ?is treatm5t con/itutes ! mo/ simple & rapid me?od ( e/imat+ ! cellulose 9 lignifi$ tissues4 ,x is only necess>y f9ally to wa% ! cellulose ) hot wat] conta9+ a little acetic acid 7:5 plac$ 9 a funnel x acts z its own filt]71 & !n )1 alcohol1 :5 x may be dri$ & weigh$4 ,9 ord] to ensure ! resolution ( ! fibre by a s+le *lor9ation 79 ! case ( jute1 & ! l71 x mu/1 previ\sly to exposure to ! gas1 be boil$ 9 a dilute 7#a p] c5t47 solution ( potassic hydrate4 ,9 ! case ( wood & o!r m resi/ant /ructures1 x w be necess>y to repeat ! *lor9ation4 ,footnote #e3 ,furfural may also be isolat$ f ! *lor9at$ jute2 ! survival ( ?is aldehyde is notewor?y4 ,! p]c5tage ( cellulose yield$ by ?is me?od is1 9 ! case ( jute1 usually #b-c p] c5t4 high] ?an by ! brom9e me?od4 ,moreov]1 if ! temp]ature be ma9ta9$ at #j ,c4 7#cb ,f471 by plac+ ! fibre1 :i* is to be expos$ to ! action ( ! gas1 9 contact ) p\nd$ ice1 ! p]c5tage may be /ill fur!r increas$1 am\nt+ #bj 9 "s cases to #hj-hb4 ,correspond+ to ?is increas$ yield1 ! cellulose is obta9$ 9 long filam5ts4 ,x w be se51 !re=e1 t ! cellulose isolat$ by *emical treatm5t f a comp\nd cellulose is affect$ bo? 9 "* & quantity by ! process employ$1 & x is affect$ 9 a mu* great] degree ?an ! cellulose itself expos$ to ! same treatm5t1 aft] isolation4 ,! composition ( ! cellulose obta9$ 9 ?is way diff]s f t ( celluloses1 su* z cotton1 :i* exi/ 9 ! plant 9 an isolat$ & m fully =m$ condition2 x conta9s #dc p] c5t4 ,c & #f p] c5t4 ,h1 correspond+ to ! =mula n #c ,c#f;,h#aj,o#e;,h#b,o4 ,! composition ( ?is cellulose w be se5 to be id5tical ) t ( c]ta9 ( ! oxycelluloses previ\sly describ$2 & its prop]ties are1 moreov]1 ^? ( an oxycellulose4 ,^! facts g to %[ t ! jute fibre sub/ance1 & ! sub/ances alli$ to x1 are comp\nds ( cellulose ) o!r molecules1 i4e4 !y are comp\nd celluloses4 ,!y may be conv5i5tly gr\p$ "u ! t]m ligno-cellulose4 ,dilute ,m9]al ,acids4--,"u ! action ( dilute sulphuric or hydro*loric acid 7#e-aj p] c5t47 at #fj-hj ,c4 7#adj-agf ,f471 a consid]able portion ( ! fibre sub/ance is dissolv$4 ,! action ( ei!r reag5t is ( c\rse purely hydrolytic2 & ! hydrolysis is ( ! simple/ "*1 s9ce ! sub/ance dissolv$ z well z ! residual fibre are f\nd to h ! same p]c5tage composition4 ,moreov]1 ! residual fibre1 ?\gh hav+ und]gone a pr(\nd /ructural modification1 & hav+ be5 conv]t$ into a dis9tegrat$ mass ( brittle fragm5ts1 /ill pres]ves ! *emical *>act]i/ics ( ! orig9al1 unalt]$4 ,?us x is conv]t$ by ! action ( *lor9e into a simil> complex ( d]ivatives1 yield+ on resolution by sodium sulphite solution #ge p] c5t4 ( cellulose2 also :5 act$ ^u by alkal9e hypobromite x yields brom(orm4 ,"u ! action ( ^! hydrolytic reag5ts1 !re=e1 ! fibre %[s itself to be ess5tially a *emical :ole4 ,at ! boil+ temp]ature1 ^! acids resolve z well z dissolve ! fibre sub/ance1 & ! volatile products are acetic acid & ! peculi> aldehyde #ba furfural ,c#d;,h#c,o4,,coh4 ,! yield ( ?is aldehyde may be rais$ ) suitable precautions to #ae-bj p] c5t4 ( ! raw fibre4 ,! action ( dilute nitric acid ^u ! fibre diff]s f t ( ! above-m5tion$ acids1 9 effect+ its resolution into soluble d]ivatives & insoluble cellulose2 ! yield ( ! latt] :5 ! reaction is conduct$ at #fj ,c4 7#adj ,f471 ) #e p>ts ,,hno#c is #fj p] c5t4 only1 %[+ t 9 ! process ( isolation "s ( ! cellulose itself is attack$ & conv]t$ into soluble products4 ,s*ulze's me?od ( isolat+ cellulose f wood1 & f ! ligno-celluloses g5]ally1 consi/$ 9 mac]at+ !m = #ab to #ad days ) #h_/aj _! weight ( potassium *lorate dissolv$ 9 #ab p>ts by weight ( nitric acid 7sp4 gr4 #aaj71 & complet+ ! resolution by aft]w>ds boil+ ) dilute ammonia4 ,by ! action ( a m conc5trat$ acid1 #ej p] c5t4 ,,hno#c1 at #hj ,c4 7#agf ,f471 a soluble d]ivative is obta9$ :i* has ! composition 7,c#be;,h#dj,,no#be74 ,x is a syrupy1 highly acid body1 dye+ animal fibres a deep yell[ %ade1 & giv+ ) ! e>?y bases salts ( ! =mula 7,c#be;,h#cb,,no#be,m#d71 :i* are precipitat$ by alcohol f _! aque\s solution 9 ! =m ( bright yell[ flocks t dry to a yell[ p[d]4 ,dilute ,alkalis4--,! action ( boil+ dilute solutions ( ! cau/ic alkalis ^u ! ligno-celluloses is simil> to t ( ! dilute acids1 viz41 purely hydrolytic1 caus+ no ess5tial *ange 9 ! composition ( ! fibre sub/ance4 ,wat] at ,high ,temp]atures4--,! ligno-celluloses und]go a pr(\nd modification :5 heat$ ) wat] at elevat$ temp]atures4 ,!y are to a great ext5t conv]t$ into soluble products1 ( :i* a l>ge proportion are ! volatile bodies1 acetic & =mic acids & furfural4 ,! residual fibre is f\nd to be m or less dis9tegrat$1 & ( a d>k-br[n col\r1 b pres]v+ _m ( ! *emical features ( ! orig9al4 ,a simil> dis9tegration is caus$ by expos+ ! ligno-celluloses 9 a dry /ate to an atmosph]e ( sup]heat$ /eam1 ! effect be+ mu* increas$ if ! ligno-cellulose be previ\sly blea*$ by any ( ! ord9>y #bb processes1 i4e41 "u oxidis+ conditions4 ,9 ^! decompositions oxidation1 z well z hydration1 plays an important "p4 ,x is f\nd t ! pres5ce ( small quantities ( r$uc+ ag5ts1 e4g41 sulphites1 ex]ts a rem>kable effect 9 ret>d+ & (t5 entirely prev5t+ ^! *anges4 ,x is probable t !y act 9 obviat+ an initial *ange1 :i*1 ) a cumulative reaction on ! fibre1 effects ! pr(\nd resolutions above describ$4 7,see p4 #ga47 ,conc5trat$ ,hydro*loric ,acid4--,:5 expos$ to ! conc5trat$ aque\s acid at ord9>y temp]atures1 ligno-cellulose und]goes a pr(\nd /ructural modification1 & is l>gely conv]t$ into soluble bodies4 ,! dis9tegrat$ residue reacts ) *lor9e simil>ly to ! orig9al jute1 b ! quantity ( cellulose isolat$ by subsequ5t treatm5t ) alkal9e solutions is only #ej p] c5t4 ( ! orig9al4 ,s9ce jute cellulose1 aft] isolation1 exhibits "u simil> treatm5t a mu* small] conv]sion into soluble products1 #aj p] c5t4 z comp>$ ) #cc1 we h "h fur!r evid5ce t ! cellulose is pres5t 9 ! fibre 9 a condition *emically diff]5t f t ( ! isolat$ cellulose4 ,sulphuric ,acid4--,on triturat+ ! fibre ) ! conc5trat$ acid1 x dissolves to a br[ni%-purple solution2 on p\r+ ?is solution into wat]1 a sub/ance is precipitat$ 9 d>k-br[n flocks2 :5 dri$ x has ! foll[+ composition3 ,c #fdd ,h #dd ,o #cab ,! solution yields on di/illation furfural & acetic acid4 ,nitric & ,sulphuric ,acids4--7#a 3 #b by vol47--,by ! action ( ^! acids ligno-cellulose is conv]t$ into yell[-col\r$ explosive comp\nds1 pres]v+ all ! ext]nal features ( ! orig9al fibre1 & %[+ a close resemblance to ! pyroxyl9s4 ,! increase 9 weight result+ f ! fixation ( ! #bc nitric acid residue is approximately equal to t ( cotton 8nitrat$0 "u ! same conditions4 ,!y are freely soluble 9 acetone4 ,on exam9ation !y prove to be homog5e\s4 ,if ! fibre be w>m$ ) ! mixture aft] ! fir/ reaction is complet$1 x dissolves4 ,! solution is f\nd to conta9 oxalic1 succ9ic1 & sub]ic acids1 b no aromatic nitro-d]ivatives1 :]eas if ligno-cellulose conta9 a b5z5e nucleus1 z has be5 suppos$1 su* d]ivatives c\ld n fail to be =m$ "u ^! conditions4 ,animal ,dige/ion ( ,ligno-cellulose4--,x has long be5 kn[n t ! ur9e ( h]bivor\s animals conta9s hippuric acid1 or b5zoyl glycoc9e1 z a normal con/itu5t1 & x has be5 %[n t ! b5zoyl radicle necess>y to =m ?is body by react+ ) ! glycoc9e ( ! liv]1 is a product ( ! dige/ion ( ligno-cellulose4 ,on ! o!r h&1 x has be5 %[n t ligno-cellulose conta9s no b5z5e comp\nds z su*4 ,we h !re=e1 9 ?is fact additional evid5ce t a portion ( ! complex ligno-cellulose molecule is 9 :at we may t]m a pot5tially aromatic condition4 ,di/ribution ( ,ligno-celluloses4--,z already indicat$1 ! di/ribution ( ! ligno-celluloses is extremely wide2 !y are met ) 9 e v>iety ( vegetable tissue1 & _! pres5ce is readily asc]ta9$ by ! reaction ( *lor9ation already describ$4 ,( ^! ligno-celluloses mo/ closely alli$ to jute1 we may m5tion ! /ony concretions ( pe>s 7glycodrupose7 & ! ma9 tissue ( fir wood 7glycolignose74 ,decay ( ,ligno-cellulose4--,:5 a mass ( ligno-cellulose 7jute7 is all[$ to lie = a long p]iod 9 a damp /ate1 x und]goes resolution accompani$ by /ructural dis9tegration4 ,! soluble products ( ?is *ange are acid bodies ( ! pectic class1 & a/r+5t sub/ances closely resembl+ ! tann9s4 ,9 ?is decomposition also we h evid5ce ( ! pla/ic condition ( ! ligno-cellulose molecule1 ( ! v>iety ( its modes ( resolution1 accord+ to ! v>i\s directions 9 :i* x is attack$4 ,decomposition by ,heat4--,! celluloses burn 9 ! air ) #bd a quiet lum9\s flame4 ,:5 heat$ out ( contact ) ! air1 !y are completely resolv$ into gase\s & volatile products on ! "o h&1 & a residual black mass1 :i*1 al?\gh conta9+ a high p]c5tage ( c>bon1 & approximat+ 9 its prop]ties to ! elem5t itself1 nev]!less conta9s hydrog5 & oxyg5 9 ess5tial *emical union ) ! c>bon1 9 consequ5ce ( :i* x is exp$i5t to apply ! t]m pseudo-c>bon to ?is z to all simil> sub/ances4 ,! volatile products ( ! de/ructive di/illation ( pure cellulose h n be5 /udi$1 b ^? ( c]ta9 ( ! ligno-celluloses 7woods7 h be5 exhau/ively inve/igat$1 & h moreov]1 a v consid]able comm]cial importance4 ,!y divide !mselves into two gr\ps 7a7 soluble 9 wat]1 & conta9+1 besides wat]1 acetic acid1 me?yl alcohol1 me?ylic acetate & acetone2 7b7 insoluble 9 wat]1 or wood t>1 conta9+ toly5e1 xyl5e1 cym5e1 naph?al5e1 *rys5e1 an?rac5e1 ret5e1 pittacal1 c$riret solid p>aff9s1 c4 ,! quantity ( ! pseudo-c>bon 7*>coal7 obta9$ is1 9 ! case ( ! h>d woods1 ab\t #be p] c5t4 ( _! weight4 ,! liquid portion ( ! products am\nt to "s #ej p] c5t41 & conta9s ab\t "o-fif? ( ! c>bon ( ! orig9al wood2 ! rema9d] ( ! c>bon is elim9at$ 9 ! gase\s =m 7,,co1 ,,co#b1 c474 ,! proportion ( acetic acid is #c-d p] c5t41 ! t> am\nt+ to #g-h p] c5t4 ,! coals !mselves may be reg>d$ z pseudo-c>bon d]ivatives ( celluloses1 =m$ by a process ( molecul> cond5sation1 ! true nature ( :i* rema9s a matt] ( speculation4 ,9 ?is view1 ! :ole ( our va/ s]ies ( aromatic or b5z5e comp\nds1 d]iv$ z !y are f ! products ( ! de/ructive di/illation ( coals1 may be trac$ back to a cellulose orig94 ,pseudo-c>bons are obta9$ z products ( ! action ( v>i\s reag5ts ^u ! celluloses1 & o!r ( ! s-call$ c>bo-hydrates4 ,^! reag5ts1 su* z sulphuric acid1 act 9 virtue ( _! dehydrat+ p[]2 & ! recognition ( ?is fact1 toge!r ) ! suppos$ 8c>bonace\s0 #be "* ( ! product1 l$ to ! errone\s conclusion t ! c>bohydrates are 9 su* decompositions simply resolv$ into c>bon & wat]2 a conclusion :i* seems to d]ive additional w>rant f ! peculi> num]ical relation%ip :i* exi/s betwe5 ! ,c1 ,h1 ,o atoms ( all ! memb]s ( ! gr\p4 ,_! relation is express$ 9 ! g5]al =mula ,cn ,h#b7nm7 ,o7nm71 & 9 ! some:at mislead+ t]m c>bohydrate1 :i* is appli$ to ! :ole gr\p4 ,we n[ "k t ! removal ( wat] f ^! bodies by ! action ( dehydrat+ ag5ts--includ+ heat--foll[s ! asc]ta9$ laws ( *emical dehydration1 involv+ molecul> cond5sations & re>rangem5t1 & t ! pseudo-c>bons are ! extreme t]ms ( a s]ies ( su* cond5sations or cumulative resolutions4 ,! matt]1 h[ev]1 is n z yet suffici5tly inve/igat$ to enable u to /ate ) any precis5ess ! me*anism ( ^! *anges4 ,/ill ?is g5]al /atem5t w enable u to avoid _m ( ! errone\s views :i* h exi/$ on ! subject1 & 9 a measure to anticipate ! results ( future inve/igation4#f ,footnote #f3 ,x is wor?y ( m5tion t by ! action ( *lor9e 9 pres5ce ( wat]1 & by ! action ( conc5trat$ nitric acid ^u ! cannel coals1 sub/itution d]ivatives are =m$ resembl+ ^? obta9$ by ! action ( ^! reag5ts respectively ^u ! ligno-celluloses4 ,g5]al conclusions4--,! aldehydic "* ( ! gr\p ( ligno-celluloses is typical ( ! con/itu5ts ( plant tissues g5]ally1 & is1 !re c be no d\bt1 ext5d$ to ! celluloses4 ,inde$ ! evid5ce ( biological obs]vation goes to %[ t ! ligno-celluloses are =m$1 by a process ( *emical modification1 f "s m purely cellulosic tissue1 :i* prec$$ x1 & ) ?is modification !re is1 nev]!less1 a ret5tion ( ! g5]al features ( ! orig9al cellulose4 ,9 ! doma9 ( animal *emi/ry1 rec5t inve/igation has also %[n t ! developm5t ( proteid tissues f9ds its *emical expression 9 _! aldehydic *>act]i/ics1 or z x has be5 put1 ! imm$iate physical cause ( life is to be f\nd 9 ! *emical t5sion ( aldehydes4 ,! mean+ ( ?is expression w be readily grasp$ on #bf ref]5ce to ! prop]ties ( ! aldehydes z a gr\p2 _! p[] ( comb9+ ) oxyg52 ( unit+ by _! own molecules1 to polym]ise2 ( unit+ by way ( dehydration2 ( comb9+ ) ! aromatic alcohols2 a cons5sus ( prop]ties :i* %[s !m to possess an activity surpass+ t ( any o!r gr\p ( comp\nds4 ,! evid5ce ( biology1 add$ to our k ( ! prop]ties ( ^! sub/ances1 w\ld lead u !re=e to def9e cellulose z a cond5s$ aldehyde alli$ to ! sug>s1 & likewise conta9+ alcoholic ,,oh gr\ps2 & ligno-cellulose a comp\nd cellulose1 conta9+ a cellulose nucleus or residue s comb9$ ) c]ta9 gr\ps :i* may be includ$ 9 ! t]m non-cellulose1 t x yields1 "u ! action ( reag5ts1 products belong+ ei!r to ! aromatic1 ! furfural1 or ! fatty gr\p4 ,adipo-cellulose4--,cork or ,cuticul> ,tissue4--,f ! mode ( =mation ( cork & cuticul> tissues1 x has be5 conclud$ t !y are also modifi$ celluloses4 ,! aggregate ultimate composition ( cork is repres5t$ by ! foll[+ p]c5tage numb]s3 ,c #feg ,h #hc ,o #bde ,n #ae ,cork1 h[ev]1 unlike ! jute fibre1 is by no means *emically simple1 b c be resolv$ by ! action ( m]e solv5ts into a numb] ( proximate con/itu5ts1 su* z acids1 a v>iety ( fatty bodies1 nitrog5e\s bodies1 c4 ,cuticul> tissues1 su* z con/itute ! cov]+ ( fruits1 are m simple 9 composition2 ! cuticle ( ! apple aft] purification1 has ! foll[+ p]c5tage composition3 ,c #gcff ,h #aacg ,o #adig ,! cuticul> sub/ance ( cotton1 /raw1 esp>to1 c41 are d\btless simil> bodies4 ,^! numb]s po9t to a #bg rem>kable simil>ity 9 composition to ! fats1 &1 inde$1 f ! results ( 8 /udy ( ?is tissue1 ,frmy conclud$ t x 0 a fat 9 ev]y?+ b its physical prop]ties1 ( :i* we may m5tion insolubility 9 alcohol & 9 e!r1 & infusibility4 ,?is tissue1 h[ev]1 z also cork1 conta9s a cellulose residue1 :i* may be isolat$ by any ( ! me?ods ( treatm5t giv5 = ligno-cellulose4 ,"u ! action ( boil+ nitric acid ^! tissues are resolv$ into cellulose on ! "o h&1 & a s]ies ( fatty acids or products ( _! decomposition1 sub]ic & adipic acids1 c41 on ! o!r2 ! latt] am\nt+ 9 ! case ( cork to #dj p] c5t4 ( ! weight ( ! sub/ance treat$4 ,! cellulose obta9$ by ?is treatm5t is b #b-c p] c5t42 ?is numb]1 h[ev]1 repres5ts only ! am\nt :i* has surviv$ a treatm5t :i* we "k to be de/ructive to cellulose4 ,if1 on ! o!r h&1 cork be resolv$ by treatm5t ) sodium sulphite solution at #ajjlb4 pressure1 or #aff ,c4 7#cca ,f471 a s(t mass is obta9$1 pres]v+ ! /ructural features ( ! orig9al cork1 until subject$ to slight pressure1 :5 x falls to a cellul> mass4 ,f ?is1 cellulose is isolat$ by any ( ! less dra/ic processes above describ$1 & is f\nd to am\nt to #i-aj ( ! orig9al cork4 ,z 9 ligno-cellulose1 we h evid5ce ( a transition f cellulose to ! tann9s1 s 9 cork & cuticul> tissue we h evid5ce ( ! metamorphosis ( cellulose into fats1 a fact indicat$ 9 ! t]m adipo-cellulose1 :i* we h appli$ to ! comp\nd celluloses con/itut+ ^! protective plant tissues4 ,?is metamorphosis is d\btless a v complex process1 & w\ld appe> to involve ! =mation ( tann9s also1 at lea/ z a subsidi>y result4 ,/ill1 ! ess5tial feature ( ! *ange is ! production ( ! peculi> fat-l sub/ances :i* h be5 describ$2 & ) due reg>d to ! limitation po9t$ out1 ! views "h advanc$ repres5t ! results ( ! inve/igations ( ! subject z f> z !y h proce$$4 ,x may be obs]v$ t ! g5]al *>act]i/ics ( ! #bh adipo-celluloses z ( ! ligno-celluloses are ^? ( a complex aldehyde4 ,pecto-,cellulose4--,! comp\nd cellulose describ$ "u ! names adipo-cellulose & ligno-cellulose h ?is feature 9 common1 t !y are ri*] 9 c>bon ?an cellulose4 ,on ! o!r h& !re is a l>ge numb] ( cellulosic tissues :i* conta9 9 ! aggregate less c>bon1 i4e41 9 :i* ! cellulose is comb9$ or mix$ ) sub/ances ( l[] c>bon p]c5tage ?an itself4 ,su* tissues1 or r ! sub/ances :i* compose !m1 are resolv$ by simple treatm5t ) dilute alkal9e solutions into insoluble cellulose1 & soluble bodies ( ! pectic class4 ,?us ! purifi$ ba/ ( ! ,russian flax1 i4e41 ! raw flax1 is f\nd to conta9-- #dcg p] c5t4 ,c4 #ei ,h4 ,on boil+ ) an alkali x loses 9 weight ab\t #bj p] c5t41 ! sub/ance dissolv$ be+ id5tical 9 prop]ties ) ,frmy's pectic acid1 a sub/ance conta9+ #db p] c5t4 ,c & #d4h p] c5t4 ,h ,c#af;,h#bb,o#ae4 ,_m o!r ba/ fibres1 z well z cellulose tissues1 exhibit simil> prop]ties1 & al?\gh ?is bran* ( ! subject has be5 b little inve/igat$1 !re is suffici5t evid5ce = con/itut+ a special class ( comp\nd celluloses "u ?is t]m1 pecto-cellulose1 hav+ prop]ties indicat$ 9 ! type select$ above4 ,9 addition to pectic acid !re exi/s 91 or c readily be obta9$ f c]ta9 plants1 a s]ies ( bodies ( a simil> nature1 su* z pectose1 pect91 p>apectic acid & metapectic acid4 ,! mo/ important ( ^! are pectic acid & metapectic acid4 ,pectic acid1 ?\gh x r>ely exi/s ready-=m$ 9 ! plant1 c readily be obta9$ f x by ! action ( weak alkalis4 ,x is be/ procur$ by boil+ ! pulp ( turnips ) a #aj p] c5t4 solution ( sodium c>bonate = ab\t half an h\r4 ,if an acid be add$ to ! filt]$ liquid1 pectic acid is precipitat$ z a transp>5t col\rless jelly1 :i* #bi dries up to a transp>5t horny mass4 ,by ! prolong$ action ( alkalis or acids1 pectic acid is conv]t$ into metapectic acid 7,c#h;,h#ad,o#i71 :i* may be obta9$ z a syrupy1 /rongly acid liquid4 ,f :at we "k ( ! prop]ties ( ! memb]s ( ! pectic gr\p1 & !re=e ( ! pecto-celluloses1 x w be readily se5 t ! latt] are v liable "u ! action ( alkalis to und]go conv]sion into soluble d]ivatives4 ,conv]sely1 a /udy ( ! action ( alkalis ^u plant sub/ances1 enables u to det]m9e to :at ext5t ! latt] p>take ( ! nature ( ! pecto-cellulose1 ! importance ( :i* to ! practical pap] mak] we ne$ h>dly po9t out4 ,= a fur!r developm5t ( ?is idea 7see p4 #dc74 #cj ,,*apt] ,,ii4 ,,physical ,,/ructure ,,( ,,fibres4 ,we n[ h to treat ( ! fibr\s raw mat]ials f ! po9t ( view ( =m or /ructure1 :i* is1 ( c\rse1 a v important factor 9 det]m9+ ! quality ( ! pap] or o!r fabric into :i* !y are manufactur$4 ,x is suffici5tly evid5t t ! /r5g? ( pap] is prim>ily due to ! cohesion ( its con/itu5t fibres4 ,:5 pap] is torn1 ! edges pres5t a fibr\s appe>ance1 & obs]vation tea*es u t1 o!r ?+s be+ equal1 ! great] ! manife/ation ( fibr\s /ructure ! /rong] w be ! pap]4 ,if a pap] be ?or\ghly wett$1 its t5sile /r5g? is r$uc$ to a m9imum1 & if subject$ to a slight /ra9 we get1 n a te>+1 b a pull+ asund] ( ! fibres4 ,if ?is be p]=m$ "u a l5s1 ! /ructure ( ! pap] is m cle>ly se51 & x w be appreciat$ to :at ext5t ! qualities ( a pap] are ! aggregate ( ! qualities ( its con/itu5t fibres4 ,a m c>eful dissection ( ! pap] %[s t ^! fibres1 :i* are ! ultimate fibres ( ! plant1 z di/+ui%$ f ! bundles ( ^!1 or filam5ts1 :i* ! sp9n] employs1 are int]lac$ 9 all directions4 ,to produce ?is effect ( int]weav+1 & to insure t uni=mity :i* is an ess5tial feature ( good pap]1 we h among o!rs ! foll[+ contributory causes3 7#a7 ! deposition ( ! fibres f susp5sion 9 wat]2 7#b7 ! composition ( ! pulp ) reg>d to ! r$uction ( ! fibr\s bundles1 & ! isolation ( ! individual fibres2 & 7#c7 ! /ructure ( ^! ultimate fibres4 ,x is ) ! la/ t we are *iefly conc]n$ at pres5t4 ,to convey a g5]al notion ( ! influ5ce ( ! /ructure #ca ( fibres ^u fabrics1 we %all ) advantage travel outside our imm$iate prov9ce to consid] briefly ! wooll5 & silk manufactures 9 relation to ?is po9t4 ,wool is1 z we "k1 a discont9u\s fibre1 & its /ructure is t repres5t$ 9 ,fig4 #a1 ! mo/ conspicu\s feature be+ its brok5 surface1 consi/+ app>5tly ( imbricat$ scales4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #a4 ,! silk fibre1 on ! o!r h&1 is a dual cyl9d]1 spun by ! worm 9 a cont9u\s l5g?1 & ) a p]fectly smoo? surface4 ,n[1 x w\ld n be to our purpose to po9t out t 9 />t+ f a discont9u\s simple fibre1 to produce a cont9u\s1 !re=e necess>ily comp\nd "o1 a v diff]5t treatm5t or process ( sp9n+ is requir$ f t :i* ! opposite condition r5d]s practicable4 ,we w r consid] ! influ5ce ( /ructure ^u mat]ials manufactur$ f ^! fibres4 ,x is obvi\s t ! wool fibres1 br\ght into contact ) "o ano!r1 t5d to int]lock2 :]eas silk fibres if rubb$ or press$ toge!r1 simply slide ov] "o ano!r2 ! result 9 ! fabric is by multiplication ( ! effect1 a %r9k+ or contract+ 9 l5g? & bread?4 ,?is int]action ( ! fibres1 & ! ph5om5a to :i* x gives rise1 is kn[n z ! felt+ ( wool & wooll5 goods2 ?is t5d5cy1 = ! contr>y reason1 is n se5 9 silk fabrics4 ,! production ( pap] f a dis9tegrat$ fibr\s mass or pulp introduces simil> consid]ations4 ,t pap] w be ! /rong] 9 :i* ! con/itu5t fibres are ! bett] felt$1 & ! degree 9 :i* felt+ takes place w dep5d to a great ext5t ^u ! =m or microscopic peculi>ities ( ! fibres4 ,?is is only "o ( ! m obvi\s inf]5ces to be drawn f ! /ructure ( fibres to ! qualities ( ! pap]s :i* !y compose4 ,o!r #cb equally important practical be>+s w be se5 to atta* to ! microscopic /udy ( our fibr\s raw mat]ials1 & to ! consid]ation ( ?is bran* ( ! subject1 we n[ ask ! c>eful att5tion ( ! /ud5t4 ,,microscopical ,,exam9ation4--,"u ! head ( 8,microscopic ,features0 we mu/ include ev]y?+ :i* has to d ) ! /ructure ( ! vegetable fibres1 z well z _! organisation & di/ribution 9 ! plant4 ,9 ! analysis ( 8organis$0 /ructures we employ ! two me?ods4 7#a7 ( dissection2 7#b7 exam9ation by means ( ! microscope2 9 o!r words1 we fir/ isolate ! "p "u inve/igation by a me*anical process & !n proce$ to ! optical resolution or analysis ( ! "p4 ,hav+ by analysis acquir$ a k ( ! p>ts1 we /udy _! mutual relations 9 ! /ructure !y compose--we integrate our k1 s to speak--by means ( sections ( ! /ructure1 cut s z to pres]ve ! cohesion ( ! p>ts 9 section1 & yet 9 s f9e a film z to appe> "u ! microscope to be virtually a plane surface4 ,^! po9ts are illu/rat$ 9 ! draw+s giv54 ,x is impossible = u to deal specially ) ! subject ( ! microscope & its manipulation4 ,! microscope1 z a reveal] ( natural wond]s is "o ?+2 z an in/rum5t ( sci5tific discov]y1 q ano!r4 ,= ! latt]1 ! /ud5t mu/ tra9 himself by sy/ematic "w1 & %\ld especially conc5trate 8 att5tion ^u "s "o bran* ( natural hi/ory1 h[ev] re/rict$4 ,we %all assume1 9 our treatm5t ( ! subject1 a k ( ! microscope z an in/rum5t ( rese>*1 su* z c be easily acquir$ 9 a few weeks ( "w "u ! guidance ( a tea*] or ( "o ( ! excell5t manuals :i* n[ ab\nd4 ,we also assume a c]ta9 acqua9tance ) ! elem5ts ( vegetable physiology1 :i* x w be se5 is necess>y = a full grasp ( ! subject4 ,su* an acqua9tance1 also1 may be easily acquir$1 "u direction1 9 a few weeks ( "w4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #b4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #c4 ,we h be=e allud$ to ! diff]5ces pres5t$ by #cc mono & dicotyl$on\s /ems 9 reg>d to ! di/ribution ( _! fibr\s con/itu5ts4 ,9 illu/ration ( ?is1 we may cite ,figs4 #b1 #c1 :i* repres5t1 7#b7 a section ( ! aloe1 7#c7 a section ( ! jute plant4 ,! available fibres are 9 7#b7 ! fibro-vascul> bundles 7f71 :i* are irregul>ly di/ribut$ ?r\gh\t ! ma9 mass ( cellul> tissue1 & #cd 9 7#c7 ! ba/ fibres 7f71 :i* con/itute a def9ite & sep>ate tissue4 ,we h already allud$ to ! practical consequ5ces ( ?is typical diff]5ce ( di/ribution1 9 reg>d to processes ( sep>at+ ^! fibres on ! l>ge scale4 ,?is process we h expla9$ is necess>ily simpl] 9 ! case ( a fibr\s tissue1 def9itely localis$2 & ?is may be demon/rat$ by a sup]ficial exam9ation ( a "y bran* ( an exog54 ,z we "k1 ! b>k tissues are easily /ripp$ f ! und]ly+ wood4 ,if n[ we "w up ! =m] 9 a mort>1 ) a little wat]1 we soon p]ceive ! sep>ation ( ! comp\nd tissue into cellul> matt] on ! "o h& & fibres1 ! latt] be+ m or less long & silky1 accord+ to ! plant f :i* isolat$4 ,!y v>y 9 l5g? f "o millimetre to sev]al c5timetres1 & are aggregat$ toge!r 9 ! plant 9 su* a way z to con/itute bundles1 (t5 ( v consid]able l5g?2 ! g5]al arrangem5t be+ comp>able ) t ( ! tiles 9 ! ro( ( a h\se4 ,x is important to di/+ui% ! fibre-bundles f ! elem5t>y or normal fibres1 & to ?is end !y are designat$ by ! t]m filam5t4 ,ba/ fibres are flexible & fusi=m1 t]m9at+ gradually 9 a po9t at ei!r end1 z repres5t$ 9 ,fig4 #d2 ba/ filam5ts1 built up ( ^! fibres1 conta9+ (t5 z _m z twelve 9 ! bundle1 are usually cyl9drical1 b exhibit ! wide/ diff]5ces 9 reg>d to ! aggregation1 9 degree z well z numb] ( _! con/itu5ts4 ,x is obvi\s t :ile ! sp9n] has to d ) ^! filam5ts1 ! pap] mak] works up ! ultimate fibre con/itu5ts or fibres4 ,x is also an obvi\s coroll>y f ?is di/9ction t a fibr\s mat]ial :i* f 8weakness0 is unavailable = textile application1 may yet be p]fectly 8/rong0 f ! pap] mak]'s po9t ( view2 9 o!r words1 ! individual fibres may be /rong1 b h little cohesion 9 ! filam5ts4 ,z we proce$1 ! /ud5t w see m & m ! practical be>+s ( ?is bran* ( ! /udy1 & w p]ceive ! inf]5ces to be drawn f ! inve/igation ( #ce m9ute relation%ips to manufactur+ processes & _! products4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #d4 ,we %all say b little z to ! necess>y equipm5t4 7#a7 ,a dissect+ microscope1 = dissect+ "u a l5s1 magnify+ ! object to #dj or #ej diamet]s4 7#b7 ,an ord9>y /ud5t's microscope ) l5ses = magnify+ to #ajj & #cjj diamet]s4 ,?is is adequate to ! "w1 ?\gh ( c\rse1 x may be an advantage 9 c]ta9 cases1 to be provid$ ) high] p[]s4 7#c7 ,a glass slide1 c>ry+ an engrav$ scale ( c5timetres & millimetres = measur+ ! l5g?s ( objects1 & a micromet]1 divid$ into #a_/aj mm4 = measur+ diamet]s4 ,x is also important to be able to det]m9e ! degree ( enl>gem5t "u any p>ticul> comb9ation ( l5ses1 & = ?is purpose to possess a micromet] eye-piece1 ) a millimetre scale divid$ into hundr$?s4 7#d7 ,an effective microtome & ! usual m\nt+ accessories4 ,a v important feature 9 ! diagnosis ( fibres1 m especially 9 reg>d to ! composition ( ! fibre sub/ances1 is ! effect produc$ by treatm5t ) v>i\s reag5ts4 ,c]ta9 ( ^! reactions we h already #cf indicat$4 ,we %all n[ give ! details ( composition ( ! sev]al solutions :i* w be requir$4 ,neutral ,m\nt+ ,solutions4--,x is advantage\s 9 m\nt+ transp>5t objects to employ a solution ( ! same refractive p[] z ! sub/ance itself4 ,= ?is purpose1 pure glyc]9 or a syrupy solution ( calcium *loride may be employ$2 x is exp$i5t to mix ) ei!r reag5t a small proportion ( acetic acid4 ,! designation 8neutral0 has ref]5ce to ! fact t ^! reag5ts are )\t s5sible action on ! fibres4 ,iod9e ,solution4--,we h previ\sly describ$ ! prep>ation ( a solution1 giv+ ! *>act]i/ic blue reaction ) cellulose directly4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 (t5 pref]able to br+ ab\t ?is col\ration 9 ano!r way1 & ! foll[+ are ! solutions employ$3--#a gramme ( potassium iodide is dissolv$ 9 #ajj cc4 wat]1 & ! solution is saturat$ ) iod9e2 x is pres]v$ 9 /opp]$ bottles1 conta9+ a few fragm5ts ( ! elem5t1 s z to keep up ! saturation ( ! solution4 ,! accessory solution1 dilute sulphuric acid1 :i* is employ$ to det]m9e ! reaction betwe5 ! cellulose & ! iod9e1 is prep>$ z foll[s3--#b volumes ( conc5trat$ glyc]9 are mix$ ) #a volume wat]1 & to ! mixture an equal volume ( oil ( vitriol 7#agh sp4 gr471 is sl[ly add$1 s z to prev5t z f> z possible a rise ( temp]ature4 ,! effect ( ! glyc]9 is v rem>kable 9 prev5t+ ! di/ortion ( ! objects "u ! action ( ! acid1 :i* 9 o!r respects rema9s un9flu5c$4 ,by way ( v]ification ( ?is iod9e te/1 :i* is some:at caprici\s1 x is advisable to te/ ! reag5ts ) a /&>d sub/ance4 ,! be/ = ! purpose is a l95 y>n :i* has be5 p>tially blea*$4 ,"u ! action ( ! reag5ts ! fibres compos+ ?is y>n1 :i* mu/1 ( c\rse1 be suitably 8teaz$ out0 = m\nt+1 are col\r$ a light blue1 ! c5tre1 h[ev]1 %[+ a yell[ l9e1 #cg m>k+ ! di/ribution 9 ! int]ior canal ( a non-cellulose fibre con/itu5t4 ,%\ld ^! effects n appe>1 x may be conclud$ t ! acid requires to be /r5g!n$4 ,on ! o!r h&1 too great a conc5tration is equally to be avoid$2 x is evid5c$ by caus+ a di/ortion ( ! fibre1 easily recognis$ by comp>ison ) ! fibre m\nt$ 9 a neutral m$ium4 ,*lor9e ,wat]4--,"o ( ! mo/ *>act]i/ic reactions ( lignose1 or lignifi$ cellulose1 is t ( comb9+ ) *lor9e4 ,! reaction ( ! *lor9at$ d]ivatives ) sodium sulphite solution1 is an important feature 9 ! microscopic diagnosis ( lignifi$ fibres & cells4 ,! reag5t is prep>$ by dissolv+ *lor9e to saturation 9 wat]4 ,! sodium sulphite solution is prep>$ by dissolv+ ! cry/allis$ salt 9 #bj p>ts di/ill$ wat]4 ,anil9e ,sulphate ,solution4--,) ?is reag5t lignose gives a *>act]i/ic deep yell[ col\ration4 ,a conv5i5t /r5g? is a #b p] c5t4 solution ( ! salt4 ,! col\r is m quickly develop$ if ! reag5t is acidifi$2 a few drops ( sulphuric acid %\ld !re=e be add$4 ,solutions ( ! ,anil9e ,col\rs4--,"s ( ^! are ( importance 9 enabl+ ! microscopi/ to diff]5tiate plant tissues4 ,! 8aff9ities0 ( ! fibre sub/ances = ^! are v v>i\s 9 k9d & int5sity4 ,! ph5om5a ( /a9+ _c be adequately treat$ 9 our hi/ological s*eme1 :i* is necess>ily v re/rict$4 ,we1 !re=e1 m]ely m5tion ! m important col\rs :i* are us$ 9 /a9+1 viz41 mag5ta1 me?yl5e blue1 eos9e1 diph5ylam9e blue4 ,a conv5i5t /r5g? is a solution ( #a 9 #bjjj4 7,see also p4 #dc47 ,! employm5t ( ! anil9e sulphate solution1 z well z ( ! solutions ( ! anil9e col\rs1 pres5ts no difficulties1 & !re=e ne$s no detail$ description4 ,! =m] /rikes a m or less deep yell[ ) lignose2 ! anil9e col\rs /a9 or dye ! tissue or fibre m or less deeply1 accord+ to its composition1 &1 z x is a reciprocal action1 #ch accord+ also to ! composition ( ! col\r+ matt]4 ,9 foll[+ up ?is subject1 ! /ud5t w require to consult works on vegetable hi/ology4 ,prep>ation ( ! objects4--,! necess>y prelim9>y to ! exam9ation ( ! fibres !mselves is _! isolation4 ,?is is accompli%$ ei!r by means ( ! dissect+ microscope1 or m r\ghly1 accord+ to circum/ances4 ,hav+ obta9$ ! filam5ts1 !y are boil$ 9 a #aj p] c5t4 solution ( sodium c>bonate until suffici5tly s(t5$ to yield easily to ! 8teaz+0 ne$les4 ,9 c]ta9 cases ! boil+ mu/ be supplem5t$ by trituration 9 a mort>2 ?is1 or "s simil> op]ation1 is especially necess>y :5 ! fibres are emb$d$ 9 a mass ( cellul> tissue 7p>5*yma7 e4 g4 9 ! fibro-vascul> bundles ( monocotyl$ons4 ,sections ( ! filam5ts are prep>$ by cutt+ 9 a microtome1 ! filam5ts be+ previ\sly agglut9at$ into a /iff bundle by means ( any ( ! usual /iff5+ solutions1 & aft] dry+1 emb$d$ 9 wax 9 ! usual way4 ,sections ( fre% /ems & tissues are cut ) a 8section0 razor4 ,hav+ prep>$ ! objects1 _! exam9ation "u ! microscope necess>ily divides itself into3--7#a7 ! det]m9ation ( ext]nal features2 7#b7 ! diagnosis ( *emical composition4 ,! fibres !mselves w be individually consid]$ 9 reg>d to microscopic features4 ,!re is "o aspect ( ^! /ructural features1 h[ev]1 :i* admits ( m g5]al treatm5t1 & 9 respect to ?is we may anticipate ) advantage1 viz41 ! dim5sions or simple elem5ts ( =m4 ,! importance ( ! det]m9ation ( ! l5g? & diamet] ( bo? filam5ts & fibres w be readily appreciat$ by an inspection ( ! foll[+ table1 9 :i* ! numb]s are giv5 = sev]al ( ! m important4 ,a c>eful /udy ( ?is table 9 relation to ! application ( ^! sev]al fibres1 w %[ t ! correlation ( ! latt] ) ^! ultimate dim5sions is close & ess5tial4 #ci ,,table ,,( ,,l5g?s ,,( ,,raw ,,fibres 7,,filam5ts7 ,,& ,,dim5sions ,,( ,,con/itu5t ,,cells ,,& ,,fibres4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------- ,diamet] ( ,cells4 ,l5g? ( ,l5g? ( -------------------- ,filam5t4 ,fibres4 ,extreme4 ,normal4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- --------- cm4 cm4 #a_/ajjmm4 #a_/ajjmm4 ,a4 ,se$ hairs4 ,filam5ts compos$ ( individual cells4 ,cottons4 ,gossypium b>bad5se 7,sea ,isl&7 #dje #dje #aib-bgi #beb ,gossypium acum9atum #bhd #bhd #bja-bii #bid ,gossypium arboreum #bej #bej #bjj-cgh #bii ,bombax heptaphyllum #b-c #b-c #ai-bi 44 ,b4 ,ba/ fibres4 ,filam5ts or fibre bundles1 made up ( individual fibre-cells aggregat$ toge!r4 ,flax4 ,l9um usitatissimum #bjadj #bj-dj #ab-be #af ,hemp4 ,cannabis sativa #ajj-cjj 44 #ae-bh #ah ,*9a ,grass4 ,boehm]ia nivea 44 #bbj #dj-hj #ej ,ramie4 ,boehm]ia t5acissima 44 #hj #af 44 ,jute4 ,cor*orus capsul>is #aej-cjj #h #aj-bj #af ,cor*orus olitorius #aej-cjj #h #af-cb #bj ,pap] mulb]ry4 ,br\ssonetia papyrif]a 44 #g-ba 44 #cf ,l9d5 ba/4 ,tilia gr&ifolia 44 #aa-bf 44 #ae ,c4 ,fibro-vascul> bundles ,new ,zeal& ,flax4 ,phormium t5ax #hj-aaj #be-ef #h-ai #ac ,aloe4 ,aloe p]foliata #dj-ej #ac-cg #ae-bd 44 ,esp>to4 ,/ipa t5acissima #aj-dj #je-ai #i-ae 44 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- --------- ,a v important po9t 9 ! diagnosis ( a raw mat]ial1 & next 9 ord] ( treatm5t1 is ! degree ( purity ( ! sub/ance1 9 s f> z ?is is relat$ to /ructure4 ,! fibres may be associat$ ) cellul> tissue1 or ) cellul> debris1 if !y h und]gone ! rett+ process or o!r treatm5t = sep>ation2 or ) 8encru/+ & int]cellul> sub/ances0 9 v>i\s proportions4 ,9 ! latt] case ! association ) ! fibres is usually mu* m intimate2 !y are 9 fact ess5tial con/itu5ts ( ! fibre bundles #dj 7ba/-fibres1 fibro-vascul> bundles71 :]eas ! =m] we may reg>d z 8=eign matt]40 ,we may1 h[ev]1 di/+ui% betwe5 ! normal incru/ation ( ! fibre-cells1 & su* an incru/ation ( ! filam5ts z w\ld be describ$ z a loose adhesion ( non-fibr\s matt]4 ,! latt] is se5 9 su* tissues z ! ba/ ( ! adansonia1 & ! fibro-vascul> bundles ( ! aloes4 ,^! are po9ts ) :i* obs]vation alone c famili>ise ! /ud5t2 z exp]i5ce gr[s he w f9d x increas+ly easy to foll[ g5]al di/9ctions1 & 9 proportion z he uses 8 own faculties1 s he w be able to g5]alise = himself4 ,he w f9d ?is equally true ( ! second section ( ! microscopic exam9ation1 i4e41 ! micro-*emical diagnosis ( fibres4 ,"u ?is head is includ$ ! obs]vation ( ! behavi\r ( fibres t[>ds ! v>i\s reag5ts above describ$4 ,9 addition to _! microscopical employm5t x is useful to note _! effect on fibres 9 ! gross1 bo? 9 _! natural /ate & aft] treatm5t ) blea*+ ag5ts4 ,9 apply+ ! iod9e reaction1 att5tion mu/ be paid to ! foll[+ details ( manipulation4 ,place ! object 7dry7 ^u ! glass slide1 moi/5 ) a few drops ( ! iod9e solution1 cov] ) a glass slip & exam9e "u ! microscope4 ,note ! effects1 :i* are ^? ( ! iod9e alone4 ,!n remove ! iod9e solution by means ( blott+ pap]1 & introduce ! sulphuric acid by ! me?od ( 8irrigation40 ,! col\ration ( ! cellulose 7blue-violet7 is imm$iate2 x has ! effect moreov]1 ( br++ out m cle>ly a numb] ( ! /ructural details ( ! fibre4 ,we h already treat$ ( ! resolution ( ! raw fibres into cellulose & non-cellulose con/itu5ts by processes :i* conv]t ! latt] into soluble d]ivatives4 ,! /ud5t w d]ive mu* in/ruction f foll[+ up ! att5dant /ructural dis9tegration ) ! aid ( ! microscope4 ,! *emical dissection ( lignifi$ fibres by ! alt]nate action ( brom9e wat] & alkalis1 %\ld be /udi$ by m\nt+ specim5s ( ! fibre at all /ages & #da c>efully not+ all ! *anges :i* occur4 ,! m dra/ic action ( *lor9e %\ld also be /udi$ by m\nt+ ! *lor9at$ fibre 79 wat]7 & !n irrigat+ ) ! alkal9e solv5t 7cau/ic alkali or sulphite7 & not+ ! /ages 9 ! completion ( ! dis9tegration4 #db ,,*apt] ,,iii4 ,,s*eme ,,= ,,! ,,diagnosis ,,& ,,*emical ,,analysis ,,( ,,plant ,,sub/ances4 ,x w be conv5i5t at ?is po9t to pres5t to ! read] a g5]al s*eme = ! *emical analysis ( fibr\s raw mat]ial4 ,we h already discuss$ 7p4 #d7 ! me?ods = ! det]m9ation ( cellulose 9 fibr\s sub/ances4 ,?is is to ! pap]-mak] ! mo/ important con/itu5t1 & is t ^u :i* 8 calculations ( ! value ( a raw mat]ial are bas$4 ,n only1 h[ev]1 is x ( ! greate/ importance = him to be able accurately to det]m9e ! am\nt ( cellulose1 b x is necess>y to be able to =m "s idea ( ! nature ( ! cellulose & also ! ease ) :i* x c be obta9$ f ! fibre4 ,?is latt] po9t c only be prop]ly e/abli%$ by direct trial ( ! fibre "u ! conditions exi/+ 9 ! factory4 ,x %\ld also be borne 9 m9d t ^! conditions influ5ce to a consid]able degree ! am\nt ( cellulose1 actually obta9$ 9 practice1 & t !re=e ! p]c5tage %[n by a c>eful det]m9ation 9 ! laboratory %\ld only be tak5 z an indication ( ! am\nt likely to be realiz$4 ,! /ud5t w be able1 f :at has be5 said be=e ( ! prop]ties ( ! diff]5t celluloses1 to apply 8 k to a det]m9ation ( any p>ticul> specim54 ,9 ord] to supplem5t ?is k1 x may be well at ?is p>ticul> po9t to cite ! *ief results ( an inve/igation be>+ ^u ?is po9t by ,web/] 7,*em4 ,soc4 ,j\rn41 #ahhc1 p4 #bc74 ,8 me?od ( inve/igation consi/$ 9 7#a7 e/imat+ #dc ! cellulose2 7#b7 det]m9+ ! loss su/a9$ by ! fibre :5 boil$ = #e m9utes1 & also = #fj m9utes1 ) an alkal9e solution 7cau/ic soda #a p] c5t4 ,na#b,o71 ! =m] be+ tak5 to repres5t ! purely solv5t action1 ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! two am\nts be+ an indication ( ! degrad+ action ( ! soda2 7#c7 det]m9+ ! ultimate composition 7,c ,h & ,o7 ( ! fibre sub/ance4 ,x %\ld be obs]v$ t ! specim5s 7 c>efully av]ag$ & purifi$ by boil+ 9 glacial acetic acid & 9 alcohol4 ,on c>efully consid]+ ! foll[+ table x w be se5 t ! *ief po9ts br\ght out by ,web/]'s inve/igation are 7#a7 ! association ( a l[ c>bon p]c5tage ) pect\s prop]ties & consid]able degrad+ action on long boil+ 9 alkali4 ,! be>+ ( ?is w be bett] und]/ood 9 connection ) a discussion ( ! prop]ties ( pectic acid 7p4 #bh7 & ! oxycelluloses 7p4 #ac74 7#b47 ,! influ5ce ( ! composition ( ! orig9al fibre on ! isolat$ cellulose4 ,! solutions ( anil9e sulphate & ( ! anil9e col\rs give valuable aid 9 a diagnosis ( plant sub/ances4 ,web/] obs]v$1 z 0 to be expect$1 t ! yell[ col\r produc$ c\ld be tak5 z an indication ( ! am\nt ( lignification1 ^? fibres :i* 7 ( a pect\s nature %[+ little or no col\r4 ,on ! o!r h&1 :5 ! fibres 7 treat$ ) a neutral solution ( ! s-call$ alkali-blue x 0 f\nd t ! conv]se took place1 highly pect\s fibres be+ dy$ mu* m deeply ?an ^? :i* 7 lignifi$4 7,comp>e ! action ( anil9e col\rs on oxycellulose1 p4 #aa47 ,if ! /ud5t require m precise k ( ! nature ( a fibr\s mat]ial ?an t af=d$ by a det]m9ation ( ! cellulose1 ! foll[+ me?od ( analysis w prove ( s]vice4 #dd ,,fibro-,,vascul> ,,bundles ,,( ,,monocotyl$on\s ,,plants4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- -------- ,ananassa ,musa ,phormium ,agave ,yucca sativa p>adisiaca t5ax ,am]icana4 gloriosa4 7,p9e ,apple47 7,manilla74 7,new ,zeal& ,flax74 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- -------- #a4 ,yield ( cellulose #hab #hjh #gfc #fbh #hfc by *lor9e me?od #b4 ,"* ( ,fibres free4,fibres free4 ,fibres ,fibres ,fibres isolat$ cellulose agglut9at$4agglut9at$4 p>tially agglut9at$4 #c4 ,loss 9 boil+ #a #ii #ade #if #ahf #eh p] c5t4 cau/ic soda 7#e m9utes7 #d4 ,ditto 7#fj m9utes7 #adf #afe #aij #cag #ii #e4 ,a% #aj #ac #aj #af #ji #f4 ,elem5t>y ,c4 #dei 44 #dbe #dbf #ddd composition ,h4 #fa 44 #ef #ef #ei #g4 ,lignifi$ or ,lignifi$4 ,lignifi$4 ,lignifi$4 ,lignifi$4 ,lignifi$4 o!rwise4 ,anil9e sulphate reaction ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- -------- ,,ba/ ,,fibres ,,( ,,dicotyl$on\s ,,plants4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,urtica ,crotol>ia ,l9um ,cor*orus ,boehm]ia het]ophylla juncea ,hibiscus usitatissimum capsul>is ,puya4 7,nilgh]ry 7,sunn74 /rictus4 7,flax74 7,jute74 ,nettle74 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- -------------------- #a4 ,yield ( cellulose #hch #iej #gfi #fcj #hbj #gej by *lor9e me?od #b4 ,"* ( ,fibres ,fibres free4,fibres free4 ,fibres ,fibres free4 ,fibres free4 isolat$ cellulose p>tially p>tially agglut9at$4 agglut9at$4 #c4 ,loss 9 boil+ #a #aef #bf #ec #acg #gh #agb p] c5t4 cau/ic soda 7#e m9utes7 #d4 ,ditto 7#fj m9utes7 #bda #gc #ajg #bee #aff #ahf #e4 ,a% #cg #aj #ji #bj #ag #aa #f4 ,elem5t>y ,c4 #dah #dbi 44 44 #dcg #dga composition ,h4 #fj #ei 44 44 #ei #ei #g4 ,lignifi$ or ,n ,n ,lignifi$4 ,lignifi$4 ,n ,lignifi$4 o!rwise4 ,anil9e lignifi$4 lignifi$4 lignifi$4 sulphate reaction ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,ab\t two grms4 are tak5 & dri$ at #aaj-aae ,c4 until ! weight rema9s con/ant3 ! loss repres5ts wat]4 ,! fibre is !n treat$ ) a hot mixture ( b5z5e & alcohol1 dri$ z be=e & weigh$3 ! loss is fat1 wax1 #de c4 ,! residue f ?is treatm5t is !n repeat$ly exhau/$ ) boil+ wat] & aga9 dri$ at #aaj-aae ,c4 & weigh$3 ! loss is put d[n z aque\s extract4 ,! exhau/$ fibre is !n treat$ = cellulose by ei!r ( ! me?ods giv5 on p4 #ai4 ,! a% is det]m9$ 9 a sep>ate portion4 #df ,,*apt] ,,iv4 ,,an ,,acc\nt ,,( ,,! ,,*emical ,,& ,,physical ,,*>act]i/ics ,,( ,,! ,,pr9cipal ,,raw ,,mat]ials4 ,?is *apt] conta9s ! results obta9$ f an inve/igation ( ! diff]5t plant fibres by ! me?ods indicat$ 9 ! two previ\s *apt]s4 ,9 ! foll[+ table ! fibres are classifi$ accord+ to ! reactions :i* !y give ) iod9e solution4 ,,classification ,,( ,,plant ,,fibres ,,accord+ ,,to ,,_! ,,col\r ,,reaction ,,) ,,iod9e ,,solution 7,v,,till>t74 ,a4 ,b4 ,c4 ,se$ ,hairs4 ,dicotyl$on\s ,monocotyl$on\s ,ba/ ,fibres4 ,fibres correspond+ to ,ba/ ,fibres4 ,blue reaction ,cotton4 ,l954 ,/raw4 ,hemp4 ,esp>to4 ,*9a grass4 ,p9e apple4 ,pap] mulb]ry ,sunn4 ,yell[ reaction ,jute4 ,new ,zeal& flax4 ,yucca4 ,hibiscus4 ,aloe4 ,manilla