,,transcriber',s ,,note3 ,italics have been transcribed using underscores1 bold with equal signs1 small capitals as ,,all ,,capitals4 ,sidenotes are placed between hashtags and are placed either above the paragraph they refer to or inline4 ,inconsistencies in spelling and hyphenation have not been corrected4 ,minor punctuation errors and typographical discrepancies have been silently corrected4 ,a list of other corrections can be found at the end of the document4 ,,the ,,monist ,a ,,quarterly ,,magazine ,,vol4 ,i4 ,,chicago3 ,,the ,,open ,,court ,,publishing ,,co #ahij-ahia ,,copyright ,,by ,,the ,,open ,,court ,,publishing ,,co4 #ahij-ahia ,,contents ,,of ,,volume ,i4 ,,articles4 ,,page4 ,anarchists1 ,the ,physiognomy of the4 ,by ,cesare ,lombroso #ccf ,anarchist's ,reply to ,professor ,lombroso1 ,a ,convicted4 ,by ,michael ,schwab #ebj ,architecture of ,theories1 ,the4 ,by ,charles ,s4 ,peirce #afa ,criminal ,anthropology1 ,illustrative ,studies in4 7#a7 ,la ,bte ,humaine and ,criminal ,anthropology4 7#b7 ,criminal ,anthropology and ,psychiatry4 ,by ,cesare ,lombroso #agg ,ethics1 ,the ,criterion of----an ,objective ,reality4 ,editor #eeb ,evolution1 ,the ,factors of4 ,by ,joseph ,le ,conte #cba ,evolution1 ,the ,right of4 ,by ,moncure ,d4 ,conway #ejf ,feelings and the ,elements of ,feelings4 ,editor #dja ,five ,souls with but a ,single ,thought4 ,by ,carus ,sterne #bde ,hffding on the ,relation of the ,mind to the ,body4 ,by ,w4 ,m4 ,salter #aah ,immortality4 ,by ,george ,m4 ,gould #cgb ,infusoria1 ,the ,immortality of4 ,by ,alfred ,binet #ba ,innovation and ,inertia in the ,world of ,psychology4 ,by ,cesare ,lombroso #cdd ,magic ,mirror1 ,the4 ,by ,max ,dessoir #hg ,mind1 ,the ,origin of4 ,by ,paul ,carus #fi ,mind1 ,the ,question of ,duality of4 ,by ,r4 ,meade ,bache #cfb ,philosophy in ,american ,colleges and ,universities #adh-aef ,psycho-,physics1 ,some ,questions of4 ,a ,discussion4 7#a7 ,sensations and the ,elements of ,reality4 ,by ,ernst ,mach #cic 7#b7 ,feelings and the ,elements of ,feelings4 ,editor #dja ,psychology of ,conception4 ,by ,j4 ,sully #dha ,sensations1 ,the ,analysis of the4 ,by ,ernst ,mach #dh ,sensations and the ,elements of ,reality4 ,by ,ernst ,mach #cic ,sex1 ,on the ,material ,relations of--in ,human ,society4 ,by ,e4 ,d4 ,cope #ch ,squaring of the ,circle1 ,the4 ,by ,hermann ,schubert #aig ,thought and ,language1 ,on4 ,f4 ,max ,mller #egb ,truth1 ,the ,criterion of4 ,editor #bbi ,wallace on ,physiological ,selection1 ,a4 ,r4 ,george ,j4 ,romanes #a ,welfare1 ,the ,principle of4 ,by ,harald ,hffding #ebe ,,literary ,,correspondence4 ,france4 ,by ,lucien ,arrat #abd1 #bgh1 #dba1 #eij ,german ,philosophy in the ,,xix ,century4 ,by ,f4 ,jodl #bfc ,the ,modern ,literature of ,italy since #ahgj4 ,by ,c4 ,lombroso #dbh ,the ,science of ,pedagogy in ,germany4 ,chr4 ,ufer #eig ,,book ,,reviews4 ,abbott1 ,francis ,ellingwood4 ,the ,way ,out of ,agnosticism #abi ,bois-,reymond1 ,paul ,du4 ,ueber die ,grundlagen der ,erkenntnis in den exacten ,wissenschaften #fjh ,booth1 ,general4 ,in ,darkest ,england and the ,way ,out #dea ,bray1 ,charles4 ,the ,philosophy of ,necessity #acf ,brinton1 ,daniel ,g4 ,races and ,peoples #aca ,bchner1 ,ludwig4 ,fremdes und ,eigenes aus dem geistigen ,leben der ,gegenwart #cjc ,carneri1 ,b4 ,der ,moderne ,mensch #fjg ,carus1 ,paul4 ,the ,soul of ,man #fbj ,clarke1 ,james ,freeman4 ,deacon ,herbert's ,bible ,class #cje ,coit1 ,stanton4 ,die ethische ,bewegung in der ,religion #cja ,cox1 ,charles ,f4 ,protoplasm and ,life #big ,dewey1 ,john4 ,outlines of a ,critical ,theory of ,ethics #fjj ,dillmann1 ,c4 ,die ,mathematik die ,fackeltrgerin einer neuen ,zeit #fag ,edinger1 ,ludwig4 ,twelve ,lectures on the ,structure of the ,central ,nervous ,system #fjd ,everett1 ,charles ,carroll4 ,the ,science of ,thought #bhg ,forel1 ,august4 ,der ,hypnotismus #fje ,fullerton1 ,george ,stuart4 ,on ,sameness and ,identity #bia ,geddes1 ,patrick1 and ,j4 ,arthur ,thomson4 ,the ,evolution of ,sex #dci ,haeckel1 ,ernst4 ,plankton-,studien #dee ,harris1 ,william ,t4 ,introduction to the ,study of ,philosophy #dch ,hffding1 ,harald4 ,ethik #aci ,james1 ,william4 ,the ,principles of ,psychology #bhd ,jastrow1 ,joseph4 ,the ,time-,relations of ,mental ,phenomena #bij ,jodl1 ,friedrich4 ,geschichte der ,ethik in der neueren ,philosophie #acg ,krause1 ,ernst4 ,tuisko-,land der arischen ,stmme und ,gtter-,urheimat #fab ,kroman1 ,k4 ,kurzgefasste ,logik und ,psychologie #adb ,lehmann1 ,alfred4 ,die ,hypnose und die damit verwandten normalen ,zustnde #bih ,loeb1 ,jacques4 ,der ,heliotropismus der ,thiere #cjj ,loeb1 ,jacques4 ,untersuchungen zur physiologischen ,morphologie der ,thiere #cjj ,lombroso1 ,cesare4 ,der geniale ,mensch #adf ,mackenzie1 ,john ,s4 ,an ,introduction to ,social ,philosophy #fja ,mantegazza1 ,paolo4 ,physiognomy and ,expression #ddg ,moll1 ,albert4 ,hypnotism #fjd ,morgan1 ,c4 ,lloyd4 ,animal ,life and ,intelligence #ddc ,naden1 ,constance ,c4 ,w4 ,induction and ,deduction #bib ,natorp1 ,paul4 ,einleitung in die ,psychologie nach kritischer ,methode #adc ,peet1 ,stephen ,d4 ,emblematic ,mounds and ,animal ,effigies #bie ,post1 ,albert ,hermann4 ,ueber die ,aufgaben einer allgemeinen ,rechtswissenschaft #deg ,royer1 ,madame ,clmence4 ,nouveaux aperus sur la ,phylogenie de l',homme #big ,savage1 ,m4 ,j4 ,life #bif ,schopenhauer1 ,arthur4 ,le ,monde comme ,volont et comme ,representation #bih ,sterrett1 ,j4 ,macbride4 ,studies in ,hegel's ,philosophy of ,religion #acc ,sterne1 ,carus4 ,die allgemeine ,weltanschauung #def ,taylor1 ,isaac4 ,the ,origin of the ,aryans #dce ,ufer1 ,christian4 ,geistesstrungen in der ,schule #fai ,wolff1 ,joh4 ,das ,bewusstsein und sein ,object #adg ,,periodicals #aeg-afj2 #cjg-cbj2 #dei-dhj2 #fba-fdj ,,vol4 ,i4 ,,october1 #ahij4 ,,no4 #a4 ,,the ,,monist4 ,,mr4 ,a4 ,r4 ,,wallace ,,on ,,physiological ,,selection4#a #a ,in a private letter to the editor of this magazine ,professor ,geo4 ,j4 ,romanes writes3 ,the article refers to a completely new departure in the theory of evolution1 striking in the principle of homogamy1 the root-principle of the whole1 and in physiological selection1 one of the main branches4 ,yet neither principle has so far been perceived except by ,mr4 ,gulick4444 ,the theory of physiological selection has been better understood in ,america than in this country2 and ,i should like the naturalists there1 who have taken such a warm and appreciative interest in it1 to see my reply to ,mr4 ,wallace published in an ,american periodical4 ,in #ahhf ,i published a paper entitled ,physiological ,selection3 an additional suggestion on the origin of species1 7,zological ,journal of the ,linnean ,society1 ,vol4 ,,xix1 p4 #ccg74 ,the view there expressed is1 briefly1 as follows4 ,given the facts of heredity and variability1 the whole theory of organic evolution becomes neither more nor less than a theory of the causes which determine the breeding of like with like1 to the exclusion of unlike4 ,for the more firmly that we believe in heredity with variability as the fundamental principle of organic evolution1 the stronger must become our persuasion that segregate breeding 7or exclusive mating of like with like7 must lead to divergence1 while indiscriminate breeding 7or free intercrossing of all varieties7 must lead to uniformity4 ,so long as there is free intercrossing1 heredity makes in favor of fixity of type--or1 at most1 can permit change only in a single line1 where successive generations undergo a continuous improvement1 which may give rise to a ladder-like series of species in time4 ,but in order that there should be a tree-like multiplication of species in space1 or a simultaneous divergence of type1 it is essential that free intercrossing be prevented at the origin1 and throughout the development1 of each branch4 ,in other words1 it is only when assisted by some form of segregation--which determines exclusive breeding of like with like--that heredity can effect arborescent or polytypic1 as distinguished from catenated or monotypic1 evolution4 ,for the sake of greater clearness1 ,i will call segregation in this sense homogamy1 or the exclusive mating of individuals which belong to the same variety4 ,now homogamy may be secured in a very great number of different ways4 ,of these the most important1 from every point of view1 is natural selection4 ,here the exclusive breeding of like with like is determined by general fitness1 and is effected by extermination of the unlike--i4 e41 the comparatively unfit4 ,moreover1 this process leads to a continuous improvement in the way of adaptation1 and in this important respect it stands alone among all the forms of homogamy4 ,nevertheless1 we must note that1 unless assisted by some other form of homogamy1 natural selection can only produce monotypic evolution2 never polytypic4 ,successive generations may thus continuously mount to higher stages of adaptation on the steps supplied by their own dead selves2 but although they may thus give rise to a linear series of species in time1 they can never thus give rise to a multiplication of species in space4 ,in order to effect such multiplication1 or divergence of types1 natural selection must be supplemented by some other form of homogamy1 which can prevent intercrossing between the equally fit at the origin1 and throughout the development1 of every separate branch4 ,well1 as ,i have said1 these other forms of homogamy are very numerous4 ,first we may notice geographical isolation4 ,when a comparatively small portion of a species is thus separated from the rest of its kind1 intercrossing is effectually prevented between the two sections2 and inasmuch as the general average of specific characters in the isolated section will be somewhat different from that of the other section1 heredity will determine that the two sections shall not run parallel in their subsequent lines of evolutionary history3 there will arise an increasing divergence between them1 as was first pointed out by the mathematician ,delbuf1 subsequently by the naturalist ,weismann1 and more recently1 with greater emphasis1 by ,mr4 ,gulick as well as myself4 ,again1 there is homogamy that arises as a result of sexual preference1 or1 as ,i have called it1 psychological selection4 ,it is a matter of observation that the breeding of like with like is often determined among the higher vertebrata by individuals of each variety preferring to mate with other individuals of their own variety2 and this is homogamy4 ,not to occupy space with any attempt at enumerating all the many forms of homogamy#b ,i will at once pass on to the form which constitutes the subject-matter of the present paper--and the form which1 in my opinion1 is probably of more importance than any other in the multiplication of species4 ,this is the form of homogamy which ,i have termed ,physiological ,selection1 or ,segregation of the ,fit1 and ,mr4 ,gulick--who independently perceived the principle--has called ,segregate ,fecundity4 #b ,this has been done in a most careful and exhaustive manner by ,mr4 ,gulick in his papers which have succeeded mine in the publications of the ,linnean ,society4 ,as my object on the present occasion is to answer criticisms which have been passed on my enunciation of this principle1 ,i do not propose to go into further detail by way of explanation than is necessary in order to render intelligible both the criticisms and my reply thereto4 ,moreover1 this reply is only an abstract of a fuller one which has been prepared for publication in a forthcoming book4 ,therefore it deals only with the main points4 ,lastly1 ,i may remark that the criticisms which have hitherto appeared have all been derived from the same source1 viz41 from ,mr4 ,a4 ,r4 ,wallace2 for1 although many other naturalists have expressed themselves as more or less opposed to the new theory1 or additional suggestion on the origin of species1 they have all done so on the grounds1 or for the reasons supplied by ,mr4 ,wallace4 ,therefore1 in dealing with ,mr4 ,wallace's objections1 ,i shall be dealing with the only objections which have thus far been advanced4 ,in order at once to restate the theory of physiological selection1 and to do so in a form which cannot be suspected of being in any way influenced by ,mr4 ,wallace's more recent criticisms1 ,i will begin by reproducing the main features of the theory in the words which were employed for this purpose more than three years ago1 when ,i supplied an article to the ,nineteenth ,century in answer to one by him in the ,fortnightly ,review4 ,moreover1 for the most part this restatement of the theory is quoted verbatim from my original paper--the differences being due only to the conditions imposed by limits of an article4 ,the following1 then1 is quoted from the ,nineteenth ,century for ,january1 #ahhg3 ,according to the ,darwinian theory which1 as elsewhere fully explained1 the present theory is in no way capable of supplanting1 but only of supplementing1 and this among other ways1 by explaining why it is that some degree of mutual infertility is so general a phenomenon as between allied species--a phenomenon which ,darwin expressly regarded as not explicable by the theory of natural selection1 it is for the most part only those variations which happen to have been useful that have been preserved3 yet1 even as thus limited1 the principle of variability is held able to furnish sufficient material out of which to construct the whole adaptive morphology of nature4 ,how immense1 therefore1 must be the number of unuseful variations4 ,yet these are all1 for the most part1 still-born1 or allowed to die out immediately by intercrossing4 ,should such intercrossing be prevented1 however1 there is no reason why unuseful variations should not be perpetuated by heredity quite as well as useful ones when under the nursing influence of natural selection--as1 indeed1 we see to be the case in our domesticated productions4 ,consequently1 if from any reason a section of a species is prevented from intercrossing with the rest of its species1 new varieties of a trivial or unuseful kind might be expected to arise within that section4 ,and this is just what we find4 ,oceanic islands1 for example1 are well known to be extraordinarily rich in peculiar species2 and this can best be explained by considering that a complete separation of the fauna and flora on such an island permits them to develop varietal histories of their own1 without interference by intercrossing with their originally parent forms4 ,we see the same principle exemplified by the influence of geographical barriers of any kind1 and also by the consequences of migration4 ,therefore1 given an absence of overwhelming intercrossing1 and the principle of what ,i term independent variability may be trusted to evoke new species1 without the aid of natural selection4 ,homogamy4 ,were it not for the very general occurrence of some degree of sterility between even closely allied species and were it not also for the fact1 that closely allied species are not always--or even generally--separated from one another by geographical barriers1 we might reasonably attribute all cases of species-formation by independent variability to the prevention of intercrossing by geographical barriers or by migration4 ,but it is evident that these two facts can no more be explained by the influence of geographical barriers1 or by migration1 than they can be by the influence of natural selection4 ,now1 of all parts of those variable objects which we call organisms1 the most variable is the reproductive system2 and the variations may be either in the direction of increased or diminished fertility4 ,consequently1 variations in the way of greater or less sterility frequently take place both in plants and animals2 and probably1 if we had adequate means of observing this point1 we should find that there is no one variation more common4 ,but1 of course1 whenever it arises--whether as a result of changed conditions of life1 or1 as we say1 spontaneously--it immediately becomes extinguished1 seeing that the individuals which it affects are less able 7if able at all7 to propagate the variation4 ,if1 however1 the variation should be such that1 while showing some degree of sterility with the parent form1 it continues to be as fertile as before within the limits of the varietal form1 it would neither be swamped by intercrossing nor die out on account of sterility4 ,for example1 suppose the variation in the reproductive system is such that the season of flowering1 or of pairing1 becomes either advanced or retarded4 ,whether this variation be spontaneous1 or due to change of food1 climate1 habitat1 etc41 does not signify4 ,the only point we need attend to is that some individuals1 living on the same geographical area as the rest of their species1 have demonstrably varied in their reproductive systems1 so that they are perfectly fertile inter se1 while absolutely sterile with the rest of their species4 ,by inheritance there would thus arise a variety living on the same geographical area as its parent form1 and yet prevented from intercrossing with that form by a barrier quite as effectual as a thousand miles of ocean2 the only difference would be that the barrier1 instead of being geographical1 is physiological4 ,and now1 of course1 the two sections of the physiologically divided species would be able to develop independent histories of their own without intercrossing2 even though they are living together on the same geographical area1 their physiological isolation would lead to their taking on distinct specific characters by independent variations1 or homogamy1 just as is the case with sections of a species when separated from each other by geographical isolation4 ,to state this suggestion in another form1 it enables us to regard many1 if not most1 species as the records of variations in the reproductive systems of ancestors4 ,when variations of a non-useful kind occur in any of the other systems or parts of organisms1 they are1 as a rule1 immediately extinguished by intercrossing4 ,but whenever they happen to arise in the reproductive system in the way here suggested1 they must tend to be preserved as new natural varieties1 or incipient species4 ,at first the difference would only be in respect of the reproductive systems2 but eventually1 on account of independent variation1 other differences would supervene1 and the new variety would take rank as a true species4 ,the principle thus briefly sketched in some respects resembles1 and in other respects differs from1 the principle of natural selection1 or survival of the fittest4 ,for the sake of convenience1 therefore1 and in order to preserve analogies with already existing terms1 ,i have called this principle ,physiological ,selection1 or ,segregation of the ,fit4 ,let it be noted that we are not concerned either with the causes or the degrees of the particular kind of variation on which this principle depends4 ,not with the causes1 because in this respect the theory of physiological selection is in just the same position as that of natural selection3 it is enough for both that the needful variations are provided1 without its being incumbent on either to explain the causes which in all cases underlie them4 ,neither are we concerned with the degrees of sterility which the variation in question may in any particular case supply4 ,for whether the degree of sterility with the parent form be originally great or small1 the result of it will be in the long run the same3 the only difference will be that in the latter case a greater number of generations would be required in order to separate the varietal from the parent form4 ,in other words1 homogamy due to such physiological isolation is cumulative4 ,the object of this paper being that of furnishing a general answer to criticisms on the hypothesis of physiological selection1 ,i will not occupy space by detailing evidence of that hypothesis1 further than is needful for the object just mentioned4#c ,this evidence abundantly proves that the particular kind of variation which the theory of physiological selection requires does take place1 7a7 in individuals1 7b7 in races1 and 7c7 in species4 ,next1 the evidence goes on to show that the facts of organic nature are such as they ought to be1 supposing it true that this variation has played any considerable part in the differentiation of specific types4 ,in particular1 it is shown that the general association between the one primary1 or relatively constant1 specific distinction 7mutual sterility71 and the innumerable secondary1 or relatively variable1 distinctions 7slight morphological changes which may effect any parts of any organisms71 of itself indicates that the former has been the original condition to the occurrence of the latter1 in all cases where free intercrossing has not been otherwise prevented4 ,for even in cases where the secondary distinctions may be supposed to have induced the primary1--or where morphological changes taking place in other parts of an organic type have exercised a reflex influence on the reproductive system1 such that the changed organism is no longer fertile with its unchanged parent form1--even in such cases the theory of physiological selection is available to explain the association in question4 ,for even in these cases1 notwithstanding that the secondary changes are historically the prior changes1 they still depend for their preservation on the principles of physiological selection4 ,these principles have1 in all such cases1 selected the particular kinds of secondary distinction which have proved themselves capable of so reacting on the reproductive system as to bring about the primary distinction1 and thus to protect themselves against the destructive power of free intercrossing4 #c ,the evidence1 so far as yet published1 may be read by any one who cares to purchase the original paper1 which can be obtained from the ,linnean ,society in a separate form4 ,now for ,mr4 ,wallace's criticism of this theory1 as presented in his recently published work on ,darwinism4 ,briefly put1 he furnishes a numerical calculation1 showing that when the physiological peculiarity is not correlated with any external differences of form or color1 or with inherent peculiarities of likes or dislikes leading to any choice as to pairing1 even when so large a proportion as ten per cent4 of the exceptional variety arises every year in the midst of the species1 it is unable to increase its numbers much above its starting-point1 and remains wholly dependent on the continued renewal of the variety for its existence beyond a few years4 ,this1 it must be observed1 is a reproduction of the criticism which ,i answered in #ahhh2 but1 as ,mr4 ,wallace ignores that answer1 ,i must now repeat it4 ,the criticism does not dispute the fact that the required variation in the way of selective sterility occurs4 ,indeed1 ,mr4 ,wallace allows that it certainly must be of very general occurrence as between incipient species 7or pronounced varieties in a state of nature71 seeing that it is of such general occurrence as between allied species when fully differentiated as such4 ,in other words1 this variation in the way of selective sterility must be recognised as a very general fact1 even if it be not regarded as a condition1 or a cause1 of specific differentiation4 ,which is merely another way of saying that the particular variation which is required by the theory in question is admittedly a variation which does occur2 and occurs1 moreover1 in very frequent association with the origin of a new species4 ,but ,mr4 ,wallace's objection to regarding this variation as itself a cause of 7or condition to7 the origin of a new species is1 as we have seen1 that the changes must always be greatly against the similar variations of the opposite sexes meeting--i4 e41 of the physiological complements happening to pair4 ,now1 ,i have already shown1 in the ,nineteenth ,century of three years ago1 that this criticism can only apply to species the sexes of which unite for every birth2 but as ,mr4 ,wallace continues to ignore this important consideration1 ,i will now present it in somewhat more detail4 ,in considering any supplementary theory of the origin of species1 it is obviously absurd to disregard the realm of organic nature as a whole1 and to fasten attention exclusively upon the part of it where a particular difficulty against the theory may be supposed to lie4 ,as will presently be shown1 ,mr4 ,wallace is entirely mistaken in supposing that his particular difficulty does lie against the theory in any part of organic nature2 but1 even if this could not have been shown1 it would not have followed that the theory of physiological selection is inapplicable to all the classes of the animal and vegetable kingdoms1 because it is taken to be inapplicable to some4 ,one might just as well argue against ,mr4 ,darwin's theory of sexual selection on the ground that it cannot be held to apply to the coloration and the sculpture of shells4 ,if either sexual selection or physiological selection were put forward as an exclusive theory of the origin of all species1 this kind of argument would1 of course1 have been valid2 but as the matter actually stands1 it is largely irrelevant4 ,i say largely irrelevant1 because ,i do not dispute that there is this much force in it4 ,if the theory of physiological selection can be proved inapplicable to ,birds and ,mammals 7which are the only classes that ,mr4 ,wallace considers in connection with it71 its applicability to all other divisions1 both of the animal and vegetable kingdoms1 would be rendered doubtful2 seeing that the process of species-formation appears to have been everywhere more or less associated with the occurrence of selective sterility2 and hence1 if in any division of organic nature it could be shown that selective sterility cannot possibly have been a cause of specific differentiation1 we might well doubt whether it has been such a cause elsewhere--just as we may doubt whether sexual selection has been a cause of the brilliant colors of birds and butterflies1 because we know1 that it cannot have been a cause of the equally brilliant colors of corals and flowers4 ,but1 as far as physiological selection is concerned1 no such question can arise1 as ,i will presently proceed to show4 ,first of all1 however1 it is desirable briefly to indicate the strength of this theory in the parts of organic nature where ,mr4 ,wallace's sole criticism cannot possibly be held to apply--viz41 the larger part of the vegetable kingdom1 where ovules are fertilised either by insects or by the wind4 ,here the phenomena of prepotency are highly suggestive--not to say1 in my opinion1 virtually demonstrative--of physiological selection2 seeing that1 as ,mr4 ,darwin remarks in another connexion3 ,there can be no doubt that if the pollen of all these species 7of ,compositae7 could be simultaneously or successively placed on the stigma of any one species1 this one would elect with unerring certainty its own pollen4 ,this elective capacity is all the more wonderful2 as it must have been acquired since the many species of this great group of plants branched off from a common progenitor4#d #d ,variation1 etc41 ,vol4 ii4 ,darwin is here speaking of elective affinity in its more fully developed form1 as this so often obtains between fully differentiated species4 ,but we meet with all lower degrees of its development--sometimes between incipient species1 or varieties1 and at other times between closely allied species4 ,it is then known as prepotency of the pollen belonging to the same variety1 or species1 over the pollen of the other variety or species1 when both sets of pollen are applied to the same stigma4 ,this is one form of what ,i have called physiological selection1 and in my view it serves to explain why it is that hybrids between closely allied forms growing on common areas 7whether they be called species or constant varieties7 are so comparatively rare in nature1 even in cases where there is no difficulty in producing hybrids artificially by an intentional exclusion of the pollen belonging to the same form4 ,and ,i allude to these facts in the present connexion for two reasons4 ,in the first place1 they serve to show how entirely irrelevant ,mr4 ,wallace's whole criticism is to the vegetable kingdom1 as well as to the majority of aquatic animals4 ,in the next place1 they serve to show how entirely unwarranted is his statement1 that we have at present no evidence whatever in support of my belief that a physiological incompatibility may affect a whole race or strain4 ,not only have we the multitudinous cases of prepotency1 where the incompatibility is partial 7or in course of becoming1 as ,mr4 ,darwin says in the above quotation1 acquired72 but we have also multitudinous cases where the incompatibility has become absolute1 both as between closely allied species1 and even as between varieties of the same species growing on common areas--as ,m4 ,jordan has experimentally proved4 ,therefore in the above remark we have but an additional example of ,mr4 ,wallace's entire forgetfulness1 in the present connexion1 of any organisms other than those which belong to the class of ,birds or of ,mammals4#e #e ,it seems scarcely worth while to add that ,mr4 ,wallace is doubly mistaken where he says1 ,mr4 ,romanes's theory of ,physiological ,selection--which assumes sterility or infertility between first crosses as the fundamental fact in the origin of species--does not accord with the general phenomena of hybridism in nature4 ,in the first place1 as shown above1 infertility between the first crosses is by no means out of accord with the general phenomena of hybridism in nature--seeing that all degrees of such infertility1 from the slightest perceptible amount of prepotency up to absolute sterility1 are of the most general occurrence in nature4 ,in the second place1 why ,mr4 ,wallace should suppose that in my view physiological selection can only act as regards first crosses1 and not also as regards hybrid progeny1 ,i have no means of surmising4 ,turning1 then1 to the only parts of organic nature where his criticism can even appear to apply1 ,i have here the sufficiently easy task of proving1 that this appearance of application arises wholly and entirely out of ,mr4 ,wallace's misapprehension of the theory against which the criticism is directed4 ,in other words1 he is not criticising the theory of physiological selection at all1 but merely his own travesty of it4 ,for1 as repeatedly stated in my original paper1 and again reiterated three years ago in the ,nineteenth ,century1 it constitutes no part of my theory to deny the co-operation of other forms of segregate breeding or homogamy4 ,on the contrary1 ,i have always insisted--and ,mr4 ,gulick has proved by calculation--that the more efficient the co-operation of other forms of homogamy1 the greater must become the importance of the physiological form4 ,yet1 as ,i trust has already been made fully apparent1 the whole of ,mr4 ,wallace's criticism 7even as regards ,birds and ,mammals7 goes upon the supposition that ,mr4 ,gulick and ,i believe that1 if physiological selection ever acts in any case at all1 it must necessarily act alone4 ,for reasons afterwards to be given1 ,i do indeed believe that in some cases it may act alone 7in this differing from ,mr4 ,gulick72 but1 clearly1 whether or not there are any such cases1 is a question quite distinct from that touching the validity of a criticism which attributes to our theory the absurd dogma1 that segregate breeding which arises from physiological isolation1 can never be associated with segregate breeding that may arise from any other form of isolation4 ,and that the whole of ,mr4 ,wallace's criticism collapses when once this correction has been supplied1 is proved most effectually by the curious fact that1 after having himself supplied the correction1 he reproduces our theory as an original one of his own4 ,how he can have supposed that ,i did not entertain the possibility of physiological selection being associated with natural selection1 psychological selection1 or any other known form of isolation 7excepting only the geographical71 ,i am quite at a loss to understand2 seeing that from end to end of my paper ,i continually refer to such association--especially as regards natural selection4 ,and1 if possible1 ,i am still less able to understand ,mr4 ,wallace's carelessness in this connection with reference to ,mr4 ,gulick's paper2 because there the belief is repeatedly and most clearly expressed1 that without such association1 segregate fecundity can never act at all--which is precisely the theory which ,mr4 ,wallace proceeds to elaborate on his own account4 ,it is now time to show1 by means of quotations1 how unequivocal and complete is ,mr4 ,wallace's adoption of our theory3 ,the simplest case to consider will be that in which two forms or varieties of a species1 occupying an extensive area1 are in process of adaptation to somewhat different modes of life within the same area4 ,if these two forms freely intercross with each other1 and produce mongrel offspring which are quite fertile inter se1 then the further differentiation of the forms into two distinct species will be retarded1 or perhaps entirely prevented2 for the offspring of the crossed unions will be1 perhaps1 more vigorous on account of the cross1 although less perfectly adapted to the conditions of existence than either of the pure breeds2 and this would certainly establish a powerful antagonistic influence to the further differentiation of the two forms4 ,now1 let us suppose that a partial sterility of the hybrids between the two forms arises1 in correlation with the different modes of life and the slight external or internal peculiarities that exist between them1 both of which we have seen to be real causes of infertility4 ,the result will be that1 even if the hybrids between the two forms are still freely produced1 these hybrids will not themselves increase so rapidly as the two pure forms2 and as these latter are1 by the terms of the problem1 better suited to their conditions of life than are the hybrids between them1 they will not only increase more rapidly1 but will also tend to supplant the hybrids altogether whenever the struggle for existence becomes exceptionally severe4 ,thus1 the more complete the sterility of the hybrids the more rapidly will they die out and leave the two parent forms pure4 ,hence it will follow that1 if there is greater infertility between the two forms in one part of the area than the other1 these forms will be kept more pure wherever this greater infertility prevails1 will therefore have an advantage at each recurring period of severe struggle for existence1 and will thus ultimately supplant the less infertile or completely fertile forms that may exist in other portions of the area4 ,it thus appears that1 in such a case as here supposed1 natural selection would preserve those portions of the two breeds which were most infertile with each other1 or whose hybrid offspring were most infertile2 and would1 therefore1 if variations in fertility continued to arise1 tend to increase that infertility4 ,it must particularly be noted that this effect would result1 not by the preservation of the infertile variations on account of their infertility1 but by the inferiority of the hybrid offspring1 both as being fewer in numbers1 less able to continue their race1 and less adapted to the conditions of existence than either of the pure forms4 ,it is this inferiority of the hybrid offspring that is the essential point2 and as the number of these hybrids will be permanently less where the infertility is greatest1 therefore those portions of the two forms in which infertility is greatest will have the advantage1 and will ultimately survive in the struggle for existence4 ,we have here a full acceptance of the theory of physiological selection4 ,for it is represented1 as ,mr4 ,gulick and ,i have represented1 that1 if two forms or varieties occupying a common area are to undergo further differentiation at the hands of natural selection1 it becomes a highly favoring condition to the process that some degree of segregate fecundity should arise 7if it has not already arisen7 between these two forms or varieties2 seeing that if these two forms freely intercross with each other1 and produce mongrel offspring which are quite fertile inter se1 then the further differentiation of the forms into two distinct species will be retarded1 or perhaps entirely prevented4 ,here the importance of segregate fecundity1 or physiological selection1 as a factor in the differentiation of specific types on common areas is fully recognised2 and the only respect in which ,mr4 ,wallace alleges that his view of the matter differs from the view of ,mr4 ,gulick and myself1 is in drawing special attention to the part which is played by the infertility1 or other inferiority1 of the mongrels4 ,but clearly1 this infertility1 or other inferiority1 of the mongrels1 in all cases where it occurs1 is part and parcel of the segregate fecundity of the parent forms4 ,whether the segregate fecundity has reference to first crosses alone1 or likewise to second crosses1 it is segregate fecundity all the same2 and the only difference is that for the same degree of segregate fecundity in first crosses1 the process of physiological selection will become the more effective in proportion to the degree in which the infertility extends also to second crosses4 ,but ,i think it is very doubtful whether such infertility 7or inferiority7 on the part of mongrels can react upon the sexual system of their parent forms1 so as directly to increase whatever degree of segregate fecundity may have already arisen between these forms4 ,does the high sterility of mules and mutes1 for instance1 tend to diminish the degree of fertility that obtains between horses and asses8 ,the only way in which even an absolute degree of sterility 7or other inferiority7 on the part of mongrels or hybrids may clearly be seen to operate in this direction1 is as a negative condition2 not as an active cause4 ,in the proportion that mongrels are impotent with one another1 they will not so much compete with their parent forms for food1 etc42 and in the proportion that they are impotent with their parent forms1 they will not counteract any tendency which the latter may continue to develop in the direction of a still further segregation4 ,if the mongrels are fully vigorous and fully fertile1 both inter se and with their parent forms1 the effect will be to retard1 if not altogether to prevent1 any further progress of physiological separation between the parent forms2 because the free intercrossing of the mongrels with one another1 and also with their parent forms1 will be continually supplying progeny in which the physiological peculiarity is either attenuated or altogether abolished4 ,but this is quite a different thing from supposing that infertility 7or inferiority7 of the mongrels can react upon the generative system of the parent forms1 so as to increase in them the physiological peculiarity on which their segregate breeding depends3 infertility 7or inferiority7 of the mongrels is but a negative condition which favors the preservation of further degrees of this segregate breeding1 if such further degrees should be induced by any other causes4 ,now1 it does not appear that ,mr4 ,wallace has clearly perceived this important distinction1 because he throughout speaks of this inferiority of the hybrid offspring as the essential point4 ,obviously1 however1 the essential point is the physiological variation in the parent forms1 i4 e41 the original occurrence and subsequent development of infertility between the first crosses4 ,granting to ,mr4 ,wallace1 for the sake of argument1 that this development could not proceed at all1 were it not for the inferiority of the mongrels2 still the inferiority of the mongrels need not be the cause of this development4 ,therefore it is most incorrect to say1 it must be particularly noted that this effect 7i4 e41 increase of infertility between the parent forms7 would result1 not by the preservation of the infertile variations on account of their infertility1 but by the inferiority of the hybrid offspring4 ,this effect must be due to causes which act upon the generative systems of the parent forms1 even though such causes might be counteracted by the withdrawal of the negative condition in question4 ,i trust1 then1 it has now been rendered sufficiently clear that1 no matter how infertile the hybrid progeny may become1 and no matter at how great a disadvantage they may thus 7or otherwise7 be placed in their struggle for existence with the parent varieties1 it is not apparent that their infertility 7or their extinction7 can ever become the cause of a further increase of infertility arising between their parent forms4 ,consequently1 although this is the cause assigned by ,mr4 ,wallace1 when he comes to the essential point of showing how it is to act so as to increase cross-sterility between the parent forms1 he navely substitutes the sentence which ,i have printed in italics--which assumes a greater infertility between the two forms as arising through any other causes that we may choose to suppose4 ,the very thing that his entire argument professes to explain 7i4 e41 the rise and development of cross-sterility between the parent varieties7 is slipped in as granted1 or given by other causes than those which are said to explain it4#f #f ,the only conceivable way in which infertility 7or other inferiority7 of hybrids could react on the sexual system of their parent forms1 is one which ,mr4 ,wallace appears to have missed3 at all events he has nowhere stated it4 ,this way is as follows4 ,suppose ,a and ,b to be two varieties which produce comparatively infertile hybrids4 ,in the proportion that the hybrids are infertile1 or otherwise inferior1 it must be a disadvantage to both varieties for individuals belonging to one to cross with individuals belonging to the other1 because by so doing they are wasting their time and their energy in propagating comparatively poor offspring--thereby failing to impress their characters on the next generation as effectually as they might have done by pairing homogamously4 ,hence1 those individuals which do pair homogamously will leave a larger number--or better quality--of offspring to the next generation1 than is left by those which fail to pair homogamously4 ,hence1 also1 in the course of many generations a selective premium will be set on the homogamous pairing1 ,a plus ,a1 ,b plus ,b1 whether such pairing be due to a sexual instinct or to a sexual incompatibility4 ,for example1 if horses and asses were to occupy the same area for a sufficient length of time1 it is conceivable that the instinct which many horses now present of preferring asses to their own kind would become obsolete2 because the horses or mares which have such an instinct would always fail to leave progeny that could transmit it1 while such would not be the case with the horses and mares which preferred to pair homogamously1 and so it might be if a physiological instead of a psychological character were concerned4 ,but now observe1 if this consideration were adduced1 ,i should not be concerned to dispute it4 ,for1 even if such a principle of segregation does obtain1 to what category does the principle belong8 ,clearly it does not belong to natural selection1 inasmuch as a mere failure to impress individual characters on the next generation is not a matter of life and death in the struggle for existence4 ,but1 no less clearly1 it does belong to physiological selection2 and therefore1 if it be an active principle in nature1 it is an additional cause of segregate fecundity in first crosses4 ,moreover1 such a principle1 if it ever acts1 presupposes some considerable degree of sexual differentiation as already given by some other cause4 ,having thus endeavored to make it as clear as ,i can1 that the causes of segregate fecundity1 both in its origin and subsequent increase1 must be causes acting on the physiology of the segregating forms themselves1 and not the effects of these causes in the character of their mongrel offspring2 ,i must next comment upon the extraordinary idea which underlies the whole of ,mr4 ,wallace's exposition1 and which in one place he expressly states4 ,this extraordinary idea is that the theory of physiological selection1 as held both by ,mr4 ,gulick and myself1 takes no cognizance of the possible effects of cross-sterility in leading to infertility or inferiority on the part of mongrel progeny4 ,i call this an extraordinary idea1 because it appears to me most extraordinary that ,mr4 ,wallace can have read our papers1 and then have supposed that he was adding anything to our theory by arguing the points which he does argue in the above quotation4 ,when once this argument is correctly stated1 it amounts1 as we have just seen1 to nothing more than pointing out how a segregate fecundity of first crosses will have a better chance of increasing1 if the mongrel progeny are infertile or inferior4 ,but surely this goes without saying2 or1 if it be said1 let it be added that physiological selection1 when it thus extends to second crosses1 is really or ultimately due to physiological selection as regards the first crosses4 ,if the segregate fecundity of the first crosses is of such a kind1 that1 besides tending to a physiological isolation of the parent forms1 it leads to inferiority of the mongrel progeny2 this is merely a further expression of the segregate fecundity in question4 ,its effect is that of so far extinguishing the influence of progeny in the subsequent history of parental segregation3 therefore1 its effect is just the same as if1 owing to a somewhat higher degree of segregate fertility in the first instance 7i4 e41 in the first crosses71 a proportionately smaller number of mongrel offspring had been produced at all4 ,in either case the result 7physiological differentiation7 is equally due to causes acting on the sexual system of the parent forms2 and whether this effect is brought about by a suppression of progeny as to their numbers alone1 or likewise as to their efficiency1 is quite immaterial to the theory of physiological selection4 ,which shows once more how wide of the mark is ,mr4 ,wallace's statement1 that the inferiority of the hybrid offspring is the essential point in any process of sexual segregation4 ,the essential point must always be the original occurrence and subsequent preservation of the infertile variations arising between the parent forms1 whether these variations are only in the direction of producing a smaller number of mongrels1 or also in that of suppressing their efficiency when produced4 ,upon the whole1 then1 it is surely the oddest of misconceptions on ,mr4 ,wallace's part that has led him to present the above-quoted argument as a substitute for the theory of physiological selection4 ,as far as it goes1 and as far as it is sound1 it is the theory of physiological selection pure and simple--neither adding to1 nor detracting from it one iota4 ,nevertheless1 the argument has not yet gone far enough to embody some of the other elements of the theory4 ,therefore ,i will now continue the quotation3 ,the differentiation of the two forms into distinct species1 with the increase of infertility between them1 would be greatly assisted by two other important factors in the problem4 ,it has already been shown that1 with each modification of form and habits1 and especially with modifications of color1 there arises a disinclination of the two forms to pair together2 and this would produce an amount of isolation which would greatly assist the specialisation of the forms in adaptation to their different conditions of life4 ,again1 evidence has been adduced that change of conditions or of mode of life is a potent cause of disturbance of the reproductive system1 and1 consequently1 of infertility4 ,we may therefore assume that1 as the two forms adopted more and more different modes of life1 and perhaps acquired also decided peculiarities of form and coloration1 the infertility between them would increase or become more general2 and as we have seen that every such increase of infertility would give that portion of the species in which it arose an advantage over the remaining portions in which the two varieties were more fertile together1 all this induced infertility would maintain itself1 and still further increase the general infertility between the two forms of the species4 ,here we perceive that ,mr4 ,wallace1 after having adopted the theory of physiological selection in its main elements1 next proceeds to supplement that theory 7as ,mr4 ,gulick and myself had previously done71 by showing how greatly the principle of physiological selection must be assisted by any association with other forms of isolation1 or segregate breeding4 ,the only difference between ,mr4 ,wallace and ourselves here is1 that while he instances but three or four forms of segregate breeding 7or homogamy7 with which physiological selection may be associated1 ,i had previously considered several others in addition to these1 while ,mr4 ,gulick had gone into the matter still more exhaustively4 ,therefore1 here as elsewhere1 ,i can only account for the character of ,mr4 ,wallace's criticism by supposing that he read our papers inattentively in the first instance1 and was afterwards influenced by unconscious memory in his subsequent cogitations upon the problem of cross-sterility4 ,and now1 finally1 in order to show this still more completely1 ,i may quote the whole paragraph which concludes his long discussion of that problem3 ,the preceding argument1 it will be seen1 depends entirely upon the assumption that some amount of infertility characterises the distinct varieties which are in process of differentiation into species2 and it may be objected that of such infertility there is no proof4 ,this is admitted3 but it is urged that facts have been adduced which render such infertility probable1 at least in some cases1 and this is all that is required4 ,it is by no means necessary that all varieties should exhibit incipient infertility1 but only some varieties2 for we know that1 of the innumerable varieties that occur1 but few become developed into distinct species2 and it may be that the absence of infertility1 to obviate the effects of intercrossing1 is one of the usual causes of their failure4 ,all ,i have attempted to show is1 that when incipient infertility does occur in correlation with other varietal differences1 that infertility can be1 and in fact must be1 increased by natural selection2 and this1 it appears to me1 is a decided step in advance in the solution of the problem4 ,this serves to convey a very accurate summary of the whole preceding argument2 and it is likewise an admirably concise restatement of the theory of physiological selection4 ,the only points in it to which ,i object--considered as an epitome of my own paper--are as follows4 ,first1 ,mr4 ,wallace has not proved quite so good an advocate as he might have proved1 had he looked more closely into the evidence that some amount of infertility characterises the distinct varieties which are in process of differentiation into species4 ,for although he says1 properly enough1 that his preceding argument--i4 e41 the theory of physiological selection--depends entirely upon the assumption that such infertility does characterise distinct varieties which are in process of differentiation into species2 still he is wrong in saying it is admitted that in favor of this assumption there is no proof beyond what he has himself urged in the way of facts which render such infertility probable3 there are many other facts which not only render such infertility probable1 but prove it to be actual4 ,secondly1 although ,i quite agree with ,mr4 ,wallace in holding that natural selection must often1 as ,i said in my original paper1 co-operate with physiological selection1 still ,i must point out that the particular form of segregate breeding to which he here alludes is not natural selection at all2 but 7as explained in the foot-note to page #ae7 physiological selection pure and simple4 ,my objections1 however1 with regard to these two points have no reference to the validity of ,mr4 ,wallace's restatement of my views2 and the fact that this restatement has been given with the most incomprehensible unconsciousness that it is a restatement1 does not appear to me to detract from the significance of the argumentative suicide in which his entire criticism is thus found to terminate4#g #g ,i am the more surprised that ,mr4 ,wallace did not perceive his almost complete adoption of my views in this latest publication of his own1 because ,i had previously had occasion to point out a partial adoption of them in an earlier publication of his on the same subject4 ,the following is what ,i said upon that occasion--viz41 in the ,nineteenth ,century1 ,january1 #ahhh3 ,one very obvious and probably frequent instance of what may be termed collective variation in the reproductive system--or a variation due to a common cause acting on many individuals simultaneously--is actually quoted from my paper by ,mr4 ,wallace himself1 namely1 changes in the season of flowering or of pairing1 which insure that any section of a species so affected shall be fertile only within itself4 ,collective variation of this kind may be directly due to the incidence of some common cause1 such as changed conditions of life with respect to food1 climate1 station1 etc42 or1 as in the case of bud-variation1 it may be due to a single sport affecting all the blossoms growing upon the same branch4 ,but besides such direct action of a common cause1 it is easy to see that natural selection1 use and disuse1 etc41 by operating in the production of organic changes elsewhere1 may not unfrequently react on the sexual system indirectly1 and so induce the sexual change required in a number of individuals simultaneously4 ,now1 in his ,darwinism1 ,mr4 ,wallace again reproduces this instance of physiological selection1 without even yet appearing to perceive that both in my original paper upon the subject and in my answer to his criticism as above quoted1 ,i adduce this particular instance of physiological selection as a typical one4 ,therefore1 when he now says3--,another mode of isolation is brought about by the variety--either owing to habits1 climate1 or constitutional change--breeding at a slightly different time from the parent species3 this is known to produce complete isolation in the case of many varieties of plants3 he is merely restating what ,i have repeatedly given as an unquestionable case of physiological selection4 ,with the self-destruction of this criticism ,i am left without any other to answer2 and ,i should not have occupied so much space in dealing with this one1 were it not that the high estimation in which ,mr4 ,wallace is so deservedly held by all other naturalists is calculated to render almost incredible the peculiar position to which he has eventually gravitated with reference to my views--professing hostility on the one hand1 while reproducing them as original on the other4 ,the misunderstanding of my ideas which this state of matters represents1 might have led me to wonder whether ,i could possibly have rendered my meaning more clear in the first instance1 were it not that this misunderstanding extends in an even greater measure to ,mr4 ,gulick's paper than it does to mine4 ,for seeing that the whole criticism is founded on the erroneous idea that our theory supposes physiological selection always to act alone1 the misconception becomes positively ludicrous in its relation to ,mr4 ,gulick's views2 seeing that1 as previously stated1 ,mr4 ,gulick not only agrees with me in holding that physiological selection must be greatly fortified by being associated with any other form of homogamy1 but even goes so far as to agree with ,mr4 ,wallace that1 unless it is so fortified1 it can never act at all4 ,so that1 as far as physiological selection is concerned1 ,mr4 ,gulick's theory is precisely identical with that of ,mr4 ,wallace1 and differs from his statement of it only in recognising a number of forms of homogamy1 in addition to natural selection1 sexual selection1 etc41 with which the principle of physiological selection may be associated4 ,,george ,j4 ,,romanes4 ,,the ,,immortality ,,of ,,infusoria4 ,the ingenious hypothesis that ,weismann1 the eminent ,freiburg professor1 promulgated several years ago regarding the vitality of all unicellular beings1 but more especially of the ,protozoans1 is undoubtedly widely known4 ,weismann maintained that the ,protozoans were distinguished from the ,metazoans1 or organisms composed of a number of cells1 by the curious property they possessed of exemption from decay and death4 ,the ,protozoans exhibited1 in the very words of the ,german savant1 an instance of potential immortality2#h that is to say1 a natural physiological death did not exist for them2 if they perished1 it was by accident or chance1 extraneous to the laws of their organisation4 ,a great many authors have written upon this subject since ,weismann1 either in support of his opinion1 or in refutation of it1 and of them we may mention principally ,goette1#i ,minot1#aj and ,m4 ,delboeuf4#aa #h ,ueber die ,dauer des ,lebens4 ,jena1 #ahhb4 #i ,ueber den ,ursprung des ,todes1 #ahhc4 #aj ,la ,mort et l',individualit4 7,bulletin ,scientifique du ,nord1 #ahhd-he47 #aa ,la ,matire ,brute et la ,matire ,vivante4 ,paris #ahhg4 ,it is to be observed that this idea of potential immortality is not the exclusive property of ,weismann4 ,we find it clearly indicated by ,ehrenberg4 ,and1 moreover1 as ,btschli remarks1 it is so natural that it ought to occur of itself to the mind of every tolerably thoughtful observer that has devoted his time to the study of the biology of these minute creatures4#ab #ab ,gedanken ber ,leben und ,tod 7,zoologische ,anzeige1 ,vol4 v1 #ahhb71 cited by ,m4 ,maupas in ,multiplication des ,infusoires ,cilis--,arch4 de ,zool4 ,experimen41 ,no4 #b1 #ahhh4 ,weismann founded his theory in part upon metaphysical1 or at least theoretical1 considerations1 which we deem it useless to discuss at this point4 ,but it is also supported by observed facts1 and these facts it will be profitable to recapitulate from the very onset4 ,the idea of the immortality of ,infusoria occurs naturally to the mind when one examines with care what happens when an ,infusorian reproduces4 ,we know that the reproduction consists in a bipartition of the body of the animal1 and that consequently the parent does not die but lives in the two products of its bipartition4 ,in subsequent multiplications the same phenomenon is always observed to occur1 so that the entire substance of the parent is found preserved and living in the individuals to which it gives birth4 ,this process ,weismann expressed by the emphatic statement3 ,in multiplication by division there are no corpses4 ,it is wholly otherwise with the metazoans1 and the reason of this fundamental difference is easily explained by the comparison of the organisation of the body of a metazoan with that of a protozoan4 ,whereas the protozoan is represented by a single cell that comprehends all the vital functions1 the functions of reproduction as well as those of nutrition and relation1 the metazoan1 on the other hand1 is composed of an aggregation1 of a colony of distinct cells1 among which a division of labor has been effected varying in complexity with the height that the animal has attained in the classificatory scale4 ,it results from this division of labor that in the metazoan certain cells only--those namely which are called the sexual cells--are entrusted with the office of the conservation of the species1 while the various other cells are more especially adapted to the conservation of the individual4 ,when a metazoan reproduces1 the sexual cells alone enter into activity1 and after having suffered various modifications1 the principal one of which is fecundation1 the sexual cells become the seat of numerous segmentations that go to constitute a new animal distinct from the one that gave it birth4 ,the moment the parent individual ceases to be blended with the individual it produces1 it can perish without imperilling the conservation of the species1 and thus it is that death appears in the animal kingdom as a logical consequence of division of labor4 ,we also know that ,weismann1 in developing these interesting facts1 was led with many other naturalists to establish the doctrine that every metazoan may be considered as made up of two entirely distinct groups of cells3 #a7 of somatic cells1 which represent the individual1 and which are invested with the care of its nourishment1 its sense-mechanism1 its movements1 and all the functions that have to do with individual life2 and #b7 of sexual cells1 charged with the office of the maintenance of the species in time4 ,whereas the somatic cells are destined to perish1 the sexual cells on the contrary1 multiplying by division after the mode of the reproduction of micro-organisms1 represent the protozoan type1 which is immortal2 and1 by the intermediary agency of the fecundated ovum1 the sexual cells pass from generation to generation1 thus forming a material bond between successive generations4 ,though we have to succumb to death1 there is at least a portion of us that ought not to die1 from the fact that it is transmittible to our descendants4 ,naegeli expressed this idea in a felicitous form1 when he compared the species to a creeping branch that sent out at successive points annual buds4 ,the buds1 which die1 are the individuals--that is the somatic group2 while the branch that survives after the death of the buds1 and which represents the species1 is the system of sexual cells4 ,weismann1 finally1 has described the same phenomenon by the expression 'continuity of the germinative plasm4' ,a great many discussions have arisen with regard to this germinative plasm2 for everything touches upon this domain1 and ,weismann has conceived a theory that endeavors to explain not only the phenomenon of fecundation1 but also that of heredity4 ,i cannot mention here the numerous works upon this subject1 and refer the inquisitive reader for a knowledge of the same to a series of lectures by ,professor ,balbiani that ,i have epitomized in the ,revue ,philosophique for ,december #ahhi4 ,the theory of the potential immortality of the ,infusoria has recently been attacked by ,m4 ,maupas1 whose observations tend to show that natural death1 caused by senescence1 does obtain among the ,infusoria1 and that it is comparable in many points of view to the natural death of the metazoans4 ,the researches of ,m4 ,maupas upon the multiplication of ciliate ,infusoria are of a relatively recent date1 having appeared in #ahhh in ,vol4 ,,vi4 of the ,archives de ,zoologie ,exprimentale4 ,it is scarcely necessary to say that the ciliate ,infusoria can propagate without previous coition4 ,the agamic mode of reproduction appears to be almost the same1 save in a few details1 as that which follows coition4 ,it consists in a bipartition or division of the body of the animal along a plane usually perpendicular to the grand axis of the nucleus1 and it is a matter of course that that element takes part in the division at the same time with the protoplasm4 ,these phenomena of reproduction it is possible to study upon a grand scale by supplying ,infusoria kept in captivity with abundance of nourishment4 ,the easiest way is to produce a putrid fermentation by means of vegetable fragments crushed and macerated in water4 ,the ,infusoria contained in this water find abundant food furnished by the bacteria developed in it1 and they therefore multiply in great numbers4 ,by means of appropriate methods of treatment and isolation we are able to follow the phenomenon step by step and to examine what the animal actually becomes after each agamic bipartition4 ,weismann1 when he laid the foundation of his theory of the immortality of ,infusoria1 supposed that the development of the ,infusoria by bipartition had no limits and could be prolonged indefinitely without injury to the vitality of the protoplasm4 ,various authors had already made observations which were directly in contradiction with this view4 ,m4 ,balbiani1 in #ahfj1 in a communication entitled1 ,observations and ,experiments upon the ,phenomena of ,fissiparous ,reproduction among ,ciliate ,infusoria1#ac concludes thus3 one of the most important questions 444 has been to determine whether this mode of propagation is really unlimited1 or whether1 after being continued throughout a greater or lesser number of generations1 it becomes by degrees enfeebled1 finally to disappear completely4444 ,we have established that this mode of propagation has its limits1 and ends invariably in one of the three following ways3 either by the natural and almost simultaneous death of all the individuals belonging to the same cycle1 or by the recurrence of sexual generation leading to the termination of one of the cycles and the commencement of a new cycle1 or finally by the phenomenon of encystment1 which in fact brings about only a momentary interruption of the process of reproduction by fissiparity ,m4 ,balbiani1 apropos of this subject1 has called attention to a curious observation made by the celebrated ,danish micrographer ,o4 ,f4 ,mller1 who lived in the last century4 ,mller had observed that the individuals of any one species most ordinarily found in coition were almost all of small stature4 ,but he took them for the young individuals of the species4 ,now these individuals of small size are in reality the oldest1 that is to say1 they are the ones that are the result of a great number of successive bipartitions2 and it is to be observed1 that1 in a great many species1 in proportion as the bipartitions increase the size of the ,infusoria decreases4 #ac ,c4 ,r4 ,acad4 des ,sciences4 ,vol4 iv4 p4 #aaia4 ,in fine1 without further concerning ourselves with the history of this question1 we see that according to ,m4 ,balbiani the agamic reproduction of ,infusoria has its limits1 and that1 when coition1 that is to say fecundation1 does not intervene1 it may terminate by the natural death of the individuals or in certain species by encystment4 ,the chief new element contained in the recent researches of ,m4 ,maupas1 which were made twenty years after the date of the preceding investigations1 consists in his study of the various phenomena of senescence that the ,infusoria after a long series of bipartitions present4 ,m4 ,maupas has established that there exists in the ,infusoria no part1 no element1 that by itself and by its own faculties1 can live and be maintained indefinitely4 ,the first outward sign of degeneration is manifested in a reduction of size4 ,the individuals1 according as the number of generations increases1 become smaller and smaller4 ,with ,stylonichia pustulata1 which in the normal state measures one hundred and sixty 1 the size of the body is seen gradually to fall to one hundred and thirty-five1 one hundred and ten1 seventy1 and even to forty 4 ,when the effects of senescence become marked1 the animal in its external organs undergoes atrophies and new and more profound degenerations4 ,in ,stylonichia pustulata the vibratile buccal apparatus becomes gradually atrophied and partly disappears1 and in all species the body is reduced and becomes more and more shrunken1 assuming forms and contours very far removed from the specific type4 ,the degeneration of the nuclear apparatus at once begins4 ,the first modifications affect the accessory or attendant nucleus1 a cut of which will be found at page #aah of my work on ,micro-organisms1#ad and of which the principal function seems to be the maintenance and conservation of the species1 and which1 therefore1 ought to be considered as the real substratum of the immortal plasma4 ,far from enjoying the attribute of eternal youth1 the accessory nucleus seems on the contrary to be affected with a weakness greater and more premature than that of the other parts of the organism4 ,in fact it is this organ that is first atrophied and that disappears under the influence of senile degenerescence4 ,then1 in its turn1 the principal nucleus is affected4 ,it takes1 according to the species1 a different form4 ,now it diminishes in volume1 now it divides into two minute bodies that assume irregular contours1 and at other times it assumes a ribbon-like shape4 #ad ,english translation by ,the ,open ,court ,pub4 ,co41 ,chicago4 ,longmans ,co41 ,london4 ,it is interesting to note that even after the disappearance of the accessory nucleus1 whenever the principal nucleus still subsists1 the ,infusoria continue to live and divide by fission4 ,this life1 says ,m4 ,maupas1 has some features of abnormality about it1 since it has become wholly purposeless4 ,the animals still live an individual life1 but they are dead to the life of the species4#ae #ae ,page #bfb4 ,in concluding upon this point1 ,i must mention the reservations that may be entertained with regard to the exactitude of the preceding observations and the value of the method employed in their attainment4 ,a competent critic has remarked that it is difficult to assume that nine hundred and thirty-five specimens of the genus ,stylonichia could find the gases necessary for the support of life1 seeing that ,m4 ,maupas kept them under the same stage where they only had at their disposal a mass of water equal to one hundred cubic millimetres2 and it may thus be asked whether the phenomena of senescence produced under these special conditions were not pathological4 ,this criticism seems to be especially strengthened by the fact1 that according to ,m4 ,maupas1 the animalcula placed beneath the shield1 all finally congregate at the edge of the preparation1 evidently to seek there the air of which they are in need4 ,if we took our stand1 however1 upon the facts before cited we could conclude without hesitation that the celebrated thesis of ,weismann regarding the immortality of the ciliate ,infusoria had been overthrown4 ,but the phenomena are not presented with this simplicity4 ,when the vitality of the ,infusoria has become weakened by a considerable number of agamic reproductions1 and the animalcule is upon the point of dying a natural death1 a new biological phenomenon can intervene1 rejuvenating the animal and rendering it capable of reproducing itself anew for a long series of generations4 ,that phenomenon is fecundation4 99 99 99 99 99 ,in our work upon ,micro-,organisms we have spoken at length of the material process of fecundation in ciliate ,infusoria1 and of the phenomena preliminary to it1 following as our guide the observations of ,balbiani1 ,gruber1 ,btschli1 and ,engelmann4 ,it will be necessary to recur here to that subject and to supplement our preceding exposition with some important details4 ,moreover1 recent researches1 added to other older ones1 afford us interesting information with regard to the conditions and determining causes of conjugation and also of the significance of fecundation itself4 ,we have seen above that according to ,m4 ,balbiani an active period of agamic bipartition in ,infusoria can terminate in a period of conjugation2 a circumstance which produces in effect a cyclical alternation between agamic generations and a sex-generation4 ,the very word cycle is used in the observations of ,m4 ,balbiani4 ,m4 ,maupas elevated this observation of ,m4 ,balbiani to the rank of a method2 using1 in order to procure the great number of coitions necessary for his investigations1 the following process4 ,he placed the ,infusoria in water in which he had produced a putrid fermentation4 ,the ,infusoria1 thanks to the abundance of the nutriment developed in great numbers4 ,while thus swarming they were lifted out with a drop of water1 which was kept upon the stage in a moist chamber4 ,the ,infusoria there continued to grow larger and multiply2 but by reason of their great numbers it was not long before they exhausted the food brought with them in the drop of water4 ,when the last remains of their nutriment had disappeared they were seen in the majority of cases to seek each other and to copulate4 ,according to ,m4 ,maupas1 it is not solely the weakness produced by a series of bipartitions1 but1 in addition to that and more particularly1 the scarcity of food1 that excites in the ciliate ,infusoria the conjugal appetite4 ,the epidemics of conjugation of which the authors speak1 are not otherwise explainable4 ,m4 ,maupas even says1 that when a number of pairs are about to copulate1 it is only necessary to give them food to put an end to their conjugation4 ,scarcity1 that author further remarks1 ought evidently not to modify in any essential the internal organic state of the ,infusoria in question2 no more indeed than the opposed condition1 that is1 an abundance of rich food 7page #djc of his memoir74 ,but in the first case they copulate without any ado2 in the second1 they refuse to do so entirely4 ,rich alimentation deadens the conjugal appetite2 fasting1 on the contrary awakens and excites it4 ,there exists moreover1 according to the author last mentioned1 in ciliate ,infusoria1 a particular period beyond which fecund coitions cannot take place4 ,it is what he calls the period of karyogamic maturity4 ,thus1 in ,leucophrys1 for example1 fecund coitions are observed to take place only after the three-hundredth generation4 ,before that time the ,infusoria may be placed in all the other conditions favorable to copulation1 without being seen to contract a single union4 ,on the other hand1 beyond that time1 a period extends in which numerous coitions are obtained4 ,although1 indeed1 the cyclical alternation of agamic generations and copulations is indisputable1 further researches are still necessary to obtain a thorough knowledge of the extent of these cycles4 ,it is certain that their duration varies in the different species1 and perhaps1 in conditions as yet imperfectly known1 may in any one species be considerably abridged4 ,we are now come to the preliminaries of copulation4 ,we have described them in our work1 making use of the observations of ,balbiani1 ,gruber1 and of ,engelmann1 some of which we found confirmed by ,btschli4 ,m4 ,maupas1 who has recently again taken up this question1 believes he has discovered in his predecessors1 or rather in the observations of ,m4 ,balbiani1 grave errors4 ,i shall transcribe the passage in question3 ,when a numerous group of ,infusoria of the same species are found in the conditions that determine copulation1 these animalcula abandon themselves to certain movements1 and exhibit an agitation the significance of which has been much exaggerated4 ,balbiani1 who in fact always seeks analogies with the higher animals1 has given us an animated description of these movements1 to which a poetical imagination has contributed at least as much as exact and scientific observation4 ,this description has met with a most favorable reception among certain philosophers and psychologists who have taken up with it in the belief that they could thereby reveal in microzoans the rudiments of the instincts and psychic faculties of higher-organized beings4 ,as there is very much inexactitude and exaggeration in all that1 it is time to calm this enthusiasm and to refer the facts and their explanation to some more exact criterion4 7,page #dac47 ,i believe it useless to occupy my time in dealing with the aggressive tone that this author has seen fit to assume towards me1 and which seems to be habitual with him when he criticises the works of people with whom he does not agree4 ,i shall carefully examine his observations and seek to derive from them some profit1 to the improvement and correction of my work upon the ,psychic ,life of ,micro-,organisms1 if it is true that ,i have committed the grave errors of which he speaks4 ,besides1 the question of the preliminaries of copulation is so interesting in itself that ,i have no fear of turning to it a second time4 ,it is necessary1 here1 clearly to distinguish two things3 the facts and their explanations4 ,in that which concerns observed facts1 the errors that ,m4 ,maupas endeavors to point out in the descriptions of ,m4 ,balbiani appear to me to be capable of a reduction to a matter of so little significance--admitting that it comes at all from error--that if ,i had not been apprised of it1 ,i should have regarded the researches of the first author as a confirmation in most details of those of the second4 ,it is to be observed1 in fact1 that ,m4 ,maupas gives almost the same description that ,balbiani does of the movements of ,paramcium aurelia4 ,i have followed animals of that species a number of times1 he says1 during the preparations for copulation4 ,they exhibit at that moment a very great agitation4 ,they are seen to go and come1 rapidly changing their direction4 ,they approach and throw themselves against their congeners1 halt in front of them1 feel them an instant with their cilia1 then leave them1 assume the most varied positions1 and1 finally1 when two individuals equally ready for union chance to meet each other1 they face about by their anterior extremities so that the two bodies come together and join1 with the exception of the posterior extremities1 along their whole extent2 the union is thus definitively effected4 ,up to this point1 let it be observed1 our author's description is but a paraphrase of that of ,m4 ,balbiani1 which we have given on page #fi of our work2 and a simple comparison of the two suffices to prove this4 ,the divergences of fact extend1 as it seems to me1 to the two following points only3 ,the duration of the preliminaries1 and the existence of an epidemic of copulation4 ,m4 ,maupas thinks that the movements in question never last very long1 at the most a quarter of or half an hour among individuals that have arrived at karyogamic maturity4 ,whereas ,m4 ,balbiani has observed these same movements last for several days4 ,i do not know which of these two observations is the more exact2 in fact1 ,i do not think it necessary to choose between them1 since both may be exact1 the duration of the phenomenon generally being dependent upon conditions subject to great change1 while ,m4 ,maupas himself remarks that the ciliate ,infusoria in the variability of all their biological phenomena are veritable thermometers of a very great sensibility4 ,however that may be1 whether the movements that precede copulation in ,paramcium last a quarter of an hour1 half an hour1 or several days1 that fact does not change their real character4 ,the second divergence relates to the epidemics of copulation in the case of ,paramcium aurelia2 observed by ,m4 ,balbiani and denied by ,m4 ,maupas4 ,all the individuals of a group1 says ,m4 ,maupas1 are never found simultaneously in this condition4 ,hence the tentative preliminaries of copulation1 that fail in their object and end in the individuals going to seek elsewhere another partner4 ,i confess1 ,i do not understand this statement1 involving1 as it does1 ,m4 ,maupas in a contradiction2 for two pages before this he speaks of the mode of the appearance of copulation as in the epidemic form4 ,all observers1 he says1 that have occupied themselves with this phenomenon1 state that it is suddenly developed in the little aquariums in which the animals are contained1 and very rapidly becomes general 7page #da74 ,to this then the divergences of fact are reduced--a matter entirely insignificant2 and ,i believe it useless to dwell upon it longer4 ,the question of interpretation remains4 ,i shall also say a few words with reference to this1 although the disagreement is at bottom not much more serious4 ,we have seen1 that1 according to ,m4 ,maupas1 the ,infusoria do not seek each other and copulate until after a fast of considerable duration caused by exhaustion of the store of food in the medium in which they live4 ,the author concludes from this that scarcity of food is the sole and real cause of the great agitation in which they are then seen4 ,when an infusion thickly populated begins to get exhausted1 the animalcula congregate together1 always forming those whitish cloud-spots that we have described as the prelude to copulation4444 ,not until afterwards do the actual movements of copulation occur1 which never last very long4 ,accordingly1 there is first an agitation produced by hunger1 and only in consequence of that are the preliminaries of copulation brought about4 ,admitting this interpretation as exact1 which is indeed a question that ,i reserve1 ,i conclude that ,m4 ,maupas completely accepts the facts of the preliminaries of copulation1 distinguishing them from other phenomena that precede them4 ,he says1 moreover1 and these are his own words1 that the sexual impulse does indeed exist in these little creatures4 ,unquestionably he is right in adding that this sexual impulse presents in the ciliate ,infusoria manifestations much simpler than in the higher animals1 and that it is otherwise in accord with their simplicity of organisation4 ,that is evident1 and no one ,i believe has ever maintained the contrary4 ,finally1 the author refuses to admit that the sexual manifestations of the ,infusoria can be compared with the phenomena of rut4 ,rut1 he says1 the external and psychic manifestations of which we know with any degree of exactitude only in mammals1 is a reflex phenomenon concomitant with and consecutive to the maturation of the ,graafian vesicles4 ,it is therefore an especial phenomenon peculiar to the females of the highest group of the animal series4 ,males are not subject to rut1 but are always ready to experience the sexual excitation whenever they find themselves in contact with females that are fallen into that condition 7page #dad74 ,naturalists will certainly read with great astonishment this definition of rut1 which is wholly new and personal to the author4 ,hitherto the word rut has not been reserved for mammals2 it has been applied to all classes of animals1 even to the lowest1 and ,duvernoy1 for example1 has devoted an article to the rut of zophytes4 ,we now come1 following the chronological order of the phenomena1 to the material processes of conjugation1 otherwise called fecundation1 in the ciliate ,infusoria4 ,it is needless to take up in its entirety a question that we have already examined1 and which will be found treated of at page #fe of our work4 ,but it is certainly interesting to dwell upon the general significance of the question of fecundation4 ,it is known that all ciliate ,infusoria1 excepting some species such as ,opalina1 a parasitic infusory of the frog1 exhibit in their protoplasm two kinds of nuclear corpuscles4 ,first a nucleus1 a principal nucleus1 which the authors designate by the names endoplast and macronucleus2 this element is in some ways comparable to the nucleus of the cells of tissues4 ,besides this the ciliate ,infusoria possess a smaller nuclear element than the former1 called by the authors nucleolus1 or endoplastule1 or attendant nucleus1 or finally micronucleus4 ,this micronucleus comprises in its evolution the internal phenomena of the process of conjugation4 ,the principal nucleus plays in the process but an accessory rle1 for it is a wasted element destined to be replaced by a nucleus of new formation2 when it undergoes more or less complete elimination4 ,the attendant nucleus passes through a series of complicated modifications which vary much in detail for each species4 ,first1 there are stages of division destined to prepare the way for the elimination of the used up corpuscles4 ,but the most important fact is that at a given moment there exists in the protoplasm of each ciliate ,infusory in conjugation1 two corpuscles derived from the nucleus2 then an exchange is effected between the two individuals in copulation2 each transmits to the other one of the corpuscles1 which copulates with the remaining corpuscle left in the interior of the body4 ,these two little nuclei that play parts so different are1 according to ,m4 ,maupas1 completely identical with one another and do not show the least difference either in form1 volume1 or structure4 ,in the twelve species in which ,i have succeeded in closely studying these organs1 says that author1 ,i have always seen them act with the most perfect similitude under the influence of coloring and fixitive re-agents4 ,nevertheless1 in view of the future condition of these two elements1 ,m4 ,maupas is led to give them the very significant names of male pronucleus and female pronucleus4 ,the female pronucleus is the one that remains immobile in the body of the parent gamete2 while the other1 the male1 is exchanged and passes into the body of the other gamete4 ,in what does the real nature of the copulation of these two pronuclei consist8 ,does it consist in a fusion of the elements mentioned1 or1 indeed1 do the latter preserve their original independence and autonomy in the midst of the new mixed nucleus1 standing in juxtaposition with and moving in and about one another8 ,this is the question that ,m4 ,maupas immediately proceeded to examine4 ,the recent researches of ,m4 ,ed4 ,van ,beneden upon the internal mechanism of fecundation in ,ascaris megalocephala are well known4 ,we have published in the ,revue ,philosophique1 following ,m4 ,balbiani1 a rsum of these important investigations1 and we may be permitted to reproduce here a few passages therefrom2 for nothing is more interesting than the evolution followed by our ideas in that which concerns fecundation4 ,the notions that were formed of this phenomenon only took definite and precise shape from the time when the existence of the two elements of fecundation1 the spermatozon and the ovum1 could be established4 ,it was at first believed that the spermatozon impregnated the ovum by the exercise of a purely physical action--an action of contact and influence4 ,but observation demonstrated that something more took place1 namely1 an actual conjugation1 a union1 a blending of the spermatozon and the ovule4 ,a further step was made in #ahge1 when it was discovered1 in studying the ova of ,echinoderms1 that but one single part of the ovule1 the germinative vesicle1 conjugated with but one part of the spermatozon1 namely the head1 and that since these two elements have each the value of a nucleus1 fecundation consisted in the conjugation of two nuclei4 ,but there was still an element of obscurity in this idea1 simple as it was4 ,if the nuclei were vesicles like soap-bubbles they might burst1 the one within the other2 but the nucleus contains a great number of differentiated elements1 the chromatic reticulated substance1 the nuclear substance1 the nucleoli1 etc43 what becomes of all these elements during the conjugation of the two nuclei8 ,in #ahha1 ,flemming made a new advance in the question4 ,he determined more precisely the nature of the fusion of the two pronuclei1 establishing that it consisted in the blending of their chromatic substances4 ,this he observed in the ova of the ,echinoderms4 ,according to the very recent works of ,m4 ,van ,beneden upon ,ascaris megalocephala1 the great nematoid of the horse1 there is no fusion whatever between the two pronuclei4 ,they always remain distinct4 ,each passes through1 separately1 all the phases of karyokinesis1 when the fecundated ovum divides4 ,in this connection the recent observations of ,m4 ,balbiani confirm the opinion of ,van ,beneden1 who had been sharply attacked by ,carnoy and ,zacharias4 ,first1 in each of the two pronuclei each reticulate substance is observed to present the initial phases of karyokinesis2 the net-works form into a skein that contracts and thickens2 the ribbon-like body thus formed divides into two segments1 which bend so as to form acute-angled crooks or loops4 ,there are thus produced two loops in the male pronucleus1 and two in the female pronucleus4 ,then the two male loops approach the two female loops in a manner such that a sort of star is formed with eight branches turned towards the periphery of the ovum 7nuclear or equatorial disk74 ,then the fecundated ovum begins to divide into segments4 ,now at every new equatorial stage of the subsequent divisions of the ovum these four loops are seen to reappear in such a manner that fusion never takes place between the male element and the female element4 ,each of the four primitive chromatic loops divides by longitudinal division into two secondary loops1 whence result two equatorial semi-disks1 each formed of four secondary loops1 of which two come from the male pronucleus and two from the female pronucleus4 ,each of the two new nuclei contains therefore a certain number of male and female chromatic loops1 and consequently presents an hermaphroditic constitution4 ,for ,van ,beneden1 therefore1 fecundation consists essentially in the presence in the ovum of two nuclei1 one male and one female4 ,the conjugation of the two nuclei is a phenomenon of no importance2 it may take place1 or it may not4 ,the physiological signification of fecundation is a process of rejuvenation1 in which the ovum replaces its old male element with a new male element1 the spermatozon4#af #af ,recherches sur la ,maturation de l'uf1 etc4 ,arch4 de ,biol4 ,vol4 iv4 #ahhc4 ,nouvelles ,recherches sur la ,fcondation4 ,bul4 de l',acad4 ,roy4 des ,sciences de ,belgique1 #c ,srie1 ,vol4 xiv4 #ahhg4 ,m4 ,maupas remarks that the pronuclei of the ,infusoria by reason of their complicated structures do not admit of these difficult investigations4 ,nevertheless he mentions the fact that these pronuclei are1 in the elements mentioned1 composed of two distinct substances1 hyaloplasm and chromatin4 ,he puts forth the opinion that the hyaloplasm constitutes an accessory portion1 and that the chromatin is endowed with the fecundative properties4 ,which means that in certain ciliate ,infusoria the male pronucleus at the moment of its migration is composed solely of chromatin4 ,finally1 ,m4 ,maupas arrives at the conclusion that the supreme end of fecundationis the renovation1 the reconstitution1 of a rejuvenated nucleus formed by the copulation of two fecundative nuclei having distinct origins and of which the chromatin elements represent the essential part 7page #dcd74 99 99 99 99 99 ,it is now time to return a moment to the theory of ,weismann and to see if it has not been shaken by the new data that we have just placed before the reader4 ,accepting the results of the experiments of ,m4 ,maupas1 who1 as a matter of fact1 has arrived at the same conclusions as ,m4 ,balbiani1 we are led to the admission that when a ciliate ,infusorian multiplies by agamic division a great number of times1 the offspring that appear after from #ej to #ajj bipartitions has not the same physiological value as its original progenitor2 and that agamic multiplication ends in exhaustion and in natural death4 ,but it must1 on the other hand1 be taken into account that this process of senescence is counteracted by that of conjugation1 which consists in a nuclear renovation2 and since the substance1 the protoplasm1 of the rejuvenated individual escapes death1 a new argument might be found in these last mentioned facts for the theory of the immortality of ,infusoria4 ,the question is1 at bottom1 whether the individual after conjugation is identically the same as before conjugation1 or whether it constitutes a new animal4 ,in that the solution rests4 ,now1 the new element that the individual acquires by the act of conjugation is the male pronucleus of its partner4 ,in addition it loses the greater part of its old accessory nucleus and the whole of its old principal nucleus4 ,in return1 by way of compensation1 it preserves the integrity of its protoplasm and of its other organs4 ,m4 ,gruber believes that physical identity persists in spite of these modifications4 ,m4 ,maupas maintains the contrary4 ,it seems to us that a question of this character does not admit of a satisfactory solution1 and this opinion will be shared by all who have considered the idea of physical identity4 ,it is a notion obscure1 uncertain1 and full of contradictions4 ,we have formed it because it answers our practical needs4 ,but it is certainly evident that it corresponds to no well defined external phenomenon4 ,in fact1 we understand by physical identity the constant reunion of certain elements in a certain order4 ,if the order of these elements is very slightly modified1 or if a very small number of these elements is replaced by others1 we do not hesitate to say that the physical identity in question has not been altered by these insignificant modifications4 ,if1 on the other hand1 the order has been almost totally destroyed1 if the greater portion of the elements has been renewed1 we should1 on the contrary1 say that the identity of the thing in question had been lost in these alterations and that a new object had replaced the old4 ,replace a stone in a house and the latter remains the same house2 rebuild the house upon a new plan and with different materials retaining very little of the first construction1 and it is a different house4 ,but between these two extreme cases there is a whole series of possible intermediate changes1 and we are not able to establish clearly by any exterior mark the point where physical identity ends4 ,this is a matter of personal estimation2 ,i might even say of caprice2 and all the discussions raised upon these questions appear to me wholly idle4 ,i believe1 accordingly1 that the thesis of ,weismann regarding the immortality of ,infusoria eludes a direct refutation4 ,it is neither confirmed nor overturned by observed facts4 ,,alfred ,,binet4 ,,on ,,the ,,material ,,relations ,,of ,,sex ,,in ,,human ,,society4 ,much interest is displayed at present in the development of woman1 both as to her personal characteristics1 and in her relations to her surroundings in human society4 ,it is justly said that the civilisation of a nation may be measured by the degree of humanity displayed by its men towards its women4 ,this is for the reason that1 since women are the weaker sex1 man has only ethical reasons for self-restraint in his treatment of her4 ,nowhere is the sex-interest under better ethical control than in the ,united ,states2 and it is in this country also that we hear the most of reforms which are necessary in order that woman may attain a further development1 and assume a higher position in relation to the state4 ,this being the case1 it is extremely important that the foundation facts1 or in other words the necessary natural conditions1 under which the sexes co-operate in society1 should be fully understood4 ,that they are not understood1 or that they are intentionally ignored in some quarters1 is evident to any one who reads the current literature of the subject4 ,the relation of the male man to his environment involves the usual struggle for existence more or less active4 ,his pice de resistance is the mineral and vegetable world and its atmosphere1 and his antagonist is his fellow man4 ,the former generally yields more or less abundantly to his solicitations4 ,what he gets from his fellow man is acquired through the necessities of the latter1 and the benefit may be mutual1 or it may be all on one side4 ,his best friend may unconsciously and unintentionally1 in the regular order of trade1 reduce him to beggary1 or compel him1 as an alternative1 to emigrate to a distant land4 ,such results are more frequent as population increases4 ,to maintain himself against the destructive forces of nature1 such as cold1 heat1 rains1 tempests1 fires1 blights1 etc41 is his necessary occupation4 ,if he pursue a profession1 or if he be in trade1 he must supply the actual needs of his fellow man1 and beware that competition and monopoly do not deprive him of all return for his labor4 ,woman1 considered by herself1 is subject to identical conditions4 ,her needs are the same and her environment is the same4 ,but she is not so well endowed as man to supply the one or to meet the other4 ,her disabilities are of two kinds1 physical and mental4 ,the physical are3 first1 inferior muscular strength1 and secondly1 childbearing4 ,the latter means more or less incompetence for active work at monthly periods1 or several months of gestation and lactation1 and some years of care of children4 ,the mental disabilities are3 first1 inferior power of mental co-ordination2 and secondly1 greater emotional sensibility1 which interferes more or less with rational action4#ag #ag ,this is1 of course1 only true where the sexes of the same subspecies or race are compared4 ,from these facts it is evident that1 were woman of the same sex as man1 that is1 were she simply another kind of man1 she would soon be eliminated from the earth under the operation of the ordinary law of the survival of the fittest4 ,this need not be through any agencies different from those now actually in operation among men under the circumstances of peaceful trade4 ,and such is often the actual history of male men who possess marked feminine characteristics4 ,it does not follow from this1 that some women might not sustain themselves apart from men1 in agriculture1 trade1 and the professions4 ,this is especially possible where the struggle is not very severe2 but in the cases which exist1 few are really independent of male assistance1 which has furnished the capital1 either of cleared land1 money1 or as an appointing power4 ,the general result1 as above stated1 is self-evident from the facts4 ,remedies for this disability are frequently proposed4 ,a higher education1 while an unquestioned advantage1 does not remove it4 ,the ballot would only result in removing any disability of an artificial character which might exist1 but could not effect those imposed by nature4 ,there is no method of human contrivance by which the natural difficulty may be overcome4 ,but ,nature has supplied a most effective remedy4 ,woman not being of the same sex as man1 supplies a necessity which is almost universal1 so that she is placed1 if she exercise reasonable care1 in a position better than that of man in relation to the struggle for existence4 ,the antagonist of man1 his fellow man1 is eliminated from the list of the antagonists of woman1 and that is an advantage which cannot be overestimated4 ,not only is man removed from the field as a competitor1 but he becomes an active helper in resisting the forces of nature4 ,more than this1 he is willing under the circumstances1 to divide with her what he extracts from both man and nature4 ,were these the only benefits that woman derives from man they would constitute a sufficient reason for the usual preference which she displays for his protection1 rather than for a life of independence4 ,but she is herself possessed of a sex-interest which is satisfied by such a relation4 ,not only this1 but her love of children constitutes a further inducement1 which is highly effective in bringing about her customary relation with man4 ,it is self-evident then that any system which looks to a career for women independent of man1 such as man pursues1 is abnormal1 and injurious to her interests4 ,the support and protection given by man to woman is then clearly rendered as an equivalent for the services she renders him in the capacity of a wife4 ,it is universally implied1 if not distinctly stated in the contract between them1 that she shall not be the wife of some other man1 and that the children she bears shall be also those of the male party to the contract1 or the husband4 ,it is not necessary that any such obligation should be entered into by the man1 for the obvious reason that he does not bear children4 ,if the woman violates this contract1 the man is under no moral or legal obligation to support her4 ,if the man has other wives he does not thereby forfeit protection and support of the wife1 since she has none to offer him4 ,this general fact would not prevent a woman possessed of wealth who supported a husband1 from withdrawing such support in case he should become polygamous4 ,but such a situation is so exceptional as to deserve but a passing notice in a consideration of the whole question4 ,it is frequently insisted that responsibility of man to woman in the matter of monogamic relations1 is ethically the same as that of woman to man4 ,this has not been the view of mankind generally1 and it is distinctly negatived by the facts in the case4 ,the marriage relation is clearly a contract in which the consideration on one side is support and protection1 and the consideration on the other is monogamic wifehood1 or the definite paternity of children and their care and education4 ,the immediate reason why particular men and women marry particular women and men1 is1 or ought to be1 love and affection2 but these admirable sentiments1 are the offspring of natural conditions of sex1 without which woman1 and especially man1 would not marry at all4 ,and these natural conditions are clearly satisfied by the maintenance of the contract as above described4 ,in order to further enforce this position ,i merely refer to the well-known fact that man cannot commit marital infidelity in the same sense that woman can1 on account of his physical diversity4 ,his unfaithfulness introduces no new blood into a family1 and makes no defect in the inheritance1 as does the same act on the part of the woman4 ,the woman is in a position of trust1 precisely like the responsible officers of a bank4 ,it is in the power of both to defraud those who trust them4 ,hence it is that woman has been always held to stricter account in this matter than man1 and always must be4 ,for this reason the jealousy displayed by husbands is more justifiable than that displayed by wives2 and the result of marital infidelity on the part of wives is usually more disastrous to the offending parties4 ,it is in consequence of these facts that there exists some difference in the ethical feelings of the sexes on this question4 ,it is undoubtedly true that there are more women willing to live in polygamy than men willing to live in polyandry1 in spite of the verbal objections that women make to such a system in modern times4 ,i do not now refer to promiscuity1 in which the affections are in no wise concerned4 ,in this everyway inferior relation1 men are the most numerous offenders4 ,it is for the reasons above stated that women are more monogamous in their tendencies than men4 ,not only does the question of support and protection during child-bearing and at other times make it more to their interest to be so1 but they are more inclined to attach themselves to particular persons than men1 on account of their superior affectional endowments4 ,this is an inevitable result of their occupation in the family and with the family for countless ages1 and is as much a product of their evolution1 as is the superior rationality and self-control of the male sex4 ,the above picture may seem to some persons of progressive views on the woman question somewhat onesided4 ,but the relation of man to the contract is not yet completely described4 ,meanwhile ,i refer to a sentiment attributed to a single woman1 a teacher in a girls' school1 ,i believe near ,pittsburg1 quoted by a lady writer in the ,popular ,science ,monthly1 several months ago4 ,this lady1 believing that the strength of the emotional elements of character in women constitutes a disability1 and stands in the way of her so-called equality with man1 had resolved to suppress that part of her nature1 and to live a life free from its consequences4 ,she hoped thus to attain a condition not only equal1 but superior to that of men1 and was prepared to teach the girls committed to her care that this was their duty to themselves and to the world4 ,for this reason she would not marry4 ,the fallacy in this reasoning consists in the omission of certain important premises4 ,the principal one of these is1 that neither she nor any other woman can exterminate in a life-time1 the heritage which woman has derived from the entire history of the human species1 to say nothing of the inheritance from the ancestors of mankind1 where the same traits exist in the diminished ratio of a smaller mentality4 ,in order to accomplish this change in female character1 it would be necessary that the same course should be pursued by many successive generations of women2 how many1 it is impossible to calculate4 ,this would require that such women should marry1 which is what the lady whose views are referred to above1 desired to avoid4 ,in fact it is typical women who will marry1 and typical women will be therefore produced to the end of time1 unless some new system of sex relations shall be introduced4 ,it is sometimes suggested that a change in intersex relations is desirable in order to effect a fuller emancipation of women from present conditions4 ,with the remark in passing1 that the natural restraints imposed by the present marriage system on woman are not greater than those imposed on man1 although different1 we may refer to the alternative arrangement which has been sometimes adopted4 ,this is that woman should be free from all obligation to fidelity to any particular man1 and that man should be free from the obligation to support any particular woman4 ,in other words it is sometimes proposed that we return to the primitive state of human society4 ,such a system has descended to us from ancient times1 and it only needs to be mentioned to satisfy us that woman is the loser by it to a degree that is disastrous to the interests of society in every respect4 ,it is only a being devoid of the developed traits of womanhood who could succeed in a polyandrous career1 since she must renounce the pleasures of family life1 even if she is exceptionally able to accumulate the means of support for her self and children in later years4 ,a second alternative1 that woman may secure the support of one man1 while her marital relations are polyandrous1 is an impossible dream of the imagination4 ,this could be only possible under the condition that the child-bearing sex should be the stronger sex1 and fully capable of self-support and self-protection2 a condition which is not found in mankind4 ,a third alternative is the communistic relation where the state supports women and children1 without inquiry as to parentage1 and without reference to the monogamic or promiscuous relation of the sexes4 ,such a system1 could it continue long enough1 would result in the breaking up of the sentiment of conjugal affection which now characterises our race1 and the destruction of marital fidelity4 ,the question is whether or not this system would be preferable to that of monogamic marriage above described4 ,as it is a proposition for the amelioration of the present condition of women1 the decision should rest with them4 ,the women of the white race would probably declare against it by a very large majority1 were a vote to be taken4 ,this vote would be1 however1 largely influenced by custom1 and not by a deliberate conclusion derived from experience4 ,since experience of such system cannot be had at present1 we are compelled to rely on such knowledge as we possess in the premises4 ,it may be safely assumed that the monogamic tendency is constitutional with the majority of women4 ,in spite of curiosity and other inducements1 the idea of love for a single person is deeply ingrained in her nature4 ,it is an ideal to be realised somehow and at some time1 and anything short of it is a disaster only to be endured through some irresistible necessity4 ,no normal woman would hazard the risks to person and property involved in indefinite matrimonial relations4 ,the idea of the family becomes the more fixed in proportion as it is realised in actual experience4 ,in spite of pessimists and unfortunates1 the mutual love of man and woman is a sentiment deeply seated in the nature of both4 ,its strength is attested by the enormous popularity of the literature of which it forms the theme1 and of the drama where its history and vicissitudes are depicted4 ,men and women who underrate its power1 or who attempt to resist its effects1 are like dead leaves before the winds4 ,would men and women be satisfied with a system which should place these affections in constant suspense1 and which should afford no safeguard for the protection of inexperience1 or defense against the temporary effects of superficial attractions and repulsions8 ,i suspect not1 for more would be lost than gained by such possibilities4 ,relief from unfortunate connections is certainly proper1 but this can be had in such a way as to render it certain that the best interests of both parties are subserved1 by a system of time contracts of marriage1 such as ,i crudely suggested in ,the ,open ,court for ,november #ahhh4 ,but the emotions of sex cannot be safely left without safeguards derived from the experience of mankind4 ,this is not only on account of the force of these passions themselves1 but because of the material necessities which are so intimately involved with them4 ,the element of paternal interest will have to be eliminated from the man1 and of conjugal fidelity from the woman before a communal system can be possible4 ,and the absence of these traits is only characteristic of some of the lower races of men at the present time4 ,evolution has not weakened1 but has greatly strengthened them1 and it is not likely that our race will go backward in this respect4 ,of course it may be asserted that this evolution has taken the wrong direction1 and is not an improvement4 ,i think the contrary may be shown to be true4 ,the paternal instinct is as important to the adolescent stages of man as the maternal is for the period of infancy4 ,paternity stimulates the man to labor for the support and education of his children1 and for their general well-being4 ,without such support many would die1 reach an imperfect development1 or become feeble members of society4 ,the fidelity of the woman develops the same trait in man1 and it stimulates him to the greatest exertions to secure her well-being also4 ,such forces as these cannot be withdrawn from society without infinite loss4 ,it is the knowledge that this is my wife and that these are my children1 that sustains more than half of human industry4 ,with a communistic system these inducements would be withdrawn1 and mankind would sink into comparative apathy1 were it possible for the system to endure long enough4 ,it is evident that monogamic and polygamic systems are the only ones possible to modern society4 ,the polygamic requires little notice because the general equality in numbers of the sexes deprives it of foundation4 ,it is only possible where women are in excess1 and where they are willing to sustain it4 ,no man who is successfully married is likely to incur the additional obligations which it imposes4 ,it may be therefore dismissed from notice with the further remark that it is not on the other hand deserving of the obloquy cast upon it by certain persons who are evidently compounding for sins they have a mind to by damning those they're not inclined to4 ,the monogamic relation having been defined in the preceding paragraphs ,i recur to some of its obligations4 ,i have spoken of the infidelity of woman as of a higher degree of criminality than that of man1 and have shown the basis of justice on which this general sentiment rests4 ,but it must not be forgotten that while he who hires a murderer1 and he who receives stolen goods does not commit the actual crime1 he is highly culpable1 and shares in the condemnation which should follow it4 ,in the case of the marital infidelity of the woman1 he may be the greater criminal of the two1 as the instigator to a deed which would not have been otherwise even suggested4 ,in any case his folly is extraordinary1 as he takes his life in his hands1 and risks that of his partner2 for men are wont to preserve their family rights by summary process4 ,it would be incredible that such risks should be taken were it not that history and contemporary literature offer many examples4 ,the few cases where palliating circumstances could be claimed would chiefly occur in countries where divorce laws do not exist4 ,the advantages to woman1 arising from the monogamic relation1 are then1 support and protection1 and undivided affection if she deserve it1 together with the satisfaction of the conjugal and maternal instincts4 ,in order to secure these advantages she must pursue a course towards her husband in some degree comparable to that by which her husband secures the confidence and esteem of his fellow man4 ,faithfulness in adhering to contracts1 and personal complaisance cover much of the ground4 ,as regards the man1 he must see to it1 that he does nothing that tends to the disintegration of the family relations of other men4 ,the ill disguised laudation of the infidelity of wives which is so prominent in ,french literature1 is a mark of a low civilisation1 and it rightly excites the disgust of all men who have any respect for their own rights4 ,it looks as though certain ,french literature had been written by boys4 ,men who are responsible for such invasion of the rights of others1 cannot expect better treatment themselves1 and they must not be surprised if they are repaid in their own coin4 ,while the preservation of the rights of the marriage contract lies primarily with woman1 for natural reasons2 man is held by his fellow man to a strict accountability1 and he attempts any invasion of them at his personal peril4 ,the principles above laid down are those out of which have grown our laws on the subject4 ,some women and men appear to think them unjust to women4 ,it is true that in some respects1 woman is at a disadvantage4 ,this disadvantage is1 however1 of natural origin and cannot be overcome4 ,on the other hand1 she has a full equivalent in the advantages which she also derives from the natural order of things4 ,the result is that there is no real cause of complaint1 unless it be that sometimes the gallantry of men towards women whom they do not know1 leads them to do injustice to man in cases of dispute4 ,and here is an advantage to women which is an offset to the injustice which they sometimes experience from the same source4 ,the correction of these faults is a part of the process of ethical development which is going on in human society4 ,and perhaps the most effective agency in this development is the relation of the members of the family to each other1 where affection takes the place of force1 since it is the source of our deepest pleasures and our severest pains4 ,e4 ,d4 ,,cope4 ,,the ,,analysis ,,of ,,the ,,sensations4 ,,antimetaphysical4 ,i4 ,the great results that physical research in the last centuries has achieved1 not only in its own domain1 but also1 by the assistance it has afforded1 in the domain of other sciences1 have brought it about that physical ways of thinking and physical methods of procedure have everywhere attained to especial prominence1 and that the greatest expectations are associated with their employment4 ,in conformity with this drift of modern research the physiology of the senses1 gradually leaving the paths that had been entered upon by men like ,goethe1 ,schopenhauer1 and others1 but especially with the greatest success by ,johannes ,mller1 has also almost exclusively assumed a physical character4 ,this tendency must appear to us as not exactly the proper and the desirable one1 when we reflect that physics despite its considerable development nevertheless constitutes but a portion of a greater collective body of knowledge1 and that it is incompetent with its limited intellectual methods1 created for especial and limited purposes1 to exhaust the entire material of the province now under consideration4 ,however1 without renouncing the support of the science of physics1 it is possible for the physiology of the senses not only to continue its own special development1 but also to afford physical science itself valuable assistance4 ,the following simple considerations will serve to illustrate this relation4 ,,ii4 ,colors1 sounds1 temperatures1 pressures1 spaces1 times1 and the like1 are united with one another in the most manifold ways2 and to these are joined moods of mind1 feelings1 and wills4 ,out of this complication1 that which is relatively the more fixed and the more permanent stands prominently forth1 engraves itself in the memory1 and expresses itself in language4 ,as relatively more permanent appear1 first1 complexes of colors1 sounds1 pressures1 and so forth1 that are connected in time and space1 that therefore receive special names1 and are designated as bodies4 ,such complexes are by no means absolutely permanent4 ,my table is now brightly and now darkly lighted4 ,it may be warmer or colder4 ,it may receive an ink stain4 ,one of its legs may get broken4 ,it can be repaired1 polished1 and replaced part for part4 ,but for me1 amid all1 it remains the table at which ,i daily write4 ,my friend can put on a different coat4 ,his countenance can assume a serious or joyful expression4 ,the complexion of his face1 under the effects of light or of emotion1 can change4 ,his shape can be altered by a movement1 or can be permanently transformed4 ,but the sum total of the permanent1 as compared with gradual alterations of this kind1 always remains so great1 that the latter vanish4 ,it is the same friend with whom ,i take my daily walk4 ,my coat can receive a stain1 a tear4 ,the very manner of my expression indicates that the gist of the thing is a quantity of permanency1 to which the new element is added and from which that which is lacking is subsequently deducted4 ,our greater intimacy with this quantity of permanency1 and its preponderance as contrasted with the changeable1 impel us to the partly instinctive1 partly voluntary and conscious economy of mental representation and designation which is expressed in ordinary thought and speech4 ,that which has been once perceptually represented receives a single designation1 a single name4 ,as relatively permanent1 is exhibited1 further1 that complex of memories1 moods1 and feelings1 joined to a particular body 7the human body71 which is denominated the ,i or ,ego4 ,i can be engaged with this subject or with that subject1 ,i can be quiet or animated1 excited or ill-humoured4 ,yet--pathological cases not considered--enough that is permanent remains to recognise the ego as the same4 ,moreover1 the ego also is only of relative permanency4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the apparent permanency of the ego consists pre-eminently in the fact of its continuity1 and in its slow change4 ,the many thoughts and plans of yesterday that are continued to-day1 and of which our environment in waking hours continually reminds us 7and therefore in dreams the ego can be very indistinct1 doubled1 or entirely wanting71 and the little habits that are unconsciously and involuntarily kept up for longer periods of time1 constitute the fundamental root of the ego4 ,there can hardly be greater differences in the ego of different people1 than occur in the course of years in one person4 ,when ,i recall to-day my early youth1 ,i should take the boy that ,i then was1 with the exception of a few single features1 for a different person1 did not the chain of memories that make up my personality now lie before me4 ,many a treatise that ,i myself wrote twenty years ago1 now makes upon me a very strange impression4 ,the very gradual character of the changes of the body also contributes to the permanency of the ego1 but in a much less degree than people imagine4 ,such things are much less analysed and noticed than the intellectual and the moral ego4 ,individually1 personally1 people have a very poor knowledge of themselves4 ,once1 when a young man1 ,i espied in the street a face in profile that was very displeasing and repulsive to me4 ,i was not a little taken aback when a moment afterwards ,i found that it was my own1 which1 in passing by a place where mirrors were sold1 ,i had perceived reflected from two mirrors that stood at the proper inclination to each other4 ,not long ago1 after a trying railway journey by night1 being much fatigued1 ,i got into an omnibus just as another gentleman appeared at the other end4 ,what degenerated pedagogue is that1 who has just entered1 thought ,i4 ,it was myself3 opposite me hung a large mirror4 ,my ordinary dress1 accordingly1 was more familiar to me than my travelling attire4 ,the ego is as little absolutely permanent as bodies4 ,that which we so greatly fear in death1 the annihilation of our permanency1 actually occurs in life in abundant measure4 ,that which is most valued by us1 remains preserved in countless copies1 or1 in cases of exceptional excellence1 as a rule preserves itself4 ,in the best human being1 however1 there are individual traits the loss of which neither he himself nor others need regret4 ,indeed1 at times1 death1 viewed as liberation from individuality1 can even become a pleasant thought4 99 99 99 99 99 ,after the first survey has been obtained1 by the formation of the concepts of substance1 body ego 7matter1 soul71 the will is impelled to a more exact examination of the changes that take place in this relatively permanent existence4 ,the changeable element in bodies and in the ego1 indeed1 is the very thing that moves the will4 ,now1 for the first time1 do the constituent elements of the complex stand forth as properties of the same4 ,a fruit is sweet2 but it can also be bitter4 ,so1 too1 other fruits can be sweet4 ,the red color that is sought is found in many bodies4 ,the neighborhood of some bodies is pleasant1 that of others unpleasant4 ,thus1 gradually1 do different complexes appear to be composed of common constituent elements4 ,the visible1 the audible1 the tangible1 are separated from bodies4 ,the visible is broken up into color and into form4 ,out of the manifold constitution of colors issue1 again1 in lesser numbers1 certain other constituent elements--the primary colors1 and so forth4 ,the complexes are disintegrated into elements4 ,,iii4 ,the proper and useful habit of designating that which is permanent by a single name1 and of comprehending the same in a single thought1 without analysing at each operation its constituent parts1 is liable to come into singular conflict with the tendency to separate these constituent parts4 ,the obscure image formed of the permanent1 which does not perceptibly change when one or another constituent part is taken away1 appears to be something existent by itself4 ,inasmuch as it is possible to take away singly every constituent part without effecting the capacity of the image formed to represent the totality involved1 or effecting its subsequent recognition1 it is imagined that it is possible to take away all these parts and yet have something remaining4 ,thus arises the monstrous idea of a thing of itself1 different from1 and incognisable with relation to1 its phenomenal existence4 ,thing1 body1 matter1 are nothing apart from this complex of colors1 sounds1 and so forth--apart from their so-called marks1 or characteristics4 ,that ,protean1 illusory philosophical problem of a single independent thing with many properties1 arises from the misunderstanding of the fact1 that extensive comprehension and accurate separation1 although both are temporarily justifiable and profitable for a number of purposes1 can not and must not be employed simultaneously4 ,a body is single and unchangeable so long as it is not required to take details into consideration4 ,thus both the earth and a billiard ball are spheres so long as we disregard all minor deviations from the spherical form1 and greater exactitude is not necessary4 ,but if we are compelled to carry on investigations in orography or microscopy both bodies cease to be spheres4 ,,iv4 ,man possesses in pre-eminence the power to determine arbitrarily and consciously his point of view4 ,he can at one time disregard the most salient features1 and immediately afterwards take into account the smallest trifles2 now regard a current of electricity as fixed1 without consideration of its contents1 and now determine the width of a ,frauenhofer line in the solar spectrum2 he can rise1 at will1 to the most general abstractions1 or bury himself in the minutest particulars4 ,the animal possesses this capacity in a much less degree4 ,it does not assume a point of view1 but usually is brought to it by impressions4 ,the baby that does not recognise its father with his hat on1 the dog that is perplexed at the new coat of its master1 have succumbed in the conflict of points of view4 ,who has not been thus worsted in similar cases8 ,even the man of philosophy at times succumbs1 as the fantastic problem above referred to1 shows4 ,indeed1 do not certain circumstances actually appear to furnish a justification of that problem8 ,colors1 sounds1 the odors of bodies are evanescent4 ,but the tangible part1 as a sort of constant1 durable nucleus1 not easily liable to annihilation1 remains behind2 appearing as the vehicle of the more fugitive properties annexed to it4 ,habit firmly affixes our thought to this central nucleus1 even where the knowledge has found its way1 that seeing1 hearing1 smelling1 and touching are intimately akin in character4 ,added to this1 also1 comes the fact1 that in consequence of the singularly extensive development of mechanical physics a kind of higher reality is ascribed to ,space and ,time than to colors1 sounds1 and odors4 ,agreeably to which1 the junction in space and time of colors1 sounds1 and odors appears more real than colors1 sounds1 and odors themselves4 ,the physiology of the senses1 however1 demonstrates1 that spaces and times can with as much justice be termed sensations1 as colors and sounds4 ,v4 ,also the ego1 as well as the relation of bodies to the ego1 occasions the rise of analogous seeming-problems1 the character of which may be briefly presented in the following manner4 ,the complexes of colors1 sounds1 and so forth1 that are commonly called bodies1 we shall designate for the sake of simplicity by ,a ,b ,c 4442 the complex that is known as our own body1 and which constitutes a part of the former1 we shall call ,k ,l ,m 4442 the complex composed of volitions1 memory-images1 and the like1 we shall represent by 4 ,usually1 now1 the complex 444 ,k ,l ,m 444 is opposed as ego1 to the complex ,a ,b ,c 444 regarded as world of substance2 sometimes1 too1 444 is comprehended as ego1 and ,k ,l ,m 444 ,a ,b ,c 444 comprehended as world of substance4 ,now ,a ,b ,c 444 first appears as independent of the ego4 ,but this independence is only relative1 and gives way before closer inspection4 ,much1 it is true1 may change in the complex 444 without much becoming noticeable in ,a ,b ,c 4442 and so vice versa4 ,but many changes in 444 pass1 by way of changes in ,k ,l ,m 4441 over to ,a ,b ,c 4442 and vice versa4 7,as1 for example1 when vivid ideas break forth into acts1 or our environment brings about perceptible changes in our body47 ,at the same time ,k ,l ,m 444 appears to be more closely connected with 444 and ,a ,b ,c 444 respectively1 than the latter do with one another2 relations that find their commonest expression in thought and speech4 ,closely examined1 however1 it appears that ,a ,b ,c 444 is always determined with and by ,k ,l ,m4 ,a die1 when seen close at hand1 looks large2 when seen at a distance1 small2 it looks different with the right eye from what it does with the left2 sometimes it appears double2 with closed eyes it is invisible4 ,the properties of the same body1 therefore1 appear as modified by our own body2 they appear as conditioned by it4 ,but where1 pray1 is this same body that phenomenally appears so different8 ,all that can be said is1 that different ,a ,b ,c 444 are annexed to different ,k ,l ,m4#ah #ah ,i expressed this thought many years ago 7in the ,vierteljahrsschrift fr ,psychiatrie1 ,leipsic and ,neuwied1 #ahfh3 ,ueber die ,abhngigkeit der ,netzhautstellen von einander7 as follows3 ,the expressions sense-deception and illusion of the senses prove1 that we are not yet fully conscious1 or at least that we have not yet found it necessary to incorporate this consciousness into our ordinary terminology1 that the senses represent things neither wrongly nor correctly4 ,all that can be truly said of the sensory organs is1 that1 under different circumstances they produce different sensations and perceptions4 ,since these circumstances are of so extremely manifold a character1 being partly external 7inherent in the objects71 partly internal 7inherent in the sensory organs71 and partly interior 7having the seat of their activity in the central organs71 it would naturally seem1 especially when attention is paid only to external circumstances1 that an organ acts differently under like conditions4 ,and it is customary to call the unusual effects1 deceptions or illusions4 ,we see an object with a point ,s4 ,if we touch ,s1 that is bring it into relation with our body1 we receive a prick4 ,we can see ,s1 without feeling the prick4 ,but as soon as we feel the prick we find ,s4 ,the visible point therefore is a permanent fact or nucleus1 to which the prick is annexed1 according to circumstances1 as something accidental4 ,from the frequency of occurrences analogous to this we ultimately accustom ourselves to regard all properties of bodies as effects proceeding from permanent persistent nuclei and conveyed to the ego through the mediation of the body2 which effects we call sensations4 ,by this very operation1 however1 these imagined nuclei lose their entire sensory content1 and become mere mental symbols4 ,the assertion is correct then that the world consists only of our sensations4 ,in which case we have knowledge only of sensations1 and the assumption of the nuclei mentioned1 as well as of a reciprocal action between the same1 from which sensations might be supposed originally to proceed1 turns out to be wholly idle and superfluous4 ,such a view can only suit a halting realism or a half-matured philosophic criticism4 ,,vi4 ,ordinarily the complex 444 ,k ,l ,m 444 is opposed as ego to the complex ,a ,b ,c4 ,those elements only of ,a ,b ,c 444 that more actively alter 4441 as a prick1 a pain1 are we accustomed to comprehend in the ego4 ,afterwards1 however1 through observations of the kind above mentioned1 it appears that the right to annex ,a ,b ,c 444 to the ego at no point ceases4 ,in conformity to which the ego can be so extended as ultimately to comprehend the entire world4 99 99 99 99 99 ,when ,i say that the table1 the tree1 and so forth1 are sensations of mine1 there is contained in this1 as contrasted with the method of representation of the ordinary man1 an actual extension of my ego4 ,and so1 too1 upon the emotional side1 such extensions actually occur2 as for the virtuoso1 who possesses as perfect a mastery of his instrument as he does of his own body2 for the skilful orator in whom the eyes of an audience converge1 and who controls the thoughts of his hearers2 for the energetic politician who directs with ease his party2 and so on4 ,in conditions of depression1 on the other hand1 such as nervous people often have to endure1 the ego contracts and shrinks4 ,a wall seems to separate it from the world4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the ego is not sharply defined1 its limits are very indefinite1 and arbitrarily displaceable4 ,only by mistaking this1 and by unconsciously narrowing these limits1 as well also as by enlarging them1 do metaphysical difficulties1 in the conflict of points of view1 arise4 ,as soon as we have recognised that the supposed unities body and ego are only make-shifts for a provisional survey and for certain practical ends 7that we may apprehend bodies1 protect ourselves from pain1 and so forth71 we are obliged1 in many thorough-going scientific investigations1 to abandon them as insufficient and inappropriate4 ,the opposition between ego and world1 sensation 7or phenomenon7 and thing1 then vanishes1 and we are brought to deal simply with the connection and relation of the elements 444 ,a ,b ,c 444 ,k ,l ,m 4441 for which indeed this very opposition was only a partially appropriate1 imperfect expression4 ,this connection is nothing more than the combination of those elements with other homologous elements 7time and space74 ,this connection science has simply to accept1 and set itself aright with regard to it1 without attempting to explain its existence4 ,upon superficial examination the complex 444 appears to consist of much more evanescent elements than ,a ,b ,c 444 and ,k ,l ,m 4441 in which two last the elements appear to be joined with more stability and in a more permanent manner 7being joined to solid nuclei as it were74 ,although upon closer inspection the elements of all complexes appear as homologous1 yet even in spite of the recognition of this fact1 the ancient notion of an opposition of body and spirit easily creeps in4 ,the spiritualist feels1 at times1 the difficulty of imparting the necessary solidity to his world of substance created by mind3 the materialist is at a loss what to do when called upon to animate and endow with sensation the world of matter4 ,the monistic point of view that reflection and reason have evolved1 is easily overcast by the older and more powerful instinctive notions4 ,,vii4 ,the difficulty described is especially felt in the following considerations4 ,in the complex ,a ,b ,c 444 which we have designated as the material world1 we find as part1 not only our own body ,k ,l ,m 4441 but also the bodies of other persons 7or animals7 ,k' ,l' ,m' 4441 ,k ,l ,m 4441 annexed to which1 after the analogy of the complex 4441 we conceive similar ' ' ' 4441 4 ,as long as we deal with ,k' ,l' ,m' 4441 we find ourselves in a thoroughly familiar province1 at every point sensorially accessible to us4 ,but when we inquire after the sensations or feelings that belong to the body ,k' ,l' ,m' 4441 we no longer find in the province of sense the elements we seek3 but we add them in thought4 ,not only is the domain into which we now enter much less familiar to us1 but also the transition to it is relatively unsafe4 ,we are possessed of a feeling as if we were about to plunge into an abyss4 ,they that always pursue this direction of thought and this direction only1 will never get completely rid of the feeling of insecurity that is very productive as a source of apparent problems4 ,but we are not limited to this way of reasoning4 ,let us consider first the reciprocal relation of the elements of the complex ,a ,b ,c 4441 without regarding ,k ,l ,m 444 7our body74 ,every physical investigation is of this kind4 ,a white bullet falls upon a bell2 a sound is heard4 ,the bullet turns yellow before a sodium lamp1 red before a lithium lamp4 ,here the elements 7,a ,b ,c 4447 appear to be connected only among each other and to be independent of our body 7,k ,l ,m 44474 ,but if we take santonine the bullet turns yellow again4 ,if we turn one eye sidewise we see two bullets4 ,if we close our eyes entirely we see no bullet at all4 ,if we sever our auditory nerve no sound is heard4 ,the elements ,a ,b ,c 4441 therefore1 are not only connected among each other1 but also with ,k ,l ,m4 ,to this extent and to this extent only do we call ,a ,b ,c 444 sensations1 and regard ,a ,b ,c 444 as belonging to the ego4 ,in this way1 accordingly1 we do not meet with the gap between bodies and sensations before described1 between that which is without and that which is within1 between the material and the spiritual world4#ai ,all elements ,a ,b ,c 444 ,k ,l ,m 444 constitute but one single coherent mass1 which when any one element in it is disturbed all is put in motion2 except that a disturbance has a more extensive and profound action in ,k ,l ,m 4441 than in ,a ,b ,c4 ,a magnet in our neighborhood disturbs the particles of iron near it2 a falling boulder shakes the earth2 but the severing of a nerve sets in motion the entire system of elements4 ,quite involuntarily does this relation of things suggest the picture of a viscous mass1 at certain places 7as in the ego7 more firmly coherent than at others4 #ai ,compare my ,grundlinien der ,lehre von den ,bewegungsempfindungen4 ,leipsic1 ,engelmann1 #ahge1 p4 #ed4 99 99 99 99 99 ,when ,i first came to ,vienna from the country1 as a boy four or five years of age1 and was taken by my father upon the walls of the city's fortifications1 ,i was very much surprised to see people below in the moat and could not understand how1 regarded from my point of view1 they could have gotten down there2 for the thought of another possible way never occurred to me4 ,i remarked the same amazement1 once afterwards in life1 in the case of a three-year old boy of mine1 while taking a walk with him upon the walls about ,prague4 ,i recall this feeling to mind every time ,i engage myself with the reflection above referred to1 and ,i frankly confess that this accidental experience of mine greatly helped to strengthen the opinion upon this point that ,i adopted a long time ago4 ,the habit of pursuing the same ways in material and psychical things operates to confuse greatly our field of survey4 ,a child forcing its way through a wall in a house in which it has long dwelt1 can experience an actual enlargement of its view of the world1 and a slight scientific hint can bring much enlightenment4 ,,viii4 ,accordingly1 the great chasm between physical and psychological research exists only for the common stereotyped method of observation4 ,a color is a physical object when1 for example1 we regard its dependence upon its luminous source 7upon other colors1 upon heat1 upon space1 and so forth74 ,regarding however its dependence upon the retina 7the elements ,k ,l ,m 44471 it becomes a psychological object1 a sensation4 ,not the subject-matter1 but the direction of our investigation is different in the two domains4 ,when1 from the observation of the bodies of other men or animals1 we infer their sensations1 as well also as when we investigate the influence of our own body upon our own sensations1 we are forced to complete observed facts by analogy4 ,this work of completion by analogy is done with much more accuracy and facility1 when it relates1 let us say1 to nervous processes1 which cannot be fully observed in our own bodies--that is when it occurs in the more familiar physical domain--than when the completion relates to psychical processes4 ,otherwise there is no material difference4 ,,ix4 ,the thoughts presented gain greatly in fixity and vividness if in addition to simply expressing them in abstract form we bring ourselves face to face with the facts from which they arise4 ,for example1 ,i lie upon my sofa4 ,if ,i close my right eye the picture represented in the accompanying cut is presented to my left eye4 ,in a frame formed by the ridge of my eyebrow1 by my nose1 and by my moustache1 appears a part of my body1 so far as it is visible1 and also the things and space about it4 ,my body differs from other human bodies--leaving out of account the fact that every vivid motory idea immediately passes into movement and that contact with it determines more perceptible changes than contact with other bodies--by the circumstance1 that it is only partly seen1 and1 especially1 is seen without a head4 ,if ,i observe an element ,a within my field of vision1 and investigate its connection with another element ,b within the same field1 ,i go out of the domain of physics into that of physiology or psychology1 if ,b1 to use the apposite expression that a friend#bj of mine employed upon seeing this drawing1 passes through my skin4 ,reflections like that for the field of vision may be made with regard to the province of touch and the perceptual domains of the other senses4 #bj ,j4 ,popper of ,vienna4 ,illustration ,x4 ,reference has already been made to the different character of the groups of elements that we have designated by ,a ,b ,c 444 and 4 ,as a matter of reality1 when we see a green tree before us1 or remember a green tree1 that is conceive a green tree to ourselves1 we know right well how to distinguish these two cases4 ,the imaged tree has a much less determinate1 a much more changeable form2 its green is much paler and more evanescent2 and1 what is of especial note1 it distinctly appears in a different sphere4 ,a movement that we propose to execute is always only a conceived movement1 and appears in a different field or sphere from that of the executed movement1 which moreover always takes place where the image becomes vivid enough4 ,the statement that the elements ,a or appear in a different sphere1 means1 if we go to the bottom of it1 nothing more than that they are united with divers other elements4 ,to this extent1 accordingly1 the basal component parts in ,a ,b ,c 4441 444 would be the same 7colors1 sounds1 spaces1 times1 motory sensations1 innervations 44471 and only the character of their union different4 ,pain and pleasure are ordinarily regarded as different from sensory sensations4 ,yet not only tactile sensations1 but also all other kinds of sensations1 can gradually pass into pleasure and pain4 ,pleasure and pain can also justly be called sensations4 ,only they are not so well analysed and so familiar as sensory sensations4 ,sensations of pleasure and pain1 however faint the mode of their appearance1 make up indeed the real content of all so-called feelings4 ,thus perceptions1 as well as ideas1 volition1 and feelings1 in short the entire inner and outer world1 are composed of a small number of homologous elements united in relations now more evanescent and now more lasting4 ,these elements are commonly called sensations4 ,but since vestiges of a one-sided theory now inhere in this term1 we prefer to speak simply of elements1 as we have already done4 ,all research aims at the resolution of the union of these elements4#ba #ba ,compare the remarks appended to my treatise3 ,die ,geschichte und die ,wurzel des ,satzes der ,erhaltung der ,arbeit4 ,prague4 ,calve4 #ahgb4 ,,xi4 ,that out of this complex of elements which at bottom is simply one1 the limits of bodies and the ego do not admit of being fixed in a manner certain and sufficient for all cases1 has already been said4 ,the composition of the elements1 intimately connected with pleasure and pain1 into an ideal mental-economical unity1 the ego1 is a work of the highest significance for the intellectual functions that act in the service of the pain-avoiding1 pleasure-seeking will4 ,the formation of the ego by this process of circumscription and delimitation is therefore instinctively effected1 it grows familiar and natural1 and fixes itself perhaps through heredity4 ,by their high practical value1 not only for the individual1 but also for the entire race1 the composites ego and body instinctively assert their existence1 and operate with the power of original elements4 ,in special circumstances1 however1 in which practical ends are not concerned1 but knowledge becomes an object in itself1 this delimitation often turns out to be insufficient1 obstructive1 and untenable4 ,professional esprit de corps1 and even professional bias1 the sentiment of nationality1 the most narrow-minded local patriotism may also have a high value1 for certain purposes4 ,but such conceptions will not characterise the far-sighted investigator1 at least not in the moment of research4 ,all these egoistic conceptions are adequate for practical purposes only4 ,of course1 even the investigator can succumb to custom4 ,trifling scholastic fiddle-faddle1 the cunning appropriation of others' labor and perfidious silence with regard to it1 the numerous objections and complaints when unavoidably compelled to give recognition1 and the scanty illumination of others' performances on such occasions1 abundantly show that the scientist and scholar have also to fight the battle of existence1 that the ways of science yet lead to the mouth1 and that the pure quest of knowledge amid our present social relations is still an ideal4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the primary fact is not the ,i1 the ego1 but the elements 7sensations74 ,the elements constitute the ,i4 ,i perceive the sensation green1 means1 that the element green occurs in a given complex of other elements 7sensations1 memories74 ,when ,i cease to perceive the sensation green1 when ,i die1 then the elements no longer occur in their customary1 common way of association4 ,that is all4 ,only an ideal mental-economical unity1 not a real unity1 has ceased to exist4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the ego is not an unchangeable1 definite1 sharply-defined unity4 ,the important factor is not unchangeability1 not determinate distinguishability from other things1 and not accurate limitation1 for all these factors even vary within the sphere of individual life itself1 and their alteration is even sought by the individual4 ,continuity alone is important4 ,this view admirably accords with that to which ,weismann recently attained by biological investigations 7,regarding the ,immortality of ,unicellular ,beings1 ,biolog4 ,centralbl41 ,vol4 ,,iv1 ,nos4 #ba1 #bb2 compare especially pp4 #fed and #fee1 where the division of the individual into two equal halves is spoken of74 ,but this continuity is only a means to dispose and to assure the content of the ego4 ,this content and not the ego is the principal thing4 ,but this content is not confined to the individual4 ,with the exception of insignificant1 valueless1 personal memories or reminiscences1 it remains preserved in others even after the death of the individual4 ,the ego is unsavable4 ,it is partly the discernment of this fact1 partly the fear of the same1 that leads to the most extravagant pessimistic and optimistic1 religious and philosophical absurdities4 ,we shall not be able in the long run to close our eyes to this simple truth1 the immediate result of psychological analysis4 ,we shall then no longer place so high a value upon the ego which even during individual life greatly changes1 and which1 indeed1 in sleep or during absorption in some conception or in some thought1 just in our happiest moments1 may be partially or wholly absent4 ,we shall then gladly renounce individual immortality1 and shall not place more value upon the accessory elements than upon the principal4 ,we shall in this way arrive at a freer and a more enlightened conception of life1 which will exclude the neglect of other egos and the over-estimation of our own4 99 99 99 99 99 ,if1 now1 the knowledge of the connection of the elements 7sensations7 does not suffice us1 and we must ask ,who1 ,what1 possesses this connection of sensations1 ,who1 ,what1 perceives sensations8 we have succumbed1 we may be sure1 to our old habit of arranging every element 7every sensation7 within some unanalysed complex1 and we are falling back imperceptibly to an older1 lower1 and more limited point of view4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the habit of treating the unanalysed ego-complex as an indivisible unity is often scientifically presented in peculiar ways4 ,first1 the nervous system is separated from the body as the seat of sensations4 ,in the nervous system again the brain is selected as fitted for the performance of this function1 and finally1 to save the pretended psychical unity1 a further point is sought in the brain as the seat of the soul4 ,but rough conceptions like these are hardly adapted to trace out even in the crudest lines the ways that future research will follow in investigating the connection of the physical and the psychical4 ,the fact that the different organs of sensation and memory are physically connected with one another1 and can be easily excited by one another is probably the foundation of the psychical unity4 ,i once heard the question seriously discussed of ,how the percept of a very large tree found room in the little head of a man8 ,now though this problem does not exist1 yet we perceive by the question the absurdity that is so easily committed in conceiving sensations to exist spacially in the brain4 ,when ,i speak of the sensations of another person1 these sensations of course present no activity in my optical space or my physical space generally2 they are mentally added1 and ,i conceive them to be causally annexed1 not spacially1 to the brain observed or represented4 ,when ,i speak of my sensations1 these sensations do not exist spacially in my head1 but rather my head shares with them the same spacial field1 as was explained above 7compare what was said regarding the cut74 99 99 99 99 99 ,let there be no mention of the so-called unity of consciousness4 ,since the apparent opposition of the real and the perceived world exists only in the mode according to which it is viewed1 and no real chasm exists1 a multiplex interconnected content of consciousness is in no respect more difficult to understand than the multiplex interconnection of the world4 ,if we are determined to regard the ego as an actual unity1 we cannot extricate ourselves from the following dilemma3 either to set over against it--viz41 the ego--the world of incognisable substances 7which would be wholly idle and purposeless71 or to regard the whole world1 the egos of other people included1 as only contained in our own ego 7to which1 seriously1 we could hardly make up our minds74 ,but if we take the ego merely as a practical unity1 composed for purposes of provisional survey2 in fact1 take it as a more strongly coherent group of elements1 which is less strongly connected with other groups of this kind2 questions like these will not arise and research will have a free outlook4 ,in his philosophical notes ,lichtenberg says3 ,we become conscious of certain ideas that are not dependent upon us2 and there are other ideas that1 at least as we think1 are dependent upon us4 ,where is the border-line8 ,we know only the existence of our sensations1 percepts1 and thoughts4 ,we should say1 ,it thinks1 just as we say1 ,it lightens4 ,it is going too far to say cogito1 when we translate it by ,i think4 ,assuming the ,i1 postulating it1 is merely practical necessity4 ,though the method by which ,lichtenberg arrives at this result is somewhat different from our own1 we must nevertheless give our assent to the conclusion itself4 ,,xii4 ,bodies do not produce sensations1 but complexes of sensations 7complexes of elements7 form bodies4 ,if bodies appear to the physicist as that which is permanent1 that which is real1 and sensations as their evanescent transitory semblance1 the physicist forgets that all bodies are but thought-symbols for complexes of sensation 7complexes of elements74 ,the elements designated also form here the real1 immediate1 and ultimate foundation which physiological research has now further to investigate4 ,through the discernment of this1 many things in psychology and physics assume more distinct and economical forms1 and many imagined problems are disposed of4 ,the world therefore does not consist for us of mysterious substances1 which through their interaction with another equally mysterious substance1 the ego1 produce sensations as solely accessible4 ,colors1 sounds1 spaces1 times1 444 are for us the ultimate elements1 whose given connection it is our task to investigate4 ,in this investigation we dare not allow ourselves to be hindered by the composites and circumscriptions 7body1 ego1 matter1 mind 4447 that have been formed for especial1 practical1 provisional1 and limited purposes4 ,on the contrary1 the appropriate and best adapted forms of thought must arise within research itself1 as happens in every special science4 ,in the place of the traditional instinctive conception must come a freer1 fresher view1 conforming with developed experience4 99 99 99 99 99 ,i have always felt it as a special good fortune1 that early in my life1 at about the age of #ae1 ,i came across in the library of my father ,kant's ,prolegomena to ,any ,future ,metaphysic4 ,the book made at that time a powerful1 ineffaceable impression upon me1 that ,i never afterwards experienced to the same degree in any of my philosophical reading4 ,some two or three years later ,i suddenly discovered the superfluous rle that the thing in itself plays4 ,on a bright summer day under the open heavens the world together with my ego all at once appeared to me as one coherent mass of sensations1 but in the ego more strongly coherent4 ,although the actual working out of this thought did not occur until a later time1 yet this moment became decisive for my whole view4 ,moreover ,i had still to struggle long and hard before ,i was able to retain1 in my own special department1 the conception ,i had acquired4 ,with what is valuable in physical doctrines we necessarily absorb a good dose of false metaphysics1 which it is very difficult to separate from that which must be preserved1 especially where these doctrines have become current and familiar4 ,so1 too1 the traditional1 instinctive conceptions often arose with great power and placed impediments in my way4 ,only by alternate studies in physics and the physiology of the senses and by historico-physical investigations1 since about #ahfc1 after having endeavored in vain to settle the conflict by a physico-psychological monadology1 did ,i acquire in my views any considerable firmness4 ,i make no pretensions to the title of philosopher4 ,i only wish to adopt in physics a point of view that need not be instantly changed the moment our glance is carried into the domain of another science2 since indeed1 ultimately1 all must form one whole4 ,the molecular physics of to-day does certainly not meet this demand4 ,what ,i say ,i have probably not been the first to say4 ,i also do not wish to hold forth this exposition of mine as a special performance4 ,it is rather my belief that every one will collaterally adopt the same view1 who in a reflective manner holds survey in any province of science that is not too limited4#bb #bb ,i have recently 7#ahhf7 propounded these views in a pamphlet ,beitrge zur ,analyse der ,empfindungen4 ,avenarius1 with whom ,i recently became acquainted1 approaches my point of view 7,philosophie als ,denken der ,welt nach dem ,princip des kleinsten ,kraftmasses1 #ahgf74 ,hering1 too1 in his treatise upon ,memory 7,almanach der ,wiener ,akademie1 #ahgj1 p4 #beh2 also published in ,nos4 #f and #g of ,the ,open ,court71 and ,j4 ,popper in his beautiful book1 ,the ,right to ,live and the ,duty to ,die 7,leipsic #ahgh1 p4 #fb71 have advanced similar thoughts4 ,compare also my paper ,ueber die konomische ,natur der physikalischen ,forschung 7,almanach der ,wiener ,akademie1 #ahhb1 p4 #agi1 note74 ,finally let me also refer here to the introduction to ,w4 ,preyer's ,reine ,empfindungslehre1 and to ,riehl's ,freiburger ,antrittsrede1 p4 #ad4 ,i should probably have to cite much additional matter that is in some way related to my line of thought if ,i possessed a more extensive bibliographical knowledge4 ,,xiii4 ,science always arises through a process of adaptation of thoughts to a certain department of experience4 ,the results of this process are thought-elements1 which represent the entire department4 ,the result1 of course1 is different according to the character and extent of the province surveyed4 ,if the province of experience in question is extended1 or if several provinces hitherto separated become united1 the traditional1 familiar thought-elements no longer suffice for the province thus extended4 ,in the struggle of acquired habit with the effort after adaptation1 problems arise1 which disappear when the adaptation is completed1 to give way to others that have sprung up in the mean time4 ,to the physicist1 pure and simple1 the idea of a body facilitates the acquisition of a comprehensive survey in his department1 and does not operate as a disturbance4 ,so1 also1 the person that pursues purely practical ends1 is materially assisted by the concept of the ,i or ,ego4 ,for1 unquestionably1 every form of thought that has been voluntarily or involuntarily constructed for some especial purpose1 possesses for that particular purpose a permanent value4 ,as soon1 however1 as physics and physiology touch1 the ideas held in the one domain are discovered to be untenable in the other4 ,from the striving after an adaptation of the one to the other arise the various atomic and monad theories--which are unsuccessful1 however1 in the attainment of their object4 ,if we regard sensations1 taken in the sense above defined1 as world-elements or elements of the ,all1 the problems referred to are practically removed1 and the first and most important adaptation therefore effected4 ,this basal notion 7without any pretension to being a philosophy for all eternity7 can at present be adhered to with respect to all provinces of experience2 it is consequently the one that accommodates itself with the least expenditure1 that is1 more economically than any other1 to the present temporary state of collective science4 ,moreover1 in the consciousness of its purely economical office1 this basal notion acts with most perfect tolerance4 ,it does not obtrude itself into provinces in which the current conceptions are still adequate4 ,it will ever be ready1 upon subsequent extensions of the domain of experience1 to give way to a better one4 ,the philosophical point of view of the average man--if that term may be applied to the nave realism of the ordinary individual--has a claim to the highest consideration4 ,it has arisen in the progress of immeasurable time without the purposed assistance of man4 ,it is a product of nature1 and is preserved and sustained by nature4 ,everything that philosophy has accomplished--the biological title of every advance1 nay of every error1 admitted--is1 compared with it1 but an insignificant and ephemeral product of art4 ,and in reality1 we see every thinker1 every philosopher1 the moment he is forced away from his one-sided intellectual occupation by some practical necessity1 immediately fall back upon the universal point of view that all men hold in common4 ,we seek by no means to discredit this point of view4 ,the task that we have set ourselves is simply to show why and to what purpose for the greatest part of our life we occupy this point of view1 and why and for what purpose we are provisorily obliged to abandon it4 ,no point of view has an absolute permanent validity4 ,each has an importance but for some one given end4 ,,ernst ,,mach4 ,,the ,,origin ,,of ,,mind4 ,given facts and deduced facts4 ,we must distinguish between two kinds of facts2 viz41 given facts or data1 and deduced facts or inferences4 ,with regard to the facts of soul-life we recognise that the former class1 that of given facts1 necessarily consists of states of consciousness only2 they are feelings of any description1 varying greatly in their nature4 ,they are different in the rhythmical forms of their vibrations1 in their intensity1 and in their distinctness4 ,the latter class1 that of inferences1 is deduced from the former1 and serves no other purpose than that of explanation4 ,this class is mostly representative of external facts1 and knowledge of external facts exists only in so far as external facts are represented in deduced facts4 ,what a thinking being would call external facts is nothing but the contents of certain deduced facts4 ,deduced facts1 and among them the conception of external facts 7wherever they exist71 have been produced by the effort of accounting for given facts--viz41 the elementary data of consciousness and their relations4 ,deduced facts are the interpretation of given facts4 ,they are1 so to say1 conjectures concerning their causes as well as their interconnections4 ,definition of mind4 ,the organised totality of deduced facts1 as it is developed in feeling substance1 is called mind4 ,feelings are the condition of mind4 ,from feelings alone mind can grow4 ,but there is a difference between feelings and mind4 ,feelings develop into mind1 they grow to be mind by being interpreted1 by becoming representative4 ,representative feelings are mind4 ,accordingly1 we characterise mind as the representativeness of feelings4 ,the growth of mind4 ,although deduced facts are an interpretation of given facts1 this interpretation is not expressly designed4 ,these inferences from given facts are not invented with a premeditated purpose2 they are not constructed with foresight or intention4 ,deduced facts grow naturally and spontaneously from given facts1 which are the elements of sense-activity4 ,there is not an agent that oversees their fabrication2 there is not a devising subject that surmises the existence of external facts and thus matures their conception into deduced facts4 ,deduced facts are rather the natural product of a certain group of given facts4 ,deduced facts issue from a co-operation of a number of feelings4 ,they are the result of an organisation of certain repeated sense-impressions which produce a disposition not only to receive sense-impressions of the same kind1 but also to react upon them in a certain way4 ,mind is not the factor that organised the given facts of mere sense-impressions so that they became representations4 ,there was no mind as long as feelings remained unorganised4 ,feelings acquire meaning2 and as soon as they have acquired meaning they are what we call deduced facts1 representations--especially representations of external facts4 ,deduced facts are the elements of mind2 and mind is not their root1 but their fruit4 ,subjective and objective existence4 ,the whole domain of mind-activity 7i4 e41 of the representativeness of feelings7 is called subjective2 while the totality of all facts that are represented in the mind is called objective4 ,subjective existence consists of feelings and of states of consciousness2 objective existence is represented as things that are in motion4 ,motion and feeling are quite different things1 yet in spite of their radical difference experience teaches us that both spheres are intimately interwoven4 ,subjective existence constantly draws upon objective existence4 ,not only do states of consciousness exist as they are by virtue merely of the objects represented1 but also that group of facts called our body1 the action of which appears in a constant connection with and as a condition of our consciousness1 is kept in running order only through a constant renewal of its waste products out of the resources of objective existence4 ,we distinguish between our body and external facts2 but the boundary between both provinces is not distinct4 ,there is constantly an exchange of substance taking place1 proving that our body is in kind not different from the substance of which external facts consist4 ,it must be regarded as a group of the same kind as external facts1 existing in a constant interaction with and among the external facts4 ,in other words1 the body of the thinking subject is an object in the objective world4 ,the origin of feeling from the elements of subjective existence4 ,concerning the subjective sphere of existence we recognise that consciousness does not act uninterruptedly2 there are moments when consciousness is lost4 ,if they are normal1 we call them sleep2 if they are abnormal1 swoons or trances4 ,former conscious states can be revived2 they form a chain of memories which is very limited in comparison with the extension of the objective world4 ,there is a time in the past beyond which our memory does not reach4 ,moreover we have reason to believe1 that there will be a time when the chain of conscious states will be broken forever4 ,this consummation is called death4 ,in short the subjective world is transient2 it grows by degrees2 its existence is very precarious2 it flickers like a candle in the wind and will disappear again4 ,the objective world however is eternal1 it is indestructible4 ,experience teaches that it constantly undergoes changes1 but that in its totality it is imperishable4 ,feeling with the help of memory acquires meaning4 ,the objective world is in a certain sense a part of the subject4 ,in another sense1 we must say that the subject is a part of the objective world4 ,indeed these two sentences represent the same truth1 only viewed from two standpoints4 ,the subjective world being transient and the objective world being eternal1 the question presents itself1 ,how does the subject originate in or among the objects of the objective world8 ,the problem is complicated and we must approach it step by step4 ,first1 we are inevitably driven to the conclusion1 that the subjective world of feelings forms an inseparable whole together with a special combination of certain facts of the objective world1 namely our body4 ,it originates with this combination1 and disappears as soon as that combination breaks to pieces4 ,and1 secondly1 we must assume that the conditions for building up such material dispositions as have the power of developing the subjectivity of consciousness are an intrinsic quality of the objective world4 ,subjectivity cannot originate out of nothing2 it must be conceived as the product of a co-operation of certain elements which are present in the objective world4 ,in other words1 the elements of the subjective world are features that we must suppose to be inseparably united with the elements of the objective world1 which are represented in our mind as motions4 ,this leads to the conclusion that feeling has to be considered not as a simple but as a complex phenomenon4 ,feelings originate through a combination of elements of feeling2 and the presence of the elements of feeling must be supposed to be an intrinsic property of the objective world4#bc ,the objective elements1 the action of which is accompanied with the elements of feeling1 arrange themselves1 we suppose1 into such combinations as display actual feelings1 in exact agreement with the laws of molar and molecular mechanics4 ,this1 we must assume1 takes place with the same spontaneity as1 for instance1 an acid and a base combine into a salt4 ,to use another example1 it takes place with the same necessity as1 under special conditions1 a certain amount of molar motion is transformed into the molecular motion of ether-waves1 called electricity4 ,motions are not transformed into feelings1 but certain motions 7all being separately accompanied with elements of feeling71 when co-operating in a special form1 are accompanied in that form with actual feelings4 #bc ,for further details see the author's article ,feeling and ,motion2 published first in ,the ,open ,court1 ,nos4 #aec and #aed4 ,neither feeling nor mind can be considered as incidental phenomena4 ,there is a certain class of philosophers who look upon feeling as an incidental effect1 as a fortuitous by-play of the interacting elements of matter4 ,this conception has little if anything in its favor4 ,on the contrary1 if the elements of feeling are throughout inseparably connected with the elements of objective existence1 it must appear natural that wherever the conditions fitted for organised life appear1 irritable substance will originate4 ,we may fairly assume that feeling will arise on the cooled surface of a planet with the same necessity as1 for instance1 a collision between non-luminous celestial bodies will cause them to blaze forth in the brilliant light of a nebula containing all the elements for the production in the course of ages of a planetary system4 ,wherever a combination of substances originates that displays the quality of feeling1 it will form a basis for given facts of soul-life4 ,feeling substance having been exposed to a special stimulus1 or having performed a certain function1 has thereby undergone a rearrangement in its molecular parts4 ,the structure has suffered a change in its configuration1 the form of which is preserved in the general flux of matter1 and there is thus produced in the feeling substance a disposition to respond more quickly to impressions of the same kind4 ,the feeling accompanying a subsequent impression of the same nature is coincidently felt to be a revival of a former feeling1 similar or the same in kind4 ,in other words1 feeling substance1 preserving the forms of its functions1 is possessed with memory4#bd ,the preservation of form in a function which is accompanied with feeling makes it possible that the feeling accompanying a special form of function will become a mark of signification4 ,by being felt to be the same in kind as a former feeling it will come to denote a certain condition of feeling tissues4 ,a feeling that is felt to be the same as or similar in kind to a former feeling1 the revival or memory of which it causes1 is in this way endowed with meaning2 by which we understand the awareness of the congruence or similarity of two or several feelings4 ,thus in the lapse of time1 by constantly renewed experience1 one special feeling1 whenever repeated1 will naturally become the indicator showing the presence of certain external facts that cause it4 ,an isolated feeling is naturally meaningless2 yet through a preservation of form1 viz41 through memory1 it is by repetition necessarily changed into a symbol of representative value4 #bd ,memory is no mysterious power2 it is the preservation of form in feeling organisms4 ,see ,ewald ,hering's treatise on ,memory1 ,english translation in ,nos4 #f and #g of ,the ,open ,court4 ,compare also the author's article ,soul-life and the ,preservation of ,form1 in ,no4 #adc of ,the ,open ,court4 ,feelings1 accordingly1 in the course of time1 necessarily acquire meaning2 they naturally and spontaneously develop mind4 ,they can as little avoid co-ordinating into a mental organism1 as water at a low temperature can escape congealing into ice2 or as a seed can keep from sprouting when it is exposed1 with sufficient moisture1 to the light4 ,mind1 accordingly1 is the necessary outcome of a combination of feelings4 ,it is as necessary an effect of special causes1 as1 for example1 a triangle is the product of a combination of three lines4 ,the first step in the organisation of feeling1 which will throughout remain the determining feature of its development1 is the fact that with the help of memory the different sets of feeling acquire meaning1 and in this way the mere feelings are transformed from given facts into deduced facts4 99 99 99 99 99 ,subjectivity and objectivity4 ,the nature of given facts is subjectivity1 while the character of inferred facts is objectivity4 ,the latter having grown out of the former will nevertheless1 so far as they are states of consciousness1 always remain subjective2 yet they contain representations of that which is delineated by certain given facts4 ,thus they contain an element which stamps upon them the nature of objectivity4 ,they represent objects1 the existence of which the feeling subject cannot help assuming1 because this is the simplest way of indicating certain changes that are not caused within the realm of its own subjectivity4 ,objectivity1 accordingly1 does not mean absolute objectivity4 ,objectivity means subjective states1 i4 e41 given facts or feelings representative of outside facts1 i4 e41 of facts that are not subjective1 but objective4 ,the projection of objective facts4 ,the sense-impression of a white rectangle covered with little black characters is a given fact2 yet the aspect of a sheet of paper is an inferred fact4 ,the former is a subjective state within2 the latter is the representation of an objective thing without4 ,the process of representing is a function of the subject1 but the fact represented is projected as it were into the objective world1 where experience has taught us to expect it4 ,and the practice of projection grows so naturally by inherited adaptation and repeated experience that the thing represented appears to us to be external4 ,we no longer feel a sensation as a state of consciousness but conceive it as an independent reality4 ,projection1 an economy of labor4 ,the practice of projecting subjective sensations into the outside world is not an act of careless inference1 but the inevitable result of a natural law4 ,this natural law is that of the economy of labor4 ,when a blind man has undergone a successful operation1 he will first have the consciousness of vague color-sensations taking place in his eye4 ,experience will teach him the meaning of these color-sensations and his motions will inform him where to find the corresponding outside facts4 ,his consciousness will more and more be concentrated upon the meaning of the sensations4 ,the less difficulty he has in arriving at their proper interpretation1 the more unconscious his sense-activity will become and at length consciousness will be habitually attached to the result of the sensation alone1 i4 e41 to its interpretation4 ,in the same way1 every one who learns to play an instrument will first feel that part only which his hand touches4 ,by and by1 however1 he will acquire a consciousness of the effects produced by the slightest touch4 ,constant practice forms in the brain of an expert certain living structures which are correspondent to the action of the instrument and represent it with great accuracy4 ,whenever these structures are stimulated1 the action of the instrument is felt to take place4 ,in this way consciousness is projected into the work performed by the instrument4 ,the touch of the hand has become purely automatic1 and the operator now feels the full effects of his manipulation although he is not in direct contact with all the parts of his instrument4 ,the instrument becomes as if alive under his treatment1 he feels it as a part of himself2 for its action stands en rapport with his brain-activity4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the subject-superstition and agnosticism4 ,states of consciousness1 collectively considered1 have been termed subject1 and we have also employed the phrase subjective world4 ,but we must not forget the fact1 that the adoption of the name subject is based upon a misconception4 ,subject means that which underlies1 and the subject was supposed to be that something which formed the basis of all the states of consciousness present in any one special case--in you or in me1 or in any person like you and me4 ,the subject was considered as a being that was in possession of sense-impressions1 of feelings1 of thoughts1 of intentions1 etc42 and the existence of this subject was proved by ,descartes's famous syllogism ,cogito ergo sum4 ,the subject was supposed to produce the states of consciousness1 while in fact 7as we have explained above7 it is exactly the opposite4 ,feelings change into mind1 they produce the subject which thinks4 ,the subject is nothing underlying but rather overlying4 ,it is the growth out of and upon feelings4 ,it is the sum of many feelings in a state of organisation4 ,the fallacy of ,descartes's dictum has been pointed out by ,kant4 ,the existence of states of consciousness1 or the fact cogito1 does not prove the existence of something that underlies the states of consciousness4 ,it simply proves the existence of feelings and thoughts4 ,there are certain sense-impressions1 there are perceptions1 there are ideas4 ,ideas develop from perceptions1 and perceptions develop from sense-impressions4 ,states of consciousness are nothing but the awareness or the feeling that is connected with certain perceptions and ideas4 ,descartes's subjectivism is a transitory phase leading from the authoritative objectivism of the middle ages to the critical objectivism of modern times4 ,the authoritative philosophy of the ,schoolmen yielded to the arbitrary philosophy of metaphysical subjectivity1 commencing as a matter of principle with doubt1 instead of commencing with positive data1 and establishing anarchy through lack of any objective method of arriving at truth4 ,the reaction against the arbitrary authority of scholasticism was indispensable to further progress4 ,but we must not rest satisfied with its negative result4 ,we cannot commence a business without capital and without making a start4 ,so we cannot begin philosophy with nothing4 ,knowledge is not possible without positive facts to serve as a basis to stand upon4 ,the negative features of ,descartes's philosophy naturally found their ultimate completion in agnosticism4 ,the assumption of the existence of a subject led to the doctrine1 that this subject is unknowable4 ,moreover1 the assumption of something that underlies the acts of thought leads to the assumption of something that underlies objective existence1 and thus it begets the theory of things in themselves4 ,this theory involves us in innumerable contradictions and thus it ends ultimately in the proposition that things in themselves are unknowable4 ,there are few who know the historical meaning of agnosticism2 but those who can survey philosophical thought in its evolution1 its growth1 and decay1 know that agnosticism means failure in philosophy4 ,the word is a foreign-sounding name for knownothingism1 denoting a half-concealed confession of bankruptcy4 ,the philosophy of the future1 in order to escape from the fatal consequences of agnosticism1 has to discard the subject-superstition inherited from ,descartes4 ,descartes was a great thinker1 a star of first magnitude in the realm of thought1 but it is time that1 without returning to the authoritative philosophy of the ,schoolmen1 we should free ourselves from the errors of his one-sided subjectivism4 ,let us not forget1 that all subjective states contain an objective element4 ,objectivity is no chimera1 and we are very well enabled to establish the truth or untruth of objective facts4 ,the philosophy of the future1 accordingly1 will be a philosophy of facts1 it will be positivism2 and in so far as a unitary systematisation of facts is the aim and ideal of all science1 it will be ,,monism4 ,from the standpoint of positivism1 the subject1 in the old sense1 does not exist1 and things in themselves do not exist either4 ,their existence is an unwarranted assumption1 a superstition of philosophy1 and we can retain the word subject only on the condition of a complete change of its meaning4 ,the word subject1 accordingly1 7which has acquired a place in philosophical language and is for several purposes quite an appropriate expression17 must be corrected so as to mean1 not an underlying substratum1 nor an agent which does the thinking1 but simply a collective term designating a certain group of sense-impressions1 perceptions1 ideas1 and volitions4 ,these sense-impressions1 perceptions1 ideas1 and volitions1 which form1 simultaneously as well as successively1 the elements of soul-life1 carrying consciousness upon the waves of many subconscious states1 make up the reality of the subject2 they are the facts of its existence1 and it is the states of consciousness only1 not an underlying something1 the existence of which is beyond all doubt4 ,they form the basis of all knowledge4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the objective element in subjective states4 ,we must bear in mind that states of feeling are not empty feelings1 but always feelings of a certain kind4 ,there is no consciousness pure and simple1 but only consciousness of a certain state4 ,let us suppose1 for instance1 the consciousness of a certain pressure4 ,what is it but a feeling of being pressed in a certain direction and with a certain intensity8 ,if a certain pressure is resisted1 the feeling indicates a state of active reaction against pressure1 and experience teaches by comparison with other pressures how much counterpressure is necessary to resist or overcome it4 ,among the states of consciousness there are accordingly some that represent an awareness of receiving impressions1 and there are others of making impressions4 ,there are some feelings of a passive nature1 which are felt to be produced by impacts from a something that is not the subject1 and there are other feelings of an active nature1 which are felt to produce effects on something that is not the subject4 ,this something that is not the subject is called object4 ,it is represented as lying outside the subject1 although the latter stands in a close and inseparable relation to the object1 which1 so far as this relation is considered1 forms a part of the subject4 ,a given subjective state possesses a definite form2 it exists as it is on account of the object only2 for its form has been produced by its relation to the object1 and it represents this relation4 ,the object1 therefore1 is no unimportant part of1 and indeed is an essential element in1 the constitution of the subjective state4 ,all data are states of subject-object-ness4 ,idealist philosophers are apt to say that the subject alone is known to us1 while the existence of the object must forever remain a vague hypothesis4 ,this1 however1 is incorrect4 ,it involves an unjustifiable deprecation of the objective element in the given facts of conscious states1 and is based on a misconception of the entire state of things4 ,the data of knowledge are not mere subjective states1 they are relations between subject and object4 ,neither the subject is given1 nor the object2 but an interaction between subject and object4 ,from this interaction we derive by a very complicated process of abstraction both concepts1 the subject as well as the object4 ,it is true that the subjective world of feelings and of representative feeling is very different from the objective world of things4 ,nevertheless they are one4 ,the subject together with all objects forms one inseparable whole of subject-object-ness4 ,every special object1 accordingly1 must be conceived as a part of this inseparable whole--of the ,all2 it is a certain set of facts1 represented in a certain group of experiences1 and is to be described as that something which in a special way affects the subject and can again in a special way be reacted upon by the subject4 ,idealism and realism4 ,here we have the clue for the proper meaning of objectivity4 ,what is a piece of lead but something that at a definite distance from the centre of the earth exerts a certain pressure proportionate to its mass2 that is seen to become liquid at a certain temperature2 etc41 etc48 ,if it is treated in a particular way1 it will be observed to suffer certain changes4 ,what lead is has been established by experience2 i4 e41 by systematic observation through sense-impressions4 ,from this standpoint the differences between the schools of idealism and realism appear as antiquated4 ,the questions whether matter is real1 whether objects exist1 and whether there is any reality at all1 have lost their meaning4 ,that which produces effects upon the subject and against which the subject does or can react1 is called object4 ,the sense-effects produced by the object upon the subject1 and also the reactions of the subject upon the object1 are realities2 and every name of a special object signifies a certain group of such effects and their respective reactions4 ,thus1 for instance1 the word lead comprises a certain set of experiences that have always been found combined with certain whitish objects4 ,space and ,reality4 ,some philosophers have denied not only the existence of objects1 but also the reality of space4 ,what is space but a certain group of experiences8 ,the conception of space originates by moving and by being moved about4 ,the conception of space is the consciousness that by moving1 or by being moved1 a change is effected2 that is1 a certain object serving as a point of reference is either approached or left at a greater distance4 ,the acts of approach or withdrawal are as much realities as are any other acts of the subject4 ,discussions concerning the reality of space accordingly become mere verbal quibbles as soon as we understand by space the condition common to all motion-experiences4 99 99 99 99 99 ,perception and concepts4 ,the mental state in which through contact with external facts one or several of the senses are affected so as to produce a direct awareness of their presence1 is called perception4 ,the effects of external facts upon the sense of touch appear as different forms of resistance4 ,to the other senses they appear as odors1 tastes1 sounds1 and images4 ,all these sensations are so many subjective methods of representing certain objective processes4 ,perceptions represent immediate reality because the objects perceived1 i4 e41 the objects represented by an image in the eye1 a taste on the tongue1 etc41 are in an immediate contact with our senses4 ,the feeling subject is directly conscious of their existence by their present effects4 ,they are our ,anschauung1 i4 e41 the living presence of objective reality4 ,besides this living presence of objective reality1 of which our immediate surroundings consist1--besides our ,anschauung--1 man is in possession of more general representations1 which comprise all the memories of a certain class of percepts4 ,we call them concepts4 ,man alone through the mechanism of word-symbols has been able to form concepts4 ,abstract reasoning as well as scientific thought will grow with the assistance of concepts in the course of a higher development4 ,hallucinations and errors4 ,the higher we rise in the evolution of representative feelings1 i4 e41 in the development of mind1 the more numerous are the opportunities for going astray4 ,a scientific hypothesis1 if erroneous1 is more sweeping in its fallacies than a single hallucination1 which is a misinterpretation merely of certain feelings4 ,the subjective part of an hallucination1 namely the feeling itself1 is real2 but the objective part1 the representative element of the feeling1 is not real2 that which it is supposed to mean1 does not exist4 ,the interpretation of the feeling is erroneous in a hallucination4 ,hallucinations are possible1 and in the more abstract domains of mental activity errors are possible also2 and will be ever more frequent4 ,nevertheless the reality of outside facts in the sense stated above can as little be doubted as the reality of immediate perception2 and all the facts established by science1 if they are but true1 are as much realities as is the resistance of the table to the pressure of my hand or the perception of the sheet of paper by my eye4 ,inferential facts1 if true1 are real4 ,facts established by science are those observations which are made with all the necessary exactness as well as completeness from certain groups of experiences1 and formulated with precision4 ,the theory of atoms1 for instance1 is true in so far as all elements combine in certain proportions1 which shows that the ultimate particles of which the elements consist are of a definite mass4 ,atoms1 if the word is understood in this sense1 are realities4 ,the theory of atoms1 however1 is not proved in the sense that atoms are 2 or single1 isolated1 minute bodies of a peculiar individuality--separate1 indivisible1 and eternal entities4 ,whether they are concrete things or certain forms of motion in a continuous substance1 whether they are vortices or whirls of a certain density and velocity in an ether ocean1 or whatever else be their character1 is not yet known4 ,if we exclude from the concept atoms all hypothetical views and confine their meaning strictly to the formulation of certain experiences1 we have to deal with facts that are real4 ,theories are true in so far as they comprehend in a formula a certain group of facts1 and a hypothesis becomes reliable to the extent that it agrees with facts4 ,the slightest actual disagreement with facts is sufficient to overthrow the most ingenious hypothesis4 99 99 99 99 99 ,this leads us to the question1 ,what is meant by true8 ,what is truth8 ,facts and reality4 ,truth and mind4 ,the epitheton true has reference to representative states only4 ,a representation is true1 if it conforms to1 or agrees with1 experience2 in other words1 if it is an interpretation of given facts1 is free from contradiction1 and nowhere collides with any one of the given facts and their consistent interpretation4 ,there is no sense in speaking of mere feelings as being true4 ,we can never meet1 in our own experience1 with given facts that are nothing but meaningless feelings2 for we 7as thinking beings7 are incapable of bringing meaningless feelings into the scope of consciousness1 since in the very act of thinking we comment upon the given facts of our feelings4 ,but supposing there are mere given facts1 mere meaningless feelings void of any representative element1 the application of the word true to such non-representative feelings would be improper4 ,states of consciousness become true or untrue only by being representative of objective conditions or things4 ,there is no trace of truth in mere feelings1 but only in representative feelings4 ,truth and error are the privilege of mind4 ,a representation is true1 if all the various experiences concerning a certain thing or state of things agree with the representation2 it is untrue if they do not agree4 ,we observe that certain classes of facts1 in spite of all variety1 exhibit in one or another respect a sameness1 and science attempts to express the sameness in exact formulas4 ,these formulas we call natural laws4 ,if a natural law covers all cases of a class that have come or even that possibly can come within the range of our experience1 if it agrees with every one of them1 we call it a truth4 ,truth accordingly is not at all identical with fact4 ,these two words are often used as synonyms1 but properly employed they are quite distinct4 ,truth is the agreement of a representation with the facts represented4 ,the fall of a stone is a fact2 it is an inferred fact deduced from certain sense-impressions4 ,in so far as the inference is made with necessity as the only proper and simplest explanation of a certain given fact or sense-impression1 it must be considered as a fact or as real4 ,the law of gravitation1 however1 is not a fact1 but a truth4 ,facts are real4 ,there is no sense in speaking of facts as being true4 ,representations of facts are true or untrue4 ,reality is the characteristic feature of all facts1 but truth is a quality that can reside in mind alone4 ,facts and truth4 ,facts are always single1 concrete1 and individual4 ,every fact is a hic and nunc4 ,it is in a special place1 and it is as it is1 at a certain time4 ,it is definite and of a particular kind4 ,yet a truth1 although representing certain objects or their relations1 is never a concrete object1 nor is it a hic and a nunc4 ,it possesses a generality applicable to all instances wherever and whenever the objects in their particular relation appear represented in that truth4 ,truth accordingly possesses as it were an ubiquity2 it is omnipresent and eternal4 ,truth in one sense is objective2 it represents objects or their relations conceived in their objectivity1 in their independence of the subject4 ,this means that the representation of certain objective states will under like conditions agree with the experiences of all subjects--i4 e41 of all feeling beings having the same channels of information4 ,truth in another sense is subjective4 ,truth exists in thinking subjects only4 ,truth affirms that certain subjective representations of the objective world can be relied upon1 that they are deduced from facts and agree with facts4 ,based upon past experience1 they can be used as guides for future experience4 ,if there were no subjective beings1 no feeling and comprehending minds1 there would be no truth4 ,facts in themselves1 whether they are or are not represented in the mind of a feeling and thinking subject1 are real1 yet representations alone1 supposing they agree with facts1 are true4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the problem of the origin of mind4 ,mind1 or the representation of facts in feeling substance1 is the creation of a new and a spiritual realm above the facts of material existence4 ,by spiritual we understand feelings that are representative2 and we say that it is a new creation because it does not exist in the isolated facts of the world4 ,it is formed under special conditions4 ,it rises from certain combinations of facts2 being built upon those facts which produce in their co-operation the subjective state of feeling4 ,the activity of mind if methodically disciplined is called science4 ,science attempts to make the mental representations correct3 it is the search for truth4 ,the object of all the sciences and of philosophy is to systematise knowledge1 i4 e41 all the innumerable data of experience1 so that we can understand and survey the facts of reality in their harmonious interconnection4 ,the most important problem of philosophy has always been the problem of the origin of mind2 for we are anxious to comprehend how it is possible that feeling can spring up in a universe of not-feeling objects1 and that thinking beings can originate in a world of not-thinking elements4 ,dualism assumes that the gulf between the two empires1 the thinking and feeling on one side and the not-thinking and not-feeling on the other side1 is insurmountable2 ,monism however maintains that there is no gulf1 for there is no reason for such an assumption4 ,both realms1 the feeling and thinking on the one hand1 and the unfeeling and unthinking on the other hand1 are not at all distinct and separate provinces4 ,the transition from the one to the other takes place by degrees1 and there is no boundary line between them4 ,the atoms of oxygen which we inhale at present are not engaged in any action that is accompanied with feeling1 but some of them will be very soon active in the generation of our best thought accompanied with most intense consciousness4 ,after that they are thrown aside in the organism and pass out as waste products in the shape of carbonic acid4 ,telepathy4 ,the spiritual originates from and disappears into the non-spiritual not otherwise than light originates out of1 and dissolves again into1 darkness4 ,light is usually considered as the emblem of mind1 for light also discloses to our eye those objects which are so far away that we can never expect to touch them with our hands4 ,so mind1 the representation of the objective world in feeling substance1 unveils the riddles of the universe and shows the secret connections of most distant things and events4 ,spiritualists discuss with great enthusiasm the problem of telepathy4 ,telepathy means far-feeling4 ,mental activity exhibits in all its elements instances of telepathy in the literal sense of the word4 ,we do not feel our sense-organs2 but in and through our sense-organs objects outside of us are felt4 ,in and through our eyes most distant stars are seen4 ,if telepathy has no other but its natural and proper meaning we must confess that the whole activity of the mind rests upon telepathy4 ,however1 we cannot recognise telepathy in the sense in which the word is often employed by spiritualists4 ,with many it denotes a process of such far-feeling as is not caused in the natural way and as stands in contradiction to the mechanical interconnection of causes and effects in the universe4 ,it is supposed to supersede the order of nature4 ,we recognise telepathy fully in the sense that feelings represent distant events and that mind can thus penetrate into the remotest regions of time and space1 but not in any other sense that stands in contradiction with the universal order of mechanical causation4 ,what is the soul but a telepathic machine6 ,it is an organised totality of representations in feeling substance employed for the purpose of reacting appropriately upon the stimuli of external things4 ,man is a part of the cosmos1 he consists of a certain group of facts1 belonging to and being in intimate connection with the whole universe4 ,man's mind is the cosmos represented in this special group of facts4 ,a correct representation of the cosmos includes a proper adaptation4 ,accordingly the human soul is a microcosm and its function is the endeavoring to conform to the macrocosm4 ,mind and light4 ,light is a most wonderful phenomenon2 and yet we know that the objective process taking place in luminous bodies and thence transmitted through ether vibrations to our eye where it causes the sensation of light1 is a mode of motion that can be produced