,transcriber ,note ,text emphasis is denoted by ,italics and ,bold4 ,whole and fractional parts of numbers are denoted as #c-a_/b and where ranges of numbers include fractions they are enclosed in parenthesis3 7#c-a_/b74 ,a ,,text-,,book ,,of ,,tanning4 ,illustration3 ,pl4 ,i4 ,e4 ,f4 ,n4 ,spon1 ,london ,new ,york4 ,,ink-,,photo4 ,,sprague ,,co4 ,,london4 ,,lime ,,pits ,,and ,,rinsing ,,tanks4 ,a ,,text-,,book ,,of ,,tanning3 ,a ,,treatise ,,on ,,the ,,conversion ,,of ,,skins ,,into ,,leather1 ,,both ,,practical ,,and ,,theoretical4 ,,by ,,henry ,r4 ,,procter1 ,f4,c4,s41 ,,of ,,lowlights ,,tannery2 ,,examiner ,,in ,,tanning ,,to ,,the ,,city ,,and ,,guilds ,,technical ,,institute4 ,with #h ,plates and numerous ,illustrations4 ,illustration ,e4 ,f4 ,n4 ,,spon1 #abe1 ,,strand1 ,,london4 ,,new ,,york3 #ce1 ,,murray ,,street4 #ahhe4 ,,preface4 ,illustration ,the aim of the following handbook is two-fold2 to give1 in a compendious form1 such a summary of our scientific knowledge as may be useful to the practical tanner2 and such a sketch of manufacturing processes as may enable the chemist to apply his knowledge to their improvement4 ,each may1 therefore1 find some superfluous matter1 for which his indulgence is asked4 ,the book is an expansion of a short article which appeared in ,spons' ',encyclopdia of the ,industrial ,arts1' and to some extent still bears traces of its origin2 and1 having been written under stress of limited leisure1 and defective eyesight1 is very far from being so perfect as ,i should desire4 ,for the sake of completeness it has been necessary to describe many processes which are outside the range of my own manufacturing experience1 and in doing so ,i have generally referred to the sources of my information4 ,chapters ,,iii4 and ,,xxiv4 are written by ,mr4 ,c4 ,g4 ,warnford ,lock1 to whose kind assistance ,i am much indebted4 ,it may be well to state in conclusion1 that while the work is not intended for a cram-book for technical students1 it is hoped that it may be an assistance to teachers of the subject4 ,,henry ,r4 ,,procter4 ,tynemouth1 ,august #ahhe4 ,,contents4 ,illustration ,,page ,,introductory ,,note #a ,,chapter ,i4 ,anatomical ,structure of ,hide #b ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,chemical ,composition of ,hide #ag ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,commercial ,tanning ,materials #bc ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,the ,chemistry of ,tannins #eg ,,chapter ,v4 ,water as used in ,tanning #hc ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,methods of ,chemical ,analysis for the ,tannery #ij ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,sole-leather3--,preparing the ,hides #acb ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,sole-leather3--,unhairing ,hides #aci ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,sole-leather3--,tanning ,materials #aeg ,,chapter ,x4 ,sole-leather3--,treatment in the ,tan-house #afi ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,sole-leather3--,treatment in the ,shed #agi ,,chapter ,,xii4 ,dressing ,leather #ahd ,,chapter ,,xiii4 ,currying #aic ,,chapter ,,xiv4 ,enamelled1 ,patent1 or ,japanned ,leather #bjc ,,chapter ,,xv4 ,morocco ,leather #bjf ,,chapter ,,xvi4 ,russia ,leather #bjh ,,chapter ,,xvii4 ,chamois or ,wash-leather #baj ,,chapter ,,xviii4 ,crown ,leather1 or ,preller's ,leather #bac ,,chapter ,,xix4 ,mineral-tanned ,leather #bah ,,chapter ,,xx4 ,calf-,kid #bbc ,,chapter ,,xxi4 ,glove-,kid #bbe ,,chapter ,,xxii4 ,construction and ,maintenance of ,tanneries #bca ,,chapter ,,xxiii4 ,drying-sheds for ,leather #bdc ,,chapter ,,xxiv4 ,commerce1 ,statistics1 and ,bibliography #bee ,index #bge ,a ,,text-,,book ,,of ,,tanning ,,etc41 ,,etc4 ,illustration ,,introductory ,,note4 ,leather manufacture may be broadly divided into two stages3 tanning1 in which the raw hide is converted into the imputrescible and more or less flexible material known as leather2 and currying1 in which this leather is further manipulated1 and treated with fatty matters1 to soften and render it more waterproof1 and to improve its appearance4 ,glove-kid1 and certain other leathers1 however1 are not tanned at all1 but tawed1 or prepared with a mixture in which alum and salt are the most active ingredients2 chamois1 shammy1 or wash leather1 is produced by fulling with oil alone1 and many leathers can scarcely be said to be curried1 although more or less oil is used in the final processes of finishing or dressing4 ,the first subject to be treated of in this work will be the operation of tanning1 properly so called1 taking for example the tannage of sole- and belting-leather4 ,this demands thorough explanation1 in both its practical and theoretical aspects1 not only because it is one of the most important branches of the trade1 but because the principles involved are those which equally underlie all other tanning methods4 ,the next to be dealt with will be the modifications of the process which are necessary in tanning the more flexible leathers used for boot-uppers1 hose-pipes1 and saddlery purposes2 then the currying of these leathers2 and finally1 the manufacture of moroccos1 ,russian1 and japanned leathers1 calf- and glove-kid1 c4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,anatomical ,,structure ,,of ,,hide4 ,before speaking of actual processes of manufacture1 it is necessary to devote some attention to the structure and chemical constitution of hide or skin1 which forms the raw material4 ,although a great variety of skins are employed in tanning1 they are all constituted on the same general type1 and an anatomical description of the hide of the ox will apply almost equally to those of the calf1 sheep1 and goat2 but from differences in thickness and closeness of texture1 their practical uses differ widely4 ,fig4 #a shows a section of ox-hide1 cut parallel with the hair1 magnified about #ej diam43 a1 epithelial layer or epidermis1 consisting of horny layer above1 and rete malpighi below2 b1 pars papillaris1 and c1 pars reticularis of corium1 derma1 or true skin2 d1 hairs2 e1 sebaceous or fat-glands2 f1 sudoriferous or sweat-glands2 g1 opening of ducts of sweat-glands2 h1 erectores pili muscles1 for erecting the hair4 ,the fresh hide consists of #b layers3 an outer1 the epidermis2 and an inner1 the true skin4 ,the epidermis is very thin as compared with the true skin which it covers1 and is entirely removed preparatory to tanning2 it nevertheless possesses important functions4 ,it is shown in ,fig4 #a at a1 and more highly magnified in ,fig4 #b4 ,its inner mucous layer b1 the rete malpighi1 which rests upon the true skin c1 is soft1 and composed of living nucleated cells1 which are elongated in the deeper layers1 and gradually become flattened as they approach the surface1 where they dry up1 and form the horny layer a4 ,this last is being constantly worn away1 and thrown off as dead scales of skin2 and as constantly renewed from below1 by the continued multiplication of the cells4 ,it is from this epithelial layer that the hair1 as well as the sweat- and fat-glands1 are developed4 ,it will be seen in ,fig4 #a that each hair is surrounded by a sheath1 which is continuous with the epidermis4 ,in embryonic development1 a small knob of cells forms on the under side of the epidermis1 and this enlarges1 and sinks deeper into the true skin1 while the root of the young hair is formed within it2 this is shown in ,fig4 #c1 a b4 ,smaller projections also form on the stalk of the knob1 and in due time produce the sebaceous glands4 ,the process of development of the sudoriferous glands is very similar to that of the hairs4 ,there is a great analogy between this process and that of the ordinary renewal of hair in the adult animal4 ,at d#a ,fig4 #a1 is seen an old and worn-out hair4 ,it is shrunken and elongated1 and is almost ready to fall out4 ,it will be noticed that its sheath or follicle projects somewhat below the hair to the right4 ,this is the first production of a young hair1 and is quite analogous to the knob of epithelium which has been described as forming the starting-point of a hair in embryo4 ,at d#b1 the same process is seen further advanced1 the young hair being already formed1 and growing up into the old sheath4 ,at d#c1 it is complete1 the old hair having fallen out1 and the young one having taken its place4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #b4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #c4 ,the hair itself is covered with a layer of overlapping scales1 like the slates on a roof1 but of irregular form4 ,these give it a serrated outline at the sides1 strongly developed in wool4 ,within these scales1 which are sometimes called the hair cuticle1 is a fibrous substance1 which forms the body of the hair2 and sometimes1 but not always1 there is also a central and cellular pith1 which is mostly transparent1 though under the microscope it frequently appears black and opaque1 from the optical effect of imprisoned air4 ,on boiling or long soaking in water1 alcohol1 or turpentine1 these air-spaces become saturated with the liquid1 and then appear transparent4 ,the fibrous part of the hair is made up of long spindle-shaped cells1 and contains the pigment which gives the hair its colour4 ,the hair of the deer differs from that of most other animals in being almost wholly formed of polygonal cells1 which1 in white hairs1 are usually filled with air4 ,at its base1 the hair swells into a bulb1 which is hollow1 and rests on a sort of projecting knob of the corium1 called the hair-papilla4 ,this has blood-vessels and nerves1 and supplies nourishment to the hair4 ,the hair-bulb is composed of round1 soft cells1 which multiply rapidly2 as they grow1 they press upward through the hair-sheath1 become elongated and hardened1 and form the hair4 ,in dark hairs1 both the cells of the hair itself and those of its follicle or sheath are strongly pigmented1 but the hair much the more so1 and hence the bulb has usually a distinct dark form4 ,the dark-haired portions of a hide from which the hair has been removed by liming still remain coloured1 from the pigmented cells of the hair-sheaths1 which can only be got out completely by bating and scudding4 ,the cells outside the bulb1 shown at f1 in ,fig4 #d1 pass upwards as they grow1 and form a distinct coating around the hair1 which is called the inner root-sheath4 ,this again consists of #b separate layers1 of which the inner is ,huxley's1 the outer1 ,henle's4 ,they arise from the same cells in the base of the hair2 but in the inner layer1 these remain polygonal and nucleated1 while in the outer1 they become spindle-shaped and without nuclei4 ,the inner root-sheath does not extend to the surface of the skin1 but dies away below the sebaceous glands4 ,this figure represents an ox-hair root1 mag4 #bjj diam43 a1 fibrous substance of hair2 b1 hair cuticle2 c1 inner root-sheath2 d1 outer root-sheath2 e1 dermic coat of hair-sheath2 f1 origin of inner sheath2 g1 bulb2 h1 papilla4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #d4 ,outside the inner root-sheath is a layer of nucleated cells1 continuous with those of the epidermis1 and of the same character4 ,this is the outer root-sheath1 and is shown at d1 ,fig4 #d4 ,this1 together with the whole of the epidermis1 is covered next the corium with an exceedingly fine membrane1 called the hyaline or glassy layer4 ,it is possible that this forms the very thin buff-coloured grain of tanned leather1 which evidently is of different structure from the rest of the corium1 since1 if it gets scraped off before tanning1 the exposed portion of the pars papillaris remains nearly white1 instead of colouring4 ,the whole of the hair-sheath is enclosed in a coating of elastic and connective-tissue fibres1 which are supplied with nerves and blood-vessels1 and form part of the corium4 ,near the opening of the hair-sheaths to the surface of the skin1 the ducts of the sebaceous or fat-glands 7e1 ,fig4 #a71 pass into them1 and secrete a sort of oil to lubricate the hair4 ,the glands themselves are formed of large nucleated cells1 arranged somewhat like a bunch of grapes2 one is shown highly magnified in ,fig4 #e3 a1 sebaceous gland2 b1 hair-stem2 c1 part of erector pili muscle4 ,the upper and more central cells are most highly charged with fat1 which is shown by the darker shading4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #e4 ,as already remarked1 the sudoriferous or sweat-glands are also derived from the epidermis layer4 ,they are shown at f1 ,fig4 #a1 and on a larger scale 7#bjj diam47 in ,fig4 #f3 a1 windings laid open in making section2 they consist1 in the ox and sheep1 of a large wide tube1 sometimes slightly twisted4 ,in this1 they differ considerably from those of man1 which form a spherical knot of extremely convoluted tube4 ,the walls of these glands are formed of longitudinal fibres of connective tissue of the corium1 lined with a single layer of large nucleated cells1 which secrete the perspiration4 ,the ducts1 which are exceedingly narrow1 and with walls of nucleated cells like those of the outer hair-sheaths1 sometimes open directly through the epidermis1 as shown at g1 ,fig4 #a1 but more frequently into the orifice of a hair-sheath1 just at the surface of the skin4 ,each hair is provided with a slanting muscle 7h1 ,fig4 #a71 called the arrector or erector pili1 which is contracted by cold or fear1 and causes the hair to bristle1 or stand on end2 by forcing up the attached skin1 it produces the effect known as goose-skin4 ,the muscle1 which is of the unstriped or involuntary kind1 passes from near the hair-bulb to the epidermis1 and just under the sebaceous glands1 which it compresses4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #f4 ,the corium or true skin is principally composed of interlacing bundles of white fibres1 of the kind known as connective tissue2 these are composed of fibrils of extreme fineness1 cemented together by a substance of different composition from the fibres themselves4 ,this may be demonstrated by steeping a small piece of hide for some days in a stoppered bottle in lime-1 or baryta-water1 in which the inter-fibrillar substance is soluble1 and then teasing a small fragment of the fibre with needles on a glass microscope-slide1 and examining with a power of at least #bjj-cjj diam4 ,in the middle portion of the skin1 these bundles of fibre are closely interwoven2 but next the body1 they gradually become looser and more open1 forming the pars reticularis 7or netted part72 and the innermost layer is a mere network of loose membrane1 generally loaded with masses of fat-cells1 and hence called adipose tissue4 ,it is this adipose tissue which is removed in the fleshing process4 ,on the other hand1 the outermost layer1 just beneath the epidermis1 is exceedingly close and compact1 the fibre-bundles that run into it being separated into their elementary fibrils1 which are so interlaced that they can scarcely be recognised4 ,this is the pars papillaris1 and forms the lighter-coloured layer1 called 7together with its very fine outer coating7 the grain of leather4 ,it is in this part that the fat-glands are embedded1 while the hair-roots and sweat-glands pass through it into the looser tissue beneath4 ,besides the connective-tissue fibres1 the skin contains a small proportion of fine yellow fibres1 called elastic fibres4 ,if a thin section of hide be soaked for a few minutes in strong acetic acid1 and then examined under the microscope1 the white connective-tissue fibres become swollen and transparent1 and the yellow fibres may then be seen1 as they are scarcely affected by the acid4 ,the hair-bulbs and sweat- and fat-glands are also rendered distinctly visible4 ,the nerves of the skin are very numerous1 each hair being supplied with fibres passing into both the papilla and sheath4 ,they also pass into the skin papill4 ,they cannot readily be seen1 without special preparation1 and1 so far as is known1 exercise no influence on the tanning process4 ,breaking the nerve is a technical term1 which signifies a thorough stretching and softening of the skin1 but has nothing to do with nerves properly so called4 ,the blood- and lymph-vessels are1 from the present point of view1 somewhat more important4 ,they may often be seen in sections1 and are lined with nucleated cells1 similar to those of the glands4 ,these are surrounded by coatings of unstriped muscular fibre1 running both around and lengthways1 and also by connective-tissue fibres4 ,in the arteries1 the muscular coating is much stronger than in the veins4 ,it may be thought that the space devoted to a discussion of the anatomical structure of the skin is disproportionately large2 but there can be no doubt that1 in order to make improvements1 nothing is of more importance than a clear conception1 even to the smallest details1 of the materials and causes to be dealt with4 ,the illustrations are from actual specimens1 and enable the various parts of the hide to be identified under the microscope4 ,as this instrument is a most useful means of investigation in the tanning industry1 and one likely to be of increasing importance1 it will be well1 before proceeding further1 to say a few words1 both on the selection of a suitable instrument1 and on its manipulation in general4 ,to do useful work1 it is not necessary to possess a very elaborate or expensive instrument1 but it is essential that the microscope be well made and good of its kind4 ,as high powers are often required in the examination1 both of hide sections and of ferments1 which are the principal objects of investigation in a tannery1 it is of the first importance that the fine adjustment should be perfectly steady1 without vibration or backlash4 ,this1 in the writer's experience1 is never the case with cheap microscopes1 in which the fine adjustment is made by a screw at the side of the tube moving the nose by means of a lever4 ,a much more satisfactory arrangement is that in which the whole body of the microscope is raised or lowered by a screw in a pillar at the back of the stand on which it slides4 ,a rack for the coarse adjustment is useful1 but not essential4 ,if a sliding tube only is provided1 it must be tight enough not to slip1 but must move easily up and down with a sort of screwing movement4 ,a mechanical stage is not at all necessary1 and for most purposes one of black glass is better as well as cheaper4 ,the diaphragm for regulating the light should be as near level with the surface of the stage as possible1 and when examined with a low power should appear in the centre of the field4 ,for research work on the minuter ferments1 an achromatic condenser and the finest oil- or water-immersion lenses are necessary1 but directions for this are beyond the scope of the present work4 ,it may1 however1 be mentioned that ,prof4 ,flgge1,a a first-class authority on the subject1 especially recommends ,abb's illuminating apparatus as made by ,zeiss4 ,footnote ,a3 ,fermente und ,mikroparasiten1 ,leipzig1 #ahhc4 ,a frequent defect in cheap ,english microscopes is that the mirror for substage illumination does not bring the rays of a lamp to a focus exactly on the slide1 but frequently some inches above it4 ,this may be to a great extent overcome by the use of a bulls'-eye condenser between the lamp and the microscope4 ,another defect is that sometimes the centre of the mirror is not in a line with that of the microscope body4 ,the objectives 7or lenses at the lower end of the microscope7 are the most important part of the instrument1 and however good it may be in all other respects1 if these are defective the whole is useless4 ,the most useful lenses for our purpose1 if only two are to be selected1 are a #a-;in41 magnifying about #ej diam41 and a #a_/d-;in41 magnifying about #bjj to #djj1 according to the eye-piece2 a #a_/h-;in4 giving1 say1 twice this magnification will be needed to see the smaller bacteria distinctly1 but it is possible just to see even the small putrefaction bacteria with a really fine #a_/d-;in4 ,in any case1 the highest power should be as perfect and of as large an angle as attainable4 ,a good #a_/d-;in4 should resolve ,pleurosigma angulatum with direct light1 and should show the movement of the granules of protoplasm in the round corpuscles which are present in saliva4 ,in using the latter test1 it must be remembered that the motion only lasts a very short time on a cold slide4 ,about #el4 is the very least for which a microscope can be obtained which is suitable for tanners' use2 where it can be afforded1 a better one is advisable4 ,without disparaging other makers1 it may be mentioned that the writer has generally used both the eye-pieces and objectives of ,dr4 ,hartnack of ,potsdam2 and that they are moderate in price1 at least for the dry combinations1 and perfectly satisfactory for all technical purposes4 ,numbers #b1 #e1 and #h objectives with ,no4 #c eye-piece1 are sufficient for all ordinary work4 ,if only #b objectives are to be obtained1 ,nos4 #c and #g would be perhaps the best selection4 ,it is always better to use objectives on the stand1 and with the eye-pieces for which they are intended1 but in case ,hartnack's objectives are used on an ,english stand 7which is easily done by means of an adaptor ring71 it is important to remember that they are constructed to work with a shorter tube than that customary on ,english microscopes1 and that they will not perform well if its length is much more than #f in42 these objectives are not provided with a movable adjustment for thickness of cover-glasses1 which for technical purposes is not required1 and in inexperienced hands is apt to prove troublesome4 ,extra-thin covers must therefore always be used4 ,where this adjustment is provided1 the object must be accurately focused1 and then1 maintaining this focus with the fine focusing-screw1 the collar must be cautiously turned till the best definition is obtained4 ,practically it will be best to make this adjustment accurately once for all1 and to take care to use covers selected of a uniform thickness4 ,high-power objectives of wide angle 7which condition is essential to good defining power7 necessarily work extremely close to the object1 and it is always best to use the thinnest cover-glasses which can be got4 ,even then1 with such glasses as ,hartnack's ,no4 #h1 unless the sections are very thin1 it will be impossible to examine their lower parts2 and one of the greatest difficulties of microscopic research is to obtain them thin enough4 ,it will be obvious1 from what has been said1 that the greatest care is needed to avoid screwing the objective down on the cover1 and so breaking one or both of them4 ,one way to avoid this is to screw down as close as possible to begin with1 and then focus upwards4 ,another plan1 when the object on the slide is small1 is to keep continuously moving the slide gently with the fingers1 while looking into the tube4 ,it is then easy to notice when the dust and small particles on the slide come into focus1 and if the point should happen to be overstepped the contact will generally be felt before serious damage is done4 ,illumination is one of the most important points in practical microscopy4 ,with powers of not less than #a_/b-;in4 focus1 objects may generally be examined by light thrown upon them from above by a bulls'-eye condenser1 or by good daylight4 ,in this case they need not be transparent2 and the plan is often convenient for a mere surface examination4 ,in examining bodies illuminated in this way1 prominences often appear as hollows and vice vers1 by a sort of optical illusion1 which1 once established1 is very difficult to overcome4 ,by remembering the direction of the light1 and that this appears reversed in the microscope1 it is easy to decide the truth4 ,for all finer work and higher powers1 and most generally with the low powers also1 it is necessary to render the object transparent1 and to examine it by light transmitted from the mirror below the stage4 ,good daylight is least trying to the eyes4 ,where artificial light must be used1 that of a small paraffin lamp is best2 and a blue chimney1 or blue glass interposed between the stage and mirror1 or lamp and microscope1 spares the sight1 and makes it easier to distinguish colours4 ,the light should be sufficient1 but not too dazzling4 ,work should never be prolonged after the least strain is felt1 nor should the microscope be used for some little time after a meal4 ,it is well to accustom oneself to keep both the eyes open while observing4 ,if it be required to see how far the cellular structures of the hide1 such as hair-sheaths and fat-glands1 are affected or destroyed in any stage of liming or bating1 the following ready method may be employed4 ,if a strip of hide be cut #b_/c through from the grain side1 as shown at a in ,fig4 #g1 and the flap be turned down1 and held between the finger and thumb1 the fibrous tissue will be put on the stretch1 and will then allow a moderately thin shaving 7including the grain and parts immediately below it7 to be cut by a sharp razor4 ,the hide should be held in the positions shown1 and a steady drawing cut be made from flesh to grain1 the razor being steadied on the tip of the forefinger1 and its hollow surface flooded with water4 ,if the thin section be now placed on a glass slide1 moistened with a drop of water1 and examined on the microscope under a strong light from above1 with a #a-;in4 objective1 the fat-glands will be seen as yellow masses1 embedded in the white fibrous tissue4 ,if a drop of a mixture of equal vols4 of strong acetic acid1 glycerin1 and water be used to moisten the section1 the fibrous tissue will become quite transparent1 and whatever remains of the cellular tissue will be easily visible1 and may even be studied under tolerably high powers if covered with a thin glass1 and lighted by the mirror from below4 7,the cover-glass must be carefully cleaned by rubbing with a linen handkerchief1 and placed in position with a pair of tweezers1 one side being supported by a needle1 which is gradually withdrawn1 so as to avoid air-bubbles47 ,care must be taken that this mixture does not touch the brass-work of the microscope2 even the vapour is apt to tarnish1 so that the preparation must not remain longer than necessary on the microscope4 ,the same method is applicable for ascertaining the completeness of the tannage of leather1 and to decide whether the hide fibre is really tanned1 or only dyed4 ,actually tanned leather is unaffected by the acetic acid1 but raw or only stained hide swells and becomes transparent4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #g4 ,to prepare the very thin sections necessary for detailed study of the hide1 more complicated methods are required4 ,small slips of hide1 not exceeding #a_/d in4 wide1 and cut exactly across the lie of the hair1 are placed first in weak alcohol 7equal parts methylated spirit and water71 and1 after a few hours1 are removed into strong methylated spirit4 ,it is then kept for some days in absolute alcohol1 which must be repeatedly changed1 until the hide is hard enough to give fine shavings1 and may be cut either when held as above described1 between cork or pith1 or when embedded in paraffin wax4 ,this is accomplished by placing the piece of hide in a little paper-box and covering it with melted paraffin 7candle71 which is just beginning to stiffen4 ,the piece of hide may be fixed in position with a needle1 which must of course be withdrawn before cutting4 ,when hard1 the paraffin is shaved away till the object is exposed1 when it may be cut4 ,the razor must be wet with alcohol1 and the section be made exactly in the plane of the hair-roots1 which may be seen with a hand-lens4 7,the use of a microtome for hide-sections is rarely successful1 as it is almost impossible to fix the fragment of hide so that it is cut exactly with the hairs47 ,the slices may now be stained by placing them in a watch-glass with water and a few drops of the logwood or picrocarmine staining-mixtures sold by opticians1 and afterwards either examined in glycerin1 or1 after soaking some hours in absolute alcohol1 may be transferred to clove-oil1 and afterwards to a slide1 and covered with a drop of dammar varnish or ,canada balsam dissolved in chloroform4 ,the sections moistened with glycerin may also be mounted in ,farrant's solution or glycerin jelly1 under a cover-glass for permanent preservation4 ,if picrocarmine be used1 the connective-tissue fibres 7gelatinous fibres7 and the nuclei of the cells will be coloured red1 and the cells themselves of both epidermis and glands1 together with the muscles and elastic fibres1 will be yellow4 ,franz ,kathreiner1 who has made very elaborate researches on skin1 and the changes which take place in it during the processes of tanning1 employs a mixture of osmic and chromic acids for hardening1 and at the same time staining the tissue4 ,this mixture was first used by a ,german histologist with whose name ,i am not acquainted1 in a research on the internal organs of hearing1 and was applied by ,kathreiner in #ahgi to the investigation of skin1 and communicated by him to the writer in the autumn of that year4 ,his method is briefly as follows4 ,the pieces of hide to be examined must1 if salted1 be well washed1 or if dry1 be thoroughly softened4 ,for the study of hide in its unaltered and natural condition1 it is essential that it be quite fresh1 and taken from the animal as soon as possible after death4 ,in any case the ,panniculus adiposus or fatty layer is1 as far as possible1 removed with scissors1 the hair cut short1 and the skin cut up into little pieces of #c-d millimetres wide by #aj-ab millimetres long 7about #a_/h in4 by #a_/b in472 the hair must lie exactly across these pieces4 ,they are then placed for #d-h days1 according to the thickness of the hide1 in about #ab times their volume of a solution consisting of #jb parts osmic acid4,b #je chromic acid4 #bjjj water4 ,footnote ,b3 ,solution of osmic acid is best preserved in sealed tubes in the dark4 ,if obtained in solution it is rarely of full strength1 for which allowance may have to be made4 ,care must be taken to avoid inhaling its fumes1 which are very irritating to the eyes and to the respiratory organs1 producing severe catarrh4 ,this solution must be kept from dust and light1 in a glass stoppered bottle1 and in a cool place4 ,on removing the hide-pieces from this solution1 they are placed in about #ab times their volume of absolute alcohol for #d-h days1 during which time the spirit must be at least #c times renewed4 ,the sections are cut with a razor flooded with absolute alcohol1 so that the thin shavings float without friction upon it4 ,the hide-pieces may be held either between soft cork1 or1 as is generally preferable1 simply between the forefinger and thumb as shown in ,fig4 #g4 ,the cut must be made exactly parallel with the direction of the hair roots1 and from the grain towards the flesh2 and the sections cannot possibly be too thin4 ,after lying for #a_/b-a hour in absolute alcohol1 the sections are soaked till quite clear in clove oil 7which must be pale and of the purest kind71 and may then be mounted in dammar varnish1 or solution of ,canada balsam4 ,in these sections1 fat and the oily contents of the fat glands are stained black1 and the limits of the cells both of these glands and of other elements of the hide 7rete malpighi1 hair-bulb1 c47 are made very distinct1 so as to be capable of the most delicate investigation under the highest powers2 but the beginner will learn most easily to recognise the different tissues by studying at first some sections stained with picrocarmine as before described4 ,the method is admirably adapted for the study of hide as affected by the limes and bates4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,chemical ,,composition ,,of ,,hide4 ,the chemical composition of skin is very imperfectly understood4 ,the bulk of the skin is1 as has long been known1 converted by boiling into gelatin or glue4 ,the yellow fibres and cellular tissue remain undissolved4 ,mntz1 who made some interesting researches on the subject1 found that completely dried hide contained--#cjhf per cent4 of cellular tissue insoluble in hot water1 #ajeh of fat1 #jdfg of mineral matter1 and #iecie of matters soluble in hot water4 ,mntz counts the whole of the tissue soluble in hot water as converted into glue2 but this is not strictly the case4 ,gelatin is not identical with the fibre of the hide1 which is only converted into it by boiling4 ,the nature of the change is not well understood2 but it is either simply molecular1 or depends on the addition of one or more molecules of water4 ,the gelatin of bones seems identical with that of skin and connective tissue1 but that of cartilage differs slightly from it1 and is called chondrin4 ,raw hide1 unhaired and purified1 contains1 according to ,mntz--carbon1 #eadc per cent42 hydrogen1 #ffd2 nitrogen1 #ahaf2 oxygen1 #bcjf2 ash1 #jga2 while gelatin has--carbon1 #eja per cent42 hydrogen1 #ff2 nitrogen1 #ahc 7,mulder72 carbon1 #ej per cent42 hydrogen1 #fe2 nitrogen1 #age 7,fremy74 ,probably1 however1 neither substance was quite pure4 ,gelatin is insoluble in alcohol1 ether1 and cold water1 but swells in the last1 absorbing about #dj per cent4 ,it is soluble in hot water1 but is reprecipitated on the addition of a sufficient quantity of alcohol1 resembling in this respect gum1 dextrin1 and many other substances4 ,it is soluble in glycerin1 with the aid of heat1 and in concentrated sulphuric acid in the cold4 ,moist gelatin exposed to the air rapidly putrefies4 ,it first becomes very acid1 from formation of butyric 7and perhaps other7 acids1 but afterwards alkaline1 from evolution of ammonia4 ,boiled with concentrated potash1 it yields leucin 7amidocaproic acid1 ,c#f;,h#ae,,no#b71 glycocin 7sugar of gelatin71 and other substances4 ,the same products are obtained by boiling with sulphuric acid1 and probably also more gradually1 and in greater or less proportions1 by the prolonged action of lime or barium hydrate1 by putrefaction1 and by any other influence which tends to resolve the gelatin molecule into its simpler parts4 ,gelatin is precipitated by all tannins1 even from very dilute solution4 ,a solution containing #b_/ajjjj parts is rendered turbid by infusion of gall-nuts or gallotannic acid4 ,the precipitate is soluble in excess of gelatin4 ,solution of gelatin dissolves considerable quantities of lime phosphate1 hence this is always largely present in common glue4 ,gelatin is precipitated by mercuric chloride1 in this respect resembling peptones2 but not by potassium ferrocyanide1 by which it is distinguished from albuminoids2 and it differs from albumen in not being coagulated by heat4 ,on the contrary1 by prolonged boiling glue loses the property of gelatinising1 and becomes soluble in cold water1 being split up into two peptones2 semi-glutin1 which is insoluble in alcohol1 and precipitated by platinic chloride2 and hemicollin1 which is soluble in alcohol1 and not precipitated by platinic chloride4 ,both are precipitated by mercuric chloride 7see ,hofmeister1 abst4 ,chem4 ,soc4 ,jour4 #ahha1 p4 #bid74 ,gelatin or glue with about #c per cent4 of potassium dichromate becomes insoluble when exposed to the light1 from the formation of a chromium compound4 ,this reaction is the base of several modern photographic processes1 and has been used for waterproofing and for cementing glass1 c4 ,the connective-tissue fibres are partially converted into gelatin by the action of strong acids and alkalies1 as well as by heat4 ,by weak acids1 they are swollen and gradually dissolved1 and ,reimer,c has found that the material may be reprecipitated by lime-water4 ,it forms an irregular fibrous mass1 which has not the sticky feel of gelatin1 but is at once converted into that body by boiling4 ,rollet has demonstrated that when hide and other forms of connective tissue are soaked in lime- or baryta-water1 the fibres become split up into finer fibrils1 and as the action proceeds1 these again separate into still finer1 till the ultimate fibrils are as fine as can be distinguished under a powerful microscope4 ,at the same time1 the alkaline solution dissolves the substance which cemented the fibres together1 and this may be recovered by neutralising the solution with acetic acid1 when it comes down as a flocculent precipitate4 ,this was considered by ,rollet to be an albuminoid substance2 but ,reimer has shown that it is much more closely allied to the gelatigenous fibres1 if indeed it is not actually produced from them by the action of the alkaline solution4 ,reimer used limed calf-skin for his experiments1 and subjected it to prolonged cleansing with distilled water1 so that all soluble parts must have been pretty thoroughly removed beforehand4 ,he then digested it in closed glasses with lime-water for #g-h days1 and precipitated the clear solution with dilute acetic acid4 ,he found that the same portion of hide might be used again and again1 without becoming exhausted1 which strongly supports the supposition that it is merely a product of the partial decomposition of the hide fibre4 ,the substance1 which he called coriin1 was purified by repeated solution in lime-water1 and reprecipitation by acetic acid4 ,it was readily soluble by alkalies1 but insoluble in dilute acids1 though in some cases it became so swollen and finely divided as to appear almost as if dissolved4 ,it was1 however1 very soluble in common salt solution of about #aj per cent41 though it was precipitated both by the addition of much water1 and by saturating the solution with salt4 ,reimer found that a #aj per cent4 salt solution was equally effective with lime-water in extracting it from the hide1 and that it was partially precipitated on the addition of acid1 and completely on saturating the acidified solution with salt4 ,other salts of the alkalies and alkaline earths acted in a similar manner1 so that ,reimer was at first deceived when experimenting with baryta-water1 because1 being more concentrated than lime-water1 the coriin remained dissolved in the baryta salt formed on neutralising with acid1 and it was necessary to dilute before a precipitate could be obtained4 ,the slightly acid solution of coriin gave no precipitate with potassium ferrocyanide1 nor was it precipitated by boiling1 being thus distinguished from albuminoids4 ,the neutral or alkaline solution was not precipitated by iron or mercuric chloride1 copper sulphate1 nor by neutral lead acetate2 but was precipitated by basic lead acetate1 basic iron sulphate1 and excess of tannin4 ,its elementary composition is--carbon1 #deia3 hydrogen1 #feg2 nitrogen1 #aghb2 oxygen1 #bifj2 and ,reimer proposes the following equation as representing its relation to hide fibre3-- ,hide fibre4 ,water4 ,coriin4 ,c#cj;,h#df,n#aj,o#ab ,o #b;,h#b,o ,c#cj;,h#ej,n#aj,o#ae4 ,footnote ,c3 ,dingler's ,polyt4 ,journal1 vol4 #bbj1 p4 #afg4 ,hide ,albumen4--,the fresh hide1 besides this coriin 7which1 very possibly1 is only evolved by the action of the lime71 contains a portion of actual albumen1 viz4 that of the blood serum and of the lymph1 which is not only contained in the abundant blood-vessels1 but saturates the fibrous connective tissue1 of which it forms the nourishment4 ,this albumen is mostly removed by the liming and working on the beam1 which is preparatory to tanning4 ,probably for sole-leather1 the albumen itself would be rather advantageous if left in the hide1 as it combines with tannin1 and would assist in giving firmness and weight to the leather4 ,it is1 however1 for reasons which will be seen hereafter1 absolutely necessary to get rid of any lime which may be in combination with it4 ,the blood also must be thoroughly cleansed from the hide before tanning1 as its colouring matter contains iron1 and1 in combination with the tannin1 would give a bad colour4 ,the reactions of blood and lymph albumen are very similar to those of ordinary white of egg4 ,it is precipitated by strong mineral acids1 especially nitric1 and also by boiling4 ,the precipitate produced by strong hydrochloric acid redissolves by the aid of heat to a blue or purple solution4 ,tribasic phosphoric1 tartaric1 acetic1 and most other organic acids1 do not precipitate moderately dilute solutions of albumen1 but convert it into a sort of jelly1 which1 like gelatin1 does not coagulate1 but liquefies on heating4 ,it is precipitated by neutral salts of the alkali metals4 ,blood-albumen slightly acidified 7with acetic acid7 is precipitated by potassium ferrocyanide4 ,it is not precipitated by dilute infusions of oak bark1 but is rendered uncoagulable by heat1 hence it cannot be employed to remove tannins from their solutions4 ,elastic ,fibres4--,the elastic or yellow fibres of the hide are of a very stable character4 ,they are not completely dissolved even by prolonged boiling1 and acetic acid and hot solutions of caustic alkalies scarcely attack them4 ,probably they do not combine with tannin1 and are very little changed in the tanning process4 ,hair1 ,epidermis1 and ,glands4--,these are1 as has been seen1 all derived from the epithelial layer1 and hence1 as might be inferred1 have much in common in their chemical constitution4 ,they are all classed by chemists under one name1 keratin1 or horny tissue1 and their ultimate analysis shows that in elementary composition they nearly agree4 ,it is evident1 however1 that the horny tissues are rather a class than a single compound4 ,the keratins are gradually loosened by prolonged soaking in water1 and1 by continued boiling in a ,papin's digester1 are dissolved to an extract which does not gelatinise on cooling4 ,keratin is dissolved by caustic alkalies2 the epidermis and the softer horny tissues are easily attacked1 while hair and horn require strong solutions and the aid of heat to effect complete solution4 ,the caustic alkaline earths act in the same manner as dilute alkaline solutions2 hence lime easily attacks the epidermis1 and loosens the hair1 but does not readily destroy the latter4 ,alkaline sulphides1 on the other hand1 seem to attack the harder tissues with at least the same facility as the soft ones1 the hair being often completely disintegrated1 while the epidermis is still almost intact2 hence their applicability to unhairing by destruction of the hair4 ,keratins are dissolved by fuming hydrochloric acid1 with the production of a blue or violet coloration1 like the albuminoids4 ,they also resemble albumen1 in the fact that their solution in sulphuric acid is precipitated by potassium ferrocyanide4 ,by fusion with potash1 or prolonged boiling with dilute sulphuric acid1 keratin is decomposed1 yielding leucin1 tyrosin1 ammonia1 c4 ,the alkaline solution of keratin 7hair1 horns1 c47 is precipitated by acids1 and1 mixed with oil and baryta sulphate1 is employed under ,dr4 ,putz's patent as a filling material for leather1 for which purpose it acts in the same way as the egg-yolks and meal used in kid-leather manufacture4 ,eitner attempted to use it for the same purpose with bark-tanned leather1 but without much success4 ,putz has also proposed to precipitate the material after working its solution into the pores of the leather4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,commercial ,,tanning ,,materials4 ,algarobilla4--,the seed-pods of ,prosopis pallida and ,p4 ,algarrobo are known as algarobilla1 the two kinds being distinguished as negro and blanco4 ,the trees are abundant in mountainous parts of ,south ,america1 notably ,chili and the ,argentine ,republic4 ,the pods contain up to #ej per cent4 of a bright-yellow tannin1 somewhat resembling that of myrobalans4 ,the friable tannin is readily soluble in cold water1 and is so loosely held in the fibrous network of the pod1 that great loss is sustained by careless handling4 ,the commerce in algarobilla does not figure in the official trade returns2 but ,j4 ,gordon ,co41 ,liverpool1 obligingly state that they imported #ej tons1 at an average value of #ahl4 #ajs4 a ton1 in #ahhj4 ,widow ,duranty ,son1 also of ,liverpool1 are good enough to add that they received #afj tons in #ahha1 the first that had reached them for a long time4 ,havre imported #ej tons in #ahha4 ,the name algarrobo is also applied to ,balsamocarpon brevifolium in ,chili1 and to ,hymena ,courbaril in ,panama4 ,chestnut-extract4--,the wood of the chestnut 7,castanea vesca7 contains #ad-bj per cent4 of a dull-brown tannin4 ,it is quite different from the bark and bark-extract of the ,american chestnut-oak 7,quercus sessiliflora74 ,its extract is used largely to modify the colour produced by hemlock-extract1 and for tanning and dyeing4 ,the pulverised wood is also extensively employed in ,france4 ,the imports are included in barks and extracts1 p4 #ci4 ,cork-bark4 ,see ,oak-barks4 ,cutch1 ,catechu1 or ,terra ,japonica 7,fr41 ,cachou2 ,ger41 ,catechu74--,the term kt1 kut1 or cutch1 is applied to the dried extract1 containing #de-ee per cent4 of dark-coloured mimo-tannic acid1 prepared chiefly from #b trees3--7#a7 ,acacia ,catechu ,mimosa ,catechu1 ,m4 sundra1 a tree of #cj-dj ft41 common in most parts of ,india and ,burma1 growing also in the hotter and drier districts of ,ceylon1 and abundant in tropical ,east ,africa--the ,soudan1 ,sennar1 ,abyssinia1 the ,noer country and ,mozambique1 though the utilisation of its tannin is restricted to ,india2 7#b7 ,a4 ,m4 ,suma1 a large tree inhabiting ,south ,india 7,mysore71 ,bengal1 and ,gujerat4 ,the process for preparing cutch varies slightly in different districts4 ,the trees are reckoned to be of proper age when their trunks are about #a ft4 diam4 ,they are then cut down1 and the whole of the woody part1 with the exception of the smaller branches and the bark1 is reduced to chips3 some accounts state that only the darker heart-wood is thus used4 ,the chips are placed with water in earthen jars1 arranged in a series over a mud fire-place1 usually in the open air4 ,here the water is made to boil1 the liquor as it becomes thick and strong being decanted into another vessel1 in which the evaporation is continued until the extract is sufficiently inspissated1 when it is poured into moulds made of clay1 or of leaves pinned together in the shape of cups1 or in some districts on to a mat covered with the ashes of burnt cow-dung1 the drying in each case being completed by exposure to the sun and air4 ,the product is a dark-brown extract1 which is the usual form in which cutch is known in ,europe4 ,in ,kumaon1 ,north ,india1 a slight modification of the process affords a drug of very different appearance4 ,instead of evaporating the decoction to the condition of an extract1 the inspissation is stopped at a certain point1 and the liquor is allowed to cool1 coagulate1 and crystallise over twigs and leaves thrown into the pots for the purpose4 ,by this method is obtained from each pot about #b lb4 of kath or catechu1 of an ashy-whitish appearance4 ,in ,burma1 the manufacture and export of cutch form one of the most important items of forest revenue4 ,the quantity of cutch exported from the province in #ahfi-gj was #aj1ghb tons1 valued at #aic1fjbl41 of which nearly half was the produce of manufactories situated in ,british territory4 ,the article is imported in mats1 bags1 and boxes1 often enveloped in the large leaf of ,dipterocarpus tuberculatus4 ,it is brought down from ,berar and ,nepal to ,calcutta4 ,that of ,pegu has a high reputation4 ,our imports of cutch in #ahhj were #eaee tons1 value #agc1jdjl41 from the ,british ,east ,indies2 #eci tons1 #ae1egbl41 from other countries2 total1 #efid tons1 #ahh1fabl4 ,our exports in the same year were3--#hib tons1 #bh1ebgl41 to ,germany2 #fgf tons1 #bd1efbl41 to the ,united ,states2 #dgh tons1 #ae1ejel41 to ,france2 #cjc tons1 #aj1ecgl41 to ,holland2 #agg tons1 #eheil41 to ,russia2 #ada tons1 #dhcel41 to ,belgium2 #bde tons1 #hgail41 to other countries2 total1 #biab tons1 #ih1eddl4 ,the approximate ,london market value of ,pegu cutch is #ba-dbs4 a cwt4 ,an astringent extract prepared from the areca nut 7,areca ,catechu7 is said to contribute to commercial cutch2 if so1 it is a totally distinct product from those just described4 ,divi-divi1 or ,libi-dibi4--,these names are applied to the seed-pods of ,csalpinia coriaria1 a tree of #bj-cj ft41 indigenous to several of the ,west ,indies1 ,mexico1 ,venezuela1 and ,north ,brazil1 and naturalised in ,madras and ,bombay ,presidencies1 and in the ,north-,west ,provinces4 ,the pod may be known by its drying to the shape of a letter ,s2 it contains #cj-ej per cent4 of a peculiar tannin1 somewhat similar to that of valonia4 ,it is cheap1 and may be used in admixture with barks2 but it is dangerously liable to undergo fermentation1 suddenly staining the leather a dark-red colour1 and is therefore not in extensive use4 ,the imports of it are mainly from ,maracaibo1 ,paraiba1 and ,st4 ,domingo4 ,maracaibo1 in #ahhj1 exported #aig1fgd lb4 of divi-divi1 value #cbbb-a_/d dol4 7#ds4 #b;d471 to ,new ,york4 ,our imports of divi-divi into ,liverpool1 according to figures kindly furnished by ,haw ,co41 were #bbjj tons in #ahgg1 #agdj in #ahgh1 #bacb in #ahgi1 and #ghj in #ahhj4 ,the approximate market value is #ab-agl4 a ton4 ,galls4--,the generic term gall is applied to those excrescences on plants which are produced by the punctures of insects1 for the purpose of depositing their eggs4 ,the excrescences are usually considered to be a diseased condition of vegetable tissue1 resulting from the injection of some secretion of the insects4 ,but this has been combated by ,a4 ,s4 ,wilson1 of ,aberdeen1 who considers that all insect galls are in reality leaf-buds1 or fruit-buds1 and not mere amorphous excrescences4 ,the vascular lines which would form leaves can easily be followed up in the structure of the oak-leaf galls4 ,and in cases where the egg has been deposited in the tissue of a young branch1 the cap of the gall is sometimes surmounted by a leaf #b-c in4 long4 ,but in the large blue ,turkish galls1 many lacun occur where the fleshified leaves have not filled up the spaces between them4 ,if a dissection be made of one of the weevil-galls on the bulb of the turnip1 the second or third slice will show the outer foliations1 exactly similar to those of the root-buds4 ,when the centre has been reached1 where the maggot will be found1 there will also be a vascular pencil running up from a medullary ray in the bulb1 and bearing on its top a bud of the same description as that produced by a ray running out from a root4 ,the insertion of the ovipositor brings a medullary ray into action1 producing a tuberculated bud1 and it is only the bud which the larva feeds upon4 ,the growth of a bud is an intelligible cause of the growth of a gall1 but nothing can be inferred from the injection of a fluid4 ,the analogy to leaves is further shown by the fact that various microscopic fungi are matured in the interior of imperforate galls4 ,the principal commercial kinds of gall are oak-galls and ,chinese galls4 ,oak-galls1 ,nut-galls1 ,aleppo or ,turkey-galls 7,fr41 ,noix de ,galle1 ,galle d',alep2 ,ger41 ,levantische or ,aleppische ,gallen1 ,gallpfel74--,these are formed by the punctures of ,cynips ,diplolepis ,gall tinctori on ,quercus lusitanica var4 infectoria ,q4 infectoria1 a shrubby tree of ,greece1 ,cyprus1 ,asia ,minor1 and ,syria1 and probably other varieties and even species of oak4 ,the female insect is furnished with a delicate ovipositor1 by means of which she pierces the tender shoots of the tree1 and lays her eggs therein4 ,in the centre of the full-grown gall1 the larva is hatched and undergoes its transformations1 finally 7in #e-f months7 becoming a winged insect1 and boring for itself a cylindrical exit-hole4 ,the best commercial galls are those which have been gathered while the insect is still in the larval state4 ,such have a dark olive-green colour1 and are comparatively heavy2 but after the fly has escaped1 they become yellowish-brown in hue1 and lighter4 ,hence they are distinguished in the ,london market as blue or green1 and white4 ,in ,smyrna1 they are classified as white1 green1 and black1 the first two sorts generally fetching nearly the same price1 while the black obtain considerably more1 the approximate quotations being3 white and green1 per ,turkish oke 7of #bhc lb471 #h-a_/b-i piastres 7of #b;d472 black1 #ac-a_/b-ad piastres4 ,the nuts come mostly from ,melemen1 ,cassaba1 and ,magnesia1 also from the ,syrian coasts1 being plentiful on the east of the river ,jordan1 and are chiefly forwarded to ,france1 ,england1 and ,salonica4 ,the triennial yield is said to be invariably the best4 ,they begin to reach ,smyrna from the interior towards the end of ,july4 ,the crop of #ahhj was estimated at over #ej1jjj okes4 ,the province of ,aleppo1 which used to afford #aj1jjj-ab1jjj quintals 7of #b cwt47 annually1 only exported #cjjj in #ahga4 ,the galls collected in the ,kurdistan mountains are marketed at ,diarbekir1 and sent thence to ,trebizonde for shipment4 ,bussora1 ,bagdad1 and ,bushire also export considerable quantities4 ,knoppern1 a species of gall formed from the immature acorns of ,quercus pedunculata and ,q4 sessiliflora1 are largely used for tanning throughout ,austria4 ,the exports from ,aleppo 7including yellow berries7 in #ahhj were3--#fj tons1 #cfjjl41 to ,great ,britain2 #cbb tons1 #ai1cbjl41 ,france2 #ae tons1 #ijjl41 ,italy2 #dd tons1 #bfdjl41 ,austria2 #ee tons1 #ccjjl41 ,turkey2 #cj tons1 #ahjjl41 ,egypt2 total1 #ebf tons1 #ca1efjl4 ,in #ahgh1 the figures were #fgc tons1 #ch1djjl4 ,alexandretta exported in #ahgi 7including yellow berries73--#da tons1 #bdfjl41 to ,england2 #bii tons1 #ag1idjl41 ,france2 #bj tons1 #abjjl41 ,italy2 #be tons1 #aejjl41 ,austria2 #hg tons1 #ebbjl41 ,turkey2 #f tons1 #cfjl41 ,egypt2 total #dgh tons1 #bh1fhjl4 ,the shipments from ,trebizonde by steamer in #ahhj were 7from ,turkey73--#dg sacks 7of #b cwt471 #ahhl41 to ,turkey2 #bdj sacks1 #ifjl41 ,great ,britain2 #bfd sacks1 #ajefl41 ,france2 #ajc sacks1 #dabl41 ,austria and ,germany2 #bf sacks1 #ajdl41 ,greece2 total1 #fhj sacks1 #bgbjl42 7from ,persia73 #be sacks1 #ajjl41 ,great ,britain2 #ca sacks1 #abdl41 ,france2 #cj sacks1 #abjl41 ,austria and ,germany2 total1 #hf sacks1 #cddl4 ,bushire despatched #ejjjr4 worth to ,india in #ahgi4 ,syra sent #bdhl4 worth to ,great ,britain in #ahgi4 ,venice exported #agde tons of gall and bark1 value #cd1ijfl41 in #ahgi4 ,the best oak-galls contain #fj-gj per cent4 of tannic or gallotannic acid1 and #c per cent4 of gallic acid4 ,rove is a small crushed gall1 containing #bd-cd per cent4 of gallotannic acid4 ,there are many other varieties of non-commercial oak-gall4 ,chinese or ,japanese ,galls4--,these are vesicular protuberances formed on the leaf-stalks and branches of the ,rhus semialata ,bucki-amela1 a tree of #cj-dj ft41 common in ,north ,india1 ,china1 and ,japan1 ascending the outer ,himlaya and the ,khasia ,hills to #bejj-fjjj ft41 by punctures of the female of ,aphis chinensis4 ,the galls are collected when their green colour is changing to yellow1 and are then scalded4 ,they are light and hollow1 #a-b-a_/b in4 long1 and of very varied and irregular form4 ,the ,japanese are the smaller and paler1 and usually more esteemed4 ,the galls contain about #gj per cent4 of tannic or gallotannic acid1 and #d per cent4 of another tannin4 ,they are consumed mainly in ,germany1 for the manufacture of tannic acid4 ,hankow exported #cj1idi piculs 7of #acc-a_/c lb47 in #ahgb2 and #ba1faa piculs1 value #acf1bad taels 7of about #fs471 in #ahgd4 ,in #ahgg1 the total ,chinese export did not exceed #ag1eae piculs4 ,hankow exported #bd1gdb-a_/b piculs in #ahgh1 and #bh1cib piculs1 #ei1fadl41 in #ahgi2 ,pakhoi1 #fbl4 worth in #ahgi2 ,canton1 #caee-a_/c piculs in #ahgg1 #aici in #ahgh1 #cafc-a_/b in #ahgi2 ,ichang1 #ajj-a_/b piculs1 #acbl41 in #ahgh1 #djb-a_/b piculs1 #ehfl41 in #ahgi2 ,shanghai1 #bg1fei-a_/b piculs in #ahgi4 ,in ,china trade returns1 they are always miscalled nut-galls or gall-nuts3 correctly1 they are wu-pei-tze4 ,oak-galls are exported from ,china resembling those of ,western ,asia4 ,japanese galls1 kifushi1 are sent in increasing quantities from ,hiogo4 ,our imports of galls in #ahhj were3--#bd1eij cwt41 #fh1figl41 from ,china2 #ag1caa cwt41 #fj1fdhl41 from ,turkey2 #iahb cwt41 #ijacl41 from other countries3 total1 #ea1jhc cwt41 #ach1cehl4 ,our re-exports in the same year were3--#fbfj cwt41 #ah1dgil41 to ,holland2 #fjbb cwt41 #ah1adgl41 to ,germany2 #cbad cwt41 #aa1jjbl41 to ,france2 #cjde cwt41 #heihl41 to ,belgium2 #bfea cwt41 #aa1jjdl41 to the ,united ,states2 #afbe cwt41 #ebjel41 to other countries2 total1 #bb1hag cwt41 #gb1dcel4 ,the approximate ,london market values of galls are3--,bussora1 blue1 #hb-ajbs4 a cwt42 do41 white and in sorts1 #ej-ijs42 ,china1 #ej-gjs42 ,japan1 #ee-efs4 ,gambier1 ,pale ,catechu1 or ,terra ,japonica 7,fr41 ,gambir1 ,cachou jaune2 ,ger41 ,gambir74--,these names are conferred upon an extract from the leaves of ,uncaria ,gambier ,nauclea ,gambir and ,u4 acida1 containing #cf-dj per cent4 of a brown tannin1 which rapidly penetrates leather1 and tends to swell it1 but alone gives a soft porous tannage2 it is largely used in conjunction with other materials for tanning both dressing- and sole-leather4 ,the plants are stout climbing shrubs1 the first-named being a native of the countries bordering the ,straits of ,malacca1 and especially the islands at the eastern end1 though apparently not indigenous to any of the islands of the volcanic band1 growing also in ,ceylon1 where no use is made of it2 while the second1 probably a mere variety1 flourishes in the ,malay islands4 ,the shrubs are cultivated in plantations1 often formed in jungle clearings2 the soil is very rapidly exhausted1 and further injured by excessive growth of the ineradicable lalang-grass 7,andropogon caricosus74 ,it is found advantageous to combine pepper-culture with that of gambier1 the boiled leaves of the latter forming excellent manure for the former4 ,the gambier-plants are allowed to grow #h-aj ft4 high1 and as their foliage is always in season1 each plant is stripped #c or #d times in the year4 ,the tools and apparatus for the manufacture of the extract are of the most primitive description4 ,a shallow cast-iron pan about #c ft4 across is built into an earthen fire-place4 ,water is poured into the pan1 a fire is kindled1 and the leaves and young shoots1 freshly plucked1 are scattered in1 and boiled for about an hour4 ,at the end of this time1 they are thrown on to a capacious sloping trough1 the lower end of which projects into the pan1 and are squeezed with the hand so that the absorbed liquor may run back into the boiler4 ,the decoction is then evaporated to the consistence of a thin syrup1 and baled out into buckets4 ,when sufficiently cool1 it is subjected to curious treatment3 instead of simply stirring it round1 the workman pushes a stick of soft wood in a sloping direction into each bucket2 and1 placing two such buckets before him1 he works a stick up and down in each4 ,the liquid thickens round the stick1 and1 the thickened portion being constantly rubbed off1 while at the same time the whole is in motion1 it gradually sets into a mass1 a result which1 it is said1 would never be produced by simple stirring3 it is reasonable to suppose that this manner of treating the liquor favours the crystallisation of the catechin in a more concrete form than it might otherwise assume4 ,the thickened mass1 resembling soft yellowish clay1 is now placed in shallow square boxes2 when somewhat hardened1 it is cut into cubes1 and dried in the shade4 ,the leaves are boiled a second time1 and finally washed in water1 which is saved for another operation4 ,a second plan is as follows3--,the leaves are boiled1 and bruised in a wooden mortar 7lesong71 from which they are put into a kind of basket of rattan open-work1 which is pressed by a long piece of wood acting as a lever2 the liquid is received into a trough1 and there allowed to settle4 ,when the sediment has acquired sufficient substance1 it is put into a kulit-kayo1 formed like a tub without a bottom1 which lets the superfluous water drain off2 when that is done1 it is taken out1 made into small cakes1 and dried for use4 ,a plantation employing #e labourers contains #gj1jjj-hj1jjj shrubs1 and yields #dj-ej catties 7of #a-a_/c lb47 of gambier daily4 ,plantations were commenced in ,singapore in #ahbi1 and once numbered #hjj2 but owing to scarcity of fuel1 abundance of which is essential to the manufacture1 and dearness of labour1 the culture was fast declining in #ahff4 ,in #ahgb1 it had much recovered4 ,it is largely pursued on the mainland 7,johore71 and in the ,rhio-,lingga ,archipelago1 ,s4-,e4 of ,singapore2 on ,bintang1 the most northerly of the group1 there were #abej plantations of it in #ahed4 ,none is cultivated in ,sarawak1 though found wild in many parts2 the foreign export from ,sarawak in #ahgi had a total value of #hh1adh dol4 ,the best kind is brought largely from ,sumatra1 but is often adulterated with sago4 ,the ,rhio product is also thus sophisticated1 and rendered heavier by the ,chinese purposely packing it in baskets lined with wet cajangs1 occasioning a loss to the purchaser of about #cj per cent4 ,singapore is the great emporium for gambier1 and exported #cd1bdh tons in #ahga1 #ai1eej tons having been imported1 chiefly from ,rhio and the ,malay ,peninsula4 ,in #ahgf1 the export increased to over #ej1jjj tons of pressed block1 and #bgjj tons of cubes4 ,in #ahgg1 it fell to #ci1aag tons1 owing to differences with the ,chinese dealers concerning