,transcrib] ,note ,text emphasis is d5ot$ by ,italics & ,bold4 ,:ole & fractional p>ts ( numb]s are d5ot$ z #c-a_/b & :]e ranges ( numb]s include fractions !y are enclos$ 9 p>5!sis3 7#c-a_/b74 ,a ,,text-,,book ,,( ,,tann+4 ,illu/ration3 ,pl4 ,i4 ,e4 ,f4 ,n4 ,spon1 ,london ,new ,york4 ,,ink-,,photo4 ,,sprague ,,co4 ,,london4 ,,lime ,,pits ,,& ,,r9s+ ,,tanks4 ,a ,,text-,,book ,,( ,,tann+3 ,a ,,treatise ,,on ,,! ,,conv]sion ,,( ,,sk9s ,,into ,,lea!r1 ,,bo? ,,practical ,,& ,,!oretical4 ,,by ,,h5ry ,r4 ,,proct]1 ,f4,c4,s41 ,,( ,,l[lights ,,tann]y2 ,,exam9] ,,9 ,,tann+ ,,to ,,! ,,city ,,& ,,guilds ,,te*nical ,,in/itute4 ,) #h ,plates & num]\s ,illu/rations4 ,illu/ration ,e4 ,f4 ,n4 ,,spon1 #abe1 ,,/r&1 ,,london4 ,,new ,,york3 #ce1 ,,murray ,,/reet4 #ahhe4 ,,preface4 ,illu/ration ,! aim ( ! foll[+ h&book is two-fold2 to give1 9 a comp5di\s =m1 su* a summ>y ( our sci5tific k z may be useful to ! practical tann]2 & su* a sket* ( manufactur+ processes z may enable ! *emi/ to apply 8 k to _! improvem5t4 ,ea* may1 !re=e1 f9d "s sup]flu\s matt]1 = :i* 8 indulg5ce is ask$4 ,! book is an expansion ( a %ort article :i* appe>$ 9 ,spons' ',encyclopdia ( ! ,indu/rial ,arts1' & to "s ext5t /ill be>s traces ( its orig92 &1 hav+ be5 writt5 "u /ress ( limit$ leisure1 & defective eyesight1 is v f> f be+ s p]fect z ,i %\ld desire4 ,= ! sake ( complet5ess x has be5 necess>y to describe _m processes :i* are outside ! range ( my own manufactur+ exp]i5ce1 & 9 do+ s ,i h g5]ally ref]r$ to ! s\rces ( my in=mation4 ,*apt]s ,,iii4 & ,,xxiv4 are writt5 by ,mr4 ,c4 ,g4 ,w>n=d ,lock1 to ^: k9d assi/ance ,i am mu* indebt$4 ,x may be well to /ate 9 conclusion1 t :ile ! "w is n int5d$ = a cram-book = te*nical /ud5ts1 x is hop$ t x may be an assi/ance to tea*]s ( ! subject4 ,,h5ry ,r4 ,,proct]4 ,tynem\?1 ,augu/ #ahhe4 ,,cont5ts4 ,illu/ration ,,page ,,introductory ,,note #a ,,*apt] ,i4 ,anatomical ,/ructure ( ,hide #b ,,*apt] ,,ii4 ,*emical ,composition ( ,hide #ag ,,*apt] ,,iii4 ,comm]cial ,tann+ ,mat]ials #bc ,,*apt] ,,iv4 ,! ,*emi/ry ( ,tann9s #eg ,,*apt] ,v4 ,wat] z us$ 9 ,tann+ #hc ,,*apt] ,,vi4 ,me?ods ( ,*emical ,analysis = ! ,tann]y #ij ,,*apt] ,,vii4 ,sole-lea!r3--,prep>+ ! ,hides #acb ,,*apt] ,,viii4 ,sole-lea!r3--,unhair+ ,hides #aci ,,*apt] ,,ix4 ,sole-lea!r3--,tann+ ,mat]ials #aeg ,,*apt] ,x4 ,sole-lea!r3--,treatm5t 9 ! ,tan-h\se #afi ,,*apt] ,,xi4 ,sole-lea!r3--,treatm5t 9 ! ,%$ #agi ,,*apt] ,,xii4 ,dress+ ,lea!r #ahd ,,*apt] ,,xiii4 ,curry+ #aic ,,*apt] ,,xiv4 ,enamell$1 ,pat5t1 or ,japann$ ,lea!r #bjc ,,*apt] ,,xv4 ,morocco ,lea!r #bjf ,,*apt] ,,xvi4 ,russia ,lea!r #bjh ,,*apt] ,,xvii4 ,*amois or ,wa%-lea!r #baj ,,*apt] ,,xviii4 ,cr[n ,lea!r1 or ,prell]'s ,lea!r #bac ,,*apt] ,,xix4 ,m9]al-tann$ ,lea!r #bah ,,*apt] ,,xx4 ,calf-,kid #bbc ,,*apt] ,,xxi4 ,glove-,kid #bbe ,,*apt] ,,xxii4 ,con/ruction & ,ma9t5ance ( ,tann]ies #bca ,,*apt] ,,xxiii4 ,dry+-%$s = ,lea!r #bdc ,,*apt] ,,xxiv4 ,comm]ce1 ,/ati/ics1 & ,bibliography #bee ,index #bge ,a ,,text-,,book ,,( ,,tann+ ,,etc41 ,,etc4 ,illu/ration ,,introductory ,,note4 ,lea!r manufacture may be broadly divid$ into two /ages3 tann+1 9 :i* ! raw hide is conv]t$ into ! imputrescible & m or less flexible mat]ial kn[n z lea!r2 & curry+1 9 :i* ?is lea!r is fur!r manipulat$1 & treat$ ) fatty matt]s1 to s(t5 & r5d] x m wat]pro(1 & to improve its appe>ance4 ,glove-kid1 & c]ta9 o!r lea!rs1 h[ev]1 are n tann$ at all1 b taw$1 or prep>$ ) a mixture 9 :i* alum & salt are ! mo/ active +r$i5ts2 *amois1 %ammy1 or wa% lea!r1 is produc$ by full+ ) oil alone1 & _m lea!rs c sc>cely be said to be curri$1 al?\gh m or less oil is us$ 9 ! f9al processes ( f9i%+ or dress+4 ,! fir/ subject to be treat$ ( 9 ?is "w w be ! op]ation ( tann+1 prop]ly s call$1 tak+ = example ! tannage ( sole- & belt+-lea!r4 ,?is dem&s ?or\gh explanation1 9 bo? its practical & !oretical aspects1 n only because x is "o ( ! mo/ important bran*es ( ! trade1 b because ! pr9ciples involv$ are ^? :i* equally und]lie all o!r tann+ me?ods4 ,! next to be dealt ) w be ! modifications ( ! process :i* are necess>y 9 tann+ ! m flexible lea!rs us$ = boot-upp]s1 hose-pipes1 & saddl]y purposes2 !n ! curry+ ( ^! lea!rs2 & f9ally1 ! manufacture ( moroccos1 ,russian1 & japann$ lea!rs1 calf- & glove-kid1 c4 ,,*apt] ,i4 ,,anatomical ,,/ructure ,,( ,,hide4 ,be=e speak+ ( actual processes ( manufacture1 x is necess>y to devote "s att5tion to ! /ructure & *emical con/itution ( hide or sk91 :i* =ms ! raw mat]ial4 ,al?\gh a great v>iety ( sk9s are employ$ 9 tann+1 !y are all con/itut$ on ! same g5]al type1 & an anatomical description ( ! hide ( ! ox w apply almo/ equally to ^? ( ! calf1 %eep1 & goat2 b f diff]5ces 9 ?ickness & clos5ess ( texture1 _! practical uses diff] widely4 ,fig4 #a %[s a section ( ox-hide1 cut p>allel ) ! hair1 magnifi$ ab\t #ej diam43 a1 epi!lial lay] or epid]mis1 consi/+ ( horny lay] above1 & rete malpighi bel[2 b1 p>s papill>is1 & c1 p>s reticul>is ( corium1 d]ma1 or true sk92 d1 hairs2 e1 sebace\s or fat-gl&s2 f1 sudorif]\s or sweat-gl&s2 g1 op5+ ( ducts ( sweat-gl&s2 h1 erectores pili muscles1 = erect+ ! hair4 ,! fre% hide consi/s ( #b lay]s3 an out]1 ! epid]mis2 & an inn]1 ! true sk94 ,! epid]mis is v ?9 z comp>$ ) ! true sk9 :i* x cov]s1 & is entirely remov$ prep>atory to tann+2 x nev]!less possesses important functions4 ,x is %[n 9 ,fig4 #a at a1 & m highly magnifi$ 9 ,fig4 #b4 ,its inn] muc\s lay] b1 ! rete malpighi1 :i* re/s ^u ! true sk9 c1 is s(t1 & compos$ ( liv+ nucleat$ cells1 :i* are elongat$ 9 ! deep] lay]s1 & gradually become flatt5$ z !y approa* ! surface1 :]e !y dry up1 & =m ! horny lay] a4 ,?is la/ is be+ con/antly worn away1 & ?r[n (f z dead scales ( sk92 & z con/antly r5ew$ f bel[1 by ! cont9u$ multiplication ( ! cells4 ,x is f ?is epi!lial lay] t ! hair1 z well z ! sweat- & fat-gl&s1 are develop$4 ,x w be se5 9 ,fig4 #a t ea* hair is surr\nd$ by a %ea?1 :i* is cont9u\s ) ! epid]mis4 ,9 embryonic developm5t1 a small knob ( cells =ms on ! "u side ( ! epid]mis1 & ?is enl>ges1 & s9ks deep] into ! true sk91 :ile ! root ( ! "y hair is =m$ )9 x2 ?is is %[n 9 ,fig4 #c1 a b4 ,small] projections also =m on ! /alk ( ! knob1 & 9 due "t produce ! sebace\s gl&s4 ,! process ( developm5t ( ! sudorif]\s gl&s is v simil> to t ( ! hairs4 ,!re is a great analogy betwe5 ?is process & t ( ! ord9>y r5ewal ( hair 9 ! adult animal4 ,at d#a ,fig4 #a1 is se5 an old & worn-out hair4 ,x is %runk5 & elongat$1 & is almo/ ready to fall out4 ,x w be notic$ t its %ea? or follicle projects some:at bel[ ! hair to ! "r4 ,?is is ! fir/ production ( a "y hair1 & is q analog\s to ! knob ( epi!lium :i* has be5 describ$ z =m+ ! />t+-po9t ( a hair 9 embryo4 ,at d#b1 ! same process is se5 fur!r advanc$1 ! "y hair be+ already =m$1 & gr[+ up into ! old %ea?4 ,at d#c1 x is complete1 ! old hair hav+ fall5 out1 & ! "y "o hav+ tak5 its place4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #a4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #b4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #c4 ,! hair itself is cov]$ ) a lay] ( ov]lapp+ scales1 l ! slates on a ro(1 b ( irregul> =m4 ,^! give x a s]rat$ outl9e at ! sides1 /rongly develop$ 9 wool4 ,)9 ^! scales1 :i* are sometimes call$ ! hair cuticle1 is a fibr\s sub/ance1 :i* =ms ! body ( ! hair2 & sometimes1 b n always1 !re is also a c5tral & cellul> pi?1 :i* is mo/ly transp>5t1 ?\gh "u ! microscope x frequ5tly appe>s black & opaque1 f ! optical effect ( imprison$ air4 ,on boil+ or long soak+ 9 wat]1 alcohol1 or turp5t9e1 ^! air-spaces become saturat$ ) ! liquid1 & !n appe> transp>5t4 ,! fibr\s "p ( ! hair is made up ( long sp9dle-%ap$ cells1 & conta9s ! pigm5t :i* gives ! hair its col\r4 ,! hair ( ! de] diff]s f t ( mo/ o!r animals 9 be+ almo/ :olly =m$ ( polygonal cells1 :i*1 9 :ite hairs1 are usually fill$ ) air4 ,at its base1 ! hair swells into a bulb1 :i* is holl[1 & re/s on a sort ( project+ knob ( ! corium1 call$ ! hair-papilla4 ,?is has blood-vessels & n]ves1 & supplies n\ri%m5t to ! hair4 ,! hair-bulb is compos$ ( r\nd1 s(t cells1 :i* multiply rapidly2 z !y gr[1 !y press upw>d ?r\gh ! hair-%ea?1 become elongat$ & h>d5$1 & =m ! hair4 ,9 d>k hairs1 bo? ! cells ( ! hair itself & ^? ( its follicle or %ea? are /rongly pigm5t$1 b ! hair mu* ! m s1 & h5ce ! bulb has usually a di/9ct d>k =m4 ,! d>k-hair$ portions ( a hide f :i* ! hair has be5 remov$ by lim+ /ill rema9 col\r$1 f ! pigm5t$ cells ( ! hair-%ea?s1 :i* c only be got out completely by bat+ & scudd+4 ,! cells outside ! bulb1 %[n at f1 9 ,fig4 #d1 pass upw>ds z !y gr[1 & =m a di/9ct coat+ ar\nd ! hair1 :i* is call$ ! inn] root-%ea?4 ,?is aga9 consi/s ( #b sep>ate lay]s1 ( :i* ! inn] is ,huxley's1 ! out]1 ,h5le's4 ,!y arise f ! same cells 9 ! base ( ! hair2 b 9 ! inn] lay]1 ^! rema9 polygonal & nucleat$1 :ile 9 ! out]1 !y become sp9dle-%ap$ & )\t nuclei4 ,! inn] root-%ea? does n ext5d to ! surface ( ! sk91 b dies away bel[ ! sebace\s gl&s4 ,?is figure repres5ts an ox-hair root1 mag4 #bjj diam43 a1 fibr\s sub/ance ( hair2 b1 hair cuticle2 c1 inn] root-%ea?2 d1 out] root-%ea?2 e1 d]mic coat ( hair-%ea?2 f1 orig9 ( inn] %ea?2 g1 bulb2 h1 papilla4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #d4 ,outside ! inn] root-%ea? is a lay] ( nucleat$ cells1 cont9u\s ) ^? ( ! epid]mis1 & ( ! same "*4 ,?is is ! out] root-%ea?1 & is %[n at d1 ,fig4 #d4 ,?is1 toge!r ) ! :ole ( ! epid]mis1 is cov]$ next ! corium ) an exce$+ly f9e membrane1 call$ ! hyal9e or glassy lay]4 ,x is possible t ?is =ms ! v ?9 buff-col\r$ gra9 ( tann$ lea!r1 :i* evid5tly is ( diff]5t /ructure f ! re/ ( ! corium1 s9ce1 if x gets scrap$ (f be=e tann+1 ! expos$ portion ( ! p>s papill>is rema9s ne>ly :ite1 in/ead ( col\r+4 ,! :ole ( ! hair-%ea? is enclos$ 9 a coat+ ( ela/ic & connective-tissue fibres1 :i* are suppli$ ) n]ves & blood-vessels1 & =m "p ( ! corium4 ,ne> ! op5+ ( ! hair-%ea?s to ! surface ( ! sk91 ! ducts ( ! sebace\s or fat-gl&s 7e1 ,fig4 #a71 pass into !m1 & secrete a sort ( oil to lubricate ! hair4 ,! gl&s !mselves are =m$ ( l>ge nucleat$ cells1 arrang$ some:at l a bun* ( grapes2 "o is %[n highly magnifi$ 9 ,fig4 #e3 a1 sebace\s gl&2 b1 hair-/em2 c1 "p ( erector pili muscle4 ,! upp] & m c5tral cells are mo/ highly *>g$ ) fat1 :i* is %[n by ! d>k] %ad+4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #e4 ,z already rem>k$1 ! sudorif]\s or sweat-gl&s are also d]iv$ f ! epid]mis lay]4 ,!y are %[n at f1 ,fig4 #a1 & on a l>g] scale 7#bjj diam47 9 ,fig4 #f3 a1 w9d+s laid op5 9 mak+ section2 !y consi/1 9 ! ox & %eep1 ( a l>ge wide tube1 sometimes slightly twi/$4 ,9 ?is1 !y diff] consid]ably f ^? ( man1 :i* =m a sph]ical knot ( extremely convolut$ tube4 ,! walls ( ^! gl&s are =m$ ( longitud9al fibres ( connective tissue ( ! corium1 l9$ ) a s+le lay] ( l>ge nucleat$ cells1 :i* secrete ! p]spiration4 ,! ducts1 :i* are exce$+ly n>r[1 & ) walls ( nucleat$ cells l ^? ( ! out] hair-%ea?s1 sometimes op5 directly ?r\gh ! epid]mis1 z %[n at g1 ,fig4 #a1 b m frequ5tly into ! orifice ( a hair-%ea?1 j at ! surface ( ! sk94 ,ea* hair is provid$ ) a slant+ muscle 7h1 ,fig4 #a71 call$ ! arrector or erector pili1 :i* is contract$ by cold or fe>1 & causes ! hair to bri/le1 or /& on end2 by =c+ up ! atta*$ sk91 x produces ! effect kn[n z goose-sk94 ,! muscle1 :i* is ( ! un/rip$ or involunt>y k9d1 passes f ne> ! hair-bulb to ! epid]mis1 & j "u ! sebace\s gl&s1 :i* x compresses4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #f4 ,! corium or true sk9 is pr9cipally compos$ ( int]lac+ bundles ( :ite fibres1 ( ! k9d kn[n z connective tissue2 ^! are compos$ ( fibrils ( extreme f95ess1 cem5t$ toge!r by a sub/ance ( diff]5t composition f ! fibres !mselves4 ,?is may be demon/rat$ by /eep+ a small piece ( hide = "s days 9 a /opp]$ bottle 9 lime-1 or b>yta-wat]1 9 :i* ! int]-fibrill> sub/ance is soluble1 & !n teas+ a small fragm5t ( ! fibre ) ne$les on a glass microscope-slide1 & exam9+ ) a p[] ( at lea/ #bjj-cjj diam4 ,9 ! middle portion ( ! sk91 ^! bundles ( fibre are closely int]wov52 b next ! body1 !y gradually become loos] & m op51 =m+ ! p>s reticul>is 7or nett$ "p72 & ! inn]mo/ lay] is a m]e network ( loose membrane1 g5]ally load$ ) masses ( fat-cells1 & h5ce call$ adipose tissue4 ,x is ?is adipose tissue :i* is remov$ 9 ! fle%+ process4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! out]mo/ lay]1 j b5ea? ! epid]mis1 is exce$+ly close & compact1 ! fibre-bundles t run into x be+ sep>at$ into _! elem5t>y fibrils1 :i* are s int]lac$ t !y c sc>cely be recognis$4 ,?is is ! p>s papill>is1 & =ms ! light]-col\r$ lay]1 call$ 7toge!r ) its v f9e out] coat+7 ! gra9 ( lea!r4 ,x is 9 ?is "p t ! fat-gl&s are emb$d$1 :ile ! hair-roots & sweat-gl&s pass ?r\gh x into ! loos] tissue b5ea?4 ,besides ! connective-tissue fibres1 ! sk9 conta9s a small proportion ( f9e yell[ fibres1 call$ ela/ic fibres4 ,if a ?9 section ( hide be soak$ = a few m9utes 9 /rong acetic acid1 & !n exam9$ "u ! microscope1 ! :ite connective-tissue fibres become swoll5 & transp>5t1 & ! yell[ fibres may !n be se51 z !y are sc>cely affect$ by ! acid4 ,! hair-bulbs & sweat- & fat-gl&s are also r5d]$ di/9ctly visible4 ,! n]ves ( ! sk9 are v num]\s1 ea* hair be+ suppli$ ) fibres pass+ into bo? ! papilla & %ea?4 ,!y also pass into ! sk9 papill4 ,!y _c readily be se51 )\t special prep>ation1 &1 s f> z is kn[n1 ex]cise no influ5ce on ! tann+ process4 ,break+ ! n]ve is a te*nical t]m1 :i* signifies a ?or\gh /ret*+ & s(t5+ ( ! sk91 b has no?+ to d ) n]ves prop]ly s call$4 ,! blood- & lymph-vessels are1 f ! pres5t po9t ( view1 some:at m important4 ,!y may (t5 be se5 9 sections1 & are l9$ ) nucleat$ cells1 simil> to ^? ( ! gl&s4 ,^! are surr\nd$ by coat+s ( un/rip$ muscul> fibre1 runn+ bo? ar\nd & l5g?ways1 & also by connective-tissue fibres4 ,9 ! art]ies1 ! muscul> coat+ is mu* /rong] ?an 9 ! ve9s4 ,x may be ?\ght t ! space devot$ to a discussion ( ! anatomical /ructure ( ! sk9 is disproportionately l>ge2 b !re c be no d\bt t1 9 ord] to make improvem5ts1 no?+ is ( m importance ?an a cle> conception1 ev5 to ! smalle/ details1 ( ! mat]ials & causes to be dealt )4 ,! illu/rations are f actual specim5s1 & enable ! v>i\s p>ts ( ! hide to be id5tifi$ "u ! microscope4 ,z ?is in/rum5t is a mo/ useful means ( inve/igation 9 ! tann+ indu/ry1 & "o likely to be ( increas+ importance1 x w be well1 be=e proce$+ fur!r1 to say a few words1 bo? on ! selection ( a suitable in/rum5t1 & on its manipulation 9 g5]al4 ,to d useful "w1 x is n necess>y to possess a v elaborate or exp5sive in/rum5t1 b x is ess5tial t ! microscope be well made & good ( its k9d4 ,z high p[]s are (t5 requir$ 9 ! exam9ation1 bo? ( hide sections & ( f]m5ts1 :i* are ! pr9cipal objects ( inve/igation 9 a tann]y1 x is ( ! fir/ importance t ! f9e adju/m5t %\ld be p]fectly /eady1 )\t vibration or backla%4 ,?is1 9 ! writ]'s exp]i5ce1 is nev] ! case ) *eap microscopes1 9 :i* ! f9e adju/m5t is made by a screw at ! side ( ! tube mov+ ! nose by means ( a lev]4 ,a mu* m satisfactory arrangem5t is t 9 :i* ! :ole body ( ! microscope is rais$ or l[]$ by a screw 9 a pill> at ! back ( ! /& on :i* x slides4 ,a rack = ! co>se adju/m5t is useful1 b n ess5tial4 ,if a slid+ tube only is provid$1 x mu/ be tight en\gh n to slip1 b mu/ move easily up & d[n ) a sort ( screw+ movem5t4 ,a me*anical /age is n at all necess>y1 & = mo/ purposes "o ( black glass is bett] z well z *eap]4 ,! diaphragm = regulat+ ! light %\ld be z ne> level ) ! surface ( ! /age z possible1 & :5 exam9$ ) a l[ p[] %\ld appe> 9 ! c5tre ( ! field4 ,= rese>* "w on ! m9ut] f]m5ts1 an a*romatic cond5s] & ! f9e/ oil- or wat]-imm]sion l5ses are necess>y1 b directions = ?is are beyond ! scope ( ! pres5t "w4 ,x may1 h[ev]1 be m5tion$ t ,pr(4 ,flgge1,a a fir/-class au?ority on ! subject1 especially recomm5ds ,abb's illum9at+ app>atus z made by ,zeiss4 ,footnote ,a3 ,f]m5te und ,mikrop>asit51 ,leipzig1 #ahhc4 ,a frequ5t defect 9 *eap ,engli% microscopes is t ! mirror = sub/age illum9ation does n br+ ! rays ( a lamp to a focus exactly on ! slide1 b frequ5tly "s in*es above x4 ,?is may be to a great ext5t ov]come by ! use ( a bulls'-eye cond5s] betwe5 ! lamp & ! microscope4 ,ano!r defect is t sometimes ! c5tre ( ! mirror is n 9 a l9e ) t ( ! microscope body4 ,! objectives 7or l5ses at ! l[] end ( ! microscope7 are ! mo/ important "p ( ! in/rum5t1 & h[ev] good x may be 9 all o!r respects1 if ^! are defective ! :ole is useless4 ,! mo/ useful l5ses = our purpose1 if only two are to be select$1 are a #a-;941 magnify+ ab\t #ej diam41 & a #a_/d-;941 magnify+ ab\t #bjj to #djj1 accord+ to ! eye-piece2 a #a_/h-;94 giv+1 say1 twice ?is magnification w be ne$$ to see ! small] bact]ia di/9ctly1 b x is possible j to see ev5 ! small putrefaction bact]ia ) a really f9e #a_/d-;94 ,9 any case1 ! highe/ p[] %\ld be z p]fect & ( z l>ge an angle z atta9able4 ,a good #a_/d-;94 %\ld resolve ,pleurosigma angulatum ) direct light1 & %\ld %[ ! movem5t ( ! granules ( protoplasm 9 ! r\nd corpuscles :i* are pres5t 9 saliva4 ,9 us+ ! latt] te/1 x mu/ be rememb]$ t ! motion only la/s a v %ort "t on a cold slide4 ,ab\t #el4 is ! v lea/ = :i* a microscope c be obta9$ :i* is suitable = tann]s' use2 :]e x c be af=d$1 a bett] "o is advisable4 ,)\t disp>ag+ o!r mak]s1 x may be m5tion$ t ! writ] has g5]ally us$ bo? ! eye-pieces & objectives ( ,dr4 ,h>tnack ( ,potsdam2 & t !y are mod]ate 9 price1 at lea/ = ! dry comb9ations1 & p]fectly satisfactory = all te*nical purposes4 ,numb]s #b1 #e1 & #h objectives ) ,no4 #c eye-piece1 are suffici5t = all ord9>y "w4 ,if only #b objectives are to be obta9$1 ,nos4 #c & #g w\ld be p]haps ! be/ selection4 ,x is always bett] to use objectives on ! /&1 & ) ! eye-pieces = :i* !y are int5d$1 b 9 case ,h>tnack's objectives are us$ on an ,engli% /& 7:i* is easily done by means ( an adaptor r+71 x is important to rememb] t !y are con/ruct$ to "w ) a %ort] tube ?an t cu/om>y on ,engli% microscopes1 & t !y w n p]=m well if its l5g? is mu* m ?an #f 942 ^! objectives are n provid$ ) a movable adju/m5t = ?ickness ( cov]-glasses1 :i* = te*nical purposes is n requir$1 & 9 inexp]i5c$ h&s is apt to prove tr\blesome4 ,extra-?9 cov]s mu/ !re=e always be us$4 ,:]e ?is adju/m5t is provid$1 ! object mu/ be accurately focus$1 & !n1 ma9ta9+ ?is focus ) ! f9e focus+-screw1 ! coll> mu/ be cauti\sly turn$ till ! be/ def9ition is obta9$4 ,practically x w be be/ to make ?is adju/m5t accurately once = all1 & to take c>e to use cov]s select$ ( a uni=m ?ickness4 ,high-p[] objectives ( wide angle 7:i* condition is ess5tial to good def9+ p[]7 necess>ily "w extremely close to ! object1 & x is always be/ to use ! ?9ne/ cov]-glasses :i* c be got4 ,ev5 !n1 ) su* glasses z ,h>tnack's ,no4 #h1 unless ! sections are v ?91 x w be impossible to exam9e _! l[] p>ts2 & "o ( ! greate/ difficulties ( microscopic rese>* is to obta9 !m ?9 en\gh4 ,x w be obvi\s1 f :at has be5 said1 t ! greate/ c>e is ne$$ to avoid screw+ ! objective d[n on ! cov]1 & s break+ "o or bo? ( !m4 ,"o way to avoid ?is is to screw d[n z close z possible to beg9 )1 & !n focus upw>ds4 ,ano!r plan1 :5 ! object on ! slide is small1 is to keep cont9u\sly mov+ ! slide g5tly ) ! f+]s1 :ile look+ into ! tube4 ,x is !n easy to notice :5 ! du/ & small p>ticles on ! slide come into focus1 & if ! po9t %\ld happ5 to be ov]/epp$ ! contact w g5]ally be felt be=e s]i\s damage is done4 ,illum9ation is "o ( ! mo/ important po9ts 9 practical microscopy4 ,) p[]s ( n less ?an #a_/b-;94 focus1 objects may g5]ally be exam9$ by light ?r[n ^u !m f above by a bulls'-eye cond5s]1 or by good daylight4 ,9 ?is case !y ne$ n be transp>5t2 & ! plan is (t5 conv5i5t = a m]e surface exam9ation4 ,9 exam9+ bodies illum9at$ 9 ?is way1 prom95ces (t5 appe> z holl[s & vice v]s1 by a sort ( optical illusion1 :i*1 once e/abli%$1 is v difficult to ov]come4 ,by rememb]+ ! direction ( ! light1 & t ?is appe>s rev]s$ 9 ! microscope1 x is easy to decide ! tru?4 ,= all f9] "w & high] p[]s1 & mo/ g5]ally ) ! l[ p[]s also1 x is necess>y to r5d] ! object transp>5t1 & to exam9e x by light transmitt$ f ! mirror bel[ ! /age4 ,good daylight is lea/ try+ to ! eyes4 ,:]e artificial light mu/ be us$1 t ( a small p>aff9 lamp is be/2 & a blue *imney1 or blue glass int]pos$ betwe5 ! /age & mirror1 or lamp & microscope1 sp>es ! sight1 & makes x easi] to di/+ui% col\rs4 ,! light %\ld be suffici5t1 b n too dazzl+4 ,"w %\ld nev] be prolong$ aft] ! lea/ /ra9 is felt1 nor %\ld ! microscope be us$ = "s little "t aft] a meal4 ,x is well to accu/om oneself to keep bo? ! eyes op5 :ile obs]v+4 ,if x be requir$ to see h[ f> ! cellul> /ructures ( ! hide1 su* z hair-%ea?s & fat-gl&s1 are affect$ or de/roy$ 9 any /age ( lim+ or bat+1 ! foll[+ ready me?od may be employ$4 ,if a /rip ( hide be cut #b_/c ?r\gh f ! gra9 side1 z %[n at a 9 ,fig4 #g1 & ! flap be turn$ d[n1 & held betwe5 ! f+] & ?umb1 ! fibr\s tissue w be put on ! /ret*1 & w !n all[ a mod]ately ?9 %av+ 7includ+ ! gra9 & p>ts imm$iately bel[ x7 to be cut by a %>p razor4 ,! hide %\ld be held 9 ! positions %[n1 & a /eady draw+ cut be made f fle% to gra91 ! razor be+ /eadi$ on ! tip ( ! =ef+]1 & its holl[ surface flood$ ) wat]4 ,if ! ?9 section be n[ plac$ on a glass slide1 moi/5$ ) a drop ( wat]1 & exam9$ on ! microscope "u a /rong light f above1 ) a #a-;94 objective1 ! fat-gl&s w be se5 z yell[ masses1 emb$d$ 9 ! :ite fibr\s tissue4 ,if a drop ( a mixture ( equal vols4 ( /rong acetic acid1 glyc]91 & wat] be us$ to moi/5 ! section1 ! fibr\s tissue w become q transp>5t1 & :atev] rema9s ( ! cellul> tissue w be easily visible1 & may ev5 be /udi$ "u tol]ably high p[]s if cov]$ ) a ?9 glass1 & light$ by ! mirror f bel[4 7,! cov]-glass mu/ be c>efully clean$ by rubb+ ) a l95 h&k]*ief1 & plac$ 9 position ) a pair ( tweez]s1 "o side be+ support$ by a ne$le1 :i* is gradually )drawn1 s z to avoid air-bubbles47 ,c>e mu/ be tak5 t ?is mixture does n t\* ! brass-"w ( ! microscope2 ev5 ! vap\r is apt to t>ni%1 s t ! prep>ation mu/ n rema9 long] ?an necess>y on ! microscope4 ,! same me?od is applicable = asc]ta9+ ! complet5ess ( ! tannage ( lea!r1 & to decide :e!r ! hide fibre is really tann$1 or only dy$4 ,actually tann$ lea!r is unaffect$ by ! acetic acid1 b raw or only /a9$ hide swells & becomes transp>5t4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #g4 ,to prep>e ! v ?9 sections necess>y = detail$ /udy ( ! hide1 m complicat$ me?ods are requir$4 ,small slips ( hide1 n exce$+ #a_/d 94 wide1 & cut exactly across ! lie ( ! hair1 are plac$ fir/ 9 weak alcohol 7equal p>ts me?ylat$ _s & wat]71 &1 aft] a few h\rs1 are remov$ into /rong me?ylat$ _s4 ,x is !n kept = "s days 9 absolute alcohol1 :i* mu/ be repeat$ly *ang$1 until ! hide is h>d en\gh to give f9e %av+s1 & may be cut ei!r :5 held z above describ$1 betwe5 cork or pi?1 or :5 emb$d$ 9 p>aff9 wax4 ,?is is accompli%$ by plac+ ! piece ( hide 9 a little pap]-box & cov]+ x ) melt$ p>aff9 7c&le71 :i* is j beg9n+ to /iff54 ,! piece ( hide may be fix$ 9 position ) a ne$le1 :i* mu/ ( c\rse be )drawn be=e cutt+4 ,:5 h>d1 ! p>aff9 is %av$ away till ! object is expos$1 :5 x may be cut4 ,! razor mu/ be wet ) alcohol1 & ! section be made exactly 9 ! plane ( ! hair-roots1 :i* may be se5 ) a h&-l5s4 7,! use ( a microtome = hide-sections is r>ely successful1 z x is almo/ impossible to fix ! fragm5t ( hide s t x is cut exactly ) ! hairs47 ,! slices may n[ be /a9$ by plac+ !m 9 a wat*-glass ) wat] & a few drops ( ! logwood or picroc>m9e /a9+-mixtures sold by opticians1 & aft]w>ds ei!r exam9$ 9 glyc]91 or1 aft] soak+ "s h\rs 9 absolute alcohol1 may be transf]r$ to clove-oil1 & aft]w>ds to a slide1 & cov]$ ) a drop ( damm> v>ni% or ,canada balsam dissolv$ 9 *lor(orm4 ,! sections moi/5$ ) glyc]9 may also be m\nt$ 9 ,f>rant's solution or glyc]9 jelly1 "u a cov]-glass = p]man5t pres]vation4 ,if picroc>m9e be us$1 ! connective-tissue fibres 7gelat9\s fibres7 & ! nuclei ( ! cells w be col\r$ r$1 & ! cells !mselves ( bo? epid]mis & gl&s1 toge!r ) ! muscles & ela/ic fibres1 w be yell[4 ,franz ,ka?re9]1 :o has made v elaborate rese>*es on sk91 & ! *anges :i* take place 9 x dur+ ! processes ( tann+1 employs a mixture ( osmic & *romic acids = h>d5+1 & at ! same "t /a9+ ! tissue4 ,?is mixture 0 fir/ us$ by a ,g]man hi/ologi/ ) ^: "n ,i am n acqua9t$1 9 a rese>* on ! int]nal organs ( he>+1 & 0 appli$ by ,ka?re9] 9 #ahgi to ! inve/igation ( sk91 & communicat$ by him to ! writ] 9 ! autumn ( t ye>4 ,8 me?od is briefly z foll[s4 ,! pieces ( hide to be exam9$ mu/1 if salt$1 be well wa%$1 or if dry1 be ?or\ghly s(t5$4 ,= ! /udy ( hide 9 its unalt]$ & natural condition1 x is ess5tial t x be q fre%1 & tak5 f ! animal z soon z possible aft] dea?4 ,9 any case ! ,panniculus adiposus or fatty lay] is1 z f> z possible1 remov$ ) scissors1 ! hair cut %ort1 & ! sk9 cut up into little pieces ( #c-d millimetres wide by #aj-ab millimetres long 7ab\t #a_/h 94 by #a_/b 9472 ! hair mu/ lie exactly across ^! pieces4 ,!y are !n plac$ = #d-h days1 accord+ to ! ?ickness ( ! hide1 9 ab\t #ab times _! volume ( a solution consi/+ ( #jb p>ts osmic acid4,b #je *romic acid4 #bjjj wat]4 ,footnote ,b3 ,solution ( osmic acid is be/ pres]v$ 9 seal$ tubes 9 ! d>k4 ,if obta9$ 9 solution x is r>ely ( full /r5g?1 = :i* all[ance may h to be made4 ,c>e mu/ be tak5 to avoid inhal+ its fumes1 :i* are v irritat+ to ! eyes & to ! respiratory organs1 produc+ sev]e cat>rh4 ,?is solution mu/ be kept f du/ & light1 9 a glass /opp]$ bottle1 & 9 a cool place4 ,on remov+ ! hide-pieces f ?is solution1 !y are plac$ 9 ab\t #ab times _! volume ( absolute alcohol = #d-h days1 dur+ :i* "t ! _s mu/ be at lea/ #c times r5ew$4 ,! sections are cut ) a razor flood$ ) absolute alcohol1 s t ! ?9 %av+s float )\t friction ^u x4 ,! hide-pieces may be held ei!r betwe5 s(t cork1 or1 z is g5]ally pref]able1 simply betwe5 ! =ef+] & ?umb z %[n 9 ,fig4 #g4 ,! cut mu/ be made exactly p>allel ) ! direction ( ! hair roots1 & f ! gra9 t[>ds ! fle%2 & ! sections _c possibly be too ?94 ,aft] ly+ = #a_/b-a h\r 9 absolute alcohol1 ! sections are soak$ till q cle> 9 clove oil 7:i* mu/ be pale & ( ! pure/ k9d71 & may !n be m\nt$ 9 damm> v>ni%1 or solution ( ,canada balsam4 ,9 ^! sections1 fat & ! oily cont5ts ( ! fat gl&s are /a9$ black1 & ! limits ( ! cells bo? ( ^! gl&s & ( o!r elem5ts ( ! hide 7rete malpighi1 hair-bulb1 c47 are made v di/9ct1 s z to be capable ( ! mo/ delicate inve/igation "u ! highe/ p[]s2 b ! beg9n] w le>n mo/ easily to recognise ! diff]5t tissues by /udy+ at fir/ "s sections /a9$ ) picroc>m9e z be=e describ$4 ,! me?od is admirably adapt$ = ! /udy ( hide z affect$ by ! limes & bates4 ,,*apt] ,,ii4 ,,*emical ,,composition ,,( ,,hide4 ,! *emical composition ( sk9 is v imp]fectly und]/ood4 ,! bulk ( ! sk9 is1 z has long be5 kn[n1 conv]t$ by boil+ into gelat9 or glue4 ,! yell[ fibres & cellul> tissue rema9 undissolv$4 ,mntz1 :o made "s int]e/+ rese>*es on ! subject1 f\nd t completely dri$ hide conta9$--#cjhf p] c5t4 ( cellul> tissue insoluble 9 hot wat]1 #ajeh ( fat1 #jdfg ( m9]al matt]1 & #iecie ( matt]s soluble 9 hot wat]4 ,mntz c\nts ! :ole ( ! tissue soluble 9 hot wat] z conv]t$ into glue2 b ?is is n /rictly ! case4 ,gelat9 is n id5tical ) ! fibre ( ! hide1 :i* is only conv]t$ into x by boil+4 ,! nature ( ! *ange is n well und]/ood2 b x is ei!r simply molecul>1 or dep5ds on ! addition ( "o or m molecules ( wat]4 ,! gelat9 ( bones seems id5tical ) t ( sk9 & connective tissue1 b t ( c>tilage diff]s slightly f x1 & is call$ *ondr94 ,raw hide1 unhair$ & purifi$1 conta9s1 accord+ to ,mntz--c>bon1 #eadc p] c5t42 hydrog51 #ffd2 nitrog51 #ahaf2 oxyg51 #bcjf2 a%1 #jga2 :ile gelat9 has--c>bon1 #eja p] c5t42 hydrog51 #ff2 nitrog51 #ahc 7,muld]72 c>bon1 #ej p] c5t42 hydrog51 #fe2 nitrog51 #age 7,fremy74 ,probably1 h[ev]1 nei!r sub/ance 0 q pure4 ,gelat9 is insoluble 9 alcohol1 e!r1 & cold wat]1 b swells 9 ! la/1 absorb+ ab\t #dj p] c5t4 ,x is soluble 9 hot wat]1 b is reprecipitat$ on ! addition ( a suffici5t quantity ( alcohol1 resembl+ 9 ?is respect gum1 dextr91 & _m o!r sub/ances4 ,x is soluble 9 glyc]91 ) ! aid ( heat1 & 9 conc5trat$ sulphuric acid 9 ! cold4 ,moi/ gelat9 expos$ to ! air rapidly putrefies4 ,x fir/ becomes v acid1 f =mation ( butyric 7& p]haps o!r7 acids1 b aft]w>ds alkal9e1 f evolution ( ammonia4 ,boil$ ) conc5trat$ pota%1 x yields leuc9 7amidocaproic acid1 ,c#f;,h#ae,,no#b71 glycoc9 7sug> ( gelat971 & o!r sub/ances4 ,! same products are obta9$ by boil+ ) sulphuric acid1 & probably also m gradually1 & 9 great] or less proportions1 by ! prolong$ action ( lime or b>ium hydrate1 by putrefaction1 & by any o!r influ5ce :i* t5ds to resolve ! gelat9 molecule into its simpl] p>ts4 ,gelat9 is precipitat$ by all tann9s1 ev5 f v dilute solution4 ,a solution conta9+ #b_/ajjjj p>ts is r5d]$ turbid by infusion ( gall-nuts or gallotannic acid4 ,! precipitate is soluble 9 excess ( gelat94 ,solution ( gelat9 dissolves consid]able quantities ( lime phosphate1 h5ce ?is is always l>gely pres5t 9 common glue4 ,gelat9 is precipitat$ by m]curic *loride1 9 ?is respect resembl+ peptones2 b n by potassium f]rocyanide1 by :i* x is di/+ui%$ f album9oids2 & x diff]s f album5 9 n be+ coagulat$ by heat4 ,on ! contr>y1 by prolong$ boil+ glue loses ! prop]ty ( gelat9is+1 & becomes soluble 9 cold wat]1 be+ split up into two peptones2 semi-glut91 :i* is insoluble 9 alcohol1 & precipitat$ by plat9ic *loride2 & hemicoll91 :i* is soluble 9 alcohol1 & n precipitat$ by plat9ic *loride4 ,bo? are precipitat$ by m]curic *loride 7see ,h(mei/]1 ab/4 ,*em4 ,soc4 ,j\r4 #ahha1 p4 #bid74 ,gelat9 or glue ) ab\t #c p] c5t4 ( potassium di*romate becomes insoluble :5 expos$ to ! light1 f ! =mation ( a *romium comp\nd4 ,?is reaction is ! base ( sev]al mod]n photographic processes1 & has be5 us$ = wat]pro(+ & = cem5t+ glass1 c4 ,! connective-tissue fibres are p>tially conv]t$ into gelat9 by ! action ( /rong acids & alkalies1 z well z by heat4 ,by weak acids1 !y are swoll5 & gradually dissolv$1 & ,reim],c has f\nd t ! mat]ial may be reprecipitat$ by lime-wat]4 ,x =ms an irregul> fibr\s mass1 :i* has n ! /icky feel ( gelat91 b is at once conv]t$ into t body by boil+4 ,rollet has demon/rat$ t :5 hide & o!r =ms ( connective tissue are soak$ 9 lime- or b>yta-wat]1 ! fibres become split up into f9] fibrils1 & z ! action proce$s1 ^! aga9 sep>ate into /ill f9]1 till ! ultimate fibrils are z f9e z c be di/+ui%$ "u a p[]ful microscope4 ,at ! same "t1 ! alkal9e solution dissolves ! sub/ance :i* cem5t$ ! fibres toge!r1 & ?is may be recov]$ by neutralis+ ! solution ) acetic acid1 :5 x comes d[n z a floccul5t precipitate4 ,?is 0 consid]$ by ,rollet to be an album9oid sub/ance2 b ,reim] has %[n t x is mu* m closely alli$ to ! gelatig5\s fibres1 if inde$ x is n actually produc$ f !m by ! action ( ! alkal9e solution4 ,reim] us$ lim$ calf-sk9 = 8 exp]im5ts1 & subject$ x to prolong$ cleans+ ) di/ill$ wat]1 s t all soluble p>ts mu/ h be5 pretty ?or\ghly remov$ be=eh&4 ,he !n dige/$ x 9 clos$ glasses ) lime-wat] = #g-h days1 & precipitat$ ! cle> solution ) dilute acetic acid4 ,he f\nd t ! same portion ( hide might be us$ aga9 & aga91 )\t becom+ exhau/$1 :i* /rongly supports ! supposition t x is m]ely a product ( ! p>tial decomposition ( ! hide fibre4 ,! sub/ance1 :i* he call$ cori91 0 purifi$ by repeat$ solution 9 lime-wat]1 & reprecipitation by acetic acid4 ,x 0 readily soluble by alkalies1 b insoluble 9 dilute acids1 ?\gh 9 "s cases x became s swoll5 & f9ely divid$ z to appe> almo/ z if dissolv$4 ,x 01 h[ev]1 v soluble 9 common salt solution ( ab\t #aj p] c5t41 ?\gh x 0 precipitat$ bo? by ! addition ( mu* wat]1 & by saturat+ ! solution ) salt4 ,reim] f\nd t a #aj p] c5t4 salt solution 0 equally effective ) lime-wat] 9 extract+ x f ! hide1 & t x 0 p>tially precipitat$ on ! addition ( acid1 & completely on saturat+ ! acidifi$ solution ) salt4 ,o!r salts ( ! alkalies & alkal9e e>?s act$ 9 a simil> mann]1 s t ,reim] 0 at fir/ deceiv$ :5 exp]im5t+ ) b>yta-wat]1 because1 be+ m conc5trat$ ?an lime-wat]1 ! cori9 rema9$ dissolv$ 9 ! b>yta salt =m$ on neutralis+ ) acid1 & x 0 necess>y to dilute be=e a precipitate c\ld be obta9$4 ,! slightly acid solution ( cori9 gave no precipitate ) potassium f]rocyanide1 nor 0 x precipitat$ by boil+1 be+ ?us di/+ui%$ f album9oids4 ,! neutral or alkal9e solution 0 n precipitat$ by iron or m]curic *loride1 copp] sulphate1 nor by neutral lead acetate2 b 0 precipitat$ by basic lead acetate1 basic iron sulphate1 & excess ( tann94 ,its elem5t>y composition is--c>bon1 #deia3 hydrog51 #feg2 nitrog51 #aghb2 oxyg51 #bifj2 & ,reim] proposes ! foll[+ equation z repres5t+ its relation to hide fibre3-- ,hide fibre4 ,wat]4 ,cori94 ,c#cj;,h#df,n#aj,o#ab ,o #b;,h#b,o ,c#cj;,h#ej,n#aj,o#ae4 ,footnote ,c3 ,d+l]'s ,polyt4 ,j\rnal1 vol4 #bbj1 p4 #afg4 ,hide ,album54--,! fre% hide1 besides ?is cori9 7:i*1 v possibly1 is only evolv$ by ! action ( ! lime71 conta9s a portion ( actual album51 viz4 t ( ! blood s]um & ( ! lymph1 :i* is n only conta9$ 9 ! abundant blood-vessels1 b saturates ! fibr\s connective tissue1 ( :i* x =ms ! n\ri%m5t4 ,?is album5 is mo/ly remov$ by ! lim+ & work+ on ! beam1 :i* is prep>atory to tann+4 ,probably = sole-lea!r1 ! album5 itself w\ld be r advantage\s if left 9 ! hide1 z x comb9es ) tann91 & w\ld assi/ 9 giv+ firmness & weight to ! lea!r4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 = reasons :i* w be se5 h]eaft]1 absolutely necess>y to get rid ( any lime :i* may be 9 comb9ation ) x4 ,! blood also mu/ be ?or\ghly cleans$ f ! hide be=e tann+1 z its col\r+ matt] conta9s iron1 &1 9 comb9ation ) ! tann91 w\ld give a bad col\r4 ,! reactions ( blood & lymph album5 are v simil> to ^? ( ord9>y :ite ( egg4 ,x is precipitat$ by /rong m9]al acids1 especially nitric1 & also by boil+4 ,! precipitate produc$ by /rong hydro*loric acid r$issolves by ! aid ( heat to a blue or purple solution4 ,tribasic phosphoric1 t>t>ic1 acetic1 & mo/ o!r organic acids1 d n precipitate mod]ately dilute solutions ( album51 b conv]t x into a sort ( jelly1 :i*1 l gelat91 does n coagulate1 b liquefies on heat+4 ,x is precipitat$ by neutral salts ( ! alkali metals4 ,blood-album5 slightly acidifi$ 7) acetic acid7 is precipitat$ by potassium f]rocyanide4 ,x is n precipitat$ by dilute infusions ( oak b>k1 b is r5d]$ uncoagulable by heat1 h5ce x _c be employ$ to remove tann9s f _! solutions4 ,ela/ic ,fibres4--,! ela/ic or yell[ fibres ( ! hide are ( a v /able "*4 ,!y are n completely dissolv$ ev5 by prolong$ boil+1 & acetic acid & hot solutions ( cau/ic alkalies sc>cely attack !m4 ,probably !y d n comb9e ) tann91 & are v little *ang$ 9 ! tann+ process4 ,hair1 ,epid]mis1 & ,gl&s4--,^! are1 z has be5 se51 all d]iv$ f ! epi!lial lay]1 & h5ce1 z might be inf]r$1 h mu* 9 common 9 _! *emical con/itution4 ,!y are all class$ by *emi/s "u "o "n1 k]at91 or horny tissue1 & _! ultimate analysis %[s t 9 elem5t>y composition !y ne>ly agree4 ,x is evid5t1 h[ev]1 t ! horny tissues are r a class ?an a s+le comp\nd4 ,! k]at9s are gradually loos5$ by prolong$ soak+ 9 wat]1 &1 by cont9u$ boil+ 9 a ,pap9's dige/]1 are dissolv$ to an extract :i* does n gelat9ise on cool+4 ,k]at9 is dissolv$ by cau/ic alkalies2 ! epid]mis & ! s(t] horny tissues are easily attack$1 :ile hair & horn require /rong solutions & ! aid ( heat to effect complete solution4 ,! cau/ic alkal9e e>?s act 9 ! same mann] z dilute alkal9e solutions2 h5ce lime easily attacks ! epid]mis1 & loos5s ! hair1 b does n readily de/roy ! latt]4 ,alkal9e sulphides1 on ! o!r h&1 seem to attack ! h>d] tissues ) at lea/ ! same facility z ! s(t ones1 ! hair be+ (t5 completely dis9tegrat$1 :ile ! epid]mis is /ill almo/ intact2 h5ce _! applicability to unhair+ by de/ruction ( ! hair4 ,k]at9s are dissolv$ by fum+ hydro*loric acid1 ) ! production ( a blue or violet coloration1 l ! album9oids4 ,!y also resemble album51 9 ! fact t _! solution 9 sulphuric acid is precipitat$ by potassium f]rocyanide4 ,by fusion ) pota%1 or prolong$ boil+ ) dilute sulphuric acid1 k]at9 is decompos$1 yield+ leuc91 tyros91 ammonia1 c4 ,! alkal9e solution ( k]at9 7hair1 horns1 c47 is precipitat$ by acids1 &1 mix$ ) oil & b>yta sulphate1 is employ$ "u ,dr4 ,putz's pat5t z a fill+ mat]ial = lea!r1 = :i* purpose x acts 9 ! same way z ! egg-yolks & meal us$ 9 kid-lea!r manufacture4 ,eitn] attempt$ to use x = ! same purpose ) b>k-tann$ lea!r1 b )\t mu* success4 ,putz has also propos$ to precipitate ! mat]ial aft] work+ its solution into ! pores ( ! lea!r4 ,,*apt] ,,iii4 ,,comm]cial ,,tann+ ,,mat]ials4 ,alg>obilla4--,! se$-pods ( ,prosopis pallida & ,p4 ,alg>robo are kn[n z alg>obilla1 ! two k9ds be+ di/+ui%$ z negro & blanco4 ,! trees are abundant 9 m\nta9\s p>ts ( ,s\? ,am]ica1 notably ,*ili & ! ,arg5t9e ,republic4 ,! pods conta9 up to #ej p] c5t4 ( a bright-yell[ tann91 some:at resembl+ t ( myrobalans4 ,! friable tann9 is readily soluble 9 cold wat]1 & is s loosely held 9 ! fibr\s network ( ! pod1 t great loss is su/a9$ by c>eless h&l+4 ,! comm]ce 9 alg>obilla does n figure 9 ! (ficial trade returns2 b ,j4 ,gordon ,co41 ,liv]pool1 oblig+ly /ate t !y import$ #ej tons1 at an av]age value ( #ahl4 #ajs4 a ton1 9 #ahhj4 ,wid[ ,duranty ,son1 also ( ,liv]pool1 are good en\gh to add t !y receiv$ #afj tons 9 #ahha1 ! fir/ t _h rea*$ !m = a long "t4 ,havre import$ #ej tons 9 #ahha4 ,! "n alg>robo is also appli$ to ,balsamoc>pon brevifolium 9 ,*ili1 & to ,hym5a ,c\rb>il 9 ,panama4 ,*e/nut-extract4--,! wood ( ! *e/nut 7,ca/anea vesca7 conta9s #ad-bj p] c5t4 ( a dull-br[n tann94 ,x is q diff]5t f ! b>k & b>k-extract ( ! ,am]ican *e/nut-oak 7,qu]cus sessiliflora74 ,its extract is us$ l>gely to modify ! col\r produc$ by hemlock-extract1 & = tann+ & dye+4 ,! pulv]is$ wood is also ext5sively employ$ 9 ,france4 ,! imports are includ$ 9 b>ks & extracts1 p4 #ci4 ,cork-b>k4 ,see ,oak-b>ks4 ,cut*1 ,cate*u1 or ,t]ra ,japonica 7,fr41 ,ca*\2 ,g]41 ,cate*u74--,! t]m kt1 kut1 or cut*1 is appli$ to ! dri$ extract1 conta9+ #de-ee p] c5t4 ( d>k-col\r$ mimo-tannic acid1 prep>$ *iefly f #b trees3--7#a7 ,acacia ,cate*u ,mimosa ,cate*u1 ,m4 sundra1 a tree ( #cj-dj ft41 common 9 mo/ p>ts ( ,india & ,burma1 gr[+ also 9 ! hott] & dri] di/ricts ( ,ceylon1 & abundant 9 tropical ,ea/ ,africa--! ,s\dan1 ,s5n>1 ,abyss9ia1 ! ,no] c\ntry & ,mozambique1 ?\gh ! utilisation ( its tann9 is re/rict$ to ,india2 7#b7 ,a4 ,m4 ,suma1 a l>ge tree inhabit+ ,s\? ,india 7,mysore71 ,b5gal1 & ,guj]at4 ,! process = prep>+ cut* v>ies slightly 9 diff]5t di/ricts4 ,! trees are reckon$ to be ( prop] age :5 _! trunks are ab\t #a ft4 diam4 ,!y are !n cut d[n1 & ! :ole ( ! woody "p1 ) ! exception ( ! small] bran*es & ! b>k1 is r$uc$ to *ips3 "s acc\nts /ate t only ! d>k] he>t-wood is ?us us$4 ,! *ips are plac$ ) wat] 9 e>!n j>s1 arrang$ 9 a s]ies ov] a mud fire-place1 usually 9 ! op5 air4 ,"h ! wat] is made to boil1 ! liquor z x becomes ?ick & /rong be+ decant$ into ano!r vessel1 9 :i* ! evaporation is cont9u$ until ! extract is suffici5tly inspissat$1 :5 x is p\r$ into m\lds made ( clay1 or ( leaves p9n$ toge!r 9 ! %ape ( cups1 or 9 "s di/ricts on to a mat cov]$ ) ! a%es ( burnt c[-dung1 ! dry+ 9 ea* case be+ complet$ by exposure to ! sun & air4 ,! product is a d>k-br[n extract1 :i* is ! usual =m 9 :i* cut* is kn[n 9 ,europe4 ,9 ,kumaon1 ,nor? ,india1 a slight modification ( ! process af=ds a drug ( v diff]5t appe>ance4 ,in/ead ( evaporat+ ! decoction to ! condition ( an extract1 ! inspissation is /opp$ at a c]ta9 po9t1 & ! liquor is all[$ to cool1 coagulate1 & cry/allise ov] twigs & leaves ?r[n into ! pots = ! purpose4 ,by ?is me?od is obta9$ f ea* pot ab\t #b lb4 ( ka? or cate*u1 ( an a%y-:iti% appe>ance4 ,9 ,burma1 ! manufacture & export ( cut* =m "o ( ! mo/ important items ( =e/ rev5ue4 ,! quantity ( cut* export$ f ! prov9ce 9 #ahfi-gj 0 #aj1ghb tons1 valu$ at #aic1fjbl41 ( :i* ne>ly half 0 ! produce ( manufactories situat$ 9 ,briti% t]ritory4 ,! article is import$ 9 mats1 bags1 & boxes1 (t5 envelop$ 9 ! l>ge leaf ( ,dipt]oc>pus tub]culatus4 ,x is br\ght d[n f ,b]> & ,nepal to ,calcutta4 ,t ( ,pegu has a high reputation4 ,our imports ( cut* 9 #ahhj 7 #eaee tons1 value #agc1jdjl41 f ! ,briti% ,ea/ ,indies2 #eci tons1 #ae1egbl41 f o!r c\ntries2 total1 #efid tons1 #ahh1fabl4 ,our exports 9 ! same ye> 73--#hib tons1 #bh1ebgl41 to ,g]many2 #fgf tons1 #bd1efbl41 to ! ,unit$ ,/ates2 #dgh tons1 #ae1ejel41 to ,france2 #cjc tons1 #aj1ecgl41 to ,holl&2 #agg tons1 #eheil41 to ,russia2 #ada tons1 #dhcel41 to ,belgium2 #bde tons1 #hgail41 to o!r c\ntries2 total1 #biab tons1 #ih1eddl4 ,! approximate ,london m>ket value ( ,pegu cut* is #ba-dbs4 a cwt4 ,an a/r+5t extract prep>$ f ! areca nut 7,areca ,cate*u7 is said to contribute to comm]cial cut*2 if s1 x is a totally di/9ct product f ^? j describ$4 ,divi-divi1 or ,libi-dibi4--,^! names are appli$ to ! se$-pods ( ,csalp9ia cori>ia1 a tree ( #bj-cj ft41 indig5\s to sev]al ( ! ,we/ ,indies1 ,mexico1 ,v5ezuela1 & ,nor? ,brazil1 & naturalis$ 9 ,madras & ,bombay ,presid5cies1 & 9 ! ,nor?-,we/ ,prov9ces4 ,! pod may be kn[n by its dry+ to ! %ape ( a lett] ,s2 x conta9s #cj-ej p] c5t4 ( a peculi> tann91 some:at simil> to t ( valonia4 ,x is *eap1 & may be us$ 9 admixture ) b>ks2 b x is dang]\sly liable to und]go f]m5tation1 sudd5ly /a9+ ! lea!r a d>k-r$ col\r1 & is !re=e n 9 ext5sive use4 ,! imports ( x are ma9ly f ,m>acaibo1 ,p>aiba1 & ,/4 ,dom+o4 ,m>acaibo1 9 #ahhj1 export$ #aig1fgd lb4 ( divi-divi1 value #cbbb-a_/d dol4 7#ds4 #b;d471 to ,new ,york4 ,our imports ( divi-divi into ,liv]pool1 accord+ to figures k9dly furni%$ by ,haw ,co41 7 #bbjj tons 9 #ahgg1 #agdj 9 #ahgh1 #bacb 9 #ahgi1 & #ghj 9 #ahhj4 ,! approximate m>ket value is #ab-agl4 a ton4 ,galls4--,! g5]ic t]m gall is appli$ to ^? excresc5ces on plants :i* are produc$ by ! punctures ( insects1 = ! purpose ( deposit+ _! eggs4 ,! excresc5ces are usually consid]$ to be a diseas$ condition ( vegetable tissue1 result+ f ! injection ( "s secretion ( ! insects4 ,b ?is has be5 combat$ by ,a4 ,s4 ,wilson1 ( ,ab]de51 :o consid]s t all insect galls are 9 reality leaf-buds1 or fruit-buds1 & n m]e amorph\s excresc5ces4 ,! vascul> l9es :i* w\ld =m leaves c easily be foll[$ up 9 ! /ructure ( ! oak-leaf galls4 ,& 9 cases :]e ! egg has be5 deposit$ 9 ! tissue ( a "y bran*1 ! cap ( ! gall is sometimes surm\nt$ by a leaf #b-c 94 long4 ,b 9 ! l>ge blue ,turki% galls1 _m lacun occur :]e ! fle%ifi$ leaves h n fill$ up ! spaces betwe5 !m4 ,if a dissection be made ( "o ( ! weevil-galls on ! bulb ( ! turnip1 ! second or ?ird slice w %[ ! out] foliations1 exactly simil> to ^? ( ! root-buds4 ,:5 ! c5tre has be5 rea*$1 :]e ! maggot w be f\nd1 !re w also be a vascul> p5cil runn+ up f a m$ull>y ray 9 ! bulb1 & be>+ on its top a bud ( ! same description z t produc$ by a ray runn+ out f a root4 ,! ins]tion ( ! ovipositor br+s a m$ull>y ray into action1 produc+ a tub]culat$ bud1 & x is only ! bud :i* ! l>va fe$s ^u4 ,! gr[? ( a bud is an intelligible cause ( ! gr[? ( a gall1 b no?+ c be inf]r$ f ! injection ( a fluid4 ,! analogy to leaves is fur!r %[n by ! fact t v>i\s microscopic fungi are matur$ 9 ! int]ior ( imp]=ate galls4 ,! pr9cipal comm]cial k9ds ( gall are oak-galls & ,*9ese galls4 ,oak-galls1 ,nut-galls1 ,aleppo or ,turkey-galls 7,fr41 ,noix de ,galle1 ,galle d',alep2 ,g]41 ,levantis*e or ,aleppis*e ,gall51 ,gallpfel74--,^! are =m$ by ! punctures ( ,cynips ,diplolepis ,gall t9ctori on ,qu]cus lusitanica v>4 infectoria ,q4 infectoria1 a %rubby tree ( ,greece1 ,cyprus1 ,asia ,m9or1 & ,syria1 & probably o!r v>ieties & ev5 species ( oak4 ,! female insect is furni%$ ) a delicate ovipositor1 by means ( :i* %e pi]ces ! t5d] %oots ( ! tree1 & lays h] eggs !re94 ,9 ! c5tre ( ! full-gr[n gall1 ! l>va is hat*$ & und]goes its trans=mations1 f9ally 79 #e-f mon?s7 becom+ a w+$ insect1 & bor+ = itself a cyl9drical exit-hole4 ,! be/ comm]cial galls are ^? :i* h be5 ga!r$ :ile ! insect is /ill 9 ! l>val /ate4 ,su* h a d>k olive-gre5 col\r1 & are comp>atively heavy2 b aft] ! fly has escap$1 !y become yell[i%-br[n 9 hue1 & light]4 ,h5ce !y are di/+ui%$ 9 ! ,london m>ket z blue or gre51 & :ite4 ,9 ,smyrna1 !y are classifi$ z :ite1 gre51 & black1 ! fir/ two sorts g5]ally fet*+ ne>ly ! same price1 :ile ! black obta9 consid]ably m1 ! approximate quotations be+3 :ite & gre51 p] ,turki% oke 7( #bhc lb471 #h-a_/b-i pia/res 7( #b;d472 black1 #ac-a_/b-ad pia/res4 ,! nuts come mo/ly f ,melem51 ,cassaba1 & ,magnesia1 also f ! ,syrian coa/s1 be+ pl5tiful on ! ea/ ( ! riv] ,jordan1 & are *iefly =w>d$ to ,france1 ,engl&1 & ,salonica4 ,! tri5nial yield is said to be inv>iably ! be/4 ,!y beg9 to rea* ,smyrna f ! int]ior t[>ds ! end ( ,july4 ,! crop ( #ahhj 0 e/imat$ at ov] #ej1jjj okes4 ,! prov9ce ( ,aleppo1 :i* us$ to af=d #aj1jjj-ab1jjj qu9tals 7( #b cwt47 annually1 only export$ #cjjj 9 #ahga4 ,! galls collect$ 9 ! ,kurdi/an m\nta9s are m>ket$ at ,di>bekir1 & s5t !nce to ,trebizonde = %ipm5t4 ,bussora1 ,bagdad1 & ,bu%ire also export consid]able quantities4 ,knopp]n1 a species ( gall =m$ f ! immature acorns ( ,qu]cus p$unculata & ,q4 sessiliflora1 are l>gely us$ = tann+ ?r\gh\t ,au/ria4 ,! exports f ,aleppo 7includ+ yell[ b]ries7 9 #ahhj 73--#fj tons1 #cfjjl41 to ,great ,brita92 #cbb tons1 #ai1cbjl41 ,france2 #ae tons1 #ijjl41 ,italy2 #dd tons1 #bfdjl41 ,au/ria2 #ee tons1 #ccjjl41 ,turkey2 #cj tons1 #ahjjl41 ,egypt2 total1 #ebf tons1 #ca1efjl4 ,9 #ahgh1 ! figures 7 #fgc tons1 #ch1djjl4 ,alex&retta export$ 9 #ahgi 7includ+ yell[ b]ries73--#da tons1 #bdfjl41 to ,engl&2 #bii tons1 #ag1idjl41 ,france2 #bj tons1 #abjjl41 ,italy2 #be tons1 #aejjl41 ,au/ria2 #hg tons1 #ebbjl41 ,turkey2 #f tons1 #cfjl41 ,egypt2 total #dgh tons1 #bh1fhjl4 ,! %ipm5ts f ,trebizonde by /eam] 9 #ahhj 7 7f ,turkey73--#dg sacks 7( #b cwt471 #ahhl41 to ,turkey2 #bdj sacks1 #ifjl41 ,great ,brita92 #bfd sacks1 #ajefl41 ,france2 #ajc sacks1 #dabl41 ,au/ria & ,g]many2 #bf sacks1 #ajdl41 ,greece2 total1 #fhj sacks1 #bgbjl42 7f ,p]sia73 #be sacks1 #ajjl41 ,great ,brita92 #ca sacks1 #abdl41 ,france2 #cj sacks1 #abjl41 ,au/ria & ,g]many2 total1 #hf sacks1 #cddl4 ,bu%ire despat*$ #ejjjr4 wor? to ,india 9 #ahgi4 ,syra s5t #bdhl4 wor? to ,great ,brita9 9 #ahgi4 ,v5ice export$ #agde tons ( gall & b>k1 value #cd1ijfl41 9 #ahgi4 ,! be/ oak-galls conta9 #fj-gj p] c5t4 ( tannic or gallotannic acid1 & #c p] c5t4 ( gallic acid4 ,rove is a small cru%$ gall1 conta9+ #bd-cd p] c5t4 ( gallotannic acid4 ,!re are _m o!r v>ieties ( non-comm]cial oak-gall4 ,*9ese or ,japanese ,galls4--,^! are vesicul> protub]ances =m$ on ! leaf-/alks & bran*es ( ! ,rhus semialata ,bucki-amela1 a tree ( #cj-dj ft41 common 9 ,nor? ,india1 ,*9a1 & ,japan1 asc5d+ ! out] ,himlaya & ! ,khasia ,hills to #bejj-fjjj ft41 by punctures ( ! female ( ,aphis *95sis4 ,! galls are collect$ :5 _! gre5 col\r is *ang+ to yell[1 & are !n scald$4 ,!y are light & holl[1 #a-b-a_/b 94 long1 & ( v v>i$ & irregul> =m4 ,! ,japanese are ! small] & pal]1 & usually m e/eem$4 ,! galls conta9 ab\t #gj p] c5t4 ( tannic or gallotannic acid1 & #d p] c5t4 ( ano!r tann94 ,!y are consum$ ma9ly 9 ,g]many1 = ! manufacture ( tannic acid4 ,hank[ export$ #cj1idi piculs 7( #acc-a_/c lb47 9 #ahgb2 & #ba1faa piculs1 value #acf1bad taels 7( ab\t #fs471 9 #ahgd4 ,9 #ahgg1 ! total ,*9ese export did n exce$ #ag1eae piculs4 ,hank[ export$ #bd1gdb-a_/b piculs 9 #ahgh1 & #bh1cib piculs1 #ei1fadl41 9 #ahgi2 ,pakhoi1 #fbl4 wor? 9 #ahgi2 ,canton1 #caee-a_/c piculs 9 #ahgg1 #aici 9 #ahgh1 #cafc-a_/b 9 #ahgi2 ,i*ang1 #ajj-a_/b piculs1 #acbl41 9 #ahgh1 #djb-a_/b piculs1 #ehfl41 9 #ahgi2 ,%anghai1 #bg1fei-a_/b piculs 9 #ahgi4 ,9 ,*9a trade returns1 !y are always miscall$ nut-galls or gall-nuts3 correctly1 !y are wu-pei-tze4 ,oak-galls are export$ f ,*9a resembl+ ^? ( ,we/]n ,asia4 ,japanese galls1 kifu%i1 are s5t 9 increas+ quantities f ,hiogo4 ,our imports ( galls 9 #ahhj 73--#bd1eij cwt41 #fh1figl41 f ,*9a2 #ag1caa cwt41 #fj1fdhl41 f ,turkey2 #iahb cwt41 #ijacl41 f o!r c\ntries3 total1 #ea1jhc cwt41 #ach1cehl4 ,our re-exports 9 ! same ye> 73--#fbfj cwt41 #ah1dgil41 to ,holl&2 #fjbb cwt41 #ah1adgl41 to ,g]many2 #cbad cwt41 #aa1jjbl41 to ,france2 #cjde cwt41 #heihl41 to ,belgium2 #bfea cwt41 #aa1jjdl41 to ! ,unit$ ,/ates2 #afbe cwt41 #ebjel41 to o!r c\ntries2 total1 #bb1hag cwt41 #gb1dcel4 ,! approximate ,london m>ket values ( galls are3--,bussora1 blue1 #hb-ajbs4 a cwt42 d41 :ite & 9 sorts1 #ej-ijs42 ,*9a1 #ej-gjs42 ,japan1 #ee-efs4 ,gambi]1 ,pale ,cate*u1 or ,t]ra ,japonica 7,fr41 ,gambir1 ,ca*\ jaune2 ,g]41 ,gambir74--,^! names are conf]r$ ^u an extract f ! leaves ( ,unc>ia ,gambi] ,nauclea ,gambir & ,u4 acida1 conta9+ #cf-dj p] c5t4 ( a br[n tann91 :i* rapidly p5etrates lea!r1 & t5ds to swell x1 b alone gives a s(t por\s tannage2 x is l>gely us$ 9 conjunction ) o!r mat]ials = tann+ bo? dress+- & sole-lea!r4 ,! plants are /\t climb+ %rubs1 ! fir/-nam$ be+ a native ( ! c\ntries bord]+ ! ,/raits ( ,malacca1 & especially ! isl&s at ! ea/]n end1 ?\gh app>5tly n indig5\s to any ( ! isl&s ( ! volcanic b&1 gr[+ also 9 ,ceylon1 :]e no use is made ( x2 :ile ! second1 probably a m]e v>iety1 fl\ri%es 9 ! ,malay isl&s4 ,! %rubs are cultivat$ 9 plantations1 (t5 =m$ 9 jungle cle>+s2 ! soil is v rapidly exhau/$1 & fur!r injur$ by excessive gr[? ( ! in]adicable lalang-grass 7,&ropogon c>icosus74 ,x is f\nd advantage\s to comb9e pepp]-culture ) t ( gambi]1 ! boil$ leaves ( ! latt] =m+ excell5t manure = ! =m]4 ,! gambi]-plants are all[$ to gr[ #h-aj ft4 high1 & z _! foliage is always 9 season1 ea* plant is /ripp$ #c or #d times 9 ! ye>4 ,! tools & app>atus = ! manufacture ( ! extract are ( ! mo/ primitive description4 ,a %all[ ca/-iron pan ab\t #c ft4 across is built into an e>!n fire-place4 ,wat] is p\r$ into ! pan1 a fire is k9dl$1 & ! leaves & "y %oots1 fre%ly pluck$1 are scatt]$ 91 & boil$ = ab\t an h\r4 ,at ! end ( ?is "t1 !y are ?r[n on to a capaci\s slop+ tr\gh1 ! l[] end ( :i* projects into ! pan1 & are squeez$ ) ! h& s t ! absorb$ liquor may run back into ! boil]4 ,! decoction is !n evaporat$ to ! consi/5ce ( a ?9 syrup1 & bal$ out into buckets4 ,:5 suffici5tly cool1 x is subject$ to curi\s treatm5t3 in/ead ( simply /irr+ x r\nd1 ! workman pu%es a /ick ( s(t wood 9 a slop+ direction into ea* bucket2 &1 plac+ two su* buckets be=e him1 he works a /ick up & d[n 9 ea*4 ,! liquid ?ick5s r\nd ! /ick1 &1 ! ?ick5$ portion be+ con/antly rubb$ (f1 :ile at ! same "t ! :ole is 9 motion1 x gradually sets into a mass1 a result :i*1 x is said1 w\ld nev] be produc$ by simple /irr+3 x is reasonable to suppose t ?is mann] ( treat+ ! liquor fav\rs ! cry/allisation ( ! cate*9 9 a m concrete =m ?an x might o!rwise assume4 ,! ?ick5$ mass1 resembl+ s(t yell[i% clay1 is n[ plac$ 9 %all[ squ>e boxes2 :5 some:at h>d5$1 x is cut into cubes1 & dri$ 9 ! %ade4 ,! leaves are boil$ a second "t1 & f9ally wa%$ 9 wat]1 :i* is sav$ = ano!r op]ation4 ,a second plan is z foll[s3--,! leaves are boil$1 & bruis$ 9 a wood5 mort> 7lesong71 f :i* !y are put into a k9d ( basket ( rattan op5-"w1 :i* is press$ by a long piece ( wood act+ z a lev]2 ! liquid is receiv$ into a tr\gh1 & !re all[$ to settle4 ,:5 ! s$im5t has acquir$ suffici5t sub/ance1 x is put into a kulit-kayo1 =m$ l a tub )\t a bottom1 :i* lets ! sup]flu\s wat] dra9 (f2 :5 t is done1 x is tak5 out1 made into small cakes1 & dri$ = use4 ,a plantation employ+ #e lab\r]s conta9s #gj1jjj-hj1jjj %rubs1 & yields #dj-ej catties 7( #a-a_/c lb47 ( gambi] daily4 ,plantations 7 comm5c$ 9 ,s+apore 9 #ahbi1 & once numb]$ #hjj2 b ow+ to sc>city ( fuel1 abundance ( :i* is ess5tial to ! manufacture1 & de>ness ( lab\r1 ! culture 0 fa/ decl9+ 9 #ahff4 ,9 #ahgb1 x _h mu* recov]$4 ,x is l>gely pursu$ on ! ma9l& 7,johore71 & 9 ! ,rhio-,l+ga ,ar*ipelago1 ,s4-,e4 ( ,s+apore2 on ,b9tang1 ! mo/ nor!rly ( ! gr\p1 !re 7 #abej plantations ( x 9 #ahed4 ,none is cultivat$ 9 ,s>awak1 ?\gh f\nd wild 9 _m p>ts2 ! =eign export f ,s>awak 9 #ahgi _h a total value ( #hh1adh dol4 ,! be/ k9d is br\ght l>gely f ,sumatra1 b is (t5 adult]at$ ) sago4 ,! ,rhio product is also ?us sophi/icat$1 & r5d]$ heavi] by ! ,*9ese purposely pack+ x 9 baskets l9$ ) wet cajangs1 occasion+ a loss to ! pur*as] ( ab\t #cj p] c5t4 ,s+apore is ! great emporium = gambi]1 & export$ #cd1bdh tons 9 #ahga1 #ai1eej tons hav+ be5 import$1 *iefly f ,rhio & ! ,malay ,p59sula4 ,9 #ahgf1 ! export increas$ to ov] #ej1jjj tons ( press$ block1 & #bgjj tons ( cubes4 ,9 #ahgg1 x fell to #ci1aag tons1 ow+ to diff]5ces ) ! ,*9ese deal]s conc]n+ adult]ation2 ( ?is quantity1 #ba1fjg tons 7 = ,london1 #gegb = ,liv]pool1 & #bcde = ,m>seilles4 ,! ,unit$ ,k+dom imports 9 #ahgb 7 #ba1aee tons1 #dea1gcgl41 almo/ all f ! ,/raits ,settlem5ts2 9 #ahhj1 !y 7 #bf1jfa tons1 #dfa1ghal41 f ! ,/raits1 & #ceb tons1 #fdfhl41 f o!r c\ntries2 total1 #bf1dac tons1 #dfh1bdil4 ,our re-exports 9 #ahhj 73--#bdhg tons1 #dh1ejgl41 to ,holl&2 #aeia tons1 #ca1edbl4 to ,g]many2 #aacg tons1 #bc1fidl41 to ,russia2 #eid tons1 #ab1jbfl41 to o!r c\ntries2 total1 #ehji tons1 #aae1gfil4 ,! approximate ,london m>ket values are #aes4 #f;d4-#bas4 #f;d4 a cwt4 = block1 #ah-bds4 = press$ cubes1 & #bc-bgs4 = free cubes4 ,hemlock4--,! b>k ( ! hemlock or hemlock spruce 7,abies canad5sis71 ( ,canada & ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 conta9s ne>ly #ad p] c5t4 ( tann94 ,! /ripp+ ( ! b>k comm5ces 9 ! s\!rn p>ts ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates 9 spr+1 & la/s dur+ ,april-,may2 9 ,new ,york1 ,mi*igan1 & ,wiscons91 ! season is ,june-,july2 & f>!r nor?1 x is /ill lat]4 ,x is said t ! be/ product is obta9$ f>!/ s\?4 ,! de/ruction ( ! hemlock =e/s is fa/ approa*+4 ,)9 ! la/ #be ye>s1 ! prep>ation ( an extract f ! b>k1 conta9+ #ah-be p] c5t4 ( a deep-r$ tann91 giv+ consid]able weight & firmness to lea!r1 has sup]s$$ ! export ( crude b>k4 ,"o mode ( prep>+ ! extract is z foll[s3--,! b>k 9 pieces #a_/b-a 94 ?ick1 & sev]al in*es long1 is soak$ = ab\t #ae m9utes 9 wat] at #bjj ,f4 7#ic ,c472 x is !n f$ into a hopp]1 :i* conducts x to a #c-roll] ma*9e1 some?