mechanically by changing simple or mechanical motion 7i4 e41 change of place7 through friction into molecular motion4 ,as light originates out of darkness1 being a special mode of motion1 so feeling originates out of the not-feeling4 ,the not-feeling accordingly contains the conditions of feeling in a similar way as potential energy contains the potentiality of kinetic energy1 or as molar motion contains potentially the molecular motion of heat1 light1 and electricity4 ,mind sheds light upon the interconnection of all things and gives meaning to the world4 ,if the world consisted of purely objective facts only1 it would remain a meaningless play of forces4 ,mind and the whole realm of spiritual existence rises from most insignificant beginnings2 yet is it so grand and divine because it represents the world in its wonderful harmony and cosmic order4 ,continuity in the transient4 ,the function of spiritual activity appears to us as transient2 but mind is not as transient as it seems4 ,the continuous light of a flame depends in every instance upon the conditions of the moment4 ,but the continuity of mind shows a preservation of mind-forms1 the corresponding spiritual activity of which is called memory4 ,memory or the mind-form of former states is the most important factor in the determination of the representative value of present states of mind4 ,the continuity thus effected makes it possible for mind to represent not only things and processes distant in space1 but also those distant in time4 ,the continuation of form in feeling substance1 not merely in the life of single individuals1 but also in the life of the race1 produces the growth1 the development1 and evolution of mind4 ,thus facts can be represented in their connections1 and the necessity of their connection can be understood4 ,to use ,spinoza's phrase3 ,the world can be viewed sub specie ternitatis4 ,mind and ,eternity4 ,the fulfilment of mind is truth1 or a correct representation of facts1 not as they are now and here1 but as1 according to conditions which constitute a given state of things1 they must be here and everywhere4 ,mind expands in the measure that it contains and reflects the eternity of truth4 ,the activity of mind is in one respect as transient a process as is the phenomenon of light4 ,yet in other respects mind is able to grasp eternity within the narrow span of the moment4 ,,paul ,,carus4 ,,the ,,magic ,,mirror4 ,the famous time-honored saying of ,rabbi ,ben ,akiba1 ,there is nothing new under the sun1 has often been verified to our astonishment in the history of the sciences4 ,no observation is proclaimed that has not been made before1 no position upheld that has not been before maintained4 ,the more extensive the survey that one acquires over any given province of science1 and the more deeply one penetrates into the past history of that science1 the more surely will one arrive at the conviction1 that even that which is apparently very new is at bottom old4 ,but the unceasing progress of the natural and mental sciences1 on the other hand1 is an indisputable fact2 and the true characteristic of this progress must consequently be sought in some other element than in the accession of new material4 ,the subject-matter with which science deals1 remains almost unchanged throughout prolonged periods of time2 the treatment of that material alone changes4 ,accordingly1 the factor that determines the extension of our knowledge is pre-eminently the growing comprehension that proceeds from the illumination of that which was before in our possession4 ,apples fell from trees in all ages1 but ,newton was the first who placed the event in its proper light1 thereby creating a tangible principle by means of which a great number of other phenomena were successfully apprehended4 ,our system of scientific ideas was increased by the addition of one conception that illuminated phenomena hitherto but half or not at all explained4 ,even the most enthusiastic advocate of the present state of knowledge cannot maintain that it is perfect4 ,on the contrary1 he will recognise that an advance of the barriers that separate that which is now understood from what is not understood1 is not only possible1 but even on his part devoutly to be wished4 ,indeed1 a very large province of knowledge--that of superstition--still remains almost wholly unworked4 ,it is absurd to imagine that all the tales of magic and demonology are founded entirely in deception4 ,for how could it happen that in all historical epochs1 and among all the peoples of the earth1 the same phenomena should be uniformly reported1 if something true and real were not concealed behind it all6 ,the illuminate1 of course1 looking upon our present code of ideas as ultimate1 shrugs his shoulders with a superior air and banishes what to him is supernatural into the realm of fables2 the cautious observer1 on the other hand1 refrains from passing judgment thus prematurely1 for he knows that departments formerly very extensive have passed out of the realm of superstition into the kingdom of science1 and that in the future the same will also occur4 ,thus the divine summons in the medival trial by ordeal have turned out to be effects of suggestion1 and the majority of the performances of witches have proved to be the effects of hysterical temperament4 ,so that we are now in a position to comprehend the tales of the ,magic ,mirror#be in their true light and to bring them1 without constraint1 into accord with the doctrines of a developed science of psychology4 #be ,the ,japanese ,magic ,mirrors consist of ingenious physical contrivances and are in no way concerned with our present subject4 ,a brief recountal of the most important of the stories of this kind1 must be prefaced by the paradoxical statement that the ,magic ,mirror need not by any means be a mirror4 ,people are also reported to have seen future and distant things in shining metal surfaces1 in rock-crystals1 and in glasses filled with water4 ,the ,old ,testament mentions a divination made by the radiance of gems--where it speaks of ,urim and ,thummim1 the breast-ornament of six bright and six dark stones which the high priest donned to receive revelations from ,jehovah4 ,in a like manner1 too1 in dactylomancy 7divination by rings7 the abnormal condition is said to have been induced by fixedly gazing at the stones of finger-rings4 ,likewise in the ,bible we find an instance of divination by means of polished metal cups2 for according to the ,septuagint1 the cup that ,joseph caused to be placed in the sack of ,benjamin1 was the cup from which he was wont to divine4 ,instead of cups1 use was also made of metal balls1 arrows1 swords1 knives1 and metal mirrors4 ,even ,jacob ,bhme practised the art of clairvoyance by the help of the lovely jovial lustre of a tin cup1 with the result that he was now introduced into the innermost depths or centre of recondite nature1 and was enabled to look into the hearts and innermost character of all creatures4 ,when gold and silver leaves marked with mysterious characters were thrown into a basin filled with water1 and it was sought by gazing at the surface thus furnished1 to arouse the higher powers1 the art was called lecanomancy4 ,if the surface of the water alone was gazed at1 it was called hydromancy2 a method which communicated oracles by means of the images that appeared in the water4 ,the only distinction between hydromancy and gastromancy was1 that in the latter case the water was poured into distended vessels4 ,cardanus has minutely described some gastromantic experiments that came under his observation4 ,a bottle filled with holy water was placed in the sun upon a white-covered table2 over the mouth of the bottle two olive leaves were laid crosswise2 three lighted wax candles were then placed about the leaves and fumigated with incense1 during which performance a prayer to ,saint ,helena was uttered4 ,very soon the mantic adepts standing in the background saw forms in the water2 once a man with a bald head1 slightly inclined forward2 a second time a man dressed in scarlet4 ,cardanus himself could see nothing more than a disturbance in the water1 as if produced by the motes of a sunbeam1 and a peculiar generation of bubbles4 ,the same principle lies at the foundation of onychomancy1 where the thumb-nail of some suitable person1 or the palm of the hand was anointed with oil and soot1 and the images appeared in the shining surface illuminated either by the rays of the sun or by a candle4#bf ,ink was often poured into the palm of the bent hand and divination made from the reflecting surface of the ink4 #bf ,the facts cited are taken from ,karl ,kiesewetter's essay ,hypnotisches ,hellsehen1 in ,sphinx1 ,i1 #acj1 #ahhf4 ,perty's work on the ,magical ,phenomena of ,human ,nature1 and ,adolf ,bastian's treatise ,psychische ,beobachtungen bei ,naturvolkern in ,no4 #b of the ,schriften der ,gesellschaft fr ,experimental-,psychologie 7,leipsic1 ,ernst ,gnther1 #ahij71 may also be consulted4 ,it will appear from the very enumeration of these multifarious methods of procedure that the effect does not depend upon the especial character or constitution of the magic mirror4 ,it is a remarkable trait of human thought1 however1 that it first endeavors to trace all phenomena back to external facts before it seeks the cause of the same within itself3 the child of nature sees in all his thoughts the inspirations of good or evil spirits1 and even the modern believer finds the source of all extraordinary enlightenment not in himself but in another--the ,highest ,being4 ,a very high degree of culture is requisite for man approximately to comprehend what marvellous forces slumber within him1 and to what a great extent1 in the truest sense of the word1 he is the creator of his own perceptions and emotions4 ,and thus it was that throughout the long space of three thousand years people did not clearly discover that in the case of magic mirrors the most important factor was the person that saw1 and not the instruments of seeing4 ,if we will use the word superstition1 therefore1 we can justly do so with reference to the improper disposition of the two factors involved4 ,this incorrect interpretation of the phenomenon1 as being necessarily dependent in its origin upon the material object employed1 then called forth the fables regarding some particularly rare and miraculous mirror which was kept in a certain family as a holy relic1 and whose possession admitted people to a knowledge of the secrets of nature and of the future4 ,countless sacrifices of money and human life have been made to these extravagant fancies4 ,indeed1 even to-day1 certain ,english business-houses deal in magic mirrors manufactured after the best prescripts1 and certainly derive much profit from their traffic4 ,in all the treatises upon occult science1 in those of ancient ,egypt as well as in those of the present time1--and the literature of divination by mirrors 7catoptromancy7 fills whole libraries1--in all ,i say are found directions for the manufacture of especially effective glass or metal mirrors4 ,true1 in addition to this1 there is now and then a presentiment to be detected of the importance of personality4 ,tradition prefers in such experiments chaste maidens1 pure boys1 or pregnant women--a choice that despite its material faultiness at any rate pursues the correct principle of emphasising individual character4 ,mirror-gazing was formerly1 and is to-day1 most extensively practised in the ,orient4 ,we possess an account written by ,lane in #ahcd of an adventure he had in ,egypt in company with the ,english ,consul ,salt4 ,the magician in charge of the ceremonies first wrote upon a slip of paper invocations summoning his two ,genii2 and then a few verses from the ,koran1 to open the boy's eyes in a supernatural manner1 444 to make his sight pierce into what is to us the invisible world4 ,the slip of paper was thrown into a chafing-dish containing live charcoal1 frankincense1 coriander seed1 and benzoin4 ,a boy eight or nine years of age had been chosen at random from a number who happened to be passing in the street1 and the magician1 taking hold of his right hand1 drew in the palm of it a magic square1 that is to say1 one square inscribed within another1 and in the space between certain ,arabic numerals2 then1 pouring ink in the centre1 bade the boy look into it attentively4 ,at first the boy could only see the face of the magician1 but proceeding with his inspection1 while the other continued to drop written invocations into the chafing-dish1 he at length described a man sweeping with a broom1 then a scene in which flags and soldiers appeared1 and finally when ,lane asked that ,lord ,nelson should be called for1 the boy described a man in ,european clothes of dark blue1 who had lost his left arm1 but added1 on looking more intently1 ,no1 it is placed to his breast4 ,lord ,nelson generally had an empty sleeve attached to the breast of his coat1 but as it was the right arm he had lost1 ,lane1 without saying that he suspected the boy had made a mistake1 asked the magician whether the object appeared in the ink as if actually before the eyes1 or as if in a glass1 which makes the right appear left4 ,he answered they appeared as in a mirror2 and this rendered the divination faultless4 ,a counterpart to this in more recent times may be cited4 ,when ,seringapatam was stormed by ,general ,harris and ,sir ,david ,baird1 the unfortunate ,tippoo ,saib retired to discover by means of divination by a cup what the future prospects were for the continuance of his rule4 ,after he had remained seated for a long time deeply absorbed in meditation1 he suddenly sprang up and in despair rushed into the foremost ranks of the combatants and fell covered with wounds2 so deeply had the fatal aspect of the image in the cup moved him4 ,in ,europe1 during the period of classic antiquity1 hydromancy was especially practised4 ,the ,byzantine ,andronicus ,comnenus also put his faith concerning the knowledge of future things1 in water4 ,christianity denounced the practice of these magic arts as the work of the devil4 ,st4 ,thomas ,aquinas says that the gift of seeing visions possessed by children1 is not to be ascribed to any power of innocence but to evil influences4 ,despite this however the art did not perish4 ,indeed1 in the sixteenth century1 under the protection of physicians and ,university professors1 it attained the acme of its development4 ,the celebrated humanist ,pico de ,mirandola was firmly convinced of the power of magic mirrors1 and declared that it was sufficient in order to read in a magic mirror the past1 the present1 and the future1 simply to construct one under a favorable constellation and at the proper temperature4 ,but the most successful of all in the practice of crystallomancy was ,dr4 ,dee1 who flourished from #aebg to #afjh4 ,his seer or scryer was a man named ,kelly1 who could hardly be described as unpolluted or as one that had not known sin1 for he had been the perpetrator of so many villainies that as a testimony of his character both his ears had been cut off4 ,a crystal served as the vehicle of the ecstatic revelations1 to which according to the conception of the times numerous spirits were attached1 who made themselves intelligible to ,kelly by dramatic scenes and often by sounds4 ,the ,shew-,stone1 or ,holy ,stone1 was round and rather large2 it is said to have come into ,dee's hands in a very wonderful manner4 ,the large folio volume of the ,english mathematician upon crystallomancy was very probably used later by ,cagliostro1 although the latter practised a somewhat different method and used a carafe of water instead of the stone4 ,the prophecy of the magician who predicted the regency of the ,duke of ,orleans through the death of the ,prince1 is to be noticed as the last historical case of the use of the magic mirror4 ,in our century ,courts and ,universities no longer form the stage upon which the drama of crystal-gazing is enacted1 but almost exclusively the circles of the ,spiritists1 or1 as they are commonly called1 ,spiritualists4 ,spiritualism has artfully confiscated a great quantity of psychological data1 and has made an impartial examination of phenomena very difficult by always presenting the data to the novice in connection with spirit-theories4 ,having learned much from evil experience1 the public has assumed a sceptical position with regard to everything that comes from spiritualistic quarters1 and easily overlooks what is actual and real beneath the cover of uncritical drivel4 ,i shall also introduce here one or two instances which plainly show that after the stupendous advances which made chemistry an exact science the cause of these phenomena was no longer sought in the properties of stones and mirrors1 but was attributed to ghosts and spirits1 by which still greater confusion was produced4 ,in ,justinus ,kerner's ,magikon we read3 ,questions are put to the unsubstantial beings that appear in shining objects and the seer hears the answer in dull tones4 ,these beings also make signs and often appear in great numbers1 but again only three at a time1--and within five or ten minutes in the case of practised scryers1 but in the case of the unpractised not until a longer space has elapsed4 ,the objects described appear in a few seconds and vanish when they are no longer needed4 ,in ,athens a female seer of this description is said to have seen a sick person in ,vienna and everything described in minutest detail was confirmed by the next post4 ,a boy who beheld absent persons and their acts in a medicine glass filled with water is said to have discovered by this means unknown thieves4 ,barth gives the following directions for crystal-gazing3 ,when the crystal has been ground and polished it is dedicated to some spirit or other2 this is called its consecration4 ,before being used it is 'charged'2 that is1 an invocation is made to the spirit1 wherein a vision is requested of the things that one wishes to experience4 ,ordinarily a young person is chosen to look into the glass and behold the prayed for vision4 ,after a little time the crystal becomes enveloped in a cloud1 and a tiny vision appears which represents in miniature the persons1 scenes1 and things that are necessary to supply the required information4 ,when the information has been obtained the crystal is 'discharged1' and after receiving thanks for the services he has performed the spirit is dismissed4 ,perty from whom ,i take this citation aptly adds1 ,one's own spirit1 accordingly1 is here invoked as a stranger4 ,the recent reports of ,anglo-,american ,spiritualists are less crude1 yet are similarly permeated by ghost-hypotheses4 ,for example1 a ,mr4 ,rogers relates that he had put a crystal into the hands of a lady who knew nothing at all of its magical powers1 yet who a short time afterwards very minutely described a scene in which a lecturer1 evidently of ,english nationality1 was addressing a foreign audience1 while behind his chair the shade of a ,north-,american ,indian stood--the source of his inspiration4 ,a few months later the lady was by chance introduced to the ,united ,states ,consul at ,trebizond whom she immediately recognised as the principal character of her vision1 and who upon being questioned declared that at the time mentioned he had given an address at that place1 and moreover1 that according to the declaration of ,spiritualist mediums he was controlled by the spirit of a ,north-,american ,indian4 ,in ,germany the best known work is probably the ,visionen im ,wasserglass1 by ,frau ,adelma ,von ,vay1 ne ,countess ,wurmbrand4 ,she reports in her little book some ninety experiments that were made in the years from #ahfi to #ahge4 ,frau ,von ,vay sees her pictures without difficulty1 at times in their natural colors1 at times in shades between white and black2 often they are of only momentary duration1 then again they persist for some time or gradually melt into confused and nebulous spots4 ,the lady dictates to her husband the description of what is presented to her gaze2 the ,spirit furnishes commentaries and supplementary interpretations1 and the fulfilment or non-fulfilment of the prophecies and divinations is carefully noted down4 99 99 99 99 99 ,before passing on from the history of this subject to the presentation of a number of systematic experiments1 and to the development of the theory underlying them1 ,i shall briefly consider the part that the magic mirror has played in poetry and fiction4 ,for we often find here1 especially in popular poetry1 fairy tales1 and traditions1 an artistic anticipation of ideas that only the advanced knowledge of later centuries is able scientifically to verify4 ,the illumined eye of genius prematurely seizes upon what in the distant future becomes the conscious property of all humanity4 ,and this is true of the half-unconscious art of the individual poet4 ,the imagination of the poet1 borne aloft by the immediate sense of truth and the self-consciousness of typical humanity1 casts flashes of illumination very frequently into the dark regions of our inner world4 ,in the facts inherent in popular instinct it discovers intuitively a multitude of combinations1 long before they possess for the average perception creditable possibility1 or even possible reality4 ,the minute analysis1 however1 of symbolic art belongs to the most difficult problems of comparative psychology4 ,to present at once from the multitude of examples a singularly striking one1 ,the ,history of the ,youthful ,king ,zein ,alasnam and the ,prince of ,spirits may be chosen4 ,zein ,alasnam1 who possesses eight statues of great value1 is in quest of a ninth of marvellous beauty1 which the ,prince of ,spirits promises him as soon as thou shalt bring me a young maiden who shall be at least fifteen years of age and of perfect beauty2 the maiden shall not be vain of her beauty and shall have never spoken an untruth4 ,with the help of his magic mirror1 ,zein1 after many vain attempts1--for the mirror was always murky when he looked into it in the presence of a girl1--finally found a maiden in whose presence a brilliant image shone forth from the mirror4 ,by strategy ,zein brought the noble girl1 with whom in the mean time he had fallen passionately in love1 to the ,prince of ,spirits--but it must be confessed that it was only at the earnest entreaty of his faithful servant1 for he would have very much liked to possess the maiden himself4 ,the ,prince of ,spirits thanked him and told him to return to his home where he would find the ninth statue that was promised him upon a golden pedestal in the centre of the others4 ,zein hastened to his palace and flew into his treasure-chamber4 ,upon the ninth pedestal there stood attired in silk of roseate hue1 with modest blushing countenance1 an immovable statue4 ,zein ,alasnam1 dazzled by the brilliancy of the other forms1 stepped into the glittering circle to behold his treasure close at hand1 when behold6 the statue suddenly descended from its pedestal and fell into his arms4 ,it was the same beautiful and virtuous maiden that he had conducted into the presence of the ,prince of ,spirits4 ,she wept tears of joy and ,zein ,alasnam wept with her4 ,the factor here emphasised--namely1 a mirror that only exhibits a clear surface to its possessor when a chaste maiden is in its presence--is not at all as fabulous as at first sight appears4 ,it depends of course upon the person gazing whether the reflecting surface will appear murky or not2 for it is a question here merely of subjective perception1 and not of an objective blurring of the glass4 ,in the case in which the girl made no impression upon the youth1--that is where the soul unconsciously passed an unfavorable judgment1--the picture will have been dimly perceived and will thus have expressed in a strangely roundabout way1 that which lay slumbering in the depths of his heart4 ,the mirror furnishes no other information than that which we put into it2 but it communicates it to our every-day consciousness which knows little or nothing of the recondite processes of our inner life4 ,the fabulous performances of other magic mirrors may be similarly explained if we discard the unnecessary adornment in which they are generally set forth4 ,the buch aller verbotenen kunst 7published in #adee71 a medival collection of stories of this character1 is supplied with marginal annotations of moral purport that possess some historical value4 ,we shall therefore transcribe a passage illustrative of its character4 ,die maister und iregleichen die treiben die kunst pyromancia auch in ainem schlechten spiegel und lassen kinder darein sehen die sie dan auch vast beswern und in auch verporgne wort einraunen und mainent vast vil darin zu erfragen4 das ist alles ein ungelaub und des boesen tewfels gespenst und verfuerung4 huet dich du christen1 ich warn dich gar treulich4 auch treibt man die sach in ainem schnen glanzen pulierten swert 444 ,in der kunst pyromancia sind auch gar vil ander ungelauben1 und nemlich ainer der sol des gewiss sein1 der ist der allerschnoedest und boesest1 wann so man ie vester gelaubt an soelich zauberey so si ie mer is snd4 das stueck gat zu1 das die knaben kuenftige und alle ding suellen sehen in ainem cristallen4 das stueck treiben die valschen verzweifelten und verzagten cristen1 den dann lieber ist des tiuefels gespenst und trugnuss1 dan die warheit gottes in maniger hand weis4 ettlich haben gar ain lautern schoenen gepulierten cristallen oder parillen1 den lassen sie waihen und halten in gar rain und lesen dazu weirrauch1 mirren und desgleichen1 und wann sie die kunst treiben woellen1 so warten si uf gar ainen schoen tag oder haben ain rain gemach und darin gar vil geweichter kerzen2 die maister gan den gen bad und nemen dann das rain chind mit in und beclaiden sich dan in raines weiss gewand1 und sitzen nider und sprechen in zauber bact1 und prennen den ir zauberopfer und lassen dan den knaben in den stain sehen und raunen im in seine oren verporgen wort die suellen vast hailig sein1 warlich1 die wort sind tewflisch4#bg #bg ,the ,masters and their like also practice the art ,pyromancia in a wretched mirror1 and make children look into it1 whom they then do conjure and also whisper secret words in their ears1 and fancy they get much information thereby4 ,but it is all a heresy1 the work and allurement of the wicked devil4 ,christian1 have a care6 ,i give thee honest warning4 ,they practise the thing1 too1 in a beautiful1 shining1 polished sword4444 ,in the art ,pyromancia there is also much other heresy1 and especially there is one that is so1 the worst and wickedest of all3 and the firmer one's belief in it is1 the greater is his sinfulness4 ,here1 young boys are said to behold future things and all things in a crystal4 ,base1 desperate1 and faint-hearted ,christians practise it1 to whom the shadow and the phantom of the devil are dearer than the truth of ,god4 ,some take a clear and beautifully polished crystal or beryl1 which they consecrate and keep clean1 and treat with incense1 myrrh1 and the like4 ,and when they propose to practise their art1 they wait for a clear day1 or select some clean chamber in which are many candles burning2 the masters then bathe1 and take the pure child into the room with them1 and clothe themselves in pure white garments1 and sit down and speak in magic sentences1 and then burn their magic offering1 and make the boy look into the stone1 and whisper in his ears secret words1 which have1 as they ween1 some holy import3 verily1 those words are of the ,devil4 ,exactly one hundred years after this1 a similar pot-pourri appeared1 intermingled with references to modern affairs and ,christian ,ethics1 entitled the ,neupolierte ,geschicht-,kunst- und ,sittenspiegel auslndischer ,vlker4 ,wherein we may read this3 ,es ist bekannt dass in manchen ,staedten bey uns unterweilen alte ,weiber auch wol zu zeiten ,mnner den ,leuten welchen ,gott eine ,straffe schuldig ist in ,spiegeln und ,krystallen weisen was sie zu wissen begehren4 ,also hat fuer einigen ,jahren zu ,elbingen in ,preussen einer sich aufgehalten welcher aus einem solchen ,wahrsager-,spiegel die ,verborgenheiten verkuendiget und den ,fuerwitzigen angedeutet hat4 ,mit dem ,krystall-,gucken wird zwar mancher von den alten ,sagen-,sprecherinnen getaeuscht und falsche ,mutmassungen oder behende ,augenblendungen ihm fuer eine ,gewissheit verkauft3 weil solche ,vetteln vielmals unter dem ,schein der ,wahrsager-,kunst ihren ,betrug spielen und weder ,gutes noch ,boeses wissen4 ,nichts destoweniger stehen dennoch auch viel solcher alten ,sibyllen mit dem schwarzen ,kaspar in guter ,vertraulichkeit und koennen in den ,spiegeln oder ,krystallen durch ,huelfe und ,vermittelung dieses boesen ,geistes den ,erfolg kuenfftiger ,begebenheiten fuerbilden4 ,wie dessen ,herr ,johannes ,rist ein merkliches ,exempel erzaehlet welches er in seiner ,jugend mit seinen leiblichen ,augen gesehen in einer grossen ,stadt3 darin er sich damals bei fuernehmen ,leuten aufgehalten die einen feinen wohlgearteten ,sohn gehabt welcher nachgehends zu hohen ,ehren-,aemtern gestiegen4#bh #bh ,it is known that in many of our towns old women1 possibly at times men1 sojourn1 who show to people to whom ,god owes punishment that which they want to know1 by means of mirrors and crystals4 ,some years ago one such person was staying in ,elbingen1 in ,prussia1 who predicted hidden truths by the help of a divining mirror of this kind1 and announced them to his curious customers4 ,many indeed are deceived in crystal-seeing by the old fortune-tellers that practice it1 and baseless guesses and cunning deceptions of the eye are often sold them for certainties3 for these hags frequently practise their impostures only under the cover and semblance of the art of divination1 knowing neither good nor bad4 ,nevertheless1 many of these old ,sibyls stand upon terms of intimacy with ,black ,kaspar1 and are able with the assistance and intermediation of this evil spirit to foreshow in their mirrors and crystals the issue and outcome of future events4 ,such was the remarkable case that ,herr ,johannes ,rist tells of1 which he saw in his youth with his own corporeal eyes2 it was in a great city wherein at the time he was staying with very distinguished people who had a handsome and well-mannered son who afterwards rose to high offices of honor4 ,again1 we have a ,denckwuerdige ,geschichte von der ,krystall-,guckery1 which makes skilful use of all the fabulous elements of the magic mirror legends4 ,it tells of a mirror that always reveals to its possessor the truth1 and by means of which the future may be divined4 ,a prominent feature of the nursery tales of to-day is discoverable in it--that if children look at night into a mirror an ugly1 forbidding face will gaze out upon them4 ,the book1 however1 presents few interesting details1 and we may therefore pass it and others of the same period by in order to hasten on to the present4 ,and to whom would not the name of ,hoffmann at once occur6 ,he who delighted to employ1 and weave in the magic web of his fiction1 all that was marvellous and mysterious1 will undoubtedly have dealt with the subject we now have in hand4 ,in fact the magic mirror has three times figured in his works3 once in ,der ,goldene ,topf1 again in the ,lebensansichten des ,kater ,murr1 and finally in the novel ,das de ,haus4 ,a few passages may be taken from the last-mentioned novel as illustrations of the point we are considering4 ,a small forsaken cottage bears an evil name2 it hides a secret from the world4 ,this was what people said in the town1 and ,i who tell this story could get no rest with thinking of it2 daily ,i walked by the house with the curtained windows4 ,once1 as ,i was passing1 ,i saw the curtain move and a beautifully-shaped hand adorned with a brilliant diamond ring place a crystal carafe upon the window-sill4 ,the memory of this picture aroused in my mind a visionary dream1 and on the following day when ,i looked up to the window at which the hand had appeared1 the countenance of the vision ,i had seen was regarding me with a look of sorrowful entreaty4 ,i seated myself upon a bench opposite1 the back of which was turned to the house1 so that by leaning over the arm ,i could gaze without disturbance at the fatal window and the lovely maiden4 ,absorbed in contemplation1 ,i failed to observe an ,italian pedlar who was offering me his wares4 ,but being seized by the arm ,i at last gave attention to the importunities of the pedlar1 who1 with the words ',i have other beautiful things here1' pulled out the lower drawer of his box1 and held at a short distance before me1 at an angle1 a little round pocket-mirror that lay in the drawer among a number of other trinkets4 ,i beheld the desolate house behind me1 the window1 and1 marked in the distinctest outlines1 the lovely angelic form of my vision4 ,i quickly purchased the little glass1 which now made it possible for me1 in easy posture and without attracting the attention of the neighbors1 to look towards the window of my hopes4444 ,the little mirror that so deceptively reflected the lovely form1 ,i had now devoted to domestic purposes4 ,i was in the habit of tying my cravat before it4 ,and so it happened once1 while ,i was in the act of performing this important duty1 that it appeared tarnished to me4 ,with a view to brightly polishing it1 ,i breathed upon it in the usual manner4 ,my pulse ceased its beating1 my heart trembled with delight and dismay4 ,delight and dismay6 ,yes1 thus ,i must describe the emotion that overpowered me1 as1 when my breath fell upon the mirror1 ,i beheld in a bluish mist the lovely face that had looked upon me with that sorrowful1 heart-penetrating glance6--,you laugh8--,denounce me1 believe me an incurable dreamer6 ,but say and think what you will--it is enough--the fair one gazed upon me from the mirror1 and as soon as the breath disappeared her face vanished in the darkness of the glass4 ,but ,i will not weary you1 ,i will not tell all that came of this4 ,only this much will ,i say1 that ,i again and again renewed my experiments with the mirror1 that ,i was often successful in calling forth by my breath the picture ,i so loved1 but that oftentimes my most strenuous efforts were in vain4444 ,i lived only in the thought of her2 all else was dead to me2 ,i neglected my friends and my studies4444 ,often when that picture grew pale and wan1 a physical indisposition seized me1 the figure came forth as never before with such life-like reality and brilliancy that ,i almost fancied ,i could seize it4 ,and then it seemed to my horror that ,i myself was the figure1 veiled and encompassed by the mists of the glass4 ,a sharp pain in my breast and then total apathy terminated this torturing condition1 which invariably left me exhausted1 and shaken to my inmost core4 ,in these moments every attempt with the mirror miscarried2 but when ,i had become strengthened1 and the picture appeared again from the mirror in life-like form1 ,i cannot indeed deny that a peculiar physical charm otherwise foreign to me was united with it4444 ,we see what brilliantly colored creations tradition and fiction have woven about the magic mirror4 ,it is now the duty of science to cull from these shining husks1 by sober investigation1 the kernels of truth2 and that1 it will be seen1 can be done only by experiment4 ,unfortunately ,i myself am unable to report any successful experiments2 for1 despite repeated attempts1 ,i have been unsuccessful in obtaining any images whatever from mirrors1 or crystals1 or reflecting surfaces of any kind4 ,similarly several members of the ,berlin ,society of ,experimental ,psychology have only had exclusively negative results to recount4 ,but on the other hand1 a member of the ,english ,society for ,psychical ,research has been enabled to report a great number of pertinent observations4 ,and although to my regret ,i am not permitted to publish the name of the lady#bi in question1 yet every doubt as to the truth of her utterances is excluded1 and the material she has furnished forms a valuable enrichment of psychological literature4 ,i shall1 accordingly1 collect from the communications of this lady1 who is a friend of ,professor and ,mrs4 ,henry ,sidgwick1 several cases which appear to me especially adapted to throw light upon the nature of the strange phenomena we are examining4 #bi ,i afterwards received permission to publish her name3 it is ,miss ,a4 ,goodrich of ,london4 ,the lady made more than seventy experiments of her own1 of which--a fact of the greatest value for passing upon their exactness--she always made notes at once1 or at the most never more than an hour afterwards4 ,she employed various means for the production of the hallucinations4 ,at first she used the colored balls that are hung upon ,christmas trees1 or the back of a gold watch2 but it turned out that both these objects tried the eyes by their strong brilliancy and grotesquely distorted the visions that were evoked4 ,a glass filled with water proved to be inconvenient to handle1 especially in the dark2 while mirrors also possessed many disturbing peculiarities4 ,a magnifying glass set on a dark background proved to be very effective1 especially by daylight2 as did also a black-framed photograph placed upon the wall of the room opposite the light4 ,the gaze and the attention1 however1 were best concentrated upon a well-polished rock-crystal4 ,the method of procedure--since happily all the appurtenances of mysticism were discarded--was very simple4 ,the lady draped the crystal in black1 placed it where none of the surrounding objects could be reflected in it1 and waited for whatever might happen4 ,what occurred8 ,the simplest instance is perhaps ,no4 #g1 which we here introduce3 ,i find in the ,crystal a bit of dark wall1 covered with white jessamine1 and ,i ask myself1 ',where have ,i walked to-day8' ,i have no recollection of such a sight1 not a common one in the ,london streets1 but to-morrow ,i will repeat my walk of this morning1 with a careful regard for creeper-covered walls4 ,to-morrow solves the mystery4 ,i find the very spot1 and the sight brings with it the further recollection that at the moment we passed this spot ,i was engaged in absorbing conversation with my companion1 and my voluntary attention was preoccupied4 ,this is a very simple case4 ,a visual image1 recently yet unconsciously received1 springs up from the subterranean strata of the soul into which it had sunk4 ,no4 #fh affords a similar instance3 ,i had carelessly destroyed a letter without preserving the address of my correspondent4 ,i knew the county1 and searching in a map1 recognised the name of the town1 one unfamiliar to me1 but which ,i was sure ,i should know when ,i saw it4 ,but ,i had no clue to the name of the house or street1 till at last it struck me to test the value of the crystal as a means of recalling forgotten knowledge4 ,a very short inspection supplied me with ',hibbs ,house' in grey letters on a white ground1 and having nothing better to suggest from any other source1 ,i risked posting my letter to the address so strangely supplied4 ,a day or two brought me an answer1 headed ',hibbs ,house' in grey letters on a white ground4 ,tricks of the memory like these appear still more strange when they are due merely to an indirect excitation4 ,it may happen that one is suddenly reminded of a friend who is long since dead1 by the accidental sight of his favorite dish4 ,no direct excitation is here presented1 but the image of the friend remembered is indirectly revived through a certain concatenation of ideas4 ,this we find in the eleventh experiment3 ,one of my earliest experiences was of a picture1 perplexing and wholly unexpected--a quaint oak chair1 an old hand1 a worn black coat-sleeve resting on the arm of the chair1--slowly recognised as a recollection of a room in a country vicarage1 which ,i had not entered and but seldom recalled since ,i was a child of ten4 ,but whence came this vision1 what association has conjured up this picture8 ,what have ,i done to-day8444 ,at length the clue is found4 ,i have to-day been reading ,dante1 first enjoyed with the help of our dear old vicar many a year ago4 ,the process here carried on1 which takes place for the most part outside of the sphere of consciousness1 is therefore the following3 ,the reading of ,dante revives the image ',vicar'2 the image ',vicar' produces the image of the room2 the latter image is externalised4 ,but we can penetrate consciously into these processes4 ,there are any number of people who1 with their eyes closed1 can produce phantasy-pictures surprisingly realistic2 and geniuses especially have command of rich powers in this direction4 ,george ,sand's biographer tells us1 that sitting at the feet of her mother before the chimney fire1 she would often watch the old green-colored fire-guard in order to form from the reflections of the flames figures and scenes4 ,and this is the case of our ,english lady4 ,just as an imaginative child tells itself stories1 so she1 to while away the time1 builds in the twilight hours groups of figures1 and projects them into her crystals2 and so strange is the unconscious ,i to the conscious ,i1 that oftentimes the miniature drama that is unfolded is the source of the greatest surprises to its own creator4 ,this independence of our consciousness in two spheres1 is exhibited with surprising distinctness where especial aids and expedients must be employed to decipher the visions4 ,thus3 ,on ,march #bjth1 ,i happened to want the date of ,ptolemy ,philadelphus1 which ,i could not recall1 though feeling sure that ,i knew it1 and that ,i associated it with some event of importance4 ,when looking in the ,crystal some hours later1 ,i found a picture of an old man with long white hair and beard1 dressed like a ,lyceum ,shylock1 and busy writing in a large book with tarnished massive clasps4 ,i wondered much who he was1 and what he could possibly be doing1 and thought it a good opportunity of carrying out a suggestion which had been made to me1 of examining objects in the ,crystal with a magnifying glass4 ,the glass revealed to me that my old gentleman was writing in ,greek1 though the lines faded away as ,i looked1 all but the characters he had last traced1 the ,latin numerals ,,lxx4 ,then it flashed into my mind1 that he was one of the ,jewish ,elders at work on the ,septuagint1 and that its date1 #bgg ,b4 ,c41 would serve equally well for ,ptolemy ,philadelphus6 ,it may be worth while to add1 though the fact was not in my conscious memory at the moment1 that ,i had once learnt a chronology on a mnemonic system which substituted letters for figures1 and that the memoria technica for this date was ',now ,jewish ,elders indite a ,greek copy4' 7,no4 #gd47 ,the employment of a magnifying glass1 which by reason of external difficulties is seldom possible1 is a convincing proof of the degree of independence of the two personalities within us4 ,anything more marvellous than the fact before us can hardly be imagined4 ,we create something which is immediately wrested from our control and which leads a totally independent life2 we produce something which becomes for our own selves a mute enigma1 and which can only be aroused by artificial means out of its ghost-like silence4 ,the rent that gapes throughout creation1 ,goes also through the human heart4 ,and thus it may happen that our second ,i actually mystifies at times our first and principal ,i4 ,once a number of letters appeared to her in the crystal1 each letter seen separately1 of a bright red color4 ,at first they seemed to be absolutely meaningless1 but it was at length discovered that they composed words1 spelt backwards1 in the following fashion3-- d e t n a w a e n o e m o s o t n i o j a e t a v i r p e l c r i c t s u m e b g n i l l i w o t e v i g s e v l e s m e h t p u o t e h t t c e j b u s and the message at length became intelligible as follows3-- ,wanted a someone to join a private circle1 must be willing to give themselves up to the subject4 ,we now come to a third group of experiments in which an entirely new element enters into play4 ,whereas hitherto we have seen things revealed in the magic mirror which were demonstrably or presumably already present in the brain of the operator1 or1 where this was not the case1 in any event possessed no external significance1 we now hear of experiments in which unknown events are said to have been presented4 ,i should take no notice whatever of this class of reports regarding clairvoyance in space and time1 if our informant did not give the impression of being thoroughly conscientious and scientific4 ,the ,english lady possesses1 as ,i believe ,i have discerned from our correspondence1 a highly critical mind1 and is well acquainted with the common sources of error in this department of investigation1 and her testimony is in my opinion more valuable than that of all the early authors together4 ,it were indeed more acceptable if the results of recent investigations had been to show that all the phenomena of crystallomancy were referable to the hitherto misunderstood dominance of the soul of the individual gazing2 but since a number of cases remain that will not fit into this explanation1 we must as honest people openly acknowledge the fact4 ,accordingly1 without attempting any detailed explanation1 ,i shall select a few cases as illustrations1 leaving it to the reader to discard them as accidental or to retain them as worthy of consideration3 ,on ,saturday1 ,march #ith1 ,i had written a somewhat impatient note to a friend1 accusing her of having1 on her return from a two months' absence on the ,continent1 spent ten days in ,london without paying me a visit4 ,i was not1 therefore1 surprised1 when on ,sunday evening she appeared before me in the ,crystal1 but could not understand why she should hold up1 with an air of deprecation1 what appeared to be a music portfolio4 ,on ,monday ,i received an answer1 written the previous day1 pleading guilty to my charge1 but urging1 in excuse1 that she was attending the ,royal ,academy of ,music1 and was engaged there during the greater part of every day4 ,this intelligence was to the last degree unexpected1 for my friend is a married woman1 who has never studied music in any but amateur style1 and who1 according to the standard of most ladies of fashion1 had finished her education some years ago4 ,i have since ascertained that she1 in fact1 carries a portfolio corresponding with the sketch ,i made of that seen in the vision4 7,no4 #fd47 ,the simplest explanation of this case would be the assumption that our informant had at some time or other cursorily heard of her friend having again taken up music4 ,the whole thing would then be a revived memory2 and the agreement in appearance of the portfolio seen with the real portfolio1 an accidental coincidence4 ,but this presumption being excluded1 psychologists who believe in the possibility of telepathic communication might propose a different explanation4 ,in this way4 ,the lady's friend1 in writing her note of excuse1 is vividly thinking of her work1 which is to her to a certain extent represented by her portfolio1 and conveys this picture to the receptive sub-consciousness of the other lady4 ,there the image lies latent until it is translated into sensory life through the agency of the magic mirror--the very process with which we have at a previous place become acquainted1 and will more exactly explain further on4 ,the question1 therefore1 is reduced simply to the truth of the premise first assumed--namely1 telepathic communication2 and all that we can at present say1 is1 that it is considered as an actual fact1 upon the basis of personal experience1 by many prominent investigators1 but is rejected by the majority as undemonstrated4 ,for our part1 we admit that an hypothesis of this kind would prove to be very useful1 since reports similar to the last mentioned one1 have recently been published in great numbers4 ,we select as an illustration the following note by ,mrs4 ,l4 ,m41 from the ,proceedings of the ,american ,society for ,psychical ,research3 ,i was anxious to see a ,mr4 ,h41 but was uncertain on what day he would call4 ,on the #aith ,july1 #ahhg ,i was called out of the office1 and1 before going out1 ,i put on the door a card having these words on it1 ',will return soon4' ,i was absent about an hour4 ,on my return ,i came upstairs1 but did not ask the elevator boy if any one had called2 nor did he tell me any one had done so4 ,as ,i came within a short distance of the door1 ,i saw some characters written upon the card ,i had left1 and just below the printed words ',will return soon1' ,i stooped down and read1 ',mr4 ,h4 has been here1 and will return4' ,as ,i looked the words faded away4 ,i entered the office1 and in a very short time ,mr4 ,h4 came in4 ,he had left no name or message4 ,he had impressed my face upon his mind very strongly1 with the intention of seeing if ,i would be in any way affected by it1 or conscious of his approach4 ,if the fact of accident1 intensified by the strained expectation of ,mrs4 ,m41 cannot be accepted as a satisfactory explanation1 it is to be considered that the white surface of the card in this case acted in the same externalising manner as the crystal in the instance given just above4 ,the remotely-operative excitation penetrated the soul unobserved1 and was first translated into a conscious image at the moment when the glance at the card favored the formation of hallucinations4 ,finally a number of other cases are to be mentioned1 in which even these suppositions seem insufficient2 and for the reason that the events seen were not to happen until some future time4 ,but that which has not yet happened1 and which is not to be foreseen in detail1 can neither originate in the repositories of memory1 nor from the telepathic influence exercised by another person4 ,we should in that case be obliged to accept some hypothesis of clairvoyance in time--granting of course that all sources of error are excluded4 ,the reader may judge for himself3 ,in ,january last ,i saw in the ,crystal the figure of a man crouching at a small window1 and looking into the room from the outside4 ,i could not see his features1 which appeared to be muffled1 but the ,crystal was particularly dark that evening1 and the picture being an unpleasant one1 ,i did not persevere4 ,i concluded the vision to be a result of a discussion in my presence of the many stories of burglary with which the newspapers had lately abounded1 and reflected with a passing satisfaction1 that the only windows in the house divided into four panes as were those of the ,crystal-picture1 were in the front attic and almost inaccessible4 ,three days later a fire broke out in that very room1 which had to be entered from outside through the window1 the face of the fireman being covered with a wet cloth1 as a protection from the smoke which rendered access through the door impossible4 7,no4 #cf47 ,is this a case of prevision8 ,granting that the agreement of the facts with the vision is not due to mere accident1 the possibility yet remains of a falsification of memory2 that is1 the possibility that a vision originally similar to the event afterwards observed1 was subsequently taken to be the same as that event4 ,such obscurations and falsifications of memory are very frequent4 ,indeed they get to be epidemic1 the moment a second factor1 that of expectation1 is added4 ,we need only have a foreboding that something will eventually happen1 and we shall inevitably form certain indefinite notions of its particular character4 ,if now the event actually happens1 our obliging memory is at once at hand with the lie1 ',exactly as ,i knew before4' ',i told you so1' is the assertion4 ,and it is therefore no accident that in the literature of clairvoyance1 the arrival of letters of this or that tenor plays so great a part2 for expectation has a broad and acceptable arena in this very connection4 ,the extent to which the falsification of memory and intense expectation take part in the observation which we shall now cite1 it would be hardly possible to determine accurately3 ,on the evening of ,march #aath1 being tired1 ,i was about to go early to my room1 when it occurred to me to wait for the last post1 already late1 that ,i might not be again disturbed by having the letters brought to my room4 ,i took up the ,crystal rather to pass the time than with much expectation of seeing anything2 for as a rule1 when one is tired1 the concentration of attention necessary to ,crystal-vision is somewhat difficult to attain4 ,however1 ,i perceived a white object on a dark ground1 soon becoming more clearly defined as a letter in a very large envelope torn at the edges1 as if not sufficiently strong to hold its contents4 ,another envelope1 of ordinary size1 lying at the top1 concealed the address1 and the writing on the smaller one was too much blurred to decipher4 ,the vision was momentary only1 or ,i might have applied the test of the magnifying glass1 which is sometimes1 though not always1 of use in such cases4 ,i thought it possible that the vision might be merely the result of expectation1 but it seemed at least worth while1 after making a note of the fact1--my invariable rule whenever possible1--to test its significance4 ,as a matter of fact1 the letters were lying on a seat in the hall1 showing white against the dark polished wood--placed there possibly by some one leaving the house who had met the postman before he had time to ring4 ,the letters were two1--the lower one1 which had burst the envelope1 was the size of a sheet of letter-paper not folded1 and was for myself1 the upper one1 the usual size of a note1 and not for me1 which may have accounted for my inability to read the address4 7,no4 #ff47 ,i repeat it--with accounts of this character1 though in the highest degree acceptable1 science cannot at present deal2 and in proceeding now to attempt an explanation of the phenomena illustrated by the experiments of the ,english communication mentioned1 ,i shall entirely leave out of consideration the cases that point to telepathic causes or clairvoyance in time and space4 ,we have already made the acquaintance of some few theories which have arisen historically4 ,formerly1 and even at the present day in fact1 certain objects and qualities of objects were made accountable for the occurrence of striking hallucinations4 ,the great cycle of legends that adhere to the magic mirror1 has thus arisen4 ,often a pentahedronal quartz-crystal1 often the fusion of the seven ancient metals into polished surfaces was supposed to possess especial virtue4 ,gregory1 of ,edinburgh1 asserted that the phenomena were most easily produced by looking into a double-convex plate of zinc into the centre of which a small polished copper disk had been set4 ,we now know that in the importance attached to these and similar directions the salient point was missed and an incidental factor pushed into the foreground4 ,but in any event it is worthy of remark1 that through belief in notions of this kind the seer gained a greater confidence in the success of his experiments4 ,even incorrect theories prove to be useful4 ,when any one finally came into the possession of a famous magic stone1 his firm belief in its powers induced a disposition to visions that perhaps never before existed in his organism to the same degree4 ,a second hypothesis regards the phenomena as manifestations of the ,devil or the work of spirits4 ,dr4 ,dee gives a very minute description of his regular spirit visitors4 ,he tells of an old woman in a red petticoat1 and of a pretty little girl with her hair rolled up in front and hanging down very long behind4 ,this constant personification is very significant1 since it indicates the approach of recognised forms of mental alienation2 however1 the ,daimon of ,socrates proves that it does not in every case necessarily lead to this4 ,we are come1 here1 into a border-land1 from which some roads lead into the dark regions of insanity and others up to the luminous heights of inspired genius3 but in every case we are concerned with a region in our own mind1 and no natural propensity to externalisation must be allowed to deceive us with regard to it4 ,the intrusion of foreign spirits into our psycho-physical organism1 the assumption that incorporeal beings influence our nervous system so as to produce external effects1 violently contradicts all human experience4 ,if the spiritist doctrine could be mathematically proved it would be the most interesting solution imaginable of all these problems2 and ,i must confess1 the establishment of the existence of intelligent incorporeal beings would in my opinion eclipse all other events of our time4 ,but the probability of this is at present very small4 ,a third theory1 of modern origin1 seeks the explanation of the question in a species of magic power inherent in man1 as yet unfathomed1 which is manifested especially in ecstatic conditions4 ,the vehicles of the magic gaze are shining mirrors or reflecting surfaces1 which forming a means of attraction for individuals of the proper constitution induce that peculiar state of alienation from every other subject1 that concentration in the innermost self1 which often rises to insensibility and unconsciousness1 or even to cataleptic torpidity1 wherein the consciousness of ,all-existence is liberated4 ,future events and distant occurrences are seen in pictures which appear to be reflected in the mirror or the fluid employed1 but which in reality exist in the person gazing and are represented by projection outwards4 ,thus ,perty4 ,other philosophers speak of the transcendental capacities and powers of the human soul1 or of the liberation of a metaphysical essentiality within us4 ,but these theories and suppositions are plainly the outcome of a premature simplification of our difficult problem4 ,people are always too ready to thrust forward a new power or force to unify with dispatch and celerity uncomfortable phenomena of the present sort1 and overlook the fact that every single phenomenon demands an exact investigation and explanation4 ,nothing is accomplished by calling phenomena magical or transcendental4 ,the work demanded is1 to ascertain the connection and relation of the phenomena in question with the province of soul-life as a whole4 ,to put an x in the place of a y contributes nothing to the solution of a problem4 ,we cannot be too closely upon our guard against comprehensive syntheses of this character2 for their splendid appearance dazzles woefully the eye of research4 ,much nearer the truth is the position that hypnosis merely is concerned here4 ,a well-known author1 ,louis ,maury1 who wrote in the middle part of this century1 says3 ,among the principal methods of divination a great number aim at producing a sort of vertigo by acting upon the eyes and consequently upon the brain1 in a manner something like that in which shining bodies act in hypnotism4 ,mrs4 ,de ,morgan speaks in a similar strain3 ,crystal-vision is a well attested fact1 having its laws and conditions like other phenomena in this world of known and hidden causes1 and a little careful observation may clear away some of that obscurity which has kept it as the property of witches and sorcerers4 ,the ,crystal 444 seems to produce on the eye of the seer an effect exactly like what would ensue under the fingers of a powerful mesmeriser4 ,the person who looks at it often becomes sleepy4 ,sometimes the eyes close4 ,at other times tears flow4 ,mrs4 ,de ,morgan's very description renders it doubtful whether we have to deal here with true1 developed hypnotism4 ,other accounts are also calculated to shake this assumption4 ,cahagnet1 for example1 required only a moment of mental concentration for his eyes to become fixed2 he lost all sight of the objects he had a moment before gazed upon1 and those which he wished to call up appeared between him and the former4 ,all spontaneous visions were fulfilled4 ,when voluntarily evoked1 but seven out of ten were true4 ,when he wanted to produce the visions he fixed his eyes upon the first fit object1 and he often saw hundreds and thousands of persons running hither and thither in one little shining point4 ,or he beheld a great city distinctly drawn in a mirror but one inch in diameter4 ,this is not very easily reconciled with our conceptions of the character of hypnotism4 ,nor less so--to close our list of examples--the observations of an experimenter mentioned by ,mrs4 ,de ,morgan1 that the perceptions of crystal-vision are not interfered with by those of normal vision1 but that the percipient could discontinue her observation at will1 and returning would find the scene as she left it4 ,there is evidently involved here the condition of mind called temporary or momentary hypnosis1 or what ,eduard ,von ,hartmann more aptly calls masked somnambulism4 ,it is not fully developed hypnosis1 but simply its incipient forms--hypnoid states of manifold variations4 ,now the question arises1 ,of what do these states consist8 ,what are their essential characteristics8 ,and how are they to be psychologically explained8 ,for even our appeal to hypnotism simply puts a new empty name into the place of an old one4 ,if we do not understand hypnosis1 its production for the explanation of the magic mirror profits us very little4 ,the task1 accordingly1 presents itself of referring1 in connection with some psychological theory of hypnotism1 the well-established facts at our disposal to one and the same cause4 ,the theory from which ,i shall proceed in attempting an explanation1 has already been frequently touched upon in the course of this article2 for certain observations indicated it so clearly that mention of it was not to be avoided4 ,it is the doctrine of the double consciousness of the human soul4#cj ,acts are done in the course even of our every-day life1 which presuppose for their origin and execution all the faculties of the soul1 yet nevertheless occur without the knowledge of the individual2 they require a sort of consciousness and a separate memory beyond the cognisance of the normal person4 ,one of the most frequent cases in practical experience is where the thoughts of a person reading aloud wander and become occupied with an entirely different subject2 and where despite this aberration the person in question reads correctly with the proper emphasis and expression1 turns the leaves1 and in short performs acts which without intelligent control are hardly conceivable4 ,an ,english psychologist1 ,mr4 ,barkworth1 has acquired such expertness in the practice of this1 that during an animated debate he can rapidly and correctly add long columns of figures without having his attention diverted in the least4 ,this points not only to an unconscious intelligence1 but--which is of still greater consequence--to an unconscious memory4 ,mr4 ,barkworth must keep two series of figures in his mind in order to obtain from them a third2 this latter sum he is again obliged to retain in order to add to it a newly acquired fourth2 and so on4 ,the latter chain of memories1 let it be remarked1 performs its office entirely independently of that upon which the recollection of the debate is constructed2 and it may therefore be reasonably maintained that there exists beyond the cognisance of the individual1 both consciousness and memory2 and if the essential components of the ego are found in these two last-mentioned factors1 then every person conceals within himself the germs of a second personality4 ,i designate the two halves of consciousness that thus operate in greater or less independence of each other1--in a figurative sense of course1--as super-and sub-consciousness1 and comprehend the whole as the doctrine of double consciousness or the double ego4 #cj ,compare my treatise ,das ,doppel-,ich1 the first number of the ,publications of the ,society of ,experimental ,psychology of ,berlin1 ,leipsic #ahij1 ,ernst ,gnther4 ,i must refer here1 moreover1 to an acute criticism of my views by ,adolf ,bentivegni1 published as ,no4 #d of the above-named series1 and entitled ,die ,hypnose und ihre civilrechtliche ,bedeutung1 ,leipsic1 #ahij4 ,the views set forth in the present article will be found in the ,german magazine ,vom ,fels zum ,meer4 ,the division very clearly appears in the opposition between waking and dreaming4 ,even when we very accurately remember a dream which we have just had1--which happens very seldom1--we feel the difference of the two states of consciousness with unmistakable distinctness4 ,we have no power over the tricks that phantasy plays with us in our sleep1 and in spite of the often present belief that it is all but a dream1 yet every power fails us of penetrating into its independent activity4 ,moreover the images are generally of a very definite signification1 since they are merely reproduced from the store-house of impressions that have sunk into the unfathomable depths of our soul4 ,in this way many a dream reveals to us the true character of our ,self2 in this manner sub-basal dream-images exhibit the thoughts and emotions that principally occupy us in our innermost heart4 ,closer investigation teaches further1 that in dreams1 states of intoxication1 in somnambulistic and epileptic attacks1 not only does a consciousness different from the normal consciousness rule1 but that also between separate successive periods memory-links of greater or lesser stability are wont to form4 ,but this is most strikingly exhibited in the case of hypnosis4 ,the hypnotic state is nothing more than an artificially produced ascendancy of the secondary or subordinate ego4 ,all its peculiarities are explainable from this2 for psychology endows the dream-consciousness prevailing in this state1 with sensibility and suggestibility1 the waking consciousness on the other hand with the inhibitory ideas that represent reality4 ,it has established1 moreover1 that our fully conscious soul-life rests upon an automatically operating substratum of hallucinatory character1 in which images1 long since forgotten1 have their abode4 ,by virtue of these properties the subconsciousness becomes the source of bold and fantastic creations1 while the superconsciousness is made the vehicle of our psychic life-work1 laboriously sustaining and regulating itself in its relations with the outside world4 ,to this conception1 which explains crystal-visions as a form of the activity of the subconsciousness1 it will be variously objected1 that such a simultaneous coexistence of two divisions of consciousness does not possess the same degree of probability as an alternation of states of consciousness4 ,but how1 upon this latter supposition1 could the ,hibbs ,house case be explained8 ,in this instance1 two psychical groups do not alternate1 but one operates during the existence of the other4 ,further1 the propriety in general is questioned of speaking of half-conscious or unconscious ideas and mental processes4 ,it is the opinion of the ,gttingen philosopher ,g4 ,e4 ,mller1 that just as every excitation of the brain immediately occasioned by a sensory stimulus is not competent to produce a sensation1 so also all reproduced nervous excitations are not necessarily accompanied by perceptual images4 ,in the cases mentioned1 and in many others1 there is no reason why groups of true psychical states should be admitted1 which1 in contradistinction to other psychical states1 only lack consciousness2 on the contrary1 we have to deal with simply a series of nervous excitations1 which1 as distinguished from other excitations1 are not accompanied by corresponding states of our consciousness4 ,this conception of soul-life1 which has been of late very favorably received1 ,hugo ,mnsterberg has formulated thus--that the psychical phenomenon is to a certain extent the subjective internal aspect of a thus and thus constituted objective physical phenomenon4 ,we are to bear in mind that the succession of the physical processes is nowhere interrupted1 and that in addition certain of these physical processes1 those namely which are carried on with a certain intensity in particular apparatuses of the brain1 possess a psychical internal aspect2 so that this excitation of the nervous cells is1 without losing thereby anything in physical effect1 the condition of the appearance of certain sensations in consciousness4 ,but by the side of the physiological theory legitimately exist as possibilities a psychological one and a psycho-physical one4 ,it is the doctrine of the latter theories that not only are physical vestiges left behind in the cortex of the brain after every perception1 but also psychical dispositions to the formation of ideas and images2 and that it is possible for images of all kinds to continue to exist without distinctly attaining to consciousness4 ,these theories distinguish between degrees of luminosity in our percepts and images1 the three most important degrees of which ,i have designated as consciousness1 subconsciousness1 and unconsciousness4 ,there exists a gradation of degrees of consciousness1 and the fully-conscious course of mental representation is everywhere conditioned by its connection with the obscured spheres beyond4 ,our attention surveys but a small area1 on the boundary lines of which the altitudes of consciousness decrease1 and finally approach the zero point4 ,i say approach1 for they never reach it4 ,our experiments with the magic mirror in fact show us how the oldest impressions1 and impressions of ridiculous insignificance1 after long long years awake as it were from the slumber of the fabled ,sleeping ,beauty4 ,if our millions of perceptions were to live on in consciousness we should no longer have a past1 but live in a continuous celestial present2 but were the operation of consciousness so limited that it destroyed great numbers of images1 the very facts upon which the belief in supernatural powers rests1 would lose their only rational explanation4 ,one result of our study of crystal-visions is assuredly this1 that we shall have to erase the word forgotten with all its derivatives from the dictionary1 and at the most employ the phrase not remembered4 ,with more ardent yearning than ever before will we long for a river of ,lethe1 and join with our whole hearts in the cry of ,themistocles1 ,o that some one might teach me the art of forgetting6 ,along with the inner process the outward form of the hallucination still requires a brief explanation4 ,the circumstance1 namely1 which lends magic-mirror phenomena their salient feature1 is the sensory reproduction of the images that have sprung up from the subconsciousness4 ,the subterranean ideas produced do not reach the surface as thoughts1 but as pseudo-perceptions4 ,to refer the latter to the place to which they belong1 ,i shall first remind the reader of the well-known after-images which arise when an excitation produced in the sensory organ and in the sensory nerves does not immediately disappear with the cessation of the excitatory action4 ,by gazing at the sun we can at once obtain this effect4 ,but despite the fact that the last-mentioned class of images possesses the full distinctness of real sensations as distinguished from mere memory and imagination images1 they still bear no relation to our subject on account of their union with recently occurring sensory impressions4 ,still less do the repetition-sensations in the dark field of vision--as of revolving wheels--belong here2 or illusions4 ,there remain accordingly only hallucinations1 which are withdrawn from all conscious control1 and which possess the exact character of sensory perceptions externally awakened1 without any object or objective stimulation actually being present in the outer world to correspond to them4 ,hallucinations1 the production of which are facilitated by the fixation of shining surfaces1 do not occur with all persons2 and there may be a kernel of truth in the tradition which designates women and children as endowed with especial capacities in this respect4 ,the investigations of ,fechner upon the varying vividness of after-images2 the statistics of ,galton upon hallucinatory phantasms in artists2 and the extensive statistical work of the ,society for ,psychical ,research1 appear to point to a connection of this character4 ,miss ,goodrich told me that her dreams were few in number and colorless4 ,i must confess that ,i was surprised at this2 but she added that all her recollections of places were accompanied with the vividness of actual sensory impressions4 ,if1 for example1 she desires to describe a room in a friend's house1 she returns in recollection to the occasion of her last visit2 she again occupies the same chair2 the carpet at her feet becomes visible1 then the furniture nearest her1 then the walls and ceiling1 until a true picture of the whole room is extended before her mind's eye4 ,crystal-visions are distinguished from internal visions of this character only by the single circumstance that they are projected outwards to or upon a reflecting point4 ,these visions often consist of a room that ,miss ,goodrich has lately seen1 or a street sign1 or of some movement that has startled her1 as of a servant letting a plate fall1 or of a dog running under a wagon4 ,no consideration that the objects are not before her is of avail2 the force of out-rushing memory-formations and the acquired established connection of the elements of soul-life are reduced to the primitive state that obtains in the soul of a child1 to whom life is in reality a dream without definite limits4 ,i well remember from the period of my early boyhood1 the peculiar sensation of a state flickering between reality and fancy1 and ,i understand the condition of those primitive tribes with whom dreamland and life intermingle in the strangest way2 but capacities in this direction have disappeared down to the striking want of a normally developed faculty for colors4 99 99 99 99 99 ,summing up then1 we may say1 that with regard to their contents the phenomena produced by the agency of the magic mirror proceed from the realm of subconsciousness2 and that with regard to their form they belong to the category of hallucinations4 ,their contents1 not regarded as a performance of memory1 appear to possess no great value--so grotesque and ordinary are the few ideas brought up from this invisible storehouse4 ,but they often supply us with a deep view into the secrets of character1 and inculcate with terrible emphasis the truth that nothing is lost in the realms of the soul1 any more than in the external world which is ruled by the law of the conservation of energy4 ,every thought that ever traversed our brain1 every emotion that has ever thrilled our heart1 every wish that has ever animated for a fleeting moment our breast--has all been entered in ineffaceable characters in the day-book of our earthly existence4 ,would that this knowledge could strengthen our feeling of moral responsibility6 ,thus does the expansion of our psychological conceptions not infrequently lead to an enrichment of our notions of morality4 ,but whether we place a higher value upon this aspect last mentioned1 or upon the purely scientific object to which we referred at the beginning of our article1 or finally upon a factor connected therewith1 namely the enlightenment of society--at any rate we must confess that in the much abused magic mirror a rich and attractive source of treasures has been opened4 ,,max ,,dessoir4 ,h,,ffding ,,on ,,the ,,relation ,,of ,,the ,,mind ,,to ,,the ,,body4 ,few topics are of greater speculative or indeed practical interest than that of the relation of the body to the mind4 ,rarely has the subject been treated with such perspicuity and at the same time with such candor and avoidance of hasty dogmatism as by ,professor ,harald ,hffding1 of ,copenhagen1 in his ,psychology 7translated into ,german from the ,danish and published in ,leipsic1 ,reisland74 ,a leading ,american professor of philosophy remarked to me recently that this for its size 7the volume contains #deb pages7 was the best all-around work on ,psychology2 and an examination of the section entitled ,seele und ,krper 7,mind and ,body7 certainly gives countenance to the statement4 ,professor ,hffding does not indeed oppose himself to metaphysical speculation2 he believes that the human mind will never consent to being shut out from the task of searching after the ultimate principles of the universe1 of which it is a part4 ,but his standpoint in this work is the purely empirical one1 as one's standpoint must be in every positive science4 ,positive science deals with the facts of experience2 metaphysics with their ultimate explanation4 ,he regards it as a misfortune to confuse the two1 as popular thinking in psychology does2 and scientific thinking in this realm is characterised by the effort to avoid the confusion and keep solely to the facts of observation and experience4 ,accordingly both materialism and spiritualism are excluded from the field--each theory involving a transcending of the realm of experience1 i4 e41 being metaphysical4 ,there are two subdivisions of the realm of experience according to ,professor ,hffding1--one coextensive with psychical phenomena1 such as feelings1 thoughts1 and volitions1 the other with physical phenomena1 i4 e41 with what moves in space4 ,they may be called respectively inner experience and outer experience4 ,each must be grasped in its distinct features2 and only after doing so can we feel the problem involved in the question of their relation to or connection with one another4 ,for it happens that one set of outer experiences stands in an indisputably peculiar relation to the phenomena of consciousness1 namely1 the set which we describe by the term body and1 more particularly1 by that of nervous system or brain4 ,much of what we call the physical world stands in relation to consciousness as the thing known to the knower2 but a part of the physical world 7i4 e41 the body or brain7 seems a part of the knower as well--a body or nervous system of some kind seems an indispensable requirement or at least concomitant of anything like feeling1 or thought1 or act of volition4 ,now1 different as the movements of the nervous system1 the processes of the brain are from the phenomena of consciousness1 there are a number of resemblances between them4 ,professor ,hffding specifies six3 7#a7 ,as the nervous system is the central1 unifying organ of the body1 so does consciousness bring together into a unity all the varied phenomena of experience1 scattered though they be in time and space4 7#b7 ,just as a change is necessary that consciousness may be awakened1 7an absence of contrasts tending in the direction of unconsciousness17 so a stimulus is necessary that the nerves may act4 7#c7 ,a stimulus may produce a commotion in the nervous system out of all proportion to its immediate efficacy1 just as a spark may act on a magazine of powder2 so a simple sensation may set in motion a whole train of ideas and emotions1 owing to the complicated structure and multitudinous inner relations of consciousness4 7#d7 ,the movements of the body are slow in proportion as they are conscious2 now the nerves which appear to be closely related to consciousness act more slowly than those which direct purely physiological 7i4 e41 unconscious7 processes4 7#e7 ,the lower nerve-centres form a system comparatively independent of the higher ones2 corresponding to this is the fact that many bodily processes go on unconsciously and only make us aware of them when the circumstances attending them are particularly favorable or unfavorable4 ,the consciousness of the physical state corresponds to the excitation of the higher nerve-centres4 ,similarly the action of the will has its physiological counterpart2 in the struggle between the flesh and the spirit1 the lower nerve-centres with their reflex and involuntary actions correspond to the flesh1 the higher centres to the spirit4 7#f7 ,the construction of the nervous system is similar to the constitution of consciousness2 just as consciousness is at once receptive and active1 with more or less of intervening reflection or thought1 so the nervous system has both sensory and motor organs1 with an intervening sphere4 ,not only are there these formal resemblances1 there is a real connection1 according to ,professor ,hffding1 as is shown by the fact that with the evolution of the nervous system go higher and higher forms of consciousness1 that irritation on the surface of an organism must be communicated to the brain that conscious sensations may arise1 and that when arterial blood fails to reach the brain unconsciousness supervenes4 ,what hypothesis do these facts conduct to us8 ,all of them must be born in mind that any special hypothesis may be legitimated4 ,there are only four possibilities3 7#a7 ,either consciousness and the brain1 mind and body1 act upon one another as two separate things or substances2 7#b7 or the mind is only a form or product of the body2 7#c7 or the body is only a form or product of one or more mental substances2 7#d7 or mind and body1 consciousness and the brain1 grow and develop as different manifestations of one and the same substance4 ,it must be admitted that the author at this point somewhat deserts the empirical standpoint to which he declared at the outset that he should keep4 ,the facts of correspondence or parallelism are all that come within the realm of experience2 their explanation must be more or less a matter of inference and theoretical construction and involves a departure in the direction of metaphysics4 ,professor ,hffding is aware of this and says that these hypotheses belong to the border-land between positive science and metaphysics4 ,moreover1 he confesses that any conclusion he may reach will have only a provisional value and may need revision1 before it can serve as a final part of a philosophical system4 ,he will1 however1 follow as closely as possible the leadings of experience1 as indeed he says we should do in all metaphysical speculation4 ,in considering the first hypothesis1 7namely1 that mind and body act on one another as two things17 ,professor ,hffding shows that it is inconsistent with the law of the conservation of energy4 ,for1 at the point where the nervous process is converted into mental activity1 one sum of physical energy would disappear without being replaced by another sum of the same kind4 ,as matter of fact no disappearance of energy takes place on account of the arising of a conscious state4 ,the chain of psychical causation is not broken2 its completeness no more suffers than if states of consciousness did not arise at all4 ,nor on the other hand does consciousness affect the sum of physical energy2 it is hardly conceivable that it should even change the direction of such energy 7the sum supposably remaining constant1 as is sometimes held71 since to do this it must itself become a physical force4 ,moreover1 if there is a relation of cause and effect between the brain and consciousness it would seem as if an interval of time must elapse between the process in the brain and the rising of the conscious state1 a view to which the teachings of physiology lend no likelihood4 ,the second hypothesis regards matter as the real or actual thing and mind as an effect or form of it4 ,such materialism is certainly older than the now prevalent doctrine of the interaction of two distinct things4 ,homer and the earliest ,greek philosophers held to it4 ,similar views prevailed among the early ,christian fathers before ,augustine4 ,modern materialists1 however1 regard the mind1 not in the earlier fashion as semi-corporeal1 but as a function or form of the corporeal4 ,yet when we closely consider the matter1 we find that to conceive of the function of a bodily organ is simply to conceive of that organ as in activity4 ,as ,goethe said1 ,function is das ,dasein in ,thtigkeit gedacht4 ,but a bodily organ in activity is just as much corporeal as one at rest1 and anything without corporeal attributes can no more be the function of such an organ than it can be the organ itself4 ,the conception of function 7in the physiological sense7 as truly as that of matter implies something that exists in spacial form2 while thoughts and feelings are without spacial form4 ,in dealing with the third hypothesis1 7namely1 that body is a form or product of mind17 ,professor ,hffding does not so much criticise it as explain a modified and interesting form in which ,lotze held it4 ,it is not1 however1 the view which he adopts4 ,to the fourth hypothesis he gives his adhesion4 ,the parallel and proportional relations between consciousness and brain-activity point1 according to him1 to an underlying identity between the two4 ,one and the same principle1 he says1 has found its expression in a two-fold form4 ,the physical interaction between the elements of which the nervous system is composed1 is an outward form of the inner ideal unity of consciousness4 ,what we immediately experience as thoughts1 feelings1 volitions1 has its physical representation in certain brain-processes1 which as such are under the law of the conservation of energy1 though this law has no application to the relation between brain-processes and consciousness4 ,it is as if one and the same content were expressed in two languages4 ,this conclusion1 however1 he repeats1 is but an empirical formula and has provisional value only4 ,one substance1 he says1 acts in both consciousness and the bodily organism1 but what kind of a substance is this1 and why does it have this twofold form of manifestation8 ,these are questions1 he replies1 beyond the reach of our knowledge4 ,we can simply make a statement which seems to be required by the facts1 namely1 that the same thing which lives1 grows1 and takes on form in the outward world1 apprehends itself inwardly as thinking1 feeling1 and willing4 ,no opinion is thereby ventured as to whether mind or matter is the more original form of existence4 ,by no means is metaphysical speculation upon this question excluded4 ,the hypothesis of identity 7for so ,professor ,hffding terms it7 is consistent with philosophical idealism and also with the view that the innermost nature of being is not identical with consciousness4 ,he simply claims for it that it is the most natural conclusion with regard to the relation between two empirical sciences1 physiology and psychology4 ,these sciences1 according to the hypothesis1 treat of the same material viewed from two different sides1 and there can be no more conflict between them than between one person who looks on the convex side of a circle and another who looks on the concave side 7to borrow an illustration used by ,fechner74 ,on another occasion ,i may give my own views1 and content myself now with saying that ,i have followed with the greatest interest and with much 7if not unlimited7 satisfaction the treatment of the subject at the hands of the genial1 large-minded ,danish professor4 ,w4 ,m4 ,,salter4 ,,literary ,,correspondence4 ,,france4 ,the work of ,m4 ,,fouill,e which ,i announced in my last communication 7to your other magazine71 bears the title of ,l',evolutionnisme des ,ides-,forces4 ,it is a voluminous work2 and it contains a great many things--perhaps too many4 ,we have from ,m4 ,fouille1 the promise of a constructive work--,la ,psychologie des ,ides-,forces1 in two volumes2 but his present book is chiefly devoted to the labor of demolition4 ,as contemporaneous psychology has its weak sides1 and as ,m4 ,fouille is a skilful critic1 you may imagine that his attacks upon ,wundt1 ,herbert ,spencer1 ,taine1 ,ribot1 ,w4 ,james1 and numbers of others1 both living and dead1 are conducted with spirit4 ,the successful fulfilment of the task he has set himself would necessitate the ruin of the hypothesis1 avowed or concealed1 that has supported psychological research as well as furnished occasional excellent conclusions2 for it is the aim of ,m4 ,fouille to overthrow what he has ingeniously termed the theory of idea-reflexes1 and the place once cleared1 to substitute for it the theory of idea-forces4 ,the chief feature of the book is therefore ,m4 ,fouille's criticisms of the theories that make consciousness the intermittent illumination of a mechanism2 of the theories that reduce the sentiments and the emotions to simple reverberations of organic movements and even of expressive movements2 of those finally that make of desire and the feeling of effort1 simple passive muscular sensations1 the reflexions of movements already executed4 ,solid objections are not wanting in these pages4 ,m4 ,fouille does not refrain from playing when he has a good hand4 ,so far so good4 ,but--we ask--would psychology have ever made any advances if it lacked the hypothesis that ,m4 ,fouille condemns8 ,and1 as a matter of fact1 are the majority of psychologists really thus irretrievably bent upon establishing a mechanical explanation of life1 a theory of man as automaton8 ,the truth of the matter is that the opposed point of view has rendered no results1 and that in taking consciousness for our central position we too easily go astray in fanciful speculations4 ,on the other hand1 by the endeavor to grasp the bonds of mind through the medium of the body1 it has been found possible to throw some light upon unobserved facts4 ,it would not do to let this be too quickly forgotten2 and if some have seen fit to pass beyond and to attempt to reduce the ,universe to a mechanism1 imprudent saltations of this character into open materialistic metaphysics concern them alone4 ,will ,m4 ,fouille be more fortunate in his reduction of the world to idealism8 ,it yet appears doubtful4 ,the definition of 'idea-forces' presents at the outset elements of embarrassment4 ,that every idea1 every mental image1 however absolutely an image it may be1 of emotions or of passions1 always contains some motor elements1 and consequently acts like a force1 is easily comprehended1 and every body allows it4 ,when physiologists speak of the power of ideas1 they mean nothing else4 ,but beyond that we cannot go4 ,the idea1 in ,m4 ,fouille's sense1 is every state of consciousness4 ,now1 all the facts of consciousness are reducible to the following elementary connected process3 sensation1 perceptual excitation1 reaction2 and the three factors of this process cannot be separated or reduced to one4 ,every idea1 or state of consciousness1 is accordingly the source of motion since it contains desire4 ,desire is basal to the nervous act2 the nervous act does not precede and does not explain the higher states that psychologists1 viewing things from a different point of view1 have regarded as epiphenomena4 ,the essence1 not only of man1 but also of the world1 is desire4 ,the idea-force1 the abridged formula of the appetitive process1 becomes the shaper of universal evolution1 and1 in a word1 the physical is a reflection of the psychical4 ,such are1 if ,i am not deceived1 the chief propositions of the work1 put into a logical form1 from which no doubt you will judge that the facts do not correspond without evident hiatus4 ,you do not believe in absolute truth1 and ,i no more hope for it4 ,the mind does not escape certain illusions1 which come from what it necessarily places in the reality that it wishes to know1 or which it acquires from itself4 ,meanwhile both the opposing doctrines triumph1 seeing that there is always something in each that cannot be explained2 but let them not be too severe on each other1 and not forget that if they succeed in explaining something1 it is perhaps as well that they resign themselves to not explaining everything4 ,i had intended to give in this letter a detail of the theory of ,mme4 ,,cl,,mence ,,royer1 in order to compare it with that of ,m4 ,fouille2 ,i had prepared it from certain published memoirs1 as her great manuscript work has unfortunately not found a publisher4 ,but ,the ,open ,court has given a rsum of it sufficiently complete to excuse me from returning to the subject4 ,whatever service can be rendered by the hypothesis of ,mme4 ,clmence ,royer1 or1 more strictly whatever use can be made of the mathematical formul which explain them1 or which are deducible from them1 it will belong to special scientists to inform us4 ,she begins the explanation of the world by physics1 and ,m4 ,fouille by psychology4 ,it is a difference in the point of departure4 ,let us add that ,m4 ,fouille appears to imagine an activity without substance1 a mind without muscles1 if it can be thus expressed2 on the contrary1 in that which she calls world-stuff ,mme4 ,clmence ,royer distinguishes a hyperethereal or vital state1 and she assigns for the substratum of life this simple state of the cosmical substance4 ,opposed as may be the character of the minds of these two authors1 the two theories seem to coincide in the notion of a living and conscious monad4 ,we meet it when they are farthest apart6 ,thus1 for ,mme4 ,clmence ,royer1 life and consciousness are everywhere1 they are in the atom1 and from the beginning4 ,there1 in the great romance of being1 is a scene which reappears almost always the same4 ,as to the ultimate explanation we have no great choice1 and each of the hypotheses that we form almost produces the other4 ,all the value of a system of philosophy is really in the help it lends to scientific curiosity or to the conduct of life4 99 99 99 99 99 ,m4 ,,ernest ,,naville is one of those who cannot comprehend moral conduct in life apart from spiritualism4 ,he endeavors1 accordingly1 in a work called ,la ,physique ,moderne1 to prove that the study of the phenomena of matter does not imply materialism and does not necessarily lead to atheism4 ,the argument of ,m4 ,naville is well worn4 ,we shall grant to him only that it is necessary to avoid implicitly solving questions by saying that we do not deal with them at all4 ,on the whole1 this pledges to nothing4 ,practically1 and in good faith1 abstention is nevertheless a solution4 99 99 99 99 99 ,i have now to point out ,l',esthtique d',aristote et de ses ,successeurs1 by ,m4 ,,ch4 ,b,,nard1 an ,etude sur ,francois ,bacon by ,m4 ,j4 ,,barth,,lemy ,,st4 ,,hilaire1 and ,l',anthropologie ,criminelle et ses ,rcents ,progrs1 by ,m4 ,,cesare ,,lombroso4 ,m4 ,bnard is one of the good old masters1 who1 what they do know1 know well1 and his book is one of those that it is profitable to possess4 ,the study of ,m4 ,barthlemy ,st4 ,hilaire is followed by the ,report on the ,memoirs presented to the ,academy of ,moral and ,political ,sciences1 which had proposed as a subject ,the ,philosophy of ,bacon4 ,as to ,m4 ,lombroso1 the celebrated ,italian criminologist1 he has wished to reply to the objections that have been made to his views1 especially by the ,french medical alienists at the ,congress of #ahhi1 and this is why he has written on this occasion in our language3 he supports by new facts the notion1 hitherto contested1 of a criminal type4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the last work of which ,i have to speak1 is the ,souvenirs de ,m4 ,charles ,mismer1#ca of which the third volume which recently appeared1 has for its title ,souvenirs de la ,martinique et du ,mexique pendant l',intervention ,francaise4 ,there is in these volumes no express philosophy1 as this term is understood1 but they are the work of an observing1 reflecting mind1 and in these pages one sees a man living and growing4 ,in the course of his adventurous existence1 ,m4 ,mismer1 already instructed by experience1 by chance acquired knowledge of the ,cours of ,august ,comte2 he became attached to it1 and found there an opening into sociology1 a tie by which to link together his personal ideas4 ,he afterwards published several articles#cb in the ,review conducted by ,m4 ,littr1 and he records to-day in his ,souvenirs the valuable observations which he has had occasion to make on very different races of men and strongly opposed social states4 ,he is one of those whom the philosophic spirit has led to a philosophic life1 and the persons who read his work will thank me for having made them acquainted with a unique and worthy character4 #ca ,in course of publication by ,hachette4 ,the other works mentioned are published by ,alcan4 #cb ,a part of these articles formed a volume entitled ,principes ,sociologiques4 ,,lucien ,,arr,,at4 ,,book ,,reviews4 ,,the ,,way ,,out ,,of ,,agnosticism1 or1 ,,the ,,philosophy ,,of ,,free ,,religion4 ,by ,francis ,ellingwood ,abbott1 ,ph4 ,d41 ,boston3 ,little1 ,brown ,co4 ,this book aims to show that1 in order to refute agnosticism and establish enlightened theism1 nothing is now necessary but to philosophise that very scientific method which agnosticism barbarously misunderstands and misuses 444 ,it aims to develop the philosophy which must 7consciously or unconsciously7 underlie any and every free religious movement or institution3 namely the philosophy which results from the faithful application of the scientific method to the universe as a whole4 ,the author further observes that nothing is more common or more confusing than a loose vague and indeterminate use of this phrase scientific method and that his object is to give definiteness and scientific precision to a much abused expression by showing that the ,scientific ,method 444 is neither more nor less than the ,,scientific ,,theory ,,of ,,universals ,,applied ,,in ,,practice ,,to ,,the ,,acquisition ,,of ,,knowledge4 ,now whether or not the identification of the scientific method with the practical application of the theory mentioned1 will give the much needed definiteness and precision1 depends very much upon the definiteness and precision of that theory itself4 ,the ,scientific ,theory of ,universals1 the author tells us1 receives no adequate exposition in this book4 ,we are in possession1 however1 of several other publications of the author1 one of which--,scientific ,theism--is largely devoted to that purpose4 ,we will endeavor in a spirit of studious candor and fidelity1 to state as well as we can the essentials of that theory4 ,we must protest1 however1 that we cannot undertake to clear up the obscurity that must necessarily involve any theory that is stated by the aid of such shifty and inconstant terms1 as objective1 subjective1 knowledge1 relation1 existence1 reality1 etc41 when the same are used without rigorous definitions of the respective senses thereof that are intended4 ,the ,scientific ,theory of ,universals affirms1 that objectively real individuals do exist1 that objectively real genera do exist1 that objectively real relations do exist1 that the objectively real genera are in every instance constituted as such by that set of objectively real relations uniquely appropriate to it2 that in every instance of a genus the objectively real relations reproduce themselves in specie in the mind separate from aught of the objective realities that are brought into relation by them1 that these reproduced relations in the mind constitute the subjective concept that is designated by the word appropriate thereto1 and that the single objective ,universal is at once and integrally the objective genus1 the subjective concept1 and the term or word4 ,the ,universe is the summum genus1 concept and word1 which is1 means1 and expresses the correlated totality of all genera together4 ,dr4 ,abbott neglects reference to genera of purely mental existences1 and relies for proof of his theory upon the single argument that no postulate is used that ,science has not taken for granted1 and proved by the finding that the facts are in agreement with the postulates4 ,now the only possible justification of any theory is that it makes things clear and reasonable4 ,in this theory the central and controlling position is that the objectively real relations invade the mind in person and there obtain as the concept4--,this doctrine is so far as we can see the original idea of ,dr4 ,abbott and must be considered as his contribution to philosophy4 ,it is by this that his work is to be tested4 ,does the addition of this new postulate clear up any obscurity8--,is this new postulate one of the assumptions of ,science8 ,the truth about this whole matter of universals seems to be that it belongs to the theory of notation primarily1 and then to psychology and ontology4 ,the mind proceeds to obtain correspondence with its alternative by analysis and synthesis4 ,the recognition of difference or otherness is an indispensable condition of consciousness itself4 ,one phase of the recognition of difference is that activity called abstraction4 ,but along with difference comes the recognition of what is different from difference1 or likeness in all its grades and involutions4 ,the sense of relation1 and the impulse of generalisation also arise1 and altogether these mentalities become effectual in virtue of some system or some plexus of systems of notation4 ,long before man ever began to reflect upon his mental operations and the means or tools employed on that behalf1 his mental manners and customs had become a second mental nature4 ,what warrant have we for taking these mental manners and customs as the same are reflected in ordinary language as adequate criteria for the world-problems1 or even as representative of the very constitutional laws of thought itself8 ,just as philosophy found it profitable to postpone ontology to psychology1 so it is submitted may it again find it profitable to postpone psychology to a study not merely of language but of notation generally1 of which the notation of mathematics will undoubtedly be found the most significant4 ,here we have distinction1 abstraction1 assimilation1 relation1 and generalisation carried on and carried out with unchecked thoroughness1 and systems of universals ascertained that not only correspond exactly with every acquired and incoming item of our experience1 but are also in respect to one another continuous throughout the whole of their range4 ,it will be impossible for any one who once appreciates the nature and competence of mathematical notation to regard any theory of universals relating to ordinary language as a solution of its problem that does not conform to the perfect models set in mathematics4 ,dr4 ,abbott claims that scientific method is neither more nor less than the application of his theory4 ,granting that science makes the same presumptions1 can scientific method be said to be neither more nor less than the application of his theory in any other sense than it could be said to be neither more nor less than the application of the theory of the existence of matter1 energy1 ether1 and mind8 ,the scientific method consists not in its data but in the ways in which it deals with its data1 in other words it consists in its logic4 ,it observes and infers4 ,it never stops to inquire if what it observes are the things in themselves or only phenomena4 ,that is an utterly inconsequential question to it4 ,it tests the validity of inductive and hypothetical inferences by comparison with experience1 and phenomenal experience is every whit as good a criterion for it as any other4 ,it has a metaphysics of its own which is mathematics and which it acknowledges as the supreme and unquestionable arbiter over whatever of its presumptions and theories that arbiter may undertake to govern4 ,no philosophy that neglects to comprehend and apply the now supremely important methods and results of mathematics can be anything but an ineffectual attempt4 ,no doubt this will seem to most of those who affect philosophy a statement worthy only of scorn4 ,prof4 ,crystal1 at the close of his article on ,parallels1 in the ninth edition of the ,encyclopedia ,britannica calls the attention of those who busy themselves with mental philosophy to that geometrical subject and its affiliations as one of the results of modern mathematical research which they cannot afford to overlook4 ,we can imagine with what an air of conscious eminence one or more of our dilettanti philosophers may have perused this suggestion1 wondering what in the world parallels and measurement have to do with philosophy4 ,but1 nevertheless1 so it is that a new departure in philosophy has been made inevitable by the stupendous researches of modern mathematics and this the philosophical world is just beginning to find out4 ,it seems to us1 that the incomplete view taken by ,dr4 ,abbott will prevent that success for his theory which his most distinguished ability might otherwise achieve1 and which his devoted efforts well merit4 ,f4 ,c4 ,r4 ,,races ,,and ,,peoples3 ,,lectures ,,on ,,the ,,science ,,of ,,ethnography4 ,by ,daniel ,g4 ,brinton1 ,a4,m41 ,m4,d41 etc41 etc4 ,new ,york3 ,n4 ,d4 ,c4 ,hodges4 ,these lectures1 which are dedicated to ,mr4 ,horatio ,hale1 the veteran philologist and ethnographer to the ,united ,states exploring expedition in #ahcb-db1 go over a very wide ground4 ,the ground traversed is1 indeed1 so extensive that ,dr4 ,brinton feels bound to apologise for being often superficial1 as otherwise he could not have compressed into so small a space the subjects of which he treats4 ,this apology must necessarily to some extent disarm the critic1 although it should do so only where a conclusion is not supported by sufficient evidence4 ,where a statement made is not merely unsupported by1 but is contrary to1 the best evidence available1 the author must expect to be called to account4 ,we were prepared to act on this principle1 thinking that possibly confession like charity would be found to cover a multitude of sins1 but we must admit that with certain exceptions1 the chief of which are to be found in the lecture on the psychical elements of ,ethnography1 we were mistaken4 ,we do not propose to follow the author in his classification of the varieties of mankind1 or in his views of the origin of the various races into which they are divided1 both of which will meet with keen opposition from most of the anthropologists of ,western ,europe1 although those of ,germany may receive them with more favor4 ,we are concerned chiefly with the opening and the closing chapters of the work before us1 from which we may draw some conclusions bearing on the race question1 that disturbs the minds of so many people in this country4 ,dr4 ,brinton remarks that the physical traits of man are correlated to the physiological functions in such a manner as profoundly to influence the destiny of nations4 ,he adds that from the physical point of view1 the pure white is weaker than the dark races1 worse prepared for the combat of life1 with inferior viability2 but in the white this is more than compensated by the development of the nervous system and intellectual power4 ,the white can bear greater mental strain than any other race1 and the activity of his mind supplies him with means to overcome the inferiority of his body1 and thus places him at the head of the whole species4 ,it might be supposed that a mixture of races having these different qualities1 would result in the formation of a hybrid race1 superior to either of the parent stocks4 ,dr4 ,brinton1 who is strongly opposed to the practice of miscegenation1 endorses the opinion that the offspring of a cross between the white and the black races are deficient in physical vigor1 and that such hybrids gradually die out4 ,he admits1 however1 that it was not so within the ,african area in early times1 and he suggests that special causes are now at work to affect the results of race-mixture4 ,one of these is the fact that the white blood is derived exclusively from the father1 and the dark blood exclusively from the mother4 ,now1 if it be true1 as is supposed1 that physical qualities are derived chiefly from the father and the psychical qualities chiefly from the mother1 we may reasonably expect1 as is indeed recognised1 that the children of such unions will be physically superior to members of the black stock1 although inferior to those of the white race4 ,it is admitted1 moreover1 that mulattoes are1 as a rule1 intellectually superior to pure negroes2 so that miscegenation is undoubtedly of relative advantage to the immediate offspring1 whatever may be its result on their descendants4 ,what ,dr4 ,brinton and other writers of the same opinion object to1 however1 is the deterioration of the white stock4 ,if there was any reason to believe this possible1 the objection would have weight4 ,but it supposes miscegenation to become general1 which1 in the first place1 is an event which could never happen1 unless the women of this country descended to the level of a ,messalina4 ,and in the second place1 ,dr4 ,brinton admits that in the earlier conditions of social life1 no such debility attended the crossing of the ,eurafrican white race and ,african race as seems at present to be the case4 ,it is possible1 therefore1 that if the mixture of the two races became general1 and were regarded as perfectly legitimate1 the present physical and intellectual debility attending such unions might disappear4 ,we do not advocate miscegenation1 but we wish to point out1 that those who oppose it under the present limitations of our knowledge1 do so either on insufficient grounds1 or because they are influenced1 consciously or unconsciously1 by sentimental considerations4 ,we are glad to see that ,dr4 ,brinton does not endorse the views so prevalent among ,english ,ethnologists as to the existence of communal marriage among the lower races of mankind4 ,in his recent work on ,the ,origin and ,development of ,marriage and ,kinship1 ,mr4 ,c4 ,staniland ,wake has dealt exhaustively with that subject1 and shown that the marriage law is fully recognised among the most savage peoples4 ,we cannot accept ,dr4 ,brinton's statements where he says that the ,australian aborigines are led to associate by much the same motives as prompt buffaloes to gather in a herd1 or when he speaks of the rare custom of polyandry1 or declares that mutual affection has no existence among the ,australians and many other tribes1 and that romantic love is practically absent among the ,african and ,mongolian races4 ,our author is equally at fault when he says that no ,asiatic nation respects truth telling1 and that the idea of independent personal ownership does not exist among them4 ,these errors1 and such misstatements as that the excellent results of the extension of the ,slavonian supremacy in ,central ,asia have been studiously ignored by ,british writers1 which are due to ,dr4 ,brinton's preference for ,continental authorities1 are serious blemishes4 ,nevertheless1 his book is an excellent one1 and we can heartily recommend it as an introductory ,manual of ,ethnology4 4 ,,studies ,,in ,,hegel',s ,,philosophy ,,of ,,religion4 ,with a ,chapter ,on ,christian ,unity in ,america4 ,by ,j4 ,macbride ,sterrett1 ,d4 ,d41 ,professor of ,ethics and ,apologetics in ,seabury ,divinity ,school4 ,new ,york3 ,d4 ,appleton ,co4 ,these studies in ,hegel's ,philosophy of ,religion1 except ,chapters ,,iii and ,,viii1 claim to be something more than a mere expository paraphrase of ,hegel1 although following ,hegel's argument in ,chapter ,,iv4 ,the author's purpose is strictly theological and apologetic4 ,his work is written with faith1 and in the interest of the faith4 ,in fact1 in ,england and ,america the theological rather than philosophical interest taken in the study of ,hegel has mainly been called forth by the supposed intimate relation of his thought to religion and to ,christianity regarded as the absolute1 full1 and final religion4 ,to this pseudo-,hegelian school of ,england and ,america1 ,hegel1 above all1 is radically a theologian2 all his thoughts beginning and ending in that of divinity4 ,it regards ,hegel's ,philosophy of ,religion as the very heart of his thinking1 as the highest bloom of his philosophy4 ,it is supposed to reconcile ,christian theology with the modern science of religion 7or comparative religion71 with anthropology1 and with the classification of positive1 pre-,christian religions4 ,american students of ,hegelian philosophy1 as a rule1 do not desire to be regarded as ,hegelians4 ,bound to swear in the name of no master in philosophy1 and only in the name of ,christ in religion1 would better characterise them all4 ,they are simply using his method 444 they are getting great help1 and looking for still greater from the method1 which was greater than even ,hegel's own employment of it4 ,hegel's method is thus declared to be greater than himself1 and is received like an article of faith4 ,in these studies1 while freely discussing and criticising all that ,hegel has thought or said upon the subject of the philosophy of religion1 the author entirely omits to enter into a critical discussion of precisely the most important point2 namely1 the absolute value of ,hegel's philosophical method4 ,he overlooks the interesting fact1 that all that is permanently true and great in ,hegel was really reached by ,hegel himself1 and understood1 from a point of view that was diametrically opposed to his own accepted method2 in glaring contrast to his evolution of the logical idea1 and to his theory of pure thought or reines ,denken4 ,to reconcile reason with religion1 by finding reason in religion and religion in reason1 is doubtless a correct ,hegelian statement1 yet1 at the same time1 it only expresses an exclusive1 one-sided aspect of the system4 ,there was a time when the ,hegelian system ranked as a foremost intellectual phenomenon4 ,it was1 perhaps1 the highest that philosophy ever had achieved2 but its manifest fault consisted in its being a purely philosophical and a priori system4 ,a philosophy that existed in external opposition to the sciences remained only an empty abstraction1 just as force when severed from the phenomenon1 or ,deity when opposed to the outside world4 ,hegel's philosophy ultimately recognised1 that force only is or exists in the phenomenon2 that the internal itself constitutes the external1 the ,deity is only present in the universe1 the infinite in the finite4 ,any philosophy proclaiming all this must be said to have succumbed with a vengeance to its own dialectic process4 ,a philosophy of this kind would seem to have signed its own death-warrant--or according to the popular ,german saying1 hat selbst den ,stab ber sich gebrochen6 ,and thus it really happened to ,hegelianism--we mean to genuine ,german ,hegelianism4 ,from that moment it forfeited its claim to be regarded as the highest truth4 ,it was compelled to step forth out of its one-sided exclusiveness1 out of its opposition to empirical science4 ,hegelianism was not expected to effect any kind of compromise or reconciliation with empirical science1 because any yielding on its own part would have been illogical1 and could only have brought about a momentary truce1 but no lasting peace4 ,on the contrary1 ,hegelianism had to suffer the infinitely bitter pang of self-immolation4 ,it had deliberately to commit suicide1 in order thereupon to be welded with empirical science into a much higher and more comprehensive unity4 ,in other words1--in fact in ,hegel's own words--when the old principle thus reappears1 it is no longer what it was before1 for it is changed and purified by the higher element into which it is now taken up4 ,the ,hegelian system was thus compelled to acknowledge1 that not only must philosophy agree with experience1 but moreover1 the creation of a philosophical science premises as an indispensable condition the hypothesis of an empirical science1 which itself implies that the ideas of space1 of time1 of movement1 and of matter cannot be obtained a priori1--that is before the experience of the things themselves1--or be purely evolved1 according to the ,hegelian method1 from the logical idea4 ,to attempt to reconcile reason with religion by finding reason in religion and religion in reason1 is simply to evolve a priori a philosophy of religion from the logical idea4 ,this is believed to be possible by means of the mystic factors--the ,hegelian method and the ,logos4 ,the original contents of eternal reason itself--of the logos--are supposed to exist within our mind in a form that constitutes our inmost truth2 our spontaneous logical thinking coincides with the innate eternal reason in form and contents1 and thus attains to the full revelation of itself4 ,but all this is purely an hypothesis1 or a kind of belief in reason1 der ,glaube an die ,vernunft6 ,hegel himself in conclusion was forced to admit that philosophy must closely observe the method of nature4 7,see ,encycl4 ,,iii1 #bb47 ,the editor of ,hegel's ,philosophy of ,history 7,gans1 page ,,xv7 says1 ,hegel did not wish to personate the deity that creates or evolves history1 but to be a man who contemplates created rational history2 and ,hegel himself says 7page #ac71 we must take history as it is2 we have to proceed according to an historical1 empirical method4 444 ,only from the study of history itself are we allowed to infer that historical events are really rational events4 ,and in ,hegel's ,naturphilosophie1 7page #bd17 and elsewhere there are to be found perfectly analogous passages4 ,it cannot be denied1 that the author of this work on ,hegel's philosophy of religion has made a deep study of all the vast details of the ,hegelian system2 but his one-sided theological criticism exclusively aims at representing ,hegel himself as a theologian4 ,this ,american pseudo-,hegelianism may probably have had the effect of stimulating ,american thinkers1 but in other respects it has only retained the phantom and empty shadow of ,hegelianism1 playing fast and loose with the old system under the captious name of the ,hegelian method1 and making a free use of its obscure1 obsolete phraseology4 ,the cry back to ,kant by ,english ,neo-,kantianism1 is declared to mean a speedy return to ,hegel's method1 and to be only the first step of the protest against temporary1 materialistic1 and psychological thought4 ,the last chapter1 in the form of an appendix1 is devoted to the discussion of ,christian ,unity4 ,the author deplores the current abstract conceptions of the church1 and regards them as the main obstacle to its visible organic unity4 ,the ,hegelian ideas on religion and the state are believed to suggest a more concrete1 historical view1 and to destroy the abstract conception4 4 ,,the ,,philosophy ,,of ,,necessity2 ,,or1 ,,law ,,in ,,mind ,,as ,,in ,,matter4 ,by ,charles ,bray4 ,third edition1 revised and abridged4 ,london and ,new ,york3 ,longmans1 ,green1 ,co4 ,this work was originally published in #ahda1 and comprised an ,exposition of the ,doctrine of the ,philosophy of ,necessity1 or the ,law of ,consequences1 first1 in its relation to ,mental ,science1 secondly1 in its relation to ,ethics1 and thirdly1 an application of its principles to the social questions of the day4 ,the third part has been omitted from the present edition1 as being out of date1 but many of its statistics and observations are given as an ,appendix4 ,in a prefatory note it is stated as a reason for preserving in an accessible form the conclusions arrived at by ,mr4 ,bray1 that he worked out for himself a theory as to the purpose of existence that satisfied his own mind1 and became to him a cheerful philosophy which intensified his enjoyment of all things good and pleasant1 helped him to bear the troubles of life1 and to meet the end in a spirit as bright as it was resigned--a statement which those who knew him personally will heartily endorse4 ,mr4 ,bray's theory is embodied in the title of the work under review1 and its key-note is order in nature4 ,his object is to show that the mind of man is not an exception to nature's other works2 that like everything else it has received a determinate character2 that all our knowledge of it is precisely of the same kind as that of material things1 and consists in the observation of its order of action1 or of the relation of cause and effect4 ,according to this view we can know the real nature of neither matter nor mind1 ,nature herself having fixed the boundaries beyond which human knowledge cannot extend4 ,it would be a mistake1 however1 to suppose that ,mr4 ,bray regarded ,nature as something apart1 giving to man laws from the operation of which it is itself free4 ,a little consideration shows that such is not his idea4 ,nature is with ,mr4 ,bray only another name for ,god4 ,moreover1 man is nothing1 ,god is all2 individuality1 or anything separate from ,him1 is a mode of thought1 and has no real existence4 ,electricity1 heat1 light1 and other forces of nature are modes of the ,unknowable1 and are transformable into each other and into the other modes which we distinguish as sensation1 emotion1 thought4 ,the qualities or properties of matter are mere force or power1 and as they are qualities of ,god1 the assumption of the existence of matter is not necessary4 ,god is the ,universal ,being1 of which all things are the manifestations4 ,every thing is a mode of ,god's attribute of extension2 every thought1 wish1 or feeling1 is a mode of ,his attribute of thought4 ,to ,mr4 ,bray the only reality is ,god1 the great ,unknown1 and as ,he is also the ,unknowable1 we have in the ,philosophy of ,necessity a system of ,agnosticism4 ,and yet ,mr4 ,bray is hardly consistent with himself4 ,for1 unlike ,mr4 ,herbert ,spencer1 he speaks of ,god in terms of ,spirit1 which becomes in his system identical with force4 ,when1 moreover1 he declares that the whole sensitive existence is but the innumerable individual eyes with which the ,infinite ,world ,spirit beholds ,himself1 we have a kind of ,monism4 ,this view however recognises ,god as the only real and efficient power in the universe1 and1 as the ,great ,first ,cause and the ,great ,last ,cause of all things1 a ,divine ,being4 ,mr4 ,bray does not enter into the question of the personality of ,god1 but that he supposes the ,deity to possess consciousness is evident from his reference to the ,great ,soul of ,nature1 and his statement that the operation of its forces is governed by thought4 ,his ideas are summed up in the words1 we feel ourselves a part ,of that stupendous whole1 ,whose body nature is1 and ,god the ,soul4 ,holding this opinion1 ,mr4 ,bray could not be otherwise than a ,necessitarian and an ,utilitarian in his practical views4 ,these are well shown in his treatment of the question of the freedom of will1 as to which he accepts the opinion of ,locke that a man is free within the range of the preferences or directions of his own mind4 ,mr4 ,bray's own conclusion is3 ,since1 then1 the only freedom we have is limited to action in accordance with our natural powers and capacities1 our aim must be to develop fully these powers and capacities1 and to remove all impediments1 external and internal1 to their free and complete action4 ,there must be no external compulsion from physical impediment1 or internal compulsion from defect in the mind itself2 no obstacle to the full exercise of our natural powers both of body and mind4 ,education in its full meaning is the developing and perfecting of all these powers4 ,,geschichte ,,der ,,ethik ,,in ,,der ,,neueren ,,philosophie4 ,by ,friedrich ,jodl4 ,volume ,,ii4 ,kant and the ,ethics of the ,nineteenth ,century4 ,stuttgart3 ,j4 ,g4 ,cotta4 ,in this volume ,professor ,jodl continues his history of theoretical ethics2 starting with ,kant and coming down to contemporary philosophers4 ,his work is thus mainly concerned with the classical philosophy of ,germany till ,feuerbach's time1 and the spiritualistic and positivist philosophy of ,france and ,england down to the time of ,cousin1 ,jouffroy1 and ,mill4 ,professor ,jodl has been obliged to forego his original intention of appending to his work an epitome of the logical constructive results of his investigations1 and has exclusively applied himself to the investigation and historical presentment of the fundamental and central principles of the ethical thought of the past century4 ,he has therefore ever held in view the economical and historical purpose of his work1 and avoided on the one hand an exposition of all systems in which originality of principles is lacking1 and on the other abstained from the critical examination of the systems of his contemporaries4 ,thus he has aspired1 by the constant emphasis of central basal principles and of the points whereon all have agreed1 to refute the belief that the history of his science is a chaotic mass of contradictory views1 and that ethical opinion presents in its historical expression only diversity1 and never community of mental possession4 ,professor ,jodl has only collaterally dealt with the non-ethical literature and tendencies of the times of which he treats1 and he has disclaimed all intention of portraying the effects and influence that ethical systems have produced and exerted in practical spheres2 ,france and ,england being the only instances in which1 for manifest reasons1 the discussion of literature and politics has preceded the criticism and analysis of philosophies4 ,nevertheless1 his work throughout is interspersed with many well-judged and apposite thoughts upon the effective1 though not always apparent1 influence of a nation's intellectual activity upon its practical conduct of affairs2 as well as1 also1 regarding the lamentable fact that1 often1 a people are violently and dangerously engaged in the solution of questions that their thinkers have solved decades before4 ,let us look at ,professor ,jodl's examination of the historical position of ,kantian ,ethics4 ,the element of non-interest in ethical judgment we find not to have been first emphasised by ,kant4 ,whatever the success and worth of their speculations1 a great many of ,kant's predecessors sought to realise this very factor in their systems2 thus it was with ,plato as opposed to ,protagoras1 with ,shaftesbury and ,butler as opposed to ,hobbes1 ,locke1 and ,hume2 while ,cudworth1 ,clarke1 ,wollaston1 and ,price were similarly actuated by the purely speculative consideration4 ,kant's real and original advance upon previous systems of ethics1 was his emphasis of the element of conscious volition in ethical judgment and the statement of its imperative character4 ,it was just in this last respect that his ethical philosophy formed so marked a contrast to the eudmonism of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries4 ,the imperative and absolute nature of duty1 eudmonism neglected to inculcate2 ,kant aroused the conscience of his time1 and presented in contrast to the moral weakness then prevalent the strength and earnest grandeur of an absolute conception of duty4 ,so too in the conflict between the metaphysics of ethics and the practical postulates1 wherein the great philosopher displayed so much ingenuity1 ,professor ,jodl is unable to distinguish ,kant's position very sharply from that of the ,english intellectualists when in a similar plight4 ,not that the idea of the practical postulates is valueless2 this ,professor ,jodl afterwards explains4 ,our historian merely shows that ,kant had not yet gotten clear of the ancient conflict that had agitated the ,schoolmen of the ,middle ,ages as well as the utilitarian and rationalistic theologians of more modern times4 ,yet despite the mysticism that inheres in ,kant's argument for the practical existence of ,god1 the kernel of the truth he emphasises in the alliance of ethics with religion still remains2 namely that religious ideas are essentially ethical1 that in this relation only have they meaning1 and that religious ideas which are ethically valueless are to be uncompromisingly discarded4 ,especial attention should be called to ,professor ,jodl's estimate of ,feuerbach1 whose merits have been strangely neglected4 ,feuerbach's ethical system1 in perfect form1 has not been independently set forth in his works1 but is intermingled with the subjects dealt with in his religious treatises4 ,yet he left few of the fundamental questions of ethics untouched and his works contain a great store of most excellent and pertinent thoughts which must be characterised1 says our author1 in the widest sense of the term1 as the real foundation in ethics of modern scientific empiricism4 ,with regard to the presentment of ,english and ,french ethical philosophy1 ,professor ,jodl's work1 it is claimed1 is the first historical exposition in the ,german language of this special department of thought in its connection with the universal intellectual progress of these two countries4 ,his analysis of ,bentham and ,mill is very accurate and full4 ,professor ,jodl exhibits an extensive acquaintance with ,english philosophical literature2 indeed1 he has even discovered the little book known as ,kant's ,ethics1 by ,dr4 ,noah ,porter1 whom he calls the ,nestor of ,american philosophy4 ,unity of execution1 and the skilful employment of historical perspective in dealing with the various phases of ethical thought1 may be characterised as prominent merits of ,professor ,jodl's performance4 ,in the books of its class it stands unique4 4 ,,ethik4 ,eine ,darstellung der ethischen ,principien und deren ,anwendung auf besondere ,lebensverhltnisse4 ,by ,dr4 ,harald ,hffding1 ,professor an der ,universitt zu ,kopenhagen4 ,unter ,mitwirkung des ,verfassers aus dem ,dnischen bersetzt von ,f4 ,benedixen4 ,leipsic3 #ahhh4 ,harald ,hffding1 ,professor at the ,university of ,copenhagen1 is a representative thinker among ethical scholars4 ,unhesitatingly he takes his stand upon the real facts of life and attempts to construct a system of ethics which shall be a science among the other sciences4 ,professor ,hffding says in his preface3 ,if we see the snow-covered peaks of a mountain range from a far distance1 they seem to hover in the air4 ,not until we approach do we discover plainly that they rest upon solid ground4 ,it is the same with ethical principles4 ,in the first enthusiasm one imagines that a place should be assigned to them above the reality of nature and life4 ,on further reflection and after a longer experience1 which must perhaps be dearly bought1 we discover that the ethical principles can regulate life only if they have really proceeded from life4 ,professor ,hffding is in a certain sense a utilitarian4 ,the influence of utilitarian systems upon his mode of thought can be traced throughout the whole work1 and it is this influence perhaps to which the ,danish ,professor owes his positive standpoint as well as the scientific method of his procedure4 ,nevertheless he differs from the ordinary utilitarian school and prefers to characterise his system as an ethics of general welfare4 ,he says3 ,the so-called utilitarianism1--that ethical conception which has been founded mainly by ,bentham1--has the merit of having for the first time energetically propounded the principle of welfare4 ,yet ,bentham has detracted from his cause by proceeding from a psychological theory which considers consciousness as a sum of ideas and feelings1 and dissolves society into a number of individuals4 ,the import of pleasurable and painful feelings for the continuous and general welfare cannot be established by a mere process of calculation4 7,p4 #cg47 ,professor ,hffding opens the first chapter of his work with the following sentence3 ,ethical judgments contain a valuation of human actions4444 ,the criterion of the ethical valuation is the contents of ethics4 ,if life consisted of isolated sovereign moments1 every one of them would have an equal right1 and no one would be obliged to resign in favor of any other moment4 ,no valuation1 no discrimination would be required4 ,but the life of each individual1 as well as the life of society1 makes up a life-totality1 and we possess a conception of this life-totality4 ,if the state of feeling in a single moment agrees with the conception of the life-totality1 a new feeling arises which is determined by this mutual relation4444 ,the ethical valuation is conditioned by this feeling4 7p4 #bg47 ,taking this ground1 ,professor ,hffding defines good and bad in the following way3 ',good' accordingly becomes that which preserves the life-totality and gives fulness and life to its contents2 'bad1' on the contrary1 that which has more or less the tendency to dissolve or to limit the life-totality and its contents4 ,bad accordingly is the single moment1 the separate impulse in its revolutionary isolation from the rest of life4444 7,p4 #bi47 ,the ,bad1 therefore1 is egotism in its various degrees and various forms4 ,and the verdict about it will be the severer the more conscious this egotism is4 ,utilitarianism as a rule has been hedonistic4 ,utilitarians have proposed as the criterion of an ethical valuation the consequences of an act2 if the consequences give more pleasure than pain1 it is said to be good2 if they are attended with more pain than pleasure1 it is said to be bad4 ,in the above quoted definitions by ,prof4 ,hffding there is no trace of hedonism1 and ,i should consider an ethical system based upon these definitions as being in strong opposition to hedonism4 ,but ,prof4 ,hffding appears to have been so strongly biased by the influence of hedonistic utilitarianism1 that he introduces again its fundamental idea1 which identifies the good with the pleasurable4 ,although he objects to employing the terms utility and happiness1 because they are liable to lead to misunderstandings and have indeed done so2 although he declares that momentary feelings of pleasure and pain are no sure criterion for the total state 7p4 #cg72 although for such reasons he proposes the word welfare1 saying1 by the word 'welfare' ,i think of everything which serves to satisfy the wants of human nature in its whole entirety3 still ,prof4 ,hffding again returns to hedonism by limiting the idea welfare to the hedonistic conception of goodness4 ,he defines welfare as a continuous state of pleasurable feelings4 7,p4 #ih47 ,thus we are presented with two definitions of what constitutes the criterion of an ethical valuation3 7#a7 that which promotes the life-totality1 and 7#b7 that which produces a continuous state of pleasurable feeling4 ,these two definitions are in many respects harmonious1 but on the other hand they may come into conflict2 and if they come into conflict1 which of the two is to be sacrificed8 ,supposing that a contemplation of the evolution of organised life should teach us that the development of a life-totality is not at all a pleasurable process2 that on the contrary it is attended with excessive and innumerable pains4 ,inorganic nature so far as we can judge is free from pain4 ,the isolated atom1 we may assume1 exists in a state of indifference4 ,supposing now that pain could be proved to increase1 the higher we rise in the development of a life-totality2 supposing that the growth of a life-totality had to be bought with pain1 what would be the consequence8 ,i will not here enter into the subject1 but ,i may mention that this supposition is not at all without foundation4 ,assuming that it were so1 would not1 in such a case1 the good be as ,schopenhauer1 ,hartmann1 and ,mainlaender propose1 that which destroys the life-totality of consciousness and with it the whole world of civilised humanity1 built up of the innumerable consciousnesses of individuals8 ,professor ,hffding has seen this difficulty1 which arises from a conflict of the two criteria of ethical valuation 7#a7 the hedonistic principle and 7#b7 the principle of progress1 i4 e41 the constant evolution of a higher life-totality4 ,he says3 ,john ,stuart ,mill has declared that it is better to be a dissatisfied man than a satisfied pig1 a dissatisfied ,socrates than a satisfied fool4 ,he bases this assertion upon the fact that even if the pig and the fool were of a contrary mind1 their opinion would have to be rejected1 since they possess no knowledge of the higher point of view from which man and ,socrates consider life1 whereas man knows the needs of the pig and ,socrates fathoms the fool4 ,we most be regulated by the judgment of those that know the two kinds of needs in question and that are consequently able to institute an estimation of the value of the same4 ,but ,i feel obliged to put in a word for the pig and the fool4 ,the difficulty is greater than ,mill imagines4 ,man1 it is true1 knows all the wants of the pig1 and it would not be difficult for a ,socrates to comprehend those of the fool4 ,but man does not have the wants of the pig1 nor ,socrates those of the fool1 as his sole and only dominant wants4 ,and yet this is the very circumstance that determines the matter4 ,man cannot transform himself into a pig without ceasing to be a man1 and a ,socrates will hardly be able so to identify himself with a fool as to lose completely his ,socratic wants4 ,if1 now1 the pig can attain the complete satisfaction of all his wants1 is not his happiness greater than that of man whose desires and whose longings are never wholly satisfied8 ,and the fool1 who does not nourish many thoughts and makes no great demands upon life1 is he not happier than ,socrates who spends his whole life in striving to know himself and to stimulate others1 only finally to declare that death is really preferable to life8 ,professor ,hffding's solution of the difficulty is summed up in the following paragraph3 ,welfare is an illusion if we understand by it a passive condition of things1 created once for all4 ,it must consist in action1 work1 development4 ,rest can only mean a termination for the time being1 the attainment of a new level1 upon which it is possible for a new course of development to proceed4 ,thus it appears that ,professor ,hffding decides in favor of the second principle4 ,the evolution of the life-totality is considered higher than a continuous state of pleasurable feeling4 ,nevertheless ,professor ,hffding adds3 ,on that account1 however1 we are not obliged to retract our first definition of welfare as that of a continuous state of pleasurable feeling4 ,that which must be rejected is only the notion of a passive state4 ,truly1 as ,professor ,hffding says1 the difficulty is greater than ,mr4 ,mill imagined4 ,the difficulty is great enough to undermine the whole basis upon which welfare is defined as a state of continuous pleasurable feeling4 ,if1 as ,professor ,hffding declares1 welfare is to be interpreted as activity1 work1 development2 if this kind of active welfare is the greatest good1 whatever admixture of pain and whatever absence of pleasurable feeling it may have2 if the greatest amount of a state of continuous pleasurable feeling is not welfare in an ethical sense1 what becomes of the utilitarian definition of welfare as pleasurable feeling8 ,if1 however1 welfare is the state of a continuous pleasurable feeling1 how can we declare that the life of a pessimistic philosopher is preferable to that of a joyful fool8 ,must not the ultimate reason of this conflict be sought in ,professor ,hffding's statement that-- ,the proposition of a purpose presupposes in the subject which makes the proposition feelings of pleasure and displeasure4 7,p4 #cj47 ,should we not rather say that the proposition of a purpose presupposes an expression of will in the subject which makes the proposition8 ,wherever there is will1 there is also approval and disapproval1 but approval is not always pleasurable and disapproval is not always attended with displeasure4 ,does it not often happen that we cannot help disapproving of things which please us8 ,we have mainly limited our review to some topics of the first division entitled ,the ,conditions of ,ethics1 because we have regarded them as most important in a representation of the ethical principles4 ,the doubts we have raised as to the consistency of the author are less noticeable in the remaining chapters1 which contain an unusual store of ideas presented with great lucidity4 ,the doctrine of the freedom of will is excellently treated 7chap4 v474 ,social ethics1 family life1 marriage1 the position of woman1 and the education of children are separately and exhaustively discussed1 and there is no chapter which even if we cannot always give assent to the author's views1 does not richly repay a careful perusal4 ,p4 ,c4 ,,kurzgefasste ,,logik ,,und ,,psychologie4 ,by ,dr4 ,k4 ,kroman4 ,translated from the second edition of the ,original by ,f4 ,bendixen4 ,leipsic3 ,o4 ,r4 ,reisland4 ,dr4 ,kroman is professor of philosophy at the ,university of ,copenhagen4 ,he has sought to present in this book of three hundred and eighty nine pages the elements of ,logic and ,psychology4 ,the work was principally intended for the use of the general reader and the beginner1 although its author hopes it will not be altogether without interest to the specialist1 and that it will find its way into the schools of pedagogy 7the subject of the art of education being also incidentally dealt with in its pages74 ,dr4 ,kroman's method of presentation is concise and lucid2 the elements of logic occupy but some one hundred and four pages1 and form a good introduction to the common phases of that science4 ,but his psychology is1 from our standpoint1 more open to objection2 or rather his philosophy4 ,he says3 ,unless we assume the law of causation1 research is impossible2 but assuming this1 it is impossible to stop with states of consciousness1 we must assume a subject and real objects4 ,what ,dr4 ,kroman means by real is seen from the following4 ,our senses give us knowledge only of properties of things1 not of things4 ,we do not perceive the apple1 but only its form1 color1 etc4 ,but all these sensations thus derived form an interconnected whole2 and the law of causality forces us to the assumption of a thing behind these sensory manifestations4 ,yet1 our belief that we know this thing in itself has only a practical value2 in reality it is an unknown quantity4 ,it is a single point1 a nucleus1 of which direct and positive knowledge is unobtainable2 yet exist it must if our assumption of the law of causation is to be upheld4 ,thus ,dr4 ,kroman shows in an admirable manner how our everyday conceptual life is formed2 but it is the office of philosophy1 in our view1 to point out how this same conceptual life should be formed4 ,however1 ,dr4 ,kroman supplements this explanation--which we have much abbreviated--by considerations that lead one to believe that he seeks only to demonstrate the reality of existence and has collaterally accepted the doctrine of the independent1 'outside' thing in itself4 ,we may refer our readers1 regarding this question1 to ,prof4 ,mach's article in this number of ,the ,monist4 ,,einleitung ,,in ,,die ,,psychologie ,,nach ,,kritischer ,,methode4 ,by ,paul ,natorp4 ,freiburg3 ,j4 ,c4 ,mohr4 ,in this exhaustive monograph ,dr4 ,paul ,natorp does not deal with psychology itself1 but proceeding from a number of novel points of view he opens up the road by which the principles of psychology may be reached4 ,the author frankly assumes that psychology even as yet has not absolutely and clearly defined its own fundamental problem1 and that this is chiefly the reason why we still disagree concerning the significance and value of many of the results of psychology4 ,before we approach the solution of the special problems1 psychology itself must be laid down as a problem4 ,the author1 therefore1 in the first part of his introductory task has sought to indicate the objects of psychology1--namely1 what it will and rationally can pursue2 and in the second part1 he points out1 the only correct method according to which psychology can accomplish its aims4 ,since ,descartes1 says our author1 real and possible consciousness constitutes the true limits of the province of psychic research1 the fundamental problem of psychology1 and the characteristic distinction between the old and new philosophy4 ,but1 in order to find out1 whether this tendency of the new philosophy has been entirely successful1 it will be necessary to examine more closely the nature of the fundamental psychic phenomenon1 and the problem that it involves4 ,in the fact of consciousness we can distinguish several elements which really are inseparable1 but which in the study of the problem ought to be separated4 ,there is the content of which one is conscious1 and secondly1 the consciousness thereof1 or its relation to the ego2 and1 by a further abstraction1 this relation itself might be distinguished from the total fact of consciousness4 ,the relation to the ego1 in ever varied contents1 is one and the same2 it makes up both the common and specific element of consciousness1 and as the third abstract element of consciousness 7,bewusstsein7 it might aptly be called self-consciousness 7,bewusstheit74 ,the ego1 being a common point of relation to all contents of consciousness1 cannot itself become the content of consciousness1 because it represents a contrast to any idea of content4 ,we do not correctly conceive consciousness as a thing1 a cause1 a force1 an explanatory principle1 but simply as a phenomenon--the fundamental phenomenon of psychology4 ,we thereupon ask1 what contains this phenomenon1 and by what is it characterised8 ,it is1 above all1 characterised by subjective experience4 ,this denotes1 that it is ,i who am conscious of a content4 ,the reflective expression ,i am conscious implies a subject that is conscious4 ,without this reflective relation to the ego1 consciousness no longer conveys any meaning4 ,consciousness denotes self-consciousness4 ,this reflective relation is therefore the only distinctive mark of all conscious phenomena4 ,content we call anything that can be related to the ego4 ,in the language adopted by psychologists1 a feeling or a desire can also be regarded as content of consciousness4 ,but our investigation cannot proceed beyond this reflective relation4 ,if we attempt a representation of the ego1 we should turn it into object1 and we should have ceased to regard it as ego4 ,the ego is never an object--not even to itself4 ,it is not denied1 that in every consciousness there can be distinguished two elements--the existence of a content1 and its relation to the ego2 but it is denied1 that this relation can be made objective1 even to itself4 ,this correctly describes the character of consciousness1 as content and activity1 and moreover1 precisely delimits the domain of the psychical and determines the positive task of psychology4 ,those1 who assume a consciousness of consciousness1 ought logically to admit the consciousness of a consciousness of consciousness1 etc42 as indeed some metaphysicians have done4 ,it may be maintained1 however1 that the distinction of the activities of consciousness1 of sensation1 representation1 and thinking1 is indispensable in psychology2 but1 at any rate1 there are no different kinds1 or even degrees or stages of consciousness4 ,the consciousness of any simple sensation in kind is not different from the consciousness of a world2 the factor of consciousness in both is the same2 the difference lies exclusively in the content4 ,this also applies to clear and obscure consciousness4 ,in order to determine the positive task of psychology1 we ought to discover in every content and in every repeated act of consciousness1 a certain common characteristic4 ,perception1 as such1 does not constitute consciousness1 but merely denotes the presence of a multiple content2 apperception1 on the other hand1 indicates only consciousness in the definite sense of a unity of that multiple content4 ,this unity of consciousness properly does not appear1 or only appears in the connection of the contents4 ,that peculiarity of consciousness which we call apperception1 is psychologically only apparent in the contents of consciousness2 it does not constitute an object of psychology1 but forms only its extreme limits4 ,the common characteristic of every content of consciousness is therefore really to be found in the connection 7,verbindung7 in which the simple contents are represented in the repeated acts of consciousness4 ,this connection exists only subjectively1 irrespective of all objective meaning or value4 ,the existence of phenomena purely as phenomena1 their subjective existence irrespective of object1 constitutes their psychic existence or that side of the phenomenon from which it becomes an object of psychological research4 ,under this head come all those phenomena to which science denies an objective value3 illusions of the senses1 mental hallucinations1 and the normal non-scientific representations of things1 the creations of the imagination in music and in art1 the entire subjective life of feeling and of aspiration1 regarded only as a particularly characteristic association of representation1 irrespective of all objective truth1 which lies beyond the limits of psychology as such4 ,the characteristic1 accordingly1 is found in the unity in which the content represents itself in the single or reiterated acts of consciousness4 ,in each act of consciousness the content is simply present1 and no time is distinguished4 ,when we distinguish time1 a plurality of consciousness also must be distinguished4 ,it may seem difficult to understand how two or more original acts of consciousness are again united into one act2 but in reality this takes place4 ,the idea of unity is thus enlarged1 and becomes the consciousness of a multiplicity1 the necessary unity of a multiple1 a successive connection in time1 and a simultaneous connection4 ,all consciousness 7representation7 depends on connection1 as is indirectly shown by trying to discover whether the elementary contents of consciousness can be represented in absolute isolation4 ,abstract consciousness is thus found to be the relation of given contents to an ego1 and connection constitutes the manner in which a multiple content appears or is represented in the reiterated relation to one and the same ego4 ,connection is the concrete expression of that relation itself1 through which consciousness attains its definite and positive value4 ,abstract consciousness seems poor1 but the multiplicity of a definite connection of contents affords a vast field of psychological research1 for on that connection depends the concrete significance of the ego1 which to us is not subject in general1 but above all1 is our own particular subject4 ,and finally at this point there spontaneously arises the question of a theory of the psychic phenomena4 ,every theory essentially presupposes an objective tendency1 while consciousness1 as the expression of the purest subjectivity of phenomena1 cannot be rendered objective4 ,it clearly follows1 therefore1 that the method of psychology must be radically different from all methods of the objective sciences4 ,,der ,,geniale ,,mensch4 ,by ,cesare ,lombroso4 ,german ,translation by ,dr4 ,m4 ,o4 ,fraenkel4 ,hamburg3 ,verlagsanstalt und ,druckerei-,actien-,gesellschaft 7vormals ,j4 ,f4 ,richter74 ,the ,french edition of ,lombroso's ,man of ,genius has already appeared4 ,the work is introduced by a preface written by ,m4 ,charles ,richet1 which reviews the subject with great clearness4 ,all in all1 this is an admirable book1 well stocked with interesting facts and incidents1 and well adapted to obtain a large number of readers outside of scientific circles4 ,there is necessarily a dearth of abundant and well-authenticated facts in this subject1--historians until lately not having occupied themselves with the psychological phases of life2 and accordingly there is great danger in universal generalisation from those that we have4 ,this1 however1 ,prof4 ,lombroso has recognised4 ,genius1 the author claims1 is a variety of psychosis1 an instance of degeneration4 ,degeneration of certain parts is the condition of the acquisition of others2 thus the loss of a number of ribs and muscles1 of a tail1 etc41 has in man been compensated by the acquisition and development of the brain2 and so in the genius the possession of very great intellectual or emotional faculties has been counterbalanced by the loss of equilibrium in the other parts4 ,moreover1 there are no exceptions in nature2 the occurrence of insanity1 abnormalities1 and eccentricities in a few cases leads us inevitably to the conclusion that there are correspondent defects in all others4 ,and this we find to be true in all historical instances4 ,popular speech and tradition have identified genius and demency3 in ,hebrew and ,sanskrit the words prophet and insane are synonymous2 and so we have the proverbs--',children and fools speak the truth1' ',un fol avise bien un sage1' ',saepe etiam est morio valde opportune locutus4' ,the line of demarcation between the two is hardly traceable4 ,genius is the exception1 a deviation from the common type of humanity1 and nature avenges the aberration by denying it permanency and inflicting upon it abnormality4 ,whether degeneration or progression1 genius is unusual and unstable4 ,but one thing distinguishes genius from mental alienation1 and it is this--that genius possesses the power of inhibition1 of concentration1 of critique1 and far-sightedness1 while demency has no control of the ideas it has formed2 both possess the swift and unerring power of origination2 the one can command what it has originated1 the other cannot4 ,it must be admitted that the method employed for the verification of this thesis1 is not absolutely safe4 ,wherever an eccentricity in a man of genius is found1 it is accredited to psychosis1 even though the genius in question be upon the whole more normal than the average normal man2 as1 for instance1 ,goethe4 ,if the same method were applied to all men1 would not normality be the exception and abnormality the rule8 ,,das ,,bewusstsein ,,und ,,sein ,,object4 ,by ,dr4 ,joh4 ,wolff1 ,professor of ,philosophy at the ,university of ,freiburg 7,switzerland74 ,berlin3 ,mayer ,mller4 ,this is a huge closely printed volume of six hundred and twenty pages4 ,it is the enlargement and development of a treatise offered several years ago to the faculty of the ,university of ,bonn1 upon application by ,dr4 ,wolff for a ,university instructorship1 and contains the results of the author's thoughts and researches since that time upon the subject there dealt with4 ,among many valuable isolated speculations and suggestions1 we find fundamental theses with which it is impossible for us to agree4 ,thus1 ,dr4 ,wolff says that when he speaks of soul he means 'a substance1 a substratum1 a vehicle1 a cause of psychical phenomena1 and not a phenomenon or sum of phenomena'2 and he says it is no more a pre-judgment or prejudice on his part to begin with this thesis than it is on the part of those who hold a different view to begin with the opposed one1--in fact less so1 since he starts from the notion which all men hold in common1 while the others do not4 ,does the mathematician1 in propounding a new method1 or a physicist in explaining an unsolved problem1 proceed from the mathematical and physical notions all men hold in common8 ,and if the soul is made an object of scientific research1 why should an exception be made of it8 ,it is not so much what we begin with as what we end with1 and it is perhaps superfluous to say that ,dr4 ,wolff has ended where he began--with the simplicity1 the substantiality1 the unity1 and the permanency of the ego4 ,,philosophy ,,in ,,american ,,colleges ,,and ,,universities4 ,we had originally intended1 in this first number of ,the ,monist1 to present to our readers a comprehensive statement of the courses announced by ,american ,universities in the departments of ,philosophy1 ,ethics1 and ,psychology2 first1 in order to supply students proposing to pursue these studies and others interested1 with information at first-hand1 and secondly to give the non-academic world1 which is considerable1 an insight into what our higher professional schools are doing in these branches4 ,since then ,the ,american ,journal of ,psychology has published a very full and gratifying account of the state of psychological research in our ,universities1 made up of the reports of the professors at the head of these departments2 and we therefore refer our readers for information regarding this branch to the article entitled ,psychology in ,american ,universities1 published in ,vol4 ,,iii1 ,no4 #b1 of that ably-conducted magazine4 ,it was also difficult to obtain the required information3 most of our professors1 in the last few months1 having been absent from the university towns4 ,but reports from the most representative universities in different parts of the country have been obtained4 ,they are intended merely to exhibit the general nature and extent of philosophical instruction in ,america and do not profess to be complete4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a review of the ,registers1 ,catalogues1 and ,programmes of a large number of our colleges has led us to the conviction that the acquiring in ,america of a broad philosophical training is not the fault of the professions of our academical authorities4 ,the courses offered are set forth in our college catalogues at very great length2 they are very exhaustive2 and their specification is accompanied with analyses of the work of the various departments and with bibliographical schedules that in point of thoroughness leave nothing to be desired4 ,this fulness of exposition is noticeable in all the departments4 ,but under the obligatory system of study1 the separate departments1 or rather the professions of the separate departments1 must certainly conflict3 and the question arises in the mind of the observing outsider1 ,to which is justice done8 ,and1 except where a specialty is exclusively followed1 wherein under the professed conditions1 does the elective system differ from the obligatory8 ,only that in the one case1 the student is made the author of his embarrassment1 and in the other the victim of it4 ,however1 in the absence of a decided educational sentiment in our nation1 and in the lack of a uniformity of opinion as to what must be demanded of our schools instead of a submissive acquiescence in what they give us1 the question whether a college has fulfilled what it has professed1 must be left to the faithful individual student who is forced to devote the best years of his life to the solution of it4 ,it seems impossible to determine it otherwise4 ,and yet1 except in the case of our foremost institutions1 to which all of us cannot go1 this is true4 ,we have observed1 too1 that the extension of the departments of philosophy proper is not keeping pace with that of many other departments--as1 for instance1 the departments of history and economics4 ,perhaps this is inevitable2 the last-mentioned sciences having been until of late very much neglected4 ,but the tendency threatens to overbalance the curriculum2 and where pretensions to universality are made1 it is not justified4 ,on the other hand1 the firm hold that experimental psychology has obtained in some of our foremost schools1 is gratifying2 though enthusiasm may also lead too far in this direction4 ,lack of co-operation in cognate branches is1 with very few notable exceptions1 universal4 ,preparatory training is not emphasised4 ,at least1 where so much is said of the character and method of instruction1 and where the elective system prevails1 we should expect some mention of it4 ,but it is not found4 ,philosophy would seem to be something that is to be obtained only in the lecture-rooms of the philosophical department1 and in most cases it is sought nowhere else4 ,the study of ,mathematics1 ,physics1 ,natural ,science1 and ,philology1 is greatly neglected4 ,philosophy becomes an aim and a means in itself1 and the student at the close of his course often discovers himself in the quest of philosophy1 but with no means of finding it4 ,this necessity of co-operation has been fully recognised1 for instance1 at ,harvard4 ,when a student applies for ,honors1 says ,professor ,palmer1 we require from him not merely an acquaintance with technical philosophy but also with the subjects most nearly adjacent to the special philosophical field he has chosen4 ,and so it is in other of our advanced and enlightened schools4 ,yet in the majority of cases1 the foundations of philosophical culture are not insisted upon1 but left to chance and the uncertainties of a universal elective curriculum4 ,lastly1 philosophy at some institutions exhibits a sectarian and theological complexion4 ,this1 one thinks1 might be left to the theological seminaries4 ,but it is not4 ,we have ,baptist ,philosophy1 and ,presbyterian ,philosophy1 and denominational philosophies of divers other descriptions4 ,a president of a prominent ,eastern ,university1 7a gentleman to whom the philosophic spirit of this country is greatly indebted for inspiration and expansion17 has taken1--let it be remarked in this connection1--a much more liberal step1 and urged the necessity of establishing a school of ,american ,philosophy4 ,this is laudable2 and in harmony with the present resuscitation of ,american patriotism in----matters of learning4 ,it was this spirit that dictated the witty proposition of a ,chicago gentleman to found a school of ,american ,geometry4 99 99 99 99 99 ,we hope that the appended syllabuses of courses in philosophy will afford a general idea of the scope of philosophical teaching in ,america4 ,the professors who have supplied us with the information we requested1 we thank for their courtesy and obligingness4 ,,university ,,of ,,michigan4 ,the ,philosophical ,courses of the ,university of ,michigan may be conveniently classified under three heads3-- ,i4 ,,beginning4 #a4 ,,elementary ,,logic1 in which there are two courses1 one general covering the rudiments of syllogistic and deductive logic in which ,jevons is used as the basis1 the other in inductive logic1 intended especially for scientific students1 in which ,fowler is used4 #b4 ,,elementary ,,psychology4 ,the main facts regarding modern scientific researches and methods1 and the various attempts at their philosophic interpretation4 ,dewey's ,psychology is the book used in connection with this course4 #c4 ,,introduction ,,to ,,philosophy4 ,a course of lectures on the main problems and principles of the theory of knowledge and reality4 ,each of the foregoing courses is for one semester4 ,,ii4 ,,intermediate ,,courses4 #a4 ,,history ,,of ,,philosophy4 ,ancient and ,modern4 ,lectures and readings designed to give information regarding both the historical development of thought1 and the main problems developed in its course4 ,the department of philosophy owns a large number of copies of the chief thinkers in modern philosophy1 ,locke1 ,descartes1 etc41 etc41 and these are assigned to members of the class for readings and reports4 ,each student thus becomes acquainted with at least half-a-dozen of the leading writers at first-hand4 ,the course runs through the year4 #b4 ,,ethics1 ,,theoretical 7one-half year7 ,,and ,,social 7,political ,philosophy1 one-half year also74 ,the theoretical course attempts to arrive at an account of the ethical ideal by means of a critical consideration of the principal modern ethical theories1 especial attention being paid to ,utilitarianism1 ,evolutionary ,ethics1 and ,kantianism4 ,the second division of the course discusses the ethical basis and value of society and the state1 law and rights1 in connection with an account of the political theories of ,plato1 ,aristotle1 ,grotius1 ,hobbes1 ,locke1 ,kant1 ,rousseau1 ,hegel1 etc4 #c4 ,,sthetics4 ,this course1 like the previous one1 unites the historical and theoretical treatment of sthetic doctrines and results4 ,it is designed largely to aid students in the interpretation and criticism of literature4 ,it is a half-year course1 and is followed by a half-year course 7given in the ,english ,department7 on the ,principles and ,methods of ,literary ,criticism4 #d4 ,,physiological ,,psychology4 ,lectures1 assigned readings and elementary experiments1 and demonstrations4 ,there is established1 as yet1 no separate psycho-physical laboratory1 but the new-equipped physiological laboratory of the ,university is1 through the courtesy of the ,professor of ,physiology1 at the disposal of students in this line4 ,half-year course4 #e4 ,,science ,,and ,,philosophy ,,of ,,religion4 ,lectures1 readings1 etc41 designed to give an account of the chief methods employed and results achieved in the modern historical and comparative study of religions4 ,and also an account of the principal theoretical interpretations of religion4 ,half-year course4 ,,iii4 ,,advanced ,,courses4 #a4 ,,kant',s ,,critique ,,of ,,pure ,,reason4 ,a study of ,kant's masterpiece at first-hand4 ,this is accompanied by a shorter subsidiary course1 treating of the development of the ,kantian system1 and criticisms upon it4 ,caird's ,critical ,philosophy of ,kant1 is read and discussed in connection with the latter course4 ,half-year course4 #b4 ,,hegel',s ,,logic4 ,a study of ,wallace's translation of the lesser ,logic of ,hegel4 ,half-year course4 #c4 ,,the ,,logic ,,of ,,scientific ,,methods4 ,a lecture course taking up the study of the ,logic of ,science1 and intended to make the hearers acquainted with the standpoint and spirit of such authors as ,lotze1 ,sigwart1 ,wundt1 ,mill1 ,jevons1 ,bradley1 ,bosanquet1 and the modern movement in logic generally4 ,half-year course4 #d4 ,,problems ,,in ,,higher ,,sthetics4 ,a brief course for graduate students in sthetics4 #e4 ,,seminary ,,in ,,ethics4 ,discussion of the treatment of some main ethical problems by the chief modern ethical writers4 ,the ,elementary courses are conducted mainly by text-books and recitations2 the ,intermediate courses by lectures and assigned readings1 reports and essay-writings4 ,the ,advanced courses are pursued by class discussions1 conversations1 etc4 on basis of work done independently by the student4 ,the teaching is carried on by ,john ,dewey1 ,j4 ,h4 ,tufts1 and ,f4 ,n4 ,scott4 ,,john ,,dewey4 ,,harvard ,,university4 ,the courses at ,harvard are1 we believe1 the most complete offered in any ,american ,university4 ,they consist 7for #ahij-ia7 of four groups3 ,i4 ,,introductory ,,courses4 ,,in ,,logic1 ,,metaphysics1 ,,and ,,psychology4 ,,ii4 ,,systematic ,,courses ,,psychology1 ,,cosmology1 ,,ethics1 ,,philosophy ,,of ,,religion1 ,,the ,,psychological ,,basis ,,of ,,religious ,,faith1 ,,and ,,the ,,content ,,of ,,christian ,,faith4 ,,iii4 ,,historical ,,courses4 ,including lectures on ,,comparative ,,religion1 ,,greek ,,philosophy1 ,,descartes-,,spinoza-,,leibnitz1 ,,english ,,philosophy ,,from ,,hobbes ,,to ,,hume1 ,,the ,,movement ,,of ,,german ,,thought ,,from #aggj-ahcj1 ,,contemporary ,,systems ,,and ,,applied ,,ethics4 ,,iv4 ,,courses ,,of ,,original ,,research4 ,including the ,psychological1 ,metaphysical1 and ,ethical ,seminaries4 ,these do not include the additional and auxilliary courses in other subjects1 which are required for ,honors4 ,holding that there is one best way for the young student to begin his philosophical study1 says ,prof4 ,g4 ,h4 ,palmer1 we have planned a single introductory course and have given it variety by setting three instructors to teach it4 ,when these elementary matters have been mastered1 we offer the student a choice among half-a-dozen dogmatic courses1 or among as many more historical4 ,these last two sets of courses are open alike to graduates and to undergraduates4 ,for graduate specialists three or four lines of ,seminary work are provided1 with a view to giving the most advanced students ample opportunity to develop their individual powers4444 ,but the chief aim of our ,honors is to test powers rather than acquirement4 ,in ,harvard there are six instructors engaged in the department of philosophy alone3 ,prof4 ,g4 ,h4 ,palmer1 ,prof4 ,c4 ,c4 ,everett1 ,prof4 ,w4 ,james1 ,prof4 ,f4 ,g4 ,peabody1 ,prof4 ,j4 ,royce1 and ,dr4 ,g4 ,santayana4 ,a dozen or more courses of philosophical content are offered1 and acquaintance with auxilliary branches is necessary to take ,honors4 ,,university ,,of ,,california4 ,the instruction given in the various branches of philosophy at this institution is conducted according to the following scheme3 #a4 ,,prop,,deutic ,,to ,,philosophy4 ,empirical psychology1 including formal logic1 deductive and inductive4 ,four times a week4 #b4 ,,introduction ,,to ,,philosophy4 ,history of ,european philosophy1 in outline4 ,four times a week4 #c4 ,,elementary ,,ethics1 ,,including ,,civil ,,polity4 ,sketch of the history of ethical and political theories2 critique of the conflict between perfectionism and hedonism1 freedom and necessity1 optimism and pessimism2 investigation of the nature of a state1 and of its bearing on the limits of liberty and allegiance4 ,four times a week4 #d4 ,,first ,,alternating ,,course4 ,exposition of some principal movement or conflict in the history of philosophy1 by a critical study of its leading participants2 or the like1 the subject being changed from year to year4 ,twice a week4 #e4 ,,second ,,alternating ,,course4 ,some additional topic1 similar to that of ,course ,,iv41 and similarly changed1 but drawn1 preferably1 from the field of practical philosophy4 ,four times a week4 #f4 ,,graduate ,,course4 ,first-hand study of certain philosophic masterpieces1 such as ,plato's ,parmenides1 ,thetetus and ,sophist1 ,aristotle's ,de ,anima1 ,kant's ,kritiken1 or ,hegel's ,phnomenologie des ,geistes2 etc4 ,four times a week throughout the year4 ,courses #a1 #b1 and #c1 in this scheme are permanent1 and are repeated from year to year in substantially the same form2 ,course #d is continued throughout a whole year2 the rest throughout a single term4 ,courses #d and #e are projected with the intention of furnishing a variety of topics1 a new one being usually presented each year2 though a subject is sometimes continued1 if it proves to excite the special interest or meet the particular wants of the incoming ,senior class4 ,course #f1 provided for graduate students only1 is sufficiently described in its sub-title4 ,the specific subjects for the ensuing year #ahij-ia1 under these courses with varying topics1 will be as follows3 ,course #d4 ,,philosophy ,,from ,,kant ,,to ,,hegel4 ,the ,development of ,rationalistic ,idealism1 from its negative and partial to its complete and positive form4 ,twice a week4 ,text-,books3 7#a7 ,watson's ,philosophy of ,kant2 7#b7 ,everett's ,fichte's ,science of ,knowledge2 7#c7 ,watson's ,schelling's ,transcendental ,idealism2 7#d7 ,caird's ,hegel2 7#e7 ,hegel's ,logic1 translated by ,wallace4 ,with the standard works of reference4 ,course #e4 ,,higher ,,ethics4 ,based on a criticism of ,sidgwick and ,martineau4 ,four times a week during the second term4 ,text-,books3 7#a7 ,sidgwick's ,methods of ,ethics2 7#b7 ,martineau's ,types of ,ethical ,theory4 ,course #f4 ,,graduate ,,course4 ,the ,dialektik and ,methodenlehre in ,kant's ,kritik1 followed by ,hegel's ,lesser ,logic in ,wallace's translation4 ,four times a week throughout the year4 ,from this statement it will be seen that some important text covering each topic is in the hands of each student4 ,the object of this is to furnish an actual historical basis for the discussion of the subject1 which is conducted by the professor's lectures4 ,these proceed from a criticism1 partly appreciative1 partly destructive1 of the texts chosen1 to a constructive and positive presentation of the subject1 according to the reasoned views of the lecturer4 ,the interest in philosophical studies is steadily increasing in this institution4 ,the instruction in them was opened in the academic year #ahhd-he1 and the growth of interest is well indicated by the fact that the number of students now annually electing these courses is more than double the number during the first and second year4 ,g4 ,h4 ,,howison4 ,,university ,,of ,,pennsylvania4 ,the ,courses offered in ,logic1 ,psychology1 ,ethics1 and ,philosophy1 at this institution for the year #ahij-ia1 are as follows3 ,,undergraduate ,,courses4 #a4 ,a ,,elementary ,,course ,,in ,,logic4 ,two hours a week4 #b4 ,,the ,,elements ,,of ,,psychology4 ,one hour a week4 #c4 ,,scientific ,,methods ,,in ,,psychology4 ,lectures with ,laboratory ,work4 ,two hours4 #d4 ,,experimental ,,psychology4 ,lectures with ,laboratory ,work4 ,two hours4 #e4 ,a ,,course ,,in ,,ethics4 ,two hours4 #f4 ,a ,,course ,,on ,,the ,,philosophy ,,of ,,ethics4 ,one hour4 #g4 ,a ,,course ,,on ,,the ,,history ,,of ,,philosophy4 ,two hours4 #h4 ,a ,,course ,,on ,,the ,,development ,,of ,,idealism4 ,two hours4 ,,graduate ,,courses4 #a4 ,,comparative1 ,,social1 ,,and ,,abnormal ,,psychology4 ,two hours4 #b4 ,,special ,,psychological ,,problems4 ,lectures with ,laboratory ,work4 ,two hours4 #c4 ,,advanced ,,psychology4 ,two hours4 #d4 ,,ethical ,,theories4 ,one hour4 #e4 ,,history ,,of ,,modern ,,philosophy4 ,two hours4 ,each course of undergraduate lectures will extend through half the year4 ,courses #a1 #b1 #c1 and #g1 will be delivered during the first term2 ,courses #d1 #e1 #f1 and #h during the second4 ,of the graduate lectures1 ,courses #a and #b will be given during the first and second terms respectively4 ,courses #c1 #d1 and #e will extend throughout the year4 ,the psychological laboratory is open at all hours to students engaged in special researches4 ,in addition to these courses1 mention may be made of those delivered on ,physiological1 ,abnormal1 and ,comparative ,psychology in the ,biological and ,medical ,schools of the ,university2 and of the numerous courses1 more or less directly ethical1 which are delivered in the field of ,sociology4 ,in several of these there is a purposed effort to bring out the significance for ethics of the subject treated4 ,,geo4 ,s4 ,,fullerton4 ,,clark ,,university4 ,from the well-classified and thorough courses offered at ,clark ,university1 7conducted by ,dr4 ,hall1 ,prof4 ,donaldson1 ,dr4 ,sanford1 ,dr4 ,boas1 ,dr4 ,cook1 ,dr4 ,strong1 and others17 we select1 for its uniqueness1 an account of the instruction at that institution in-- ,,applied ,,ethics4 ,under this head1 come among others1 the different forms of abnormal and pathological humanity4 ,the most extreme form is treated of in ,criminal ,anthropology1 which takes up the study of man as criminal4 ,as an introduction1 the acts that would be considered criminal in man's case1 are investigated1 as they appear in the whole realm of nature4 ,this division we call ,criminal ,embryology4 ,the other divisions to be considered in the lectures are3 the ,anthropometry1 ,craniology1 ,physiognomy1 ,cerebrology1 ,psychology1 ,sociology1 ,teratology1 and ,prophylaxis of criminals2 also criminality in relation to ,psychiatry and ,psychiatrical ,anthropology4 ,the general relation of ,ethics to ,criminal ,anthropology1 is one of degree2 crime being an exaggerated form of wrong4 ,we can illustrate the method of application in this way3 ,if a nerve of a normal organism is cut1 the organs in which irregularities are produced1 are those which the nerve controls4 ,in this way the office of a nerve in the normal state may be discovered4 ,the criminal is1 so to speak1 the severed-nerve of society2 and the study of him is a very practical way 7though indirect7 of studying normal men4 ,and since the criminal is seven-eights like other men1 such a study is also a direct inquiry into normal humanity4 ,the lesser degrees of abnormal and pathological cases will be discussed under the head of ,charitology4 ,these are represented by the different kinds of benevolent institutions1 such as almshouses1 asylums for the insane1 imbecile1 and epileptic2 for the deaf1 dumb1 and blind2 hospitals1 dispensaries1 and infirmaries2 homes for truants1 orphans1 and for the friendless and aged4 ,the characteristics of inmates of such institutions and the methods of treatment and prevention1 will be the main considerations4 ,the facts gathered1 and the principles underlying such institutions1 will be utilised in an attempt to give a scientific basis to ethics4 ,the problems of right1 duty and freedom1 will be carefully considered4 ,accepting the sociological truism1 that the community is more important than any individual in it1 the ethical standpoint of the lecturer is3 that the idea of wrong depends upon the moral1 intellectual1 physical or financial danger or injury1 which a thought1 feeling1 willing or acting1 brings to humanity4 ,the decision1 as to what thoughts1 feelings1 actions1 etc41 are dangerous or injurious1 will depend upon the results from the application of the scientific method to the different departments of knowledge4 ,the direct practical object of the course1 will be the study of preventatives1 based on a thorough diagnosis4 ,visitations and practical investigations of charitable and penal institutions will be made as occasion shall offer4 ,the lectures will be delivered in the latter part of the year4 ,,arthur ,,macdonald4 ,,university ,,of ,,wisconsin4 ,besides the comprehensive courses in psychology1 the following are offered3 #a4 ,,history ,,of ,,greek ,,philosophy4 ,a brief survey of the development of philosophical thought in ,greece4 ,zeller's ,hand-book of ,greek ,philosophy is the reference book4 ,twice a week4 ,elective4 7,prof4 ,jastrow47 #b4 ,,the ,,history ,,of ,,modern ,,english ,,philosophy4 ,three times a week4 ,elective4 7,prof4 ,stearns47 #c4 ,,ethics4 ,four times a week4 ,elective4 7,prof4 ,stearns47 #d4 ,,sthetics4 ,in addition to the study of the physiological and psychological basis of sthetics an elementary knowledge of the history of art and the principles of art criticism is given by lectures and discussions4 ,five times a week4 ,elective4 7,prof4 ,stearns47 #e4 ,,elementary ,,logic1 ,,deductive ,,and ,,inductive4 ,the analysis of arguments1 the construction and elaboration of syllogisms2 the symbolic and diagrammatic methods of representing logical operations1 and modern and ancient systems of logic will form the main topics of the deductive logic2 while in inductive logic special emphasis will be laid upon the methods of scientific reasoning1 the logic of chance1 the detection of fallacies1 and the estimation of evidence4 ,daily in winter term4 7,prof4 ,jastrow47 #f4 ,,advanced ,,logic4 ,special attention paid to the logic of the sciences2 to mathematical logic as introduced by ,boole and developed by ,venn1 ,peirce1 ,schroeder and others2 to the theory of probabilities1 and the history of logical doctrines4 ,twice weekly4 ,elective4 7,prof4 ,jastrow47 #g4 ,,mill',s ,,logic4 ,a general course upon the philosophy of reasoning and the principles of inductive science4 ,killick's ,handbook to ,mill's ,logic used4 ,three times weekly4 7,prof4 ,jastrow47 ,each course extends over a single term only4 ,in ,ethics an effort is made to introduce the students to three phases of the subject1 the historical1 theoretical1 and practical4 ,the first is at present limited to a brief review1 by lectures1 of the chief ,english ethical theories4 ,in the second ,prof4 ,fowler's ,progressive ,morality is made the basis of the instruction4 ,the third is pursued chiefly in the form of topics1 relating generally to current ethical questions1 which are assigned for special study to members of the class1 and their presentation is1 when desirable1 made the basis of general discussion4 ,j4 ,w4 ,,stearns4 ,,boston ,,university4 ,the following are the courses for the present year1 at ,boston ,university1 under the direction of ,prof4 ,b4 ,p4 ,bowne and ,dean ,huntington4 ,,psychology4 ,thought studied as a fact2 its forms and laws investigated2 ,current ,theories expounded and criticised4 ,five hours4 ,,logic4 ,thought studied not as a fact1 but as an instrument of knowledge4 ,investigation of the laws1 forms1 aims1 and methods of mental activity4 ,five hours4 ,,theory ,,of ,,knowledge4 ,the study of thought as a process supplemented by the study of knowledge as its product4 ,knowledge defined1 and the conditions1 subjective and objective1 of its validity investigated4 ,the claims of scepticism1 agnosticism1 etc41 considered at length4 ,three hours4 ,,metaphysics4 ,modifications of ontological and cosmological ideas in the light of rational criticism4 ,four hours4 ,,philosophy ,,of ,,theism4 ,the logical value and foundation of ,theism considered4 ,four hours4 ,,history ,,of ,,ethical ,,thought4 ,christian ,ethics4 ,text-book and lectures4 ,five hours4 ,,philosophy ,,of ,,ethics4 ,critical and constructive review of ethical theories4 ,psychological questions as to the nature and origin of moral faculty ruled out as irrelevant4 ,two hours4 ,,history ,,of ,,philosophy4 ,from ,descartes to the present time4 ,five hours4 ,the ,philosophical ,club1 organised in #ahhf1 has since that time maintained stated meetings for the furtherance of its members in philosophical studies4 ,last year1 under the auspices of the ,university1 a special course of five lectures on ,educational ,psychology was given before large audiences by ,william ,t4 ,harris1 ,,ll4 ,d4 ,the topics treated were as follows3 #a4 ,introspection contrasted with external ,sense ,perception4 #b4 ,mental ,pictures versus ,general ,ideas4 #c4 ,the ,logical ,constitution of ,sense ,perception4 #d4 ,physiological ,psychology4 #e4 ,the ,psychology of ,mathematics1 sthetics1 and ,ethics4 ,the courses are for single terms only4 ,b4 ,p4 ,,bowne4 ,,johns ,,hopkins ,,university4 ,the ,undergraduate instruction in philosophy provides five hours a week of required work for one year3 #a7 ,,in ,,deductive ,,and ,,inductive ,,logic2 #b7 ,,in ,,psychology2 #c7 ,,in ,,ethics4 ,the courses are unified and thorough4 ,a voluntary course in the ,history of ,philosophy is given2 and advanced courses will be offered this year in ,modern ,philosophy from ,descartes to ,kant1 and in ,english ,ethics from ,hobbes to ,stephen4 ,the instructors are ,professors ,griffin and ,emmot4 ,,periodicals4 ,,mind4 ,july #ahij4 ,no4 ,,lix4 ,,contents3 ,,our ,,space-,,consciousness4 ,a ,reply4 ,by ,herbert ,spencer4 ,,volkmann',s ,,psychology 7,i74 ,by ,thomas ,whittaker4 ,,the ,,logic ,,of ,,the ,,ethic ,,of ,,evolution4 ,by ,william ,mitchell4 ,,the ,,antinomy ,,of ,,thought4 ,by ,alexander ,f4 ,shand4 ,,mental ,,tests ,,and ,,measurements4 ,by ,prof4 ,j4 ,mc,k4 ,cattell4 ,,discussion3 #a7 ,the ,evolution of ,inductive ,thought4 ,by ,hiram ,m4 ,stanley4 #b7 ,the ,genesis of the ,cognition of ,physical ,reality4 ,by ,julius ,pikler4 ,,critical ,,notices3 ,fouille's ,l',avenir de la ,mtaphysique fonde sur l',exprience2 ,tarde's ,lois de l',imitation2 ,bumker's ,das ,problem der ,materie in der ,griechischen ,philosophie4 ,,some ,,newly-,,discovered ,,letters ,,of ,,hobbes4 ,by the ,editor4 ,our ,space-,consciousness4 ,in this article ,mr4 ,herbert ,spencer replies to criticisms1 by adherents of ,kantian doctrine1 of objections contained in #cbf-cce of ,the ,principles of ,psychology4 ,he objects that the disciples of ,kant cannot imagine how it is possible that our space-consciousness can have arisen out of that which was not originally a space-consciousness4 ,volkmann's ,psychology4 ,shows that the really important point in ,volkmann's doctrine of psychological mechanism is its theory of the interaction of contemporaneous presentations1 and of the existence among them of unconscious presentations4 ,herbartian psychology is strictly scientific system1 but when its superfluous mechanism is cleared away1 its explanations become those of associationism4 ,in ,the ,logic of the ,ethic of ,evolution1 ,mr4 ,william ,mitchell points out that the two conditions of an ethical end are that it be the motive of individual action1 and that it furnish a critical system of universal laws2 and further that those conditions are fulfilled by the end variously propounded in the ethic of evolution only if it be represented1 not as an external limit forcing itself on men1 but as presenting a more desirable character and medium to the individual than any other4 ,the end and means of moral progress given by the ,ethic of ,evolution are perfectly true1 but they do not express the essence of the matter4 ,the ,antinomy of ,thought4 ,this paper investigates an antinomy which infects all our thought of reality that is not intuitive4 ,the source of error is the confusion of the judgment with the consciousness or intuition of reality4 ,in the article on ,mental ,tests and ,measurements1 ,prof4 ,j4 ,mc,k4 ,cattell describes certain tests which are used in the ,psychological ,laboratory of the ,university of ,pennsylvania1 with the object of providing data for the discovery of the rules which govern the constancy of mental processes1 their interdependence1 and their variations under different circumstances4 ,the ,evolution of ,inductive ,thought4 ,a primary element in all experience is its inductive quality4 ,the struggle of existence awakens experience to the thought-stage where it knows and directs itself1 but this very slowly4 ,development precedes self-development1 and this precedes a self-development which is self-conscious4 ,this conclusion is confirmed by some analyses of thought in the divisions of conception1 judgment1 and reasoning4 ,the ,genesis of the ,cognition of ,physical ,reality4 ,this is a criticism by ,mr4 ,julius ,pikler of ,mr4 ,stout's criticism on ,mill1 which appeared in the ,january number of ,mind4 ,his opinion is that ,mr4 ,strong's statements are simply negations of ,mill's theory1 and as such prove nothing4 ,some newly-discovered ,letters of ,hobbes4 ,these letters1 seventeen in number1 were written to the ,french physician ,sorbire1 and have been discovered by ,dr4 ,f4 ,tnnies in the ,national ,library at ,paris4 ,all of them1 with related letters of ,sorbire and others1 are given at length in the ,archiv f4 ,gesch4 d4 ,phil4 iii4 #eh-ga1 #aib-bcb1 and the first nine1 which are the only ones of real importance1 are set out in this number of ,mind4 ,they have reference to the important period of ,hobbes's life and work that led up to ,leviathan in #afea4 7,london3 ,williams ,norgate47 ,,revue ,,philosophique4 ,no4 #age4 ,july #ahij4 ,,contents3 ,l',,homogeneite ,,morale4 ,by ,g4 ,fonsegrive4 ,,contributions ,,psycho-,,physiques ,a ,l',,etude ,,esthetique 7fin74 ,by ,g4 ,sorel4 ,,la ,,folie ,,de ,j4 ,j4 ,,rousseau4 ,by ,h4 ,joly4 ,,la ,,perception ,,des ,,longueurs ,,et ,,des ,,nombres ,,chez ,,quelques ,,petits ,,enfants4 ,by ,alfred ,binet4 ,,analyses ,,et ,,comptes ,,rendus4 ,m4 ,fonsegrive in ,l',homognit morale points out the necessity of a proper system of education for developing in the mind of the young a moral homogeneity to replace the heterogeneity which psychologists find in the nature of man4 ,in ,contributions psycho-physiques a l',etude esthtique1 ,m4 ,g4 ,sorel continues his studies on the psychology of sthetics1 and concludes that experimental psychology and especially psycho-physics form the base of practical sthetics4 ,m4 ,h4 ,joly in ,la ,folie de ,j4 ,j4 ,rousseau points out that the problem of the agreement of genius with insanity1 so far as concerns ,rousseau1 is reduced to small dimensions4 ,la ,perception des ,longueurs et des ,nombres ches quelques petits ,enfants by ,m4 ,alfred ,binet1 describes certain original experiments which indicate that young children have an accurate perception of differences in length1 but that their perception of number is very limited4 7,paris3 ,f4 ,alcan47 ,,revue ,,philosophique4 ,no4 #agf4 ,august #ahij4 ,,contents3 ,,les ,,origines ,,de ,,la ,,technologie4 ,by ,a4 ,espinas4 ,l',,inhibition ,,dans ,,les ,,ph,,nomenes ,,de ,,conscience4 ,by ,a4 ,binet4 ,,la ,g,,om,,trie ,g,n,,rale ,,et ,,les ,,jugements ,,synth,,tiques ,a ,,priori4 ,by ,g4 ,lechalas4 ,,analyses ,,et ,,comptes ,,rendus4 ,,revue ,,des ,,periodiques ,,russes4 ,,correspondance3 ,les ,manuscrits de ,m4 de ,biran4 ,in ,les ,origines de la ,technologie ,m4 ,espinas aims at giving a history of philosophy in action4 ,the present paper is devoted to physico-theological technology1 and concludes with the observation that it was undoubtedly a progress to conceive the technical arts as a whole1 as a divine gift in like manner as the fruits of the earth and the beneficent phenomena of nature1 since this conception by opposition gave rise to the idea of art1 that is of human initiative acting differently according to diversity of circumstances4 ,in ,l',inhibition dans les ,phnomnes de ,conscience ,m4 ,alfred ,binet explains certain phenomena by showing that under various circumstances certain images and sensations cannot coexist with others in the same field of consciousness2 the presence of one excludes that of another4 ,antagonism and exclusion are the two simple facts which explain the phenomena in question4 ,la ,gomtrie ,gnrale et les ,jugements ,synthtiques a priori is a reply by ,m4 ,g4 ,lechalas to an article by ,m4 ,renouvier in the ,critique ,philosophique criticising ,m4 ,calinon's theory of geometrical spaces embodied in the system of general geometry4 ,while showing that spaces with three dimensions are rationally included in a space with four dimensions1 ,m4 ,lechalas recognises the impossibility of establishing such a geometry1 seeing that we have no figure that answers to what a four-dimensional space would be1 as well as the purely formal character of the presentations of non-,euclidian figures4 7,paris3 ,f4 ,alcan47 ,,zeitschrift ,f,r ,,psychologie ,,und ,,physiologie ,,der ,,sinnesorgane4 ,vol4 ,i1 ,no4 #b4 ,,contents3 ,,ueber ,,die ,,wahrnehmung ,,und ,,lokalisation ,,von ,,schwebungen ,,und ,,differenzt,,nen4 ,by ,carl ,l4 ,schaefer4 ,,die ,,association ,,successiver ,,vorstellungen4 ,by ,h4 ,mnsterberg4 ,,briefe ,,von ,g4 ,,th4 ,,fechner3 ,,ueber ,,negative ,,empfindungswerte4 7,concluded47 ,edited by ,w4 ,preyer4 ,,literatur-,,bericht4 ,the results of ,mr4 ,schaefer's researches are that for the localisation of the vibrations of two tones1 in the case of their unequal relative intensity1 the direction and distance of the relatively louder tone are determinate4 ,if the relative intensity of the primary tones is equal1 the vibrations are heard to proceed from the region between the two sounding points4 ,differential tones are heard between the ears1 when the sounding sources are in the median plane2 but when both primary tones come from the same side1 in or immediately before the ear on that side2 and in case of unequal intensity1 when both come from different sides1 on the side of the softer sound4 ,prof4 ,mnsterberg concludes that there is no successive association of ideas2 when successively appearing1 they are received singly into the memory4 ,the letters of ,fechner are continued from ,no4 #a4 ,,zeitschrift ,f,r ,,psychologie ,,und ,,physiologie ,,der ,,sinnesorgane4 ,vol4 ,i1 ,no4 #c4 ,,contents3 ,,ueber ,,die ,,kleinsten ,,wahrnehmbaren ,,gesichtswinkel ,,in ,,den ,,verschiedenen ,,teilen ,,des ,,spektrums4 ,by ,w4 ,uhthoff4 ,,die ,,sthetischen ,,gefuehle4 ,by ,a4 ,dring4 ,,besprechungen3 7#a7 ,a4 ,mosso's und ,a4 ,maggiora's ,ueber die ,gesetze der ,ermdung4 7#b7 ,mnsterberg's ,beitraege zur ,experimentellen ,psychologie4 ,,literatur-,,bericht4 ,dr4 ,uhthoff1 in order to determine the least visual angle of perception1 has employed a grating in a pure-monochromatic spectral field4 ,his results were that the angles in the different parts of the spectrum are essentially equal4 sthetic emotions1 ,mr4 ,dring contends1 proceed from the unhindered play of the functions of psychical faculties2 their contrary1 from the inhibition of the same4 ,this periodical is edited by ,h4 ,ebbinghaus and ,a4 ,knig1 with ,h4 ,aubert1 ,s4 ,exner1 ,h4 v4 ,helmholtz1 ,e4 ,hering1 ,j4 v4 ,kries1 ,th4 ,lipps1 ,g4 ,e4 ,mller1 ,w4 ,preyer1 and ,c4 ,stumpf as collaborators4 ,it appears every two months4 ,the review of the literature of its special department of research is very comprehensive4 7,hamburg and ,leipsic3 ,l4 ,voss47 ,,la ,,nuova ,,filosofia4 ,,ragioni ,e ,,ideali4 ,by ,la ,direzione4 ,,la ,,sensazione ,e ,,la ,,sua ,,conoscibilita4 ,by ,r4 ,ardigo4 ,j4 ,e4 ,,alaux',s ,,le ,,probleme ,,religieux ,,au ,,xixe ,,si,,cle4 ,by ,a4 ,torre4 ,,economia ,,scientifica ,,ed ,,economia ,,utopista4 ,by ,a4 ,loria4 ,p4 ,,leroy-,,beaulieu',s ,l',,etat ,,moderne ,,et ,,ses ,,fonctions4 ,by ,f4 ,s4 ,nitti4 ,c4 ,,jannet',s ,,le ,,socialisme ,d',,etat ,,et ,,la ,,reforme ,,sociale4 ,by ,f4 ,s4 ,nitti4 ,,lombroso',s ,,and ,,laschi',s ,,il ,,delitto ,,politico ,e ,,le ,,rivoluzioni4 ,by ,g4 ,fioretti4 ,,critica ,,letteraria4 ,a4 ,angiulli--,a4 ,saffi--,f4 ,petruccelli della ,gattina4 7,,memorie47 ,by ,a4 ,torre4 ,,la ,,politica4 ,,questioni ,e ,,problemi4 ,la responsabilit filosofica1 secondo ,paolo ,janet4 ,this is the first number of ,la ,nuova ,filosofia which is established1 under the editorship of ,dr4 ,andrea ,torre1 to diffuse in ,europe and ,america the best results of contemporary culture1 in relation especially to the life and development of society4 7,naples3 ,dr4 ,andrea ,torre1 ,vico ,lungo ,avvocata1 #ff47 ,,appendix4 ,cut exhibiting modifications that affect the accessory nucleus4 ,referred to on page #bf of this number of ,the ,monist1 in ,m4 ,binet's article ,the ,immortality of ,infusoria4 ,illustration3 ,,conjugation ,,of ,,chilodon ,,cucullulus4 ,a1 beginning of conjugation2 b1 mouth2 n1 nucleus2 nu1 nucleolus2 v4 c41 multiple contracticle vesicles4 ,b1 division of the nucleolus into two segments1 nu'1 nu'2 the nucleus n begins to show signs of regression4 ,c1 each of the two individuals in conjugation contains two nucleolar segments1 brought near together1 of which one probably comes from the individual opposite by course of exchange1 and will fuse with the segment not exchanged1 to form a compound segment 7,maupas74 ,d1 division of the segment into two portions which grow to unequal sizes2 the larger1 nn1 will become the new nucleus1 the smaller1 the nucleolus of the new formation1 nun4 ,e1 the old nucleus1 n1 reduced to a small pale and rumpled mass1 is replaced by the new nucleus nn1 near by which is seen the new nucleolus nun4 ,,vol4 ,i4 ,,january1 #ahia4 ,,no4 #b4 ,,the ,,monist4 ,,the ,,architecture ,,of ,,theories4 ,of the fifty or hundred systems of philosophy that have been advanced at different times of the world's history1 perhaps the larger number have been1 not so much results of historical evolution1 as happy thoughts which have accidently occurred to their authors4 ,an idea which has been found interesting and fruitful has been adopted1 developed1 and forced to yield explanations of all sorts of phenomena4 ,the ,english have been particularly given to this way of philosophising2 witness1 ,hobbes1 ,hartley1 ,berkeley1 ,james ,mill4 ,nor has it been by any means useless labor2 it shows us what the true nature and value of the ideas developed are1 and in that way affords serviceable materials for philosophy4 ,just as if a man1 being seized with the conviction that paper was a good material to make things of1 were to go to work to build a papier mch house1 with roof of roofing-paper1 foundations of paste-board1 windows of paraffined paper1 chimneys1 bath tubs1 locks1 etc41 all of different forms of paper1 his experiment would probably afford valuable lessons to builders1 while it would certainly make a detestable house1 so those one-idea'd philosophies are exceedingly interesting and instructive1 and yet are quite unsound4 ,the remaining systems of philosophy have been of the nature of reforms1 sometimes amounting to radical revolutions1 suggested by certain difficulties which have been found to beset systems previously in vogue2 and such ought certainly to be in large part the motive of any new theory4 ,this is like partially rebuilding a house4 ,the faults that have been committed are1 first1 that the dilapidations have generally not been sufficiently thoroughgoing1 and second1 that not sufficient pains has been taken to bring the additions into deep harmony with the really sound parts of the old structure4 ,when a man is about to build a house1 what a power of thinking he has to do1 before he can safely break ground6 ,with what pains he has to excogitate the precise wants that are to be supplied6 ,what a study to ascertain the most available and suitable materials1 to determine the mode of construction to which those materials are best adapted1 and to answer a hundred such questions6 ,now without riding the metaphor too far1 ,i think we may safely say that the studies preliminary to the construction of a great theory should be at least as deliberate and thorough as those that are preliminary to the building of a dwelling-house4 ,that systems ought to