adulteration2 of this quantity1 #ba1fjg tons were for ,london1 #gegb for ,liverpool1 and #bcde for ,marseilles4 ,the ,united ,kingdom imports in #ahgb were #ba1aee tons1 #dea1gcgl41 almost all from the ,straits ,settlements2 in #ahhj1 they were #bf1jfa tons1 #dfa1ghal41 from the ,straits1 and #ceb tons1 #fdfhl41 from other countries2 total1 #bf1dac tons1 #dfh1bdil4 ,our re-exports in #ahhj were3--#bdhg tons1 #dh1ejgl41 to ,holland2 #aeia tons1 #ca1edbl4 to ,germany2 #aacg tons1 #bc1fidl41 to ,russia2 #eid tons1 #ab1jbfl41 to other countries2 total1 #ehji tons1 #aae1gfil4 ,the approximate ,london market values are #aes4 #f;d4-#bas4 #f;d4 a cwt4 for block1 #ah-bds4 for pressed cubes1 and #bc-bgs4 for free cubes4 ,hemlock4--,the bark of the hemlock or hemlock spruce 7,abies canadensis71 of ,canada and the ,united ,states1 contains nearly #ad per cent4 of tannin4 ,the stripping of the bark commences in the southern parts of the ,united ,states in spring1 and lasts during ,april-,may2 in ,new ,york1 ,michigan1 and ,wisconsin1 the season is ,june-,july2 and farther north1 it is still later4 ,it is said that the best product is obtained farthest south4 ,the destruction of the hemlock forests is fast approaching4 ,within the last #be years1 the preparation of an extract from the bark1 containing #ah-be per cent4 of a deep-red tannin1 giving considerable weight and firmness to leather1 has superseded the export of crude bark4 ,one mode of preparing the extract is as follows3--,the bark in pieces #a_/b-a in4 thick1 and several inches long1 is soaked for about #ae minutes in water at #bjj ,f4 7#ic ,c472 it is then fed into a hopper1 which conducts it to a #c-roller machine1 something like a sugar-cane mill1 through which it passes1 coming out lacerated and compressed2 it next falls into a vat of hot water1 where it is agitated by a wheel1 that the tannin from the crushed cells may be dissolved in the water2 hence it is raised by a series of buckets on an endless chain1 somewhat in the manner of a grain-elevator1 to another hopper1 whence it is fed to another #c-roller mill2 here it receives its final compression1 and comes out in flakes or sheets1 like coarse paper1 and almost free from tannin4 ,the buckets are made of coarse wire1 that the water may drip through during the elevation4 ,in order to avoid the blackening action of iron1 wherever this metal will come into contact with the solutions it is thickly coated with zinc4 ,the solution is evaporated to a solid consistency1 generally by vacuum-pans4 ,about #b tons of bark are represented by #a bar4 7of less than #ejj lb47 of extract4 ,the chief makers are ,a4 ,s4 ,thomas1 ,elmira1 ,n4,y42 ,s4 ,brown ,co41 ,new ,york2 ,canada ,tanning ,extract ,co41 ,st4 ,leonard and ,bulstrode2 ,j4 ,miller ,co41 ,millerton1 ,new ,brunswick4 ,the total production is probably over #aj1jjj tons annually1 ranging in value between #adl4 and #bjl4 a ton4 ,our imports are included in barks and extracts4 ,kino 7,fr41 ,kino2 ,ger41 ,kino74--,the term gum kino is applied to a class of astringent extracts of varied origin1 none of which can accurately be called either resins or gums4 ,illustration3 ,pl4 ,,ii4 ,e4 ,f4 ,n4 ,spon1 ,london ,new ,york4 ,,ink-,,photo ,,sprague ,,co4 ,,london4 ,,removing ,,the ,,hair2 ,,scraping ,,and ,,cleaning ,,the ,,skins4 7#a7 ,east ,indian or ,amboyna ,kino4--,this is obtained from ,pterocarpus ,marsupium1 a common tree in the central and southern parts of the ,indian peninsula1 and in ,ceylon2 and a liquid kind from ,p4 indicus1 of ,south ,india1 ,burma1 ,malacca1 ,penang1 the ,andamans1 and ,malaysia4 ,the collection of the juice is effected in the following manner4 ,a perpendicular incision1 with lateral offshoots1 is made in the stem of the tree when blossoming has set in1 and a receptacle is placed at the foot of the incision4 ,the exuding juice appears like red-currant jelly1 but it soon thickens by exposure to the air1 and when sufficiently dried1 is packed into wooden boxes for exportation4 ,it is one of the reserved timber-trees of the ,government forests in ,madras1 and its juice is collected by natives1 who pay a small fee for the permission4 ,the hardened juice consists of blackish-red1 angular1 pea-like grains1 partially soluble in water1 almost entirely in spirit of wine of sp4 gr4 #jhch1 readily in caustic alkaline solutions1 and largely in a saturated solution of sugar4 ,the liquid kino produces a very inferior article on drying4 ,the annual collection of kino in ,madras probably does not exceed #a-b tons4 ,its approximate ,london market value is #fj-aejs4 a cwt4 ,it is employed medicinally1 and in the manufacture of wines1 and might be employed as a source of tannin in dyeing and tanning1 if sufficiently cheap4 7#b7 ,butea1 ,bengal1 ,palas or ,dhak ,kino4--,this variety is afforded by the palas or dhak tree 7,butea frondosa71 common throughout ,india and ,burma1 and affording a dyestuff1 and a fibre1 as well as by ,b4 superba and ,b4 parviflora4 ,during the hot season1 there issues from natural fissures and from wounds made in the bark of the stem1 a red juice1 which quickly hardens to a ruby-coloured1 brittle1 astringent mass4 ,it occurs in small drops or tears1 and in flat pieces which have been dried on leaves1 and is almost always mixed with bark-fragments4 ,it is transparent1 freely soluble in cold water1 and does not soften in the mouth4 ,it is unknown in ,european commerce1 but is employed in ,india as a substitute for the kind first described4 7#c7 ,african or ,gambia ,kino4--,this is derived from ,pterocarpus erinaceus1 a native of ,tropical ,west ,africa1 from ,senegambia to ,angola4 ,the juice exudes naturally from fissures in the bark1 but more abundantly from incisions1 and soon coagulates to a blood-red and very brittle mass1 known to the ,portuguese of ,angola as sangue del drago 7dragon's-blood74 ,it is practically undistinguishable from the officinal kind first described1 but is not a regular article of commerce4 7#d7 ,australian1 ,botany ,bay1 or ,eucalyptus ,kino4--,several species of ,eucalyptus afford astringent extracts1 those from the red1 white1 or flooded gum 7,e4 rostrata71 the blood-wood 7,e4 corymbosa71 and ,e4 citriodora1 being quite suitable for replacing the officinal kind4 ,it is chiefly obtained by woodcutters1 being found in a viscid state in flattened cavities in the wood1 and soon becoming inspissated1 hard1 and brittle4 ,minor quantities are procured in a liquid state by incising the bark of living trees1 forming a treacly fluid yielding #ce per cent4 of solid kino on evaporation4 ,it is imported from ,australia1 but there are no statistics to show in what quantity4 ,mimosa- or ,wattle-bark4--,the bark of numerous species of ,acacia1 natives of ,australia1 contains considerable percentages of deep-red mimo-tannic acid1 which forms a hard and heavy tannage if used strong1 though soft upper-leathers may be tanned with it in weak liquors4 ,the chief kinds are as follows3--,the common wattle 7,acacia decurrens71 including its variety ,a4 mollissima1 is known also under the names of green1 black1 and feathery1 but must not be confounded with the silver wattle 7,a4 dealbata71 though but doubtfully a distinct species4 ,the bark is obtainable in vast abundance1 and is much used by tanners4 ,the trees are stripped in ,september and the #b or #c months following1 and the bark1 being allowed to dry1 is then in a marketable condition4 ,this tree1 which grows in the uplands1 affords a larger percentage of tannin than the silver wattle4 ,blackwood or lightwood 7,a4 melanoxylon7 yields tanners' bark1 which1 is inferior1 however1 to that from ,a4 decurrens4 ,the bark of ,a4 penninervis yields of tannic acid #agi per cent41 and of gallic acid #ch per cent4 ,the bark of the native hickory 7,a4 suppurosa7 yields of tannic acid #ff per cent41 and of gallic acid #ab per cent4 ,the bark of ,a4 saligna1 of ,south-,western ,australia1 is much used by tanners1 as it contains nearly #cj per cent4 of mimo-tannin4 ,a4 harpophylla1 of ,south ,queensland1 furnishes a considerable share of the mercantile wattle-bark for tanning purposes4 ,the bark of ,a4 lophantha contains only about #h per cent4 of tannin4 ,the broad-leaved or golden wattle 7,a4 pycnantha71 of ,victoria and ,south ,australia1 deserves extensive cultivation4 ,it is of rapid growth1 will succeed even in sandy tracts1 and yields seed copiously1 which germinates with the greatest ease4 ,the perfectly-dried bark contains about #be per cent4 of tannin4 ,the aqueous infusion of the bark can be reduced by boiling to a dry extract1 which in medicinal and other respects is equal to the best ,indian cutch4 ,it yields approximately #cj per cent4 of tannin1 about half of which1 or more1 is mimo-tannic acid4 ,probably no other tanning plants give so quick a return in cultivation as the ,a4 pycnantha and ,a4 decurrens of ,australia4 ,the latter varies in its proportions of tannin from #h to #cc per cent4 ,in the mercantile bark1 the percentage is somewhat less1 according to the state of its dryness1 it retaining about #aj per cent4 of moisture4 ,the bark of the silver wattle 7,a4 dealbata7 is of less value1 often even fetching only half the price of that of the black wattle4 ,the bark improves by age and desiccation1 and yields #dj per cent4 of tannin1 rather more than half of which is tannic acid4 ,amongst all the kinds1 the bark of the broad-leaved wattle is considered the most valuable1 containing the greatest quantity of tannin2 that of the silver wattle is not so valuable1 being deficient in tannin2 the black wattle is considered the most productive species2 it can be barked at #h years of age1 and will produce #dj-fj lb4 dried bark1 and full-grown trees will yield #ajj-aej lb4 per tree4 ,the cultivation of wattles for commercial purposes has till now remained undeveloped2 but no doubt1 as soon as it is understood1 the utilisation of many acres of land lying waste1 or which have already been exhausted and rendered unfit for the growth of cereals1 will be effected by the cultivation of the wattle4 ,it requires so little attention as to make it very profitable1 and wattle-growing and grazing can be combined satisfactorily4 ,after the first year1 when the young trees in the plantation have reached the height of #c-d ft41 sheep can be turned in4 ,wattles grow in almost any soil1 even the poorest1 but their growth is most rapid on loose sandy patches1 or where the surface has been broken for agricultural purposes4 ,when the soil is hard and firm1 plough furrows should be made at a regular distance of #f-h ft4 apart1 into which the seeds are dropped4 ,the seed should be sown in ,may1 having been previously soaked in hot water1 a little below boiling temperature1 in which they may be allowed to remain for a few hours4 ,the seed should be dropped at an average distance of #a ft4 apart along the furrow1 in which case1 about #gbjj seeds would suffice for one acre of land4 ,the seed should not be covered with more than about #a_/d in4 of soil4 ,on loose sandy soil1 it might even be unnecessary to break up the soil in any way2 the furrows may be dispensed with1 and the seed sown broadcast after the land is harrowed4 ,after the plants have come up1 they should be thinned so that they stand #f-h ft4 apart4 ,when the young trees have attained the height of #c-d ft41 the lower branches should be pruned off1 and every effort afterwards made to keep the stem straight and clear1 in order to facilitate the stripping1 and induce an increased yield of bark4 ,it is advisable that the black and broad-leaved should be grown separately1 as the black wattle1 being of much larger and quicker growth1 would oppress the slower-growing broad-leaved one4 ,care should be taken to replace every tree stripped by re-sowing1 in order that there should be as little variation in the yield as possible4 ,the months of ,september-,december1 in ,victoria1 are those in which the sap rises without intermission1 and the bark is charged with tannin4 ,analysis proves that the bark from trees growing on limestone is greatly inferior in tannin to that obtained from other formations1 differing #aj-be per cent4 ,the estimated expenditure on a wattle-bark plantation of #ajj acres during #h years is3-- s4 d4 ,rent of #ajj acres for #h years at #fs4 per acre per annum #bdj #j #j ,ploughing #ajj acres in drills #aj ft4 apart #be #j #j ,sowing wattles and actual cultivation1 including cost of seed #cg #aj #j ,supervision for #h years 7nominal71 say #ajl4 per annum #hj #j #j ,pruning the trees1 taking off useless wood 7necessary for #b years71 #ajs4 per annum #ej #j #j ,incidental and unforeseen expenses #bg #aj #j ,interest on the whole amount expended during #h years #bdj #j #j #gjj #j #j ,actual cost of stripping and carting1 as shown below #aeae #j #j #bbae #j #j ,the receipts derivable from a wattle plantation of #ajj acres1 planted in the manner proposed1 would be3-- s4 d4 ,each acre planted with wattles1 #aj ft4 apart1 would carry #djj trees1 and at end of #eth year trees would yield say #ef lb4 matured bark3 stripping only every #crd tree1 #ccb trees would be obtained off #ajj acres3 this1 at #dl4 per ton1 would give for #ast stripping #accb #j #j ,in the #fth or following year1 a similar number of trees would be stripped3 the bark having increased in weight 7say #ad lb471 the increased yield of #bnd stripping would be #djj tons at #dl4 per ton #afjj #j #j ,in the #gth year1 the remaining trees would be stripped1 from which a still greater increase would be obtained1 say #dhj tons at #dl4 per ton #aibj #j #j ,total yield of bark #dheb #j #j ,the cost of stripping would not exceed #aes4 per ton1 on account of the facilities presented by the regularity of the trees1 while carting would represent another #ajs4 per ton3 these combined charges would be #bes4 per ton1 and on #abae tons1 would be #aeae #j #j ,leaving a clear profit on the #ajj acres of #bfcg #j #j ,the exports of mimosa-bark in #ahgf were #aa1hii tons from ,victoria1 #dgeh from ,south ,australia1 and #agce from ,tasmania4 ,later returns are included in barks1 p4 #ci4 ,shanghai imported #gjch piculs 7of #acc-a_/c lb47 in #ahgi4 ,the approximate ,london market values of mimosa-bark are3--,ground1 #f-acl4 a ton2 chopped1 #e-abl42 long1 #el4-#il4 #ajs4 ,a very superior extract has been made from this bark4 ,myrobalans or ,myrabolams4--,the fruits of several species of ,terminalia constitute the myrobalans of commerce2 they are chiefly ,t4 ,chebula and ,t4 ,bellerica1 natives of ,india1 the former being a tree #dj-ej ft4 high1 and esteemed for its timber also4 ,the fruits contain #cj-ce per cent4 of gallotannic and ellagitannic acids1 producing a soft and porous tannage1 and good samples giving a bright-yellow colour4 ,the tannin exists in the pulp1 and is absent from the very hard stone4 ,the dried fruits are known locally as har1 harra1 or bahera1 and are used commonly for dyeing1 but not for tanning4 ,our imports of myrobalans in #ahhj were3--#bch1aea cwt41 #aba1dfel41 from ,bombay and ,sind2 #aae1fgj cwt41 #ea1ccil41 from ,madras2 #aa1jbj cwt41 #dgagl41 from ,bengal and ,burma2 #cebj cwt41 #adjbl41 from other countries2 total1 #cfh1cfa cwt41 #agh1ibcl4 ,our re-exports in #ahhj were #hjae cwt41 #dcbhl41 to ,germany2 #af1abg cwt41 #heael41 to other countries2 total1 #bd1adb cwt41 #ab1hdcl4 ,the approximate ,london market values of myrobalans are #g-ads4 a cwt4 for good1 and #e-ajs4 for common4 ,shanghai imported #ddjc piculs 7of #acc-a_/c lb47 in #ahgi4 ,oak-barks 7,fr41 corces de ,chne2 ,ger41 ,eichenrinden74--,the barks of several species of oak have valuable tanning properties4 ,they are chiefly3--,the common oak 7,quercus ,robur1 varieties3 sessiliflora1 ,ger4 ,traubeneiche2 pedunculata1 ,ger4 ,stieleiche71 which is of even greater importance as a timber-tree2 the cork-oak 7,q4 ,suber72 the evergreen oak 7,q4 ,ilex72 and the ,american chestnut-oak 7,q4 ,castanea74 ,these barks are among the most esteemed tannins as regards quality of leather1 but are incapable of giving much weight1 and from their bulk are costly to handle1 containing only #aj-ab per cent4 of tannin 7quercitannic acid74 ,they give a reddish fawn-coloured leather1 and deposit a good deal of bloom1 but yield little or no gallic acid4 ,the barks of the cork-oak and evergreen oak from ,southern ,europe1 are stronger and darker-coloured than ,english bark4 ,the ,american chestnut-oak contains a peculiar fluorescent principle like sculin4 ,our imports of unspecified barks for tanners' and dyers' use in #ahhj were3--#ahi1cii cwt41 #aja1ajhl41 from ,australia2 #abc1cjb cwt41 #cb1igdl41 ,belgium2 #eg1bcb cwt41 #bj1ihhl41 ,united ,states2 #bb1ajj cwt41 #fjcjl41 ,holland2 #ah1fdh cwt41 #cfgfl41 ,italy2 #af1aea cwt41 #figbl41 ,algeria2 #bb1ffi cwt41 #hhchl41 other countries2 total1 #ddi1eja cwt41 #ahj1ehfl4 ,our imports of unenumerated bark-extracts in the same year were valued at3--#eaf1eghl4 from ,holland1 #ib1fedl4 ,france1 #cj1ahgl4 ,united ,states1 #af1cael4 ,british ,north ,america1 #ab1gifl4 ,belgium1 #ac1gfil4 other countries2 total1 #fhb1biil4 ,our re-exports of barks in #ahhj were3--#ai1edh cwt41 #aj1cdhl41 to ,germany2 #ad1fbg cwt41 #gdbel41 ,france2 #deee cwt41 #cjdal41 ,holland2 #aj1cjd cwt41 #fjhjl41 other countries2 total1 #di1jcd cwt41 #bf1hidl4 ,with regard to cork-tree bark1 ,james ,gordon ,co41 ,liverpool1 obligingly write that very little comes to ,england1 the great bulk going direct to ,ireland1 where the consumption is large4 ,the imports at ,liverpool in #ahhj were #ahf tons1 average value #hl4 per ton4 ,of oak-bark1 ,hungary1 in #ahgg1 produced #be1jjj tons1 of which1 #bj1jjj were exported to ,germany for tanning purposes4 ,the approximate ,london market values of oak-bark are3--,english1 #ab-afl4 per load of #de cwt42 ,foreign1 tree1 #e-hl4 a ton2 ditto1 coppice1 #f-hl4 ,in #ahgi1 ,algiers exported #ab1ffj1jdg kilo4 7of #bb lb47 of tanning bark4 ,quebracho4--,the local name quebracho1 contracted from quebra-hacho 7axe-breaker71 is applied to several ,south ,american trees possessing hard wood1 belonging to distinct genera4 ,they are chiefly as follows3--7#a7 ,aspidosperma ,quebracho1 the quebracho blanco1 a tree growing in the province of ,catamarca1 ,argentine ,republic2 7#b7 ,loxopterygium ,quebrachia ,lorentzii1 the quebracho colorado1 most prevalent in the province of ,corrientes1 the wood and bark of which come largely into commerce as tanning materials2 7#c7 ,iodina rhombifolia1 the quebracho flojo1 whose wood and bark are mixed with those of ,no4 #b2 7#d7 ,machrium fertile ,tipuana speciosa1 the tipa1 which affords both wood and bark of less tanning value than ,no4 #b4 ,it would seem that the wood and bark of ,no4 #b are by far the most largely employed1 containing #ae-bc per cent4 of a bright-red tannin4 ,the wood and an extract from it are imported into ,europe4 ,from information kindly furnished by ,james ,gordon ,co41 and ,haw ,co41 of ,liverpool1 it appears that the imports of quebracho-wood into ,liverpool in #ahhj were #bjj tons1 value about #dl4 #ajs4 a ton2 and of quebracho-bark1 about #bj tons1 none of which had been sold4 ,sumach or ,shumac 7,fr41 ,sumac2 ,ger41 ,gerbersumach1 ,schmack74--,the commercial term sumach is applied to the dried leaves of a number of ,south ,european and ,american tannin-yielding plants4 ,these are chiefly as follows3--,in ,sicily1 the ,european or tanning-sumach 7,rhus ,coriaria72 in ,tuscany1 ,r4 ,coriaria1 often adulterated with leaves of ,pistacia lentiscus2 in ,spain1 several ,rhus spp41 the products being divided into #c kinds--,malaga or ,priego1 ,malina1 and ,valladolid2 in the ,tyrol1 the smoke-tree or fragrant or ,venetian sumach 7,r4 ,cotinus72 in ,france1 ,coriaria myrtifolia1 divided into #d sorts--fauvis1 douzre1 redoul or redon1 and pudis2 in ,algeria1 ,tezera sumach 7,r4 pentaphylla71 used by the ,arabs for making morocco-leather2 in ,north ,america1 the smooth or white sumach 7,r4 glabra71 the ,canadian sumach 7,r4 canadensis71 the staghorn sumach 7,r4 typhina71 and the dwarf or black sumach 7,r4 copallina74 ,these are found growing wild in the countries indicated1 and are further subjected to cultivation in some districts1 notably in ,sicily4 ,r4 glabra and ,r4 copallina are recommended chiefly for extended cultivation in the ,united ,states4 ,the soil usually chosen for cultivation of the plants is poor and light2 but a much larger crop of leaves can be secured from strong1 rich1 deep soils1 and it is generally admitted that the product in the latter case is also better4 ,in ,italy1 limestone soils are considered to be especially suited to this culture1 but the ,american varieties appear to be well adapted to sandy and clay soils as well4 ,the primary requisite in a soil is that it shall be well drained1 the presence of stagnant water about the roots being exceedingly prejudicial4 ,to prepare the soil for planting1 it is ploughed as deeply as possible1 and laid out in rows about #b ft4 apart4 ,in ,italy1 small holes are made about #b ft4 long1 #g in4 wide1 and #e in4 deep1 and a plant is inserted at each end4 ,a more convenient method would consist in marking the field in shallow furrows in one direction #b ft4 apart1 and then1 with a heavy plough1 tolerably deep furrows the same distance apart as1 and at right angles to1 the first4 ,a plant may then be placed in the deep furrows at each intersection1 the furrow again filled with the plough1 and the earth pressed about the plant with the foot4 ,if this were done in early spring-time1 as soon as the earth is sufficiently dry to be conveniently worked1 there can be no doubt that it would be successful1 while it would certainly involve little cost4 ,plants are generally propagated from the young shoots which form each year about the base of an older plant1 but may also be produced from cuttings made from young well-ripened wood1 rooted by setting in a nursery or in frames1 as in the propagation of grape-vines from cuttings4 ,this latter method is scarcely ever required1 however1 when the cultivation has been started4 ,plants are also raised from seed1 and seedlings are always found to be strong1 vigorous1 and thoroughly hardy2 but on account of the greater time and labour involved in their production1 this method of propagation has not received extended application4 ,the first-mentioned generally gives the quickest1 and probably most satisfactory results4 ,in selecting plants from any source1 there are certain points to be observed3--7#a7 ,the shoots should come from young vigorous plants2 7#b7 they should be over #a ft4 long2 7#c7 those with large roots and few rootlets should be rejected2 7#d7 those having white roots1 covered with a fibrous1 white1 silky down1 are also to be rejected1 this being an indication of the presence of a very injurious subterranean parasitic fungus1 capable of destroying the entire crop2 7#e7 a good shoot is straight1 at least #a_/b in4 diam41 #ah in4 long1 furnished with numerous buds close to each other1 root short1 but covered with rootlets4 ,shoots for planting may be collected in autumn1 after the leaves have fallen1 and be preserved in a nursery until spring2 or this may be done in early spring1 when the ground is very moist and soft4 ,in either case1 care should be observed that the rootlets are not injured by drying1 or from any other cause4 ,the culture to be given the plant is somewhat similar to that required by ,indian corn3 the earth about it should be kept tolerably mellow and free from weeds1 and such conditions can probably be maintained to a degree sufficient for sumach1 by working several times during the growing season with a cultivator1 and passing through the rows occasionally with a plough4 ,all this work is not absolutely necessary to the life of the plant1 but its vigour1 and consequently its yield in leaves1 may be considerably increased and strengthened thereby4 ,after the first year1 the number of operations may be diminished1 but they should always be sufficient to keep the ground free from weeds and grass4 ,shortly after planting1 and when the plant is well set1 the stock is pruned to a length of #f-h in41 when the plant is left to assume any form1 and is no further pruned except by the process of collecting the leaves1 unless hand-picking is resorted to2 in such case1 after the #bnd year1 pruning takes place each year in the fall or winter1 the plant being reduced to a height of #f-aj in4 ,after the #crd year1 the plant begins to produce the shoots from about its base1 already mentioned2 these1 if not needed for new plantations1 should be removed each year1 for if left to develop1 they weaken the plant4 ,if not removed during the summer1 the operation should without fail be effected during the fall or winter4 ,the #ast crop of leaves may be secured during the year following that of planting4 ,this develops and matures somewhat later than that from older plants1 and in ,italy it is not collected until the end of ,august or the #ast of ,september2 but there are reasons for believing that in the ,united ,states1 especially in the ,northern ,states1 the collection of leaves from native varieties should be made much earlier1 because the summer is much shorter1 and the habits of the varieties grown differ from the ,sicilian4 ,macagno has shown 7,chem4 ,soc4 ,journ41 xxxviii41 p4 #gcc7 that the leaves from the upper side of the branches contain much more tannin than those below1 and that especially in the lower leaves the percentage of tannin is much higher in ,june than in ,august4 ,all the leaves1 except the young and tender ones of the extremities of the branches1 are stripped off and placed in baskets1 in which they are carried to a threshing-floor1 where they are spread out in thin layers to dry4 ,here they must be frequently stirred and turned over1 for which purpose a fork with wooden prongs is employed4 ,in the fall1 when growth is finished1 and before the leaves have had time to become red1 those remaining on the extremities are collected4 ,to this end1 the branches are broken just below the tuft of leaves1 and the latter are allowed to remain suspended from the branch by a piece of bark not detached1 and left in this condition until nearly or quite dry4 ,they are then collected and treated in the same manner as other leaves1 but the product obtained in this way is always of inferior quality4 ,after the #bnd year1 crops of larger quantity and superior quality are obtained1 and the collection is made in a different way1 and much more frequently4 ,the two methods followed in ,sicily are 7#a7 pruning1 and 7#b7 defoliation4 ,the first1 which is the more ancient1 but much less costly1 requires less care1 and is simple and rapid2 but it is injurious to the future condition of the plant1 and the quantity of subsequent crops4 ,the second1 though slower1 serves to better maintain the vigour of the plant1 and the uniform quantity of the crop from year to year2 in consequence1 it reduces the necessity for frequent renewal of stocks4 ,harvest by pruning is carried on in ,italy as follows4 ,during ,may1 the lower leaves1 which1 from greater age1 appear to have attained full maturity1 and may be in danger of loss from falling1 are removed in the same manner as described for collecting the leaves from yearling plants4 ,toward the end of ,june1 and during the course of ,july1 all branches bearing leaves are cut away1 reducing the plant to the principal stock3 by this means1 the crop is harvested and the plant is pruned at the same time4 ,but even in ,sicily1 the time for this operation is limited to no absolute period1 and varies with the development of the leaf1 as indicated by cessation of growth and increase in size4 ,in this condition1 also1 the leaves will have acquired their deepest green colour1 and attained their maximum weight and best quality4 ,it is further stated that while this time varies according to locality1 about ,palermo it is never earlier than ,june nor later than ,july4 ,the harvest by pruning must always be made by men accustomed to the work1 and equal to the exertion required4 ,provided with a pruning-bill1 they cut off all leaf-bearing branches1 collecting them an the left arm1 until each has cut as much as he can conveniently carry1 when he places the armful on the ground with the butts in the direction of the prevailing wind1 which1 if tolerably strong1 might carry away some of the leaves if turned in the opposite direction2 finally1 he presses down the branches with his foot1 to make the heap more compact1 and leave less surface exposed to the wind and sun4 ,another labourer deposits a second armful in the same place1 presses it with his foot in like manner1 and the two deposits constitute a bundle4 ,at the close of the operation1 there remain the young shoots which are formed about the base of the plant1 the leaves of which are not fully developed1 and consequently not fit for collection until at least #bj days later4 ,after this time1 they are removed by hand1 care being observed not to injure the buds1 especially if the shoots are to be used for stocks in the formation of plantations in the following year4 ,defoliation1 or collection by hand1 is carried on whenever the leaf may be fully developed and ripe1 beginning at first with the lower leaves1 and continuing eventually to the ends of the branches4 ,it takes place at #c different times during the season3 the #ast in ,may1 the #bnd late in ,july or early ,august1 and the #crd in ,september4 ,at the last collection1 the extremities of the branches are broken down1 and the leaves are allowed to dry before removal from the plant1 as described under collections of the #bnd year4 ,in the application of this method1 the regular pruning is effected during the fall or winter1 when the plant is dormant1 and under such conditions the operation becomes a regenerative one1 giving in this particular an advantage over the other method1 in which the pruning is effected in the summer when the plant is in full vegetative activity1 and so has a strongly deteriorating influence4 ,in both methods of pruning1 care should be observed to leave a long slanting section1 upon which water will be less likely to settle and promote decay4 ,the leaves collected by either method are dried in the open field where they have grown1 and when dried1 are carried to a threshing-floor to be beaten1 or at once to the threshing-floor and dried there4 ,in the former1 the operation is rather more rapid1 but there is greater danger of injury by rain1 the effect of which is very deleterious1 especially if it fall upon the leaves when they are partially dried4 ,the damage resulting from this cause is less if the leaves are not lying upon the ground1 and are so arranged that the air may circulate freely about and under them4 ,in the pruning method1 the leaves are dried upon the branches and in the heaps where they are first deposited4 ,sometimes they are turned1 but generally it is considered better not to disturb them until completely dried1 and ready for transportation to the threshing-floor4 ,in this way1 they are protected to a greater extent from the action of direct sunlight1 which is said to be injurious to the quality of the product4 ,when the leaves are collected by hand1 they are dried upon the threshing-floor1 where they are spread in thin layers1 and stirred #c-d times a day4 ,they are then beaten with a flail to separate the leaves from the branches and stems4 ,if this be done during the middle of the day1 when the leaves are most thoroughly dry and consequently brittle1 they are reduced to small particles1 producing what is called sumach for grinding4 ,but if it be done in the morning1 or on damp days1 when the air is charged with moisture and the leaves are tough1 they are separated from the stems more nearly entire and less broken1 and the product obtained is called sumach for baling4 ,the stems remaining after the separation of sumach for baling still retain small particles of leaves attached to them1 and they are therefore again beaten when perfectly dry for the production of a low-grade sumach1 called by the ,italians gammuzza4 ,the products are classed as follows3-- ,relative ,market ,value4 ,sumach for baling #be grinding #bc from yearling plants #ae ends of branches collected in autumn #aj ,to prepare these different grades for ultimate consumption1 they are ground in mills similar to those employed for crushing olives1 that is1 in which two large stone wheels follow each other1 revolving upon a circular bed1 the whole construction being about the same as the ,spanish or ,mexican arrastre4 ,the sumach thus pulverised is passed through bolting-screens1 to separate the finer from the coarser particles4 ,in ,virginia1 the leaves are collected and cured by the country people1 and sold and delivered to owners of mills for grinding4 ,their particular object being to secure the largest possible quantity of product at the lowest cost1 little attention is given to the quality obtained1 or the manner of collecting4 ,the most intelligent dealers in the raw material urge upon collectors to observe the following particulars3--,the leaf should be taken when full of sap1 before it has turned red1 has begun to wither1 or has been affected by frost1 to ensure a maximum value for tanning purposes4 ,either the leaf-bearing stems may be stripped off1 or the entire stalk may be cut away1 and the leaves upon it allowed to wither before being carried to the drying-shed2 but care must be observed that they are neither scorched nor bleached by the sun4 ,when wilted1 they are carried to a covered place1 and spread upon open shelving or racks to dry1 avoiding the deposit in any one place of a quantity so great as to endanger the quality of the product by overheating and fermentation4 ,sumach should be allowed to remain within the drying-house at least one month before sending to the market2 in case of bad weather1 a longer period may be required4 ,when ready for packing for shipment1 it should be perfectly dry and very brittle1 otherwise it is likely to suffer injury in warehouses from heating and fermentation4 ,buyers of sumach leaves for grinding depend largely upon colour for the determination of the value2 the leaves should1 therefore1 when ready for market1 present a bright-green colour1 which is evidence that they have suffered neither from rain after being gathered1 nor from heating during the process of drying4 ,leaves having a mouldy odour or appearance are rejected4 ,the ,virginian crop reaches #gjjj-hjjj tons1 and is collected at any time between ,july #a and the appearance of frost4 ,there is an important difference in the value of the ,european and ,american products4 ,the proportion of tannic acid in the latter exceeds that found in the former by #f-h per cent41 yet the former is much preferred by tanners and dyers4 ,by using ,sicilian sumach it is possible to make the finer white leathers1 in great demand for gloves and fancy shoes2 while by the employment of the ,american product1 the leather has a disagreeable yellow or dark colour1 apparently due to a colouring matter1 which1 according to ,loewe1 consists of quercitrin and quercetin1 and exists in larger quantity in the ,american than in the ,sicilian4 ,the experimental results obtained by collecting sumach at different seasons were3-- ,per ,cent4 of ,tannic ,acid4 ,virginia1 mixed1 collected in ,june1 gave #bbge ,july1 #bgch ,r4 glabra ,august1 #bcef ,b4 copallina #afii ,sicilian1 ,b4 ,coriaria #bdbg ,it is evident1 therefore1 that in order to secure the maximum amount of tannic acid1 the sumach should be collected in ,july1 but the colouring matter of the leaves has an important influence upon the value of the product4 ,the leaves of the upper extremities of the stalks are always richer in tannic acid than those of the base2 and the increase of age of the plant is accompanied by a general diminution of this acid4 ,yet the collection of the crop should be delayed as long as possible1 because the diminution of tannin in the leaves will be abundantly compensated for by the quality of the product4 ,experiments upon the presence of colouring matters were made by treating gelatine solutions1 and gave the following results3-- ,virginia1 mixed1 collected in ,june1 gave ,a nearly white precipitate4 ,july1 ,a decidedly yellowish-white precipitate4 ,r4 copallina1 ,august ,a dirty-yellow precipitate4 ,b4 glabra1 ,a very dirty-white precipitate4 ,fredericksburg mixed1 ,a dirty-yellow precipitate4 ,sicilian ,a slightly yellowish-white precipitate4 ,it is therefore advised that for the purpose of tanning white and delicately-coloured leathers1 the collection should be made in ,june2 while for tanning dark-coloured leathers1 and for dyeing and calico-printing in dark colours1 where the slightly yellow colour will have no injurious effect1 the collection be made in ,july4 ,it appears that for all purposes1 the sumach collected after the #ast of ,august is inferior in quality4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #h4 ,fig4 #h shows a mill for grinding sumach-leaves2 it consists of a heavy solid circular wooden bed a1 #ae ft4 diam41 with a depression around the edge b1 a few inches deep and #a ft4 wide1 for the reception of the ground sumach from the bed1 and #b edge-rollers c1 weighing about #bejj lb4 each1 #e-f ft4 diam41 and provided with numerous teeth of iron or wood1 thickly inserted4 ,most mills have to be stopped to allow the unloading of the bed1 but this delay is obviated by an apparatus consisting of an angular arm d1 attached to a scraper e1 and worked by a lever f1 which passes through the hollow shaft g and extends to the room above1 where it terminates in a handle h4 ,the scraper carries the ground sumach to the opening i1 whence it is taken by an elevator to a revolving sieve or screen in a room above4 ,after screening1 the sumach is packed in bags1 #ae to the ton1 being always sold by that weight4 ,the chasers and beds are inclosed in a case or drum1 and the grinding is done by the application of power to the upright shaft g4 ,the mills are fed from above4 ,the packing is sometimes done by machinery alone4 ,the best mills cost about #fjjl4 ,in ,europe1 and in some parts of the ,southern ,states1 sumach is still ground by stones revolving on a stone bed1 and the sifting is often done by hand4 ,e4 ,coez ,co41 ,st4 ,denis1 near ,paris1 make a sumach extract4 ,it is concentrated to a syrupy consistence in a vacuum-pan1 and keeps well1 exhibiting none of the acidity which is manifested by a simple decoction of sumach leaves4 ,sumach contains #af-bd per cent4 of gallotannic acid1 and is somewhat similar in tanning properties to myrobalans1 but paler in colour4 ,it is principally used for tanning morocco and other fancy leathers4 ,the district of ,ancona yields #bjj tons per annum of sumach1 said to be equal to and cheaper than the ,sicilian1 but mostly consumed locally4 ,palermo exported of ventilated sumach to the ,united ,states #abj1jdc bags 7#ad #a ton7 in #ahgg1 and #ej1jhe in #ahgh1 the average value being #adl4 a ton4 ,trieste exported #ghjj cwt4 by land in #ahgg2 in #ahgh1 the shipments to ,england were #af1fjj kilo4 7of #bb lb471 value #acbh fl4 7of #bs471 and in #ahhj1 #ia1hjj kilo4 #gcdd fl4 ,rustchuk in #ahhj exported #adjj tons1 chiefly to ,roumania and ,austria4 ,our imports in #ahhj were #aj1egc tons1 #acc1bdil4 from ,italy1 and #ajdg tons1 #ab1dafl41 from other countries2 total1 #aa1fbj tons1 #ade1ffel4 ,the approximate ,london market value is #aes4-#afs4 #f;d4 a cwt4 for ,sicilian1 #aj-aas4 for ,spanish4 ,valonia 7,fr41 ,vlandes2 ,ger41 ,valonia74 ,this is the commercial name for the large pericarps or acorn-cups of several species or varieties of oak1 chiefly ,quercus gilops and ,q4 macrolepis4 ,the former is found growing in the highlands of the ,morea1 ,roumelia1 the ,greek ,archipelago1 ,asia ,minor1 and ,palestine2 the latter constitutes vast forests in many parts of ,greece1 and especially on the lower slopes of ,taygetos1 towards tylon and ,mani 7,laconia74 ,prof4 ,orphanides1 of ,athens1 alludes to a third species or variety called porto galussa1 which yields a superior kind of valonia1 and named by him ,q4 stenophylla4 ,the chief localities of production in ,asia ,minor are ,ushak1 ,borlo1 ,demirdji1 ,ghirdes1 ,adala1 ,nazl1 ,buldur1 ,sokia1 ,balat1 ,troja1 ,aivalik1 and ,mytilene4 ,the annual exports1 mainly from ,smyrna1 reach #fjj1jjj quintals 7of #b cwt471 value about #djj1jjjl4 ,in ,greece1 the production is chiefly centred in the following districts3 7#a7 ,the province of ,lacedemonia1 which afforded #aj1jjj cwt4 in #ahgb2 7#b7 the province of ,gythium1 in the lower part of ,mount ,taygetos1 which gave #fj1jjj cwt4 in #ahgb2 7#c7 the island of ,zea1 which formerly yielded #cj1jjj-dj1jjj cwt41 lately reduced to #ae1jjj cwt4 yearly2 7#d7 ,attica1 especially the neighbourhood of ,cacossalessi1 grows #cjjj-ejjj cwt41 shipped from ,oropos1 in the ,strait of ,chalcis2 7#e7 the island of ,euba1 whence about #ajjj cwt4 are shipped annually at ,bouffalo2 7#f7 the province of ,triphyllia raises #cjjj cwt41 which go to ,trieste1 vi ,cyparissie2 7#g7 the province of ,pulos1 especially the commune of ,ligudista1 grows over #bjjj cwt41 despatched from ,navarino to ,trieste2 7#h7 the province of ,achaia has a yearly crop of #cj1jjj-dj1jjj cwt41 shipped to ,trieste from ,courupeli and ,caravostassi1 between ,patras and ,cape ,papa2 7#i7 the small towns of ,anatolico and ,astakos 7,dragomestre7 collect the valonia of the eastern parts of tylon1 ,acarnania1 and ,cravassaras 7a port in the ,gulf of ,arta71 and of all the other western parts1 to be sent to ,trieste for shipment to ,england and ,italy4 tolia and ,acarnania furnish abundant crops1 that of #ahgb exceeding #ajj1jjj cwt4 ,the total area of the ,greek valonia-yielding forests is said to be about #ac1jjj stremme 7of #aai-a_/b sq4 yd474 ,the total production in #ahgg was estimated at #b1fja1jjj quintals 7of #b cwt472 the greater part is exported1 about #b_/c going to ,austria1 and the rest to ,italy and ,england4 ,the proportions of tannic acid in the valonia from different districts of ,greece are said to vary as follows3 ,patras1 #ai-bh-a_/b per cent42 ,gythium1 #bg-a_/d-ce-a_/b2 ,zea1 #ab-a_/d-be-a_/d2 ,vonitza1 #ah-bj4 ,in ,turkey1 the fruit ripens in ,july-,august1 when the trees are beaten1 and the fallen acorns left on the ground to dry4 ,the natives afterwards gather them1 and transport them on camel-back to stores in the towns1 whence they go by camel and train to ,smyrna1 and are there placed in heaps #e-f ft4 deep in large airy stores for some weeks1 during which the mass heats1 and the acorn itself1 which contains but little tannin1 and is used for feeding pigs1 contracts and falls from the cup4 ,this incipient fermentation is attended with considerable risk2 if carried too far1 a large proportion of the valonia becomes dark-coloured and otherwise damaged4 ,when ready for shipment1 the heaps are hand-picked1 the best being reserved for the ,austrian market 7,trieste71 and the rest going to ,england4 ,in some cases1 the rubbish having been removed1 the remainder is known as natural1 and is thus exported to ,england4 ,in ,greek commerce1 three qualities are distinguished1 chamada1 rhabdisto1 and charcala4 ,the chamada 7camata and camatina of ,asia ,minor7 is the best2 it is collected in ,april1 before the acorn is matured1 hence the cup which encloses the acorn is small and incompletely developed4 ,the rhabdisto is the second quality2 it is collected in ,september-,october1 and is distinguished by the fruit being larger and riper2 the name means beaten1 the fruits being beaten down from the trees with sticks4 ,after mid-,october the collection ceases1 because the first rains cause the fallen fruit to ferment or turn black1 and they then take the name of charchala4 ,they are distinguished by the cups being completely open1 and containing no acorns4 ,they are considered much inferior1 possessing little tannin4 ,illustration3 ,pl4 ,,iv4 ,e ,f4 ,n4 ,spon1 ,london 4 ,new ,york4 ,,ink ,,photo4 ,,sprague ,,co ,,london ,,revolving1 ,,washing ,,and ,,pressing ,,machines4 ,sometimes the acorn cup is attacked by a kind of honey-dew1 which deposits on the cup1 and makes it very liable to heat when gathered1 the cup becoming very dark and deficient in tannin4 ,the ,turkish crop of #ahge was much damaged from this cause1 many parcels reaching ,england in an unsaleable condition4 ,the cause of the disease is yet unknown2 it seems specially prevalent when the crop is large and the acorn fully developed4 ,a good sample of valonia should be composed of medium-sized cups1 with the rim or wall very thick1 and the exterior spines small and uniform4 ,the cut or broken cup should show a bright-drab fractured surface4 ,valonia contains #be-ce per cent4 of a tannin somewhat resembling that of oak-bark1 but giving a browner colour and heavier bloom4 ,it makes a hard and heavy leather1 and is generally used in admixture with oak-bark1 myrobalans1 or mimosa-bark4 ,the ,greek crop in #ahhj was much damaged by the cold spring3 ,it gave #fjj tons in ,acarnania and tolia1 #fej in ,cape ,papa1 and #adjj in ,mania2 total1 #bfej tons4 ,calamata and ,messenia produced #aae tons1 #agjjl4 ,syra exported in #ahgi1 #aagdl4 worth to ,great ,britain1 #cdhl4 ,austria1 #beil4 ,russia1 #bejl4 ,turkey1 #aghl4 ,egypt4 ,hungary exported #idb tons in #ahhj4 ,adana shipped #idejl4 worth in #ahgh2 and ,dedeagatch1 in the same year1 #a1ejj1jjj lb41 #ijjjl4 ,musyna ,mersineh sent #fgj tons1 #ccejl41 to ,italy1 and #dej tons1 #bbejl4 to ,austria1 in #ahgi2 and #dhj tons1 #bbdjl41 to ,italy1 and #abh tons1 #fdjl41 to ,greece1 in #ahhj4 ,our imports in #ahhj were3--,from ,turkey1 #cj1cia tons1 #dga1fcgl42 ,greece1 #biaf tons1 #da1cabl42 other countries1 #dff tons1 #gajel42 total1 #cc1ggc tons1 #ebj1jedl4 ,the approximate ,london market values are3--,smyrna1 #abs4 #f;d4-#bjs4 #f;d4 a cwt42 ,camata1 #aes4-#ais42 ,morea1 #ajs4 #f;d4-#ahs4 ,miscellaneous4--,besides the foregoing tannins1 which already occupy prominent places in ,european and ,american commerce1 there are many others as yet of minor importance1 but possessing qualities which may bring them into note in the near future4 ,they are as follows3-- ,abies ,larix bark1 the larch1 contains #f-h per cent4 of a red tannin4 ,acacia albicans fruits1 the hiusache of ,mexico1 are used as substitutes for gall-nuts1 costing locally about #e;d4 a lb4 ,a4 arabica1 the babul of ,india1 yields a tannin which gives a nearly pure-white precipitate with gelatine3 the proportions are #abee per cent1 in trunk-bark1 #ahie in branch-bark1 #aede in twig-bark4 ,the supply is unlimited4 ,it works well with myrobalans4 ,a4 ,cebil1 the red cebil of the ,argentine ,republic1 contains #aj-ae per cent4 of tannin in the bark1 and #f-g per cent4 in the leaves2 another variety1 the white cebil1 contains #h-ab per cent4 in the bark1 and #g-h per cent4 in the leaves4 ,a4 ,cavenia1 the espinillo of the ,argentine ,republic1 has #cc-cd per cent4 of tannin in the fruit-husks4 ,a4 penninervis bark1 the hardy acacia of ,australia1 contains #ah per cent4 of tannic acid and #c-d of gallic4 ,alnus glutinosa bark1 the common alder1 contains about #af per cent4 of tannin4 ,csalpinia ,cacalaco fruits1 the cascalote of ,mexico1 are very rich in tannic and gallic acids1 and are locally used for tanning4 ,comptonia asplenifolia leaves1 the sweet-fern of the ,united ,states1 contain #i-aj per cent4 of tannin4 ,coriaria ruscifolia bark1 the tutu of ,new ,zealand1 contains #af-ag per cent4 of tannin4 ,elocarpus dentatus bark1 the kiri-hinau of ,new ,zealand1 contains #ba-bb per cent4 of tannin4 ,e4 ,hookerianus bark1 the pokako of ,new ,zealand1 contains #i-aj per cent4 of tannin4 ,ephedra antisyphilitica1 on the tablelands of ,arizona and ,utah1 gives #aa-ab per cent4 of tannin4 ,eucalyptus longifolia bark1 the woolly-butt of ,australia1 contains #hc per cent4 of tannic acid1 and #bh of gallic4 ,the peppermint-tree contains #bj per cent4 of tannic acid in its bark4 ,the stringy-bark 7,e4 obliqua7 gives #ac-a_/b per cent4 of kinotannic acid4 ,the ,victorian iron-bark 7,e4 leucoxylon7 contains #bb per cent4 of kinotannic acid1 but is available only for inferior leather4 ,eugenia ,maire bark1 the whawhako of ,new ,zealand1 contains #af-ag per cent4 of tannin4 ,e4 ,smithii bark1 the myrtle-tree of ,australia1 contains #ag per cent4 of tannic acid and #c-d of gallic4 ,fuchsia macrostemma root-bark is thin1 brittle1 and easily exhausted2 it contains about #be per cent4 of a bright-red tannin1 which has been successfully tried4 ,it is the churco bark of ,chili1 which1 however1 is attributed by the ,kew authorities to ,oxalis gigantea4 ,inga ,feuillei pods1 the pay-pay of ,peru1 contain #bd per cent4 of an almost colourless tannin4 ,laurus ,peumo rind is used in ,chili for tanning uppers4 ,malpighia punicifolia bark1 the naucite1 or manquitta bark of ,nicaragua1 contains #bj-cj per cent4 of a very light-coloured tannin4 ,persea ,lingue bark is red-brown1 soft1 and easily exhausted by water2 it contains #bj-bd per cent4 of tannin1 and much slimy matter which promotes the swelling of the hides4 ,it serves in ,south ,america1 especially in the ,chilian province of ,valdivia1 for tanning ,valdivia leather4 ,in ,southern ,chili are enormous forests of the tree4 ,the imported bark has given good results with heavy leathers4 ,phyllocladus tricomanoides bark1 the kiri-toa-toa of ,new ,zealand1 contains #bc per cent4 of tannin4 ,polygonum amphibium leaves1 an annual plant abundant in the ,missouri ,valley1 contain #ah per cent4 of tannin1 and can be mown and stacked like hay4 ,it is largely used in ,chicago tanneries1 and said to give a leather which is tougher1 more durable1 of finer texture1 and capable of higher polish1 than that tanned with oak-bark4 ,punica ,granatum fruit-rind1 the pomegranate1 contains about #acf per cent4 of a tannin like myrobalans1 and a considerable quantity of starch2 the tannin is greatest in the bitter kind1 which is used for preparing morocco leather2 the root-bark also is rich in tannin4 ,rhizophora ,mangle bark1 the mangrove1 of ,venezuela1 contains #bd-cj per cent4 of deep-red tannin1 if obtained from young stems2 samples from the ,west ,indies have given #aaid per cent41 probably by the gelatine process2 two samples from ,shanghai1 by ,lwenthal's improved method1 gave respectively #ih and #ie per cent4 calculated as oak tannin1 and #gaif and #gheb of woody fibre4 ,guayaquil exported #icbh cwt4 of the bark to ,peru in #ahgi4 ,tecoma pentaphylla bark1 the roble colorado of ,venezuela1 contains #bg per cent4 of tannin1 accompanied by a soluble orange-red colouring matter4 ,wagatea spicata pods contain #ae per cent4 of tannic acid4 ,the plant1 a scrambling shrub1 is a native of the ,concans4 ,weinmannia racemosa bark1 the tawhero towai1 or kamai of ,new ,zealand1 contains #ab-ac per cent4 of tannin4 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,the ,,chemistry ,,of ,,tannins4 ,the essential constituents of tanning materials are various members of a large group of organic compounds called tannins or tannic acids4,d ,footnote ,d3 ,ger4 gerbsure2 in ,german the word tannin denotes usually gallotannic acid only4 ,these bodies often differ widely both in chemical constitution and reaction1 but have the common property of precipitating gelatin from solution1 and forming insoluble compounds with gelatin-yielding tissues4 ,by virtue of this power1 they convert animal hide into the insoluble and imputrescible material called leather4 ,they are mostly uncrystallisable2 and all form blackish-blue or blackish-green compounds with ferric salts1 and in common with many other organic substances are precipitated by lead and copper acetates1 stannous chloride1 and many other metallic salts1 and those of organic bases1 such as quinine4 ,in some cases1 the tannin combines with the base only1 liberating the acid2 but frequently the salt as a whole enters into combination4 ,this is the case with the precipitates formed with lead and copper acetates4 ,with alkalies1 the tannins and many of their derivatives give solutions which oxidise and darken rapidly1 usually becoming successively orange1 brown1 and black4 ,a4 ,h4 ,allen has shown that these bodies also give instantaneously a deep-red coloration with a solution of potassium ferricyanide and ammonia4 ,the reaction is one of considerable delicacy4 ,tannins are more or less soluble in water2 and freely so in alcohol1 mixtures of alcohol and ether1 and ethyl acetate1 but scarcely in dry ether alone1 nor in dilute sulphuric acid2 and insoluble in carbon disulphide1 petroleum spirit1 benzene1 and chloroform4 ,from their amorphous character1 tannins are extremely difficult to purify2 and when1 as is frequently the case1 two or more tannins occur in the same plant1 it is often quite impossible completely to separate them4 ,owing to their considerable differences in character1 no general method of purification can be given1 but the following processes will be found in many cases to give good results4 ,for the special methods adopted by different investigators1 the original memoirs must be consulted1 references to many of which will be found in the following pages4 ,preparation and ,purification of ,tannins4 ,the oldest method of separating tannins from other constituents is that applied by ,pelouze to the preparation of commercial gallotannic acid from gall-nuts4 ,the finely pulverised material is placed in a percolator and exhausted with commercial ether containing water and alcohol4 ,the liquid separates1 on standing1 into #b layers of which the lower contains most of the tannin in a tolerably pure form1 dissolved in water and alcohol with a little ether1 while the upper mainly ethereous layer contains the gallic acid4 ,gall-nuts thus treated yield #ce-dj per cent4 of tannin4 ,if equal parts of ether and #ij per cent4 alcohol are used1 a larger yield is obtained1 but the liquid does not separate into #b layers1 and it is questionable if the product is so pure4 ,for ,chinese galls1 washed ether acts better than ether alcohol4 ,the tannin may be still further purified by dissolving in a mixture of #a part water with #b of ether1 when #c layers are formed1 of which the lowest contains nearly pure tannin4 ,these methods are applicable to the dried or highly concentrated extracts of many tanning materials4 ,many tannins may be separated from their strong aqueous solution in a state of considerable purity by first agitating with ether to remove gallic acid1 and then saturating with common salt1 and shaking well with acetic ether1 which takes up the tannin4 ,another method is to extract with alcohol1 evaporate to a small bulk at as low a temperature as possible1 and treat at once with a considerable quantity of cold water4 ,the infusion is then precipitated with successive small quantities of lead acetate2 the first and last portions of the precipitate are filtered off and rejected as contaminated with colouring matters and other impurities1 while the remainder1 after rapid washing1 is suspended in water and decomposed with sulphuretted hydrogen4 ,the filtrate is shaken with ether to remove gallic acid1 and the aqueous portion is evaporated at a low temperature in a partial vacuum to a thin syrup1 and the drying completed over sulphuric acid in vacuo4 ,general ,chemistry4 ,the natural tannins are all compounds of carbon1 hydrogen and oxygen only4 ,they all contain the benzene group of carbon atoms1 but their ultimate structure is1 except in the case of gallotannic acid1 very imperfectly understood1 and probably differs considerably in type in different members of the family4 ,in order to make clear to those readers who have not studied modern organic chemistry1 what we do know on the subject1 a few words of introduction will be necessary4 ,all organic compounds contain carbon1 in combination with hydrogen1 and very frequently also with oxygen1 nitrogen1 and other elements4 ,a single atom of carbon is able to combine with #d atoms of hydrogen1 as it does to form marsh gas1 or methyl hydride1 ,,ch#d4 ,other elements may be substituted for the hydrogen2 for instance1 if we replace #c of the hydrogen atoms with chlorine1 we obtain chloroform1 ,c,h,cl#c4 ,again an atom of oxygen may be inserted between the carbon atom and one of the hydrogen atoms1 producing methyl hydroxide or wood spirit4 ,the group ,,ch#c is called methyl1 and we may substitute in wood spirit this entire methyl group for one of the atoms of hydrogen1 when we shall have ordinary alcohol1 ,c#b;,h#e,,oh4 ,this building-up process may be repeated almost ad infinitum1 producing a whole series of alcohols of higher and higher boiling point as the atoms of carbon become more numerous4 ,again1 if in wood spirit we substitute an atom of oxygen for #b of the remaining atoms of hydrogen we obtain formic acid1 ,,cho4,,oh1 the first of a long series of acids1 of which the second1 corresponding to ordinary alcohol1 is acetic acid1 and the highest members1 such as stearic acid1 ,c#ah;,h#ce,o4,,oh1 are solid fats4 ,hence the whole series are commonly called the fatty acids4 ,a few structural formul will serve to make these points clearer1 but it may be well to say that such formul must be taken simply as indicating the order in which the different atoms are united1 and in no sense their actual position in space4 ,the atoms in a molecule are held together by attractions and are in continual motion1 so that they are more comparable to the planets of the solar system than to a rigid shape4 ,methyl ,hydride4 ,methyl ,alcohol4 ,common ,alcohol4 ,h ,h ,h ,h ,h,c,h ,h,c,o,h ,h,c,c,o,h ,h ,h ,h ,h ,chloroform4 ,formic ,acid4 ,acetic ,acid4 ,cl ,o ,h ,o ,h,c,cl ,h,c,o,h ,h,c,c,o,h ,cl ,h ,in benzene1 ,c#f;,h#f we have a compound of another type4 ,there is reason to think that the carbon atoms in this case are united in a ring1 as shown1 ,h ,h ,h ,c,c,c ,c,c,c ,h ,h ,h ,this benzene group forms the foundation of an immense number of bodies known as the aromatic series1 to which belong aniline1 carbolic acid1 picric acid1 gallic acid1 and a host of other compounds important alike in a scientific and commercial sense1 and among which we may pretty safely group the whole of the tannins4 ,commencing with benzene1 we may1 by inserting atoms of oxygen1 produce a series of alcohols or phenols1 of which common phenol 7usually but incorrectly called carbolic acid7 is the first4 ,the following table gives a general view of some of these1 so far as they are known1 with their corresponding acids3-- ,c#f;,h#f ,c#f;,h#e,,oh ,c#f;,h#d7,,oh7#b ,c#f;,h#c7,,oh7#c ,benzene4 ,phenol4 ,pyrocatechol ,pyrogallol1 7or catechol71 ,phloroglucol4 ,hydroquinol1 ,resorcinol4 ,h#e ,h#d ,h#c ,h#b ,c#f;,,co4,,oh ,c#f,,oh ,c#f7,,oh7#b ,c#f7,,oh7#b ,,co4,,oh ,,co4,,oh ,,co4,,oh ,benzoic acid4 ,salycylic acid1 ,protocatechuic acid ,gallic acid1 ,oxybenzoic acid4 7and #e other c4 isomeric acids74 ,it will be noticed that a large proportion of the formul given above represent several compounds identical in composition1 but frequently very distinct in their properties4 ,the explanation of these differences lies in the different relative position of the ,,oh and ,,co4,,oh groups round the benzene ring4 ,thus the following diagram represents the relative positions of the pyrocatechol series4 ,it may be noted that each phenol yields two isomeric,e acids4 ,miller 7,c4 ,s4 ,jour41 xli4 #cih71 who has investigated these acids1 remarks1 ,of the #c phenols ,c#f;,h#d,,oh#b1 catechol alone gives a precipitate with lead acetate1 and of the #f acids1 ,c#f,n#e,,oh#b1 ,,co4,,oh1 none yields precipitates with lead acetate1 except the #b which are obtained from catechol4 ,footnote ,e3 ,isomeric1 of similar composition but different structure and properties4 ,pyrocatechol #a-b4 ,resorcinol #a-c4 ,hydroquinol #a-d4 ,h,c,c,o,h ,h,c,c,o,h ,h,c,c,o,h ,h,c ,c,o,h ,h,c ,c,o,h ,h,c ,c-,h ,h,c,c,h ,h,c,c,o,h ,h,o,c,c-,h ,all the natural tannins with which we are acquainted1 are derived from1 and yield on decomposition either catechol1 phloroglucol1 or pyrogallol1 and sometimes more than one of these4 ,artificial products1 however1 with many of the reactions of tannins have been obtained from other members of the group1 and most phenols and their derived acids give either purplish or greenish black with ferric salts4 ,several classifications of the tannins have been suggested4 ,the division most obvious to the tanner is into those tannins which yield the whitish deposit in the surface of the leather1 called bloom1 and those which do not4 ,stenhouse1 some years since1 divided tannins into #b classes1 one of which gives a bluish1 and the other a greenish-black with ferric salts4 ,in the main these #b classes correspond to the #b former1 as most tannins which yield a blue-black with iron acetate also give bloom to the leather4 ,in some cases1 however1 the difference of tint is due to accidental impurities1 and even gallotannic acid will give a decided green with strongly acid ferric chloride4 ,these classifications both correspond to well-defined differences of constitution1 and it is obviously more scientific to arrange tannins according to the products which they yield on decomposition1 and which indicate their ultimate structure1 rather than on any less essential point4 ,if those tannins which give bloom to leather are cautiously heated to about #cib ,f4 7#bjj ,c471 they are decomposed1 and a substance is volatilised which condenses in feathery crystals1 and which on examination turns out to be pyrogallol4 ,those tannins1 on the other hand1 which yield no bloom1 but red deposits1 