+ l a sug>-cane mill1 ?r\gh :i* x passes1 com+ out lac]at$ & compress$2 x next falls into a vat ( hot wat]1 :]e x is agitat$ by a :eel1 t ! tann9 f ! cru%$ cells may be dissolv$ 9 ! wat]2 h5ce x is rais$ by a s]ies ( buckets on an endless *a91 some:at 9 ! mann] ( a gra9-elevator1 to ano!r hopp]1 :5ce x is f$ to ano!r #c-roll] mill2 "h x receives its f9al compression1 & comes out 9 flakes or %eets1 l co>se pap]1 & almo/ free f tann94 ,! buckets are made ( co>se wire1 t ! wat] may drip ?r\gh dur+ ! elevation4 ,9 ord] to avoid ! black5+ action ( iron1 :]ev] ?is metal w come into contact ) ! solutions x is ?ickly coat$ ) z9c4 ,! solution is evaporat$ to a solid consi/5cy1 g5]ally by vacuum-pans4 ,ab\t #b tons ( b>k are repres5t$ by #a b>4 7( less ?an #ejj lb47 ( extract4 ,! *ief mak]s are ,a4 ,s4 ,?omas1 ,elmira1 ,n4,y42 ,s4 ,br[n ,co41 ,new ,york2 ,canada ,tann+ ,extract ,co41 ,/4 ,leon>d & ,bul/rode2 ,j4 ,mill] ,co41 ,mill]ton1 ,new ,brunswick4 ,! total production is probably ov] #aj1jjj tons annually1 rang+ 9 value betwe5 #adl4 & #bjl4 a ton4 ,our imports are includ$ 9 b>ks & extracts4 ,k9o 7,fr41 ,k9o2 ,g]41 ,k9o74--,! t]m gum k9o is appli$ to a class ( a/r+5t extracts ( v>i$ orig91 none ( :i* c accurately be call$ ei!r res9s or gums4 ,illu/ration3 ,pl4 ,,ii4 ,e4 ,f4 ,n4 ,spon1 ,london ,new ,york4 ,,ink-,,photo ,,sprague ,,co4 ,,london4 ,,remov+ ,,! ,,hair2 ,,scrap+ ,,& ,,clean+ ,,! ,,sk9s4 7#a7 ,ea/ ,indian or ,amboyna ,k9o4--,?is is obta9$ f ,pt]oc>pus ,m>supium1 a common tree 9 ! c5tral & s\!rn p>ts ( ! ,indian p59sula1 & 9 ,ceylon2 & a liquid k9d f ,p4 indicus1 ( ,s\? ,india1 ,burma1 ,malacca1 ,p5ang1 ! ,&amans1 & ,malaysia4 ,! collection ( ! juice is effect$ 9 ! foll[+ mann]4 ,a p]p5dicul> incision1 ) lat]al (f%oots1 is made 9 ! /em ( ! tree :5 blossom+ has set 91 & a receptacle is plac$ at ! foot ( ! incision4 ,! exud+ juice appe>s l r$-currant jelly1 b x soon ?ick5s by exposure to ! air1 & :5 suffici5tly dri$1 is pack$ into wood5 boxes = exportation4 ,x is "o ( ! res]v$ timb]-trees ( ! ,gov]nm5t =e/s 9 ,madras1 & its juice is collect$ by natives1 :o pay a small fee = ! p]mission4 ,! h>d5$ juice consi/s ( blacki%-r$1 angul>1 pea-l gra9s1 p>tially soluble 9 wat]1 almo/ entirely 9 _s ( w9e ( sp4 gr4 #jhch1 readily 9 cau/ic alkal9e solutions1 & l>gely 9 a saturat$ solution ( sug>4 ,! liquid k9o produces a v inf]ior article on dry+4 ,! annual collection ( k9o 9 ,madras probably does n exce$ #a-b tons4 ,its approximate ,london m>ket value is #fj-aejs4 a cwt4 ,x is employ$ m$ic9ally1 & 9 ! manufacture ( w9es1 & might be employ$ z a s\rce ( tann9 9 dye+ & tann+1 if suffici5tly *eap4 7#b7 ,butea1 ,b5gal1 ,palas or ,dhak ,k9o4--,?is v>iety is af=d$ by ! palas or dhak tree 7,butea frondosa71 common ?r\gh\t ,india & ,burma1 & af=d+ a dye/uff1 & a fibre1 z well z by ,b4 sup]ba & ,b4 p>viflora4 ,dur+ ! hot season1 !re issues f natural fissures & f w\nds made 9 ! b>k ( ! /em1 a r$ juice1 :i* quickly h>d5s to a ruby-col\r$1 brittle1 a/r+5t mass4 ,x occurs 9 small drops or te>s1 & 9 flat pieces :i* h be5 dri$ on leaves1 & is almo/ always mix$ ) b>k-fragm5ts4 ,x is transp>5t1 freely soluble 9 cold wat]1 & does n s(t5 9 ! m\?4 ,x is unkn[n 9 ,european comm]ce1 b is employ$ 9 ,india z a sub/itute = ! k9d fir/ describ$4 7#c7 ,african or ,gambia ,k9o4--,?is is d]iv$ f ,pt]oc>pus er9aceus1 a native ( ,tropical ,we/ ,africa1 f ,s5egambia to ,angola4 ,! juice exudes naturally f fissures 9 ! b>k1 b m abundantly f incisions1 & soon coagulates to a blood-r$ & v brittle mass1 kn[n to ! ,portuguese ( ,angola z sangue del drago 7dragon's-blood74 ,x is practically undi/+ui%able f ! (fic9al k9d fir/ describ$1 b is n a regul> article ( comm]ce4 7#d7 ,au/ralian1 ,botany ,bay1 or ,eucalyptus ,k9o4--,sev]al species ( ,eucalyptus af=d a/r+5t extracts1 ^? f ! r$1 :ite1 or flood$ gum 7,e4 ro/rata71 ! blood-wood 7,e4 corymbosa71 & ,e4 citriodora1 be+ q suitable = replac+ ! (fic9al k9d4 ,x is *iefly obta9$ by woodcutt]s1 be+ f\nd 9 a viscid /ate 9 flatt5$ cavities 9 ! wood1 & soon becom+ inspissat$1 h>d1 & brittle4 ,m9or quantities are procur$ 9 a liquid /ate by incis+ ! b>k ( liv+ trees1 =m+ a treacly fluid yield+ #ce p] c5t4 ( solid k9o on evaporation4 ,x is import$ f ,au/ralia1 b !re are no /ati/ics to %[ 9 :at quantity4 ,mimosa- or ,wattle-b>k4--,! b>k ( num]\s species ( ,acacia1 natives ( ,au/ralia1 conta9s consid]able p]c5tages ( deep-r$ mimo-tannic acid1 :i* =ms a h>d & heavy tannage if us$ /rong1 ?\gh s(t upp]-lea!rs may be tann$ ) x 9 weak liquors4 ,! *ief k9ds are z foll[s3--,! common wattle 7,acacia decurr5s71 includ+ its v>iety ,a4 mollissima1 is kn[n also "u ! names ( gre51 black1 & fea!ry1 b mu/ n be conf\nd$ ) ! silv] wattle 7,a4 dealbata71 ?\gh b d\btfully a di/9ct species4 ,! b>k is obta9able 9 va/ abundance1 & is mu* us$ by tann]s4 ,! trees are /ripp$ 9 ,septemb] & ! #b or #c mon?s foll[+1 & ! b>k1 be+ all[$ to dry1 is !n 9 a m>ketable condition4 ,?is tree1 :i* gr[s 9 ! upl&s1 af=ds a l>g] p]c5tage ( tann9 ?an ! silv] wattle4 ,blackwood or lightwood 7,a4 melanoxylon7 yields tann]s' b>k1 :i*1 is inf]ior1 h[ev]1 to t f ,a4 decurr5s4 ,! b>k ( ,a4 p5n9]vis yields ( tannic acid #agi p] c5t41 & ( gallic acid #ch p] c5t4 ,! b>k ( ! native hickory 7,a4 suppurosa7 yields ( tannic acid #ff p] c5t41 & ( gallic acid #ab p] c5t4 ,! b>k ( ,a4 saligna1 ( ,s\?-,we/]n ,au/ralia1 is mu* us$ by tann]s1 z x conta9s ne>ly #cj p] c5t4 ( mimo-tann94 ,a4 h>pophylla1 ( ,s\? ,que5sl&1 furni%es a consid]able %>e ( ! m]cantile wattle-b>k = tann+ purposes4 ,! b>k ( ,a4 lophan?a conta9s only ab\t #h p] c5t4 ( tann94 ,! broad-leav$ or gold5 wattle 7,a4 pycnan?a71 ( ,victoria & ,s\? ,au/ralia1 des]ves ext5sive cultivation4 ,x is ( rapid gr[?1 w succe$ ev5 9 s&y tracts1 & yields se$ copi\sly1 :i* g]m9ates ) ! greate/ ease4 ,! p]fectly-dri$ b>k conta9s ab\t #be p] c5t4 ( tann94 ,! aque\s infusion ( ! b>k c be r$uc$ by boil+ to a dry extract1 :i* 9 m$ic9al & o!r respects is equal to ! be/ ,indian cut*4 ,x yields approximately #cj p] c5t4 ( tann91 ab\t half ( :i*1 or m1 is mimo-tannic acid4 ,probably no o!r tann+ plants give s quick a return 9 cultivation z ! ,a4 pycnan?a & ,a4 decurr5s ( ,au/ralia4 ,! latt] v>ies 9 its proportions ( tann9 f #h to #cc p] c5t4 ,9 ! m]cantile b>k1 ! p]c5tage is some:at less1 accord+ to ! /ate ( its dryness1 x reta9+ ab\t #aj p] c5t4 ( moi/ure4 ,! b>k ( ! silv] wattle 7,a4 dealbata7 is ( less value1 (t5 ev5 fet*+ only half ! price ( t ( ! black wattle4 ,! b>k improves by age & desiccation1 & yields #dj p] c5t4 ( tann91 r m ?an half ( :i* is tannic acid4 ,among/ all ! k9ds1 ! b>k ( ! broad-leav$ wattle is consid]$ ! mo/ valuable1 conta9+ ! greate/ quantity ( tann92 t ( ! silv] wattle is n s valuable1 be+ defici5t 9 tann92 ! black wattle is consid]$ ! mo/ productive species2 x c be b>k$ at #h ye>s ( age1 & w produce #dj-fj lb4 dri$ b>k1 & full-gr[n trees w yield #ajj-aej lb4 p] tree4 ,! cultivation ( wattles = comm]cial purposes has till n[ rema9$ undevelop$2 b no d\bt1 z soon z x is und]/ood1 ! utilisation ( _m acres ( l& ly+ wa/e1 or :i* h already be5 exhau/$ & r5d]$ unfit = ! gr[? ( c]eals1 w be effect$ by ! cultivation ( ! wattle4 ,x requires s little att5tion z to make x v pr(itable1 & wattle-gr[+ & graz+ c be comb9$ satisfactorily4 ,aft] ! fir/ ye>1 :5 ! "y trees 9 ! plantation h rea*$ ! height ( #c-d ft41 %eep c be turn$ 94 ,wattles gr[ 9 almo/ any soil1 ev5 ! poore/1 b _! gr[? is mo/ rapid on loose s&y pat*es1 or :]e ! surface has be5 brok5 = agricultural purposes4 ,:5 ! soil is h>d & firm1 pl\gh furr[s %\ld be made at a regul> di/ance ( #f-h ft4 ap>t1 into :i* ! se$s are dropp$4 ,! se$ %\ld be s[n 9 ,may1 hav+ be5 previ\sly soak$ 9 hot wat]1 a little bel[ boil+ temp]ature1 9 :i* !y may be all[$ to rema9 = a few h\rs4 ,! se$ %\ld be dropp$ at an av]age di/ance ( #a ft4 ap>t along ! furr[1 9 :i* case1 ab\t #gbjj se$s w\ld suffice = "o acre ( l&4 ,! se$ %\ld n be cov]$ ) m ?an ab\t #a_/d 94 ( soil4 ,on loose s&y soil1 x might ev5 be unnecess>y to break up ! soil 9 any way2 ! furr[s may be disp5s$ )1 & ! se$ s[n broadca/ aft] ! l& is h>r[$4 ,aft] ! plants h come up1 !y %\ld be ?9n$ s t !y /& #f-h ft4 ap>t4 ,:5 ! "y trees h atta9$ ! height ( #c-d ft41 ! l[] bran*es %\ld be prun$ (f1 & e ef=t aft]w>ds made to keep ! /em /raight & cle>1 9 ord] to facilitate ! /ripp+1 & induce an increas$ yield ( b>k4 ,x is advisable t ! black & broad-leav$ %\ld be gr[n sep>ately1 z ! black wattle1 be+ ( mu* l>g] & quick] gr[?1 w\ld oppress ! sl[]-gr[+ broad-leav$ "o4 ,c>e %\ld be tak5 to replace e tree /ripp$ by re-s[+1 9 ord] t !re %\ld be z little v>iation 9 ! yield z possible4 ,! mon?s ( ,septemb]-,decemb]1 9 ,victoria1 are ^? 9 :i* ! sap rises )\t int]mission1 & ! b>k is *>g$ ) tann94 ,analysis proves t ! b>k f trees gr[+ on lime/one is greatly inf]ior 9 tann9 to t obta9$ f o!r =mations1 diff]+ #aj-be p] c5t4 ,! e/imat$ exp5diture on a wattle-b>k plantation ( #ajj acres dur+ #h ye>s is3-- s4 d4 ,r5t ( #ajj acres = #h ye>s at #fs4 p] acre p] annum #bdj #j #j ,pl\gh+ #ajj acres 9 drills #aj ft4 ap>t #be #j #j ,s[+ wattles & actual cultivation1 includ+ co/ ( se$ #cg #aj #j ,sup]vision = #h ye>s 7nom9al71 say #ajl4 p] annum #hj #j #j ,prun+ ! trees1 tak+ (f useless wood 7necess>y = #b ye>s71 #ajs4 p] annum #ej #j #j ,incid5tal & un=ese5 exp5ses #bg #aj #j ,int]e/ on ! :ole am\nt exp5d$ dur+ #h ye>s #bdj #j #j #gjj #j #j ,actual co/ ( /ripp+ & c>t+1 z %[n bel[ #aeae #j #j #bbae #j #j ,! receipts d]ivable f a wattle plantation ( #ajj acres1 plant$ 9 ! mann] propos$1 w\ld be3-- s4 d4 ,ea* acre plant$ ) wattles1 #aj ft4 ap>t1 w\ld c>ry #djj trees1 & at end ( #e? ye> trees w\ld yield say #ef lb4 matur$ b>k3 /ripp+ only e #crd tree1 #ccb trees w\ld be obta9$ (f #ajj acres3 ?is1 at #dl4 p] ton1 w\ld give = #a/ /ripp+ #accb #j #j ,9 ! #f? or foll[+ ye>1 a simil> numb] ( trees w\ld be /ripp$3 ! b>k hav+ increas$ 9 weight 7say #ad lb471 ! increas$ yield ( #bnd /ripp+ w\ld be #djj tons at #dl4 p] ton #afjj #j #j ,9 ! #g? ye>1 ! rema9+ trees w\ld be /ripp$1 f :i* a /ill great] increase w\ld be obta9$1 say #dhj tons at #dl4 p] ton #aibj #j #j ,total yield ( b>k #dheb #j #j ,! co/ ( /ripp+ w\ld n exce$ #aes4 p] ton1 on acc\nt ( ! facilities pres5t$ by ! regul>ity ( ! trees1 :ile c>t+ w\ld repres5t ano!r #ajs4 p] ton3 ^! comb9$ *>ges w\ld be #bes4 p] ton1 & on #abae tons1 w\ld be #aeae #j #j ,leav+ a cle> pr(it on ! #ajj acres ( #bfcg #j #j ,! exports ( mimosa-b>k 9 #ahgf 7 #aa1hii tons f ,victoria1 #dgeh f ,s\? ,au/ralia1 & #agce f ,tasmania4 ,lat] returns are includ$ 9 b>ks1 p4 #ci4 ,%anghai import$ #gjch piculs 7( #acc-a_/c lb47 9 #ahgi4 ,! approximate ,london m>ket values ( mimosa-b>k are3--,gr\nd1 #f-acl4 a ton2 *opp$1 #e-abl42 long1 #el4-#il4 #ajs4 ,a v sup]ior extract has be5 made f ?is b>k4 ,myrobalans or ,myrabolams4--,! fruits ( sev]al species ( ,t]m9alia con/itute ! myrobalans ( comm]ce2 !y are *iefly ,t4 ,*ebula & ,t4 ,bell]ica1 natives ( ,india1 ! =m] be+ a tree #dj-ej ft4 high1 & e/eem$ = its timb] also4 ,! fruits conta9 #cj-ce p] c5t4 ( gallotannic & ellagitannic acids1 produc+ a s(t & por\s tannage1 & good samples giv+ a bright-yell[ col\r4 ,! tann9 exi/s 9 ! pulp1 & is abs5t f ! v h>d /one4 ,! dri$ fruits are kn[n locally z h>1 h>ra1 or bah]a1 & are us$ commonly = dye+1 b n = tann+4 ,our imports ( myrobalans 9 #ahhj 73--#bch1aea cwt41 #aba1dfel41 f ,bombay & ,s9d2 #aae1fgj cwt41 #ea1ccil41 f ,madras2 #aa1jbj cwt41 #dgagl41 f ,b5gal & ,burma2 #cebj cwt41 #adjbl41 f o!r c\ntries2 total1 #cfh1cfa cwt41 #agh1ibcl4 ,our re-exports 9 #ahhj 7 #hjae cwt41 #dcbhl41 to ,g]many2 #af1abg cwt41 #heael41 to o!r c\ntries2 total1 #bd1adb cwt41 #ab1hdcl4 ,! approximate ,london m>ket values ( myrobalans are #g-ads4 a cwt4 = good1 & #e-ajs4 = common4 ,%anghai import$ #ddjc piculs 7( #acc-a_/c lb47 9 #ahgi4 ,oak-b>ks 7,fr41 corces de ,*ne2 ,g]41 ,ei*5r9d574--,! b>ks ( sev]al species ( oak h valuable tann+ prop]ties4 ,!y are *iefly3--,! common oak 7,qu]cus ,robur1 v>ieties3 sessiliflora1 ,g]4 ,traub5ei*e2 p$unculata1 ,g]4 ,/ielei*e71 :i* is ( ev5 great] importance z a timb]-tree2 ! cork-oak 7,q4 ,sub]72 ! ev]gre5 oak 7,q4 ,ilex72 & ! ,am]ican *e/nut-oak 7,q4 ,ca/anea74 ,^! b>ks are among ! mo/ e/eem$ tann9s z reg>ds quality ( lea!r1 b are incapable ( giv+ mu* weight1 & f _! bulk are co/ly to h&le1 conta9+ only #aj-ab p] c5t4 ( tann9 7qu]citannic acid74 ,!y give a r$di% fawn-col\r$ lea!r1 & deposit a good deal ( bloom1 b yield little or no gallic acid4 ,! b>ks ( ! cork-oak & ev]gre5 oak f ,s\!rn ,europe1 are /rong] & d>k]-col\r$ ?an ,engli% b>k4 ,! ,am]ican *e/nut-oak conta9s a peculi> fluoresc5t pr9ciple l scul94 ,our imports ( unspecifi$ b>ks = tann]s' & dy]s' use 9 #ahhj 73--#ahi1cii cwt41 #aja1ajhl41 f ,au/ralia2 #abc1cjb cwt41 #cb1igdl41 ,belgium2 #eg1bcb cwt41 #bj1ihhl41 ,unit$ ,/ates2 #bb1ajj cwt41 #fjcjl41 ,holl&2 #ah1fdh cwt41 #cfgfl41 ,italy2 #af1aea cwt41 #figbl41 ,alg]ia2 #bb1ffi cwt41 #hhchl41 o!r c\ntries2 total1 #ddi1eja cwt41 #ahj1ehfl4 ,our imports ( un5um]at$ b>k-extracts 9 ! same ye> 7 valu$ at3--#eaf1eghl4 f ,holl&1 #ib1fedl4 ,france1 #cj1ahgl4 ,unit$ ,/ates1 #af1cael4 ,briti% ,nor? ,am]ica1 #ab1gifl4 ,belgium1 #ac1gfil4 o!r c\ntries2 total1 #fhb1biil4 ,our re-exports ( b>ks 9 #ahhj 73--#ai1edh cwt41 #aj1cdhl41 to ,g]many2 #ad1fbg cwt41 #gdbel41 ,france2 #deee cwt41 #cjdal41 ,holl&2 #aj1cjd cwt41 #fjhjl41 o!r c\ntries2 total1 #di1jcd cwt41 #bf1hidl4 ,) reg>d to cork-tree b>k1 ,james ,gordon ,co41 ,liv]pool1 oblig+ly write t v little comes to ,engl&1 ! great bulk go+ direct to ,irel&1 :]e ! consumption is l>ge4 ,! imports at ,liv]pool 9 #ahhj 7 #ahf tons1 av]age value #hl4 p] ton4 ,( oak-b>k1 ,hung>y1 9 #ahgg1 produc$ #be1jjj tons1 ( :i*1 #bj1jjj 7 export$ to ,g]many = tann+ purposes4 ,! approximate ,london m>ket values ( oak-b>k are3--,engli%1 #ab-afl4 p] load ( #de cwt42 ,=eign1 tree1 #e-hl4 a ton2 ditto1 coppice1 #f-hl4 ,9 #ahgi1 ,algi]s export$ #ab1ffj1jdg kilo4 7( #bb lb47 ( tann+ b>k4 ,quebra*o4--,! local "n quebra*o1 contract$ f quebra-ha*o 7axe-break]71 is appli$ to sev]al ,s\? ,am]ican trees possess+ h>d wood1 belong+ to di/9ct g5]a4 ,!y are *iefly z foll[s3--7#a7 ,aspidosp]ma ,quebra*o1 ! quebra*o blanco1 a tree gr[+ 9 ! prov9ce ( ,catam>ca1 ,arg5t9e ,republic2 7#b7 ,loxopt]ygium ,quebra*ia ,lor5tzii1 ! quebra*o colorado1 mo/ preval5t 9 ! prov9ce ( ,corri5tes1 ! wood & b>k ( :i* come l>gely into comm]ce z tann+ mat]ials2 7#c7 ,iod9a rhombifolia1 ! quebra*o flojo1 ^: wood & b>k are mix$ ) ^? ( ,no4 #b2 7#d7 ,ma*rium f]tile ,tipuana speciosa1 ! tipa1 :i* af=ds bo? wood & b>k ( less tann+ value ?an ,no4 #b4 ,x w\ld seem t ! wood & b>k ( ,no4 #b are by f> ! mo/ l>gely employ$1 conta9+ #ae-bc p] c5t4 ( a bright-r$ tann94 ,! wood & an extract f x are import$ into ,europe4 ,f in=mation k9dly furni%$ by ,james ,gordon ,co41 & ,haw ,co41 ( ,liv]pool1 x appe>s t ! imports ( quebra*o-wood into ,liv]pool 9 #ahhj 7 #bjj tons1 value ab\t #dl4 #ajs4 a ton2 & ( quebra*o-b>k1 ab\t #bj tons1 none ( :i* _h be5 sold4 ,suma* or ,%umac 7,fr41 ,sumac2 ,g]41 ,g]b]suma*1 ,s*mack74--,! comm]cial t]m suma* is appli$ to ! dri$ leaves ( a numb] ( ,s\? ,european & ,am]ican tann9-yield+ plants4 ,^! are *iefly z foll[s3--,9 ,sicily1 ! ,european or tann+-suma* 7,rhus ,cori>ia72 9 ,tuscany1 ,r4 ,cori>ia1 (t5 adult]at$ ) leaves ( ,pi/acia l5tiscus2 9 ,spa91 sev]al ,rhus spp41 ! products be+ divid$ into #c k9ds--,malaga or ,priego1 ,mal9a1 & ,valladolid2 9 ! ,tyrol1 ! smoke-tree or fragrant or ,v5etian suma* 7,r4 ,cot9us72 9 ,france1 ,cori>ia myrtifolia1 divid$ into #d sorts--fauvis1 d\zre1 r$\l or r$on1 & pudis2 9 ,alg]ia1 ,tez]a suma* 7,r4 p5taphylla71 us$ by ! ,arabs = mak+ morocco-lea!r2 9 ,nor? ,am]ica1 ! smoo? or :ite suma* 7,r4 glabra71 ! ,canadian suma* 7,r4 canad5sis71 ! /aghorn suma* 7,r4 typh9a71 & ! dw>f or black suma* 7,r4 copall9a74 ,^! are f\nd gr[+ wild 9 ! c\ntries indicat$1 & are fur!r subject$ to cultivation 9 "s di/ricts1 notably 9 ,sicily4 ,r4 glabra & ,r4 copall9a are recomm5d$ *iefly = ext5d$ cultivation 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,! soil usually *os5 = cultivation ( ! plants is poor & light2 b a mu* l>g] crop ( leaves c be secur$ f /rong1 ri*1 deep soils1 & x is g5]ally admitt$ t ! product 9 ! latt] case is also bett]4 ,9 ,italy1 lime/one soils are consid]$ to be especially suit$ to ?is culture1 b ! ,am]ican v>ieties appe> to be well adapt$ to s&y & clay soils z well4 ,! prim>y requisite 9 a soil is t x %all be well dra9$1 ! pres5ce ( /agnant wat] ab\t ! roots be+ exce$+ly prejudicial4 ,to prep>e ! soil = plant+1 x is pl\gh$ z deeply z possible1 & laid out 9 r[s ab\t #b ft4 ap>t4 ,9 ,italy1 small holes are made ab\t #b ft4 long1 #g 94 wide1 & #e 94 deep1 & a plant is ins]t$ at ea* end4 ,a m conv5i5t me?od w\ld consi/ 9 m>k+ ! field 9 %all[ furr[s 9 "o direction #b ft4 ap>t1 & !n1 ) a heavy pl\gh1 tol]ably deep furr[s ! same di/ance ap>t z1 & at "r angles to1 ! fir/4 ,a plant may !n be plac$ 9 ! deep furr[s at ea* int]section1 ! furr[ aga9 fill$ ) ! pl\gh1 & ! e>? press$ ab\t ! plant ) ! foot4 ,if ?is 7 done 9 e>ly spr+-"t1 z soon z ! e>? is suffici5tly dry to be conv5i5tly work$1 !re c be no d\bt t x w\ld be successful1 :ile x w\ld c]ta9ly involve little co/4 ,plants are g5]ally propagat$ f ! "y %oots :i* =m ea* ye> ab\t ! base ( an old] plant1 b may also be produc$ f cutt+s made f "y well-rip5$ wood1 root$ by sett+ 9 a nurs]y or 9 frames1 z 9 ! propagation ( grape-v9es f cutt+s4 ,?is latt] me?od is sc>cely ev] requir$1 h[ev]1 :5 ! cultivation has be5 />t$4 ,plants are also rais$ f se$1 & se$l+s are always f\nd to be /rong1 vigor\s1 & ?or\ghly h>dy2 b on acc\nt ( ! great] "t & lab\r involv$ 9 _! production1 ?is me?od ( propagation has n receiv$ ext5d$ application4 ,! fir/-m5tion$ g5]ally gives ! quicke/1 & probably mo/ satisfactory results4 ,9 select+ plants f any s\rce1 !re are c]ta9 po9ts to be obs]v$3--7#a7 ,! %oots %\ld come f "y vigor\s plants2 7#b7 !y %\ld be ov] #a ft4 long2 7#c7 ^? ) l>ge roots & few rootlets %\ld be reject$2 7#d7 ^? hav+ :ite roots1 cov]$ ) a fibr\s1 :ite1 silky d[n1 are also to be reject$1 ?is be+ an indication ( ! pres5ce ( a v injuri\s subt]ranean p>asitic fungus1 capable ( de/roy+ ! entire crop2 7#e7 a good %oot is /raight1 at lea/ #a_/b 94 diam41 #ah 94 long1 furni%$ ) num]\s buds close to ea* o!r1 root %ort1 b cov]$ ) rootlets4 ,%oots = plant+ may be collect$ 9 autumn1 aft] ! leaves h fall51 & be pres]v$ 9 a nurs]y until spr+2 or ?is may be done 9 e>ly spr+1 :5 ! gr\nd is v moi/ & s(t4 ,9 ei!r case1 c>e %\ld be obs]v$ t ! rootlets are n injur$ by dry+1 or f any o!r cause4 ,! culture to be giv5 ! plant is some:at simil> to t requir$ by ,indian corn3 ! e>? ab\t x %\ld be kept tol]ably mell[ & free f we$s1 & su* conditions c probably be ma9ta9$ to a degree suffici5t = suma*1 by work+ sev]al times dur+ ! gr[+ season ) a cultivator1 & pass+ ?r\gh ! r[s occasionally ) a pl\gh4 ,all ?is "w is n absolutely necess>y to ! life ( ! plant1 b its vig\r1 & consequ5tly its yield 9 leaves1 may be consid]ably increas$ & /r5g!n$ !reby4 ,aft] ! fir/ ye>1 ! numb] ( op]ations may be dim9i%$1 b !y %\ld always be suffici5t to keep ! gr\nd free f we$s & grass4 ,%ortly aft] plant+1 & :5 ! plant is well set1 ! /ock is prun$ to a l5g? ( #f-h 941 :5 ! plant is left to assume any =m1 & is no fur!r prun$ except by ! process ( collect+ ! leaves1 unless h&-pick+ is resort$ to2 9 su* case1 aft] ! #bnd ye>1 prun+ takes place ea* ye> 9 ! fall or w9t]1 ! plant be+ r$uc$ to a height ( #f-aj 94 ,aft] ! #crd ye>1 ! plant beg9s to produce ! %oots f ab\t its base1 already m5tion$2 ^!1 if n ne$$ = new plantations1 %\ld be remov$ ea* ye>1 = if left to develop1 !y weak5 ! plant4 ,if n remov$ dur+ ! summ]1 ! op]ation %\ld )\t fail be effect$ dur+ ! fall or w9t]4 ,! #a/ crop ( leaves may be secur$ dur+ ! ye> foll[+ t ( plant+4 ,?is develops & matures some:at lat] ?an t f old] plants1 & 9 ,italy x is n collect$ until ! end ( ,augu/ or ! #a/ ( ,septemb]2 b !re are reasons = believ+ t 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 especially 9 ! ,nor!rn ,/ates1 ! collection ( leaves f native v>ieties %\ld be made mu* e>li]1 because ! summ] is mu* %ort]1 & ! habits ( ! v>ieties gr[n diff] f ! ,sicilian4 ,macagno has %[n 7,*em4 ,soc4 ,j\rn41 xxxviii41 p4 #gcc7 t ! leaves f ! upp] side ( ! bran*es conta9 mu* m tann9 ?an ^? bel[1 & t especially 9 ! l[] leaves ! p]c5tage ( tann9 is mu* high] 9 ,june ?an 9 ,augu/4 ,all ! leaves1 except ! "y & t5d] ones ( ! extremities ( ! bran*es1 are /ripp$ (f & plac$ 9 baskets1 9 :i* !y are c>ri$ to a ?re%+-floor1 :]e !y are spread out 9 ?9 lay]s to dry4 ,"h !y mu/ be frequ5tly /irr$ & turn$ ov]1 = :i* purpose a =k ) wood5 prongs is employ$4 ,9 ! fall1 :5 gr[? is f9i%$1 & be=e ! leaves h _h "t to become r$1 ^? rema9+ on ! extremities are collect$4 ,to ?is end1 ! bran*es are brok5 j bel[ ! tuft ( leaves1 & ! latt] are all[$ to rema9 susp5d$ f ! bran* by a piece ( b>k n deta*$1 & left 9 ?is condition until ne>ly or q dry4 ,!y are !n collect$ & treat$ 9 ! same mann] z o!r leaves1 b ! product obta9$ 9 ?is way is always ( inf]ior quality4 ,aft] ! #bnd ye>1 crops ( l>g] quantity & sup]ior quality are obta9$1 & ! collection is made 9 a diff]5t way1 & mu* m frequ5tly4 ,! two me?ods foll[$ 9 ,sicily are 7#a7 prun+1 & 7#b7 defoliation4 ,! fir/1 :i* is ! m anci5t1 b mu* less co/ly1 requires less c>e1 & is simple & rapid2 b x is injuri\s to ! future condition ( ! plant1 & ! quantity ( subsequ5t crops4 ,! second1 ?\gh sl[]1 s]ves to bett] ma9ta9 ! vig\r ( ! plant1 & ! uni=m quantity ( ! crop f ye> to ye>2 9 consequ5ce1 x r$uces ! necessity = frequ5t r5ewal ( /ocks4 ,h>ve/ by prun+ is c>ri$ on 9 ,italy z foll[s4 ,dur+ ,may1 ! l[] leaves1 :i*1 f great] age1 appe> to h atta9$ full maturity1 & may be 9 dang] ( loss f fall+1 are remov$ 9 ! same mann] z describ$ = collect+ ! leaves f ye>l+ plants4 ,t[>d ! end ( ,june1 & dur+ ! c\rse ( ,july1 all bran*es be>+ leaves are cut away1 r$uc+ ! plant to ! pr9cipal /ock3 by ?is means1 ! crop is h>ve/$ & ! plant is prun$ at ! same "t4 ,b ev5 9 ,sicily1 ! "t = ?is op]ation is limit$ to no absolute p]iod1 & v>ies ) ! developm5t ( ! leaf1 z indicat$ by cessation ( gr[? & increase 9 size4 ,9 ?is condition1 also1 ! leaves w h acquir$ _! deepe/ gre5 col\r1 & atta9$ _! maximum weight & be/ quality4 ,x is fur!r /at$ t :ile ?is "t v>ies accord+ to locality1 ab\t ,pal]mo x is nev] e>li] ?an ,june nor lat] ?an ,july4 ,! h>ve/ by prun+ mu/ always be made by m5 accu/om$ to ! "w1 & equal to ! ex]tion requir$4 ,provid$ ) a prun+-bill1 !y cut (f all leaf-be>+ bran*es1 collect+ !m an ! left arm1 until ea* has cut z mu* z he c conv5i5tly c>ry1 :5 he places ! armful on ! gr\nd ) ! butts 9 ! direction ( ! prevail+ w9d1 :i*1 if tol]ably /rong1 might c>ry away "s ( ! leaves if turn$ 9 ! opposite direction2 f9ally1 he presses d[n ! bran*es ) 8 foot1 to make ! heap m compact1 & leave less surface expos$ to ! w9d & sun4 ,ano!r lab\r] deposits a second armful 9 ! same place1 presses x ) 8 foot 9 l mann]1 & ! two deposits con/itute a bundle4 ,at ! close ( ! op]ation1 !re rema9 ! "y %oots :i* are =m$ ab\t ! base ( ! plant1 ! leaves ( :i* are n fully develop$1 & consequ5tly n fit = collection until at lea/ #bj days lat]4 ,aft] ?is "t1 !y are remov$ by h&1 c>e be+ obs]v$ n to injure ! buds1 especially if ! %oots are to be us$ = /ocks 9 ! =mation ( plantations 9 ! foll[+ ye>4 ,defoliation1 or collection by h&1 is c>ri$ on :5ev] ! leaf may be fully develop$ & ripe1 beg9n+ at fir/ ) ! l[] leaves1 & cont9u+ ev5tually to ! ends ( ! bran*es4 ,x takes place at #c diff]5t times dur+ ! season3 ! #a/ 9 ,may1 ! #bnd late 9 ,july or e>ly ,augu/1 & ! #crd 9 ,septemb]4 ,at ! la/ collection1 ! extremities ( ! bran*es are brok5 d[n1 & ! leaves are all[$ to dry be=e removal f ! plant1 z describ$ "u collections ( ! #bnd ye>4 ,9 ! application ( ?is me?od1 ! regul> prun+ is effect$ dur+ ! fall or w9t]1 :5 ! plant is dormant1 & "u su* conditions ! op]ation becomes a reg5]ative "o1 giv+ 9 ?is p>ticul> an advantage ov] ! o!r me?od1 9 :i* ! prun+ is effect$ 9 ! summ] :5 ! plant is 9 full vegetative activity1 & s has a /rongly det]iorat+ influ5ce4 ,9 bo? me?ods ( prun+1 c>e %\ld be obs]v$ to leave a long slant+ section1 ^u :i* wat] w be less likely to settle & promote decay4 ,! leaves collect$ by ei!r me?od are dri$ 9 ! op5 field :]e !y h gr[n1 & :5 dri$1 are c>ri$ to a ?re%+-floor to be beat51 or at once to ! ?re%+-floor & dri$ !re4 ,9 ! =m]1 ! op]ation is r m rapid1 b !re is great] dang] ( injury by ra91 ! effect ( :i* is v delet]i\s1 especially if x fall ^u ! leaves :5 !y are p>tially dri$4 ,! damage result+ f ?is cause is less if ! leaves are n ly+ ^u ! gr\nd1 & are s arrang$ t ! air may circulate freely ab\t & "u !m4 ,9 ! prun+ me?od1 ! leaves are dri$ ^u ! bran*es & 9 ! heaps :]e !y are fir/ deposit$4 ,sometimes !y are turn$1 b g5]ally x is consid]$ bett] n to di/urb !m until completely dri$1 & ready = transportation to ! ?re%+-floor4 ,9 ?is way1 !y are protect$ to a great] ext5t f ! action ( direct sunlight1 :i* is said to be injuri\s to ! quality ( ! product4 ,:5 ! leaves are collect$ by h&1 !y are dri$ ^u ! ?re%+-floor1 :]e !y are spread 9 ?9 lay]s1 & /irr$ #c-d times a day4 ,!y are !n beat5 ) a flail to sep>ate ! leaves f ! bran*es & /ems4 ,if ?is be done dur+ ! middle ( ! day1 :5 ! leaves are mo/ ?or\ghly dry & consequ5tly brittle1 !y are r$uc$ to small p>ticles1 produc+ :at is call$ suma* = gr9d+4 ,b if x be done 9 ! morn+1 or on damp days1 :5 ! air is *>g$ ) moi/ure & ! leaves are t\gh1 !y are sep>at$ f ! /ems m ne>ly entire & less brok51 & ! product obta9$ is call$ suma* = bal+4 ,! /ems rema9+ aft] ! sep>ation ( suma* = bal+ /ill reta9 small p>ticles ( leaves atta*$ to !m1 & !y are !re=e aga9 beat5 :5 p]fectly dry = ! production ( a l[-grade suma*1 call$ by ! ,italians gammuzza4 ,! products are class$ z foll[s3-- ,relative ,m>ket ,value4 ,suma* = bal+ #be gr9d+ #bc f ye>l+ plants #ae ends ( bran*es collect$ 9 autumn #aj ,to prep>e ^! diff]5t grades = ultimate consumption1 !y are gr\nd 9 mills simil> to ^? employ$ = cru%+ olives1 t is1 9 :i* two l>ge /one :eels foll[ ea* o!r1 revolv+ ^u a circul> b$1 ! :ole con/ruction be+ ab\t ! same z ! ,spani% or ,mexican arra/re4 ,! suma* ?us pulv]is$ is pass$ ?r\gh bolt+-scre5s1 to sep>ate ! f9] f ! co>s] p>ticles4 ,9 ,virg9ia1 ! leaves are collect$ & cur$ by ! c\ntry p1 & sold & deliv]$ to own]s ( mills = gr9d+4 ,_! p>ticul> object be+ to secure ! l>ge/ possible quantity ( product at ! l[e/ co/1 little att5tion is giv5 to ! quality obta9$1 or ! mann] ( collect+4 ,! mo/ intellig5t deal]s 9 ! raw mat]ial urge ^u collectors to obs]ve ! foll[+ p>ticul>s3--,! leaf %\ld be tak5 :5 full ( sap1 be=e x has turn$ r$1 has begun to )]1 or has be5 affect$ by fro/1 to ensure a maximum value = tann+ purposes4 ,ei!r ! leaf-be>+ /ems may be /ripp$ (f1 or ! entire /alk may be cut away1 & ! leaves ^u x all[$ to )] be=e be+ c>ri$ to ! dry+-%$2 b c>e mu/ be obs]v$ t !y are nei!r scor*$ nor blea*$ by ! sun4 ,:5 wilt$1 !y are c>ri$ to a cov]$ place1 & spread ^u op5 %elv+ or racks to dry1 avoid+ ! deposit 9 any "o place ( a quantity s great z to endang] ! quality ( ! product by ov]heat+ & f]m5tation4 ,suma* %\ld be all[$ to rema9 )9 ! dry+-h\se at lea/ "o mon? be=e s5d+ to ! m>ket2 9 case ( bad wea!r1 a long] p]iod may be requir$4 ,:5 ready = pack+ = %ipm5t1 x %\ld be p]fectly dry & v brittle1 o!rwise x is likely to suff] injury 9 w>eh\ses f heat+ & f]m5tation4 ,buy]s ( suma* leaves = gr9d+ dep5d l>gely ^u col\r = ! det]m9ation ( ! value2 ! leaves %\ld1 !re=e1 :5 ready = m>ket1 pres5t a bright-gre5 col\r1 :i* is evid5ce t !y h suff]$ nei!r f ra9 aft] be+ ga!r$1 nor f heat+ dur+ ! process ( dry+4 ,leaves hav+ a m\ldy od\r or appe>ance are reject$4 ,! ,virg9ian crop rea*es #gjjj-hjjj tons1 & is collect$ at any "t betwe5 ,july #a & ! appe>ance ( fro/4 ,!re is an important diff]5ce 9 ! value ( ! ,european & ,am]ican products4 ,! proportion ( tannic acid 9 ! latt] exce$s t f\nd 9 ! =m] by #f-h p] c5t41 yet ! =m] is mu* pref]r$ by tann]s & dy]s4 ,by us+ ,sicilian suma* x is possible to make ! f9] :ite lea!rs1 9 great dem& = gloves & fancy %oes2 :ile by ! employm5t ( ! ,am]ican product1 ! lea!r has a disagreeable yell[ or d>k col\r1 app>5tly due to a col\r+ matt]1 :i*1 accord+ to ,loewe1 consi/s ( qu]citr9 & qu]cet91 & exi/s 9 l>g] quantity 9 ! ,am]ican ?an 9 ! ,sicilian4 ,! exp]im5tal results obta9$ by collect+ suma* at diff]5t seasons 73-- ,p] ,c5t4 ( ,tannic ,acid4 ,virg9ia1 mix$1 collect$ 9 ,june1 gave #bbge ,july1 #bgch ,r4 glabra ,augu/1 #bcef ,b4 copall9a #afii ,sicilian1 ,b4 ,cori>ia #bdbg ,x is evid5t1 !re=e1 t 9 ord] to secure ! maximum am\nt ( tannic acid1 ! suma* %\ld be collect$ 9 ,july1 b ! col\r+ matt] ( ! leaves has an important influ5ce ^u ! value ( ! product4 ,! leaves ( ! upp] extremities ( ! /alks are always ri*] 9 tannic acid ?an ^? ( ! base2 & ! increase ( age ( ! plant is accompani$ by a g5]al dim9ution ( ?is acid4 ,yet ! collection ( ! crop %\ld be delay$ z long z possible1 because ! dim9ution ( tann9 9 ! leaves w be abundantly comp5sat$ = by ! quality ( ! product4 ,exp]im5ts ^u ! pres5ce ( col\r+ matt]s 7 made by treat+ gelat9e solutions1 & gave ! foll[+ results3-- ,virg9ia1 mix$1 collect$ 9 ,june1 gave ,a ne>ly :ite precipitate4 ,july1 ,a decid$ly yell[i%-:ite precipitate4 ,r4 copall9a1 ,augu/ ,a dirty-yell[ precipitate4 ,b4 glabra1 ,a v dirty-:ite precipitate4 ,fr$]icksburg mix$1 ,a dirty-yell[ precipitate4 ,sicilian ,a slightly yell[i%-:ite precipitate4 ,x is !re=e advis$ t = ! purpose ( tann+ :ite & delicately-col\r$ lea!rs1 ! collection %\ld be made 9 ,june2 :ile = tann+ d>k-col\r$ lea!rs1 & = dye+ & calico-pr9t+ 9 d>k col\rs1 :]e ! slightly yell[ col\r w h no injuri\s effect1 ! collection be made 9 ,july4 ,x appe>s t = all purposes1 ! suma* collect$ aft] ! #a/ ( ,augu/ is inf]ior 9 quality4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #h4 ,fig4 #h %[s a mill = gr9d+ suma*-leaves2 x consi/s ( a heavy solid circul> wood5 b$ a1 #ae ft4 diam41 ) a depression ar\nd ! edge b1 a few in*es deep & #a ft4 wide1 = ! reception ( ! gr\nd suma* f ! b$1 & #b edge-roll]s c1 weigh+ ab\t #bejj lb4 ea*1 #e-f ft4 diam41 & provid$ ) num]\s tee? ( iron or wood1 ?ickly ins]t$4 ,mo/ mills h to be /opp$ to all[ ! unload+ ( ! b$1 b ?is delay is obviat$ by an app>atus consi/+ ( an angul> arm d1 atta*$ to a scrap] e1 & work$ by a lev] f1 :i* passes ?r\gh ! holl[ %aft g & ext5ds to ! room above1 :]e x t]m9ates 9 a h&le h4 ,! scrap] c>ries ! gr\nd suma* to ! op5+ i1 :5ce x is tak5 by an elevator to a revolv+ sieve or scre5 9 a room above4 ,aft] scre5+1 ! suma* is pack$ 9 bags1 #ae to ! ton1 be+ always sold by t weight4 ,! *as]s & b$s are inclos$ 9 a case or drum1 & ! gr9d+ is done by ! application ( p[] to ! upright %aft g4 ,! mills are f$ f above4 ,! pack+ is sometimes done by ma*9]y alone4 ,! be/ mills co/ ab\t #fjjl4 ,9 ,europe1 & 9 "s p>ts ( ! ,s\!rn ,/ates1 suma* is /ill gr\nd by /ones revolv+ on a /one b$1 & ! sift+ is (t5 done by h&4 ,e4 ,coez ,co41 ,/4 ,d5is1 ne> ,p>is1 make a suma* extract4 ,x is conc5trat$ to a syrupy consi/5ce 9 a vacuum-pan1 & keeps well1 exhibit+ none ( ! acidity :i* is manife/$ by a simple decoction ( suma* leaves4 ,suma* conta9s #af-bd p] c5t4 ( gallotannic acid1 & is some:at simil> 9 tann+ prop]ties to myrobalans1 b pal] 9 col\r4 ,x is pr9cipally us$ = tann+ morocco & o!r fancy lea!rs4 ,! di/rict ( ,ancona yields #bjj tons p] annum ( suma*1 said to be equal to & *eap] ?an ! ,sicilian1 b mo/ly consum$ locally4 ,pal]mo export$ ( v5tilat$ suma* to ! ,unit$ ,/ates #abj1jdc bags 7#ad #a ton7 9 #ahgg1 & #ej1jhe 9 #ahgh1 ! av]age value be+ #adl4 a ton4 ,trie/e export$ #ghjj cwt4 by l& 9 #ahgg2 9 #ahgh1 ! %ipm5ts to ,engl& 7 #af1fjj kilo4 7( #bb lb471 value #acbh fl4 7( #bs471 & 9 #ahhj1 #ia1hjj kilo4 #gcdd fl4 ,ru/*uk 9 #ahhj export$ #adjj tons1 *iefly to ,r\mania & ,au/ria4 ,our imports 9 #ahhj 7 #aj1egc tons1 #acc1bdil4 f ,italy1 & #ajdg tons1 #ab1dafl41 f o!r c\ntries2 total1 #aa1fbj tons1 #ade1ffel4 ,! approximate ,london m>ket value is #aes4-#afs4 #f;d4 a cwt4 = ,sicilian1 #aj-aas4 = ,spani%4 ,valonia 7,fr41 ,vlandes2 ,g]41 ,valonia74 ,?is is ! comm]cial "n = ! l>ge p]ic>ps or acorn-cups ( sev]al species or v>ieties ( oak1 *iefly ,qu]cus gilops & ,q4 macrolepis4 ,! =m] is f\nd gr[+ 9 ! highl&s ( ! ,morea1 ,r\melia1 ! ,greek ,ar*ipelago1 ,asia ,m9or1 & ,pale/9e2 ! latt] con/itutes va/ =e/s 9 _m p>ts ( ,greece1 & especially on ! l[] slopes ( ,taygetos1 t[>ds tylon & ,mani 7,laconia74 ,pr(4 ,orphanides1 ( ,a!ns1 alludes to a ?ird species or v>iety call$ porto galussa1 :i* yields a sup]ior k9d ( valonia1 & nam$ by him ,q4 /5ophylla4 ,! *ief localities ( production 9 ,asia ,m9or are ,u%ak1 ,borlo1 ,demirdji1 ,ghirdes1 ,adala1 ,nazl1 ,buldur1 ,sokia1 ,balat1 ,troja1 ,aivalik1 & ,mytil5e4 ,! annual exports1 ma9ly f ,smyrna1 rea* #fjj1jjj qu9tals 7( #b cwt471 value ab\t #djj1jjjl4 ,9 ,greece1 ! production is *iefly c5tr$ 9 ! foll[+ di/ricts3 7#a7 ,! prov9ce ( ,lac$emonia1 :i* af=d$ #aj1jjj cwt4 9 #ahgb2 7#b7 ! prov9ce ( ,gy?ium1 9 ! l[] "p ( ,m\nt ,taygetos1 :i* gave #fj1jjj cwt4 9 #ahgb2 7#c7 ! isl& ( ,zea1 :i* =m]ly yield$ #cj1jjj-dj1jjj cwt41 lately r$uc$ to #ae1jjj cwt4 ye>ly2 7#d7 ,attica1 especially ! neighb\rhood ( ,cacossalessi1 gr[s #cjjj-ejjj cwt41 %ipp$ f ,oropos1 9 ! ,/rait ( ,*alcis2 7#e7 ! isl& ( ,euba1 :5ce ab\t #ajjj cwt4 are %ipp$ annually at ,b\ffalo2 7#f7 ! prov9ce ( ,triphyllia raises #cjjj cwt41 :i* g to ,trie/e1 vi ,cyp>issie2 7#g7 ! prov9ce ( ,pulos1 especially ! commune ( ,ligudi/a1 gr[s ov] #bjjj cwt41 despat*$ f ,nav>9o to ,trie/e2 7#h7 ! prov9ce ( ,a*aia has a ye>ly crop ( #cj1jjj-dj1jjj cwt41 %ipp$ to ,trie/e f ,c\rupeli & ,c>avo/assi1 betwe5 ,patras & ,cape ,papa2 7#i7 ! small t[ns ( ,anatolico & ,a/akos 7,dragome/re7 collect ! valonia ( ! ea/]n p>ts ( tylon1 ,ac>nania1 & ,cravass>as 7a port 9 ! ,gulf ( ,arta71 & ( all ! o!r we/]n p>ts1 to be s5t to ,trie/e = %ipm5t to ,engl& & ,italy4 tolia & ,ac>nania furni% abundant crops1 t ( #ahgb exce$+ #ajj1jjj cwt4 ,! total area ( ! ,greek valonia-yield+ =e/s is said to be ab\t #ac1jjj /remme 7( #aai-a_/b sq4 yd474 ,! total production 9 #ahgg 0 e/imat$ at #b1fja1jjj qu9tals 7( #b cwt472 ! great] "p is export$1 ab\t #b_/c go+ to ,au/ria1 & ! re/ to ,italy & ,engl&4 ,! proportions ( tannic acid 9 ! valonia f diff]5t di/ricts ( ,greece are said to v>y z foll[s3 ,patras1 #ai-bh-a_/b p] c5t42 ,gy?ium1 #bg-a_/d-ce-a_/b2 ,zea1 #ab-a_/d-be-a_/d2 ,vonitza1 #ah-bj4 ,9 ,turkey1 ! fruit rip5s 9 ,july-,augu/1 :5 ! trees are beat51 & ! fall5 acorns left on ! gr\nd to dry4 ,! natives aft]w>ds ga!r !m1 & transport !m on camel-back to /ores 9 ! t[ns1 :5ce !y g by camel & tra9 to ,smyrna1 & are !re plac$ 9 heaps #e-f ft4 deep 9 l>ge airy /ores = "s weeks1 dur+ :i* ! mass heats1 & ! acorn itself1 :i* conta9s b little tann91 & is us$ = fe$+ pigs1 contracts & falls f ! cup4 ,?is incipi5t f]m5tation is att5d$ ) consid]able risk2 if c>ri$ too f>1 a l>ge proportion ( ! valonia becomes d>k-col\r$ & o!rwise damag$4 ,:5 ready = %ipm5t1 ! heaps are h&-pick$1 ! be/ be+ res]v$ = ! ,au/rian m>ket 7,trie/e71 & ! re/ go+ to ,engl&4 ,9 "s cases1 ! rubbi% hav+ be5 remov$1 ! rema9d] is kn[n z natural1 & is ?us export$ to ,engl&4 ,9 ,greek comm]ce1 ?ree qualities are di/+ui%$1 *amada1 rhabdi/o1 & *>cala4 ,! *amada 7camata & camat9a ( ,asia ,m9or7 is ! be/2 x is collect$ 9 ,april1 be=e ! acorn is matur$1 h5ce ! cup :i* encloses ! acorn is small & incompletely develop$4 ,! rhabdi/o is ! second quality2 x is collect$ 9 ,septemb]-,octob]1 & is di/+ui%$ by ! fruit be+ l>g] & rip]2 ! "n means beat51 ! fruits be+ beat5 d[n f ! trees ) /icks4 ,aft] mid-,octob] ! collection ceases1 because ! fir/ ra9s cause ! fall5 fruit to f]m5t or turn black1 & !y !n take ! "n ( *>*ala4 ,!y are di/+ui%$ by ! cups be+ completely op51 & conta9+ no acorns4 ,!y are consid]$ mu* inf]ior1 possess+ little tann94 ,illu/ration3 ,pl4 ,,iv4 ,e ,f4 ,n4 ,spon1 ,london 4 ,new ,york4 ,,ink ,,photo4 ,,sprague ,,co ,,london ,,revolv+1 ,,wa%+ ,,& ,,press+ ,,ma*9es4 ,sometimes ! acorn cup is attack$ by a k9d ( honey-dew1 :i* deposits on ! cup1 & makes x v liable to heat :5 ga!r$1 ! cup becom+ v d>k & defici5t 9 tann94 ,! ,turki% crop ( #ahge 0 mu* damag$ f ?is cause1 _m p>cels rea*+ ,engl& 9 an unsaleable condition4 ,! cause ( ! disease is yet unkn[n2 x seems specially preval5t :5 ! crop is l>ge & ! acorn fully develop$4 ,a good sample ( valonia %\ld be compos$ ( m$ium-siz$ cups1 ) ! rim or wall v ?ick1 & ! ext]ior sp9es small & uni=m4 ,! cut or brok5 cup %\ld %[ a bright-drab fractur$ surface4 ,valonia conta9s #be-ce p] c5t4 ( a tann9 some:at resembl+ t ( oak-b>k1 b giv+ a br[n] col\r & heavi] bloom4 ,x makes a h>d & heavy lea!r1 & is g5]ally us$ 9 admixture ) oak-b>k1 myrobalans1 or mimosa-b>k4 ,! ,greek crop 9 #ahhj 0 mu* damag$ by ! cold spr+3 ,x gave #fjj tons 9 ,ac>nania & tolia1 #fej 9 ,cape ,papa1 & #adjj 9 ,mania2 total1 #bfej tons4 ,calamata & ,mess5ia produc$ #aae tons1 #agjjl4 ,syra export$ 9 #ahgi1 #aagdl4 wor? to ,great ,brita91 #cdhl4 ,au/ria1 #beil4 ,russia1 #bejl4 ,turkey1 #aghl4 ,egypt4 ,hung>y export$ #idb tons 9 #ahhj4 ,adana %ipp$ #idejl4 wor? 9 #ahgh2 & ,d$eagat*1 9 ! same ye>1 #a1ejj1jjj lb41 #ijjjl4 ,musyna ,m]s9eh s5t #fgj tons1 #ccejl41 to ,italy1 & #dej tons1 #bbejl4 to ,au/ria1 9 #ahgi2 & #dhj tons1 #bbdjl41 to ,italy1 & #abh tons1 #fdjl41 to ,greece1 9 #ahhj4 ,our imports 9 #ahhj 73--,f ,turkey1 #cj1cia tons1 #dga1fcgl42 ,greece1 #biaf tons1 #da1cabl42 o!r c\ntries1 #dff tons1 #gajel42 total1 #cc1ggc tons1 #ebj1jedl4 ,! approximate ,london m>ket values are3--,smyrna1 #abs4 #f;d4-#bjs4 #f;d4 a cwt42 ,camata1 #aes4-#ais42 ,morea1 #ajs4 #f;d4-#ahs4 ,miscellane\s4--,besides ! =ego+ tann9s1 :i* already occupy prom95t places 9 ,european & ,am]ican comm]ce1 !re are _m o!rs z yet ( m9or importance1 b possess+ qualities :i* may br+ !m into note 9 ! ne> future4 ,!y are z foll[s3-- ,abies ,l>ix b>k1 ! l>*1 conta9s #f-h p] c5t4 ( a r$ tann94 ,acacia albicans fruits1 ! hiusa*e ( ,mexico1 are us$ z sub/itutes = gall-nuts1 co/+ locally ab\t #e;d4 a lb4 ,a4 arabica1 ! babul ( ,india1 yields a tann9 :i* gives a ne>ly pure-:ite precipitate ) gelat9e3 ! proportions are #abee p] c5t1 9 trunk-b>k1 #ahie 9 bran*-b>k1 #aede 9 twig-b>k4 ,! supply is unlimit$4 ,x works well ) myrobalans4 ,a4 ,cebil1 ! r$ cebil ( ! ,arg5t9e ,republic1 conta9s #aj-ae p] c5t4 ( tann9 9 ! b>k1 & #f-g p] c5t4 9 ! leaves2 ano!r v>iety1 ! :ite cebil1 conta9s #h-ab p] c5t4 9 ! b>k1 & #g-h p] c5t4 9 ! leaves4 ,a4 ,cav5ia1 ! esp9illo ( ! ,arg5t9e ,republic1 has #cc-cd p] c5t4 ( tann9 9 ! fruit-husks4 ,a4 p5n9]vis b>k1 ! h>dy acacia ( ,au/ralia1 conta9s #ah p] c5t4 ( tannic acid & #c-d ( gallic4 ,alnus glut9osa b>k1 ! common ald]1 conta9s ab\t #af p] c5t4 ( tann94 ,csalp9ia ,cacalaco fruits1 ! cascalote ( ,mexico1 are v ri* 9 tannic & gallic acids1 & are locally us$ = tann+4 ,comptonia aspl5ifolia leaves1 ! sweet-f]n ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 conta9 #i-aj p] c5t4 ( tann94 ,cori>ia ruscifolia b>k1 ! tutu ( ,new ,zeal&1 conta9s #af-ag p] c5t4 ( tann94 ,eloc>pus d5tatus b>k1 ! kiri-h9au ( ,new ,zeal&1 conta9s #ba-bb p] c5t4 ( tann94 ,e4 ,hook]ianus b>k1 ! pokako ( ,new ,zeal&1 conta9s #i-aj p] c5t4 ( tann94 ,eph$ra antisyphilitica1 on ! tablel&s ( ,arizona & ,utah1 gives #aa-ab p] c5t4 ( tann94 ,eucalyptus longifolia b>k1 ! woolly-butt ( ,au/ralia1 conta9s #hc p] c5t4 ( tannic acid1 & #bh ( gallic4 ,! pepp]m9t-tree conta9s #bj p] c5t4 ( tannic acid 9 its b>k4 ,! /r+y-b>k 7,e4 obliqua7 gives #ac-a_/b p] c5t4 ( k9otannic acid4 ,! ,victorian iron-b>k 7,e4 leucoxylon7 conta9s #bb p] c5t4 ( k9otannic acid1 b is available only = inf]ior lea!r4 ,eug5ia ,maire b>k1 ! :a:ako ( ,new ,zeal&1 conta9s #af-ag p] c5t4 ( tann94 ,e4 ,smi?ii b>k1 ! myrtle-tree ( ,au/ralia1 conta9s #ag p] c5t4 ( tannic acid & #c-d ( gallic4 ,fu*sia macro/emma root-b>k is ?91 brittle1 & easily exhau/$2 x conta9s ab\t #be p] c5t4 ( a bright-r$ tann91 :i* has be5 successfully tri$4 ,x is ! *urco b>k ( ,*ili1 :i*1 h[ev]1 is attribut$ by ! ,kew au?orities to ,oxalis gigantea4 ,+a ,feuillei pods1 ! pay-pay ( ,p]u1 conta9 #bd p] c5t4 ( an almo/ col\rless tann94 ,laurus ,peumo r9d is us$ 9 ,*ili = tann+ upp]s4 ,malpighia punicifolia b>k1 ! naucite1 or manquitta b>k ( ,nic>agua1 conta9s #bj-cj p] c5t4 ( a v light-col\r$ tann94 ,p]sea ,l+ue b>k is r$-br[n1 s(t1 & easily exhau/$ by wat]2 x conta9s #bj-bd p] c5t4 ( tann91 & mu* slimy matt] :i* promotes ! swell+ ( ! hides4 ,x s]ves 9 ,s\? ,am]ica1 especially 9 ! ,*ilian prov9ce ( ,valdivia1 = tann+ ,valdivia lea!r4 ,9 ,s\!rn ,*ili are enorm\s =e/s ( ! tree4 ,! import$ b>k has giv5 good results ) heavy lea!rs4 ,phyllocladus tricomanoides b>k1 ! kiri-toa-toa ( ,new ,zeal&1 conta9s #bc p] c5t4 ( tann94 ,polygonum amphibium leaves1 an annual plant abundant 9 ! ,miss\ri ,valley1 conta9 #ah p] c5t4 ( tann91 & c be m[n & /ack$ l hay4 ,x is l>gely us$ 9 ,*icago tann]ies1 & said to give a lea!r :i* is t\gh]1 m durable1 ( f9] texture1 & capable ( high] poli%1 ?an t tann$ ) oak-b>k4 ,punica ,granatum fruit-r9d1 ! pomegranate1 conta9s ab\t #acf p] c5t4 ( a tann9 l myrobalans1 & a consid]able quantity ( />*2 ! tann9 is greate/ 9 ! bitt] k9d1 :i* is us$ = prep>+ morocco lea!r2 ! root-b>k also is ri* 9 tann94 ,rhizophora ,mangle b>k1 ! mangrove1 ( ,v5ezuela1 conta9s #bd-cj p] c5t4 ( deep-r$ tann91 if obta9$ f "y /ems2 samples f ! ,we/ ,indies h giv5 #aaid p] c5t41 probably by ! gelat9e process2 two samples f ,%anghai1 by ,lw5?al's improv$ me?od1 gave respectively #ih & #ie p] c5t4 calculat$ z oak tann91 & #gaif & #gheb ( woody fibre4 ,guayaquil export$ #icbh cwt4 ( ! b>k to ,p]u 9 #ahgi4 ,tecoma p5taphylla b>k1 ! roble colorado ( ,v5ezuela1 conta9s #bg p] c5t4 ( tann91 accompani$ by a soluble orange-r$ col\r+ matt]4 ,wagatea spicata pods conta9 #ae p] c5t4 ( tannic acid4 ,! plant1 a scrambl+ %rub1 is a native ( ! ,concans4 ,we9mannia racemosa b>k1 ! ta:]o t[ai1 or kamai ( ,new ,zeal&1 conta9s #ab-ac p] c5t4 ( tann94 ,,*apt] ,,iv4 ,,! ,,*emi/ry ,,( ,,tann9s4 ,! ess5tial con/itu5ts ( tann+ mat]ials are v>i\s memb]s ( a l>ge gr\p ( organic comp\nds call$ tann9s or tannic acids4,d ,footnote ,d3 ,g]4 g]bsure2 9 ,g]man ! ^w tann9 d5otes usually gallotannic acid only4 ,^! bodies (t5 diff] widely bo? 9 *emical con/itution & reaction1 b h ! common prop]ty ( precipitat+ gelat9 f solution1 & =m+ insoluble comp\nds ) gelat9-yield+ tissues4 ,by virtue ( ?is p[]1 !y conv]t animal hide into ! insoluble & imputrescible mat]ial call$ lea!r4 ,!y are mo/ly uncry/allisable2 & all =m blacki%-blue or blacki%-gre5 comp\nds ) f]ric salts1 & 9 common ) _m o!r organic sub/ances are precipitat$ by lead & copp] acetates1 /ann\s *loride1 & _m o!r metallic salts1 & ^? ( organic bases1 su* z qu99e4 ,9 "s cases1 ! tann9 comb9es ) ! base only1 lib]at+ ! acid2 b frequ5tly ! salt z a :ole ent]s into comb9ation4 ,?is is ! case ) ! precipitates =m$ ) lead & copp] acetates4 ,) alkalies1 ! tann9s & _m ( _! d]ivatives give solutions :i* oxidise & d>k5 rapidly1 usually becom+ successively orange1 br[n1 & black4 ,a4 ,h4 ,all5 has %[n t ^! bodies also give in/antane\sly a deep-r$ coloration ) a solution ( potassium f]ricyanide & ammonia4 ,! reaction is "o ( consid]able delicacy4 ,tann9s are m or less soluble 9 wat]2 & freely s 9 alcohol1 mixtures ( alcohol & e!r1 & e?yl acetate1 b sc>cely 9 dry e!r alone1 nor 9 dilute sulphuric acid2 & insoluble 9 c>bon disulphide1 petroleum _s1 b5z5e1 & *lor(orm4 ,f _! amorph\s "*1 tann9s are extremely difficult to purify2 & :51 z is frequ5tly ! case1 two or m tann9s occur 9 ! same plant1 x is (t5 q impossible completely to sep>ate !m4 ,ow+ to _! consid]able diff]5ces 9 "*1 no g5]al me?od ( purification c be giv51 b ! foll[+ processes w be f\nd 9 _m cases to give good results4 ,= ! special me?ods adopt$ by diff]5t inve/igators1 ! orig9al memoirs mu/ be consult$1 ref]5ces to _m ( :i* w be f\nd 9 ! foll[+ pages4 ,prep>ation & ,purification ( ,tann9s4 ,! olde/ me?od ( sep>at+ tann9s f o!r con/itu5ts is t appli$ by ,pel\ze to ! prep>ation ( comm]cial gallotannic acid f gall-nuts4 ,! f9ely pulv]is$ mat]ial is plac$ 9 a p]colator & exhau/$ ) comm]cial e!r conta9+ wat] & alcohol4 ,! liquid sep>ates1 on /&+1 into #b lay]s ( :i* ! l[] conta9s mo/ ( ! tann9 9 a tol]ably pure =m1 dissolv$ 9 wat] & alcohol ) a little e!r1 :ile ! upp] ma9ly e!re\s lay] conta9s ! gallic acid4 ,gall-nuts ?us treat$ yield #ce-dj p] c5t4 ( tann94 ,if equal p>ts ( e!r & #ij p] c5t4 alcohol are us$1 a l>g] yield is obta9$1 b ! liquid does n sep>ate into #b lay]s1 & x is que/ionable if ! product is s pure4 ,= ,*9ese galls1 wa%$ e!r acts bett] ?an e!r alcohol4 ,! tann9 may be /ill fur!r purifi$ by dissolv+ 9 a mixture ( #a "p wat] ) #b ( e!r1 :5 #c lay]s are =m$1 ( :i* ! l[e/ conta9s ne>ly pure tann94 ,^! me?ods are applicable to ! dri$ or highly conc5trat$ extracts ( _m tann+ mat]ials4 ,_m tann9s may be sep>at$ f _! /rong aque\s solution 9 a /ate ( consid]able purity by fir/ agitat+ ) e!r to remove gallic acid1 & !n saturat+ ) common salt1 & %ak+ well ) acetic e!r1 :i* takes up ! tann94 ,ano!r me?od is to extract ) alcohol1 evaporate to a small bulk at z l[ a temp]ature z possible1 & treat at once ) a consid]able quantity ( cold wat]4 ,! infusion is !n precipitat$ ) successive small quantities ( lead acetate2 ! fir/ & la/ portions ( ! precipitate are filt]$ (f & reject$ z contam9at$ ) col\r+ matt]s & o!r impurities1 :ile ! rema9d]1 aft] rapid wa%+1 is susp5d$ 9 wat] & decompos$ ) sulphurett$ hydrog54 ,! filtrate is %ak5 ) e!r to remove gallic acid1 & ! aque\s portion is evaporat$ at a l[ temp]ature 9 a p>tial vacuum to a ?9 syrup1 & ! dry+ complet$ ov] sulphuric acid 9 vacuo4 ,g5]al ,*emi/ry4 ,! natural tann9s are all comp\nds ( c>bon1 hydrog5 & oxyg5 only4 ,!y all conta9 ! b5z5e gr\p ( c>bon atoms1 b _! ultimate /ructure is1 except 9 ! case ( gallotannic acid1 v imp]fectly und]/ood1 & probably diff]s consid]ably 9 type 9 diff]5t memb]s ( ! family4 ,9 ord] to make cle> to ^? read]s :o h n /udi$ mod]n organic *emi/ry1 :at we d "k on ! subject1 a few words ( introduction w be necess>y4 ,all organic comp\nds conta9 c>bon1 9 comb9ation ) hydrog51 & v frequ5tly also ) oxyg51 nitrog51 & o!r elem5ts4 ,a s+le atom ( c>bon is able to comb9e ) #d atoms ( hydrog51 z x does to =m m>% gas1 or me?yl hydride1 ,,*#d4 ,o!r elem5ts may be sub/itut$ = ! hydrog52 = in/ance1 if we replace #c ( ! hydrog5 atoms ) *lor9e1 we obta9 *lor(orm1 ,c,h,cl#c4 ,aga9 an atom ( oxyg5 may be ins]t$ betwe5 ! c>bon atom & "o ( ! hydrog5 atoms1 produc+ me?yl hydroxide or wood _s4 ,! gr\p ,,*#c is call$ me?yl1 & we may sub/itute 9 wood _s ?is entire me?yl gr\p = "o ( ! atoms ( hydrog51 :5 we %all h ord9>y alcohol1 ,c#b;,h#e,,oh4 ,?is build+-up process may be repeat$ almo/ ad inf9itum1 produc+ a :ole s]ies ( alcohols ( high] & high] boil+ po9t z ! atoms ( c>bon become m num]\s4 ,aga91 if 9 wood _s we sub/itute an atom ( oxyg5 = #b ( ! rema9+ atoms ( hydrog5 we obta9 =mic acid1 ,,*o4,,oh1 ! fir/ ( a long s]ies ( acids1 ( :i* ! second1 correspond+ to ord9>y alcohol1 is acetic acid1 & ! highe/ memb]s1 su* z /e>ic acid1 ,c#ah;,h#ce,o4,,oh1 are solid fats4 ,h5ce ! :ole s]ies are commonly call$ ! fatty acids4 ,a few /ructural =mul w s]ve to make ^! po9ts cle>]1 b x may be well to say t su* =mul mu/ be tak5 simply z indicat+ ! ord] 9 :i* ! diff]5t atoms are unit$1 & 9 no s5se _! actual position 9 space4 ,! atoms 9 a molecule are held toge!r by attractions & are 9 cont9ual motion1 s t !y are m comp>able to ! planets ( ! sol> sy/em ?an to a rigid %ape4 ,me?yl ,hydride4 ,me?yl ,alcohol4 ,common ,alcohol4 ,h ,h ,h ,h ,h,c,h ,h,c,o,h ,h,c,c,o,h ,h ,h ,h ,h ,*lor(orm4 ,=mic ,acid4 ,acetic ,acid4 ,cl ,o ,h ,o ,h,c,cl ,h,c,o,h ,h,c,c,o,h ,cl ,h ,9 b5z5e1 ,c#f;,h#f we h a comp\nd ( ano!r type4 ,!re is reason to ?9k t ! c>bon atoms 9 ?is case are unit$ 9 a r+1 z %[n1 ,h ,h ,h ,c,c,c ,c,c,c ,h ,h ,h ,?is b5z5e gr\p =ms ! f\ndation ( an imm5se numb] ( bodies kn[n z ! aromatic s]ies1 to :i* belong anil9e1 c>bolic acid1 picric acid1 gallic acid1 & a ho/ ( o!r comp\nds important alike 9 a sci5tific & comm]cial s5se1 & among :i* we may pretty safely gr\p ! :ole ( ! tann9s4 ,comm5c+ ) b5z5e1 we may1 by ins]t+ atoms ( oxyg51 produce a s]ies ( alcohols or ph5ols1 ( :i* common ph5ol 7usually b incorrectly call$ c>bolic acid7 is ! fir/4 ,! foll[+ table gives a g5]al view ( "s ( ^!1 s f> z !y are kn[n1 ) _! correspond+ acids3-- ,c#f;,h#f ,c#f;,h#e,,oh ,c#f;,h#d7,,oh7#b ,c#f;,h#c7,,oh7#c ,b5z5e4 ,ph5ol4 ,pyrocate*ol ,pyrogallol1 7or cate*ol71 ,phloroglucol4 ,hydroqu9ol1 ,resorc9ol4 ,h#e ,h#d ,h#c ,h#b ,c#f;,,co4,,oh ,c#f,,oh ,c#f7,,oh7#b ,c#f7,,oh7#b ,,co4,,oh ,,co4,,oh ,,co4,,oh ,b5zoic acid4 ,salycylic acid1 ,protocate*uic acid ,gallic acid1 ,oxyb5zoic acid4 7& #e o!r c4 isom]ic acids74 ,x w be notic$ t a l>ge proportion ( ! =mul giv5 above repres5t sev]al comp\nds id5tical 9 composition1 b frequ5tly v di/9ct 9 _! prop]ties4 ,! explanation ( ^! diff]5ces lies 9 ! diff]5t relative position ( ! ,,oh & ,,co4,,oh gr\ps r\nd ! b5z5e r+4 ,?us ! foll[+ diagram repres5ts ! relative positions ( ! pyrocate*ol s]ies4 ,x may be not$ t ea* ph5ol yields two isom]ic,e acids4 ,mill] 7,c4 ,s4 ,j\r41 xli4 #cih71 :o has inve/igat$ ^! acids1 rem>ks1 ,( ! #c ph5ols ,c#f;,h#d,,oh#b1 cate*ol alone gives a precipitate ) lead acetate1 & ( ! #f acids1 ,c#f,n#e,,oh#b1 ,,co4,,oh1 none yields precipitates ) lead acetate1 except ! #b :i* are obta9$ f cate*ol4 ,footnote ,e3 ,isom]ic1 ( simil> composition b diff]5t /ructure & prop]ties4 ,pyrocate*ol #a-b4 ,resorc9ol #a-c4 ,hydroqu9ol #a-d4 ,h,c,c,o,h ,h,c,c,o,h ,h,c,c,o,h ,h,c ,c,o,h ,h,c ,c,o,h ,h,c ,c-,h ,h,c,c,h ,h,c,c,o,h ,h,o,c,c-,h ,all ! natural tann9s ) :i* we are acqua9t$1 are d]iv$ f1 & yield on decomposition ei!r cate*ol1 phloroglucol1 or pyrogallol1 & sometimes m ?an "o ( ^!4 ,artificial products1 h[ev]1 ) _m ( ! reactions ( tann9s h be5 obta9$ f o!r memb]s ( ! gr\p1 & mo/ ph5ols & _! d]iv$ acids give ei!r purpli% or gre5i% black ) f]ric salts4 ,sev]al classifications ( ! tann9s h be5 sugge/$4 ,! division mo/ obvi\s to ! tann] is into ^? tann9s :i* yield ! :iti% deposit 9 ! surface ( ! lea!r1 call$ bloom1 & ^? :i* d n4 ,/5h\se1 "s ye>s s9ce1 divid$ tann9s into #b classes1 "o ( :i* gives a blui%1 & ! o!r a gre5i%-black ) f]ric salts4 ,9 ! ma9 ^! #b classes correspond to ! #b =m]1 z mo/ tann9s :i* yield a blue-black ) iron acetate also give bloom to ! lea!r4 ,9 "s cases1 h[ev]1 ! diff]5ce ( t9t is due to accid5tal impurities1 & ev5 gallotannic acid w give a decid$ gre5 ) /rongly acid f]ric *loride4 ,^! classifications bo? correspond to well-def9$ diff]5ces ( con/itution1 & x is obvi\sly m sci5tific to arrange tann9s accord+ to ! products :i* !y yield on decomposition1 & :i* indicate _! ultimate /ructure1 r ?an on any less ess5tial po9t4 ,if ^? tann9s :i* give bloom to lea!r are cauti\sly heat$ to ab\t #cib ,f4 7#bjj ,c471 !y are decompos$1 & a sub/ance is volatilis$ :i* cond5ses 9 fea!ry cry/als1 & :i* on exam9ation turns out to be pyrogallol4 ,^? tann9s1 on ! o!r h&1 :i* yield no bloom1 b r$ deposits1 produce a some:at simil> sublimate ( cate*ol4 ,f oak-b>k & valonia1 :i* yield bo? bloom & r$ col\r+ matt]s1 bo? cate*ol & pyrogallol h be5 obta9$4 ,we may1 !re=e1 divide tann9s broadly into d]ivatives ( cate*ol1 :i* yield no bloom1 & usually give gre5i%-blacks ) iron acetate1 & :i* include hemlock1 mimosa1 cut*1 gambi]1 quebra*o1 c2 d]ivatives ( pyrogallol1 :i* give blui%-blacks ) iron1 deposit bloom 9 lea!r1 & embrace galls1 suma*1 divi-divi1 myrobalans1 pomegranate r9d1 c41 & tann9s :i* conta9 bo? pyrogallol & cate*ol1 su* z oak-b>k & valonia1 & :i*1 z is well kn[n1 yield bloom1 & give blue-blacks ) iron4 ,if tann9s are boil$ ) dilute sulphuric or hydro*loric acids1 & all[$ to f]m5t "u ! influ5ce ( pectose & o!r natural f]m5ts1 :i* are always pres5t 9 vegetable tann+ mat]ials1 a diff]5t s]ies ( decompositions takes place4 ,_m tann9s yield glucose1 or />* sug>1 z "o ( _! products1 or z t ( closely associat$ impurities4 ,( ?is m mu/ be said lat]4 ,9 addition x w be f\nd t ! cate*ol tann9s inv>iably yield insoluble r$di%-br[n bodies :i* h be5 call$ phlobaph5es1 & :i* diff] f ! orig9al tann9s 9 conta9+ "o or m molecules less wat]1 & :i*1 9 *emical language1 are anhydrides ( _! respective tannic acids4 ,! pyrogallol tann9s1 on ! o!r h&1 yield gallic acid1 or ellagic acid 7! deposit =m+ bloom7 ei!r alone or 9 mixture4 ,oak-b>k & valonia give bo? bloom & insoluble r$s1 & by dige/ion ) acids 9 seal$ tubes also gallic acid4 ,if ! r$ anhydrides1 :i* are produc$ f ! cate*ol tann9s1 be fus$ ) cau/ic pota%1 or 9 _m cases1 if !y be simply boil$ ) conc5trat$ pota% solution1 !y are brok5 up /ill fur!r1 & f ! fus$ mass1 protocate*uic acid 7:i* be>s ! same relation to cate*ol t gallic acid does to pyrogallol7 may always be obta9$4 ,?is is 9 _m cases accompani$ by phloroglucol1 a ph5ol isom]ic ) pyrogallol1 z may be se5 by ! table on p4 #fa1 b :i* ta/es sweet l a sug>4 ,cut*1 gambi]1 mimosa1 quebra*o1 & probably _m o!rs1 are phloroglucide tann9s4 ,! tann9s :i* d n yield phloroglucol frequ5tly give acetic acid1 & o!r acids ( ! fatty gr\p1 along ) protocate*uic acid4 ,we may summ>ise ?is classification 9 ! foll[+ table3-- ,tann9s boil$ ) dilute sulphuric acid yield 7frequ5tly glucose1 &7 _/ ,insoluble ,r$s1 :i* fus$ ) pota% yield protocate*uic acid1 &1---- _/ ,phloroglucol1 z *e/nut1 gambi]1 k9o1 cut*1 quebra*o1 rhatany1 fu/ic1 horse-*e/nut1 torm5til4 ,acetic acid1 c(fee1 ,p]uvian b>k1 male-f]n4 ,r$s & gallic & ellagic acids2 ,oak-b>k & valonia tann9s4 no glucose ,no r$s1 b gallic ,galls1 myrobalans1 suma*1 divi-divi1 pomegranate & ellagic acids r9d4 ,^! are probably mixtures ( two tann9s :i* yield ,gallic acid only ,digallic1 or pure gallotannic acid4 ,ellagic acid only ,pure ellagitannic acid4 ,?is classification is z yet v incomplete1 & !re are _m tann9s ( :i* ! decomposition products h n be5 exam9$1 :ile our k ( ! diff]5ces betwe5 ! tann9s :i* are class$ toge!r is extremely limit$4 ,9 ord] to make ! in=mation :i* has be5 giv5 practically available = fur!r rese>*1 ! *>act]i/ics & mode ( recognition ( ! diff]5t products w be giv51 & z simple a s*eme z possible ( treatm5t ( ! tann9 to be exam9$ w be describ$2 b ! recognition ( su* products 9 a /ate ( mixture pres5ts great practical difficulties1 & ! tann] w usually be compell$ to conf9e 8 att5tion to simpl]1 ?