be constructed architectonically has been preached since ,kant1 but ,i do not think the full import of the maxim has by any means been apprehended4 ,what ,i would recommend is that every person who wishes to form an opinion concerning fundamental problems1 should first of all make a complete survey of human knowledge1 should take note of all the valuable ideas in each branch of science1 should observe in just what respect each has been successful and where it has failed1 in order that in the light of the thorough acquaintance so attained of the available materials for a philosophical theory and of the nature and strength of each1 he may proceed to the study of what the problem of philosophy consists in1 and of the proper way of solving it4 ,i must not be understood as endeavoring to state fully all that these preparatory studies should embrace2 on the contrary1 ,i purposely slur over many points1 in order to give emphasis to one special recommendation1 namely1 to make a systematic study of the conceptions out of which a philosophical theory may be built1 in order to ascertain what place each conception may fitly occupy in such a theory1 and to what uses it is adapted4 ,the adequate treatment of this single point would fill a volume1 but ,i shall endeavor to illustrate my meaning by glancing at several sciences and indicating conceptions in them serviceable for philosophy4 ,as to the results to which long studies thus commenced have led me1 ,i shall just give a hint at their nature4 ,we may begin with dynamics1--field in our day of perhaps the grandest conquest human science has ever made1--,i mean the law of the conservation of energy4 ,but let us revert to the first step taken by modern scientific thought1--and a great stride it was1--the inauguration of dynamics by ,galileo4 ,a modern physicist on examining ,galileo's works is surprised to find how little experiment had to do with the establishment of the foundations of mechanics4 ,his principal appeal is to common sense and il lume naturale4 ,he always assumes that the true theory will be found to be a simple and natural one4 ,and we can see why it should indeed be so in dynamics4 ,for instance1 a body left to its own inertia1 moves in a straight line1 and a straight line appears to us the simplest of curves4 ,in itself1 no curve is simpler than another4 ,a system of straight lines has intersections precisely corresponding to those of a system of like parabolas similarly placed1 or to those of any one of an infinity of systems of curves4 ,but the straight line appears to us simple1 because1 as ,euclid says1 it lies evenly between its extremities2 that is1 because viewed endwise it appears as a point4 ,that is1 again1 because light moves in straight lines4 ,now1 light moves in straight lines because of the part which the straight line plays in the laws of dynamics4 ,thus it is that our minds having been formed under the influence of phenomena governed by the laws of mechanics1 certain conceptions entering into those laws become implanted in our minds1 so that we readily guess at what the laws are4 ,without such a natural prompting1 having to search blindfold for a law which would suit the phenomena1 our chance of finding it would be as one to infinity4 ,the further physical studies depart from phenomena which have directly influenced the growth of the mind1 the less we can expect to find the laws which govern them simple1 that is1 composed of a few conceptions natural to our minds4 ,the researches of ,galileo1 followed up by ,huygens and others1 led to those modern conceptions of ,force and ,law1 which have revolutionised the intellectual world4 ,the great attention given to mechanics in the seventeenth century soon so emphasised these conceptions as to give rise to the ,mechanical ,philosophy1 or doctrine that all the phenomena of the physical universe are to be explained upon mechanical principles4 ,newton's great discovery imparted a new impetus to this tendency4 ,the old notion that heat consists in an agitation of corpuscles was now applied to the explanation of the chief properties of gases4 ,the first suggestion in this direction was that the pressure of gases is explained by the battering of the particles against the walls of the containing vessel1 which explained ,boyle's law of the compressibility of air4 ,later1 the expansion of gases1 ,avogadro's chemical law1 the diffusion and viscosity of gases1 and the action of ,crookes's radiometer were shown to be consequences of the same kinetical theory2 but other phenomena1 such as the ratio of the specific heat at constant volume to that at constant pressure require additional hypotheses1 which we have little reason to suppose are simple1 so that we find ourselves quite afloat4 ,in like manner with regard to light1 that it consists of vibrations was almost proved by the phenomena of diffraction1 while those of polarisation showed the excursions of the particles to be perpendicular to the line of propagation2 but the phenomena of dispersion1 etc41 require additional hypotheses which may be very complicated4 ,thus1 the further progress of molecular speculation appears quite uncertain4 ,if hypotheses are to be tried haphazard1 or simply because they will suit certain phenomena1 it will occupy the mathematical physicists of the world say half a century on the average to bring each theory to the test1 and since the number of possible theories may go up into the trillions1 only one of which can be true1 we have little prospect of making further solid additions to the subject in our time4 ,when we come to atoms1 the presumption in favor of a simple law seems very slender4 ,there is room for serious doubt whether the fundamental laws of mechanics hold good for single atoms1 and it seems quite likely that they are capable of motion in more than three dimensions4 ,to find out much more about molecules and atoms1 we must search out a natural history of laws of nature1 which may fulfil that function which the presumption in favor of simple laws fulfilled in the early days of dynamics1 by showing us what kind of laws we have to expect and by answering such questions as this3 ,can we with reasonable prospect of not wasting time1 try the supposition that atoms attract one another inversely as the seventh power of their distances1 or can we not8 ,to suppose universal laws of nature capable of being apprehended by the mind and yet having no reason for their special forms1 but standing inexplicable and irrational1 is hardly a justifiable position4 ,uniformities are precisely the sort of facts that need to be accounted for4 ,that a pitched coin should sometimes turn up heads and sometimes tails calls for no particular explanation2 but if it shows heads every time1 we wish to know how this result has been brought about4 ,law is par excellence the thing that wants a reason4 ,now the only possible way of accounting for the laws of nature and for uniformity in general is to suppose them results of evolution4 ,this supposes them not to be absolute1 not to be obeyed precisely4 ,it makes an element of indeterminacy1 spontaneity1 or absolute chance in nature4 ,just as1 when we attempt to verify any physical law1 we find our observations cannot be precisely satisfied by it1 and rightly attribute the discrepancy to errors of observation1 so we must suppose far more minute discrepancies to exist owing to the imperfect cogency of the law itself1 to a certain swerving of the facts from any definite formula4 ,mr4 ,herbert ,spencer wishes to explain evolution upon mechanical principles4 ,this is illogical1 for four reasons4 ,first1 because the principle of evolution requires no extraneous cause2 since the tendency to growth can be supposed itself to have grown from an infinitesimal germ accidentally started4 ,second1 because law ought more than anything else to be supposed a result of evolution4 ,third1 because exact law obviously never can produce heterogeneity out of homogeneity2 and arbitrary heterogeneity is the feature of the universe the most manifest and characteristic4 ,fourth1 because the law of the conservation of energy is equivalent to the proposition that all operations governed by mechanical laws are reversible2 so that an immediate corollary from it is that growth is not explicable by those laws1 even if they be not violated in the process of growth4 ,in short1 ,spencer is not a philosophical evolutionist1 but only a half-evolutionist1--or1 if you will1 only a semi-,spencerian4 ,now philosophy requires thoroughgoing evolutionism or none4 ,the theory of ,darwin was that evolution had been brought about by the action of two factors3 first1 heredity1 as a principle making offspring nearly resemble their parents1 while yet giving room for sporting1 or accidental variations1--for very slight variations often1 for wider ones rarely2 and1 second1 the destruction of breeds or races that are unable to keep the birth rate up to the death rate4 ,this ,darwinian principle is plainly capable of great generalisation4 ,wherever there are large numbers of objects1 having a tendency to retain certain characters unaltered1 this tendency1 however1 not being absolute but giving room for chance variations1 then1 if the amount of variation is absolutely limited in certain directions by the destruction of everything which reaches those limits1 there will be a gradual tendency to change in directions of departure from them4 ,thus1 if a million players sit down to bet at an even game1 since one after another will get ruined1 the average wealth of those who remain will perpetually increase4 ,here is indubitably a genuine formula of possible evolution1 whether its operation accounts for much or little in the development of animal and vegetable species4 ,the ,lamarckian theory also supposes that the development of species has taken place by a long series of insensible changes1 but it supposes that those changes have taken place during the lives of the individuals1 in consequence of effort and exercise1 and that reproduction plays no part in the process except in preserving these modifications4 ,thus1 the ,lamarckian theory only explains the development of characters for which individuals strive1 while the ,darwinian theory only explains the production of characters really beneficial to the race1 though these may be fatal to individuals4#cc ,but more broadly and philosophically conceived1 ,darwinian evolution is evolution by the operation of chance1 and the destruction of bad results1 while ,lamarckian evolution is evolution by the effect of habit and effort4 #cc ,the neo-,darwinian1 ,weismann1 has shown that mortality would almost necessarily result from the action of the ,darwinian principle4 ,a third theory of evolution is that of ,mr4 ,clarence ,king4 ,the testimony of monuments and of rocks is that species are unmodified or scarcely modified1 under ordinary circumstances1 but are rapidly altered after cataclysms or rapid geological changes4 ,under novel circumstances1 we often see animals and plants sporting excessively in reproduction1 and sometimes even undergoing transformations during individual life1 phenomena no doubt due partly to the enfeeblement of vitality from the breaking up of habitual modes of life1 partly to changed food1 partly to direct specific influence of the element in which the organism is immersed4 ,if evolution has been brought about in this way1 not only have its single steps not been insensible1 as both ,darwinians and ,lamarckians suppose1 but they are furthermore neither haphazard on the one hand1 nor yet determined by an inward striving on the other1 but on the contrary are effects of the changed environment1 and have a positive general tendency to adapt the organism to that environment1 since variation will particularly affect organs at once enfeebled and stimulated4 ,this mode of evolution1 by external forces and the breaking up of habits1 seems to be called for by some of the broadest and most important facts of biology and paleontology2 while it certainly has been the chief factor in the historical evolution of institutions as in that of ideas2 and cannot possibly be refused a very prominent place in the process of evolution of the universe in general4 ,passing to psychology1 we find the elementary phenomena of mind fall into three categories4 ,first1 we have ,feelings1 comprising all that is immediately present1 such as pain1 blue1 cheerfulness1 the feeling that arises when we contemplate a consistent theory1 etc4 ,a feeling is a state of mind having its own living quality1 independent of any other state of mind4 ,or1 a feeling is an element of consciousness which might conceivably override every other state until it monopolised the mind1 although such a rudimentary state cannot actually be realised1 and would not properly be consciousness4 ,still1 it is conceivable1 or supposable1 that the quality of blue should usurp the whole mind1 to the exclusion of the ideas of shape1 extension1 contrast1 commencement and cessation1 and all other ideas1 whatsoever4 ,a feeling is necessarily perfectly simple1 in itself1 for if it had parts these would also be in the mind1 whenever the whole was present1 and thus the whole could not monopolise the mind4#cd #cd ,a feeling may certainly be compound1 but only in virtue of a perception which is not that feeling nor any feeling at all4 ,besides ,feelings1 we have ,sensations of reaction2 as when a person blindfold suddenly runs against a post1 when we make a muscular effort1 or when any feeling gives way to a new feeling4 ,suppose ,i had nothing in my mind but a feeling of blue1 which were suddenly to give place to a feeling of red2 then1 at the instant of transition there would be a shock1 a sense of reaction1 my blue life being transmuted into red life4 ,if ,i were further endowed with a memory1 that sense would continue for some time1 and there would also be a peculiar feeling or sentiment connected with it4 ,this last feeling might endure 7conceivably ,i mean7 after the memory of the occurrence and the feelings of blue and red had passed away4 ,but the sensation of reaction cannot exist except in the actual presence of the two feelings blue and red to which it relates4 ,wherever we have two feelings and pay attention to a relation between them of whatever kind1 there is the sensation of which ,i am speaking4 ,but the sense of action and reaction has two types3 it may either be a perception of relation between two ideas1 or it may be a sense of action and reaction between feeling and something out of feeling4 ,and this sense of external reaction again has two forms2 for it is either a sense of something happening to us1 by no act of ours1 we being passive in the matter1 or it is a sense of resistance1 that is1 of our expending feeling upon something without4 ,the sense of reaction is thus a sense of connection or comparison between feelings1 either1 ,a1 between one feeling and another1 or ,b1 between feeling and its absence or lower degree2 and under ,b we have1 ,first1 the sense of the access of feeling1 and ,second1 the sense of remission of feeling4 ,very different both from feelings and from reaction-sensations or disturbances of feeling are general conceptions4 ,when we think1 we are conscious that a connection between feelings is determined by a general rule1 we are aware of being governed by a habit4 ,intellectual power is nothing but facility in taking habits and in following them in cases essentially analogous to1 but in non-essentials widely remote from1 the normal cases of connections of feelings under which those habits were formed4 ,the one primary and fundamental law of mental action consists in a tendency to generalisation4 ,feeling tends to spread2 connections between feelings awaken feelings2 neighboring feelings become assimilated2 ideas are apt to reproduce themselves4 ,these are so many formulations of the one law of the growth of mind4 ,when a disturbance of feeling takes place1 we have a consciousness of gain1 the gain of experience2 and a new disturbance will be apt to assimilate itself to the one that preceded it4 ,feelings1 by being excited1 become more easily excited1 especially in the ways in which they have previously been excited4 ,the consciousness of such a habit constitutes a general conception4 ,the cloudiness of psychological notions may be corrected by connecting them with physiological conceptions4 ,feeling may be supposed to exist1 wherever a nerve-cell is in an excited condition4 ,the disturbance of feeling1 or sense of reaction1 accompanies the transmission of disturbance between nerve-cells or from a nerve-cell to a muscle-cell or the external stimulation of a nerve-cell4 ,general conceptions arise upon the formation of habits in the nerve-matter1 which are molecular changes consequent upon its activity and probably connected with its nutrition4 ,the law of habit exhibits a striking contrast to all physical laws in the character of its commands4 ,a physical law is absolute4 ,what it requires is an exact relation4 ,thus1 a physical force introduces into a motion a component motion to be combined with the rest by the parallelogram of forces2 but the component motion must actually take place exactly as required by the law of force4 ,on the other hand1 no exact conformity is required by the mental law4 ,nay1 exact conformity would be in downright conflict with the law2 since it would instantly crystallise thought and prevent all further formation of habit4 ,the law of mind only makes a given feeling more likely to arise4 ,it thus resembles the non-conservative forces of physics1 such as viscosity and the like1 which are due to statistical uniformities in the chance encounters of trillions of molecules4 ,the old dualistic notion of mind and matter1 so prominent in ,cartesianism1 as two radically different kinds of substance1 will hardly find defenders to-day4 ,rejecting this1 we are driven to some form of hylopathy1 otherwise called monism4 ,then the question arises whether physical laws on the one hand1 and the psychical law on the other are to be taken-- 7,a7 as independent1 a doctrine often called monism1 but which ,i would name neutralism2 or1 7,b7 the psychical law as derived and special1 the physical law alone as primordial1 which is materialism2 or1 7,c7 the physical law as derived and special1 the psychical law alone as primordial1 which is idealism4 ,the materialistic doctrine seems to me quite as repugnant to scientific logic as to common sense2 since it requires us to suppose that a certain kind of mechanism will feel1 which would be a hypothesis absolutely irreducible to reason1--an ultimate1 inexplicable regularity2 while the only possible justification of any theory is that it should make things clear and reasonable4 ,neutralism is sufficiently condemned by the logical maxim known as ,ockham's razor1 i4 e41 that not more independent elements are to be supposed than necessary4 ,by placing the inward and outward aspects of substance on a par1 it seems to render both primordial4 ,the one intelligible theory of the universe is that of objective idealism1 that matter is effete mind1 inveterate habits becoming physical laws4 ,but before this can be accepted it must show itself capable of explaining the tridimensionality of space1 the laws of motion1 and the general characteristics of the universe1 with mathematical clearness and precision2 for no less should be demanded of every ,philosophy4 ,modern mathematics is replete with ideas which may be applied to philosophy4 ,i can only notice one or two4 ,the manner in which mathematicians generalise is very instructive4 ,thus1 painters are accustomed to think of a picture as consisting geometrically of the intersections of its plane by rays of light from the natural objects to the eye4 ,but geometers use a generalised perspective4 ,for instance1 in the figure let ,o be the eye1 let ,a ,b ,c ,d ,e be the edgewise view of any plane1 and let a f e ,d c be the edgewise view of another plane4 ,the geometers draw rays through ,o cutting both these planes1 and treat the points of intersection of each ray with one plane as representing the point of intersection of the same ray with the other plane4 ,thus1 e represents ,e1 in the painter's way4 ,d represents itself4 ,c is represented by c1 which is further from the eye2 and ,a is represented by a which is on the other side of the eye4 ,such generalisation is not bound down to sensuous images4 ,further1 according to this mode of representation every point on one plane represents a point on the other1 and every point on the latter is represented by a point on the former4 ,but how about the point f which is in a direction from ,o parallel to the represented plane1 and how about the point ,b which is in a direction parallel to the representing plane8 ,some will say that these are exceptions2 but modern mathematics does not allow exceptions which can be annulled by generalisation4 ,as a point moves from ,c to ,d and thence to ,e and off toward infinity1 the corresponding point on the other plane moves from c to ,d and thence to e and toward f4 ,but this second point can pass through f to a2 and when it is there the first point has arrived at ,a4 ,we therefore say that the first point has passed through infinity1 and that every line joins in to itself somewhat like an oval4 ,geometers talk of the parts of lines at an infinite distance as points4 ,this is a kind of generalisation very efficient in mathematics4 ,illustration ,modern views of measurement have a philosophical aspect4 ,there is an indefinite number of systems of measuring along a line2 thus1 a perspective representation of a scale on one line may be taken to measure another1 although of course such measurements will not agree with what we call the distances of points on the latter line4 ,to establish a system of measurement on a line we must assign a distinct number to each point of it1 and for this purpose we shall plainly have to suppose the numbers carried out into an infinite number of places of decimals4 ,these numbers must be ranged along the line in unbroken sequence4 ,further1 in order that such a scale of numbers should be of any use1 it must be capable of being shifted into new positions1 each number continuing to be attached to a single distinct point4 ,now it is found that if this is true for imaginary as well as for real points 7an expression which ,i cannot stop to elucidate71 any such shifting will necessarily leave two numbers attached to the same points as before4 ,so that when the scale is moved over the line by any continuous series of shiftings of one kind1 there are two points which no numbers on the scale can ever reach1 except the numbers fixed there4 ,this pair of points1 thus unattainable in measurement1 is called the ,absolute4 ,these two points may be distinct and real1 or they may coincide1 or they may be both imaginary4 ,as an example of a linear quantity with a double absolute we may take probability1 which ranges from an unattainable absolute certainty against a proposition to an equally unattainable absolute certainty for it4 ,a line1 according to ordinary notions1 we have seen is a linear quantity where the two points at infinity coincide4 ,a velocity is another example4 ,a train going with infinite velocity from ,chicago to ,new ,york would be at all the points on the line at the very same instant1 and if the time of transit were reduced to less than nothing it would be moving in the other direction4 ,an angle is a familiar example of a mode of magnitude with no real immeasurable values4 ,one of the questions philosophy has to consider is whether the development of the universe is like the increase of an angle1 so that it proceeds forever without tending toward anything unattained1 which ,i take to be the ,epicurean view1 or whether the universe sprang from a chaos in the infinitely distant past to tend toward something different in the infinitely distant future1 or whether the universe sprang from nothing in the past to go on indefinitely toward a point in the infinitely distant future1 which1 were it attained1 would be the mere nothing from which it set out4 ,the doctrine of the absolute applied to space comes to this1 at either-- ,first1 space is1 as ,euclid teaches1 both unlimited and immeasurable1 so that the infinitely distant parts of any plane seen in perspective appear as a straight line1 in which case the sum of the three angles of a triangle amounts to #ahj2 or1 ,second1 space is immeasurable but limited1 so that the infinitely distant parts of any plane seen in perspective appear as a circle1 beyond which all is blackness1 and in this case the sum of the three angles of a triangle is less than #ahj by an amount proportional to the area of the triangle2 or1 ,third1 space is unlimited but finite1 7like the surface of a sphere17 so that it has no infinitely distant parts2 but a finite journey along any straight line would bring one back to his original position1 and looking off with an unobstructed view one would see the back of his own head enormously magnified1 in which case the sum of the three angles of a triangle exceeds #ahj by an amount proportional to the area4 ,which of these three hypotheses is true we know not4 ,the largest triangles we can measure are such as have the earth's orbit for base1 and the distance of a fixed star for altitude4 ,the angular magnitude resulting from subtracting the sum of the two angles at the base of such a triangle from #ahj is called the star's parallax4 ,the parallaxes of only about forty stars have been measured as yet4 ,two of them come out negative1 that of ,arided 7 ,cygni71 a star of magnitude #a-a_/b1 which is -#j4jhb1 according to ,c4 ,a4 ,f4 ,peters1 and that of a star of magnitude #g-c_/d1 known as ,piazzi ,,iii #dbb1 which is -#j4jde according to ,r4 ,s4 ,ball4 ,but these negative parallaxes are undoubtedly to be attributed to errors of observation2 for the probable error of such a determination is about #j4jge1 and it would be strange indeed if we were to be able to see1 as it were1 more than half way round space1 without being able to see stars with larger negative parallaxes4 ,indeed1 the very fact that of all the parallaxes measured only two come out negative would be a strong argument that the smallest parallaxes really amount to #j4a1 were it not for the reflexion that the publication of other negative parallaxes may have been suppressed4 ,i think we may feel confident that the parallax of the furthest star lies somewhere between -#j4je and #j4ae1 and within another century our grandchildren will surely know whether the three angles of a triangle are greater or less than #ahj1--that they are exactly that amount is what nobody ever can be justified in concluding4 ,it is true that according to the axioms of geometry the sum of the three sides of a triangle are precisely #ahj2 but these axioms are now exploded1 and geometers confess that they1 as geometers1 know not the slightest reason for supposing them to be precisely true4 ,they are expressions of our inborn conception of space1 and as such are entitled to credit1 so far as their truth could have influenced the formation of the mind4 ,but that affords not the slightest reason for supposing them exact4 ,now1 metaphysics has always been the ape of mathematics4 ,geometry suggested the idea of a demonstrative system of absolutely certain philosophical principles2 and the ideas of the metaphysicians have at all times been in large part drawn from mathematics4 ,the metaphysical axioms are imitations of the geometrical axioms2 and now that the latter have been thrown overboard1 without doubt the former will be sent after them4 ,it is evident1 for instance1 that we can have no reason to think that every phenomenon in all its minutest details is precisely determined by law4 ,that there is an arbitrary element in the universe we see1--namely1 its variety4 ,this variety must be attributed to spontaneity in some form4 ,had ,i more space1 ,i now ought to show how important for philosophy is the mathematical conception of continuity4 ,most of what is true in ,hegel is a darkling glimmer of a conception which the mathematicians had long before made pretty clear1 and which recent researches have still further illustrated4 ,among the many principles of ,logic which find their application in ,philosophy1 ,i can here only mention one4 ,three conceptions are perpetually turning up at every point in every theory of logic1 and in the most rounded systems they occur in connection with one another4 ,they are conceptions so very broad and consequently indefinite that they are hard to seize and may be easily overlooked4 ,i call them the conceptions of ,first1 ,second1 ,third4 ,first is the conception of being or existing independent of anything else4 ,second is the conception of being relative to1 the conception of reaction with1 something else4 ,third is the conception of mediation1 whereby a first and second are brought into relation4 ,to illustrate these ideas1 ,i will show how they enter into those we have been considering4 ,the origin of things1 considered not as leading to anything1 but in itself1 contains the idea of ,first1 the end of things that of ,second1 the process mediating between them that of ,third4 ,a philosophy which emphasises the idea of the ,one1 is generally a dualistic philosophy in which the conception of ,second receives exaggerated attention2 for this ,one 7though of course involving the idea of ,first7 is always the other of a manifold which is not one4 ,the idea of the ,many1 because variety is arbitrariness and arbitrariness is repudiation of any ,secondness1 has for its principal component the conception of ,first4 ,in psychology ,feeling is ,first1 ,sense of reaction ,second1 ,general conception ,third1 or mediation4 ,in biology1 the idea of arbitrary sporting is ,first1 heredity is ,second1 the process whereby the accidental characters become fixed is ,third4 ,chance is ,first1 ,law is ,second1 the tendency to take habits is ,third4 ,mind is ,first1 ,matter is ,second1 ,evolution is ,third4 ,such are the materials out of which chiefly a philosophical theory ought to be built1 in order to represent the state of knowledge to which the nineteenth century has brought us4 ,without going into other important questions of philosophical architectonic1 we can readily foresee what sort of a metaphysics would appropriately be constructed from those conceptions4 ,like some of the most ancient and some of the most recent speculations it would be a ,cosmogonic ,philosophy4 ,it would suppose that in the beginning1--infinitely remote1--there was a chaos of unpersonalised feeling1 which being without connection or regularity would properly be without existence4 ,this feeling1 sporting here and there in pure arbitrariness1 would have started the germ of a generalising tendency4 ,its other sportings would be evanescent1 but this would have a growing virtue4 ,thus1 the tendency to habit would be started2 and from this with the other principles of evolution all the regularities of the universe would be evolved4 ,at any time1 however1 an element of pure chance survives and will remain until the world becomes an absolutely perfect1 rational1 and symmetrical system1 in which mind is at last crystallised in the infinitely distant future4 ,that idea has been worked out by me with elaboration4 ,it accounts for the main features of the universe as we know it1--the characters of time1 space1 matter1 force1 gravitation1 electricity1 etc4 ,it predicts many more things which new observations can alone bring to the test4 ,may some future student go over this ground again1 and have the leisure to give his results to the world4 ,,charles ,s4 ,,peirce4 ,,illustrative ,,studies ,,in ,,criminal ,,anthropology4 ,i4 ,,la ,b,,te ,,humaine ,,and ,,criminal ,,anthropology4 ,if ,i had to be the judge of ,m4 ,zola ,i could be only a very partial judge4 ,to me the books of ,zola are1 with those of ,dostoyewski and ,tolsto1 the only ones which have struck a fresh tone in the literary monotony of this quarter of a century1 in which it is said the political levelling and the general abasement of character extend even to the republic of letters4 ,thus ,i am partial to ,zola1 for1 as the chief of a school which pushes the science of psychiatry far into the field of psychology and of sociology1 ,i find in ,zola an ally the more valuable that he has not been sought and that he reigns in a very different empire4 ,to the scientific charlatans who deny1 as does ,m4 ,colajanni1 the importance and the gravity of alcoholism1 its associations with crime and degeneracy1 ,l',assommoir is perhaps the best of refutations4 ,germinal and ,la ,fortune des ,rougon give us the demonstration of that cruelty which is born for the crowd and in the crowd1 and both prove the influence that criminals and lunatics have in rebellions4 ,zola is the only one of the ,latin race who endeavors to introduce the scientific method into literary work4 ,his romances are modern histories which are founded upon living data1 as histories in general are on dead data4 ,and in history he knows also how to employ soberness1 by contenting himself with a very simple sketch1 disdaining the vulgar tricks which are as easy to invent as they are far from the truth4 ,i ought to be still more partial to ,la ,bte ,humaine2 for1 with a generosity not very frequent in men of letters1 ,m4 ,zola avows that he had recourse to my ,homme ,criminel and my ,homme de ,gnie for the material for his romance4 ,nevertheless1 ,i cannot forbear mixing some criticism with the praises merited by this work1 for ,i do not find satisfied by it that which ,i regard more than my personal vanity3 my love of truth4 ,in ,la ,bte ,humaine all those artifices which the romanticists had accustomed us to1 and from which ,zola was freed1 reappear1 and that alas too often6 ,in the first place1 it is a sufficiently strange fatality that the same knife that was given as a mark of conjugal love should be by turns the instrument of every murder committed1 and that all the assassinations1 derailments1 and suicides invariably occur at the ,croix-de-,maufras1 where the first lewd practices of the ,president ,grandmorin took place4 ,that a great number of criminals should be congregated in the small enclosure of a second-rate railway station and of its approaches1 is in itself a strange fact1 but it is still more strange that every crime always derives its character from that accursed place which already bears a fateful and dismal name4 ,this is contrary to the laws of probability2 for we know by statistics that the number of criminals1 as well as of crimes1 is always the same for a certain number of people1 or a certain number of square miles1 or years1 and cannot be massed and restricted to a small space of ground1 to so few individuals1 and so short a time4 ,this is an atavistic reversion1 or1 we might say1 a return to the old ways of romance1 in which fatal events always followed each other in certain fatal localities1 or through particular men and by certain fated weapons1 etc4 ,in ,la ,fortune des ,rougon1 also1 there is a certain musket which serves for the murder of gendarmes by a grandfather and his nephew1 and of the nephew by gendarmes2 as if the cause of the fatality was not the hereditary instinct1 but this silent and unconscious instrument4 ,however1 the greatest fault is not here2 but rather in the delineation of character4 ,zola1 who1 in my opinion1 has admirably depicted people poisoned by alcohol1 and the common middle classes of the towns and of the country1 has not studied criminals according to nature3 undoubtedly because the latter are not so easily met with2 nor allow themselves to be studied even in prisons4 ,zola's figures of criminals give me the false pictorial effect produced by certain photographs taken from portraits1 and not from the living subjects4 ,for this reason it is then that ,i1 who have studied thousands and thousands of criminals1 should not know how to class his ,roubaud1 a good clerk and a good husband1 who on accidentally discovering the secret of the old amours of his wife with ,grandmorin1 which were not yet done with1 throws himself upon her1 wishes to kill her1 finally changes his mind1 and ends by deciding on the murder of the pseudo-adulterer1 with the complicity of his wife4 ,can he be called a criminal through passion8 ,but then it is she that he should have killed1 or at least the adulterer being killed he should have repented of it4 ,and again1 criminals through passion are1 like ,roubaud1 very good and respectable people1 but in their crimes they rush blindly and headlong forward1 without accomplices1 without premeditation1 and without artifices4 ,and they repent1 they confess3 they are the only criminals who feel remorse4 ,he has no remorse2 for some time he leads a life of revenge1 and1 afterwards1 suddenly1 he gives himself up to vice1 to wine1 to gambling1 and forgets his wife1 and he is jealous of her no more2 on the contrary1 indifferent1 he assists in her infidelities4 ,can he be called a born criminal1 a bte8 ,but then how explain that he had lived so long without vices1 free from debauchery1 and that he had been so good a clerk8 ,he could still be a criminal incidentally2 but for a correct1 steady1 quiet man1 as a railway official ought to be1 would the discovery of the old amour of his wife be a proportionate reason for him to commit a premeditated murder1 the greatest of crimes8 ,and then1 as we shall see1 criminaloids are born criminals in part2 they have many of the latters' psychological and physical characteristics4 ,now ,roubaud has a full beard1 red hair1 and quick eyes3 the only anomalies are meeting eyebrows1 a low forehead1 and a flat head3 nothing is said of hysterical or epileptical ancestors4 ,according to ,henry ,hricourt 7,revue ,bleue1 p4 #ad71 ,m4 ,zola was inspired by a recent trial1 that of the apothecary ,fenayron1 who is said to have had much resemblance to ,roubaud4 ,marin ,fenayron1 the apothecary1 was a man of forty-one1 intelligent1 steady1 and industrious4 ,he had married1 twelve years before1 the youngest daughter of his old employer1 whom he had succeeded4 ,his wife1 who was eighteen years old at the time of her marriage1 and who had consented to the union only with repugnance1 was not slow to deceive him1 and soon formed an intimacy with his assistant4 ,this triangular relation lasted a time1 not precisely stated by the proceedings1 but sufficiently long for ,gabrielle ,fenayron1 tired of her first lover1 to take the opportunity to replace him by several others4 ,the husband1 who during this time has become a gambler and idle fellow1 is informed of the misconduct of his wife4 ,although he did not put much credit in this at first1 yet in the quarrels which followed and were continually renewed he ended by abusing her1 striking her1 and menacing her with death3 and at last he obtained from her the confession of her relations with his old assistant ,aubert1 then himself established as a chemist4 ,according to her recital1 the woman could obtain the pardon of her husband only by the promise that she would assist him in his plans of revenge1 and she had consented through shame without protesting4 ,then1 by the order of her husband1 she writes several letters to her old lover1 renews relations with him1 and finally1 under the pretext of a country excursion1 draws him into an ambush where she aided her husband in killing him with a hammer4 ,it will be remembered that ,aubert1 after the first blow1 turned round1 recognised his murderer1 and prepared to defend himself3 but his mistress threw herself on him1 twined her arms about him1 and the husband could thus finish his work in safety4 ,after the crime there was no remorse on the part of either the one or the other4 ,far to the contrary4 ,the criminal pair delivered themselves anew to their accustomed distractions with the most perfect tranquillity1 and the performance appeared without doubt very natural to ,fenayron1 for one day1 meeting his mother-in-law1 he accosted her1 saying1 ,well1 ,mother1 it is done4 ,i have killed ,aubert4 ,but let it be remarked how this ,marin ,fenayron1 who figures as an occasional criminal1 this time reveals himself a criminal by habit1 meditating and premeditating his vengeance1 waiting two long months before putting it into execution1 surrounding himself with every precaution to secure immunity for the crime4 ,such a one certainly is not the violent man whom passion blinds and who is instantaneously inflamed with anger4 ,it is rather the degenerated man with whom predisposition has found the opportunity to reveal and to develop itself4 ,it is necessary to add that ,marin had a brother feeble in mind3 an hereditary defect4 ,the true bte humaine1 ,jacques ,lantier1 possesses the anatomical characters of the born criminal2 his thick black locks were curled1 like his moustaches1 so heavy and dark that they increased greatly the natural paleness of his complexion4 ,moreover1 the inclination to crime in him was justified by inheritance4 ,and this passion for murder which supplants the sensual passion is truly intoxicating4 ,where the author has gone astray is where he makes ,jacques find pleasure for a considerable time with ,sverine without any thought of murder2 while these unfortunates1 at least all that ,i have studied1 do not experience sexual pleasure except in murder4 ,on the other hand1 the vertigo of epileptic amnesia which ,zola often causes ,jacques to suffer1 is based on fact and actually accords with the most recent observations3 ,he had finally found himself on the brink of the ,seine without being able to explain to himself how4 ,that of which he retained a very clear impression1 was of having thrown from the top of the bank the knife that his hand held clutched in his pocket4 ,then he knew no more1 stupefied and absent of mind1 out of which the other1 and the knife too1 had entirely vanished4444 ,he was in his narrow chamber in the ,rue ,cardinet1 fallen across his bed1 fully dressed4 ,instinct had brought him back there1 as a worn out dog crawls to his kennel4 ,besides he remembered neither having ascended the stairs1 nor of having slept4 ,he awoke from a heavy sleep1 scared to re-enter abruptly into possession of himself1 as after a profound fainting fit4 ,perhaps he had slept three hours1 perhaps three days4 ,never have ,i found a more perfect description of that which ,i have termed criminal1 epileptoid vertigo4 ,but here again is a mistake of fact arising from a velleity not content with knowledge4 ,it is that the novelist several times explains these bloodthirsty sexual instincts by a peculiar kind of atavism3 the tendency1 namely1 to avenge the evil that women had done to his race2 the spite accumulated from male to male since the first deceit in the depths of caverns4 ,this is an error of fact4 ,primitive women have never done wrong to men4 ,more feeble than men1 they have always been their victims4 ,these bloodthirsty sexual instincts are explained by a quite different atavism1 which goes back to inferior animals1 to the conflict between the males for the conquest of the female1 who remained for the strongest2 and by the blows that were inflicted on the woman in order to reduce her to conjugal slavery1 conflicts of which traces still remain in ,roman history 7the ,rape of the ,sabines71 and in the nuptial rites of almost all ,european countries1 and in those of ,new ,zealand1 where the husband knocks down his wife before carrying her off to the matrimonial bed4 ,another technical defect is1 that a man who has arrived at the degree of degeneracy that ,jacques has1 ought to have still other vices3 as great violence of character1 impulsiveness without cause1 profound immorality2 while1 as a matter of fact1 except in moments of sexual fury1 he appears as a good and honorable man4 ,however1 even recognising the force of his bloody sexual monomania1 ,i find that instinctive aversion1 characteristic of the good man1 to be proper which ,jacques feels at the thought of killing some one who is not a young and beautiful woman2 for instance1 to killing his rival1 notwithstanding the favorable circumstances and the suggestions of ,sverine4 ,to kill that man1 my ,god6 ,had he the right to do it8 ,when a fly troubled him he would crush it with a blow4 ,one day when a cat had got between his legs1 he had broken its back with a kick4 ,but to kill this man1 his fellow-creature6 ,he must reason with himself1 he must prove his right to murder2 the right of the strong whom the weak are troublesome to4444 ,but afterwards that appeared to him monstrous1 impracticable1 impossible4 ,the civilised man revolted in him1 the acquired force of education1 the slow and indestructible concretion of inherited ideas4 ,his cultivated brain1 filled with scruples1 repelled murder with horror1 as soon as he began to reason about it4 ,yes1 to kill in a case of necessity1 in a transport of rage6 ,but to kill voluntarily by design1 and from interest1 no never1 never could he do it6 ,all that is very true4 ,where the author has certainly copied after nature is in the personality of ,sverine4 ,she is not a true criminal2 sensual1 depraved though still young1 experiencing love only in adultery4 ,though deceitful1 she is nevertheless a good wife and a good housekeeper up to the day where chance had thrown her into evil doing4 ,she is united to her husband1 and for that reason she becomes his accomplice in crime1 without horror or dread2 but afterwards1 seized with love for ,jacques1 she experiences dislike for her husband and wishes to turn the lover into his murderer4 ,the need increased in her of having ,jacques for herself1 all for herself1 to live together1 days and nights1 without ever more parting4 ,her hatred of her husband grew greater1 the mere presence of this man threw her into a morbid and intolerable condition of excitement4 ,tractable1 and with all the amiability of a delicate woman1 she became enraged at everything in which he was concerned2 she flew into a passion at the least obstacle he put to her wishes4444 ,the stupid tranquillity in which she saw him1 the indifferent glance and manner with which he received her anger1 his round back1 his enlarged stomach1 all that greasy dullness which has the appearance of happiness1 made her exasperation complete4 ,oh6 to go far away from him4444 ,one day when he returned1 pale and livid1 to say that in passing before a locomotive he had felt the buffer graze his elbow1 she thought to herself that if he were dead she would be free4444 ,she would go with ,jacques to ,america4444 ,she who at other times so rarely went out now conceived a passion for going to see the steamships sail4 ,she would go to the pier1 and would lean on her elbow watching the smoke of the departing vessels4444 ,and at the decisive moment she threw herself passionately on ,jacques's neck4 ,she fastened her burning lips to his4 ,how she loved him and how she hated the other6 ,oh6 if she had dared1 twenty times already would she have done the deed 444 but she felt herself too gentle1 it required the hand of a man4 ,and this kiss which would never come to an end1 was all that she could communicate to him of her courage1 the full possession that she promised him1 the communion of her body4 ,when she finally withdrew her lips nothing more was left to her2 she believed that she had passed completely into him4 ,and is this1 then1 the woman criminal1 the criminaloid1 as ,i have called her 7,vol4 ,,ii of my ,uomo ,delinquente78 ,a criminal who1 when she is not urged onward by opportunities1 7and these opportunities always have love for their origin17 is not capable of any true crime1 and who when she commits it always makes use of the arm of another2 and this latter is always her lover1 for she finds herself too feeble to accomplish it herself4 ,her anatomical characters1 as well as her physiognomy1 if not those of the born criminal1 have at least some features which those of other females have not1 and which unite her with the animal4 ,she had very black and very thick hair1 which stood like a helmet on her forehead1 a long face1 a strong mouth1 and large blue-green eyes4 ,m4 ,hricourt justly finds that many features of this woman are to be met with in ,gabrielle ,fenayron1 the accomplice of her husband4 ,gabrielle ,fenayron is about thirty years of age3 she is a tall dark woman with a very pale complexion2 her hair is very black1 the oval of her face elongated1 and her eyes have a certain hardness that accentuate the projecting and unsightly cheek-bones4 ,gabrielle ,fenayron1 as we know1 pretended to have been terrorised by the threats which her husband had uttered against her1 and to have been infatuated1 on the other hand1 by the love that she felt for him2 she had thus submitted her will in order to repair her fault4 ,in the appreciation of this system of defence1 the bill of indictment stated that the energy and the coolness exhibited by this woman in the preparation of assassination1 the facilities that she had during the course of the long premeditation which had preceded the murder to warn ,aubert without danger to herself1 induced the belief that she had in the commission of the crime yielded to a profound hatred against her old lover4 ,but this interpretation appears to me1 psychologically1 to be a clumsy and a forced one4 ,it is not necessary to have recourse to motives left mysterious in order to explain the absolutely strange conduct of some women4 ,perhaps ,zola would have completed his picture if he had known ,gabrielle ,gompard2 who allies and unites the passion of murder with prostitution when she attaches herself to a wicked man1 but who grows animated for virtue and denounces herself an accomplice when she becomes the mistress of a virtuous man4 ,these women change their personality in changing a lover1 and then make a point of playing a role in the miserable world where their fickle passions destroy them4 ,less happy1 perhaps1 has ,zola been in the case of ,flora1 fair1 strong1 with thick lips1 and great greenish eyes1 with low forehead set beneath heavy hair4 ,according to the plot of the novel1 she should be a criminal of passion4 ,a good woman throughout her whole life1 she commits a crime through jealousy4 ,but the method of the crime 7the derailment of a train with a view to striking her rival and her lover7 is not that which is chosen by criminals of passion1 who are unable to meditate long on their crimes1 and who kill in day-light without premeditation4 ,it is true that it is natural to the mind of female criminals to deal indirect and very complicated blows1 and without proportion to the end to be attained3 but all this is only the effect of their weakness4 ,in a virago as strong as ,flora is depicted1 7a bellicose maid with the strong and hard arms of a boy17 this reason fails to satisfy us2 and when she meditates her crime she is urged much less by thoughts of revenge1 than by a necessity to commit the wrong in order to become cured of her own2 she is then a born criminal1 an epileptic rather than a creature of passion2 and in this sense the attribute that he gives to ,flora of a monstrous muscular force1 that is observed very frequently in born criminals1 would be reasonable4 ,thus the girl who always wore masculine clothes had a remarkable muscular power4 ,her weapon was a hammer1 and with it she struck down many men4 ,i knew at ,turin a murderess1 a courtesan1 who when a model in ,paris1 killed for money and love an artist1 whose portrait she carried tattooed on her arm4 ,this unfortunate woman fought two or three times with the five wardens of her prison4 ,when liberated she was the head of all the scoundrels of ,turin1 challenging them to contest4 ,one day even ,i found her in a red shirt1 with epaulettes on4 ,it is my ensign1 said she to me1 ,i am the captain of the scoundrels of ,turin4 ,but all these women are very different from ,flora4 ,of course1 a single and only love is wanting in their case4 ,it will finally be said1 that the propensity which casts the two criminaloid women into the arms of the born criminal1 the bte humaine1 is copied from nature4 ,as a matter of fact1 there does exist a true elective affinity which unites the two sexes of these unfortunates2 a cause that gives rise to criminal families1 which form the nucleus of gangs4 ,nevertheless1 the demonstration of it in this instance is not evident1 for in crowding a large number of criminals into so narrow a space1 great liberty of choice is excluded4 ,,ii4 ,,criminal ,,anthropology ,,and ,,psychiatry4 ,secretions4--,dr4 ,ottolenghi#ce has made in my laboratory a number of observations with #ae born criminals and #c occasional criminals1 for the purpose of ascertaining the proportional quantities of urea1 chlorides1 and phosphates eliminated under the same alimentary conditions4 ,here are the average results3 ,,grammes4 ,urea per #ajj grammes of the weight ,born criminals #jci of the body ,occasional criminals #hec ,phosphates do ,born criminals #jjbd ,occasional criminals #jjaie ,chlorides do ,born criminals #jbh ,occasional criminals #jbi #ce ,journal of the ,medical ,academy of ,turin1 #ahhh1 ,archiv4 di ,psichiatria1 ,scienze penali ed ,antropologia ,criminale1 ,turin1 #ahhh1 x1 ,lombroso4 ,there is therefore amongst the born criminals a diminution in the elimination of urea2 and an augmentation in that of phosphates1 while the elimination of chlorides does not vary4 ,he has obtained the same results in the case of psychical epilepsy2 while the occasional criminal offers no anomaly4 ,in connection with this it may be stated1 that1 on the other hand1 ,mr4 ,rivano#cf found amongst epileptics on the days of paroxysm a greater quantity of urea and less phosphates4 #cf ,archiv4 di ,freniatria1 ,turin1 #ahhi4 ,power of ,smell4--,dr4 ,ottolenghi has also studied the power of smell amongst criminals4 ,he has contrived with this object in view an osmometer1 containing #ab aqueous solutions of the essence of cloves varying from #a part in #ej1jjj to #a part in #ajj4 ,he made his observations in several series1 one each day only2 the conditions of ventilation being about the same1 and the solutions being renewed for each observation1 to avoid errors caused by evaporation4 ,he looked first for the lowest degree at which olfactory perception began4 ,in former experiments he proceeded differently4 ,he disarranged the different bottles1 and requested the subject to replace the same in the order of the intensity of their odor4 ,he has divided the errors of disposition which resulted into serious and less serious errors1 according as1 in the order of the solutions1 there occurred a distance of several or only one degree4 ,he examined #hj criminals 7#ej men1 #cj women7 and #ej normal persons 7#cj men1 mostly chosen amongst the prison warders1 and #bj respectable women74 ,here are the results3 ,while amongst the normal males the average power of smell varied between the third and fourth degree of the osmometer1 amongst the criminals it varied from the fifth to the sixth degree2 #dd individuals had no power of smell at all4 ,while the honest men made an average of three errors in the disposition of the bottles1 the criminals made five1 of which three were so-called serious ones4 ,the normal women touched the fourth degree of the osmometer1 the criminal women the sixth degree2 with two the power of smell was wanting entirely4 ,while the normal women made an average of four faults in the disposition1 the criminal women made five4 ,in eight cases of anosmia 7loss of the sense of smell71 presented in a certain set of criminals1 two cases were due to nasal deformities2 the others were a kind of smell-blindness2 the subjects were susceptible to odoriferous excitations1 but were unable to specify them and still less to classify them4 ,to verify what was really true in the assertion1#cg that criminal offenders against morality and customs have a highly developed power of smell1 he examined this power in #cj ravishers and #dj prostitutes4 ,in the former he found olfactory blindness in the ratio of #cc to #ajj2 the remainder possessed an average power corresponding to the fifth degree of the osmometer4 ,arranging1 then1 the different solutions according to their intensity1 he observed three so-called serious errors4 ,in #ai per cent4 of the girls submitted1 he found olfactory blindness2 and for the others an average acuteness corresponding to the fifth degree of the osmometer4 ,comparing these results with those obtained for the normal subjects and for regular criminals1 the power of smell appears much less developed in the class just considered4 #cg ,krafft-,ebing1 ,psychopatia sexualis1 #dth ed41 ,stuttgart1 #ahhi4--;,archiv4 di ,psichiatria1 #ahhi4 ,taste4--,dr4 ,ottolenghi has also examined the sense of taste of #ajj criminals 7#fj born criminals1 #bj occasional criminals1 and #bj criminal women74 ,he compared them with #bj men taken from the lower classes1 #bj professors and students1 #bj respectable women1 and #dj prostitutes4 ,these series of experiments were made with #aa solutions of strychnine 7graduated #a_/hjjjj to #a_/ejjjj7 and of saccharine 7from #a_/ajjjjj to #a_/ajjjj71 and #aj of chloride of sodium 7#a_/ejj to #c_/ajj74 ,the criminals showed remarkable obtuseness4 ,the lowest degree of acuteness was found in the proportion of #ch to #ajj in born criminals1 #cj to #ajj in occasional criminals1 #bj to #ajj in criminal women2 while we found it in #ad per cent4 of the professors and the students1 in #be per cent4 of the men from the lower classes1 in #cj per cent4 of the prostitutes1 and finally in #aj per cent4 of the respectable women4 ,walk4--,a study which ,i have made with ,perachia1#ch shows us that1 contrary to the case of normal men1 the step of the left foot of criminals is generally longer than that of the right2 besides they turn off from the line of the axis more to the right than to the left2 their left foot1 on being placed on the ground1 forms with this line an angle of deviation more pronounced than the angle formed by their right foot2 all these characteristics are very often found among epileptics4 #ch ,sur la ,marche suivant la ,mthode de ,gilles de la ,tourette4 ,gestures4--,it is an ancient habit among criminals to communicate their thoughts by gestures4 ,av-,lallemant describes a set of gestures used among ,german thieves1--a real language executed solely with the fingers1 like the language of the deaf4 ,vidocq says that pickpockets1 when they are watching a victim1 give each other the signal of ,saint ,john1 which consists in putting their hand to their cravat or even in taking off their hat4 ,but ,pitr especially has published the most important information on this point4 ,in his ,usi e ,costumi della ,sicilia 7,usages and ,customs of ,sicily17 he describes #dh special kinds of gestures employed by delinquents4 ,this phenomenon is explained by the exaggerated mobility with which born criminals are endowed1 as is the case with children4 ,,morphological ,,anomalies4 ,the ,skeleton4--,mr4 ,tenchini1 having made studies upon #fc skeletons of criminals1 has found in the proportion of #f out of #ajj cases1 the perforation of the olecranon 7the bony prominence at the back of the elbow7 which one observes in #cf out of #ajj ,europeans1 and in #cd out of #ajj ,polynesians2 he likewise observed additional ribs and vertebr in #aj cases out of #ajj of them1 and also too few1 in the same proportion2 which reminds us of the great variableness of these bones in the lower vertebrates4 ,lately he has even found in a criminal #d sacral vertebr too few1 made up by #d supplementary cervical vertebr4 ,madame ,tarnorosky in her study of prostitutes1 female thieves1 and peasant women has demonstrated1#ci that the cranial capacity of prostitutes is inferior to that of female thieves and peasant women and particularly to that of women of good society2#dj vice versa1 the zygomas 7bones of the upper jaw7 and the mandibles 7lower jaw7 were more developed among the prostitutes1 who also exhibited a greater number of anomalies1 in the proportion of #hg to #ajj1 while the proportion of the female thieves showing anomalies was #gi to #ajj1 and the proportion of peasant women was #ab to #ajj4 ,the prostitutes had #cc in #ajj of their parents addicted to drink1 while the female thieves had #da in #ajj and the peasant women #af in #ajj4 ,mr4 ,de ,albertis has found tattooing among #cjj prostitutes of ,genoa in the enormous proportion of #gj in #ajj4da ,he has also found the tactile sensibility of the women very much diminished3 #cf millimetres to the right and #d millimetres to the left4 #ci #ej #ajj #ajj #ej #ej #ej ,,prostitutes4 ,,prostitutes4 ,,female ,,peasant ,,peasant ,,ladies ,,of ,,measurements4 ,,thieves4 ,,women4 ,,women4 ,,good 7,,north47 7,,south47 ,,society4 ,anteropost4 diam4 #agg #agh #agi #ahc #ah #ahc ,max4 trans4 diam4 #aci #add #adi #ade #ade #ade ,max4 circumference #ebi #ecc #ece #ebg #ecf #ehh ,zygomatic dist4 #aad #aac #aab #aji #aad #aac ,mandib4 biang4 distance #aja #ajah #ia #ia #ii #ih #dj ,archiv4 di ,psichiatria1 ,mierjeivki1 #ahhg4--;,ibid41 #ahhh1 p4 #aif4 #da ,arch4 di ,psichiatria1 x1 #ahhi4 ,among criminal women1 ,saloalto has made studies altogether new2 he has recognised among #acj female thieves the degenerative character1 anomalies of the skull and of the physiognomy1 in a less degree than among the men2 he has found brachycephaly in #g1 oxycephaly in #bi1 platycephaly in #g1 the retreating forehead in #g1 strabismus in #aa1 protruding ears in #f2 the sense of touch was normal in #b out of #ajj1 the reflexions of the tendons decreasing in #d out of #ajj1 exaggerated in #ab out of #ajj4 ,marro and ,marselli have explained by sexual selection this enormous difference1 which one also finds among epileptics and particularly in insane people2 the men in fact do not choose ugly women with degenerative characters1 while the women have no choice1 and very often an ugly man1 criminal1 but vigorous1 for this reason triumphs over all obstacles2 sometimes he is even preferred4 7,flaubert1 ,correspondance1 #ahhi47 ,let us add that the cares of maternity soften the character of women1 and augment in them the sentiment of pity4 ,dr4 ,ottolenghi#db has studied in my laboratory the wrinkles of #bjj criminals and #bjj normal persons 7workingmen and peasants71 and he has found that they occur earlier and much more frequently among the criminals2 in fact1 two to five times more so than among normal persons1 with predominance of the zygomatic wrinkle 7situated in the middle of each cheek71 which wrinkle may well be called the wrinkle of vice1 and is the characteristic wrinkle of criminals4 #db ,,under #be ,,years4 ,,between #be ,,and #ej ,,years4 ,,normal4 ,,criminal4 ,,normal4 ,,criminal4 ,,location4 p4 #ajj4 p4 #ajj4 p4 #ajj4 p4 #ajj4 ,wrinkles of the forehead #ga #cd #fb #hf ,nasolabial wrinkles #bb #fi #fb #gh ,zygomatic wrinkles #j #af #ah #cc ,in criminal women 7#hj7 also1 wrinkles have been found more frequent than in normal women1 although here the difference is not so marked4 ,one calls to mind at once the wrinkle of the sorcerers4 ,it is enough to look at the bust of the celebrated ,sicilian woman poisoner1 preserved in the ,national ,museum of ,palermo1 and whose face is one heap of wrinkles4 ,dr4 ,ottolenghi1 studying with me the frequency of canities 7turning grey7 and baldness in people1 has demonstrated either absence or lateness of the same among criminals1#dc as also among epileptics and among cretins4 ,among the first1 swindlers only tend to approach more the normal type4#dd ,on the other hand1 among #bhj criminal women canities was found more frequently1 and baldness less frequently1 than in the case of #bjj honest workingmen4 #dc ,la ,calvizie1 la ,canizie e le ,rughe nei normali1 nei criminali negli epiletis e nei cretini4 ,archiv4 di ,psichiatria1 #ahhi1 x4 #dd ,,classes4 ,,with ,,canities4 ,,with ,,baldness4 p4 #ajj4 p4 #ajj4 #djj ,normal people #fbe #ai #hj ,epileptics #cae #abg #dj ,cretins #aag #ace #dij ,criminals #bei #dh ,thieves #bdd #bf ,swindlers #dg #aca ,maimers #bcg #ec #hj ,criminal women #de #ig #bjj ,honest women #fj #ac ,we shall not terminate this part of our discussion without making mention of the beautiful discovery that we owe--it pleases us to state--to a lawyer1 ,mr4 ,anfosso4 ,the tachyanthropometer which he has constructed is a real automatic measurer4 7,archiv4 di ,psych41 ,art4 ,,ix4 p4 #agc47 ,we might name it1--if the word did not possess a little too much local color1--an anthropometric guillotine2 so quickly and with the precision of a machine1 does it give the most important measurements of the body1 which makes the practice of anthropometry very easy1 even to people who are entire strangers to the science2 and it facilitates1 moreover1 the examination of the description of individual criminals1 the perfection of which will always remain one of the most glorious distinctions of ,m4 ,bertillon4 ,and at the same time that this instrument renders services to the administration of justice1 it permits on a grand scale observations which hitherto were only obtainable by the learned4 ,experiments were made a short time ago by ,mr4 ,rossi1 who studied the result of these measurements in #ajj criminals 7nearly all thieves74 ,he found the breadth of the span of the arms to be greater than the height of body in #hh2 and in #aa to be less4 ,in #cj he found the right foot larger2 in #eh he found the left foot larger2 in #ab both feet equal4 ,the right arms of #dc per cent4 were longer than the left1 and the left in #ed per cent4 longer than the right4 ,which confirms to a marvellous degree the gaucherie1 mancinism1 or structural misproportion1 that had before been indicated by dynamometry and the study of the walk of criminals4#de #de ,archiv4 di ,psichiatria1 #ahhi1 ,vol4 x4 p4 #aia4 ,the very frequent recurrence of anatomical misproportion and gaucherie could not be better confirmed2 and there are in this atavistic symptoms1 for ,rollet has observed in #db anthropoids the left humerus to be longer than the right1 in the proportion of #fj to #ajj1 while among men the proportion is only #g out of #ajj4 7,revue ,scientifique1 #ahhi47 ,this anatomical misproportion ,i have very recently verified with ,mr4 ,ottolenghi by measurements of the two hands1 the middle fingers1 and the feet1 right and left1 in #ij normal persons and in #ajj born criminals4#df 7,archiv4 di ,psichiatria1 ,x4 #h47 #df ,,hand ,,longer4 ,,middle ,,finger4 ,,foot4 ,,types4 ,,right4 ,,left4 ,,right4 ,,left4 ,,right4 ,,left4 ,,per ,,centum4 ,,per ,,centum4 ,,per ,,centum4 ,normal persons #add #aa #aff #aee #che #aef ,criminals #e #be #aj #bg #bg #ce ,swindlers #dc #ac #ac #bag #bag #bf ,ravishers #g #adb #adb #bhd #ceg #ceg ,maimers #ae #be #e #be #bj #ee ,thieves #j #cdh #ac #cjd #bf #bff ,pickpockets #j #ce #e #cj #ce #be ,tattooing4--,i was under the belief that in this respect nothing more was to be said after the beautiful studies of ,messrs4 ,lacassagne and ,marro1 and after my own4#dg #dg ,see ,nouvelle ,revue2 also my ,uomo ,delinquente1 #dth ed41 #ahhi4 ,however1 the researches made by ,messrs4 ,severi1 ,lucchini1 and ,boselli on #d1jjj new criminals have given results of a high importance and first of all a proportion eight fold greater than that of the alienists of the same district 7,florence and ,lucca74 ,the prevalency of this practice is enormous2 it amounts to #dj in #ajj among military criminals and to #cc in #ajj among criminals under age2 the women give a proportion of only #af in #ajj1 but this would be increased to #b in #ajj if we included certain kinds of fly-tattooing 7tatouages mouches7 resembling beauty spots1 which are found even in high life prostitution4 ,what chiefly astonishes us in these researches1 next to the frequency of the phenomena1 is the specific character of the tattooings3 their obscenity1 the vaunting of crime1 and the strange contrast of evil passions and the highest sentiments4 ,m4 ,c4441 aged #bg years1 convicted at least fifty times for affrays1 and the assaulting and wounding of men and horses1 has the history of his crimes literally written on his skin2 and in this respect1 let us note that the infamous ,de ,rosny1 who only lately committed suicide in ,lyons1 had her body covered with tattooings in the form of erotic figures2 one could read there the list of her lovers and the dates at which she left them4 ,f4 ,l4441 a carrier1 aged #bf years1 several times convicted1 bears on his breast a heart pierced by a poniard 7the sign of vengeance71 and on his right hand a female singer of a caf chantant1 of whom he was enamoured4 ,by the side of these tattooings1 and others which propriety forbids us to cite1#dh one sees with surprise the picture of a tomb with the epitaph3 ,to my beloved father4 ,strange contradictions of the human mind6 #dh ,see ,atlas de ,l',homme ,criminel4 #ahhh4 ,alcan4 ,a certain ,b4441 a deserter1 has on his chest a ,st4 ,george and the cross of the ,legion of ,honor1 and on the right arm a woman1 very little dressed1 who drinks with the inscription3 ,let us wet the interior a little4 ,q4 ,a4441 a laborer1 convicted many times for theft1 expelled from ,france and ,switzerland1 has on his chest two ,swiss gendarmes with the words ,long live the ,republic6 ,on his right arm he has a heart pierced through1 and at the side the head of a fish--a mackerel1 to signify that he will poniard a bully1 his rival4 ,we have seen on the left arm of another thief1 a pot with a lemon tree1 and the initials ,v4 ,g4 7vengeance72 which in the strange language of the criminals means3 treason1 and1 afterwards1 revenge4 ,he did not conceal from us the fact that his constant thought was to revenge himself on the woman who loved him and then abandoned him4 ,his desire was to cut off her nose4 ,his brother offered to perform the operation for him1 but this he refused1 reserving for himself the pleasure of executing his purpose when he should ultimately be liberated4 ,one sees1 therefore1 from these few examples1 that there is among criminals a kind of hieroglyphical writing1 but which is not regulated or fixed4 ,the system is founded on daily happenings and slang1 as would be the case among primitive mankind4 ,very often1 in fact1 a key signifies among thieves the silence of secrecy2 and a death's-head 7the bare skull71 revenge4 ,sometimes points are used instead of figures4 ,in this way one criminal marked himself with #ag points1 which means1 to his mind1 that he proposes to inflict injury on his enemy seventeen times1 whenever he meets with him4 ,the criminal tattooers of ,naples have the habit of making long inscriptions on their bodies2 but initials are used instead of words4 ,many ,camorrists of ,naples carry a tattooing which represents iron bars1 behind which there is a prisoner and underneath the initials ,q4 ,f4 ,q4 ,p4 ,m42 which means3 ,quando finiranno queste pene8 ,mai6 7,when will these pains end8 ,never67 ,others bear the epigraph ,c4 ,g4 ,p4 ,v41 etc41 which means3 ,courage1 galeriens1 pour voler et piler2 nous devons tout mettre sang et feu6 7,courage1 convicts1 to steal and to rob2 we must put all to the sword and fire67 ,we see here at once that certain forms of tattooing are employed by criminal federations1 and serve as a sort of rallying-call4 ,in ,bavaria and in the ,south of ,germany1 the pickpockets1 who are united together in real alliances1 recognise each other by the epigraphic tattooing ,t and ,l1 which means ,thal und ,land 7valley and country72 words which they must exchange in a low voice when they meet each other1 in order not to be denounced to the police4 ,a thief ,r4441 who has on his right arm a design representing two hands crossed1 and the word union 7unity7 surrounded by a garland of flowers1 told us that this tattooing is extensively adopted by malefactors in the ,south of ,france 7,draguignan74 ,according to the revelations made to us by emerited ,camorrists1 a lizard or a serpent denotes the first grade of this dangerous association4 ,i pass over in silence1 and for good reasons1 the tattooings spread over all the remaining parts of the body4 ,in the ,revista de ,antropologia ,criminal1 a new publication which has just appeared in ,madrid1 ,mr4 ,sallilas has published an excellent study relative to the tattooing of ,spanish criminals4 ,according to him1 this is a frequent custom among murderers4 ,the predominance of the religious character is there noticeable1 but always with the seal of lewd obscenity1 universally observed4 ,i have lately had occasion to verify up to what point the impulsion which leads criminals to inflict on themselves this strange operation1 is atavistic4 ,one of the most incorrigible thieves ,i have met1 who has six brothers tattooed like himself1 begged of me1 notwithstanding he was half covered with the most obscene tattooings1 to find him a professional tattooer who should complete what might well be called the carpeting of his skin4 ,when the tattooing is very odd and grotesque1 and spreads over the whole body1 he said1 it is for us thieves what the black dress coat and the decorated vest is to society4 ,the more we are tattooed the greater is our esteem for one another2 the more an individual is tattooed1 the more authority has he over his companions4 ,on the other hand1 he who is not much tattooed enjoys no influence whatsoever with us2 is not considered a thorough scoundrel1 and has not the estimation of his fellows4 ,very often1 another told me1 when we visited prostitutes1 and they saw us covered all over with tattooings1 they overwhelmed us with presents1 and gave us money instead of demanding it4 ,if all that is not atavism1 atavism does not exist in science4 ,of this characteristic1 of course1 as of all the other characteristics of criminals1 one may say that it is to be met with among normal people4 ,but the chief thing here is its proportion1 its commonness1 and the exaggerated extent to which it is practised4 ,among honest1 respectable people its peculiar complexion1 its local and obscene coloring1 and the useless1 vain1 and imprudent display of crime are wanting4 ,again1 it will probably be objected that this is not psychology1 and that only through the latter science can we trace out the picture of the criminal4 ,i could well answer here1 that these tattooings are really psychological phenomena4 ,and ,i may add that ,mr4 ,ferri1 in the introductory part of his work on ,homicides1 has given us in addition to a real statistical psychology1 an analysis of all criminal propensities and of their extent before and after the crime4 ,among born criminals1 for example1 #db in #ajj always deny the crime with which they are charged1 while among occasional criminals1 and in particular among maimers1 only #ba in #ajj deny all2 of the first #a in #ajj1 and of the second #b in #ajj confess their crime with tears2 etc4#di #di ,l',omicidio1 ,turin1 #ahij4 ,,cesare ,,lombroso4 ,prof4 ,lombroso has in preparation for this series of criminological studies1 an essay on the physiognomy of the ,anarchists4--,,ed4 ,,the ,,squaring ,,of ,,the ,,circle4 ,,an ,,historical ,,sketch ,,of ,,the ,,problem ,,from ,,the ,,earliest ,,times ,,to ,,the ,,present ,,day4#ej #ej ,from ,holtzendorff and ,virchow's ,sammlung gemeinverstndlicher wissenschaftlicher ,vortrge1 ,heft #fg4 ,hamburg3 ,verlagsanstalt1 etc4 ,i4 ,universal interest in the problem4 ,for two and a half thousand years1 both trained and untrained minds have striven in vain to solve the problem known as the squaring of the circle4 ,now that geometers have at last succeeded in giving a rigid demonstration of the impossibility of solving the problem with ruler and compasses1 it seems fitting and opportune to cast a glance into the nature and history of this very ancient problem4 ,and this will be found all the more justifiable in view of the fact that the squaring of the circle1 at least in name1 is very widely known outside of the narrow limits of professional mathematicians4 ,the resolution of the ,french ,academy4 ,the ,proceedings of the ,french ,academy for the year #agge contain at page #fa the resolution of the ,academy not to examine from that time on1 any so-called solutions of the quadrature of the circle that might be handed in4 ,the ,academy was driven to this determination by the overwhelming multitude of professed solutions of the famous problem1 which were sent to it every month in the year1--solutions which of course were an invariable attestation of the ignorance and self-consciousness of their authors1 but which suffered collectively from a very important error in mathematics3 they were wrong4 ,since that time all professed solutions of the problem received by the ,academy find a sure haven in the waste-basket1 and remain unanswered for all time4 ,the circle-squarer1 however1 sees in this high-handed manner of rejection only the envy of the great towards his grand intellectual discovery4 ,he is determined to meet with recognition1 and appeals therefore to the public4 ,the newspapers must obtain for him the appreciation that scientific societies have denied4 ,and every year the old mathematical sea-serpent more than once disports itself in the columns of our papers1 that a ,mr4 ,n4 ,n41 of ,p4 ,p41 has at last solved the problem of the quadrature of the circle4 ,general ignorance of quadrators4 ,but what kind of people are these circle-squarers1 when examined by the light8 ,almost always they will be found to be imperfectly educated persons1 whose mathematical knowledge does not exceed that of a modern college freshman4 ,it is seldom that they know accurately what the requirements of the problem are and what its nature2 they never know the two and a half thousand years' history of the problem2 and they have no idea whatever of the important investigations and results which have been made with reference to the problem by great and real mathematicians in every century down to our time4 ,a cyclometric type4 ,yet great as is the quantum of ignorance that circle-squarers intermix with their intellectual products1 the lavish supply of conceit and self-consciousness with which they season their performances is still greater4 ,i have not far to go to furnish a verification of this4 ,a book printed in ,hamburg in the year #ahdj lies before me1 in which the author thanks ,almighty ,god at every second page that ,he has selected him and no one else to solve the 'problem phenomenal' of mathematics1 so long sought for1 so fervently desired1 and attempted by millions4 ,after the modest author has proclaimed himself the unmasker of ,archimedes's deceit1 he says3 ,it thus has pleased our mother nature to withhold this mathematical jewel from the eye of human investigation1 until she thought it fitting to reveal truth to simplicity4 ,this will suffice to show the great self-consciousness of the author4 ,but it does not suffice to prove his ignorance4 ,he has no conception of mathematical demonstration2 he takes it for granted that things are so because they seem so to him4 ,errors of logic1 also1 are abundantly found in his book4 ,but apart from this general incorrectness let us see wherein the real gist of his fallacy consists4 ,it requires considerable labor to find out what this is from the turgid language and bombastic style in which the author has buried his conclusions4 ,but it is this4 ,the author inscribes a square in a circle1 circumscribes another about it1 then points out that the inside square is made up of four congruent triangles1 whereas the circumscribed square is made up of eight such triangles2 from which fact1 seeing that the circle is larger than the one square and smaller than the other1 he draws the bold conclusion that the circle is equal in area to six such triangles4 ,it is hardly conceivable that a rational being could infer that something which is greater than #d and less than #h must necessarily be #f4 ,but with a man that attempts the squaring of the circle this kind of ratiocination is possible4 ,similarly in the case of all other attempted solutions of the problem1 either logical fallacies or violations of elementary arithmetical or geometrical truths may be pointed out4 ,only they are not always of such a trivial nature as in the book just mentioned4 ,let us now inquire whence the inclination arises which leads people to take up the quadrature of the circle and to attempt to solve it4 ,the allurements of the problem4 ,attention must first be called to the antiquity of the problem4 ,a quadrature was attempted in ,egypt #ejj years before the exodus of the ,israelites4 ,among the ,greeks the problem never ceased to play a part that greatly influenced the progress of mathematics4 ,and in the middle ages also the squaring of the circle sporadically appears as the philosopher's stone of mathematics4 ,the problem has thus never ceased to be dealt with and considered4 ,but it is not by the antiquity of the problem that circle-squarers are enticed1 but by the allurement which everything exerts that is calculated to raise the individual out of the mass of ordinary humanity1 and to bind about his temples the laurel crown of celebrity4 ,it is ambition that spurred men on in ancient ,greece and still spurs them on in modern times to crack this primeval mathematical nut4 ,whether they are competent thereto is a secondary consideration4 ,they look upon the squaring of the circle as the grand prize of a lottery that can just as well fall to their lot as to that of any other4 ,they do not remember that-- ,toil before honor is placed by sagacious decrees of ,immortals1 and that it requires years of continued studies to gain possession of the mathematical weapons that are indispensably necessary to attack the problem1 but which even in the hands of the most distinguished mathematical strategists have not sufficed to take the stronghold4 ,about the only problem known to the lay world4 ,but how is it1 we must further ask1 that it happens to be the squaring of the circle and not some other unsolved mathematical problem upon which the efforts of people are bestowed who have no knowledge of mathematics yet busy themselves with mathematical questions8 ,the question is answered by the fact that the squaring of the circle is about the only mathematical problem that is known to the unprofessional world1--at least by name4 ,even among the ,greeks the problem was very widely known outside of mathematical circles4 ,in the eyes of the ,grecian layman1 as at present among many of his modern brethren1 occupation with this problem was regarded as the most important and essential business of mathematicians4 ,in fact they had a special word to designate this species of activity2 namely1 1 which means to busy one's self with the quadrature4 ,in modern times1 also1 every educated person1 though he be not a mathematician1 knows the problem by name1 and knows that it is insolvable1 or at least1 that despite the efforts of the most famous mathematicians it has not yet been solved4 ,for this reason the phrase to square the circle1 is now used in the sense of attempting the impossible4 ,belief that rewards have been offered4 ,but in addition to the antiquity of the problem1 and the fact also that it is known to the lay world1 we have yet a third factor to point out that induces people to take up with it4 ,this is the report that has been spread abroad for a hundred years now1 that the ,academies1 the ,queen of ,england1 or some other influential person1 has offered a great prize to be given to the one that first solves the problem4 ,as a matter of fact we find the hope of obtaining this large prize of money the principal incitement to action with many circle-squarers4 ,and the author of the book above referred to begs his readers to lend him their assistance in obtaining the prizes offered4 ,the problem among mathematicians4 ,although the opinion is widely current in the unprofessional world1 that professional mathematicians are still busied with the solution of the problem1 this is by no means the case4 ,on the contrary1 for some two hundred years1 the endeavors of many considerable mathematicians have been solely directed towards demonstrating with exactness that the problem is insolvable4 ,it is1 as a rule1--and naturally1--more difficult to prove that something is impossible than to prove that it is possible4 ,and thus it has happened1 that up to within a few years ago1 despite the employment of the most varied and the most comprehensive methods of modern mathematics1 no one succeeded in supplying the wished-for demonstration of the problem's impossibility4 ,at last1 ,professor ,lindemann1 of ,knigsberg1 in ,june1 #ahhb1 succeeded in furnishing a demonstration1--and the first demonstration1--that it is impossible by the exclusive employment of ruler and compasses to construct a square that is mathematically exactly equal in area to a given circle4 ,the demonstration1 naturally1 was not effected with the help of the old elementary methods2 for if it were1 it would surely have been accomplished centuries ago2 but methods were requisite that were first furnished by the theory of definite integrals and departments of higher algebra developed in the last decades2 in other words it required the direct and indirect preparatory labor of many centuries to make finally possible a demonstration of the insolvability of this historic problem4 ,of course1 this demonstration will have no more effect than the resolution of the ,paris ,academy of #agge1 in causing the fecund race of circle-squarers to vanish from the face of the earth4 ,in the future as in the past1 there will be people who know nothing1 and will not want to know anything of this demonstration1 and who believe that they cannot help but succeed in a matter in which others have failed1 and that just they have been appointed by ,providence to solve the famous puzzle4 ,but unfortunately the ineradicable passion of wanting to solve the quadrature of the circle has also its serious side4 ,circle-squarers are not always so self-contented as the author of the book we have mentioned4 ,they often see or at least divine the insuperable difficulties that tower up before them1 and the conflict between their aspirations and their performances1 the consciousness that they want to solve the problem but are unable to solve it1 darkens their soul and1 lost to the world1 they become interesting subjects for the science of psychiatry4 ,,ii4 ,nature of the problem4 ,numerical rectification4 ,if we have a circle before us1 it is easy for us to determine the length of its radius or of its diameter1 which must be double that of the radius2 and the question next arises to find the number that represents how many times larger its circumference1 that is the length of the circular line1 is than its radius or its diameter4 ,from the fact that all circles have the same shape it follows that this proportion will always be the same for both large and small circles4 ,now1 since the time of ,archimedes1 all civilised nations that have cultivated mathematics1 have called the number that denotes how many times larger than the diameter the circumference of a circle is1 1--the ,greek initial letter of the word periphery4 ,to compute 1 therefore1 means to calculate how many times larger the circumference of a circle is than its diameter4 ,this calculation is called the numerical rectification of the circle4 ,the numerical quadrature4 ,next to the calculation of the circumference1 the calculation of the superficial contents of a circle by means of its radius or diameter is perhaps most important2 that is1 the computation of how much area that part of a plane which lies within a circle measures4 ,this calculation is called the numerical quadrature4 ,it depends1 however1 upon the problem of numerical rectification2 that is1 upon the calculation of the magnitude of 4 ,for it is demonstrated in elementary geometry1 that the area of a circle is equal to the area of a triangle produced by drawing in the circle a radius1 erecting at the extremity of the same a tangent1--that is1 in this case1 a perpendicular1--cutting off upon the latter the length of the circumference1 measuring from the extremity1 and joining the point thus obtained with the centre of the circle4 ,but it follows from this that the area of a circle is as many times larger than the square upon its radius as the number amounts to4 ,constructive rectification and quadrature4 ,the numerical rectification and numerical quadrature of the circle based upon the computation of the number 1 are to be clearly distinguished from problems that require a straight line equal in length to the circumference of a circle1 or a square equal in area to a circle1 to be constructively produced out of its radius or its diameter2 problems which might properly be called constructive rectification or constructive quadrature4 ,approximately1 of course1 by employing an approximate value for these problems are easily solvable4 ,but to solve a problem of construction1 in geometry1 means to solve it with mathematical exactitude4 ,if the value were exactly equal to the ratio of two whole numbers to one another1 the constructive rectification would present no difficulties4 ,for example1 suppose the circumference of a circle were exactly #c-a_/g times greater than its diameter2 then the diameter could be divided into seven equal parts1 which could be easily done by the principles of planimetry with ruler and compasses2 then we would produce to the amount of such a part a straight line exactly three times larger than the diameter1 and should thus obtain a straight line exactly equal to the circumference of the circle4 ,but as a matter of fact1 and as has actually been demonstrated1 there do not exist two whole numbers1 be they ever so great1 that exactly represent by their proportion to one another the number 4 ,consequently1 a rectification of the kind just described does not attain the object desired4 ,it might be asked here1 whether from the demonstrated fact that the number is not equal to the ratio of two whole numbers however great1 it does not immediately follow that it is impossible to construct a straight line exactly equal in length to the circumference of a circle2 thus demonstrating at once the impossibility of solving the problem4 ,this question is to be answered in the negative4 ,for there are in geometry many sets of two lines of which the one can be easily constructed from the other1 notwithstanding the fact that no two whole numbers can be found to represent the ratio of the two lines4 ,the side and the diagonal of a square1 for instance1 are so constituted4 ,it is true the ratio of the latter two magnitudes is nearly that of #e to #g4 ,but this proportion is not exact1 and there are in fact no two numbers that represent the ratio exactly4 ,nevertheless1 either of these two lines can be easily constructed from the other by the sole employment of ruler and compasses4 ,this might be the case1 too1 with the rectification of the circle2 and consequently from the impossibility of representing by the ratio between two whole numbers the impossibility of the problem of rectification is not inferable4 ,the quadrature of the circle stands and falls with the problem of rectification4 ,this is based upon the truth above mentioned1 that a circle is equal in area to a right-angled triangle1 in which one side is equal to the radius of the circle and the other to the circumference4 ,supposing1 accordingly1 that the circumference of the circle were rectified1 then we could construct this triangle4 ,but every triangle1 as is taught in the elements of planimetry1 can1 with the help of ruler and compasses be converted into a square exactly equal to it in area4 ,so that1 therefore1 supposing the rectification of the circumference of a circle were successfully performed1 a square could be constructed that would be exactly equal in area to the circle4 ,the dependence upon one another of the three problems of the computation of the number 1 of the quadrature of the circle1 and its rectification1 thus obliges us1 in dealing with the history of the quadrature1 to regard investigations with respect to the value of and attempts to rectify the circle as of equal importance1 and to consider them accordingly4 ,conditions of the geometrical solution4 ,we have used repeatedly in the course of this discussion the expression to construct with ruler and compasses4 ,it will be necessary to explain what is meant by the specification of these two instruments4 ,when such a number of conditions is annexed to a requirement in geometry to construct a certain figure that the construction only of one figure or a limited number of figures is possible in accordance with the conditions given2 such a complete requirement is called a problem of construction1 or briefly a problem4 ,when a problem of this kind is presented for solution it is necessary to reduce it to simpler problems1 already recognised as solvable2 and since these latter depend in their turn upon other1 still simpler problems1 we are finally brought back to certain fundamental problems upon which the rest are based but which are not themselves reducible to problems less simple4 ,these fundamental problems are1 so to speak1 the undermost stones of the edifice of geometrical construction4 ,the question next arises as to what problems may be properly regarded as fundamental2 and it has been found1 that the solution of a great part of the problems that arise in elementary planimetry rests upon the solution of only five original problems4 ,they are3 #a4 ,the construction of a straight line which shall pass through two given points4 #b4 ,the construction of a circle the centre of which is a given point and the radius of which has a given length4 #c4 ,the determination of the point that lies coincidently on two given straight lines extended as far as is necessary1--in case such a point 7point of intersection7 exists4 #d4 ,the determination of the two points that lie coincidently on a given straight line and a given circle1--in case such common points 7points of intersection7 exist4 #e4 ,the determination of the two points that lie coincidently on two given circles1--in case such common points 7points of intersection7 exist4 ,for the solution of the three last of these five problems the eye alone is needed1 while for the solution of the two first problems1 besides pencil1 ink1 chalk1 and the like1 additional special instruments are required3 for the solution of the first problem a ruler is most generally used1 and for the solution of the second a pair of compasses4 ,but it must be remembered that it is no concern of geometry what mechanical instruments are employed in the solution of the five problems mentioned4 ,geometry simply limits itself to the presupposition that these problems are solvable1 and regards a complicated problem as solved if1 upon a specification of the constructions of which the solution consists1 no other requirements are demanded than the five above mentioned4 ,since1 accordingly1 geometry does not itself furnish the solution of these five problems1 but rather exacts them1 they are termed postulates4#ea ,all problems of planimetry are not reducible to these five problems alone4 ,there are problems that can be solved only by assuming other problems as solvable which are not included in the five given2 for example1 the construction of an ellipse1 having given its centre and its major and minor axes4 ,many problems1 however1 possess the property of being solvable with the assistance solely of the five postulates above formulated1 and where this is the case they are said to be constructible with ruler and compasses1 or elementarily constructible4 #ea ,usually geometers mention only two postulates 7,nos4 #a and #b74 ,but since to geometry proper it is indifferent whether only the eye1 or additional special mechanical instruments are necessary1 the author has regarded it more correct in point of method to assume five postulates4 ,after these general remarks upon the solvability of problems of geometrical construction1 which an understanding of the history of the squaring of the circle makes indispensably necessary1 the significance of the question whether the quadrature of the circle is or is not solvable1 that is elementarily solvable1 will become intelligible4 ,but the conception just discussed of elementary solvability only gradually took clear form1 and we therefore find among the ,greeks as well as among the ,arabs1 endeavors1 successful in some respects1 that aimed at solving the quadrature of the circle with other expedients than the five postulates4 ,we have also to take these endeavors into consideration1 and especially so as they1 no less than the unsuccessful efforts at elementary solution1 have upon the whole advanced the science of geometry1 and contributed much to the clarification of geometrical ideas4 ,,iii4 ,the ,egyptian quadrature4 ,in the oldest mathematical work that we possess we find a rule that tells us how to make a square which is equal in area to a given circle4 ,this celebrated book1 the ,papyrus ,rhind of the ,british ,museum1 translated and explained by ,eisenlohr 7,leipsic1 #ahhg71 was written1 as it is stated in the work1 in the thirty-third year of the reign of ,king ,ra-a-us1 by a scribe of that monarch1 named ,ahmes4 ,the composition of the work falls accordingly into the period of the two ,hiksos dynasties1 that is1 in the period between #bjjj and #agjj ,b4,c4 ,but there is another important circumstance attached to this4 ,ahmes mentions in his introduction that he composed his work after the model of old treatises1 written in the time of ,king ,raenmat2 whence it appears that the originals of the mathematical expositions of ,ahmes1 are half a thousand years older yet than the ,papyrus ,rhind4 ,the rule given in this papyrus for obtaining a square equal to a circle1 specifies that the diameter of the circle shall be shortened one ninth of its length and upon the shortened line thus obtained a square erected4 ,of course1 the area of a square of this construction is only approximately equal to the area of the circle4 ,an idea may be obtained of the degree of exactness of this original1 primitive quadrature by our remarking1 that if the diameter of the circle in question is one metre in length1 the square that is supposed to be equal to the circle is a little less than half a square decimetre larger2 an approximation not so accurate as that computed by ,archimedes1 yet much more correct than many a one later employed4 ,it is not known how ,ahmes or his predecessors arrived at this approximate quadrature2 but it is certain that it was handed down in ,egypt from century to century1 and in late ,egyptian times it repeatedly appears4 ,the ,biblical and ,babylonian quadratures4 ,besides among the ,egyptians1 we also find in pre-,grecian antiquity an attempt at circle-computation among the ,babylonians4 ,this is not a quadrature2 but aims at the rectification of the circumference4 ,the ,babylonian mathematicians had discovered1 that if the radius of a circle be successively inscribed as chord within its circumference1 after the sixth inscription we arrive at the point of departure1 and they concluded from this that the circumference of a circle must be a little larger than a line which is six times as long as the radius1 that is three times as long as the diameter4 ,a trace of this ,babylonian method of computation may even be found in the bible2 for in #a ,kings vii4 #bc1 and #b ,chron4 iv4 #b1 the great laver is described1 which under the name of the molten sea constituted an ornament of the temple of ,solomon2 and it is said of this vessel that it measured ten cubits from brim to brim1 and thirty cubits round about4 ,the number #c as the ratio between the circumference and the diameter is still more plainly given in the ,talmud1 where we read that that which measures three lengths in circumference is one length across4 ,among the ,greeks4 ,with regard to the earlier ,greek mathematicians1--as ,thales and ,pythagoras1--we know that they acquired the foundations of their mathematical knowledge in ,egypt4 ,but nothing has been handed down to us which shows that they knew of the old ,egyptian quadrature1 or that they dealt with the problem at all4 ,but tradition says1 that1 subsequently1 the teacher of ,euripides and ,pericles1 the great philosopher and mathematician ,anaxagoras1 whom ,plato so highly praised1 drew the quadrature of the circle in prison1 in the year #dcd4 ,this is the account of ,plutarch in the seventeenth chapter of his work ,de ,exilio4 ,anaxagoras4 ,the method is not told us in which ,anaxagoras had supposably solved the problem1 and it is not said whether knowingly or unknowingly he accomplished an approximate solution after the manner of ,ahmes4 ,but at any rate1 to ,anaxagoras belongs the merit of having called attention to a problem that bore great fruit1 in having incited ,grecian scholars to busy themselves with geometry1 and thus more and more to advance that science4 ,the quadratrix of ,hippias of ,elis4 ,again1 it is reported that the mathematician ,hippias of ,elis invented a curved line that could be made to serve a double purpose3 first1 to trisect an angle1 and second1 to square the circle4 ,this curved line is the so often mentioned by the later ,greek mathematicians1 and by the ,romans called quadratrix4 ,regarding the nature of this curve we have exact knowledge from ,pappus4 ,but it will be sufficient1 here1 to state that the quadratrix is not a circle nor a portion of a circle1 so that its construction is not possible by means of the postulates enumerated in the preceding section4 ,and therefore the solution of the quadrature of the circle founded on the construction of the quadratrix is not an elementary solution in the sense discussed in the last section4 ,we can1 it is true1 conceive a mechanism that will draw this curve as well as compasses draw a circle2 and with the assistance of a mechanism of this description the squaring of the circle is solvable with exactitude4 ,but if it be allowed to employ in a solution an apparatus especially adapted thereto1 every problem may be said to be solvable4 ,strictly taken1 the invention of the curve of ,hippias substitutes for one insuperable difficulty another equally insuperable4 ,some time afterwards1 about the year #cej1 the mathematician ,dinostratus showed that the quadratrix could also be used to solve the problem of rectification1 and from that time on this problem plays almost the same rle in ,grecian mathematics as the related problem of quadrature4 ,the ,sophists' solution4 ,as these problems gradually became known to the non-mathematicians of ,greece1 attempts at solution at once sprang up that are worthy of a place by the side of the solutions of modern amateur circle-squarers4 ,the ,sophists1 especially1 believed themselves competent by seductive dialectic to take a stronghold that had defied the intellectual onslaughts of the greatest mathematicians4 ,with verbal nicety1 amounting to puerility1 it was said that the squaring of the circle depended upon the finding of a number which represented in itself both a square and a circle2 a square by being a square number1 a circle in that it ended with the same number as the root number from which1 by multiplication with itself1 it was produced4 ,the number #cf1 accordingly1 was1 as they thought1 the one that embodied the solution of the famous problem4 ,antiphon's attempt4 ,contrasted with this twisting of words the speculations of ,bryson and ,antiphon1 both contemporaries of ,socrates1 though inexact1 appear in high degree intelligent4 ,antiphon divided the circle into four equal arcs1 and by joining the points of division obtained a square2 he then divided each arc again into two equal parts and thus obtained an inscribed octagon2 thence he constructed an inscribed dodecagon1 and perceived that the figure so inscribed more and more approached the shape of a circle4 ,in this way1 he said1 one should proceed1 until there was inscribed in the circle a polygon whose sides by reason of their smallness should coincide with the circle4 ,now this polygon could1 by methods already taught by the ,pythagoreans1 be converted into a square of equal area2 and upon the basis of this fact ,antiphon regarded the squaring of the circle as solved4 ,nothing can be said against this method except that1 however far the bisection of the arcs is carried1 the result must still remain an approximate one4 ,bryson of ,heraclea4 ,the attempt of ,bryson of ,heraclea was better still2 for this scholar did not rest content with finding a square that was very little smaller than the circle1 but obtained by means of circumscribed polygons another square that was very little larger than the circle4 ,only ,bryson committed the error of believing that the area of the circle was the arithmetical mean between an inscribed and a circumscribed polygon of an equal number of sides4 ,notwithstanding this error1 however1 to ,bryson belongs the merit1 first1 of having introduced into mathematics by his emphasis of the necessity of a square which was too large and one which was too small1 the conception of maximum and minimum limits in approximations2 and secondly1 by his comparison with a circle of the inscribed and circumscribed regular polygons1 the merit of having indicated to ,archimedes the way by which an approximate value for was to be reached4 ,hippocrates of ,chios4 ,not long after ,antiphon and ,bryson1 ,hippocrates of ,chios treated the problem1 which had now become more and more famous1 from a new point of view4 ,hippocrates was not satisfied with approximate equalities1 and searched for curvilinearly bounded plane figures which should be mathematically equal to a rectilinearly bounded figure1 and therefore could be converted by ruler and compasses into a square equal in area4 ,first1 ,hippocrates found that the crescent-shaped plane figure produced by drawing two perpendicular radii in a circle and describing upon the line joining their extremities a semicircle1 is exactly equal in area to the triangle that is formed by this line of junction and the two radii2 and upon the basis of this fact the endeavors of the untiring scholar were directed towards converting a circle into a crescent4 ,naturally he was unable to attain this object1 but by his efforts to this end he discovered many a new geometrical truth2 among others the generalised form of the theorem mentioned1 which bears to the present day the name of ,lunulae ,hippocratis1 the lunes of ,hippocrates4 ,thus it appears1 in the case of ,hippocrates1 in the plainest light1 how the very insolvable problems of science are qualified to advance science2 in that they incite investigators to devote themselves with persistence to its study and thus to fathom its depths4 ,euclid's avoidance of the problem4 ,following ,hippocrates in the historical line of the great ,grecian geometricians comes the systematist ,euclid1 whose rigid formulation of geometrical principles has remained the standard presentation down to the present century4 ,the ,elements of ,euclid1 however1 contain nothing relating to the quadrature of the circle or to circle-computation4 ,comparisons of surfaces which relate to the circle are indeed found in the book1 but nowhere a computation of the circumference of a circle or of the area of a circle4 ,this palpable gap in ,euclid's system was filled by ,archimedes1 the greatest mathematician of antiquity4 ,archimedes's calculations4 ,archimedes was born in ,syracuse in the year #bhg ,b4 ,c41 and devoted his life1 there spent1 to the mathematical and the physical sciences1 which he enriched with invaluable contributions4 ,he lived in ,syracuse till the taking of the town by ,marcellus1 in the year #bab ,b4 ,c41 when he fell by the hand of a ,roman soldier whom he had forbidden to destroy the figures he had drawn in the sand4 ,to the greatest performances of ,archimedes the successful computation of the number unquestionably belongs4 ,like ,bryson he started with regular inscribed and circumscribed polygons4 ,he showed how it was possible1 beginning with the perimeter of an inscribed hexagon1 which is equal to six radii1 to obtain by way of calculation the perimeter of a regular dodecagon1 and then the perimeter of a figure having double the number of sides of the preceding one4 ,treating1 then1 the circumscribed polygons in a similar manner1 and proceeding with both series of polygons up to a regular #if-sided polygon1 he perceived on the one hand that the ratio of the perimeter of the inscribed #if-sided polygon to the diameter was greater than #fccf 3 #bjag-a_/d1 and on the other hand1 that the corresponding ratio with respect to the circumscribed #if-sided polygon was smaller than #adfhh 3 #dfgc-a_/b4 ,he inferred from this1 that the number 1 the ratio of the circumference to the diameter1 was greater than the fraction #fccf_/bjag-a_/d and smaller than #adfhh_/dfgc-a_/b4 ,reducing the two limits thus found for the value of 1 ,archimedes then showed that the first fraction was greater than and that #c-aj_/ga and that the second fraction was smaller than #c-a_/g1 whence it followed with certainty that the value sought for lay between #c-a_/g and #c-aj_/ga4 ,the larger of these two approximate values is the only one usually learned and employed4 ,that which fills us most with astonishment in the ,archimedean computation of 1 is1 first1 the great acumen and accuracy displayed in all the details of the computation1 and then the unwearied perseverance that he must have exercised in calculating the limits of without the advantages of the ,arabian system of numerals and of the decimal notation4 ,for it must be considered that at many stages of the computation what we call the extraction of roots was necessary1 and that ,archimedes could only by extremely tedious calculations obtain ratios that expressed approximately the roots of given numbers and fractions4 ,the later mathematicians of ,greece4 ,with regard to the mathematicians of ,greece that follow ,archimedes1 all refer to and employ the approximate value of #c-a_/g for 1 without however1 contributing anything essentially new or additional to the problems of quadrature and of cyclometry4 ,thus ,heron of ,alexandria1 the father of surveying1 who flourished about the year #ajj ,b4 ,c41 employs for purposes of practical measurement sometimes the value #c-a_/g for and sometimes even the rougher approximation #c4 ,the astronomer ,ptolemy1 who lived in ,alexandria about the year #aej ,a4 ,d41 and who was famous as being the author of the planetary system universally recognised as correct down to the time of ,copernicus1 was the only one who furnished a more exact value2 this he designated1 in the sexigesimal system of fractional notation which he employed1 by #c1 #h1 #cj1--that is #c and #h_/fj and #cj_/cfjj1 or as we now say #c degrees1 #h minutes 7partes minutae primae71 and #cj seconds 7partes minutae secundae74 ,as a matter of fact1 the expression #c #h_/fj #cj_/cfjj #c-ag_/abj represents the number more exactly than #c-a_/g2 but on the other hand1 is1 by reason of the magnitude of the numbers #ag and #abj as compared with the numbers #a and #g1 more cumbersome4 ,,iv4 ,among the ,romans4 ,in the mathematical sciences1 more than in any other1 the ,romans stood upon the shoulders of the ,greeks4 ,indeed1 with respect to cyclometry1 they not only did not add anything to the ,grecian discoveries1 but often evinced even that they either did not know of the beautiful result obtained by ,archimedes1 or at least did not know how to appreciate it4 ,for instance1 ,vitruvius1 who lived during the time of ,augustus1 computed that a wheel #d feet in diameter must measure #ab-a_/b feet in circumference2 in other words1 he made equal to #c-a_/h4 ,and1 similarly1 a treatise on surveying1 preserved to us in the ,gudian manuscript of the library at ,wolfenbttel1 contains the following instructions to square the circle3 ,divide the circumference of a circle into four parts and make one part the side of a square2 this square will be equal in area to the circle4 ,aside from the fact that the rectification of the arc of a circle is requisite to the construction of a square of this kind1 the ,roman quadrature1 viewed as a calculation1 is more inexact even than any other computation2 for its result is that #d4 ,among the ,hindus4 ,the mathematical performances of the ,hindus were not only greater than those of the ,romans1 but in certain directions even surpassed those of the ,greeks4 ,in the most ancient source for the mathematics of ,india that we know of1 the ,culvastras1 which date back to a little before our chronological era1 we do not find1 it is true1 the squaring of the circle treated of1 but the opposite problem is dealt with1 which might fittingly be termed the circling of the square4 ,the half of the side of a given square is prolonged one third of the excess in length of half the diagonal over half the side1 and the line thus obtained is taken as the radius of the circle equal in area to the square4 ,the simplest way to obtain an idea of the exactness of this construction is to compute how great would have to be if the construction were exactly correct4 ,we find out in this way that the value of upon which the ,indian circling of the square is based1 is about from five to six hundredths smaller than the true value1 whereas the approximate of ,archimedes1 #c-a_/g1 is only from one to two thousandths too large1 and the old ,egyptian value exceeds the true value by from one to two hundredths4 ,cyclometry very probably made great advances among the ,hindus in the first four or five centuries of our era2 for ,aryabhatta1 who lived about the year #ejj after ,christ1 states1 that the ratio of the circumference to the diameter is #fbhcb 3 #bjjjj1 an approximation that in exactness surpasses even that of ,ptolemy4 ,the ,hindu result gives #c4adaf for 1 while really lies between #c4adaeib and #c4adaeic4 ,how the ,hindus obtained this excellent approximate value is told by ,ganea1 the commentator of ,bhskara1 an author of the twelfth century4 ,ganea says that the method of ,archimedes was carried still farther by the ,hindu mathematicians2 that by continually doubling the number of sides they proceeded from the hexagon to a polygon of #chd sides1 and that by the comparison of the circumferences of the inscribed and circumscribed #chd-sided polygons they found that was equal to #cibg3 #abej4 ,it will be seen that the value given by ,bhskara is identical with the value of ,aryabhatta4 ,it is further worthy of remark that the earlier of these two ,hindu mathematicians does not mention either the value #c-a_/g of ,archimedes or the value #c-ag_/abj of ,ptolemy1 but that the later knows of both values and especially recommends that of ,archimedes as the most useful one for practical application4 ,strange to say1 the good approximate value of ,aryabhatta does not occur in ,bramagupta1 the great ,hindu mathematician who flourished in the beginning of the seventh century2 but we find the curious information in this author that the area of a circle is exactly equal to the square root of #aj when the radius is unity4 ,the value of as derivable from this formula1--a value from two to three hundredths too large1--has unquestionably arisen upon ,hindu soil4 ,for it occurs in no ,grecian mathematician2 and ,arabian authors1 who were in a better position than we to know ,greek and ,hindu mathematical literature1 declare that the approximation which makes equal to the square root of #aj1 is of ,hindu origin4 ,it is possible that the ,hindu people1 who were addicted more than any other to numeral mysticism1 sought to find in this approximation some connection with the fact that man has ten fingers2 and ten accordingly is the basis of their numeral system4 ,reviewing the achievements of the ,hindus generally with respect to the problem of the quadrature1 we are brought to recognise that this people1 whose talents lay more in the line of arithmetical computation than in the perception of spatial relations1 accomplished as good as nothing on the pure geometrical side of the problem1 but that the merit belongs to them of having carried the ,archimedean method of computing several stages farther1 and of having obtained in this way a much more exact value for it--a circumstance that is explainable when we consider that the ,hindus are the inventors of our present system of numeral notation1 possessing which they easily outdid ,archimedes1 who employed the awkward ,greek system4 ,among the ,chinese4 ,with regard to the ,chinese1 this people operated in ancient times with the ,babylonian value for 1 or #c2 but possessed knowledge of the approximate value of ,archimedes at least since the end of the sixth century4 ,besides this1 there appears in a number of ,chinese mathematical treatises an approximate value peculiarly their own1 in which #c-g_/ej2 a value1 however1 which notwithstanding it is written in larger figures1 is no better than that of ,archimedes4 ,attempts at the constructive quadrature of the circle are not found among the ,chinese4 ,among the ,arabs4 ,greater were the merits of the ,arabians in the advancement and development of mathematics2 and especially in virtue of the fact that they preserved from oblivion both ,greek and ,hindu mathematics1 and handed them down to the ,christian countries of the ,west4 ,the ,arabians expressly distinguished between the ,archimedean approximate value and the two ,hindu values the square root of #aj and the ratio #fbhcb 3 #bjjjj4 ,this distinction occurs also in ,muhammed ,ibn ,musa ,alchwarizm1 the same scholar who in the beginning of the ninth century brought the principles of our present system of numerical notation from ,india and introduced the same into the ,mohammedan world4 ,the ,arabians1 however1 did not study the numerical quadrature of the circle only1 but also the constructive2 as1 for instance1 ,ibn ,alhaitam1 who lived in ,egypt about the year #ajjj and whose treatise upon the squaring of the circle is preserved in a ,vatican codex1 which has unfortunately not yet been edited4 ,in ,christian times4 ,christian civilisation1 to which we are now about to pass1 produced up to the second half of the fifteenth century extremely insignificant results in mathematics4 ,even with regard to our present problem we have but a single important work to mention2 the work1 namely1 of ,frankos ,von ,lttich1 upon the squaring of the circle1 published in six books1 but only preserved in fragments4 ,the author1 who lived in the first half of the eleventh century1 was probably a pupil of ,pope ,sylvester ,,ii1 himself a not inconsiderable mathematician for his time1 and who also wrote the most celebrated book on geometry of the period4 ,cardinal ,nicolaus ,de ,cusa4 ,greater interest came to be bestowed upon mathematics in general1 but especially on the problem of the quadrature of the circle1 in the second half of the fifteenth century1 when the sciences again began to revive4 ,this interest was especially aroused by ,cardinal ,nicolaus ,de ,cusa1 a man highly esteemed on account of his astronomical and calendarial studies4 ,he claimed to have discovered the quadrature of the circle by the employment solely of compasses and ruler1 and thus attracted the attention of scholars to the now historic problem4 ,people believed the famous ,cardinal1 and marvelled at his wisdom1 until ,regiomontanus1 in letters which he wrote in #adfd and #adfe and which were published in #aecc1 rigidly demonstrated that the ,cardinal's quadrature was incorrect4 ,the construction of ,cusa was as follows4 ,the radius of a circle is prolonged a distance equal to the side of the inscribed square2 the line thus obtained is taken as the diameter of a second circle and in the latter an equilateral triangle is described2 then the perimeter of the latter is equal to the circumference of the original circle4 ,if this construction1 which its inventor regarded as exact1 be considered as a construction of approximation1 it will be found to be more inexact even than the construction resulting from the value #c-a_/g4 ,for by ,cusa's method would be from five to six thousandths smaller than it really is4 ,bovillius and ,orontius ,finaeus4 ,in the beginning of the sixteenth century a certain ,bovillius appears1 who announced anew the construction of ,cusa2 meeting however with no notice4 ,but about the middle of the sixteenth century a book was published which the scholars of the time at first received with interest4 ,it bore the proud title ,de ,rebus ,mathematicis ,hactenus ,desideratis4 ,its author1 ,orontius ,finaeus1 represented that he had overcome all the difficulties that had ever stood in the way of geometrical investigators2 and incidentally he also communicated to the world the true quadrature of the circle4 ,his fame was short-lived4 ,for soon afterwards1 in a book entitled ,de ,erratis ,orontii1 the ,portuguese ,petrus ,nonius demonstrated that ,orontius's quadrature1 like most of his other professed discoveries1 was incorrect4 ,simon ,van ,eyck4 ,in the period following this the number of circle-squarers so increased that we shall have to limit ourselves to those whom mathematicians recognise4 ,and particularly is ,simon ,van ,eyck to be mentioned1 who towards the close of the sixteenth century published a quadrature which was so approximate that the value of derived from it was more exact than that of ,archimedes2 and to disprove it the mathematician ,peter ,metius was obliged to seek a still more accurate value than #c-a_/g4 ,the erroneous quadrature of ,van ,eyck was thus the occasion of ,metius's discovery that the ratio #cee 3 #aac1 or #c-af_/aac1 varied from the true value of by less than one one-millionth1 eclipsing accordingly all values hitherto obtained4 ,moreover1 it is demonstrable by the theory of continued fractions1 that1 admitting figures to four places only1 no two numbers more exactly represent the value of than #cee and #aac4 ,joseph ,scaliger4 ,in the same way the quadrature of the great philologist ,joseph ,scaliger led to refutations4 ,like most circle-squarers who believe in their discovery1 ,scaliger also was little versed in the elements of geometry4 ,he solved1 however1--at least in his own opinion he did1--the famous problem2 and published in #aeib a book upon it1 which bore the pretentious title ,nova ,cyclometria and in which the name of ,archimedes was derided4 ,the worthlessness of his supposed discovery was demonstrated to him by the greatest mathematicians of his time2 namely1 ,vieta1 ,adrianus ,romanus1 and ,clavius4 ,longomontanus1 ,john ,porta1 and ,gregory ,st4 ,vincent4 ,of the erring circle-squarers that flourished before the middle of the seventeenth century three others deserve particular mention--,longomontanus of ,copenhagen1 who rendered such great services to astronomy1 the ,neapolitan ,john ,porta1 and ,gregory of ,st4 ,vincent4 ,longomontanus made #c-adahe_/ajjjjj1 and was so convinced of the correctness of his result that he thanked ,god fervently1 in the preface to his work ,inventio ,quadraturae ,circuli1 that ,he had granted him in his high old age the strength to conquer the celebrated difficulty4 ,john ,porta followed the initiative of ,hippocrates1 and believed he had solved the problem by the comparison of lunes4 ,gregory of ,st4 ,vincent published a quadrature1 the error of which was very hard to detect but was finally discovered by ,descartes4 ,peter ,metius and ,vieta4 ,of the famous mathematicians who dealt with our problem in the period between the close of the fifteenth century and the time of ,newton1 we first meet with ,peter ,metius1 before mentioned1 who succeeded in finding in the fraction #cee 3 #aac the best approximate value for involving only small numbers4 ,the problem received a different advancement at the hands of the famous mathematician ,vieta4 ,vieta was the first to whom the idea occurred of representing with mathematical exactness by an infinite series of continuable operations4 ,by comparison of inscribed and circumscribed polygons1 ,vieta found that we approach nearer and nearer to if we allow the operations of the extraction of the square root of #a_/b1 and of addition and of multiplication to succeed each other in a certain manner1 and that must come out exactly1 if this series of operations could be indefinitely continued4 ,vieta thus found that to a diameter of #ajjjj million units a circumference belongs of #cadae million and from #ibfece to #ibfecf units of the same length4 ,adrianus ,romanus1 ,ludolf ,van ,ceulen4 ,but ,vieta was outdone by the ,netherlander ,adrianus ,romanus1 who added five additional decimal places to the ten of ,vieta4 ,to accomplish this he computed with unspeakable labor the circumference of a regular circumscribed polygon of #ajgcgdahbd sides4 ,this number is the thirtieth power of #b4 ,yet great as the labor of ,adrianus ,romanus was1 that of ,ludolf ,van ,ceulen was still greater2 for the latter calculator succeeded in carrying the ,archimedean process of approximation for the value of to #ce decimal places1 that is1 the deviation from the true value was smaller than one one-thousand quintillionth1 a degree of exactness that we can hardly have any conception of4 ,ludolf published the figures of the tremendous computation that led to this result4 ,his calculation was carefully examined by the mathematician ,griemberger and declared to be correct4 ,ludolf was justly proud of his work1 and following the example of ,archimedes1 requested in his will that the result of his most important mathematical performance1 the computation of to #ce decimal places1 be engraved upon his tombstone2 a request which is said to have been carried out4 ,in honor of ,ludolf1 is called to-day in ,germany the ,ludolfian number4 ,the new method of ,snell4 ,huygens's verification of it4 ,although through the labor of ,ludolf a degree of exactness for cyclometrical operations was now obtained that was more than sufficient for any practical purpose that could ever arise1 neither the problem of constructive rectification nor that of constructive quadrature was thereby in any respect theoretically advanced4 ,the investigations conducted by the famous mathematicians and physicists ,huygens and ,snell about the middle of the seventeenth century1 were more important from a mathematical point of view than the work of ,ludolf4 ,in his book ,cyclometricus ,snell took the position that the method of comparison of polygons1 which originated with ,archimedes and was employed by ,ludolf1 need by no means be the best method of attaining the end sought2 and he succeeded by the employment of propositions which state that certain arcs of a circle are greater or smaller than certain straight lines connected with the circle1 in obtaining methods that make it possible to reach results like the ,ludolfian with much less labor of calculation4 ,the beautiful theorems of ,snell were proved a second time1 and better proved1 by the celebrated ,dutch promoter of the science of optics1 ,huygens 7,opera ,varia1 p4 #cfe et seq42 ,theoremata ,de ,circuli et ,hyperbolae ,quadratura1 #afea71 as well as perfected in many ways4 ,snell and ,huygens were fully aware that they had advanced only the problem of numerical quadrature1 and not that of the constructive quadrature4 ,this1 in ,huygens's case1 plainly appeared from the vehement dispute he conducted with the ,english mathematician ,james ,gregory4 ,this controversy has some significance for the history of our problem1 from the fact that ,gregory made the first attempt to prove that the squaring of the circle with ruler and compasses must be impossible4 ,the controversy between ,huygens and ,gregory4 ,the result of the controversy1 to which we owe many valuable treatises1 was1 that ,huygens finally demonstrated in an incontrovertible manner the incorrectness of ,gregory's proof of impossibility1 adding that he also was of opinion that the solution of the problem with ruler and compasses was impossible1 but nevertheless was not himself able to demonstrate this fact4 ,and ,newton1 later1 expressed himself to a similar effect4 ,as a matter of fact it took till the most recent period1 that is over #bjj years1 until higher mathematics was far enough advanced to furnish a rigid demonstration of impossibility4 ,v4 ,before we proceed to consider the promotive influence which the invention of the differential and the integral calculus had upon our problem1 we shall enumerate a few at least of that never-ending line of mistaken quadrators who delighted the world by the fruits of their ingenuity from the time of ,newton to the present period2 and out of a pious and sincere consideration for the contemporary world1 we shall entirely omit in this to speak of the circle-squarers of our own time4 ,hobbes's quadrature4 ,first to be mentioned is the celebrated ,english philosopher ,hobbes4 ,in his book ,de ,problematis ,physicis1 in which he chiefly proposes to explain the phenomena of gravity and of ocean tides1 he also takes up the quadrature of the circle and gives a very trivial construction that in his opinion definitively solved the problem1 making #c-a_/e4 ,in view of ,hobbes's importance as a philosopher1 two mathematicians1 ,huygens and ,wallis1 thought it proper to refute ,hobbes at length4 ,but ,hobbes defended his position in a special treatise1 in which to sustain at least the appearance of being right1 he disputed the fundamental principles of geometry and the theorem of ,pythagoras2 so that mathematicians could pass on from him to the order of the day4 ,french quadrators of the ,eighteenth ,century4 ,in the last century ,france especially was rich in circle-squarers4 ,we will mention3 ,oliver de ,serres1 who by means of a pair of scales determined that a circle weighed as much as the square upon the side of the equilateral triangle inscribed in it1 that therefore they must have the same area1 an experiment in which #c2 ,mathulon1 who offered in legal form a reward of a thousand dollars to the person who would point out an error in his solution of the problem1 and who was actually compelled by the courts to pay the money2 ,basselin1 who believed that his quadrature must be right because it agreed with the approximate value of ,archimedes1 and who anathematised his ungrateful contemporaries1 in the confidence that he would be recognised by posterity2 ,liger1 who proved that a part is greater than the whole and to whom therefore the quadrature of the circle was child's play2 ,clerget1 who based his solution upon the principle that a circle is a polygon of a definite number of sides1 and who calculated1 also1 among other things1 how large the point is at which two circles touch4 ,germany and ,poland4 ,germany and ,poland also furnish their contingent to the army of circle-squarers4 ,lieutenant-,colonel ,corsonich produced a quadrature in which equalled #c-a_/h1 and promised fifty ducats to the person who could prove that it was incorrect4 ,hesse of ,berlin wrote an arithmetic in #aggf1 in which a true quadrature was also made known1 being exactly equal to #c-ad_/ii4 ,about the same time ,professor ,bischoff of ,stettin defended a quadrature previously published by ,captain ,leistner1 ,preacher ,merkel1 and ,schoolmaster ,bhm1 which made implicite equal to the square of #fb_/ce1 not even attaining the approximation of ,archimedes4 ,constructive approximations4 ,euler4 ,kochansky4 ,from attempts of this character are to be clearly distinguished constructions of approximation in which the inventor is aware that he has not found a mathematically exact construction1 but only an approximate one4 ,the value of such a construction will depend upon two things--first1 upon the degree of exactness with which it is numerically expressed1 and secondly on the fact whether the construction can be more or less easily made with ruler and compasses4 ,constructions of this kind1 simple in form and yet sufficiently exact for practical purposes1 have for centuries been furnished us in great numbers4 ,the great mathematician ,euler1 who died in #aghc1 did not think it out of place to attempt an approximate construction of this kind4 ,a very simple construction for the rectification of the circle and one which has passed into many geometrical text books1 is that published by ,kochansky in #afhe in the ,leipziger ,berichte4 ,it is as follows3 ,erect upon the diameter of a circle at its extremities perpendiculars2 with the centre as vertex1 mark off upon the diameter an angle of #cj2 find the point of intersection with the perpendicular of the line last drawn1 and join this point of intersection with that point upon the other perpendicular which is at a distance of three radii from the base of the perpendicular4 ,the line of junction thus obtained is then very approximately equal to one-half of the circumference of the given circle4 ,calculation shows that the difference between the true length of the circumference and the line thus constructed is less than #c_/ajjjjj of the diameter4 ,inutility of constructive approximations4 ,although such constructions of approximation are very interesting in themselves1 they nevertheless play but a subordinate rle in the history of the squaring of the circle2 for on the one hand they can never furnish greater exactness for circle-computation than the thirty-five decimal places which ,ludolf found1 and on the other hand they are not adapted to advance in any way the question whether the exact quadrature of the circle with ruler and compasses is possible4 ,the researches of ,newton1 ,leibnitz1 ,wallis1 and ,brouncker4 ,the numerical side of the problem1 however1 was considerably advanced by the new mathematical methods perfected by ,newton and ,leibnitz1 commonly called the differential and the integral calculus4 ,and about the middle of the seventeenth century1 some time before ,newton and ,leibnitz represented by series of powers1 the ,english mathematicians ,wallis and ,lord ,brouncker1 ,newton's predecessors in a certain sense1 succeeded in representing by an infinite series of figures combined by the first four rules of arithmetic4 ,a new method of computation was thus opened4 ,wallis found that the fourth part of is represented more exactly by the regularly formed product #b_/c #d_/c #d_/e #f_/e #f_/g #h_/g #h_/i etc4 the farther the multiplication is continued1 and that the result always comes out too small if we stop at a proper fraction but too large if we stop at an improper fraction4 ,lord ,brouncker1 on the other hand1 represents the value in question by a continued fraction in which all the denominators are equal to #b and the numerators are odd square numbers4 ,wallis1 to whom ,brouncker had communicated his elegant result without proof1 demonstrated the same in his ,arithmetic of ,infinites4 ,the computation of could hardly be farther advanced by these results than ,ludolf and others had carried it1 though of course in a more laborious way4 ,however1 the series of powers derived by the assistance of the differential calculus of ,newton and ,leibnitz furnished a means of computing it to hundreds of decimal places4 ,other calculations4 ,gregory1 ,newton1 and ,leibnitz next found that the fourth part of was equal exactly to #a - #a_/c #a_/e - #a_/g #a_/i - #a_/aa #a_/ac - 444 if we conceive this series1 which is called the ,leibnitzian1 indefinitely continued4 ,this series is indeed wonderfully simple1 but is not adapted to the computation of 1 for the reason that entirely too many members have to be taken into account to obtain accurately to a few decimal places only4 ,the original formula1 however1 from which this series is derived1 gives other formulas which are excellently adapted to the actual computation4 ,this formula is the general series3 a - #a_/c;a#c #a_/e;a#e - #a_/g;a#g 4441 where is the length of the arc that belongs to any central angle in a circle of radius #a1 and where a is the tangent to this angle4 ,from this we derive the following3 _/#d 7a b c 4447 - #a_/c7;a#c b#c c#c 4447 #a_/e7;a#e b#e c#e 4447 - 4441 where a1 b1 c 444 are the tangents of angles whose sum is #de4 ,determining1 therefore1 the values of a1 b1 c 4441 which are equal to small and easy fractions and fulfil the condition just mentioned1 we obtain series of powers which are adapted to the computation of 4 ,the first to add by the aid of series of this description additional decimal places to the old #ce in the number was the ,english arithmetician ,abraham ,sharp1 who following ,halley's instructions1 in #agjj1 worked out to #gb decimal places4 ,a little later ,machin1 professor of astronomy in ,london1 computed to #ajj decimal places2 putting1 in the series given above1 a b c d #a_/e and e -#a_/bci1 that is employing the following series3 _/#d #d4 #a_/e - #a_/c4ec #a_/e4ee - #a_/g4eg 444 - #a_/bci - #a_/c4bcic #a_/e4bcie - 444 ,the computation of to many decimal places4 ,in the year #ahai1 ,lagny of ,paris outdid the computation of ,machin1 determining in two different ways the first #abg decimal places of 4 ,vega then obtained as many as #adj places1 and the ,hamburg arithmetician ,zacharias ,dase went as far as #bjj places4 ,the latter did not use ,machin's series in his calculation1 but the series produced by putting in the general series above given a #a_/b1 b #a_/e1 c #a_/h4 ,finally1 at a recent date1 has been computed to #ejj places4 ,idea of exactness obtainable with the approximate values of 4 ,the computation to so many decimal places may serve as an illustration of the excellence of the modern method as contrasted with those anciently employed1 but otherwise it has neither a theoretical nor a practical value4 ,that the computation of to say #ae decimal places more than sufficiently satisfies the subtlest requirements of practice may be gathered from a concrete example of the degree of exactness thus obtainable4 ,imagine a circle to be described with ,berlin as centre1 and the circumference to pass through ,hamburg2 then let the circumference of the circle be computed by multiplying its diameter with the value of to #ae decimal places1 and then conceive it to be actually measured4 ,the deviation from the true length in so large a circle as this even could not be as great as the #ah millionth part of a millimetre4 ,an idea can hardly be obtained of the degree of exactness produced by #ajj decimal places4 ,but the following example may possibly give us some conception of it4 ,conceive a sphere constructed with the earth as centre1 and imagine its surface to pass through ,sirius1 which is #acd-a_/b million million kilometres distant from us4 ,then imagine this enormous sphere to be so packed with microbes that in every cubic millimetre millions of millions of these diminutive animalcula are present4 ,now conceive these microbes to be all unpacked and so distributed singly along a straight line1 that every two microbes are as far distant from each other as ,sirius from us1 that is #acd-a_/b million million kilometres4 ,conceive the long line thus fixed by all the microbes1 as the diameter of a circle1 and imagine the circumference of it to be calculated by multiplying its diameter with to #ajj decimal places4 ,then1 in the case of a circle of this enormous magnitude even1 the circumference thus calculated would not vary from the real circumference by a millionth of a millimetre4 ,this example will suffice to show that the calculation of to #ajj or #ejj decimal places is wholly useless4 ,professor ,wolff's curious method4 ,before we close this chapter upon the evaluation of 1 we must mention the method1 less fruitful than curious1 which ,professor ,wolff of ,zurich employed some decades ago to compute the value of to #c places4 ,the floor of a room is divided up into equal squares1 so as to resemble a huge chess-board1 and a needle exactly equal in length to the side of each of these squares1 is cast haphazard upon the floor4 ,if we calculate1 now1 the probabilities of the needle so falling as to lie wholly within one of the squares1 that is so that it does not cross any of the parallel lines forming the squares1 the result of the calculation for this probability will be found to be exactly equal to - #c4 ,consequently1 a sufficient number of casts of the needle according to the law of large numbers must give the value of approximately4 ,as a matter of fact1 ,professor ,wolff1 after #ajjjj trials1 obtained the value of correctly to #c decimal places4 ,mathematicians now seek to prove the insolvability of the problem4 ,fruitful as the calculus of ,newton and ,leibnitz was for the evaluation of 1 the problem of converting a circle into a square having exactly the same area was in no wise advanced thereby4 ,wallis1 ,newton1 ,leibnitz1 and their immediate followers distinctly recognised this4 ,the quadrature of the circle could not be solved2 but it also could not be proved that the problem was insolvable with ruler and compasses1 although everybody was convinced of its insolvability4 ,in mathematics1 however1 a conviction is only justified when supported by incontrovertible proof2 and in the place of endeavors to solve the quadrature there accordingly now come endeavors to prove the impossibility of solving the celebrated problem4 ,lambert's contribution4 ,the first step in this direction1 small as it was1 was made by the ,french mathematician ,lambert1 who proved in the year #agfa that was neither a rational number nor even the square root of a rational number2 that is1 that neither nor the square of can be exactly represented by a fraction the denominator and numerator of which are whole numbers1 however great the numbers be taken4 ,lambert's proof showed1 indeed1 that the rectification and the quadrature of the circle could not be possibly accomplished in the particular way in which its impossibility was demonstrated1 but it still did not exclude the possibility of the problem being solvable in some other more complicated way1 and without requiring further aids than ruler and compasses4 ,the conditions of the demonstration4 ,proceeding slowly but surely it was next sought to discover the essential distinguishing properties that separate problems solvable with ruler and compasses1 from problems the construction of which is elementarily impossible1 that is by solely employing the postulates4 ,slight reflection showed1 that a problem elementarily solvable1 must always possess the property of having the unknown lines in the figure relating to it connected with the known lines of the figure by an equation for the solution of which equations of the first and second degree alone are requisite1 and which may be so disposed that the common measures of the known lines will appear only as integers4 ,the conclusion was to be drawn from this1 that if the quadrature of the circle and consequently its rectification were elementarily solvable1 the number 1 which represents the ratio of the unknown circumference to the known diameter1 must be the root of a certain equation1 of a very high degree perhaps1 but in which all the numbers that appear are whole numbers2 that is1 there would have to exist an equation1 made up entirely of whole numbers1 which would be correct if its unknown quantity were made equal to 4 ,final success of ,prof4 ,lindemann4 ,since the beginning of this century1 consequently1 the efforts of a number of mathematicians have been bent upon proving that generally is not algebraical1 that is1 that it cannot be the root of any equation having whole numbers for coefficients4 ,but mathematics had to make tremendous strides forward before the means were at hand to accomplish this demonstration4 ,after the ,french ,academician1 ,professor ,hermite1 had furnished important preparatory assistance in his treatise ,sur la ,fonction ,exponentielle1 published in the seventy-seventh volume of the ,comptes ,rendus1 ,professor ,lindemann1 at that time of ,freiburg1 now of ,knigsberg1 finally succeeded1 in ,june #ahhb1 in rigorously demonstrating that the number is not algebraical1#eb thus supplying the first proof that the problems of the rectification and the squaring of the circle1 with the help only of algebraical instruments like ruler and compasses are insolvable4 ,lindemann's proof appeared successively in the ,reports of the ,berlin ,academy 7,june1 #ahhb71 in the ,comptes ,rendus of the ,french ,academy 7,vol4 #aae4 pp4 #gb to #gd71 and in the ,mathematischen ,annalen 7,vol4 #bj4 pp4 #bac to #bbe74 #eb ,for the benefit of my mathematical readers ,i shall present here the most important steps of ,lindemann's demonstration1 ,m4 ,hermite in order to prove the transcendental character of e #a #a_/a #a_/a4b #a_/a4b4c #a_/a4b4c4d 4444 developed relations between certain definite integrals 7,comptes ,rendus of the ,paris ,academy1 ,vol4 #gg1 #ahgc74 ,proceeding from the relations thus established1 ,professor ,lindemann first demonstrates the following proposition3 ,if the coefficients of an equation of nth degree are all real or complex whole numbers and the n roots of this equation z#a1 z#b1 4441 zn are different from zero and from each other it is impossible for ez#a ez#b ez#c 444 ezn to be equal to a_/b1 where a and b are real or complex whole numbers4 ,it is then shown that also between the functions erz#a erz#b erz#c 444 erzn1 where r denotes an integer1 no linear equation can exist with rational coefficients variant from zero4 ,finally the beautiful theorem results3 ,if z is the root of an irreducible algebraic equation the coefficients of which are real or complex whole numbers1 then ez cannot be equal to a rational number4 ,now in reality et-#a is equal to a rational number1 namely1-#a4 ,consequently1 -#a1 and therefore itself1 cannot be the root of an equation of nth degree having whole numbers for coefficients1 and therefore also not of such an equation having rational coefficients4 ,the property last mentioned1 however1 would have if the squaring of the circle with ruler and compasses were possible4 ,the verdict of mathematics4 ,it is impossible with ruler and compasses to construct a square equal in area to a given circle4 ,these are the words of the final determination of a controversy which is as old as the history of the human mind4 ,but the race of circle-squarers1 unmindful of the verdict of mathematics1 that most infallible of arbiters1 will never die out so long as ignorance and the thirst for glory shall be united4 ,,hermann ,,schubert4 ,,the ,,criterion ,,of ,,truth4 ,a ,,dissertation ,,on ,,the ,,method ,,of ,,verification4 ,modern science rests upon the recognition of the truth that all knowledge is a statement of facts4 ,the formulation of natural laws is nothing but a comprehensive description of certain kinds of natural processes4 ,natural laws are generalisations of facts4 ,similarly1 any philosophical theory is1 or from the modern standpoint ought to be1 simply a systematised representation of facts4 ,facts are the bottom-rock to which1 everywhere1 we have to go down4 ,the recognition of this maxim is called1 most appropriately1 positivism2 and ,i take it that as a matter of principle all modern thinkers can and perhaps do agree to it4 ,a ,roman ,catholic philosopher may consider some things as facts which a scientist of heretic ,england1 for instance1 does not2 yet it is from facts1 or what is thought to be facts1 that every one derives his conception of the world4 ,it is natural that the range of individual experience should be very limited in comparison with the knowledge indispensably needed for acquiring an adequate conception of the world in which we live4 ,we have1 to a great extent1 to rely on statements of facts which we ourselves have not observed4 ,to enrich and to enlarge our own experience we have to imbibe the experience of others4 ,sometimes we can1 but sometimes we cannot1 verify what we have been told4 ,for instance1 that stones fall through empty space with a velocity of #cbah ,english feet at the end of the first second can be verified by experiment1 i4 e41 the experiment can be repeated under the same circumstances4 ,but historical data such as whether ,buddha died under a fig-tree1 or whether ,christ was crucified under ,pontius ,pilate1 cannot be verified by experiment4 ,historical data are statements1 not of general truths1 but of single facts1 which1 if they are accepted at all1 have to be taken on authority4 ,the authority may be weak or strong2 it may be strong enough to be equivalent practically to a certainty1 which latter case occurs1 for instance1 when the fact in question in its direct consequences perceptibly affects our life1 and its causal connection can thus be directly and indubitably traced4 ,it is not intended here to emphasise the difference between facts verifiable by experiment1 and historical facts2 yet it is desirable with reference to all kinds of facts stated on authority1 to understand the importance of a criterion of truth4 ,we do accept and we have to accept1 every one of us1 without any exception1 the most discriminate scientist even and most of all the philosopher1 innumerable statements of facts as they have been observed by others4 ,we all have to rely on the authority of others4 ,the time of the longest human life would be too short to repeat all the experiments made by others1 with a view to verifying them in detail4 ,on the other hand1 it is obvious that no statement of facts should be accepted on pure authority4 ,we must have a means1 a sieve as it were1 by which the wheat can easily be winnowed from the chaff2 a sieve that will enable us to discard at once those statements that are positively erroneous4 ,in this way our attention can be confined to statements of things that are possible1 those that need not1 but may be true4 ,possible in ,german is very appropriately called mglich1 i4 e4 mayable4 ,the criterion of that which 'may be' true is the first step towards ascertaining truth2 and although it does not exhaust the methods of arriving at truth it is of greatest consequence1 for if properly understood and applied1 it would save from the start many useless efforts in the investigation of truth4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the question arises then1 ,what is the criterion of the possible8 ,we reject statements1 sometimes1 as prima facie untrue4 ,have we a right to do so8 ,and if we have1 by what standard do we determine this8 ,let us first take into consideration how people really behave when a statement of new facts is made4 ,take1 for instance1 the following case4 ,two strangers meet2 ,a4 and ,b4 ,mr4 ,a4 relates to ,mr4 ,b4 some incident of his life4 ,he is apparently a very trustworthy person and during the conversation remains perfectly serious4 ,he tells a ghost story in detail1 how a departed friend of his appeared to him in distinctly visible form2 he says that the spirit spoke to him and told him many strange things1 and that he pointed out to him an imminent danger4 ,we suppose that on the one hand ,a4 makes his statement in good faith and that on the other hand ,b4 is a spiritualist4 ,will ,b4 consider ,a4's story as possible8 ,b41 being a spiritualist1 most probably will consider ,a4's story as possible1 and1 if he is convinced of ,a4's honesty1 he will believe the story the same as if he had experienced it himself2 no less than a scientist will rely on the statement of an experiment made by one of his colleagues whose scientific veracity he has no reason to doubt4 ,suppose ,a4 tells the same story to ,c4 ,mr4 ,c4 is an infidel and a materialist4 ,as characteristic features of his personality we might mention that he considers religion as pure superstition originated by the fraud of cunning priests4 ,this man will1 we may fairly suppose1 laugh at ,a4's story1 because it appears to him an out and out lie4 ,mr4 ,a4 as well as ,mr4 ,b41 he who tells and he who believes the story1 ,c4 will declare1 are either insane or they are both impostors4 ,the difference of opinion in ,b4 and ,c4 indicates that the criterion of truth is different with different persons and that it depends upon their conception of the world4 ,men who have the same world-conception will also have the same criterion of truth4 ,the problem consequently is1 whether this criterion of truth 7i4 e4 the criterion of what is possible7 is necessarily wholly subjective1 or whether we can arrive at an objective criterion4 ,it is apparent that this question is intimately connected with another problem1 namely1 ,is every world-conception necessarily subjective1 or1 ,is it possible to arrive at an objective world-conception8 ,it appears to me that we can2 and the ideal of philosophy to-day is just such an objective representation of facts4 ,the difficulty that presents itself lies mainly in the confusion between facts and our interpretation of facts4 ,if ,a4 declares that he saw a ghost1 he does not relate a fact1 but his interpretation of a fact4 ,let us suppose that he tells his story again to a third person ,d41 who is a psychologist4 ,d4 most likely will not think him a liar4 ,d4 will accept the statement bona fide as a mere interpretation of a fact and will inquire after the causes that produced the hallucination4 ,he may be able1 possibly1 to lay bare the facts disfigured by the wrong interpretation of ,a4 ,and having clearly stated the objective state of things he may with the assistance of his experience explain the origin of the whole process1 partly from the mental condition and the physiological constitution of ,a41 partly from individual circumstances that gave rise to the hallucination4 ,he will not doubt that something extraordinary has happened to ,mr4 ,a4 ,the latter's mind has been1 and perhaps still is in an abnormal state4 ,and as to ,b4's believing the ghost story1 ,mr4 ,d4 will not think that he is insane2 though we may presume that he will regard ,b4's views of the world as resting upon unfirm grounds2 and he will not believe him to be a man of critical ability4 ,the notion is very common among idealists that we can never go beyond our subjective states of consciousness4 ,this would be tantamount to saying that there is no difference between dreams and real life1 except that a dream is cut off by awaking while life lasts comparatively much longer and ceases with death1 which may also be an awakening from a dream4 ,in that case hallucinations would be of the same value as sensations4 ,both would be interpretations of facts for which we do not have an objective criterion of truth4 ,interpretations of facts would be the sole facts1 and it would be quite indifferent whether they were misinterpretations or correct interpretations4 ,take a simple instance4 ,we see a tree4 ,the perception of a tree is an interpretation of a set of facts4 ,interpretations of facts1 whether correct or not1 are of course also facts4 ,thus the perception of a tree is a fact which1 if all matter were transparent1 would1 physiologically considered1 appear to the eye of an observer as special vibrations in the brain4 ,but the peculiarity of this fact is that it represents other facts4 ,the question is no longer whether there is a perception of a tree taking place in a brain1 but whether this perception is true1 i4 e41 whether it agrees with the facts represented4 ,every perception has a meaning beyond itself2 every perception is a fact representing other facts1 and the question of truth or untruth has reference to the agreement between representations and facts represented4 ,professor ,mach says in his essay ,the ,analysis of ,sensations 7,the ,monist1 ,vol4 ,i4 ,no4 ,i1 p4 #fe73 ,bodies do not produce sensations1 but complexes of sensations 7complexes of elements7 form bodies4#ec #ec ,professor ,mach in thus speaking of bodies uses the word in the sense of representations and not in the sense of objects represented4 ,he calls them in the sentence next following thought-symbols for complexes of sensations 7complexes of elements74 ,and1 certainly1 we do not deny that upon a closer analysis the perception of a tree appears as a bundle1 or a complex of sensations2 there is the green of the leaves1 the color of the bark1 the different shades of the color indicating its bodily form1 the shape of the branches1 and their slight motions in the breeze that gently shakes the tree4 ,yet the perception of a tree does not consist of these sensations alone4 ,all these sensations might be so many isolated sensations2 and if they remained isolated1 they would not produce the percept of a tree4 ,these sensations are interpreted2 they have acquired a meaning and are combined into a unity4 ,it is this unity which constitutes the perception of a tree4 ,this unity has grown from sensations2 and that process which develops and1 as we have learned1 naturally must develop sensations from sense-impressions1 and from sensations perceptions that are representative of a group of facts outside of the perceptions themselves1--that process we define as mind-activity4 ,what does the 'perception of a tree' mean8 ,it means that if the person perceiving it moves in a certain direction and over a certain distance1 he will have certain sensations which upon the whole can be correctly anticipated4 ,every perception and also every sensation contains a number of anticipations4 ,the perception of a tree is in so far to be considered correct1 as the anticipations which it contains1 and of which it actually consists1 can be realised4 ,if and in so far as these anticipations when realised tally with the perception1 if and in so far as they justify it1 or can justify it1 if and in so far as they fulfil the expectations produced by the perception1 if and in so far as they make no alteration of the perception necessary1 but being in agreement with it confirm the representation it conveys3 the perception is said to be true4 ,moreover1 we can predict similar results with regard to beings of a similar constitution4 99 99 99 99 99 ,now let us suppose that an apple falls from a considerable height to the ground4 ,knowing1 from former experiences1 the hardness of the soil as well as the density of the apple1 we can anticipate the effect of the fall4 ,the soil will not show any considerable impression1 yet one side of the apple will be crushed4 ,in predicting this result we anticipate sensations that we shall have under a certain set of circumstances4 ,in so far as we shall necessarily have these sensations we have to deal with facts4 ,not as if our sensations constitute the entire existence of facts2 our sensations1 being the effects of so-called objective processes upon our senses1 are only one end of a relation1 which as a matter of course never exists without the other end4 ,sensations are the one end2 they depend upon and vary with the other end4 ,showing within certain limits as many varieties here as occur there1 they represent the other end4 ,we can1 and for certain purposes we must1 entirely eliminate the subjective and sensory part of our sensations1 in order to represent in our minds not how two objects affect our senses of sight or touch but how two or more objects affect each other4 ,thus we arrive at an objective statement of facts1 how the falling apple affects the soil1 and the soil the apple2 while the relation of both to our senses is to be eliminated4 ,this objective statement of facts is the ideal of all natural sciences4 ,the physicist states the interaction between the falling apple and the soil4 ,he does not care how many sentient beings witness the fall2 he does not care about the psychological element in their observations4 ,he abstracts from the subjective elements in their observations as well as in his own1 and confines his attention to the objective facts represented in their minds4 ,the objection to this conception of things is made by a consistent idealist1 that these observations must always exist in some mind1 they do not exist outside of a mind1 and mind can as little go beyond itself as a person can walk outside of his skin4 ,certainly1 observations always exist in some mind2 they have always a subjective element4 ,but they have also an objective element4 ,no sensation1 no perception1 no observation is without an objective feature4 ,this objective feature in a sensation or a perception1 and also in an abstract idea1 is the element that if true has to agree with other facts outside of the sentient being of whose mind the perception is a part4 ,an idealist who is pleased to deny this would either have to identify hallucinations with sensations1 or he would be obliged to consider the objective elements of his mind merely and solely as subjective states1 having no representative value4 ,in that case he would necessarily be obliged to consider the facts represented1 i4 e4 the things outside the body1 as parts of his mind4 ,this being granted1 every mind would appear as congruent and coextensive with the universe4 ,we should have as many universes as there are minds1 and yet all universes would be only one and the same universe1 their sole difference being that of a difference of centres4 ,with the death of every living creature a universe would die2 but notwithstanding the chain of consciousness were broken forever in death1 the existence of his mind1 being that which is commonly considered as the objective universe1 would not cease2 merely a view-centre would be lost4 ,that which we have characterised as representations in feeling-substance 7which according to our terminology constitutes mind7 would be a transient and unessential feature of mind only2 and if it should cease to be1 mind would still exist in what we have defined as the outside facts1 the facts represented in mental symbols4 ,in short1 mind would be the ,all1 it would be a synonym of ,god4 ,and not only all mental beings actually existing or having existed would each1 one and all1 constitute the universe1 but also all potential minds1 every atom and all possible combinations of atoms that possibly might play a part in the mental activity of a sentient being1 would constitute it4 ,the views of an idealist who accepts these consequences are undeniably correct1 although we may quarrel about the propriety of his terminology4 ,yet an idealist of this type1 we may fairly assume1 will have little difficulty in adapting himself to our terminology1 and in that case we might easily agree about the possibility of arriving at a criterion of truth2 for his world-conception 7aside from a difference in terms7 might1 or rather would be practically the same as ours4 ,if truth is the agreement of certain mental facts with other facts outside of the mind--if it is the agreement of subjective representations with objective things or states of things represented1 the problem is whether we have any means of revising or examining this agreement4 99 99 99 99 99 ,if the world were a chaos1 i4 e4 if the facts of nature were not ruled by law2 if every fact were not only individually but also generically different from every other fact1 so that no single fact had anything in common with other facts2 if they thus had no features in common1 there would exist no general properties1 and we could form no concepts of genera2 facts would vary radically and totally1 without exhibiting regularities or uniformities other than such as might occasionally and without any reason incidentally originate by haphazard1--in short1 if our world were a world of chance and not of law1 there would be no criterion of truth4 ,our world1 however1 is a world of law and not of chance4 ,thus all facts1 although individually different1 are found generically to agree among themselves4 ,no two atoms are1 with regard to their position1 the same at a given moment2 all of them are different somehow in their operation and effectiveness4 ,nevertheless every one of them moves in strict accordance with exactly the same law of causation4 ,there is not the least change taking place in the universe which is not the precise effect of a special cause4 ,there is rigidity in mutability1 unity in variety1 determinateness in irregularity1 law in freedom1 order in anarchy4 ,the unity of law1 which in its oneness is comprised in the universality of causation1 is so perfect that the different facts cannot be thought of as being generically different4 ,however much they differ specifically1 they represent the action of the same law1 and this same oneness of nature is the basis of all monism4 ,monism of this kind1 it has been remarked by a critic of ours1#ed is identical with philosophy4 ,certainly it is4 ,every philosophy is or at least attempts to be monism1 and in so far only as a philosophy recognises monism does it possess a criterion of truth4 ,this monism may be based upon a correct or a mistaken conception of unity4 ,upon the correctness of this monism will depend the correctness of the criterion of truth4 ,but it must be understood that without a monism there can be no criterion of truth1 and philosophy must become either scepticism1 mysticism1 or agnosticism4 #ed ,the ,nation quotes the following passage from a former essay of mine3 ,the philosophy of the future will be a philosophy of facts1 it will be positivism2 and in so far as a unitary systematisation of facts is the aim and ideal of all science1 it will be monism4 ,the ,nation rejects this definition of monism and adds3 ,the search for a unitary conception of the world or for a unitary systematisation of science would be a good definition of philosophy2 and with this good old word at hand we want no other4 ,very well4 ,call that which we call monism or a unitary systematisation of knowledge1 philosophy2 we will not quarrel about names--dummodo conveniamus in re4 ,we agree perfectly with our critic2 for we also maintain that monism 7at least1 what we consider monism7 is philosophy2 it is the philosophy4 ,what then is the criterion of truth for a single fact1 be it a sensation1 a perception1 or an observation8 ,it is this1 that if the observation be repeated under the same circumstances it will1 to the extent that the circumstances are the same1 be again the same2 the observer will always make the same observation4 ,this maxim will do for a statement of facts4 ,if according to this maxim we are in the position to ascertain that the same observation can be made again and again under certain conditions1 we gain the assurance that we have to deal with a fact of some kind4 ,but how shall we inquire into the correctness of the interpretation of the fact8 99 99 99 99 99 ,every living creature and furthermore among human beings every individual man has an idiosyncracy of his own4 ,how can we avoid the errors arising therefrom8 ,we substitute other observers so that we can detect to what extent the individual way of observation influences the result of the experiment4 ,thus we shall find that some persons are color-blind with reference to red or to green1 and we can in this way explain certain mistakes caused by such conditions4 ,supposing that all human beings were color-blind we should consider this state as normal2 and the discovery of science that certain colors which appear alike to us1 are after all1 considering their wave-lengths and other qualities1 more different than certain other tints which are easily discerned by the eye1 would be an unexpected surprise4 ,it would to some extent be analogous to the well-known fact that there are rays of light which are not perceptible to the eye1 namely1 the so-called chemical rays2 their existence has been discovered by their chemical effects4 ,it might be1 although it is not probable1 that what appears green to me and what ,i call green1 may appear different to other people1 perhaps gray1 red1 or brown1 or some other color that ,i know not of3 yet other people will--just as much as ,i do--call that peculiar sensation green which they experience under the same conditions1 for instance1 when seeing the fresh leaves of a tree4 ,it is quite indifferent how variegated in single minds the feelings may be that accompany each kind of sensation4 ,so long as they have for every special objective state a special analogue1 they can map out in their minds their surroundings1 they can have a correct representation of the world1 and so long as they employ the same symbols 7words or other signs7 for indicating the same objective states1 it is quite indifferent whether or not the feelings that are produced in the process of observation vary4 ,it would make no more difference for the general purpose of mental operations1 than it would if we were to employ ,roman letters1 or ,italics1 or ,greek or ,hebrew characters to designate the lines and points in explaining a mathematical figure4 ,the main thing is that certain points are marked and represented by some sign which stands for this or that point and for that alone4 ,to cite another example in illustration of the subjective element of feeling in cognition1 we may compare our knowledge of the world to the map of a city4 ,the map may be printed in black1 green1 red1 blue1 or any other color4 ,the color in which the map is printed represents the subjective element of feeling1 while the form of the lines1 their geometrical configuration1 contains the objective element of the things represented4 ,the map is good1 i4 e4 its representations are true1 if the squares and the streets of the city stand in the same relation among each other1 as the little blocks and divisions on the map do4 ,whether the map is printed in green or blue will make no difference so long as we find everything we want to know about the city represented in a way such that we should be able to set ourselves aright and to find our bearings if we went astray4 ,the subjective element in mind is not of one half the importance generally attributed to it4 ,the objective element1 being that which is represented1 is paramount1 and it is the aspiration of all the sciences to concentrate their entire attention upon the objective features of observation4 ,objective truth is what we want1 and objective truth is identical with a scientific description of facts4 99 99 99 99 99 ,what then is the criterion of objective truth for the interpretation of facts8 ,is it not wanting8 ,may it not be that a person1 ,mr4 ,a41 will under given circumstances regularly see a ghost4 ,indeed we do not doubt that he will1 and we can even prove it by experiment4 ,this being so1 is not the interpretation of facts as to whether the phenomenon is a real ghost or a mere vision1 beyond any criterion of truth8 ,if the methods of science are reliable1 7and they have been justified by their brilliant success17 we have indeed a criterion for the interpretation of facts2 and this criterion for the interpretation of facts1 no less than the criterion of single observations is based upon monism4 ,if the world is really a universe1 if there is oneness in the ,all1 if there is a unity of law throughout nature1 our interpretations of the different facts must agree among themselves4 ,they cannot and should not contradict one another2 and whenever they do1 it is a certain sign that somewhere there is something wrong in our interpretation of facts4 ,philosophy has ceased to be a metaphysical world-theory4 ,the interpretation of facts no longer means a hypothetical assumption which will square all the irregularities among facts that we are unable to account for1 but simply a methodical systematisation of facts1 enabling us to recognise the sameness of law in the irregularities apparent in innumerable individual instances4 ,interpretation in this sense means harmonisation2 it means an orderly arrangement2 classification with due discrimination4 ,an explanation of natural phenomena is not the carrying of an hypothesis in to facts out of the realms of our imagination1 out of depths unknown1 by what might be styled revelation or inspiration1 but it is a comparison of facts with facts4 ,the hypothesis we apply to facts must come from facts and must cover facts4 ,that element in an hypothesis which does not cover facts is redundant as an explanation2 it is useless as such1 or even dangerous2 and unless it serves as an aid to thought where ignorance of facts requires some assistance1 some allegorical symbol1 some auxiliary construction1--unless it is to the scientist what crutches are to the lame1--it must be dropped4 ,accordingly1 the criterion of truth is the perfect agreement of all facts1 of all interpretations and explanations of facts among themselves4 ,if two facts 7such as we conceive them7 do not agree with each other1 we must revise them2 and it may be stated as a matter of experience1 that our mind will find no peace until a monistic conception is reached4 ,a monistic conception is the perfect agreement of all facts in a methodical system1 so that the same law is recognised to prevail in all instances1 and the most different events are conceived as acting under different conditions yet in accord with the same law4 99 99 99 99 99 ,it does not lie within the scope of this essay to enter upon the practical application of the principle which we have set forth as the criterion of truth4 ,one hint only may be supplied1 to point out the most obvious maxim derivable from it--a maxim that is instinctively obeyed by all scientists and has often been popularly expressed in the sentence3 ,an ounce of fact is worth a hundred pounds of hypothesis1 or of any interpretation of facts4 ,all the theories in the world1 scientific and economical1 our dearest ideals not excepted1 and all the most ingenious hypotheses have no value unless they have been derived from1 and agree with1 the laws that live in the facts of our experience4 ,the trouble of applying this rule lies mainly in the difficulty of distinguishing between facts and our interpretation of facts4 ,considering that mind is representativeness in feelings we have to analyse the mind in order to come down to objective facts4 ,the percept of a tree is not the tree2 it is an interpretation of a group of facts2 it is a mental picture produced by a synthesis of sensations1 the latter being caused by sense-impressions4 ,considering that all the images1 ideas1 abstract concepts1 and theories of which our mind consists are not the facts represented by them but their several interpretations1 we at once see how careful we have to be for purposes of philosophical and scientific exactness in the statement of facts4 99 99 99 99 99 ,on this occasion1 a few critical remarks concerning the leading essay of this number1 ,the ,architecture of ,theories1 by ,mr4 ,charles ,s4 ,peirce1 may be added4 ,mr4 ,peirce is one of our subtlest thinkers and logicians1 and it is incumbent upon one to reflect twice before criticising any sentence of a man who writes upon the most recondite topics1--upon what ,i should call the higher mathematics1 the differential and integral calculus of logic1--with ease and masterly accuracy4 ,mr4 ,peirce's essay ,the ,architecture of ,theories1#ee presented in this number of ,the ,monist1 is the first publication of his in which he propounds not mere criticism or the discussion of abstruse logical subjects1 but his own positive opinion1 presenting in great and clear outlines the foundations of his philosophy4 #ee ,the term architecture of theories seems inappropriate from the standpoint of a positive conception of the world4 ,many monisms have been constructed in the way ,mr4 ,peirce so well describes in his comparison of these philosophical systems to the building a house of one and the same material1 for instance papier mch1 with roof of roofing paper1 foundations of paste-board1 windows of paraffined paper1 etc41 etc4 ,philosophy1 however1 is not a construction of a theory comparable to the building of an edifice2 it is rather the mapping out of the house in which we live for the purpose of orientation4 ,the world-conception of ,mr4 ,peirce agrees in one fundamental maxim with our own1 but it disagrees with the latter in the main and most important application of this maxim4 ,mr4 ,peirce says1 ,law is par excellence the thing that wants a reason4 ,this maxim was the guiding star of our inquiry into the fundamental problems of philosophy4#ef ,the world considered as a universe displaying in all its innumerable actions one and the same law is called a cosmos2 if considered as a heap of processes with no common law pervading them it is called a chaos4 ,we found in our inquiry into the forms of existence that the laws of form possess intrinsic necessity4 ,the laws of the form of existence are represented in the laws of formal thought 7arithmetic1 mathematics1 logic1 mechanics1 and pure natural science74 ,so long as the formal laws hold good1 7and we have found in the chapter ,form and ,formal ,thought that they will hold good under all circumstances17 any kind of world1 whatever materially or dynamically it be1 must be a cosmos1 and cannot be a chaos4 ,we can imagine that we had a world consisting of some other substance and being different either in the amount or in the action of its energy to this world of ours1 but we cannot imagine that a world should exist which does not exhibit the harmony of form1 and is not regulated as it were by the formal laws of existence4 ,one plus one would be two in any kind of a world1 and obviously all the other more complex statements of formal laws would remain true with the same intrinsic necessity4 ,the truth 'one plus one makes two' contains the universal applicability of causation and of the conservation of matter and energy4 ,taking this ground we arrived at the conclusion that the world is a cosmos3 there is no chaos and there never has been a chaos4 ,a chaos1 in the sense of an absolute non-existence of law1 is an impossibility4 #ef ,see the author's ,fundamental ,problems4 ,accordingly1 we cannot agree with ,mr4 ,peirce that the occurrence of chance calls for no particular explanation4 ,there is no chance1 if chance means absence of law4 ,chance1 if the word be admissible1 is a mere subjective conception produced by limited knowledge and signifying a state of things not determinable with the means of knowledge at our disposal4 ,law once recognised is the death of chance 7in the objective sense of the word72 and chance1 or sport1 or chaos1 or indeterminacy1 or whatever one may call the absence or at least the imperfect cogency of law1 far from calling for no particular explanation1 must be classed prima facie among those theories that are per se impossible3 ,these conceptions whether applied to the world at large or to special processes of nature are in contradiction to those interpretations and systematised statements of facts which are most fundamental1 most reliable1 most indispensable and universal4 ,whatever generalisation the theory of evolution may be capable of1 it is certainly not capable of being applied to law4 ,the formal order of ,nature and especially the mechanical laws of physics cannot be thought of as having been developed out of a state of sportive chance2 they must be considered as having always been the same as they are now3 they are eternal4#eg #eg ,mr4 ,peirce seems to define ,mind as sportive chance2 for according to his theory1 as soon as sportiveness assumes fixed habits1 it settles into the mechanical motions which physical science observes in gravitating masses2 and matter is thus defined as effete mind4 ,in stating this difference of opinion1 ,i apprehend a possibility that although ,mr4 ,peirce has stated his case with most admirable and ,i should say unequivocal clearness1 ,i have misunderstood his views4 ,in a former article of his1 ,mr4 ,peirce makes a statement concerning ,nature considered as a possible chaos1 which seems to concur rather with my views on the subject than with his own4 ,mr4 ,peirce says in his fourth ,paper on the ,illustrations of the ,logic of ,science3 ,if there be any way of enumerating the possibilities of ,nature so as to make them equally probable1 it is clearly one which should make one arrangement or combination of the elements of ,nature as probable as another4444 ,it would be to assume that ,nature is a pure chaos1 or chance combination of independent elements1 in which reasoning from one fact to another would be impossible2 and since1 as we shall hereafter see1 there is no judgment of pure observation without reasoning1 it would be to suppose all human cognition illusory and no real knowledge possible4 ,it would be to suppose that if we have found the order of ,nature more or less regular in the past1 this has been by a pure run of luck which we may expect is now at an end4 ,now1 it may be we have no scintilla of proof to the contrary1 but reason is unnecessary in reference to that belief which is of all the most settled1 which nobody doubts or can doubt1 and which he who should deny would stultify himself in so doing4 ,the relative probability of this or that arrangement of ,nature is something which we should have a right to talk about if universes were as plenty as blackberries1 if we could put a quantity of them in a bag1 shake them well up1 draw out a sample1 and examine them to see what proportion of them had one arrangement and what proportion another4 ,but1 even in that case1 a higher universe would contain us1 in regard to whose arrangements the conception of probability could have no applicability4 ,i rest the case here in the hope that the statement of both sides of the problem will contribute to elucidate truth4 ,,editor4 ,,five ,,souls ,,with ,,but ,a ,,single ,,thought4 ,,the ,,psychological ,,life ,,of ,,the ,,star-,,fish4 ,the investigation of the psychical faculties of animals is comparable to a journey into fairy-land4 ,we do not know1 and according to ,du ,bois-,reymond1 we shall never know1 how our own mental activity has originated1 yet in spite of this we deliberately form theories and opinions concerning the psychical powers and faculties of other beings that in point of nervous organisation are perhaps altogether different from us6 ,the ancients wisely limited themselves to expressing the intelligence of animals in the form of instructive fables1 and in the famous park of ,versailles the charming idea was actually carried out of representing the fables of sop in a so-called labyrinth1 every turn of the intricate lanes of which led to a different group of animals whose speech was symbolised by streams of water spouting from their mouths1 and the purport of their imagined utterances was to be read in golden letters upon marble tablets placed at the side4 ,how often have ,i wandered over the scene of those long since ruined mazes and have thought of the deep meaning that frequently lies in childish pastime of this kind4 ,but labyrinth aside--when we see an animal perform before our eyes purposive acts2 and we recognise that our own thought operates in accordance with definite1 rigorous laws2 we shall still have to say to ourselves that a comparative animal psychology is after all not necessarily so hopeless a thing as one might be led to believe from the bold1 and yet faint-hearted1 ,ignorabimus of the distinguished ,berlin physiologist4 ,and as a matter of fact the range of insight obtained in very recent times into this very field is highly encouraging4 ,on this occasion ,i should like to select for discussion one of the most remarkable of questions1 that1 namely1 which concerns the psychical activity of many-souled animals4 ,quite a stir was made some years ago in the scientific world when ,haeckel began to philosophise about the souls of cells1 or so-called plastidule-souls2 for it was patent that the course of life in the individual single cell of an animal or vegetable body flowed on in such strict conformity with reason that it was logically necessary to posit the presence of psychical guidance in the instance in question as much as in the case of composite cellular colonies in higher organic beings1--especially since every single one of these composite organisms begins its life as a simple cell1 from which the others afterward spring4 ,the wide-spread opposition that ,haeckel's view met with1 must be regarded as the result of current and common ignorance of the history of philosophy2 since otherwise it must have been known that the idea of a cell-soul or a germ-soul which controls the development of the young1 has been propounded by innumerable philosophers1 and that it was proclaimed by ,daniel ,sennert1 of ,wittenberg1 who died in #afcg1 with perfect consistency as the foundation of all psychological knowledge4 ,many beings1 such as ,alg1 ,fungi1 and ,infusoria1 never in their lives get beyond the state of a single cell1 and yet under the microscope we may observe them seeking light1 capturing prey1 and in the majority of cases founding families4 ,and when the ,genevan ,trembley discovered1 in #agdj1 the fact of the divisibility of fresh-water ,polyps and showed that after cutting them up every piece grew and developed into a new individual endowed with sensation1 will1 and other psychical capacities1 philosophers began to debate whether there were initially present in every divisible polyp a number of souls in the germinal state1 or1 if such were not the case1 whether the simple soul of a polyp possessed the property of divisibility4 ,the ,leipsic theologian ,crusius1 who died in #agge1 declared in favor of the presence in every polyp of a plurality of germinal souls2 the ,dutch insect anatomist1 ,peter ,lyonnet 7died #agif7 declared in favor of the divisibility of the single polyp soul4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a4--,,star-,,fish4 7,after ,haeckel47 ,but let us pass by these subtle speculations to turn to a class of animals in the case of which we may speak with more propriety than in the case of polyps and other zophytes of a plural soul1 since physically and psychically they act in every respect as if they had grown together out of five or more individuals1--,i mean the ,echinoderms in general and the ,star-fish 7,asteroidea7 in particular4 ,in the following paragraphs1 for the sake of brevity1 ,i shall speak of only five-rayed star-fishes1 because the sacred number five is the one that lies at the basis of the physical structure of the great majority of star-fishes developed from the egg1 and of all other echinoderms1 although there really do occur star-fishes which are supplied1 some with more and some with less than five rays1--single rays often being cast off and a larger number growing out in their places1--and although many species are regularly and normally supplied with more than five rays4 ,from visits to the sea-shore or to aquariums1 at any rate from pictures1 my readers all know how a star-fish in general looks4 ,in the first cut which accompanies this article a number of echinoderms are presented4 ,the star-fish is in the centre to the left4 ,it resembles the decorative star of an ,order1 and has short or long1 broad or slender rays1 as the case may be1 and a disc-shaped central body4 ,the observation which is most important for our present discussion1 and which strikes us on first seeing a star-fish1 or its relatives the sea-urchin and the sea-anemone1 consists of the fact that these animals possess no head1 which even the most insignificant worm or insect does not lack1 and that consequently its organs are in want of a guiding1 regulative member1 possessing externally organs of sense and having within a brain with the power to communicate the requisite commands for the movement and the conduct of the same4 ,on the contrary1 each single branch or ray possesses its own individual nervous system2 and in the case of the voluntary separation of the rays1 which frequently occurs1 is able to continue life of its own independent accord1 developing itself by the growth of new rays into a new and complete star-fish4 7,see ,fig4 #b47 ,but these five or more nervous systems do not radiate from a common central nerve-ganglion which might be termed a central brain1 but are merely joined to a nerve-ring which lies in a common central portion1 encircling the esophagus2 this nerve-ring in the majority of cases forms a regular polygonic figure1 and into each angle of the polygon the nerve-cord of a ray enters4 ,it will be seen from this structural arrangement of things1 that the psychical and mental guidance of these animals is entrusted to a board of five members who possess1 it is true1 sentient communication with each other1 but act without the intermediation of a presiding officer4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #b4--;,,comet-,,form ,,of ,,arm ,,of ,a ,,star-,,fish4 ,a cast-off arm re-forming by the sprouting of four new rays4 ,we may well look forward with intense interest to the outcome of a psychical administration of this kind1 and to tell the truth1 until recently its importance has been greatly underestimated4 ,every inference made with respect to the psychical excitability of an animal must be derived from its movements and actions in various natural and artificially produced positions1 by observing what its conduct under these conditions is4 ,to start with1 star-fishes1 like sea-urchins 7which psychically are similarly governed71 admit with respect to the position of their bodies a distinction of top and bottom2 that is to say1 the side on which the mouth lies situated in the centre of the five rays belongs properly face downwards1 while the opposite surface is to be regarded as the dorsal side4 ,but the conceptions of a forepart and a hindpart1 of a right and a left are not applicable4 ,the rays of the star-fish1 like the central disc1 also plainly exhibit a distinction of lower and upper parts4 ,among the real star-fishes 7,asteroidea7 the inferior or ventral surface of the arms is supplied either with two or with four rows of sucker-feet or pedicels1 consisting of long1 extensile1 hollow sacs1 which when filled and extended by the water let into their widely ramified ambulacral systems1 protrude into the grooves of the arm through openings in the hardened calcareous integument4 ,to level surfaces they easily cling fast by simply drawing back the terminal discs of their tubular feet and thus creating a rarefied atmosphere in the space between the object to which they adhere and the puffed out walls of the extremities of the pedicels4 ,star-fishes may be seen climbing in this way1 with their hundreds and hundreds of tube-feet1 up slippery cliffs and even the perpendicular glass walls of aquariums1 and they are even able to hang suspended from a horizontal glass ceiling for a considerable length of time after they have been taken out of the water4 ,when they wish to change their position they do it by alternately loosening and fastening their extensile feet in such a way that those loosened reach forward in one and the same direction uniform in all the arms1 and fasten themselves to the surface anew1 whereupon the others also let loose and go through the same movement in the same direction4 ,the sucker-feet also help to convey to the mouth the food seized at the end of the arms4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #c4--,,mode ,,of ,,locomotion ,,of ,,sand-,,stars4 7,after ,preyer47 ,in the cut to the left #a first advances1 then 7#e7 and 7#b72 #c and #d remaining at rest4 ,whereupon 7#e7 and 7#b7 simultaneously come back to the positions #e and #b1 c is lifted and pushed forwards with #a1 while the two rays #c and #d are pulled along behind4 ,in the figure to the right the same animal first shoves forward the pairs 7#a7 7#b7 and 7#e7 7#c71 #d remaining at rest1 and then bends both pairs backwards1 dragging only #d behind2 c is lifted and thrown forward in the direction of the arrow4 ,while in this instance1 accordingly1 the arms1 although they are not immovable and bend and approach each other1 officiate rather as the bearers of organs than as prehensile and locomotory apparatuses themselves1--the sucker-feet performing the principal tasks and requiring for their work a very finely ramified nervous system2 in the case of a certain other division of the star-fishes1 the so-called sand-stars 7,ophiuridae71 the arms are thinner and more supple1 and act as organs of prehension and locomotion1 dispensing more or less entirely with their suctorial pedicels4 ,by alternately thrusting three feet forward 7,fig4 #c7 and then drawing back the two side feet of these three1 the five-footed sea-stars move more swiftly than the others1 sometimes proceeding by jumps even2 but they cannot climb up smooth surfaces1 or cliffs1 unless irregularities are present which may be grasped by their pliant arms1 whereas on the other hand the common star-fishes1 which are furnished with sucker-feet1 climb best of all on smooth and slippery surfaces1 each one of their countless pedicels being able to suspend a considerable weight1 in some species as much as twenty-five grammes4 ,in other respects1 especially with regard to the ring-shaped connection of the five nerve-cords1 their organisation is essentially the same2 only in the sand-stars the central portion forms a disc more distinctly separate from the arms1 in which former the common organs of feeling and digestion have more fully retracted4 ,recognising thus1 that the star-fishes and all their relatives act physically like a federal animal-union1 composed of five independent animal-states1 ,i called attention in the first edition of my work ,werden und ,vergehen 7#ahgf7 to the psychological enigma that we were here confronted with a five-fold ,siamese monster1 as it were1 in which five separate persons were brought mentally under the same guidance1 or where five minds had to pull1 simultaneously1 one rope4 ,on account of the absence of a head and a brain in these animals1 certain well-known modern animal psychologists have taken the position that their powers of psychical performance are very scanty1 and that1 in a much fuller sense than was predicated of all animals by the ,cartesians1 these especially were irrational automatons1 or1 to use a technical expression1 were mere reflex-organisms1 animals in which only direct external excitations evoke with unalterable regularity responsive movements1 so that1 for example1 if any unpleasant excitation were brought to bear on them from any direction they would move in the opposite direction1 but world approach if anything became perceptible that excited their desire for food4 ,on this ground the distinguished ,english animal psychologists ,romanes and ,ewart claim to have established that these animals actually do respond like machines to external excitations2 if they were excited at any part of their body by a wound1 by the application of acids1 an electric current1 or any other irritant1 they would run without exception in a straight line in the opposite direction1 but if the excitation were applied to any two parts of their body at some distance from each other they would move in the line of the diagonal of the two directions1 in accordance with the principle of the parallelogram of forces4 ,similarly their movements after prey and food 7the presence of which at a distance was made known by the emission of odors71 their movements toward more brightly illuminated parts of the containing vessel1 their flight from the air into the water1 their recovery of their normal position when placed on their backs1 and finally their so-called autotomy or self-amputation1 that is the casting off of their members under the irritation of powerful stimuli--were all held to represent mere automatic responses to prearranged conditions without a trace of intelligence being exhibited4 ,in view of this condition of things it was a very welcome announcement1 that one of the most brilliant representatives of modern experimental physiology and psychology1 ,professor ,w4 ,preyer1 at present of ,berlin1 had determined to undertake a comprehensive series of experiments with these very animals1 and was able to carry out his intention at the zological station in ,naples1 so admirably adapted to the purpose4 ,to obtain clear ideas generally with regard to animal reflex-mechanisms1 fitter specimens for experiment could scarcely be presented than the star-fishes1 which unite a rare degree of decentralisation1 power of independent action1 and absence of a cerebral centre1 with a nervous system of the minutest ramifications4 ,here1 if anywhere1 were simple1 clear and transparent