produce a somewhat similar sublimate of catechol4 ,from oak-bark and valonia1 which yield both bloom and red colouring matters1 both catechol and pyrogallol have been obtained4 ,we may1 therefore1 divide tannins broadly into derivatives of catechol1 which yield no bloom1 and usually give greenish-blacks with iron acetate1 and which include hemlock1 mimosa1 cutch1 gambier1 quebracho1 c2 derivatives of pyrogallol1 which give bluish-blacks with iron1 deposit bloom in leather1 and embrace galls1 sumach1 divi-divi1 myrobalans1 pomegranate rind1 c41 and tannins which contain both pyrogallol and catechol1 such as oak-bark and valonia1 and which1 as is well known1 yield bloom1 and give blue-blacks with iron4 ,if tannins are boiled with dilute sulphuric or hydrochloric acids1 and allowed to ferment under the influence of pectose and other natural ferments1 which are always present in vegetable tanning materials1 a different series of decompositions takes place4 ,many tannins yield glucose1 or starch sugar1 as one of their products1 or as that of closely associated impurities4 ,of this more must be said later4 ,in addition it will be found that the catechol tannins invariably yield insoluble reddish-brown bodies which have been called phlobaphenes1 and which differ from the original tannins in containing one or more molecules less water1 and which1 in chemical language1 are anhydrides of their respective tannic acids4 ,the pyrogallol tannins1 on the other hand1 yield gallic acid1 or ellagic acid 7the deposit forming bloom7 either alone or in mixture4 ,oak-bark and valonia give both bloom and insoluble reds1 and by digestion with acids in sealed tubes also gallic acid4 ,if the red anhydrides1 which are produced from the catechol tannins1 be fused with caustic potash1 or in many cases1 if they be simply boiled with concentrated potash solution1 they are broken up still further1 and from the fused mass1 protocatechuic acid 7which bears the same relation to catechol that gallic acid does to pyrogallol7 may always be obtained4 ,this is in many cases accompanied by phloroglucol1 a phenol isomeric with pyrogallol1 as may be seen by the table on p4 #fa1 but which tastes sweet like a sugar4 ,cutch1 gambier1 mimosa1 quebracho1 and probably many others1 are phloroglucide tannins4 ,the tannins which do not yield phloroglucol frequently give acetic acid1 and other acids of the fatty group1 along with protocatechuic acid4 ,we may summarise this classification in the following table3-- ,tannins boiled with dilute sulphuric acid yield 7frequently glucose1 and7 _/ ,insoluble ,reds1 which fused with potash yield protocatechuic acid1 and1---- _/ ,phloroglucol1 as chestnut1 gambier1 kino1 cutch1 quebracho1 rhatany1 fustic1 horse-chestnut1 tormentil4 ,acetic acid1 coffee1 ,peruvian bark1 male-fern4 ,reds and gallic and ellagic acids2 ,oak-bark and valonia tannins4 no glucose ,no reds1 but gallic ,galls1 myrobalans1 sumach1 divi-divi1 pomegranate and ellagic acids rind4 ,these are probably mixtures of two tannins which yield ,gallic acid only ,digallic1 or pure gallotannic acid4 ,ellagic acid only ,pure ellagitannic acid4 ,this classification is as yet very incomplete1 and there are many tannins of which the decomposition products have not been examined1 while our knowledge of the differences between the tannins which are classed together is extremely limited4 ,in order to make the information which has been given practically available for further research1 the characteristics and mode of recognition of the different products will be given1 and as simple a scheme as possible of treatment of the tannin to be examined will be described2 but the recognition of such products in a state of mixture presents great practical difficulties1 and the tanner will usually be compelled to confine his attention to simpler1 though less conclusive tests1 based on the work of chemical specialists4 ,such tests will be described later 7p4 #aaa74 ,illustration3 ,pl4 ,,iii4 ,e ,f ,n4 ,spon1 ,london ,new ,york ,,mars ,,photo ,,sprague ,,co4 ,,london ,,artificial ,,fermentation4 ,general ,methods of ,examination of ,tannins4 ,decomposition by ,heat4--,the ordinary method is to distil the tannin or dried extract in a small retort1 and examine the distillate for catechol and pyrogallol4 ,unless the heat be very carefully regulated1 much loss is caused by the destruction of the catechol and pyrogallol with formation of metagallic acid1 c41 and their detection is greatly complicated by the presence of secondary products4 ,this difficulty is somewhat lessened by passing a stream of carbon dioxide through the retort1 which carries the products quickly out of the heated portion4 ,a better method is to heat the tannin in glycerin 7,thorpe1 ,chem4 ,soc4 ,abstr41 #ahha1 #ffc2 ,allen1 ',commercial ,organic ,analysis1' #bnd ed474 ,about #a grm4 of the sample is heated with #e c4c4 of pure glycerin to #cib-daj ,f4 7#bjj-baj ,c47 for #bj minutes4 ,after cooling1 about #bj c4c4 of water is added1 and the liquid is shaken with an equal volume of ether1 without previous filtration4 ,the ethereous layer1 which contains the pyrogallol and catechol1 is separated from the aqueous portion1 evaporated to dryness1 and dissolved in #ej c4c4 of water4 ,the filtered solution is divided into several portions and tested with lime-water1 ferric chloride1 and ferric acetate 7see pp4 #ff-g72 by these means it is easy to distinguish between catechol and pyrogallol2 and either may be detected in presence of a small portion of the other2 but if in nearly equal quantities1 their recognition is difficult4 ,catechol may be derived from catechin1 c41 and pyrogallol from gallic acid1 and it is therefore necessary in some cases to remove these bodies from the tannin before treatment4 ,as a general rule1 however1 catechins and catechol derivatives are only present in any quantity with catechol-tannins1 and the same is true of gallic acid with regard to pyrogallol4 7,for methods of separation see pp4 #fi1 #ga1 #hj74 ,catechol has been formed by long continued heating of cellulose1 starch1 and other carbohydrates with water under pressure 7see p4 #fg74 ,products of the ,decomposition of ,tannins by ,heat4--,pyrogallol1 pyrogallic acid1 ,c#f;,h#f,o#c1 has a bitter1 but not sour taste1 and feebly reddens litmus1 but the addition of the smallest trace of alkali gives it an alkaline reaction4 ,it is poisonous1 #b gr4 having killed a dog4 ,it is soluble in less than #c parts of cold water1 and still more freely in hot4 ,it is also soluble in alcohol1 ether1 acetone1 ethyl acetate1 and glycerin1 but not in absolute chloroform1 or petroleum spirit4 ,it fuses at #bfh ,f4 7#aca ,c47 7,etti71 and sublimes at about #daj ,f4 7#baj ,c474 ,with pure ferrous sulphate it gives a white precipitate1 which redissolves to a fine blue liquid in presence of the least trace of ferric salt4 ,mineral acids change this to red1 and the blue tint is restored by cautious neutralisation with ammonia1 and is not destroyed1 but sometimes rendered greenish by excess of acetic1 and other organic acids4 ,any excess of ammonia produces an amethyst-red1 and acetic acid restores the blue4 ,its solution is turned brown by traces of nitrous acid4 ,with lime-water it produces a beautiful but evanescent purple1 rapidly turning brown4 ,in presence of alkalies it absorbs oxygen from the air with great avidity1 turning orange1 brown1 and black4 ,pyrogallol does not precipitate gelatin4 ,its solution rapidly reduces permanganate1 ,fehling's solution1 and salts of gold1 silver1,f mercury1 and platinum4 ,it precipitates copper and lead acetates1 and with ammoniacal cupric sulphate it gives an intense purple-brown coloration4 ,gum arabic1 saliva1 and various other organic matters cause solutions of pyrogallol exposed to the air to absorb oxygen1 by which purpurogallin is formed and separates in small yellow capillary crystals4 ,if #jb per cent4 of pyrogallol be added to a #a per cent4 solution of gum arabic1 it becomes yellow in a few hours1 and purpurogallin separates in hairlike crystals1 which continue to increase for some months4 ,it these crystals are freed from pyrogallol by washing with water1 and a trace of alkali is added1 they dissolve with an intense blue colour4 ,purpurogallol is also formed by oxidation with silver nitrate1 potash permanganate1 and many other reagents4 ,pyrogallol forms compounds with aldehydes2 with formaldehyde1 a body which reacts like a tannin and precipitates gelatin is produced4 ,if pyrogallol be heated with hydrochloric acid1 and aldehyde1 chloral1 or acetone1 a red substance is produced4 ,the less volatile portions of crude beech-tar creasote contains ethers of pyrogallol1 methyl-pyrogallol1 and propyl-pyrogallol1 from which these bodies may be obtained by the action of hydrochloric acid under pressure4 ,methyl- and propyl-pyrogallols differ from ordinary pyrogallol in having an atom of hydrogen replaced by the groups ,,ch#c or ,c#c;,h#g respectively2 and it is very probable that some tannins are derivatives of such modified pyrogallols4 ,footnote ,f3 ,hence its use as a developer in photography4 ,if pyrogallol be heated rapidly to #dhb ,f4 7#bej ,c47 it parts with the elements of water1 and is converted into metagallic acid1 ,c#f;,h#d,o#b1 a black amorphous body1 insoluble in water1 soluble in alkalies4 ,when pyrogallol is made in the ordinary way by heating gallic or tannic acids to #daj ,f4 7#baj ,c471 much of this body is formed1 even if the process be conducted in a stream of carbonic acid1 and the yield of pyrogallol usually amounts to only about #e per cent4 of the gallic acid employed 7see p4 #fe74 ,catechol4--,pyrocatechol1 pyrocatechin1 oxyphenic acid1 ,c#f;,h#d7,,oh7#b4 ,sources4--,beside that of the decomposition of certain tannins by heat 7see p4 #fc71 catechol is produced by the dry distillation of catechin and some allied bodies which frequently accompany the tannins4 ,it is also formed together with pyrogallol and its homologues 7see above7 by the dry distillation of wood1 wood tar creasote consisting largely of ethers of pyrocatechol and its homologues1 methyl and pyrocatechol1 c41 and hence it is also found in crude pyroligneous acid4 ,it has also been produced by heating carbohydrates with water under pressure1 and is found ready formed in ,virginia-creeper 7,ampelopsis hderacea71 and probably in other plants4 ,it has also been formed synthetically4 ,reactions4--,catechol melts at #bcb ,f4 7#aaa ,c47 and sublimes at about the same temperature1 condensing in brilliant lamin like benzoic acid4 ,it is readily soluble in water1 alcohol1 and ether1 and is extracted from its aqueous solution when shaken with the latter4 ,its aqueous solution precipitates lead acetate but not gelatin or alkaloids4 ,with lime-water or caustic soda solution it becomes reddish1 but remains clear for some time4 ,it does not colour ferrous salts1 but gives a dark green with ferric 7avoiding excess72 and after some time a black precipitate4 ,the green is changed to a fine violet-red by alkalies and hydric sodic carbonate1 and restored by acids4 ,to fir-wood moistened with hydrochloric acid it gives1 like phloroglucol1 a violet coloration by combination with the trace of vanillin which this wood contains4 ,this reaction does not seem to be given by pyrogallol or by common phenol4 ,catechol gives a red coloration with citric acid1 and after standing1 ceases to react with iron4 ,decomposition of ,tannins by ,dilute ,acids4--,it has been stated that tannins when heated with dilute sulphuric or hydrochloric acids are decomposed1 yielding frequently glucose1 and either gallic or ellagic acids1 or red anhydrides4 ,to determine whether glucose is produced1 the tannin must first be carefully purified from glucose1 gums1 or other bodies likely to interfere1 by the methods mentioned on p4 #eh4 ,either the tannin itself or its washed lead-salt may be used1 and must be heated to #bab ,f4 7#ajj ,c47 for some hours in a sealed tube1 or tightly closed bottle with dilute hydrochloric acid4 ,after cooling1 the mixture must be allowed to stand for some time to separate any sparingly soluble products1 which must be filtered off4 ,the filtrate must be shaken with ether and acetic ether to remove gallic acid 7p4 #ei71 the aqueous solution must be boiled1 neutralised with soda1 precipitated with basic lead acetate to remove any traces of tannin or colouring matters1 the liquid again filtered1 and excess of lead removed with dilute sulphuric acid1 the mixture again neutralised with soda1 and heated to boiling with ,fehling's copper-solution1 when a yellow or red precipitate of cuprous oxide will prove the formation of glucose4 ,the precipitate produced by cooling may consist 7of lead chloride1 if the lead salt has been used17 of ellagic acid1 or of red anhydrides or phlobaphenes of the tannin4 ,the lead chloride may be removed by washing with boiling water4 ,if the remaining precipitate has a pale yellow or fawn colour it probably consists of ellagic acid 7see p4 #ga71 soluble in ammonia and hot alcohol and dissolving freely in strong nitric acid1 forming an intense crimson liquid4 ,the ethereous layer will contain the gallic acid1 if any has been formed1 and must be evaporated to dryness1 and the residue taken up with cold water1 and filtered4 ,addition of a few drops of solution of potassium cyanide will produce a fine red coloration if gallic acid be present1 which rapidly fades1 but is restored by shaking4 ,a solution of picric acid1 to which excess of ammonia has been added1 gives a red coloration rapidly changing to a fine green1 even in very dilute solutions of gallic acid4 ,it is not1 however1 generally necessary to resort to so elaborate a process merely to distinguish the class to which tannins belong4 ,the tannin1 or its infusion1 may be simply boiled with dilute hydrochloric acid for some time1 replacing the acid lost by evaporation4 ,the solution is diluted to #ej c4c4 and allowed to cool4 ,ellagic acid and phlobaphenes may separate1 and must be filtered off4 ,if the precipitate is pale1 it is probably ellagic acid1 and maybe recognised by the nitric acid test4 ,if red1 it probably consists of phlobaphenes1 and may be treated with cold alcohol1 in which phlobaphenes are freely soluble1 but ellagic acid very little4 ,the ellagic acid will therefore be left on the filter if present in any quantity1 while the alcoholic solution may be precipitated by the addition of water1 and the phlobaphenes further examined by treatment with potash4 ,gallic ,acid4--,dioxysalicylic acid1 ,c#f;,h#b7,,oh7#c;,,co4,,oh1 exists ready formed in some plants1 and is a product of the fermentation of gallotannic acid under the influence of the nitrogenous ferment1 pectase1 or of its decomposition by boiling with acids or alkalies4 ,it crystallises in white1 or yellowish white needles1 containing #a mol4 7#ie per cent47 of water1 which it loses at #bab ,f4 7#ajj ,c474 ,it is soluble in #ajj parts of cold or #c of boiling water1 in alcohol or glycerin1 and slightly so in ether1 by agitation with which it may however be removed from its aqueous solution4 ,gallic acid fuses at a temperature of about #ddi ,f4 7#bcb ,c47 7,etti1 ,chem4 ,soc4 ,jour41 xxxvi4 #afj71 but at about #daj ,f4 7#baj ,c47 begins to lose carbonic dioxide1 and yields a crystalline sublimate of pyrogallol 7see p4 #ff74 ,if the heat be raised suddenly to #dhb ,f4 7#bej ,c47 a considerable quantity of black shining metagallic acid is formed4 ,aqueous solution of gallic acid gives the following reactions3--,solution of ferric chloride gives a deep blue coloration which is destroyed by boiling4 ,ferrous sulphate1 if free from ferric salt1 gives no reaction in dilute solutions1 but a white precipitate in strong ones4 ,the mixture rapidly darkens by oxidation4 ,in alkaline solution gallic acid absorbs oxygen from the air and darkens from the formation of tannomelanic acid4 ,lime-water produces a white precipitate which rapidly becomes blue from oxidation4 ,the same reaction is produced by baryta-water1 or by the chlorides of barium or calcium on addition of ammonia 7distinction from pyrogallol74 ,it is distinguished from gallotannic acid by the following3--,it does not precipitate gelatin1 except in the presence of gum4 ,it does not precipitate tartar emetic in presence of ammonic chloride1 though both tannin and gallic acid are precipitated by tartar emetic alone4 ,it precipitates lead acetate but not lead nitrate1 while tannin precipitates both4 ,a dilute solution of potassium cyanide gives a red coloration which disappears on standing1 but is restored by shaking with air4 ,if to even a very dilute solution of gallic acid1 sodic arsenate1 or some other faintly alkaline salts be added1 the mixture absorbs oxygen and becomes a deep green4 ,aqueous solution of picric acid to which excess of ammonia has previously been added gives a red coloration1 changing to green4 ,tannic and pyrogallic acid produce no reaction with cyanide1 and with ammonic picrate a reddish coloration only4 ,gallic acid reduces silver nitrate and gold chloride rapidly when hot1 but not ,fehling's solution1 and decolorises acidified potassic permanganate4 ,if tannin and other oxidisable bodies be removed from its solution it may be estimated quantitatively by titration with permanganate in presence of indigo 7see p4 #aah74 ,it may be separated from tannin by gelatin or hide raspings 7see pp4 #aba1 #abd74 ,gallotannic and quercitannic acids may also be removed by precipitation with ammoniacal solution of cupric sulphate1 or by cupric acetate1 in presence of excess of ammonic carbonate 7see also p4 #abe74 ,many other tannins1 however1 give precipitates with cupric salts which are soluble in ammonia and ammonic carbonate4 ,in absence of such tannins it may be estimated gravimetrically by precipitation with cupric acetate4 ,the precipitate is rapidly washed with water and digested with a solution of ammonic carbonate1 in which it dissolves2 any insoluble cupric tannate is filtered off1 the solution is evaporated to dryness and the residue moistened with nitric acid and ignited4 ,the weight of the remaining cupric oxide multiplied by #ji gives the weight of the gallic acid plus a little tannin dissolved by the ammonic solution4 ,gallic acid may also be separated from tannin by lead acetate strongly acidified with acetic acid1 by which tannic acid is precipitated1 while lead gallate is dissolved4 ,ellagic acid ,c#ad;,h#h,o#i1 when pure1 is a sulphur-yellow crystalline body almost insoluble even in boiling water1 and only slightly so in alcohol and ether1 though by agitation with the latter1 small quantities may be completely removed from aqueous solution4 ,in hot alcohol it dissolves with a yellow colour1 and crystallises on cooling4 ,solid ellagic acid gives with ferric chloride at first a greenish1 and then a black coloration4 ,in strong nitric acid it is soluble with a deep crimson coloration3 that from divi-divi gives a crimson liquid on dilution with water1 but from other sources it is rather orange4 ,ellagic acid may be obtained in considerable quantity by pouring a concentrated alcoholic extract of divi-divi into water1 when it separates and may be filtered off and recrystallised from hot alcohol4 ,it may also be obtained by boiling the aqueous extracts of divi1 myrabolans1 pomegranate rind1 c41 with dilute hydrochloric acid1 and purified by the same means4 ,it may be prepared from gallic acid by heating the latter with dry arsenic acid to #cbj ,f4 7#afj ,c471 but is difficult to purify from traces of arsenic4 ,ellagic acid has not been reconverted into gallic acid4 ,its constitutional formula is1 according to ,schiff1 ,,co4,,oh ,,oh ,c#f;,h#b ,o ,o ,,co ,o ,c#f;,h#b ,,oh ,,oh differing from gallotannic acid only by the loss of two atoms of hydrogen4 ,air-dried ellagic acid1 ,c#ad;,h#h,o#i ,,oh#b1 contains #a mol4 of water1 which it loses at #bab ,f4 7#ajj ,c47 but reabsorbs in moist air4 ,when heated to #cib-daj ,f4 7#bjj-baj ,c47 it forms an anhydride1 ,c#ad;,h#f,o#h1 losing another molecule of water1 which it does not recover from moist air1 but is slowly reconverted to ellagic acid by boiling with water4 ,the phlobaphenes or reds are chemically the anhydrides of the different tannic acids from which they are derived1 or in other words they are formed from the tannins by the loss of one or more molecules of water4 ,it is in this way that they are produced by the action of acids1 and similarly they are often formed when alcoholic or highly concentrated aqueous extracts are poured into cold water1 under which circumstances a part of the tannin seems unable to take up water again1 and separates as a red precipitate4 ,they exist ready formed in most tanning materials capable of producing them4 ,they are soluble in alcohol1 by which they may be extracted from tanning materials or dried residues containing them4 ,they are also dissolved by dilute alkalies and alkaline carbonates1 and by borax1 which is said to be used in the preparation of some extracts1 and was suggested by ,sadlon as a means of making phlobaphenes available for tanning4 ,many of them are scarcely soluble in water even at a boiling temperature1 though they become more so in presence of sugar1 tannic acid1 and some other substances4 ,their solubility in water depends on their degree of hydration1 many tannins giving a series of anhydrides of which those containing only one molecule of water less than the original tannin are quite soluble in water1 while the higher members of the series become less and less soluble as they lose water4 ,those which are soluble form the colouring matters of tanning materials1 and generally are practically tannins1 precipitating gelatin and combining with hide to form leather4 ,hemlock bark yields a series of such bodies1 of which the lower members are deep red soluble tannins1 while the higher form the red sediment1 so well known to extract-tanners4 ,thus it is chemically impossible to decolorise hemlock extract without at the same time greatly lessening its tanning power1 though by careful manufacturing and concentration at low temperature1 the proportion of the higher anhydrides formed may be kept at a minimum4 ,in many cases it is known1 as in gambier1 and in others it is probable that the tannin itself is merely the first anhydride of the series1 and derived from a catechin which itself is a white crystalline body destitute of tanning properties 7see p4 #gi74 ,decomposition of the ,phlobaphenes by ,fusion with ,caustic ,alkalies4--,it has been mentioned 7p4 #fd7 that the reds of different tannins yielded1 in addition to protocatechuic acid1 either phloroglucol1 or acetic acid1 or some other member of the fatty acid series4 ,some tannins1 as those of alder and hop1 give both phloroglucol and acetic acid1 but it is very possible that this arises from the presence of two distinct tannins in these materials4 ,it is stated that all those tannins which yield acetic acid on fusion with potash1 also yield considerable quantities of glucose to dilute acids1 while the phloroglucide tannins do not do so4 ,gallic acid fused with caustic soda has been found by ,barth and ,schroeder to produce a small quantity of phloroglucol1 and it is similarly formed by resorcinol and common phenol 7,chem4 ,soc4 ,jour41 xliv4 #fj74 ,it is therefore possible that in some cases where phloroglucol is detected1 it may have been formed by the action of the alkali1 and not have been originally a constituent of the tannin4 ,the following is the best method in which to proceed to investigate the products of the action of potash4 #bj grm4 of the red1 or of the tannin from which it is derived1 or its lead salt1 is boiled with #aej c4c4 of solution of caustic potash of #abj sp4 gr4 for #c hours1 and the liquid is then concentrated with constant stirring till it becomes pasty4 ,it is then cooled and treated with a volume of dilute sulphuric acid slightly more than enough to neutralise the alkali employed4 ,after cooling it is filtered from potassium sulphate and other solid matters1 and the filtrate treated with sodium bicarbonate till its wine-red reaction with litmus shows that the sulphuric acid is neutralised4 ,the liquid is then shaken with an equal measure of ether1 the ethereous layer drawn off and the treatment repeated several times4 ,on distilling off the ether1 phloroglucol is left and may be purified by solution in water1 when protocatechuic acid and other products may be precipitated by neutral lead acetate1 and filtered off1 and the phloroglucol again extracted with ether1 and recognised by its reaction with ferric chloride and bromine water1 and by its sweet taste4 ,phloroglucol4--,phloroglucin ,c#f;,h#f,o#c is a phenol isomeric with pyrogallol4 ,it crystallises with #b molecules of water1 which it loses at #bab ,f4 7#ajj ,c474 ,it melts at about #dbh ,f4 7#bbj ,c471 sublimes without odour1 and solidifies again on cooling4 ,it is soluble in water1 alcohol1 and ether1 and by agitation with the latter it may be removed from its aqueous solution4 ,it is not precipitated by any metallic salt but basic lead acetate4 ,it is coloured deep violet red by ferric chloride4 ,if bromine be added to its concentrated solution in water1 it absorbs #c atoms1 forming tribromophloroglucol1 ,c#f;,h#f;,br#c,o#c1 which separates in crystalline needles1 with evolution of heat and a very irritating odour4 ,if a deal shaving be moistened with solution of phloroglucol1 and then with strong hydrochloric acid1 it soon takes a deep violet colour1 from the formation of phloroglucol-vanillin with the trace of vanillin contained in all coniferous woods4 ,pyrocatechol gives a similar reaction1 and it is stated by ,etti 7,chem4 ,soc4 ,jour41 xliv4 #fj7 that pyrogallol forms a similar compound2 it does not1 however1 give the colour reaction on deal4 ,it is extremely probable that this reaction may be used to detect phloroglucide tannins without the troublesome fusion with potash1 in cases where pyrocatechol is absent4 ,the reaction is strongly given by gambier1 which is known to contain phloroglucol1 but not by oak bark and valonia1 though these contain protocatechuic acid4 ,if to a dilute solution of phloroglucol a solution of aniline or toluidine nitrate be added1 and then a trace of potassic nitrite1 the liquid gradually becomes yellow or orange1 then turbid1 and finally deposits a cinnabar-red precipitate4 ,this reaction is given by gambier1 but is also produced by oak bark infusion1 which is not supposed to contain phloroglucol2 and gall tannin1 pyrogallol1 and other substances give similar but browner precipitates4 ,protocatechuic ,acid4--,c#f;,h#c7,,oh7#b;,,co4,,oh1 one of the six isomeric dihydroxybenzoic acids of this formula 7see ,miller1 ,chem4 ,soc4 ,jour41 xli4 #aih71 crystallises in needles and plates with #a mol4 water1 which it loses at #bab ,f4 7#ajj ,c474 ,it melts at #bbh ,f4 7#aji ,c47 and on further heating is decomposed into pyrocatechol and carbonic acid4 ,it is somewhat soluble in cold water1 and readily so in hot water1 alcohol1 and ether4 ,it is coloured bluish green by ferric chloride1 which is changed to red by alkalies4 ,solutions of protocatechuates give a violet coloration with ferric salts4 ,it is precipitated by lead acetate1 and reduces silver ammonio-nitrate1 but not ,fehling's solution 7see also p4 #ajg74 ,constitution of ,tannins4 ,having described the products of decomposition1 something must be said of the way in which these constituents are combined to form the unaltered tannins4 ,the only tannin of which we have as yet anything approaching complete knowledge is that obtained from galls1 sumach1 and myrabolans1 and which is thence called gallotannic acid4 ,gallotannic1 or digallic acid exists as the principal tannic acid of the galls of oak1 tamarisk1 c42 and1 in mixture with more or less ellagitannic acid1 in myrabolans1 divi-divi1 sumach1 pomegranate rind1 and many other plant-products4 ,it has also been formed by ,schiff from gallic acid1 by mixing it1 after drying at #bcj ,f4 7#aaj ,c471 with phosphorus oxychloride to a thin paste1 and heating1 first to #bab ,f4 7#ajj ,c47 and then to #bdh ,f4 7#abj ,c 74 ,much hydrochloric acid was evolved1 and the gallic acid was converted into a yellow powder1 which after purification by washing with ether1 dissolving in water1 allowing the gallic acid to crystallise out1 saturating with salt1 washing the precipitated tannin in salt solution1 and redissolving in alcohol and ether1 had all the reactions of purified gall tannin1 but was perfectly reconverted into gallic acid on boiling with hydrochloric acid1 without the formation of any trace of ellagic acid1 or glucose4 ,by analysis of the tannin and its acetyl compounds it was shown to be digallic acid1 and its constitutional formula is almost certainly as follows3-- ,,co4,,oh ,,oh ,c#f;,h#b ,,oh ,o ,,co ,,oh ,c#f;,h#b,,oh ,,oh ,by boiling gallic acid with solution of arsenic acid1 ,schiff obtained a product which precipitated gelatin1 and otherwise reacted like tannin1 and he regards this as digallic acid1 but other experimenters have failed to obtain digallic acid by this means1 and have found that on complete removal of arsenic1 the compound was reconverted to gallic acid4 ,it therefore remains a moot point whether digallic acid is really formed1 and reconverted into gallic acid by the prolonged action of hydric sulphide1 which is necessary to remove the arsenic1 or whether1 as seems more probable1 the supposed tannin is merely an arsenical compound of gallic acid4 ,gallotannic acid as obtained from plants invariably yields traces of glucose1 as well as of ellagic acid1 when boiled with dilute acids4 ,it is still an open question whether the glucose exists in the plant as a glucoside of tannic acid or is always the product of some impurity 7as is shown by ,etti to be the case with oak bark1 where lvulin is always present74 ,it seems most probable however that natural gallotannic acid is really a glucoside of digallic acid1 or possibly1 according to the theory of ,hlasiwetz1 a gummide1 or compound of dextrin1 which1 by the action of acids1 is easily converted into glucose4 ,what has been said of gallotannic acid in this respect1 applies to many other tannins1 which like it give glucose by treatment with acids4 ,gallotannic acid is met with1 in commerce1 in the form of light buff-coloured scales1 with a faint peculiar odour and a powerfully astringent taste4 ,it is soluble in #f parts of cold water or glycerin1 and very readily in hot4 ,it is also very soluble in alcohol containing water1 but much less so in absolute4 ,it is moderately soluble in washed1 but scarcely at all in anhydrous ether1 chloroform1 benzene1 or petroleum spirit4 ,the commercial acid usually contains more or less of gallic acid1 which may be detected by dissolving in water1 shaking with ether1 and after decanting and evaporating the ether1 applying the tests described under gallic acid 7p4 #gj74 ,it may also be frequently distinguished in the simple aqueous solution of the tannic acid by the tests given4 ,its quantity may be determined 7in the absence of other impurities7 by the ,lwenthal method 7p4 #aba71 the gallic acid forming the not-tannin1 by comparison with a solution of pure gallic acid4 ,commercial tannic acid is sometimes adulterated with starch1 which is left undissolved on treating the sample with ordinary alcohol4 ,for the estimation of gallotannic acid see pp4 #aah et seq4 ,for its principal reactions1 ,table1 p4 #aac4 ,ellagitannic acid1 ,c#ad;,h#aj,o#aj1 is contained in divi-divi1 myrabolans1 and as a glucoside in pomegranate rind4 ,when boiled with dilute acids1 or treated with water at #bcj ,f4 7#aaj ,c47 in a sealed tube1 it yields its anhydride1 ellagic acid 7see p4 #ga71 ,c#ad;,h#h,o#i4 ,in its reactions ellagitannic acid closely resembles gallotannic acid4 ,quercitannic acid4 ,oak-bark tannin4--,this tannin may be prepared from oak bark by agitating an alcoholic extract with ethyl acetate1 and separating and evaporating the ethereous layer4 ,it is still contaminated with a brownish-green terpene resin1 and with some of the higher anhydrides of the tannin4 ,the resin may be removed by treating the dried extract with ether or benzene1 in which it is readily soluble2 and the phlobaphenes1 or higher anhydrides1 by dissolving the tannin in ether-alcohol1 or probably to a great extent1 by simple solution in cold water in which the phlobaphenes are scarcely soluble4 ,it may also be prepared by evaporating the alcoholic extract1 and extracting with water1 which leaves the phlobaphenes1 or higher anhydrides undissolved4 ,the first anhydride1 which is partially soluble1 may be precipitated by the addition of salt1 and the quercitannic acid extracted by shaking the filtered solution with acetic ether4 ,in very dilute alcohol it yields a pure yellow precipitate with lead acetate4 ,in aqueous solution the precipitate is light-brown4 ,it gives a blue-black with ferric salts4 ,when pure1 quercitannic acid yields nothing to pure ether or to benzene4 ,if quercitannic acid be heated to #bff-bhd ,f4 7#acj-adj ,c47 it loses water1 and yields a red anhydride slightly soluble in water1 which constitutes the red colouring matter of oak bark1 and which has also been called difficultly soluble tannin4 ,it precipitates gelatin and is one of the class which ,eitner well designates tanning colouring matters4 ,it gives a brownish red with lead acetate1 and a blue-black with ferric salts2 it is difficultly soluble in water and ether1 but readily so in alcohol of all strengths4 ,together with other anhydrides1 it exists naturally formed in the bark4 ,at higher temperatures1 or by boiling with acids1 a series of higher anhydrides may be obtained which are quite insoluble in water1 but are soluble in alcohol and caustic alkalies4 ,no glucose is produced by treatment of pure quercitannic acid with acids1 that formed by so treating oak-bark extract being due to the alteration of the lvulose present4 ,if oak-reds are fused with potash they yield1 according to ,johansen 7,chem4 ,soc4 ,jour41 xxxii4 #gba71 protocatechuic and butyric acids4 ,if heated in sealed tubes with dilute hydrochloric acid1 gallic acid only is formed1 with evolution of methyl chloride4 ,the constitutional formula of quercitannic acid is as yet very uncertain3 it is probably a methyl derivative of digallic acid4 ,its formula is variously given as ,c#ag;,h#af,o#i 7,etti1 ,chem4 ,soc4 ,jour41 xliv4 #iid71 ,c#bh;,h#bf,o#ae 7,ibid4 xl4 #ija1 ,lwe71 ,c#ai;,h#af,o#aj 7,bttinger1 ,berichte1 xvi4 #bgaj74 ,for further details the original memoirs must be consulted4 ,for the reactions of oak-bark and valonia infusions the ,table1 p4 #aac1 may be consulted4 ,before describing the catechol-tannins it will be necessary to speak of a group of compounds of which it is probable that these tannins are decomposition products4 ,these are the catechins4 ,it is as yet by no means certain how far they should be considered a group1 some chemists holding the opinion that there is only one catechin1 of which the rest are merely impure preparations4 ,catechin is a white crystalline substance1 contained to the extent of some #cj per cent4 in cube gambier1 and in smaller proportion in block gambier and cutch1 and very probably in all tanning materials yielding catechol-tannins4 ,it melts at #dbb-a_/b ,f4 7#bag ,c47 and yields a sublimate of catechol on further heating4 ,it is readily soluble in alcohol and in boiling water1 but requires #aacc parts of cold water for its solution4 ,hence it separates on cooling from a hot solution of gambier1 and may be purified by redissolving in hot water and treatment with animal charcoal1 and subsequent crystallisation4 ,it may also be extracted from its aqueous solution by agitation with ether4 ,it possesses no acid properties1 though some writers have incorrectly called it catechuic acid4 ,the aqueous solution gives precipitates with lead acetate and mercuric chloride1 and reduces ammonia-nitrate of silver2 but1 unlike tannins1 it does not precipitate gelatin1 alkaloids1 or tartar emetic4 ,it is oxidised by permanganate in presence of free acid1 and hence1 when in solution1 is estimated by the ,lwenthal method as not tannin4 ,it dissolves in concentrated sulphuric acid with a deep purple coloration4 ,by fusion with caustic alkalies it yields protocatechuic acid and phloroglucol together with hydrogen4 ,its constitution is very uncertain1 but it is probable that the phloroglucol stands in a somewhat similar relation to the protocatechuic acid that glycerin does to the fatty acids in natural fats2 and that its decomposition by fused alkalies is a process much akin to saponification4 ,this constitution is represented by the following formula3-- ,o4,c#f;,h#c7,,oh7#b ,c#ai;,h#ah,o#h or ,c#g;,h#h,o#b ,o4,c#f;,h#c7,,oh7#b ,when acted on by heat and dilute acids the following anhydrides are produced--the formul given must be taken as to some extent provisional4 ,catechin #b;,c#ai;,h#ah,o#h ,c#ch;,h#cf,o#af ,not acid2 does not precipitate gelatin4 ,catechutannic acid ,c#ch;,h#cd,o#ae ,acid1 precipitate ,dianydride ,c#ch;,h#cb,o#ad gelatin4 ,trianydride ,c#ch;,h#cj,o#ac ,insoluble in water4 ,catechuretin ,c#ch;,h#cj,o#ab ,soluble in alcohol and alkalies4 ,the white deposit which occurs on pit sides and in the interior of leather where gambier is largely used1 and which is sometimes called the whites1 consists of catechin4 ,it may be decomposed by warm sulphuric acid4 ,this deposit is favoured by the use of hot gambier liquors4 ,it is probable that by exposure to the air and by boiling1 catechin is gradually converted into catechutannic acid during the tanning process1 and hence the practical tanning value of cube gambier is probably greater than analysis indicates4 ,hunt has1 however1 shown 7,jour4 ,soc4 ,chem4 ,ind41 iv4 #bff7 that1 as estimated by the ,lwenthal process1 the tannin is to some extent lessened by boiling4 ,kinoin1 ,c#ad;,h#ab,o#f 7,etti1 ,berl4 ,ber41 xi4 #ahgi71 obtained from green or malabar kino1 a product very similar to cutch1 by boiling with dilute hydrochloric acid and extraction by agitation with ether1 is very similar in its properties to catechin4 ,it does not itself precipitate gelatin1 but like catechin1 yields a series of anhydrides or reds1 which do so4 ,on dry distillation it yields catechol and common phenol2 and when heated with hydrochloric acid at #bdh-bff ,f4 7#abj-acj ,c47 methyl chloride1 catechol and gallic acid4 ,hence its constitution is probably that of methyl-catechol gallate4 ,quebracho-catechin was found by ,p4 ,n4 ,arata 7,chem4 ,soc4 ,jour41 xl4 #aaeb7 in the wood of quebracho colorado 7p4 #dj71 but in too small quantity for detailed investigation4 ,it probably bears a similar relation to quebrachitannic acid that ordinary catechin does to catechutannic acid4 ,it is insoluble in cold and only slightly soluble in hot water1 but very soluble in alcohol and ether4 ,its solution is clouded by normal lead acetate1 and gives rose-coloured precipitates with basic lead acetate and mercurous nitrate1 and blackish with ferric acetate2 it reduces silver-nitrate and gold chloride1 and is coloured yellow by nitric acid1 red by sulphuric acid1 yellowish by sodium hypochlorite1 and green by ,fehling's solution4 ,it does not precipitate gelatin1 or alkaloids4 ,catechutannic acid has been pretty fully described under catechin1 of which it is the first anhydride 7p4 #hj74 ,it is possibly identical with mimo-tannic acid1 the tannin of cutch and mimosa bark1 which is chemically very similar1 but greatly differs in its practical effect in tanning4 ,for some further reactions of cutch and gambier infusions see p4 #aac4 ,it gives a greyish-green precipitate with ferric salts1 and 7distinction from gallotannic acid7 precipitates cupric sulphate but not tartar emetic4 ,quebrachitannic acid is got from the wood of the quebracho colorado1 ,quebrachia lorentzii 7formerly ,loxopterygium7 which must not be confounded with the bark of the ,aspidospermum quebrachia1 which is valuable1 not for its tannin1 but for an alkaloid1 aspidospermin1 which is used for medical purposes4 ,it has been pretty thoroughly investigated by ,p4 ,n4 ,arata 7,chem4 ,soc4 ,jour41 xxxiv4 #ihf and xl4 #aaeb74 ,it seems1 however1 a little doubtful to the writer whether the substance investigated by ,arata was not the anhydride of the tannin1 rather than the tannin itself1 as it presents many points of analogy to catechu-red and was less soluble in water than quebracho tannin appears in practice to be4 ,according to ,arata1 quebrachitannic acid is a pale red amorphous mass1 having an astringent taste and yielding a light cinnamon coloured powder4 ,it is insoluble in carbon-bisulphide1 turpentine oil1 and benzene4 ,its aqueous solution gives a white precipitate with both normal and basic lead acetate1 which when heated1 acquires first a rose1 and then a chocolate colour2 with ferric chloride a green liquid is produced1 which changes after a time to red and becomes black on addition of sodium acetate4 ,it forms white precipitates with gelatin1 albumen1 and alkaloids4 ,by dry distillation it yields catechol4 ,by fusion with potash or the action of sulphuric acid1 phloroglucol and protocatechuic acid1 while nitric acid converts it into oxalic and picric acids4 ,while it shows great similarity in its reactions to catechutannic acid1 it differs materially in percentage composition1 containing only #ebe as compared with #fbj per cent4 of carbon4 ,,chapter ,v4 ,,water ,,as ,,used ,,in ,,tanning4 ,water1 as obtained from rivers1 wells1 or water companies1 contains a variety of impurities which affect its use in tanning1 but of which in most cases the precise influence is very imperfectly known4 ,these may be classified into 7#a7 merely suspended matters1 such as clay and mud1 and sometimes animal or vegetable organisms such as infusoria2 7#b7 dissolved mineral matters1 which consist mostly of lime and magnesia salts and which make the water hard2 7#c7 and organic dissolved impurities1 such as the brown colour of peat water and the putrefying animal matters of sewage contamination4 ,mud is always objectionable4 ,it frequently contains organic slime and organisms which encourage the putrefaction of hides put in it to wash or soften4 ,it also almost invariably contains iron as one of its constituents1 and hence stains leather1 and gives bad coloured liquors4 ,it is not easily got rid of by filtration1 as large filter-beds are expensive and difficult to keep in order1 and much space is required to clear water by subsidence4 ,some filter easily cleaned offers the best chance of success4 ,the ,pulsometer ,company supply such a filter1 consisting of sponge tightly packed below a perforated piston4 ,to cleanse the filter a stream of water is passed the reverse way1 and the piston raised1 and worked up and down1 either by hand or power1 so as to loosen and knead the sponge4 ,the ,atkins water scrubber1 in which sand may be used as a filtering medium1 seems also well adapted for the purpose4 ,if lime be precipitated by ,clark's1 or other process1 it usually carries down the mud with it4 ,rain water and the water of streams in mountain districts of hard igneous rock are generally nearly free from mineral constituents4 ,this is the case with the ,glasgow water from ,loch ,katrine1 and the ,thirlmere water which is to supply ,manchester4 ,such water1 if cold enough1 and free from mud and organic impurity1 is the best for almost every purpose in tanning4 ,most river water1 however1 and all spring water1 is contaminated with mineral matter which it has dissolved out of the soil and rocks through which it has flowed4 ,the principal of these mineral constituents are lime and magnesia4 ,these occur both as sulphates and chlorides1 and as hydric carbonates1 or bicarbonates4 ,the sulphates and chlorides constitute permanent hardness1 while that due to bicarbonates is called temporary1 from the fact that on boiling1 half the carbonic acid is driven off1 and the lime or magnesia is deposited as an insoluble neutral carbonate1 thus softening the water4 ,any water which can be softened in this way by boiling may also be softened by the addition of a suitable quantity of lime1 thus3-- ,calcic hydric carbonate4 ,lime4 ,chalk4 ,water4 7,,co#c7b;,ca,h#b ,ca47,,oh7#b #b;,ca,c,o#c #b,,oh#b ,this is ,clark's process1 and the chalk may either be separated by subsidence1 which quickly takes place1 or by a special filter 7,porter-,clark74 ,thus the ,bristol water1 which from determinations by ,mr4 ,w4 ,n4 ,evans1 contains considerable temporary hardness and but little of permanent1 may be almost completely softened by ,clark's method4 7,for method of determining hardness and quantity of lime required1 see p4 #ig74 ,the lime and magnesia constituting permanent hardness may be removed by the addition of sodic carbonate 7soda ash or crystals72 but this is expensive on a large scale1 and as an equivalent quantity of sodic sulphate or chloride is left in the water1 it is for most purposes of questionable advantage1 though in some cases useful for the feed water of boilers4 ,when employed for this purpose1 the water should if possible be softened and settled before using1 instead of adding the soda in the boiler itself1 as is generally done4 ,soda is the active ingredient of many boiler compositions4 ,for preventing furring1 most tanning materials or even waste tan-liquors are very effective1 and the danger of any corrosive action is lessened by the addition of a portion of soda ash4 ,so far as is yet known1 from the tanning point of view1 it is hardly necessary to make any distinction between lime and magnesia1 which may be considered simply as hardness4 ,a hard water probably softens dried hides more slowly1 though it is possible that the observed difference may be due in many cases to the lower temperature of wells from which hard water is generally derived4 ,in the actual limes1 the hardness of the water can have no appreciable influence1 though if sodium sulphide be used alone1 a certain waste occurs from temporary hardness1 which may render it advisable to add a little lime4 ,it is in the washing of the hides from lime that the influence is first distinctly felt4 ,if limey goods1 after unhairing1 are placed in a water with much temporary hardness1 the same action occurs as in ,clark's water softening process1 and chalk is deposited in the surface of the hides1 making them harsh and apt to frize or roughen the grain in scudding1 and causing bad colour by combining with the organic acids of the liquors4 ,the common1 but not wholly satisfactory1 expedient is to add a little lime1 or better1 a few pailfuls of lime liquor to the water before putting in the hides4 ,the best plan is to use a properly softened water4 ,permanent hardness is not injurious in this way4 ,the hardness of water1 and the dissolved carbonic acid which it contains1 are1 together with its temperature1 the principal factors which determine whether a hide will plump or fall in it4 ,almost the only accurate investigation of this point has been made by ,w4 ,eitner 7',der ,gerber1' iii4 #ahc74 ,he placed pieces of hide1 unhaired by sweating1 and quite flat and fallen1 in water for #d days at a temperature of #df ,f4 7#h ,c471 with the following results3-- #a4 ,in distilled water ,scarcely at all plumped4 #b4 water saturated with ,,co#b ,well plumped4 #c4 with lime bicarbonate1 #bj ,german scale of hardness ,tolerably plump4 #d4 magnesia bicarbonate1 #bj do4 do4 do4 #e4 lime sulphate1 #bj do4 ,well plumped4 #f4 magnesia sulphate1 #bj do4 ,best plumped4 #g4 magnesium chloride1 #bj do4 ,not at all plumped4 #h4 common salt1 #bj do4 do4 do4 7#a ,german degree of hardness corresponds to #a of lime in #ajj1jjj47 ,the peculiarities which were shown by the hide pieces on removal from the water were maintained throughout the tanning1 which was conducted in imitation of the ,german method1 the hide being swollen and coloured through in weak birch-bark liquors1 made with distilled water and acidified in each case with equal quantities of lactic acid1 and finally laid away till tanned in a mixture of oak bark and valonia4 ,no4 #f1 from magnesia sulphate1 was the best2 then ,no4 #b2 ,no4 #c was less good1 but all the pieces from #a to #f were firm1 close1 and of good substance and texture1 ,no4 #a having swelled well in the sour liquor4 ,on the other hand1 #g and #h scarcely swelled in liquor1 but remained flat throughout1 and were looser1 thinner1 and of finer fibre4 ,from this experiment it is clear that while sulphates and carbonates exert a favourable influence on plumping1 chlorides do the reverse1 not only not plumping themselves1 but placing the hides in an unfavourable condition for the plumping action of acids in the liquors4 ,these experiments are quite borne out by the writer's experience in practice4 ,the water at the ,lowlights ,tannery1 which in dry weather is mostly obtained from beds of what was originally sea-sand1 and which consequently contains a very abnormal proportion of chlorides 7up to #fh pts4 ,na,cl per #ajj1jjj71 requires special and very careful management to make thick leather1 notwithstanding its containing a considerable quantity of calcium and magnesium sulphates4 ,these facts also indicate the importance of the thorough removal of salt from hides intended for sole-leather4 ,plumping is not a desirable thing in leather intended for dressing purposes1 and it is possible that the use of a small percentage of salt in the liquors or wash waters might enable bating to be dispensed with4 ,like a bate1 salt would dissolve a small proportion of hide substance 7see p4 #ai74 ,there is no practicable means of removing chlorides from water1 but ,eitner suggests the addition of a small quantity of sulphuric acid to water containing much temporary hardness 7bicarbonates71 by which it is converted into permanent 7sulphates71 which1 as we have seen1 plumps better4 ,for this purpose about #bh oz4 of ordinary ,english vitriol 7sp4 gr4 #adij7 per #ajj cub4 ft4 of water is required for each part of lime ,ca7,,oh7#b per #ajj1jjj 7see p4 #ig for testing of water74 ,a simpler guide is to add enough to purple1 but not to redden litmus paper1 even after moving it about in the water for some minutes4 ,the acid must of course be well mixed by plunging4 ,it must be borne in mind that ,eitner's experiment was on sweated hides1 and that with limed hide1 which is kept plump by the dissolved lime retained in the hide1 the conditions are different1 and different results as regards carbonic acid and bicarbonates would probably be obtained4 ,both these would convert the lime in the hide into chalk1 which is both insoluble and inert1 and the hide would probably fall1 at any rate till the lime was completely carbonated1 while hides would remain plumpest in waters most free from substances capable of neutralising lime4 ,one of the waters most effective in plumping limed hides is that of the river at ,lincoln4 ,its hardness and contents in chlorine is1 as compared with ,lowlights water in dry weather1 ,per #ajj1jjj4 ,lincoln1 permanent hardness #hdc1 temporary #hcb1 chlorine #bfj pt4 ,lowlights1 #fje1 #dej #dag ,both waters have a considerable quantity of organic matter1 and both owe their hardness in part to magnesia4 ,from this we might conclude1 what may be priori expected1 that the softer the water1 the plumper limed hides remain in it4 ,i am informed1 however1 by ,mr4 ,s4 ,l4 ,evans1 that in the ,dartmoor water1 which is very soft1 but peaty1 hides fall rapidly4 ,in this case the colouring matters of the peat1 which are of the nature of very weak acids1 probably neutralise the lime4 ,it may also be remarked1 that wherever the conditions of putrefaction or decaying organic matter is present1 hides rapidly fall1 for the same reasons as they do in a bate4 ,while the injurious effect of bicarbonates on limed hide is matter of common experience1 their influence on liquors and tanning is not so well understood4 ,it is certain that they neutralise and combine with the organic acids of the liquors1 and probably with some species of tannin1 and as #a part per #ajj1jjj amounts to #a oz4 per #ajj cub4 ft41 the acid required to neutralise a very hard water amounts to something considerable4 ,it is well known that hard waters make bad tea1 and the influence of hardness on the extraction of tannin is a subject well worthy of investigation1 and which the writer hopes to examine4 ,on dyeing1 at least as regards dye-woods1 the influence of bicarbonates is distinctly favourable1 and this is also stated to be true of woad1 cochineal1 and indigo-carmine4 ,beside lime and magnesia salts1 water may contain sulphates and chlorides of soda and potash2 but not carbonates of these bases in presence of permanent hardness4 ,in soft waters carbonates are sometimes present1 and form carbonate of lime in limed hides4 ,hides are said to soften rapidly in such water4 ,alkaline sulphates are not known to have any injurious action1 and chlorides have already been spoken of4 ,iron may be present in solution as bicarbonate1 but not in any other form in presence of bicarbonate of lime4 ,it is removed completely with the temporary hardness by ,clark's process1 or boiling4 ,iron is much more common merely in suspension1 as mud1 but is always objectionable4 ,most waters contain a little silicic acid and alumina1 and some few considerable quantities4 ,such waters are said to harden leather1 but the writer knows of no case where they are in use in ,england2 and their occurrence is comparatively rare4 ,for comparison1 analyses of a few spring and river waters are given on p4 #hi4 ,analyses of various ,waters4 ,thames1 ,thames1 ,severn1 ,thirlmere4 ,rhine1 ,spring1 at ,kew4 at ,wales4 ,basle4 ,witley1 ,london ,surrey4 ,bridge4 ,total solids #caj #djh #chg #eae #afi #gf ,ca #gf #hba #c #dc #eee #ha ,mg #dg #b #ab #dh #ah ,na #hg #adc #f #di #jf #fd ,k #ci #ag #a 44 44 #bc ,,co#c #ajec #fid #b #aji #hfb trace ,,so#d #cie #cbb #ac #ge #aed #acc ,cl #aba #fcf #h #aa #ae #abh ,si,o#b #fc #ah #b #jg #ba #abc ,temporary ,hardness #bjj 44 #i #g 44 #bh ,permanent hardness ,spring1 ,artesian1,ripley's1 ,well1 ,river ,beamhouse ,watford1,well ,well ,council,witham1 well1 ,herts4 ,trafalgar,holbeck1 ,acad41 ,lincoln4 ,lowlights4 ,square4 ,yorks4 ,vienna4 ,total solids #cch #hdi #aejd #babb #ccj 44 ,ca #aaj #aef #abb #aif #fjh 44 ,mg 44 #hd #db #ajd 44 44 ,na #aa #bid #eha #daa 44 44 ,k 44 #he #hc #aje 44 44 ,,co#c #aef #aac #cih #igf 44 44 ,,so#d #fh #bjf #ajc #bfg #gei 44 ,cl #aba #afe #deb #ce #bfj #bah ,si,o#b #aaf #eg #bfc #c 44 44 ,temporary hardness 44 44 44 44 #hj #cig ,permanent hardness 44 44 44 44 #hd #dhj ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,methods ,,of ,,chemical ,,analysis ,,for ,,the ,,tannery4 ,it is assumed that the reader has an elementary knowledge of chemistry1 and of the common manipulations of the laboratory2 but at the risk of giving information which to many is already familiar1 the principles that underlie those methods of testing which are most applicable to technical purposes must be briefly explained4 ,standard ,solutions4--,if #dj grm4 of pure caustic soda 7,na,h,o7 be dissolved in water1 and a little tincture of litmus added1 it will be coloured a bright blue4 ,if hydrochloric acid be now added1 drop by drop1 the litmus will at last become purple1 and a single drop more would turn it a bright red4 ,at this point the liquid is neither acid nor alkaline1 and if it be evaporated to dryness1 nothing will be left but #ehe grm4 of common salt 7,na,cl71 while #ah grm4 of water will be formed and have escaped4 ,we have therefore used exactly #cfe grm4 of pure ,h,cl1 and if we dissolve #dj grm4 of caustic soda in #a litre of water1 and #cfe grm4 of pure ,h,cl in another1 equal parts of these liquids will always exactly neutralise each other1 forming nothing but common salt and water4 ,it will be obvious that if we have a soda solution of the strength named1 we can find the amount of hydrochloric acid in any solution of unknown strength1 by seeing how much of it is required to neutralise1 say1 #aj c4c4 7 #jd grm4 soda7 of the known solution4 ,instead of #dj grm4 of caustic soda1 we may take #ef grm4 of potash to the litre1 and it will exactly neutralise an equal volume of the hydrochloric solution containing #cfe grm4 ,if1 again1 we make a solution containing #di grm4 of pure sulphuric acid 7,,so#d;,h#b7 per litre1 it will neutralise an exactly equal volume of either the soda or the potash solution1 thus being precisely equivalent to the ,h,cl solution4 ,such solutions are called normal1 and any normal acid solution will neutralise an equal volume of any normal alkali1 and vice vers4 ,for many purposes normal solutions are too strong1 and solutions containing #a_/aj of the quantities required for normal solution are preferable2 such solutions are called decinormal4 ,all solutions containing known quantities of chemicals1 and intended for use in volumetric analysis1 are called ,standard solutions4 ,indicators4--,the tincture of litmus used to show when the solution is exactly neutral is called an indicator1 and many materials are used in a similar way in different analytical processes4 ,thus the indigo solution in ,lwenthal's process is an indicator4 ,a more useful indicator than litmus for tannery purposes is ,dr4 ,lunge's methyl orange1 which is indifferent to carbonic acid1 and may therefore be used in the cold with solutions of alkaline carbonates2 which are much more easily made and preserved than those of the caustic alkalies necessary with litmus4 ,it is very sensitive to mineral acids1 but not equally so to organic4 ,it may be obtained of ,messrs4 ,mawson and ,swan1 of ,newcastle2 and as a minute quantity only must be used for each test1 it is really cheaper than litmus1 and a few grm4 will last a lifetime4 ,it must be dissolved in water1 and not more than #b or #c drops taken for each titration4 7,titration signifies an estimation by means of a standard solution47 ,other indicators will be named in connection with the analytical methods in which they are used4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #i4 ,instruments4--,to practically carry out analysis by standard solutions1 measuring glasses are required4 ,one or more flasks marked in the neck to hold exact quantities 7,fig4 #i71 one at least1 holding #a litre1 are indispensable4 ,one or two graduated cylinders 7,fig4 #aj71 holding #ajj c4c41 and divided into tenths of c4c41 are very useful1 and it is well also to have one holding a litre1 and provided with a stopper 7,fig4 #aa74 ,this is called a test mixer1 but is not absolutely essential4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aj4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aa4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ab4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ac4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ad4 ,pipettes 7,fig4 #ab7 are tubes with a mark on the stem by which exact quantities of liquid can be taken4 ,several holding #e1 #aj1 #bj1 and #be c4c4 are necessary1 and one holding #aj c4c4 and divided into tenths is advisable4 ,most important of all is the burette 7,fig4 #ac74 ,if only one is to be had1 it must be a ,mohr's burette with a glass tap1 but as alkaline solutions are apt to set glass taps fast1 it is well to have one with a tap1 and another with a pinchcock 7,fig4 #ad74 ,they should hold #ej or #be c4c4 and be divided into tenths4 ,the burette in use is fixed in a stand 7,fig4 #ae7 and filled up to the top of the graduation1 and the quantity of solution delivered is then shown by the scale4 ,it is usual to read by the under side of the hollow of the liquid1 keeping the eye carefully level with it4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ae4 ,a chemical balance suitable for the preparation of standard solutions and general analytical use1 is shown in ,fig4 #af4 ,the beam is provided with steel or rock-crystal knife-edges at the centre1 which are supported on agate planes1 and similar edges a support the pans4 ,except at the moment of weighing1 the beam1 and in good balances the pans also 7at b71 are steadied by supports raised by turning the milled head c4 ,the long pointer d moving over a scale1 shows when the beam is horizontal2 but the weighing is performed1 not by waiting till the balance comes to rest1 but by noting when the oscillations are equal on each side of the zero point4 ,the weights1 which should run from #ej grm4 downwards1 are usually of brass 7preferably gilded7 down to #a grm41 while the fractions to #jja grm4 are of platinum foil4 ,milligrammes and fractions are weighed by a rider of wire weighing #jja grm41 and moved along the beam 7which is graduated for the purpose like a steelyard7 by the arms e4 ,a fair balance should turn distinctly with #jjja grm41 and a good one with #jjjja grm4 ,if equal weights are placed on each pan1 they should of course balance1 and if changed side for side the balance should be maintained4 ,if not1 the arms of the beam are unequal4 ,weights always have trifling errors1 but if by a really good maker1 these are generally so small that they may be disregarded except in very delicate researches4 ,the weights should always be placed on the scale in regular order1 beginning with the heaviest1 and it is well to accustom oneself to reading the weight by the vacant places in the box as well as by the weights on the scale4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #af4 ,while of course it is most important1 and for accurate work essential1 to have as good a balance as possible1 much may be done in technical work1 even