\gh less conclusive te/s1 bas$ on ! "w ( *emical speciali/s4 ,su* te/s w be describ$ lat] 7p4 #aaa74 ,illu/ration3 ,pl4 ,,iii4 ,e ,f ,n4 ,spon1 ,london ,new ,york ,,m>s ,,photo ,,sprague ,,co4 ,,london ,,artificial ,,f]m5tation4 ,g5]al ,me?ods ( ,exam9ation ( ,tann9s4 ,decomposition by ,heat4--,! ord9>y me?od is to di/il ! tann9 or dri$ extract 9 a small retort1 & exam9e ! di/illate = cate*ol & pyrogallol4 ,unless ! heat be v c>efully regulat$1 mu* loss is caus$ by ! de/ruction ( ! cate*ol & pyrogallol ) =mation ( metagallic acid1 c41 & _! detection is greatly complicat$ by ! pres5ce ( second>y products4 ,?is difficulty is some:at less5$ by pass+ a /ream ( c>bon dioxide ?r\gh ! retort1 :i* c>ries ! products quickly out ( ! heat$ portion4 ,a bett] me?od is to heat ! tann9 9 glyc]9 7,?orpe1 ,*em4 ,soc4 ,ab/r41 #ahha1 #ffc2 ,all51 ',comm]cial ,organic ,analysis1' #bnd ed474 ,ab\t #a grm4 ( ! sample is heat$ ) #e c4c4 ( pure glyc]9 to #cib-daj ,f4 7#bjj-baj ,c47 = #bj m9utes4 ,aft] cool+1 ab\t #bj c4c4 ( wat] is add$1 & ! liquid is %ak5 ) an equal volume ( e!r1 )\t previ\s filtration4 ,! e!re\s lay]1 :i* conta9s ! pyrogallol & cate*ol1 is sep>at$ f ! aque\s portion1 evaporat$ to dryness1 & dissolv$ 9 #ej c4c4 ( wat]4 ,! filt]$ solution is divid$ into sev]al portions & te/$ ) lime-wat]1 f]ric *loride1 & f]ric acetate 7see pp4 #ff-g72 by ^! means x is easy to di/+ui% betwe5 cate*ol & pyrogallol2 & ei!r may be detect$ 9 pres5ce ( a small portion ( ! o!r2 b if 9 ne>ly equal quantities1 _! recognition is difficult4 ,cate*ol may be d]iv$ f cate*91 c41 & pyrogallol f gallic acid1 & x is !re=e necess>y 9 "s cases to remove ^! bodies f ! tann9 be=e treatm5t4 ,z a g5]al rule1 h[ev]1 cate*9s & cate*ol d]ivatives are only pres5t 9 any quantity ) cate*ol-tann9s1 & ! same is true ( gallic acid ) reg>d to pyrogallol4 7,= me?ods ( sep>ation see pp4 #fi1 #ga1 #hj74 ,cate*ol has be5 =m$ by long cont9u$ heat+ ( cellulose1 />*1 & o!r c>bohydrates ) wat] "u pressure 7see p4 #fg74 ,products ( ! ,decomposition ( ,tann9s by ,heat4--,pyrogallol1 pyrogallic acid1 ,c#f;,h#f,o#c1 has a bitt]1 b n s\r ta/e1 & feebly r$d5s litmus1 b ! addition ( ! smalle/ trace ( alkali gives x an alkal9e reaction4 ,x is poison\s1 #b gr4 hav+ kill$ a dog4 ,x is soluble 9 less ?an #c p>ts ( cold wat]1 & /ill m freely 9 hot4 ,x is also soluble 9 alcohol1 e!r1 acetone1 e?yl acetate1 & glyc]91 b n 9 absolute *lor(orm1 or petroleum _s4 ,x fuses at #bfh ,f4 7#aca ,c47 7,etti71 & sublimes at ab\t #daj ,f4 7#baj ,c474 ,) pure f]r\s sulphate x gives a :ite precipitate1 :i* r$issolves to a f9e blue liquid 9 pres5ce ( ! lea/ trace ( f]ric salt4 ,m9]al acids *ange ?is to r$1 & ! blue t9t is re/or$ by cauti\s neutralisation ) ammonia1 & is n de/roy$1 b sometimes r5d]$ gre5i% by excess ( acetic1 & o!r organic acids4 ,any excess ( ammonia produces an ame?y/-r$1 & acetic acid re/ores ! blue4 ,its solution is turn$ br[n by traces ( nitr\s acid4 ,) lime-wat] x produces a beautiful b evanesc5t purple1 rapidly turn+ br[n4 ,9 pres5ce ( alkalies x absorbs oxyg5 f ! air ) great avidity1 turn+ orange1 br[n1 & black4 ,pyrogallol does n precipitate gelat94 ,its solution rapidly r$uces p]manganate1 ,fehl+'s solution1 & salts ( gold1 silv]1,f m]cury1 & plat9um4 ,x precipitates copp] & lead acetates1 & ) ammoniacal cupric sulphate x gives an int5se purple-br[n coloration4 ,gum arabic1 saliva1 & v>i\s o!r organic matt]s cause solutions ( pyrogallol expos$ to ! air to absorb oxyg51 by :i* purpurogall9 is =m$ & sep>ates 9 small yell[ capill>y cry/als4 ,if #jb p] c5t4 ( pyrogallol be add$ to a #a p] c5t4 solution ( gum arabic1 x becomes yell[ 9 a few h\rs1 & purpurogall9 sep>ates 9 hairlike cry/als1 :i* cont9ue to increase = "s mon?s4 ,x ^! cry/als are fre$ f pyrogallol by wa%+ ) wat]1 & a trace ( alkali is add$1 !y dissolve ) an int5se blue col\r4 ,purpurogallol is also =m$ by oxidation ) silv] nitrate1 pota% p]manganate1 & _m o!r reag5ts4 ,pyrogallol =ms comp\nds ) aldehydes2 ) =maldehyde1 a body :i* reacts l a tann9 & precipitates gelat9 is produc$4 ,if pyrogallol be heat$ ) hydro*loric acid1 & aldehyde1 *loral1 or acetone1 a r$ sub/ance is produc$4 ,! less volatile portions ( crude bee*-t> creasote conta9s e!rs ( pyrogallol1 me?yl-pyrogallol1 & propyl-pyrogallol1 f :i* ^! bodies may be obta9$ by ! action ( hydro*loric acid "u pressure4 ,me?yl- & propyl-pyrogallols diff] f ord9>y pyrogallol 9 hav+ an atom ( hydrog5 replac$ by ! gr\ps ,,*#c or ,c#c;,h#g respectively2 & x is v probable t "s tann9s are d]ivatives ( su* modifi$ pyrogallols4 ,footnote ,f3 ,h5ce its use z a develop] 9 photography4 ,if pyrogallol be heat$ rapidly to #dhb ,f4 7#bej ,c47 x p>ts ) ! elem5ts ( wat]1 & is conv]t$ into metagallic acid1 ,c#f;,h#d,o#b1 a black amorph\s body1 insoluble 9 wat]1 soluble 9 alkalies4 ,:5 pyrogallol is made 9 ! ord9>y way by heat+ gallic or tannic acids to #daj ,f4 7#baj ,c471 mu* ( ?is body is =m$1 ev5 if ! process be conduct$ 9 a /ream ( c>bonic acid1 & ! yield ( pyrogallol usually am\nts to only ab\t #e p] c5t4 ( ! gallic acid employ$ 7see p4 #fe74 ,cate*ol4--,pyrocate*ol1 pyrocate*91 oxyph5ic acid1 ,c#f;,h#d7,,oh7#b4 ,s\rces4--,beside t ( ! decomposition ( c]ta9 tann9s by heat 7see p4 #fc71 cate*ol is produc$ by ! dry di/illation ( cate*9 & "s alli$ bodies :i* frequ5tly accompany ! tann9s4 ,x is also =m$ toge!r ) pyrogallol & its homologues 7see above7 by ! dry di/illation ( wood1 wood t> creasote consi/+ l>gely ( e!rs ( pyrocate*ol & its homologues1 me?yl & pyrocate*ol1 c41 & h5ce x is also f\nd 9 crude pyroligne\s acid4 ,x has also be5 produc$ by heat+ c>bohydrates ) wat] "u pressure1 & is f\nd ready =m$ 9 ,virg9ia-creep] 7,ampelopsis hd]acea71 & probably 9 o!r plants4 ,x has also be5 =m$ syn!tically4 ,reactions4--,cate*ol melts at #bcb ,f4 7#aaa ,c47 & sublimes at ab\t ! same temp]ature1 cond5s+ 9 brilliant lam9 l b5zoic acid4 ,x is readily soluble 9 wat]1 alcohol1 & e!r1 & is extract$ f its aque\s solution :5 %ak5 ) ! latt]4 ,its aque\s solution precipitates lead acetate b n gelat9 or alkaloids4 ,) lime-wat] or cau/ic soda solution x becomes r$di%1 b rema9s cle> = "s "t4 ,x does n col\r f]r\s salts1 b gives a d>k gre5 ) f]ric 7avoid+ excess72 & aft] "s "t a black precipitate4 ,! gre5 is *ang$ to a f9e violet-r$ by alkalies & hydric sodic c>bonate1 & re/or$ by acids4 ,to fir-wood moi/5$ ) hydro*loric acid x gives1 l phloroglucol1 a violet coloration by comb9ation ) ! trace ( vanill9 :i* ?is wood conta9s4 ,?is reaction does n seem to be giv5 by pyrogallol or by common ph5ol4 ,cate*ol gives a r$ coloration ) citric acid1 & aft] /&+1 ceases to react ) iron4 ,decomposition ( ,tann9s by ,dilute ,acids4--,x has be5 /at$ t tann9s :5 heat$ ) dilute sulphuric or hydro*loric acids are decompos$1 yield+ frequ5tly glucose1 & ei!r gallic or ellagic acids1 or r$ anhydrides4 ,to det]m9e :e!r glucose is produc$1 ! tann9 mu/ fir/ be c>efully purifi$ f glucose1 gums1 or o!r bodies likely to int]f]e1 by ! me?ods m5tion$ on p4 #eh4 ,ei!r ! tann9 itself or its wa%$ lead-salt may be us$1 & mu/ be heat$ to #bab ,f4 7#ajj ,c47 = "s h\rs 9 a seal$ tube1 or tightly clos$ bottle ) dilute hydro*loric acid4 ,aft] cool+1 ! mixture mu/ be all[$ to /& = "s "t to sep>ate any sp>+ly soluble products1 :i* mu/ be filt]$ (f4 ,! filtrate mu/ be %ak5 ) e!r & acetic e!r to remove gallic acid 7p4 #ei71 ! aque\s solution mu/ be boil$1 neutralis$ ) soda1 precipitat$ ) basic lead acetate to remove any traces ( tann9 or col\r+ matt]s1 ! liquid aga9 filt]$1 & excess ( lead remov$ ) dilute sulphuric acid1 ! mixture aga9 neutralis$ ) soda1 & heat$ to boil+ ) ,fehl+'s copp]-solution1 :5 a yell[ or r$ precipitate ( cupr\s oxide w prove ! =mation ( glucose4 ,! precipitate produc$ by cool+ may consi/ 7( lead *loride1 if ! lead salt has be5 us$17 ( ellagic acid1 or ( r$ anhydrides or phlobaph5es ( ! tann94 ,! lead *loride may be remov$ by wa%+ ) boil+ wat]4 ,if ! rema9+ precipitate has a pale yell[ or fawn col\r x probably consi/s ( ellagic acid 7see p4 #ga71 soluble 9 ammonia & hot alcohol & dissolv+ freely 9 /rong nitric acid1 =m+ an int5se crimson liquid4 ,! e!re\s lay] w conta9 ! gallic acid1 if any has be5 =m$1 & mu/ be evaporat$ to dryness1 & ! residue tak5 up ) cold wat]1 & filt]$4 ,addition ( a few drops ( solution ( potassium cyanide w produce a f9e r$ coloration if gallic acid be pres5t1 :i* rapidly fades1 b is re/or$ by %ak+4 ,a solution ( picric acid1 to :i* excess ( ammonia has be5 add$1 gives a r$ coloration rapidly *ang+ to a f9e gre51 ev5 9 v dilute solutions ( gallic acid4 ,x is n1 h[ev]1 g5]ally necess>y to resort to s elaborate a process m]ely to di/+ui% ! class to :i* tann9s belong4 ,! tann91 or its infusion1 may be simply boil$ ) dilute hydro*loric acid = "s "t1 replac+ ! acid lo/ by evaporation4 ,! solution is dilut$ to #ej c4c4 & all[$ to cool4 ,ellagic acid & phlobaph5es may sep>ate1 & mu/ be filt]$ (f4 ,if ! precipitate is pale1 x is probably ellagic acid1 & maybe recognis$ by ! nitric acid te/4 ,if r$1 x probably consi/s ( phlobaph5es1 & may be treat$ ) cold alcohol1 9 :i* phlobaph5es are freely soluble1 b ellagic acid v little4 ,! ellagic acid w !re=e be left on ! filt] if pres5t 9 any quantity1 :ile ! alcoholic solution may be precipitat$ by ! addition ( wat]1 & ! phlobaph5es fur!r exam9$ by treatm5t ) pota%4 ,gallic ,acid4--,dioxysalicylic acid1 ,c#f;,h#b7,,oh7#c;,,co4,,oh1 exi/s ready =m$ 9 "s plants1 & is a product ( ! f]m5tation ( gallotannic acid "u ! influ5ce ( ! nitrog5\s f]m5t1 pectase1 or ( its decomposition by boil+ ) acids or alkalies4 ,x cry/allises 9 :ite1 or yell[i% :ite ne$les1 conta9+ #a mol4 7#ie p] c5t47 ( wat]1 :i* x loses at #bab ,f4 7#ajj ,c474 ,x is soluble 9 #ajj p>ts ( cold or #c ( boil+ wat]1 9 alcohol or glyc]91 & slightly s 9 e!r1 by agitation ) :i* x may h[ev] be remov$ f its aque\s solution4 ,gallic acid fuses at a temp]ature ( ab\t #ddi ,f4 7#bcb ,c47 7,etti1 ,*em4 ,soc4 ,j\r41 xxxvi4 #afj71 b at ab\t #daj ,f4 7#baj ,c47 beg9s to lose c>bonic dioxide1 & yields a cry/all9e sublimate ( pyrogallol 7see p4 #ff74 ,if ! heat be rais$ sudd5ly to #dhb ,f4 7#bej ,c47 a consid]able quantity ( black %9+ metagallic acid is =m$4 ,aque\s solution ( gallic acid gives ! foll[+ reactions3--,solution ( f]ric *loride gives a deep blue coloration :i* is de/roy$ by boil+4 ,f]r\s sulphate1 if free f f]ric salt1 gives no reaction 9 dilute solutions1 b a :ite precipitate 9 /rong ones4 ,! mixture rapidly d>k5s by oxidation4 ,9 alkal9e solution gallic acid absorbs oxyg5 f ! air & d>k5s f ! =mation ( tannomelanic acid4 ,lime-wat] produces a :ite precipitate :i* rapidly becomes blue f oxidation4 ,! same reaction is produc$ by b>yta-wat]1 or by ! *lorides ( b>ium or calcium on addition ( ammonia 7di/9ction f pyrogallol74 ,x is di/+ui%$ f gallotannic acid by ! foll[+3--,x does n precipitate gelat91 except 9 ! pres5ce ( gum4 ,x does n precipitate t>t> emetic 9 pres5ce ( ammonic *loride1 ?\gh bo? tann9 & gallic acid are precipitat$ by t>t> emetic alone4 ,x precipitates lead acetate b n lead nitrate1 :ile tann9 precipitates bo?4 ,a dilute solution ( potassium cyanide gives a r$ coloration :i* disappe>s on /&+1 b is re/or$ by %ak+ ) air4 ,if to ev5 a v dilute solution ( gallic acid1 sodic ars5ate1 or "s o!r fa9tly alkal9e salts be add$1 ! mixture absorbs oxyg5 & becomes a deep gre54 ,aque\s solution ( picric acid to :i* excess ( ammonia has previ\sly be5 add$ gives a r$ coloration1 *ang+ to gre54 ,tannic & pyrogallic acid produce no reaction ) cyanide1 & ) ammonic picrate a r$di% coloration only4 ,gallic acid r$uces silv] nitrate & gold *loride rapidly :5 hot1 b n ,fehl+'s solution1 & decolorises acidifi$ potassic p]manganate4 ,if tann9 & o!r oxidisable bodies be remov$ f its solution x may be e/imat$ quantitatively by titration ) p]manganate 9 pres5ce ( indigo 7see p4 #aah74 ,x may be sep>at$ f tann9 by gelat9 or hide rasp+s 7see pp4 #aba1 #abd74 ,gallotannic & qu]citannic acids may also be remov$ by precipitation ) ammoniacal solution ( cupric sulphate1 or by cupric acetate1 9 pres5ce ( excess ( ammonic c>bonate 7see also p4 #abe74 ,_m o!r tann9s1 h[ev]1 give precipitates ) cupric salts :i* are soluble 9 ammonia & ammonic c>bonate4 ,9 abs5ce ( su* tann9s x may be e/imat$ gravimetrically by precipitation ) cupric acetate4 ,! precipitate is rapidly wa%$ ) wat] & dige/$ ) a solution ( ammonic c>bonate1 9 :i* x dissolves2 any insoluble cupric tannate is filt]$ (f1 ! solution is evaporat$ to dryness & ! residue moi/5$ ) nitric acid & ignit$4 ,! weight ( ! rema9+ cupric oxide multipli$ by #ji gives ! weight ( ! gallic acid plus a little tann9 dissolv$ by ! ammonic solution4 ,gallic acid may also be sep>at$ f tann9 by lead acetate /rongly acidifi$ ) acetic acid1 by :i* tannic acid is precipitat$1 :ile lead gallate is dissolv$4 ,ellagic acid ,c#ad;,h#h,o#i1 :5 pure1 is a sulphur-yell[ cry/all9e body almo/ insoluble ev5 9 boil+ wat]1 & only slightly s 9 alcohol & e!r1 ?\gh by agitation ) ! latt]1 small quantities may be completely remov$ f aque\s solution4 ,9 hot alcohol x dissolves ) a yell[ col\r1 & cry/allises on cool+4 ,solid ellagic acid gives ) f]ric *loride at fir/ a gre5i%1 & !n a black coloration4 ,9 /rong nitric acid x is soluble ) a deep crimson coloration3 t f divi-divi gives a crimson liquid on dilution ) wat]1 b f o!r s\rces x is r orange4 ,ellagic acid may be obta9$ 9 consid]able quantity by p\r+ a conc5trat$ alcoholic extract ( divi-divi into wat]1 :5 x sep>ates & may be filt]$ (f & recry/allis$ f hot alcohol4 ,x may also be obta9$ by boil+ ! aque\s extracts ( divi1 myrabolans1 pomegranate r9d1 c41 ) dilute hydro*loric acid1 & purifi$ by ! same means4 ,x may be prep>$ f gallic acid by heat+ ! latt] ) dry ars5ic acid to #cbj ,f4 7#afj ,c471 b is difficult to purify f traces ( ars5ic4 ,ellagic acid has n be5 reconv]t$ into gallic acid4 ,its con/itutional =mula is1 accord+ to ,s*iff1 ,,co4,,oh ,,oh ,c#f;,h#b ,o ,o ,,co ,o ,c#f;,h#b ,,oh ,,oh diff]+ f gallotannic acid only by ! loss ( two atoms ( hydrog54 ,air-dri$ ellagic acid1 ,c#ad;,h#h,o#i ,,oh#b1 conta9s #a mol4 ( wat]1 :i* x loses at #bab ,f4 7#ajj ,c47 b reabsorbs 9 moi/ air4 ,:5 heat$ to #cib-daj ,f4 7#bjj-baj ,c47 x =ms an anhydride1 ,c#ad;,h#f,o#h1 los+ ano!r molecule ( wat]1 :i* x does n recov] f moi/ air1 b is sl[ly reconv]t$ to ellagic acid by boil+ ) wat]4 ,! phlobaph5es or r$s are *emically ! anhydrides ( ! diff]5t tannic acids f :i* !y are d]iv$1 or 9 o!r words !y are =m$ f ! tann9s by ! loss ( "o or m molecules ( wat]4 ,x is 9 ?is way t !y are produc$ by ! action ( acids1 & simil>ly !y are (t5 =m$ :5 alcoholic or highly conc5trat$ aque\s extracts are p\r$ into cold wat]1 "u :i* circum/ances a "p ( ! tann9 seems unable to take up wat] aga91 & sep>ates z a r$ precipitate4 ,!y exi/ ready =m$ 9 mo/ tann+ mat]ials capable ( produc+ !m4 ,!y are soluble 9 alcohol1 by :i* !y may be extract$ f tann+ mat]ials or dri$ residues conta9+ !m4 ,!y are also dissolv$ by dilute alkalies & alkal9e c>bonates1 & by borax1 :i* is said to be us$ 9 ! prep>ation ( "s extracts1 & 0 sugge/$ by ,sadlon z a means ( mak+ phlobaph5es available = tann+4 ,_m ( !m are sc>cely soluble 9 wat] ev5 at a boil+ temp]ature1 ?\gh !y become m s 9 pres5ce ( sug>1 tannic acid1 & "s o!r sub/ances4 ,_! solubility 9 wat] dep5ds on _! degree ( hydration1 _m tann9s giv+ a s]ies ( anhydrides ( :i* ^? conta9+ only "o molecule ( wat] less ?an ! orig9al tann9 are q soluble 9 wat]1 :ile ! high] memb]s ( ! s]ies become less & less soluble z !y lose wat]4 ,^? :i* are soluble =m ! col\r+ matt]s ( tann+ mat]ials1 & g5]ally are practically tann9s1 precipitat+ gelat9 & comb9+ ) hide to =m lea!r4 ,hemlock b>k yields a s]ies ( su* bodies1 ( :i* ! l[] memb]s are deep r$ soluble tann9s1 :ile ! high] =m ! r$ s$im5t1 s well kn[n to extract-tann]s4 ,?us x is *emically impossible to decolorise hemlock extract )\t at ! same "t greatly less5+ its tann+ p[]1 ?\gh by c>eful manufactur+ & conc5tration at l[ temp]ature1 ! proportion ( ! high] anhydrides =m$ may be kept at a m9imum4 ,9 _m cases x is kn[n1 z 9 gambi]1 & 9 o!rs x is probable t ! tann9 itself is m]ely ! fir/ anhydride ( ! s]ies1 & d]iv$ f a cate*9 :i* itself is a :ite cry/all9e body de/itute ( tann+ prop]ties 7see p4 #gi74 ,decomposition ( ! ,phlobaph5es by ,fusion ) ,cau/ic ,alkalies4--,x has be5 m5tion$ 7p4 #fd7 t ! r$s ( diff]5t tann9s yield$1 9 addition to protocate*uic acid1 ei!r phloroglucol1 or acetic acid1 or "s o!r memb] ( ! fatty acid s]ies4 ,"s tann9s1 z ^? ( ald] & hop1 give bo? phloroglucol & acetic acid1 b x is v possible t ?is arises f ! pres5ce ( two di/9ct tann9s 9 ^! mat]ials4 ,x is /at$ t all ^? tann9s :i* yield acetic acid on fusion ) pota%1 also yield consid]able quantities ( glucose to dilute acids1 :ile ! phloroglucide tann9s d n d s4 ,gallic acid fus$ ) cau/ic soda has be5 f\nd by ,b>? & ,s*ro$] to produce a small quantity ( phloroglucol1 & x is simil>ly =m$ by resorc9ol & common ph5ol 7,*em4 ,soc4 ,j\r41 xliv4 #fj74 ,x is !re=e possible t 9 "s cases :]e phloroglucol is detect$1 x may h be5 =m$ by ! action ( ! alkali1 & n h be5 orig9ally a con/itu5t ( ! tann94 ,! foll[+ is ! be/ me?od 9 :i* to proce$ to inve/igate ! products ( ! action ( pota%4 #bj grm4 ( ! r$1 or ( ! tann9 f :i* x is d]iv$1 or its lead salt1 is boil$ ) #aej c4c4 ( solution ( cau/ic pota% ( #abj sp4 gr4 = #c h\rs1 & ! liquid is !n conc5trat$ ) con/ant /irr+ till x becomes pa/y4 ,x is !n cool$ & treat$ ) a volume ( dilute sulphuric acid slightly m ?an en\gh to neutralise ! alkali employ$4 ,aft] cool+ x is filt]$ f potassium sulphate & o!r solid matt]s1 & ! filtrate treat$ ) sodium bic>bonate till its w9e-r$ reaction ) litmus %[s t ! sulphuric acid is neutralis$4 ,! liquid is !n %ak5 ) an equal measure ( e!r1 ! e!re\s lay] drawn (f & ! treatm5t repeat$ sev]al times4 ,on di/ill+ (f ! e!r1 phloroglucol is left & may be purifi$ by solution 9 wat]1 :5 protocate*uic acid & o!r products may be precipitat$ by neutral lead acetate1 & filt]$ (f1 & ! phloroglucol aga9 extract$ ) e!r1 & recognis$ by its reaction ) f]ric *loride & brom9e wat]1 & by its sweet ta/e4 ,phloroglucol4--,phlorogluc9 ,c#f;,h#f,o#c is a ph5ol isom]ic ) pyrogallol4 ,x cry/allises ) #b molecules ( wat]1 :i* x loses at #bab ,f4 7#ajj ,c474 ,x melts at ab\t #dbh ,f4 7#bbj ,c471 sublimes )\t od\r1 & solidifies aga9 on cool+4 ,x is soluble 9 wat]1 alcohol1 & e!r1 & by agitation ) ! latt] x may be remov$ f its aque\s solution4 ,x is n precipitat$ by any metallic salt b basic lead acetate4 ,x is col\r$ deep violet r$ by f]ric *loride4 ,if brom9e be add$ to its conc5trat$ solution 9 wat]1 x absorbs #c atoms1 =m+ tribromophloroglucol1 ,c#f;,h#f;,br#c,o#c1 :i* sep>ates 9 cry/all9e ne$les1 ) evolution ( heat & a v irritat+ od\r4 ,if a deal %av+ be moi/5$ ) solution ( phloroglucol1 & !n ) /rong hydro*loric acid1 x soon takes a deep violet col\r1 f ! =mation ( phloroglucol-vanill9 ) ! trace ( vanill9 conta9$ 9 all conif]\s woods4 ,pyrocate*ol gives a simil> reaction1 & x is /at$ by ,etti 7,*em4 ,soc4 ,j\r41 xliv4 #fj7 t pyrogallol =ms a simil> comp\nd2 x does n1 h[ev]1 give ! col\r reaction on deal4 ,x is extremely probable t ?is reaction may be us$ to detect phloroglucide tann9s )\t ! tr\blesome fusion ) pota%1 9 cases :]e pyrocate*ol is abs5t4 ,! reaction is /rongly giv5 by gambi]1 :i* is kn[n to conta9 phloroglucol1 b n by oak b>k & valonia1 ?\gh ^! conta9 protocate*uic acid4 ,if to a dilute solution ( phloroglucol a solution ( anil9e or toluid9e nitrate be add$1 & !n a trace ( potassic nitrite1 ! liquid gradually becomes yell[ or orange1 !n turbid1 & f9ally deposits a c9nab>-r$ precipitate4 ,?is reaction is giv5 by gambi]1 b is also produc$ by oak b>k infusion1 :i* is n suppos$ to conta9 phloroglucol2 & gall tann91 pyrogallol1 & o!r sub/ances give simil> b br[n] precipitates4 ,protocate*uic ,acid4--,c#f;,h#c7,,oh7#b;,,co4,,oh1 "o ( ! six isom]ic dihydroxyb5zoic acids ( ?is =mula 7see ,mill]1 ,*em4 ,soc4 ,j\r41 xli4 #aih71 cry/allises 9 ne$les & plates ) #a mol4 wat]1 :i* x loses at #bab ,f4 7#ajj ,c474 ,x melts at #bbh ,f4 7#aji ,c47 & on fur!r heat+ is decompos$ into pyrocate*ol & c>bonic acid4 ,x is some:at soluble 9 cold wat]1 & readily s 9 hot wat]1 alcohol1 & e!r4 ,x is col\r$ blui% gre5 by f]ric *loride1 :i* is *ang$ to r$ by alkalies4 ,solutions ( protocate*uates give a violet coloration ) f]ric salts4 ,x is precipitat$ by lead acetate1 & r$uces silv] ammonio-nitrate1 b n ,fehl+'s solution 7see also p4 #ajg74 ,con/itution ( ,tann9s4 ,hav+ describ$ ! products ( decomposition1 some?+ mu/ be said ( ! way 9 :i* ^! con/itu5ts are comb9$ to =m ! unalt]$ tann9s4 ,! only tann9 ( :i* we h z yet any?+ approa*+ complete k is t obta9$ f galls1 suma*1 & myrabolans1 & :i* is !nce call$ gallotannic acid4 ,gallotannic1 or digallic acid exi/s z ! pr9cipal tannic acid ( ! galls ( oak1 tam>isk1 c42 &1 9 mixture ) m or less ellagitannic acid1 9 myrabolans1 divi-divi1 suma*1 pomegranate r9d1 & _m o!r plant-products4 ,x has also be5 =m$ by ,s*iff f gallic acid1 by mix+ x1 aft] dry+ at #bcj ,f4 7#aaj ,c471 ) phosphorus oxy*loride to a ?9 pa/e1 & heat+1 fir/ to #bab ,f4 7#ajj ,c47 & !n to #bdh ,f4 7#abj ,c 74 ,mu* hydro*loric acid 0 evolv$1 & ! gallic acid 0 conv]t$ into a yell[ p[d]1 :i* aft] purification by wa%+ ) e!r1 dissolv+ 9 wat]1 all[+ ! gallic acid to cry/allise out1 saturat+ ) salt1 wa%+ ! precipitat$ tann9 9 salt solution1 & r$issolv+ 9 alcohol & e!r1 _h all ! reactions ( purifi$ gall tann91 b 0 p]fectly reconv]t$ into gallic acid on boil+ ) hydro*loric acid1 )\t ! =mation ( any trace ( ellagic acid1 or glucose4 ,by analysis ( ! tann9 & its acetyl comp\nds x 0 %[n to be digallic acid1 & its con/itutional =mula is almo/ c]ta9ly z foll[s3-- ,,co4,,oh ,,oh ,c#f;,h#b ,,oh ,o ,,co ,,oh ,c#f;,h#b,,oh ,,oh ,by boil+ gallic acid ) solution ( ars5ic acid1 ,s*iff obta9$ a product :i* precipitat$ gelat91 & o!rwise react$ l tann91 & he reg>ds ?is z digallic acid1 b o!r exp]im5t]s h fail$ to obta9 digallic acid by ?is means1 & h f\nd t on complete removal ( ars5ic1 ! comp\nd 0 reconv]t$ to gallic acid4 ,x !re=e rema9s a moot po9t :e!r digallic acid is really =m$1 & reconv]t$ into gallic acid by ! prolong$ action ( hydric sulphide1 :i* is necess>y to remove ! ars5ic1 or :e!r1 z seems m probable1 ! suppos$ tann9 is m]ely an ars5ical comp\nd ( gallic acid4 ,gallotannic acid z obta9$ f plants inv>iably yields traces ( glucose1 z well z ( ellagic acid1 :5 boil$ ) dilute acids4 ,x is /ill an op5 "q :e!r ! glucose exi/s 9 ! plant z a glucoside ( tannic acid or is always ! product ( "s impurity 7z is %[n by ,etti to be ! case ) oak b>k1 :]e lvul9 is always pres5t74 ,x seems mo/ probable h[ev] t natural gallotannic acid is really a glucoside ( digallic acid1 or possibly1 accord+ to ! !ory ( ,hlasiwetz1 a gummide1 or comp\nd ( dextr91 :i*1 by ! action ( acids1 is easily conv]t$ into glucose4 ,:at has be5 said ( gallotannic acid 9 ?is respect1 applies to _m o!r tann9s1 :i* l x give glucose by treatm5t ) acids4 ,gallotannic acid is met )1 9 comm]ce1 9 ! =m ( light buff-col\r$ scales1 ) a fa9t peculi> od\r & a p[]fully a/r+5t ta/e4 ,x is soluble 9 #f p>ts ( cold wat] or glyc]91 & v readily 9 hot4 ,x is also v soluble 9 alcohol conta9+ wat]1 b mu* less s 9 absolute4 ,x is mod]ately soluble 9 wa%$1 b sc>cely at all 9 anhydr\s e!r1 *lor(orm1 b5z5e1 or petroleum _s4 ,! comm]cial acid usually conta9s m or less ( gallic acid1 :i* may be detect$ by dissolv+ 9 wat]1 %ak+ ) e!r1 & aft] decant+ & evaporat+ ! e!r1 apply+ ! te/s describ$ "u gallic acid 7p4 #gj74 ,x may also be frequ5tly di/+ui%$ 9 ! simple aque\s solution ( ! tannic acid by ! te/s giv54 ,its quantity may be det]m9$ 79 ! abs5ce ( o!r impurities7 by ! ,lw5?al me?od 7p4 #aba71 ! gallic acid =m+ ! n-tann91 by comp>ison ) a solution ( pure gallic acid4 ,comm]cial tannic acid is sometimes adult]at$ ) />*1 :i* is left undissolv$ on treat+ ! sample ) ord9>y alcohol4 ,= ! e/imation ( gallotannic acid see pp4 #aah et seq4 ,= its pr9cipal reactions1 ,table1 p4 #aac4 ,ellagitannic acid1 ,c#ad;,h#aj,o#aj1 is conta9$ 9 divi-divi1 myrabolans1 & z a glucoside 9 pomegranate r9d4 ,:5 boil$ ) dilute acids1 or treat$ ) wat] at #bcj ,f4 7#aaj ,c47 9 a seal$ tube1 x yields its anhydride1 ellagic acid 7see p4 #ga71 ,c#ad;,h#h,o#i4 ,9 its reactions ellagitannic acid closely resembles gallotannic acid4 ,qu]citannic acid4 ,oak-b>k tann94--,?is tann9 may be prep>$ f oak b>k by agitat+ an alcoholic extract ) e?yl acetate1 & sep>at+ & evaporat+ ! e!re\s lay]4 ,x is /ill contam9at$ ) a br[ni%-gre5 t]p5e res91 & ) "s ( ! high] anhydrides ( ! tann94 ,! res9 may be remov$ by treat+ ! dri$ extract ) e!r or b5z5e1 9 :i* x is readily soluble2 & ! phlobaph5es1 or high] anhydrides1 by dissolv+ ! tann9 9 e!r-alcohol1 or probably to a great ext5t1 by simple solution 9 cold wat] 9 :i* ! phlobaph5es are sc>cely soluble4 ,x may also be prep>$ by evaporat+ ! alcoholic extract1 & extract+ ) wat]1 :i* leaves ! phlobaph5es1 or high] anhydrides undissolv$4 ,! fir/ anhydride1 :i* is p>tially soluble1 may be precipitat$ by ! addition ( salt1 & ! qu]citannic acid extract$ by %ak+ ! filt]$ solution ) acetic e!r4 ,9 v dilute alcohol x yields a pure yell[ precipitate ) lead acetate4 ,9 aque\s solution ! precipitate is light-br[n4 ,x gives a blue-black ) f]ric salts4 ,:5 pure1 qu]citannic acid yields no?+ to pure e!r or to b5z5e4 ,if qu]citannic acid be heat$ to #bff-bhd ,f4 7#acj-adj ,c47 x loses wat]1 & yields a r$ anhydride slightly soluble 9 wat]1 :i* con/itutes ! r$ col\r+ matt] ( oak b>k1 & :i* has also be5 call$ difficultly soluble tann94 ,x precipitates gelat9 & is "o ( ! class :i* ,eitn] well designates tann+ col\r+ matt]s4 ,x gives a br[ni% r$ ) lead acetate1 & a blue-black ) f]ric salts2 x is difficultly soluble 9 wat] & e!r1 b readily s 9 alcohol ( all /r5g?s4 ,toge!r ) o!r anhydrides1 x exi/s naturally =m$ 9 ! b>k4 ,at high] temp]atures1 or by boil+ ) acids1 a s]ies ( high] anhydrides may be obta9$ :i* are q insoluble 9 wat]1 b are soluble 9 alcohol & cau/ic alkalies4 ,no glucose is produc$ by treatm5t ( pure qu]citannic acid ) acids1 t =m$ by s treat+ oak-b>k extract be+ due to ! alt]ation ( ! lvulose pres5t4 ,if oak-r$s are fus$ ) pota% !y yield1 accord+ to ,johans5 7,*em4 ,soc4 ,j\r41 xxxii4 #gba71 protocate*uic & butyric acids4 ,if heat$ 9 seal$ tubes ) dilute hydro*loric acid1 gallic acid only is =m$1 ) evolution ( me?yl *loride4 ,! con/itutional =mula ( qu]citannic acid is z yet v unc]ta93 x is probably a me?yl d]ivative ( digallic acid4 ,its =mula is v>i\sly giv5 z ,c#ag;,h#af,o#i 7,etti1 ,*em4 ,soc4 ,j\r41 xliv4 #iid71 ,c#bh;,h#bf,o#ae 7,ibid4 xl4 #ija1 ,lwe71 ,c#ai;,h#af,o#aj 7,btt+]1 ,b]i*te1 xvi4 #bgaj74 ,= fur!r details ! orig9al memoirs mu/ be consult$4 ,= ! reactions ( oak-b>k & valonia infusions ! ,table1 p4 #aac1 may be consult$4 ,be=e describ+ ! cate*ol-tann9s x w be necess>y to speak ( a gr\p ( comp\nds ( :i* x is probable t ^! tann9s are decomposition products4 ,^! are ! cate*9s4 ,x is z yet by no means c]ta9 h[ f> !y %\ld be consid]$ a gr\p1 "s *emi/s hold+ ! op9ion t !re is only "o cate*91 ( :i* ! re/ are m]ely impure prep>ations4 ,cate*9 is a :ite cry/all9e sub/ance1 conta9$ to ! ext5t ( "s #cj p] c5t4 9 cube gambi]1 & 9 small] proportion 9 block gambi] & cut*1 & v probably 9 all tann+ mat]ials yield+ cate*ol-tann9s4 ,x melts at #dbb-a_/b ,f4 7#bag ,c47 & yields a sublimate ( cate*ol on fur!r heat+4 ,x is readily soluble 9 alcohol & 9 boil+ wat]1 b requires #aacc p>ts ( cold wat] = its solution4 ,h5ce x sep>ates on cool+ f a hot solution ( gambi]1 & may be purifi$ by r$issolv+ 9 hot wat] & treatm5t ) animal *>coal1 & subsequ5t cry/allisation4 ,x may also be extract$ f its aque\s solution by agitation ) e!r4 ,x possesses no acid prop]ties1 ?\gh "s writ]s h incorrectly call$ x cate*uic acid4 ,! aque\s solution gives precipitates ) lead acetate & m]curic *loride1 & r$uces ammonia-nitrate ( silv]2 b1 unlike tann9s1 x does n precipitate gelat91 alkaloids1 or t>t> emetic4 ,x is oxidis$ by p]manganate 9 pres5ce ( free acid1 & h5ce1 :5 9 solution1 is e/imat$ by ! ,lw5?al me?od z n tann94 ,x dissolves 9 conc5trat$ sulphuric acid ) a deep purple coloration4 ,by fusion ) cau/ic alkalies x yields protocate*uic acid & phloroglucol toge!r ) hydrog54 ,its con/itution is v unc]ta91 b x is probable t ! phloroglucol /&s 9 a some:at simil> relation to ! protocate*uic acid t glyc]9 does to ! fatty acids 9 natural fats2 & t its decomposition by fus$ alkalies is a process mu* ak9 to saponification4 ,?is con/itution is repres5t$ by ! foll[+ =mula3-- ,o4,c#f;,h#c7,,oh7#b ,c#ai;,h#ah,o#h or ,c#g;,h#h,o#b ,o4,c#f;,h#c7,,oh7#b ,:5 act$ on by heat & dilute acids ! foll[+ anhydrides are produc$--! =mul giv5 mu/ be tak5 z to "s ext5t provisional4 ,cate*9 #b;,c#ai;,h#ah,o#h ,c#ch;,h#cf,o#af ,n acid2 does n precipitate gelat94 ,cate*utannic acid ,c#ch;,h#cd,o#ae ,acid1 precipitate ,dianydride ,c#ch;,h#cb,o#ad gelat94 ,trianydride ,c#ch;,h#cj,o#ac ,insoluble 9 wat]4 ,cate*uret9 ,c#ch;,h#cj,o#ab ,soluble 9 alcohol & alkalies4 ,! :ite deposit :i* occurs on pit sides & 9 ! int]ior ( lea!r :]e gambi] is l>gely us$1 & :i* is sometimes call$ ! :ites1 consi/s ( cate*94 ,x may be decompos$ by w>m sulphuric acid4 ,?is deposit is fav\r$ by ! use ( hot gambi] liquors4 ,x is probable t by exposure to ! air & by boil+1 cate*9 is gradually conv]t$ into cate*utannic acid dur+ ! tann+ process1 & h5ce ! practical tann+ value ( cube gambi] is probably great] ?an analysis indicates4 ,hunt has1 h[ev]1 %[n 7,j\r4 ,soc4 ,*em4 ,ind41 iv4 #bff7 t1 z e/imat$ by ! ,lw5?al process1 ! tann9 is to "s ext5t less5$ by boil+4 ,k9o91 ,c#ad;,h#ab,o#f 7,etti1 ,b]l4 ,b]41 xi4 #ahgi71 obta9$ f gre5 or malab> k9o1 a product v simil> to cut*1 by boil+ ) dilute hydro*loric acid & extraction by agitation ) e!r1 is v simil> 9 its prop]ties to cate*94 ,x does n itself precipitate gelat91 b l cate*91 yields a s]ies ( anhydrides or r$s1 :i* d s4 ,on dry di/illation x yields cate*ol & common ph5ol2 & :5 heat$ ) hydro*loric acid at #bdh-bff ,f4 7#abj-acj ,c47 me?yl *loride1 cate*ol & gallic acid4 ,h5ce its con/itution is probably t ( me?yl-cate*ol gallate4 ,quebra*o-cate*9 0 f\nd by ,p4 ,n4 ,arata 7,*em4 ,soc4 ,j\r41 xl4 #aaeb7 9 ! wood ( quebra*o colorado 7p4 #dj71 b 9 too small quantity = detail$ inve/igation4 ,x probably be>s a simil> relation to quebra*itannic acid t ord9>y cate*9 does to cate*utannic acid4 ,x is insoluble 9 cold & only slightly soluble 9 hot wat]1 b v soluble 9 alcohol & e!r4 ,its solution is cl\d$ by normal lead acetate1 & gives rose-col\r$ precipitates ) basic lead acetate & m]cur\s nitrate1 & blacki% ) f]ric acetate2 x r$uces silv]-nitrate & gold *loride1 & is col\r$ yell[ by nitric acid1 r$ by sulphuric acid1 yell[i% by sodium hypo*lorite1 & gre5 by ,fehl+'s solution4 ,x does n precipitate gelat91 or alkaloids4 ,cate*utannic acid has be5 pretty fully describ$ "u cate*91 ( :i* x is ! fir/ anhydride 7p4 #hj74 ,x is possibly id5tical ) mimo-tannic acid1 ! tann9 ( cut* & mimosa b>k1 :i* is *emically v simil>1 b greatly diff]s 9 its practical effect 9 tann+4 ,= "s fur!r reactions ( cut* & gambi] infusions see p4 #aac4 ,x gives a greyi%-gre5 precipitate ) f]ric salts1 & 7di/9ction f gallotannic acid7 precipitates cupric sulphate b n t>t> emetic4 ,quebra*itannic acid is got f ! wood ( ! quebra*o colorado1 ,quebra*ia lor5tzii 7=m]ly ,loxopt]ygium7 :i* mu/ n be conf\nd$ ) ! b>k ( ! ,aspidosp]mum quebra*ia1 :i* is valuable1 n = its tann91 b = an alkaloid1 aspidosp]m91 :i* is us$ = m$ical purposes4 ,x has be5 pretty ?or\ghly inve/igat$ by ,p4 ,n4 ,arata 7,*em4 ,soc4 ,j\r41 xxxiv4 #ihf & xl4 #aaeb74 ,x seems1 h[ev]1 a little d\btful to ! writ] :e!r ! sub/ance inve/igat$ by ,arata 0 n ! anhydride ( ! tann91 r ?an ! tann9 itself1 z x pres5ts _m po9ts ( analogy to cate*u-r$ & 0 less soluble 9 wat] ?an quebra*o tann9 appe>s 9 practice to be4 ,accord+ to ,arata1 quebra*itannic acid is a pale r$ amorph\s mass1 hav+ an a/r+5t ta/e & yield+ a light c9namon col\r$ p[d]4 ,x is insoluble 9 c>bon-bisulphide1 turp5t9e oil1 & b5z5e4 ,its aque\s solution gives a :ite precipitate ) bo? normal & basic lead acetate1 :i* :5 heat$1 acquires fir/ a rose1 & !n a *ocolate col\r2 ) f]ric *loride a gre5 liquid is produc$1 :i* *anges aft] a "t to r$ & becomes black on addition ( sodium acetate4 ,x =ms :ite precipitates ) gelat91 album51 & alkaloids4 ,by dry di/illation x yields cate*ol4 ,by fusion ) pota% or ! action ( sulphuric acid1 phloroglucol & protocate*uic acid1 :ile nitric acid conv]ts x into oxalic & picric acids4 ,:ile x %[s great simil>ity 9 its reactions to cate*utannic acid1 x diff]s mat]ially 9 p]c5tage composition1 conta9+ only #ebe z comp>$ ) #fbj p] c5t4 ( c>bon4 ,,*apt] ,v4 ,,wat] ,,z ,,us$ ,,9 ,,tann+4 ,wat]1 z obta9$ f riv]s1 wells1 or wat] companies1 conta9s a v>iety ( impurities :i* affect its use 9 tann+1 b ( :i* 9 mo/ cases ! precise influ5ce is v imp]fectly kn[n4 ,^! may be classifi$ into 7#a7 m]ely susp5d$ matt]s1 su* z clay & mud1 & sometimes animal or vegetable organisms su* z infusoria2 7#b7 dissolv$ m9]al matt]s1 :i* consi/ mo/ly ( lime & magnesia salts & :i* make ! wat] h>d2 7#c7 & organic dissolv$ impurities1 su* z ! br[n col\r ( peat wat] & ! putrefy+ animal matt]s ( sewage contam9ation4 ,mud is always objectionable4 ,x frequ5tly conta9s organic slime & organisms :i* enc\rage ! putrefaction ( hides put 9 x to wa% or s(t54 ,x also almo/ inv>iably conta9s iron z "o ( its con/itu5ts1 & h5ce /a9s lea!r1 & gives bad col\r$ liquors4 ,x is n easily got rid ( by filtration1 z l>ge filt]-b$s are exp5sive & difficult to keep 9 ord]1 & mu* space is requir$ to cle> wat] by subsid5ce4 ,"s filt] easily clean$ (f]s ! be/ *ance ( success4 ,! ,pulsomet] ,company supply su* a filt]1 consi/+ ( sponge tightly pack$ bel[ a p]=at$ pi/on4 ,to cleanse ! filt] a /ream ( wat] is pass$ ! rev]se way1 & ! pi/on rais$1 & work$ up & d[n1 ei!r by h& or p[]1 s z to loos5 & knead ! sponge4 ,! ,atk9s wat] scrubb]1 9 :i* s& may be us$ z a filt]+ m$ium1 seems also well adapt$ = ! purpose4 ,if lime be precipitat$ by ,cl>k's1 or o!r process1 x usually c>ries d[n ! mud ) x4 ,ra9 wat] & ! wat] ( /reams 9 m\nta9 di/ricts ( h>d igne\s rock are g5]ally ne>ly free f m9]al con/itu5ts4 ,?is is ! case ) ! ,glasg[ wat] f ,lo* ,katr9e1 & ! ,?irlm]e wat] :i* is to supply ,man*e/]4 ,su* wat]1 if cold en\gh1 & free f mud & organic impurity1 is ! be/ = almo/ e purpose 9 tann+4 ,mo/ riv] wat]1 h[ev]1 & all spr+ wat]1 is contam9at$ ) m9]al matt] :i* x has dissolv$ out ( ! soil & rocks ?r\gh :i* x has fl[$4 ,! pr9cipal ( ^! m9]al con/itu5ts are lime & magnesia4 ,^! occur bo? z sulphates & *lorides1 & z hydric c>bonates1 or bic>bonates4 ,! sulphates & *lorides con/itute p]man5t h>dness1 :ile t due to bic>bonates is call$ tempor>y1 f ! fact t on boil+1 half ! c>bonic acid is driv5 (f1 & ! lime or magnesia is deposit$ z an insoluble neutral c>bonate1 ?us s(t5+ ! wat]4 ,any wat] :i* c be s(t5$ 9 ?is way by boil+ may also be s(t5$ by ! addition ( a suitable quantity ( lime1 ?us3-- ,calcic hydric c>bonate4 ,lime4 ,*alk4 ,wat]4 7,,co#c7b;,ca,h#b ,ca47,,oh7#b #b;,ca,c,o#c #b,,oh#b ,?is is ,cl>k's process1 & ! *alk may ei!r be sep>at$ by subsid5ce1 :i* quickly takes place1 or by a special filt] 7,port]-,cl>k74 ,?us ! ,bri/ol wat]1 :i* f det]m9ations by ,mr4 ,w4 ,n4 ,evans1 conta9s consid]able tempor>y h>dness & b little ( p]man5t1 may be almo/ completely s(t5$ by ,cl>k's me?od4 7,= me?od ( det]m9+ h>dness & quantity ( lime requir$1 see p4 #ig74 ,! lime & magnesia con/itut+ p]man5t h>dness may be remov$ by ! addition ( sodic c>bonate 7soda a% or cry/als72 b ?is is exp5sive on a l>ge scale1 & z an equival5t quantity ( sodic sulphate or *loride is left 9 ! wat]1 x is = mo/ purposes ( que/ionable advantage1 ?\gh 9 "s cases useful = ! fe$ wat] ( boil]s4 ,:5 employ$ = ?is purpose1 ! wat] %\ld if possible be s(t5$ & settl$ be=e us+1 in/ead ( add+ ! soda 9 ! boil] itself1 z is g5]ally done4 ,soda is ! active +r$i5t ( _m boil] compositions4 ,= prev5t+ furr+1 mo/ tann+ mat]ials or ev5 wa/e tan-liquors are v effective1 & ! dang] ( any corrosive action is less5$ by ! addition ( a portion ( soda a%4 ,s f> z is yet kn[n1 f ! tann+ po9t ( view1 x is h>dly necess>y to make any di/9ction betwe5 lime & magnesia1 :i* may be consid]$ simply z h>dness4 ,a h>d wat] probably s(t5s dri$ hides m sl[ly1 ?\gh x is possible t ! obs]v$ diff]5ce may be due 9 _m cases to ! l[] temp]ature ( wells f :i* h>d wat] is g5]ally d]iv$4 ,9 ! actual limes1 ! h>dness ( ! wat] c h no appreciable influ5ce1 ?\gh if sodium sulphide be us$ alone1 a c]ta9 wa/e occurs f tempor>y h>dness1 :i* may r5d] x advisable to add a little lime4 ,x is 9 ! wa%+ ( ! hides f lime t ! influ5ce is fir/ di/9ctly felt4 ,if limey goods1 aft] unhair+1 are plac$ 9 a wat] ) mu* tempor>y h>dness1 ! same action occurs z 9 ,cl>k's wat] s(t5+ process1 & *alk is deposit$ 9 ! surface ( ! hides1 mak+ !m h>% & apt to frize or r\gh5 ! gra9 9 scudd+1 & caus+ bad col\r by comb9+ ) ! organic acids ( ! liquors4 ,! common1 b n :olly satisfactory1 exp$i5t is to add a little lime1 or bett]1 a few pailfuls ( lime liquor to ! wat] be=e putt+ 9 ! hides4 ,! be/ plan is to use a prop]ly s(t5$ wat]4 ,p]man5t h>dness is n injuri\s 9 ?is way4 ,! h>dness ( wat]1 & ! dissolv$ c>bonic acid :i* x conta9s1 are1 toge!r ) its temp]ature1 ! pr9cipal factors :i* det]m9e :e!r a hide w plump or fall 9 x4 ,almo/ ! only accurate inve/igation ( ?is po9t has be5 made by ,w4 ,eitn] 7',d] ,g]b]1' iii4 #ahc74 ,he plac$ pieces ( hide1 unhair$ by sweat+1 & q flat & fall51 9 wat] = #d days at a temp]ature ( #df ,f4 7#h ,c471 ) ! foll[+ results3-- #a4 ,9 di/ill$ wat] ,sc>cely at all plump$4 #b4 wat] saturat$ ) ,,co#b ,well plump$4 #c4 ) lime bic>bonate1 #bj ,g]man scale ( h>dness ,tol]ably plump4 #d4 magnesia bic>bonate1 #bj d4 d4 d4 #e4 lime sulphate1 #bj d4 ,well plump$4 #f4 magnesia sulphate1 #bj d4 ,be/ plump$4 #g4 magnesium *loride1 #bj d4 ,n at all plump$4 #h4 common salt1 #bj d4 d4 d4 7#a ,g]man degree ( h>dness corresponds to #a ( lime 9 #ajj1jjj47 ,! peculi>ities :i* 7 %[n by ! hide pieces on removal f ! wat] 7 ma9ta9$ ?r\gh\t ! tann+1 :i* 0 conduct$ 9 imitation ( ! ,g]man me?od1 ! hide be+ swoll5 & col\r$ ?r\gh 9 weak bir*-b>k liquors1 made ) di/ill$ wat] & acidifi$ 9 ea* case ) equal quantities ( lactic acid1 & f9ally laid away till tann$ 9 a mixture ( oak b>k & valonia4 ,no4 #f1 f magnesia sulphate1 0 ! be/2 !n ,no4 #b2 ,no4 #c 0 less good1 b all ! pieces f #a to #f 7 firm1 close1 & ( good sub/ance & texture1 ,no4 #a hav+ swell$ well 9 ! s\r liquor4 ,on ! o!r h&1 #g & #h sc>cely swell$ 9 liquor1 b rema9$ flat ?r\gh\t1 & 7 loos]1 ?9n]1 & ( f9] fibre4 ,f ?is exp]im5t x is cle> t :ile sulphates & c>bonates ex]t a fav\rable influ5ce on plump+1 *lorides d ! rev]se1 n only n plump+ !mselves1 b plac+ ! hides 9 an unfav\rable condition = ! plump+ action ( acids 9 ! liquors4 ,^! exp]im5ts are q borne out by ! writ]'s exp]i5ce 9 practice4 ,! wat] at ! ,l[lights ,tann]y1 :i* 9 dry wea!r is mo/ly obta9$ f b$s ( :at 0 orig9ally sea-s&1 & :i* consequ5tly conta9s a v abnormal proportion ( *lorides 7up to #fh pts4 ,na,cl p] #ajj1jjj71 requires special & v c>eful managem5t to make ?ick lea!r1 not)/&+ its conta9+ a consid]able quantity ( calcium & magnesium sulphates4 ,^! facts also indicate ! importance ( ! ?or\gh removal ( salt f hides int5d$ = sole-lea!r4 ,plump+ is n a desirable ?+ 9 lea!r int5d$ = dress+ purposes1 & x is possible t ! use ( a small p]c5tage ( salt 9 ! liquors or wa% wat]s might enable bat+ to be disp5s$ )4 ,l a bate1 salt w\ld dissolve a small proportion ( hide sub/ance 7see p4 #ai74 ,!re is no practicable means ( remov+ *lorides f wat]1 b ,eitn] sugge/s ! addition ( a small quantity ( sulphuric acid to wat] conta9+ mu* tempor>y h>dness 7bic>bonates71 by :i* x is conv]t$ into p]man5t 7sulphates71 :i*1 z we h se51 plumps bett]4 ,= ?is purpose ab\t #bh oz4 ( ord9>y ,engli% vitriol 7sp4 gr4 #adij7 p] #ajj cub4 ft4 ( wat] is requir$ = ea* "p ( lime ,ca7,,oh7#b p] #ajj1jjj 7see p4 #ig = te/+ ( wat]74 ,a simpl] guide is to add en\gh to purple1 b n to r$d5 litmus pap]1 ev5 aft] mov+ x ab\t 9 ! wat] = "s m9utes4 ,! acid mu/ ( c\rse be well mix$ by plung+4 ,x mu/ be borne 9 m9d t ,eitn]'s exp]im5t 0 on sweat$ hides1 & t ) lim$ hide1 :i* is kept plump by ! dissolv$ lime reta9$ 9 ! hide1 ! conditions are diff]5t1 & diff]5t results z reg>ds c>bonic acid & bic>bonates w\ld probably be obta9$4 ,bo? ^! w\ld conv]t ! lime 9 ! hide into *alk1 :i* is bo? insoluble & in]t1 & ! hide w\ld probably fall1 at any rate till ! lime 0 completely c>bonat$1 :ile hides w\ld rema9 plumpe/ 9 wat]s mo/ free f sub/ances capable ( neutralis+ lime4 ,"o ( ! wat]s mo/ effective 9 plump+ lim$ hides is t ( ! riv] at ,l9coln4 ,its h>dness & cont5ts 9 *lor9e is1 z comp>$ ) ,l[lights wat] 9 dry wea!r1 ,p] #ajj1jjj4 ,l9coln1 p]man5t h>dness #hdc1 tempor>y #hcb1 *lor9e #bfj pt4 ,l[lights1 #fje1 #dej #dag ,bo? wat]s h a consid]able quantity ( organic matt]1 & bo? owe _! h>dness 9 "p to magnesia4 ,f ?is we might conclude1 :at may be priori expect$1 t ! s(t] ! wat]1 ! plump] lim$ hides rema9 9 x4 ,i am in=m$1 h[ev]1 by ,mr4 ,s4 ,l4 ,evans1 t 9 ! ,d>tmoor wat]1 :i* is v s(t1 b peaty1 hides fall rapidly4 ,9 ?is case ! col\r+ matt]s ( ! peat1 :i* are ( ! nature ( v weak acids1 probably neutralise ! lime4 ,x may also be rem>k$1 t :]ev] ! conditions ( putrefaction or decay+ organic matt] is pres5t1 hides rapidly fall1 = ! same reasons z !y d 9 a bate4 ,:ile ! injuri\s effect ( bic>bonates on lim$ hide is matt] ( common exp]i5ce1 _! influ5ce on liquors & tann+ is n s well und]/ood4 ,x is c]ta9 t !y neutralise & comb9e ) ! organic acids ( ! liquors1 & probably ) "s species ( tann91 & z #a "p p] #ajj1jjj am\nts to #a oz4 p] #ajj cub4 ft41 ! acid requir$ to neutralise a v h>d wat] am\nts to some?+ consid]able4 ,x is well kn[n t h>d wat]s make bad tea1 & ! influ5ce ( h>dness on ! extraction ( tann9 is a subject well wor?y ( inve/igation1 & :i* ! writ] hopes to exam9e4 ,on dye+1 at lea/ z reg>ds dye-woods1 ! influ5ce ( bic>bonates is di/9ctly fav\rable1 & ?is is also /at$ to be true ( woad1 co*9eal1 & indigo-c>m9e4 ,beside lime & magnesia salts1 wat] may conta9 sulphates & *lorides ( soda & pota%2 b n c>bonates ( ^! bases 9 pres5ce ( p]man5t h>dness4 ,9 s(t wat]s c>bonates are sometimes pres5t1 & =m c>bonate ( lime 9 lim$ hides4 ,hides are said to s(t5 rapidly 9 su* wat]4 ,alkal9e sulphates are n kn[n to h any injuri\s action1 & *lorides h already be5 spok5 (4 ,iron may be pres5t 9 solution z bic>bonate1 b n 9 any o!r =m 9 pres5ce ( bic>bonate ( lime4 ,x is remov$ completely ) ! tempor>y h>dness by ,cl>k's process1 or boil+4 ,iron is mu* m common m]ely 9 susp5sion1 z mud1 b is always objectionable4 ,mo/ wat]s conta9 a little silicic acid & alum9a1 & "s few consid]able quantities4 ,su* wat]s are said to h>d5 lea!r1 b ! writ] kn[s ( no case :]e !y are 9 use 9 ,engl&2 & _! occurr5ce is comp>atively r>e4 ,= comp>ison1 analyses ( a few spr+ & riv] wat]s are giv5 on p4 #hi4 ,analyses ( v>i\s ,wat]s4 ,?ames1 ,?ames1 ,sev]n1 ,?irlm]e4 ,rh9e1 ,spr+1 at ,kew4 at ,wales4 ,basle4 ,witley1 ,london ,surrey4 ,bridge4 ,total solids #caj #djh #chg #eae #afi #gf ,ca #gf #hba #c #dc #eee #ha ,mg #dg #b #ab #dh #ah ,na #hg #adc #f #di #jf #fd ,k #ci #ag #a 44 44 #bc ,,co#c #ajec #fid #b #aji #hfb trace ,,s#d #cie #cbb #ac #ge #aed #acc ,cl #aba #fcf #h #aa #ae #abh ,si,o#b #fc #ah #b #jg #ba #abc ,tempor>y ,h>dness #bjj 44 #i #g 44 #bh ,p]man5t h>dness ,spr+1 ,artesian1,ripley's1 ,well1 ,riv] ,beamh\se ,wat=d1,well ,well ,c\ncil,)am1 well1 ,h]ts4 ,trafalg>,holbeck1 ,acad41 ,l9coln4 ,l[lights4 ,squ>e4 ,yorks4 ,vi5na4 ,total solids #cch #hdi #aejd #babb #ccj 44 ,ca #aaj #aef #abb #aif #fjh 44 ,mg 44 #hd #db #ajd 44 44 ,na #aa #bid #eha #daa 44 44 ,k 44 #he #hc #aje 44 44 ,,co#c #aef #aac #cih #igf 44 44 ,,s#d #fh #bjf #ajc #bfg #gei 44 ,cl #aba #afe #deb #ce #bfj #bah ,si,o#b #aaf #eg #bfc #c 44 44 ,tempor>y h>dness 44 44 44 44 #hj #cig ,p]man5t h>dness 44 44 44 44 #hd #dhj ,,*apt] ,,vi4 ,,me?ods ,,( ,,*emical ,,analysis ,,= ,,! ,,tann]y4 ,x is assum$ t ! read] has an elem5t>y k ( *emi/ry1 & ( ! common manipulations ( ! laboratory2 b at ! risk ( giv+ in=mation :i* to _m is already famili>1 ! pr9ciples t und]lie ^? me?ods ( te/+ :i* are mo/ applicable to te*nical purposes mu/ be briefly expla9$4 ,/&>d ,solutions4--,if #dj grm4 ( pure cau/ic soda 7,na,h,o7 be dissolv$ 9 wat]1 & a little t9cture ( litmus add$1 x w be col\r$ a bright blue4 ,if hydro*loric acid be n[ add$1 drop by drop1 ! litmus w at la/ become purple1 & a s+le drop m w\ld turn x a bright r$4 ,at ?is po9t ! liquid is nei!r acid nor alkal9e1 & if x be evaporat$ to dryness1 no?+ w be left b #ehe grm4 ( common salt 7,na,cl71 :ile #ah grm4 ( wat] w be =m$ & h escap$4 ,we h !re=e us$ exactly #cfe grm4 ( pure ,h,cl1 & if we dissolve #dj grm4 ( cau/ic soda 9 #a litre ( wat]1 & #cfe grm4 ( pure ,h,cl 9 ano!r1 equal p>ts ( ^! liquids w always exactly neutralise ea* o!r1 =m+ no?+ b common salt & wat]4 ,x w be obvi\s t if we h a soda solution ( ! /r5g? nam$1 we c f9d ! am\nt ( hydro*loric acid 9 any solution ( unkn[n /r5g?1 by see+ h[ mu* ( x is requir$ to neutralise1 say1 #aj c4c4 7 #jd grm4 soda7 ( ! kn[n solution4 ,in/ead ( #dj grm4 ( cau/ic soda1 we may take #ef grm4 ( pota% to ! litre1 & x w exactly neutralise an equal volume ( ! hydro*loric solution conta9+ #cfe grm4 ,if1 aga91 we make a solution conta9+ #di grm4 ( pure sulphuric acid 7,,s#d;,h#b7 p] litre1 x w neutralise an exactly equal volume ( ei!r ! soda or ! pota% solution1 ?us be+ precisely equival5t to ! ,h,cl solution4 ,su* solutions are call$ normal1 & any normal acid solution w neutralise an equal volume ( any normal alkali1 & vice v]s4 ,= _m purposes normal solutions are too /rong1 & solutions conta9+ #a_/aj ( ! quantities requir$ = normal solution are pref]able2 su* solutions are call$ dec9ormal4 ,all solutions conta9+ kn[n quantities ( *emicals1 & int5d$ = use 9 volumetric analysis1 are call$ ,/&>d solutions4 ,indicators4--,! t9cture ( litmus us$ to %[ :5 ! solution is exactly neutral is call$ an indicator1 & _m mat]ials are us$ 9 a simil> way 9 diff]5t analytical processes4 ,?us ! indigo solution 9 ,lw5?al's process is an indicator4 ,a m useful indicator ?an litmus = tann]y purposes is ,dr4 ,lunge's me?yl orange1 :i* is indiff]5t to c>bonic acid1 & may !re=e be us$ 9 ! cold ) solutions ( alkal9e c>bonates2 :i* are mu* m easily made & pres]v$ ?an ^? ( ! cau/ic alkalies necess>y ) litmus4 ,x is v s5sitive to m9]al acids1 b n equally s to organic4 ,x may be obta9$ ( ,messrs4 ,mawson & ,swan1 ( ,newca/le2 & z a m9ute quantity only mu/ be us$ = ea* te/1 x is really *eap] ?an litmus1 & a few grm4 w la/ a lifetime4 ,x mu/ be dissolv$ 9 wat]1 & n m ?an #b or #c drops tak5 = ea* titration4 7,titration signifies an e/imation by means ( a /&>d solution47 ,o!r indicators w be nam$ 9 connection ) ! analytical me?ods 9 :i* !y are us$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #i4 ,in/rum5ts4--,to practically c>ry out analysis by /&>d solutions1 measur+ glasses are requir$4 ,"o or m flasks m>k$ 9 ! neck to hold exact quantities 7,fig4 #i71 "o at lea/1 hold+ #a litre1 are indisp5sable4 ,"o or two graduat$ cyl9d]s 7,fig4 #aj71 hold+ #ajj c4c41 & divid$ into t5?s ( c4c41 are v useful1 & x is well also to h "o hold+ a litre1 & provid$ ) a /opp] 7,fig4 #aa74 ,?is is call$ a te/ mix]1 b is n absolutely ess5tial4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aj4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aa4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ab4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ac4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ad4 ,pipettes 7,fig4 #ab7 are tubes ) a m>k on ! /em by :i* exact quantities ( liquid c be tak54 ,sev]al hold+ #e1 #aj1 #bj1 & #be c4c4 are necess>y1 & "o hold+ #aj c4c4 & divid$ into t5?s is advisable4 ,mo/ important ( all is ! burette 7,fig4 #ac74 ,if only "o is to be _h1 x mu/ be a ,mohr's burette ) a glass tap1 b z alkal9e solutions are apt to set glass taps fa/1 x is well to h "o ) a tap1 & ano!r ) a p9*cock 7,fig4 #ad74 ,!y %\ld hold #ej or #be c4c4 & be divid$ into t5?s4 ,! burette 9 use is fix$ 9 a /& 7,fig4 #ae7 & fill$ up to ! top ( ! graduation1 & ! quantity ( solution deliv]$ is !n %[n by ! scale4 ,x is usual to read by ! "u side ( ! holl[ ( ! liquid1 keep+ ! eye c>efully level ) x4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ae4 ,a *emical balance suitable = ! prep>ation ( /&>d solutions & g5]al analytical use1 is %[n 9 ,fig4 #af4 ,! beam is provid$ ) /eel or rock-cry/al knife-edges at ! c5tre1 :i* are support$ on agate planes1 & simil> edges a support ! pans4 ,except at ! mom5t ( weigh+1 ! beam1 & 9 good balances ! pans also 7at b71 are /eadi$ by supports rais$ by turn+ ! mill$ head c4 ,! long po9t] d mov+ ov] a scale1 %[s :5 ! beam is horizontal2 b ! weigh+ is p]=m$1 n by wait+ till ! balance comes to re/1 b by not+ :5 ! oscillations are equal on ea* side ( ! z]o po9t4 ,! weights1 :i* %\ld run f #ej grm4 d[nw>ds1 are usually ( brass 7pref]ably gild$7 d[n to #a grm41 :ile ! fractions to #jja grm4 are ( plat9um foil4 ,milligrammes & fractions are weigh$ by a rid] ( wire weigh+ #jja grm41 & mov$ along ! beam 7:i* is graduat$ = ! purpose l a /eely>d7 by ! arms e4 ,a fair balance %\ld turn di/9ctly ) #jjja grm41 & a good "o ) #jjjja grm4 ,if equal weights are plac$ on ea* pan1 !y %\ld ( c\rse balance1 & if *ang$ side = side ! balance %\ld be ma9ta9$4 ,if n1 ! arms ( ! beam are unequal4 ,weights always h trifl+ errors1 b if by a really good mak]1 ^! are g5]ally s small t !y may be disreg>d$ except 9 v delicate rese>*es4 ,! weights %\ld always be plac$ on ! scale 9 regul> ord]1 beg9n+ ) ! heavie/1 & x is well to accu/om oneself to read+ ! weight by ! vacant places 9 ! box z well z by ! weights on ! scale4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #af4 ,:ile ( c\rse x is mo/ important1 & = accurate "w ess5tial1 to h z good a balance z possible1 mu* may be done 9 te*nical "w1 ev5 ) a good pair ( druggi/s' scales2 & mo/ /&>d solutions may be b\ght ready made2 :ile f two or ?ree accurately adju/$ solutions _m o!rs may be made volumetrically4 ,prep>ation ( ,/&>d ,acid & ,alkal9e ,solutions4--,9 practice x is v difficult to obta9 p]fectly pure cau/ic soda1 free f wat] & c>bonic acid1 bo? ( :i* are gre$ily absorb$ by x f ! air1 s t a /&>d solution _c practically be made by directly weigh+ out ! sub/ance z sugge/$ 9 ! introductory p>agraph4 ,9 sodic c>bonate1 h[ev]1 we h a sub/ance :i* is easily obta9$ pure & dry1 & :i* may be us$ = almo/ all ! purposes to :i* a cau/ic solution c\ld be appli$4 ,a dec9ormal solution is /rong en\gh = mo/ ( ! "w 9 a tann]y1 ?