hemp4 ,class ,a4 ,,cotton4--,g5us1 ,gossypium4 ,ord]1 ,malvace4 ,se$ hairs1 consi/+ ( ultimate fibres4 ,l5g?1 #bj-dj c4m41 diamet]1 #jjab-jjcg mm4 ,mean ratio1 #abej4 ,illu/rat$ 9 ,fig4 #e3 a1 sections2 b1 longitud9al views2 c1 ends2 mag4 #cjj4 ,microscopic features4--,fibres simple1 opaque1 flatt5$1 always m or less twi/$ ^u itself1 side wall membran\s1 %[+ /ri4 #dg ,sections4--,simple1 oval1 irregul>1 c5tral cavity (t5 conta9+ granules4 ,micro-*emical reaction4--,blue ) iod9e solution4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #e4 ,g5]al *emical *>act]i/ic4--,pure cellulose basis ) slight admixture ( col\r+ matt]s1 c4 ,,composition ,,( ,,raw ,,fibre4 ,*ur*4 ,mll]4 ,cellulose #iaae #iace ,fat #jea #jdj ,aque\s extract 7conta9+ nitrog5e\s sub/ances7 #jfg #jej ,wat] #gef #gjj ,a% #jaa #jab ,cuticul> sub/ance 7by diff]5ce7 44 #jfc ,e4 ,s*unck 9 8 inve/igation ( cotton blea*+ 7,*em4 ,news1 #ag1 p4 #aa7 f9ds t 9 boil+ ) sodium c>bonate solution ! fibre loses #e p] c5t4 9 weight4 ,"s portion ( ! dissolv$ sub/ances is precipitat$ on acidify+ & is f\nd to conta9 a wax1 br[n res9\s & col\r+ matt]s1 & pectic acid4 #dh ,=ms 9 :i* employ$4--,fibr\s refuse f ! decortication ( ! se$s2 sp9n+ wa/e1 ?reads1 rags1 new & old4 ,class ,b4 ,,flax4--,g5us1 ,l9um4 ,ord]1 ,l9ace1 ,ba/ fibres & filam5ts4 ,l5g? ( fibres1 #be-cj mm42 diamet]1 #jjb mm41 ratio1 #abjj4 ,illu/rat$ 9 ,fig4 #f3 a1 sections ( ! fibres1 isolat$ & 9 gr\ps2 b1 ! fibres view$ longitud9ally1 "o %[+ ! creases produc$ by repeat$ b5d+2 c1 ends2 a1 sections ( fibres situat$ ne> ! butt ( ! plant2 mag4 #cjj4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #f4 ,microscopic features4--,fibres transp>5t1 regul>1 ) tap]$ ends1 side walls ?ick1 consequ5tly c5tral canal small1 smoo? ext]nally1 sometimes slightly /riat$4 ,filam5ts easily split up into fibres4 ,sections4--,polygonal1 regul>1 angles m or less acute1 lum5 repres5t$ by po9t2 slight indications ( conc5tric arrangem5t ( fibre sub/ance4 ,micro-*emical reaction4--,blue ) iod9e solution4 ,g5]al *emical *>act]i/ic4--,pecto-cellulose4 ,composition ( raw fibre4--,?is v>ies ) ! diff]5t species1 & is d\btless also influ5c$ by v>iations 9 ! #di processes ( rett+4 ,! foll[+ are ! analyses ( two samples ( ,belgian flax 7heckl$73-- ,mll]4 ,cellulose #haii #gjee ,fat & wax #bcg #bcd ,aque\s extract #cfb #eid ,pect\s sub/ances #bgb #ibi ,wat] #hfj #ajef ,a% #gj #acb ,! *emi/ry ( ! flax fibre has be5 inve/igat$ by ,kolb4 ,=ms 9 :i* employ$4--,scut*+ refuse1 sp9n+ wa/e1 ?reads1 rags1 new & old4 ,,hemp4--,cannabis sativa4 ,ord]1 ,cannab9ac4 ,ba/ fibres3 l5g?1 #bb mm42 diamet]1 #jjbb mm42 ratio1 #ajjj4 ,illu/rat$ 9 ,fig4 #g3 a1 a1 sections ( gr\ps ( fibres ( ! fir/ & second zone respectively2 b1 fibres se5 longitud9ally2 c1 ends2 mag4 #cjj4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #g4 ,microscopic features4--,compact bundles4 ,fibres %[ /ri & fissures1 & (t5 fibrill1 deta*$ or adh]5t4 ,! c5tral canal almo/ oblit]at$1 ends ( fibres l>ge & flatt5$4 ,! bundles %[ f9e transv]se m>k+s4 #ej ,section4--,well m>k$ conc5tric zones ( fibre sub/ance1 irregul> 9 outl9e4 ,micro-*emical reaction4--,blue & yell[ reaction ) iod9e solution1 ! jo9t result %[+ gre5 col\ration4 ,g5]al *emical *>act]i/ic4--,pecto-cellulose4 ,,composition ,,( ,,raw ,,fibre 7,,italian ,,hemp74 ,mll]4 ,cellulose #ggac ,fat & wax #ee ,aque\s extract #cde ,pect\s sub/ances #ibe ,wat] #hhj ,a% #jhb ,=ms 9 :i* employ$4--,scut*+ refuse1 sp9n+ wa/e1 ?reads1 cutt+s & rope ends4 ,,sunda or ,,sunn ,,hemp4--,g5us1 ,crotal>ia4 ,ord]1 ,papilionace4 ,ba/ filam5ts3 l5g?1 #g-h mm42 diamet]1 #jjc2 ratio1 #bjj 3 #a4 ,microscopic features4--,g5]ally simil> to ^? ( hemp4 ,micro-*emical reactions4--,) iod9e v>i\s1 f blue to yell[4 ,) anil9e sulphate1 slight yell[4 ,g5]al *emical *>act]i/ics4--,pecto-cellulose 7) "s ligno-cellulose74 ,! foll[+ are ! results ( analysis ( ! raw fibre 7,h4 ,mll]73-- ,cellulose #hjja ,fat & wax #ee ,aque\s extract #bhb ,pect\s sub/ances #fda ,wat] #ifj ,a% #jfa ,?is fibre1 export$ f ,india & ! ,sunda ,isl&s1 has f\nd employm5t 9 ,spa9 & ,portugal1 b up to ! pres5t has n be5 adopt$ to any ext5t 9 o!r p>ts ( ,europe4 ,,*9a ,,grass1 ,,rhea1 ,,ramie4--,g5us1 ,bhm]ia4 ,ord]1 ,urticace4 ,ba/ filam5ts3 l5g?1 #abj mm42 diamet]1 #jje2 ratio1 #bdjj 3 #a4 ,illu/rat$ 9 ,fig4 #h3 a1 section ( a #ea bundle ( fibres2 b1 a fibre se5 longitud9ally2 c1 ends2 mag4 #cjj4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #h4 ,microscopic *>act]i/ics4--,irregul> 9 =m & l5g?2 (t5 conspicu\s 9 respect ( latt] 7see ,table1 p4 #ci72 fibre sometimes cyl9drical1 ei!r smoo? or /riat$1 sometimes flatt5$2 c5tral canal well develop$1 (t5 conta9+ granules2 extremities ( fibres r\nd$1 spatulat$ or lance-%ap$4 ,sections m>k$ by num]\s conc5tric lay]s1 (t5 %[+ radiat+ /ri4 ,micro-*emical reaction4--,blue to violet1 ) iod9e solution4 ,g5]al *emical *>act]i/ics4--,pecto-cellulose4 ,composition ( raw fibre 7,h4 ,mll]73-- ,cellulose #gehc #fbej ,fat & wax #bj #jef ,aque\s extract #fbi #igf ,pect\s sub/ances #fjg #abjj ,wat] #hgd #iee ,a% #bhg #efc ,=ms 9 :i* employ$4--,up to ! pres5t ! price has be5 prohibitive4 ,has be5 ! subject ( successful #eb exp]im5ts2 imp>ts great t5sile /r5g? to pap]4 ,! portions available w be z 9 flax4 ,,common ,,nettle4--,urtica dioica4 ,ord]1 ,urticace4 ,ba/ filam5ts3 l5g?1 #bg mm42 diamet]1 #jje2 ratio1 #eej4 ,microscopic *>act]i/ics simil> to ! above4 ,! fibres ( ?is plant 71 9 ! old5 times1 sep>at$ 9 ! same way z flax1 & work$ up into clo?4 ,at pres5t x has no practical int]e/ to ! pap]-mak]1 b des]ves att5tion at ! h& ( ! /ud5t1 z ! mo/ easily accessible = ! purpose ( /udy4 ,x is1 moreov]1 possible t1 "u cultivation1 x may yet become a s\rce ( raw mat]ial = pap]-mak+4 ,,jute4--,cor*orus4 ,ord]1 ,tiliace4 ,ba/3 l5g?1 #b mm42 diamet]1 #jjbb2 ratio1 #ij4 ,illu/rat$ 9 ,fig4 #i3 a1 section ( bundles ( fibres2 b1 fibres se5 longitud9ally2 c1 ends2 mag4 #cjj4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #i4 ,microscopic features4--,compact bundles2 fibres smoo?4 ,micro-*emical reactions4--,yell[ br[n1 ) iod9e2 yell[1 ) anil9e sulphate2 bright yell[1 ) *lor9e wat]2 *ang$ to c>m9e by treatm5t ) sodium sulphite solution4 #ec ,g5]al *emical *>act]i/ic4--,ligno-cellulose4 ,! *emi/ry ( jute z ! type ( ligno-cellulose has be5 treat$ on p4 #ag4 ,composition ( raw fibre 7,mll]73-- ,cutt+s or ,butts4 #a/ ,quality4 7,root ends74 ,cellulose #fcgf #fjhi ,fat & wax #jch #dd ,aque\s extract #ajj #chi ,non-cellulose1 or lign9 #bdcb #bjih ,wat] #ihf #abdj ,a% #fh #adj ,=ms 9 :i* employ$4--,?reads1 butts1 bagg+4 ,,ba/ ,,tissues4--,we h allud$1 9 our op5+ rem>ks1 to ! broad division ( ! ba/ ( exog5 or dicotyl$on\s plants into coh]5t & non-coh]5t tissues4 ,we h n[ consid]$ ! m important ( ! latt]1 & we f9d t !y are obta9$ f ! /ems ( annuals4 ,we f9d also t :ile !y con/itute a tissue1 9 ! s5se ( be+ def9itely localis$1 ! con/itu5t fibres are dispos$ 9 p>allel s]ies ( indep5d5t bundles or filam5ts1 :i* are isolat$ by a me*anical op]ation aft] ! :ole /em has und]gone ! prep>atory rett+ process4 ,9 exog5s ( long] & l>g] gr[?1 ! ba/1 z might be expect$1 becomes a coh]5t comp\nd tissue1 :i* is1 9 _m cases1 easily deta*$ f ! und]ly+ wood4 ,we %all m5tion ?ree ( ^! z receiv+ v important applications2 ?\gh only "o has be5 appli$ to any ext5t by ! pap]mak]s ( ?is c\ntry4 ,?is1 :i* we %all consid] fir/1 is ! ba/ ( ! ,adansonia digitata1 or baobab1 a tree :i* fl\ri%es 9 ! tropical regions ( ! ,we/ ,coa/ ( ,africa4 ,x is export$ *iefly f ,loanga1 9 ! =m ( fibr\s lumps ( a br[n col\r4 ,^! are se5 to be compos$ ( a network ( ba/ bundles1 :i* are b slightly col\r$1 int]sect$ by m$ull>y rays ( a d>k br[n col\r4 ,! microscopic features ( ! fibre are ^? :i* are g5]ally *>act]i/ic ( ! ba/ ( exog5s2 we d n "k t we c\ld cite any :]eby x c\ld be id5tifi$ ) c]ta9ty4 #ed ,! fibres give a yell[ col\ration ) anil9e sulphate1 b !y conta9 only a small proportion ( lignose4 ,! foll[+ are ! results ( analyses ( ?is ba/3-- ,cellulose #dice #ehhbg ,fat & wax #jid #jda ,aque\s extract #aceg #gjh ,pect\s sub/ances #aije #aeai ,wat] #ajij #acah ,a% #fai #dgb ,footnote #g3 ,made up ( #acge cellulose f m$ull>y tissue1 #dejg cellulose ( fibres4 ,l9d5 ,ba/ 7,tilia ,europa7 is ! raw mat]ial employ$ 9 ! manufacture 9 ,russia ( ! mats s l>gely us$ 9 ?is c\ntry = wrapp+ furniture & heavy goods1 & also by g>d5]s = a v>iety ( purposes4 ,"o ( ! features ( ?is ba/ is ! /rong cohesion ( ! fibres 9 ! bundles or filam5ts4 ,!y are resolv$1 b ) difficulty1 on long boil+1 ) a solution ( c>bonate ( soda1 ! soluble products be+ ( a mucilag9\s nature4 ,?is ba/ has n be5 appli$ to any ext5t by ! pap]-mak]s ( ?is c\ntry4 ,ba/ ( ! ,pap] ,mulb]ry 7,br\ssonetia papyrif]a74--,?is product des]ves m5tion1 n f its importance to ! ,european pap]mak]1 b because ( its application to ! manufacture ( ! peculi> pap]s ( ! ,*9ese & ,japanese4 ,! special features ( ?is1 & ! o!r ba/s :i* are simil>ly employ$ 9 ^! c\ntries--,edgwor?ia papyrif]a1 ,br\ssonetia kaempf]ia1 are 7#a71 ! ease ) :i* ! coh]5t fibr\s tissue is sep>at$ f ! p>5*ymat\s tissue :i* accompanies x2 7#b71 its comp>ative fre$om f m$ull>y rays2 7#c71 ! great l5g? & f95ess ( ! fibres4 ,^! prop]ties conduce to its ready conv]sion into a well felt$ pap]1 ( great t5sile /r5g? & rem>kable s(tness4 ,class ,c4--,^! are :ole /ems ( monocotyl$on\s annuals4 ,! isolation ( fibres = pap]-mak+ f ^! plants dep5ds ^u a *emical process ( resolution2 ! #ee pulp obta9$ is1 !re=e1 a complex ( ! v>i\s ord]s ( cell-fibres conta9$ 9 ! plant4 ,:ile ! pulp consi/s = ! mo/ "p ( ! vessels ( ! fibro-vascul> bundles1 x conta9s 9 addition ! s]rat$ cuticul> cells :i* are s *>act]i/ic ( ?is gr\p4 ,!y !re=e pres5t a g5]al simil>ity 9 microscopic features2 !re are1 h[ev]1 c]ta9 individual *>act]i/ics1 su* z ! =m & dim5sions ( p>ticul> cells1 :i* s]ve = ! id5tification ( ! v>i\s pulps4 ,:]e su* occur !y w be indicat$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aj4 ,,esp>to4--,/ipa t5acissima & ,lygeum ,sp>tum4 ,ord]1 ,gram9e4 ,ba/ fibres ( fibro-vascul> bundles4 ,l5g?1 #ae mm42 diamet]1 #jjab mm42 ratio1 #abe4 ,illu/rat$ 9 ,figs4 #aj1 #aa4 ,9 ,fig4 #aj1 ! fibro-vascul> #ef bundles f are se5 spread ?r\gh\t ! int]ior ( ! leaf1 b ! int]vals1 in/ead ( be+ occupi$ by p>5*yma1 ) l>ge cells & ?9 walls1 are fill$ ) a compact mass ( f9e solid fibres f2 e1 ext]nal epid]mis2 e1 int]nal epid]mis2 mag4 #ajj4 ,9 ,fig4 #aa1 a is a section ( a gr\p ( fibres2 b1 fibres se5 longitud9ally2 c1 ends2 mag4 #cjj4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aa4 ,microscopic features4--,%ort1 smoo?1 cyl9drical1 uni=m 9 diamet]1 c5tral canal v small1 extremities r\nd$1 truncat$ & bifurcat$4 ,section4--,m9ute1 g5]ally oval1 sometimes polygonal2 c5tral cavity repres5t$ by a po9t4 ,micro-*emical reaction4--,bo? blue & yell[ ) iod9e solution4 ,9 exam9+ a pap] conta9+ esp>to "u ! microscope1 ! pulp w be f\nd to conta91 9 addition to ! fibres ( ! fibro-vascul> bundles1 a c]ta9 numb] ( ! cuticul> cells 7see ,fig4 #ab71 toge!r ) "s ( ! f9e hairs :i* are se5 9 ! section 7,fig4 #aj74 ,^! are v *>act]i/ic4 ,g5]al *emical *>act]i/ics4--,pecto-cellulose mix$ ) "s ligno-cellulose4 #eg ,composition 7,hugo ,mll]73-- ,spani%4 ,african4 ,cellulose #dhbe #dehj ,fat & wax #bjg #bfb ,aque\s extract #ajai #iha ,pect\s sub/ances1 c4 #bfci #bicj ,wat] #ich #hhj ,a% #cgb #cfg ,,/raw4--,ord]1 ,gram9e4 ,microscopic features4--,g5]ally simil> to ^? ( esp>to4 ,!re are1 h[ev]1 diff]5ces ( %ape & dim5sions ( ! s]rat$ cuticul> cells1 :i* diff]5tiate ! v>i\s k9ds ( /raw f ea* o!r & f esp>to4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ab4 ,9 ,fig4 #ab are %[n ^! cells1 f maize-/raw 7a & b72 f rye-/raw 7c7 & f esp>to 7d74 ,! #eh foll[+ table gives ! dim5sions ( ! cells f diff]5t k9ds ( /raw3-- ,l5g?4 ,bread?4 ,b>ley #jajc-jbbd mm4 #jjab-jjad mm4 ,rye #jjhf-jcde #jjab-jjaf ,:eat #jaeb-jddi #jjah-jjbd ,oats #jahf-jddh #jjab-jjag ,ano!r di/9ctive feature ( /raw-fibre is ! pres5ce 9 x ( a numb] ( oval cells1 d]iv$ f ! pi?y matt] atta*$ to ! inside ( ! /em4 ,^! are cle>ly %[n at b 7,fig4 #ac71 :i* repres5ts ! g5]al appe>ance ( /raw pulp4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ac4 ,g5]al *emical *>act]i/ics4--,bo? ligno-cellulose & pecto-cellulose4 ,! foll[+ are ! results ( analyses ( /raws 7,hugo ,mll]73-- #ei ,w9t] ,:eat4 ,w9t] ,rye4 ,cellulose #dffj #dgfi ,fat & wax #adi #aic ,aque\s extract #hjg #jje ,non-cellulose or lign9 #bhdi #bfge ,wat] #ihe #aach ,a% #eej #cbj ,,bamboo ,,& ,,sug> ,,cane4--,ord]1 ,gram9e4 ,f ! close botanical relation%ip ( ^! products to ! /ems ( ! gram9e ( our own climate1 _! microscopic features are1 z might be expect$1 simil> to ^? ( /raw4 ,! simil>ity is fur!r %[n by ! *emical composition 7,hugo ,mll]73-- ,air-dri$ ,cellulose #ejac ,fat & wax #gh ,aque\s extract #ajef ,lign9 & pect\s sub/ances #bdhd ,wat] #hef ,a% #eac ,,new ,,zeal& ,,flax4--,phormium t5ax4 ,ord]1 ,l9eace4 ,fibro-vascul> bundles ( ! leaves4 ,microscopic *>act]i/ics4--,l5g? ( fibres1 #i mm41 diamet] #jjaf mm41 ratio1 #efj4 ,fibres are f9e1 regul> & smoo?2 ! walls are uni=m1 c5tral canal small1 extremities vesicul>4 ,! fibres h little cohesion 9 ! bundle4 ,sections r\nd or polygonal4 ,illu/rat$ 9 ,fig4 #d1 p4 #ce4 ,micro-*emical reaction4--,yell[1 ) iod9e solution4 ,*>act]i/ic deep r$ col\ration ) conc5trat$ nitric acid 7,mll]74 ,g5]al *emical *>act]i/ic4--,ligno-cellulose4 ,x conta9s #hfc p] c5t4 ( cellulose4 ,,manilla ,,hemp4--,musa textilis1 ,abac4 ,ord]1 ,musace4 ,fibro-vascul> bundles ( leaves4 ,microscopic *>act]i/ics4--,l5g? ( fibres1 #f mm42 diamet]1 #jbd mm42 ratio1 #bej4 ,fibres1 :ite lu/r\s2 ! walls are uni=m2 c5tral cavity l>ge & v app>5t4 ,fibres easily deta*$4 #fj ,sections r\nd or polygonal4 ,illu/rat$ 9 ,fig4 #ad3 a1 section ( bundle ( fibres2 b1 fibres se5 longitud9ally2 c1 ends2 mag4 #cjj4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ad4 ,micro-*emical reaction4--,yell[ ) iod9e solution4 ,composition 7,hugo ,mll]73-- ,cellulose #fdjg ,fat & wax #fb ,aque\s extract #if ,lign9 & pect\s sub/ances #bafj ,wat] #aagc ,a% #ajb ,,wood4--,ne>ly1 if n ! :ole ( ! *emical wood pulp us$ 9 ?is c\ntry is obta9$ f trees belong+ to ! ord] ,conif] 7,gymnosp]m71 m p>ticul>ly f ! g5]a ,abies & ,p9us4 ,9 ,am]ica1 h[ev]1 popl> & o!r woods are l>gely employ$4 ,! conif] yield a l>g] proportion ( pulp ?an mo/ o!r woods1 ! individual fibres1 moreov]1 are long]1 & = ^! reasons x is g5]ally pref]r$4 ,on ! o!r h&1 h[ev]1 popl> is m readily act$ ^u by reag5ts4 ,fig4 #ae gives ! microscopic appe>ance ( #fa ! fibre ( ! common :ite fir4 ,x is *>act]is$ by ! pres5ce ( num]\s pitt$ vessels 7,fig4 a74 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ae4 ,p9e wood consi/s ess5tially ( a comp\nd cellulose1 resembl+ 9 mo/ ( its prop]ties ! jute fibre 7see p4 #af74 ,) iod9e solution x gives a deep yell[ col\r4 ,! *emical composition ( "s ( ! m important woods w be se5 f ! foll[+ analyses4 7,mll]47 ---------------------------------------- ----- ,bir*4,bee*4,lime4,p9e4,popl>4 ----------------------------- ,cellulose#h #eeeb #dedgecjiefii #fbgg ,res9 #aad #jda #cic #jig #acg ,aque\s extract #bfe #bda #cef #abf #bhh ,wat] #abdh #abegajajachg #abaj ,lign9 #bhba #ciadbicbbfia #bjhh ---------------------------------------- ----- ,footnote #h3 ,= ! am\nts ( cellulose actually obta9$ 9 practice see p4 #gg4 ,! above results are calculat$ on ! a%-free wood4 ,! a% v>ies f ab\t #jc to #jg p] c5t4 #fb ,,*apt] ,v4 ,,processes ,,= ,,isolat+ ,,cellulose ,,f ,,plant ,,sub/ances4 ,we are n[ 9 a position to discuss g5]ally ! v>i\s me?ods by :i* ! pap]-mak] obta9s cellulose f ! diff]5t raw mat]ials4 ,! special treatm5ts necess>y = ea* ( ! m important ( ^! w be giv5 m fully subsequ5tly4 ,^! me?ods1 ?\gh !y v>y consid]ably ) ! diff]5t mat]ials to be treat$1 may be r\ghly divid$ into two gr\ps--! alkal9e & ! acid processes4 ,! =m]1 :i* we w call a1 comprises all processes 9 :i* cau/ic soda1 c>bonate ( soda & lime1 or mixtures ( ^! are employ$2 ! latt]1 b1 ! v>i\s processes :i* h be5 introduc$ ( late ye>s1 involv+ ! use ( sulphur\s acid1 ei!r alone or 9 comb9ation ) a base1 su* z lime or magnesia4 ,! processes 9 gr\p a may be appli$ to ! treatm5t ( e kn[n fibr\s vegetable mat]ial2 ^? 9 gr\p b are at ! pres5t "t appli$ exclusively to ! prep>ation ( pulp f wood4 ,gr\p a may be conv5i5tly subdivid$ accord+ to ! nature ( ! mat]ials op]at$ ^u4 ,x is obvi\s t ^? mat]ials1 su* z blea*$ cotton & l95 ?reads & rags1 :i* h already und]gone treatm5t by ! textile manufactur]1 & are !re=e m or less already 9 ! /ate ( pure cellulose1 require b little *emical treatm5t at ! h&s ( ! pap]-mak]1 ^: att5tion is !re=e *iefly direct$ to ! removal ( su* adv5titi\s matt]s z size1 grease1 c4 ,?is c g5]ally be effect$ by ! employm5t ( weak solutions ( cau/ic soda1 or ev5 ( lime at a l[ pressure4 #fc ,we n[ h to consid] ! treatm5t ( ^? mat]ials :i* consi/ ( ! comp\nd celluloses4 ,all me?ods = ! isolation ( cellulose f ! comp\nd celluloses dep5d ^u a hydrolytic resolution ( _! con/itu5ts1 i4e4 a splitt+ up by comb9ation ) wat] into cellulose on ! "o h&1 & a s]ies ( soluble d]ivatives on ! o!r4 ,?is1 z w be %[n1 may to a c]ta9 ext5t be accompli%$ by ! action ( wat] itself at a high temp]ature4 ,z1 h[ev]1 ! products ( su* an action are acid bodies1 :i*1 if all[$ to rema9 9 contact ) ! cellulose1 w\ld injuri\sly affect x1 & w\ld induce ! production ( complicat$ bodies1 ! removal ( :i* f ! cellulose w\ld become increas+ly difficult1 x is necess>y to h pres5t a body su* z cau/ic soda1 :i* by comb9+ ) ^! acid bodies1 removes !m z su* f ! sph]e ( action4 ,9 c]ta9 raw mat]ials1 su* z /raw & esp>to1 we h1 9 addition to ! comp\nd celluloses :i* =m1 s to speak1 ! gr\ndwork1 a c]ta9 proportion ( fatty & res9\s bodies1 ^: removal is br\ght ab\t by ! action ( ! cau/ic soda conv]t+ !m into soaps4 ,! comp\nd celluloses may be divid$1 z we h se51 into ?ree classes--pecto-celluloses1 ligno-celluloses1 & adipo-celluloses4 ,! la/-nam$ be+ pres5t 9 only a few pap]-mak+ mat]ials1 & !n only 9 v small proportion1 is )\t any practical int]e/4 ,we are conc]n$ !re=e ) ! two =m] only4 7#a7 ,pecto-celluloses4--,f :at we h se5 ( ! nature ( ! pecto-celluloses1 x foll[s t = _! resolution a tol]ably simple treatm5t ) soda w be suffici5t4 ,! *ief memb]s ( ?is gr\p 9 :i* ! pap]-mak] is int]e/$1 are esp>to & /raw4 ,! =m] be+ b v slightly lignifi$1 its resolution c be effect$ at a v l[ pressure2 9 fact x is ev5 possible by us+ tol]ably /rong solutions to d x by boil+ 9 op5 vessels4 ,/raw1 on ! o!r h&1 ?\gh x possesses c]ta9 features 9 common ) esp>to1 is m lignifi$1 & 9 #fd consequ5ce1 necessitates a mu* m en]getic action to complete its resolution4 ,x is !re=e usual to boil x at some:at high pressures 7#dj-gj lb471 & ) l>g] quantities ( soda ?an are dem&$ 9 ! case ( esp>to4 ,x is1 moreov]1 ess5tial1 s to regulate ! treatm5t1 t ev5 ! mo/ resi/5t portions ( ! /raw1 su*1 = example1 z ! knots1 %all be completely resolv$1 o!rwise unblea*$ portions are liable to f9d _! way into ! f9i%$ pap]4 ,by increas+ ! quantity ( soda1 x is possible to boil "u r$uc$ pressure1 & vice v]s2 ?is may be tak5 z a g5]al pr9ciple applicable 9 all o!r cases4 ,we n[ come to ! second class ( celluloses1 t is to say1 ! ligno-celluloses4 ,( ^!1 p]haps ! mo/ important are jute1 manilla1 & wood4 ,= _! complete resolution1 x is imp]ative to employ v /rong solutions at v high temp]atures & pressures2 ?us 9 ! case ( wood x is necess>y to boil at temp]atures correspond+ to a pressure ( #ajj-abj lb4 p] squ>e in*4 ,! use ( /rong cau/ic soda solutions at high temp]atures is att5d$ ) v s]i\s objections1 ap>t f ! "q ( co/4 ,among ^! may be m5tion$ ! de/ructive action ( ! soda ^u ! cellulose itself1 involv+ a consid]able loss ( pulp2 ! de-hydration1 cond5sation1 & oxidation ( ! non-cellulose portion ( ! fibre 7:i*1 z we h se5 7p4 #be7 is ( ! nature ( an aldehyde1 & !re=e peculi>ly susceptible ( su* *anges71 & ! =mation ( d>k col\r$ products :i* rema9 intimately comb9$ ) ! residual cellulose2 ! inconv5i5ce ( work+ at v high temp]atures & pressures4 ,) a view to remov+ ! difficulties att5d+ ! use ( soda1 v>i\s processes h f "t to "t be5 propos$1 9 :i* ! hydrolytic ag5t is a solution ( sulphur\s acid 9 wat]1 ei!r alone or 9 comb9ation ) a base4 ,^! processes are compris$ "u gr\p ,b4 #fe ,sev]al ( !m h lately acquir$ great comm]cial & indu/rial importance1 & a cle> und]/&+ ( !m is !re=e ess5tial to ! /ud5t ( pap]-mak+4 ,?\gh applicable to lignifi$ fibres g5]ally1 !y h only be5 appli$ up to ! pres5t "t to wood1 & x is 9 ?is connection1 !re=e1 t we propose to consid] !m4 ,9 ord] to br+ out m cle>ly ! fundam5tal diff]5ces und]ly+ ! two classes ( processes1 x w be well to consid]1 some:at 9 detail1 ^! processes1 :i*1 al?\gh !y h n[ a m]ely hi/orical int]e/1 w assi/ ! /ud5t 9 ?or\ghly grasp+ ! rationale ( ! mod]n & improv$ me?ods4 ,wat] ,process4--,wood is to a c]ta9 ext5t resolv$ by treatm5t ) wat] at a high temp]ature1 ! degree ( dis9tegration be+1 )9 c]ta9 limits1 proportional to ! temp]ature at :i* x is dige/$4 ,! volatile products ( ! resolution are *iefly acids ( ! acetic s]ies1 furfurol & t]p5es4 ,! non-volatile soluble products are = ! mo/ "p acids4 ,?is process 0 /udi$ by ,fry1 :o1 9 #ahff1 made x ! subject ( a pat5t4 ,he f\nd t "u ! mo/ fav\rable conditions ( treatm5t1 ! yield ( br[n pulp am\nt$ to #gj p] c5t4 ( ! wood employ$4 ,! objections to ! process 7 suffici5tly obvi\s3 ! pulp produc$ 0 ( l[ quality1 & ! soluble products act$ p[]fully on ! iron dige/]s employ$4 ,! *emical causes ( its failure lie 9 ! prom95ce ( ! conditions :i* det]m9e re-comb9ations ( ! products ( resolution ) "o ano!r1 viz4 oxidation1 high temp]ature1 & ! pres5ce ( acids4 ,x is wor?y ( note t 9 "o exp]im5t ! am\nt ( acids produc$ f #ajj p>ts wood 7 equival5t to #cd p>ts ( soda 7,na#b,o74 ,?is 0 by f> ! mo/ s]i\s defect 9 ! process1 & x ev5tually caus$ its ab&onm5t 9 fav\r ( ! old] me?od ( treatm5t ) cau/ic alkali4#i ,footnote #i3 ,see ,j\rn4 ,soc4 ( ,arts41 ,febru>y #ahhc1 p4 #bbc4 ,alkali ,processes4--,! fir/ to develop ! alkali process #ff 7 ,watt & ,burgess1 9 ,am]ica 7#ahec-aheg71 & ,h\ghton 9 ?is c\ntry4 ,to foll[ up ! sev]al modifications introduc$ is unnecess>y2 !y diff] f "o ano!r 9 ! economical balance :i* !y /rike betwe5 temp]ature & quantity ( *emicals3 ?us ,watt & ,burgess employ$ a lye ( #ab ,baum1 & dige/$ at #fj lb4 pressure 7equal to #aeb ,c471 :]eas ,h\ghton us$ a lye ( #d ,b41 at #ajj-ahj lb4 ,"o great defect ( ^! processes 0 ! gradual neutralisation ( ! alkali1 necessitat+ z a comp5sat+ condition ! employm5t ( a v high temp]ature t[>ds ! end ( ! op]ation4 ,to ov]come ?is objection1 ,ung]] devis$ a process :i* aim$ at secur+ a prop]ly graduat$ action ( ! lye4 ,?is process1 be+ bas$ on an em95tly rational view ( ! action ( ! alkali1 is wor?y ( a m ext5d$ notice1 especially z ! pr9ciple on :i* x is f\nd$ is capable ( wide application4 ,a sy/em ( n9e v]tical dige/]s1 connect$ toge!r 9 s]ies by means ( pipes & cocks1 s t ! liquid cont5ts c be transf]r$ f "o to ! o!r 9 succession1 is ! ma9 feature ( ! me?od employ$4 ,9 connection ) ?is sy/em !re is a d\ble s]vice ( pipes1 by :i* ! hot soda lye at #ij lb4 pressure1 & cold wat]1 may be respectively introduc$4 ,! op]ation is s conduct$ t 9 five ( ! dige/]s wood is be+ treat$ at a high temp]ature1 9 ?ree ! pulp is be+ wa%$1 :ile ! rema9+ "o is be+ *>g$ ) fre% wood4 ,! :ole r\nd ( op]ations may be describ$ ?us1 numb]+ ! dige/]s accord+ to _! position 9 ! s]ies3--,nos4 #a1 #b1 & #c1 ,wa%+ ! f9i%$ pulp2 #d1 ,f9al treatm5t ) lye at ! extreme pressure ( #ij lb42 #e1 ,dige/+ at l[] pressure ) lye previ\sly employ$ 9 #d2 #f1 ,treatm5t at /ill l[] pressure ) lye :i* has already done duty 9 #d & #e2 & s on to #h1 :]e ! liquor1 hav+ pass$ ?r\gh ! s]ies1 is employ$ at #ae-bj lb4 pressure on a fre% *>ge ( wood4 ,! wa%+s are conduct$ 9 su* a way t ! wat] :i* is introduc$ into #a displaces ! solution 9 ea* dige/] )\t #fg ! la/ be+ all[$ to escape4 ,! introduction ( ! fre% liquor at #d is simil>ly accompli%$1 #a1 #b1 & #c be+ cut (f by clos+ ! cocks :i* control ! +ress & egress ( liquid4 ,! pulp produc$ by ?is me?od is ( a suffici5tly pale col\r to be capable ( application = _m purposes )\t blea*+4 ,x is conv]t$ into a p]fectly :ite pulp by treatm5t 9 ! ord9>y way ) f #c to #d p] c5t4 ( blea*+ p[d]1 calculat$ 9 ! dry pulp4 ,z f> z x goes ! me?od is practically p]fect1 & x appe>s to h giv5 s\nd results1 at lea/ z reg>ds ! ma9 product4 ,! pr9cipal disadvantages 7 ! complications att5d+ su* an elaborate sy/em ( work+ :i* w\ld d\btless make x co/ly4 ,we h next to consid] a class ( processes :i* are bas$ prim>ily ^u ! action ( an alkali1 b :i* introduce ! simultane\s action ( a soluble sulphide1 g5]ally t ( sodium4 ,z f> back z #ahee ,jullion pat5t$ 9 ?is c\ntry a process ( ?is nature1 :i*1 h[ev]1 does n appe> to h be5 appli$ to wood4 ,! results obta9$ ) su* mat]ials z /raw & esp>to appe> to h be5 v unsatisfactory1 & to h l$ to ! e>ly ab&onm5t ( ! me?od4 ,rec5tly ! increas$ att5tion :i* has be5 giv5 to wood z a raw mat]ial has l$ to a revival ( ^! sulphide processes = its treatm5t4 ,we believe t at lea/ two processes ( ?is class are be+ work$ on ! cont95t1 viz4 ^? ( ,dahl & ,blitz4 ,t ( ! =m] consi/s 9 heat+ wood1 at pressures v>y+ f #fj-abj lb4 p] squ>e in*1 ) a solution ( ! foll[+ composition3-- ,sodium sulphate #cg ,sodium c>bonate #h ,sodium hydrate #bd ,sodium sulphide #bh ,v>i\s comp\nds #c #ajj #fh ,?is solution is obta9$ only aft] ! process has be5 "s "t at "w1 & x !n rema9s tol]ably con/ant4 ,! wood1 to comm5ce )1 is boil$ ) a solution conta9+ a l>ge quantity ( sodium sulphate1 ) a small quantity ( sodium hydrate1 obta9$ by boil+ sodium sulphate ) lime4 ,! liquor f ?is op]ation is !n evaporat$ & calc9$1 ! result be+ a fus$ mass :i*1 :5 dissolv$ 9 wat]1 yields a liquor conta9+ ! above-m5tion$ +r$i5ts4 ,! loss ( *emicals is made up by ! addition ( fre% quantities ( sodium sulphate4 ,f exp]im5ts :i* ! au?ors h made ) ?is process1 x appe>s1 t :ile x is p]fectly true t pulp c be obta9$1 x is necess>y to employ ei!r v /rong solution or v high pressures4 ,?is is equival5t to say+ t ei!r ! hydrolytic action is weak1 or ! t5d5cies to rev]sal ( ! hydrolysis are /rong1 & inde$ bo? are to be pr$ict$ f ! nature ( ! solution4 ,"o great objection to ! process is t dur+ ! boil+ a quantity ( v f\lly-smell+ comp\nds are produc$4 ,! process ( ,blitz consi/s 9 heat+ wood to f #ej-fj lb4 pressure1 ) a solution ( sodium sulphide1 conta9+ an inf9itesimal proportion ( vanadate ( ammonia4 ,x is difficult to see :at influ5ce ! pres5ce ( ! co/ly vanadate ( ammonia c h on ! result4 ,actual exp]im5t on ?is po9t has fail$ to conv9ce u ( its efficacy4 ,al?\gh 9 ^! sulphide processes a /rongly r$uc+ ag5t is pres5t1 its effect 9 prev5t+ oxidation is m ?an outweigh$ by ! weak5+ ( ! hydrolytic action ( ! soda1 bo? directly by its comb9ation ) sulphur1 & indirectly by ! complication :i* x induces by comb9ation ) ! soluble bye-products4 ,fur!r1 z reg>ds ! f9al product1 !y (f] no advantage ov] ! cau/ic alkali processes4 ,!re is1 h[ev]1 a consid]able advantage 9 po9t ( economy1 :i* %\ld lead to _! adoption 9 di/ricts :]e ! production ( malodor\s gases is p]mitt$4 #fi ,acid ,processes4--,we n[ come to consid] ! processes :i* are bas$ ^u ! hydrolytic action ( acids z a prim>y condition4 ,we h se5 t 9 ! wat] process ?is condition obta9s z a second>y result1 & t :ile x aids 9 resolv+ ! wood1 x also det]m9es ! limit ( ! action1 9 consequ5ce ( its promot+ second>y comb9ation among/ ! soluble products4 ,! use ( p[]ful oxidis+ acids1 su* z nitric & nitro-hydro*loric1 induces an action :i* is suffici5tly dra/ic to cause a complete resolution ( ! non-cellulose con/itu5ts ( ! wood ) ! =mation ( soluble products4 ,! use ( ^! acids has be5 made ! subject ( num]\s pat5ts4 ,! process ( ,b>re & ,blondel consi/$ 9 dige/+ ! wood 9 ! cold = tw5ty-f\r h\rs 9 #ej p] c5t4 nitric acid1 by :i* x 0 conv]t$ into a s(t fibr\s mass4 ,?is 0 boil$ = "s h\rs 9 wat]1 aft]w>ds 9 a solution ( sodium c>bonate1 & f9ally blea*$ 9 ! ord9>y way4 ,_m o!r pat5ts h be5 tak5 out 9 ?is direction1 b none h met ) practical success1 ow+ d\btless1 to ! high co/ ( nitric acid1 & ! difficulty ( recov]y4 ,a process has lately be5 pat5t$ by ,"y & ,pettigrew 7,no4 #ad1ihh1 #ahhd7 9 :i* !y claim ! use ( ei!r nitric or nitr\s acids2 ! acid fumes :i* are evolv$ be+ cond5s$ & reconv]t$ into nitric acid4 ,! process has n yet1 h[ev]1 be5 tri$ on a practical scale4 ,! resolution ( wood by ! hydrolytic action ( non-oxidis+ acids1 is = reasons already /at$1 v imp]fect4 ,an important feature1 h[ev]1 ( ?is action is ! production ( glucose z a bye-product1 & a process hav+ ! d\ble object ( produc+ ?is1 toge!r ) a br[n pulp1 0 pat5t$ by ,ba*et & ,ma*>d 9 #ahfd1 & work$ = "s "t 9 ,switz]l&4 ,! process consi/$ 9 boil+ ! wood = twelve h\rs 9 dilute hydro*loric acid2 ! solution1 :i* conta9$ glucose to ! am\nt ( #bj p] c5t4 ( ! weight ( ! wood1 0 drawn (f1 neutralis$ ) *alk1 & f]m5t$ by ! addition ( #gj yea/4 ,alcohol 0 sep>at$ f ! f]m5t$ liquor 9 ! usual way4 ,! residual pulp1 aft] be+ gr\nd ) /ones1 0 made into co>se pack+ pap]4 ,! process fail$ comm]cially4 ,! next processes 9 ! ord] ( ! developm5t ( our subject1 b n *ronologically1 are ^? involv+ ! use ( r$uc+ acids1 i4e4 ^? :i* comb9e ) _! hydrolytic function a de-oxidis+ or anti-oxidis+ action4 ,( ^! ! only "o :i* has be5 practically inve/igat$ is sulphur\s acid4 ,a full acc\nt ( ! e>li] discov]ies 9 reg>d to ! use ( ?is reag5t1 = ! special purpose "u consid]ation1 w be f\nd 9 ! ,papi] ,zeitung1 #ahhd1 ,no4 #ea1 p4 #aibg2 ?is %\ld be consult$ by ^? :o are int]e/$ 9 ! hi/ory ( a subject :i* has n[ gr[n to be ( ! fir/ importance4 ,! fir/ pat5t$ process claim+ ! use ( sulphur\s acid1 9 ! =m ( its aque\s solution1 = ! purpose ( dis9tegrat+ wood1 0 t ( ,tilghmann 7#ahff74 ,s f> z is kn[n1 h[ev]1 ! results obta9$ by ! inv5tor ) ! acid alone 7 su* z to lead him to ab&on x = solutions conta9+ a c]ta9 proportion ( base4 ,! reasons1 d\btless1 7 ! great] facility ( prep>ation & simplicity ( application ( su* solutions4 ,m rec5tly ,pr(essor ,pictet1 ( ,g5eva1 on ! basis ( ! exp]i5ce acquir$ by him 9 ! prep>ation & employm5t ( sulphur\s acid 9 8 pat5t freez+ processes1 has reviv$ & p]fect$ a process :i* 9 o!r h&s _h prov$ impracticable4 ,! me?od & app>atus employ$ w be f\nd fully describ$ 9 ! au?or's specification4 ,! process consi/s 9 dige/+ ! wood 9 clos$ vessels ) an aque\s solution ( ! acid 7#aj-ab p] c5t4 ,,s#b7 at #agf-aid ,f4 7#hj-ij ,c471 & "u ! correspond+ pressure 7#fj-ge lb4 p] squ>e in*74 ,a complete dis9tegration ( p9e wood is effect$ 9 ab\t tw5ty-f\r h\rs' treatm5t4 ,! yield ( pulp is1 we are in=m$1 f #dj-ej p] c5t4 ( ! wood 7,p9us sylve/ris72 x is also /at$ to be readily blea*$ #ga ) a mod]ate am\nt ( blea*+ p[d]1 & to yield a pulp ( ! highe/ quality4 ,fur!r1 ! recov]y ( ! sulphur\s acid1 = :i* special app>atus is provid$1 is practically complete 7#ie-ih p] c5t474 ,9 view ( ! probable utilisation ( ! bye-products1 x is int]e/+ to obs]ve t !y are obta9$ 9 a =m 9 :i* !y c v readily be treat$4 ,! process be+ z yet undevelop$ on a l>ge scale1 we _c d m ?an recomm5d x to ! consid]ation ( pap]-mak]s4 ,at ! same "t we w\ld draw att5tion to ! features ( int]e/ :i* x possesses 9 reg>d to ! g5]al aspect ( our subject4 ,! resolution :i* x effects is obvi\sly "o ( simple hydrolysis1 & x af=ds an indirect pro( ( ! *emical complications :i* att5d all o!r processes = dis9tegrat+ wood :i* employ temp]ature mu* above ! boil+-po9t ( wat]4 ,! soluble bye-products are obta9$ 9 ! simple/ =m1 & may be isolat$ by m]e evaporation4 ,z reg>ds ! *emical features ( ! pulp1 !y w presumably be diff]5t f ^? ( any o!r1 :e!r on ! side ( advantage or n x rema9s to decide4 ,provid$ ! process fulfils ! condition ( economical work+1 we h no hesitation 9 pr$ict+ = x a consid]able developm5t4 ,! difficulties att5d+ ! employm5t ( a gase\s acid h d\btless op]at$ 9 det]r+ _m1 9 addition to ! orig9ator1 f a complete inve/igation ( its action1 & h l$ !m to adopt 9 pref]5ce "o ( its sev]al comp\nds ) bases1 ! employm5t ( :i* def9es a gr\p ( processes to :i* we n[ desire to call att5tion4 ,!re is a v>iety ( processes agree+ 9 ! ess5tial feature ( employ+ a bisulphite z ! dis9tegrat+ reag5t1 & diff]+ f "o ano!r only 9 ! less ess5tial details ( me?od4 ,! g5]al pr9ciple ( ^! processes w be readily und]/ood f :at has gone be=e4 ,! *ief ag5cy is ! hydrolytic action ( sulphur\s acid1 aid$ by ! conditions ( high temp]ature & pressure3 & ! subsidi>y #gb ag5cies are--7#a7 ,! prev5tion ( oxidation2 7#b7 ,! removal f ! sph]e ( action ( ! soluble products ( resolution 9 comb9ation ) ! sulphite z a true d\ble comp\nd4 ,?is mode ( union is well kn[n to be peculi>ly *>act]i/ic ( all aldehydes1 to :i* class we h %[n t ! non-cellulose con/itu5ts ( wood belong4 ,! comb9ation is express$ by ! g5]al equation-- ,m4,,*o ,,s#c;,h,na ,m4,,*7,,oh_/,,s#c7,na4 ,aldehyde4 ,sodium ,d\ble comp\nd4 bi-sulphite4 7#c7 ,! removal ( a portion ( ! con/itu5ts 9 comb9ation ) ! base1 i4e4 ) expulsion ( sulphur\s acid4 ,! v]ification ( ^! views has be5 af=d$ 9 ! c\rse ( an inve/igation ( ! bye-products f ! ,ekman process1 und]tak5 by ! au?ors = ,messrs4 ,?omson1 ,bon> ,co41 ! proprietors ( ! pat5t4 ,z ! v>i\s bisulphite processes diff] *iefly 9 _! work+ details1 ! ess5tial feature ( ! employm5t ( a solution ( sulphur\s acid1 comb9$ ) a c]ta9 am\nt ( base1 be+ common to !m all1 x w n be necess>y to d m ?an exam9e "o or two typical cases4 ,we %all select ^? ( ,ekman & ,p>t+ton1 ! latt] be+ bas$ ^u ,francke's pat5t1 ) c]ta9 modifications & additions4 7#a7 ,! ,*emicals employ$4--,9 bo? cases sulphur is us$ z ! s\rce ( ! sulphur\s acid4 ,! ,ekman process />ts f magnesite1 a native c>bonate ( magnesia4 ,?is is conv]t$ by calc9ation into magnesia1 & 9 ?is /ate is introduc$ into lead-l9$ t[]s1 ?r\gh :i* is pass$ sulphur\s acid gas1 obta9$ by burn+ sulphur 9 suitable furnaces1 :ile a /ream ( wat] trickles d[n f ! top4 ,! supply ( ! gas be+ prop]ly adju/$1 a cont9u\s production ( a solution ( magnesium bisulphite ( uni=m /r5g? is obta9$4 ,to secure ?is uni=mity1 con/ant att5tion is necess>y1 & fur!r1 ! loss ( sulphur\s acid by oxidation to sulphuric acid1 & by diffusion1 is1 9 consequ5ce ( its di/ribution ov] s l>ge a surface1 #gc & ) free exposure to ! air1 necess>ily v l>ge4 ,x is unnecess>y1 h[ev]1 to po9t out t ! prep>ation ( ! magnesium bisulphite is capable ( v consid]able modification2 9 fact1 we und]/& t num]\s improvem5ts 9 ?is direction h already be5 introduc$ by ! proprietors ( ! process4 ,p>t+ton's me?od1 9 addition to ! advantage ( />t+ f lime1 ! *eape/ ( all basic sub/ances1 is free f ! disadvantages ref]r$ to z att5d+ ! use ( a t[]4 ,x consi/s 9 pass+ ! sulphur\s acid gas ?r\gh a s]ies ( ?ree vessels connect$ toge!r ) pipes4 ,into ^! vessels a *>ge ( milk ( lime is introduc$1 & ! two fir/ be+ clos$ air-tight1 ! gas is pass$ 94 ,! ?ird rema9s op5 to ! air1 & f x escapes a cont9u\s /ream ( nitrog51 result+ f ! removal ( ! oxyg5 by ! burn+ sulphur1 f ! /ream ( air :i* is bl[n ?r\gh ! sulphur retort at a pressure ( #e lb4 to ! squ>e in*4 ,! exp5diture = *emicals is "u #al4 p] ton1 :]eas1 by ! ,ekman process1 x has be5 v>i\sly e/imat$ at f #bl4 to #cl4 #ajs4 p] ton4 ,provid$ !re=e1 t z good pulp c be obta9$ by ,p>t+ton z by ,ekman1 ! =m] (f]s consid]able advantages bo? f po9t ( view ( simplicity & economy4 ,d\btless ! co/ ( *emicals c\ld be some:at r$uc$ 9 bo? sy/ems by ! adoption ( a *eap] =m ( sulphur1 su* z pyrites4 ,prep>ation ( ! ,wood4--,al?\gh ! acid sulphite processes c1 by suitable modifications1 be made available = ! prep>ation ( cellulose f almo/ all k9ds ( wood1 yet x is necess>y1 9 ord] to insure uni=mity ( result1 n only to take c>e t ! wood is c>efully select$1 b t x is fre$ f b>k & roots1 :i*1 if all[$ to rema91 w\ld be imp]fectly pulp$1 & w\ld be exce$+ly difficult to blea*4 ,! mo/ suitable k9d ( wood is ,p9us sylve/ris4 ,aft] ! b>k has be5 c>efully remov$ ! logs are sawn into bo>ds ( ord9>y sizes4 ,?is treatm5t #gd exposes ! knots1 :i* are !n remov$ ei!r by bor+ or cutt+ out ) an axe4 ,! pieces are !n pass$ ?r\gh a ma*9e1 :i* cuts !m or r breaks !m into fragm5ts ab\t an in* long4 ,9 ord] t ! acid sulphite may z quickly z possible ent] into ! wood1 ^! fragm5ts mu/ be cru%$ & op5$ out by pass+ ?r\gh heavy roll]s3 moreov]1 ! wood is cut across ! gra91 by :i* means x is m or less split up into lam94 ,a ma*9e = ?is purpose has be5 pat5t$ by ,fry1 ,ransome1 & ,wilkie 7,no4 #aa1chi1 #ahhd74 ,! ,boil+ ,process4--,ekman uses a lead-l9$1 jacket$ cyl9drical boil]1 susp5d$ on trunnions1 s t x c be turn$ upside d[n = dis*>g+4 ,! pressure 9 ! out] jacket is #gj lb4 p] squ>e in*1 :ile inside ! boil] x is #ij lb41 ! diff]5ce be+ due to ! t5sion ( ! sulphur\s acid gas4 ,! duration ( boil+ is f t5 to twelve h\rs4 ,p>t+ton1 on ! o!r h&1 boils ) live /eam1 & !re=e is enabl$ to use a boil] ( simpl] con/ruction4 ,8 boil]s are sph]ical1 lead-l9$ & rot>y4 ,! pressure employ$ does n exce$ #fj lb4 p] squ>e in*1 ! "t ( boil+ be+ ab\t sixte5 h\rs4 ,v>i\s o!r sulphite processes h be5 f "t to "t devis$1 :i* diff] b little ei!r 9 pr9ciple or 9 work+ detail f ^? describ$1 & !re=e a brief m5tion ( !m w suffice4 ,mits*]li* employs a bisulphite ( lime 9 some:at weak] solution ?an t employ$ by ,francke or ,p>t+ton1 & 9 ord] to produce ! same result he is oblig$ to ext5d ! "t ( boil+ to f #dj to #fj h\rs4 ,graham1 aft] treat+ ! wood ) a mono-sulphite1 injects into ! boil] ei!r a solution ( a bisulphite or gase\s or liquid sulphur\s acid4 ,flodgvi/ uses a solution prep>$ by dissolv+ bones 9 sulphur\s acid solution4 ,! cellulosic products ( ! v>i\s processes pres5t c]ta9 slight diff]5ces1 b s f> z has be5 inve/igat$1 n su* z to con/itute a di/9ct advantage = "o or #ge ano!r4 ,"o feature ( ^! processes1 to :i* b little att5tion has hi!rto be5 paid1 is t ( ! utilisation ( _! bye-products4 ,^! bodies are1 z already indicat$1 obta9$ 9 a condition n mat]ially diff]5t f t ( ! p>5t sub/ance1 ! non-cellulose con/itu5ts ( ! wood4 ,"o important prop]ty ( ^! bodies1 & "o capable ( consid]able application1 has be5 made ! basis ( a pat5t by ! au?ors4 ,:5 a solution ( gelat9 is add$ to ! liquors 9 :i* wood has be5 treat$ by any ( ! bisulphite or sulphur\s acid processes1 a body is precipitat$ 9 ! =m ( a ca\t*\c-l mass :i* c be dissolv$ 9 neutral sodium sulphite solution1 or 9 weakly alkal9e solutions1 & c be reprecipitat$ on addition ( alum to ! solution4 ,! sub/ance consi/s ( a comp\nd ( ! gelat9 ) ! non-cellulose con/itu5ts resembl+1 b n id5tical )1 z has be5 suppos$1 ! precipitate obta9$ by add+ tannic acid to a solution ( gelat94 ,! solution ( ?is sub/ance 9 sodium sulphite c be appli$ to _m ( ! purposes to :i* gelat9 itself is ord9>ily appli$4 ,a s]i\s objection to all processes involv+ ! use ( sulphur\s acid or acid sulphite1 & "o :i* has to "s ext5t det]r$ pap]-mak]s f adopt+ !m1 is ! necessity ( us+ a boil] l9$ ) lead4 ,9 addition to ! fact t su* boil]s are heavy & co/ly1 !y are objectionable on acc\nt ( ! difficulty & exp5se ( keep+ !m 9 ?or\gh repair4 ,?is difficulty arises f ! fact t1 ow+ to ! diff]5t co-effici5ts ( expansion ( lead & iron1 ! lead l9+ orig9ally plac$ 9 contact ) ! iron or /eel %ell ( ! boil]1 becom+ deta*$ on heat+1 swells out 9 v>i\s places1 :i* are ?us r5d]$ weak] & liable to fracture4 ,?is is especially ! case if1 9 ! c\rse ( l9+ ! boil]1 any air has be5 all[$ to rema9 betwe5 ! two l9+s4 ,v>i\s exp$i5ts h be5 propos$ to obviate ^! defects b ) only p>tial success4 ,graham 7,eng4 ,pat4 ,no4 #ecfg1 #ahhc7 coats ! plate ( 8 boil] by p\r+ molt5 lead ^u ! p]fectly clean surface :i* has be5 #gf previ\sly prep>$ ) z9c *loride4 ,sometimes m9ute holes are drill$ 9 ! iron plate to all[ ! escape ( air4 ,not)/&+ all ! attempts t h be5 made1 ! use ( a lead-l9$ boil] is a s]i\s objection1 & any process :i* w fulfil ! conditions on :i* ! bi-sulphite processes dep5d1 & :i* at ! same "t admits ( ! use ( ! ord9>y iron boil]s1 is an obvi\s desid]atum4 ,su* a process is t pat5t$ by "o ( ! au?ors 7,cross1 ,no4 #dihd1 #ahhj71 claim+ ! use ( solutions ( ! neutral sulphites ) or )\t ! fur!r addition ( an alkali4 ,?is process is v suitable = ! treatm5t ( fibres su* z /raw1 jute1 c41 b n economically applicable to ! prep>ation ( wood pulp on acc\nt ( ! co/ ( *emicals4 ,! pres]vative effect ( ! sulphite is %[n by ! l>gely increas$ yield ( pulp4 ,! *ief advantages ( ! v>i\s bi-sulphite processes = ! prep>ation ( wood pulp ov] ! old soda processes are1 7#a7 ! increas$ yield ( fibre2 7#b7 ! pres]vation ( its orig9al /r5g?1 & 7#c71 ! economy 9 *emicals4 ,x is well kn[n t cellulose1 ev5 9 its mo/ /able =ms1 is attack$ m or less by hot solutions ( ! cau/ic alkalis1 & is m or less pr(\ndly modifi$ accord+ to ! /r5g? ( ! solution & ! temp]ature at :i* x is employ$2 :ile on ! o!r h& ! solutions ( ! bisulphites affect x b little4 ,?us1 ! au?ors h expos$ jute cellulose1 :i* is ( ! same nature z t obta9$ f wood1 to ! action ( magnesium bisulphite "u ! conditions :i* obta9 9 ! ,ekman process1 )\t its und]go+ s5sible loss ( weight1 & fur!r1 !y h det]m9$ ! am\nt ( cellulose 9 fre%ly cut grasses1 9 :i* x is b imp]fectly elaborat$1 & !re=e v susceptible ( modification1 bo? be=e & aft] treatm5t by ! process1 & 9 ea* case ! p]c5tage obta9$ 0 ! same4 ,!re is !re=e no d\bt t 9 ! bisulphite processes1 ev5 ! /ructurally delicate =ms ( cellulose are cons]v$4 ,z be=e indicat$1 ! influ5ce ( ?is ^u ! yield ( cellulose is ( c\rse v m>k$2 ! yield f :ite p9e1 #gg by ! soda process1 be+ approximately #cc p] c5t41 :]eas by ! ,ekman process x is f #de-ej p] c5t4 ,x is important to rememb] t ?is increas$ yield ( cellulose _c fail to affect ! quality1 & !re=e ! pap]-mak+ prop]ties ( ! pulp4 ,pap]s made entirely by ! bisulphite processes h a /rongly m>k$ individuality1 be+ di/+ui%$ by _! h>dness & transp>5cy4 ,9 reg>d to ! blea*+ ( ! pulp1 x w be f\nd t "s practical exp]i5ce is requir$ = ! control ( ! op]ation1 s z to produce uni=m results4 ,al?