with a good pair of druggists' scales2 and most standard solutions may be bought ready made2 while from two or three accurately adjusted solutions many others may be made volumetrically4 ,preparation of ,standard ,acid and ,alkaline ,solutions4--,in practice it is very difficult to obtain perfectly pure caustic soda1 free from water and carbonic acid1 both of which are greedily absorbed by it from the air1 so that a standard solution cannot practically be made by directly weighing out the substance as suggested in the introductory paragraph4 ,in sodic carbonate1 however1 we have a substance which is easily obtained pure and dry1 and which may be used for almost all the purposes to which a caustic solution could be applied4 ,a decinormal solution is strong enough for most of the work in a tannery1 though it is a convenience to have both normal and decinormal1 and a stock of the stronger solution will last a longer time and is readily diluted to decinormal strength by adding #a part to #i parts of distilled water4 ,to make a normal solution1 about #fj grm4 of the purest sodic carbonate are placed in a porcelain basin or platinum crucible and heated over a ,bunsen gas-burner or spirit-lamp1 nearly to redness1 and allowed to cool closely covered up4 ,of the salt thus dried #ec grm4 are accurately weighed into a beaker and dissolved in distilled water4 ,the solution is then poured into a gauged litre flask1 and carefully filled up with water at a temperature of #ei ,f4 7#ae ,c47 to the mark on the neck4 ,the whole is then poured into a good-sized stoppered bottle 7#dj oz47 and vigorously shaken for #e-aj minutes4 ,this thorough shaking is important with all standard solutions1 and without experience no one would believe how much shaking is required uniformly to mix a solution4 ,probably more difficulty to beginners in analysis arises from neglect of this matter than from any other cause4 ,to make a decinormal solution1 proceed in precisely the same way1 using #ec grm4 instead of #ec2 or dilute as above4 ,standard ,acid ,solution4--,for this purpose any one of several acids may be used1 each of which has its special advantages4 ,oxalic acid is the easiest to make of any4 ,a sufficient quantity of pure crystallised oxalic acid is powdered and pressed between filter paper1 so as to absorb the moisture which occasionally is retained in cavities of the crystals4 #fc grm4 is then weighed out and dissolved in water1 exactly as was done with sodic carbonate1 forming a decinormal solution4 ,it is used in ,lwenthal's tannin estimation process and may also be employed to determine alkalies1 but forms insoluble calcium oxalate with lime salts1 and does not give a sharp reaction with methyl orange indicator4 ,hence litmus must be used1 or a few drops of a neutral solution of calcium chloride added to the methyl orange1 when hydrochloric acid will be liberated as soon as there is excess of the acid1 and the indicator will be promptly reddened4 ,sulphuric acid is the most permanent of any acid solution1 and may be generally employed4 ,it forms insoluble sulphates with lime1 baryta1 and strontia4 ,to make a normal solution1 #ce c4c4 of the pure concentrated acid are poured into at least #c or #d times as much distilled water1 and allowed to cool1 and are then made up to about #a litre and well shaken4 ,the burette is filled with the mixture1 #aj c4c4 of the standard sodic carbonate are measured into a beaker1 #b or #c drops of methyl orange solution are added1 and the acid is run in with constant stirring till the indicator is just beginning to redden4 ,this must be repeated1 and the two titrations should exactly agree4 ,suppose that #i4e c4c4 are required1 then #iej c4c4 of the trial acid are equal to #a litre of the soda4 ,if therefore #iej c4c4 be measured into a test mixer1 and made up to #a litre1 the solution should be accurately decinormal4 ,of course great care must be used in the whole process4 ,if a gauged flask only is at hand it will be easier to measure into it the water required to make up the litre1 and then fill to the mark with the trial acid4 ,normal hydrochloric acid may be made exactly as described for sulphuric acid1 but using about #ajj c4c4 of the strongest acid4 ,decinormal solutions of both these acids may be made by the same methods2 using #a tenth the quantities1 or by dilution of the normal solution4 ,beside comparison with sodic carbonate solution1 hydrochloric acid may also be checked by determining the amount of chlorine present1 with silver nitrate 7see p4 #ih7 #aj c4c4 of decinormal acid should of course be equal to #aj c4c4 of decinormal silver nitrate4 ,table giving the ,quantity of the ,following ,substances contained in or equivalent to #a litre of ,normal or #aj litres of ,decinormal ,standard ,solution4 ,sulphuric acid #di grm4 ,,so#d;,h#b #dj grm4 ,,so#c ,hydrochloric acid #cfe ,cl,h #cee grm4 ,cl4 ,g,oxalic acid #fcj ,c#b,o#d;,h#b #b ,aq4 ,acetic #fjj ,c#b;,h#c,o#b;,h4 ,soda #djj ,na,h,o4 ,sodic carbonate #ecj ,na#b;,,co#c4 ,g,lime #bhj ,ca,o #cgj grm4 ,ca,h#b,o#b4 ,g,calcic carbonate #ejj ,ca,c,o#c4 ,ammonia #agj ,,nh#c4 ,g,barium hydrate #gfe ,ba,o #hee grm4 ,ba,h#b,o#b4 ,barium chloride #ajdj ,ba,cl#b4 ,zinc chloride or sulphate #cbf ,zn #afj grm4 ,s4 as sulphide4 ,silver nitrate #agjj ,ag,n,o#c #cee grm4 ,cl4 ,potassic permanganate #caf ,k#b,mn,o#d4 ,footnote ,g3 ,insufficiently soluble in water to form a normal solution4 ,,examination ,,of ,,water4 ,hardness 7,hehner's process74 7a7 ,temporary ,hardness4--,as has been stated 7p4 #hd71 this consists of lime and magnesia carbonates4 ,as methyl orange is not affected by carbonic acid1 bicarbonates of alkaline earths have an alkaline reaction1 and may be estimated in solution by standard acid like the alkalies themselves4 #ajj c4c41 or in soft waters #bjj c4c41 of the water is measured into a beaker1 a drop or two of solution of methyl orange added1 and decinormal hydrochloric or sulphuric acid run in from the burette with constant stirring till the colour just changes to pink4 ,this is repeated1 and the average taken4 ,the two determinations should not at the most differ more than #a_/aj c4c4 ,each c4c4 represents #e parts per #ajj1jjj of ,ca,c,o#c or #bh parts of ,ca,o2 or corresponding quantities of magnesia 7#db parts of ,mg,c,o#c or #b parts ,mg,o71 when #ajj c4c4 of water are used4 7b7 ,permanent ,hardness4--#bjj c4c4 are measured into a beaker and boiled for #ae minutes with #dj c4c4 decinormal sodic carbonate4 ,the mixture is then allowed to cool and made up to #bej c4c42 or the flask and its contents may be weighed before boiling and made up again to the same weight4 ,it is then filtered1 and #fj c4c4 representing #ej c4c4 of the original water1 is twice titrated with decinormal acid and the result added4 ,if the water were pure1 exactly #aj c4c4 should be required to neutralise the #aj c4c4 of sodic carbonate1 but if there be permanent hardness a part of the sodic carbonate will be already neutralised with the acids of the lime and magnesia salts1 which have been precipitated as carbonates together with the carbonates of these bases originally present in the water4 ,the hardness will therefore be represented by the loss1 i4 e4 the number of c4c4 of acid used for #ajj c4c4 of the original water must be subtracted from #bj and the remainder calculated as before1 or if calculated as sulphates1 each c4c4 represents #fh parts of ,ca,s,o#d or #f parts of ,mg,s,o#d per #ajj1jjj4 ,if1 as is sometimes the case1 more acid is required than is needed for the sodic carbonate used1 the excess corresponds to sodic carbonate originally present in the water4 ,in this case there can be no permanent hardness4 ,chlorine in ,water4--,if silver nitrate be added to a solution of any chloride1 the silver is precipitated as white curdy insoluble silver chloride4 ,as indicator1 a few drops of neutral potassic chromate are used4 ,so long as any chloride is present the red silver chromate which forms is at once decomposed1 and the silver converted into white chloride4 ,but as soon as all the chloride is exhausted1 the red chromate becomes permanent4 ,to prepare a standard decinormal solution of silver1 #ag grm4 of pure recrystallised silver nitrate are dissolved in #a litre of distilled water4 ,to perform the estimation #ej c4c4 of water are measured into a beaker1 #b or #c drops of strong solution of pure yellow potassic chromate are added1 and then silver nitrate from the burette till a permanent red is formed4 ,this is repeated1 and the results are added together1 representing #ajj c4c4 of water4 ,each c4c4 of silver nitrate used represents #cee parts of chlorine1 or #ehe parts of sodic chloride per #ajj1jjj4 ,if more than #aj c4c4 of silver solution are required to #ej c4c41 it is advisable to use a smaller quantity of water4 ,if the process be applied to other liquids than natural water1 it must be borne in mind that the solution must not contain free acids or alkalies except carbonic acid4 ,if this is not the case the liquid may be rendered faintly alkaline1 with lime-water free from chlorides1 and the excess of lime removed by passing carbonic acid through it2 or it may be slightly acidified with sulphuric acid1 and shaken with a little pure precipitated calcic or baric carbonate4 ,detection of other ,impurities4--,sulphuric acid 7as sulphates7 is seldom wholly absent1 but its presence may be proved1 by adding excess of barium chloride to the water slightly acidified with hydrochloric acid 7#b-c c4c4 of saturated solution of ,ba,cl#b are sufficient for any ordinary water72 if the mixture be allowed to stand overnight in a #ajj c4c4 cylinder beside a solution containing a known1 and not very different quantity of decinormal sulphuric acid1 the quantity present may be roughly compared by measuring the bulk of the precipitates4 ,lime may be similarly detected and roughly measured by precipitation with excess of ammonic oxalate in presence of ammonium chloride1 to hinder precipitation of magnesia4 ,lime-water1 which may be used as a standard1 contains about #abh parts of lime per #ajj1jjj4 ,magnesia is detected by adding ammonium phosphate to the filtrate from the precipitated oxalate of lime4 ,if the mixture be allowed to stand in a warm place for #bd hours all the magnesia will be precipitated as ammonio-magnesic phosphate4 ,silica1 c4--#ajj c4c4 of the water is acidified with a little ,h,cl evaporated to dryness1 moistened with ,h,cl1 and treated with a little hot water4 ,the silica or silicic acid is left undissolved4 ,the solution from which the silicic acid has been filtered off is evaporated to small bulk and ammonia added1 when iron will be precipitated as brown ferric oxide1 which is coloured black by tannin or tanning liquor4 ,if copper be present it will give a blue solution with the ammonia4 ,iron may also be recognised by evaporating the water to small bulk with a trace of ,h,cl1 and adding a little sodium acetate1 when if iron be present it will be coloured black by tannin1 red by ammonium sulphocyanide1 and blue by potassium ferrocyanide 7prussiate of potash74 ,its quantity may be estimated 7,thomson1 ,chem4 ,soc4 ,abstracts1 ,may #ahhe7 by measuring #ajj c4c4 of the water to be tested and #ajj c4c4 distilled water into two similar cylinders1 adding to each #e c4c4 of dilute hydrochloric acid 7#a3e7 and #ae c4c4 of a solution of potassium sulphocyanide 7#dj grm4 per litre71 and then adding to the distilled water cylinder a very dilute standard solution of ferric salt1 till its colour matches the other4 ,if the iron contained in the water is in the ferrous condition1 it must be oxidised with potassic permanganate before testing4 ,a suitable ferric standard solution may be made by dissolving #ja grm4 of clean1 bright1 soft iron wire in a little hydrochloric acid in a long-necked flask1 adding nitric acid so long as red fumes are produced1 evaporating nearly to dryness1 and making up to #a litre 7more accurately #iif c4c474 ,each c4c4 will then equal #jjjja grm4 ,fe4 ,lead 7and copper7 may be detected by passing sulphuretted hydrogen through the water acidified with ,h,cl1 or by adding a drop of fresh ammonium or sodium sulphide to the slightly acidified water1 when a brownish coloration clearly visible in a deep beaker set on a sheet of white paper will be produced4 ,iron also gives a black with sulphides in alkaline solution4 ,copper may be distinguished from lead by the blue given with ammonia1 and by a reddish-brown precipitate with potassium ferrocyanide4 ,for accurate quantitative estimation of these impurities1 the regular works on the subject1 such as ,thorpe's ',quantitative ,analysis1' ,sutton's ',volumetric ,analysis1' or ,fresenius' ',quantitative ,analysis1' must be consulted4 ,,examination ,,of ,,commercial ,,acids4 ,sulphuric acid #aj grm4 may be made up to #ajj c4c4 and well mixed1 and of this #aj c4c4 may be tested with normal sodic carbonate in presence of methyl orange4 ,each #a c4c4 of soda solution used corresponds to #jjdi grm4 or #di per cent4 of ,h#b,,so#d4 ,for most purposes1 the strength may be ascertained from the specific gravity1 as measured by a hydrometer or weighed in a specific gravity bottle4 ,the following table gives the strength at #ei ,f4 7#ae ,c473-- ,specific ,degrees ,per cent4 ,gravity4 ,twaddell4,h ,h#b,,so#d #ahdbf #afhe #ajj #ahcgf #afge #ie #ahbb #afd #ij #aghf #aeg #he #agcd #adg #hj #afge #ace #ge #afae #abc #gj #aeeg #aaa #fe #aeja #ajj #fj #addh #ij #ee #acih #hj #ej #acea #gj #de #acjf #fa #dj #abfd #ec #ce #abbc #de #cj #aahb #cf #be #aadd #bi #bj #aajf #ba #ae #ajfh #ad #aj #ajcb #f #e ,footnote ,h3 ,degrees of ,twaddell's hydrometer may be reduced to specific gravity by multiplying by #jje and adding #a1 thus #aj ,tw4 #ajej sp4 gr4 ,the impurities of sulphuric acid most common and injurious for tanning purposes are iron and nitrous acid4 ,iron is detected on neutralising with soda or ammonia1 when it falls as a yellowish precipitate1 which may be recognised by the ordinary tests 7p4 #ajj74 ,nitric and nitrous acids are detected by pouring a strong solution of ferrous sulphate cautiously on to the top of the strong cold acid1 when a dark ring is formed at the junction of the two liquids4 ,hydrochloric acid may be tested with soda solution like sulphuric4 #a c4c4 of normal soda #jjcfe grm4 or #cfe per cent4 ,h,cl4 ,it may also be calculated from specific gravity4 ,specific ,gravity1 ,per cent4 ,h,cl4 #ae ,c4 #abjj #dj #aagg #ce #aaea #cj #aabf #be #aajj #bj #ajge #ae #ajej #aj #ajbe #e ,the presence of iron is indicated by a yellow colour1 and may be confirmed by the usual tests as in sulphuric acid4 ,oxalic acid should be pure white and soluble in distilled or rain-water4 #fc grm4 may be weighed out1 and made up to #bjj c4c4 ,if #bj c4c4 of the solution for a test be used1 each c4c4 of normal soda solution equals #aj per cent4 of pure crystallised acid1 ,c#b,o#d;,h#b #b ,aq4 ,the end-reaction with methyl orange is rendered sharper by the addition of a few drops of neutral calcic chloride towards the end of the titration4 ,acetic acid may be similarly determined1 each c4c4 of normal alkali being equivalent to #jjf grm4 of ,c#b;,h#d,o#b4 ,caustic soda1 or lime-water and litmus1 give sharper results than sodic carbonate and methyl orange4 ,brown pyroligneous acid is difficult to test from the dark compounds formed with soda1 but may be indirectly determined by the quantity of marble1 baric carbonate1 or magnesia which it will dissolve 7compare p4 #ajj71 or very possibly by lime-water like tan-liquors with a little tannin as indicator4 ,,examination ,,of ,,lime ,,and ,,lime-,,liquors4 ,the quantity of caustic lime in either quicklime or lime-bottoms may be determined by weighing a quantity of the finely powdered material containing not more than #a grm4 of caustic lime1 and shaking it thoroughly with #a litre of distilled water and filtering4 #ajj c4c4 should be taken1 and decinormal acid1 sulphuric or hydrochloric 7or if oxalic1 with addition of neutral calcic chloride1 or with litmus instead of methyl orange as indicator74 ,each c4c4 of decinormal acid corresponds to #jjjbh grm4 of ,ca,o4 ,if the filter and residue be treated with sufficient normal acid to dissolve the whole of the carbonates1 and then titrated back with normal sodic carbonate and methyl orange1 the loss 7less soda solution required than acid was originally employed7 is equal to the carbonate of lime and carbonate and hydrate of magnesia present4 #a c4c4 of normal acid #jje grm4 of ,ca,c,o#c4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ag4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ah4 ,lime-water and lime-liquors may be titrated as above1 with sulphuric or hydrochloric acid and methyl orange2 but in the latter case ammonia 7and if soda ash or ,inoffensive is used1 soda and potash also71 and the lime salts of weak organic acids will be estimated with it4 ,it is difficult to get a sharp end-reaction in old liquors from the organic acids 7caproic1 amidocaproic1 c47 present4 ,to determine the ammonia1 #ej-ajj c4c4 of the liquor may be distilled in a small retort or flask1 and the escaping ,,nh#c collected in a ,u-tube or nitrogen bulb 7,fig4 #ag71 containing #bj-ej c4c4 of normal acid1 which is afterwards titrated back with sodic carbonate and methyl orange4 ,kathreiner employs the arrangement shown in ,fig4 #ah4 #cj c4c4 of the liquor to be examined is placed in a shallow vessel on a piece of ground-glass1 and #aj c4c4 of normal acid in a second cup1 which is supported over the other by a glass or wire triangle4 ,the whole is covered with a small bell-glass1 of which the edges are smeared with1 vaseline4 ,at the end of #bd hours1 all the ammonia will have been absorbed by the acid1 which is titrated back4 ,the lime-liquor sample should be drawn after well plunging the lime1 and rapidly filtered into a flask from a funnel covered with a clock-glass4 ,determination of ,gelatin and ,coriin in ,lime-liquors4--,this cannot be done directly1 though considerable quantities of dissolved hide-substance are precipitated on acidification of the liquor with hydrochloric acid and saturation with common salt4 ,if the liquor be neutralised with hydrochloric acid1 and evaporated to dryness on the water-bath1 nitrogen may be determined in the residue by combustion1 and the hide-substance calculated from it 7compare p4 #ajh74 ,this method is serviceable in determining the amount of hide dissolved by different solutions1 or under different conditions4 ,the total solids of lime-liquors are estimated by evaporating #bj-cj c4c4 in a porcelain crucible at #bab ,f4 7#ajj ,c474 ,the organic matter is then found by igniting and determining loss 7using ammonia nitrate if necessary to complete the combustion of the carbon74 ,the ash is mostly lime carbonate4 ,soda1 potash1 and other bases may be determined in it by the usual methods1 if required4 ,,estimation ,,of ,,sulphur ,,as ,,sulphide ,,in ,,sodium ,,sulphide1 c4 #cbf grm4 of chemically pure zinc is dissolved in dilute sulphuric or hydrochloric acid4 ,this is readily accomplished in a flask1 if a piece of platinum foil1 or a few drops of platinic chloride are added to form a galvanic couple with the zinc4 ,after solution1 sufficient ammonia is added to redissolve the precipitate at first formed1,i and the whole is made up to #a litre4 ,each c4c4 #jjaf grm4 sulphur or #jbdb grm4 of sodic sulphide4 ,this solution is added drop by drop from a burette to the solution of sulphide1 and forms a white precipitate of zincic sulphide4 ,the end of the reaction is known by placing a drop 7with a glass rod7 side by side on a piece of white filter paper1 with a drop of solution of lead acetate4 ,so long as sulphide remains in solution1 it will form a black margin of lead sulphide where the drops touch4 ,the drops must not be placed too close1 as the solid zinc sulphide is always darkened if it comes in contact with lead acetate4 ,it must be noted that tank-waste liquors1 and many other sulphur solutions1 contain polysulphides which are estimated by zinc1 but which do not unhair1 at any rate in an unaltered state4 ,footnote ,i3 ,if any brown residue remains1 the zinc is contaminated with iron4 ,,chemical ,,examination ,,of ,,leather4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ai4 ,estimation of ,grease4--,to determine oil and grease1 a weighed quantity 7#e-aj grm47 of the leather in fine shavings or raspings is exhausted with petroleum-ether 7gasoline7 in a fat-extraction apparatus1 of which a convenient form is represented in ,fig4 #ai4 ,the leather is placed in the upper vessel1 of which the lower opening is loosely plugged with cotton-wool1 and the petroleum-ether in the flask1 which is gently heated in a water-bath4 ,the petroleum-ether boils and condenses in the inclined condenser through the casing of which a stream of cold water is passed1 whence it drops back into the flask through the material to be exhausted4 ,when the exhaustion is complete 7when a drop of petroleum-ether from the leather leaves no grease when allowed to evaporate on a clean glass71 the upper part of the apparatus is removed1 and the ether is distilled off4 ,if the flask has been previously weighed1 it is maintained in an air-bath at #bab-bdh ,f4 7#ajj-abj ,c47 for some hours1 allowed to cool1 and weighed1 when the gain of weight is the grease and oil4 ,paraffin would also be extracted and reckoned1 and probably traces of resin if present4 ,ordinary ethylic ether cannot be used1 since tannins and many of their products are soluble in it4 ,probably carbon disulphide might be substituted4 ,care must be taken to avoid explosion1 as the vapours of petroleum are very combustible4 ,the residue left in the percolator may be examined for matters soluble in water1 by extracting again with hot distilled water1 or for resins 7and phlobaphenes7 by extraction with alcohol4 ,estimation of matters soluble in water4--,this is important both to detect weighting1 and to draw conclusions as to the materials used in tanning4 ,fine raspings or shavings may be exhausted with warm water in a percolator1 or roughly a weighed piece 7#bj grm47 of leather1 air-dry1 may be well kneaded and worked in #ajj c4c4 of warm water in a basin4 #ej c4c4 of this may be evaporated to dryness in a light basin over the water-bath 7or under a paper hood on a steam boiler71 and the gain of weight will give the amount dissolved from #aj grm4 ,this is more accurate and quicker than redrying the leather and weighing loss4 ,the residue will contain tannins and their products1 often in considerable quantities1 and may be examined by the table of reactions1 p4 #aab1 though these are as yet very imperfect4 ,it will also contain glucose1 dextrin1 and soluble salts1 if these have been used to give weight and firmness4 ,the absolute proof of weighting with glucose or dextrin is difficult1 since tanning materials naturally contain these and analogous principles4 ,the residue may be powdered and exhausted with cold water1 and the tannins and colouring matter removed by shaking with magnesia 7p4 #ajh7 or lead carbonate4 ,fehling's solution,j is then added and the mixture is heated nearly to boiling4 ,a rapidly formed and considerable precipitate of red cuprous oxide indicates weighting with glucose or dextrin4 ,leather extracts1 however1 invariably reduce ,fehling's solution more or less1 and a conclusion can only be drawn after some experience and comparative tests4 ,gallotannic acid and pyrogallol reduce it when heated1 but not cane sugar or gum arabic4 ,if a solution of cane sugar be heated to #fh ,c4 for #a_/d hour with #aj per cent4 of fuming hydrochloric acid1 it is inverted1 and then after neutralising the acid with potash or soda1 will reduce ,fehling's solution when heated4 ,footnote ,j3 #d grm4 cryst4 cupric sulphate are dissolved in #bj c4c4 of water2 and #af grm4 of neutral potassic tartrate and #ac grm4 of fused sodic hydrate are dissolved in #fj c4c4 ,the two are mixed1 made up to #ajj c4c41 and boiled for some minutes4 ,it should always be tested before use by boiling a portion1 which should remain perfectly clear4 ,the soluble mineral salts are detected by igniting the residue left after evaporation of a separate portion in a porcelain crucible4,k ,from unweighted leather1 the quantity is very small4 ,the ash is exhausted with a few c4c4 of distilled water1 which will dissolve most sulphates and chlorides1 which may be detected in small portions of the solution by baric chloride and silver nitrate respectively4 ,baric chloride and lead acetate are precipitated by a drop of sulphuric acid1 and the latter is blackened with ammonic or sodic sulphide4 ,lime is precipitated by addition of ammonic chloride1 ammonia1 and ammonic oxalate2 magnesia by the subsequent addition of sodic phosphate 7see p4 #aji74 ,the carbonates in the insoluble part 7mostly derived from salts of organic acids7 may be taken up by dilute hydrochloric acid and tested separately1 or the acid may be used at first4 ,any residue undissolved by the acid is probably lead chloride1 and will be dissolved by hot water4 ,footnote ,k3 ,a platinum crucible must not be used for fear of its destruction by lead1 unless this metal has been proved absent4 ,estimation of ash4--,the leather in small pieces 7either after or before extraction with water7 is incinerated in a porcelain crucible4 ,the ash is extracted with hydrochloric acid4 ,the insoluble portion may contain barium sulphate 7barytes71 lead sulphate1 sand1 clay1 c4 ,for further examination1 ordinary chemical text-books must be consulted4 ,any large amount of ash indicates weighting4 ,mntz found only about #je per cent4 of ash from bark-tanned leather4 ,determination of hide substance4--,it is sometimes of interest to determine the proportion of dry hide-substance in a sample of leather1 but there is no known means of doing this directly4 ,if1 however1 the leather be dried1 finely powdered by rasping1 and the nitrogen determined by combustion1 either with soda-lime 7,will and ,varrentrapp's method71 or with copper oxide 7,dumas71 the hide-substance may be calculated1 since tannin contains no nitrogen4 ,mntz found unhaired skin dried at #bcj ,f4 7#aaj ,c47 to contain #eadc per cent4 of nitrogen 7compare also p4 #bj74 ,,determination ,,of ,,free ,,acids ,,in ,,tan-,,liquor4 ,the lime-water method mentioned on p4 #agb is1 from its simplicity1 well suited for daily use in the tannery as a control method for ordinary working2 but where it is necessary to make very exact estimations1 or to determine the various acids separately1 it is not so satisfactory as one recently published by ,kohnstein and ,simand 7,dingl4 ,polyt4 ,jour41 #ahhe1 cclvi4 #ch74 ,the acids usually present in liquor consist of several members of the fatty or acetic group1 which distil over with boiling water1 of other non-volatile organic acids1 and sometimes sulphuric acid1 which is added to assist the swelling of the leather4 ,to determine the acids of the acetic group1 ,kohnstein and ,simand proceed as follows3--#ajj c4c4 of the liquor are distilled1 in a flask or retort with a good condenser1 to about #cj c4c41 allowed to cool a little1 made up again to #ajj c4c41 and again distilled2 and this is repeated till about #cjj c4c4 have passed over4 ,the distillate is then made up to #cjj c4c41 well mixed by shaking1 and the acid is determined with standard soda4 ,methyl orange and sodic carbonate is not so suitable for this titration1 as caustic soda and litmus1 since methyl orange is not very sensitive to vegetable acids4 ,if it be desired to ascertain what quantity of acids of the acetic group exist in combination with lime and other bases in the liquor1 small excess of sulphuric acid may be added to the residue in the retort1 and the distillation repeated1 when the organic salts will be decomposed and the volatile acids come over4 ,to determine the total free organic acids1 ,kohnstein and ,simand shake about #hj c4c4 of the liquor with #c-d grm4 of freshly ignited magnesia1 quite free from carbonate and from lime1 and allow to stand for some hours with frequent vigorous shaking1 till the liquor1 which at first is brown or dirty green1 becomes almost colourless and gives no reaction of either acid or tannin4 ,the mixture is then filtered1 and the tannin and colouring matter are retained on the filter in combination with magnesia1 while the organic salts of magnesia1 which are mostly soluble1 pass through with the filtrate4 #aj-cj c4c4 of the filtrate1 according to the amount of acid present1 is evaporated to dryness1 and gently ignited so as not to decompose any magnesic sulphate present4 ,the residue is moistened with water saturated with carbonic acid1 to convert any magnesic oxide into carbonate1 and then dried1 in order to make the mass powdery1 and easier to wash1 ,it is next taken up with hot distilled water1 filtered and well washed4 ,any sulphate which is present passes into the filtrate1 while the carbonate1 which corresponds to the organic salts present before ignition1 remains on the filter1 and after solution in hydrochloric acid1 is estimated as magnesic pyrophosphate4 ,to the hydrochloric solution is added excess of ammonia and sufficient ammonic chloride to redissolve the precipitate formed1 and prevent the precipitation of the magnesia2 the solution is heated and then ammonic oxalate solution1 first dilute1 and then concentrated1 is added to precipitate any lime which may be derived from lime salts present in the liquor4 ,after filtering out and washing the precipitate1 #aj-ae c4c4 of #aj per cent4 sodic phosphate solution is added1 and the liquid is stirred with a glass rod without touching the sides of the beaker1 and allowed to stand #ab hours4 ,the crystalline precipitate is then rinsed on to a filter1 and washed with a mixture of #a of ammonia and #c of water1 till the washings no longer give any milkiness with silver nitrate4 ,the filter is then dried and the precipitate is placed in a platinum crucible and first gently1 and then strongly ignited with the cover on2 the filter paper1 freed as much as possible from the precipitate1 is burnt in the usual way on the crucible lid1 the ashes are added to the precipitate in the crucible1 and the whole is again ignited and allowed to cool in the desiccator1 and finally weighed4 #aaa parts of magnesia pyrophosphate correspond to #abj parts of acetic1 or #ahj parts of lactic acid4 ,kohnstein and ,simand calculate the pyrophosphate corresponding to the acetic acid already found by distillation1 and after deducting it reckon out the remainder as lactic acid4 ,of course the volatile acids are really a mixture consisting of acetic1 propionic1 butyric and other members of the fatty group2 but it would be difficult if not impossible to separate them4 ,similarly other fixed acids exist in mixture beside the lactic acid1 but as their action is similar and lactic acid is always the most abundant1 these acids are to be reckoned as lactic4 ,it has been mentioned that when sulphuric acid is present in the liquor it is found in the filtrate from the magnesia carbonate as sulphate4 ,after removal of the lime as oxalate1 as previously described1 the magnesia may be similarly determined as pyrophosphate1 and reckoned out as sulphuric acid 7#aaa parts of pyrophosphate being equal to #ih parts sulphuric acid1 ,h#b,,so#d74 ,it may also be estimated with barium chloride1 but in this case regard must be had to the sulphates originally present in the liquor4 ,since waters invariably contain both lime and magnesia salts1 a portion 7#ej or #ajj c4c47 must be evaporated1 ignited1 and after precipitation of the lime1 the magnesia must be estimated as already described1 and deducted from the amount found in a similar amount of liquor after saturating with magnesia4 ,if1 together with the organic acids1 the liquor contains sulphuric acid1 the correction may be divided equally between the two4 ,the method is not applicable in presence of phosphoric1 tartaric1 or oxalic acids4 ,to overcome this difficulty1 ,messrs4 ,kohnstein and ,simand are at present investigating a method dependent on decolorisation of the liquor with bone charcoal1 completely free from mineral salts1 and subsequent titration with soda4 ,it may be interesting to add the determinations of a complete set of handlers in a ,continental upper-leather tannery1 in which larch bark is used4 #ajj c4c4 of liquor contained as follows1 in grm43-- ,no4 of ,total ,acids ,volatile ,acids ,fixed ,organic ,acids ,handler4 reckoned reckoned reckoned as ,lactic4 as ,acetic4 as ,acetic4 #a #jbje #jjej #jbcb #b #jfbh #jbcg #jehf #c 44 #jcgb 44 #d #jfhh #jdbf #jcic #e #jefi #jdcb #jbjf #f #jeji #jdec #jjhd #g #jdhg #jdef #jjdg ,,qualitative ,,detection ,,of ,,tannins4 ,it is often desirable to determine from what tanning materials an extract or liquor is made1 or with what a sample of leather is tanned4 ,the following table gives reactions of the principal tanning materials1 which will enable any one of them to be recognised with certainty1 and in many cases will determine the constituents in a mixture of several1 though this is naturally far more difficult4 ,in such cases1 colour reactions are apt to mislead1 that of one tannin being modified by another1 and it is safest to rely on the categorical test of precipitate or no precipitate1 coloration or no coloration1 without regard to the tint4 ,the infusions must be very weak1 not exceeding #a-b ,bktr41 or precipitates will be formed where mere coloration or clouding is noted4 ,in some cases only negative peculiarities can be given1 and the material cannot be positively determined in mixture with materials where these peculiarities are present4 ,thus myrobalans could not be distinguished from divi with certainty1 where any other material1 such as gambier1 was present1 which gave a deep coloration with concentrated sulphuric acid4 ,the writer will feel greatly obliged by the communication of more distinctive reactions4 ,,chemical ,,analysis ,,for ,,the ,,tannery ,reagent4 ,myrabolanes4 ,divi-divi4 ,valonia4 ,oak ,bark4 ,chestnut wood ,boiled with ,pale deposit,pale deposit ,slight ,slight pale ,slight red equal volume 7eliagic 7eliagic pale deposit or deposit on of sulphuric acid7 on acid7 on deposit4 turbidity cooling4 acid 7#a vol4 cooling4 cooling4 on cooling4 to #i vol4 water74 ,bromine ,no pp4 ,no pp4 ,no pp4 ,pale pp4 ,no pp4 water4 ,dilute ,blue-black ,dark blue ,blue- ,bluish ,blue- ferric pp4 pp4 black pp4 black pp4 black pp4 chloride4 ,add ,brown pp4 ,dark red pp4,red brown ,red brown ,dull red pp4 ammonia4 pp4 pp4 ,sol4 ,no pp4 ,faint ,no pp4 ,no pp4 ,slight tartar clouding4 clouding4 emetic4 ,add ammonic ,light pp4 ,dense pp4 ,pale pp4 ,whitish ,pale pp4 chloride4 pp4 ,copper ,faint ,slight ,no pp4 ,slight pp4 ,no pp4 sulphate4 clouding4 green pp4 ,add ,dense dark ,dense dark ,dark ,brown pp4 ,dark ammonia4 pp4 pp4 reddish brown pp4 pp4 ,lime-water4 ,yellow pp4 ,yellow pp4 ,yellow ,brown pp4 ,purplish turning turning pp4 brown pp4 greenish4 purple4 turning red- purple4 ,ammon4 ,dirty ,dark ,dark ,greenish ,dirty molybdate yellow greenish greenish pp4 green pp4 in nitric pp4 pp4 pp4 acid4 ,with sodic ,yellow ,yellow ,turns ,turns ,reddish pp4 sulphide colour4 colour4 purpulish red4 exposed to red4 air on a tile4 ,add ,yellow ,intense ,deep ,deep red ,dark brown4 concentrated colour4 crimson4 yellow4 pp4 on sulphuric dilution acid to #a drop infusion4 ,lead ,light ,dark ,pale pp4 ,brown pp4 ,brown pp4 ,nitrate yellow pp4 yellow pp4 ,cobalt ,buff pp4 ,buff ,dirty ,ditto4 ,dirty ,acetate pink pp4 pink pp4 yellow pp4 ,manganese ,yellow pp4 ,yellow pp4 ,dirty ,ditto4 ,grey pp4 acetate4 yellow pp4 ,uranium ,dark red ,dark red ,dark red ,dark brown ,dark red acetate4 colour4 colour4 colour4 pp4 colour4 ,ammoniacal ,no pp4 ,no pp4 ,brown pp4 ,no pp4 ,no pp4 picric acid sol4 ,potassic ,brown pp4 ,brown pp4 ,brown pp4 ,brown pp4 ,brown pp4 dichromate4 ,,chemical ,,analysis ,,for ,,the ,,tannery -- ,continued4 ,hungarian ,hemlock ,mimosa ,cutch ,gambier ,gallotannic ,larch 7,extract74 bark4 7,pegu74 7,cuba74 ,acid1 #a 7,extract74 per cent4 - ,yellow ,abundant ,heavy red ,light red ,reddish ,usually ,flocculent red deposit deposit deposit some pale deposit flocculent on on cooling4 on cooling4 deposit4 separates deposit4 cooling4 quickly4 ,yellow pp4 ,yellow pp4 ,yellow pp4 ,yellow pp4 ,yellow pp4 ,no pp4 ,dull brown ,dirty green,full brown ,green-black ,intense ,blue pp4 pp4 pp4 pp4 green -black colour4 pp4 ,dull red ,reddened ,purple ,dark red ,reddened ,reddened pp4 pp4 colour4 pp4 pp4 pp4 ,no pp4 ,no pp4 ,white pp4 ,no pp4 ,no pp4 ,no pp4 ,pale pp4 ,slight pale,dense white ,pale pp4 ,faint ,white pp4 pp4 pp4 clouding4 ,slight ,pale pp4 ,slight pp4 ,dense pp4 ,no pp4 ,no pp4 cloud4 ,deep blue ,dark green ,deep red ,deep violet ,dark green ,brown pp4 coloration4coloration4 pp4 coloration4 coloration4 ,dirty ,brown pp4 ,slight ,slight cloud ,no pp4 ,pale pp4 brown pp4 reddish pp4 soluble in turns blue4 excess4 ,slight ,slight pp4 ,brown pp4 ,ditto4 ,ditto4 ,yellow clouding4 colour4 ,no change4 ,no change4 ,turns red4 ,slight ,no change4 ,no change4 reddening4 ,dark brown ,intense ,intense ,deep red no ,dark brown ,yellow4 or crimson4 crimson4 purple-red4 pp4 on or crimson4 dilution4 ,pale pp4 ,pale pp4 ,clouding4 ,no pp4 ,faint ,white pp4 clouding4 ,purplish ,purple pp4 ,brown pp4 ,brown pp4 ,no pp4 ,purple pp4 pp4 ,slight ,slight pp4 ,no pp4 ,no pp4 ,ditto4 ,white pp4 clouding4 ,slight ,light brown ,dark red ,dark red ,dark red ,crimson darkening4 pp4 colour4 colour4 colour4 colour4 ,brown pp4 ,no pp4 ,clouding4 ,no pp4 ,no pp4 ,no pp4 ,no pp4 ,ditto4 ,brown pp4 ,brown pp4 ,brown ,brown pp4 ,brown pp4 slowly colour4 slowly formed4 formed4 ,,quantitative ,,determination4 ,many processes have been proposed for the quantitative estimation of tannins1 but it cannot be said that any method yet known is wholly satisfactory4 ,the oldest1 that of ,sir ,h4 ,davy1 recently improved by ,stoddart and others1 consists in precipitating with gelatin1 and drying and weighing the precipitate4 ,this is almost impossible to filter off as directed by ,davy2 but by the use of a little alum1 and by pouring hot water on the precipitate1 it becomes curdled into a mass which may be washed by decantation4 ,as the precipitate contains varying quantities of tannin1 according to the strength of solution employed2 as it is soluble in excess of gelatin solution1 and as it is almost if not quite impossible to wash it free from gelatin and alum1 the method can hardly lay claim to much accuracy4 ,a somewhat better one consists in the employment of a standard solution of gelatin with a little alum1 determining the end of the reaction by filtering off a portion and ascertaining if another drop of the reagent produces a further precipitate4 ,this method is very tedious1 the end reaction is difficult to hit1 the standard solution is very unstable1 it is inapplicable to gambier and cutch because the mixture will not filter clear1 and its results are irregular1 probably from the power of tannin to combine with various proportions of gelatin4 ,a plan1 which has a seductive appearance of simplicity1 is that of ,hammer2 he takes the sp4 gr4 of the infusion1 then absorbs the tannin with slightly moistened hide-raspings1 again takes the sp4 gr41 and from the difference calculates the percentage of tannin1 a difference of #e per cent4 of tannin corresponding to one of #ajbj sp4 gr4 7#bj barkometer74 ,unfortunately the hide is more or less soluble in the liquor1 and absorbs acids other than tannic with considerable energy2 the moistening of the raspings introduces an error1 and the smallness of the quantity to be measured makes a slight error completely vitiate the results4 ,with extreme care1 due corrections for temperature1 for the water introduced with the raspings1 and for their solubility1 and by substituting evaporation of the infusions to dryness for mere calculation from their sp4 gr41 the method is useful as giving almost the only information obtainable as to the actual weight of tannin in any material capable of being absorbed by hide4 ,it is1 however1 only suitable for use as a check on easier and more rapid methods1 such as ,lwenthal's1 which give accurate relative results1 but no information as to absolute weight of unknown tannins4 ,a modification of ,hammer's method has been introduced by ,mntz and ,ramspacher1 in which the liquor whence the tannin is to be removed is forced through a piece of raw hide by pressure4 ,this method1 except that it is more rapid1 has all the evils of ,hammer's in an intensified form1 and gives such variable results as to be quite useless in practice4 ,a set of very careful determinations of one sample of sumach gave results ranging from #ah to #bh per cent41 and similar variations occurred when the experiment was repeated with valonia4 ,wagner's method by precipitation with a standard solution of cinchonine and magenta has proved wholly unreliable4 ,gerland's method with a volumetric solution of tartar emetic1 used in presence of ammonic chloride1 gives constant results with sumachs1 #b_/c of those given by permanganate and ,neubauer's equivalent4 ,tartar emetic does not precipitate the tannins of cutch and gambier4 ,fleck's1 by precipitation with copper acetate1 and subsequent washing with ammonic carbonate and gravimetric estimation1 either of the tannate dried at #bab ,f4 7#ajj ,c471 or of the copper oxide left on ignition2 and ,carpene's1 by precipitation with ammoniacal zinc acetate1 and subsequent estimation with permanganate and indigo1 though giving fairly accurate results on some tannins1 are only of limited application4 ,they may therefore be passed over1 as well as ,jean's method with a volumetric solution of iodine in presence of sodic carbonate1 and ,allen's method with lead acetate1 which are tedious and difficult1 and present no advantage over ,lwenthal's improved process4 ,this last is easy of execution1 constant in results1 and universally applicable4 ,before proceeding to describe it in detail1 it may be well to give some hints as to the best modes of sampling and preparing tanning materials for analysis1 since this is often more difficult and tedious than the actual analysis4 ,sampling4--,samples should always be drawn from at least #aj sacks or separate parts of the bulk1 and1 in the case of valonia1 special care should be taken to have a fair average quantity of beard4 ,no attention is usually paid to this point by merchants1 and the proportion varies greatly in different parts of the same cargo4 ,if several sacks are spread in layers on a level floor1 and then portions going quite to the ground are taken from several parts of the floor1 this will be accomplished4 ,where samples must be dealt with which have not been specially drawn1 it might be safest to weigh out from each the same proportion of beard and whole cups1 bearing in mind that the beard is always the richest part of the valonia4 ,in sampling myrobalans1 it should be remembered that the poor and light nuts will rise to the top1 and hence the hand should be plunged well into the sack4 ,grinding of valonia and myrobalans when practicable is probably best done in a small disintegrator1 fitted with gratings4 ,the material1 of which some pounds must be used1 is screened over a sieve of say #ae wires per in41 and all coarser parts are returned to the mill till they will pass4 ,the mill must grind into a close box1 that no dust may be lost4 ,bark may be reduced to fine saw-dust by cutting a portion of each piece in the sample with a circular saw or rasp driven by a lathe4 ,the advantage of these methods is that samples can be ground without previous drying1 and thus in many cases time may be saved and separate determination of moisture avoided4 ,when this is not practicable1 the sample of some lbs4 at least is ground in an ordinary bark-mill1 well mixed1 spread out flat on a floor or table1 and several portions are taken as already described1 say #ej-ajj grm4 in all1 and dried in a water- or air-oven at #bab ,f4 7#ajj ,c474 ,the moisture is best determined1 to save time1 in a small separate portion of #aj grm41 which must be dried till it ceases to lose weight1 and the loss taken as moisture4 ,it must be weighed in a covered capsule1 as it is very hygroscopic4 ,when the larger portion of the sample has been dried some hours1 it is passed twice through a good coffee-mill1 and then returned to the oven till thoroughly dried1 for which1 #ab-bd hours is generally sufficient4 ,another method sometimes convenient is to take each acorn1 or each piece of bark of the sample to be tested1 and snip a piece from it with a pair of tinners' shears1 taking care that in the case of valonia the section runs right to the centre of the cup2 and in bark1 that fair shares of the outer and inner layers are taken4 ,the reason for drying before grinding is1 that unless hard dried1 tanning materials cannot be passed through a small mill4 ,bark and valonia usually contain #ab-af per cent4 of moisture4 ,exhaustion4--#aj grm4 of valonia1 #bj-cj grm4 of bark1 or corresponding quantities of other material1 are boiled briskly for half an hour with #a litre of distilled water1 a funnel being placed in the neck of the flask1 and great care being taken at first to avoid frothing and boiling over4 ,the flasks used should have a capacity of at least #a-a_/b litre4 ,the whole contents are finally rinsed into a gauged flask1 allowed to cool to #ei ,f4 7#ae ,c471 and made up to #a litre4 ,in the case of sumach1 a little more boiling even than this is desirable4 ,this method has been found by the writer to give better results than boiling with successive portions of water4 ,another method is to boil for #a_/b hour with #bej c4c4 of water1 then pour the whole on a filter1 wash with boiling water so long as a drop of the filtrate blackens paper moistened with a dilute solution of ferric acetate1 and finally make up to #a litre4 ,many materials1 however1 clog the filter to such an extent that washing is almost impossible4 ,kathreiner has used #ae litres of water1 and corresponding quantities of material1 in a large steam-jacketed copper pan1 for each exhaustion1 making the weight up finally to #ae kilos41 with very uniform and excellent results4 7,see also p4 #acj47 ,with all materials which deposit ellagic acid or other insoluble derivatives1 on cooling and standing1 considerably higher results will be obtained if the titration be made as soon as the liquor is cold1 than if it be allowed to stand #bd hours2 in this respect1 a uniform practice should be adhered to4 ,addition of #a_/b c4c4 of glacial acetic acid renders the infusions less liable to change4 ,analysis4--,of all the methods which have been proposed for the estimation of tannins1 the only one which has met with any general acceptance is that of ,lwenthal1 and indeed it is the only one which in rapidity of execution and constancy of results is fitted for general use4 ,the method1 as originally proposed1 depends on the oxidation of the astringent solution by permanganate in presence of indigo1 which not only serves as an indicator1 but controls the oxidation1 limiting it to those bodies which are more oxidisable than indigo4 ,as1 however1 these include gallic acid and other substances which are useless to either tanner or dyer1 it is necessary to remove the tannin1 and by a second titration to obtain its value by difference4 ,this ,lwenthal 7,zeitschrift f4 ,anal4 ,chemie1 #ahgg1 p4 #cc7 accomplished by a solution of gelatin and common salt1 to which1 after mixture with the tannin infusion1 a small quantity of sulphuric or hydrochloric acid was added4 ,it was necessary to let this stand at least some hours before a clear filtrate could be obtained1 and the gelatin remaining in solution had a slight though generally negligible effect on the permanganate4 ,in some cases1 even after long standing1 perfect filtration was extremely difficult and tedious1 and it was also clearly proved by ,simand 7,ding4 ,polyt4 ,jour41 ccxliv4 #djj7 that a certain proportion of the tanno-gelatin precipitate1 varying with the acid present1 and with the species of tannin1 remained in solution1 and thus gave too low a result4 ,he therefore proposed to revert to the old method of separating tannin with hide raspings1 or1 as an improved substitute1 with the gelatinous tissue of bones1 and this is probably the most accurate method1 but has the disadvantage of requiring considerable time for its execution4 7,see also p4 #acj47 ,the writer has therefore tried1 and he thinks successfully1 so to modify ,lwenthal's original method as to increase its accuracy1 and at the same time to make it more rapid and easy of execution4 ,it was found that by saturating the clear filtrate with salt1 a further precipitate containing tannin was formed1 but unfortunately1 it was so finely divided that no amount of standing1 or even of warming1 and repeated passing through the paper1 would obtain a clear filtrate4 ,finally1 he hit on the device of mixing with the liquid1 before filtration1 a portion of the pure kaolin used by photographers4 ,the effect was instantaneous and complete4 ,a perfectly clear filtrate was obtained without any of the tedious waiting which before was necessary1 and it was not only free from tannin1 but also nearly so from gelatin1 so that it only gave the faintest cloudiness with tannin solution4 ,gelatin gives a more considerable precipitate1 but this is simply due to its insolubility in the saturated salt solution1 and it is redissolved on dilution with water4,l ,footnote ,l3 ,hunt 7,jour4 ,soc4 ,chem4 ,industry1 ,april #ahhe7 states1 that saturation with salt causes partial precipitation of gallic acid when present1 and that results agreeing more closely with those obtained by absorption with hide are obtained by employing a mixture of #ej c4c4 liquor1 #be c4c4 #b per cent4 gelatin solution1 and #be c4c4 saturated solution of salt containing #ej c4c4 of concentrated sulphuric acid per litre and a teaspoonful of kaolin4 ,this approaches very nearly to ,lwenthal's original method1 but with the addition of the kaolin1 and as in it1 it is to be feared that a portion of the tannate of gelatin will remain in solution4 ,for accurate work1 therefore1 absorption by hide-raspings is preferable1 though even that has been shown by the writer to remove gallic acid and other matters beside tannin4 ,hunt states that raw hide also absorbs catechin4 ,a slight error is introduced by the presence of a trace of oxidisable matter in the gelatin1 and when very great accuracy is required1 it is well to make a blank estimation of not-tannin without tannin infusion1 and deduct #a_/b of the permanganate consumed as a correction from the not-tannin2 but this may usually be disregarded4 ,each titration should be made twice1 and successive tests should not differ by more than #ja c4c4 of permanganate4 ,reagents4--,solutions are required of 7#a7 ,pure potash permanganate1 #a grm4 per litre4 7#b7 ,pure soda or potash sulphindigotate1 #e grm41 and concentrated sulphuric acid1 #ej grm4 per litre4 7#c7 ,pure oxalic acid1 #fc grm4 per litre 7decinormal74 ,the sulphindigotate 7indigo carmine71 must be filtered1 and when oxidised by permanganate1 should give a pure clear yellow1 free from any trace of brown or orange4 ,any contamination with indigo-purple1 which gives brown oxidation-products1 is quite fatal to the accuracy of the analysis4 ,the permanganate solution is standardised by measuring #aj c4c4 of the 7decinormal7 oxalic acid solution1 adding a little pure sulphuric acid and distilled water1 warming to #acf ,f4 7#eh ,c471 and running in the permanganate till a faint permanent pink is produced1 for which about #cb-cc c4c4 should be required4 ,the indigo-carmine solution should be of such strength that #ad-af c4c4 of permanganate are required to bleach the quantity employed1 which may be #bj-be c4c41 as convenient4 7#d7 ,gelatin solution3 #b grm4 of ,nelson's or other good gelatin are allowed to swell in distilled water for two hours1 melted by setting the glass in a pan of boiling water1 and made up to #ajj c4c4 ,this will not keep4 7#e7 ,dilute sulphuric acid3 #aj c4c4 of pure concentrated acid are added to #ij c4c4 of distilled water4 7#f7 ,good table salt4 7#g7 ,purified kaolin4 ,the analysis is performed in the following manner3--#bj c4c4 of indigo solution1 and #e c4c4 of the infusion of tanning material is added1 in a white basin as recommended by ,kathreiner1 to about #c_/d litre good water1 which it is best to measure approximately1 so that if it contains any impurity which affects the permanganate it should be constant1 and thus be eliminated with the indigo4 ,permanganate solution is then allowed to drop in1 with constant stirring till the pure yellow liquid shows a faint pinkish rim1 most clearly seen on the shaded side4 ,this end-reaction1 which is of extraordinary delicacy1 is due to ,kathreiner1 and is quite different to the pink caused by excess of permanganate1 being an effect common to all pure yellow liquids4 ,it is not needful to make the titration so slowly as has been advised--the permanganate may be dropped in steadily with vigorous stirring1 so long as there is large excess of indigo1 but as soon as the bottom of the basin can be seen through the solution1 it must be added very cautiously1 one or two drops at a time1 and with occasional pauses1 to allow time for its complete mixture through so large a mass of fluid4 ,the titration is repeated twice1 and the results added together and denoted by a4 ,then take #ej c4c4 of the infusion1 and add #bhf c4c4 of the gelatin solution of ,nelson's gelatin of #b grm4 to #ajj c4c4 ,after shaking1 the mixture is saturated with salt1 which brings the volume up to #ij c4c41 and #aj c4c4 of the dilute sulphuric acid 7containing #a vol4 of concentrated acid in #aj7 and a teaspoonful of pure kaolin are added4 ,it is best to do this in a flask in which it can be well shaken1 after which1 filtration may be at once proceeded with1 although it is safer to let it stand an hour or two3 7the flask may be cleansed with caustic soda solution74 #aj c4c4 of this filtrate 7 #e c4c4 of the original infusion7 are employed for a second pair of titrations1 which are added as before1 and the result denoted b4 ,if1 further1 c be the quantity of permanganate required to oxidise #aj c4c4 of decinormal oxalic acid1 and #aj grm4 of the tanning material have been employed to make #a litre of infusion1 c 3 7a - b7 33 #fc 3 x1 where x is the percentage of tannin expressed in terms of crystallised oxalic acid4 ,if it be desired to calculate the gallic acid and non-tannin substances contained in the infusion1 the value in permanganate of the indigo alone must be determined4 ,calling this d1 as c is to 7b - d71 so is #fc to the percentage of non-tannins in terms of oxalic acid1 and for the present it is best invariably to calculate results in this way1 since we do not actually know the relation of any single tannin to permanganate1 even ,neubauer's number for gallotannic acid being probably too high1 according to the recent investigations of ,councler and ,schroeder1,m and ,oser's for quercitannic being at most only approximate4 ,it happens1 moreover1 that this last equivalent 7#fbcf grm4 of quercitannic acid #fc grm4 of crystallised oxalic acid7 does not differ from that of oxalic acid more than the ordinary limits of error of such estimation1 and the substitution is therefore of no commercial importance1 while it is surely better to employ a standard which is easily and exactly verified than one which is certain to be modified by further research1 and so to run the risk either of having our results made useless for future comparison1 or of establishing a false or arbitrary equivalent4 ,what is wanted for practical purposes is not the absolute weight of tannins in the various materials1 but only a means for the relative comparison of two samples of the same material2 cross comparisons of different tannins being simply delusive4 ,if1 however1 it is necessary at any time to give actual percentages of gallotannic acid1 it is probably best to stick to ,neubauer's number for the present1 as it is in general use4 ,neubauer states that #fc grm4 of oxalic acid consume as much permanganate as #dacg grm4 of gallotannic acid4 ,tshekawa found #dafhh as the equivalent for tannin from ,japanese gall nuts 7,chem4 ,news1 xlii4 #bgd74 ,councler and ,schroeder on the other hand give only #cdc grm4 ,simand gives #faa grm4 as the equivalent of quercitannic acid4 ,commercial pure tannin always gives results higher than the truth1 as the gallic acid which it contains consumes more permanganate than an equal weight of tannin1 or even than the tannin which would yield it if boiled with acid4 ,when this is done the equivalent used should be definitely stated1 or it will certainly lead to confusion4 ,neubauer's equivalent is only properly applicable to gall nuts1 and possibly to sumach and myrabolans4 ,for oak bark ,oser's number or that of oxalic acid is most likely nearly correct2 and this may also be approximately true of oak wood and valonia1 but as respects all other materials we have no information whatever1 and the oxalic equivalent is as likely to be right as any other4 7,compare note1 p4 #abh47 ,footnote ,m3 ,from researches by von ,schroeder1 published since the above was penned1 it seems that the permanganate consumed by tannin is largely influenced by the way in which the titration is conducted1 see p4 #abh4 ,a few results are given below1 not as showing the relative values of the materials1 which1 of course1 cannot be directly compared by any analytical process1 but for comparison with those obtained by other methods and modes of calculation3-- ,other ,bodies ,tannin ,oxidised 7as ,oxalic ,acid74 7as ,oxalic ,acid74 ,spent ,liquor ,o#ab #aaj ,valonia 7good ,smyrna74 ,sample #a #bia #bc ,sample #b #cjg #ba ,sample #c #cje #ai ,hungarian ,larch ,extract4 ,sample #a #adgh #aie ,sample #b #ahjh #bcc ,chestnut-wood ,extract1 #be ,b4 #beec #cfh ,pegu ,cutch #fcei #bde ,it is proved by experiment that kaolin removes nothing which is oxidised by permanganate1 but simply facilitates the precipitation and filtration2 and it is often found useful to clarify the original infusions and liquors before the first titration4 ,on the other hand1 there is no doubt that the salt and acid of ,lwenthal's method precipitate of themselves a large proportion of certain tannins4 ,in the case of cutch this amounted1 in the analysis given1 to #fg per cent4 of the whole4 ,there is1 however1 good reason to believe that this would also have been absorbed1 or at least removed from solution by hide in the process of tanning4 ,this is shown by the analysis of the spent liquor above given1 which originally contained the tannins of oak bark1 valonia1 myrabolans1 gambier1 hemlock1 and oak wood extracts1 c41 to the extent of #aj to #ae per cent41 but which was reduced by contact with hide to #jab per cent4 ,that a portion had not been absorbed but decomposed is proved by the large accumulation of oxidisable impurities 7equal to #aa per cent4 of oxalic acid72 at the same time this example shows that the method is capable of estimating a very small portion of tannin in presence of much gallic acid and other analogous substances4 ,it is worth remark that such spent liquors become very pale in colour1 and also that the filtrates1 freed from tannin by precipitation1 are nearly colourless1 thus proving that the colouring matters present in tanning materials are of the nature of tannins1 at least as regards their precipitability by hide and gelatin4 ,simand 7,dingl4 ,polyt4 ,jour41 ccxlvi4 #acc7 has recommended instead of precipitation with gelatin1 the use of the gelatinous tissue of bones to remove the tannin4 ,for this purpose porous bones1 such as horn piths1 are coarsely powdered1 and after treatment with dilute soda solution to remove the fat1 are steeped in weak hydrochloric acid till all the calcareous matter is dissolved4 ,they are then thoroughly washed1 ground wet through a steel mill1 washed again and dried at a low temperature2 the tannin is removed more quickly than by raw hide1 and the amount of gelatinous matter dissolved by cold water is a very trifling one4 ,this method1 or that with purified hide-powder1 is to be recommended for scientific research1 since no element capable of precipitating substances other than those absorbed by the hide is introduced1 while it is not certain in all cases that saturation with salt and acidification may not remove other constituents of the liquor besides tannins4 ,it has1 however1 for technical purposes the great disadvantage of requiring a much longer time for absorption of the tannin than is the case with gelatin solution1 and of the process being much more difficult of execution4 ,if hide-powder be employed1 it must be moistened with a small quantity of water before adding to the infusion1 and this water must be taken into account in the quantity of the filtrate employed for the titration of the non-tannin4 ,the digestion with the hide- or bone-powder must be continued till the filtered liquid does not give the faintest clouding with a drop of clear gelatin solution1 and it is always very difficult to be sure that the tannin is so completely removed as with gelatin and salt4 ,hide- or bone-powder may be employed to determine the actual weight of any unknown tannin absorbable by hide1 by evaporating equal quantities of the original infusion and of that freed from tannin by digestion with the powder2 the difference giving the tannin absorbed4 ,the evaporation must be conducted as far as