\gh x is a conv5i5ce to h bo? normal & dec9ormal1 & a /ock ( ! /rong] solution w la/ a long] "t & is readily dilut$ to dec9ormal /r5g? by add+ #a "p to #i p>ts ( di/ill$ wat]4 ,to make a normal solution1 ab\t #fj grm4 ( ! pure/ sodic c>bonate are plac$ 9 a porcela9 bas9 or plat9um crucible & heat$ ov] a ,buns5 gas-burn] or _s-lamp1 ne>ly to r$ness1 & all[$ to cool closely cov]$ up4 ,( ! salt ?us dri$ #ec grm4 are accurately weigh$ into a beak] & dissolv$ 9 di/ill$ wat]4 ,! solution is !n p\r$ into a gaug$ litre flask1 & c>efully fill$ up ) wat] at a temp]ature ( #ei ,f4 7#ae ,c47 to ! m>k on ! neck4 ,! :ole is !n p\r$ into a good-siz$ /opp]$ bottle 7#dj oz47 & vigor\sly %ak5 = #e-aj m9utes4 ,?is ?or\gh %ak+ is important ) all /&>d solutions1 & )\t exp]i5ce no "o w\ld believe h[ mu* %ak+ is requir$ uni=mly to mix a solution4 ,probably m difficulty to beg9n]s 9 analysis arises f neglect ( ?is matt] ?an f any o!r cause4 ,to make a dec9ormal solution1 proce$ 9 precisely ! same way1 us+ #ec grm4 in/ead ( #ec2 or dilute z above4 ,/&>d ,acid ,solution4--,= ?is purpose any "o ( sev]al acids may be us$1 ea* ( :i* has its special advantages4 ,oxalic acid is ! easie/ to make ( any4 ,a suffici5t quantity ( pure cry/allis$ oxalic acid is p[d]$ & press$ betwe5 filt] pap]1 s z to absorb ! moi/ure :i* occasionally is reta9$ 9 cavities ( ! cry/als4 #fc grm4 is !n weigh$ out & dissolv$ 9 wat]1 exactly z 0 done ) sodic c>bonate1 =m+ a dec9ormal solution4 ,x is us$ 9 ,lw5?al's tann9 e/imation process & may also be employ$ to det]m9e alkalies1 b =ms insoluble calcium oxalate ) lime salts1 & does n give a %>p reaction ) me?yl orange indicator4 ,h5ce litmus mu/ be us$1 or a few drops ( a neutral solution ( calcium *loride add$ to ! me?yl orange1 :5 hydro*loric acid w be lib]at$ z soon z !re is excess ( ! acid1 & ! indicator w be promptly r$d5$4 ,sulphuric acid is ! mo/ p]man5t ( any acid solution1 & may be g5]ally employ$4 ,x =ms insoluble sulphates ) lime1 b>yta1 & /rontia4 ,to make a normal solution1 #ce c4c4 ( ! pure conc5trat$ acid are p\r$ into at lea/ #c or #d times z mu* di/ill$ wat]1 & all[$ to cool1 & are !n made up to ab\t #a litre & well %ak54 ,! burette is fill$ ) ! mixture1 #aj c4c4 ( ! /&>d sodic c>bonate are measur$ into a beak]1 #b or #c drops ( me?yl orange solution are add$1 & ! acid is run 9 ) con/ant /irr+ till ! indicator is j beg9n+ to r$d54 ,?is mu/ be repeat$1 & ! two titrations %\ld exactly agree4 ,suppose t #i4e c4c4 are requir$1 !n #iej c4c4 ( ! trial acid are equal to #a litre ( ! soda4 ,if !re=e #iej c4c4 be measur$ into a te/ mix]1 & made up to #a litre1 ! solution %\ld be accurately dec9ormal4 ,( c\rse great c>e mu/ be us$ 9 ! :ole process4 ,if a gaug$ flask only is at h& x w be easi] to measure into x ! wat] requir$ to make up ! litre1 & !n fill to ! m>k ) ! trial acid4 ,normal hydro*loric acid may be made exactly z describ$ = sulphuric acid1 b us+ ab\t #ajj c4c4 ( ! /ronge/ acid4 ,dec9ormal solutions ( bo? ^! acids may be made by ! same me?ods2 us+ #a t5? ! quantities1 or by dilution ( ! normal solution4 ,beside comp>ison ) sodic c>bonate solution1 hydro*loric acid may also be *eck$ by det]m9+ ! am\nt ( *lor9e pres5t1 ) silv] nitrate 7see p4 #ih7 #aj c4c4 ( dec9ormal acid %\ld ( c\rse be equal to #aj c4c4 ( dec9ormal silv] nitrate4 ,table giv+ ! ,quantity ( ! ,foll[+ ,sub/ances conta9$ 9 or equival5t to #a litre ( ,normal or #aj litres ( ,dec9ormal ,/&>d ,solution4 ,sulphuric acid #di grm4 ,,s#d;,h#b #dj grm4 ,,s#c ,hydro*loric acid #cfe ,cl,h #cee grm4 ,cl4 ,g,oxalic acid #fcj ,c#b,o#d;,h#b #b ,aq4 ,acetic #fjj ,c#b;,h#c,o#b;,h4 ,soda #djj ,na,h,o4 ,sodic c>bonate #ecj ,na#b;,,co#c4 ,g,lime #bhj ,ca,o #cgj grm4 ,ca,h#b,o#b4 ,g,calcic c>bonate #ejj ,ca,c,o#c4 ,ammonia #agj ,,nh#c4 ,g,b>ium hydrate #gfe ,ba,o #hee grm4 ,ba,h#b,o#b4 ,b>ium *loride #ajdj ,ba,cl#b4 ,z9c *loride or sulphate #cbf ,zn #afj grm4 ,s4 z sulphide4 ,silv] nitrate #agjj ,ag,n,o#c #cee grm4 ,cl4 ,potassic p]manganate #caf ,k#b,mn,o#d4 ,footnote ,g3 ,insuffici5tly soluble 9 wat] to =m a normal solution4 ,,exam9ation ,,( ,,wat]4 ,h>dness 7,hehn]'s process74 7a7 ,tempor>y ,h>dness4--,z has be5 /at$ 7p4 #hd71 ?is consi/s ( lime & magnesia c>bonates4 ,z me?yl orange is n affect$ by c>bonic acid1 bic>bonates ( alkal9e e>?s h an alkal9e reaction1 & may be e/imat$ 9 solution by /&>d acid l ! alkalies !mselves4 #ajj c4c41 or 9 s(t wat]s #bjj c4c41 ( ! wat] is measur$ into a beak]1 a drop or two ( solution ( me?yl orange add$1 & dec9ormal hydro*loric or sulphuric acid run 9 f ! burette ) con/ant /irr+ till ! col\r j *anges to p9k4 ,?is is repeat$1 & ! av]age tak54 ,! two det]m9ations %\ld n at ! mo/ diff] m ?an #a_/aj c4c4 ,ea* c4c4 repres5ts #e p>ts p] #ajj1jjj ( ,ca,c,o#c or #bh p>ts ( ,ca,o2 or correspond+ quantities ( magnesia 7#db p>ts ( ,mg,c,o#c or #b p>ts ,mg,o71 :5 #ajj c4c4 ( wat] are us$4 7b7 ,p]man5t ,h>dness4--#bjj c4c4 are measur$ into a beak] & boil$ = #ae m9utes ) #dj c4c4 dec9ormal sodic c>bonate4 ,! mixture is !n all[$ to cool & made up to #bej c4c42 or ! flask & its cont5ts may be weigh$ be=e boil+ & made up aga9 to ! same weight4 ,x is !n filt]$1 & #fj c4c4 repres5t+ #ej c4c4 ( ! orig9al wat]1 is twice titrat$ ) dec9ormal acid & ! result add$4 ,if ! wat] 7 pure1 exactly #aj c4c4 %\ld be requir$ to neutralise ! #aj c4c4 ( sodic c>bonate1 b if !re be p]man5t h>dness a "p ( ! sodic c>bonate w be already neutralis$ ) ! acids ( ! lime & magnesia salts1 :i* h be5 precipitat$ z c>bonates toge!r ) ! c>bonates ( ^! bases orig9ally pres5t 9 ! wat]4 ,! h>dness w !re=e be repres5t$ by ! loss1 i4 e4 ! numb] ( c4c4 ( acid us$ = #ajj c4c4 ( ! orig9al wat] mu/ be subtract$ f #bj & ! rema9d] calculat$ z be=e1 or if calculat$ z sulphates1 ea* c4c4 repres5ts #fh p>ts ( ,ca,s,o#d or #f p>ts ( ,mg,s,o#d p] #ajj1jjj4 ,if1 z is sometimes ! case1 m acid is requir$ ?an is ne$$ = ! sodic c>bonate us$1 ! excess corresponds to sodic c>bonate orig9ally pres5t 9 ! wat]4 ,9 ?is case !re c be no p]man5t h>dness4 ,*lor9e 9 ,wat]4--,if silv] nitrate be add$ to a solution ( any *loride1 ! silv] is precipitat$ z :ite curdy insoluble silv] *loride4 ,z indicator1 a few drops ( neutral potassic *romate are us$4 ,s long z any *loride is pres5t ! r$ silv] *romate :i* =ms is at once decompos$1 & ! silv] conv]t$ into :ite *loride4 ,b z soon z all ! *loride is exhau/$1 ! r$ *romate becomes p]man5t4 ,to prep>e a /&>d dec9ormal solution ( silv]1 #ag grm4 ( pure recry/allis$ silv] nitrate are dissolv$ 9 #a litre ( di/ill$ wat]4 ,to p]=m ! e/imation #ej c4c4 ( wat] are measur$ into a beak]1 #b or #c drops ( /rong solution ( pure yell[ potassic *romate are add$1 & !n silv] nitrate f ! burette till a p]man5t r$ is =m$4 ,?is is repeat$1 & ! results are add$ toge!r1 repres5t+ #ajj c4c4 ( wat]4 ,ea* c4c4 ( silv] nitrate us$ repres5ts #cee p>ts ( *lor9e1 or #ehe p>ts ( sodic *loride p] #ajj1jjj4 ,if m ?an #aj c4c4 ( silv] solution are requir$ to #ej c4c41 x is advisable to use a small] quantity ( wat]4 ,if ! process be appli$ to o!r liquids ?an natural wat]1 x mu/ be borne 9 m9d t ! solution mu/ n conta9 free acids or alkalies except c>bonic acid4 ,if ?is is n ! case ! liquid may be r5d]$ fa9tly alkal9e1 ) lime-wat] free f *lorides1 & ! excess ( lime remov$ by pass+ c>bonic acid ?r\gh x2 or x may be slightly acidifi$ ) sulphuric acid1 & %ak5 ) a little pure precipitat$ calcic or b>ic c>bonate4 ,detection ( o!r ,impurities4--,sulphuric acid 7z sulphates7 is seldom :olly abs5t1 b its pres5ce may be prov$1 by add+ excess ( b>ium *loride to ! wat] slightly acidifi$ ) hydro*loric acid 7#b-c c4c4 ( saturat$ solution ( ,ba,cl#b are suffici5t = any ord9>y wat]72 if ! mixture be all[$ to /& ov]night 9 a #ajj c4c4 cyl9d] beside a solution conta9+ a kn[n1 & n v diff]5t quantity ( dec9ormal sulphuric acid1 ! quantity pres5t may be r\ghly comp>$ by measur+ ! bulk ( ! precipitates4 ,lime may be simil>ly detect$ & r\ghly measur$ by precipitation ) excess ( ammonic oxalate 9 pres5ce ( ammonium *loride1 to h9d] precipitation ( magnesia4 ,lime-wat]1 :i* may be us$ z a /&>d1 conta9s ab\t #abh p>ts ( lime p] #ajj1jjj4 ,magnesia is detect$ by add+ ammonium phosphate to ! filtrate f ! precipitat$ oxalate ( lime4 ,if ! mixture be all[$ to /& 9 a w>m place = #bd h\rs all ! magnesia w be precipitat$ z ammonio-magnesic phosphate4 ,silica1 c4--#ajj c4c4 ( ! wat] is acidifi$ ) a little ,h,cl evaporat$ to dryness1 moi/5$ ) ,h,cl1 & treat$ ) a little hot wat]4 ,! silica or silicic acid is left undissolv$4 ,! solution f :i* ! silicic acid has be5 filt]$ (f is evaporat$ to small bulk & ammonia add$1 :5 iron w be precipitat$ z br[n f]ric oxide1 :i* is col\r$ black by tann9 or tann+ liquor4 ,if copp] be pres5t x w give a blue solution ) ! ammonia4 ,iron may also be recognis$ by evaporat+ ! wat] to small bulk ) a trace ( ,h,cl1 & add+ a little sodium acetate1 :5 if iron be pres5t x w be col\r$ black by tann91 r$ by ammonium sulphocyanide1 & blue by potassium f]rocyanide 7prussiate ( pota%74 ,its quantity may be e/imat$ 7,?omson1 ,*em4 ,soc4 ,ab/racts1 ,may #ahhe7 by measur+ #ajj c4c4 ( ! wat] to be te/$ & #ajj c4c4 di/ill$ wat] into two simil> cyl9d]s1 add+ to ea* #e c4c4 ( dilute hydro*loric acid 7#a3e7 & #ae c4c4 ( a solution ( potassium sulphocyanide 7#dj grm4 p] litre71 & !n add+ to ! di/ill$ wat] cyl9d] a v dilute /&>d solution ( f]ric salt1 till its col\r mat*es ! o!r4 ,if ! iron conta9$ 9 ! wat] is 9 ! f]r\s condition1 x mu/ be oxidis$ ) potassic p]manganate be=e te/+4 ,a suitable f]ric /&>d solution may be made by dissolv+ #ja grm4 ( clean1 bright1 s(t iron wire 9 a little hydro*loric acid 9 a long-neck$ flask1 add+ nitric acid s long z r$ fumes are produc$1 evaporat+ ne>ly to dryness1 & mak+ up to #a litre 7m accurately #iif c4c474 ,ea* c4c4 w !n equal #jjjja grm4 ,fe4 ,lead 7& copp]7 may be detect$ by pass+ sulphurett$ hydrog5 ?r\gh ! wat] acidifi$ ) ,h,cl1 or by add+ a drop ( fre% ammonium or sodium sulphide to ! slightly acidifi$ wat]1 :5 a br[ni% coloration cle>ly visible 9 a deep beak] set on a %eet ( :ite pap] w be produc$4 ,iron also gives a black ) sulphides 9 alkal9e solution4 ,copp] may be di/+ui%$ f lead by ! blue giv5 ) ammonia1 & by a r$di%-br[n precipitate ) potassium f]rocyanide4 ,= accurate quantitative e/imation ( ^! impurities1 ! regul> works on ! subject1 su* z ,?orpe's ',quantitative ,analysis1' ,sutton's ',volumetric ,analysis1' or ,fres5ius' ',quantitative ,analysis1' mu/ be consult$4 ,,exam9ation ,,( ,,comm]cial ,,acids4 ,sulphuric acid #aj grm4 may be made up to #ajj c4c4 & well mix$1 & ( ?is #aj c4c4 may be te/$ ) normal sodic c>bonate 9 pres5ce ( me?yl orange4 ,ea* #a c4c4 ( soda solution us$ corresponds to #jjdi grm4 or #di p] c5t4 ( ,h#b,,s#d4 ,= mo/ purposes1 ! /r5g? may be asc]ta9$ f ! specific gravity1 z measur$ by a hydromet] or weigh$ 9 a specific gravity bottle4 ,! foll[+ table gives ! /r5g? at #ei ,f4 7#ae ,c473-- ,specific ,degrees ,p] c5t4 ,gravity4 ,twaddell4,h ,h#b,,s#d #ahdbf #afhe #ajj #ahcgf #afge #ie #ahbb #afd #ij #aghf #aeg #he #agcd #adg #hj #afge #ace #ge #afae #abc #gj #aeeg #aaa #fe #aeja #ajj #fj #addh #ij #ee #acih #hj #ej #acea #gj #de #acjf #fa #dj #abfd #ec #ce #abbc #de #cj #aahb #cf #be #aadd #bi #bj #aajf #ba #ae #ajfh #ad #aj #ajcb #f #e ,footnote ,h3 ,degrees ( ,twaddell's hydromet] may be r$uc$ to specific gravity by multiply+ by #jje & add+ #a1 ?us #aj ,tw4 #ajej sp4 gr4 ,! impurities ( sulphuric acid mo/ common & injuri\s = tann+ purposes are iron & nitr\s acid4 ,iron is detect$ on neutralis+ ) soda or ammonia1 :5 x falls z a yell[i% precipitate1 :i* may be recognis$ by ! ord9>y te/s 7p4 #ajj74 ,nitric & nitr\s acids are detect$ by p\r+ a /rong solution ( f]r\s sulphate cauti\sly on to ! top ( ! /rong cold acid1 :5 a d>k r+ is =m$ at ! junction ( ! two liquids4 ,hydro*loric acid may be te/$ ) soda solution l sulphuric4 #a c4c4 ( normal soda #jjcfe grm4 or #cfe p] c5t4 ,h,cl4 ,x may also be calculat$ f specific gravity4 ,specific ,gravity1 ,p] c5t4 ,h,cl4 #ae ,c4 #abjj #dj #aagg #ce #aaea #cj #aabf #be #aajj #bj #ajge #ae #ajej #aj #ajbe #e ,! pres5ce ( iron is indicat$ by a yell[ col\r1 & may be confirm$ by ! usual te/s z 9 sulphuric acid4 ,oxalic acid %\ld be pure :ite & soluble 9 di/ill$ or ra9-wat]4 #fc grm4 may be weigh$ out1 & made up to #bjj c4c4 ,if #bj c4c4 ( ! solution = a te/ be us$1 ea* c4c4 ( normal soda solution equals #aj p] c5t4 ( pure cry/allis$ acid1 ,c#b,o#d;,h#b #b ,aq4 ,! end-reaction ) me?yl orange is r5d]$ %>p] by ! addition ( a few drops ( neutral calcic *loride t[>ds ! end ( ! titration4 ,acetic acid may be simil>ly det]m9$1 ea* c4c4 ( normal alkali be+ equival5t to #jjf grm4 ( ,c#b;,h#d,o#b4 ,cau/ic soda1 or lime-wat] & litmus1 give %>p] results ?an sodic c>bonate & me?yl orange4 ,br[n pyroligne\s acid is difficult to te/ f ! d>k comp\nds =m$ ) soda1 b may be indirectly det]m9$ by ! quantity ( m>ble1 b>ic c>bonate1 or magnesia :i* x w dissolve 7comp>e p4 #ajj71 or v possibly by lime-wat] l tan-liquors ) a little tann9 z indicator4 ,,exam9ation ,,( ,,lime ,,& ,,lime-,,liquors4 ,! quantity ( cau/ic lime 9 ei!r quicklime or lime-bottoms may be det]m9$ by weigh+ a quantity ( ! f9ely p[d]$ mat]ial conta9+ n m ?an #a grm4 ( cau/ic lime1 & %ak+ x ?or\ghly ) #a litre ( di/ill$ wat] & filt]+4 #ajj c4c4 %\ld be tak51 & dec9ormal acid1 sulphuric or hydro*loric 7or if oxalic1 ) addition ( neutral calcic *loride1 or ) litmus in/ead ( me?yl orange z indicator74 ,ea* c4c4 ( dec9ormal acid corresponds to #jjjbh grm4 ( ,ca,o4 ,if ! filt] & residue be treat$ ) suffici5t normal acid to dissolve ! :ole ( ! c>bonates1 & !n titrat$ back ) normal sodic c>bonate & me?yl orange1 ! loss 7less soda solution requir$ ?an acid 0 orig9ally employ$7 is equal to ! c>bonate ( lime & c>bonate & hydrate ( magnesia pres5t4 #a c4c4 ( normal acid #jje grm4 ( ,ca,c,o#c4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ag4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ah4 ,lime-wat] & lime-liquors may be titrat$ z above1 ) sulphuric or hydro*loric acid & me?yl orange2 b 9 ! latt] case ammonia 7& if soda a% or ,in(f5sive is us$1 soda & pota% also71 & ! lime salts ( weak organic acids w be e/imat$ ) x4 ,x is difficult to get a %>p end-reaction 9 old liquors f ! organic acids 7caproic1 amidocaproic1 c47 pres5t4 ,to det]m9e ! ammonia1 #ej-ajj c4c4 ( ! liquor may be di/ill$ 9 a small retort or flask1 & ! escap+ ,,nh#c collect$ 9 a ,u-tube or nitrog5 bulb 7,fig4 #ag71 conta9+ #bj-ej c4c4 ( normal acid1 :i* is aft]w>ds titrat$ back ) sodic c>bonate & me?yl orange4 ,ka?re9] employs ! arrangem5t %[n 9 ,fig4 #ah4 #cj c4c4 ( ! liquor to be exam9$ is plac$ 9 a %all[ vessel on a piece ( gr\nd-glass1 & #aj c4c4 ( normal acid 9 a second cup1 :i* is support$ ov] ! o!r by a glass or wire triangle4 ,! :ole is cov]$ ) a small bell-glass1 ( :i* ! edges are sme>$ )1 vasel9e4 ,at ! end ( #bd h\rs1 all ! ammonia w h be5 absorb$ by ! acid1 :i* is titrat$ back4 ,! lime-liquor sample %\ld be drawn aft] well plung+ ! lime1 & rapidly filt]$ into a flask f a funnel cov]$ ) a clock-glass4 ,det]m9ation ( ,gelat9 & ,cori9 9 ,lime-liquors4--,?is _c be done directly1 ?\gh consid]able quantities ( dissolv$ hide-sub/ance are precipitat$ on acidification ( ! liquor ) hydro*loric acid & saturation ) common salt4 ,if ! liquor be neutralis$ ) hydro*loric acid1 & evaporat$ to dryness on ! wat]-ba?1 nitrog5 may be det]m9$ 9 ! residue by combu/ion1 & ! hide-sub/ance calculat$ f x 7comp>e p4 #ajh74 ,?is me?od is s]viceable 9 det]m9+ ! am\nt ( hide dissolv$ by diff]5t solutions1 or "u diff]5t conditions4 ,! total solids ( lime-liquors are e/imat$ by evaporat+ #bj-cj c4c4 9 a porcela9 crucible at #bab ,f4 7#ajj ,c474 ,! organic matt] is !n f\nd by ignit+ & det]m9+ loss 7us+ ammonia nitrate if necess>y to complete ! combu/ion ( ! c>bon74 ,! a% is mo/ly lime c>bonate4 ,soda1 pota%1 & o!r bases may be det]m9$ 9 x by ! usual me?ods1 if requir$4 ,,e/imation ,,( ,,sulphur ,,z ,,sulphide ,,9 ,,sodium ,,sulphide1 c4 #cbf grm4 ( *emically pure z9c is dissolv$ 9 dilute sulphuric or hydro*loric acid4 ,?is is readily accompli%$ 9 a flask1 if a piece ( plat9um foil1 or a few drops ( plat9ic *loride are add$ to =m a galvanic c\ple ) ! z9c4 ,aft] solution1 suffici5t ammonia is add$ to r$issolve ! precipitate at fir/ =m$1,i & ! :ole is made up to #a litre4 ,ea* c4c4 #jjaf grm4 sulphur or #jbdb grm4 ( sodic sulphide4 ,?is solution is add$ drop by drop f a burette to ! solution ( sulphide1 & =ms a :ite precipitate ( z9cic sulphide4 ,! end ( ! reaction is kn[n by plac+ a drop 7) a glass rod7 side by side on a piece ( :ite filt] pap]1 ) a drop ( solution ( lead acetate4 ,s long z sulphide rema9s 9 solution1 x w =m a black m>g9 ( lead sulphide :]e ! drops t\*4 ,! drops mu/ n be plac$ too close1 z ! solid z9c sulphide is always d>k5$ if x comes 9 contact ) lead acetate4 ,x mu/ be not$ t tank-wa/e liquors1 & _m o!r sulphur solutions1 conta9 polysulphides :i* are e/imat$ by z9c1 b :i* d n unhair1 at any rate 9 an unalt]$ /ate4 ,footnote ,i3 ,if any br[n residue rema9s1 ! z9c is contam9at$ ) iron4 ,,*emical ,,exam9ation ,,( ,,lea!r4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ai4 ,e/imation ( ,grease4--,to det]m9e oil & grease1 a weigh$ quantity 7#e-aj grm47 ( ! lea!r 9 f9e %av+s or rasp+s is exhau/$ ) petroleum-e!r 7gasol9e7 9 a fat-extraction app>atus1 ( :i* a conv5i5t =m is repres5t$ 9 ,fig4 #ai4 ,! lea!r is plac$ 9 ! upp] vessel1 ( :i* ! l[] op5+ is loosely plugg$ ) cotton-wool1 & ! petroleum-e!r 9 ! flask1 :i* is g5tly heat$ 9 a wat]-ba?4 ,! petroleum-e!r boils & cond5ses 9 ! incl9$ cond5s] ?r\gh ! cas+ ( :i* a /ream ( cold wat] is pass$1 :5ce x drops back into ! flask ?r\gh ! mat]ial to be exhau/$4 ,:5 ! exhau/ion is complete 7:5 a drop ( petroleum-e!r f ! lea!r leaves no grease :5 all[$ to evaporate on a clean glass71 ! upp] "p ( ! app>atus is remov$1 & ! e!r is di/ill$ (f4 ,if ! flask has be5 previ\sly weigh$1 x is ma9ta9$ 9 an air-ba? at #bab-bdh ,f4 7#ajj-abj ,c47 = "s h\rs1 all[$ to cool1 & weigh$1 :5 ! ga9 ( weight is ! grease & oil4 ,p>aff9 w\ld also be extract$ & reckon$1 & probably traces ( res9 if pres5t4 ,ord9>y e?ylic e!r _c be us$1 s9ce tann9s & _m ( _! products are soluble 9 x4 ,probably c>bon disulphide might be sub/itut$4 ,c>e mu/ be tak5 to avoid explosion1 z ! vap\rs ( petroleum are v combu/ible4 ,! residue left 9 ! p]colator may be exam9$ = matt]s soluble 9 wat]1 by extract+ aga9 ) hot di/ill$ wat]1 or = res9s 7& phlobaph5es7 by extraction ) alcohol4 ,e/imation ( matt]s soluble 9 wat]4--,?is is important bo? to detect weight+1 & to draw conclusions z to ! mat]ials us$ 9 tann+4 ,f9e rasp+s or %av+s may be exhau/$ ) w>m wat] 9 a p]colator1 or r\ghly a weigh$ piece 7#bj grm47 ( lea!r1 air-dry1 may be well knead$ & work$ 9 #ajj c4c4 ( w>m wat] 9 a bas94 #ej c4c4 ( ?is may be evaporat$ to dryness 9 a light bas9 ov] ! wat]-ba? 7or "u a pap] hood on a /eam boil]71 & ! ga9 ( weight w give ! am\nt dissolv$ f #aj grm4 ,?is is m accurate & quick] ?an r$ry+ ! lea!r & weigh+ loss4 ,! residue w conta9 tann9s & _! products1 (t5 9 consid]able quantities1 & may be exam9$ by ! table ( reactions1 p4 #aab1 ?\gh ^! are z yet v imp]fect4 ,x w also conta9 glucose1 dextr91 & soluble salts1 if ^! h be5 us$ to give weight & firmness4 ,! absolute pro( ( weight+ ) glucose or dextr9 is difficult1 s9ce tann+ mat]ials naturally conta9 ^! & analog\s pr9ciples4 ,! residue may be p[d]$ & exhau/$ ) cold wat]1 & ! tann9s & col\r+ matt] remov$ by %ak+ ) magnesia 7p4 #ajh7 or lead c>bonate4 ,fehl+'s solution,j is !n add$ & ! mixture is heat$ ne>ly to boil+4 ,a rapidly =m$ & consid]able precipitate ( r$ cupr\s oxide indicates weight+ ) glucose or dextr94 ,lea!r extracts1 h[ev]1 inv>iably r$uce ,fehl+'s solution m or less1 & a conclusion c only be drawn aft] "s exp]i5ce & comp>ative te/s4 ,gallotannic acid & pyrogallol r$uce x :5 heat$1 b n cane sug> or gum arabic4 ,if a solution ( cane sug> be heat$ to #fh ,c4 = #a_/d h\r ) #aj p] c5t4 ( fum+ hydro*loric acid1 x is inv]t$1 & !n aft] neutralis+ ! acid ) pota% or soda1 w r$uce ,fehl+'s solution :5 heat$4 ,footnote ,j3 #d grm4 cry/4 cupric sulphate are dissolv$ 9 #bj c4c4 ( wat]2 & #af grm4 ( neutral potassic t>trate & #ac grm4 ( fus$ sodic hydrate are dissolv$ 9 #fj c4c4 ,! two are mix$1 made up to #ajj c4c41 & boil$ = "s m9utes4 ,x %\ld always be te/$ be=e use by boil+ a portion1 :i* %\ld rema9 p]fectly cle>4 ,! soluble m9]al salts are detect$ by ignit+ ! residue left aft] evaporation ( a sep>ate portion 9 a porcela9 crucible4,k ,f unweight$ lea!r1 ! quantity is v small4 ,! a% is exhau/$ ) a few c4c4 ( di/ill$ wat]1 :i* w dissolve mo/ sulphates & *lorides1 :i* may be detect$ 9 small portions ( ! solution by b>ic *loride & silv] nitrate respectively4 ,b>ic *loride & lead acetate are precipitat$ by a drop ( sulphuric acid1 & ! latt] is black5$ ) ammonic or sodic sulphide4 ,lime is precipitat$ by addition ( ammonic *loride1 ammonia1 & ammonic oxalate2 magnesia by ! subsequ5t addition ( sodic phosphate 7see p4 #aji74 ,! c>bonates 9 ! insoluble "p 7mo/ly d]iv$ f salts ( organic acids7 may be tak5 up by dilute hydro*loric acid & te/$ sep>ately1 or ! acid may be us$ at fir/4 ,any residue undissolv$ by ! acid is probably lead *loride1 & w be dissolv$ by hot wat]4 ,footnote ,k3 ,a plat9um crucible mu/ n be us$ = fe> ( its de/ruction by lead1 unless ?is metal has be5 prov$ abs5t4 ,e/imation ( a%4--,! lea!r 9 small pieces 7ei!r aft] or be=e extraction ) wat]7 is inc9]at$ 9 a porcela9 crucible4 ,! a% is extract$ ) hydro*loric acid4 ,! insoluble portion may conta9 b>ium sulphate 7b>ytes71 lead sulphate1 s&1 clay1 c4 ,= fur!r exam9ation1 ord9>y *emical text-books mu/ be consult$4 ,any l>ge am\nt ( a% indicates weight+4 ,mntz f\nd only ab\t #je p] c5t4 ( a% f b>k-tann$ lea!r4 ,det]m9ation ( hide sub/ance4--,x is sometimes ( int]e/ to det]m9e ! proportion ( dry hide-sub/ance 9 a sample ( lea!r1 b !re is no kn[n means ( do+ ?is directly4 ,if1 h[ev]1 ! lea!r be dri$1 f9ely p[d]$ by rasp+1 & ! nitrog5 det]m9$ by combu/ion1 ei!r ) soda-lime 7,w & ,v>r5trapp's me?od71 or ) copp] oxide 7,dumas71 ! hide-sub/ance may be calculat$1 s9ce tann9 conta9s no nitrog54 ,mntz f\nd unhair$ sk9 dri$ at #bcj ,f4 7#aaj ,c47 to conta9 #eadc p] c5t4 ( nitrog5 7comp>e also p4 #bj74 ,,det]m9ation ,,( ,,free ,,acids ,,9 ,,tan-,,liquor4 ,! lime-wat] me?od m5tion$ on p4 #agb is1 f its simplicity1 well suit$ = daily use 9 ! tann]y z a control me?od = ord9>y work+2 b :]e x is necess>y to make v exact e/imations1 or to det]m9e ! v>i\s acids sep>ately1 x is n s satisfactory z "o rec5tly publi%$ by ,kohn/e9 & ,sim& 7,d+l4 ,polyt4 ,j\r41 #ahhe1 cclvi4 #ch74 ,! acids usually pres5t 9 liquor consi/ ( sev]al memb]s ( ! fatty or acetic gr\p1 :i* di/il ov] ) boil+ wat]1 ( o!r non-volatile organic acids1 & sometimes sulphuric acid1 :i* is add$ to assi/ ! swell+ ( ! lea!r4 ,to det]m9e ! acids ( ! acetic gr\p1 ,kohn/e9 & ,sim& proce$ z foll[s3--#ajj c4c4 ( ! liquor are di/ill$1 9 a flask or retort ) a good cond5s]1 to ab\t #cj c4c41 all[$ to cool a little1 made up aga9 to #ajj c4c41 & aga9 di/ill$2 & ?is is repeat$ till ab\t #cjj c4c4 h pass$ ov]4 ,! di/illate is !n made up to #cjj c4c41 well mix$ by %ak+1 & ! acid is det]m9$ ) /&>d soda4 ,me?yl orange & sodic c>bonate is n s suitable = ?is titration1 z cau/ic soda & litmus1 s9ce me?yl orange is n v s5sitive to vegetable acids4 ,if x be desir$ to asc]ta9 :at quantity ( acids ( ! acetic gr\p exi/ 9 comb9ation ) lime & o!r bases 9 ! liquor1 small excess ( sulphuric acid may be add$ to ! residue 9 ! retort1 & ! di/illation repeat$1 :5 ! organic salts w be decompos$ & ! volatile acids come ov]4 ,to det]m9e ! total free organic acids1 ,kohn/e9 & ,sim& %ake ab\t #hj c4c4 ( ! liquor ) #c-d grm4 ( fre%ly ignit$ magnesia1 q free f c>bonate & f lime1 & all[ to /& = "s h\rs ) frequ5t vigor\s %ak+1 till ! liquor1 :i* at fir/ is br[n or dirty gre51 becomes almo/ col\rless & gives no reaction ( ei!r acid or tann94 ,! mixture is !n filt]$1 & ! tann9 & col\r+ matt] are reta9$ on ! filt] 9 comb9ation ) magnesia1 :ile ! organic salts ( magnesia1 :i* are mo/ly soluble1 pass ?r\gh ) ! filtrate4 #aj-cj c4c4 ( ! filtrate1 accord+ to ! am\nt ( acid pres5t1 is evaporat$ to dryness1 & g5tly ignit$ s z n to decompose any magnesic sulphate pres5t4 ,! residue is moi/5$ ) wat] saturat$ ) c>bonic acid1 to conv]t any magnesic oxide into c>bonate1 & !n dri$1 9 ord] to make ! mass p[d]y1 & easi] to wa%1 ,x is next tak5 up ) hot di/ill$ wat]1 filt]$ & well wa%$4 ,any sulphate :i* is pres5t passes into ! filtrate1 :ile ! c>bonate1 :i* corresponds to ! organic salts pres5t be=e ignition1 rema9s on ! filt]1 & aft] solution 9 hydro*loric acid1 is e/imat$ z magnesic pyrophosphate4 ,to ! hydro*loric solution is add$ excess ( ammonia & suffici5t ammonic *loride to r$issolve ! precipitate =m$1 & prev5t ! precipitation ( ! magnesia2 ! solution is heat$ & !n ammonic oxalate solution1 fir/ dilute1 & !n conc5trat$1 is add$ to precipitate any lime :i* may be d]iv$ f lime salts pres5t 9 ! liquor4 ,aft] filt]+ out & wa%+ ! precipitate1 #aj-ae c4c4 ( #aj p] c5t4 sodic phosphate solution is add$1 & ! liquid is /irr$ ) a glass rod )\t t\*+ ! sides ( ! beak]1 & all[$ to /& #ab h\rs4 ,! cry/all9e precipitate is !n r9s$ on to a filt]1 & wa%$ ) a mixture ( #a ( ammonia & #c ( wat]1 till ! wa%+s no long] give any milk9ess ) silv] nitrate4 ,! filt] is !n dri$ & ! precipitate is plac$ 9 a plat9um crucible & fir/ g5tly1 & !n /rongly ignit$ ) ! cov] on2 ! filt] pap]1 fre$ z mu* z possible f ! precipitate1 is burnt 9 ! usual way on ! crucible lid1 ! a%es are add$ to ! precipitate 9 ! crucible1 & ! :ole is aga9 ignit$ & all[$ to cool 9 ! desiccator1 & f9ally weigh$4 #aaa p>ts ( magnesia pyrophosphate correspond to #abj p>ts ( acetic1 or #ahj p>ts ( lactic acid4 ,kohn/e9 & ,sim& calculate ! pyrophosphate correspond+ to ! acetic acid already f\nd by di/illation1 & aft] d$uct+ x reckon out ! rema9d] z lactic acid4 ,( c\rse ! volatile acids are really a mixture consi/+ ( acetic1 propionic1 butyric & o!r memb]s ( ! fatty gr\p2 b x w\ld be difficult if n impossible to sep>ate !m4 ,simil>ly o!r fix$ acids exi/ 9 mixture beside ! lactic acid1 b z _! action is simil> & lactic acid is always ! mo/ abundant1 ^! acids are to be reckon$ z lactic4 ,x has be5 m5tion$ t :5 sulphuric acid is pres5t 9 ! liquor x is f\nd 9 ! filtrate f ! magnesia c>bonate z sulphate4 ,aft] removal ( ! lime z oxalate1 z previ\sly describ$1 ! magnesia may be simil>ly det]m9$ z pyrophosphate1 & reckon$ out z sulphuric acid 7#aaa p>ts ( pyrophosphate be+ equal to #ih p>ts sulphuric acid1 ,h#b,,s#d74 ,x may also be e/imat$ ) b>ium *loride1 b 9 ?is case reg>d mu/ be _h to ! sulphates orig9ally pres5t 9 ! liquor4 ,s9ce wat]s inv>iably conta9 bo? lime & magnesia salts1 a portion 7#ej or #ajj c4c47 mu/ be evaporat$1 ignit$1 & aft] precipitation ( ! lime1 ! magnesia mu/ be e/imat$ z already describ$1 & d$uct$ f ! am\nt f\nd 9 a simil> am\nt ( liquor aft] saturat+ ) magnesia4 ,if1 toge!r ) ! organic acids1 ! liquor conta9s sulphuric acid1 ! correction may be divid$ equally betwe5 ! two4 ,! me?od is n applicable 9 pres5ce ( phosphoric1 t>t>ic1 or oxalic acids4 ,to ov]come ?is difficulty1 ,messrs4 ,kohn/e9 & ,sim& are at pres5t inve/igat+ a me?od dep5d5t on decolorisation ( ! liquor ) bone *>coal1 completely free f m9]al salts1 & subsequ5t titration ) soda4 ,x may be int]e/+ to add ! det]m9ations ( a complete set ( h&l]s 9 a ,cont95tal upp]-lea!r tann]y1 9 :i* l>* b>k is us$4 #ajj c4c4 ( liquor conta9$ z foll[s1 9 grm43-- ,no4 ( ,total ,acids ,volatile ,acids ,fix$ ,organic ,acids ,h&l]4 reckon$ reckon$ reckon$ z ,lactic4 z ,acetic4 z ,acetic4 #a #jbje #jjej #jbcb #b #jfbh #jbcg #jehf #c 44 #jcgb 44 #d #jfhh #jdbf #jcic #e #jefi #jdcb #jbjf #f #jeji #jdec #jjhd #g #jdhg #jdef #jjdg ,,qualitative ,,detection ,,( ,,tann9s4 ,x is (t5 desirable to det]m9e f :at tann+ mat]ials an extract or liquor is made1 or ) :at a sample ( lea!r is tann$4 ,! foll[+ table gives reactions ( ! pr9cipal tann+ mat]ials1 :i* w enable any "o ( !m to be recognis$ ) c]ta9ty1 & 9 _m cases w det]m9e ! con/itu5ts 9 a mixture ( sev]al1 ?\gh ?is is naturally f> m difficult4 ,9 su* cases1 col\r reactions are apt to mislead1 t ( "o tann9 be+ modifi$ by ano!r1 & x is safe/ to rely on ! categorical te/ ( precipitate or no precipitate1 coloration or no coloration1 )\t reg>d to ! t9t4 ,! infusions mu/ be v weak1 n exce$+ #a-b ,bktr41 or precipitates w be =m$ :]e m]e coloration or cl\d+ is not$4 ,9 "s cases only negative peculi>ities c be giv51 & ! mat]ial _c be positively det]m9$ 9 mixture ) mat]ials :]e ^! peculi>ities are pres5t4 ,?us myrobalans c\ld n be di/+ui%$ f divi ) c]ta9ty1 :]e any o!r mat]ial1 su* z gambi]1 0 pres5t1 :i* gave a deep coloration ) conc5trat$ sulphuric acid4 ,! writ] w feel greatly oblig$ by ! communication ( m di/9ctive reactions4 ,,*emical ,,analysis ,,= ,,! ,,tann]y ,reag5t4 ,myrabolanes4 ,divi-divi4 ,valonia4 ,oak ,b>k4 ,*e/nut wood ,boil$ ) ,pale deposit,pale deposit ,slight ,slight pale ,slight r$ equal volume 7eliagic 7eliagic pale deposit or deposit on ( sulphuric acid7 on acid7 on deposit4 turbidity cool+4 acid 7#a vol4 cool+4 cool+4 on cool+4 to #i vol4 wat]74 ,brom9e ,no pp4 ,no pp4 ,no pp4 ,pale pp4 ,no pp4 wat]4 ,dilute ,blue-black ,d>k blue ,blue- ,blui% ,blue- f]ric pp4 pp4 black pp4 black pp4 black pp4 *loride4 ,add ,br[n pp4 ,d>k r$ pp4,r$ br[n ,r$ br[n ,dull r$ pp4 ammonia4 pp4 pp4 ,sol4 ,no pp4 ,fa9t ,no pp4 ,no pp4 ,slight t>t> cl\d+4 cl\d+4 emetic4 ,add ammonic ,light pp4 ,d5se pp4 ,pale pp4 ,:iti% ,pale pp4 *loride4 pp4 ,copp] ,fa9t ,slight ,no pp4 ,slight pp4 ,no pp4 sulphate4 cl\d+4 gre5 pp4 ,add ,d5se d>k ,d5se d>k ,d>k ,br[n pp4 ,d>k ammonia4 pp4 pp4 r$di% br[n pp4 pp4 ,lime-wat]4 ,yell[ pp4 ,yell[ pp4 ,yell[ ,br[n pp4 ,purpli% turn+ turn+ pp4 br[n pp4 gre5i%4 purple4 turn+ r$- purple4 ,ammon4 ,dirty ,d>k ,d>k ,gre5i% ,dirty molybdate yell[ gre5i% gre5i% pp4 gre5 pp4 9 nitric pp4 pp4 pp4 acid4 ,) sodic ,yell[ ,yell[ ,turns ,turns ,r$di% pp4 sulphide col\r4 col\r4 purpuli% r$4 expos$ to r$4 air on a tile4 ,add ,yell[ ,int5se ,deep ,deep r$ ,d>k br[n4 conc5trat$ col\r4 crimson4 yell[4 pp4 on sulphuric dilution acid to #a drop infusion4 ,lead ,light ,d>k ,pale pp4 ,br[n pp4 ,br[n pp4 ,nitrate yell[ pp4 yell[ pp4 ,cobalt ,buff pp4 ,buff ,dirty ,ditto4 ,dirty ,acetate p9k pp4 p9k pp4 yell[ pp4 ,manganese ,yell[ pp4 ,yell[ pp4 ,dirty ,ditto4 ,grey pp4 acetate4 yell[ pp4 ,uranium ,d>k r$ ,d>k r$ ,d>k r$ ,d>k br[n ,d>k r$ acetate4 col\r4 col\r4 col\r4 pp4 col\r4 ,ammoniacal ,no pp4 ,no pp4 ,br[n pp4 ,no pp4 ,no pp4 picric acid sol4 ,potassic ,br[n pp4 ,br[n pp4 ,br[n pp4 ,br[n pp4 ,br[n pp4 di*romate4 ,,*emical ,,analysis ,,= ,,! ,,tann]y -- ,cont9u$4 ,hung>ian ,hemlock ,mimosa ,cut* ,gambi] ,gallotannic ,l>* 7,extract74 b>k4 7,pegu74 7,cuba74 ,acid1 #a 7,extract74 p] c5t4 - ,yell[ ,abundant ,heavy r$ ,light r$ ,r$di% ,usually ,floccul5t r$ deposit deposit deposit "s pale deposit floccul5t on on cool+4 on cool+4 deposit4 sep>ates deposit4 cool+4 quickly4 ,yell[ pp4 ,yell[ pp4 ,yell[ pp4 ,yell[ pp4 ,yell[ pp4 ,no pp4 ,dull br[n ,dirty gre5,full br[n ,gre5-black ,int5se ,blue pp4 pp4 pp4 pp4 gre5 -black col\r4 pp4 ,dull r$ ,r$d5$ ,purple ,d>k r$ ,r$d5$ ,r$d5$ pp4 pp4 col\r4 pp4 pp4 pp4 ,no pp4 ,no pp4 ,:ite pp4 ,no pp4 ,no pp4 ,no pp4 ,pale pp4 ,slight pale,d5se :ite ,pale pp4 ,fa9t ,:ite pp4 pp4 pp4 cl\d+4 ,slight ,pale pp4 ,slight pp4 ,d5se pp4 ,no pp4 ,no pp4 cl\d4 ,deep blue ,d>k gre5 ,deep r$ ,deep violet ,d>k gre5 ,br[n pp4 coloration4coloration4 pp4 coloration4 coloration4 ,dirty ,br[n pp4 ,slight ,slight cl\d ,no pp4 ,pale pp4 br[n pp4 r$di% pp4 soluble 9 turns blue4 excess4 ,slight ,slight pp4 ,br[n pp4 ,ditto4 ,ditto4 ,yell[ cl\d+4 col\r4 ,no *ange4 ,no *ange4 ,turns r$4 ,slight ,no *ange4 ,no *ange4 r$d5+4 ,d>k br[n ,int5se ,int5se ,deep r$ no ,d>k br[n ,yell[4 or crimson4 crimson4 purple-r$4 pp4 on or crimson4 dilution4 ,pale pp4 ,pale pp4 ,cl\d+4 ,no pp4 ,fa9t ,:ite pp4 cl\d+4 ,purpli% ,purple pp4 ,br[n pp4 ,br[n pp4 ,no pp4 ,purple pp4 pp4 ,slight ,slight pp4 ,no pp4 ,no pp4 ,ditto4 ,:ite pp4 cl\d+4 ,slight ,light br[n ,d>k r$ ,d>k r$ ,d>k r$ ,crimson d>k5+4 pp4 col\r4 col\r4 col\r4 col\r4 ,br[n pp4 ,no pp4 ,cl\d+4 ,no pp4 ,no pp4 ,no pp4 ,no pp4 ,ditto4 ,br[n pp4 ,br[n pp4 ,br[n ,br[n pp4 ,br[n pp4 sl[ly col\r4 sl[ly =m$4 =m$4 ,,quantitative ,,det]m9ation4 ,_m processes h be5 propos$ = ! quantitative e/imation ( tann9s1 b x _c be said t any me?od yet kn[n is :olly satisfactory4 ,! olde/1 t ( ,sir ,h4 ,davy1 rec5tly improv$ by ,/odd>t & o!rs1 consi/s 9 precipitat+ ) gelat91 & dry+ & weigh+ ! precipitate4 ,?is is almo/ impossible to filt] (f z direct$ by ,davy2 b by ! use ( a little alum1 & by p\r+ hot wat] on ! precipitate1 x becomes curdl$ into a mass :i* may be wa%$ by decantation4 ,z ! precipitate conta9s v>y+ quantities ( tann91 accord+ to ! /r5g? ( solution employ$2 z x is soluble 9 excess ( gelat9 solution1 & z x is almo/ if n q impossible to wa% x free f gelat9 & alum1 ! me?od c h>dly lay claim to mu* accuracy4 ,a some:at bett] "o consi/s 9 ! employm5t ( a /&>d solution ( gelat9 ) a little alum1 det]m9+ ! end ( ! reaction by filt]+ (f a portion & asc]ta9+ if ano!r drop ( ! reag5t produces a fur!r precipitate4 ,?is me?od is v t$i\s1 ! end reaction is difficult to hit1 ! /&>d solution is v un/able1 x is inapplicable to gambi] & cut* because ! mixture w n filt] cle>1 & its results are irregul>1 probably f ! p[] ( tann9 to comb9e ) v>i\s proportions ( gelat94 ,a plan1 :i* has a s$uctive appe>ance ( simplicity1 is t ( ,hamm]2 he takes ! sp4 gr4 ( ! infusion1 !n absorbs ! tann9 ) slightly moi/5$ hide-rasp+s1 aga9 takes ! sp4 gr41 & f ! diff]5ce calculates ! p]c5tage ( tann91 a diff]5ce ( #e p] c5t4 ( tann9 correspond+ to "o ( #ajbj sp4 gr4 7#bj b>komet]74 ,un=tunately ! hide is m or less soluble 9 ! liquor1 & absorbs acids o!r ?an tannic ) consid]able en]gy2 ! moi/5+ ( ! rasp+s introduces an error1 & ! smallness ( ! quantity to be measur$ makes a slight error completely vitiate ! results4 ,) extreme c>e1 due corrections = temp]ature1 = ! wat] introduc$ ) ! rasp+s1 & = _! solubility1 & by sub/itut+ evaporation ( ! infusions to dryness = m]e calculation f _! sp4 gr41 ! me?od is useful z giv+ almo/ ! only in=mation obta9able z to ! actual weight ( tann9 9 any mat]ial capable ( be+ absorb$ by hide4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 only suitable = use z a *eck on easi] & m rapid me?ods1 su* z ,lw5?al's1 :i* give accurate relative results1 b no in=mation z to absolute weight ( unkn[n tann9s4 ,a modification ( ,hamm]'s me?od has be5 introduc$ by ,mntz & ,ramspa*]1 9 :i* ! liquor :5ce ! tann9 is to be remov$ is =c$ ?r\gh a piece ( raw hide by pressure4 ,?is me?od1 except t x is m rapid1 has all ! evils ( ,hamm]'s 9 an int5sifi$ =m1 & gives su* v>iable results z to be q useless 9 practice4 ,a set ( v c>eful det]m9ations ( "o sample ( suma* gave results rang+ f #ah to #bh p] c5t41 & simil> v>iations occurr$ :5 ! exp]im5t 0 repeat$ ) valonia4 ,wagn]'s me?od by precipitation ) a /&>d solution ( c9*on9e & mag5ta has prov$ :olly unreliable4 ,g]l&'s me?od ) a volumetric solution ( t>t> emetic1 us$ 9 pres5ce ( ammonic *loride1 gives con/ant results ) suma*s1 #b_/c ( ^? giv5 by p]manganate & ,neubau]'s equival5t4 ,t>t> emetic does n precipitate ! tann9s ( cut* & gambi]4 ,fleck's1 by precipitation ) copp] acetate1 & subsequ5t wa%+ ) ammonic c>bonate & gravimetric e/imation1 ei!r ( ! tannate dri$ at #bab ,f4 7#ajj ,c471 or ( ! copp] oxide left on ignition2 & ,c>p5e's1 by precipitation ) ammoniacal z9c acetate1 & subsequ5t e/imation ) p]manganate & indigo1 ?\gh giv+ fairly accurate results on "s tann9s1 are only ( limit$ application4 ,!y may !re=e be pass$ ov]1 z well z ,jean's me?od ) a volumetric solution ( iod9e 9 pres5ce ( sodic c>bonate1 & ,all5's me?od ) lead acetate1 :i* are t$i\s & difficult1 & pres5t no advantage ov] ,lw5?al's improv$ process4 ,?is la/ is easy ( execution1 con/ant 9 results1 & univ]sally applicable4 ,be=e proce$+ to describe x 9 detail1 x may be well to give "s h9ts z to ! be/ modes ( sampl+ & prep>+ tann+ mat]ials = analysis1 s9ce ?is is (t5 m difficult & t$i\s ?an ! actual analysis4 ,sampl+4--,samples %\ld always be drawn f at lea/ #aj sacks or sep>ate p>ts ( ! bulk1 &1 9 ! case ( valonia1 special c>e %\ld be tak5 to h a fair av]age quantity ( be>d4 ,no att5tion is usually paid to ?is po9t by m]*ants1 & ! proportion v>ies greatly 9 diff]5t p>ts ( ! same c>go4 ,if sev]al sacks are spread 9 lay]s on a level floor1 & !n portions go+ q to ! gr\nd are tak5 f sev]al p>ts ( ! floor1 ?is w be accompli%$4 ,:]e samples mu/ be dealt ) :i* h n be5 specially drawn1 x might be safe/ to weigh out f ea* ! same proportion ( be>d & :ole cups1 be>+ 9 m9d t ! be>d is always ! ri*e/ "p ( ! valonia4 ,9 sampl+ myrobalans1 x %\ld be rememb]$ t ! poor & light nuts w rise to ! top1 & h5ce ! h& %\ld be plung$ well into ! sack4 ,gr9d+ ( valonia & myrobalans :5 practicable is probably be/ done 9 a small dis9tegrator1 fitt$ ) grat+s4 ,! mat]ial1 ( :i* "s p\nds mu/ be us$1 is scre5$ ov] a sieve ( say #ae wires p] 941 & all co>s] p>ts are return$ to ! mill till !y w pass4 ,! mill mu/ gr9d into a close box1 t no du/ may be lo/4 ,b>k may be r$uc$ to f9e saw-du/ by cutt+ a portion ( ea* piece 9 ! sample ) a circul> saw or rasp driv5 by a la!4 ,! advantage ( ^! me?ods is t samples c be gr\nd )\t previ\s dry+1 & ?us 9 _m cases "t may be sav$ & sep>ate det]m9ation ( moi/ure avoid$4 ,:5 ?is is n practicable1 ! sample ( "s lbs4 at lea/ is gr\nd 9 an ord9>y b>k-mill1 well mix$1 spread out flat on a floor or table1 & sev]al portions are tak5 z already describ$1 say #ej-ajj grm4 9 all1 & dri$ 9 a wat]- or air-ov5 at #bab ,f4 7#ajj ,c474 ,! moi/ure is be/ det]m9$1 to save "t1 9 a small sep>ate portion ( #aj grm41 :i* mu/ be dri$ till x ceases to lose weight1 & ! loss tak5 z moi/ure4 ,x mu/ be weigh$ 9 a cov]$ capsule1 z x is v hygroscopic4 ,:5 ! l>g] portion ( ! sample has be5 dri$ "s h\rs1 x is pass$ twice ?r\gh a good c(fee-mill1 & !n return$ to ! ov5 till ?or\ghly dri$1 = :i*1 #ab-bd h\rs is g5]ally suffici5t4 ,ano!r me?od sometimes conv5i5t is to take ea* acorn1 or ea* piece ( b>k ( ! sample to be te/$1 & snip a piece f x ) a pair ( t9n]s' %e>s1 tak+ c>e t 9 ! case ( valonia ! section runs "r to ! c5tre ( ! cup2 & 9 b>k1 t fair %>es ( ! out] & inn] lay]s are tak54 ,! reason = dry+ be=e gr9d+ is1 t unless h>d dri$1 tann+ mat]ials _c be pass$ ?r\gh a small mill4 ,b>k & valonia usually conta9 #ab-af p] c5t4 ( moi/ure4 ,exhau/ion4--#aj grm4 ( valonia1 #bj-cj grm4 ( b>k1 or correspond+ quantities ( o!r mat]ial1 are boil$ briskly = half an h\r ) #a litre ( di/ill$ wat]1 a funnel be+ plac$ 9 ! neck ( ! flask1 & great c>e be+ tak5 at fir/ to avoid fro?+ & boil+ ov]4 ,! flasks us$ %\ld h a capacity ( at lea/ #a-a_/b litre4 ,! :ole cont5ts are f9ally r9s$ into a gaug$ flask1 all[$ to cool to #ei ,f4 7#ae ,c471 & made up to #a litre4 ,9 ! case ( suma*1 a little m boil+ ev5 ?an ?is is desirable4 ,?is me?od has be5 f\nd by ! writ] to give bett] results ?an boil+ ) successive portions ( wat]4 ,ano!r me?od is to boil = #a_/b h\r ) #bej c4c4 ( wat]1 !n p\r ! :ole on a filt]1 wa% ) boil+ wat] s long z a drop ( ! filtrate black5s pap] moi/5$ ) a dilute solution ( f]ric acetate1 & f9ally make up to #a litre4 ,_m mat]ials1 h[ev]1 clog ! filt] to su* an ext5t t wa%+ is almo/ impossible4 ,ka?re9] has us$ #ae litres ( wat]1 & correspond+ quantities ( mat]ial1 9 a l>ge /eam-jacket$ copp] pan1 = ea* exhau/ion1 mak+ ! weight up f9ally to #ae kilos41 ) v uni=m & excell5t results4 7,see also p4 #acj47 ,) all mat]ials :i* deposit ellagic acid or o!r insoluble d]ivatives1 on cool+ & /&+1 consid]ably high] results w be obta9$ if ! titration be made z soon z ! liquor is cold1 ?an if x be all[$ to /& #bd h\rs2 9 ?is respect1 a uni=m practice %\ld be adh]$ to4 ,addition ( #a_/b c4c4 ( glacial acetic acid r5d]s ! infusions less liable to *ange4 ,analysis4--,( all ! me?ods :i* h be5 propos$ = ! e/imation ( tann9s1 ! only "o :i* has met ) any g5]al acceptance is t ( ,lw5?al1 & inde$ x is ! only "o :i* 9 rapidity ( execution & con/ancy ( results is fitt$ = g5]al use4 ,! me?od1 z orig9ally propos$1 dep5ds on ! oxidation ( ! a/r+5t solution by p]manganate 9 pres5ce ( indigo1 :i* n only s]ves z an indicator1 b controls ! oxidation1 limit+ x to ^? bodies :i* are m oxidisable ?an indigo4 ,z1 h[ev]1 ^! include gallic acid & o!r sub/ances :i* are useless to ei!r tann] or dy]1 x is necess>y to remove ! tann91 & by a second titration to obta9 its value by diff]5ce4 ,?is ,lw5?al 7,zeits*rift f4 ,anal4 ,*emie1 #ahgg1 p4 #cc7 accompli%$ by a solution ( gelat9 & common salt1 to :i*1 aft] mixture ) ! tann9 infusion1 a small quantity ( sulphuric or hydro*loric acid 0 add$4 ,x 0 necess>y to let ?is /& at lea/ "s h\rs be=e a cle> filtrate c\ld be obta9$1 & ! gelat9 rema9+ 9 solution _h a slight ?\gh g5]ally negligible effect on ! p]manganate4 ,9 "s cases1 ev5 aft] long /&+1 p]fect filtration 0 extremely difficult & t$i\s1 & x 0 also cle>ly prov$ by ,sim& 7,d+4 ,polyt4 ,j\r41 ccxliv4 #djj7 t a c]ta9 proportion ( ! tanno-gelat9 precipitate1 v>y+ ) ! acid pres5t1 & ) ! species ( tann91 rema9$ 9 solution1 & ?us gave too l[ a result4 ,he !re=e propos$ to rev]t to ! old me?od ( sep>at+ tann9 ) hide rasp+s1 or1 z an improv$ sub/itute1 ) ! gelat9\s tissue ( bones1 & ?is is probably ! mo/ accurate me?od1 b has ! disadvantage ( requir+ consid]able "t = its execution4 7,see also p4 #acj47 ,! writ] has !re=e tri$1 & he ?9ks successfully1 s to modify ,lw5?al's orig9al me?od z to increase its accuracy1 & at ! same "t to make x m rapid & easy ( execution4 ,x 0 f\nd t by saturat+ ! cle> filtrate ) salt1 a fur!r precipitate conta9+ tann9 0 =m$1 b un=tunately1 x 0 s f9ely divid$ t no am\nt ( /&+1 or ev5 ( w>m+1 & repeat$ pass+ ?r\gh ! pap]1 w\ld obta9 a cle> filtrate4 ,f9ally1 he hit on ! device ( mix+ ) ! liquid1 be=e filtration1 a portion ( ! pure kaol9 us$ by photograph]s4 ,! effect 0 in/antane\s & complete4 ,a p]fectly cle> filtrate 0 obta9$ )\t any ( ! t$i\s wait+ :i* be=e 0 necess>y1 & x 0 n only free f tann91 b also ne>ly s f gelat91 s t x only gave ! fa9te/ cl\d9ess ) tann9 solution4 ,gelat9 gives a m consid]able precipitate1 b ?is is simply due to its insolubility 9 ! saturat$ salt solution1 & x is r$issolv$ on dilution ) wat]4,l ,footnote ,l3 ,hunt 7,j\r4 ,soc4 ,*em4 ,indu/ry1 ,april #ahhe7 /ates1 t saturation ) salt causes p>tial precipitation ( gallic acid :5 pres5t1 & t results agree+ m closely ) ^? obta9$ by absorption ) hide are obta9$ by employ+ a mixture ( #ej c4c4 liquor1 #be c4c4 #b p] c5t4 gelat9 solution1 & #be c4c4 saturat$ solution ( salt conta9+ #ej c4c4 ( conc5trat$ sulphuric acid p] litre & a teaspoonful ( kaol94 ,?is approa*es v ne>ly to ,lw5?al's orig9al me?od1 b ) ! addition ( ! kaol91 & z 9 x1 x is to be fe>$ t a portion ( ! tannate ( gelat9 w rema9 9 solution4 ,= accurate "w1 !re=e1 absorption by hide-rasp+s is pref]able1 ?\gh ev5 t has be5 %[n by ! writ] to remove gallic acid & o!r matt]s beside tann94 ,hunt /ates t raw hide also absorbs cate*94 ,a slight error is introduc$ by ! pres5ce ( a trace ( oxidisable matt] 9 ! gelat91 & :5 v great accuracy is requir$1 x is well to make a blank e/imation ( n-tann9 )\t tann9 infusion1 & d$uct #a_/b ( ! p]manganate consum$ z a correction f ! n-tann92 b ?is may usually be disreg>d$4 ,ea* titration %\ld be made twice1 & successive te/s %\ld n diff] by m ?an #ja c4c4 ( p]manganate4 ,reag5ts4--,solutions are requir$ ( 7#a7 ,pure pota% p]manganate1 #a grm4 p] litre4 7#b7 ,pure soda or pota% sulph9digotate1 #e grm41 & conc5trat$ sulphuric acid1 #ej grm4 p] litre4 7#c7 ,pure oxalic acid1 #fc grm4 p] litre 7dec9ormal74 ,! sulph9digotate 7indigo c>m9e71 mu/ be filt]$1 & :5 oxidis$ by p]manganate1 %\ld give a pure cle> yell[1 free f any trace ( br[n or orange4 ,any contam9ation ) indigo-purple1 :i* gives br[n oxidation-products1 is q fatal to ! accuracy ( ! analysis4 ,! p]manganate solution is /&>dis$ by measur+ #aj c4c4 ( ! 7dec9ormal7 oxalic acid solution1 add+ a little pure sulphuric acid & di/ill$ wat]1 w>m+ to #acf ,f4 7#eh ,c471 & runn+ 9 ! p]manganate till a fa9t p]man5t p9k is produc$1 = :i* ab\t #cb-cc c4c4 %\ld be requir$4 ,! indigo-c>m9e solution %\ld be ( su* /r5g? t #ad-af c4c4 ( p]manganate are requir$ to blea* ! quantity employ$1 :i* may be #bj-be c4c41 z conv5i5t4 7#d7 ,gelat9 solution3 #b grm4 ( ,nelson's or o!r good gelat9 are all[$ to swell 9 di/ill$ wat] = two h\rs1 melt$ by sett+ ! glass 9 a pan ( boil+ wat]1 & made up to #ajj c4c4 ,?is w n keep4 7#e7 ,dilute sulphuric acid3 #aj c4c4 ( pure conc5trat$ acid are add$ to #ij c4c4 ( di/ill$ wat]4 7#f7 ,good table salt4 7#g7 ,purifi$ kaol94 ,! analysis is p]=m$ 9 ! foll[+ mann]3--#bj c4c4 ( indigo solution1 & #e c4c4 ( ! infusion ( tann+ mat]ial is add$1 9 a :ite bas9 z recomm5d$ by ,ka?re9]1 to ab\t #c_/d litre good wat]1 :i* x is be/ to measure approximately1 s t if x conta9s any impurity :i* affects ! p]manganate x %\ld be con/ant1 & ?us be elim9at$ ) ! indigo4 ,p]manganate solution is !n all[$ to drop 91 ) con/ant /irr+ till ! pure yell[ liquid %[s a fa9t p9ki% rim1 mo/ cle>ly se5 on ! %ad$ side4 ,?is end-reaction1 :i* is ( extraord9>y delicacy1 is due to ,ka?re9]1 & is q diff]5t to ! p9k caus$ by excess ( p]manganate1 be+ an effect common to all pure yell[ liquids4 ,x is n ne$ful to make ! titration s sl[ly z has be5 advis$--! p]manganate may be dropp$ 9 /eadily ) vigor\s /irr+1 s long z !re is l>ge excess ( indigo1 b z soon z ! bottom ( ! bas9 c be se5 ?r\gh ! solution1 x mu/ be add$ v cauti\sly1 "o or two drops at a "t1 & ) occasional pauses1 to all[ "t = its complete mixture ?r\gh s l>ge a mass ( fluid4 ,! titration is repeat$ twice1 & ! results add$ toge!r & d5ot$ by a4 ,!n take #ej c4c4 ( ! infusion1 & add #bhf c4c4 ( ! gelat9 solution ( ,nelson's gelat9 ( #b grm4 to #ajj c4c4 ,aft] %ak+1 ! mixture is saturat$ ) salt1 :i* br+s ! volume up to #ij c4c41 & #aj c4c4 ( ! dilute sulphuric acid 7conta9+ #a vol4 ( conc5trat$ acid 9 #aj7 & a teaspoonful ( pure kaol9 are add$4 ,x is be/ to d ?is 9 a flask 9 :i* x c be well %ak51 aft] :i*1 filtration may be at once proce$$ )1 al?\gh x is saf] to let x /& an h\r or two3 7! flask may be cleans$ ) cau/ic soda solution74 #aj c4c4 ( ?is filtrate 7 #e c4c4 ( ! orig9al infusion7 are employ$ = a second pair ( titrations1 :i* are add$ z be=e1 & ! result d5ot$ b4 ,if1 fur!r1 c be ! quantity ( p]manganate requir$ to oxidise #aj c4c4 ( dec9ormal oxalic acid1 & #aj grm4 ( ! tann+ mat]ial h be5 employ$ to make #a litre ( infusion1 c 3 7a - b7 33 #fc 3 x1 :]e x is ! p]c5tage ( tann9 express$ 9 t]ms ( cry/allis$ oxalic acid4 ,if x be desir$ to calculate ! gallic acid & non-tann9 sub/ances conta9$ 9 ! infusion1 ! value 9 p]manganate ( ! indigo alone mu/ be det]m9$4 ,call+ ?is d1 z c is to 7b - d71 s is #fc to ! p]c5tage ( non-tann9s 9 t]ms ( oxalic acid1 & = ! pres5t x is be/ inv>iably to calculate results 9 ?is way1 s9ce we d n actually "k ! relation ( any s+le tann9 to p]manganate1 ev5 ,neubau]'s numb] = gallotannic acid be+ probably too high1 accord+ to ! rec5t inve/igations ( ,c\ncl] & ,s*ro$]1,m & ,os]'s = qu]citannic be+ at mo/ only approximate4 ,x happ5s1 moreov]1 t ?is la/ equival5t 7#fbcf grm4 ( qu]citannic acid #fc grm4 ( cry/allis$ oxalic acid7 does n diff] f t ( oxalic acid m ?an ! ord9>y limits ( error ( su* e/imation1 & ! sub/itution is !re=e ( no comm]cial importance1 :ile x is surely bett] to employ a /&>d :i* is easily & exactly v]ifi$ ?an "o :i* is c]ta9 to be modifi$ by fur!r rese>*1 & s to run ! risk ei!r ( hav+ our results made useless = future comp>ison1 or ( e/abli%+ a false or arbitr>y equival5t4 ,:at is want$ = practical purposes is n ! absolute weight ( tann9s 9 ! v>i\s mat]ials1 b only a means = ! relative comp>ison ( two samples ( ! same mat]ial2 cross comp>isons ( diff]5t tann9s be+ simply delusive4 ,if1 h[ev]1 x is necess>y at any "t to give actual p]c5tages ( gallotannic acid1 x is probably be/ to /ick to ,neubau]'s numb] = ! pres5t1 z x is 9 g5]al use4 ,neubau] /ates t #fc grm4 ( oxalic acid consume z mu* p]manganate z #dacg grm4 ( gallotannic acid4 ,t%ekawa f\nd #dafhh z ! equival5t = tann9 f ,japanese gall nuts 7,*em4 ,news1 xlii4 #bgd74 ,c\ncl] & ,s*ro$] on ! o!r h& give only #cdc grm4 ,sim& gives #faa grm4 z ! equival5t ( qu]citannic acid4 ,comm]cial pure tann9 always gives results high] ?an ! tru?1 z ! gallic acid :i* x conta9s consumes m p]manganate ?an an equal weight ( tann91 or ev5 ?an ! tann9 :i* w\ld yield x if boil$ ) acid4 ,:5 ?is is done ! equival5t us$ %\ld be def9itely /at$1 or x w c]ta9ly lead to confusion4 ,neubau]'s equival5t is only prop]ly applicable to gall nuts1 & possibly to suma* & myrabolans4 ,= oak b>k ,os]'s numb] or t ( oxalic acid is mo/ likely ne>ly correct2 & ?is may also be approximately true ( oak wood & valonia1 b z respects all o!r mat]ials we h no in=mation :atev]1 & ! oxalic equival5t is z likely to be "r z any o!r4 7,comp>e note1 p4 #abh47 ,footnote ,m3 ,f rese>*es by von ,s*ro$]1 publi%$ s9ce ! above 0 p5n$1 x seems t ! p]manganate consum$ by tann9 is l>gely influ5c$ by ! way 9 :i* ! titration is conduct$1 see p4 #abh4 ,a few results are giv5 bel[1 n z %[+ ! relative values ( ! mat]ials1 :i*1 ( c\rse1 _c be directly comp>$ by any analytical process1 b = comp>ison ) ^? obta9$ by o!r me?ods & modes ( calculation3-- ,o!r ,bodies ,tann9 ,oxidis$ 7z ,oxalic ,acid74 7z ,oxalic ,acid74 ,sp5t ,liquor ,o#ab #aaj ,valonia 7good ,smyrna74 ,sample #a #bia #bc ,sample #b #cjg #ba ,sample #c #cje #ai ,hung>ian ,l>* ,extract4 ,sample #a #adgh #aie ,sample #b #ahjh #bcc ,*e/nut-wood ,extract1 #be ,b4 #beec #cfh ,pegu ,cut* #fcei #bde ,x is prov$ by exp]im5t t kaol9 removes no?+ :i* is oxidis$ by p]manganate1 b simply facilitates ! precipitation & filtration2 & x is (t5 f\nd useful to cl>ify ! orig9al infusions & liquors be=e ! fir/ titration4 ,on ! o!r h&1 !re is no d\bt t ! salt & acid ( ,lw5?al's me?od precipitate ( !mselves a l>ge proportion ( c]ta9 tann9s4 ,9 ! case ( cut* ?is am\nt$1 9 ! analysis giv51 to #fg p] c5t4 ( ! :ole4 ,!re is1 h[ev]1 good reason to believe t ?is w\ld also h be5 absorb$1 or at lea/ remov$ f solution by hide 9 ! process ( tann+4 ,?is is %[n by ! analysis ( ! sp5t liquor above giv51 :i* orig9ally conta9$ ! tann9s ( oak b>k1 valonia1 myrabolans1 gambi]1 hemlock1 & oak wood extracts1 c41 to ! ext5t ( #aj to #ae p] c5t41 b :i* 0 r$uc$ by contact ) hide to #jab p] c5t4 ,t a portion _h n be5 absorb$ b decompos$ is prov$ by ! l>ge accumulation ( oxidisable impurities 7equal to #aa p] c5t4 ( oxalic acid72 at ! same "t ?is example %[s t ! me?od is capable ( e/imat+ a v small portion ( tann9 9 pres5ce ( mu* gallic acid & o!r analog\s sub/ances4 ,x is wor? rem>k t su* sp5t liquors become v pale 9 col\r1 & also t ! filtrates1 fre$ f tann9 by precipitation1 are ne>ly col\rless1 ?us prov+ t ! col\r+ matt]s pres5t 9 tann+ mat]ials are ( ! nature ( tann9s1 at lea/ z reg>ds _! precipitability by hide & gelat94 ,sim& 7,d+l4 ,polyt4 ,j\r41 ccxlvi4 #acc7 has recomm5d$ in/ead ( precipitation ) gelat91 ! use ( ! gelat9\s tissue ( bones to remove ! tann94 ,= ?is purpose por\s bones1 su* z horn pi?s1 are co>sely p[d]$1 & aft] treatm5t ) dilute soda solution to remove ! fat1 are /eep$ 9 weak hydro*loric acid till all ! calc>e\s matt] is dissolv$4 ,!y are !n ?or\ghly wa%$1 gr\nd wet ?r\gh a /eel mill1 wa%$ aga9 & dri$ at a l[ temp]ature2 ! tann9 is remov$ m quickly ?an by raw hide1 & ! am\nt ( gelat9\s matt] dissolv$ by cold wat] is a v trifl+ "o4 ,?is me?od1 or t ) purifi$ hide-p[d]1 is to be recomm5d$ = sci5tific rese>*1 s9ce no elem5t capable ( precipitat+ sub/ances o!r ?an ^? absorb$ by ! hide is introduc$1 :ile x is n c]ta9 9 all cases t saturation ) salt & acidification may n remove o!r con/itu5ts ( ! liquor besides tann9s4 ,x has1 h[ev]1 = te*nical purposes ! great disadvantage ( requir+ a mu* long] "t = absorption ( ! tann9 ?an is ! case ) gelat9 solution1 & ( ! process be+ mu* m difficult ( execution4 ,if hide-p[d] be employ$1 x mu/ be moi/5$ ) a small quantity ( wat] be=e add+ to ! infusion1 & ?is wat] mu/ be tak5 into acc\nt 9 ! quantity ( ! filtrate employ$ = ! titration ( ! non-tann94 ,! dige/ion ) ! hide- or bone-p[d] mu/ be cont9u$ till ! filt]$ liquid does n give ! fa9te/ cl\d+ ) a drop ( cle> gelat9 solution1 & x is always v difficult to be sure t ! tann9 is s completely remov$ z ) gelat9 & salt4 ,hide- or bone-p[d] may be employ$ to det]m9e ! actual weight ( any unkn[n tann9 absorbable by hide1 by evaporat+ equal quantities ( ! orig9al infusion & ( t fre$ f tann9 by dige/ion ) ! p[d]2 ! diff]5ce giv+ ! tann9 absorb$4 ,! evaporation mu/ be conduct$ z f> z possible 9 abs5ce ( air1 = in/ance 9 vacuo1 or 9 a curr5t ( c>bonic dioxide1 & ! residues bo? dri$ at #bab ,f4 7#ajj ,c47 s long z !y lose weight4 ,! am\nt ( matt] dissolv$ f an equal quantity ( ! hide- or bone-p[d] by wat] mu/ also be asc]ta9$ & tak5 into ! calculation4 ,ammoniacal solution ( cupric acetate or sulphate has be5 employ$ by sev]al *emi/s to remove tann9 f solutions4 ,n4 ,h4 ,d>ton ( ,new ,york1 :o has a l>ge practice 9 tann9 analysis1 employs cuprammonic sulphate 9 ! foll[+ mann]4 ,! infusion1 = :i* #bj grm4 ( hemlock b>k or a correspond+ quantity ( o!r mat]ial mu/ be us$1 is made by exhau/+ ) #b or #c quantities ( wat] successively1 fir/ cold1 & !n ) heat 7by plac+ ! flask 9 a pan ( boil+ wat]71 ea* portion ( wat] be+ p\r$ (f into a litre flask4 ,! la/ %\ld be almo/ col\rless4 ,! liquor is ?us made up to ne>ly #a litre1 #be c4c4 ( dilute sulphuric acid 7ab\t #a vol4 conc5trat$ 9 #aj7 is add$1 & ! liquor is filt]$ ?r\gh a small filt]1 :i* is f9ally r9s$ ) a small quantity ( wat]4 ,liquid ammonia is n[ add$ till ! liquor slightly smells ( x1 &1 if any precipitate is =m$1 x is filt]$ (f z be=e2 #be c4c4 ( dilute sulphuric acid is aga9 add$ 7:i* %\ld give ! liquid an acid reaction71 & x is made up to #a litre4 ,! titration is done z describ$ "u ,lw5?al's me?od1 b in/ead ( precipitat+ ) gelat91 #ajj c4c4 is mix$ ) #ajj c4c4 ( a solution ( copp] sulphate to :i* suffici5t ammonia has be5 add$ to r$issolve ! precipitate fir/ =m$1 & conta9+ #a-a_/d p] c5t4 ( copp] sulphate4 ,?is is well %ak5 & filt]$1 & ! n-tann9 is det]m9$ 9 ! filtrate j z ) gelat92 a little dilute sulphuric acid be+ add$ 9 ! bas9 to neutralise ! ammonia4 ,! writ] has exam9$ ?is me?od ) reg>d to a few tann+ mat]ials4 ,) valonia 7& !re=e probably ) oak b>k7 ! prelim9>y treatm5t is unnecess>y1 & copp] precipitation gives results practically id5tical ) ! improv$ gelat91 :ile x is less tr\blesome4 ,on ! o!r h&1 a sample ( ,mill]'s ,hung>ian ,l>* ,extract :i* gave tann9 equal to #ahjh p] c5t4 7by ! gelat9 me?od7 gave no precipitate ) cuprammonic sulphate1 & h5ce a result 9 tann9 ( nil by ,d>ton's me?od4 ,x is wor? rem>k t by ! copp] me?od x is !re=e possible to e/imate ! valonia tann9 alone 9 a mixture ( l>* & valonia tann94 ,probably ?is mode ( analysis may also be utilis$ to sep>ate o!r tann9s4 ,) *e/nut extract ! results seem satisfactory1 z reg>ds ! precipitation ( ! tann9 by copp]1 ! figures agree+ v closely ) ^? by gelat91 b ! prelim9>y treatm5t ) sulphuric acid & ammonia precipitates ab\t #ge p] c5t4 ( :at is usually reckon$ z tann91 leav+ #gec p] c5t4 ( tann9 only in/ead ( #beec p] c5t4 z reckon$ by ! gelat9 me?od2 :i*1 judg+ by practical results 9 tann+1 c h>dly be accept$ z correct4 ,! results ( ! gelat9 me?od are f\nd to agree fairly ) ^? ( direct absorption by hide-p[d]1 :i* is /rong confirmation t :at is e/imat$ z tann9 is :at is absorb$ by ! hide4 ,x is well kn[n t sulphuric acid precipitates _m tann9s1 & 9 an exp]im5t ) cut* x 0 f\nd by ! writ] t saturation ) salt & ! addition ( dilute sulphuric acid z = ,lw5?al's process1 b )\t ! gelat91 precipitat$ #fg p] c5t4 ( ! total tann9 z usually reckon$4 ,x is obvi\s t x is impossible by analysis to comp>e ! relative value ( diff]5t tann9s1 su* z ^? ( myrobalans & gambi]1 or hemlock & valonia4 ,all t analysis c reasonably be expect$ to d is to give ! relative values ( diff]5t samples ( ! same sub/ance1 or at ! mo/1 ( mat]ials ( ! same class4 ,all o!r comp>isons are mislead+2 & w\ld be s1 ev5 if ! exact p]c5tage ( ea* tann9 c\ld be calculat$2 s9ce ! comm]cial & practical value ( diff]5t mat]ials does n dep5d on ! quantity ( tann9 only1 b on ! "* ( ! lea!r x produces1 h>d or s(t1 d>k- or light-col\r$ & heavy- or light-weigh+4 ,a ,commission ( ,g]man te*nical *emi/s1 "u ! presid5cy ( ,dr4 ,c\ncl] ( ,eb]swalde1 & includ+ ,messrs4 ,eb]z1 ,ka?re9]1 ,s*aun1 von ,s*ro$]1 & ,sim&1 h rec5tly report$ on me?ods ( tann9 e/imation 7',b]i*t b] die ,v]h&lung5 d] ,commission zur ,fe//ellung e9] e9heitli*5 ,me?ode d] ,g]b/(fbe/immung1' ,cassel1 #ahhe74 ,aft] review+ e>li] me?ods1 !y recomm5d ! foll[+ modifications ( ! ,lw5?al me?od1 = g5]al adoption4 ,*emicals employ$4 7#a7 ,p]manganate solution4 #aj grm4 ( ! pure/ pota% p]manganate are dissolv$ 9 #f litres ( di/ill$ wat]4 7#b7 ,indigo solution4 #cj grm4 dry sulph9digotate ( soda 7,c>m9um crul4 opt41 pure ,indigot9 ,i ( ,gehe ,co41 ,dresd571 air-dry1 are dissolv$ 9 #c litres ( dilute sulphuric acid 7#a vol4 ,h#b,,s#d to #c vols1 wat]71 #c litres ( di/ill$ wat] are add$1 ! :ole is %ak5 till dissolv$1 & filt]$4 ,9 ea* titration1 #bj c4c4 are us$ 9 #c_/d litre ( wat]1 & r$uce ab\t #ajg c4c4 ( p]manganate4 7#c7 ,hide-p[d] mu/ be :ite & 9 a f9e woolly /ate ( division1 & %\ld yield to cold wat] no sub/ance capable ( r$uc+ p]manganate4 ,su* a p[d] is prep>$ by ,dr4 ,bo? ( ,b]l91,n & by ! ,vi5na ,rese>* ,/ation4 ,footnote ,n3 ,messrs4 ,mawson & ,swan1 ( ,newca/le1 h k9dly und]tak5 to keep ^!1 & ! o!r reag5ts m5tion$ 9 ?is book1 9 /ock = ! conv5i5ce ( ,engli% tann]s & *emi/s4 ,mode ( ,titration4 ,in/ead ( add+ ! p]manganate solution drop by drop1 to ! mixture ( indigo1 wat]1 & liquor 7z describ$1 p4 #aba71 x is recomm5d$ to add x #a c4c4 at a "t1,o vigor\sly /irr+ #e-aj seconds aft] ea* addition4 ,:5 ! liquid has become bright gre51 #b-c drops at a "t are cauti\sly add$ ) /irr+1 till ! liquid is pure yell[4 ,ei!r a beak] on a :ite tile or a :ite bas9 may be us$ 7comp>e p4 #aba74 ,x is advantage\s 9 /rong sunlight to %ade ! w9d[ ) :ite tissue-pap]4 ,footnote ,o3 ,x has be5 not$ by sev]al *emi/s1 & especially by ,ka?re9]1 & lat] by ,pr(4 von ,s*ro$]1 t ! quantity ( p]manganate r$uc$ by a giv5 am\nt ( tann9 v>ies )9 r wide limits1 accord+ to ! rate at :i* ! p]manganate is add$2 & ! #a c4c4 me?od 0 sugge/$ by ,pr(4 von ,s*ro$]1 to secure uni=mity 9 ?is p>ticul>4 ,x has1 h[ev]1 be5 f\nd by ! writ]1 9 ! c\rse ( exp]im5ts n yet complet$1 t ! quantity ( p]manganate requir$1 0 a function n simply ( "t1 b ( ! rapidity ( diffusion ?r\gh s l>ge a bulk ( liquid2 & by ! alt]nate use ( a simple glass rod1 & ( a specially con/ruct$ p]=at$ /irr]1 he 0 able1 :ile adh]+ /rictly to ,pr(4 von ,s*ro$]'s directions1 to obta9 results ev5 m div]g5t by ! #a c4c4 me?od ?an c\ld be obta9$ by ! drop me?od previ\sly recomm5d$1 :5 prop]ly c>ri$ out4 ,employ$ 9 conjunction ) ! use ( tann9 = /&>dis+1 z recomm5d$ by ! ,commission1 ei!r me?od gives p]fectly dep5dable results4 ,! explanation ( ! v>iation is a simple "o4 ,! oxidation 9 ! ,lw5?al process %\ld be limit$ to indigo1 & bodies m oxidisable ?an indigo1 b !re exi/ bo? ready =m$ 9 liquor1 & among ^! oxidation products _m sub/ances :i* 9 ! abs5ce ( indigo w readily r$uce p]manganate4 ,:5 ! latt] is add$ rapidly1 & ) insuffici5t /irr+1 x de/roys ! indigo & tann9 9 contact ) x1 & proce$s also to oxidise ! o!r matt]s pres5t1 al?