\gh ! pulp produc$ by ^! processes is ( a v light-grey col\r1 s light inde$ t !y may be us$ = c]ta9 l[ classes ( :ite pap] )\t fur!r treatm5t1 yet to obta9 a pure :ite col\r almo/ z mu* blea*+ p[d] is requir$ z 9 ! case ( soda pulps1 al?\gh ! latt] are mu* d>k] 9 col\r4 ,! *ief po9ts to be obs]v$ are 7#a7 ! complete removal ( ! sulphites f ! pulp be=e ! addition ( blea*+ liquor1 :i* w\ld o!rwise be ineffectively consum$2 7#b7 ! avoidance1 9 wa%+1 ( wat]s conta9+ iron1 :i* w\ld comb9e ) c]ta9 con/itu5ts ( ! pulp to =m d>k-col\r$ bodies4 ,! foll[+ ,table1 compil$ f ,dr4 ,hugo ,mll]'s #8,pflanz5fas]1' is ( int]e/1 z indicat+ ! probable yield ( pulp f diff]5t woods1 comp>$ ) ! am\nts obta9$ 9 actual practice by ! ,watt & ,burgess 7soda7 process3-- ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,wat] ,lign91 ,pulp--,watt ,wat]4 ,extract4 ,res94 c4 ,cellulose4 & ,burgess ,process4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,bir* #abdh #bfe #aad #bhba #eeeb #djjj ,p9e #abhg #dje #afc #bhah #ecbg #cdgj ,oak #acab #abbj #jia #cdcj #cidg #bjfj ,*e/nut #abjc #eda #aaj #bhhb #ebfd #beaj ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,! foll[+ ,table1 :i* gives a concise acc\nt ( ! v>i\s typical processes t h be5 employ$ = ! prep>ation ( wood pulp1 w be readily und]/ood 9 connection ) ! !oretical consid]ations previ\sly discuss$3-- #gh ,,view ,,( ,,! ,,*emical ,,processes ,,= ,,dis9tegrat+ ,,wood4 ,aque\s ,alkalis4 ,wat]4 ,aque\s ,acids4 ,hydrolysis1 aid$ by alkali ,hydrolysis1 aid$ by acids 7a7 ,oxidis+ & hydrolytic-- directly1 also indirectly by =m$ f ! wood4 7,fry1 comb9ation ) products ( #ahfg7 ,nitric acid4 7,c\pi] & resolution4 7,watt & ,burgess1 ,melli]1 #aheb4 ,b>re & #ahec4 ,h\ghton1 #aheg47 ,limit ( action det]m9$ by ,blondel1 #ahfa47 rev]sal ( hydrolysis1 i4e4 dehydration aid$ by oxidation4 ,nitro-hydro*loric4 7,orioli1 #ahfe47 7b7 ,simply hydrolytic-- ,hydro*loric acid4 7,ba*et & ,ma*>d1 #ahfd47 7c7 ,r$uc+ & hydrolytic-- ,sulphur\s acid4 7,tilghmann1 #ahff4 ,pictet1 #ahhb47 ,solutions ( ,alkal9e ,bisulphites4 ,sulphides4 ,hydrolysis1 aid$ prim>ily ,hydrolysis1 aid$ by alkal9e by sulphur\s acid1 & bases directly & indirectly second>ily by comb9ation ( by comb9ation ) products4 products ) bisulphites1 also by prev5tion ( oxidation4 ,rev]sal ( hydrolysis less5$ ,wat]1 toge!r ) neutral 7,tilghmann1 #ahff4 ,mits*]li*1 by pres5ce ( r$uc+ ag5t4 ,sulphites4 #ahgd4 ,ekman1 #ahha4 ,francke1 #ahha4 ,graham1 #ahhb47 7,bo? categories3 ,jullion1 ,simple hydrolysis-- #ahee4 ,blitz1 #ahhc4 ,dahl1 #ahhd47 ,products remov$ f sph]e ( action by comb9ation ) base & sulphite4 7,cross1 #ahhj47 ,oxidation prev5t$ by pres5ce ( sulphite4 #gi ,,*apt] ,,vi4 ,,special ,,treatm5t ,,( ,,v>i\s ,,fibres2 ,,boil]s1 ,,boil+ ,,processes1 ,,etc4 ,we h already1 9 ,*apt] ,v41 discuss$ 9 a g5]al way ! pr9ciples ^u :i* ! treatm5t ( ! v>i\s fibres %\ld be bas$2 we n[ proce$ to consid] ea* fibre 9 detail1 giv+ at ! same "t su* in=mation z is necess>y reg>d+ ! prelim9>y treatm5t ( ! v>i\s fibres & describ+ ! =ms ( app>atus 9 :i* ^! op]ations are conduct$4 ,we %all consid] ! fibres 9 ! ord] ( _! simplicity ( treatm5t4 ,rags 7,l95 & ,cotton74--,! treatm5t necess>y = rags diff]s l>gely ) ! quality &1 ( c\rse1 ) ! k9d ( pap] = :i* !y are int5d$4 ,^! diff]5t qualities are kn[n 9 ! trade by diff]5t names & m>ks1 su* = example z ! foll[+3--,new l95 pieces1 new cotton pieces1 sup]f9es1 d>k f9es1 grey l951 sailclo?1 seconds1 ?irds1 c41 c4 ,! two =m] consi/ ( ! cutt+s produc$ 9 ! manufacture ( v>i\s g>m5ts1 c42 n hav+ be5 worn1 !y are usually free f dirt1 & are1 9 fact1 if blea*$1 ne>ly pure cellulose1 conta9+ only ! />* & o!r siz+ mat]ial :i* has be5 add$ 9 ! process ( f9i%+ ! goods4 ,!y may1 ( c\rse1 conta9 consid]able quantities ( *9a clay or o!r load+ mat]ial4 ,9 pur*as+ rags1 !re=e1 reg>d %\ld be _h to ! probable pres5ce ( ^! bodies4 ,su* rags require only a v slight treatm5t2 9 fact1 = c]ta9 classes ( pap] !y might be us$ )\t any prep>ation4 ,if1 z is sometimes ! case1 ! rags are unblea*$1 a r m sev]e boil+ is necess>y4 #hj ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #af4 ,! great] "p ( ! rags us$ 9 pap]-mak+1 h[ev]1 consi/ ( ! residual portions ( g>m5ts1 h\sehold l951 c41 :i* v>y 9 quality f clean1 almo/ unus$ portions1 to ! v f\le/ sorts2 ! latt] require a v dra/ic treatm5t4 ,! fir/ ?+ to be done ) ! rags is to 8sort0 & cut !m into conv5i5t pieces4 ,?is is usually done by wom51 :o /& at tables furni%$ ) broad knives firmly fix$ into !m1 ) ! backs t[>ds ! work]1 & incl9$ at a slight angle4 ,ne> to ! wom5 are plac$ a numb] ( boxes1 correspond+ ) ! numb] ( qualities ( rags1 l9$ at ! bottom ) co>se wire gauze1 into :i* ! diff]5t sorts are put4 ,! di/9ctions made are purely arbitr>y1 b z a g5]al rule ! rags are sort$ ) special ref]5ce to _! col\r & ! mat]ial ( :i* !y are compos$4 ,! col\r$ rags may be all[$ to accumulate1 & !n made into a col\r$ pap]4 ,dur+ ! process ( cutt+1 all h>d sub/ances1 #ha su* z buttons1 pieces ( iron1 c41 are c>efully remov$4 ,! rags are cut into pieces ( f two to five in*es squ>e4 ,9 "s mills ma*9es are us$ = cutt+4 ,fig4 #af %[s ! con/ruction ( a ma*9e t may be us$ ei!r = rags or rope4 ,! mat]ial is pass$ into ! ma*9e along ! table ,a1 :]e x passes betwe5 ! /ation>y knife ,c & ! knives ,b1 fix$ 9 ! revolv+ drum ,d4 ,! cut rags fall into a receptacle plac$ und]nea? ! drum4 ,not)/&+ ! extra exp5se ( cutt+ by h&1 x is nev]!less pref]r$ by _m1 especially = ! f9] grades ( pap]4 ,"o reason = ?is is to be f\nd 9 ! fact t m p]fect sort+ & removal ( impurities c be effect$4 ,x is moreov] said t less wa/e ( fibre occurs 9 ! subsequ5t op]ations4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ag4 ,! next process :i* ! rags und]go is t ( remov+ all loose extrane\s matt]4 ,?is may be done 9 a ma*9e su* z is %[n 9 ,fig4 #ag4 ,! rags are f$ cont9u\sly by ! endless travell+ plat=m ,a into ! will[4 ,?is consi/s ( two wr\ght-iron drums1 ,b ,b1 furni%$ ) wr\ght-iron tee? ,c1 :i* :5 ! drums revolve pass rapidly ne> to ! /ation>y tee? fix$ into ! ca/-iron framework ( ! will[4 ,! sides are cov]$ 9 ) ca/-iron doors1 & ! top is cov]$ ov] #hb ) %eet iron4 ,und]nea? ! drums is a grat+ = ! escape ( du/4 ,! rags1 hav+ be5 ?or\ghly beat5 by ! tee? ( ! drums1 pass into ! du/] ,d1 consi/+ ( a k9d ( holl[ cyl9d] ,e1 made ( /rong iron b>s securely fa/5$ to ! circul> ends ,f1 ! b>s be+ cov]$ ) wire clo? or p]=at$ z9c4 ,x is made to revolve almo/ horizontally1 a slight dip be+ giv5 to x 9 ord] t ! rags may be c>ri$ =w>d to ! l[] end4 ,! b>s or skeleton ( ! cyl9d] are furni%$ ) a numb] ( tee? securely bolt$ on4 ,! :ole is enclos$ 9 a /rong wood5 box 9 :i* x revolves1 & :i* s]ves to collect ! du/ pass+ ?r\gh ! wire clo?4 ,! cyl9d] ,e is driv5 by ! ge>+ ,g4 ,?is comb9$ will[ & du/] may be us$ = du/+ & clean+ n only rags1 b almo/ any o!r k9d ( fibre4 ,! will[ & du/] sometimes =m two sep>ate ma*9es4 ,! clean$ & du/$ rags are n[ ready to be boil$1 al?\gh x is ! practice 9 "s mills to give !m a prelim9>y wa%+ ) wat]4 ,! boil+ may be conduct$ ei!r 9 sph]ical or cyl9drical boil]s1 or 9 ! ord9>y vomit+ boil]s describ$ "u ,esp>to4 7,see p4 #ib47 ,9 ,fig4 #ah is %[n1 "p 9 section & "p 9 elevation1 a sph]ical rag-boil]1 z manufactur$ by ,messrs4 ,g4 ,w4 ,b]tram4 ,?is boil]1 ( f #h to #i feet diamet]1 is support$ by means ( ! holl[ j\rnals ,a on ! /&>ds ,b1 & is made to revolve by means ( ! ge>+ ,c4 ,/eam ent]s by ! pipe ,d1 :i* is fitt$ ) a safety-valve ,e1 & vacuum valve ,f4 ,! /eam on ent]+ ! boil] is di/ribut$ by means ( ! 8baffle-plate0 ,g4 ,lye ent]s by ! pipe ,h4 ,! boil] is fitt$ ) two doors ,i1 :]e) to fill & empty2 ! wa/e lye is run (f by ! cock ,j4 ,l is a small bl[-?r\gh cock4 ,! false bottom ,k prev5ts ! rags f *ok+ up ! cock & also s]ves to dra9 (f ! wa/e liquor4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ah4 ,! alkali employ$ may be ei!r cau/ic lime1 cau/ic #hc soda1 sodium c>bonate1 or a mixture ( ! latt] & lime1 :i* is ( c\rse equival5t to us+ cau/ic soda4 ,! proportion ( alkali dep5ds ^u s _m consid]ations t x is q impossible to give exact in=mation on ?is po9t4 ,9 ! case ( cau/ic soda1 a quantity equal to f #e-aj p] c5t4 on ! rags may be tak5 to be a fair av]age4 ,if lime be us$ x %\ld be slak$ ) wat]1 made into a ?9 milk & c>efully filt]$ ?r\gh f9e wire clo? to keep back ! p>ticles ( s&1 coal1 c41 :i* lime is always liable to conta94 ,f #e-aj p] c5t4 may be us$4 ,! am\nt ( lime actually dissolv$ 9 ! wat] is relatively small 7#ac grms4 p] litre72 ! portion 9 solution h[ev]1 rapidly comb9es ) ! grease1 dirt1 & col\r+ matt] ( ! rags & =ms ) !m insoluble comp\nds1 a fre% portion ( lime be+ at ! same "t dissolv$4 ,?is =mation ( insoluble comp\nds con/itutes an important objection to ! use ( lime1 z !y are liable #hd to rema9 to "s ext5t fix$ 9 ! rags & are ) great difficulty remov$ by wa%+4 ,= ?is reason1 !re=e1 ! m soluble alkali is to be pref]r$4 ,moreov]1 ! lime sometimes t5ds to ex]t a h>d5+ effect ^u ! cellulose4 ,not)/&+ ^! objections1 lime is us$ by "s pap]-mak]s 9 pref]5ce to soda4 ,9 mak+ *oice ( ! *emical = boil+1 mu* dep5ds on ! quality ( ! rags & ! nature ( ! pap] = :i* !y are int5d$1 s t no def9ite rules c be giv54 ,! "t ( boil+ v>ies f #b to #f h\rs1 accord+ to ! quality ( rags1 ! *emical employ$1 & ! pressure4 ,! use ( v high pressures %\ld be avoid$ z f> z possible1 z !re is a dang]1 ow+ to ! correspond+ly high temp]ature1 ( fix+ ! dirt & col\r+ matt]s in/ead ( dissolv+ !m4 ,! quantity ( wat] %\ld be kept z l[ z may be1 9 ord] to h z /rong a solution ( alkali z possible2 ?is effects a sav+ bo? 9 ! "t ( boil+1 & 9 ! alkali4 ,?is is ( great importance :]e x is necess>y to evaporate ! :ole ( ! wa/e liquors4 ,x %\ld also be rememb]$ t a c]ta9 am\nt ( wat] is always =m$ by cond5sation 9 all boil]s 9 :i* live /eam is us$4 ,on ! o!r h&1 if too little wat] be add$1 ! rags are liable to become 8burn$0 & ! fibre !re=e weak5$4 ,dur+ ! op]ation ! boil] %\ld be made to revolve sl[ly1 9 ord] to produce ?or\gh circulation ( ! liquor4 ,! boil+ be+ complet$1 ! pressure is all[$ to fall1 ei!r by cool+ or by bl[+ (f f a cock usually provid$ = t purpose1 & ! liquor all[$ to collect at ! bottom ( ! boil]4 ,x is !n run (f by ! cock ,j 7,fig4 #ah71 & ! rags dra9$ z mu* z possible4 ,wat] is !n run 9 to give ! rags a prelim9>y wa%+4 ,if "t p]mits ! /eam may be turn$ 9 & ! op]ation assi/$4 ,aft] aga9 dra9+1 ! rags are )drawn f ! boil] into any suitable receptacle4 ,a conv5i5t =m is t ( a rectangul> iron box on :eels1 :i* c be readily transf]r$ f "o "p ( ! mill to ano!r4 #he ,! next process is t ( wa%+4 ,?is is usually p]=m$ 9 a wa%] or break]1 ! con/ruction ( :i* is %[n 9 ,fig4 #ai4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ai4 ,x consi/s ess5tially ( a rectangul> vessel ) r\nd$ ends1 9 ! c5tre ( :i*1 b n ext5d+ ! :ole #hf way1 is a p>tition ,b1 kn[n z ! 8mid-fea!r40 ,! roll ,a1 :i* is furni%$ ) a numb] ( /eel knives ,g1 & driv5 f ! :eel ,h1 revolves 9 "o ( ! comp>tm5ts =m$ by ! mid-fea!r4 ,9 ?is comp>tm5t ! floor is incl9$ 9 su* a way z to br+ ! pulp well "u ! roll1 z %[n by ! dott$ l9e ,d4 ,imm$iately "u ! roll is :at is call$ ! 8b$-plate10 ! end ( :i* is se5 at ,i1 ext5d+ up to ! mid-fea!r1 & fitt$ ) knives simil> to ^? 9 ! roll ,a4 ,! arrangem5t ( ! knives1 bo? 9 ! b$-plate & ! roll1 is simil> to t giv5 9 ,figs4 #cc & #cd4 ,! di/ance betwe5 ! roll & ! b$-plate c be v>i$ at w by means ( ! h&le ,e1 :i* is s arrang$ z to raise bo? ends ( ! roll simultane\sly4 ,9 ^? break]s ( an old] patt]n1 "o end only ( ! roll 0 rais$1 & ?us ! knives became worn unequally4 ,aft] pass+ betwe5 ! roll & ! b$-plate1 ! pulp fl[s d[n ! 8back-fall0 ,d1 & f9ds its way r\nd to ! o!r side ( ! mid-fea!r4 ,on ! incl9$ "p ( ! floor1 & imm$iately 9 front ( ! b$-plate ,i1 a small depression is made1 cov]$ ) an iron grat+1 = ! purpose ( cat*+ buttons1 small pieces ( /one1 & o!r heavy sub/ances t may h f\nd _! way into ! rags4 ,!re is g5]ally a simil> grat+ ) r f9] op5+s on ! o!r side ( ! mid-fea!r4 ,! eng9e is con/ruct$ ( iron1 g5]ally made 9 "o ca/+4 ,! dirty wat] f ! rags is remov$ by ! 8drum-wa%]0 ,c4 ,x is divid$ into comp>tm5ts by ! p>titions %[n by ! dott$ l9e c4 ,! c5tre ( ! drum is =m$ ( a conical tube1 ! n>r[ end ( :i* is t[>ds ! mid-fea!r4 ,! ends ( ! drum are g5]ally made ( mahogany1 z ?is is f\nd to /& ! action ( alkali bett] ?an any o!r wood4 ,! p]iph]y is cov]$ ) f9e copp] or brass wire-clo?1 laid on to a back+ ( a mu* co>s] mat]ial4 ,an improv$ =m ( back+ has be5 introduc$ lately1 :i* is mu* m durable ?an wire4 ,x is =m$ ( brass cut into ! =m %[n 9 #hg ,fig4 #bj4 ,! drum c be rais$ or l[]$ by ! small :eel ,f1 & x is driv5 by a belt on ! %aft t be>s ! roll4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bj4 ,! wa%-wat] passes ?r\gh ! wire clo? into ! comp>tm5ts =m$ by ! p>titions c1 & f9d+ its way d[n to ! n>r[ end ( ! inn] conical tube1 fl[s out ?r\gh ! side ( ! drum into a tr\gh :i* is plac$ across ! wa%] to receive x4 ,or x may1 z %[n 9 ! draw+1 be conduct$ ?r\gh ! mid-fea!r itself1 :i* is made holl[ at ?is "p = ! purpose4 ,ano!r =m ( drum-wa%]1 call$ ! siphon-wa%]1 is sometimes us$4 ,its con/ruction w be und]/ood by ref]5ce to ,figs4 #ba & #bb4 ,! drum is simply a holl[ cyl9d] ( wire clo?1 ! ends ( :i* are =m$ ( wood4 ,inside ! cyl9d] is ! siphon tube ,a1 into :i* ! wat] pass+ ?r\gh ! wire clo? fl[s4 ,! cont9uation ( ! siphon tube ,b 7,fig4 #bb7 is made ( flexible tub+4 ,! action ( ! siphon is comm5c$ by fill+ x ) wat] ?r\gh ! cock ,c 7,fig4 #bb74 ,! wat] !n fl[s 9 ! direction indicat$ by ! arr[s4 ,! tube ,a is fix$1 & passes ?r\gh a holl[ j\rnal fitt$ on to ! end ( ! drum4 #hh ,! o!r end is connect$ ) ! rod ,e1 on :i* ! driv+ pulley ,d is plac$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ba4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bb4 ,! wat] pass+ ?r\gh ! wire clo? on ! drum c>ries ) x a c]ta9 am\nt ( fibre :i*1 unless special precautions are tak5 7see 8,save-all10 p4 #aed7 is lo/4 ,! am\nt is consid]able 9 ! case ( weak rags1 & c>e %\ld !re=e be tak5 t ! wa%+ is n prolong$ m ?an is consi/5t ) prop] cleans+1 & t ! pulp %\ld n be too mu* brok5 up at ?is /age4 ,! wa%$ & brok5 pulp goes by ! "n ( 8half-/uff40 #hi ,! foll[+ is ! usual plan ( treat+ rags 9 ! wa%]3--,x is fir/ half-fill$ ) wat]1 & ! rags f ! boil] put 9 gradually until ne>ly fill$4 ,wat] is n[ all[$ to fl[ 9 at ! opposite end to :]e ! drum-wa%] is plac$4 ,?is1 by ! action ( ! roll1 mixes ?or\ghly ) ! pulp & extracts all ! soluble matt]1 & also c>ries ) x f9e insoluble impurities4 ,! action ( ! knives 9 ! roll on ! rags pass+ betwe5 x & ! knives 9 ! b$-plate s]ves to break !m up & ?or\ghly dis9tegrate !m4 ,! dirty wat] !n passes away ?r\gh ! drum-wa%]1 ! /ream ( pure wat] be+ regulat$ s z to keep ! level con/ant4 ,?is is cont9u$ until only pure wat] passes away4 ,! supply is !n /opp$1 ! wa%] /ill be+ kept 9 action4 ,z ! level falls ! drum is l[]$ by means ( ! h&le ,f4 ,:5 suffici5tly dra9$ ! pulp is dis*>g$ ?r\gh a valve 9 ! bottom ( ! eng9e4 ,x is n[ ready to be blea*$4 ,?is may be done 9 sep>ate eng9es call$ 8pot*]s10 some:at resembl+ ! break] or wa%] already describ$1 or x may be done 9 ! break] itself4 ,! process ( blea*+ w be describ$ 9 ,*apt] ,,vii4 ,occasionally1 ! blea*+ process is conduct$ 9 ! 8beat]0 itself1 b ?is is n to be recomm5d$4 ,esp>to4--,?is fibre1 on acc\nt ( its high p]c5tage ( non-cellulose con/itu5ts1 requires a l>ge am\nt ( soda to resolve x2 on ! o!r h&1 be+ ( ! nature ( a pecto-cellulose1 ! process ( dis9tegration may be conduct$ at a l[ pressure2 9 fact1 x is ! practice at "s mills to boil 9 op5 vessels1 9 :i* case1 h[ev]1 a l>g] am\nt ( soda is requir$4 ,z has be5 already /at$1 x may be tak5 z a g5]al rule = all fibres1 t )9 c]ta9 limits ! high] ! pressure employ$ ! less soda is requir$4 ,! quantity necess>y also v>ies ) ! di/rict f :i* ! grass comes4 ,cau/ic soda is ! *emical inv>iably employ$2 lime1 on acc\nt ( its =m+ insoluble comp\nds ) ! #ij non-cellulose portion ( ! grass1 is inapplicable4 ,n only does ! am\nt ( soda dep5d ^u ! pressure1 b x also dep5ds to a consid]able ext5t on ! =m ( boil] employ$4 ,! use ( rot>y boil]s is objectionable1 z ! esp>to t5ds to collect toge!r into compact masses1 :i* are ) difficulty p5etrat$ by ! liquor4 ,x is !re=e ! almo/ univ]sal practice to employ /ation>y boil]s4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bc4 ,! fir/ treatm5t t ! esp>to und]goes is t ( 8pick+40 ,! b&s ( ! bales 9 :i* esp>to is pack$1 g5]ally by hydraulic pressure1 are cut1 & ! grass is spread out on tables by wom51 :o c>efully remove su* impurities z we$s1 root-ends1 c41 :i* f _! nature are ) great difficulty boil$ & blea*$1 & :i* if n remov$ w\ld be liable to appe> 9 ! f9i%$ pap] z d>k-col\r$ specks1 te*nically kn[n z 8%eave40 ,?is treatm5t is call$ 8dry-pick+10 9 contradi/9ction to a subsequ5t process1 kn[n z 8wet-pick+40 ,a portion ( ! table is cov]$ ) co>se wire gauze1 ?r\gh :i* :5 ! grass is spread ov] x loose p>ticles ( s&1 dirt1 c41 escape4 ,! clean+ ( esp>to c be mu* bett] accompli%$ by means ( ma*9]y4 ,fig4 #bc is an elevation ( a ma*9e manufactur$ = ! purpose by ,messrs4 ,masson1 ,scott & ,b]tram4 ,! grass1 :i* may be 9 ! =m ( %eaves1 z tak5 f ! bales1 is put 9 by ! hopp] ,a4 ,x passes !nce to a conical #ia drum made ( /eel b>s plac$ v close toge!r1 driv5 rapidly by ! %aft ,b4 ,x is provid$ ) five r[s ( tee?4 ,fix$ to ! sides ( ! will[ !re is also a r[ ( /ation>y tee?4 ,! grass is ?or\ghly brok5 up & du/$ by ! action ( ! tee?1 & is transf]r$ to ! wide end ( ! will[ at ,c1 :]e x is c>ri$ =w>d on ! travell+ tables ,d4 ,dur+ its passage along ! tables x c be exam9$ & pick$ by wom5 /&+ on ! plat=ms ,e4 ,! du/ & dirt pass+ ?r\gh ! /eel b>s ( ! drum are drawn away by a fan ?r\gh ! pipe ,f4 ,?is ma*9e is also adapt$ s z to c>ry ! clean$ grass to ! boil]-h\se4 ,x is tak5 =w>d by means ( travell+ rakes ov] ! tops ( a s]ies ( boil]s1 any "o ( :i* c be furni%$ by simply op5+ a door correspond+ 9 position ) ! lid ( ! boil]4 ,boil+4--,! ord9>y =m ( boil] is %[n 9 ,fig4 #bd4 ,x is kn[n z a vomit+ boil]4 ,! grass is put 9 by ! door ,e1 :i* is h+$1 & is c\nt]balanc$ by ! weights ,l4 ,x is securely fa/5$ d[n by ! screws ,f4 ,/eam ent]s by ! inn] pipe ,a1 :i* dips a little bel[ ! p]=at$ false bottom ,b4 ,surr\nd+ ! /eam-pipe is a wid] pipe ,c1 op5 at ! top1 :i* is made slightly trumpet-%ap$2 also op5 at ! bottom1 :]e x ends 9 a k9d ( %\ld]1 on :i* ! false bottom re/s4 ,! l[] "p has two or m op5+s ,g cut away1 ?r\gh :i* ! liquor c freely pass4 ,9 ord] to get z l>ge a *>ge into ! boil] z possible1 /eam is turn$ on :ile furni%+1 & a quantity ( cau/ic soda lye is also run 91 :i* has ! effect ( s(t5+ ! grass & mak+ x m compact4 ,?is is cont9u$ until ! boil] is well fill$4 ,! action ( ! boil] is z foll[s3--,! /eam pass+ ?r\gh ! pipe ,a heats ! liquor t has dra9$ f ! grass ?r\gh ! p]=ations 9 ! false bottom1 & =c+ x up ! wide pipe ,c1 causes x to /rike aga9/ ! dome or bonnet ,d1 & di/ribute itself aga9 ov] ! grass4 #ib ,?is is te*nically kn[n z 8vomit+40 ,9 ?is way a con/ant circulation ( liquor is kept up4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bd4 ,! boil] is empti$ by ! door ,h & ! liquor is run (f by ! cock ,i4 ,! boil]s are usually suppli$ ) a safety valve ,e1 & also ) a pipe = lett+ (f ! /eam :5 ! boil+ is f9i%$4 ,! boil+ g5]ally takes f f\r to six h\rs4 ,! quantity ( soda necess>y dep5ds ^u ! nature ( ! grass1 ,spani% requir+ less ?an ,african4 #ic ,r\tl$ge1 to :om ! introduction ( esp>to z a pap]-mak+ mat]ial is due1 gives #aj p] c5t4 z ! prop] quantity4 ,! pressures employ$ v>y f #e lb4 to #de lb4 ,!re has be5 a gr[+ t5d5cy ( late to employ ! high] pressures = reasons already /at$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #be4 ,( late ye>s great improvem5ts 9 ! =m ( ! boil] h be5 introduc$4 ,fig4 #be is an illu/ration ( ,roeckn]'s ,pat5t ,boil]4 ,! vomit pipe is outside ! boil]4 ,/eam ent]+ by ! cock ,d1 =ces ! liquor up ! v]tical vomit pipe & di/ributes x ov] ! grass4 ,! pipe ,k is us$ = heat+ ! liquor at ! comm5cem5t ( ! op]ation by means ( wa/e /eam4 ,f ,f are gauges = indicat+ ! height ( ! liquor4 ,! grass is put 9 by ! op5+ ,g4 ,! pipes ,a ,b & ,c are = ! supply ( #id /eam1 /rong lye & wat]4 ,! boil$ grass is dis*>g$ by ! circul> door ,e4 ,! boil] holds ?ree tons ( grass & ! boil+ is complet$ 9 ab\t #b #a_/b h\rs1 ! pressure be+ ab\t #ce-dj lb4 p] squ>e in*4 ,x is claim$ t by its use a sav+ bo? ( "t & soda is effect$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bf4 ,s9clair's ,pat5t ,boil] is %[n 9 ,fig4 #bf4 ,! vomit pipes1 ( :i* !re are two1 are made ( ?9 /eel plates #ie rivet$ to opposite sides ( ! boil]4 ,! liquor dra9s ?r\gh ! p]=at$ false bottom1 & is !n =c$ up ! vomit pipes above ! p]=at$ plates ?r\gh :i* x is di/ribut$ ov] ! grass 9 a numb] ( f9e jets4 ,! boil] is *>g$ by ! door e & empti$ by j4 ,! small cock a is us$ z a bl[-?r\gh cock2 ! op5+ b is us$ = bl[+-(f /eam :5 empty+ ! boil]2 c = lett+ 9 cau/ic soda lye2 d = wat]4 ,/eam ent]s by ! small bran* ( ! ,t pipe at ! bottom ( ! boil]1 ! o!r1 g be+ us$ = runn+ (f ! wa/e liquor4 ,a boil] holds f two to ?ree tons ( grass1 & a boil+ is complet$ 9 ab\t two h\rs at a pressure ( #dj-ej lb4 p] squ>e in*4 ,! two =ms ( boil] above describ$ possess ! obvi\s advantage ( hav+ ! :ole or ne>ly ! :ole ( ! int]ior available = hold+ grass2 ! boil]s c !re=e be made to hold m1 & ! boil+ is moreov] mu* m ev5ly accompli%$4 ,wa%+4--,! boil+ be+ complet$1 ! /eam is all[$ to escape & ! liquor to collect at ! bottom ( ! boil] :]e x is run away by ! pipes plac$ at ! bottom = ! purpose4 ,wat] is !n run 9 & /eam turn$ on = a %ort "t2 ?is is also run (f1 & ! grass dra9$ z completely z possible4 ,! boil$ grass is !n empti$ into trucks & tak5 away to ! wa%+ eng9es4 ,^! resemble ^? already describ$ "u rags4 ,dur+ ! process ( wa%+1 a c]ta9 am\nt ( ! %ort] fibres f9d _! way ?r\gh ! me%es ( ! wire-clo?4 ,9 addition to ?is a l>ge proportion ( ! cellul> tissue surr\nd+ ! fibro-vascul> bundles 7see ,fig4 #ab1 p4 #eg7 is c>ri$ away4 ,if ! wa%-wat] be exam9$ "u ! microscope1 x w be se5 to consi/ l>gely ( ?is cellul> matt]4 ,?\gh ?is entails a c]ta9 loss ( cellulose1 its removal is 9 o!r respects advantage\s1 z x is possess$ ( h>dly any 8felt+0 prop]ties1 & x is moreov] exce$+ly difficult to blea*4 ,! am\nt ( fibre actually obta9$ 9 practice is b little bel[ t conta9$ 9 ! grass4 ,a c]ta9 loss is #if inevitable1 b ?is probably does n exce$ #a or #b p] c5t4 ,! p]c5tage ( cellulose 9 esp>to is giv5 on p4 #eg4 ,! foll[+ numb]s obta9$ by ! au?ors are some:at high]4 ,!y are calculat$ on ! absolutely dry fibre2 ^? m5tion$ are on ! air-dry samples3-- ,cellulose p] c5t4 ,spani% #ehj ,tripoli #dfc ,arzew #ebj ,oran #dif ,!re is no d\bt t consid]able diff]5ces occur ev5 betwe5 diff]5t specim5s ( ! same k9d ( grass4 ,x is ! practice 9 "s mills to wa% ! grass 9 a s]ies ( tanks connect$ toge!r 9 ! same way z ! lixiviat+ tanks ( an alkali works4 ,!y are s arrang$ t pure wat] fl[s 9 at "o end1 passes ?r\gh fre% lots ( grass 9 succession1 & issues at ! fur!r end highly *>g$ ) ! soluble products ( ! grass4 ,by su* an arrangem5t ! grass c be wa%$ )\t any loss ( fibre1 & ) a m9imum quantity ( wat]4 ,?is latt] feature is ( great importance 9 mills :]e x is necess>y to evaporate ! :ole ( ! wa/e liquors f ! esp>to1 z !y are !n obta9$ 9 a v conc5trat$ =m4 ,ev5 ) su* an arrangem5t x is advisable to give ! grass a %ort f9al treatm5t 9 ! wa%+ eng9e4 ,! wa%+ hav+ be5 complet$1 & ! esp>to hav+ be5 brok5 up into 8half-/uff10 x is n[ ready to be blea*$ 7see ,*ap4 ,,vii474 ,! presse-pte sy/em1 orig9ally adopt$ = ! treatm5t ( /raw1 has ( late ye>s be5 ext5sively appli$ to esp>to4 ,! presse-pte consi/s ( ! wet end ( a pap] ma*9e1 & is furni%$ ) s&-tables & /ra9]s4 ,! pulp is all[$ to fl[ on to ! wire clo?1 s z to =m a ?ick web ( pulp4 ,! bulk ( ! wat] passes away ?r\gh ! wire clo?2 a fur!r quantity is remov$ by ! #ig vacuum-boxes & c\*-rolls4 ,! pulp1 conta9+ f #ej to #fj p] c5t4 ( wat]1 is w\nd r\nd an iron rod until a suffici5tly l>ge roll is =m$4 ,! advantages ( ! presse-pte sy/em are ! possibility ( ! removal ( dirt & unboil$ portions by means ( ! s&-tables & /ra9]s1 & ! v complete wa%+ & removal ( ! products ( ! action ( blea*+ p[d]4 ,x also enables manufactur]s to disp5se ) ! some:at co/ly me?ods ( dry & wet pick+4 ,! presse-pte sy/em c also be appli$ to ! unblea*$ pulp4 ,x may be int]e/+ at ?is po9t to say some?+ ab\t ! sub/ances :i* are remov$ f ! esp>to by ! cau/ic soda4 ,on ref]r+ to p4 #eg x w be se5 t ! orig9al grass conta9s ne>ly half its weight ( extractive matt]1 ! removal ( :i* has to be effect$4 ,only a small proportion ( ?is is extractive matt] 9 ! ord9>y s5se ( ! t]m1 i4e4 t c be extract$ by ! usual solv5ts2 ! rema9d] is intimately comb9$ ) ! cellulose4 ,! action ( ! cau/ic soda is to resolve ^! bodies1 ! cellulose rema9+ beh9d1 & ! o!r con/itu5ts be+ dissolv$ z res9\s bodies by ! soda4 ,a c]ta9 proportion ( ! m9]al con/itu5ts1 notably ! silica1 dissolves 9 ! lye1 ! latt] =m+ silicate ( soda4 ,on neutraliz+ ! liquor ) an acid1 ! bulk ( ! dissolv$ con/itu5ts is ?r[n d[n z a d>k br[n res9\s mass4 ,if ?is crude product be purifi$1 x is f\nd to consi/ ( a def9ite body hav+ ! =mula ,c#ba;,h#bd,o#h4 ,by ! action ( *lor9e on ?is res9 a bright yell[ *lor9e comp\nd is =m$1 resembl+ ! comp\nd f jute describ$ on p4 #ah4 ,if ! res9 be treat$ ) conc5trat$ nitric acid1 a bright yell[ body is =m$1 :i* =ms def9ite comp\nds ) bases1 & :i* has ! prop]ty ( dye+ animal fibres a bright orange col\r4 ,9 addition to ?is body1 a yell[i%-:ite wax c be isolat$4 ,x sometimes happ5s t ?is wax is b imp]fectly dissolv$ 9 ! cau/ic lye2 if ! wa/e liquor be all[$ #ih to /&1 ! wax is occasionally f\nd to collect 9 small quantities on ! surface4 ,v>i\s attempts h be5 made f "t to "t to remove f ! wa/e liquors ! soluble matt] d]iv$ f ! esp>to by ! addition ( lime4 ,?is ?r[s x d[n z a v volum9\s precipitate1 exce$+ difficult ( filtration4 ,! filtrate conta9s only cau/ic soda4 ,! difficulties ( removal ( ! precipitate1 h[ev]1 are almo/ insurm\ntable4 ,! usual me?od ( dispos+ ( ! liquor is to evaporate x to dryness & ignite x1 z w be subsequ5tly describ$ "u ! head ( 8,soda ,recov]y10 ,*apt] ,,xii4 ,/raw4--,/raw v closely resembles esp>to 9 its *emical con/itution2 x is1 h[ev]1 m highly lignifi$1 & = ?is reason 7see p4 #fc7 requires a m dra/ic treatm5t = its resolution4 ,x is !re=e usual to treat /raw ) r l>g] quantities ( cau/ic1 & g5]ally at high pressures4 ,x is possible1 h[ev]1 to resolve x at #e-aj lbs4 pressure1 b ! result+ pulp is m difficult to blea*1 & c only be us$ = inf]ior k9ds ( pap]4 ,9 treat+ /raw = use 9 high-class pap]1 x is necess>y to boil "u su* conditions t ev5 ! knots1 :i* are mu* less readily attack$1 %all be s f> dis9tegrat$ t !y may be blea*$ ) a mod]ate quantity ( blea*+ p[d]4 ,su* a treatm5t1 on ! o!r h&1 involves a dim9i%$ yield ( pulp1 & at ! same "t a some:at weak5$ fibre4 ,! k9ds ( /raw 9 g5]al use are :eat1 oat1 rye1 & b>ley2 ! two fir/ con/itut+ ! bulk ( ! raw mat]ial1 at lea/ 9 ?is c\ntry4 ,"s idea ( ! composition ( /raw may be ga!r$ f ! analyses giv5 on p4 #ei4 ,x w be se5 t ! am\nt ( cellulose is q z high z 9 esp>to1 b = ! reasons above giv5 & f ! fact t a l>ge proportion ( ! cellulose consi/s ( cellul> tissue 7see ,figs4 #ab & #ac71 :i* is easily attack$ by soda & readily passes ?r\gh ! me%es ( ! #ii drum-wa%]s & ! wire-clo? ( ! presse-pte & pap] ma*9e1 ! yield obta9$ 9 practice falls consid]ably bel[ t f esp>to4 ,9 addition to ! numb]s already quot$ on p4 #ei1 ! foll[+ results ( analyses made f "t to "t by ! au?ors1 may be int]e/+4 ,! p]c5tages are calculat$ on ! absolutely dry mat]ial4 ,cellulose p] c5t4 ,oat ,/raw #ebj ,oat ,/raw #ece ,:eat ,/raw #dif ,rye ,/raw 7,=eign7 #ecj ,oat ,/raw 7,=eign7 #dfe ,:eat ,/raw 7,=eign7 #ejb ,! yield ( pulp is greatly influ5c$ by ! conditions "u :i* x is obta9$2 high pressures & temp]atures ex]t+ consid]able influ5ce on ! result4 ,?is is probably ! case ) /raw m ?an any o!r fibre1 on acc\nt ( ! physical & *emical nature ( ! cellulose4 ,x is d\btful :e!r mu* m ?an #ce p] c5t4 is actually obta9$ 9 practice4 ,/raw is usually boil$ 9 cyl9drical rot>y boil]s4 ,"s pap]-mak]s1 h[ev]1 pref] to use "o or o!r ( ! diff]5t =ms ( vomit+ boil]s already describ$4 ,! use ( a rot>y boil] is op5 to c]ta9 objections4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 x is d\btful if !y are z economical ( soda z ! vomit+ boil]s1 especially ! m rec5t patt]ns2 &1 secondly1 ! rotation ( ! boil] s dis9tegrates ! pulp1 t a c]ta9 proportion ( ! cellulose1 especially ^? fibres :i* are %ort1 is liable to be lo/ dur+ ! subsequ5t treatm5t4 ,x seems probable t ! be/ results w\ld be obta9$ if ! rotation ( ! boil] 7 r$uc$ to a m9imum1 9 fact1 suffici5t only to produce ?or\gh circulation ( ! liquor4 ,! proportion ( soda necess>y to boil /raw ?or\ghly is1 = reasons already /at$1 great] ?an is ! case ) esp>to4 ,! am\nt v>ies f #aj to #bj p] c5t4 on ! raw mat]ial4 #ajj ,! diff]5t processes to :i* /raw is subject$ v>y greatly4 ,! foll[+ may be tak5 z a g5]al indication ( ! me?ods employ$4 ,! /raw is usually cut into %ort pieces ( ab\t #a-b 94 9 l5g? by means ( an ord9>y *aff-cutt]4 ,! cut /raw is c>ri$ by means ( a bla/ ( air along a wood5 tube or %aft into a *amb]1 ! sides ( :i* are made ( co>se iron gauze4 ,?is *amb] is itself inclos$ 9 ano!r *amb]1 9 :i* ! du/ & dirt accompany+ ! /raw collect4 ,! clean /raw is !n plac$ 9 sacks & convey$ to ! boil]-h\se4 ,ow+ to ! bulky nature ( /raw1 x is difficult to get a l>ge *>ge into a boil] at "o op]ation2 x is !re=e usual1 aft] hav+ fill$ x z completely z possible1 to run 9 a portion ( ! lye requir$1 & to turn on ! /eam = a few m9utes4 ,?is has ! effect ( s f> s(t5+ ! /raw z to make x lie closely at ! bottom ( ! boil] & to all[ ( a fur!r quantity be+ put 94 ,?is hav+ be5 accompli%$1 ! rema9d] ( ! lye requir$ is run 91 toge!r ) ! requisite quantity ( wat]1 & ! /eam turn$ on4 ,! pressure may v>y f #aj to #ej1 or ev5 #hj lbs4 p] sq4 941 & ! "t f #d-h h\rs4 ,:5 ! boil] has suffici5tly cool$1 ! *>ge is run out by a cock 9 ! bottom4 ,ow+ to ! rot>y action ( ! boil] ! /raw is 9 ! /ate ( f9e pulp1 hav+ be5 almo/ completely dis9tegrat$2 s f9e1 9 fact1 t x fl[s readily ?r\gh a #c-;94 pipe4 ,x is run into l>ge tanks ) p]=at$ tile bottoms1 :]e ! excess ( liquor is all[$ to dra9 away & ! pulp wa%$ by ! addition ( wat]4 ,x is !n dug out & tak5 to be blea*$4 ,be=e ?is is done1 h[ev]1 x may be necess>y to give x a fur!r wa%+4 ,?is may be done 9 ! pot*] itself4 ,in/ead ( wa%+ ! /raw 9 tanks1 x may be wa%$ 9 an ord9>y wa%+ eng9e1 su* z has be5 already describ$4 ,ow+ to ! f9ely divid$ /ate ( ! pulp1 h[ev]1 ?is me?od1 unless ! me%es ( ! wire-clo? cov]+ ! drum wa%] are v f9e1 entails #aja a consid]able loss ( fibre4 ,x is m suitable 9 cases 9 :i* ! /raw has be5 boil$ 9 /ation>y boil]s1 & 9 :i* !re=e x is less dis9tegrat$4 ,:5 /ation>y boil]s are employ$1 x is n necess>y to cut ! /raw v f9e2 9 fact1 x is sometimes put into ! boil] :ole4 ,! cutt+ has ?is advantage1 t x loos5s ! adh]+ dirt4 ,9 cases :]e ! action ( ! soda has n be5 c>ri$ f>1 or :5 ! /raw has be5 put into ! boil] :ole1 ! pulp w n be dis9tegrat$ to ! same ext5t1 & x w\ld n fl[ ?r\gh a n>r[ pipe4 ,x is necess>y !re=e to dis*>ge ! boil] ?r\gh ! doors us$ = fill+4 ,a novel =m ( wa%] especially adapt$ = /raw1 :]eby ! wa%+ is effect$ ) ! m9imum quantity ( wat]1 has be5 us$ on ! ,cont95t to a consid]able ext5t1 & to "s ext5t 9 ?is c\ntry4 ,! pulp is caus$ to pass along a s]ies ( revolv+ cones cov]$ ) wire-clo?1 ?r\gh :i* ! liquor escapes4 ,z x rea*es ! end ( ea* cone1 ! pulp is empti$ into a small tank conta9+ wat] f ! cones fur!r on 9 ! s]ies4 ,x is c>ri$ =w>d by means ( holl[ b5t arms connect$ ) ! inside ( ! next cone1 :i* !n dis*>ges x at ! o!r end1 to be aga9 c>ri$ =w>d4 ,z already /at$1 ! presse-pte sy/em is l>gely adopt$ = /raw pulp2 x has be5 describ$ "u ,esp>to4 ,x may sometimes be employ$ ) advantage be=e blea*+1 ?\gh x is g5]ally us$ aft]4 ,a me?od ( treat+ /raw is sometimes adopt$ :i* produces a pulp ( high] quality ?an is obta9able by ! ord9>y me?od4 ,! wa%$ pulp is mix$ 9 a *e/ provid$ ) /irr]s1 ) a l>ge quantity ( wat]1 & is !n pump$ into ano!r *e/ plac$ at a high] level1 f :i* x fl[s betwe5 a pair ( h>d granite mill/ones1 ! surfaces ( :i* are cut into radial grooves4 ,! /ones are fix$ horizontally1 & are made to revolve at a v rapid rate4 ,dur+ ! passage ( ! pulp ?r\gh ! /ones1 ! knots1 we$s1 & o!r h>d portions ( ! #ajb /raw :i* may h resi/$ ! action ( ! alkali are r$uc$ to a f9e /ate ( division1 & are ?us m readily act$ ^u 9 ! subsequ5t op]ation ( blea*+4 ,! degree ( f95ess to :i* ! pulp is r$uc$ c be det]m9$ by regulat+ its fl[ & ! di/ance betwe5 ! /ones4 ,pulp produc$ 9 ?is way is ( a v ev5 "*1 & is comp>atively free f unblea*$ p>ticles4 ,)9 ! la/ few ye>s a process ( treat+ /raw has be5 introduc$ :i*1 on acc\nt ( ! high quality ( ! pulp produc$1 has attract$ consid]able att5tion f pap]-mak]s4 ,x consi/s 9 expos+ pulp obta9$ 9 ! usual way by ! action ( cau/ic soda to ! action ( *lor9e gas4 ,! me?od 0 pat5t$ 9 ,engl& on ,m>* #crd1 #ahhj 7,no4 #ich71 by ,fri$ri* ,c>l ,glas]4 ,! am\nt ( soda 9 ! prelim9>y boil+ is r$uc$ mu* bel[ t necess>y = p]fect pulp+1 ! result be+ t ! cellulose is mu* less liable to be de/roy$1 & ?us a great] yield is obta9$4 ,! pulp is ?or\ghly wa%$ & p>tially fre$ f moi/ure 9 a c5trifugal ma*9e until only ab\t #gj p] c5t4 rema9s4 ,! p>tially dri$ pulp is !n expos$ 9 lead5 or /one *amb]s = "s h\rs 9 an atmosph]e ( *lor9e1 produc$ by ! action ( hydro*loric acid ^u manganese dioxide4 ,by ! action ( ! *lor9e1 ^? portions ( ! /raw :i* h be5 b imp]fectly act$ ^u by ! cau/ic soda 9 ! boil+ process are completely dis9tegrat$1 or1 r1 are r5d]$ m susceptible to ! action ( ! blea*+ liquor employ$ subsequ5tly4 ,! consequ5ce is t :5 blea*+ liquor is add$1 ! :ole ( ! /raw is rapidly r$uc$ to ! /ate ( pure cellulose1 & ! f9i%$ product is rem>kably free f any?+ l unblea*$ portions4 ,ow+ to ! fact t ! action ( ! cau/ic is m9imis$1 a consid]able proportion ( ! m easily degrad$ cellulose survives1 & ! yield ( pulp is !reby increas$4 ,! process is1 h[ev]1 necess>ily exp5sive4 ,! action ( ! *lor9e w be readily und]/ood by a ref]5ce to p4 #ai4 #ajc ,ow+ to ! fact t a consid]able proportion ( ! pulp obta9$ f /raw consi/s ( cellul> tissue 7see ,fig4 #ac1 p4 #eh71 :i*1 al?\gh cellulose1 is devoid ( fibr\s /ructure1 pap] made f /raw only is f\nd to be mu* weak] ?an t made f fibres su* z esp>to4 ,on ! o!r h&1 be+ a *eap mat]ial1 & "o capable ( yield+ a v :ite pulp ) a mod]ate quantity ( blea*1 x is held 9 consid]able repute by _m pap]-mak]s1 especially z a mat]ial = mix+ ) esp>to4 ,x is sometimes mix$ ) cotton & l95 rags1 ev5 9 ! f9e/ qualities ( pap]4 ,jute1 ,manilla1 ,adansonia1 c4--,! boil+ processes already describ$ "u ,esp>to & ,/raw are1 ) c]ta9 slight modifications1 equally applicable to fibres ( ?is class4 ,= conv5i5ce 9 manipulation !y are usually cut into small pieces by a ma*9e su* z is %[n 9 ,fig4 #af1 & are !n clean$ & du/$ 9 a will[+ ma*9e4 ,! boil+ process calls = no special notice beyond :at has be5 already said ) reg>d to o!r fibres4 ,a *eap] me?od1 & "o :i* is l>gely adopt$ 9 mills :]e only a co>se d>k-col\r$ pap] is requir$1 consi/s 9 boil+ ! jute or o!r fibre 9 lime4 ,su* a treatm5t is1 h[ev]1 n s effective z "o 9 :i* cau/ic soda is us$1 & ! fibre produc$ is h>d] & co>s] 9 e way4 ,! yield ( pulp1 h[ev]1 ow+ to ! fact t ! fibre is imp]fectly resolv$1 is great]4 ,9 _m cases1 f que/ions ( economy1 lime may be advantage\sly employ$4 ,jute c only be employ$ successfully :5 x is imp]fectly resolv$1 t is to say1 :5 x is n r$uc$ to ! /ate ( pure cellulose4 ,9 su* a /ate x =ms a comp>atively weak fibre1 ow+ to ! fact t x is resolv$ into its individual fibres4 ,if ! filam5ts are n completely resolv$1 !n a /rong fibre is ! result1 b 9 ?is case1 ! pulp _c be obta9$ 9 a pure :ite /ate4 ,ow+ to ?is fact1 jute has _h up to ! pres5t only a limit$ consumption1 except = ! manufacture ( co>se pap]s4 #ajd ,jute & ,adansonia are l>gely us$ = pap]s :]e /r5g? is ( m importance ?an appe>ance1 su*1 = example1 z pap] = telegram =ms1 /rong wrapp+ pap]1 c4 ,wood4--,! processes = treat+ wood h already be5 describ$ 9 ,*apt] ,v4 ,:5 an alkal9e treatm5t is adopt$1 ! alkali employ$ is1 at lea/ 9 ?is c\ntry1 cau/ic soda4 ,9 ,g]many ! sulphide ( sodium processes h be5 v l>gely adopt$4 ,! alkali me?od is1 h[ev]1 be+ sup]s$$ by ! m p]fect & m economical me?od ( treatm5t ) sulphur\s acid or acid sulphites4 8,broke0 ,pap]4--,"u ?is head may be includ$ all ! p>tially =m$ pap] :i* is always obta9$ 9 great] or less degree :5 a pap]-ma*9e is />t$1 or su* portions z are occasionally unavoidably damag$ 9 its passage ov] ! dry+ cyl9d]s1 toge!r ) ! imp]fect or reject$ portions4 ,x may also include us$ or wa/e pap]1 a l>ge proportion ( :i*1 if n too dirty1 is re-made into pap]4 ,! clean] portions1 especially if !y h n be5 dri$1 are frequ5tly return$ direct to ! beat]s1 & mix$ ) o!r pulp4 ,t :i* has be5 actually made into pap] requires to be s(t5$ by boil+ 9 wat] & #aje g5tle break+ 9 an eng9e4 ,x may be necess>y to heat x = a %ort "t 9 a weak solution ( cau/ic soda4 ,?is may be done ei!r 9 a break] or 9 special tanks provid$ = ! purpose4 ,pap] :i* has be5 pr9t$ ^u requires a r m dra/ic treatm5t1 & x mu/ ( c\rse be us$ = an inf]ior quality ( pap]1 z x is impossible to get x to z good a col\r z ! orig9al pulp f :i* x 0 made--at lea/ n economically4 8,broke0 pap] may be advantage\sly dis9tegrat$ by means ( an edge-runn]4 ,x consi/s ( a pair ( /ones arrang$ 9 ! same way z an ord9>y mort>-mill 7,fig4 #bg74 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bg4 ,me*anical ,wood ,pulp4--,a v l>ge quantity ( pulp is us$ 9 ! common] k9ds ( pap]1 su* z *eap news1 c41 :i* is obta9$ by dis9tegrat+ wood by me*anical means alone1 no *emicals be+ employ$4 ,! idea ( mak+ pap] 9 ?is way dates back ab\t #ajj ye>s1 b ow+ to ! want ( suitable ma*9]y x is only lately t a good product has be5 obta9$4 ,! foll[+ are1 9 a g5]al way1 ! details ( ! process employ$3-- ,! wood is fir/ cut up into blocks1 ! size ( :i* is det]m9$ by ! wid? ( ! /ones us$ = gr9d+2 any knots pres5t are cut out ) an axe4 ,! /ones are made ( s&/one1 & are cov]$ ov] ?ree quadrants ) an iron cas+1 ! rema9+ quadrant be+ expos$4 ,! surfaces ( ! /ones are made r\gh by ! pressure ( a /eel roll /udd$ ) po9ts1 & :i* is press$ aga9/ x :ile revolv+4 ,9 addition to ?is1 *annels ab\t #a_/d 94 deep are cut into ! /one at di/ances ( #b-c 94 ,!y are made 9 two sets1 cross+ ea* o!r 9 ! c5tre ( ! /one1 & s]ve to c>ry (f ! pulp to ! sides ( ! /one1 9 addition to giv+ increas$ gr9d+-surface4 ,! pressure ( ! blocks ( wood aga9/ ! /ones is /eadily ma9ta9$ by screws work$ by suitable ge>+2 ?is is necess>y 9 ord] to obta9 a pulp ( uni=m "*4 ,a /ream ( wat] is kept con/antly play+ on ! /one2 by ?is means1 ! pulp z fa/ z x is =m$ c be conv5i5tly c>ri$ away4 ,x is fir/ pass$ #ajf ?r\gh a rake1 :i* reta9s small pieces ( wood t h escap$ gr9d+4 ,! /ream ( pulp !n passes ?r\gh ! sort]s1 ! object ( :i* is to keep back su* portions ( ! wood z h n be5 suffici5tly dis9tegrat$4 ,^! consi/ ( cyl9d]s ab\t #c ft4 long & #b ft4 9 diamet]1 cov]$ ) a co>se wire-clo?4 ,! fibres t are reta9$ by ?is wire fall into ! ref9]s1 :i* consi/ ( a c\ple ( horizontal cyl9d]s ( s&/one1 ! upp] "o only ( :i* revolves4 ,"h !y are fur!r #ajg dis9tegrat$1 & are aga9 pass$ ?r\gh ! wire-clo?2 ?is is repeat$ until all ! fibres h pass$ ?r\gh4 ,! pulp1 aft] pass+ ?r\gh ! fir/ sort]1 may be conduct$ ?r\gh a s]ies ( gradually increas+ f95ess1 &1 by ?is means1 be sep>at$ into diff]5t qualities4 ,?