possible in absence of air1 for instance in vacuo1 or in a current of carbonic dioxide1 and the residues both dried at #bab ,f4 7#ajj ,c47 so long as they lose weight4 ,the amount of matter dissolved from an equal quantity of the hide- or bone-powder by water must also be ascertained and taken into the calculation4 ,ammoniacal solution of cupric acetate or sulphate has been employed by several chemists to remove tannin from solutions4 ,n4 ,h4 ,darton of ,new ,york1 who has a large practice in tannin analysis1 employs cuprammonic sulphate in the following manner4 ,the infusion1 for which #bj grm4 of hemlock bark or a corresponding quantity of other material must be used1 is made by exhausting with #b or #c quantities of water successively1 first cold1 and then with heat 7by placing the flask in a pan of boiling water71 each portion of water being poured off into a litre flask4 ,the last should be almost colourless4 ,the liquor is thus made up to nearly #a litre1 #be c4c4 of dilute sulphuric acid 7about #a vol4 concentrated in #aj7 is added1 and the liquor is filtered through a small filter1 which is finally rinsed with a small quantity of water4 ,liquid ammonia is now added till the liquor slightly smells of it1 and1 if any precipitate is formed1 it is filtered off as before2 #be c4c4 of dilute sulphuric acid is again added 7which should give the liquid an acid reaction71 and it is made up to #a litre4 ,the titration is done as described under ,lwenthal's method1 but instead of precipitating with gelatin1 #ajj c4c4 is mixed with #ajj c4c4 of a solution of copper sulphate to which sufficient ammonia has been added to redissolve the precipitate first formed1 and containing #a-a_/d per cent4 of copper sulphate4 ,this is well shaken and filtered1 and the not-tannin is determined in the filtrate just as with gelatin2 a little dilute sulphuric acid being added in the basin to neutralise the ammonia4 ,the writer has examined this method with regard to a few tanning materials4 ,with valonia 7and therefore probably with oak bark7 the preliminary treatment is unnecessary1 and copper precipitation gives results practically identical with the improved gelatin1 while it is less troublesome4 ,on the other hand1 a sample of ,miller's ,hungarian ,larch ,extract which gave tannin equal to #ahjh per cent4 7by the gelatin method7 gave no precipitate with cuprammonic sulphate1 and hence a result in tannin of nil by ,darton's method4 ,it is worth remark that by the copper method it is therefore possible to estimate the valonia tannin alone in a mixture of larch and valonia tannin4 ,probably this mode of analysis may also be utilised to separate other tannins4 ,with chestnut extract the results seem satisfactory1 as regards the precipitation of the tannin by copper1 the figures agreeing very closely with those by gelatin1 but the preliminary treatment with sulphuric acid and ammonia precipitates about #ge per cent4 of what is usually reckoned as tannin1 leaving #gec per cent4 of tannin only instead of #beec per cent4 as reckoned by the gelatin method2 which1 judging by practical results in tanning1 can hardly be accepted as correct4 ,the results of the gelatin method are found to agree fairly with those of direct absorption by hide-powder1 which is strong confirmation that what is estimated as tannin is what is absorbed by the hide4 ,it is well known that sulphuric acid precipitates many tannins1 and in an experiment with cutch it was found by the writer that saturation with salt and the addition of dilute sulphuric acid as for ,lwenthal's process1 but without the gelatin1 precipitated #fg per cent4 of the total tannin as usually reckoned4 ,it is obvious that it is impossible by analysis to compare the relative value of different tannins1 such as those of myrobalans and gambier1 or hemlock and valonia4 ,all that analysis can reasonably be expected to do is to give the relative values of different samples of the same substance1 or at the most1 of materials of the same class4 ,all other comparisons are misleading2 and would be so1 even if the exact percentage of each tannin could be calculated2 since the commercial and practical value of different materials does not depend on the quantity of tannin only1 but on the character of the leather it produces1 hard or soft1 dark- or light-coloured and heavy- or light-weighing4 ,a ,commission of ,german technical chemists1 under the presidency of ,dr4 ,councler of ,eberswalde1 and including ,messrs4 ,eberz1 ,kathreiner1 ,schaun1 von ,schroeder1 and ,simand1 have recently reported on methods of tannin estimation 7',bericht ber die ,verhandlungen der ,commission zur ,feststellung einer einheitlichen ,methode der ,gerbstoffbestimmung1' ,cassel1 #ahhe74 ,after reviewing earlier methods1 they recommend the following modifications of the ,lwenthal method1 for general adoption4 ,chemicals employed4 7#a7 ,permanganate solution4 #aj grm4 of the purest potash permanganate are dissolved in #f litres of distilled water4 7#b7 ,indigo solution4 #cj grm4 dry sulphindigotate of soda 7,carminum crul4 opt41 pure ,indigotin ,i of ,gehe ,co41 ,dresden71 air-dry1 are dissolved in #c litres of dilute sulphuric acid 7#a vol4 ,h#b,,so#d to #c vols1 water71 #c litres of distilled water are added1 the whole is shaken till dissolved1 and filtered4 ,in each titration1 #bj c4c4 are used in #c_/d litre of water1 and reduce about #ajg c4c4 of permanganate4 7#c7 ,hide-powder must be white and in a fine woolly state of division1 and should yield to cold water no substance capable of reducing permanganate4 ,such a powder is prepared by ,dr4 ,both of ,berlin1,n and by the ,vienna ,research ,station4 ,footnote ,n3 ,messrs4 ,mawson and ,swan1 of ,newcastle1 have kindly undertaken to keep these1 and the other reagents mentioned in this book1 in stock for the convenience of ,english tanners and chemists4 ,mode of ,titration4 ,instead of adding the permanganate solution drop by drop1 to the mixture of indigo1 water1 and liquor 7as described1 p4 #aba71 it is recommended to add it #a c4c4 at a time1,o vigorously stirring #e-aj seconds after each addition4 ,when the liquid has become bright green1 #b-c drops at a time are cautiously added with stirring1 till the liquid is pure yellow4 ,either a beaker on a white tile or a white basin may be used 7compare p4 #aba74 ,it is advantageous in strong sunlight to shade the window with white tissue-paper4 ,footnote ,o3 ,it has been noted by several chemists1 and especially by ,kathreiner1 and later by ,prof4 von ,schroeder1 that the quantity of permanganate reduced by a given amount of tannin varies within rather wide limits1 according to the rate at which the permanganate is added2 and the #a c4c4 method was suggested by ,prof4 von ,schroeder1 to secure uniformity in this particular4 ,it has1 however1 been found by the writer1 in the course of experiments not yet completed1 that the quantity of permanganate required1 was a function not simply of time1 but of the rapidity of diffusion through so large a bulk of liquid2 and by the alternate use of a simple glass rod1 and of a specially constructed perforated stirrer1 he was able1 while adhering strictly to ,prof4 von ,schroeder's directions1 to obtain results even more divergent by the #a c4c4 method than could be obtained by the drop method previously recommended1 when properly carried out4 ,employed in conjunction with the use of tannin for standardising1 as recommended by the ,commission1 either method gives perfectly dependable results4 ,the explanation of the variation is a simple one4 ,the oxidation in the ,lwenthal process should be limited to indigo1 and bodies more oxidisable than indigo1 but there exist both ready formed in liquor1 and among these oxidation products many substances which in the absence of indigo will readily reduce permanganate4 ,when the latter is added rapidly1 and with insufficient stirring1 it destroys the indigo and tannin in contact with it1 and proceeds also to oxidise the other matters present1 although in other parts of the beaker indigo and tannin still exist4 ,thus more permanganate is reduced than corresponds to the indigo and tannin1 and this is especially so towards the end of the process1 when very little of either remains4 ,the more slowly the permanganate is added1 and the more vigorously it is stirred1 the more closely it will approximate to the theoretical quantity required merely to oxidise the indigo and tannin4 ,it seems to the writer more scientific to approach this as nearly as possible1 than to attempt to establish a purely arbitrary standard such as the #a c4c4 method2 but he would rather refrain from committing himself to a definite opinion till his experiments are complete4 ,illustration3 ,,pl4 ,v4 ,e4 ,f4 ,n4 ,spon1 ,london ,new ,york4 ,,ink-,,photo4 ,,sprague ,,co4 ,,london4 ,,softening ,,the ,,skins4 ,standardisation of the permanganate4 ,to avoid the uncertainty involved in comparing tannin 7which reduces different quantities of permanganate according to the method of titration7 with so dissimilar a reducing agent as oxalic acid1 it is recommended to employ tannin1 titrated under precisely the same conditions as the tanning material1 so that whatever method be employed1 the differences will be common to both1 and will so be eliminated4 ,prof4 von ,schroeder has shown 7,report1 p4 #de7 by careful experiment1 that with the purest samples of tannin the permanganate value estimated on the total dry substance of the tannin varied by very little from that of the part of the tannin absorbed by hide as determined by ,hammer's process1 but on the average bore the proportion of #a 3 #aje4 ,the percentage of water in an air-dried tannin must be estimated by drying a portion at #bja-bab ,f4 7#id-ajj ,c47 and determining the loss1 and a quantity equivalent to #b grm4 must be dissolved in #a litre of water and #aj c4c4 titrated with indigo in the usual way4 ,if the permanganate value thus obtained be multiplied by #aje1 it will be equivalent to that of #b grm4 of chemically pure tannin4 ,it is only necessary to determine the moisture occasionally1 if the tannin be kept in a well-closed box or bottle4 ,to ascertain if a tannin is pure enough for this1 use a solution made as above described 7it is not necessary to determine the moisture7 and #aj c4c4 are titrated with permanganate in the usual way4 #ej c4c4 are then digested in the cold with #c grm4 hide-powder 7previously moistened with distilled water and well squeezed in linen7 for #ah-bj hours1 with frequent shaking1 filtered1 and #aj c4c4 again titrated4 ,if the second titration 7not-tannin7 does not exceed #e per cent4 of the total1 it is good1 but it may be used so long as the not-tannin does not exceed #aj per cent4,p ,the purest tannin examined by ,prof4 von ,schroeder was ,schering's ,phar4 ,ger41 which may be obtained of ,messrs4 ,mawson and ,swan4 ,footnote ,p3 ,gallic acid suggests itself to the writer as being a good standard1 since it behaves with permanganate like tannin1 and being crystalline is easily purified and of definite composition4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bj4 ,the course of analysis is as follows3-- ,preparation of the infusions4--,extracts are dissolved in hot water1 and if necessary1 filtered4 ,barks and other solid materials are treated in ,prof4 von ,schroeder's extraction-apparatus 7,fig4 #bj7 7which seems very well adapted for its purpose74 ,this consists of a perfectly cylindrical vessel of cast-tin1 about #abe c4m4 deep and #g c4m4 diameter4 ,a strainer covered with fine muslin fits it like a piston4,q ,the powdered material is placed in the cylinder1 and stirred up with #bjj c4c4 of cold water4 ,at the end of an hour1 the piston is inserted and pressed down gently1 the clear liquor is poured off1 and the process is #d times repeated with hot water1 at intervals of #a_/b hour1 placing the cylinder in a water-bath4 ,the liquid is made up to #a litre1 and1 if necessary1 filtered 7,report1 p4 #ff74 ,the quantity of material used should be such as to give an infusion of which #aj c4c4 do not reduce more than #h c4c4 permanganate4 ,if it is desired to determine separately the easily soluble tannin 7viz4 that extracted by cold water71 ,real's ,press 7,fig4 #ba7 is employed1 which consists of a cylinder a1 through which water may be forced by the pressure of a column of liquid4 ,the small sieve d1 covered with a disc of linen1 is placed in a1 next the tanning material previously thoroughly moistened with water1 and the tap is closed4 ,the press is then filled with water and left #ae hours under a pressure of #a-a_/b metres4 ,the tap is then opened and #a litre is allowed to run through in the course of about #b hours1 and mixed by shaking4 ,the material is finally exhausted like a new material in von ,schroeder's apparatus to extract the difficultly soluble tannin4 ,footnote ,q3 ,both this apparatus1 and the ,real's press1 may be obtained from ,c4 ,focke1 ,zinngiesser1 ,grosse ,kirchgasse #c1 ,dresden4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ba4 ,the titration is carried out as before described2 in each infusion separately to determine the not-tannin #ej c4c4 are treated with #c grm4 hide-powder1 and #aj c4c4 are titrated4 ,it may be well in conclusion for the writer to state for the information of the non-chemical reader1 that though for purposes of comparison of the results of different chemists1 it is most desirable to have a standard method of the highest possible perfection2 any of the accepted modifications of the ,lwenthal method will give excellent practical results in careful hands4 ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,sole-,,leather3--,preparing the ,hides4 ,the principal sources of hides for sole-leather are3-- 7,i47 ,market hides1 from the cattle slaughtered for food in the ,united ,kingdom4 ,these are received by the tanner1 fresh1 or slightly salted1 and are either bought directly from the butcher1 or1 now more commonly1 through the auction markets established in all large towns4 ,the latter system1 while it perhaps slightly enhances the price of the hides to the tanner1 ensures him a better classification according to weight1 and1 in some cases1 as notably in that of ,glasgow1 a better flaying1 through an organised system of inspection and sorting4 ,the ,scotch hides1 being mostly from ,highland cattle1 are many of them small and very plump1 for1 as a rule1 the hides are thickest on those animals which are exposed to cold and the hardships of out-door life4 ,on the other hand1 the hides of highly-bred cattle are apt to be thin and spreading2 and1 if they have been kept much indoors1 and negligently managed1 the grain of the hide is injured by the dung which adheres to it4 ,the ,irish hides are usually somewhat roughly flayed4 7,,ii47 ,south ,american hides are from the ,river ,plate1 ,uruguay1 and ,rio ,grande4 ,those from the ,river ,plate are considered the best1 as being stoutest and finest in texture4 ,they are usually cured by salting1 and are known as saladeros1 estancias1 and mataderos1 according to the slaughter and cure4 ,the saladeros are the best1 and are from cattle killed at large slaughtering establishments on the coast4 ,the estancias are from cattle killed in the interior1 and are worse in flaying than the saladeros1 but free from the objectionable dark cure of the mataderos1 which are killed by the city butchers4 ,many hides are brought from ,brazil1 and are generally both salted and sun-dried1 or simply stretched out and dried4 ,hides are also imported from ,valparaiso1 both dry and wet-salted4 ,chinese and ,west ,indian hides are mostly dried4 ,chinese hides are occasionally infected with ,bacillus anthracis1 which produces the dangerous malignant-pustule1 or wool-sorters' disease4 ,hence any pimple appearing after working with such hides should have immediate medical attention4 ,french market hides have been of recent years largely imported2 they are mostly well flayed1 and some of them very heavy1 but are sold at original butchers' weight1 and1 in the experience of some tanners1 the result in leather is #e-f per cent4 less than from ,english market hides4 ,they usually lose about #be per cent4 in skulling and salting4 ,lisbon hides are often well flayed1 but are frequently branded1 and the grain is injured by insects4 ,they yield considerably more leather than market hides in proportion to weight4 ,hambro' hides are salted1 but mostly wet and ill-flayed4 ,very heavy hides are produced in the ,rhine district and in ,switzerland4 ,for further information about hides1 see the ,commercial ,section4 ,preparation for ,tanning4--,market hides should be well washed in fresh water1 to remove blood and dirt1 before unhairing2 but prolonged soaking dissolves a portion of hide-substance1 and probably reduces weight1 though it facilitates the action of the lime4 ,it is very advantageous if grease and flesh1 and also dung can be removed before liming1 and if hand-labour is too costly machinery might be employed4 ,salted hides should be soaked somewhat longer1 and in clean water1 so as to remove the salt before liming4 ,this water should be frequently changed1 since #aj per cent4 brine dissolves coriin freely 7see p4 #ai74 ,dried hides require more lengthened treatment4 ,before they are prepared for tanning1 they must be brought back as far as possible to the condition of fresh hides1 and1 for this purpose1 must be thoroughly soaked and softened in water4 ,there are many ways of doing this3 sometimes hides are suspended in running water2 sometimes laid in soaks1 which may be either renewed1 or allowed to putrefy2 sometimes in water to which salt1 borax1 or carbolic acid has been added1 to prevent putrefaction4 ,the first of these methods1 were it desirable1 is rarely possible in these days of ,river ,pollution ,acts2 of the others1 it is difficult to say which is better1 since the treatment desirable varies with the hardness of the hide and the temperature at which it has been dried4 ,the great object is to thoroughly soften the hide1 without allowing putrefaction to injure it4 ,as dried hides are often damaged already from this cause1 either before drying1 or from becoming moist and heated on ship-board1 it is frequently no easy matter to accomplish this4 ,the fresh hide1 as has been seen1 contains considerable portions of albumen1 and if the hide is dried at a high temperature1 this becomes wholly or partially coagulated and insoluble4 ,the gelatinous fibre and the coriin 7if indeed the latter exists ready formed in the fresh hide7 do not coagulate by heat1 but also become less readily soluble4 ,gelatin dried at #bff ,f4 7#acj ,c47 can only be redissolved by acids1 or water at #bdh ,f4 7#abj ,c474 ,eitner experimented with pieces of green calf-skin of equal thickness1 which were dried at different temperatures1 with results given in the following table3-- ,temperature ,time of ,coriin ,dissolved ,sample4 of ,drying4 ,remarks4 ,softening ,remarks4 by ,salt in ,water4 ,solution4 ,i4 #ei ,f4 ,in vacuo #bd hours,without #afh per cent4 7#ae ,c47 mechanical ,,ii4 #ga-a_/b ,f4 ,in sun #b days work #afb 7#bb ,c47 ,,iii4 #ie ,f4 ,in drying- #e twice worked #jae 7#ce ,c47 closet ,,iv4 #adj ,f4 ,refused to soften ,traces4 7#fj ,c47 sufficiently for tanning ,hence it is evident that1 for hides dried at low temperatures1 short soaking in fresh and cold water is sufficient1 and1 except in warm weather1 there would be little danger of putrefaction4 ,with harder drying1 longer time is required1 and it may be necessary to use brine instead of water4 ,a well-known tanner recommends a solution of #cj-ce barkometer 7sp4 gr4 #ajce1 or about #e per cent4 of ,na,cl74 ,this will have a double action1 not only preserving from putrefaction1 but dissolving a portion of the hide-substance in the form of coriin4 ,although this is undoubtedly a loss to the tanner1 it is questionable if there is any process which will soften overdried hides without loss of weight3 since even prolonged soaking in cold water at too low a temperature to allow of putrefaction will dissolve a serious amount of hide-substance4 ,water containing a small quantity of carbolic acid has been recommended for the purpose1 and will prevent putrefaction1 while it has no solvent power on the hide1 but1 on the contrary1 will coagulate and render insoluble albuminous matters4 ,concentrated carbolic acid1 however1 tans the grain and renders it incapable of colouring in the liquors4 ,borax has been proposed for the same purpose1 and1 in strong solution1 certainly prevents putrefaction1 but is probably too costly4 ,sodium sulphide and other sulphides seem to have considerable effect in softening dried hides1 from their property of attacking hard albuminous matters1 without injuring the true hide-fibre4 ,for some descriptions of hides1 however1 and notably for ,india kips1 putrid soaks seem actually to be an advantage1 the putrefactive action softening and rendering soluble the hardened tissue4 ,in ,india the native tanners soften their hides in very few hours by plunging them in putrid pools1 into which every description of tannery refuse is allowed to run4 ,putrefactive processes are always dangerous1 as the action1 through changes of temperature1 or variation in the previous state of the liquor1 is apt to be irregular1 and either to attack one portion of the hide before another1 or to proceed faster than was expected4 ,hence hides in the soaks require constant and careful watching1 and the goods must be withdrawn as soon as they are thoroughly softened1 for the putrefaction is constantly destroying as well as softening the hides4 ,it is possible that putrefactive softening is less injurious to kips1 and such goods as are intended for upper-leather1 than to those for sole purposes1 as it is generally considered necessary in the former case that the albumen and interfibrillary matter be removed1 and that the fibre be well divided into its constituent fibrils for the sake of softness and pliability2 so that the putrid soak1 if acting rightly1 only accomplishes a part of the work which would afterwards have to be done by the lime and the bate4 ,the actual fibre of the hide seems less readily putrescible than the albuminoid parts2 hence the putrefaction may soften the latter better1 and even at less expense of valuable hide-substance1 because more rapidly1 than fresh water4 ,on this point1 there is room for investigation4 ,putrefaction is a general name for a class of decompositions which are caused by a great variety of living organisms1 each of which has its own special products and modes of action4 ,it is quite possible that1 if we knew what precise form of putrefaction was most advantageous1 we might by appropriate conditions be able to encourage it to the exclusion of others1 and obtain better results than at present4 ,it will be necessary to revert to this subject when speaking of the bates used in preparing dressing-leather1 which also owe their activity to putrid fermentation4 ,beside merely soaking the hides1 it is necessary to work them mechanically1 to promote their softening1 which was formerly accomplished by breaking over the hides on the beam with a blunt knife4 ,this process is now usually superseded or supplemented by the use of the stocks2 these consist of a wooden or metallic box1 of peculiar shape1 wherein work #b very heavy hammers1 raised alternately by pins in a wheel1 and let fall upon the hides1 which they force up against the side of the box with a sort of kneading action4 ,the ordinary form of this machine is shown in ,fig4 #bb4 ,a more modern form1 which seems to possess some advantages1 is the ,american double-shover1 seen in ,fig4 #bc4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bb4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bc4 ,the number of hides which can be stocked at once naturally varies with the size of both hides and stocks1 but should be such that the hides work regularly and steadily over and over4 ,the whole number should not be put in at once1 but should be added one after another1 as they get into regular work4 ,the duration of stocking is #aj-cj min41 according to the condition and character of the hides4 ,hides should not be stocked till they are so far softened that they can be doubled sharply1 without breaking or straining the fibre4 ,after stocking1 they must be soaked again for a short time1 and then be brought into an old lime4 ,a small quantity of sodium sulphide added to the soaks or in the stocks has been recommended as of great value in softening obstinate hides1 and probably with justice1 from its well-known softening action upon cellular and horny tissues4 ,in ,continental yards1 another machine is in use for softening hides1 and which seems to present some advantages over stocks1 as being less severe on the thinner portions of the hide4 ,it consists of a pair of rollers1 arranged like those of a wringing machine1 and pressed together by springs1 but not allowed to come into actual contact4 ,one of them is studded with rounded pegs1 which correspond in position to grooves round the other1 and the hide when passed between them is thus subjected to a very thorough kneading and stretching4 ,tumbler drums of various forms may also be used with good effect for softening purposes1 especially for skins4 ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,sole-,,leather3--,unhairing ,hides4 ,in ,england1 lime is the agent almost universally employed for loosening the hair1 though every tanner admits its deficiencies and disadvantages4 ,it is hard1 however1 to recommend a substitute which is free from the same or greater evils1 and lime has one or two valuable qualities which will make it very difficult to supersede4 ,one of these is that1 though it inevitably causes loss of substance and weight1 it is also impossible1 with any reasonable care1 totally to destroy a pack of hides by its use2 which is by no means the case with some of its rivals4 ,another advantage is that1 owing to its very limited solubility in water1 it is a matter of comparatively small consequence whether much or little is used2 and even if the hides are left in a few days longer than necessary1 the mischief1 though certain1 is only to be detected by careful and accurate observation4 ,with all other methods1 exact time and quantity are of primary importance1 and it is not easy to get ordinary workmen to pay the necessary attention to such details4 ,again1 the qualities of lime1 its virtues and failings1 have been matter of experience for hundreds of years1 and so far as such experience can teach1 we know exactly how to deal with it4 ,a new method1 on the other hand1 brings new and unlooked-for difficulties1 and often requires changes in other parts of the process1 as well as in the mere unhairing1 to make it successful4 ,as our knowledge of the chemical and physical changes involved becomes greater1 we may look to overcoming these obstacles more readily2 for the power of dealing successfully with new difficulties constitutes one of the main advantages of a really scientific knowledge over an empirical one4 ,slaked lime is soluble in water at #fj ,f4 7#ae ,c471 to the extent of #a part in #ggh4 ,unlike most substances1 it decreases in solubility at higher temperatures1 requiring #igb parts of water at #acj ,f4 7#ed ,c471 and #abgj parts at #bab ,f4 7#ajj ,c474 ,its action upon animal tissues increases rapidly1 however1 with temperature1 though no doubt it is moderated to some extent by the lessened solubility4 ,calculating from ,dalton's numbers1 pure lime-water at #fj ,f4 7#ae ,c47 contains #abhe grm4,r of ,ca,o per litre1 and should require #dei c4c4 of decinormal acid to neutralise it4 ,this estimate in some cases appears to be slightly too high2 e4 g4 a saturated lime-water from ,carboniferous limestone at #ef4e ,f4 7#ac ,c47 required only #dcc c4c4 of decinormal acid1 which equals #abaa grm4 of ,ca,o per litre1 and this lime-water1 kept with excess of lime1 gave nearly constant results for many months together4 ,a magnesian limestone lime-water tested at the same time required #dgb c4c4 of decinormal acid1 confirming the old observation of tanners1 that such lime is stronger than that made either from chalk or carboniferous limestone4 ,this increased strength must arise from the presence of some soluble base other than lime1 and may be due to the magnesia1 which1 however1 is very slightly soluble4 ,magnesian limestone contains a very large amount of magnesia1 and hence would not go so far as a purer limestone2 but as a very large proportion of the lime ordinarily used is thrown away undissolved1 this is perhaps of little practical moment4 7,for the chemical examination of limes1 see p4 #ajb74 ,footnote ,r3 #a grm4 per litre is very approximately equal to #a oz4 per cub4 ft4 ,the action of lime on the hide has already been spoken of to some extent4 ,it is throughout a solvent one4 ,the hardened cells of the epidermis swell up and soften1 the rete malpighi and the hair-sheaths are loosened and dissolved1 so that1 on scraping with a blunt knife1 both come away more or less completely with the hair 7constituting scud1 as some ,english tanners name it1 ,ger4 gneist or grund74 ,the hair itself is very slightly altered1 except at its soft and growing root-bulb1 but the true skin is vigorously acted on4 ,the fibres swell and absorb water1 so that the hides become plump and swollen1 and1 at the same time1 the cement-substance 7coriin7 is dissolved1 the fibres become differentiated into finer fibrils1 and the fibrils themselves become first swollen and transparent1 and finally corroded1 and even dissolved4 ,this swelling of the fibres is produced both by alkalies and acids1 and is probably due to weak combinations formed with the fibre-substance1 which have greater affinities for water than the unaltered hide4 ,it is useful to the tanner1 since it renders the hide easier to flesh 7i4 e4 to free from the adhering flesh71 on account of the greater firmness which it gives to the true skin4 ,it also assists the tanning1 by opening up the fibre1 and so exposing a greater surface4 ,this is advantageous in dressing leather which is afterwards tanned in sweet liquors1 and must have the cement-substance dissolved and removed for the sake of flexibility2 and1 in the case of sole-leather1 it is necessary for the sake of weight and firmness that the hide be plumped2 but it is probable that the effect is produced with less loss of substance and solidity by suitable acidity of the liquors4 ,a more certain advantage of lime is that it acts on the fat of the hide1 converting it more or less completely into an insoluble soap1 and so hindering its injurious effects on the after tanning process1 and on the finished leather4 ,if strong acids are used later on1 this lime soap is decomposed1 and the grease is again set free4 ,in sweated or very low-limed hides this grease is a formidable evil4 ,the customary method of liming is simply to lay the hides flat in milk of lime in large pits4 ,every day1 or even twice a day1 the hides are drawn out 7hauled71 and the pit is well plunged up1 to distribute the undissolved lime through the liquor4 ,the hides are then drawn in again 7set71 care being taken that they are fully spread out4 ,how much lime is required is doubtful1 but owing to its limited solubility1 an excess1 if well slaked1 is rather wasteful than injurious4 ,great differences exist in the quantity of the lime used1 the time given1 and the method of working4 ,lime1 as we have seen 7p4 #adj71 is only soluble to the extent of about #abe grm4 per litre1 or 7as #a cub4 ft4 of water weighs about #ajjj oz47 say #a-a_/d oz4 per cub4 ft41 or1 in an ordinary lime-pit1 not more than #a_/d lb4 per hide4 ,only the lime in solution acts on the hide1 but it is necessary to provide a surplus of solid lime which dissolves as that in the liquor is consumed4 ,jackson ,schultz prescribes #a bush4 7#ef lb47 of fresh lime to #fj-gj hides1 and #c-d days as sufficient time to unhair and plump them2 while a well-known ,english tanner states that1 after working for #f-aj days through a series of old limes1 the hides 7presumably wet-salted ,south ,americans7 should have #d days in a fresh lime1 made with #c-ab lb4 of lime per hide4 ,it is obvious that if the ,american authority is right1 the ,english process is wasteful in the extreme1 both in hide-substance and lime4 ,much depends on the amount of hauling which the hides receive1 and the more frequently they are moved the better4 ,it is probable1 however1 that it would be found impossible to unhair and flesh hides1 to suit the ,english market1 in cold limes with the quantity and time mentioned1 and if the limes are steamed1 it is quite likely that the destructive action on the pelt may be even greater than by the longer and slower process in the cold4 ,most likely a compromise between the two is the most desirable1 but about #b-d lb4 of lime per hide1 according to weight1 should be amply sufficient2 while a week for market hides1 and #ad days for heavy salted1 will loosen the hair and plump the pelt as much as is requisite4 ,this is on the supposition that the limes are kept at a uniform average temperature of about #fj ,f4 7#ae ,c47 in winter and summer4 ,if they are heated to #hj-ij ,f4 7#bg-cb ,c471 of course much less time is required2 but there are no published experiments showing the relative weights made by the two processes1 and1 from the fact that warmed limes are principally used for descriptions of leather where weight and solidity are not of primary importance1 it may be concluded that1 in this direction1 the results are unsatisfactory4 ,hides do not plump in warm limes4 ,another undecided point is whether the best results are obtained by making fresh limes for every pack1 or by strengthening up the old ones4 ,an old lime becomes charged with decomposing animal matter and with ammonia1 and1 within limits1 loosens the hair more effectually than a new one4 ,an experienced tanner states that1 by using old limes1 better weights are obtained1 but that the leather is thinner than when a fresh portion of lime is used2 and this is quite possible4 ,if1 however1 the old lime-liquor be retained too long1 it ceases to swell the hides as it should1 and1 in warm weather1 the liming proper is complicated by a putrefactive process allied in principle to sweating4 ,beside considerable quantities of ammonia1 old limes contain tyrosin1 leucin or amidocaproic acid1 and some caproic acid1 the disagreeable goaty odour of which is very obvious on acidifying an old lime-liquor with sulphuric acid1 by which considerable quantities of a partially altered gelatin are at the same time precipitated4 ,very old limes1 especially in hot weather1 often contain active bacteria1 which may be seen in the microscope under a good #a_/d-;in4 objective4 ,their presence is always an indication that putrefaction is going forward1 and leather out of such limes will generally prove loose and hollow-grained4 ,spherical concretions of calcium carbonate may also be seen under the microscope1 resembling on a smaller scale those found in ,permian limestone1 and caused perhaps in both cases by crystallisation from a liquid containing much organic matter4 ,it is probable that in many tanneries the ammonia would pay for recovery from the lime-liquors1 which would be easily done by steaming the old limes in suitable vessels1 and condensing the ammoniacal vapours in dilute sulphuric acid4 7,some appliances suitable for this purpose are described in the ,journal of the ,soc4 of ,chem4 ,industry1 iii4 #fcj47 ,for methods of estimation of ammonia1 see p4 #ajc4 ,several variations in the above-described method of liming have been proposed4 ,the hides may be suspended on laths1 or by strings attached to pegs or notches1 and the liquor agitated by plunging in place of hauling4 ,probably this is an actual improvement1 especially if some mechanical agitating contrivance be substituted for hand plunging4 ,it has1 however1 the drawback that much room is required1 though this may be1 to some extent1 compensated by the hides liming more quickly4 ,the method has been long in use in ,america1 and had been tried in several places in ,england before the patent of ,messrs4 ,conyers and ,pullein was obtained4 ,two other ,american labour-saving methods in connection with liming may be mentioned here4 ,one is to have the liming-vat double the ordinary size1 and1 instead of hauling the hides1 to simply draw them from one side to the other by two strings1 which are attached to the fore and hind shank of each hide1 either by sharp iron hooks or by loops4 ,the strings are looped over iron rods at the four corners of the pit1 or have simple knots1 which are placed in notches sawn in wood4 ,of course1 while the hides are at one side of the pit1 the other side may be plunged or warmed4 ,the other method 7,fig4 #bd7 is to have a spindle sunk below the surface of the liquor1 and with discs ,a1 at each end1 to which the hides or sides are attached by hooks set round the edges4 ,the hides are turned over by revolving the spindle with a handspike inserted in the holes ,c1 at the ends of the cross-arms ,b1 and the whole spindle is also capable of being raised and lowered in the liquor1 in the slot ,d4 ,in ,germany1 hides are frequently suspended on laths radiating from a central upright revolving spindle in a round vat 7,drehkalk74 ,an ,american plan1 sometimes known as the ,buffalo method1 is described by ,jackson ,schultz4 ,the hide is prepared in the usual way1 and is then thrown into a strong lime for #h-aj hours1 when it is taken out and immersed in water heated up to #aaj ,f4 7#dc ,c471 in which it remains #bd-dh hours4 ,the warm water soaks1 softens1 and swells the roots of the hair1 and much the same result is obtained as in scalding pigs4 ,so little lime really permeates the inner fibre that1 after a slight wheeling1 the hides may be thrown into cold water1 and allowed to cool and plump1 preparatory to taking their places in the handlers4 ,the process is strongly recommended for sole-leather1 particularly where great firmness of fibre is desired4 ,the tanner who tries it must be satisfied if he gets #bj-cj sides a man unhaired and fully ready for the liquor per diem4 ,of course this process may be varied to any extent by giving more liming1 and less hot water1 and this is frequently done in ,america4 ,about #c-d days' cold liming in good limes1 and with hauling if possible twice daily1 followed by #ab-bd hours in water at #hf-ie ,f4 7#cj-ce ,c471 which should be changed at least once1 will give good results4 ,the hides are of course less plump than usual1 but if properly managed in the handlers will swell well in the tan-house4 ,grease is obviously less thoroughly killed than in the ordinary method1 and especial care must be used that the hides are well worked on the beam1 both on grain and flesh4 ,in this method1 and indeed in all liming processes1 much is gained if the fat can be fleshed off green4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bd4 ,on the ,continent and in ,america1 the prevalent mode of loosening the hair1 at least for sole-leather purposes1 is called sweating1 and consists in inducing an incipient putrefaction1 which attacks the soft parts of the epidermis and root-sheaths1 before materially injuring the hide-substance proper4 ,the old ,european method of warm-sweating consisted simply in laying the hides in pile1 and1 if necessary1 in supplying heat by covering them with fermenting tan2 but as this crude and dangerous process is everywhere being supplanted by the ,american plan1 where sweating at all is adhered to1 it is not necessary to do more than describe the latter4 ,this is called cold sweating1 but really consists in hanging the hides in a moist chamber1 kept at a uniform temperature of #fj-gj ,f4 7#ae-ba ,c472 or in some cases slightly warmer4 ,the sweating-pit now in use is sometimes of wood1 but usually consists of a building of brick or stone1 protected from changes of temperature1 both above1 and at the sides1 by thick banks of soil or spent tan4 ,if soil be used1 it will form an excellent bed for vines1 c41 which are fertilised by the ammonia penetrating from below1 which is evolved in large quantities and which assists the unhairing process by its action on the epidermis4,s ,though called a pit1 it is undesirable that it should be actually below the level of the ground1 but should be arranged so that the hides can be wheeled in and out in barrows4 ,it is lighted and ventilated by a lantern roof above a central passage1 and should be divided into chambers1 each capable of suspending a pack of hides4 ,by means of sprinklers above and steam-pipes below1 the chambers may be cooled or warmed1 as required1 and the air kept so moist that globules of condensed water collect on all parts of the hides1 which are suspended from tenterhooks4 ,footnote ,s3 ,hides have been unhaired by the action of gaseous ammonia alone1 but the method does not seem suited for technical use4 ,the process is principally used in ,america for dried hides1 but may be employed either for wet or dry salted1 after complete removal of the salt4 ,it is imperatively necessary that dried hides should be completely softened before sweating4 ,as the sweating process advances more rapidly in the upper than in the lower part of the pit1 and as the thick portions are more resistant than the thin ones1 the hides1 after about #c days' sweating1 require constant attention in changing their positions1 and in checking the forward ones by taking down and laying in piles on the bottom of the pit4 ,the usual treatment for sweated hides1 when the hair is sufficiently loosened1 is to throw them into the stocks1 and work out in this way the slime and most of the hair4 ,this has the disadvantage of working out too much of the dissolved gelatin1 and of fulling the hair so firmly into the flesh1 that it is difficult again to remove it4 ,to overcome these evils1 some ,american tanners now pass the hides1 after sweating1 through a weak lime4 ,this1 to a great extent1 prevents the hair fixing itself in the flesh1 and tends to counteract the injurious effect of the vitriol 7which is almost invariably used in plumping sweat stock7 on the colour of the leather4 ,by this process1 #aj1jjj ,texas and ,new ,orleans wet-salted hides gave an average yield of leather of #gc per cent4 on their green weight1 and the leather was excellent in quality 7,schultz74 ,if sweated or very lightly limed hides are imperfectly worked on the grain1 greasy spots are apt to remain1 which will not colour in the liquors 7white spots74 ,these may be made to colour by scraping and working the grain with a knife1 or by the application of a solution of soda or soda ash1 and would probably be avoided by the use of soda ash in the soaks on greasy parcels of hides4 ,it must be clearly understood that all sweating depends on partial putrefaction4 ,this is proved both by the plentiful production of ammonia in the pits1 and by the fact that antiseptics1 such as salt or carbolic acid1 entirely prevent sweating till they are removed4 ,although the process undoubtedly has advantages1 and especially so in the treatment of dried hides1 it is an open question whether it gives the extreme gains over liming in weight and firmness1 which are claimed by some of its advocates4 ,an unhairing process1 largely coming into use on the ,continent1 depends on the action of alkaline sulphides1 and particularly sodium sulphide1 upon the hair4 ,while all the methods already spoken of involve the softening and destruction of the hair-sheaths1 either by lime or by putrefaction1 the sulphides are peculiar in attacking the hair itself2 when strong1 they disintegrate it rapidly and completely into a sort of paste4 ,from very early times to the present day1 arsenic sulphide 7rusma7 mixed with lime has been used in unhairing skins for glove-leather and similar purposes4 ,about #ahdj1 ,bttger concluded that the efficacy of arsenic sulphide was due simply to the sulphydrate of lime formed by combination of the sulphur with the lime1 and proposed lime sulphydrate1 formed by passing sulphuretted hydrogen into milk of lime1 as a substitute for the poisonous and expensive arsenic compound4 ,it proved a most effective depilatory1 but has never obtained much hold in practice4 ,this is probably due to the fact that it will not keep1 oxidising rapidly on exposure to the air2 hence it must be prepared as it is required1 which is both troublesome and expensive4 ,a minor objection is the unpleasant smell of sulphuretted hydrogen1 which is inseparable from its use4 ,it was proposed to replace it by sodium sulphide1 which1 though at first said to be only effective when mixed with lime1 so as to produce calcic sulphide1 has since proved a powerful depilatory alone4 ,its use has been greatly extended on the one hand by its production on a large scale1 and in the crystallised form 7at first by reduction of sulphate by heating with small coal71 and on the other1 by the great interest which ,wilhelm ,eitner1 the able director of the ,austrian ,imperial ,research ,station for the ,leather ,trades1 has taken in its introduction4 ,the substance1 as manufactured by ,de ,haen1 of ,list1 ,hanover1 is in small crystals1 coloured deep greenish-black1 by iron sulphide1 which must have been held in suspension at the time of crystallisation4 ,if the salt be dissolved in water1 and the solution be allowed to stand1 this is gradually deposited as a black sediment1 leaving the supernatant liquor perfectly clear and colourless4 ,sodium sulphide is now manufactured from tank waste in a much purer form by ,schaffner and ,helbig's process1 of which ,messrs4 ,gamble of ,st4 ,helens are sole licencees4 ,the crystallised salt is ,s,na#baj;,aq1 and therefore contains #fih per cent4 of water4 ,for sole-leather1 the method recommended by ,eitner is to dissolve #d-e lb4 of sulphide per gal4 of water1 making the solution into a thin paste 7of soupy consistence7 with lime or pipe-clay4 ,this is spread liberally on the hair side of the hides1 one man pouring it down the middle of the hide from a pail1 while another1 with a mop or cane broom1 rubs it into every part4 ,the hide is then folded into a cushion1 and in #ae-bj hours will be ready for unhairing1 the hair being reduced to a paste4 ,in the writer's experience1 the concentrated solution here prescribed will completely destroy all hair wetted with it in #b-c hours1 and if left on longer1 will produce bluish patches1 and render the grain very tender4 ,the hides should be thrown into water before unhairing1 to enable them to plump1 and to wash off the sulphide1 which is very caustic1 attacking the skin and nails of the workmen4 ,there is no doubt that this process gives good weight1 and tough and solid leather2 but there are several difficulties attending its use4 ,unless the mopping is done with great care1 it will fail to completely destroy the hair1 and the patches of short hair left are very difficult to remove4 ,the expense of the material and the loss of hair are also important considerations4 ,the hides are rather difficult to flesh1 unless previously plumped by a light liming1 and it is necessary to swell them with acid or sour liquor in the tanhouse1 as the sulphide has but little plumping effect4 ,another method1 which is much cheaper in labour and easier in execution1 is to suspend in a solution of sodium sulphide1 containing #c_/d lb4 a hide or upwards2 the hide should unhair in #bd hours4 ,very weak solutions loosen the hair1 without destroying it2 but it is always weakened1 as the specific action of the sulphides is on the hair itself4 ,after or before unhairing1 the hides may receive a light liming1 to plump them1 or lime may be added to the solution of sulphide1 which by forming calcium sulphide1 and liberating caustic soda1 considerably increases the unhairing and plumping effect4 ,the pit may be several times strengthened for successive packs1 but the loosened hair must be fished out1 or it will quickly spoil the solution4 ,when hides have been suspended in sodium sulphide solution1 the hair is very quickly loosened by a short liming4 ,squire1 ,claus1 and ,j4 ,palmer have all taken out patents for the use of tank-waste as a depilatory4 ,it consists of impure calcium sulphides1 and when brought into the form of soluble sulphydrate1 either by boiling in water1 or by the oxidising action of the air1 it will unhair hides4 ,the conversion is1 however1 very imperfect in either case1 and its action is uncertain and slow2 while the iron present is apt to cause unsightly stains4 ,it is probable that the weights obtained may somewhat exceed those by liming4 ,palmer employs sulphuric acid to plump the hide and remove stains1 and then reduces it by a bate of whiting and water4 ,he claims that this prepares the hide for rapid and heavy tanning1 but the swelling and subsequent reduction almost certainly entail loss of weight and quality1 and to get good results the bate should at most only be allowed to have a superficial effect4 ,professor ,lufkin proposed the use of a mixture of various sulphides of lime and soda1 formed by mixing #aj lb4 each of soda ash and sulphur1 kneading to a paste with a little moist slaked and then mixing warm in a cask with #hj lb4 stone lime slaked to a paste4 ,this quantity will unhair #ej hides in the same way and in about the same time as an ordinary lime4 ,the pelt is not much plumped and is easily reduced by a few minutes' wheeling in warm water4 7,j4 ,s4 ,schultz47 ,various other depilatories have been proposed1 but as they have not come into general use1 brief mention of the most important will suffice4 ,anderson1 in #ahga1 patented the use of wood-charcoal1 applied in a similar manner to lime in the ordinary process4 ,the hair is probably loosened simply by putrefaction1 as in sweating1 while the charcoal acts as a deodoriser1 very little smell being produced1 and the action proceeding with considerable uniformity4 ,john ,palmer has patented a process for unhairing1 in which the hides are alternately steeped in water and exposed to the air till the hair loosens4 ,in this1 very similar principles to those of the charcoal method are involved4 ,caustic potash and soda will loosen hair1 but seem to have no decided advantage over lime1 though it is quite possible that in skilful hands good results might be obtained4 ,they are more costly1 and their corroding action on the hide-substance is more powerful1 but they form soluble soaps with the grease of the hide4 ,unless used in very dilute solution1 the pelt is so swollen as to fix the hair1 and the leather is dark-coloured and spongy4 ,soda-ash or crystals 7sodic carbonate7 may be used to strengthen ordinary limes1 in which caustic soda is formed4 ,the time of liming is shortened1 the hides are more swollen1 and the grease is better killed than when lime alone is used4 ,the patent for ,moret's ,inoffensive claimed the use of the carbonate or caustic potash formed from calcined wool-washings1 for unhairing4 ,this is more costly than1 and has no advantage over soda4 ,i am not aware whether ,inoffensive1 as now sold1 has other constituents4 ,whatever method of loosening the hair may be adopted1 the next step is to remove it by mechanical means4 ,this is usually accomplished by throwing the hide over a sloping beam1 and scraping it with a blunt two-handled knife 7,fig4 #be71 the workman pushing the hair downwards and away from him4 ,the beam is now usually made of metal4 ,the knife employed is also shown at ,c1 ,fig4 #bf4 ,when a hide is lightly limed1 it is often easy to remove the long hair1 but excessively difficult to get rid of the short under-coat of young hairs1 which are found in spring1 and which can sometimes only be removed by the dangerous expedient of shaving with a sharp knife4 ,the reason of this difficulty is obvious3 not only do the short hairs offer very little hold to the unhairing knife1 but1 as has been explained in describing the anatomical structure of the skin1 their roots are actually deeper seated than those of the old hairs they replace4 ,several attempts have been made to unhair by machinery1 but so far without such success as to lead to their general adoption4 ,the fleshing-machine invented by ,garric and ,terson1 and manufactured in this country by ,t4 ,haley and ,co41 of ,bramley 7,fig4 #bg71 is furnished with a special wheel for unhairing4 ,an ,american machine for the purpose1 invented by ,j4 ,w4 ,macdonald1 and said to be capable of unhairing #hjj sides a day1 is shown in ,fig4 #bh4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #be4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bf4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bg4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bh4 ,when the hair is very thoroughly loosened1 as by sweating1 or destroyed1 as by sodium sulphide1 it is not uncommon to work it off by friction in the stocks2 but it is very doubtful whether the saving of labour is not more than compensated by the loss of weight1 consequent upon submitting the hide while its gelatin is in a partially dissolved condition1 to such rough usage4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bi4 ,after unhairing1 the loose flesh and fat are removed from the inner side of the hide by a sharp-edged knife ,e 7,fig4 #bf71 partly by brushing or scraping1 partly by paring4 ,it is necessary not only to cut off the visible adhering fat1 but to work the hide well1 so as to force out that contained in the loose areolar tissue1 which would not only impede tanning1 but is liable to soak completely through the hide1 producing most unsightly blotches4 ,several machines have been introduced to supersede hand-fleshing1 but with only partial success4 ,one of the best is ,garric and ,terson's machine 7,fig4 #bg71 which gives a very level flesh1 free from galls1 and without so much loss of weight1 but scarcely so clean as desirable1 while the saving in labour is not great4 ,molinier's machine 7,fig4 #bi71 and that of ,jones and ,rocke1 are well adapted for skins1 but hardly capable of fleshing an entire hide4 ,all these machines are very similar in principle1 the working parts consisting of drums with oblique or spiral knives4 ,when unhaired and fleshed1 the hides intended for sole-leather are1 in ,england1 almost invariably rounded1 or separated into 7#a7 butts1 which are the best and thickest parts1 and receive the most solid tannage1 and 7#b7 offal1 which is thinner1 and for which a cheaper and more rapid tannage is sufficient4 ,fig4 #cj shows the customary division4 ,frequently the butt is divided down the centre1 and the halves are then called bends4 ,a piece called a middle is sometimes taken between the butt and the shoulder4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cj4 ,after rounding1 it is necessary to get rid of the lime1 as completely as possible1 before taking into the tan-house4 ,for this purpose1 the butts are usually suspended in fresh water for #ab-bd hours1 and frequently shaken up in it to remove adhering lime and dirt4 ,if the water is hard1 it is best to add to it1 before putting in the butts1 a few pailfuls of clear lime-water1 to precipitate the lime bicarbonate1,t which would otherwise cause a deposit of chalk on the surface of the butts2 this would not only make the grain harsh1 but afterwards1 by combining with the tannin of the liquors1 would cause bad colour4 ,for the same reasons1 it is important that limey hides should be as little exposed to the air as possible1 as the latter always contains a small amount of carbonic acid1 which renders the lime insoluble4 ,footnote ,t3 ,lime softens water containing lime bicarbonate in solution by combining with half the carbonic acid1 when the whole is precipitated as normal carbonate or chalk4 ,ca,o ,ca,c,o#c 4 ,h#b;,,co#c #b;,ca,c,o#c ,,oh#b4 ,this is ,clark's process4 ,see also p4 #hd4 ,this suspension in water is frequently considered sufficient for sole-leather1 but it removes the lime very imperfectly4 ,in olden days1 it was customary not only to wash the hides much more thoroughly in water1 but to scud them 7i4e4 work them over with a blunt knife71 to remove lime1 and the detritus of hair-roots and fat-glands1 and this should never be omitted from sole-leather treatment where bright colour and clean buff are desired4 ,some tanners go so far as to bate best butts slightly with hen-dung1 but with such treatment firmness and weight are lost4 ,washing in weak solution of sugar1 or ammonic chloride or sulphate1 or of sulphuric1 or hydrochloric acid1 may be adopted4 ,it is essential to use acids nearly free from iron1 as it may be precipitated on the butts and give a bluish colour in the liquors1 and the acid must be of such a strength as neither to allow the iron to be precipitated1 nor1 on the other hand1 perceptibly to plump the butts1 which in this stage would endanger buff and colour4 #ajj cc4 may neutralise #ae-bj cc4 of lime-water for this purpose4 ,hydrochloric acid and chlorides have a tendency to prevent plumping1 and are therefore better adapted for dressing than for sole leather4 ,great care must also be taken to prevent putrefaction1 or the use of putrid solutions1 if firmness and plumpness are desired4 ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,sole-,,leather4--,tanning ,materials4 ,before describing the management of the hides in the tan-house1 it is necessary to say a few words about one or two of the principal materials used1 and the methods of preparing them for use4 ,further details of their nature and origin have been given in the section on ,tannins1 p4 #bc4 ,oak-bark is one of the oldest of tanning materials1 and the leather produced by its aid is still considered for many purposes the best4 ,for sole-leather1 its weakness in tannin 7#h-ab per cent471 the slowness of its action1 and the light weight of the leather produced1 render it unavailable alone except for the very finest class of work4 ,it is1 however1 generally used in admixture with stronger and cheaper materials1 such as valonia4 ,valonia1 the acorn-cup of an evergreen oak growing in ,greece and the ,levant1 is perhaps the most important of materials to the ,english sole-leather tanner4 ,it contains #be-ce per cent4 of a tannin somewhat similar to oak-bark1 and1 like it1 communicating a light-coloured bloom to the leather1 but giving much greater firmness and weight1 and a browner colour4 ,myrabolanes or myrobalans1 the fruit of an ,indian shrub1 contains about as large a percentage of tannin as valonia1 and gives a similar bloom1 and excellent colour2 but it can only be used very sparingly on butts1 since it produces a soft and porous leather4 ,divi-divi is a ,south ,american bean1 which contains much of a brown tannin in the pod1 being considerably stronger than valonia4 ,it makes a heavy and solid1 but somewhat horny leather4 ,its great danger arises from a tendency to sudden fermentation in thundery weather1 which1 produces brown or red stains on the leather4 ,at all times it is liable to give a bluish or violet colour1 which is most obvious in the interior of the leather1 and which resists both acids and alkalies4 ,mimosa-bark is the product of several ,australian acacias1 and is probably nearly as strong as valonia4 ,it gives a hard and heavy leather1 but of a dark-red colour4 ,hemlock-extract is a deep-red syrupy extract of the bark of the hemlock pine of ,america4 ,chestnut-extract is a similar product from the rasped wood of the ,spanish chestnut4 ,its colour is paler and yellower than that of the hemlock1 and hence it is often employed to correct the red tone produced by the latter4 ,oakwood extract is an analogous preparation from oak saw-dust4 ,grinding and ,exhaustion of ,tanning ,materials4 ,before tanning materials can be exhausted1 it is almost invariably necessary to crush or grind them1 so as to enable the water to get freely at the tannin1 which1 in most cases1 is enclosed in the cellular tissue of the plant4 ,it may be thought that for this purpose it would scarcely be possible to crush too finely1 but in practice1 a very fine powder is extremely difficult to spend1 as it cakes into compact and clay-like masses1 through which liquor will not percolate4 ,the object1 therefore1 is to grind finely enough to allow the liquor ready access to the interior1 but not so finely as to prevent liquids running through the mass4 ,the mill most usually employed for this purpose consists of a toothed cone1 working inside another cone1 also toothed on its interior1 precisely like those of a coffee-mill4 ,as bark is frequently delivered unhatched1 or in long pieces1 it is necessary to crush it preparatory to grinding1 and this is usually accomplished by rollers composed of toothed discs1 called breakers4 ,in ,fig4 #ca is illustrated such a mill1 as made by ,newall and ,barker1 of ,warrington1 combining both utensils4 ,fig4 #cb shows a section of the well-known ,american keystone mill1 in which the preliminary breaking is accomplished by the arms ,a2 the bark is then finely ground by the toothed cones ,n1 and discharged at the spout ,r by the revolving shover ,m4 ,fig4 #cc shows a somewhat similar mill1 made by ,glser of ,vienna1 in which the axis is horizontal1 and driven directly by a belt4 ,it is better to drive bark-mills by a belt than by toothed gearing1 as in event of iron getting into them there is less danger of breakage4 ,in ,america1 a cheap cast-iron coupling is frequently used1 weak enough to give way before serious damage is done4 ,safety friction clutches are generally ineffective4 ,american bark-mills are run