\gh 9 o!r p>ts ( ! beak] indigo & tann9 /ill exi/4 ,?us m p]manganate is r$uc$ ?an corresponds to ! indigo & tann91 & ?is is especially s t[>ds ! end ( ! process1 :5 v little ( ei!r rema9s4 ,! m sl[ly ! p]manganate is add$1 & ! m vigor\sly x is /irr$1 ! m closely x w approximate to ! !oretical quantity requir$ m]ely to oxidise ! indigo & tann94 ,x seems to ! writ] m sci5tific to approa* ?is z ne>ly z possible1 ?an to attempt to e/abli% a purely arbitr>y /&>d su* z ! #a c4c4 me?od2 b he w\ld r refra9 f committ+ himself to a def9ite op9ion till 8 exp]im5ts are complete4 ,illu/ration3 ,,pl4 ,v4 ,e4 ,f4 ,n4 ,spon1 ,london ,new ,york4 ,,ink-,,photo4 ,,sprague ,,co4 ,,london4 ,,s(t5+ ,,! ,,sk9s4 ,/&>disation ( ! p]manganate4 ,to avoid ! unc]ta9ty involv$ 9 comp>+ tann9 7:i* r$uces diff]5t quantities ( p]manganate accord+ to ! me?od ( titration7 ) s dissimil> a r$uc+ ag5t z oxalic acid1 x is recomm5d$ to employ tann91 titrat$ "u precisely ! same conditions z ! tann+ mat]ial1 s t :atev] me?od be employ$1 ! diff]5ces w be common to bo?1 & w s be elim9at$4 ,pr(4 von ,s*ro$] has %[n 7,report1 p4 #de7 by c>eful exp]im5t1 t ) ! pure/ samples ( tann9 ! p]manganate value e/imat$ on ! total dry sub/ance ( ! tann9 v>i$ by v little f t ( ! "p ( ! tann9 absorb$ by hide z det]m9$ by ,hamm]'s process1 b on ! av]age bore ! proportion ( #a 3 #aje4 ,! p]c5tage ( wat] 9 an air-dri$ tann9 mu/ be e/imat$ by dry+ a portion at #bja-bab ,f4 7#id-ajj ,c47 & det]m9+ ! loss1 & a quantity equival5t to #b grm4 mu/ be dissolv$ 9 #a litre ( wat] & #aj c4c4 titrat$ ) indigo 9 ! usual way4 ,if ! p]manganate value ?us obta9$ be multipli$ by #aje1 x w be equival5t to t ( #b grm4 ( *emically pure tann94 ,x is only necess>y to det]m9e ! moi/ure occasionally1 if ! tann9 be kept 9 a well-clos$ box or bottle4 ,to asc]ta9 if a tann9 is pure en\gh = ?is1 use a solution made z above describ$ 7x is n necess>y to det]m9e ! moi/ure7 & #aj c4c4 are titrat$ ) p]manganate 9 ! usual way4 #ej c4c4 are !n dige/$ 9 ! cold ) #c grm4 hide-p[d] 7previ\sly moi/5$ ) di/ill$ wat] & well squeez$ 9 l957 = #ah-bj h\rs1 ) frequ5t %ak+1 filt]$1 & #aj c4c4 aga9 titrat$4 ,if ! second titration 7n-tann97 does n exce$ #e p] c5t4 ( ! total1 x is good1 b x may be us$ s long z ! n-tann9 does n exce$ #aj p] c5t4,p ,! pure/ tann9 exam9$ by ,pr(4 von ,s*ro$] 0 ,s*]+'s ,ph>4 ,g]41 :i* may be obta9$ ( ,messrs4 ,mawson & ,swan4 ,footnote ,p3 ,gallic acid sugge/s itself to ! writ] z be+ a good /&>d1 s9ce x behaves ) p]manganate l tann91 & be+ cry/all9e is easily purifi$ & ( def9ite composition4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bj4 ,! c\rse ( analysis is z foll[s3-- ,prep>ation ( ! infusions4--,extracts are dissolv$ 9 hot wat]1 & if necess>y1 filt]$4 ,b>ks & o!r solid mat]ials are treat$ 9 ,pr(4 von ,s*ro$]'s extraction-app>atus 7,fig4 #bj7 7:i* seems v well adapt$ = its purpose74 ,?is consi/s ( a p]fectly cyl9drical vessel ( ca/-t91 ab\t #abe c4m4 deep & #g c4m4 diamet]4 ,a /ra9] cov]$ ) f9e musl9 fits x l a pi/on4,q ,! p[d]$ mat]ial is plac$ 9 ! cyl9d]1 & /irr$ up ) #bjj c4c4 ( cold wat]4 ,at ! end ( an h\r1 ! pi/on is ins]t$ & press$ d[n g5tly1 ! cle> liquor is p\r$ (f1 & ! process is #d times repeat$ ) hot wat]1 at int]vals ( #a_/b h\r1 plac+ ! cyl9d] 9 a wat]-ba?4 ,! liquid is made up to #a litre1 &1 if necess>y1 filt]$ 7,report1 p4 #ff74 ,! quantity ( mat]ial us$ %\ld be su* z to give an infusion ( :i* #aj c4c4 d n r$uce m ?an #h c4c4 p]manganate4 ,if x is desir$ to det]m9e sep>ately ! easily soluble tann9 7viz4 t extract$ by cold wat]71 ,real's ,press 7,fig4 #ba7 is employ$1 :i* consi/s ( a cyl9d] a1 ?r\gh :i* wat] may be =c$ by ! pressure ( a column ( liquid4 ,! small sieve d1 cov]$ ) a disc ( l951 is plac$ 9 a1 next ! tann+ mat]ial previ\sly ?or\ghly moi/5$ ) wat]1 & ! tap is clos$4 ,! press is !n fill$ ) wat] & left #ae h\rs "u a pressure ( #a-a_/b metres4 ,! tap is !n op5$ & #a litre is all[$ to run ?r\gh 9 ! c\rse ( ab\t #b h\rs1 & mix$ by %ak+4 ,! mat]ial is f9ally exhau/$ l a new mat]ial 9 von ,s*ro$]'s app>atus to extract ! difficultly soluble tann94 ,footnote ,q3 ,bo? ?is app>atus1 & ! ,real's press1 may be obta9$ f ,c4 ,focke1 ,z9ngiess]1 ,grosse ,kir*gasse #c1 ,dresd54 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ba4 ,! titration is c>ri$ out z be=e describ$2 9 ea* infusion sep>ately to det]m9e ! n-tann9 #ej c4c4 are treat$ ) #c grm4 hide-p[d]1 & #aj c4c4 are titrat$4 ,x may be well 9 conclusion = ! writ] to /ate = ! in=mation ( ! non-*emical read]1 t ?\gh = purposes ( comp>ison ( ! results ( diff]5t *emi/s1 x is mo/ desirable to h a /&>d me?od ( ! highe/ possible p]fection2 any ( ! accept$ modifications ( ! ,lw5?al me?od w give excell5t practical results 9 c>eful h&s4 ,,*apt] ,,vii4 ,,sole-,,lea!r3--,prep>+ ! ,hides4 ,! pr9cipal s\rces ( hides = sole-lea!r are3-- 7,i47 ,m>ket hides1 f ! cattle slaught]$ = food 9 ! ,unit$ ,k+dom4 ,^! are receiv$ by ! tann]1 fre%1 or slightly salt$1 & are ei!r b\ght directly f ! but*]1 or1 n[ m commonly1 ?r\gh ! auction m>kets e/abli%$ 9 all l>ge t[ns4 ,! latt] sy/em1 :ile x p]haps slightly enhances ! price ( ! hides to ! tann]1 ensures him a bett] classification accord+ to weight1 &1 9 "s cases1 z notably 9 t ( ,glasg[1 a bett] flay+1 ?r\gh an organis$ sy/em ( inspection & sort+4 ,! ,scot* hides1 be+ mo/ly f ,highl& cattle1 are _m ( !m small & v plump1 =1 z a rule1 ! hides are ?icke/ on ^? animals :i* are expos$ to cold & ! h>d%ips ( out-door life4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! hides ( highly-br$ cattle are apt to be ?9 & spread+2 &1 if !y h be5 kept mu* indoors1 & neglig5tly manag$1 ! gra9 ( ! hide is injur$ by ! dung :i* adh]es to x4 ,! ,iri% hides are usually some:at r\ghly flay$4 7,,ii47 ,s\? ,am]ican hides are f ! ,riv] ,plate1 ,uruguay1 & ,rio ,gr&e4 ,^? f ! ,riv] ,plate are consid]$ ! be/1 z be+ /\te/ & f9e/ 9 texture4 ,!y are usually cur$ by salt+1 & are kn[n z salad]os1 e/ancias1 & matad]os1 accord+ to ! slaught] & cure4 ,! salad]os are ! be/1 & are f cattle kill$ at l>ge slaught]+ e/abli%m5ts on ! coa/4 ,! e/ancias are f cattle kill$ 9 ! int]ior1 & are worse 9 flay+ ?an ! salad]os1 b free f ! objectionable d>k cure ( ! matad]os1 :i* are kill$ by ! city but*]s4 ,_m hides are br\ght f ,brazil1 & are g5]ally bo? salt$ & sun-dri$1 or simply /ret*$ out & dri$4 ,hides are also import$ f ,valp>aiso1 bo? dry & wet-salt$4 ,*9ese & ,we/ ,indian hides are mo/ly dri$4 ,*9ese hides are occasionally infect$ ) ,bacillus an?racis1 :i* produces ! dang]\s malignant-pu/ule1 or wool-sort]s' disease4 ,h5ce any pimple appe>+ aft] work+ ) su* hides %\ld h imm$iate m$ical att5tion4 ,fr5* m>ket hides h be5 ( rec5t ye>s l>gely import$2 !y are mo/ly well flay$1 & "s ( !m v heavy1 b are sold at orig9al but*]s' weight1 &1 9 ! exp]i5ce ( "s tann]s1 ! result 9 lea!r is #e-f p] c5t4 less ?an f ,engli% m>ket hides4 ,!y usually lose ab\t #be p] c5t4 9 skull+ & salt+4 ,lisbon hides are (t5 well flay$1 b are frequ5tly br&$1 & ! gra9 is injur$ by insects4 ,!y yield consid]ably m lea!r ?an m>ket hides 9 proportion to weight4 ,hambro' hides are salt$1 b mo/ly wet & ill-flay$4 ,v heavy hides are produc$ 9 ! ,rh9e di/rict & 9 ,switz]l&4 ,= fur!r in=mation ab\t hides1 see ! ,comm]cial ,section4 ,prep>ation = ,tann+4--,m>ket hides %\ld be well wa%$ 9 fre% wat]1 to remove blood & dirt1 be=e unhair+2 b prolong$ soak+ dissolves a portion ( hide-sub/ance1 & probably r$uces weight1 ?\gh x facilitates ! action ( ! lime4 ,x is v advantage\s if grease & fle%1 & also dung c be remov$ be=e lim+1 & if h&-lab\r is too co/ly ma*9]y might be employ$4 ,salt$ hides %\ld be soak$ some:at long]1 & 9 clean wat]1 s z to remove ! salt be=e lim+4 ,?is wat] %\ld be frequ5tly *ang$1 s9ce #aj p] c5t4 br9e dissolves cori9 freely 7see p4 #ai74 ,dri$ hides require m l5g!n$ treatm5t4 ,be=e !y are prep>$ = tann+1 !y mu/ be br\ght back z f> z possible to ! condition ( fre% hides1 &1 = ?is purpose1 mu/ be ?or\ghly soak$ & s(t5$ 9 wat]4 ,!re are _m ways ( do+ ?is3 sometimes hides are susp5d$ 9 runn+ wat]2 sometimes laid 9 soaks1 :i* may be ei!r r5ew$1 or all[$ to putrefy2 sometimes 9 wat] to :i* salt1 borax1 or c>bolic acid has be5 add$1 to prev5t putrefaction4 ,! fir/ ( ^! me?ods1 7 x desirable1 is r>ely possible 9 ^! days ( ,riv] ,pollution ,acts2 ( ! o!rs1 x is difficult to say :i* is bett]1 s9ce ! treatm5t desirable v>ies ) ! h>dness ( ! hide & ! temp]ature at :i* x has be5 dri$4 ,! great object is to ?or\ghly s(t5 ! hide1 )\t all[+ putrefaction to injure x4 ,z dri$ hides are (t5 damag$ already f ?is cause1 ei!r be=e dry+1 or f becom+ moi/ & heat$ on %ip-bo>d1 x is frequ5tly no easy matt] to accompli% ?is4 ,! fre% hide1 z has be5 se51 conta9s consid]able portions ( album51 & if ! hide is dri$ at a high temp]ature1 ?is becomes :olly or p>tially coagulat$ & insoluble4 ,! gelat9\s fibre & ! cori9 7if inde$ ! latt] exi/s ready =m$ 9 ! fre% hide7 d n coagulate by heat1 b also become less readily soluble4 ,gelat9 dri$ at #bff ,f4 7#acj ,c47 c only be r$issolv$ by acids1 or wat] at #bdh ,f4 7#abj ,c474 ,eitn] exp]im5t$ ) pieces ( gre5 calf-sk9 ( equal ?ickness1 :i* 7 dri$ at diff]5t temp]atures1 ) results giv5 9 ! foll[+ table3-- ,temp]ature ,"t ( ,cori9 ,dissolv$ ,sample4 ( ,dry+4 ,rem>ks4 ,s(t5+ ,rem>ks4 by ,salt 9 ,wat]4 ,solution4 ,i4 #ei ,f4 ,9 vacuo #bd h\rs,)\t #afh p] c5t4 7#ae ,c47 me*anical ,,ii4 #ga-a_/b ,f4 ,9 sun #b days "w #afb 7#bb ,c47 ,,iii4 #ie ,f4 ,9 dry+- #e twice work$ #jae 7#ce ,c47 closet ,,iv4 #adj ,f4 ,refus$ to s(t5 ,traces4 7#fj ,c47 suffici5tly = tann+ ,h5ce x is evid5t t1 = hides dri$ at l[ temp]atures1 %ort soak+ 9 fre% & cold wat] is suffici5t1 &1 except 9 w>m wea!r1 !re w\ld be little dang] ( putrefaction4 ,) h>d] dry+1 long] "t is requir$1 & x may be necess>y to use br9e in/ead ( wat]4 ,a well-kn[n tann] recomm5ds a solution ( #cj-ce b>komet] 7sp4 gr4 #ajce1 or ab\t #e p] c5t4 ( ,na,cl74 ,?is w h a d\ble action1 n only pres]v+ f putrefaction1 b dissolv+ a portion ( ! hide-sub/ance 9 ! =m ( cori94 ,al?\gh ?is is und\bt$ly a loss to ! tann]1 x is que/ionable if !re is any process :i* w s(t5 ov]dri$ hides )\t loss ( weight3 s9ce ev5 prolong$ soak+ 9 cold wat] at too l[ a temp]ature to all[ ( putrefaction w dissolve a s]i\s am\nt ( hide-sub/ance4 ,wat] conta9+ a small quantity ( c>bolic acid has be5 recomm5d$ = ! purpose1 & w prev5t putrefaction1 :ile x has no solv5t p[] on ! hide1 b1 on ! contr>y1 w coagulate & r5d] insoluble album9\s matt]s4 ,conc5trat$ c>bolic acid1 h[ev]1 tans ! gra9 & r5d]s x incapable ( col\r+ 9 ! liquors4 ,borax has be5 propos$ = ! same purpose1 &1 9 /rong solution1 c]ta9ly prev5ts putrefaction1 b is probably too co/ly4 ,sodium sulphide & o!r sulphides seem to h consid]able effect 9 s(t5+ dri$ hides1 f _! prop]ty ( attack+ h>d album9\s matt]s1 )\t injur+ ! true hide-fibre4 ,= "s descriptions ( hides1 h[ev]1 & notably = ,india kips1 putrid soaks seem actually to be an advantage1 ! putrefactive action s(t5+ & r5d]+ soluble ! h>d5$ tissue4 ,9 ,india ! native tann]s s(t5 _! hides 9 v few h\rs by plung+ !m 9 putrid pools1 into :i* e description ( tann]y refuse is all[$ to run4 ,putrefactive processes are always dang]\s1 z ! action1 ?r\gh *anges ( temp]ature1 or v>iation 9 ! previ\s /ate ( ! liquor1 is apt to be irregul>1 & ei!r to attack "o portion ( ! hide be=e ano!r1 or to proce$ fa/] ?an 0 expect$4 ,h5ce hides 9 ! soaks require con/ant & c>eful wat*+1 & ! goods mu/ be )drawn z soon z !y are ?or\ghly s(t5$1 = ! putrefaction is con/antly de/roy+ z well z s(t5+ ! hides4 ,x is possible t putrefactive s(t5+ is less injuri\s to kips1 & su* goods z are int5d$ = upp]-lea!r1 ?an to ^? = sole purposes1 z x is g5]ally consid]$ necess>y 9 ! =m] case t ! album5 & int]fibrill>y matt] be remov$1 & t ! fibre be well divid$ into its con/itu5t fibrils = ! sake ( s(tness & pliability2 s t ! putrid soak1 if act+ rightly1 only accompli%es a "p ( ! "w :i* w\ld aft]w>ds h to be done by ! lime & ! bate4 ,! actual fibre ( ! hide seems less readily putrescible ?an ! album9oid p>ts2 h5ce ! putrefaction may s(t5 ! latt] bett]1 & ev5 at less exp5se ( valuable hide-sub/ance1 because m rapidly1 ?an fre% wat]4 ,on ?is po9t1 !re is room = inve/igation4 ,putrefaction is a g5]al "n = a class ( decompositions :i* are caus$ by a great v>iety ( liv+ organisms1 ea* ( :i* has its own special products & modes ( action4 ,x is q possible t1 if we knew :at precise =m ( putrefaction 0 mo/ advantage\s1 we might by appropriate conditions be able to enc\rage x to ! exclusion ( o!rs1 & obta9 bett] results ?an at pres5t4 ,x w be necess>y to rev]t to ?is subject :5 speak+ ( ! bates us$ 9 prep>+ dress+-lea!r1 :i* also owe _! activity to putrid f]m5tation4 ,beside m]ely soak+ ! hides1 x is necess>y to "w !m me*anically1 to promote _! s(t5+1 :i* 0 =m]ly accompli%$ by break+ ov] ! hides on ! beam ) a blunt knife4 ,?is process is n[ usually sup]s$$ or supplem5t$ by ! use ( ! /ocks2 ^! consi/ ( a wood5 or metallic box1 ( peculi> %ape1 :]e9 "w #b v heavy hamm]s1 rais$ alt]nately by p9s 9 a :eel1 & let fall ^u ! hides1 :i* !y =ce up aga9/ ! side ( ! box ) a sort ( knead+ action4 ,! ord9>y =m ( ?is ma*9e is %[n 9 ,fig4 #bb4 ,a m mod]n =m1 :i* seems to possess "s advantages1 is ! ,am]ican d\ble-%ov]1 se5 9 ,fig4 #bc4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bb4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bc4 ,! numb] ( hides :i* c be /ock$ at once naturally v>ies ) ! size ( bo? hides & /ocks1 b %\ld be su* t ! hides "w regul>ly & /eadily ov] & ov]4 ,! :ole numb] %\ld n be put 9 at once1 b %\ld be add$ "o aft] ano!r1 z !y get into regul> "w4 ,! duration ( /ock+ is #aj-cj m941 accord+ to ! condition & "* ( ! hides4 ,hides %\ld n be /ock$ till !y are s f> s(t5$ t !y c be d\bl$ %>ply1 )\t break+ or /ra9+ ! fibre4 ,aft] /ock+1 !y mu/ be soak$ aga9 = a %ort "t1 & !n be br\ght into an old lime4 ,a small quantity ( sodium sulphide add$ to ! soaks or 9 ! /ocks has be5 recomm5d$ z ( great value 9 s(t5+ ob/9ate hides1 & probably ) ju/ice1 f its well-kn[n s(t5+ action ^u cellul> & horny tissues4 ,9 ,cont95tal y>ds1 ano!r ma*9e is 9 use = s(t5+ hides1 & :i* seems to pres5t "s advantages ov] /ocks1 z be+ less sev]e on ! ?9n] portions ( ! hide4 ,x consi/s ( a pair ( roll]s1 arrang$ l ^? ( a wr++ ma*9e1 & press$ toge!r by spr+s1 b n all[$ to come into actual contact4 ,"o ( !m is /udd$ ) r\nd$ pegs1 :i* correspond 9 position to grooves r\nd ! o!r1 & ! hide :5 pass$ betwe5 !m is ?us subject$ to a v ?or\gh knead+ & /ret*+4 ,tumbl] drums ( v>i\s =ms may also be us$ ) good effect = s(t5+ purposes1 especially = sk9s4 ,,*apt] ,,viii4 ,,sole-,,lea!r3--,unhair+ ,hides4 ,9 ,engl&1 lime is ! ag5t almo/ univ]sally employ$ = loos5+ ! hair1 ?\gh e tann] admits its defici5cies & disadvantages4 ,x is h>d1 h[ev]1 to recomm5d a sub/itute :i* is free f ! same or great] evils1 & lime has "o or two valuable qualities :i* w make x v difficult to sup]s$e4 ,"o ( ^! is t1 ?\gh x inevitably causes loss ( sub/ance & weight1 x is also impossible1 ) any reasonable c>e1 totally to de/roy a pack ( hides by its use2 :i* is by no means ! case ) "s ( its rivals4 ,ano!r advantage is t1 ow+ to its v limit$ solubility 9 wat]1 x is a matt] ( comp>atively small consequ5ce :e!r mu* or little is us$2 & ev5 if ! hides are left 9 a few days long] ?an necess>y1 ! mis*ief1 ?\gh c]ta91 is only to be detect$ by c>eful & accurate obs]vation4 ,) all o!r me?ods1 exact "t & quantity are ( prim>y importance1 & x is n easy to get ord9>y workm5 to pay ! necess>y att5tion to su* details4 ,aga91 ! qualities ( lime1 its virtues & fail+s1 h be5 matt] ( exp]i5ce = hundr$s ( ye>s1 & s f> z su* exp]i5ce c tea*1 we "k exactly h[ to deal ) x4 ,a new me?od1 on ! o!r h&1 br+s new & unlook$-= difficulties1 & (t5 requires *anges 9 o!r p>ts ( ! process1 z well z 9 ! m]e unhair+1 to make x successful4 ,z our k ( ! *emical & physical *anges involv$ becomes great]1 we may look to ov]com+ ^! ob/acles m readily2 = ! p[] ( deal+ successfully ) new difficulties con/itutes "o ( ! ma9 advantages ( a really sci5tific k ov] an empirical "o4 ,slak$ lime is soluble 9 wat] at #fj ,f4 7#ae ,c471 to ! ext5t ( #a "p 9 #ggh4 ,unlike mo/ sub/ances1 x decreases 9 solubility at high] temp]atures1 requir+ #igb p>ts ( wat] at #acj ,f4 7#ed ,c471 & #abgj p>ts at #bab ,f4 7#ajj ,c474 ,its action ^u animal tissues increases rapidly1 h[ev]1 ) temp]ature1 ?\gh no d\bt x is mod]at$ to "s ext5t by ! less5$ solubility4 ,calculat+ f ,dalton's numb]s1 pure lime-wat] at #fj ,f4 7#ae ,c47 conta9s #abhe grm4,r ( ,ca,o p] litre1 & %\ld require #dei c4c4 ( dec9ormal acid to neutralise x4 ,?is e/imate 9 "s cases appe>s to be slightly too high2 e4 g4 a saturat$ lime-wat] f ,c>bonif]\s lime/one at #ef4e ,f4 7#ac ,c47 requir$ only #dcc c4c4 ( dec9ormal acid1 :i* equals #abaa grm4 ( ,ca,o p] litre1 & ?is lime-wat]1 kept ) excess ( lime1 gave ne>ly con/ant results = _m mon?s toge!r4 ,a magnesian lime/one lime-wat] te/$ at ! same "t requir$ #dgb c4c4 ( dec9ormal acid1 confirm+ ! old obs]vation ( tann]s1 t su* lime is /rong] ?an t made ei!r f *alk or c>bonif]\s lime/one4 ,?is increas$ /r5g? mu/ arise f ! pres5ce ( "s soluble base o!r ?an lime1 & may be due to ! magnesia1 :i*1 h[ev]1 is v slightly soluble4 ,magnesian lime/one conta9s a v l>ge am\nt ( magnesia1 & h5ce w\ld n g s f> z a pur] lime/one2 b z a v l>ge proportion ( ! lime ord9>ily us$ is ?r[n away undissolv$1 ?is is p]haps ( little practical mom5t4 7,= ! *emical exam9ation ( limes1 see p4 #ajb74 ,footnote ,r3 #a grm4 p] litre is v approximately equal to #a oz4 p] cub4 ft4 ,! action ( lime on ! hide has already be5 spok5 ( to "s ext5t4 ,x is ?r\gh\t a solv5t "o4 ,! h>d5$ cells ( ! epid]mis swell up & s(t51 ! rete malpighi & ! hair-%ea?s are loos5$ & dissolv$1 s t1 on scrap+ ) a blunt knife1 bo? come away m or less completely ) ! hair 7con/itut+ scud1 z "s ,engli% tann]s "n x1 ,g]4 gnei/ or grund74 ,! hair itself is v slightly alt]$1 except at its s(t & gr[+ root-bulb1 b ! true sk9 is vigor\sly act$ on4 ,! fibres swell & absorb wat]1 s t ! hides become plump & swoll51 &1 at ! same "t1 ! cem5t-sub/ance 7cori97 is dissolv$1 ! fibres become diff]5tiat$ into f9] fibrils1 & ! fibrils !mselves become fir/ swoll5 & transp>5t1 & f9ally corrod$1 & ev5 dissolv$4 ,?is swell+ ( ! fibres is produc$ bo? by alkalies & acids1 & is probably due to weak comb9ations =m$ ) ! fibre-sub/ance1 :i* h great] aff9ities = wat] ?an ! unalt]$ hide4 ,x is useful to ! tann]1 s9ce x r5d]s ! hide easi] to fle% 7i4 e4 to free f ! adh]+ fle%71 on acc\nt ( ! great] firmness :i* x gives to ! true sk94 ,x also assi/s ! tann+1 by op5+ up ! fibre1 & s expos+ a great] surface4 ,?is is advantage\s 9 dress+ lea!r :i* is aft]w>ds tann$ 9 sweet liquors1 & mu/ h ! cem5t-sub/ance dissolv$ & remov$ = ! sake ( flexibility2 &1 9 ! case ( sole-lea!r1 x is necess>y = ! sake ( weight & firmness t ! hide be plump$2 b x is probable t ! effect is produc$ ) less loss ( sub/ance & solidity by suitable acidity ( ! liquors4 ,a m c]ta9 advantage ( lime is t x acts on ! fat ( ! hide1 conv]t+ x m or less completely into an insoluble soap1 & s h9d]+ its injuri\s effects on ! aft] tann+ process1 & on ! f9i%$ lea!r4 ,if /rong acids are us$ lat] on1 ?is lime soap is decompos$1 & ! grease is aga9 set free4 ,9 sweat$ or v l[-lim$ hides ?is grease is a =midable evil4 ,! cu/om>y me?od ( lim+ is simply to lay ! hides flat 9 milk ( lime 9 l>ge pits4 ,e day1 or ev5 twice a day1 ! hides are drawn out 7haul$71 & ! pit is well plung$ up1 to di/ribute ! undissolv$ lime ?r\gh ! liquor4 ,! hides are !n drawn 9 aga9 7set71 c>e be+ tak5 t !y are fully spread out4 ,h[ mu* lime is requir$ is d\btful1 b ow+ to its limit$ solubility1 an excess1 if well slak$1 is r wa/eful ?an injuri\s4 ,great diff]5ces exi/ 9 ! quantity ( ! lime us$1 ! "t giv51 & ! me?od ( work+4 ,lime1 z we h se5 7p4 #adj71 is only soluble to ! ext5t ( ab\t #abe grm4 p] litre1 or 7z #a cub4 ft4 ( wat] weighs ab\t #ajjj oz47 say #a-a_/d oz4 p] cub4 ft41 or1 9 an ord9>y lime-pit1 n m ?an #a_/d lb4 p] hide4 ,only ! lime 9 solution acts on ! hide1 b x is necess>y to provide a surplus ( solid lime :i* dissolves z t 9 ! liquor is consum$4 ,jackson ,s*ultz prescribes #a bu%4 7#ef lb47 ( fre% lime to #fj-gj hides1 & #c-d days z suffici5t "t to unhair & plump !m2 :ile a well-kn[n ,engli% tann] /ates t1 aft] work+ = #f-aj days ?r\gh a s]ies ( old limes1 ! hides 7presumably wet-salt$ ,s\? ,am]icans7 %\ld h #d days 9 a fre% lime1 made ) #c-ab lb4 ( lime p] hide4 ,x is obvi\s t if ! ,am]ican au?ority is "r1 ! ,engli% process is wa/eful 9 ! extreme1 bo? 9 hide-sub/ance & lime4 ,mu* dep5ds on ! am\nt ( haul+ :i* ! hides receive1 & ! m frequ5tly !y are mov$ ! bett]4 ,x is probable1 h[ev]1 t x w\ld be f\nd impossible to unhair & fle% hides1 to suit ! ,engli% m>ket1 9 cold limes ) ! quantity & "t m5tion$1 & if ! limes are /eam$1 x is q likely t ! de/ructive action on ! pelt may be ev5 great] ?an by ! long] & sl[] process 9 ! cold4 ,mo/ likely a compromise betwe5 ! two is ! mo/ desirable1 b ab\t #b-d lb4 ( lime p] hide1 accord+ to weight1 %\ld be amply suffici5t2 :ile a week = m>ket hides1 & #ad days = heavy salt$1 w loos5 ! hair & plump ! pelt z mu* z is requisite4 ,?is is on ! supposition t ! limes are kept at a uni=m av]age temp]ature ( ab\t #fj ,f4 7#ae ,c47 9 w9t] & summ]4 ,if !y are heat$ to #hj-ij ,f4 7#bg-cb ,c471 ( c\rse mu* less "t is requir$2 b !re are no publi%$ exp]im5ts %[+ ! relative weights made by ! two processes1 &1 f ! fact t w>m$ limes are pr9cipally us$ = descriptions ( lea!r :]e weight & solidity are n ( prim>y importance1 x may be conclud$ t1 9 ?is direction1 ! results are unsatisfactory4 ,hides d n plump 9 w>m limes4 ,ano!r undecid$ po9t is :e!r ! be/ results are obta9$ by mak+ fre% limes = e pack1 or by /r5g!n+ up ! old ones4 ,an old lime becomes *>g$ ) decompos+ animal matt] & ) ammonia1 &1 )9 limits1 loos5s ! hair m effectually ?an a new "o4 ,an exp]i5c$ tann] /ates t1 by us+ old limes1 bett] weights are obta9$1 b t ! lea!r is ?9n] ?an :5 a fre% portion ( lime is us$2 & ?is is q possible4 ,if1 h[ev]1 ! old lime-liquor be reta9$ too long1 x ceases to swell ! hides z x %\ld1 &1 9 w>m wea!r1 ! lim+ prop] is complicat$ by a putrefactive process alli$ 9 pr9ciple to sweat+4 ,beside consid]able quantities ( ammonia1 old limes conta9 tyros91 leuc9 or amidocaproic acid1 & "s caproic acid1 ! disagreeable goaty od\r ( :i* is v obvi\s on acidify+ an old lime-liquor ) sulphuric acid1 by :i* consid]able quantities ( a p>tially alt]$ gelat9 are at ! same "t precipitat$4 ,v old limes1 especially 9 hot wea!r1 (t5 conta9 active bact]ia1 :i* may be se5 9 ! microscope "u a good #a_/d-;94 objective4 ,_! pres5ce is always an indication t putrefaction is go+ =w>d1 & lea!r out ( su* limes w g5]ally prove loose & holl[-gra9$4 ,sph]ical concretions ( calcium c>bonate may also be se5 "u ! microscope1 resembl+ on a small] scale ^? f\nd 9 ,p]mian lime/one1 & caus$ p]haps 9 bo? cases by cry/allisation f a liquid conta9+ mu* organic matt]4 ,x is probable t 9 _m tann]ies ! ammonia w\ld pay = recov]y f ! lime-liquors1 :i* w\ld be easily done by /eam+ ! old limes 9 suitable vessels1 & cond5s+ ! ammoniacal vap\rs 9 dilute sulphuric acid4 7,"s appliances suitable = ?is purpose are describ$ 9 ! ,j\rnal ( ! ,soc4 ( ,*em4 ,indu/ry1 iii4 #fcj47 ,= me?ods ( e/imation ( ammonia1 see p4 #ajc4 ,sev]al v>iations 9 ! above-describ$ me?od ( lim+ h be5 propos$4 ,! hides may be susp5d$ on la?s1 or by /r+s atta*$ to pegs or not*es1 & ! liquor agitat$ by plung+ 9 place ( haul+4 ,probably ?is is an actual improvem5t1 especially if "s me*anical agitat+ contrivance be sub/itut$ = h& plung+4 ,x has1 h[ev]1 ! drawback t mu* room is requir$1 ?\gh ?is may be1 to "s ext5t1 comp5sat$ by ! hides lim+ m quickly4 ,! me?od has be5 long 9 use 9 ,am]ica1 & _h be5 tri$ 9 sev]al places 9 ,engl& be=e ! pat5t ( ,messrs4 ,cony]s & ,pulle9 0 obta9$4 ,two o!r ,am]ican lab\r-sav+ me?ods 9 connection ) lim+ may be m5tion$ "h4 ,"o is to h ! lim+-vat d\ble ! ord9>y size1 &1 in/ead ( haul+ ! hides1 to simply draw !m f "o side to ! o!r by two /r+s1 :i* are atta*$ to ! =e & h9d %ank ( ea* hide1 ei!r by %>p iron hooks or by loops4 ,! /r+s are loop$ ov] iron rods at ! f\r corn]s ( ! pit1 or h simple knots1 :i* are plac$ 9 not*es sawn 9 wood4 ,( c\rse1 :ile ! hides are at "o side ( ! pit1 ! o!r side may be plung$ or w>m$4 ,! o!r me?od 7,fig4 #bd7 is to h a sp9dle sunk bel[ ! surface ( ! liquor1 & ) discs ,a1 at ea* end1 to :i* ! hides or sides are atta*$ by hooks set r\nd ! edges4 ,! hides are turn$ ov] by revolv+ ! sp9dle ) a h&spike ins]t$ 9 ! holes ,c1 at ! ends ( ! cross-arms ,b1 & ! :ole sp9dle is also capable ( be+ rais$ & l[]$ 9 ! liquor1 9 ! slot ,d4 ,9 ,g]many1 hides are frequ5tly susp5d$ on la?s radiat+ f a c5tral upright revolv+ sp9dle 9 a r\nd vat 7,drehkalk74 ,an ,am]ican plan1 sometimes kn[n z ! ,buffalo me?od1 is describ$ by ,jackson ,s*ultz4 ,! hide is prep>$ 9 ! usual way1 & is !n ?r[n into a /rong lime = #h-aj h\rs1 :5 x is tak5 out & imm]s$ 9 wat] heat$ up to #aaj ,f4 7#dc ,c471 9 :i* x rema9s #bd-dh h\rs4 ,! w>m wat] soaks1 s(t5s1 & swells ! roots ( ! hair1 & mu* ! same result is obta9$ z 9 scald+ pigs4 ,s little lime really p]meates ! inn] fibre t1 aft] a slight :eel+1 ! hides may be ?r[n into cold wat]1 & all[$ to cool & plump1 prep>atory to tak+ _! places 9 ! h&l]s4 ,! process is /rongly recomm5d$ = sole-lea!r1 p>ticul>ly :]e great firmness ( fibre is desir$4 ,! tann] :o tries x mu/ be satisfi$ if he gets #bj-cj sides a man unhair$ & fully ready = ! liquor p] diem4 ,( c\rse ?is process may be v>i$ to any ext5t by giv+ m lim+1 & less hot wat]1 & ?is is frequ5tly done 9 ,am]ica4 ,ab\t #c-d days' cold lim+ 9 good limes1 & ) haul+ if possible twice daily1 foll[$ by #ab-bd h\rs 9 wat] at #hf-ie ,f4 7#cj-ce ,c471 :i* %\ld be *ang$ at lea/ once1 w give good results4 ,! hides are ( c\rse less plump ?an usual1 b if prop]ly manag$ 9 ! h&l]s w swell well 9 ! tan-h\se4 ,grease is obvi\sly less ?or\ghly kill$ ?an 9 ! ord9>y me?od1 & especial c>e mu/ be us$ t ! hides are well work$ on ! beam1 bo? on gra9 & fle%4 ,9 ?is me?od1 & inde$ 9 all lim+ processes1 mu* is ga9$ if ! fat c be fle%$ (f gre54 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bd4 ,on ! ,cont95t & 9 ,am]ica1 ! preval5t mode ( loos5+ ! hair1 at lea/ = sole-lea!r purposes1 is call$ sweat+1 & consi/s 9 induc+ an incipi5t putrefaction1 :i* attacks ! s(t p>ts ( ! epid]mis & root-%ea?s1 be=e mat]ially injur+ ! hide-sub/ance prop]4 ,! old ,european me?od ( w>m-sweat+ consi/$ simply 9 lay+ ! hides 9 pile1 &1 if necess>y1 9 supply+ heat by cov]+ !m ) f]m5t+ tan2 b z ?is crude & dang]\s process is ev]y:]e be+ supplant$ by ! ,am]ican plan1 :]e sweat+ at all is adh]$ to1 x is n necess>y to d m ?an describe ! latt]4 ,?is is call$ cold sweat+1 b really consi/s 9 hang+ ! hides 9 a moi/ *amb]1 kept at a uni=m temp]ature ( #fj-gj ,f4 7#ae-ba ,c472 or 9 "s cases slightly w>m]4 ,! sweat+-pit n[ 9 use is sometimes ( wood1 b usually consi/s ( a build+ ( brick or /one1 protect$ f *anges ( temp]ature1 bo? above1 & at ! sides1 by ?ick banks ( soil or sp5t tan4 ,if soil be us$1 x w =m an excell5t b$ = v9es1 c41 :i* are f]tilis$ by ! ammonia p5etrat+ f bel[1 :i* is evolv$ 9 l>ge quantities & :i* assi/s ! unhair+ process by its action on ! epid]mis4,s ,?\gh call$ a pit1 x is undesirable t x %\ld be actually bel[ ! level ( ! gr\nd1 b %\ld be arrang$ s t ! hides c be :eel$ 9 & out 9 b>r[s4 ,x is light$ & v5tilat$ by a lant]n ro( above a c5tral passage1 & %\ld be divid$ into *amb]s1 ea* capable ( susp5d+ a pack ( hides4 ,by means ( spr9kl]s above & /eam-pipes bel[1 ! *amb]s may be cool$ or w>m$1 z requir$1 & ! air kept s moi/ t globules ( cond5s$ wat] collect on all p>ts ( ! hides1 :i* are susp5d$ f t5t]hooks4 ,footnote ,s3 ,hides h be5 unhair$ by ! action ( gase\s ammonia alone1 b ! me?od does n seem suit$ = te*nical use4 ,! process is pr9cipally us$ 9 ,am]ica = dri$ hides1 b may be employ$ ei!r = wet or dry salt$1 aft] complete removal ( ! salt4 ,x is imp]atively necess>y t dri$ hides %\ld be completely s(t5$ be=e sweat+4 ,z ! sweat+ process advances m rapidly 9 ! upp] ?an 9 ! l[] "p ( ! pit1 & z ! ?ick portions are m resi/ant ?an ! ?9 ones1 ! hides1 aft] ab\t #c days' sweat+1 require con/ant att5tion 9 *ang+ _! positions1 & 9 *eck+ ! =w>d ones by tak+ d[n & lay+ 9 piles on ! bottom ( ! pit4 ,! usual treatm5t = sweat$ hides1 :5 ! hair is suffici5tly loos5$1 is to ?r[ !m into ! /ocks1 & "w out 9 ?is way ! slime & mo/ ( ! hair4 ,?is has ! disadvantage ( work+ out too mu* ( ! dissolv$ gelat91 & ( full+ ! hair s firmly into ! fle%1 t x is difficult aga9 to remove x4 ,to ov]come ^! evils1 "s ,am]ican tann]s n[ pass ! hides1 aft] sweat+1 ?r\gh a weak lime4 ,?is1 to a great ext5t1 prev5ts ! hair fix+ itself 9 ! fle%1 & t5ds to c\nt]act ! injuri\s effect ( ! vitriol 7:i* is almo/ inv>iably us$ 9 plump+ sweat /ock7 on ! col\r ( ! lea!r4 ,by ?is process1 #aj1jjj ,texas & ,new ,orleans wet-salt$ hides gave an av]age yield ( lea!r ( #gc p] c5t4 on _! gre5 weight1 & ! lea!r 0 excell5t 9 quality 7,s*ultz74 ,if sweat$ or v lightly lim$ hides are imp]fectly work$ on ! gra91 greasy spots are apt to rema91 :i* w n col\r 9 ! liquors 7:ite spots74 ,^! may be made to col\r by scrap+ & work+ ! gra9 ) a knife1 or by ! application ( a solution ( soda or soda a%1 & w\ld probably be avoid$ by ! use ( soda a% 9 ! soaks on greasy p>cels ( hides4 ,x mu/ be cle>ly und]/ood t all sweat+ dep5ds on p>tial putrefaction4 ,?is is prov$ bo? by ! pl5tiful production ( ammonia 9 ! pits1 & by ! fact t antiseptics1 su* z salt or c>bolic acid1 entirely prev5t sweat+ till !y are remov$4 ,al?\gh ! process und\bt$ly has advantages1 & especially s 9 ! treatm5t ( dri$ hides1 x is an op5 "q :e!r x gives ! extreme ga9s ov] lim+ 9 weight & firmness1 :i* are claim$ by "s ( its advocates4 ,an unhair+ process1 l>gely com+ into use on ! ,cont95t1 dep5ds on ! action ( alkal9e sulphides1 & p>ticul>ly sodium sulphide1 ^u ! hair4 ,:ile all ! me?ods already spok5 ( involve ! s(t5+ & de/ruction ( ! hair-%ea?s1 ei!r by lime or by putrefaction1 ! sulphides are peculi> 9 attack+ ! hair itself2 :5 /rong1 !y dis9tegrate x rapidly & completely into a sort ( pa/e4 ,f v e>ly times to ! pres5t day1 ars5ic sulphide 7rusma7 mix$ ) lime has be5 us$ 9 unhair+ sk9s = glove-lea!r & simil> purposes4 ,ab\t #ahdj1 ,bttg] conclud$ t ! efficacy ( ars5ic sulphide 0 due simply to ! sulphydrate ( lime =m$ by comb9ation ( ! sulphur ) ! lime1 & propos$ lime sulphydrate1 =m$ by pass+ sulphurett$ hydrog5 into milk ( lime1 z a sub/itute = ! poison\s & exp5sive ars5ic comp\nd4 ,x prov$ a mo/ effective depilatory1 b has nev] obta9$ mu* hold 9 practice4 ,?is is probably due to ! fact t x w n keep1 oxidis+ rapidly on exposure to ! air2 h5ce x mu/ be prep>$ z x is requir$1 :i* is bo? tr\blesome & exp5sive4 ,a m9or objection is ! unpleasant smell ( sulphurett$ hydrog51 :i* is insep>able f its use4 ,x 0 propos$ to replace x by sodium sulphide1 :i*1 ?\gh at fir/ said to be only effective :5 mix$ ) lime1 s z to produce calcic sulphide1 has s9ce prov$ a p[]ful depilatory alone4 ,its use has be5 greatly ext5d$ on ! "o h& by its production on a l>ge scale1 & 9 ! cry/allis$ =m 7at fir/ by r$uction ( sulphate by heat+ ) small coal71 & on ! o!r1 by ! great int]e/ :i* ,wilhelm ,eitn]1 ! able director ( ! ,au/rian ,imp]ial ,rese>* ,/ation = ! ,lea!r ,trades1 has tak5 9 its introduction4 ,! sub/ance1 z manufactur$ by ,de ,ha51 ( ,li/1 ,hanov]1 is 9 small cry/als1 col\r$ deep gre5i%-black1 by iron sulphide1 :i* mu/ h be5 held 9 susp5sion at ! "t ( cry/allisation4 ,if ! salt be dissolv$ 9 wat]1 & ! solution be all[$ to /&1 ?is is gradually deposit$ z a black s$im5t1 leav+ ! sup]natant liquor p]fectly cle> & col\rless4 ,sodium sulphide is n[ manufactur$ f tank wa/e 9 a mu* pur] =m by ,s*affn] & ,helbig's process1 ( :i* ,messrs4 ,gamble ( ,/4 ,hel5s are sole lic5cees4 ,! cry/allis$ salt is ,s,na#baj;,aq1 & !re=e conta9s #fih p] c5t4 ( wat]4 ,= sole-lea!r1 ! me?od recomm5d$ by ,eitn] is to dissolve #d-e lb4 ( sulphide p] gal4 ( wat]1 mak+ ! solution into a ?9 pa/e 7( s\py consi/5ce7 ) lime or pipe-clay4 ,?is is spread lib]ally on ! hair side ( ! hides1 "o man p\r+ x d[n ! middle ( ! hide f a pail1 :ile ano!r1 ) a mop or cane broom1 rubs x into e "p4 ,! hide is !n fold$ into a cu%ion1 & 9 #ae-bj h\rs w be ready = unhair+1 ! hair be+ r$uc$ to a pa/e4 ,9 ! writ]'s exp]i5ce1 ! conc5trat$ solution "h prescrib$ w completely de/roy all hair wett$ ) x 9 #b-c h\rs1 & if left on long]1 w produce blui% pat*es1 & r5d] ! gra9 v t5d]4 ,! hides %\ld be ?r[n into wat] be=e unhair+1 to enable !m to plump1 & to wa% (f ! sulphide1 :i* is v cau/ic1 attack+ ! sk9 & nails ( ! workm54 ,!re is no d\bt t ?is process gives good weight1 & t\gh & solid lea!r2 b !re are sev]al difficulties att5d+ its use4 ,unless ! mopp+ is done ) great c>e1 x w fail to completely de/roy ! hair1 & ! pat*es ( %ort hair left are v difficult to remove4 ,! exp5se ( ! mat]ial & ! loss ( hair are also important consid]ations4 ,! hides are r difficult to fle%1 unless previ\sly plump$ by a light lim+1 & x is necess>y to swell !m ) acid or s\r liquor 9 ! tanh\se1 z ! sulphide has b little plump+ effect4 ,ano!r me?od1 :i* is mu* *eap] 9 lab\r & easi] 9 execution1 is to susp5d 9 a solution ( sodium sulphide1 conta9+ #c_/d lb4 a hide or upw>ds2 ! hide %\ld unhair 9 #bd h\rs4 ,v weak solutions loos5 ! hair1 )\t de/roy+ x2 b x is always weak5$1 z ! specific action ( ! sulphides is on ! hair itself4 ,aft] or be=e unhair+1 ! hides may receive a light lim+1 to plump !m1 or lime may be add$ to ! solution ( sulphide1 :i* by =m+ calcium sulphide1 & lib]at+ cau/ic soda1 consid]ably increases ! unhair+ & plump+ effect4 ,! pit may be sev]al times /r5g!n$ = successive packs1 b ! loos5$ hair mu/ be fi%$ out1 or x w quickly spoil ! solution4 ,:5 hides h be5 susp5d$ 9 sodium sulphide solution1 ! hair is v quickly loos5$ by a %ort lim+4 ,squire1 ,claus1 & ,j4 ,palm] h all tak5 out pat5ts = ! use ( tank-wa/e z a depilatory4 ,x consi/s ( impure calcium sulphides1 & :5 br\ght into ! =m ( soluble sulphydrate1 ei!r by boil+ 9 wat]1 or by ! oxidis+ action ( ! air1 x w unhair hides4 ,! conv]sion is1 h[ev]1 v imp]fect 9 ei!r case1 & its action is unc]ta9 & sl[2 :ile ! iron pres5t is apt to cause unsightly /a9s4 ,x is probable t ! weights obta9$ may some:at exce$ ^? by lim+4 ,palm] employs sulphuric acid to plump ! hide & remove /a9s1 & !n r$uces x by a bate ( :it+ & wat]4 ,he claims t ?is prep>es ! hide = rapid & heavy tann+1 b ! swell+ & subsequ5t r$uction almo/ c]ta9ly entail loss ( weight & quality1 & to get good results ! bate %\ld at mo/ only be all[$ to h a sup]ficial effect4 ,pr(essor ,lufk9 propos$ ! use ( a mixture ( v>i\s sulphides ( lime & soda1 =m$ by mix+ #aj lb4 ea* ( soda a% & sulphur1 knead+ to a pa/e ) a little moi/ slak$ & !n mix+ w>m 9 a cask ) #hj lb4 /one lime slak$ to a pa/e4 ,?is quantity w unhair #ej hides 9 ! same way & 9 ab\t ! same "t z an ord9>y lime4 ,! pelt is n mu* plump$ & is easily r$uc$ by a few m9utes' :eel+ 9 w>m wat]4 7,j4 ,s4 ,s*ultz47 ,v>i\s o!r depilatories h be5 propos$1 b z !y h n come into g5]al use1 brief m5tion ( ! mo/ important w suffice4 ,&]son1 9 #ahga1 pat5t$ ! use ( wood-*>coal1 appli$ 9 a simil> mann] to lime 9 ! ord9>y process4 ,! hair is probably loos5$ simply by putrefaction1 z 9 sweat+1 :ile ! *>coal acts z a deodoris]1 v little smell be+ produc$1 & ! action proce$+ ) consid]able uni=mity4 ,john ,palm] has pat5t$ a process = unhair+1 9 :i* ! hides are alt]nately /eep$ 9 wat] & expos$ to ! air till ! hair loos5s4 ,9 ?is1 v simil> pr9ciples to ^? ( ! *>coal me?od are involv$4 ,cau/ic pota% & soda w loos5 hair1 b seem to h no decid$ advantage ov] lime1 ?\gh x is q possible t 9 skilful h&s good results might be obta9$4 ,!y are m co/ly1 & _! corrod+ action on ! hide-sub/ance is m p[]ful1 b !y =m soluble soaps ) ! grease ( ! hide4 ,unless us$ 9 v dilute solution1 ! pelt is s swoll5 z to fix ! hair1 & ! lea!r is d>k-col\r$ & spongy4 ,soda-a% or cry/als 7sodic c>bonate7 may be us$ to /r5g!n ord9>y limes1 9 :i* cau/ic soda is =m$4 ,! "t ( lim+ is %ort5$1 ! hides are m swoll51 & ! grease is bett] kill$ ?an :5 lime alone is us$4 ,! pat5t = ,moret's ,in(f5sive claim$ ! use ( ! c>bonate or cau/ic pota% =m$ f calc9$ wool-wa%+s1 = unhair+4 ,?is is m co/ly ?an1 & has no advantage ov] soda4 ,i am n aw>e :e!r ,in(f5sive1 z n[ sold1 has o!r con/itu5ts4 ,:atev] me?od ( loos5+ ! hair may be adopt$1 ! next /ep is to remove x by me*anical means4 ,?is is usually accompli%$ by ?r[+ ! hide ov] a slop+ beam1 & scrap+ x ) a blunt two-h&l$ knife 7,fig4 #be71 ! workman pu%+ ! hair d[nw>ds & away f him4 ,! beam is n[ usually made ( metal4 ,! knife employ$ is also %[n at ,c1 ,fig4 #bf4 ,:5 a hide is lightly lim$1 x is (t5 easy to remove ! long hair1 b excessively difficult to get rid ( ! %ort "u-coat ( "y hairs1 :i* are f\nd 9 spr+1 & :i* c sometimes only be remov$ by ! dang]\s exp$i5t ( %av+ ) a %>p knife4 ,! reason ( ?is difficulty is obvi\s3 n only d ! %ort hairs (f] v little hold to ! unhair+ knife1 b1 z has be5 expla9$ 9 describ+ ! anatomical /ructure ( ! sk91 _! roots are actually deep] seat$ ?an ^? ( ! old hairs !y replace4 ,sev]al attempts h be5 made to unhair by ma*9]y1 b s f> )\t su* success z to lead to _! g5]al adoption4 ,! fle%+-ma*9e inv5t$ by ,g>ric & ,t]son1 & manufactur$ 9 ?is c\ntry by ,t4 ,haley & ,co41 ( ,bramley 7,fig4 #bg71 is furni%$ ) a special :eel = unhair+4 ,an ,am]ican ma*9e = ! purpose1 inv5t$ by ,j4 ,w4 ,macdonald1 & said to be capable ( unhair+ #hjj sides a day1 is %[n 9 ,fig4 #bh4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #be4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bf4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bg4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bh4 ,:5 ! hair is v ?or\ghly loos5$1 z by sweat+1 or de/roy$1 z by sodium sulphide1 x is n uncommon to "w x (f by friction 9 ! /ocks2 b x is v d\btful :e!r ! sav+ ( lab\r is n m ?an comp5sat$ by ! loss ( weight1 consequ5t ^u submitt+ ! hide :ile its gelat9 is 9 a p>tially dissolv$ condition1 to su* r\gh usage4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bi4 ,aft] unhair+1 ! loose fle% & fat are remov$ f ! inn] side ( ! hide by a %>p-edg$ knife ,e 7,fig4 #bf71 p>tly by bru%+ or scrap+1 p>tly by p>+4 ,x is necess>y n only to cut (f ! visible adh]+ fat1 b to "w ! hide well1 s z to =ce out t conta9$ 9 ! loose areol> tissue1 :i* w\ld n only imp$e tann+1 b is liable to soak completely ?r\gh ! hide1 produc+ mo/ unsightly blot*es4 ,sev]al ma*9es h be5 introduc$ to sup]s$e h&-fle%+1 b ) only p>tial success4 ,"o ( ! be/ is ,g>ric & ,t]son's ma*9e 7,fig4 #bg71 :i* gives a v level fle%1 free f galls1 & )\t s mu* loss ( weight1 b sc>cely s clean z desirable1 :ile ! sav+ 9 lab\r is n great4 ,mol9i]'s ma*9e 7,fig4 #bi71 & t ( ,jones & ,rocke1 are well adapt$ = sk9s1 b h>dly capable ( fle%+ an entire hide4 ,all ^! ma*9es are v simil> 9 pr9ciple1 ! work+ p>ts consi/+ ( drums ) oblique or spiral knives4 ,:5 unhair$ & fle%$1 ! hides int5d$ = sole-lea!r are1 9 ,engl&1 almo/ inv>iably r\nd$1 or sep>at$ into 7#a7 butts1 :i* are ! be/ & ?icke/ p>ts1 & receive ! mo/ solid tannage1 & 7#b7 (fal1 :i* is ?9n]1 & = :i* a *eap] & m rapid tannage is suffici5t4 ,fig4 #cj %[s ! cu/om>y division4 ,frequ5tly ! butt is divid$ d[n ! c5tre1 & ! halves are !n call$ b5ds4 ,a piece call$ a middle is sometimes tak5 betwe5 ! butt & ! %\ld]4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cj4 ,aft] r\nd+1 x is necess>y to get rid ( ! lime1 z completely z possible1 be=e tak+ into ! tan-h\se4 ,= ?is purpose1 ! butts are usually susp5d$ 9 fre% wat] = #ab-bd h\rs1 & frequ5tly %ak5 up 9 x to remove adh]+ lime & dirt4 ,if ! wat] is h>d1 x is be/ to add to x1 be=e putt+ 9 ! butts1 a few pailfuls ( cle> lime-wat]1 to precipitate ! lime bic>bonate1,t :i* w\ld o!rwise cause a deposit ( *alk on ! surface ( ! butts2 ?is w\ld n only make ! gra9 h>%1 b aft]w>ds1 by comb9+ ) ! tann9 ( ! liquors1 w\ld cause bad col\r4 ,= ! same reasons1 x is important t limey hides %\ld be z little expos$ to ! air z possible1 z ! latt] always conta9s a small am\nt ( c>bonic acid1 :i* r5d]s ! lime insoluble4 ,footnote ,t3 ,lime s(t5s wat] conta9+ lime bic>bonate 9 solution by comb9+ ) half ! c>bonic acid1 :5 ! :ole is precipitat$ z normal c>bonate or *alk4 ,ca,o ,ca,c,o#c 4 ,h#b;,,co#c #b;,ca,c,o#c ,,oh#b4 ,?is is ,cl>k's process4 ,see also p4 #hd4 ,?is susp5sion 9 wat] is frequ5tly consid]$ suffici5t = sole-lea!r1 b x removes ! lime v imp]fectly4 ,9 old5 days1 x 0 cu/om>y n only to wa% ! hides mu* m ?or\ghly 9 wat]1 b to scud !m 7i4e4 "w !m ov] ) a blunt knife71 to remove lime1 & ! detritus ( hair-roots & fat-gl&s1 & ?is %\ld nev] be omitt$ f sole-lea!r treatm5t :]e bright col\r & clean buff are desir$4 ,"s tann]s g s f> z to bate be/ butts slightly ) h5-dung1 b ) su* treatm5t firmness & weight are lo/4 ,wa%+ 9 weak solution ( sug>1 or ammonic *loride or sulphate1 or ( sulphuric1 or hydro*loric acid1 may be adopt$4 ,x is ess5tial to use acids ne>ly free f iron1 z x may be precipitat$ on ! butts & give a blui% col\r 9 ! liquors1 & ! acid mu/ be ( su* a /r5g? z nei!r to all[ ! iron to be precipitat$1 nor1 on ! o!r h&1 p]ceptibly to plump ! butts1 :i* 9 ?is /age w\ld endang] buff & col\r4 #ajj cc4 may neutralise #ae-bj cc4 ( lime-wat] = ?is purpose4 ,hydro*loric acid & *lorides h a t5d5cy to prev5t plump+1 & are !re=e bett] adapt$ = dress+ ?an = sole lea!r4 ,great c>e mu/ also be tak5 to prev5t putrefaction1 or ! use ( putrid solutions1 if firmness & plumpness are desir$4 ,,*apt] ,,ix4 ,,sole-,,lea!r4--,tann+ ,mat]ials4 ,be=e describ+ ! managem5t ( ! hides 9 ! tan-h\se1 x is necess>y to say a few words ab\t "o or two ( ! pr9cipal mat]ials us$1 & ! me?ods ( prep>+ !m = use4 ,fur!r details ( _! nature & orig9 h be5 giv5 9 ! section on ,tann9s1 p4 #bc4 ,oak-b>k is "o ( ! olde/ ( tann+ mat]ials1 & ! lea!r produc$ by its aid is /ill consid]$ = _m purposes ! be/4 ,= sole-lea!r1 its weakness 9 tann9 7#h-ab p] c5t471 ! sl[ness ( its action1 & ! light weight ( ! lea!r produc$1 r5d] x unavailable alone except = ! v f9e/ class ( "w4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 g5]ally us$ 9 admixture ) /rong] & *eap] mat]ials1 su* z valonia4 ,valonia1 ! acorn-cup ( an ev]gre5 oak gr[+ 9 ,greece & ! ,levant1 is p]haps ! mo/ important ( mat]ials to ! ,engli% sole-lea!r tann]4 ,x conta9s #be-ce p] c5t4 ( a tann9 some:at simil> to oak-b>k1 &1 l x1 communicat+ a light-col\r$ bloom to ! lea!r1 b giv+ mu* great] firmness & weight1 & a br[n] col\r4 ,myrabolanes or myrobalans1 ! fruit ( an ,indian %rub1 conta9s ab\t z l>ge a p]c5tage ( tann9 z valonia1 & gives a simil> bloom1 & excell5t col\r2 b x c only be us$ v sp>+ly on butts1 s9ce x produces a s(t & por\s lea!r4 ,divi-divi is a ,s\? ,am]ican bean1 :i* conta9s mu* ( a br[n tann9 9 ! pod1 be+ consid]ably /rong] ?an valonia4 ,x makes a heavy & solid1 b some:at horny lea!r4 ,its great dang] arises f a t5d5cy to sudd5 f]m5tation 9 ?und]y wea!r1 :i*1 produces br[n or r$ /a9s on ! lea!r4 ,at all times x is liable to give a blui% or violet col\r1 :i* is mo/ obvi\s 9 ! int]ior ( ! lea!r1 & :i* resi/s bo? acids & alkalies4 ,mimosa-b>k is ! product ( sev]al ,au/ralian acacias1 & is probably ne>ly z /rong z valonia4 ,x gives a h>d & heavy lea!r1 b ( a d>k-r$ col\r4 ,hemlock-extract is a deep-r$ syrupy extract ( ! b>k ( ! hemlock p9e ( ,am]ica4 ,*e/nut-extract is a simil> product f ! rasp$ wood ( ! ,spani% *e/nut4 ,its col\r is pal] & yell[] ?an t ( ! hemlock1 & h5ce x is (t5 employ$ to correct ! r$ tone produc$ by ! latt]4 ,oakwood extract is an analog\s prep>ation f oak saw-du/4 ,gr9d+ & ,exhau/ion ( ,tann+ ,mat]ials4 ,be=e tann+ mat]ials c be exhau/$1 x is almo/ inv>iably necess>y to cru% or gr9d !m1 s z to enable ! wat] to get freely at ! tann91 :i*1 9 mo/ cases1 is enclos$ 9 ! cellul> tissue ( ! plant4 ,x may be ?\ght t = ?is purpose x w\ld sc>cely be possible to cru% too f9ely1 b 9 practice1 a v f9e p[d] is extremely difficult to sp5d1 z x cakes into compact & clay-l masses1 ?r\gh :i* liquor w n p]colate4 ,! object1 !re=e1 is to gr9d f9ely en\gh to all[ ! liquor ready access to ! int]ior1 b n s f9ely z to prev5t liquids runn+ ?r\gh ! mass4 ,! mill mo/ usually employ$ = ?is purpose consi/s ( a too!d cone1 work+ inside ano!r cone1 also too!d on its int]ior1 precisely l ^? ( a c(fee-mill4 ,z b>k is frequ5tly deliv]$ unhat*$1 or 9 long pieces1 x is necess>y to cru% x prep>atory to gr9d+1 & ?is is usually accompli%$ by roll]s compos$ ( too!d discs1 call$ break]s4 ,9 ,fig4 #ca is illu/rat$ su* a mill1 z made by ,newall & ,b>k]1 ( ,w>r+ton1 comb9+ bo? ut5sils4 ,fig4 #cb %[s a section ( ! well-kn[n ,am]ican key/one mill1 9 :i* ! prelim9>y break+ is accompli%$ by ! arms ,a2 ! b>k is !n f9ely gr\nd by ! too!d cones ,n1 & dis*>g$ at ! sp\t ,r by ! revolv+ %ov] ,m4 ,fig4 #cc %[s a some:at simil> mill1 made by ,gls] ( ,vi5na1 9 :i* ! axis is horizontal1 & driv5 directly by a belt4 ,x is bett] to drive b>k-mills by a belt ?an by too!d ge>+1 z 9 ev5t ( iron gett+ into !m !re is less dang] ( breakage4 ,9 ,am]ica1 a *eap ca/-iron c\pl+ is frequ5tly us$1 weak en\gh to give way be=e s]i\s damage is done4 ,safety friction clut*es are g5]ally ineffective4 ,am]ican b>k-mills are run fa/] ?an ,engli%1 up to ab\t #hj rev4 p] m9ute1 & :]e ! b>k is to be us$ imm$iately x is frequ5tly damp$ by a small jet ( /eam bel[ ! mill1 :i* lays du/1 & prev5ts dang] ( fire4 ,b>k :i* is damp be=e gr9d+ c sc>cely be gr\nd 9 ^! too!d mills1 b mu/ be dri$1 or a dis9tegrator us$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ca4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cb4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cc4 ,n[ t a l>ge v>iety ( o!r mat]ials besides b>k are requir$ by tann]s1 ! mills j describ$ are n always suffici5t = ! purpose4 ,myrobalans & mimosa-b>k h prov$ specially tr\blesome1 ! =m] f its v h>d /ones & clogg+ "*1 & ! latt] f its comb9$ h>dness & t\ghness4 ,dis9tegrators ( v>i\s makes h prov$ admirably adapt$ = gr9d+ bo? ( ^! mat]ials1 _! advantage be+ ! univ]sality ( _! r$uc+ p[]s1 rang+ f oak-b>k to bones or brick-du/1 & _! disadvantages1 ! some:at consid]able p[] !y consume1 & ! r l>ge portion ( f9e du/ !y make4 ,_! pr9ciple is t ( knock+ ! mat]ial to p[d] by rapidly revolv+ beat]s1 :i*1 9 ! small] mills1 are driv5 at s high a spe$ z #bejj-cjjj rev4 a m9ute4 ,wilson's is %[n 9 ,fig4 #cd1 z an example4 ,x is "o ( ! olde/ tann]s' dis9tegrators1 & probably /ill "o ( ! be/4 ,9 ! figure1 x is op5$1 %[+ ! disc ) its /eel beat]s atta*$4 ,:5 myrobalans are only requir$ r\ghly cru%$1 a ma*9e ) flut$ or too!d roll]s 7,fig4 #ce7 acts bett] ?an a dis9tegrator1 mak+ less du/1 & requir+ less p[]4 ,su* a ma*9e also cru%es valonia v satisfactorily4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cd4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ce4 ,9 ,engl&1 ! tann+ mat]ial is g5]ally c>ri$ f ! mill1 to ! pits :]e x is exhau/$1 9 baskets or b>r[s2 9 ,am]ica1 ?is is frequ5tly accompli%$ by a conductor1 or horizontal sp\t1 9 :i* a d\ble belt1 or malleable iron drive *a91,u ) wood5 cross-pieces1 c>ries ! b>k =w>d1 on ! same pr9ciple z ! elevators ( corn-mills4 ,fig4 #cf %[s ! conveyors us$ 9 a ,*icago tann]y4 ,ano!r ,am]ican plan is to use circul> tubs = extraction4 ,^! are m\nt$ on :eels1 & are work$ on a railway1 com+ up to ! mill to be fill$1 & !nce "u a s]ies ( spr9kl]s l ^? us$ by brew]s1 & f9ally dump+ _! cont5ts be=e ! boil]s1 :i* are heat$ solely by wet b>k1 burnt 9 a peculi> furnace ) brick *amb]s4 ,?is furnace = burn+ wet b>k seems wor?y ( ext5d$ adoption 9 ,europe1 z sp5t tan is frequ5tly n only valueless1 b co/ly to get rid (4 ,full details & scale draw+s may be f\nd 9 ,jackson ,s4 ,s*ultz's book on ',lea!r ,manufacture' & 9 ,fig4 #cg is %[n a modification ( x1 pat5t$ by ,huxham & ,br[n1 :i* has be5 v successfully us$ 9 burn+ wet tan1 ei!r alone or ) a portion ( coal4 ,9 ,am]ican sole-lea!r tann]ies1 :]e ! b>k is res9\s & almo/ unlimit$ 9 quantity1 suffici5t /eam may be rais$ ) tan wet f ! lea*es2 b 9 ,engl&1 :]e mat]ial is m sp>+ly us$1 x is advisable p>tially to dry x be=e burn+4 ,?is is accompli%$ by p[]ful roll]-presses1 z %[n 9 ,fig4 #ch4 ,gls]1 ( ,vi5na1 con/ructs tan-burn+ furnaces on a diff]5t pr9ciple f ! ,am]ican1 ! ess5tial po9t be+ ! use ( a ladd]-grate 7,trepp5ro/71 on :i* ! burn+ tan is expos$ to a draught ( air play+ ov] its surface4 ,fig4 #ci %[s a portable /ove ( ?is con/ruction4 ,gls] also makes furnaces ( l>g] size = heat+ air = dry+-rooms1 & = boil] purposes4 ,! ess5tials ( successful tan-burn+ are good draught1 a l>ge grate-surface1 & a high temp]ature ( ! combu/ion-*amb]1 & h5ce ! ord9>y ,corni% or ,lanca%ire boil]1 ) its limit$ grate-area1 surr\nd$ by ! comp>atively cool boil]-tube1 is peculi>ly ill-adapt$ = ! purpose4 ,! writ] has pr(itably burnt a mixture ( wet tan & v small coal 9 su* a boil] by ! aid ( a /eam-jet "u-grate bl[]1 b su* a me?od c only be reg>d$ z a make%ift 9 default ( bett] appliances4 ,footnote ,u3 ,su* *a9s ) atta*m5ts = elevators & convey]s1 are manufactur$ 9 ?is c\ntry by ,ley's ,malleable ,ca/+ ,company1 9 ,d]by4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cf4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cg ,9 ,engl&1 ! tann+ mat]ial is usually exhau/$ 9 pits call$ lea*es1 lat*es1 or taps4 ,^!1 9 l>ge y>ds1 are made capable ( hold+ ab\t #ej cwt4 ( mat]ial4 ,! new mat]ial is fir/ flood$ ) a pretty /rong liquor4 ,:5 ?is has ga9$ z mu* /r5g? z possible1 x is pump$ (f1 & is foll[$ by a weak] "o1 & s on till ! mat]ial is exhau/$4 ,mu* ( ! economy ( a tan-y>d dep5ds on ! way1 sy/ematic or o!rwise1 9 :i* ?is is done4 ,x is cu/om>y to complete ! exhau/ion ) hot liquors1 or wat]1 b op9ions diff] on ! exp$i5cy ( ! practice4 ,by ! use ( heat1 h[ev]1 /rong] liquors & m rapid sp5d+ are atta9$2 & ) "s mat]ials1 su* z mimosa1 complete exhau/ion is impossible 9 ! cold4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ch4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ci4 ,! wor/ tap is frequ5tly boil$ by ins]t+ a /eam-pipe2 b if heat is us$ at all1 x w\ld probably be bett] to heat a /rong liquor by a /eam-coil1 & run x on ! new mat]ial1 :i* w\ld be s(t5$ & swoll51 & yield a mu* l>g] proportion ( its /r5g? to ! fir/ liquor2 :ile x is /at$ by ,eitn] t ! col\r+ matt]s ( tann+ mat]ials are mu* less soluble 9 /rong ?an 9 weak infusions4 ,boil+ weak old liquors conta9+ lime is specially prejudicial1 caus+ great d>k5+ & discoloration4 ,c>eful tann]s also ca/ _! mat]ial ov] f "o pit into ano!r1 be=e ?r[+ away1 s z to light5 x up1 & all[ ! liquor to p5etrate to e "p4 ,9 b>k-y>ds1 lat*es are frequ5tly work$ 9 s]ies1 :i* are connect$ by pipes1 s t ! liquor fl[s f ! bottom ( "o ^u ! top ( ! next /rong]4 ,?is is an excell5t plan = b>k1 :i* is op5 & por\s1 b is sc>cely adapt$ to su* mat]ials z valonia or myrabolans1 :i* h a t5d5cy to =m compact masses1 ?r\gh :i* ! liquor does n circulate4 ,! same objection1 9 an almo/ high] degree1 mu/ be urg$ aga9/ ! ,all5 & ,w>r51 or spr9kl] lea*1 9 :i* ! liquor1 di/ribut$ on ! surface by a rot>y spr9kl]1 is all[$ to p]colate d[nw>ds1 & run freely away at ! bottom4 ,9 ?is case1 x is almo/ sure to =m *annels1 in/ead ( fl[+ uni=mly1 &1 9 addition1 ! mat]ial is con/antly expos$ to ! action ( ! air1 :i* causes oxidation1 ) its att5dant discoloration & loss ( tann94 ,v>i\s attempts h be5 made to exhau/ tann+ mat]ials 9 clos$ vessels4 ,dr4 ,kohlraus* appli$ ! diffuseur us$ 9 extract+ beet-root sug>1 & :i* consi/s ( a s]ies ( clos$ copp] vessels 9 :i* ! co>sely gr\nd mat]ial is plac$1 ( :i* ! bottom ( "o is connect$ ) ! top ( ! next by a pipe1 ?r\gh :i* ! liquor is =c$ by /eam pressure4 ,?is app>atus is 9 use at ! l>ge tann]y ( ,g]h>dus1 ,fles*1 & ,co41 ( ,vi5na1 & is said to give satisfaction1 ?\gh x is v co/ly1 & ! liquors produc$ are n ( great /r5g?4 ,gls]1 ( ,vi5na1 has pat5t$ an app>atus ( :i* a model is illu/rat$ 9 ,fig4 #dj1 9 :i* ! mat]ials are us$ f9ely p[d]$1 & v rapidly exhau/$ by ! comb9$ action ( heat & me*anical agitation4 ,( its me*anism ,i h n be5 able to obta9 any detail$ description1 b x is said to be capable ( exhau/+ #i tons ( valonia p] diem1 to #b p] c5t41 giv+ only #gj liquors1 cle> & ( good col\r1 :ile good b>k is exhau/$ to #je p] c5t4 giv+ #cj liquors4 ,! co/ ( ! app>atus is v heavy1 b if ! results claim$ are realis$ 9 practice x w\ld pay well = an ext5sive tann]y4 ,i h n be5 able to asc]ta9 :]e x is to be se5 9 use4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dj4 ,x is "o ( ! great attractions ( extracts t !y avoid almo/ all ! exp5se & lab\r insep>able f ! exhau/ion ( o!r tann+ mat]ials4 ,x is usually necess>y to dissolve ! fluid extracts 9 wat] or liquor ( z high a temp]ature z has be5 employ$ 9 _! prep>ation1 z o!rwise1 f "s unexpla9$ *emical *ange1 a l>ge portion ( ! tann9 is precipitat$1 probably z an anhydride ( ! tann94 ,gambi] is usually dissolv$ by boil+ or /eam+1 b is said to give a bett] col\r :5 dissolv$ cold4 ,?is may be accompli%$ 9 a rotat+ lattic$ drum1 sunk 9 a pit ( liquor4 ,:]e circum/ances p]mit1 x is a great advantage to place ! taps ei!r on a high] or a l[] level ?an ! lay]s & h&l]s1 s t liquors may be run "o way )\t pump+4 ,,*apt] ,x4 ,,sole-,,lea!r4--,treatm5t 9 ! ,tan-h\se4 ,on fir/ com+ into ! y>d1 ! butts are usually susp5d$ by ! %\ld] or butt ends f /icks plac$ across ! pits4 ,!y %\ld be kept 9 almo/ con/ant movem5t1 ei!r by rais+ & %ak+ !m by h&1 or by support+ !m on frames1 :i* are rock$1 or o!rwise work$4 ,p]haps ! be/ device = ?is purpose is ! travell+ h&l] ( ,w4 ,n4 ,evans1 :i* consi/s ( a frame support$ on :eels1 & work$ sl[ly backw>ds & =w>ds by p[]4 ,?is frame %\ld ext5d ! l5g? ( a range ( pits suffici5t to take 9 at lea/ a #c days' /ock ( butts1 :i* %\ld be ti$ to /icks re/+ crossways ^u x4 ,x %\ld h a /roke ( #a-b ft41 repeat$1 say #f times a m9ute4 ,! p[] requir$ is v small4 ,! ,am]ican rock] consi/s ( a wood5 frame balanc$ on its c5tre1 & made to oscillate by p[]4 ,x is a *eap & effici5t ma*9e1 its defects be+ t ! butts at ! ends are mu* m mov$ ?an ^? 9 ! c5tre1 & t _! upp] p>ts1 be+ lift$ out ( ! liquor1 are liable to become black5$4 ,! susp5d] pits %\ld be suppli$ ) old h&l] liquors1 :i*1 if ! tannage is a mix$ "o1 may range f #ab to #bj b>komet]1 z a l>ge proportion ( ! weight consi/s only ( lime-salts1 gallic acid1 & o!r wor?less products4 ,x mu/ "h be expla9$ t ! b>komet] 7also call$ b>kromet] or b>ktromet]7 is a hydromet]1 graduat$ to %[ ! sp4 gr4 ?us--#bj ,b>k4 #ajbj sp4 gr4 ,9 us+ x ! temp]ature ( ! liquor mu/ be at or ne> #fj ,f4 7#ae ,c474 ,x is1 ( c\rse1 affect$ by any o!r matt]s 9 solution1 precisely ! same z by tann9s4 ,9 ! ,l[lights ,tann]y ! wa/e liquors are con/antly ab\t #ab ,b>k41 & conta9 tann9 equal to less ?an #jb p] c5t4 7express$ z cry/al oxalic acid71 & gallic acid & simil> matt]s equal to ,o#f to #jg p] c5t4 ,if ! tannage is pure b>k1 x may p]haps be advisable to let ! /r5g? be some:at less1 b some?