\gh pulp s prep>$ _c compete ) *emically-prep>$ /uff1 z ! fibres are extremely %ort1 & h comp>atively little felt+-p[]1 x may be us$ ) advantage z a sort ( fill+-mat]ial4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bh4 ,v>i\s modifications ( ! =ego+ process h f "t to "t be5 propos$2 among o!rs1 t ( s(t5+ ! wood by previ\s soak+ 9 wat]1 or /eam+1 seems to be valuable1 z by s do+1 x is highly probable t a long] fibre c\ld be obta9$1 ! s(t wood be+ m readily torn away by ! /ones4 ,"s inv5tors h propos$ to replace ! s&/one by an artificial /one conta9+ a l>ge quantity ( em]y4 ,an improv$ me?od ( prep>+ me*anical wood pulp1 lately pat5t$ by ,mr4 ,a4 ,l4 ,?une1 ( ,*ri/iania1 has be5 communicat$ to u by ,mr4 ,c>l ,*ri/5s54 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bi4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cj4 ,! app>atus employ$ is %[n 9 ,figs4 #bh1 #bi1 & #cj4 ,fig4 #bh illu/rates an arrangem5t ( gr9d+ app>atus fix$ direct on to a turb9e4 ,! /one is fa/5$ on to ! %aft ,s work$ by ! turb9e ,t4 ,! wood 9 ! =m ( small blocks is kept 9 contact ) ! /one by a numb] ( hydraulic presses ,p4 #ajh ,a some:at simil> arrangem5t1 b plac$ horizontally1 is %[n 9 front & side elevation 9 ,figs4 #bi & #cj4 ,! same lett]s correspond4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ca4 ,! gr\nd & sort$ pulp is made into ?ick %eets by means ( ! bo>d ma*9e %[n 9 ,fig4 #ca4 ,! pulp mix$ ) wat] passes d[n ! %oot ,d into ! vat ,b 9 :i* ! cyl9d] ,k revolves4 ,?is cyl9d] is cov]$ ) wire-clo?1 & z x revolves x takes ) x a c]ta9 quantity ( pulp 9 ! =m ( a cont9u\s %eet4 ,?is %eet is tak5 on to ! endless travell+ felt ,f by ! small c\* roll ,e4 ,:5 x rea*es ! rolls ,c x is w\nd r\nd ! upp] "o1 f :i* x is remov$ :5 a suffici5t ?ickness is obta9$4 ,obta9$ 9 ?is =m ! pulp is readily transport$4 ,! woods commonly employ$ are :ite p9e & asp54 ,! latt] yields a pulp ( a bett] col\r1 b ( inf]ior /r5g? ?an ! =m]4 ,pap] conta9+ me*anical wood pulp is v liable to become discol\r$ by ! action ( air & light1 ! ligno-celluloses be+ mu* m readily act$ ^u ?an ! celluloses isolat$ f !m4 ,su* fibre is1 moreov]1 devoid ( mu* felt+ p[]2 x has1 9 fact1 little to recomm5d x b its comp>ative *eapness4 ,x is nev]!less us$ 9 l>ge quantities1 "s *eap pap]s be+ made entirely f x4 #aji ,,table ,,( ,,/r5g? ,,( ,,cau/ic ,,soda ,,solutions 7#ae ,c4 #ei ,f47 7,t,,nn]man74 ---------------------------------------- ----------------- ,equival5t ,p]c5tage ,specific ,degrees ,p] c5t4 ( #fj p] c5t4 ,gravity4 ,twaddle4#aj ,na#b,o4 ,cau/ic ,soda4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------- #ajjdj #jhj #jcjb #jejc #ajjha #afb #jfja #ajja #ajafc #cbf #abji #bjae #ajbdf #dib #ahac #cjba #ajccj #ffj #bdah #djcj #ajdad #hbh #cjbb #ejcg #ajejj #ajjj #cfbf #fjdc #ajehg #aagd #dbca #gjea #ajfge #acej #dhce #hjei #ajgfd #aebh #eddj #ijfg #ajhee #agaj #fjdd #ajjgc #ajidh #ahif #ffdh #aajhj #aajdb #bjhd #gbec #abjij #aaacg #bbgd #gheg #acjie #aabcc #bdff #hdfb #adajc #aaccj #bffj #ijff #aeaaj #aadbh #bhef #ifgj #afaag #aaebh #cjef #ajbge #agabe #aafcj #cbfj #ajhgi #ahaca #aagcd #cdfh #aadhd #aiadj #aahda #cfhb #abjhh #bjadg #aaidh #chif #abfib #baaec #abjeh #daaf #acbig #bbafa #abagh #dcef #acija #bcagj #abbhj #defj #adejf #bdagg #abcib #dghd #aeaaj #beagj ---------------------------------------- ----------------- ,,note4--,x mu/ be borne 9 m9d t ! above numb]s ref] only to solutions ( pure cau/ic soda4 ,) liquors conta9+ sodium *loride1 sulphate1 c41 ! specific gravity w give an errone\s view ( ! am\nt ( alkali pres5t1 z ^! salts ( c\rse raise ! gravity4 ,= example1 a liquor prep>$ by cau/icis+ a solution ( recov]$ soda has a specific gravity ( #aje 7#aj ,tw474 ,accord+ to ! above table ?is corresponds to #fjdc p] c5t4 ( #fj p] c5t4 cau/ic4 ,te/$ by means ( /&>d acid x %[$ #debj p] c5t4 ,too mu* reliance %\ld !re=e n be plac$ ^u det]m9ations ( specific gravity1 b 9 important cases ! actual am\nt ( alkali %\ld be det]m9$ by titration ) /&>d acid4 ,footnote #aj3 ,to conv]t degrees ,twaddle into specific gravity1 multiply by #e1 add #ajjj & divide by #ajjj3 ?us #g ,tw41 #g #e #ce #ajjj #ajjj7 #ajce 7#ajce sp4 gr4 #ajjj #cejj #cjjj #ejjj #ejjj #aaj ,,*apt] ,,vii4 ,,blea*+4 ,! me?ods ( blea*+ be+ ess5tially ! same = all pulps1 x w only be necess>y to describe "o 9 detail4 ,! process dep5ds ^u ! use ( a solution ( calcium hypo*lorite1 prep>$ by dissolv+ blea*+ p[d] 9 wat]4 ,?is solution is be/ prep>$ 9 a vessel provid$ ) /irr]s or agitators1 :]eby a ?or\gh mixture ( ! blea*+ p[d] & wat] is obta9$4 ,blea*+ p[d] always conta9s a c]ta9 am\nt ( free lime & calcium c>bonate1 :i* rema9 undissolv$ 9 ! wat]4 ,?is %\ld be all[$ to settle to ! bottom ( ! vessel1 & ! cle> liquor run (f4 ,! residue may !n be aga9 treat$ ) wat]1 or ) weak liquor obta9$ by wa%+ ! residue4 ,if ! wa%+s are too weak to be conv5i5tly us$ = blea*+1 !y may be /or$ 9 a sep>ate tank & us$ = dissolv+ fre% p[d]4 ,9 ?is way a /rong /ock solution c be readily prep>$1 ! p[d] at ! same "t be+ ?or\ghly exhau/$4 ,! wa%+ %\ld be repeat$ z frequ5tly z possible1 aft] :i* ! residue may be all[$ to dra94 ,?is op]ation is be/ conduct$ on a filt] b$ provid$ ) an air-pump simil> to t describ$ 9 ,*apt] ,,xii4 ,! residue is obta9$ 9 ?is way z a h>d cake1 conta9+ ab\t #fj p] c5t4 ( wat]4 ,if ! above op]ations h be5 prop]ly conduct$1 x %\ld n conta9 m ?an ab\t #jbe p] c5t4 ( *lor9e4 ,! orig9al p[d] %\ld conta9 f #ccj to #cej p] c5t4 ( 8available *lor9e10 t is1 *lor9e :i* is effective 9 ! blea*+ process4 #aaa ,ow+ to ! ease ) :i* x decomposes x %\ld be kept cool & n expos$ to ! air4 ,if possible1 "o or m l>ge /ore tanks %\ld be provid$ = ! /rong blea* liquor1 s t "t may be giv5 = ! complete sep>ation ( ! insoluble portions4 ,! liquor c be drawn (f ) a 8siphon0 pipe )\t di/urb+ ! residue4 ,x is ( ! utmo/ importance t only cle> liquor be us$1 z a milky solution ( calcium hypo*lorite is mu* m sluggi% 9 its action ?an "o :i* is p]fectly cle> & bright4 ,a conv5i5t /r5g? = ! /ock solution is #f ,twaddle3 ?is corresponds to ab\t half a p\nd ( blea*+ p[d] to ! gallon4 ,! me?od ( te/+ ! p[d] & its solution w be describ$ 9 ,*apt] ,,xiv4 ,! wa%$ & brok5 pulp is plac$ 9 ! 8pot*]0 toge!r ) ! necess>y quantity ( blea*+ liquor & z mu* wat] z is requir$ to produce complete circulation ( ! mass4 ,9 _m mills ! break] itself answ]s ! purpose ( a pot*] also4 ,! quantity ( wat] %\ld be kept z l[ z possible1 z x is f\nd t by ! use ( /rong solutions less blea*+ p[d] is requir$ ?an ) weak solutions2 moreov]1 less "t is requir$ to produce ! effect4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ) v /rong solutions1 ! pulp is liable to be injuri\sly affect$4 ,/raw & esp>to pulps are sometimes blea*$ 9 l>ge pot*]s made ( brick cov]$ ) cem5t4 ,! circulation ( ! pulp is produc$ by ! action ( paddles made ( wood or1 pref]ably1 ( iron4 ,_m 8pot*]s0 are provid$ ) /eam pipes1 :]eby ! mass ( pulp & liquor is heat$4 ,?is %\ld be done ) great c>e1 s z to avoid sup]heat+ 9 any "p1 z ?is is c]ta9 to cause de/ruction ( ! fibre4 ,! bett] plan1 :]e x c be adopt$1 is to uni=mly heat ! pulp be=e runn+ 9 ! blea*4 ,9 c]ta9 cases ! action ( ! calcium hypo*lorite is #aab assi/$ & accel]at$ by ! addition ( ei!r sulphuric or hydro*loric acids2 ^! comb9e ) ! lime & lib]ate hypo*lor\s acid1 :i* has a m rapid action ?an its calcium salt4 ,if ! acid be add$ 9 too l>ge quantity1 or ( too great a /r5g?1 x sometimes happ5s t in/ead ( hypo*lor\s acid1 *lor9e gas is giv5 (f1 "p ( :i* escapes into ! air1 ?us caus+ loss4 ,moreov]1 ! *lor9e is liable to ent] into comb9ation ) ! fibre sub/ance =m+ ! yell[ *lor9ation products describ$ on p4 #ah4 ,?is liability is great] 9 ! case ( highly lignifi$ fibres1 su* z wood or jute3 9 ^! cases1 !re=e1 ! use ( acids %\ld be avoid$4 ,:5 us$ ! acid %\ld be l>gely dilut$ ) wat] & add$ gradually4 ,! be/ plan is to all[ ! action ( ! blea* to cont9ue = "s "t1 only add+ ! acid :5 x is ne>ly exhau/$4 ,9 ?is way risk ( damage to ! pulp is avoid$4 ,! dilut$ acid %\ld be convey$ by a lead5 pipe pass+ d[n to ! floor ( ! pot*]1 & p]=at$ at its l[] extremity4 ,o!r means ( accel]at+ ! action ( ! blea*+ p[d] h be5 sugge/$1 su*1 = example1 z ! use ( bic>bonate ( soda1 :i* by d\ble decomposition =ms ) ! blea*+ p[d] c>bonate ( lime & free hypo*lor\s acid4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 mu* too exp5sive an ag5t4 ,! am\nt ( blea*+ p[d] necess>y to produce a good :ite col\r diff]s mat]ially ) ! fibre to be blea*$1 & ( c\rse ) ! degree ( resolution ( ! fibre sub/ance 9 ! prelim9>y treatm5t ) cau/ic soda4 ,! foll[+ numb]s may be tak5 to be approximations ( ! am\nt necess>y to blea* well-boil$ pulps3-- ,p] c5t4 ,p[d] calculat$ on ,unboil$ ,fibre4 ,esp>to #aj to #ae ,/raw #g to #aj ,wood #ae to #bj #aac ,a well-boil$ pulp %\ld conta9 f #ij to #ie p] c5t4 ( cellulose4 ,v excell5t results are sometimes obta9$ by sub/itut+ sodium hypo*lorite = ! calcium comp\nd4 ,?is is done by decompos+ a solution ( blea*+ p[d] ) an equival5t quantity ( ei!r sodium sulphate or sodium c>bonate4 ,! precipitate ( calcium sulphate or c>bonate is all[$ to settle & ! cle> liquor run (f4 ,su* a solution is m sluggi% 9 its action ?an "o ( calcium hypo*lorite1 b x is m easily controll$1 & is less liable to injure any mat]ial treat$ ) x4 ,! "t necess>y to produce a p]fect blea* dep5ds on ! nature & condition ( ! pulp1 on ! degree ( conc5tration ( ! liquor1 & on ! temp]ature at :i* ! op]ation is conduct$4 ,"s pap]-mak]s pref] to ext5d ! blea*+ ov] a consid]able p]iod ( "t1 b ?is involves ! employm5t ( a l>g] sy/em ( 8pot*]s10 :i* 9 _m in/ances is an objection4 ,if ?is me?od is adopt$1 especially 9 ! case ( /raw or esp>to1 ! action ( ! paddles or roll %\ld be /opp$1 z o!rwise ! fibres are liable to felt toge!r 9 ! =m ( small gra9s1 :i* sometimes escape ! action ( ! beat+ roll1 & occasionally f9d _! way into ! pap]1 caus+ an unev5ness ( surface4 ,by giv+ long] "t to ! blea*+ !re is less risk ( damage to ! fibre1 & consequ5tly a great] yield ( blea*$ pulp4 ,! action ( ! blea*+ solution %\ld1 z f> z possible1 be conf9$ to ! non-cellulose portions ( ! fibre4 ,a c]ta9 action on ! cellulose itself inv>iably takes place1 b x %\ld be r$uc$ to a m9imum4 ,! action ( blea* ^u cellulose has be5 indicat$ 9 ,*apt] ,i41 p4 #aj4 ,= fur!r in=mation on ?is subject ! read] is ref]r$ to ! #8,j\rnal ( ! ,society ( ,*emical ,indu/ry1' #ahhd1 ,april #bi & ,may #bi4 ,a v good me?od ( blea*+ consi/s 9 a prelim9>y treatm5t 9 ! ord9>y way 9 ! pot*]1 foll[$ by a prolong$ /eep+ 9 tanks4 #aad ,9 ! case ( pulps :i* are v difficult to blea*1 ! action c be greatly assi/$ by wa%+ out ! products ( ! blea*+ action1 treat+ ! pulp = a %ort "t ) a weak alkal9e solution1 aga9 wa%+1 & !n repeat+ ! blea*+ process4 ,9 ?is way v refractory pulps c easily be blea*$4 ,ev5 an int]m$iate wa%+ ) wat] is useful4 ,9 mo/ cases1 :]e a fairly good col\r has be5 obta9$ by ! use ( blea*+ p[d] alone1 ! col\r is greatly improv$ by a s\r+ or treatm5t ) weak hydro*loric acid1 or1 bett] /ill1 ) solution ( sulphur\s acid4 ,or ! blea*+ may be conduct$ 9 two or m op]ations ) int]m$iate treatm5ts ) acid4 ,all ^! modifications1 h[ev]1 are m or less tr\blesome1 & %\ld only be resort$ to :5 ! ord9>y me?od fails4 ,aft] blea*+1 a c]ta9 quantity ( calcium hypo*lorite always rema9s 9 ! pulp4 ,x may be remov$ 9 ! pot*] itself1 or :5 ! pulp rea*es ! beat]4 ,9 any case1 ! me?ods adopt$ are ! same4 7,see p4 #abg47 ,9 "s mills x is ! practice to free ! blea*$ pulp f ! products ( ! decomposition ( ! blea* by press+ ! pulp 9 hydraulic presses1 or by dra9+ 9 vats provid$ ) p]=at$ bottoms4 ,or ! pulp may be made to pass ?r\gh a pulp-sav] 7see ,fig4 #eb1 p4 #aee47 ,*lor9e gas z a blea*+ ag5t has be5 almo/ entirely sup]s$$ by ! m manageable calcium hypo*lorite4 ,its employm5t is op5 to ! s]i\s objection indicat$ be=e1 viz4 ! liability to =m difficultly removable *lor9e comp\nds4 ,its use z a dis9tegrat+ ag5t has already be5 allud$ to 7see p4 #ajb74 ,a process has lately be5 inv5t$ 7,engli% pat5t1 ,no4 #aa1ccc1 #ahhd71 by ,pr(4 ,lunge1 :i* involves ! use ( acetic acid4 ,! quantity requir$ is1 h[ev]1 v small1 z dur+ ! process ( blea*+ x becomes reg5]at$4 ,! free lime 9 ! blea*+ p[d] solution %\ld fir/ be #aae ne>ly neutralis$ ) a *eap] acid1 su* z hydro*loric or sulphuric1 foll[$ !n by ! addition ( ! acetic acid4 ,?is process1 we are in=m$1 gives excell5t results ) high-class mat]ial1 su* z ! be/ cotton & l95 rags2 x is1 h[ev]1 n to be recomm5d$ = su* mat]ials z /raw or esp>to4 ,= ! blea*+ ( rags ! process inv5t$ by ,?ompson 7,engli% pat5t1 ,no4 #eie1 #ahhc7 has prov$ v effective4 ,! me?od consi/s 9 saturat+ ! mat]ial ) a weak solution ( blea*+ p[d]1 & !n expos+ !m to ! action ( c>bonic acid gas4 ,9 ?is way ! blea*+ action is made v rapid & effective4 ,electrolytic ,blea*+4--,v>i\s attempts h f "t to "t be5 made to blea* by means ( electricity--t is to say1 by means ( ! products ( ! electrolysis ( solutions ( alkal9e *lorides & ! *lorides ( ! alkal9e e>?s4 ,! only process :i* has be5 to any ext5t develop$ is t ( ,m4 ,h]mite4 ,?is process is bas$ ^u ! electrolysis ( a solution ( magnesium *loride1 ?is salt hav+ be5 f\nd to give ! mo/ economical results4 ,! solution1 at a /r5g? ( ab\t #be p] c5t4 ( ! anhydr\s salt 7,mg,cl#b71 is electrolys$ until x conta9s ! equival5t ( ab\t #cj grms4 *lor9e p] litre4 ,?is solution is !n run into ! 8poa*]0 conta9+ ! pulp to be blea*$2 a cont9u\s /ream is !n kept up1 ! excess be+ remov$ by means ( a drum-wa%]4 ,?is excess1 :i* aft] be+ 9 contact ) ! pulp 9 ! eng9e is m or less depriv$ ( its blea*+ prop]ties1 is !n return$ to ! electrolys+ vat1 :]e x is aga9 br\ght up to ! normal /r5g?4 ,! electrolys+ vat consi/s ( a rectangul> vessel ( slate or o!r suitable mat]ial4 ,! negative electrode may be con/ruct$ ( z9c2 = ! positive x is necess>y to employ plat9um4 ,! electrolys$ solution has be5 f\nd to possess v rem>kable prop]ties1 :i* h consid]able be>+ ^u ! economy ( ! process4 ,if a solution be tak5 ( equal #aaf oxidis+ effici5cy ) "o ( calcium hypo*lorite1 z indicat$ by ! ars5i\s acid te/ 7see p4 #bjf71 x is f\nd t ! =m] possesses great] blea*+ effici5cy ?an ! latt] 9 ! proportion ( #e to #c4 ,moreov]1 ! blea*+ is mu* m rapid1 & ! loss ( weight :i* ! sub/ances und]go is less1 = equal degrees ( :it5ess obta9$4 ,x has be5 %[n t by ! electrolytic me?od ! blea*+ ( pap] pulp c be effect$ at ne>ly "o-half ! co/ ( blea*+ p[d]4 ,! process is n[ be+ indu/rially c>ri$ out4 ,^? int]e/$ 9 ! subject are ref]r$ to a pap] by ! au?ors 9 ! #8,j\rnal ( ! ,society ( ,*emical ,indu/ry' = ,april #ahhg4 #aag ,,*apt] ,,viii4 ,,beat+4 ,! blea*$ pulp is n[ ready = ! f9al treatm5t4 ,if x 7 attempt$ to make pap] f ! pulp 9 ! /ate 9 :i* x leaves ! 8pot*]s0 or 8/eep+0 *e/s1 x w\ld be f\nd to be want+ 9 ev5ness ( texture & uni=mity ( surface4 ,?is result c only be secur$ by an elaborate process ( comm9ution or dis9tegration4 ,?is is 9 effect ! result produc$ by ! action ( ! 8beat]s40 ,!y resemble 9 g5]al appe>ance ! break+ eng9es previ\sly describ$2 ! roll1 h[ev]1 c>ries m knives1 & x is usually let d[n mu* ne>] to ! b$-plate4 ,9 ! case ( fibr\s sub/ances1 ^: ultimate fibres are relatively %ort 7see table1 p4 #ci71 x is only necess>y to split up ! filam5ts into _! con/itu5t fibres3 esp>to1 /raw1 & wood are ( ?is class4 ,9 ! case ( /raw1 ! dis9tegration is = ! mo/ "p accompli%$ 9 ! boil+ & blea*+ processes1 & !re=e b little "w devolves ^u ! beat]4 ,esp>to & wood require a c]ta9 am\nt ( beat+1 b ?is %\ld be regulat$ to ! draw+ asund] ( ! individual fibres1 any cutt+ ( ! fibres be+ c>efully avoid$4 ,?is is accompli%$ by adju/+ ! di/ance ( ! roll f ! b$-plate1 s t by ! friction ( ! fibres ^u !mselves1 :5 pass+ ov] ! plate1 a k9d ( rubb+ or 8bru%+0 is produc$4 ,if a c>efully-made pap] ( esp>to or wood be exam9$ by ! microscope1 x w be f\nd t ! majority ( ! fibres pres]ve ! po9t$ or slightly r\nd$ ends #aah *>act]i/ic ( ba/ cells4 ,on ! o!r h&1 x is obvi\s t cotton1 ^: ultimate fibres h a l5g? ( #bj to #dj mm41 & flax 7#be-cj mm471 ) o!r simil> fibres1 w require to be brok5 up into %ort fragm5ts 9 ord] to develop to ! fulle/ ! felt+ prop]ty ( ! pulp4 ,n only are ! fibres r$uc$ to ! mo/ fav\rable dim5sions1 b 9 cotton & l95 a fur!r contributory advantage accrues2 = on acc\nt ( ! int]nal /ructure ( ! ultimate fibres !y t5d to split up at ! po9t ( rupture into a numb] ( fibrill1 :i*1 9 ! case ( cotton1 take ! =m ( a network2 & 9 case ( l951 are se5 z a bundle ( di/9ct fibres p>allel to & cont9u\s ) ! fibre4 ,?is gives to ends ( ! fragm5ts a ragg$ cont\r1 :i* has consid]able influ5ce on ! felt+ p[] ( ! pulp1 & !re=e on ! /r5g? ( ! pap] into :i* x is made4 ,) ^! fibres1 !re=e1 ! 8cutt+0 z di/+ui%$ f ! 8break+0 action %\ld be avoid$ z mu* z possible1 o!rwise ! effect describ$ above w n be produc$1 & ! fibres w %[ in/ead a clean cut4 ,! appe>ance %[n by cotton & l95 pulp1 :5 ?or\ghly 8beat50 & ready to be made into pap]1 is giv5 9 ! frontispiece1 :i* is tak5 f ! au?or's micro-photographs4 ,! 8half-/uff0 is furni%$ to ! 8beat]10 or 8beat+0 eng9e z x is sometimes call$1 previ\sly p>tially fill$ ) wat]4 ,! furni%+ is done 9 successive portions1 ! fir/ be+ all[$ to mix ?or\ghly ) ! wat] be=e ano!r lot is add$4 ,?is is cont9u$ until ! mass is s ?ick t x w only j turn r\nd 9 ! beat] "u ! action ( ! 8roll40 ,ow+ to ! con/ruction ( ! beat] x frequ5tly happ5s t a portion ( ! pulp lodges 9 ! corn]s1 f :i* ! beat]man removes x by means ( a wood5 paddle1 :i* also s]ves to pu% =w>d ! pulp to ! roll 9 case ! motion is incl9$ to be sluggi%4 ,! proportion ( wat] to pulp %\ld n be too high1 o!rwise ! beat+ is n s effective2 at ! same "t1 #aai if ! mass is all[$ to get too ?ick1 imp]fect circulation results4 ,! op]ation ( 8beat+0 occupies a consid]able "t1 & consumes a l>ge am\nt ( p[]4 ,cotton & l95 rags naturally take long]--9 "s cases z mu* z t5 h\rs is giv5 to ! op]ation4 ,esp>to1 on ! o!r h&1 c be suffici5tly dis9tegrat$ 9 f two to f\r h\rs4 ,wood pulp requires v g5tle beat+2 x is !re=e necess>y to prolong ! "t to ab\t six h\rs4 ,^! diff]5ces 9 ! duration & me?od ( beat+ %\ld be borne 9 m9d :5 pulps ( diff]5t natures are mix$ toge!r 9 ! same beat]1 z is frequ5tly ! case4 ,x is bett]1 ) v dissimil> fibres1 to 8beat0 ea* sep>ately1 & only to mix !m 9 ! /uff-*e/s4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 is op5 to ! objection t ! pulps may be insuffici5tly mix$4 ,! l5g? ( fibre to :i* pulps %\ld be r$uc$ dep5ds to "s ext5t ^u ! k9d ( pap] to :i* x is to be appli$4 ,! au?ors h exam9$ a numb] ( pap]s by well-kn[n mak]s1 & f9d ! dim5sions 9 millimetres ( v>i\s pulps to be z foll[s3-- ,fibre4 ,maximum4 ,m9imum4 ,mean4 ,cotton #acb #jbc #jge ,l95 #abj #jbj #jgf ,esp>to #adj #jdj #ajj ,/raw #aej #jej #jhh ,wood #bfj #ajj #bjj ,wood & /raw pulp1 :5 import$ 9 ! =m ( dry %eets1 may1 be=e be+ beat51 be conv5i5tly dis9tegrat$ & ?or\ghly mix$ ) wat] by means ( ! edge-runn] describ$ "u 8,broke ,pap]10 p4 #ajd1 ,fig4 #bh4 ,9 mak+ ! f9] k9ds ( pap]1 ! roll] b>s or knives1 in/ead ( be+ made ( /eel are made ( bronze1 ?us any contam9ation ) oxide ( iron is avoid$4 ,?is is especially liable to take place 9 case ( /eel knives :5 ! beat] has be5 all[$ to /& = "s "t4 #abj ,! inside ( ! heat] itself is (t5 l9$ ) lead1 a mat]ial :i* is n liable to oxidize1 & :i* c v readily be clean$4 ,:5 a beat] has be5 runn+ = "s "t ! knives ( ! roll & ! b$-plate become worn & s f> r$uc$ t !y mu/ be tak5 out & re-cut4 ,! b$-plate is remov$1 firmly fix$ 9 ! b$ ( a plan+ ma*9e1 & ! edges trimm$ by means ( a *isel1 s z to cut ! knives at ! prop] angle4 ,! roll & b$-plate are %[n 9 section 9 ,fig4 #cb4 ,fig4 #cc is a plan ( a b$-plate1 & ,fig4 #cd illu/rates ! mann] 9 :i* ! knives are fix$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cb4 ,x w be se5 t ! knives 9 ! b$-plate are plac$ s t !y d n lie p>allel ) ^? ( ! roll4 ,?is arrangem5t imitates to "s ext5t ! action ( a pair ( scissors4 ,occasionally ! knives are slightly b5t1 s z to =m a v obtuse angle4 ,b$-plates s fitt$ are call$ #aba 8knee-plates40 ,!y are l>gely us$ 9 ,am]ica1 b n mu* 9 ?is c\ntry4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cc4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cd4 ,to obviate ! necessity ( remov+ ! roll1 a small ma*9e has be5 devis$ :]eby ! knives c be cut 9 situ4 ,?is ma*9e1 :i* c be firmly fix$ betwe5 ! mid-fea!r & ! side ( ! beat]1 consi/s ( a small /eam-eng9e :i* actuates a movable cutt]1 :i* is made to pass to & fro horizontally along ! edge ( ea* knife 9 succession4 ,! eng9e is suppli$ ) /eam by a piece ( /rong flexible rubb] tub+4 ,! ord9>y =m ( beat] conta9s only "o roll1 ?\gh "s h be5 con/ruct$ conta9+ two or ev5 f\r rolls4 ,9 ,am]ica1 beat]s ( a totally diff]5t con/ruction are mu* 9 vogue4 ,! mo/ important ( ^! are ! ,jordan & ,k+sl& beat]s1 s call$ f ! names ( ! inv5tors4 ,! =m] consi/s ess5tially ( a roll 9 ! %ape ( a truncat$ cone1 fitt$ ) knives 9 ! usual way1 revolv+ 9 an iron box ( correspond+ %ape1 furni%$ ) knives plac$ 9 ! direction ( its l5g?1 b at slightly diff]5t angles4 ,! half-/uff ent]s ! beat] at ! n>r[ end ?r\gh a box provid$ ) an #abb arrangem5t = regulat+ ! fl[1 & is dis*>g$ by two or m op5+s 9 ! cov] at ! wid] end4 ,! ,k+sl& eng9e consi/s ( a circul> *amb]1 ! sides ( :i* are cov]$ ) knives1 & betwe5 :i* a circul> plate1 also furni%$ ) knives1 revolves4 ,! pulp ent]s ?r\gh a pipe 9 ! c5tre ( "o ( ! sides ( ! *amb]1 & fl[s out ?r\gh an op5+ 9 ! opposite side4 ,ano!r =m ( beat] is t inv5t$ by ,s4 ,l4 ,g\ld4 ,! only ess5tial diff]5ce betwe5 x & ! ,k+sl& beat] is t1 in/ead ( hav+ a plate :i* revolves v]tically aga9/ two /ation>y ones1 ! plate1 :i* is plac$ horizontally1 is furni%$ ) knives on "o side only1 & revolves ^u b "o fix$ plate1 mu* 9 ! same way z a pair ( mill/ones4 ,! half-/uff suppli$ to ^! =ms ( beat] is g5]ally dis9tegrat$ to a great] ext5t 9 ! break] ?an is ! case ) ^? ( ! ord9>y con/ruction1 z x is necess>y to make x fl[ easily ?r\gh !m1 & ?is c\ld n be done if ! fibres 7 kept long4 ,a s+le passage ( ! pulp ?r\gh ! beat] is suffici5t to beat x up ready = mak+ into pap]4 ,! *ief advantages claim$ = !m is t !y are m economical1 bo? ( "t & p[]2 also t ! pulp is m regul>ly beat54 ,c]ta9 new =ms ( beat]s h lately be5 introduc$ 9 ?is c\ntry1 & are rapidly ga9+ 9 fav\r1 *iefly on acc\nt ( ! sav+ ( driv+ p[]1 & ! space occupi$1 comp>$ ) ! am\nt ( 8/uff0 !y are capable ( beat+4 ,fig4 #ce %[s ! con/ruction ( ,=bes' pat5t eng9e1 z manufactur$ by ,messrs4 ,g4 ,w4 ,b]tram1 ( ,ed9burgh4 ,?is beat] is divid$ into ?ree *annels4 ,! rolls1 "o ( :i* is %[n uncov]$1 are plac$ 9 ! out] *annels1 :ile 9 ! c5tre "o ! mix+ & circulat+ :eel a is plac$1 ! peculi> con/ruction ( :i* enables x to ?r[ ! pulp alt]nately into ! two out] *annels1 f :5ce1 aft] pass+ "u ! rolls aga91 x ent]s ! c5tral *annel at ! o!r end ( ! beat]4 #abc ,9 ,umph]/on's pat5t eng9e great economy ( space is effect$ by caus+ ! pulp to travel ov] & "u ! backfall 7a1 ,fig4 #cf74 ,ano!r advantage is t ! /uff circulates freely ) less wat] ?an 9 ! ord9>y =ms1 ?us increas+ its output4 ,x is also claim$ t ! pulp is beat5 ) less p[]1 & z x is less liable to lodge 9 corn]s x is m ev5ly beat54 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ce4 ,! con/ruction ( ! eng9e w be readily und]/ood by ref]5ce to ,fig4 #cf4 ,! direction :i* ! /uff takes is indicat$ by ! arr[s4 ,cooke & ,hibb]t's beat]1 z manufactur$ by ,messrs4 ,masson1 ,scott & ,b]tram1 resembles1 to a c]ta9 ext5t1 ,g\ld's eng9e1 previ\sly describ$2 x diff]s f x1 h[ev]1 9 t ! discs are plac$ v]tically1 in/ead ( horizontally4 ,moreov]1 ! g5]al con/ruction ( ! beat] m ne>ly resembles ^? 9 ord9>y use4 ,fig4 #cg1 :i* %[s x 9 plan & 9 section at ! l9e ,d ,e1 illu/rates its con/ruction4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cf4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cg4 ,! %ad$ portions ,a repres5t ! /ation>y disc4 ,x is furni%$ = ab\t two-?irds ( its circumf]5ce ) /eel b>s or knives1 plac$ tang5tially4 ,b repres5ts ! #abe revolv+ disc on :i* simil> knives are plac$ radially r\nd ! :ole circumf]5ce4 ,! direction t ! pulp takes is indicat$ by ! arr[s4 ,aft] pass+ betwe5 ! plates x is ?r[n viol5tly into ! tr\gh at ,g1 ! result be+ t x is v ?or\ghly mix$4 ,! di/ance betwe5 ! plates c be regulat$ by means ( ! ge>+ ,h4 ,! eng9e is driv5 by ! pulley ,c fix$ on ! %aft ,f4 ,x is claim$ t by means ( ?is =m ( beat] a great sav+ 9 "t & p[] is effect$1 & t moreov] ! pulp is obta9$ 9 a m ev5 condition4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ch4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ci4 ,! quality ( ! wat] us$ to furni% ! eng9e is a matt] ( v great importance1 especially 9 ! manufacture ( high-class pap]s4 ,above all x %\ld be free f susp5d$ matt]1 & f dissolv$ iron2 ! =m] f9ds its way directly into ! pap]1 & ! latt] is liable to become precipitat$ 9 ! pulp z oxide1 ?us injuri\sly affect+ its col\r4 ,c>eful settl+ & filtration are suffici5t to elim9ate insoluble matt]2 soluble impurities are m difficult ( removal2 !re=e ! wat] %\ld1 if possible1 be free f !m4 ,9 mo/ mills settl+ ponds are provid$1 = ! purpose ( remov+ susp5d$ matt]1 & 9 addition x is usual to employ wooll5 filt]-bags #abf fa/5$ to ! nozzle ( ! pipe t supplies ! beat]s ) wat]4 ,= me?ods ( purify+ wat] see p4 #baa4 ,! beat]s are g5]ally driv5 f a sep>ate eng9e1 & are connect$ ) x by a sy/em ( spur-:eels1 p9ions1 & belts4 ,messrs4 ,g4 & ,w4 ,b]tram h lately introduc$ a sy/em ( direct driv+ ( beat]s1 :]eby a great sav+ 9 p[] is effect$4 ,x is illu/rat$ 9 plan & elevation 9 ,figs4 #ch & #ci4 ,! crank-%aft ( ! eng9e is c\pl$ direct on to ! ma9 driv+-%aft4 ,l>ge pulleys are key$ on to ?is %aft1 f :i* ! p[] is tak5 directly on to ! pulleys connect$ ) ! rolls4 #abg ,,*apt] ,,ix4 ,,load+1 ,,siz+1 ,,col\r+1 ,,etc4 ,! blea*$ half-/uff z x leaves ! /eep+ *e/s usually conta9s an excess ( blea*+ liquor1 :i* c be remov$ 9 two ways1 viz4 by wa%+ or by decomposition ) an 8anti*lor40 ,! fir/ me?od has ! advantage ( n only remov+ ! blea*1 b ( also elim9at+ ! *loride ( calcium1 p>tly exi/+ ready =m$1 & also t result+ f ! decomposition ( ! calcium hypo*lorite orig9ally pres5t 9 ! blea*4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ?is me?od takes "s "t1 & consumes a l>ge am\nt ( wat]1 :i* 9 "s mills is a matt] ( consid]able importance4 ,= ?is purpose1 _m beat]s are provid$ ) "o or m drum wa%]s 7see ,fig4 #cf74 ,an additional objection to ?is me?od lies 9 ! fact t a c]ta9 quantity ( fibre passes ?r\gh ! me%es ( ! wire-clo? cov]+ ! wa%]s1 & is ?us lo/4 ,! m usual plan is to remove ! blea* by decompos+ x ) an 8anti*lor40 ,! sub/ance g5]ally employ$ = ?is purpose is sodium hyposulphite1 or ?iosulphate z x is n[ call$1 :i*1 9 pres5ce ( calcium hypo*lorite1 is oxidiz$ to sodium sulphate1 ! latt] be+ r$uc$ to calcium *loride4 ,d\ble decomposition !n takes place betwe5 ^! salts1 ) ! =mation ( calcium sulphate & sodium *loride4 ,! reactions :i* take place may be express$ by ! foll[+ equation3-- #b 7,ca7,cl,o7#b7 ,na#b,s#b,o#c ,h#b,o #b ,ca,s,o#d #b ,h,cl #b ,na,cl4 ,calcium ,sodium ,wat]4 ,calcium ,hydro*loric ,sodium hypo*lorite4 ?iosulphate4 sulphate4 acid4 *loride4 #abh ,! above decomposition does n accurately repres5t ! action ( blea* ^u sodium ?iosulphate4 ,if ! solutions employ$ are v dilute1 ! decomposition may take place 9 ano!r direction1 viz43-- ,ca7,cl,o7#b #d ,na#b,s#b,o#c ,h#b,o #b ,na#b,s#d,o#f #b ,na,cl ,calcium ,sodium ,wat]4 ,sodium ,sodium hypo*lorite4 ?iosulphate4 tetra?ionate4 *loride4 #b ,na,o,h ,ca,o4 ,cau/ic soda4 ,lime4 ,at ! p>ticul> degree ( dilution :i* occurs 9 a beat]1 ! blea* is decompos$ almo/ entirely accord+ to ! fir/ ( ! equations2 f :i*1 on calculat+1 x w be se5 t #aeh p>ts ( sodium ?iosulphate are equival5t to #bhf p>ts ( calcium hypo*lorite4 ,z comm]cial sodium ?iosulphate conta9s #cfc p] c5t4 ( wat]1 & blea*+ p[d] #gj p] c5t4 ( calcium hypo*lorite1 on ! basis ( #ce p] c5t4 available *lor9e x foll[s t #bdh p>ts ( ! =m] are requir$ to neutralize #dji p>ts ( ! latt]4 ,)9 ! la/ few ye>s o!r =ms ( 8anti*lor0 h be5 introduc$1 su*1 = example1 z ! v>i\s sulphites4 ,! mo/ important ( ^! is sodium sulphite1 :i* has be5 manufactur$ by a pat5t process at a *eap rate1 by ,gaskell1 ,deacon1 ,co41 ,widnes4 ,_! product conta9$ z mu* z #ge p] c5t4 ( ,na#b,,s#c1 ord9>y cry/alliz$ sodium sulphite conta9+ only #ej p] c5t4 ,sulphites are conv]t$ by ! action ( blea* into sulphates1 ?us3-- ,ca7,o,cl7#b #b ,na#b,,s#c ,ca,s,o#d #b ,na#b,,s#d #b ,na,cl ,calcium ,sodium ,calcium ,sodium ,sodium hypo*lorite4 sulphite4 sulphate4 sulphate4 *loride4 ,f ?is equation1 x w be se5 t #beb p>ts ( sodium sulphite w neutralize #adc p>ts ( calcium hypo*lorite1 or #bjdc p>ts ( blea*+ p[d]4 ,assum+ t cry/alliz$ sodium sulphite conta9s #ej p] c5t4 ,na#b,,s#c1 ! same am\nt ( blea* w\ld require #ejd p>ts4 ,z ,messrs4 ,gaskell1 ,deacon ,co4's sulphite conta9s #ge p] c5t4 ,na#b,,s#c1 only #ccf p>ts are ne$$4 ,comp>+ ^! numb]s ) #abi ^? giv5 above = sodium hyposulphite1 x w be se5 t #bjde p>ts ( blea* require = neutralisation #abi p>ts ( sodium ?iosulphate & #ejd p>ts ( cry/allis$ sodium sulphite1 or #ccf p>ts ( ! /rong] product4 ,sodium sulphite is pref]r$ to sodium ?iosulphate by "s pap] mak]s1 not)/&+ ! fact t ev5 9 its mo/ conc5trat$ =m1 ne>ly ?ree times z mu* is requir$ to produce a c]ta9 result4 ,x is said t :5 x is us$ ! wire clo? ( ! ma*9e is pres]v$ = a long] "t ?an if sodium ?iosulphate is employ$4 ,?is may be due to ! fact t ) ! latt] a c]ta9 am\nt ( free acid is always =m$1 :i* ( c\rse w\ld act injuri\sly on ! wire2 :]eas1 :5 sodium sulphite is us$1 ! products ( decomposition are neutral salts )\t any action ^u metals4 7,see ! above equations47 ,a v *eap 8anti*lor0 may be prep>$ by boil+ toge!r lime & sulphur4 ,"o hundr$ & sixty-eight p>ts ( lime1 made into a milk ) wat]1 are heat$ to boil+ 9 an iron vessel4 ,?ree hundr$ & eighty-f\r p>ts ( fl\r ( sulphur or gr\nd sulphur are !n add$ 9 small quantities at a "t1 & ! boil+ cont9u$ until ! :ole is dissolv$4 ,! liquid :i* is n[ ( a deep yell[ col\r1 is all[$ to settle & cool & is !n ready = use4 ,x conta9s a mixture ( calcium ?iosulphate & calcium p5tasulphide1 ! latt] comp\nd giv+ to x its deep yell[ col\r4 ,! foll[+ equation repres5ts ! action :i* takes place betwe5 ! lime & ! sulphur3-- #c ,ca,o #ab ,s ,ca,s#b,o#c #b ,ca,s#e ,lime4 ,sulphur4 ,calcium ,calcium ?iosulphate4 p5tasulphide4 ,! decomposition :i* takes place :5 ! mixture is act$ ^u by calcium hypo*lorite may be repres5t$ z foll[s3-- #b 7,ca,s#b,o#c #b ,ca,s#e7 #i 7,ca7,o,cl7#b7 #f ,ca,s,o#d ,calcium ,calcium ,calcium ,calcium ?iosulphate4 p5tasulphide4 hypo*lorite4 sulphate4 #ah ,s #i ,ca,cl#b ,sulphur4 ,calcium *loride4 #acj ,f ?is x is se5 t a l>ge quantity ( free sulphur is =m$1 :i* is precipitat$ z a f9e yell[i% p[d] 9 ! fibre4 ,?is n only affects ! col\r ( ! pulp1 b is objectionable on acc\nt ( its liability1 9 contact ) ! hot cyl9d]s ( ! pap] ma*9e1 or by ! action ( moi/ure ov] a long p]iod ( "t to become oxidis$ to sulphuric acid1 :i* und\bt$ly1 ev5 if pres5t only 9 v small quantities1 has an injuri\s effect ^u ! f9i%$ pap]4 7,see hydracellulose47 ,?is prop]ty ( sulphur & its action ^u cellulose may be %[n by ! foll[+ exp]im5t4 ,take a piece ( wat]-leaf pap]1 rub into x a mixture ( fl\r ( sulphur & wat]4 ,if ! pap] ?us treat$ be rapidly dri$1 x w be f\nd to be weak5$ or ev5 slightly *>r$ 9 ^? portions :i* h be5 9 contact ) ! sulphur4 7,see also ,*em4 ,soc4 ,j\rn41 p4 #bdi1 #ahgi47 ,:i*ev] v>iety ( 8anti*lor0 is us$ an excess %\ld be c>efully avoid$1 z all act m or less ^u ! size & col\r+ matt] add$ to ! pulp subsequ5tly4 ,! prop] me?od is to run 9 small quantities ( a solution ( ! anti*lor at a "t1 te/+ ! pulps1 aft] all[+ a few m9utes = complete admixture aft] ea* addition4 ,! te/ is made by imm]s+ a piece ( iodide ( potassium & />* pap]1 :i* w be turn$ blue s long z any calcium hypo*lorite is pres5t4 ,^! pap]s are made z foll[s3-- ,?ree grms4 ( />* are gr\nd up ) a small quantity ( wat] & p\r$ into #gjj cc4 ( boil+ wat]1 & to ! solution #a grm4 ( iodide ( potassium & #je grm4 c>bonate ( soda are add$4 ,%eets ( :ite pap]1 wat]-leaf 9 pref]5ce1 are n[ soak$ 9 ! solution & dri$4 ,9 pres5ce ( calcium hypo*lorite1 iod9e is lib]at$ f ! potassium iodide1 & act+ ^u ! />* =ms ) x a *>act]i/ic blue col\r4 ,load+4--,x is usual1 except 9 ! case ( pap]s ( ! v highe/ quality1 to add to ! pulp a quantity ( "s *eap load+ mat]ial1 su* z *9a clay1 or = ! bett] #aca qualities ( pap]1 8pe>l-h>d5+10 or sulphate ( lime4 ,! addition ( clay 9 mod]ate quantity c h>dly be look$ ^u z an adult]ation1 s9ce x s]ves to fill up ! pores ( ! pap]1 & enables x to take a good surface 9 ! subsequ5t op]ations ( cal5d]+4 ,moreov]1 x enables ! manufactur] to meet ! dem& = *eap pap]s ) "s *ance ( remun]ation to himself4 ,if add$ l>gely1 x ( c\rse t5ds to weak5 ! pap]4 ,*9a clay or kaol9 is sold 9 ! =m ( l>ge lumps ( a :ite or yell[i%-:ite col\r4 ,x is =m$ by ! gradual dis9tegration ( felsp> by means ( ! action ( air & wat]1 & consi/s ess5tially ( a silicate ( alum9ium4 ,its quality dep5ds ^u its :it5ess & its fre$om f co>se micace\s p>ticles4 ,x is usually prep>$ = admixture ) ! pulp by mak+ x into a f9e cream ) wat] 9 a vessel provid$ ) /irr]s2 x is !n pass$ ?r\gh a f9e sieve 9 ord] to remove any impurities x may conta91 & is !n run into ! beat]4 ,! clay or o!r fill+ mat]ial is usually run into ! beat] z soon z ! latt] is *>g$ ) pulp1 s t by ! "t ! beat+ op]ation is conclud$1 a p]fect admixture ( pulp & clay is effect$4 ,sulphate ( lime1 or 8pe>l-h>d5+10 is usually suffici5tly pure to put direct into ! eng9e4 ,x is made by decompos+ a solution ( calcium *loride1 ) sulphate ( soda1 & is precipitat$ z a f9e brilliantly :ite p[d]1 consi/+ ( ,ca,s,o#d #b ,h#b,o4 ,two di/9ct =ms ( precipitat$ calcium sulphate are met ) 9 comm]ce1 diff]+ f ea* o!r by _! microscopical features1 ! "o consi/+ ( flat tabul> cry/als 7,fig4 #da71 ! o!r ( f9e ne$les 7,fig4 #db74 ,ano!r =m1 errone\sly call$ precipitat$ pe>l-h>d5+1 is also sold3 x consi/s ( ! f9ely gr\nd native m9]al4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #dj4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #da4 ,"s ( ! f9] qualities ( pap] are made )\t addition ( any load+ mat]ial :atev]1 ?\gh su* pap]s are ( c\rse ! exception4 ,! proportion ( clay or #acb o!r mat]ial t c be put into a fibre dep5ds to a c]ta9 ext5t ^u ! nature ( ! fibre1 & ^u ! degree ( f95ess to :i* x is r$uc$ 9 ! beat]4 ,! am\nt add$ by diff]5t mak]s v>ies consid]ably1 f #acc two or ?ree p] c5t4 to tw5ty1 & ev5 9 r>e cases to ?irty p] c5t4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #db4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #dc4 ,a new load+ mat]ial call$ 8agalite0 has be5 lately introduc$1 possess+ c]ta9 advantages ov] *9a clay1 #acd or calcium sulphate4 ,agalite is a m9]al ( ! nature & *emical prop]ties ( asbe/os3 x consi/s ( ne>ly pure magnesium silicate4 ,its /ructure is m or less fibr\s1 l t ( asbe/os1 :i*1 z is well kn[n1 c be spun & wov5 & ev5 made into pap]1 & x !re=e1 :5 add$ to a pap]1 =ms a "p ( ! fabric itself4 ,x is ev5 claim$ t x assi/s 9 keep+ back "s ( ! f9] fibres t inv>iably f9d _! way ?r\gh ! me%es ( ! wire clo?1 & x is said t #ij p] c5t4 ( ! am\nt add$ to ! eng9e is f\nd 9 ! pap]4 ,9 ! case ( *9a clay x is well kn[n t only f #dj to #fj p] c5t4 is actually 8c>ri$0 by ! pulp4 ,figs4 #dj1 #da1 #db1 & #dc %[ ! appe>ance ( *9a clay1 pe>l-h>d5+1 & agalite :5 view$ "u ! microscope1 magnifi$ #bjj times4 ,! nature ( agalite is su* t x assi/s ! pap] 9 tak+ a high f9i%4 ,?is is probably due to its 8soapy0 nature1 a feature :i* is *>act]i/ic ( asbe/os1 ,fr5* *alk1 8soap-/one10 & o!r magnesium silicates4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #dd4 ,:5 pap]s conta9 su* excessive quantities z #ae or #bj p] c5t4 ( clay1 x _c be to ! advantage ( ! consum]1 & %\ld be look$ ^u z an adult]ation4 ,x is a matt] ( "s importance to be able to det]m9e rapidly & accurately ! am\nt ( m9]al matt] 9 a pap]4 ,! usual me?od is to ignite a weigh$ quantity ( ! pap] 9 a plat9um crucible until ! a% s obta9$ is ei!r :ite or a v pale grey4 ,f ! weight ( ! a%1 ! p]c5tage ( m9]al matt] is easily calculat$4 ,! foll[+ is a v conv5i5t plan 9 cases :]e a plat9um crucible or di% is n obta9able3--,take a weigh$ piece ( ! pap] to be exam9$1 f #b to #d 94 squ>e1 accord+ to ! ?ickness1 roll x into a n>r[ holl[ cyl9d]4 ,r\nd ?is w9d a weigh$ piece ( plat9um wire ab\t #a_/ej 94 ?ick1 z 9 ,fig4 #dd4 ,hold ?is by means ( a pair ( crucible tongs 9 ! flame ( a ,buns5 burn] until x is completely burn$4 ,if ! wire is c>efully w\nd r\nd1 & especially if ! roll ( pap] is made conical1 ! a% w be securely held 9 #ace position4 ,^? :o d n possess a *emical balance ( ! ord9>y =m w f9d a conv5i5t sub/itute1 :i* w answ] ! purpose ( weigh+ ! pap] & a% ) suffici5t accuracy1 9 ! spiral balance inv5t$ by ,pr(4 ,jolly#aa illu/rat$ 9 ,fig4 #dd4 ,x consi/s ( a spiral ( h>d wire ,a1 :i* is susp5d$ 9 front ( a mirror ,b1 ^u :i* millimetre divisions are m>k$4 ,a small float ,d1 dipp+ "u ! surface ( ! wat] 9 ! vessel ,e1 is provid$ = ! purpose ( /eady+ ! spiral & all[+ x to come quickly to re/4 ,! balance is provid$ ) a light pan made ( a ?9 plate ( mica1 & susp5d$ by v ?9 plat9um wires4 ,= ! pres5t purpose1 h[ev]1 ! pan is n necess>y1 & x c be replac$ by ! roll ( pap] & plat9um coil z %[n 9 ! draw+4 ,footnote #aa3 ,?is balance c be obta9$ f ,nald] ,bros4 ,co41 ,we/m9/]4 ,! me?od ( us+ is exce$+ly simple1 z ! increase 9 ! l5g? ( ! spiral is 9 direct ratio to ! increm5t ( weight4 ,! position ( ! spiral is asc]ta9$ by plac+ ! eye 9 a direct l9e ) ! small glass bead ,c & its image 9 ! mirror1 & not+ ! correspond+ division on ! scale4 ,! position ( ! bead c be alt]$ s z to br+ x to any desir$ po9t on ! scale by rais+ or l[]+ ! upright rod ,f1 :i* is kept 9 position by ! screw ,g4 ,! balance /&s on a foot provid$ ) levell+ screws4 ,x is evid5t t :]e proportional weights only are requir$ x is n necess>y to "k ! value ( ! spiral1 b if ! balance is to be us$ to asc]ta9 actual weights1 ! coeffici5t ( ! spiral mu/ fir/ be det]m9$4 ,?is is done by not+ ! increase 9 l5g? aft] ! addition ( a "o gram weight4 ,! spirals are made ( diff]5t ?icknesses ( wire1 :i* ( c\rse give v>y+ degrees #acf ( s5sibility3 ! mo/ useful is "o :i* gives ) "o gram an ext5sion ( #ajj millimetres3 "o mm4 be+ !re=e equival5t to "o mgrm4 ,! foll[+ exp]im5t w illu/rate ! me?od ( us+ ! balance & ( calculat+ ! results ( a det]m9ation ( ! am\nt ( m9]al matt] 9 a pap]3-- ,position ( bead on scale #ajj mm4 ,position ( bead aft] atta*+ plat9um wire #aea ,position ( bead ) wire & roll ( pap] atta*$ #bjj ,weight ( pap] express$ z millimetres #bjjaea #di ,position ( bead ) wire & a% atta*$ #aefe ,weight ( a% express$ z millimetres #aefeaea #ee ,weight ( pap] ,weight ( a% ,p]c5tage ( express$ 9 express$ 9 a% 9 millimetres4 millimetres4 pap]4 #di 3 #ajj 33 #ee 3 #aabbd ,9 ord] to asc]ta9 ! p]c5tage ( m9]al matt] actually add$ to a pap] x is necess>y to d$uct f ! am\nt ( a% obta9$ a c]ta9 quantity due to ! m9]al matt] 9 ! fibre ( :i* ! pap] is compos$4 ,?is am\nt v>ies ) ea* p>ticul> fibre1 & ) ! me?od by :i* x has be5 prep>$4 ,! foll[+ table gives ! p]c5tage ( a% yield$ by ! v>i\s pulps 9 a p]fectly blea*$ /ate4 ,9 all cases ! fibres 7 previ\sly treat$ ) a dilute solution ( hydro*loric acid1 9 ord] to remove any c>bonate ( lime or o!r bodies :i* might h be5 introduc$ 9 ! boil+ & blea*+ processes3 ! p]c5tages are calculat$ on ! dry sub/ances3-- ,pulp f l95 rags #be a% p] c5t4 ,pulp f cotton rags #aj ,pulp f esp>to #ej ,pulp f /raw 7soda process7 #dhj ,pulp f /raw 7,leunig process7 #acf ,pulp f wood 7soda process7 #ej ,pulp f wood 7bisulphite process7 #jf ,pulp f wood 7me*anical7 #dj ,if ! pap] conta9s calcium sulphate ! a% obta9$ may consi/ p>tly ( calcium sulphide1 due to ! r$uc+ action ( ! c>bon f\nd on ignition1 & ! am\nt w #acg !re=e n repres5t ! true am\nt add$4 ,! a% %\ld be moi/5$ ) a few drops ( sulphuric acid1 & aga9 ignit$1 9 ord] to reconv]t x into calcium sulphate4 ,x %\ld also be borne 9 m9d t ! sulphate ( lime z pres5t 9 ! pap] is comb9$ ) two atoms ( wat] ,ca,s,o#d #b ,h#b,o1 & !re=e t e "p ( calcium sulphate obta9$ repres5ts #abf p>ts ( 8pe>l-h>d5+0 actually add$4 ,siz+4--,pap]s t are int5d$ to be writt5 ^u ) ink1 & also mo/ pr9t+ pap]s1 require to h ! int]/ices ( ! fibres fill$ up ) "s mat]ial :i* w to a great] or less ext5t resi/ ! action ( wat]1 & ?us prev5t ! ink or o!r liquid appli$ to !m f 8runn+40 ,?is may be accompli%$ 9 two ways1 viz41 by 8eng9e-siz+0 & 8tub-siz+02 ! =m] is s call$ because x is p]=m$ 9 ! beat+ eng9e itself1 ! latt] be+ done on ! f9i%$ pap]1 z w be subsequ5tly describ$4 ,eng9e-siz+ consi/s 9 precipitat+ a comp\nd call$ res9ate ( alum9a 9 ! pulp4 ,?is comp\nd :5 dri$ has ! prop]ty ( be+ ) difficulty wett$ ) wat]4 ,9 ord] to obta9 a ?or\gh mixture ( ?is comp\nd ) ! fibre x is =m$ 9 ! eng9e by add+ an aque\s solution ( ros9-soap to ! pulp1 & :5 ?is is intimately mix$ ) x1 runn+ 9 a solution ( alum4 ,ros9 7colophony7 consi/s ( a mixture ( p9ic & sylvic acids1 :i*1 :5 heat$ ) a solution ( c>bonate ( soda1 comb9e ) ! alkali to =m a soap1 c>bonic acid be+ evolv$4 ,! soap is prep>$ 9 ! foll[+ mann]3-- ,ord9>y ros91 ! quality dep5d+ ^u ! quality ( pap]1 is boil$ 9 a jacket$ pan = f two to ?ree h\rs ) a solution ( c>bonate ( soda1 until a sample ( ! soap =m$ is completely soluble 9 wat]4 ,! quantity ( c>bonate ( soda 7,na#b;,,co#c #aj ,h#b,o7 requir$ is ab\t #cj p] c5t4 ( ! weight ( ! ros94 ,x is usual to employ cry/allis$ c>bonate ( soda 7soda-cry/als71 b #ach soda-a% ( good quality1 or ev5 cau/ic soda1 might v well be employ$1 9 :i* case ( c\rse ! proportion w\ld be diff]5t4 ,a v conv5i5t =m ( c>bonate ( soda has lately be5 introduc$ by ,messrs4 ,gaskell1 ,deacon ,co41 :i* goes by ! "n ( 8,cry/al ,c>bonate40 ,x is obta9$ 9 ! =m ( m9ute cry/als ( ! mono-hydrate1 ,na#b;,,co#c ,h#b,o4 ,x conta9s #ej p] c5t4 ( alkali 7,na#b,o71 & possesses ?is advantage ov] soda-a%1 t is dissolves readily 9 wat] )\t =m+ a h>d cake4 ,x is mu* *eap] 9 proportion ?an soda cry/als1 z ! exp5se ( cry/allisation & c>riage is sav$4 ,! latt] conta9 only #bafh p] c5t4 ,na#b,o1 #fbic p] c5t4 ( _! weight consi/+ ( wat] ( cry/allisation4 ,"o hundr$ p>ts ( soda cry/als are equival5t to #dccf p>ts ( ! 