results to be expected1 and finally information relating to the co-operative activity of different nervous systems4 ,preyer published the results of his observations in the ,mittheilungen der ,zoologischen ,station in ,neapel for the years #ahhf and #ahhg1 and although he does not regard his labors as completed1 the scientific reading public may nevertheless take sufficient interest in the present state of his researches to justify a presentment of the principal and most general results obtained4 ,in confirmation of the view that previously obtained it was found that these animals actually did respond in a rare degree to given stimuli in a manner determined once for all2 it could be foretold with a degree of sureness verging on astronomical certainty1 how1 for example1 the sucker-feet of a star-fish would act if the animal in its normal and sound condition was irritated at this or that place1 powerfully or weakly1 one time or many times successively1 by mechanical or chemical applications1 by electric currents1 or heated instruments4 ,with all the means of irritation employed the result was always identical1 and consisted in the fact that the distensible feet were drawn in at the point of application when the irritation did not extend beyond its region1 no matter whether it was applied at the inferior or superior surface of the animal1 but that protrusion of the feet never resulted from local irritations of this character so long as they did not exceed a certain intensity4 ,a more powerful irritation1 on the other hand1 radiating over a greater portion1 or over the whole animal1 produces a general protrusion of the distensible pedicels1 so far as the irritation extends1 with the single exception of the point of application itself when the same lies on the inferior surface4 ,inasmuch as this swarming protrusion of pedicels may spread over the entire inferior surface when only a single arm is irritated in the neighborhood of its extremity1 it follows from this that the nervous excitation must first be conveyed to the ring at the centre in order to radiate thence to the pedicels of the other arms2 and from the manner in which the irritation is propagated1 the course of the radiation can be accurately followed4 ,thus1 if the irritation of an arm proceeded from the dorsal region1 the distensible pedicels of this arm were the first to protrude1 then those of the two adjacent arms1 and finally those of the two remaining arms1 but in the latter not quite out to the extremities unless the irritation exceeded a certain intensity4 ,that is to say1 the effect of the irritation was propagated through the inner nerve-ring according to the same laws by which a fluid under pressure or an electric current in a similar conductory system would proceed4 ,but if the connection of the ring was severed at both sides of the irritated arm1 the effect would remain confined to that arm4 ,if the connection was broken only on one side the irritation advanced round the other side and reached the severed neighbor last4 ,on the other hand1 a powerful irritation of the central disc immediately provoked the extension of all the pedicels4 ,the phenomena recorded occurred moreover in accordance with simple mechanical laws as was expected from the outset1 and when the irritations were unusually powerful the effect was manifested by a continuous alternate extension and contraction of the pedicels4 ,amputated arms of the common sucker-footed star-fish act like arms isolated at both sides by severance of the nerve-ring1 as just explained4 ,upon local irritation they draw in their pedicels1 and protrude them upon being powerfully irritated2 they creep forward in a definite direction1 and when placed upon their backs are able even to turn themselves over like the uninjured animal4 ,the severed arms of sand-stars are less independent4 ,they twist about aimlessly hither and thither1 but if any considerable portion of the central disc and nerve-ring adheres to them they are able to perform adaptive movements4 ,similarly the disc1 with one or two arms attached1 is not helpless2 and is able to get along quite alone without any arms4 ,we could explain all these movements by so-called reflex actions and might grant also that the mechanism that effects these results operates in this case upon a greater scale and with more independence than in other classes of animals1 for the reason that here a real guiding organ is not present4 ,but whatever might be inferred from the experiments just described in favor of a senseless and unintelligent life of star-fishes1 ,professor ,preyer was nevertheless able by extending his experiments to win the conviction that the old conception of star-fishes being real reflex animals was wholly untenable1 since a great number of capacities and capabilities could be verified and provoked1 which are intelligible only on the basis of adaptive co-operation and mutual concerted action in the five rays4 ,we shall not discuss here whether this is also proved by the wonderful fact that a star-fish1 which fastens its arms to everything possible1 never seizes its own arm and thus1 like ,molire's miser1 in its visits to its oyster beds never catches itself for a thief4 ,we might say1 indeed1 that the arm seeking a hold does not seize its companion because it feels it and has learned by experience that it takes a ,mnchausen to pull one's self out of a swamp by the tops of one's boots4 ,but we find exactly the same phenomenon among creeping plants1 which clasp every kind of support in their way1 but never1 as ,darwin observed1 take hold of their own stalks2 whence we might assume that there probably exists in these beings some sort of power of reflex inhibition dependent upon a property of the body and developed in consequence of the fact that clasping and grasping parts of itself would involve a useless waste of energy4 ,we shall see1 however1 that under certain circumstances this instinctive dread of contact with self is inoperative4 ,but to our main task4 ,in the simplest changes of place and position1 intelligent co-operation of the arms is manifest4 ,for if in moving from one place to another1 or in turning around each arm tended to perform on its own account the necessary movements of extension or rotation1 without giving any heed to the others1 the animal would endure the torments of ,tantalus before it could reach1 if ever at all1 the choice bit of food that it had scented from afar1 or the ray of light towards which an obscure impulsion drove it4 ,on the contrary1 when a star-fish is spying after food1 we observe it lift the ends of its pedicel-covered arms so that the downward deflected eye there situated may obtain a good view of things in the neighborhood1 and if in any direction an object worth going after is discovered we see the many hundreds of sucker-feet on the five arms push out in one and the same direction1--a phenomenon that requires the presence of a very widely ramified nervous system1 since every tactile pedicel needs its separate telegraph wire in order to be properly moved and not always in the same direction1 as for example when the animal wishes to perform a rotation about its own axis4 ,for these comical animals sometimes do rotate about their axis1 although our simple mind wonders why a ,janus-head should want to turn around1 these animals being able to look simultaneously in the four directions of the compass1 and having still another eye for looking downward4 ,similarly in the sand-stars1 to which the ,medusa-heads with branched arms belong1 an adaptive co-operation of the arms in creeping and swimming occurs2 which can be explained only as the result of a common understanding issuing from the central ring4 ,it would seem to follow from ,preyer's extensive observations1 that as a rule no one individual arm of a star-fish enjoys to the exclusion of its fellows the prerogative of universal or even general precedence2 the lead of any one arm is rather solely determined by the object sought1 so that the one next to the object generally starts first and assumes the lead of the little army of arms4 ,of course in the case of new-growing star-fishes which have sprung from a single arm by sprouting1 this is different2 for in this instance the old arm will undoubtedly retain control of the others for some length of time until the young ones have reached a certain size4 ,preyer does not seem to have instituted observations to ascertain this1 but it would be interesting to determine whether an arm of this kind always takes the lead1 or in the proper cases acts as driver from behind and pushes the baby-carriage with the children before it4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #d4--,,recovery ,,of ,,normal ,,position ,,by ,,astropecten ,,aurantiacus4 7,after ,preyer47 ,through the end of each ray of the animal a thread is drawn and affixed to a cork2 the animal lying back downwards4 ,at first the creature swung the corks alternately inwards and outwards1 taking the positions represented in the above figure4 ,after the lapse of an hour the ray with the smallest cork attached1 upon which thus the least upward pressure was exerted1 was pulled downwards and sidewise and brought beneath an adjacent ray2 the two opposite rays were retracted centrally1 the disc lifted1 the centre of gravity of the animal thus displaced1 and the turning effected4 ,examples of surprisingly dexterous co-operation and concerted adaptive action are observed in these animals in their climbing on difficult surfaces1 and in their attempts1 also1 to regain their normal position when placed on their backs or made to swim in reversed positions by discs of cork fastened to the extremities of their arms4 ,scientists have observed members of the orders ,asteroidea and ,ophiuroidea1 in difficult positions of this kind1 display an astounding sense of equilibrium and a skilfulness in gaining firm holds1 suggestive of the athletic feats of monkeys1 and that even when placed in very unusual positions such as never occur in nature4 ,thus many star-fishes let themselves drop from steep rocks and cliffs1 if that happens to be the best way of getting down2 but in such cases before they let their whole weight go hold fast to the last moment with one or two arms1 as if it were previously necessary to calculate the leap into the depths below4 ,to furnish the counter-test of this1 and to prove that the central nerve-ring is1 as assumed1 the indispensable and necessary condition of this united co-operation1 ,preyer severed the ring in individual specimens of the class between every two arms1 sparing the other parts as much as possible4 ,in this way the nervous systems of the five rays were disconnected4 ,as was expected1 it was found that the more connections there were severed1 the more difficult the animal found it when placed on its back to regain its normal position4 ,for since the recovery of the normal position must be introduced by the groping about and the fastening of the pedicels of one or of several adjacent and half-turned arms1 two arms or pairs of arms might for want of a mutual understanding act directly in opposition to one another and thus make the turning impossible4 ,on the other hand1 the central disc was able1 though deprived of all arms1 to accomplish the turning1 if only the nerve-ring were preserved intact2 and the more there remained of the nerve-ring on a single arm the better the single arm was able to do it4 ,but in circumstances which were wholly new1 the adaptive co-operation of the arms demonstrated itself in so striking a manner that we may say they are not to be easily put out of countenance or confounded4 ,when ,professor ,preyer1 for example1 slipped narrow rubber bands or cylinders over their rough spiny arms1 they rid themselves as a rule of these unwonted fetters in a very short time1 and in the most various but always well calculated ways4 ,generally the two nearest ones seized their poor imprisoned fellow under the arms1 bracing themselves with their rough spiny surface against the rubber sleeve1 and thus finally stripping it off4 7,see ,fig4 #e2 next page47 ,sometimes1 when the band was loosely adjusted1 twisting movements of the arm in the water sufficed gradually to loosen it1 until it could be finally cast off4 ,often the peeling off was effected by pressing against a rough surface1 whereby sometimes an adjacent arm held the sleeve fast2 and when no other expedient was of avail the animal cast the arm1 sleeve and all1 away from itself2 and the latter may possibly have not gotten rid of it at all4 ,at times the casting off of the arm occurred subsequently1 after the obstacle had been entirely removed1 and often even a day later1 as if the impeded arm was still sensible of some obstruction which caused it to afterwards separate from its companions4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #e4--,,removal ,,by ,,ophiomyxa ,,of ,a ,,rubber ,,sleeve4 7,after ,preyer47 ,the figure represents the moment at which the band is about to be removed4 ,an adjacent arm is braced against the lower edge of the band1 forcing it off in the direction of the extremity of the ray4 ,attempts at flight and liberation from unwonted compulsory positions or narrow confinement1 also deserve special attention4 ,many a person who has put a star-fish into a cage and fancied that he was assured of its possession1 has been disappointed on finding that the animal had effected its escape through the meshes4 ,but star-fishes have1 in consequence of their abhorrence of the air1 been made to creep into the narrow necks of bottles filled with water4 ,professor ,preyer1 for example1 thrust two of the arms of a common star-fish species 7,asterias glacialis7 into a tube filled with salt water leaving the three other arms exposed to the atmosphere outside2 and although it would have been impossible to force the animal into the tube without crushing it1 the three arms exposed to the air were also pulled in within the space of three minutes4 ,if the tube was placed perpendicularly in water the animal quickly crept out again4 ,the performance seemed utterly impossible1 for each single arm of the star-fish was almost as thick at its base as the greatest width of the tube1 and yet three of these arms had to pass in side by side4 ,this was made possible by the animal emptying during the passage all the numerous water-vesicles in the interior of the arms which serve to fill and to empty the distensible pedicels therein2 the star-fish1 after the expulsion of the water1 becomes very soft in all its parts and does not harden again until it has forced itself completely through and refilled itself with water4 ,in order to accomplish these emptyings1 bendings1 turnings1 and rollings1 thousands of muscular fibres must work in harmony within the body of the animal4 ,this experiment was also successfully carried out with other star-fishes1 but ,i cannot agree with the observer when he says that in so doing he brought the animals into a completely new and hitherto unexperienced position4 ,in their haunts on rocky coasts they must assuredly often have to force their way through narrow fissures and holes2 and they must find occasion to make use of the advantages of being able to evacuate water in the case also of single arms1 as when they search with them in narrow apertures and snail-houses4 ,but undoubtedly new for these animals was the position in which they were fastened to a board by five long pins with broad heads1 which ,preyer drove in close to the central disc between the rays1 so that the star-fish1 as it seemed1 was fastened to its resting-place in a way that admitted of no escape4 ,nevertheless1 the star-fish found a means of freeing itself with ease and elegance from this constrained imprisonment in a great variety of ways1 even when the exterior parts of their bodies were girded in by a much greater number of pins4 ,ordinarily they began by shoving one of their rays1 accompanied by a backward bending movement of its two companions1 far out between the two encompassing pins1 and then drew with the greatest care first the one and then the other adjacent ray through the same narrow avenue of escape1 whereupon then the two remaining rays1 the one slightly overlapping the other1 were enabled to follow with perfect ease4 7,see ,fig4 #f47 ,a practised knot-untier who had studied the position could not have given them better advice4 ,but if no agreement of plan and purpose existed in this case between the separate rays1 if each ray sought to free itself of its own accord1 a successful extrication from the difficulty could hardly have been foreseen2 and we must infer from this great unanimity of action in times of danger4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #f4--;,,extrication ,,of ,,star-,,fish ,,imprisoned ,,interradially ,,by ,,tacks4 7,after ,preyer47 #a4 ,original encompassment4 #b4 ,first stage of extrication4 #c4 ,second stage4 #d4 ,third and last stage4 ,the smaller figures indicate the successive positions of the same rays4 ,preyer thinks that at times the concurrence of all the rays in matters of concerted action might have to be effected by first obtaining the concurrence and assent of any individual ray that might be hostilely disposed2 he holds it as not improbable that profound dissensions may arise between the united brothers1 and refers to the fact that perhaps the voluntary section of a star-fish into a three-rayed and a two-rayed portion1--which frequently takes place1--may have to be regarded as the violent dissolution of a community of fellow animals formerly living in harmony1 but now lapsed into a state of conflict4 ,we shall pass this view by1 however1 to point out in a few words ,preyer's general inferences with regard to the mutual relation of the five communal souls4 ,progression and flight in a direction once taken and unimpeded by obstacles1--an observation often made and easily verified1--the acrobatic performances1 and lastly the intelligent behavior1 so to say1 of imprisoned and fettered star-fishes1 prove that generally1 and especially in moments of peril1 strength-giving unanimity prevails4 ,but ,preyer is nevertheless of opinion that it is not therefore necessary to assume the existence of a permanent central government1 a central soul1 holding simultaneous sway over the five radial souls1 and in which is lodged1 especially in times of battle1 full executive power4 ,he employs the simile of five hunting-dogs yoked together in the form of a ring1 of like age1 like power1 and the same training1 who hunt a hare in concert1 or stand simultaneously and mechanically before a partridge2 when thrown into the water make for the shore all in the same direction1 and when equally tired fall simultaneously asleep4 ,like the ,siamese twins1 he says1 these yolked-together dogs will have upon the whole apparently but one will1 although they often obey only necessity in this and not their own impulses4 ,preyer arrives in this at the same conclusion that ,i pronounced in #ahgf in the work ,i have mentioned1 where ,i compared the concerted actions and movements of star-fishes and sea-urchins to the walking and dancing of human twin-monsters1 who in spite of a difference of mental individuality1 often very far reaching1 nevertheless bring about perfect harmony in their external movements4 ,in this ,i had especially in mind the so-called two-headed nightingale1 two girls closely united in growth1 who often violently quarreled but sang and danced so harmoniously with one another that for the time being the sorrowful fate of the indissoluble union of two so different natures was completely forgotten4 ,in the majority of their relations the five or more associates united in the star-fish are much better off than unfortunate human beings like those just described1 and especially in this one particular that they do not have to die with one another1 but are able to break loose with impunity from a companion whom death threatens1 when they observe that he has suffered a wound or loss1 simply expelling him from the community4 ,,carus ,,sterne4 ,,literary ,,correspondence4 ,i4 ,,german ,,philosophy ,,in ,,the ,,nineteenth ,,century4 ,you have requested me to write you for your new quarterly magazine a review of the philosophy of contemporary ,germany as manifested in its most important tendencies and endeavors4 ,in setting out to comply with your wish1 ,i feel that this is no simple task4 ,with mere titles of books neither you nor your public will be satisfied4 ,the readers of ,the ,monist will demand a deeper insight into the workshops of ,german philosophy2 they will want to know if the old mother soil of speculative thought has retained its pristine fertility4 ,fertile it has remained4 ,but in quite another sense from formerly4 ,in a few years a century will have elapsed since ,schelling published in the ,philosophische ,journal of ,niethammer and ,fichte1 his ,general ,survey of ,modern ,philosophical ,literature1 and it is well to recall to mind that treatise and that period in attempting to characterise the present state of philosophy in ,germany2 contrasts1 we all know1 are quite as important for the acquisition of knowledge as resemblances4 ,one central problem stood at that time predominantly in the foreground2 the problem1 namely1 of the unification of knowledge4 ,neither the idea nor the tendency it involves1 is unknown to the philosophy of to-day1 but its meaning has become a different one4 ,at that epoch it was sought to solve the problem from within1 to solve it from the centre2 it was sought to find a supreme species of knowledge possessing a certainty founded unconditionally in itself1 and to expand this dialectically into a system of ideas4 ,i do not need to set forth here the great and peculiar acquisitions that this method has won for us1 nor to point out what wealth of noble power was dissipated by it in the treatment of impossible problems4 ,these things belong to history4 ,the speculative period of ,german philosophy is dead4 ,ludwig ,feuerbach in the middle of this century sung its funeral dirge4 ,but it took some time before people accustomed themselves to regard it as really dead1--a time in which countless attempts were made to resuscitate it2 it took some time before philosophers began generally to bestow upon the corpse the kicks of abuse that ,schopenhauer in its own lifetime administered to it1 and for which he was rebuked by a universal silence of indignation4 ,earlier history1 still under the influence of the speculative masters1 had characterised the progress of ,german philosophy from ,kant to ,hegel as the necessary and logical evolution of the idea of philosophy in its highest sense4 ,but the present prevailing method of presentation is accustomed to draw a sharp1 deep line at the termination of ,kant's activity1 and to regard the entire subsequent speculative development of the ,kantian philosophy as a fallacious digression and an abandonment of the fundamental critical idea4 ,back to ,kant is the watchword that has resounded since the beginning of the sixties1 at first in solitary utterances1 and then with greater1 ever-increasing emphasis--the incipient condemnation of a period in which ,german philosophy had celebrated its grandest and most brilliant triumphs1 and at a time when ,german speculative thought had just begun to grow better known and more influential abroad4 99 99 99 99 99 ,back to ,kant4 ,yes4 ,but to which ,kant8 ,to the ,kant of the first or the second edition of the ,critique of the ,pure ,reason8 ,to the ,critique of the ,pure or the ,critique of the ,practical ,reason8 ,very perplexing questions these4 ,the philosophy of ,kant is not so easily reducible to a simple and comprehensive formula4 ,it is a veritable ,proteus1 that changes at will form and appearance4 ,every one interprets it1 in the end1 as he wishes ,kant should have thought4 ,the cry ,back to ,kant has become in the ranks of ,german philosophers a veritable apple of discord4 ,an enormous ,kantian literature has sprung up2 critical1 exegetical1 constructive4 ,no one can dispute its acumen1 learning1 erudition1 and profundity4 ,but the traits of ,alexandrianism unmistakably cling to it4 ,a more pernicious waste of intellectual power1 perhaps1 than that of the much deplored speculative period4 ,one has the feeling often as if one would like to cast into the tumultuous1 struggling crowd of combatants a different battle cry--,back to ,nature6 ,back to to the examination of the true contents of things6 ,i shall select on this occasion from the superabundant store of ,kantian literature the works of two writers only to whom the characterisation just advanced does not apply1 and to whom independent and fundamental importance belongs4 ,they are1 first1 ,,ernst ,,laas1#eh professor at the ,university of ,strassburg1 who died in #ahhe1 and second1 ,,alois ,,riehl1#ei formerly of ,gratz1 now of ,freiburg4 ,both began with ,kantian research4 ,neither remained identified with it4 ,both sought to supply a new foundation for that branch of philosophy that deals with the theory of cognition2 both brought to the service of their task1 in addition to eminent critical and analytical acumen1 comprehensive historical knowledge4 ,widely different in method1 both pursued the same end--the eradication of that transcendent bias which had so pernicious an influence with ,kant himself and his immediate followers1 and the replacing of all dualistic opposition of a higher and a lower1 or a real and a phantom world1 by a philosophy of reality based upon the rigid analysis of pure experience4 ,both1 therefore1 are1 in this sense1 indispensable preconditions of every monistic philosophy that is not founded on immediate intellectual perception1 or mere postulates1 but aims at a critical foundation4 #eh ,laas1 ,idealismus und ,positivismus1 #c ,vols4 #ahgf-hg4 #ei ,riehl1 ,der philosophische ,kriticismus und seine ,bedeutung fr die positive ,wissenschaft1 #c ,vols4 #ahgf-hg4 99 99 99 99 99 ,simultaneously with this battle for the real ,kant and the measure of that in his philosophy which could be utilised as the groundwork of a new structure conforming to the conditions of the times1 ,german philosophy in the second half of this century waged another war4 ,no fratricidal struggle this1 no mere scholastic feud1 but a battle for existence with a foreign foe--the physical sciences4 ,after the speculative philosophy had retired from the throne that it had so long occupied1 and the vacancy seemed yet unfilled1 the attempt was made to place in the unoccupied seat another intellectual power whose credit and authority with the contemporary world had begun to keep pace with the success that attended its endeavors4 ,we shall designate these attempts briefly as materialism1 and understand by the term any and every endeavor that aims at constructing a conception of the world with the means and methods of the mathematical and mechanical sciences alone4 ,that which was here sought after was the exact opposite of the state of things that obtained in the speculative period2 and the treatment that the speculative philosophy had to submit to at the hands of many of the spokesmen of the new movement was not entirely undeserved4 ,the battle that ,german philosophy here had to fight was no easy one4 ,its foe occupied every position of vantage4 ,the real or apparent exactness of its principles1 the detailed character of the structure of the world that it bade fair to offer were a power4 ,what we want is facts1 not ideas2 intelligibility1 not profundity--these were the demands with which philosophy was confronted4 ,it was impossible to outflank1 in this direction1 the representatives of a scientific discipline that admitted of skilful popularisation4 ,there was nothing similar to oppose to it4 ,philosophers were accordingly compelled to confine themselves to criticism1 to show forth the unmistakable defectiveness of the pure-mechanical philosophy1 the weaknesses and flaws in its demonstrations and the arbitrary character of its construction2 and to point out by a display of much acute reasoning what fifty years before was self-evident1 that mind and mental life are not merely an accidental phase of things1 not a product incidentally resulting1 but an indestructible feature of the inward nature of the world itself4 ,much of this extensive antimaterialistic literature1 in which may also be included by far the greater part of anti-,darwinian literature1 can put forth no claim to lasting worth1 and is to-day wholly antiquated4 ,for the simple reason that people no longer understand1 or at least will soon no longer be able to understand1 the circumstances and conditions out of which this polemical activity sprung3 namely the transcendent metaphysical philosophy2 mistaken idealism which imagined that existence and reality had to be transfigured in and by cognition instead of through will and action2 the secret fear of an endangerment or indeed of a dislodgment of the religio-theological world-conception1 the supernatural ,god-idea1 the pure spiritual and immortal soul1 the freedom of the will1 and other phantoms whatsoever the designations they may bear4 ,but this warfare against materialism1 which was waged by minds of widely varying rank and power1 resulted at least in the substantial advantage of having brought the hostile parties closer together1 of having forced them to the reciprocal study of their respective means of investigation1 and of having put an end to the complete estrangement that formerly existed between them4 ,not only did it enrich philosophy1 but it also led physical science to a correction of many of its conceptions and to a re-examination of its methodological hypotheses4 ,this is best to be studied1 perhaps1 by taking to hand the writings of a man who may be characterised pre-eminently as a spokesman of the materialistic movement in ,germany1--,i mean ,,jakob ,,moleschott4 ,his well known work ,der ,kreislauf des ,lebens has become in its last1 the eighth edition1 something quite different from what it was in its first2 and the rich collection of his lesser writings 7,kleinere ,schriften1 #b ,vols41 #ahgi-hg7 also offers the philosopher1 especially from a methodological point of view1 much that is worthy of especial attention4 ,moreover1 this reciprocal influence of mind upon mind is manifested in the case of many of the most distinguished investigators of the last thirty years1 in the most remarkable and gratifying manner4 ,it is impossible to study the discourses and treatises of physiologists like ,,du ,,bois-,,reymond and ,,wilhelm ,,preyer1 of physicists like ,,helmholtz and ,,ernst ,,mach1 and the discussions occasioned by their works1 without being surprised at the extent to which the points of view of psychology and of the theory of cognition have penetrated into the problems and inquiries of the physical sciences4 ,and vice versa philosophical works1 like ,,fr4 ,a4 ,,lange',s ,history of ,materialism 7,geschichte des ,materialismus und ,kritik seiner ,bedeutung in der ,gegenwart71 ,,ueberweg',s ,collected ,essays 7,gesammelte ,abhandlungen1 just recently edited in a commendable manner by ,moritz ,brasch71 the numerous works of ,,ludwig ,,noir1 and1 last but not least1 the entire scientific activity of ,,wilhelm ,,wundt1--all show an intimate familiarity with the methods of the physical sciences and an assimilation of materials from these branches of knowledge such as the speculative period can furnish no example of4 99 99 99 99 99 ,nevertheless1 this intellectual revolution1 far-reaching as it was1 has led neither to solid systematic construction nor even to the successful development of positive methods of thought4 ,since the decline of speculative philosophy1--in which in this connection the ,herbartian may also be included1--two systems only have dominantly influenced the ,german mind3 the system of ,,arthur ,,schopenhauer and that of ,,hermann ,,lotze4 ,in both a resonance still lingers of the older time4 ,in ,schopenhauer we detect the spirit of ,schelling's nature- and art-philosophy2 in ,lotze1 traces of the finely studied subtlety of ,herbartian metaphysics4 ,but though both are indebted for a portion of their real intrinsic worth to this organic though involuntary connection with a great epoch1 their influence upon the present time rests upon very different grounds2 and primarily upon the symmetrical1 finished1 and compact totality of their intellectual creations4 ,they arose at a time in which philosophers had begun to lay aside the older systems as useless1 and in which that multitudinous dismemberment of knowledge already began to make itself felt which to-day seems to be still growing greater4 ,although it may be difficult in many phases of the development of science to satisfy the impulse latent in us to unify knowledge1 and although this endeavor is characterised ever anew by the representatives of special research as a delusion1 nay as a ruinous delusion1--yet this impulse is not to be eradicated from the human mind and in some way or other it will ever procure itself recognition4 ,works like ,die ,welt als ,wille und ,vorstellung 7,world as ,will and ,idea71 or ,der ,mikrokosmus 7,microcosm7 embrace in fact the entire sphere of knowledge1 not in an extensive1 but in an intensive sense3 they furnish a definite view of the complete inter-relation and meaning of life4 ,it will perhaps appear strange to the reader that works are here mentioned in the same breath and their effects upon the present time discussed1 which are separated in origin from each other by a space of about forty years4 ,yet this very anomaly is characteristic of the development of the ,german mind4 ,when ,schopenhauer published1 in #ahai1 his principal work1 the time for it had not yet come4 ,the philosophy of ,hegel1 a rationalistic panlogism1 was then in the very midst of its career of triumph4 ,the irrationalistic and pessimistic elements of ,schopenhauerian thought were repulsive4 ,we now know that the two first editions of the ,welt als ,wille und ,vorstellung mouldered in the shops of the booksellers4 ,not until shortly before ,schopenhauer's death in #ahfj did the literary public and the scholastic circles of ,germany begin to occupy themselves more seriously with this philosopher4 ,not until then did he really enter as an active factor into our intellectual life4 ,this influence1 in the case both of ,schopenhauer and ,lotze1 rests1 aside from the fact of the universal character of their thought-creations1 already referred to1 pre-eminently in the circumstance that both made thoroughly their own the scientific theory of things and recognised that conception as one whose justification was contained in itself1 and which1 regarded from the standpoint of its own hypotheses1 was irrefutable1 though they were nevertheless far removed from perceiving in it the final and irreversible verdict of human knowledge4 ,in this endeavor to fix the limits of scientific cognition ,schopenhauer and ,lotze form important pillars of the antimaterialistic movement in ,germany1 and are just in this respect also intimately related with the task of the modern ,critical ,philosophy or ,neo-,kantianism4 ,but while the latter movements came to a stop with predominantly negative or preparatory criticism1 ,schopenhauer and ,lotze owe a great portion of their wide-spread influence on ,german culture to the circumstance that they undertook1 from the point of view of the critical theory of knowledge already acquired1 to sketch the plans of structures of the world which would furnish a general background and scheme of synthetic connection for the collective special results of the physical and mental sciences4 ,that these sketches of world-construction have an individual coloring can only lessen their value in the eyes of those who believe they are privileged to apply to such a synthetic1 constructive formulation of the highest ideas of all existence and thought1 the standard of the exact determination of a single law4 ,and so ,i shall only hastily point to the fact1 that the contrariety and oppositeness that permeates the world and all our thought about the world also comes sharply to light in the case of these two philosophers1 not to their mutual destruction1 but to the heightenment of the effect by the contrast4 ,the fortunes of the two systems1 which began about the same time to acquire influence1 were dissimilar4 ,the pessimistic element alone evinced itself fruitful1 in the sense that it came immediately into contact with general culture through manifold forms of presentation and extensive discussion4 ,the royal structure of the ,schopenhauerian philosophy has given a host of dispensing draymen for thirty years an abundance to do4 ,the leader of this army1 ,,eduard ,,von ,,hartmann1 has long since taken a place by the side of the sage of ,frankfort1 as independent master-builder1 and presented a system planned and executed with the most diffuse architectural details4 ,the nuclear idea of the ,philosophy of the ,unconscious 7,die ,philosophie des ,unbewussten7 has been amplified by the author himself in every direction1 extended1 exhibited in its historical relationships1 and applied to the special departments of philosophical science4 ,the theory of cognition1 ethics1 sthetics1 the philosophy of religion have all been treated of by ,hartmann in the last two decades in voluminous works1 and often repeatedly elaborated4 ,in addition thereto1 come several volumes of essays in which the philosopher has had something to say upon every conceivable topic1 political1 literary1 sthetical1 pedagogical1 and politico-economical4 ,hartmann's fecundity is only surpassed by his volubility4 ,in him appears anew that union of philosophy and journalism that had remained disunited since the close of the period of illumination4 ,the utility1 nay the necessity1 of this combination1 with which1 unfortunately1 the academical philosophy of the passing century would have naught to do1 ,hartmann knew the value of1 and skilfully exhibited his appreciation2 though one often wishes that its popular character had1 in places1 been made to do service in behalf of different ideas4 ,the writings of no other philosopher have obtained so wide a circulation as those of ,hartmann4 ,his chief work1 ,the ,philosophy of the ,unconscious1 first published in #ahgj1 has long since been put in stereotype form1 and from time to time passes through repeated new editions4 ,also his numerous other writings have for the greater part been repeatedly republished4 ,we possess a collection entitled ,select ,works1 and have just received a ,popular ,edition4 ,and it is moreover generally known that it has only been since the appearance of the ,philosophy of the ,unconscious1 that the sale of the writings of ,schopenhauer has assumed great proportions4 ,through the mediation of ,hartmann ,schopenhauer's fundamental ideas first reached the general public4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the philosophy of ,lotze lacked an interpreter of like versatility and fecundity1 although it had need of such a one in a much higher degree4 ,both thinkers were masters of the philosophical style4 ,but ,lotze's symmetrically rounded and intricate periods1 with their inexhaustible influx of incident relations1 makes very different demands upon the patient resignation of the reader than the lightly moving1 epigrammatically pointed style of ,schopenhauer4 ,lotze for this reason never really became popular4 ,his influence has remained rather a scholastic and academic one4 ,it has been fruitful in high degree in its effect on the special departments of philosophical science1 particularly on psychology1 whose present representatives in ,germany almost without exception received from him incitation and a solid scientific view-point4 ,not unimportant1 too1 is his influence upon academic instruction in philosophy1 through the ,dictations to his lectures1 published after his death1 which are in every student's hands and serve in many ways as a substitute for the study of his principal work4 ,lotze's authority1 finally1 stands like a rock with all whose great concern it is to find ways of reconciling the claims of theology and of religious belief with the present state of science4 ,and their number is by no means inconsiderable4 ,official ,germany has become pious1 or1 at least1 would like to appear so2 and although this is not to be understood exactly in the sense of especial dogmatic zeal1 yet people adhere nevertheless with a certain tenacity to the religious background of the prevailing world-conception4 ,abroad it is the custom to regard the ,germans upon the whole as a nation of atheists1 because they have produced several curious fellows like ,strauss and ,feuerbach1 enjoy having a good time on ,sunday1 and drink plentifully4 ,nothing can be more erroneous than this opinion4 ,the average ,german has long since learned to place implicit confidence in the declaration of his teachers1 that the great critical liberal movement of the later ,hegelian school is not to be seriously taken but to be looked upon merely as the outcome of a pathologically over-excited epoch4 ,nowhere in the great civilised countries has freethought practically found so little footing2 nowhere is its dependence upon the central powers of government greater2 nowhere is it more impossible to wrest even a tittle from the authority of the old system of education with its foundation laid in the theological world-theory4 ,this condition of things1 the obstinacy1 the timidity with which state and public opinion hold fast to religion1--and now in times of imminent social danger more so than ever1--must be borne in mind if we wish to understand the comparatively great success that the philosophy of ,schopenhauer and ,hartmann has had in ,germany4 ,in the support of these two systems the philosophical opposition of freethought has simply found expression--the opposition that has arisen against the official philosophy1 of which it cannot exactly be said that it theologises1 but which carefully avoids coming into conflict with theology1 and does not1 in its aristocratic academic exclusion1 endeavor to influence more extended circles4 ,the factor that made this philosophy of opposition accord with the spirit of the times--its proximity1 namely1 to the scientific world-theory--has already been emphasised2 and the fact that its pessimistic coloring has not been changed by its connection therewith will be found intelligible when we consider the turn that pessimism took in the hands of ,hartmann4 ,only the quietistic ,buddhism that ,schopenhauer taught1 could1 in an age of the highest expansion and display of power both at home and abroad1 appear as an incomprehensible riddle of the national mind4 ,the evolutionistic pessimism of ,hartmann1 however1 which demands of the individual complete and resigned submission to the struggle for existence1 although it is able to offer him in the remotest background of time no better outlook than the ultimate annihilation of existence itself--is in its immediate practical commands too closely akin to an optimistic conception not to satisfy fully the needs of life1 and is again too analogous to certain cosmological prophecies of natural science not to pass as the metaphysical expression of a truth otherwise accredited4 ,as opposed to this state of things ,neo-,kantianism or the ,critical ,philosophy in its various forms has taken no firm position2 no more than its master ,kant himself did4 ,to a great extent it makes use of the limitations of knowledge that have been critically determined1 in order to leave open behind the same a realm of transcendent possibilities in which religion may lead a passably secured existence4 ,behind the greatest critical acumen theological prejudice is only too often concealed4 ,few only of the intellectually eminent representatives of this movement like ,alois ,riehl and ,ernst ,laas exhibit in this respect perfect determination and the consciousness that the consequences of modern science unavoidably demand the laying aside of current religious conceptions and the substitution for them of more correct ones4 ,laas especially1 in many passages of his principal work 7,idealism and ,positivism71 as also in his readable little treatise ,kant's ,stellung im ,conflicte zwischen ,glauben und ,wissen1#fj has emphasised strongly the view that there can be ideals only for the man who acts1 and that so-called ideals where mingled with the function of pure cognition only falsify reality and lead to irresolvable conflicts4 ,and ,laas likewise belongs to the few who have laid prominent stress upon the educational task of modern philosophy as a substitute for systems of religious ideas4 #fj ,kant's ,position in the ,struggle between ,faith and ,knowledge4 99 99 99 99 99 ,from the point of view of different systematic hypotheses1 but substantially with exactly the same tendencies1 analogous ideas find representation in ,,eugen ,d,,hring1 who in versatility of talent and literary activity is perhaps to be placed directly by the side of ,lotze and ,hartmann1 though the favor in which his works stand and the circulation they have obtained fall far below the position of the latter4 ,he presents a different form of positivistic philosophy in ,germany1 a philosophy not preponderantly critical but constructive1 and begins with what ,ludwig ,feuerbach about the middle of this century in his ,principles of a ,philosophy of the ,future 7,grundstze einer ,philosophie der ,zukunft7 once propounded as programme4 ,his chief work1 ,cursus der ,philosophie als strengwissenschaftlicher ,weltanschauung und ,lebensgestaltung 7,course of ,philosophy as ,exact-,scientific ,world-,conception and ,conduct of ,life71 and the treatise against pessimism entitled ,der ,werth des ,lebens 7,the ,value of ,life7 sketch a world-picture that is intended theoretically to be but the simple conceptual interpretation of the present contents of experience1 and therefore rejects the metaphysical constructions of ,lotze1 as well as the new conceptual mythology of ,hartmann1 and criticistic doubts concerning the objective reality of the world given in consciousness4 ,in the practical direction1 as an offset to the world-throe of humanity1 the gladdening power of a life and action based on universal sympathy is emphasised4 ,dhring is a unique1 but isolated phenomenon2 standing1 like ,schopenhauer once did1 in sullen antagonism towards the official academic philosophy1 and totally ignored by it2 unable by virtue of the conditions already delineated to influence wider circles1 which the unanimated rigidity of his manner of presentation does not contribute to make easy4 ,eminent mental endowment and extensive knowledge are perhaps displayed in a higher degree in his historical works 7,kritische ,geschichte der ,allgemeinen ,principien der ,mechanik#fa2 ,kritische ,geschichte der ,philosophie#fb2 ,kritische ,geschichte der ,nationalkonomie und des ,socialismus#fc7 than in his systematic treatises4 #fa ,critical ,history of the ,general ,principles of ,mechanics4 #fb ,critical ,history of ,philosophy4 #fc ,critical ,history of ,political ,economy and ,socialism4 ,nevertheless1 ,dhring can at the farthest be regarded only as one of the forerunners of that ,messiah that is destined for ,german philosophy and ,german intellectual culture perhaps in the coming century2 of that man who shall be able to cast up the accounts of the work of the present period1 with its infinite analyses1 its historical comparative character1 and its pyramidal yield of material1 and to condense that which now everywhere surges about us like a spiritual ether1 but nowhere palpable or tangible1 into the unity of a system that shall point out the paths to be followed and shall dominate all minds4 99 99 99 99 99 ,there are many1--and among them eminent investigators and estimable scholars1--who smile at this prophecy as an ,utopian dream2 nay1 almost stand in dread of such hopes1 as perilous to science4 ,the day of systems1 say they1 is past4 ,philosophy1 too1--perhaps it were more proper to say mental science1--is breaking up into a number of special sciences1 over which it is sought to place a general science of knowledge or theory of science1 as the last representative of that which was once called philosophy and was recognised as the queen of the sciences4 ,as intimated1 ,i do not know whether the impulse toward unity that inheres in the human mind is to be so easily driven from the field2 whether we shall be satisfied in the long run to behold that light that irradiates the universe1 broken a hundred-fold by the prisms of the single sciences4 ,but one thing is certain4 ,the more irresolute they are in whom the science of the future places its confidence1 the more actively will they press forward who hold that the precious treasure of truth has long since been granted unto man1 and who would fain forge with this heritage of the past the fetters of the future4 ,after the ,catholic church under ,pius ,,ix4 had hurled in the face of modern culture and science its frantic ,anathema sit1 it began under his successor a much quieter1 yet far more determined warfare4 ,like one of the famed lianas of the primeval tropical forests1 it entwines the giant ,science1 to sap his best powers and slowly but surely to stifle his life4 ,whatever the modern mind with the help of freedom won by bitter struggles has gained in the knowledge of nature and of history1 is twisted and turned1 falsified and misinterpreted by hundreds and hundreds of busy hands until it has been fashioned to fit that ready-made scheme of things composed on the one hand of ,catholic dogmatical teachings1 and on the other of the ,aristotelian-,thomistic philosophy4 ,as many representatives as secular freethought can show1 there will be found beside them to-day an ecclesiastical advocatus diaboli who will neither rest nor cease until of the hero has been made a wretch and mangy heresiarch4 ,under protection of the principle of free inquiry1 and with all the helps of science1 a warfare of extermination is here carried on against all freedom of mind and all science1 which is the more dangerous in proportion as the opponent loves to decorate himself with the borrowed plumes of science1 and as he is able skilfully to mask his real designs4 ,catholicism is striving with untiring efforts to gain by the help of this reformed and modernised scholasticism1 the mastery of the schools1 of education1 of the universities1 and of the entire activity of science4 ,and compared with the position of the representatives of modern thought it has decidedly the advantage4 ,not only is it in the possession of a unitary world-theory1 but it defends that theory with most determined vigor and heedlessness against all differing views4 ,the representatives of modern science1 on the contrary1 are not so fortunate as to possess inherited truth and infallible authority1 and they not only have to contend with the formidable internal difficulties that stand in the way of a unitary formulation of their conception of the world1 but frequently even avoid entering on this task with determination in order to make less prominent the contrast with the religio-theological system to which every exact scientific conception of the world must of necessity lead4 ,against these aggressive endeavors of the theological mind1 neither lofty indifference1 nor calm historical contemplation1 nor mere literary warring will avail4 ,the power of freethought must be displayed1 and the positive work that it can do must be shown4 ,otherwise the time may come when the fame of rigid scientific thought and successful research in special fields will not exonerate ,german philosophy from the reproach of having left the nation in the lurch at a period of momentous spiritual crisis4 ,to make useful the rich acquisitions of these labors toward the construction of a general theory of the world1 remains1 therefore1 the serious task of the ,german philosophy of the future4 ,i shall be permitted1 perhaps1 in a future article to present an account of the literature of these special departments4 ,,friedrich ,,jodl4 ,,ii4 ,,recent ,,french ,,publications4 ,the works that have appeared during the last three months belong to authors of different nationalities--,italian1 ,roumanian1 ,belgian1 and ,i ought to add ,russian2 but ,i shall not speak on this occasion of the important work of ,sergneyeff1 ,physiologie de la ,veille et du ,sommeil4 ,it is1 as you see1 a gathering of good company1 on ,french soil4#fd #fd ,all these works are published by ,alcan4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the only ,french work to be mentioned is that of ,m4 ,,ch4 ,,adam1 ,philosophie de ,franois ,bacon1 a memoir presented in the prize competition of which ,m4 ,barthlemy ,saint-,hilaire was the reporter and preferred by the ,academy of ,moral and ,political sciences4 ,m4 ,ch4 ,adam is already known by several works relating to the history of philosophy4 ,the study which he now gives to the public is conscientious2 we must commend his erudition and the moderation he has displayed both in his praise and in his criticism4 ,i am not sure1 however1 if he is right in asserting that the fame of ,bacon will increase and diminish alternately1 according to whether patient analyses or daring hypotheses find the more favor in the scientific world4 ,i have known many a savant1 profoundly metaphysical and imaginative1 who1 in admiring ,bacon1 delusively believed himself in the possession of a solid safeguard against metaphysics4 ,there is more chance1 to my mind1 of finding the admirers of the ,chancellor among pure philosophers than among men of science4 ,this is why ,i subscribe completely to the judgment of ,m4 ,ch4 ,adam1 when he subordinates ,bacon to ,descartes and to ,galileo4 ,especially should he be put below ,galileo1 who was the great initiator of modern science1 at least the first to add a link to the chain of human science then being forged2 one1 ,i might say1 who by his solid contributions really founded physical science1 as chemistry was founded by ,lavoisier and his contemporaries a century and a half later4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the ,roumanian writer is ,m4 ,,basile ,,conta1 whose unfinished work1 ,les ,fondements de la ,mtaphysique1 has been translated by ,m4 ,tescanu4 ,m4 ,conta died in the heyday of his powers4 ,born in #ahde1 he was successively1 from #ahge to #ahha1 professor of jurisprudence at the ,university of ,jassy1 deputy1 and minister of public instruction4 ,the author and his works have1 therefore1 serious claims to our attention4 ,nevertheless1 ,i can hardly believe that ,m4 ,conta always kept in the path in which he started1 for if he had1 it would have led him to considerable results4 ,m4 ,conta held that every combination of ideas1 that is to say every ultimate generalisation1 is essentially mobile1 alterable in character1 and that there will never be any final1 definitive philosophical system4 ,subject to the benefit of this wise reserve1 he undertook1 nevertheless1 to frame a materialist metaphysic1 founded like the positive sciences on induction1 and he attempted to rise to a general system1 from which it appeared to him that the ancient notions of the soul1 of freedom1 and of ,god could not be legitimately excluded4 ,according to my mind1 the defect of his method was the allowing too much to reasoning1 the too great desire to create reality by simple logic4 ,unfortunately1 the intellectual necessity that he proclaimed1 of reducing all to unity1 does not carry with it the means of properly making this reduction by a subtle operation of the mind4 ,in order to advance towards his end1 ,m4 ,conta found himself led to formulate a compendious sketch of a theory of cognition1 a psychology1 and a logic1 at the risk of sinking at times in the quicksands of a treacherous discussion4 ,as a matter of fact1 metaphysics1 spiritualism1 and materialism1 are conceptions of great vagueness1 and the problem to reconcile them by any fashion of union1 is rather like inquiring how many ways there are of placing three persons at table1 or even a greater number4 ,this is not said by way of disputing the merits of a writer whose loss is justly regretted1 or to discourage the reading of a book in which many will find much to accept4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the ,belgian author is ,m4 ,,albert ,,bonjean1 a barrister of ,verviers4 ,his book1 ,l' ,hypnotisme1 ses ,rapports avec le ,droit et la ,therapeutique1 la ,suggestion ,mentale1 affects too much the style of an address before a court in which the orator wishes to exhibit wit and acumen4 ,nevertheless1 it is written with clearness1 is agreeable to read1 and the verbal nicety sought does not impair its good sense4 ,m4 ,bonjean has developed the three following theses3 ,first1 that the action of magnetism is not explained by the hypothesis of a fluid1 that we cannot speak with ,m4 ,ochorowicz1 of a certain tonic vibratory movement which propagates itself outward from the periphery of the body1 but that it is explainable by simple suggestion2 second1 that the power of suggestion is almost unlimited2 and third1 that though verbal suggestion is incontestable1 mental suggestion remains doubtful until proof to the contrary4 ,m4 ,bonjean thus sides with ,,mm4 ,ochorowicz and ,delbuf1 and the whole school of ,nancy1 against that of the ,salptrire4 ,he endeavors especially to show the serious consequences1 in criminal and civil affairs1 of immoral suggestions1 the dangers of which he reproaches ,m4 ,gilles de la ,tourette with having concealed far too much4 ,his personal conviction does not rest itself solely on the expositions of others1 but on experiments which seem to have been conducted with prudence4 ,extraordinary as this almost passive obedience of a subject to the suggestion of an act which is repugnant to his moral tendencies appears1 we come in a position1 it seems to me1 to comprehend it by the observation of the degenerate patients of our asylums in their various manias4 ,the dipsomaniac resists with all his power the impulse to drink1 and the kleptomaniac the impulse to steal2 they fight against it even to agony1 but they end always by yielding to it4 ,it was stronger than ,i2 such is the formula that we have noted most often in the answers of these unfortunates4 ,and remark1 that the dipsomaniac does not drink for pleasure1 but by compulsion1 be the beverage what it may1 water1 urine1 or petroleum2 just as the kleptomaniac does not steal with a view to enjoying the product of his theft1 which he ordinarily abandons or restores1 but steals to deliver himself from agonising torture4 ,in this manner also the onomatomaniac acts1 who is seeking a word1 and who rises at night to consult the dictionary1 etc4 ,the hypnotised subject is in the same predicament1 whatever pathological difference there may be between the two2 his personality has momentarily sunk in hypnosis1 as does that of an insane person during the attack of insanity2 his moral resistance must finally yield1 and it is not at all remarkable that it does4 ,the volume of ,m4 ,bonjean ends with an interesting discussion of the celebrated case of ,lully4 ,the deceit that gave rise to belief in suggestion without words or gestures appears to be established2 the subject reads from the lips of his magnetiser4 99 99 99 99 99 ,let us turn to the fine work of ,m4 ,r4 ,,garofalo1 ,la ,criminologie1 ,etude sur la ,nature du ,crime et la ,thorie de la ,pnalit4 ,m4 ,garofalo has himself translated his work from the ,italian2 this second edition is entirely recast4 ,the ,italians have always had a taste for juridical studies4 ,their school of criminologists has placed itself at the head of the movement which ought to result in the reform of all criminal codes4 ,two principal tendencies are predominant in the works of this school3 the physicians and anthropologists1 for example ,m4 ,lombroso1 have conformably to their mental tendencies1 particularly studied the criminal1 of whom they have endeavored to fix the type2 the jurists1 like ,m4 ,garofalo1 vice-president of the civil tribunal of ,naples1 consider by preference the crime1 which they determine by reference to our social organisation4 ,m4 ,garofalo shows himself at once an innovator1 in that he endeavors to give a positive definition of crime1 to take the place of the vague and incomplete definition which was accepted by the old jurists1 and conforming to which anthropologists have thought themselves able to mark the characteristics of the criminal man4 ,that definition has relation to the average morality of the societies of to-day2 crime or criminal offence is to be sought1 according to him1 only in the violation of altruistic sentiments acquired and consolidated in the average social individual--compassion and probity4 ,new categories ought then to be established2 that of revolutionists1 for example1 with whom the offence does not proclaim moral monstrosity4 ,the violation of altruistic sentiments certainly reveals in the offender a grave anomaly2 it marks him as not adapted to the conditions of society1 and even incapable of adapting himself to them1 in consequence of psychical and physiological irregularities4 ,the principle1 then1 is correct1 although ,m4 ,garofalo has based it on an analysis of sentiments which appears to me insufficient4 ,the sympathetic emotions which compassion embraces1 are not the only source of our moral activity2 probity arises in part from intelligence1 and the logical sense intervenes to give the form of justice or injustice to an act of passion4 ,now1 feebleness of judgment becomes1 incidentally1 an important element of the diagnosis of the criminal4 ,let us agree1 nevertheless1 that the absence of compassion and of probity upon the whole makes up the natural crime4 ,this suffices surely in practice4 ,on the other hand1 it is not convenient1 and it is unquestionably not indispensable1 to make a difference between an anomaly in relation to a superior civilised type1 and an anomaly in relation to the human type itself4 ,here is the criterion that ,m4 ,garofalo--prepossessed as he is to take away from born criminals the benefit1 too easily obtained1 of disease--proposes to us1 in order to distinguish from the anomaly truly morbid1 an anomaly not pathological1 but which depends in some way on the cerebral organisation4 ,subtle is this distinction which he opposes to the opinion of ,french alienists1 according to whom the immoral are always more or less physically degenerated4 ,i will confine myself to recalling on this point a remark of ,dr4 ,magnan4 ,very often1 said this eminent clinician one day to me1 a father of poor moral stability but otherwise healthy of body1 has a son well balanced in his moral and intellectual tendencies but already on the way to degeneracy4 ,the anatomical anomaly invoked by ,m4 ,garofalo would be then not far from the physiological anomaly2 functional disturbance of the higher faculties is not alone concerned4 ,fundamentally1 this is of little moment to the practical conclusions of his system1 which we must rapidly indicate4 ,with regard to the repression of crime1 and as to a large category of criminals1 the social point of view necessarily dominates the medical point of view4 ,m4 ,garofalo inquires what the power of education and of the increase of well-being is in diminishing crime4 ,he has found them extremely weak4 ,severity of repression alone appears of some efficacy2 indulgence augments crime4 ,for the sake of social selection1 the criminal ought to be eliminated1 by capital punishment1 perpetual banishment1 etc41 according as the case demands4 ,temporary imprisonment has no place in this system4 ,finally1 the only criterion of penality is lack of adaptability to social life2 this criterion will replace the false principles of moral responsibility and proportionment of the punishment to the crime4 ,it is too apparent that the prevailing penal theory and the jurisprudence in agreement with it1 seem to tend to protect the criminal against society1 rather than society against the criminal4 ,and what absurdities besides6 ,the attempt is less severely treated than the consummated offence2 preparatory acts are never punished1 the attempt at a crime is always punished4 ,the criterion of penality once accepted1 it is necessary to find the indices of this lack of fitness1 of the impossibility of adaptation to social life1 which justifies repression4 ,m4 ,garofalo seeks them no longer in premeditation1 but he finds them in the motive of the crime and in the way in which it has been prepared or perpetrated4 ,we cannot follow him into the details of this discussion1 which presents the highest interest4 ,our exceptions would turn on the interpretation of certain features2 they do not bear on the general principles of this great and solid work4 ,,lucien ,,arr,,at4 ,,book ,,reviews4 ,,the ,,principles ,,of ,,psychology4 ,by ,william ,james1 ,professor of ,psychology in ,harvard ,university4 ,in two volumes4 ,new ,york3 ,henry ,holt ,co41 ,american ,science ,series4 ,advanced ,course4 ,in the present status of psychological science every attempt to gather the diversified facts and views and present them in a single1 though extensive work1 cannot but be scrutinised with great care and interest2 and when this work comes from the pen of one who has gained so wide and appreciative a circle of readers1 the interest becomes deeper and more personal4 ,it was1 perhaps1 the professor of mental science1 struggling for years with text-books1 inadequate1 or antiquated1 or narrow1 or unscientific1 or dry1 or unpedagogic1 who most anxiously awaited the appearance of ,professor ,james's volumes2 and his expectation was the more warranted1 as the work was announced in a series of text-books deservedly successful and popular4 ,to such a one1 the work itself does not come to fill the place of a text-book2 not alone the great length 7#a1djj pages71 but the general supposition of knowledge on the part of the reader which it is the object of college courses to supply1 together with the selection of topics and the peculiar division of space amongst them1 limit the work to students of a much more advanced type than 7unfortunately1 perhaps7 ,american education as yet supplies4 ,but while our professor must still patiently hope for some work that will present in brief and convenient form the main facts of ,psychology1 he will find his task made easier and more interesting by these welcome volumes4 ,he will find in them an original and frequently brilliant treatment of many of the deepest problems of modern ,psychology3 and it is as a contribution to science and as an aid to the professional student that a discussion of their contents and tenets will be pertinent in these pages4 ,to begin with1 the attitude of the author to his subject is that of a professional scientist to his specialty4 ,i have kept close1 he says1 to the point of view of natural science throughout the book4 ,every natural science assumes certain data uncritically1 and declines to challenge the elements between which its own 'laws' obtain1 and from which its own deductions are carried on4444 ,this book1 assuming that thoughts and feelings exist1 and are vehicles of knowledge1 thereupon contends that ,psychology1 when she has ascertained the empirical correlation of the various sorts of thought or feeling with definite conditions of the brain1 can go no farther--can go no farther that is as a natural science4 ,if she goes farther she becomes metaphysical4 ,this position does not carry with it the condemnation of all matters metaphysical1 but simply excludes them from ,psychology2 nor does this independence place ,psychology in a position unrelated to other sciences4 ,such relation is a cardinal fact in the mental world1 and nowhere is it more necessary to bear in mind that the division of the sciences is largely an expression of the lines of men's interests and the inevitable specialisation of knowledge4 ,those forms of adaptations of means to ends which we study as forms of psychic action1 while theoretically distinguishable from other modes of action1 in fact1 often resemble them2 in other words1 the boundary line of the mental faculty is certainly vague4 ,it is better not to be pedantic1 but to let the science be as vague as the subject1 and include all facts1 whether they are usually called physiological1 or biological1 or not1 that shed light on the main problems dealt with4 ,this conception accordingly views mind as distinctly related to and an essential part of its environment2 it views mental phenomena as infinitely varied1 as most intricately conditioned by and in turn conditioning other natural phenomena4 ,for the complete survey of its domain1 it calls upon experiment1 observation1 introspection1 comparison1 analysis1 hypothesis1 deduction1 each properly controlled by the others1 and limited by community of purpose to a firm foundation of fact4 ,it is true that in the more intricate problems1 those with the smallest connection with sensation and the largest with inference and analysis1 the author will be regarded as more metaphysical than psychological and plainly admits his fault2 it is true that the personal leanings of the author lead him to lengthy discussions of these more intricate points1 but none the less the positive1 broad1 and evolutionary spirit that dominates the general view of the subject leaves a clear impress of vitality1 progress1 and interest on every page4 ,passing from point of view and purpose to content we do not look for and do not find any 'closed system1' but a mass of descriptive details in the selection of which personal interest has been the controlling factor4 ,the articles which ,professor ,james has written from time to time in the periodicals appear1 sometimes a little remodelled1 in the larger work2 each chapter is thus largely an independent essay upon the topic printed at the head of it4 ,on the physiological side we have an admirable chapter on the functions of the brain1 but elsewhere the student is referred to other works for the physiological points involved4 ,following this is an excellent essay on ,habit and ,automatism1 whereupon without further ceremony the reader is invited to a somewhat speculative series of chapters upon ',mind ,stuff1' ',knowledge and ,reality1' and the like1 and may resume the more concrete chapters on ,attention1 ,conception1 ,discrimination and ,comparison1 ,association1 only after struggling with the complex picture of 'the ,stream of ,thought1' 'the ,consciousness of ,self1' and 'the ,snares of ,psychology4' ,each of these chapters presents a distinct problem1 presents it well and positively1 and contributes much that is original to the discussion4 ,in all this there is strongly emphasised the subjective contribution to ,psychology1--the value of a discerning and critical introspection and the importance of the subject in all processes of sense1 judgment1 attention1 association1 and the like4 ,the mind is not a passive receptacle of experiences1 but is continually active1 making and shaping1 seizing and transforming1 absorbing and assimilating the stimuli of its environment4 ,a second series of topics take up the perception of those general concepts1 ,time1 ',things1' ,space1 ,reality1 and ,form1 the largest and heaviest chapters in the work1 amongst which1 as if to whet the appetite1 are distributed more concrete pages dealing with ,memory1 ,sensation1 and ,imagination4 ,the former devote much space to criticism1 and would1 perhaps1 border upon the metaphysics that was to have been avoided1 were it not that they spring from considerations much more concrete and provable2 the latter group of chapters are amongst the most interesting of the volume1 and though treating but a small and somewhat arbitrarily selected portion of each of the topics1 treat them in a suggestive and inspiring way4 ,discerning and ingenious sketches of single mental traits and processes1 happy illustrations1 suggestive side issues make these pages a striking contrast to the usual text-book tone1 and will attract students of all shades and grades of agreement or disagreement with the author's views4 ,the remaining chapters deal with ,reasoning1 ,movement1 ,instinct1 ,emotions1 ,will1 ,hypnotism1 ,necessary ,truths2 in addition to the characteristics already indicated1 we find here a wise use of the facts of ,morbid ,psychology1 of the inferences from the abnormal to the normal4 ,this naturally stands out prominently in the discussion of ,hypnotism--so recent and yet so essential a department of mental science4 ,when we close the cover of the second volume we do so with the feeling that our mental horizon has been enlarged1 our interests have been quickened1 our attention has been held1 our time agreeably spent1--and yet the result of all this reading seems intangible1 diffuse1 scattered1 unsatisfactory4 ,the scholar and the professor always retain the student feeling and the student habit of thought2 and what is unpedagogic for the one is uneconomical for the other4 ,a logical order of exposition1 a unifying grouping of topics1 a just perspective of details1 a painstaking selection of facts1 constitute much to convert useless knowledge into useful science2 such works contain a large element of drudgery1 must be impersonal in one sense of the term1 and yet are not inconsistent with a high degree of originality1 but it is such works that are enormously helpful1 that form landmarks by which progress is measured and retained4 ,these useful qualities we miss in ,professor ,james's work4 ,true1 it does not pretend to possess them1 but psychological text-books are not written every day1 and when so influential a one appears1 the wish that its utility shall reach a maximum demands expression4 ,finally1 it is a work destined to be much quoted1 to arouse considerable discussion1 to excite quite different opinions from different critics1 and so1 every one interested in modern ,psychology will find it necessary and profitable to learn at first hand this important ,american contribution to the science of ,psychology4 ,j4 ,j4 ,,the ,,science ,,of ,,thought4 ,by ,charles ,carroll ,everett1 ,d4 ,d4 ,boston3 ,de ,wolfe ,fiske ,co4 ,revised edition4 ,an excellent manual of that which is accepted as logic4 ,the author is a disciple of ,hegel1 and throughout conforms his treatment of the topic to the lines laid down by his master1 although in various connections where these lines permit1 the author contributes from his own resources1 and from other masters1 much needed supplementary matter4 ,the appearance of late of so many essays1 manuals1 and treatises professing to deal with logic and its affiliated topics is quite noteworthy1 and is the manifestation of a need that has become1 not merely a crying1 but an absolutely groaning one4 ,it is scarcely a metaphor to say that to-day the intellectual world is in great travail over its need of an organon4 ,we are crying unto our logical desire from the depths of our souls and waiting for it as they that wait for the morning4 ,this intensity of our want makes us intolerant of the old incompetences and sets us to fault-finding in the hope of better insight when the current obscurities shall have been dissipated4 ,we scan each effort as it appears1 and as it discovers no even single clear organic general principle around which the wealth of knowledge now ascertained can set in order we lay it aside with a feeling of being merely tantalised4 ,we cannot but assimilate our condition to that of the ,haunted ,man in ,bret ,harte's clever travesty of ,dickens3 ',here again8' said the ,haunted ,man4 ',here again1' assented the phantom1 in a low tone4 ',another novel8' ',another novel4' ',the old story8' ',the old story4' ',it won't do1 ,charles6 ,it won't do6' and the ,haunted ,man buried his head in his hands and groaned4 ,when the singular difficulties of the search are considered1 all this is1 no doubt1 void of that sweet reasonableness that should obtain4 ,still the interests of progress are too supreme to permit any compromise with error or incompetence4 ,so1 although the excellent manual under notice makes no pretensions that are unwarrantable1 according to the customs usually observed in such cases1 it yet affords salient features1 apt as texts for a course of comment that applies1 not merely to the doctrine and treatment adopted in it but to the doctrine and methods of the accepted logic-books in general4 ,the book is entitled1 ,the ,science of ,thought4 ,this exposes an incompetent comprehension of the topic4 ,the ,science of ,thought should be a mere branch of psychology4 ,in logic1 we of course1 have an almost prime need of information concerning the anatomy and physiology of thought4 ,but this is not the peculiar motive of logic4 ,the raison d'tre of logic is not the general economy of thought1 but the phenomena of untrue1 incompetent1 or fallacious thought1 or1 in other words1 erroneous thought4 ,did but the mind of man always supply him with true and competent thoughts he would find no need of seeking logical criteria1 however much he might be interested in the phenomenology of thought in general4 ,man being1 however1 what he is1 informed by a mind1 prone to error1 and he1 in consequence1 frequently subjected to evils and misses that better information would have enabled him to avoid or mitigate1 he naturally seeks to solve the causes of his errors1 and to discover means of testing the worth of his thoughts and of deriving thoughts that are true and competent4 ,this search is the study of logic2 the true information relevant thereto is logic1 and no other device of man ought to trespass upon the name4 ,using for this turn the word truth in a broader sense than usual1 so as to include the sense of competence1 we may say that ,logic is the ,science of ,truth and ,untruth in ,thought1--take notice1 in thought--for we are supposing that there neither is1 nor can be1 any other or further means of becoming aware of aught of the nature or features1 of aught that is pure alternate to mind1 than thought merely1 and that1 therefore1 truth and untruth in thought exhausts all the proper possibilities of truth and untruth4 ,following ,hegel1 and concurring with so many others1 our author starts with ,being as the proper primordial universal notion4 ,is this not taking note merely of the comprehensive meaning of thought1 in ignorance of its denominate meaning8 ,prior1 at least logically1 to ,being1 ,form1 ,mode1 ,limit1 ,relation1 and the like1 must there not be posited or supposed somewhat to be1 to be formed1 to be modulated1 to be limited1 to be related1 etc8 ,must not ,quality be quality of somewhat1 and ,quantity1 quantity of somewhat8 ,so it seems to us and we therefore posit ,ground as primordial in thought4 ,ground as intended here is not the same as the ,absolute ,being of ,hegel4 ,it is in general independent of the notions either of existence or reality1 being in general that of which aught is predicative either in discourse or thought4 ,it is pure logical denomination free of all logical comprehension4 ,the imaginary number and the ideal number of mathematics are each just as truly grounds according to this intent as is a house or a tree4 ,ground is the seat or basis of ,being1 ,mind1 ,form1 ,mode1 ,limitation1 ,relation1 etc4 ,behind any momented thought1 say ,sun shines1 ,mind thinks1 or ,it is1 lies1 it may be latent1 but all potential1 the mere thought stripped of all comprehension3 ,sun1 ,mind1 or ,it4 ,it is wholly irrelevant that a ground is manifest only by means of its comprehension if it be true that it must be supposed as the seat of that comprehension4 ,undistributed and therefore unrelated or absolute ground from its very nature admits of no other predicate than mere being4 ,it is in general at once the ,all and ,existence4 ,its negative or ,naught has no ground1 being1 or comprehension whatever1 and no proper denomination1 its name being only quasi-denominative and for convenience of notation merely4 ,form or ,thought breaks this barren universe of mere ,ground and ,being by the formation of modes of ,ground and by the more or less arbitrary fiats and finds of ,limitation4 ,by the formation of ,mode emerge ,form1 ,time1 and ,extent1 and perhaps ,cause and ,aim4 ,by ,limitation emerge ,part and ,whole1 ,number1 and ,relation in all their manifold involutions4 ,attribute being only degraded ,relation1 and ,quantity being only one power of ,relation4 ,it is a most notable peculiarity of thought that it has the ability and that it is its custom to take any form or phase of ,being1 and regard and deal with it as a ground4 ,hence every momented thought 7which in effect embraces every thought properly speaking7 makes two distinct references1 its ground reference and its being or predicate reference4 ,this seems to be the bottom truth in respect to the much vexed topic of extension and comprehension4 ,there would seem to be1 therefore1 in reality only two ultimate categories1 ,ground and ,being4 ,as to how the categories1 usually taken as such1 and their complements1 should be distributed between ,ground and ,being1 would seem to be a matter requiring much pondering to arrange4 ,owing to the double quality of so many of the mental alternates1 as in one regard ,being and in another regard ,ground1 much difficulty might well be anticipated4 ,neglecting this distribution we may say that very universal terms of thought are ,ground1 ,being1 ,form1 ,mode1 ,limit1 ,number1 ,part1 ,relation4 ,epoch1 ,place1 ,alteration1 ,event1 ,cause1 ,effect1 ,aim1 and the like4 ,the cardinal mental activities which produce thought seem to be1 in order1 ,attention1 ,conception1 ,recognition1 ,induction1 and ,deduction4 ,in all these operations there is opportunity for not only true1 but erroneous thought1 and logic in its office as the inspector and judge of thought in respect of its truth or error1 should study all these operations and those which are subsidiary to them1 and ascertain the causes of error and the means of truth1 and perfect methods of deriving truth with certainty and ease4 ,it is very presumptuous and hazardous to essay a definition of truth1 yet since such a definition is a great desideratum1 and since it will not be effected except by earnest trial1 and since also1 in such a matter1 even failures that are consequent on devoted attempts are instructive to subsequent attempts1 we venture our submission3 ,a thought is true which while representing its applicate 7that is whatever to which it is directly applied7 also1 in so far as its purport implies1 represents in mind a thorough and respective parity and ratio1 through which each thought-analyton and thought-syntheton 7whether ground1 mode1 limit1 number1 part1 relation1 etc47 corresponds to its proper applicate-analyton or applicate-syntheton4 ,truth is this representative and correspondent parity and ratio in general4 ,a thought may be true and yet incompetent1 that is unfit to serve some assigned purpose or turn in view1 by reason1 it may be1 of its irrelevancy1 or it may be of its restricted application or purport4 ,it is a question that has been much mooted whether or not our sensations are true to their mind-alternate excitants4 ,the argument towards showing that they are would be prolix and must be passed4 ,if however they are not true it would be interesting to hear by what quality or nature they are to be characterised in respect to their verity4 ,attention is a mental activity of considerable importance in logic in connection with that very fruitful source of error1 mal-observation4 ,but by far the most important mental activity to be studied and thoroughly known for the behests of logic is ,conception1 with its all important adjunct of denomination4 ,the verity or error of all other mental operations that generate thought depends largely on the truth or untruth1 the competence or incompetence of ,conception4 ,on our conceptions as a basis is erected and must ever be erected every scheme of our notation1 and in so far as our conceptions are untrue or incompetent1 so probably is1 and so will be1 in perhaps a multiple measure1 all our knowledge4 ,very much more ought to be said in this connection1 but space will not permit4 ,the mental operation which is here called ,recognition1 but which has been called hypothesis and otherwise1 and which the author reviewed calls ,identification1 has not received the attention from logicians in general which its importance requires4 ,it is a true variety of inference1 as ,mr4 ,c4 ,s4 ,peirce has fully shown4 ,our conceptions which are the central facts of logic would be of little value to us were we not able truly to subsume our perceptions under them4 ,a variety of facts are available to show how very often we do this wrongly1 imperfectly1 or not at all4 ,induction1 and its rationale1 depends also very largely upon conception and its intimate consequences1 denomination1 attribution1 and relationising4 ,deduction and the ,syllogism are trite themes1 although the part that attribution plays in the process has been insufficiently noticed1 and although the rules of deduction from relation-terms1 the most important and fruitful of all1 are as yet very partially ascertained4 ,what is needed as an indispensable prerequisite to this last1 seems to be a census and classification of the manifold relations that are known1 after the model of say ,roget's ,thesaurus1 and then a determination of the consequences of such combinations and constructions as are admissible and fruitful1 and a tabulation of the same as our multiplication table is a tabulation of the consequences of the multiplication of numbers4 ,the ,logic of ,relatives as it is called suffers from its having been formed thus far on so very abstract and formal a plan that its formation lacks the check and correction of frequent comparison with concrete knowledge1 while its results are almost if not quite useless owing to their extreme generality1 which in defect of the mediate formula leaves them inapplicable to aught that can manifest their utility or power4 ,f4 ,c4 ,r4 ,,the ,,time-,,relations ,,of ,,mental ,,phenomena4 ,by ,joseph ,jastrow4 ,new ,york3 ,n4 ,d4 ,c4 ,hodges4 ,the accomplished ,professor of ,psychology at the ,university of ,wisconsin gives in this publication1 which forms one of the series of ,facts and ,theory ,papers issued by ,mr4 ,hodges1 the results of numerous observations by ,cattell1 ,mnsterberg and other observers4 ,his object is to present a general view of what has been done already in this department of research4 ,the study of the time-relations of mental phenomena is of importance in various connections4 ,as ,professor ,jastrow remarks3 ,it serves as an index of mental complexity1 giving the sanction of objective demonstration to the results of subjective observation2 it indicates a mode of analysis of the simpler mental acts1 as well as the relation of these laboratory products to the processes of daily life2 it demonstrates the close interrelation of psychological with physiological facts1 an analysis of the former being indispensable to the right comprehension of the latter2 it suggests means of lightening and shortening mental operations1 and thus offers a mode of improving educational methods2 and it promises in various directions to deepen and widen our knowledge of those processes by the complication and elaboration of which our mental life is so wonderfully built up4 ,the results of the observations referred to by ,professor ,jastrow are given in ,tables of ,simple ,reaction ,times and of ,complex ,reaction ,times4 ,one of the most important points considered is the overlapping of mental processes1 as to which ,cattell made a special study4 ,from the fact that the time needed for the performance of complete operations1 as multiplying numbers and reciting a verse or two at the same time1 is shorter than the sum of the times required to do each separately1 it is inferred that the mind should be likened not to a point at which but a single object can impinge at one time1 but rather to a surface of variable extension4 ,moreover1 the performance of a complex and extended mental task is not the same thing as the separate performance of the several elements into which that task may be analysed4 ,the addition of a classified ,bibliography adds much to the value of ,professor ,jastrow's interesting little work4 4 ,,on ,,sameness ,,and ,,identity4 ,by ,george ,stuart ,fullerton4 ,philadelphia3 ,university of ,pennsylvania ,press4 ,mr4 ,fullerton's psychological study is the first of a series of contributions to ,philosophy to be issued by the ,university of ,pennsylvania4 ,it is truly entitled a contribution to the foundations of a ,theory of ,knowledge1 and is an attempt to arrive at an accurate conclusion as to the several senses in which the word same is used2 with an historical and critical statement of the use of the word in a wrong sense4 ,mr4 ,fullerton finds that same has seven different meanings according to the mode in which it is applied4 ,in the first case it has the sense of identity1 and in the second that of similarity4 ,thirdly1 the external bundle of qualities may be regarded as being the same at two different times1 while in a fourth sense1 two external things1 or external qualities1 existing at one time1 may be called the same to mark similarity4 ,again1 an external thing or an external quality may be called the same with its external representative1 as the identification of a thing with its reflection in a mirror4 ,this is the fifth sense2 the sixth is where the same external object is said to be perceived by different persons4 ,finally1 an external thing may be said to be the same with its representative in consciousness or with the substance or noumenon assumed to underlie it4 ,on searching for the reason why such various experiences are expressed by the use of one word1 ,mr4 ,fullerton discovers that the common notion which unites them is the idea of similarity4 ,but how can we speak of similarity when strictly only one thing is in question8 ,the answer given is that we have a series of experiences1 beginning with one in which two objects are recognised as similar and yet are very clearly distinguished as two objects1 continued in others in which the sense of duality falls more and more into the background1 and ending in one in which there is no consciousness of duality at all4 ,the last of these experiences is not wholly different from the others4 ,it differs from them not in the element which has led us to declare two objects similar--the element which they have in common--but in that which has led us to declare them two and different4 ,it is by adding to this last experience1 so to speak1 that we get the others4 ,they contain it and more4 ,the experience in which two things are not distinguished1 is at the bottom of all our experiences of similarity4 ,the use of the expression ,x is ,x1 then1 emphasises the fact that one is not to pass from ,x to any ,y or ,z1 and it1 moreover1 puts a period to one's thinking1 and fixes the thought upon ,x alone4 ,when the words identity and sameness are intended to be used with some degree of precision1 the former word indicates sameness in which there is no consciousness of duality1 or in which the consciousness of duality has fallen into the background and may easily be overlooked4 ,more than half of ,mr4 ,fullerton's work is occupied by an historical and critical consideration of the use of the word same in a wrong sense1 beginning with ,heraclitus and coming down to ,prof4 ,w4 ,k4 ,clifford4 ,the examples he has given of that confusion of thought justifies the assertion of the need of much greater care and exactitude than one commonly finds in metaphysical reasonings1 and at the same time the hair-splitting for which ,mr4 ,fullerton needlessly considers himself called on to plead guilty4 4 ,,induction ,,and ,,deduction4 ,,with ,,other ,,essays4 ,by ,constance ,c4 ,w4 ,naden4 ,edited by ,r4 ,lewins1 ,m4 ,d4 ,london3 ,bickers ,son4 ,the chief of the essays comprised in this volume is an historical and critical sketch of successive philosophical conceptions respecting the relations between inductive and deductive thought4 ,it was awarded the ,heslop ,gold ,medal as the best dissertation by a student of ,mason ,college1 ,birmingham 7,england71 in #ahhg1 and ,miss ,naden was also rewarded for it by being made an ,associate of the ,college1 an honor she well deserved4 ,the dissertation displays a wide knowledge of scientific facts with a rare capacity for dealing with them in a philosophical spirit1 and a power of acute reasoning such as few other women have ever possessed4 ,whether her opinions are always correct is another question4 ,it is a profound remark that we are obliged to regard nature as a system1 because we can consider its multiplicity only in relation to one thinking subject4 ,but we must challenge her statement that we have no certainty for assuming that the laws of nature will always remain unchanged4 ,a change in the laws of nature would be the replacing of it by a different nature of which man could not take cognisance1 and which therefore we cannot reasonably conceive to be possible4 ,there might be a change of conditions which would introduce other laws1 but these must be in conformity with1 and not in opposition to1 the present laws of nature1 as otherwise they could not exist for us1 seeing that experience is possible in virtue of the original constitution of the mind1 and therefore1 according to the views of which ,miss ,naden is an exponent1 they could not exist at all4 ,the most interesting of her essays are those which explain the system to which her editor ,dr4 ,robert ,lewins gives the name of ,hylo-,idealism4 ,this is described as the brain theory of mind and matter1 and it is so described because it asserts that every man is the maker of his own cosmos1 all his perceptions having merely a subjective existence and being generated by the brain1 which focuses converging rays of sense from all parts of the body1 and unites them into the white light of consciousness4 ,it would be a mistake1 however1 to think that1 according to this theory there is nothing outside of the percipient subject1 that is1 beyond man himself4 ,the real existence of matter is not denied and1 indeed1 so far from being a nonentity1 matter is the fons et origo of all entities4 ,hylo-,idealism deals only with the relative1 ignoring the absolute as utterly beyond human gnosis4 ,while asserting that the only cosmos known to man1 or in any way concerning him1 is manufactured in his own brain-cells1 it affirms the existence of another cosmos1 the external universe of other systems4 ,the mind does not however passively apprehend external objects1 but actively constructs them4 ,we make the mountains1 and the sea1 and the sun himself2 for sunshine is nothing if not visible1 and if there were no eye and no brain1 there could be no sunshine4 ,the defect of this reasoning is that it makes man the only measure of all things4 ,because our senses are necessary to us to distinguish certain phenomena1 it does not follow that the same phenomena cannot be distinguished under other conditions4 ,the protozoa which have no organs of special sense are affected by the vibrations of light1 sound1 and probably smell1 which would not be possible if those phenomena are constructed by the human mind4 ,the utmost that can be said with any show of reason is that the imaging in our consciousness of external objects does not give an actual representation of them4 ,this is required by the theory of ,hylo-,idealism1 which goes still further1 however1 and declares that the universe does not exist as we know it4 ,it seems to us that this view is not consistent with even the principles of ,hylo-,idealism4 ,dr4 ,lewins specially points out that this system in no sense denies the objective1 but only contends for identity of object and subject1 proved as it is by natural ,realism itself1 from the doctrine of molecular metamorphosis1 which shows the ,ego continually undergoing transubstantiation with the ',non-,ego1' and vice vers1 so far as to form one indivisible organism4 ,he compares the ,ego and the ,non-,ego1 that is1 subject and object1 or our bodies and the external universe1 to a porous vessel of ice1 filled with water1 immersed in an infinite ocean4 ,what is within and without1 and the septum that seems to divide the two1 are all three consubstantial or identical4 ,if they are identical1 however1 they must perfectly respond to each other1 which would not be the case if the object in the mind did not give a true representation of the objects in external nature4 ,otherwise the identity of subject and object can be predicated1 on the condition only of abolishing the external universe1 and affirming of it1 as ,dr4 ,lewins affirms of the stars1 ,what you see is a vision1 or organic function1 of your own sensifacient organism4 ,we have not space to critically consider ,miss ,naden's essay on ,evolutionary ,ethics1 which is a valuable study in ,sociology4 ,she gives logical form to ,mr4 ,herbert ,spencer's quasi-utilitarian system in the words1 the inclination is always in the direction most pleasurable or least painful2 the results of the action1 if it be a moral one1 are such as in the long run and on a large scale1 must increase happiness2 but the object of the action need not be connected in the mind of the actor with any thought of happiness1 personal or general4 ,the practical objection to this view of moral conduct is the reference to personal happiness4 ,this should be excluded altogether as an actual motive of such conduct where self is the chief object concerned4 ,here duty or virtue should be the guiding principle1 as it should be ultimately in all moral conduct4 ,this indeed is really admitted when it is said that rational utilitarianism aims1 not straight at happiness1 but at the essential conditions of happiness4 ,the weak point in ,mr4 ,spencer's system of ethics is the origin it assigns for the altruistic sentiment4 ,this is based in sympathy1 the germ of which1 says our author1 is to be found in the fact that the ideal or representative world possesses an emotional aspect and therefore the thought of a fellow creature carries with it the thought of his feelings4 ,this thought is not necessarily1 however1 accompanied with an active feeling of sympathy4 ,it requires some other influence to give it external expression1 and this must be sought in the activity of the sexual instinct4 ,traced to this source we can understand how the altruistic sentiment may become instinctive1 giving rise through parental and fraternal affection1 to the higher love of country and of race1 which in time will also become instinctive4 ,in taking leave of ,miss ,naden's work1 we must say that1 much as we disagree with its ,hylo-,idealistic views1 it deserves to be read by all who are interested in the search for the key to the great problem of nature4 ,its examination of the logical system of ,kant is slight1 and it is not surprising1 therefore1 that the name of the great ,german philosopher is omitted from among the precursors of ,darwin4 ,miss ,naden is in error1 too1 in describing ,haeckel as a pronounced ,materialist4 ,he is no more so than was ,darwin himself4 ,such mistakes were probably due to the bent of the mind of our authoress1 whose too early death is a loss to the cause of truth and to humanity itself4 4 ,,emblematic ,,mounds ,,and ,,animal ,,effigies4 ,by ,stephen ,d4 ,peet4 ,chicago3 ,american ,antiquarian office4 ,the author of this work is well known1 not only as the editor of the ,american ,antiquarian1 but as a careful explorer of aboriginal monuments in the ,northwest4 ,his attention has not been limited1 however1 to the results of personal observation2 he has utilised the researches of other explorers1 and is thus able to present to his readers an amazing amount of information1 which is rendered doubly valuable by the profuse use of maps and illustrations4 ,the points which ,mr4 ,peet has sought to bring out in his book are1 that 7#a7 the works described as effigies were imitations of the wild animals which were once common in the region where they are found1 which is chiefly in ,wisconsin and ,ohio1 and were also totemic in their character2 7#b7 the effigies were used for practical purposes1 such as screens for hunters1 guards for villages1 foundations for houses1 heaps on which sentinels were stationed2 7#c7 they embodied certain superstitions and customs which are rarely found1 but which are suggestive of the religious system prevalent in prehistoric times4 ,the consideration of the first and second of these points does not come within our province1 but it will be interesting to see what light the curious monuments described throw on the religious ideas of the aborigines4 ,mr4 ,peet states that the location of the effigies gives the idea of the prevalence among their builders of a kind of nature-worship4 ,they are closely associated with the natural features of the earth1 the streams and lakes1 hills and valleys1 woods and prairies1 being overshadowed by them4 ,the animals represented were divinities to the people1 and the effigies were intended to be symbols of such divinities1 associated for particular reasons with special localities4 ,in support of this view1 ,mr4 ,peet refers to the fact that the myths which fix upon scenes in nature are those which remind one of the animal divinities which were worshipped4 ,the figure of the moose and the turtle and other animals have been recognised in certain strange and contorted figures in the rocks and mountains1 and myths have been connected with them1 the myth having evidently been made to account for the resemblances4 ,the most remarkable example of this kind is the great serpent mound of ,adams ,county1 ,ohio4 ,serpent mounds are found in various other localities1 and usually they correspond with the natural features of the ground on which they are placed4 ,but if the effigies are to be regarded as symbols of a totemic animal-worship1 it may be thought that they cannot be taken as evidence of the existence of nature-worship4 ,mr4 ,peet remarks1 however1 that the symbolism of ,ohio was that of sun-worship1 and the existence of this phase of nature-worship among the ,american aborigines is an important fact4 ,it connects their religious ideas with those which were at one time almost universally prevalent in the ,old ,world4 ,the ,sun as the source of life and energy was from an early date the object round which centered the religious ideas of the ancient world1 and the serpent occupied a chief place as symbolical of the most important of those ideas4 ,the veneration for deceased ancestors represented similar ideas with those embodied in sun-worship1 and the animal totemism of which the effigy mounds are symbolic was connected with the latter superstition through ancestral worship1 the mythical ancestor being identified with the totem4 ,if this is so1 the study of the mythology of the aboriginal inhabitants of this country may be expected to throw light on the origin of ,old ,world superstitions1 and ,mr4 ,peet may be congratulated on having done so much to make known the symbolical and other works which will soon be the only relics of an ancient and wide-spread race4 4 ,,life4 ,by ,m4 ,j4 ,savage4 ,boston3 ,geo4 ,h4 ,ellis4 ,in this volume of sermons we have a most interesting series of studies on a subject which is probably attracting at the present time more intelligent interest than at any past epoch4 ,the views entertained by ,mr4 ,savage are so well known that it is not necessary to give any elaborate review of the present work4 ,among other themes he treats of the ,nature and ,origin of ,life1 ,goodness and ,moral ,evil1 ,life's ,meaning1 ,nationalism and other social dreams1 ,morality and ,religion4 ,everywhere we find much material for thought1 and1 although from the very nature of the case many of ,mr4 ,savage's conclusions will not be generally accepted1 his words will be read with more than a passing interest4 ,his statement that right and wrong are to be understood by studying the progress1 the development1 of the race1 just as we find out any other truth1 cannot well be contested by the advocate of any ethical theory4 ,when he affirms this life to be only manifestations as the years go by1 out-blossomings everywhere of that life which is ,god1--the mystery and yet the explanation of all things1 he expresses an opinion that most men who have given the subject serious thought will accept--subject only to the reservation that they are allowed to understand ,god in their own way4 ,the answer given by ,mr4 ,savage1 in his concluding discourse1 to the question ,what is it all for8 will meet with less acceptance4 ,he remarks that all the theories which can be found as to the outcome of things are only variations of three chief theories3 7#a7 that of a future life of rewards and punishments1 the theory of ,milton's ,paradise ,lost2 7#b7 that of ,m4 ,comte1 which is well named the religion of humanity2 7#c7 that which regards spirit as having the pre-eminence over matter4 ,as to the first theory1 ,mr4 ,savage declares it to be condemned by the intellect1 the heart1 and the conscience of men4 ,he affirms that the second theory ends in nothing1 and he endorses the statement of ,mr4 ,john ,fiske1 that considered intellectually1 such a theory puts the world to permanent intellectual confusion4 ,mr4 ,savage1 therefore1 accepts the third theory which makes immortality a wholly rational thought4 ,he sees the proof of it in the existence of the brain1 the conscience1 the heart of man1 which are prophecies1 since they are the expression of the nature of things1 and since they demand the perfect thought1 and love1 and right4 4 ,,protoplasm ,,and ,,life4 ,by ,charles ,f4 ,cox1 ,m4 ,a4 ,new ,york3 ,n4 ,d4 ,c4 ,hodges4 ,the first part of ,mr4 ,cox's contribution to the study of what may be termed the literature of the interesting subject he discusses1 treats of the ,cell doctrine4 ,he traces clearly the changes that have taken place in the protoplasm theory1 to which that doctrine belongs1 with particular reference to ,doctor ,beale's germinal matter and ,prof4 ,huxley's physical basis of life4 ,in his summary of conclusions1 ,mr4 ,cox shows that the original idea of the cell1 as propounded by ,schleiden and ,schwann1 has gradually faded away4 ,as he states1 the attention of the defenders of the cell doctrine has been forced from one position to another until it is fixed on a germinal point4 ,the same fate has befallen ,dr4 ,beale's ideal living matter1 which if an actually visible thing is reduced to a mere skeleton of his original bioplasm1 an attenuated reticulum2 while ,huxley's physical basis of life1 like his ,bathybius1 is relegated to the realm of the imagination4 ,thus there is no one visible and tangible substance to which the name protoplasm is rigidly and exclusively applied4 ,mr4 ,cox's conclusion as to the nature of the basal life-stuff is that the only admissible alternative is matter plus vitality or matter minus vitality4 ,this brings us to the impassable gulf between the not-living and the living2 which we would observe1 however1 might cease to be impassable if we could properly define the terms matter and vitality4 ,the second part of ,mr4 ,cox's brochure is devoted to a consideration of the spontaneous generation theory1 and its relation to the general theory of evolution4 ,mr4 ,cox's personal conclusion is1 that1 to the better part of the scientific authorities1 the spontaneous generation theory is a necessary part of the general theory of evolution1 but that no experimental evidence has as yet been produced in support of the belief in the occurrence of abiogenesis1 and that therefore the evolution theory hangs upon a link of pure faith4 ,mr4 ,cox finds in the gap between lifeless substances and living forms the veritable ,missing ,link4 4 ,,nouveaux ,,aper,,us ,,sur ,,la ,,phylogenie ,,de ,l',,homme4 ,by ,madame ,clmence ,royer4 ,extracted from the ,bulletin de la ,socit d',anthropologie for #ahij4 ,madame ,royer1 in this admirable memoir1 taking for a text the fact that an ,australian lizard was seen by ,m4 de ,vis walking on its hind feet1 criticises severely ,haeckel's genealogy of man1 whose line of descent she declares to be distinct from that of the apes4 ,the first terrestrial ancestors of man and of other anthropomorphous animals issued from pelagic forms of distinct origins1 whose evolution had been parallel1 but the human ancestors acquired the upright position in a phase of amphibious ichthyophagy1 while the ape ancestors adapted themselves directly to an oblique position4 ,this original difference of attitude adapted men from the first to an entirely pedestrian motion1 and the apes to a life more or less arboreal1 but neither men nor apes have had any terrestrial ancestor adapted to the horizontal position4 4 ,,le ,,monde ,,comme ,,volont ,,et ,,comme ,,representation4 ,par ,arthur ,schopenhauer4 ,traduit en ,franais par ,a4 ,burdeau4 ,tome troisime4 ,paris3 ,flix ,alcan4 ,m4 ,burdeau's translation of the chief work of the renowned philosopher of pessimism is the only perfect translation into the ,french language4 ,it is made with a scrupulous exactness1 and its style is said to be as clear as that of ,schopenhauer himself1 by which he is distinguished from all other ,german philosophers and is recognised as a disciple of ,voltaire1 ,rousseau1 and ,chamfort4 ,the present volume contains important appendices in which ,schopenhauer recapitulated and developed various points treated of in the first edition of his work4 ,we may refer particularly to the chapters on ,instinct1 ,genius1 ,insanity1 the ,metaphysic of ,music1 and the ,metaphysic of ,love4 ,,die ,,hypnose ,,und ,,die ,,damit ,,verwandten ,,normalen ,,zustaende4 ,vorlesungen gehalten an der ,universitt ,kopenhagen im ,herbste #ahhi4 ,by ,alfred ,lehmann1 ,ph4 ,d4 ,leipsic3 ,o4 ,r4 ,reisland4 ,this little book will in one respect be of special interest to psychologists4 ,the author confesses in the preface that when he commenced his hypnotic investigations1 he attempted to explain the facts under consideration by the ,cartesian theory which hitherto1 he says1 had proved perfectly sufficient to explain the data of normal soul-life4 ,what the author understands by the ,cartesian theory appears from the following passage3 ,the popular conception of the relation between soul and body is1 that the soul is a being distinct from the body and endowed with certain faculties4 ,this conception is still defended by a certain1 not very numerous school of philosophers whom we may briefly call ,cartesians from the fact that their theory can be traced back to ,descartes1 although in the lapse of time it has been considerably modified4 ,in a word the ,cartesian theory is the theory that still accepts the existence of a mythical or metaphysical soul-unity called the ego4 ,dr4 ,lehmann says3 ,it was argued since ',i' in spite of a constant change of my consciousness1 am in possession of the certainty that it is the same identical ',i' that has all these states1 sensations1 feelings1 this ',i' or the soul must be a unity4 ,and this unity must stand in a causal connection with the outside world1 with the domain of nature in the widest sense of the word1 etc4 ,it is perhaps exceptional that a teacher at a ,university of ,protestant ,northern ,europe has been under the influence of ,cartesianism1 but it is highly commendable that he openly confesses his change of opinion because the facts under observation demonstrate its erroneousness4 ,dr4 ,lehmann no doubt will find that the normal phenomena of psychic life are by no means in accord with the ,cartesian doctrine4 ,indeed by showing how the abnormal and normal states agree1 he implicitly confesses that the theory that proves untenable for the former ought to be regarded as untenable for the latter4 ,we have instances of men who believe in the ,cartesian doctrine1 or at least by a natural predisposition have a tendency to believe in it1 wavering in their belief1 because the data of the normal states of psychic life so little favor the dualism of the great ,french philosopher4 ,now it almost seems as if the discoveries and the strangeness of hypnotic phenomena had contributed a great deal towards turning the tendency toward a monistic solution of the psychological problems back to the almost abandoned dualistic solution4 ,we are fully confident that this reaction will not last1 because in spite of all the strange mysteries that surround modern hypnotism1 it will after all only find a satisfactory interpretation in some monistic conception4 ,dr4 ,lehmann in abandoning the ,cartesian theory1 says3 ,the bodily and psychical states are as a matter of experience given as two series intimately connected the one with the other4 ,their connection can be explained in two different ways3 ,either the phenomena of the one are effects of the other1 or both series are effects of one and the same unknown cause4 ,dr4 ,lehmann considers either solution as a priori equally acceptable1 yet he favors the latter1 which might briefly be called 7although the author does not use the expression7 the agnostic solution4 ,dr4 ,lehmann characterises it as die ,spinozistische ,annahme and calls it ,psycho-physical ,materialism4 ,one of his colleagues1 ,professor ,kroman has proposed in his ,logik and ,psychologie a theory that is called by the same name4 ,yet ,kroman's psycho-physical materialism1 ,dr4 ,lehmann declares1 is widely different from his own2 the former being a mutual causal relation between the ,physical and ,psychical within the limits of the ,atom1 which1 says ,dr4 ,lehmann1 would make the explanation of complex psychical phenomena impossible4 ,the psycho-physical materialism of ,dr4 ,lehmann1 our author maintains1 agrees in all essential points with the views of ,professor ,mnsterberg 7,freiburg in ,baden74#fe #fe ,the observations of ,professor ,mnsterberg were reviewed in ,the ,open ,court ,no4 #acd4 ,the laboratory work done by ,professor ,mnsterberg was published after ,dr4 ,lehmann had finished his lectures4 ,a certain similarity between ,dr4 ,lehmann's views and those of the ,freiburg ,professor cannot be denied1 yet it is more than doubtful whether ,professor ,mnsterberg would recognise this similarity in the same measure as ,dr4 ,lehmann does4 ,the fact is that ,dr4 ,lehmann has progressed in the direction which the ,german school of ,wundt has taken2 yet he has not as yet reached the same clearness2 he is still entangled in ,cartesian ideas1 as is shown by his way of proposing problems3 for instance in his treatment of the problem of will1 which he justly calls der eigentliche ,probirstein der ,hypothese1 and of ,attention1 the most enigmatic of all states of the soul 7der rthselhafteste aller ,seelenzustnde74 ,in these and in other considerations ,dr4 ,lehmann shows that he is still far from the positive standpoint by which ,mnsterberg's investigations are distinguished4 ,it is very strange that in speaking of ,attention ,m4 ,ribot's name has not even been alluded to4 ,if the author had shown a familiarity with some of the monographs of this great ,french psychologist1 he might have saved himself much work4 4 ,,der ,,heliotropismus ,,der ,,thiere ,,und ,,seine ,,uebereinstimmung ,,mit ,,dem ,,heliotropismus ,,der ,,pflanzen4 ,by ,dr4 ,j4 ,loeb4 ,wrzburg3 ,verlag von ,george ,hertz4 ,the object of this work is to fill a gap in the treatment of the subject of animal movement depending on light1 and to explain it by a consideration of the actual facts4 ,after stating that the effect of light upon animal movement is purely mechanical1 and that it is governed partly by the action of the light as the exciting cause1 and partly by the structure of the sensitive organisation1 ,dr4 ,loeb proceeds1 ,i will now prove that the direction of the light rays determines quite generally the movements induced in animals by the light1 no less than the direction of plant movement1 and that the orientation not only of plants but of animals1 depends upon the bodily form of the latter1 in so far as the dorsiventral animals themselves move with the median plane in the direction of the light rays1 etc4 ,the more refrangible are the rays of light the more efficacious is its mechanical action upon animal and plant movement1 which is affected also by the constant intensity of the light and its temperature4 ,thus it appears that the moth's flight into a flame must be considered as the same mechanical process as1 for instance1 the motions of sunflowers1 the growth of the sprouting axis in buds1 etc4 ,dr4 ,loeb's conclusion that the circumstances which govern the movements of animals towards the light are conformable to those which have been already recognised in relation to plant-movement1 is supported by numerous facts1 which appear to fully establish the accuracy of his observations and deductions4 ,the diligent author who is at present engaged in scientific investigations at the stazione zoologica in ,naples1 has in the mean time published a series of further observations on the same question1 all of which1 as was to be expected1 corroborate the propositions set forth in the above mentioned little book4 ,we have before us two reprints1 one from the ,biologische ,centralblatt1 ,vol4 ,x1 ,nos4 #e and #f1 #ahij1 the other the ,archiv f4 d4 ges4 ,phys41 ,vol4 ,,xlvii1 with one plate and two wood-cuts1 the former treating of the heliotropism of the nauplii of ,balanus perforatus1 whose periodical migrations are shown to depend upon the action of the light1 the latter discussing the common features of heliotropism in animals and plants4 ,,untersuchungen ,,zur ,,physiologischen ,,morphologie ,,der ,,thiere4 #a4 ,,ueber ,,heteromorphose4 ,by ,dr4 ,jacques ,loeb4 ,with #a plate and #c figures4 ,wrzburg3 ,george ,hertz4 ,julius von ,sachs1 ,vchting1 ,noll1 and other botanists have successfully opened the way to a knowledge of the growth of plants in their causal conditions4 ,this method has been applied to the physiology of animals by ,pflger4 ,the present pamphlet is a contribution to this endeavor by ,dr4 ,loeb1 whose special object has been to determine the laws of the restoration of lost organs in animal organisms4 ,botanists have found that if a plant that has undergone the loss of an organ has to build it up again1 the new organ will be different from the original organ1 and this difference can be determined by law4 ,dr4 ,loeb inquires whether the same can be said of the reconstruction of the lost organs of animals4 ,there are1 as a rule1 in animal organisms two poles1 viz4 the oral pole1 forming the head1 and the aboral forming the tail4 ,it has been generally supposed that living animal substance possesses the tendency to develop in one special direction oral organs1 and in the other aboral organs4 ,this was called ,polarity and is based upon the experiments of ,allman1 ,trembley1 ,dalyell1 and others4 ,the experiments of ,dr4 ,loeb1 made with the view of testing the polarity theory1 show that it is possible to develop in animals possessing physiologically distinct heads and tails1 heads instead of tails in the aboral pole1 and to do so without any serious interference with the vitality of the creature4 ,the experiments have been made chiefly on ,tubularia mesembryanthemum1 ,aglaophenia pluma1 ,plumularia pinnata1 and other species4 ,dr4 ,loeb proves by his experiments that external conditions control the reproduction of organs1 so that artificially oral organs can be made to grow where aboral organs have been1 and vice versa4 ,it is this faculty of animal organisms which ,dr4 ,loeb calls heteromorphosis4 4 ,,die ,,ethische ,,bewegung ,,in ,,der ,,religion4 ,by ,stanton ,coit1 ,ph4 ,d4 ,uebersetzung von ,georg von ,gizycki4 ,leipsic3 ,o4 ,r4 ,reisland4 ,this series of ,sunday lectures by ,dr4 ,stanton ,coit1 the speaker of the ,south ,place ,ethical ,society of ,london1 ,england1 has been translated into ,german1 in the shape it is now before us1 by ,dr4 ,coit's friend and teacher ,prof4 ,george von ,gizycki2 they have not yet appeared in ,english4 ,the ,south ,place ,ethical ,society is not directly affiliated to the ,ethical ,societies of ,north ,america1 but it stands with them in friendly relations4 ,dr4 ,coit1 a native ,american1 is strongly biased in his views by his ,american co-workers2 he is the youngest among them1 and is1 ,i believe1 to be considered as a disciple of ,professor ,adler4 ,he has inherited from ,professor ,adler the idea that we can have ethics without a world-conception or a religion2 yet this idea has been considerably modified1 and an approach to more positive and practical views is perceptible in many passages of his sermons4 ,in the lecture ,which ,ethics8 ,dr4 ,coit says3 ,we need 7bedrfen7 a theory concerning the universe and our position in it instead of the old faith4 ,yet in contradiction to this1 he declares that theories are of little use4 ,he adds3 ,if two men come down from their abstract theories into real life and to the forces which create action1 it is as if they descend from two opposite mountain peaks into a warm and rich valley where rivulets run down from both sides to unite their waters inseparably into one continuous stream4 ,is not this beautiful allegory1 true as it certainly is in one sense1 after all misleading8 ,is not theory and theory different8 ,if theory means mere speculation1 we heartily agree with the proposition to keep clear of and far away from theorising4 ,it is at best a harmless play1 and certainly a loss of valuable time4 ,yet if theory means methodical systematisation of facts1 it is not mere waste of time2 in that case it is the indispensable condition of all truly practical work4 ,and it is this latter kind of theory which also in the practical work of ethical culture must be sought to be established4 ,we must at least be clear as to basic principles so that the efforts of ethical teachers may not be at random1 but directed by the progressive spirit of the age in harmony with our best scientific and philosophic thought4 ,concerning religion ,dr4 ,coit says 7p4 #ai7 in his article ,why ,ethics ,instead of ,religion3 ,my own opinion is that there is one feature which distinguishes ,religion from all other doctrines1 ceremonies1 and rules4 ,this feature characterised ,matthew ,arnold's view4 ,for he insisted not only upon morals and their importance1 and thought of means for their propagation1 but he proclaimed also that there was a power above the will of man to which he must bow4 ,in the very moment he proposed that power which we have to obey1 his ethics became religious4444 ,but the recognition of this higher power1 if ,i am allowed to propose my own views1 appears to me of very little importance4 ,if there is such a power1 and we have sufficient reasons not to doubt its existence1 ,i should say that for ethical purposes it is of paramount importance to recognise it and to obey it4 ,in another and a more recent lecture1 ,dr4 ,coit pronounces a very different view1 he says3 ,anybody who has ever reflected a moment1 must have discovered how dependent he is upon a power outside of his own will4 ,he has no strength either for good or for evil1 which he has made himself4 ,the more he thinks about it1 the deeper must become the feeling of his dependence4 ,and being aware that ,god1 or whatever we call that power in all things1 does not mind his whims1 he will find it easier not to mind1 himself1 his own whims4 ,the constant thought that we are not the powers of life and death1 will take away conceit and vanity and foolishness4 ,and in this way1 it brings us in times of tribulation to a quick resignation4 ,it makes us loving brothers and sons4 ,dr4 ,coit indeed aspires to make of ethical culture a religion for the people4 ,he speaks on this subject in his last lecture4 ,he opposes the ,churches for mixing their ethics with theology1 and he speaks with great enthusiasm about the poetry of ethics1 which is much more powerful than the prose of ethics4 ,he does not seem to see that the influence of the churches is mainly due to their poetry of ethics4 ,would it not be advisable to point out the prosaic truth in this poetry for the purpose of freeing the human mind of the obnoxious elements of a misunderstood poetry8 ,would it not be advisable to investigate the poetry of the basic idea in ethics1 viz41 of the ,god-idea1 so as to let the ethical movement develop itself historically from the past4 ,dr4 ,coit's method of dealing with the ,god-idea is far from satisfactory4 ,he is neither a theist nor an atheist4 ,sometimes he appears to appreciate the moral importance of the ,god-idea in its purified shape1 and then again he seems to consider it as an ethically indifferent idea4 ,should not this problem be settled by every one who undertakes to preach ethics4 ,it appears almost as if all the leaders of the ethical culture societies underrated the ethical importance and indispensableness of thought in general and of science and philosophy in particular4 ,the contradictions which appear in ,dr4 ,coit's lectures show that he is still developing4 ,the book is full of promise and we have every reason to hope that its author will overcome the unclearness that is still lurking in his mind1 and that he will grow with the work he is doing4 4 ,,fremdes ,,und ,,eigenes ,,aus ,,dem ,,geistigen ,,leben ,,der ,,gegenwart4 ,by ,prof4 ,dr4 ,ludwig ,bchner4 ,leipsic3 ,max ,spohr4 ,opinions admittedly are still divided with respect to the laudable efforts of a large class of scientists and writers whose main object is that of presenting the results of scientific research in an intelligible1 popular form4 ,every department of the natural sciences1 geology1 astronomy1 even psychology and comparative philology1 each and all1 are now represented by able and ardent popular interpreters1 who at the same time by their aggressive style and by their polemical methods not unfrequently seem to impart a kind of militant and apostolic attitude to the cause of science4 ,it must further be admitted1 that many of these writers1 by the unanimous verdict of the present age1 are among the most instructive1 readable1 and actually the most widely read authors of contemporaneous ,german1 ,french1 and ,anglo-,american literature4 ,at first glance1 it accordingly may seem rather strange1 that these same popular authors should also be subjected1 not unfrequently1 to their commensurate share of unfair1 and even offensive1 popular criticism2 and yet it could hardly be otherwise4 ,the well-known writer of these scientific and critical essays1 ,prof4 ,ludwig ,bchner1 affords an exceptionally striking instance of the unenviable lot of some of our most popular writers of science4 ,in one of these essays inscribed ,meine ,philosophie1 ,professor ,bchner has been compelled to defend the arduous work of his laborious life against a decidedly unfriendly and unappreciative criticism of his philosophy and whole scientific activity1 that some time ago appeared in the ,american ,freidenker of ,milwaukee4 ,prof4 ,bchner1 with a touch of legitimate bitterness1 repudiates the imputation of having been1 or still being1 as he himself calls it1 only the popularisator1 expounder and commentator1 of the theories and systems of other thinkers2 that1 on the contrary1 in ,germany and elsewhere1 among the highest representatives of science1 for more than thirty years ,professor ,bchner himself has been recognised and honored as an original worker and thinker4 ,his book on ,force and ,matter 7,kraft und ,stoff7 was published five years before ,darwin's great work on the ,origin of ,species4 ,subsequently his well-known popular ,lectures in connection with ,darwin's work claim the distinguished merit1 of having more widely generalised and extended the ,darwinian theory by embracing the origin and evolution of man1 which had until then been overlooked by ,darwin himself4 ,by the contemporary press of ,germany ,professor ,bchner was then charged with premature rashness1 and with being only a shallow1 imitative scientific dilettante2 but all this vituperative criticism was for ever silenced1 when in the year #ahga ,darwin's own work appeared on the ,descent of ,man1 in which ,darwin himself accepted all the consequences of the theory of evolution1 as set forth in ,professor ,bchner's ,lectures1 and1 somewhat later1 in ,professor ,haeckel's ,natural ,history of ,creation 7,natrliche ,schpfungsgeschichte74 ,professor ,bchner1 moreover1 is the author of the widely popular work ,the ,future ,life and ,modern ,science 7,das knftige ,leben und die moderne ,wissenschaft74 ,to deny him1 accordingly1 the rank and merit of a solid and original scientist and thinker1 as he himself says1 is to do him a signal injustice1 a positive injury4 ,let all this be willingly granted2 but this concession1 at all events1 does not settle his final1 mediating attitude to the entire satisfaction of philosophy1 regarded as an independent science4 ,professor ,bchner openly declares himself in favor of popular science4 ,he maintains1 that ,philosophy ought to step down from her lofty state of independent science1 and henceforth content herself with the humble rle of simply mediating the results of individual scientific research2 that science1 in such case1 would no longer run the risk of being exposed to the scorn and contempt of the masses767 444 ,in popular scientific writings1 at all times1 there can and must occur contradictions1 superficial estimates1 even trivialities1 but all this is perfectly understood by any fair-minded reader4 444 ,these remarks might almost tempt the reader to believe1 that ,professor ,bchner1 in his eagerness to popularise science1 really ignores the value of philosophy as an independent science1 and of philosophical research1 irrespective of all popular results1 and that the ,professor wishes to inculcate a narrow and purely utilitarian estimate of philosophy4 ,but1 the impulsive ,professor1 of course1 knows better2 his mental vision embraces the entire field of the sciences1 and he has written admirably and entertainingly upon almost every scientific topic1 and moreover he admits1 that possibly he sometimes contradicts himself4 ,one might further be inclined to ask1 whether1 in view of his self-imposed1 familiar contact with the popular mind1 ,professor ,bchner upon the whole displays the expected equanimity and broad-minded consistency when resenting the harsh criticism of antagonists1 which he does with a singularly thin-skinned sensitiveness scarcely worthy of a true philosopher4 ,in all his other works and throughout these critical essays1 ,professor ,bchner himself shows no tender regard for the feelings of his philosophical antagonists4 ,in the critical essay ,against ,materialism1 7,wider den ,materialismus71 for example1--mainly directed against ,prof4 ,harald ,hffding1--he bluntly affirms that ,professor ,hffding's works have produced upon him the impression that the author is a man without the philosophical and scientific knowledge requisite for the solution of the problems he has ventured to approach4 ,from what has been said1 the reader may expect to find much important1 instructive1 and readable matter even in ,professor ,bchner's critical essays1 bearing upon the intellectual life of the period2 but he also must be prepared to find them leavened in no small degree with the characteristic mental idiosyncrasies of their ever polemical author4 4 ,,deacon ,,herbert',s ,,bible ,,class4 ,by ,james ,freeman ,clarke4 ,boston3 ,geo4 ,h4 ,ellis4 ,this booklet is an unassuming little publication1 but it is important as a symptom of the times4 ,it was written by the late ,mr4 ,james ,freeman ,clarke many years ago as a series of papers for the ,christian ,inquirer4 ,yet it is well that they should not be forgotten and the lessons contained therein should be heeded by the clergy as well as the laity of this country4 ,it is an attempt to make religion practical and to point out the true direction in which church-life has to develop4 ,there is a great truth in the general complaint made throughout the world that the religion of civilised mankind1 especially ,christianity in the shape it exists at present1 has lost its life1 its influence1 and its usefulness4 ,our religious views must be transformed1 they must be reconciled with the principles of science and must be adapted to the real needs of the people4 ,the problem is1 how to do it4 ,if a solution of the problem shall be found1 it is certain that it will be first put into practice in the ,united ,states of ,america2 for here the church is free4 ,the many different churches of our country1 with few exceptions 7the ,roman ,catholic ,church is perhaps the only one7 are in principle churches of the people4 ,a change of opinion1 of belief1 of religious conviction among the people will result in the appointment of such pastors and leaders as are in agreement with their congregations4 ,clergy and laity form here one organic body4 ,the clergy are not imposed upon their congregations by the state2 they are the exponents of their congregations1 the representatives of the religious ideas 7perhaps upon the whole of the conservative religious ideas7 of their churches4 ,how different things are in ,europe1 where the state-churches of ,england and ,germany1 for instance1 prevent all progress in religion1 theology1 and church-life4 ,mr4 ,clarke's book1 if read with these considerations in mind1 shows the agencies that are at work in this country and that will 7as we confidently hope7 result in a new phase of religious life4 ,among the chapters of the book we note the following titles3 ,the way we helped our minister to write good sermons2 ,aim of ,life2 ,temptation of ,jesus2 ,the ,miracles2 ,the ,sermon on the ,mount2 and others4 ,the spirit in which the book is written is not exactly rationalistic1 yet it shows in every line a strong monistic bias4 ,for instance1 the usual definition of miracles as a suspension of the laws of nature is discarded2 and yet it would be erroneous to suppose that the style of the book is marked by a radical tendency4 ,not at all4 ,every faithful ,christian can read it line for line without feeling the least offence4 ,but it is plain that herein lies the author's force4 ,the book is popular1 but behind its popularity1 unusual depth of thought is noticeable4 ,in a similar way ,st4 ,paul gave milk to his followers because they were babes in ,christ1 and could not bear heavier food4 ,mr4 ,clarke's book is written especially for babes in ,christ1 yet every one who has given any serious thought to the religious problem will appreciate at once the difficulty and the importance of such an undertaking4 4 ,,periodicals4 ,,the ,,american ,,journal ,,of ,,psychology4 ,september1 #ahij4 ,vol4 ,,iii4 ,no4 #c4 ,,contents3 ,,on ,,the ,,brain ,,of ,,laura ,,bridgman4 ,by ,h4 ,h4 ,donaldson4 ,a ,,sketch ,,of ,,the ,,history ,,of ,,reflex ,,action 7,,ii74 ,by ,c4 ,f4 ,hodge4 ,,on ,a ,,curious ,,visual ,,phenomenon4 ,by ,joseph ,le ,conte4 ,a ,,counting ,,attachment ,,for ,,the ,,pendulum ,,chronoscope4 ,by ,william ,noyes4 ,,psychological ,,literature4 ,the ,nervous ,system--by ,h4 ,h4 ,donaldson2 ,experimental ,psychology2 ,criminology--by ,arthur ,mac,donald2 ,psychiatry--by ,william ,noyes2 ,miscellaneous4 ,the full title of ,dr4 ,donaldson's elaborate article is ,anatomical ,observations on the ,brain and ,several ,sense-,organs of the blind ,deaf-,mute1 ,laura ,dewey ,bridgman4 ,the object had in view in the examination of the brain was to determine1 if possible1 whether the peculiar mental existence of ,laura ,bridgman1 which was the result of her defective sense-organs1 has left any trace on her brain1 or whether such anomalies as may be observed are sufficiently explained when considered as the direct consequences of the initial defect alone4 ,the article is therefore a special study in the general field of the inter-relation of brain-structure and intelligence4 ,the final results are reserved for a second article1 but it appears from the present one that the total area of ,laura's brain is somewhat small for its weight1 and that it is slightly inferior to two other female brains with which comparison was made1 the inferiority depending mainly on the smaller average depth of the sulci1 that of the left side being the most manifest4 ,the difference can be explained in part at best1 by the failure of certain portions of the brain to develop completely4 ,dr4 ,donaldson's article is illustrated by very carefully prepared plates4 ,in the present part of his sketch of the history of reflex action1 ,dr4 ,hodge treats of the law demonstrated by ,bell1 that the posterior roots of the spinal nerves are sensory1 the anterior motor1 which forms the beginning of the modern history of the nervous system1 and of the physical versus the psychic theory of reflex action4 ,the mechanical theory of reflex action was first elaborated by ,marshall ,hall4 ,it was opposed by ,volkmann and others1 among them ,pflgel and ,auerbach4 ,on the other hand1 ,lotze supported the former view1 but he advanced a step beyond the comparatively crude1 simple mechanism of ,marshall ,hall to a mechanism of the utmost delicacy1 a mechanism susceptible of the nicest adjustments1 capable of education1 and of prolonged1 independent1 and complex activity4 ,habit is only another name for mechanism4 ,under the head of ,psychiatry1 ,dr4 ,william ,noyes gives an elaborate sketch of the life of ,jean ,jacques ,rousseau bearing on the question of his insanity1 which is exciting considerable interest at the present time4 7,e4 ,c4 ,sanford1 ,clark ,university1 ,worcester1 ,mass47 ,,mind4 ,october1 #ahij4 ,no4 ,,lx4 ,,contents3 ,,the ,,origin ,,of ,,music4 ,by ,herbert ,spencer4 ,,mental ,,elaboration4 ,by ,james ,sully4 ,,volkmann',s ,,psychology 7,,ii74 ,by ,thomas ,whittaker4 ,,berkeley ,,as ,a ,,moral ,,philosopher4 ,by ,hugh ,w4 ,orange4 ,,muensterberg ,,on ',,muscular ,,sense' ,,and ',,time-,,sense4' ,by the ,editor4 ,,discussion3 #a7 ,mr4 ,spencer's ,derivation of ,space4 ,by ,prof4 ,john ,watson4 #b7 ,dr4 ,pikler on the ,cognition of ,physical ,reality4 ,by ,g4 ,f4 ,stout4 ,,critical ,,notices3 ,lewis's ,a ,text-,book of ,mental ,diseases4 ,mercier's ,sanity and ,insanity2 ,jones's ,elements of ,logic as a ,science of ,propositions2 ,coupland's ,the ,gain of ,life and other ,essays4 ,,on ,,the ,,utilitarian ,,formula4 ,by ,james ,sutherland4 ,the ,origin of ,music4 ,this article is intended as a postscript to ,mr4 ,spencer's essay on ,the ,origin and ,function of ,music1 included in his ,essays1 ,scientific1 ,political1 and ,speculative1 of which he is preparing a final edition4 ,it is a reply to ,mr4 ,darwin1 who supposes music to have originated from a particular class of vocal noises1 the amatory class1 instead of1 as ,mr4 ,spencer asserts1 its being derived from the sounds which the voice emits under excitement1 eventually gaining this or that character according to the kind of excitement4 ,after considering various objections by ,mr4 ,edmund ,gurney and others1 ,mr4 ,spencer concludes3 ,the origin of music as the developed language of motion seems to be no longer an inference but simply a description of the fact4 ,mr4 ,james ,sully deals with ,differentiation1 ,assimilation1 and ,association as the intellectual constituents in the process of ,mental ,elaboration4 ,differentiation is considered first as a process of marking off1 by means of special adjustments of attention1 particular sensations2 followed by ,discrimination1 which involves change of psychical state1 the dependence of mental life on which has been formulated as the ,law of ,relativity4 ,assimilation1 described as a mode of unification or integration1 is treated of under the headings1 ,psychological ,nature of ,likeness2 ,automatic ,assimilation2 ,recognition2 and ,transition to ,comparative ,assimilation4 ,association is the process of psychical combination or integration which binds together presentative elements occurring together or in immediate succession4 ,this supposes ,retention or the tendency of a sensation to persist1 and ,reproduction1 or the reappearance in consciousness of the impression under a new representative form4 ,the three processes of ,differentiation1 ,assimilation1 and ,association do not follow each other1 but are closely interconnected4 ,part ,,ii4 of ,volkmann's ,psychology deals with the problem of ,time and ,space1 and with the subjects of ,space of ,time 7,zeitraum71 ,motion1 ,number1 and ,intuition4 ,out of sensations intuitions are evolved in consequence of the properties immanent in the sensations4 ,while their localisation progresses in the region of the more strongly toned sensations1 projection1 or the assignment of sensations to the external world1 goes on simultaneously in the region of toneless sensations4 ,by the addition of consciousness of dependence in having the sensation1 there is the completion of the presentation of the ,external ,thing as thing4 ,illusions are divided into two classes2 namely1 'illusions of internal perception' and 'illusions of sense4' ,the ,ego is purely a psychical result of the soul becoming conscious of an interaction between one of its presentations and the most ramified of its presentation-masses4 ,self-consciousness is defined as internal perception within the ,ego4 ,the mind is then dealt with as thinking1 feeling1 desiring1 and willing4 ,ethical feeling is a kind of sthetic feeling1 distinguished from others by the peculiarity of its objective basis1 which is the actual will of the subject4 ,moral freedom is to have the will determined by reason4 ,psychological freedom permanently extended over the whole of volition is ,character2 its opposite is ,passion4 ,mr4 ,orange furnishes a different explanation of ,berkeley's ethical system from that given by ,professor ,fraser1 in a note to the third dialogue of ,alciphron 7ii4 #ajg71 and points out its agreement with ,berkeley's ,principles of ,human ,knowledge4 ,moral laws are laws of nature2 but there is no value or force in them as laws1 save in so far as they are the orderly expression of ,god's ideas4 ,man's ideas are true or good1 when the human spirit is at one with the divine4 ,both in natural and moral philosophy the laws of nature are to be attained by the use of reason4 ,prof4 ,robertson draws attention to the concessions involved in ,mnsterberg's idea of ',muscular ,sense4' ,to the term 'muscle-sensation' no exception can be taken1 provided it is meant for no more than mere external designation1 as when we speak of 'eye-sensation1' 'skin-sensation1' or the like1 and is not called 'sensation of movement4' ,mnsterberg finds that a whole class of factors have been overlooked1 or hardly regarded1 by previous inquirers into ',time-,sense4' ,these are sensations 7or representations7 of muscular tension1 by synthesis of which with sense-elements 7sounds by preference7 time-apprehension is explicable4 ,he is struck particularly with the part played in his experiments by the breath-rhythm1 and it seems impossible to doubt that breathing has a prerogative position among the sense-factors concerned in the estimation of short time-intervals4 ,the name ',time-,sense' has through ,mnsterberg's investigations more justification than it ever got from its inventors1 for whom it has marked only the apparent immediacy of time-apprehension4 ,in his criticism of ,mr4 ,spencer's theory of the derivation of space ,prof4 ,john ,watson lays down as the fundamental position of ,transcendentalism1 or ,idealism1 as he prefers to call it1 that the universe is intelligible1 and that man in virtue of his intelligence is capable of grasping it in its essential nature4 ,it therefore rejects as unmeaning the doctrine of ,mr4 ,spencer1 that we know reality to be unknowable4 ,while recognising that ,mr4 ,spencer and others have done good service in drawing attention to certain outward aspects of the evolution of mind1 ,professor ,watson concludes that no psychology can be adequate which does not recognise that perception is not the mere occurrence of transient feelings1 but the first step in that recognition of the true nature of reality which culminates in the comprehension of the world as a single organic unity of which the source and explanation is intelligence4 ,mr4 ,stout points out1 in reply to ,dr4 ,pikler 7,mind1 ,no4 #ei71 that the sole aim of his article on ,the ,genesis of the ,cognition of ,physical ,reality 7,mind1 ,no4 #eg7 was to trace the genesis of the presentation of physical reality as it appears to the ordinary consciousness3 not as it may be modified1 and perhaps rectified1 by the reflective criticism of this or that philosopher1 and that what he urged against ,mill was simply that he has confounded his own philosophical view of physical reality with the view which men ordinarily take when they are not in a philosophical mood4 ,it is shown by ,mr4 ,sutherland that in the utilitarian ultimate conception there is1 in addition to the greatest happiness1 plus an arithmetical truth1 the element of absolute justice1 the existence of which requires that all subsidiary rights as means to greatest general happiness should at utmost be classed under relative justice4 7,london3 ,williams ,norgate47 ,,international ,,journal ,,of ,,ethics4 ,october1 #ahij4 ,vol4 ,i4 ,no4 ,i4 ,,contents3 ,,the ,,morality ,,of ,,strife4 ,by ,professor ,henry ,sidgwick4 ,,the ,,freedom ,,of ,,ethical ,,fellowship4 ,by ,felix ,adler1 ,ph4 ,d4 ,,the ,,law ,,of ,,relativity ,,in ,,ethics4 ,by ,professor ,harald ,hffding4 ,,the ,,ethics ,,of ,,land ,,tenure4 ,by ,professor ,j4 ,b4 ,clark4 ,,the ,,communication ,,of ,,moral ,,ideas ,,as ,a ,,function ,,of ,,an ,,ethical ,,society ,by ,bernard ,bosanquet1 ,m4 ,a4 ,,dr4 ,,abbot',s ,,way ,,out ,,of ,,agnosticism4 ,by ,professor ,josiah ,royce4 ,a ,,service ,,of ,,ethics ,,to ,,philosophy4 ,by ,wm4 ,h4 ,salter4 ,this is the first number of the ,international ,journal of ,ethics1 which is intended to take the place of the ,ethical ,record4 ,in the opening article1 ,professor ,sidgwick affirms that the idea of a universal and complete harmony of the earthly interests of all human beings is an optimistic illusion as to human relations1 which in the present age of the world has nearly faded away4 ,nevertheless1 a very substantial gain would result if we could remove from men's minds all errors of judgment as to right and wrong1 good and evil1 even if we left other causes of bad conduct unchanged4 ,what is practically wanted is improvement in moral insight1 and the aim of the paper is to aid in the solution of certain intellectual difficulties which arise when we try to get a clear idea of duty4 ,warfare among modern nations is normally not a mere conflict of interests1 but also a conflict of opposing views of right and justice4 ,disputants may therefore be brought into harmony if they can be really and completely enlightened as to their true rights1 as distinguished from their interests4 ,the international law administered by arbitrators may be most useful in removing minor occasions of controversy and in minimising the mischief resulting from graver conflicts1 but it will not provide a settlement of all occasions of strife4 ,where the sphere of arbitration ends that of the moral method of attaining international peace begins2 if we must be judges in our own cause1 we must endeavor to be just judges4 ,the impartiality required is difficult1 but the judicial function--which1 in a modern state under popular government1 has become1 in some degree1 the business of every man--might be performed with success1 if national consciences could be roused to feel the nobility and grapple practically and persistently with the difficulties of the task4 ,professor ,adler's article is devoted to an account of the ,ethical ,societies1 which are described as being consecrated to the knowledge of the ,good1 but not to any special theory of the ,good4 ,to adopt a philosophical formula as the basis of union would be to become a philosophical sect1 which he declares is the most contemptible of all sects1 because the sectarian bias is most repugnant to the spirit of genuine philosophy4 ,the accepted norms of moral behavior form the starting points of ,ethical ,societies and their basis of union4 ,they build on the common stock of moral judgment1 which may be called the common conscience4 ,ethics is both a science and an art4 ,as a science it has to explain the facts of the moral life1 and it is necessary to begin with the facts and to test theories by their fitness to account for them4 ,it is the prime duty of every one in his individual capacity to rise to the ever clearer apprehension of first principles1 but for this very reason ,ethical ,societies in their collective capacity abstain from laying down any set of first principles as binding4 ,it is not quite clear how ,professor ,adler can declare that the ,ethical ,societies are consecrated to the knowledge of the good1 and yet make so strong an opposition to their stating such knowledge in the exact terms of a philosophical formula4 ,philosophy is nothing but knowledge of the world systematised into a world-conception4 ,it will hardly be sufficient to make the common conscience the corner stone of any society devoted to the elevation of morality4 ,not only would it be difficult to ascertain what that common conscience at present is1 but1 in addition1 we can be assured that the common conscience is constantly changing4 ,ethics as a science means philosophical ethics2 and ,professor ,adler's ethics is1 in fact1 the expression of a philosophy4 ,yet in spite of the advanced position of the ,ethical ,societies1 which have discarded all religious views and ceremonial practices1 we find that their leader still stands upon the ground of a dualistic extra-naturalism4 ,professor ,adler says3 ,there is a reality other than that of the senses1 and the ultimate reality in things is1 in a sense1 transcending our comprehension1 akin to the moral nature of men4 ,but how shall we acquaint ourselves with this ,supersensible4 ,the ladder of science does not reach so far4 ,it is true that there are realities other than that of the senses2 take as a most simple instance mathematical points and lines4 ,but there is no reality which theoretically considered can not become an object of science4 ,the statement that there are facts to which the ladder of science does not reach1 is tantamount to a declaration of supernaturalism and dualism4 ,professor ,adler has discarded the terminology of the old dogmatism1 but he has not discarded its basic error4 ,instead of developing the old faith into a monistic religion1 he throws away religion as a basis of ethics1 but preserves carefully that element in it which is hostile to science and philosophy4 ,the ,law of ,relativity is a very important contribution by ,professor ,hffding to the ,science of ,ethics4 ,after stating that the moral law1 if it is to be truly universal1 must only judge the general direction of the tendency of the will1 he affirms that the individual relativity of ethics1 or its personal equation1 is a factor which enters into the ethical question1 when different individuals with like ethical principles and in like circumstances1 but with different dispositions and capacities have to be considered4 ,the individual is always a part of society1 and the life of society is no other than that contained in its members1 the ideal being reached only when the individual's efforts in the cause of society also serve the free and harmonious development of his own faculties and impulses4 ,in an ideal ,state only that would be demanded of each individual which lay within his range and power4 ,self-control1 as a negative virtue1 is a psychological impossibility4 ,it is necessary to take note whether there is room for other inclinations that could absorb the store of energy4 ,the struggle of self-control lasts until the new application of energy gains complete ascendancy4 ,the happiest man is where morality has become organic and there is an agreement between the task arising from the general principles and the particular circumstances1 and the capacities and desires of the individual4 ,professor ,hffding objects to the views of the ,italian criminal-psychological school that atavism is a sign of social imperfection1 that it does not justify placing society and the criminal over against each other as absolute right and absolute wrong4 ,he concludes that it is at least an open question whether there are any human beings in whom no sympathy for the moral law can be awakened1 however much the law may be individualised4 ,the arguments of ,professor ,clark on ,the ,ethics of ,land ,tenure are summed up in the following passage3 ,if a state originally owned its land1 in the fullest sense of the term1 it had the right of voluntary alienation which is inherent in such ownership4 ,increments of value1 present and future1 are its property2 in alienating them it gives away its own4 ,if the attainment of its ends requires that they be transferred to others1 the title of the grantees is valid4 ,to deny to the state the privilege of alienation is to essentially abridge its natural rights2 it is to make its ownership of the land incomplete4 ,in relation to what is incorrectly termed unearned increments1 it is remarked1 if the essence of property is regarded1 and not its form1 the increments of value attaching to land are not unearned by their proprietors4 ,in an active market land has its fair price1 and this is based partly on the future increments themselves4 ,the loss arising from a confiscation of land-value would fall not merely on millions who have titles in fee simple1 but on all who have made loans on land as security4444 ,to every one it would come in the shape of a seizure by the state of property invested in accordance with its own positive invitation4 ,the communication of moral ideas1 and not ideas about morality1 which are the abstract or scientific renderings of moral ideas1 is considered by ,mr4 ,bosanquet as the proper function of an ,ethical ,society4 ,the fault of the present time is distraction1 and one great cause of this distraction is the notion of a general duty to do good1 or something other than and apart from doing one's work well and intelligently4 ,the only certain way of communicating moral ideas is contagion1 and the most useful teacher of morality is not so much a man of abstract theory as a man of reasonable experience4 ,ethics may be of service to philosophy1 says ,mr4 ,salter1 in opening up the realm of what ought to be1 beyond the realm of what is and happens4 ,moral ideas belong to the realm of unverifiable ideas1 which are believed in because of their own intrinsic attractiveness and authority4 ,ethics tells us of the law according to which men should act1 the law of justice and brotherhood2 we may conclude that whatever may be the actual forces in the world at any time1 justice and love are rightfully supreme over them all1 and that these are so interwoven with the order of things that nothing out of harmony with them can long stand4 ,it is the imperishable glory of transcendentalism in our country that in the decay and disintegration of the ancient creed1 it sounded the high-note that the soul can in some sense know the object of its worship2 that it need not feed on hearsay1 and tradition1 and arguments1 but can have vision4 7,philadelphia3 ,international ,journal of ,ethics1 #afjb ,chestnut ,st47 ,,revue ,,philosophique4 ,september1 #ahij4 ,no4 #agg4 ,,contents3 ,,remarques ,,sur ,,le ,,principe ,,de ,,causalite4 ,by ,a4 ,lalande4 ,,philosophes ,,espagnols4--,j4 ,,huarte4 ,by ,j4 ,m4 ,guardia4 ,,les ,,origines ,,de ,,la ,,technologie 7fin74 ,by ,a4 ,espinas4 ,,un ,,document ,,inedit ,,sur ,,les ,,manuscrits ,,de ,,descartes4 ,by ,v4 ,egger4 ,,notices ,,bibliographiques4 ,,revue ,,des ,,periodiques ,,etrangers4 ,the principle of causality belongs only to the world of sense1 that of children and of the commonality of mankind who neither reflect nor analyse their knowledge4 ,it represents confusedly the continuity and inertia which are proper to the scientific stage1 as colors represent imperfectly the undulations of the ether1 and sound the vibrations of ponderable matter4 ,to make of causality a scientific property of things1 a law of the phenomenal and mechanical world1 is to affirm that bodies preserve their color in the absence of an eye to perceive it1 or their sonorousness when no one hears them4 ,moreover1 from a scientific standpoint1 the words sound and color lose all proper meaning2 while the principle of causality retains a sense1 but then expresses a false proposition1 and one which leads us incessantly into error4 ,several consequences flow from ,m4 ,lalande's conception of causality4 ,the first is that this law is not a rational principle1 but is an empirical formula1 in the mathematical sense of that word4 ,the second is that we are thereby led to see in the idea of efficiency an artificial concept1 and1 as would be said by philologists1 a disease of language1 instead of a mysterious power that emanates from one phenomenon in order to create its effect4 ,a third consequence is the great simplification it leads to in the problem of induction1 which requires us merely to believe in the stability of the laws of nature1 which are only mathematical laws proved by experience4 ,the true foundation of induction is the universal value of mathematics1 which rests finally on the principle of identity4 ,the degree of perfection of a science can be measured by the quantity of mathematics it employs2 and it is this preconceived idea which has given birth to all the psycho-physical measures that have been recently introduced into psychology4 ,m4 ,guardia's paper gives a sketch of the philosophical system laid down in the work of the ,spanish writer ,j4 ,huarte1 ,the ,trial of the ,spirits1 with an introductory account of the author and his book1 which first appeared in #aege4 ,huarte is described as unique among ,spanish thinkers1 and as a leading figure among natural philosophers on account of the daring novelty of his original views and the excellence of his method1 which is that of the inductive philosophy4 ,his doctrine is founded on that of ,galen1 and he proclaims the principle that the physical determines the moral4 ,all his metaphysics reduce themselves to the recognition of the action of exterior causes1 which are of inorganic nature1 and of the organism which reacts to them4 ,he thus explains all the manifestations of life1 heredity intervening as a factor in its evolution4 ,huarte was less concerned1 however1 with physiology and psychology1 than with the amelioration of the social state4 ,he worked for the future by creating of psychology an organic science of observation and experience1 founded on the knowledge of human nature1 and by basing on it the art of education4 ,in concluding his valuable study of the ,origin of ,technology1 ,m4 ,espinas1 after giving numerous examples drawn from ancient ,greek life1 says3 ,all the technical arts of this epoch have the same characters4 ,they are religious1 traditional1 local4 ,the myths referred to are at first the faithful as well as the symbolic expression of them4 ,this mythological symbolism is the product of a psychological and sociological projection1 that is to say1 the things of art are conceived as benevolent or angered feelings1 as intelligent inventions or combinations that are attributed to fictitious idealised men1 as exchanges that are made with them1 as gifts or precepts that are received from them1 or as orders imposed by their will4 ,they are thus psychical operations or social products drawn from human consciousness unknown to it which1 personified1 find themselves invoked by it in order to explain to itself its own creations4 ,the unpublished matter referring to the manuscripts of ,descartes is contained in a copy of the #afei edition of the ,principes of the ,french philosopher1 and consists of numerous notes in the handwriting of its former owner ,joseph de ,beaumont4 7,paris3 ,flix ,alcan47 ,,revue ,,philosophique4 ,no4 #agh4 ,october1 #ahij4 ,,contents3 ,,le ,,delit ,,politique4 ,by ,g4 ,tarde4 ,,une ,,nouvelle ,,th,,orie ,,de ,,la ,,libert4 ,by ,a4 ,belot4 ,,note ,,sur ,,la ,,physiologie ,,de ,l',,attention4 ,by ,ch4 ,fr4 ,,les ,,bases ,,exp,,rimentales ,,de ,,la ,,geometrie4 ,by ,jules ,andrade4 ,,note ,,sur ,,le ,,principe ,,de ,,la ,,causalite4 ,by ,j4-,j4 ,gourd4 ,,analyses ,,et ,,comptes ,,rendus4 ,,revue ,,des ,,periodiques ,,etrangers4 ,m4 ,tarde finds ,m4 ,lombroso too severe and at the same time too kind towards the spirit of conservatism4 ,too severe in terming it misoneism and too kind in regarding it as the only normal condition of societies4 ,the hospitable reception given to novelties is an equally normal function1 although intermittent4 ,if instead of making all his sociological ideas circle round the idea of the new1 and creating an unfruitful antithesis between the love and the hatred of novelty1 he had taken as his central notion the idea of imitation1 and proved the universal distinction between the imitation of the new and the imitation of the old1 ,m4 ,lombroso would have escaped many errors4 ,in all of us1 caprice exists by the side of habit1 due to physiological misoneism2 and the conflict between them goes on in each individual throughout our life4 ,caprice triumphs at the commencement1 but the contest is terminated in old age by the definite victory of habit4 ,it is the same in the social life4 ,the inclination to adopt new ideas is due to the law of imitation1 which is a more important factor in great social movements than misoneism4 ,m4 ,belot remarks that he would not dare to write the title ,une thorie nouvelle de la libert if it referred to a theory of his own4 ,under it he criticises the theory advanced by ,m4 ,bergson in his ,essai sur les donnes immdiates de la conscience2 according to which freedom belongs1 not to the empirical personality of the superficial ego1 but to the deeper ego1 the subjectivity itself1 the alteration of which through the laws of thought and exigencies of science gives rise to the former4 ,according to ,m4 ,belot1 on the contrary1 the will and freedom are shown in the forcing back of the lower ego1 which comes to the surface1 and its impulses by enlightened ideas4 ,to act in harmony with these is freedom1 which is not inconsistent with determinism in the proper sense4 ,determinism becomes freedom in becoming intelligent4 ,until then we obey concealed impulses1 which may belong to our parents1 our ancestors1 or our social surroundings1 and therefore we are not free4 ,by an excellent series of experiments1 ,m4 ,fr has demonstrated that in attention all the qualities of movement are modified2 its rapidity1 its energy1 and its precision1 the physiological condition of the process being a general tension of the muscles4 ,it is an error to suppose the intervention of arrestive action1 of inhibition1 in the physiology of attention4 ,voluntary immobility results from very intense muscular activities1 and has for its physiological condition the general tension of the muscular system1 which places the subject in such a condition that he can react in the quickest and most energetic manner possible to an excitation from whatever point it may come4 ,this is the physiological condition of attention4 ,the exercise of immobility is the most favorable to the development of intelligence1 while the relaxation of the muscles which results from the removal of the tension tends to the suppression of attention1 and of the psychical activity4 ,excitations of the skin determine exaggerated reflex activities1 more rapid and more energetic movements4 ,as intelligence is developed1 the reflex movements become less imperious1 the multiplicity of motives of action gives the illusion of freedom of choice4 ,when the excitable centres are incompletely developed1 as with women and children1 and especially with degenerates1 the impulsions and the reflex activities generally1 of which the centres are better developed1 are more violent and more uncontrollable4 7,paris3 ,flix ,alcan74 ,,zeitschrift ,f,r ,,psychologie ,,und ,,physiologie ,,der ,,sinnesorgane4 ,vol4 ,i4 ,nos4 #d and #e4 ,,contents3 ,,ueber ,,das ,,erkennen ,,der ,,schallrichtung4 ,by ,j4 v4 ,kries4 ,,zur ,,psychologie ,,der ,,kausalitaet4 ,by ,th4 ,lipps4 ,,zur ,,interaurealen ,,lokalisation ,,diotischer ,,wahrnehmungen4 ,by ,karl ,l4 ,schaefer4 ,,zur ,,psychologie ,,der ,,frage4 ,by ,rich4 ,wahle4 ,,ueber ,,negative ,,empfindungswerte 7,i74 ,by ,h4 ,ebbinghaus4 ,,versammlungen3 ,internationaler medizinischer ,kongress zu ,berlin #ahij4 ,i4 ,sektion fr ,augenheilkunde4 ,referiert von ,claude du ,bois-,reymond4--,,ii4 ,sektion fr ,ohrenheilkunde4 ,referiert von ,krakauer4 ,,literaturbericht4 ,professor ,j4 von ,kries examines the hypotheses propounded of late concerning the recognition of the direction in which sound-waves reach the ear4 ,professor ,preyer maintains that different irritations1 according to the source of sound1 take place in the semi-circular canals1 and ,mnsterberg1 on the basis of his own experiments1 has with some essential modifications accepted ,preyer's views4 ,the author devotes his chief attention to the localisation of sounds originating either to the right or to the left of the median plane4 ,the experiments were made with two movable whistles1 the intensity of which could easily be regulated4 ,the result was that concerning right and left direction1 and also with regard to simultaneous sounds from both directions at a different pitch1 each note could be correctly localised4 ,he adds that1 so far as he can judge1 even he who adopts ,mnsterberg's view has to fall back upon a comparison of the intensity in both ears4 ,a localisation of whistle-sounds in the median line1 be it in front or at the back1 was not so certain4 ,a single tone was1 upon the whole1 correctly localised2 yet it was difficult to discriminate two sounds in the median plane4 ,in another article on the same subject1 entitled ,on ,interaureal ,localisation of ,diotic ,sensations ,karl ,l4 ,schaefer of ,jena recapitulates in brief the monotic and diotic experiments made by ,silvanus ,b4 ,thompson1 ,purkyns1 ,urbantschitsch1 and ,preyer2 completing the inquiries of ,fechner on the subject he states the following result3 ,let two tuning forks be placed at an equal distance from the median plane in front of the ears1 so that their sound is medianly localised3 #a7 ,synchronal vibrations of any pitch1 at the same distance1 and in exactly opposite directions1 produce median oscillations2 #b7 ,if the forks are moved a tempo to the right or to the left1 i4 e4 in the same direction1 the sound rolls from ear to ear1 so long as the motions are not too rapid2 #c7 ,if they are executed as quickly as possible the vibrations have their seats in both ears4 ,the ,psychology of ,causality is the subject of a longer article 7#dg pages7 by ,prof4 ,th4 ,lipps4 ,lipps declares that his investigation intends to reduce causality to association1 and the law of causality to the law of association4 ,the author does not identify his undertaking with the psychology of association1 and protests against considering mind-activity as passive processes4 ,he devotes almost too much space to stating what is1 or can easily become1 an anthropomorphic conception of causation4 ,where he propounds his positive views1 we miss discriminative exactness4 ,ursache and ,grund are not sufficiently distinguished1 and the definitions of formal and material cognitions1 are not lucidly stated4 ,dr4 ,lipps says3 ,all cognition is objectively conditioned representation2 respectively associations of representations4 ,in purely formal cognition the objective raison d'tre 7,grund7 consists in the presence of a contents of consciousness4 ,in material cognition1 or cognition by experience in the narrower sense1 it consists in the consciousness of the objective reality of a contents of consciousness4#ff ,the author's conclusion is summarised as follows3 #ff ,the passage being so difficult to translate1 we quote the original in full3 ,alle ,erkenntniss ist objectiv begrndetes ,vorstellen1 bezw4 ,verbinden von ,vorstellungen4 ,bei der lediglich formalen ,erkenntniss besteht der objective ,grund im ,dasein eines ,bewusstseinsinhaltes1 bei der materialen oder ,erfahrungserkenntniss im engeren ,sinne besteht er im ,bewusstsein der objectiven ,wirklichkeit eines ,bewusstseinsinhaltes4 ,hume's work and his mistake can thus plainly be recognised4 ,that causal connection is a connection among our ideas1 not a connection among the objects represented1 that the necessity which distinguishes this connection consists in the psychological compulsion to combine one fact with another1 that this compulsion has its reason in association1 is the discovery of ,hume2 and this discovery of ,hume is one of the most important in the history of philosophy4 ,that the world becomes a world regulated by law1 by being subjected to the law of our mind1 this anthropocentric standpoint was therewith determined4 ,hume's mistake consisted only in this3 ,he did not recognise the full importance of the law of association4 ,therefore he did not see what associative relations are directly identical with the causal relation4 ,an attempt was made to cover the defect rising therefrom by the principle of habit4 ,not the principle of association1 but the principle of habit depriving the principle of association of its strength1 hindered ,hume from proposing the correct answer to the question1 ',how in experience are general and necessary judgments possible8' ,professor ,lipps does not answer this question satisfactorily either2 he gives no explanation of the fact that in experience general and necessary judgments are possible4 ,he simply states the fact4 ,every natural scientist1 he says1 expects that a certain result that has been observed once1 will always take place again if the experiment be repeated under exactly the same conditions4 ,professor ,lipps states1 in concluding1 that he is fully conscious of having discussed only a small part of that which might be said on this subject1 and adds3 ,perhaps objections or criticisms will give me an occasion for additional remarks4 ,we here call his attention to the treatment of the subject in ,dr4 ,paul ,carus's pamphlet ,ursache1 ,grund und ,zweck 7,dresden3 ,grumbkow1 #ahha7 and also to his articles on ,form and ,formal ,thought and on ,causality in ,fundamental ,problems4 ,dr4 ,richard ,wahle1 ,privat-docent in ,vienna1 defines in a short sketch on ,the ,psychology of the ,question the meaning of ,question in the following way3 a question is the preparation during a state of indecision for a perception of the decision4 ,in explaining the meaning of this decision ,richard ,wahle makes an occasional fling at that kind of psychology which divorced from physiology confines itself to the method of introspection4 ,the last article1 by ,prof4 ,h4 ,ebbinghaus1 is the first part of a criticism of ,fechner's posthumous letters on ,negative ,empfindungs verthe1 published in the first numbers of this periodical4 ,these letters1 ,ebbinghaus declares1 afford an interesting insight into the scientific personality of ,fechner2 yet the doctrine contained therein1 he adds1 has its drawbacks4 ,ebbinghaus does not accept ,fechner's presentation of the case1 but refers us to ,delbuf from whose experiments alone1 he says1 the correct interpretation of negative values of sensations can be derived4 ,delbuf's views are not so clearly presented in his first statement as in a later article written in answer to the objections of ,tannery1 published in the ,revue ,philosophique ,v4 #ahgh1 and republished under the title ,examen critique de la loi psychophysique 7,paris1 #ahhc74 ,ebbinghaus adopts ,langer's definition of negative values of sensations4 ,they are such as under all circumstances if additively connected with equally great positive ones produce as a result zero4 ,the reports of the proceedings of the ,international ,congress of ,physicians1 ,berlin1 #ahij1 will be of special value to physicians4 ,the present number contains those of the sections of oculists and aurists4 ,the number contains a valuable bibliographical catalogue of the chief works on physiological psychology for the year #ahhi4 7,hamburg and ,leipsic3 ,l4 ,voss47 ,,philosophische ,,monatshefte4 ,vol4 ,,xxvii4 ,nos4 #a and #b4 ,,contents3 ,,quantitaet ,,und ,,qualitaet ,,in ,,begriff1 ,,urtheil ,,und ,,gegenstaendlicher ,,erkenntniss4 ,by ,paul ,natorp4 ,,zum ,,begriff ,,des ,,naiven ,,realismus4 ,by ,e4 von ,hartmann4 ,,bemerkungen ,,zu ,,vorstehendem ,,aufsatz4 ,by ,a4 ,dring4 ,,recensionen4 ,,litteraturbericht4 ,professor ,paul ,natorp1 the editor1 discusses ,quantity and ,quality in ,concept1 ,judgment1 and ,objective ,cognition4 ,his object is the attempt not to proceed subjectively1 or psychologically1 or genetically1 or causally1 or teleologically1 but purely objectively in the same sense as mathematics proceeds objectively4 ,the result which he reaches is summarily expressed in the statement that there is no formal logic 444 and that it cannot exist at all--except it be based upon the logic of objective cognition 7transcendental logic71 or represents a part thereof1 the severance of which from the whole to which it belongs can have merely technical not scientific reasons4 7,heidelberg3 ,georg ,weiss47 ,,rivista ,,italiana ,,di ,,filosofia4 ,september and ,october1 #ahij4 ,,contents3 ,,della ,,percezione ,,del ,,corpo ,,umano4 ,by ,l4 ,pietrobono4 ,,le ,,idee ,,pedagogiche ,,di ,,pietro ,,ceretti4 ,,dell' ,,attenzione4 ,by ,v4 ,benini4 ,,la ,,scuola ,e ,,la ,,filosofia ,,pitagoriche4 ,by ,s4 ,ferrari4 ,,bibliografia4 ,,bollettino ,,pedagogico ,e ,,filosofico4 ,,notizie4 ,,recenti ,,pubblicazioni4 ,,rivista ,,italiana ,,di ,,filosofia4 ,november and ,december1 #ahij4 ,,contents3 ,,il ,,presente ,,della ,,storia ,,della ,,filosofia4 ,by ,l4 ,credaro4 ,,la ,,pedagogia ,,di ,,jacopo ,,sadoleto4 ,by ,a4 ,piazzi4 ,,della ,,percezione ,,del ,,corpo ,,umano4 ,by ,l4 ,pietrobono4 ,,bibliografia1 etc4 ,there are two problems which at present command a general and a keen interest in all countries2 viz4 the psychological problem and the ethical problem1 the latter comprising all the questions of education and instruction1 religious as well as secular4 ,if this is true of ,germany1 ,france1 ,england1 and the ,united ,states1 it is no less true of ,italy4 ,the ,rivista ,italiana di ,filosofia1 so ably edited by ,luigi ,ferri1 ,professor at the ,university of ,rome1 shows this tendency in its latest numbers in a marked degree4 ,they contain among other valuable materials an article by ,luigi ,pietrobono on the perception of the human body1 a psycho-physiological investigation of sentient substance with special reference to sensation and perception4 ,the author arrives at a result1 which1 if it could be sustained1 would lead to an outspoken dualism4 ,pietrobono believes in two principles1 a psychical and an organical1 forming an original synthesis and antithesis1 interdependent upon and inseparable from each other4 ,vittorio ,benini discusses in the same number the captivating subject of ,attention1 starting from a discussion of ,ribot's monograph on the subject1 and devoting his main interest to what he calls l' attenzione perceptiva accompagnata dall' intelligenza4 ,the latter kind of attention is of especial importance in education1 a subject which is discussed in the conclusion of the article4 ,this leads us to another essay which treats of an exclusively educational subject1 proposing the pedagogical ideas of ,pietro ,ceretti4 ,this article does not contain new truths1 but emphasises truths which have perhaps been too little recognised in ,italy4 ,starting from the maxim that all education must develop the faculties of body1 soul1 and mind 7le facolt del corpo1 dell' anima e della mente71 and that all education must be conducted so as to let the social body derive the benefits therefrom1 he urges besides demanding the moral and intellectual culture of man a technical instruction1 and among the sciences1 literature1 and history1 he would give mathematics a prominent place4 ,it may be added that the department of ,bibliography contains among other reviews discussions of the following works3 #a7 ,reich's book on ,gian ,vincenzo ,gravina as an author of sthetics2 #b7 ,antonio ,rosmini's ,fragments of a ,philosophy of ,law and ,politics2 #c7 ,robert ,benzoni's ,the ,philosophy of ,our ,day2 #d7 ,pietro ,ellero's ,the ,social ,question2 #e71 in the ,december number1 ,ferdinando ,puglia's ,evolution in the ,history of ,italian ,philosophical ,systems2 #f7 ,the national edition of ,galileo ,galilei's works2 and #g7 ,la ,somiglianza nella ,scuola ,positivista e l',identit nella ,metafisica ,nuova1 by ,donato ,jaia4 ,,voprosy ,,filosofi ,i ,,psichologuii4#fg ,vol4 ,i4 ,no4 #d4 #fg ,questions of ,philosophy and ,psychology4 ,in the ,russian language4 ,,contents3 7,,part ,i47 ,,remarks4 ,by the ,editor1 ,prof ,n4 ,grote4 ,,the ,,political ,,ideals ,,of ,,plato ,,and ,,of ,,aristotle ,,in ,,their ,,universal ,,historical ,,significance4 ,by ,prince ,e4 ,n4 ,trubetzkoi4 ,,the ,,relations ,,of ,,voltaire ,,to ,,rousseau4 7,conclusion47 ,by ,e4 ,radlow4 ,,the ,,ethical ,,doctrine ,,of ,,kant4 ,by ,l4 ,lopatine4 ,,hypnotism ,,in ,,pedagogy4 ,by ,a4 ,tokarsky4 ,,concerning ,,the ,,question ,,of ,,freewill ,,from ,,the ,,point ,,of ,,view ,,of ,,historical ,,process4 ,by ,n4 ,karyew4 ,,the ,,vital ,,problems ,,of ,,psychology4 ,by ,n4 ,grote4 ,,necrology4 ,m4 ,i4 ,vladislavlew1 ,rector of the ,university of ,st4 ,petersburg4 ,by ,k4 7,,part ,,ii47 ,,experimental ,,psychology3 ,the ,elements of ,will4 ,by ,n4 ,lange4 ,,critique ,,and ,,bibliography4 ,,common ,,characteristics4 ,concerning the conflict with the ,occident in connection with the literary activity of a ,slavophil4 ,by ,v4 ,rotzanow4 ,the ethical doctrine of ,count ,tolstoi and its most recent criticism4 ,by ,p4 ,e4 ,astafiew4 ,,book ,,reviews4 ,reviews of ,russian philosophical works on ,metaphysics1 ,logic1 ,psychology1 ,ethics1 and sthetics4 ,reviews of foreign philosophical periodicals4 ,philosophical articles in ,russian ecclesiastical periodicals4 ,,materials ,,for ,,the ,,history ,,of ,,philosophy ,,in ,,russia4 7#ahee-ahhh74 ,,transactions ,,of ,,the ,,moscow ,,psychological ,,society4 ,the distinguished ,editor1 ,prof4 ,n4 ,grote1 in his introductory remarks calls attention to the fact that the present issue of this philosophical and literary review in the ,russian language1 completes the series that had been promised during the first year of its existence4 ,the review does not claim1 during this brief lapse of time1 to have been able to solve all the many problems incident to the task that it had assumed at the outset of its career2 but it may at least modestly claim to have won the hearty sympathy of an intelligent fraction of the ,russian people1 expressed by the acquisition of a comparatively large number of subscribers4 ,this material success1 moreover1 attests the fact that the editor did not deceive himself when at the original publication of the review he seemed to notice an awakening in his country of more serious intellectual interests1 and the rise of a desire for a philosophical analysis of the principles of knowledge and of life4 ,on the other hand1 with regard to whether the problems treated of in the pages of the review are identical with those that occupy by preference the minds of intelligent ,russian readers2 or whether the exposition and the methods of investigation have been properly adjusted to the degree of development and to the mental calibre of the mass of its readers1 it will suffice to remark1 says the editor1 that the full development of all the potential forces of nature and of mind can be attained only through slow and persistent action4 ,we have to bear in mind that the attempt is by no means easy to organise for the first time in a project of this kind the many active workers of a country in which people had never before been associated in a similar undertaking4 ,yet in confidently entering upon the publication of this review1 the editor well knew that there existed in ,russia abundant intellectual powers1 perfectly adequate to the demands of a high-class philosophical magazine--scientists1 learned specialists1 talented thinkers1 and men of letters2 and the review without doubt will not fail to enlist the valuable assistance of all these men in the arduous task1 which it will continue steadily to pursue4 ,the main task above all1 is to advance the development of self-consciousness in modern ,russian society1 but the success of this aspiration depends of necessity on the continued sympathy and good will of the public4 ,as regards the external form of the review1 for the greater convenience of the public1 instead of four volumes of #bj sheets1 as hitherto1 there will be issued during the present year five volumes in all--one volume of #ae-af sheets bimonthly1 except during the midsummer months4 ,the editor in conclusion expresses his acknowledgment to several of his western colleagues1 to the editors of ,mind1 the ,revue ,philosophique1 the ,archiv fr ,geschichte der ,philosophie1 and ,the ,open ,court--all of whom have promised to note with genuine interest the contents of the ,russian review ,questions of ,philosophy and of ,psychology4 7,moscow1 #ahij47 ,,vol4 ,i4 ,,april1 #ahia4 ,,no4 #c4 ,,the ,,monist4 ,,the ,,factors ,,of ,,evolution4 ,,their ,,grades ,,and ,,the ,,order ,,of ,,their ,,introduction4 ,the usually recognised factors of evolution are at least five2 viz43 7#a7 ,pressure of a changing environment affecting function and function affecting structure1 and the changed structure and function inherited and integrated through successive generations indefinitely4 7#b7 ,use and disuse of organs reacting on growth-force and producing change in form1 structure1 and relative size of parts1 and such change inherited and integrated through successive generations4 7#c7 ,natural selection among individuals of a varying progeny1 of those most in accord with an ever-changing environment--or as it has been otherwise called survival of the fittest in each successive generation4 7#d7 ,sexual selection3 the selection by the female1 among varying male individuals all competing for her possession1 of the strongest or the most attractive4 ,among mammals the selection is mainly of the strongest as decided by battle2 among birds1 of the most attractive as determined by splendor of color or beauty of song4 7#e7 ,physiological selection1 or selection of those varieties1 the individuals of which are fertile among themselves1 but sterile or less fertile with other varieties and with the parent stock4 ,this has also been called segregate fecundity by ,gulick1 and homogamy by ,romanes4 ,these five factors are all usually but not universally recognised4 ,the first two are ,lamarckian1 the second two ,darwinian factors4 ,in the ,lamarckian factors the changes occur during individual life1 and the offspring is supposed to inherit them unchanged4 ,in the ,darwinian factors on the contrary the changes are in the offspring1 and the individuals during life are supposed to remain substantially unchanged4 ,the fifth factor has1 only very recently1 been brought forward by ,romanes and ,gulick and is not yet universally recognised2 but we believe that with perhaps some modifications it is certain to triumph4 7#f7 ,to these recognised factors of organic evolution must now be added1 in human evolution1 another and far higher factor1 viz4 conscious1 voluntary co-operation in the work of evolution1 conscious striving for the betterment of the individual and of the race4 ,this factor consists essentially in the formation and pursuit of ideals4 ,we call this a factor1 but it is also much more than a factor4 ,it stands in place of nature herself--it is a higher-rational nature using all the factors of physical nature for its own higher purposes4 ,to distinguish the evolution determined by this factor from organic evolution1 we often call it progress4 ,underlying all these factors as their necessary condition1 and therefore themselves not called factors1 are two opposite operative principles1 viz4 heredity and variability4 ,like the conservative and progressive elements in society1 one tends to fixedness1 the other to change4 ,the one initiates change1 the other accumulates its effects in successive generations4 ,the one tries all things1 the other holds fast to whatever is good4 ,they are both equally necessary to the successful operation of any or all of the factors4 ,let us now compare these six factors1 as to their grade or position in the scale of energy and as to the order of their introduction4 ,the first two--,pressure of the environment and ,use and disuse1 i4 e4 the ,lamarckian factors--are the lowest in position1 most fundamental in importance1 and therefore most universal in their operation4 ,they are therefore also first in the order of time4 ,they precede all other factors and were for a long time the only ones in operation4 ,for observe3 all the selective factors1 viz4 those of ,darwin and ,romanes1 are wholly conditioned on ,reproduction2 for the changes in the case of these are not in the individual life but only in the offspring4 ,and not only so but they are also strictly conditioned on sexual modes of reproduction4 ,for all non-sexual modes of reproduction such as fission and budding are but slight modifications of the process of growth1 and the resulting multitude of organisms may be regarded as in some sense only an extension of the first individual4 ,there is thus a kind of immortality in these lowest protozoa4 ,of course therefore the identical characters of the first individual are continued indefinitely except in so far as they are modified in successive generations by the effect of the environment or by use and disuse of organs--i4 e4 by ,lamarckian factors4 ,in sexual generation1 on the contrary1 the characters of two diverse individuals are funded in a common offspring2 and the same continuing through successive generations1 it is evident that the inheritance in each individual offspring is infinitely multiple4 ,now the tendency to variation in offspring is in proportion to the multiplicity of the inheritance3 for among the infinite number of slightly different characters1 as it were offered for inheritance in every generation1 some individuals will inherit more of one and some more of another character4 ,in a word1 sexual generation1 by multiple inheritance1 tends to variation of offspring and thus furnishes material for natural selection4 ,thus then ,i repeat1 all the selective factors are absolutely dependent for their operation upon sexual reproduction4 ,but there was a time when this mode of reproduction did not exist4 ,it is certain the non-sexual preceded the sexual modes of reproduction4 ,i cannot stop now to give the reasons for believing this4 ,i have already given them in some detail in a previous article#fh to which ,i would refer the reader4 ,suffice it to say now that the order of introduction of the various modes of reproduction culminating in the highest sexual modes is briefly as follows3 7#a7 ,fission4 ,an organism of the lowest kind grows and divides into two4 ,each half grows to mature size and again divides2 and so on indefinitely4 ,in this case there is no distinction between parents and offspring4 ,each seems either or neither4 7#b7 ,budding4 ,growth-force concentrating in one part produces a bud1 which continues to grow and individuate itself more and more until it separates as a distinct individual4 ,this is a higher form than the last because in this case the individual is not sacrificed4 ,only a small part separates and the separated part is in some sense an offspring4 ,we have therefore for the first time the distinction of parent and offspring4 7#c7 ,by the law of differentiation and localisation of functions1 the bud-forming function is next relegated to a special place and we now have a bud-forming organ4 7#d7 ,by another general law1 the law of interior transfer1 the bud-forming organ is next transferred for greater safety to an interior surface and thus simulates an ovary1 although not yet a true ovary or egg-forming organ4 ,examples of all these steps are found among existing animals4 #fh ,genesis of ,sex1 ,pop4 ,sci4 ,monthly1 #ahgi1 ,vol4 xvi4 p4 #afg4 ,revue ,scientifique1 ,feb4 #ad1 #ahhj4 ,thus far reproduction is non-sexual4 ,but now comes the great step1 i4 e4 the introduction of sexual reproduction1 in its lowest forms4 7#e7 ,this simulated ovary or bud-forming organ becomes a true ovary or egg-forming organ2 or rather1 at first1 a combination of ovary and spermary4 ,the same organ prepares two kinds of cells1 male and female1 germ-cell and sperm-cell1 which by their union produce an egg which develops into an offspring2 and not only an offspring in the sense of a separated part of a previous individual1 but in some sense a new creature1 the creation of a new individual4 ,there is an enormous difference and even contrast between this and all preceding modes4 ,in non-sexual modes one individual becomes two2 in this1 two individual cells unite to form one4 ,it is an expensive1 even wasteful mode unless attended with some great advantage4 ,the nature of this advantage we will presently see4 ,thus far we have given only the lowest form of sexual generation4 ,the two sexual elements only1 germ-cell and sperm-cell are separated from each other1 but not yet even the sexual organs1 ovary and spermary1 much less the sexual individuals1 male and female4 7#f7 ,the sex-element-forming function is next differentiated and localised in two different organs1 ovary and spermary1 but not yet in two different individuals4 ,this is hermaphroditism so common in plants and in lower animals4 7#g7 ,the already separated sexual organs are next localised in different individuals1 and we now have male and female individuals4 ,this is the case in many plants and in all the higher animals4 7#h7 ,and finally these male and female individuals become more and more diverse in character4 ,the object of this whole process of separation1 first of the elements1 then of the organs1 then of the individuals1 and last the increasing divergence of the individuals1 is undoubtedly the funding of more and more diverse characters in a common offspring2 and thus by increasing multiplicity of inheritance to insure larger variation in offspring and thereby furnish more abundant material for natural selection4 ,this is far more than a compensation for the apparent wastefulness of this mode of reproduction4 ,if then the non-sexual preceded the sexual modes of reproduction1 evidently1 at first1 only ,lamarckian factors could operate4 ,evolution was then carried forward wholly by changes in the individual produced by the environment and by use and disuse of organs1 continued and increased through successive generations indefinitely4 ,it is probable therefore that for want of the selective factors1 the rate of evolution was at first comparatively slow2 unless indeed1 as seems probable1 the earliest forms were1 as the lowest forms are now1 more plastic under pressure of physical conditions than are the present higher forms4 ,the great contrast between the ,lamarckian and ,darwinian factors in this regard1 and the slowness of change now in higher forms under ,lamarckian factors alone1 is best shown in plants where either kind of factors may be used at pleasure4 ,in these1 if we wish to make varieties1 we propagate by seeds--sexual reproduction--but if we wish to preserve varieties1 we propagate by buds and cuttings--non-sexual reproduction4 ,we have taken the two ,lamarckian factors together1 in contrast with the ,darwinian4 ,but even in the two ,lamarckian factors there is a great difference in grade4 ,undoubtedly the lowest and first introduced was pressure of the physical environment4 ,for even use and disuse of organs implies some degree of volition and voluntary motion1 and therefore already some advance in the scale of evolution4 ,with the introduction of sex another entirely different and higher factor was introduced1 viz4 natural selection1 among a varying progeny1 of the fittest individuals4 ,we have already seen how sexual generation produces variation of offspring and how this furnishes material for natural selection4 ,as soon1 therefore1 as this form of generation was evolved1 this higher factor came into operation1 and immediately1 as it were1 assumed control of evolution1 and the previous factors became subordinate though still underlying1 conditioning1 modifying the higher4 ,the result was an immediate increase in the speed and in the diversity of evolution4 ,it is very worthy of note too1 that it is in the higher animals1 such as birds and mammals1 where we find the highest form of sexual generation1 where the diversity of funded characters and therefore the variation in the offspring is the greatest1 and natural selection most active3 it is precisely among these that the ,lamarckian factors are most feeble1 because during the most plastic portion of life the offspring is removed from the influence of the physical environment and from the effects of use and disuse1 by their enclosure within the womb or within a large egg well supplied with nourishment4 ,in these1 development is already far advanced before ,lamarckian factors can operate at all4 ,next ,i suppose ,physiological selection or ,romanes's factor came into operation4 ,after the introduction of sex1 it became necessary1 that the individuals of some varieties should be in some way isolated1 so as to prevent the swamping of varietal characters as fast as formed1 in a common stock by cross breeding4 ,in very low forms with slow locomotion1 such isolation might easily take place accidentally4 ,even in higher forms1 changes in physical geography or accidental dispersion by winds and currents1 would often produce geographical isolation2 and thus by preventing crossing with the parent stock1 secure the formation of new species from such isolated varieties4 ,but in order to insure in all cases the preservation of commencing species1 sexual isolation was introduced or evolved as ,i suppose later1 and according to ,romanes somewhat as follows3 ,all organs are subject to variation in offspring1 but none are so sensitive in this regard as the reproductive organs2 and these in no respect more than in relative fertility under different conditions4 ,suppose then the offspring of any parent to vary in many directions4 ,by cross-breeding among themselves and with the parent stock1 these are usually merged in a common type1 their differences pooled1 and the species remains fixed or else advances slowly by natural selection1 along one line1 as physical conditions change in geological time4 ,but from time to time there arises a variation in the reproductive organs of some individuals1 of such kind that these individuals are fertile among themselves1 but sterile or less fertile with other varieties and with the parent stock4 ,such individuals are sexually isolated from others1 or sexually segregated among themselves4 ,their varietal differences of all kinds are no longer swamped by cross-breeding1 but go on to increase until they form a new species4 ,it is evident then1 as ,romanes claims1 that natural selection alone tends to monotypal evolution4 ,isolation of some sort seems necessary to polytypal evolution4 ,the tree of evolution under the influence of natural selection alone grows palm-like from its terminal bud4 ,isolation was necessary to the starting of lateral buds1 and thus for the profuse ramification which is its most conspicuous character4 ,next1 ,i suppose1 was introduced1 sexual selection1 or contest among the males by battle or by display1 for the possession of the female1 the success of the strongest or the most attractive1 and the perpetuation and increase of these