+ dep5ds on :e!r ! exhau/$ liquors are return$ ) all _! impurities to ! taps or liquor-brew+ pits1 or :e!r ! liquors are made ) wat]1 & h5ce pur]4 ,9 any case1 ! free acid 9 ! susp5d]s %\ld always be suffici5t 9 quantity to neutralise ! lime br\ght 9 by ! butts1 or bad col\r w c]ta9ly result1 mak+ itself visible 9 ! %$1 or z ! tann+ proce$s4 ,if ! butts1 :5 fir/ br\ght into liquor1 take a lemon-yell[ col\r1 especially 9 places t h be5 imp]fectly expos$ to x1 ?is is an indication ( dang] :i* mu/ n be disreg>d$4 ,x may be met ei!r by cleans+ ! butts m ?or\ghly be=e br++ into ! y>d1 or by add+ acid 7acetic1 hydro*loric1 or sulphuric7 to ! liquor4 ,if ?is be done1 great c>e mu/ be tak5 n to ov]-d x1 & an acid free f iron mu/ be us$4 ,! use ( sulphur\s acid = ! purpose has be5 pat5t$1 & pres5ts "s advantages4 ,sulphites h be5 obs]v$ by ! writ] to give a p9k or purple reaction ev5 ) v dilute infusions ( valonia 7see p4 #aab72 b any coloration f ?is cause w\ld probably disappe> z ! tannage proce$s4 ,! difficulty c1 h[ev]1 (t5 be rem$i$1 ei!r by alt]+ ! way ( work+ ! liquors1 s z to br+ m s\r liquor d[n to ! susp5d]s1 or by us+ a l>g] proportion ( mat]ials capable ( yield+ acetic acid by f]m5tation1 su* z myrobalans4 ,x is a common error to call all ! free acid ( s\r liquors gallic1 z ?is is sc>cely pres5t 9 pure b>k-y>ds1 & at ! be/ is a v feeble acid4 ,! mo/ abundant acid is usually acetic1 ?\gh butyric1 lactic1 & o!r acids are frequ5tly pres5t 9 v>y+ proportions1 accord+ to ! tann+ mat]ials employ$4 ,9 ! ,engli% process1 ) its comp>atively %ort lay]s1 9 :i* ! butts almo/ float 9 /rong liquors1 b little s\r+ takes place1 & we h no?+ comp>able to ! ,g]man s\r b>k & s\r liquor f long lay]s ) weak liquor1 & mu* du/y mat]ial4 ,^! conta9 l>ge quantities ( acetic & lactic acids1 & plump almo/ l vitriol4 ,?\gh ! ,am]ican tann]s g5]ally use ! latt]1 _! hemlock liquors s\r mu* m int5sely ?an ^? ( ,engli% y>ds4 ,x mu/ always be borne 9 m9d1 9 comp>+ ,engli% ) ,am]ican & ,cont95tal tann+1 t1 9 ! fir/1 ! op5+ up ( ! fibre is effect$ by lime1 & ! swell+ is ma9ta9$ 9 ! liquors1 n s mu* by acids1 :i* are only pres5t 9 v small proportion1 z by ! c>eful & gradual work+ =w>d into infusions /rong] & /rong] 9 tann92 :ile 9 ! two latt]1 lime1 if us$ at all1 is simply employ$ to loos5 ! hair1 & ! swell+ & diff]5tiation ( ! fibre is fir/ accompli%$ 9 ! liquors ei!r by vegetable or m9]al acids4 ,h5ce good results _c be expect$ 9 ,engli% y>ds f su* processes z sweat+ or pa9t+ ) sodium sulphide1 :i* does n plump1 )\t a radical modification ( ! :ole tann+ process4 ,?is po9t has be5 ably treat$ by ,eitn] 9 a s]ies ( pap]s on ,extract-g]b]ei1 publi%$ dur+ ! la/ few ye>s 9 ',d] ,g]b]1' :i* w well repay att5tive p]usal by ,engli% z well z ,g]man tann]s4 ,! butts %\ld at fir/ be br\ght into ! weake/ liquor2 a circulation sy/em1 by :i* ! liquors are all pump$ 9 at "o end ( a set ( susp5d]s1 & run out at ! o!r1 ! butts be+ mov$ =w>d 9 ! opposite direction1 seems to h mu* to recomm5d x4 ,9 ?is case1 ! top ( "o pit %\ld be connect$ by a wood5 box ) ! bottom ( ! next4 ,x is usually advisable to run away ! fir/ liquor into :i* butts are br\ght f ! lime-y>d1 z x is v completely sp5t1 & highly *>g$ ) lime salts & impurities4 ,:e!r o!r exhau/$ liquors are to be reta9$ or reject$ is l>gely a "q ( climate1 & mode ( work+4 ,9 hot wea!r1 su* liquors1 *>g$ ) organis$ f]m5ts 7m\lds1 bacilli1 & bact]ia71 are apt to cause rop9ess1 & o!r f]m5tive diseases ( ! liquors4 ,?is dang] may be less5$ by boil+ all sp5t liquors1 s z to kill ! f]m5ts1 be=e runn+ on ! taps1 or prev5t$ by ! free use ( antiseptics1 su* z c>bolic acid4 ,small doses ( c>bolic acid1 h[ev]1 are useless2 at lea/ #a_/aj p] c5t4 mu/ be employ$2 & x mu/ be borne 9 m9d t antiseptics prev5t s\r+ z well z o!r f]m5tations1 & h5ce1 :]e !y are employ$1 o!r means mu/ be adopt$ to ma9ta9 ! necess>y acidity4 ,su* liquors are v liable to d>k5 if boil$4 ,! susp5d] liquors %\ld be acid en\gh freely to r$d5 litmus-pap]4 ,! pres5t au?or has publi%$ a simple volumetric me?od = ! det]m9ation ( ! free acid2 #aj cc4 ( ! c>efully filt]$ liquor is plac$ 9 a beak]1 & cle> lime-wat] is run 9 f a burette till p]man5t cl\d9ess is produc$4 ,! quantity ( lime-wat] employ$ is t :i* ! acid is capable ( neutralis+1 )\t produc+ discoloration ( ! lea!r1 & c>e mu/ be tak5 t ! lime introduc$ ) ! butts does n exce$ ?is proportion4 ,! explanation ( ! reaction is t d>k-col\r$ tannates ( lime are =m$1 :i* are dissolv$ by ! free acid s long z x rema9s 9 excess4 ,x mu/ be rememb]$ t ?is process e/imates all acids capable ( reta9+ tannates ( lime 9 solution1 includ+ "s s feeble z to h practically no plump+ effect4 ,a liquor may h acidity equal to sev]al cc4 ( lime-wat]1 & yet react absolutely alkal9e to me?yl-orange 7see p4 #i71 a col\r :i* is di/9ctly r$d5$ by small excess ( acids1 ev5 s weak z gallic1 :i* is b>ely acid to ! ta/e4 ,h5ce1 ! acidity ( a liquor available = plump+ may be tak5 z repres5t$ by ! lime-wat] requir$ to *ange ! r$ ( me?yl-orange to yell[1 & if ! liquor does n r$d5 me?yl-orange x is incapable ( plump+4 ,if #e or #aj drops ( orange solution be add$ to ! pale filt]$ liquor f susp5d]s1 !re is no difficulty 9 approximately hitt+ ! po9t ( *ange1 b great accuracy is n to be expect$4 ,if ! liquor w n filt] cle>1 kaol9 7see p4 #aai7 may be us$ to cle> x4 ,x is well to te/ ! lime-wat] occasionally on #aj cc4 ( dec9ormal sulphuric or oxalic acid 7p4 #if71 to make c]ta9 ( its con/ancy4 ,lime-wat] %\ld be kept 9 a bottle ) excess ( lime1 %ak5 occasionally1 & a small quantity filt]$ (f z requir$4 ,liquors are frequ5tly miscall$ s\r :i* are n acid1 b putrid4 ,su* liquors w n plump1 b r$uce & s(t5 hides plac$ 9 !m4 7,comp>e also p4 #ahe74 ,susp5d] liquors usually consi/ ma9ly ( liquors f ! h&l] %ift4 ,if liquors be us$ direct f ! lea*es1 !y g5]ally produce h>% gra9 & bad col\r4 ,f ! susp5d]s1 ! butts are transf]r$ to ! h&l]s1 :]e !y are laid flat 9 ! liquor4 ,!y are usually pull$ ov] by hooks1 :i* are v apt to scrat* ! gra94 ,sometimes /r+s are us$1 atta*$ to ! corn]s & held 9 not*es or on pegs at ! edge ( ! pit4 ,o!r tann]s place a frame bel[ ! pack1 ) ropes at ! f\r corn]s1 by :i* x is rais$ suffici5tly = ! m5 to grasp ! top butts ) _! h&s4 ,?is is only practicable 9 pits ( ample size4 ,9 ,am]ican y>ds1 ! h&l+ is almo/ univ]sally p]=m$ by ty+ ! sides ) /r+s or fa/5+ !m 9 a long b& by draw+ ! slit tail ( "o side ?r\gh a hole 9 ! nose ( ! next1 & ins]t+ a wood5 key4 ,! /r+ ( ! sides is !n w\nd f "o pit to ano!r ov] a skeleton reel 7,fig4 #da74 ,?is me?od is also us$ 9 ! lime-y>d1 & is frequ5tly employ$ 9 ,engl& to h&le (fal1 b x is n well adapt$ = butts4 ,fig4 #db %[s ! application ( me*anical p[] 9 a ,*icago y>d = ! same purpose1 by means ( ,ew>t's drive-*a91 :i* is manufactur$ 9 ?is c\ntry by ,ley's ,malleable ,ca/+s ,co41 at ,d]by1 to :om ,i am indebt$ = ! block4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #da4 ,! h&l]s are g5]ally work$ 9 sets1 to ea* ( :i* a fre% liquor is daily run1 & ! mo/ =w>d pack is pull$ ov] into x1 & is (t5 also du/$ d[n ) a little f9e b>k or myrabolans4 ,! second pack foll[s into ! liquor out ( :i* ! fir/ has be5 tak52 ! ?ird into t ( ! second1 & s on4 ,frequ5tly ! gre5e/ packs are h&l$ up a second "t 9 ! c\rse ( ! day1 & put d[n aga9 9 ! same liquor4 ,! /r5g? ( liquors1 & ! l5g? ( "t = :i* butts are reta9$ 9 ! h&l]s1 are v>i$2 b a "t ( #a-b mon?s1 & liquors ( #bj-ce ,b>k4 are usual4 ,x is well to divide ! h&l]s into at lea/ two sets4 ,gambi] is v useful1 especially to ! gre5] goods1 & if hemlock & o!r extracts are employ$1 _! appropriate place is 9 ! =w>d h&l]s or e>li] lay]s4 ,new valonia liquors mu/ be avoid$1 b old lay] liquors ( consid]able /r5g? 7up to #dj ,b>k4 :]e ! h&l+ is long cont9u$7 may be employ$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #db4 ,at ! end ( ?is p]iod1 ! butts are tak5 to ! lay]s or bloom]s1 9 :i* !y are laid d[n ) /rong] liquors & mu* l>g] quantities ( du/2 ! latt] is usually b>k or valonia1 ?\gh mimosa is occasionally us$4 ,! liquors v>y f #dj to #fj or #gj ,b>k4 9 /r5g? 9 mix$ tannage1 & ! duration ( ea* lay] f #aj days 9 ! e>li] /ages to a mon? 9 ! lat] ones4 ,= ! be/ heavy tannages1 #f-h lay]s are requir$4 ,ea* "t ! butts are rais$1 !y %\ld be mopp$ on ! gra91 to remove dirt & loose bloom4 ,/rong valonia liquors1 or heavy valonia du/+1 causes a br[n s&y cru/ to =m on ! freely expos$ p>ts ( ! butts4 ,?is is remov$ 9 /rik+1 b is sometimes v tr\blesome on r\gh dri$ dress+ lea!r4 ,9 pure b>k tannage1 :i*1 h[ev]1 is gradually becom+ ext9ct1 ! liquors us$ are ( necessity mu* weak]1 z x is extremely difficult to obta9 liquors ( m ?an #be-cj ,b>k4 f ?is mat]ial4 ,! la/ lay]1 h[ev]1 %\ld always h liquors ( ! greate/ /r5g? :i* c possibly be obta9$1 or ! lea!r w be defici5t 9 firmness4 ,aft] receiv+ _! la/ lay]1 ! butts are well mopp$ or bru%$ & wa%$ up 9 a cle> liquor1 & ?r[n ov] a horse to dra9 be=e go+ into ! %$4 ,9 ,am]ica1 ! ,h[>d scrubb] 7,fig4 #dc7 is g5]ally employ$ in/ead ( h& lab\r at ?is /age4 ,x consi/s ( #b rotat+ wood5 frames at ! top ( a pit1 provid$ ) bru%es or bir*-brooms1 &1 :5 9 use1 enclos$ by a cov] ,a1 ?r\gh a slit ,g 9 :i* ! sides are ins]t$ & drawn back1 :ile wat] is suppli$ by ! pump ,b4 ,sometimes ! bru%-drums are plac$ "o above ano!r1 & ! lea!r is pass$ 9 at ! side4 ,illu/ration3 ,,pl4 ,,vi4 ,e ,f4 ,n4 ,spon1 ,london ,new ,york4 ,,ink ,,photo ,,sprague ,,co4 ,,london ,,op5+1 ,,/ret*+ ,,& ,,/or+ ,,:ite ,,sk9s4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dc4 ,9 mix$ tannages1 :]e ! col\r is d>k1 ! lea!r is frequ5tly h&l$ or susp5d$ 9 a w>m suma* or myrobalanes liquor1 & occasionally 9 dilute sulphuric or oxalic acids4 ,if ^! acids are n effectually remov$ be=e dry+1 ! t\ghness ( ! lea!r w be de/roy$1 & 9 extreme cases ! lea!r w become brittle & refuse to take black4 ,9 any case1 /rong acids are prejudicial to ! durability ( ! lea!r4 ,9 ,am]ica1 alt]nate ba?s ( vitriol & sug> ( lead are frequ5tly us$ = blea*+ & weight+ ! lea!r1 b ! col\r giv5 is n durable4 ,! great po9t to aim at1 9 arrang+ ! mode ( "w ( a tann]y1 is to contrive t butts %\ld always receive ! /ronge/ liquors !y c be> ) safety1 & t ! /r5g? %\ld con/antly increase 9 a regul> & sy/ematic way4 ,to atta9 ?is end1 v frequ5t h&l+ & *ange ( liquor are requisite 9 ! e>ly /ages1 :5 ! butts rapidly absorb ! tann9 pres5t$ to !m4 ,z ! process advances1 ! ext]ior "p ( ! butt becomes ?or\ghly tann$1 & ! liquor only sl[ly rea*es ! int]ior1 :i* is yet susceptible ( its action1 & h5ce long] lay]s 9 /rong] liquors are p]missible4 ,! v>i$ requirem5ts ( ! trade r5d] x difficult to give any practical in=mation z to ! selection ( tann+ mat]ials4 ,z a g5]al rule1 x is important at ! outset to give ! requir$ col\r2 & if mat]ials undesirable 9 ?is respect are to be us$ = ! sake ( *eapness1 !y %\ld be introduc$ 9 ! =m ( liquors 9 ! middle /ages ( ! process1 i4 e4 9 ! lat] h&l]s or e>li] lay]s4 ,mat]ials us$ z du/ g5]ally h m effect 9 produc+ bloom & col\r+ ! lea!r1 ?an ^? us$ 9 liquors at ?is /age4 ,"s in=mation z to ! respective qualities ( ! diff]5t tann+ mat]ials w be f\nd 9 ! *apt] on ,tann9s2 b ev5 practical m5 are v defici5t 9 accurate in=mation on ^! po9ts1 s9ce _m mat]ials are nev] us$ alone1 b inv>iably 9 connection ) o!rs :i* mask _! effects4 ,! use ( extracts1 & ! dem& = l[-pric$ lea!rs1 to compete ) ! ,am]ican tannages1 has introduc$ /ill m rapid me?ods ?an ^? describ$1 & v fair-look+ heavy lea!r has be5 tann$ 9 #e-aj weeks4 ,^! tannages are v v>i\s1 b _! ma9 feature is ! free use ( hot liquors1 compos$ pr9cipally ( extracts & gambi]4 ,?is treatm5t imp>ts great firmness1 or m prop]ly speak+1 h>dness2 b ! lea!r is defici5t 9 t\ghness1 & ! gra9 usually cracks on b5d+ %>ply4 ,extract prop]ly us$ is1 h[ev]1 capable ( mak+ excell5t lea!r2 x is employ$ 9 at lea/ "o ( ! highe/ pric$ tannages 9 ! c\ntry4 ,x may be not$ "h1 t :5 ,cont95tal writ]s speak ( extracts & extract tannage1 :at we %\ld call liquor tannage only is meant1 & n specially ! use ( ! conc5trat$ extracts1 to :i* alone 9 ,engl& ! t]m is appli$4 ,,*apt] ,,xi4 ,,sole-,,lea!r4--,treatm5t 9 ! ,%$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dd4 ,! butts1 aft] be+ treat$ z above describ$1 are frequ5tly oil$ lightly on ! gra91 & are tak5 into ! dry+-l(ts1 :]e !y are hung on poles till ab\t half dry4 ,!y are !n laid on ! floor 9 piles1 & cov]$ up till !y heat or sweat a little1 :i* facilitates ! succe$+ op]ation ( /rik+4 ,?is is p]=m$ by lay+ ! butt ov] a horizontal beam or horse1 & scrap+ its surface ) a triangul> p91 %[n at ,d 9 ,fig4 #be4 ,?is p9 has an ev51 ?\gh tol]ably %>p1 edge1 & is s us$ t x /ret*es & smoo?s out ! gra91 )\t break+ x2 & at ! same "t x removes a portion ( ! :ite deposit call$ bloom1 :i* has be5 m5tion$4 ,common goods are frequ5tly /ruck by ! ma*9e introduc$ by ,prie/man1 ( ,pre/on ,brook1 %[n 9 ,fig4 #dd2 b ! "w is n v uni=m1 & ! lea!r is mu* compress$ & /ret*$4 ,= (fal1 ! ma*9e is a v useful "o1 & p]fectly satisfactory4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #de4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #df4 ,butts are n[ g5]ally /ruck by ! v +5i\s ma*9e ( ,wilson1 ^: "n has also be5 m5tion$ 9 connection ) ! dis9tegrator1 & :i* is %[n 9 ,fig4 #de4 ,! arms c>ry blunt brass or /eel knives or sleek]s1 & "w outw>ds f ! c5tre1 :ile ! butt is c>ri$ backw>ds & =w>ds ov] ! drum4 ,/ones may be sub/itut$ = ! sleek]s1 :5 x is requir$ to remove ! bloom4 ,! ma*9e requires a firm f\ndation1 z its reciprocat+ motion causes consid]able vibration4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dg4 ,aft] a light oil+ & a little fur!r dry+1 ! butt is laid on a flat b$ ( wood or z9c1 & is roll$ ) a brass roll] load$ ) heavy weights4 ,v>i\s ma*9es are also 9 use = ?is purpose4 ,9 ,fig4 #df1 is %[n ,wilson's spr+ butt-roll]1 9 :i* ! pressure is produc$ by spr+s imm$iately above ! roll]1 :i* works backw>d & =w>d ov] a flat table1 b5ea? a fix$ gird]4 ,9 ! lat] patt]ns ( ?is ma*9e ! roll] is automatically rev]s$ by a me*anical f+] be=e com+ to ! edge ( ! butt4 ,fig4 #dg %[s an adaptation ( ! ,am]ican p5dulum roll]1 :i* is specially suit$ = ref9i%+ ,s+apore kip sides & ! common] class ( goods1 giv+ great firmness & a high gloss4 ,fig4 #dh repres5ts a ma*9e 9 :i* ! roll] is fix$1 & works ov] a brass drum2 x is specially adapt$ = (fal1 &1 :5 us$ = butts1 is apt to make !m baggy4 ,9 ?is ma*9e1 ! rev]s+ motion is obta9$ by us+ two belts1 "o be+ cross$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dh4 ,! lea!r is n[ frequ5tly col\r$ on ! gra9 ) a mixture1 = :i* ea* tann] has a recipe ( 8 own1 b usually consi/+ ma9ly ( yell[ o*re ) size or liquor & oil 9 ord] to give a gloss1 & to hide unev5 or dull col\r1 &1 :5 suffici5tly dry1 is well bru%$ by h& or p[]1 roll$ a second "t1 & dri$-(f 9 a room g5tly heat$ by /eam4 ,?is is ! ,bri/ol me?od ( f9i%+4 ,9 ! ,lanca%ire di/rict1 butts are g5]ally /ruck out mu* wett]1 & /on$1 s z to remove ! :ole ( ! bloom1 & %[ ! natural br[n bottom ( ! gra94 ,:5 suffici5tly dry1 !y are /ruck a second "t1 to set ! gra91 & roll$ z describ$1 ! pa9t+ be+ omitt$4 ,?is me?od has ! disadvantage ( requir+ m lab\r1 & caus+ a loss ( weight2 b lea!r s got up br+s a high] price1 z ! f9i% is only applicable to su* tannages z make a fair col\r4 ,! usual ,london plan is a compromise betwe5 ! ,bri/ol & ,lanca%ire me?ods2 ! lea!r is samm$1 or temp]$ by p>tial dry+ & pil+ be=e /rik+2 /on+ is n resort$ to1 b ! bloom is ?or\ghly remov$ f ! surface ) ! p9 & scrubb+-bru%4 ,col\r is n g5]ally us$4 ,x is v important1 & especially s ) heavy mix$ tannages1 t ! dry+ %\ld be conduct$ 9 ! d>k1 & n too rapidly4 ,no artificial heat %\ld be us$1 except 9 fro/y wea!r1 to wet lea!r2 & x %\ld be c>efully protect$ f h>% dry+ w9ds4 ,aft] ! lea!r is f9i%$1 x %\ld be dri$ (f 9 a well-v5tilat$ dry+-%$1 heat$ to ab\t #gj ,f4 7#ba ,c474 ,! same obs]vations apply to ! dry+ ( r\gh dress+-lea!r1 except t artificial heat %\ld be avoid$4 ,fro/ makes dress+-lea!r por\s1 & prev5ts x c>ry+ a prop] quantity ( grease 9 curry+4 ,on ! con/ruction ( dry+-%$s1 see pp4 #bdc-ed4 ,,*apt] ,,xii4 ,,dress+ ,,lea!r4 ,hides :i* are int5d$ = purposes :]e s(tness & flexibility are requir$1 z = in/ance1 = ! upp]-lea!rs ( boots1 & = saddl]y purposes1 are call$ dress+ or common hides1 or1 if !y are %av$ d[n to r$uce _! ?ickness be=e tann+1 !y are d5om9at$ %av$ hides4 ,hides = ?is purpose are lim$ mu* 9 ! same way z has be5 describ$ = butts2 b if !y are requir$ v s(t & flexible1 a some:at long] lim+ is p]missible4 ,aft] unhair+1 fle%+1 & wa%+ 9 wat]1 !y are usually transf]r$ to a bate1 compos$ ( pigeon- or h5-dung1 9 ! proportion ( ab\t #a peck to #be-cj hides4 ,9 ?is !y are reta9$ = "s days1 be+ h&l$ frequ5tly4 ,!y completely lose _! plumpness1 & become s(t & slipp]y2 ! cau/ic lime is entirely remov$2 & ! rema9+ portions ( hair-%ea?s & fat-gl&s are s loos5$ t !y are easily work$ out by a blunt knife on ! beam4 ,?is f9al cleans+ process is call$ scudd+4 ,! !ory ( ! action ( ! bate1 or pure1 z x is sometimes call$1 is some:at imp]fect4 ,x is frequ5tly attribut$ to ! action ( ammonia salts1 & phosphates1 conta9$ 9 ! f]m5t+ dung4 ,ammonia salts c]ta9ly w remove cau/ic lime1 free ammonia be+ lib]at$ 9 its place1 & weak solutions ( ammonia sulphate or *loride w rapidly r$uce hides1 & remove or neutralise ! lime4 ,! phosphates 9 dung are mo/ly1 if n entirely1 9 ! =m ( lime phosphate1 :i* is q in]t4 ,9 po9t ( fact1 ! process seems to be a f]m5tive "o1 ! active bate sw>m+ ) bact]ia2 to ?is1 r ?an to its *emical con/itu5ts1 its action mu/ be attribut$4 ,! bact]ia act n only on ! organic con/itu5ts ( ! dung1 b on ^? ( ! hide1 produc+ sulphurett$ hydrog51 toge!r ) tyros9 & leuc91 & o!r weak organic acids1 :i* neutralise & remove ! lime1 &1 at ! same "t1 s(t5 ! hide by dissolv+ out ! cori91 & probably also portions ( ! gelat9\s fibre4 ,! tru? ( ?is !ory is support$ by ! fact t1 9 w>m wea!r1 ! activity ( ! bate is greatly increas$1 & t1 if "o pack ( hides is ov]-bat$1 ! next foll[+ is mu* m sev]ely affect$1 ! hides hav+ 9 fact !mselves furni%$ food = ! multiplication ( ! bact]ian f]m5t f ! de/ruction ( _! own tissues4 ,x also expla9s ! effective use 7z a sub/itute7 ( w>m wat] ) a v small portion ( glucose1 :i*1 9 itself1 w\ld be insuffici5t to dissolve ! lime1 b ) a small quantity ( nitrog5\s matt]1 =ms an excell5t nidus = ! multiplication ( ^! organisms4 ,an ,am]ican inv5tion = bat+ is ! use ( old lime-liquor neutralis$ ) sulphuric acid1 an idea :i* is mu* m sci5tific ?an w\ld at fir/ sight appe>4 ,old lime-liquors1 z we h se5 7p4 #adc7 conta9 mu* ammonia & weak organic acids1 su* z caproic1 amidocaproic 7leuc971 & tyros94 ,on add+ sulphuric acid1 ! lime =ms an in]t sulphate1 & ! sulphate ( ammonia & ! weak organic acids :i* rema9 dissolv$ are j :at are requir$ 9 a *emical bate4 ,! lime-liquor %\ld ( c\rse be filt]$ or settl$ cle> be=e us+1 & en\gh acid add$ b>ely to neutralise ! lime1 & ! liquor aga9 settl$ or filt]$4 ,by ?is means bo? ! dissolv$ gelat9 & ! iron ( ! acid w be got rid (4 ,! liquor might !n be slightly acidifi$ be=e use4 ,! writ] has no exp]i5ce ( ! me?od1 b imag9es t us$ z describ$ x might be wor? try+1 al?\gh x w\ld h a v unpleasant smell4 ,9 ?is connection may be m5tion$ ! fact t1 :5 bran dr5*es are us$1 9 :i* lactic acid is develop$1 ! butyric f]m5tation is liable1 9 hot wea!r1 to take its place1 & z butyric acid is a p[]ful solv5t ( gelat9\s tissue1 & ! dissolv$ tissue itself fe$s ! f]m5tation1 rapid de/ruction ( ! sk9s is ! result4 ,cleanl9ess1 scald+ out ( ! dr5* vats1 & wa%+ ! bran be=e us+ ) cold wat] to remove adh]+ fl\r1 are useful precautions4 ,if ! removal ( ! lime be ! only object aim$ at 9 bat+1 ! ord9>y process is mo/ wa/eful1 z well z disgu/+1 f ! loss ( pelt x entails4 ,x is easy to f9d *emical reag5ts :i* w remove ! lime2 b ! resultant lea!r has be5 f\nd want+ 9 s(tness1 & x is probable t ! solution ( ! int]-fibrill> matt] is 9 _m cases advantage\s4 ,probably "o reason = ! non-use ( su* *emicals is _! exp5se4 ,mayn>d has pat5t$ ! use ( sulphur\s acid = ! purpose4 ,if sug>1 glucose1 or ammonia salts be us$1 & ! alkal9ity ( ! solution ne>ly neutralis$ aft] ea* lot ( hides by common vitriol1 ! same liquor may be us$ aga9 & aga94 ,9 ?is case1 if iron is conta9$ 9 ! acid x w be precipitat$ by ! ammonia & mu/ be settl$ out4 ,! writ] is conv9c$1 f 8 own exp]i5ce1 t ) suitable tannage su* bat+ w\ld yield bett] weights & q z satisfactory lea!r = _m purposes z ! ord9>y mode4 ,fr5* tann]s1 by ! free use ( wat]1 & c>eful work+ at ! beam1 & ! employm5t ( v weak liquors at ! comm5cem5t ( tann+1 make excell5t dress+ lea!r )\t bat+ & ?is is also true ( ! celebrat$ ,fr5* calf4 ,! bat+ requir$ may be %ort5$1 & probably ) advantage1 by wa%+ ! hides ) w>m wat] 9 a tumbl]1 or rotat+ drum1 ,fig4 #di1 prior to putt+ !m into ! bate1 or ! :ole bat+ may be done 9 ! tumbl]4 ,aft] a %ort bat+1 also1 ! hides may be s(t5$ & cleans$ by /ock+ = #ae-bj m9utes4 ,w>m bates act mu* m rapidly ?an cold ones4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #di4 ,v>i\s ma*9es h be5 propos$ to take ! place ( h&-lab\r 9 ! beam "w1 &1 at lea/ z reg>ds ! small] sk9s1 ) consid]able success4 ,z a type ( ^!1 may be m5tion$ ,mol9i]'s hide-work+ ma*9e1 ,fig4 #bi1 :i* consi/s ( a drum cov]$ ) helical knives1 rotat+ at a spe$ ( ab\t #ejj rev4 a m9ute1 ov] a cyl9d] coat$ ) india-rubb]4 ,! sk9 is all[$ to be drawn 9 betwe5 ^! drums1 & ! two be+ press$ toge!r by a treadle1 x is drawn out by a me*anical arrangem5t 9 a direction contr>y to ! rotation ( ! knives1 :i* scrape (f ! fle%1 or "w (f ! hair4 ,aft] bat+1 %av$ hides are r$uc$ 9 ?ickness 9 ! /rong] p>ts by a %av+-knife1 on an almo/ p]p5dicul> beam4 ,! workman /&s beh9d ! beam1 & works d[nw>ds4 ,! knife is repres5t$ at ,a1 ,fig4 #bf1 & is a some:at peculi> in/rum5t4 ,! blade is ( s(ti% /eel1 & aft] %>p5+1 ! edge is turn$ completely ov] by pressure ) a blunt tool1 s z to cut at "r angles to ! blade4 ,!re is an obvi\s economy 9 %av+ be=e tann+1 s9ce ! raw %av+s are valuable = glue-mak+1 :ile1 if tak5 (f by ! curri]1 !y are useless = ?is purpose4 ,! hide also tans fa/]4 ,in/ead ( %av+1 ! untann$ hide is frequ5tly split1 by draw+ x aga9/ a rapidly vibrat+ knife4 ,! piece remov$ is tann$ = "s inf]ior purpose1 if suffici5tly p]fect4 ,9 %eep-sk9s1 :i* are split by a special ma*9e1 ! gra9-side is tann$ = ,fr5* morocco or basil1 :ile ! fle%-side is dress$ ) oil1 & =ms ! ord9>y *amois or wa%-lea!r 7see p4 #baj74 ,su* a ma*9e is %[n 9 ,fig4 #ej4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ej4 ,tann$ lea!r is frequ5tly split by =c+ x aga9/ a fix$ knife1 z 9 ! ,am]ican ,union ma*9e1 ,fig4 #ea4 ,?is is h[ev] be+ gradually sup]s$$ by ! b&-knife splitt+ ma*9e1 ,fig4 #eb1 9 :i* an endless /eel blade travels ov] two pulleys l a belt1 & is kept con/antly %>p5$ by a pair ( em]y-:eels se5 bel[ ! ma*9e4 ,i am indebt$ = ! block to ,messrs4 ,haley & ,co41 :o h made great numb]s ( ^! ma*9es4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ea4 ,aft] bat+1 scudd+1 & %av+1 ! hides are tak5 into ! tan-h\se1 :]e !y are gra9$1 ei!r by frequ5t h&l+1 or by work+ 9 a paddle-tumbl] 7a vat agitat$ ) a paddle-:eel1 & kn[n 9 ,am]ica z an ,engl& :eel71 ) a liquor ( suitable /r5g?4 ,:at ?is /r5g? %\ld be dep5ds on :e!r a well-m>k$ gra9 is requir$ or n4 ,! /rong] ! liquor1 ! m x contracts ! hide1 wr9kl+ ! surface into a network ( numb]less cross+ furr[s1 :i* =m ! well-kn[n m>k+ ( gra9-lea!r4 ,9 b>k tannage1 ! aft] managem5t is mu* l t describ$ ) sole-lea!r1 except t weak] infusions are employ$1 & acid liquors1 :i* w\ld swell ! hide & produce a h>% lea!r1 are avoid$4 ,9 old-fa%ion$ c\ntry y>ds1 :i* produce "s ( ! be/ b>k-tann$ %av$ hides1 ! liquors r>ely range above #aj-ae ( ! b>komet]1 & ! "t employ$ is #c-f mon?s4 ,! hides1 aft] pass+ ?r\gh a set ( h&l]s1 ( gradually increas+ /r5g?1 9 :i* !y are at fir/ mov$ e day1 are laid away ) b>k liquor & a good du/+ ( b>k1 receiv+ p]haps #d-e lay]s ( #b-d weeks ea*4 ,un=tunately1 ^! tannages are s unpr(itable t !y are rapidly be+ supplant$ by quick] & *eap] me?ods4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #eb4 ,^! m rapid & *eap tannages mo/ly dep5d on ! use ( t]ra 7block or cube gambi]7 9 comb9ation ) b>k1 valonia1 mimosa1 & myrobalanes4 ,liquors w>m$ to #aaj or ev5 #adj ,f4 7#dc-fj ,c47 are frequ5tly employ$1 & a bright col\r is f9ally imp>t$ by h&l+ 9 a w>m suma* or myrobalanes liquor1 :i* dissolves out mu* ( ! col\r imp>t$ by t]ra or extracts4 ,! tannage is help$ =w>d by frequ5t h&l+1 by work+ 9 tumbl]s1 or sometimes by susp5sion on rock+ or travell+ frames1 aft] ! ,am]ican fa%ion4 ,to ?is class ( tannage belongs t ( ,ea/ ,india kips1 :i* is l>gely c>ri$ on 9 ! neighb\rhood ( ,le$s4 ,^! kips are ! hides ( ! small cattle ( ,india1 & are import$ 9 a dri$ condition1 & ) _! fle%-side protect$ 7& load$7 ) a coat ( salt & :itewa% or pla/]4 ,!y are usually s(t5$ 9 putrid soaks1 & unhair$ ) lime1 & are us$ 9 ,engl& = _m ( ! purposes = :i* calf-sk9s 7 =m]ly employ$4 ,a v>iety ( ,ea/ ,india kips1 call$ ars5ic kips1 are treat$ 7in/ead ( pla/]+7 ) a small quantity ( ars5ic be=e dry+1 to prev5t ! ravages ( insects1 :i* are (t5 v de/ructive to ^! goods4 ,_m kips tann$ 9 ,india h also be5 import$ ( late ye>s1 & h greatly int]f]$ ) ! pr(its ( ,engli% tann]s4 ,9 y>ds :]e ! lea!r is int5d$ to be sold uncurri$1 x is tak5 up into ! dry+-%$s1 well oil$ on ! gra9 ) cod-liv] oil1 & ei!r simply hung on ! poles to dry1 or /ret*$ ) a right]1 a tool %ap$ some:at l a spade-h&le1 & f9ally set out ) x to a smoo? & r\nd$ =m4 ,z 9 ! case ( sole-lea!r1 too mu* light or w9d mu/ be avoid$1 & x is v difficult to use artificial heat successfully 9 ! e>ly /ages ( ! process4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 n[ v common = ! tann] :o produces su* lea!r also to curry x1 &1 z ?is effects a consid]able economy1 bo? 9 lab\r & mat]ial1 x is likely to become univ]sal4 ,:5 lea!r is to be sold r\gh1 x is necess>y to tan x 9 su* a way z to give x a :ite appe>ance1 f ! deposit ( bloom already m5tion$2 ?is be+ reg>d$ by curri]s z an ess5tial m>k ( a good tannage1 al?\gh ! fir/ /ep 9 ! curry+ process is to completely sc\r x out4 ,:5 ! tann] curries 8 own lea!r1 he ( c\rse aims at putt+ 9 z little bloom z possible1 ?us economis+ bo? tann+ mat]ial & lab\r4 ,9 addition1 ! lea!r goes direct f ! tan-h\se to ! curry+-%ops1 ?us sav+ bo? dry+ & soak+ aga91 &1 x is said1 giv+ bett] weight & quality4 ,! tann]1 too1 is enabl$ to %ave 8 hides or sk9s m completely1 utilis+ ! mat]ial = glue-/uff1 :i*1 _h ! lea!r be5 = sale 9 ! r\gh1 mu/ h be5 left on to obta9 a pr(itable weight4 ,,*apt] ,,xiii4 ,,curry+4 ,9 g5]al t]ms1 ! process ( curry+ consi/s 9 s(t5+1 levell+1 & /ret*+ ! hides & sk9s :i* are requir$ = ! upp]-lea!rs ( boots1 & o!r purposes dem&+ flexibility & s(tness1 & 9 saturat+ or /uff+ !m ) fatty matt]s1 n only 9 ord] to s(t5 !m1 b to make !m wat]tight1 & to give !m an attractive appe>ance4 ,x is obvi\s t great diff]5ces mu/ be made 9 ! curry+ process1 accord+ to ! "* ( ! sk9 & ! purpose = :i* x is int5d$1 s9ce ! prep>ation ( ,fr5* calf = a light boot1 & ( ! heavie/ lea!r = ma*9e belt+1 equally lie )9 ! doma9 ( curry+4 ,9 ?is case1 h[ev]1 z 9 t ( tann+1 ! cle>e/ idea ( ! g5]al pr9ciples involv$ w be ga9$ by tak+ a typical case1 & aft]w>ds po9t+ out ! diff]5t modifications ne$$ = o!r v>ieties4 ,! ,fr5* me?od ( curry+ wax$ calf is select$ z an example1 s9ce ! well-kn[n excell5ce ( ?is lea!r makes x int]e/+ to comp>e ! details ) ! me?ods ord9>ily 9 use 9 ?is c\ntry4 ,aft] rais+ ! sk9s f ! pits1 & beat+ (f ! loose tan1 !y are hung 9 ! %$s till p>tially dry 7essorage71 great c>e be+ tak5 t ! dry+ is uni=m ov] ! :ole sk94 ,9 mod]n %ops1 ?is dry+ is usually accompli%$ at once1 & 9 a v satisfactory mann]1 by means ( a hydraulic press4 ,if dri$ 9 ! air1 !y mu/ be laid 9 pile = a %ort "t to equalise ! moi/ure1 & !n bru%$ ov] on fle% & gra94 ,! next process consi/s 9 p>+ (f loose fle% & inequalities 7drayage74 ,?is is done on a beam1 & ) a knife simil> to t us$ 9 bate-%av+1 & %[n 9 ,a1 ,fig4 #bf4 ,?is knife has ! edge turn$ by rubb+ ) a /rong /eel1 & is call$ c\teau rev]s4 ,next foll[s ! mise au v5t4 ,! sk9s are fir/ plac$ 9 a tub ) wat] or weak tan-liquor = #bd h\rs2 !y are !n fold$ & plac$ 9 a tub ) en\gh wat] to cov] !m1 & beat5 ) wood5 pe/les = #a_/d h\r4 ,at ! pres5t day1 /ocks 7f\lon v]tical71 or a drum-tumbl] 7tonneau f\l]71 a ma*9e on ! pr9ciple ( ! b>rel-*urn1 usually take ! place ( ?is h&-lab\r4 ,! sk9 is next plac$ on a m>ble table1 fle% upw>ds1 & ) "o flank hang+ some:at ov] ! edge1 & is work$ ) a sleek] or /ret*+-iron 7tire71 ,b1 ,fig4 #bf4 ,! fir/ #b /rokes are giv5 d[n & up ! back1 to make ! sk9 adh]e to ! table1 & x is !n work$ out regul>ly all r\nd ! side on ! table1 s z to /ret* & level x4 ,! fle% is !n wa%$ ov] ) a grass-bru% 7brosse *i5-d5t71 ! sk9 is turn$1 & ! o!r flank is treat$ 9 ! same way4 ,x is la/ly fold$ 9 #d1 & /eep$ aga9 9 wat]4 ,! next process is ! cleans+ ( ! gra94 ,! sk9 is spread aga9 on ! table1 z be=e1 b gra9 upw>ds1 & is work$ ov] ) a /one 7curse71 set 9 h&les1 & gr\nd to a v obtuse edge4 ,?is sc\rs out ! bloom2 aft] wa%+ ! gra9 ) ! grass-bru%1 x is foll[$ by ! sleek+-iron1 z on ! fle%4 ,! next /ep is resett+ 7ret5age74 ,= ?is1 except 9 summ]1 ! sk9s mu/ be dri$ aga91 ei!r by press or 9 ! %$4 ,?is is ano!r sett+ out ) ! sleek]1 &1 ! sk9 be+ dri$1 x n[ reta9s ! smoo?ness & ext5sion :i* is ?us giv5 to x4 ,! sk9s are n[ ready = oil+ 9 ! gra91 = :i* :ale-oil or cod-liv] oil is g5]ally employ$4 ,olive-oil1 ca/or-oil1 & ev5 l9se$-oil may1 h[ev]1 be us$1 & are sometimes made into an emulsion ) neutral soap & wat]4 ,aft] oil+ ! gra91 ! sk9s are fold$ & all[$ to lie = #b-c days be=e oil+ ! fle%4 ,! oil+ on ! fle% is done ) a mixture ( dgras & tall[1 9 su* proportions z n to run (f dur+ ! dry+4 ,dgras is ! surplus oil f ! *amois-lea!r manufacture1 :i* 9 ,france is effect$ by daily /ock+ ! sk9s ) oil1 & hang+ 9 ! air = oxidation4 ,! dgras 7toise1 mollon7 is obta9$1 n by wa%+ ! sk9s 9 an alkal9e lye1 z 9 ! ,engli% & ,g]man me?od1 b by simple press+ or wr++4 ,?is oil1 alt]$ by oxidation1 is s valuable = curry+ purposes t sk9s are frequ5tly work$ simply = its production1 be+ oil$ & squeez$ aga9 & aga9 till n a rag is left4 ,x is g5]ally mix$ 9 comm]ce ) m or less ( ord9>y fi%-oil4 ,eitn] recomm5ds1 :]e ! dgras is ( indiff]5t quality1 a mixture ( #fe p>ts dgras1 #bj ( neutral soap 7i4 e4 soap )\t ! usual excess ( alkali71 & #ae ( s(t tall[4 ,aft] oil+ ! fle%1 :i* is accompli%$ by ext5d+ ! sk9 on ! m>ble table ) ! sleek]1 & apply+ grease ) a %eep-sk9 pad1 x is hung to dry at a temp]ature ( #fe-gj ,f4 7#ah-ba ,c474 ,aft] dry+1 ! surplus oil is remov$ by a f9e sleek] f bo? fle% & gra91 & ! sk9s are ready = :it5+ 7blan*issage74 ,?is consi/s 9 tak+ a ?9 %av+ (f ! fle%1 & 0 orig9ally accompli%$ by ! %av+-knife on ! curri]'s beam1 & "s curri]s are /ill 9 fav\r ( ?is me?od4 ,x is n[1 h[ev]1 usually done by a sleek] ) a turn$ edge4 ,! gra9 !n und]goes a f9al /on+ & sleek+1 to remove ! la/ traces ( adh]+ oil1 & ! sk9 is gra9$ by rubb+ x 9 a peculi> way "u a pommel cov]$ ) cork4 ,x is !n coat$ on ! fle% ) a mixture1 ( :i* ! foll[+ is a specim53--#e p>ts ( lamp-black are rubb$ ) #d ( l9se$-oil1 & #ce p>ts ( fi%-oil are add$2 #ae p>ts ( tall[ & #c ( wax are melt$ toge!r & add$ to ! mixture2 &1 aft] cool+1 #c p>ts ( treacle4 ,?is comp\nd is put on ) a bru%1 & all[$ to dry = "s days4 ,f9ally1 ! sk9s are siz$ ov] ) a glue-size1 :i* is sometimes d>k5$ by ! addition ( anil9e-black4 ,! prec$+ acc\nt w give "s idea ( ! c>e & lab\r exp5d$ on ^! goods 9 ,france4 ,9 ,engl&1 *eap] productions are m 9 vogue1 & almo/ e process is accompli%$ by ma*9]y4 ,an illu/ration ( ! ,fitzh5ry or ,jackson sc\r+-ma*9e1 :i* is l>gely employ$ bo? = sc\r+ & sett+ out1 is giv5 9 ,fig4 #ec4 ,?is is a simple & effici5t ma*9e1 & has be5 l>gely us$1 bo? "h & 9 ,am]ica4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ec4 ,fig4 #ed %[s ! improv$ tool-c>riage introduc$ by ,c4 ,holmes ( ,bo/on1 9 :i* ! bru% & sleek]s or /ones are controll$ by h&les :i* are /ation>y in/ead ( mov+ rapidly ) ! slide1 z 9 ! old] =m4 ,spiral spr+s are also sub/itut$ = ! old] elliptical ones4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ed4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ee4 ,! ,fitzh5ry ma*9e has also be5 con/ruct$ s z to "w 9 any direction ov] a fix$ table1 be+ driv5 by a small direct-act+ /eam-cyl9d] suppli$ by jo9t$ pipes4 ,b probably ! mo/ p]fect sc\r+ & sett+ ma*9e :i* has yet be5 introduc$ is ! ,lockwood ,automatic ,sc\r]1 :i* may also be reg>d$ z a developm5t ( ! ,fitzh5ry ma*9e4 ,?is has be5 "s ye>s 9 use 9 ,am]ica ) great success1 & has receiv$ consid]able improvem5ts1 b has only v rec5tly be5 introduc$ into ,engl& by ,messrs4 ,s*rad] & ,mit*ell ( ,glasg[1 :o h k9dly furni%$ ! annex$ illu/ration 7,fig4 #ef74 ,9 ?is ma*9e ! table is fix$1 & ! tool-c>riage c be mov$ ov] x 9 e direction4 ,! l>ge project+ c>riage1 or cross-head1 :i* supports x1 travels on a horizontal rail1 :i* may be obs]v$ bel[ & beh9d ! table4 ,motion is giv5 to x by a screw :i* is driv5 9 ei!r direction by ! pulleys at ea* side ( ! cross-head4 ,9 a simil> way ! tool-c>riage is trav]s$ =w>ds or backw>ds by a second screw at "r angles to ! fir/1 & by a mo/ +5i\s int]lock+ arrangem5t bo? screws are controll$ by a s+le h&le4 ,! tool-c>riage or trundle frame c also be turn$ l a turntable1 s z to deliv] its /roke 9 any direction1 ! tool-hold] be+ driv5 by a horizontal crank 9 ! c5tre ( ! frame1 & imm$iately above ! tools4 ,?\gh ! ma*9e is complicat$1 & necess>ily exp5sive1 x has n be5 f\nd ei!r 9 ,am]ica or ,scotl& difficult to "w or liable to get out ( ord]1 :ile bo? ! quantity & quality ( its "w are all t c be desir$4 ,fig4 #ee is ,gls]'s sc\r+ ma*9e4 ,fig4 #eg illu/rates ! late/ ,engli% sc\r+ ma*9e1 ,messrs4 ,haley & ,co4's ,climax ,sc\r]1 :i* is also +5i\s & effective4 ,9 x ! table in/ead ( ! tool-hold] is movable by screws driv5 by belts ?r[n into ge> by a h&le1 & x is provid$ ) two tables ( :i* "o is 9 "w :ile ! hides are be+ *ang$ & spread on ! o!r4 ,! oscillat+ tool-hold]1 in/ead ( be+ actuat$ by ! rise & fall ( ! connect+-rod1 is mov$ by an adju/able ecc5tric4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ef4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #eg4 ,9 ! case ( /rap-butts1 ! curry+ is1 ( c\rse1 f> less elaborate4 ,!y are well sc\r$ out1 heavily /uff$1 & /ret*$ 9 screw-frames1 to prev5t _! giv+ aft]w>ds :5 9 use4 ,9 ,g]many1 ,switz]l&1 & ,au/ria1 a me?od ( /uff+ /rap-butts is frequ5tly employ$1 :i*1 s f> z ,i am aw>e1 is n 9 use 9 ,engl&4 ,x is call$ ,e9br5n5 or burn+ 91 & consi/s 9 apply+ v hot tall[ to ! dry lea!r4 ,! butts are wa%$ free f liquor 9 a tumbl]1 bo>d$ to s(t5 !m ?or\ghly1 sc\r$1 set out ) a sleek]1 nail$ on la?s1 & air-dri$4 ,!y are !n v completely dri$ 9 a room heat$ to #ajd-aac ,f4 7#dj-de ,c471 z if any moi/ure rema9s 9 ! hide1 ! fibre w be de/roy$ by ! heat ( ! melt$ tall[4 ,! tall[+ g5]ally takes place 9 ! same room1 z a high temp]ature is requir$ to all[ x to soak 91 & ! lea!r w\ld gre$ily reabsorb moi/ure if expos$ to damp air4 ,! tall[ is heat$1 g5]ally by /eam 9 a jacket$ pan1 to #afg-bab ,f4 7#ge-ajj ,c474 ,!re are two ways ( apply+ x4 ,! melt$ tall[ may be appli$ on a table to ! fle% side ( ! butt ) a ladle1 & rubb$ on ) a bru% or rag4 ,9 ?is case1 z soon z ! tall[ has suffici5tly soak$ 91 ! butts are plac$ 9 wat] to prev5t its /rik+ ?r\gh to ! gra94 ,! second way is to h ! pan ( suffici5t size & suitable %ape1 & = two m5 to draw ! butt ?r\gh ! melt$ tall[ ) tongs1 & m or less rapidly accord+ to ! quantity x is desir$ t ! lea!r %\ld absorb2 & 9 "s cases ! process is repeat$ once or m4 ,9 ?is case1 x is useless to wet 9 wat]1 & ! butts are all[$ to cool gradually 9 pile4 ,! lea!r is n[ impregnat$ ) grease1 b x is f> f be+ prop]ly /uff$4 ,in/ead ( ! grease be+ spread ov] ! f9e/ fibres 9 a m9ute /ate ( division1 x simply fills ! spaces betwe5 ! l>g] fibres4 ,to rem$y ?is1 ! butts are well s(t5$ 9 wat] 7:i*1 if !y h be5 drawn ?r\gh ! tall[ & all[$ to cool1 mu/ be tepid71 & are !n work$ 9 a damp condition 9 a drum tumbl]1 by :i* !y bright5 9 col\r & become uni=mly /uff$4 ,!y are !n all[$ to lie 9 a pile a day or two1 are /on$ & work$ out ) ! sleek]1 & hung up to dry4 ,:5 9 "r temp] !y receive a f9al sett+ out ) ! sleek]1 & :5 dry are ei!r roll$ or glass$4 ,= fur!r details1 ,nos4 #bef & #beg ( ',d] ,g]b]1' #ahhe1 mu/ be consult$1 :]e ! matt] has be5 exhau/ively treat$ by ,eitn]1 9 8 pap]s on ,extract-,g]b]ei4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #eh4 ,9 ,engl&1 curri$ lea!rs are g5]ally sold by weight1 :i* leads to ! use ( glucose & o!r mat]ials to add to ! weight4 ,9 ,am]ica1 all upp] lea!rs are sold by measure1 & ?is is n[ asc]ta9$ by a v +5i\s ma*9e 7,fig4 #eh74 ,! sk9 is laid on a lattic$ table1 & a frame1 f :i* r[s ( bullets are susp5d$1 is let d[n ^u x4 ,! total weight ( ! frame is indicat$ by a spr+ balance1 & z ! bullets :i* are ov] ! sk9 are support$ by x1 ! dim9ution ( weight indicates ! measurem5t4 ,sev]al modifi$ =ms ( ?is ma*9e are n[ made4 ,,*apt] ,,xiv4 ,,enamell$1 ,,pat5t1 ,,or ,,japann$ ,,lea!r4 ,^! are t]ms us$ to designate ^? lea!rs1 :e!r ( ! ox1 ! horse1 ! calf1 or ! seal1 :i* are f9i%$ ) a wat]pro( & bright v>ni%$ surface1 simil> to ! lacqu]$ wood-"w ( ! ,japanese4 ,! "n enamell$ is g5]ally appli$ :5 ! lea!rs are f9i%$ ) a r\gh5$ or gra9$ surface1 & pat5t or japann$ are ! t]ms us$ :5 ! f9i% is smoo?4 ,?\gh g5]ally black1 yet a small quantity ( ?is lea!r is made 9 a v>iety ( col\rs4 ,9 ,am]ica1 l>ge ?9 hides are pr9cipally us$ = ! purpose4 ,!y are lim$ & bat$ 9 ! usual way1 /on$ aft] bat+1 & tann$ ) hemlock & oak b>ks 9 a paddle tumbl]1 :i* is run = #aj-ae m9utes 9 ea* h\r4 ,:5 "o-?ird tann$1 !y are levell$ on ! fle%1 & split ) ! belt-knife splitt]1 ,fig4 #eb4 ,aft] splitt+1 ! portions are drumm$ ) /rong gambi] liquor = #a_/d h\r1 & !n tann$ out ) b>k4 ,! gra9s are sc\r$ ) ! ,fitzh5ry or ,lockwood ma*9e 7,figs4 #ec & #ef74 ,!y are !n lightly oil$ & /ret*$ on frames :i* c be enl>g$ by screws or a sort ( knuckle-jo9t at ! corn]s4 ,:5 q dry1 !y are gr\nd$ ) a mixture ( l9se$-oil ) :ite lead & li?>ge1 boil$ toge!r & ?ick5$ ) *alk & o*re4 ,?is is dri$ 9 closets heat$ by /eam1 into :i* ! frames are slid face d[nw>ds1 ! heat be+ gradually increas$ f #hj to #afj ,f4 7#bg to #ga ,c474 ,if x be desir$ to employ a high] temp]ature1 ! lea!r is fir/ saturat$ ) a solution ( #b oz4 ea* ( borax & alum 9 #a gal4 wat]1 :5 temp]atures ( #bcj-bej ,f4 7#aaj-abj ,c47 may be us$4 ,! rema9+ treatm5t is mu* z above describ$1 b a little turp5t9e is us$ to make ! pa9t "w freely4 ,! f9al v>ni% is compos$ ( #bj p>ts _s ( turp5t9e1 #bj l9se$ oil1 #aj ?ick copal v>ni%1 & #a ( asphaltum or o!r col\r+ mat]ial4 ,?is mu/ be mix$ #b-c weeks be=e use1 & appli$ ) a bru%4 ,! splits are also (t5 enamell$1 & z a prep>ation receive a dress+ ( l9se$-oil boil$ to a jelly & ?9n$ ) turp5t9e or naph?a4 ,?is is appli$ ) a /iff bru% aft] ! splits are /ret*$ on ! frames & are /ill damp1 s t x does n p5etrate ! lea!r1 b =ms a sort ( artificial gra94 ,lea!r de/9$ to be f9i%$ 9 ?is way requires to be curri$ )\t ! use ( mu* dubb+1 & to be well s(t5$4 ,! ,engli% practice is to nail ! sk9s ?us prep>$1 & q dry1 on l>ge smoo? bo>ds1 fitt$ to slide 9 & out ( /oves ma9ta9$ at a temp]ature ( #afj-agj ,f4 7#ga-gg ,c471 coat+ !m repeat$ly ) a sort ( pa9t compos$ 7= black7 ( l9se$-oil1 lamp-black1 & ,prussian blue1 well gr\nd toge!r4 ,ea* coat+ is all[$ to dry 9 ! /oves1 be=e ! next is appli$4 ,! numb] ( coat+s v>ies ) ! k9d ( sk9 "u treatm5t1 & ! purpose = :i* x is int5d$4 ,! surface ( e coat mu/ be rubb$ smoo? ) pumice2 f9ally1 a f9i%+ coat ( oil-v>ni% is appli$1 &1 l ! prec$+ coats1 is dri$ 9 ! /ove4 ,! exact degrees ( dryness & flexibility1 ! composition ( ! pa9t1 & ! ?ickness & numb] ( ! coats1 are nice po9ts1 difficult to describe 9 writ+4 ,?is bran* ( ! lea!r indu/ry1 s f> z x relates to calf-sk9s1 is c>ri$ on to a l>g] ext5t1 & has be5 br\ght to great] p]fection 9 ,g]many & ,france ?an 9 ,engl&4 ,9 ! =m] c\ntries1 ! heat ( ! sun is employ$ to dry "s ( ! coat+s4 ,! ,unit$ ,/ates h also br\ght ?is /yle to a high degree ( excell5ce1 especially 9 ox-hides4 ,!re1 use is said to be made ( ! oils & spirits obta9$ f petroleum1 & )\t d\bt1 ,fr5* & ,g]man emigrant workm5 h mat]ially assi/$ 9 atta9+ ?is high /&>d4 ,lea!r f9i%$ 9 ^! /yles is us$ = slipp]s1 p>ts ( %oes1 h>ness1 ladies' wai/-belts1 h&-bags1 c41 & has n[ ma9ta9$ a place among ! v>ieties ( lea!r = a long p]iod ( ye>s4 ,,*apt] ,,xv4 ,,morocco ,,lea!r4 ,morocco lea!r is produc$ f goat-sk9s4 ,r\gh-hair$ or blue-back seal-sk9s are also us$1 & produce an excell5t article2 :ile an inf]ior description1 call$ ,fr5* morocco1 is produc$ f %eep-sk9s4 ,! sk9s are unhair$ by lim+ 9 ! usual way1 & are !n bait$ ) a mixture ( dogs' dung & wat]4 ,! tann+ is done *iefly ) suma*1 at fir/ 9 paddle-tumbl]s1 & !n 9 h&l]s1 la/+ ab\t a mon? 9 all4 ,%eep-sk9s are usually tann$ ?r\gh 9 ab\t #bd h\rs1 by be+ sewn up into bags1 gra9-side outw>ds1 & ne>ly fill$ ) /rong suma* infusion4 ,a little air is !n bl[n 91 to completely di/5d ! sk91 & !y are float$ 9 a suma* ba?1 & kept mov+ by means ( a paddle4 ,aft] ! fir/ day's imm]sion1 !y are ?r[n up on a %elf1 & all[$ to dra92 !y are !n aga9 fill$ ) suma* liquor2 :5 ?is has a second "t exud$ ?r\gh ! sk91 !y are suffici5tly tann$1 & ! sew+ be+ ripp$ op51 !y are wa%$ & scrap$ clean1 & hung up to dry1 mak+ :at are call$ cru/-roans4 ,! dye+ is sometimes done by bru%+ on a table1 gra9-side upw>ds1 b m usually ! sk9s are fold$ closely d[n ! back1 fle%-side inw>ds1 s z to protect x z mu* z possible f ! influ5ce ( ! col\r1 & !n pass$ ?r\gh ! dye-ba?1 :i* is n[ g5]ally ( anil9e col\rs4 ,! orig9al ori5tal me?od ( manufacture = r$ morocco 0 to dye ) co*9eal be=e tann+1 & ?is is /ill cu/om>y 9 ! ,ea/1 b is q obsolete 9 ?is c\ntry4 ,a gra9 or poli% is giv5 to ! lea!r1 ei!r by bo>d+1 or by work+ "u small p5dulum roll]s1 call$ jigg]s1 :i* are engrav$ ei!r ) grooves or ) an imitation ( gra94 ,a well-clean$ suma*-tann$ sk9 is capable ( be+ dy$ 9 ! f9e/ %ades ( col\r2 & ?is bran* ( ! manufacture ( lea!r has be5 br\ght to great p]fection4 ,,*apt] ,,xvi4 ,,russia ,,lea!r 7,g]41 ,ju*t5l$]74 ,?is is tann$ 9 ,russia )1 ! b>k ( v>i\s species ( will[1 popl> & l>*1 ei!r by lay+ away 9 pits1 or h&l+ 9 liquors1 mu* l o!r light lea!rs1 ! lime be+ fir/ remov$ by bat+1 ei!r 9 a dr5* ( rye- & oat-meal & salt1 by dogs' dung1 or by s\r liquors4 ,aft] tann+1 ! hides are aga9 s(t5$ & cleans$ by a weak dr5* ( rye- & oat-meal4 ,!y are !n %av$ d[n1 c>efully sleek$ & sc\r$ out1 & dri$4 ,! peculi> od\r is giv5 by saturat+ !m ) bir*-b>k oil1 :i* is rubb$ into ! fle%-side ) clo?s4 ,?is oil is produc$ by dry di/illation ( ! b>k & twigs ( ! bir*4 ,! r$ col\r is giv5 by dye+ ) ,brazilwood2 & ! diamond-%ap$ m>k+ by roll+ ) groov$ roll]s4 ,mu* ( ! lea!r n[ sold z ,russia is produc$ 9 ,g]many1 ,france1 & ,engl&4 ,x is tann$ 9 ! cu/om>y way1 occasionally ) will[1 b m g5]ally ) oak-b>k1 & probably o!r mat]ials4 ,economy w\ld sugge/ ! use ( su* mat]ials z1 f _! r$ col\r1 are objectionable = o!r purposes1 & !re=e *eap4 ,! curry+ is 9 ! usual mann]1 c>e be+ tak5 t ! oil us$ does n /rike ?r\gh to ! gra91 :i* w\ld prev5t x tak+ ! dye4 ,! col\r is giv5 by gr\nd+ ) a solution ( *loride ( t9 7#ajj p>ts t9 p]*loride1 #cj p>ts nitric acid1 #be p>ts hydro*loric acid1 all[$ to /& "s days1 & ! cle> solution p\r$ (f1 & mix$ ) #ab volumes ( wat]74 ,! dye-liquor may be compos$ ( #gj p>ts rasp$ ,brazilwood1 #c p>ts t>t>1 & #dbj p>ts wat]1 boil$ toge!r1 /ra9$1 & all[$ to settle cle>4 ,! gr\nd+ & dye+ are done on a table ) a bru% or sponge 7see ,glove-kid dye+1 p4 #bbi74 ,! od\r is communicat$ by rubb+ ! fle%-side ) a mixture ( fi%-oil & bir*-b>k oil1 :i* sometimes conta9s no m ?an #e p] c5t4 ( ! latt]4 ,illu/ration3 ,,pl4 ,,vii4 ,e4 ,f4 ,n4 ,spon1 ,london ,new ,york ,,ink-,,photo ,,sprague ,,co ,,london ,,tread+ ,,& ,,dye+ ,,! ,,sk9s4 ,,*apt] ,,xvii4 ,,*amois ,,or ,,wa%-,,lea!r4 ,?is lea!r1 :i* is rem>kable = its s(t felty texture1 :i* x reta9s ev5 aft] wett+1 al?\gh p]fectly por\s & free f greas9ess 9 its f9i%$ /ate1 is prep>$ by ! action ( oil on ! raw sk94 ,wa%-lea!r 0 =m]ly manufactur$ f %eep- & calf-sk9s1 & f ^? ( ! *amois1 & v>i\s de] 7h5ce ! "n71 f :i*1 aft] lim+1 ! gra9 0 remov$ 7friz$7 ) a %>p knife1 ei!r ) ! hair1 or aft] unhair+4 ,! fle%-splits ( %eep-sk9s are n[ g5]ally employ$ = ord9>y wa%-lea!r1 & ( c\rse no su* process is ne$$1 ?\gh buff-lea!r = belts & milit>y purposes is /ill s manufactur$4 ,! sk9s receive a ?or\gh lim+1 :i*1 :]e s(tness is desir$1 is s conduct$ z v ?or\ghly to remove ! cem5t-sub/ance 7cori97 f betwe5 ! fibres2 & ?is removal is frequ5tly c>ri$ /ill fur!r by a %ort bran-dr5*1 :i* also secures ! complete abs5ce ( lime4 ,aft] ! usual beam-"w1 ! sk9s are press$ or wrung out to remove surplus wat]1 & :ile /ill moi/ are oil$ on a table & fold$ 9 cu%ions4 ,fi%-1 seal-1 or :ale-oil is g5]ally us$1 & vegetable oils d n seem to answ] ev5 9 mixture1 ) ! exception p]haps ( olive-oil4 ,! sk9s are next /ock$ = #b-c h\rs1 %ak5 out1 & hung up = #a_/b-a h\r to cool & p>tially dry4 ,!y are !n aga9 fold$ 9 bundles1 & /ock$ = a %ort "t1 tak5 out1 oil$ aga91 & return$ to ! /ocks2 & ?is process is repeat$1 until ! sk9s lose _! orig9al smell ( lim$ hide1 & acquire a peculi> mu/>d-l od\r1 & ! wat] at fir/ pres5t has be5 entirely replac$ by oil4 ,! lat] dry+s are frequ5tly conduct$ 9 a heat$ room1 & :5 ! oil+ is complete1 ! sk9s are pil$ on ! floor1 & ! oxidation ( ! oil1 :i* has already comm5c$ dur+ ! full+s & dry+s above describ$1 is complet$ by a sort ( f]m5tation1 9 :i* ! sk9s heat v consid]ably4 ,dur+ ?is process1 !y are c>efully wat*$1 & if ! heat rises s high z to endang] ! quality ( ! lea!r1 ! pile mu/ be turn$ ov]1 s z to cool ! sk9s1 & br+ ^? :i* 7 orig9ally outside to ! c5tre4 ,:5 ! f]m5tation comes to an end1 ! sk9s are no long] susceptible ( heat+1 & are ( ! well-kn[n yell[ or *amois col\r4 ,:]e ?is col\r is objectionable1 ! oxidation is sometimes complet$ by hang+ ! lea!r 9 a heat$ room in/ead ( by pil+4 ,x is n[ necess>y to remove ! surplus oil1 & ?is 9 ,france is done by oil+ ) any sort ( oil1 ?r[+ into hot wat]1 & wr++ or squeez+4 ,! oil obta9$ 9 ?is way =ms ! mollon or dgras s mu* priz$ = curry+ purposes4 ,! unoxidis$ oil /ill reta9$ by ! sk9s is remov$ by wa%+ ) soda or pota% lye4 ,9 ,engl& & ,g]many1 ! :ole ( ! uncomb9$ oil is remov$ 9 ?is way1 & is recov]$ f ! lye1 9 :i* x exi/s 9 a p>tially saponifi$ /ate1 by neutralisation ) sulphuric acid4 ,x =ms ! sod oil ( comm]ce4 ,ab\t half ! oil employ$ is ob/9ately reta9$ by ! sk91 & _c be remov$ ev5 by boil+ ) alkalies1 :ile no gelat9 is obta9$ by boil+ wat]1 to :i* ! *amois$ sk9 is mu* m resi/ant ?an ord9>y lea!r4 ,! nature ( ! tann+ process does n seem to be well und]/ood4 ,x is g5]ally /at$ t ! fibres ( ! sk9 are unalt]$1 b are m]ely coat$ ) ! oxidis$ products ( ! oil4 ,x is h>d1 h[ev]1 on ?is hypo!sis to und]/& _! extraord9>y indiff]5ce to wat]1 ev5 at a boil+ temp]ature1 :i* spe$ily conv]ts kid & o!r taw$ lea!rs into a solution :i* gelat9ises on cool+2 & x seems m probable to ! pres5t writ] t "s actual *emical comb9ation is =m$4 ,lietzman 7',h]/ellung d] ,l$]1' p4 #afd7 supposes t ! :ole ( ! gelatig5\s tissue has be5 remov$ by lim+ & bat+1 & t only ! v indiff]5t yell[ ela/ic fibres 7see p4 #ba7 rema94 ,?is view1 h[ev]1 is q unt5able1 9 consid]ation ( ! v small proportion ( ^! fibres orig9ally pres5t 9 ! sk94 ,mntz1 9 8 rese>*es 7see p4 #ag71 %[$ t ! fibres insoluble 9 boil+ wat] sc>cely exce$$ #c p] c5t1 ( ! dri$ pelt4 ,dry gelatig5\s fibre has a consid]able resi/ance to heat1 & x is possible t ! action ( ! oil may consi/ 9 prev5t+ ! absorption ( wat]4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 w n expla9 its resi/ance to alkalies4 ,cotton or o!r vegetable fibres moi/5$ ) oil1 readily und]go oxidation1 ) s mu* evolution ( heat z sometimes to cause spontane\s combu/ion2 b ! oxidation products are easily & completely remov$ by alkal9e solutions1 leav+ ! fibre 9 its orig9al /ate1 z inde$ is not$ by ,lietzman 7loc4 cit474 ,! f9i%+ processes consi/ 9 /ak+ dur+ dry+ to reta9 s(tness1 & 9 :it5+ & smoo?