8,cry/al ,c>bonate40 ,an excess ( soda %\ld be c>efully avoid$1 z x consumes an equival5t quantity ( alum 7see bel[73 on ! o!r h&1 x is v ess5tial t ! ros9 %\ld be completely dissolv$1 o!rwise small p>ticles are sure to f9d _! way into ! pulp1 & w\ld =m cle> transp>5t specks 9 ! f9i%$ pap]4 ,! boil+ be+ complet$1 ! *>ge is run (f into iron tanks & all[$ to settle2 ! soap =ms a semi-solid mass1 :ile a d>k-col\r$ liquor1 conta9+ ! impurities ( ! ros91 rises to ! surface1 & c ?us be remov$4 ,! soap s purifi$ is next dissolv$ 9 hot wat] conta9+ a small quantity ( c>bonate ( soda1 9 case complete solubility has n be5 atta9$1 & is !n mix$ ) a quantity ( />* pa/e prep>$ 9 a sep>ate vessel by dissolv+ />* 9 boil+ wat]4 ,! mixture is !n c>efully siev$ & is ready = use4 ,! proportion ( />* to ros9 diff]s 9 ne>ly e mill1 & also ! quantity ( size to be add$ to ! beat] v>ies accord+ z ! pap] is requir$ to be s(t or h>d-siz$4 ,ab\t #c p>ts ( />* to #a ( ros91 & betwe5 #c or #d lbs4 ( ! mixture to #ajj lbs4 ( pulp may be consid]$ an av]age quantity4 ,"s manufactur]s pref] to add ! #aci />* & ros9 size to ! eng9e sep>ately2 o!rs aga9 d n dissolve ! />* 9 wat]1 b m]ely make x up to a ?9 pa/e1 9 :i* /ate x is add$ to ! pulp4 ,?is me?od is employ$ by mak]s ( v f9e pap]s1 z x is said to give a c]ta9 feel to ! pap] :i* _c be obta9$ 9 any o!r way4 ,! me?od is co/ly1 z only a small proportion ( ! />* add$ is actually f\nd 9 ! pap]4 ,"s pap]s1 :i* are n int5d$ to be siz$1 su* z blott+ & filt]-pap]s1 are made ) ! addition ( />* only1 ?is be+ us$ to b9d ! fibres toge!r to "s ext5t4 ,! pres5ce ( ! />* does n prev5t ! pap] f be+ absorb5t4 ,pap]s :i* are int5d$ to be tub-siz$ only are usually made up ) a small quantity ( />*1 & are sometimes siz$ to a small ext5t ) ros9 also4 ,! addition ( a c]ta9 am\nt ( ord9>y soap to ! ros9 soap is said to give good results2 x enables ! pap] to take a high] f9i% :5 cal5d]$4 ,siz+ ) animal size 7gelat9e71 or ,tub-siz+ z x is call$1 w be describ$ 9 ,*apt] ,x4 ,! mixture ( size & />* may be add$ directly to ! eng9e1 or x may be previ\sly dissolv$ 9 wat]2 ! latt] me?od is p]haps pref]able4 ,aft] all[+ x to mix ?or\ghly ) ! pulp1 a solution ( alum is run 94 ,x is made up ) boil+ wat] 9 ei!r lead or copp] tanks4 ,iron or z9c vessels mu/ be avoid$1 z ! solution acts rapidly on ^! metals4 ,alum consi/s ( a d\ble sulphate ( alum9ium & potassium or ammonium1 ,al#bc ,,s#d1 ,k#b,,s#d #bd ,h#b,o2 its function be+ to =m ) ! ros9 acids insoluble soaps :i* are precipitat$ 9 intimate mixture ) ! pulp1 ! sulphate ( pota% tak+ no "p 9 ! reaction4 ,! *oice ( a suitable alum is a matt] ( v great importance2 x %\ld be free f excess ( sulphuric acid & f iron4 ,! =m] is delet]i\s on acc\nt ( its action ^u ! col\r+ matt] us$ to tone ! pap]1 "s col\rs be+ completely dis*>g$ by x2 & because #adj ( its effect ^u any metal "w ) :i* x may come 9 contact1 especially ^u ! brass wire-clo? on :i* ! pap] is made4 ,! iron is objectionable z x =ms a d>k r$ precipitate ( oxide ( iron4 ,alum z suppli$ by mak]s ( repute is g5]ally suffici5tly pure = ev5 ! be/ classes ( pap]4 ,_m ye>s ago a sub/itute = alum 0 introduc$1 call$ ,po*9's alum9\s cake4 ,x consi/$ pr9cipally ( sulphate ( alum9a ,al#bc ,,s#d1 & 01 provid$ x 0 pure1 z suitable = ! pap]mak] z ! m exp5sive pota% alum4 ,x 0 m economical at equal price1 z x conta9$ ab\t #ad p] c5t4 ( alum9a1 :]eas pota% alum1 ev5 if absolutely pure1 c\ld only conta9 #ajhe p] c5t4 ,po*9's alum9\s cake h[ev]1 0 liable to conta9 a consid]able am\nt ( free sulphuric acid & soluble sulphate ( iron4 ,( late ye>s1 a numb] ( diff]5t v>ieties ( sulphates ( alum9a h be5 introduc$ into comm]ce1 ( s pure a nature1 & at su* a l[ price1 t x is a matt] ( wond] t !y h n entirely sup]s$$ ! m exp5sive alum4 ,!y are prep>$ ei!r f v pure native alum9a 7bauxite71 or f ,*9a clay ( good quality4 ,me?ods h be5 discov]$ ( elim9at+ almo/ ! :ole ( ! iron & free sulphuric acid4 ,! foll[+ analyses ( diff]5t specim5s suffici5tly indicate _! purity4#ab ,alum9a 7,al#b,o#c7 #adhd #adgj #adie #adhe #afjj #afbj ,f]ric oxide 7,fe#b,o#c7 #jf #ab #je trace nil trace ,sulphuric acid 7,,s#c7 #cejj #cdfj #cfji #cdid #chjj #chjj ,free sulphuric acid #cb #dj nil #bi nil nil ,lime 7,ca,o7 #aa #aa #ag #ad #af #ad ,wat] #didb #diie #dhgb #difj #deej #dedc #iige #iihh #iiih #iihb #iiff #iige ,footnote #ab3 ,j\rn4 ,soc4 ,*em4 ,ind41 ,jan4 #ahhf1 p4 #af4 ,sulphate ( alum9a possesses ?is advantage ov] alum1 t x is m soluble 9 wat]1 & ?us a /ock solution ( consid]able /r5g? c be prep>$4 ,x is soluble 9 #ada #b p>ts ( cold wat]1 alum requir+ #ah p>ts = complete solution4 ,! am\nt ( alum or sulphate ( alum9a add$ to a pulp is l>gely 9 excess ( ! quantity necess>y to precipitate ! ros9 soap2 z a matt] ( fact1 9 ! case ( esp>to or /raw pulps1 = ! blea*+ ( :i* consid]able quantities ( blea* h be5 employ$1 & :i* !re=e conta9 a c]ta9 am\nt ( basic lime1 toge!r ) calcium *loride1 complete precipitation ( ! size is effect$ )\t ! addition ( alum4 ,a c]ta9 am\nt is also requir$ to precipitate ! />*4 ,! excess ( alum appe>s to be necess>y1 h[ev]1 n only to bright5 ! col\r ( ! pap]1 b also to r5d] x capable ( resi/+ ! action ( ink4 ,f exp]im5ts made by ! au?ors1 x appe>s t "o "p ( ros9 requires #bi p>ts ( alum = complete precipitation f its solution 9 soda4 ,"o "p ( />* requires #jdj "p alum4 ,col\r+4--,cellulose1 except 9 r>e in/ances1 is nev] suffici5tly :ite to produce a p]fectly :ite pap]1 & ! manufactur] f9ds x necess>y to complem5t ! slightly yell[ col\r :i* mo/ blea*$ pulps possess by ! addition ( small quantities ( blue & p9k col\r+ mat]ials4 ,! blues usually employ$ are ultram>9e1 smalts1 & anil9e blues2 ! p9ks are g5]ally prep>ations ( ei!r co*9eal or anil9e dyes4 ,ultram>9e is met ) 9 comm]ce z a bright blue p[d]2 ! %ade ( col\r & ! quality ( :i* v>y consid]ably4 ,9 *oos+ an ultram>9e1 att5tion %\ld be direct$ n only to its t9ctorial p[] b to its behavi\r ) a solution ( alum1 inf]ior qualities be+ entirely dis*>g$ by x4 ,all ultram>9es are readily decompos$ by free acids1 h5ce ! necessity ( employ+ an alum z free z possible f ?is impurity4 ,smalts on ! o!r h& resi/s ! action ( acids1 b x is only us$ = ! f9] qualities ( pap]1 ow+ to its high price4 ,! anil9e blues are p]haps sc>cely s brilliant 9 col\r z ! above-m5tion$ col\rs1 & !y #adb are moreov] some:at readily dis*>g$ by ! action ( light2 !y h h[ev] ! advantage ( *eapness4 ,! p9k col\r+ matt]s are sold ei!r z lakes1 t is1 comp\nds ( ! col\r+ matt] ) alum9a or z solutions4 ,!y are also frequ5tly to be met ) mix$ ) />* 9 v>y+ proportions4 ,^? made f co*9eal are sup]ior to ^? conta9+ anil9e col\rs4 ,ultram>9e c be detect$ by means ( its reaction ) hydro*loric acid1 ! col\r be+ dis*>g$ & sulphurett$ hydrog5 evolv$1 :i* c be recognis$ by its od\r4 ,smalts is n act$ ^u by acids4 ,! latt] conta9s cobalt1 ! pres5ce ( :i* c be det]m9$ by its giv+ a blue bead ) borax 9 a bl[pipe flame4 ,! anil9e blues are soluble ei!r 9 hot wat] or hot alcohol1 ! liquid be+ int5sely col\r$4 ,mo/ ( !m are dis*>g$ by treatm5t ei!r ) /rong acids or alkalis1 ! col\r be+ re/or$ by ! rev]se treatm5t4 ,pap] ( any desir$ col\r may be made ei!r by us+ rags already dy$ ! necess>y col\r or by add+ to ! blea*$ pulp 9 ! beat] su* dyes or pigm5ts z w produce x4 ,any col\r+ matt] :i* c be obta9$ 9 ! =m ( a f9e p[d] or z a solution c be us$4 ,blue pap]s are usually col\r$ ) ultram>9e2 ! d>k blue pap]s us$ = wrapp+ sug> & o!r purposes are col\r$ ) ,prussian blue1 ei!r add$ directly to ! beat] or produc$ 9 x by ! action ( potassium f]rocyanide on f]ric sulphate4 ,! s-call$ ton$ pap] is produc$ by add+ to ! pulp a solution ( p]nitrate ( iron1 f :i* a f9e precipitate ( oxide ( iron is deposit$ on ! fibres2 ?us ! slightly br[n %ade *>act]i/ic ( ?is k9d ( pap] is produc$4 ,! same effect may be produc$ by ! addition ( yell[ o*re or "s simil> pigm5t4 ,! foll[+ are a few ( ! mat]ials :i* are us$ = produc+ col\r$ pap]s3--,me?yl violet1 eos9e1 *rome yell[1 v5etian r$1 cate*u4 ,useful receipts = ! prep>ation ( col\r$ pap]s w be f\nd 9 ,dunb>'s #8,practical ,pap]-,mak]4' #adc ,dur+ ! "t t ! load+1 siz+ & col\r+ processes h be5 go+ on1 ! pulp has be5 cont9ually act$ ^u by ! roll1 & if ^! op]ations h ext5d$ ov] a consid]able "t1 x is probably 9 a prop] condition = mak+ into pap]4 ,! am\nt ( 8beat+0 dep5ds1 z has be5 /at$ be=e1 ^u ! nature ( ! fibre1 & also to "s ext5t on ! nature ( ! pap] = :i* x is int5d$4 ,! 8beat]man0 exam9es ! pulp f "t to "t by tak+ a portion f ! eng9e & plac+ x 9 a h&-b[l conta9+ wat]3 f its appe>ance :5 s dilut$ he is able to judge ( ! "t dur+ :i* x may be necess>y to cont9ue ! dis9tegration4 ,z soon z ?is is complet$1 ! pulp is ready to be let d[n to ! /uff-*e/s1 usually plac$ at a l[] level ?an ! beat]s1 s t ! pulp c fl[ into !m by gravity4 ,= ?is purpose ! valve at ! bottom ( ! eng9e is op5$3 to remove ! la/ portion ( pulp x is necess>y to r9se out ! eng9e ) wat]4 ,,table4--,,/r5g? ,,( ,,alum ,,solutions 7#age ,c41 #fce ,f474 ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,p]c5tage ( ,specific ,gravity4 ,degrees ,twaddle4 ,k#b;,al#b7,,s#d7d #bd ,h#b,o4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------- #aj #ajjfe #acj #bj #ajaaj #bbj #cj #ajaff #ccb #dj #ajbah #dcf #ej #ajbfi #ech #fj #ajcbj #fdj ---------------------------------------- --------------------- #add ,,*apt] ,x4 ,,pap] ,,ma*9es2 ,,h&-,,made ,,pap]4 ,! pulp z x comes f ! beat]s is n[ ready to be made into pap]4 ,we w fir/ consid] briefly ! manufacture ( h&-made pap]4 ,x is made on a m\ld ( wire-clo?1 ) a movable frame ( wood1 call$ ! 8deckle10 fitt+ on to ! outside ( ! m\ld & ext5d+ slightly above its surface4 ,! wire-clo? is g5]ally support$ by a mu* co>s] wire-clo?1 or by pieces ( ?ick wire1 & ^! aga9 by w$ge-%ap$ pieces ( wood1 ! ?9 end be+ next to ! wire4 ,to =m a %eet ( pap] ! workman dips ! m\ld1 ) ! 8deckle0 9 position1 into a vat conta9+ ! prep>$ pulp dilut$ ) wat]1 lift+ up j s mu* z w make a %eet ( ! necess>y ?ickness4 ,z soon z ! m\ld is remov$ f ! vat1 ! wat] beg9s to dra9 ?r\gh ! wire-clo?1 & to leave ! fibres on ! surface 9 ! =m ( a coh]5t %eet ( pap]4 ,! felt+ or int]tw9+ is assi/$ by lat]al motion 9 e direction giv5 to ! frame by ! workman4 ,! movable deckle is !n remov$1 & ! m\ld1 ) ! %eet ( pap]1 giv5 to ano!r workman1 call$ ! 8c\*]10 :o turns x ov] & presses x aga9/ ! felt1 by ?is means transf]r+ ! %eet f ! wire to ! felt4 ,9 ! meantime ! 8vat-man0 is engag$ 9 ! =mation ( ano!r %eet ) a second m\ld4 ,illu/ration3 ,,! ,,f\rdr9i] ,,pap] ,,ma*9e4 ,,plate ,i4 ,a numb] ( ! %eets ?us =m$ are pil$ toge!r1 alt]nately ) pieces ( felt1 & :5 a suffici5t numb] #ade h be5 obta9$1 ! :ole is subject$ to /rong pressure1 to expel ! wat]4 ,! felts are !n remov$1 & ! %eets aga9 press$4 ,!y are !n siz$1 if requir$1 by dipp+ !m into a solution ( gelat9e3 aga9 slightly press$1 & hung up on l9es or poles to dry4 ,su* pap] is call$ l(t-dri$4 ,:5 dry ! %eets ( pap] are cal5d]$4 7,see ,*apt] ,,xi47 ,! mak+ ( pap] by h& involves consid]able dext]ity on ! "p ( ! workman2 on acc\nt ( ! exp5sive lab\r necess>y1 9 comp>ison ) pap]-ma*9es1 x is comp>atively little practis$ 9 ! pres5t day2 c]ta9 k9ds ( pap]1 h[ev]1 su* z bank-notes1 v>i\s draw+ pap]s1 & pr9t+ pap]s int5d$ = ! production ( v elaborate editions are always made 9 ?is way4 ,any patt]n or "n requir$ on ! pap] is obta9$ by means ( a rais$ patt]n on ! wire-clo? m\ld3 consequ5tly1 less pulp lodges !re1 & ! pap] is proportionally ?9n]1 ?us %[+ ! exact c\nt]p>t ( ! patt]n4 ,su* devices are kn[n z 8wat]-m>ks40 7,see also p4 #aef47 ,! ,pap] ,ma*9e4--,! pap] ma*9e ( ! pres5t day1 ) all its +5i\s improvem5ts1 diff]s b little 9 pr9ciple f t orig9ally con/ruct$ by ,f\rdr9i]4 ,x consi/s ess5tially ( an endless m\ld ( wire-clo?1 on to :i* ! prep>$ pulp fl[s1 & on :i* a cont9u\s %eet ( pap] is =m$4 ,! %eet ( pap] !n passes ?r\gh a s]ies ( roll]s & ov] a numb] ( heat$ cyl9d]s1 :]e x is completely dri$4 ,a mod]n ,f\rdr9i] pap] ma*9e is %[n 9 plan & side elevation 9 ,plates ,i4 & ,,ii4 ,! pulp1 aft] leav+ ! beat]s1 passes into a l>ge vessel call$ ! /uff-*e/1 ( :i* !re are "o or m to ea* ma*9e4 ,z soon z ! beat] is empty1 wat] is run 9 to ?or\ghly r9se out ! rema9+ pulp1 ! wa%+s also go+ into ! /uff-*e/s4 ,^! may be #adf made ei!r ( wood or iron1 & %\ld be provid$ ) arms fix$ on a v]tical %aft1 made to revolve by suitable ge>+4 ,! arms are = ! purpose ( keep+ ! pulp ?or\ghly mix$1 & %\ld only "w at a mod]ate spe$1 o!rwise !y are liable to cause ! fibres to =m into small knots or lumps4 ,! pulp is drawn f ! /uff-*e/s by means ( ! pump ,a1 & is dis*>g$ into a regulat+-box 7n %[n74 ,! object ( ?is box is to keep a regul> & con/ant supply ( pulp on ! ma*9e4 ,x consi/s ( a cyl9drical vessel1 hav+ two ov]fl[-pipes ne> ! top1 & a dis*>ge-pipe ne> ! bottom4 ,! pulp is pump$ 9 ?r\gh a ball-valve 9 ! bottom1 9 l>g] quantity ?an is actually ne$$1 ! excess fl[+ away back into ! /uff-*e/s1 ?r\gh ! two ov]fl[-pipes4 ,by ?is means1 ! box is always kept full1 & !re=e ! /ream ( pulp issu+ out ( ! bottom pipe is always "u ! same pressure4 ,x fl[s f ?is pipe1 ! quantity be+ regulat$ by means ( a cock1 accord+ to ! ?ickness ( pap] requir$1 directly on to ! s&-tables4 ,^! may be ( v>i\s sizes & %apes1 b %\ld be s l>ge t ! pulp takes "s little "t to travel ov] !m4 ,!y consi/ ( long %all[ tr\ghs1 g5]ally ( a s9u\s =m4 ,! bottoms are sometimes cov]$ ) wooll5 felt1 or ) ?9 /rips ( wood plac$ across ! direction ( ! fl[ ( ! pulp1 & at a slight angle4 ,^! s]ve to reta9 any p>ticles1 su* z s& & dirt1 t may h escap$ removal 9 ! previ\s treatm5t ( ! pulp1 & t are heavy en\gh to h sunk d[n dur+ ! passage ( ! pulp along ! s&-tables4 ,9 "s mills1 :]e great c>e is ex]cis$1 ! pulp is caus$ to fl[ ov] s&-tables #bjj y>ds 9 l5g?4 ,z ! pulp1 :5 x leaves ! /uff-*e/s1 does n conta9 suffici5t wat] = ! purpose ( mak+ pap]1 x is mix$1 :]e x ent]s ! s&-tables1 ) a quantity ( wat] f ! 8save-all0 7see p4 #aed71 fl[+ f ! box ,b plac$ at a high] level4 ,9 "s mills1 in/ead ( be+ pump$ into ! #adg regulat+-box1 ! pulp fl[s into a small vessel bel[ ! /uff-*e/1 & is lift$ on to ! s&-tables by means ( buckets fa/5$ on ! circumf]5ce ( a :eel4 ,! pulp1 aft] leav+ ! s&-tables1 passes on to ! /ra9]s4 ,^! consi/ ( /rong brass or bronze plates1 hav+ a l>ge numb] ( v f9e ,v-%ap$ slits cut 9 !m1 ! n>r[e/ end be+ on ! outside4 ,/ra9]s4--,! /ra9]s are = ! purpose ( remov+ f ! pulp all lumps =m$ by ! int]tw9+ ( ! fibres1 & all pieces ( unboil$ fibre1 :i*1 if all[$ to pass on1 w\ld %[ 9 ! pap] z inequalities 9 ! surface1 or z d>k specks4 ,! slits are made n>r[ at ! top1 & gradually increas+ 9 wid?1 s z to prev5t !m f gett+ *ok$ up4 ,^! slits all[ only ! individual fibres to pass ?r\gh1 & _! wid? v>ies accord+ to ! quality ( ! pap]4 ,!y are f #b to #c 94 long1 & !y v>y 9 wid? f #jjg to #je 94 ,!y are put at di/ances ( ab\t #a_/d 94 ap>t4 ,sev]al plates1 ea* conta9+ ab\t #ejj slits1 are bolt$ toge!r1 & =m a /ra9]4 ,! :ole /ra9] receives a viol5t %ak+ motion1 to assi/ ! passage ( ! fibres ?r\gh ! slits4 ,9 ! ma*9e repres5t$1 two ( ^! /ra9]s are %[n at ,c4 ,! %ak+ motion is produc$ by ! rat*et-:eel or cams a act+ on ! hamm] b4 ,an improv$ =m1 call$ ! 8revolv+ /ra9]10 has ( late ye>s be5 introduc$4 ,! pulp g5]ally passes fir/ ?r\gh "o ( ^!1 & !n ?r\gh ! ord9>y or 8flat0 /ra9]s1 z !y are call$4 ,a revolv+ /ra9] is %[n at ,d4 ,x consi/s ( a rectangul> box1 ! sides ( :i* are =m$ ( plates p]=at$ ) slits4 ,inside ?is box1 a slight vacuum is =m$ by means ( an indi>ubb] bell[s work$ by a crank on ! %aft d4 ,! vacuum is int5d$ to s]ve ! purpose ( ! %ake 9 ! ord9>y =m4 ,! box revolves sl[ly inside a vat conta9+ ! pulp1 & ! /ra9$ pulp fl[s into ! box ,d#a1 & !nce on to ! flat /ra9]s4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #de4 ,v>i\s pat5ts h be5 tak5 out f "t to "t = #adh flat /ra9]s work$ by means ( a vacuum und]nea? ! plates caus$ by ! motion ( discs ( indi>ubb] or ?9 metal4 ,fig4 #de %[s 9 plan a set ( /ra9]s1 z manufactur$ by ,messrs4 ,g4 ,w4 ,b]tram1 simil> to ^? 9 ,plate ,,ii41 b illu/rat$ some:at m 9 detail4 ,! pulp fir/ passes ?r\gh ! flat /ra9] ,b1 & f !nce to ! two revolv+ /ra9]s ,a4 ,f ^! x fl[s along ! %oots plac$ at ! side on to ! pap]-ma*9e at ,e4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #df4 ,fig4 #df gives a view ( a pat5t flat vacuum /ra9] made by ! same firm1 :i* may also be us$ = clean+ /raw or esp>to previ\s to its passage ov] a presse-pte4 ,! pulp fl[s on to ! /ra9] at a1 & passes away by #adi ! ca/-iron pipes f4 ,! valve g is = runn+ (f wa/e pulp4 ,! plates are plac$ at a slope ( ab\t #a 94 9 _! l5g?2 ^? ne>e/ ! supply ( pulp are provid$ ) co>s] slits1 z ! impetus c>ries ! knots =w>d4 ,! vacuum pumps are work$ by ! rods d f ! %aft e4 ,by means ( ! tubes c wat] c be direct$ on to ! plates1 :]eby ! co>s] p>ticles ( fibre are c>ri$ =w>d1 & ! slits are kept clean4 ,! plates c be remov$ 9 a few m9utes4 ,figs4 #dg & #dh %[ 9 side & end elevation1 ,messrs4 ,masson1 ,scott1 ,b]tram's pat5t self-clean+ /ra9]4 ,! novelty consi/s 9 an arrangem5t by means ( :i* ! upp] surface ( ! plates are cont9ually fre$ f ^? portions ( ! pulp :i* _c pass ?r\gh ! slits4 ,! scrap]s d are made ( vulcanis$ indi>ubb]1 & are cont9ually c>ri$ =w>d by an endless *a92 ! knots1 c41 collect 9 a heap at ! end ( a /ra9]4 ,! #aej pulp fl[s on at a1 & passes away ?r\gh ! pipe b4 ,! pumps are driv5 f ! %aft e4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #dg4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #dh4 ,messrs4 ,c4 ,h4 ,f4 ,l4 ,roeckn]'s pat5t /ra9] 7,no4 #gicb1 #ahhe7 consi/s ( a s]ies ( cyl9drical tubes1 op5 at "o end & p]=at$ ) slits4 ,!y are plac$ 9 a vat into :i* ! pulp fl[s4 ,inside ! cyl9d]s are plac$ two1 ?ree1 or m plates1 fix$ to ! %afts on :i* ! cyl9d]s are support$1 & ext5d+ to ! circumf]5ce4 ,^! plates =m a k9d ( fan1 :i*1 toge!r ) ! cyl9d]s1 are caus$ to oscillate by means ( a rod & cranks4 ,?is oscillat+ motion s]ves to draw ! fibres ?r\gh ! slits1 & at ! same "t to keep ! outsides ( ! cyl9d]s clean4 ,! cyl9d]s are easily removable4 ,aft] a "t1 ! slits 9 ! plates get too l>ge1 ow+ to ! plate hav+ be5 worn away by ! con/ant friction ( ! fibres1 & z !y are v exp5sive1 v>i\s attempts h be5 made to inv5t plans = p>tially clos+ !m aga94 ,hamm]+ w effect ?is1 b is liable to break ! plates4 ,ann&ale ( ,belton=d has introduc$ a me?od ( clos+ ! plates1 by means ( heavy pressure act+ on small /eel roll]s mov+ on ea* side ( ! slit1 9 :i* is plac$ a small %eet ( metal ! exact ?ickness ( ! wid? desir$4 #aea ,ano!r me?od ( clos+ ! plates consi/s 9 fill+ !m up by means ( electrically deposit$ copp] or o!r metal4 ,!y c !n be recut 9 ! usual way4 ,9 ! case ( revolv+ /ra9]s1 all t _c pass ?r\gh ! slits falls to ! bottom ( ! vat1 9 connection ) :i* x is cu/om>y to h an auxili>y /ra9]1 or 8pat5t knott]10 z x is call$1 %[n at ,e4 ,all fibre t passes ?r\gh ?is "o1 :i* is ( ! ord9>y flat k9d ) %ak+ motion1 goes into a box ne> ,e1 call$ ! 8l[ box0 = 8save-all0 wat] 7see p4 #aed74 ,! pulp1 aft] pass+ ?r\gh ! /ra9]s1 %\ld be p]fectly free f knots & impurities1 & 9 a fit condition = mak+ pap]4 ,9 ! ma*9e %[n1 x passes f ! la/ /ra9] directly on to ! wire1 its fl[ be+ regulat$ by a movable gate e4 ,9 "s cases1 h[ev]1 x fir/ fl[s into a small vat1 9 ! c5tre ( :i* revolves a rod c>ry+ paddles1 ) ! object ( keep+ ! pulp well /irr$ up4 ,x is c>ri$ "r on to ! wire by means ( ! apron1 a piece ( canvas1 oil-clo?1 or %eet rubb]1 "o end ( :i* is fa/5$ to ! brea/-bo>d e1 ! o!r end re/+ on1 & cov]+ ! wire to ! ext5t ( ab\t #ae 94 ,! edges ( ! apron are roll$ up to prev5t ! pulp f ov]fl[+4 ,aft] leav+ ! apron1 x passes "u a gate1 or 8slic]10 z x is sometimes call$1 made ( two pieces ( brass1 ov]lapp+ ea* o!r 9 ! c5tre1 & bolt$ toge!r4 ,x is made ?us to enable x to be l5g!n$ or %ort5$ accord+ to ! wid? ( ! pap]2 its height f ! wire-clo? c be alt]$ by means ( screws1 & %\ld be equal at all po9ts1 9 ord] to ensure a uni=mly ?ick %eet ( pap]4 ,! ends ( ! two pieces =m+ ! slic] are fa/5$ to ! frame f or 8deckle10 z x is call$1 & ?is aga9 is c>ri$ by two or m rods /ret*+ "r across ! wire1 & fa/5$ by small upright supports on bo? sides to ! frame g4 ,! deckle-frame also c>ries ! groov$ pulleys h1 along :i* ! deckle-/raps i1 endless squ>e b&s ( indi>ubb]1 move4 #aeb ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #di4 ,! object ( ! deckle-/raps is to regulate ! wid? ( ! pap]2 !y =m1 toge!r ) ! wire-clo?1 a k9d ( m\ld into :i* ! pulp fl[s1 ?us correspond+ to ! m\ld us$ 9 h&-made pap]-mak+4 ,! wid? ( ! pap] c be alt]$ by %ift+ ! position ( ! frame f1 & also ! deckle-/raps1 :i* are c>ri$ on x z describ$1 ! pulleys h be+ s arrang$ t !y slide along ! rods on :i* !y revolve4 ,9 ord] to alt] ! wid? ( ! pap] x is necess>y to /op ! fl[ ( pulp on to ! wire1 & x n only consumes a consid]able am\nt ( "t1 b g5]ally necessitates a p>tial clean+ up ( ! ma*9e4 ,v>i\s attempts h1 !re=e1 be5 made to devise an arrangem5t :]eby ! *ange c be effect$ :ile ! pap] is be+ made4 ,sev]al #aec contrivances h lately be5 introduc$1 all simil> to ! "o %[n 9 ,figs4 #di & #ej4 ,9 x ! frame f c>ry+ ! deckle-/rap is made to slide along ! rods e by means ( ! small :eel b1 & by a simil> arrangem5t on ! opposite side & ge>$ ) x4 ,! movable apron l1 ,fig4 #di1 is w\nd r\nd ! sp9dle g1 & is kept taut by ! cords m connect$ ) ! spr+s n4 ,z ! deckles approa* ea* o!r1 ! excess ( apron is w\nd up1 :5 !y are sep>at$ x unw9ds aga94 ,! fl[ ( pulp is regulat$ by two slices a a1 :i* are kept 9 position by ! screws h4 ,! :ole arrangem5t is securely bolt$ to ! frame ( ! ma*9e2 c 7,fig4 #ej7 repres5ts ! brea/-roll1 & corresponds to ,f1 ,plates ,i4 & ,,ii4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ej4 ,! ?ickness ( ! pap] is regulat$ by alt]+ ! supply ( pulp to ! wire-clo?1 & by ! spe$ at :i* ! ma*9e is work+4 ,?is spe$ may v>y f ab\t #fj feet to z high z #bgj feet p] m9ute4 ,! 8wire0 is an endless clo? made ( v f9e wire1 ! f95ess dep5d+ mu* on ! quality ( ! pap] requir$4 ,! me% v>ies f #fj to #gj & ev5 m ?reads to ! in*4 ,x is n wov5 endless1 b is jo9$ by v c>eful sew+ ) wire4 ,its wid? v>ies consid]ably1 "s #aed be+ made z wide z #abf in*es2 ! l5g? is g5]ally #ce-dj ft4 ,x is c>ri$ by ! brea/-roll ,f1 ! l[] c\*-roll ,g1 & ! small rolls f1 & by a l>ge numb] ( small rolls f4 ,! latt] & ! brea/-roll are support$ by ! frame g1 :ile ! small rolls f are support$ by brackets atta*$ to x4 ,! c\rse ( ! wire is indicat$ by ! arr[s4 ,! frame g works on two pivots g1 & receives a %ak+ motion f side to side f ! rod j1 9 connection ) a crank work$ by two conical drums ,h4 ,! supports g are also pivot$ at _! l[] ends to all[ = ! %ak+ motion4 ,?is %ak+ motion is giv5 = ! purpose ( weav+ or int]tw9+ ! fibres4 ,"o or m ( ! rolls f c be mov$ up or d[n on ! support :i* c>ries x1 = ! purpose ( /ret*+ ! wire4 ,!re is usually a l>ge numb] ( ! small rolls f1 z x has be5 f\nd by exp]i5ce t1 probably ow+ to capill>y attraction1 !y1 cause ! wat] to leave ! pulp4 ,?\gh a l>ge quantity ( wat] ?us passes ?r\gh ! wire-clo?1 x is necess>y to assi/ x by artificial means4 ,?is is done by means ( ! suction-boxes ,i connect$ by pipes ) ! vacuum-pumps ,i4 ,?is "p ( ! ma*9e1 :i* is call$ ! 8wet-end10 is plac$ at a slight slope ( ab\t #a 94 9 its entire l5g?1 ! l[e/ end be+ ne>e/ ! /ra9]s4 ,und]nea? ! wire-clo? is plac$ a box call$ ! 8save-all0 ,k1 connect$ ) ! box ,e4 ,! wat] t passes ?r\gh ! wire-clo? conta9s a consid]able quantity ( v f9e fibres1 toge!r ) size1 alum1 clay1 & col\r+ mat]ials1 t h pass$ ?r\gh ! wire1 & :i* w\ld be lo/ b = ! arrangem5t n[ univ]sally adopt$4 ,x fl[s into ! box ,e1 & is pump$1 toge!r ) ! pulp t has pass$ ?r\gh ! knott] ,e 7see p4 #aea71 into ! high box ,b1 :5ce ! mix$ /uff fl[s on ! s&-tables1 to be aga9 us$ to dilute fre% pulp f ! /uff-*e/s4 ,! foll[+ numb]s w give "s idea ( ! nature & am\nt ( fibre1 c41 :i* passes ?r\gh4 #aee ,! pap] 0 made f esp>to & /raw1 siz$ ) ros9 & />*4 ,x conta9$ #ab p] c5t4 ( clay4 ,gra9s p] ,gallon ( ,wa/e ,wat]4 ,fibre #cdcg ,clay #cgaj ,/>* #adj ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ea4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #eb4 ,x is almo/ impossible to utilise ! :ole ( ! back-wat] pass+ ?r\gh ! wire-clo? 9 ! way describ$4 ,9 "s mills a portion ( ?is wat] is made to pass ?r\gh a 8pulp-sav]10 su* z is %[n 9 ,figs4 #ea & #eb4 ,x consi/s ( a conical drum ,a1 ! circumf]5ce ( :i* is cov]$ ) wire-clo?1 & x is caus$ to revolve sl[ly by suitable ge>+4 ,! wat] ent]s by ! pipe ,b1 & passes ?r\gh ! me%es ( ! wire-clo?1 ! pulp gradually f9d+ its way to ! wid] end1 :]e x is dis*>g$ into ! box ,c4 ,x c !n be return$ to ! beat]s4 ,?is pulp-sav] c also be us$ = recov]+ ! fibre f o!r wa/e wat]1 su* z ! wa% wat] f ! wa%+ & beat+-eng9es2 or x c be us$ = free+ blea*$ pulp f wat] 9 cases :]e dra9age or hydraulic pressure is n resort$ to4 ,if any patt]n or "n is requir$ on ! pap]1 x is produc$ by means ( a light skeleton roll1 call$ a 8d&y-roll10 cov]$ ) rais$ wires 9 ! =m ( ! desir$ patt]n1 #aef plac$ betwe5 ! suction-boxes1 & press+ lightly on ! /ill moi/ pap]4 ,! pap] is ?9n$ :]e ! wire patt]n presses1 & ?us a m>k 7wat]-m>k7 is produc$4 ,! o!r side ( ! pap] has a m>k correspond+ to ! wire-clo?2 by us+ a d&y-roll cov]$ ) wire-clo?1 ! two sides c be obta9$ alike1 su* pap] go+ by ! "n ( 8wove40 ,pap] 9 :i* a s]ies ( p>allel l9es are produc$ is call$ a 8laid0 pap]4 ,"s wat]-m>ks are produc$ by means ( a d&y-roll 9 :i* ! patt]n is =m$ by depressions 9 ! surface4 ,! pap] is ?us ?ick] :]e ! patt]n is =m$ ?an 9 ! gr\nd-"w4 ,de la ,rue 7,pat5t ,no4 #hcdh1 #ahhd7 has pat5t$ ! use ( d&y-rolls s =m$ z to produce ^u ! pap] ! effects bo? ( ?ick5+ & ?9n+4 ,imitation wat]-m>ks c be produc$ on ! f9i%$ pap] by subject+ x to pressure 9 contact ) plates on :i* ! design has be5 produc$ 9 relief4 ,9 ?is way v beautiful results c be obta9$4 7,see ,pat5t ,no4 #ac1dee1 #ahhd47 ,x sometimes happ5s t ! wire-clo? slips slightly to "o side4 ,?is c be obviat$ by ! ma*9e-man %ift+1 by means ( screws1 "o ( ! rolls provid$ = ! purpose ) a movable j\rnal1 until its axis is at a slight angle to t ( ! o!r rolls4 ,an automatic app>atus has be5 inv5t$ = ?is purpose4 ,two brass plates are fix$1 "o on ea* side ( ! wire-clo?1 to a long rod1 connect$ by suitable ma*9]y ) ! screws work+ ! movable j\rnal1 s t1 z ! wire presses aga9/ "o or ! o!r ( ^! plates1 ! roll is %ift$ s z to correct ?is4 ,! pap]1 :i*1 ev5 aft] pass+ ! suction-boxes1 is /ill v wet1 passes ) ! wire-clo? betwe5 ! c\*-rolls ,g ,g4 ,^! are holl[ copp] or brass cyl9d]s1 cov]$ ) a tightly-fitt+ endless jacket ( felt4 ,!y may also be made ( wood 7sycamore or mahogany7 or ( iron or iron & brass comb9$4 ,! pressure ( ! upp] c\*-roll ^u ! l[] c be regulat$ by means ( #aeg screws or lev]s4 ,!y s]ve to press out wat] f ! pap]1 & to deta* ! pap] f ! wire-clo?4 ,by dext]\s manipulation on ! "p ( ! ma*9e-m51 ! pap] is transf]r$ to ! endless felt1 travell+ ov] ! rolls k 9 ! direction ( ! arr[s4 ,x is kn[n z ! 8wet felt10 f ! condition ( ! pap] at ?is /age4 ,9 its passage along ?is felt1 ! pap] passes betwe5 two iron rolls ,k1 call$ ! fir/ press-rolls1 ) ! object ( hav+ ! wat] squeez$ or press$ out ( x4 ,^! rolls are sometimes cov]$ ) a ?9 brass case1 & ! top "o is provid$ ) an arrangem5t call$ ! 8doctor10 9 ord] to keep x clean1 & free f pieces ( pap] t may h /uck to x4 ,! l[] press roll is sometimes cov]$ ) an indi>ubb] jacket4 ,! 8doctor0 is a k9d ( knife plac$ along ! :ole l5g? ( ! roll1 & press+ aga9/ x at e po9t4 ,! pressure on ! rolls c be regulat$ by means ( lev]s1 or1 z 9 ! illu/ration1 by ! screw k4 ,x w be readily se5 t ! "u side ( ! pap] t has be5 next to ! felt w1 9 its /ill moi/ condition1 h tak5 to "s ext5t an impression f ! felt1 :ile ! upp] side w h be5 made comp>atively smoo? by ! pressure aga9/ ! top roll ( ! #a/ press4 ,9 ord] to make bo? sides ( ! pap] z ne>ly z possible alike1 x is pass$ ?r\gh ano!r set ( rolls ,l1 call$ ! #bnd press4 ,?is "t x is rev]s$1 & ent]s at ! back ( ! rolls2 ?us ! o!r side ( ! pap] is next ! metal1 be+ tak5 ?r\gh by ! felt 7call$ ! 8#bnd press felt07 travell+ on ! small rolls l1 ! pap]1 aft] leav+ ! wet felt1 & be=e be+ tak5 on to ! #bnd press felt1 travels ov] ! rolls l4 ,! #bnd press felt is necess>y1 because ! pap] is too t5d] to )/&1 unsupport$1 ! pressure ( ! rolls4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ec4 ,! pap]1 aft] pass+ ! #bnd press rolls1 travels ov] ! dry+-cyl9d]s ,m1 ! numb] ( :i* v>ies some:at4 ,9 ! ma*9e %[n1 !re are 9 all eight cyl9d]s4 ,sometimes z _m z twelve are employ$4 ,betwe5 ! #aeh #bnd press rolls & ! cyl9d]s1 a passage ,s all[s easy access to ! o!r side ( ! ma*9e4 ,! pap] g5]ally passes alone ov] ! fir/ two1 :i* are only slightly heat$2 aft]w>ds x is l$ ov] ! o!rs by means ( felts1 z %[n4 ,! arrangem5ts %[n at ,r are = ! purpose ( /ret*+ ! felts4 ,! cyl9d]s are heat$ by means ( /eam1 & are g5]ally divid$ into two sets1 betwe5 :i* is a pair ( *ill$-iron1 highly-poli%$ rolls ,n1 call$ 8smoo!rs10 ! function ( :i* is suffici5tly expla9$ by _! "n4 ,!y are also heat$ by means ( /eam4 ,! cyl9d]s are usually made ( slightly decreas+ diamet]1 9 ord] to all[ = ! %r9k+ ( ! pap] on dry+4 ,messrs4 ,g4 ,w4 ,b]tram introduce into "s ( _! ma*9es "o or two small dry+ cyl9d]s1 ov] :i* ! #bnd press felt travels1 ! object be+ to drive (f "s ( ! moi/ure absorb$ f ! pap]4 ,?is contrivance is said to give excell5t results1 & to ensure a consid]able sav+ 9 felts4 ,! arrangem5t is %[n 9 ,fig4 #ec4 ,x is especially useful 9 ma*9es runn+ at a high spe$1 or 9 ^? hav+ limit$ dry+ p[]4 ,aft] leav+ ! cyl9d]s1 ! pap] %\ld be q dry2 x is !n l$ ?r\gh ! cal5d]s1 ( :i* !re are 9 "s ma*9es #aei z _m z ?ree sets1 ?\gh only "o is %[n4 ,^! are simil> to ! smoo?+-rolls1 j describ$4 ,pressure is appli$ by ! screws ,o1 or by lev]s & weights4 ,! friction ( ! hot cal5d]s on ! dry pap] develops a l>ge quantity ( electricity1 :i* occasionally dis*>ges itself 9 bright sp>ks4 ,x is ! practice 9 "s mills to cool ! pap] be=e pass+ x ?r\gh ! cal5d]s4 ,?is is effect$ by pass+ x ov] a copp] cyl9d]1 ?r\gh :i* a /ream ( cold wat] runs4 ,! degree ( smoo?ness or 8f9i%0 t c be giv5 to ! pap] by ! cal5d]s1 dep5ds to a l>ge ext5t ^u ! degree ( moi/ure :i* x conta9s4 ,z x leaves ! la/ cyl9d] x is p]fectly dry1 t is to say1 x conta9s only t am\nt ( wat] :i* cellulose1 f :atev] s\rce1 always c>ries4 ,?is am\nt v>ies slightly ) ! nature ( ! cellulose1 & ) ! plant f :i* x has be5 isolat$1 & also ) ! /ate ( ! atmosph]e1 x be+ great] on damp days4 ,x w\ld be impossible s to regulate ! dry+ action ( ! cyl9d]s t ! requisite am\nt ( wat] %\ld always be left 9 ! pap]2 x is !re=e bett] to dry x z ?or\ghly z possible1 & !n to add ! wat]1 by artificial means1 j be=e x passes ?r\gh ! cal5d]s4 ,?is me?od1 moreov]1 has ! advantage ( damp+ only ! surface ( ! pap]4 ,fig4 #ed %[s a damp+ arrangem5t z manufactur$ by ,messrs4 ,james ,b]tram ,son4 ,! pap] on leav+ ! la/ dry+ cyl9d] passes on to two copp] cyl9d]s c1 fill$ ) cold wat]4 ,/eam passes ?r\gh ! pipe a1 & issues ?r\gh a numb] ( f9e holes 9 a pipe runn+ at "r angles to ! direction 9 :i* ! pap] is travell+1 & ne> to x4 ,! /eam cond5ses on ! pap] & on ! surface ( ! cyl9d]s1 f :i* ! pap] absorbs x4 ,! supply c be regulat$ by ! cocks %[n 9 ! draw+4 ,! tr\ghs d c>ry (f any excess ( cond5s$ wat]4 ,among/ o!r me?ods propos$ is "o by ,ann&ale2 x #afj consi/s 9 break+ up jets ( wat] into a v f9e spray by means ( a bla/ ( air4 ,! f9i%$ pap]1 aft] pass+ ?r\gh ! cal5d]s1 is w\nd on ! reels ,p4 ,! ge>+ by :i* ! :ole ma*9e is driv5 is %[n 9 ,plate ,,ii4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ed4 ,x sometimes happ5s t1 ow+ to ! increas$ t5sion due to ! contraction ( ! pap] 9 dry+1 ! pap] breaks4 ,x is !re=e necess>y to alt] ! spe$ ( "s ( ! cyl9d]s to comp5sate = ?is4 ,a r\gh exp$i5t :i* is l>gely adopt$1 consi/s 9 atta*+1 by means ( a mixture ( ros9 & tall[1 a piece ( felt to "o or o!r ( ! pulleys 7,plate ,,ii471 & ?us alt]+ its spe$4 ,tub-siz+4--,! =ego+ description is ( a ma*9e = ! manufacture ( eng9e-siz$ pap]s2 "s slight modifications are necess>y 9 ! case ( pap]s t are tub-siz$ on ! ma*9e4 ,9 mak+ ! *eap] qualities ( tub-siz$ pap]s1 ! pap]1 aft] be+ p>tially dri$ ov] a few cyl9d]s1 is pass$ ?r\gh a vessel conta9+ a #afa solution ( gelat9e 7see p4 #afb74 ,x !n goes betwe5 a pair ( roll]s1 :i* press out ! excess ( size1 & !n aga9 ov] dry+-cyl9d]s4 ,! vessel or tr\gh conta9+ ! size is fill$ to ov]fl[+ f a tank plac$ at a high] level2 ! ov]fl[ passes into a l[] vessel1 f :i* x is pump$ up to ! top tank4 ,! size is kept w>m by means ( a coil ?r\gh :i* /eam passes plac$ 9 "o or o!r ( ! vessels conta9+ x4 ,! pap] passes betwe5 a pair ( roll]s plac$ 9 a tr\gh & dipp+ into ! size4 ,! size may be made to fl[ ?r\gh a pipe pi]c$ ) a numb] ( holes1 ! /ream runn+ directly on to ! web ( pap]4 ,9 ! o!r1 & p]haps mo/ g5]al way1 at lea/ = ! bett] qualities1 ! pap] is w\nd (f imm$iately aft] leav+ ! la/ dry+-cyl9d] ,a 7,fig4 #ee71 & siz$ at "s future "t1 or x may be pass$ directly into ! vat ,b conta9+ ! size4 ,aft] pass+ betwe5 ! squeez+-rolls4 ,c1 x is g5]ally w\nd (f z at ,d2 & aft] hav+ /ood "s "t #afb to all[ ! size to be ev5ly absorb$ by ! pap]1 x is w\nd (f f ,f1 & pass$ ov] ! cyl9d]s ,h1 ( :i* !re may be a v great numb]1 "s ma*9es hav+ ov] #cjj ( !m4 ,^! cyl9d]s are made ( light sp>s ( wood2 inside !m1 & revolv+ rapidly 9 an opposite direction1 are ! fans ,g4 ,! pap]1 9 travell+ ov] ^! drums1 is only sl[ly dri$1 & is suppos$ by ?is means to be m p]fectly siz$1 & increas$ 9 /r5g?4 ,x is w\nd on to reels aga9 at ,i4 ,only ! fir/ & la/ two drums are %[n4 ,?is me?od 0 devis$ to imitate1 z f> z possible1 ! siz+ process ( h&-made pap]4 ,ev5 n[1 pap] t has be5 made on ! ma*9e is siz$ by h&1 aft] hav+ be5 cut into %eets1 mu* 9 ! same way z h&-made4 ,illu/ration3 ,,! ,,f\rdr9i] ,,pap] ,,ma*9e4 ,,plate ,,ii4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ee4 ,prep>ation ( ,size4--,v pure gelat9e c n[ be obta9$ 9 ! =m ( light-col\r$ cakes4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 m economical = ! pap]-mak] to prep>e 8 own3 ?is is !re=e done 9 ! majority ( cases4 ,a great _m animal sub/ances1 su* z clipp+s ( hides1 horns1 bones1 c41 yield gelat9e :5 heat$ ) wat]4 ,any ( ^! sub/ances may be us$1 ! fir/ be+ ! *ief raw mat]ial4 ,!y are fir/ s(t5$ by soak+ 9 cold wat] = "s days3 !y are !n cleans$ by wa%+ 9 a /ream ( wat]4 ,! next op]ation is t ( heat+ ) wat]4 ,?is is usually done 9 iron or copp] vessels provid$ ) a false bottom or out] jacket1 into :i* /eam may be pass$4 ,! hide cutt+s are cov]$ ) wat]1 & ! mass gradually rais$ to a temp]ature ( ab\t #he 7#ahe ,f474 ,9 f #aj to #ae h\rs ne>ly ! :ole ( ! cutt+s w h pass$ into solution z gelat9e4 ,?is solution is !n drawn (f & any insoluble sub/ance susp5d$ 9 x is remov$ by subsid5ce or filtration4 ,! hides conta9 a c]ta9 quantity ( fat1 :i* collects on ! surface ( ! solution4 ,! residue 9 ! boil] is aga9 heat$ ) wat] & ! solution add$ to ! bulk4 ,x is ( ! greate/ importance t too high a temp]ature be avoid$1 z gelat9e is liable1 :5 /rongly heat$ ) wat]1 to lose its p[] ( gelat9is+4 #afc ,to ! filt]$ solution ( gelat9e1 :i* %\ld be1 if prop]ly prep>$1 ( a pale col\r1 a quantity ( alum solution is add$4 ,! effect ( alum ^u gelat9e is v rem>kable4 ,if add$ sl[ly x w be f\nd gradually to r5d] x /iff until at a c]ta9 po9t ! mass w become almo/ solid2 a fur!r addition r5d]s x fluid aga94 ,x is 9 ?is /ate ready to be us$ = siz+ purposes4 ,! am\nt ( alum necess>y to produce ?is effect is ab\t #bj p] c5t4 ( ! weight ( ! raw mat]ial4 ,! alum is also useful 9 prev5t+ ! decomposition ( ! gelat9e1 b its *ief *>act]i/ic is to r5d] ! gelat9e a m effici5t siz+ mat]ial4 ,!re is no d\bt t1 besides its action ^u ! gelat9e itself1 x has a consid]able effect ^u cellulose4 ,x is ( ! greate/ importance t ! alum or ! sulphate ( alum9a1 :i* c be sub/itut$1 %\ld n conta9 any free acid4 ,?is is especially necess>y 9 ! case ( pap]s made f rags1 9 ! blea*+ ( :i* an acid has be5 us$2 "o effect ( :i* is to remove all basic sub/ances d]iv$ f ! boil+ or blea*+ processes4 ,9 ! case ( esp>to & simil> fibres1 a consid]able quantity ( su* sub/ances are pres5t 9 ! pulp1 ! result be+ t ! free acid ( alum is to a l>ge ext5t neutralis$1 & its injuri\s effects prev5t$4 ,! effect ( ! free acid is se5 9 ! weak5+ ( ! pap] & ! de/ruction ( metal surfaces ) :i* x comes 9 contact4 ,! effect ( acid ^u cellulose w be f\nd m fully describ$ 9 p4 #ab4 ,_m pap]-mak]s add to ! gelat9e a c]ta9 quantity ( soap1 ! effect ( :i* is to r5d] ! pap] capable ( tak+ a high f9i%4 ,! soaps employ$ %\ld be :ite & firm1 & %\ld be free f ros94 ,"s soap-mak]s prep>e a special soap = pap]-mak+4 ,!y are usually made f tall[1 or a mixture ( ?is ) a small quantity ( coconut oil4 ,if a solution ( soap be add$ to "o ( alum1 a d\ble decomposition imm$iately occurs1 ! fatty acid be+ ?r[n d[n 9 comb9ation ) ! alum9a1 & ! soda #afd comb9+ ) ! sulphuric acid4 ,if1 h[ev]1 ! soap solution be previ\sly mix$ ) a solution ( gelat9e1 no precipitation takes place1 ! mixture =m+ an emulsion hav+ some:at ! appe>ance ( ?9 milk4 ,v>i\s attempts h f "t to "t be5 made to size pap] 9 ! eng9e ) gelat9e1 by precipitat+ x 9 ! pulp aft] ! mann] ( ros9 siz+1 b z yet no successful me?od has be5 devis$4 ,s+le-cyl9d] ,ma*9es4--,modifi$ =ms ( ! orig9al ,f\rdr9i] ma*9e h be5 introduc$ to meet v>i\s requirem5ts4 ,"o suitable = ! manufacture ( v ?9 pap]1 or ( pap]s "o side only ( :i* is requir$ to be glaz$1 call$ a s+le-cyl9d] or ,yankee ma*9e1 is %[n 9 ,fig4 #ef4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ef4 ,x resembles ! ,f\rdr9i] ma*9e z f> z ! c\*-rolls ,a & ,b4 ,! pap] is tak5 (f ! wire-clo? on to an endless felt runn+ r\nd ! upp] c\*-roll ,a1 & travell+ 9 ! direction ( ! arr[s4 ,x is tak5 f ! felt on to ! l>ge dry+-cyl9d] ,c1 ( ab\t #aj feet diamet]1 heat$ ) /eam4 ,x is c>efully turn$ & poli%$ s z to imp>t a high gloss to ! surface ( ! pap] ) :i* x is 9 contact4 ,cal5d]-rolls are sometimes suppli$ 9 addition4 ,! arrangem5t %[n at ,d is = ! purpose ( wa%+ ! felt4 ,?is is necess>y to cool & op5 x out aft] pass+ betwe5 ! cold press-roll ,e & ! hot cyl9d]4 #afe ,! pap]1 aft] pass+ ov] ! great] "p ( ! surface ( ! cyl9d]1 is suffici5tly dri$1 & x is !n w\nd (f at ,f4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #eg4 ,a ma*9e ( a v diff]5t con/ruction f ! ord9>y =m is %[n 9 ,fig4 #eg4 ,! pulp1 aft] pass+ ?r\gh ! /ra9] ,a1 ent]s ! vat ,b1 9 ! c5tre ( :i* a l>ge drum or cyl9d] ,c revolves4 ,?is cyl9d] is cov]$ ) f9e wire-clo?1 & on x ! pap] is made4 ,z x revolves1 ! fibres atta* !mselves to ! wire1 & ! wat] passes ?r\gh ! me%es1 be+ assi/$ by means ( a pump4 ,! %eet ( pap] ?us =m$ is tak5 on to ! endless felt pass+ r\nd ! c\*-roll ,d1 & travels along ) x to ! l>ge dry+-cyl9d] ,e1 heat$ by /eam4 ,x leaves ! felt at ,f1 & is !n tak5 on to ! cyl9d]1 aft] travell+ r\nd :i* x is suffici5tly dri$1 & is !n w\nd (f z at ,g4 ,! felt on its return j\rney passes ?r\gh ! wa%] ,h1 :]e x is clean$ & fre$ f adh]+ p>ticles by ! scrap] ,i4 ,x is squeez$ free f excess ( #aff wat] by ! rolls ,k4 ,pap] made on su* a ma*9e is weak] ?an t made 9 ! ord9>y way1 because x has n be5 f\nd possible to give a %ak+ motion to ! cyl9d]1 & ?us ! fibres are only imp]fectly felt$4 ,a modification ( ?is ma*9e is us$ = mak+ millbo>ds1 ! diff]5ce be+ t x has no dry+-cyl9d]4 ,! felt c>ry+ ! pap] passes betwe5 a pair ( press-rolls1 :i* squeeze out ! wat]4 ,! %eet ( pap] is !n all[$ to w9d r\nd ! top press-roll until ( ! requir$ ?ickness4 ,:5 ?is happ5s1 x is cut (f ! roll by a knife4 ,! ?ick %eets s produc$ are dri$ ei!r 9 ! op5 air or 9 a room heat$ = ! purpose4 7,see p4 #ajh1 ,fig4 #ca47 #afg ,,*apt] ,,xi4 ,,cal5d]+1 ,,cutt+1 ,,etc4 ,! pap]1 z x leaves ! ma*9e1 is = _m purposes n suffici5tly highly glaz$1 & x is !re=e necess>y = x to und]go a fur!r process ( cal5d]+4 ,?is may be done 9 v>i\s ways4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #eh4 ,"o me?od1 call$ 8web glaz+10 is to pass ! pap] betwe5 a numb] ( rolls1 alt]nately ( poli%$ iron & v highly compress$ pap] or cotton4 ,! con/ruction ( su* a cal5d] w be und]/ood by ref]5ce to ,figs4 #eh 7end elevation7 & #ei 7front elevation74 ,! reel ( pap]1 z tak5 f ! ma*9e1 is %[n at ,a 7,fig4 #eh71 its c\rse ov] ! rolls be+ indicat$ by arr[s4 ,aft] pass+ ov] ! bottom roll1 x is w\nd (f on a wood5 or holl[ iron cyl9d] ,b 7,fig4 #eh71 driv5 by ! too!d :eel %[n by ! dott$ l9e ,c1 on ! same %aft z ! :eel ,d1 :i* is driv5 by ,e1 key$ ^u ! bottom roll4 ,! :ole ma*9]y is driv5 by ! l>ge too!d :eel ,f 7,figs4 #eh & #ei71 :i* is itself driv5 by ! small :eel ,g on ! ma9 %aft ,h4 ,! pap] rolls are m>k$ ,p1 & ! iron rolls ,i4 ,x w be se5 t !re are two pap] rolls 9 ! middle1 = ! purpose (1 z x 71 rev]s+ ! pap]1 & s mak+ bo? sides alike4 ,pressure is appli$ to ! rolls by means ( ! screws ,k1 & by ! weight ,l 7,fig4 #eh7 act+ on ! comp\nd lev] ,m4 ,! brake1 :i* consi/s ( a /rap ( lea!r1 press+1 by means ( ! weight & lev] ,n1 on ! circumf]5ce ( ! :eel ,o1 connect$ by too!d :eels ) ! cyl9d] ,a on :i* ! pap] is w\nd1 is us$ = ! purpose ( prev5t+ ! pap] f leav+ #afh ! cyl9d] too rapidly4 ,b = ?is appliance1 ! pap] w\ld be apt to crease4 ,! pap] rolls h an inn] core ( iron1 ! pap] only ext5d+ to a dep? ( ab\t #e 94 ,! iron rolls are holl[1 & are connect$ ) /eam-pipes1 by :i* !y c be heat$4 #afi ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ei4 ,ano!r me?od1 kn[n z 8friction-glaz+10 employ$ = giv+ a v high f9i% to pap]1 g5]ally on "o side only1 is to pass x betwe5 a l>ge pap] roll & a small] iron "o1 ! latt] revolv+ at a mu* great] spe$ ?an ! #agj =m]4 ,by ?is means a v smoo? surface c be obta9$4 ,x is sometimes assi/$ by rubb+ a small quantity ( bees'-wax on ! small iron roll4 ,! above-m5tion$ me?ods apply to ! glaz+ ( pap] 9 ! web4 ,pap] cut into %eets may also be treat$ 9 ! same way4 ,v>i\s modifications ( ^! cal5d]s h be5 devis$2 !y d n1 h[ev]1 involve ! application ( any special pr9ciple4 ,plate-glaz+1 a me?od t is adapt$ to h&-made & ! bett] qualities ( pap]1 consi/s 9 apply+ heavy pressure to %eets plac$ betwe5 poli%$ plates ( copp] or z9c4 ,! metallic plates & ! %eets ( pap] are made into bundles1 & ! :ole is pass$ betwe5 two /rong rolls1 heavy pressure be+ communicat$ to !m by means ( screws or lev]s & weights appli$ to ! ends ( ! upp] roll4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fj4 ,a cal5d] = ?is purpose is %[n 9 ,fig4 #fj4 ,! bundle ( plates & pap] is pass$ along ! table a2 aft] #aga pass+ ?r\gh ! rolls c1 x slides along ! incl9$ table d1 :]e x is receiv$ by a workman4 ,! pressure on ! rolls is regulat$ by ! h&le e & ! weights b4 ,by pass+ pap] betwe5 rolls on :i* devices h be5 cut1 ! 