superior qualities of strength or beauty in the next generation4 ,this ,i suppose was later1 because connected with a higher development of the psychical nature4 ,this is especially true when beauty of color or song determines the selection4 ,as might be supposed therefore1 this factor is operative only among the highest animals1 especially birds and mammals1 and perhaps some insects4 ,next and last1 and only with the appearance of man1 another entirely different and far higher factor was introduced1 viz4 conscious1 voluntary co-operation in the work of evolution--a conscious voluntary effort to attain an ,ideal4 ,as already said1 we call this a factor1 but it is much more than a factor4 ,it is another nature working in another world--the spiritual--and like physical nature using all factors1 but in a new way and on a higher plane4 ,in early stages man developed much as other animals1 unconscious and careless whither he tended and therefore with little or no voluntary effort to attain a higher stage4 ,but this voluntary factor1 this striving toward a goal or ideal1 in the individual and in the race1 increased more and more until in civilised communities of modern times it has become by far the dominant factor4 ,reason1 instead of physical nature1 takes control1 though still using the same factors4 ,now1 in this whole process1 we observe two striking stages4 ,the one is the introduction of ,sex1 the other the introduction of ,reason4#fi ,they might be compared to two equally striking stages in the evolution of the individual1 viz4 the moment of fertilisation and the moment of birth4 ,as the ontogenic evolution receives fresh impulse at the two moments of fertilisation and of birth2 so the evolution of the organic kingdom at the two periods mentioned4 ,with the appearance of sex1 three new and higher factors are introduced1 and these immediately assumed control and quickened the rate of evolution4 ,with the appearance of reason in man another and far higher factor is introduced which in its turn assumes control1 and not only again quickens the rate1 but elevates the whole plane of evolution4 ,this voluntary1 rational factor not only assumes control itself1 but transforms all other factors and uses them in a new way and for its own higher purposes4 #fi ,by ,reason ,i mean the faculty of dealing with the phenomena of the inner world of consciousness and ideas1 or reflection on the facts of consciousness4 ,animals live in one world1 the outer world of sense2 man in two worlds1 in the outer world like animals1 but also in the inner and higher world of ideas4 ,all that is characteristic of man comes of this capacity of dealing with this inner world4 ,in default of a better word ,i call it ,reason4 ,if any one can suggest a better word ,i will gladly adopt it4 ,this last is by far the greatest change which has ever occurred in the history of evolution4 ,in organic evolution nature operates by necessary law without the voluntary co-operation of the thing evolving4 ,in human progress man voluntarily co-operates with nature in the work of evolution and even assumes to take the process mainly into his own hands4 ,organic evolution is by necessary law1 human progress by free1 or at least by freer1 law4 ,organic evolution is by a pushing upward and onward from below and behind1 human progress by an aspiration1 an attraction toward an ideal--a pulling upward and onward from above and in front4 ,this great change may well be likened to a birth4#gj ,spirit or ,reason or the ,psyche--call it what you like--was in embryo in animals in increasing degrees of development through all geological times and came to birth and capacity of free activity1 became free spirit investigating its own phenomena in man4 ,in animals the evolution of ,psyche was the unconscious result of organic evolution4 ,in man the ,psyche is born into a new world of freer activity and undertakes to develop itself4 #gj ,see ,evolution and its ,relation to ,religious ,thought1 ,part iii4 ,chap4 iv1 where the writer's views are more fully brought out4 ,it may be well to stop a moment and show briefly some of the striking differences between organic and human evolution1 differences resulting wholly from the introduction of this new factor1 or rather this evolution on a new and higher plane4 7#a7 ,in organic evolution the fittest are those most in harmony with the environment and therefore they survive4 ,in human evolution the fittest are those most in harmony with the ideal1 and often1 especially in the early stages of evolution1 during the dominance of natural selection1 they do not survive because not in harmony with the social environment4 7#b7 ,in organic evolution the weak1 the helpless1 the unfit in any way1 perish1 and ought to perish1 because this is the most efficient way of strengthening the blood1 or physical nature4 ,in human evolution the weak1 the helpless1 the physically unfit1 are sustained1 and ought to be sustained1 because sympathy1 love1 pity strengthens the spirit or moral nature4 ,but the spirit or moral nature is also sustained by1 and conditioned on1 the physical nature4 ,in all our attempts therefore to help the weak we must be careful that we avoid poisoning the blood and weakening the physical health of the race4 ,this we believe can and will be done by rational education1 physical1 mental1 and moral4 ,we only allude to this4 ,it is too wide a subject to follow up here4 7#c7 ,in organic evolution the form must continually change in order to keep in harmony with the changing environment4 ,in other words evolution is by constant change of species1 genera1 etc42 there must be a continual evolution of new forms4 ,in human evolution1 and more and more as civilisation goes on1 man modifies the environment so as to bring it in harmony with himself and his wants1 and therefore there is no necessity for change of form or making of new species of man4 ,human evolution is not by modification of form--new species1 but by modification of spirit--new planes of activity4 7#d7 ,in organic evolution as a higher factor arises it assumes control1 and previous factors sink into subordinate position4 ,but in human evolution the rational factor not only assumes control but transforms all other factors1 using them in a new way and for its own higher purposes4 ,thus the ,lamarckian factor--environment--is modified and even changed so as to affect suitably the human organism4 ,this is ,hygiene or ,sanitation4 ,again1 the various organs of the body and faculties of the mind are deliberately used 7another ,lamarckian factor7 in such wise as to produce their highest efficiency4 ,this is education1 or training1 physical1 mental1 moral4 ,so also the selective factors are similarly transformed1 and natural selection becomes rational selection4 ,this is freely applied to domestic animals and with limitations imposed by reason itself will be applied to man4 7#e7 ,the way of evolution toward the highest1 i4 e4 from ,protozoa to man and from lowest man to the ideal man1 is a very narrow way1 and few there be that find it4 ,in the case of organic evolution it is so narrow1 that once get off the track and it is impossible to get on again4 ,no living form of animal is now on the way to form man1 can by any possibility develop manward4 ,they are all gone out of the way4 ,they are all off the trunk line4 ,the golden opportunity is past4 ,the tree of evolution is an excurrent stem continuous to the terminal shoot--man4 ,once leave the main stem as a branch1 it is easy to continue growing in the direction chosen1 but impossible to get back again on the straight upward way to the highest4 ,in human evolution whether individual or racial1 the same law holds1 but with a difference4 ,if an individual or a race gets off from the straight and narrow way toward the highest1 the ,divine ideal1 it is hard to get back on the track2 hard but not impossible4 ,man's own effort is the chief factor in his own evolution4 ,by virtue of his self-activity1 and through the use of reason1 man alone is able to rectify an error of direction and return again to the deserted way4 ,,reflections ,,on ,,the ,,above ,,principles ,,and ,,their ,,application ,,to ,,some ,,questions ,,of ,,the ,,day4 ,i4 ,just now there is much controversy in regard to the factors of evolution4 ,both ,darwin and ,spencer1 the two greatest expounders of the modern theory of evolution1 acknowledge and insist upon at least four factors2 viz4 the two ,lamarckian and the two distinctively ,darwinian4 ,the only difference between them is in the relative importance of the two sets2 ,spencer regarding the former and ,darwin the latter as the more potent4 ,but some late ,darwinians have gone far beyond ,darwin himself in their estimate of the power of the most distinctive ,darwinian factor1 viz4 natural selection4 ,weismann and ,wallace have each written a book1 and ,lankester many excellent articles to show that natural selection is the one sole and sufficient cause of evolution1 that changes during the individual life whether by effect of the environment or by the use and disuse of organs are not inherited at all1 that ,lamarck was wholly wrong and that ,darwin 7in connection with ,wallace7 is the sole founder of the true theory of evolution1 and finally that ,darwin himself was wrong only in making any terms whatever with ,lamarck4 ,the argument for this view has1 perhaps1 been most strongly put by ,weismann and is based partly on experiments1 but mainly on his ingenious and now celebrated theory of the immortality of germ-plasm4 ,the animal body consists of two kinds of cells wholly different in function1 somatic cells and germ-cells1 including in this last the sexual elements both male and female4 ,somatic cells are modified and specialised for the various functions of the body2 germ-cells are wholly unmodified4 ,the somatic cells are for the conservation of the individual life1 germ-cells for the conservation of the species4 ,now according to ,weismann1 inheritance is only through germ-cells4 ,environment affects only the somatic cells and therefore changes produced by environment cannot be inherited4 ,sexual generation was introduced for the purpose of producing variability in progeny and thus furnishing material for natural selection1 as this was the only means of evolutionary advance4 ,weismann made many experiments on animals1 especially by mutilation1 to show that somatic changes are not inherited4 ,we shall not argue this question but content ourselves with making three brief remarks4 #a4 ,if the views presented in this article be true1 then the ,lamarckian factors must be true factors1 because there was a time when there were no others4 ,they were necessary therefore to start the process of evolution1 even if no longer necessary at present4 #b4 ,but if the ,lamarckian factors were ever operative1 they must be so still1 though possibly in a subordinate degree4 ,a lower factor is not abolished1 but only becomes subordinate to a higher factor when the latter is introduced4 ,thus it may well be that ,lamarckian factors are comparatively feeble at the present time and among present species1 especially of the higher animals1 and yet not absent altogether4 ,in the earliest stages of evolution there was a complete identification of germ-cells and somatic cells--of the individual with the species4 ,in such cases1 of course1 the effect of environment must be inherited and increased from generation to generation4 ,but the differentiation of germ and somatic cells was not all at once2 it was a gradual process1 and therefore the effect of the environment on the germ-cells through the somatic cells must have continued1 though in decreasing degree1 and still continues4 ,the differentiation is now1 in the higher animals1 so complete that germ-cells are probably not at all affected by changes in somatic cells1 unless these changes are long continued in the same direction and are not antagonised by natural selection4 #c4 ,it is a general principle of evolution that the law of the whole is repeated with modifications1 in the part4 ,this is a necessary consequence of the ,unity of ,nature4 ,we ought to expect therefore and do find1 that the order of the use of the factors of evolution is the same in the evolution of the organic kingdom1 in the evolution of each species1 and in the evolution of each individual4 ,in all these the physical factors are first powerfully operative1 then become subordinate to organic factors1 and these in their turn to psychical and rational factors4 ,therefore1 as the individual in its early stages1 i4 e4 in embryo and infancy1 is peculiarly plastic under the influence of the physical environment and afterwards becomes more and more independent of these3 so a species when first formed is more plastic under the influence of the ,lamarckian factors and afterwards becomes more rigid to the same4 ,and so also the organic kingdom was doubtless at first more plastic under ,lamarckian factors1 and has become less so in the present species1 especially of the higher animals4 ,the principal reason for this1 as we have already seen1 is the increasing differentiation of germ and somatic cells1 and the removal of the former to the interior where they are more and more protected from external influence4 ,,ii4 ,some evolutionists--the materialistic--insist on making human evolution identical in all respects with organic evolution4 ,this we have shown is not strictly true4 ,the very least that can be said is that a new and far more potent factor is introduced with man1 which modifies greatly the process4 ,but we may claim much more1 viz4 that evolution is here on a wholly different and higher plane4 ,the factors of organic evolution are indeed still present and condition the whole process2 but they are not left to be used by nature alone4 ,on the contrary1 they are used in a new way and for higher purposes by ,reason4 ,but by a revulsion from the materialistic extreme1 some have gone to the opposite extreme4 ,they would place human progress and organic evolution in violent antagonism1 as if subject to entirely different and even opposite laws4 ,but we have also shown1 that although the distinctive human factor is indeed dominant1 yet it is underlaid and conditioned by all the lower factors--that these lower factors are still necessary as the agents used by ,reason4 ,,iii4 ,we have already alluded to ,weismann's and ,wallace's views1 but there is one important aspect not yet touched4 ,if ,weismann and ,wallace are right1 if natural selection be indeed the only factor used by nature in organic evolution and therefore available for use by ,reason in human evolution1 then alas for all our hopes of race-improvement1 whether physical1 mental1 or moral6 ,all enlightened schemes of physical culture and of hygiene1 although directed indeed primarily for the strength1 health1 and happiness of the present generation1 yet are sustained and ennobled by the conviction that the physical improvement of the individual1 by inheritance enters into a similar improvement of the race4 ,all our schemes of education1 intellectual and moral1 although certainly intended mainly for the improvement of the individual1 are glorified by the hope that the race is also thereby gradually elevated4 ,it is true that these hopes are usually extravagant2 it is true that the whole improvement of the individuals of one generation is not carried over by inheritance into the next2 it is true therefore that we cannot by education raise a lower race up to the plane of a higher race in a few generations2 but there must be a small residuum1 be it ever so small1 carried forward by inheritance and accumulated from age to age1 which enters into the slow growth of the race4 ,if it be true that reason must direct the course of human evolution1 and if it be also true that selection of the fittest is the only method available for that purpose2 then1 if we are to have any race-improvement at all1 the dreadful law of destruction of the weak and helpless must with ,spartan firmness be carried out voluntarily and deliberately4 ,against such a course all that is best in us revolts4 ,the use of the ,lamarckian factors1 on the contrary1 is not attended with any such revolting consequences4 ,all that we call education1 culture1 training1 is by the use of these4 ,our hopes of race-improvement therefore are strictly conditioned on the fact that the ,lamarckian factors are still operative1 that changes in the individual1 if in useful direction1 are to some extent inherited and accumulated in the race4 ,,iv4 ,we have said that the new factor introduced with man is a voluntary co-operation in the process of evolution1 a conscious upward striving toward a higher condition1 a pressing forward toward an ideal4 ,man contrary to all else in nature is transformed1 not in shape by external environment1 but in character by his own ideals4 ,now this capacity of forming ideals and the voluntary pursuit of such ideals1 whence comes it8 ,when analysed and reduced to its simplest terms1 it is naught else than the consciousness in man of his relation to the infinite and the attempt to realise the divine ideal in human character4 ,,joseph ,,le ,,conte4 ,,illustrative ,,studies ,,in ,,criminal ,,anthropology4 ,,iii4 ,,the ,,physiognomy ,,of ,,the ,,anarchists4 ,one of the most curious applications1 and perhaps the most practical1 of ,criminal ,anthropology1 7of that new science which has associated itself with sociology1 psychiatry1 and history17 is that which flows from the study of the physiognomy of the political criminal4 ,for not only does it appear to succeed in furnishing us with the juridical basis of political crime1 which hitherto seemed to escape all our researches1 so completely that until now all jurists had ended by saying that there was no political crime2 but it seems also to supply us with a method for distinguishing true revolution1 always fruitful and useful1 from utopia1 from rebellion1 which is always sterile4 ,it is for me a thoroughly established fact1 and one of which ,i have given the proofs in my ,delitto ,politico1#ga that true revolutionists1 that is to say1 the initiators of great scientific and political revolutions1 who excite and bring about a true progress in humanity1 are almost always geniuses or saints1 and have all a marvellously harmonious physiognomy2 and to verify this it is sufficient simply to look at the plates in my ,delitto ,politico4 ,what noble physiognomies have ,paoli1 ,fabrizi1 ,dandolo1 ,moro1 ,mazzini1 ,garibaldi1 ,bandiera1 ,pisacane1 la ,petrowskaia1 la ,cidowina1 la ,sassulich6 ,generally we see in them a very large forehead1 a very bushy beard1 and very large and soft eyes2 sometimes we meet with the jaw much developed1 but never hypertrophic2 sometimes1 finally1 with paleness of the face 7,mazzini1 ,brutus1 ,cassius72 but these characteristics seldom accumulate in the same individual to the extent of constituting what ,i call the criminal type4 #ga #ahij4 ,in a study that ,i have made with three hundred and twenty-one of our ,italian revolutionists1 7against ,austria etc417 nearly all males1 7there were twenty-seven women to one hundred men17 the proportion of the criminal type was #jeg per cent42 i4 e4 #b per cent4 less than in normal men4 ,out of thirty celebrated ,nihilists1 eighteen have a very fine physiognomy1 twelve present some isolated anomalies1 two only present the criminal type 7,rogagiew and ,oklasdky71 that is to say #fh per cent4 ,and if from these unfortunate men who represent to us1 even psychologically1 the ,christian martyrs1 we pass to the regicides1 to the presidenticides1 such as ,fieschi1 ,guiteau1 ,nobiling1 and to the monsters of the ,french ,revolution of #aghi1 such as ,carrier1 ,jourdan1 and ,marat1 we there at once find in all1 or in nearly all1 the criminal type4 ,and the type again frequently appears among the ,communards and the ,anarchists4 ,taking fifty photographs of ,communards ,i have found the criminal type in #ab per cent42 and the insane type in #aj per cent4 ,out of forty-one ,parisian ,anarchists that ,i have studied with ,bertillon at the office of the police of ,paris1 the proportion of the criminal type was #ca per cent4 ,in the rebellion of the #ast of ,may last ,i was able to study one hundred ,turin ,anarchists4 ,i found the criminal type among these in the proportion of #cd per cent41 while in two hundred and eighty ordinary criminals of the prison at ,turin the type was #dc per cent4 ,,table ,,of ,,percentage ,,of ,,characteristics4 ,,turin ,,ordinary ,,characteristics4 ,,anarchists,,criminals ---------------------------------------- ----------- ,exaggerated plagiocephaly #aa #ba ,facial asymmetry #cf #fj ,other cranial anomalies 7ultra-brachycephaly etc47 #ae #dd ,very large jaw #ai #bi ,exaggerated zygomas #af #bc ,enormous frontal sinus #ag #ai ,dental anomalies #cj #bj ,anomalies of the ears #fd #ge ,anomalies of the nose #dj #eg ,anomalous coloration of skin #cj #h ,old wounds #aj #bf ,tattooing #d #aj ,neuro-pathological anomalies #h #bf ,among the #ajj individuals arrested on the #ast of ,may1 #cj per cent4 were recidivists for common crimes2 among the others1 #ej per cent4 ,of true prison habitus there were #h among the former and #bj among the latter4 ,thanks to the assistance of ,dr4 ,carus of ,the ,open ,court ,publishing ,company1 who has sent me many curious data and also the work of ,schaack1 ,anarchy and ,anarchists 7,chicago1 #ahhi71 which is very partial1 although rich in facts1 ,i have been able to study the photographs of #dc ,chicago anarchists1 and ,i have found among them almost the same proportion of the criminal type1 that is #dj per cent4 ,the ones that presented this type are the two ,djeneks1 ,potoswki1 ,cloba1 ,seveski1 ,stimak1 ,sugar1 ,micolanda1 ,bodendick1 ,lieske1 ,lingg1 ,oppenheim1 ,engel and his wife1 ,fielden1 ,g4 ,lehm1 ,thiele1 and ,most4 ,especially in ,potowski1 ,sugar1 and ,micolanda ,i mark facial asymmetry1 enormous jaws1 developed frontal sinus1 protruding ears2 and the same 7except the asymmetry7 in ,seveski and ,novak4 ,fielden has a turned up nose and enormous jaws2 ,most has acrocephaly and facial asymmetry4 ,on the contrary a very fine physiognomy has ,marx1 with his very full forehead1 bushy hair and beard1 and soft eyes2 and likewise ,lassalle1 ,hermann1 ,schwab1 the two ,spies1 ,neebe1 ,schnaubelt1 ,waller1 and ,seeger4 ,in studying the chief anarchists separately1--the martyrs of the ,chicago anarchists1 it might well be said1--there is found in them all an anomaly1 very frequent in normal men as well2 that is to say the ears are without lobes2 the ears are also developed a little more than normally in all 7except in ,spies71 they are protruding in ,lingg1 ,fischer1 and ,engel2 the jaw is much developed in ,lingg1 ,spies1 ,fischer1 and ,engel2 all have1 however1 except ,spies1#gb the forehead fine and full1 with great intelligence4 ,in the plates of the journal ,der ,vorbote we find a ,mongolic cast of feature in ,engel and ,lingg1 both of whom should have much of the degenerative characters1 enormous jaw and zygoma1 and ,lingg oblique eyes4 ,but these characters are much less apparent in the photographs that ,i received from ,the ,monist and in which the jaw of ,fischer even decreases4 ,perhaps these photographs were taken some years before the crime1 when they were very young4 ,certainly in both instances 7in the ,vorbote and the photographs from ,the ,monist7 ,i find a very noble and truly genial physiognomy in ,parsons and ,neebe4 ,the physiognomy of ,august ,spies is morbid4 ,he has a senile auricle1 voluminous jaw bones and a strongly developed frontal sinus4 ,and1 it is necessary to remark1 the physiognomy corresponds with his autobiography1 written with a fierce fanaticism2 whilst in the posthumous writings of ,parsons and in the writings of ,neebe we remark a calm and reflective enthusiasm4 #gb ,thus according to the portrait in ,schaack's book2 but according to information which ,i later received from ,general ,trumbull of ,chicago1 this portrait is not true to life4 ,it would seem1 then1 that the features upon which my opinion is based do not exist4 ,schwab has the physiognomy of a savant1 of a student2 he much resembles the nihilist ,antonoff1 beheaded in ,russia4 7,see ,plate ,,iv in my ,delitto ,politico47 ,neebe is quite like an ,italian economist well known in ,america1 ,luigi ,luzzatti4 ,fielden has a wild physiognomy1 not without sensuality4 ,parsons resembles ,bodio1 the great ,italian statistician1 and in the upper part of the face1 ,stanley4 ,when ,i say that the anarchists of ,turin and of ,chicago are frequently of the criminal type1 ,i do not mean that political criminals1 even the most violent anarchists1 are true criminals2 but that they possess the degenerative characters common to criminals and to the insane1 being anomalies and possessing these traits by heredity2 as a fact1 the father of ,booth was called ,junius ,brutus1 and gave to his son the name of a revolutionist1 ,wilkes4 ,the fathers of ,guiteau and of ,nobiling1 and the mother of ,staps were religious lunatics2 and ,staps also1 like ,ravaillac1 ,clement1 ,brutus1 had hallucinations4 ,in the autobiographies of the ,vorbote ,i find that ,parsons had a very religious ,methodist mother and a father who had much to do with the movement of the ,temperance ,league4 ,indeed1 the ,parsons since #afjj had as a family taken part in all revolutionary movements4 ,a ,tompkin1 a relation of his mother1 had taken part in the battles of ,brandywine and of ,monmouth2 a ,general ,parsons was an officer in the ,revolution of #aggf1 and a captain ,parsons engaged in the battle of ,bunker ,hill4 ,spies was born in a chateau celebrated for feudal robberies--called on that account the ,raubschloss4 ,the father of ,louis ,lingg suffered through his labor as a workman a concussion of the brain--according to the ,vorbote4 ,the father of ,fielden1 an orator of power notwithstanding his occupation as a workman1 was one of the agitators of the question of agricultural lands for workingmen in ,england2 he was one of the founders of the ,consumers' ,co-operative ,society and a prime mover in the society of ,odd ,fellows4 ,for those who will object that in many of these relations they see only geniuses1 ,i have only to cite my work ,l',homme de ,gnie1 where ,i have proved how often genius is nervous epilepsy1 and how almost all the sons of men of genius are lunatics1 idiots1 or criminals4 ,this hereditary influence is seen also in the great number of brothers charged together1 the two ,spies1 the two ,djeneks1 the two ,fieldens1 and the two ,lehms4 ,according to their autobiographies also their fathers or their mothers died early2 from which we may presume that they were old or diseased4 ,the morbid impressibility of ,engel has been admitted by himself4 ,i cannot1 he said to his wife1 hold within me what ,i feel4 ,i must explode4 ,the enthusiasm takes possession of me2 it is a disease4 ,lingg could not remain quiet an instant2 in his room he always had some dynamite in store4 ,bodendick was a thief and a mattoid2 full of cunning1 mischief and mad tricks1 even according to the ,arbeiter-,zeitung4 ,he was always dreaming of new explosives4 ,though insane he was a genius as appears from his poetry1 which is published by ,schick and is in the style of the celebrated ,song of the ,shirt4 ,the suicide of ,lingg with dynamite shows his moral insensibility1 as do the words of ,parsons addressed to the society of anarchists3 ,strangle the spies and throw them out of the window4 ,in ,lingg we see a truly ungovernable epileptoid idea driving him to political action4 ,i cannot control myself2 he said1 it is stronger than ,i4 ,i repeat that among the anarchists there are no true criminals2 even ,schaack1 the police historian1 can name but two criminals1 and certainly he would not have spared them if he could have stigmatised them4 ,their heroic-like deaths1 with their ideal on their lips1 proves that they were not common criminals4 ,nevertheless the psychology of the leaders of the ,commune shows in them a true moral insensibility1 an innate cruelty1 which found a pretext and a scope in politics2 and which accords too well with their criminal physiognomies4 ,marat demands two hundred and ten thousand heads2 ,valls speaks of his family with a true hatred2 ,carrier wrote1 ,we will make a cemetery of ,france2 ,ferr smiled while by his orders they killed ,veisset2 and ,rigault said in slang to his pistol1 ,il faut peter sur le chipau4 ,the last words of ,spies before the court express a ferocious hatred towards the rich2 and the project of the anarchists of ,chicago 7if it is true7 to blow up a part of the city with bombs attests an absence of the moral sense4 ,we know that many anarchists regard brigands and thieves1 such as ,pini1 ,kammerer1 and ,gasparoni1 as their brothers in arms4 ,booth had for accomplice ,payne1 a true murderer by profession4 ,see also the journal published at ,geneva ,l',explosion1 and the ,como journal ,le ,poignard4 ,but it is necessary to note that hereditary anomaly1 if it provokes an anomaly in the moral sense1 also suppresses misoneism1 the horror of novelty which is almost the general rule of humanity2 it thus makes of them innovators1 apostles of progress1 though the education is too rude3 and the fight with relative misery of which all the anarchists of ,chicago except ,neebe have been the victims1 not affording material for useful novelties made of them only failures and rebels1 hindering them from comprehending that humanity as a part of nature1 which it is1 cannot progress at a gallop1 non facit saltus4 ,spies on his last day discovered that humanity is misoneic1 the slave of custom1 and said1 quoting the lines in ,german1 ,i now understand the poet's words1 ',denn aus ,gemeinem ist der ,mensch gemacht1 ,und die ,gewohnheit nennt er seine ,amme4' ,man has been shaped of what is common1 ,and habit is the nurse by whom he's reared4 ,evidently if he had understood it before he would not have been an anarchist4 ,whoever has observed in asylums the conduct of lunatics1 will understand that one of their characteristics is originality1 just as in men of genius2 only the originality of the insane and of moral lunatics1 or of born criminals1 is very often absurd or unavailable4 ,this is why ,i1 although ,i am an extremist in my partisanship for the death-penalty1 cannot approve the shooting of the ,communards and the hanging of the anarchist martyrs of ,chicago4 ,i deem it highly necessary to suppress born criminals1 when they reach the persuasion that being born for evil they can do nothing but evil2 and ,i believe that their death thus saves the lives of many honest men4 ,but we have to do with a very different thing here1 where the criminal type is1 as shown above1 less frequent than among born criminals4 ,it is also necessary to consider here the youthful condition of almost all these persons--,lingg #bc years1 ,schwab #cc years1 ,neebe #cb years4 ,for at this age men are at the maximum point of their audacity and misoneism2 and ,i remember a leading ,russian ,nihilist saying to me that there was not an honest man in ,russia who was not a nihilist at #bj years of age and ultra-moderate at #dj years4 ,if the inclination to evil here exists in greater proportion than in law-abiding men1 it nevertheless takes an altruistic turn1 which is quite the contrary to that which is observed among born criminals1 and which commands our admiration and arouses our just pity4 ,this inclination1 in associating itself with the want of the new1 which is also abnormal in humanity1 could1 if it were properly directed and were not crossed by misery1 prove itself of great value to humanity2 it could trace for it new routes1 and in every case be practically useful to it4 ,a born criminal imprisoned for life will kill some gaoler1 in a colony will ally himself with the savages1 and will never work2 while political criminals in a colony will become more useful pioneers even than law-abiding men4 ,an example is seen in ,louise ,michel1 who in ,new ,caledonia was the most charitable of the sick nurses4 ,and then there is no political crime against which the punishment of death can be directed4 ,an idea is never stifled with the death of its abettors3 it gains with the death of the martyrs if it is good1 as is the case in revolutions2 and it falls at once into vacuity if it is sterile1 as is the case1 perhaps1 with the anarchists4 ,and then1 as judgment cannot be formed of a great man during his life1 so a generation cannot in its ephemeral life judge with certainty of the justice of an idea1 and for that reason it is not proper to inflict so radical a punishment on its abettors4 ,,cesare ,,lombroso4 ,,innovation ,,and ,,inertia ,,in ,,the ,,world ,,of ,,psychology4 ,i4 ,,misoneism4 ,in the moral world the law which is seen to dominate all the others is the law of inertia4 ,this law of inertia is so powerful that even after having been overcome by the friction of ages it always leaves1 even among beings that have most progressed1 traces of its original oscillation1 in survivals1 in rudimentary organs1 when it is not renewed in all its completeness in certain atavistic forms4 ,inertia in the moral world4--,granting that it were possible and desirable to contest this law in the organic world1 it could certainly not be done in the moral world4 ,in fact1 although we are thought to be making great progress1 yet if we form a graphic chart showing the progress made on the globe1 we shall see to what miserable proportions it is reduced4 ,it may be said that all ,africa1 except certain points encroached on by the ,aryans1 ,australia1 and a good half part of ,america1 are almost in the prehistoric state1 or at best in the state of the great ,asiatic empires of the earliest historic epochs4 ,or perhaps 7as in ,south ,america1 ,hayti1 and ,siberia7 civilisation has only changed the appearances of primitive life1 by substituting for immobility an unstable equilibrium1 which is almost worse still4 ,the most certain proof of the extension and of the predominance in the moral world of the law of inertia1 is the hatred of novelty1 so little noticed1 which we call ,misoneism1 and which arises from the effort and the repugnance we experience when we have to substitute a new sensation for an old one4 ,and this is so common among animals that it can be regarded as a physiological character4 ,minds feeble1 enfeebled1 or primitive in character1 show themselves the most susceptible of repugnance to what is novel2 it being understood1 however1 that it is not a question here of small innovations1 such as fashion for women1 the change from the elliptic to the circular1 tattooing for savages1 and sports for children2 for not only have the latter no dread of such changes1 but on the contrary they wish heartily for them1 as they excite the nervous centres1 which require change1 without irritating them1 and without causing pain4 ,but when the innovation is too radical1 it is not merely the savage and the child who repel it with dread2 the great majority of men1 for whom misoneism is a law of nature1 are sensible of a feeling of repugnance1 as the result of the pain produced by the necessity in which they are placed of causing their brains to be traversed by too rapid transitions1 a task not within their power1 inertia and the repetition of movements 7individual or atavistic7 before performed1 being natural to ordinary men1 as to all animals4 ,misoneism in manners4--,this may be seen1 for example1 in the manners and customs of the modern ,greeks2 notwithstanding the vicissitudes of time1 we find in them the ancient ,greek4 ,the ,french of the nineteenth century are still in many respects such as they are depicted by ,strabo 7,,iv1 #d71 and by ,csar 7,de ,bello ,gallico1 ,,iv1 #e71 lovers of arms and of ostentation1 incurably vain1 facile of speech1 easily carried away by words1 and imprudent in their resolves4 ,misoneism in religion4--,as much can be said of this in relation to religion1 literature1 and art1 where we see misoneism triumph4 ,with respect to religion it can even be affirmed that this is the institution most completely based on misoneism2 to the extent that we see the ,christian religion preserve of ancient religions1 not only musical harmony 7the chant71 sacred vestments 7the mitre and fibula of the ,egyptian priests71 the scapular and the sandals of the ,roman plebeian1 etc41 but also the ,mithraic legends in certain dogmas which have relation to the sun1 and even to ancient fetichism4 ,misoneism in morality4--,the misoneistic instinct1 fed by religion1 may leave traces profound enough to form a morality sui generis1 and provoke among savages remorse at having failed in a brutal custom1 be it ever so repugnant1 such as among us is provoked in good men by crime4 ,misoneism in science4--,in the domain of science the history of the various persecutions of men of genius1 inventors or reformers1 will suffice to prove the terrible influence of misoneism1 which is the more intolerant and the more fanatical the more ignorant it is2 and we need only cite the names of ,columbus1 of ,galileo1 and of ,salomon de ,caus1 the first inventor of steam apparatus1 who was sent to the ,bictre by ,richelieu4 ,misoneism in literature4--,likewise to misoneism we owe1 in great part1 our admiration for old works and ancient ruins1 however hideous they may be4 ,because admired by our fathers and by our forefathers they obtain1 so to say1 a way of entrance into us1 to impose themselves on our veneration4 ,thus the ,sanscrit language for the ,hindoo1 the ,hebrew language for the ,jews1 and to some extent ,latin for many ,christian ,europeans have become a kind of sacred tongue and linguistic fetich even outside the precincts of religious usage4 ,the enormous influence of grammarians in imperial ,rome1 and afterwards during the epoch of decadence1 as well as in the middle ages1 explains also the persistence of the modern fetichism for grammar1 which seems absurd in an age of naturalists and mathematicians4 ,and from thence comes the not less absurd and yet unshakable faith in classicism1 rooted deeply even in men worthy of respect1 who cause us to lose the best years of life in stammering in an almost useless tongue4 ,misoneism in politics4--,the same may be said with much more fitness of many social and political institutions which are thought to be modern and which are only relics of other times2 it is for this reason only that they attract the admiration and the respect of the majority of people1 constituting true conventional lies1 as ,nordau calls them1 but which have their bourgeois believers and apostles4 ,in fact1 the past is so incorporated in our inward being that even the most refractory of us feel a powerful attraction towards it4 ,thus we may be as unbelieving as can be wished1 and yet at every hour of the day we feel ourselves struck and attracted by the cajoleries of priests4 ,we may be lovers of equality1 but1 as we have already said1 we feel a secret veneration for the heirs of our barons4 ,it is in vain that the uselessness of certain laws is accepted2 he who upholds and defends them will meet with the approbation of multitudes1 called forth by the sole circumstance that the laws have existed4 ,and if civilisation progresses often1 it is because it finds in the changes of climate1 of race1 or in the appearance of men of genius or madmen1 circumstances which end in combining a great many small movements in such a manner as to make of them in time a great one4 ,max ,nordau thinks 7with some exaggeration7 that progress is due more to a few enlightened despots than to all revolutionists4 ,but this progress was very slow2 he who wished to precipitate it1 contravened the physiological nature of man2 consequently a revolution which is not an evolution1 is pathological and criminal4 ,misoneism in the punishment of crimes against custom4--,this is why in primitive legislation we see offences against custom constitute the maximum of delict1 of immorality4 ,,ii4 ,,philoneism4 ,this theory of misoneism1 previously expounded in my ,delitto ,politico1 has aroused opposition from all sides2 especially in ,france1 on the part of ,brunetire1 ,proal1 ,tarde1 ,joly1 and ,merlino4 ,children1 say they1 women1 savages are curious1 lovers of novelties1 and misoneists are so far from being ignorant that you yourself refer to them as being among the academicians1 7these last are still it appears in the ,latin world admirers of good faith72 artists have success only in attempting new paths2 all peoples have the love of change2 they prove it by their emigrations and by their invasions2 the great invasions of the barbarians were an example of it4 ,besides1 if there are misoneists1 there are also neophiles1 and the one makes up for the other4 ,in each of us1 writes ,tarde1 by the side of habit1 a sort of physiological misoneism1 exists caprice2 by the side of the inclination to repeat1 the inclination to innovate4 ,the first of these two necessities is fundamental1 but the second is the essential1 the raison d'tre of the others4#gc #gc ,revue ,philosophique1 ,october1 #ahij4 ,in order to reply to all these objections it is necessary above all to be well understood4 ,as to minor innovations1 and caprices that satisfy the need of movement of our organs1 from the very fact that they are animate1 it is certain that we are all very eager for these2 in proportion of course to our sex1 our age1 and our degree of intellectual culture4 ,the little child will be happy with a toy1 he will experience fear or dread at the sight of a mask1 of a large animal or even of a small one2 ,i have seen children frightened by a sparrow1 by a fly4 ,woman takes pleasure in disguising herself in a striking manner1 in wearing new garments in which to attend great plays in the theatres1 but she has a horror of new religious rites1 and of new discoveries1 to such a degree that a great number still refuse to use linen and knitted work made by machinery2 sewing machines themselves find their way among them only very slowly4 7,merlino47 ,when it is claimed 7,merlino7 that savages love novelties1 from the fact1 related by ,ellis1 that some of them endeavored to procure ,bibles1 7taking them1 perhaps1 for playthings17 or arms of which they had seen the useful effects1 their nature is misjudged2 since even after many years passed in contact with ,european civilisation1 after having worn its clothing and ornaments1 they return naked to their forests1 where a warm garment would certainly not be an object of embarrassment4 ,to believe with ,cardinal ,massaia that they offer themselves voluntarily for vaccination1 that they even ask it1 is to ignore that even among ourselves1 vaccination encounters a great number of adversaries4 ,does not ,stanley relate that in his last journey1 an epidemic of smallpox having broken out in the camp1 many of the porters1 although they saw that the vaccinated ,zanzibaris did not die1 refused to submit to vaccination8 ,according to ,tarde1 the superstitious admiration1 the enthusiastic veneration by barbarous peoples of various forms of insanity1 often baptised as prophetism and saintliness1 scarcely accords with the aversion for novelties1 that is to say for singularities1 which ,i attribute to them too liberally4 ,but the cause of that admiration is nothing else than the fear1 the ignorance which leads them to take a disease for the inspiration of a ,god4 ,nevertheless1 ,i am far from denying the influence of madmen in philoneism and in revolutions 7as we shall see in the sequel of this article72 yet if we observe the ,santons of ,africa and their obscenities1 we see that it is not for their useful and innovating ideas that barbarians venerate madmen4 ,the ,academician will admire a new species of snail1 he will thrill with joy at the discovery of a ,phnician inscription that will enable him to learn the name of a tribal chief1 he will go into ecstasies before a greater curvity given to a screw1 but he will excommunicate the telephone1 the telegraph1 the railway1 the new laws of ,darwin4 ,the artist1 also1 will love to trace a new arabesque1 to change to blue the prevailing color of the rose1 but he will never attempt1 directly1 with success1 new methods4 ,the hatred by all the elevated and academical classes which still besets ,zola1 ,balzac1 and ,flaubert1 the action brought against the last named1 and the universal scandals raised by ,de ,goncourt1 ,boito1 ,rossini1 and ,verdi1 are there to prove it4 ,the first1 at least1 who attempts a new method in painting1 in literature1 etc41 will encounter only hatred and contempt4 ,and when we smile at models unchangeably fixed by ,egyptian art1 we do not think that the ,madonna and the ,jesus of our painters have not changed for eighteen centuries4 ,horace wrote3 ,adeo sanctum est vetus omne poema4 99 99 99 99 99 ,indignor quicquam reprehendi1 non quia crasse ,compositum1 illepideve putetur1 sed quia nuper4 ,it is then not true1 as is objected against me in ,france 7,journal des ,economistes1 #ahij71 that in extending misoneism to the academies1 its greatest intensity is excluded from among the ignorant4 ,each class1 each caste has a proportionate ignorance1 and a repugnance equally proportional for that of which it is ignorant4 ,we have demonstrated it for genius itself1 which is sublime on certain sides only to be the lowest on some others1 and we could have a proof of it even in the opposition that the most ardent neophiles1 the anarchists1 make to this theory of misoneism1 of which they are thus themselves a confirmation4 ,bismarck despises parliamentarianism1 peace1 arbitration1 and even the ,latin1 or rather ,european1 alphabet4 ,flaubert and ,rossini had a dread of railways4 ,the statesmen who govern ,europe are not all geniuses1 but they are men not destitute of intellectual culture2 and yet how can it be explained that they so strive with ever increasing tenacity and zeal to increase armaments and armies1 to the extent of causing ruin to their peoples1--a greater and more complete ruin perhaps1 than that which even a disastrous war might occasion8 ,and this for the purpose1 they declare1 7and it seems to be sincere17 of more surely escaping war1 when as a fact one fourth of the money spent for that end would be sufficient to assure the happiness of the peoples governed by affording the social questions which they all pretend to have at heart1 a solution which1 as things now are1 it is ever becoming more difficult to reach4 ,the true cause is in the repugnance they experience to the idea of starting on a fresh path1 in the tendency to adhere to old habits which go back even to the epochs of the warrior castes4 ,indeed in the minds of a very great number1 at least among the ,germans1 a good corporal of the guard is more worthy of consideration than a great scholar2 debate in parliament on the erection of a fortress is not permitted1 however costly it may be1 whilst every one may speak on the establishment of a school2 in ,france1 in ,italy1 and in ,germany1 to touch the war budget1 unproductive and ruinous as it may be1 is to raise the hand to the ark of the covenant1--a veritable state crime4 ,but science is a new thing1 while the art of war goes back to remotest antiquity2 it descends from ,achilles and from ,cain4 ,i was not guilty of a self-contradiction when ,i said that the modern ,french love novelty as much as their ancestors did4 ,i am too much the friend and too fond of the ,french to flatter them1 and not to tell them exactly what ,i think4 ,france is undeniably at the head of the ,latin races1 but to the same extent1 and perhaps more than they1 it prefers novelties to the new4 ,it has always had the stormy agitations1 rather than the useful results1 of revolutions4 ,the great religious reform1 ,protestantism1 touched it without affecting it2 the great constitutional reform has taken but slight root1 and that two centuries and a half after it was accomplished in ,england4 ,balzac wrote3 ,in ,france the provisional is eternal although the ,french are suspected of loving change4 ,novelties to be accepted by the ,french must be such as do not interfere with their habits4 ,and it is they who have invented the words routine1 blague1 and chauvinism4 ,it is because they are still in the military period of ,spencer4 ,so far as that goes1 they have cried out beware6 to the ,english1 then1 beware to the ,russians1 now beware to the ,germans and the ,italians4 ,they change voluntarily their dress1 their ministers1 their external form of government1 but always there remains in them at bottom a slight attachment to the ancient druidical and ,csarian tendencies4 ,it is not many years since the priest still commanded in ,vende4 ,we have seen the ,french1 while extreme republican1 make war for the ,pope4 ,after having a ,fourier and ,proudhon and1 what is more1 universal suffrage1 they have not yet a social law which gives satisfaction to the just demands of the indigent1 or of workingmen1 beyond that of the probi viri4 ,it is true that they have had their peasant wars--their ,jacquerie--and '#hi2 but these were explosions that aroused them but for a moment only to allow them afterwards to fall much lower4 ,indeed1 but a few centuries after the ,jacquerie1 they saw the same peasants who had raised the insurrection1 kiss the horses of the couriers who brought good news of the health of the king4 ,and what a king6 ,louis ,,xv1 who might rather be called the executioner1 than the administrator of his people4 ,and after having driven away so many ,csars1 little was wanting to make them fall again under such a trumpery ,csar as ,boulanger if the highest classes of the capital had not been opposed to it4 ,moreover certain particular facts1 which portray much better their physiognomy1 show how fundamentally conservative they are4 ,let us cite for example the veneration exhibited by the high classes for the ,academies and the passion for heraldic titles and decorations4 ,france is academic1 wrote ,de ,goncourt in ,manette ,salomon4 ,sarcey relates that during the siege of ,paris1 the flesh of the animals of the ,jardin des ,plantes1 having been put up for sale1 the common people preferred to suffer hunger rather than eat of it1 so that the educated classes alone fed on it4 ,we know what resistance the ,french made1 under a thousand pretexts1 to the reform of their orthography1 which is in part merely the relics of the old pronunciation4 ,recently1 an engineer at ,bordeaux wrote to me1 that1 on his inventing machinery for the easy transference of merchandise from ships to the quays1 sturdy opposition was met with on the part of the stevedores of the port1 who would have been the first to derive great advantage from it4 ,the medical faculty at ,paris has not only anathematised tartar emetic1 vaccine1 ether1 and the antiseptic method1 but also the physicians who substituted the use of horses for the ancient employment of mules to expedite their visits to their patients4#gd #gd ,revue ,scientifique1 #ahhi4 ,is it not in learned ,germany that we find ,anti-semitism in fashion8 ,and has not ,russia made it a law of the state8 ,in certain districts of ,sicily is not the ancient method still preserved of embalming and of painting the bodies of the dead which was practised among the ancient ,egyptians8 ,a recent law-suit tried at ,turin has proved that not only the lower classes1 but also numbers of persons belonging to the higher classes protect themselves by practices that distinctly recall those of the sorcerers of antiquity4 ,all this would prove that philoneism is rather the exception than the rule4 ,it is objected to my position1 that nations and peoples are such lovers of change that they have always emigrated4 ,but before making this affirmation1 we ought to study the causes which impel them to emigration4 ,day by day the peasants see their wages decrease2 yet even then they do not remove from the land that they love more than themselves1 and to which they are more closely bound than they ever were by feudal laws4 ,when epidemics produced by the bad quality of cereals1 as pellagra and acrodynia1 when mortal diseases and the most cruel famine destroy them by thousands1 then only1 and even then not always1 do they come to a determination2 while for many years they keep before them the remembrance of their native soil1 of that country1 which1 like a true stepmother1 gave them only diseases and sufferings4 ,i have listened to poor emigrants say to me3 ,we have only to die6 ,the life that we lead is certain death2 and it is for this reason alone that we have determined to emigrate4 ,as to the invasions of the barbarians1 only ill-informed minds can believe that it was the effect of a sudden movement1 of a caprice hurrying away masses almost without a reason4 ,on the contrary1 all now admit 7as was really mentioned in ,tacitus1 ,bk4 ,,ii41 ,chap4 #b1 of the ,annals7 that it was a very slow movement1 already begun three centuries before ,christ1 and of which that of the ,cimbri1 who came from ,jutland1 was an episode4 ,the crossing of the ,baltic was an easy enterprise4 ,the inhabitants of the coast had a sufficient number of vessels1 and from ,carlsroon to the nearest ports of ,russia and of ,pomerania was only a distance of thirty-four leagues4 ,if the tribes of ,germans1 ,suevians1 and ,goths were repulsed from ,italian soil1 they had already taken a firm position on the soil of ,gaul4 ,csar 7,de ,bello ,gallico7 speaks of ,ariovistus and the ,suevians whom he met there as his most formidable enemies4 ,they did not appear to him as forming an isolated body1 detached from ,germany2 on the contrary1 he relates that the ,germans time and again forced their way into ,gaul4 ,movements within continued1 for even after ,augustus we find that the ,romans did not always encounter the same peoples in the same countries4 ,this is affirmed by ,procopius1 ,paulus ,diaconus1 and many others4 ,let us recall here that already after the death of ,nero1 ,civilis1 who was in the service of ,rome1 led eight cohorts from his country into ,gaul where he was defeated1 but he was able to make an arrangement1 thanks to which he could settle as an ally at a small distance from the borders which he had betrayed 7,gibbon74 ,the ,germans 7a people composed of voluntary associations of soldiers1 almost savages7 being hunters rather than cultivators1 were naturally obliged to change their residence2 we know indeed with what rapidity the game was exhausted1 which obliged those who live by it to overrun an immense extent of territory and continually to transfer their residence to other places2 this is why emigration is in this case the result of the law of inertia1 the people not knowing how to replace a precarious form of existence by one that is more stable4 ,they had no towns1 but real movable villages that could be compared to those of the ,arabs of ,africa4 ,like all nomad peoples and hunters1 when the hope of a conquest shone before them1 they abandoned their forests and1 desiring to reach warmer regions1 went from them with their wives and children to war4 ,during long years their efforts were impotent1 because until the time of ,marcus ,aurelius they were divided1 precisely like the savages of ,america1 into a great number 7#dj7 of small tribes1 dispersed over an immense territory and enemies of one another2 it was1 consequently1 the more easy to subdue them1 the rather that not knowing the use of the breast-plate and but little that of iron and of cavalry1 they found themselves powerless against the ,roman legions1 of whose tactics besides they were ignorant4 ,but when ,rome1 at the decadence1 commenced to recruit its army with ,germans1 and when less vigilant in guarding the frontiers1 she allowed ,german families1 if not even tribes1 to pass the same1 she found herself in great part disarmed against an enemy who had already set foot against her1 bearing her own weapons1 and what is worse1 who knew her treasures1 her tactics1 and her weaknesses4 ,under ,tiberius even1 it was known that the auxiliary soldiers constituted the principal force of the ,roman armies 7nihil validum in exercitibus nisi quod externum72 at first equal in number to the legionary soldiers1 they much exceeded them afterwards1 when the citizens evaded military services1 and when under ,gallienus the ,senators were forbidden to command the army4 ,to all these causes can still be added secondary ones4 ,before the historic invasion1 emigration had taken place4 ,when1 says ,gibbon1 a cruel famine befell the ,germans1 they had no other resource than to send a third or a fourth part of their young men to seek their fortune elsewhere4 ,according to the national historians1 emigration was due to the disproportion between the size of the population and the means of subsistence in the region where they dwelt 7,paulus ,diaconus73 the ,germans were very prolific4 ,as they were not agriculturists1 nothing bound them to the soil2 pestilence or famine1 a victory or a defeat1 an oracle of the ,gods1 or the eloquence of a chief sufficed to attract them to the warmer countries of the south4 ,germany was then much colder than it is at present4 7,gibbon47 ,the necessity of fleeing from the domination of a victorious enemy forced the ,huns towards the west2 religious fanaticism drove the nomad ,arabs towards the great ,byzantine and ,persian empires2 religious terror urged the ,cimbri and the ,teutons to throw themselves on the ,gauls and on ,italy4#ge ,often also the taste for wine and liquors led them to invade rich countries for these gifts of ,god4 #ge ,revue des deux mondes4 ,june #aa1 #ahhi4 ,berthollet4 ,according to a legend1 doubted by some historians1 but accepted by others1 among them ,cipolla1 the descent of the ,lombards into ,italy appears to have been caused by the fact that some of their companions1 after having served ,narses1 conveyed into their country some ,italian fruits which excited their curiosity4 ,all this will suffice to explain the movement we are considering1 which commenced slowly among the ,northern peoples and afterwards became unrestrainable1 and to show how the law of inertia was counteracted among them4 ,and it is necessary to remark that this need of movement thus begun1 did not end with the conquest2 but1 obeying perfectly the law of inertia1 according to which a movement being started it continues indefinitely if friction does not occur to arrest it1 it was continued by the crusades1 by the ,norman invasion of ,sicily1 and by the epidemics of pilgrimage that may be regarded as the continuation of the movement towards the ,south1 begun three centuries before ,christ1 and become a habit when even the necessity was no longer so great as at other times1 and when it was even no longer urgent4 ,here is still another cause of philoneism2 the successive movements which grow out of those first started4 ,as the historians very well observe1 ,mahomet was a continuation of the ,judaic ,christian revolutionary initiative4 ,mahomet was a ,nazarene1 a ,judo-,christian4 ,semitic monotheism regained its rights through him1 and avenged itself for the mythological and polytheistic complications that ,greek genius had introduced into the theology of the first disciples of ,jesus4 7,renan47 ,there is more of this in revolutions and still more in rebellions2 progress1 philoneism1 following the law of accelerated movement and of the same law of inertia1 once begun1 blindly precipitates itself to opposite excesses1 the very thing that causes its ruin4 ,thus ,cromwell in a country almost feudal and ultra-monarchical reached1 or rather was driven by his party1 to regicide1 and to the foundation of a democratic republic in which the peers were consigned to oblivion and his partisans 7of the ,barebones parliament7 went so far as to wish to do away with lawyers and universities1 to forbid dances1 theatrical representations1 and even ,christmas festivities1 to mutilate statues on behalf of decency1 and to burn sacred pictures4 7,macaulay47 ,this led to a reaction which under ,charles ,,ii4 reached absolute power by consent of parliament4 ,in ,christianity castration1 and even the abolition of property was reached4 ,we know the excesses of '#hi4 ,passion explains many of these facts1 which proceed even to insanity4 ,st4 ,paul1 from an enemy became an apostle of ,christ4 ,clarendon after abandoning himself to despair at seeing his son go over from the service of ,james to that of ,william1 became a rebel at the end of fifteen days4 ,the parliament of ,james1 ultra-monarchical as it was1 rebelled4 ,the conventional ,baudot said3 ,there are men who have fever for twenty-four hours4 ,i have had it for ten years4 ,in the days of terrible crises1 wrote ,valbert1 the law of cause and effect seems suspended1 the work is accomplished in an hour4 ,to ask revolution to be wise1 is to ask the tempest to break nothing4#gf #gf ,valbert4 ,le centennaire de #aghi4 ,paris1 #ahhi4 ,in every revolution1 writes ,renan1 the authors of it are absorbed and suppressed by those who succeed them4 ,the first century of the ,hegira saw the extermination of the relations and friends of ,mahomet by those who pretended to confiscate for their own profit the revolution he had created4 ,in the ,franciscan movement the true friends of ,saint ,franois d',assisi1 were1 after a generation1 regarded as heretics and as dangerous men1 and were led to the stake by hundreds4 ,an idea in the first days of creative activity proceeds with giant steps1 and we can say1 the movement once begun continues by virtue of the law of inertia always to increase2 its originator falls behind1 and becomes an obstacle to his own idea which persists in moving forward in spite of him4 ,the ,ebionites who gave to ,christianity its first start became after a century a scandal to the church2 their doctrine a blasphemy4#gg #gg ,renan4 ,l',eglise chrtienne4 ,it is this very tendency1 caused by the arousing of passion1 that makes all revolutions abortive1 that causes them through their own excesses to be the authors of their own destruction1 and which neutralises or much decreases the progress made by revolutions4 ,the gravest objection against misoneism constitutes1 accordingly1 the strongest proof of it4 ,like the plant1 the animal1 and the stone1 man remains motionless1 unless a disturbance of his state occurs through other forces1 and through the law of inertia itself1 which after having at first rendered him immovable afterwards drives him to opposite excess1 but to replunge him anew into immobility4 ,the most potent cause is that of physical environment1 change of climate4 ,next comes the crossing of one race with another1 and it is to this we owe in great part the marvellous productions of ,greek art that arose in ,magna ,grecia4 ,then1 often1 the influence of climate is active1 to which is owing the transformation of the ,jew2 so persecutions1 and the great calamities which races experience and which determine the selection of the strongest4 ,and to this result contribute above all the impulses impressed by geniuses and by mattoids1 who1 as ,i have already pointed out in my work on ,genius alone possess an intense love for the new1 for the very reason that their organisation is different from that of other people4 ,the intensity of individual violence and power here unbalances the tendency to immobility2 but almost always--and ,i show it in the work referred to--when that intensity is not favored by circumstances1 when it does not arise as the final synthesis of a general desire1 a latent and universal necessity1 but simply as a pathological phenomenon1 it becomes again valueless1 for the very reason that it is individual4 ,it is owing to this that the efforts of a madman like ,cola de ,rienzi1 and of such geniuses as ,alexander1 ,napoleon1 ,pombal1 and ,peter the ,great1 result in nothing4 ,to beneficent geniuses1 as ,bolivar1 the ,gracchi1 etc41 are attributed all the merit of revolutions which triumph because they were prepared long before by history and by circumstances1 and which were only precipitated by them and summed up in them4 ,it suffices to note that the genius of ,garibaldi1 of ,cavour1 and of ,mazzini1 has been able to give us nothing more than ,italy as it now is1 in order to comprehend that in spite of geniuses and1 up to a certain point1 in spite of circumstances the work of revolution is durable only when the circumstances that have commenced it persist1 and men are profoundly modified by it4 ,however1 the law of inertia always prevailing1 7since primitive tendencies always concern it17 these changes are but very slow and1 as we have seen1 give place to easy relapses2 they become fixed and swell to new movements only when the causes which provoke them continue and become more intense4 ,in fine1 philoneism1 progress1 also sometimes triumphs--at least with the white race and frequently with the yellow races2 but it is not the result of a sudden movement or of a natural human tendency1 but the effect of external physical forces1 whether social1 historical or the like1 which have caused the law of inertia to change its direction4 ,it is therefore the slow result1 we might say1 of the small and sensible variations peculiar to men according to their condition1 added to grander movements1 as well as momentarily barren ones1 of geniuses and forces1 and to those more powerful ones of the physical and historical environment4 ,of the resulting product we see only the effects1 because without the telescope of history and of sociology we do not perceive the slowness with which they have reached us1 and the smallness of the efforts which contribute to it4 ,it is thus that we do not imagine that the great ,coral ,islands can be the work of billions of small zo-ophytes accumulated the one on the other during thousands of years4 ,the organic kingdom1 like the social1 is made up of the sum total of slow and small efforts4 ,the idea of the ,christ and that of ,buddha1 the way for which had been prepared for several centuries by other geniuses less fortunate than they1 miscarries among the people in which it was conceived1 and becomes fruitful elsewhere4 ,but dating from the epoch in which its votaries1 nihilists of the reverse type1 began to multiply and spread1 in the lowest and least intelligent strata of society1 employing as arms not violence but gentleness1 more than three centuries elapsed before it was tolerated and officially recognised4 ,for two hundred and fifty years the plebeians fought at ,rome for their liberty4 ,yet they always heard the ,senators say1 ,your propositions are too novel4 ,and liberty was granted by the one1 and acquired by the others1 only soon to be lost1 first1 in anarchy1 then under the dictatorship1 and then under the empire4 ,it is in this sense1 that revolutions at the start can be the work of a small number1 but they represent1 they are the sign of a latent universal sentiment2 this is why they grow in direct proportion to time 7and time is very long7 and gain partisans among their own adversaries4 ,the apostles of ,christ numbered only twelve1 but a hundred and fifty years later1 at ,rome alone1 there were in the catacombs #gcg tombs of ,christians2 and ,renan calculates that at the time of ,commodus #ce1jjj ,christians existed4 ,we know that ,saint ,paul himself was one of the bitterest adversaries of the ,christians4 ,the ,english revolution1 up to the time ,charles ,i4 sought to cause the arrest of the four parliamentarians1 was anti-republican1 and strictly royalist even2 but ultimately revolutionary ideas spread throughout all ,england1 and the zealous but not blind partisans of the king were the first to turn against him after his excesses and his treasons4 ,in the revolution of ,flanders1 the chief citizens and a great part of the nobility1 held aloof from the movement for a long period2 but all possessed in embryo the feeling uttered by the first apostles and pioneers of the movement4 ,time1 in its slow development1 gives rise to the complete expansion of the latent sentiments expressed by misoneism4 ,for example let us now transfer ourselves to another field2 ,i wish to speak of the abolition of classical studies4 ,there are perhaps actually five or six of us in ,italy who proclaim without fear its absolute necessity2 as we were only three when we proclaimed the necessity of changing the penal laws and of bringing them to examine the criminal rather than the crime4 ,the first statesman who should attempt to carry out our ideas would fall amid universal scandal2 and yet these very ideas are entertained by all who are not blinded by archological and academic misoneism4 ,but they have not the courage to avow them and still less to realise them4 ,in a few years these ideas will no longer admit even of discussion4 ,that is revolution4 ,let us look1 on the other hand1 at the ideas of the anarchists2 they are in the heads1 and unfortunately in the hands of certain diseased persons1 but they are not in the thought of the majority2 consequently all their agitation will be in vain1 and result only in isolated commotions and frays4 ,that is revolt1 insurrection4 ,and let no one say that philoneism and progress are found as proportional reaction to misoneic action1 an oscillation of the pendulum excluding the law of inertia4 ,the pendulum itself does not oscillate1 but remains perpetually motionless until moved2 and its oscillations1 even the smallest1 are produced the most often by external causes entirely accidental4 ,and the law of inertia is here also so constant1 that if it did not find in the friction of the atmosphere a cause of impediment the movement once begun would continue ad infinitum4 ,so a ball flies and rebounds1 when a force propels it2 and here also if friction did not retard it1 it would continue forever the motion once commenced4 ,inertia is the rule1 and mutations are produced by special external incidents1 which being usually less persistent1 less tenacious1 change more the appearance than the reality4 ,and these modifications which are very slow and proceed from external causes1 are produced not only among men and among animals1 but are met with even in the inorganic world2 it is thus that the salts of copper and of lime1 in certain conditions of a warm medium1 change their color but not their nature nor their molecular arrangement1 and always give the same chemical reactions4 ,,cesare ,,lombroso4 ,,the ,,question ,,of ,,duality ,,of ,,mind4 ,it is certainly conceded by all who come in general estimation within the category of thinkers1 that psychology1 as formerly studied1 without basis in physiology1 was most unfruitful1 as compared with the modern study of it upon that basis4 ,it is therefore quite remarkable to find in quarters of repute1 where psychological problems are discussed1 some into which enter1 even inferentially1 either momentary obliviousness1 or temporary disregard of truths that are held indisputable by modern thinkers within the lines of the subjects indicated4 ,yet such contradiction and conflict are found in the constantly recurring attempted demonstration of the dual nature of the mind or the soul1 call the entity what one will4 ,that man has within his organisation tendencies which are relatively higher or lower than others within himself1 is not to be disputed2 but that such mixture of nature is to be regarded as constituting him of dual mental nature1 is a proposition untenable coincidently with the maintenance of the proposition that he is in nature physiologically single4 ,it has been maintained lately1 that he is physiologically double1 but this view has not met with any acceptance worthy of the name4 ,in short1 it would seem1 from all that we know1 that in every individual1 psychical being must bear the same relation to physiological that the latter does to physical1 and that they are all interdependent4 ,and if this be true1 the same relations must hold good when the physical and physiological nature degenerate into the pathological1 and we find by observation that they do hold good4 ,so far1 therefore1 as the lesson inculcated by ,stevenson's ,dr4 ,jekyll and ,mr4 ,hyde presents to the popular mind the idea of dual mental nature in man1 it is false4 ,viewed from the scientific standpoint1 the case exhibits nothing more or less than a phase of physical1 physiological1 and psychical action1 terminating in pathological manifestations4 ,gradually1 the physical1 physiological1 and psychical natures suffer1 pari passu1 and the whole being exhibits profound retrograde metamorphosis1 through the continuous degenerations that have been so often and so ably described by ,dr4 ,henry ,maudsley1 in which all will-power passes away1 the whole being becomes involved1 and direful death of all higher attributes finally ensues4 ,that1 during the struggle in this decadence between the will and the instincts it is natural that it should seem to the outside uninstructed view1 and even to the individual sufferer himself1 that the phenomenon witnessed is evidence of a dual nature of mind1 is not surprising2 but it is surprising to find any one of the present day who deems himself scientific1 implying that the observed changing mental1 moral1 and bodily manifestations are not witnesses to co-ordinated change2 it is surprising that any scientific inquirer should lend the slightest countenance to the belief that changed psychical phenomena are possible without changed physical and physiological conditions1 and yet that is what we often see proclaimed through maintenance of the proposition of the duality of mental nature4 ,the point mentioned belongs to the most flagrantly unscientific view of the relations and effects of the forces in play under the conditions discussed4 ,but there may be in the inclusive subject-matter of the question minor points as to which erroneous views are sometimes presented to the public as emanating from sources otherwise scientific4 ,such a one it is my intention to make the principal subject of this paper4 ,in the ,october number of ,the ,monist1 in the article ,the ,magic ,mirror1 ,max ,dessoir1 the author1 says1 pages #aaa and #aab3 ,the theory from which ,i shall proceed in attempting an explanation1 has already been frequently touched upon in the course of this article2 for certain observations indicated it so clearly that mention of it was not to be avoided4 ,it is the doctrine of the double consciousness of the human soul4 ,acts are done in the course even of our every-day life1 which presuppose for their origin and execution all the faculties of the soul1 yet nevertheless occur without the knowledge of the individual2 they require a sort of consciousness and a separate memory beyond the cognisance of the normal person4 ,one of the most frequent cases in practical experience is where the thoughts of a person reading aloud wander and become occupied with an entirely different subject2 and where despite this aberration the person in question reads correctly with the proper emphasis and expression1 turns the leaves1 and in short performs acts which without intelligent control are hardly conceivable4 ,an ,english psychologist1 ,mr4 ,barkworth1 has acquired such expertness in the practice of this1 that during an animated debate he can rapidly and correctly add long columns of figures without having his attention diverted in the least4 ,this points not only to an unconscious intelligence1 but--which is of still greater consequence--to an unconscious memory4 ,mr4 ,barkworth must keep two series of figures in his mind in order to obtain from them a third2 this latter sum he is again obliged to retain in order to add to it a newly acquired fourth2 and so on4 ,the latter chain of memories1 let it be remarked1 performs its office entirely independently of that upon which the recollection of the debate is constructed2 and it may therefore be reasonably maintained that there exists beyond the cognisance of the individual1 both consciousness and memory2 and if the essential components of the ego are found in these two last-mentioned factors1 then every person conceals within himself the germs of a second personality4 ,i designate the two halves of consciousness that thus operate in greater or less independence of each other1--in a figurative sense of course1--as super-and sub-consciousness1 and comprehend the whole as the doctrine of double consciousness or the double ego4 ,no one will at this late day1 it is to be presumed1 dispute the existence in the same individual of subconsciousness1 as contra-distinguished from superconsciousness2 superconsciousness being that which is more familiarly known as self-consciousness1 and subconsciousness as that latent consciousness of which we are not at all conscious1 and which yet receives impressions which may or may not rise soon1 late1 or at all into the sphere of self-consciousness2 an impress which cannot be summed into self-consciousness by an effort of will1 for the obvious reason that the memory has yet taken no cognisance of them4 ,that this subconscious function of the brain is simply a phenomenon dependent upon cell-storage of the brain1 the product of which may or may not ever reach self-consciousness1 is proved by many circumstances attested by our memory of collated facts concerned in our waking and dream life4 ,sir ,walter ,scott1 in his story of the ,tapestried ,chamber1 gives an admirable account of its working under the lead of a sleeper's unconscious cerebration risen to self-consciousness1 for let it be here parenthetically noted that it is absurd1 as is sometimes attempted1 to rule dream-thoughts out of the realm of self-consciousness1 the individuality of the dreamer never being lost1 however modified the mental and moral ideation of that individuality may be4 ,but ,max ,dessoir evidently confounds subconsciousness with unconscious cerebration4 ,he makes subconsciousness1 in the intellection described1 a primary factor in execution4 ,now subconsciousness is the mere tablet1 as it were1 upon which impressions are made1 and unconscious cerebration that faculty of the brain which1 without immediate1 and perchance future1 cognisance of self-consciousness1 may evolve from all brain-impressions1 whether subconsciously or self-consciously received1 thought of which not even the individual himself becomes aware that he is the possessor until it is presented to him as a free gift4 ,this proceeds during sleep as well as during waking1 sometimes anticipating1 coincidently with waking1 the routine subject of thought for the day4 ,it sometimes in sleep1 as well as in waking moments1 presents itself with the startling effect of a revelation4 ,subconsciousness1 therefore1 is a condition of passivity1 and unconscious cerebration one of activity1 although1 of course1 of even unknown existence unless a product of it reaches self-consciousness4 ,they are not to be crudely conceived of as different manifestations of the same thing1 any more than an emotion is to be thought of as another aspect of the sensation which produced it1 the emotion being qualitatively an entirely new departure from the sensation4 ,both sensation and emotion represent conditions of activity1 whereas1 so far as self-consciousness is equal to differentiating them1 subconsciousness and unconscious cerebration respectively represent passivity and activity4 ,but the admission of the coexistence in the same individual of unconscious cerebration with self-consciousness does not involve the concession of the existence of dual mentality1 any more than recognised possession of striped and unstriped1 voluntary and involuntary muscle1 involves the concession that man is physically dual in mechanical motive power4 ,yet it is upon the basis of the recognised coexistence of double consciousness in man that ,max ,dessoir reaches the conclusion that1 figuratively speaking1 as he says1 there is a double ego1 by means of whose duplex action different mental processes are simultaneously carried forward4 ,now1 neither figuratively nor otherwise1 as should be clearly apparent from what has been said1 is there in man a double ego4 ,for although while there is life subconsciousness must exist1 and unconscious cerebration proceed1 nothing is more open to observation than that subconsciousness and unconscious cerebration1 although always present1 do not always rise into the sphere of self-consciousness4 ,that1 during self-conscious activity of thought on a particular subject1 if continued for a long time1 subconsciousness may1 through unconscious cerebration1 in a measure yield tribute to self-conscious thought is undeniable1 for we see their effect sometimes visible in the sudden inspiration of the orator and the writer1 but that they are factors in ordinary thought-evolution1 for immediate use1 within very limited spaces of time1 is impossible1 for we by definition limit subconsciousness and unconscious cerebration to pure unguided automatism1 while to self-consciousness we concede the direction of all automatic processes that represent conceptions of the mind4 ,obviously1 to imagine that we direct that which may or may not appear at all in the sensorium1 to be directed1 and which from its nature1 as known from observation1 is not likely to appear within moderate time-limits of special thought-evolution1 is inadmissible1 involving the assertion of two contradictory propositions1 for1 as matter of experience1 we know that the product of unconscious cerebration1 even when it appears clearly recognisable as such1 seldom manifests itself before the lapse of a few hours4 ,the simple and complete explanation of the phenomenon observed1 in what are deemed simultaneous mental processes1 is that they are not absolutely simultaneous4 ,the best illustration that can be given of the manner in which they take place is afforded by the system known as synchronous multiple telegraphy1 in which1 by means of an admirable apparatus1 points on discs1 representing makes and breaks of electric current1 are1 at stations distant from each other1 adjusted to synchronous relations with each other1 by means of electro-magnetic agency1 tuning-forks1 and self-adjusting varying resistances to the currents1 so that receiving and transmitting proceeds with a continuousness just short of perfect continuity4 ,i am not attempting to liken the rapidity of thought to that of electricity1 even when electricity is embarrassed and slowed by mechanism of man's construction2 but otherwise the analogy between so-called simultaneous mental processes and the results obtained from so-called synchronous multiple telegraphy1 is as perfect as any analogy can be4 ,thus the make and break impulses of the will direct the self-conscious flow of nerve-force in receiving and transmitting impulses of almost synchronous time upon various subject-matter successively taken up and dropped4 ,the thought for each is not simultaneous1 nor of equal duration1 but so nearly simultaneous as to appear so1 and of duration sufficient for its task4 ,the individual thought-times are not1 therefore1 represented1 as in the telegraphic instrument described1 by equal spaces of time1 but bear due relations to the respective difficulties of the subject-matter almost synchronously attacked4 ,it is self-conscious thought that is here involved1 whether in sleeping or waking1 that is1 will-directed thought1 for even in sleep we observe the will as imperfectly directing2 striving1 however1 always to direct4 ,as has been admitted1 if the process of self-conscious cerebration last over a long space of time1 it is possible that some fragment derived from unconscious cerebration may contribute to the grand total of primary flow4 ,this1 however1 is not of normal occurrence1 seeing that unconscious cerebration often deals with matter entirely alien to present self-conscious mental occupation4 ,the fruits of such cerebration are therefore impossible to be counted upon1 and therefore cannot be insisted upon as proving from the experience cited by ,max ,dessoir the existence1 even figuratively speaking1 of double consciousness construed as forming with self-consciousness a double self2 while the well-known action of subconsciousness1 unconscious cerebration1 and conscious cerebration1 as related to one another1 amply explain all the phenomena in waking1 sleep1 and even in hypnotism if we include in that hysteric diathesis4 ,when1 in abstraction1 in wrapt attention to a single idea1 we are carried past the door at which we had intended to stop1 or continue to read aloud1 unobservantly of the sense of words1 or otherwise betray that we are buried deep in one absorbing thought2 it is not1 in the first case1 that our automaton has unwontedly borne us along1 or in the second1 that we are not permitting it to take a partial holiday1 for it is our automaton that serves our commonest daily needs2 but only that we have1 in the first case1 forgotten to arrest its movements in due time1 and in the second1 have not thought it worth while to do so2 for when decrepitude overtakes us1 and our automaton1 sharing in the misfortune1 toils wearily along1 or requires intense purposiveness for special brain-accomplishment1 ideation can no longer afford to give to it its former liberty1 but dwells in concentration on a single action2 unless1 indeed1 when that still lower grade is reached1 when the automatic man is almost all that remains1 and ideation but the fitful glow that may start to futile movement the once efficient mechanism of the human frame4 ,by easy stages1 receptivity and communicability1 ever lowering in degree1 in quantity1 and in quality1 may dwindle to a single point1 and movement be but faint automatic habit2 the former high being now occupying the opposite extreme from rapid thought-transmission and receipt1 and bodily response to ideation1 upon the basis of life's whole energised experience4 ,max ,dessoir remarks1 in a passage shortly following the one already quoted at length3 ,closer investigation teaches further1 that in dreams1 states of intoxication1 in somnambulistic and epileptic attacks1 not only does a consciousness different from the normal consciousness rule1 but that also between successive periods memory-links of greater or less stability are wont to form4 ,as to the greater or less closeness1 as well as greater or less stability1 of the memory-links to which ,max ,dessoir refers1 there can be no dispute2 but it is demonstrable that sleeping and waking consciousness of both kinds exactly correspond4 ,the difference observable in waking and dream thought-evolution does not chiefly relate to modified consciousness1 but to modified conscientiousness2 the defect in both being the necessary consequence of temporary abeyance of normal co-ordination between the nerve-centres4 ,determinately directed thought1 which is necessarily waking thought1 proceeds upon the basis of memorabilia that are the cash in hand of the kind of currency that is temporarily available for logical transactions2 while in sleep1 conscious cerebration only partially controls its treasures1 and often regretfully sees them squandered before its face4 ,determinately directed thought is necessarily derived from the will1 unless one believes with ,lord ,kames1 that thought preserves unbroken heredity2 in which case the ego becomes only the witness through life of pure automatism--a position which is easily refuted4 ,the will directs the thought upon the basis of cognate memorabilia1 be the channels many or few1 by means of semi-synchronous1 rotative attention4 ,the great lapse of time during which the action of subconsciousness may remain unrevealed until1 through unconscious cerebration1 it reaches self-consciousness1 through the medium of recognition of a particular event as of actual occurrence1 and how1 finally1 this recognition1 as true1 of a particular event1 may be restricted for a while to the condition of sleep1 and after a long period of incubation at last rise to waking knowledge1 is so admirably exemplified by an experience of my own that ,i here put it on record4 ,about five years ago ,i had a dream of a landscape1 where there were rocky escarpments partially covered with trees1 with a plain as foreground1 upon which a carriage drew up to take me home after a day's topographical surveying4 ,both in dreaming and upon awaking ,i was vividly impressed with the idea that the place was one in which the topography remained to be finished by me4 ,but when awake1 ,i fruitlessly went over in memory all parts of the coast where ,i had ever executed topographical surveys1 and where by any chance1 at any time1 ,i could have left unfinished anything that ,i was in duty bound to finish4 ,some time elapsed1 and ,i had the same dream again4 ,coming at once to the conclusion that1 if ,i should dream it a third time1 ,i should be told 7as ,i should be1 if ,i mentioned it at the second to any indifferent person7 that ,i had dreamed that ,i dreamed it1 ,i at once described in detail to a member of my family the landscape1 the rocks1 the trees1 the plain1 and the coming of the carriage1 and requested that all these be memorised4 ,some months again passed1 and the dream in all its vividness recurred1 and was repeated to the same person1 agreeing as to its details with those introduced in the recital of the preceding ones4 ,i never had from the first a doubt that the dream had a foundation in some one concrete fact1 but from the lapse of time without a solution of it being afforded1 ,i was all but hopeless that its subject-matter would ever rise into the sphere of full waking knowledge4 ,however1 at moderate intervals ,i dreamt it again and again1 each time simply saying to my confidant1 ,i have had that dream again1 and at length1 without any special effort directed to its solution1 that which had heretofore eluded all efforts to explain1 was presented solved4 ,the uncomfortableness of the dream1 it is to be borne in mind1 lay in the impression1 although contradicted by memory1 that ,i had neglected to finish some piece of topography which it was my duty to finish4 ,hence the direction of self-conscious thought towards its solution had always been wrong4 ,there was no piece of work of any kind that ,i had ever neglected to finish4 ,there was1 however1 a piece of topographical work1 which1 when ,i was about to finish it1 ,i was prevented from completing by orders taking me away from the locality to another far distant4 ,the whole tract originally intended to be executed in topography was of about one hundred square miles1 a tract of much geological as well as topographical interest1 over a portion of which ,i had been accompanied two or three times by ,prof4 ,james ,d4 ,dana1 who was deeply interested in the execution of the topography1 on account of his development from it of the minute geological characteristics of the region4 ,at one boundary of the area mentioned there was a ridge and summit of some nine hundred feet in height1 densely covered with a stunted growth of trees4 ,how to get the contours of this ridge by some original plan ,i had been obliged in advance to settle in my mind1 for on the ridge itself nothing could1 on account of the dense growth1 be seen for any great distance1 and over it no roads passed4 ,i had concluded to have simultaneous horizontal and vertical angles taken to staffs1 from a line of foot-hills lying parallel with the ridge1 when ,i was ordered to ,florida to make there a survey4 ,this was succeeded by surveys in other far-distant localities during successive years4 ,not1 however1 as it appears1 until seven years after leaving the locality intimately described1 did the first dream related to it take place1 and not until rather more than two years thereafter did its repetitions cease with its solution4 ,i said to my confidant when1 about three years ago1 that solution was reached1 ,i shall never have that dream again1 and it has never since appeared2 as why should it1 the mystery with which the uncordinated ego struggled being solved8 ,we can readily comprehend1 from such an experience as this1 how it has been possible1 as we have learned from well authenticated cases1 for a person to lead two somewhat independent thought-lives4 ,what1 however1 is clearly shown by it is the possibility1 for it has been proved1 of subconscious record remaining for years dormant1 proceeding at last through unconscious cerebration to reach conscious cerebration1 but even then conscious cerebration only during sleep1 until finally conscious cerebration of waking moments being reached1 the judgment seat of co-ordinated faculties1 the dream departs1 no longer abusing the curtained sleeper1 nor ghost-like rising to disturb his waking self-consciousness4 ,r4 ,,meade ,,bache4 ,,immortality4 ,if you sit down in the quiet of your own room and calmly ask yourself what it is in reference to a life after death that you really desire and what you may reasonably expect1 you will probably be surprised to find what a blank your mind is upon the subject4 ,i doubt if you will find that you inwardly desire it1 in the same manner1 for example1 that you desire wealth1 or fame1 or beauty4 ,you have grown up in the belief that it is right to desire and believe1 but that1 you know1 is quite a different affair from actual yearning4 ,nearly every one puts the thought aside as beyond solution4 ,one says1 ,my thinking will not change the fact nor my longing bring it about4 ,the duty of the passing day is all ,i can fulfil4 ,under this cover of postponed examination the world has grown as indifferent to the question as it was formerly engrossed by it4 ,fear of offending delicate sensibilities and established beliefs keeps the doubter and modifier silent2 whilst the extreme of the omnivorous believer is set over against the out-and-out denier4 ,but the great majority of people are neither believers nor disbelievers1 but indifferentists--slowly settling toward an agnostic non-committalism that is destructive of all intellectual and moral earnestness4 ,it is my conviction that this abrogation of curiosity and examination is a most culpable and dangerous fact4 ,if we live after death it is of tremendous importance2 if we do not it is of no less vital import1 and the belief1 the disbelief1 or the evasion is of the most constant influence1 unconsciously1 subtly1 upon every thought and act of every day's living4 ,suppose now we divest ourselves of the creeps and shudders usually accompanying a discussion of death and immortality1 and fearlessly test the common dogma with a little analysis in the light of scientific research and reason4 ,let us suppose you are a believer3 what is it you believe8 ,you desire3 what is it you desire1 and how far is your desire feasible8 ,you are convinced3 but what is the truth8 ,if possible1 in what way and to what extent is a future life possible8 ,if attainable1 by whom and by what means8 ,moreover1 the kind of belief makes all the difference in the world4 ,i have read somewhere about an ,african chief who killed his wife's lover1 and was defeated at last by his wife's unswerving belief in immortality1 she committing suicide in order to join her lover4 ,but the chief was equal to the emergency and he in turn killed himself in order to follow the pair and break up their tte--ttes in the other world6 ,it all depends upon what you propose doing with a future life after you get it4 ,you might just as well be digging clams on this earth as singing ,hosannas around the throne in heaven4 ,do you believe in or fervently desire what1 with splendid bravery and abandon the old creed called the resurrection of the body8 ,terrible counter-queries arise3 ,at what age in your life would you choose as best representing the ideal body for your resurrection8 ,would you prefer your body as it was when you were a child1 when youthful1 when mature1 or when old8 ,moreover1 it is changing every minute1 this body4 ,it is estimated that something like five million blood-corpuscles die every second of your life4 ,even the two or three pounds of minerals in one's bones are only a little more permanently fixed4 ,all component parts are undergoing change every instant3 they soon become grass1 grain1 or tree1 passing again into others' bodies1 and so on forever4 ,is it the form and feature you desire to preserve and not the constituent particles8 ,but form and feature change every day or year1 and are as impossible to fix as the atoms themselves4 ,indeed1 is not the whole matter put beyond choice by the evident fact that unless by the fiat of an extramundane deity the only moment possible to fix the bodily form in the mould of eternity would be the death-moment8 ,and yet this were the most undesirable of all seasons1 since at that hour the body is in the weakest1 most useless1 and most wretched condition of all the hours it has served us4 ,supposing therefore1 that you are so in love with your own body that you would wish to call it into life again and for forever1 we see at once that no moment or phase of development could be chosen1 except perhaps the dying moment1 the least desirable of all1 and that the particles of one's body have served their turn in myriad other bodies each having an equally valid claim to his property4 ,besides this the absurdity of the whole is emphasised by the crushing fact that all the organic matter of the world has been used over and over for bodies and the earth has not enough hydrocarbons to fit out again with bodies a small fraction of the souls that have lived upon it4 ,doubtless the combined weight of all the organic bodies that have lived on the earth would be many times the total weight of the globe including its minerals1 elements1 and gases4 ,it may be frankly admitted that no bodily resurrection is possible4 ,and it is as certainly undesirable4 ,the old dogma was the crudest materialism1 wholly unworthy of the credence of those who pretended to believe that ,god was a spirit1 and that they were his children4 ,the belief in bodily resurrection was a natural concomitant of the age of sensualism before the mind and spirit had risen to their modern heritage4 ,the desire for such a resurrection stamps the person with a self-confessed imperfection of mental and moral development4 ,the impossibility of such a resurrection is one of many proofs that life is no sensualist at heart and that ideality is the final outcome1 the trend of actuality4 ,nature compels us to take wings though the sluggish ,psyche lingers lovingly in the pretty little cocoon of materiality she has built about herself4 ,is it perhaps your understanding1 reason1 or intellect that you desire to perpetuate forever8 ,frankly1 now1 are you so in love with your mental outfit8 ,in your more modest and sane hours are you not sadly conscious how very imperfect it is8 ,while we are young and very conceited we may be filled with self-satisfaction and trust in our own judgment1 but as the years drag by1 we1 looking back over the past1 grow more and more conscious that our intellect is not to be trusted4 ,think of the interminable series of blunders of which your life is the record6 ,how poorly you have misjudged people and circumstances6 ,how your reason has fooled you many times and again6 ,how many illusions and delusions you have lived through6 ,with what sad clearness you now see your former stupidities1 and with what blindness you fail to see your present ones6 ,looking about you1 you find others equally as gifted as yourself holding your opinions as loathsome4 ,looking above you1 you see the most intellectual and the most educated diametrically opposed in their opinions of ,god1 man1 and nature4 ,two great men1 two brothers learned and trained in dialectic and logic1 soon grow apart4 ,one becomes a cardinal of the ,romish church1 accepting papal infallibility and a thousand such absurdities1 the other as firmly convinced that the fallacies of the ,english church are ,god's gospel4 ,looking below you1 you see the great mass of men wrecking their minds and lives upon a thousand outrageous beliefs and prejudices4 ,there is no sadder spectacle in the world than this that the people love error4 ,but each one with imperturbable conceit is convinced that he sees better and plainer than another4 ,every partisan democrat or republican has no sort of doubt that he is right about every financial or governmental measure1 though he has never studied finance1 history1 or political economy five minutes4 ,he does not dream that he is a dupe of the lousy politicians and of his own lack of intellect4 ,all history is a tangle of such poverty-stricken intellection4 ,one can but be amazed at the proneness of everybody to see things and do things every way but the right way4 ,and this is the kind of a mental equipment you would stamp with the seal of eternity6 ,possibly you may protest that it is a more perfect and purified intellect that you wish4 ,ah1 yes1 but that would not be your intellect4 ,you want to be made over1 made into another person4 ,that would not be your immortality but that of another4 ,that would imply that it is pure intellect and perfect1 in the abstract1 that you are interested in4 ,have you shown much interest in that sort of intellect in the past8 ,if you wish such an immortality of a perfected intellect you must certainly possess it before it can be made everlasting4 ,perhaps1 again1 you will say that it is the ever-progressive ever-growing intellect you desire4 ,this is subterfuge4 ,that is not what you wish but what you would take in default of your first choice4 ,lessing said that if ,god held out to him absolute truth in one hand and in the other the everlasting search for truth he would choose the latter4 ,but the condition of everlasting search would be the condition of everlasting imperfection of intellect4 ,lessing's choice seems to me impious4 ,i therefore conclude1 that at heart you do not wish to eternalise your crude imperfect intellect1 and that the sole method of getting an exalted and perfected intellect is to cultivate it here and now4 ,have you in the past obeyed reason and not passion or self-interest8 ,have you studied logic1 history1 and science with a sincere desire to do your political and social duty1 and to free yourself from prejudice1 error1 superstition1 and conceit8 ,if not why should ,god suddenly endow you with a perfect intellect ready-made8 ,is it ,god's way in this world1 to give excellencies unasked and unearned8 ,rest assured he will not do it at your dying hour4 ,it is no particular merit in you to die2 why should you be rewarded with a new intellect then8 ,or1 again1 you may say that it is not so much your intellect that you wish to make immortal as it is your emotional nature1 affection1 etc4 ,love and friendship1 you complain1 are cut off by death and the tendrils of the heart die because they find nothing to cling to or rest upon4 ,you would like to renew beyond the grave the love and sympathy that has made the earth-life endurable1 and even beautiful4 ,now is this1 in very truth1 just so8 ,are you really satisfied with your devotion and love8 ,have not your outgoings of the heart been quite fickle1 illogical1 selfish1 and calculating8 ,has not your love and gratitude been often a lively sense of benefits to come8 ,has your love to woman not been of the ,kreutzer-,sonata type1 a little better and more subtly-concealed perhaps1 but at heart the same8 ,if you are a woman have you been seeking to get or to give love1 and has your little affection been but payment for protection and a home8 ,have you chosen true and noble friends and been true and noble to them8 ,has your charity been but alms-giving without kind sympathy and helpfulness8 ,have you as married folk1 perhaps1 been1 as the cant phrase has it1 devoted to each other1 but oblivious of the duty of affection toward the rest of the world1--grinning examples of goisme deux8 ,is your family a fetich1 an enlarged sort of selfishness8 ,do you at heart care much for anybody except your own precious self8 ,and a too exclusive love1 even of the purest type may be sin in ,god's eyes4 ,if you bind all your affection upon one weak life you risk a precious value upon too single and narrow an object1 and deprive others of the sympathy that need it more4 ,just wrapt up in one1 as the sentimental jargon has it1 is often if not always a pleasant way of great sin4 ,affection may become morbid--a disease1 quite as well as any abuse or exaggeration of any other characteristic4 ,i take it that they who are the most satisfied with the strength1 purity1 and constancy of their love and emotional nature are precisely they that have neither actual strength1 purity1 and constancy of sentiment1 and are thus accurately they that should not have immortality4 ,lastly1 if neither body1 intellect1 nor the affectional nature are such as you wish made eternal1 are you any better contented with your moral nature8 ,the question at once raises a smile4 ,the feeling of our own ethical unworthiness has crystallised into the great ,christian dogma of ,christ's vicarious sacrifice4 ,in the words of the old hymn1 ,jesus died and paid it all1 all the debt ,i owe4 ,no man hoped to get to heaven on his own merits4 ,much of the zeal of religion has consisted in the joy of the belief that by a sleight-of-hand trick1 a big sponge of forgiveness was wiped over the ethical debit and credit account by the lachrymose deity1 whose occupation1 as ,heine said1 was to forgive4 ,history is one long monotonous list of man's sins and inhumanities4 ,i think it probable that you will not urge the ethical aspect2 ,i would leave that plea aside4 ,we all know that we are very much like a lot of pigs1 each after the most and best corn and the warmest bed4 ,the amazing immorality of trying to get to heaven on another's merits was the most brazen example of how little heavenliness there was in the heaven-hunters and heaven-scalers4 ,of course the desire for heaven itself1 the desire for one's happiness was immoral when conditioned upon the misery of others4 ,nature in this respect is better than man1 denying him his childish materialistic desires and forcing him to wait for immortality until he can learn to live in the spirit and seek no selfish heaven4 ,just as the body is ever changing1 and it is impossible to seize upon any hour when we could eternalise it1 except at the undesirable death-hour1 so it is the same in reference to intellect1 love1 and morality4 ,there are no two days in life when we are the same4 ,as to intellect we have little before adult life is reached1 and most people have little after fifty or sixty years4 ,it is proverbial that no one changes his opinion after that age1 but lives on old prejudices and ideas4 ,the mental powers get into ruts and habits1 true reason being abrogated4 ,as to love we laugh at our fickleness1 and our habits and ideals of friendship get sordid as each year strips off the freedom and expansiveness of youth and the dear cold ghost of self is more exclusively worshipped4 ,and our ethical standards change with each day's passing4 ,we have at every hour to clutch ourselves by the throat and cry1 ,stay6 ,who art thou8 ,and lo6 while we ask our protean self the question1 we have become another4 ,we seek perpetuity of existence for something ever becoming other4 ,we seek personal identity after death1 but we have no personal identity before death3 how then can we have it afterward8 ,do you not see that what makes you recognisable1 different from other individuals1 and what would make personal immortality possible depends upon the accidents of organisation1--depends firstly upon the bodily peculiarity1 and secondly upon imperfections of mind that you do not wish to perpetuate8 ,twins sometimes wear a knot of ribbon as a signal whereby their friends may recognise them4 ,our faces and bodies are but such little symbols or signals that our souls have hung out for the day4 ,divest your best friend of his body and would you recognise him8 ,have you ever thought how the photograph of your friend's soul would look8 ,if bodily form and imperfections make up the most of what we call individuality it becomes evident that in casting off imperfection we become less narrow1 less individual4 ,as you become freed from the cramping littleness of self-love and the bonds of self-gratification1 as you rise into the life of the spirit1 you find yourself less individual4 ,one fitted for a true heaven would not care for the old immortality4 ,what is good to carry over into the future life is not so much personal identity as personal non-identity1 not so much the imperfections that make us individuals as the perfections that free us from individualism4 ,we must lose our life to find it4 ,we have overestimated the value of individuality4 ,self-consciousness has become hypertrophied1 and the summum bonum of life is held to be the preservation of a little puckered-up individuality4 ,this over-development of individualism is doubtless due to the fierce struggle man has had to elevate himself out of savagery4 ,it has been possible only through excessive carefulness and love of the ego4 ,the struggle for existence is now taking on class and corporate characteristics so that the common weal is an ideal quite as much as individual satisfaction and safety4 ,hence the exaggeration of personality may now return to something like a healthy normalism4 ,as a natural outgrowth and consequence of this over-development of the individual consciousness1 there came the absurd attempt to carry over into the after-life the same sort of existence that had been developed here1--consisting in a neglect of the actual world of one's descendants1 an ignoring of death that ends the body and products of organisation1 and a failure to see that a future life after death must be a life of the spirit1 of perfections1 and of the common life1 not of peculiarities and imperfections4 ,if this seems an aery height and a too rare air it argues against your preparation for the only desirable as well as the only possible kind of immortality4 ,it argues against you just in the same way that your horror of death does4 ,it is only participation in the divine life of the spirit that can see death as right and good4 ,death comes to shatter our baseless trust in the evanescent physical and teach us dependence upon the everlasting spiritual4 ,they dread death whose life is of the physical type4 ,god never gave to man a greater blessing1 after life itself1 than death1 and nothing more strikingly proves the divine government of the world than the certainty of its coming to us all4 ,if death is your enemy1 life is not your friend4 ,the brutal attempt to ignore the fact1 the belief that the body with its pack of heathenish appetites and needs could push through death and come out fresh and renewed on the other side is the very insanity of individualism and the intoxication of materialism4 ,the mourning1 shudder1 gloom1 and horror of death1--,god-sent if anything is--is practical pessimism and reckless atheism4 ,death's one lesson is that we must love and cultivate what he cannot touch4 ,one who has lived a life of kindness and spirituality has no horror of death1 and to him it has little mystery4 ,but to him whose divinity has been self and whose religion the worship of his physiological senses1 death must be the ugliest of enemies who is to rob him of his all4 ,did you ever notice how life is plastic and free when first fashioning for itself a body8 ,all heaven lies about us in our infancy4 ,in youth we are unselfish1 aspiring1 and noble4 ,as the years go by the power of the organisation1 the material grows1 and limits more and more the freedom of the spirit4 ,frankenstein turns upon its maker4 ,with age men get narrow1 cold1 calculating2 women snakey1 scheming1 cruel4 ,the soul finds itself more and more the slave instead of the master1 and by and by when the slavery becomes unendurable1 it takes flight1 and this you call death4 ,it is the body's reward for insubordination4 ,i think we deserve little sympathy for dying4 ,most of us have well-merited death before it comes--,i speak1 of course only of the death of those in life's afternoon4 ,few keep the young life pliant and free beyond the age of fifty4 ,if people could see that life is the maker and moulder of organisation1 and if they would seek immortality upon earth1 ,i believe men might come to live a hundred years4 ,trees learn to live thousands of years1 but they keep youth1 and spring1 and trust1 and love1 forever nestling with the birds among the rejuvenescent leaves of spring4 ,we die not because the body is weak1 but because it has become too strong4 ,we die because there is no real continuance and strength in anything but the non-physical1 and we have trusted in the physical4 ,matter without free life is inert1 moved only from without3 the dead body is simply matter without life4 ,it is not the blacksmith's arm that is strong3 without nerve-force it cannot raise an ounce1 cannot raise itself4 ,whence the nerve-force8 ,from the ganglionic gray cells of the spinal cord and brain4 ,and whence these little gray cells8 ,the dear stupid physiologist has now reached his limit1 and you can confidently answer for him that it was ,life created these things1 ,life that existed before muscles1 nerves1 and cells1 and that slowly fashioned them2 ,life1 an order of existence in no imaginable way analogous to1 or to be confounded with matter or mechanics4 ,there is in the history of thought no more ludicrous and dismal failure than the attempt to explain life in terms of mechanics4 ,the hope of the materialist that science would prove his prejudice is torn to tatters4 ,the children of the spirit are amazed at the bat-blind inability to see the fact1--to see that life is more certain and enduring than matter1 soul than sense4 ,the organs of the body are changed1 diseased1 die2 the body itself dies2 generations of bodies die1 but like a containing cord of silk1 on which all the glittering beads of flesh are strung1 there is the soul1 the life1 ever the same1 persisting unchanged through all change1 giving unity to diversity1 moulding1 making1 discarding1 choosing1 healing1 working to far-away ends with blind1 and dead1 and obstinate materials4 ,you love the flesh over-much and jealous life says to you1 ,take it then1 this so loved and wondrous flesh2 me you have not loved1--and lo6 the dead body1 useless1 decaying1 lies before you4 ,let no materialistic misreading of science hoodwink you into any blurring of the outlines between matter and life4#gh ,the two are as far apart as heaven and earth1 are as dissimilar as thought can conceive1--perhaps in a final analysis1 are the only two things of the universe4 ,there is no fact of science showing the faintest warrant for confounding the two4 ,even ,huxley calls materialism the most baseless of all dogmas4 ,it will probably be found that there is but one element1 of which all others are duplications and combinations1 atoms being but centres of force4 ,but life is irresolvable into any form of matter or mechanical energy4 ,it is not only unthinkable that matter could originate life1 but it is demonstrably absurd4 ,no scientist to-day believes in spontaneous generation4 ,omne vivum ex vivo is an axiom4 ,the plant has no nervous system and yet has every physiological function possessed by the human body4 ,it has contractility1 irritability1 respiration1 anabolism1 catabolism1 and reproductivity1--that is1 it has spontaneous movement1 it responds to stimulation1 it breathes1 it assimilates1 it excretes1 it begets its like1--and physiologically this is all you can do4 ,nay1 more than this1 even a drop of the jelly-like protoplasm that makes up the basis of all cell-structures1 animal or vegetable1 has also all of these qualities or powers4#gi ,there are bundles of wholly structureless1 unorganised jelly that exhibit these capacities in a wonderful degree4 ,there is1 for instance1 ,hydra viridis1 that has no eyes and yet sees1 no brain or nerves and yet lies in wait for prey1 pursues and fights1 or flees from danger4 ,turned inside out it lives and digests its food as well as before4 ,it holds live worms down with an improvised arm when they try to get out of its stomach4 ,any part reproduces all4 ,cut off the bottom of its stomach and it goes on eating1 quite untroubled by the little accident1--and so on4 ,a great1 wise1 blind man has defined evolution1 or life1 as the integration of matter and the dissipation of motion during which the matter passes from an indefinite incoherent homogeneity to a definite coherent heterogeneity1 and during which the motion undergoes a parallel transformation4 ,some one else improved upon this by saying that it was a change from a no-howish1 untalkaboutable all-alikeness1 to a some-howish and in general talkaboutable not-all-alikeness1 by continuous something-elsifications and all-togetherations4 ,schelling said that life was the tendency to individuation4 ,but the crystal or the planet shows that1 and they are not living4 ,as the hand cannot grasp itself1 neither can life define itself4 ,all definitions ,i have seen miss the essential and primal characteristics of spontaneous movement4 ,but all definitions begin by begging the question1--assuming the thing explained4 ,the truth is that there is no definition or explanation possible4 ,the dualism of matter and life must be accepted4 ,there is no monism can bridge the gulf between mechanics and life4 ,inorganic matter with its inherent forces and laws cannot be conceived as ever coming into or as passing out of existence4 ,from all eternity it was as it is1 and so it will remain4 ,the physical universe shows no hint of design1 no glimpse of freedom1 no trace of intelligence1 no suggestion of a maker or ,god4 ,it has no power of choice1 no spontaneous motion4 ,but the merest speck of living matter is utterly and absolutely different4 ,it may have eyes or no eyes1 and yet it sees1 ears or not and yet it hears1 nerves or not and yet it feels and reacts1 brain or not and yet it thinks and plans1 and acts in accordance with intellectual resolves4 ,the dead body of your child is most inconceivably different from the living body of an hour ago4 ,the one fundamental mystery of the explainable world is why life seeks objectification in material forms1 and why it seeks it with such vehemence and ardor4 ,life seems to bite at matter as if with famishing hunger4 ,one wonders if from some other planet life is being suddenly starved out or banished by some catastrophe1 and as a consequence there is thence an over-emigration of the hungry ,huns upon our earth4 ,certain confused and confusion-breeding philosophers in the interests of a theoretical monism or pantheism pretend to find1 or to believe that the organic is born out of the inorganic1 that the physical world shows evidence of design1 that life and mentality were implicate and latent in pre-existent matter4 ,yet they will accept the evidence against spontaneous generation derived from the fact that if you kill all organic life by intense heat and then exclude life from without you will never find life to arise4 ,but it is plain that in the condensation of the dust of space into suns and planets all organic life was killed in the hottest of all conceivable heat4 ,but as the planets cool1 life appears4 ,it must have come from without1 and must therefore be an universal self-existent power4 ,why1 or how1 or whence life comes to us we do not know now1 but the transcendent miracle is ever before our eyes3 infinitely rich and free1 life is filling1 thrilling1 surcharging every molecule of matter to which with wondrous power and ingenuity it can gain access4 ,it covers every thousandth of an inch of the earth's surface1 dives into the deepest ocean depths1 fills the air as high as the mountain tops1 ever unsatisfied1 ever grasping up a million million renaissant forms1 never resting1 never baffled4 ,before this omnipresent god one stands in rapt amazement and worship4 ,to matter1 then1 life first brought1 and still ever brings the power of organisation1 of adaptation1 of spontaneous energy1 and of movement4 ,but when the death of the organisation takes place1 the life that preceded and formed it is not lessened or affected4 ,when the watch wears out does it prove that the watchmaker is dead8 ,it is more rational to suppose that the watchmaker has kept on with his work1 that he has made and will make many more watches1 and ,i therefore judge that the life of each of us1 that existed before our bodies1 that formed our bodies1 will still form other bodies after ours4 ,the ,oriental doctrine of the transmigration of souls is not to be accepted in its crude details1 but it is doubtless a great truth4 ,it is more rational and more consonant with what we know of life1 than the theory of wasted life implicate in the barbaric notion of sending numberless millions of souls to hell to do nothing but suffer useless pain1 and other millions to heaven to suffer 7,i use the word advisedly7 useless pleasure4 ,any theory of immortality that rests upon the assumption of uselessness and waste may be quickly set aside4 ,just as matter and force are indestructible1 various forms of force being interchangeable1 so it must be with life4 ,there must be a conservation of life-energy just as rigid1 and this truth must remake and remould the whole conception of immortality4 ,when a mechanical force disappears in one phase1 it at once reappears in another aspect4 ,so vegetable1 animal1 and mental life are but different aspects of life-force1 and suffer no loss when transformed one into the other1 or when the body disappears altogether4 ,and as it is the inherent nature of force never to rest so there is no rest for life4 ,banishment of life to a heaven of inaction is as impossible as it is absurd4 #gh ,those who think this view is the voice of faith and not of true science may profitably read a little book that has come to my notice since writing these pages3 ,life ,theories and ,religious ,thought1 by ,lionel ,s4 ,beale4 #gi ,according to the latest scientific researches the dependence of all organisation upon life is more clearly shown than ever4 ,my friend ,dr4 ,edmund ,montgomery twenty-five years ago1 as a result of extended experiment and research1 showed that the body of animals is not an aggregation of cells1 the force of the whole being derived from the enslaving and utilising these subordinate organisms1 but that the whole body is a single protoplasmic living connected mass or unit with functionally specialised parts4 ,that this view is the scientific view of to-day and that the cell-aggregate theory is dead may be seen by consulting the article ,zelle1 by ,prof4 ,frommen in ,eulenburg's ,real-,encyclopdie der gesammten ,heilkunde1 #ahij4 ,this extension of the law of the conservation of force to things biologic and psychic is a two-edged sword3 it offers conclusive evidence of the fallacy of the materialist and unbeliever4 ,there is no annihilation2 your life at death not only may not stop but cannot stop4 ,life is as inextinguishable as physical force4 ,on the other hand this sword deals the death blow to two equally shallow fallacies of believers4 ,just so sure as it insures the preservation of your life1 of all that is worth preservation1 just so sure it denies the possibility of preserving what was bound up with and produced by organisation1--that is individuality and personal identity4 ,these things1 if not entirely1 are certainly largely the products of your peculiar physical and physiological organisation4 ,whatever is born of the flesh must perish with the flesh2 what is born of the spirit shall inherit eternal life4 ,but the profoundest and most distinguishing rebuke is given the unscientific1 puerile1 selfish assumption of the waste1 loss1 and uselessness of life involved in the old theory of heaven and hell4 ,when from a chemical compound you take away and liberate one element or compound radicle1 does it then shoot off into space1 to flock all by itself for eternity8 ,by no means6 ,it at once rushes into a new combination with its nearest neighbor1 quickly picking up again the round of its duty and function4 ,the curious notion that after having done work in one body1 life or souls should at once rush off to some far-away star1 there to sing or howl for eternity was a childish absurdity4 ,one wonders where even an omnipotent ,god could get material for such an amazing manufacture and loss of souls4 ,the theory also forgot that logic demands that what should live forever in the future must perforce have lived forever in the past4 ,a rope if it have one end1 must have two ends4 ,what1 therefore have our souls been doing during this past eternity8 ,the truth is that absolutely speaking there cannot be souls1 but only soul4 ,life is a unit1 and indivisible4 ,the tiniest bit of bioplasm holds and represents all of life4 ,neither you nor it are separable from the whole4 ,there may be education and progressive evolution of life as a whole but there can be no individual and selfish salvation apart from the salvation of all other souls4 ,the idea that release from the body at once releases a soul from action1 duty1 and the work of life1 is an illogicality that could have arisen in no mind conversant with the demonstrated law of the non-wastage of force in any work of energy elsewhere4 ,life is never tired2 it is the body that requires rest not the spirit4 ,the old doctrine of heaven1 an eternity of laziness1 was the sigh of the sluggish flesh whipped to ceaseless work by the unresting life4 ,the desire of heaven was the desire of eternal death4 ,this extension of the idea of the non-wastage1 the rigid conservation and interconvertibility of force to things of life1 gains a new significance and grandeur when we consider that whatever proves the immortality of man proves the immortality of every other animal or vegetable form4 ,the tree and horse have a soul quite as well as you1 and must live after death quite as surely as you will4 ,it is the flimsiest of conceits that makes men think they are endowed with a special sort of soul or divine life1 different from that of animals or plants4 ,don't flatter yourself4 ,god takes quite the same loving pains and care in the elimination of a leaf that he does of a brain-cell4 ,man is but a small part of the animal world1 and the whole animal world is but a small part of the total life of the globe4 ,don't despise the vegetable kingdom3 it can do something you cannot do--make living matter out of mineral substances4 ,you could not live a day without the food furnished you by your brothers1 the plants4 ,hence if human life or souls cannot be sent off into space to do nothing1 neither can the souls of animals and plants4 ,if we are to have our heaven they must have theirs also4 ,does not this tangential theory begin to be clumsy and work with huge creakings and difficulties8 ,it looks like reductio ad absurdum4 ,not only is the tangential theory contradictory of all physical analogies and all known laws1 but it is positively immoral4 ,it is but a refined selfishness4 ,worldliness is none the less sinful because it is other-worldliness4 ,if billions of souls could thus be wasted in an eternity of useless pain or pleasure1 could thus1 drunken with individuation1 hug their own sweet ghosts for never-ending time--then were life a farce1 the universe a huge meaningless machine for grinding out waste and useless souls4 ,but if all life1 past or future1 is one and indivisible1 purposive1 educational1 then the world becomes full of meaning and the face of the ,father1 ,life1 smiles out at us from every living thing4 ,the faith of all good men that goodness is at the heart of things is justified4 ,the ,earth becomes our home1 that we can love2 our ,father ever dwelleth here2 we cannot be banished4 ,when we have finished our task1 when our body has worn out1 tireless life1 of which we are the children and heirs1 gives us here and now other work to do4 ,to matter1 this tremendous cosmical game of incarnation can mean nothing4 ,we see the dead flesh break up into simpler chemical forms and the atoms finally spin off unaltered by their flesh-dance1 again to be caught up by the mystic and unseen ,master1 again to be pressed into organic forms1--forms that like empty sea-shells only show where life has been4 ,and so on forever4 ,but to life some educative purpose must be operative through it all4 ,life that made eyes must see more than eyes2 life that made brains must know more than brains4 ,there is doubtless pain and strain2 but is there to be no ultimate justification8 ,we may catch glimpses of reasons4 ,do we not see an increase both of quantity and quality of life in geologic times8 ,is life trying to do away with death and heredity8 ,are they but makeshifts1 death but a discarding of too obstinate material8 ,birth but a retempering and reworking of the same material8 ,heredity but the temporary means of passing life and its experiences onward until death and birth shall be found unnecessary in a growing command of chemical and physical forces that shall banish old age out of the world8 ,there is no inherent reason why a body should grow decrepit4 ,if it can be made to preserve its suppleness for fifty years why not for a thousand8 ,it may transpire that the dream of an elixir of life may come true through scientific progress despite the savage death-blow given it by ,brown-,squard4 ,the more sin1 selfishness1 and wrong there is the shorter is the average length of human lives4 ,if you will look into the rich and awful science of statistics you will find proof of this in every class of society4 ,when we apply ourselves to enrich and lengthen our life-time with the same zeal we now use in killing each other--when the endowments of the world's scientific schools equal the cost of the world's armies then there will be a very different life-table found in the insurance-offices4 ,finally with mournful echoing recurrence comes the old question3 ,how much of individuality persists and passes untouched through death's fingers8 ,how far does the graduate life carry with it the results of experience8 ,i would answer3 all that you ought to desire1 all that is best1 all that you will want when you fully understand how little and poor is individuality and that there is something including it and far better4 ,i have a strange inability1 personally1 to understand the to me absurd hunger after personal identity4 ,it appears to me a childish obtuseness of character4 ,the great and glorious freeness and largeness of life1 the decentralised1 impersonal quality of it seems to be unappreciated4 ,i do not see how people can fail to understand that personal identity is not only impossible1 does not exist now and here1 but that the desire of it is the renunciation of progress4 ,we grow and advance only by change1 only by breaking up identity and becoming other4 ,think also of the lack of identity or individuality in nature4 ,there is no personality and individualism there1 and yet there is something that includes personality and is much more4 ,there is will1 consciousness1 intelligence1 life1--but not identity or individuality4 ,so the life that is the heart of us invites us to leave our little self and find a larger self4 ,religion is our yes to that invitation4 ,materialism and pessimism is the saying no to it4 ,the immortality that is alone possible or desirable is the losing our life1 the individual identity-loving life1 again to find it as the impersonal but richer1 deeper life of nature and ,god4 ,god denies you an immortality of individualism and identity because he loves you so well that he refuses you your crude childish desire in order to offer you something infinitely better4 ,people do not seem to see how narrow1 small1 and partial is the dissociate speck of the individual1 and that as an individual progresses in all the virtues of character he evermore becomes proportionally less individual and less centralised1 always more like the divine prototype of his impersonal father1 ,life4 ,the love of individualism is the love of imperfection4 ,this may to some seem a hard doctrine4 ,it is not perhaps an easy task for the butterfly to break its way out through the million-fold bonds of its cocoon1 but when risen into the large air and sunshine does it regret the birth-struggle8 ,they who think they are being cheated of reality for a metaphysic illusion will find in breaking through the bonds of flesh that they also have brought with them splendid wings for rising in the no less real but rarer air of spiritual trust in life4 ,it is not that we love less the thousand ties of flesh1 home and kindred1 but that in recognising the paternity and fraternity of all life1 we find love commensurate with that life4 ,i do not think there was any cold stony harshness in the face of ,jesus when he uttered those most profoundly significant of all words1 ,who is my mother1 and who are my brethren8 ,whosoever shall do the will of my ,father1 the same is my brother1 and sister1 and mother4 ,what a recall to the common life of the spirit6 ,what unity with the common life based upon loving obedience to the will of the ,father4 ,what a wonderful rebuke of the love of individualism4 ,he did not love his mother less but humanity more4 ,the more we rise into that impersonal atmosphere the more are we careless of the fate of personal identity4 ,the composite photograph shows the fundamental and enduring quality1 the average feature4 ,in a certain sense life and history are taking humanity's composite photograph2 but1 inordinately-loving individualism1 each sitter conceitedly demands that his own picture be left untouched and unblurred by that of the others1 and that his poor little portrait shall stand alone and forever--precisely what the divine photographer does not wish and will not permit4 ,obstinacy persists and ,god smashes the negative to the ground with the unanswerable argument called death4 ,because it is more than metaphor that in any ways your body may be likened unto a photographer's negative3 created1 for example1 by the in-flashing of a heavenly ray of light among the highly unstable chemicals of matter2 useless1 except as an intermediate step to a clearer showing of the character2 black and invisible unless shone through by the pure light of life and love2 fragile as glass1--and lastly the poor1 weak1 shadowy1 dead counterfeit of a throbbing1 marvellous1 living reality4 ,the hunger for an immortality of the body1 of the senses1 the lust of immortality1 is1 in empty fatuousness1 only comparable to the mania of a crazy photographer interested only in his negatives1 and who never develops one1 or to the foolishness that values photographs more than the friends themselves4 ,if we once get our spiritual eye fixed upon the deep reality and unity hidden by the ,maia-veilings of individuality and flesh1 the cravings of our weak hearts for eternal continuance of our little bundle of littlenesses1 would fall away from us as softly as the wayward longings of childhood4 ,we could then see that it is the quality of all life1 the progressive purity1 power1 and increase of life in the abstract1 that become all-important4 ,religion would become the love and veneration of ,life the ,father of us2 morality the cheerful obedience of the individual to that ,father2 ,heaven the re-entrance of the individual life into the great unity4 ,much of the old religion was irreligious2 its ,god a far-away dead abstraction1 not a living1 ever-present love2 its immortality was at heart a desire for death1 its spiritualism at heart a barbaric materialism4 ,to this death of faith and irreligious religion1 comes the sympathetic study and love of nature--that is1 science--and reveals to us the opulence of life1 the infinity of intellect in nature1 the inexhaustibleness of her resources and of her diversity1 her beauty1 and her splendor4 ,the old materialistic degradation of religion forefelt its doom would come from this spiritualistic revivification1 and the devotees cried out against science as atheistic4 ,and science found some foolish enemies in her own camp who1 misreading their divine book1 joined in the cry--,nothing but mechanics4 ,it was a dismal short-lived croak4 ,we now see that not only are science and her workers religious1 but without scientific knowledge there can be no adequate idea or practice of religion4 ,you can't love ,god unless you love and know what he is doing in this universe4 ,the man who in a walk goes neglectfully and obliviously by a million mysteries and wonders that ,god has been toiling to eliminate for ages1--such a man cannot lay much claim to ,god's friendship4 ,if we love our friend1 we have some interest in the deepest concern of his life4 ,the foolishest of all fears is the fear that science is somehow going to destroy all good things of faith and life4 ,in truth it reveals all good things4 ,it demonstrates and manifests both ,god and immortality1--,god as the ,father of all life1 immortality as the surety of the conservation and non-wastage of that life4 ,much of the fear of science1 is as ,i have said the fear of the old materialistic religion in presence of the larger faith that burns up its beloved errors4 ,they who had been promised and had argued themselves into a groundless belief in the value and immortality of a bundle of sensual appetites1 selfish desires1 and imperfections saw far in advance that any large study of life and nature would dash their wretched faith to atoms4 ,and science has overridden this unfaithful faith4 ,he that soweth to his flesh shall of the flesh reap corruption2 but he that soweth to the ,spirit shall of the ,spirit reap life everlasting4 ,this is as true scientifically as it is true morally and religiously4 ,it requires but a little study of neurology and psychology to give demonstration to this truth4 ,the products of organisation die with disorganisation4 ,most1 if not all1 of what people mean by individuality and personal identity is a product of organisation1 is an accident of incarnation4 ,children are similar to each other2 they are lovable partly because idiosyncrasy and individualism haven't yet developed4 ,as we grow older we cultivate individuality1 until the very old are usually angular1 cranky1 individual with a vengeance6 ,death1 thank heaven1 is the end of that1 the certainty of a non-eternalising of the imperfect4 ,birth is a new trial4 ,incarnation and reincarnation are the ever-renewed work of ,life4 ,through the laws of heredity1 through physiology1 sociology1 and biology1 science is tirelessly illustrating to us how all life holds together1 how individualism is valueless1 and sacrificed to the common weal4 ,there is no escape1 sensual or supersensual from the world's great common life4 ,the old selfish dream of a heaven apart from incarnation1 from doing and becoming was a pitiful mistake4 ,you cannot clutch your cake of happiness and like a spoiled child run into the attic of heaven to eat it alone4 ,life will see to it that you do not slip off4 ,and if you have been born again of the spirit you will have no such desire1 but will beg for kindred work upon the old earth-home4 ,in the meantime the conclusion is clear3 to love and aid the work of our master ,life we need not wait for death4 ,we may not seek our own salvation2 it is no matter whether you and ,i are saved or not4 ,the reincarnation of life is our work here and now4 ,it took you twenty years to fashion out of a microscopically-small speck of unorganised protoplasm your body and brain4 ,within us we are to keep that organisation from cramping and binding the life1--keep life as large and free and pliant as possible4 ,outside of us the incarnation goes on as well1 and every person you influence either for good or for ill1 thus by the fact1 becomes a product of your incarnating work4 ,every day you have a hundred opportunities to give1 without lessening your own supply1 some of your own life1 to increase the quantity and to elevate the quality of the general stock of the world's life4 ,help the young1 they inherit the world and will use it well or ill according to your teaching and example4 ,stop cruelty to animals1 they are your brothers1 filled with the same life as your own2 fight the political ruin we are preparing for ourselves by partisanship1 bribery1 and class-legislation2 discourage war and intemperance and lessen the tyranny of the strong and wealthy4 ,wage a ceaseless war to the death against luxury1 the poison that is eating and rotting the hearts of all of us2 love trees1 meadows1 clear brooks1 the mountains and silences of ,nature4 ,love1 not so much your own or another's individual life1 as ,life itself4 ,there is otherwise no immortality4 ,the divine story tells us that after measureless suffering and self-purification1 ,buddha had gained the right to enter ,nirvana4 ,with compassion filling his heart he put his merited reward aside and resolved to remain without to teach and to help until every child of earth should have become his disciple1 and until every disciple should have entered ,nirvana before him4 ,such must be the resolve of every true lover of life and of every right seeker after immortality4 ,,george ,m4 ,,gould4 ,,some ,,questions ,,of ,,psycho-,,physics4#hj ,,sensations ,,and ,,the ,,elements ,,of ,,reality4 #hj ,this article is the substance of a private communication from ,prof4 ,ernst ,mach to the ,editor of ,the ,monist--published in the present form with ,prof4 ,mach's consent4 ,translated from ,professor ,mach's ,,ms4 by ,thomas ,j4 ,mc,cormack4 ,i have read ,dr4 ,carus's article ,feeling and ,motion#ha with care1 and have also perused ,clifford's essay on ,the ,nature of ,things in ,themselves4 ,let me attempt to present the points in which our agreements and differences consist4 #ha ,the ,open ,court1 ,nos4 #aec and #aed4 ,to begin with1 ,i state with pleasure that the monistic tendency of both endeavors is in the direction that appears to me to be the true one and that is most likely to afford elucidation4 ,consequently1 agreement in matters of detail is of subordinate importance and is only a question of time4 ,let me cite1 first1 a few passages from ,feeling and ,motion to which ,i give my full assent4 ,they are the following3 ,the interconvertibility of motion and feeling is an error4 ,feeling is real as much as are matter and motion4 ,its reality accordingly is most immediate and direct1 so that it would be ridiculous to doubt it4 ,man's method of understanding the process of nature is that of abstraction4 ,every concept is formed for some purpose1 and every concept by serving one purpose necessarily becomes one-sided4444 ,we must bear in mind4444 7#a7 the purpose it has to serve1 and 7#b7 that the totality of things from which abstractions can be made is one indivisible whole4444 ,we must not imagine that the one side only is true reality4 ,some years ago ,i should also have agreed in toto with the passages in which ,dr4 ,carus speaks of the animation of all nature1 and of the feeling that accompanies every motion4 ,to-day this form of expression would not1 it seems to me1 correctly characterise the matter4 ,if ,i were now prematurely to advance a definitive formulation1 ,i should fear lest1 so far as myself and perhaps others are concerned1 important aspects might remain concealed4 ,i shall next cite the passages with respect to which ,i do not agree with ,dr4 ,carus1 and then ,i shall endeavor to state wherein our differences of opinion consist3 ,all series ,a ,b ,c 444 are accompanied by 4 ,the ,a ,b ,c 444 series of ,dr4 ,carus has a different meaning from mine4 ,we may represent motion or we may represent mind as the basis of the world1 or we may conceive them as being on equal terms4 ,i cannot agree with a co-ordination of motion and mind4 ,they viz4 feeling and motion are as inseparable as are the two sides of a sheet of paper4 ,fechner says1 ,as inseparable as the concave and convex sides of the same circle4 ,this appears to me an inapposite simile in so far as a duality is predicated where in my view a unity alone exists4 ,my view of the problem is as follows3 ,we have colors1 sounds1 pressures1 and so forth 7,a ,b ,c 44471 which1 as simplest component parts1 make up the world4 ,in addition thereto1 percepts 7resolvable into 44471 feelings1 and so forth1 more or less composite4 ,how 444 differ from ,a ,b ,c 444 ,i will not define here1 for ,i do not know exactly4 ,it is enough for the time being that they do differ from ,a ,b ,c 4441 as the latter do from one another4 ,and let us now leave 444 entirely out of account and put ourselves in a time and state in which there are only ,a ,b ,c4 ,now ,i say1 that if ,i see a tree with green leaves 7,a71 with a hard 7,b71 gray 7,c7 trunk1 that ,a ,b ,c are elements of the world4 ,i say elements--and not sensations1 also not motions--because it is not my purpose at this place to arrive at either a psychological or a physiological or a physical theory1 but to proceed descriptively4 ,the every-day man1 indeed1 takes greenness1 grayness1 hardness1 or complexes thereof it may be1 for constituent parts of the world--for he does not trouble himself about a psychologico-physiological theory--and does not learn moreover anything more about the world2 from his point of view he is right4 ,similarly1 for the descriptive physicist the question is also one merely of the dependencies of ,a ,b ,c 444 on one another2 for him too ,a ,b ,c 4441 or complexes thereof1 are and remain constituent parts of the world4 ,if1 however1 ,i close my eye 7,k71 withdraw my feeling hand 7,l71 ,a ,b ,c 444 disappear4 ,if ,i contemplate ,a ,b ,c 444 in this dependence they are my sensations4 ,this is but a special point of view within the first4 ,according to my conception1 therefore1 the same ,a ,b ,c 444 is both element of the world 7the outer world1 namely7 and element of feeling4 ,the question how feeling arises out of the physical element has for me no significance1 since both are one and the same4 ,the parallelism stands to reason1 since each is parallel to itself4 ,it is not two sides of the same paper 7which latter is invested with a metaphysical rle in the simile71 but simply the same thing4 ,a perfect physics could strive to accomplish nothing more than to make us familiar beforehand with whatever it were possible for us to come across sensorily2 that is1 we should have knowledge of the interrelation of ,a ,b ,c4 ,a perfect psychology would supply the interrelation of 4 ,leaving out of account the theoretical intermediaries of physics--physiology and psychology--questions like ,how does feeling arise from motion would never come up4 ,however1 the artificial inventions of a physical or psychological theory1 must not be introduced into a general discussion of this character--for they are necessarily one-sided4 ,i may now set forth my differing point of view with regard to the idea of motion4 ,a motion is either perceptible by the senses1 as the displacing of a chair in a room or the vibration of a string1 or it is only supplied1 added 7hypothetical71 like the oscillation of the ether1 the motion of molecules and atoms1 and so forth4 ,in the first instance the motion is composed of ,a ,b ,c 4441 it is itself merely a certain relation between ,a ,b ,c 4441 and plays therefore in the discussion now in hand no especial part4 ,in the second instance the hypothetical motion1 under especially favorable circumstances1 can become perceptible by the senses4 ,in which case the first instance recurs4 ,as long as this is not the case1 or in circumstances in which this can never happen 7the case of the motions of atoms and molecules71 we have to do with a noumenon1 that is1 a mere mental auxiliary1 an artificial expedient1 the purpose of which is solely to indicate1 to represent1 after the fashion of a model1 the connection between ,a ,b ,c 4441 to make it more familiar to us4 ,it is a thing of thought1 an entity of the mind 7 44474 ,i cannot believe that this is to be co-ordinated with ,a ,b ,c 444 in the same way as ,a ,b ,c 444 among each other are4 ,putting together motion and feeling goes as much against me as would say the co-ordination of numbers and colors4 ,perhaps ,i stand quite alone in this1 for physicists have accustomed us to regard the motions of atoms as more real than the green of trees4 ,in the latter ,i see a 7sensory7 fact1 in the former a ,gedankending1 a thing of thought4 ,the billions of ether-vibrations which the physicist for his special purposes mentally annexes to the green1 are not to be co-ordinated with the green1 which is given immediately4 ,when a piece of zinc and a piece of copper1 united by a wire1 are dipped in sulphuric acid and deflect a magnetic needle in the vicinity of the wire1 the unprepossessed discoverer of the fact discerns naught of motion beyond the deflection of the needle and the diffusion in the fluid4 ,everything reverts to certain combinations of ,a ,b ,c4 ,electricity is a thing of thought1 a mental adjunct2 its motion another2 its magnetic field still another4 ,all these noumena are implements of physical science1 contrived for very special purposes4 ,they are discarded1 cast aside1 when the interconnection of ,a ,b ,c 444 has become familiar2 for this last is the very gist of the affair4 ,the implement is not of the same dignity1 or reality1 as ,a ,b ,c 4441 and must not be placed in the same category1 must not be co-ordinated with it where general considerations are involved to which physics with its special objects does not extend4 ,the green 7,a7 of the tree is not only adjoined to the presence of the sun 7,b71 but also to the deflection of the needle 7,x71 by my optic nerve4 ,familiarising intermediary connections to-day by motions1 to-morrow by some other means1 is the business of the special sciences1 and can only disturb and obscure a general discussion4 ,what should we say of a cosmology from a pharmaceutical point of view8 ,in principle1 this very thing is done1 it seems to me1 when physical augers and saws are employed in all fields of work1 as is universally the case4 ,so much for the juxtaposition of motion and feeling4 ,perhaps ,i alone am right1 perhaps ,i alone am wrong4 99 99 99 99 99 ,according to my conception accordingly material processes are not accompanied by feelings1 but are the same 7,a ,b ,c 44472 only the relation in which we consider them makes them at one time physical elements and at another time feelings4 ,the relation in which percepts and feelings as distinguished from sensations stand to sensations1 is not clear to me4 ,i am much inclined to regard these feelings as a species of sensation 7co-ordinate with sensations74 ,how the representative percepts of imagination and memory are connected with sensations1 what relation they bear to them1 ,i dare venture no opinion4 ,the relation of 444 to ,a ,b ,c 444 is the point regarding which ,i do not feel sufficiently sure4 ,regarding ,a ,b ,c 444 7world of sense in its objective and subjective significance7 ,i believe ,i am clear4 ,dr4 ,carus in a private letter to me says3 ,it almost seems as if you transform all ,a ,b ,c 444 series into the corresponding 444 series4 ,this is not the case4 ,i designate by 444 representative percepts 7not sensations71 and say simply that ,a ,b ,c 4441 the same ,a ,b ,c 4441 play1 according to circumstances1 now the rle of physical elements1 now the role of sensations4 ,i call ,a ,b ,c 4441 therefore1 elements1 pure and simple4 ,mine is not the ,berkeleian point of view4 ,the latter has been mistakenly attributed to me time and again1 the separation that ,i make of ,a ,b ,c 444 from 444 not having been sharply discriminated and it not having been borne in mind that ,i call ,a ,b ,c 444 alone sensations1 not however 4 ,clifford1 with his mind-stuff1 approaches very near to ,berkeley4 ,monism1 as yet1 ,i cannot thoroughly follow out2 because ,i am lacking in clearness with regard to the relation of 444 to ,a ,b ,c 4441 which can only be supplied by further physiologico-psychological investigations2 but ,i believe that the first step towards a competent monism lies in the assertion that the same ,a ,b ,c 444 are both physical and psychical elements4 ,as regards the psychical accompanying the physical1 the question ,how8 continually recurs4 ,either they are two incompatible things 7,dubois7 or their relation is bound up in a third thing 7thing-of-itself74 ,by viewing the matter as two sides of the same thing1 not much more is gained1 to my mind1 than a momentary satisfaction4 ,all non-monistic points of view are1 in my opinion1 artificial constructions1 which arise by investing with very far-reaching extensions of meaning psychological or physical special-conceptions1 which have a limited value1 applicable only within the department in question for the elucidation of the facts of that department4 ,the overvaluing of psychological conceptions leads to spiritualistic systems1 the overrating of physical conceptions to materialistic systems4 ,naturally in the latter systems motion plays a great rle2 for through a mistaken conception of the principle of energy1 people have come to believe that everything in physics can be explained by motion4 ,but explanations by motions have1 as a matter of fact1 nothing to do with the principle of energy4 ,the majority of physicists1 it is true1 believe and disseminate this opinion4 ,if1 when a physicist speaks of motion and nothing but motion1 the question is asked ,what moves8 in ninety-nine cases out of a hundred nothing palpable or demonstrable is brought forward in answer1 but hypothetical atoms or hypothetical fluids are adduced which execute motions still more hypothetical4 ,even in the domain of physics itself1 the business of which is to proceed from the sensory and to return to the sensory1 ,i can regard these motions at best only as provisorily tolerated intermediaries of thoughts1 that have no right to be ranked on equal terms with reality1 let alone placed above it4 ,still less can ,i allow motion the right to create a world-problem where none exists1 and thereby to conceal the real point of attack in the investigation of reality4 ,i may add that some years ago ,i took exactly ,dr4 ,carus's point of view1 which ,i presented in a lecture on ,psycho-physics published in #ahfc in the ,oesterreichische ,zeitschrift fr praktische ,heilkunde4 ,with regard to ,clifford ,i may make the following remarks4 ,the notion eject pleases me very much4 ,i have long had the idea in mind1 but have not defined it because its limitation is not clear to me2 nor has ,clifford given me any light on the subject4 ,is the representation in us of the material nature of things we cannot lay hold of 7the sun1 the moon7 to be called an eject8 ,are the abstract concepts of physical hypotheses1 which in their very nature can never become sense-affective1 ejects8 ,such things are abstract in widely differing degrees1 and are bound up with the sensory in very unequal proportions2 the impossibility of becoming sense-affective is partly absolute1 partly only relative1 that is1 it exists for the time being4 ,i do not at all agree with ,clifford's notion mind-stuff2 in this ,i wholly concur with ,dr4 ,carus4 ,it is not unbiased philosophising to come down in the end to a psychological notion as comprehensive of the world1--a notion on the face of it pre-eminently one-sided4 99 99 99 99 99 ,in connection with the subject under discussion1 ,i might incidentally make mention of ,mr4 ,charles ,s4 ,peirce's article ,the ,architecture of ,theories in the last number of ,the ,monist4 ,one ,mr4 ,peirce1 a mathematician1#hb has made some very valuable investigations1 similar to ,grassmann's4 ,this author's view of the evolution of natural laws does not strike me as so singular4 ,if predominance be given in our conception of the world to the spiritualistic or psychical aspect1 the laws of nature may be regarded as tremendous phenomena of memory2 as ,i attempted some years ago to set forth in a lecture of mine4 ,the idea of their evolution is then very near at hand4 ,of course ,i do not think that for the time being we can gain much light from this view4 ,for the present the scientific method in the grooves of which we have moved for three hundred years1 continues to be the most fruitful4 ,it is advisable to be very cautious in advancing beyond this4 ,it is for this reason also that ,i do not think very much of the fruitfulness of the idea that the entire world is animated and feeling4 ,we have as yet too little insight into the psychical1 and still less into the connection between brain-organisation and brain-function and psychical process4 ,of what advantage to us is the assumption of feeling in cells in which every clue is missing by which to proceed from the psychical assumed to the physical connected with it4 ,it seems to me that the physical and psychical investigation of sensations is for the time being the only thing that can be entered upon with any prospect of accomplishing anything4 ,in this we shall first learn the proper formulation of questions that are to form the subject of further investigations4 #hb ,mr4 ,benjamin ,peirce1 father of ,mr4 ,charles ,s4 ,peirce4--,,ed4 ,,ernst ,,mach4 ,,some ,,questions ,,of ,,psycho-,,physics4 ,,feelings ,,and ,,the ,,elements ,,of ,,feelings4 ,,exposition4 ,when a man who has done so much valuable work for the progress of science as ,professor ,ernst ,mach finds it necessary to change the position he has taken1--a position which has appeared to many thinkers as a satisfactory solution of the most intricate problem in the philosophical and psycho-physical field1--there must exist in the solution some difficulty which has either been overlooked or at least too little appreciated4 ,if there is a flaw in it1 ,i wish it to be exposed4 ,and convinced that its discovery must be of general interest1 ,i take pleasure in publishing ,professor ,mach's criticism of the view which ,i have defended in a former article of mine4 ,the main source of most differences1 it seems to me1 springs from misapprehensions4 ,i shall therefore attempt to elucidate the subject with reference to the objections presented by ,professor ,mach4 ,recapitulation4 ,the main idea set forth in my article ,feeling and ,motion may be briefly recapitulated as follows4 ,our feelings are phenomena which to an observer who could see all the processes taking place in our brain1 would appear as motions of a special kind4 ,motions and feelings are two aspects of one and the same reality4 ,but feeling cannot be explained as transformed motion4 ,accordingly1 the elements of the conscious feeling which now exists and now disappears1 must have existed before4 ,the presence of elements of feeling must be an additional feature of the processes of nature not included in the term motion1 and not observable in motions1 yet inseparably bound up in motions4 ,or1 in other words1 feelings and the elements of feeling are the subjective aspect of what objectively appears as and is called motions4 ,the term elements of feeling employed in this sense has been adopted from ,clifford4 ,the idea that feelings and motions are two aspects of one and the same reality has been held by several psychologists2 among whom are the founders of the science of psycho-physics1 especially ,fechner4 ,i4 ,,motion ,,and ,,feeling4 ,professor ,mach says3 ,putting together motion and feeling goes as much against me as would1 say1 the co-ordination of numbers and colors4 ,justification of juxtaposition4 ,the putting together of two concepts depends upon the purpose of our investigation4 ,motion and feeling1 in spite of their disparity1 have one quality in common which justifies their juxtaposition4 ,both in their spheres are terms of the most general circumscription4 ,feeling described4 ,by feelings ,i understand those features of our experience which constitute what may be called the awareness of the present state4 ,feeling comprehends all the many degrees of awareness in pleasures and pains1 sensations and thoughts1 emotions and ideals4 ,it constitutes the subjectivity of our existence and furnishes the basis of all psychic life4 ,feeling is the most general term of its kind4 ,motion described4 ,by motion ,i understand all kinds of changes in the objective world that can either be directly observed or are supposed to be observable4 ,indeed all changes taking place must1 objectively represented1 be thought of as motions4 ,feeling and motion being each the broadest concept of its kind1 the question1 ,in what relation do motions stand to feelings8 appears to be quite legitimate4 99 99 99 99 99 ,concerning the relation that obtains between feeling and motion1 ,professor ,mach objects to the use of the expression feeling accompanies motion4 ,material processes1 he says1 are not accompanied by feeling1 but both are the same4 ,and in another passage1 ,the parallelism stands to reason1 since everything is parallel to itself4 ,the term accompany inadequate4 ,i grant most willingly that the term accompany is inadequate1 and ,i admit that a certain feeling and a certain motion form one inseparable process4 ,there is no duality of feeling and motion1 both are different abstractions made from one and the same reality4 ,i do not say that feeling and motion are identical1 not that they are one and the same2 but ,i do say that they are one4 ,there is no such thing as pure feeling2 real feeling is at the same time motion4 ,feeling by itself does not exist in reality4 ,pure feeling is a mere abstraction4 ,and wherever the expression parallelism between feeling and motion has been used1 it can mean only a parallelism between the two spheres of abstraction4 ,professor ,mach continues3 ,they motion and feeling are not two sides of the same paper 7which latter is invested with a metaphysical rle in the simile71 but simply the same thing4 ,fechner's simile4 ,for the same reason ,professor ,mach objects to ,fechner's comparison4 ,yet it seems to me that ,fechner hit the mark when he compared feeling and motion to the inside and the outside curves of a circle2 they are entirely different and yet the same4 ,the inside curve is concave1 the outside curve is convex4 ,if we construct rules relating first to the concave inside and then to the convex outside1 we shall notice a parallelism in the formulas2 yet this parallelism will appear only in the abstractions which have been made of one and the same thing from different standpoints and serving different purposes4 ,the abstract conceptions form two parallel systems1 but the real thing can be represented as parallel only in the sense that it is parallel to itself4 ,if we consider the real thing1 it represents a parallelism of identity4 ,there is but one line1 and this one line is concave if viewed from the inside1 it is convex if viewed from the outside4 ,the simile of a sheet of paper4 ,the simile which ,i introduced of the two sides of one and the same sheet of paper was devised to convey no other meaning than this construction of ,fechner's comparison4 ,the paper is invested with a metaphysical rle only in the case where the simile is otherwise construed4 ,there is no page which exists of itself as a mere mathematical plane independent of the paper of which it forms a side4 ,thus there can never be in reality a page without its counterpage4 ,the paper1 its size and color1 belong to the page and constitute its properties4 ,thus the abstraction 'feeling' represents my looking at the one side of reality4 ,i leave1 and from the subjective standpoint ,i have to leave1 the other side out of account4 ,yet the other side of the sheet is inseparable from the one at which ,i am now looking1 just as much as feeling is inseparable from motion4 ,and ,i am constrained to admit the truth of the reverse also3 motion is inseparable from feeling1 but with the limitation that motions need not be on their subjective side actual feelings2 they may be only elements of feeling which under certain conditions become actual4 ,the metaphysical misinterpretation4 ,i am aware that my comparison of feeling and motion to the two sides of one sheet of paper may be easily misinterpreted4 ,but is not that a danger to which all comparisons are subject8 ,a comparison is always imperfect1 or as the ,romans used to say1 it limps3 ,omne simile claudicat4 ,and is not reality liable to be misinterpreted in the same way8 ,have not some philosophers thus introduced the metaphysical explanation of the unknowableness of things in themselves8 ,such philosophers conceive the two sides of a sheet of paper 7the abstract mathematical planes of the pages7 as phenomenal and the paper as their metaphysical essence4 ,the size of the sheet1 the color of the paper1 and all its other qualities are in a metaphysical world-conception represented as properties of which the thing is possessed--not as constituting the thing1 but as essentially different from it4 ,it appears to me that ,professor ,mach in spite of his opposition to ,fechner's simile and to the expression that feeling and motion are two aspects of one and the same reality1 entertains the same view4 ,at least his words3 ,only the relation in which we consider them makes them at one time physical elements1 at another time feelings1 are to that effect4 ,,ii4 ,,sensations ,,and ,,thoughts4 ,professor ,mach's problem4 ,the difference between ,professor ,mach's view and mine may appear greater than it is1 because the problem which ,professor ,mach treats in his article ,the ,analysis of the ,sensations1 lies in quite a different field from that of the problem of the relation of feeling to motion4 ,the problem being different1 the same and similar terms are not only used for different purposes1 but demand also different comparisons4 ,professor ,mach's symbols ,a ,b ,c 444 and 444 represent a contrast different from that of feeling and motion4 ,they represent the contrast of sensations and thoughts4 ,sensations1 such as green and hard1 are colors1 pressures1 tastes1 etc2 thoughts are memory-images1 concepts1 volitions1 etc4 ,professor ,mach says3 ,how the representative percepts of imagination and memory are connected with sensations1 what relations they bear to them1 as to this ,i dare venture no opinion4444 ,monism1 as yet1 ,i cannot thoroughly follow out2 because ,i am lacking in clearness with regard to the relation of 444 to ,a ,b ,c 4442 but ,i believe that the first step towards a competent monism lies in the assertion that the same ,a ,b ,c 444 are both physical and psychical elements4 ,my symbols ,a ,b ,c 444 and 444 represent the contrast of physical and psychical elements1 not of sensations and thoughts4 ,concerning thoughts1 ,professor ,mach says he is much inclined to co-ordinate them with sensations so that his ,greek symbols might differ from his ,italic symbols not otherwise than the latter1 viz4 ,a ,b ,c 4442 differ among themselves4 ,taking this ground1 ,i believe1 it would be preferable to symbolise them accordingly among the ,italic letters1 perhaps as ,x ,y ,z4 ,in the diagrams on page #djg they are called 1 1 4 ,feeling1 sense-impression and sensation defined4 ,according to my terminology1 feeling1 as explained above1 is the most general term expressing any kind and degree of subjective awareness4 ,a sense-impression is a single irritation of one of the senses1 the irritation being a special kind of motion plus a special and correspondent kind of feeling4 ,a sensation is a sense-impression that has by repetition acquired meaning4 ,a later sense-impression1 when felt to be the same in kind as a former sense-impression1 constitutes1 be it ever so dimly1 an awareness of having to deal with the same kind of cause of a sense-impression2 thus giving meaning to it4 ,by sensation1 accordingly1 ,i understand a sense-impression which has acquired meaning4 ,and feelings that have acquired meaning1 ,i should call mental states4 ,representative feelings 7feelings that have a meaning7 are the elements of mind4 ,thought and thinking defined4 ,by thinking ,i understand the interaction that takes place between representative feelings4 ,such are the comparisons of sensations with memory-pictures1 or of memory-pictures among themselves1 the experimenting with memory-pictures so as to plan new combinations1 etc4 ,the products of thinking are called thoughts2 and by thought in the narrower sense is commonly understood abstract thought which on earth is the exclusive privilege of man4 ,if ,i am not mistaken ,professor ,mach understands by sensations 7represented by him as ,a ,b ,c 4447 what ,i should call sense-impressions2 while thoughts1 memories1 and volitions 7represented by him as 4447 form what ,i should call mind1 or all kinds of mental states1 that is1 the domain of representations4 ,the higher spheres of thought1 or representative feelings1 grow out of and upon the lower spheres4 ,sense-impressions1 as ,i have attempted to explain in the article ,the ,origin of ,mind 7,the ,monist1 ,no4 #a71 are the data which are worked out into concepts and ideas2 they are the basis upon which the whole structure of mind rests4 ,the reflex motions of simple irritations1 being modified in higher spheres by the rich material of experience consisting of memory-images1 and by the possibility of forethought created through experience1 become volitions4 ,monism and the origin of mind4 ,a monistic explanation of the rise of mind from elements that are not mind is possible only on the supposition that the objective processes of motion are not mere motions but that they are at the same time elements of feeling4 ,is this not the same position as ,professor ,mach's1 where he says that the first step towards a competent monism lies in the assertion that the same ,a ,b ,c 444 are both physical and psychical elements8 and again3 ,the same ,a ,b ,c 444 are both elements of the world 7the 'outer'#hc world namely7 and elements of feeling4 #hc ,professor ,mach here says outer world4 ,i should prefer to replace it by the expression objective world1 because the motions of a man's brain belong to the outer world of all other men4 ,to make sure of including the actions of my own body in this outer world1 ,i should prefer the term objective world1 making feelings alone 7to the exclusion of the subject's own motions7 the constituents of the subjective world4 ,agreement with ,professor ,mach4 ,considering the two last-quoted sentences of ,professor ,mach1 it appears to me that all differences vanish into verbal misunderstandings4 ,yet since ,i am not at all sure about it1 ,i may be pardoned for becoming rather too explicit4 ,the adjoined diagram may assist me in making my ideas clear4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 ,i4 ,fig4 ,,ii4 ,explanation of the diagrams4 ,let the large circle of both figures represent a sentient being1 a man4 ,the periphery is his skin4 ,the small circle enclosing ,k and ,l is a sensory organ2 the other small circle enclosing ,m and ,n represents the hemispheres of his brain4 ,a and ,b are processes taking place outside of the skin of this man4 ,a produces an effect in ,k2 ,b in ,l4 ,the line ,r represents a reflex motion4 ,m and ,n are concepts and abstract ideas derived from such impressions as ,k and ,l4 ,the line ,s represents an act of volition4 ,all these symbols represent motions in the objective world4 ,we know through physiological investigations that ,k1 ,l1 ,m1 and ,n are motions2 in our individual experience they appear as feelings4 ,the second figure represents in agreement with my system of symbols the states of awareness1 in ,greek letters4 ,certain physiological processes 7,k ,l ,r1 ,m ,n ,s of ,figure ,i7 appear subjectively as states of awareness 7i4 e4 1 of ,figure ,,ii74 ,yet ,a and ,b remain to the thinking subject mere motions4 ,if they possess also a subjective side1 although only in the shape of potential feeling1 it does not and it cannot appear4 ,sensations not elementary4 ,professor ,mach calls green1 hard1 etc41 which in a certain relation are our sensations1 the elements of the world4 ,these processes characterised as green1 hard1 etc41 are in my opinion too special and at the same time too complicated to be considered elementary4 ,i grant that they are elements of mind1 because if further analysed1 they cease to be mental phenomena4 ,but they are not elements per se1 not elements of the world4 ,it remains doubtful to me whether ,professor ,mach understands by his term sensation only ,k and ,l or the whole relations ,a ,k 1 and ,b ,l 4 ,taking it that he represents ,a ,b ,c 444 as both elements of the world and sensations1 it almost appears certain to me that his term sensation stands for the whole process ,a ,k 1 and that he considers the scientific analysis of this process into ,a the outside thing1 into ,k the nerve-vibration corresponding in form to the outside thing1 and the feeling that takes place in experiencing the sense-impression ,a ,k1 as an artificial procedure that serves no other purpose than that of familiarising us with certain groups of elements and their connections4 ,the processes ,a ,k 1 ,b ,l 1 in that case would be considered by ,professor ,mach as the actual facts1 while the ,a and ,b1 the ,k and ,l1 the and represent mere abstract representations without real existence1 invented by scientists in order to describe the realities ,a ,k 1 ,b ,l 1 etc41 with the greatest exactness as well as economy of thought4 ,in their separate abstractness they are the tools of science only and we must not take them for more than they are worth4 ,thoughts as mental implements4 ,if this be so1 ,i understand ,professor ,mach very well and ,i agree with him when he looks upon all ,m and ,n with their respective and as being noumena1 ,gedankendinge1 things of thought4 ,they are mental tools4 ,sense-impressions are realities1 but mental representations are implements2 they are auxiliaries for dealing with realities2 they are the augers and saws employed in the different fields of cognition4 ,persistence of the elements of mind4 ,professor ,mach says in his article ,the ,analysis of the ,sensations3 ,when ,i 7the ego7 cease to perceive the sensation green1 when ,i die1 then the elements no longer occur in their customary1 common way of association4 ,that is all4 ,only an ideal mental economical unity1 not a real unity1 has ceased to exist4 ,the term sensations1 it appears to me1 can in this passage be interpreted neither as ,k only1 nor as the whole relations ,a ,k 1 but as any ,a ,b ,c 444 relations2 and since ,professor ,mach has not excluded from them the element of feeling1 ,i should have to represent them by ,a 1 ,b 1 ,c 4444 ,sensations as ,i understand the term 7viz4 ,a ,k 1 ,b ,l 71 are elements of mind2 if they are further analysed they cease to be mental states4 ,says ,professor ,mach3 ,if ,i close my eye 7,k7 withdraw my feeling hand 7,l71 ,a ,b ,c 444 disappear4 ,in this dependence ,a ,b ,c 444 are called sensations4 ,should we not rather say1 they cease to be sensations1 if this dependence ceases8 ,accordingly1 sensations and sense-impressions are for this and for other reasons not indecomposable1 not ultimate atoms4 ,the elements of mind can be further analysed into the elements of the elements of mind4 ,the elements of mind do not persist2 but the ultimate elements of the elements of mind1 whatever they are1 do 7or at least may7 persist4 ,when speaking of the elements of the elements of mind we cease to deal with objects of actual experience as much as a physicist or chemist does who speaks about atoms4 ,nevertheless the analysis is as legitimate in our case as it is in the chemist's4 ,if in the above quoted passage ,i am allowed to replace ,professor ,mach's term sensations by elements of sense-impressions1 ,i should not hesitate unreservedly to accept his idea4 ,these elements of sensations would be all kinds of natural processes1 all kinds of motion4 ,they would be physical actions which are not mere motions but also and at the same time elements of feeling4 ,ideas as contrivances for comprehension4 ,it is true that abstract concepts1 and especially scientific terms and theories1 are mere contrivances to understand the connections among1 and the qualities of1 real things4 ,ideas are not the real things1 but their representations1 and some ideas are not even representations2 they are solely of an auxiliary nature and comparable to tools4 ,they are used as working hypotheses wherever the real state of things is in part hidden from us1 until we have found the actual connections4 ,as soon as the actual connections are found we can and must lay down our tools4 ,in a certain sense all words and concepts are tools for dealing with the realities they represent4 ,but some words are tools in a special sense4 ,they have been invented for acquiring a proper representation4 ,the dignity of mental tools4 ,professor ,mach says3 ,the implement is not of the same dignity or reality as ,a ,b ,c4444 ,it appears to me that these implements 7if they are of the right kind7 have almost a higher dignity 7although not reality7 than the material to which they are applied4 ,my respect for tools is very great1 for tools are the most important factors1 perhaps the decisive factors1 in the evolution of man4 ,the usage of tools has matured1 nay created the human mind1 and words1--scientific and abstract terms and theories not excluded1--are the most important and most sacred tools of all4 ,some ideas1 it is true1 have to be laid aside like tools that are no longer wanted2 but there are other ideas which we cannot lay aside1 because they have more value than the ideas of a mere working hypothesis4 ,some ideas are indispensable and will remain indispensable2 we shall always have to employ them in order to represent in our mind the connection between certain facts4 ,if we see a train pass into a tunnel and emerge from it at the other end1 we will connect in our mind these two sensations by the thought of the train's passage from one end to the other4 ,this idea is not a sensation2 it is a noumenon4 ,shall it therefore be called a mere noumenon1 a tool that has to be discarded as soon as we are accustomed to expect a train to emerge from the one end of a tunnel soon after it has disappeared into it at the other end8 ,noumena legitimate1 if representing realities4 ,there are scientific concepts which1 for some reason or other1 can never become objects of direct observation2 they can never become sensations4 ,nevertheless we must think them together with certain sensations as indispensable connecting events taking place behind the stage and hidden from our eyes4 ,our conception of a train hidden from sight in a tunnel1 it is true1 is a noumenon1 but it is a legitimate noumenon1 it represents a reality4 ,so also many scientific ideas1 although undoubtedly things of thought1 are legitimate noumena4 ,if they contain and in so far as they do contain nothing but formulated features of reality or inevitable conclusions from verified and verifiable experiences1 these things of thought represent something real1 which means that if we were in possession of microscopes of sufficient power1 or if we could look behind the veil that hides them from our sight1 we should see them1 just as we should see the train if the rock through which the tunnel leads were transparent4 ,,iii4 ,,the ,,origin ,,of ,,feeling4 ,concerning the origin of feeling ,professor ,mach says3 ,the question how feeling arises out of the physical element has for me no significance4 ,i agree that we cannot ask how feeling arises out of the physical element4 ,but feeling being a fleeting phenomenon1 to propose the problem of the origin of feeling has a significance4 ,physical elements with and without feeling4 ,some physical elements--namely1 those of our own body--are indubitably possessed of the subjective phenomena of feeling4 ,and as to certain other physical elements1 observable in our fellow creatures1 that is in men and animals1 no one would think of denying their presence either4 ,but there are physical elements which we regard as bare of all feeling4 ,the wind that blows1 and the avalanche that plunges into the valley are not supposed to be feelings4 ,yet the energy of the wind and the energy of the avalanche may be utilised and ultimately stored up in food4 ,the food may be changed into human energy and then the element of feeling appears as if called forth out of the void4 ,we agree that feeling has not been changed from motion4 ,but if feeling was not motion before1 what was it8 ,feeling cannot be a creation from nothing4 ,consequently it must in its elements have existed before4 ,feeling1 namely actual feeling1 must be regarded as a special mode of action of the elements of feeling4 ,if all that which we can observe in motion1 all that which the term motion comprises1 constituting the objective changes taking place in nature1 contains nothing of feeling or of the elements of feeling1 we must yet attach to every motion the presence of this element of feeling4 ,elements of feeling not observable4 ,that the potential subjectivity of the physical elements1 namely the elements of feeling1 cannot be seen2 as motions can be seen and objectively observed1 is not a reason that militates against this view2 for it is the nature of all subjective states to be felt only by the feeling subject4 ,if all feelings are objectively unobservable except by their correspondent motions1 the elements of feeling can form no exception to the general rule4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the animation of all nature4 ,professor ,mach says3 ,some years ago ,i should have agreed in toto with the passages in which ,dr4 ,carus speaks of the animation of all nature and of the feeling that accompanies every motion4 ,nature not all feeling4 ,let me here emphasise that ,i have termed nature alive not in the sense that every motion is supposed to be accompanied with sensation1 nor with any kind of feeling1 but with an element of feeling only4 ,i am aware that the term element of feeling may be easily misunderstood1 and it seems advisable to guard against such misconceptions4 ,actual feeling ,i suppose originates from the elements of feeling similarly as an electric current originates under certain special conditions4 ,sulphuric acid dissolves zinc and sets energy free which appears in the copper wire as electricity4 ,it is an instance of the transformation of potential energy into kinetic energy4 ,the term elements of feeling inappropriate4 ,to use the expression elements of feeling is no more or less allowable than to speak of the stored up energy from which electricity is produced1 as elements of electricity4 ,the latter expression is inappropriate1 because we are in possession of better terms1 because our range of experience in the subject is wider4 ,but suppose that among all molar and molecular motions we were only acquainted with electricity and knew nothing of potential energy1 could we not for want of a better word form the term elements of electricity8 ,what the elements of feeling are not4 ,the elements of feeling should not be supposed to be feelings on a very small scale4 ,the elements of feeling may be and for aught we know are as much unlike actual feelings as mechanical motion1 or chemical dissolution is unlike electricity4 ,the essential features of feeling may be1 and ,i believe they are1 produced through the form in which their elements co-operate4 ,similarly the different pieces of a clock and the atoms of which it consists contain nothing of the clock2 and if we should call the heaviness of a weight1 the swinging property of the pendulum1 the tension of the spring1 etc41 etc41 elements of chronometry1 it might appear ridiculous1 because we know so many other processes1 viz4 all different ways of performing work1 for which these qualities can be used4 ,the action of a spring1 of a suspended weight1 of a mere pendulum are not by themselves elements of chronometry2 they become a chronometrical arrangement only by their proper combination with a dial and hands attached1 and by being correctly regulated in adaptation to temperature and many other conditions4 99 99 99 99 99 ,it is not plausible that the earth1 when in its gaseous state1 was the habitation of any feeling beings1 and it is actually impossible that it harbored feeling beings as they exist now4 ,feeling accordingly must have originated1 and the question how feeling originates is a problem that suggests itself naturally to the psychologist as well as the philosopher4 ,vital energy a unique form of energy4 ,the kinetic energy liberated in our actions1 in brain-activity as well as muscular motions1 is produced from the potential energy stored up in our tissues4 ,this energy1 qua energy1 is the same energy which we meet everywhere in nature4 ,all kinds of energy are interconvertible4 ,yet we must bear in mind that the vital energy displayed in animal organisms is a special and indeed a unique form of energy4 ,it is as different from other forms of energy as is1 for instance1 electricity from molar motion4 ,physiology and psychology not applied mechanics4 ,in former times physics and chemistry were considered as applied mechanics1 and physiology as applied chemistry4 ,this position1 however1 is wrong and had to be abandoned4 ,mechanical1 chemical1 physiological1 and psychical processes exhibit radically different conditions4 ,the student of mechanics1 the chemist1 the physiologist1 the psychologist1 each one of them attempts to solve a different problem4 ,they accordingly deal with different sets of abstractions4 ,the processes which constitute the subject-matter of the physiologist's and psychologist's work are different from those of the mechanical philosopher and of the chemist4 ,the abstraction of the so-called purely mechanical excludes such processes as chemical combinations2 it is limited to molar mechanics only4 ,the term molecular mechanics is an attempt at widening the domain of mechanics4 ,but the terms of neither molecular nor molar mechanics contain anything of the properly physiological nature observed in vegetal and animal life4 ,the latter is a very complicated process which may briefly be described as assimilation of living forms4 ,the laws of molar and molecular motions are not annulled1 yet they are superseded2 they remain1 yet some additional important traits appear4 ,different conditions and complications show different features and the characteristics of organised life are not the molar or molecular mechanics of their motions but their properly physiological features4 ,mechanical laws accordingly cannot explain physiological action1 and still less have they anything in common with ideas1 or thoughts1 or feelings4 ,accordingly1 the attempt to apply mechanics to any other than mechanical considerations is prima facie to be rejected4 ,we must never forget that all our scientific inquiries deal with certain sides of reality only4 ,the higher view of the whole4 ,the abstractions of the mechanical philosopher as well as those of the physiologist and psychologist are one-sided aspects only of reality4 ,yet it is quite legitimate to take a higher standpoint in order to classify our notions so that the general views comprise the special views and to determine the relations among the several in their kind most general views4 ,in this way we can shape our entire knowledge into an harmonious world-conception representing the whole as a whole4 ,this ,i tried to do when1 following the precedent of ,fechner and ,clifford1 ,i proposed the problem of the origin of actual feelings from the non-feeling elements-of-feeling1 the former depending upon a special combination or form of action of the latter1 and the latter being a universal feature of reality4 ,the additional feature in a stone's fall4 ,when we observe some very simple process in nature1 e4 g4 the fall of a stone1 we represent it as a motion4 ,we formulate the operation of the stone's fall into a law1 describing its mode of action as it holds good in all cases of the same kind4 ,but the motion observable and representable in our mind is not all that takes place4 ,there must be some additional feature which in a further development will appear as man's consciousness4 ,to regard the fall of a stone as only a very simple instance of essentially the same process that takes place when a man does an act1 i4 e4 performs a motion accompanied with consciousness1 appears at first sight strange or even absurd4 ,but we cannot escape the assumption that in a certain respect it is the same thing4 ,we are inevitably driven to adopt this monistic conception of things by inexorable logical arguments2 and we are supported in it by the observation of natural processes4 ,human activity and energy4 ,human action develops by degrees out of other natural processes1 and we have sufficient evidence to believe that humanity with its civilisation1 science1 art1 and all its ideals--so far as the energy alone1 spent in human activity1 is considered--is but a differentiation of natural forces that has come to pass on the cooled off surface of the earth under the influence of solar heat4 ,man is transformed solar heat4 ,all the forces animating the planetary system are differentiations from the heat of which our solar system was possessed when in a nebular state4 ,and what is the heat of which nebular masses are possessed8 ,it is the motion of celestial bodies1 of comets1 or of so called world-dust1 changed by collision into molecular motion4 ,but in human activity there is some additional element1 that of purely subjective awareness1 which is neither energy in itself nor can have been transformed from energy2 it must have existed potentially4 ,accordingly we assume that also in the more primitive processes of nature there is some additional element which in its full development appears as feeling and reaches its highest stage known to us1 in the consciousness of man4 ,,iv4 ,,the ,,origin ,,of ,,organised ,,life4 ,organised life and feeling4 ,there is a very original view concerning the origin of life advocated in this number of ,the ,monist by ,dr4 ,george ,m4 ,gould in his article on ,immortality4#hd ,the problem of the origin of life 7namely1 of organised life7 is so closely connected with the problem of the origin of feeling1 that the one cannot be solved without solving the other4 ,feeling such as we are familiar with is an exclusive property of organised life and a few incidental remarks on ,dr4 ,gould's proposition will therefore not be out of place4 #hd ,it cannot be denied that many ideas set forth by ,dr4 ,gould in his presentation of the problem of immortality contain a deep truth4 ,the brilliant and forcible language in which the author treats his subject is admirable4 ,but the passages on the externality of life present a conception which stands in direct opposition to the views that have been editorially upheld in ,the ,open ,court as well as the ,monist4 ,dr4 ,gould's dualism4 ,in introducing here the views of ,dr4 ,gould in a discussion with ,professor ,mach1 ,i am fully aware of the great difference that obtains between the two4 ,while ,professor ,mach's thought moves in an outspoken monistic direction1 ,dr4 ,gould presents a bold dualism1 attributing to all life1 to the lichen on the withered rock no less than to the human soul1 an extramundane origin4 ,why should we not then rather adopt the more consistent theological supernaturalism which attributes to inorganic nature also an extramundane origin1 thus to realise by a short cut a complete unitary world-conception8 ,dr4 ,gould's proposition is contained in the following3 ,certain confused and confusion-breeding philosophers1 in the interests of a theoretical monism or pantheism pretend to find1 or to believe1 that the organic is born out of the inorganic1 that the physical world shows evidence of design1 that life and mentality were implicate and latent in pre-existent matter4 ,yet they will accept the evidence against spontaneous generation derived from the fact that if you kill all organic life by intense heat and then exclude life from without you will never find life to arise4 ,but it is plain that in the condensation of the dust of space into suns and planets1 all organic life was killed in the hottest of all conceivable heat4 ,but as the planets cool1 life appears4 ,it must have come from without1 and must therefore be a universal self-existent power4 ,what can externality of life mean8 ,the idea that life must have come from without is not quite clear4 ,does ,dr4 ,gould mean from without our planetary system1 out of other planetary systems8 ,if so1 the same objection holds good3 ,in other planetary systems also when they were in a nebular state all organic#he life was killed in the hottest of all conceivable heat4 ,shall we perhaps consider the cold interstellar regions as the place whence life does come8 ,and if from without means from without the whole universe1 we should be driven back to the old supernaturalistic dualism which regards nature as dead and life as a foreign element that has been blown into the nostrils of material forms so as to animate them4 #he ,dr4 ,gould does not seem to make a distinction between organic and organised4 ,we should here prefer the expression organised life4 ,carbon is an organic substance but not an organised substance4 ,a cell and its protoplasm1 however1 are organised substance4 ,a modern thinker on the externality of life4 ,dr4 ,gould proposes his theory of the external origin of life1 with great confidence1 in the name of modern science4 ,must we add that modern science is very far from sustaining his view8 ,professor ,clifford touches the subject of spontaneous generation in his article ,virchow on the ,teaching of ,science4 ,he says3 ,why do the experiments all 'go against' spontaneous generation8 ,what the experiments really prove is that the coincidence which would form a ,bacterium--already a definite structure reproducing its like--does not occur in a test-tube during the periods yet observed4444 ,the experiments have nothing whatever to say to the production of enormously simpler forms1 in the vast range of the ocean1 during the ages of the earth's existence4444 ,we know from physical reasons that the earth was once in a liquid state from excessive heat4 ,then there could have been no living matter upon it4 ,now there is4 ,consequently non-living matter has been turned into living matter somehow4 ,we can only get out of spontaneous generation by the supposition made by ,sir ,w4 ,thompson1 in jest or earnest1 that some piece of living matter came to the earth from outside1 perhaps with a meteorite4 ,i wish to treat all hypotheses with respect1 and to have no preferences which are not entirely founded on reason2 and yet whenever ,i contemplate this simpler protoplasmic shape ,which came down in a fire-escape1 an internal monitor1 of which ,i can give no rational account1 invariably whispers ',fiddlesticks6' ,difficulties of ,dr4 ,gould's position4 ,suppose1 however1 ,dr4 ,gould's assumption were accepted1 suppose that life had come from without1 matter were of itself lifeless1 and life1 the self-existent power1 had ensouled some dead organic substances so as to cause their organisation1 would we be any wiser through this hypothesis8 ,the assumption instead of diminishing the difficulties in the problem of life1 would increase them4 ,new questions arise3 ,what must this self-existent power be conceived to be8 ,does it exist without a physical basis 7to use ,professor ,huxley's phrase78 ,how does it differ from energy8 ,is not all power energy of some kind8 ,and are not all kinds of energy interconvertible8 ,has this self-existent power the faculty of changing other energy into itself1 into life1 or is it only supposed to utilise it8 ,in the latter case it would be a ,ding an sich1 not in but behind the functions of organisms2 and in both cases it would form an exception to the law of the conservation of energy1 for the self-existent power of life would be an ever-increasing power4 ,one life-germ only may have come from spheres unknown into the universe1 and by utilising the mechanical energy of the material world has animated at least our earth1 and may animate in a similar way all the globes in the milky way4 ,that life-germ1 however1--if it was anything like a real life-germ1 such as our naturalists know