faster than ,english1 up to about #hj rev4 per minute1 and where the bark is to be used immediately it is frequently damped by a small jet of steam below the mill1 which lays dust1 and prevents danger of fire4 ,bark which is damp before grinding can scarcely be ground in these toothed mills1 but must be dried1 or a disintegrator used4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ca4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cb4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cc4 ,now that a large variety of other materials besides bark are required by tanners1 the mills just described are not always sufficient for the purpose4 ,myrobalans and mimosa-bark have proved specially troublesome1 the former from its very hard stones and clogging character1 and the latter from its combined hardness and toughness4 ,disintegrators of various makes have proved admirably adapted for grinding both of these materials1 their advantage being the universality of their reducing powers1 ranging from oak-bark to bones or brick-dust1 and their disadvantages1 the somewhat considerable power they consume1 and the rather large portion of fine dust they make4 ,their principle is that of knocking the material to powder by rapidly revolving beaters1 which1 in the smaller mills1 are driven at so high a speed as #bejj-cjjj rev4 a minute4 ,wilson's is shown in ,fig4 #cd1 as an example4 ,it is one of the oldest tanners' disintegrators1 and probably still one of the best4 ,in the figure1 it is opened1 showing the disc with its steel beaters attached4 ,when myrobalans are only required roughly crushed1 a machine with fluted or toothed rollers 7,fig4 #ce7 acts better than a disintegrator1 making less dust1 and requiring less power4 ,such a machine also crushes valonia very satisfactorily4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cd4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ce4 ,in ,england1 the tanning material is generally carried from the mill1 to the pits where it is exhausted1 in baskets or barrows2 in ,america1 this is frequently accomplished by a conductor1 or horizontal spout1 in which a double belt1 or malleable iron drive chain1,u with wooden cross-pieces1 carries the bark forward1 on the same principle as the elevators of corn-mills4 ,fig4 #cf shows the conveyors used in a ,chicago tannery4 ,another ,american plan is to use circular tubs for extraction4 ,these are mounted on wheels1 and are worked on a railway1 coming up to the mill to be filled1 and thence under a series of sprinklers like those used by brewers1 and finally dumping their contents before the boilers1 which are heated solely by wet bark1 burnt in a peculiar furnace with brick chambers4 ,this furnace for burning wet bark seems worthy of extended adoption in ,europe1 as spent tan is frequently not only valueless1 but costly to get rid of4 ,full details and scale drawings may be found in ,jackson ,s4 ,schultz's book on ',leather ,manufacture' and in ,fig4 #cg is shown a modification of it1 patented by ,huxham and ,brown1 which has been very successfully used in burning wet tan1 either alone or with a portion of coal4 ,in ,american sole-leather tanneries1 where the bark is resinous and almost unlimited in quantity1 sufficient steam may be raised with tan wet from the leaches2 but in ,england1 where material is more sparingly used1 it is advisable partially to dry it before burning4 ,this is accomplished by powerful roller-presses1 as shown in ,fig4 #ch4 ,glser1 of ,vienna1 constructs tan-burning furnaces on a different principle from the ,american1 the essential point being the use of a ladder-grate 7,treppenrost71 on which the burning tan is exposed to a draught of air playing over its surface4 ,fig4 #ci shows a portable stove of this construction4 ,glser also makes furnaces of larger size for heating air for drying-rooms1 and for boiler purposes4 ,the essentials of successful tan-burning are good draught1 a large grate-surface1 and a high temperature of the combustion-chamber1 and hence the ordinary ,cornish or ,lancashire boiler1 with its limited grate-area1 surrounded by the comparatively cool boiler-tube1 is peculiarly ill-adapted for the purpose4 ,the writer has profitably burnt a mixture of wet tan and very small coal in such a boiler by the aid of a steam-jet under-grate blower1 but such a method can only be regarded as a makeshift in default of better appliances4 ,footnote ,u3 ,such chains with attachments for elevators and conveyers1 are manufactured in this country by ,ley's ,malleable ,casting ,company1 in ,derby4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cf4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cg ,in ,england1 the tanning material is usually exhausted in pits called leaches1 latches1 or taps4 ,these1 in large yards1 are made capable of holding about #ej cwt4 of material4 ,the new material is first flooded with a pretty strong liquor4 ,when this has gained as much strength as possible1 it is pumped off1 and is followed by a weaker one1 and so on till the material is exhausted4 ,much of the economy of a tan-yard depends on the way1 systematic or otherwise1 in which this is done4 ,it is customary to complete the exhaustion with hot liquors1 or water1 but opinions differ on the expediency of the practice4 ,by the use of heat1 however1 stronger liquors and more rapid spending are attained2 and with some materials1 such as mimosa1 complete exhaustion is impossible in the cold4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ch4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ci4 ,the worst tap is frequently boiled by inserting a steam-pipe2 but if heat is used at all1 it would probably be better to heat a strong liquor by a steam-coil1 and run it on the new material1 which would be softened and swollen1 and yield a much larger proportion of its strength to the first liquor2 while it is stated by ,eitner that the colouring matters of tanning materials are much less soluble in strong than in weak infusions4 ,boiling weak old liquors containing lime is specially prejudicial1 causing great darkening and discoloration4 ,careful tanners also cast their material over from one pit into another1 before throwing away1 so as to lighten it up1 and allow the liquor to penetrate to every part4 ,in bark-yards1 latches are frequently worked in series1 which are connected by pipes1 so that the liquor flows from the bottom of one upon the top of the next stronger4 ,this is an excellent plan for bark1 which is open and porous1 but is scarcely adapted to such materials as valonia or myrabolans1 which have a tendency to form compact masses1 through which the liquor does not circulate4 ,the same objection1 in an almost higher degree1 must be urged against the ,allen and ,warren1 or sprinkler leach1 in which the liquor1 distributed on the surface by a rotary sprinkler1 is allowed to percolate downwards1 and run freely away at the bottom4 ,in this case1 it is almost sure to form channels1 instead of flowing uniformly1 and1 in addition1 the material is constantly exposed to the action of the air1 which causes oxidation1 with its attendant discoloration and loss of tannin4 ,various attempts have been made to exhaust tanning materials in closed vessels4 ,dr4 ,kohlrausch applied the diffuseur used in extracting beet-root sugar1 and which consists of a series of closed copper vessels in which the coarsely ground material is placed1 of which the bottom of one is connected with the top of the next by a pipe1 through which the liquor is forced by steam pressure4 ,this apparatus is in use at the large tannery of ,gerhardus1 ,flesch1 and ,co41 of ,vienna1 and is said to give satisfaction1 though it is very costly1 and the liquors produced are not of great strength4 ,glser1 of ,vienna1 has patented an apparatus of which a model is illustrated in ,fig4 #dj1 in which the materials are used finely powdered1 and very rapidly exhausted by the combined action of heat and mechanical agitation4 ,of its mechanism ,i have not been able to obtain any detailed description1 but it is said to be capable of exhausting #i tons of valonia per diem1 to #b per cent41 giving only #gj liquors1 clear and of good colour1 while good bark is exhausted to #je per cent4 giving #cj liquors4 ,the cost of the apparatus is very heavy1 but if the results claimed are realised in practice it would pay well for an extensive tannery4 ,i have not been able to ascertain where it is to be seen in use4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dj4 ,it is one of the great attractions of extracts that they avoid almost all the expense and labour inseparable from the exhaustion of other tanning materials4 ,it is usually necessary to dissolve the fluid extracts in water or liquor of as high a temperature as has been employed in their preparation1 as otherwise1 from some unexplained chemical change1 a large portion of the tannin is precipitated1 probably as an anhydride of the tannin4 ,gambier is usually dissolved by boiling or steaming1 but is said to give a better colour when dissolved cold4 ,this may be accomplished in a rotating latticed drum1 sunk in a pit of liquor4 ,where circumstances permit1 it is a great advantage to place the taps either on a higher or a lower level than the layers and handlers1 so that liquors may be run one way without pumping4 ,,chapter ,x4 ,,sole-,,leather4--,treatment in the ,tan-house4 ,on first coming into the yard1 the butts are usually suspended by the shoulder or butt ends from sticks placed across the pits4 ,they should be kept in almost constant movement1 either by raising and shaking them by hand1 or by supporting them on frames1 which are rocked1 or otherwise worked4 ,perhaps the best device for this purpose is the travelling handler of ,w4 ,n4 ,evans1 which consists of a frame supported on wheels1 and worked slowly backwards and forwards by power4 ,this frame should extend the length of a range of pits sufficient to take in at least a #c days' stock of butts1 which should be tied to sticks resting crossways upon it4 ,it should have a stroke of #a-b ft41 repeated1 say #f times a minute4 ,the power required is very small4 ,the ,american rocker consists of a wooden frame balanced on its centre1 and made to oscillate by power4 ,it is a cheap and efficient machine1 its defects being that the butts at the ends are much more moved than those in the centre1 and that their upper parts1 being lifted out of the liquor1 are liable to become blackened4 ,the suspender pits should be supplied with old handler liquors1 which1 if the tannage is a mixed one1 may range from #ab to #bj barkometer1 as a large proportion of the weight consists only of lime-salts1 gallic acid1 and other worthless products4 ,it must here be explained that the barkometer 7also called barkrometer or barktrometer7 is a hydrometer1 graduated to show the sp4 gr4 thus--#bj ,bark4 #ajbj sp4 gr4 ,in using it the temperature of the liquor must be at or near #fj ,f4 7#ae ,c474 ,it is1 of course1 affected by any other matters in solution1 precisely the same as by tannins4 ,in the ,lowlights ,tannery the waste liquors are constantly about #ab ,bark41 and contain tannin equal to less than #jb per cent4 7expressed as crystal oxalic acid71 and gallic acid and similar matters equal to ,o#f to #jg per cent4 ,if the tannage is pure bark1 it may perhaps be advisable to let the strength be somewhat less1 but something depends on whether the exhausted liquors are returned with all their impurities to the taps or liquor-brewing pits1 or whether the liquors are made with water1 and hence purer4 ,in any case1 the free acid in the suspenders should always be sufficient in quantity to neutralise the lime brought in by the butts1 or bad colour will certainly result1 making itself visible in the shed1 or as the tanning proceeds4 ,if the butts1 when first brought into liquor1 take a lemon-yellow colour1 especially in places that have been imperfectly exposed to it1 this is an indication of danger which must not be disregarded4 ,it may be met either by cleansing the butts more thoroughly before bringing into the yard1 or by adding acid 7acetic1 hydrochloric1 or sulphuric7 to the liquor4 ,if this be done1 great care must be taken not to over-do it1 and an acid free from iron must be used4 ,the use of sulphurous acid for the purpose has been patented1 and presents some advantages4 ,sulphites have been observed by the writer to give a pink or purple reaction even with very dilute infusions of valonia 7see p4 #aab72 but any coloration from this cause would probably disappear as the tannage proceeds4 ,the difficulty can1 however1 often be remedied1 either by altering the way of working the liquors1 so as to bring more sour liquor down to the suspenders1 or by using a larger proportion of materials capable of yielding acetic acid by fermentation1 such as myrobalans4 ,it is a common error to call all the free acid of sour liquors gallic1 as this is scarcely present in pure bark-yards1 and at the best is a very feeble acid4 ,the most abundant acid is usually acetic1 though butyric1 lactic1 and other acids are frequently present in varying proportions1 according to the tanning materials employed4 ,in the ,english process1 with its comparatively short layers1 in which the butts almost float in strong liquors1 but little souring takes place1 and we have nothing comparable to the ,german sour bark and sour liquor from long layers with weak liquor1 and much dusty material4 ,these contain large quantities of acetic and lactic acids1 and plump almost like vitriol4 ,though the ,american tanners generally use the latter1 their hemlock liquors sour much more intensely than those of ,english yards4 ,it must always be borne in mind1 in comparing ,english with ,american and ,continental tanning1 that1 in the first1 the opening up of the fibre is effected by lime1 and the swelling is maintained in the liquors1 not so much by acids1 which are only present in very small proportion1 as by the careful and gradual working forward into infusions stronger and stronger in tannin2 while in the two latter1 lime1 if used at all1 is simply employed to loosen the hair1 and the swelling and differentiation of the fibre is first accomplished in the liquors either by vegetable or mineral acids4 ,hence good results cannot be expected in ,english yards from such processes as sweating or painting with sodium sulphide1 which does not plump1 without a radical modification of the whole tanning process4 ,this point has been ably treated by ,eitner in a series of papers on ,extract-gerberei1 published during the last few years in ',der ,gerber1' which will well repay attentive perusal by ,english as well as ,german tanners4 ,the butts should at first be brought into the weakest liquor2 a circulation system1 by which the liquors are all pumped in at one end of a set of suspenders1 and run out at the other1 the butts being moved forward in the opposite direction1 seems to have much to recommend it4 ,in this case1 the top of one pit should be connected by a wooden box with the bottom of the next4 ,it is usually advisable to run away the first liquor into which butts are brought from the lime-yard1 as it is very completely spent1 and highly charged with lime salts and impurities4 ,whether other exhausted liquors are to be retained or rejected is largely a question of climate1 and mode of working4 ,in hot weather1 such liquors1 charged with organised ferments 7moulds1 bacilli1 and bacteria71 are apt to cause ropiness1 and other fermentive diseases of the liquors4 ,this danger may be lessened by boiling all spent liquors1 so as to kill the ferments1 before running on the taps1 or prevented by the free use of antiseptics1 such as carbolic acid4 ,small doses of carbolic acid1 however1 are useless2 at least #a_/aj per cent4 must be employed2 and it must be borne in mind that antiseptics prevent souring as well as other fermentations1 and hence1 where they are employed1 other means must be adopted to maintain the necessary acidity4 ,such liquors are very liable to darken if boiled4 ,the suspender liquors should be acid enough freely to redden litmus-paper4 ,the present author has published a simple volumetric method for the determination of the free acid2 #aj cc4 of the carefully filtered liquor is placed in a beaker1 and clear lime-water is run in from a burette till permanent cloudiness is produced4 ,the quantity of lime-water employed is that which the acid is capable of neutralising1 without producing discoloration of the leather1 and care must be taken that the lime introduced with the butts does not exceed this proportion4 ,the explanation of the reaction is that dark-coloured tannates of lime are formed1 which are dissolved by the free acid so long as it remains in excess4 ,it must be remembered that this process estimates all acids capable of retaining tannates of lime in solution1 including some so feeble as to have practically no plumping effect4 ,a liquor may have acidity equal to several cc4 of lime-water1 and yet react absolutely alkaline to methyl-orange 7see p4 #i71 a colour which is distinctly reddened by small excess of acids1 even so weak as gallic1 which is barely acid to the taste4 ,hence1 the acidity of a liquor available for plumping may be taken as represented by the lime-water required to change the red of methyl-orange to yellow1 and if the liquor does not redden methyl-orange it is incapable of plumping4 ,if #e or #aj drops of orange solution be added to the pale filtered liquor from suspenders1 there is no difficulty in approximately hitting the point of change1 but great accuracy is not to be expected4 ,if the liquor will not filter clear1 kaolin 7see p4 #aai7 may be used to clear it4 ,it is well to test the lime-water occasionally on #aj cc4 of decinormal sulphuric or oxalic acid 7p4 #if71 to make certain of its constancy4 ,lime-water should be kept in a bottle with excess of lime1 shaken occasionally1 and a small quantity filtered off as required4 ,liquors are frequently miscalled sour which are not acid1 but putrid4 ,such liquors will not plump1 but reduce and soften hides placed in them4 7,compare also p4 #ahe74 ,suspender liquors usually consist mainly of liquors from the handler shift4 ,if liquors be used direct from the leaches1 they generally produce harsh grain and bad colour4 ,from the suspenders1 the butts are transferred to the handlers1 where they are laid flat in the liquor4 ,they are usually pulled over by hooks1 which are very apt to scratch the grain4 ,sometimes strings are used1 attached to the corners and held in notches or on pegs at the edge of the pit4 ,other tanners place a frame below the pack1 with ropes at the four corners1 by which it is raised sufficiently for the men to grasp the top butts with their hands4 ,this is only practicable in pits of ample size4 ,in ,american yards1 the handling is almost universally performed by tying the sides with strings or fastening them in a long band by drawing the slit tail of one side through a hole in the nose of the next1 and inserting a wooden key4 ,the string of the sides is then wound from one pit to another over a skeleton reel 7,fig4 #da74 ,this method is also used in the lime-yard1 and is frequently employed in ,england to handle offal1 but it is not well adapted for butts4 ,fig4 #db shows the application of mechanical power in a ,chicago yard for the same purpose1 by means of ,ewart's drive-chain1 which is manufactured in this country by ,ley's ,malleable ,castings ,co41 at ,derby1 to whom ,i am indebted for the block4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #da4 ,the handlers are generally worked in sets1 to each of which a fresh liquor is daily run1 and the most forward pack is pulled over into it1 and is often also dusted down with a little fine bark or myrabolans4 ,the second pack follows into the liquor out of which the first has been taken2 the third into that of the second1 and so on4 ,frequently the greenest packs are handled up a second time in the course of the day1 and put down again in the same liquor4 ,the strength of liquors1 and the length of time for which butts are retained in the handlers1 are varied2 but a time of #a-b months1 and liquors of #bj-ce ,bark4 are usual4 ,it is well to divide the handlers into at least two sets4 ,gambier is very useful1 especially to the greener goods1 and if hemlock and other extracts are employed1 their appropriate place is in the forward handlers or earlier layers4 ,new valonia liquors must be avoided1 but old layer liquors of considerable strength 7up to #dj ,bark4 where the handling is long continued7 may be employed4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #db4 ,at the end of this period1 the butts are taken to the layers or bloomers1 in which they are laid down with stronger liquors and much larger quantities of dust2 the latter is usually bark or valonia1 though mimosa is occasionally used4 ,the liquors vary from #dj to #fj or #gj ,bark4 in strength in mixed tannage1 and the duration of each layer from #aj days in the earlier stages to a month in the later ones4 ,for the best heavy tannages1 #f-h layers are required4 ,each time the butts are raised1 they should be mopped on the grain1 to remove dirt and loose bloom4 ,strong valonia liquors1 or heavy valonia dusting1 causes a brown sandy crust to form on the freely exposed parts of the butts4 ,this is removed in striking1 but is sometimes very troublesome on rough dried dressing leather4 ,in pure bark tannage1 which1 however1 is gradually becoming extinct1 the liquors used are of necessity much weaker1 as it is extremely difficult to obtain liquors of more than #be-cj ,bark4 from this material4 ,the last layer1 however1 should always have liquors of the greatest strength which can possibly be obtained1 or the leather will be deficient in firmness4 ,after receiving their last layer1 the butts are well mopped or brushed and washed up in a clear liquor1 and thrown over a horse to drain before going into the shed4 ,in ,america1 the ,howard scrubber 7,fig4 #dc7 is generally employed instead of hand labour at this stage4 ,it consists of #b rotating wooden frames at the top of a pit1 provided with brushes or birch-brooms1 and1 when in use1 enclosed by a cover ,a1 through a slit ,g in which the sides are inserted and drawn back1 while water is supplied by the pump ,b4 ,sometimes the brush-drums are placed one above another1 and the leather is passed in at the side4 ,illustration3 ,,pl4 ,,vi4 ,e ,f4 ,n4 ,spon1 ,london ,new ,york4 ,,ink ,,photo ,,sprague ,,co4 ,,london ,,opening1 ,,stretching ,,and ,,storing ,,white ,,skins4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dc4 ,in mixed tannages1 where the colour is dark1 the leather is frequently handled or suspended in a warm sumach or myrobalanes liquor1 and occasionally in dilute sulphuric or oxalic acids4 ,if these acids are not effectually removed before drying1 the toughness of the leather will be destroyed1 and in extreme cases the leather will become brittle and refuse to take black4 ,in any case1 strong acids are prejudicial to the durability of the leather4 ,in ,america1 alternate baths of vitriol and sugar of lead are frequently used for bleaching and weighting the leather1 but the colour given is not durable4 ,the great point to aim at1 in arranging the mode of work of a tannery1 is to contrive that butts should always receive the strongest liquors they can bear with safety1 and that the strength should constantly increase in a regular and systematic way4 ,to attain this end1 very frequent handling and change of liquor are requisite in the early stages1 when the butts rapidly absorb the tannin presented to them4 ,as the process advances1 the exterior part of the butt becomes thoroughly tanned1 and the liquor only slowly reaches the interior1 which is yet susceptible of its action1 and hence longer layers in stronger liquors are permissible4 ,the varied requirements of the trade render it difficult to give any practical information as to the selection of tanning materials4 ,as a general rule1 it is important at the outset to give the required colour2 and if materials undesirable in this respect are to be used for the sake of cheapness1 they should be introduced in the form of liquors in the middle stages of the process1 i4 e4 in the later handlers or earlier layers4 ,materials used as dust generally have more effect in producing bloom and colouring the leather1 than those used in liquors at this stage4 ,some information as to the respective qualities of the different tanning materials will be found in the chapter on ,tannins2 but even practical men are very deficient in accurate information on these points1 since many materials are never used alone1 but invariably in connection with others which mask their effects4 ,the use of extracts1 and the demand for low-priced leathers1 to compete with the ,american tannages1 has introduced still more rapid methods than those described1 and very fair-looking heavy leather has been tanned in #e-aj weeks4 ,these tannages are very various1 but their main feature is the free use of hot liquors1 composed principally of extracts and gambier4 ,this treatment imparts great firmness1 or more properly speaking1 hardness2 but the leather is deficient in toughness1 and the grain usually cracks on bending sharply4 ,extract properly used is1 however1 capable of making excellent leather2 it is employed in at least one of the highest priced tannages in the country4 ,it may be noted here1 that when ,continental writers speak of extracts and extract tannage1 what we should call liquor tannage only is meant1 and not specially the use of the concentrated extracts1 to which alone in ,england the term is applied4 ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,,sole-,,leather4--,treatment in the ,shed4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dd4 ,the butts1 after being treated as above described1 are frequently oiled lightly on the grain1 and are taken into the drying-lofts1 where they are hung on poles till about half dry4 ,they are then laid on the floor in piles1 and covered up till they heat or sweat a little1 which facilitates the succeeding operation of striking4 ,this is performed by laying the butt over a horizontal beam or horse1 and scraping its surface with a triangular pin1 shown at ,d in ,fig4 #be4 ,this pin has an even1 though tolerably sharp1 edge1 and is so used that it stretches and smooths out the grain1 without breaking it2 and at the same time it removes a portion of the white deposit called bloom1 which has been mentioned4 ,common goods are frequently struck by the machine introduced by ,priestman1 of ,preston ,brook1 shown in ,fig4 #dd2 but the work is not very uniform1 and the leather is much compressed and stretched4 ,for offal1 the machine is a very useful one1 and perfectly satisfactory4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #de4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #df4 ,butts are now generally struck by the very ingenious machine of ,wilson1 whose name has also been mentioned in connection with the disintegrator1 and which is shown in ,fig4 #de4 ,the arms carry blunt brass or steel knives or sleekers1 and work outwards from the centre1 while the butt is carried backwards and forwards over the drum4 ,stones may be substituted for the sleekers1 when it is required to remove the bloom4 ,the machine requires a firm foundation1 as its reciprocating motion causes considerable vibration4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dg4 ,after a light oiling and a little further drying1 the butt is laid on a flat bed of wood or zinc1 and is rolled with a brass roller loaded with heavy weights4 ,various machines are also in use for this purpose4 ,in ,fig4 #df1 is shown ,wilson's spring butt-roller1 in which the pressure is produced by springs immediately above the roller1 which works backward and forward over a flat table1 beneath a fixed girder4 ,in the later patterns of this machine the roller is automatically reversed by a mechanical finger before coming to the edge of the butt4 ,fig4 #dg shows an adaptation of the ,american pendulum roller1 which is specially suited for refinishing ,singapore kip sides and the commoner class of goods1 giving great firmness and a high gloss4 ,fig4 #dh represents a machine in which the roller is fixed1 and works over a brass drum2 it is specially adapted for offal1 and1 when used for butts1 is apt to make them baggy4 ,in this machine1 the reversing motion is obtained by using two belts1 one being crossed4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dh4 ,the leather is now frequently coloured on the grain with a mixture1 for which each tanner has a recipe of his own1 but usually consisting mainly of yellow ochre with size or liquor and oil in order to give a gloss1 and to hide uneven or dull colour1 and1 when sufficiently dry1 is well brushed by hand or power1 rolled a second time1 and dried-off in a room gently heated by steam4 ,this is the ,bristol method of finishing4 ,in the ,lancashire district1 butts are generally struck out much wetter1 and stoned1 so as to remove the whole of the bloom1 and show the natural brown bottom of the grain4 ,when sufficiently dry1 they are struck a second time1 to set the grain1 and rolled as described1 the painting being omitted4 ,this method has the disadvantage of requiring more labour1 and causing a loss of weight2 but leather so got up brings a higher price1 as the finish is only applicable to such tannages as make a fair colour4 ,the usual ,london plan is a compromise between the ,bristol and ,lancashire methods2 the leather is sammed1 or tempered by partial drying and piling before striking2 stoning is not resorted to1 but the bloom is thoroughly removed from the surface with the pin and scrubbing-brush4 ,colour is not generally used4 ,it is very important1 and especially so with heavy mixed tannages1 that the drying should be conducted in the dark1 and not too rapidly4 ,no artificial heat should be used1 except in frosty weather1 to wet leather2 and it should be carefully protected from harsh drying winds4 ,after the leather is finished1 it should be dried off in a well-ventilated drying-shed1 heated to about #gj ,f4 7#ba ,c474 ,the same observations apply to the drying of rough dressing-leather1 except that artificial heat should be avoided4 ,frost makes dressing-leather porous1 and prevents it carrying a proper quantity of grease in currying4 ,on the construction of drying-sheds1 see pp4 #bdc-ed4 ,,chapter ,,xii4 ,,dressing ,,leather4 ,hides which are intended for purposes where softness and flexibility are required1 as for instance1 for the upper-leathers of boots1 and for saddlery purposes1 are called dressing or common hides1 or1 if they are shaved down to reduce their thickness before tanning1 they are denominated shaved hides4 ,hides for this purpose are limed much in the same way as has been described for butts2 but if they are required very soft and flexible1 a somewhat longer liming is permissible4 ,after unhairing1 fleshing1 and washing in water1 they are usually transferred to a bate1 composed of pigeon- or hen-dung1 in the proportion of about #a peck to #be-cj hides4 ,in this they are retained for some days1 being handled frequently4 ,they completely lose their plumpness1 and become soft and slippery2 the caustic lime is entirely removed2 and the remaining portions of hair-sheaths and fat-glands are so loosened that they are easily worked out by a blunt knife on the beam4 ,this final cleansing process is called scudding4 ,the theory of the action of the bate1 or pure1 as it is sometimes called1 is somewhat imperfect4 ,it is frequently attributed to the action of ammonia salts1 and phosphates1 contained in the fermenting dung4 ,ammonia salts certainly will remove caustic lime1 free ammonia being liberated in its place1 and weak solutions of ammonia sulphate or chloride will rapidly reduce hides1 and remove or neutralise the lime4 ,the phosphates in dung are mostly1 if not entirely1 in the form of lime phosphate1 which is quite inert4 ,in point of fact1 the process seems to be a fermentive one1 the active bate swarming with bacteria2 to this1 rather than to its chemical constituents1 its action must be attributed4 ,the bacteria act not only on the organic constituents of the dung1 but on those of the hide1 producing sulphuretted hydrogen1 together with tyrosin and leucin1 and other weak organic acids1 which neutralise and remove the lime1 and1 at the same time1 soften the hide by dissolving out the coriin1 and probably also portions of the gelatinous fibre4 ,the truth of this theory is supported by the fact that1 in warm weather1 the activity of the bate is greatly increased1 and that1 if one pack of hides is over-bated1 the next following is much more severely affected1 the hides having in fact themselves furnished food for the multiplication of the bacterian ferment from the destruction of their own tissues4 ,it also explains the effective use 7as a substitute7 of warm water with a very small portion of glucose1 which1 in itself1 would be insufficient to dissolve the lime1 but with a small quantity of nitrogenous matter1 forms an excellent nidus for the multiplication of these organisms4 ,an ,american invention for bating is the use of old lime-liquor neutralised with sulphuric acid1 an idea which is much more scientific than would at first sight appear4 ,old lime-liquors1 as we have seen 7p4 #adc7 contain much ammonia and weak organic acids1 such as caproic1 amidocaproic 7leucin71 and tyrosin4 ,on adding sulphuric acid1 the lime forms an inert sulphate1 and the sulphate of ammonia and the weak organic acids which remain dissolved are just what are required in a chemical bate4 ,the lime-liquor should of course be filtered or settled clear before using1 and enough acid added barely to neutralise the lime1 and the liquor again settled or filtered4 ,by this means both the dissolved gelatin and the iron of the acid will be got rid of4 ,the liquor might then be slightly acidified before use4 ,the writer has no experience of the method1 but imagines that used as described it might be worth trying1 although it would have a very unpleasant smell4 ,in this connection may be mentioned the fact that1 when bran drenches are used1 in which lactic acid is developed1 the butyric fermentation is liable1 in hot weather1 to take its place1 and as butyric acid is a powerful solvent of gelatinous tissue1 and the dissolved tissue itself feeds the fermentation1 rapid destruction of the skins is the result4 ,cleanliness1 scalding out of the drench vats1 and washing the bran before using with cold water to remove adhering flour1 are useful precautions4 ,if the removal of the lime be the only object aimed at in bating1 the ordinary process is most wasteful1 as well as disgusting1 from the loss of pelt it entails4 ,it is easy to find chemical reagents which will remove the lime2 but the resultant leather has been found wanting in softness1 and it is probable that the solution of the inter-fibrillar matter is in many cases advantageous4 ,probably one reason for the non-use of such chemicals is their expense4 ,maynard has patented the use of sulphurous acid for the purpose4 ,if sugar1 glucose1 or ammonia salts be used1 and the alkalinity of the solution nearly neutralised after each lot of hides by common vitriol1 the same liquor may be used again and again4 ,in this case1 if iron is contained in the acid it will be precipitated by the ammonia and must be settled out4 ,the writer is convinced1 from his own experience1 that with suitable tannage such bating would yield better weights and quite as satisfactory leather for many purposes as the ordinary mode4 ,french tanners1 by the free use of water1 and careful working at the beam1 and the employment of very weak liquors at the commencement of tanning1 make excellent dressing leather without bating and this is also true of the celebrated ,french calf4 ,the bating required may be shortened1 and probably with advantage1 by washing the hides with warm water in a tumbler1 or rotating drum1 ,fig4 #di1 prior to putting them into the bate1 or the whole bating may be done in the tumbler4 ,after a short bating1 also1 the hides may be softened and cleansed by stocking for #ae-bj minutes4 ,warm bates act much more rapidly than cold ones4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #di4 ,various machines have been proposed to take the place of hand-labour in the beam work1 and1 at least as regards the smaller skins1 with considerable success4 ,as a type of these1 may be mentioned ,molinier's hide-working machine1 ,fig4 #bi1 which consists of a drum covered with helical knives1 rotating at a speed of about #ejj rev4 a minute1 over a cylinder coated with india-rubber4 ,the skin is allowed to be drawn in between these drums1 and the two being pressed together by a treadle1 it is drawn out by a mechanical arrangement in a direction contrary to the rotation of the knives1 which scrape off the flesh1 or work off the hair4 ,after bating1 shaved hides are reduced in thickness in the stronger parts by a shaving-knife1 on an almost perpendicular beam4 ,the workman stands behind the beam1 and works downwards4 ,the knife is represented at ,a1 ,fig4 #bf1 and is a somewhat peculiar instrument4 ,the blade is of softish steel1 and after sharpening1 the edge is turned completely over by pressure with a blunt tool1 so as to cut at right angles to the blade4 ,there is an obvious economy in shaving before tanning1 since the raw shavings are valuable for glue-making1 while1 if taken off by the currier1 they are useless for this purpose4 ,the hide also tans faster4 ,instead of shaving1 the untanned hide is frequently split1 by drawing it against a rapidly vibrating knife4 ,the piece removed is tanned for some inferior purpose1 if sufficiently perfect4 ,in sheep-skins1 which are split by a special machine1 the grain-side is tanned for ,french morocco or basil1 while the flesh-side is dressed with oil1 and forms the ordinary chamois or wash-leather 7see p4 #baj74 ,such a machine is shown in ,fig4 #ej4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ej4 ,tanned leather is frequently split by forcing it against a fixed knife1 as in the ,american ,union machine1 ,fig4 #ea4 ,this is however being gradually superseded by the band-knife splitting machine1 ,fig4 #eb1 in which an endless steel blade travels over two pulleys like a belt1 and is kept constantly sharpened by a pair of emery-wheels seen below the machine4 ,i am indebted for the block to ,messrs4 ,haley and ,co41 who have made great numbers of these machines4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ea4 ,after bating1 scudding1 and shaving1 the hides are taken into the tan-house1 where they are grained1 either by frequent handling1 or by working in a paddle-tumbler 7a vat agitated with a paddle-wheel1 and known in ,america as an ,england wheel71 with a liquor of suitable strength4 ,what this strength should be depends on whether a well-marked grain is required or not4 ,the stronger the liquor1 the more it contracts the hide1 wrinkling the surface into a network of numberless crossing furrows1 which form the well-known marking of grain-leather4 ,in bark tannage1 the after management is much like that described with sole-leather1 except that weaker infusions are employed1 and acid liquors1 which would swell the hide and produce a harsh leather1 are avoided4 ,in old-fashioned country yards1 which produce some of the best bark-tanned shaved hides1 the liquors rarely range above #aj-ae of the barkometer1 and the time employed is #c-f months4 ,the hides1 after passing through a set of handlers1 of gradually increasing strength1 in which they are at first moved every day1 are laid away with bark liquor and a good dusting of bark1 receiving perhaps #d-e layers of #b-d weeks each4 ,unfortunately1 these tannages are so unprofitable that they are rapidly being supplanted by quicker and cheaper methods4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #eb4 ,these more rapid and cheap tannages mostly depend on the use of terra 7block or cube gambier7 in combination with bark1 valonia1 mimosa1 and myrobalanes4 ,liquors warmed to #aaj or even #adj ,f4 7#dc-fj ,c47 are frequently employed1 and a bright colour is finally imparted by handling in a warm sumach or myrobalanes liquor1 which dissolves out much of the colour imparted by terra or extracts4 ,the tannage is helped forward by frequent handling1 by working in tumblers1 or sometimes by suspension on rocking or travelling frames1 after the ,american fashion4 ,to this class of tannage belongs that of ,east ,india kips1 which is largely carried on in the neighbourhood of ,leeds4 ,these kips are the hides of the small cattle of ,india1 and are imported in a dried condition1 and with their flesh-side protected 7and loaded7 with a coat of salt and whitewash or plaster4 ,they are usually softened in putrid soaks1 and unhaired with lime1 and are used in ,england for many of the purposes for which calf-skins were formerly employed4 ,a variety of ,east ,india kips1 called arsenic kips1 are treated 7instead of plastering7 with a small quantity of arsenic before drying1 to prevent the ravages of insects1 which are often very destructive to these goods4 ,many kips tanned in ,india have also been imported of late years1 and have greatly interfered with the profits of ,english tanners4 ,in yards where the leather is intended to be sold uncurried1 it is taken up into the drying-sheds1 well oiled on the grain with cod-liver oil1 and either simply hung on the poles to dry1 or stretched with a righter1 a tool shaped somewhat like a spade-handle1 and finally set out with it to a smooth and rounded form4 ,as in the case of sole-leather1 too much light or wind must be avoided1 and it is very difficult to use artificial heat successfully in the early stages of the process4 ,it is1 however1 now very common for the tanner who produces such leather also to curry it1 and1 as this effects a considerable economy1 both in labour and material1 it is likely to become universal4 ,when leather is to be sold rough1 it is necessary to tan it in such a way as to give it a white appearance1 from the deposit of bloom already mentioned2 this being regarded by curriers as an essential mark of a good tannage1 although the first step in the currying process is to completely scour it out4 ,when the tanner curries his own leather1 he of course aims at putting in as little bloom as possible1 thus economising both tanning material and labour4 ,in addition1 the leather goes direct from the tan-house to the currying-shops1 thus saving both drying and soaking again1 and1 it is said1 giving better weight and quality4 ,the tanner1 too1 is enabled to shave his hides or skins more completely1 utilising the material for glue-stuff1 which1 had the leather been for sale in the rough1 must have been left on to obtain a profitable weight4 ,,chapter ,,xiii4 ,,currying4 ,in general terms1 the process of currying consists in softening1 levelling1 and stretching the hides and skins which are required for the upper-leathers of boots1 and other purposes demanding flexibility and softness1 and in saturating or stuffing them with fatty matters1 not only in order to soften them1 but to make them watertight1 and to give them an attractive appearance4 ,it is obvious that great differences must be made in the currying process1 according to the character of the skin and the purpose for which it is intended1 since the preparation of ,french calf for a light boot1 and of the heaviest leather for machine belting1 equally lie within the domain of currying4 ,in this case1 however1 as in that of tanning1 the clearest idea of the general principles involved will be gained by taking a typical case1 and afterwards pointing out the different modifications needed for other varieties4 ,the ,french method of currying waxed calf is selected as an example1 since the well-known excellence of this leather makes it interesting to compare the details with the methods ordinarily in use in this country4 ,after raising the skins from the pits1 and beating off the loose tan1 they are hung in the sheds till partially dry 7essorage71 great care being taken that the drying is uniform over the whole skin4 ,in modern shops1 this drying is usually accomplished at once1 and in a very satisfactory manner1 by means of a hydraulic press4 ,if dried in the air1 they must be laid in pile for a short time to equalise the moisture1 and then brushed over on flesh and grain4 ,the next process consists in paring off loose flesh and inequalities 7drayage74 ,this is done on a beam1 and with a knife similar to that used in bate-shaving1 and shown in ,a1 ,fig4 #bf4 ,this knife has the edge turned by rubbing with a strong steel1 and is called couteau revers4 ,next follows the mise au vent4 ,the skins are first placed in a tub with water or weak tan-liquor for #bd hours2 they are then folded and placed in a tub with enough water to cover them1 and beaten with wooden pestles for #a_/d hour4 ,at the present day1 stocks 7foulon vertical71 or a drum-tumbler 7tonneau fouler71 a machine on the principle of the barrel-churn1 usually take the place of this hand-labour4 ,the skin is next placed on a marble table1 flesh upwards1 and with one flank hanging somewhat over the edge1 and is worked with a sleeker or stretching-iron 7tire71 ,b1 ,fig4 #bf4 ,the first #b strokes are given down and up the back1 to make the skin adhere to the table1 and it is then worked out regularly all round the side on the table1 so as to stretch and level it4 ,the flesh is then washed over with a grass-brush 7brosse chien-dent71 the skin is turned1 and the other flank is treated in the same way4 ,it is lastly folded in #d1 and steeped again in water4 ,the next process is the cleansing of the grain4 ,the skin is spread again on the table1 as before1 but grain upwards1 and is worked over with a stone 7curse71 set in handles1 and ground to a very obtuse edge4 ,this scours out the bloom2 after washing the grain with the grass-brush1 it is followed by the sleeking-iron1 as on the flesh4 ,the next step is resetting 7retenage74 ,for this1 except in summer1 the skins must be dried again1 either by press or in the shed4 ,this is another setting out with the sleeker1 and1 the skin being dried1 it now retains the smoothness and extension which is thus given to it4 ,the skins are now ready for oiling in the grain1 for which whale-oil or cod-liver oil is generally employed4 ,olive-oil1 castor-oil1 and even linseed-oil may1 however1 be used1 and are sometimes made into an emulsion with neutral soap and water4 ,after oiling the grain1 the skins are folded and allowed to lie for #b-c days before oiling the flesh4 ,the oiling on the flesh is done with a mixture of dgras and tallow1 in such proportions as not to run off during the drying4 ,dgras is the surplus oil from the chamois-leather manufacture1 which in ,france is effected by daily stocking the skins with oil1 and hanging in the air for oxidation4 ,the dgras 7toise1 mollon7 is obtained1 not by washing the skins in an alkaline lye1 as in the ,english and ,german method1 but by simple pressing or wringing4 ,this oil1 altered by oxidation1 is so valuable for currying purposes that skins are frequently worked simply for its production1 being oiled and squeezed again and again till not a rag is left4 ,it is generally mixed in commerce with more or less of ordinary fish-oil4 ,eitner recommends1 where the dgras is of indifferent quality1 a mixture of #fe parts dgras1 #bj of neutral soap 7i4 e4 soap without the usual excess of alkali71 and #ae of soft tallow4 ,after oiling the flesh1 which is accomplished by extending the skin on the marble table with the sleeker1 and applying grease with a sheep-skin pad1 it is hung to dry at a temperature of #fe-gj ,f4 7#ah-ba ,c474 ,after drying1 the surplus oil is removed by a fine sleeker from both flesh and grain1 and the skins are ready for whitening 7blanchissage74 ,this consists in taking a thin shaving off the flesh1 and was originally accomplished by the shaving-knife on the currier's beam1 and some curriers are still in favour of this method4 ,it is now1 however1 usually done by a sleeker with a turned edge4 ,the grain then undergoes a final stoning and sleeking1 to remove the last traces of adhering oil1 and the skin is grained by rubbing it in a peculiar way under a pommel covered with cork4 ,it is then coated on the flesh with a mixture1 of which the following is a specimen3--#e parts of lamp-black are rubbed with #d of linseed-oil1 and #ce parts of fish-oil are added2 #ae parts of tallow and #c of wax are melted together and added to the mixture2 and1 after cooling1 #c parts of treacle4 ,this compound is put on with a brush1 and allowed to dry for some days4 ,finally1 the skins are sized over with a glue-size1 which is sometimes darkened by the addition of aniline-black4 ,the preceding account will give some idea of the care and labour expended on these goods in ,france4 ,in ,england1 cheaper productions are more in vogue1 and almost every process is accomplished by machinery4 ,an illustration of the ,fitzhenry or ,jackson scouring-machine1 which is largely employed both for scouring and setting out1 is given in ,fig4 #ec4 ,this is a simple and efficient machine1 and has been largely used1 both here and in ,america4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ec4 ,fig4 #ed shows the improved tool-carriage introduced by ,c4 ,holmes of ,boston1 in which the brush and sleekers or stones are controlled by handles which are stationary instead of moving rapidly with the slide1 as in the older form4 ,spiral springs are also substituted for the older elliptical ones4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ed4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ee4 ,the ,fitzhenry machine has also been constructed so as to work in any direction over a fixed table1 being driven by a small direct-acting steam-cylinder supplied by jointed pipes4 ,but probably the most perfect scouring and setting machine which has yet been introduced is the ,lockwood ,automatic ,scourer1 which may also be regarded as a development of the ,fitzhenry machine4 ,this has been some years in use in ,america with great success1 and has received considerable improvements1 but has only very recently been introduced into ,england by ,messrs4 ,schrader and ,mitchell of ,glasgow1 who have kindly furnished the annexed illustration 7,fig4 #ef74 ,in this machine the table is fixed1 and the tool-carriage can be moved over it in every direction4 ,the large projecting carriage1 or cross-head1 which supports it1 travels on a horizontal rail1 which may be observed below and behind the table4 ,motion is given to it by a screw which is driven in either direction by the pulleys at each side of the cross-head4 ,in a similar way the tool-carriage is traversed forwards or backwards by a second screw at right angles to the first1 and by a most ingenious interlocking arrangement both screws are controlled by a single handle4 ,the tool-carriage or trundle frame can also be turned like a turntable1 so as to deliver its stroke in any direction1 the tool-holder being driven by a horizontal crank in the centre of the frame1 and immediately above the tools4 ,though the machine is complicated1 and necessarily expensive1 it has not been found either in ,america or ,scotland difficult to work or liable to get out of order1 while both the quantity and quality of its work are all that can be desired4 ,fig4 #ee is ,glser's scouring machine4 ,fig4 #eg illustrates the latest ,english scouring machine1 ,messrs4 ,haley and ,co4's ,climax ,scourer1 which is also ingenious and effective4 ,in it the table instead of the tool-holder is movable by screws driven by belts thrown into gear by a handle1 and it is provided with two tables of which one is in work while the hides are being changed and spread on the other4 ,the oscillating tool-holder1 instead of being actuated by the rise and fall of the connecting-rod1 is moved by an adjustable eccentric4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ef4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #eg4 ,in the case of strap-butts1 the currying is1 of course1 far less elaborate4 ,they are well scoured out1 heavily stuffed1 and stretched in screw-frames1 to prevent their giving afterwards when in use4 ,in ,germany1 ,switzerland1 and ,austria1 a method of stuffing strap-butts is frequently employed1 which1 so far as ,i am aware1 is not in use in ,england4 ,it is called ,einbrennen or burning in1 and consists in applying very hot tallow to the dry leather4 ,the butts are washed free from liquor in a tumbler1 boarded to soften them thoroughly1 scoured1 set out with a sleeker1 nailed on laths1 and air-dried4 ,they are then very completely dried in a room heated to #ajd-aac ,f4 7#dj-de ,c471 as if any moisture remains in the hide1 the fibre will be destroyed by the heat of the melted tallow4 ,the tallowing generally takes place in the same room1 as a high temperature is required to allow it to soak in1 and the leather would greedily reabsorb moisture if exposed to damp air4 ,the tallow is heated1 generally by steam in a jacketed pan1 to #afg-bab ,f4 7#ge-ajj ,c474 ,there are two ways of applying it4 ,the melted tallow may be applied on a table to the flesh side of the butt with a ladle1 and rubbed on with a brush or rag4 ,in this case1 as soon as the tallow has sufficiently soaked in1 the butts are placed in water to prevent its striking through to the grain4 ,the second way is to have the pan of sufficient size and suitable shape1 and for two men to draw the butt through the melted tallow with tongs1 and more or less rapidly according to the quantity it is desired that the leather should absorb2 and in some cases the process is repeated once or more4 ,in this case1 it is useless to wet in water1 and the butts are allowed to cool gradually in pile4 ,the leather is now impregnated with grease1 but it is far from being properly stuffed4 ,instead of the grease being spread over the finest fibres in a minute state of division1 it simply fills the spaces between the larger fibres4 ,to remedy this1 the butts are well softened in water 7which1 if they have been drawn through the tallow and allowed to cool1 must be tepid71 and are then worked in a damp condition in a drum tumbler1 by which they brighten in colour and become uniformly stuffed4 ,they are then allowed to lie in a pile a day or two1 are stoned and worked out with the sleeker1 and hung up to dry4 ,when in right temper they receive a final setting out with the sleeker1 and when dry are either rolled or glassed4 ,for further details1 ,nos4 #bef and #beg of ',der ,gerber1' #ahhe1 must be consulted1 where the matter has been exhaustively treated by ,eitner1 in his papers on ,extract-,gerberei4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #eh4 ,in ,england1 curried leathers are generally sold by weight1 which leads to the use of glucose and other materials to add to the weight4 ,in ,america1 all upper leathers are sold by measure1 and this is now ascertained by a very ingenious machine 7,fig4 #eh74 ,the skin is laid on a latticed table1 and a frame1 from which rows of bullets are suspended1 is let down upon it4 ,the total weight of the frame is indicated by a spring balance1 and as the bullets which are over the skin are supported by it1 the diminution of weight indicates the measurement4 ,several modified forms of this machine are now made4 ,,chapter ,,xiv4 ,,enamelled1 ,,patent1 ,,or ,,japanned ,,leather4 ,these are terms used to designate those leathers1 whether of the ox1 the horse1 the calf1 or the seal1 which are finished with a waterproof and bright varnished surface1 similar to the lacquered wood-work of the ,japanese4 ,the name enamelled is generally applied when the leathers are finished with a roughened or grained surface1 and patent or japanned are the terms used when the finish is smooth4 ,though generally black1 yet a small quantity of this leather is made in a variety of colours4 ,in ,america1 large thin hides are principally used for the purpose4 ,they are limed and bated in the usual way1 stoned after bating1 and tanned with hemlock and oak barks in a paddle tumbler1 which is run for #aj-ae minutes in each hour4 ,when one-third tanned1 they are levelled on the flesh1 and split with the belt-knife splitter1 ,fig4 #eb4 ,after splitting1 the portions are drummed with strong gambier liquor for #a_/d hour1 and then tanned out with bark4 ,the grains are scoured with the ,fitzhenry or ,lockwood machine 7,figs4 #ec and #ef74 ,they are then lightly oiled and stretched on frames which can be enlarged by screws or a sort of knuckle-joint at the corners4 ,when quite dry1 they are grounded with a mixture of linseed-oil with white lead and litharge1 boiled together and thickened with chalk and ochre4 ,this is dried in closets heated by steam1 into which the frames are slid face downwards1 the heat being gradually increased from #hj to #afj ,f4 7#bg to #ga ,c474 ,if it be desired to employ a higher temperature1 the leather is first saturated with a solution of #b oz4 each of borax and alum in #a gal4 water1 when temperatures of #bcj-bej ,f4 7#aaj-abj ,c47 may be used4 ,the remaining treatment is much as above described1 but a little turpentine is used to make the paint work freely4 ,the final varnish is composed of #bj parts spirit of turpentine1 #bj linseed oil1 #aj thick copal varnish1 and #a of asphaltum or other colouring material4 ,this must be mixed #b-c weeks before use1 and applied with a brush4 ,the splits are also often enamelled1 and as a preparation receive a dressing of linseed-oil boiled to a jelly and thinned with turpentine or naphtha4 ,this is applied with a stiff brush after the splits are stretched on the frames and are still damp1 so that it does not penetrate the leather1 but forms a sort of artificial grain4 ,leather destined to be finished in this way requires to be curried without the use of much dubbing1 and to be well softened4 ,the ,english practice is to nail the skins thus prepared1 and quite dry1 on large smooth boards1 fitted to slide in and out of stoves maintained at a temperature of #afj-agj ,f4 7#ga-gg ,c471 coating them repeatedly with a sort of paint composed 7for black7 of linseed-oil1 lamp-black1 and ,prussian blue1 well ground together4 ,each coating is allowed to dry in the stoves1 before the next is applied4 ,the number of coatings varies with the kind of skin under treatment1 and the purpose for which it is intended4 ,the surface of every coat must be rubbed smooth with pumice2 finally1 a finishing coat of oil-varnish is applied1 and1 like the preceding coats1 is dried in the stove4 ,the exact degrees of dryness and flexibility1 the composition of the paint1 and the thickness and number of the coats1 are nice points1 difficult to describe in writing4 ,this branch of the leather industry1 so far as it relates to calf-skins1 is carried on to a larger extent1 and has been brought to greater perfection in ,germany and ,france than in ,england4 ,in the former countries1 the heat of the sun is employed to dry some of the coatings4 ,the ,united ,states have also brought this style to a high degree of excellence1 especially in ox-hides4 ,there1 use is said to be made of the oils and spirits obtained from petroleum1 and without doubt1 ,french and ,german emigrant workmen have materially assisted in attaining this high standard4 ,leather finished in these styles is used for slippers1 parts of shoes1 harness1 ladies' waist-belts1 hand-bags1 c41 and has now maintained a place among the varieties of leather for a long period of years4 ,,chapter ,,xv4 ,,morocco ,,leather4 ,morocco leather is produced from goat-skins4 ,rough-haired or blue-back seal-skins are also used1 and produce an excellent article2 while an inferior description1 called ,french morocco1 is produced from sheep-skins4 ,the skins are unhaired by liming in the usual way1 and are then baited with a mixture of dogs' dung and water4 ,the tanning is done chiefly with sumach1 at first in paddle-tumblers1 and then in handlers1 lasting about a month in all4 ,sheep-skins are usually tanned through in about #bd hours1 by being sewn up into bags1 grain-side outwards1 and nearly filled with strong sumach infusion4 ,a little air is then blown in1 to completely distend the skin1 and they are floated in a sumach bath1 and kept moving by means of a paddle4 ,after the first day's immersion1 they are thrown up on a shelf1 and allowed to drain2 they are then again filled with sumach liquor2 when this has a second time exuded through the skin1 they are sufficiently tanned1 and the sewing being ripped open1 they are washed and scraped clean1 and hung up to dry1 making what are called crust-roans4 ,the dyeing is sometimes done by brushing on a table1 grain-side upwards1 but more usually the skins are folded closely down the back1 flesh-side inwards1 so as to protect it as much as possible from the influence of the colour1 and then passed through the dye-bath1 which is now generally of aniline colours4 ,the original oriental method of manufacture for red morocco was to dye with cochineal before tanning1 and this is still customary in the ,east1 but is quite obsolete in this country4 ,a grain or polish is given to the leather1 either by boarding1 or by working under small pendulum rollers1 called jiggers1 which are engraved either with grooves or with an imitation of grain4 ,a well-cleaned sumach-tanned skin is capable