8repp$0 & o!r simil> pap]s are produc$4 ,) cal5d] rolls ( ! ord9>y con/ruction1 z ! pressure is appli$ at ! extreme ends1 ! roll is liable to assume a slightly curv$ %ape1 ! effect ( :i* is to produce an unev5 surface on ! pap]1 ! out] portion ( ! web be+ m highly f9i%$ ?an ! c5tre4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fa4 ,?is defect is obviat$ to a v l>ge ext5t by ,s*urmann's ,pat5t ,anti-,deflection ,rolls 7,fig4 #fa74 ,! roll prop] consi/s ( an out] %ell a1 ?r\gh ! c5tre ( :i* & securely w$g$ 9 at b is ! c5tre core c1 ! ends ( :i* run 9 j\rnals1 & to :i* pressure is appli$ 9 ! usual way4 ,! pressure is communicat$ to ! out] %ell at ! po9t ( contact b1 ! result be+ t ! p>allelism ( ! surfaces ( ! rolls is ma9ta9$1 & 9 consequ5ce1 ! pap] t5ds to be equally f9i%$ 9 e direction4 ,cutt+4--,except = special purposes1 su*1 = example1 z = use 9 a cont9u\s pr9t+ ma*9e1 pap] is usually s5t f ! mill 9 ! =m ( %eets4 ,! =m ( cutt]1 call$ a revolv+ cutt]1 g5]ally us$1 is %[n 9 ,fig4 #fb4 ,! pap] f ! webs ,a is drawn =w>d by ! rolls ,b2 x is !n ripp$ into wid?s ( a conv5i5t size by means ( two circul> knives1 ! upp] "o ( :i* is %[n at ,c4 ,x aga9 passes betwe5 a pair ( roll]s1 aft] leav+ :i* x meets a knife ,d fa/5$ to ! revolv+ drum ,e1 & press+ aga9/ a fix$ knife n %[n4 ,! cut %eets #agb !n fall ^u ! endless travell+ felt ,f4 ,! action ( ! knives w be und]/ood by ref]5ce to ,fig4 #fc4 ,! edges ( ! two knives are %[n at ,a & ,b4 ,! knife ,b has a slot1 9 :i* ! bolt ,d slides1 & x is kept 9 position by means ( a spr+4 ,?is spr+ causes ! knife to slide back slightly z x comes aga9/ ! fix$ knife ,a4 ,! position ( ! pap] is %[n by ! dott$ l9e ,c4 ,! knife ,b is set on ! drum n q horizontally1 s t "o end meets ! /ation>y knife a little be=e ! o!r1 ?us act+ 9 e respect l a pair ( scissors4 ,fig4 #fd %[s a pair ( ripp+-knives4 ,! upp] "o ,a is kept 9 position aga9/ ! l[] "o ,b by means ( ! spr+ ,c4 ,! cutt+ surfaces are slightly holl[$ out1 s z to h a %>p] edge4 ,! pap] is %[n by ! dott$ l9e ,d4 ,by alt]+ ! relative spe$ ( ! drum ,e #agc & ! rolls ,b1 by means ( ! exp&+ pulley ,g1 %eets ( any desir$ size c be cut4 ,! cutt+-knives are sometimes plac$ incl9$ to ! draw+-9 rolls ,b1 s t ! %eet1 in/ead ( be+ cut into a rectangle1 is cut into a rhomboid4 ,su* pap] is us$ *iefly = ! manufacture ( envelopes1 ?is %ape occasion+ a small] loss :5 ! envelopes are cut out4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fb4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fc4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fd4 ,s+le-%eet ,cutt]4--,x is sometimes necess>y1 z 9 ! case ( pap] hav+ a wat]-m>k1 t ! %eet %\ld be cut ) great exactness1 s t ! device %all come exactly 9 ! c5tre4 ,! ord9>y cutt] _c be reli$ on = ?is purpose1 &1 9 its place1 a ma*9e call$ a 8s+le-%eet cutt]0 is us$ 7,fig4 #fe74 ,x consi/s ess5tially ( a l>ge wood5 drum ,a1 fix$ on a horizontal axis1 ov] :i* ! pap] is l$ by a pair ( draw+-9 rolls ,b4 ,! pap] is held aga9/ ! drum by a clamp work$ by ! arm ,c4 ,! pap] is cut by ! knife ,e mov+ aga9/ ! /ation>y knife ,d4 ,aft] ! cut1 ! drum describes "p ( a circle1 ! pap] be+ /ill held1 s t x _c g back ) ! drum4 ,z soon z x has gone f> en\gh1 ! clamp is remov$1 & ! drum returns1 br++ ! pap] ) x4 ,! l5g? ( ! arc ?r\gh :i* ! drum moves1 & !re=e ! size ( %eet1 is regulat$ by ! l5g? ( ! crank-arm ,f4 ,if f any cause ! cut %\ld n take #agd place at ! "r "t1 ! man 9 *>ge c1 by press+ aga9/ ! clamp1 ret>d ! motion ( ! pap]1 & ?us br+ back ! cut to ! "r place4 ,! small roll] ,g is = ! purpose ( keep+ ! pap] always tight4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fe4 ,guillot9e ,cutt]4--,x is sometimes necess>y to trim ! edges ( %eets ( pap] or to divide !m into small] %eets4 ,?is is done by means ( a guillot9e cutt]1 an improv$ =m ( :i*1 z manufactur$ by ,salmon ( ,man*e/]1 & call$ ! 8,victory0 cutt]1 is %[n 9 ,fig4 #ff4 ,! pap] to be cut is plac$ on ! table ,f1 t\*+ ! back gauge ,g1 :i* c be br\ght backw>ds or =w>ds by means ( ! h&le ,h1 ?us regulat+ ! size ( %eet4 ,! ma*9e is set 9 motion by means ( ! lev] ,a1 :i* acts ^u a friction-clut* connect$ ) ! driv+-ge>4 ,?is causes ! knife-b> ,b & ! clamp ,c to desc5d4 #age ,:5 ! latt] meets ! pap] its progress is arre/$4 ,! knife ,d1 h[ev]1 cont9ues to desc5d1 & passes ?r\gh ! %eets ( pap]4 ,by means ( slots plac$ at ! back1 ! knife is made to take a diagonal c\rse4 ,! pressure ( ! clamp is ma9ta9$ ^u ! pap] dur+ ! cutt+ op]ation by means ( a p[]ful spr+ conta9$ 9 ! tube ,e4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ff4 ,sort+4--,! %eets ( pap] are n[ ready to be exam9$ be=e be+ f9ally s5t away f ! mill4 ,?is is done 9 ! 8,f9i%+-h\se10 or 8,salle0 z x is sometimes call$4 ,?is sort+ is usually p]=m$ by wom51 :o reject ! inf]ior or damag$ %eets4 ,^! are sold at a r$uc$ price "u ! "n ( 8retree40 ,pap] is sold 9 %eets ( def9ite sizes1 & is made up into reams conta9+ f #dhj to #eaf %eets4 ,^! sizes #agf correspond to diff]5t trade names--su*1 = example1 z cr[n1 demy1 royal1 imp]ial1 c4 ,! weight p] ream is usually express$ 9 addition to ! "n1 ?us3 #ad-lb4 demy1 #ah-lb4 d\ble cr[n1 c4 ,9 ?is way ! consum] is enabl$ to make a r\gh comp>ison ( ! ?ickness ( ! diff]5t k9ds ( pap]4 ,9 mak+ pap] x is ! duty ( ! ma*9eman to exam9e & weigh f "t to "t a %eet ( ! desir$ size1 9 ord] to ensure uni=mity4 ,special lev] balances c be obta9$1 %[+ at a glance ! weight p] ream ( diff]5t numb]s ( %eets4 #agg ,,*apt] ,,xii4 ,,cau/ic ,,soda1 ,,recov]$ ,,soda1 ,,etc4 ,z we h already po9t$ out1 cau/ic soda & lime are ! only alkalis employ$ by ! pap]-mak] = boil+ fibres2 ! special cases 9 :i* c>bonate ( soda is us$ h be5 m5tion$ 9 _! prop] place4 ,! prep>ation ( milk ( lime requires little or no description1 z ! op]ation is a simple & tol]ably famili> "o4 ,be=e us+1 x %\ld be pass$ ?r\gh a f9e wire sieve1 to keep back s&1 coal1 & simil> impurities :i* ! lime inv>iably conta9s4 ,cau/ic soda is met ) 9 comm]ce 9 f\r =ms1 diff]+ f ea* o!r 9 alkal9e /r5g? & col\r1 & ( c\rse 9 price4 ,! l[e/ quality is :at is kn[n z cau/ic 8bottoms03 x consi/s ( t portion rema9+ at ! bottom ( ! cau/ic-pot aft] ! cle> fus$ cau/ic soda has be5 ladl$ out1 & x conta9s a consid]able quantity ( f]ric oxide & o!r insoluble impurities4 ,x is ( a d>k r$di% br[n col\r1 & conta9s #ej-fj p] c5t4 ( alkali 7,na#b,o74 ,its use 9 pap]-mak+ _c be recomm5d$1 except = ! prep>ation ( ! v l[e/ grade ( pulp4 ,! solution %\ld be all[$ to rema9 at re/1 9 ord] t ! insoluble matt] may subside4 ,! next 9 quality is kn[n z cream cau/ic1 s call$ f its slightly br[n col\r4 ,x is usually sold conta9+ #fj p] c5t4 ( alkali1 9 ! =m ( a tol]ably friable mass1 hav+ a cry/all9e /ructure4 ,x is a v suitable =m ( alkali = ! pap]-mak]4 ,! next 9 ord] is :at is call$ #fj p] c5t4 :ite4 ,x #agh consi/s ( a h>d :ite mass1 requir+ consid]able =ce to break x4 ,?\gh :it] 9 appe>ance ?an cream cau/ic1 x is 9 reality less pure1 z x conta9s a consid]able quantity ( salt4 ,x is made by cont9u+ ! evaporation ( ! cau/ic liquor to a fur!r po9t ?an is ! case ) cream cau/ic1 ! result be+ t ! :ole ( ! wat] is driv5 (f4 ,a small quantity ( nitre is !n add$ to oxidise ! sulphides & o!r comp\nds :i* imp>t ! col\r to cream cau/ic4 ,common salt is !n add$ to r$uce its /r5g? to #fj p] c5t41 9 ord] to satisfy ! :im ( ! consum]1 :o insi/s ^u an article ( a giv5 def9ite /r5g?4 ,on ?is acc\nt x is some:at inf]ior to cream cau/ic1 & is1 moreov]1 m exp5sive4 ,! highe/ quality ( all is :ite #gj p] c5t4 ,?is resembles :ite #fj p] c5t4 9 appe>ance1 b is mu* pur]1 & m exp5sive4 ,a v pure =m ( cau/ic soda has )9 ! la/ few ye>s be5 introduc$ by ! ,gre5bank ,alkali ,company4 ,x consi/s ( small fragm5ts1 m or less cry/all9e1 ( almo/ pure sodium hydrate4 ,x c be pack$ 9 wood5 casks1 & x dissolves v readily 9 wat]4 ,x conta9s #gf p] c5t4 ( alkali4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 mu* too co/ly = boil+ purposes2 x might1 h[ev]1 be us$ = ! prep>ation ( ros9 size4 ,! foll[+ analyses ( diff]5t =ms ( cau/ic soda & _! relative prices w possibly be ( int]e/3-- ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- 7,davis47 7,davis47 7,morrison47 ,:ite 7#gj ,p] ,:ite 7#fj ,p] ,cream 7#fj ,p] ,c5t4 ,na#b,o74 ,c5t4 ,na#b,o74 ,c5t4 ,na#b,o74 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,sodium hydrate #hifj #gebe #gjjj ,sodium c>bonate #bdh #bec #ejj ,sodium *loride #cib #agdj #gjj ,sodium sulphate #cdb #ddj #bjj ,sodium sulphide #jjb #jjc -- ,sodium silicate #jcj #jcj -- ,sodium alum9ate trace trace -- ,wat] none none #aehj ,insoluble matt] none none #jbj ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- #agi ,_! relative prices p] ton f4o4b ,liv]pool1 9 ,decemb] #ahhf1 73--#gj p] c5t4 :ite1 #hl4 #es42 #fj p] c5t4 :ite1 #gl4 #es42 #fj p] c5t4 cream1 #gl4 ,all ! above-m5tion$ =ms ( cau/ic soda occur 9 ! =m ( m or less h>d masses1 & are conta9$ 9 ?9 wr\ght-iron drums1 :i* are fill$ ) ! cau/ic 9 a fus$ /ate4 ,! soda is remov$ by break+ ! drum ) a *isel & hamm]4 ,! lumps ( cau/ic may be put direct into ! boil]1 ?\gh x is bett] to dissolve !m previ\sly 9 wat] & all[ any insoluble impurities to settle to ! bottom ( ! solution4 ,in/ead ( buy+ cau/ic soda direct1 x is ! cu/om ( "s pap]-mak]s to prep>e x = !mselves f c>bonate ( soda1 :i* c n[ be obta9$ 9 v>i\s =ms1 "s ( great purity4 ,x occurs z cau/ic a%1 conta9+ ab\t #dj p] c5t4 ( alkali z c>bonate1 & ab\t #aj p] c5t4 z cau/ic soda2 soda-a% conta9+ ab\t #eb p] c5t4 total alkali1 ne>ly all z c>bonate2 & ref9$ soda-a% conta9+ #eg-eh p] c5t4 ( alkali z c>bonate4 ,"s =ms ( c>bonate ( soda1 su*1 = example1 z ^? made by ! ammonia process1 are ( ev5 great] purity4 ,! me?od ( conv]t+ sodium c>bonate into cau/ic soda w be describ$ subsequ5tly4 ,unless ! arrangem5ts = wa%+ & dra9+ ! lime-mud are v p]fect1 x is probably *eap] = ! pap]-mak] to buy 8 cau/ic direct f ! mak]4 ,soda ,recov]y4--,9 =m] ye>s1 ! liquors 9 :i* rags1 esp>to1 & o!r pap] mat]ial _h be5 boil$1 0 run into ! ne>e/ wat]c\rse2 b n[1 ow+ p>tly to ! fact t is insi/$ ^u by ! ,riv]s ,pollution ,act ( #ahgf1 & p>tly because x c be made remun]ative1 all ^! liquors are pres]v$1 & ! soda !y conta9 utilis$4 ,! me?od adopt$ is to evaporate to dryness & ignite ! residue4 ,! soda dur+ ! process ( boil+ takes up a l>ge am\nt ( non-cellulose fibre con/itu5ts & dissolves !m z res9\s comp\nds4 ,^! on evaporation & ignition become conv]t$ into sodium c>bonate4 ,_m raw #ahj mat]ials1 especially esp>to & /raw1 conta9 a l>ge am\nt ( silica1 a l>ge proportion ( :i* is dissolv$ by ! soda 9 ! =m ( sodium silicate1 9 :i* =m also x is f\nd 9 ! recov]$ soda4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fg4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fh4 ,! app>atus = accompli%+ ! evaporation v>ies ) almo/ e mill4 ,9 "s1 x is v primitive & #aha crude1 consi/+ p]haps ( only a furnace = inc9]at+ ! residue1 & ov] x a pan conta9+ ! liquor1 ! latt] be+ heat$ & evaporat$ by ! heat f ! furnace4 ,x is obvi\s t1 ) su* an arrangem5t1 a l>ge quantity ( heat mu/ be wa/$4 ,to economise z mu* z possible ( ?is wa/e heat1 v>i\s plans h be5 sugge/$4 ,t ( ,rckn]1 ( ,newca/le1 appe>s to be to a great ext5t efficaci\s4 ,x consi/s practically ( a s]ies ( %all[ trays ,b 7,fig4 #fg7 plac$ 9 a brick *amb]1 alt]nat$ s z to all[ ! heat$ air f ! furnace bel[ to play ^u ! surface ( ea* 9 succession1 on its way to ! *imney1 ) :i* ! :ole sy/em is 9 connection4 ,above ! *amb] conta9+ ^! trays1 is a l>ge tank ,c1 conta9+ a /ore ( ! liquor to be evaporat$1 plac$ !re s z /ill fur!r to economise ! heat1 & f :i* ! liquor runs on to ! trays4 ,! furnace ,a is ( ! ord9>y rev]b]atory k9d2 bel[ x1 & connect$ ) x by a k9d ( damp]1 is a l>ge *amb] ,j1 :]e ! calc9$ residue f ! furnace is put to cool1 ?us prev5t+ any nuisance f ! smell ( ! burn+ mass4 ,! *amb] is provid$ ) a pipe ,l1 ?r\gh :i* ! vap\rs pass into ! furnace4 ,sev]al pipes ,e f ! furnace pass ?r\gh ! #ahb tank1 to assi/ 9 w>m+ ! liquor4 ,! residue1 :5 cold1 is drawn ?r\gh doors f ! *amb] bel[ ! furnace4 ,rckn] has devis$ an app>atus 7,fig4 #fh71 consi/+ ( a small *amb] conta9+ a s]ies ( pipes ,a1 ?r\gh :i* a /ream ( cold wat] con/antly runs1 9 connection ) ! flue f 8 evaporator1 = ! purpose ( cond5s+ volatile bodies1 & ?us prev5t+1 to a c]ta9 ext5t1 contam9ation ( ! surr\nd+ air4 ,a v economical =m ( evaporator is t inv5t$ by ,porion1 a ,fr5* di/ill]1 & nam$ aft] him4 ,x is %[n 9 sectional elevation & plan 9 ,figs4 #fi & #gj4 ,x is l>gely us$ on ! ,cont95t1 & also 9 ,engl& & ,scotl&4 ,x consi/s ( a l>ge *amb] k1 ! floor ( :i* is slightly incl9$ f ! *imney %aft1 & ?r\gh :i* ! wa/e heat f ! furnace a passes4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fi4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #gj4 ,! liquor to be evaporat$ is run 9 at ! end ne>e/ ! *imney f ! tank plac$ above ! *amb] c4 ,a numb] ( ca/-iron fann]s i1 dip into ! liquor & revolve rapidly1 usually at ! rate ( ab\t #cjj revolutions p] #ahc m9ute1 produc+ & fill+ ! *amb] ) a v f9e spray1 ?us pres5t+ a v l>ge evaporat+ surface4 ,betwe5 ! furnace & ! evaporator are plac$ ! *amb]s c & f4 ,9 c a numb] ( brick walls d are s plac$ t ! flames f ! furnace are int]cept$ & brok5 up4 ,! object ( ?is is to give "t = all ! products ( combu/ion to be ?or\ghly burnt up1 :i* w\ld n be ! case )\t ! 8smell-consum]10 z ^! *amb]s are call$4 ,?is "p is an addition to ! orig9al evaporator1 & 0 devis$ by ,messrs4 ,m5zies & ,davis4 ,! liquor aft] hav+ be5 conc5trat$ 9 ! *amb] k runs into a tr\gh plac$ alongside ! doors h & fl[s into "o or o!r ( ! furnace b$s b :]e x is /ill fur!r conc5trat$1 & ! residue ignit$ by ! flames f ! fires a4 ,! draught c be regulat$ by ! damp] g1 & also by "o plac$ ne> ! %aft j4 ,! doors e1 9 ! smell-consum+ *amb]1 are = ! purpose ( clean+ out4 ,! fann]s i are work$ by a small /eam eng9e1 n %[n 9 ! draw+4 ,"u prop]ly regulat$ conditions v excell5t results c be obta9$ ) ?is evaporator4 ,! temp]ature ( ! gases ne> ! *imney %\ld n be high] ?an ab\t #he4 ,by runn+ ! fann]s at a v high spe$ ! temp]ature ( ! gases may be ev5 fur!r r$uc$1 ?us %[+ ! complet5ess ( ! evaporation4 ,?is =m ( evaporator is op5 to ! objection t ! :ole ( ! sulphur 9 ! coal employ$ = ! furnaces1 f9ds its way into ! recov]$ soda4 ,x comb9es ) ! alkali to =m sulphite ( soda1 "p ( :i* is decompos$ 9 ! furnace ) =mation ( sodium sulphate1 sulphide1 & o!r sulphur comp\nds4 ,! same objection1 ( c\rse1 applies1 ?\gh p]haps 9 a less degree1 to all sy/ems ( evaporation 9 :i* ! flame is 9 contact ) ! liquor to be evaporat$4 ,! ,porion evaporator c be erect$ at v small co/1 & co/s b little = ma9t5ance4 ,x is capable ( produc+ #c_/d ton ( recov]$ soda p] ton ( coal ) liquors #ahd ( ! usual /r5g?4 ,x has prov$ itself to be p]haps ! mo/ economical evaporator exi/+4 ,"s "t ago !re 0 erect$ 9 ,lanca%ire an evaporator inv5t$ & pat5t$ by ,mr4 ,alfr$ ,*apman4 ,x is %[n 9 ,figs4 #ga1 #gb1 #gc1 & #gd4 ,! evaporation is effect$ at a l[ temp]ature 9 ?ree vacuum pans ,e1 & ) ! unusual result t ! conc5trat$ liquor gelat9ises aft] leav+ ! ?ird vacuum-pan1 in/ead ( tak+ ! ord9>y =m ( ! conc5trat$ products ( o!r evaporators4 ,x is said t ?is app>atus gives an excell5t product1 ) great economy ( lab\r & wat]1 & ) no dra9age ( f\l liquor f ! build+s4 ,obs]vations ext5d+ ov] ?ree mon?s h prov$ t x evaporates #bb lb4 ( wat] f ! liquor p] lb4 ( coal us$ "u ! boil]4 ,x is h[ev] v co/ly to erect4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ga4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #gb4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #gc4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #gd4 ,! wa/e liquor is dis*>g$ into ! tank ,a1 :5ce x is pump$ by ! donkey-eng9e ,b1 ?r\gh ! fe$-heat] ,c1 #ahe into ! boil] ,d1 :i* receives heat f ! inc9]at+ furnace ,h1 &1 9 case ( ne$1 f an auxili>y furnace %[n on ! plan1 "u ! fe$-liquor-heat]4 ,! /eam produc$ 9 ,d is tak5 to ! fir/ vacuum-pan at ,e1 & hav+ heat$ its cont5ts1 ! products ( evaporation pass ov] into ! tubes ( ! second pan2 ?is1 9 its turn1 gives up its products ( evaporation to ! ?ird1 :5ce !y g to ! cond5s] ( ! vacuum-eng9e ,f4 ,?us ! heat f ! furnace ,h is us$ = inc9]at+ ! conc5trat$ liquor #ahf on its b$1 = beat+ ! fe$-liquor 9 ! fe$-heat] pipes1 & = mak+ /eam out ( ! liquor itself 9 ! boil]2 ?is /eam f9ally drives ! donkey-pump & vacuum-eng9e1 & causes ! evaporation 9 ! ?ree vacuum-pans ,e4 ,"o advantage ( ?is evaporator is ! fact t ! liquor is evaporat$ out ( contact ) ! furnace gases4 ,:atev] be ! me?od ( evaporat+ or conc5trat+ ! liquor1 ! f9al treatm5t 9 ! furnaces is mu* ! same 9 e case4 ,! furnaces %[n 9 ,figs4 #fi & #gj may be tak5 to repres5t ! ord9>y =m4 ,! conc5trat$ liquor is run on to ei!r ( ! b$s b1 :]e ! la/ portions ( wat] are driv5 (f by ! heat f ! fireplaces a1 & ! residual mass is ignit$ until all ! organic matt] conta9$ 9 ! liquors is c>bonis$ & ! soda is conv]t$ into c>bonate ( soda4 ,?is takes place 9 ab\t #d h\rs1 accord+ to ! degree ( conc5tration ( ! liquor z x is run into ! furnaces4 ,! runn+ 9 ( liquor %\ld be done ) great c>e1 z explosions sometimes occur ?r\gh ! sudd5 lib]ation ( /eam on ! liquor com+ 9 contact ) ! hot b$s4 ,! *>ge %\ld be all[$ to rema9 9 ! furnace until x is ?or\ghly c>bonis$ & all volatile matt]s h be5 driv5 (f1 o!rwise a nuisance may be caus$ :5 ! /ill burn+ mass is expos$ to ! air4 ,rckn]'s evaporator is provid$ ) a special *amb] into :i* ! *>ge is drawn 7,j1 ,fig4 #fg74 ,! composition ( ! recov]$ soda v>ies ) ! nature ( ! liquors f :i* x has be5 obta9$1 &1 z has be5 already po9t$ out1 ) ! =m ( evaporator employ$4 ,x consi/s ess5tially ( c>bonate ( soda1 toge!r ) a c]ta9 am\nt ( silicate ( soda1 if d]iv$ f liquors 9 :i* /raw or esp>to h be5 boil$1 *loride ( sodium1 sulphate ( soda1 sulphite ( soda1 sulphide ( sodium1 & o!r sulphur comp\nds1 ! re/ be+ made up ( c>bon & insoluble impurities4 ,! am\nt ( soda v>ies f #ce to #de p] c5t4 7,na#b,o74 ,! foll[+ analysis #ahg w give "s idea ( ! composition ( ,recov]$ ,soda3-- #ac,sodium c>bonate #gbcc ,sodium hydrate #aic ,sodium *loride #hcj ,sodium sulphate #cie ,sodium sulphite #fc ,silica #gji ,c>bon #dgj ,oxide ( iron & alum9a #ej ,o!r con/itu5ts 7by diff]5ce7 #eg #ajjjj ,! :ole ( ! soda pres5t z sulphur comp\nds is n lo/1 z a l>ge proportion ( x is pres5t z sodium sulphite1 mo/ ( :i* is conv]t$ into cau/ic soda by ! cau/icis+ process4 ,footnote #ac3 ,a c]ta9 quantity ( pota% d]iv$ f ! m9]al con/itu5ts ( esp>to & /raw is always pres5t 9 recov]$ soda4 ,a c]ta9 am\nt ( soda is c>ri$ =w>d1 p>tly me*anically & p>tly volatilis$1 to ! flue lead+ to ! *imney4 ,?is accumulates1 & may be f "t to "t remov$ 9 ! =m ( f9e du/4 ,x conta9s1 besides c>bonate ( soda1 mu* sulphate & *loride4 ,9 two diff]5t samples exam9$ by ! au?ors1 ! am\nts ( soda 7,na#b,o7 pres5t 7 #bej & #bga p] c5t4 ,cau/icis+4--,! next process consi/s 9 conv]t+ ! sodium c>bonate 9 ! recov]$ soda into cau/ic soda4 ,?is op]ation is kn[n z 8cau/icis+10 & consi/s 9 heat+ a solution ( ! soda ) lime4 ,! decomposition :i* takes place is %[n 9 ! foll[+ equation3-- ,sodium ,lime4 ,wat]4 ,cau/ic ,calcium ,c>bonate4 ,soda4 ,c>bonate4 ,na#b;,,co#c ,ca,o ,h#b,o #b ,na,o,h ,ca,c,o#c4 ,! recov]$ soda %\ld be dissolv$ 9 sep>ate vessels4 ,p]haps ! be/ =m ( app>atus is a s]ies ( lixiviat+ tanks su* z are us$ = dissolv+ ! alkali 9 black a%4 #ahh ,by ?is means a ne>ly p]fect exhau/ion ( ! mass c be effect$ ) a m9imum ( lab\r4 ,special tanks are sometimes made = ! purpose1 provid$ ) me*anical /irr]s4 ,x is ess5tial 9 dissolv+ ! recov]$ soda t a high temp]ature %\ld be employ$1 z o!rwise a portion ( ! soda pres5t z silicate ( soda w be lo/1 z x is only ) difficulty soluble1 & requires r prolong$ heat+ ) wat]4 ,:atev] ! =m ( app>atus employ$ x %\ld be s arrang$ t1 aft] runn+ (f ! /rong liquor1 ! insoluble residue may be fur!r treat$ ) wat]4 ,9 ! case ( ! vats m5tion$ above1 ?is process is made cont9u\s1 pure wat] be+ run 9 at "o end1 & /rong liquor fl[+ f ! o!r4 ,if o!r =ms are us$1 ! liquor aft] settl+1 may be run (f by means ( a pipe pass+ ?r\gh ! bottom or side ( ! vessel1 & ne> ! bottom1 & consi/+ ( two p>ts1 "o long1 & "o %ort4 ,! %ort "p is /ation>y1 & is connect$ to ! long] "p by means ( a movable knee jo9t1 all[+ x to be deflect$4 ,! liquor hav+ settl$ suffici5tly1 ! movable limb is l[]$ b5ea? ! surface ( ! liquor :i* is !n all[$ to fl[ ?r\gh4 ,z ! surface ( ! liquor falls1 ! pipe is gradually l[]$4 ,9 ?is way ! cle> solution c be run (f )\t di/urb+ ! residue at ! bottom4 ,! op5 end ( ! pipe is usually cov]$ ) co>se wire gauze1 to keep back insoluble impurities4 ,) prop]ly calc9$ recov]$ soda1 ! solution %\ld be bright & almo/ col\rless4 ,if at all br[n 9 col\r1 & if x has an empyreumatic od\r1 x indicates imp]fect calc9ation4 ,! residue 9 ! dissolv+ tanks consi/s *iefly ( c>bonace\s matt]1 toge!r ) "s soda1 insoluble matt]1 c4 ,! liquor is n[ ready to be cau/icis$4 ,?is %\ld be done 9 a sep>ate vessel1 al?\gh x is ! practice 9 _m mills to p]=m ?is op]ation 9 ! same vessel 9 :i* ! solution ( ! soda has be5 conduct$4 ,a good =m ( cau/icis] c be made f an old egg-%ap$ boil]1 by cutt+ x 9 two along its l5g?4 #ahi ,x %\ld be provid$ ) two or m v]tical /eam pipes1 connect$ at ! bottom ( ! boil] ) a horizontal pipe p]=at$ ) num]\s holes4 ,! v]tical /eam pipes %\ld be furni%$ ) injectors1 :]eby air is drawn 91 & =c$ ) ! /eam ?r\gh ! holes 9 ! horizontal pipe4 ,! /ream ( air s]ves ! d\ble purpose ( ?or\ghly agitat+ ! liquor & ( oxidis+ any sodium sulphide 9 ! recov]$ soda4 ,! liquor be=e cau/icis+ %\ld be r$uc$ 9 /r5g? to ab\t #bj-be degrees ,twaddle1 :i* may be done ) ! wa%+s ( ! residue f ! recov]$ soda1 or f ! wa%+s obta9$ subsequ5tly f ! lime-mud4 ,?is /r5g? %\ld nev] be exce$$1 o!rwise imp]fect conv]sion into cau/ic soda is ! result4 ,?is is due to ! fact t conc5trat$ solutions ( cau/ic soda react ^u calcium c>bonate1 =m+ sodium c>bonate1 & calcium hydrate1 ! reaction be+ ! rev]se ( t indicat$ 9 ! above equation4 ,if ! liquors are v /rong 9 c>bonate ( soda1 & comp>atively free f sulphate1 !y %\ld n be cau/icis$ at mu* ov] #bj ,twaddle1 if !y conta9 mu* sulphate1 & !re=e less c>bonate1 ! high] /r5g? c ) safety be adopt$4 ,! cau/icis+ vessel %\ld be provid$ ) a /\t iron cage or basket1 into :i* ! lime c be put4 ,?is %\ld be securely fa/5$ to ! vessel1 & %\ld dip into ! liquid4 ,! liquor hav+ be5 prop]ly dilut$1 is n[ heat$ by means ( ! /eam pipes1 & ! lime put into its cage4 ,x %\ld be put 9 9 lumps4 ,z ! liquor rea*es ! boil+ po9t1 ! reaction w proce$ rapidly1 & ! lime w gradually disappe>2 fre% lumps %\ld be add$ if necess>y4 ,if ! liquor is suffici5tly heat$ ! cau/icis+ w be complete 9 f two to ?ree h\rs4 ,! liquor %\ld be te/$ f "t to "t2 ?is is usually done by a workman4 ,he )draws a sample ( ! liquor1 & aft] all[+ ! calcium c>bonate to subside1 p\rs (f a portion ( ! cle> liquid into a glass vessel4 ,he #aij !n adds an excess ( ei!r sulphuric or hydro*loric acid4 ,if any eff]vesc5ce takes place1 due to ! evolution ( c>bonic acid gas1 he kn[s t ! op]ation ( cau/icis+ is incomplete2 ! heat+ mu/ !re=e be cont9u$4 ,x is difficult1 )\t an undue exp5diture ( "t & /eam1 to conv]t ! :ole ( ! soda into cau/ic3 x %\ld h[ev] be s p]fect1 t on te/+ only a v slight eff]vesc5ce occurs4 ,x is q easy to conv]t z mu* z #ie p] c5t4 ( ! soda1 or ev5 m4 ,! actual am\nt conv]t$ c only be asc]ta9$ by a c>eful analysis ( ! liquor4 ,! am\nt ( lime us$ is g5]ally some:at 9 excess ( ! !oretical quantity2 #ajf p>ts ( sodium c>bonate 7,na#b;,,co#c7 require #ef p>ts ( lime 7,ca,o73 x is necess>y1 h[ev]1 to add ab\t #fj p>ts4 ,a v good plan is to conduct two or ev5 ?ree cau/icis+s 9 ! same vessel )\t clean+ out or remov+ ! calcium c>bonate1 us+ 9 ! fir/ op]ation a l>ge excess ( lime4 ,! cau/icis+ be+ complet$1 ! calcium c>bonate & excess ( lime are all[$ to settle d[n1 & ! cle> liquor run (f by an arrangem5t su* z t already describ$ 9 ! dissolv+ process4 ,fre% solution is !n run 9 & ! :ole mass heat$ = "s "t1 until ! excess ( lime is conv]t$ into c>bonate4 ,fre% lime is !n add$ if necess>y until ! conv]sion ( ! c>bonate ( soda is complete4 ,! liquor is !n all[$ to settle1 & is run (f z be=e3 ?is op]ation may aga9 be repeat$4 ,! residual calcium c>bonate1 or 8lime-mud0 z x is call$ 9 alkali works1 is !n wa%$ once or twice by runn+ 9 wat]1 boil+ up1 all[+ to settle1 & runn+ (f ! cle> liquor4 ,if ^! liquors are too weak = use 9 boil+ fibres1 !y may be us$ = dilut+ fre% recov]$ soda liquor be=e cau/icis+1 or = dissolv+ ! soda4 ,"s arrangem5t %\ld be provid$ = remov+ z mu* z possible ( ! liquor f ! lime-mud be=e ?r[+ x away or o!rwise dispos+ ( x4 ,?is is be/ done by ?r[+ x on a filt] made ( lay]s ( /ones1 #aia a%es & s&1 & cov]$ at ! top ) p]=at$ iron plates4 ,! filt] is connect$ ) a vacuum pump4 ,9 ?is way v p]fect dra9+ is accompli%$1 & ! mud =ms a h>d mass on ! surface ( ! filt]1 f :i* x c be easily remov$ ) spades4 ,9 ?is =m x conta9s only #ej-fj p] c5t4 ( wat]4 ,if prop]ly wa%$ x %\ld conta9 9 ?is /ate only ab\t #b p] c5t4 ( alkali 7,na#b,o74 ,by c>eful manipulation1 ev5 ?is am\nt c be r$uc$4 ,! importance ( ?or\ghly wa%+ ! mud c h>dly be too mu* insi/$ ^u4 ,:]e prop] means are n employ$ = dra9+1 ! wa%+ %\ld be made m p]fect4 ,! lime-mud consi/s *iefly ( c>bonate ( lime1 toge!r ) silicate1 free lime1 c4 ,! foll[+ analysis is ( a mud obta9$ by cau/icis+ recov]$ soda d]iv$ f ! liquors 9 :i* esp>to & /raw _h be5 boil$3-- ,calcium c>bonate #djjb ,calcium hydrate #eac ,silica #dja ,sodium hydrate #bac ,oxide ( iron & alum9a #jcj ,wat] #dhaj ,o!r con/itu5ts #jca #ajjjj ,z already po9t$ out ! liquors conta9 a c]ta9 am\nt ( soda1 z sodium sulphide & o!r sulphur comp\nds4 ,! pres5ce ( ! =m]1 if 9 l>ge quantities1 is objectionable1 z x is liable to discol\r fibres boil$ 9 liquors conta9+ x4 ,x is !re=e be/ to remove x4 ,?is c be conv5i5tly done by bl[+ air into ! liquors dur+ ! process ( cau/icis+3 ?is has ! effect ( oxidis+ x to sulphate ( soda1 9 :i* =m x is h>mless4 ,! air c ( c\rse be bl[n into ! liquor by means ( a pump2 ! mo/ economical way is to connect ) ! /eam pipe an injector con/ruct$ on ! pr9ciple ( ! injectors us$ = fe$+ boil]s & = o!r purposes4 ,by ?is means a /rong curr5t ( air is drawn 91 & #aib be+ =c$ ) ! /ream to ! bottom ( ! liquor1 passes ?r\gh x 9 a numb] ( f9e /reams4 ,if ! am\nt ( sulphide pres5t be v high x may be necess>y to prolong ! oxidis+ op]ation beyond ! "t necess>y = complete cau/icis+4 ,9 _m pap]-mills ! cau/icis+ is conduct$ 9 circul> vessels furni%$ ) me*anical agitators4 ,^! are m exp5sive ?an ! simple =m describ$ above1 & !y possess no special advantages4 ,! use ( cau/icis]s 9 :i* nei!r me*anical agitation nor agitation by means ( air is provid$ = is exce$+ly wa/eful ( lab\r1 "t1 /eam1 & soda4 ,! lime-mud settles at ! bottom z a h>d mass1 v difficult to manipulate4 #aic ,,*apt] ,,xiii4 ,,pap] ,,te/+4 ,!re are two po9ts ( view f :i* a pap] may be te/$3 fir/1 ( physical or me*anical prop]ties2 secondly1 ( mat]ial composition4 ,we %all consid] ! subject accord+ to ?is division4 7,i47 ,quantitative measurem5ts ( su* prop]ties z resi/ances to break+ & te>+ /ra9s are seldom made by ,engli% pap]-mak]s4 ,9 ,g]many1 on ! o!r h&1 ! matt] has be5 v ?or\ghly inve/igat$ 9 connection ) ! "w ( ! ,knigl4 ,te*n4 ,v]su*san/alt1 ,b]l91 & ?r\gh ! ag5cy & influ5ce ( ,pr(4 ,sell1 & ,c4 ,h(mann1 a dep>tm5t has be5 organis$ exclusively = ! "w ( pap] te/+4 ,! results ( ! te/s are becom+ widely recognis$ by practical m5 & ! trade 9 t c\ntry1 z af=d+ a true index ( ! quality ( a pap]4 ,x is !re=e ( importance to give an outl9e ( ! me?ods employ$4 ,! det]m9ation ( ! /ra9 or weight :i* a pap] is capable ( support+ is a v obvi\s measure ( ! /r5g? ( ! pap]4 ,obs]vations ( ! limit+ /ra9 or break+ weight are sometimes made by pap]-mak]s1 b ! app>atus & me?od employ$ are usually crude4 ,! simple/ means consi/ 9 clamp+ ! pap]--a /rip ( /&>d l5g? & bread?1 arbitr>ily *os5--at "o end1 ! clamp be+ firmly held 9 a fix$ support1 & to ! o!r atta*+ by means ( a simil> clamp1 an ord9>y scale pan1 ! :ole arrangem5t hang+ v]tically4 ,into ! pan1 weights are add$ 9 due succession until fracture ( ! /rip is det]m9$4 ,x is sc>cely necess>y to po9t #aid out t ! errors ( exp]im5t ) su* a me?od are v great3 inde$ x has be5 f\nd t ev5 ) ! ref9$ app>atus ab\t to be describ$ ! errors are n inconsid]able4 ,h[ev]1 by exhau/ive inve/igation1 accord+ to ! well-kn[n 8law ( errors10 ^! h be5 quantifi$1 & a c>eful op]ator c !re=e obta9 results :i* are tru/wor?y4 ,! app>atus 9 "q is ! ,h>tig-,reus* ma*9e4#ad ,x is %[n 9 sectional elevation & plan 9 ,figs4 #ge & #gf4 ,footnote #ad3 ,a complete description ( ?is ma*9e is giv5 9 #8,civil ,eng9e]1' #ahgi4 ,! pr9ciple w be readily grasp$ by inspection ( ! diagrammatic repres5tation ( its ess5tial p>ts--,fig4 #gg4 ,! /rip ( pap] is held horizontally by ! clamps a & b1 a be+ held by ! fix$ support ,a1 b by ! movable c>riage ,b4 ,b is connect$ by means ( a swivel ) ! spiral spr+ ,f1 & ?is aga9 is simil>ly connect$ ) ! screw1 :i* is made to rotate by ! :eel ,d4 ,by turn+ ,d1 !re=e1 ! spiral may be ext5d$1 & a correspond+ /ra9 communicat$ ?r\gh ,b & b to ! pap]4 ,! pap] und]goes a c]ta9 elongation "u ! /ra91 & ! c>riage ,b moves f "r to left 9 consequ5ce4 ,! rotation ( ! screw is cont9u$1 & ! ext5sion ( ! spiral proce$s until ! pap] is fractur$4 ,at ?is po9t x is requir$ to det]m9e1 7#a7 ! elongation ( ! spiral :i* is ! measure ( ! break+ /ra91 & 7#b7 ! di/ance ?r\gh :i* ! c>riage has mov$1 i4e4 ! elongation ( ! pap]4 ,bo? ^! effects are communicat$ to ! p5cil ,g1 ! latt] directly1 s9ce ! p5cil-hold] is 9 rigid connection ) ,b1 ! =m] ?r\gh ! rod ,i1 f :i*1 by a special arrangem5t1 ! horizontal is conv]t$ into a v]tical motion ( ! p5cil4 ,?is1 !re=e1 traces a curve1 ( :i* ! ord9ates repres5t ! /ra9s1 & ! absciss ! elongations ( ! pap] produc$ by ! /ra94 ,! scale %[n 9 ,fig4 #gf indicates ! exact position ( ! clamp ,a4 #aie ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #gg4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #gf4 #aif ,! values = ! spiral spr+--i4e4 ext5sion = a giv5 load--hav+ be5 det]m9$ by previ\s obs]vations 9 a special app>atus1 ! curve obta9$ is at once a measure & a p]man5t record ( ^! c>d9al factors1 break+ /ra9 & ela/icity4 ,z ) all o!r su* in/rum5ts1 ! record+ app>atus introduces c]ta9 errors1 :i*1 h[ev]1 by c>eful inve/igation & modification 9 accordance ) ! results1 h be5 r$uc$ to a m9imum4 ,nev]!less1 ! director1 ,dr4 ,m>t5s1 has rec5tly adopt$ a simpl] in/rum5t1 altoge!r simil> 9 pr9ciple1 b bas$ ^u a direct read+ ( ! two movem5ts1 9 :i* ( c\rse ^! errors d n appe>4 ,= ! /ud5t1 h[ev]1 ! record+ in/rum5t is ! m in/ructive1 & we h giv5 x pref]5ce = description "h1 m especially z no diff]5ce 9 ess5tial p>ts is involv$4 ,^? :o wi% to pursue ! matt] into ! mo/ int]e/+ details ( ! inve/igations made ^u ! subject1 are ref]r$ to ! pap]s publi%$ by ! ,in/itute = #ahhe4ae ,footnote #ae3 ,mit!ilung5 a4 d4 ,knigl4 ,te*n4 ,v]su*san/1 ,b]l94 ,9 te/+ ! /r5g? ( pap]s by ?is or simil> ma*9es1 x is important to obs]ve ! hygrometric /ate ( ! atmosph]e at ! "t ! trials are made1 z ?is has be5 f\nd to ex]t a consid]able influ5ce on ! results1 a pap] be+ weak] ! moi/] ! atmosph]e4 ,! results ( ! te/s are express$ 9 ! foll[+ t]ms3--,! elongation is giv5 directly 9 p]c5tage ( ! orig9al l5g?4 ,?is is uni=mly tak5 at #ahj mm41 a l5g? arriv$ at aft] labori\s inve/igation1 z m9imis+ ! errors ( exp]im5t2 9 o!r words1 z giv+ mean value ) ! m9imum ( v>iation4 ,= ! break+ /ra9 an +5i\s expression has be5 arriv$ at1 viz4 ! l5g? ( ! pap] :i* susp5d$ v]tically1 ) "o end hang+ freely1 ! o!r fix$1 w\ld det]m9e fracture at ! fix$ end4 ,z ! break+ /ra9 w\ld v>y ) ! ?ickness1 ! numb]s obta9$ 9 #aig units ( =ce or weight = /rips ( con/ant bread?1 w\ld ne$ correction 9 ord] to admit ( /rict comp>ison ) "o ano!r4 ,by sub/itut+ an expression 9 t]ms ( ! pap] itself--s9ce a pap] ( great] ?ickness1 & requir+ !re=e a proportionately great] =ce to fracture x1 weighs m p] unit ( area1 & 9 ! same proportion--all ! numb]s = break+ /ra9s are /rictly comp>ative "o ) ! o!r4 ,9 ! same way also ! "q ( wid? may be disreg>d$4 ,a fur!r me*anical te/1 =m+ a "p ( ! s*eme ( inve/igation1 is ! resi/ance ( ! pap] to rubb+4 ,?is te/ is an altoge!r empirical "o1 z ! foll[+ brief description w %[3--,a piece ( ! pap]1 ab\t #f in*es squ>e1 crumpl$ by successive fold+ 9 two directions at "r angles1 is grasp$ by ! ?umb & =ef+] ( ea* h&1 at a di/ance ( #c-d in*es ap>t4 ,x is !n rubb$ ^u itself across ! ?umbs a giv5 numb] ( times 7sev5 is ! numb] *os57 & held up to ! light4 ,if no holes are visible1 ! rubb+ is repeat$4 ,! numb] ( times necess>y to repeat ! rubb+ until holes appe> is ! measure ( ! resi/ance4 ,a suffici5t uni=mity 9 ! results ( ?is te/ has be5 obs]v$ to make x ! basis ( a classification ( pap]s1 9 reg>d to _! resi/ance to su* dis9tegration2 !y are divid$ into ! foll[+ eight gr\ps1 beg9n+ ) ! l[e/3-- #j4 ,extremely weak4 #a4 ,v weak4 #b4 ,weak4 #c4 ,m$ium4 #d4 ,mod]ately /rong4 #e4 ,/rong4 #f4 ,v /rong4 #g4 ,extremely /rong4 ,! classification ( pap]s on ! results ( ^! te/s _c be m lucidly giv5 ?an 9 ! foll[+ s*eme1 "u :i* ! results are (ficially record$3-- ,class4 #a #b #c #d #e #f a4 ,mean break+ l5g? 7metres7 n less ?an #fjjj #ejjj #djjj #cjjj #bjjj #ajjj b4 ,mean elongation 7p] c5t47 at fracture n less ?an #de #d #c #be #b #ae c4 ,resi/ance to rubb+ #f #f #e #d #c #a #aih ,?is classification is bas$ on ! results ( "s hundr$s ( obs]vations4 ,x is int]e/+ to note ! diff]5ces obs]v$ 9 ! numb]s = a & b accord+ to ! direction = ! te/ 9 :i* ! pap] is cut1 i4e4 9 ! direction 9 :i* x 0 run on ! pap] ma*9e1 or at "r angles 7see ,*ap4 ,,xi4 p4 #aga74 ,! mean ratio = ! break+ l5g?s 7/ra9s7 may be tak5 z #a 3 #af1 i4e4 ! pap] is ab\t #dj p] c5t4#af weak] across ! web2 ! elongation "u /ra9 on ! o!r h& is ab\t d\ble4 ,footnote #af3 ,9 ! /atem5t ( results ! mean ( ! numb]s obta9$ 9 ! two directions is giv54 ,x is also ( int]e/ to note ! influ5ce ( ! glaz+ process 7p4 #afg7 ^u ! quality ( ! pap] z det]m9$ by ^! te/s4 ,fir/1 we mu/ notice ! effect ( ! treatm5t ^u ! sub/ance ( ! pap] itself4 ,! mean r$uction ( ?ickness is #bc p] c5t4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! r$uction ( weight1 calculat$ p] unit ( surface 7squ>e metre71 is #fg p] c5t41 :5ce we may inf] an increase ( surface1 flatt5+ out1 9 ! process4 ,^! quantities1 b m p>ticul>ly ! latt]1 w d\btless v>y ) ! v>i\s me?ods ( glaz+ & ) ! mat]ials ( :i* ! pap] is compos$4 ,! break+ l5g? 7/ra97 %[s a mean increase ( ab\t #h p] c5t42 ! elongation "u /ra91 on ! o!r h&1 a dim9ution ( #f p] c5t4 ,= an int]e/+ discussion ( ! "q ( ! relative /r5g?s ( ma*9e & h&-made pap] see #8,pap]1' by ,ri*>d ,p>k9son4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #gh4 ,! ?ickness ( a pap] may be det]m9$ by means ( an ord9>y micromet]1 su* z is %[n 9 ,fig4 #gh4 ,! pap] is plac$ 9 ! jaws ( ! in/rum5t1 & ! screw #aii advanc$ until x t\*es ! pap]4 ,! ?ickness is !n read (f on ! scale4 ,o!r =ms ( app>atus are sold = ! same purpose4 ,9 mak+ a det]m9ation ( ! ?ickness ( a pap] x is necess>y to take ! mean ( a s]ies ( obs]vations at diff]5t po9ts ( ! %eet1 z ! ?ickness may v>y some:at4 ,det]m9ation ( ,composition ( ,pap]s4 7,,ii47 ,! analysis ( a pap] naturally divides itself into two p>ts3--7a7 ,! det]m9ation ( ! nature ( ! fibr\s mat]ial ( :i* x is compos$2 & 7b7 ! id5tification ( su* adv5titi\s sub/ances z size & fill+ mat]ial4 7a7 ,?is aga9 is divid$ into two sets ( obs]vations--microscopical & *emical4 ,a fragm5t ( ! pap] is soak$ = "s "t 9 glyc]9e1 & is !n c>efully teas$ out ) a pair ( ne$les1 & ! fragm5ts laid on a glass slip ) a drop ( glyc]9e4 ,a cov]-glass is !n laid on & lightly press$ d[n s z to spread ! fibres 9 a ?9 lay]4 ,! microscopical features ( ! diff]5t fibres h be5 already describ$1 & x is only necess>y n[ to summ>ise ! *ief *>act]i/ics ( ! m important mat]ials4 ,cotton4--,flat rib&-l fibres1 frequ5tly twi/$ ^u !mselves4 ,! ends g5]ally appe> lam9at$4 ,! fibres are frequ5tly cov]$ ) num]\s f9e m>k+s 7see ,frontispiece74 ,l954--,cyl9drical fibres1 simil> to ! typical ba/ fibre 7see ,fig4 #f74 ,! ends are frequ5tly drawn out into num]\s fibrill 7see ,frontispiece74 ,esp>to4--,esp>to pulp consi/s ( a complex ( ba/ fibres & epid]mal cells4 ,^! s]rat$ cells are1 z has be5 already po9t$ out1 *>act]i/ic ( esp>to1 /raw1 & simil> fibres4 ,c]ta9 diff]5ces exi/ betwe5 ^? ( esp>to & /raw1 & ev5 betwe5 ! diff]5t species ( /raw1 :i* enable ! microscopi/ to id5tify _! s\rce4 ,! mo/ *>act]i/ic feature ( esp>to pulp is ! pres5ce #bjj ( a numb] ( ! f9e hairs :i* l9e ! inn] surface ( ! leaf 7e1 ,fig4 #aj71 "s ( :i* inv>iably survive ! boil+ & wa%+ processes1 al?