of1--must have consisted of organic substance4 ,what a strange coincidence1 that outside of the world also organic substances are found6 ,life-germs are not simple substance1 but highly complex organisms4 ,accordingly1 the question presents itself1 ,how has this life-germ been formed8 ,what conditions in another world radically different from ours have moulded it and combined its parts into this special life-germ so extraordinarily adaptable to our material universe8 ,or must we suppose that the first life-germ was formed out of the cosmic substance of our universe by a non-material spark of life1 7whatever life may mean17 that had dropped in somehow into the material world from without8 ,if life is a self-existent power1 why does it always appear dependent upon and vary with the organisation1 which it is supposed to have formed8 ,why has life never been observed in its self-existence8 ,so far as we have ever been able to observe life1 it is matter organised and organising more matter4 ,all the difficulties disappear if we say1 ,life does not produce organisation1 it is organisation4 99 99 99 99 99 ,organisms nor aggregates of cells4 ,dr4 ,gould1 in appealing to the latest scientific researches as proving the dependence of all organisation upon life1 especially mentions his friend ,dr4 ,edmund ,montgomery and also ,professor ,frommen's article ,zelle 7,eulenburg's ,realencyclopdie der gesammten ,heilkunde1 #ahij74 ,now it is true1 as ,dr4 ,gould says1 that the body of animals is not an aggregate of cells4 ,it is as little a mere aggregate of cells as a watch is a mere aggregate of metal1 or as a hexagon a mere aggregate of lines4 ,the body of animals is an organism2 which means1 it is an interacting whole of a special form built of irritable substance4 ,a highly complex organism is not and cannot be considered as a compound of its diverse organs1 but as a differentiation4 ,its unity is preserved in the differentiation1 yet this unity does not exist outside of or apart from the differentiated parts4 ,disparity of life and matter4 ,i fully assent to ,professor ,huxley's proposition1 approvingly quoted by ,dr4 ,gould1 that materialism is the most baseless of all dogmas4 ,i also believe in the omne vivum ex vivo2 but ,i do not consider it with ,dr4 ,gould as an axiom1 nor can ,i accept the consequence which ,dr4 ,gould derives from it1 that life viz4 organised life is more certain and enduring than matter1 soul than sense4 ,it is true that matter and life are as far apart as heaven and earth4 ,farther indeed1 for they are two abstractions of an entirely disparate character4 ,no passage through spatial distance1 be it ever so large1 could bring both concepts together4 ,they are and remain as different1 as is for instance the idea expressed in a sentence from the ink with which it is written4 ,ideas contain no ink and ink contains no ideas4 ,yet this does not prove that ideas exist by themselves in a ghostlike abstractness apart not only from ink1 but also from feeling brain-substance4 ,nor does the disparity of the terms life and matter prove the abstract or independent existence of life outside of matter4 ,if life for some such reasons as hold good only in so far as they refute the old-style materialism1 could or should be considered as being some self-existent power having come into the world to bite at matter1 we might also consider the hexagon as a something that came into the mathematical world from without4 ,the hexagon cannot be explained as a mere aggregate of lines1 accordingly hexagoneity must be a self-existent power2 it must have come from without1 utilising lines for its hexagonic existence4 ,organised life must have originated from non-organised elements by organisation1 and thus a new sphere is created which introduces new conditions4 ,the laws of organised life are not purely mechanical laws1 nor physical laws1 nor chemical laws1 but they are a peculiar kind of laws2 just as different as chemical laws are from purely mechanical laws 7the latter not including such phenomena as are generally called chemical affinity74 ,natural laws and monism4 ,natural laws are formulas describing facts as they take place under certain conditions4 ,accordingly if special conditions arise we shall have a special set of laws4 ,monism assumes that all the laws of nature agree among themselves2 there is no contradiction among them possible4 ,yet there may be an infinite variety of applications4 ,the processes of organised life are not mere mechanical processes4 ,the abstractions which we comprise under our mechanical terms do not cover certain features of vital activity and cannot explain them4 ,physiology is not merely applied physics2 it is a province of natural processes that has conditions of its own and the physiological conditions are different from physical conditions4 ,this however does not overthrow monism4 ,we believe none the less in the unity of all natural laws and trust that if the constitution of the cosmos were transparent in its minutest details to our inquiring mind1 we should see the same law operating in all the different provinces2 we should see in all instances a difference of conditions and consequent thereupon a difference of results that can be formulated in different natural laws1 among which there is none contradictory to any other4 ,,editor4 ,,literary ,,correspondence4 ,i4 ,,french ,,publications4 ,why do we sleep8 ,some have said1 through cerebral congestion2 others1 through cerebral anmia4 ,in reality the question remains undecided4 ,m4 ,s4 ,,sergueyeff has attempted to resolve it in his scholarly lectures published under the title of ,le ,sommeil et le ,systme nerveux1 ,physiologie de la ,veille et du ,sommeil4#hf ,he considers it under a new and very general point of view4 #hf ,in two thick octavo volumes4 ,alcan1 publisher4 ,according to him1 wake and sleep would be the two alternating phases of one and the same function1 necessarily vegetative1 and absolutely indispensable to life4 ,sleep would respond to an assimilation2 wake to a dis-assimilation4 ,to this vegetative function1 nevertheless1 it is necessary to assign an aliment1 an organ1 a mechanism4 ,now as yet we know of only two material forms of assimilative activity1 the one semi-liquid for digestion1 the other gaseous for respiration4 ,the aliment of sleep would be1 as opposed to this1 an ethereal matter1 or1 if we wish1 a dynamic form1 susceptible of being accumulated and of being transformed in various ways4 ,at first sight1 no doubt1 it seems difficult to accept a sthenic aliment1 without a ponderable substratum1 and it sounds a little strange to seek in the phenomena of wake and sleep an assimilative group the object of which belongs to the ambient dynamism1 in other terms1 a functional activity1 which should be influenced by the condition of the alimentary source--that which would give at the same time the explication of the fact1 that1 in a general way1 the two phases of wake and sleep are related to the planetary periodicity of day and night1 summer and winter4 ,let us1 however1 follow ,m4 ,sergueyeff in his interesting researches1 where the scientific spirit does not cease1 at any rate1 to sustain him4 ,in his theory the cerebro-spinal system is no longer the organ1 as it is in the theories of congestion and anmia2 but it is rather the so-called sympathetic elements1 the ganglio-epidermic system1 of which the imperfectly known functions rightly require to be explained4 ,struck with the insufficient reasons given of the phenomenon of caloricity resulting from the section of a sympathetic nerve1 or from the obstruction of a ganglion1 ,m4 ,sergueyeff has been led to assume an action of the great sympathetic1 different from the vaso-motor action4 ,he does not hesitate1 in order to explain the caloricity1 to admit into physiology the principle of the mechanical equivalence of heat4 ,he endeavors to prove1 by an ingenious argument1 that the heat which is produced after the section of the sympathetic nerves1 finds its immediate origin in the arrest of a nervous centripetal movement2 that this arrested movement owes its existence to dynamic condensations1 to which certain organs of the ganglionic system are adapted1 being endowed with a condensatory capacity2 and finally that in the normal state the movement represents1 not an expenditure of energy1 but a contribution1 that is to say1 it is a movement of a trophical character4 ,the sanguineous condition of the brain remains to be considered2 but the difference in this respect between wake and sleep1 would be purely distributive instead of being quantitative4 ,schiff has remarked that white rats deprived of their cerebral lobes and corpora striata sleep and wake2 which leads us to think that the phenomena of cerebral irrigation are consequentials1 and not essentials1 of wake and sleep4 ,in short1 these two alternating phases serve in turns as chief moving causes for the vaso-motor excitation which differences1 in one or the other period1 the sanguineous condition of this or that medullar locality4 ,we cannot follow the author in the special study he makes1 first of the sensitive nerves and the motor nerves1 then of the cerebral activities in the conditions of wake and sleep4 ,it would be laborious to disengage his psychological doctrine from the long discussions which envelop it1 and which1 well carried out as they may be1 do not always allow it to appear with as much distinctness as could be wished4 ,we will note only the care that he takes to restore the psychic initiative1 contrary to the theories most in favor to-day4 ,he supposes a prefunctional movement of the sensitive nerves1 in order to determine the sensorial impression2 attentive volitions in order to explain attention1 voluntary or involuntary4 ,according to him1 the physiological phenomenon which necessarily corresponds to sufficient attention1 that is to say to the laying hold of an object by consciousness1 can only be a volitional nervous movement4 ,he remains convinced that the cells of the brain must project incessantly in certain of their afferent fibres centrifugal influxes which tend to meet with perceptive images2 and feeble and involuntary as these influxes may be1 he ranks them nevertheless in the somewhat mysterious category of so-called attentive volitions4 ,these are not reflexes1 but automatic movements4 ,and definitively1 every act of attention belongs to the category of volitional movement1 be it involuntary or voluntary2 or in short1 attentive volition exists prior to its voluntary strengthening4 ,as to the revival of images1 it is necessary to admit the intervention of a previous tendency to association4 ,the difficulty remains then to know how we are to be able to keep these images before the consciousness1 in order to apply our attention to them1 and what secret cause has power to arouse the signals1 the nervous movements1 which present them to it4 ,the author resolves the difficulty by accepting1 for cases of intentional reviviscence1 ideo-motor volitions1 to which he attributes a considerable rle2 their intervention distinguishes precisely1 says he1 the active memory from the passive memory4 ,in reality1 for ,m4 ,sergueyeff the consciousness is not1 as we have said1 a simple result of the image1 an epiphenomenon2 it is permanent 7thus he affirms that we always think1 that we always dream72 the ,ego1 the ,we is for him an irreducible factor4 ,this way of looking at things has evidently influenced the choice of his terminology1 more than it has vitiated his analysis1 and its conclusions1 moreover1 he has not put down to the credit of any system of metaphysics whatever4 ,far from having exhausted the matter of his book1 which is replete with criticisms and facts1 ,i have hardly sketched its outlines1 and ,i should be his false interpreter if ,i did not recall1 in conclusion1 the hope strongly expressed by himself1 that the great assimilative work of an imponderable aliment reserves for us many other solutions beyond that of the phenomena of wake and sleep4 ,though it may be1 says he to his hearers1 that in all the recent words ,i have uttered1 the truth shines only by a spark1 do not disdain this spark1 gentlemen4 ,may one of you receive it within him1 for it can1 ,i have the confidence1 by a more powerful breath than mine suddenly increase1 like a polar aurora1 and illuminate unbounded horizons4 99 99 99 99 99 ,we now come to a book of less scope1 rudely constructed perhaps1 but very instructive4 ,as indicated by the title chosen by him1 ,la ,psychologie de l',idiot et de l',imbcile1#hg ,dr4 ,,paul ,,sollier has attempted to draw the portrait of the idiot and the imbecile in general2 which ,i sincerely approve of persuaded as ,i am that we shall find profit in sketching generic types and in tracing the composite photographs of social individuals grouped in various ways1 in order to establish on solid basis a natural history of societies4 ,the novelists have approached this difficult enterprise at random2 it is for the psychologists to direct it with a method more sure and a tact not less delicate4 #hg ,alcan1 publisher4 ,idiocy is not always congenital2 the lesions which produce it are extremely varied and do not consist by any means in a simple arrest of development4 ,in short1 idiots form a very diversified clinical group2 and here was the first difficulty necessary to overcome in order to write their psychology4 ,profiting by the insufficient definitions that authors have given of idiocy1 ,m4 ,sollier thinks he is able in his turn to define it as a chronic cerebral affection with varied lesions1 characterised by troubles of the intellectual1 sensitive1 and motory functions1 going possibly as far as their almost complete abolition1 and which assumes its special character1 particularly in what concerns intellectual troubles1 only in the youthful age of the subjects it strikes4 ,then1 discussing the proposed classification1 he stops to form three categories1 which he connects with the intellectual development1 for which attention serves him as the touch-stone4 ,they are3 7#a7 absolute idiocy--complete absence and impossibility of attention2 7#b7 simple idiocy--feebleness and difficulty of attention2 7#c7 imbecility--instability of attention4 ,these differences in the state of attention 7we recognise the fruit of the excellent teaching of ,m4 ,ribot7 separate with sufficient clearness the imbecile from the idiot3 the latter remains extra-social1 the former becomes anti-social4 ,m4 ,sollier1 for whom the imbecile1 let us say in passing1 is an exceedingly disagreeable personage1 follows out throughout the whole of his book this distinction1 which seems to us one of the most curious and the most piquant aspects of it4 ,how many people in the world border on imbecility1 without belonging clinically to this type1 and maintain the mischievous rle of destroyers and marplots6 ,readers familiar with the study of mental maladies will not be astonished to find among idiots the following signs of degeneracy3 dulled senses1 obtuse perceptions1 a poor condition of sensibility and consequently of mobility1 and anomalies or perversions of the instincts1 sentiments1 etc4 ,but that which makes of them a group apart1 is the constitution of the perfect type from infancy1 while among the degenerates properly so-called1 the perversions1 the manias1 etc4 present1 are the episodical concurrences of a morbid evolution which unrolls itself capriciously in the course of a whole life4 ,m4 ,sollier has interesting remarks nearly everywhere in his book4 ,we may refer1 for example1 to what he says concerning pity1 courage2 of writing2 of hereditary organic memory2 of ideas1 etc4 ,it is curious1 certainly1 to see idiots suddenly show themselves skilful in playing an instrument which was that of their father and of their grandfather4 ,a passing observation on impressionability1 greater for color in girls and for form in boys1 deserves to be developed3 ,i regret that the author should have been sparing of details on this point as on some others4 ,m4 ,sollier appears1 we may say1 to have aimed not so much at giving new explanations in psychology1 as at verifying those which have been proposed by good authors4 ,he is precise1 positive2 from the medico-legal point of view1 he presents practical conclusions1 and does not embarrass himself in sentimentalism1 from which the ,philosophie pnale#hh of ,m4 ,,tarde1 let it be said parenthetically1 is not always sufficiently free4 #hh ,first volume of the ,bibliothque de ,criminologie4 ,masson1 publisher4 ,a word more with reference to the great suggestibility of imbeciles1 on which ,m4 ,sollier reasonably insists4 ,since ,i spoke in this place1 three months ago1 of the work of ,m4 ,bonjean1 the awkward intervention of ,m4 ,ligeois in the ,eyraud-,gabrielle ,bompard case has contributed to compromise the ,nancy school1 much more than to serve it4 ,m4 ,brouardel is able to object with ingenuity that certain persons1 supposed to be victims of hypnotism1 unfortunately obey suggestions which are the most agreeable to them4 ,it is good advice to be cautious4 ,still it is necessary to take into account 7it is what ,i had omitted to say7 the character of the subjects1 in order to be able to judge of the possible accomplishment of acts suggested in sleep4 ,for1 it is not doubtful that among the abnormal1 the imbecile1 the mentally feeble1 one could not count much on the revolt of a moral personality which is not constituted1 on the efficiency of a power of inhibition which is almost null1 and that generally criminal suggestion can become formidable when it is attended by bad instincts4 ,it remains to speak of a work by ,m4 ,a4 ,,ricardou1 ,de l',idal1 ,etude philosophique4#hi ,i avow without any disguise that ,i have not taken any interest in it4 ,m4 ,ricardou declares himself a deist1 spiritualist2 the misfortune is that he follows so much the vague and wavering manner of his school4 ,a fine rhetoric1 elevated aspirations2 but few facts1 not sufficient realities freely seen4 ,what end is served by rebelling against physiological psychology1 and by laying claim to the rights of the method of introspection8 ,in truth1 no one denies its right2 it is suspected only when it affects supremacy1 and rejects all control4 #hi ,alcan1 publisher4 ,i simply mention1 in conclusion1 the interesting work1 which appeared last year1 of ,m4 ,l4 ,,levy-,,bruhl3 ,l',allemagne depuis ,leibniz1 ,essai sur le developpement de la conscience nationale en ,allemagne4#ij ,it belongs1 in great part1 to the history of philosophy1 and furnishes to it a valuable contribution4 #ij ,hachette1 publisher4 ,paris1 ,march1 #ahia4 ,,lucien ,,arr,,at4 ,,ii4 ,,the ,,modern ,,literature ,,of ,,italy ,,since ,,the ,,year #ahgj4 ,not being a man of letters1 but an alienist1 ,i will give you a psychological rather than a literary description of the condition of literature in ,italy4 ,my presentation will undoubtedly have many defects and deficiencies in details1 but it will perhaps thereby gain in originality of treatment4 ,it is one of the characteristics of ,european writers1 and especially of ,italians1 to isolate themselves completely from scientific research4 ,beauty for itself1 the imitation of the ancients--this is the defect1 or the strength1 of our poets4 ,,aleardi1 it is true1 put some years ago a little botany and geology into his poetry1 as did1 nearly a century ago1 ,mascheroni1 in his celebrated epistle ,invito a ,lesbia ,sidonia4 ,,zanella1 a true priest1 has sung in a celebrated ode the ,coquille ,fossile1 which portrays in colors truly poetical the last discoveries of paleontology4 ,but this naturalism was only a light varnish1 like the golden powder that coquettes sprinkle on their hair1 and which falls at the first movement4 ,it is nevertheless true that some poets1 not appreciated yet as they deserve1 draw their inspiration from nature or from history4 ,such is ,,artur ,,graf1 who in my opinion owes his genius to an intermixture of race1 ,italian1 ,greek1 and ,german1 and also to a climatic graft1 as he comes from ,roumania2 which shows the favorable influence of the double race-infusion4 7,see my work on ,genius47 ,in his poem ,medusa1 ,graf has mingled naturalism and ,schopenhauerianism with a poetical spirit which is highly original4 ,he has also written ,il ,diabolo and the ,legend of ,rome among the ,nations of the ,middle ,ages2 a work which has philological and historical merit1 especially in connection with the ,folk-lore of past centuries4 ,these books are in prose2 but their form is wholly poetical4 ,,rapisardi is truly the ,juvenal1 and we may also say the ,lucretius1 of contemporaneous ,italy4 ,he began by giving us the best translation of the great ,roman poet1 and he has absorbed much of his spirit1 and perhaps also of the asperity of his verses1 and of his contempt for form4 ,his great original poem is the ,giobbe 7,catania71 in which he has given a bitter satire of modern society and of contemporary literary men2 however1 he would seem to be sometimes too personal2 so much so that many persons have not forgiven him4 ,lately he has published a collection of ,religious ,poems 7,catania1 #ahhh71 in which1 despite its title1 there is much less religion than naturalism4 ,it is a hymn1 worthy of its master1 to the religion of nature and to the beauty of truth1 without forgetting the grand social ideas of justice which our poets so often forget4 ,,praga may be described as the ,baudelaire of ,italy4 ,he too1 like the latter1 lived and died an alcoholist and paralytic4 ,he was the first to break with the ,grco-,latin traditions2 and has drawn his inspiration from the caprices of his disease1 which has given him a powerful and original stamp4 ,his best works are ,penombre and ,tavolozza4 ,the same lot1 induced by the same disease1 has befallen ,,rovani1 who in his historical novels 7,giulio ,cesare and la ,storia di centi anni7 has performed good work in history and psychology4 ,among writers truly original1 ,,mantegazza excels in prose4 ,his is one of those many-sided1 versatile minds that are met with in the ,latin races2 such as ,cardano1 ,leonardo da ,vinci1 ,l4 ,b4 ,alberti1 ,voltaire1 ,taine1 ,richet4 ,he is by turns pathologist1 physiologist1 chemist1 anthropologist1 geographer1 traveller1 and novelist4 ,his novel ,dio ,ignoto is semi-naturalistic4 ,in his ,fisiologia del piacere he has attempted a new kind of personal observations1 although it is met with in the novels of ,balzac1 of ,flaubert1 and of ,gonoret4 ,in his ,physiology of pain he has again become pathological1 serious2 this book has1 accordingly1 not obtained the success that it merited4 ,in the ,feste ed ,ebbrezze he describes the pleasures of the people4 ,but ,mantegazza1 who has the originality of genius1 has also its evil and treacherous volubility2 and we cannot say what is his patriotic and philosophic faith4 ,he has written pages that seem dictated by a catholic priest1 by the side of others worthy of ,aretino 7,amore degli uomini71 and still other pages which could be signed by ,victor ,hugo4 ,less original perhaps1 but much more consistent with himself1 is ,m4 ,,trezza1 another versatile writer1 a theologist1 poet1 historian1 critic1 philosopher1 philologist1 but who has not changed the facets of his genius1 or the conscience of his faith4 ,at one time a priest1 he was one of the most ardent preachers2 but the study of natural science and of philosophy drew him away from his faith and plunged him in naturalism4 ,he has preserved all the apostolic warmth of the ardent and honest priest of his youth4 ,thus he has emerged from it a new being immovable in his faith3 ,come torre che non crolla ,giammai la cima per soffiar dei venti4#ia #ia ,like a tower that shakes not ,in the blasts of the storm4 ,his works in religious criticism ,la ,religione e le ,religioni1 and also in history and philosophy 7,lucrezio1 ,epicuro e l',epicurismo1 ,la ,critica ,moderna7 have received from it a peculiar impress1 in which the enthusiasm of the apostle is mingled with the calm observation of science1 and history confounds metaphysics4 ,he is the first and the only one perhaps1 who has attempted criticism in ,italy while preserving a literary brilliancy which reminds us of ,carlyle4 ,but according to universal opinion1 among all these stars1 the star of first magnitude is ,,giosue ,,carducci4 ,he is the true representative of the ,italians1 a graft of antiquity on the moderns1 but in which antiquity predominates4 ,his poems 7,le ,nuove ,poesie1 ,le ,odi barbare1 ,le ,nuove ,odi barbare1 ,le ,terze ,odi barbare1 ,le ,nuove ,rime7 have attracted the greatest attention4 ,he has introduced and revived a new metre1 many times tried1 but never with success1 by ,trissino1 ,campanella1 ,chiabrera1 and others2 a new metre which reproduces the ancient rhythm of ,greek and ,roman poetry1 especially the elegy and the ,alcaic ode4 ,his is a new pagan ,renaissance with a certain gloss of modernness but with outbursts sometimes patriotic and even revolutionary which the ,renaissance lacked4 ,his prose works also consist of archaic reconstructions of ,italian literary history and of vigorous polemics1 sometimes too personal1 but always with a refinement of critique4 ,by the side of these productions which are known everywhere1 and which can be truly called national1 there is a substratum1 of considerable extent1 of literary works that have a local character4 ,such is the poetry of dialect which has however a great weight with us2 for the best satirical poems and the best comedies are almost always written in dialect 7,pascarella in the ,roman dialect1 ,fucini in the ,tuscan dialect1 ,di ,giacomo in ,neapolitan1 ,bersezio in ,piedmontese1 ,rizzotto in ,sicilian74 ,it must be remarked also that this local division is still maintained in the rolls of the great army of literature1 although this does not prevent such works passing beyond the geographical limits of their territory and becoming known throughout the whole of ,italy4 ,we have a ,ligurian-,piedmontese school with ,,de ,,amicis at the head1--,de ,amicis1 who now however often attempts social studies with much intrepidity1--and ,,barili1 ,,farina1 ,,bersezio1 ,,giacosa1 and ,,faldella1 who possess the common characteristic of a sentimentality almost feminine1 altogether opposed to the rugged country of which they constitute the glory4 ,there is the ,tuscan-,bolognese school of which ,,carduui is the chief pontiff and which hovers about the old school4 ,m4 ,,panzacchi1 ,,ricci1 ,,marradi1 and ,,stecchetti belong to it2 there was an epoch in the life of the last named in which he launched into a style which seemed naturalistic1 but which was at bottom only pornographic2 but he immediately compensated for his escapade by a great number of philological memoirs of an erudition truly oppressive1 ultra-academical4 ,there is the ,abruzzian school1 of which ,d',,annunzio is the head4 ,its characteristics are variegated tropical coloring1 and a certain studied ornamentation sometimes burdened with similes and metaphors1 and an exaggerated objectivity2 it lays hold of the outside of things1 but does not reach to and grasp the soul of the inner life of nature4 ,the ,neapolitan school is made up of compilers and ingenious critics1 who will make you an elegant embroidery with gossamer threads on the point of a needle4 ,the most celebrated names of this school are ,,settembrini1 ,,desanctis1 ,,bonghi1 and ,,vittorio ,,imbriani4 ,the ,sicilian is the rudest1 but it is the most powerful and most original4 ,we could name the great historians ,,cemari1 ,,la ,,lumia1 ,,lafarina2 and ,,pittre1 who created ,italian ,folklore1 and who has maintained it with a special journal4 ,sicily has also given us two great novelists1 ,,verga and ,,capuana1 who are improved ,zolas4 ,the ,malavoglia and ,don ,gesualdo of ,m4 ,verga give us the home life of the ,sicilian people4 ,in the ,giacinta of ,capuana we have the life of the citizens and of the ,italian nobility photographed4 ,women always preserve the local type2 but with special features4 ,hardly any write in verse2 they compose novels and light productions rather than romances1 sketches rather than true portraits4 ,they choose the young girl and the unfortunate married woman2 very often they write autobiographies1 or the biography of their friends or their husbands4 ,the land-question has nevertheless been dealt with very well by the ,marchioness ,,colombi1 7pseudonym of ,madame ,torelli ,viollet7 and the woman's question has been treated of with great vigor and statistically by ,,kulischioff2 ,i have not spoken of ,,annie ,,vivanti1 another proof of the advantages of crossing1 for she is ,anglo-,american and ,anglo-,italian1 and a ,jewess to boot2 she writes in verses which have nothing of the classical element in them--an extraordinary thing in ,italy4 ,her works possess originality1 which goes as far as the most extreme naturalism4 7,lirica di ,annie ,vivanti1 #ahij47 ,in fine1 modern ,italy has not many literary masterpieces to show4 ,and this is due to a number of causes4 ,in romances and comedies1 dash and spirit demand a certain stock of observations that can be found only in great cities 7capitals71 and in ,italy1 ,rome and ,milan are only beginning to be such4 ,originality1 multiplicity1 and energy of types are very scarce in ,italy1 for everywhere the conventional lie dominates2 it is much more difficult to choose models here than it is in certain other countries1 for example in ,russia2 for genius alone can draw inspiration from inferior and ordinary material4 ,the classical system of education has prevented us from going to the source of social anomalies1 mattoids1 madmen1 etc4 ,besides1 classicism1 which has dominated us for so many centuries1 and which has inspired us with its marvellous beauties1 has1 like the old1 7and it is very old17 lost all its vital force4 ,people have made believe to warm themselves by it2 but they have not succeeded2 they remain cold2 and they admire its adepts only in deference to the conventional lie4 ,yet the entire education of our youth consists of that4 ,it is the same as in religion4 ,people have made ,madonnas and ,jesuses of it to such an extent that now there is no longer any means of contriving anything new4 ,naturalism without being the natural foundation of the people is nevertheless sufficiently advanced not to allow of serious inspiration in religion4 ,many authors who have sought new paths have been led out of their way by journalism and politics1 which always end in exhausting people1 even geniuses4 ,,scarfoglio1 ,,bonghi1 ,,torelli1 ,,dezerbi1 and ,,ferri are among the number4 ,the difficulty of securing a place in the literary world also very quickly exhausts many4 ,thus many men1 especially of ,southern ,italy1 produce a very good work2 but they have become fathers too late in life1 and have only a single son2 such are ,,bersezio1 with his ,travet1 ,,boito with his ,ballate1 ,,valcarenghi with his ,confessioni d',andrea4 ,political liberty1 if it has given an impulse to social and political studies1 has prejudiced great literary production1 perhaps because under the incitement of foreign domination and of rebellion1 the heart draws from a grand source of inspiration1 and the pen finds powerful excitation1 more powerful perhaps1 than liberty gives it4 ,art finds more numerous elements of success in minds highly excited4 ,it is the property of great revolutions to elevate the souls of all contemporaries1 to impart to them a peculiar disposition unknown before1 and which is not slow to disappear4 ,the most humble1 the most obscure1 those even who have not taken any part in the events and who have hardly studied them1 express1 a long time afterwards even1 sentiments much superior to those which their ordinary condition allows4 ,it is sufficient to have lived during some passionate epoch to issue from it better1 purer1 and stronger4 ,the new ideas1 the generous impulses which then carry away nations1 penetrate into all classes and ennoble a whole generation4 ,we had in our revolutionary epoch1 ,manzoni1 ,massimo d',azeglio1 ,guerazzi1 ,giusti1 ,porta1 ,miceli1 ,brofferio1 ,berchet1 ,mameli1 ,boerio1 ,laquacci1 ,aleardi1 ,grassi1 ,prati4 ,who have we now to compare with them8 ,turin1 ,march1 #ahia4 ,,cesare ,,lombroso4 ,,book ,,reviews4 ,,the ,,origin ,,of ,,the ,,aryans4 ,an ,account of the ,prehistoric ,ethnology and ,civilisation of ,europe4 ,by ,isaac ,taylor1 ,m4 ,a41 ,l4 ,l4 ,d4 ,new ,york3 ,scribner ,welford4 ,the author of this extremely interesting work states in the preface that it does not aim at setting forth new views or speculations4 ,his opinions on its main thesis1 that is1 as to the place of origin of the primitive ,aryans1 are those of ,spiegel and ,schrader1 except where he prefers the conclusions of ,cuno4 ,these writers1 with the majority of the latest investigators of the subject1 accept the view originated#ib by the ,english philologist ,dr4 ,r4 ,g4 ,latham in #ahea1 that the original home of the primitive ,aryans was on the great plain of ,central ,europe4 ,cuno insisted also on what ,dr4 ,taylor affirms is now an axiom in ethnology1 that race is not coextensive with language4 ,this is a most important principle1 as it completely changes the aspects of the problem by making it more complex4 ,it introduces1 in fact1 a fresh element2 as it requires the ,aryan to be identified before his primitive habitat can be sought for4 #ib ,dr4 ,daniel ,g4 ,brinton in his ,races and ,peoples points out that the view referred to in the text was first stated by the ,belgian naturalist ,m4 ,d',halloy2 but it has always been accredited to ,dr4 ,latham by ,german writers and1 as mentioned by ,dr4 ,taylor1 was regarded by them as an ,english fad4 ,the difficulties attending this identification are clearly pointed out in the present work4 ,during the neolithic period1 ,europe was inhabited by four distinct races1 all of which are represented among the present ,aryan-speaking peoples of the continent4 ,if the primitive ,aryans are to be identified with one of those races it must have imposed its speech on the other three4 ,moreover1 of those four races1 two are decidedly dolichocephalic1 or long-headed1 the other two being as decidedly brachycephalic1 or broad-headed4 ,the latter are now represented by the ,slavo-,celtic1 and the ,ligurian1 or ,swiss and ,savoyard1 peoples2 while the present representatives of one primitive long-headed race are the ,swedes1 the ,north ,germans and the ,friesians1 and of the other1 the ,corsicans1 the ,spanish ,basques1 and some of the ,welsh and ,irish4 ,there are grounds for believing1 however1 that the two dolichocephalic races were derived from a single root1 and that the two brachycephalic races will ultimately be identified as one4 ,there would thus be left only two primitive stocks1 one long-headed and the other short-headed1 and ,dr4 ,taylor concludes1 not only that the primitive ,aryans belonged to the latter1 but that they were racially connected with the ,finno-,ugric tribes of ,eastern ,europe and ,central ,asia4 ,he shows that the culture of the ,slavo-,celtic race1 as exhibited in the round barrows of ,britain and the pile-dwellings of ,central ,europe1 comes nearest to that of the primitive ,aryans1 as disclosed by linguistic palontology4 ,further1 that anthropologically this belongs to the same type as that of the tall1 fair1 broad-headed ,finno-,ugrian tribes2 agreeably to which1 the grammatical resemblances between the ,aryan languages and those of the ,ural-,altaic stock point to a primitive unity of speech4 ,there would seem to be no doubt that the greater part of ,europe was originally occupied by peoples of the long-headed type1 and ,dr4 ,taylor conjectures that at the close of the reindeer age a ,finnic people appeared in ,western ,europe1 whose speech remaining stationary1 is represented by the agglutinative ,basque1 and that much later1 at the beginning of the pastoral age1 when the ox had been tamed1 a taller and more powerful ,finno-,ugrian people developed in ,central ,europe the inflective ,aryan speech4 ,this theory requires that the non-,aryan long-headed race should have acquired in some way the ,aryan speech1 and it is not surprising that the ,north ,germans reject the ,turanian theory accepted by the ,french and espoused by our author1 and maintain that the physical type of the primitive ,aryans was that of their own tall1 fair1 dolichocephalous race4 ,on this view1 the ancestors of the brachycephalic ,lithuanians1 whose language best represents among those of ,europe the primitive ,aryan speech1 must have been ,aryanised by the ancestors of the ,teutons1 whose language approaches nearest to the ,lithuanian4 ,dr4 ,taylor points out1 however1 that this would leave unexplained how the speech of the brachycephalic ,celts and ,umbrians1 to say nothing of the ,greeks1 the ,armenians1 and the ,indo-,iranians1 was obtained from that of the dolichocephalic ,teutons2 how a people which in neolithic times was few in numbers1 and in a low state of culture1 succeeded in ,aryanising so many tribes more numerous and more civilised4 ,the question arises as to how far this ,aryanising process extended4 ,was it limited to language or did it include certain physical characters as well8 ,as a fact the superficial characters of the tall dolichocephalic type which1 according to ,nilsson and ,von ,dben1 has prevailed in ,sweden continuously from the earliest times to the present day1 make an approach to the florid complexion1 light eyes1 and reddish hair of the tall brachycephalic race4 ,the former have lighter hair1 a whiter skin1 and eyes of blue instead of gray1 but these are just the differences that might be expected1 as the result of the admixture of the ,slavo-,celtic stock with that to which the famous ,neanderthal skull belongs1 and which is now known as the ,canstadt type4 ,at the same time it is possible that the difference in color as well as in stature which distinguishes the tall from the short races belonging to both the long-headed and the broad-headed stocks may be the result of external influences1 such as climate1 food1 and clothing1 and the general conditions of life in a mountainous or northern region4 ,this would apply at all events to the ,teutonic or ,scandinavian type1 and also to the ,celto-,slavic which represents the primitive ,aryan type1 or rather their ,ugro-,finnic predecessors1 if it is true1 as ,dr4 ,schrader concludes1 that the undivided ,aryans had only two seasons1 winter and spring1 or at most three4 ,this fact does not necessarily imply that they lived in a northern region2 for the same climatic conditions could be met with in a mountainous district4 ,dr4 ,schrader thinks1 however1 that the precise region can be approximately indicated by reference to the beech tree4 ,we are told that this tree does not now grow east of a line drawn from ,knigsberg to the ,crimea1 and its northern limit must formerly have been still more restricted4 ,hence the cradle of the ,latin1 ,hellenic1 and ,teutonic races1 which have the same name for this tree1 must have been to the west of the ancient beech-line4 ,but since the ,slavo-,lithuanian name is a ,teutonic loan-word1 we must place the cradle of the ,lithuanians and the ,slaves to the east of this line4 ,but since there are philological reasons for believing in the unbroken geographical continuity of the ,european ,aryans previous to the linguistic separation1 they must be placed in northern ,europe astride of the beech line2 the ,slavo-,lithuanian in ,european ,russia2 and the ,celts1 ,latins1 ,hellenes1 and ,teutons farther to the ,west4 ,it may be doubted1 however1 whether this necessarily indicates northern ,europe as the primitive ,aryan home4 ,dr4 ,latham in his ,native ,races of the ,russian ,empire insisted on ,podolia being the region where ,sanskrit and ,zend developed themselves1 the ,slavo-,lithuanic region lying to the north and west of it4 ,curiously enough the beech-line passes directly through ,podolia1 which might therefore claim to be the classic ,aryan abode4 ,too much stress should not be laid1 however1 on such an incident as the occurrence of a particular name for a tree4 ,it is quite possible that the beech may not have been known to the brachycephalic ,aryans until after they came in contact with the dolichocephalic ,teutons4 ,this would seem1 indeed1 to be required if the ,ugro-,finnic origin of the ,aryans is well founded4 ,at the same time it should be pointed out that while1 according to ,keith ,johnston's ,physical ,atlas1 the region of deciduous trees extends as far east as the ,aral ,sea1 ,latham refers the beech to the ,caucasus as its special habitat2 and the mountain slopes of the ,caucasus are shown by ,peschel to be the best fitted geographically for the original home of the ,indo-,european race4 ,after all the question of the place of origin of the primitive ,aryans is not so important as that of their race affinities1 on which1 indeed1 the former question ultimately depends1 and ,dr4 ,taylor has done well to follow up what he terms the pregnant suggestion of ,dr4 ,thurnam1 the joint author with ,dr4 ,j4 ,barnard ,davis of their great work ,crania ,britannica1 as to the identification of the primitive ,aryans with the ,turanian race of the ,british round barrows4 ,that he has conclusively established this point it would be rash to affirm1 but he has presented a very strong argument in its favor1 which is not weakened by ,prof4 ,huxley's attempt to locate the fair dolichocephali in ,latham's ,sarmatia1 as the primitive ,aryan race4 ,it should not be lost sight of1 however1 that the ,ugro-,finnic relationship of the ,aryans would restore to them the ,asiatic origin of which recent discussion has tended to deprive them1 for the ,ugrians undoubtedly belong to the ,asiatic area4 ,on the other hand1 if ,dr4 ,topinard1 the distinguished ,french anthropologist1 is correct in his assertion that the ,aryan blood has disappeared1 the question resolves itself into a discussion of the ethnical affinities of those numerous races which have acquired ,aryan speech4 ,this is not our author's own opinion1 although it is perhaps countenanced by ,cuno's maxim4 ,we must leave here ,dr4 ,taylor's work which will be universally recognised as one of great merit1 whatever view may be taken as to the ,aryans and their origin4 4 ,,introduction ,,to ,,the ,,study ,,of ,,philosophy4 ,by ,william ,t4 ,harris4 ,new ,york3 ,d4 ,appleton ,co41 #ahij4 ,the merits of ,dr4 ,william ,t4 ,harris in the awakening and the fostering of philosophical interests in this country are extraordinary4 ,as the editor of the ,journal of ,speculative ,philosophy he has published translations of the most effective and important chapters of the ,european1 mainly ,german1 philosophers1 and also original articles by ,american thinkers4 ,among the latter we find contributions from names of highest rank1 as well as essays by the editor himself4 ,dr4 ,harris was also one of the most brilliant lights of the ,concord ,school of ,philosophy2 indeed1 he may be considered as its centre and representative1 for whatever divergence of thought may have appeared in the ,concord lectures1 the general character of what goes by the name of ,concord ,philosophy was determined by him4 ,the present work accordingly will command no common attention among those interested in the historical growth of ,american thought and especially ,american philosophy1 it being a systematic arrangement of extracts made by ,marietta ,kies from ,professor ,harris's essays1 compiled for the purpose of serving as a class-book at ,mt4 ,holyoke ,seminary and ,college4 ,however great may be the historical importance of ,dr4 ,harris as the ,nestor of ,american philosophy1 we cannot suppress our doubt as to whether his philosophy can be recommended as a study for beginners4 ,dr4 ,harris is too original a thinker1 and his originality is not in accord with the present time4 ,his cast of mind may be characterised as ,hegelian2 not that he should be called a follower of ,hegel1 but his way of thinking follows in many respects the method of abstract ratiocination pursued by that great ,german philosopher4 ,still1 the results of ,dr4 ,harris are even in closer contact with the religious ideas of ,christianity than those of ,hegel4 ,we shall delineate here a few characteristic traits of ,dr4 ,harris's speculative thought3 ,philosophy attempts to find the necessary a priori elements or factors in experience1 and arrange them into a system by deducing them from a first principle4 ,we should prefer according to the method of positivism to derive the so-called a priori or the formal1 and with it the conditions of cognition1 not from a first principle but from the facts of experience4 ,dr4 ,harris calls ,space1 ,time1 ,causality presuppositions of experience3 they make experience possible4 ,we consider them as parts of experience as characteristic properties1 and our concepts of time1 space1 and causality have been abstracted from experience4 ,dr4 ,harris says3 ,space in limiting itself is infinite 444 time is infinite1 and yet it is the condition necessary to the existence of events and changes4444 ,the principle of causality implies both time and space4444 ,if we examine it1 we shall see that it again presupposes a ground deeper than itself4 ,in order that a cause shall send a stream of influence over to an effect1 it must first separate that portion of influence from itself4 ,self-separation is1 then1 the fundamental presupposition of the action of causality4444 ,causa sui1 spontaneous origination of activity1 is the ultimate presupposition underlying all objects and each object of experience4444 ,causa sui1 or self-cause1 is properly the principle par excellence of philosophy4444 ,here is the necessary ground of the idea of ,god4 ,in the last chapter ,dr4 ,harris discusses the immortality of man1 denoting thereby the immortality of the individual and the continuance of consciousness after death4 ,he expresses his argument in admirable terseness in the following sentence3 ,how is it possible that in this world of perishable beings there can exist an immortal and ever progressive being8 ,without the personality of ,god it would be impossible1 because an unconscious first principle would be incapable of producing conscious being1 or if they were produced1 it would overcome them as incongruous and inharmonious elements in the world4 ,it would finally draw all back into its image and reduce conscious individuality to unconsciousness4 ,this is a different solution of the problem from that presented in the article ,the ,origin of ,mind in the first number of this magazine4 4 ,,the ,,evolution ,,of ,,sex4 ,by ,prof4 ,patrick ,geddes and ,j4 ,arthur ,thomson4 ,new ,york3 ,scribner ,welford4 ,the present work is in some sense a reproduction of the articles ,reproduction1 ,sex1 and ,variation and ,selection1 contributed by ,professor ,geddes to the most recent edition of the ,encyclopdia ,britannica4 ,it goes further1 however1 and not only contains much additional information1 but the views of the authors on the factors of organic evolution and on biology in general are more precisely formulated and developed4 ,the central thesis of the work1 as stated in the preface1 is in the first place1 to present an outline of the main processes for the continuance of organic life with such unity as our present knowledge renders possible2 and in the second1 to point the way toward the interpretation of these processes in those ultimate biological terms which physiologists are already reaching as regards the functions of individual life1--those of the constructive and destructive changes 7anabolism and katabolism7 of living matter or protoplasm4 ,the authors seek to prepare the way for the restatement of the theory of organic evolution1 that of definite variation1 with progress and survival essentially through the subordination of individual struggle and development of species-maintaining ends4 ,among the subjects treated of are ,sexual characters and the determination of ,sex1 the analysis of ,sex-organs1 tissues1 and cells--the nature and origin of ,sex1 and the processes and theory of reproduction4 ,this is a sufficiently broad field1 and it embraces various biological questions recently discussed1 especially that of sexual selection and the theories of ,professor ,weismann4 ,the authors claim that their view of the processes concerned with the maintenance of the species leads necessarily to a profound alteration of the conclusions usually held as to its origin4 ,what is meant by this statement appears from the last chapter1 in which the reproductive function as a factor in evolution is considered4 ,here it is stated that the usual perspective which places the theory of natural selection in the foreground1 sexual selection being a mere harmonious corollary1 has to be reversed4 ,recent investigations on heredity forbid that attention should any longer be concentrated on the individual type1 or reproduction regarded as a mere repetition process2 the living continuity of the species is seen to be of more importance than the individualities of the separate links4444 ,the species is a continuous undying chain of unicellular reproductive units1 which indeed build out of and around themselves transient multicellular bodies1 but the processes of nutritive differentiation and other individual developments are secondary1 not primary 7p4 #cjh74 ,the study of the reproductive process is thus of supreme importance for the understanding of organic evolution4 ,what then is the authors' theory of reproduction8 ,it may be stated in the terms of their own summary4 ,the essential fact in reproduction is the separation of part of the parent organism to start a fresh life4 ,hence1 it begins with rupture1 a katabolic crisis1 at which occurs cell-division1 this being always associated with the act of reproduction4 ,this is favored by katabolic conditions of the environment4 ,the opposition between nutrition and reproduction is the most obvious antithesis in nature after that of life and death--with the latter of which1 indeed1 as has been shown by ,goette1 reproduction is intimately associated--and it may be stated in the terms that as a continued surplus of anabolism involves growth1 so a relative preponderance of katabolism necessitates reproduction 7p4 #bcg74 ,the organic relation between nutrition and reproduction is thus shown to be one of great importance1 but its significance becomes more apparent when it is seen1 as pointed out by the authors1 that throughout organic life there is a contrast or rhythm between growth and multiplication1 between nutrition and reproduction1 corresponding to the fundamental organic seesaw between anabolism and katabolism4 ,this contrast may be read in the distribution of organs1 in the periods of life1 and in the different grades of reproduction2 and the contrasts between continuous growth and discontinuous multiplication1 between asexual and sexual reproduction1 between parthenogenesis and sexuality1 between alternating generations1 are all different expressions of the fundamental antithesis 7p4 #bca74 ,elsewhere1 the essential importance is referred to of the continual correlation1 yet antithesis--the action and reaction--of vegetative and reproductive processes in alternate preponderance1 to which the general rhythm of individual and social life runs parallel4 ,and yet this life is essentially a unity1 of which the specific characters are but the symptoms1 whatever may be their subsequent measure of importance and utility in adaptation1 their modification by environment1 their enhancement or diminution by natural selection 7p4 #cad74 ,this conclusion as to the unity of the life of the individual and that of the species1 is based on the fact that nutrition and reproduction are nearly akin4 ,hatschek goes so far1 indeed1 as to affirm that nutrition is reproduction1 an apparent paradox which is justified by the statement that not only do hunger and love become indistinguishable in that equal-sided conjugation which has been curiously called 'isophagy1' but nutrition in turn is nothing more than continual reproduction of the protoplasm4 ,the real unity is found in the fact that anabolism and katabolism1 which are the determining factors of growth and reproduction1 are the two sides of protoplasmic life4 ,this conclusion has an important bearing on the question of the origin of sex4 ,in his theory of genoblasts1 or sexual elements1 ,minot treats male and female as derivatives of primitive hermaphroditism in two opposite directions1 the differentiation taking place by the extrusion or separation of the contradictory elements1 the ovum getting rid of male polar globules1 the sperm leaving behind a female mother-cell remnant4 ,the authors of the present work accept this view1 which however has become extremely improbable since ,weismann has called attention to the fact that the same process takes place in the parthenogenetic summer-eggs of ,daphnidae--a fact which has been overlooked by our authors4 ,they also adopt ,rolph's view that the less nutritive1 and therefore smaller1 hungrier1 and more mobile cells are what we call male2 the more nutritive and usually more quiescent cell being the female1 as consistent with the conclusion already inferred from other facts that the female is the outcome and expression of preponderant anabolism1 and in contrast the male of predominant katabolism 7p4 #acb74 ,this conclusion is elsewhere stated as that the males live at a loss1 are more katabolic1--disruptive changes tending to preponderate in the sum of changes in their living matter or protoplasm4 ,the females1 on the other hand1 live at a profit1 are more anabolic1--constructive processes predominating in their life1 whence indeed the capacity of bearing offspring 7p4 #bf74 ,here is the same contrast as that seen in the alternating phases of cell-life1 of activity and repose1 and in the great antithesis between growth and reproduction4 ,the argument is put into diagrammatic form1 where the sum-total of the functions are divided into nutritive and reproductive1 the former into anabolic and katabolic processes1 and the latter into male and female activities4 ,this theory of ,rolph1 if it contains a grain of truth1 needs a thorough revision2 and the same may be said about the authors' special theory1 which is1 that there is a parallelism in the two sets of processes1 the male reproduction is associated with preponderating katabolism1 and the female with relative anabolism1 according to which view both primary and secondary sexual characters express the fundamental physiological bias characteristic of either sex 7p4 #bg74 ,this has a special bearing on the question of sexual selection1 the true relation of which to natural selection1 according to the authors of the present work1 must be expressed in their own words4 ,it is embodied in the conclusion that sexual selection is a minor accelerant1 natural selection a retarding 'brake1' on the differentiation of sexual characters1 which essentially find a constitutional or organismal origin in the katabolic or anabolic diathesis which preponderates in males and females respectively 7p4 #ca74 ,before concluding this notice1 it may be pointed out what are the particular conditions on which the determination of sex depends1 in regard to any given organism4 ,the various suggestions proposed as to the influence of parents1 according to age or otherwise1 the time of fertilisation1 ,starkweather's law that sex is determined by the superior parent1 and that the superior parent produces the opposite sex1 and ,dsing's theory as to the regulation of the proportions of the sexes1 are referred to by the authors and either rejected or considered as insufficient4 ,the conclusion they arrive at after considering the influence of nutrition1 temperature1 and other conditions1 is1 that adverse circumstances affecting the parents1 especially of nutrition1 but also age and the like1 tend to the production of males1 the reverse conditions favoring females2 a highly nourished ovum and fertilisation when the ovum is fresh and vigorous1 tend to the development of a female rather than of a male4 ,further1 the longer the period of sexual indifference continues1 the more important become the outside factors1 and here again favorable conditions of nutrition1 temperature1 and the like1 tend toward the production of females2 the reverse increase the probability of male preponderance4 ,this agrees with the conclusion independently arrived at that the male germs are of smaller size1 more active habit1 higher temperature1 shorter life1 and the females the larger1 more passive1 vegetative1 and conservative forms 7pp4 #ej1 #ea74 ,thus the authors' proposition that the male is the outcome of predominant katabolism1 and the female of equally emphatic anabolism1 might seem to be justified1 and it is confirmed by the curious phenomenon of alternation of generations1 and by various facts connected with growth and reproduction4 ,however1 it does not definitively exclude the theory 7see ,dr4 ,heinrich ,janke's work4 ,stuttgart1 #ahhi7 that the male is the outcome of katabolism of the male element coincident with anabolism of the female element1 and the female of the opposite state4 ,in considering the psychological and ethical aspects of sex from the physiological standpoint the authors remark truly that in order to obliterate the distinctions between male and female1 it would be necessary to have evolution over again on a new basis4 ,although so different1 however1 the two sexes are complementary and mutually dependent1 not merely because they are males and females1 but also in functions not directly associated with those of sex4 ,males1 as the more katabolic organisms1 are more active and variable than the anabolic females1 who are more passive and stable4 ,the former have larger brains and more intelligence1 but the latter have more of the altruistic sentiment and greater constancy in affection and sympathy4 ,man thinks more1 woman feels more4 ,he discovers more1 but remembers less2 she is more receptive1 and less forgetful4 ,all this is true within certain limits1 but whether or not it may be explained by other theories remains an open question4 4 ,,animal ,,life ,,and ,,intelligence4 ,by ,c4 ,lloyd ,morgan1 ,f4 ,g4 ,s4 ,london3 ,edward ,arnold4 ,the chief aim which the author of this important work had originally in view was the consideration of ,animal ,intelligence4 ,but the subject of ,intelligence being so closely associated with that of ,life1 and the questions of ,heredity and ,natural ,selection with those of ,habit and ,instinct1 he has devoted the first part of the work to ,organic ,evolution1 as introductory to ,mental ,evolution4 ,this was rendered necessary1 however1 by the direct bearing of ,professor ,weismann's recent contributions to biological science on questions of ,instinct4 ,it would be impossible to treat of the mental constitution of the lower animals without reference to that of man1 and in his preface ,professor ,morgan forestals certain results arrived at by a comparison of them4 ,he states that in man alone1 and in no dumb animal1 is the rational faculty1 as defined by him1 developed2 and he adds1 it is contended that among human folk that process of natural selection1 which is so potent in the lower reaches of organic life1 sinks into comparative insignificance4 ,man is a creature of ideas and ideals4 ,for him the moral factor becomes one of the very highest importance4 ,he conceives an ideal self which he strives to realise2 he conceives an ideal humanity towards which he would raise his fellow-man4 ,he becomes a conscious participator in the evolution of man1 in the progress of humanity4 ,so great a variety of topics are dealt with by the present work that we shall be able to do little more than refer critically to the author's special views1 particularly those which concern the mental characters of the lower animals4 ,there are1 however1 various points in the earlier part of the work well deserving of consideration4 ,such is the suggestion that1 instead of likening an organism as a whole to a steam-engine1 it would be better to liken each cell1 with its fluid explosive material1 to a gas-engine1 and the mixed air and gas to whose explosion its motion is due4 ,the importance of segregation as a factor in the formation of improved varieties is insisted on1 but ,professor ,morgan doubts whether differential fertility1 on which ,mr4 ,romanes lays great stress#ic1 would1 without the co-operation of other segregation-factors1 give rise to separate varieties capable of maintaining themselves as distinct species 7p4 #aje74 #ic ,the ,monist1 ,no4 #a4 p4 #e4 ,dealing with the knotty question whether1 if the egg produces the hen1 the hen produces the egg1 the author criticises ,professor ,weismann's idea of the continuity of germ-plasm1 which he regards as an unknowable1 invisible1 hypothetical entity1 that may be made to account for anything and everything1 and prefers the hypothesis of cellular continuity 7#ach et seq474 ,the cells which become ova or sperms never become differentiated into anything else1 and hereditary similarity is due to the fact that parents and offspring are derived eventually from the same germinal cells 7p4 #age74 ,finally1 ,professor ,morgan criticises ,mr4 ,wallace's views on the subject of sexual selection1 which he is inclined to think is a factor with natural selection in the guidance of evolution 7p4 #bjj et seq474 ,more than half of the book1 which contains more than #ejj pages1 is taken up with these preliminary disquisitions1 the remainder being concerned with the nature and development of the mental activities4 ,the first branch of this inquiry is that of the senses of animals4 ,we cannot follow the author in his very interesting remarks on this subject1 beyond referring to his suggestion that the lower animals may have senses not known to man4 ,after mentioning the muciparous canals met with in fishes1 he says1 apart from the possibility of unknown receptive organs as completely hidden from anatomical and microscopic scrutiny as the end-organs of our temperature-sense1 there are in the lower animals organs which may be fitted to receive modes of influence to which we human folk are not attuned 7p4 #bih74 ,for example1 insects may be sensitive to tones of heat2 while on the other hand1 their color phenomena may vary greatly from ours consequent on structural differences in the sense-organs4 ,in dealing with mental processes in man the author states as a well-known fact that a person whose leg has been amputated experiences at times tickling and uneasiness in the absent member 7p4 #cjg74 ,this is not1 however1 an accurate description of the phenomenon4 ,there can be no feeling in a lost limb4 ,the idea that the sensations are referred outward to the normal source of origin of impressions1 has arisen from the remark sometimes made by persons thus affected that they feel as though they still had toes4 ,this is true to some extent1 but as a fact the sensation is as though the toes were bent and tightly bound at the end of the stump1 and not at the end of the missing limb4 ,it is advisable before proceeding further to see what view ,professor ,morgan entertains as to the mental process in animals4 ,this is apparent from the statement that1 although there is no difference in kind between the mind of man and the mind of a dog1 yet that we have1 in the introduction of the analytic faculty1 so definite and marked a new departure1 that we should emphasise it by saying that the faculty of perception1 in its various specific grades1 differs generically from the faculty of conception4 ,the author adds1 believing1 as ,i do1 that conception is beyond the power of my favorite and clever dog1 ,i am forced to believe that his mind differs generically from my own 7p4 #cej74 ,elsewhere he says1 if ,i deny them self-consciousness and reason1 ,i grant to the higher animals perceptions of marvellous acuteness and intelligent inferences of wonderful accuracy and precision--intelligent inferences in some cases1 no doubt1 more perfect even than those of man1 who is often distracted by many thoughts 7p4 #cgg74 ,if we would understand these conclusions aright we must know the sense in which ,professor ,morgan uses the terms employed1 and to do this we must refer to the explanation he gives of mental processes in man4 ,he tells us that in the first place we obtain knowledge of the existence of the objects around us through perception1 which is attended with a process of construction4 ,an object is in fact a construct1 at the bidding of certain sensations1 which suggest to the mind the associated qualities4 ,in what sense such an object is regarded as real we shall see later on4 ,as to the constructs1 their formation is followed by examination1 by which they are rendered more definite1 particular and special1 and supplemented by intelligent inferences4 ,out of this intelligent examination arises a new mental process1 the analysis of constructs4 ,attention is paid to certain qualities of objects to the exclusion of others1 a process termed by the author isolation1 the products being isolates4 ,this process is constantly going on1 and all the qualities1 relationships1 and feelings thus isolated have applied to them arbitrary symbols4 ,they are in fact named1 and hence arises all our science1 all our higher thought4 ,at this stage we enter the field of conception1 as the isolates are concepts1 whereas throughout the process of the formation of constructs and their definition we have to do with perception and percepts4 ,here ,professor ,morgan agrees with ,noir in holding that the image1 in so far as it is an image1 whether simple or composite1 is a percept1 while so far as there enter into the idea of objects elements which have been isolated by analysis1 the words for those objects stand for concepts4 ,there is another important feature of the mental processes in man4 ,the primary aim of the reception of the influences of the external world1 or environment1 is to enable the organism to answer to them in activity4 ,moreover1 out of perceptions through association there arise certain expectations1 and the activities of organisms are moulded in accordance with these expectations4 ,phenomena are perceived as linked or woven1 and expectations are the outcome of that perception1 the mental process by which we pass from one link to another being called inference4 ,again1 we have perceptual inference1 or inference from direct experience1 and conceptual inference1 or inference based on experience1 but reached through the exercise of the reasoning faculties 7p4 #cbh et seq474 ,applying these principles to the mental processes in animals1 the author affirms that1 granting the theory of evolution1 the early stages of the process of construction--discrimination1 localisation1 and outward projection--are the same in kind throughout the whole range of animal life1 wherever we are justified in surmising that psychical processes occur1 and the power of registration and revival in memory has been established 7p4 #cch74 ,but1 though the higher mammalia form constructs analogous to1 if not closely resembling ours1 the resemblance cannot be in any sense close1 seeing to how large an extent our constructs are literally our handiwork4 ,to the question whether the higher animals have the power of analysing their constructs and forming isolates1 or abstract ideas of qualities apart from the constructs of which these qualities are elements1 ,professor ,morgan answers negatively4 ,he supposes1 for example1 that a dog may have a vague representation in memory of things good to eat1 in which the element of eatability is predominant and comparatively distinct1 while the rest is vague and indistinct2 and to mark the difference he calls the prominent quality a predominant1 as opposed to the isolate when the quality is floated off from the object4 ,hence he agrees with ,locke that abstraction1 in the sense of isolation1 is not possessed by the lower animals1 and he thinks that the line should be drawn there between brute intelligence and human intelligence and reason 7p4 #cdi74 ,as soon as predominant qualities are named they become isolates1 and thus body and mind became separable in thought2 the self was differentiated from the not-self2 the mind was turned inwards upon itself through the isolation of its varying phases2 and the consciousness of the brute became the self-consciousness of man4 ,the agent in this upward progress is language1 and hence1 granting the possibility of a transitional stage where word-signs stood for predominants1 and not yet for isolates1 the author accepts ,prof4 ,max ,mller's view that language and thought are practically inseparable 7p4 #cga74 ,if any serious objection can be made to this reasoning1 it must be we think to the opinion that language made1 not merely conceptual thought1 but analysis and isolation possible4 ,this is preceded1 as we have seen by intelligent examination1 and we are expressly told that out of this arises the mental process of analysis of constructs which animals do not possess4 ,to this faculty then must be traced the ultimate distinction between them and man4 ,it may be doubted1 moreover1 whether animals have any idea of even a predominant quality apart from some object4 ,the formation of constructs1 that is the recognition of objects1 as the result of external stimuli1 is instinctive1 except so far as it depends upon association through experience in past generations4 ,if animals can even vaguely represent a single quality apart from an object1 it is the first step in analysis1 and there is no reason why they should not go on to abstraction or isolation1 and thence to reason4 ,that animals do not possess reason1 in the sense of conceptual inference1 is we think unquestionable1 and ,professor ,morgan does well in restricting them to intelligence1 by which he intends the process by which perceptual inferences are reached 7p4 #ccj74 ,we have not space to refer to the views expressed in the chapter on ,appetence and ,emotion1 beyond stating that the author1 while admitting that in animals are to be found the perceptual germs of even the higher emotional states1 concludes that ethics1 like conceptual thought and sthetics1 are beyond the reach of the brute4 ,morality is essentially a matter of ideals1 and these belong to the conceptual sphere 7p4 #dad74 ,in the chapter on ,habit and ,interest1 after speaking of ,mr4 ,romanes's treatment of instinct as most admirable and masterly1 he compares ,mr4 ,romanes's views as to the origin of secondary instincts with those of ,professor ,weismann as to the non-inheritance of acquired characters1 coming to the conclusion that lapsed intelligence is not a necessary factor in the formation of instincts1 and that there is a probability of some inheritance of experience 7p4 #dcf et seq474 ,we must refer our readers to the work itself for the author's explanation of the monistic theory1 according to which the two sets of phenomena1 the physical and the mental1 are identical1 differing only in being viewed from without or felt from within 7p4 #dag74 ,this view is developed in the chapter on ,mental ,evolution1 where we read1 according to the monistic hypothesis1 kinesis and metakinesis are co-ordinate4 ,the physiologist may explain all the activities of men and animals in terms of kinesis4 ,the psychologist may explain all the thoughts and emotions of man in thoughts of metakinesis4 ,they are studying the different phenomenal aspects of the same noumenal sequences 7p4 #dgb74 ,for ,professor ,morgan the idea of the object is the object1 but he is not a pure idealist4 ,phenomena are something more than states of consciousness4 ,there is a noumenal reality which underlies the reality of the phenomena1 and the enduring ego1 of which certain states of consciousness are occasional manifestations1 is the metakinetic equivalent of the organic kinesis4 ,here he sees the solution of the problem which baffles alike materialists and idealists 7p4 #dge74 ,we must now take leave of this work which1 notwithstanding its occasional abstruse and technical character1 is not beyond the ready comprehension of the general reader of average intelligence4 ,it deserves to be widely read1 not only for its subject-matter1 but for its clearness of explanation and wide grasp of thought4 ,the value of the book is much added to by its diagrams and illustrations1 and by an excellent index and table of contents4 4 ,,physiognomy ,,and ,,expression4 ,by ,paolo ,mantegazza4 ,new ,york3 ,scribner ,welford1 #ahij4 ,this work of the versatile ,italian ,anthropologist is probably one of those which best represent his many-sided mind1 and which will be the most extensively read4 ,although strictly scientific1 both in its end and method1 it is popular in style and contains matter which must recommend it to the ordinary as well as the scientific reader4 ,as the author informs us1 he has taken up the study of expression at the point where ,darwin left it4 ,but he has made a further step4 ,he has set himself the task of separating1 once for all1 positive observations from the number of bad guesses1 ingenious conjectures1 which have hitherto encumbered the path of the study of the human countenance and human expression4 ,his book is a page of psychology1 and he has endeavored to supply the psychologist1 and also the artist1 with new facts1 as well as old facts interpreted by new theories1 and to bring into view some of the laws to which human expression is subject4 ,a glance at the table of contents shows that the author has fully carried out the promise thus made4 ,the first chapter of the work after giving an historical sketch of the science of ,physiognomy and of ,human ,expression--which in its infancy was seasoned with the magic which is one of the original sins of the human family--and tracing it from ,dalla ,porta to ,darwin1 through ,niquetius1 ,ghiradelli1 and ,lavater1 proceeds to treat of the human countenance in general1 and of each of its features in particular4 ,the possible judgments on the human face are reduced in number to five3 the physiological1 the ethnological1 the sthetic1 the moral1 and the intellectual4 ,of these verdicts1 the ethnological and sthetic are based almost exclusively on anatomical characters1 while the physiological1 moral1 and intellectual verdicts depend chiefly on expression4 ,the coloration of the human skin is an important ethnological feature1 and ,m4 ,mantegazza thinks that it may be reduced to three tints1 white1 black1 and dried bean 7fave seche71 which last he explains by saying that it results from the superposition of two colors1 most frequently from a sort of black or very dark brown dust deposited on a ground of dried bean 7p4 #ca74 ,among other interesting ethnological generalisations1 is the remark that the ,aryans1 ,semites1 and many negroes have large eyes1 while ,mongols and many ,malays have small eyes4 ,in determining the color of the eyes1 hair1 and skin1 the author found the table of tints prepared by ,m4 ,broca for the ,anthropological ,society of ,paris insufficient1 as the colors there used are opaque1 while transmitted as well as reflected rays are combined to give the natural coloration4 ,in the iris of the ,lapps fourteen different and graduated shades are distinguishable1 from dark chestnut brown to green4 ,m4 ,mantegazza confirms the observation that a certain hue of the eyes is nearly always associated with a particular hair-color1 and he states that this union is one of the most unvarying ethnical characters by which to judge of the purity of race4 ,the nose is nearly as important as the eye as an ethnical and sthetic feature4 ,the author reproduces ,m4 ,topinard's curious table of its morphological characteristics observing that it omits only one1 which nevertheless is somewhat important1 that is1 the angle made by the root of the nose with the forehead4 ,in relation to the mouth we have the suggestive remark1 the eye is the centre of the expression of thought2 the mouth is the expressive centre of feeling and of sensuality4 ,as to the color of the hair1 ,m4 ,mantegazza has brought together many important facts4 ,among the higher races1 the hair may be of almost any of the ordinary tints4 ,the ,jews do not differ from the ,europeans in this respect1 as they exhibit fair hair as well as dark hair1 and light and dark eyes4 ,although in ,germany the ,jewish population generally is much darker than the rest of the people1 many of them have blonde hair1 blue eyes1 and fair complexion4 ,for some reason not yet ascertained1 there is a tendency in ,europe and especially in ,england for the blonde type to disappear4 ,we would suggest that it is a case of reversion to the type of the primitive inhabitants4 ,m4 ,mantegazza remarks that the beard does not correspond to any intellectual type1 as it is strongly developed as well among the ,australian aborigines as among the ,aryans and ,semites4 ,nevertheless1 the beard is worthy of further study as an ethnological feature4 ,it may be noted that the ,australian aborigines have been connected with the primitive inhabitants of ,western ,europe by other characters4 ,in treating of the expression of the emotions1 we are told that physical expression has two different functions--to replace a complete language1 and to defend the nerve-centres and other parts of the body against dangers of different kinds4 ,much more might have been said on the first subject1 as gesture language has within the last few years become an important ethnological study1 and1 indeed1 a supplementary chapter has been written for the ,english edition of this work on the physiognomy of gesture4 ,there is great truth in the remarks1 that every religion and many philosophical schools have been founded by word and by expression more than by books2 and that the more feeling a nation has1 the more rich and eloquent are its methods of physical expression4 ,m4 ,mantegazza does full justice to the great wealth of details and the discoveries on which the ,darwinian laws of expression are based1 while supplementing them with original observations and results4 ,it is in the classification of expressions we have probably the most important feature of the present work4 ,full synoptical tables are given of the expressions of ,sense1 ,passion1 and ,intellect1 and of the various expressions of ,pleasure and ,pain1 ,love and ,hatred4 ,these are illustrated by ingenious remarks1 as an example of which we may quote the somewhat cynical statement that many ladies laugh little lest they should have precocious wrinkles1 while others laugh too much and on every pretext that they may show their beautiful teeth4 ,the author well says that in love and pleasure1 hatred and pain1 we have two binary compounds1 two such energetic psycho-expressive combinations that the formidable and the destructive voltaic pile of our analytic methods is needed to separate the elements4 ,he has some curious remarks on the fact that laughter and smiling are very frequent phenomena in the expression of hatred1 for which we refer our readers to the work itself4 ,to pleasure and pain1 love and hatred1 ,m4 ,mantegazza adds pride and humiliation1 as the fundamental psychical movements of human nature1 as ancient as man1 and common to all the inhabitants of the globe4 ,thus1 he is of opinion that aristocracy is one of the most natural features of humanity1 and that democrats make history recede instead of advancing when they deny the most elementary laws of heredity and of human nature4 ,we must pass over the expressions of personal feelings1 and those of thought1 to reach the chapter on racial and professional expression4 ,here races are classified1 according to their expression1 into ferocious1 gentle1 apathetic1 grotesque or simian1 stupid1 and intelligent1 but the classification1 like all others from single characters1 is imperfect4 ,probably as good a classification could be made on the basis of modes of salutation1 beginning with nose-kissing1 or the still more primitive smelling4 ,raden-,saleh1 an artist of ,java preferred nose-breathing1 as by it we put our soul into contact with that of the beloved one6 ,it is undoubtedly true1 as ,m4 ,mantegazza remarks1 that the expression of different peoples is replete with their most prominent psychical characters4 ,the beautiful impassioned expression of the ,italians is yet defiant and not always frank1 owing to their having been so long subjected to tyrants4 ,speaking generally1 the ,european peoples have an expansive or a concentric expression1 of which the first is found in the ,italians1 the ,french1 the ,slaves1 the ,russian3 the second in the ,germans1 the ,scandinavians1 the ,spanish4 ,the author adds that there is also a beautiful expression full of grace1 that of the people of ,grco-,latin origin2 and another hard1 quite angular1 without roundness1 that of the ,germans1 the ,english1 and the ,scandinavians4 ,m4 ,mantegazza gives a very skilful analysis of the moderators and disturbers of expression1 referring to his earlier work the ,physiology of ,pain for further details4 ,in the next chapter he treats of the criteria for the determination of the strength of an emotion with reference to the accompanying expression4 ,in addition to the force and the persistency of the contraction of the expressing muscles1 there is a diffusion of expression in gradually increasing circles from the face downwards to the legs1 and lastly1 alternate contractions and relaxations of the muscles according to the intensity of the central movement which accompanies the emotion4 ,the expression of pleasure is always centrifugal1 that of pain being centripetal1 tending to bring the arms and lower limbs towards the median line of the body4 ,in dealing with the criteria for judging the moral work of a physiognomy1 we are told that the two most certain signs of a good face1 are the permanent expression of benevolence1 and the absolute absence of all hypocrisy4 ,let us add the remark1 accredited to ,charles ,dickens1 that it is advisable to see how a person looks when silent and apparently unobserved4 ,there are two sources of error in forming that judgment1 one arising from the fact that beautiful things give pleasure1 the chances of error increasing when a man has to judge a woman1 or vice versa2 the other is due to a false induction1 from the observed association in one individual of a particular physical feature with a special moral character4 ,the anatomical characters of the intelligent face and of the stupid face are given in a tabulated form1 but ,m4 ,mantegazza states that the most important characters are those drawn from the expression1 the two great centres of which are the eye and the mouth4 ,probably the non-observation of the expression accounts for the mistake made by ,goethe1 who1 when dining at the house of an ,englishman1 was struck with the intellectual appearance of one of the guests and thought he must be a man of genius4 ,goethe anticipated pleasure in hearing him speak1 but great was his horror1 when apple dumplings were placed on the table1 to hear the guest shout out them's the jockies for me6 ,in an appendix the author treats of the eyes1 hair1 and beard among the ,italian races1 which gives numerous statistics collected by the ,italian ,anthropological ,society4 ,it appears that the men of ,tuscany as well as of ,piedmont are noted for scantiness of beard4 ,probably this fact is due to the existence of a special race element1 rather than a difference of climate as would seem to be suggested4 ,the presence of red hair in all parts of ,italy1 although only in small quantities1 is also difficult of explanation4 ,strange to say it is the most common in regions which are poorest in fair hair4 ,from this we must suppose it to have some relation to dark hair1 an opinion which agrees with the observation that in ,england dark hair in young children is sometimes interspersed with red hairs1 which either change or disappear with age4 ,the hair is known to darken considerably after puberty is reached1 and possibly red hair may be due to the persistence1 through special conditions of which we are not aware1 of an infantile character4 ,we must not leave ,m4 ,mantegazza's excellent and entertaining work without referring to the plates given in the ,appendix1 among which are morphological1 sthetic1 and intellectual trees of the human race1 and figures of ethnic types illustrative of remarks made in the text4 ,it also has a good index4 4 ,,in ,,darkest ,,england ,,and ,,the ,,way ,,out4 ,by ,gen4 ,booth1 of the ,salvation ,army4 ,new ,york3 ,funk ,wagnalls4 ,in this book1--which is considered by many to be the most profound1 serious1 and comprehensive study of the social problem that has yet appeared1 as much so because it seems to strike at the root of the grievance as because it offers a practical remedy1--the author proposes to so ameliorate the conditions of the abandoned classes in ,england as not only to make the members of them self-supporting and respectable1 but after a twenty years' trial of his scheme to so change the industrial condition of the kingdom that there will not be found an able-bodied man or woman in all ,england unable to find work or food4 ,what politico-economical reformers have had most to contend with is the poverty or lack of opportunity for labor which seems to be inherent in the present social structure1--a condition where1 to express it clearly1 there seems to be not enough work for all the people4 ,hence the standing army of tramps to the number of #cj1jjj in ,america and more than #bj1jjj in the city of ,london alone4 ,the submerged class that the author of this book seeks to elevate or save from sin and utter uselessness has been variously estimated4 ,mr4 ,chamberlain says that there is in ,england a population equal to that of the metropolis--between four and five millions--who are in a state of abject destitution and misery4 ,mr4 ,griffin estimates the number to be #a1hjj1jjj1 while the author of ,in ,darkest ,england thinks #c1jjj1jjj to be a moderate statement4 ,many causes may be ascribed to this deplorable state of humanity1 such as natural incapacity for work1 predisposition to idleness1 enforced beggary1 crime1 misfortune1 poverty1 drunkenness1 and waste1--all of which operate to drag these unfortunate ones to the lowest level of life4 ,he thinks that the inability of a large proportion of the people to obtain work drives them either into despair1 sin1 crime1 and suicide1 or to merely exist1 carrying with them1 year by year1 the bitter ashes of a life from which the furnace of misfortune has burned away all joy and hope and strength4 ,they are a helpless and pathetic class1--men and women who are being sucked down into the quicksands of modern life4 ,and when it is known that ,england is rich enough to drink rum in quantities which appal the chancellor of the exchequer and yet not rich enough to provide any other shelter for her homeless ones and outcasts than the midnight sky1 modern civilisation with all its boasted ,christianity and humanitarianism presents indeed a deplorable aspect1 appearing to be but a mockery and a farce4 ,the method which this book seeks to popularise and use as the means of elevating to usefulness the outcasts1 the indigent1 and unemployed classes of ,england and of the civilised world1 is none other than the scheme originally applied in ,bavaria by ,count ,rumford--an ,american better known as ,benjamin ,thompson1 a graduate of ,harvard1 who1 having entered the ,bavarian service at the close of the war for independence1 became the governor of ,munich4 ,the scheme is threefold4 ,it is proposed to organise the submerged classes1 with their consent of course1 into a gigantic co-operative society1 subdivided into 7#a7 ,the ,city ,colony1 7#b7 ,the ,farm ,colony1 7#c7 ,the ,over-,sea ,colony4 ,the scheme in its entirety1 we are informed1 may aptly be compared to a great machine foundationed in the lowest slums and purlieus of our great towns and cities1 drawing up into its embrace the depraved and destitute of all classes2 receiving thieves1 harlots1 paupers1 drunkards1 prodigals1 all alike1 on the simple conditions of their being willing to work and conform to discipline4 ,drawing up these poor outcasts1 reforming them1 and creating in them habits of industry1 honesty1 and truth2 teaching them methods by which alike the bread that perishes and that which endures to everlasting life can be won2 forwarding them from the city to the country and there continuing the process of regeneration and then pouring them forth on the virgin soils that await their coming in other lands4 ,the scheme is so comprehensive that it includes slum crusades1 wagon hospitals1 a brigade of ,christian apostles near prison-gates to meet and help discharged prisoners1 rescue homes for unfallen girls when on the danger line between sin and starvation1 bureaus of intelligence1 refuges for street children1 industrial schools1 asylums for moral lunatics1 a matrimonial bureau1 and banks for the poor4 ,the project is not to be summarily rejected as utopian4 ,it is a gigantic effort to utilise the human refuse that sieves itself through all the means available for enlightenment to the very bottom of the social structure4 ,into this vast machine the whole mass of soiled humanity would be taken and by the refining process which is clearly elaborated in the book we could touch this material with a new spirit and thus reclaim the men1 women1 and children to self-support1 honor1 honesty1 and usefulness4 ,for the success of the project ,general ,booth has asked for one million pounds4 ,three serious objections may be made to the scheme4 ,the first is the placing into the hands of one man or one organisation the power of disposing1 and the custody1 of five millions of dollars--an objection which ,professor ,huxley makes with good reason4 ,the second is1 the theological environment which is a seeming part and parcel of the whole machine4 ,and the third is1 the superficial and unradical character of the remedy4 ,concerning the first objection it may be simply said1 that history proves that the experiment which the ,general is about to make is a dangerous one4 ,professor ,huxley maintains with more than usual gravity1 that the unquestionable obedience which every soldier in the ,salvation ,army is expected1 and by verbal contract is duly bound1 to maintain for all orders from headquarters1 gives the most suspicious aspect to the probable tyrannical development of his army in the future1 as was illustrated for example in the ,franciscan order founded in the thirteenth century by ,st4 ,francis4 ,after his death1 although the order was pledged by him to mendicancy and absolute separation from all worldly entanglements1 it became one of the most powerful1 wealthy1 and worldly corporations in all ,christendom1 with their fingers in every sink of political and social corruption4 ,what guarantee is there that the ,salvation ,army may not become likewise involved and exercise an imperialism and fanaticism not to be exceeded even by the ,jesuits or ,mormons8 ,it is writes ,professor ,huxley in the ,london ,times1 a greater evil to have the intellect of a nation put down by organised fanaticism1 to see its political and industrial affairs at the mercy of a despot whose chief thought is to make that fanaticism prevail1 to watch the degradation of men who should feel themselves individually responsible for their own and their country's fate1 to mere brute instruments ready to the hand of a master for any use to which he may put them4 ,another objection and one equally as fatal is the religious aspect which is given to the movement4 ,as such it bears a relation to the problem of civilisation which is all important4 ,to insist that every wicked man or woman in order to be righteous and happy must1 ought1 or will1 believe in historical ,christianity1 is absurd enough1 and to project or infuse into the whole character of a social reform movement a theological idea as a necessary element in its efficacy is certainly ridiculous1 but to make the work of the elevation of the degenerate masses of mankind a mere accessory to a belief in an irrational and already obsolete religious doctrine or contingent upon it1--at least to emphasize it as a means to the adoption of the unfortunates into one organisation where all believe alike1 or where by virtue of the gratitude they bear to those who have materially helped them1 they conform or try to conform to their mode of thinking1--is indeed one of the sad mistakes upon which the ,general's social project is built4 ,for in the submerged class1 there are doubtless many who are not ,christians in belief1 who indeed1 however fortunate they may become1 yet could not subscribe to the creed of the ,evangelical ,church or honestly engage in a work organised in the interest of so-called historical ,christianity4 ,it is not necessary in order to make man good to make him a ,christian1 or a ,jew1 or a ,buddhist1 in belief4 ,the point to emphasise is goodness of character and not merely an intellectual profession of faith4 ,once get a man to be good1 or to hate sin and love righteousness1 and he will1 if he never makes a ,christian profession1 be as useful a man as society might wish4 ,righteousness will take any man or woman safely and happily through the world4 ,the truth is just as the poet stated it3 ,a man may cry ',church6 ,church6' at every word1 ,and have no more grace than other people2 ,the daw's not reckoned a religious bird ,because he keeps a-cawing in the steeple4 ,it is not1 therefore1 necessary1 to the success of ,general ,booth's scheme that it should be hitched to some popular1 although unscientific and unreasonable religious conception of life2 or that he should consider a reform in the life of any man a miracle1 and therefore attribute all such to the direct interposition of ,god4 ,the scheme1 if a success at all1 will depend1 as the organisation of the ,salvation ,army has depended1 upon the enthusiasm and enterprise of the ,general and his constituency4 ,and all reliance upon ,god without any intelligent human effort in behalf of the outcasts of society would only gorge a greater multitude of humanity into the bogs and sinks of iniquity4 ,as well might we expect a locomotive to move by tacking scripture all over it1 as to expect any great social reform movement to be a success by associating it or making it depend upon some sort of religious creed4 ,still whatever may be said against religious interference with social problems1 the work of ,general ,booth puts to shame the church whose trifling doctrinal and polemical controversies have so blinded its judgment as to neglect its duties toward the submerged classes and leave them to so enormously increase that in order to save the world from almost hopeless ruin a new organisation such as the ,salvation ,army had to come forth4 ,the church has a far more important duty to perform than that of merely existing1 and it will never emblason the record which its founder gave it by his self-sacrificing life and his noble death upon the cross until it takes its wealth of brain1 heart1 and money1 and becomes indeed the modern ,saviour of the world4 ,the third objection and doubtless the most important one of all is the superficial and unradical character of the remedy4 ,it is not here implied that the project is useless although inclusive4 ,the point made is this1 that whatever the ,general may do to dredge the bogs of sin and clean the streets of beggars1 the idlers1 the unemployed1 the waifs1 the prostitutes1 the drunkards1 and the criminal class1 and put all such in the way of usefulness1 manliness1 and respectability1 what does he do or what is to be done to keep the new or fresh material from sinking into mire8 ,while the ,general is working among the lowest1 thousands are being prepared among the highest for the inevitable fate from which he is plucking the helpless ones as brands from the burning4 ,while he is gathering up the submerged and placing them in his machine1 the mill without still grinds on and on1 crushing as large a number year by year as he may help and save4 ,his method might consistently be compared to one where a man would transform rotten apples into good ones without affecting the tree that produces them4 ,although the criminal and sinful classes influence the innocent and unsophisticated1 yet it cannot be proven that the bulk of the people will remain pure1 true1 honest1 upright1 if there were no sinful or criminal class6 ,and hence even if all such who are avowedly sinful were made better and their pernicious influence removed from the world by the method here proposed1 sin itself would still inhere in the nature of man's life and would drag thousands down to ruin and misery4 ,like the mosaic paintings which can only be destroyed by destroying the stones upon which they are impressed1 so sin seems to be bound up in human nature4 ,to get at it and destroy it utterly by one coup one must annihilate the constitution of the universe4 ,the problem of civilisation is such that it cannot be solved by one specific reform4 ,for to develop man it seems to be necessary that he should pass through the treatment which the long and inevitable process of experience and education can give4 ,although sin like poverty is but relative1 yet it is the name for the conduct into which man is led either by a neglect or abuse of opportunity1 or by some inevitable fatality4 ,it is not here contended that man cannot rid himself or society of any disposition to sin4 ,what is maintained is that it cannot be abolished from the world by any spasmodic effort such as that which characterises the present project1 but that it will pass away only where and when humanity becomes perfectly educated4 ,and this state of civilisation1 by the way1 does not seem to be so surprisingly near at hand4 ,nor can material help1 such as food1 shelter1 clothing1 and what not1 altogether effect or even change the moral status of a man's life4 ,thousands whose material wants are amply provided for revel in sin and corruption1 and the dreadful orgy where vice holds carnival reels and swaggers in the palaces where amid gilded refinements and dazzling splendor the so-called better classes disport themselves4 ,it is true that when a man is starving or naked1 bread and clothing are the things which will satisfy his most immediate wants1 and not prayers or sermons4 ,to supply such wants is easy enough1 but to so arouse or kindle into a flame of fortitude and manliness1 the diseased conscience and the perverted judgment1 to so operate upon the will as to make the man able to not only choose but do the right1 is the great and radical difficulty which is not so easily overcome4 ,psychology and medicine seem to have no remedy to offer1 while religion for these many years has simply touched the hem of the garment--while the abandoned classes have seemingly multiplied on our hands4 ,in concluding these remarks we cannot forbear to express our regret that the real author of the book has given it over to ,general ,booth and allowed him not only the credit of authorship1 but most likely also the privilege of mixing up a scheme of social reform with the politics of the ,salvation ,army4 ,the book was boomed in this way1 but we fear that it will at the same time be doomed in this way4 ,the ,salvation ,army and its founder have reaped much undeserved praise4 ,general ,booth has received incredible sums from enthusiasts to support the scheme1 and these sums have to a great extent been used to advertise it4 ,it appears to us that ,general ,booth has contracted a debt which he will be unable to pay4 ,the better situated classes of society do not lack in sympathy for their wretched fellow-men1 and it sets us thinking1 how strong human sentimentality must be that the propagation of the mere idea of curing the evils of mankind proposed in this book as feasible with the aid of one million pounds furnishes ample means to a religious enthusiast whose method of salvation is rather noisy than thorough1 representing a kind of barbarous relapse and only adapted to the lowest and most uneducated classes4 ,we should know that sentimentality cannot save4 ,sentiment and sympathy are good things1 but unless they are backed by a cold consideration of fact and rational foresight1 they are worse than useless4 ,it will be wise to consider the propositions made in ,in ,darkest ,england without taking into consideration the rle to be played in the scheme by the ,salvation ,army4 ,but while the reader may be just enough to consider the plan of social reform on its own merits1 ,general ,booth is in possession of the funds and will be the general manager of the experiment4 4 ,,plankton-,,studien4 ,vergleichende ,untersuchungen ueber die ,bedeutung und ,zusammensetzung der pelagischen ,fauna und ,flora4 ,by ,ernst ,haeckel4 ,jena3 ,gustav ,fischer4 ,the first systematic studies of the innumerable organisms which almost everywhere drift about in the ocean1 were made by ,professor ,johannes ,mller who some forty years ago made excursions in the ,north ,sea4 ,haeckel1 then a student twenty years old1 accompanied him on one of these excursions to ,heligoland4 ,since then these investigations have been conducted on a larger scale4 ,the ,english vessel ,challenger cruised in different oceans for no less than forty months1 and the results of this great undertaking were published by ,john ,murray in the ,voyage of ,h4 ,m4 ,s4 ,challenger--a voluminous work consisting of eighty-two zo-ological reports1 to which ,professor ,haeckel also has contributed his ,report on the ,deep-,sea ,keratosa4 ,the ,german government sent out the ,german cruiser ,national on the same errand4 ,the scientists of the expedition were ,hensen1 ,brandt1 ,dahl1 ,schtt1 ,fischer1 ,krmmel4 ,they were at sea altogether ninety-three days making a circuitous trip on the ,atlantic ocean1 touching at the ,bermudas1 ,brazil1 and the ,azores4 ,the results of the expedition1 published in reports by ,hensen1 ,brandt1 ,du ,bois-,reymond1 and ,krmmel1 were considered as very satisfactory and received the unreserved applause of the ,german press4 ,professor ,haeckel is of a different opinion4 ,he considers the reports as standing in flat contradiction to former valuable observations1 especially to those of the ,english ,challenger and the ,italian ,vettor ,pisani expeditions4 ,hensen's results rest upon a weak supposition and contain wrong generalisations2 even his method is1 according to ,haeckel1 entirely useless1 giving a wrong presentation of the problems of pelagic biology4 ,the word plancton was introduced by ,hensen4 ,haeckel adopts it because he considers the ,greek term preferable to ,johannes ,mller's ,auftrieb or pelagic ,mulder 7the latter has been adopted also by ,english1 ,french1 and ,italian planctologists74 ,by plancton 771 derived from 1 to roam about1 is understood the drifting micro-organisms of the sea4 ,professor ,haeckel in the present volume not only corrects ,professor ,hensen's errors1 but also gives a report of his own observations4 ,not the least valuable part of the brochure is the exact terminology which ,professor ,haeckel proposes in order to escape the confusion necessarily resulting from a looseness of terms4 4 ,,die ,,allgemeine ,,weltanschauung ,,in ,,ihrer ,,historischen ,,entwickelung4 ,charakterbilder aus der ,geschichte der ,naturwissenschaften4 ,by ,carus ,sterne4 ,mit zahlreichen ,portrts und ,textabbildungen4 ,stuttgart3 ,otto ,weisert4 ,dr4 ,ernst ,krause1 better known by the nom de plume of ,carus ,sterne1 has here undertaken to present the modern world-conception as contrasted with the olden one4 ,we have scarcely ever met with a book that contains in so popular a form all the noteworthy facts of the great progress that has been achieved in science since the time of ,copernicus4 ,the results of the evolution-theory are generally known1 but the road and the stations of the road on which science has reached its present position1 now almost universally recognised among men1 are almost forgotten4 ,no one perhaps is better able to tell us of this great struggle for truth than the enthusiastic disciple of ,darwin1 ,carus ,sterne4 ,carus ,sterne and his friend ,prof4 ,ernst ,haeckel1 have done no small work in obtaining recognition for the theory of evolution in ,germany4 ,while ,haeckel's work has been confined to the field of exact science1 ,carus ,sterne has complemented the labors of his co-worker by pointing out the moral truths contained in ,darwinism4 ,we are aware of the fact that ,carus ,sterne has also written purely scientific works1 ,werden und ,vergehen1 for instance2 but what we wish to emphasise as his especial merit is that he was1 so far as we know1 the first to call attention to the moral workings of nature in her great cosmic empire4 ,as an article characteristic of this trait in ,carus ,sterne's writings we refer the reader not familiar with ,german literature to his article ,the ,education of ,parents by their ,children1 a translation of which appeared in ,nos4 #bb and #bc of ,the ,open ,court4 ,the present book 7over #djj pages7 discusses the following subjects3 ,pagan and ,christian ,cosmology2 ,copernicus1 ,tycho ,brahe1 and ,kepler2 ,the ,controversy ,concerning the ,geo-centric ,view2 ,the ,infinitude of ,habitable ,worlds2 ,from ,bacon to ,newton2 ,the ,beginnings of an ,animal- and ,plant-,geography2 ,the ,doctrine of ,spontaneous ,generation2 ,the ,discussion ,concerning the ,origin of ,birds2 ,the ,terrestrial ,globe and ,its ,fossils2 ,diluvianism2 ,the ,mongrel ,theory2 ,the ,doctrines of ,preformation and ,metamorphosis2 ,the ,doctrine of ,catastrophes2 ,persistence or ,mutability2 ,the ,controversy on the ,anthropocentric ,view2 ,the ,origin of ,language2 ,on the ,history of ,evolution4 4 ,,ueber ,,die ,,aufgaben ,,einer ,,allgemeinen ,,rechtswissenschaft4 ,by ,dr4 ,alb4 ,herm4 ,post4 ,oldenburg and ,leipsic3 ,a4 ,schwartz4 ,the author of this little book1 ,dr4 ,albert ,hermann ,post1 a ,judge of the courts of the free city of ,bremen1 ,germany1 has made the study of ethnological jurisprudence the scientific work of his life4 ,his idea and purpose are to establish a positive science of jurisprudence in the widest and most comprehensive sense of the word1 on the basis of an investigation of all the forms of law1 available to research1 that have ever appeared4 ,a universal science of jurisprudence1 according to this conception1 would have for its subject-matter the contents of the jural sense or consciousness of the entire human race1--the jural facts of the totality of human society4 ,in other words1 this science must be1 not only historical1 but ethnological4 ,it must include the jural life not only of the civilised1 but also of the uncivilised races of mankind3 it must comprehend all4 ,it thus constitutes a step beyond that great movement of the beginning of this century which gave us the science of the history of law4 ,it extends the latter1 supplements it1 and aims to find in the juro-social existence of undeveloped and uncivilised races the germs of legal practices and institutions that the literary history and traditions of civilised peoples would never supply4 ,the matter of the present work of ,dr4 ,post takes up some #bae pages4 ,it treats of the available sources of such a universal science of law1 of the elaboration of these sources2 it gives a concise and illustrative epitome of the most important parallel phenomena met with in the jural life of the human race1--e4 g4 in the departments of the ,law of ,inheritance1 of ,property1 of ,marriage1 etc41 etc41--and a survey of the separate ethnic divisions of law over the whole earth4 ,it is a grand task--the realisation of this conception4 ,and its execution in its enormous magnitude is only possible through the speedy and intelligent co-operation of scientists and travellers as well as jurists4 ,it will make of jurisprudence a natural science1 as distinguished from the a priori character this study has up till now assumed2 and its prosecution will impart into the science a light and freshness which it sadly needs4 ,next to theology1 the science of law is least pervaded with the spirit of modern research4 ,and this is eminently so in our country1 where hardly the history1 let alone the ethnology of law1 is studied4 ,we are tempted to give a much more thorough and detailed exposition of ,dr4 ,post's ideas4 ,but an original article will appear from his pen in a future number of ,the ,monist1 and therefore we are brief4 4 ,,periodicals4 ,,mind4 ,january1 #ahia4 ,no4 ,,lxi4 ,,contents3 ,,on ,,physiological ,,expression ,,in ,,psychology4 ,by ,prof4 ,a4 ,bain4 ,,apperception ,,and ,,the ,,movement ,,of ,,attention4 ,by ,g4 ,f4 ,stout4 ,,helmholtz',s ,,theory ,,of ,,space-,,perception4 ,by ,j4 ,h4 ,hyslop4 ,,the ,,principle ,,of ,,induction4 ,by ,l4 ,t4 ,hobhouse4 ,,the ,,undying ,,germ-,,plasm ,,and ,,the ,,immortal ,,soul4 ,by ,r4 von ,lendenfeld4 ,,critical ,,notices3 ,pikler's ,the ,psychology of the ,belief in ,objective ,existence2 ,ferrier's ,the ,croonian ,lectures on ,cerebral ,localisation2 ,jevons's ,pure ,logic and other ,minor ,works2 ,marshall's ,principles of ,economics1 ,i2 ,mackenzie's ,an ,introduction to ,social ,philosophy2 ,fouille's ,l',evolutionnisme des ,ides-,forces2 ,koenig's ,die ,entwicklung des ,causalproblems4 ,on ,physiological ,expression in ,psychology4 ,in opposition to the subjective purism in psychology advocated by ,mr4 ,stout and ,mr4 ,bradley4 ,the mixture of the psychical with the physical is such as to prove that mental processes1 however distinct from bodily processes1 have never owned even a vocabulary of their own4 ,pleasure and pain are psychical states1 but we cannot theorise fully upon them without adverting to their physical causes or conditions4 ,the action of drugs proves that the physical constitution of the nerve-substance is a paramount condition of our sensibility1 pleasurable or painful4 ,by taking the organs of special sense in separation we can exhaust the modes of sensibility under each1 and when we look minutely into the anatomy of the several organs1 we obtain further helps to the subdivision and distinction of the individual sensations4 ,connected with the physics of the brain1 apart from the nervous substance and its conditions1 is the important state known as excitement1 with its opposites quiescence1 languor1 repose1 drowsiness1 sleep1 and insensibility4 ,the theory of the ,will must rely1 in the first instance1 upon subjective sequences1 but the physical consequences of pleasure and pain are a two-fold activity--,expression and ,volition1 and for verification of any hypothesis as to priority between these two forms of the physical outcome of feeling1 the sequence must be taken on the physical side alone4 ,as regards the emotions1 taken in themselves1 the tracing of physical concomitance is unavoidable4 ,in ,psycho-physics the experiments are made upon the physical side1 though not to the exclusion of subjective reference4 ,a law relating to the seat of ideas obtained in the first instance through the senses1 declares the nervous tracts to be the same in both1 thus connecting ,sense with ,intellect4 ,it has always been impossible to avoid describing ideas as modified repetitions of sensation1 and employing for that purpose the materialism of the sense-organs4 ,while eminently applicable to all the phenomena of mind at their elementary stage--,sensation1 ,intellect1 ,emotion1 ,will--physiological conditions cease to have the like bearing in the higher complications4 ,in all that part of ,association that states the order of recurrence of our ideas in ,memory1 subjective investigation is paramount and exclusive4 ,but the state described as conscious intensity1 excitement1 mental concentration1 attention1 interest1 is expressible both subjectively and physiologically4 ,the constant application of spiritual remedies to bodily ailments is an important aspect of the union of mind and body1 and their interaction in those instances is of great significance4 ,apperception and the ,movement of ,attention4 ,thinking is action directed towards intellectual ends4 ,intellectual ends are attained by an appropriate combination of movements of attention4 ,attention and apperception1 as this word is applied by ,steinthal1 reciprocally determine each other4 ,the nature of attention is explained in accordance with the monoideism of ,m4 ,ribot1 but contrary to his view it is declared to be a constant character of our mental life1 although the monoideism is not always complete4 ,apperception is the process by which a mental system incorporates or tends to incorporate a new element4 ,the effect of attention is largely dependent on the apperception which accompanies it1 and of which it is an auxiliary process4 ,the movement of attention fastening upon the presentation to be apperceived1 fixes it in the focus of consciousness1 until the appercipient system has finally succeeded or failed in assimilating it4 ,the reason why one ideal group becomes appercipient in preference to the others lies mainly in its greater affinity with the presentation to be apperceived4 ,the conditions determining the strength of apperceptive systems may be either extrinsic or intrinsic4 ,the extrinsic consist in passing circumstances which from time to time favor its activity4 ,the intrinsic conditions are inherent in the constitution of the system itself4 ,among the former are the co-operation of another system2 the recovery or the intensity of its own previous action2 the influence of organic sensation2 its own freshness arising from previous repose4 ,of these the organic sensation is of fundamental importance4 ,the influence of the cnsthesis pervades the whole mental life4 ,every specific kind of emotion is accompanied by a characteristic mode of organic reaction4 ,the intrinsic conditions are the comprehensiveness of the system2 its internal organisation1 of which the philosophy of ,hegel is cited as an example2 the strength of the cohesion between its parts2 the nature of the sensory material which enters predominantly into its composition1 that is1 the comparative excitability of ideas derived from different senses4 ,the normal working of competition1 co-operation1 and conflict1 may be illustrated by contrasting it with the pathological state called suggestibility1 in which those processes are more or less completely in abeyance4 ,the conditions which determine the train of ideas arise from the fact that attention1 being a motor process1 depends on feeling1 which dependence cannot be separated from that on apperception4 ,feeling gives unity to mental process1 and is a simple mode of consciousness resulting from the excitement of a multiplicity of elements1 and it causes attention to be concentrated on the central presentation from which the wave of excitement is radiated4 ,the essential characteristic of a train of thought1 as distinguished from a mere train of ideas1 is that the relation linking each idea to its predecessor forms also a source of the interest through which it attracts attention4 ,the ground of the distinction is that thinking involves the activity of a proportional system as such1 that is a system adapted to apperceive objects in other respects most diverse from each other1 merely because they agree in being capable of entering into certain relations4 ,the modified working of the principle of association through the apperceptive activity of a proportional system1 is proportional or analogical production1 which may possibly operate in every instance of the suggestion of one idea by another4 ,a reversion of attention to a previous link in a chain of ideas1 giving rise to a modified repetition of it1 is a distinctive feature of thinking4 ,in a separate article will be dealt with the special part played by language1 which from a psychological point of view is a peculiar movement of attention having a peculiar influence on apperceptive process4 ,helmholtz's ,theory of ,space-,perception4 ,the doctrine of unconscious inference is explicitly founded upon the general theory of knowledge formed by ,helmholtz1 which is identical with that of ,kant1 and ,helmholtz's investigation into the genesis of space-perception applied to the problem which ,kant did not consider1 namely1 the perception of particular or concrete spaces4 ,the distinction made by the former between the inference from the data of sense and that in which the data are consciously known to be signs1 by calling the inductive inferences of the sciences conscious1 and those involved in external perception of world unconscious1 is open to the charge of involving a contradiction4 ,on the one hand1 the theory of unconscious inference supports the empirical doctrine of perception only in consequence of calling the process an inference4 ,on the other hand1 to call the process unconscious is to restore the conception of immediacy which the idea of inference is supposed to exclude4 ,this contradiction may not be insisted on1 but1 as the phenomena of binocular adjustment discussed in a previous article showed in the visual consciousness a quale which1 with or without its relation to tactual and muscular extension1 was other than plane dimension1 ,helmholtz must1 unless this quale can be proved to be result of inference1 limit the application of his theory to the synthetic connection between touch and sight4 ,parallax of motion1 which consists of the different afferent movements or velocities of bodies in horizontal meridians1 and situated at different distances from the observer1 seems to do the same for monocular vision that adjustment and fusion do for binocular vision4 ,the phenomena attending certain experiments in which the parallax of motion was observed correspond exactly to the conception of those who hold that the representative of plane dimension in the retinal image decides the nature of all perceptions whose character is not presented in the image except as a visual sign1 and hence that aught beyond magnitude must be the result of influence4 ,an examination of ,helmholtz's fundamental principle1 the denial of all pre-established harmony between the nature of impressions and the nature of the external world1 confirms the view that the conception of space may be properly a visual one1 requiring the superior constancy of touch to correct illusions growing out of the complexities of vision4 ,if we limit visual phenomena as data to mere variations of kind and distinctness in color1 we cannot account for such cases as the appearance and inversion of mathematical perspective1 binocular localisation and translocation1 and the distinct effect of the monocular parallax of motion1 qualities which are dimensional in their nature4 ,while the complexities of space-perception make the co-operation of inferential agencies very probable1 yet the spacial quality must be originally given somewhere in consciousness either as an object of perception or as a mental construction1 in order to furnish a basis for inferences to its existence or its relations where they are not immediately cognised4 ,this makes the developed conceptions of abstract and synthetic space a complex of inferences and intuitions4 ,the ,principle of ,induction4 ,the ultimate major premiss of ,induction according to ,mill is the ,law of ,causation which1 as he treats it1 is a wide generalisation true of sequences just as other generalisations are true of the facts of space4 ,hence it is itself an induction like other inductions4 ,what is wanted is an axiom expressing in general terms what we do when we make a particular statement universal1 which makes explicit the truth implied by the making of any generalisation whatever4 ,the ,law of ,causation will be found to be a particular application of this wider axiom1 and the axiom itself must be sought from the analysis of ordinary simple generalisations4 ,when we connect truths together1 or reason1 we support an inferred judgment by some other assertion4 ,that we should be able to reason at all involves that any fact1 as ,b1 should have some other fact1 as ,c1 to which it is always related2 that is1 any fact precisely resembling this ,b1 whatever its other attributes and concomitants may be1 will be found in a precisely similar relation to a precisely similar ,c4 ,a relation exists between two facts whenever the mind can at once distinguish the facts as two1 and at the same time attend to them together and assert something of them considered together4 ,we may speak of a relation between different aspects of the same existing thing4 ,the three alternatives afforded by the axiom as ultimately stated correspond to the three cases in which ,a is the sum of the conditions of ,b1 or in any way a universal correlate of ,b2 in which it is the cause of ,b in the popular sense of the term2 and in which its connection with ,b is merely 'causal1' that is1 the ,law of ,causation is the ,axiom of ,reasoning as applied to the sequences of phenomena4 ,every fact observed stands in universal relation to some other fact4 ,the judgment of that relation is implied in the rudimentary inference which states only the particular fact observed and the particular fact now expected4 ,it is explicit in the reason that is conscious of its own grounds and methods1 and takes there the form of the universal judgment1 or major premiss4 ,the ,undying ,germ-,plasm and the ,immortal ,soul4 ,all unicellular beings such as the ,protozoa and the simpler ,alg1 ,fungi1 etc41 reproduce themselves by means of simple fission1 and consequently they are immortal4 ,all the single individuals of a family of unicellular beings belong to each other1 although they be isolated4 ,amongst certain infusoria they do1 in fact1 remain together and build up branching colonies4 ,later on1 division of labor made its appearance and increased the dependence of the individuals upon one another1 so that their individuality was to a great extent lost4 ,by the development of this process1 multicellular ,metazoa arose from colonies of similar ,protozoa1 and at length culminated in the higher animals and man4 ,all the cell-series are immortal1 but they all must die because the structure which is built up by them collectively is mortal4 ,the reproductive cells are the only kind adapted for existence outside the body1 and from time to time some of the human reproductive cells succeed in conjugating1 and from them a new individual arises4 ,the whole structure of man is acquired with the one object in view of maintaining the series of reproductive cells1 of which he is1 so to speak1 the slave4 ,they are the most important and essential and also the undying parts of the organism4 ,the series of reproductive cells thus possess the essential attributes of the human soul4 ,if we compare the conception of the soul as held by various related religions1 and take the characteristics invariably ascribed to the soul1 we find that they hold also for the series of reproductive cells continually developing within the body4 ,the ordinary conception of the fate of the soul after death agrees fundamentally with the result of observation on the prosperity of the series of germ-cells4 ,that fate depends on conduct in the body1 and the only possible definition of a good deed1 that is approved by conscience1 is one which will benefit the series of germ-cells arising from one individual1 that is ourselves and our family1 and further which will be of use to others with their own series of germ-cells1 and that in proportion to the degree of connection or relationship4 ,thus1 the apparently enigmatical conception of the eternal soul is founded on the actual immortality and continuity of the germ-plasma4 7,london3 ,williams ,norgate47 ,,international ,,journal ,,of ,,ethics4 ,january1 #ahia4 ,vol4 ,i4 ,no4 #b4 ,,contents3 ,,the ,,rights ,,of ,,minorities4 ,by ,d4 ,g4 ,ritchie4 ,a ,,new ,,study ,,of ,,psychology4 ,by ,prof4 ,josiah ,royce4 ,,the ,,inner ,,life ,,in ,,relation ,,to ,,morality4 ,by ,j4 ,h4 ,muirhead4 ,,moral ,,theory ,,and ,,practice4 ,by ,prof4 ,john ,dewey4 ,,morals ,,in ,,history4 ,by ,prof4 ,fr4 ,jodl4 ,,the ,,ethics ,,of ,,doubt--,,cardinal ,,newman4 ,by ,w4 ,l4 ,sheldon4 ,,the ,,ethics ,,of ,,socialism4 ,steinthal--,the ,social ,utopia2 ,paulsen--,socialism and ,social ,reform4 ,by ,prof4 ,franklin ,h4 ,giddings4 ,,ethical ,,and ,,kindred ,,societies ,,in ,,great ,,britain4 ,by ,mrs4 ,m4 ,mc,callum4 ,a ,new ,study of ,psychology4 ,there are three fairly distinct types of treatment in text-books of psychology4 ,the first type1 is the science of the mind considered as an entity1 of whose nature we might otherwise know much or little1 but of which we at all events knew that it had a certain substantial unity4 ,this was supplemented1 or succeeded1 by the theory of the 'ideas1' and their 'associations4' ,a third method confines its investigations to the facts and laws of the nervous system1 with only such use of introspection as was found absolutely indispensable4 ,professor ,james1 in his ,principles of ,psychology1 does not accept primarily any one of these views4 ,the unit he adopts in mental analysis might be defined as so much of the mental process as may be supposed to run parallel to a relatively simple nervous function in the cortex of the living brain1 in so far as this cortex functions with a certain unity4 ,professor ,james rejects the unconscious in every form1 and above all the unconscious mind-atom4 ,he says1 the special natural science of psychology must stop with the mere functional formula4 ,if the passing be the directly verifiable existent1 which no school has hitherto doubted it to be1 then that thought is itself the thinker1 and psychology need not look beyond4 ,this life of passing thoughts needs only the fundamental hypothesis that the moments as they pass really know one another1 that the present is actually acquainted with the past1 in order to give as a resultant of the whole life such unity as we need for purposes of psychological science4 ,in relation to volition and freedom1 ,professor ,james holds that the idea of the end tends more and more to make itself all-sufficient1 and that motives1 so-called1 are ideas of ends which owing to their conflict1 are unable to pass over into acts so long as they remain mere motives4 ,the experience of deciding a conflict of motives is the experience of the triumph of one idea of the end over other ideas4 ,the act of voluntary decision is experienced as an act of conscious attention to an idea1 and nothing else4 ,volition is primarily a relation1 not between ourself and extra-mental matter1 but between ourself and our own states of mind4 ,professor ,james's own belief is that the question of freewill is insolvable on strictly psychological grounds1 although on ethical grounds he ascribes to the alternative of freedom4 ,in relation to the question of pleasure and pain as motives1 he points out that the 'idea-motor' acts1 even on a very high plane1 express the presence of the 'idea of an end1' and this end may itself be very painful1 yet it tends to carry itself out4 ,it wins because we attend to it1 and whether or no attention is free1 certain it is that attention often rather determines pleasure and pain themselves1 than is determined by them4 ,in conclusion ,professor ,royce says in relation to ,professor ,james's book3 ,his 'passing moments1' which can 'know' and which can freely 'attend1' which are 'self-related1' and which have 'unity1' and which are still so intimately bound to the 'neural process1' have just the paradoxical and hypothetical character which requires one1 in one's philosophy1 to go beyond them1 and to declare them but illusory expressions in phenomenal form of an infinitely deeper truth4 ,the ,inner ,life in ,relation to ,morality4 ,the emotions that are called up by the thought of the world as an organic whole constitute the inner life1 that which ,clifford calls 'cosmic emotion4' ,these emotions1 although they do not end in the human soul1 impart a spirit and diffuse an air over the rest of life3 they have no separate external expression of their own4 ,the pivot of man's inner life is the thought of himself as a part or member of a universal order4 ,the object of the paper is to answer the questions3 what this thought is1 or ought to be2 what are some of the forms which the feeling it rouses takes2 what are some of its special relations to social morality2 and what practical means may be suggested under modern conditions for the cultivation of it4 ,the view of the world most characteristic of the time in which we live1 has laid the foundation for an entirely new attitude of mind towards the cosmos at large4 ,the world is now known to be an organic whole4 ,this organism is the invisible background which is presupposed in the partial glimpses of it which we call common perception and the special sciences4 ,if we look inwards we have the human conscience as the symbol of a microcosm of moral relations between the different parts of our nature on the one hand and the different members of human society on the other4 ,the cosmic principle clothing itself in the twofold garb of which we know it1 is the ultimate object of the emotion described as the inner life4 ,this brings with it that which lies at the root of all religion--the sense of dependence1 by which is meant1 the feeling that we are born into and supported by a world which our individual wills did not make4 ,this at first produces a vague sense of fear in the presence of forces other and mightier than ourselves4 ,but generally it has passed in us into a higher form1 a sense of fearless faith in truth and right1 which are the laws of nature4 ,the faculty of relating ourselves to the world in its widest1 which is also its deepest1 aspects1 with its appropriate feeling invests our everyday duties with a new meaning1 and gives them a wider range by connecting them with the general life of the world4 ,morality is thus raised to a higher power2 it passes from mere morality into morality touched with emotion1 and thus becomes a species of religion4 ,among other means of cultivating the inner life are the attending the services of the churches1 although faith has been lost in their dogmas2 the reading of the books1 whether belonging to ,christian literature or not1 which are in the best sense religious2 the study of philosophy4 ,we are on the right lines if we cling to the great watchwords of our own time1--,evolution1 ,progress1 ,organic ,order4 ,moral ,theory and ,practice4 ,moral theory is the analytic perception of the conditions and relations in hand in a given act1--it is the action in idea4 ,it is the construction of the act in thought against its outward construction4 ,it is1 therefore1 the doing1--the act itself1 in its emerging4 ,so far are we from any divorce of moral theory and practice1 that theory is the ideal act1 and conduct is the executed insight4 ,moral conduct is absolutely individualised1 and it is precisely that which realises an idea1 a conception4 ,the breadth of action is measured by the insight of the agent4 ,just so far as the question1 ,what are the conditions which require action and what the action they demand1 is raised and answered1 is action moral and not merely instinctive or sentimental4 ,this is a work of analysis1 which requires the possession of certain working tools4 ,what we call moral rules are precisely such tools of analysis4 ,the ,golden ,rule is a marvellous tool of analysis but it gives no knowledge1 of itself1 of what we should do4 ,as a tool of analysis the moral rule is an idea4 ,a philosophic theory of ethics is a similar idea to the ,golden ,rule1 but one of deeper grasp1 and therefore wider hold4 ,it bears much the same relation to the particular rule as this to the special case4 ,it is a tool for the analysis of its meaning1 and thereby a tool for giving it greater effect4 ,at the back of the ,golden ,rule are other larger ideas which have realised themselves1 and been so buried in the common consciousness of men1 that they have become integrated with the content of the ,golden ,rule which itself has become a vast idea1 or working tool1 of practice4 ,every philosophic theory of ethics performs in its degree this same service4 ,a man's duty is1 not to obey rules1 but to respond to the nature of the actual demands which he finds made upon him4 ,the rule is merely an aid toward discriminating what the nature of these relations and demands is4 ,a man has not to do ,justice1 and ,love1 and ,truth2 he has to do justly and truly and lovingly4 ,the relative distinction between the is and the ought1 is that the ought is the is of action4 ,the difference between a practical and a theoretical consciousness is that the former is consciousness of something to be done4 ,and this consciousness of something to be done is the consciousness of duty4 ,theory is the cross-section made by intelligence of the given state of action in order to know the conduct that should be2 practice is the realisation of the idea thus gained3 it is theory in action4 ,morals in ,history4 ,a glance at the history of morals reveals independence and changeableness always and everywhere side by side4 ,so far as we are acquainted with man in social community1 the will of the community speaks to the individual concerning his practical conduct with authority2 and as an inner appropriation of that will1 the authority of conscience1 of practical reason1 which naturally exists only in the individual1 but through friction with the community becomes filled with a universally valid content4 ,the origin of the common will is lost in the mysterious darkness of primitive times1 or of divine revelation4 ,it is science which first extends the individual's circle of experience4 ,morality is a product of evolution1 and is in a state of continual transformation4 ,the sum of the ethical principles or ideals which at any time are current in any nation1 presents nothing else than the conception of all that is reciprocally required in a practical direction of its members1 for the advantage and profit of the community and the individual persons in it4 ,the requirements of social adaptation are raised into the consciousness of the community4 ,thus full harmony between the practical needs of a time and its ethics can only be a transitory one4 ,the conditions which evoke the individual will to carry out its own ideals over against the current ones1 are none other than those upon which the formation of new organs in general is dependent4 ,the new principles must be of assistance to felt needs2 they must be founded in the vital relations of the social body4 ,in answer to the question whether there is progress in morality1 it must be said that the circle is becoming continually greater of those over whom the strict import of the conception of humanity is extended4 ,and this is accompanied by an increasing tenderness towards individuals within the limits unchangeably set by the needs of the community4 ,the means by which we strive to actualise our ideals are becoming more rational1 and the consciousness is continually becoming clearer1 with which all moral principles and judgments are referred to what they signify for the welfare of the race and for its capacity to develop4 ,but do men become better8 ,probably1 on the whole1 the inner relations of morality remain unchanged1 although quite important shifting may take place at special times and in special stages4 ,it may be that considered from the highest historical point of view1 subjective morality--that is1 the conformity of individuals to the standard--relatively declines as the higher elaboration of the moral ideals advances4 ,but this need by no means be the last word of historical development4 ,intelligence carries illumination into unknown paths which no one as yet has traversed1 making the surrounding darkness blacker4 ,but the will finds the means of achieving what is clearly conceived4 ,we have no occasion to be distrustful of the energies of our race4 ,we must not overlook the increasing influence which our scientific knowledge must exercise1 not only upon the industrial but also upon the social instinct4 ,the conviction is making rapid strides that even the widest lordship of man over nature must ultimately be a curse to the ruler himself1 unless he succeeds in establishing the more beautiful and important supremacy over man2 that is1 over the natural forces in his own breast--the brutality of passion1 the hardness of egoism1 and the crudity of moral ignorance4 ,but this can be the work only of scientific knowledge and of its increasing application to social ethical problems4 ,the ,ethics of ,doubt--,cardinal ,newman4 ,there was an ethical trend in the character and spirit of ,cardinal ,newman1 which lifted him above any one sect or creed and made him a power to all classes of serious minds4 ,the especial influence now excited upon us by his thought1 comes from his very antagonism to what is the conspicuous feature in the intellectual life of our century1--the prevalence of doubt1 and the growth of rationalism4 ,goethe sounded the note of warning as to the chief menace that would come to our age through rationalism2 that there are few who have a great mind and at the same time are disposed to action2 intellect broadens the thought1 but tends to weaken the will4 ,newman has brought it home to us that there is a certain kind of rationalism which is dangerous to character1 and we may be forced to consider whether we shall not soon be required in the sphere of ethics to discourage somewhat the universal tendency of doubt and distrust with reference to elemental convictions4 ,there is no question that for many minds the first doubt as to whether a certain class of acts is wrong was the first step in moral decline4 ,a principle of external authority in ethics is required1 although not such an authority as that of the state or an absolute church4 ,what we are in need of is that strength of conviction which would make us willing to die for a belief with reference to the human world4 ,if we were more and more given to recognising the value of this other external authority1--that is1 the consensus of all the past voices of history when they speak to us on the moral life1--we might find1 more and more1 that enthusiasm coming back and firing once more the hearts of the great men of the age1 just as the other kind of authority gave hope1 fire1 and enthusiasm to the purpose of ,newman4 ,notwithstanding the contrast between ,newman1 the apostle of faith1 and ,emerson who has been called the apostle of scepticism or of individualism1 they had the same intensity of feeling and appalling sincerity1 and both had a like expression of spiritual repose4 ,a mediocre follower of either of them can never be a satisfactory character4 ,an ultra-individualism in everything enfeebles the will1 just as the complete abnegation of the freedom of thought dwarfs the intellect4 ,in order to have a perfect solution of the difficulty1 we need to draw both from ,emerson and ,newman4 ,the ,ethics of ,socialism4 ,the question may be raised whether the philosophical ground of ethical truth does not afford philosophical standing to some sort of socialism4 ,this view of the problem has evidently pervaded the thinking of ,professor ,paulsen in his ,system der ,ethik mit einem ,umriss der ,staats- und ,gesellschaftslehre1 and it is prominent in the ,allgemeine ,ethik of ,d4 ,h4 ,steinthal4 ,the first question that ought to be raised in regard to socialism is the sociological question1 whether society is a product of that universal evolution which brought man himself into existence and conditions all his thought and doings4 ,if so1 we may be sure that there are certain general principles1 or laws1 to which social evolution has conformed in the past1 and to which it will go on conforming in the future4 ,the ethical problems involved in the socialistic propositions now before the public may be reduced to two4 ,first1 if not all men are converted in thought and feeling to socialism1 can a majority have any ethical right to compel a minority to surrender individual initiative and submit to dictation of occupation8 ,secondly what is an ethical distribution of product among the workers that create it8 ,plato and ,aristotle alone laid the foundation for a rationalistic argument from purely ethical premises1 showing that majorities may rightfully do more than enforce contracts and keep the peace1 but the modern restatement and completion of that argument remains to be made4 ,as to the second problem1 a strong argument could be made in support of the proposition that an ethical distribution of wealth would be one that should afford equality of satisfaction throughout society1 of the desires that are ethically commendable4 ,when the clever literary people hypnotised by ,mr4 ,bellamy's dazzling vision begin to resume their intellectual self-direction1 they will discover that equality of income and equality of satisfaction1 of legitimate desires1 are two different things4 ,ethical and ,kindred ,societies in ,great ,britain4 ,speaking broadly the attitude of the societies towards theology and its exponents may be described as one of non-interference or neutrality4 ,they desire to be rather constructive than destructive in their action1 for they believe that desirable changes can only be effected by the slow processes of organic growth4 ,with one exception they have none of the characteristics of a church1 and they may be described as lecturing and debating societies with or without the addition of what is commonly known as practical work4 ,they do not retain the services of a single lecturer1 but prefer to have speakers who are independent of each other4 7,philadelphia3 ,international ,journal of ,ethics1 #afjb ,chestnut ,st47 ,,revue ,,philosophique4 ,february1 #ahia4 ,no4 #ahb4 ,,contents3 ,,realisme ,,et ,,idealisme4 ,by ,paul ,janet4 ,l',,art ,,et ,,la ,,logique4 7#ast ,art47 ,by ,g4 ,tarde4 ,,morale ,,et ,m,,taphysique4 ,by ,j4 ,j4 ,gourd4 ,,analyses ,,et ,,comptes ,,rendus4 ,,revue ,,des ,,periodiques ,,etrangers4 ,,soci,t ,,de ,,psychologie ,,physiologique4 ,m4 ,janet remarks1 in his article on ,realism and ,idealism1 that since ,kant philosophy has concentrated all its efforts on the problem of the objectivity of knowledge4 ,the agreement of reality and thought is a truth of which no one doubts1 although many centuries were necessary for its observation4 ,not only is there agreement between nature and mind1 but there is analogy1 resemblance1 affinity1 between these two terms4 ,not only does nature obey the laws of our mind1 implying that there is in it a logical and rational element1 but it seems to act with the art which intelligence would employ1 if it wished to create the products of nature4 ,how is this union of nature and the mind to be explained8 ,two solutions present themselves3 in which thought can be explained by nature1 or nature by thought4 ,the first of these solutions is that called realism2 the second is idealism4 ,each of these systems has strong reasons in its favor4 ,as to the first1 thought and nature are not commensurate and opposed4 ,thought makes itself part of nature1 and the only thought we know directly is our own4 ,for human intelligence is bound to the organisation1 and appears to follow all its vicissitudes4 ,the basis of idealism is not less firm4 ,external things exist for us only on the condition of passing through our consciousness4 ,further1 the psychological and physiological analysis of sensations reclaims them all as being only states of the ego4 ,but there are serious objections to both hypotheses4 ,realism is susceptible of two forms4 ,if thought1 considered in relation to the origin of ideas1 is explained by sensation1 it becomes empiricism2 if considered in relation to the substratum of thought1 this is explained by organisation1 it becomes materialism4 ,as against empiricism1 may be objected with ,kant that sensation does not explain the necessity and universality of scientific judgments4 ,against materialism1 ,fichte showed that a thing which is only a thing could never attain to thought4 ,thus empiricism is overthrown by the impossibility of explaining science2 materialism by the impossibility of explaining thought4 ,in order to meet the objection of ,kant1 and to explain the appearance of a priori1 the new empiricists have invoked3 7#a7 the principle of inseparable associations2 7#b7 the principle of hereditary associations4 ,on the other side1 the new defenders of materialism in order to explain the transformation of motion into thought1 have invoked the great principle of the correlation and transformation of forces in nature4 ,but as to inseparable associations1 it may be said1 that they give us rather a necessity of fact1 than a necessity of law4 ,what science requires is absolute and not relative necessity4 ,the same may be said of the principle of hereditary associations1 which merely prolong the chain of experiences4 ,but1 further1 association itself requires explanation1 which shows that it cannot account for the principle of causality4 ,as to the use of the principle of transformation of forces to explain the passage of motion into thought1 if the objective and physical cause of our sensations is meant1 there is merely transformation of motion into motion4 ,if it is said that sensations are only transformed motions1 this affirms what is in question1 how motion can transform itself into thought4 ,there are no less serious objections against idealism4 ,the principal one is3 all our reasonings about nature are established only on condition that we take nature as our basis4 ,we thus reach the double conclusion3 neither nature has produced thought1 nor thought has produced nature4 ,the ego is1 however1 in nature1 and nature is a representation of the ego1 but1 while admitting the reciprocal penetration of the two principles1 we are obliged to recognise their mutual independence4 ,there is harmony1 not identity4 ,but is there not some being in which the real of nature and the real of thought coexist1 and who1 according to the formula of ,schelling1 is the absolute subject-object8 ,idealism1 to be consequent1 ought to go as far as the absolute consciousness1 to the union of the subjective and objective thought4 ,if the two inferior terms are identified in the absolute mind1 this will find in nature and in the mind a double expression of itself4 ,nothing prevents us then1 says our author1 from understanding nature1 with ,schelling1 as the drowsy mind seeking to arouse itself1 and the ego on the contrary as a nature which awakens itself4 ,m4 ,tarde in ,art and ,logic remarks that the word art has two senses4 ,in its wide conception1 it includes all the exercises of the imagination and of human ingenuity1 invention in a thousand forms4 ,but in another sense of the word1 it answers to the sthetic needs of society4 ,if we had regard only to the art of the most advanced epochs1 we should perhaps say that it serves to satisfy the need of inventive expression or of expressive invention4 ,it seems then1 in effect1 to be before all expressive or inventive1 and the second of these traits appears the most essential4 ,the property of art and also of morality is to seek and to believe to find a divine end in life1 a great end worthy of individual sacrifice4 ,when art presents itself separated from morality1 when it is an agent not of harmony but of social dissolution1 it is a sign that it is imported from abroad4 ,art is then immoral and dissolvent4 ,in all ages truly logical art has been only the translator and the illuminator of morality4 ,the work of art is not like a product of industry1 an artificial organ added to the individual1 it is an artificial1 imaginary mistress4 ,the privilege of art is to arouse in us sentiments which play in the social life and logic1 precisely the rle of love in the individual life and logic4 ,the sentiment of art is a collective love and rejoices to be such4 ,art is social joy1 as love is individual joy4 ,morality and ,metaphysics4 ,between practical philosophy and theoretical philosophy there is a real difference of nature4 ,the former concerns the action and the latter the perception1 and as we cannot do what yet is not1 nor see what is already done1 the one has relation to the future1 the other to the present or the past4 ,with this difference1 they resemble each other1 in that both consist in a putting in order1 a co-ordination of their objects4 ,experience is sufficient to furnish all that is necessary for the explanation of practical co-ordination4 ,this requires a fundamental notion of practical order1 which metaphysicians see in the notion of the good1 but1 as the reality of the good cannot be established1 it is a chimerical and arbitrary conception4 ,we must seek in the co-ordinated objects themselves the fundamental element around which they will be disposed according to their proper nature4 ,this cannot be the good1 since this is the result of practical co-ordination4 ,it is pleasure1 not a particular kind of pleasure1 but that which is possessed in common by all that pleases1 all that satisfies4 ,volition can never go beyond pleasure4 ,if we desire before having really been sensible of pleasure1 it is because we have been ideally sensible of it4 ,pleasure is inherent in every practical function1 it is practically constant1 it is practically categorical4 ,we cannot go beyond pleasure of some kind4 ,it cannot be said that pleasure is preceded by function1 life4 ,these are only results1 groups which have components1 and therefore they cannot be the last principle of action4 ,thus one problem is resolved without recourse to metaphysics4--,after the principle of simple co-ordination1 must be sought that of the co-ordination which subordinates1 which marks a sort of hierarchy4 ,for this the idea of pleasure is not sufficient4 ,it is necessary to limit the point of view1 and in the difference of quantity of pleasure will be found the rule of co-ordination4 ,the distinction of more or less offers itself at once1 and gives place naturally to degrees1 then to a subordination4 ,the rule of the good is3 the amplitude of the co-ordination1 the degree of intelligibility1 the number of facts which compose the object of volition4 ,it is necessary to distinguish between urgency and superiority in proper value4 ,things which are the most urgent have not necessarily the most value in themselves4 ,thus the practical subordination ought to dispose its objects inversely1 according to whether it is occupied with their urgency or their proper value4 ,here also practical philosophy is not obliged to have recourse to metaphysics4 ,practical philosophy not only ought to regulate its objects on the basis that it has previously fixed1 but still ought to assure this regulation for the future4 ,this requires that its cordinations should be made objects of commandment1 obligation4 ,the conception of the future pleasure enters into the present2 and to each volition is bound by anticipation1 ideally1 but positively1 the future benefit of the practical co-ordination4 ,thus obligation has its source in a volition imposing practical co-ordination on future volitions4 ,obligation is in reality causal determination1 and as there is a volition more or less marked in each act1 and the causal chain is never interrupted1 we can be said to be always under the influence of obligation1 the power of which increases with life4 ,determination is uniformisation2 and nothing else is asked for the moral imperative4 ,causal determination is opposed directly to the unconditionment of liberty2 but obligation1 as well as causal determination in general1 remains1 moreover1 in every partial state1 limited by its opposite1 liberty1 which ever recoils before the continual encroachments of obligation1 but without ceasing to be4 ,there is no difficulty in admitting a sanction for the good1 although it does not constitute a distinct and new element4 ,the sanction is the consequences of actions from the point of view of pleasures4 ,by the side of moral happiness or unhappiness1 should be reserved a place for a happiness or unhappiness in some sort amoral4 ,the moral good does not exhaust all the good4 ,it is necessary to distinguish between the moral good and the unrestrained good 7bien libre74 ,there is an immoralisable element which represents the veritable autonomy of the will4 ,as in all cordinations1 by reason of all bending under the rule1 the moral hierarchy will sometimes injure the reality4 ,here the notion of the unrestrained good happily intervenes4 ,the reality always reserves its rights in the face of co-ordinations1 whatever be their nature4 ,when it asserts itself it is sublime1 it is1 so to say1 raised above every rule1 majestic in its sovereign liberty4 7,paris3 ,flix ,alcan47 ,,zeitschrift ,f,r ,,psychologie ,,und ,,physiologie ,,der ,,sinnesorgane4 ,vol4 ,,ii4 ,nos4 #a and #b4 ,,contents3 ,,versuch ,,einer ,,erweiterten ,,anwendung ,,des ,,fechnerschen ,,gesetzes ,,im ,,farbensystem4 ,by ,h4 v4 ,helmholtz4 ,,was ,,ist ,,unser ,,nervensystem ,,und ,,was ,,geht ,,darin ,,vor8 ,by ,justus ,gaule4 ,,physiologisch-,,psychologische ,,studien ,,ueber ,,die ,,entwickelung ,,der ,,gesichtswahrnehmungen ,,bei ,,kindern ,,und ,,bei ,,operierten ,,blindgeborenen4 ,by ,e4 ,raehlrnann4 ,,zwangsvorstellungen ,,ohne ,,wahnideen4 ,by ,d4 ,hack-,tuke4 ,,ein ,,versuch ,,ueber ,,die ,,intrakranielle ,,leitung ,,leisester ,,toene ,,von ,,ohr ,,zu ,,ohr4 ,by ,karl ,l4 ,schaefer4 ,,besprechungen4 ,wundt1 ,ueber die ,methoden der ,messung des ,bewusstseinsumfanges4 ,by ,schumann4 ,,litteraturbericht4 ,professor ,e4 ,hering introduced the method of defining colors by data of measurement derived from sensations4 ,he thus became the founder of a new conception in ,optics which in many respects promises to give more correct and better explanations not only of the physiology of sight but also of the theory of colors2 his views collide however in some important points with the views of the old school1 the leader of which is ,professor ,helmholtz of ,berlin4 ,the first article of the present number of this magazine treats of one of these problems1 and the author1 ,professor ,helmholtz1 believes that the results of his experiments do not show a gradation of the perceptibility of differences which would justify ,professor ,hering's theory of colors4 ,professor ,helmholtz applies ,fechner's law concerning the measurement of perceptible differences to color-sensations4 ,for the experiments he has made1 a wheel was employed 7after the method of ,maxwell7 into which slips of colored paper of various breadth could be inserted4 ,he found by this photometrical method that the effect of an additional color upon the luminosity is effectually weakened by the amount of the same color present in the whole mixture4444 ,equal small amounts of the quantity of light produce the smaller effects the larger the quantities of the same light are in the whole field4 ,we pass by other results of ,professor ,helmholtz's experiments1 for it takes a specialist to go over his calculations and tables2 and the investigation has by no means been brought to a final conclusion4 ,if the strong deviation is not based upon an error1 ,professor ,helmholtz says1 quite another and a different hypothesis would come into question1 viz1 whether it may not always be the clearest sensation which has effect and that which remains below the threshold does not come into consideration4 ,the revision of his ,handbuch der physiologischen ,optik has been the occasion for these experiments of ,professor ,helmholtz4 ,professor ,gaule of ,zurich propounds a most interesting theory about the development of the trophic functions and the chemical actions of the nervous system4 ,he starts with the idea that the processes of the nervous system are in accord with the law of the conservation of energy4 ,du ,bois ,reymond's remark that love and hatred1 pleasure and pain would remain unexplained even if all the changes that take place in the arrangement of atoms in our nerves were known and mathematically computable1 has made a deep impression because it expresses the disparity of our definitions of atoms on the one side and feelings on the other4 ,yet our atomistic theory is not final2 it is only an auxiliary conception which will simplify thought so long as the present method of considering phenomena from a chemical or physical and geometrical standpoint is retained4 ,as soon as we create a common auxiliary conception to comprise all these sciences1 we shall have to broaden our definitions4 ,taking this position as his philosophical basis1 ,professor ,gaule attempts to consider nervous processes as reflex actions1 the latter being clearly conceivable as subject to the law of the conservation of energy4 ,living beings appear as complexes of forces developed from the chemical actions taking place in their organisms4 ,through a saturation of the affinities of their carbon and hydrogen atoms with oxygen their potential energy is changed into kinetic energy4 ,the latter is used in many various ways1 partly for building up more complex molecules1 partly for again storing potential energy1 and partly1--and this is a predominant process in animal organisms1--for setting forces free which will serve as a source of their activity4 ,it is such a source of activity which the impressions of the outside world affect4 ,the impression is called ,reiz or irritation1 and the irritation has often been compared to the fuse or the spark igniting a powder-mine4 ,we must however bear in mind that the organism is unlike the powder-mine1 not at rest but in constant action and the irritation does not properly speaking evoke a reflex but it only modifies the action taking place4 ,all this is generally conceded by the physiologist4 ,professor ,gaule then proceeds to explain his idea of the nervous development4 ,the cells of the epithelium in the skin perform a peculiar process1 called in ,german ,verhornung2 they turn into horn 7keratine7 by the protoplasm's losing its albuminoids4 ,the process does not take place in one cell but in several layers of cells and represents like all actions a play of forces1 raising the more keratinised strata from the basal membrane to the surface4 ,the keratinising however is1 according to ,gaule1 only the less important surface-phenomenon of another peculiar process which is directed toward the interior of the organism4 ,an excretion takes place forming extremely fine threads around the cells which pass through the pores of the basal membrane 7a fact proved by ,caninis and ,fraenkel7 where they form a plexus4 ,out of the net-like meshes of these plexuses grow increasingly strong filaments which form the trunks of the nerves4 ,these views agree very well with the observations of ,professor ,his on the ftal development of the nerves4 ,professor ,his has indubitably proved that the olfactory nerve for instance does not grow out of but into the hemispheres4 ,the direction of the nervous growth is the same as the direction of their function4 ,many of the sensory nerves have been proven to1 and it is probable that all of them do grow from the periphery into the central organ4 ,hensen in opposition to this has proposed the theory of an original connection between the peripheral root of the nerve and the central organ2 yet whatever side of the controversy may be found in the end to be correct1 the result does not much affect ,professor ,gaule's theory1 that the ends of the nerves represent the roots from which they grow and every special irritation must specially affect the secretion which forms the nerve4 ,having been rather explicit in the basal ideas of ,professor ,gaule's proposition we can now be brief4 ,the axis-cylinder of the nervous fibre corresponds to the secretion of the nervous root2 around it is found the marrow-sheath1 a tube of absorbing cells containing1 also as proved by ,ruehne1 a net of neuro-keratine2 this neuro-keratine again absorbs the axis-cylinder4 ,to the question ,why does not the axis-cylinder disappear8 ,professor ,gaule answers1 ,because it is constantly renewed4 ,thus we have a constant flow in the nervous substance1 an exchange of materials1 an absorption1 a secretion1 and re-absorption2 and in this way it can be1 a progress of chemical action conditioning the vertical direction of the nerves upon their plexuses and also the form of the marrow-sheath which appears like craters1 one inserted within the other and filed upon the axis-cylinder4 ,professor ,gaule proposes no definite opinion as to the development of the motor nerves2 he makes some suggestions which need however further explanation and demonstration4 ,he has apparently not yet finished his investigations and we may expect to hear again from him4 ,e4 ,raehlmann1 ,professor ,of ,ophthalmology at ,dorpat1 presents a rsum of his experiences as to the visual development of persons blind from birth to whom by a successful operation sight had been restored4 ,we confine ourselves to a few quotations4 ,four weeks after the operation of the right eye and a fortnight after that of the left1 on ,april #bhth1 the first experiments were made on ,johann ,rubens4 ,april #cjth1 patient moved his head more than his eyes4 ,he declared he saw perfectly2 yet he was unable to recognise any object except his drinking mug1 which on the previous day he had felt with his fingers4 ,also his shoe was not recognised until he had touched it4 ,may #dth1 patient could see that a wooden ball differed from a wooden cube1 both being of the same color1 but was unable to tell that one was round1 the other square4 ,nor could he distinguish the ball from a disc4 ,after much handling the objects he learned to recognise by sight the roundness of the ball and the squareness of the cube1 but he remained unable to distinguish the ball from the disc4 ,he learned quickly to grasp objects in the median line of his eyes but had great difficulty in finding them with his hand when placed at an angle before him4 ,may #bc;d1 a glass is again presented to the patient2 he sees his picture2 noticing the frame1 he declares the glass to be a picture4 7,a picture had been presented to him repeatedly47 ,now a second face is shown to him in the glass by the side of his own4 ,patient becomes greatly bewildered1 declaring the picture to be familiar to him4 ,being asked whether it is that of the ,professor1 he denies the fact1 because the ,professor stood beside him4 ,looking over his shoulder he notices the ,professor1 and seeing him twice he is confounded4444 ,patient is left alone and remains almost half an hour before the glass4 ,he moves his arm constantly up and down1 observing with a smile how the picture in the glass makes the same movements4 ,requested to touch his nose1 he first grasps into the glass1 then behind the glass1 repeating this several times4 ,his hand then is put on his nose4 ,now he laughs and touches the several parts of his face1 constantly observing the motions of his hand in the glass4 ,most instructive cases of diseases of mind are those in which patients cannot help having and obeying certain ideas which are not1 however1 hallucinations4 ,dr4 ,hack ,tuke in the fourth article of this number says3 ,i was consulted once in the case of a lady1 the most important symptom of whose disease was that she had to count up to a certain number before doing the most trivial thing2 when she turned at night in bed from one side to the other1 or when she took out her watch1 or in the morning before she rose2 when she went downstairs to breakfast1 she would suddenly stop on one of the steps and count2 at the breakfast table when about to take the tea-pot before touching its handle2 etc4 7,arithmomania74 ,another case4 ,a young law-student who had distinguished himself at school1 one day read the ,english sentence 'it was not compatible' and shortly after that he found the sentence1 ',i like it not' in ,german4 ,it struck him that the negative in the one case was placed before and in the other after the word negatived1 and he commenced to ponder on negations in general4 ,it became an all-important and all-absorbing problem to him4 ,it kept him from work4 ,for some time he proposed questions to himself like3 ,why do we not have cold blood like some other animals8 etc4 ,he is at present in great danger of becoming undecisive and wavering in his actions1 for his passion of ruminating on his problem of negatives weakens his will and threatens to destroy his energy4 7,folie du doute47 ,esquirol calls cases of ,zwangsvorstellungen1 in which a patient otherwise healthy is forced to pursue a certain trivial thought1 monomanie raisonnante2 ,professor ,ball1 intellectual impulses4 ,although hereditary influences most likely play an important part in this disease they seem to originate in emotions1 and ,rgis for this reason calls them dlire motif1 stating that their ultimate cause must be sought in a diseased state of the ganglionic system of the intestines4 ,dr4 ,tuke favors ,charcot's term onomatomanie4 ,the disease is a ,wortbesessenheit1 a word-mania4 ,certain expressions or phrases are pressing heavily upon the patient's consciousness so as to force him irresistibly to think them or to pronounce them again and again4 ,not all cases can be classified under word-mania1 but such cases as doubt-mania 7,zweifelsucht7 or arithmomania are akin to it4 ,dr4 ,tuke's advice is not to fight the disease but to teach the patient to ignore it1 to treat it as trivial1 for the diseased ideas derive new strength from the opposition made to them4 ,professor ,e4 ,mach explains ,weber's discovery that if a tuning fork is placed upon the head of a person1 one ear being shut1 the sound is heard and located in the shut ear1 in the following way3 ,the sound passes through the bones of the cranium to the labyrinth of the ear and thence out of the ear into the air1 thus taking the inverse direction of other sounds we hear4 ,if the flow in one ear be stopped1 the sound-waves are reflected and the drum vibrates stronger4 ,hence the tone will be heard more plainly in the shut ear and will be located there4 ,professor ,schaefer in the last article of this number describes an experiment in the same line1 which in another way--the transmission of sound through air waves being excluded--proves the intercranial conductibility of very weak sounds from ear to ear4 7,hamburg and ,leipsic3 ,l4 ,voss47 ,,schriften ,,der ,,gesellschaft ,,fuer ,,psychologische ,,forschung4 ,no4 #a4 ,,contents3 ,,die ,,bedeutung ,,narcotischer ,,mittel ,,fuer ,,den ,,hypnotismus4 ,by ,dr4 ,freiherrn von ,schrenck-,notzing4 ,,ein ,,gutachten ,,ueber ,,einen ,,fall ,,von ,,spontanem ,,somnambulismus4 ,by ,prof4 ,dr4 ,august ,forel4 ,the psychological societies of ,munich and ,berlin have started under the above title a periodical the first number of which is very promising4 ,dr4 von ,schrenck-,notzing makes some critical remarks on ,prof4 ,bernheim's view to consider hypnosis as an increase of suggestibility produced by suggestion4 ,there are observations which do not justify this definition4 ,he then investigates the substitution of narcotics as a means for producing hypnosis and their suggestive effects4 ,in the second part of his essay ,dr4 ,schrenck-,notzing speaks about the suggestive effects of ,indian hemp which in a special preparation under the name of hashish is used in the ,orient as a means of intoxication4 ,reference is made to the ,ismaelite secret society ,megalis et ,hiemit 7the house of wisdom7 consisting of missionaries 7,das71 adepts 7,fedas7 and laymen 7,refiks71 all of which are bound blindly to obey their grand master 7,dai-al-,doal74 ,hassan1 an adept of this society1 was obliged to flee1 #ajij1 on account of some quarrels4 ,he founded a similar sect at the head of which stood the old man of the mountains 7,shaik-al-,djabal74 ,their members1 especially the lower classes1 the hashishin1 made themselves formidable in the times of the crusades by their reckless obedience in executing murder and other crimes4 ,the order consisted of #fj1jjj members and their blind obedience was effected through suggestibility in the state of hashish intoxication4 ,the word assassin is derived from their name4 ,in the year #abee a ,mongolian governor ordered #ab1jjj hashishin to be executed on account of the dangerous character of their sect4 ,the secret of their formidable obedience appears to have been the method of intoxicating the neophyte before his admission to the order with hashish in some grand mountain scenery and suggesting to him all the pleasures of paradise which he would find in blind faith and unreserved obedience to the old man of the mountain4 ,contempt of death1 insensibility under the severest tortures1 and an unspeakable joy in the fulfilment of their leader's command were the result4 ,it can readily be perceived what a dangerous drug hashish is2 nevertheless it is said that the cultivation of ,indian hemp1 especially among some negro tribes of ,africa according to the reports of ,wissmann1 exercises in several respects a good influence4 ,some of the barbarians of darkest ,africa have given up cannibalism and accustom themselves to more civilised habits4 ,the psychical effects of hashish are described as3 7#a7 a feeling of comfort2 7#b7 dissociation of ideas and a lack of their control2 7#c7 illusion concerning space and time2 7#d7 an increased sense of hearing2 7#e7 fixed ideas and delirium2 7#f7 a disturbance of affective states1 e4 g4 suspicion2 7#g7 irresistible impulses2 7#h7 illusions and hallucinations4 ,dr4 v4 ,schrenck-,notzing freely quotes from ,moreau1 ,du ,hashish et de l'alination mentale1 ,etude psychologique 7,paris3 ,masson1 #ahde71 and adds several experiments of his own4 ,mrs4 ,fay1 a somnambule accused of imposition and fraud1 was delivered by the ,county ,court of ,zurich to ,professor ,forel for observation who kept her for several days in his institute4 ,the professor's report to the ,county ,court is very interesting in so far as ,mrs4 ,fay1 a woman without education1 must be considered as a genuine somnambule exhibiting all the symptoms observed in other cases4 ,she had been a servant girl in ,basel and since her fifteenth year fell twice a day in an hypnotic sleep4 ,she married and had several children1 her youngest child was born while she was in her hypnotic sleep4 ,she made a living by curing patients who consulted her when asleep1 and was punished before on that account for imposition4 ,during one of her hypnotic states patients were introduced to her in the presence of ,professor ,forel and she made her statements in vague terms as almost all somnambules do4 ,the experiment showed that her diagnosis consisted of random guesses which in exceptional cases happened to be correct2 sometimes they were not wholly incorrect1 but mostly erroneous4 ,she believes herself to be possessed by a spirit whom she calls ,ernst4 ,professor ,forel without considering the woman as a model of truthfulness1 believes in her sincerity4 ,he cured her of her hypnotic sleep on her own request4 ,she stated that the money she earned by curing patients did not make up for the loss she endured by not being able to earn a living by work4 ,professor ,forel succeeded with his cure1 but he states in a postscript that the woman having returned to her former surroundings1 has since suffered from relapses4 7,leipsic3 ,ambr4 ,abel47 ,,philosophische ,,monatshefte4 ,vol4 ,,xxvii4 ,nos4 #c and #d4 ,,contents3 ,,quantitaet ,,und ,,qualitaet ,,in ,,begriff1 ,,urtheil ,,und ,,gegenstaendlicher ,,erkenntniss4 ,ein ,kapitel der transcendentalen ,logik4 7,concluded47 ,by ,p4 ,natorp4 ,,recensionen4 ,,litteraturbericht4 ,,bibliographie4 ,by ,prof4 ,dr4 ,f4 ,ascherson4 ,the conclusion of ,prof4 ,p4 ,natorp's article on ,quantity and ,quality in ,concept1 ,judgment1 and ,objective ,cognition appears to be the most important part of the essay4 ,professor ,natorp is a transcendentalist4 ,he understands ,kant in a dualistic sense where the latter says that the unity of apperception 7,einheit der ,apperception7 is the radical faculty of all our cognition 7,radical-,vermgen aller unserer ,erkentniss74 ,cognition is defined as limitation of that which is per se infinite4 ,it is natural that for a transcendentalist the greatest difficulty arises when he attempts to let his a priori face the facts of reality4 ,professor ,natorp shows great skill and ingenuity in this respect4 ,it is but consistent with his premisses to arrive at an invincible dualism1 yet he adapts his transcendentalism sufficiently to fulfil the demands of experience4 ,thus he does not come to a real solution but to a modus vivendi1 which is after all the purpose of philosophy4 ,professor ,natorp considers the synthetic unity not as given1 but as to be realised2 a concept is created through definition4 ,the data of experience on the other hand are not the defined1 but the definable4 ,they are to be defined by the forms of the concepts1 and their fundamental forms are quantity and quality4 ,he says3 ,the definition as this and as that 7as something identical7 is a function of the concept1 but the concept presupposes sensation as the material to be defined4 ,to consider sensation as given in this its absolute identity which is demanded by the concept1 is after all an illusion4 ,therefore positivism and not idealism confounds the demands of cognition with the given reality1 thus adjusting facts to our wants of knowledge4 ,sensation conceived as a datum and not as a postulate is and remains the infinitely definable and never absolutely defined4444 ,it appears easy thus to reduce the dualism of form and matter1 concept and sensation1 the defined and the definable to one ultimate unity4 ,in one respect positivism succeeds1 attributing full definedness1 and not mere definableness1 to the data2 and then1 it finds no difficulty in letting the defining function of the concept in its peculiarity disappear by reducing it to a quality of the data4 ,we do not know to what kind of positivism ,professor ,natorp refers2 yet it seems that it cannot be applied either to ,comte's or to ,littr's views4 ,nor does it dispose of the positivism editorially set forth in ,the ,monist4 ,positivism1 according to ,professor ,natorp1 is at fault in dropping the definite function of the concept4 ,but he endeavors to avoid the opposite mistake also1 viz4 to entirely drop the definable1 which might be supposed to be a mere ,x1 scarcely representable in clear concepts1 or to deduce it from the defining function4 ,this other exaggeration is that of idealism which has found its purest expression in ,fichte's philosophy4 ,professor ,natorp by keeping aloof from both errors declares dualism to be insuperable2 dualism1 he says1 'is a hard fact'--eine starre ,thatsache4 ,the trouble with transcendentalists1 it seems to us1 originates in their method of starting with cognition1 with the synthetic unity of apperception1 with the forms of concepts4 ,experience means to them the sense-element of sensation1 the contents of concepts without their form4 ,they start with a dualism4 ,when they have completed their system of transcendental forms1 they find it hard to explain how to change their rigid laws into the constant flux of reality as presented to us by experience4 ,should the philosopher not rather start from the function of cognising1 which in itself is a unity8 ,he will find that cognition1 concept1 the synthetic unity of apperception1 and all the complex laws of transcendental thought are products of the cognising function4 ,if these laws are rigid1 we have made them so4 ,we have made them stable1 we have fixed them for a certain purpose4 ,their rigidity is a legitimate fiction for that purpose1 but beyond it it finds no application4 ,pure logic draws distinctions which do not exist in reality2 pure mathematics operates with lines which considered as real things are mere nonentities4 ,the dualism between concept and sensation1 between the a priori and the a posteriori1 between thought and thing1 between form and matter1 is not given in experience1 for in experience the formal and the material are one inseparable whole2 it is the product of cognition4 ,the cognising function differentiates the data of experience into formal and material aspects2 the formal being always of a general character serves as a help for systematising and classifying the material4 ,this appears to us the only way of realising a monistic positivism1 and no philosophy can be considered as satisfactory until it represents the data of experience or positive facts in a unitary view1 i4 e4 a harmonious conception free of contradictions4 ,professor ,natorp has still to battle with the ,eleatic question4 ,he begins the conclusion of his article with the following words3 ,let us consider only the most important results of our deduction4 ,an explanation of 'becoming1' of 'change' has in this way become possible2 the solution of the ,eleatic problem how 'change' can be at all1 since being means unchangeable definedness2 or1 how becoming can be1 since it includes not-being1 for being means the transition from not-being into being1 or from being into not-being4 ,how can we think this combination of position and negation without contradiction1 a combination of position and negation being a contradiction8 ,this is rather a late flower of ,hegelian thought3 but1 being presented so vigorously and unequivocally1 it illustrates clearly the mistake of transcendentalism in starting from abstract concepts or pure thought1 thence coming down to the facts of reality4 ,there transcendentalists have to fit their ideas about being and not-being to experience1 and finding insuperable difficulties must consistently become dualists4 ,professor ,natorp's solution of the ,eleatic question is to find a method of thought which overcomes the absolute contradiction of position and negation4444 ,this is done by the comprehensive unity1 which means identity and at the same time difference1 viz4 that one is the same as the other and yet not the same4 ,we should say that the ,eleatic question will best be understood by a clear comprehension of the function1 the purpose1 and the products of cognition4 ,says ,professor ,natorp3 ,since ,kant has restored in its purity the distinction made by the ancients between and 1 and 1 the authors of this distinction1 the philosophers of ,elea are almost nearer to us than ,aristotle4 ,the distinction between thought and sensation is indeed of extraordinary importance4 ,ideas 7thoughts7 and sensations are different1 but the recognition of this difference is no reason to declare dualism as permanently established4 ,is not the reason of their difference the difference of abstraction made in each case4 ,by noumena1 i4 e4 thoughts or ideas1 we understand all mental symbols representing things4 ,the ideas man1 manhood1 virtue1 etc41 are not sensations1 but symbols representing some qualities abstracted from sensations4 ,in making the abstraction idea we confine the term1 i4 e4 the symbol idea1 to its representative element alone4 ,we leave out of sight that real ideas vibrating through our brain are at the same time nervous structures in actions2 we leave also out of sight that they possess the state of awareness in common with sensations4 ,we do it because their representative nature is of paramount importance4 ,however1 in making the abstraction sensation we do not exclude the state of awareness1 we think first of all of the feeling of a sensation and then also of its form1 viz4 the special sense-impression4 ,i have a sensation is almost equivalent to the phrase ,i have a feeling2 a sensation of light means a feeling of the effect of ether-waves upon the retina2 a sensation of sound is a feeling of the effect of air-waves upon the drum of the ear2 etc4 ,just as much as ether-waves are not light1 and air-waves not sound1 7the latter being the effect of the former upon specially adapted feeling substance71 so also the sensations light and sound are not the ideas we have of light and sound4 ,the ideas of light and sound are symbols representing in feeling substance the sensations light and sound4 ,these symbols1 we suppose1 have developed from the memory-images of sensations4 ,they must in their turn also be considered as effects4 ,they are the effects of sense-impressions upon specially adapted feeling substance1 viz4 upon a higher system of nervous structures1 not in direct contact with the periphery1 but growing upon and from the peripheral sensory reflex centres4 ,the physiological activity of thoughts is accompanied also with the feeling element2 or in other words1 thoughts are1 as much as sensations1 states of awareness4 ,yet they differ from sensations in that they do not contain anything of sense-impressions2 the latter being an exclusive characteristic of the action of sensory organs4 ,the memory-picture of blackness is not a sensation and the idea of blackness still less4 ,the distinction between noumena or things of thought and stheta or sensations is by no means so distinct as is often assumed2 for1 as we have seen1 the most prominent feature of the noumenon is its representative character4 ,isolated sense-impressions possess no representative character1 but sensations do possess it4 ,sensations are the connecting link between sense-impressions and thoughts1 between meaningless feeling and mental states or mind1 i4 e4 representative states of awareness4 ,ideas are1 as it were1 an extract of the representative value contained in sensations4 ,this is my conception of the distinction to be made between and 1 between sense-activity and thought-activity1 between the phenomenon and noumenon4 ,it is set forth at length in the discussion with ,professor ,e4 ,mach in this number4 ,it has been here again set forth at such length1 because ,i am convinced that a final solution of the problem is of great importance4 7,heidelberg3 ,george ,weiss47 4 ,,minerva4 ,rassegna ,internazionale4 ,january1 #ahia4 ,minerva will represent the first ,italian venture in the direction of a comprehensive magazine of international reference and literary record4 ,the editors1 in stating the aims of their new publication1 acknowledge that ,italy keenly feels the lack of an international intellectual magazine4 ,in ,italy the reading public1 and persons of an average culture1 still seem to be cut off from all stimulating intellectual contact with the outside civilised world2 while beyond the ,alps1 on the contrary1 and across the seas1 any book1 or a simple magazine-article even1 be it written in ,german1 ,english1 or ,french1 and legitimately claim from any point of view a certain importance1 is at once read by innumerable persons from ,san ,francisco all the way to ,st4 ,petersburg4 ,through the intellectual medium of their international reviews1 these nations seem actually to have realised one of ,goethe's most ardent aspirations1--the dream of a noble and humanising world-literature4 ,nearly all of the articles contained in the present issue of ,minerva are ably condensed translations and epitomes of articles that have recently appeared in leading ,english1 ,american1 and ,german reviews and magazines4 ,la ,minerva is under the direction of ,prof4 ,federico ,garlanda of the ,university of ,rome4 7,rome3 ,la ,societ ,laziale4 ,tip ,editrice47 ,,voprosy ,,filosofii ,i ,,psichologii4#id #id ,questions of ,philosophy and ,psychology4 ,in the ,russian language4 ,,contents3 ,,further ,,remarks ,,concerning ,,the ,,task ,,of ,,this ,,review4 ,by the ,editor ,prof4 ,n4 ,grote4 ,,ethics ,,and ,,evolution4 ,by ,b4 ,n4 ,beketov4 ,,letters ,,on ,,count ,,tolstoi',s ,,book ,,from ,,life4 ,by ,a4 ,a4 ,kozlow4 ,,concerning ,,the ,,law ,,of ,,the ,,conservation ,,of ,,energy4 ,by ,n4 ,n4 ,strachov4 ,,on ,,the ,,nature ,,of ,,human ,,consciousness4 ,by ,prince ,c4 ,n4 ,trubetzkoi4 ,,criticism ,,and ,,bibliography4 ,,the ,,doctrine ,,of ,,will ,,in ,,the ,,new ,,psychology4 ,by ,k4 ,ventzel4 ,,book ,,reviews4 ,,review ,,of ,,periodicals3 #a7 ,of foreign philosophical ,reviews2 #b7 ,of philosophical articles in ,russian ecclesiastical papers4 ,,polemical4 ,,appendix3 #a7 ,materials for the ,history of ,philosophy in ,russia2 #b7 ,transactions of the ,moscow ,psychological ,society4 ,russia is perhaps that country of all civilised nations of which we know least1 and even such authors as ,tolsto who are read all over the world1 are perhaps1 severed from their surroundings1 not correctly understood by us as the ,russian understands them4 ,the present magazine1 ,problems of ,philosophy and ,psychology1 being a strictly scientific periodical1 is less peculiarly ,russian without entirely losing the national characteristics of its home4 ,the intention of the editor has been to develop and to give a chance for a further development of an independent ,russian philosophy4 ,the philosophy of the ,west1 we are informed1 does not satisfy the ,russian mind2 the ,english philosophy is one-sided empirical1 the ,french mathematical1 the ,german too abstract and logical4 ,the ,russian philosophy aspires to bring about a well-balanced and harmonious method of thinking in which reason1 sentiment1 and action--science1 art and religion--are reconciled4 ,professor ,grote1 the editor of ,problems of ,philosophy and ,psychology1 by placing the ethical interest in the foreground1 hopes that ,russian philosophy will become the salvation of the world from evil4 ,among the book reviews we find six pages devoted to ,the ,ethical ,problem1 by ,dr4 ,paul ,carus1 a translation of which was made for us by ,prof4 ,a4 ,gunlogsen of ,chicago4 ,we find however that the reviewer1 ,mr4 ,p4 ,astafiew1 mixes the position of the author up with that of the societies for ethical culture4 ,if he represents the ,magazine's view of reconciling ,science1 ,art1 and ,religion1 it is sure that ,religion in the shape ,of his peculiar creed would get the lion's share4 ,the interest of the little book consists to him in the fact that it clearly characterises a singular anarchical condition2 by having lost the old faith1 it is utterly unable to replace it4 ,it is an assumption to base ethics and religion on positive and scientific foundations2 yet the attempt is curious as a symptom of the times and especially of enlightened ,america4 ,in answer to one of the most important errors in ,mr4 ,astafiew's review1 we have to state that basing ethics upon the facts of life1 verified and verifiable by science1 does not mean that we have to study psychology in order to be moral4 ,a man can lead a moral life without understanding anything of ethics1 the science of morality4 ,ethics is not an indispensable condition of morality4 ,but it is of paramount importance that ethics--as a science--is not an impossibility4 ,the data of moral life1 the impulses of duty1 of conscience1 of the ought1 are not mystical or supernatural1 i4 e4 extra-natural1 standing in contradiction to other natural facts2 they are not1 as the intuitionists maintain1 unanalysable1 they are not1 as ,professor ,adler1 the founder of the ,ethical ,societies declares1 beyond the pale of science2 the ladder of science1 he says1 does not reach so far4 ,the data of moral life are facts of the natural development of man and of human society2 they can be investigated by science1 they can be compared with other natural facts1 they can be classified and understood4 ,a man can throw a stone without understanding anything of ,newton's laws1 he can build a hut without understanding architecture4 ,yet for that reason the study of ballistics and of architecture are not useless4 ,the man who has studied architecture may bridge the ,niagara1 which the mound-builders were unable to do4 ,and if a bridge breaks down while the mounds of the mound-builders are still standing1 it proves nothing against architecture4 ,an ethical student may have proposed untenable theories in ethics1 he may have preached a wrong morality1 and may have gone astray himself3 all that would prove nothing against the science of ethics4 ,it is to be expected that ethical knowledge1 if it leaveneth the whole lump of human society1 will raise man's moral life higher1 as surely as our knowledge of architecture made it possible that we now build palaces upon the places where in former times stood the wigwams of the ,indians4 7,moscow1 #ahia47 4 ,,vol4 ,i4 ,,july1 #ahia4 ,,no4 #d4 ,,the ,,monist4 ,,psychology ,,of ,,conception4 ,general ,nature of ,thought4--,the processes marked off by the psychologist as thinking or thought constitute the highest stage of intellectual elaboration 7intellection74 ,by taking our concrete percepts and resolving them into so many abstractions1 7qualities or attributes of things1 relations between things17 we are enabled to carry out the process of cognition to the furthest point of unification4 ,as long as we view a particular object1 or an event1 alone apart from other things1 we merely apprehend it4 ,but when we bring it into relation to kindred things we comprehend it4 ,thus1 we comprehend the tiger by classing it with other members of the feline group4 ,so we comprehend or understand the movement of the steam-engine by assimilating it to the more familiar action of the steam in the kettle in forcing up the lid4 ,like imaginative production thinking is nothing but the sum of processes of separation and combination1 carried out on sense-material4 ,but in this case the elaborative processes assume a new and peculiar form4 ,it is one thing to build up a pictorial image as the poet does1 another thing to elaborate an abstract idea1 such as the scientific notion of force1 fulcrum1 and so forth4 ,we must now try to investigate more thoroughly the nature of this thought-elaboration4 ,thought as ,activity4--,it is evident that the processes here roughly described are active processes1 that is to say they involve a special exertion of the forces of attention4 ,in perception1 reproduction1 and constructive imagination1 this active factor is at work4 ,but it is only in thought proper that this activity becomes fully developed4 ,to think of a particular attribute in an object1 say the color of a rose1 is as we all know a conscious effort or strain4 ,a child first called upon to think about abstract qualities1 and the general relations of objects finds the operation difficult and fatiguing4 ,all thinking is in truth an exercise of the higher form of attention1 viz4 volitional concentration of consciousness4 ,we only think when we have some purpose as the discovery of the likeness or difference among objects1 and such a purpose only develops itself as the individual and the race attain a certain measure of development or culture4 ,the child and the savage1 like the animal1 get on very well without thinking4 ,and even a large proportion of civilised adults think only in an occasional and rudimentary way4 ,thought is thus in all cases a kind of artificial activity sustained only for short periods and under the stress of impulses or motives which belong to a high stage of intellectual and moral development4 ,the high degree of activity in thought presumably involves a special amount of that muscular strain which forms the sensuous base of the attitude of attention4 ,to think is thus to concentrate consciousness by aid of energetic motor adjustments4 ,these include the innervation of certain muscles1 more particularly those by which movements of the eyes and head are carried out4 ,to think is to keep certain ideational elements in persistent consciousness1 and this is probably effected in part at least by an energetic and sustained innervation of particular groups of muscles4 ,to this it may be added that since as we shall see presently all thinking is bringing together in their relations a number of ideational elements1 the muscular activity in the case is of a specially difficult kind4 ,such special muscular efforts would probably effect a cutting off of other elements and so subserve that severe narrowing of consciousness which is so marked a feature in thought4 ,directions of ,thought-,activity4--,this thought-activity may be viewed as having two aspects or as following two directions1 which it may be well to view apart1 even though1 as we shall presently see1 they are inseparable aspects of one process4 ,just as all intellectual elaboration is at once differentiation or separation and integration or combination of what is differentiated1 so thought itself is but a higher development of each phase4 a7 ,analysis1 ,abstraction4--,first of all1 then1 thought may be viewed as a carrying further and into higher forms the process of differentiation or separation of presentative elements by means of isolating acts of attention4 ,thus on selectively considering the color of a rose1 or the form of a crystal1 we are it is evident differentiating what is given in perception as a complex into a number of parts1 and rendering one of these specially prominent and distinct4 ,such thought-separation is commonly spoken of as ,analysis1 i4 e4 the taking apart of what is conjoined in a whole1 and also as ,abstraction or the withdrawal of attention from what is for the moment irrelevant and confining it to one particular point1 feature1 or quality 7,latin ab or abs1 and traho74 ,here it is evident a special attitude and effort of attention is required4 ,it is one thing to note carefully a presentative complex just as it is1 another thing to single out some element of this and fix the attention on it4 ,the peculiar difficulty of this analytic attention is due to the firm coherence of the complex4 ,the child cannot see the color of the orange just because the orange as a whole stands in the way4 ,hence this analytic attention is abstraction in the fullest sense1 that is a deliberate turning aside from what stimulates or attracts this attention at the moment4 ,such abstract singling out of an element may be supposed to involve a special modification of the muscular adjustment in attention4 ,hence perhaps the comparative ease with which we can single out for observation locally distinct features of an object1 to which correspond different movements of the sense-organ4 ,on the other hand the great difficulty of mentally separating the color from the form of an object may arise from the common element in the muscular adjustments concerned4 ,the nature of this process of analysis or abstract attention is best seen in those comparatively simple operations in which an actual presentation-complex as a group of tones or colors is being analysed4 ,the carrying out of such a process of analysis is aided by certain conditions objective or external1 and subjective or internal4 ,thus it is found that the closer the degree of the complication the more difficult the isolating fixation4 ,thus while it is comparatively easy to attend to one detail of color in an object locally separated from other color-details it is exceedingly difficult to attend to the brightness or the degree of saturation of a color apart from the quality of the tone itself4 ,in the case of tone-masses1 again1 it is found that certain combinations1 more especially that of the octave1 are difficult to distinguish because of the tendency in this case to fusion4#ie #ie ,this is ,stumpf's explanation4 ,see his account of the different degrees of fusion4 ,tonpsychologie ii4 p4 #fe1 and p4 #abg et seqq4 ,coming now to subjective conditions we find that the detection of an element in a complex is aided by a previous familiarity with this apart from its present concomitants4 ,thus the singling out of the partial tones of a clang is greatly aided by the circumstance that these occur and so are known apart from the ground-tone and thus are more readily picked out and recognised4#if ,again1 the separate detection of a presentative element is aided by special interest in the particular material4 ,a fine ear for clang-effect or timbre can more readily fix its attention on this4 #if ,according to ,helmholtz this previous familiarity with the elements of a composite whole when it gives rise to a vivid