+ ! fle% 7or sometimes bo? sides7 on ! fluff+ :eel4 ,sk9s = gloves1 c41 are blea*$ l l951 by spr9kl+ & exposure to ! sun2 or m rapidly by treatm5t ) a weak solution ( pota% p]manganate1 & subsequ5tly ) sulphur\s1 or v dilute sulphuric acid1 to remove ! br[n mangan\s oxide =m$ 7,b>reswil1 ,d+l4 ,polyt4 ,j\r41 #afa1 #cab74 ,gase\s sulphur\s acid f burn+ sulphur may also be us$ = blea*+4 ,! dye+ ( *amois lea!r is g5]ally done ) o*res & simil> col\r+ matt]s1 & may be remov$ by wa%+4 ,treatm5t ) egg-yolk 9 wat]1 or ) an emulsion ( olive-oil ) a little soap1 & rubb+1 or /ret*+1 w re/ore s(tness to *amois lea!r :i* has become /iff by wa%+4 ,,*apt] ,,xviii4 ,,cr[n ,,lea!r1 ,,or ,,prell]',s ,,lea!r4 ,! process ( manufacture ( ?is lea!r1 :i* has obta9$ a firm position z ! mo/ suitable mat]ial = c]ta9 classes ( belt+1 pick]-/raps1 c41 0 discov]$ ab\t #ce ye>s s9ce by ,!odor ,klemm1 a cab9et-mak] 9 ,wurtemburg & f\nd] ( ! pres5t well-kn[n firm ( lea!r manufactur]s1 ,gebrd] ,klemm ( ,pfull+54 ,klemm1 at t "t 9 poor circum/ances1 sold 8 pat5t 9 ,p>is to an ,engli%man1 ,prell]1 :o />t$ a manufacture ( x 9 ,s\?w>k & adopt$ a cr[n z 8 trade-m>k4 ,s9ce ?is "t ! manufacture has spread1 fir/ to ,switz]l& & !n ?r\gh ,g]many2 b 9 ,engl&1 to ! writ]'s k1 x is conf9$ to "o or two firms4 ,! process ( manufacture ( cr[n lea!r is 9 pr9ciple int]m$iate betwe5 t ( calf-kid 7see p4 #bbc71 & ! pure oil-tann+1 if we may call x s1 ( :i* ! *amois lea!r 7see p4 #baj7 is typical4 ,x dep5ds on impregnat+ ! raw hide ) a mixture ( fats & album5s1 to :i* salt or saltpetre is add$ to prev5t putrefaction4 ,! process z describ$ 9 ! orig9al pat5t 0 z foll[s1--,! hides 7 unhair$ by lim+ or pa9t+ 7) sulphides71 & cleans$ z usual1 no plump+ lime be+ giv54 ,aft] unhair+ !y 7 all[$ to dry "s little "t 9 ! air till no long] plump1 & 7 !n work$ 9 a tumbl] drum1 )\t wat]1 till uni=mly s(t4 ,!y 7 !n spread on a table & bru%$ ov] on ! fle%-sides ) a mixture ( #bc p>ts ( ox-bra91 #f-a_/b ( butt]1 #bh ( s(t fat1 & #d ( salt or saltpetre1 ) #bf ( b>ley-fl\r & #ab-a_/b ( milk1 ( :i* ! lead+ #d +r$i5ts 7 fir/ to be mix$ & ! fl\r /irr$ 91 ! milk be+ la/ add$4 ,! hides 7 !n return$ to ! tumbl]1 :i* 0 provid$ ) tubul> axes1 ?r\gh :i* a portion ( exhau/ /eam 0 admitt$ to w>m ! drum4 ,aft] tumbl+ "s h\rs1 ! drum 0 op5$1 & ! hides 7 exam9$4 ,if ! tann+ 0 n complete1 ! hides 7 hung 9 ! air = a "t to dry1 & ! process 0 repeat$ till a cut %[$ t ! mixture _h completely p5etrat$ ! hide4 ,f ,eitn]'s rese>*es x appe>s t ! ess5tial tann+ +r$i5ts ( ! mixture above describ$ are ! fat 7& butt] :i* acts simply z fat7 & ! album9\s matt] ( ! milk 7case971 bra9s 7album51 c471 & fl\r 7glut572 ! />* s]v+ at mo/ to assi/ 9 ! emulsification ( ! fats4 ,eitn] treat$ cr[n lea!r ) dilute pota% solution to remove ! album5 & fats1 & aft] wa%+ & dry+ obta9$ a mat]ial l an insuffici5tly /ock$ *amois lea!r4 ,on aga9 /uff+ ) a quantity ( fat equal to t remov$1 b )\t ! album51 ! lea!r became d>k & q greasy1 s t by %>p b5d+ oil c\ld be press$ out4 ,good results may be obta9$ 9 cr[n lea!r manufactur$ ) fats & fl\r only1 )\t ! use ( milk or bra9s1 s t x is obvi\s t ! same purpose is s]v$ by ei!r vegetable or animal album5oids4 ,! mo/ important po9t 9 ! purposes = :i* cr[n lea!r is employ$ is t\ghness1 & ?is is giv5 by ! unalt]$ hide-fibres1 :i* are m]ely pres]v$ by ! coat+ ( oily matt] ) :i*1 l ^? ( *amois lea!r1 !y are surr\nd$4 ,! album5 s]ves ! purpose ( fill+ ! spaces betwe5 ! fibres1 & giv+ solidity & firmness1 s t ! belts may keep _! %ape1 & n /ret* inord9ately4 ,x also s]ves to make ! lea!r wat]pro(1 & fit x = wat]-bags = milit>y purposes 7z x gives no ta/e to ! wat]7 & = hose-pipes4 ,! album51 :i* mu* resembles ! hide-fibres 9 composition1 is l !m pres]v$ by ! fats4 ,= ! mod]n process ( manufacture1 good1 ev5 & well-flay$ hides are select$1 & unhair$ ei!r by sweat+1 or by a v %ort lim+1 :i* mu/ be assi/$ by rock]s or "s me*anical mode ( mov+ ! hides1 s z to get !m unhair$ 9 ! %orte/ possible "t & ) ! lea/ injury to ! fibre4 ,sodium sulphide 7see p4 #adg7 may be employ$ ) great advantage4 ,! fle%+ & scudd+ are p]=m$ z usual1 accord+ to ! mode ( unhair+ adopt$4 ,! hides are !n v commonly r\nd$1 & ! bellies tann$ 9 ! usual mann]2 b sometimes ! :ole hide is made into cr[n lea!r4 ,z cr[n lea!r is naturally almo/ :ite1 x is usual at ?is /age to col\r ! hide ) b>k or o!r liquors4 ,z 9 ?is case simply col\r+ & n tann+ ( ! gra9 is requir$1 high-col\r$ liquors1 made by /eam+ mat]ials ) mu* col\r & little tann91 are pref]able4 ,= ?is purpose wood extracts1 su* z *e/nut1 quebra*o1 or oak-wood are said to be v suitable1 & bee*1 p9e or ald] b>k may also be us$4 ,9 practice1 *e/nut & hemlock extracts1 & occasionally cut* are employ$2 b ! la/ nam$ is n to be recomm5d$4 ,a *e/nut liquor ( #g-a_/b ,tw4 or #e ,b4 7#cd ,b>k471 ) con/ant h&l+ or 9 a paddle-tumbl]1 w give a satisfactory col\r & gra9 9 #a-b h\rs4 ,?is rapid col\r+ is pref]able to ! sl[] process1 :i* occupies #bd h\rs 9 weak] liquors4 ,if sweat$1 ! hides are n[ plump$ ) sulphuric acid1 b only to a v mod]ate ext5t4 ,?is process is be/ p]=m$ 9 a paddle-tumbl]2 ab\t #c-a_/b oz4 ( sulphuric acid are requir$ p] hide1 & a "t ( #f-ab h\rs accord+ to ! wat] employ$4 ,! liquor may be sev]al times us$1 /r5g!n$ ) ! necess>y quantity ( acid4 ,lim$ hides d n require fur!r swell+4 ,! hides are wa%$ ?r\gh clean wat]1 & hung up to dry some:at4 ,! hides are next spread on a table1 fle%-side upp]mo/1 & cov]$ ) a lay] ( ! tann+ pa/e ne>ly #a_/d 94 ?ick4 ,! composition ( ?is pa/e may be v>i$ accord+ to ! relative prices ( diff]5t mat]ials1 & ! am\nt ( h>d fats mu/ be regulat$ accord+ to :e!r or n appliances are provid$ = heat+ ! tumbl]4 ,a good mixture is #g p>ts common :eat-fl\r1 #g ( horse-grease1 #a ( salt1 & #a-b ( tall[4 ,if too s(t1 m tall[ may be employ$4 ,! salt is fir/ add$ to ! horse-grease1 !n ! melt$ tall[1 ,^! fats are add$ little by little to ! fl\r till a uni=m pa/e is obta9$4 ,ano!r good mixture is #bg p>ts :eat-fl\r1 #be ( bone-grease1 #d ( tall[1 & #d ( salt4 ,ano!r recipe gives #bh lb4 f9e :ite fl\r made to a pa/e ) #ac-ad p9ts wat] & !n work$ up to a uni=m mass ) a tepid mixture ( #bh lb4 beef tall[ & #bh lb4 h>d horse-fat 7,pf]dekammfett74 ,^! mixtures are all = use 9 w>m$ drums2 a specim5 ( "o us$ 9 a factory :]e ! mixture 0 simply trodd5 9 cold into ! lea!r 9 op5 tubs is z foll[s3--#g p>ts fl\r1 #id ( horse-fat1 #bh ( fi%-oil1 #g ( ox-bra9s & #jg ( salt4 ,! hides are next fold$ 9 bundles & plac$ 9 ! drum2 or 9 /ocks1 :i* are occasionally us$ = ! purpose4 ,if a drum be us$1 x mu/ be ( l>ge diamet]1 #h-i ft41 provid$ ) pegs inside1 & %\ld make ab\t #be revolutions p] m9ute1 s z to "w ! hides ) consid]able =ce4 ,mu* m c>e is ne$$ 9 w>m+ ! drum1 ?an is requir$ 9 ord9>y /uff+1 & ?is is be/ accompli%$ by w>m$ damp air4 ,?is may be arrang$ by ! use ( an air-pump1 :i* draws air ?r\gh wat] w>m$ by exhau/ /eam1 & =ces x ?r\gh ! holl[ axles ( ! drum 7or drums72 or a simple aspirator consi/+ ( a cask fill$ ) wat] may be connect$ to "o axle1 s t z ! wat] runs out x w draw air ?r\gh ! drum f ! opposite axle1 :i* is connect$ ) a cask half fill$ ) hot wat] ?r\gh :i* air is all[$ to bubble4 ,probably ! same effect c\ld be rea*$ 9 a /ill simpl] & *eap] mann] by ! use ( a /eam-jet bl[]1 su* z ,krt+'s4 ,9 any case ! drum mu/ be w>m$ to a temp]ature ( #hb-ajd ,f4 7#bh-dj ,c474 ,w>m dry air may also be us$1 b is n s suitable1 z x dries ! hides too mu*4 ,! hides are tumbl$ #h-ab h\rs1 hung up till half-dry1 & ! process is repeat$4 ,= v heavy hides1 #d tumbl+s may be requir$4 ,9 ! lat] tumbl+s1 a l[] temp]ature1 #ie ,f4 7#ce ,c471 may be employ$1 & ! "t ext5d$ to #ae h\rs4 ,! curry+ ( cr[n lea!r is v simple4 ,x is set out on fle% & gra91 & bo>d$ to raise ! gra94 ,mossn]1 be=e curry+1 wa%es #b h\rs 9 wat] & bru%es ) tepid soda solution 7#a 9 #fj74 ,! yield ( weight is small1 only am\nt+ to ab\t #cj-dj p] c5t4 ( ! raw hide employ$1 & h5ce ! price p] lb4 mu/ be consid]ably high] ?an t ( tann$ lea!r to yield a pr(it4 ,! above in=mation is mo/ly drawn f articles by ,w4 ,eitn] 7',d] ,g]b]1' iv4 #a et seq47 & ,franz ,ka?re9] 7',g]b] ,zeitung1' #ba/ ,decemb]1 #ahge74 ,,*apt] ,,xix4 ,,m9]al-,,tann$ ,,lea!r4 ,! inv5tion ( ! e>lie/ =m ( m9]al tann+1 t ) alum & salt1 dates f remote antiquity2 b z x is 9 l>ge measure ! type ( all t has be5 s9ce done1 x des]ves exam9ation 9 "s detail1 at lea/ z reg>ds pr9ciples4 ,9 practice x is us$ alone 9 cur+ sk9s ) ! hair on1 & = mak+ :ite lea!r = laces & o!r purposes2 &1 9 comb9ation ) oil & album51 :i*1 z we h se51 are ! tann+ ag5ts 9 ! case ( cr[n lea!r1 x =ms ! process = produc+ calf & glove kids1 z w be describ$ "u ^? head+s 7pp4 #bbc1 #bbe74 ,c>eful rese>*es by ,reim] 7,d+4 ,polyt4 ,j\r41 #bje1 p4 #adc et seq47 %[ 7:at has long be5 kn[n 9 practice7 t alum alone is n capable ( mak+ a pliable lea!r4 ,! salt1 nev]!less1 does n ent] into comb9ation ) ! alum1 or ev5 ) ! hide4 ,its function is p>tially physical1 increas+ ! diffusion ( ! solution1 & p>tially *emical1 z 9 ! pres5ce ( acids 7& salts ( acid reaction7 x precipitates ! cori91 & prev5ts x f glu+ ! fibres into a horny mass z x dries4 ,pr(4 ,knapp has %[n t ?is is ! fir/ ess5tial 9 produc+ lea!r1 & t raw hide may be conv]t$ into a pliable mat]ial ) all ! prop]ties ( :ite lea!r by simply )draw+ ! wat] ) alcohol1 9 :i* cori9 is n soluble1 & by :i* x is !re=e precipitat$4 ,?is lea!r1 conta9+ :5 dri$ no add$ con/itu5t1 is ( c\rse at once reconv]t$ into raw hide by soak+ 9 wat]4 ,bo? ! salt & a portion ( ! alum9a is remov$ f taw$ lea!r by soak+ 9 wat]1 & x !n dries h>d & horny1 & by boil+ 9 wat] w yield a consid]able p]c5tage ( gelat94 ,! alum is n absorb$ z a :ole4 ,x is a d\ble salt 7alum9a & pota% sulphate or alum9a & ammonia sulphate71 & only ! alum9a sulphate is absorb$1 pota% 7or ammonia7 sulphate accumulat+ 9 ! liquor4 ,! alum9a salt reta9$ by ! hide1 especially 9 pres5ce ( mu* salt1 conta9s slightly m ?an its normal proportion ( alum9a to acid1 or 9 *emical language is to "s ext5t basic4 ,?is is caus$ p>tly by ! lime rema9+ 9 ! sk9 f ! unhair+ process1 :i* neutralises a portion ( sulphuric acid1 b 9 "p is ! result ( ! aff9ity ( ! hide-fibres = alum9a1 a c]ta9 small proportion ( free sulphuric acid be+ left 9 ! liquor4 ,! accumulation ( ?is & ( pota% sulphate is ! reason :y su* liquors _c be us$ p]petually by m]e /r5g!n+ ) alum1 b mu/ be frequ5tly r5ew$4 ,! attraction ( hide-fibre = alum9a sulphate is s /rong1 t 9 pres5ce ( a suffici5t excess ( hide x may be completely remov$ ev5 f dilute solutions4 ,alum9a acetate or sulphate may be sub/itut$ = alum ) equally good results 9 practice1 ! only advantage ( ! latt] be+ its easi] prep>ation4 ,f]ric & *romic salts & iron or *rome alum1 may be sub/itut$ = common alum1 & are absorb$ 9 a simil> mann]1 & 9 pres5ce ( common salt give equally pliable lea!rs1 ( a buff & pale gre5i% t9t respectively4 ,)\t salt1 ! lea!rs are h>d & brittle4 ,9 all ^! cases1 ! tann+ ag5t may be to a l>ge ext5t remov$ by simple wa%+ ) wat]4 ,! tannage may be r5d]$ m durable by pass+ ! lea!r be=e dry+ ?r\gh a weak ba? ( sodic c>bonate or ev5 lime-wat]1 :i* precipitates ! alum9a1 iron1 or *rome 9 a basic =m on ! hide-fibres4 ,soap ba?s may also be us$1 by :i* alum9ic1 f]ric1 or *romic /e>ates & oleates are =m$1 possess+ consid]able t\ghness & resi/ance to wat]4 ,s f> z ! writ] is aw>e1 no m9]al tannage has yet be5 produc$ :i* w n yield gelat9 :5 treat$1 fir/ ) dilute acid & !n ) boil+ wat]2 b ?is is r a ga9 ?an o!rwise1 z lea!r scraps might be utilis$ = glue4 ,!re seems no reason :y good & durable lea!r1 = boot-upp]s & = _m me*anical purposes1 %\ld n be fabricat$ ) salts ( iron & *romium 9 conjunction ) salt4 ,if eggs & fl\r 7 also us$1 products simil> to calf-kid w\ld be obta9$4 ,iron-lea!rs may ( c\rse be black$ ) infusions ( galls or _m tann+ mat]ials1 or ) logwood4 ,f]r\s salts h no tann+ prop]ties4 ,if1 in/ead ( us+ neutral iron salts1 basic f]ric salts 7:i* may be obta9$ by dissolv+ f]ric oxide 9 solution ( neutral f]ric salts1 or by oxidis+ f]r\s sulphate ) manganese black oxide1 or nitric acid7 be employ$1 mu* l>g] quantities are absorb$ by ! hide1 & if ?is be fix$ ) soap ba?s & f9i%$ ) a mod]ate quantity ( oil1 a ga9 ( weight--approa*+ #ej p] c5t4 ( ! f9i%$ lea!r1 or ab\t ! same z t giv5 by b>k1 may be obta9$4 ,! lea!r1 h[ev]1 has by no means ! same resi/ance to wet & decay z b>k-tann$ lea!r1 & inv>iably has a t5d5cy to crack :5 %>ply b5t4 ,! process has be5 mo/ c>efully work$ out by ,pr(essor ,knapp1 & 0 pat5t$ & work$ comm]cially = a %ort "t 9 ,brunswick1 b app>5tly )\t f9ancial success4 ,pr(essor ,knapp's me?od is z foll[s3--,! iron solution is prep>$ by add+ nitric acid to a boil+ solution ( f]r\s sulphate 7gre5 vitriol7 till ! iron is completely oxidis$ to ! f]ric condition4 ,to ?is1 f]r\s sulphate is aga9 add$ s long z x cont9ues to cause eff]vesc5ce4 ,! result+ solution is a cle> orange1 & ( m or less syrupy consi/5ce1 & may be evaporat$ )\t decomposition or cry/allisation to a transp>5t v>ni%4 ,! hides are unhair$ & prep>$ = tann+ 9 ! usual way1 & are !n h&l$ 9 solutions ( ! iron salt1 :i* are at fir/ weak1 & are gradually /r5g!n$4 ,sk9s are tann$ 9 #b-c days1 & ! heavie/ hides 9 a week4 ,aft] tann+1 ! hides are /uff$ 9 a drum v5tilat$ ?r\gh ! axes1 v simil> to t describ$ "u cr[n lea!r1 p4 #bac1 ) an insoluble iron-soap made by precipitat+ soap solution ) ! iron-liquor2 or ! iron-soaps may be =m$ 9 ! hide by ! alt]nate use ( iron & soap solutions1 z already describ$4 ,! lea!r is f9ally saturat$ ) a solution ( /e>9 & p>aff91 to r5d] x wat]pro(4 ,a process :i* has be5 work$ on a l>g] scale1 is t ( ,dr4 ,he9z]l+1 introduc$ ab\t #ahgh1 ) ! usual promise ( complete revolution 9 ! lea!r trade2 b :i*1 9 spite ( ! mo/ det]m9$ & p]sev]+ ef=ts ( ! ,egl9ton ,*emical ,company1 :o own ! ,engli% pat5t1 has fail$ to take any v prom95t position 9 comm]ce4 ,! tann+ mat]ials employ$ are alum & salt1 ) a v>y+ proportion ( pota%1 soda1 or magnesia bi*romate4 ,^! salts h a v m>k$ h>d5+ effect on animal tissues1 &1 :5 mix$ ) gelat9 & expos$ to light or act$ on by acids1 become r$uc$1 & at ! same "t r5d] ! gelat9 insoluble ev5 9 hot wat]1 a prop]ty :i* is made useful 9 _m photographic processes4 ,?is is probably due to ! =mation ( salts ( *romium1 :i*1 z has be5 /at$ 7p4 #bai7 h a simil> tann+ effect1 b p]haps m p[]ful1 ?an ^? ( alum9a4 ,h[ev] ?is may be1 ! effect ( pota% bi*romate :5 expos$ to light ) gelat91 diff]s f t ( ! addition ( *rome salts ready =m$1 ! gelat9 9 ! fir/ case becom+ incapable ( ev5 swell+ 9 hot wat]1 :ile 9 ! second1 ?\gh r5d]$ insoluble1 x becomes s(t & swoll54 ,! use ( pota% bi*romate 9 tann+ _h be5 previ\sly pat5t$ by ,caval91 :o us$ x 9 conjunction ) alum & salt1 & ) ! addition ( a portion ( gre5 vitriol1 to give ! lea!r a col\r m simil> to t ( b>k-tann$4 ,dr4 ,he9z]l+ uses metallic z9c 9 ! salt & alum solution to assi/ 9 ! precipitation ( amorph\s alum9a on ! hide-fibres4 ,! same mat]ial 0 us$ 9 a simil> way by ,j5n+s 7,no4 #bbie1 #ahfa71 b ) ! object ( :it5+ ! goods4 ,yell[ or r$ prussiates ( pota% 7potassic f]rocyanide or f]ricyanide71 are also sometimes mix$ ) ! solution1 9 ord] to enable ! lea!r to be black$ ) iron-liquor1 ) :i* !y produce prussian blue4 ,to fix ! tannage on ! fibre1 & prev5t its wa%+ out1 ! use ( b>ium *loride1 lead acetate1 & ( soap solution is claim$2 ! latt] hav+ be5 also pat5t$ = simil> purposes by ,knapp1 & subsequ5tly by ,j5n+s & o!rs4 ,9 ord] to r5d] ! lea!r wat]pro(1 x is f9ally saturat$ ) solutions ( p>aff91 /e>91 & o!r fats & hydroc>bons 7res9 is employ$1 ?\gh n nam$ 9 ! pat5t71 9 petroleum _s & simil> solv5ts4 ,su* is ! orig9al pat5t1 :i*1 x w be se51 is r a comb9ation ( old] processes ?an an orig9al discov]y4 ,:e!r x is /ill work$ on ! same l9es ! writ] is unable to say1 b he is aw>e t consid]able improvem5ts h be5 made 9 ! f9i% & appe>ance ( ! goods4 ,! lea!r 9 its pres5t =m possesses consid]able resi/ance to wat]1 is free f ! brittl5ess s common 9 m9]al tannages1 & l o!r alum$ lea!rs1 consid]ably exce$s b>k-tann$ lea!r 9 t\ghness & ela/icity4 ,^! make x valuable = _m purposes1 & among o!rs1 = ma*9e-belt+1 al?\gh x has ! disadvantage ( elongat+ consid]ably :ile 9 use4 ,,*apt] ,,xx4 ,,calf-,,kid4 ,calf-kid is us$ = light upp]-lea!r1 & belongs to a diff]5t class f any yet describ$1 be+ taw$ in/ead ( tann$4 ,9 ?is respect1 & 9 mo/ details ( its manufacture1 x resembles glove-kid4 ,! process is z foll[s4 ,select$ calf-sk9s1 dri$ or salt$1 are ! raw mat]ial1 & aft] a suitable s(t5+ 9 fre% wat]1 are lim$ = #b-c weeks1 or till ! hair goes easily4 ,!y are !n unhair$ & fle%$ 9 ! usual mann]1 pur$ ) a bate ( dogs' dung1 scudd$1 & aga9 cleans$ ) a bran dr5*4 ,9 ,g]many1 ! bran dr5* is us$ alone1 & is compos$ ( #cc lb4 bran to #ajj m$ium sk9s4 ,be=e use1 ! bran %\ld1 especially 9 summ]1 be well wa%$1 to free x f adh]+ meal4 ,! temp]ature ( ! dr5* %\ld n exce$ #ajj ,f4 7#ch ,c471 & ! sk9s %\ld rema9 9 = #h-aj h\rs4 ,lactic acid is produc$ by f]m5tation2 ?is removes lime1 & is itself neutralis$ by ! products ( putrid f]m5tation :i* succe$s x4 ,! tann+ is accompli%$ 9 a drum ) a mixture ( alum & salt2 & aft] dry+1 ! sk9s are aga9 moi/5$1 & work$ 9 ! drum ) a mixture ( oil1 fl\r1 & egg-yolk4 ,9 ! ,g]man me?od1 ^! two op]ations are comb9$4 ,eitn]1 :o has writt5 a s]ies ( articles on ! process1 gives #dj lb4 fl\r1 #bj lb4 alum1 #i lb4 salt1 #bej eggs1 or ab\t #a-a_/c gal4 ( egg-yolk1 #g_/h p9t 7#a_/b litre7 ( olive-oil1 & #ab-af gal4 wat]1 z a suitable mixture4 ,! sk9s are work$ 9 a drum-tumbl] 7pref]ably a squ>e "o1 see ,plate #e7 = #bj m9utes1 !n all[$ to re/ #aj m9utes1 & ?is process is twice repeat$4 ,! temp]ature mu/ n exce$ #ajj ,f4 7#ch ,c471 & x is said to be important t ! drum %\ld be v5tilat$ by holes at ! axis4 ,! sk9s are all[$ to dra91 are !n rapidly dri$ at a temp]ature ( #adj-afj ,f4 7#fj-ga ,c471 &1 aft] samm+1 or damp+ ) cold wat]1 are /ak$ by draw+ !m to & fro ov] a blunt knife fix$ on ! top ( a po/ 7see ,plate #f74 ,!y are !n wett$ d[n & %av$1 ei!r ) ! moon-knife or ord9>y curri]s' %av+-knife1 & sometimes receive a second dress+ ( oil1 fl\r1 & egg1 to s(t5 !m /ill fur!r4 ,dye+ black is accompli%$ ei!r by bru%+ on a table1 or by ridg+ or fold+1 gra9-side outw>ds1 & draw+ quickly ?r\gh ba?s ( ! mordant & col\r4 ,to prep>e !m = ! col\r1 /ale ur9e is g5]ally employ$4 ,a deep] col\r1 & "o less liable to /rike ?r\gh ! sk91 is obta9$ by add+ #a_/d lb4 pota% bi*romate to #d gal4 ( ur9e1 or ! foll[+ mixture may be sub/itut$ ) advantage1 viz4 #a_/b lb4 ,m>seilles soap dissolv$ 9 boil+ wat]1 #e or #f egg-yolks add$1 & ! :ole made up to #d gal4 ) wat] & #a_/d lb4 pota% bi*romate4 ,! col\r us$ is infusion ( logwood or its extract1 or two-?irds logwood1 :i* is be/ extract$ by /ale ur9e or old soak-liquor1 ) addition ( a small quantity ( soda 7#a lb4 to #be lb4 dye-wood74 ,x is fix$ & d>k5$ by a wa% ( iron-liquor 7#a ( iron protosulphate 9 #ge ( cold wat]74 ,aft] be+ aga9 dri$1 ! sk9s are gr\nd$ ) ! moon-knife1 & rubb$ ov] on ! gra9 ) a composition conta9+ oil1 wax1 c41 & are f9ally iron$ ) a flat-iron1 to give !m a f9e & smoo? surface4 ,eitn] gives a recipe = ! gloss3--#a lb4 gum arabic1 #a_/b lb4 yell[ wax1 #a_/b lb4 beef-tall[1 #c_/d lb4 ,m>seilles soap1 #b lb4 /rong logwood infusion1 & #a gal4 wat]4 ,! wat] is br\ght to a boil 9 an e>!n pot1 & !n ! soap1 wax1 gum1 & tall[ are add$ successively1 ea* be+ /irr$ till dissolv$ be=e add+ ! next1 & la/ly ! logwood4 ,aft] boil+ = an h\r1 x is all[$ to completely cool1 be+ incessantly /irr$ dur+ ! :ole process4 ,,*apt] ,,xxi4 ,,glove-,,kid4 ,?is bran* ( lea!r manufacture is ma9ly c>ri$ on 9 ,g]many1 ,au/ria1 & ,france4 ,9 ,g]many & ,au/ria1 lamb-sk9s are pr9cipally employ$2 9 ,france1 kid-sk9s4 ,= f9e gloves1 ! sk9s ( v "y animals only c be us$4 ,! ord9>y /yle ( manufacture is z foll[s3--,! soak+ ( ! dri$ sk9s is effect$ 9 l>ge wood5 tubs 7,kuf51 ,botti*571 & occupies on ! av]age #c-d days1 accord+ to ! "* ( ! soak-wat]1 ! size ( ! sk9s1 & ! "t !y h be5 /or$4 ,! sk9s1 :5 ?or\ghly & uni=mly s(t5$1 are unhair$1 ei!r by pa9t+ ! fle%-side ) a ?9 pa/e ( lime1 or 9 lime-pits4 ,9 unhair+ by pa9t+ 7,s*wd571 ! sk9s1 aft] coat+ ! fle%-side ) lime1 are fold$ toge!r1 s t ! lime comes z little z possible into contact ) ! wool1 & ^! bundles or cu%ions are plac$ 9 a tub1 9 :i* !y are mo/ frequ5tly cov]$ ) wat]4 ,aft] unhair+ on ! beam ) a blunt knife1 ! sk9s mu/ be lim$ = "s days1 9 ord] t ! lea!r may /ret* well1 a quality :i* ! ,g]mans d5om9ate ,zug4 ,by ?is me?od ( unhair+1 ! wool is pres]v$ un9jur$1 b x is n suitable = ! f9] sorts ( lea!r4 ,! unhair+ 9 lime-pits is done ei!r ) gas-lime 7,grnkalk71 or1 z is n[ almo/ exclusively ! practice1 ) ! s-call$ poison-limes 7,gifts*]74 ,^! are prep>$ by mix+ r$ ars5ic 7ars5ic sulphide7 ) lime1 :ile x is be+ slak$1 & is at its hotte/4 ,! calcic sulphydrate 7& p]haps sulph>s5ite7 ?us =m$ ha/5s ! unhair+1 & gives ! gra9 a high] gloss4 ,well-conduct$ e/abli%m5ts n[ avoid z mu* z possible ! use ( old limes1 :i* produce a loose1 por\s lea!r1 ) a r\gh1 dull gra94 ,! lim+ la/s on ! av]age #aj days1 & is ( ! greate/ importance4 ,x is ess5tial t ! int]fibrill>y sub/ance %all be dissolv$1 t ! lea!r may h ! quality kn[n z ,/&1 t is to say1 may be /rongly /ret*$ 9 ei!r l5g? or bread? )\t spr++ back4 ,x also dep5ds ^u ! lim+ 7& ?is is ( special importance 9 ! case ( lamb-sk9s71 :e!r ! tissue ( ! fat-gl&s is well loos5$1 s t ! fat1 ei!r z su*1 or z lime- or ammonia-soap1 may be readily & completely work$ out4 ,sk9s 9 :i* ?is is neglect$ c nev] be prop]ly dy$4 ,:5 ! hair 7or wool7 is well loos5$1 ! sk9s are r9s$ 9 wat]1 & !n unhair$ on ! beam ) a blunt knife4 ,! wat] employ$ 9 wa%+ %\ld n be mu* cold] ?an ! limes1 or x w prev5t ! hair f com+ away readily4 ,! wool or hair is wa%$ & dri$ = sale4 ,! sk9s are ?r[n into wat]1 to :i* a little lime-liquor has be5 add$1 to prev5t precipitation ( ! lime 9 ! sk9s by ! free c>bonic acid ( ! wat]1 :i* w\ld h ! effect ( mak+ !m r\gh-gra9$4 ,next comes ! fir/ fle%+ 7,v]glei*57 or levell+4 ,by ?is1 ! loose cellul> tissue on ! fle%-side is remov$1 toge!r ) ! head1 e>s1 & %anks1 & ! flanks are trimm$4 ,! sk9s are !n aga9 ?r[n into wat]1 s(t5$ ) lime-liquor z above describ$1 & !n into a bate ( dogs' dung4 ,?is is prep>$ by /irr+ up :ite & putrid dogs' dung ) boil+ wat]1 & /ra9+ x ?r\gh a sieve or wick] basket4 ,! bate mu/ be us$ tepid1 & n too /rong4 ,! sk9s fall 7lose _! plumpness7 9 x rapidly1 & become extremely s(t & f9e to ! t\*2 & ! fat-gl&s1 rema9+ hairs1 & o!r dirt1 c n[ be v readily scudd$ out4 ,s f> no completely satisfactory sub/itute has be5 f\nd = ?is some:at disgu/+ mixture1 b x has be5 not$ t guano w produce simil> effects4 ,) reg>d to ! mode ( action ( ! dung bate1 mu* has be5 speculat$ )\t pro(1 & exact analytical evid5ce is want+2 b1 no d\bt1 a weak putrefactive action goes on1 z may be d$uc$ f ! pres5ce ( bact]ia2 fur!r1 ! ammonia & weak organic acids pres5t 9 ! putrefy+ dung are capable ( act+ on fat & lime2 & f9ally1 a direct me*anical effect seems to be produc$1 difficult to describe1 b fav\rable to ! succe$+ manipulation4 ,too /rong bates1 or too long cont9uance 9 !m1 produces evid5t putrefactive effects on ! sk9s4 7,see also p4 #ahd47 ,:5 ! sk9s come out ( ! bate1 !y are /ret*$ & work$ 7abgezog57 on ! fle% ) a %>p knife1 & any rema9+ subcutane\s tissue is remov$4 ,?is con/itutes ! second fle%+4 ,!y are !n r9s$ 9 w>m wat]1 & beat5 ) clubs 7,/oss-keule71 see ,plates #c & #d1 9 a tub1 or work$ 9 a tumbl]-drum 7,walkfass71 9 ei!r case ) a v little wat] only2 & f9ally br\ght into a tank ( wat]1 n too cold1 & kept 9 con/ant motion ) a paddle-:eel4 ,! sk9s are next cleans$ on ! gra9-side by work+ on ! beam ) plates ( vulcanite ) wood5 h&les1 s z to remove fat1 lime- & ammonia-soaps1 & o!r lime comp\nds1 toge!r ) all rema9+ hair or wool4 ,! sk9s are n[ a second "t wa%$ 9 ! paddle-tumbl]1 fir/ 9 cold1 & !n 9 tepid wat]2 & aft] all[+ ! wat] to dra9 f !m1 !y are transf]r$ to ! bran dr5*4 ,?is is prep>$ by soak+ :eat5 bran 9 cold wat]1 dilut+ ) w>m wat]1 & /ra9+ ! extract ?r\gh a f9e hair-sieve4 ,suffici5t ( ! liquid mu/ be employ$ to well cov] ! sk9s1 & ! temp]ature may range f #ej ,f4 7#aj ,c47 to #fh ,f4 7#bj ,c474 ,^! conditions are fav\rable to bact]ial activity1 :i* comes into play1 &1 on ! "o h&1 evolves =mic1 acetic1 lactic1 & butyric acids1 :i* dissolve any rema9+ traces ( lime1 & on ! o!r1 loos5s & diff]5tiates ! hide tissue1 s z to fit x to absorb ! taw+ solution 7,g>e74 ,mu* c>e is requir$ 9 ! managem5t ( ! bran dr5*1 especially 9 summ]1 s9ce ! lactic readily passes into ! butyric f]m5tation 7see also p4 #ahf74 ,! taw+ mixture is compos$ 7l t employ$ 9 ! fabrication ( calf-kid1 q4 v47 ( alum1 salt1 fl\r1 & egg-yolks1 9 a q ?9 pa/e4 ,! sk9s are ei!r trodd5 9 x ) ! feet1 or put into a tumbl]-drum ) x 7,fig4 #dh74 ,ka?re9] po9t$ out1 "s ye>s s9ce 79 vol4 i4 ( ',d] ,g]b]'71 t a mixture ( olive-oil & glyc]9e might be p>tially sub/itut$ = ! egg-yolks1 9 bo? ! tann+ & dye+ ( glove-kid lea!r4 ,! taw$ sk9s are n[ dri$ by hang+ on poles1 gra9 inw>ds4 ,rapid dry+ 9 well-v5tilat$1 b only mod]ately-heat$1 rooms is ess5tial to ! manufacture ( a satisfactory product4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ei4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fj4 ,! dry lea!r is rapidly pass$ ?r\gh tepid wat]1 & aft] be+ hung = a v %ort "t1 to all[ ! wat] to dra9 (f1 is trodd5 tightly into *e/s1 & all[$ to rema9 9 !m = ab\t #ab h\rs1 s t ! moi/ure may be uni=mly di/ribut$4 ,x is !n trodd5 on hurdles 7,hord571 compos$ ( squ>e b>s ( wood1 jo9$ corn] to corn]1 s z to make a floor ( %>ply angul> ridges1 ,fig4 #ei4 ,! next op]ation is /ret*+ ov] a circul> knife1 call$ ! ,/ollmond 7/oll51 ,eng4 /ak+71 %[n 9 ,fig4 #fj2 !n ! lea!r is dri$ ne>ly completely1 & /ak$ aga94 ,dye+4 ,! dye+ ( glove-kids is done 9 #b ways3--a4 ,! sk9s are plung$ into ! dye-ba? 7,tunkf>b574 ,9 ?is way1 all light col\rs are ord9>ily produc$1 su* z gris-p]le 7pe>l-grey71 paill 7/raw-yell[71 *amois 7r$di% yell[71 silv]-grey1 aquam>9e1 c4 b4 ,! sk9s are spread on an incl9$ or r\nd$ table ( /one or metal1 & bru%$ ov]1 on ! gra9 side1 fir/ ) a mordant 7,beize71 !n ) ! dye-liquor1 & la/ly1 ) a solution ( a m9]al salt 7,plate #g74 ,! mordant s]ves to fix ! col\r on ! surface ( ! sk91 to prev5t its /rik+ ?r\gh1 to produce c]ta9 modifications ( col\r1 & to enable any p>ts ( ! sk9 :i* yet conta9 fat to take ! col\r ev5ly ) ! re/4 ,to satisfy ^! conditions1 ! composition ( ! mordants is v v>i$4 ,pota% bi*romate1 ammonia1 pota%1 soda1 & /ale ur9e are among ! mo/ frequ5tly employ$1 seldom sep>ately1 b usually 9 a mixture conta9+ #b or m4 ,dye-/uffs ( vegetable orig9 h always held ! fir/ place4 ,^? mo/ 9 use are logwood 7,blauholz71 ,brazilwood 7,ro?holz71 ! two fu/ics--,cuba ,gelbholz 7,morus t9ctoria7 & ,ung>is*es ,gelbholz 7,rhus cot9us71 sev]al species ( will[-b>k & ( b]ries1 indigo-c>m9e1 & indigo dissolv$ 9 sulphuric acid4 ,anil9e col\rs us$ alone rema9$ 9 fa%ion = a %ort "t only1 b are n[ usefully employ$ z top-col\rs 7,ueb]f>b571 viz4 bru%$ 9 v dilute solution ov] vegetable col\rs4 ,9 ?is way1 p>ticul>ly ta/eful %ades ( gre51 violet1 & m>9e-blue may be produc$4 ,aft] ! mordant has be5 appli$ once or twice1 & ! col\r #c-f times1 a wa% 7,ueb]/ri*7 conta9+ "s metallic salt is g5]ally appli$1 ) ! object ei!r ( br++ out ! special tone requir$1 or ( mak+ ! col\r m lively & p]man5t4 ,! s-call$ vitriols are mo/ly employ$3 :ite vitriol 7z9c sulphate71 blue vitriol 7copp] sulphate71 gre5 vitriol 7iron sulphate71 & occasionally o!r salts4 ,be=e dye+1 ! great] "p ( ! fl\r1 salt1 & alum mu/ be remov$ f ! sk9s by wa%+ ) tepid wat]2 & !y !re=e require a second fe$+ 7,nahrung7 ( egg-yolk & salt4 ,9 ! case ( ! sk9s :i* are dy$ by plung+ into ! dye-vat 7,tunkf>b571 ?is is done aft] ! dye+ is complet$2 9 t ( bru%-dye+1 be=e ! dye+ process4 ,aft] ! dye+1 ! sk9s1 if dipp$1 are wrung out2 if bru%-dy$1 sleek$ out ) a brass plate1 to get rid ( sup]flu\s wat]4 ,!y are !n dri$ 9 an airy room4 ,be=e /ak+ 7/ret*+71 ! sk9s are laid or hung 9 a damp cell>1 or 9 moi/ saw-du/4 ,!y are /ak$ twice3 once damp1 & once ne>ly dry4 ,sk9s :i* are mu* damag$ on ! gra91 or o!rwise faulty1 are smoo!d ) lump pumice on ! fle%-side1 ei!r by h& or ma*9e4 ,!y are !n dy$ on ?is side1 mo/ly by dipp+1 b occasionally ) ! bru%1 9 :i* case1 ! me?od describ$ is slightly modifi$4 ,indebt$ness is ackn[l$g$ to ,f4 ,ka?re9]1 ( ,worms1 & ,david ,ri*>dson1 ( ,newca/le1 = mu* in=mation on ! production ( light lea!rs4 ,! ,plates #a to #h repres5t ! works ( ,messrs4 ,trf\sse et ,cie41 at ,*aumont 7,haute-,m>ne74 ,,*apt] ,,xxii4 ,,con/ruction ,,& ,,ma9t5ance ,,( ,,tann]ies4 ,z few ar*itects h specially /udi$ ! con/ruction ( tann]ies1 & 9 mo/ cases mu* ( ! arrangem5t dep5ds on ! k ( ! tann] himself1 a %ort *apt] on ! subject w n be out ( place4 ,9 ! selection ( a site1 a clay or loamy soil is to be pref]r$ to a gravelly or s&y "o1 z less5+ ! liability to leakage1 & wa/e ( liquor4 ,p]haps1 h[ev]1 ! fir/ consid]ation ( all is ! wat] supply1 s9ce = manufactur+ purposes t[n wat] is g5]ally v exp5sive4 ,) reg>d to quality & impurities ( wat]1 in=mation may be f\nd on p4 #hc2 b1 z a g5]al rule1 ! s(t] & pur] ! supply ! bett]4 ,x is also ( great advantage :5 ! s\rce is at su* a level z to fl[ into ! tan-y>d1 or at lea/ into ! beam-h\se1 )\t pump+4 ,filtration too1 :5 ne$$1 is mu* facilitat$ by a suffici5t head ( wat]4 ,( sc>cely less importance ?an ! wat] supply is ! dra9age ( ! y>d4 ,x n unfrequ5tly happ5s t tann]ies are prohibit$ f dis*>g+ _! refuse liquors1 limes1 & soaks into riv]s & wat]c\rses1 & x is sometimes a matt] ( extreme difficulty to f9d any o!r way ( gett+ rid ( !m4 ,9 default ( an outlet1 rec\rse mu/ be _h to precipitation & filtration1 b ?is is a co/ly exp$i5t1 & 9 fix+ a site = a new y>d x is f> bett] to provide aga9/ su* a possible cont+5cy4 ,%\ld1 h[ev]1 su* means become necess>y1 x may be borne 9 m9d t limes & liquors 9 great measure mutually precipitate ea* o!r1 & t if all ! v>i\s refuse is run into "o tank1 mix$1 & settl$1 mu* is accompli%$ 9 ! direction ( purification4 ,! fur!r treatm5t ( ! efflu5t wat] mu/ be det]m9$ by its nature & composition4 ,! site *os51 ! next "q is ! arrangem5t ( ! build+s4 ,x is v d\btful1 :]e gr\nd is n inord9ately exp5sive1 :e!r x is wise to erect dry+-%$s ov] ! pits4 ,9 case ( fire1 v s]i\s damage is done to liquor & lea!r by ! heat & burn+ timb]4 ,if ! turret =m ( dri] be decid$ on1 /rong f\ndations are requir$1 & ! gr\nd-floor or basem5t is occupi$ ) heat+ app>atus2 &1 on ! o!r h&1 ! tan-h\se may be easily & *eaply cov]$ ) slat$ ro(s1 ) sections ( glass1 to ! nor?1 if possible1 l a weav+-%$1 ?r\gh :i* suffici5t light = conv5i5t "w & cleanl9ess is admitt$4 ,! direct rays ( ! sun %\ld be avoid$1 b 9 ! writ]'s op9ion ! balance ( advantage is l>gely 9 fav\r ( a lib]al supply ( light4 ,iron ro(s are unsuitable1 s9ce ! moi/ure cond5ses on1 & ru/s !m2 & p>ticles ( oxide fall into ! liquors1 & cause iron-/a9s4 ,good v5tilation along ! ridge ( ! ro( %\ld be provid$1 :]ev] !re is any /eam or hot liquor us$2 or ! cond5s$ moi/ure soon leads to decay4 ,z reg>ds ! g5]al plan ( ! build+s1 mu* dep5ds on local circum/ances2 b z f> z possible1 !y mu/ be s arrang$ t ! hides & lea!r "w /raight =w>d f "o dep>tm5t to ano!r ) z little :eel+ or c>ry+ z possible2 t ! build+s :]e p[] is us$ be ne> to ! eng9e1 s z to avoid long transmissions1 :i* are v wa/eful ( p[]2 & t ! diff]5t build+s be s isolat$ z to dim9i% ! risk ( ! :ole be+ de/roy$ 9 case ( fire4 ,z reg>ds ! fir/ ( ^! conditions1 if ! v>i\s soaks1 limes1 bates1 & h&l]s are well arrang$1 x is h>dly necess>y to d m ?an draw ! goods f "o pit into ! next ?r\gh\t ! :ole ( ! process4 ,to1 & f ! lay]s1 ! goods mu/ g5]ally be c>ri$ or :eel$4 ,9 ! %$s1 if x be a sole-lea!r tann]y1 ! butts %\ld fir/ come into turrets or op5 %$s = ! r\gh dry+2 !n into a room %elt]$ f draughts to temp] = /rik+4 ,! /rik+ ma*9es or beams %\ld be 9 an adjo9+ room1 or imm$iately bel[2 !n a small %$-space = dry+ be=e roll+2 next ! roll] room2 & !n ! w>m /ove = dry+ (f4 ,if two ( ^! c be provid$ to be us$ alt]nately1 x w all[ ! goods to be air$ (f )\t tak+ d[n1 & !y may !n be imm$iately h&$ or l[]$ into ! w>eh\se1 )\t fe> ( ov]-dry+1 :i* is sometimes difficult to avoid :]e lea!r mu/ be tak5 direct out ( ! hot dry+-room4 ,to fulfil ! second condition nam$1 ! eng9e %\ld be at ! c5tre ( ! ma9 range ( build+s1 ) p]haps ! gr9d+ ma*9]y on "o side1 & ! lea!r-f9i%+ on ! o!r2 b ?is w\ld be r contr>y to ! ?ird requirem5t4 ,a v good plan w\ld be to h ! eng9e-h\se 9 ! c5tre z sugge/$1 b sep>at$ f ! build+s on ea* side by brick gables2 & ) ! boil]-h\se beh9d x1 & "u a sep>ate ro(1 say ( corrugat$ iron4 ,figs4 #fa1 #fb1 f ,eitn]'s book on ,am]ican ,tann+1 %[ ! arrangem5t ( a sole-lea!r tann]y 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,if x be impossible to h ! eng9e ne> its "w1 x is 9 mo/ cases bett] to employ a sep>ate high-pressure eng9e1 :i* may be )9 a glass p>tition1 & w "w all day ) sc>cely any att5tion4 ,! loss ( p[] 9 c>ry+ /eam = mod]ate di/ances ?r\gh suffici5tly l>ge & well-clo!d pipes is mu* small] ?an t ( long l9es ( %aft+4 ,! writ] has kn[n cases :]e fully half ! indicat$ p[] ( ! eng9e 0 consum$ 9 friction ( ! eng9e1 %aft+1 & belts4 ,high-pressure eng9es are z a rule to be pref]r$ to cond5s+ = tann]y use1 s9ce ! wa/e /eam c g5]ally be employ$ = heat+1 & bo? ! fir/ co/ & t ( ma9t5ance are small]4 ,:]e mu* fuel is us$1 x is q wor? :ile to h ! cyl9d]s indicat$ occasionally1 bo? runn+ light1 & driv+ ! ma*9]y2 mu* in=mation is ga9$ 9 ?is way z to ! p[] sp5t on ! v>i\s ma*9es1 & v frequ5tly l>ge economy is effect$ by prop] adju/m5t ( ! valves4 ,to "w economically1 an eng9e %\ld be ( ample p[] = all x has to d2 & adju/$ to its "w1 n by l[]+ ! pressure ( /eam1 or by *eck+ x at ! ?rottle-valve1 b by sett+ ! slide-valves to cut (f z e>ly 9 ! /roke z may be4 ,z to h[ e>ly ?is is possible1 an indicator-diagram w at once give in=mation4 ,9 arrang+ %aft+1 mod]ate spe$s1 say #ajj-aej rev4 p] m941 %\ld be *os5 = ma9 l9es1 & :5 high] spe$s are necess>y1 !y %\ld be got up by light & well-balanc$ c\nt]-%afts1 ) wr\ght-iron pulleys4 ,9 calculat+ spe$s1 x mu/ be rememb]$ t !y v>y inv]sely z ! size ( ! pulleys4 ,?us a #c ft4 pulley runn+ at #ajj rev41 w drive a #b ft4 "o at #aej rev41 & a #ab 94 "o at #cjj4 ,( c\rse ! high] its spe$1 ! m p[] any %aft w transmit1 b increas$ friction & we> & te> soon limit ?is advantage4 ,! velocity ( a belt 9 feet p] m94 is obta9$ by multiply+ ! numb] ( revolutions p] m9ute by ! gir? ( ! pulley 9 feet or by its diamet] multipli$ by #c-a_/g1 or m accurately1 #cadaf4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fa4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fb4 ,pulleys %\ld always be ( ample bread? = ! p[] !y h to transmit2 & x is m economical bo? 9 p[] & co/1 to use broad s+le belt+ ?an ! same /r5g? 9 d\ble4 ,if ! pulley w n take a belt broad en\gh = ! "w x has to d1 a second belt may be made to run on ! top ( ! fir/1 & w d its %>e ( ! "w4 ,belts %\ld be wa%$ occasionally ) soap & tepid wat]1 & oil$ ) cod-oil2 b if ( suffici5t bread?1 %\ld n require ! use ( ros91 or adhesive mat]ials1 to make !m grip ! pulley4 ,mak]s ( ma*9es (t5 err 9 con/ruct+ _! driv+ pulleys too small bo? 9 bread? & diamet]4 ,! horse-p[] :i* a belt is capable ( transmitt+ obvi\sly v>ies extremely ) circum/ances1 b may be approximately calculat$ by ! =mula 7a v7_/#ffjjj1 :]e a is ! area ( contact ( ! belt ) ! smalle/ pulley1 & v its velocity 9 feet p] m9ute4 ,ano!r rule is1 t at a velocity ( #ajjj ft4 p] m94 ea* in* ( bread? ( belt %\ld transmit #b-a_/b horse-p[] on metal pulleys1 or #e on wood5 ones1 on :i* ! adhesion is great]4 ,adhesion may also be increas$ by cov]+ ! pulleys ) lea!r or india-rubb]4 ,bo? rules assume t ! belt is ( ample /r5g?4 ,"o horse-p[] w\ld be transmitt$ by a belt runn+ #ajjj ft4 p] m94 ) a pull ( #cc lb4 ,a good s+le belt %\ld n break ) a mu* less /ra9 ?an #ajjj lb4 p] in* ( bread?1 & %\ld /& ab\t #a_/aj z mu* z a work+ /ra94 ,c\nt]%aft+ & high-spe$ ma*9]y1 su* z dis9tegrators1 /rik+ ma*9es ( ! ,prie/man type1 c41 %\ld run )\t mat]ial j> or vibration4 ,if ?is occurs1 x is g5]ally a sign t ! runn+ "p is n equally balanc$4 ,9 ?is case1 ! %aft mu/ be tak5 out ( its be>+s1 & support$ on two exactly horizontal /raight-edges1 :5 x w roll till ! heavie/ "p is d[nw>ds2 & weight mu/ be tak5 (f or add$ till x w lie 9 any position4 ,9 ?is way1 ! writ] _h rec5tly to add fully #b lb4 ( iron to ! drum ( a /rik+ ma*9e be=e equilibrium 0 secur$1 & a mo/ tr\blesome vibration prev5t$4 ,( c\rse all ma*9]y %\ld be support$ z solidly z possible2 & if circum/ances p]mit1 mo/ ma*9es are bett] on a gr\nd-floor4 ,9 plac+ b>k mills1 h[ev]1 x is frequ5tly conv5i5t to fix !m 9 ! top ( a build+1 s t ! gr\nd mat]ial may be s5t d[n %oots by its own weight to ! requir$ places4 ,an alt]native plan is to set ! mill on ! gr\nd-floor1 & to raise ! gr\nd mat]ial ) a bucket-elevator4 ,?is may be done successfully by lett+ ! mat]ial fall directly f ! mill into ! buckets2 b o!rwise x mu/ be ?r[n 9 ) a %ovel1 z buckets w n pick up gr\nd b>k1 ev5 f a hopp]2 & 9 any case su* elevators are (t5 tr\blesome4 ,9 a gr9d+ plant design$ by ! writ]1 ! ungr\nd mat]ial is fill$ on ! basem5t floor into an iron b>r[1 :i* may be :eel$ into an iron b[ work+ betwe5 upright guide-rails4 ,on pull+ a brake-l9e1 ! b>r[ is rais$ to ! top ( ! build+1 & its cont5ts are tipp$ into a l>ge hopp]1 aft] :i* ! b>r[ rights itself1 & desc5ds = ano!r load4 ,9 ! bottom ( ! hopp] is a slid+ %ov]1 :i* =ces ! mat]ial on to vibrat+ scre5s1 by :i* x is guid$ ei!r into a dis9tegrator1 or cru%] rolls1 at pleasure4 ,bo? ^! dis*>ge ?r\gh iron sp\ts into l>ge hopp]s on ! outside ( a brick gable1 f :i*1 p[d]y mat]ials l myrabolanes & valonia1 c be run direct into b>r[s or trucks4 ,x is v desirable t su* hopp]s %\ld be sep>at$ f ! ma9 build+ by a firepro( p>tition4 ,! writ] is glad to say1 he does n "k ( a case ( fire f dis9tegrators gr9d+ tann+ mat]ials1 b he is in=m$ t a ,c>t]'s dis9tegrator employ$ 9 gr9d+ bones 9 a manure works has repeat$ly set fire to ! flannel bag into :i* ! du/ 0 all[$ to escape4 ,if ?is 7 to occur ) a dry & du/y tann+ mat]ial1 x is n unlikely t x might result 9 an explosion su* z sometimes happ5s 9 fl\r-mills f a simil> cause4 ,on ! :ole1 h[ev]1 mills ( ! c(fee-mill type are probably m dang]\s ?an dis9tegrators2 s9ce if !y become p>tially *ok$1 ! heat caus$ by friction is v great4 ,= lubricat+ purposes1 m9]al oils ( high d5sity are n m dang]\s ?an animal or vegetable1 b r ! rev]se2 z1 ?\gh !y are possibly m inflammable1 _! mixture ) cotton-wa/e & o!r por\s vegetable mat]ials is n spontane\sly combu/ible1 :ile vegetable & animal oils occasionally are4 ,heavy m9]al oils %\ld always be us$ z cyl9d] oils 9 high-pressure eng9es1 9 pref]5ce to o!r oils or tall[1 s9ce !y are n decompos$ by /eam1 & d no h>m if bl[n into ! fe$-wat]1 b s]ve to loos5 & prev5t scale & deposit4 ,ord9>y oils & tall[1 on ! o!r h&1 :5 submitt$ to ! action ( high-pressure /eam1 are sep>at$ into glyc]9 & fatty acids 7see p4 #fj71 & ! latt] corrode ! valve faces & seat+s1 & 9 comb9ation ) tempor>y h>dness 9 ! boil]s =m a v dang]\s por\s deposit1 :i* (t5 leads to ov]heat+ ( ! tubes4 ,next to ! ma*9]y1 ! pits dem& special consid]ation4 ,! *apt] on ! subject 9 ,mr4 ,s*ultz's book on ',lea!r ,manufacture1' is well wor? att5tive /udy z giv+ ,am]ican practice on ! subject4 ,! old-fa%ion$ me?od ( s9k+ pits is to make !m ( wood1 & c>efully puddle !m r\nd ) clay1 :i* %\ld be well work$ up be=e use4 ,su* pits1 if made ( good p9e & kept 9 con/ant use1 are v durable1 "s ( ! orig9al pits at ,l[lights ,tann]y1 con/ruct$ 9 #agfe1 be+ /ill 9 use4 ,loam mix$ ) wat] to ! consi/5ce ( ?9 mort> may also be employ$1 ! pits be+ fill$ up ) wat]1 to keep !m /eady1 at ! same rate z ! loam is run 94 ,probably ! be/ mat]ials = pit-sides are ! l>ge ,york%ire flag/ones4 ,:]e ^! are n atta9able1 v durable pits may be made ( brick1 ei!r built ) ,lias lime1 & po9t$ ) ,portl& cem5t1 or built entirely ) ! latt]4 ,common lime _c be us$1 z x spoils bo? liquors & lea!r2 & ev5 cem5ts ) too l>ge a p]c5tage ( lime are unsatisfactory4 ,brick & common mort> are1 h[ev]1 suitable = lime-pits4 ,! writ] has con/ruct$ wood5 pits 9 two ways4 ,9 ! "o case1 aft] mak+ ! excavation1 beams 7 laid 9 a well-puddl$ b$ ( clay2 on ^! a floor ( /rong tongu$ & groov$ deals 0 laid1 & on ?is ! pits 7 con/ruct$ ( simil> wood to ! floor1 & puddl$ r\nd ) clay4 ,9 ! second case ! pits 7 built l l>ge boxes above gr\nd1 & :5 f9i%$1 l[]$ on to a b$ ( clay prep>$ = !m1 & !n puddl$ bo? ar\nd & betwe54 ,x may h be5 f defective workman%ip 9 ! fir/ case1 b ^? made on ! la/-nam$ plan1 :i* is t adopt$ f v e>ly times1 h c]ta9ly prov$ ! tighte/ & mo/ satisfactory4 ,mr4 ,s*ultz describes a plan z ! ,buffalo me?od1 9 :i* a floor is laid z j describ$1 & grooves cut ) a plane = ! reception ( ! sides1 :i* are =m$ ( p]p5dicul> planks1 ea* end & side be+ f9ally tight5$ up by ! ins]tion ( a w$ge plank4 ,if bricks be us$1 great c>e mu/ be tak5 t ! cem5t is n m]ely laid s z to fill ! jo9ts t[>ds ! two surfaces ( ! wall1 z is ! habit ( mod]n bricklay]s1 b actually float$ into all ! jo9ts s z to make ! wall a solid mass2 or leaks c h>dly be avoid$4 ,cem5t pits are v good1 &1 ?\gh n p>ticul>ly *eap 9 mat]ial1 :i* mu/ be ( ! be/1 are readily made by intellig5t lab\r]s "u good sup]vision4 ,! fir/ /ep is to lay a level floor ( good concrete1 9 :i* glaz$ pipes = empty+ ! pits may be emb$d$2 c>e be+ also tak5 t all jo9ts 9 ^! are ?or\ghly tight1 s9ce future repairs are impossible4 ,! next /ep is to make frames1 ! exact l5g? & bread? ( ! pits requir$1 & p]haps #ae 94 deep4 ,^! are arrang$ on ! floor :]e ! pits are to be1 & ! int]v5+ spaces are fill$ ) concrete ( p]haps #a ( cem5t to #c or #d ( cru%$ /one or brick4 ,r\gh /ones & bricks may also be b$d$ 9 ! concrete z ! "w goes on1 to help to fill up4 ,aft] ! fir/ lay] has set1 ! frames may be rais$ & a second add$1 & s on4 ,! "w is g5]ally f9i%$ by float+ ov] x1 :ile /ill damp1 a little pure cem5t1 to give a smoo? surface4 ,be=e us+1 ! cem5t %\ld be tri$ on a small scale1 to be sure t x does n discol\r lea!r or liquors1 & ! pits %\ld always be season$ ) old or *eap liquor be=e actual use4 ,if possible1 bo? lat*es & h&l]-pits %\ld be provid$ ) plugs & und]gr\nd pipes1 communicat+ ) a liquor-well "s feet bel[ _! levels4 ,glaz$ fire-clay is v suitable bo? = pipes & plug-holes1 :i* %\ld be 9 ! pit corn]s4 ,"s means %\ld also be provid$ = ! ready cle>+ ( ! pipes :5 *ok$ ) tann+ mat]ials4 ,a good plan is to let ea* l9e ( pipes end 9 a liquor-well l>ge en\gh = a man to g d[n4 ,z x is almo/ impossible to make plugs fit )\t occasional leakage1 x is n well to run pits ) v diff]5t /r5g?s ( liquors to "o well1 b ! lay]s1 h&l]s1 & diff]5t sets ( lea*es %\ld ea* h _! own1 s z to avoid mixture4 ,a good means ( cle>+ pipes consi/s 9 a s]ies ( iron rods #c-d ft4 long1 connect$ by hooks fitt+ into d\ble eyes1 z %[n 9 ,fig4 #fc4 ,x is obvi\s t 9 a n>r[ pipe or dra91 ^! _c become disconnect$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fc4 ,x is1 z ,s*ultz po9ts out1 ( que/ionable advantage to lay wood5 tr\ghs = supply+ liquor to ea* pit "u ! alleys1 s9ce x is almo/ impossible to pres]ve !m f decay2 b ! same objection w\ld n apply to glaz$ pipes1 well clay$ or cem5t$4 ,a v good & *eap plan 9 practice1 is to let ! liquor-pump1 or a rais$ liquor-ci/]n1 dis*>ge into a l>ge & q horizontal tr\gh rais$ #e or #f feet above ! level ( ! y>d1 & provid$ ) plug-holes at int]vals1 "u :i* %ort tr\ghs may be set to run ! liquor into ! v>i\s pits4 ,illu/ration3 ,,pl4 ,,viii4 ,e4 ,f4 ,n4 ,spon1 ,london ,new ,york4 ,,ink-,,photo4 ,,sprague ,,co4 ,,london4 ,,rubb+-,,d[n ,,dy$ ,,sk9s4 ,9 tan-y>d con/ruction1 iron %\ld1 z f> z possible1 be avoid$ :]ev] x c come into contact ) liquor1 z x discol\rs ! lea!r4 ,9 default ( und]gr\nd pipes1 india-rubb] suction hose may be employ$4 ,direct-act+ /eam pumps )\t fly-:eels are n suitable = tann]ies1 z !y hamm] :5 ! pit is ne>ly suck$ up4 ,/eam-jet elevators & ! pulsomet] are v useful = "s purposes1 b slightly w>m1 & dilute ! liquors ) cond5s$ /eam4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fd4 ,mu* t has be5 said ab\t pits applies also to lea*es4 ,!y may be con/ruct$ ei!r ( wood1 or brick & cem5t1 & :]e heat is employ$ ! latt] is ! bett]4 ,!y are also to be provid$ ) plugs & pipes lead+ to a liquor-well4 ,ab\t #f 94 f ! bottom ( ! pit is a false bottom ,b made ( bo>ds1 p]=at$ ) holes or set a little di/ance ap>t2 & 9 ! corn] is an eye ,c 7,g]4 ,pfaff7 consi/+ ( #b bo>ds set at "r angles1 s z to pres]ve a v]tical *annel communicat+ ) ! space "u ! false bottom4 ,?is s]ves1 9 pits provid$ ) pipes1 = ! ins]tion ( ! plug2 & :]e ?is is abs5t1 = t ( a suction hose to pump (f ! liquor4 ,9 ! ,am]ican ,press-leck ,sy/em1 ! eye ( "o pit communicates by a horizontal sp\t ) ! top ( ! next 7see ,d1 ,fig4 #fd74 ,! ,all5 & ,w>r5 ,spr9kl] ,leck 7,fig4 #fe7 has v mu* sup]s$$ ?is arrangem5t 9 ,am]ica1 ?\gh x is d\btful if x sp5ds ! b>k s completely4 ,! r\nd tubs1 h[ev]1 h sev]al advantages & may well be us$ = _m purposes 9 ,engli% y>ds4 ,_! con/ruction is describ$ 9 "s detail 9 ,mr4 ,s*ultz's book above cit$4 ,"s details w also be f\nd on p4 #bji ( ! ',manufacture ( ,lea!r' by ,davis4 ,! rule = f9d+ ! capacity ( a r\nd tub ) p]p5dicul> sides 9 cubic feet is to squ>e ! diamet] & multiply by #ghed1 & by ! dep? 9 feet2 or r\ghly1 to squ>e half ! diamet] & multiply by ! dep? & by #c-a_/g4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fe4 ,lea*es & liquors are g5]ally heat$ by bl[+ 9 /eam direct4 ,9 ?is case1 ! cond5s$ wat] mixes ) ! liquor1 & 9 heat+ a liquor to boil+ po9t x may be tak5 t ab\t #bj p] c5t4 ( wat] w be ?us add$4 ,:]e /rong liquors are to be heat$1 x is !re=e obvi\sly mu* bett] to pass ! /eam into a clos$ copp] coil 9 ! liquor4 ,su* a coil1 ) /eam at #cj lb4 pressure1 w heat ab\t #bg-a_/b gal4 p] h\r p] squ>e foot ( surface f #df ,f4 to boil+1 & evaporate ab\t half t quantity ( liquor already at boil+ temp]ature4 7,see ,box1 ',treatise on ,heat1' p4 #agf47 ,heat+ coils mu/ ( c\rse be provid$ ) /eam traps to c>ry (f cond5s$ wat]2 & 9 boil+ by op5 /eam x is v desirable to let ! /eam pass ?r\gh su* a trap be=e use1 to /op wat] cond5s$ 9 ! pipes1 :i* usually conta9s iron1 & discol\rs ! liquors4 ,,*apt] ,,xxiii4 ,,dry+-,,%$s ,,= ,,lea!r4 ,! primitive way ( dry+ lea!r 0 to hang x on poles 9 ! op5 air1 b ?is 9 our unc]ta9 climate has become q obsolete4 ,! olde/ plan n[ actually 9 use is to hang on poles 9 a %$ g5]ally rais$ "s height above ! gr\nd1 s z to cat* ! w9d1 & provid$ on all sides ) l\vre bo>ds arrang$ s z to op5 & %ut z requir$4 ,^! %$s1 to give good results 7especially on mix$ tannages1 :i* ne$ mu* m c>e 9 dry+ ?an b>k71 dem& v wat*ful managem5t4 ,9 w9dy wea!r1 & ) wet lea!r at all times1 ! l\vres mu/ be kept ne>ly or q clos$1 & on ! sunny side ( ! %$ ! same precaution is g5]ally necess>y4 ,aga91 9 v damp wea!r ! lea!r does n dry at all1 & 9 fro/y seasons x is apt to freeze1 by :i* sole lea!r is made s(t & spongy1 & dress+ lea!r1 ?\gh :it5$1 is said to be less capable ( c>ry+ grease4 ,to prev5t freez+1 & to enable lea!r to be dri$ 9 damp or cold wea!r1 x became cu/om>y to provide %$s ) ranges ( /eam-pipes on ! floor2 ?is1 ?\gh decid$ly a valuable addition1 has n prov$ by any means an entirely satisfactory solution ( ! problem ( lea!r dry+4 ,no suffici5t means are provid$ = controll+ ! v5tilation1 & ! upw>d curr5ts ( hot air dry ! lea!r irregul>ly1 & produce bad col\r4 ,a mu* m satisfactory %$ is ! ,am]ican turret dri]4 ,?is consi/s ( a l(ty build+1 #c to #h /ories high1 )\t l\vres1 b ) lattic$ floors4 ,j4 ,s4 ,s*ultz recomm5ds #e /ories1 ( #g ft4 cle> betwe5 beams1 z a conv5i5t height1 & ! build+ %\ld be divid$ by p>titions f top to bottom into #d or m s]ies ( *amb]s "o above ano!r1 ea* ( :i* is capable ( hav+ ! heat & v5tilation sep>ately regulat$4 ,! ,am]icans usually fill "o ( ^! s]ies at once1 & dry (f ! :ole 9 ab\t #aj days1 s t z _m w be requir$ = a tann]y z w hold a #aj days' production4 ,= v5tilation1 ea* ( ^! sets ( *amb]s is provid$ ) a lant]n v5tilator at ! top = ! exit1 & %utt]s or damp]s on ! bottom floor = ! admission ( air4 ,! bottom floor is also provid$ ) /eam-pipes1 ( :i* ^? = ea* set ( comp>tm5ts are controll$ by a sep>ate cock4 ,:5 w>m? is appli$ at ! bottom1 ! tall build+ acts l a *imney1 & a cont9u\s curr5t ( air passes f ! v5tilators at ! base up to ^? at ! top4 ,! usual ,am]ican practice is1 aft] fill+ "o ( ^! ranges ( comp>tm5ts1 to apply no /eam-heat = ! fir/ #c or #d days1 &1 if ! wea!r be dry or w9dy to keep ! v5tilators also clos$4 ,aft] ! ?ird or f\r? day1 a mod]ate degree ( heat is giv51 & ?is is increas$ s t at ! end ( ab\t #aj days ! /ock is fully dry4 ,?is is 9 accordance ) a common ,am]ican practice1 9 :i* ! lea!r is fully dri$ be=e roll+1 9 ord] to fix ! soluble col\r1 & prev5t x /rik+ out to ! surface 9 ! f9i%+4 ,! wet lea!r is rais$ by an elevator1 consi/+ ( an endless *a9 provid$ ) hooks1 to :i* ! lea!r is atta*$ at ! bottom1 & f :i* x is tak5 at ! top4 ,v>i\s ways are adopt$ to l[] ! lea!r f ^! tall turrets to ! room :]e x is /or$ prior to damp+ d[n = roll+4 ,9 "s cases1 ! lattice floors are made movable1 & ! :ole cont5ts ( ! room1 includ+ ! /icks f :i* ! lea!r is hung1 are all[$ to fall into ! l[e/ room4 ,?is me?od is ( v que/ionable advantage1 if we take into acc\nt ! lab\r ( sep>at+ ! /icks & c>ry+ !m back to _! places4 ,ano!r plan is to h %oots f ea* l(t1 d[n :i* ! sides are slid to ! roll+-room4 ,! floors %\ld h :at light is necess>y suppli$ ?r\gh glass w9d[s1 s arrang$ z n to admit direct sunlight4 ,to adapt ! turret dri] = ,engli% requirem5ts1 "s slight modification is ne$$1 s9ce we d n dry our lea!r "r (f1 & !n damp back1 b1 :5 x is suitably dry1 lay x 9 a pile to sammy = /rik+2 !n1 p]haps1 aft] /rik+1 hang up aga9 = a %ort "t to temp] = roll+1 possibly aga9 betwe5 roll+s1 & f9ally to dry (f at a temp]ature (1 say1 #fh-gg ,f4 7#bj-be ,c474 ,p]haps on ?is acc\nt1 ! writ] has se5 no complete turret-dri]s 9 use 9 ,engl&1 ?\gh a portion ( "o ( ! l>ge %$s at ,d>t=d belong+ to ,messrs4 ,hepburn 0 conv]t$ by !m "s ye>s s9ce into a v good turret1 :i* gave excell5t results bo? = sole lea!r & kip butts 9 /uff4 ,?is turret is repres5t$ 9 section 9 ,fig4 #ff1 & is ab\t #ef ft4 #bd ft4 9 area1 & #ej ft4 high f ! gr\nd-l9e to ! top ( ! ro(1 :i* is v5tilat$ by a dorm]1 a1 ) fix$ l\vres at ! top1 :ile air is admitt$ at ! bottom ?r\gh v5tilators ) slid+ flaps1 b b4 ,x is heat$ by #aj r[s ( #d-;94 /eam-pipe1 c c1 ea* #ed ft4 long1 mak+ a total ( #edj ft4 run1 or ab\t #fdj ft4 sup]ficial 7a #d-;94 pipe be+ ab\t #d-e_/h 94 diamet] outside74 ,i am in=m$ by ,mr4 ,j4 ,g4 ,hepburn t he consid]s #d-;94 pipes inf]ior = ! purpose to small] ones1 giv+ too mu* heat 9 "o place1 & )\t suffici5tly di/ribut+ x1 & 7 he con/ruct+ a new turret he w\ld replace !m by #a-a_/b 94 wr\ght-iron1 us+ ab\t #c ( #a-a_/b 94 to replace #b ( #d 941 small pipes be+ mu* m effective 7z w be se5 by table1 p4 #bej7 ?an l>g] ones1 9 proportion to _! surface4 ,he consid]s1 h[ev]1 t ! be/ way ( heat+ dry+-%$s1 ?\gh m exp5sive 9 fir/ co/1 is by means ( hot wat]1 :i* is mu* m con/ant 9 temp]ature ?an /eam4 ,mr4 ,hepburn1 to :om ,i am mu* indebt$ = ! above in=mation1 in=ms me t ! turret /ill acts v well1 dry+ kip butts on ! upp] floor a good col\r 9 all wea!rs 9 ab\t a week4 ,he f9ds1 h[ev]1 t ! /eam-pipes z describ$ are h>dly suffici5t 9 v cold wea!r1 & int5ds to increase !m1 or replace ) #acjj-adjj ft4 ( hot wat] pipe heat$ by a saddle boil]4 ,at ,l[lights tann]y1 a %$ arrang$ on ! turret pr9ciple 7?\gh mu* less completely c>ri$ out f want ( height 9 ! build+s7 has be5 = _m ye>s 9 op]ation1 pr9cipally = dry+ (f sole-lea!r1 ) ! mo/ satisfactory results4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ff4 ,x is not$ by ,box 7',practical ,treatise on ,heat1' p4 #aff7 t an exit = ! moi/ air %\ld n be plac$ at ! top ( a dry+-*amb]1 b at ! bottom1 s9ce 9 ! fir/ case1 ! hot dry air t5ds to rise at once to ! op5+1 & pass away unsaturat$ ) moi/ure1 :ile t cool$ by evaporat+ wat] f ! goods1 be+ heavi]1 t5ds to =m d[nw>d curr5ts & rema9 9 ! *amb]4 ,to ?is x may be object$ t aque\s vap\r is mu* light] ?an air2 ?is is true1 o!r ?+s be+ equal1 b 9 practice ! evaporation ( a giv5 quantity ( wat] cools ! air & makes x heavi] 9 a mat]ially great] degree ?an ! admixture ( aque\s vap\r light5s x4 ,?is s\rce ( wa/e ( heat exi/s 9 ! turret dri]1 b is !re1 f its great height1 r$uc$ to a m9imum4 ,9 l[] %$s x becomes v mat]ial1 & ! air curr5ts =m$ are productive ( mu* h>m by caus+ irregul> dry+4 ,?is difficulty has be5 met by ,mr4 ,edw>d ,wilson1 ( ,exet]1 to :om ! lea!r trade owes sev]al v useful inv5tions1 by an +5i\s dry+-room con/ruct$ on ! l9es indicat$ by ,box1 ?\gh ,i d n "k t he 0 9 any way indebt$ to t writ] = ! idea4 ,9 ?is ,mr4 ,wilson arranges ! /eam-pipes1 in/ead ( on ! floor1 9 a v]tical comp>tm5t p>tition$ f ! *amb]1 ?r\gh :i* air is admitt$ & heat$4 ,?is hot air fills ! top ( ! *amb] & f its lightness floats 9 a horizontal lay]1 only desc5d+ & escap+ by ap]tures 9 ! floor z x becomes cool$ by evaporat+ ! moi/ure ( ! hides4 ,mr4 ,wilson /ates t ! me?od answ]s well 9 practice1 & x is c]ta9ly ! mo/ sci5tific 9 conception1 b x might be fe>$ t1 z appli$ to a s+le floor1 ! upp] p>ts ( ! butts1 susp5d$ ne> ! ceil+1 w\ld dry m rapidly ?an ^? ne> ! floor4 ,if appli$ to a d\ble-floor$ build+1 ?is disadvantage w\ld1 f ! /rong] draught1 & consequ5t l>g] supply ( air1 be less likely to %[ itself1 & ! upp] floor ) its uni=m w>m air w\ld be well adapt$ = dry+ (f f9i%$ sole-lea!r1 :ile ! cool] & mild] dry+ ( ! gr\nd floor w\ld be fitt$ bo? 9 "* & situation = t wet out ( ! y>d4 ,special precaution w\ld be ne$$ to prev5t ! heat$ air escap+ by doors op5+ into ! upp] floor4 ,!re is little d\bt t z reg>ds heat ?is is ! mo/ economical sy/em :i* has yet be5 inv5t$4 ,a me?od has be5 introduc$ 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates ( dry+ wet & f9i%$ lea!r all toge!r1 9 dry+-rooms heat$ to a consid]able temp]ature1 & closely %ut up4 ,?is is f\nd to answ] fairly on lea!r f s\r liquors1 b t f /rong & sweet liquors is d>k5$1 z might be expect$4 ,! dry+ is accompli%$ 9 mu* %ort] "t ?an by ! turret dri]4 ,! mixture ( wet & dry lea!r1 & ! lack ( v5tilation produce an atmosph]e ne>ly saturat$ ) moi/ure1 & h5ce ! dry+ is n ne>ly s h>% z might be suppos$ f ! consid]able temp]atures made use (4 ,!re does n1 h[ev]1 seem any?+ 9 ! pr9ciple to recomm5d its g5]al adoption4 ,ano!r inv5tion1 ( :i* we h z yet he>d little def9ite 9 ,engl&1 consi/s 9 dry+ at a l[ temp]ature by air artificially depriv$ ( its moi/ure4 ,?is may be accompli%$ 9 sev]al ways4 ,exp]im5ts h be5 made 9 dry+ 9 a clos$ *amb] provid$ ) trays ( calcium *loride to absorb ! moi/ure evaporat$4 ,air :5 artificially cool$ by compression & subsequ5t expansion1 z 9 ! case ( ice-mak+ ma*9es1 p>ts ) a l>ge portion ( its moi/ure1 :i* is cond5s$ 9 ! =m ( ice 9 ! tubes ( ! ma*9e4 ,su* air1 if subsequ5tly w>m$1 w\ld dry p[]fully & rapidly4 ,be=e leav+ ! subject ( dry+-%$s1 a few words on ! me*anics ( dry+ 9 g5]al may n be out ( place4 ,air-dry+ is dep5d5t on ! condition t ! air mu/ be capable ( tak+ up m moi/ure ?an x already conta9s4 ,x is a matt] ( common exp]i5ce t !re are w>m days :5 ! air is s saturat$ ) moi/ure 9 ! =m ( invisible vap\r1 t sc>cely any dry+ takes place2 & simil>ly1 cool dry days1 :5 lea!r dries rapidly4 ,! relative am\nt ( moi/ure 9 ! air is easily asc]ta9$ by ! simple in/rum5t kn[n z ! wet & dry bulb hygromet]2 an in/rum5t :i* ought to be 9 e dry+-%$1 especially :]e /eam heat is us$4 ,x consi/s ( two simil> !rmomet]s1 side by side1 ( :i* "o has ! bulb cov]$ ) musl9 & kept wet by a piece ( lamp-cotton atta*$ to x1 & dipp+ 9 a cup or bottle ( wat]4 ,?is wat] evaporates m or less rapidly1 accord+ to ! dryness ( ! air2 & z heat is consum$ by x 9 pass+ into ! gase\s condition1 ! wet !rmomet] falls m or less bel[ ! dry 9 proportion to ! rapidity ( ! evaporation4 ,on a summ]'s day1 ! diff]5ce may am\nt to #i-ab ,f4 7#e-g ,c471 & ?is is ab\t ! extreme dryness p]missible 9 a dry+-room = f9i%$ lea!r4 ,wet lea!r %\ld ( c\rse be dri$ mu* m sl[ly4 ,! influ5ce ( heat on dry+ is two-fold4 ,x increases ! capacity ( ! air = moi/ure1 & x replaces ! heat consum$ by evaporation4 ,! foll[+ tables give ! capacity ( air = moi/ure at diff]5t temp]atures1 & ! p]c5tage ( saturation z %[n by ! wet & dry !rmomet]4 ,at ,gre5wi*1 ! mean humidity = ! ye> is #hb p] c5t42 or = ! day-"t only #gf p] c5t41 v>y+ f #fb 9 summ] to #hf 9 w9t]3-- ,table ,i4--,capacity ( ,air = ,moi/ure4 ,weight 9 ,p\nds ,weight 9 ,p\nds ( ,temp4 ,fahr4 ( a ,cub4 ,ft4 ( ,moi/ure conta9$ 9 ,dry ,air4 a ,cub4 ,ft4 ( ,saturat$ ,air4 #cb #jhjg #jjjcjd #db #jgia #jjjddj #eb #jggf #jjjfbg #fb #jgfa #jjjhha #gb #jgdg #jjabba #hb #jgcc #jjaffg #ib #jgbj #jjbbej #ajb #jgjg #jjbiig ,table ,,ii4--,hygromet] ,table4 ,temp]ature ,degrees betwe5 ,wet & ,dry ,!rmomet]s4 ( ,air4 #a #b #c #d #e #f #g #h #i #aj #aa #ab #cb ,f4 #hg #ge 44 44 44 44 44 44 44 44 44 44 #db #ib #he #gh #gb #ff #fj #ed #di #dd #dj #cf #cc #fb #id #hh #hb #gg #gb #fg #fb #eh #ed #ej #dg #dd #hb #ie #ij #he #hj #gf #gb #fh #fd #fj #eg #ed #ea ,p] c5t4 ( moi/ure1 saturation be+ #ajj4 ,z reg>ds ! heat consum$ 9 evaporation2 x requires ab\t #ajjj times z mu* heat to conv]t #a lb4 ( wat] into vap\r1 z x does to raise ! temp]ature ( ! same quantity #a ,f4 ,at lea/ z mu* heat z ?is mu/ be suppli$ if ! air :i* has be5 us$ 9 dry+ is to reta9 ! same temp]ature x _h at ! outset1 & !re=e if a turret is to keep at a high] temp]ature ?an ! air1 :i* is necess>y to create a draught1 ?is is ! m9imum am\nt ( heat :i* mu/ be suppli$ p] p\nd ( wat] to be evaporat$4 ,9 practice mu* m w be ne$$4 ,! foll[+ table %[s ! heat giv5 out by diff]5t sizes ( pipes at diff]5t temp]atures1 & /eam pressures1 9 units equal to ! heat requir$ to raise #a lb4 ( wat] #a ,f41 & ! cubic feet ( air :i* !y w heat4,v ,footnote ,v3 ,to illu/rate ! use ( su* tables1 ! foll[+ example may be giv54 ,to dry #ajj butts 9 a turret1 ea* conta9+ #bj lb4 ( moi/ure1 at lea/ #bj #ajjj #ajj #b1jjj1jjj units ( heat w be requir$ to replace ! loss by evaporation alone4 ,z a #d-;94 pipe at #cjj gives (f #ffi units p] foot p] h\r 7see ,table ,,iii471 ab\t #abe ft4 w\ld give (f #b1jjj1jjj units p] day4 ,if we comp>e ?is ) ,mr4 ,hepburn's practical exp]i5ce1 suppos+ ! #d work+ floors ( 8 turret to hold #ajj butts ea* 7a l[ e/imate71 & to dry 9 #aj days2 we h #edj ft4 = #dj butts or #acej ft4 = #ajj butts a day2 %[+ t m ?an #aj times ! m9imum is requir$ 9 practice4 ,( c\rse ?is all[s = wea!r 9 :i* ! air mu/ be heat$ consid]ably be=e x w dry at all1 = heat t escapes uselessly at ! top & sides ( ! build+1 & = ! fact t ! pipes are n heat$ ! :ole "t1 & probably1 on ! av]age1 to a mu* l[] temp]ature4 ,table ,,iii4--,heat+ ,effect ( ,pipes freely expos$ to ,air at #fj ,f4 ,units ( ,heat p] ,ft4-run ,cub4 ,ft4 ( ,air at #fj ,f4 ( ,pipe p] ,h\r4 7#ae-a_/b ,c47 heat$ #a p] ,temp4 ,pressure ,ft4-run ( ,pipe p] ,h\r4 ( ( ,/eam ,pipe4 p] ,94 #b 94 #c 94 #d 94 #f 94 #b 94 #c 94 #d 94 #f 94 ,f4 lb4 #cjj #ec #djc #ede #ffi #ich #bbbce #bhgac #cfiai #eagfj #bhj #ce #cee #dhj #ehg #hbe #aiehb #bfdij #cbchg #deeba #bfj #ba #cab #dba #eae #gbc #agbah #bcbcc #bhdba #ciieb #bdj #aj #bga #cff #ddh #fbg #adidf #bjaii #bdgag #cdeid #bbj #be #bcc #cac #chd #ecg #abheh #agbga #baahd #bifbi #bjj 44 #aie #bfc #cbb #deb #ajgge #adejg #agghj #bdifg #ahj 44 #afj #baf #bfd #cfi #hhcj #aaibj #adegc #bjcfh #afj 44 #abh #agb #baj #bie #gjgj #idhg #aaeij #afcjj ,x may be tak5 t #a_/bj ( ! above volumes may be heat$ #bj1 f #ej ,f4 to #gj ,f41 & s on2 b if ! av]age temp]ature is high] ?an #fj ,f41 ! duty w be less1 & to obta9 ! same effect ! pipe mu/ be heat$ s mu* hott] z to keep ! same diff]5ce z be=e betwe5 ! pipe & air4 ,?us a pipe at #cjj ,f4 w only heat z mu* air at #hj ,f4 z "o ( #bhj ,f4 w ( air at #fj ,f4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fg4 ,x w be not$ t ! effici5cy ( small pipes is mu* great] ?an t ( l>g] ones1 & 9 ^! days ( high-pressure /eam1 mu* may be said 9 fav\r ( ! use ( comp>atively small wr\ght-iron /eam-pipes in/ead ( ! l>g] ca/ metal ones4 ,! fir/ co/ is small1 ! pipes are easily obta9$ ready screw$1 & 9 ! l5g?s requir$1 & may be put toge!r by any intellig5t workman4 ,! risk ( fracture by ! concussion ( cond5s$ wat] is v trifl+1 z comp>$ to t ( metal1 & mu* light] pipes are safe = high pressures4 ,/eam-pipes mu/ always be laid ) an incl9e ( say #a 94 9 #aj ft4 f ! end :]e ! /eam is admitt$1 s t ! cond5s$ wat] may get away1 & at ! l[e/ po9t a /eam-trap mu/ be provid$ = its escape4 ,9 ! writ]'s exp]i5ce1 ! be/ =m is t ( ,holman1 made by ,tangye ( ,birm+ham1 ( :i* ! pr9ciple w readily be und]/ood f ,fig4 #fg4 ,! cup-%ap$ vessel a floats on ! wat] 9 ! out] cas+1 & s closes ! valve b until a gets full1 :5 x s9ks & all[s ! wat] to escape until x floats up aga94 ,x is important t ?is trap %\ld be set level1 or ! valve w n close prop]ly4 ,ea* p\nd ( cond5s$ wat] is equival5t to ab\t #ajjj units ( heat giv5 (f 7see ,table ,,iii474 ,9 plann+ /eam-pipes1 x is n necess>y t !y %\ld be arrang$ 9 a s+le l9e4 ,ev5 if 9 gridiron =m ! /eam w /ill rea* e "p1 9 proportion to ! cond5sation :i* takes place4 ,a s]ies ( l>ge pipes may be suppli$ by small pipes f a common ma91 & dis*>ge _! cond5s$ wat] into a common wa/e-pipe ) bran* f ea*4 ,a #a_/b-;94 pipe f a high-pressure boil] w supply a consid]able range1 say #ajj ft4 ( #d-;94 pipe1 ?