\gh ! great] portion passes away ?r\gh ! wire-clo? ( ! wa%+ eng9es4 ,! pres5ce ( ^! hairs may be tak5 z conclusive evid5ce ( ! pres5ce ( esp>to4 ,/raw4--,/raw pulp v closely resembles esp>to-pulp 9 its microscopical features4 ,! hairs above allud$ to are1 h[ev]1 abs5t4 ,on ! o!r h&1 a numb] ( flat oval cells are always pres5t 9 pap] made f /raw 7b1 ,fig4 #ac74 ,x %\ld be borne 9 m9d1 h[ev]1 t bamboo & simil> pulps also conta9 ^! cells4 ,wood 7,*emical74--,flat rib&-l fibres1 %[+ unbrok5 ends 7see photographs1 ,frontispiece74 ,! pres5ce ( ! pitt$ vessels 7,frontispiece1 & a1 ,fig4 #ae7 is em95tly *>act]i/ic ( pulp prep>$ f p9e-wood4 ,! fibres ( o!r woods are n suffici5tly *>act]i/ic4 ,!y mu* resemble ^? ( p9e-wood1 ) ?is diff]5ce1 t ! pitt$ vessels are abs5t4 ,wood 7,me*anical74--,me*anical wood-pulp may be recognis$ by ! peculi> configuration ( ! torn ends ( ! fibres1 & f ! fact t ! fibres are r>ely sep>at$1 b are g5]ally m or less agglom]at$ 7see ,frontispiece74 ,pulp f p9e ( c\rse %[s ! pitt$ vessels already ref]r$ to4 ,!y are usually m di/9ct ?an 9 *emical wood-pulp4 ,occasionally fragm5ts are to be met ) connect$ toge!r ) portions ( ! m$ull>y rays4 ,! microscopical exam9ation ( a pap] is a matt] ( v great difficulty1 & "o requir+ mu* practice4 ,! /ud5t is recomm5d$ to /udy closely = himself ! microscopical features ( pulps obta9$ f au!ntic specim5s4 ,"s approximate idea ( ! relative proportion ( ! v>i\s fibres pres5t 9 a pap] c be obta9$ f a c>eful microscopical exam9ation4 ,vtill>t ma9ta9s t a quantitative det]m9ation )9 a fair limit ( accuracy is possible4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! #bja ,b]l9 ,prfungsan/alt d n pr(ess to d m ?an m]ely id5tify ! fibres4 ,9 exam9+ a pap] "u ! microscope1 x %\ld be obs]v$ :e!r ! fibres appe> z fragm5ts1 or :e!r !y consi/ ( :ole ba/ cells 9 :i* ! tap]$ ends appe>4 ,cotton & l951 ow+ to ! great l5g? ( _! ultimate fibres1 yield1 :5 beat51 fragm5ts %[+ :]e ! fracture has tak5 place4 ,f ! appe>ance ( ?is fracture x is possible to asc]ta9 :e!r or n ! beat+ op]ation has be5 prop]ly conduct$4 ,if ! beat]-knives h be5 too %>p1 or h be5 let d[n to ! b$-plate too quickly1 ! fractures w appe> z clean cuts1 :]eas :5 ! op]ation has be5 prop]ly conduct$ ! fracture w appe> ragg$ & drawn out4 ,! be>+ ( ?is on ! /r5g? ( ! f9i%$ pap] is consid]able4 ,esp>to1 /raw1 & wood1 ^: ultimate fibres d n exce$ #a-b mm41 %\ld1 9 ! majority ( cases1 appe> z :ole ba/ fibres ) two tap]$ ends2 ! beat+1 :5 prop]ly conduct$1 be+ conf9$ m]ely to ! sep>ation into ^! ultimate fibres4 7b7 ,= ! *emical id5tification ( ! fibres 9 a pap]1 ! only available reactions are ^? ) anil9e sulphate solution4 ,! majority ( fibres 7celluloses7 give no reaction1 /raw & esp>to celluloses & me*anical wood-pulp be+ ! only ones t c be id5tifi$ by its means4 ,! au?ors h f\nd t :5 a pap] conta9+ /raw or esp>to is treat$ = "s "t ) a boil+ #a p] c5t4 solution ( anil9e sulphate1 a p9k col\r is produc$4 ,esp>to gives ! reaction ) great] int5sity ?an /raw4 ,9 ?is way ! pres5ce ( a v small quantity ( ^! pulps c be detect$ ) c]ta9ty4 ,me*anical wood-pulp1 :5 treat$ ) a solution ( anil9e sulphate1 develops1 ev5 9 ! cold1 a deep yell[ col\r4 ,if a pap] conta9+ me*anical wood-pulp s treat$ be exam9$ "u ! microscope1 ! fragm5ts ( wood w be f\nd to be deeply /a9$1 :]eas ! o!r #bjb fibres rema9 col\rless or ne>ly s4 ,x mu/ be borne 9 m9d t cellulose obta9$ f lignifi$ fibres1 if ! boil+ & blea*+ processes h n be5 c>ri$ suffici5tly f>1 w give ) anil9e sulphate a m or less int5se yell[ coloration4 ,v>i\s o!r reag5ts h be5 sugge/$ = ! id5tification ( me*anical wood-pulp1 all bas$ ^u ! production ( a col\r ) lignose4 ,! reaction ( lignose ) *lor9e & sodium sulphite solution already ref]r$ to 7p4 #ai7 may also be made available = ! detection ( me*anical wood-pulp 9 a pap]4 ,imp]fectly boil$ or blea*$ pulps sometimes give ?is reaction fa9tly4 ,quantitative ,e/imation ( ,me*anical ,wood-pulp4--,! det]m9ation ( ! am\nt ( me*anical wood-pulp pres5t 9 a pap] is sometimes a matt] ( "s importance1 & x is also a matt] ( great difficulty4 ,"s idea ( ! am\nt pres5t c be obta9$ by obs]v+ ! dep? ( ! yell[ col\r produc$ ) anil9e sulphate or ! int5sity ( ! mag5ta reaction ) *lor9e & sodium sulphite4 ,x is also possible to calculate approximately ! p]c5tage f ! p]c5tage ( cellulose conta9$ 9 ! specim54 ,me*anical wood-pulp 7p9e7 may be tak5 to conta9 #fj p] c5t4 ( cellulose4 ,if1 !re=e1 a pap] asc]ta9$ to conta9 a pure cellulose 9 addition to ?is con/itu5t1 yield #ge p] c5t4 ( cellulose on ! ord9>y te/1 x may be assum$ t ab\t #fbe p] c5t4 ( me*anical wood-pulp is pres5t4 ,! au?ors h propos$ a me?od ( e/imat+ ! am\nt ( me*anical wood-pulp pres5t 9 a pap]1 bas$ ^u ! absorption ( iod9e 9 def9ite proportions by wood 9 a f9ely divid$ /ate1 "u /rictly regulat$ conditions4 ,! pap] is c>efully r$uc$ to a f9e pulp1 & is !n left 9 contact ) a /&>d solution ( iod9e 9 potassium iodide4 ,at ! end ( tw5ty-f\r h\rs ! am\nt ( free iod9e is det]m9$ by titration ) sodium ?iosulphate & by d$uct+ ?is f ! am\nt orig9ally tak51 ! am\nt absorb$ is asc]ta9$4 ,z ?is am\nt1 "u #bjc /rictly comp>ative conditions1 always corresponds to a def9ite am\nt ( me*anical wood-pulp ! am\nt pres5t c be readily calculat$4 #b4 ,load+1 ,siz+ ,mat]ials1 c4--,! det]m9ation ( ! am\nt ( load+ mat]ial 9 a pap] has be5 already describ$ 7p4 #acd74 ,! id5tification ( ! mat]ial c only be arriv$ at by a c>eful *emical analysis4 ,! pr9cipal load+ mat]ials are *9a-clay & pe>l-h>d5+ 7calcium sulphate74 ,! a% f a pap] conta9+ *9a-clay is insoluble 9 boil+ dilute hydro*loric acid2 t f pap] conta9+ calcium sulphate is soluble3 ! solution on cool+ deposits long ne$le-%ap$ cry/als ( ,ca,s,o#d #b ,h#b,o & gives ) b>ium *loride a copi\s precipitate ( ,ba,s,o#d 7b>ium sulphate7 insoluble 9 acids1 & ) ammonia & oxalate ( ammonia a precipitate ( calcium oxalate4 ,! pres5ce ( />* 9 a pap] c be readily asc]ta9$ by its behavi\r ) a solution ( iod9e4 ,if />* be pres5t ! well-kn[n blue col\r ( ! comp\nd ( iod9e & />* w be produc$4 ,! det]m9ation ( ! am\nt ( />* pres5t is a matt] ( "s difficulty1 ! details ( :i* are some:at beyond ! scope ( ! pres5t "w4 ,x is bas$ ^u ! conv]sion ( ! />* into sug>1 & ! e/imation ( ! latt] ) ,fehl+'s solution4 ,! nature ( ! mat]ial ) :i* a pap] is siz$ may be asc]ta9$ 9 ! foll[+ way3-- ,! sample1 cut up into small fragm5ts1 is w>m$ = a few m9utes ) alcohol conta9+ a few drops ( acetic acid4 ,! alcohol is all[$ to cool1 & is !n p\r$ into f\r or five times its bulk ( di/ill$ wat]4 ,if any precipitate or cl\d9ess is produc$1 x indicates t ! pap] has be5 siz$ ) ros94 ,! alcohol dissolves ! ros91 :i*1 be+ insoluble 9 wat]1 is ?r[n d[n on dilution4 ,! alcohol us$ %\ld be previ\sly purifi$ by di/illation1 z "s samples conta9 a small quantity ( %ellac1 :i* w\ld itself be precipitat$ ) wat]4 #bjd ,! pap] aft] treatm5t ) alcohol %\ld n[ be boil$ = "s m9utes ) wat]3 ! solution all[$ to cool1 & !n filt]$4 ,to ! filtrate a few drops ( a solution ( tannic acid are add$1 :51 if ! pap] has be5 siz$ ) gelat9e1 a :ite curdy precipitate w be =m$4 ,! e/imation ( ! am\nt ( siz+ mat]ial 9 a pap] is a v complicat$ process & "o :i* dem&s consid]able *emical exp]i5ce = its prop] conduct4 ,! am\nt ( gelat9e pres5t is be/ asc]ta9$ by det]m9+ ! am\nt ( nitrog5 pres5t by combu/ion ) soda-lime1 & f ?is1 calculat+ ! am\nt ( gelat9e4 ,pure gelat9e conta9s #ahaf p] c5t4 ( nitrog5 7,muntz74 ,! comp>ison ( "o pap] ) ano!r ) a view to asc]ta9 ! relative degree ( siz+1 is usually p]=m$ 9 a m or less r\gh & ready way by moi/5+ ! samples ) ! tongue = a c]ta9 "t1 & notic+ ! degree ( transp>5cy produc$1 :i* is ( c\rse inv]sely to ! degree ( h>dness4 ,a m accurate me?od consi/s 9 plac+ a drop ( a mixture ( alcohol & wat] conta9+ "s col\r+ matt] 9 solution & det]m9+ ! "t necess>y = ! col\r to make its appe>ance on ! o!r side4 ,9 ?is way m tru/wor?y comp>isons c be made4 ,col\r+ ,matt]s4--,! *emical reactions ( ! *ief col\r+ matt]s h be5 already describ$ 7p4 #ada74 #bje ,,*apt] ,,xiv4 ,,g5]al ,,*emical ,,analysis ,,= ,,pap]-,,mak]s4 ,a k ( ! me?ods usually employ$ = ! qualitative & quantitative analysis ( ! v>i\s *emical sub/ances met ) 9 pap] manufacture is ( consid]able importance4 ,! scope ( ?is "w w n all[ u to ent] fully into ! necess>y details ( manipulation2 = ^! ! read] is ref]r$ to /&>d works on analysis2 we w m]ely indicate ! me?ods4 ,cau/ic ,soda1 ,soda ,a%1 ,recov]$ ,soda1 c4--,^! sub/ances are always valu$ by ! am\nt ( real alkali 7,na#b,o7 t !y conta91 :i* is det]m9$ by titration ) a /&>d acid4 ,9 te/+ recov]$ soda1 x is necess>y to boil ! f9ely p[d]$ a% = "s "t ) wat]2 unless ?is be done1 ! am\nt ( alkali w probably be "u-e/imat$1 z "p ( ! soda is pres5t z a difficultly soluble silicate4 ,x is sometimes desirable to det]m9e ! am\nt bo? ( sodium hydrate & c>bonate 9 a sample ( alkali4 ,= ?is purpose an excess ( a solution ( b>ium *loride is add$ to a solution conta9+ a kn[n quantity ( ! sub/ance "u exam9ation1 & ! mixture made up to a def9ite volume4 ,x is !n filt]$1 & an aliquot portion ( ! filtrate titrat$ ) /&>d alkali4 ,! filtrate conta9s only ! alkali t 0 orig9ally pres5t z hydrate1 ! c>bonate ( soda hav+ =m$ ) ! b>ium *loride1 insoluble b>ium c>bonate1 & sodium *loride4 ,blea*+ ,p[d]4--,! value ( blea*+ p[d] #bjf dep5ds ^u ! am\nt ( available *lor9e t x conta9s4 ,?is is det]m9$ by means ( a /&>d solution ( ars5i\s acid4 ,! /&>d solution is prep>$ by dissolv+ pure ars5i\s oxide 7,z#b,o#c7 9 sodium c>bonate solution4 ,to te/ ! p[d]1 a quantity1 say ab\t #e grms41 is tak51 & is c>efully gr\nd up 9 a mort> ) a small quantity ( wat]1 m wat] is !n add$1 & ! co>s] p>ticles all[$ to settle = a few seconds4 ,! milky liquid is !n run (f into a graduat$ flask2 ! residue is aga9 gr\nd up ) wat]1 & ! op]ations repeat$ until ! :ole ( ! p[d] is transf]r$ to ! flask4 ,! flask is n[ fill$ up to ! prop] m>k1 c>efully %ak51 & an aliquot portion )drawn z quickly z possible4 ,x is necess>y to take bo? ! soluble & insoluble portions 9 ord] to obta9 uni=m results4 ,/&>d ars5i\s acid solution is n[ run 9 until ! solution ceases to produce a blue col\r ) iodide ( potassium & />* pap]s4 ,! me?od ( e/imat+ ! am\nt ( available *lor9e 9 blea*+ p[d] by det]m9+ ! quantity ( f]r\s sulphate x is capable ( oxidis+ is fallaci\s1 z by ?is means calcium *lorate is includ$ 9 ! result4 ,blea*+ p[d] %\ld conta9 ab\t #ce p] c5t4 ( available *lor9e1 b ! p]c5tage frequ5tly falls bel[ ?is am\nt1 especially 9 w>m wea!r4 ,great c>e %\ld be ex]cis$ 9 ! sampl+ ( blea*+ p[d]1 z inde$ ( all *emicals1 9 ord] to insure an av]age result4 ,small portions %\ld be tak5 f diff]5t p>ts ( ! bulk2 ! :ole %\ld !n be c>efully mix$1 &1 if necess>y1 r$uc$ to p[d]4 ,portions ( ! mixture %\ld be tak51 p\nd$1 & aga9 ?or\ghly mix$4 ,if ?is process be repeat$ once or twice1 a p]fectly uni=m sample w be obta9$4 ,alum1 ,sulphate ( ,alum9a1 ,alum ,cake1 c4--,! po9ts to be consid]$ 9 an exam9ation ( ^! products are 7#a7 ! p]c5tage ( alum9a conta9$ 9 !m2 7#b7 ! #bjg p]c5tage ( iron1 & 7#c7 ! am\nt ( free sulphuric acid pres5t4 7#a7 ,! alum9a is e/imat$ z su* by precipitation ) ammonia4 ,f]ric oxide is also ?r[n d[n ) alum9a1 & mu/ !re=e be d$uct$ f ! am\nt ( ! mix$ oxides obta9$4 7#b7 ,! p]c5tage ( iron oxide pres5t is det]m9$ 9 ! foll[+ way4 ,a consid]able quantity ( ! sample "u exam9ation is dissolv$ 9 wat]1 & to ! boil+ solution a l>ge excess ( cau/ic pota% solution is add$4 ,! cau/ic pota% precipitates bo? ! alum9a & f]ric hydrates1 ! =m]1 h[ev]1 r$issolves4 ,! solution is filt]$1 & ! precipitate ( f]ric hydrate wa%$1 dissolv$ 9 dilute hydro*loric acid1 & reprecipitat$ ) excess ( cau/ic pota%4 ,x is aga9 ?r[n on to a filt]1 wa%$1 r$issolv$ 9 hydro*loric acid1 & aga9 reprecipitat$ ) ammonia4 ,9 ?is way x is obta9$ free f alum9a4#ag ,footnote #ag3 ,= a me?od ( e/imat+ m9ute quantities ( iron 9 alums see #8,j\rn4 ,soc4 ,*em4 ,ind41' ,april #ahhg1 p4 #bgf4 7#c7 ,free ,acid4--,?is c be e/imat$ indirectly1 i4e4 by e/imat+ ! alum9a & f]ric oxide1 calculat+ ! am\nt ( sulphuric acid necess>y to comb9e ) !m1 & d$uct+ ?is f ! total am\nt ( sulphuric acid obta9$4 ,9 ! case ( alum x is ( c\rse necess>y to make due all[ance = ! sulphate ( pota% or ammonia pres5t4 ,! sulphuric acid is e/imat$ z b>ium sulphate 9 ! usual way4 ,x %\ld be borne 9 m9d t sulphates ( alum9a are sometimes met ) conta9+ uncomb9$ alum9a4 ,a conv5i5t me?od ( e/imat+ free acid consi/s 9 dige/+ a weigh$ quantity ( ! f9ely p[d]$ sample 9 /rong alcohol4 ,! alcohol dissolves away ! free acid1 :i* c be e/imat$ 9 ! solution by means ( a /&>d solution ( alkali4 ,free acid c be detect$ by means ( a solution ( #bjh ,congo-r$1 :i* is turn$ blue ) free acid1 b n ) pure sulphate ( alum9a4 ,anti*lor1 ,sodium ,?iosulphate1 ,sodium ,sulphite1 c4--,sodium ?iosulphate c be e/imat$ by means ( a /&>d solution ( iod9e 9 potassium iodide4 ,! op]ation %\ld be p]=m$ 9 dilute solution 7see p4 #aaa74 ,! same solution s]ves also = ! e/imation ( sulphur\s acid 9 sodium & o!r sulphites4 ,/>*es4--,aft] hav+ made a c>eful microscopical exam9ation ( ! sample1 x %\ld be exam9$ = wat] by dry+ at #ajj;,c41 & = m9]al matt] by ignit+ 9 a plat9um crucible & weigh+ ! residue4 ,! wat] %\ld n exce$ #ah p] c5t41 & ! a% #ej p] c5t4 ,! samples %\ld be c>efully exam9$ = insoluble matt] by dissolv+ 9 wat] & filt]+4 ,x is also useful 9 comp>+ diff]5t samples ( />* to conv]t ! specim5s into pa/es1 "u exactly simil> conditions4 ,:5 p]fectly cold1 ! 8/iffness0 ( ! pa/es %\ld be comp>$4 ,?is may be done by not+ ! relative resi/ance to weights plac$ ^u _! surface4 ,in=mation on ?is subject is conta9$ 9 a pap] by ,w4 ,?omson 9 ! #8,j\rn4 ,soc4 ,*em4 ,ind41' ,m>* #ahhf4 ,! id5tification ( />*es by means ( _! microscopical appe>ances is tol]ably simple1 z ea* p>ticul> k9d possesses *>act]i/ic diff]5ces4 ,gelat9e4--,samples ( gelat9e %\ld be exam9$ = wat] & a%4 ,! wat] %\ld n exce$ #af p] c5t4 & ! a% #bg p] c5t4 ,! relative /r5g?s ( ! jellies =m$ ) wat] %\ld also be comp>$4 ,?is may be done 9 ! way indicat$ above = />*es4 ,raw mat]ials int5d$ = ! prep>ation ( gelat9e may be simil>ly exam9$4 ,!y yield ! :ole ( _! gelat9e on heat+ ) wat]4 ,! effect ( prolong$ heat+ on solution ( gelat9e %\ld be borne 9 m9d4 ,! am\nt ( residue left aft] treatm5t ) wat] %\ld be c>efully det]m9$4 ,soaps4--,! soaps mo/ suitable = use 9 pap]-mak+ #bji are ^? kn[n z curd & mottl$1 ! =m] be+ *iefly us$ = ! f9e qualities4 ,!y %\ld be c>efully exam9$ = free alkali & unsaponifi$ fat4 ,full descriptions are conta9$ 9 ,lant ,c>p5t]'s #8,treatise on ,soap-mak+4' ,dyes1 ,pigm5ts1 ,load+ ,mat]ials1 c4--,^! sub/ances are be/ exam9$ f a physical & t9ctorial po9t ( view1 by comp>ison ) specim5s ( und\bt$ purity & excell5ce4 ,! *emical exam9ation is bo? difficult & some:at mislead+4 ,a microscopical exam9ation w (t5 ?r[ mu* light on _! composition4 ,= comp>+ ! t9ctorial p[] ( diff]5t samples1 weigh$ quantities %\ld be gr\nd up ) />* or "s o!r :ite p[d]4 ,9 ?is way "s idea ( ! int5sity ( col\r c be readily arriv$ at4 #baj ,,*apt] ,,xv4 ,,site ,,= ,,pap]-,,mill1 ,,wat]-,,supply1 ,,wat] ,,purification1 ,,etc4 ,9 *oos+ a spot on :i* to build a pap]-mill1 ! manufactur] has to take into consid]ation sev]al v important circum/ances4 ,*ief ( ^! is ! necessity = hav+ a l>ge supply ( wat] at comm&4 ,n only is a l>ge quantity ne$ful1 b x %\ld be free f impurities1 su* z susp5d$ matt] & iron4 ,! =m]1 x is true1 c be remov$ by settl+ & filtration2 ! latt] _c1 & is liable to injuri\sly affect ! col\r ( ! pap]4 ,aga91 z a "q ( economy 9 work+1 x is advantage\s to h conv5i5t wat]-p[]2 !re=e = ?is1 z well z = ! =m] reason1 pap]-mills are usually situat$ on ! bank ( a /ream4 ,9 *oos+ su* a site1 pap]-mak]s are probably also influ5c$ by ! fact t x af=ds a ready means = ! removal ( impurities4 ,9 prop]ly conduct$ mills1 :]e suitable app>atus is employ$ = evaporat+ ! liquors 9 :i* ! raw mat]ial has be5 boil$1 ! /ream %\ld n be pollut$ to any v great ext5t4 ,g5]ally speak+1 ! great] ! pollution1 ! m are valuable mat]ials be+ lo/ to ! manufactur]4 ,x is obvi\s t ! site = a mill %\ld also be *os5 ) ref]5ce to its proximity to means ( transit = ! raw & manufactur$ mat]ials4 ,! disposition ( ! diff]5t divisions ( a pap]-mill dep5ds ( c\rse ^u ! nature ( ! pap] x is int5d$ to make & to a l>ge ext5t ^u local circum/ances4 ,fig4 #gi w give "s idea ( ! g5]al arrangem5t ( a mill = manufactur+ esp>to pap]4 #baa ,wat] ,purification4--,arnot 9 8 ,cantor ,lectures on ! ,te*nology ( ! ,pap] ,trade /ates t f #cj1jjj to #dj1jjj gallons ( wat] are requir$ = ! manufacture ( ea* ton ( pap]4 ,! importance ( a pure & copi\s supply is !re=e v evid5t4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #gi4 ,! impurities ( wat] consi/ ( two classes1 insoluble & soluble4 ,! =m] c be readily remov$ by processes ( settl+ & filtration4 ,= ?is purpose mo/ pap]-mills are provid$ ) l>ge ponds capable ( hold+ sev]al days' supply4 ,^! are sometimes supplem5t$ by filt]+ b$s4 ,insoluble impurities c also be remov$ by pass+ ! wat] ?r\gh filt]-presses4 ,fig4 #hj is an illu/ration ( ,rckn]'s pat5t cl>ifi]1 :i* may also be appli$ to ?is purpose4 ,! cyl9d]s ,c dip bel[ ! surface ( ! wat] to be purifi$1 :i* is conta9$ 9 ! res]voir ,a4 ,!y are op5 at _! l[] ends1 b are clos$ at ! top by ! domes ,d4 ,^! are connect$ ) ! pump ,i by means ( ! pipes ,h4 ,on />t+ ! pump ! wat] rises sl[ly 9 ! cyl9d]s4 ,z soon z x rea*es ! level ( ! top1 ! action ( ! pump is /opp$ & ! cocks ,k op5$1 :5 ! wat] comm5ces to fl[ d[n ! pipes ,g1 :i* toge!r #bab ) ! cyl9d]s =m a k9d ( siphon4 ,if ! res]voir ,a be kept full1 ! siphons c be made to act cont9u\sly4 ,! fl[ ( wat] be+ sl[1 insoluble impurities h "t to subside4 ,! impurities may f "t to "t be remov$ by means ( ! small pump ,l connect$ ) ! bottom ( ! res]voir4 ,! cl>ifi] c also be us$ = ! purification ( ! efflu5t wat] f pap]-mills4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #hj4 ,insoluble impurities c be remov$ f wat] by means ( ! ,/anhope purifi]1 %[n 9 ,fig4 #ha4 ,! soluble impurities ( wat] consi/ ma9ly ( c>bonate & sulphate ( calcium & iron1 & occasionally organic matt]4 ,x is a moot po9t among pap]-mak]s #bac :e!r or n ! pres5ce ( ! two =m] 9 a wat] is objectionable4 ,= boil+ & blea*+ purposes x und\bt$ly is1 z :5 mix$ ) cau/ic soda or blea*+ liquor !y =m a precipitate ( c>bonate ( calcium1 :i* l9es ! insides ( boil]s1 break]s1 & pot*]s z a h>d scale1 :i* is always liable to become deta*$1 & to f9d its way into ! f9i%$ pap]4 ,moreov]1 c>bonate ( calcium is precipitat$ 9 ! fibre1 & c>ries ) x a c]ta9 quantity ( col\r+ matt]1 ! subsequ5t removal ( :i* is difficult4 ,c>bonate ( calcium1 ?\gh practically insoluble 9 pure wat]1 is soluble 9 wat] conta9+ c>bonic acid4 ,:5 ?is c>bonic acid is neutralis$ by lime or soda1 ! c>bonate is precipitat$4 ,! sulphate ( calcium is unact$ ^u by lime1 b by ! action ( cau/ic soda is conv]t$ into free lime & sodium sulphate4 ,! lime !n neutralises ! free c>bonic acid 9 ! wat]1 & =ms c>bonate ( calcium1 :i* is ( c\rse precipitat$4 ,^! reactions may be repres5t$ by ! foll[+ equations3-- ,calcium ,c>bonic ,lime4 ,calcium c>bonate4 acid4 c>bonate4 #a4 ,ca,c,o#c ,,co#b ,ca,o #b ,ca,c,o#c4 ,calcium ,cau/ic ,calcium ,sodium sulphate4 soda4 hydrate4 sulphate4 #b4 ,ca,s,o#d #b ,na,o,h ,ca,h#b,o#b ,na#b,,s#d4 ,calcium ,c>bonic ,calcium ,wat]4 hydrate4 acid4 c>bonate4 ,ca,h#b,o ,,co#b ,ca,c,o#c ,h#b,o4 ,if sodium c>bonate be us$ in/ead ( cau/ic soda1 ! decomposition w take place ?us3-- ,calcium ,sodium ,calcium ,sodium sulphate4 c>bonate4 c>bonate4 sulphate4 ,ca,s,o#d ,na#b;,,co#c ,ca,c,o#c ,na#b,,s#d4 ,x w be se5 f ! above equation t 9 ! boil+ processes ! lime salts are remov$ f ! wat] at ! exp5se ( an equival5t quantity ( cau/ic soda4 ,! am\nt ?us decompos$ is n suffici5tly l>ge to make x advisable #bad on t acc\nt to purify ! wat]4 ,x is inde$ s small t processes ( purification1 bas$ ^u ! use ( lime & cau/ic soda1 are n[ l>gely us$1 ! co/ = *emicals r>ely exce$+ #a;d4 p] #ajjj gallons4 ,b = ! reasons we h /at$ above1 & also f ! fact t x s]ves to remove dissolv$ iron & organic matt] f a wat]1 su* a purification process is 9 c]ta9 cases advisable4 ,! processes n[ 9 use consi/1 z we h indicat$1 9 ! addition to ! wat] ( lime & cau/ic soda or c>bonate ( soda1 ! quantities be+ regulat$ accord+ to ! h>dness ( ! wat]1 & ! relative proportions ( c>bonate & sulphate ( calcium4 ,! me?od ( remov+ c>bonate ( calcium f wat] by ! addition ( lime is due to ! late ,dr4 ,cl>k1 ( ,ab]de51 & ! process is /ill call$ aft] him4 ,x is 9 use 9 its orig9al =m 9 _m places4 ,! plant necess>y consi/s simply ( a tank = mix+ ! wat] & ! lime1 & ( l>ge settl+ tanks 9 :i* ! c>bonate ( calcium subsides4 ,v>i\s modifications ( ?is process h be5 propos$1 *iefly 9 ! direction ( improv$ plant4 ,9 ! ,port]-,cl>k process ! c>bonate ( calcium is remov$ by pass+ ! wat] aft] ! addition ( lime 79 ! =m ( lime-wat]7 ?r\gh a filt]-press4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ha4 ,9 ,fig4 #ha is %[n ! ,/anhope purifi]1 :i* is l>gely us$ = ! purpose ( s(t5+ wat]4 ,! foll[+ details w r5d] its action cle>3 ,a is a /ore tank conta9+ cau/ic soda solution4 ,b is a tank into :i* ! wat] to be treat$ fl[s1 & :i* is ma9ta9$ at a con/ant level by means ( a valve & float4 ,c & ,c are two tanks :i* are us$ alt]nately1 & 9 :i* lime wat] is prep>$4 ,a def9ite quantity ( cau/ic soda solution is add$ f ,b2 ?is mixture =ms ! reag5t by :i* ! s(t5+ ( ! wat] is accompli%$4 ,d is a small tank = ! purpose ( ma9ta9+ a con/ant head ( reag5t4 ,! reag5t & ! wat] are mix$ toge!r 9 ! pipe ,f1 ! quantities be+ regulat$ by ! cocks #baf %[n at ,h4 ,! pipe ,f leads into ! vessel ,e1 :i* is fitt$ ) a numb] ( ,v-%ap$ %elves1 plac$ at an angle ( #de1 & rivet$ alt]nately to opposite sides ( ! vessel4 ,?is arrangem5t causes ! wat] to take a s]p5t9e c\rse4 ,! position ( ! %elves is indicat$ by ! dott$ l9es4 ,z soon z ! mixture ( wat] & reag5t fl[s d[n ! pipe ,f1 & ent]s ! vessel ,e1 ! calcium c>bonate comm5ces to precipitate & settles ^u ! ,v-%ap$ %elves4 ,at ! top ( ! tank a lay] ( wood %av+s1 inclos$ 9 wire-nett+1 is plac$ z %[n by ! dott$ l9es4 ,?is acts z a filt]1 & int]cepts any p>ticles t may n h subsid$4 ,! cle> purifi$ wat] passes away by ! pipe ,i4 ,! precipitate t collects on ! ,v-%ap$ plates is f "t to "t drawn (f by ! cocks %[n at ,g2 ?is may be done )\t int]f]+ ) ! work+ ( ! app>atus4 ,:ile !re c be no d\bt t ! use ( s(t wat] is advantage\s 9 ! boil+1 wa%+1 & blea*+ processes1 & also ( c\rse = supply+ /eam boil]s1 x is probably an advantage to use a h>d wat] = dilut+ ! pulp be=e runn+ x into ! ma*9e4 ,9 ! case ( pap]s :i* are load$ ) any ( ! =ms ( calcium sulphate 7pe>l-h>d5+1 cry/al-h>d5+1 c47 ! use ( v s(t wat] is objectionable f ! fact t a c]ta9 quantity ( calcium sulphate is dissolv$4 ,?is w\ld n take place to ! same ext5t ) wat] :i* is already *>g$ ) sulphate & c>bonate ( calcium4 ,! removal ( soluble iron f a wat] is effect$ by ! s(t5+ processes describ$4 #bag ,,*apt] ,,xvi4 ,,action ,,( ,,cuprammonium ,,on ,,cellulose4 ,,prep>ation ,,( ,,willesd5 ,,pap]4 ,! action ( a solution ( copp] oxide 9 ammonia ^u cellulose has be5 already ref]r$ to 7see p4 #e74 ,celluloses1 & also lignocelluloses1 :5 treat$ ) su* a solution1 gradually gelat9ise & f9ally dissolve4 ,on evaporat+ ! solution to dryness1 a gummy amorph\s mass is obta9$1 conta9+ ! cellulose int]mix$ ) copp] oxide4 ,if ! cellulose be 9 excess1 e4g4 :5 ! solution is evaporat$ on ! surface ( pap]1 calico1 c41 m]ely dipp$ 9 ! solution1 ! copp] oxide is (t5 n =m$ at all1 b a gre5 v>ni%-l mass ( cellulose comb9$ ) copp] oxide1 :i* coats ! surface ( ea* filam5t1 weld+ & cem5t+ !m toge!r4 ,?is cem5t-l cupro-cellulose1 z x may be t]m$1 be+ insoluble 9 wat]1 communicates wat]-resi/+ prop]ties to ! mat]ial s treat$3 moreov]1 ! pres5ce ( copp] r5d]s ! fabric less prone ?an be=e to be attack$ by insects & m\ld1 s t animal & vegetable life ( a p>asitic nature & fungoid gr[?s are r>ely1 if ev]1 to be obs]v$1 ev5 :5 ! mat]ial is kept "u conditions :]e bor+ worms1 ants1 rot1 & m\ld1 w\ld be likely to attack x4 ,z has be5 already indicat$ 7p4 #e71 ! solution ( cuprammonium hydroxide is pref]able to "o conta9+ cuprammonium salts2 n only is ! action on cellulose m en]getic1 b v>i\s o!r advantages are obta9$4 ,prep>ation ( ! ,copp] ,solution4--,! cuprammonium solution is prep>$ accord+ to ! pat5t ( ,dr4 ,c4 ,r4 ,ald] ,wright 7,no4 #gcg1 #ahhc74 #bah ,a s]ies ( ca/-iron t[]s1 two to ?ree feet 9 diamet] & t5 to twelve feet high1 is s arrang$ t a curr5t ( air c be bl[n by a p[]ful eng9e successively ?r\gh ! :ole s]ies4 ,! t[]s are !n ne>ly fill$ ) fragm5ts ( metallic copp] 7crumbl$ up %eet1 cutt+s1 c471 & solution ( ammonia3 ! air-curr5t be+ turn$ on1 oxidation ( ! copp] & solution ( ! oxide s produc$ are rapidly effect$4 ,! ammonia solution employ$ is previ\sly impregnat$ ) a consid]able quantity ( copp] by pass+ a /ream ( wat] ov] scrap copp] 9 simil> t[]s1 a curr5t ( ammonia gas mix$ ) a suitable proportion ( air be+ at ! same "t =c$ 94 ,! liquor pass+ f "o t[] is us$ ov] aga9 to supply a second in/ead ( wat]1 & s on ?r\gh ! s]ies3 f9ally ! liquor is br\ght up to full copp] /r5g? 9 ! s]ies ( t[]s describ$ above4 ,! sp5t air issu+ f ! t[]s c>ries ) x a notable quantity ( ammonia2 ?is is int]cept$ by means ( an 8exhau/0 scrubb] conta9+ copp]1 & well suppli$ ) wat]1 :]eby a comp>atively weak solution ( ammonia & copp] is obta9$1 :i* c be us$ in/ead ( wat] 9 ! fir/ s]ies ( t[]s4 ,9 ord] to produce ! maximum effect on ! cellulose1 ! solution %\ld conta9 f #ajj to #aej lbs4 ( ammonia1 & f #bj to #be lbs4 ( copp] p] #ajj gallons4 ,by decompos+ a cuprammonium solution by means ( metallic z9c1 a correspond+ solution ( z9c-ammonium hydroxide c be obta9$4 ,?is solution is also capable ( gelat9is+ cellulose1 b n to ! same ext5t z ! copp] solution4 ,x may1 h[ev]1 be advantage\sly employ$ 9 c]ta9 cases 9 conjunction ) a copp] solution4 ,su* a solution c be conv5i5tly prep>$ by sub/itut+ brass = copp] 9 ! dissolv+-t[]s4 ,x is wor?y ( note t al?\gh1 z we h se51 z9c has ! p[] ( replac+ copp] 9 a cuprammonium solution1 iron is )\t any action1 al?\gh x readily replaces copp] 9 a solution #bai ( copp] sulphate4 ,?is fact is ( v great indu/rial importance1 z x enables ! manufactur] to employ vessels & ma*9]y ( iron4 ,! 8,willesd50 goods may be divid$ into two classes4 ,goods ( ! fir/ class1 su* z rope1 cordage1 nett+1 c41 are prep>$ by simply dipp+ ! made-up mat]ials 9 a ba? ( cuprammonium solution1 us+ c]ta9 precautions z to ! mode ( imm]sion & its duration1 & ! /r5g? ( ! solution4 ,on subsequ5tly dry+ ! dipp$ fabrics1 !y are obta9$ coat$ & impregnat$ ) cupro-cellulose1 :i* ?us n only =ms a k9d ( v>ni%-l surface dress+1 b fur!r adds /r5g? to ! fibres by m or less intimately cem5t+ !m toge!r4 ,goods ( ! second class con/itute a mu* m important gr\p to :i* at pres5t ! ,willesd5 ,company m especially devotes its att5tion4 ,^! fabrics are ess5tially ( ?ree k9ds1 viz4 ,willesd5 ,canvas1 ,willesd5 ,scrim1 & ,willesd5 ,pap]4 ,! two =m] ( ^! classes are prep>$ 9 mu* ! same way z ! goods j describ$1 sav+ t ! fabric to be treat$ is usually unw\nd f "o roll] & rew\nd ^u ano!r1 aft] pass+ ?r\gh ! ba? & ov] a succession ( dry+ cyl9d]s4 ,willesd5 ,pap]4--,?is may be divid$ into two dep>tm5ts1 viz4 7#a7 ,willesd5 unweld$2 7#b7 ,willesd5 weld$1 ! fir/ class be+ prep>$ f a s+le web ( pap] by pass+ x ?r\gh ! ba?1 roll+ & dry+4 ,c]ta9 co>se v>ieties furni% a wat]pro( mat]ial excell5tly adapt$ = l9+ packages1 c4 ,f9] qualities furni% envelopes & /ation]y1 possess+ ! valuable prop]ty ( n be+ affect$ by wat]4 ,lett]s writt5 on su* pap] w\ld rema9 p]fectly legible1 ev5 aft] prolong$ imm]sion4 ,x may be int]e/+ to po9t out "h t ! cuprammonium solution (f]s a v simple means ( fa/5+ envelopes 9 su* a way z to be pro( aga9/ any attempts at tamp]+4 ,! me?od consi/s 9 us+ a conc5trat$ solution z ! fa/5+ mat]ial2 ! envelope #bbj is !n clos$ & iron$ ) a w>m flat-iron1 :]eby ! gelat9is$ cellulose is conv]t$ into an insoluble cupro-cellulose1 & ! cov] is fa/5$ s securely t ! only possible mode ( op5+ is by te>+ ! pap]4 ,willesd5 ,weld$ ,goods are prep>$ by simultane\sly dipp+ two or m %eets ( pap] & press+ !m into "o compact homog5e\s %eet :il/ ! surfaces are /ill 9 a gelat9\s /ate4 ,9 ?is way a cont9u\s l5g? ( fabric ( extraord9>y durability is produc$ t is sc>cely affect$ by wat]1 ev5 :5 heat$ 9 x = "s weeks at a pressure ( #fj lbs4 p] squ>e in*4 ,z1 on dry+ fabrics treat$ ) cuprammonium solution1 ! :ole ( ! ammonia 9 ! solution absorb$ by !m is volatilis$1 x is necess>y1 9 ord] to make ! process economical1 to collect & re-use ?is ammonia4 ,?is is effect$ by conduct+ ! dry+ process 9 clos$ *amb]s1 f :i* ! ammonia gas is conduct$ by suitable appliances & recov]$4 ,9 addition to ! advantages already m5tion$1 x may be /at$ t ,willesd5 pap] is mu* less inflammable ?an ord9>y pap]4 ,among ! _m uses to :i* ,willesd5 goods c be appli$1 ! foll[+ may be cit$3--,ro(s & %$s2 huts & t5ts2 p>titions2 tanks & pipes2 damp-pro( f\ndations2 und]l9+ slates2 sails1 awn+s1 c4 c4 #bba ,,*apt] ,,xvii4 ,,/ati/ics4 ,raw ,mat]ials4 ,! /ati/ics conc]n+ ! trade 9 raw mat]ials = pap]-mak+ are n publi%$ 9 a detail$ =m1 all ! v>i\s k9ds ( fibre1 c41 be+ gr\p$ "u two heads1 viz4 rags 7l95 & cotton71 & esp>to 7:i* embraces o!r fibres1 & probably wood pulps74 ,! figures = rec5t ye>s are %[n 9 ! accompany+ tables3-- 7a7 ,imports ( cotton & l95 rags3 tons4 l4 #ahhj4 #bi1fdb #dea1ghb #ahha4 #bf1ggc #cif1bgd #ahhb4 #ba1bjj #cjc1cdi #ahhc4 #bh1edc #dja1ibb #ahhd4 #cf1bcc #dhg1hff #ahhe4 #ce1dgj #dff1ibh 7b7 ,esp>to & o!r mat]ial3 tons4 l4 #ahhj4 #bbh1ehj #a1fdb1ijc #ahha4 #bch1jdc #a1fbf1hjj #ahhb4 #bea1eid #a1ghd1jgh #ahhc4 #bhh1edi #a1idc1gcb #ahhd4 #bfj1edd #a1fch1efd ,b a portion ( ^! imports 0 export$ aga91 ! figures be+ z foll[s3-- 7a7 ,exports ( rags & o!r pap]-mak+ mat]ial produc$ 9 ! ,unit$ ,k+dom3 tons4 l4 #ahhj4 #ee1gib #fgc1ebc #ahha4 #ej1dhh #efc1dfj #ahhb4 #di1ceb #ebf1eed #ahhc4 #ea1bic #ejb1hea #ahhd4 #fj1ibd #efb1ijc #bbb 7b7 ,exports ( ditto ( =eign & colonial produce3 tons4 l4 #ahhj4 #f1ife #ajb1dii #ahha4 #aj1ahc #adf1aja #ahhb4 #g1jjd #hd1eae #ahhc4 #aa1efa #aba1iib #ahhd4 #bf1dih #bgd1ffd ,! relative proportions ( raw mat]ial furni%$ by ! v>i\s c\ntries 9 #ahhd 7! late/ available return7 are %[n 9 ! subjo9$ tables3-- 7a7 ,imports ( l95 & cotton rags 9 #ahhd3 ,f ,tons4 ,g]many #ba1bhj #bid1hhc ,holl& #d1djf #ef1ecg ,belgium #b1hfg #cd1gac ,turkey #b1jcf #af1bbh ,france #a1hge #bh1acc ,russia #a1ghd #cc1bic ,*annel ,isl&s #bhb #c1igb ,norway #bfa #c1cgg ,d5m>k #aih #c1jbj ,briti% ,s\? ,africa #acc #a1fae ,au/ralasia #aac #b1bde ,can>y ,isl&s #if #a1jdc ,spa9 #ic #a1jji ,arg5t9e ,republic #fd #a1bhj ,o!r c\ntries #gde #f1eah - #cf1bcc #dhg1hff 7b7 ,imports ( esp>to & o!r fibres 9 #ahhd3 ,f ,tons4 ,alg]ia #hh1ceg #eae1bcb ,spa9 #dj1aei #cad1ibg ,tripoli #cc1icj #agb1bhb ,tunis #bj1ebf #aag1cgd ,o!r c\ntries #a1jcc #e1gch #ahd1jje #a1abe1eec 7c7 ,imports ( o!r mat]ials1 includ+ rag & wood pulps1 9 #ahhd3 #bbc ,f ,tons4 ,norway #dg1ibc #bgf1bjd ,belgium #g1afi #eh1chc ,holl& #f1dhd #df1ajd ,sw$5 #e1agh #dh1ebc ,g]many #c1gcb #cf1ehb ,france #b1abh #ad1ffg ,d5m>k #a1bje #ac1ccb ,briti% ,india #a1jdf #g1gce ,egypt #hgj #d1icc ,o!r c\ntries #hjd #f1edd #gf1eci #eac1jaa ,a consid]able export ( raw mat]ial = pap]-mak+ also takes place f ,briti% %ores1 ! figures1 embrac+ rags & o!r mat]ials1 = #ahhd be+ z bel[3-- 7a7 ,exports ( home produc$ rags & o!r pap]-mak+ mat]ials 9 #ahhd3 ,to ,tons4 ,unit$ ,/ates #ei1bbb #eej1ibd ,holl& #fdi #b1gjc ,briti% ,am]ica #cij #d1bee ,g]many #bfb #a1fgc ,o!r c\ntries #dja #c1cdh #fj1ibd #efb1ijc 7b7 ,exports ( =eign produc$ ditto 9 #ahhd3 7i47 ,l95 & cotton rags4 ,to ,tons4 ,unit$ ,/ates #ad1aia #afg1hja ,o!r c\ntries #ead #e1eai #ad1gje #agc1cbj 7ii47 ,esp>to & o!r fibres4 ,to ,tons4 ,all c\ntries #adj #gja 7iii47 ,pulps & o!r mat]ials4 ,to ,tons4 ,unit$ ,/ates #aa1bij #ig1fbj ,o!r c\ntries #cfc #c1jbc #aa1fec #ajj1fdc #bbd ,our imports ( 8rags & o!r pap]-mak+ mat]ials0 f ,norway increas$ f #bc1dhc tons1 value #ach1jihl41 9 #ahhj1 to #dh1aii tons1 #bgi1fgil41 9 #ahhd1 ma9ly ow+ to ! developm5t ( ! wood-pulp indu/ry4 ,lat] figures w probably %[ a simil> increm5t4 ,! same articles f ,d5m>k grew f #cei tons1 #cdjfl41 9 #ahhj1 to #adjc tons1 #af1cebl41 f ! same cause4 ,g]man /ati/ics h ev5 a /rong] upw>d t5d5cy3 #aa1ehg tons1 #aif1jeal41 9 #ahhj1 aga9/ #aif1jea tons1 #cca1eial41 9 #ahhd4 ,our receipts ( esp>to f ,alg]ia %[ an advance1 b n a m>k$ "o1 be+ #fj1fab tons1 #dba1cdcl41 9 #ahhj1 & #hh1ceg tons1 #eae1bcbl41 9 #ahhd4 ,b %ipm5ts ( ! same fibre f ,spa9 %[ a decl9e f #ea1dac tons1 #ded1gacl41 9 #ahhj1 to #dj1aei tons1 #cad1ibgl41 9 #ahhd2 & f ,morocco !y h fall5 away f #bhgi tons1 #ah1bcal41 9 #ahhj1 to #bfj tons1 #abijl41 9 #ahhd2 :ile ! figures relat+ to ,tunis & ,tripoli also %[ a disposition to rec$e1 ?\gh n at su* a rapid rate4 ,! wood-pulp indu/ry ( ,norway = ! ye> #ahhf %[s a v l>ge increase ^u ! figures ( a few ye>s back1 albeit prices h rul$ v l[4 ,?is latt] circum/ance is attribut$1 n s mu* to ov]-production1 z to excessive competition among ! sell]s ( ?is article4 ,! quantity export$ dur+ ! ye> #ahhf is ab\t #abj1jjj tons2 9 ! ye> #ahhe x 0 #ajg1fea tons2 #ahhd1 #hh1bbj tons2 #ahhc1 #gj1dfd tons2 #ahhb1 #eh1hhd tons2 #ahha1 #db1aid tons2 #ahhj1 #bf1jee tons4 ,sev]al ( ! old works h ext5d$ _! production dur+ ! pa/ ye>1 & sev]al new e/abli%m5ts are 9 ! c\rse ( erection1 s ! production ?is ye> may probably be put at #aej1jjj tons wood pulp ) #ej p] c5t4 wat]4 ,! greate/ "p ( ! ,norwegian wood pulp is export$ to ,engl&1 ,france1 & ,belgium2 9 ,russia1 ! increase 9 ! duty has /opp$ bus9ess1 & ! same c almo/ be said ( ,g]many4 ,am]ica1 too1 has drawn "p ( h] supply f ,norway1 b ?is trade is n expect$ to cont9ue4 #bbe ,manufactur$ ,mat]ial4 ,our import trade 9 manufactur$ pap] has be5 gr[+ ( late ye>s1 z ! foll[+ figures w %[3-- ,imports ( pap] & pa/ebo>d1 ( all k9ds except hang+s3 cwt4 l4 #ahhj4 #a1jba1ieb #a1aei1fdf #ahha4 #a1jfe1iab #a1ach1idc #ahhb4 #a1jih1aah #a1bjb1ije #ahhc4 #a1afj1ajd #a1bde1hfa #ahhd4 #a1ddg1cce #a1djc1ddf ,at ! same "t1 our exports ( manufactur$ pap]1 ?\gh am\nt+ to only ab\t "o-?ird ! weight1 h v ne>ly z high an aggregate value z ! imports1 & h increas$ 9 mu* ! same proportion 9 correspond+ ye>s4 ,?us3-- ,exports ( pap] ( all k9ds b hang+s3 cwt4 l4 #ahhj4 #dgb1afh #a1ajf1iif #ahha4 #eee1bai #a1bdb1ifb #ahhb4 #ehd1idg #a1cje1jbe #ahhc4 #eig1ibc #a1bhd1hfb #ahhd4 #fgj1gfj #a1cgd1cib ,! above figures relate to pap] manufactur$ 9 ! ,unit$ ,k+dom4 ,9 addition1 !re 7 re-exports ( pap] ( =eign & colonial manufacture to ! foll[+ am\nts3-- ,re-exports ( =eign-made pap]3 cwt4 l4 #ahhj4 #fh1hdc #ajh1dbf #ahha4 #fh1hfa #aja1aig #ahhb4 #ej1djc #hb1dfd #ahhc4 #di1ebf #gf1fbj #ahhd4 #ea1dfg #gh1ghe ,tak+ ! late/ ye> = :i* detail$ /ati/ics are available1 viz4 #ahhd1 we f9d t ! importations ( pap] #bbf are d]iv$ f =eign /ates 9 ! foll[+ proportions3-- ,imports ( pap] 9 #ahhd-- 7a7 ,writ+ or pr9t+ pap]3 ,f ,cwt4 ,g]many #ib1fha #abi1aab ,belgium #db1aci #fh1cgj ,sw$5 #bg1gdg #cf1fhb ,holl& #bf1ejg #cd1hhd ,france #f1dfc #bh1ibe ,au/ria #e1cii #i1cad ,norway #d1cjj #d1gga ,o!r c\ntries #c1agd #e1fee #bjh1daj #cag1gac 7b7 ,un5um]at$ sorts3 ,f ,cwt4 ,g]many #aci1aef #bji1iaf ,sw$5 #aaf1dhh #abj1gic ,belgium #hb1bfc #abd1dgf ,holl& #ed1eid #hd1fii ,norway #cb1bid #bf1gfe ,france #ai1cbh #fi1gfc ,unit$ ,/ates #aj1ihj #ca1bja ,au/ria #e1ibg #ab1jab ,spa9 #gcf #d1jei ,japan #dba #d1gcf ,o!r c\ntries #c1edg #e1iie #dfe1gcd #fid1dae 7c7 ,pa/ebo>d & millbo>d3 ,f ,cwt4 ,holl& #dci1gdi #bja1hid ,g]many #bce1feh #aaf1ahe ,belgium #ea1bce #be1cej ,sw$5 #cb1cca #bj1bda ,norway #h1bfj #e1gbf ,france #c1bfb #ai1bei ,o!r c\ntries #b1fif #b1ffc #ggc1aia #cia1cah ,! exports ( home-made pap] 9 ! same ye> 7 di/ribut$ z foll[s3-- #bbg ,exports ( home-made pap] 9 #ahhd-- 7a7 ,writ+1 pr9t+1 & envelopes3 ,to ,cwt4 ,au/ralasia #bhj1jbd #ede1hcj ,france #dd1dbg #aja1hcc ,b5gal & ,burma #cc1ifc #ga1hcd ,bombay & ,sc9de #bi1gfg #fd1bbg ,briti% ,s\? ,africa #af1ijj #cc1jda ,briti% ,nor? ,am]ica #ad1hga #dd1eaa ,madras #aj1ecb #be1fea ,arg5t9e ,republic #h1fhc #cj1ied ,unit$ ,/ates #f1ihe #ca1gbb ,sw$5 & ,norway #f1aja #aa1hgj ,belgium #e1iha #ac1ibf ,g]many #e1ifi #ad1ahh ,briti% ,we/ ,indies #d1gjf #ac1daa ,ceylon #d1ffh #aj1iai ,o!r c\ntries #ca1cig #ic1ded #ejd1igc #a1ajg1cga 7b7 ,pa/ebo>d & millbo>d3 ,to ,cwt4 ,au/ralasia #ad1edb #bj1gga ,b5gal & ,burma #e1adg #d1ehi ,bombay & ,sc9de #d1egb #d1acd ,france #ihg #b1cji ,o!r c\ntries #e1ega #ac1cfg #cj1hai #de1agj 7c7 ,un5um]at$1 & articles made ( pap]3 ,to ,cwt4 ,au/ralasia #fb1gca #ha1che ,briti% ,s\? ,africa #i1cda #aa1hji ,bombay & ,sc9de #g1adf #aj1chi ,arg5t9e ,republic #f1bhc #h1aac ,g]many #e1adg #aa1cid ,belgium #e1abb #aa1cjj ,france #e1jeb #af1bch ,b5gal & ,burma #e1jjf #f1fgh ,unit$ ,/ates #d1hda #ad1ffh ,briti% ,am]ica #c1gcg #g1hja ,holl& #b1daj #e1ebi ,o!r c\ntries #ah1aeb #cf1edg #acd1ifh #bba1hea #bbh ,! re-exports ( =eign & colonial-made pap]s dur+ ! same p]iod w5t to ! foll[+ de/9ations3-- ,re-exports ( =eign pap] 9 #ahhd-- 7a7 ,pr9t+ & writ+3 ,to ,cwt4 ,briti% ,india #aj1dhh #ad1fdc ,au/ralasia #d1ijh #g1fie ,o!r c\ntries #c1bcf #g1eed #ah1fcb #bi1hib 7b7 ,un5um]at$3 ,to ,cwt4 ,briti% ,india #e1heb #g1ced ,egypt #e1afg #g1gea ,au/ralasia #b1aca #d1cih ,russia #a1efj #g1hbi ,o!r c\ntries #h1dfe #ae1hbe #bc1age #dc1aeg 7c7 ,pa/ebo>d & millbo>d3 ,to ,cwt4 ,all c\ntries #i1ffj #e1gcf #bbi ,,*apt] ,,xviii4 ,,bibliography4 ,j4 ,murray4 ,practical ,rem>ks on ,mod]n ,pap]4 ,ed9burgh3 #ahbi4 ,l4 ,s4 ,le ,norm&4 ,manuel du ,fabricant des ,papi]s4 ,p>is3 #ahcd4 ,g4 ,plan*e4 ,l',indu/rie de la ,papet]ie4 ,p>is3 #ahec4 ,l4 ,mll]4 ,die ,fabrikation des ,papi]s4 ,b]l93 #ahee4 ,proteaux4 ,manufacture ( ,pap] & ,bo>ds4 ,philadelphia3 #ahff4 ,c4 ,h(mann4 ,manufacture ( ,pap]4 ,philadelphia3 #ahgc4 ,hugo ,mll]4 ,pflanz5fas]4 ,leipzig3 #ahgc4 ,t4 ,r\tl$ge4 ,bamboo consid]$ z a ,pap]-mak+ ,mat]ial4 ,london & ,new ,york3 #ahge4 ,vtill>t4 tudes sur les ,fibres ,vgtales4 ,p>is3 #ahgf4 ,arnot4 ,te*nology ( ! ,pap] ,trade 7,cantor ,lecture1 ,society ( ,arts74 ,london3 #ahgg4 ,j4 ,dunb>4 ,! ,practical ,pap]-mak]4 ,london3 #ahha4 #bcj ,=e/ry & ,=e/ ,products 7,ed9burgh ,=e/ry ,exhibition74 ,ed9burgh3 #ahhd4 ,c4 ,f4 ,cross & ,e4 ,j4 ,bevan4 ,cellulose4#ah ,london3 #ahhe4 ,r4 ,p>k9son4 ,a ,treatise on ,pap]4 ,pre/on3 #ahhf4 ,c4 ,t4 ,davis4 ,manufacture ( ,pap]4 ,philadelphia3 #ahhg4 ,toml9son4 ,manufacture ( ,pap]4 ,pap]-mak]s' ,mon?ly ,j\rnal4 ,london3 s9ce #ahgb4 ,pap] ,trade ,j\rnal4 ,new ,york3 s9ce #ahgb4 ,papi] ,zeitung4 ,b]l93 s9ce #ahgf4 ,footnote #ah3 ,gives a li/ ( works on ,cellulose & its d]ivatives4 #bca ,,*apt] ,,xix4 ,,add5da4 ,! ,y>yan ,process ( ,evaporation4 ,?is process1 ! inv5tion ( ,mr4 ,h4 ,j4 ,y>yan1 ( ,tol$o1 ,ohio1 ,u4,s4,a41 has be5 consid]ably develop$ 9 ,am]ica 9 its sev]al applications1 & z we h au!ntic in=mation ( its successful work+ = ! recov]y ( soda 9 "s ( ! l>ge/ pap]-mills 9 ! ,/ates1 we ?9k x des]v+ ( m5tion4 ,! pr9ciple ( ! process is t ( 8multiple effects10 ^u :i*1 inde$1 all ! mod]n me?ods ( economic evaporation are bas$4 ,! pr9ciple may be briefly expla9$ z foll[s3--,a liquid is conv]t$ into vap\r "u ord9>y conditions ( boil+1 by ov]com+ ! pressure ( ! atmosph]e ^u its surface4 ,! quantity ( heat requir$ to vaporise1 z also ! temp]ature ( ! ebullition1 w be less z ! pressure to be ov]come is less4 ,fur!r1 ! vap\r cont9u\sly driv5 (f c>ries ) x a quantity ( heat1 :i* is its heat ( condition or lat5t heat4 ,?is heat x imp>ts to any cold] body 7e4 g4 a fur!r quantity ( ! same liquid7 ) :i* x comes 9 contact1 direct or indirect2 if ! quantity ( ! latt] be relatively small1 x w raise its temp]ature approximately to t ( ! ebullition ( ! fir/ liquid4 ,if n[ ! pressure 7atmosph]ic7 on ! surface ( ! latt] be slightly r$uc$1 by any means1 x w boil4 ,! vap\r f ?is c be made to boil a ?ird quantity ( ! liquid1 "u a fur!r dim9i%$ pressure4 ,! successive effects 9 economic evaporation consi/1 !re=e1 9 utilis+ ! lat5t heat ( a vap\r giv5 (f f a liquid "u a c]ta9 pressure 7e4 g4 t ( ! atmosph]e7 to vaporise a fur!r quantity ( ! liquid "u a pressure ma9ta9$ by me*anical means bel[ t ( ! fir/4 ,9 ! ord9>y me?ods ! vap\r does its "w 9 ! successive effects by passage ?r\gh sy/ems ( tubes1 ! liquid to be heat$ be+ 9 contact ext]nally2 9 ! ,y>yan sy/em1 on ! o!r h&1 ! arrangem5t #bcb is rev]s$4 ,! liquid to be evaporat$ trav]ses ! sy/em ( tubes :i* are heat$ ext]nally by ! vap\rs4 ,at ! end ( ea* effect1 ! liquid