expectation may produce an illusory analysis1 as when certain opticians affirmed that they could detect the supposed constituents of green1 blue1 and yellow1 in that color4 ,see ,physiol4 ,optik1 p4 #bgc4 ,such special interest works mainly through what is known as practice4 ,what we are accustomed to note1 and exercised in picking out from its surroundings1 we are able to detect readily4 ,this effect of practice in facilitating analysis or abstract attention to this and that constituent of a presentation-complex is abundantly shown throughout the whole domain of recent experimental inquiry into the nature and relations of sensation4 ,of course all such analytical separation of presentative constituents is limited by certain conditions in our sensibility4 ,thus the limits of local discrimination obviously confine the range of isolating attention to local detail in our tactual and visual presentations4 ,since too such isolation is differentiation1 i4 e4 the singling out of some trait or feature different in quality or intensity from surrounding features1 it follows that our abstraction is in all cases limited by our discrimination4 ,we cannot separately fixate a local detail of color if this is not qualitatively distinguishable from its surroundings1 nor a local detail of form if this is not distinguishable in luminous intensity from its entourage4 ,similarly with respect to the difficult analysis of complex tone-presentations or clangs and taste-presentations1 as the mixed flavors of a dish4 b7 ,synthesis3 ,conscious ,relating4--,in the second place all thought is integrating or combining1 or1 as it is commonly expressed1 a process of ,synthesis4 ,in thinking we never merely isolate or abstract4 ,we analytically resolve the presentative complexes of our concrete experience only in order to establish certain relations among them4 ,the most appropriate term for all such conscious relating or discernment of relation is ,comparison4 ,all our sensational or presentative material is given in certain relations or connections1 including the relation of coexistence1 or coinherence in a substance1 of the several qualities of a thing4 ,thus the several parts of an extended body stand in certain spatial relations one to another1 one part being situated to the right of the other1 and the object as a whole being above and behind another object1 and so forth4 ,to these space-relations must be added the time-relations of all events1 such as the movements of objects1 their changes of form1 and so forth4 ,lastly with these 'external' relations are given the so-called 'internal' relations of difference and likeness4 ,the colors1 forms1 and so forth that present themselves from time to time exhibit a large variety of such relations4 ,as long as we perceive or imagine the concrete object as such we have only a vague 'implicit' knowledge of these relations4 ,thus a child in looking at a house sees implicitly the chimney in a definite spatial relation to the mass of the building1 but the clear explicit grasp of the relation is a subsequent process going beyond perception and involving a rudiment of what we mark off as thought4 ,in like manner when in recollection we recall a sequence of experiences1 we may implicitly recognise one as following another2 yet it is only by a process of thought that we explicitly single out this relation for special consideration4 ,the same holds good with regard to the all-comprehensive relations of dissimilarity and similarity4 ,a child in perceiving a particular object1 say a tree1 differentiates it from surrounding objects1 other trees1 the background of the sky1 etc41 and in recognising a familiar object as his toy1 or as an orange1 he assimilates it to previous like presentations4 ,but in these cases the consciousness of difference and likeness is implicit only4 ,it is some way from this implicit or unconscious discrimination and assimilation to comparison proper1 issuing in a clear or explicit consciousness of a relation of likeness or of unlikeness4 ,it follows from this that thought grows by insensible gradations out of the lower intellective operations4 ,the perception of objects in space1 and still more1 the recollection of events in time1 is itself an incipient subconscious stage of the thought process1 i4 e4 grasp of relations4 ,hence our demarcations of the spheres of sense and thought1 of concrete or pictorial and abstract representations1 are not to be taken absolutely4 ,the germ of thought is present throughout1 yet as we shall see presently it is a considerable step from the implicit to the explicit seizing of these relations4#ig #ig ,cf4 ,lotze1 ,mikrokosmus1 ,english translation1 i4 p4 #fee2 ,ward1 article ,psychology1 ,encycl4 ,britannica1 p4 #ge4 ,all such explicit grasp of relation involves a new direction of adjustive effort1 or of 7volitional7 attention4 ,just as the analytic resolution of a complex demands a special effort in the way of limited concentration and resistance to irrelevant concomitants1 so the comparison of two presentations in order to discern their relation imposes a further special task in the shape of a comprehensive grasp4 ,the special difficulties of the process are manifest4 ,comparative attention to two presentations1 say two colors in local1 or two tones in temporal juxtaposition is not merely the carrying out of a simple adjustive process in one direction only1 but the carrying out of a double and yet co-ordinated adjustive process4 ,the fact that there is a general tendency to simple modes of adjustment subserving a comparatively simple structure or pattern of consciousness1 and the fact that complex simultaneous adjustments1 as in the case of doing different things at the same time1 and in that of the synthetic relating process of thought1 are rare and acquired with difficulty1 suggest that a special nervous process is involved1 consisting of a double and divergent stream of innervation1 each branch of which has to be kept going in certain relations of time1 as also of proportionate strength1 with the other branch4 ,the process of synthetic or relating activity just described may take the direction of consciously grasping the relations immediately presented along with presentation1 and more particularly the co-existence of attributes in the same object1 and the space and time relations of presentations4 ,to note the juxtaposition of yellow and white in a daisy or the co-existence of its form and color1 or the spatial inclusion of its yellow centre in an extended whole1 is evidently to discern relations and so to carry out a process of conscious synthesis4 ,it is however in discerning the most comprehensive relations of likeness and unlikeness that thought shows itself most clearly to be a synthetic process4 ,thinking has in a special manner to do with the detection of similarity and dissimilarity or difference4 ,such relating by way of difference or agreement is what we ordinarily understand by comparison4 ,the relations of similarity and dissimilarity as comprehensive relations connecting presentations remote as well as proximate in time are spoken of as internal and thus marked off from the external relations of time and place4 ,it is true as we have just seen that they are involved along with the latter4 ,thus in discerning the relations of the parts of an object1 we must differentiate them4 ,yet the two modes of relating are distinct4 ,i discriminate two colors in local juxtaposition not qu juxtaposed but qu different in their quality4 ,the juxtaposition may greatly assist the discriminative process1 but this circumstance does not make the juxtaposition and the qualitative difference one whit less distinct as relations4 ,it may be added that the greater comprehensiveness of the so-called internal relations is seen in the circumstance that the relations of time and place1 just like the separate qualities or attributes of objects1 are themselves modes of similarity and dissimilarity4 ,thus the relation of local contiguity between two elements is something common to these and other contiguous pairs4 ,moreover1 it is evident that in such a case each element is recognised as having a different position from the other4 ,similarity with the temporal relations of events4 ,comparison4--,we may now glance at the operations here brought under the head of comparison1 the bringing of different presentative or representative materials before the mind simultaneously and keeping them in consciousness in order to note their relations of similarity or dissimilarity4 ,here as in the case of ,analysis or ,abstraction we shall illustrate the process by selecting relatively simple modes of the operation carried out on immediately presented sense-material4 ,likeness and ,difference4--,we may here assume that likeness and unlikeness are two perfectly distinct relations4 ,to apprehend a similarity between two sensations1 say tones1 is an intellectual process which we all recognise as radically unlike that of apprehending a difference4 ,yet while the consciousness of likeness and that of difference are thus radically distinct1 as psychical processes1 it is evident that the relations of likeness and difference are presented together in close connection4 ,as we all know similarity discloses itself in the midst of difference4 ,this is obvious in the case of all complex presentations1 as when we assimilate two objects on the ground of a color resemblance4 ,not only so1 since even in the case of sensation-elements 7e4 g4 color-sensations7 likeness is a thing of degree shading off from perfect likeness or indistinguishableness to just recognisable affinity1 it follows that here1 too1 likeness and difference are given together in mutual implication4 ,since resemblance and difference are thus uniformly presented together1 it is to be expected that comparison will commonly include the two processes1 assimilation and discrimination4 ,and this is so4 ,we see likeness amid difference1 e4 g4 a common trait in two faces along with striking dissimilarities4 ,on the other hand we contrast two objects in respect of some common quality as color1 form1 beauty and so forth1 which common element constitutes the ground or fundamentum of the comparison4 ,at the same time it is evident that the one process usually1 if not in all cases1 preponderates over the other4 ,we are now specially interested in the likeness of two objects1 say two faces1 or two literary styles1 the moment after1 perhaps1 in their differences4 ,accordingly we may say that comparison is the noting of likeness against a dimly apprehended background of difference1 or a difference against a dimly apprehended background of similarity4 ,conditions of ,comparison4--,comparison whether specially directed to likeness or unlikeness has certain common conditions4 ,as in the case of ,abstraction these conditions may be divided into objective1 or those involved in the nature or concomitants of the presentations considered as external objects1 or objects of common perception2 and subjective or those connected with the nature of the individual mind4 ,as ,i have given a full account#ih of these elsewhere1 ,i must content myself here with a general remark or two on the subject4 #ih ,in ,mind1 x4 p4 #dhi et seqq4 ,of the objective conditions the most important are the following3 7a7 ,there must be a moderate and favorable degree of strength or intensity in the presentations to be compared4 ,we compare fairly bright colors better than very dull ones4 7b7 ,the common factor or ground of comparison must be sufficiently distinct4 ,we cannot compare two tones in respect of pitch if this is unsteady4 7c7 ,comparison is greatly aided by juxtaposition in space or time4 ,thus local proximity is a condition of a nice comparison of colors4 ,with respect to temporal conditions it was found by ,fechner and has been confirmed by others that immediate succession is more helpful to comparison than simultaneity4 ,we compare sensations of weight1 tone1 etc41 best of all when they are made to succeed one another4 ,with respect to subjective conditions1 comparison will1 it is obvious1 be assisted by a good power of concentration4 ,it will also be aided by a special sensibility for1 and interest in1 the particular sensuous material3 witness the musician's comparison of tones as to pitch1 purity1 etc4 ,lastly reference may be made to special preparation or mental preadjustment4 ,it is manifest that if we are expecting to see two things like one another we shall in general be more disposed to do so2 similarly if we are on the lookout for difference4 ,it may be added that there is a special interest in likeness as such1 and also in difference4 ,such interest predisposes a person to detect the one relation rather than the other4 ,hence the familiar observation that some people are particularly acute in seeing likenesses1 e4 g4 in faces1 whereas others are habitually more observant of differences4 ,connection between ,analysis and ,comparison4--,there is a close connection between the two directions of thought-activity just dealt with4 ,to begin with1 it has become evident that in the processes of comparison1 analysis is always involved4 ,sometimes the analysis seems to precede the comparison1 as when we are asked to compare two flowers in respect of their color4 ,in other cases it appears rather as the result of comparison4 ,thus it is by successive comparisons of different members of a class of things1 as flowers1 that we gradually come to analyse out the common features of the group4 ,while comparison thus involves abstraction1 abstraction even in the case of a single object may be said to involve the rudiments of comparison4 ,thus in analytically singling out for consideration the spherical form of a rain drop1 we implicitly and subconsciously assimilate it to other previously known spherical objects4 ,but for this vague imperfect accompaniment of assimilation1 the analytic separation of the constituent would be difficult if not impossible4 ,such a subconscious reference to one or more similar things helps to direct the operation of analysis by intensifying and rendering prominent for the moment the particular constituent assimilated through the addition of an ideational element to the sensation4#ii #ii ,this is well brought out by ,w4 ,james1 ,principles of ,psychology1 i4 p4 #dcd et seqq4 ,it follows that the thought-process is one process having two aspects or distinguishable factors4 ,either of these may become predominant according to special circumstances4 ,in this way we obtain two varieties of operation1 viz4 ,analysis or ,abstraction1 in which the recognition of likeness is subconscious1 and ,assimilative ,comparison where the process of analysis is preliminary and subordinate to a conscious apprehension of likeness4 ,a somewhat like relation holds between analysis as a subconscious process of differentiation and a conscious act of discrimination4 ,thus in analysing a clang we must1 agreeably to what was said above1 have a vague impression of the difference between one tone and another4 ,and such subconscious differentiation readily becomes the starting-point in a full conscious apprehension by an act of comparing attention of the differences between the several ingredients4#ajj #ajj ,stumpf uses the term ,analysis for the mere vague detection of plurality of elements in a sensation-complex which he considers to be distinct from1 and preliminary to a discrimination of them as different one from the other4 ,tonpsychologie ii4 p4 #ajd et seqq4 ,thus far we have been occupied with the two fundamental processes in thought and we have illustrated these in their simplest form as employed about presentations or their equivalents1 concrete representations4 ,but as already pointed out what we mean by thought is the representation of things as classes or generalities4 ,all the more interesting and momentous problems relating to thought1 such as the question whether the lower animals think or reason as we do1 have reference to such general thinking4 ,we have now to examine the processes involved in this thinking4 ,these fully developed thought-processes are marked off by the use of what is known as the general idea or notion such as man or virtue4 ,such general ideas when reduced to a precise form as by the logician are spoken of as concepts4 ,and since the science of logic assumes thinking to take place by help of such conceptual products we may also speak of these full or explicit thought-processes as ,conceptual ,thought4#aja #aja ,the use of such expressions must not1 however1 blind us to the fact that a concept strictly speaking is something logical1 an ideal form of the general idea rarely if ever realised in our actual thinking processes4 ,of this more presently4 ,general ,ideas and their ,formation4--,in seeking to trace the development of this general thinking we have first of all to consider the nature and origin of general ideas4 ,it is evident that we only think about things generally in a distinct manner when we are able to form such ideas4 ,thus ,i cannot think out the proposition ',the mushroom is a fungus' until ,i am able to form the general ideas mushroom and fungus4 ,the difficult problems respecting the nature of thought1 its relation to language1 and its extension beyond man to the lower animals1 have been discussed in close connection with the nature and origin of general ideas4 ,a general idea may for our present purpose be defined as an idea having a general import or reference4 ,thus a child's idea of dog1 home1 or father1 becomes general when he consciously employs the term as the sign of this1 that1 and any other particular object which may answer to a certain description or be found to present certain characteristic attributes or traits2 or1 as the logicians express it1 a general idea is a representation of a general class of things4#ajb #ajb ,the reader must be careful to distinguish the meaning of the term class as here used from its meaning when applied to a definite number of objects viewed as a collection1 as a class of children in a school4 ,in thinking of man as a 7logical7 class ,i do not represent a definite number at all2 nor do ,i represent men as a collection4 ,it would be more correct to say that ,i am representing in a more or less distinct way the fact that this1 that1 and an indefinite list of other things are related as like or answering to one description4 ,how this mode of representation is effected will appear presently4 ,now it is evident that general ideas as thus defined are reached slowly and by degrees4 ,it is exceedingly doubtful whether any of the lower animals possess them4 ,the baby does not possess them and even after attaining to speech remains for a long time with only the rudiments of them4 ,in their perfected articulate form as required for exact scientific thought they are confined to a few highly trained minds4 ,generic ,images4--,the first stage in the formation of such general ideas is the welding together of a number of concrete images into what has been called a generic image4 ,the idea tree or house may be taken as an example4 ,such generic images appear to be formed by a process of assimilative cumulation4 ,let us suppose that a child after observing one dog1 sees a second4 ,in this case the strong resemblance in the second to the first effects a process of assimilation analogous to automatic or unconscious assimilation4 ,that is to say1 the percept corresponding to the second animal is instantly fused with the surviving image of the first by reason of easily apprehended points of likeness4 ,by such successive assimilations a cumulative effect is produced which has been likened to that of the superposition of a number of photographic impressions received from different members of a class1 7e4 g4 criminal17 whereby common features get accentuated and so a typical form is produced4#ajc #ajc ,for an account of such composite photographic pictures1 and their analogy to generic 7mental7 images1 see ,mr4 ,f4 ,galton's ,inquiries into ,human ,faculty4 ,appendix1 ,generic ,images4 ,such a process of deepening and accentuating common traits and effacing individual or variable ones can only be looked on as a tendency never perfectly fulfilled4 ,interesting differences would in all cases tend to reinstate themselves4 ,thus my own generic image of a church happens to be a building with a tall spire1 because the finest church in my native town was of this form4 ,recent examples would also tend to contribute variable peculiarities4 ,thus the baby's generic image of a dog might have the distinguishing characters of the dog last seen4 ,this process of cumulative assimilation would be largely passive and independent of those active processes of comparison1 just described4 ,it would further be capable of being carried forward 7to some extent at least7 independently of language4 ,hence we may1 with some degree of confidence1 attribute generic images to the child before he comes to the use of words and to many of the lower animals4 ,thus it is highly probable that a baby of six months forms a generic image of the human face out of the percepts answering to its mother's face1 nurse's face1 etc41 and that when suffering from loneliness it has this image in its mind4 ,similarly a predatory animal may be supposed to compound a generic image out of the percepts gained from this1 that1 and the other specimen of his prey1 so that when seized with hunger1 this typical image is recalled4 ,in order to illustrate what is meant by a generic image1 it is important to take the case of a pure representation detached from a presentation4 ,thus we cannot say that because a diving bird recognises a new sheet of water1 it must have at the moment1 a generic image answering to water4 ,the recognition of a thing does not imply a distinct representation of the thing as previously seen4 ,the presentative and representative ingredients are fused in this case1 or to express it otherwise1 the image is latent and undeveloped4 ,similarly with respect to such rudimentary processes of conception or general ideation as those here considered4 ,we can only attribute a developed and detached generic image to baby or animal when we have reason to think that these occur in the absence of percepts1 e4 g4 in states of desire1 in dreams1 and so forth4#ajd #ajd ,the argument in support of the proposition that generic images1 or 7as the writer calls them7 recepts are actually reached by the lower animals is ably set forth by ,dr4 ,romanes1 ,mental ,evolution in ,man1 p4 #ea et seqq4 ,relation of ,generic ,image to ,general ,idea4--,the question still remains how far such generic images are1 properly speaking1 general ideas in the sense defined above4 ,is1 for example1 the typical face that is pictured by the lonely infant thought of as something common to this1 that1 and the other concrete object8 ,does it carry with it any clear consciousness of a general class of things8 ,there is no certain proof that this is so4 ,it must be remembered here that the mental image corresponding to one and the same individual object1 as the infant's mother1 is composite also and in the same way as the generic image4 ,thus the baby forms the image of its mother out of a number of practically unlike percepts1 corresponding to varying appearances of the object in different positions1 different light1 different dress1 and so forth4#aje ,generic images accordingly differ not in kind1 but only in degree 7viz4 proportion of common to variable feature taken up and accentuated7 from particular or concrete images4 ,and so long as they remain merely pictorial images1 there seems no reason to attribute to them any general function or import4 #aje ,cf4 ,taine1 ,on ,intelligence1 ,part i1 ,book ii1 ,ch4 #b4 ,the true process of conception1 as generalisation or general ideation1 that is a conscious representation of something as common to many as distinguished from one1 involves the active processes of thought1 analysis and synthesis1 abstraction and comparison4 ,it is only when the child begins consciously to break up its images to mark off this element or feature from that1 and by help of such analysis discerns and demarcates common features that general thought properly so called1 appears4 ,in this way it reaches a distinct idea at once of an individual thing and of general or common aspects among individuals4 ,we have now to examine into this true thought-process4 ,transition to ,conception ,proper4--,the transition from merely imagining to thinking proper is effected by processes of reflective attention in which abstraction and comparison play a chief part4 ,in order to understand how this occurs we may suppose the process of automatic assimilation checked by the introduction of some impressive difference4 ,thus a child proceeds to play with a visitor's dog and finds it wanting in the friendly sentiments of his own pet4 ,here difference which1 in the earlier stage of automatic assimilation1 remained indistinct in the background of consciousness1 is brought forward4 ,the unlikeness of morale in spite of the likeness of physique is forced on his attention1 the present percept is separated from and opposed to the image1 and a step is taken in marking off likeness from surrounding difference4 ,as differences thus come into distinct view and impress themselves on the mind as the constant accompaniment of likenesses1 a new and explicit grasp of likeness-in-difference ensues4 ,this starts from a mental separation of the several perceptual constituents of the generic image1 and a reflective comparison of these one with another1 so as to demarcate common features or likenesses from peculiar features or unlikeness4 ,such comparison1 or series of comparisons1 begins with incomplete analysis and vague apprehension of likeness and ends in a more complete analysis and more definite apprehension of likeness4 ,in this way1 for example1 the child waking up to differences among apples1 goes back on his various experiences1 and by noticing and setting aside variability of taste1 size1 etc41 gets a clear grasp of the common essential features4 ,such a conscious active separation of definite points of resemblance from among a confusing mass of difference is what psychologists and logicians more especially mean by ,abstraction4 ,differentiation of ,notions of ,individual and ,class4--,as was pointed out just now the coexistence of likeness with unlikeness in the child's experience1 may mean one of two things1 viz4 persistence or identity of one individual object1 in spite of certain changes1 or a general similarity among a number of different individuals4 ,the process of conception is sometimes described as if the child started with a definite knowledge of individuals and then proceeded to generalise or form a class-idea4 ,there is1 however1 every reason for saying that the two modes of interpreting likeness-in-difference are reached concurrently and by processes largely similar4 ,thus it seems most reasonable to suppose that the baby which 'da-das' every bearded person it sees is as yet clearly conscious neither of individuality nor of generality4 ,in other words we must not assume that it is stupidly confounding its sire with a stranger1 or1 on the other hand1 forming an idea of a general class4 ,at this stage the child merely recognises certain interesting similarities and proceeds to express the fact4 ,we have to suppose that the clear apprehension of individual sameness is reached but slowly and in close connection with the first clear consciousness of different things attached by a bond of likeness4 ,to say that the child's knowledge begins with the concrete individual is not to say that it attains a clear consciousness of what we mean by an individual thing persisting and the same 7in spite of change7 before it begins to generalise4 ,we must remember that the cognition of a thing as persistent and continuous is the result of lengthy and complex processes of comparative reflection4 ,to individualise is thus to think just as to generalise is to think4#ajf ,in truth1 the psychological development of the idea of individuality proceeds along with that of generality1 each being grasped as a different way of interpreting partial similarity among our percepts4#ajg #ajf ,hence the logician can speak of the idea answering to a proper name as a singular concept4 ,see ,lotze1 ,logic1 p4 #cd4 #ajg ,the question of the priority in the individual of the knowledge of the individual or of the general class1 the question known as the primum cognitum has been much discussed in connection with the linguistic problem whether names are first used as proper names or as general names4 ,the ,process of ,generalisation4--,when once this differentiation of the individual idea from the class idea has advanced far enough the process of generalisation proper1 or the grasp of common or general qualities1 is able to be carried out in the way usually described by psychologists4 ,that is to say1 a number of individual things1 represented as such1 are now compared1 the attention withdrawn by a volitional effort1 from points of difference and concentrated on points of likeness 7abstraction7 and so a true process of generalisation carried out4 ,the common account of the process of conception here followed1 as a sequence of three stages1 ,comparison1 ,abstraction1 and ,generalisation1 rather describes the ideal form of the process as required by logic than the mental process actually carried out4 ,as we saw above a vague analysis or abstraction precedes that methodical comparison of things by which the abstraction becomes precise and perfect1 that is to say1 definite points of likeness 7or unlikeness7 are detected4 ,with regard to generalisation it has been pointed out that a rudimentary form of this process is involved in abstraction4 ,to see the roundness of the ball is vaguely and implicitly to assimilate the ball to other round objects4 ,it is to be added that an imperfect grasp of general features as such 7commonly7 precedes the methodical process here described4 ,the child realises in a measure1 the general function of the name 'horse' before he carries out a careful comparative analysis of the horse-characters4 ,at the same time the use of the word generalisation is important1 as marking off the clear mental grasp of the class-idea as such1 that is the idea of an indeterminate number1 of objects1 known and unknown1 answering to a certain description4#ajh #ajh ,on the relation of ,abstraction to ,generalisation see ,hamilton's ,lectures1 ,vol4 ii1 ,lec4 xxxv4 ,conception and ,naming4--,we have so far supposed that the processes of conception are carried out without any help from language4 ,but it is exceedingly doubtful whether any such orderly process as that just described1 the comparison of a number of percepts and the marking off of common attributes could be carried out without the aid of words or some equivalent4 ,it is probable that even the clear grasp of individual things as unities and as permanent identical things1 depends on the use of a name 7proper name7 which as one and the same sound seems to mark in an emphatic way the continued oneness of the object4#aji ,and the same applies still more manifestly to the apprehension of a general class of things4 ,it is certain that in later life at least all clear general thinking takes place by help of language4 ,the general idea is held together1 and retained by means of a name2 and1 as already pointed out1 it is very uncertain whether in the absence of such general signs1 the infant or the lower animal ever attains to a clear consciousness of the 'one in the many1' the common aspect of a number of different objects4 #aji ,it seems to follow that animals cannot attain the clear consciousness of individual things as permanent unities1 as we attain it4 ,is ,generalisation ,possible ,without ,language8--,the question how far we can generalise or form a general idea apart from the use of names or other signs is one of the standing cruces in psychology4 ,if we judge by introspective examination of our own minds we do no doubt now and again carry on processes of thought of a quasi-general character with little if any help from words4 ,yet it is doubtful whether we attain a clear consciousness of the generality of our thinking in this case4 ,it must be remembered too that even if we can1 as is alleged1 employ a particular image or succession of images as representative of generalities without any aid from language 7as when we intuitively follow the proof of a particular case in geometry and at the same time recognise its general validity7 we are employing powers of thought that have been developed by help of language4#aaj #aaj ,on the nature of such speechless thought see ,venn1 ,empirical ,logic1 p4 #adg4 ,if now we turn from the developed to the undeveloped mind1 and ask whether children think apart from the use of language1 we find the question exceedingly difficult4 ,it has been alleged that a born mute reached prior to his mastery of a deaf-mute language the highly abstract idea of maker or creator and applied this to the world or sum of objects about him4#aaa ,it must be borne in mind however1 that born mutes make a certain spontaneous use of articulate sounds or signs1 and such articulations1 though unintelligible to others1 and not even heard by themselves1 may be of great assistance in carrying out the process of ,abstraction4 ,it must be further remembered that a child understands others' words and may probably make some internal use of them as signs before he proceeds to imitatively articulate them4 #aaa ,see a very interesting account of the experience of a born mute by ,prof4 ,s4 ,porter1 in an article ,is ,thought ,possible without ,language8 in the ,princeton ,review1 ,january1 #ahha4 ,lastly with respect to the lower animals1 while it must be admitted that they display something closely resembling the germ of general thinking1 it is manifest that we cannot in their case1 be certain of the degree of clear consciousness of generality attained4 ,the actions of a fox caught in a difficulty and inventing a way of escape seem indistinguishable from those of a man thinking by help of general ideas and general rules3 yet the mental process may after all be non-ceptual1 and pictorial4 ,it seems safe therefore to conclude that apart from verbal or other general signs the full consciousness of generality does not arise4#aab #aab ,it must be remembered that some of the most intelligent of the lower animals1 e4 g4 ants1 have a system of tactual signs analogous to our language4 ,on the whole subject of the germ of linguistic and conceptional power in animals1 see ,romanes1 ,mental ,evolution in ,man1 ,chap4 v and following4 ,psychological ,function of ,general ,names4--,a name is commonly defined as a mark or sign by the help of which the idea of a thing may be called up in our own mind or in the mind of another4 ,signs are either self-explaining1 as in the case of a drawing1 or an imitative gesture1 or conventionally attached to objects as the larger number of linguistic signs or names1 the symbols used in music1 etc4#aac ,language signs consist either of articulated sounds or other percept-producing movements1 as the finger movements#aad used by the deaf and dumb4 #aac ,articulate sounds so far as imitative 7onomatopoetic7 words1 are of course to be classed with self-explaining signs4 #aad ,on the general function and the possible varieties of language-signs1 tone-language1 gesture-language1 etc41 see ,romanes1 ,mental ,evolution in ,man1 ,chap4 v and following4 ,cf4 ,venn1 ,empirical ,logic1 ,chap4 vi4 ,a name may be given to one thing 7proper name7 or to a general class 7common or general name74 ,in either case1 as explained above1 the name psychologically considered is the expression or indication of a similarity among our percepts4 ,to name a thing is thus the outward manifestation of a process of assimilation4 ,the name 7articulation-sound complex7 becomes attached to the idea it stands for by a process of contiguous integration4 ,looking at it as accompanying and perfecting the process of assimilation1 we may say that a name1 whether as employed by ourselves or as heard used by others1 becomes specially associated with1 and so expressive of1 some similar feature or features of our perceptual experience4 ,thus the name 'home' specially emphasises the recurring or constant features of the child's surroundings1 the name 'horse' the common features of structure in the objects so named4 ,the name thus becomes specially attached to1 and so a mark of the effects of superposition of common presentative elements in our experience4 ,this is well brought out in ,herbart's view that the general idea is the result of apperception1 or the coalescence of a new presentation with previous like representations 7apperceptive masses74 ,such apperceptive fusion or assimilation would according to ,herbart help to explain the prominence or distinct emergence of the common element in a new presentation1 and the falling back of the particular or variable features into indistinct consciousness4#aae #aae ,see ,mr4 ,stout's account of ,herbart's view4 ,mind1 ,vol4 xiv4 p4 #ae4 ,use of ,names in ,early ,life4--,in the beginning of life linguistic signs are used in close connection with the process of automatic assimilation4 ,thus the recurrence of the presentative complex answering to a particular animal as the dog1 calls forth1 by a process analogous to a reflex movement1 the articulation1 let us say1 of the sound 'bow-wow4' ,this use of words by the child to mark likeness is partly spontaneous1 partly imitative4 ,as is well known1 children often invent names of their own1 as their pet names for nurse1 doll1 and so forth1 and their names for classes of objects1 as when one child used the sound 'mum' as a name of eatables1 generally1 and another1 the sound 'appa' as a name for this1 that1 and the other animal 7kitten1 chick1 etc474 ,they also spontaneously extend the use of names supplied by others as when the sound ba 7ball7 was extended to a bubble and other round objects4 ,this spontaneous use of names gives place in time to an imitative use of names as heard by others4#aaf #aaf ,for interesting illustrations of children's spontaneous invention1 as also of their extension of names1 see ,preyer1 ,die ,seele des ,kindes1 #c;er ,theil2 ,prez1 ,the ,first ,three ,years of ,childhood1 ,chap4 xii2 ,taine1 ,on ,intelligence1 ,book iv1 ,chap4 i1 #a2 and ,darwin's ,notes on his child1 ,mind1 ,vol4 ii4 p4 #bhe1 et seqq4 ,from what we said above we have to suppose that names are used at the beginning neither as proper or ,singular1 nor as ,general names4 ,they merely serve to mark off and register common features of the child's experience4 ,as the processes of comparison gain in strength and the difference between the individual and the general class becomes distinct1 the two uses of names as singular and general grow clearly differentiated4 ,thus the names ,charles1 ,papa1 ,rose1 and so forth1 come to be marks of particular things1 those organised experience-unities which are thought of as having continued existence independently of our intermittent percepts4 ,similarly1 the general name1 dog1 man1 and so forth1 come to be consciously applied to a number of such object-unities on the ground of common attributes4 ,how ,names ,further ,conception4--,at first we find this use of general names confined to classes of objects having numerous points of similarity and so easily representable in the pictorial form of ,generic ,image1 as dog1 house1 etc4 ,here1 as pointed out above1 the name is not used with a clear consciousness of its general character or function4 ,yet the very application of one and the same name to a number of percepts is an important aid to those processes of reflective comparison and selection of common features by which the apprehension of generality arises4 ,to begin with1 any use of a name to mark the result of an assimilative process1 serves to call attention to and to emphasise the existence of like features4 ,not only so1 the name being applied to each of a number of percepts is a valuable means of recalling these together1 and so furthering that extended process of comparing a number of things which underlies generalisation4 ,more than this1 since the name from the beginning serves to emphasise and register the fact of likeness1 it greatly facilitates the subsequent careful analysis and definition of the points of likeness4 ,of special service here is the hearing of names applied by others to a variety of things1 as when a multitude of unlike things are called 'plants' and so on4 ,such announcement of likeness as yet undiscovered by the child serves as we know as a powerful stimulus to a comparative examination of the things and this urges the child on along the conceptual path4 ,the greatest use of general names1 however1 in connection with general ideation or conception is in definitely marking off and rendering permanent each new result of analysis and comparison4 ,thus on reflecting upon dogs with a view to see in what exactly they do agree in spite of their differences1 and on gradually gaining clear consciousness of this1 that1 and the other characteristic features of form1 action1 etc41 a child demarcates and definitely registers these results of abstraction by help of the name4 ,that is to say1 the name is used as a defining mark as one might mark off an ill-defined local feature in a piece of board by drawing a chalk circle about the spot4 ,when the name is thus definitely and exclusively applied to such products of comparison and abstraction it henceforth serves as a means of recalling these and keeping them distinctly before the mind4 ,when thus definitely attached by association to the points of similarity singled out by abstraction from a number of particular objects1 the name is used as a true general sign4 ,the image now takes on a much more definite function as a typical or representative image1 through the circumstance that by help of the demarcating sign certain of its features stand out distinctly1 and are at the same time realised as belonging not merely to one particular thing1 but to what we call a general class4 ,thus the name dog1 though probably still calling up an image of a more or less concrete character1 that is1 including traits of some individual dog or variety of dogs1 becomes a general sign inasmuch as it throws prominently forward1 and so secures special attention to certain definitely apprehended common class-features 7the common canine form1 action of barking1 etc474#aag #aag ,since the result of abstraction though representing concrete things does not represent them fully and explicitly we may1 with ,mr4 ,spencer1 call the general or abstract idea a re-representation4 ,see his ,principles of ,psychology1 ii1 p4 #eac4 ,used now in this way as a general sign of certain definitely apprehended points of likeness or common qualities1 the name acquires the double function attributed to it by logicians4 ,that is to say1 it denotes any one of a certain order or class of things3 the class or group being determined in respect not of the number of things included1 but only of the common qualification or description of its number1 that is to say of the qualities which the name is said to connote4#aah #aah ,according to logicians a general name denotes certain things 7members of a class7 and connotes certain qualities in these things4 ,for the terms denotation and connotation those of extension and intension are often substituted4 ,see ,jevons1 ,elementary ,lessons on ,logic1 ,lesson v4 ,formation of more ,abstract ,notions4--,a similar process of comparison and abstraction clinched by a linguistic sign takes place in the formation of those general ideas which answer to few common qualities1 and are altogether removed from the plane of the generic image1 as for example 'animal4' ,it is obvious that we cannot compound a quasi-concrete image of animal as we can1 roughly at least1 compound an image of dog4 ,there is no common form running through the vast variety of animals that renders this possible4#aai ,there is indeed an image-element here1 for in thinking of animals most people probably image imperfectly one of the more familiar quadrupeds4 ,here the general representative function of the image is still more evident4 ,a child cannot form the idea animal till he has attained a considerable skill in the use of verbal signs as general4 ,for to represent animal 7in general7 is to repress the tendency to image particular concrete examples1 and to give peculiar and exclusive prominence to a few properties1 such as spontaneous movement1 sensation1 which can only be grasped by a special effort of abstraction2 and can only be brought before the mind by the medium of a verbal sign4 #aai ,cf4 ,lotze1 ,logic1 p4 #ch4 ,these higher steps in the thought-process become possible by means of the verbally embodied results of the lower steps4 ,it is after the child has formed the general ideas1 dog1 horse1 and so forth1 that he climbs to the more difficult1 more comprehensive1 and more abstract idea1 animal4 ,in this way1 we may say with ,hamilton1 that language is to the mind what the arch is to the tunnel1 the necessary precondition of all advanced thought-work4 ,it is not meant by this that the child progresses regularly from notions of a comparatively small range to more comprehensive ones4 ,it must be remembered that it is often easier for a child to form an idea of a larger class or genus than of one of its constituent sub-classes or species1 viz4 when the form presents prominent easily discernible points of likeness1 and when the distinctive features of the latter are obscure4 ,thus the child uses the name tree before he uses the name oak-tree1 and so forth4 ,this is what is meant by saying that the child sees likenesses before he sees differences4 ,in this brief account of the name-embodied concept reference has been made only to those names which grammarians call nouns1 and of these only to such as are names of things4 ,by the same mental process by which the child reaches the idea orange1 it reaches the idea yellow1 round1 and so forth4 ,the clear use of adjectives as qualifying epithets marks a higher stage of analysis than the first use of names1 viz4 the separating out for special consideration of single qualities in things4 ,hence in the imitative speech of the child1 the first use of adjectives follows by an appreciable interval that of names4#abj ,this separate apprehension of single qualities becomes still more distinct when abstract nouns such as whiteness1 height1 come to be used4 ,as the etymology of such names shows they come after concrete names in the development of the thought of the race and community1 and are invented by help of such concrete names4 ,the individual only acquires the use of these abstract names when intelligence has developed under the stimulating and controlling influence of education4 #abj ,one or two adjectives as ni-ni 7nice7 are used along with nouns from the first1 but these probably so far as names are on the level of nouns1 i4 e4 names of things as concrete wholes4 ,it must not be supposed however1 that the child or the race begins with a clear apprehension of any one class of words4 ,the several classes of words distinguished by the grammarian are confused at first and are only differentiated as intelligence advances4 ,all that is meant here is1 that the child knows and names things as concrete wholes before it begins to qualify them1 or discern particular qualities in them4 ,on the differentiation of nouns etc41 in the early use of language1 see ,romanes1 ,mental ,evolution in ,man1 p4 #bai et seqq4 and p4 #bie et seqq4 ,it is only when analysis is thus carried up to the point of a separate consideration of single qualities that the class-notion1 the representative of a group of qualities1 becomes definite and concise4 ,a perfectly clear general idea of a class means one of the constituent elements of which we can separately attend to and name4 ,conception as ,dependent on ,social ,environment4--,it is evident from this brief sketch of the development of the general idea that it is a process that is largely dependent on the action of the social environment4 ,language is pre-eminently the invention and instrument of social life4 ,it is the medium by which we communicate one to another our ideas1 wishes1 and so forth4 ,in the early years of life the undeveloped intelligence of the child is continually roused to activity through his desire to enter into the system of language which he finds others using4 ,in this way the results of ages of thought-processes embodied in the language of educated men and women are brought to bear on the growing mind1 and these constitute a main ingredient in the educational influence of the community upon the individual4 ,the profound and far reaching influence of this medium of common word-embodied ideas is clearly seen in the arrest of intellectual development when contact with the general mind through language is excluded1 as in the case of neglected deaf-mutes4 ,as ,professor ,huxley says1 ,a race of dumb men deprived of all communication with those who could speak would be little indeed removed from the brutes4#aba #aba ,quoted by ,professor ,horatio ,hale1 in ,the ,origin of ,language1 p4 #db4 ,j4 ,,sully4 ,,the ,,right ,,of ,,evolution4 ,in the ,royal ,academy's ,exhibition which opened ,may #b1 #ahij1 ,i remarked a fine picture of the ,lord ,mayor's ,show4 ,that ,show is the monument of a mercantile evolution by which poor men1--one1 'tis said1 with only a cat for capital1--clubbed together in guilds1 largely socialistic1 and1 so increasing means1 accumulated the wealth which controlled kings1 and inaugurated the epoch of peace1 so necessary for commerce4 ,but the ,academy picture was not so striking as one ,i had seen the day before 7,may-day7 in ,hyde ,park4 ,there1 amid a motley crowd with red and black flags inscribed ',anarchy1' stood ,william ,morris1--artist1 scholar1 and poet1--announcing to the workmen that they are slaves1 rich men their owners1 their natural enemies1 and existing society a war4 ,the ,guild-,socialism of ,london is past4 ,its gorgeous ghost may presently masquerade for the last time through ,november fog and ,london squalor4 ,but the ,hyde ,park scene has its career yet to run4 ,what its orators demanded was a new privilege4 ,it was not the equal rights of labor1 but privilege4 ,this new lordship is to dictate my limits of education1 my mode of production1 my hours of work1 my wages4 ,the poet leader told the toilers that they alone did what was useful1 all others were doing what was useless2 the man who wrote ,the ,earthly ,paradise declared himself one of the mere parasitic class1 climbing and flourishing on the manual laborers4 ,i did not see how his remorseless logic could have spared ,shakespeare himself1 and it appears certain that under this levelling scheme no dreamer1 no poet1 could ever have the culture1 or the leisure1 necessary to bear his literary fruit4 ,when the distribution of work and wages is left to a majority of the millions1 will they agree that writing ,the ,earthly ,paradise is as productive as the mining of coal8 ,among these millions1 how many fools1 how many sots6 ,shakespeare drew1 in ,christopher ,sly1 a character familiar to us as to him4 ,christopher is taken1 while in a drunken sleep1 into a nobleman's mansion1 and1 on waking1 is treated as a lord who has been wandering in his mind1 fancying himself a boor4 ,he is surrounded by liveried servants2 his lady comes to welcome his recovery2 he is feasted2 a beautiful drama is performed before him4 ,in the height of his glory ,christopher calls for a tankard of beer2 he drinks deep2 and just as his players are entering on the poetic drama1 ,christopher rolls from his cushioned throne and lies snoring on the floor4 ,had it been left to ,christopher ,sly's vote to determine whether higher wages should be paid ,shakespeare or the brewer1 the bard might have come off badly4 ,and were the wages of actors and actresses dependent on a government chosen by the masses1 not only the ,slys throughout ,england1 but the millions remote from theatres1 and the ,methodists1 ,salvationists1 ,presbyterians1 would certainly unite to close all theatres4 ,even ,edward ,bellamy looking backward finds no provision for a theatre4 ,little by little we should find ourselves in a prosaic world4 ,men and women would be born2 they might eat1 and sleep2 they would die4 ,but our little life might bid farewell to the beautiful dreams that clothe its dry bones with beauty4 ,such is my impression of every constructive scheme of ,socialism4 ,i recognise the evils that give rise to such schemes2 ,i feel their urgency4 ,their strong appeal to our humanity might silence criticism of their crudity1 were their method evolutionary4 ,we could then feel certain that every practical step would be traceable if not confirmed by experience4 ,but when a theory adopts the revolutionary method1 when it proposes a complete1 irreversible overthrow of existing institutions2 it is necessary to ask whether its own system would be any improvement on the old4 ,it may be said that ,english ,socialism does not advocate violence4 ,but violence is only an incident of revolution4 ,there never was a revolution in which the fighting did not come as a surprise4 ,those who inflame the masses with aims that cannot be gained but by bloodshed1 are really advocating violence4 ,reforms of a political or a social system are secured peacefully1 but a revolutionary subversion of the foundations in a whole nation can only come by war4 ,it is a declaration of war to deal with the whole existing order with hostility1 with acrimony and hatred1 as wholly bad4 ,such order is thereby sentenced to death2 its execution is merely a question of power4 ,even supposing a revolution not attended by bloodshed1 assuming it extorted from authority by fear of violence1 what can be gained8 ,what new materials1 with which to make the earthly paradise8 ,none4 ,we see what men are1 what motives now rule2 such and such parties1 politicians1 official people1 #djj people2 a vast population of working people who have no definite principle of social equality1 much less of fraternity4 ,the mass1 in the distance1 may appear in solidarity1 like the distant ocean2 but1 seen closely1 it is made up of distinct waves4 ,the bootblack looks down on the sweep1 as the millionaire looks down on the tradesman4 ,there is as much social inequality in ,washington as in ,london4 ,revolutions pass and leave you the same old human nature4 ,whence is socialism to get a cabinet of angels who will administer the new order1--run the farms1 public works1 railways1 and so on1--without selfishness1 jobbery1 personal ends1 or corruption8 ,and shall our schools train intelligence downward1 so that it shall not rise above mediocrity8 ,the snow may fall level one day1 the next it is piled into drifts4 ,property might be equally distributed this year2 the next it would be in the hands of the cleverest4 ,you seize a man by the throat and say ,you've got to be fraternal4 ,he may gasp out ,i will2 but when his throat is free he will love you no better4 ,but we are told that the selfish forces of human nature1 its tendency to social inequality1 can themselves be revolutionised4 ,it was so with the early ,christians4 ,jesus was not a socialist1 he advised tribute to ,csar1 and respect for those who sat in ,moses's seat2 but1 some two centuries after his death1 the ,christians did give up their private possessions1 and had all things in common4 ,the avowed cause of this1 however1 was that the world was just coming to an end4 ,why labor and accumulate in a world about to be consumed8 ,no sooner did that superstitious expectation fade away than socialism ceased4 ,the forces of human nature resumed their sway4 ,those forces1--the love of property1 of luxury1 competition1 enterprise1--have since been dissolved1 here and there1 but only by similar superstitions4 ,a hundred communities were formed for secular interests1 about ,robert ,owen's time4 ,they all failed4 ,the only ones existing are those founded in the belief that this world is a wilderness of woe1 destined to destruction1 and heaven the only true investment4 ,such are the ,oneida1 ,shaker1 and ,mormon communities4 ,the modern socialists can appeal to no such superstition4 ,and yet1 though many of them believe themselves infidels1 their movement is the afterglow of ,christianity4 ,their method is millennial4 ,they look for the destruction of the old political world in much the same way as the early ,christians looked for the destruction of the physical world4 ,there is to be a grand transformation scene4 ,some ,bellamy is to sound a trumpet1 a lucifer match is to be scratched1 and1 puff6 away go the pomp and glories of this world4 ,the high are to be laid low1 the low raised high1 and a new social kingdom to be established4 ,all this1 though uttered by some atheists1 is supernaturalism4 ,it is a survival from the millennial superstition4 ,it is secular second-adventism4 ,it will pass away like its forerunners1 though it may like them cause revolutions4 ,the socialistic fathers and their children will fall asleep1 and the old world roll on much the same as before1 diurnally1 but on its moral orbit somewhat slower4 ,for revolutionary changes invariably retard human progress4 ,because1 while they cannot alter the inherited habitudes of a people1--their motives1 prejudices1 superstitions1--they give these unreformed feelings a new habitation1 swept and garnished1 so that the last state of that nation is worse than the first4 ,so long as outgrown notions remain only in antiquated institutions1 their error is demonstrated by their folly2 their tumbling walls instruct them in new needs2 and when at last the old institution falls1 as it must1 the experience induces adaptation of the new one to the forces that laid low the old4 ,when the outer embodies an inner reform1 there is no reaction4 ,the progress is permanent4 ,such is not the case when decrepit sentiments are suddenly given the sinews of youth4 ,this view is not speculative4 ,it is derived from the study of revolutions4 ,near #bej years ago the ,english people began a revolution which presently beheaded the king1 and disestablished the church4 ,but monarchal superstition was not beheaded2 religious superstition was not disestablished4 ,in place of ,charles ,i4 was set up a monarch of unlimited power1 whose little finger was heavier than ,charles's whole body1--that same ,cromwell whose massacres of people in ,ireland is represented to-day in the one-sided feud that makes the curse of ,england4 ,the disestablishment of a church1 at least scholarly and picturesque1 was followed by the inauguration of a primitive ,god of wrath1 whose prophet was ,calvin1 and ,cromwell his destroying angel4 ,bonfires were made of the most beautiful works of art in ,england4 ,the finest statues and monuments were destroyed because a barbarian said1 ,thou shalt not make a graven image4 ,the revolution provided a fresh stronghold for the grossest prejudices and superstitions2 and1 despite the weakness of ,charles ,i4 and the faults of the clergy1 the last state of ,england was so much worse than the first1 that the revolution was reversed1 the old monarchy restored1 the church re-established1 and the future of that country given to the forces of evolution4 ,the ,french revolution beheaded a weak king1 and raised a monster in his place4 ,robespierre concentrated in his year or two all crimes spread through the history of tyranny4 ,the masses threw down the ,virgin ,mary1 and raised on her chief altar a goddess of ,reason4 ,much pious horror has been expressed about that worship of a beautiful ,woman instead of an image2 but the real evil was the superstition1 which1 as it had beheaded a helpless king now shattered a helpless image1 but without beheading itself--that is1 superstition itself4 ,the worship of the goddess ,reason was entirely too reasonable2 so she was set aside1 and the revolution established a ceremonial worship of ,nature1 which consecrated all that was natural1--the passions1 the revolutionary wrath1 the natural desire to guillotine a ,count1 take possession of his house1 drink his wine1 and imitate his revelries4 ,robespierre presently turned to butchering revolutionists too1 if not submissive to him1 so he was put out of the way4 ,but the whole revolution naturally led to the destructive imperialism of the first ,napoleon1--the enemy of mankind4 ,he so paralysed the forces of progress that1 even in #ahdh1 the ,french had not learned the lesson of their first revolution4 ,they tried another1 and history repeated itself4 ,they formed a revolutionary democracy1--that is1 a disguised imperialism1--as they were soon shown4 ,their president proved to be an emperor1 who destroyed liberty in ,france and ,italy for twenty years1 and nearly destroyed his country4 ,but what of ,america8 ,it was from the romantic success of the ,american revolution1--a handful of colonists throwing off the yoke of ,england1--that ,france caught fire2 and the revolutionary spirit in ,europe has been kept alive by the magnificent material development of ,america4 ,all these fruits of the century of independence are ascribed to our revolution2 although the more astonishing growth of ,australia1 which had no white settler fifty years ago1 might as justly be ascribed to the ,english throne4 ,it is due to a false patriotism that ,americans competent to do so have not exposed the superstitions about their country4 ,to love one's native land more than humanity1 is no better than to love a king more than our country4 ,there appears to me nothing more important than that the world should be undeceived about ,america1 whose political history is1 really1 the great warning against revolution1--a handwriting on the walls of the world1 the misunderstanding of which is a peril to mankind4 ,the independence of ,america was a necessary thing1 but it came in the worst way possible4 ,the colonies resisted taxation1 imposed by a parliament #cjjj miles away1--in those days fifteen times that distance in time1--in which parliament they had no voice4 ,the quarrel came to blows2 but the colonists had no idea of separation from ,england1 until ,thomas ,paine persuaded them that independence alone could end such quarrels4 ,that was true1 but it was a heavy misfortune1 from which we still suffer1 that independence was secured by war4 ,the colonies had exhausted their resources in their success2 but they had not exhausted ,england4 ,the ,british government1 sore and humiliated1 still held the north and northwest of ,america1 commanded the force of the great aboriginal tribes1 controlled the whole ,american coast with its ships4 ,the ,colonies1 still confronted by the powerful enemy they had made1 were compelled to unite for common defence4 ,these colonies had radical differences1 political1 religious1 commercial2 some were free1 some held slaves4 ,but in presence of the common foe they had to unite at once1 and sink their differences4 ,when they met to frame a constitution for their union the majority had no notion of any constitution save that of ,england1 and little accurate knowledge of that4 ,what they framed was a crude imitation of the undeveloped ,english constitution of a hundred years ago4 ,they made two legislatures because ,england seemed to have two2 but made them equal1 not knowing that in ,england the two were not equal4 ,they supposed ,england was really governed by the king2 so1 having knocked down ,george ,,iii4 they set up a monarch much more powerful1 who to-day under the name of president possesses more power than any throne on earth4 ,they formed a ,senate1 able to defeat the popular ,house4 ,the ,senate is a peerage of states1 in which ,new ,york has no more power than states hardly larger than some of its counties4 ,this anomaly was advocated on the ground that in ,england boroughs of a few hundred voters had equal representation with others of many thousands4 ,the old monstrosity1 now the extinct rotten borough system1 was here actually raised into a constitutional principle4 ,command of the ,army and ,navy1 there nominally lodged in the crown1 was really lodged with the ,american monarch1 so that he may slip from his civil to his military throne1 and rule by martial law4 ,this powerful monarch is not elected by the people of the ,united ,states1 but of the states separately1 through electors proportioned to their members of ,congress4 ,consequently1 as ,new ,york has the greatest number of electors1 the monarch in nine cases out of ten1 is chosen by one state4 ,the present ,president got a trifling majority in ,new ,york1 and was elected4 ,mr4 ,cleveland received some #ajj1jjj majority of votes in the nation1 and was defeated4 ,a popular superstition calls that the ,great ,republic4 ,since the electors ceased to be real electors1 as the constitution intended1 and became mere messenger-boys carrying votes they never cast1 this government is not so republican as is now that its revolution overthrew a hundred years ago4 ,even at its best our hasty constitution gave new lease to an ,england discredited at home1 and a new lease to slavery1 which had been decaying4 ,slavery entered its new stronghold1 and ruled ,america for generations2 had it not lost its head and assailed its own stronghold1 it might be ruling still4 ,our much eulogised constitution1 by its compromise with slavery1 cost ,america a million lives1 and a billion of money4 ,and all of those evils1 involving a steady degradation of our politics1 are due to the fact that ,america got its independence not by evolution1--which would have surely secured it1 leaving ,england its friend1--but by revolution1 which made ,england its enemy2 necessitating a premature1 crude1 military union2 preventing the mature discussion and development which could have made the constitution an advance in political civilisation instead of a retrogression4 ,when our fathers had swept ,english authority out of the country1 they had not swept political superstitions1 monarchal notions1 out of it2 so they re-enthroned in their garnished habitation the defects of the system they had fought4 ,when ,washington was presently both reigning and governing in ,america1 when he was the idol of monarchs1 with a petted courtier representing him in every ,european ,court1 poor ,thomas ,paine1 who made the revolution1 was a prisoner in ,paris for trying to moderate the gory giant he had evoked2 and pleading for something like the ministerial government of ,england1 which was steadily adopting his principles of toleration1 and the rights of man1 by sure forces of evolution4 ,by such forces1--by argument1 petition1 parliamentary influence1--,england has secured something like republican government under its mask of monarchy4 ,when people are suffering1 it is natural for them to attribute their sufferings to this or that institution which has an appearance of anachronism and injustice4 ,but it is precisely when institutions are thus antiquated and anomalous that evolution is able to utilise them for an advance4 ,the ,united ,states monarch is able to transfer office from his opponents to his supporters4 ,he is powerful because he is removed every four years4 ,he can claim that the nation has freshly given him all that power4 ,the ,english sovereign has no political power at all4 ,the nation is governed by responsible ministers4 ,the president may snap his fingers at a parliamentary majority2 the ,english executive may be dismissed in a night4 ,why has the ,english monarch been thus deprived of power8 ,the cause is traceable to its hereditary character1--that same hereditary character which seems so anomalous4 ,it was found of old that the throne1 because it was hereditary1 sometimes fell to a baby1 who could not rule4 ,grown up people had to act for the child4 ,to escape interruptions of government1 when the monarch might be incapable1 ministers became essential2 and thus ministerial government and responsibility were developed out of the antiquated hereditary anomaly4 ,popular government1 in its development1 was able to act through this elected ministry1 and the monarch1 though an adult1 could not claim that he had the national authority behind him1 except by accordance with an elected ministry4 ,moreover in a monarchy all classes are interested to reduce a power which only one family can enjoy2 but under a presidency all are anxious to enhance the power of an office to which all may aspire1--especially where it is renewed every four years by an electoral revolution4 ,in ,england other antiquated things have subserved progress4 ,for the very reason that hereditary legislation is anomalous1 antiquated1 the peers became weak2 the upper house became under1 by an evolution that had been impossible had it been elective4 ,but in this very irresponsibility to the popular vote lay that independence of popularity which gives their ,house weight as a debating and revising body4 ,a further step in evolution1 which should determine the exact number of times that the ,lords might reject a measure1 after which its passage through the ,commons would make it law1 might make the peers a useful body in checking popular passion and haste4 ,their independence causes the ,lords to pass bills for opening ,museums and ,art ,galleries on ,sunday1 which are killed by the ,commoners for fear of the ,sabbatarians among their constituents4 ,this independence of the popular breath makes the ,house of ,lords the source of a ,supreme ,court whose justice was lately shown by the redress it gave ,bradlaugh at the very moment when the ,commons were inflicting wrongs on him1 in fear of their sectarian constituents4 ,the like may be said of another antiquated institution in ,england--the ,church4 ,by reason of its anomalous establishment in a nation of various creeds and a hundred and fifty sects1 that ,church is theologically disestablished4 ,subjected to the forces of political and ethical evolution1 it is now preserving the vast property bequeathed by ,england's superstitious ,past to its free-thinking ,future1 keeping it from being divided up among the sects1 before the religious thought of the country has come of age to claim its endowment4 ,the ,church cannot spend this wealth for sectarian ends1 precisely because that ,church is antiquated1 and without authority to represent spiritually the nation of to-day4 ,we might thus go through one after another anachronistic institution and show each subservient to agencies of evolution1 whereas1 if destroyed by revolution1 they could only be succeeded by new institutions embodying1 in stronger forms1 the snobbery1 the superstition1 the sectarianism1 still remaining in the country4 ,it being certain1 at the same time1 that no revolution can possibly reach the troubles which alone could cause one4 ,in ,england the troubles of labor are due to the fact that the birth rate is double the death rate4 ,so long as paupers are multiplied twice as fast as they are removed1 pauperism must increase4 ,the more charity and medical care lower the death rate1 the more they intensify the struggle for existence4 ,in other swarming countries of ,europe overpopulation once led to brigandage1 but they are now largely relieved by emigration4 ,this involves a steady flood of paupers to ,america1 in addition to those spawned by native animalism4 ,that evil may be checked when in welcoming the sound world1 we shall quarantine the unsound world1--the diseased1 the criminal1 the ignorant4 ,an immigrant without a dollar may be more safely admitted than one who cannot write his name4 ,we have a right to evolutionary legislation4 ,we should prevent the congestion of our cities with paupers while millions of our fields are waiting to be tilled4 ,new ,york will not be comforted1 weeping for her children because they are not counted in the census4 ,rather should she weep for a multitude of those that are counted1--immigrants from its own slums as well as from the slums of ,europe4 ,evolutionary legislation would prevent early marriage1 and forbid marriage where there is no means of supporting offspring4 ,such unions are just as illicit as if there were no ceremony at all1 and the children more cruelly illegitimate4 ,until there is a high moral standard which shall restrain such cruelty to the unborn1 ,pauperism1 prolific parent of both vices and crimes1 can only be mitigated by a development of communal life4 ,a hundred people1 dining at a common table1 can get the same dinner for ten cents each1 that1 separately would cost each twenty-five cents4 ,that is1 so far as food is concerned1 communal life more than doubles every man's wages4 ,there is no more reason why a poor family should support a kitchen of its own than that it should support a carriage of its own1 instead of going in the omnibus4 ,gentlemen in their clubs get the advantage of wholesale prices1 while the poor do not4 ,the principle of combination is more largely applicable to lodgings also than is now the case4 ,it costs far less to procure and keep clean one large tenement than a number of separate houses1 to say nothing of the humanising influence1 on manners and morals1 of communal interests1 and the social spirit so engendered4 ,the home brute would be checked1 the drunkard sobered1 by amenability to the larger social censorship1 and to a standard of communal conduct4 ,when the working people have learned to utilise in normal life such combination as they occasionally use for strikes1 they will find their means increasing enough even to strike1 when necessary1 with less recoil on themselves4 ,they will also find that where institutions of that kind once take root1 endowments and bequests seek them out1 and make them centres of happiness and culture4 ,political and social evolution must not be confused with natural selection3 it is human selection4 ,some years ago a cotton-planter in ,georgia observed that the leaves on one of his plants was unlike the usual leaf2 it was divided as if into fingers4 ,so far nature had gone4 ,the planter added his intelligence4 ,he concluded that such a divided leaf would let in more sunshine on the cotton4 ,also such a leaf would not be comfortable for caterpillars4 ,so he searched out one or two of these peculiar plants1 transplanted them to a field by themselves2 as they propagated1 he plucked up those with the old leaf1 cultivated those with the new1--and now these new cotton plants1 finer than the old1 free from caterpillars1 are spread through many regions4 ,that is human selection1 based on natural selection1 securing the fruits of evolution4 ,it is just as applicable to man as to vegetation4 ,a better man may be bred as well as a better kind of cotton4 ,already many old forms of crime have been largely bred out of society1 by the substitution of imprisonment for thefts instead of the capital punishments which juries refused to inflict4 ,crime being largely hereditary1 the offenders used to get free1 and multiplied their bad species4 ,but when punishments were assigned which juries were ready to inflict1 the criminals were isolated for years1 or transported1 and their race diminished4 ,the crime that now flourishes most is murder2 because its death penalty survives4 ,it was recently shown in ,parliament that about three fourths of ,english murderers escape1 mainly through aversion of juries1 and merciful people1 to inflict a savage and irrevocable penalty4 ,were capital punishment abolished the three fourths would be isolated for life4 ,they would be kindly treated1 but must have no offspring4 ,no such survival of autocracy as a pardoning power could exist2 no individual would be able to alter decrees of courts and juries4 ,instead of aiming at the murderer evolution aims at the murder4 ,it will secure a survival of the peaceful1 and breed ferocity out of man as it has bred the wolf out of dogs4 ,but that implies breeding the wolf out of our law4 ,the eye for eye1 blood for blood1 spirit is wolfish4 ,so is the whole revolutionary spirit1 whether shown in armed violence1 or in arbitrary laws4 ,it can be acted upon1 controlled1 shamed out of society1 only by pure moral and intellectual forces4 ,there is no greater power than instructed thought1 animated by love to man1 enforced by honor and character4 ,there is as yet no civilised nation2 civilisation exists in oases1 which gradually encroach on the deserts4 ,they have largely encroached on some of these already1 but civilisation can only extend as it is real4 ,the ,european nations are slicing up ,africa among them4 ,this we are told is ,christian civilisation3 they are taking their neighbor's property only because they love him like themselves4 ,what is the civilisation going out there8 ,you can see it in the dens of ,european cities4 ,the ,africans have got to be dragged through all that4 ,what kind of religion will go there8 ,a ,bible recording divinely ordered massacres will be put in every savage hand4 ,stanley says that when in sore trouble1 in the ,african forest1 he made a vow that if ,god would only help him1 he would acknowledge his aid among men4 ,his troubles began to clear next day4 ,god was indifferent1 it seems1 so long as man and beast were suffering1 but when this great temptation was held out to ,jehovah--this promise of distinguished patronage--he at once interfered4 ,there is nothing new about that ,god4 ,in the ,bible1 his providence is always purchasable by glory4 ,there are thousands of such gods in ,africa4 ,but ,europeans are going there as representatives of civilisation1 and will say to them in the name of ,german and ,english ,science1 in the name of ,berlin1 ,oxford1 and ,cambridge1--,these be thy gods1 ,o ,africa6 ,only agree to call their name ,jehovah1 who helped ,jephtha1 when he vowed a sacrifice which proved to be his daughter1 and who helped ,stanley on condition that the service would be reported in the press4 ,the intellect of ,europe knows better than that2 but it has very few organs of its protest against surviving barbarisms that devour the world under pretence of civilising it4 ,and it forms few such organs because itself needs humanising4 ,just there ,america may lend a hand4 ,our science1 our literature1 and art1 still lack moral earnestness1 and human sympathy4 ,the value of our every liberal moral movement and organ is therefore incalculable4 ,it was a hopeful sign to see lately on the platform of the ,ethical ,congress in ,new ,york leaders in various denominations1--,heber ,newton1 ,president ,andrews1 ,lyman ,abbott1 ,rabbi ,isaacs1 ,felix ,adler1--uniting to establish a ,college for ,moral ,culture2 all admitting that the theological seminaries1 public schools1 and universities1 had left them uninstructed in the great social1 economic1 ethical1 and political problems which have now come urgently to the front4 ,the prophets of ,jehovah once said of ,baal1 ,peradventure he sleepeth4 ,the prophets of ,jehovah now admit the same concerning their ancient ,syrian deity4 ,but the divine humanity is awaking4 ,it will rise above prejudice and party4 ,it will inspire no man to lay an axe at the root of his neighbor's holy tree because it is not his own1 but to plant beside it one which they both agree is good1 and agree to nourish1 and which shall prove so fruitful1 so sweet1 that strength shall be drawn away from the roots of evil institutions1 and they shall wither away4 ,that which1 assailed by revolution1 is sure to be defended1 and1 if felled1 to be reared again1 evolution may gently wither by production of the more fit4 ,the sacred groves of the ,past may still cherish their traditional names1 but1 if not shattered by revolutionary lightnings1 they will turn themselves to fences around the garden where fruits of knowledge and the happier life are growing4 ,,moncure ,d4 ,,conway4 ,a ,,convicted ,,anarchist',s ,,reply ,,to ,,professor ,,lombroso4 ,i have read with much interest ,professor ,lombroso's article about the anarchists1 and ,i found many things in it that are true1 but also many errors4 ,even should we admit ,professor ,lombroso's theory to be correct1 it would in the present case avail but little1 because the portraits from which he made his deductions are not sufficiently truthful for his purpose4 ',schaak's' book is said to be a fictitious 'robber story1' and ,i am informed that it contains many untruths absolutely invented for ornament and decoration4 ,it is in the highest degree improbable that such a book should not have caricatured the portraits of the anarchists4 ,in books designed for sale to the masses1 the illustrations are not1 as a rule1 of any value as works of art1 even if the persons pictured in them enjoy the author's favor4 ,the only true to life pictures are the photographs which ,dr4 ,carus sent to ,professor ,lombroso1 and these were taken in the county jail2 but it appears that the ,professor thought little of them1 for he says1 ',perhaps these photographs were taken some years before the crime1 when they were very young1' and the pictures in the ,vorbote were drawn after the photographs1 and are therefore of no account so long as the photographs themselves are accessible4 ,certain as it is that vice1 crime1 and brutality very often find a characteristic expression of face1 so equally certain is it also that prominent physiognomists very often judge inaccurately and falsely4 ,there are many instances of this4 ,in ,mantegazza's work are found examples4 ,now1 if it is difficult to arrive at a correct opinion under favorable circumstances1 it is almost impossible to do so if such pictures as those of ,schaak's1 with ,schaak's explanations1 form the basis and starting point of the inquiry4 ,johann ,most has an unsymmetric face2 this however1 is not the fault of nature1 but of an unskilful surgeon4 ,of ,engel ,i know nothing1 except that he joined the socialists at an advanced age4 ,in his earlier years he advocated anti-,socialistic ideas4 ,after his first arrest he was set free upon the good word of ,coroner ,herz1 who declared that he knew ,engel for years as a quiet and well-behaved citizen4 ,with ,lingg ,i was not on friendly terms1 and therefore propriety demands that ,i keep silent about him4 ,spies was born in the house of a forester1 which had formerly been a ,raubschloss4 ,the connection between this fact and the other one that ,spies twenty years later was converted to socialism by an ,american1 is not very clear to me4 ,he was undoubtedly the most gifted of all the indicted anarchists1 and he had a most intelligent appearance2 his forehead was well developed4 ,temperance in eating and drinking was one of his qualities1 but as regards his intellectual activity1 ,i regret to say that this was not the case4 ,many of his articles betrayed nervous over-excitement4 ,in the beginning of the year #ahhf1 all intellectual work was forbidden him by his physician1 and for a few weeks he followed his advice4 ,he was full of compassion for the poor and wretched1 and he helped them wherever he could4 ,concerning his charities he observed strict silence4 ,any reference to them was disagreeable to him1 and made him angry4 ,a man who had once rudely offended him without cause1 being in distress ,spies obtained work for him4 ,i came to the knowledge of this by accident4 ,one of the employees of the ,arbeiter-,zeitung who received but a small salary told me that ,spies out of his own pocket gave him for some months #b4jj a week to pay a doctor and procure medicine4 ,the salary of ,spies was only #ai4jj a week1 and from this he supported his mother4 ,spies was of a very tender nature1 and what his comrades thought of his blood-thirstiness may be gathered from the following anecdote4 ,a certain man by the name of ,matzinger had translated an article from the ,french1 ,the ,day ,after the ,revolution1 and ,spies asked an acquaintance of mine1 ,what would you do the day after the revolution8 ,the answer was1 ,i should imprison you till all was over1 for your sentimentality would prevent us from any energetic methods4 ,the bystanders laughed2 ,spies flushed and said nothing4 ,fielden has been treated worst by ,professor ,lombroso4 ,his father has been characterised as a sort of genius1 and in closest connection with it1 the ,professor says1 ,almost all the sons of men of genius are lunatics1 idiots1 or criminals4 ,i hope the ,professor1 mindful of this1 is not married4 ,if the term genius has so wide a meaning1 the above statement is certainly incorrect4 ,goethe on his mother's side had very talented ancestors1 and his father was extremely well gifted4 ,the son of ,goethe was a drunkard1 but we know that this unfortunate inheritance came from his mother's side4 ,the ,darwin family was famous for two hundred years4 ,the sons of ,hegel and ,schelling were also able men4 ,many more instances of that kind could be adduced2 and whenever a genius or his posterity goes to the wall1 there are often external circumstances that cause it4 ,the ,fielden who became famous as a ,member of ,parliament at the time of the ,chartist movement in ,england1 was a relative1 but not the father of ,sam ,fielden4 ,sam ,fielden's father was a very intelligent laborer1 who also took part in the ,chartist movement1 without1 however1 becoming very prominent in it4 ,by the bye1 the descendants of the first named ,fielden are neither lunatics1 idiots1 nor criminals1 but wealthy manufacturers4 ,and now to ,sam ,fielden2 no lunatic1 idiot1 or criminal could make the speech which he made when asked why sentence of death should not be pronounced against him1 a speech concerning which ,mr4 ,grinnell1 the prosecutor1 said that had it been made to the jury1 they would have acquitted him4 ,mr4 ,luther ,laflin ,mills1 formerly ,states ,attorney1 declared in my presence that it was a masterpiece4 ,that there was any criminal disposition in ,sam nobody ever had any idea4 ,he was nearly forty years old when arrested1 and his wealthy employers considered him an honest man1 and a harmless enthusiast of an amiable nature4 ,he had become entangled in the ,anarchist prosecution by a strange concatenation of circumstances4 ,professor ,lombroso's opinion concerning ,fielden1 formed by the study of portraits1 stands in a strange contrast to the estimate of character made by the judge who tried and sentenced the anarchists4 ,three days before the execution ,judge ,gary wrote the following letter to ,governor ,oglesby3 ,chicago1 ,ill41 ,november #h1 #ahhg4 ,to the ,hon4 ,richard ,j4 ,oglesby1 ,governor of ,illinois4 ,sir3 ,in the application of ,samuel ,fielden for a commutation of his sentence1 it is not necessary as to the case itself that ,i should do more than refer to the decision of the ,supreme ,court for a history of his crime4 ,outside of what is there shown1 there is in the nature and private character of the man1 a natural love of justice1 an impatience at all undeserved suffering1 an impulsive temper2 and an intense love of and thirst for the applause of his hearers made him an advocate of force as a heroic remedy for the hardships that the poor endure4 ,in his own private life he was the honest1 industrious1 and peaceable laboring man4 ,in what he said in court before sentence he was respectful and decorous4 ,his language and conduct since have been irreproachable4 ,as there is no evidence that he knew of any preparation to do the specific act of throwing the bomb that killed ,degan he does not understand even now that general advice to large masses to do violence makes him responsible for the violence done by reason of that advice1 nor that being joined by others in an effort to subvert law and order by force makes him responsible for the acts of those others tending to make that effort effectual4 ,in short1 he was more a misguided enthusiast than a criminal conscious of the horrible nature and effect of his teachings and of his responsibility therefor4 ,what shall be done in his case is partly a question of humanity1 and partly a question of state policy1 upon which it seems to me action on the part of your excellency favorable to him is justifiable4 ,i attach this to a copy of his petition to your excellency and refer to that for what he says of the change that has come upon himself4 ,respectfully ,yours1 ,,joseph ,e4 ,,gary4 ,professor ,lombroso wrote his article with the best intentions1 ,i fully recognise the fact2 and certainly he was governed by the most humane motives4 ,but even conceding the correctness of his theory he necessarily failed from the insufficiency of his materials4 ,one thing more1 ,anarchism is a collective term like ,liberalism4 ,people understand by it many different and sometimes contradictory theories4 ,that part of it which is not in harmony with human progress will fail1 shall fail1 and must fail1 but that part of it which is good will live in spite of all4 ,the mistake1 however1 which has been made in our special case will not again be made in ,america2 and that also will be for the general good4 ,joliet ,penitentiary4 ,m4 ,,schwab4 ,,the ,,principle ,,of ,,welfare4 ,i4 ,if we wish to discuss ethical problems in a fruitful manner and form just judgments of ethical theories1 we must always bear in mind the fact that there is not merely one single ethical problem1 but many4 ,with the solution of one of these problems the solution of the others is not necessarily given1 and thinkers who have treated a single problem have not1 in dealing with that problem1 always determined their position with reference to the others4 ,at all events1 it will be an especial and separate task to investigate the relation to each other1 the reciprocal dependence or independence1 of the different ethical problems4 ,when we speak of the ethical problem as an especial philosophical problem1 we must not forget that upon closer examination it resolves itself into a number of different problems4 ,the reason of this tendency to regard the ethical problem as simple and indivisible throughout1 may be partly sought in the fact that philosophical ethics did not develop until the positive religions had lost their undisputed control over the minds of men4 ,religious ethics is simple and indivisible by virtue of its principle4 ,it is founded on authority4 ,its contents are the revealed commands of authority2 the feeling which impels us to pass ethical judgments is the fear or reverence or love with which men are filled in the presence of divine authority2 the same motives impel man to follow in his conduct the commands of the authority2 and the principles of the education of individuals and of the order of society are just as immediately given by definite relation to this authority4 ,it is upon the whole the peculiarity of positive religions and the cause of their great importance in the history of mankind that they grant man satisfaction in a lump for all his intellectual wants4 ,the true believer has concentrated in his belief his whole mental life2 his belief is at once the highest science1 the highest virtue1 the highest good1 and the highest sthetics4 ,philosophical ethics has sought too long to retain the simple unity which is peculiar to religious ethics4 ,the mistakes of the greatest philosophical ethicists may be in part traced to this source4 ,a criticism of ,kant and ,bentham would more fully illustrate this4 ,the fundamental error--one so often found in the science of the past--is too great a love of simplicity4 ,i shall try1 in the briefest possible manner1 to give an outline of the most important ethical problems4 ,ethical judgments1 judgments concerning good and bad1 in their simplest form are expressions of feeling1 and never lose that character however much influence clear and reasoned knowledge may acquire with respect to them4 ,an act or an institution that could awaken no feeling whatsoever would never become the object of an ethical judgment1 could never be designated as good or bad4 ,and the character of the judgment will be dependent upon the character of the feeling that dictates the judgment4 ,from the point of view of pure egoism the judgment of the same act will be wholly different from what it is when regarded1 say1 from a point of view that is determined by motives of sympathy embracing a larger or smaller circle of living beings4 ,an ethical system1 accordingly1 will acquire its character from the motive principle of judgment upon which it builds4 ,this motive principle is the power that originally and constantly again gives rise to ethical judgments4 ,if our motive principle is to operate with clearness and logical consequence it must set up a definite standard4 ,a test principle of judgment must be established that will furnish guidance in individual cases by enabling us to infer consequences from it in instances where simple1 instinctive feeling fails4 ,the natural course will be that the test-principles will correspond directly with the motive principles at their base4 ,the relation between the two may1 however1 be more or less simple4 ,if we fix upon the feeling of sympathy as our basis1 regarding it as the main element of ethical feelings1 it follows of itself that the criterion we adopt must be the principle of general welfare1 that is the principle that all acts and institutions shall lead to the greatest possible feeling of pleasure among living beings4 ,this principle merely defines with greater precision what is unconsciously contained in the feeling of sympathy and in the instinct that springs from this feeling4 ,the same test-principle 7as ,bentham's ,deontology1 for example1 shows7 may also be accepted as valid from the point of view of pure egoism1 only in this case the relation between the motive principle and the test-principle is more indirect4 ,we must in this case endeavor to prove that the happiness of others is a necessary means to our own happiness4 ,our own happiness is then the real end1 but in order to reach this end we must take a roundabout course1 and ethics is the presentation of the system of the courses thus taken4 ,kant arrives in a different way again at establishing the happiness of others as an end of ethics4 ,it would be the business of a special investigation to determine the extent to which this varying motivation of the principle of test must influence the consequences derivable from it4 ,a third question is1 ,by what motive shall an individual act be determined8 ,the motive to action is not necessarily the same as the motive that dictates judgment4 ,the man who is animated with love for his fellow-creatures has reason to rejoice that ambition and the instinct of acquisition constitute grounds of action of so very general a character2 in that results become thereby possible which1--for such is the unalterable character of human nature1--would otherwise remain unaccomplished4 ,a special investigation would have to point out whether cases occur in which motive of action and motive of judgment must coincide if the act is to be approved of1 and whether there are not motives to action which would rob the act of all ethical character4 ,different from the problems already mentioned is the pedagogic problem3 ,how can the proper and necessary motives be developed in man8 ,this problem arises as well with respect to the motive principle of judgment as with respect to the motive principle of action4 ,it is clear that between points of view that rest upon entirely different psychological foundations1 7the one1 for example1 starting from egoism1 the other from sympathy1 and the third from pure reason17 the discussion can be carried only to a certain point4 ,the person who with conscious logic makes himself the highest and only aim can never be refuted from a point of view which regards every individual as a member of society and of the race1 and therefore not only as an end but also as a means4 ,if an understanding is to become possible1 the emotional foundation adopted 7the motive spring of judgment7 must be changed2 but the change is not effected by mere theoretical discussion3 a practical education is demanded in addition thereto which life does not afford all individuals1 although our inclination to make ourselves an absolute centre is always obstructed by the tendency of society to subject us all to a general order of things4 ,there is an education of humanity by history the same as there is an education of single individuals in more limited spheres4 ,this education demands its special points of view1 which are not always directly furnished by general ethical principles4 ,the same is true of the motive to action4 ,for pedagogical reasons it may be necessary to produce or to preserve motives that do not satisfy the highest demand1 because such motives are necessary transitional stages to the highest motives4 ,thus1 ambition and the instinct of acquisition may be the means of attaining to true ethical self-assertion4 ,reverence for authorities historically given can be of extraordinary effectiveness in the development of character1 since only thereby are concentration or fixity of endeavor as well as the power of joyful resignation acquired1--without our being able to see in such reverence the highest ethical qualities4 ,a ground-color in fact must often be laid on before the final1 required tint can be applied4 ,the law of the displacement of motives operates here which in ethical estimation generally is of the utmost importance4 ,there must still be mentioned here finally the socio-political problem4 ,this problem has reference to that particular ordered arrangement of society which is best adapted to a development in the direction of ethical ideals4 ,as the former problem leads inquiry out of the domain of ethics into that of pedagogics1 so this one leads us from ethics into political economy and political science4 ,although in the present discussion ,i intend to occupy myself only with a single one of these problems1 ,i have nevertheless mentioned them all in order that the light that ,i shall attempt to throw upon the problem ,i deal with may be seen in its proper setting4 ,as will be observed from what follows1 the principle of welfare will be misunderstood if the problem to whose solution it is adapted is confounded with any one of the other ethical problems4 ,the systematism of ethical science is still so little advanced that it is necessary to draw out a general outline before we pass on to any single feature4 ,the value of systematism is namely this1 that we are immediately enabled to see the connection of the single questions with one another as well as their distinctive peculiarity4 ,in ethics we are not yet so far advanced4 ,,ii4 #a7 ,if we accept the principle of welfare as our test or criterion in judging of the value of actions and of institutions1 these are then good or bad according as in their effects 7so far as we can trace them7 they produce a predominance of pleasurable feeling or a predominance of painful feeling in a larger or smaller circle of sentient beings4 ,every action may be compared to a stone thrown into the water4 ,the motion produced is propagated in large or in small circles2 and the estimation of its value depends upon whether it produces in the places it strikes predominant pleasure or pain4 ,just as theoretical science explains the single natural phenomenon by its connection with other natural phenomena1 so ethics tests the single feeling by its relation to other feelings3 the satisfaction of a person acting over the accomplishment of the act is only then to be called justifiable or good when it does not create a disturbance in the pleasurable feeling of other beings1 or when such a disturbance can be proved to be a necessary means of a greater or more extended pleasurable feeling4 ,this principle1 as a principle of test or valuation1 corresponds directly with sympathy as motive of judgment4 ,the extent to which it is possible to accept this from other points of view ,i cannot here investigate in detail4 ,the act of estimation1 the testing1 does not stop at the outer action but goes down to the motives of the person acting1 to the qualities of his character1 to the whole inner life from which the act has sprung4 ,this has its ground in the nature and significance of the estimating judgment4 ,ethical judgments1 in fact1 are in their original and simplest form spontaneous expressions of feeling4 ,but the great practical significance of such expressions of feeling lies in the fact that they operate decisively upon the will 7upon the individual will and that of others7 and produce motives of future action4 ,logically1 accordingly1 they must be directed towards the point at which an altering effect on the power that produces the act is possible1 and this point lies precisely in the inner life1 in the character of mind of the person acting4 ,for this reason feelings and impulses1 disturbances and desires1 are also judged of according to the tendency which they have of producing acts and effects that will increase pleasurable feeling or avoid unpleasurable feeling in more extended or more limited circles4 ,only by its effects do we know the power4 ,we form by inferences our conclusions as to what takes place in the mind of a man1 his motives and his capacity4 ,goodness or greatness that never expressed itself in action could never become the object of ethical approbation2 it would not even exist in fact1 but would rest upon a self-deception1 upon an illusion4 ,at least some inner activity1 a longing and endeavor in the direction demanded by the ethical principle must manifest itself4 ,the individual in self-judgment must often take refuge in this inner activity1 and any deep-going1 unpharisaical ethical estimation will have to follow him there2#abb but just here do we have a beginning of that which is demanded by the principle of welfare1 except that in consequence of individual circumstances its prosecution is impossible4 #abb ,compare my article ,the ,law of ,relativity in ,ethics in the ,international ,journal of ,ethics1 ,vol4 ,i4 p4 #cg1 et seqq4 ,equally important as the principle that we can know the power only from the effects is the other principle that the effect need not appear at once4 ,when good and great men are so often mistaken by their contemporaries the fact is explained by the circumstance that only a very wide-embracing glance can measure the significance of their efforts and activity4 ,their goodness and greatness is founded in the fact that their thought1 their feeling1 their will1 comprehend far more than their short-sighted and narrow-minded contemporaries see4 ,a long time may elapse before it is possible for them to be generally understood1 and for what they have done to be assimilated4 ,it is therefore by no means implied in the principle of welfare that people are to direct their conduct so as to be in accord with impulses and wants which men have at the moment4 ,the principle of welfare demands in very fact that we should not shrink from the battle with prejudice and with inertia4 ,the best thing1 often1 that we can do for others is to make them feel that they stand on entirely too low a level in their wishes and wants and do not make adequate demands generally4 ,thus1 to take a single instance1 the great artist often treads a solitary path ununderstood or even mistaken by the great mass4 ,yet in so doing he follows1 perhaps without being aware of it1 the principle of welfare1--if he rigorously observes the demands of art4 ,he increases the mental capital of the species1 and gives it a power which later on can operate in broad spheres4 ,only a short-sighted conception and application of the principle of welfare stops with the need of the moment and dismisses the consideration of the permanent conditions of life and the permanent sources of new life and new activity4#abc #abc ,this last argument is taken from my ,ethics 7,danish edition1 p4 #id1 ,german edition1 p4 #aaj74 #b7 ,the principle of welfare simply furnishes a norm which may be laid at the foundation of the testing of all classes of actions4 ,but it by no means demands1 as has at times been supposed1 that consideration for welfare should also be the ground and motive for every act4 ,we have recourse to general principles only in order to be able to set ourselves aright in cases in which direct judgment1 instinctive feeling cannot determine the question presented1 that is in cases of doubt1 or when we have in view a systematic treatment of ethical questions4 ,the ethical feeling may operate quite involuntarily and without real ratiocination1 in that we can be moved directly by the act 7whether possible or real7 as it appears to us1 just as in our sthetical feeling we may without sthetical reasoning be struck by the beauty of a work of art or of a landscape4 ,or1 we follow with confidence the unwritten laws that are contained in custom1 in tradition1 and generally in so-called positive morality4 ,and in agreement precisely with the principle of welfare1 is immediacy of this kind to be recommended and maintained1 so long as it does not lead to the neglect of real problems and questions4 ,it is the state of innocence out of which no one dare be wrested unnecessarily4 ,abstract principles become necessary aids when direct reliance fails2 but frequently they can only be applied to individual concrete cases by the employment of a great number of complicated intermediary steps1 and do not easily acquire a practical influence upon the will4 ,indeed1 the principle of welfare may even demand quite different motives from ethical feeling or devotion to the requirements of positive morality4 ,it is in fact most beautiful and best that a man should care for his wife and children because he loves them and not because his ethical instinct requires it4 ,where conscious duty has to be invoked in the innermost relations between man and man1 it is as a rule a sign of an unfortunate state of affairs4 ,perfect love dispels not only fear but also duty4 ,in his ,ethics1 at page #cci1 ,wundt advances the following objection to the principle of welfare3 ,it is conceivable that a person should sacrifice himself for another2 it is conceivable that a person should yield up life and possessions for definite ideal ends1 for his country1 for freedom1 for religion1 for science4 ,but it has never come to pass1 and never will1 that people shall renounce a thing solely to increase the sum of happiness of the world4 ,this objection overlooks the fact that the principle of the valuation of an act that is regarded as good need not be the motive to this act4 ,the thought and feeling of the person acting may stop very properly at country1 freedom1 or any other ideal object1 without the person's instituting any formal reflections whatsoever with regard to the reasons of the value of the ideal ends for which he sacrifices himself4 ,but in systematic ethics or in practical cases of doubt we inquire what value and importance love of country1 freedom1 poetry1 and science possess for human life4 ,if1 for example1 freedom were not a good for a people1 the individual would do wrong to sacrifice his life for it4 ,it is never of course a question of the abstract notion of welfare of and in itself1 just as in a single theoretical problem it is never a question of the abstract idea of cause4 ,but in ethics we lay down the principle of welfare and in the theory of knowledge the principle of causality2 endeavoring1 thus1 to go back through analysis to the final assumptions of our practical and theoretical intellectual activity4 #c7 ,it is no argument against the principle of welfare that pleasure must be so often bought with pain4 ,pain is in that case only the necessary transitional step1 and the significance of the principle of welfare is precisely the requirement it makes that the duty of demonstration shall rest on those who maintain the necessity of such an intermediary step4 ,any infliction of pain must be supplied with a motive1 whereas the feeling of pleasure in and of itself 7that is if its causes do not at the same time produce additional painful effects7 is justified4 ,the principle of welfare simply says3 ,produce by thy conduct as much pleasure and as little pain as is possible6 ,the degree to which it is possible to realise this demand1 of this the principle in and of itself says nothing4 ,a principle is not subverted by the difficulties of its application4 ,as experience teaches1 there is a happiness that is not bought too dearly with pain4 ,clara's song in ,goethe's ,egmont3 ,himmelhoch jauchzend1 zum ,tode betrbt6 has been cited in disproof of the principle of welfare4 ,but let us hear ,clara to the end and note the last line of the song1 in which she gives the result of the entire train of her emotion4 ,she says3 ,glcklich allein ist die ,seele die liebt6 ,the phenomenon is this4 ,there is a movement of the heart and mind1 a life of feeling1 which are joined with a satisfaction so deep and great that the powerful oscillation between pleasure and pain does not destroy the total feeling of happiness1 but strengthens it4 ,two psychological factors co-operate here4 ,the one is1 that the pain 7the dis-pleasure or grief71 unless it transcends a certain degree1 forms the background of the pleasurable feeling and is thereby able to intensify the latter4 ,in this very fact a sufficient motive lies to choose conditions of this sort in preference to such as do not stand so high in intensity but are nevertheless conditions of more unmixed pleasure4 ,the other factor is1 that there can be an element of attraction even in grief1 simply because intense life1 powerful movement1 and the straining of faculties that come with it1 produce of themselves satisfaction4 ,all exertion of power which is not out of proportion is connected with a feeling of pleasure4 ,the feeling of pleasure that accompanies grief and anxiety asserts itself in the fact that we do not wish to be transported out of it4 ,an important element here is also the organic process connected with every powerful state of mind 7the effect of the condition of the brain on the circulation of the blood1 on breathing1 and on the organs of digestion71 granting that it is not the whole cause4 ,when ,auguste ,comte lost the woman who exerted so decisive an influence on the direction of his mind in the last period of his life1 he said once in an outburst of sorrow evoked by her memory3 ,i owe it to thee alone that ,i shall not leave this life without having known in a worthy manner the best emotion of human nature4444 ,amid the severest pains that this emotion can bring with it ,i have never ceased to feel that the true condition of happiness is1 to have filled the heart--though it be with pain1 aye with bitterest pain4 ,auguste ,comte and ,clara are accordingly quite in agreement1 and the ethics of welfare is in agreement with them both4 ,if we desire to be wholly secure against pain and anxiety1 then we dare not love anything4 ,but what if love were the greatest happiness1 even though it brought as much sorrow again with it6 ,with powerful action and great fulness of life come also great costs1 great contrasts1 and great vibrations4 ,yet who has said that the highest was to be had for little expenditure8 ,the feeling of pleasure is the only psychological criterion of health and power of life4 ,that which in all its immediate or remote effects in all the creatures that it touches produces only pleasurable feeling1 cannot possibly be condemned4 ,welfare1 therefore1 in the sense of permanent pleasurable feeling1 is the final test-principle of action4 ,pain is everywhere the sign of an incipient dissolution of life4#abd ,this is exhibited in the simplest manner in the physical pain that arises through the tearing of organic tissue4 ,but it also holds true of the mental pain that arises from anxiety1 doubt1 or repentance4 ,it points to a disharmony between the different forces and impulses of the mind1 a disharmony that can lead to the dissolution of consciousness4 ,if pain is a necessary intermediary step1 the fact is partly founded in the two psychological laws above mentioned1 partly also in the circumstance that it means the dissolution of something in us that impedes a more free and more varied development of life4 ,childbirth is accompanied with pain because the new life can only come into the world at the cost of the old4 ,analogously the knowledge of truth is often gained with pain because prejudices and illusions must first be shattered4 ,in the pain of repentance a lower self is dissolved in order that a new and higher self may develop4 #abd ,compare my ,psychology 7,danish edition1 pp4 #cae-cah2 ,german edition1 pp4 #cdc-cdg74 #d7 ,a circumstance that has especially fostered the opposition to the principle of welfare is undoubtedly the tendency to think exclusively1 in connection with the expression 'pleasurable feeling1' of the most elementary sensual forms of pleasure4 ,the latter are not excluded by the principle of welfare2 the principle1 however1 takes all the aspects of human character into consideration1 maintaining that permanent pleasurable feeling is not to be established with certainty if an essential aspect of this character is neglected4 ,the defect of elementary feelings of pleasure is that for the great part they correspond to only momentary and limited relations4 ,a being whose feeling is of a purely elementary kind can maintain itself as long as the simple conditions of life to which it is adapted do not change4 ,thus some of the lowest animal forms like the infusoria and rhizopods appear to have existed throughout infinitely long periods of time in exactly their present condition4 ,here the adaptation to the given conditions is as good as perfect4 ,the same may be the case with beings that at an earlier stage of their development have possessed more developed organs and forms4 ,animals that live free in their youth1 afterwards however as parasites1 lead a purely elementary life and lose all the nerves and muscles that do not directly subserve this form of existence4 ,this is also true of man4 ,of the ,fuegians1 whose wretched existence 7wretched in our eyes7 he portrays in vivid colors in his ,journey ,around the ,world1 ,darwin says3 ,there is no reason for believing that the ,fuegians are diminishing in number2 we must therefore assume that they enjoy a sufficient measure of happiness 7of whatever character this may be7 to give life value in their eyes4 ,nature1 which makes habit an irresistible power and its effects hereditary1 has fitted the ,fuegian to the climate and the products of his wretched country4 ,primitive peoples of a higher type even 7and not only primitive peoples7 afford examples of an adaptation to conditions which excludes all motives to change and progress4 ,it is dire necessity that has brought man into the path of progress4 ,where such a compulsion does not operate human emotional life is conditioned by a narrow sphere of relations only and is therefore itself narrow and restricted4 ,perhaps more complete1 more unmixed satisfaction can be obtained here than would be possible under more manifold and more complicated circumstances4 ,a small vessel may be fuller than a large one although it holds less4#abe #abe ,fieri potest1 ut vas aliquod minus majore plenius sit1 quamvis liquoris minus contineat4 ,cartesius1 ,epistola iv1 ,ad principem ,palatinam de sita beata4 ,it might perhaps be objected to the principle of welfare1 that we should really be obliged1 in consistency with it1 to make ourselves all little vessels1 and that agreeably to the principle an existence limited to the primitive necessities of life and to purely elementary feelings1 would stand just as high as a life taken up with intellectual labor and the activity of culture1 or even higher1 since an existence of the latter kind could scarcely be accompanied with so unmixed and secure a well-being1 but would be united with trials and efforts constantly renewed and with unrest ever recurring4 ,if--as it might be suggested--an existence like that of the ,fuegians appears poor and wretched to us1 since they often suffer from scarcity and want1 let us take another example4 ,alexander von ,humboldt came across a tribe in ,south ,america that lived from banana trees1--trees so fruitful that an acre of land planted with them would supply food for fifty human beings4 ,the trees require no real expenditure of labor2 only the earth about their roots must be broken with implements once or twice a year4 ,the consequence is that the tribe is stupid and uncivilised4 ,but the wants that it has are satisfied4 ,that which would make such a life unendurable for us1 the strong desire for activity1 development1 and progress1 this desire does not exist at such stages4 ,it is1--a fact that must be remarked1--itself a consequence of development and progress4 ,whereas ,lamarck assumed an inner1 innate impulse to development in all living creatures1#abf ,darwin maintains1 on the ground of experience1 that development is invariably introduced by the influence of external causes4 ,it was a difficulty to ,lamarck how the very lowest forms of life could continue their existence1 why they had not long since developed to higher stages4 ,in ,darwin's theory1 which takes into consideration the external conditions of development1 there is no difficulty on this point4 ,a development that is favored in no way by external circumstances is simply impossible4 ,as regards human beings1 the anthropologist ,th4 ,waitz has clearly proved1 that the impulse and desire of development is itself a product of development4 ,to this effect he speaks in his treatise ,the ,indians of ,north ,america1 page #fi3 ,a people without intercourse and not in competition with other peoples1 a people which supplies its natural wants with relative ease or only by overcoming long accustomed difficulties regarded as inevitable1 directly from its natural environment1 and that feels satisfied therewith and lives a happy life3 from such a people it is not to be expected that it will make any endeavors to civilise itself4 ,he that has what he needs and therefore feels satisfied in all respects1 will not work2 people do not civilise themselves voluntarily in following some noble instinct of the heart4 ,is it different in fact in our modern society8 ,is not a long period of schooling and culture previously necessary to instil in man an interest for work as work8 ,how many are there among the so-called learned and cultured that make endeavors in behalf of the education of themselves and others without they are required6 #abf ,the theory of ,lamarck is made the subject of an interesting criticism by ,herbert ,spencer in his ,principles of ,biology1 ,part iii1 ,chap4 #c4 ,it is peculiar to the state of nature in contrast to the state of civilisation1 7in so far as a distinct contrast may be asserted17 that in the former the impulse to change of manner of life and thought must come from without1 whereas in the latter an impulse to progress operates which be it now powerful be it now feeble never ceases entirely to operate4 ,this difference is analogous to that that prevails between inorganic and organic existence4 ,it is the peculiar character of an organism that the play of forces is preserved in it with a certain independence of the effects of the moment and of its immediate environment4 ,so in civilised peoples an impulse is aroused to change life in all directions1 to differentiate1 to shape it1 and to bring it to a point in every single direction4 ,spiritual antenn are grown which are in never ceasing movement4 ,through this a new species of feeling also is possible1 a feeling that is determined not only by the definite ends that are attained but which links itself with the work1 with the activity itself which is requisite to the acquisition of these ends4 ,man is thereby become more independent and more free1 and his mental life1 especially his emotional life1 has gained in depth and intensity1 it now being no longer determined merely by the external world1 but essentially by the forces that are awakened in the inner world4 ,now ideal1 and not merely elementary feelings act1 and higher demands are made in life4 ,what ,i wish to maintain here is that the rise of the impulse to development is in perfect accord with the principle of welfare4 ,that stability of the state of nature which now appears to us wretched now paradisian1 is itself dependent on the stability of external conditions4 ,absolute stability1 however1 is not found in nature4 ,if the immediate surroundings do not change1 changes yet occur in other localities of nature and among other creatures1 and the struggle for existence then either causes them to perish or to change in a corresponding manner4 ,the beings that have changed by adaptation will obtain a decided advantage in the struggle for life over those that have remained stationary4 ,this is the fate of many primitive peoples1 or indeed civilised peoples1 that have remained stationary or in a low state of culture4 ,extinction awaits them when a higher civilisation approaches4 ,what is true of peoples and races also holds good for individuals4 ,a perfect adaptation to limited circumstances always involves a danger1--the danger that the individual when its conditions of life are changed and its horizon is enlarged will lack the inner conditions necessary to self-assertion4 ,childish navet1 dreaming phantasy1 sensual enjoyment1 have each their rights1 but they easily lead to a condition of somnambulism2 security and happiness are always precarious here1 and on awakening the greatest helplessness may take their place4 ,here1 let us add1 we leave entirely out of consideration the fact that such a condition often exists only at the cost of other individuals4 ,welfare1 accordingly1 cannot be conceived as a passive state of things produced once for all and that is not itself in turn the point of departure of new and progressive development4 ,welfare1 in the highest conception of it1 must consist of a condition in which power is gathered and rich possibilities gained for the future1 and which generates an impulse to frame new ends and to begin new endeavors4 ,it is a condition that is desirable in and of itself as well as one that contains the germ of new desirable conditions1--a condition therefore that is not only an end but also a means1 that has value not only as effect but also as cause4 ,the feeling of pleasure is here directly bound up with activity1 work1 development1 the unfolding of forces themselves1 and not merely with the result that is obtained by the employment of the forces4 ,where such feeling of pleasure is possible there much suffering is endurable that at a lower stage would be the sign of the dissolution of all life4 ,expectation and longing1 privation and disappointment will not be lacking2 they will accompany with definite rhythmical alternation the joyful advancement toward the aim that man has set himself2 but amid all oscillations the fundamental direction and the fundamental activity will be asserted4 ,we will not work to live1 we will not live to work2 but in work will we find life4 ,this is the ideal that the principle of welfare holds up to us when thoroughly reasoned out4 ,in how far it can be realised is a question that can only be answered experimentally for the time and the individual in question4 ,it demands not only a change of the nature of individuals but also of the relations of society4 ,the essential thing however is1 that we here have a criterion by which we are able to test actions and institutions4 ,this criterion corresponds to a tendency that leads throughout all organic nature1 in that pleasure as a rule means life and progress1 pain1 retrogression and death4 ,the principle of welfare asserts the right of life3 every creature has the right to exist1 to develop1 and to obtain its full satisfaction1 unless greater pain is thereby produced to itself or to others4 ,the ethics that builds upon the principle of welfare seeks accordingly to continue the evolution of nature in a conscious and harmonious manner4 ,it demands that means be found which the unconscious development of nature have not supplied1 and it strives to mitigate or to exclude the unnecessary pain which the struggle for existence brings with it4 ,it embraces a series of problems from compassionate alleviation and assistance up to the highest social1 intellectual1 and sthetical endeavors4 ,it is the business of special ethics to treat these questions in detail4 #e7 ,from the fact1 however1 that welfare1 properly understood1 consists in activity and development1 it does not follow that vice versa activity and development are always joined with welfare or lead to welfare4 ,because limitation of wants does not always lead to the aim set1 unlimited variety of wants is not necessarily the proper state4 ,civilisation can assume forms and enter on paths that do not harmonise with the principle of welfare4 ,we find in history accordingly1 at times1 distinct and decisive warnings against existing civilisations4 ,thus it was in ,greece on the part of ,socrates1 the ,cynics1 and the ,stoics1 in the eighteenth century on the part of ,rousseau1 and in our day on the part of ,leo ,tolsto4 ,the opposition of such great minds should surely make us watchful4 ,i leave out of consideration here the question in how far that which we call civilisation can be imparted to a people forthwith4 ,the capacity for civilisation has1 it is true1 been prematurely and overhastily denied many primitive peoples4#abg ,but it is not therefore necessarily a good thing for a people to give up the forms of life that it has developed by its own fortunes and endeavors to allow itself to be regulated in accordance with forms and ideals that have been developed under entirely different circumstances4 ,thus directly1 even the best-founded and most perfect civilisation cannot be communicated4 ,waitz who expressly maintains that no proof has been brought forward of the ,indian's incapacity for civilisation1 praises nevertheless the ,indian chieftains who oppose the obtrusion of civilisation on their people1 for their love to their people and their just comprehension of its true well-being4 #abg ,compare my article in the ,international ,journal of ,ethics1 ,no4 ,i4 p4 #fj4 ,the reason why conflict can arise between civilisation and welfare lies in the restiveness and restlessness of the aspirations of civilisation4 ,it is the same with it as with that spontaneous1 involuntary impulse to movement that leads to the use of forces and of the members merely because sufficient energy is present1 without their use being guided by the consideration of a more valuable end1 so that the results are accidental4 ,the effort that goes with civilisation may lead in part to over-exertion1 to an overstraining of forces2 in part 7in the case of extreme differentiation7 to a one-sided direction of effort2 and partly to isolation1 to the fragmentary elimination of individual activities4 ,in the single individual certain faculties are fostered 7in the one intelligence1 in the other physical power for work7 at the cost of other faculties2 the harmony1 the capacity of feeling oneself as totality and unity is lacking4 ,by such one-sidedness the individual becomes of value only as a wheel in a great machine3 he serves merely as a means1 not as an end4 ,and such a one-sided individual development is connected with a one-sided social development4 ,the suppression of certain features of the nature of the individual goes hand in hand with the suppression of single estates and classes of society4 ,if we identify civilisation and ethics1 without qualification1 and regard progress as a safer criterion than welfare1 we should overlook the fact that there exists also a social question4 ,the social question is an ethical question and at the same time a question of the correction of civilisation1--both by means of the principle of welfare4 ,would it be right that the products of material and ideal civilisation should only fall to the share of a small minority1 while all the rest should not be able to participate therein8 ,this would clash completely with the ideal of society that flows from the principle of welfare4 ,for the greatest welfare is present when every single individual so develops himself in an independent manner that just by this independent development of his own he assists others to a similar development from their point of view4 ,then does there exist a harmonious society of independent personalities4 ,the idea of such a society is the highest ethical idea that flows from the principle of welfare4 ,every individual is then a little world for himself and yet stands in the most intimate reciprocal connection with the great world of which he is a part4 ,the individual serves the race and the race serves the individual4 ,every position of isolation1 every inequality in the distribution of possessions and of employments must be founded in the demands of the various circumstances and problems of life1 and the faculties and impulses of each individual shall be developed as fully and richly as is compatible with the conditions of life of the whole race4 #f7 ,it follows from the considerations presented1 that it is by no means always easy to apply the principle of welfare in individual cases4 ,the particular relations of the affairs in question can be so complicated that we are not able to take a broad survey of them and foresee the results of our interference4 ,we cannot deduce a priori from the principle of welfare any system of particular acts1 any determinate order of society1 any civilisation4 ,its value 7like that of the principle of causality in the theoretical field7 is to present and to formulate problems1 and to serve as a guide to their treatment4 ,it is regulative1 not constructive4 ,it presumes the immediate involuntary life of the individual and of society1 and its function does not begin until the conscious discussion and treatment occurs of the value on the one hand of that which has thus been developed1 and on the other of the manner in which the development shall be conducted in the future4 ,all ethics thus acquires an historical character4 ,we never--either in our own individuality or in society--commence from the very beginning1 but are always obliged to start with a definite foundation and to work our way further under the guidance of the principles and ideals that spring from our nature4 ,,iii4 #a7 ,in the previous remarks ,i have essayed a discussion of the principle of welfare which may perhaps make clearer what was not so distinct in my former expositions 7,ethik1 ,chapters ,,iii and ,,vii74 ,the difficulty always occurs in the enunciation of a principle1 that a direct demonstration of its validity cannot be given4 ,of so much greater significance is it then if an indirect proof can be adduced by showing that the very ones who contest it are themselves forced to employ it and actually to employ it without being aware of it4 ,i maintain now that ,dr4 ,paul ,carus in his book ,the ,ethical ,problem1 in which he combats the principle of welfare1 has not been able to avoid giving such an indirect confirmation of the validity of this principle4 ,before attempting to show this in detail ,i shall make a few remarks concerning the criticism of my ,ethics which ,dr4 ,carus wrote in the first number of ,the ,monist1 and which in an abbreviated form is also embodied in the treatise above mentioned4 ,dr4 ,carus thinks that ,i have practically surrendered the principle of welfare when ,i define welfare to consist in activity4 ,his words are3 ,if welfare is to be interpreted as activity1 work1 development2 if this kind of active welfare is the greatest good1 whatever admixture of pain and whatever absence of pleasurable feeling it may have2 if the greatest amount of a state of continuous pleasurable feeling is not welfare in an ethical sense1 what becomes of the utilitarian definition of welfare as pleasurable feeling8 ,if1 however1 welfare is 'the state of a continuous pleasurable feeling1' how can we declare that the life of a pessimistic philosopher is preferable to that of a joyful fool8 ,to this ,i answer1 that if it could be proved that increasing pain followed necessarily on all advancement of civilisation 7without this pain being compensated for1 as ,clara's philosophy demanded1 by new and proportionately greater feelings of pleasure71 in that case it would be impossible to combine civilisation and welfare4 ,but only a pessimistic dogmatism--which is just as current in the atmosphere of to-day as optimistic dogmatism--could assert this4 ,what experience teaches us is this1 that we find ourselves amid a development1 in a line of tendencies the final results of which we cannot foresee but which hitherto have evoked at many points new forces and have thereby opened new sources of satisfaction4 ,everything that arouses our greatest and most permanent pleasurable feeling has arisen within this development4 ,this justifies our courage and our hope in behalf of further progress1 although conflict and pain will as we may foresee not be wanting1 and although the way leads through many deserts4 ,experience alone can show how far we shall be able to get4 ,i agree with ,dr4 ,carus that this world of ours is not a world suited to the taste of a pleasure-seeker1 if we understand by pleasure passive sensual enjoyment1 an enjoyment which is not united with the rest and nourishment with which not only an immediate pleasurable feeling is connected but whereby power is also gathered for continued endeavor4 ,if so many pleasure-seekers go through life without having their eyes opened to its true significance and purpose1 this fact is precisely one of the things that clash with the principle of welfare1 for the latter claims all faculties and powers1 and demands that they that sleep be awakened1--that is if they really possess useful faculties4 ,for perhaps the joyful fool cannot accomplish more than he does4 ,wherefore then disturb him1 if his pleasure harms neither himself nor others and if his awakening will only lead to unrest and pain for himself and perhaps also for others8 ,i pointed out the fact in my ,ethics1#abh that we can determine by the principle of welfare alone in what cases we are to destroy a state of equilibrium or shatter an illusion4 #abh ,danish edition1 p4 #id4 ,german edition1 p4 #aji4 ,i have admitted the possibility of a conflict between civilisation and welfare4 ,wherever such a conflict arises1 there1 according to my conception1 appears an ethical problem1 which must be determined by the principle of welfare1 since any order of things or any development that brought with it permanent and everlasting pain would be in effect a dissolution of life itself4 ,such pain1 however1 7as even pessimistic philosophers are optimistic enough to hope17 would destroy the will to live4 ,if we live in spite of pain it is because there is always a surplus of satisfaction4 ,i give the idea of welfare no arbitrary extension when ,i deny that it should be limited to denote a passive condition produced once for all time4 ,for our nature is at no stage wholly complete2 no one condition can stand therefore as definitive4 ,the future1 and the new horizons opened1 will make new demands on our capacities and our will1 and in the testing of any state of things it must accordingly be a necessary point of view to establish whether in addition to the direct satisfaction which it probably affords it at the same time prepares the capacities and the possibilities of a continued development answering to the new relations4 ,it may be necessary to choose some arduous employment which later necessarily brings with it long continued rest and inactivity4 ,darwin's struggle with his feeble health is a good example4 ,the man who from love of country or to save a fellow-being risks his life1 prefers the active satisfaction of a single moment 7the satisfaction1 namely1 which he feels beforehand at the thought of saving his country or a human life7 to the passive joys of years and years4 ,it was such a moment in which ,faust saw himself living in mind ,auf freiem ,grund mit freiem ,volk and which thereby made life of value to him1 which all the earthly gratifications that the demon was able to obtain for him could not accomplish4 ,in the face of the pleasure that such a moment can produce the thought of pain and death vanishes4 ,thus alone is self-sacrifice psychologically intelligible4 #b7 ,while ,i cannot see that ,dr4 ,carus has pointed out a contradiction in my theory of welfare1 ,i may further assert that he himself cannot without a self-contradiction escape recognising the principle of welfare4 ,dr4 ,carus indeed1 in a certain sense1 himself enunciates this very principle4 ,he says1 in the preface to ,the ,ethical ,problem1 page iii1 ,the aim of ethics is neither the welfare of self nor that of other individuals1 but of those interests that are superindividual4 ,the aim therefore is to be welfare1 not however the welfare of individuals but of superindividual interests4 ,this strange expression is defined in certain subsequent passages of the book4 ,dr4 ,carus speaks1 namely1 later on1 of that superindividual soul-life which we call society4#abi ,it is admitted in this1 that when we speak of welfare we speak impliedly of soul-life4 ,but how can we give to society as such a soul-life that is different from the soul-life of the single individuals that have their existence simultaneously and successively in that society8 ,this is merely a mythical and mystical personification of society1 which may have arisen in the comparison1 in many respects instructive1 between society and an organism1 which however can possess at best a poetical1 but no scientific1 value4 ,the idea of society1 if it is to be scientifically employed1 must always be so applied that at every point the definite group of individuals which it represents may be established4 ,the great importance of this idea consists in the fact that it expresses the common and permanent interests of individuals simultaneously and successively existing1 in opposition to the interests of single individuals1 or of a smaller group1 or of a limited period of time4 ,ethical perception1 7unless it starts from the point of view of egoistical individualism17 must apply its test from the point of view of society4 ,it leads in this case to the consideration of our own and others' actions not only with respect to our own individual circumstances but sub specie terni so to speak1 that is with respect to their relation to the great whole of which not only we1 but also other human beings are parts4 ,along with the educative power of authorities1 it is due to the sympathy in virtue of which the individual causes to re-echo in his own bosom the feelings of others1 that ethical ideals have been formed in the human mind4 ,but as soon as it is made impossible to transpose the idea of society into the idea of individuals that live under certain definite conditions1 this idea contains no instruction for us in ethical respects4 ,no ethical norms can in this case be deduced from it4 ,emotional mysticism takes the place of ethical thought and volition4 #abi ,pages #cc1 #ch1 and #dj4 ,such a mysticism has of course its value4 ,powerful emotion leads naturally to a state in which all definite ideas recede1 the mind becoming entirely occupied by emotional feeling4 ,it will furthermore be difficult to represent by any adequate conception the great multitude of human characters on which our conduct in given circumstances can acquire decisive influence4 ,the expression 'society1' or 'race1' characterises very well the unconcluded and the unsurveyable in so many of the consequences of human methods of action and order of life1 and it will therefore not be possible to dispense with it4 ,but transposition into concrete conceptions must always be possible4 ,a welfare that at one or another stage is not the welfare of definite individuals is a self-contradiction1 and any act that at one period or another does not lead to the welfare of definite individuals has no value4 ,in ,wundt's ,ethics1 pages #dbi to #dca1 the same line of thought is found as this of ,dr4 ,carus4 ,public well-being and progress1 according to ,wundt1 do not consist in the well-being of the greatest possible number of individuals3 for the individual is ephemeral6 ,however richly blest and however perfect the individual existence may be1 it is but a drop in the ocean of life4 ,what can individual happiness and individual pain mean to the world8 ,i should say to this3 ,yes1 it is true1 the ocean does not exist for the sake of the individual drops2 but what is an ocean that does not consist of drops8 ,and is not the whole ocean clear if every single drop is clear8 ,and only then is it wholly clear4 ,just as there are people who cannot see the woods for the trees1 so there are also people who cannot see the trees for the woods4 ,in ethics this method of conception leads to the consideration of human aspiration as the means of superhuman ends4 ,every ethics that seeks to stand on a basis of experience and remain within the possibility of progressive verification1 must cling to the standpoint of man with men4 ,it need not for this reason overlook the fact1 that ethical conduct1 like all unfolding of power1 is connected with the universal world-process4 #c7 ,dr4 ,carus also approaches the principle of welfare upon another1 less mystical path4 ,he maintains1 with great emphasis1 that ethics must be based on facts1 on insight into the real1 the actual1 order of nature4 ,our ideals--this is the opinion of ,dr4 ,carus--arise through the wants which the relations of reality awaken in us1 and must be realised by the means which the relations of reality supply4 ,the new ethics is based upon facts and is applied to facts 7p4 #ah74 ,man wants something1 so he conceives the idea how good it would be if he had it4444 ,only by studying facts will he be enabled to realise his ideals 7pp4 #ai and #bj74 ,if you wish to exist1 obey reason4 ,reason teaches us how to regulate our actions in conformity with the order of natural laws4 ,if we do regulate them in conformity with the order of natural laws1 they will stand2 otherwise not4 ,in the former case they will be good1 they will agree with the cosmical conditions of existence2 in the latter case they are bad1 they will not agree with the cosmical conditions of existence2 therefore they will necessarily produce disorder and evil 7pp4 #ca1 #cb74 ,it appears to me clear from this1 that the reason why we must regulate our actions to conform with natural laws1 must be the fact that otherwise they cannot stand1 which is explained more in detail in what follows1 to mean that they are constituted to produce disorder and evil1--which in its turn must be surely understood as meaning that disorder is itself an evil4 ,if disorder were no evil1 and if no further evils resulted from actions which are not in conformity with the order of natural laws1 what foundation would ,dr4 ,carus in that case be able to give his ethics8 ,i wholly agree with ,dr4 ,carus that our conduct if it is to be ethical must support itself upon as profound a comprehension of the relations of reality as physical science1 psychology1 and social science alone can furnish4 ,but this requirement can only be made good through and by the principle of welfare4 ,it has validity only for the person who wills that his conduct shall stand and produce no evil1 either in extended or in limited circles4 ,if pain and death were not evils1 this requirement would have no validity4 ,to judge from his somewhat indefinite expressions one might suspect in ,dr4 ,carus here a votary of egoistic hedonism1 were it not that a number of other passages in his book exclude this suspicion4 ,however1 it seems quite clear to me that his final criterion must coincide with the principle of welfare4 ,his ethics is an ethics of expediency1 in that his ultimate criterion is the influence of actions on the life of mankind4 #d7 ,dr4 ,carus justly emphasises the relation of ethics to our world-conception at large4 ,but this connection does not mean that ethics can be derived by deduction from a philosophical system previously given4 ,ethics is an independent discipline which starts from its own peculiar assumptions 7which cannot of course stand in contradiction to other established assumptions71 although it is obliged to make much use of the results furnished by other sciences4 ,ethics has an independent foundation in the laws of feeling and volitional life1 just as the theory of knowledge has its foundation in the laws of sensations and perceptions4 ,in conformity with the law of economy1 7which must prevail in science even though it should not prevail in nature17 we must restrict the established postulates of the single sciences to the least possible limit4 ,if after doing this agreement between the single sciences finally occurs1 this result will be all the more valuable4 ,according to ,dr4 ,carus ethics is to be derived now from a philosophical total world-conception1 as according to his view 7,the ,ethical ,problem1 p4 #ga7 it originally arose through the influence of the positive religions4#acj ,very weighty objections can be made in my opinion against this latter assumption4 ,it is a fact that the lower a religion stands the less ethical character it possesses1 and the very lowest religions it is probable possess no ethical value whatever4 ,the question then arises how religion gradually acquired its ethical character4 ,the ethical ideas which were perceived in the nature of the deity must have had a natural origin1 and this origin can be sought only in the life of man with men4 ,the ethical norms and ideas developed themselves here spontaneously and have been just as spontaneously projected or hypostatised as the attributes of divinity4 ,in the history of the religion of ,greece we can see clearly exhibited the development of gods as powers of nature to gods as the expression of an ethical order of nature4 ,compare for instance1 the ,dodonan and the ,homeric ,zeus with the ,zeus that appears in the ideal belief of schylus4 ,the experiences are made in human life that lead to the formation of divine ideals4 ,gods grow better and more gentle according as men themselves grow better and gentler4 ,religious conceptions are idealised experiences4 ,if religion is a factor in the development of ethics it is because man conceives and represents his essential ideals in a religious form4 ,the movement proceeds therefore from experience to experience2 that which acts on nature is1 as ,shakespeare says1 always an art that has been produced by nature itself4 ,how could man understand the meaning of the ethical qualities attributed to his deities if he were not acquainted to some extent with these qualities through experience8 #acj ,dr4 ,carus expresses himself differently in ,the ,open ,court 7#ahij1 p4 #bedi71 where religion and ethics are called twins2 whereas in ,the ,ethical ,problem the latter is the daughter of the former4 ,that which distinguishes philosophical from theological ethics is not the fact that the former is constructed on the basis of some philosophical system and the latter upon ecclesiastical dogmatism1 but the fact that philosophical ethics brings out into full consciousness the psychological basis upon which ethical life has actually always more or less indirectly builded1 and draws all the consequences implied in this4 ,in this it furnishes an independent contribution to a philosophical system4 #e7 ,it seems to me to be perfectly justified1 that the distinguished men who lead the ,ethical ,societies keep these institutions as independent as possible not only of all definite dogmatic tendency of thought but also of all unnecessary philosophical hypotheses and speculations4 ,with respect to what concerns the first principles of ethics itself1 it is not necessary for the practical ethicist to occupy any definite point of view1 although it would be very fortunate if he were acquainted with the discussion of these principles and could take part in an independent manner in the same4 ,he who proposes to teach applied mathematics or employ it in practice need not begin with a definite position with respect to the nature and origin of mathematical principles4 ,so also in ethics there is a complete group of ideas and endeavors which are independent of the manner in which the first principles are conceived4 ,the essential thing for the ,ethical ,societies is1 7as ,dr4 ,stanton ,coit has said in his beautiful book ,die ,ethische ,bewegung in der ,religion17 agreement as to the methods of development of character and as to the type of character to be developed4 ,dr4 ,carus can have really nothing to object to in this method of conception1 inasmuch as it is his conviction that in the passage from the supernatural to the natural establishment of ethics the substance of our morality will not be changed4 ,in an article in ,the ,open ,court1 at page #bege1 he says3 ,the most important moral rules are not to be altered4444 ,some of them will be altered as little as our arithmetical table can be changed4 ,in this passage less importance for the contents of ethics is attributed to the various points of view than ,i should be obliged to assign4 ,yet all the sooner should ,dr4 ,carus really admit that the ,ethical ,societies have added to their other services that of holding a proper course between the different dogmatic and philosophical systems4 #f7 ,this last dispute it appears to me also testifies to the expediency of distinguishing between the different ethical problems4 ,by so doing ,dr4 ,carus would also have been more just in his position with regard to utilitarianism4 ,the latter has not arisen so much from the impulse to supply a motive for ethical conduct as from the impulse to acquire an absolute criterion4 ,it is true the powerful influence of ,hobbes and ,locke brought it about that many of the later utilitarians embraced the egoistic theory2 but by their side marched another group of utilitarian ethicists 7among the earlier1 ,bacon1 ,cumberland1 ,shaftesbury1 and ,hutcheson7 who did not subscribe to this theory4 ,so far as ,i know1 ,hutcheson was the first with whom the formula occurs3 ,the greatest happiness of the greatest number4 ,these very historical facts show how important it is in the treatment of ethical problems to apply the maxim ,divide et impera6 ,i have therefore prefaced this my apology for the principle of welfare by calling attention to the relative and mutual independence of ethical problems4 ,,harald ,h,,ffding4 ,,the ,,criterion ,,of ,,ethics ,,an ,,objective ,,reality4 ,i4 ,,two ,,definitions ,,of ,,good4 ,while ,mr4 ,herbert ,spencer in his ,data of ,ethics may be considered as the most persuasive and popular1 ,prof4 ,harald ,hffding1 it appears to me1 is the most scholarly and learned expounder of that ethical theory which bases morality upon the principle of the greatest happiness for the greatest number4 ,the ,monist ,no4 #a contained 7pp4 #aci-ada7 a criticism of ,professor ,hffding's work on ,ethics1 and ,professor ,hffding's article in this number is in part a further exposition of his views1 and in part an answer to the criticism of ,the ,monist4 ,professor ,hffding proposes1 as pointed out in the criticism of ,the ,monist1 two criteria of ethics1 7#a7 that which promotes the life-totality1 and 7#b7 that which produces a continuous and permanent state of pleasurable feelings4 ,these two criteria happen to come in conflict4 ,john ,stuart ,mill calls attention to the fact that a well fed pig is more satisfied than man and a jolly fool is happier than ,socrates4 ,when ,professor ,hffding considers the state of man preferable to that of a pig1 while granting that the latter1 and not the former1 enjoys a continuous state of pleasurable feelings1 when he similarly prefers the doleful disposition of a sombre philosopher to the empty merriness of a happy fool1 he does in my opinion unquestionably surrender the second criterion in favor of the first4 ,professor ,hffding's present explanation of the subject does not satisfy me4 ,the main point of my criticism1 it seems to me1 has not been answered1 and the difficulty is not overcome4 ,professor ,hffding declares that the strong desire for activity1 development1 and progress does not exist at all stages4 ,it is itself a consequence of development and progress 7p4 #ecg74 ,this1 it may be granted1 explains why a civilised society cannot help developing workers that plod and toil1 finding no satisfaction unless they plod and toil2 but it does not explain why 7if after all the criterion of our ethical judgment remains happiness or the continuous state of pleasurable feelings7 their state is preferable to that of indolent and happy savages4 ,professor ,hffding says3 ,if it could be proved that increasing pain followed necessarily on all advancement of civilisation 444 in that case it would be impossible to combine civilisation and welfare 7i4 e4 a continuous state of pleasurable feelings74 ,well1 if that be so1--as ,professor ,hffding himself in the comparison of man to a pig and of ,socrates to a fool has actually conceded to be true1--if we stand between the dilemma of civilisation and welfare1 or in other words if we have the choice only between a higher stage of life and a happier state of existence1 which is preferable8 ,that which ,professor ,hffding considers as preferable is his true criterion of what he calls good4 ,the other one holds only so long as it agrees with his true and final criterion1 so long as it does not come in conflict with it4 ,suppose we select as the final criterion of ethics not the growth and development of the life-totality1 but that of procuring to the greatest number of men1 as much as possible1 a continuous state of pleasurable feelings1--what will be the outcome of it8 ,can we suppose that1 if these two principles collide1 we shall be able to stop growth8 ,can we expect to overcome nature and to curtail natural evolution so as to bring about a more favorable balance between our pleasures and pains8 ,if we do1 we shall soon find out that we have reckoned without our host4 ,a conflict between civilisation and welfare1 7i4 e4 between natural evolution and our pleasurable feelings17 would not discontinue civilisation as ,professor ,hffding supposes1 it would rather produce a change in what we have to consider as welfare4 ,we have to be pleased with the development of our race according to the laws of nature1 and those who are displeased might just as well commit suicide at once1 for they will go to the wall1 they will disappear from the stage of life4 ,those alone will survive who are pleased with that which the laws of nature demand4 ,our pleasurable feelings are subjective1 nature and the laws of evolution are objective4 ,the criterion of ethics is not subjective but objective4 ,the question is not what produces pleasurable feelings1 but what is the unalterable order of the world with which we have to be pleased4 ,the question of ethics1 in my mind1 is not what we wish to do or what we think we ought to do1 but what we must do4 ,nature prescribes a definite course4 ,if we choose another one1 we shall not reach our aim1 and if we reach it1 it will be for a short time only4 ,the aim of nature is not the happiness of living beings1 the aim of nature1 in the realm of organised life1 is growth1 development1 evolution4 ,pleasures and pains are phases in the household of life1 they are not life's aim4 ,experience shows that in reaching a higher stage we acquire an additional sensibility for both1 for new pleasures and new pains4 ,the pleasures of human existence in comparison with those of animals have been as much intensified and increased as the pains4 ,the ratio has on the average remained about the same and it has rarely risen in favor of pleasures4 ,rather the reverse takes place3 the higher man loses the taste of enjoying himself without losing the sensitiveness of pain4 ,ethics1 as a science and from the standpoint of positivism1 has to inquire what according to the nature of things we must do4 ,it has to study facts and from facts it has to derive rules 7the moral prescripts7 which will assist us in doing at once what we shall after all have to do4 ,the criterion of ethics is not some standard which we put up ourselves1 the criterion of ethics is agreement with facts4 ,,ii4 ,,the ,,authority ,,of ,,moral ,,commands4 ,professor ,hffding emphasises the fact that there is not merely one single ethical problem but many--a fact which cannot be denied1 for there are1 indeed1 innumerable problems of an ethical nature4 ,however1 we must bear in mind that all the ethical problems are closely interconnected4 ,the better we understand them1 the more shall we recognise that all together form one great system of problems1 and that one problem lies at the bottom of all4 ,this one basic problem ,i have called the ethical problem4 ,the solution of the basic problem of ethics will not involve the ready solution of all the rest1 but we can be sure that it will throw light upon any question that is of an ethical nature4 ,professor ,hffding recognises the importance of system in ethics4 ,he says3 ,the systematism of ethical science is still so little advanced that it is necessary to draw out a general outline before we pass on to any single feature4 ,the value of systematism is namely this1 that we are immediately enabled to see the connection of the single questions with one another as well as their distinctive peculiarity4 ,it appears almost unfair toward the present state of ethical science when ,professor ,hffding adds3 ,in ethics we are not yet so far advanced4 ,if we were not1 we should do our best to advance so as to recognise the unity of all ethical problems4 ,we must first recognise the ethical problem1 before we can with any hope of success approach the many1 which are dependent upon the one4 ,which is the one basic problem of ethics8 ,we read in ,matthew1 xxi4 #bc3 ,and when ,jesus was come into the temple1 the chief priests and the elders of the people came unto him as he was teaching and said1 ,by what authority doest thou these things8 and who gave thee this authority8 ,this question is legitimate and all our ethical conceptions must necessarily depend upon the answer which we accept as satisfactory4 ,the basic problem of ethics is the foundation of ethics1 it is the justification of the ethical prescripts1 it is the discovery of the authority upon which ethical rules are based4 ,if there were no power that enforces a certain line of conduct1 ethics in my opinion would have no right of existence2 and if any one preaches certain commands1 he is bound to give satisfactory reasons why we must obey his commands4 ,professor ,hffding says that ethics starts from its own assumptions 7p4 #aaa74 ,ethics should not start from any assumptions4 ,if we are to come to a mutual understanding we must drop all subjectivism1 we must not study ethics from special points of view1 from the principles or standards of any individual or group of individuals4 ,there is not the slightest use of a person making himself any highest and only aim which1 it may be true1 from his point of view can never be refuted4 ,so long as ethics starts from assumptions or principles1 it will be no science2 for truly1 as ,professor ,hffding says in excuse of the inability to prove principles1 ,the difficulty always occurs in the enunciation of a principle that a direct demonstration of its validity cannot be given4 ,the requirement of ethics is to arrive at statements of fact4 ,let us build upon facts and we shall stand upon solid ground4 ,ethics in order to be scientific must be based upon the objective and unalterable order of things1 upon the ascertainable data of experience1 upon the laws of nature4 ,professor ,hffding says3 ,religious ethics is founded on authority4 ,its contents are the revealed commands of authority2 the feeling which impels us to pass ethical judgments is the fear or reverence or love with which men are filled in the presence of divine authority4 ,scientific ethics can in this respect not be different from religious ethics1 for it is also based upon authority4 ,a scientific ethicist has to proceed like any other naturalist2 he must observe the course of events and attempt to discover the laws in accordance with which the events take place4 ,these laws are no less unalterable than any other natural laws1 and we may appropriately call them the natural laws of ethics4 ,the moral commands of ethical teachers have been derived1 either instinctively or with a clear scientific insight1 from the natural laws of ethics4 ,the authority of the natural laws of ethics has been decked out by different religious teachers with more or less mythological tinsel or wrapped in mystic darkness2 for practical purposes it remained to some limited extent the same and will to some extent always remain the same1 for we shall have to obey the moral law1 be it from fear1 or reverence1 or love4 ,the unity of all the ethical problems will be preserved1 however much they may be differentiated4 ,indeed ,professor ,hffding in his enumeration sufficiently indicates their interconnection4 ,he speaks of 7#a7 the motive principle of judgment1 7#b7 the test-principle of judgment1 and 7#c7 of the motive to action4 ,whatever difference he makes between these three terms1 it is obvious that whether and how far judgments1 tests1 or motives are sound will depend upon their agreement with the authority of the natural law of ethics4 ,the pedagogic problem is also connected with the ethical problem because upon our solution of the latter will directly depend the aim and indirectly also the method of education4 ,such complex motives as ambition or the instinct of acquisition will become the means of attaining to true ethical self-assertion in the degree proportional to the elements they contain which will strengthen our efforts of setting us at one with the natural law of ethics4 ,to sum up3 ,the natural law of ethics has to be derived from facts like all other natural laws4 ,the natural law of ethics is the authority upon which all moral commands are based1 and agreement with the natural law of ethics is the final criterion of ethics4 ,,iii4 ,,ethics ,,and ,,welfare4 ,i have no objection to an ethics of welfare2 on the contrary1 ,i consider every ethics as an ethics of welfare4 ,my objection to ,professor ,hffding's ethics is solely directed against his definition of welfare as a continuous state of pleasurable feelings4 ,welfare is according to my terminology that state of things which is in accord with the natural law of ethics1 and it so happens that welfare must as a rule not only be bought1 but also constantly maintained with many pains1 troubles1 anxieties1 and sacrifices4 ,it is true that upon the whole there may be a surplus of happiness and of satisfaction1 if not of pleasures2 but the surplus of happiness 7important though it is7 does not constitute that which is morally good in welfare4 ,morally good 7the characteristic feature of the ethical idea of welfare7 is that which is in accord with the natural law of ethics4 ,if the term utility were defined by ,utilitarians in the sense in which ,i define welfare1 ,i should also have no objection to utilitarianism4 ,the ,utilitarians1 however1 define their theory as the ,greatest ,happiness ,principle1 and if useful is taken in its ordinary sense as that which is profitable or advantageous1 it makes of utilitarianism an ethics of expediency4 ,,iv4 ,,feelings ,,and ,,judgments4 ,the fundamental difference between ,professor ,hffding and myself1 and as it seems to me his 1 lies in his definition of ethical judgments4 ,he says3 ,ethical judgments1 judgments concerning good and bad1 in their simplest form are expressions of feeling1 and never lose that character however much influence clear and reasoned knowledge may acquire with respect to them4 ,i am very well aware of the fact that all thinking beings are first feeling beings4 ,thought cannot develop in the absence of feeling4 ,without feeling there is no thought2 but thought is not feeling1 and feeling is not thought4#aca ,by thought ,i understand the operations that take place among representative feelings1 and the essential feature of these feelings is not whether they are pleasurable or painful1 but that they are correct representations4 ,judgments are perhaps the most important mental operations4 ,there are logical judgments1 legal judgments1 ethical judgments1 etc4 ,in none of them is the feeling element of mental activity of any account4 ,that which makes of them judgments is the reasoning or the thought-activity4 ,whether a judgment is correct or not does not depend upon the feeling that may be associated with it1 but it depends upon the truth of its several ideas and the propriety of their connection4 #aca ,see the chapter ,the ,nature of ,thought in ,the ,soul of ,man1 p4 #ced4 ,a judgment1 be it logical1 juridical1 ethical1 or any other1 is the more liable to be wrong1 the more we allow the feeling element to play a part in it4 ,judgments swayed by strong feelings become biassed2 they can attain to the ideal of truth only by an entire elimination of feeling4#acb #acb ,professor ,hffding says3 ,the feeling of pleasure is the only psychological criterion of health and power of life4 ,every physician knows the insufficiency of this criterion4 ,many consumptives declare that they feel perfectly well even a few hours before their death4 ,ethics in which the feeling element is the main spring of action1 is called sentimentalism4 ,sentimental ethics have no more right to exist than a sentimental logic or a sentimental jurisprudence4 ,the philosophy of ,clrchen in ,egmont appears to be very strong sentimentalism1 and ,i do not believe that her demeanor can be set up as an example for imitation4 ,her love happiness is an intoxication4 ,she vacillates between two extremes1 now himmelhoch jauchzend and now zum ,tode betrbt1 and her life ends in insanity4 ,to consider ethical or any other judgments as feelings1 and to explain their nature accordingly1 seems to me no better than to speak of concepts as consisting of vowels and consonants1 and to explain the nature of conceptual thought from the sounds of the letters4 ,we cannot speak without uttering sounds1 but the laws of speech or of grammar have nothing to do with sound and cannot be explained in terms of sound4 ,when we think and judge1 we are most assuredly feeling1 but the feeling is of no account1 and whether the feeling is pleasurable1 or painful1 or indifferent1 has nothing to do whatever with the correctness or the ethical value of judgments4 ,v4 ,,pleasure ,,and ,,pain4 ,it is very strange that1 so far as ,i am aware1 no ethicist who bases ethics upon the ,happiness ,principle has ever investigated the nature of pleasure and pain4 ,it is generally assumed that pleasure is an indication of growth and pain of decay1 but it has never been proved1 and after a careful consideration of this theory ,i have come to the conclusion that it is based upon an error4 ,growth is rarely accompanied with pleasure and decay is mostly painless4 ,optimistic philosophers look upon pleasure as positive and pain as negative1 while the great pessimist ,schopenhauer turns the tables and says pleasure is negative and pain positive4 ,an impartial consideration of the subject will show that both pleasure and pain are positive4 ,pain is felt whenever disturbances take place1 pleasure is felt whenever wants are satisfied1 and unsatisfied wants are perhaps the most prominent among the disturbances that produce pain4#acc #acc ,see the chapter ,pleasure and ,pain in ,the ,soul of ,man1 p4 #cch4 ,professor ,hffding says3 ,i agree with ,dr4 ,carus that this world of ours is not a world suited to the taste of a pleasure-seeker1 if we understand by pleasure passive sensual enjoyment1 an enjoyment which is not united with the rest and nourishment with which not only an immediate pleasurable feeling is connected1 but whereby power is also gathered for continued endeavor4 ,when ,i say that this world of ours is not a world suited to the taste of the pleasure-seeker1 ,i do not restrict the meaning of pleasure to passive sensual enjoyment1 but to all kinds of pleasure4 ,there are also intellectual and artistic voluptuaries who sacrifice anything1 even the performance of duty1 to their pleasure1 which ,i grant is far superior to any kind of passive sensual enjoyment4 ,the pursuit of pleasure is not wrong in itself2 but it is not ethical either4 ,ethics in my opinion has nothing to do either with my own pleasures or with the pleasures of anybody else4 ,the object of ethics is the performance of duty2 and the main duty of man is the performance of that which he needs must do according to the laws of nature1 to let his soul grow and expand1 and to develop to ever higher and nobler aims4 ,,vi4 ,,pleasurable ,,feelings ,,as ,,an ,,ethical ,,criterion4 ,i know of a ,french teacher who has an excellent ,french pronunciation and speaks with perfect accuracy1 but whenever he is asked to give a rule which may serve as a guide and a help to correct grammer and elocution1 he says3 ,the chief rule in ,french is euphony4--,exactly6 ,but the same rule holds good in a certain sense for all languages4--,o no1 he says1 the ,german is harsh and the ,english is tongue-breaking2 only in ,french is the supreme law euphony4--,now for instance1 we venture to object1 you say la harpe and not l'arpe2 you pronounce the ai different in different words you say j'ai1 but you say il fait and you have again a different pronunciation of the ai in nous faisons4 ,he replies1 ,to pronounce j'a1 or as the ,germans say cha would be barbarous4 ,to say l'arpe1 instead of la harpe is simply ridiculous4--,the question is1 we continued in our attempts to understand him1 what is euphonious to the ear of an educated ,frenchman8--,well1 he says1 the ear will tell you4 ,that which jars on the ear is wrong4 ,to say quat' instead of quatre1 or vot' instead of votre1 is wrong1 it is vulgar4 ,why8 it jars on the ear4 ,this method of teaching ,french appears to me a good illustration of our objection to the happiness principle of ethics4 ,it is perfectly true that instances of immorality jar on the feelings of ethically trained minds4 ,why8 ,they have become accustomed to them and look upon them as barbarous4 ,ungrammatical expressions and such pronunciations as do not agree with the spirit of a language are suppressed by those who recognise them as incongruous elements4 ,mistakes jar on their ears because they are incorrect1 but they are not incorrect because they jar4 ,oatmeal is a favorite dish among the ,scotch4 ,if you ask them why they eat it1 they will most likely tell you1 because it has an agreeable taste4 ,but why do they like it8 ,because they have through generations grown accustomed to a dish which is conducive to health4 ,most of the dishes that are wholesome have an agreeable taste to a non-corrupted tongue4 ,but agreeable taste for that reason cannot be considered as the supreme rule in selecting our menu4 ,agreeable taste is in cases of sickness a very unreliable guide and it is no criterion for a wholesome dinner4 ,surely the ethics of eating could not be based on agreeable taste4 ,the pleasurable feeling that is perceived in the satisfaction of hunger through appropriate food or in the satisfaction of any want1 is not the bedrock of fact to which we can dig down2 it is in itself a product of custom1 of inherited habits1 and other circumstances2 and it can the less be used as a criterion because it varies greatly with the slightest change of its conditions4 ,liberty is generally and rightly considered as a good1 even though the slave may have and very often actually has enjoyed more happiness than the freed man4 ,stupidity is considered as an evil1 although it inflicts no direct pains and may be the source of innumerable pleasures insipid in the view of others1 but delightful to the jolly fool4 ,professor ,hffding quotes from ,waitz that the ,indian does not progress because he lives a happy life4 ,unhappiness is the cause of progress4 ,we look down upon the ,fuegians and upon the indolent ,south ,american tribe described by ,humboldt4 ,but have they not reached the aim of ethics1 if happiness be that aim8 ,professor ,hffding says in explanation of their condition3 ,that which would make such a life unendurable for us1 the strong desire for activity1 development1 and progress1 this desire does not exist at such stages4 ,if that is so1 our strong desire for activity should be denounced as the source of evil4 ,it would be ethical in that case1 as some labor unions and trusts actually propose1 to stop1 or at least1 to impede further progress4 ,the attempt of the ,jesuits in ,paraguay1 which to some extent was an unequivocal success1 to rule the people through a spiritual dependence satisfying all their wants and keeping them in perfect contentment1 cannot be condemned from that principle of welfare which defines welfare as a continuous state of pleasurable feelings4 ,i can see how a man can be induced to submit to a moment of pain in order to escape more pain in the future1 but ,i cannot see on what ground one man can be requested to sacrifice himself to suffer pain or to forego his pleasures in order that a dozen or a hundred men may have a jolly time4 ,it appears to me that a greater error has never been pronounced than that of making the greatest happiness of the greatest number the maxim of ethics4 ,for the same reason that prevents us from regarding the principle of happiness as the aim of ethics or as its test and criterion1 we cannot consider self-humiliation1 contrition1 misery1 and the abandonment of gayety and merriness as moral or meritorious4 ,joy and grief are in themselves as little wrong as they are virtuous4 ,any ethics the end of which is a morose austerity1 simply because it makes life dreary1 is at least as much mistaken as a philosophy which finds the purpose of life in mere pleasure1 be it ever so vain1 simply because it is pleasure4 ,to pursue happiness or renounce it1 either may sometimes be moral and sometimes immoral4 ,again1 to undergo pain and to inflict pain on others1 or to avoid pain1 either may also be moral or immoral4 ,the criterion of ethics will not be found in the sphere of feelings4 ,morality cannot be measured by and it cannot be expressed in pleasures and pains4 ,,vii4 ,,the ,,superindividual ,,and ,,society4 ,professor ,hffding criticises my view of that superindividual soul-life which we call society1 as based upon a mystical personification of society4 ,the superindividual motives of the human soul as ,i use the term1 are actual realities1 they are no less actual and concrete than are the image and the concept of a tree in my brain4 ,i have sufficiently explained their origin and natural growth 7,ethical ,problem1 pp4 #cd-dd71 and feel that ,professor ,hffding's charge rests upon a misunderstanding4 ,it appears to me that his term sympathy1 which he regards as the main element of ethical feelings leading to the adoption of the principle of general welfare1 is much more liable to be interpreted in a mystical way4 ,at least ,schopenhauer's idea of sympathy 7which he calls ,mitleid7 is undoubtedly a very mysterious thing1 and its existence is supposed to be a direct manifestation of the metaphysical4 ,i do not say that ,professor ,hffding uses the word sympathy in the sense of ,schopenhauer's idea of ,mitleid1 but ,i am sure that if he attempts to explain its natural origin1 he will 7in order to remain positive and scientific7 have to go over the same ground and arrive at the same conclusion as ,i did1 although he may express himself in different words4 ,the truth is that man's ideas consist in representations of things and of relations without him1 and these ideas are not the product of his individual exertions alone1 they are the product of social work and of the common activity and intercourse of human society4 ,this is true of language as a whole and of every single word which we use4 ,this is true of all conceptual thought and most so of all ethical impulses4 ,in spite of all individualism and in spite of the truth that lies in certain claims of individualism as to personal liberty and freedom of self-determination1 ,i maintain that there is no individual in the sense of a separate ego-existence4 ,that which makes of us human beings is the product of social life4 ,i call the ideas and the impulses naturally developing in this way1 superindividual1 and if we could take them out of the soul of a man1 he would cease to be a man4 ,what is man but an incarnation of mankind6 ,social intercourse and common work produce the superindividual ideas and impulses in man1 and these superindividual ideas and impulses in their action constitute the life of society4 ,this view is not a mystical personification of society under the simile of an organism1 but it is a description of certain facts in the development of the human soul4 ,society is not an aggregation of individuals1 it is constituted by the superindividual element in the souls of individual men4 ,the number of people in a society is for ethical purposes unessential4 ,professor ,hffding accordingly makes an unimportant feature prominent1 when he says3 ,the idea of society1 if it is to be scientifically employed1 must always be so applied that at every point the definite group of individuals which it represents may be established4 ,if the greatest happiness of the greatest number among a definite group of individuals constitutes the morality of an act1 would not the man who falls among thieves be under the moral obligation to renounce his property because the robbers constitute the majority8 ,if we leave the superindividual element out of sight1 we shall naturally fall into the error of counting the individuals and deciding right and wrong by majority votes4 ,the pleasure of a majority however does not constitute justice1 and the greatest happiness of the greatest number is no criterion of that which is to be considered as morally good4 ,society in the sense of a mere number of individuals will by and by create but does not constitute morality2 nor can the majority of a society propose a criterion4 ,the nature of moral goodness is not a matter of number nor of size nor of quantity4 ,it must be sought in the quality of our ideas and motives4 ,moral are those ideas which tend to build up the life-totality of our souls so as to engender more and more of mankind in man1 or still broader expressed1 so as to keep man in harmony with the whole cosmos--with ,god4 ,,viii4 ,,the ,,policy ,,of ,,the ,,ethical ,,societies4 ,professor ,hffding considers it perfectly justified that the leaders of the ethical societies keep these institutions as independent as possible not only of all dogmatic tendency of thought but also of all unnecessary philosophical hypotheses and speculations4 ,so do we1 for we object to dogmas1 to hypotheses1 and mere speculations4 ,we consider the era of dogmatic religion as past1 and trust in the rise of a religion based on truth1 i4 e4 a natural and cosmical religion which stands on facts verifiable by science4 ,every religion1 be it ever so adulterated by superstitions which as a rule1 the less tenable they appear1 are the more tenaciously defended as infallible dogmas--contains in its world-conception at least the germ of becoming a cosmical religion4 ,the development of all religions aims at one and the same goal1 namely the recognition of the truth and the aspiration to live accordingly4 ,those religions which remain faithful to this spirit of the religious sentiment will survive2 they will drop the errors of dogmatic belief1 they will free themselves of the narrowness of sectarianism and develop the cosmic religion of truth--of that one and sole truth which need not shun the light of criticism and which is at one with science4 ,we do not object to the ethical societies that they have no dogmas and that they do not identify themselves with a special philosophy2 we object solely to their proposition to preach ethics without having a religion1 or without basing ethics upon a conception of the world4 ,and why do we object8 ,simply because it is impossible to preach ethics without basing it upon a definite view of the world1 for ethics is nothing more or less than the endeavor to act according to a certain conception1 to realise it in deeds4 ,can you realise in deeds a conception without having any8 ,can you live the truth without knowing the truth8 ,you must at least have an instinctive inkling of what the truth is4 ,mr4 ,salter separates the domains of ethics and science4 ,he does not believe that ethics can be established on science1 for he declares that science deals with facts1 i4 e4 that which is1 while ethics deals with ideals1 i4 e4 that which ought to be4 ,we have to believe in ethics if we believe in them at all1 ,mr4 ,salter says1 not because they have the fact on their side but because of their own intrinsic attractiveness and authority4#acd ,this reminds me of one of ,goethe and ,schiller's ,xenions in which the ,german poets criticise the one-sided positions of enthusiasts 7,schwrmer7 and philistines3 #acd ,what ,can ,ethics ,do ,for ,us1 p4 #e4 ,by ,w4 ,m4 ,salter4 ,c4 ,h4 ,kerr1 ,chicago1 #ahia4 ,had you the power1 enthusiasts1 to grasp your ideals completely1 ,certainly you would revere ,nature4 ,for that is her due4 ,had you the power philistines1 to grasp the total of ,nature1 ,surely your path would lead up to th' idea's domain4 ,ideals have no value unless they agree with the objective world-order which is ascertained through inquiry into the facts of nature4 ,ideals whose ultimate justification is intrinsic attractiveness and whose authority is professedly not founded on reality but on rapt visions of transcendental beauty1 must be characterised as pure subjectivism4 ,they are not ideals but dreams4 ,the ethical societies have as yet--so far as ,i am aware of--not given a clear and definite definition of good4 ,professor ,adler treats this question with a certain slight4 ,concerning the facts of moral obligation he believes in a general agreement among good men and women everywhere4 7,the italics are ours47 ,the ,open ,court 7in ,no4 #adj7 has challenged the ,ethical ,societies1 saying that we should be very much obliged to the ,ethical ,record1 if it would give us a simple1 plain1 and unmistakable definition of what the leaders of the ethical movement understand by good1 i4 e4 morally good4 ,but this challenge remained unanswered4 ,it will appear that as soon as good is defined not in tautologies1#ace but in definite and unmistakable terms1 the conception of good will be the expression of a world-conception4 ,is it possible to do an act which is not expressive of an opinion8 ,and if an act is not expressive of a clear opinion1 it is based upon an instinctive1 an unclear1 and undefined opinion4 ,when the ethical societies declare that they do not intend to commit themselves to religious or philosophical views1 they establish an anarchy of ethical conviction4 ,religion1 as we have defined it1 is man's inmost and holiest conviction1 in accord with which he regulates his conduct4 ,the ethical societies implicitly declare that we can regulate our conduct without having any conviction4 #ace ,it is obvious that such definitions as good is that which produces welfare are meaningless1 so long as we are not told what it is that makes a certain state well faring or well being4 ,is not an ethical society without any definite convictions upon which to base its ethics like a ship without a compass in foggy weather8 ,the attitude of the ethical societies in not committing themselves to any religious or philosophical view is after all--and how can it be otherwise8--a palpable self-delusion1 for their whole policy bears unmistakably a definite and characteristic stamp4 ,the leaders of the ethical societies will most likely repudiate my interpretation of their position1 because it appears to me that they are not clear themselves concerning the philosophical basis upon which they stand and thus 7as ,i am fully aware7 many contradictory features appear by the side of those which ,i should consider as most significant4 ,,ix4 ,,professor ,,adler',s ,,position4 ,professor ,adler is the founder of the ,ethical ,societies1 he is their leader1 and however much ,mr4 ,salter1 ,dr4 ,coit1 ,mr4 ,sheldon1 and ,mr4 ,weston may disagree from him in minor matters1 his views are decisive in the management1 and the policy of the whole movement depends on him4 ,through his indefatigable zeal in the holy cause of ethics1 his unflinching courage in the defense of what he regards as right1 his energetic devotion to his ideals1 and through the influence of his powerful oratory he has made the ethical societies what they now are4 ,he determines their character and he is the soul of the whole movement4 ,now it is true that ,professor ,adler has never presented us with a systematic philosophy1 but all his activity1 his speeches1 his poems1 and the plans of his enterprises represent a very definite philosophical conception1 which1 to give it a name1 may briefly be called ,kantian ,agnosticism4 ,professor ,adler is an agnostic1 although not after the pattern of ,spencer or ,huxley4 ,his agnosticism has been impressed upon his mind by ,kant4 ,i expect that ,mr4 ,adler will repudiate the name of agnostic1 and it is quite indifferent with what name he may characterise his views4 ,his position remains the same1 whatever name he may choose to call it1 if he chooses any2 and he will choose none for he is too consistent an agnostic to define his position by a name4 ,it devolves upon me to prove my assertion and ,i hope to be able to do so4 ,professor ,adler looks upon ethics as something which lies outside the pale of human knowledge4 ,he says in one of his lectures3 ,and now one point more of utmost importance4 ,if there be an existence corresponding to our highest idea1 as we have said there is1 yet we know not what kind of existence that may be 444 why then should we speak of it at all1 why should we try to mention in words an existence which we cannot know8 ,i will answer why4 ,because it is necessary to remind mankind constantly that there is an existence which they do not know4444 ,because otherwise the sense of mystery will fade out of human lives4444 ,is the sense of mystery really a necessary element in human lives to make men aware of the grandeur of the universe4 ,is there no holiness in clearness of thought1 and is ethics only sacred if it is surrounded with the hazy halo of an unknowable transcendentalism8 ,if our moral ideal does not come by the special revelation of ,god1 as the dogmatic religions maintain1 and if we cannot find it in nature1 if it is beyond the ken of human cognition1 if it is unascertainable by science1 whence does it come8 ,professor ,adler says3 ,we must1 indeed1 be always on our guard1 lest we confuse the idea of the ,perfect with notions of the good derived from human experience4 ,this has been the mistake of theology in the past1 the point wherein every theodicy has invariably broken down4 ,when we think of the ,perfect we think of a transcendental state of existence1 when we think of the moral law in its completeness we think of a transcendental law1 a law which can only be wholly fulfilled in the regions of the ,infinite1 but which can never be fully realised within the conditions of space and time4 ,the formula of that law when applied to human relations1 yields the specific moral commandments1 but these commandments can never express the full content1 can never convey the far off spiritual meanings of the supreme law itself4 ,the specific commandments do1 indeed1 partake of the nature of the transcendental law1 they are its effects4 ,the light that shines through them comes from beyond1 but its beams are broken as they pass our terrestrial medium1 and the full light in all its glory we can never see4 ,in this passage ,i believe to recognise the influence of ,kant's transcendentalism4 ,i differ from ,professor ,adler's conception of ,kantian transcendentalism1 but that is of no account here4 ,one point only is of consequence4 ,professor ,adler uses the word transcendental in the sense of transcendent and thus he changes the ethics of pure reason into mysticism4 ,professor ,adler says3 ,though ,i can never be scientifically certain1 ,i can be morally sure that the mystery of the universe is to be read in terms of moral perfection4 ,i do not deny that moral instinct ripens quicker than scientific comprehension4 ,why8 ,because in a time when science is not as yet so far advanced as to understand the operations of the moral law1 those people who instinctively obey the rules that can be derived from the moral law1 will survive and all the rest will go to the wall4 ,but the fact that we can have a reliable moral guide in an instinctive certainty which is generally called conscience1 even before we attain to scientific clearness1 does not prove that science will be forever excluded from the world of moral ideals4 ,professor ,adler's agnosticism found a very strong expression in a poem which resembles in its tone and ideas the church hymns of the ,new ,jerusalem4 ,the poem is very unequivocal on the point that moral action is comparable to building an ideal city1 the plan of which is unknown to the builders4 ,professor ,adler says3 ,have you heard the ,golden ,city ,mentioned in the legends old8 ,everlasting light shines o'er it1 ,wondrous tales of it are told4 ,only righteous men and women ,dwell within its gleaming wall2 ,wrong is banished from its borders1 ,justice reigns supreme o'er all4 ,do you ask1 ,where is that ,city1 ,where the perfect ,right doth reign8 ,i must answer1 ,i must tell you1 ,that you seek its site in vain4 ,you may roam o'er hill and valley1 ,you may pass o'er land and sea1 ,you may search the wide earth over1-- ',t is a ,city yet to be6 ,we are builders of that ,city1-- ,all our joys and all our groans ,help to rear its shining ramparts2 ,all our lives are building-stones4 99 99 99 99 99 ,what that plan may be we know not4#acf ,how the seat of ,justice high1 ,how the ,city of our vision ,will appear to mortal eye1-- ,that no mortal eye can picture1 ,that no mortal tongue can tell4 ,we can barely dream the glories ,of the ,future's citadel4 #acf ,the italics are ours4 ,how great an importance is attributed to this song by the leaders of the ethical movement may be learned from ,mr4 ,salter's opinion of it4 ,mr4 ,salter says in criticising ,unitarianism3 ,not from ,unitarianism1 not from ,christianity1 has come the song that best utters and almost chants this thought of an ideal fellowship4 ,it is from ,felix ,adler1 upon whom1 ,i sometimes think1 more than upon any other man of our day1 the mantle and prophetic spirit of ,channing have fallen1 and whose words1 ,i almost believe1 are those which ,jesus himself would utter1 should he come and put his solemn thought and passion into the language of to-day4 ,agnosticism is in our opinion no sound basis upon which to erect ethics4 ,the unknowable is like quicksand1 it gives way under our feet4 ,the ethics of agnosticism must necessarily become mysticism4 ,the ethereal dreams of mysticists need no solid basis1 they hover in the air4 ,mr4 ,spencer who for some reason or other tried to escape the consequences of his agnosticism in the ethical field1 adopted ,utilitarianism1 basing his moral maxims not upon the unknowable1 as consistency would require1 but upon the principle of the greatest happiness for the greatest number4 ,professor ,adler is not a ,spencerian agnostic and here lies the strength of his ethics4 ,although he does not attain to a clear and scientific conception of the origin and natural growth of morality1 he sounds no uncertain voice with regard to the ,happiness ,principle4 ,he has on several occasions1 like his great master ,kant1 uncompromisingly rejected any ,hedonism or ,eudmonism4 ,among all societies aspiring to foster moral ideals1 the societies for ethical culture are distinguished for their seriousness and ardor2 and there can be no doubt about the cause3 it is the spirit of ,professor ,adler's zeal not to give way to a hedonistic conception of ethics4 ,x4 ,,the ,,unity ,,of ,,the ,,ethical ,,problem4 ,we conclude4 ,although the ethical problem can and must be split up in innumerable different problems1 we should never lose sight of its unity4 ,our age is a period of specialisation1 of a division of labor and of detail work4 ,this is true4 ,but the more will it be necessary to survey the whole field and keep in mind the unity of which all piecemeal efforts are but parts4 ,as soon as we lose sight of the unity in a certain system of problems1 we are most liable to drop into inconsistencies4 ,this is true of all things1 of every science in particular1 and of philosophy1 the science of the sciences1 also4 ,it is no less true of ethics4 ,we cannot engage1 with any hope of success1 in any of the diverse ethical questions unless we have first solved the ethical problem4 ,,editor4 ,,on ,,thought ,,and ,,language4 ,a ,,lecture ,,delivered ,,before ,,the ,,philosophical ,,society ,,of ,,glasgow1 ,,on ,,jan4 #ba1 #ahia4 ,it seems impossible to many people to look upon language as anything but an instrument of thought4 ,in one sense this is perfectly true4 ,we think by means of words1 just as we see by means of eyes1 and hear by means of ears1 and walk by means of legs4 ,but could we walk without our legs1 or see without our eyes8 ,we can walk with artificial legs1 no doubt1 and so we can think and speak in foreign languages1 and in every kind of artificial sign-language4 ,but as artificial legs presuppose natural legs1 foreign and artificial languages presuppose our own natural language4 ,when we speak of instruments we mean generally such things as knives with which we cut1 or pens with which we write4 ,they are instruments which are useful1 but they are not indispensable1 and can be replaced by other instruments4 ,this does not1 however1 apply to eyes1 ears1 or language1 and in order to mark that distinction the former are generally called instruments1 the latter organs4 ,now1 if we call language the organ of thought1 we1 no doubt1 admit that we can distinguish between the organon1 that which works1 and the ergon1 i4 e4 the work which it performs4 ,but it does by no means follow that therefore the ergon could ever exist without the organon4 ,we can easily distinguish between the act of spoken thought and the organ of spoken thought1 but it does by no means follow that therefore the act of spoken thought could ever exist without the organ of spoken thought4 ,it may seem unfair in this argument to call thought spoken thought4 ,it looks like begging the whole question4 ,but it really is not so4 ,by calling thought spoken thought1 we only supply a deficiency of our modern languages4 ,if we were ,greeks1 we should use the simple word ,logos1 and instead of begging the question1 we should show that our proposition is1 really self-evident1 or1 it may be1 even tautological1 namely that logos is impossible without logos4 ,here we can see at once how intimately thought is connected with language1 how it is dependent on it1 or1 more correctly1 how inseparable the two really are4 ,if1 like the ,greeks1 we had a word such as logos1 we should probably never have doubted that what we call speech and thought are but two sides of the same thing4 ,and the same lesson is taught us again and again1 if only we are inclined to listen to it4 ,suppose we had no such word as matter1 would not our whole system of thought be different8 ,matter is not an object1 perceived by our senses4 ,we may even go further and say that matter by itself never exists4 ,this or that matter exists1 chemical substances1 say1 gold or silver1 oxygen or hydrogen1 exist2 but matter1 which some philosophers look upon as the most certain and concrete of all things1 is simply an abstraction1 something that may be predicated of many things1 