of being dyed in the finest shades of colour2 and this branch of the manufacture of leather has been brought to great perfection4 ,,chapter ,,xvi4 ,,russia ,,leather 7,ger41 ,juchtenleder74 ,this is tanned in ,russia with1 the bark of various species of willow1 poplar and larch1 either by laying away in pits1 or handling in liquors1 much like other light leathers1 the lime being first removed by bating1 either in a drench of rye- and oat-meal and salt1 by dogs' dung1 or by sour liquors4 ,after tanning1 the hides are again softened and cleansed by a weak drench of rye- and oat-meal4 ,they are then shaved down1 carefully sleeked and scoured out1 and dried4 ,the peculiar odour is given by saturating them with birch-bark oil1 which is rubbed into the flesh-side with cloths4 ,this oil is produced by dry distillation of the bark and twigs of the birch4 ,the red colour is given by dyeing with ,brazilwood2 and the diamond-shaped marking by rolling with grooved rollers4 ,much of the leather now sold as ,russia is produced in ,germany1 ,france1 and ,england4 ,it is tanned in the customary way1 occasionally with willow1 but more generally with oak-bark1 and probably other materials4 ,economy would suggest the use of such materials as1 from their red colour1 are objectionable for other purposes1 and therefore cheap4 ,the currying is in the usual manner1 care being taken that the oil used does not strike through to the grain1 which would prevent it taking the dye4 ,the colour is given by grounding with a solution of chloride of tin 7#ajj parts tin perchloride1 #cj parts nitric acid1 #be parts hydrochloric acid1 allowed to stand some days1 and the clear solution poured off1 and mixed with #ab volumes of water74 ,the dye-liquor may be composed of #gj parts rasped ,brazilwood1 #c parts tartar1 and #dbj parts water1 boiled together1 strained1 and allowed to settle clear4 ,the grounding and dyeing are done on a table with a brush or sponge 7see ,glove-kid dyeing1 p4 #bbi74 ,the odour is communicated by rubbing the flesh-side with a mixture of fish-oil and birch-bark oil1 which sometimes contains no more than #e per cent4 of the latter4 ,illustration3 ,,pl4 ,,vii4 ,e4 ,f4 ,n4 ,spon1 ,london ,new ,york ,,ink-,,photo ,,sprague ,,co ,,london ,,treading ,,and ,,dyeing ,,the ,,skins4 ,,chapter ,,xvii4 ,,chamois ,,or ,,wash-,,leather4 ,this leather1 which is remarkable for its soft felty texture1 which it retains even after wetting1 although perfectly porous and free from greasiness in its finished state1 is prepared by the action of oil on the raw skin4 ,wash-leather was formerly manufactured from sheep- and calf-skins1 and from those of the chamois1 and various deer 7hence the name71 from which1 after liming1 the grain was removed 7frized7 with a sharp knife1 either with the hair1 or after unhairing4 ,the flesh-splits of sheep-skins are now generally employed for ordinary wash-leather1 and of course no such process is needed1 though buff-leather for belts and military purposes is still so manufactured4 ,the skins receive a thorough liming1 which1 where softness is desired1 is so conducted as very thoroughly to remove the cement-substance 7coriin7 from between the fibres2 and this removal is frequently carried still further by a short bran-drench1 which also secures the complete absence of lime4 ,after the usual beam-work1 the skins are pressed or wrung out to remove surplus water1 and while still moist are oiled on a table and folded in cushions4 ,fish-1 seal-1 or whale-oil is generally used1 and vegetable oils do not seem to answer even in mixture1 with the exception perhaps of olive-oil4 ,the skins are next stocked for #b-c hours1 shaken out1 and hung up for #a_/b-a hour to cool and partially dry4 ,they are then again folded in bundles1 and stocked for a short time1 taken out1 oiled again1 and returned to the stocks2 and this process is repeated1 until the skins lose their original smell of limed hide1 and acquire a peculiar mustard-like odour1 and the water at first present has been entirely replaced by oil4 ,the later dryings are frequently conducted in a heated room1 and when the oiling is complete1 the skins are piled on the floor1 and the oxidation of the oil1 which has already commenced during the fullings and dryings above described1 is completed by a sort of fermentation1 in which the skins heat very considerably4 ,during this process1 they are carefully watched1 and if the heat rises so high as to endanger the quality of the leather1 the pile must be turned over1 so as to cool the skins1 and bring those which were originally outside to the centre4 ,when the fermentation comes to an end1 the skins are no longer susceptible of heating1 and are of the well-known yellow or chamois colour4 ,where this colour is objectionable1 the oxidation is sometimes completed by hanging the leather in a heated room instead of by piling4 ,it is now necessary to remove the surplus oil1 and this in ,france is done by oiling with any sort of oil1 throwing into hot water1 and wringing or squeezing4 ,the oil obtained in this way forms the mollon or dgras so much prized for currying purposes4 ,the unoxidised oil still retained by the skins is removed by washing with soda or potash lye4 ,in ,england and ,germany1 the whole of the uncombined oil is removed in this way1 and is recovered from the lye1 in which it exists in a partially saponified state1 by neutralisation with sulphuric acid4 ,it forms the sod oil of commerce4 ,about half the oil employed is obstinately retained by the skin1 and cannot be removed even by boiling with alkalies1 while no gelatin is obtained by boiling water1 to which the chamoised skin is much more resistant than ordinary leather4 ,the nature of the tanning process does not seem to be well understood4 ,it is generally stated that the fibres of the skin are unaltered1 but are merely coated with the oxidised products of the oil4 ,it is hard1 however1 on this hypothesis to understand their extraordinary indifference to water1 even at a boiling temperature1 which speedily converts kid and other tawed leathers into a solution which gelatinises on cooling2 and it seems more probable to the present writer that some actual chemical combination is formed4 ,lietzman 7',herstellung der ,leder1' p4 #afd7 supposes that the whole of the gelatigenous tissue has been removed by liming and bating1 and that only the very indifferent yellow elastic fibres 7see p4 #ba7 remain4 ,this view1 however1 is quite untenable1 in consideration of the very small proportion of these fibres originally present in the skin4 ,mntz1 in his researches 7see p4 #ag71 showed that the fibres insoluble in boiling water scarcely exceeded #c per cent1 of the dried pelt4 ,dry gelatigenous fibre has a considerable resistance to heat1 and it is possible that the action of the oil may consist in preventing the absorption of water4 ,this1 however1 will not explain its resistance to alkalies4 ,cotton or other vegetable fibres moistened with oil1 readily undergo oxidation1 with so much evolution of heat as sometimes to cause spontaneous combustion2 but the oxidation products are easily and completely removed by alkaline solutions1 leaving the fibre in its original state1 as indeed is noted by ,lietzman 7loc4 cit474 ,the finishing processes consist in staking during drying to retain softness1 and in whitening and smoothing the flesh 7or sometimes both sides7 on the fluffing wheel4 ,skins for gloves1 c41 are bleached like linen1 by sprinkling and exposure to the sun2 or more rapidly by treatment with a weak solution of potash permanganate1 and subsequently with sulphurous1 or very dilute sulphuric acid1 to remove the brown manganous oxide formed 7,barreswil1 ,dingl4 ,polyt4 ,jour41 #afa1 #cab74 ,gaseous sulphurous acid from burning sulphur may also be used for bleaching4 ,the dyeing of chamois leather is generally done with ochres and similar colouring matters1 and may be removed by washing4 ,treatment with egg-yolk in water1 or with an emulsion of olive-oil with a little soap1 and rubbing1 or stretching1 will restore softness to chamois leather which has become stiff by washing4 ,,chapter ,,xviii4 ,,crown ,,leather1 ,,or ,,preller',s ,,leather4 ,the process of manufacture of this leather1 which has obtained a firm position as the most suitable material for certain classes of belting1 picker-straps1 c41 was discovered about #ce years since by ,theodor ,klemm1 a cabinet-maker in ,wurtemburg and founder of the present well-known firm of leather manufacturers1 ,gebrder ,klemm of ,pfullingen4 ,klemm1 at that time in poor circumstances1 sold his patent in ,paris to an ,englishman1 ,preller1 who started a manufacture of it in ,southwark and adopted a crown as his trade-mark4 ,since this time the manufacture has spread1 first to ,switzerland and then through ,germany2 but in ,england1 to the writer's knowledge1 it is confined to one or two firms4 ,the process of manufacture of crown leather is in principle intermediate between that of calf-kid 7see p4 #bbc71 and the pure oil-tanning1 if we may call it so1 of which the chamois leather 7see p4 #baj7 is typical4 ,it depends on impregnating the raw hide with a mixture of fats and albumens1 to which salt or saltpetre is added to prevent putrefaction4 ,the process as described in the original patent was as follows1--,the hides were unhaired by liming or painting 7with sulphides71 and cleansed as usual1 no plumping lime being given4 ,after unhairing they were allowed to dry some little time in the air till no longer plump1 and were then worked in a tumbler drum1 without water1 till uniformly soft4 ,they were then spread on a table and brushed over on the flesh-sides with a mixture of #bc parts of ox-brain1 #f-a_/b of butter1 #bh of soft fat1 and #d of salt or saltpetre1 with #bf of barley-flour and #ab-a_/b of milk1 of which the leading #d ingredients were first to be mixed and the flour stirred in1 the milk being last added4 ,the hides were then returned to the tumbler1 which was provided with tubular axes1 through which a portion of exhaust steam was admitted to warm the drum4 ,after tumbling some hours1 the drum was opened1 and the hides were examined4 ,if the tanning was not complete1 the hides were hung in the air for a time to dry1 and the process was repeated till a cut showed that the mixture had completely penetrated the hide4 ,from ,eitner's researches it appears that the essential tanning ingredients of the mixture above described are the fat 7and butter which acts simply as fat7 and the albuminous matter of the milk 7casein71 brains 7albumen1 c471 and flour 7gluten72 the starch serving at most to assist in the emulsification of the fats4 ,eitner treated crown leather with dilute potash solution to remove the albumen and fats1 and after washing and drying obtained a material like an insufficiently stocked chamois leather4 ,on again stuffing with a quantity of fat equal to that removed1 but without the albumen1 the leather became dark and quite greasy1 so that by sharp bending oil could be pressed out4 ,good results may be obtained in crown leather manufactured with fats and flour only1 without the use of milk or brains1 so that it is obvious that the same purpose is served by either vegetable or animal albumenoids4 ,the most important point in the purposes for which crown leather is employed is toughness1 and this is given by the unaltered hide-fibres1 which are merely preserved by the coating of oily matter with which1 like those of chamois leather1 they are surrounded4 ,the albumen serves the purpose of filling the spaces between the fibres1 and giving solidity and firmness1 so that the belts may keep their shape1 and not stretch inordinately4 ,it also serves to make the leather waterproof1 and fit it for water-bags for military purposes 7as it gives no taste to the water7 and for hose-pipes4 ,the albumen1 which much resembles the hide-fibres in composition1 is like them preserved by the fats4 ,for the modern process of manufacture1 good1 even and well-flayed hides are selected1 and unhaired either by sweating1 or by a very short liming1 which must be assisted by rockers or some mechanical mode of moving the hides1 so as to get them unhaired in the shortest possible time and with the least injury to the fibre4 ,sodium sulphide 7see p4 #adg7 may be employed with great advantage4 ,the fleshing and scudding are performed as usual1 according to the mode of unhairing adopted4 ,the hides are then very commonly rounded1 and the bellies tanned in the usual manner2 but sometimes the whole hide is made into crown leather4 ,as crown leather is naturally almost white1 it is usual at this stage to colour the hide with bark or other liquors4 ,as in this case simply colouring and not tanning of the grain is required1 high-coloured liquors1 made by steaming materials with much colour and little tannin1 are preferable4 ,for this purpose wood extracts1 such as chestnut1 quebracho1 or oak-wood are said to be very suitable1 and beech1 pine or alder bark may also be used4 ,in practice1 chestnut and hemlock extracts1 and occasionally cutch are employed2 but the last named is not to be recommended4 ,a chestnut liquor of #g-a_/b ,tw4 or #e ,b4 7#cd ,bark471 with constant handling or in a paddle-tumbler1 will give a satisfactory colour and grain in #a-b hours4 ,this rapid colouring is preferable to the slower process1 which occupies #bd hours in weaker liquors4 ,if sweated1 the hides are now plumped with sulphuric acid1 but only to a very moderate extent4 ,this process is best performed in a paddle-tumbler2 about #c-a_/b oz4 of sulphuric acid are required per hide1 and a time of #f-ab hours according to the water employed4 ,the liquor may be several times used1 strengthened with the necessary quantity of acid4 ,limed hides do not require further swelling4 ,the hides are washed through clean water1 and hung up to dry somewhat4 ,the hides are next spread on a table1 flesh-side uppermost1 and covered with a layer of the tanning paste nearly #a_/d in4 thick4 ,the composition of this paste may be varied according to the relative prices of different materials1 and the amount of hard fats must be regulated according to whether or not appliances are provided for heating the tumbler4 ,a good mixture is #g parts common wheat-flour1 #g of horse-grease1 #a of salt1 and #a-b of tallow4 ,if too soft1 more tallow may be employed4 ,the salt is first added to the horse-grease1 then the melted tallow1 ,these fats are added little by little to the flour till a uniform paste is obtained4 ,another good mixture is #bg parts wheat-flour1 #be of bone-grease1 #d of tallow1 and #d of salt4 ,another recipe gives #bh lb4 fine white flour made to a paste with #ac-ad pints water and then worked up to a uniform mass with a tepid mixture of #bh lb4 beef tallow and #bh lb4 hard horse-fat 7,pferdekammfett74 ,these mixtures are all for use in warmed drums2 a specimen of one used in a factory where the mixture was simply trodden in cold into the leather in open tubs is as follows3--#g parts flour1 #id of horse-fat1 #bh of fish-oil1 #g of ox-brains and #jg of salt4 ,the hides are next folded in bundles and placed in the drum2 or in stocks1 which are occasionally used for the purpose4 ,if a drum be used1 it must be of large diameter1 #h-i ft41 provided with pegs inside1 and should make about #be revolutions per minute1 so as to work the hides with considerable force4 ,much more care is needed in warming the drum1 than is required in ordinary stuffing1 and this is best accomplished by warmed damp air4 ,this may be arranged by the use of an air-pump1 which draws air through water warmed by exhaust steam1 and forces it through the hollow axles of the drum 7or drums72 or a simple aspirator consisting of a cask filled with water may be connected to one axle1 so that as the water runs out it will draw air through the drum from the opposite axle1 which is connected with a cask half filled with hot water through which air is allowed to bubble4 ,probably the same effect could be reached in a still simpler and cheaper manner by the use of a steam-jet blower1 such as ,krting's4 ,in any case the drum must be warmed to a temperature of #hb-ajd ,f4 7#bh-dj ,c474 ,warm dry air may also be used1 but is not so suitable1 as it dries the hides too much4 ,the hides are tumbled #h-ab hours1 hung up till half-dry1 and the process is repeated4 ,for very heavy hides1 #d tumblings may be required4 ,in the later tumblings1 a lower temperature1 #ie ,f4 7#ce ,c471 may be employed1 and the time extended to #ae hours4 ,the currying of crown leather is very simple4 ,it is set out on flesh and grain1 and boarded to raise the grain4 ,mossner1 before currying1 washes #b hours in water and brushes with tepid soda solution 7#a in #fj74 ,the yield of weight is small1 only amounting to about #cj-dj per cent4 of the raw hide employed1 and hence the price per lb4 must be considerably higher than that of tanned leather to yield a profit4 ,the above information is mostly drawn from articles by ,w4 ,eitner 7',der ,gerber1' iv4 #a et seq47 and ,franz ,kathreiner 7',gerber ,zeitung1' #bast ,december1 #ahge74 ,,chapter ,,xix4 ,,mineral-,,tanned ,,leather4 ,the invention of the earliest form of mineral tanning1 that with alum and salt1 dates from remote antiquity2 but as it is in large measure the type of all that has been since done1 it deserves examination in some detail1 at least as regards principles4 ,in practice it is used alone in curing skins with the hair on1 and for making white leather for laces and other purposes2 and1 in combination with oil and albumen1 which1 as we have seen1 are the tanning agents in the case of crown leather1 it forms the process for producing calf and glove kids1 as will be described under those headings 7pp4 #bbc1 #bbe74 ,careful researches by ,reimer 7,ding4 ,polyt4 ,jour41 #bje1 p4 #adc et seq47 show 7what has long been known in practice7 that alum alone is not capable of making a pliable leather4 ,the salt1 nevertheless1 does not enter into combination with the alum1 or even with the hide4 ,its function is partially physical1 increasing the diffusion of the solution1 and partially chemical1 as in the presence of acids 7and salts of acid reaction7 it precipitates the coriin1 and prevents it from gluing the fibres into a horny mass as it dries4 ,prof4 ,knapp has shown that this is the first essential in producing leather1 and that raw hide may be converted into a pliable material with all the properties of white leather by simply withdrawing the water with alcohol1 in which coriin is not soluble1 and by which it is therefore precipitated4 ,this leather1 containing when dried no added constituent1 is of course at once reconverted into raw hide by soaking in water4 ,both the salt and a portion of the alumina is removed from tawed leather by soaking in water1 and it then dries hard and horny1 and by boiling in water will yield a considerable percentage of gelatin4 ,the alum is not absorbed as a whole4 ,it is a double salt 7alumina and potash sulphate or alumina and ammonia sulphate71 and only the alumina sulphate is absorbed1 potash 7or ammonia7 sulphate accumulating in the liquor4 ,the alumina salt retained by the hide1 especially in presence of much salt1 contains slightly more than its normal proportion of alumina to acid1 or in chemical language is to some extent basic4 ,this is caused partly by the lime remaining in the skin from the unhairing process1 which neutralises a portion of sulphuric acid1 but in part is the result of the affinity of the hide-fibres for alumina1 a certain small proportion of free sulphuric acid being left in the liquor4 ,the accumulation of this and of potash sulphate is the reason why such liquors cannot be used perpetually by mere strengthening with alum1 but must be frequently renewed4 ,the attraction of hide-fibre for alumina sulphate is so strong1 that in presence of a sufficient excess of hide it may be completely removed even from dilute solutions4 ,alumina acetate or sulphate may be substituted for alum with equally good results in practice1 the only advantage of the latter being its easier preparation4 ,ferric and chromic salts and iron or chrome alum1 may be substituted for common alum1 and are absorbed in a similar manner1 and in presence of common salt give equally pliable leathers1 of a buff and pale greenish tint respectively4 ,without salt1 the leathers are hard and brittle4 ,in all these cases1 the tanning agent may be to a large extent removed by simple washing with water4 ,the tannage may be rendered more durable by passing the leather before drying through a weak bath of sodic carbonate or even lime-water1 which precipitates the alumina1 iron1 or chrome in a basic form on the hide-fibres4 ,soap baths may also be used1 by which aluminic1 ferric1 or chromic stearates and oleates are formed1 possessing considerable toughness and resistance to water4 ,so far as the writer is aware1 no mineral tannage has yet been produced which will not yield gelatin when treated1 first with dilute acid and then with boiling water2 but this is rather a gain than otherwise1 as leather scraps might be utilised for glue4 ,there seems no reason why good and durable leather1 for boot-uppers and for many mechanical purposes1 should not be fabricated with salts of iron and chromium in conjunction with salt4 ,if eggs and flour were also used1 products similar to calf-kid would be obtained4 ,iron-leathers may of course be blacked with infusions of galls or many tanning materials1 or with logwood4 ,ferrous salts have no tanning properties4 ,if1 instead of using neutral iron salts1 basic ferric salts 7which may be obtained by dissolving ferric oxide in solution of neutral ferric salts1 or by oxidising ferrous sulphate with manganese black oxide1 or nitric acid7 be employed1 much larger quantities are absorbed by the hide1 and if this be fixed with soap baths and finished with a moderate quantity of oil1 a gain of weight--approaching #ej per cent4 of the finished leather1 or about the same as that given by bark1 may be obtained4 ,the leather1 however1 has by no means the same resistance to wet and decay as bark-tanned leather1 and invariably has a tendency to crack when sharply bent4 ,the process has been most carefully worked out by ,professor ,knapp1 and was patented and worked commercially for a short time in ,brunswick1 but apparently without financial success4 ,professor ,knapp's method is as follows3--,the iron solution is prepared by adding nitric acid to a boiling solution of ferrous sulphate 7green vitriol7 till the iron is completely oxidised to the ferric condition4 ,to this1 ferrous sulphate is again added so long as it continues to cause effervescence4 ,the resulting solution is a clear orange1 and of more or less syrupy consistence1 and may be evaporated without decomposition or crystallisation to a transparent varnish4 ,the hides are unhaired and prepared for tanning in the usual way1 and are then handled in solutions of the iron salt1 which are at first weak1 and are gradually strengthened4 ,skins are tanned in #b-c days1 and the heaviest hides in a week4 ,after tanning1 the hides are stuffed in a drum ventilated through the axes1 very similar to that described under crown leather1 p4 #bac1 with an insoluble iron-soap made by precipitating soap solution with the iron-liquor2 or the iron-soaps may be formed in the hide by the alternate use of iron and soap solutions1 as already described4 ,the leather is finally saturated with a solution of stearin and paraffin1 to render it waterproof4 ,a process which has been worked on a larger scale1 is that of ,dr4 ,heinzerling1 introduced about #ahgh1 with the usual promise of complete revolution in the leather trade2 but which1 in spite of the most determined and persevering efforts of the ,eglinton ,chemical ,company1 who own the ,english patent1 has failed to take any very prominent position in commerce4 ,the tanning materials employed are alum and salt1 with a varying proportion of potash1 soda1 or magnesia bichromate4 ,these salts have a very marked hardening effect on animal tissues1 and1 when mixed with gelatin and exposed to light or acted on by acids1 become reduced1 and at the same time render the gelatin insoluble even in hot water1 a property which is made useful in many photographic processes4 ,this is probably due to the formation of salts of chromium1 which1 as has been stated 7p4 #bai7 have a similar tanning effect1 but perhaps more powerful1 than those of alumina4 ,however this may be1 the effect of potash bichromate when exposed to light with gelatin1 differs from that of the addition of chrome salts ready formed1 the gelatin in the first case becoming incapable of even swelling in hot water1 while in the second1 though rendered insoluble1 it becomes soft and swollen4 ,the use of potash bichromate in tanning had been previously patented by ,cavalin1 who used it in conjunction with alum and salt1 and with the addition of a portion of green vitriol1 to give the leather a colour more similar to that of bark-tanned4 ,dr4 ,heinzerling uses metallic zinc in the salt and alum solution to assist in the precipitation of amorphous alumina on the hide-fibres4 ,the same material was used in a similar way by ,jennings 7,no4 #bbie1 #ahfa71 but with the object of whitening the goods4 ,yellow or red prussiates of potash 7potassic ferrocyanide or ferricyanide71 are also sometimes mixed with the solution1 in order to enable the leather to be blacked with iron-liquor1 with which they produce prussian blue4 ,to fix the tannage on the fibre1 and prevent its washing out1 the use of barium chloride1 lead acetate1 and of soap solution is claimed2 the latter having been also patented for similar purposes by ,knapp1 and subsequently by ,jennings and others4 ,in order to render the leather waterproof1 it is finally saturated with solutions of paraffin1 stearin1 and other fats and hydrocarbons 7resin is employed1 though not named in the patent71 in petroleum spirit and similar solvents4 ,such is the original patent1 which1 it will be seen1 is rather a combination of older processes than an original discovery4 ,whether it is still worked on the same lines the writer is unable to say1 but he is aware that considerable improvements have been made in the finish and appearance of the goods4 ,the leather in its present form possesses considerable resistance to water1 is free from the brittleness so common in mineral tannages1 and like other alumed leathers1 considerably exceeds bark-tanned leather in toughness and elasticity4 ,these make it valuable for many purposes1 and among others1 for machine-belting1 although it has the disadvantage of elongating considerably while in use4 ,,chapter ,,xx4 ,,calf-,,kid4 ,calf-kid is used for light upper-leather1 and belongs to a different class from any yet described1 being tawed instead of tanned4 ,in this respect1 and in most details of its manufacture1 it resembles glove-kid4 ,the process is as follows4 ,selected calf-skins1 dried or salted1 are the raw material1 and after a suitable softening in fresh water1 are limed for #b-c weeks1 or till the hair goes easily4 ,they are then unhaired and fleshed in the usual manner1 pured with a bate of dogs' dung1 scudded1 and again cleansed with a bran drench4 ,in ,germany1 the bran drench is used alone1 and is composed of #cc lb4 bran to #ajj medium skins4 ,before use1 the bran should1 especially in summer1 be well washed1 to free it from adhering meal4 ,the temperature of the drench should not exceed #ajj ,f4 7#ch ,c471 and the skins should remain in for #h-aj hours4 ,lactic acid is produced by fermentation2 this removes lime1 and is itself neutralised by the products of putrid fermentation which succeeds it4 ,the tanning is accomplished in a drum with a mixture of alum and salt2 and after drying1 the skins are again moistened1 and worked in the drum with a mixture of oil1 flour1 and egg-yolk4 ,in the ,german method1 these two operations are combined4 ,eitner1 who has written a series of articles on the process1 gives #dj lb4 flour1 #bj lb4 alum1 #i lb4 salt1 #bej eggs1 or about #a-a_/c gal4 of egg-yolk1 #g_/h pint 7#a_/b litre7 of olive-oil1 and #ab-af gal4 water1 as a suitable mixture4 ,the skins are worked in a drum-tumbler 7preferably a square one1 see ,plate #e7 for #bj minutes1 then allowed to rest #aj minutes1 and this process is twice repeated4 ,the temperature must not exceed #ajj ,f4 7#ch ,c471 and it is said to be important that the drum should be ventilated by holes at the axis4 ,the skins are allowed to drain1 are then rapidly dried at a temperature of #adj-afj ,f4 7#fj-ga ,c471 and1 after samming1 or damping with cold water1 are staked by drawing them to and fro over a blunt knife fixed on the top of a post 7see ,plate #f74 ,they are then wetted down and shaved1 either with the moon-knife or ordinary curriers' shaving-knife1 and sometimes receive a second dressing of oil1 flour1 and egg1 to soften them still further4 ,dyeing black is accomplished either by brushing on a table1 or by ridging or folding1 grain-side outwards1 and drawing quickly through baths of the mordant and colour4 ,to prepare them for the colour1 stale urine is generally employed4 ,a deeper colour1 and one less liable to strike through the skin1 is obtained by adding #a_/d lb4 potash bichromate to #d gal4 of urine1 or the following mixture may be substituted with advantage1 viz4 #a_/b lb4 ,marseilles soap dissolved in boiling water1 #e or #f egg-yolks added1 and the whole made up to #d gal4 with water and #a_/d lb4 potash bichromate4 ,the colour used is infusion of logwood or its extract1 or two-thirds logwood1 which is best extracted by stale urine or old soak-liquor1 with addition of a small quantity of soda 7#a lb4 to #be lb4 dye-wood74 ,it is fixed and darkened by a wash of iron-liquor 7#a of iron protosulphate in #ge of cold water74 ,after being again dried1 the skins are grounded with the moon-knife1 and rubbed over on the grain with a composition containing oil1 wax1 c41 and are finally ironed with a flat-iron1 to give them a fine and smooth surface4 ,eitner gives a recipe for the gloss3--#a lb4 gum arabic1 #a_/b lb4 yellow wax1 #a_/b lb4 beef-tallow1 #c_/d lb4 ,marseilles soap1 #b lb4 strong logwood infusion1 and #a gal4 water4 ,the water is brought to a boil in an earthen pot1 and then the soap1 wax1 gum1 and tallow are added successively1 each being stirred till dissolved before adding the next1 and lastly the logwood4 ,after boiling for an hour1 it is allowed to completely cool1 being incessantly stirred during the whole process4 ,,chapter ,,xxi4 ,,glove-,,kid4 ,this branch of leather manufacture is mainly carried on in ,germany1 ,austria1 and ,france4 ,in ,germany and ,austria1 lamb-skins are principally employed2 in ,france1 kid-skins4 ,for fine gloves1 the skins of very young animals only can be used4 ,the ordinary style of manufacture is as follows3--,the soaking of the dried skins is effected in large wooden tubs 7,kufen1 ,bottichen71 and occupies on the average #c-d days1 according to the character of the soak-water1 the size of the skins1 and the time they have been stored4 ,the skins1 when thoroughly and uniformly softened1 are unhaired1 either by painting the flesh-side with a thin paste of lime1 or in lime-pits4 ,in unhairing by painting 7,schwden71 the skins1 after coating the flesh-side with lime1 are folded together1 so that the lime comes as little as possible into contact with the wool1 and these bundles or cushions are placed in a tub1 in which they are most frequently covered with water4 ,after unhairing on the beam with a blunt knife1 the skins must be limed for some days1 in order that the leather may stretch well1 a quality which the ,germans denominate ,zug4 ,by this method of unhairing1 the wool is preserved uninjured1 but it is not suitable for the finer sorts of leather4 ,the unhairing in lime-pits is done either with gas-lime 7,grnkalk71 or1 as is now almost exclusively the practice1 with the so-called poison-limes 7,giftscher74 ,these are prepared by mixing red arsenic 7arsenic sulphide7 with lime1 while it is being slaked1 and is at its hottest4 ,the calcic sulphydrate 7and perhaps sulpharsenite7 thus formed hastens the unhairing1 and gives the grain a higher gloss4 ,well-conducted establishments now avoid as much as possible the use of old limes1 which produce a loose1 porous leather1 with a rough1 dull grain4 ,the liming lasts on the average #aj days1 and is of the greatest importance4 ,it is essential that the interfibrillary substance shall be dissolved1 that the leather may have the quality known as ,stand1 that is to say1 may be strongly stretched in either length or breadth without springing back4 ,it also depends upon the liming 7and this is of special importance in the case of lamb-skins71 whether the tissue of the fat-glands is well loosened1 so that the fat1 either as such1 or as lime- or ammonia-soap1 may be readily and completely worked out4 ,skins in which this is neglected can never be properly dyed4 ,when the hair 7or wool7 is well loosened1 the skins are rinsed in water1 and then unhaired on the beam with a blunt knife4 ,the water employed in washing should not be much colder than the limes1 or it will prevent the hair from coming away readily4 ,the wool or hair is washed and dried for sale4 ,the skins are thrown into water1 to which a little lime-liquor has been added1 to prevent precipitation of the lime in the skins by the free carbonic acid of the water1 which would have the effect of making them rough-grained4 ,next comes the first fleshing 7,vergleichen7 or levelling4 ,by this1 the loose cellular tissue on the flesh-side is removed1 together with the head1 ears1 and shanks1 and the flanks are trimmed4 ,the skins are then again thrown into water1 softened with lime-liquor as above described1 and then into a bate of dogs' dung4 ,this is prepared by stirring up white and putrid dogs' dung with boiling water1 and straining it through a sieve or wicker basket4 ,the bate must be used tepid1 and not too strong4 ,the skins fall 7lose their plumpness7 in it rapidly1 and become extremely soft and fine to the touch2 and the fat-glands1 remaining hairs1 and other dirt1 can now be very readily scudded out4 ,so far no completely satisfactory substitute has been found for this somewhat disgusting mixture1 but it has been noted that guano will produce similar effects4 ,with regard to the mode of action of the dung bate1 much has been speculated without proof1 and exact analytical evidence is wanting2 but1 no doubt1 a weak putrefactive action goes on1 as may be deduced from the presence of bacteria2 further1 the ammonia and weak organic acids present in the putrefying dung are capable of acting on fat and lime2 and finally1 a direct mechanical effect seems to be produced1 difficult to describe1 but favourable to the succeeding manipulation4 ,too strong bates1 or too long continuance in them1 produces evident putrefactive effects on the skins4 7,see also p4 #ahd47 ,when the skins come out of the bate1 they are stretched and worked 7abgezogen7 on the flesh with a sharp knife1 and any remaining subcutaneous tissue is removed4 ,this constitutes the second fleshing4 ,they are then rinsed in warm water1 and beaten with clubs 7,stoss-keule71 see ,plates #c and #d1 in a tub1 or worked in a tumbler-drum 7,walkfass71 in either case with a very little water only2 and finally brought into a tank of water1 not too cold1 and kept in constant motion with a paddle-wheel4 ,the skins are next cleansed on the grain-side by working on the beam with plates of vulcanite with wooden handles1 so as to remove fat1 lime- and ammonia-soaps1 and other lime compounds1 together with all remaining hair or wool4 ,the skins are now a second time washed in the paddle-tumbler1 first in cold1 and then in tepid water2 and after allowing the water to drain from them1 they are transferred to the bran drench4 ,this is prepared by soaking wheaten bran in cold water1 diluting with warm water1 and straining the extract through a fine hair-sieve4 ,sufficient of the liquid must be employed to well cover the skins1 and the temperature may range from #ej ,f4 7#aj ,c47 to #fh ,f4 7#bj ,c474 ,these conditions are favourable to bacterial activity1 which comes into play1 and1 on the one hand1 evolves formic1 acetic1 lactic1 and butyric acids1 which dissolve any remaining traces of lime1 and on the other1 loosens and differentiates the hide tissue1 so as to fit it to absorb the tawing solution 7,gare74 ,much care is required in the management of the bran drench1 especially in summer1 since the lactic readily passes into the butyric fermentation 7see also p4 #ahf74 ,the tawing mixture is composed 7like that employed in the fabrication of calf-kid1 q4 v47 of alum1 salt1 flour1 and egg-yolks1 in a quite thin paste4 ,the skins are either trodden in it with the feet1 or put into a tumbler-drum with it 7,fig4 #dh74 ,kathreiner pointed out1 some years since 7in vol4 i4 of ',der ,gerber'71 that a mixture of olive-oil and glycerine might be partially substituted for the egg-yolks1 in both the tanning and dyeing of glove-kid leather4 ,the tawed skins are now dried by hanging on poles1 grain inwards4 ,rapid drying in well-ventilated1 but only moderately-heated1 rooms is essential to the manufacture of a satisfactory product4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ei4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fj4 ,the dry leather is rapidly passed through tepid water1 and after being hung for a very short time1 to allow the water to drain off1 is trodden tightly into chests1 and allowed to remain in them for about #ab hours1 so that the moisture may be uniformly distributed4 ,it is then trodden on hurdles 7,horden71 composed of square bars of wood1 joined corner to corner1 so as to make a floor of sharply angular ridges1 ,fig4 #ei4 ,the next operation is stretching over a circular knife1 called the ,stollmond 7stollen1 ,eng4 staking71 shown in ,fig4 #fj2 then the leather is dried nearly completely1 and staked again4 ,dyeing4 ,the dyeing of glove-kids is done in #b ways3--a4 ,the skins are plunged into the dye-bath 7,tunkfarben74 ,in this way1 all light colours are ordinarily produced1 such as gris-perle 7pearl-grey71 paill 7straw-yellow71 chamois 7reddish yellow71 silver-grey1 aquamarine1 c4 b4 ,the skins are spread on an inclined or rounded table of stone or metal1 and brushed over1 on the grain side1 first with a mordant 7,beize71 then with the dye-liquor1 and lastly1 with a solution of a mineral salt 7,plate #g74 ,the mordant serves to fix the colour on the surface of the skin1 to prevent its striking through1 to produce certain modifications of colour1 and to enable any parts of the skin which yet contain fat to take the colour evenly with the rest4 ,to satisfy these conditions1 the composition of the mordants is very varied4 ,potash bichromate1 ammonia1 potash1 soda1 and stale urine are among the most frequently employed1 seldom separately1 but usually in a mixture containing #b or more4 ,dye-stuffs of vegetable origin have always held the first place4 ,those most in use are logwood 7,blauholz71 ,brazilwood 7,rothholz71 the two fustics--,cuba ,gelbholz 7,morus tinctoria7 and ,ungarisches ,gelbholz 7,rhus cotinus71 several species of willow-bark and of berries1 indigo-carmine1 and indigo dissolved in sulphuric acid4 ,aniline colours used alone remained in fashion for a short time only1 but are now usefully employed as top-colours 7,ueberfarben71 viz4 brushed in very dilute solution over vegetable colours4 ,in this way1 particularly tasteful shades of green1 violet1 and marine-blue may be produced4 ,after the mordant has been applied once or twice1 and the colour #c-f times1 a wash 7,ueberstrich7 containing some metallic salt is generally applied1 with the object either of bringing out the special tone required1 or of making the colour more lively and permanent4 ,the so-called vitriols are mostly employed3 white vitriol 7zinc sulphate71 blue vitriol 7copper sulphate71 green vitriol 7iron sulphate71 and occasionally other salts4 ,before dyeing1 the greater part of the flour1 salt1 and alum must be removed from the skins by washing with tepid water2 and they therefore require a second feeding 7,nahrung7 of egg-yolk and salt4 ,in the case of the skins which are dyed by plunging into the dye-vat 7,tunkfarben71 this is done after the dyeing is completed2 in that of brush-dyeing1 before the dyeing process4 ,after the dyeing1 the skins1 if dipped1 are wrung out2 if brush-dyed1 sleeked out with a brass plate1 to get rid of superfluous water4 ,they are then dried in an airy room4 ,before staking 7stretching71 the skins are laid or hung in a damp cellar1 or in moist saw-dust4 ,they are staked twice3 once damp1 and once nearly dry4 ,skins which are much damaged on the grain1 or otherwise faulty1 are smoothed with lump pumice on the flesh-side1 either by hand or machine4 ,they are then dyed on this side1 mostly by dipping1 but occasionally with the brush1 in which case1 the method described is slightly modified4 ,indebtedness is acknowledged to ,f4 ,kathreiner1 of ,worms1 and ,david ,richardson1 of ,newcastle1 for much information on the production of light leathers4 ,the ,plates #a to #h represent the works of ,messrs4 ,trfousse et ,cie41 at ,chaumont 7,haute-,marne74 ,,chapter ,,xxii4 ,,construction ,,and ,,maintenance ,,of ,,tanneries4 ,as few architects have specially studied the construction of tanneries1 and in most cases much of the arrangement depends on the knowledge of the tanner himself1 a short chapter on the subject will not be out of place4 ,in the selection of a site1 a clay or loamy soil is to be preferred to a gravelly or sandy one1 as lessening the liability to leakage1 and waste of liquor4 ,perhaps1 however1 the first consideration of all is the water supply1 since for manufacturing purposes town water is generally very expensive4 ,with regard to quality and impurities of water1 information may be found on p4 #hc2 but1 as a general rule1 the softer and purer the supply the better4 ,it is also of great advantage when the source is at such a level as to flow into the tan-yard1 or at least into the beam-house1 without pumping4 ,filtration too1 when needed1 is much facilitated by a sufficient head of water4 ,of scarcely less importance than the water supply is the drainage of the yard4 ,it not unfrequently happens that tanneries are prohibited from discharging their refuse liquors1 limes1 and soaks into rivers and watercourses1 and it is sometimes a matter of extreme difficulty to find any other way of getting rid of them4 ,in default of an outlet1 recourse must be had to precipitation and filtration1 but this is a costly expedient1 and in fixing a site for a new yard it is far better to provide against such a possible contingency4 ,should1 however1 such means become necessary1 it may be borne in mind that limes and liquors in great measure mutually precipitate each other1 and that if all the various refuse is run into one tank1 mixed1 and settled1 much is accomplished in the direction of purification4 ,the further treatment of the effluent water must be determined by its nature and composition4 ,the site chosen1 the next question is the arrangement of the buildings4 ,it is very doubtful1 where ground is not inordinately expensive1 whether it is wise to erect drying-sheds over the pits4 ,in case of fire1 very serious damage is done to liquor and leather by the heat and burning timber4 ,if the turret form of drier be decided on1 strong foundations are required1 and the ground-floor or basement is occupied with heating apparatus2 and1 on the other hand1 the tan-house may be easily and cheaply covered with slated roofs1 with sections of glass1 to the north1 if possible1 like a weaving-shed1 through which sufficient light for convenient work and cleanliness is admitted4 ,the direct rays of the sun should be avoided1 but in the writer's opinion the balance of advantage is largely in favour of a liberal supply of light4 ,iron roofs are unsuitable1 since the moisture condenses on1 and rusts them2 and particles of oxide fall into the liquors1 and cause iron-stains4 ,good ventilation along the ridge of the roof should be provided1 wherever there is any steam or hot liquor used2 or the condensed moisture soon leads to decay4 ,as regards the general plan of the buildings1 much depends on local circumstances2 but as far as possible1 they must be so arranged that the hides and leather work straight forward from one department to another with as little wheeling or carrying as possible2 that the buildings where power is used be near to the engine1 so as to avoid long transmissions1 which are very wasteful of power2 and that the different buildings be so isolated as to diminish the risk of the whole being destroyed in case of fire4 ,as regards the first of these conditions1 if the various soaks1 limes1 bates1 and handlers are well arranged1 it is hardly necessary to do more than draw the goods from one pit into the next throughout the whole of the process4 ,to1 and from the layers1 the goods must generally be carried or wheeled4 ,in the sheds1 if it be a sole-leather tannery1 the butts should first come into turrets or open sheds for the rough drying2 then into a room sheltered from draughts to temper for striking4 ,the striking machines or beams should be in an adjoining room1 or immediately below2 then a small shed-space for drying before rolling2 next the roller room2 and then the warm stove for drying off4 ,if two of these can be provided to be used alternately1 it will allow the goods to be aired off without taking down1 and they may then be immediately handed or lowered into the warehouse1 without fear of over-drying1 which is sometimes difficult to avoid where leather must be taken direct out of the hot drying-room4 ,to fulfil the second condition named1 the engine should be at the centre of the main range of buildings1 with perhaps the grinding machinery on one side1 and the leather-finishing on the other2 but this would be rather contrary to the third requirement4 ,a very good plan would be to have the engine-house in the centre as suggested1 but separated from the buildings on each side by brick gables2 and with the boiler-house behind it1 and under a separate roof1 say of corrugated iron4 ,figs4 #fa1 #fb1 from ,eitner's book on ,american ,tanning1 show the arrangement of a sole-leather tannery in the ,united ,states4 ,if it be impossible to have the engine near its work1 it is in most cases better to employ a separate high-pressure engine1 which may be within a glass partition1 and will work all day with scarcely any attention4 ,the loss of power in carrying steam for moderate distances through sufficiently large and well-clothed pipes is much smaller than that of long lines of shafting4 ,the writer has known cases where fully half the indicated power of the engine was consumed in friction of the engine1 shafting1 and belts4 ,high-pressure engines are as a rule to be preferred to condensing for tannery use1 since the waste steam can generally be employed for heating1 and both the first cost and that of maintenance are smaller4 ,where much fuel is used1 it is quite worth while to have the cylinders indicated occasionally1 both running light1 and driving the machinery2 much information is gained in this way as to the power spent on the various machines1 and very frequently large economy is effected by proper adjustment of the valves4 ,to work economically1 an engine should be of ample power for all it has to do2 and adjusted to its work1 not by lowering the pressure of steam1 or by checking it at the throttle-valve1 but by setting the slide-valves to cut off as early in the stroke as may be4 ,as to how early this is possible1 an indicator-diagram will at once give information4 ,in arranging shafting1 moderate speeds1 say #ajj-aej rev4 per min41 should be chosen for main lines1 and when higher speeds are necessary1 they should be got up by light and well-balanced counter-shafts1 with wrought-iron pulleys4 ,in calculating speeds1 it must be remembered that they vary inversely as the size of the pulleys4 ,thus a #c ft4 pulley running at #ajj rev41 will drive a #b ft4 one at #aej rev41 and a #ab in4 one at #cjj4 ,of course the higher its speed1 the more power any shaft will transmit1 but increased friction and wear and tear soon limit this advantage4 ,the velocity of a belt in feet per min4 is obtained by multiplying the number of revolutions per minute by the girth of the pulley in feet or by its diameter multiplied by #c-a_/g1 or more accurately1 #cadaf4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fa4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fb4 ,pulleys should always be of ample breadth for the power they have to transmit2 and it is more economical both in power and cost1 to use broad single belting than the same strength in double4 ,if the pulley will not take a belt broad enough for the work it has to do1 a second belt may be made to run on the top of the first1 and will do its share of the work4 ,belts should be washed occasionally with soap and tepid water1 and oiled with cod-oil2 but if of sufficient breadth1 should not require the use of rosin1 or adhesive materials1 to make them grip the pulley4 ,makers of machines often err in constructing their driving pulleys too small both in breadth and diameter4 ,the horse-power which a belt is capable of transmitting obviously varies extremely with circumstances1 but may be approximately calculated by the formula 7a v7_/#ffjjj1 where a is the area of contact of the belt with the smallest pulley1 and v its velocity in feet per minute4 ,another rule is1 that at a velocity of #ajjj ft4 per min4 each inch of breadth of belt should transmit #b-a_/b horse-power on metal pulleys1 or #e on wooden ones1 on which the adhesion is greater4 ,adhesion may also be increased by covering the pulleys with leather or india-rubber4 ,both rules assume that the belt is of ample strength4 ,one horse-power would be transmitted by a belt running #ajjj ft4 per min4 with a pull of #cc lb4 ,a good single belt should not break with a much less strain than #ajjj lb4 per inch of breadth1 and should stand about #a_/aj as much as a working strain4 ,countershafting and high-speed machinery1 such as disintegrators1 striking machines of the ,priestman type1 c41 should run without material jar or vibration4 ,if this occurs1 it is generally a sign that the running part is not equally balanced4 ,in this case1 the shaft must be taken out of its bearings1 and supported on two exactly horizontal straight-edges1 when it will roll till the heaviest part is downwards2 and weight must be taken off or added till it will lie in any position4 ,in this way1 the writer had recently to add fully #b lb4 of iron to the drum of a striking machine before equilibrium was secured1 and a most troublesome vibration prevented4 ,of course all machinery should be supported as solidly as possible2 and if circumstances permit1 most machines are better on a ground-floor4 ,in placing bark mills1 however1 it is frequently convenient to fix them in the top of a building1 so that the ground material may be sent down shoots by its own weight to the required places4 ,an alternative plan is to set the mill on the ground-floor1 and to raise the ground material with a bucket-elevator4 ,this may be done successfully by letting the material fall directly from the mill into the buckets2 but otherwise it must be thrown in with a shovel1 as buckets will not pick up ground bark1 even from a hopper2 and in any case such elevators are often troublesome4 ,in a grinding plant designed by the writer1 the unground material is filled on the basement floor into an iron barrow1 which may be wheeled into an iron bow working between upright guide-rails4 ,on pulling a brake-line1 the barrow is raised to the top of the building1 and its contents are tipped into a large hopper1 after which the barrow rights itself1 and descends for another load4 ,in the bottom of the hopper is a sliding shover1 which forces the material on to vibrating screens1 by which it is guided either into a disintegrator1 or crusher rolls1 at pleasure4 ,both these discharge through iron spouts into large hoppers on the outside of a brick gable1 from which1 powdery materials like myrabolanes and valonia1 can be run direct into barrows or trucks4 ,it is very desirable that such hoppers should be separated from the main building by a fireproof partition4 ,the writer is glad to say1 he does not know of a case of fire from disintegrators grinding tanning materials1 but he is informed that a ,carter's disintegrator employed in grinding bones in a manure works has repeatedly set fire to the flannel bag into which the dust was allowed to escape4 ,if this were to occur with a dry and dusty tanning material1 it is not unlikely that it might result in an explosion such as sometimes happens in flour-mills from a similar cause4 ,on the whole1 however1 mills of the coffee-mill type are probably more dangerous than disintegrators2 since if they become partially choked1 the heat caused by friction is very great4 ,for lubricating purposes1 mineral oils of high density are not more dangerous than animal or vegetable1 but rather the reverse2 as1 though they are possibly more inflammable1 their mixture with cotton-waste and other porous vegetable materials is not spontaneously combustible1 while vegetable and animal oils occasionally are4 ,heavy mineral oils should always be used as cylinder oils in high-pressure engines1 in preference to other oils or tallow1 since they are not decomposed by steam1 and do no harm if blown into the feed-water1 but serve to loosen and prevent scale and deposit4 ,ordinary oils and tallow1 on the other hand1 when submitted to the action of high-pressure steam1 are separated into glycerin and fatty acids 7see p4 #fj71 and the latter corrode the valve faces and seatings1 and in combination with temporary hardness in the boilers form a very dangerous porous deposit1 which often leads to overheating of the tubes4 ,next to the machinery1 the pits demand special consideration4 ,the chapter on the subject in ,mr4 ,schultz's book on ',leather ,manufacture1' is well worth attentive study as giving ,american practice on the subject4 ,the old-fashioned method of sinking pits is to make them of wood1 and carefully puddle them round with clay1 which should be well worked up before use4 ,such pits1 if made of good pine and kept in constant use1 are very durable1 some of the original pits at ,lowlights ,tannery1 constructed in #agfe1 being still in use4 ,loam mixed with water to the consistence of thin mortar may also be employed1 the pits being filled up with water1 to keep them steady1 at the same rate as the loam is run in4 ,probably the best materials for pit-sides are the large ,yorkshire flagstones4 ,where these are not attainable1 very durable pits may be made of brick1 either built with ,lias lime1 and pointed with ,portland cement1 or built entirely with the latter4 ,common lime cannot be used1 as it spoils both liquors and leather2 and even cements with too large a percentage of lime are unsatisfactory4 ,brick and common mortar are1 however1 suitable for lime-pits4 ,the writer has constructed wooden pits in two ways4 ,in the one case1 after making the excavation1 beams were laid in a well-puddled bed of clay2 on these a floor of strong tongued and grooved deals was laid1 and on this the pits were constructed of similar wood to the floor1 and puddled round with clay4 ,in the second case the pits were built like large boxes above ground1 and when finished1 lowered on to a bed of clay prepared for them1 and then puddled both around and between4 ,it may have been from defective workmanship in the first case1 but those made on the last-named plan1 which is that adopted from very early times1 have certainly proved the tightest and most satisfactory4 ,mr4 ,schultz describes a plan as the ,buffalo method1 in which a floor is laid as just described1 and grooves cut with a plane for the reception of the sides1 which are formed of perpendicular planks1 each end and side being finally tightened up by the insertion of a wedge plank4 ,if bricks be used1 great care must be taken that the cement is not merely laid so as to fill the joints towards the two surfaces of the wall1 as is the habit of modern bricklayers1 but actually floated into all the joints so as to make the wall a solid mass2 or leaks can hardly be avoided4 ,cement pits are very good1 and1 though not particularly cheap in material1 which must be of the best1 are readily made by intelligent labourers under good supervision4 ,the first step is to lay a level floor of good concrete1 in which glazed pipes for emptying the pits may be embedded2 care being also taken that all joints in these are thoroughly tight1 since future repairs are impossible4 ,the next step is to make frames1 the exact length and breadth of the pits required1 and perhaps #ae in4 deep4 ,these are arranged on the floor where the pits are to be1 and the intervening spaces are filled with concrete of perhaps #a of cement to #c or #d of crushed stone or brick4 ,rough stones and bricks may also be bedded in the concrete as the work goes on1 to help to fill up4 ,after the first layer has set1 the frames may be raised and a second added1 and so on4 ,the work is generally finished by floating over it1 while still damp1 a little pure cement1 to give a smooth surface4 ,before using1 the cement should be tried on a small scale1 to be sure that it does not discolour leather or liquors1 and the pits should always be seasoned with old or cheap liquor before actual use4 ,if possible1 both latches and handler-pits should be provided with plugs and underground pipes1 communicating with a liquor-well some feet below their levels4 ,glazed fire-clay is very suitable both for pipes and plug-holes1 which should be in the pit corners4 ,some means should also be provided for the ready clearing of the pipes when choked with tanning materials4 ,a good plan is to let each line of pipes end in a liquor-well large enough for a man to go down4 ,as it is almost impossible to make plugs fit without occasional leakage1 it is not well to run pits with very different strengths of liquors to one well1 but the layers1 handlers1 and different sets of leaches should each have their own1 so as to avoid mixture4 ,a good means of clearing pipes consists in a series of iron rods #c-d ft4 long1 connected by hooks fitting into double eyes1 as shown in ,fig4 #fc4 ,it is obvious that in a narrow pipe or drain1 these cannot become disconnected4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fc4 ,it is1 as ,schultz points out1 of questionable advantage to lay wooden troughs for supplying liquor to each pit under the alleys1 since it is almost impossible to preserve them from decay2 but the same objection would not apply to glazed pipes1 well clayed or cemented4 ,a very good and cheap plan in practice1 is to let the liquor-pump1 or a raised liquor-cistern1 discharge into a large and quite horizontal trough raised #e or #f feet above the level of the yard1 and provided with plug-holes at intervals1 under which short troughs may be set to run the liquor into the various pits4 ,illustration3 ,,pl4 ,,viii4 ,e4 ,f4 ,n4 ,spon1 ,london ,new ,york4 ,,ink-,,photo4 ,,sprague ,,co4 ,,london4 ,,rubbing-,,down ,,dyed ,,skins4 ,in tan-yard construction1 iron should1 as far as possible1 be avoided wherever it can come into contact with liquor1 as it discolours the leather4 ,in default of underground pipes1 india-rubber suction hose may be employed4 ,direct-acting steam pumps without fly-wheels are not suitable for tanneries1 as they hammer when the pit is nearly sucked up4 ,steam-jet elevators and the pulsometer are very useful for some purposes1 but slightly warm1 and dilute the liquors with condensed steam4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fd4 ,much that has been said about pits applies also to leaches4 ,they may be constructed either of wood1 or brick and cement1 and where heat is employed the latter is the better4 ,they are also to be provided with plugs and pipes leading to a liquor-well4 ,about #f in4 from the bottom of the pit is a false bottom ,b made of boards1 perforated with holes or set a little distance apart2 and in the corner is an eye ,c 7,ger4 ,pfaff7 consisting of #b boards set at right angles1 so as to preserve a vertical channel communicating with the space under the false bottom4 ,this serves1 in pits provided with pipes1 for the insertion of the plug2 and where this is absent1 for that of a suction hose to pump off the liquor4 ,in the ,american ,press-leck ,system1 the eye of one pit communicates by a horizontal spout with the top of the next 7see ,d1 ,fig4 #fd74 ,the ,allen and ,warren ,sprinkler ,leck 7,fig4 #fe7 has very much superseded this arrangement in ,america1 though it is doubtful if it spends the bark so completely4 ,the round tubs1 however1 have several advantages and may well be used for many purposes in ,english yards4 ,their construction is described in some detail in ,mr4 ,schultz's book above cited4 ,some details will also be found on p4 #bji of the ',manufacture of ,leather' by ,davis4 ,the rule for finding the capacity of a round tub with perpendicular sides in cubic feet is to square the diameter and multiply by #ghed1 and by the depth in feet2 or roughly1 to square half the diameter and multiply by the depth and by #c-a_/g4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fe4 ,leaches and liquors are generally