\gh a l>g] size is advisable4 ,at ! f>!r end ( a range ( /eam-pipes a small tap mu/ be provid$ to let out ! air :i* accumulates 9 !m4 ,9 employ+ ! exhau/ /eam ( an eng9e = heat+ purposes1 ! pipes mu/ be ( ample size & freely op5 at ! ends to avoid back-pressure4 ,= ?is purpose ! gridiron =m is a v good "o4 ,! plann+ ( hot-wat] pipes is mu* m difficult ?an t ( /eam-pipes1 b ! g5]al pr9ciple is t ! pipes mu/ rise all ! way f ! boil] to ! f>!r end1 :]e !re mu/ be an expansion-box or supply-ci/]n to all[ ! wat] to rise & fall & dissolv$ air to escape4 ,f ?is ! pipes mu/ fall m or less1 ?r\gh\t ! di/ance1 back to ! boil]1 ent]+ x at ! bottom4 ,if at any po9t ! pipe has to fall1 leav+ an upw>d b5d1 a tap mu/ be provid$ = ! escape ( air1 b su* upw>d b5ds are a f]tile s\rce ( difficulty & failure ( action4 ,) long runs ( ei!r /eam or wat] pipes1 arrangem5ts mu/ be made to all[ ( expansion & contraction1 :i* w am\nt to #a-b 94 p] #ajj ft41 accord+ to ! temp]ature employ$4 ,if "o end ( ! sy/em c be left free1 all t is ne$$ is to support ! pipes on roll]s 7pieces ( old pipe may be us$72 if n1 /uff+-boxes mu/ be provid$4 ,! air heat$ by boil]s1 & o!r s\rces ( wa/e heat1 may (t5 be utilis$ = heat+ purposes1 b g5]ally requires to be driv5 by a fan1 unless ! dry+-room c be arrang$ directly above ! s\rce ( heat4 ,if air has to be convey$1 ! air-ways mu/ be ( ample size1 & if ! asc5d+ =ce ( heat$ air be reli$ on1 passages less ?an #b ft4 sq4 are seldom ( mu* use4 ,?is asc5d+ =ce is g5]ally mu* ov]rat$ :]e ! diff]5ces ( temp]ature are s small z ^? employ$ 9 a dry+-room4 ,9 a boil] *imney1 :]e ! temp]ature ( ! escap+ gases is #eeb ,f4 7#bhi ,c471 ! specific gravity ( ! air is ab\t half t outside1 & a *imney ( #ej ft4 9 height gives a draught equal to ! pressure ( a column ( ab\t #a_/c 94 ( wat]1 & ! hot gases !oretically h a velocity ( ab\t #hj ft4 p] second2 :]eas ! same *imney ) a diff]5ce ( temp]ature ( #cj ,f4 w\ld h a draught equal to #a_/cjj 94 ( wat] only1 & a velocity ( #h ft4 p] second4 ,! foll[+ table w enable ! read] to calculate approximately loss 9 friction 9 air-passages & ! pressure requir$ to pass a giv5 volume ( air4 ,! pressure ne$$ increases 9 proportion to ! l5g? ( ! pipe & ! squ>e ( ! velocity ( ! curr5t ( air to be pass$4 ,?us if we d\ble ! l5g? ( ! pipe we mu/ d\ble ! pressure to pass ! same quantity2 & 9 ord] to d\ble ! quantity ( air ?r\gh a giv5 pipe1 ! pressure mu/ be quadrupl$4 ,table ,,iv4 ,head1 or ,diff]5ce ( ,pressure at ! two ends ( a ,circul> ,pipe #a yd4 long 9 in*es ( wat] requir$ to pass #ajjj cub4 ft4 ( air p] m9ute4 ,velocity 9 ,diamet] ( ,head4 ,ft4 p] ,sec4 ,pipe4 94 #hdh #f #ahf #cgg #i #jbddb ,to pass #ajj ft4 p] m94 ^! #bab #ab #jjegi figures mu/ be divid$ by #id #ah #jjjgfc #ajj4 ,to pass #aj1jjj ft4 !y #ec #bd #jjjaha mu/ be multipli$ by #ajj4 #cd #cj #jjjjeic ,to calculate ! head requir$ = a long pipe1 multiply ! head giv5 by ! table by ! l5g? 9 y>ds4 ,! air pass$ by squ>e pipes ( ! same diamet]s w be #abgc times great] ) ! same heads4 ,to be add$ to ! pressure requir$ to ov]come friction is t ne$$ to =ce ! air out at ! end ( ! pipe4 ,?is v>ies ) ! %ape ( ! tube1 c41 b = our purpose may be tak5 z giv5 9 ! foll[+ table3-- ,table ,v4 ,approximate ,pressure ne$$ to =ce ,air out ( a ,pipe ) a ,velocity (-- ,ft4 p] ,sec4 ,head 9 ,in*es1 ,wat]4 #hdh #ah #cgg #jcf #bab #jac #id #jjb #ec "u #jja #cd "u #jjje ,air-passages %\ld be1 z f> z practicable1 ( uni=m area ?r\gh\t _! l5g?1 z mu* velocity is lo/ 9 pass+ ev5 f a small] to a l>g] tube4 ,( c\rse %>p b5ds mu/ be avoid$4 ,,*apt] ,,xxiv4 ,,comm]ce1 ,,/ati/ics1 ,,& ,,bibliography4 ,sk9s4--,! trade 9 sk9s possesses no small importance4 ,_m ( ! /ati/ics relat+ to sk9s are collective1 & n specific2 ^! w be gr\p$ "u ! heads ( ! respective c\ntries1 aft] all accessible details h be5 giv5 ^u ea* k9d ( sk94 ,alligator4--,9 ! ,s\!rn ,unit$ ,/ates1 notably ,florida1 ! supply ( alligator-sk9s am\nts to _m ?\s&s annually1 & ! f>m+ ( ! reptiles = _! sk9s is ev5 spok5 (4 ,! pr9cipal m>ket = !m is ,europe1 b no /ati/ics ( ! trade are publi%$4 ,! alligators (t5 atta9 a l5g? ( #ah-bj ft4 ,! hides are /ripp$ (f1 & ! belly & sides1 ! only portions fit = use1 are pack$ 9 b>rels 9 a /rong br9e1 & %ipp$ to ! ,nor!rn tann]1 :o keeps !m "u treatm5t = #f-h mon?s1 :5 !y are ready to be cut up4 ,s f> ! lea!r has be5 pr9cipally us$ 9 ! manufacture ( boots & %oes1 = :i* x is especially adapt$4 ,armadillo4--,! sk9s ( ?is animal 7 export$ f ,brunei 7,borneo7 to ,s+apore to ! value ( #aba dol4 7( #ds4 #b;d47 9 #ahgi4 ,ass4--,hank[ export$ #bdjb-a_/b piculs 7( #acc-a_/b lb47 ( asses' sk9s 9 #ahgh1 & #ajfh piculs 9 #ahgi4 ,buffalo4--,manilla 7,philipp9es71 9 #ahgh1 export$ #cgi tons ( buffalo-sk9s1 value #ab1acjl41 & #bgd tons ( cutt+s1 #fegil4 ,hank[ export$ #ajia piculs 9 #ahgh1 & #abch 9 #ahgi4 ,brunei 7,borneo7 s5t #acfb dol4 7( #ds4 #b;d47 wor? to ,s+apore 9 #ahgi4 ,! approximate ,london m>ket values ( buffalo-sk9s are3--,batavia1 #d;d4-#g;d4 a lb42 ,b5gal1 #c;d4-#f;d42 o!r sorts1 #b-a_/b;d4-#f-a_/b;d4 ,calf4--,hamburg export$ to ,great ,brita9 ( calf & o!r sk9s 9 #ahgf1 #bj1gca cwt42 9 #ahgg1 #bg1eej2 9 #ahgh1 #ad1ehc2 & 9 #ahgi1 #ai1bhg cwt4 ,! ,hawaiian ,isl&s s5t #afh pieces to ,g]many 9 #ahgi4 ,*ri/iania %ipp$ #ca1jjj kron] 7( #as4 #a-a_/b;d47 wor? to ,great ,brita9 9 #ahgh1 & #cjj kr4 9 #ahgi4 ,! exports f ,ar*angel 7includ+ seal7 9 #ahgh 7 #cce pieces to ,holl&1 & #bc1ajh to ,g]many3 total value1 #bcdcl4 ,honolulu1 9 #ahgh1 export$ #fea pieces1 be+ #ejj to ,g]many1 #ace to ,*9a1 & #af to ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,memel1 9 #ahgi1 s5t l&wise ov] ! ,russian fronti] = ,g]man m>kets1 #cd1djj pieces1 value #edejl4 ,! approximate ,london m>ket value ( calf-sk9s is #ae;d4-#cd;d4 a lb4 ,de]4--,san ,jos 7,co/a ,rica7 export$ #ab1aba lb4 9 #ahgh4 ,kiung*[ 7,*9a7 export$ #ag1edd pieces1 value #edal41 9 #ahgi4 ,ciudad ,boliv> 7,v5ezuela71 9 #ahgi1 s5t #gg1cje pieces 7#afh1agf-a_/b lb47 to ,new ,york1 & #ad1fie pieces to ,g]many4 ,guatemala1 9 #ahgi1 export$ #bcec pieces to ,g]many1 #fic to ,new ,york1 & #ajj to ,belize4 ,panama %ipp$ #gfel4 wor? ( de] & o!r sk9s to ! ,unit$ ,/ates 9 #ahgi4 ,co/a ,rica export$ #hb1afh lb4 9 ! ye> end$ ,april #cj1 #ahgi4 ,pu]to ,cabello 7,v5ezuela71 9 #ahgi1 %ipp$ #bdff kilo4 7( #bb lb47 to ,great ,brita91 #aa1fai to ,g]many1 #fahb to ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 & #abha to ,holl&4 ,! ,comm]cial ,society ( ,mozambique sold #da de]1 #cia buck1 #bafh blesbok1 & #cjga o!r antelope sk9s at ,rott]dam 9 ,june #ahgf4 ,! approximate ,london m>ket values ( de]-sk9s are3 ,blesbok1 ,cape1 #f-ag;d4 a lb42 ,de]1 ,ea/ ,indian1 #bb-ejs4 a doz4 ,dog4--,dog-sk9 makes a nice1 ?91 t\gh lea!r1 b mo/ ( ! gloves sold z dog-sk9 are made ( lamb-sk94 ,dugong & ,manatee4--,! sk9s ( ^! animals1 m important p]haps z oil-yield]s1 are smoo?1 blui%-black 9 col\r1 & ne>ly #a 94 ?ick4 ,!y are well adapt$ = ma*9e-belt+4 ,ab\t #ej are %ipp$ annually f ,que5sl&4 ,fi%4--,al?\gh ! sk9s ( fi% are *iefly gelat9\s1 & easily soluble 9 wat]1 "s are ( a firm1 /rong texture1 & ( a useful "*4 ,up to )9 a few ye>s1 h[ev]1 _! employm5t = practical purposes has be5 r limit$1 & x is only comp>atively rec5tly t att5tion has be5 m g5]ally direct$ to _! utilisation on an ext5d$ scale4 ,at a ,m>itime ,exhibition held at ! ,we/m9/] ,aqu>ium 9 #ahgf1 a ,norway exhibitor %[$ a v>iety ( tann$ fi%-sk9s1 among :i* 73--,tann$ :ale-sk9s2 upp] lea!r1 made f ! :ite :ale1 ! s\rce ( ! s-call$ porpoise hide us$ = laces2 sk9s ( flatfi%1 prep>$ = gloves2 sk9s ( soles1 tann$ & dress$ = purses2 sk9s ( ?ornbacks1 prep>$ z a sub/itute = s&pap]2 & sk9s ( eels1 dress$ & dy$1 suitable = braces1 c4 ,%oes h be5 made at ,gl\ce/]1 ,mass41 f ! sk9s ( ! cusk or torsk 7,brosmus vulg>is71 ! use ( :i* has be5 pat5t$1 & an indu/ry is said to be c>ri$ on at ,colborn1 ,canada1 ) ! sk9s ( species ( siluroids = glove mak+4 ,9 ,egypt1 fi%-sk9s f ! ,r$ ,sea are us$ = soles ( %oes4 ,! sk9 ( ! lo% or burbot 7,lota maculata7 is us$ by ! p 9 _m p>ts ( ,russia & ,sib]ia to trim _! dresses4 ,x is also utilis$ by "s ( ! ,t>t> tribes z mat]ial = _! summ] dresses1 & ! bags 9 :i* !y pack _! animal sk9s4 ,! sp9y & tub]cul\s sk9s ( _m %>ks & alli$ fi%es are l>gely employ$1 "u v>i\s trade names1 = poli%+ woods1 & = cov]+ boxes1 cases1 c4 ,f a c]ta9 portion ( ! sk9 ( ! angel %>k 7,squal9a angelus7 ! ,turks make ! mo/ beautiful sea-gre5 wat* cases4 ,turn]s1 eboni/s1 & c>p5t]s 9 ,europe use ! r\gh sk9 ( ! blue dog-fi% 7,squalus glaucus71 l em]y pap]1 = smoo?+ _! "w & prep>+ x = poli%+4 ,?is %>k-sk9 is also made into %agre54 ,t mo/ us$ at pres5t appe>s to be ! sk9 ( ! ray 7,hypolophus seph571 :i* is v common on ! ,malab> coa/4 ,! h\se ( ,giraudon1 ,p>is1 makes excell5t use ( !m = morocco & tablett]ie4 ,at ! rec5t ,p>is ,exhibition ?is e/abli%m5t exhibit$ num]\s illu/rations ( ! ornam5tal application ( ! prep>$ sk9 9 l>ge (fice-table ink/&s1 c&le/icks1 boxes & caskets1 pap]-knives1 reticules1 c>d-cases1 photograph frames1 bracelets1 sc5t bottles1 c4 ,! fi% call$ *at 7,squalus catulus7 at ,m>seilles is small] ?an ! angel fi%1 & furni%es a product kn[n z peau de r\sette4 ,?is sk9 is r$di%1 & )\t spots1 & ( a uni=m gra91 flat1 & only us$ to make cases & o!r articles kn[n z %agre54 ,peau de *i5 de m] is ano!r "n giv5 to "s species ( ,squalus4 ,t f\nd on ! ,fr5* coa/s is kn[n "u ! names ( *i5 m>91 r\sette tigre1 c4 ,turn]s1 cab9et mak]s1 & c>p5t]s use ! sk9 = scrap+ & smoo?+ _! "w1 & x is also us$ = l purposes by metal work]s4 ,?is sk91 :5 work$ up ) ! tub]cles ) :i* x is /udd$1 takes ! "n ( galu*at1 & is usually dy$ gre51 to cov] cases1 %ea?s1 & boxes4 ,"u ! "n ( *agr91 ^! sk9s us$ to be mu* employ$ 9 ,turkey1 ,syria1 ,tunis1 & ,tripoli--t made 9 ,tripoli be+ consid]$ ! be/4 ,x 0 col\r$ black1 gre51 :ite1 & r$4 ,france import$ #ah1jjj lb4 ( ray-sk9s 9 #ahfc1 *iefly f ,portugal4 ,goat & ,kid4--,our imports ( undress$ goat-sk9s 9 #ahhc 73--,f ,russia #ah1cee1 #bebcl42 ,sw$5 #abif1 #bbil42 ,norway #ai1cia1 #ccafl42 ,d5m>k #aa1jab1 #ahefl42 ,g]many #eb1ega1 #ehefl42 ,holl& #ac1ccf1 #ahehl42 ,belgium #dj1eah1 #dfcbl42 ,france #ha1gih1 #ad1abal42 ,italy1 #egjh1 #ihgl42 ,au/rian t]ritories #cg1hbg1 #chddl42 ,turkey #ch1aff1 #dehjl42 ,egypt #af1bbh1 #iccl42 ,briti% ,possessions 9 ,s\? ,africa #a1agf1ece1 #aci1fcbl42 ,ad5 #ci1hjj1 #dgigl42 ,briti% ,india3 ,bombay #abb1bdb1 #aj1dhgl42 ,madras #afi1fdb1 #ag1hiel42 ,b5gal #b1efh1ebf1 #bjc1befl42 ,*9a #ic1gch1 #ehfdl42 ,au/ralasia #dd1cdj1 #eeahl42 ,unit$ ,/ates ( ,am]ica #fhbb1 #hdel42 ,*ile #af1gef1 #beecl42 ,brazil #aei1idi1 #af1ahil42 ,arg5t9e ,republic #ab1jjj1 #iebl42 o!r c\ntries #cbci1 #bbil42 total #d1gdi1gie1 #deb1iebl4 ,ciudad ,boliv> 7,v5ezuela7 s5t #cag pieces 7#bhd lb47 to ,new ,york 9 #ahgi4 ,tripoli export$ #gjjjl4 wor? 9 #ahgi1 & #cjjjl4 9 #ahhj4 ,9 #ahhj1 a numb] ( raw goat-sk9s 7 s5t f ! ,m>*e & ,romagna to ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 weigh+ ab\t #a-a_/b kilo4 7( #bb lb47 ea*1 & to be us$ *iefly = ladies' %oes & pocket-books4 ,%anghai1 9 #ahgh1 export$ #afd1bhe pieces4 ,tangi]1 9 #ahgi1 s5t #ab cwt41 #fjl41 to ,great ,brita92 #cfcg cwt41 #ah1ahel41 to ,france & ,algi]s2 #aj cwt41 #ejl41 to ,spa92 total1 #ad1fcf doz41 #ah1biel42 & #cjdf cwt41 #ac1gjgl41 9 #ahhj4 ,! ,hawaiian ,isl&s1 9 #ahgi1 %ipp$ #bd1idj pieces to ! ,unit$ ,/ates 7,pacific ports74 ,9 #ahgi1 ,*ri/iania export$ #fe1jjj kron] 7( #as4 #a-a_/b;d47 wor? ( goat & %eep sk9s to ,great ,brita94 ,! %ipm5ts ( goat & kid sk9s f ! ,fr5* ,ea/ ,indies fell f #eejj 9 #ahgf1 to #dhid 9 #ahgg1 & #cjj 9 #ahgi1 ) none s9ce4 ,! %ipm5ts f ! ,cape to ,great ,brita9 7 #gid1fcg 9 #ahgh1 #feg1eji 9 #ahgi1 & #icd1haj 9 #ahhj4 ,cadiz1 9 #ahgg1 s5t #djd kilo4 7( #bb lb47 ( kid sk9s1 value #hdl41 to ,great ,brita91 & #chff kilo4 #hjel41 to ,france4 ,pu]to ,cabello 7,v5ezuela71 9 #ahgi1 despat*$ #bh1fhd kilo4 to ,g]many1 #abd1ifd to ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 #ad1bie to ,france1 & #ah1ecf to ,holl&4 ,honolulu s5t #fd1ebe pieces to ! ,unit$ ,/ates 9 #ahgh4 ,sams\n 7,turkey7 export$ #acj1gjj kilo41 #fgifl41 to ,france 9 #ahgh4 ,! ,cape exports fell f #a1dgh1gfa pieces 9 #ahgd1 to #fhg1egj 9 #ahgi4 ,memel s5t by sea #g cwt41 #gcl41 9 #ahgi4 ,ti5ts9 7,*9a7 export$ #ch1ajg piculs 7( #acc-a_/c lb47 9 #ahgi4 ,mogador 7,morocco7 =w>d$ #aab1igd doz41 #ei1bdcl41 to ,m>seilles 9 #ahgh1 & #hdjg bales1 #dh1jjjl41 9 #ahhj2 ^! sk9s are us$ = ! manufacture ( morocco lea!r1 = :i* !y are peculi>ly suitable1 ow+ to _! f95ess ( gra91 caus$1 x is said1 by ! ri* diet1 consi/+ ( ! fruits ( ! argan tree4 ,! approximate ,london m>ket values ( goat-sk9s are3--,ea/ ,indian1 #d-ae;d4 a lb42 be/ tann$1 #bs4 #d;d4-#cs4 #h;d42 inf]ior to good tann$1 #i;d4-#bs4 #e;d42 ,cape1 be/1 #aa-ah;d42 ,cape1 inf]ior to good1 #h-ad;d4 ,turkey is "o ( ! l>ge/ re>]s ( goats1 & consequ5tly ! manufacture ( morocco lea!r is ext5sively c>ri$ on 9 t c\ntry4 ,=m]ly1 ne>ly all ! buck-sk9s f\nd _! way to ,london1 b !y 7 displac$ by ,indian goat-sk9s2 &1 = a "t1 ! exportation ( ,turki% buck-sk9s exp]i5c$ a *eck1 ! result be+ ! e/abli%m5t ( a l>ge numb] ( manufactories 9 ,vi5na & ! diff]5t ,au/ro-,hung>ian prov9ces4 ,^! e/abli%m5ts h prosp]$ & be5 enl>g$1 & get ! major portion ( _! goat-sk9s f ! ,london m>ket4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 propos$ 9 ,au/ria to d )\t ! ,london m>ket 9 future1 & to in/itute at ,trie/e p]iodical sales ( goat-sk9s1 :i* w be1 especially = ,vi5na1 ( great advantage f ! po9t ( view ( co/ ( transport4 ,not)/&+ ! exportation ( buck-1 goat-1 & %eep-sk9s f ,turkey1 !re are /ill suffici5t rema9+ 9 ! c\ntry to =m ! basis ( a v fl\ri%+ & entirely indig5\s indu/ry4 ,! ,turk is v unskilful 9 ! manufacture ( sole lea!r2 b ! article 9 :i* he excels is morocco lea!r = slipp]s1 tann$ exclusively ) suma*4 ,! production ( tann$ buck-sk9s rea*es ye>ly a total ( ne>ly a million sk9s1 & ( %eep half a million2 ! be/ k9ds are ^? ( ,philippopolis1 ,samak(1 & ,p]i/ra4 ,! ,bulg>ian sk9s are n s well tann$ z ^? m5tion$1 al?\gh ! quality ( ! raw sk9s is sup]ior4 ,! be/ at ! pres5t day are ^? ( ,sophia4 ,horse4--,%anghai export$ #deh-a_/b piculs 9 #ahgh4 ,rio ,gr&e d ,sul export$ #aj1gad pieces salt$1 & #fja dri$1 9 #ahgi4 ,! approximate ,london m>ket values ( horse-hides are3--,engli%1 #i-ad;d4 a lb42 ,riv] ,plate1 #f-bas4 a hide4 ,kang>oo4--,! sk9s ( ?is animal are l>gely export$ f ,au/ralia & ,tasmania1 =m+ "s ( ! mo/ pliable lea!r kn[n4 ,to prep>e !m = m>ket1 !y %\ld be c>efully tak5 (f1 pegg$ out1 & dri$ sl[ly 9 ! %ade4 ,lamb4--,! exports f ,a/]abad 7,p]sia7 vi ,gez 9 #ahgi 7 #ghh bales ,bokh>an1 #fj1facl4 ,calamata & ,mess5ia 7,greece7 produc$ 9 #ahhj1 #acg1ejj lb41 #bfhjl4 ,d$eagat* 7,turkey71 9 #ahgh1 export$ #ejj bales ( lamb- & kid-sk9s1 value #djjjl4 ,! exports f ,ancona 7,italy71 includ+ kid & rabbit1 9 #ahgh1 7 #fji1hbf kilo4 7( #bb lb47 to ,italy1 #da1dhj to ,au/ria1 #bgad to ,g]many1 #bfee to ,greece1 #ai1dhf to ,engl&1 #cahj to ,turkey2 total1 #fgi tons1 #ej1cbal4 ,ti5ts9 7,*9a71 9 #ahgi1 %ipp$ #ce1jjh piculs 7( #acc-a_/c lb474 ,llama4--,! sk9 ( ! llama is gr[+ 9 importance 9 ,p>isian %oemak+4 ,x weighs on an av]age #f lb41 & conta9s #ah sq4 ft4 ( lea!r1 co/+ ab\t #al4 ,! s\rce ( supply is ! ,p]uvian ,&es4 ,ox & ,c[4--,coquimbo 7,*ili7 export$ #dgji ox-hides 9 #ahgi4 ,santos 7,brazil7 9 ! ye> end+ ,sept4 #cj1 #ahgi1 export$ #caf1idj kilo4 salt$1 valu$ #ehjjl41 & #abhb1 #bel4 ,! %ipm5ts f ,*ri/iania to ,great ,brita9 fell f #dg1ejj kron] 7( #as4 #a-a_/b;d47 wor? 9 #ahgg1 to #cejj kr4 9 #ahgi4 ,san ,jos 7,co/a ,rica7 despat*$ #ddi1hgj lb4 9 #ahgh4 ,! exports f ! ,cape1 includ+ c[1 fell f #aej1hge pieces 9 #ahgh1 to #ajd1bha 9 #ahgi4 ,rio ,gr&e d ,sul1 9 #ahgi1 %ipp$ #dee1cae pieces salt$1 & #dii1ifj dri$4 ,( c[-hides1 ,hank[ export$ #ce1bfe piculs 7( #acc-a_/c lb47 9 #ahgh1 & #ba1jfc 9 #ahgi4 ,! ,kiung*[ exports 7includ+ buffalo7 9 #ahgi 7 #dij piculs1 #hahl4 ,f ,%anghai 7includ+ buffalo7 w5t #bf1jgj piculs 9 #ahgi4 ,*9kiang fell f #gbfb piculs 9 #ahgg1 to #cigd 9 #ahgh1 & none 9 #ahgi4 ,memel1 9 #ahgi1 s5t away by sea1 #ge cwt41 #acfl42 & ov] ! ,russian fronti] = ,g]man m>kets1 #cjjj pieces1 #cjjjl4 ,! approximate ,london m>ket values ( ox & c[ hides are3--,bu5os ,ayres & ,monte ,video1 #a/ dry1 #i-7aj-a_/b7;d4 a lb42 #bnd dry1 #g-7h-a_/b7;d42 be/ light1 #h-7i-a_/b7;d42 salt$1 7#e-a_/d7-7g-c_/d7;d42 ,brazil1 dry1 #g-7aj-a_/b7;d42 dry salt$1 7#d-a_/b7-i;d42 ,we/ ,indies1 salt$1 7#c-a_/b7-g;d42 ,unit$ ,/ates1 salt$1 7#c-a_/b7-7f-a_/b7;d42 ,ea/ ,india1 be/1 #d-ac;d42 #bnd1 7#a-c_/d7-7aa-a_/d7;d42 #crd & #d?1 7#a-a_/d7-i;d42 ,au/ralian1 salt$1 7#b-c_/d7-f;d42 ,cape1 wet salt$1 7#b-a_/b7-7g-a_/b7;d42 ,cont95tal1 salt$1 7#c-c_/d7-e;d42 ,engli%1 7#b-c_/d7-g;d4 ,seal4--,our imports ( undress$ seal-sk9s 9 #ahhc 73--,f ,norway #aab1hji1 #ce1bfgl42 ,d5m>k #hff1 #achl42 ,g]many #bh1ffi1 #hdbhl42 ,*annel ,isl&s #ajdh1 #cjel42 ,france #bgih1 #bjjbl42 ,briti% ,possessions 9 ,s\? ,africa #gjbj1 #efcel42 ,briti% ,india3 ,bombay #hcj1 #ahejl42 ,*9a #bjhc1 #djjjl42 ,japan #aa1idc1 #ag1cfil42 ,au/ralasia #adhg1 #hijl42 ,briti% ,nor? ,am]ica #cda1ggh1 #hh1dacl42 ,unit$ ,/ates ( ,am]ica #ih1eff1 #bef1jahl42 ,c5tral ,am]ica #efc1 #efcl42 ,*ile #aigd1 #ahjcl42 ,uruguay #ac1iej1 #dhhdl42 ,:ale ,fi%]ies3 ,nor!rn #dd1dgd1 #ae1bjhl42 ,o!r ,c\ntries #dbf1 #becl4 ,total1 #fga1bhd1 #ddc1jbfl4 ,! exports f ,*ri/iania 9 #ahgi 7 #gd1jij pieces2 to ,great ,brita91 ! value 0 #bed1djj kron] 7( #ac-a_/b;d47 9 #ahgh1 & #agb1ijj kr4 9 #ahgi4 ,our total imports f ,norway rose f #bi1iab pieces 9 #ahgg1 to #fc1edj 9 #ahgh1 & rec$$ to #ed1jje 9 #ahhj4 ,f ! ,cape1 !y 7 #aa1jfe 9 #ahgg1 #ae1abh 9 #ahgi1 & #ggca 9 #ahhj4 ,& f ,newf\ndl&1 #dac1jeg 9 #ahgi1 & #bec1fef 9 #ahhj4 ,! approximate ,london m>ket values ( seal-sk9s 7n fur seals7 are #as4 #i;d4-#ajs4 #f;d4 ea* = ,newf\ndl&1 & #b-aas4 = ,gre5l&4 ,%eep4--,our imports ( undress$ %eep-sk9s 9 #ahhc 73--,f ,russia #gcgd1 #hbjl42 ,sw$5 #af1ghj1 #addfl42 ,norway #bc1gef1 #bdfil42 ,d5m>k #hj1bbf1 #ghjcl42 ,g]many #abf1hfg1 #ab1dgfl42 ,holl& #cd1bac1 #dahbl42 ,belgium #id1iff1 #ad1dgil42 ,*annel ,isl&s #iegi1 #bijjl42 ,france #fdd1jhj1 #ff1eajl42 ,spa9 #adg1dhj1 #ai1gcjl42 ,italy #da1gdc1 #cgijl42 ,au/rian ,t]ritories #da1jaa1 #djcal42 ,turkey #bdd1egi1 #bc1eicl42 ,egypt #hhgj1 #eagl42 ,briti% ,possessions 9 ,s\? ,africa #b1eba1aji1 #cci1cgdl42 ,ad5 #bi1ghj1 #bgbjl42 ,briti% ,india #aij1bjb1 #ag1gdel42 ,au/ralasia #b1fic1jfd1 #bfg1bhil42 ,unit$ ,/ates ( ,am]ica #de1fib1 #dcfgl42 ,b]mudas #bcdb1 #cfel42 ,p]u #gbbj1 #afibl42 ,*ile #cehb1 #fhal42 ,brazil #ah1faf1 #bdecl42 ,uruguay #ib1dii1 #ba1cjcl42 ,arg5t9e ,republic #ihe1bfh1 #agf1ijjl42 ,falkl& ,isl&s #bf1gdg1 #cajel42 ,o!r ,c\ntries #gjhf1 #gdgl4 ,total1 #h1ade1dca1 #a1jjc1dhgl4 ,bosnia ,s]ai1 9 #ahgi1 export$ ab\t #aj tons4 ,%anghai1 9 #ahgh1 #ej1bhe pieces 7includ+ lamb74 ,coquimbo 7,*ili71 9 #ahgi1 #de tons 7includ+ goat74 ,bagdag1 9 #ahgh1 #hf1cea pieces1 #djgal41 to ,india & ,europe 7includ+ lamb74 ,falkl& ,isl&s1 #aidjl4 wor? 9 #ahgi4 ,cape1 #a1dhj1hge pieces 9 #ahgi4 ,hank[1 #gfjf pieces1 #ibgfl41 9 #ahgi4 ,ti5ts91 #bjf1ggg piculs 7( #acc-a_/c lb47 9 #ahgh1 #hgcg 9 #ahgi4 ,moll5do 7,p]u7 #gi qu9tals 7( #b cwt17 9 #ahgh4 ,mogador1 9 #ahhj1 #ae bales1 #hjl41 to ,great ,brita92 #cde1 #agjjl41 to ,france2 #b1 #cl41 to ,spa94 ,our imports f ! ,fr5* ,ea/ ,indies h fall5 f #efjj pieces 9 #ahgf1 to #cgfb 9 #ahgg1 #daj 9 #ahgi1 & none s9ce2 f ,italy1 f #cci1igc 9 #ahgf1 to #ci1gea 9 #ahhj2 f ,european ,turkey1 f #bcj1ibb 9 #ahgf1 to #fc1bcf 9 #ahhj2 f ,asiatic ,turkey1 !y h ris5 f #ic1ife 9 #ahgf1 to #ahe1edc 9 #ahhj2 f ,brazil1 #da1fjd 9 #ahgf1 #bfbc 9 #ahgg1 #egcj 9 #ahhj1 & none 9 ! int]m$iate ye>s2 f ! ,arg5t9e ,republic1 #c1eci1ehi 9 #ahgf1 #hih1aee 9 #ahgi1 #a1bdh1eec 9 #ahhj2 f ! ,cape1 #a1dif1jci 9 #ahgg1 #a1hai1ggb 9 #ahhj2 f ,india1 #c1ibg1icd 9 #ahgf1 #b1iaa1igd 9 #ahhj2 f ,victoria1 #a1ffg1ccj 9 #ahgf1 #a1aeh1fhf 9 #ahhj2 f ,new ,s\? ,wales1 #hc1afg 9 #ahgh1 #cf1iie 9 #ahhj2 ,new ,zeal&1 #afh1ihd 9 #ahgh1 #ccd1gib 9 #ahhj4 ,! approximate ,london m>ket values ( %eep-sk9s are3--,cape1 #aj-cds4 a doz42 f9e wool1 #bh-eis42 sup]ior1 #dj-hbs42 ,mogador1 #ad-bgs42 ,bu5os ,ayres1 #d-ac;d4 a lb42 ,au/ralian1 #d-af;d42 tann$ ,ea/ ,indian1 be/1 #b-ds42 ord9>y to good1 #as4-#bs4 #i;d4 ,walrus4--,our imports ( walrus sk9s f ,*ri/iania 9 #ahgi 7 valu$ at #gijj kron] 7( #ac-a_/b;d74 ,un5um]at$4--,our imports ( un5um]at$ sk9s & hides 9 #ahhc 7 z foll[s3-- ,dress$ sk9s1 n lea!r4--,f ,russia #daj1 #fdel42 ,g]many #ebdi1 #eeil42 ,holl& #eiag1 #giel42 ,belgium #af1ebd1 #bfehl42 ,france #da1jfi1 #bfhjl42 ,briti% ,india #bjje1 #bahl42 ,au/ralasia #bibe1 #giel42 ,briti% ,nor? ,am]ica #cjj1 #cacl42 ,unit$ ,/ates ( ,am]ica #ejb1 #bbel42 ,o!r ,c\ntries #id1 #djl4 ,total #gd1iie1 #hibhl4 ,undress$ sk9s3--,f ,d5m>k #ae1iej1 #bdahl42 ,g]many #aj1hae1 #ccial42 ,holl& #ggjj1 #gfel42 ,belgium #aj1djj1 #hjjl42 ,france #cafb1 #cjil42 ,briti% ,possessions 9 ,s\? ,africa #dfii1 #dbbl42 ,briti% ,india #ba1hdf1 #cbfjl42 ,*9a #hf1 #dajl42 ,au/ralasia #fe1cje1 #cbgdl42 ,briti% ,nor? ,am]ica #afih1 #beel42 ,unit$ ,/ates ( ,am]ica #cege1 #abiel42 ,brazil #ab1hec1 #ajigl42 ,o!r ,c\ntries #gdeg1 #eeil4 ,total #afe1edf1 #ah1beel4 ,wet hides4--,f ,sw$5 #aide cwt41 #faccl42 ,norway #aefa cwt41 #daigl42 ,d5m>k #dgeg cwt41 #aj1hgcl42 ,g]many #cc1fag cwt41 #hf1bajl42 ,holl& #ai1jjf cwt41 #dg1heil42 ,belgium #gd1bhh cwt41 #baj1fihl42 ,*annel ,isl&s #bdgh cwt41 #dgbdl42 ,france #fd1bab cwt41 #agh1idal42 ,portugal #ah1jca cwt41 #eb1cbhl42 ,gibralt> #hhh cwt41 #bfafl42 ,italy #ac1daa cwt41 #cg1dcal42 ,au/rian ,t]ritories #idj cwt41 #bbfjl42 ,briti% ,possessions 9 ,s\? ,africa #bc1hha cwt41 #ff1ggil42 ,japan #hjf cwt41 #bcjjl42 ,au/ralasia #ic1hia cwt41 #bji1aehl42 ,unit$ ,/ates ( ,am]ica #aa1eij cwt41 #ca1fajl42 ,b]mudas #ibc cwt41 #bbegl42 ,briti% ,we/ ,india ,isl&s #ccbi cwt41 #hajel42 ,brazil #fd1djf cwt41 #aia1jeal42 ,uruguay #ii1cia cwt41 #cjh1idjl42 ,arg5t9e ,republic #be1adb cwt41 #gc1eahl42 ,falkl& ,isl&s #adcd cwt41 #dajjl42 ,:ale ,fi%]ies3 ,nor!rn #ghb cwt41 #dihel42 ,o!r ,c\ntries #bjbd cwt41 #dffjl4 ,total #efb1gcc cwt41 #a1eea1gccl4 ,dry raw hides & pieces4--,f ,russia #aj1hbi cwt41 #gi1idjl42 ,sw$5 #aic cwt41 #abccl42 ,d5m>k #afda cwt41 #aj1fggl42 ,g]many #ac1jbb cwt41 #fb1bdhl42 ,holl& #aj1hgd cwt41 #cg1gafl42 ,belgium #cgia cwt41 #ae1ceel42 ,france #ccic cwt41 #ab1bfbl42 ,gibralt> #bbe cwt41 #ajjjl42 ,italy #dea cwt41 #acffl42 ,au/rian ,t]ritories #eee cwt41 #bhacl42 ,turkey #ibe cwt41 #ccbgl42 ,egypt #dfh cwt41 #adicl42 ,we/ ,coa/ ( ,africa1 n p>ticul>ly designat$ #fgc cwt41 #acihl42 ,briti% ,possessions 9 ,s\? ,africa #ci1eja cwt41 #afj1gafl42 ,ea/ ,coa/ ( ,africa 7,native ,/ates7 #biij cwt41 #hhjhl42 ,madagasc> #bhej cwt41 #hggcl42 ,mauritius #bffi cwt41 #hdccl42 ,ad5 #fgde cwt41 #bb1bhbl42 ,briti% ,india3 ,bombay #cc1edh cwt41 #aje1jhal42 ,madras #chfj cwt41 #ac1bdhl42 ,b5gal & ,burmah #cgj1cfi cwt41 #a1cbi1hbbl42 ,/raits ,settlem5ts #ea1def cwt41 #acj1bddl42 ,ceylon #bcad cwt41 #fdfhl42 ,java #cbhh cwt41 #aj1fgjl42 ,co*9 ,*9a1 ,camboja1 & ,tonqu9 #bbcf cwt41 #eaecl42 ,*9a #ah1hib cwt41 #fc1aibl42 ,au/ralasia #gjji cwt41 #ae1ejfl42 ,unit$ ,/ates ( ,am]ica #ag1hdb cwt41 #ef1ecfl42 ,briti% ,we/ ,india ,isl&s #iec cwt41 #cgacl42 ,unit$ ,/ates ( ,colombia #ajec cwt41 #dieel42 ,p]u #aabj cwt41 #ceggl42 ,*ile #aaah cwt41 #djhil42 ,brazil #iabe cwt41 #ca1jhil42 ,uruguay #bicg cwt41 #iibdl42 ,arg5t9e ,republic #ceef cwt41 #ab1dbfl42 ,o!r ,c\ntries #afde cwt41 #eeifl4 ,total #fcd1aaf cwt41 #b1bea1abil44 ,undress$ lea!r4--,f ,g]many #hi1jgc lb41 #eefcl42 ,holl& #hf1jdh lb41 #fbcil42 ,belgium #be1fej lb41 #aidcl42 ,france #fb1gii lb41 #dfeel42 ,spa9 #db1ggc lb41 #ceeel42 ,ad5 #ba1bhj lb41 #ahecl42 ,briti% ,india3 ,bombay #c1ffc1deb lb41 #bgd1fbel42 ,madras #ag1hei1feb lb41 #a1cge1dhdl42 ,b5gal & ,burmah #a1hba1ibe lb41 #abd1aicl42 ,/raits ,settlem5ts #c1ieg1fea lb41 #adg1ifbl42 ,*9a #cg1ibc lb41 #bjfhl42 ,au/ralasia3 ,we/ ,au/ralia #ab1gej lb41 #dhgl42 ,s\? ,au/ralia #bch1bdi lb41 #aa1bhcl42 ,victoria #g1age1eej lb41 #ceg1jcbl42 ,new ,s\? ,wales #b1dbh1adg lb41 #abj1fgel42 ,que5sl& #aa1ihj lb41 #fbal42 ,tasmania #dj1hfc lb41 #aihfl42 ,new ,zeal& #a1egc1bhi lb41 #gd1ggfl42 ,briti% ,nor? ,am]ica #aee1ejj lb41 #gdjel42 ,unit$ ,/ates ( ,am]ica #ag1cbi1fib lb41 #ggh1cibl42 ,o!r ,c\ntries #ahf1ccc lb41 #aa1abal4 ,total #ef1hbj1egi lb41 #c1caa1iahl4 ,dress$ lea!r4--,f ,russia #affi lb41 #bebl42 ,g]many #a1cig1ibh lb41 #cfi1gail42 ,holl& #a1hji1bfb lb41 #bic1aifl42 ,belgium #bfj1feglb41 #da1adfl42 ,france #e1ahg1cbc lb41 #gbe1dhel42 ,turkey #fbbf lb41 #ccil42 ,briti% ,possessions 9 ,s\? ,africa #gjj lb41 #bejl42 ,briti% ,india #aef1hjb lb41 #ae1gbjl42 ,au/ralasia #bhab lb41 #dbcl42 ,briti% ,nor? ,am]ica #ggi1cba lb41 #eg1cbfl42 ,unit$ ,/ates ( ,am]ica #g1heh1ief lb41 #ecc1dail42 ,o!r ,c\ntries #eahc lb41 #edcl4 ,total #ag1dff1hci lb41 #b1jcg1hahl4 ,v>ni%$1 japann$1 or enamell$ lea!r4--,f ,russia #dd1jhh lb41 #igbel42 ,g]many #ah1bcf lb41 #chiel42 ,holl& #bji1gjg lb41 #ef1ffgl42 ,belgium #fdh lb41 #bjjl42 ,france #fg1gbd lb41 #be1eihl42 ,turkey #aij lb41 #ejl42 ,briti% ,nor? ,am]ica #fhfh lb41 #aaeal42 ,unit$ ,/ates ( ,am]ica #hc1chg lb41 #ai1cggl4 ,total1 #dcj1hdh lb41 #aaf1ffcl4 ,boots & ,%oes4--,f ,g]many #cgff dzn4 pairs1 #aj1dacl42 ,holl& #bc1cba dzn4 pairs1 #he1ehel42 ,belgium #ch1bjc dzn4 pairs1 #ha1becl42 ,*annel ,isl&s #dfd dzn4 pairs1 #bcbgl42 ,france #ec1dcg dzn4 pairs1 #bcc1jchl42 ,turkey #cej dzn4 pairs1 #adil42 ,au/ralasia3 ,new ,s\? ,wales #bi dzn4 pairs1 #ajjl42 ,briti% ,nor? ,am]ica #cjhj dzn4 pairs1 #fgjfl42 ,unit$ ,/ates ( ,am]ica #cca dzn4 pairs1 #adjjl42 ,o!r ,c\ntries #gg dzn4 pairs1 #bdcl4 ,total1 #abc1jeh dzn4 pairs1 #dba1badl4 ,gloves4--,f ,sw$5 #cej dzn4 pairs1 #bcgl42 ,norway #ej dzn4 pairs1 #ehl42 ,d5m>k #ai1cbj dzn4 pairs1 #af1jicl42 ,g]many #cjij dzn4 pairs1 #bficl42 ,holl& #cji1daf dzn4 pairs1 #cba1jhjl42 ,belgium #aig1ddd dzn4 pairs1 #bbb1idfl42 ,*annel ,isl&s #aj dzn4 pairs1 #afl42 ,france #a1ach1cdc dzn4 pairs1 #a1cge1ihhl42 ,italy #bcb dzn4 pairs1 #bhjl42 ,au/ralasia3 ,victoria #dc dzn4 pairs1 #ifl4 ,total1 #a1ffh1bih dzn4 pairs1 #a1ici1dhgl4 ,un5um]at$ lea!r manufactures4--,f ,sw$5 #ajhl42 ,norway #ajil42 ,d5m>k #bcfl42 ,g]many #bb1gjel42 ,holl& #aai1dfbl42 ,belgium #ce1gfbl42 ,france #dh1cjhl42 ,briti% ,possessions 9 ,s\? ,africa #aihl42 ,briti% ,nor? ,am]ica #ical42 ,unit$ ,/ates ( ,am]ica #ai1chhl42 ,o!r ,c\ntries #egal4 ,total1 #bdg1gghl4 ,our imports ( hides f ! und]m5tion$ c\ntries h fluctuat$ z %[n3-- ,abyss9ia4--,undress$1 #gbhi cwt4 9 #ahgf1 #cbg 9 #ahgh1 #baei 9 #ahgi1 & #cbd 9 #ahhj4 ,ad54--,undress$1 #haij cwt4 9 #ahgf1 #aac 9 #ahgi1 #hbid 9 #ahhj4 ,algi]s4--,raw1 #b1jea1gja kilo4 7( #bb lb47 9 #ahgi4 ,arg5t9e ,republic4--,undress$1 #id1dgi cwt4 9 #ahgg1 #cb1ifa 9 #ahgi1 #cd1ije 9 #ahhj4 ,au/ro-,hung>y4--,vi5na1 #bd1fgb metrical c5tn]s 9 #ahgh1 #dh1iej 9 #ahgi2 ,fiume1 raw1 #adjj kilo4 9 #ahgi4 ,bahamas4--#afgl4 wor? 9 #ahgi4 ,b>bados4--#cfcl4 wor? 9 #ahgg1 #iacl4 9 #ahgh4 ,belgium4--,undress$1 #ea1jfi cwt4 9 #ahgg1 #hb1jba 9 #ahgh1 #fh1abc 9 #ahhj4 ,dress$1 #agf1fce lb4 9 #ahgh1 #dah1ijf 9 #ahhj4 ,brazil4--,undress$1 #acg1cea cwt4 9 #ahgh1 #aae1acg 9 #ahhj4 ,p]nambuco 9 #ahgh-i export$1 dri$1 #ca1gag kilo4 to ,great ,brita91 #bh1jgg ,france1 #be1fjf ,portugal1 total value1 #cjjbl42 salt$1 #chc1fia kilo4 ,great ,brita91 #icg1igf ,unit$ ,/ates1 #ehe1hfh ,france1 #dj1ggj ,spa91 #dfc1bfi ,portugal1 total value #ge1ebcl42 9 #ahhj1 #fa tons1 #bbfgl4 ,maceio export$ 9 #ahgg1 #dgbh pieces 7av]age #bh lb4 ea*7 to ,great ,brita91 #addj ,new ,york & ,lisbon2 9 #ahgi1 #cf1gge2 9 #ahhj1 #aa1dje4 ,bahia export$ #a1dcb1hfd kilo4 9 #ahgg-h1 & #a1ggc1ife 9 #ahgh-i1 pr9cipally to ! ,unit$ ,/ates & ,g]many4 ,santos export$ #cig1jjj kilo4 9 #ahgi4 ,ce>a export$ 9 #ahgh1 #cgb1hjh kilo4 to ,engl&1 #ca1iff ,havre1 #gge1hfc ,hamburg1 #ghjj ,new ,york4 ,briti% ,india4--,undress$1 #bha1aih cwt4 9 #ahgf1 #dfc1gfd 9 #ahhj2 dress$1 #ad1hce1igi lb4 9 #ahgh1 #f1agh1cgj 9 #ahhj4 ,bulg>ia4--,ru/*uk1 9 #ahgi1 export$ #bed1aif kilo4 7#bej tons7 to ,au/ria4 ,canada4--,dress$1 #ici1gei lb4 9 #ahgf1 #cgb1cei 9 #ahgi1 #a1jff1jdc 9 #ahhj4 ,cape4--,undress$1 #ae1cgj cwt4 9 #ahgf1 #dd1ejc 9 #ahgh1 #bi1ddb 9 #ahhj4 ,c5tral ,am]ica4--,undress$1 #gb cwt4 9 #ahgf1 #aaac 9 #ahgh1 #cef 9 #ahhj4 ,*ili4--,undress$1 #cah cwt4 9 #ahgf1 #ag1jdb 9 #ahgi1 #aeff 9 #ahhj2 dress$1 #cc1jbf lb4 9 #ahgf1 #cibi 9 #ahgg1 #aii1ife 9 #ahgh1 #bbd 9 #ahgi1 #bicj 9 #ahhj4 ,*9a4--,undress$1 #efga cwt4 9 #ahgf1 #fj1hga 9 #ahgh1 #bgje 9 #ahhj4 ,hank[ export$ 9 #ahgi1 #ggig pieces1 #afefl42 ,kiung*[1 #dij piculs 7( #acc-a_/c lb471 #hahl42 ,new*wang1 #ag1ffe pieces2 ,ti5ts91 #dced piculs2 ,canton1 9 #ahgh1 #fec pieces ( sk9s1 #hgc-c_/d piculs ( hides4 ,co/a ,rica4--,san ,jos export$ #cjh1gid lb4 9 #ahgi4 ,d5m>k4--,undress$1 #bj1hjf cwt4 9 #ahgg1 #efcb 9 #ahhj2 ,cop5hag5 export$ #a1aff1agb lb4 to ,great ,brita9 9 #ahgh4 ,ecuador4--,undress$1 #fhj cwt4 9 #ahgf1 #ah 9 #ahgg1 #aae 9 #ahgi1 #hi 9 #ahhj4 ,guayaquil export$ 9 #ahgh1 #egaa qu9tals raw1 #ag1accl41 to ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 & #ab1ejd halves tann$1 #hgebl41 to ,s\? ,am]ica2 & 9 #ahhj1 #hhei qu9tals raw1 #bb1adhl41 & #dhfa tann$1 #biafl4 ,manabi1 9 #ahgh1 export$ #acba qu9tals1 #cifcl4 ,egypt4--,undress$1 #abej cwt4 9 #ahgg1 #gah 9 #ahgh1 #abhf 9 #ahhj4 ,9 #ahgi1 ! values 7 #fbjl4 to ,au/ria1 #chjl4 ,france1 #aiejl4 ,great ,brita91 #de1ejjl4 ,greece1 #bhjl4 ,italy1 #fb1ejjl4 ,turkey4 ,falkl&s4--,undress$1 #dcae cwt4 9 #ahgh1 #bfgi 9 #ahhj4 ,! value ( ! exports 0 #ejbjl4 9 #ahgi4 ,france4--,undress$1 #bf1hff cwt4 9 #ahgf1 #eg1cje 9 #ahhj2 dress$1 #b1gbg1aij lb4 9 #ahgf1 #d1cch1dhe 9 #ahhj4 ,calais 9 #ahgh s5t #bahh kilo4 prep>$ to ,great ,brita91 & #gf1haa kilo4 9 #ahgi4 ,fr5* ,ea/ ,indies4--,dress$1 #bd1fjj lb4 9 #ahgf1 #ab1gac 9 #ahgg1 none s9ce4 ,gambia4--,export$ #ae1chj pieces 9 #ahgh4 ,g]many4--,undress$1 #de1jjb cwt4 9 #ahgf1 #ba1adc 9 #ahgh1 #dd1chc 9 #ahhj2 dress$1 #a1bfi1adc lb4 9 #ahgf1 #ied1egh 9 #ahgh1 #a1cah1fei 9 #ahhj4 ,hamburg s5t to ,great ,brita91 #cc1deh cwt4 dry & salt$ 9 #ahgg1 #ac1igb 9 #ahgi4 ,knigsb]g export$ #aece cwt4 raw 9 #ahgh1 #dbd 9 #ahgi4 ,greece4--,dress$3 ,syra 9 #ahgg s5t #fj1bagl4 wor? to ,turkey1 #bc1beil4 to ! ,danubian ,pr9cipalities1 #bgdhl4 to ,au/ria2 9 #ahgi1 #dibl4 ,turkey1 #beal4 ,au/ria1 #bjjl4 ,russia4 ,guatemala4--,exports 9 #ahgg1 #fb1cdc dol4 wor?2 9 #ahgh1 #hdd-a_/b qu9tals to ,engl&1 #abic ,france1 #bdgf ,g]many1 #hbb ,new ,york1 #adi ,cali=nia2 #ahgi1 #dab1fje ,g]many1 #ab1cfj ,new ,york4 ,hawaiian ,isl&s4--,exports #ahhj1 #bd1hhe pieces4 ,holl&4--,undress$1 #ee1gje cwt4 9 #ahgf1 #ec1efh 9 #ahhj2 dress$1 #ida1cgb lb4 9 #ahgf1 #hif1gcd 9 #ahhj4 ,java4--,exports #ahgh-i1 #ceg1cec pieces & #abdj piculs to ,holl&1 #gbab pieces to ! ,*annel = ord]s1 #abjj pieces to ,france1 #gcfi pieces to ,italy1 #efie pieces & #hgb piculs to ,s+apore4 ,madagasc>4--,undress$1 #beb cwt4 9 #ahgg1 #cjhh 9 #ahgi1 none s9ce4 ,mauritius4--,undress$1 #ecda cwt4 9 #ahgf1 #bide 9 #ahhj4 ,morocco4--,undress$1 #j 9 #ahgg1 #edde cwt4 9 #ahgh1 #ajad 9 #ahhj4 ,tangi]s export$ 9 #ahgi1 #bgbg cwt41 #fjjjl41 to ,great ,brita92 #ahah cwt41 #dcfel41 ,france2 #ba cwt41 #dbl41 ,spa94 ,mogador1 9 #ahhj1 s5t #dd bales1 #aejl41 to ,great ,brita92 #ffg1 #bbejl41 ,france2 #bdc1 #ggjl41 ,portugal4 ,natal4--,undress$1 #cb1eee cwt4 9 #ahgf1 #ag1dif 9 #ahgh1 #bc1ijh 9 #ahhj4 ,new ,granada4--,undress$1 #ab1bag cwt4 9 #ahgh1 #egd 9 #ahgi1 #fjei 9 #ahhj4 ,new ,s\? ,wales4--,undress$1 #ichf cwt4 9 #ahgh1 #gi1igb 9 #ahhj2 dress$1 #b1beg1jda lb4 9 #ahgg1 #a1fid1jae 9 #ahhj4 ,new ,zeal&4--,undress$1 #ci cwt4 9 #ahgh1 #fcce 9 #ahhj2 dress$1 #adj1ddh lb4 9 #ahgh1 #ddf1ajb 9 #ahhj4 ,p]sia4--,bu%ire export$ 9 #ahgi1 #djjj rupees' wor? to ,engl&1 #ejjj r4 ,india2 ,l+ah1 #bhjj r4 ,india1 #aiej r4 ,p]sian coa/2 ,bahre91 #fjjj r4 ,k[eit1 ,bussora1 & ,bagdad4 ,p]u4--,undress$1 #bhei cwt4 9 #ahgf1 #fbb 9 #ahgh1 #abce 9 #ahhj4 ,moll5do export$ #ech qu9tals 9 #ahgh1 & #acjg q4 dry 9 #ahgi4 ,philipp9es4--,undress$1 #ajbd cwt4 9 #ahgf1 #ajb 9 #ahhj4 ,manilla1 9 #ahgi1 export$ #gigf piculs1 #ab1gfal41 to ,*9a & ,japan4 ,portugal4--,undress$1 #ag1def cwt4 9 #ahgg1 #aj1ihc 9 #ahhj4 ,que5sl&4--,undress$1 #acae cwt4 9 #ahgi1 #ejai 9 #ahhj4 ,r\mania4--,galatz export$ #cda bales 9 #ahgi4 ,russia4--,undress$1 #dhb cwt4 9 #ahgf1 #fjbj 9 #ahhj2 dress$1 #hh1bbe lb4 9 #ahgf1 #df1fid 9 #ahhj4 ,riga %ipp$ #ad1hci poods 7( #cf lb47 9 #ahgg1 #aa1caa 9 #ahgi4 ,poti1 9 #ahgg-h1 s5t away #efed poods1 & #badi f ,p]sia4 ,saigon4--,exports 9 #ahgi1 #aj1ehb piculs4 ,san ,dom+o4--,exports 9 #ahgh1 #fcj pieces to ,great ,brita91 #dij ,france1 #cajj ,italy1 #cihj ,spa91 #dfj ,unit$ ,/ates1 #efj ,we/ ,indies2 9 #ahhj1 #acdj ,italy1 #beda ,spa91 #gadb ,unit$ ,/ates1 #ig ,we/ ,indies4 ,s\? ,au/ralia4--,dress$1 #ch1ajh lb4 9 #ahgh1 #cjc1adc 9 #ahhj4 ,spani% ,we/ ,indies4--,pu]to ,rico export$ 9 #ahgh1 #afg qu9tals ,unit$ ,/ates1 #efgc ,spa91 #fcg ,g]many4 ,/raits ,settlem5ts4--,undress$1 #bh1ddd cwt4 9 #ahgf1 #dh1bac 9 #ahhj2 dress$1 #fjc1chi lb4 9 #ahgf1 #b1ggh1aei 9 #ahhj4 ,sur9am4--,exports 9 #ahgh1 #ibba kilo4 ,sw$5 & ,norway4--,*ri/iania export$ #ie1bjj kron] wor? 9 #ahge1 #dbjj kr4 9 #ahgh4 ,go!nburg export$ #aj1ifj cwt4 9 #ahgi4 ,tasmania4--,dress$1 #fe1hjc lb4 9 #ahgh1 #ch1ada 9 #ahhj4 ,tripoli4--,b5gazi1 9 #ahgh1 s5t #ej1jjj pieces1 #djjjl41 to ,malta4 ,! value ( ! exports 0 #bjjjl4 9 #ahgi1 & #dejjl4 9 #ahhj4 ,turkey4--,aleppo export$ 9 #ahgh1 #aha tons1 #aj1hbdl41 to ,france2 #e1 #cbjl41 ,italy2 #aa1 #gjdl41 ,au/ria2 #eb1 #ccbhl41 ,turkey2 #ab1 #gfhl41 ,egypt4 ,!ssaly export$ #ae1jjjl4 wor? 9 #ahhj4 ,samos s5t #ai1cjjl4 wor? tann$ to ,turkey & ,egypt 9 #ahgi4 ,van export$ #aejjl4 wor? 9 #ahgi4 ,k]asund %ipp$ by /eam] 9 #ahgi1 #eeg bales1 #chiil4 ,trebizond 9 #ahgi s5t #idj bales 7( #ab & #fj pieces71 #fehjl41 to ,turkey2 #aefg1 #aj1ifil41 ,france2 #eja1 #cejgl41 ,russia2 #hj1 #efjl41 ,greece4 ,d$eagat*1 9 #ahgi1 export$ #acjj bales1 #dj1jjjl4 ,alex&retta1 9 #ahgi1 s5t #bhj tons1 #af1hjjl41 to ,france2 #c1 #ahjl41 ,au/ria2 #aj1 #fjjl41 ,russia2 #if1 #fgbjl41 ,turkey2 #bi1 #bjcjl41 ,egypt4 ,adana1 9 #ahgi1 s5t #bej tons1 #gejjl41 to ,france2 #adj1 #dbjjl41 ,turkey2 #bg1 #hajl41 ,greece4 ,jaffa export$ #ah1jjj okes 7#di1ejj lb471 #fffl41 = ,turkey 9 #ahgi4 ,unit$ ,/ates4--,undress$1 #aae1gfg cwt4 9 #ahgf1 #ghhh 9 #ahgi2 #ad1ceh 9 #ahhj2 dress$1 #af1gaf1gaa lb4 9 #ahgi1 #bb1edc1jcc 9 #ahhj4 ,savannah export$ #hgeh bundles 9 #ahhj4 ,galve/on export$ 9 #ahgi-hj1 #ihgh bales & #geaj s+le1 dry2 & #fije bundles wet-salt$4 ,texas ,/ate 9 #ahgh-i export$ #bh1ajd1jfe lb41 #efb1jhal4 ,uruguay4--,undress$1 #aaf1gch cwt4 9 #ahgf1 #fe1hdf 9 #ahgi1 #ajd1fia 9 #ahhj4 ,v5ezuela4--,pu]to ,cabello export$ 9 #ahgi1 #aj1abf kilo4 to ,great ,brita91 #hhag ,g]many1 #ge1gid ,unit$ ,/ates1 #egef ,france1 #fif ,holl&1 #ajbc ,spa94 ,ciudad ,boliv> s5t #ce1efb pieces1 #gfb1bcd lb41 to ,new ,york 9 #ahgi4 ,victoria4--,undress$1 #j 9 #ahgh1 #bgaj 9 #ahgi1 #hgje 9 #ahhj2 dress$1 #c1ejf1efb lb4 9 #ahgf1 #e1jif1fif 9 #ahhj4 ,! values ( ! exports 9 #ahgh 7 #idagl4 hides1 & #ai1gjfl4 sk9s & pelts4 ,tann+ ,mat]ials4--,our imports ( b>k 9 #ahhc 73--,f ,sw$5 #fdaj cwt41 #abhal42 ,norway #hheh cwt41 #afhgl42 ,holl& #ab1hee cwt41 #cbdfl42 ,belgium #ei1icf cwt41 #ae1ihgl42 ,france #ccbc cwt41 #bachl42 ,alg]ia #df1jeb cwt41 #ai1eggl42 ,briti% ,ea/ ,indies #dfje cwt41 #ccbal42 ,au/ralasia #ahc1ggg cwt41 #aai1bibl42 ,unit$ ,/ates ( ,am]ica #cf1bjc cwt41 #ab1cfhl42 ,o!r ,c\ntries #cjhg cwt41 #ahebl4 ,total1 #cfe1ajf cwt41 #ahj1gdil4 ,our imports ( cut* & gambi] 9 #ahhc 73--,f ,briti% ,india3 ,bombay #bgg tons1 #gfhbl42 ,b5gal & ,burmah #haae tons1 #bba1feal42 ,/raits ,settlem5ts #ag1dgg tons1 #dec1hjdl42 ,philipp9e ,isl&s #dg tons1 #abbgl42 ,unit$ ,/ates ( ,am]ica #hgg tons1 #be1adil42 ,o!r ,c\ntries #dd tons1 #abjhl4 ,total1 #bf1hcg tons1 #gaj1gbal4 ,our imports ( myrobalans 9 #ahhc 73--,f ,g]many #aacc cwt41 #ejcl42 ,briti% ,india3--,bombay #cdi1bge cwt41 #ahd1ihcl42 ,madras #abj1bfb cwt41 #ed1iigl42 ,b5gal #bc1egi cwt41 #iffcl42 ,/raits ,settlem5ts #bad cwt41 #ajgl42 ,ceylon #aaje cwt41 #dhcl42 ,japan #cjf cwt41 #adfl4 ,total1 #die1hgd cwt41 #bej1hhbl4 ,our imports ( extracts 9 #ahhc 73--,f ,d5m>k #bggcl42 ,g]many #cf1fchl42 ,holl& #ed1fjjl42 ,belgium #gcecl42 ,france #bfa1fijl42 ,spa9 #ajjjl42 ,italy #degal42 ,briti% ,nor? ,am]ica #cc1caal41 ,unit$ ,/ates ( ,am]ica #ff1aadl42 ,mexico #cicgl42 ,o!r ,c\ntries #afbel4 ,total1 #dgc1fabl4 ,our imports ( galls 9 #ahhc 73--,f ,au/rian ,t]ritories #dgd cwt41 #ajbbl42 ,turkey #ijef cwt41 #bc1chhl42 ,egypt #bdce cwt41 #fbajl42 ,p]sia #bfi cwt41 #ggjl42 ,briti% ,india #aegb cwt41 #ajfbl42 ,*9a #bb1fbe cwt41 #ff1gcal42 ,japan #bicf cwt41 #ibgfl42 ,o!r ,c\ntries #ahe cwt41 #dhfl4 ,total1 #ci1eeb cwt41 #ajh1idel4 ,our imports ( valonia 9 #ahhc 73--,f ,holl& #ajj tons1 #afjjl42 ,france #ei tons1 #idgl42 ,au/rian ,t]ritories #agh tons1 #bgcbl42 ,greece #caja tons1 #df1ebfl42 ,turkey #bg1jcj tons1 #dcb1dbcl4 ,total1 #cj1dfh tons1 #dhd1bbhl4 ,our imports ( suma* 9 #ahhc 73--,f ,france #fhh tons1 #higil42 ,spa9 #ed tons1 #fafl42 ,italy #ab1cie tons1 #ahd1aebl42 ,au/rian ,t]ritories #agjg tons1 #ba1abal42 ,o!r ,c\ntries #cb tons1 #dcjl4 ,total1 #ad1hgf tons1 #bae1bihl4 ,lit]ature4 ,! *ief works relat+ to ! tann+1 curry+1 & dress+ ( lea!r1 & ! tann+ mat]ials employ$1 are z foll[s3-- ,abridgm5ts ( ,specifications3 ,sk91 ,hides1 & ,lea!r1 #afbg-ahff4 ,london3 #ahgb4 ,b]n>d9 7,r4 ,j474 ,classification de #cej ,matires ,tannantes4 ,g&3 #ahhj4 ,brggemann 7,a474 ,weissg]b]ei4 ,qu$l9burg4 ,brggemann 7,a474 ,saffian ,fabrikation4 ,qu$l9burg4 ,brggemann 7,a474 ,glacl$] ,frb]ei4 ,qu$l9burg4 ,c\ncl] 7,dr4 ,c474 ,b]i*t b] die ,v]h&lung5 d] ,commission zur ,fe//ellung e9] e9heitli*5 ,me?ode d] ,g]b/(fbe/immung4 ,cassel3 #ahhe4 ,das ,ganze d] ,l$]b]eitung4 ,qu$l9burg4 ,davis 7,c4 ,t474 ,manufacture ( ,lea!r4 ,philadelphia3 #ahhe4 ,dussauce 7,f474 ,tann+1 ,curry+1 & ,lea!r-dress+4 ,philadelphia3 #ahfe4 ,eitn] 7,w474 ,l$]-,indu/rie3 ,b]i*t b] die ,welt-,aus/ellung 9 ,philadelphia1 #ahgf4 ,vi5na3 #ahgg4 ,hans5 7,a474 ,die ,quebra*o ,r9de4 ,b]l93 #ahhj4 ,hhnel 7,f4 ,r4 von74 ,die ,g]b]9d54 ,b]l93 #ahhj4 ,knapp 7,fr474 ,natur und ,wes5 d] ,g]b]ei und des ,l$]s4 ,mn*53 #aheh4 ,lange 7,j4 ,c474 ,l$]b]eitung4 ,qu$l9burg4 ,lietzmann 7,j4 ,c4 ,h474 ,h]/ellung des ,l$] 9 ihr5 ,*emis*5 und ,physikalis*5 ,vorgng54 ,b]l93 #ahge4 ,mc,murtrie 7,w474 ,culture ( ,sumac1 & prep>ation = m>ket3 ,dep>tm5t ( ,agriculture ,special ,report1 ,no4 #bf4 ,wa%+ton3 #ahhj4 ,morfit 7,c474 ,! ,arts ( ,tann+1 ,curry+1 & ,lea!r-dress+4 ,philadelphia3 #aheb4 ,neubr& 7,j4 ,g474 ,die ,g]br9de4 ,frankfurt-on-,ma9e3 #ahfi4 ,olivet 7,p474 ,l$]frb]ei4 ,qu$l9burg4 ,s*ultz 7,j4 ,s47 ,lea!r ,manufacture3 a ,diss]tation on ! ,me?ods & ,economics ( ,tann+4 ,new ,york3 #ahgf4 ,sonn5feldt 7,dr474 ,frb5 d] ,pelzwa>54 ,qu$l9burg4 ,villa9 7,h474 ,cuirs et ,peaux3 ,tannage1 ,corroyage1 et ,mgiss]ie4 ,p>is3 #ahfg4 ,v9c5t 7,c474 ,fabrication et ,comm]ce des ,cuirs et ,peaux4 ,p>is3 #ahgb4 ,wattle ,b>k3 ,report ( ! ,bo>d ( ,inquiry4 ,melb\rne3 #ahgh4 ,wi5] 7,f474 ,die ,lohg]b]ei1 od] die ,fabrikation des ,lohg>5 ,l$]s ,leipzig3 #ahgi4 ,wiesn] 7,j474 ,die ,roh/(fe des ,pflanz5rei*es4 ,leipzig3 #ahgc4 ,wittmack 7,l474 ,die ,nutzpflanz5 all] ,zon54 ,b]l93 #ahgi4 ,lea!r ,trades ,circul> & ,review4 ,london4 ,tann]s' & ,curri]s' ,j\rnal4 ,london4 ,scotti% ,lea!r ,trad]4 ,glasg[4 ,%oe & ,lea!r ,report]4 ,new ,york4 ,la ,halle aux ,cuirs4 ,p>is4 ,d] ,g]b]4 ,vi5na4 ,g]b] ,zeitung4 ,b]l94 ,deuts*e ,g]b] ,zeitung4 ,b]l94 ,g]b] ,c\ri]4 ,vi5na4 ,gazetta dei ,pellami4 ,milan4 ,,index4 ,abies b>k1 #ec ---- tann91 #ca ,acacia b>ks1 #cd-h ---- fruits1 #ec ---- tann91 #bc-e ,acetic acid1 exam9+1 #ajb ,a*romatic cond5s]1 #i ,acid1 digallic1 #gf-h ----1 dioxysalicylic1 #fi-ga ----1 ellagic1 #ga ----1 ellagitannic1 #gh ----1 gallic1 #fi-ga ----1 gallotannic1 #gf-h ----1 qu]citannic1 #gh ---- solutions1 prep>+ /&>d1 #ie-g ,acids1 decomposition ( tann9s by1 #fh-gc ----1 exam9ation (1 #aja ----1 free1 9 tan-liquor1 det]m9+1 #ajh-aa ,acorn cups1 #ej-c ---- galls1 #bg ,adipose tissue1 #h ,adju/m5t = ?ickness ( cov]-glasses1 #aa ,african k9o1 #cd ,air1 capacity = moi/ure1 #bdi ,album51 #bj ,ald] b>k1 #ed ,aleppis*e ,gall51 #bf-h ,aleppo galls1 #bf-h ,alg>obilla1 #bc ,alg>robo1 #bc ,alkal9e solutions1 prep>+ /&>d1 #ie-g ,all5 & ,w>r5 spr9kl] leck1 #bda ,alligator sk9s1 #bee ,alnus tann91 #ed ,alum 9 tann+1 #bah-bb ,amboyna k9o1 #cc ,am]ican press leck1 #bda ---- rock]1 #afi ---- union splitt]1 #ahh ,ampelopsis hd]acea1 #fg ,analys+ tann9s1 #aah-ca ----1 me?ods = ! tann]y1 #ij-aca ,analysis1 indicators1 #ia ----1 in/rum5ts1 #ia-e ----1 /&>d solutions1 #ij ,anatomical /ructure ( hide1 #b-af ,aphis punctures1 #bh ,areca-nut cut*1 #be ,armadillo sk9s1 #bee ,artificial light = microscope1 #ab ,a% ( lea!r1 e/imat+1 #ajg ,aspidosp]ma wood1 #ci ,ass sk9s1 #bee ,au/ralian k9o1 #cd ,babul tann91 #ec ,bah]a1 #ch ,balance1 #ic ,balsamoc>pon pods1 #bc ,b>k1 comm]ce1 #bgj ---- elevators1 #afb ---- mills1 #aeh-fa ,b>komet]1 #afi ,bates = dress+ lea!r1 #ahd-f ,beam+ dress+ lea!r1 #ahg ---- hides1 #aea ,b5gal k9o1 #cc ,bibliography1 #bgb-d ,blood vessels1 #h ,bloom1 s\rce (1 #fb ,bloom]s = butts1 #agf ,blue-back seal-sk9s1 #bjf ,boots & %oes1 comm]ce1 #bfe ,botany ,bay k9o1 #cd ,break+ ! n]ve1 #h ,bri/ol f9i%+1 #ahc ,buffalo me?od ( unhair+1 #add ---- sk9s1 #bee ,bulls'-eye cond5s]1 #ab ,burettes1 #ib ,burn+-9 /rap butts1 #bja ,butea k9o1 #cc ,butts1 cleans+ lime f1 #aee ---- def9$1 #aee ----1 /rik+1 #agi ,ca*\1 #bc-e ---- jaune1 #bi-ca ,csalp9ia pods1 #be1 #ed ,calf kid1 #bbc ---- sk9s1 #bef ,camata valonia1 #eb ,camat9a valonia1 #eb ,cascalote tann91 #ed ,ca/anea extract1 #bc ,cate*91 #gi-ha ,cate*ol1 #fg ,cate*u1 #bc-e ,cate*utannic acid1 #ha ,cellul> /ructure ( hide1 exam9+1 #ab ,*agr91 #beh ,*amada valonia1 #eb ,*amois lea!r1 #baj-b ,*>cala valonia1 #eb ,*emical composition ( hide1 #ag-bb ,*emi/ry ( tann9s1 #eg-hb ,*e/nut extract1 #bc ---- ---- = sole lea!r1 #aeh ,*9ese galls1 #bh ,*lor9e 9 wat]1 e/imat+1 #ih ,*romic & osmic acids = h>d5+ & /a9+ hide sections1 #ad ,*urco b>k1 #ee ,clean+ dra9s 9 tann]y1 #bdj ,climax sc\r]1 #bjj ,comm]ce1 #bee-ga ,comm]cial tann+ mat]ials1 #bc-ef ,composition1 *emical1 ( hide1 #ag-bb ,comptonia tann91 #ed ,cond5se-wat] trap1 #bea ,connective tissue1 #g ---- ----1 nature (1 #ah ,con/itution ( tann9s1 #gf-hb ,con/ruction ( tann]ies1 #bca-db ,conveyors = b>k1 #afb ,cori>ia tann91 #ed ,cori91 #ai ---- 9 lime-liquors1 det]m9+1 #ajd ,corium1 #b1 #g ,cork-tree b>k1 #ch ,cov]-glasses1 #aa ----1 screw+ objective d[n on1 #aa ,c[ sk9s1 #bfa ,cr[n lea!r1 #bac-g ,cru/ roans1 #bjf ,curri$ lea!r1 measur+1 #bjb ,curry+1 #aic-bjb ---- cr[n lea!r1 #bag ---- def9$1 #a ,cut*1 #bc-e ----1 comm]ce1 #bga ,cutt+ hide-sections1 #ab-e ,cynips punctures1 #bf ,decomposition ( phlobaph5es by fusion ) cau/ic alkali1 #gc-e ---- ---- tann9s by acids1 #fh-gc ---- ---- ---- by heat1 #fe ---- ---- ----1 products (1 #fe-h ,de] sk9s1 #bef ,dgras1 #baa ,depilatories1 v>i\s1 #aej ,d]ma1 #b ,dhak k9o1 #cc ,diffuseur = exhau/+ tan1 #afg ,digallic acid1 #gf-h ,dioxysalicylic acid1 #fi-ga ,diplolepis punctures1 #bf ,dis9tegrators1 #aeh-fa ,dissolv+ extracts1 #afh ,divid+ hides1 #aee ,divi-divi1 #be ---- ---- = sole lea!r1 #aeg ,dog sk9s1 #bef ,dra9age ( tany>d1 #bca ,dra9s f lat*es & pits1 #bdj ,dress$ lea!r1 comm]ce1 #bfe ---- sk9s1 comm]ce1 #bfc ,dress+ lea!r1 #ahd-ib ,dry raw hides1 comm]ce1 #bfd ,dry+1 pr9ciples1 #bdh-ed ---- -%$s1 #bdc-ed ---- sole lea!r1 #ahc ,dugong sk9s1 #bef ,dye+ calf kid1 #bbd ---- *amois lea!r1 #bab ---- glove kid1 #bbi ,ea/ ,indian k9o1 #cc ---- ---- kips1 #aia corces de ,*ne1 #ch ,ei*5r9d51 #ch ,e9br5n51 #bja ,eloc>pus tann91 #ed ,ela/ic fibres1 #h ---- ----1 nature (1 #ba ,elevators = b>k1 #afb ,ellagic acid1 #fc1 #ga ,ellagitannic acid1 #gh ,enamell$ lea!r1 #bjc-e ---- ----1 comm]ce1 #bfe ,ephr$a tann91 #ed ,epid]mis ( hide1 #b ,epi!lial lay] ( hide1 #b ,erectores pili muscles1 #b1 #g ,esp9illo tann91 #ed ,e/imat+ a% ( lea!r1 #ajg ---- *lor9e 9 wat]1 #ih ---- grease 9 lea!r1 #aje ---- h>dness ( wat]1 #ig ---- sulphur 9 sodium sulphide1 #ajd ,eucalyptus k9o1 #cd ---- tann91 #ed ,eug5ia tann91 #ed ,exam9ation ( acids1 #aja ---- ( lime & lime-liquors1 #ajb-d ---- ( wat]1 #ig-ajj ,exam9+ cellul> /ructure ( hide1 #ab ,exhau/+ tann+ mat]ials1 #afa-h ---- tann9s1 #aag ,extracts1 comm]ce1 #bga ----1 dissolv+1 #afh ----1 prep>+1 #cb ,fat gl&s1 #f ,fi% sk9s1 #bef-h ,fitzh5ry sc\r+ ma*9e1 #aif ,flasks1 #ia ,fle%+ hides1 #aeb-e ,focus ( microscope1 #aj ,fr5* morocco1 #bjf ,friz+ by h>d wat]1 #he ,fu*sia tann91 #ed ,furnaces = burn+ tan1 #afd ,gallpfel1 #bf-h ,galle d',alep1 #bf-h ,gallic acid1 #fi-ga ,gallotannic acid1 #gf-h ,galls1 #be-i ----1 comm]ce1 #bga ,galu*at1 #beh ,gambia k9o1 #cd ,gambi]1 #bi-ca ----1 comm]ce1 #bga ,gambir1 #bi-ca ,gammuzza suma*1 #df ,gelat9 9 lime liquors1 det]m9+1 #ajd ----1 nature (1 #ag ,g]b]suma*1 #dj-ej ,gl&s ( sk91 #b1 #f ,glove kid1 #bbe-cj ,gloves1 comm]ce1 #bff ,goat sk9s1 #beh-fj ,gra9 ( tann$ lea!r1 #f1 #h ,gra9+ dress+ lea!r1 #ahi ,grease 9 lea!r1 e/imat+1 #aje ,gr9d+ tann+ mat]ials1 #aeh-fa ,hair cuticle1 #d ----1 gr[?1 #b ,h&l] liquors1 table ( det]m9ations1 #aaa ,h&l]s1 #afi1 #agc ,h&l+ hides1 #afi ,h>1 #ch ,h>d5+ hide = cutt+1 #ad ,h>dness ( wat]1 #hd-f ---- ---- ----1 e/imat+1 #ig ,h>ra1 #ch ,h>tnack's objectives & eye-pieces1 #aj ,head requir$ to pass air 9 pipes1 #bec ,heat1 decomposition ( tann9s by1 #fe-h ,heat+ effect ( pipes1 #bej ---- lea*es1 #bdb ---- liquors1 #bdb ,hemlock1 #ca ---- extract = sole lea!r1 #aeh ,h5le's lay]1 #e ,hide album51 #bj ----1 anatomical /ructure1 #b-af ----1 *emical composition1 #ag-bb ----1 exam9+ cellul> /ructure1 #ab ----1 h>d5+1 = cutt+1 #ad ----1 hold+1 = cutt+1 #ac ----1 influ5ce ( wat] 9 plump+1 #he ----1 microscopic exam9ation1 #i-af ----1 section1 #b ----1 sections1 cutt+1 #ab-ae ---- ----1 m\nt+1 #ad ---- ----1 r5d]+ transp>5t1 #ac ---- ----1 simultane\s h>d5+ & /a9+1 #ad ---- ----1 /a9+1 #ad ---- sub/ance 9 lea!r1 det]m9+1 #ajh ,hides1 beam+1 #aea ----1 divid+1 #aee ----1 fle%+1 #aeb-e ---- = sole lea!r1 prep>+1 #acb-h ----1 h&l+1 #afi ----1 imports1 #bff-gj ----1 lim+1 #aci-de ----1 prep>+ = tann+1 #acc-h ----1 r\nd+1 #aee ----1 soak+1 #acc-f ----1 s(t5+1 #ach ----1 /ock+1 #acf ----1 sweat+1 #ade-g ----1 unhair+1 #aci-ef ----1 ---- by sulphides1 #adg-ej ,high-p[] objectives1 #aa ,hiusa*e tann91 #ec ,hold+ hide = cutt+1 #ac ,holmes' tool c>riage1 #aif ,horny lay] ( hide1 #b ---- tissues1 nature (1 #ba ,horse sk9s1 #bfj ,hot air pipes1 #beb ---- wat] pipes1 #beb ,h[>d scrubb]1 #agf ,huxley's lay]1 #e ,hyal9e1 #f ,hydro*loric acid1 exam9+1 #aja ,hydromet]1 #afi ,hygromet] table1 #bdi ,hym5a pods1 #bc ,illum9at+ app>atus1 #aj ---- microscope1 #ab ,imm]sion l5ses1 #i ,indicators = analysis1 #ia ,infusions = ,lw5?al's analytical me?od1 #acj ,+a tann91 #ee ,in/rum5ts = analysis1 #ia-e ,iod9a wood1 #dj ,iron 9 tany>ds1 #bda ,jackson sc\r+ ma*9e1 #aif ,japanese galls1 #bh ,japann$ lea!r1 #bjc-e ---- ----1 comm]ce1 #bfe ,jigg]s1 #bjg ,ju*t5l$]1 #bjh ,kamai b>k1 #ef ,kang>oo sk9s1 #bfj ,kt1 #bc-e ,k]at91 #ba ,kid sk9s1 #beh-fj ,kifu%i galls1 #bh ,k9o1 #cb-d ,k9o91 #ha ,kiri-h9au tann91 #ed ,kiri-toa-toa b>k1 #ee ,knopp]n galls1 #bg ,kut1 #bc-e ,lamb sk9s1 #bfj ,lanca%ire f9i%1 #ahc ,lat*es1 con/ruction1 #bda ---- = exhau/+ tan1 #afd-h ,laurus tann91 #ee ,lay]s = butts1 #agf ,lea*es1 heat+1 #bdb ,lea!r1 *emical exam9ation (1 #aje-h ----1 det]m9+ hide sub/ance1 #ajh ----1 e/imat+ a% (1 #ajg ----1 e/imat+ grease 91 #aje ----1 e/imat+ matt]s soluble 9 wat]1 #ajf ---- manufacture def9$1 #a ,lecks = exhau/+ tan1 #afd-h ,levantis*e ,gall51 #bf-h ,levell+ glove kid1 #bbf ,libi-dibi1 #be ,lime1 exam9ation (1 #ajb ---- = unhair+1 #aci-de ---- -liquors1 det]m9+ gelat9 & cori9 91 #ajd ---- ----1 exam9ation (1 #ajb ,liquors1 heat+1 #bdb ,lit]ature1 #bgb-d ,llama sk9s1 #bfa ,lockwood automatic sc\r]1 #aig ,london f9i%1 #ahc ,lw5?al's modifi$ process = analys+ tann9s1 #abg-ca ,loxopt]ygium wood1 #ci ,lymph vessels1 #h ,ma*rium wood1 #dj ,ma9t5ance ( tann]ies1 #bca-db ,malphigia tann91 #ee ,manatee sk9s1 #bef ,mangrove b>k1 #ee ,manquitta b>k1 #ee ,measur+ curri$ lea!r1 #bjb ,me?ods ( analysis = ! tann]y1 #j-aca ,microscope1 artificial light =1 #ab ----1 *oice (1 #i ----1 illum9at+1 #ab ----1 price (1 #aj ,microscopic exam9ation ( hide1 #i-af ,mills = gr9d+ b>k1 #aeh-fa ---- ---- ---- suma* leaves1 #di ,mimosa b>k1 #cd-h ---- ---- = sole lea!r1 #aeh ---- tann91 #bc-e ,m9]al tann+1 #bah-bb ,miscellane\s tann9s1 #ec-f ,mise au v5t1 #aid ,mollon1 #baa ,mol9i]'s hide-work+ ma*9e1 #ahg ,morocco lea!r1 #bjf ,m\nt+ hide-sections1 #ad ,myrobalans1 #ch ----1 comm]ce1 #bga ---- = sole lea!r1 #aeg ,naucite tann91 #ee ,nauclea extract1 #bi-ca ,n]ve1 break+ !1 #h ,nitrog5 bulb1 #ajc ,noix de galle1 #bf-h ,nut-galls1 #bf-h ,oak-b>k = sole lea!r1 #aeg ---- ---- tann91 #gh ---- -b>ks1 #ch ---- -galls1 #bf-h ---- -wood extract = sole lea!r1 #aeh ,objective1 screw+ d[n on cov]1 #aa ,objectives1 #h ,oil+ 9 curry+1 #aie ,osmic acid solution1 pres]v+1 #ae ---- & *romic acids = h>d5+ & /a9+ hide-sections1 #ad ,ox sk9s1 #bfa ,oxalic acid1 exam9+1 #ajb ,oxalis tann91 #ee ,oxyph5ic acid1 #fg ,palas k9o1 #cc ,pale cate*u1 #bi-ca ,panniculus adiposus1 #ae ,p>s papill>is1 #b ---- reticul>is1 #b ,pat5t lea!r1 #bjc-e ,pay-pay pods1 #ee ,p]manganate process = analys+ tann9s1 #abh-ca ,p]sea b>k1 #ee ,phlobaph5es1 #gb ----1 decomposition by fusion ) cau/ic alkali1 #gc-e ,phlorogluc91 #gd ,phloroglucol1 #gd ,phyllocladus b>k1 #ee ,pipes1 heat+ effect (1 #bej ,pipettes1 #ib ,pits1 con/ruction1 #bch-dj ,plan ( tann]y1 #bcb-f ,plump+ hide1 influ5ce ( wat] on1 #he ,pokako tann91 #ed ,polygonum leaves1 #ee ,pomegranate tann91 #ee ,prell]'s lea!r1 #bac-g ,prep>ation ( tann9s1 #eh ,prep>+ hides = sole lea!r1 #acb-h ,prep>+ hides = tann+1 #acc-h ---- /&>d solutions1 #ie-g ,pres]v+ osmic acid solution1 #ae ,price ( microscope1 #aj ,prie/man's /rik+ ma*9e1 #ahj ,prosopis pods1 #bc ,protocate*uic acid1 #ge ,pt]oc>pus k9os1 #cc1 #cd ,pumps = tann]y1 #bda ,punica tann91 #ee ,pures = dress+ lea!r1 #ahd-f ,purification ( tann9s1 #eh ,putz's pat5t fill+1 #bb ,pyrocate*91 #fg ,pyrocate*ol1 #fg ,pyrogallic acid1 #ff ,pyrogallol1 #ff ,quebra*ia wood1 #dj ,quebra*itannic acid1 #hb ,quebra*o1 #ci ---- cate*91 #ha ,qu]citannic acid1 #gh ,qu]cus acorn cups1 #ej-c ---- b>ks1 #ch ,reag5ts = analys+ tann9s1 #abj-c ,rete malpighi1 #b ,ret5age1 #aid ,rhabdi/o valonia1 #eb ,rhizophora b>k1 #ee ,rhus galls1 #bh ---- leaves1 #dj-ej ,roble ,colorado b>k1 #ef ,rock]1 #afi ,r\nd+ hides1 #aee ,rove galls1 #bh ,russia lea!r1 #bjh ,salt 9 wat]1 effect (1 #hf ,salts = tann+1 #bah-bb ,sampl+ tann9s1 #aaf ,sangue del drago1 #cd ,s*mack1 #dj-ej ,screw+ objective d[n on cov]1 #aa ,seal sk9s1 #bfa ,sebace\s gl&s1 #f ,section ( hide1 #b ,sections ( hide1 cutt+1 #ab-ae ,%aft+ 9 tann]y1 #bcf ,%agre51 #beh ,%av+ dress+ lea!r1 #ahg ,%eep sk9s1 #bfb ,%umac1 #dj-ej ,site = tann]y1 #bca ,sk9s1 trade 91 #bee-gj ,soak+ hides1 #acc-f ,sod oil1 #baa ,sodium sulphide1 e/imat+ sulphur 91 #ajd ,s(t5+ hides1 #ach ,sole-lea!r1 #acb-hc ---- ----1 prep>+ hides1 #acb-h ---- ----1 tann+ mat]ials1 #aeg-fh ---- ----1 treatm5t 9 ! %$1 #agi-hc ---- ----1 treatm5t 9 ! tan-h\se1 #afi-gh ---- ----1 unhair+ hides1 #aci-ef ,soluble matt]s 9 lea!r1 e/imat+1 #ajf ,splitt+ dress+ lea!r1 #ahh ,/a9+ hide-sections1 #ad ,/&>d solutions1 #ij ---- ----1 prep>+1 #ie-g ---- ----1 table (1 #ig ,/ati/ics1 #bee-ga ,/eam pipes1 #bej ---- p[] 9 tann]y1 #bcf ---- trap1 #bea ,/ielei*e b>k1 #ch ,/ock+ hides1 #acf ,/ret*+ dress+ lea!r1 #aia ,/rik+ butts1 #agi ,/ructure1 anatomical1 ( hide1 #b-af ,/uff+ /rap-butts1 #bjj ,sudorif]\s gl&s1 #f ,sulphides = unhair+1 #adg-ej ,sulphur1 e/imat+1 9 sodium sulphide1 #ajd ,sulphuric acid1 exam9+1 #aja ,suma*1 #dj-ej ----1 comm]ce1 #bga ---- extract1 #ej ---- mill1 #di ---- plantations1 #dj-h ,susp5d] liquors1 #agb ---- pits1 #afi ,sweat gl&s1 #f ,sweat+ hides1 #ade-g ,sweet-f]n tann91 #ed ,table1 analyses ( spr+ & riv] wat]s1 #hi ----1 capacity ( air = moi/ure1 #bdi ----1 head = pass+ air1 #bec ----1 heat+ effect ( pipes1 #bej ----1 hygrometric1 #bdi ----1 reactions ( tann9s1 #aab ----1 /&>d solutions1 #ig ,tan burn+ furnaces1 #afd ---- liquor1 det]m9+ free acids 91 #ajh-aa ,tann]ies1 con/ruction1 #bca-db ----1 ma9t5ance1 #bca-db ,tann+ def9$1 #a ---- mat]ials1 comm]ce1 #bgj ---- ----1 comm]cial1 #bc-ef ---- ----1 exhau/+1 #afa-h ---- ---- = sole lea!r1 #aeg-fh ---- ----1 gr9d+1 #aeh-fa ,tann9s1 action on gelat91 #eg ----1 analys+1 #aah-ca ----1 bloom f1 #fb ----1 *>act]s1 #eg-h ----1 *emi/ry (1 #eg-hb ----1 classification1 #fd ----1 con/itution1 #gf-hb ----1 decomposition by acids1 #fh-gc ----1 ---- by heat1 #fe ----1 exhau/+1 #aag ----1 g5]al *emi/ry1 #ei-fd ----1 ---- me?ods ( exam9ation1 #fe-ge ----1 prep>ation1 #eh ----1 products ( decomposition by heat1 #fe-h ----1 purification1 #eh ----1 qualitative detection1 #aaa-d ----1 quantitative det]m9ation1 #aad-ca ----1 reag5ts = analys+1 #abj-c ----1 sampl+1 #aaf ----1 table ( reactions1 #aab ,taps = exhau/+ tan1 #afd-h ,taw$ lea!r1 #bbc ,ta:]o t[ai b>k1 #ef ,taw+ def9$1 #a ,tecoma b>k1 #ef ,t]m9alia fruits1 #ch ,t]ra japonica1 #bc-e1 #bi-ca ,tiffany's bate1 #ahe ,tipuana wood1 #dj ,trade 9 sk9s1 #bee-gj ,transp>5t hide-sections1 #ac ,traub5ei*e b>k1 #ch ,turkey galls1 #bf-h ,turret dri]s1 #bde ,tutu tann91 #ed ,unc>ia extract1 #bi-ca ,undress$ lea!r1 comm]ce1 #bfe ---- sk9s1 comm]ce1 #bfc ,unhair+ hides1 #aci-ef ---- ---- by lime1 #aci-de ---- ---- by sulphides1 #adg-ej ---- ---- by sweat+1 #ade-g ,valonia1 #ej-c ----1 comm]ce1 #bga ---- = sole lea!r1 #aeg ,v>ni%$ lea!r1 comm]ce1 #bfe ,vlandes1 #ej-c ,v5tilation ( dry+-%$s1 #bdf ,virg9ia creep]1 #fg ,wagatea pods1 #ef ,walrus sk9s1 #bfc ,wa% lea!r1 #baj-b ,wat] z us$ 9 tann+1 #hc-i ----1 c\nt]act+ *lorides 91 #hg ----1 detect+ v>i\s impurities 91 #ii ----1 dissolv$ m9]al matt]s 91 #hd ----1 effect ( salt 91 #hf ----1 e/imat+ *lor9e 91 #ih ----1 ---- h>dness (1 #ig ----1 exam9ation (1 #ig-ajj ----1 filt]+1 #hc ----1 h>dness (1 #he ----1 influ5ce on plump+1 #he ----1 p]man5t h>dness (1 #hd ----1 susp5d$ matt]s 91 #hc ----1 table ( spr+ & riv]1 #hi ,wattle-b>k1 #cd-h ---- ---- plantations1 #cf-g ,we9mannia b>k1 #ef ,wet hides1 comm]ce1 #bfc ,:a:ako tann91 #ed ,:it5+ 9 curry+1 #aie ,wilson's spr+ butt-roll]1 #aha ---- /rik+ ma*9e1 #aha ,wu-pei-tze galls1 #bi ,,london3 ,,pr9t$ ,,by ,,william ,,cl[es ,,& ,,sons1 ,,limit$1 ,,/am=d ,,/reet ,,& ,,*>+ ,,cross4 99 99 99 99 99 ,transcrib] ,note ,illu/rations 7 mov$ to avoid splitt+ p>agraphs4 ,hyph5ization 0 /&>diz$ to ! mo/ commonly us$ =m4 ,sev]al m9or typos 7 correct$4 ,?is file 0 produc$ f images g5]\sly made available by ,! ,int]net ,ar*ive4