but that is never found by itself in rerum natur4 ,some people define matter as what is ponderable and impenetrable1 but here again1 nothing exists that is simply ponderable1 or impenetrable4 ,it is always something else2 it is iron1 wood1 stone1 vapor1 gas1 but never matter1 pur et simple4 ,it is clear1 therefore1 that matter is made by us1 and that without some such word as matter1 we could never have the faintest idea or concept of matter4 ,for how should we call it8 ,on the other hand1 it is equally clear that we could not have the word matter1 without the concept of matter4 ,for what would be the use of it8 ,now1 what follows from this apparent dilemma8 ,if the concept cannot be prior to the name and the name cannot be prior to the concept1 they must needs be simultaneous1 or1 more correctly1 they must be the same thing under two aspects4 ,from an historical point of view1 that is1 if we consider the genesis of words and concepts1 not in modern times1 but during that period when words and concepts were framed for the first time1 we are bound to admit that the word is really the prius4 ,that period may be ever so far distant1 but it was nevertheless a very real and truly historical period4 ,how did man arrive at such a word as matter8 ,the word itself tells its own story4 ,it came to us from ,french1 it came into ,french from ,latin4 ,in ,latin materies or materia still means wood and timber1 though it has also assumed the meaning of matter1 like the ,greek 1 which means both wood and matter4 ,the process by which materies came to mean matter is clear4 ,if materies meant originally the wood out of which a hut1 a table1 a chair1 or a stick was made1 it was naturally applied to other substances also1 such as stone1 bricks1 or metal when used in the making of huts1 tables1 chairs1 or sticks4 ,in the same way we speak of a pen1 i4 e4 a quill1 though we mean a steel pen4 ,when the original special meaning of wood thus disappeared1 there remained only the meaning of building material1 material1 and1 at last1 of matter and substance4 ,we say now1 ,what is the matter8 ,what does it matter8 but we little think of the solid beams out of which such expressions were hewn and fashioned4 ,in this sense1 therefore1 we may say that historically the word materies came first1 meaning a beam1 and that gradually it shed its various attributes1 one after the other1 till there remained nothing but its trunk1 and that is what we now mean by matter4 ,here1 therefore1 we see the process of generalisation which is very important1 particularly in the later periods of language and thought4 ,but it is the greatest mistake to suppose that language1 such as we know it1 what we might call historical language1 always begins with the particular and then proceeds to the general4 ,adam ,smith was one of the ablest defenders of the theory that the ,primum ,cognitum and the ,primum ,appellatum must have been the particular4 ,but all the facts of language are dead against this theory4 ,and yet1 that theory has once more been put forward by a philosopher who prides himself on nothing so much as that his philosophy rests throughout on positive facts4 ,i do not blame a philosopher who is ignorant of the results obtained by the ,science of ,language1 so long as he abstains from touching on the subject4 ,but constantly to appeal to language1 and yet to ignore what has been achieved by comparative philologists1 is unpardonable4 ,no one is a greater sinner in that respect than ,mr4 ,herbert ,spencer4 ,when speaking of the process by which the abstract idea of color was formed he says3#acg ',the idea of each color had originally entire concreteness given to it by an object possessing the color2 as some of the unmodified names1 such as orange and violet1 show us4 ,the dissociation of each color from the object specially associated with it in thought at the outset1 went on as fast as the color came to be associated in thought with objects unlike the first1 and unlike one another4 ,the idea of orange was conceived in the abstract more fully in proportion as the various orange-colored objects remembered1 cancelled one another's diverse attributes1 and left outstanding their common attribute4 ,so it is if we ascend a stage1 and note how there arises the abstract idea of color1 apart from particular colors4' #acg ,data of ,ethics1 p4 #abd4 ,now this is all untrue4 ,such names as orange and violet are some of the latest names of color4 ,they presuppose such late1 nay exotic1 concepts1 as orange and violet4 ,the question why an orange was called an orange1 and a violet a violet remains unasked and unanswered4 ,in the old names for black1 white1 red1 green1 and blue1 there is not a trace of ink1 or snow1 or blood1 or sea1 or sky4 ,they are all derived1 so far as we can analyse them at all1 from roots meaning to shine1 to grow1 to beat black and blue1 and not from oranges1 roses1 or violets4 ,again1 what can be the meaning of such a sentence as3#ach ',words referring to quantity furnish cases of more marked dissociation of abstract from concrete4 ,grouping various things as small in comparison either with those of their kind or with those of other kinds2 and similarly grouping some objects as comparatively great1 we get the opposite abstract notions of smallness and greatness4' ,does ,mr4 ,spencer really believe that we can call things small and great1 that our language can possess two adjectives expressive of these qualities1 and that yet at the same time we are without an abstract notion of smallness and greatness8 ,mr4 ,h4 ,spencer constantly calls on the facts of language1 to confirm his views1 but his facts are hardly ever correct4 ,for instance3 after having explained that1 according to his ideas1 greater coherence among its component motions broadly distinguishes the conduct we call moral from the conduct we call immoral1 he appeals to the word dissolute1 when meaning immoral1 as proving this theory4 ,but dissolutus in ,latin meant originally no more than negligent1 remiss4 ,dissolutio meant languor1 weakness1 effeminacy1 and then only licentiousness and immorality4 ,language1 therefore1 in no way confirms ,mr4 ,h4 ,spencer's speculations1 still less does experience1 for no man is so coherent in his acts1 so calculating1 so self-restrained1 as the confirmed criminal2 no one is often so careless1 so little shrewd1 so easily duped as the thoroughly moral and therefore trustful and confiding man4 #ach ,l4 c41 p4 #abe4 ,but to return to the history of the word for matter4 ,the process by which materies1 wood1 came to mean matter1 is intelligible enough1 whether we call it generalisation1 or abstraction4 ,but how came materies to mean wood8 ,that is the question which has to be solved1 and in solving it1 we shall find that while in the second period of thought-language the progress is from the particular to the general1 the progress in the first period is the reverse1 namely from the general to the particular4 ,in the case of materes this is very clear4 ,no one can doubt that in materies the radical element is m1 the derivatives ter and ies4 ,the radical element m is found in ,sanskrit m-tram1 measure1 m-nam1 measuring1 m-na-s1 a building2 in ,greek -1 measure2 in ,latin me-tare1 to measure4 ,we can hardly doubt that the oldest ,aryan name for mother also1 namely mtar1 ,greek 1 ,latin mater1 ,english mother1 is derived from that root1 though it is doubtful in what sense4 ,it may have meant originally no more than maker or fashioner1 and it is important to observe that in the ,veda the same word mtar1 occurs as a masculine and means maker1 and actually governs an accusative4 ,but it may also have meant arranger1 controller1 and mistress of all household affairs4 ,whatever its original intension was1 mtar soon became a mere name4 ,its etymological keynote was no longer audible1 and mtar meant mother and all that was implied in that name when used by children and others4 ,if we compare all the words which contain this m as their common element1 we can see that it meant originally to put two or more things together4 ,this led to two applications4 ,what we call measuring is really putting two things together1 one by the side of another1 to see how far they agree and how far they differ4 ,thus m took the special meaning of measuring1 in such words as ,greek and ,sanskrit mtram4 ,but to put together could also be used in the sense of joining1 carpentering1 building1 and making1 and this meaning we find in such words as 7,sanskrit7 mnas1 a building1 mti1 he measures1 he makes1 and likewise materies1 what has been fashioned1 what can be used for building a hut1 timber1 wood1 building material1 then any kind of material1 and at last matter1 substance in its most general acceptation4 ,you can see here very clearly the twofold process in the formation of words1 first1 from the general to the particular1--from measuring to wood1 and then from the particular to the general1 from timber to matter4 ,if you ask1 what is this syllable m which has the general meaning of measuring and making1 ,i can only answer1 ,we know1 and we do not know4 ,we know as a fact that it is the common element in a number of words1 which are differentiated by a number of derivative elements1 called suffixes1 prefixes1 and infixes1 but which can all be shown to share in common the general meaning of making and measuring4 ,these common elements have been called roots4 ,the question whether these roots ever existed by themselves1 and whether any language could ever have consisted of these roots1 is a foolish question4 ,for as soon as a root occurs in a sentence1 it is either a subject or a predicate1 a noun or a verb1 and it has ceased to be a mere root4 ,but on the other hand1 it is quite true that in certain languages1 as1 for instance1 in ,chinese there is no formal difference between a root and a word--there are no suffixes or prefixes4 ,but the strict rules of the collocation of words in every sentence make it quite clear whether a word is to be taken as a substantive1 a verb1 an adjective1 an adverb1 and all the rest4 ,by the same process by which we have reduced a number of words to the root m1 the whole dictionary of ,sanskrit1 and of ,english also1 in fact of all the ,aryan and likewise of the ,semitic languages1 has been reduced to a small number of roots4 ,given that small number of roots1 we undertake to account for the whole wealth of words in any language1 simply by means of derivation with suffixes and prefixes1 and by means of composition4 ,in all this we are dealing with fact1 facts which are as well ascertained as any facts in physical science4 ,making allowance for a small margin of words which have as yet resisted all attempts at etymological analysis1 we can state that the vast majority of words in ,sanskrit has been reduced to about #hjj roots4 ,in the progress of language whole families of words derived from some of these roots become extinct while others continue prolific and take their place4 ,the consequence is that the number of roots in ,english has dwindled down to #dfa1 while the sum total of words has risen to about #bej1jjj4 ,every one of these roots has a general or conceptual meaning1 such as striking1 pushing1 rubbing1 cutting1 bearing1 binding1 measuring1 building1 moving1 going1 falling1 and all the rest4 ,it often happens1 however1 that two or more roots have the same or nearly the same meaning1 and this explains why1 when we count the fundamental concepts expressed by our #hjj roots in ,sanskrit1 we find that they amount to no more than #aba4 ,i say again that in all this we are dealing with well ascertained facts4 ,the next step1 however1 leads us into the domain of theory4 ,if we are asked1 how these roots came into existence1 we may decline to answer the question as outside the limits of science4 ,a chemist would probably do the same1 if he were asked how the chemical elements came into existence4 ,in fact1 the students of the ,science of ,language have always taken their stand here and have treated roots as ultimate facts4 ,i ought to mention1 however1 two theories which1 though they have long been surrendered by students of the ,science of ,language still enjoy a certain popularity1 and commend themselves to many people by their extreme simplicity and plausibility4 ,the first consists in ascribing the roots of all languages to a direct communication from ,god4 ,it is impossible to refute such an opinion2 all we can say is that such a communication1 if we try to realise it in imagination1 would imply such a crude anthropomorphism that one naturally shrinks from entering into details4 ,the second consists in looking upon roots as imitations of the sounds of nature or as interjections4 ,here all we can say is that the experiment has been tried again and again1 and has failed4 ,every language contains a number of such words which are imitations of the sounds of nature or interjections4 ,no one can doubt of the origin of bow wow1 a dog1 or of pooh-poohing1 in the sense of rejecting4 ,but the great stock of words1 however1 cannot be accounted for by this easy process1 and no serious scholar would think of resuscitating what many years ago ,i described as the ,bow-wow and ,pooh-pooh theories4 ,but while the student of language seems to me to have a perfect right to treat the roots of language as ultimate facts1 it is difficult for the philosopher not to look beyond4 ,he cannot hope to do more than to suggest an hypothesis1 but if his hypothesis accounts for the few facts he has to deal with1 such an hypothesis is legitimate1 though1 no doubt1 it is very far from being an established truth4 ,the hypothesis which ,i suggested on the origin of roots1 was suggested to me by ,professor ,noir's hypothesis as to the origin of concepts4 ,my late friend1 ,professor ,noir1 was one of those who discovered difficulties where no one else saw them4 ,while most philosophers were satisfied with the fact that man possessed the power of forming1 not only percepts1 but concepts also1 while no trace of conceptual thought was found in animals1 ,noir subjected this power of forming concepts to a most minute psychological analysis1 and thus was brought face to face with the question1 what was1 from a psychogenetic point of view1 the real impulse to the formation of conceptual thought4 ,questions like this1 which to most people1 seem perfectly superfluous1 often mark the real progress in the history of philosophy4 ,logicians see no difficulty in explaining how1 either by addition or subtraction1 positively or negatively1 concepts are formed out of percepts4 ,white1 they say1 is either what snow1 milk1 and marble share in common1 or what remains if we drop from snow1 milk1 and marble all but their color4 ,the psychologist who looks upon the human mind as the result of an evolution1 whether in the individual or in the race1 asks1 not how1 but why such concepts should have been formed4 ,now ,professor ,noir showed1 as ,i thought1 with great sagacity1 that the first inevitable concepts arose from man's consciousness of his own repeated acts2 that nowhere in nature could we find a similar primitive and irresistible impulse to conceptual thought1 but that if the beginning had once been made1 there was no longer any difficulty in accounting for the further development of conceptual thought in all directions4 ,i call this no more than an hypothesis1 or1 if you like1 a guess1 and ,i do not see how in the regions in which we find ourselves1 we can expect anything more than an hypothesis4 ,but when one hypothesis1 like that of ,noir's1 harmonises with another hypothesis1 that was formed quite independently1 we cannot help seeing that the two lend each other powerful mutual support4 ,let us remember then that a most careful psychological analysis had led ,noir to the conclusion that the germs of all conceptual thought were to be found in the consciousness of our own repeated acts4 ,and let us place by the side of this1 the well-ascertained fact that the germs of all conceptual language1 what we call the roots1 express with few exceptions the repeated acts of men4 ,is not the conclusion almost inevitable that these two processes were in reality but two sides of one and the same process in the evolution of human thought and human language8 ,professor ,noir did not know of the linguistic fact1 when he arrived at his psychological conclusions4 ,i did not know of his psychological conclusions1 when ,i arrived at my linguistic facts4 ,but when ,i saw that by different roads we had both arrived at exactly the same point1 ,i thought that this could not be by an accident4 ,there remained1 however1 one more question to be answered1 and that question again could be answered hypothetically only4 ,how can we account for the sounds of the roots1 which we have recognised as the germs of conceptual thought and conceptual language8 ,why should1 for instance1 the concept of rubbing be expressed by ,,mar1 and that of tearing by ,,dar8 ,here again ,noir and others before him have pointed to the well-known fact that men1 when engaged in common acts1 find a relief in emitting their breath in more or less musical modulation4 ,it has therefore been supposed that our roots are the remnants of sounds which accompanied these acts1 and which1 being used1 not by one man only1 but by men acting in common1 were therefore intelligible to the whole community4 ,no one would dream of representing this theory of the origin of our conceptual roots as a well-ascertained historical fact4 ,it is and can only be an hypothesis4 ,but1 as such1 it fulfils all the requirements of a working hypothesis4 ,it explains all that has to be explained1 and it does not run counter to any facts1 or any well established theories4 ,it explains the sounds of our roots1 not as mere interjections1 which would be the signs of momentary feelings1 and not1 what we want1 the signs of our consciousness of a number of repeated acts as one action4 ,our roots are1 if we may venture to say so1 conceptual1 not interjectional sounds4 ,they are1 in fact1 exactly what1 according to ,noir's philosophical system1 the primary elements of language ought to be4 ,i do not say that this theory is the only possible theory of the origin of roots1 and therefore of language4 ,let a better theory be started1 and ,i shall be delighted to accept it4 ,but don't let us try to revive exploded theories1 unless there are new facts to support them4 ,i can only give you my own experience4 ,for many years ,i was satisfied to look upon roots as ultimate facts4 ,but when ,professor ,noir showed that the fundamental concepts of our thought must be concepts expressive of our own acts1 and when thereupon ,i went carefully through the list of our ,aryan roots and found that with few exceptions1 every one of them1 as a matter of fact1 expressed the ordinary acts of men in a simple state of civilisation1 ,i was driven to the conclusion that the primitive roots of ,aryan speech may owe their origin to the sounds which naturally accompany many acts performed in common by members of a family1 a clan1 or a village4 ,this would vindicate once more the conviction which ,i have always held that language was from the beginning conceptual1 and confirm the well-known statement of ,locke1 that 'the having of general ideas is that which puts a perfect distinction between man and brutes1 and is an excellency which the faculties of brutes do by no means attain to4' ,allow me in conclusion to say a few words on what ,i can hardly call a criticism1 but rather a misrepresentation1 or1 ,i ought perhaps to say1 a complete misapprehension of this theory of the origin of roots which appeared in a book lately published by ,professor ,romanes1 ,mental ,evolution in ,man1 as a continuation of an earlier work of his1 called ,mental ,evolution in ,animals4 ,my learned friend1 ,professor ,romanes1 labors to show that there is an unbroken mental evolution from the lowest animal to the highest man4 ,but he sees very clearly and confesses very honestly that the chief difficulty in this evolution is language and all that language implies4 ,he tries very hard to remove that barrier between beast and man4 ,for that purpose he devotes a whole chapter1 the thirteenth1 to a consideration of the roots of language1 and yet he says at the end of the chapter1 ,i wish in conclusion to make it clear that the matter--that is the question whether roots are imitations of sound or interjections--is not one which seriously affects the theory of evolution4 ,if it were so1 why should ,professor ,romanes have devoted a whole chapter to it8 ,but it is not my intention to argue this question with ,professor ,romanes1 but rather to show how difficult it is for any one1 not acquainted with the ,science of ,language1 even to apprehend the problems that have to be solved4 ,professor ,romanes is1 ,i believe1 a most eminent biologist1 and the mantle of ,darwin is said to have fallen on his shoulders4 ,far be it from me to venture to criticise his biological facts4 ,but we see in his case how dangerous it is for a man who can claim to speak with authority on his own special subject1 to venture to speak authoritatively on subjects not his own4 ,professor ,romanes has1 no doubt1 read several books on philology and philosophy1 but he is not sufficiently master of his subject to have the slightest right to speak of men like ,noir1 ,huxley1 ,herbert ,spencer1 to say nothing of ,hobbes1 with an air of superiority4 ,that is entirely out of place4 ,when he points out differences of opinion between philologists1 he does not even understand how they have arisen1 and he ought to know better than anybody else that mere difference of opinion between two competent scholars does not prove that both are wrong and can never be used to throw discredit on the whole science4 ,but as ,i said just now1 ,i am not going to argue with ,professor ,romanes because1 as he says himself 7p4 #bgf71 if ,i were right1 his whole theory would collapse4 ,i hope this is not the case1 but ,i feel sure that1 if it were1 ,professor ,romanes would only rejoice at it4 ,anyhow why introduce so much of the meum and tuum into these discussions8 ,if it could be proved that the ,aryas came from ,europe1 then1 no doubt1 the other theory that they came from ,asia1 would collapse4 ,but among serious students every such collapse would be greeted with gratitude1 and would be looked upon simply as a step in advance4 ,we are all fellow workers1 we all care for one thing only1 the discovery of truth4 ,it is in this spirit1 and without a thought of any collapse1 that ,i venture to point out a number of clear mistakes which occur on almost every page when ,mr4 ,romanes touches linguistic questions1 and which fully account for his not perceiving the true character of the evidence placed before us by the ,science of ,language4 ,on page #bfg he says that ,i profess1 as a result of more recent researches1 to have reduced the number of ,sanskrit roots to #aba4 ,i wish ,i had4 ,but the number of roots in ,sanskrit stands as yet at about #hjj2 the number #aba1 of which he speaks1 is the number of concepts expressed by these roots1 many of them conveying the same1 or nearly the same idea4 ,a root is one thing1 a concept quite another4 ,to confuse the two is like confusing thought and expression4 ,i thought ,i had made it quite clear1 that these #aba concepts1 conveyed by about #hjj roots1 are simply and solely the residue of a careful analysis of ,sanskrit1 and of ,sanskrit only4 ,i took particular care to make this clear4 ',they constitute the stock in trade1' ,i said1 'with which every thought that has ever passed through the mind of ,india1 so far as it is known to us in its literature1 has been expressed4' ,what can be clearer8 ,still ,professor ,romanes thinks it necessary to remark that 'these concepts do not represent the ideation of primitive man6' ,i never said they did4 ,i never pretended to be acquainted with the ideation of primitive man4 ,all ,i maintained was that1 making allowance for obscure words1 every thought1 that of the lowest savage as well as that of the most minute philosopher1 can be expressed with these #hjj roots1 and traced back to these #aba concepts4 ,i even hinted that the number of these concepts might be considerably reduced4 ,the question is not whether forms of activity1 such as to yawn1 to spew1 to vomit1 to sweat1 were of vital importance to the needs of a primitive community1 but whether they were known and therefore named1 in the early vocabulary of ,india4 ,if on the other hand some of these concepts1 such as to cook1 to roast1 to measure1 to dig1 to plat1 to milk1 betoken an advanced condition of life1 all we can say is that they would probably not occur in the dictionary of primeval savages1 wherever such a being can be found1 and that they do not profess to be the first utterances of the ,homo alalus1 whoever that may be4 ,immediately after this1 ,professor ,romanes dwells on what he calls the interesting feature of all roots being verbs4 ,this is simply a contradiction in terms4 ,in giving the meaning of roots scholars generally employ the infinitive or the participle1 to go1 or going1 but they have stated again and again that a root ceases to be a root as soon as it is used in a sentence1 either as a subject or as a predicate1 either as a noun or a verb4 ,all his arguments therefore that archaic words1 expressive of actions1 would have stood a better chance of surviving as roots than those which may have been expressive of objects1 are simply out of place4 ,the question whether verbs came first or nouns1 may be argued ad infinitum1 quite as much as the question whether the egg came first or the chicken4 ,every sentence requires a subject as well as a predicate4 ,if ,professor ,romanes approves of my saying that roots stood for any part of speech1 just as the monosyllabic expressions of children do1 ,i can only say that if ,i ever said so1 ,i expressed myself incorrectly4 ,a root never stands for any part of speech1 because as soon as it is a part of speech1 it is no longer a root4 ,after that1 ,professor ,romanes returns once more to his statement that the roots of ,aryan speech are not the aboriginal elements of language1 as first spoken by man4 ,why deny what has never been asserted8 ,i know nothing of the language as first spoken by man4 ,i say with ,steinthal1 ',who was present when the first sound of language burst forth from the breast of the first man1 as yet dumb8' ,all that we1 the students of language1 undertake to do is to take language as we find it1 to analyse it1 and to reduce it to its simplest component elements4 ,what we cannot analyse1 we leave alone4 ,the utmost we venture to do is to suggest an hypothesis as to the possible origin of these elements4 ,of the ,homo alalus1 the speechless progenitor of ,homo sapiens1 with whom ,professor ,romanes seems so intimately acquainted1 students of human speech naturally know nothing4 ,professor ,romanes assures us 7p4 #baa7 that the reducing of language to a certain small number of roots1 and the fact that all the roots of language are expressive of general and generic ideas1 yield no support whatever to the doctrine either1 that these roots were themselves the aboriginal elements of language1 or1 a fortiori1 that the aboriginal elements of language were expressive of general ideas4 ,he evidently does not see that we are speaking of two quite different things4 ,i am speaking of the facts of language1 he is speaking of the postulates of a biological theory which may be right or wrong1 but which certainly derives no support whatever from the ,science of ,language4 ,if1 like ,professor ,romanes1 we begin with the 'immense presumption that there has been no interruption in the developmental process in the course of psychological history1' the protest of language counts for nothing2 the very fact that no animal has ever formed a language1 is put aside simply as an unfortunate accident4 ,but to students to whom facts are facts1 immense presumptions count for nothing3 on the contrary they are looked upon as the most dangerous merchandise and most likely to lead to shipwreck and ruin4 ,instead of closing with these facts1 ,professor ,romanes tries to show that those who try to explain them are not always consistent4 ,that may be so1 and ,i should be sorry indeed if my latest views were not more advanced and more correct than those which ,i expressed forty years ago4 ,but very often where ,professor ,romanes sees inconsistency1 there is none at all4 ,speaking of roots in my ,science of ,thought1 ,i said3 ',although during the time when the growth of language becomes historical and most accessible1 therefore1 to our observation1 the tendency certainly is from the general to the special1 ,i cannot resist the conviction that before that time there was a pre-historic period during which language followed an opposite direction4 ,during that period1 roots beginning with special meanings1 7though1 of course1 always general in character7 became more and more generalised1 and it was only after reaching that stage1 that they branched off again into special channels4' ,the observation which ,i recorded in these words1 was simply this1 that a root meaning originally to yawn1 may in time assume the meaning of opening1 while during a latter period1 a root meaning to open1 may come to be used in the more special sense of yawning4 ,facts are there to prove this4 ,but whether a root expresses the act of yawning or opening1 it remains general and conceptual in either case1 though the intension of the concept may be smaller or larger4 ,where ,professor ,romanes sees inconsistency1 he only shows that he has not apprehended the drift of my remarks4 ,when all the facts of real language are against him1 ,professor ,romanes betakes himself to baby-language4 ,here he is safe1 and he knows quite well1 why ,i refuse to argue with him or any other philosopher either in the nursery1 or in the menagerie1 either about ,mamma and ,papa1 or about ',poor ,polly4' ,but if all he wants is to prove the possibility of onomatopia1 he could have found much ampler evidence in my own laboratory1 only with this restriction that1 after we have analysed these onomatopic words which in some languages are far more numerous than even ,professor ,romanes seems to be aware of1 we are only on the threshold of the real problem1 namely how to deal with real language1 that is1 with those conceptual words which cannot be traced back to natural sounds or interjections4 ,professor ,romanes appeals to philology in support of his theory1 and1 to use a favorite phrase of his own1 to philology let him go6 ,it was long considered an irrefragable proof in support of the onomatopic theory that thunder was called thunder4 ,people imagined they heard the rumbling noise of the clouds echoed in the sound of thunder4 ,however1 the word was taken to pieces by comparative philologists1 thunder was found out to be closely connected with the ,latin tonitru and the ,sanskrit tanyatu1 and there could be no doubt that these words were all derived from the root ,,tan1 to stretch1 from which the ,greek 1 stretching1 tension1 and tone4 ,thunder1 therefore1 was clearly shown to owe its origin to this root ,,tan1 in which there is very little trace of distant rumble4 ,but what does ,professor ,romanes do8 ,he appeals in his distress to ,archdeacon ,farrar1 who is reported to have said that the word thunder1 even if not originally onomatopic1 became so from a feeling of the need that it should be6 ,now1 this fairly takes away one's breath1 and ,i cannot believe that ,professor ,romanes could have used this argument seriously4 ,he begins by maintaining that words are formed by imitation of natural sounds4 ,he quotes thunder as a case in point4 ,he is told by comparative philologists that thunder is derived from a root ,,tan1 to stretch4 ,he does not attempt to deny this1 but he appeals to ,archdeacon ,farrar1 who says that the word became afterwards onomatopic1 from a feeling of the need that it should be so4 ,if that is not shirking the question1 ,i do not know what is4 ,suppose it were true that thunder had been supposed to be an imitation of a rumbling noise by those who1 like ,professor ,romanes1 are convinced that all words must be more or less onomatopic4 ,what in all the world has that to do with the real origin of the word8 ,we want to know how the word thunder came to be1 and we are told1 if it was not onomatopic1 it ought to have been so1 nay that by certain ignorant people it was supposed to be so4 ,this goes beyond the limits of what is allowed in any serious discussion4 ,but ,professor ,romanes attempts a still greater triumph in forensic adroitness1 when he suddenly turns round and declares himself altogether convinced by the theory proposed by ,noir and myself1 though at the same time placing it on a level with the ,bow-wow and ,pooh-pooh theories4 ,now the fact is1 that both ,noir and myself have been most anxious to show the fundamental difference between these two exploded theories and our own4 ,the theory which ,i1 for clearness' sake1 was quite willing to call the ,yo-he-ho theory1 is the very opposite of what ,noir called the ,synergastic theory4 ,those who appeal to words like thunder as derived from the rumbling sound in the clouds1 without any conceptual root standing between our conceptual word thunder and these unconceptual noises1 hold the ,bow-wow theory4 ,those who hold that fiend is derived direct from the interjection fie1 without any conceptual root standing between the unconceptual fie and the conceptual word fiend1 hold the ,pooh-pooh theory4 ,those who would derive to heave and to hoist from sounds like ,yo-he-ho would hold what may be called the ,yo-he-ho theory4 ,i have never denied that there are some words in every language which may be so explained4 ,but what similarity is there between these theories and our own8 ,we begin with the fact that the great bulk of a language consists of words1 derived1 according to the strictest rules1 not from cries1 but from articulate roots4 ,no one denies this4 ,we follow this up with a second fact1 that nearly all these roots express acts of men4 ,no one denies that4 ,we then propound an hypothesis that possibly the phonetic elements of these roots may be the remnants of utterances such as even now sailors make when rowing1 soldiers when marching1 builders in pulling and lifting1 and that as expressing originally the consciousness of such repeated acts1 performed in common1 these roots would fulfil what is wanted1 they would express conceptual thought1 such as beating1 cutting1 rubbing1 binding1 and all the other #aba concepts from which1 as a matter of fact1 all the words that fill our dictionaries have been derived4 ,those who cannot see the difference between a man1 or1 for all that1 between a mocking bird1 saying ,cuckoo1 and a whole community fixing on the sound of ,,tan1 as differentiated by various suffixes and prefixes1 and expressing the concept of stretching in such words as tonos1 tone1 tonitru1 thunder1 tanu1 tenuis1 thin1 should not meddle with the ,science of ,language4 ,observations1 for instance1 on the language of children1 or on what ,i call ,nursery psychology1 are very interesting and may be useful for other purposes4 ,but what have they to do with the problem of the origin of language8 ,the two problems1 how a child learns to speak ,english1 and how language was elaborated for the first time1 are as remote from each other as the two poles4 ,the one is perfectly clear1 though it may vary in different children4 ,no child makes its language1 it simply accepts what has been made4 ,what we are concerned with is1 how each word was originally made1 how the first impulse to speech was given1 what were the rough materials out of which words were shaped1 how words assumed different meanings by becoming specialised or generalised1 or by being used metaphorically--how1 in the end1 some words became purely formal1 and served as the grammatical articulations of human speech4 ,what has that to do with a child learning to say ,bread or ,milk1 or with a parrot learning to say ,poor ,polly8 ,we might as well try to study the geological stratification of the earth from watching the layers of a wedding-cake4 ,i know quite well that every philosopher1 when he becomes a father thinks that he may discover the origin of language in his nursery4 ,the books which owe their origin to these paternal experiments are endless4 ,but they have thrown hardly one ray of pure light on the dark problem of the origin and evolution of human speech4 ,that problem1 if it can be solved at all1 can only be solved by a careful analysis of language1 such as it exists in the immense varieties of spoken languages all over the globe4 ,this is the work which the ,science of ,language has carried out for nearly a century1 and which will occupy the minds of many students and philosophers for centuries to come4 ,f4 ,,max ,,mueller4 ,,literary ,,correspondence4 ,i4 ,some distinguished foreigners have called my attention to the ,manuals of ,moral and ,civic ,instruction which circulate in our schools1 thinking with reason that they mark perhaps the most important reform in public teaching4 ,there have been published in ,france a dozen or more during the last ten years or so4 ,the clerical party has thundered against these little books3 it had good reason for alarm1 for they aim at nothing less than to take the place of the catechism4 ,how do they replace it8 ,what is their inferiority1 or1 what their advantages8 ,what is their principle1 their disposition8 ,this can be sufficiently judged of by the five we have before us1 signed by names more or less known1 those of ,,paul ,,bert1 ,,pierre ,,laloi1 ,,charles ,,bigot1 ,,mme4 ,,henry ,,gr,,ville1 and ,,gabriel ,,compayr4#aci #aci ,paul ,bert1 ,l',instruction civique l'cole1 ,picard-,bernheim1 ,pub42 ,pierre ,laloi1 ,la premire anne d'instruction morale et civique1 ,armand ,colin1 ,pub42 ,charles ,bigot1 ,le petit ,franais1 ,weill et ,maurice1 ,pub42 ,mme4 ,henry ,grville1 ,instruction morale et civique des jeunes filles1 ,weill et ,maurice1 ,pub42 ,gabriel ,compayr1 ,elments d'instruction morale et civique1 ,paul ,delaplane1 ,pub4 ,the manuals of ,,mm4 ,paul ,bert and ,laloi1 are models of style3 the one in familiar1 easy dialogues2 the other in simple and clear precepts1 set off and illustrated by pleasant stories4 ,lists of questions facilitate the use of the book by the master4 ,the divisions or chapters relate to special subjects1--the military service1 taxes1 the fatherland1 the parliament1 the law1 the government1 etc4 ,so much as to the form2 let us look at the groundwork4 ,the catechism imparted general moral precepts which concerned the man1 and particular commands which concerned the ,christian4 ,our manuals also tend to form the man2 but in the man1 above all1 the good ,frenchman4 ,we find there glowing pages on the love of one's native land1 and on the beauty of one's country1 which we must love4 ,far be it from me to cast censure on this noble sentiment4 ,nevertheless1 ,i do not think exaggeration on that point is desirable1 lest we should seek a cause of patriotism even in the acknowledged superiority1 from a gastronomic point of view1 of the hare of ,france over the hare of ,germany6 ,our writers1 undoubtedly1 have too much tact to lay themselves open to this ridicule4 ,it is very striking1 though1 that the notion of the moral man considered as a ,frenchman1 ,german1 ,englishman1 or ,italian1 is narrower than that of the ,christian man3 this reversion into the folds of nationality is a characteristic phenomenon of our old world in this latter end of the century4 ,if our encyclopdists had hit on the idea of writing a laic catechism1 the tone of it would have been different4 ,our authors of to-day alas6 have only too much excuse to wish to form at first the little ,frenchman1 and to promote the reaction against a cosmopolitanism which had become dangerous to our national existence4 ,they have done it1 however1 with sufficient caution1 and without detriment to justice4 ,i shall not say as much for ,m4 ,paul ,bert1 in relation to his manual dedicated to the ,revolution4 ,still here1 undoubtedly1 it is necessary to make allowance for the political necessities of the present time4 ,but what a danger to sanctify at any cost the sanguinary epoch of our democracy2 what an error to date the ,french era from #aghi1 and to make our children believe that our fathers should have had hardly the sentiment of public virtue6 ,the worst is not that their young souls are thus embittered1 but that their judgment on the facts of history is falsified4 ,we are here only too much inclined to disregard the necessity of human evolution1 and to imagine that it suffices to change the label of the sack to improve the merchandise4 ,m4 ,bigot and ,m4 ,laloi1 at least1 have more wisdom1 more prudence in this respect4 ,the ambition of the catechism1 on another point1 seems to go beyond that of our manuals4 ,it offered an explanation of the world1 a complete conception of human destiny1 in a word1 a doctrine which returns into itself4 ,this doctrine holds no longer1 it is known nevertheless1 and it is necessary now to replace it4 ,unfortunately scientific morality has not yet found its formula in a practical book1 and the divergences of views are confessed in our manuals1 where the conception of a fundamental ensemble almost entirely fails4 ,it is sufficient to read the tables of contents to convince oneself of this4 ,the work of ,m4 ,compayr1 who addresses himself especially to the middle and higher grades1 changes suddenly in ,book ,,iii4 entitled ,la ,nature humaine et la morale4 ,what signifies the definition1 that morality is nothing more than the ensemble of the laws that nature has engraved in your soul before human legislators inscribed them in their codes8 ,what is doing here the vain affirmation of the existence of ,god and of the immortality of the soul1 and this let us contemplate and adore which sums it up8 ,in the mouth of ,m4 ,compayr it is only a concession and an avowal of infirmity4 ,a frank spiritualist will resolutely establish his moral conception on his belief2 but nominal deism causes ,god to play the rle of an ignominious personage who has no longer a suitable occupation on the scene4 ,after all is said1 however1 our manuals have the advantage over the catechism in the clearness of their definitions 7not all correct1 it is true7 and in the immediate value of the instruction4 ,for example1 ,m4 ,laloi gives information as to the placing out of money1 reproduces the formulas in use in the ordinary acts of life1 etc4 ,i should take care not to blame1 either this good practical sense1 or this manner of instructing the child according to his capacity to understand himself and understand the world which surrounds him4 ,in the modest articles of our little class-books1 is found summed up1 definitively1 the secular experience of human societies1 and this also has an aggregative value4 99 99 99 99 99 ,numerous are the works written among us by distinguished authors to introduce youthful minds into the various sciences4 ,the ,bibliothque utile already includes several1 and among them one of the best will always be the book of ,,adolphe ,,coste1 ,la ,richesse et le ,bonheur1#adj with which that library is about to enrich itself4 ,m4 ,coste has reproduced here1 in order to express them in a simple form1 the doctrines expounded in his large works4 ,but there is also contributed something new1 as to what he calls property1 for example4 ,the ,manuals of which ,i just spoke base all property on labor alone4 ,mme4 ,henry ,grville defines it a right1 based on the difficulty that any one has had in acquiring a thing4 ,it would be proper to add--and to save a thing1 in taking account of the more exact analysis made by ,m4 ,coste4 ,for if it is true that consumable goods are always due to labor in some manner1 it is no less true that productive capital1 can only be acquired by putting a part of these goods outside of the current consumption1 that is to say by saving something of that which one possesses4 ,saving is to-day the only regular source of accumulation of wealth2 it is one of the indispensable factors of property4 ,the usual definition sees only the other factor of wealth1 labor1 and opens thus the road to the dangerous sophism of which the workmen make a weapon1 when they claim that they alone ought to possess1 as they produce4 #adj ,publisher of the ,bibliothque utile1 ,f4 ,alcan4 ,let us quote the passage4 ,it is exact4 ,by his labor man takes possession of the fruits1 he enters into the enjoyment of his part of the product3 this is in some sort only a personal right which disappears at once with consumption4 ,but from the time that this man saves something from consumption and establishes capital1 he becomes a proprietor1 he acquires a social right4 ,fundamentally1 property is the public acknowledgment of the service rendered to the community by the increase of the productive capital 7p4 #be74 ,i will notice further1 in the work of ,m4 ,coste1 the difficulty that it describes1 and that greatly embarrasses economists1 of reconciling the value of labor1 due to individual effort1 with the value of exchange1 imposed by the general needs4 ,as to the relations between ,wealth and ,happiness1 he judges them intimate enough3 happiness resides chiefly1 according to him1 in activity1 which has for its principal forms the acquisition of wealth and the productive employment of wealth4 ,the question would appear undoubtedly more complex1 from the psychological point of view4 ,but we could very well content ourselves with this notion1 clear and sound1 of an economical happiness4 ,one has always pleasure in reading ,m4 ,coste1 because he has just ideas1 because he approaches questions of political economy as a naturalist and studies the facts in their evolution4 ,it is the best method for understanding the subject4 ,the deductive economists have never failed to deceive us4 ,i would wish in the public interest for numerous readers of treatises of this kind4 99 99 99 99 99 ,some day or other1 the occasion will present itself for us to speak somewhat fully of pedagogy4 ,certainly1 if the passion of magister was ever exaggerated1 it is in our day1 and1 through logic and principles1 it will become in time more difficult to make a little boy eat his porridge than to govern an empire4 ,in all that has been done1 ,i see some good1 but much evil2 ,i am afraid that little artificial prodigies will in time be produced1 and that we shall be given hot-house oranges instead of fine fruit ripened in full sunshine4 ,books follow books1 and mistakes succeed mistakes4 ,there is everywhere an embarrassment of talents1 scarcity of characters4 ,have the causes of it been unravelled and the remedy discovered8 ,in order to judge the results1 let us wait half a century6 ,m4 ,,eugene ,,maillet1 whose work--,l',education1 ,elements de psychologie de l'homme et de l'enfant applique la pdagogie--,i have formally to announce1#ada will readily excuse1 ,i hope1 this quarter of an hour's bad humor4 ,it is not from him that ,i take it1 and his work gives evidence of too much experience1 too much study1 that a high value should not be placed on it4 ,the present volume is only the first part of it2 the second part will have for its object education itself1 considered at first in its idea1 then in its various forms1--physical education1 education of the heart1 education of the mind1 education of the will and of the character1 finally in the general principles of logic and morality which ought to dominate it and without which the rules of a wisely graduated methodology or of a rational discipline cannot be established4 #ada ,belin frres1 ,publishers4 ,in these ,elements of ,psychology1 ,m4 ,maillet shows himself acquainted with new studies and methods4 ,it is regrettable only that he does not enter into them with sufficient freedom4 ,he has not consented to rid himself of the old terminology1 he preserves the outlines almost of spiritual psychology1 and appears even to seek in the affirmation of spiritualism the indispensable completion of a science of education4 ,his work will perhaps be better welcomed for it by the university public2 but we should have preferred1 for our part1 that he had remained less classic1 while retaining his entire freedom of criticism4 ,with this limitation we can recommend his work without mental reservation2 some portions of it are excellent1 and many readers will profit by consulting it4 ,it is written with order1 clearness1 and good sense4 99 99 99 99 99 ,here now is a curiosity1 the first number of the ,annales des sciences psychiques1 recueil d'observations et d'expriences1 appearing every two months1 founded under the patronage of ,m4 ,charles ,richet1 with ,m4 ,dr4 ,dariex as editor4#adb ,this magazine will publish ,observations relative to so-called occult facts1 telepathy1 lucidity1 presentiment1 objective apparitions1 etc4 ,experiences1--there can hardly yet be any question of them except in appearance2 ,m4 ,richet so avows with good grace in a letter forming an introduction1--a very curious letter1 rich in excellent advice which will perhaps not be sufficiently listened to1 and with a declaration of principle which has a chance of being far too much so4 #adb ,felix ,alcan1 ,publisher4 ,we have the firm conviction1 writes ,m4 ,richet1 in effect1 that there is1 mixed up with the known and described forces1 forces that we do not know2 that the simple1 vulgar mechanical explanation will not suffice to explain all that passes around us2 in a word1 that there are occult psychic phenomena1 and1 if we say 'occult1' it is a word intended to express simply what is unknown4 ,what is meant here by the word forces8 ,we are told for three hundred years electricity was an unknown force4 ,but it is always occult1 as force2 and if science is become positive1 it is because it has neglected the vain entity1 in order to see only a new group of empirical data1 a new series of facts1 that it is more or less easy to translate into unities of heat and of work4 ,what then would forces be subtracted from mechanics1 if not occult forces1 with chimerical functions8 ,the expression vulgar mechanics1 does not suffice to correct the sense of the phrase and rather aggravates it1 in allowing to be supposed that there exist two kinds of forces1 one of which has no measure4 ,but the comparison1 then1 is not worth anything1 and it is not necessary to speak of electricity or chemical affinity in this matter4 ,as to the observations1 of what value are such as are presented to us8 ,but little1 after all1 and many other facts will be necessary to lead us to accept the non-fortuitous relation of certain hallucinations with an objective event4 ,notwithstanding the wise reservations of the editor1 it is to be regretted that we find already in this first number1 under the title of ,une chambre hante1 a real ghost story4 ,story for story1 ,i would prefer much to read the ,chambre bleu of ,mrime2 so also1 ,i doubt not1 would ,m4 ,richet4 ,this little censure is not meant in jest1 which would be out of place4 ,there is always advantage in collecting facts1 on condition that they are chosen with care1 and that haste is not made to interpret them4 ,,mm4 ,richet and ,dariex insist on this point with the greatest force4 ,curious readers will not be wanting for these ,annals1 even among sceptics4 ,it has always been necessary to carry the lamp to cause the phantoms to vanish4#adc #adc ,reference may be made to the first number of the ,revue mensuelle de l',ecole d',anthropologie de ,paris1 published by the ,professors at the ,librairie ,alcan4 ,in this number will be found a lecture by ,m4 ,andr ,lefvre1 under this interesting title3 ,du ,cri la ,parole4 ,,lucien ,,arr,,at4 ,,ii4 ,,the ,,science ,,of ,,pedagogics ,,in ,,germany4 ,in view of the great care with which ,the ,monist cultivates psychology1 ,i may be permitted in my first letter1 consistently ,i judge1 to speak of the most important application of this science--its application namely to pedagogics4 ,psychological pedagogics1 in the true sense of the word1 exists with us in ,germany only since the days of ,j4 ,f4 ,herbart who abandoned the ancient psychological theory of the faculties and discovered in ideas the sole component elements of all psychical activity1 derived feelings and volitions from the interrelation and interoperation of ideas1 thus denied the absolute freedom which the possibility of formation of will1 or education1 excludes1 and upheld the determinability of the will by the ideas4 ,although ,herbart himself applied his system of psychology pedagogically1 yet it bore in the life-time of its author only scanty fruit in this direction4 ,psychological pedagogics was not developed beyond its original generality and unprofitableness of character until ,professor ,,stoy of ,jena and especially ,professor ,,ziller of ,leipsic took up1 with an energy that equalled their tact1 the practical construction of psychological pedagogics4 ,pedagogics now exerted a reactive promotive influence1 if not on the further development of psychology1 yet on its study4 ,after the psychological writings of ,herbart1 it was eminently the ,empirical ,psychology#add of ,m4 ,w4 ,,drobisch1 sustained in the ,herbartian spirit but written more in agreement with scientific 7i4 e4 inductive7 methods1 that supplied psychological pedagogists with nourishment4 ,the last-named work1 which in many respects possesses value even to-day1 was received with especial favor1 since it avoided happily the metaphysical tendencies which ,herbart rather assiduously employed4 ,a like excellence and a like favorable reception were the merit and reward of the large work1 later appearing1 of ,,lazarus3 ,das ,leben der ,seele in ,monographien4 ,subsequently1 were effective two little books by ,i4 ,,drbal and by ,,lindner3 ,lehrbuch der empirischen ,psychologie and ,handbuch der empirischen ,psychologie4 ,lindner's treatise has recently appeared in an ,english translation1 published by ,heath of ,boston1 under the title of ,a ,manual of ,empirical ,psychology as an ,inductive ,science4 ,a ,text-book for ,high ,schools and ,colleges4 ,by ,dr4 ,g4 ,a4 ,lindner1 of ,prague4 ,translated by ,chas4 de ,garmo4 ,the ,english edition of this book received an unfavorable review in the ,london ,academy 7,nov4 #a1 #ahia72 yet in one respect the criticism was in our opinion justified4 ,too little use1 namely1 has been made of the results of experimental psychology4 #add ,leipsic1 #ahdb4 ,this is1 moreover1 not only true of ,lindner's book but holds for all the psychological books that have exerted any considerable influence in pedagogical circles1 is true in fact of the great ,lehrbuch der ,psychologie by ,,volkmann1 the latest edition of which1 prepared by ,cornelius1 is not in this respect abreast of the position of the times4 ,neglect in such a matter in the country of a ,wundt appears striking at first glance2 yet it has its good reasons4 ,the labors of the school of ,wundt were antagonistic to the ,herbartian psychology and the pedagogics founded thereon1 to the extent that a goodly portion of the old theory of the faculties has been re-introduced into those labors4 ,the ,english association-psychology could have counted on a much more welcome reception4 ,happily1 there has appeared within the last few months a remarkably clear1 and withal handy1 volume which will succeed in introducing into the pedagogical circles of ,germany this association-psychology4 ,it bears the modest title of ,leitfaden der physiologischen ,psychologie 7,the ,elements of ,physiological ,psychology1 ,jena1 ,fischer1 #ahia71 and consists of lectures delivered by ,,prof4 ,,dr4 ,,ziehen at the ,university of ,jena4 ,in many respects the book of ,ziehen is like the recent work of ,dr4 ,paul ,carus#ade3 except that everything of a speculative character is lacking in the former1 of which from our point of view we cannot approve4 #ade ,the ,soul of ,man1 ,chicago1 #ahia4 ,now that ,i am speaking of pedagogics particularly1 ,i will mention still another work of ,lindner1 to whom ,i referred above1 which is the first of its kind in ,germany4 ,its peculiarity appears from its title3 ,grundriss der ,pdagogik als ,wissenschaft1 auf ,grund der ,entwickelungslehre und der ,sociologie neu aufgebaut 7,outlines of ,pedagogics as a ,science1 ,newly ,constructed on the ,basis of the ,doctrine of ,evolution and of ,sociology1 ,vienna1 #ahij74 ,the endeavor of the author of this work has been1 to make fruitful within the domain of the ,herbartian system the principles of evolution and of the science of sociology2 and though he has not been successful in this respect as regards all the details of educational methods1 the book nevertheless represents a good beginning4 ,,christian ,,ufer4 ,,book ,,reviews4 ,,outlines ,,of ,a ,,critical ,,theory ,,of ,,ethics4 ,by ,john ,dewey4 ,ann ,arbor3 ,register ,publishing ,company4 #ahia4 ,the title of this very thoughtful book expresses well the author's method of comparing opposite one-sided views with the aim of discovering a more adequate theory4 ,in carrying out this aim not only is an analysis given of the main elements of the theory of ethics1 but the main methods and problems of contemporary ethics are considered also4 ,professor ,dewey rejects both ,hedonism and ,kantism4 ,he rejects ,hedonism because pleasure fails as a standard of ethics1 and he rejects ,kantism because it is a barren abstraction4 ,kant's ought does not root in and does not flower from the is4 ,professor ,dewey says3 ,hedonism finds the end of conduct1 or the desirable1 wholly determined by the various particular desires which a man happens to have2 ,kantianism holds that to discover the end of conduct1 we must wholly exclude the desires4 ,hedonism holds that the rightness of conduct is determined wholly by its consequences2 ,kantianism holds that the consequences have nothing to do with the rightness of an act1 but that it is decided wholly by the motive of the act4 ,from this contrast we may anticipate both our criticism of the ,kantian theory and our conception of the true end of action4 ,the fundamental error of ,hedonism and ,kantianism is the same--the supposition that desires are for pleasure only4 ,let it be recognised that desires are for objects conceived as satisfying or developing the self1 and that pleasure is incidental to this fulfilment of capacities of self1 and we have the means of escaping the one-sidedness of ,kantianism as well as of ,hedonism4 ,we can see that the end is neither the procuring of particular pleasures through the various desires1 nor action from the mere idea of abstract law in general1 but that it is the satisfaction of desires according to law 7pp4 #hb-hc7 ,the author acknowledges his indebtedness to the writings of the late ,professor ,green and others for the backbone of his theory1 which he states to be the conception of the will as the expression of ideas1 and of social ideas2 the notion of an objective ethical world realised in institutions which afford moral ideals1 theatre and impetus to the individual2 the notion of the moral life as growth in freedom1 as the individual finds and conforms to the law of his social placing4 ,among the specific forms which the author calls particular attention to1 as giving a flesh and blood of its own to that backbone1 are the idea of desire as the ideal activity in contrast with actual possession2 the analysis of individuality into function including capacity and environment1 and the statement of an ethical postulate4 ,this postulate may be regarded as summing up the ethical theory as presented by ,professor ,dewey4 ,it is thus expressed3 ,in the realisation of individuality there is found also the needed realization of some community of persons of which the individual is a member2 and1 conversely1 the agent who duly satisfies the community in which he shares1 by that same conduct satisfies himself4 ,we have here postulated a community of persons1 and a good which realised by the will of one is made public4 ,in this unity of individuals as respects the end of action1 this existence of a practical common good1 we have what is called the moral order of the world4 ,this view would seem to satisfy the requirements of both ,individualism and ,socialism1 but is it consistent with the law of progress elsewhere insisted on by the author8 ,he affirms1 as against the ,hedonism of ,spencer1 that moral ideals are always developing4 ,progress is itself the ideal1 since permanence of specific ideals means moral death4 ,but this progress must originate with the individual1 who by the formation of the new ideal ceases to be in perfect accord with the community1 and will continue to be in disaccord with it until the community has accepted his ideal4 ,a perfect realisation of individuality in the community would be the fixed millennium which the author properly objects to1 and to escape which it is necessary1 that the equilibration towards which the individual1 as well as the social1 organism is ever tending shall never be actually attained4 ,its attainment would mean stagnation and death4 ,we have not space to say more of ,professor ,dewey's book than that it is a very thoughtful work1 most so in its critical parts1 and will form an excellent help for the student of ethics4 4 ,,an ,,introduction ,,to ,,social ,,philosophy4 ,by ,john ,s4 ,mackenzie4 ,new ,york3 ,macmillan ,co4 ,chicago3 ,a4 ,c4 ,mc,clurg ,co4 #ahij4 ,we have here1 in an enlarged form1 the substance of the ,shaw ,lectures delivered by the author1 at the ,university of ,edinburg1 in ,january1 #ahhi4 ,the work is professedly1 not a systematic treatise on the subject dealt with1 but only a slight contribution to the discussion of it2 and it is said to be not so much a book as an indication of the lines on which a book might be written4 ,the force of these apparently deprecatory remarks depends entirely on the result attained4 ,if an introductory study is based on true principles it may be of more general value than an elaborate work1 because it will probably present the conclusions of the latter in a simpler and less technical form4 ,this presupposes1 however1 a knowledge of previous inquiry1 and1 therefore1 the use of the term ,introduction is somewhat of a misnomer4 ,mr4 ,mackenzie remarks1 indeed1 that his inquiry may be thought to belong to the end rather than to the beginning of philosophic study4 ,the leading idea of ,mr4 ,mackenzie's work is embodied in the sentence just quoted4 ,the value of social life depends on the ultimate end to be attained1 and the author sets himself to discover what is the true aim of society4 ,the existence of a society of human beings cannot be accounted for without the conception of purpose1 for to whatever element of accident may be due the bringing of those human beings into relation to each other1 the particular direction in which their relations become developed is obviously due to certain aims by which they are guided4 ,the inquiry into the principles which determine the nature of those aims1 and as to the ideal to which such principles lead1 is what constitutes ,social ,philosophy4 ,this falls within the third of ,hegel's chief divisions of philosophic study1 the ,philosophy of ,spirit1 which is concerned with objects in so far as they are themselves creations of thought2 and the objects of ,social ,philosophy may be described as the relations of men to each other1 their relations to the material world1 and the development of individual character in so far as that is affected by these relations4 ,before treating of the aim which constitutes the social ideal1 our author states the conditions of the social problem1 those of difficulty on the one hand1 and of hope on the other1 and he finds that the general state of society for a number of generations back has been one of tumultuous progress4 ,there is a great improvement in the condition of nearly all classes of people and a very great brightening of our general outlook4 ,but life has become in many directions more chaotic and uncertain4 ,what is now wanted is some principle which will enable us to bring about a more perfect connection between the parts of our society1 to form new links and ties1 so that men may no longer be subject to the directions of iron laws over which they have no control4 ,we have to overcome individualism1 on the one hand1 and the power of material conditions1 on the other4 ,to do this will be the chief step towards the realisation of the social ideal1 which is dependent on the nature of society and on the nature of men4 ,the recognition of the fact that everything deepest in nature1 and especially in human nature is a product of growth has1 says ,mr4 ,mackenzie1 passed over into popular thought1 and become a part of our intellectual atmosphere4 ,nature is thus regarded as organic1 by which our author means a systematic unity1 in which neither the parts exist independently of the whole nor the whole independently of its parts4 ,this view is distinguished from that of ,monadism1 which regards the world as a collection of mutually independent parts1 and of ,monism1 according to which ,mr4 ,mackenzie declares the world is a single system1 in which the nature of every part is predetermined by the whole4 ,according to the organic view the world is a real unity1 though it is a unity which expresses itself through difference4 ,it goes without saying that there is no ,monism of ,mr4 ,mackenzie's description4 ,no ,monist would ever deny that the unity of the world expresses itself through difference4 ,whether or not our author is right in rejecting what he describes as the monistic view of nature1 does not really affect the conclusion as to the nature of ,society4 ,this he declares to be organic1 and it is shown that society possesses the three conditions which belong essentially to the nature of an organic system2 that is1 the relations of the parts which form the whole are intrinsic1 changes in it take place by an internal adaptation or growth1 and its end forms an element in its own nature4 ,this conclusion would1 indeed1 seem to be required by the fact that society consists of a number of individuals who are themselves organic units4 ,at the same time it might be objected that1 although many of the lower animals dwell together in societies1 these can hardly be regarded as organic4 ,this consideration gives rise to the thought that the organic nature of human society depends on the conditions by which man is differentiated from other animals4 ,in treating of this point1 ,mr4 ,mackenzie shows that there are several stages in the development of the self1 and he concludes that although an animal is conscious of a self1 yet that it is not conscious of the unity of its individual life1 the connected system of its experiences as a whole1 in which each single experience has a definite place1 being that which constitutes the highest development of self1 and which is the distinguishing self-consciousness of humanity4 ,this faculty of self-consciousness might be reduced to simpler elements1 but it is that by which1 as ,mr4 ,mackenzie shows1 we are enabled to understand the organic nature of human society4 ,the recognition of the fact that the universe is a systematic whole constitutes an ideal1 which1 although consciously aimed at by few1 gives a progressive character to the general mind4 ,man is the only creature that has an ideal1 because he has been able to catch a glimpse of a kind of consciousness of that which he has not attained1 but which he is bound to strive to attain4 ,he begins with vague impressions and animal impulses1 and his whole life is a struggle towards clearness--clearness in the conceptions which he applies to things in knowledge1 clearness in the conception of ends of which he makes use in conduct4 ,the struggle between the immediate experience of what is present in sense and the 'still small voice' of the ideal1 which bids us have regard for the ,universal1 would be fruitless1 however1 if the individual were alone4 ,society is necessary for the proper development of the more ideal elements in human nature1 as it provides the rational environment required for a rational being4 ,this leads to a consideration of the ultimate end of society4 ,in the course of the discussion of this question the author deals with the different views entertained as to the principles by which we are guided in conduct and by which human progress is determined4 ,he points out that what we seek is some definitely ascertainable end1 which we recognise as good1 and which is the happiness or well-being of persons4 ,he rejects1 however1 the ,utilitarian theory1 showing that pleasure cannot be the end of conduct1 and concludes that1 if we have any rational end at all1 it must consist in some kind of realisation of our nature as a whole2 of knowledge1 and will1 and feeling1 taken together4 ,the true end is in fact self-realisation1 and this includes society1 for we cannot suppose that the ideal should be realised within our lives4 ,it is conceivable only by our being able to see the world as a system of intelligent beings who are mutually worlds for each other4 ,the true nature of man's end is thus necessarily a social one1 and it includes everything that belongs to the highest good4 ,it embraces the realisation of ,reason1 ,order1 and ,beauty in the world2 the realisation of ,life2 the perfection of ,knowledge and ,wisdom1 of ,will and of ,feeling4 ,we have given so full a summary of ,mr4 ,mackenzie's argument that we can add only a mere outline of what he considers the form of social union in which1 under given conditions1 the progress will be most rapid and most secure towards that good which we must regard as the ultimate end4 ,the social ideal is said to depend on three chief elements of well-being1 ,individual ,culture1 ,subjugation of ,nature1 and ,social ,organisation2 which give rise to the one-sided ideals of ,liberty1 ,equality1 and ,aristocracy1 not of birth but of talent4 ,the ,organic ideal1 which is that of ,fraternity1 is the true one1 and it consists in constant progress4 ,this progress includes the three elements of human well-being1 personal development being the most important1 as education reacts on social life generally1 by bringing new ideals of life as well as a new sense of duty4 ,in leaving ,mr4 ,mackenzie's excellent work1 we may say that it deals in a clear and logical manner with the important questions considered1 and that it fully justifies the author's remark that ,social ,philosophy is a subject which at present will repay a careful study4 4 ,,twelve ,,lectures ,,on ,,the ,,structure ,,of ,,the ,,central ,,nervous ,,system4 ,by ,ludwig ,edinger4 ,philadelphia and ,london3 ,f4 ,a4 ,davis1 ,publisher1 #ahij4 ,dr4 ,edinger1 of ,frankfort-on-the-,main1 ,germany1 is one of the very best authorities on the anatomy of the nervous system and the brain4 ,his twelve lectures contain a statement of our present knowledge of the subject1 to which the author has added considerably in several not unimportant details4 ,no one who is a student of the human brain can do without ,edinger's book1 and we are glad that so soon after its appearance in ,german it has been translated by competent men into ,english4 4 ,,hypnotism4 ,by ,albert ,moll4 ,new ,york3 ,scribner ,welford4 #ahij4 ,chicago3 ,a4 ,c4 ,mc,clurg ,company4 ,the present book is a translation from the second edition of the ,german original4 ,it reviews in #daj pages the main facts of ,hypnotism4 ,the author begins with the history of ,hypnotism 7,chap4 i72 he then explains the different hypnotic methods and stages of hypnotism 7,chap4 ii74 ,the symptoms of hypnotism 7,chap4 iii7 are contrasted and compared with cognate states 7,chap4 iv74 ,information is given concerning several theories of hypnotism 7,chap4 v72 all of them1 however1 are meagrely sketched and the author does not arrive at a conclusion himself4 ,simulation and its influences are briefly treated 7,chap4 vi74 ,the medical and legal aspects of hypnotism 7,chap4 vii and viii7 are good expositions of the matter1 presented in lucid terms and impartially4 ,the last chapter1 on ,animal ,magnetism1 treats of a series of questions which1 as the author rightly remarks1 refer to phenomena which are often mentioned in connection with hypnotism1 although the connection is rather historical than essential4 ,in ,mr4 ,moll's view they are the consequences of erroneously interpreted observations4 ,the topics here discussed are 7#a7 animal magnetism1 7#b7 telepathy1 7#c7 supernormal acts of somnambulism1 7#d7 the experiments with the magnet1 and 7#e7 the effects of the mere approach of drugs4 ,the author does not present new views of his subject1 but he is considerate in his statements1 as well as scientific and clear4 ,he is not blind to the dangers of hypnotism1 yet upon the whole he looks upon it favorably1 saying that hypnotism and suggestion will outlive many remedies whose praises fill the columns of medical journals at present4 4 ,,der ,,hypnotismus3 ,,seine ,,psycho-,,physiologische1 ,,medicinische1 ,,strafrechtliche ,,bedeutung ,,und ,,seine ,,handhabung4 ,by ,dr4 ,august ,forel4 ,zweite umgearbeitete und vermehrte ,auflage4 ,stuttgart3 ,verlag von ,ferdinand ,enke4 #ahia4 ,prof4 ,august ,forel's pamphlet on hypnotism was1 even in its first edition1 one of the best publications of its kind4 ,the second edition which now lies before us is enlarged and improved4 ,the author has not changed his views2 he retains his old definitions1 explaining hypnosis as a state of abnormally increased suggestibility2 but at the same time he has added some chapters which present his position much more accurately than he has ever done before4 ,he rejects most positively the fluidum theories2 he opposes the views of ,dr4 ,luys whose experiments ,dr4 ,forel repeated with his most sensitive somnambulists and obtained negative results4 ,the position which ,professor ,forel takes is unequivocal ,monism4 ,he says in his preface3 ,a psychological introduction seemed to me indispensable1 for it is a daily discovery with me1 how much the monistic foundation of the doctrine of suggestion is misunderstood4 ,normal dream-life1 the theory of suggestion1 and the relation of the latter to medicine and to mental disorders generally1 demanded substantial complements1 and the addition of a few new instances of therapeutic suggestion seemed to me advantageous4 ,in agreement with this proposition he says in the first chapter of his pamphlet3 ,hypnotism throws much light on the phenomenon we call consciousness1 and in a manner that substantially agrees with the monistic world-conception4 ,to understand hypnotism in other relations1 we must know what we have to understand by consciousness and its relation to nervous activity4444 ,with dualists1 who regard the soul as one thing and the body together with all matter and all the forces of nature thereto appurtenant as a totally different thing1 the doctrine of the psychical faculties follows of itself3 herein the consciousness1 the will1 the mind1 and the rest must be regarded as separate departments of the soul4444 ,the monistic conception of the world aims to reduce all cosmic phenomena to a single unity1 and regards matter1 force1 and consciousness ultimately as only forms of appearance of a same primitive potency4 ,especially1 however1 it denies1 that the soul is anything else than forces of nature4444 ,considered from the monistic point of view1 consciousness by itself is nothing2 as ,ribot 7',the ,diseases of ,memory'7 correctly remarks with ,huxley and others1 ',consciousness is merely the accompaniment of certain nervous processes2 it is as incompetent to influence the latter as the shadow is the steps of the wayfarer it follows4' ,it follows1 however1 immediately from this1 that the notions of consciousness and subject1 or subjectivism1 are identical and undefinable4 ,consciousness is merely the subjective form of appearance of nervous activity4444 ,consequently1 our human consciousness denotes only a summarised1 synthetical1 subjective illumination ,of the more powerful portion of our cerebral activity4444 ,a very important phenomenon of consciousness takes place1 further1 in the reviviscence of previous combinations of cerebral activity1 that is in the play of memory-images4 ,we have here to deal with the connection in time of the activity of the brain1 that is with the relative illumination of this activity by consciousness4 ,especially on this field does hypnotism throw valuable light4 ,the whole process of memory is in itself completely independent of consciousness and exhibits very interesting laws1 for which ,i refer the reader to ,ribot 7l4 c474 ,we discover the laws of the memory in ourselves for the greater part through the illumination by consciousness of the activity of the brain4 ,but it is not proper to oppose a conscious memory to the organic or unconscious memory4 ,there is but one memory1 which consists a7 in the weakened preservation of the vibrations of every cerebral action 7nervous activity in general71 b7 in the powers of reviviscence1 or1 better1 power of re-invigoration of these actions1 and often1 c7 in the re-cognition1 that is in the identification1 of the re-invigorated activity with the original one 7localisation in time74444 ,we all possess a second consciousness1 the consciousness of dreams or sleep1 which1 qualitatively1 does not differ in essential respects from the consciousness of the waking state4444 ,we may not1 accordingly1 place conscious and unconscious activity in opposition to each other4 ,dr4 ,forel discusses in other chapters of his pamphlet the relation of nervous activity and nervous substance to the states of consciousness 7,chap4 ii74 ,he explains suggestion1 compares sleep with hypnosis1 treats the symptoms of hypnosis1 resistance of hypnotised persons1 auto-suggestions1 the suggestion chance1 retroactive hallucinations or suggested memory falsifications1 the import and nature of suggestions 7,chap4 iv74 ,he then proceeds to investigate diseased states of mind with reference to hypnotism1 and maintains that insane people are least suggestible 7,chap4 v74 ,he gives some valuable hints for suggestive or psycho-therapeutic treatment to hypnotisers 7,chap4 vii71 and presents cases of successful cures 7,chap4 viii74 ,the legal aspect is treated in ,chap4 x1 the hypnotisation of animals in ,chap4 xi4 ,an interesting and indeed candid chapter is ,forel's views on quackery 7,chap4 ix72 acknowledging the fact that at best one sixth only of patients are cured by physicians1 our author hopes that the full recognition of the suggestion theory in therapeutics will contribute not a little to the advancement of medical science and also to the moral attitude of the profession4 4 ,,der ,,moderne ,,mensch4 ,versuche ber ,lebensfhrung4 ,by ,b4 ,carneri4 ,bonn3 ,emil ,strauss4 #ahia4 ,during a long and laborious life ,mr4 ,carneri has been an indefatigable champion of the monistic world-conception4 ,with a keen eye he recognised years ago the importance ,of physiological investigations for psychology1 and he saw at once the moral import of the evolution theory even at a time when most of its defenders denounced it as the immoral law of nature4 ,carneri thus became the preacher of a new ethics2 he taught the morality of science and helped us out of the pessimism that naturally followed a time when the old foundations had been overthrown and the new ones had not as yet been built4 ,the author is now at a very advanced age and the present book contains his maturest and dearest ideas4 ,he is a man whose burden of life has been heavier than that the average man has to bear4 ,physical weakness1 since birth1 long periods of illness accompanied with almost incessant pain1 later on periods of recovery and transient happiness followed4 ,he married and had children4 ,but new visitations came4 ,he buried his wife1 and also a little son at the premature age of ten years4 ,these are some facts of the author's life not mentioned in any one of his books2 they are only hinted at in a line of the preface of the present book1 quoted below4 ,but his readers should know these facts1 because they bring the author so much nearer to us4 ,we learn to understand him better and shall the more appreciate his genuine courage in working out a noble conception of life and sound rules of moral conduct4 ,the present book contains a number of articles on various subjects1 and the author has as he says in the preface put into them his whole heart4 ,it differs from former publications of his4 ,the latter are as a rule scientific and objective1 they are investigations into the laws of life and of ethics4 ,the present book is subjective2 it shows the aim and the path of the author's conduct of life4 ,carneri adds3 ,and that ,i1 visited with ills above the average measure1 have found life beautiful1 and being in my seventieth year now1 find it beautiful still1 speaks in favor of this path4 ,it speaks also for a happy individuality1 but ,i hope that this will not detract from the truth that the present book is not mere imagination but is taken from the thrilling pulse of life4 ,carneri is fully convinced that morality will find a better foundation in the unitary nature of man than in the old conception ,of his double nature and in this sense he discusses the following topics1 ,gratitude1 ,labor1 ,egotism1 ,justice1 ,versatility1 ,passion1 the ,ideal1 the ,inevitable1 the ,god-idea1 ,truthfulness1 ,morality1 ,love1 ,family1 ,imagination1 ,continence1 ,honor1 ,god-everywhere1 ,death1 ,tolerance1 ,character1 ,art1 and ,humor4 ,the whole tenor of the book is very sympathetic and we might describe the author as one of the high priests of the coming ,religion of ,science4 4 ,,ueber ,,die ,,grundlagen ,,der ,,erkenntnis ,,in ,,den ,,exacten ,,wissenschaften4 ,by ,paul du ,bois-,reymond4 ,nach einer hinterlassenen ,handschrift4 ,mit einem ,bildnis des ,verfassers4 ,tbingen3 ,h4 ,laupp'sche ,buchhandlung4 #ahij4 ,this little book of the late ,prof4 ,paul du ,bois-,reymond has been prepared for print by ,dr4 ,guido ,hauck with the assistance of the author's brother from a posthumous manuscript4 ,the pamphlet contains in popular form the final rsum of a thinker's life-work2 complementing and completing his investigations1 and maturing mainly his favorite ideas which he had presented to his students in a course of lectures on gravitation during the winter '#hg-hh at the ,technical ,high ,school of ,berlin1 where he was ,professor of ,mathematics4 ,prof4 ,paul du ,bois-,reymond is not only as powerful and at the same time as subtle a thinker as his more famous brother ,emil du ,bois-,reymond1 but he also agrees with the latter's philosophical attitude4 ,both are agnostics and both represent an unusually profound and scientifically elaborate agnosticism4 ,they have become agnostics because they have arrived at results which1 to their mind1 present an insolvable problem4 ,prof4 ,paul du ,bois-,reymond does not despair of a final solution of the problem of life1 which according to ,emil du ,bois-,reymond decidedly belongs to the seven world-riddles1 but he considers gravitation as incomprehensible4 ,the purpose of all our attempts to explain phenomena is to limit the incomprehensible to the smallest space possible and to reduce it to the simplest expression 7p4 #ac74 ,comprehension1 according to ,paul du ,bois-,reymond1 can be attained by three methods1 7#a7 the empirical1 7#b7 the mechanical1 and 7#c7 the meta-mechanical4 ,the empirical is inductive1 the mechanical is deductive1 and the meta-mechanical attacks those problems which are at the bottom of all our fundamental conceptions4 ,the meta-mechanical tendency of science is not satisfied with the results of the empirical and mechanical investigations2 it attempts to conquer all the difficulties or at least to arrive at the limits of human comprehension4 ,its province is to comprehend matter1 how matter can have effect on other matter1 how actio in distans can produce pressure or motion2 it tries to understand the great concepts of time and space and whatever profound problems may now or during the further progress of science be proposed4 ,having explained these preliminary views concerning the methods of comprehension1 the author discusses the following topics3 ,is the ,space-filling ,substance ,continuous or ,atomistic8 7,chap4 iii74--,actio in ,distans 7,fernkraft7 7,chap4 iv74--,several ,syntheses 7,chap4 v74--,the ,idealistic and the ,empiristic ,world ,conception 7,chap4 vi74--,atomism and ,actio in ,distans with ,reference to the ,absolute 7,chap4 vii74--,concerning ,world-,conceptions 7,chap4 viii74 ,in the first of these chapters 7viz4 in ,chap4 iii4 of the book7 the author presents the difficulties which beset the theory of a continuous substance4 ,at first sight it appears most plausible to conceive of that which fills space as something constant and uninterrupted1 but continuity of substance1 our author declares1 excludes a possible change of volume2 compressibility and expansibility1 properties which we predicate of any kind of substance1 stand in a patent contradiction to a continuous filling of space4 ,substance therefore cannot be continuous1 it must consist of a material which can be shifted1 which is compressible1 can be mixed1 is liable to chemical changes1 and allows imponderabilia to pass freely through2 it is porous1 or in other words it is permeated by space free from substance4 ,prof4 ,paul du ,bois-,reymond conceives of substance as dust-like1 viz4 it consists of spatially distinct corpuscles1 and he thinks that there must be supposed to be different kinds of dust4 ,these dust-particles are in his synthesis the vehicles of any actio in distans1 their properties are energy and inertia4 ,actio in distans1 we are informed in the next chapter1 cannot be explained by constructing a world-synthesis either out of absolutely rigid elements or out of absolutely elastic elements4 ,since we cannot derive a construction of actio in distans from mechanical concepts1 we are led to the conclusion that we have reached here the limit of cognition4 ,indeed1 the incomprehensible in all forces is and remains the actio in distans4 ,all the hypotheses which try to explain the problem1 will only defer it by introducing some medium which is to be the vehicle of the actio in distans1 and the simplest method is after all to consider the atom as this vehicle4 ,the far-effective atom1 conceived as a centre of activity1 endowed with inertia1 freely movable1 is the simplest mechanism that can be used as the basis of our synthesis1 and we call it briefly the far-effective 7fernwirkende7 atom 7p4 #eb74 ,it seems to us that ,professor du ,bois-,reymond has disposed of the idea of a continuous substance too easily1 and that he is at the same time too easily satisfied with the shortcomings of his atomistic theory of a dust-like substance4 ,we grant most willingly that the idea of an actio in distans is inconceivable1 for an action can be effective only where it takes place1 it can have no effect in other and more distant places4 ,but action is never confined to a limited point3 it always stretches over a field of some size4 ,suppose an action a takes place along the line b c1 can we speak of b as being effective in c2 or is it not rather a1 i4 e4 the whole process1 which takes place in b and in c4 ,the sun's mass exercises an effect upon the earth2 and yet they are about #hj1jjj1jjj miles distant4 ,but let us use an instance which can become a more direct object of our observation4 ,we have a pair of scales and put a weight on one of them4 ,at once1 simultaneously with the sinking of the weighted scale1 the other scale rises4 ,is this not just as much an actio in distans as any other instance of gravity8 ,in fact our astronomers compare the gravitating celestial bodies quite frequently to the action of a balance4 ,it may be objected to this comparison that we see the beam of the scales1 while there is no beam between the sun and the earth4 ,if there is no beam1 there must be a connection of some kind4 ,if the earth and the sun are two disconnected bodies1 we see no possibility for an explanation that the effects of the sun's mass are felt upon the earth4 ,is not after all the hypothesis of a continuous world-substance the easiest explanation of gravity8 ,it seems to me that it is the only possible way of explaining what is commonly and perhaps awkwardly called actio in distans4 ,the atomistic philosophers are bound to have the world a composition of innumerable particles of dust2 they wish to construct the universe mechanically and this view of things appears for certain purposes very well adapted4 ,yet they cannot construct the world of isolated world-dust particles1 they must have some glue or cement to fasten their atoms into a single whole that sticks together4 ,professor ,du ,bois-,reymond is consistent enough to see the impossibility of this construction4 ,the cement of which the mortar of atomism consists is the inconceivable1 unthinkable idea of an actio in distans4 ,let us try to look at things from the other side4 ,our world-conception consists of the sum of all the divers things we are acquainted with2 but daily experience teaches1 that the world is not a composition of things or of atoms1 the world is one inseparable whole1 and the least change in one part affects the whole universe4 ,some one said1 if ,i raise my finger the entire cosmos is shaken2 and this we know is true1 although the vibrations are too insignificant to be noticed by our dull senses4 ,we speak of the earth and we speak of the sun1 but in reality there is neither an isolated sun on the one side nor an isolated earth on the other1 there is a whole and continuous world1 one part of it is called sun and another part is called earth4 ,every action of every part of the world has its effects on all the other parts1 and there is no action taking place in the world which in this sense is not an actio in distans4 ,if we call the part played by the sun alone his action1 then there is certainly actio in distans1 and actio in distans would be the basis of the existence of the world as a cosmic whole4 ,yet we should remember that the sun does not perform any action alone for itself4 ,the actions that take place in reality are relations among the inseparable parts of the universe4 ,the sphere of every action extends1 closely considered1 over the whole world4 ,this view of things is not a construction of the world1 it has not been invented for making a philosophical synthesis1 it is a description of the world as we know it by experience4 ,the description is imperfect and it presents many difficulties which will have to be formulated in problems4 ,but we are confident that this descriptive method is the only procedure that promises success and will produce results in the future4 ,attempts to reconstruct a world-system from its analysed elements have been made and1 although we have not as yet reached a general consensus1 we must consider these attempts as being at least in part successful4 ,suppose we call the simplest and most original state of substance ether and consider matter as ether-whirls of a certain kind4 ,the ether must have a peculiar aggregate state of its own which in some respect is like a fluid1 for its parts are continuous as well as interchangeable4 ,an ether whirl1 or an atom1 being a condensation of ether1 would naturally produce a tension which stands in some proportion to the condensed mass4 ,let an india-rubber plate in a frame such as the designers use for altering the size of a picture represent the normal relation among the different parts of pure ether4 ,now put the finger-tips of both hands upon the india-rubber and contract them so as to condense in both places the india-rubber inside your finger-tips4 ,would not the tension between both condensations be increased8 and suppose the two condensed spots were swimming freely in the india-rubber1 they would in that case attract each other in a similar way as masses of matter gravitate toward each other4 ,this comparison is of course rude1 but it may serve here as an illustration of how we can conceive of actio in distans without committing ourselves to the assumption that an action has its effects in a place where it does not operate4 ,we should not venture to speak of the absolute rigidity or absolute elasticity of the world-substance until the phenomena which urge us to form our views about ether have been better classified and understood4 ,in the chapter on ,several ,syntheses the author discusses problems without coming to any conclusion4 ,the synthesis of organised life may lead us to something which is quite as incomprehensible as actio in distans and cannot be reduced to it 7p4 #gj74 ,the riddles grow before our eyes1 above the fog of that which lies near us rises the imposing problem of the soul and towering above all other things appears the awful question of the consciousness of the ego4 ,prof4 ,du ,bois-,reymond does not attempt any solution and proposes no reconciliation between the empirical and idealistic world-conceptions 7which are contrasted in ,chapter vi74 ,this lack of arriving at a definite solution leads our author into mysticism1 in which he indulges in the last chapters to a greater extent than we are inclined to allow a man of science4 ,he speaks of a treble world in which we are shut up as if in a treble cage1 7#a7 the world of immediate apprehensions1 7#b7 the world of conceptions1 and 7#c7 the world of reality4 ,the third world is extra-phenomenal1 it is the physical beyond our ego included4 ,but we are lacking the organ of reality 7p4 #abj7 and in the physical beyond nothing is impossible 7p4 #abb74 ,it is strange that ,prof4 ,du ,bois-,reymond mentions ,professor ,kirchhoff's famous preface to his mechanics1 in which he replaces the word explain by describe 7p4 #ac74 ,he also mentions ,professor ,helmholtz's term that phenomena 7i4 e4 sensations7 are symbols or signs of reality1 ,zeichen der ,wirklichkeit 7p4 #aba74 ,but he overlooks entirely that the world-conception derived from these ideas can be developed in a positive world-conception that can satisfactorily reconcile idealism with empiricism4 ,as soon as we know that cognition means description1 we can dispense with meta-mechanics and need not join in the disheartening cry of the agnostic ignorabimus4 ,the inscrutableness of reality1 says our author1 is almost a matter of course4 ,happily we forget it constantly1 for the idea is one of the dreariest and the most weird 7trostlosest and unheimlichst74 ,the whole result is negative1 for we can predicate of reality nothing save that it is contained in a space and that there is motion taking place in it4 ,but of what kind this space and the time depending on the motion are1 and in what relation they stand to our conceptions of time and space we can say nothing4 ,this is sad1 but1 adds ,prof4 ,du ,bois-,reymond1 world-pain is of no avail and yet1 the world is not so bad after all 7p4 #abd74 4 ,,tuisko-,,land ,,der ,,arischen ,,staemme ,,und ,,goetter-,,urheimat4 ,erluterungen zum ,sagenschatze der ,veden1 ,edda1 ,ilias1 und ,odyssee4 ,by ,dr4 ,ernst ,krause4 ,mit #gf ,abbildungen im ,text und einer ,karte4 ,glogau3 ,carl ,flemming4 #ahia4 ,dr4 ,ernst ,krause1 better known by the nom de plume of ,carus ,sterne1 has of late made a special study of comparative mythology1 and many interesting articles of his have appeared in different ,german periodicals1 analysing and collating the myths of the ,aryan nations and investigating their material as to their probable origin4 ,dr4 ,krause distinguishes between two kinds of myths1 7#a7 those which might and actually do originate in any place1 and 7#b7 those which could originate only in a certain and limited locality4 ,the former are most interesting to the psychologist4 ,we can expect that they will afford us an important clue to the development of the human soul4 ,the latter1 however1 are valuable material to the historian and ethnologist1 and from their rich mines ,dr4 ,krause quarries his main arguments to prove the ,european origin of the ,aryas4 ,the course and the effects of the sun vary so greatly in the south and in the north that it would have been strange if the solar myths also did not vary4 ,now it is natural that such a myth as that of ,baldur's death1 for instance1 could only originate in a northern climate1 and if we find the same legend told with slight modifications in the south1 we must assume that it has been transplanted there4 ,the attempt has often been made to explain the similarities between the ,edda on the one hand and the ,greek or ,hindoo legends on the other by the influence of the latter on the former2 yet we find that this theory is no longer tenable and we must grant1 if not to the ,edda itself1 certainly to the substance of the ,edda traditions a far greater antiquity than we ever could have anticipated4 ,let us compare1 for instance1 the ,baldur myth with the account of ,herodotus in ,klio 7,chaps4 #cd-de71 and let us bear in mind that here we have not to deal with history1 but with legends1 for ,plutarch already observes1 the ancient historians had noticed that ,solon died soon after ,kroesos's accession to the throne 7#efc ,b4 ,c472 accordingly it was little probable that he saw the ,lydian ,king while at the height of his power4 ,the striking similarity of the two versions can be seen in eight points3 #a4 ,king ,odin has two sons1 of #a4 ,king ,kroesos has two sons of whom the one is a model of whom the one excels by his perfection1 beloved by ,god and virtues all his companions1 men1 while the other appears to while the other appears to be be excluded from the succession unable to succeed his father by the fact of his being blind4 on the throne4 ,he is deaf4 #b4 ,the ,ases have evil dreams1 #b4 ,kroesos dreams that a indicating that some danger is pointed iron will kill his threatening to ,baldur4 favorite son ,atys4 #c4 ,frigga takes an oath from #c4 ,kroesos removes all iron all created things not to arms within reach of his son4 injure her son4 #d4 ,baldur is married young1 the #d4 ,atys is married young1 his name of his wife being ,nanna4 mother's name is ,nana4 #e4 ,the ,ases make a sport of #e4 ,atys goes a hunting1 because shooting at ,baldur because no in this sport he need not fear missile can hurt him4 the tooth of the boar4 #f4 ,baldur's own brother kills #f4 ,a friend 7who was a fratricide him without intention4 by accident7 kills ,atys unintentionally4 #g4 ,loki is accused of being #g4 ,not he who threw the fatal guilty of the murder4 missile is accused1 but the ,god who predicted ,atys's fate in the dream4 #h4 ,the innocent murderer is #h4 ,the innocent murderer slain4 commits suicide4 ,we must consider it as an additional proof of the theory that the southern version has been taken from northern sources when we find incidental features which have sense only so long as they appear connected with their original surroundings4 ,the ,ilias also contains a modified version of the ,baldur myth in the account of ,patroclus's death4 ,patroclus is the kind hero1 obliging and friendly to all who knew him1 the brightest and purest figure of the whole poem4 ,he falls by the intrigues of a ,god4 ,when ,patroclus's body is burned the same thing happens as with ,baldur4 ,achilles lights the funeral pyre but it will not burn1 and as in the ,edda a giant-woman is called in1 so in the ,iliad1 ,iris is sent for in order to call ,boreas and ,zephyr who by the promise of considerable sacrifices are induced to make the fire burn4 ,there is no reason here why the fire should not burn1 but in the ,edda there is a very obvious reason1 for all the elements had promised by oath not to harm ,baldur's body4 ,the flames were not allowed to burn him1 the logs on which the funeral ship should roll into the waves were not allowed to carry him down1 and the waves were not allowed to receive him4 ,great interest attaches also to the similarities between the ,baldur myth and ,christianity1 and not long ago a ,danish theologian has attempted to show that the sagas of the ,edda were imported into the ,north by ,christian monks1 the world-tree ,yggdrasil was said to be the biblical tree of life1 the same from which the wood of ,christ's cross had been taken1 ,loki was identified with ,lucifer1 the blind ,hder with ,longinus1 the ,roman captain who thrust the lance into the side of ,christ1 etc4 ,it is a strange coincidence that ,longinus was blind1 according to the ,gospel of ,nicodemus1 which may have been written in the eighth century4 ,longinus1 it is told1 acquired sight through the blood of ,jesus1 thus interpreting the passage they shall look at him whom they pierced in the sense as if ,longinus had not been able to look at ,jesus before4 ,a ,jewish libel against ,christianity1 ,toledoth ,jeshu1 7reprinted in ,eisenmenger's ,entdecktes ,judenthum7 contains a very striking similarity with the ,baldur myth4 ,it is told3 ,when the wise had ordered ,jesus1 after he had been stoned1 to be hanged to the wood and the wood would not bear him but broke1 his disciples saw it and they wept and said3 ',lo the justice of our ,lord ,jesus2 no wood will bear him4' ,the disciples did not know that he had extorted an oath from all the wood while he had still the name 7viz41 the mystical and miracle-working name of ,god7 in his power1 for he knew his fate that he would be condemned to be hanged4444 ,but when ,judas saw that no wood would bear him1 he said to the wise3 ,consider the shrewdness of his mind4 ,he has taken oaths from all wood that it should not bear him1 but in my garden grows an enormous cabbage-stock4 ,i shall go and bring it2 perhaps it will bear him4 ,the wise said3 ,do as you say4 ,then ,judas went and brought the cabbage-stock1 and they hanged ,jesus on it4 ,this account being older than #abgh1 it was supposed to have contributed to form the ,baldur myth of the ,edda1 but ,mllenhoff refuted all the attempts to attribute a recent origin to the ,edda4 ,the mistle does not grow in ,iceland1 accordingly the main parts of the ,baldur myth in which the mistle plays so prominent a part must have existed before the ,icelanders left their ,scandinavian homes4 ,dr4 ,krause's investigations strongly tend to corroborate the new view of placing the home of the ,aryas in ,europe4 ,by ,aryas in the old sense of the name were understood those families of nations which spoke the ,aryan languages1 viz41 the ,hindoo1 the ,persians1 the ,greeks1 the ,romans1 the ,slaves1 the ,germans1 and the ,celts1 and some few smaller ones4 ,these ,aryas were formerly considered as kin in blood and their home was sought somewhere in ,asia4 ,of late1 however1 many considerations tend to prove that these ,aryan nations were by no means one family2 they are the product of a mixture of several races among which one has forced its language upon the others4 ,if we call this race the ,aryans proper we find that they are represented most purely in the ,teutonic nations1 the ,saxons1 ,low ,germans1 and ,scandinavians4 ,these ,aryans are a tall1 blond1 and dolichocephalic race4 ,they appear as the conquerors of ,india1 the masters of ,persia1 the ,dorian immigrators of ,greece1 showing everywhere the same attributes4 ,it is natural that they were swallowed up again by the dark brachycephalic races whom they had conquered1 because the latter were better adapted to the southern climate than their masters4 ,there are three long-headed races3 7#a7 the blond long-heads or ,aryas1 7#b7 the dark ,south ,european long-heads1 and 7#c7 the dark and woolly-haired long-heads of ,africa or the ,negroes4 ,there are also several broad-headed races1 among them the ,ugro-,finnians1 ,turanians1 ,south ,european broad-heads are represented as the ,savoyards4 ,the original ,aryans 7by ,a4 de ,quatrefages called the ,cannstadt race7 were extremely long-headed1 the proportion sinking below #ge 3 #ajj4 ,this race1 so called after the discovery of graves in ,cannstadt1 shows a strong similarity with1 and must be considered as1 an evolution from the ,neanderthal type4 ,the eyebrows of the male ,neanderthal type skulls protrude 7slightly reminding us of the ,gorilla7 making the smallness of the forehead still more noticeable4 ,the hind part of the head is well developed4 ,the bones are extremely strong1 the skull is thick1 and the proportion of length to breadth averages in both1 the ,neanderthal and ,cannstadt types1 #gac4 ,this race inhabited the banks of the ,rhine and ,seine and has been called the ,germanic type by ,hlder1 the ,saxon type by ,englishmen1 ,cymrians by ,broca1 while ,dr4 ,krause calls them ,aryans4 ,the ,south ,european long-heads with dark hair are called by ,a4 de ,quatrefages the ,cro-,magnon type1 named after a place in the ,vsre valley where as its first specimen a tall old man had been discovered4 ,the ,cro-,magnon type varies greatly from the ,cannstadt type2 the forehead is broad and high1 and the cranium is also well formed4 ,the proportion of breadth to length is also dolichocephalic1 it averages #gcgf4 ,the orbits are broad but closely set1 and the size of the lower parts of the face from the middle downward is strongly lessened in proportion to the higher parts1 ending in a pointed and protruding chin4 ,this race lived in ,greece1 ,southern ,italy1 ,france1 and ,spain1 and is found also in ,england1 where its descendants even to-day can be traced in some of the ,silurian inhabitants of ,south ,wales and ,ireland4 ,tacitus says that the ,silurians have come from ,spain1 and even to-day the people of ,berkshire resemble greatly1 as ,boyd-,dawkins says1 the ,basques of the ,western ,pyrenees1 near ,bagnres de ,bogorre4 ,their stature is sometimes small but not always1 they are sometimes tall1 their gait is light1 their nose narrow and long1 sometimes approaching ,jewish features1 their skin dark1 their hair coarse1 black1 and usually curled4 ,long after the appearance of these long-heads arrived several varieties of broad-heads1 among them ,mongoloid1 ,ugro-,finnish1 and ,turanian types4 ,dr4 ,krause arrives at the following rsum1 that the ,cannstadt skull represents the ,germanic or better the ,aryan type4 ,this race lived in ,middle ,europe in the oldest times to which prehistoric investigation descends and has not immigrated from ,asia since the great ice-era4 ,this conclusion has been adopted by the most prominent anthropologists1 in ,france by ,hamy1 ,topinard1 ,quatrefages1 in ,england by ,beddoe1 ,flower1 ,thurnam1 in ,germany by ,ecker1 ,lindenschmit1 ,hlder1 ,virchow1 and others4 ,dr4 ,krause adds3 ,virchow however takes in this question of the characteristic features of the ,aryan race a strange and isolated position1 in so far as he believes that from the beginning there had been and are still broad-heads as well as long-heads among the ,germanic races4 ,with respect to the conflict between ,virchow and ,dr4 ,krause1 we should prefer to call the old and original races by new names1 as ,quatrefages did2 we should speak of them as the ,cannstadt type1 the ,cro-,magnon type1 etc4 ,when we speak of ,aryans1 or ,saxons1 or ,germanic nations1 we should know that they are no longer the pure ,cannstadt type1 but a mixture1 and this mixture has not even to-day become sufficiently fixed to produce one uniform race4 ,there are certain features predominant in certain nations1 and certainly the blond long-heads are purest in the ,teutonic nations2 nevertheless1 it is not an uncommon occurrence that in one and the same family both types are distinctly represented4 ,johannes ,ranke on the strength of this fact has no faith in the constancy of the skull and does not regard it as a fit method of settling any race problem4 ,the ,aryans1 i4 e4 the tall1 blond broad-heads of the ,cannstadt type are distinguished by strength and by power of will4 ,they were hunters1 fishermen1 sea-faring people1 and warriors4 ,they loved the sea1 they loved rivers and lakes4 ,they appear repeatedly in history as conquerors4 ,the arts and industries1 however1 the use of metals1 the invention of pottery1 do not seem to have originated among them4 ,it seems to us that ,dr4 ,krause exhibits an excusable partiality for the blond tall ,aryas in comparison with the dark ,south-,european long-heads as well as the broad-heads4 ,the ,aryans were chiefly the rulers1 except in ,palestine1 where the tall blond ,amorites had been conquered by ,semites4 ,it appears that the conquest of a country by the ,aryas for instance in ,india1 in ,persia1 in ,greece1 gave a start to civilisation1 as the ,ostro-,goths restored peace and reawakened the arts in ,italy4 ,but at the same time we notice that the ,aryas were most likely more savage than their broad-headed fellowmen4 ,the present ,teutonic population represents so little the pure type of the old tall long-heads that ,professor ,virchow refuses to recognise long-headedness as a race symptom at all4 ,we find long-heads and broad-heads in the same family4 ,both long-headed parents may have broad-headed children and vice versa4 ,this need not prove the correctness of ,professor ,virchow's position1 but it may very well prove that the present nations1 the ,teutonic race not excluded1 are the product of a mixture4 ,as the most important feature of ,aryan character ,dr4 ,krause considers their religion1 and we are inclined to accept ,dr4 ,krause's opinion as thoroughly sound4 ,the ,aryan religion1 he says1 is the cult of light in opposition to the southern cult of darkness4 ,the original ,semites worshipped the earth1 the moon1 the night2 the ,aryan1 worshipped the sun1 the sky1 the day1 the former bowed before womanhood and sentimentality2 the latter represented manhood and will-power4 7,the ,jews are not pure ,semites1 they show a constant proportion in the north of a little over #ad_/ajj and in the south of a little over #ac_/ajj of tall1 blond long-heads4 ,these blond ,jews1 are according to ,virchow1 the ,amorites with which the ,israelites mixed after the conquest of ,palestine4 ,the religion of the ,jews also shows very strong ,aryan influences especially since their contact with the ,persians47 ,the ,aryan religions as a rule begin the world with male motherless ,gods2 while the ,semitic religions begin with female mother-gods without fathers4 ,there is the giant ,ymir or in ,alfadur1 here the goddess ,kybele1 ,isis1 ,rhea1 or ,demeter4 ,this difference is founded on a social difference which again depends upon climatic conditions4 ,in the south we find in the beginning a state of matriarchy4 ,there was no great difficulty in bringing up large families and the assistance of the father was not needed4 ,in consequence thereof the father was and remained a stranger1 an occasional visitor4 ,there were no lasting family ties between himself and the mother of his children1 the sexual relations remained free1 and the right of heredity recognised the mother only4 ,how different was it in the north6 ,without their father a family had to perish4 ,the severe struggle for life created the family and eventually the monogamic family1 it made the men strong1 active1 liberty-loving4 ,there was undoubtedly much rudeness among the northern nations2 they were savages in many respects1 but wherever they appeared as conquerors they introduced their religion of light1 activity1 and submission to moral laws4 ,the conquered tribes contributed undoubtedly many most valuable qualities to the mixture from which the future races arose1 qualities which the ,aryans would perhaps never have been able to evolve out of themselves alone4 ,nevertheless the ,aryans gave character to the nations1 impressed upon them their speech1 their thought1 their world-conception and their morality4 ,dr4 ,krause's treatment of comparative mythology with reference to the physical and geographical conditions under which myths originate1 is very suggestive1 and we wish he had also taken into consideration the parallelism of the northern ,sun-myths with ,christianity4 ,dr4 ,krause mentions that the idea of immortality is an ,aryan thought1 he might have added that the idea of a dying ,god who will again rise from the dead can only have originated in the home of the ,baldur myth4 ,dr4 ,krause's work contains in #fbd pages an almost inexhaustible store of investigations4 ,it is one of the most interesting books we have ever seen4 ,we mention here only the chapters on the ,megalithian ,monuments1 on ,orion1 on the northern animals of ,apollo1 on little ,red ,ridinghood1 on the ,wagon in the ,skies and ,tom ,thumb1 on ,helen and her northern representatives1 and on the history of the ,odyssee4 ,the book would be more valuable to the reader if it possessed an index4 4 ,,die ,,mathematik ,,die ,,fackeltraegerin ,,einer ,,neuen ,,zeit4 ,by ,c4 ,dillmann4 ,stuttgart3 ,w4 ,kohlhammer1 #ahhi4 ,the importance of this little book does not lie so much in the theories as in the practical aims of the author4 ,oberstudienrath ,dillmann is a reformer in the system of higher education2 he is not a mere theorist1 but a man of experience who has now been for years the principal of a school like that which he advocates4 ,mr4 ,dillmann's idea is very simple and obviously correct4 ,he claims that the old so-called classical method1 where the teaching of dead languages is made the basis of education1 no longer meets the needs of our time2 that there is however another discipline1 which for its universality and its fundamental importance in every branch of knowledge should be made the corner-stone of education1 and that is mathematics4 ,so he proposes to have our boys educated in mathematical high schools4 ,we may insert here some information concerning ,mr4 ,dillmann1 which is not found in his book but will throw light upon his plans and theories4 ,mr4 ,dillmann is the son of a schoolmaster4 ,he inherited from his father the aspiration of acquiring a higher education and having passed through the gymnasium he went to the university to study theology4 ,the study of theology is the only one in which a poor youth finds support and material help from his fellowmen4 ,having passed his examinations he was engaged for about seven years as a vicar in the service of the church4 ,he felt however the need of completing his education in mathematics and the natural sciences4 ,he went again to the university 7this time to the polytechnic school at ,stuttgart7 and devoted himself with great zeal to his favorite studies4 ,having passed his examinations in these branches he was appointed professor of mathematics at the ,stuttgart gymnasium4 ,while here engaged in preparing his pupils for the university1 he became more and more convinced that the whole plan of teaching then followed was inadequate4 ,our youth receive much information about trifles which are useless to them in after life1 while the main things are treated with indifference4 ,he wrote a book ,the demands of the ,realistic ,sciences on ,education1 which excited general interest and called the attention of ,kultus-minister von ,golther to his ideas4 ,herr von ,golther founded a new kind of a high school which besides giving good philological instruction1 ,latin included1 was to be devoted mainly to a thorough mathematical education2 and ,professor ,dillmann was appointed president of the school1 which first bore the name of mathematical gymnasium4 ,the authorities soon considered it best to change the name into ,real-gymnasium4 ,the school was started in #ahfg as a mere trial and in #ahga1 when its success appeared to be assured1 it became a permanent institution4 ,for #ae years it counts an average of from #hjj to #ijj pupils4 ,in spite of the confidence of the public1 the new school had and has still its hard times4 ,the views now prevalent among the ,german authorities are less favorable to great reformatory ideas than ever4 ,the restrictions put upon the ,real-gymnasia have also hit ,mr4 ,dillmann's school1 although his institution is different in plan from the other ,real-gymnasia1 the latter being1 as a rule1 schools in which the scholastic severity of the gymnasia is neglected without replacing it by other systematic studies4 ,the present book has been written to explain and justify ,mr4 ,dillmann's methods1 and we cannot but say that we heartily sympathise with his aspirations4 ,at the same time we express here the sincere hope that another ,dillmann might rise on ,american soil and institute a real mathematical high school which will give a more solid foundation for the education of scientists than our present educational systems can give4 ,we do not mean that the philological and historical studies should be neglected in such a mathematical school4 ,we trust that they can be taught with less waste of energy than has been done in the past4 ,there is perhaps no need of preaching against ,greek and ,latin in our ,american schools1 because philology1 it appears1 is the most neglected study on this side of the ,atlantic and the ignorance in classics often of highly educated scholars is sometimes astounding and would be shocking to pedants of ,european philology4 ,but ,i have not as yet been able to discover that this ignorance concerning a few grammatical rules of two dead languages has wrought great harm4 ,at the same time ,i have noticed that ,european savants in spite of their enormous philological scholarship are sometimes grossly ignorant of the spirit that lived in the so-called classic nations4 ,they have translated ,homer1 have analysed the ,ionic and ,aeolian and ,dorian forms of ,homeric speech1 but they have rarely read ,homer and imbibed the beauties of ,greek poetry4 ,philological scholarship is dry and hard work1 but the study of historical evolution1 to be nourished with the spirit of the past and to see it develop into the spirit of modern times is rather recreation than drudgery4 ,we can keep the latter without plaguing our boys so much as before with the former4 ,the present book contains as introduction an open word by the author to his ,excellency the ,prussian ,secretary of ,education1 ,dr4 von ,gossler1 pointing out the error of his policy not to admit the pupils of ,real-gymnasia to the universities4 ,the bulk of the book is devoted to an explanation of the importance of mathematics in all the sciences4 ,mr4 ,dillmann declares it is a mistake to believe that the objective world is unknowable4 ,kant has torn the world in two halves and by making space and time purely subjective1 he created a gap between the subject and the object1 between mind and nature1 a gap which1 if ,kant's assumption be true1 cannot be bridged4 ,kant's division of the world however is wrong4 ,does not every thinking subject with his feelings and concepts lie in the sphere of objectivity of other subjects8 ,time and space are not purely subjective and the science of time and space is destined to reconcile the conflicting parties1 it will restore peace and harmony again between mind and nature4 ,our world of conception is in immediate contact and interconnection with the world of reality4 ,all intellectual activity is motion of our organ of thought4 ,sensations are produced by motions of the objective world and these sensations are gradually transformed into concepts4 ,words are the embodiment of concepts4 ,the phenomena of the outer world reappear in the symbolism of language1 and thus our intellectual activity can lead to a faithful representation of nature4 ,the world is cognisable1 truth can be born in us and we need not lose the self-confidence in our own abilities4 ,these theoretical explanations are of great interest1 and we need scarcely add that ,mr4 ,dillmann's plan would still retain its value1 if they were proved to contain inaccuracies or errors4 ,we look upon it as the author's philosophical confession of faith1 the main idea of which is indubitably correct while many of its details are without great consequence4 ,we would express the main idea of ,mr4 ,dillmann's book in the following way3 ,formal thought is the basis of all knowledge and a correct comprehension of the main formal sciences especially of mathematics is the primary condition of a scientific education4 4 ,,geistesstoerungen ,,in ,,der ,,schule4 ,ein ,vortrag nebst #ac ,krankenbildern4 ,by ,christian ,ufer4 ,wiesbaden3 ,j4 ,f4 ,bergmann4 #ahia4 ,the subject-matter of this pamphlet was read as a lecture on ,november #ith1 #ahij1 before the ,verein fr wissenschaftliche ,pdagogik at ,weissenfels4 ,the author's aim is1 to bring home to parents and teachers the important idea1 that the treatment of psychical disturbances must be based on our best knowledge of psychology1 and especially of physiological psychology4 ,a deeper insight into pathological conditions1 says ,krafft-,ebing1 will remove many mistakes and tyrannies in our education4 ,teachers as a rule have to deal with healthy children1 but diseased conditions are sufficiently frequent to demand of our teachers that they should learn how to treat them4 ,the cases with which the author illustrates his doctrines show that one of the most common causes of psychic diseases in children must be sought in the nervous disposition of their parents1 their unequal treatment and also their over-anxious ambition which produces excitement in the child's mind without helping him to overcome the rather heavy demands of ,german school-life4 4 ,,the ,,soul ,,of ,,man4 ,an ,investigation of the ,facts of ,physiological and ,experimental ,psychology4 ,by ,dr4 ,paul ,carus4 ,chicago3 ,the ,open ,court ,publishing ,co4 #ahia4 ,the ,editor of ,the ,monist has collected and collated in this book the results of the work done in the field of psychology and its auxiliary sciences4 ,the author's philosophical standpoint is characterised in the first chapter where he contrasts feeling and motion4 ,feeling is defined as the subjective aspect of certain processes which1 viewed objectively1 appear as motions1 and it is described as a state of awareness4 ,feeling originates from the simpler elements of subjectivity and becomes naturally representative1 i4 e4 it acquires meaning4 ,mind is an organised totality of meaning-endowed feelings4 ,the author reconciles from his standpoint idealism with realism4 ,he shows that the fulfilment of mind is truth4444 ,mind expands in the measure that it contains and reflects truth 7p4 #df74 ,the question of telepathy is touched1 yet telepathy has here a different meaning from mystic thought-transference without any means of communication4 ,every sensation is a far feeling in the literal sense of the word1 for we do not feel our sense-organs but in and through our sense organs objects outside of us are felt4 ,in and through our eyes most distant stars are seen4444 ,what is the soul but a telepathic machine8 7p4 #dd7 ,in the chapters following are described the characteristic features of organised life and its rise from non-organised life4 ,the physiological part of the book treats of the soul-life of plants1 then of animals1 and gives by the aid of profuse illustrations an account of the evolution of nervous systems up to man4 ,the chapter on the seat of consciousness proposes a new theory which will be of interest to physiologists as well as psychologists4 ,the recapitulation of the present state of experimental psychology presents the most telling facts of hypnotism1 compares them with their correspondent normal states of soul-life1 and explains them from the standpoint of the author4 ,the conclusion of the book is devoted to the ethical and religious application of this conception of psychology4 ,the practical importance of the new truths in the psychological field is vigorously maintained1 but at the same time it is shown that the old conceptions psychological as well as religious are by no means worthless4 ,they contain great truths and cannot be discarded offhand4 ,in this sense are discussed among others the problems of ,freewill and ,responsibility1 of ,immortality and of the ,god-idea4 ,,periodicals4 ,,mind4 ,april1 #ahia4 ,no4 ,,lxii4 ,,contents3 ,,free-,,will3 ,,an ,,analysis4 ,by ,shadworth ,h4 ,hodgson4 ,,thought ,,and ,,language4 ,by ,g4 ,f4 ,stout4 ,,the ,,nature ,,of ,,consciousness4 ,by ,alexander ,f4 ,shand4 ,,arnold ,,geulincx ,,and ,,his ,,works4 ,by ,professor ,j4 ,p4 ,n4 ,land4 ,,discussion3 #a7 ,on ,thought-,relations4 ,by ,arthur ,eastwood4 #b7 ,notes on ,volition4 ,by ,professor ,a4 ,bain4 #c7 ,on ,psychology and ,metaphysic4 ,by ,j4 ,s4 ,mackenzie4 ,,critical ,,notices3 ,morgan's ,animal ,life and ,intelligence2 ,croll's ,philosophical ,basis of ,evolution2 ,ladd's ,introduction to ,philosophy2 ,stumpf's ,tonpsychologie1 ,,ii4 ,mr4 ,hodgson states that the kernel of the problem of ,free-,will lies in the question whether1 as imagined by ,compulsory ,determinists1 the strongest motive has from the first governed the deliberation or process of choosing1 as it subsequently governs the action chosen1 or whether the victorious motive owes its superior strength to the act or process of deliberation1 which terminates in choice1 as much as to its own initial degree of strength4 ,in favor of the latter view1 he states that choice involves deliberation1 and such deliberation involves a consciousness of incompatible or alternative desires1 and a comparison of their relative degrees of desirability4 ,the act of choice is the same in nature as the act of selective attention in perception and thought1 and is known by the sense of effort or tension which gives it the character of an act1 and the consciousness of a decisive change in the relative desirabilities of the alternative desires represented in the deliberation1 which gives it the character of an act of choice4 ,all true volition is choice1 whether the desire1 almost instantaneously adopted1 is adopted because the will is weak1 or because it is strong4 ,in the former case1 the will is mastered by a powerful motive2 in the latter case1 the motive which it follows receives its strength from the will itself1 in the character of a deliberating agency4 ,to the extent of the deliberation there is freedom4 ,freedom in willing is merely the power to will4 ,volition is the name for the whole action of which ,freedom is the potential state1 and ,choice or ,resolve the completing act4 ,mr4 ,stout's article is in continuation of that on ,apperception and the ,movement of ,attention in the last number of ,mind4 ,intuitional thinking is independent of language and other expressive signs4 ,language is a way of attending indirectly to that which cannot be attended to directly1 and signs which fulfil such a function are expressive signs4 ,an expressive sign must be carefully distinguished from a suggestive sign1 which merely calls up a certain idea which may then be attended to independently of it1 and a substitute sign1 which is a means of not thinking about the meaning which it symbolises4 ,the development of language is a development of self-consciousness4 ,a concept is an apperceptive system objectified by means of an expressive sign4 ,expressive signs are the form1 as distinguished from the matter1 of conceptual thought4 ,the distinction between formal and formless languages acts as a line of demarcation between the language of natural signs and that of conventional signs4 ,gesture-language may be described as formless4 ,it is an instrument of conceptual thinking1 in which the natural signs are either demonstrative or imitative4 ,onomatopia is a phonetic gesture4 ,conventional signs1 being free from the necessary limitations of natural signs1 are capable of expressing adequately and accurately the most specific and the most abstract concepts4 ,in his article on the ,nature of ,consciousness1 ,mr4 ,shand seeks to show that consciousness1 when abstracted from the other acts combined with it1 is a unique judgment1 and as an act of judging it is simple and unanalysable4 ,as a union of act and object1 however1 consciousness is complex4 ,the whole is a judgment which1 besides its object1 contains also the difference between its act and its object4 ,here is shown its contrast with the ,transcendent ,judgment1 which merely judges its object4 ,but there is a fundamental unity between them4 ,each is a judgment--an act concerned about an object different from its act1 and1 as an act1 each is a simple reality4 ,judgment1 universally as an act1 is such a simple reality4 ,reality in consciousness means no more than presentation1 and the act of being conscious is the subject exercising one of its functions4 ,this mysterious something1 the subject1 cannot be resolved into any association of presentations1 nor into any one of them1 nor be derived by abstraction from them1 so far at least as the act of being conscious is concerned1 which is a genuine function of the subject4 ,professor ,land gives a sketch of the life and work of ,arnold ,geulincx1 the ,flemish thinker of the seventeenth century known to students of philosophy in connection with the doctrine of ,occasionalism4 ,the key to ,geulincx's view of philosophy is to be found in his statement that the utterances of our own reason are far less regarded than the shows of senses and fantasy2 although they have their source in the bodily life1 which is radically foreign to the soul1 and can only darken the knowledge of our self and of its true interests4 ,the dualism of mind and body is for ,geulincx a determined fact4 ,professor ,land has undertaken to prepare a complete edition of ,geulincx's works1 the expenses of the publication of which will be defrayed from the balance remaining over from the ,spinoza ,memorial fund4 ,in his discussion on thought-relations1 ,mr4 ,eastwood states that this puzzling expression is interwoven with the whole of ,green's writings1 and requires to be thoroughly explained4 ,the proof that the ,real is identical with the ,thinkable was ,green's great problem1 and to ,hegel's inquiry what are the essential features of thought8 he replied3 the constitution of relations4 ,green found1 however1 that they are not fully adequate in themselves and he called to their aid a spiritual principle or eternal subject4 ,but the reference of relations to the ,eternal ,mind as their subject is a reference to the unknown1 and therefore is1 on grounds of strict reason1 illegitimate4 ,thought-relations are essentially finite1 and are the connecting links of the phenomenal world4 ,in the evolution of thought the absolute is nothing short of the whole1 and especially1 it is the whole process of transition from ,being to the ,idea4 ,the more we try to externalise it or to arrest its movement1 by impressing it with the immutability of thought-relations1 the more it recedes from our grasp4 ,in his ,notes on ,volition1 ,professor ,bain considers whether pain is to be regarded as the sole motive in voluntary action1 or whether the motive is a growing pleasure or a diminishing pleasure1 in concurrence with some form of active exertion4 ,considerations arising from the great differences among pleasures themselves leads him to reject the view that the stimulus of the will is uneasiness pure and simple1 and that pleasure1 as such1 leads to quiescence and contentment4 ,a taste of pleasure constitutes an impetus to seek for more and may be accepted as the normal situation of the human will4 ,the graded scale of voluntary action ranges from the lowest depths of pain1 at which the motive power is at its maximum1 to the highest assignable or attainable modes of pleasure1 approaching which the motive power gradually dies away4 ,mr4 ,mackenzie points out1 in considering ,mr4 ,alexander's criticisms of his ,introduction to ,social ,philosophy1 the importance of distinguishing1 when dealing with the subject of organic development1 between the psychological and the metaphysical points of view1 and that he wrote entirely from the metaphysical point of view4 7,london3 ,williams ,norgate47 4 ,,the ,,american ,,journal ,,of ,,psychology4 ,,contents3 ,february1 #ahia4 ,vol4 ,,iii4 ,no4 #d4 ,,automatic ,,muscular ,,movements ,,among ,,the ,,insane2 ,,their ,,physiological ,,significance4 ,by ,c4 ,p4 ,bancroft4 ,,on ,,the ,,psychology ,,of ,,time4 ,by ,herbert ,nichols4 ,,on ,,the ,,recovery ,,of ,,stimulated ,,ganglion ,,cells4 ,by ,c4 ,f4 ,hodge4 ,,psychological ,,literature4 ,the ,nervous ,system--by ,h4 ,h4 ,donaldson2 ,psychiatry--by ,william ,noyes--,experimental2 ,miscellaneous4 ,,contents3 ,april1 #ahia4 ,vol4 ,,iv4 ,no4 #a4 ,,arithmetical ,,prodigies4 ,by ,e4 ,w4 ,scripture4 ,,the ,,psychology ,,of ,,time4 ,by ,herbert ,nichols4 ,,psychological ,,literature3 ,cerebral ,localisation4 ,by ,henry ,h4 ,donaldson2 ,notes on ,models of the ,brain4 ,by ,h4 ,h4 ,donaldson2 ,a ,laboratory ,course in ,physiological ,psychology4 ,by ,e4 ,c4 ,sanford2 ,contemporary ,psychologists--,prof4 ,edward ,zeller4 ,by ,the ,editor4 ,it is pointed out by ,dr4 ,bancroft that the close relationship between automatic muscular movement and the inhibitory power renders a study of the latter essential to a complete understanding of the subject of automaticity in health and disease4 ,the inhibitory power is intimately associated with all the higher faculties1 and as it must1 in common with them1 seek expression through functional activity of the cerebral cortex1 functional or organic disturbance of this region should be attended by disordered inhibition4 ,in many cases of insanity that portion of the brain that originates the will impulse is cut off by reason of organic or functional disturbance1 and consequently the areas that lie nearer the centrifugal nerves are left to act independently of will and inhibition4 ,the development of mechanical attitudes among the chronic insane is illustrated by a plate exhibiting two cases of melancholia with stupor and two cases of chronic dementia4 ,the literature of the ,psychology of ,time is dealt with by ,mr4 ,nichols from the historical and the experimental standpoints4 ,the most striking feature of the whole time investigation is1 that of all the philosophers and psychologists who have touched upon the problem1 only two of the whole number1 ,condillac obscurely1 and ,james ,mill definitely1 have solved the mystery by letting the sequences themselves be the ultimate mystery--by letting their process1 as process and of itself1 show forth its own explanation4 ,the results of experimental investigations in time psychology are scarcely more satisfactory4 ,most experimenters have confined themselves to the determination of the ,constant ,error1 ,sensibility1 and ,weber's ,law1 yet with difficulty1 if at all1 can the results of any two of such determinations be harmonised4 ,the majority of evidence is strongly against the validity of ,weber's ,law2 also against any fixed or constant ,periodicity4 ,later investigators look to physiological processes for explanation of time-judgments1 and particularly to rhythmic habits of nerve centres4 ,dr4 ,hodge's paper is a continuation of chapters which appeared in the ,american ,journal of ,psychology in ,may #ahhh and ,may #ahhi4 ,his experiments on cats show that spinal ganglion cells do recover from the effects of injuries by electrically stimulating the nerve going to them1 but that the recovery is a slow process4 ,an account is given by ,dr4 ,scripture of the known ,arithmetical ,prodigies4 ,the opinion of ,bidder was that mental calculation depends on two faculties of the mind in simultaneous operation--computing and registering the result6 ,the power to do long calculations in the mind without making a mistake is the most remarkable fact in regard to ready reckoners2 next the wonderful rapidity which some of them have shown4 ,all of them possessed a remarkable impressibility1 and practised modes by which arithmetical associations may be enormously shortened4 ,dr4 ,scripture offers for consideration the points that the power of mental calculation could be greatly developed under cultivation2 that numbers and their values may be learned before figures1 just as a child learns words and their meanings long before he can read2 that it is best to teach calculation by the abacus before ciphering4 ,mr4 ,nichols records in his second article the result of a series of experiments made by him at ,clark ,university to investigate the apparently contradictory results obtained by various experimenters regarding the ,constant ,error of ,time-judgments4 ,the experiments teach nothing of the cause of the ,constant ,error1 but it is shown that those individuals who make the largest constant error1 make the error most constantly in one direction1 and are apt to make a constantly increasing error throughout the series of experiments4 ,mr4 ,nichols's final conclusion is that the processes of our environment1 of our bodily organism1 and of the sensations and images which correspond thereto1 are1 in themselves a sufficient explanation of time-psychology1 and that time perception cannot be explained by any single state or disparate sense1 but alone be accounted for as a process4 7,e4 ,c4 ,sanford1 ,clark ,university1 ,worcester1 ,mass47 ,,international ,,journal ,,of ,,ethics4 ,april1 #ahia4 ,vol4 ,i4 ,no4 #b4 ,,contents3 ,,social ,,equality4 ,by ,leslie ,stephen4 ,,the ,,religious ,,element ,,in ,,ethical ,,codes4 ,by ,prof4 ,c4 ,h4 ,toy4 ,,the ,,right ,,final ,,aim ,,of ,,life4 ,by ,prof4 ,g4 von ,gizycki4 ,,the ,,moral ,,philosopher ,,and ,,the ,,moral ,,life4 ,by ,prof4 ,william ,james4 ,,another ,,view ,,of ,,the ,,ethics ,,of ,,land-,,tenure4 ,by ,prof4 ,simon ,n4 ,patten4 ,,moral ,,tales4 ,by ,clara ,e4 ,collet4 ,mr4 ,leslie ,stephen affirms that it is our duty to try to make men equal by raising the grade of culture in all classes4 ,the distribution of classes would continue1 but it would correspond purely to the telling off of each man to the duties which he is best fitted to discharge4 ,the essential condition of all social improvement is that the individual should be manly1 self-respecting1 doing his duty as well as getting his pay4 ,nothing will do any permanent good which does not imply the elevation of the individual in his standard of honesty1 independence1 and good conduct4 ,one of the earliest studies of life1 says ,professor ,toy1 is that which is known as the clan-constitution of society1 during which two important facts are exhibited1 7#a7 ethical ideas are determined by those of the community1 and 7#b7 the deity of the community is regarded as a member of the clan4 ,both these characteristics have become modified in the progress of civilisation4 ,moral rules and principles have become clearer1 broader1 and higher1 and society has come to be an efficient moral guide and support4 ,religion has moved away from the conception of the tribal god1 and the conception has been formed of the absolute dominion of natural law in the moral world4 ,the end to which human moral history points is a conscience absolutely independent and yet absolutely dependent1--independent in that it refuses to recognise any other authority than its own ideals1 dependent in that it receives its ideals from the life of man1 which is the highest revelation of ,god4 ,according to ,professor von ,gizycki1 the ultimate basis of all ethical demonstration is the supreme standard of good and evil1 the greatest possible happiness of all mankind4 ,various objections urged against this1 as the final aim of life1 are examined by ,professor von ,gizycki and declared not to constitute a decisive case against it4 ,as to the desire to obtain peace of conscience he affirms that this can only follow upon such action as is in conformity with the greatest possible happiness of mankind4 ,the ,professor has modified his former position4 ,the injunction1 ,seek peace of conscience in devoting thyself to the welfare of mankind1 which he had proposed in his ,moral ,philosophy1 implies an impracticable combination of two distinct final aims4 ,either the one or the other must abdicate the supremacy to its rival4 ,we must invoke the aid of ethical self-love in order to insure the victory to the forces which make for good4 ,but our ruling aim ought to be the advancement of the universal happiness of mankind4 ,the main purpose of ,professor ,james's paper is to show that there is no such thing possible as an ethical philosophy dogmatically made up in advance4 ,three questions in ethics must be kept apart--the psychological1 the metaphysical1 and the casuistic4 ,the psychological question asks after the historical origin of our moral ideas and judgments2 the metaphysical question asks the very meaning of the words good1 ill1 and obligation2 the casuistic question asks what is the measure of the various goods and ills which men recognise1 so that the philosopher may settle the true order of human obligation4 ,as to the psychological question1--relations exist in our thought which do not merely repeat the couplings of experience4 ,our ideals have certainly many sources4 ,they are not all explicable as signifying corporeal pleasures to be gained1 and pains to be escaped4 ,as to the metaphysical question1--goodness1 badness1 and obligation must be realised somewhere in order really to exist4 ,without a claim actually made by some concrete person there can be no obligation1 but there is some obligation wherever there is a claim4 ,claim and obligation are co-extensive terms4 ,the words good1 bad1 obligation1 are objects of feeling and desire1 which have no foothold or anchorage in ,being apart from the existence of actually living minds4 ,the religion of humanity affords a basis for ethics as well as theism does4 ,as to the casuistic question--,the best of the marks and measures of goodness is the capacity to bring happiness1 but in seeking for an universal principle we find that the essence of good is simply to satisfy demand4 ,but the actual possible in this world is vastly narrower than all that is demanded1 and the guiding principle for ethical philosophy must be simply to satisfy at all times as many demands as we can4 ,so far as the casuistic question goes1 ethical science is just like physical science1 and must be ready to revise its conclusions from day to day4 ,concrete ethics cannot be final because they have to wait on metaphysics4 ,the final conclusion is that the stable and systematic moral universe for which the ethical philosopher asks is fully possible only in a world where there is a divine thinker with all-enveloping demands4 ,if he now exist1 then actualised in his thought already must be that ethical philosophy which we seek after as the pattern which our own must ever more approach4 ,professor ,patten treats of the economical data bearing on the facts of land-tenure1 and concludes that if no surplus land value goes to the monopolies or to privileged classes1 there is no ethical problem involved4 ,if some of the surplus goes in this way1 then the ethical problem is the same as if all of the produce of industry above a minimum of wages went to increase the surplus4 ,the growth of society in wealth and numbers often makes the man without wealth and land less productive1 because he must use poorer land or less productive instruments4 ,the loss being due to social changes the workman is entitled to compensation for which he should look to society1 which may choose the concrete form in which it shall be made4 ,the expense of doing this should be borne by those who have profited from the prosperity of society4 ,in her interesting paper on ,moral ,tales1 ,mrs4 ,collet passes in review certain books which1 read in childhood1 have left an indelible impression on her mind4 ,chief among them are the ,sandford and ,merton of ,thomas ,day1 who was deeply impressed by the writings of ,rousseau2 the stories of ,maria ,edgeworth1 the most truly democratic of our moral writers2 and those of ,dr4 ,aiken and his sister1 ,mrs4 ,barbauld1 whose writings although pervaded by a strong religious spirit1 are very striking for their unaggressive and yet open declaration of the right to think independently in religion4 ,mrs4 ,collet gives her verdict1 with regard to the moral education of children1 in favor of the voluntary consumption of moral tales4 7,philadelphia3 ,international ,journal of ,ethics1 #afjb ,chestnut ,st47 ,,revue ,,philosophique4 ,,contents3 ,march1 #ahia4 ,no4 #ahc4 ,,pourquoi ,,mourons-,,nous8 ,by ,j4 ,delbuf4 ,,sur ,,un ,,cas ,d',,aboulie ,,et ,d',,idees ,,fixes4 ,by ,pierre ,janet4 ,l',,art ,,et ,,la ,,logique4 7,fin47 ,by ,g4 ,tarde4 ,,analyses ,,et ,,comptes ,,rendus4 ,,revue ,,des ,,periodiques ,,etrangers4 ,,contents3 ,april1 #ahia4 ,no4 #ahd4 ,,qu',,est-,,ce ,,que ,,la ,,physiologie ,,generale8 ,by ,ch4 ,richet4 ,,la ,,philosophie ,,de ,,bacon4 ,by ,victor ,brochard4 ,,sur ,,un ,,cas ,d',,aboulie ,,et ,d',,idees ,,fixes 7,fin47 ,by ,pierre ,janet4 ,,pourquoi ,,mourons-,,nous8 7,fin47 ,by ,j4 ,delbuf4 ,,notes ,,et ,,discussions4 ,,analyses ,,et ,,comptes ,,rendus4 ,,sur ,,un ,,olfactometre4 ,by ,ch4 ,henry4 ,m4 ,delbuf's article is the complement to his studies on the origin of death1 and was inspired by the work of ,m4 ,maupas1 ,recherches exprimentales sur la multiplication des infusoires cilis1 some of the conclusions of which he thinks are not supported by observation and emanate from the sophism1 that which has not been seen does not exist4 ,nevertheless he accepts the opinion of ,m4 ,maupas1 as against ,m4 ,weismann1 that the protozoa as well as the metazoa1 are mortal as individuals1 although immortal in and by the species4 ,m4 ,delbuf accounts for the change from fissiparity to sexuality by reference to mathematical law applicable to the transformation of species1 according to which from the moment that a constant cause begins to make a type vary1 in however small a degree1 the variations will end by victoriously disputing the position with it4 ,the death of the ciliated infusoria is then not due1 as supposed by ,m4 ,maupas1 to the effect of a senile alteration of their elements proceeding from an internal cause1--which would render inexplicable the unaltered maintenance of the species1--but the effect of a disequilibration of their organism due to a sort of mathematically fatal external physical constraint4 ,the two corpuscles in the union of which the conjugation of those infusoria consists are regarded by ,m4 ,delbuf as truly male and female1 and he affirms that before uniting they make a choice of individuals apt to rejuvenate4 ,intelligence is thus the indispensable factor of the perpetuity of races4 ,the answer to the double question1 ,why is individual matter mortal and specific matter immortal1 is reserved for another number4 ,m4 ,janet's interesting study is of a subject1 a young girl of #bb1 who1 as the title denotes1 exhibits an almost total loss of the faculty of will1 partly through hereditary causes and partly consequent on a serious attack ,of typhoid fever4 ,marcelle has a singular difficulty of movement1 which extends to all the voluntary movements of the arms1 the legs1 and even the tongue and the lips1 and is due to a kind of paralysis4 ,she is1 however1 extremely suggestible1 and very easily hypnotised4 ,by experiment ,m4 ,janet found that the difficulty of a movement is in proportion to its novelty4 ,the difficulty consisted in forming the synthesis of ideas and images which constitutes the commencement of the act1 but its repetition is easy when the act has been once done4 ,marcelle sometimes went into a demi-cataleptic state during which she had a crisis of ideas1 which she described as a cloud passing4 ,she complained that during the cloud her head spoke constantly4 ,this ,m4 ,janet explains by reference to the theory of ,m4 ,sglas that there are several kinds of verbal hallucinations as of language1 that is hallucinations of hearing1 of visual images1 and of tactile and muscular sensations attendant on speaking or writing1 the last named being the psychic hallucinations or the epigastric voices of the insane4 ,during the lucid intervals ,marcelle performed the commands given to her by her hallucinations while under the cloud1 like a person who while in a state of somnambulism receives a posthypnotic suggestion4 ,in this concluding article on ,art and ,logic1 ,m4 ,tarde1 after considering the characteristic differences between industry and art1 from the point of view of the desires of consumption and production proper to them1 deals with the distinctive characters of the work of art considered in itself and the reason of its being4 ,the attribute of the work of art is to be interesting4 ,art is a game1 but a serious and profound game1 like love1 and it is born of leisure and pleasure4 ,the unity of the work of art consists simply in the coupling of a question and an answer1 a problem and a solution1 a combat and a victory4 ,every phrase1 musical or spoken1 is a wave which rises and descends1 and in every art whatever all is phrases and waves1 and their combination is itself a complex wave1 a period4 ,in the undulating mirror of art we see again social life in action2 since esthetics reflect the dynamic1 and not the static1 social logic4 ,m4 ,tarde criticises the theory of ,spencer that all the arts are derived from architecture1 and shows that the first art was speech and that from speech1 spoken or written1 all art is derived4 ,narrative poetry1 the epic poem1 is the complex germ of all artistic development2 and as art began in narration1 it ends in the drama1 because man is above all social4 ,art1 or reflection of man1 borrows by turns its dominant inspiration from the passions of life or the inspirations of society4 ,m4 ,richet sums up his description of ,general ,physiology in the formula3 ,life is a chemical function4 ,his most important conclusions are that the general laws of life are chemical laws1 and respond to the chemical conditions of hydratation1 temperature1 electricity and pressure2 force is condensed in living beings under the form of chemical energy1 and manifests itself outwardly1 by movement1 by electricity1 by light1 by heat1 or by thought4 7,we consider this juxtaposition of electricity1 light1 heat and thought as extremely misleading1 and so is the definition of life as a chemical function4 ,it appears1 then1 that ,m4 ,richet considers thought also a chemical process4 ,that physiological actions are processes which have their own conditions and are different from chemical and physical processes1 has been explained in ,the ,monist1 ,no4 #c4 p4 #dac-dad47 ,m4 ,richet continues3 ,living beings are cellular aggregates1 but in animals the nervous system forms a centre of unity1 from whence proceed motor excitations and where sensible excitations terminate2 cellules and beings are organised to live3 they are adapted to the ambient medium1 and to all the causes of destruction which can reach them4 ,thus their acts1 although often automatic and deprived of all intelligence1 appear to us admirably intelligent2 the sensations and consciousness of intelligent beings are in agreement with the needs of the organism1 and tend to strengthen the automatic mechanisms by means of which beings resist death1 whether it be the death of the individual or that of the species4 ,m4 ,brochard takes exception to ,m4 ,barthlemy ,saint-,hilaire's opinion of ,bacon as a philosopher1 and endorses the views expressed by ,m4 ,charles ,adam in his ,memoir crowned by the ,academy4 ,bacon not only saw what scientific induction should be1 but indicated with perfect precision the conditions that it ought to fulfil4 ,added to the theory of method is the theory of forms1 which is the culminating point of ,bacon's philosophy4 ,m4 ,adam shows that the word form is used by ,bacon to express the true difference1 or that by which a thing is defined2 the essence or the thing in its intimate constitution2 and a law of pure act1 7lex actus puri74 ,m4 ,brochard adopts ,m4 ,adam's explanation1 that by this law is to be understood a disposition in space1 an arrangement of material parts1 in other terms1 a mechanical or mathematical relation--and he justifies ,m4 ,adam's assertion1 and shows that ,bacon resembled ,galileo and ,descartes in divining that physics rested on mathematics1 and that the pure act was produced whenever certain arrangements of material molecules are formed according to mechanical conditions4 ,bacon superposes1 in some sort1 a philosophy of quality on a philosophy of quantity1 and achieves the passage from movement to quality so embarrassing for every doctrine which gives a place to mechanism4 ,m4 ,janet concludes his study of the curious case of aboulism presented by ,marcelle1 giving details of her experiences under the influence of hypnotism and suggestion1 which greatly ameliorated her condition1 temporarily at least4 ,the nature of her disease approaches much the mental feebleness described elsewhere by ,m4 ,janet under the name of psychological disaggregation with contracting of the field of consciousness1 but differs from it in several particulars4 ,it consists essentially in a weakening of the faculty of synthesis which ought1 at every moment of life1 to co-ordinate afresh our sensations and our images4 ,the study of this enfeeblement shows the importance of the novelty of acts in connection with the will1 the rle of the will in apparently the most simple perceptions1 the necessity of voluntary synthesis for originating habits and recollections1 the connection between doubt and defective perception1 and the development of various hallucinations4 ,before answering the question why we die1 ,m4 ,delbuf considers the origin of life4 ,he makes a distinction between dead matter and living matter4 ,on this subject he has published a book entitled ,la matire brute et la matire vivante4 ,he affirms that life in the universe began with living1 sensible atoms1 endowed with will and liberty1 and having a knowledge of their own movement4 ,this life gradually concentrated itself in germs having the faculty of perpetuating themselves4 ,they remained naked and some of those germs still continue composed almost entirely of reproductive1 that is essentially living1 substance4 ,the others have gradually become clothed with a body1 a kind of protective envelope4 ,the life of this envelope is not inherent2 it has been communicated by the germs that it protects1 and at the end of a period of a greater or less duration it becomes useless1 fades and dies4 ,life is sustained by nutrition but the assimilating faculty diminishes by degrees1 until it ceases1 and at last1 the reparation of our organs not being equal to their wear1 they are not able to fulfil their mission4 ,the decay of living matter is due to the operation of physical and chemical laws4 ,assimilation is at the base of life1 and it is exhibited in inorganic nature as well as in living beings4 ,living bodies must have some permanent centres of assimilation around which the nutritive elements group4 ,the earliest of these centres was the germ1 in which is the supreme or immortal life1 and which immortalises that part of the nutriment which becomes incorporated with it4 ,although the organs of nutrition deteriorate and die1 the reproductive organs remain eternally young1 in power at least4 ,nutrition itself is manifested either as alimentation1 or as conjugation or fecundation1 and is a phenomenon analogous to copulation4 ,m4 ,delbuf then proceeds to show the uniformity in the modes of propagation1 and gives reasons for believing1 contrary to the views of ,van ,beneden1 that the cellule-egg1 and not the spermatozoid1 is hermaphrodite4 ,the ovary is the true depository of the immortal propagative substance4 ,woman is the inexhaustible source of life4 7,paris3 ,felix ,alcan47 ,,zeitschrift ,f,r ,,psychologie ,,und ,,physiologie ,,der ,,sinnesorgane4 ,vol4 ,,ii4 ,no4 #c4 ,,contents3 ,,zur ,,psychologie ,,der ,,sprache4 ,by ,robert ,sommer4 ,,zur ,,theorie ,,des ,,raeumlichen ,,vorstellens ,,mit ,,ruecksicht ,,auf ,,eine ,,nachbildlokalisation4 ,by ,c4 ,s4 ,cornelius4 ,,die ,,seelenfrage4 ,by ,j4 ,rehmke4 ,,litteraturbericht4 ,professor ,grashey1 now of ,munich1 formerly of ,wrzburg1 has published in the ,archiv fr ,psychiatrie 7,vol4 ,,xvi1 p4 #fed ff47 an interesting case of a peculiar kind of aphasia4 ,a man whose name is ,voit1 #cb years old1 engaged for menial service in the brewing business1 received an injury on the head4 ,he was treated at the psychiatric clinic of ,wrzburg by ,professor ,grashey and dismissed as cured1 yet five years after the accident he was again submitted to the professor's investigations and it was found that he was suffering from amnestic aphasia4 ,he could not remember the name of anything for a few seconds4 ,professor ,grashey drew the following conclusion from ,voit's case3 ,there is an aphasia which is based neither upon the functionary inability of certain centres nor upon the interruption of commissural connections1 but exclusively upon a diminution of the sense-impressions1 which causes a disturbance of apprehension and association4 ,voit was unable to name any object shown him unless he could spell it with the assistance of his hands1 legs1 or even his tongue4 ,by writing only could he find the names of objects4 ,dr4 ,sommer objects to ,professor ,grashey's interpretation of the case and shows convincingly from the symptoms1 as represented in the ,archiv fr ,psychiatrie by ,grashey himself1 that whenever ,voit was prevented from making writing gestures 7which was done by holding his hands and legs immovable and by ordering him to show his tongue so that he could not employ it for writing on the roof of his mouth7 he could never find the name of any object4 ,accordingly it is no case of amnesia2 ,voit actually has only one way left for finding words1 that is by spelling them4 ,now it is generally supposed1 that we first see an object1 and recognise it at the centre of vision4 ,the nervous irritation is thence transmitted to the centre of language2 the sight of a knife evokes in the centre of speech the word knife and we suppose that the spoken or heard word will in the centre of writing awaken the motor stimuli of spelling the word4 ,the present case proves that if this be the rule there are exceptions to it and ,dr4 ,sommer proposes the question1 ,how can we explain the case8 ,it is strange that the man is not deprived of concepts2 so long as he is prevented from writing he is only deprived of naming things or concepts4 ,he never failed to recognise similar things as belonging to the same class1 but so long as he was tied at tongue and limb1 he could never find their common name4 ,for instance a guitar and a trumpet were shown him while he was bound1 as it was called4 ,when asked1 ,do they belong together8 he nodded emphatically4 7,he had to answer by nods because he had to show his tongue47 ,when asked1 ,do you know their names8 he shook his head and could never find their names until he was allowed to make writing gestures with either one of his limbs or his tongue4 ,in this way he recognised and classified things correctly1 but he never named them except by spelling the names4 ,such things or pictures of things shown him were the following3 ,guitar--trumpet--3 musical instruments4 ,gun--canon--3 arms4 ,sickle--watering-pot--3 utensils4 ,lantern--lamp--3 lights4 ,palace--barn--3 buildings1 etc4 ,dr4 ,sommer says3 ,suppose that those parts of the brain the loss of which according to modern experiments and pathological observations cause a loss of memory-pictures1 are thought of as motor apparatuses1 the destruction of which has a similar effect as in the present case1 the binding which prevented ,voit from spelling3 in this case amnesia might find an explanation without the crude materialistic assumption that they are localised in the injured cells4 ,dr4 ,sommer only throws out the hint without finding space to explain himself4 ,yet it appears to us that whether amnesia is produced by the destruction of the centres or of their supposed motor apparatuses that the one is not less and not more crude materialism than the other4 ,the problem it appears has nothing to do with materialism1 but with the mechanism of the brain4 ,the fibres of association seem to work in ,voit's brain in the opposite direction to what we should expect4 ,the normal path is apparently interrupted4 ,the sight of an object does not evoke its name4 ,yet are there not innumerable fibres of association which may reach the desired end--in this case the pronunciation of the name--in a roundabout way8 ,there must be1 for the facts prove it4 ,one thing in the case of ,voit is patent4 ,when ,voit finds the names by writing them1 he apparently knows the written word1 he cannot pronounce it1 because he does not know the spoken word1 the centre of spoken words being the seat of the injury4 ,he has a concept of the thing1 he could write it1 but he cannot pronounce it4 ,the roundabout way leads through a province not directly accessible to consciousness4 ,the written word is not in the same immediate contact with consciousness as the spoken word4 ,that this is so we know from actual and daily experience4 ,who has not tried to assure himself of the correct spelling of a word by writing it down and thus leaving the test to the unconscious memory of the motions of our hand8 ,c4 ,s4 ,cornelius discusses the theory of spatial conception with special reference to a localisation of after-images4 ,he takes the position that we are in relation to the outer world through sensation only1 rejecting all assumptions of innate ideas1 of a special space sense1 etc4 ,sensation1 he says1 is an intensive state4 ,the conception of space-relations can originate only by a multiplicity of sensations which through the qualitative contrasts affect each other and arrange themselves in a certain order beside each other4 ,the vertical and horizontal conception height and breadth1 are easily explained1 but depth1 the third dimension of space affords some difficulty4 ,th4 ,lipps denies the existence of an apprehension of depth1 yet ,cornelius maintains that it actually exists4 ,he explains it in the same way as the vertical and horizontal space-conceptions as originating from muscle sensation4 ,it cannot be denied that upon the whole space-sense is the product and the interpretation of motion experiences mainly due to the activity of the muscles of the eye4 ,but it appears that the conception of the third dimension of sight is not due alone1 as says ,cornelius1 to muscle activity4 ,the investigations of ,wundt and of ,mach1 which are not taken into consideration by ,cornelius1 prove that the perspective and the distribution of light and shade are essential elements in our perception of the third dimension in space4 ,our eyes have become accustomed by the information received through other channels1 especially the sense of touch1 to interpret perspective in combination with certain shadings as depth so that even the one-eyed man sees things not as two dimensional pictures but as three dimensional corporeal forms4 ,a subject of extraordinary interest is discussed by ,j4 ,rehmke1 who criticises ,o4 ,flgel's position and contrasts it with his own4 ,o4 ,flgel has published a book1 entitled ,die ,seelenfrage1 treating the subject from the narrow standpoint of ,herbart's school4 ,it is unnecessary to state that ,herbart has great merits in the evolution of our psychological views4 ,he attempted to introduce mathematical methods in order to define exactly the dynamics and statics of the soul4 ,herbart failed1 although he gave new impulses to psychological investigations which have proved valuable in many ways4 ,many of his disciples are now busy perpetuating his mistakes4 ,flgel is one among them4 ,flgel emphasises the immateriality of the soul1 but being like his master an advocate of atomism he postulates soul atoms which are mathematical points4 ,atomism1 ,flgel declares1 must reject actio in distans because it is 7#a7 inconceivable1 7#b7 nonsensical and contradictory1 and 7#c7 because force is an accidens of matter1 matter being the substance4 ,the accidens can have no effects1 it cannot exist1 where the substance is not4 ,flgel also lays much stress on the disparity of feeling and motion1 and of thought and motion4 ,soul and body are to him two distinct things and their interaction is explained through the contact of the point-like1 immaterial soul atom and the brain atoms4 ,rehmke points out that this view in spite of its professed hostility toward materialism is extremely materialistic1 but the view which he proposes himself suffers from similar errors4 ,flgel has preserved the unity and the immortality of the soul which is an indestructible immaterial mathematical point1 moving about in our brain4 ,rehmke also preserves the unity and immortality of the soul3 he believes in a subjectum1 in an ego which is the essence having the states of consciousness as attributes4 ,the soul according to ,rehmke is not space-given1 it is an immaterial something which has sensations4 ,we should accordingly make a distinction between the ego as the subject and the ego as our bodily existence2 moreover we should distinguish between the state of consciousness and the object of consciousness4 ,rehmke takes the word contents of consciousness in the sense of signifying that which the ego possesses4 ,the state of consciousness is always the same1 it has no evolution1 no growth1 no development4 ,the object of consciousness however constantly changes4 ,the subject of consciousness is the soul4 ,the interconnection between soul and body is not denied1 but there can be no thought of a contact between the immaterial and the material4 ,the soul is1 but it is not in space1 it is nowhere1 and its co-operation with the body is described as an exemplary together--an expression to which1 we are sorry to say1 we cannot attach any meaning4 ,j4 ,rehmke objects also to the theory that feeling and motion1 soul and body1 the spiritual and the material are two sides of one and the same thing4 ,if this two sides theory were correct1 he says1 the soul would be an abstract and so would be the body4 ,but1 he adds1 all abstracts are immutable1 unchangeable and the object of psychology is something that is observed to possess evolution4 ,now it is true that some abstracts represent immutable concepts2 matter is such an abstract4 ,matter is that which all matters have in common and the abstract matter is everywhere the same2 we cannot speak of the evolution of matter as such4 ,but other abstracts are not so rigid4 ,take for instance life4 ,life is an abstract1 but it would be a strange proposition to say that there can be no evolution of life because life is an abstract1 all abstracts being unchangeable1 immutable1 invariable4 ,we cannot agree with ,flgel1 but ,j4 ,rehmke's psychological views are still less acceptable4 7,hamburg and ,leipsic3 ,l4 ,voss47 4 ,,vierteljahrsschrift ,f,r ,,wissenschaftliche ,,philosophie4 ,vol4 ,,xv4 ,nos4 #a and #b4 ,,contents3 ,,der ,,sogenannte ,,naive ,,realismus4 ,by ,r4 ,seydel4 ,,das ,,problem ,,der ,,aussenwelt4 ,by ,s4 ,hansen4 ,,experimentelle ,,patho-,,psychologie4 7,erster ,artikel47 ,by ,m4 ,dessoir4 ,,ueber ,,anschauung ,,und ,,ihre ,,psychische ,,verarbeitung4 ,by ,b4 ,kerry4 ,,der ,,folgerungscalcul ,,und ,,die ,,inhaltslogik4 ,by ,e4 ,g4 ,husserl4 ,,experimentelle ,,patho-,,psychologie4 7,zweiter ,artikel47 ,by ,m4 ,dessoir4 ,r4 ,seydel regards sight alone as space-sense and the other senses as time-senses4 ,this1 he says1 is the reason why there is no nave realism for any other sense but sight4 ,s4 ,hansen1 taking our concepts and sensations as the data from which we have to start1 discusses the problem of the reality of the outer world4 ,he arrives at the conclusion1 that if there is a thing in itself1 the phenomenon is only one side of it1 viz1 that side which it reveals4 ,the thing in itself is the real world in which we live and of which we speak in daily life1 although we know it only through phenomena1 i4 e4 our concepts4 ,max ,dessoir presents a review of ,experimental ,patho-psychology as it has developed in the last decades through the extraordinary attention bestowed upon the phenomena of hypnotism and kindred subjects4 ,he discusses experimental patho-psychology with special reference to the great problems of 7#a7 consciousness1 7#b7 the relation between feeling and motion1 7#c7 memory1 and 7#d7 personality4 ,the two former points are discussed in the first article1 the two latter in the conclusion4 ,max ,dessoir emphasises in this essay again his theory of the double ego which he proposed in his pamphlet1 ,das ,doppel-,ich4 ,b4 ,kerry's article is the conclusion of a series of essays on intuition 7i4 e4 apprehension or sensation7 and its psychical transformation4 ,the author distinguishes between subjective concepts and objective concepts4 ,if ,i think for instance of all the grapes that will grow this year in ,italy1 ,i do not know in my subjective conception their definite number4 ,it is a definite number nevertheless4 ,this concept is the objective concept4 ,he devotes much space to a discussion of the rigidity of ,kant's aprioristic judgment #geab4 ,the most important point is ultimately how this judgment possesses necessity4 ,the author observes that the theorems of arithmetic possess necessity while we cannot attribute necessity to the results of calculation4 ,our faculty of calculation1 ,b4 ,kerry says1 should be considered as aprioristic1 or more correctly1 it is a complex of primitive faculties1 and these are3 our faculty to apprehend in some contents of our apprehension something else which is designated afterwards as a concept derived from that contents2 that is our faculty of forming abstracts4 ,further our faculty of comparison and at last our faculty of combining and separating4 ,these faculties are aprioristic in the psychological sense of the word1 which to-day is not recognised1 in the sense of being innate4 ,the whole article is written in a heavy style and in extra-,teutonic constructions with innumerable dashes containing parenthetical sentences and other bewildering explanations4 ,we have after all not been able to discover how the judgment #geab possesses necessity4 ,e4 ,g4 ,husserl criticises the position of several modern logicians1 ,boole1 ,venn1 ,peirce1 and especially ,e4 ,schroeder1 who published in the ,gttinger ,gelehrten ,anzeigen an article on the ,logical ,calculus4 ,husserl says that the logic of the logical calculus is in a wretched condition still4 ,its advocates have attained to clearness neither concerning the limits of this discipline nor its relation to deductive logic and to arithmetic4 ,the logical considerations upon which the technique is built1 are as a rule of such a kind that they cannot bear the most superficial criticism4 ,and this calculus pretends to be a thoroughly reformed and the truly exact logic4 ,it is natural that among the logicians the more scientific upon the whole keep aloof here4 ,however the logical foundation of arithmetic is just as weak1 yet this does not suffice to discard it4 ,i believe that logical algebra in spite of its limited practical applicability should not be underrated1 and that it should be of high interest to the logician for the sake of its actual merits4 ,in the struggle between the logic of circumference and the logic of contents1 ,husserl maintains that a calculus of pure deductions can be constructed upon the basis of operations which are strictly without any contents4 7,leipsic3 ,o4 ,r4 ,reisland47 4 ,,philosophische ,,monatshefte4 ,vol4 ,,xxvii4 ,nos4 #e and #f4 ,,contents3 ,,wilhelm ,,wundt',s ,,system ,,der ,,philosophie4 ,by ,johannes ,volkelt4 ,,die ,,daenische ,,philosophie ,,des ,,letzten ,,jahrzehnts4 ,by ,knud ,ipsen4 ,,recensionen4 ,,litteraturbericht4 ,,bibliographie4 ,by ,prof4 ,dr4 ,f4 ,ascherson4 ,johannes ,volkelt criticises in a long article ,wundt's ,system der ,philosophie4 ,we do not have the work under discussion at hand1 but judging simply from the quotations made in the present article1 we can confidently say that ,volkelt has misunderstood ,wundt's position4 ,we shall here confine ourselves to one point only which is of paramount importance1 and ,johannes ,volkelt fully appreciates its importance4 ,this point is the problem1 ,can we have any objective knowledge at all8 ,this is the way we should formulate the question4 ,volkelt1 however1 asks whether the trans-subjective can successfully be made object of our cognition4 ,it is maintained that there is a trace of nave ,realism left in ,wundt1 because his trans-subjectivism remains unproven1 and subject and object are treated as inseparably connected4 ,wundt says3 ,as soon as we make the erroneous proposition that the object of our perception is only a perception1 we shall in vain try to get somehow out from our subjective perception and to regain in some way the lost object4 ,this idea is objected to4 ,also the following passages are quoted from ,wundt3 ,reality once destroyed cannot be restored merely through pure thought1 and the theory of cognition has not to create reality from elements that do not as yet contain it4 ,we agree perfectly with ,wundt and have expressed similar ideas in the article ,the ,origin of ,mind1 ,no4 #a of ,the ,monist4 ,perception is a relation between object and subject4 ,it is an error of idealism to consider the subject alone as given4 ,the data of experience are states of subject-object-ness4 ,the idea of mere subjectivity is as much an abstraction as the idea of things in themselves4 ,accordingly the term trans-subjective is a misnomer4 ,all perceptions being impressions of objects and serving as symbols for their correspondent objects contain an objective element4 ,as soon as we disregard this truth1 we shut ourselves up in the hollow globe of pure ideality2 objectivity becomes an unwarrantable assumption and there is no way out of our own subjectivism4 ,knud ,ipsen sketches the history of the ,danish philosophy during the last ten years4 ,he mentions five philosophers1 ,hffding1 ,kroman1 ,wilkens1 ,lehmann1 and ,starcke1 among whom ,hffding is by far the most prominent4 ,all the ,danish philosophers have one feature in common4 ,kroman made a distinction between philosophy and world-conception2 philosophy should make such propositions only as can be logically proven1 not otherwise than theories have to be proven in the sciences4 ,yet a world-conception is the work mainly of our emotion and imagination4 ,accordingly philosophy and world-conception are two distinct things which have nothing in common4 ,this position seems to be generally accepted by the ,danish philosophers1 and as a natural consequence ,ipsen says1 we can speak no more of philosophy1 but only of philosophical disciplines4 ,the unity of philosophy1 its ideal of system is lost4 ,metaphysics is dead in ,denmark and the search for the universal laws of existence is also given up4 ,philosophy has ceased to be the science of the sciences and has become an aggregate of scientific disciplines4 ,on this point there is a tacit agreement so that there is no useless struggle about great and insolvable problems1 and since ,hffding wrote on the relation between faith and science1 our ,danish philosophers also shun all theological interference4 ,a division of labor has taken place so that psychology has been treated by ,hffding1 ,kroman1 and ,lehmann1 ,ethics by ,hffding and ,starcke1 ,logic by ,hffding and ,kroman1 ,sociology by ,wilkens and ,starcke1 and sthetics by ,wilkens4 ,professor ,hffding and ,kroman in spite of their consensus in rejecting the unity of philosophy represent a very strong contrast1 which is best characterised by their method of treating the law of causation4 ,kroman rejects all the former evidences employed to prove the law of cause and effect4 ,empiricism is wrong because it can at best show the temporal succession of two phenomena1 and apriorism is wrong because a priori knowledge lies in the subject alone and not in the object4 ,in causation1 however1 the objects play an important part1 and we can never know whether the objects will always conform to the subjective and a priori laws4 ,kroman's view of the subject is that the causal law is the sole condition by which we can acquire any knowledge at all1 accordingly for the sake of self-preservation we hope that this condition will be fulfilled4 ,the causal law accordingly is not only the condition of all knowledge1 it is also the postulate with which we have to start4 ,hffding attacks the problem in a different way4 ,he asks first3 ,how do we come at all to a reality supposed to be independent of the subject8 and ,what is the import of this reality8 ,reality according to ,hffding is not yet given in sense-perception1 we arrive at the idea of reality not until our sense-perceptions are arranged in a coherent system4 ,if ,i see a picture at the wall1 this may be an hallucination1 but if my sense of touch corroborates the perception of sight1 ,i consider it as a reality4 ,thus the idea of reality originates and this reality is not distinguishable from a coherent and self-consistent dream4 ,to the dreamer his dream is reality4 ,now the question of causality is not legitimate1 whether things conform to the law of causation1 for indeed we know things only by their being causes or effects4 ,the main function of our consciousness is to recognise similarities and dissimilarities1 it searches for unity and this search is performed through the application of the causal law4 ,hffding accordingly considers both ideas1 the causal nexus and reality1 as being of the same value4 ,his causal law is more than a postulate1 it is in part a result4 ,our organ of cognition would die of atrophy if it were not constantly nourished1 and we should share the fate of ,tantalus were we condemned to investigate and always unable to discover4 ,kroman looks upon the law of inertia as a special application of the causal law4 ,to him the conservation of matter and energy is an hypothesis4 ,hffding looks upon the law of inertia as a material principle4 ,where ,kroman speaks of energy1 ,hffding speaks of corporeal energy4 7,it may be that here the ,german translation krperliche ,kraft is at fault47 ,as a material principle the law of inertia is something more than a mere corollary of the causal law1 for in its present form it has made science possible4 ,the conservation of matter and energy is conceived in an analogous manner1 but considered as natural laws both propositions possess a mere hypothetical value4 ,it appears to us that the law of cause and effect lies deeper still1 and there can be no doubt that the law of the conservation of matter and energy is the same thing only formulated for different purposes4 ,hume's merit was exceedingly great when he laid his finger on the sore spot of philosophical thought1 pointing out the prevailing confusion about the law of causation4 ,but when investigating the subject1 he led us on a wrong track4 ,cause and effect are not two objects following one another1 and not even two phenomena following one another4 ,it is not a synthesis of two events4 ,it is on the contrary an analysis of one event4 ,cause and effect is a change4 ,in this change the same amount of matter and energy is preserved1 yet the form is altered4 ,hume broke the process of cause and energy into pieces1 he lost sight of their interconnection and was astonished that one piece was not exactly the same as the other4 ,hence his skepticism4 ,the law of cause and effect can be proved1 except to him who would obstinately refuse to acknowledge the law of identity that ,a,a4 ,there may be some one who thinks that something can come out of nothing1 or that something can suddenly disappear into nothing4 ,if there is1 the weight of the argument rests with him1 yet we shall not listen to him until he presents an unequivocal case in which we can observe a transition from being into not-being or vice versa4 ,until then we consider the law of identity and also its practical application and corollary1 the conservation of matter and energy as unrefuted4 ,the law of cause and effect and its corollary the conservation of matter and energy rest ultimately upon our recognition of the ,gesetzmssigkeit of formal laws4 ,he who acknowledges the correctness of the statement #bbd as universal and necessary1 implicitly accepts also the law of causation and of the conservation of matter and energy4 ,the law of the conservation of matter and energy contains no other proposition than this that #bb will always be #bb or its product1 i4 e4 #d2 it will never be less1 it will never be more4 ,the ultimate basis of the law of causation lies in the laws of form4 ,we may call causality and the law of inertia and the conservation of matter and energy hypotheses1 but in that case the meaning of the term hypothesis would have to be changed1 for if these laws are hypotheses1 the statement #bbd would be just as much an hypothesis4 99 99 99 99 99 ,in psychology ,kroman and ,hffding are more antagonistic than in any other subject4 ,both consider the soul as an x1 but ,kroman attributes to this x1 unity and the faculty of feeling1 willing and thinking2 ,hffding however looks upon feeling and motion as two sides of the same unknown object4 ,kroman in spite of his formal opposition to metaphysicism still believes in a subject underlying the acts of consciousness4 ,after all1 the name only of metaphysicism seems to be dead in ,denmark1 not metaphysicism itself4 ,hffding has shown how ,kroman's psychological theory has led him into a highly mythical conception of the activity of the soul4 ,we may add that the proposition of non-interference with theological views may be excellent in preserving peace1 but we cannot help considering this kind of peace as a mistaken policy4 ,if there are conflicts between theology and philosophy1 they should be settled1 for there cannot be two contradictory truths1 and it is wrong also to leave errors alone simply for the sake of peace4 ,yet it is objected that religion is a matter of the heart and philosophy a matter of the brain4 ,certainly1 but the heart should have its emotion regulated by the brain4 ,if our world-conception is the product mainly of our emotions and of our imagination1 it would be simply foolish to let the heart build its world-conception just as it pleases without consulting the head4 ,wherever philosophy and religion or our world-conception 7the latter considered as the product of our emotion7 have nothing to say to each other1 wherever they are kept distinct1 it will lead to confusion in all the departments of our existence1 it will put our philosophy1 our scientific thought1 and our ethics out of joint4 ,a rent will go through the world of our life producing disharmony in every spot and the end will be a dreary pessimism4 ,our emotions are not a separate chamber of our being which should be kept private and unaffected by scientific knowledge1 our emotions are springs of action1 and it is of paramount importance to keep them in harmony with our knowledge of facts4 ,the policy of theological non-interference may do for some time1 but certainly not long4 ,it is a mere armistice but no peace1 and honest war is better than a sham-truce which is an ill-concealed state of intolerable hostility4 7,heidelberg3 ,g4 ,weiss47 4 ,,voprosui ,,filosofii ,i ,,psichologii4 ,vol4 ,,ii4 ,no4 #c4 ,march1 #ahia4 ,,contents3 ,,schiller',s ,,doctrine ,,of ,,beauty ,,and ,,sthetical ,,enjoyment4 ,by ,p4 ,kalenov4 ,,on ,,the ,,nature ,,of ,,human ,,consciousness4 7,conclusion47 ,by ,prince ,c4 ,n4 ,trubetzkoi4 ,,ideals ,,and ,,reality4 ,by ,b4 ,v4 ,a4 ,golzev4 ,,letters ,,on ,,count ,l4 ,n4 ,,tolstoi',s ,,book ,,of ,,life4 7,continuation47 ,by ,a4 ,a4 ,kozlov4 ,,religious ,,metaphysics ,,of ,,the ,,moslem ,,orient4 ,a ,sketch4 ,by ,c4 ,umanetz4 ,,the ,,morality ,,of ,,mentally ,,diseased ,,persons4 ,ethics ,of ,mental ,diseases4 ,by ,v4 ,tchij4 ,,criticism ,,and ,,bibliography4 #a7 ,introduction to the history of the new philosophy4 ,problems of history and of the history of philosophy4 ,the significance of ancient and medival philosophy4 ,by ,n4 ,grote4 #b7 ,the ideals of most recent ,ethics4 ,a review of ,w4 ,wundt's ,eine ,untersuchung der ,thatsachen und ,gesetze des sittlichen ,lebens4 ,by ,a4 ,bao4 ,,review ,,of ,,scientific ,,periodicals4 ,,book ,,reviews4 ,russian and foreign books on ,methodology1 ,logic1 ,psychology1 ,psycho-pathology and ,philosophy of history4 ,,polemics ,,on ,n4 ,n4 ,,lange',s ,,article4 ,by ,e4 ,tchelpanov4 ,,appendix3 #a7 ,materials for the history of philosophy in ,russia4 #ahee-ahhh4 7,continuation47 ,y4 ,kohibovsky4 #b7 ,bibligraphical ,index4 #c7 ,proceedings of ,the ,psychological ,society4 ,schiller's ,doctrine of ,beauty and sthetical ,enjoyment4 ,the nations of western ,europe have been long familiar with ,schiller's doctrine of beauty and of sthetical enjoyment2 but one must agree with the writer1 that it is still a subject that has not outlived1 probably never will outlive1 that unfading freshness and deep interest which it ever must possess to all cultured and thinking minds4 ,the writer1 moreover1 calls attention to the fact1 that as regards ,russia1 ,schiller1 although well-known as a poet1 is too little known as a philosopher4 ,on the ,nature of ,consciousness4 ,concluding his series of articles on the nature of human consciousness with an internal analysis of consciousness1 the writer remarks1 that without having recourse to the testimony of hypnotic experiments or to the phenomenon of so-called mental suggestion1 which so conspicuously demonstrates the reciprocal compenetration of the individual sphere of consciousness1 we find a constant1 normal1 and substantial bond between that which constitutes and conditions the whole accord or harmony of the spiritual life of individual man2 because1 if from our individual consciousness this vital bond is removed which unites us to other consciousnesses1 to the preceding as well as the following ones2 if there is removed from our individual consciousness the connection and partnership of all succession1 of all that is suggested and suggestible1 it will lose both form and contents1 and be turned into nothing4444 ,we know that man is the heir of the work of previous races1 of their organisation and feeling4 ,all human feelings1--the results of adaptation1--all the instincts and appetites are precisely just as our organs1 they are our psycho-physical organisation4 ,feeling is the original basis of individual consciousness2 and thus1 in consciousness itself1 in our feeling itself1--we are able to disclose several radical1 universal elements4 ,we1 unaccountably1 attribute every reality to particular feelings1 and we cannot imagine that these peculiarities depend exclusively upon our subjective individual feeling1 on our own eyes and ears4 ,light1 warmth1 hardness1 sound1 colors are navely conceived within our consciousness1 irrespective of the objective properties of the things themselves4 ,usually we suppose that the sun shines1 the sea roars1 flowers are fragrant simply through our personal presumption4 ,we do not understand that our own feelings experience certain sensations in the presence of the given phenomena4444 ,if we now conceive that all sensation presupposes something that is sentient2 it is clear that feeling1 as conditioning the perception of the material world1 cannot be merely subjective4 ,recognising the objective reality of the material world1 we presuppose anthropomorphically a general feeling4 ,the elements of which the external world consists correspond to the fundamental aspects of sensation and to the elements of sense4 ,a sensual universe1 in so far as we recognise its objectivity1 presupposes a universal sense1 with which our own individual sensation must be connected4 ,in reference to the analysis of moral consciousness the writer refers the reader to the works of ,kant4 ,if there is a solidarity of myself with all things1 then it is clear that ,i am bound to live up to it4 ,as in a general way ,i am conscious of the existence and reality of other beings1 so ,i likewise feel an ideal1 moral necessity of a common altruism1 of a common and perfect love toward all4 ,this general love is distinguished from natural inclination1 and is contrary to it2 this constitutes my bounden duty in my relation to all1 and is a general ethical law4 ,one cannot maintain that man knew this law a priori1 because he was moral before and he knew it not4 ,still1 it is less possible1 that man knew this general and unconditional verity a posteriori--that he knew good without goodness1 morals without morality4 ,but1 when man attains to a certain degree of self-knowledge1 when he has detached himself from the omnipotent tyranny of prejudices1 and of all traditional principles of congenital morals1 then he grows conscious of this law1 and finds it in himself4 ,this law is not anything external to us1 but it is deposited within us4 ,in just the same proportion as we recognise the law of causality1 we shall also recognise the moral law4 ,reason itself is compelled to arouse in us conscience1--theoretical consciousness awakens ethical consciousness4 ,the law of causality is a formal law1 that does not impart to us any real cognition2 it is1 precisely1 the form of our knowledge4 ,the ethical law1 the law of the general solidarity of ethical aims1 does not presuppose this form without contents1 but presupposes an ideal content1 the true essence of a common general consciousness1 as something that unconditionally must be4 ,its sanction is not in the formal agreement of individual beings1 but in their being in a necessary1 ideal union4 ,man is conscious of the fact that he cannot attain the ethical ideal through himself only4 ,he must seek for it in perfect love4 ,only a perfect and all-comprehensive love can atone and justify man4 ,but this love is not a natural instinct of man1 but a grace1 independent of man1 which is acquired by faith4 ,this faith itself is already a fact of love1 and by those who believe1 it is conceived as a manifestation of grace4 ,letters on ,tolsto's book ,of ,life4 ,the writer of these letters on ,count ,tolsto's book ,of ,life undertakes an analysis of the peculiar philosophical truths and errors which it contains4 ,he points out the method employed by ,tolsto and the causes of his contradictions and errors4 ,by so doing he hopes in conclusion to formulate the theory of the philosophical system to which belongs the work itself4 ,the writer first calls his correspondent's attention to ,tolsto's positive statement to the effect1 that the world is subordinated to the law of reason--in the heavenly bodies1 in animals and plants4 ,this law1 without our own interference1 prevails throughout all creation1 and within ourselves we know this law1 and are obliged to fulfil the same4 ,yet how does ,count ,tolsto know that the whole world is subject to the law of reason8 ,by virtue of the principle of cognition that was mooted in the writer's previous letter1 we can know it with a degree of certitude only concerning ourselves4 ,tolsto himself maintains1 that much less are we able to know anything about the external1 material world which is subject to the laws of space and time4 ,in other words1 ,tolsto contradicts his own theory4 ,as regards his other statement1 his estimate of true and false life1 the two can only be reconciled by admitting certain other hypotheses that are manifestly contradictory to constant human experience1 such as the gratuitous hypothesis that men who follow the teaching of this world and not that of wise men do not live1 they exist only4 ,tolsto's theory1 expressing a definition of life1 would oblige us to turn our attention only to a few facts of immediate consciousness1 but to ignore many others that are not subject to doubt4 ,but1 setting aside ,tolsto's peculiar theory of consciousness and cognition1 the writer turns to the problem of the ,ego1 as the most important for the solution of the points involved in the present discussion4 ,in reply to this letter the writer regrets that he himself1 having but little taste for deep philosophical discussion1 finds it exceedingly difficult to defend ,count ,tolsto's views against attacks such as those of ,mr4 ,kozlov4 ,still1 it seems to him that ,mr4 ,kozlov in his whole analysis of ,tolsto's book seeks to evade the main question2 namely1 ,can we call a human life a life so long as men tear each other to pieces like wild beasts8 ,tolsto's critic in conclusion asks1 what1 precisely1 ought to be understood by life8 ,in his reply1 after investigating the nature of the ,ego1 ,mr4 ,kozlov concludes3 ,man1 according to ,tolsto1 is only a collective term4 ,it is no more than a name for groups of a few special objects1 in their arbitrary relation to a totality4 ,these collective objects are purely entia rationis1 as the names forest1 river1 army1 crowd1 etc4 ,this collective subject is called man4 ,matter1 in ,tolsto's metaphysics1 represents the only element1 the reality and substantiality of which is not subject to the least doubt4 ,matter is uncreated and indestructible1 it remains identical with itself1 constantly through motion combining itself into different aggregates called bodies4 ,in the formation of the living body1 matter serves as the basis1 on which exist other subjects1 that also constitute man1 by ,tolsto called animal personalities4 ,this subject1 in its functions and manifestations answers to that which is usually called man1 and with ,tolsto it has a doubtful substantiality4 ,thus1 although man is indefinitely continued1 preserved through reproduction1 and constantly renewed in fresh specimens1 still this subject might disappear1 be destroyed1 for example1 by a catastrophe happening to the terrestrial globe4 ,on the other hand1 this subject arose in time4 ,at all events1 all that is individual1 existing in the separate specimens of the human race1 disappears1 is destroyed at the physical death of the individual1 animal body4 ,consciousness belongs to this animal personality2 it exists in time1 and is subject to the laws of time4 ,on the soil and foundation of this animal individuality there arises a third existence that enters into the composition of man1 namely--reason or rational consciousness4 ,this element displays the character of substance in a much higher degree than animal personality4 ,like matter it is uncreated1 indestructible1 and eternal4 ,but eternity of reason is distinguished from eternity of matter in this1 that reason is not subject to the laws of time and space1 to which matter is subject notwithstanding its eternity4 ,yet here we have an unavoidable combination of two conceptions of eternity1--the one as endless time1 the other as absence of time1 which means that the idea of time should not be attributed to it at all4 ,reason1 according to ,tolsto1 is not particular and individual1 but purely universal and common4 ,it does not possess a detached or transcendental being4 7,moscow1 ,march1 #ahia47 4 ,,transcriber',s ,,corrections page original text correction #ab in correllation with in correlation with #bg one hundred cubic millemetres one hundred cubic millimetres #da by the maintainance of by the maintenance of #fg by the concept of of the ,i by the concept of the ,i #hb often used as synomyms1 often used as synonyms1 #hi annointed with oil and soot1 anointed with oil and soot1 #acc and such mistatements as and such misstatements as #agc that of ,arided 7 ,cycni71 that of ,arided 7 ,cygni71 #bjh in the seventeeth chapter in the seventeenth chapter #bbe employd some decades ago employed some decades ago #bfe dispute it acumen dispute its acumen #cja world-conception or are ligion world-conception or a religion #cae seats in both ears4 seats in both ears4 #dbe border on imbecilty1 border on imbecility1 #dfg ,,analyses ,,et ,,comtes ,,rendus4 ,,analyses ,,et ,,comptes ,,rendus4 #dgg ,there trenscendentalists ,there transcendentalists #eei her life ends in insaniyt4 her life ends in insanity4 #eff the ,german poets critiicise the ,german poets criticise #egd an historial point of view an historical point of view #ehe 7,sankrit7 mnas 7,sanskrit7 mnas #eij ,weil et ,maurice1 ,pub4 ,weill et ,maurice1 ,pub4 #fbd ,nr4 ,nichols's final conclusion ,mr4 ,nichols's final conclusion #fca affords some difficulty4 affords some difficulty4