is caus$ to imp+e1 9 a special *amb]1 ^u a disc3 9 ?is way a complete sep>ation ( liquid & vap\r is effect$1 ea* !n pass+ on to ! next effect1 ! =m] ?r\gh ! tube-sy/em1 ! latt] to ! *amb] inclos+ ^!4 ,! fl[ ( liquid is ma9ta9$ by a =ce-pump1 & ! dim9i%$ pressure by a vacuum-pump suitably dispos$4 ,?is sy/em diff]s f t describ$ on page #ahj1 9 t ! evaporation is cont9u\s1 ! dilute liquors ent]+ ! app>atus & ! highly conc5trat$ liquors leav+ x 9 an unbrok5 /ream4 ,! rate ( fl[ is su* t ! evaporation ( ! cau/ic liquors f wood boil+ f #h-aj to #hj ,twaddell1 9 a quadruple effect1 requires only a few m9utes4 ,at ! latt] conc5tration x is ready = ! inc9]ation process1 :i* by means ( a rot>y furnace1 su* z t ( ,mr4 ,j4 ,w4 ,hammond1 ( ! firm ( ,s4 ,d4 ,w>r5 & ,co41 is also effect$ cont9u\sly4 ,x is f\nd1 moreov]1 t ! excess ( heat available f ?is process is suffici5t = ! evaporation4 ,f]ric ,oxide ,cau/icis+ ,process4 ,! pr9ciple ( ?is process is ! expulsion ( ! c>bonic acid f sodium c>bonate by f]ric oxide at high temp]atures2 ?is oxide play+ ! "p ( a weak acid1 ent]+ into a loose comb9ation ) ! soda1 :i* is ov]come by wat] 9 ! subsequ5t lixiviation process1 ! f]ric oxide be+ reg5]at$ & a solution ( cau/ic soda obta9$4 ,! f]ric oxide is !re=e cont9u\sly available4 ,! ma9 features ( ! process1 disreg>d+ ! "q ( comm]cial economy1 are 7#a7 t x leaves no by-products to be dispos$ (1 7#b7 t x enables ! manufactur] to produce directly1 )\t evaporation1 a highly conc5trat$ cau/ic lye4 ,?is process has be5 work$ out "u ! auspices ( ,messrs4 ,brunn]1 ,mond1 ,co41 & !re is e reason to expect an ext5sive application ( s simple a me?od4 #bcc ,,index4 ,abaca1 see ,manilla hemp ,abies pulp1 #fj ,acetic acid 9 blea*+1 #aad ,acid1 action on pap]1 #afc 9 alum1 e/imat+1 #bjg 1 evils (1 #afc processes = wood1 #fi radicles & cellulose1 #h ,acids add$ 9 blea*+ pulps1 #aab & cellulose1 #ab ,adansonia fibre1 #ec 1 boil+1 #ajc 1 cutt+1 #ajc 1 will[+1 #ajc ,adipo-cellulose1 #bf ,adult]at+ pap]1 #acj ,agalite load+1 #acc ,agave am]icana fibre1 #cc1 #dd ,alkali boil$ ) rags1 #hb process = isolat+ cellulose1 e>ly me?ods1 #fe ,alkal9e processes = isolat+ cellulose1 #fb ,alkalis & cellulose1 #ad & ligno-cellulose1 #ba ,aloe fibre1 #cc1 #ci1 #dd1 #df 1 dim5sions1 #ci p]foliata fibre1 #ci ,alum1 action on cellulose1 #afc 1 on gelat9e1 #afc 1 analys+1 #bjf cake1 analys+1 #bjf 1 e/imat+ acid 91 #bjg 1 fre$om f acid1 #afc 9 siz+1 #aci 1 proportion requir$1 #ada solutions1 table ( /r5g?s1 #adc ,alum9a res9ate1 #acg ,alum9a sulphate1 analys+1 #bjf 9 siz+1 #adj ,alum9\s cake1 #adj ,ammoniacal solution ( cupric oxide1 #e ,amyloid1 #ab ,analysis ( plant sub/ances1 #db ,analys+ alum1 #bjf cake1 #bjf alum9a sulphate1 #bjf anti*lor1 #bjh blea*+ p[d]1 #bje cau/ic soda1 #bje dyes1 #bji gelat9e1 #bjh load+ mat]ial1 #bjc1 #bji pap]1 #aii pigm5ts1 #bji recov]$ soda1 #bje size1 #bjc soaps1 #bjh soda a%1 #bje sodium sulphite1 #bjh ?iosulphate1 #bjh />*es1 #bjh wood pulp1 #bja ,ananassa sativa fibre1 #dd ,anil9e blues1 #ada col\rs1 solutions1 #cg = diagnos+ plant sub/ances1 #dc p9ks1 #adb sulphate solution1 #cg ,animal cellulose1 #g ,ann&ale's damp+ me?od1 #aei ,anti*lor1 analys+1 #bjh 1 lime & sulphur1 #abi 1 proportion requir$ to neutralise blea*+ p[d]1 #abh 1 remov+ blea*+ liquor by1 #abg ,anti*lor1 sodium hyposulphite1 #abg1 #abi 1 sulphite1 #abe 1 ?iosulphate1 #abg1 #abi 1 te/+1 #acj ,app>atus = microscopic exam9ation ( fibres1 #ce ,a% ( cotton pulp1 #acf ( esp>to pulp1 #acf ( l95 pulp1 #acf ( pap]1 e/imat+1 #acd ( pap]1 natural1 #acf ( /raw pulp1 #acf ( wood pulp1 #acf ,asp5 = me*anical wood pulp1 #ajh ,available *lor9e 9 blea*+ p[d]1 #aaj ,ba*et & ,ma*>d's process =wood1 #fi ,baobab fibre1 #ec composition1 #ed ,b>ium hydrate & cellulose1 #g ,b>k fibres1 #b ,b>ley /raw1 #ih ,b>re's acid process = wood1 #fi ,ba/ fibres1 #cd 1 dim5sions1 #ci filam5ts1 #cd 1 nature (1 #b tissues1 #ec ,beat] b$-plate1 #abj knives1 #abj 1 cutt+ 9 situ1 #aba 1 lead-l9$1 #abj ,beat]s1 #aag 1 direct-driv51 #abf 1 eng9e = driv+1 #abf 1 wat] =1 #abe ,beat+ esp>to1 #aag 1 proportion ( wat] to pulp1 #aah pulp1 #aag 1 duration (1 #aai wood pulp1 #aag ,b$-plate ( beat]1 #abj ,bee*1 composition1 #fa ,b]tram's beat]1 #abb damp+ cyl9d]1 #aei direct-driv5 beat]s1 #abf ,b]tram's rag boil]1 #hb smoo!rs1 #aeh /ra9]s1 #adh ,bibliography1 #bbi ,bir*1 composition1 #fa 1 pulp yield1 #gg ,bisulphite1 action on cellulose comp>$ ) soda1 #gf 1 col\r ( pulp produc$ by1 #gg process1 advantages1 #gf processes = wood1 #ga ,blea*$ pulp1 free+ f blea*1 #aad 1 improv+ col\r1 #aad ,blea*+1 acetic acid 91 #aad action %\ld be conf9$ to non-cellulose1 #aac by *lor9e1 #aad 1 electrolytic1 #aae pulp 9 pot*]s1 #aaa pulps1 #aaj rags1 #aae refractory pulps1 #aad 1 "t requir$ by1 #aac 1 ) sodium hypo*lorite1 #aac ,blea*+-liquor1 cle>1 #aaa 1 remov+ by anti*lor1 #abg 1 remov+ f half-/uff1 #abg 1 /or+1 #aaa 1 /r5g?1 #aaa 1 wa%+ out f half-/uff1 #abg ,blea*+-p[d]1 accel]at+ action (1 #aab 1 analys+1 #bje & cellulose1 #aj 1 available *lor9e 91 #aaj 1 keep+1 #aaa 1 neutralis+ by lime & sulphur1 #abi 1 by sodium hyposulphite1 #abg1 #abi 1 by sodium sulphate1 #abh 1 by sodium ?iosulphate1 #abg1 #abi 1 prep>+1 #aaj 1 proportion ( anti*lor requir$ to neutralise1 #abh 1 quantities ne$$1 #aab ,blitz's sulphide process1 #fg ,blondel's acid process = wood1 #fi ,blott+ pap]1 />*+1 #aci ,blue col\rs1 #ada ,boehm]ia1 #ej nivea fibre1 #ci puya fibre1 #dd ,boil]s = esp>to1 #ij = resolv+ wood1 #gd = /raw1 #ii 1 iron1 #gf 1 lead-l9+1 #ge ,boil+ adansonia fibre1 #ajc esp>to1 #hi1 #ia jute1 #ajc manilla hemp1 #ajc rags1 #hb /raw1 #ajj ,boil+-liquors1 recov]+ soda f1 #agi ,bombax heptaphyllum fibre1 #ci ,books on pap]-mak+1 #bbi ,bottoms1 cau/ic1 #agg ,broke pap]1 gr9d+ mill1 #aje 1 us+ up1 #ajd ,brom9e & jute1 #ah ,br\ssonetia kmpf]ia fibre1 #ed papyrif]a fibre1 #ci1 #ed ,burn+ recov]$ soda1 #ahf ,calc9+ recov]$ soda1 #ahf ,cal5d]+1 #afg ,cal5d]s1 #aeh 1 deflection1 #aga ,calcium c>bonate mud1 #aij hypo*lorite1 remov+ f pulp1 #aad sulphate1 e/imat+1 #bjc load+1 #aca ,cannabis sativa fibre1 #ci1 #di ,c>bonic acid blea*+1 #aae ,c>bonis+ recov]$ soda1 #ahf ,cau/ic soda1 analys+1 #bje 1 br&s1 #agh 1 comm]cial =ms1 #agg drums1 empty+1 #agi 1 prices1 #agi solutions1 table ( /r5g?s1 #aji ,cau/icis]s1 #ahh1 #aib ,cau/icis+1 #ahg by f]ric oxide1 #bcb 1 lime us$1 #aij 1 oxyg5at+ dur+1 #aia ,cellul> tissue 9 /raw1 #ajc ,cellulose1 #d 1 absorption ( acids & basic oxides1 #g 1 action ( alum on1 #afc 1 ( cuprammonium on1 #e1 #bag 1 ( lime on1 #hd 1 ( soda & bisulphite comp>$1 #gf 1 ( sulphur on1 #acj 1 on light1 #f & acids1 #ab & alkalis1 #ad & b>ium hydrate1 #g & blea*+ p[d]1 #aj & *lor9e1 #aj & humus1 #ae & hydro*loric acid1 #ac & lead solutions1 #h & metallic salts1 #h & nitric acid1 #ac & oxyg51 #aj & sulphuric acid1 #ab & wat] at high temp]ature1 #ad & z9c *loride1 #ac 1 animal1 #g 1 behavi\r "u ,s*weitz]'s reag5t1 #e 1 blea*+ %\ld n affect1 #aac 1 burn+1 #bc 1 *>act]s1 #d 1 comb9ations1 #g 1 ) acid radicles1 #h comp>$ ) jute1 #ag 1 composition1 #d 1 comp\nds1 #g1 #af 1 decomposition1 #ab 1 by f]m5ts1 #ae 1 by heat1 #bc 1 de/ructive action ( soda on1 #fd di-nitrate1 #aj 1 e>ly =m ( alkali process = isolat+1 #fe =m$ by v9eg> plant1 #af 1 =mula1 #d gelat9is$1 #e 1 g5]al me?od ( isolation1 #d hexa-nitrate1 #i 1 id5tification1 #f1 #ah ,cellulose 9 contact ) iron1 #ac 9 fibre1 e/imat+1 #db 9 /raw1 #ii 1 isolat+ by sulphur\s acid1 #fd 1 f plant sub/ances1 #fb 1 f wood1 ,s*ultze's me?od1 #ba 1 lignification1 #ag 1 m9]al con/itu5ts1 #e 1 modifications (1 9 ! plant1 #af 1 nitration (1 #h 1 oxidation1 #aj 1 p5ta-nitrate1 #i 1 p]c5tage yield$ by jute1 #ai 1 proportion 9 esp>to1 #if 1 (1 9 well-boil$ pulp1 #aac 1 reactions1 #f 1 soluble 9 ,s*weitz]'s reag5t1 #e 1 sulphides = isolat+1 #fg 1 solubility1 #e 1 syn!sis1 #ae 1 tetra-nitrate1 #aj 1 triacetyl1 #h 1 tri-nitrate1 #aj 1 yield f esp>to1 #ie 1 f /raw1 #ih ,celluloses1 comp\nd1 hydrolytic resolution1 #fc 1 1 treat+ = pap]1 #fc ,cellulosic f]m5tation1 #af ,*apman's evaporator1 #ahd ,*emical analysis ( plant sub/ances1 #db exam9ation ( pap]1 #bja ,*e/nut1 pulp yield1 #gg ,*9a clay1 e/imat+1 #bjc load+1 #aca grass1 #ci1 #df1 #ej 1 "*1 #ej 1 composition1 #ea fibres1 dim5sions1 #ci 1 =ms 9 :i* employ$1 #ea 1 g5]al *emical *>act]i/ics1 #ea 1 micro-*emical reaction1 #ea 1 microscopic features1 #ea ,*lor9at+ /raw pulp1 #ajb ,*lor9at+ wood tissue1 #ai ,*lor9e & cellulose1 #aj & jute1 #ah z a blea*+ ag5t1 #aad 1 available1 9 blea*+ p[d]1 #aaj wat] solution1 #cg ,cl>ify+ wat]1 #abe ,classification ( pap] z to /r5g?1 #aig ,clean+ /raw1 #ajj ,clos+ plates ( /ra9]s1 #aej ,co*9eal lakes1 #adb ,collodion pyroxyl9e1 #aj ,colophony1 #acg ,col\r1 improv+1 #aad ( pulp produc$ by bisulphite1 #gg ,col\r+ pap]1 #ada ,comm]cial /ati/ics1 #bba ,composition ( pap]1 te/+1 #aii ,comp\nd celluloses1 hydrolytic resolution1 #fc 1 treat+ = pap]1 #fc ,conif] pulp1 #fj ,con/itution ( plant fibres1 #a ,cooke & ,hibb]t's beat]1 #abc ,cor*orus capsul>is fibre1 #ci1 #dd1 #eb olitorius fibre1 #ci ,cork1 #bf ,cotton1 #df 1 classification1 #df 1 composition ( raw fibre1 #dg fibres1 dim5sions1 #ci 1 =ms 9 :i* employ$1 #dh 1 g5]al *emical *>act]i/ic1 #dg 9 pap]1 detect+1 #aii1 #bja 1 micro-*emical reaction1 #dg 1 microscopic features1 #df 1 nature (1 #a pulp1 a%1 #acf 1 beat51 #aah 1 dim5sions ( fibre1 #aai rags1 /ati/ics1 #bba1 #bbb 1 treatm5t = pap]1 #gi sections1 #dg ,c\* rolls1 #aef ,cream cau/ic1 #agg ,cross's boil]1 #gf ,crotal>ia juncea fibre1 #dd1 #ej ,cry/al c>bonate1 #ach ,cuprammonium1 #bag ,cuprammonium solution1 prep>+1 #bag ,cuticul> tissue1 #bf ,cutt+1 #aga adansonia fibre1 #ajc beat] knives1 #aba jute1 #ajc manilla hemp1 #ajc rags1 #ha /raw1 #ajj ,dahl's sulphide process1 #fg ,damp+-cyl9d]s1 #aei ,d&y roll1 #aee ,d>k pap] f jute1 #ajc ,deckle1 #add1 #aeb ,d5sities1 ,twaddle1 & sp4 gr41 #aji ,detect+ adult]ation1 #bjc ,diagnosis ( plant sub/ances1 #db ,dicotyl$on\s /ems1 fibres (1 #cc1 #df ,direct-driv5 beat]s1 #abf ,discoloration ( pap] f me*anical wood pulp1 #ajh ,doctor1 #aeg ,dra9+ blea*$ pulp1 #aad boil$ rags1 #hd /raw pulp1 #ajj ,drum wa%] = boil$ rags1 #he ,dry pulp1 prep>+1 #aai ,dry+ cyl9d]s1 #aeg ,du/+ rags1 #hb ,dyes1 #ada 1 analys+1 #bji ,economy ( sulphide processes1 #fh ,edg]unn] mill1 #aai ,edgwor?ia papyrif]a fibre1 #ed ,ekman's bisulphite process1 #gb process1 prep>+ wood =1 #gc ,electrolytic blea*+1 #aae ,empty+ soda drums1 #agi ,eng9e = driv+ beat]s1 #abf siz+1 #acg ,esp>to1 #df1 #ee 1 am\nt ( blea*+ p[d] ne$$ by1 #aab 1 beat+1 #aag 1 boil$1 wa%+1 #ie boil]1 ,roeckn]'s1 #ic 1 ,s9clair's1 #id 1 boil+1 #hi1 #ia 1 "*1 #ee 1 clean+ ma*9e1 #ij 1 composition1 #eg fibres1 dim5sions1 #ci 1 g5]al *emical *>act]i/ics1 #ef 9 pap]1 detect+1 #aii1 #bja liquor1 disposal (1 #ih 1 micro-*emical reaction1 #ef 1 microscopic features1 #ef pap] mill1 arrangem5t1 #baj 1 pick+1 #ij 1 presse-pte sy/em1 #if 1 pressure = boil+1 #ic 1 proportion ( cellulose 91 #if pulp1 a%1 #acf 1 dim5sions ( fibre1 #aai 1 quantity ( soda =1 #ib section1 #ef 1 soda requir$ by1 #hi 1 /ati/ics1 #bba1 #bbb 1 sub/ances remov$ f1 by cau/ic soda1 #ig 1 "t ( boil+1 #ib 1 treat+ = pap]1 #fc 1 yield ( cellulose1 #ie ,e/imat+ acid 9 alum1 #bjg add$ m9]al matt] 9 pap]1 #acf m9]al matt] 9 pap]1 #acd ,evaporat+ soda liquors1 #ahj1 #bca ,evaporators1 #ahj1 #bca 1 ,*apman's1 #ahd 1 ,roeckn]'s1 #aha 1 ,porion's1 #ahb 1 smell consum]1 #ahc 1 ,y>yan1 #bca ,felt+1 #ca caus$ 9 pot*]s1 #aac ,f]m5tation1 cellulosic1 #af ,f]m5ts decompos+ cellulose1 #ae ,f]ric oxide cau/icis+ process1 #bcb ,fibre bundles1 #cd 1 int]weav+ to =m pap]1 #cj 1 !oretical value 9 pap]1 #cj ,fibres1 analysis1 complete1 #dc & cells1 #a 1 app>atus = microscopic exam9ation1 #ce classifi$ accord+ to iod9e reaction1 #df 1 dim5sions1 #ch 1 9 pulps1 #aai 1 e/imat+ cellulose 91 #db 1 purity1 #ci 1 isolat+ = exam9ation1 #ch 1 microscopic features1 #cb 1 nature (1 #a ( dicotyl$on\s /ems1 #cc ( monocotyl$on\s /ems1 #cc 1 physical /ructure1 #cj 1 raw1 analys+1 #db 1 reag5ts = exam9+1 #cf 1 sections = exam9ation1 #ch 1 sep>ation1 #cd 1 table ( *>act]s1 #dd 1 ( l5g?1 #ci 1 ,web/] on analysis (1 #db ,fibr\s tissue1 #cd ,fibro-vascul> bundles1 #b 1 dim5sions1 #ci ,filam5ts1 #cd 1 dim5sions ( cells & fibres1 #ci 1 table ( l5g?s1 #ci ,filt] bags = wat]1 #abf pap]1 />*+1 #aci ,filt]+ lime mud1 #aij ,f9i%1 #aei ,f9i%+-h\se1 #age ,fir pulp1 #fa ,flax1 #ci1 #dd 1 *>act]s1 #dh 1 composition ( raw fibre1 #dh fibres1 dim5sions1 #ci 1 =ms 9 :i* employ$1 #di 1 g5]al *emical *>act]i/ic1 #dh 1 micro-*emical reaction1 #dh 1 microscopic features1 #dh sections1 #dh ,=bes' beat]1 #abb ,f\rdr9i] ma*9e1 #ade ,francke's bisulphite process1 #gb ,friction-glaz+1 #afi ,fry1 ,ransome1 & ,wilkie's wood-splitt+ ma*9e1 #gd ,furfural1 #ba ,gaskell & ,deacon's cry/al c>bonate1 #ach sodium sulphite1 #abh ,gelat9e1 action ( alum on1 #afc 1 analys+1 #bjh 1 e/imat+ am\nt (1 #bjd = siz+1 #afa1 #afb size1 mak+1 #afb ) soap1 #afc ,glas]'s /raw pulp *lor9at+ process1 #ajb ,glaz+1 #afg 1 influ5ce on /r5g?1 #aih ,gossypium fibres1 #ci1 #df ,g\ld's beat]1 #abb ,gre5bank soda1 #agh ,gr9d+ /raw pulp1 #aja wood to pulp1 #aje ,guillot9e cutt]1 #agd ,gun-cotton1 #i ,half-/uff def9$1 #hh 1 free+ f blea*+ liquor1 #abg 1 remov+ blea*+ liquor f1 by anti*lor1 #abg 1 wa%+ out blea*+ liquor f1 #abg ,h&-made pap]1 #add ,h>tig-,reus* pap]-te/+ ma*9e1 #aid ,hemp1 #ci1 #df1 #di 1 *>act]s1 #di 1 composition1 #ej fibres1 dim5sions1 #ci 1 =ms 9 :i* employ$1 #ej 1 g5]al *emical *>act]i/ic1 #ej 1 micro-*emical reaction1 #ej 1 microscopic features1 #di 1 section1 #ej ,h]mite's electrolytic blea*+1 #aae ,hibiscus /rictus fibre1 #dd1 #df ,humus & cellulose1 #ae ,hydracellulose1 #ab ,hydro*loric acid & cellulose1 #ac ligno-cellulose1 #bb 9 blea*+ pulps1 #aab ,hydrolytic resolution ( comp\nd celluloses1 #fc ,ignit+ recov]$ soda1 #ahf ,iod9e & jute1 #ag lignifi$ tissue1 #ag />* pap]1 mak+1 #acj reaction1 details ( manipulation1 #dj solution1 #cf 1 te/+1 #cf ,iron boil]s1 #gf oxide cau/icis+ process1 #bcb ,jolly's balance1 #ace ,jordan beat]1 #aba ,jute1 #cc1 #ci1 #dd1 #df1 #eb & brom9e1 #ah *lor9e1 #ah iod9e1 #ag 1 boil+1 #ajc 1 "*1 #eb comp>$ ) cellulose1 #ag 1 cutt+1 #ajc 1 d>k pap] f1 #ajc fibres1 dim5sions1 #ci 1 =ms 9 :i* employ$1 #ec 1 g5]al *emical *>act]i/ic1 #ec 1 micro-*emical reactions1 #eb 1 microscopic features1 #eb 1 objection to acid 9 blea*+1 #aab 1 reactions1 #ag 1 treat+ = pap]1 #fd 1 will[+1 #ajc ,kaol91 e/imat+1 #bjc 1 load+1 #aca ,k+sl& beat]1 #aba ,knives = cutt]s1 #aga ( beat]1 #abj 1 cutt+ 9 situ1 #aba ,knott]1 #aea ,laid pap]1 #aef ,lead l9+ to beat]1 #abj solutions & cellulose1 #h ,lead5 boil]s1 #ge ,leaf fibres1 #b ,lignification e/imat$ by anil9e1 #dc ( cellulose1 #ag ,lignifi$ tissue & *lor9e1 #ah iod9e1 #ag ,ligno-cellulose1 #bj 1 aldehydic "*1 #be 1 & dilute alkalis1 #ba & dilute m9]al acids1 #bj & hot wat]1 #ba & hydro*loric acid1 #bb & m9]al acids1 #bj & nitro-sulphuric acid1 #bb & sulphuric acid1 #bb 1 animal dige/ion (1 #bc 1 decay (1 #bc 1 decomposition by heat1 #bc 1 di/ribution1 #bc 1 treat+ = pap]1 #fd ,lime1 action on cellulose1 #hd & sulphur = neutralis+ blea*+ p[d]1 #abi boil$ ) rags1 #hc = cau/icis+1 #aij 1 milk (1 #agg mud1 #aij 1 composition1 #aia 1 filt]+1 #aij salts 9 wat]1 #bab sulphate load+1 #aca unsuit$ = esp>to1 #hi ,lime-tree1 composition1 #fa ,l9d5 ba/ fibres1 #ci1 #ed ,l951 #df 9 pap]1 detect+1 #aii1 #bja pulp1 a%1 #acf 1 beat51 #aag 1 dim5sions ( fibre1 #aai rags1 /ati/ics1 #bba1 #bbb 1 treatm5t = pap]1 #gi ,l9um usitatissimum fibre1 #ci1 #dd1 #df ,lit]ature1 #bbi ,load+1 e/imat+1 #acd mat]ials1 analys+1 #bji pap]1 #acj ) agalite1 #acc ) *9a clay1 #aca ) lime sulphate1 #aca ) magnesium silicate1 #acd ) pe>l-h>d5+1 #aca ,l(t-dri$ pap]1 #ade ,lunge's blea*+ me?od1 #aad ,lygeum sp>tum fibre1 #ee ,ma*9e1 #ade ,magnesium silicate load+1 #acd ,manilla hemp1 #dd1 #df1 #ei 1 boil+1 #ajc 1 composition1 #fj 1 cutt+1 #ajc 1 micro-*emical reaction1 #fj 1 microscopic features1 #ei 1 sections1 #fj 1 treat+ = pap]1 #fd 1 will[+1 #ajc ,masson1 ,scott1 & ,b]tram's beat]1 #abc esp>to-clean+ ma*9e1 #ij /ra9]1 #adi ,me*anical wood pulp1 #aje 1 quantitative e/imation1 #bjb ,m5zies & ,davis' smell consum]1 #ahc ,metallic salts & cellulose1 #h ,microscope equipm5t1 #ce ,microscopic features ( fibres1 #cb ,microscopical exam9ation ( pap]1 #bja ,milk ( lime1 #agg ,mill1 arrangem5t1 #baj 1 site =1 #baj ,millbo>d ma*9e1 #aff ,m9]al acids & cellulose1 #bj & ligno-cellulose1 #bj matt]1 add$1 e/imat+1 #acf 9 pap]1 e/imat+1 #acd ,mix+ pulps1 #aai ,monocotyl$on\s /ems1 fibres (1 #cc1 #df1 #ed ,m\nt+ solution1 #cf ,musa p>adisiaca fibre1 #dd textilis1 #ei ,names 9 pap]1 #ade1 #aef ,nettle1 #eb ,neutral m\nt+ solution1 #cf ,new ,zeal& flax1 #ci1 #dd1 #df1 #ei 1 dim5sions1 #ci g5]al *emical *>act]i/ics1 #ei micro-*emical reaction1 #ei ,new ,zeal& flax1 microscopic features1 #ei ,nilgh]ry nettle1 #dd ,nitric acid & cellulose1 #h1 #ac ,nitro-sulphuric acid & ligno-cellulose1 #bb ,oak1 pulp yield1 #gg ,oat /raw1 #ih ,oxidis+ sodium sulphide1 #aia ,oxycellulose1 #ac ,oxyg5 & cellulose1 #aj ,oxyg5at+ liquors :ile cau/icis+1 #aia ,pap] a%1 e/imat+1 #acd 1 broke1 pulp f1 #ajd 1 col\r+1 #ada f me*anical wood pulp1 faults (1 #ajh 1 h&-made1 #add 1 load+1 #acj 1 l(t-dri$1 #ade ma*9e1 #ade mak]s' soap1 #afc mak+ & textiles1 #c 1 measur+ /r5g?1 #aic 1 natural a%1 #acf 1 pr9t$1 pulp f1 #aje 1 s\rces ( raw mat]ial1 #a 1 ?ickness1 #aec 1 ton$1 #adb trade1 /ati/ics1 #bbe wa/e1 pulp f1 #ajd 1 wid?1 #aeb ,pap]-mulb]ry fibres1 #ci1 #df1 #ed ,p>t+ton's bisulphite process1 #gb ,patt]ns on pap]1 #ade1 #aef ,pe>l h>d5+1 #aca 1 e/imat+1 #bjc ,pectic acid1 #bh ,pecto-cellulose1 #bh 1 treat+ = pap]1 #fc ,phormium t5ax fibre1 #ci1 #dd1 #ei ,physical /ructure ( fibres1 #cj ,pick+ esp>to1 #ij ,pictet's sulphur\s acid process1 #gj ,pigm5ts1 #ada 1 analys+1 #bji ,p9e1 composition1 #fa 1 pulp yield1 #gg ,p9e1 :ite1 = me*anical wood pulp1 #ajh wood fibre1 #fa ,p9eapple fibre1 #dd1 #df ,p9k col\rs1 #ada ,p9us fibre1 #fj ,plant fibres1 con/itution1 #a 1 /ructural elem5ts1 #a tissues ma9ly cellulose1 #d ,po*9's alum9\s cake1 #adj ,popl>1 composition1 #fa fibre1 #fj ,porion's evaporator1 #ahb ,port]-,cl>k process = wat]1 #bad ,pot*]s1 felt+ caus$ 91 #aac = blea*+ pulp 91 #aaa = rags1 #hj ,presse-pte sy/em = esp>to1 #if = /raw1 #aja ,pressure = boil+ /raw1 #ajj 9 relation to soda1 #fd ,prussian blue1 #adb ,pulp1 beat+1 #aag 1 blea*+1 #aaj 1 refractory1 #aad 1 col\r (1 produc$ by bisulphite1 #gg 1 dim5sions ( fibre 91 #aai 1 dry1 prep>+1 #aai 1 duration ( beat+1 #aai 1 free+ f blea*1 #aad 1 improv+ col\r1 #aad 1 mix+1 #aai 1 remov+ calcium hypo*lorite f1 #aad1 #abg sav]1 #aad1 #aee yield f /raw1 #ii woods1 #gg ,purification ( wat]1 #baa ,rags1 blea*+1 #aae 1 boil$1 dra9+1 #hd 1 1 wa%+1 #he 1 boil+1 #hb 1 ) lime1 #hc 1 cutt+1 #ha 1 du/+1 #hb 1 pot*]s1 #hi 1 proportion ( alkali1 #hc 1 quantity ( wat] = boil+1 #hd 1 sort+1 #hj 1 /ati/ics1 #bba1 #bbb 1 "t ( boil+1 #hd 1 treatm5t = pap]1 #gi 1 9 wa%]1 #hi 1 will[+1 #ha ,ramie fibres1 dim5sions1 #ci1 #ej ,raw mat]ial = pap]1 #a ,reag5ts = exam9+ fibres1 #cf ,recov]$ soda1 analys+1 #bje 1 c>bonis+1 #ahf cau/icis+1 #ahg 1 composition1 #ahf ,refractory pulps1 blea*+1 #aad ,repp$ pap]1 #aga ,res9ate ( alum9a1 #acg ,retree1 #age ,rhea fibre1 #ej ,roeckn]'s esp>to boil]1 #ic evaporator1 #aha /ra9]1 #aej wat] cl>ifi]1 #baa ,ros91 #acg soap1 #acg ,rot>y boil]s unsuit$ to esp>to1 #ij ,rubb+ te/ = pap]1 #aig ,rye /raw1 #ih ,salle1 #age ,salmon's guillot9e1 #agd ,save-all1 #aed ,s*ultze's me?od ( isolat+ cellulose f wood1 #ba ,s*urmann's cal5d] rolls1 #aga ,s*weiz]'s reag5t1 #e ,sections ( fibres = exam9ation1 #ch ,se$ hairs1 #df 1 dim5sions1 #ci ,self-clean+ /ra9]1 #adi ,settl+ ponds1 #abe ,sev5ty p] c5t4 :ite cau/ic1 #agh ,%eave1 causes (1 #ij ,silk fibre1 #ca ,s9clair's esp>to boil]1 #id ,s+le cyl9d] ma*9es1 #afd %eet cutt]1 #agc ,siphon wa%] = boil$ rags1 #hg ,site = mill1 #baj ,sixty p] c5t4 :ite cau/ic1 #agg ,size1 e/imat+ am\nt (1 #bjd 1 nature (1 #bjc 1 mak+ ) gelat9e1 #afb ,sizes ( %eets1 #age ,siz+1 #acg ,slic]1 #aea ,smalts1 #ada ,smell consum]1 #ahc ,smoo!rs1 #aeh ,smoo?ness1 #aei ,soak+ wood1 #ajg ,soap1 analys+1 #bjh & gelat9e1 #afc = pap]-mak]s1 #afc ,soda1 action on cellulose comp>$ ) bisulphite1 #gf a%1 analys+1 #bje bic>bonate = accel]at+ action ( blea*+ p[d]1 #aab 1 br&s1 #agh c>bonate = siz+1 #ach 1 comm]cial k9ds1 #agg 1 de/ructive action on cellulose1 #fd drums1 empty+1 #agi = esp>to1 #hi = isolat+ cellulose1 #fc 9 relation to pressure1 #fd liquor f esp>to1 treatm5t (1 #ih 1 evaporat+1 #ahj1 #bca 1 remov+ sodium-sulphur comp\nds1 #aia 1 prices1 #agi 1 proportion = /raw1 #ii 1 recov]$1 analys+1 #bje 1 c>bonis+1 #ahf 1 cau/icis+1 #ahg 1 composition1 #ahf recov]y1 #agi solutions1 table ( /r5g?s1 #aji 1 sub/ances remov$ f esp>to by1 #ig ,sodium hypo*lorite 9 blea*+1 #aac hyposulphite1 analys+1 #bjh = neutralis+ blea*+ p[d]1 #abg1 #abi sulphide1 oxidis+1 #aia sulphite1 analys+1 #bjh to neutralise blea*+ p[d]1 #abh -sulphur comp\nds 9 soda liquors1 #aia ?iosulphate1 analys+1 #bjh ?iosulphate = neutralis+ blea*+ p[d]1 #abg1 #abi ,s(t wat]1 objections to1 #baf ,soluble sulphides = isolat+ cellulose1 #fg ,solutions1 alum1 table ( /r5g?s1 #adc 1 anil9e col\rs1 #cg 1 anil9e sulphate1 #cg 1 *lor9e wat]1 #cg 1 iod9e1 #cf 1 neutral m\nt+1 #cf ,sort+1 #age rags1 #hj ,specific gravity1 ,twaddle conv]t$ into1 #aji ,sph]ical rag boil]1 #hb ,/anhope purifi]1 #bab1 #bad ,/>* & iodide pap]1 mak+1 #acj 1 e/imat+1 #bjc pa/e = siz+1 #ach ,/>*es1 analys+1 #bjh ,/>*+ blott+ pap]1 #aci filt] pap]1 #aci ,/ati/ics1 #bba ,/eam & ligno-celluloses1 #ba ,/eam+ wood1 #ajg ,/ipa t5acissima fibre1 #ci1 #ee ,/ra9]s1 #adg 1 clos+ plates1 #aej 1 knott]1 #aea ,/raw1 #df1 #eg 1 am\nt ( blea*+ p[d] ne$$ by1 #aab 1 boil$1 wa%+1 #ajj 1 boil]s =1 #ii 1 boil+1 #ajj 1 cellulose yield f1 #ih 1 clean+1 #ajj 1 composition1 #ei1 #ii 1 cutt+1 #ajj 1 dim5sions ( cells1 #eh 1 g5]al *emical *>act]i/ics1 #eh 9 pap]1 detect+1 #bjj1 #bja 1 microscopic features1 #eg pap]1 s\rce ( weakness1 #ajc 1 pressure 9 boil+1 #ajj 1 proportion ( soda =1 #ii pulp1 a%1 #acf 1 *lor9at+1 #ajb 1 dim5sions ( fibre1 #aai pulp1 dra9+1 #ajj 1 dry1 prep>+1 #aai 1 gr9d+1 #aja 1 yield1 #ii 1 soda treatm5t1 #ih 1 treat+ = pap]1 #fc wa%]1 #aja ,/r5g?s ( alum solutions1 table1 #adc ( pap]1 classification1 #aig 1 influ5ce ( glaz+1 #aih 1 measur+1 #aic ,sug>-cane fibre1 #ei ,sulphide processes1 economy (1 #fh 1 malod\rs (1 #fh ,sulphite processes1 objection to1 #ge ,sulphur1 action on cellulose1 #acj & lime = neutralis+ blea*+ p[d]1 #abi ,sulphuric acid & cellulose1 #ab & ligno-cellulose1 #bb 9 blea*+ pulps1 #aab ,sulphur\s acid = isolat+ cellulose1 #fd processes = wood1 #gj processes1 objection to1 #ge ,sunda1 see ,sunn hemp4 ,sunn hemp1 #dd1 #df1 #ej 1 *>act]s1 #ej 1 composition1 #ej 1 g5]al *emical *>act]i/ics1 #ej 1 micro-*emical reactions1 #ej 1 microscopic features1 #ej ,syn!sis ( cellulose1 #ae ,table ( processes = resolv+ wood1 #gh ( /r5g?s ( alum solutions1 #adc ( cau/ic soda solutions1 #aji ,teaz+ ne$les1 #ch ,telegram pap]1 #ajd ,te/ pap]1 mak+1 #acj ,te/+ anti*lor1 #acj iod9e solution1 #cf pap]1 #aic by rubb+1 #aig ,textile trade wa/e1 treat+ = pap]1 #fb ,?ickness ( pap]1 gaug+1 #aec 1 measur+1 #aih ,?ompson's rag-blea*+ process1 #aae ,?une's me*anical wood pulp1 #ajg ,tilghmann's sulphur\s acid process1 #gj ,tilia gr&ifolia fibre1 #ci1 #ed ,"t ( boil+ rags1 #hd ,ton$ pap]1 #adb ,trade /ati/ics1 #bba ,triacetyl cellulose1 #h ,tub siz+1 #acg on ! ma*9e1 #afj ,twaddle degrees1 conv]t+ into specific gravity1 #aji ,ultram>9e1 #ada ,umph]/oil's beat]1 #abc ,urtica dioica fibre1 #eb het]ophylla fibre1 #dd ,vacuum /ra9]1 #adh ,victory cutt]1 #agd ,v9eg> plant =m+ cellulose1 #af ,vomit+ boil]1 #ia ,wa%+ boil$ esp>to1 #ie rags1 #he /raw1 #ajj out blea*+ liquor f half-/uff1 #abg ,wa/e pap]1 pulp f1 #ajd ,wat] & ligno-cellulose1 #ba at high temp]ature & cellulose1 #ae 1 cl>ifi]1 #baa 1 cl>ify+1 #abe 1 filt] bags1 #abf = beat]s1 #abe 1 lime salts1 #bab m>ks1 #ade1 #aef 1 ,port]-,cl>k process1 #bad proportion to pulp 9 beat+1 #aah 1 purification1 #baa 1 quantity = boil+ rags1 #hd resolv+ wood by1 #fe 1 settl+ ponds1 #abe 1 s(t1 objections to1 #baf 1 soluble impurities1 #bab ,wat] supply1 #baj ,web glaz+1 #afg ,web/] on analysis ( fibres1 #db ,weigh+ pap] a%1 #acd ,weight p] ream1 #agf ,weight+ pap]1 #acj ,wet end ( ma*9e1 #aed felt1 #aeg ,:eat /raw1 #ih ,:ite fir fibre1 #fa p9e = me*anical wood pulp1 #ajh ,wid? ( pap]1 gaug+1 #aeb ,willesd5 canvas1 #bai pap]1 #bai scrim1 #bai weld$ goods1 #bbj ,will[+ adansonia fibre1 #ajc jute1 #ajc ,manilla hemp1 #ajc rags1 #ha ,w9d+1 #afj ,wire-clo?1 #aec 9 rag wa%]1 #hg 1 %ift+1 #aef ,wood1 acid processes1 #fi 1 am\nt ( blea*+ p[d] ne$$ by1 #aab 1 bisulphite processes1 #ga 1 boil+ ) sulphites1 #gd 1 *emical1 9 pap]1 detect+1 #bjj 1 cutt+ up = pulp1 #aje 1 gr9d+1 #aje 1 me*anical1 9 pap]1 detect+1 #bjj1 #bja 1 objection to acid 9 blea*+1 #aab processes1 table (1 #gh pulps1 #fj 1 a%1 #acf beat+1 #aag 1 dim5sions ( fibre1 #aai 1 dry1 prep>+1 #aai f asp51 #ajh f :ite p9e1 #ajh 1 me*anical1 #aje 1 1 quantitative e/imation1 #bjb 1 /ati/ics1 #bbd 1 resolv+ by wat]1 #fe 1 ,s*ultze's me?od ( isolat+ cellulose f1 #ba 1 soak+1 #ajg splitt+ ma*9e1 #gd 1 /eam+1 #ajg suitable = ,ekman's process1 #gc 1 sulphide treatm5t1 #fg 1 sulphur\s acid processes1 #gj 1 treat+ = pap]1 #fd ,woods1 pulp yield (1 #gg ,wool fibre1 "*1 #ca ,wove pap]1 #aef ,wrapp+ pap]1 #ajd ,yankee ma*9e1 #afd ,y>yan evaporator1 #bcb ,"y & ,pettigrew's acid process1 #fi ,yucca gloriosa fibre1 #dd1 #df ,z9c *loride & cellulose1 #ac ,,london3 ,,pr9t$ ,,by ,,wm4 ,,cl[es ,,& ,,sons1 ,,limit$1 ,,/am=d ,,/reet ,,& ,,*>+ ,,cross4 ,,adv]tisem5ts4 adv]tisem5t ,,geo4 ,,wm4 ,,b]tram1 ,,mak]s ,,( ,,e ,,description ,,( ,,ma*9]y ,,9 ,,connection ,,) ,,! ,,manufacture ,,( ,,pap]4 ,,/4 ,,ka!r9e',s ,,works1 ,,sci5nes1 ,,ed9burgh1 ,,& ,,london4 ,illu/ration3 ,gold & ,silv] ,m$als1 ,ed9burgh ,int]national ,exhibition1 #ahhf4 ,illu/ration3 ,fir/-class ,m$al1 ,london ,int]national ,exhibition1 #ahfb4 ,,specialties4 ,improv$ ,pap] ,mak+ ,ma*9es 7ne>ly #ajj at "w74 ,presse ,pte ,ma*9es4 ,s+le ,cyl9d] ,ma*9es4 ,pat5t ,flat ,/ra9]s 7ov] #bjj at "w74 ,special ,/ra9] ,plates4 ,koll]gangs or ,edge ,runn]s4 ,angle & ,squ>e ,pap] ,cutt]s4 ,slitt+ & ,w9d+ ,ma*9es4 ,web ,glaz+ ,cal5d]s4 ,sup]ior ,*ill$ ,rolls4 ,pat5t ,cone ,beat]4 ,%eet & ,bo>d+ ,cal5d]s4 ,improv$ ,damp+ ,rolls4 ,pat5t ,deckle = ,wire ,frames 7,ar*ibald & ,purdie's74 ,pat5t ,wire ,guide4 ,improv$ ,pulp ,eng9es4 ,direct ,driv+ ,ge> = ,pulp ,eng9es4 ,pumps ( ,all ,k9ds4 ,hydraulic ,presses & ,hoi/s4 ,,also ,/eam ,eng9es ( all ,classes1 ,high-pressure4 ,cond5s+1 or ,comp\nd1 up to any indicat$ ,horse-p[]1 ,ov] #cjj at "w4 _/adv]tisem5t adv]tisem5t ,,b5tley ,,jackson1 ,,pap]-,,mak]s' ,,eng9e]s1 ,,bury1 ,,ne> ,,man*e/]1 ,mak]s ( ,rag ,*opp]s1 ,du/]s ,will[s4 ,pat5t ,rag ,cutt]1 ,to ,cut ,rags or ,bagg+ into pieces #a in* squ>e & upw>ds4 ,sph]ical ,cyl9drical ,revolv+ ,rag ,boil]s4 ,improv$ ,rag ,eng9es4 ,pap]-,cutt+ ,ma*9es4 ,ripp+ ,w9d+ ,ma*9es4 ,presse ,ptes4 ,pap]-,mak+ ,ma*9es4 ,/eam ,eng9es4 ,illu/ration3 ,,edge ,,runn]4 ,,ma*9e-,,made ,,:eels ,,& ,,pulleys4 ,,e/imates ,,on ,,application4 _/adv]tisem5t adv]tisem5t ,mc,dougall's ,pat5t ,/eam ,trap1 ,,specially ,,adapt$ ,,= ,,pap]-,,mak]s4 ,= eject+ automatically1 )\t loss ( /eam1 ! wat] ( cond5sation f dry+ cyl9d]s1 cal5d] rolls1 /eam-eng9e cyl9d]s1 /eam pip+1 c41 c4 ,w "w at z]o1 or #bej lb4 pressure4 ,all work+ p>ts are ( gun-metal4 ,! only trap made on a correct pr9ciple4 ,illu/ration ,= ,prices & fur!r in=mation apply to ,,! ,,*add]ton ,,iron ,,works ,,co41 ,,limit$1 ,,eng9e]s1 ,,boil] ,,mak]s1 ,,& ,,ironf\nd]s1 ,,irk ,,vale1 ,,*add]ton1 ,ne> ,,man*e/]1 ,sole ,mak]s ( ,plant = ,mc,dougall's ,pat5t ,wood ,pulp ,process4 ,specialty1 ,revolv+ ,boil]s1 #h to #ab feet diamet]4 ,,london ,,(fice--#aj ,,m>k ,,lane4 ,,man*e/] ,,(fice--#fh1 ,,port ,,/4 _/adv]tisem5t adv]tisem5t ,publi%$ on ! #aj? ( ea* ,mon?4 ,,! ,,olde/ ,,e/abli%$ ,,& ,,! ,,recognis$ ,,repres5tative ,,( ,,! ,,pap] ,,trade ,,9 ,,great ,,brita94 ,,special ,,reports ,,f ,,own ,,correspond5ts4 ,illu/ration3 ,,pap] ,,mak]s' ,,circul>1 ,rag ,m]*ants' ,gazette1 & ,price ,curr5t4 ,,t]ms ,,= ,,subscription3-- ,unit$ ,k+dom--,five ,%ill+s4 ,unit$ ,/ates--,"o doll> fifty c5ts4 ,briti% ,colonies--,six ,%ill+s4 ,po/ ,free ,france--,eight ,francs4 = ,g]many--,six ,m>ks4 ,twelve ,mon?s4 ,italy--,eight ,lires4 ,publi%$ 9 connection ) ?is ,j\rnal1 price #es41 ,pap] ,mak]s' ,directory ( all ,nations1 ,by ,s4 ,,*as4 ,,phillips4 ,,be/ ,,m$ium ,,= ,,adv]tisem5ts4 ,(fices3 #ai1 ,,cursitor ,,/reet1 ,,*anc]y ,,lane1 ,,london1 ,e4,c41 ,& #afj;a1 ,fleet ,/reet1 ,london1 ,e4,c4 ,,new ,,york3 #fj1 ,duane ,/reet4 ,,p>is3 #ag1 ,rue de la ,banque4 ,,leipsic3 #c1 ,grimmais*] ,/e9weg4 ,,am/]dam3 #fj1 ,rok94 _/adv]tisem5t adv]tisem5t ,,e/abli%$ #ahdi4 ,j4 ,r4 ,,%orrock1 ,bolton ,road & ,lee ,f\ndries1 ,,d>w51 ,,lanca%ire1 ,,manufactur]s ,,( ,,specialties ,,9 ,,pap]-,,mak]s' ,,ma*9]y4 ,illu/ration ,,compris+3 ,,f\rdr9i] ,,pap] ,,ma*9es1 ( ! mo/ mod]n con/ruction1 ( any specifi$ wid?1 & hav+ any requir$ numb] ( ,cyl9d]s4 ,,s+le ,,cyl9d]1 ,,millbo>d ,,& ,,half-,,/uff ,,ma*9es4 ,,revolv+ ,,& ,,flat ,,/ra9]s 7includ+ ,wrigley & ,rob]tson's ,pat5t74 ,,rag ,,& ,,rope ,,*opp]s ( v>i\s sizes4 ,,sph]ical ,,or ,,cyl9drical ,,revolv+ ,,boil]s ,,& ,,v]tical ,,boil]s1 9 ,wr\ght ,iron or ,/eel4 ,,rag ,,eng9es ,,( ,,all ,,sizes1 ) ,tr\ghs ca/ 9 "o piece1 or 9 segm5ts4 ,,web ,,& ,,plate ,,glaz+ ,,cal5d]s1 ) ,rolls ( ,*ill$ ,iron1 ,/eel1 ,brass1 ,pap]1 or ,cotton4 ,,ripp+ ,,& ,,w9d+ ,,ma*9es4 ,,reel+ ,,ma*9es 7includ+ ,l[e's ,pat5t74 ,,improv$ ,,revolv+ ,,pap] ,,cutt]s4 ,,squ>e ,,& ,,circul> ,,du/]s4 ,,d\ble ,,& ,,s+le ,,will[s4 ,,hydraulic ,,presses1 ,,agitators1 ,,/uff ,,*e/s4 ,,mix+ ,,pans ,,& ,,ci/]ns4 ,,d\ble ,,& ,,s+le ,,act+ ,,pumps ( all sizes1 = ,wat]1 ,pulp1 or ,*emicals4 ,,brass ,,c\* ,,& ,,press ,,rolls1 ,,& ,,brass ,,/ra9] ,,plates4 ,,/eam ,,boil]s1 ,,/eam ,,eng9es4 ,,%aft+1 ,,pulleys1 ,,pipes1 ,c4 ,,london ,,(fice3--#g1 ,,que5 ,,victoria ,,/reet4 _/adv]tisem5t adv]tisem5t ,illu/ration ,,e/abli%$ #ahdi ,j ,r ,%orrock ,eng9e]s1 ,bolton ,road ,lee ,f\ndries1 ,,d>w51 ,,lanca%ire ,london ,(fice #g ,que5 ,victoria ,/4 ,e4 ,c4 ,illu/ration ,,mak]s ,,( ,,simple ,,& ,,comp\nd ,,cond5s+ ,,/eam ,,eng9es ,,f #aj ,,to #ajjj ,h4,p4 ,,specialties ,,9 ,,ma*9]y ,,= ,,pap] ,,mak+ ,,pap] ,,/a9+ ,,calico ,,weav+1 ,,calico ,,pr9t+ ,,mill ,,ge>+1 ,,pulleys ,,= ,,belt ,,or ,,ropes ,,up ,,to #cf ,,feet ,,dia4 ,,spur1 ,,bevel1 ,,mortice1 ,,helical ,,worm ,,:eels ,,9 ,,iron1 ,,/eel ,,or ,,phosphor ,,bronze ,,iron ,,ca/+s ,,up ,,to #dj ,,tons ,,weight _/adv]tisem5t adv]tisem5t ,fcap4 #hvo1 clo?1 price #cs4 ,,! ,,practical ,,pap]-,,mak]4 ,,by ,,james ,,dunb>4 ,?ird ,edition4 ,,spons' ,,encyclop,,dia ,,( ,,raw ,,mat]ials ,,& ,,manufactures4 ,p>ts ,,xv4 & ,,xvi4--,,fibr\s ,,sub/ances4 ,"p ,,xxiv4--,,pap]4 ,price #bs4 ea* ,"p4 ,e4 ,f4 ,n4 ,,spon1 #abe1 ,/r&1 ,london4 ,new ,york3 #ce1 ,murray ,/reet4 _/adv]tisem5t adv]tisem5t ,,pure ,,p[d]$ #ih ,,cau/ic ,,soda4 ,,blea*+ ,,p[d] ,,( ,,extra ,,/r5g?4 ,,alum9ate ,,( ,,soda1 ,sub/itute = ,alum3 a new ,specialty = ,pap] ,mak]s4 ,,above ,,9 ,,all ,,sizes ,,( ,,packages ,,to ,,suit ,,l>ge ,,or ,,small ,,consum]s4 ,correspond5ce invit$4 ,special in=mation giv54 ,gre5bank ,alkali ,works ,co41 ,,/4 ,,hel5s1 ,,lanca%ire4 ,,e/abli%$ #ahff4 _/adv]tisem5t adv]tisem5t ,,important ,,to ,,pap] ,,mak]s4 #bi? ,,ye> ( ,,publication4 ,circulat$ ?r\gh\t ! ,civiliz$ ,_w4 ,! olde/ e/abli%$ & recognis$ organ ( ! ,,/ation]y ,,& ,,pap] ,,trades4 ,illu/ration3 ,,! ,,/ation]1 ,,pr9t]1 ,,& ,,fancy ,,trades' ,,regi/]4 ,,to ,,adv]tis]s4 in=mation1 includ+ ,scale ( ,*>ges & ,quotations = ,adv]tisem5ts1 w be =w>d$ on application to ,s4 ,,*as4 ,,phillips1 #afj;a1 ,,fleet ,,/reet1 ,,london1 ,e4,c4 ,,new ,,york3--#fj1 ,duane ,/reet4 ,,p>is3--#bi1 ,rue ,des ,petites ,ecuries4 ,,leipsic3--#c1 ,grimmais*] ,/e9weg4 ,,am/]dam3--#fj1 ,rok94 ,,melb\rne1 ,,sydney1 & ,,calcutta1 c4 ,qu>t] ( a ,c5tury ( ,success4 ,be/ ,m$ium = ,pap] ,mak]s' ,adv]tisem5ts4 ,,publi%$ ,,on ,,! #f? ,,or #g? ,,( ,,ea* ,,mon?4 ,,t]ms ,,( ,,subscription3 ,home1 #fs4 #f;d4 ,indo-,colonial 7abroad g5]ally71 #gs4 #f;d4 ,po/-free4 _/adv]tisem5t adv]tisem5t ,cr[n #hvo1 clo?1 ) ,illu/rations1 ,price #es4 ,,work%op ,,receipts1 ,,= ,,! ,,use ,,( ,manufactur]s1 ,me*anics1 ,sci5tific ,amateurs4 ,,by ,,erne/ ,,spon4 ,,cont5ts3 ,bookb9d+ -- ,bronzes -- ,c&les -- ,cem5t -- ,clean+ -- ,concretes -- ,dye+ -- ,electro-,metallurgy -- ,enamels -- ,engrav+ -- ,et*+ -- ,firework ,mak+ -- ,freez+ -- ,fulm9ates -- ,furniture ,creams1 ,oils1 ,poli%es1 ,lacqu]s1 & ,pa/es -- ,gild+ -- ,glass ,cutt+ -- ,glass ,mak+ -- ,gra9+ -- ,gums -- ,horn ,work+ -- ,india-rubb] -- ,ink -- ,japans -- ,lacqu]s -- ,m>ble ,work+ -- ,mat*es -- ,mort>s -- ,pap] ,hang+ -- ,pa9t+ 9 ,oils -- ,photography -- ,poli%es -- ,pott]y -- ,silv]+ -- ,soap-,sold]s -- ,taxid]my -- ,treat+ ,horn1 ,"m-o'-,pe>l1 & l sub/ances -- ,v>ni%es -- ,v5e]+ -- ,:itewa%+1 c41 c4 _/adv]tisem5t adv]tisem5t ,cr[n #hvo1 clo?1 #es4 ,,work%op ,,receipts 7,,second ,,s]ies74 ,,by ,,rob]t ,,haldane4 ,devot$ ma9ly to subjects connect$ ) ,*emical ,manufactures4 ,an entirely ,new ,volume4 ,uni=m 9 ,size1 ,/yle1 & ,type ) ! ,orig9al #8,work%op ,receipts4' ,,cont5ts4 ,acidimetry & ,alkalimetry -- ,album5 -- ,alcohol -- ,alkaloids -- ,bak+ ,p[d]s -- ,bitt]s -- ,blea*+ -- ,boil] ,incru/ations -- ,cem5ts & ,lutes -- ,cleans+ -- ,confection]y -- ,copy+ -- ,dis9fectants -- ,dye+ -- ,/a9+ & ,col\r+ -- ,ess5ces -- ,extracts -- ,firepro(+ -- ,gelat9e -- ,glue & ,size -- ,glyc]9e -- ,gut -- ,hydrog5 ,p]oxide -- ,inks -- ,iod9e -- ,iod(orm -- ,is+lass -- ,ivory ,sub/itutes -- ,lea!r -- ,lum9\s ,bodies -- ,magnesia -- ,mat*es -- ,pap] -- ,p>*m5t -- ,p]*loric ,acid -- ,pigm5ts -- ,pa9t & ,pa9t+ -- ,potassium ,oxalate -- ,pres]v+4 ,e4 ,f4 ,n4 ,,spon1 #abe1 ,/r&1 ,london4 _/adv]tisem5t adv]tisem5t ,cr[n #hvo1 clo?1 #es4 ,,work%op ,,receipts 7,,?ird ,,s]ies74 ,,by ,c4 ,g4 ,,w>n=d ,,lock1 ,f4,l4,s4 ,devot$ ma9ly to ,electrical & ,metallurgical subjects4 ,,cont5ts3 ,alloys -- ,alum9ium -- ,antimony -- ,b>ium -- ,b]yllium -- ,bismu? -- ,cadmium -- ,csium -- ,calcium -- ,c]rium -- ,*romium -- ,cobalt -- ,copp] -- ,didymium -- ,electrics 7includ+ al>ms1 batt]ies1 bells1 c>bons1 coils induction1 int5sity1 & resi/ance1 dynamo-electric ma*9es1 fire risks1 measur+1 microphones1 motors1 phonographs1 photophones1 /or+1 telephones7 -- ,enamels & ,glazes -- ,erbium -- ,gallium -- ,glass -- ,gold -- ,indium -- ,iridium -- ,iron -- ,lacqu]s -- ,lan?anum -- ,lead -- ,li?ium -- ,lubricants -- ,magnesium -- ,manganese -- ,m]cury -- ,mica -- ,molybd5um -- ,nickel -- ,nisbium -- ,osmium -- ,palladium -- ,plat9um -- ,potassium -- ,rhodium -- ,rubidium -- ,ru!nium -- ,sil5ium -- ,silv] -- ,slag -- ,sodium -- ,/rontium -- ,tantalum -- ,t]bium -- ,?allium -- ,?orium -- ,t9 -- ,titanium -- ,tung/5 -- ,uranium -- ,vanadium -- ,yttrium -- ,z9c -- ,zirconium4 _/adv]tisem5t adv]tisem5t ,cr[n #hvo1 clo?1 #es4 ,,work%op ,,receipts 7,,f\r? ,,s]ies74 ,by ,c4 ,g4 ,,w>n=d ,,lock1 ,f4,l4,s4 ,devot$ ma9ly to ,h&icrafts & ,me*anical subjects4 #bej ,illu/rations1 ) complete ,index & a g5]al ,index to ! ,f\r ,s]ies4 ,,cont5ts3 ,wat]pro(+3 rubb] goods1 cuprammonium processes1 miscellane\s prep>ations -- ,pack+ & ,/or+ articles ( delicate od\r or col\r1 ( a deliquesc5t "*1 liable to ignition1 apt to suff] f insects or damp1 or easily brok5 -- ,embalm+ & ,pres]v+ anatomical specim5s -- ,lea!r ,poli%es -- ,cool+ ,air & ,wat]1 produc+ l[ temp]atures1 mak+ ice1 cool+ syrups & solutions1 & sep>at+ salts f liquors by refrig]ation -- ,pumps & ,syphons1 embrac+ e useful contrivance = rais+ & supply+ wat] on a mod]ate scale1 & mov+ corrosive1 t5aci\s1 & o!r liquids -- ,desiccat+3 air- & wat]-ov5s1 & o!r appliances = dry+ natural & artificial products -- ,di/ill+3 wat]1 t9ctures1 extracts1 ph>maceutical prep>ations1 ess5ces1 p]fumes1 & alcoholic liquids -- ,emulsify+ z requir$ by ph>maci/s & photograph]s -- ,evaporat+3 sal9e & o!r solutions1 & liquids dem&+ special precautions -- ,filt]+3 wat]1 & solutions ( v>i\s k9ds -- ,p]colat+ & ,mac]at+ -- ,electrotyp+ -- ,/]eotyp+ by bo? pla/] & pap] processes -- ,bookb9d+ 9 all its details -- ,/raw ,plait+ & ! fabrication ( baskets1 matt+1 etc4 -- ,musical ,in/rum5ts3 ! pres]vation1 tun+1 & repair ( pianos1 h>moniums1 musical boxes1 etc4 -- ,clock & ,wat* ,m5d+3 adapt$ = intellig5t amateurs -- ,photography3 rec5t developm5t 9 rapid processes1 h&y app>atus num]\s recipes = s5sitiz+ & develop+ solutions1 & applications to mod]n illu/rative purposes4 ,e4 ,f4 ,n4 ,,spon1 #abe1 ,/r&1 ,london4 _/adv]tisem5t adv]tisem5t ,,spons' ,,encyclop,,dia ,,( ,,! ,,indu/rial ,,arts1 ,,manufactures1 ,,comm]cial ,,products4 ,,edit$ ,,by ,c4 ,g4 ,,w>n=d ,,lock1 ,f4,l4,s41 c41 c4 ,9 ,sup]-royal #hvo1 conta9+ #bajj pp41 & ,illu/rat$ by ne>ly #aejj ,engrav+s4 ,c be _h 9 ! foll[+ b9d+s3-- s4 d4 ,9 #b vols41 clo? #c #aj #j ,9 #e divisions1 clo? #c #aa #f ,9 #b vols41 half-morocco1 top edge gilt1 b\nd 9 a sup]ior mann] #d #aj #j ,9 #cc mon?ly p>ts1 at #bs4 ea*4 ,any ,"p c be _h sep>ate1 price #bs41 po/age #b;d4 ,,complete ,,li/ ,,( ,,all ,,! ,,subjects4 ,acids1 ,p>ts #a1 #b1 #c ,alcohol1 #c1 #d ,alkalies1 #d1 #e ,alloys1 #e1 #f ,ars5ic1 #f ,asphalte1 #f ,a]at$ ,wat]s1 #f ,be] & ,w9e1 #f1 #g ,bev]ages1 #g1 #h ,blea*+ ,p[d]1 #h ,blea*+1 #h1 #i ,borax1 #i ,bru%es1 #i ,buttons1 #i ,camphor1 #i1 #aj ,c&les1 #aj ,c>bon1 #aj ,celluloid1 #aj ,clays1 #aj ,c>bolic ,acid1 #aa ,coal-t> ,products1 #aa ,cocoa1 #aa ,c(fee1 #aa1 #ab ,cork1 #ab ,cotton ,manufactures1 #ab1 #ac ,drugs1 #ac ,dye+ & ,calico ,pr9t+1 #ac1 #ad ,dye/uffs1 #ad ,electro-,metallurgy1 #ad ,explosives1 #ad1 #ae ,fea!rs1 #ae ,fibr\s ,sub/ances1 #ae1 #af ,floor-clo?1 #af ,food ,pres]vation1 #af ,fruit1 #af1 #ag ,fur1 #ag ,gas1 ,coal1 #ag ,gems1 #ag ,glass1 #ag ,graphite1 #ah ,hair ,manufactures1 #ah ,hats1 #ah ,ice1 ,artificial1 #ah ,indi>ubb] ,manufactures1 #ah1 #ai ,ink1 #ai ,jute ,manufactures1 #ai ,knitt$ ,fabrics 7,hosi]y71 #ai ,lace1 #ai ,lea!r1 #ai1 #bj ,l95 ,manufactures1 #bj ,manures1 #bj ,mat*es1 #bj1 #ba ,mordants1 #ba ,n>cotics1 #ba1 #bb ,oils ,fatty ,sub/ances1 #bb1 #bc1 #bd ,pap]1 #bd ,p>aff91 #bd ,pe>l & ,coral1 #bd ,p]fumes1 #bd ,photography1 #bd1 #be ,pigm5ts & ,pa9t1 #be ,pott]y1 #be1 #bf ,pr9t+ & ,engrav+1 #bf ,res9\s & ,gummy ,sub/ances1 #bf1 #bg ,rope1 #bg ,salt1 #bg1 #bh ,silk1 #bh ,sk9s1 #bh ,soap1 ,railway ,grease1 & ,glyc]9e1 #bh1 #bi ,spices1 #bi ,/>*1 #bi ,sug>1 #bi1 #cj1 #ca ,tann91 #ca1 #cb ,tea1 #cb ,timb]1 #cb ,v>ni%1 #cb ,wool & ,wooll5 ,manufactures1 #cb1 #cc ,e4 ,f4 ,n4 ,,spon1 #abe1 ,/r&1 ,london4 _/adv]tisem5t ,,transcrib]',s ,,note3 ,orig9al spell+ & gramm> h be5 g5]ally reta9$1 ) "s exceptions not$ bel[4 ,orig9al pr9t$ page numb]s are %[n l ?is3 #eb4 ,orig9al small caps are n[ upp]case4 ,italics look l ?is4 ,footnotes h be5 relabel$ #a-ah1 & mov$ f )9 p>agraphs to ne>by locations betwe5 p>agraphs4 ,! transcrib] produc$ ! cov] image & h]eby assigns x to ! public doma94 ,orig9al page images are available f ar*ive4org--se>* = 8gri#ccabejjgihaifh04 ,subscripts are indicat$ ) und]score foll[$ by curly brackets1 e4g4 8,h#b,o04 ,"s miss+ full /ops h be5 ins]t$4 ,_m ditto m>ks h be5 elim9at$1 replac$ by repeat$ text4 ,enl>g$ curly brackets 80 employ$ to comb9e in=mation 9 two or m l9es or columns h be5 elim9at$1 by re/ructur+ text if necess>y4 ,"o su* in/ance is ! table on page #ci4 ,! table on page #dd & "s o!r l>ge tables 7 mov$ f _! orig9al locations inside a p>agraph ( text to ne>by locations betwe5 p>agraphs4 ,! page #dd table 0 also divid$ into two p>ts1 aft] column six4 ,illu/rations h also be5 mov$ f )9 p>agraphs ( text to ne>by locations betwe5 p>agraphs4 ,page #ab4 8tran=mation0 to 8trans=mation04 8,c#ab;,h#bj,o#aa0 to 8,c#ab;,h#bb,o#aa04 ,page #adn4 ,! note _h no an*or2 a new "o has be5 ins]t$ aft] 89 seal$ glass04 ,page #ag4 8*emi/y0 to 8*emi/ry04 ,page #fe4 8revolution0 to 8resolution04 ,page #acf4 8be+ !re=e equival5t to "o mgrm0 is reta9$1 b presumably %\ld be read 8be+ !re=e equival5t to t5 mgrm04 ,page #aifn4 ,! note _h no an*or 9 ! text4 ,a new "o has be5 ins]t$ aft] 8pap]s publi%$ by ! ,in/itute = #ahhe401 z a plausible guess4 ,page #aig4 8foll[+ sev5 gr\ps0 to 8foll[+ eight gr\ps04 ,page #bbj4 8! foll[+ way0 to 8! foll[+ may04 ,page #bde4 ,a section ( adv]tisem5ts beg9s "h4 ,?is section 9 ! orig9al pr9t$ book dep5d$ heavily ^u ! advantages ( typography1 graphics1 & page-breaks4 ,9 ?is simple text edition1 ! codes adv]tisem5t & _/adv]tisem5t h be5 ins]t$ =e & aft1 = ea* ad4