heated by blowing in steam direct4 ,in this case1 the condensed water mixes with the liquor1 and in heating a liquor to boiling point it may be taken that about #bj per cent4 of water will be thus added4 ,where strong liquors are to be heated1 it is therefore obviously much better to pass the steam into a closed copper coil in the liquor4 ,such a coil1 with steam at #cj lb4 pressure1 will heat about #bg-a_/b gal4 per hour per square foot of surface from #df ,f4 to boiling1 and evaporate about half that quantity of liquor already at boiling temperature4 7,see ,box1 ',treatise on ,heat1' p4 #agf47 ,heating coils must of course be provided with steam traps to carry off condensed water2 and in boiling by open steam it is very desirable to let the steam pass through such a trap before use1 to stop water condensed in the pipes1 which usually contains iron1 and discolours the liquors4 ,,chapter ,,xxiii4 ,,drying-,,sheds ,,for ,,leather4 ,the primitive way of drying leather was to hang it on poles in the open air1 but this in our uncertain climate has become quite obsolete4 ,the oldest plan now actually in use is to hang on poles in a shed generally raised some height above the ground1 so as to catch the wind1 and provided on all sides with louvre boards arranged so as to open and shut as required4 ,these sheds1 to give good results 7especially on mixed tannages1 which need much more care in drying than bark71 demand very watchful management4 ,in windy weather1 and with wet leather at all times1 the louvres must be kept nearly or quite closed1 and on the sunny side of the shed the same precaution is generally necessary4 ,again1 in very damp weather the leather does not dry at all1 and in frosty seasons it is apt to freeze1 by which sole leather is made soft and spongy1 and dressing leather1 though whitened1 is said to be less capable of carrying grease4 ,to prevent freezing1 and to enable leather to be dried in damp or cold weather1 it became customary to provide sheds with ranges of steam-pipes on the floor2 this1 though decidedly a valuable addition1 has not proved by any means an entirely satisfactory solution of the problem of leather drying4 ,no sufficient means are provided for controlling the ventilation1 and the upward currents of hot air dry the leather irregularly1 and produce bad colour4 ,a much more satisfactory shed is the ,american turret drier4 ,this consists of a lofty building1 #c to #h stories high1 without louvres1 but with latticed floors4 ,j4 ,s4 ,schultz recommends #e stories1 of #g ft4 clear between beams1 as a convenient height1 and the building should be divided by partitions from top to bottom into #d or more series of chambers one above another1 each of which is capable of having the heat and ventilation separately regulated4 ,the ,americans usually fill one of these series at once1 and dry off the whole in about #aj days1 so that as many will be required for a tannery as will hold a #aj days' production4 ,for ventilation1 each of these sets of chambers is provided with a lantern ventilator at the top for the exit1 and shutters or dampers on the bottom floor for the admission of air4 ,the bottom floor is also provided with steam-pipes1 of which those for each set of compartments are controlled by a separate cock4 ,when warmth is applied at the bottom1 the tall building acts like a chimney1 and a continuous current of air passes from the ventilators at the base up to those at the top4 ,the usual ,american practice is1 after filling one of these ranges of compartments1 to apply no steam-heat for the first #c or #d days1 and1 if the weather be dry or windy to keep the ventilators also closed4 ,after the third or fourth day1 a moderate degree of heat is given1 and this is increased so that at the end of about #aj days the stock is fully dry4 ,this is in accordance with a common ,american practice1 in which the leather is fully dried before rolling1 in order to fix the soluble colour1 and prevent it striking out to the surface in the finishing4 ,the wet leather is raised by an elevator1 consisting of an endless chain provided with hooks1 to which the leather is attached at the bottom1 and from which it is taken at the top4 ,various ways are adopted to lower the leather from these tall turrets to the room where it is stored prior to damping down for rolling4 ,in some cases1 the lattice floors are made movable1 and the whole contents of the room1 including the sticks from which the leather is hung1 are allowed to fall into the lowest room4 ,this method is of very questionable advantage1 if we take into account the labour of separating the sticks and carrying them back to their places4 ,another plan is to have shoots from each loft1 down which the sides are slid to the rolling-room4 ,the floors should have what light is necessary supplied through glass windows1 so arranged as not to admit direct sunlight4 ,to adapt the turret drier for ,english requirements1 some slight modification is needed1 since we do not dry our leather right off1 and then damp back1 but1 when it is suitably dry1 lay it in a pile to sammy for striking2 then1 perhaps1 after striking1 hang up again for a short time to temper for rolling1 possibly again between rollings1 and finally to dry off at a temperature of1 say1 #fh-gg ,f4 7#bj-be ,c474 ,perhaps on this account1 the writer has seen no complete turret-driers in use in ,england1 though a portion of one of the large sheds at ,dartford belonging to ,messrs4 ,hepburn was converted by them some years since into a very good turret1 which gave excellent results both for sole leather and kip butts in stuff4 ,this turret is represented in section in ,fig4 #ff1 and is about #ef ft4 #bd ft4 in area1 and #ej ft4 high from the ground-line to the top of the roof1 which is ventilated by a dormer1 a1 with fixed louvres at the top1 while air is admitted at the bottom through ventilators with sliding flaps1 b b4 ,it is heated by #aj rows of #d-;in4 steam-pipe1 c c1 each #ed ft4 long1 making a total of #edj ft4 run1 or about #fdj ft4 superficial 7a #d-;in4 pipe being about #d-e_/h in4 diameter outside74 ,i am informed by ,mr4 ,j4 ,g4 ,hepburn that he considers #d-;in4 pipes inferior for the purpose to smaller ones1 giving too much heat in one place1 and without sufficiently distributing it1 and were he constructing a new turret he would replace them by #a-a_/b in4 wrought-iron1 using about #c of #a-a_/b in4 to replace #b of #d in41 small pipes being much more effective 7as will be seen by table1 p4 #bej7 than larger ones1 in proportion to their surface4 ,he considers1 however1 that the best way of heating drying-sheds1 though more expensive in first cost1 is by means of hot water1 which is much more constant in temperature than steam4 ,mr4 ,hepburn1 to whom ,i am much indebted for the above information1 informs me that the turret still acts very well1 drying kip butts on the upper floor a good colour in all weathers in about a week4 ,he finds1 however1 that the steam-pipes as described are hardly sufficient in very cold weather1 and intends to increase them1 or replace with #acjj-adjj ft4 of hot water pipe heated by a saddle boiler4 ,at ,lowlights tannery1 a shed arranged on the turret principle 7though much less completely carried out from want of height in the buildings7 has been for many years in operation1 principally for drying off sole-leather1 with the most satisfactory results4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ff4 ,it is noted by ,box 7',practical ,treatise on ,heat1' p4 #aff7 that an exit for the moist air should not be placed at the top of a drying-chamber1 but at the bottom1 since in the first case1 the hot dry air tends to rise at once to the opening1 and pass away unsaturated with moisture1 while that cooled by evaporating water from the goods1 being heavier1 tends to form downward currents and remain in the chamber4 ,to this it may be objected that aqueous vapour is much lighter than air2 this is true1 other things being equal1 but in practice the evaporation of a given quantity of water cools the air and makes it heavier in a materially greater degree than the admixture of aqueous vapour lightens it4 ,this source of waste of heat exists in the turret drier1 but is there1 from its great height1 reduced to a minimum4 ,in lower sheds it becomes very material1 and the air currents formed are productive of much harm by causing irregular drying4 ,this difficulty has been met by ,mr4 ,edward ,wilson1 of ,exeter1 to whom the leather trade owes several very useful inventions1 by an ingenious drying-room constructed on the lines indicated by ,box1 though ,i do not know that he was in any way indebted to that writer for the idea4 ,in this ,mr4 ,wilson arranges the steam-pipes1 instead of on the floor1 in a vertical compartment partitioned from the chamber1 through which air is admitted and heated4 ,this hot air fills the top of the chamber and from its lightness floats in a horizontal layer1 only descending and escaping by apertures in the floor as it becomes cooled by evaporating the moisture of the hides4 ,mr4 ,wilson states that the method answers well in practice1 and it is certainly the most scientific in conception1 but it might be feared that1 as applied to a single floor1 the upper parts of the butts1 suspended near the ceiling1 would dry more rapidly than those near the floor4 ,if applied to a double-floored building1 this disadvantage would1 from the stronger draught1 and consequent larger supply of air1 be less likely to show itself1 and the upper floor with its uniform warm air would be well adapted for drying off finished sole-leather1 while the cooler and milder drying of the ground floor would be fitted both in character and situation for that wet out of the yard4 ,special precaution would be needed to prevent the heated air escaping by doors opening into the upper floor4 ,there is little doubt that as regards heat this is the most economical system which has yet been invented4 ,a method has been introduced in the ,united ,states of drying wet and finished leather all together1 in drying-rooms heated to a considerable temperature1 and closely shut up4 ,this is found to answer fairly on leather from sour liquors1 but that from strong and sweet liquors is darkened1 as might be expected4 ,the drying is accomplished in much shorter time than by the turret drier4 ,the mixture of wet and dry leather1 and the lack of ventilation produce an atmosphere nearly saturated with moisture1 and hence the drying is not nearly so harsh as might be supposed from the considerable temperatures made use of4 ,there does not1 however1 seem anything in the principle to recommend its general adoption4 ,another invention1 of which we have as yet heard little definite in ,england1 consists in drying at a low temperature by air artificially deprived of its moisture4 ,this may be accomplished in several ways4 ,experiments have been made in drying in a closed chamber provided with trays of calcium chloride to absorb the moisture evaporated4 ,air when artificially cooled by compression and subsequent expansion1 as in the case of ice-making machines1 parts with a large portion of its moisture1 which is condensed in the form of ice in the tubes of the machine4 ,such air1 if subsequently warmed1 would dry powerfully and rapidly4 ,before leaving the subject of drying-sheds1 a few words on the mechanics of drying in general may not be out of place4 ,air-drying is dependent on the condition that the air must be capable of taking up more moisture than it already contains4 ,it is a matter of common experience that there are warm days when the air is so saturated with moisture in the form of invisible vapour1 that scarcely any drying takes place2 and similarly1 cool dry days1 when leather dries rapidly4 ,the relative amount of moisture in the air is easily ascertained by the simple instrument known as the wet and dry bulb hygrometer2 an instrument which ought to be in every drying-shed1 especially where steam heat is used4 ,it consists of two similar thermometers1 side by side1 of which one has the bulb covered with muslin and kept wet by a piece of lamp-cotton attached to it1 and dipping in a cup or bottle of water4 ,this water evaporates more or less rapidly1 according to the dryness of the air2 and as heat is consumed by it in passing into the gaseous condition1 the wet thermometer falls more or less below the dry in proportion to the rapidity of the evaporation4 ,on a summer's day1 the difference may amount to #i-ab ,f4 7#e-g ,c471 and this is about the extreme dryness permissible in a drying-room for finished leather4 ,wet leather should of course be dried much more slowly4 ,the influence of heat on drying is two-fold4 ,it increases the capacity of the air for moisture1 and it replaces the heat consumed by evaporation4 ,the following tables give the capacity of air for moisture at different temperatures1 and the percentage of saturation as shown by the wet and dry thermometer4 ,at ,greenwich1 the mean humidity for the year is #hb per cent42 or for the day-time only #gf per cent41 varying from #fb in summer to #hf in winter3-- ,table ,i4--,capacity of ,air for ,moisture4 ,weight in ,pounds ,weight in ,pounds of ,temp4 ,fahr4 of a ,cub4 ,ft4 of ,moisture contained in ,dry ,air4 a ,cub4 ,ft4 of ,saturated ,air4 #cb #jhjg #jjjcjd #db #jgia #jjjddj #eb #jggf #jjjfbg #fb #jgfa #jjjhha #gb #jgdg #jjabba #hb #jgcc #jjaffg #ib #jgbj #jjbbej #ajb #jgjg #jjbiig ,table ,,ii4--,hygrometer ,table4 ,temperature ,degrees between ,wet and ,dry ,thermometers4 of ,air4 #a #b #c #d #e #f #g #h #i #aj #aa #ab #cb ,f4 #hg #ge 44 44 44 44 44 44 44 44 44 44 #db #ib #he #gh #gb #ff #fj #ed #di #dd #dj #cf #cc #fb #id #hh #hb #gg #gb #fg #fb #eh #ed #ej #dg #dd #hb #ie #ij #he #hj #gf #gb #fh #fd #fj #eg #ed #ea ,per cent4 of moisture1 saturation being #ajj4 ,as regards the heat consumed in evaporation2 it requires about #ajjj times as much heat to convert #a lb4 of water into vapour1 as it does to raise the temperature of the same quantity #a ,f4 ,at least as much heat as this must be supplied if the air which has been used in drying is to retain the same temperature it had at the outset1 and therefore if a turret is to keep at a higher temperature than the air1 which is necessary to create a draught1 this is the minimum amount of heat which must be supplied per pound of water to be evaporated4 ,in practice much more will be needed4 ,the following table shows the heat given out by different sizes of pipes at different temperatures1 and steam pressures1 in units equal to the heat required to raise #a lb4 of water #a ,f41 and the cubic feet of air which they will heat4,v ,footnote ,v3 ,to illustrate the use of such tables1 the following example may be given4 ,to dry #ajj butts in a turret1 each containing #bj lb4 of moisture1 at least #bj #ajjj #ajj #b1jjj1jjj units of heat will be required to replace the loss by evaporation alone4 ,as a #d-;in4 pipe at #cjj gives off #ffi units per foot per hour 7see ,table ,,iii471 about #abe ft4 would give off #b1jjj1jjj units per day4 ,if we compare this with ,mr4 ,hepburn's practical experience1 supposing the #d working floors of his turret to hold #ajj butts each 7a low estimate71 and to dry in #aj days2 we have #edj ft4 for #dj butts or #acej ft4 for #ajj butts a day2 showing that more than #aj times the minimum is required in practice4 ,of course this allows for weather in which the air must be heated considerably before it will dry at all1 for heat that escapes uselessly at the top and sides of the building1 and for the fact that the pipes are not heated the whole time1 and probably1 on the average1 to a much lower temperature4 ,table ,,iii4--,heating ,effect of ,pipes freely exposed to ,air at #fj ,f4 ,units of ,heat per ,ft4-run ,cub4 ,ft4 of ,air at #fj ,f4 of ,pipe per ,hour4 7#ae-a_/b ,c47 heated #a per ,temp4 ,pressure ,ft4-run of ,pipe per ,hour4 of of ,steam ,pipe4 per ,in4 #b in4 #c in4 #d in4 #f in4 #b in4 #c in4 #d in4 #f in4 ,f4 lb4 #cjj #ec #djc #ede #ffi #ich #bbbce #bhgac #cfiai #eagfj #bhj #ce #cee #dhj #ehg #hbe #aiehb #bfdij #cbchg #deeba #bfj #ba #cab #dba #eae #gbc #agbah #bcbcc #bhdba #ciieb #bdj #aj #bga #cff #ddh #fbg #adidf #bjaii #bdgag #cdeid #bbj #be #bcc #cac #chd #ecg #abheh #agbga #baahd #bifbi #bjj 44 #aie #bfc #cbb #deb #ajgge #adejg #agghj #bdifg #ahj 44 #afj #baf #bfd #cfi #hhcj #aaibj #adegc #bjcfh #afj 44 #abh #agb #baj #bie #gjgj #idhg #aaeij #afcjj ,it may be taken that #a_/bj of the above volumes may be heated #bj1 from #ej ,f4 to #gj ,f41 and so on2 but if the average temperature is higher than #fj ,f41 the duty will be less1 and to obtain the same effect the pipe must be heated so much hotter as to keep the same difference as before between the pipe and air4 ,thus a pipe at #cjj ,f4 will only heat as much air at #hj ,f4 as one of #bhj ,f4 will of air at #fj ,f4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fg4 ,it will be noted that the efficiency of small pipes is much greater than that of larger ones1 and in these days of high-pressure steam1 much may be said in favour of the use of comparatively small wrought-iron steam-pipes instead of the larger cast metal ones4 ,the first cost is small1 the pipes are easily obtained ready screwed1 and in the lengths required1 and may be put together by any intelligent workman4 ,the risk of fracture by the concussion of condensed water is very trifling1 as compared to that of metal1 and much lighter pipes are safe for high pressures4 ,steam-pipes must always be laid with an incline of say #a in4 in #aj ft4 from the end where the steam is admitted1 so that the condensed water may get away1 and at the lowest point a steam-trap must be provided for its escape4 ,in the writer's experience1 the best form is that of ,holman1 made by ,tangye of ,birmingham1 of which the principle will readily be understood from ,fig4 #fg4 ,the cup-shaped vessel a floats on the water in the outer casing1 and so closes the valve b until a gets full1 when it sinks and allows the water to escape until it floats up again4 ,it is important that this trap should be set level1 or the valve will not close properly4 ,each pound of condensed water is equivalent to about #ajjj units of heat given off 7see ,table ,,iii474 ,in planning steam-pipes1 it is not necessary that they should be arranged in a single line4 ,even if in gridiron form the steam will still reach every part1 in proportion to the condensation which takes place4 ,a series of large pipes may be supplied by small pipes from a common main1 and discharge their condensed water into a common waste-pipe with branch from each4 ,a #a_/b-;in4 pipe from a high-pressure boiler will supply a considerable range1 say #ajj ft4 of #d-;in4 pipe1 though a larger size is advisable4 ,at the farther end of a range of steam-pipes a small tap must be provided to let out the air which accumulates in them4 ,in employing the exhaust steam of an engine for heating purposes1 the pipes must be of ample size and freely open at the ends to avoid back-pressure4 ,for this purpose the gridiron form is a very good one4 ,the planning of hot-water pipes is much more difficult than that of steam-pipes1 but the general principle is that the pipes must rise all the way from the boiler to the farther end1 where there must be an expansion-box or supply-cistern to allow the water to rise and fall and dissolved air to escape4 ,from this the pipes must fall more or less1 throughout the distance1 back to the boiler1 entering it at the bottom4 ,if at any point the pipe has to fall1 leaving an upward bend1 a tap must be provided for the escape of air1 but such upward bends are a fertile source of difficulty and failure of action4 ,with long runs of either steam or water pipes1 arrangements must be made to allow of expansion and contraction1 which will amount to #a-b in4 per #ajj ft41 according to the temperature employed4 ,if one end of the system can be left free1 all that is needed is to support the pipes on rollers 7pieces of old pipe may be used72 if not1 stuffing-boxes must be provided4 ,the air heated by boilers1 and other sources of waste heat1 may often be utilised for heating purposes1 but generally requires to be driven by a fan1 unless the drying-room can be arranged directly above the source of heat4 ,if air has to be conveyed1 the air-ways must be of ample size1 and if the ascending force of heated air be relied on1 passages less than #b ft4 sq4 are seldom of much use4 ,this ascending force is generally much overrated where the differences of temperature are so small as those employed in a drying-room4 ,in a boiler chimney1 where the temperature of the escaping gases is #eeb ,f4 7#bhi ,c471 the specific gravity of the air is about half that outside1 and a chimney of #ej ft4 in height gives a draught equal to the pressure of a column of about #a_/c in4 of water1 and the hot gases theoretically have a velocity of about #hj ft4 per second2 whereas the same chimney with a difference of temperature of #cj ,f4 would have a draught equal to #a_/cjj in4 of water only1 and a velocity of #h ft4 per second4 ,the following table will enable the reader to calculate approximately loss in friction in air-passages and the pressure required to pass a given volume of air4 ,the pressure needed increases in proportion to the length of the pipe and the square of the velocity of the current of air to be passed4 ,thus if we double the length of the pipe we must double the pressure to pass the same quantity2 and in order to double the quantity of air through a given pipe1 the pressure must be quadrupled4 ,table ,,iv4 ,head1 or ,difference of ,pressure at the two ends of a ,circular ,pipe #a yd4 long in inches of water required to pass #ajjj cub4 ft4 of air per minute4 ,velocity in ,diameter of ,head4 ,ft4 per ,sec4 ,pipe4 in4 #hdh #f #ahf #cgg #i #jbddb ,to pass #ajj ft4 per min4 these #bab #ab #jjegi figures must be divided by #id #ah #jjjgfc #ajj4 ,to pass #aj1jjj ft4 they #ec #bd #jjjaha must be multiplied by #ajj4 #cd #cj #jjjjeic ,to calculate the head required for a long pipe1 multiply the head given by the table by the length in yards4 ,the air passed by square pipes of the same diameters will be #abgc times greater with the same heads4 ,to be added to the pressure required to overcome friction is that needed to force the air out at the end of the pipe4 ,this varies with the shape of the tube1 c41 but for our purpose may be taken as given in the following table3-- ,table ,v4 ,approximate ,pressure needed to force ,air out of a ,pipe with a ,velocity of-- ,ft4 per ,sec4 ,head in ,inches1 ,water4 #hdh #ah #cgg #jcf #bab #jac #id #jjb #ec under #jja #cd under #jjje ,air-passages should be1 as far as practicable1 of uniform area throughout their length1 as much velocity is lost in passing even from a smaller to a larger tube4 ,of course sharp bends must be avoided4 ,,chapter ,,xxiv4 ,,commerce1 ,,statistics1 ,,and ,,bibliography4 ,skins4--,the trade in skins possesses no small importance4 ,many of the statistics relating to skins are collective1 and not specific2 these will be grouped under the heads of the respective countries1 after all accessible details have been given upon each kind of skin4 ,alligator4--,in the ,southern ,united ,states1 notably ,florida1 the supply of alligator-skins amounts to many thousands annually1 and the farming of the reptiles for their skins is even spoken of4 ,the principal market for them is ,europe1 but no statistics of the trade are published4 ,the alligators often attain a length of #ah-bj ft4 ,the hides are stripped off1 and the belly and sides1 the only portions fit for use1 are packed in barrels in a strong brine1 and shipped to the ,northern tanner1 who keeps them under treatment for #f-h months1 when they are ready to be cut up4 ,so far the leather has been principally used in the manufacture of boots and shoes1 for which it is especially adapted4 ,armadillo4--,the skins of this animal were exported from ,brunei 7,borneo7 to ,singapore to the value of #aba dol4 7of #ds4 #b;d47 in #ahgi4 ,ass4--,hankow exported #bdjb-a_/b piculs 7of #acc-a_/b lb47 of asses' skins in #ahgh1 and #ajfh piculs in #ahgi4 ,buffalo4--,manilla 7,philippines71 in #ahgh1 exported #cgi tons of buffalo-skins1 value #ab1acjl41 and #bgd tons of cuttings1 #fegil4 ,hankow exported #ajia piculs in #ahgh1 and #abch in #ahgi4 ,brunei 7,borneo7 sent #acfb dol4 7of #ds4 #b;d47 worth to ,singapore in #ahgi4 ,the approximate ,london market values of buffalo-skins are3--,batavia1 #d;d4-#g;d4 a lb42 ,bengal1 #c;d4-#f;d42 other sorts1 #b-a_/b;d4-#f-a_/b;d4 ,calf4--,hamburg exported to ,great ,britain of calf and other skins in #ahgf1 #bj1gca cwt42 in #ahgg1 #bg1eej2 in #ahgh1 #ad1ehc2 and in #ahgi1 #ai1bhg cwt4 ,the ,hawaiian ,islands sent #afh pieces to ,germany in #ahgi4 ,christiania shipped #ca1jjj kroner 7of #as4 #a-a_/b;d47 worth to ,great ,britain in #ahgh1 and #cjj kr4 in #ahgi4 ,the exports from ,archangel 7including seal7 in #ahgh were #cce pieces to ,holland1 and #bc1ajh to ,germany3 total value1 #bcdcl4 ,honolulu1 in #ahgh1 exported #fea pieces1 being #ejj to ,germany1 #ace to ,china1 and #af to the ,united ,states4 ,memel1 in #ahgi1 sent landwise over the ,russian frontier for ,german markets1 #cd1djj pieces1 value #edejl4 ,the approximate ,london market value of calf-skins is #ae;d4-#cd;d4 a lb4 ,deer4--,san ,jos 7,costa ,rica7 exported #ab1aba lb4 in #ahgh4 ,kiungchow 7,china7 exported #ag1edd pieces1 value #edal41 in #ahgi4 ,ciudad ,bolivar 7,venezuela71 in #ahgi1 sent #gg1cje pieces 7#afh1agf-a_/b lb47 to ,new ,york1 and #ad1fie pieces to ,germany4 ,guatemala1 in #ahgi1 exported #bcec pieces to ,germany1 #fic to ,new ,york1 and #ajj to ,belize4 ,panama shipped #gfel4 worth of deer and other skins to the ,united ,states in #ahgi4 ,costa ,rica exported #hb1afh lb4 in the year ended ,april #cj1 #ahgi4 ,puerto ,cabello 7,venezuela71 in #ahgi1 shipped #bdff kilo4 7of #bb lb47 to ,great ,britain1 #aa1fai to ,germany1 #fahb to the ,united ,states1 and #abha to ,holland4 ,the ,commercial ,society of ,mozambique sold #da deer1 #cia buck1 #bafh blesbok1 and #cjga other antelope skins at ,rotterdam in ,june #ahgf4 ,the approximate ,london market values of deer-skins are3 ,blesbok1 ,cape1 #f-ag;d4 a lb42 ,deer1 ,east ,indian1 #bb-ejs4 a doz4 ,dog4--,dog-skin makes a nice1 thin1 tough leather1 but most of the gloves sold as dog-skin are made of lamb-skin4 ,dugong and ,manatee4--,the skins of these animals1 more important perhaps as oil-yielders1 are smooth1 bluish-black in colour1 and nearly #a in4 thick4 ,they are well adapted for machine-belting4 ,about #ej are shipped annually from ,queensland4 ,fish4--,although the skins of fish are chiefly gelatinous1 and easily soluble in water1 some are of a firm1 strong texture1 and of a useful character4 ,up to within a few years1 however1 their employment for practical purposes has been rather limited1 and it is only comparatively recently that attention has been more generally directed to their utilisation on an extended scale4 ,at a ,maritime ,exhibition held at the ,westminster ,aquarium in #ahgf1 a ,norway exhibitor showed a variety of tanned fish-skins1 among which were3--,tanned whale-skins2 upper leather1 made from the white whale1 the source of the so-called porpoise hide used for laces2 skins of flatfish1 prepared for gloves2 skins of soles1 tanned and dressed for purses2 skins of thornbacks1 prepared as a substitute for sandpaper2 and skins of eels1 dressed and dyed1 suitable for braces1 c4 ,shoes have been made at ,gloucester1 ,mass41 from the skins of the cusk or torsk 7,brosmus vulgaris71 the use of which has been patented1 and an industry is said to be carried on at ,colborn1 ,canada1 with the skins of species of siluroids for glove making4 ,in ,egypt1 fish-skins from the ,red ,sea are used for soles of shoes4 ,the skin of the losh or burbot 7,lota maculata7 is used by the people in many parts of ,russia and ,siberia to trim their dresses4 ,it is also utilised by some of the ,tartar tribes as material for their summer dresses1 and the bags in which they pack their animal skins4 ,the spiny and tuberculous skins of many sharks and allied fishes are largely employed1 under various trade names1 for polishing woods1 and for covering boxes1 cases1 c4 ,from a certain portion of the skin of the angel shark 7,squalina angelus7 the ,turks make the most beautiful sea-green watch cases4 ,turners1 ebonists1 and carpenters in ,europe use the rough skin of the blue dog-fish 7,squalus glaucus71 like emery paper1 for smoothing their work and preparing it for polishing4 ,this shark-skin is also made into shagreen4 ,that most used at present appears to be the skin of the ray 7,hypolophus sephen71 which is very common on the ,malabar coast4 ,the house of ,giraudon1 ,paris1 makes excellent use of them for morocco and tabletterie4 ,at the recent ,paris ,exhibition this establishment exhibited numerous illustrations of the ornamental application of the prepared skin in large office-table inkstands1 candlesticks1 boxes and caskets1 paper-knives1 reticules1 card-cases1 photograph frames1 bracelets1 scent bottles1 c4 ,the fish called chat 7,squalus catulus7 at ,marseilles is smaller than the angel fish1 and furnishes a product known as peau de rousette4 ,this skin is reddish1 and without spots1 and of a uniform grain1 flat1 and only used to make cases and other articles known as shagreen4 ,peau de chien de mer is another name given to some species of ,squalus4 ,that found on the ,french coasts is known under the names of chien marin1 rousette tigre1 c4 ,turners1 cabinet makers1 and carpenters use the skin for scraping and smoothing their work1 and it is also used for like purposes by metal workers4 ,this skin1 when worked up with the tubercles with which it is studded1 takes the name of galuchat1 and is usually dyed green1 to cover cases1 sheaths1 and boxes4 ,under the name of chagrin1 these skins used to be much employed in ,turkey1 ,syria1 ,tunis1 and ,tripoli--that made in ,tripoli being considered the best4 ,it was coloured black1 green1 white1 and red4 ,france imported #ah1jjj lb4 of ray-skins in #ahfc1 chiefly from ,portugal4 ,goat and ,kid4--,our imports of undressed goat-skins in #ahhc were3--,from ,russia #ah1cee1 #bebcl42 ,sweden #abif1 #bbil42 ,norway #ai1cia1 #ccafl42 ,denmark #aa1jab1 #ahefl42 ,germany #eb1ega1 #ehefl42 ,holland #ac1ccf1 #ahehl42 ,belgium #dj1eah1 #dfcbl42 ,france #ha1gih1 #ad1abal42 ,italy1 #egjh1 #ihgl42 ,austrian territories #cg1hbg1 #chddl42 ,turkey #ch1aff1 #dehjl42 ,egypt #af1bbh1 #iccl42 ,british ,possessions in ,south ,africa #a1agf1ece1 #aci1fcbl42 ,aden #ci1hjj1 #dgigl42 ,british ,india3 ,bombay #abb1bdb1 #aj1dhgl42 ,madras #afi1fdb1 #ag1hiel42 ,bengal #b1efh1ebf1 #bjc1befl42 ,china #ic1gch1 #ehfdl42 ,australasia #dd1cdj1 #eeahl42 ,united ,states of ,america #fhbb1 #hdel42 ,chile #af1gef1 #beecl42 ,brazil #aei1idi1 #af1ahil42 ,argentine ,republic #ab1jjj1 #iebl42 other countries #cbci1 #bbil42 total #d1gdi1gie1 #deb1iebl4 ,ciudad ,bolivar 7,venezuela7 sent #cag pieces 7#bhd lb47 to ,new ,york in #ahgi4 ,tripoli exported #gjjjl4 worth in #ahgi1 and #cjjjl4 in #ahhj4 ,in #ahhj1 a number of raw goat-skins were sent from the ,marche and ,romagna to the ,united ,states1 weighing about #a-a_/b kilo4 7of #bb lb47 each1 and to be used chiefly for ladies' shoes and pocket-books4 ,shanghai1 in #ahgh1 exported #afd1bhe pieces4 ,tangier1 in #ahgi1 sent #ab cwt41 #fjl41 to ,great ,britain2 #cfcg cwt41 #ah1ahel41 to ,france and ,algiers2 #aj cwt41 #ejl41 to ,spain2 total1 #ad1fcf doz41 #ah1biel42 and #cjdf cwt41 #ac1gjgl41 in #ahhj4 ,the ,hawaiian ,islands1 in #ahgi1 shipped #bd1idj pieces to the ,united ,states 7,pacific ports74 ,in #ahgi1 ,christiania exported #fe1jjj kroner 7of #as4 #a-a_/b;d47 worth of goat and sheep skins to ,great ,britain4 ,the shipments of goat and kid skins from the ,french ,east ,indies fell from #eejj in #ahgf1 to #dhid in #ahgg1 and #cjj in #ahgi1 with none since4 ,the shipments from the ,cape to ,great ,britain were #gid1fcg in #ahgh1 #feg1eji in #ahgi1 and #icd1haj in #ahhj4 ,cadiz1 in #ahgg1 sent #djd kilo4 7of #bb lb47 of kid skins1 value #hdl41 to ,great ,britain1 and #chff kilo4 #hjel41 to ,france4 ,puerto ,cabello 7,venezuela71 in #ahgi1 despatched #bh1fhd kilo4 to ,germany1 #abd1ifd to the ,united ,states1 #ad1bie to ,france1 and #ah1ecf to ,holland4 ,honolulu sent #fd1ebe pieces to the ,united ,states in #ahgh4 ,samsoun 7,turkey7 exported #acj1gjj kilo41 #fgifl41 to ,france in #ahgh4 ,the ,cape exports fell from #a1dgh1gfa pieces in #ahgd1 to #fhg1egj in #ahgi4 ,memel sent by sea #g cwt41 #gcl41 in #ahgi4 ,tientsin 7,china7 exported #ch1ajg piculs 7of #acc-a_/c lb47 in #ahgi4 ,mogador 7,morocco7 forwarded #aab1igd doz41 #ei1bdcl41 to ,marseilles in #ahgh1 and #hdjg bales1 #dh1jjjl41 in #ahhj2 these skins are used for the manufacture of morocco leather1 for which they are peculiarly suitable1 owing to their fineness of grain1 caused1 it is said1 by the rich diet1 consisting of the fruits of the argan tree4 ,the approximate ,london market values of goat-skins are3--,east ,indian1 #d-ae;d4 a lb42 best tanned1 #bs4 #d;d4-#cs4 #h;d42 inferior to good tanned1 #i;d4-#bs4 #e;d42 ,cape1 best1 #aa-ah;d42 ,cape1 inferior to good1 #h-ad;d4 ,turkey is one of the largest rearers of goats1 and consequently the manufacture of morocco leather is extensively carried on in that country4 ,formerly1 nearly all the buck-skins found their way to ,london1 but they were displaced by ,indian goat-skins2 and1 for a time1 the exportation of ,turkish buck-skins experienced a check1 the result being the establishment of a large number of manufactories in ,vienna and the different ,austro-,hungarian provinces4 ,these establishments have prospered and been enlarged1 and get the major portion of their goat-skins from the ,london market4 ,it is1 however1 proposed in ,austria to do without the ,london market in future1 and to institute at ,trieste periodical sales of goat-skins1 which will be1 especially for ,vienna1 of great advantage from the point of view of cost of transport4 ,notwithstanding the exportation of buck-1 goat-1 and sheep-skins from ,turkey1 there are still sufficient remaining in the country to form the basis of a very flourishing and entirely indigenous industry4 ,the ,turk is very unskilful in the manufacture of sole leather2 but the article in which he excels is morocco leather for slippers1 tanned exclusively with sumach4 ,the production of tanned buck-skins reaches yearly a total of nearly a million skins1 and of sheep half a million2 the best kinds are those of ,philippopolis1 ,samakof1 and ,peristra4 ,the ,bulgarian skins are not so well tanned as those mentioned1 although the quality of the raw skins is superior4 ,the best at the present day are those of ,sophia4 ,horse4--,shanghai exported #deh-a_/b piculs in #ahgh4 ,rio ,grande do ,sul exported #aj1gad pieces salted1 and #fja dried1 in #ahgi4 ,the approximate ,london market values of horse-hides are3--,english1 #i-ad;d4 a lb42 ,river ,plate1 #f-bas4 a hide4 ,kangaroo4--,the skins of this animal are largely exported from ,australia and ,tasmania1 forming some of the most pliable leather known4 ,to prepare them for market1 they should be carefully taken off1 pegged out1 and dried slowly in the shade4 ,lamb4--,the exports from ,asterabad 7,persia7 vi ,gez in #ahgi were #ghh bales ,bokharan1 #fj1facl4 ,calamata and ,messenia 7,greece7 produced in #ahhj1 #acg1ejj lb41 #bfhjl4 ,dedeagatch 7,turkey71 in #ahgh1 exported #ejj bales of lamb- and kid-skins1 value #djjjl4 ,the exports from ,ancona 7,italy71 including kid and rabbit1 in #ahgh1 were #fji1hbf kilo4 7of #bb lb47 to ,italy1 #da1dhj to ,austria1 #bgad to ,germany1 #bfee to ,greece1 #ai1dhf to ,england1 #cahj to ,turkey2 total1 #fgi tons1 #ej1cbal4 ,tientsin 7,china71 in #ahgi1 shipped #ce1jjh piculs 7of #acc-a_/c lb474 ,llama4--,the skin of the llama is growing in importance in ,parisian shoemaking4 ,it weighs on an average #f lb41 and contains #ah sq4 ft4 of leather1 costing about #al4 ,the source of supply is the ,peruvian ,andes4 ,ox and ,cow4--,coquimbo 7,chili7 exported #dgji ox-hides in #ahgi4 ,santos 7,brazil7 in the year ending ,sept4 #cj1 #ahgi1 exported #caf1idj kilo4 salted1 valued #ehjjl41 and #abhb1 #bel4 ,the shipments from ,christiania to ,great ,britain fell from #dg1ejj kroner 7of #as4 #a-a_/b;d47 worth in #ahgg1 to #cejj kr4 in #ahgi4 ,san ,jos 7,costa ,rica7 despatched #ddi1hgj lb4 in #ahgh4 ,the exports from the ,cape1 including cow1 fell from #aej1hge pieces in #ahgh1 to #ajd1bha in #ahgi4 ,rio ,grande do ,sul1 in #ahgi1 shipped #dee1cae pieces salted1 and #dii1ifj dried4 ,of cow-hides1 ,hankow exported #ce1bfe piculs 7of #acc-a_/c lb47 in #ahgh1 and #ba1jfc in #ahgi4 ,the ,kiungchow exports 7including buffalo7 in #ahgi were #dij piculs1 #hahl4 ,from ,shanghai 7including buffalo7 went #bf1jgj piculs in #ahgi4 ,chinkiang fell from #gbfb piculs in #ahgg1 to #cigd in #ahgh1 and none in #ahgi4 ,memel1 in #ahgi1 sent away by sea1 #ge cwt41 #acfl42 and over the ,russian frontier for ,german markets1 #cjjj pieces1 #cjjjl4 ,the approximate ,london market values of ox and cow hides are3--,buenos ,ayres and ,monte ,video1 #ast dry1 #i-7aj-a_/b7;d4 a lb42 #bnd dry1 #g-7h-a_/b7;d42 best light1 #h-7i-a_/b7;d42 salted1 7#e-a_/d7-7g-c_/d7;d42 ,brazil1 dry1 #g-7aj-a_/b7;d42 dry salted1 7#d-a_/b7-i;d42 ,west ,indies1 salted1 7#c-a_/b7-g;d42 ,united ,states1 salted1 7#c-a_/b7-7f-a_/b7;d42 ,east ,india1 best1 #d-ac;d42 #bnd1 7#a-c_/d7-7aa-a_/d7;d42 #crd and #dth1 7#a-a_/d7-i;d42 ,australian1 salted1 7#b-c_/d7-f;d42 ,cape1 wet salted1 7#b-a_/b7-7g-a_/b7;d42 ,continental1 salted1 7#c-c_/d7-e;d42 ,english1 7#b-c_/d7-g;d4 ,seal4--,our imports of undressed seal-skins in #ahhc were3--,from ,norway #aab1hji1 #ce1bfgl42 ,denmark #hff1 #achl42 ,germany #bh1ffi1 #hdbhl42 ,channel ,islands #ajdh1 #cjel42 ,france #bgih1 #bjjbl42 ,british ,possessions in ,south ,africa #gjbj1 #efcel42 ,british ,india3 ,bombay #hcj1 #ahejl42 ,china #bjhc1 #djjjl42 ,japan #aa1idc1 #ag1cfil42 ,australasia #adhg1 #hijl42 ,british ,north ,america #cda1ggh1 #hh1dacl42 ,united ,states of ,america #ih1eff1 #bef1jahl42 ,central ,america #efc1 #efcl42 ,chile #aigd1 #ahjcl42 ,uruguay #ac1iej1 #dhhdl42 ,whale ,fisheries3 ,northern #dd1dgd1 #ae1bjhl42 ,other ,countries #dbf1 #becl4 ,total1 #fga1bhd1 #ddc1jbfl4 ,the exports from ,christiania in #ahgi were #gd1jij pieces2 to ,great ,britain1 the value was #bed1djj kroner 7of #ac-a_/b;d47 in #ahgh1 and #agb1ijj kr4 in #ahgi4 ,our total imports from ,norway rose from #bi1iab pieces in #ahgg1 to #fc1edj in #ahgh1 and receded to #ed1jje in #ahhj4 ,from the ,cape1 they were #aa1jfe in #ahgg1 #ae1abh in #ahgi1 and #ggca in #ahhj4 ,and from ,newfoundland1 #dac1jeg in #ahgi1 and #bec1fef in #ahhj4 ,the approximate ,london market values of seal-skins 7not fur seals7 are #as4 #i;d4-#ajs4 #f;d4 each for ,newfoundland1 and #b-aas4 for ,greenland4 ,sheep4--,our imports of undressed sheep-skins in #ahhc were3--,from ,russia #gcgd1 #hbjl42 ,sweden #af1ghj1 #addfl42 ,norway #bc1gef1 #bdfil42 ,denmark #hj1bbf1 #ghjcl42 ,germany #abf1hfg1 #ab1dgfl42 ,holland #cd1bac1 #dahbl42 ,belgium #id1iff1 #ad1dgil42 ,channel ,islands #iegi1 #bijjl42 ,france #fdd1jhj1 #ff1eajl42 ,spain #adg1dhj1 #ai1gcjl42 ,italy #da1gdc1 #cgijl42 ,austrian ,territories #da1jaa1 #djcal42 ,turkey #bdd1egi1 #bc1eicl42 ,egypt #hhgj1 #eagl42 ,british ,possessions in ,south ,africa #b1eba1aji1 #cci1cgdl42 ,aden #bi1ghj1 #bgbjl42 ,british ,india #aij1bjb1 #ag1gdel42 ,australasia #b1fic1jfd1 #bfg1bhil42 ,united ,states of ,america #de1fib1 #dcfgl42 ,bermudas #bcdb1 #cfel42 ,peru #gbbj1 #afibl42 ,chile #cehb1 #fhal42 ,brazil #ah1faf1 #bdecl42 ,uruguay #ib1dii1 #ba1cjcl42 ,argentine ,republic #ihe1bfh1 #agf1ijjl42 ,falkland ,islands #bf1gdg1 #cajel42 ,other ,countries #gjhf1 #gdgl4 ,total1 #h1ade1dca1 #a1jjc1dhgl4 ,bosnia ,serai1 in #ahgi1 exported about #aj tons4 ,shanghai1 in #ahgh1 #ej1bhe pieces 7including lamb74 ,coquimbo 7,chili71 in #ahgi1 #de tons 7including goat74 ,bagdag1 in #ahgh1 #hf1cea pieces1 #djgal41 to ,india and ,europe 7including lamb74 ,falkland ,islands1 #aidjl4 worth in #ahgi4 ,cape1 #a1dhj1hge pieces in #ahgi4 ,hankow1 #gfjf pieces1 #ibgfl41 in #ahgi4 ,tientsin1 #bjf1ggg piculs 7of #acc-a_/c lb47 in #ahgh1 #hgcg in #ahgi4 ,mollendo 7,peru7 #gi quintals 7of #b cwt17 in #ahgh4 ,mogador1 in #ahhj1 #ae bales1 #hjl41 to ,great ,britain2 #cde1 #agjjl41 to ,france2 #b1 #cl41 to ,spain4 ,our imports from the ,french ,east ,indies have fallen from #efjj pieces in #ahgf1 to #cgfb in #ahgg1 #daj in #ahgi1 and none since2 from ,italy1 from #cci1igc in #ahgf1 to #ci1gea in #ahhj2 from ,european ,turkey1 from #bcj1ibb in #ahgf1 to #fc1bcf in #ahhj2 from ,asiatic ,turkey1 they have risen from #ic1ife in #ahgf1 to #ahe1edc in #ahhj2 from ,brazil1 #da1fjd in #ahgf1 #bfbc in #ahgg1 #egcj in #ahhj1 and none in the intermediate years2 from the ,argentine ,republic1 #c1eci1ehi in #ahgf1 #hih1aee in #ahgi1 #a1bdh1eec in #ahhj2 from the ,cape1 #a1dif1jci in #ahgg1 #a1hai1ggb in #ahhj2 from ,india1 #c1ibg1icd in #ahgf1 #b1iaa1igd in #ahhj2 from ,victoria1 #a1ffg1ccj in #ahgf1 #a1aeh1fhf in #ahhj2 from ,new ,south ,wales1 #hc1afg in #ahgh1 #cf1iie in #ahhj2 ,new ,zealand1 #afh1ihd in #ahgh1 #ccd1gib in #ahhj4 ,the approximate ,london market values of sheep-skins are3--,cape1 #aj-cds4 a doz42 fine wool1 #bh-eis42 superior1 #dj-hbs42 ,mogador1 #ad-bgs42 ,buenos ,ayres1 #d-ac;d4 a lb42 ,australian1 #d-af;d42 tanned ,east ,indian1 best1 #b-ds42 ordinary to good1 #as4-#bs4 #i;d4 ,walrus4--,our imports of walrus skins from ,christiania in #ahgi were valued at #gijj kroner 7of #ac-a_/b;d74 ,unenumerated4--,our imports of unenumerated skins and hides in #ahhc were as follows3-- ,dressed skins1 not leather4--,from ,russia #daj1 #fdel42 ,germany #ebdi1 #eeil42 ,holland #eiag1 #giel42 ,belgium #af1ebd1 #bfehl42 ,france #da1jfi1 #bfhjl42 ,british ,india #bjje1 #bahl42 ,australasia #bibe1 #giel42 ,british ,north ,america #cjj1 #cacl42 ,united ,states of ,america #ejb1 #bbel42 ,other ,countries #id1 #djl4 ,total #gd1iie1 #hibhl4 ,undressed skins3--,from ,denmark #ae1iej1 #bdahl42 ,germany #aj1hae1 #ccial42 ,holland #ggjj1 #gfel42 ,belgium #aj1djj1 #hjjl42 ,france #cafb1 #cjil42 ,british ,possessions in ,south ,africa #dfii1 #dbbl42 ,british ,india #ba1hdf1 #cbfjl42 ,china #hf1 #dajl42 ,australasia #fe1cje1 #cbgdl42 ,british ,north ,america #afih1 #beel42 ,united ,states of ,america #cege1 #abiel42 ,brazil #ab1hec1 #ajigl42 ,other ,countries #gdeg1 #eeil4 ,total #afe1edf1 #ah1beel4 ,wet hides4--,from ,sweden #aide cwt41 #faccl42 ,norway #aefa cwt41 #daigl42 ,denmark #dgeg cwt41 #aj1hgcl42 ,germany #cc1fag cwt41 #hf1bajl42 ,holland #ai1jjf cwt41 #dg1heil42 ,belgium #gd1bhh cwt41 #baj1fihl42 ,channel ,islands #bdgh cwt41 #dgbdl42 ,france #fd1bab cwt41 #agh1idal42 ,portugal #ah1jca cwt41 #eb1cbhl42 ,gibraltar #hhh cwt41 #bfafl42 ,italy #ac1daa cwt41 #cg1dcal42 ,austrian ,territories #idj cwt41 #bbfjl42 ,british ,possessions in ,south ,africa #bc1hha cwt41 #ff1ggil42 ,japan #hjf cwt41 #bcjjl42 ,australasia #ic1hia cwt41 #bji1aehl42 ,united ,states of ,america #aa1eij cwt41 #ca1fajl42 ,bermudas #ibc cwt41 #bbegl42 ,british ,west ,india ,islands #ccbi cwt41 #hajel42 ,brazil #fd1djf cwt41 #aia1jeal42 ,uruguay #ii1cia cwt41 #cjh1idjl42 ,argentine ,republic #be1adb cwt41 #gc1eahl42 ,falkland ,islands #adcd cwt41 #dajjl42 ,whale ,fisheries3 ,northern #ghb cwt41 #dihel42 ,other ,countries #bjbd cwt41 #dffjl4 ,total #efb1gcc cwt41 #a1eea1gccl4 ,dry raw hides and pieces4--,from ,russia #aj1hbi cwt41 #gi1idjl42 ,sweden #aic cwt41 #abccl42 ,denmark #afda cwt41 #aj1fggl42 ,germany #ac1jbb cwt41 #fb1bdhl42 ,holland #aj1hgd cwt41 #cg1gafl42 ,belgium #cgia cwt41 #ae1ceel42 ,france #ccic cwt41 #ab1bfbl42 ,gibraltar #bbe cwt41 #ajjjl42 ,italy #dea cwt41 #acffl42 ,austrian ,territories #eee cwt41 #bhacl42 ,turkey #ibe cwt41 #ccbgl42 ,egypt #dfh cwt41 #adicl42 ,west ,coast of ,africa1 not particularly designated #fgc cwt41 #acihl42 ,british ,possessions in ,south ,africa #ci1eja cwt41 #afj1gafl42 ,east ,coast of ,africa 7,native ,states7 #biij cwt41 #hhjhl42 ,madagascar #bhej cwt41 #hggcl42 ,mauritius #bffi cwt41 #hdccl42 ,aden #fgde cwt41 #bb1bhbl42 ,british ,india3 ,bombay #cc1edh cwt41 #aje1jhal42 ,madras #chfj cwt41 #ac1bdhl42 ,bengal and ,burmah #cgj1cfi cwt41 #a1cbi1hbbl42 ,straits ,settlements #ea1def cwt41 #acj1bddl42 ,ceylon #bcad cwt41 #fdfhl42 ,java #cbhh cwt41 #aj1fgjl42 ,cochin ,china1 ,camboja1 and ,tonquin #bbcf cwt41 #eaecl42 ,china #ah1hib cwt41 #fc1aibl42 ,australasia #gjji cwt41 #ae1ejfl42 ,united ,states of ,america #ag1hdb cwt41 #ef1ecfl42 ,british ,west ,india ,islands #iec cwt41 #cgacl42 ,united ,states of ,colombia #ajec cwt41 #dieel42 ,peru #aabj cwt41 #ceggl42 ,chile #aaah cwt41 #djhil42 ,brazil #iabe cwt41 #ca1jhil42 ,uruguay #bicg cwt41 #iibdl42 ,argentine ,republic #ceef cwt41 #ab1dbfl42 ,other ,countries #afde cwt41 #eeifl4 ,total #fcd1aaf cwt41 #b1bea1abil44 ,undressed leather4--,from ,germany #hi1jgc lb41 #eefcl42 ,holland #hf1jdh lb41 #fbcil42 ,belgium #be1fej lb41 #aidcl42 ,france #fb1gii lb41 #dfeel42 ,spain #db1ggc lb41 #ceeel42 ,aden #ba1bhj lb41 #ahecl42 ,british ,india3 ,bombay #c1ffc1deb lb41 #bgd1fbel42 ,madras #ag1hei1feb lb41 #a1cge1dhdl42 ,bengal and ,burmah #a1hba1ibe lb41 #abd1aicl42 ,straits ,settlements #c1ieg1fea lb41 #adg1ifbl42 ,china #cg1ibc lb41 #bjfhl42 ,australasia3 ,west ,australia #ab1gej lb41 #dhgl42 ,south ,australia #bch1bdi lb41 #aa1bhcl42 ,victoria #g1age1eej lb41 #ceg1jcbl42 ,new ,south ,wales #b1dbh1adg lb41 #abj1fgel42 ,queensland #aa1ihj lb41 #fbal42 ,tasmania #dj1hfc lb41 #aihfl42 ,new ,zealand #a1egc1bhi lb41 #gd1ggfl42 ,british ,north ,america #aee1ejj lb41 #gdjel42 ,united ,states of ,america #ag1cbi1fib lb41 #ggh1cibl42 ,other ,countries #ahf1ccc lb41 #aa1abal4 ,total #ef1hbj1egi lb41 #c1caa1iahl4 ,dressed leather4--,from ,russia #affi lb41 #bebl42 ,germany #a1cig1ibh lb41 #cfi1gail42 ,holland #a1hji1bfb lb41 #bic1aifl42 ,belgium #bfj1feglb41 #da1adfl42 ,france #e1ahg1cbc lb41 #gbe1dhel42 ,turkey #fbbf lb41 #ccil42 ,british ,possessions in ,south ,africa #gjj lb41 #bejl42 ,british ,india #aef1hjb lb41 #ae1gbjl42 ,australasia #bhab lb41 #dbcl42 ,british ,north ,america #ggi1cba lb41 #eg1cbfl42 ,united ,states of ,america #g1heh1ief lb41 #ecc1dail42 ,other ,countries #eahc lb41 #edcl4 ,total #ag1dff1hci lb41 #b1jcg1hahl4 ,varnished1 japanned1 or enamelled leather4--,from ,russia #dd1jhh lb41 #igbel42 ,germany #ah1bcf lb41 #chiel42 ,holland #bji1gjg lb41 #ef1ffgl42 ,belgium #fdh lb41 #bjjl42 ,france #fg1gbd lb41 #be1eihl42 ,turkey #aij lb41 #ejl42 ,british ,north ,america #fhfh lb41 #aaeal42 ,united ,states of ,america #hc1chg lb41 #ai1cggl4 ,total1 #dcj1hdh lb41 #aaf1ffcl4 ,boots and ,shoes4--,from ,germany #cgff dzn4 pairs1 #aj1dacl42 ,holland #bc1cba dzn4 pairs1 #he1ehel42 ,belgium #ch1bjc dzn4 pairs1 #ha1becl42 ,channel ,islands #dfd dzn4 pairs1 #bcbgl42 ,france #ec1dcg dzn4 pairs1 #bcc1jchl42 ,turkey #cej dzn4 pairs1 #adil42 ,australasia3 ,new ,south ,wales #bi dzn4 pairs1 #ajjl42 ,british ,north ,america #cjhj dzn4 pairs1 #fgjfl42 ,united ,states of ,america #cca dzn4 pairs1 #adjjl42 ,other ,countries #gg dzn4 pairs1 #bdcl4 ,total1 #abc1jeh dzn4 pairs1 #dba1badl4 ,gloves4--,from ,sweden #cej dzn4 pairs1 #bcgl42 ,norway #ej dzn4 pairs1 #ehl42 ,denmark #ai1cbj dzn4 pairs1 #af1jicl42 ,germany #cjij dzn4 pairs1 #bficl42 ,holland #cji1daf dzn4 pairs1 #cba1jhjl42 ,belgium #aig1ddd dzn4 pairs1 #bbb1idfl42 ,channel ,islands #aj dzn4 pairs1 #afl42 ,france #a1ach1cdc dzn4 pairs1 #a1cge1ihhl42 ,italy #bcb dzn4 pairs1 #bhjl42 ,australasia3 ,victoria #dc dzn4 pairs1 #ifl4 ,total1 #a1ffh1bih dzn4 pairs1 #a1ici1dhgl4 ,unenumerated leather manufactures4--,from ,sweden #ajhl42 ,norway #ajil42 ,denmark #bcfl42 ,germany #bb1gjel42 ,holland #aai1dfbl42 ,belgium #ce1gfbl42 ,france #dh1cjhl42 ,british ,possessions in ,south ,africa #aihl42 ,british ,north ,america #ical42 ,united ,states of ,america #ai1chhl42 ,other ,countries #egal4 ,total1 #bdg1gghl4 ,our imports of hides from the undermentioned countries have fluctuated as shown3-- ,abyssinia4--,undressed1 #gbhi cwt4 in #ahgf1 #cbg in #ahgh1 #baei in #ahgi1 and #cbd in #ahhj4 ,aden4--,undressed1 #haij cwt4 in #ahgf1 #aac in #ahgi1 #hbid in #ahhj4 ,algiers4--,raw1 #b1jea1gja kilo4 7of #bb lb47 in #ahgi4 ,argentine ,republic4--,undressed1 #id1dgi cwt4 in #ahgg1 #cb1ifa in #ahgi1 #cd1ije in #ahhj4 ,austro-,hungary4--,vienna1 #bd1fgb metrical centners in #ahgh1 #dh1iej in #ahgi2 ,fiume1 raw1 #adjj kilo4 in #ahgi4 ,bahamas4--#afgl4 worth in #ahgi4 ,barbados4--#cfcl4 worth in #ahgg1 #iacl4 in #ahgh4 ,belgium4--,undressed1 #ea1jfi cwt4 in #ahgg1 #hb1jba in #ahgh1 #fh1abc in #ahhj4 ,dressed1 #agf1fce lb4 in #ahgh1 #dah1ijf in #ahhj4 ,brazil4--,undressed1 #acg1cea cwt4 in #ahgh1 #aae1acg in #ahhj4 ,pernambuco in #ahgh-i exported1 dried1 #ca1gag kilo4 to ,great ,britain1 #bh1jgg ,france1 #be1fjf ,portugal1 total value1 #cjjbl42 salted1 #chc1fia kilo4 ,great ,britain1 #icg1igf ,united ,states1 #ehe1hfh ,france1 #dj1ggj ,spain1 #dfc1bfi ,portugal1 total value #ge1ebcl42 in #ahhj1 #fa tons1 #bbfgl4 ,maceio exported in #ahgg1 #dgbh pieces 7average #bh lb4 each7 to ,great ,britain1 #addj ,new ,york and ,lisbon2 in #ahgi1 #cf1gge2 in #ahhj1 #aa1dje4 ,bahia exported #a1dcb1hfd kilo4 in #ahgg-h1 and #a1ggc1ife in #ahgh-i1 principally to the ,united ,states and ,germany4 ,santos exported #cig1jjj kilo4 in #ahgi4 ,ceara exported in #ahgh1 #cgb1hjh kilo4 to ,england1 #ca1iff ,havre1 #gge1hfc ,hamburg1 #ghjj ,new ,york4 ,british ,india4--,undressed1 #bha1aih cwt4 in #ahgf1 #dfc1gfd in #ahhj2 dressed1 #ad1hce1igi lb4 in #ahgh1 #f1agh1cgj in #ahhj4 ,bulgaria4--,rustchuk1 in #ahgi1 exported #bed1aif kilo4 7#bej tons7 to ,austria4 ,canada4--,dressed1 #ici1gei lb4 in #ahgf1 #cgb1cei in #ahgi1 #a1jff1jdc in #ahhj4 ,cape4--,undressed1 #ae1cgj cwt4 in #ahgf1 #dd1ejc in #ahgh1 #bi1ddb in #ahhj4 ,central ,america4--,undressed1 #gb cwt4 in #ahgf1 #aaac in #ahgh1 #cef in #ahhj4 ,chili4--,undressed1 #cah cwt4 in #ahgf1 #ag1jdb in #ahgi1 #aeff in #ahhj2 dressed1 #cc1jbf lb4 in #ahgf1 #cibi in #ahgg1 #aii1ife in #ahgh1 #bbd in #ahgi1 #bicj in #ahhj4 ,china4--,undressed1 #efga cwt4 in #ahgf1 #fj1hga in #ahgh1 #bgje in #ahhj4 ,hankow exported in #ahgi1 #ggig pieces1 #afefl42 ,kiungchow1 #dij piculs 7of #acc-a_/c lb471 #hahl42 ,newchwang1 #ag1ffe pieces2 ,tientsin1 #dced piculs2 ,canton1 in #ahgh1 #fec pieces of skins1 #hgc-c_/d piculs of hides4 ,costa ,rica4--,san ,jos exported #cjh1gid lb4 in #ahgi4 ,denmark4--,undressed1 #bj1hjf cwt4 in #ahgg1 #efcb in #ahhj2 ,copenhagen exported #a1aff1agb lb4 to ,great ,britain in #ahgh4 ,ecuador4--,undressed1 #fhj cwt4 in #ahgf1 #ah in #ahgg1 #aae in #ahgi1 #hi in #ahhj4 ,guayaquil exported in #ahgh1 #egaa quintals raw1 #ag1accl41 to the ,united ,states1 and #ab1ejd halves tanned1 #hgebl41 to ,south ,america2 and in #ahhj1 #hhei quintals raw1 #bb1adhl41 and #dhfa tanned1 #biafl4 ,manabi1 in #ahgh1 exported #acba quintals1 #cifcl4 ,egypt4--,undressed1 #abej cwt4 in #ahgg1 #gah in #ahgh1 #abhf in #ahhj4 ,in #ahgi1 the values were #fbjl4 to ,austria1 #chjl4 ,france1 #aiejl4 ,great ,britain1 #de1ejjl4 ,greece1 #bhjl4 ,italy1 #fb1ejjl4 ,turkey4 ,falklands4--,undressed1 #dcae cwt4 in #ahgh1 #bfgi in #ahhj4 ,the value of the exports was #ejbjl4 in #ahgi4 ,france4--,undressed1 #bf1hff cwt4 in #ahgf1 #eg1cje in #ahhj2 dressed1 #b1gbg1aij lb4 in #ahgf1 #d1cch1dhe in #ahhj4 ,calais in #ahgh sent #bahh kilo4 prepared to ,great ,britain1 and #gf1haa kilo4 in #ahgi4 ,french ,east ,indies4--,dressed1 #bd1fjj lb4 in #ahgf1 #ab1gac in #ahgg1 none since4 ,gambia4--,exported #ae1chj pieces in #ahgh4 ,germany4--,undressed1 #de1jjb cwt4 in #ahgf1 #ba1adc in #ahgh1 #dd1chc in #ahhj2 dressed1 #a1bfi1adc lb4 in #ahgf1 #ied1egh in #ahgh1 #a1cah1fei in #ahhj4 ,hamburg sent to ,great ,britain1 #cc1deh cwt4 dry and salted in #ahgg1 #ac1igb in #ahgi4 ,knigsberg exported #aece cwt4 raw in #ahgh1 #dbd in #ahgi4 ,greece4--,dressed3 ,syra in #ahgg sent #fj1bagl4 worth to ,turkey1 #bc1beil4 to the ,danubian ,principalities1 #bgdhl4 to ,austria2 in #ahgi1 #dibl4 ,turkey1 #beal4 ,austria1 #bjjl4 ,russia4 ,guatemala4--,exports in #ahgg1 #fb1cdc dol4 worth2 in #ahgh1 #hdd-a_/b quintals to ,england1 #abic ,france1 #bdgf ,germany1 #hbb ,new ,york1 #adi ,california2 #ahgi1 #dab1fje ,germany1 #ab1cfj ,new ,york4 ,hawaiian ,islands4--,exports #ahhj1 #bd1hhe pieces4 ,holland4--,undressed1 #ee1gje cwt4 in #ahgf1 #ec1efh in #ahhj2 dressed1 #ida1cgb lb4 in #ahgf1 #hif1gcd in #ahhj4 ,java4--,exports #ahgh-i1 #ceg1cec pieces and #abdj piculs to ,holland1 #gbab pieces to the ,channel for orders1 #abjj pieces to ,france1 #gcfi pieces to ,italy1 #efie pieces and #hgb piculs to ,singapore4 ,madagascar4--,undressed1 #beb cwt4 in #ahgg1 #cjhh in #ahgi1 none since4 ,mauritius4--,undressed1 #ecda cwt4 in #ahgf1 #bide in #ahhj4 ,morocco4--,undressed1 #j in #ahgg1 #edde cwt4 in #ahgh1 #ajad in #ahhj4 ,tangiers exported in #ahgi1 #bgbg cwt41 #fjjjl41 to ,great ,britain2 #ahah cwt41 #dcfel41 ,france2 #ba cwt41 #dbl41 ,spain4 ,mogador1 in #ahhj1 sent #dd bales1 #aejl41 to ,great ,britain2 #ffg1 #bbejl41 ,france2 #bdc1 #ggjl41 ,portugal4 ,natal4--,undressed1 #cb1eee cwt4 in #ahgf1 #ag1dif in #ahgh1 #bc1ijh in #ahhj4 ,new ,granada4--,undressed1 #ab1bag cwt4 in #ahgh1 #egd in #ahgi1 #fjei in #ahhj4 ,new ,south ,wales4--,undressed1 #ichf cwt4 in #ahgh1 #gi1igb in #ahhj2 dressed1 #b1beg1jda lb4 in #ahgg1 #a1fid1jae in #ahhj4 ,new ,zealand4--,undressed1 #ci cwt4 in #ahgh1 #fcce in #ahhj2 dressed1 #adj1ddh lb4 in #ahgh1 #ddf1ajb in #ahhj4 ,persia4--,bushire exported in #ahgi1 #djjj rupees' worth to ,england1 #ejjj r4 ,india2 ,lingah1 #bhjj r4 ,india1 #aiej r4 ,persian coast2 ,bahrein1 #fjjj r4 ,koweit1 ,bussora1 and ,bagdad4 ,peru4--,undressed1 #bhei cwt4 in #ahgf1 #fbb in #ahgh1 #abce in #ahhj4 ,mollendo exported #ech quintals in #ahgh1 and #acjg q4 dry in #ahgi4 ,philippines4--,undressed1 #ajbd cwt4 in #ahgf1 #ajb in #ahhj4 ,manilla1 in #ahgi1 exported #gigf piculs1 #ab1gfal41 to ,china and ,japan4 ,portugal4--,undressed1 #ag1def cwt4 in #ahgg1 #aj1ihc in #ahhj4 ,queensland4--,undressed1 #acae cwt4 in #ahgi1 #ejai in #ahhj4 ,roumania4--,galatz exported #cda bales in #ahgi4 ,russia4--,undressed1 #dhb cwt4 in #ahgf1 #fjbj in #ahhj2 dressed1 #hh1bbe lb4 in #ahgf1 #df1fid in #ahhj4 ,riga shipped #ad1hci poods 7of #cf lb47 in #ahgg1 #aa1caa in #ahgi4 ,poti1 in #ahgg-h1 sent away #efed poods1 and #badi from ,persia4 ,saigon4--,exports in #ahgi1 #aj1ehb piculs4 ,san ,domingo4--,exports in #ahgh1 #fcj pieces to ,great ,britain1 #dij ,france1 #cajj ,italy1 #cihj ,spain1 #dfj ,united ,states1 #efj ,west ,indies2 in #ahhj1 #acdj ,italy1 #beda ,spain1 #gadb ,united ,states1 #ig ,west ,indies4 ,south ,australia4--,dressed1 #ch1ajh lb4 in #ahgh1 #cjc1adc in #ahhj4 ,spanish ,west ,indies4--,puerto ,rico exported in #ahgh1 #afg quintals ,united ,states1 #efgc ,spain1 #fcg ,germany4 ,straits ,settlements4--,undressed1 #bh1ddd cwt4 in #ahgf1 #dh1bac in #ahhj2 dressed1 #fjc1chi lb4 in #ahgf1 #b1ggh1aei in #ahhj4 ,surinam4--,exports in #ahgh1 #ibba kilo4 ,sweden and ,norway4--,christiania exported #ie1bjj kroner worth in #ahge1 #dbjj kr4 in #ahgh4 ,gothenburg exported #aj1ifj cwt4 in #ahgi4 ,tasmania4--,dressed1 #fe1hjc lb4 in #ahgh1 #ch1ada in #ahhj4 ,tripoli4--,bengazi1 in #ahgh1 sent #ej1jjj pieces1 #djjjl41 to ,malta4 ,the value of the exports was #bjjjl4 in #ahgi1 and #dejjl4 in #ahhj4 ,turkey4--,aleppo exported in #ahgh1 #aha tons1 #aj1hbdl41 to ,france2 #e1 #cbjl41 ,italy2 #aa1 #gjdl41 ,austria2 #eb1 #ccbhl41 ,turkey2 #ab1 #gfhl41 ,egypt4 ,thessaly exported #ae1jjjl4 worth in #ahhj4 ,samos sent #ai1cjjl4 worth tanned to ,turkey and ,egypt in #ahgi4 ,van exported #aejjl4 worth in #ahgi4 ,kerasund shipped by steamer in #ahgi1 #eeg bales1 #chiil4 ,trebizond in #ahgi sent #idj bales 7of #ab and #fj pieces71 #fehjl41 to ,turkey2 #aefg1 #aj1ifil41 ,france2 #eja1 #cejgl41 ,russia2 #hj1 #efjl41 ,greece4 ,dedeagatch1 in #ahgi1 exported #acjj bales1 #dj1jjjl4 ,alexandretta1 in #ahgi1 sent #bhj tons1 #af1hjjl41 to ,france2 #c1 #ahjl41 ,austria2 #aj1 #fjjl41 ,russia2 #if1 #fgbjl41 ,turkey2 #bi1 #bjcjl41 ,egypt4 ,adana1 in #ahgi1 sent #bej tons1 #gejjl41 to ,france2 #adj1 #dbjjl41 ,turkey2 #bg1 #hajl41 ,greece4 ,jaffa exported #ah1jjj okes 7#di1ejj lb471 #fffl41 for ,turkey in #ahgi4 ,united ,states4--,undressed1 #aae1gfg cwt4 in #ahgf1 #ghhh in #ahgi2 #ad1ceh in #ahhj2 dressed1 #af1gaf1gaa lb4 in #ahgi1 #bb1edc1jcc in #ahhj4 ,savannah exported #hgeh bundles in #ahhj4 ,galveston exported in #ahgi-hj1 #ihgh bales and #geaj single1 dry2 and #fije bundles wet-salted4 ,texas ,state in #ahgh-i exported #bh1ajd1jfe lb41 #efb1jhal4 ,uruguay4--,undressed1 #aaf1gch cwt4 in #ahgf1 #fe1hdf in #ahgi1 #ajd1fia in #ahhj4 ,venezuela4--,puerto ,cabello exported in #ahgi1 #aj1abf kilo4 to ,great ,britain1 #hhag ,germany1 #ge1gid ,united ,states1 #egef ,france1 #fif ,holland1 #ajbc ,spain4 ,ciudad ,bolivar sent #ce1efb pieces1 #gfb1bcd lb41 to ,new ,york in #ahgi4 ,victoria4--,undressed1 #j in #ahgh1 #bgaj in #ahgi1 #hgje in #ahhj2 dressed1 #c1ejf1efb lb4 in #ahgf1 #e1jif1fif in #ahhj4 ,the values of the exports in #ahgh were #idagl4 hides1 and #ai1gjfl4 skins and pelts4 ,tanning ,materials4--,our imports of bark in #ahhc were3--,from ,sweden #fdaj cwt41 #abhal42 ,norway #hheh cwt41 #afhgl42 ,holland #ab1hee cwt41 #cbdfl42 ,belgium #ei1icf cwt41 #ae1ihgl42 ,france #ccbc cwt41 #bachl42 ,algeria #df1jeb cwt41 #ai1eggl42 ,british ,east ,indies #dfje cwt41 #ccbal42 ,australasia #ahc1ggg cwt41 #aai1bibl42 ,united ,states of ,america #cf1bjc cwt41 #ab1cfhl42 ,other ,countries #cjhg cwt41 #ahebl4 ,total1 #cfe1ajf cwt41 #ahj1gdil4 ,our imports of cutch and gambier in #ahhc were3--,from ,british ,india3 ,bombay #bgg tons1 #gfhbl42 ,bengal and ,burmah #haae tons1 #bba1feal42 ,straits ,settlements #ag1dgg tons1 #dec1hjdl42 ,philippine ,islands #dg tons1 #abbgl42 ,united ,states of ,america #hgg tons1 #be1adil42 ,other ,countries #dd tons1 #abjhl4 ,total1 #bf1hcg tons1 #gaj1gbal4 ,our imports of myrobalans in #ahhc were3--,from ,germany #aacc cwt41 #ejcl42 ,british ,india3--,bombay #cdi1bge cwt41 #ahd1ihcl42 ,madras #abj1bfb cwt41 #ed1iigl42 ,bengal #bc1egi cwt41 #iffcl42 ,straits ,settlements #bad cwt41 #ajgl42 ,ceylon #aaje cwt41 #dhcl42 ,japan #cjf cwt41 #adfl4 ,total1 #die1hgd cwt41 #bej1hhbl4 ,our imports of extracts in #ahhc were3--,from ,denmark #bggcl42 ,germany #cf1fchl42 ,holland #ed1fjjl42 ,belgium #gcecl42 ,france #bfa1fijl42 ,spain #ajjjl42 ,italy #degal42 ,british ,north ,america #cc1caal41 ,united ,states of ,america #ff1aadl42 ,mexico #cicgl42 ,other ,countries #afbel4 ,total1 #dgc1fabl4 ,our imports of galls in #ahhc were3--,from ,austrian ,territories #dgd cwt41 #ajbbl42 ,turkey #ijef cwt41 #bc1chhl42 ,egypt #bdce cwt41 #fbajl42 ,persia #bfi cwt41 #ggjl42 ,british ,india #aegb cwt41 #ajfbl42 ,china #bb1fbe cwt41 #ff1gcal42 ,japan #bicf cwt41 #ibgfl42 ,other ,countries #ahe cwt41 #dhfl4 ,total1 #ci1eeb cwt41 #ajh1idel4 ,our imports of valonia in #ahhc were3--,from ,holland #ajj tons1 #afjjl42 ,france #ei tons1 #idgl42 ,austrian ,territories #agh tons1 #bgcbl42 ,greece #caja tons1 #df1ebfl42 ,turkey #bg1jcj tons1 #dcb1dbcl4 ,total1 #cj1dfh tons1 #dhd1bbhl4 ,our imports of sumach in #ahhc were3--,from ,france #fhh tons1 #higil42 ,spain #ed tons1 #fafl42 ,italy #ab1cie tons1 #ahd1aebl42 ,austrian ,territories #agjg tons1 #ba1abal42 ,other ,countries #cb tons1 #dcjl4 ,total1 #ad1hgf tons1 #bae1bihl4 ,literature4 ,the chief works relating to the tanning1 currying1 and dressing of leather1 and the tanning materials employed1 are as follows3-- ,abridgments of ,specifications3 ,skin1 ,hides1 and ,leather1 #afbg-ahff4 ,london3 #ahgb4 ,bernardin 7,r4 ,j474 ,classification de #cej ,matires ,tannantes4 ,gand3 #ahhj4 ,brggemann 7,a474 ,weissgerberei4 ,quedlinburg4 ,brggemann 7,a474 ,saffian ,fabrikation4 ,quedlinburg4 ,brggemann 7,a474 ,glacleder ,frberei4 ,quedlinburg4 ,councler 7,dr4 ,c474 ,bericht ber die ,verhandlungen der ,commission zur ,feststellung einer einheitlichen ,methode der ,gerbstoffbestimmung4 ,cassel3 #ahhe4 ,das ,ganze der ,lederbereitung4 ,quedlinburg4 ,davis 7,c4 ,t474 ,manufacture of ,leather4 ,philadelphia3 #ahhe4 ,dussauce 7,f474 ,tanning1 ,currying1 and ,leather-dressing4 ,philadelphia3 #ahfe4 ,eitner 7,w474 ,leder-,industrie3 ,bericht ber die ,welt-,ausstellung in ,philadelphia1 #ahgf4 ,vienna3 #ahgg4 ,hansen 7,a474 ,die ,quebracho ,rinde4 ,berlin3 #ahhj4 ,hhnel 7,f4 ,r4 von74 ,die ,gerberinden4 ,berlin3 #ahhj4 ,knapp 7,fr474 ,natur und ,wesen der ,gerberei und des ,leders4 ,mnchen3 #aheh4 ,lange 7,j4 ,c474 ,lederbereitung4 ,quedlinburg4 ,lietzmann 7,j4 ,c4 ,h474 ,herstellung des ,leder in ihren ,chemischen und ,physikalischen ,vorgngen4 ,berlin3 #ahge4 ,mc,murtrie 7,w474 ,culture of ,sumac1 and preparation for market3 ,department of ,agriculture ,special ,report1 ,no4 #bf4 ,washington3 #ahhj4 ,morfit 7,c474 ,the ,arts of ,tanning1 ,currying1 and ,leather-dressing4 ,philadelphia3 #aheb4 ,neubrand 7,j4 ,g474 ,die ,gerbrinde4 ,frankfurt-on-,maine3 #ahfi4 ,olivet 7,p474 ,lederfrberei4 ,quedlinburg4 ,schultz 7,j4 ,s47 ,leather ,manufacture3 a ,dissertation on the ,methods and ,economics of ,tanning4 ,new ,york3 #ahgf4 ,sonnenfeldt 7,dr474 ,frben der ,pelzwaaren4 ,quedlinburg4 ,villain 7,h474 ,cuirs et ,peaux3 ,tannage1 ,corroyage1 et ,mgisserie4 ,paris3 #ahfg4 ,vincent 7,c474 ,fabrication et ,commerce des ,cuirs et ,peaux4 ,paris3 #ahgb4 ,wattle ,bark3 ,report of the ,board of ,inquiry4 ,melbourne3 #ahgh4 ,wiener 7,f474 ,die ,lohgerberei1 oder die ,fabrikation des ,lohgaren ,leders ,leipzig3 #ahgi4 ,wiesner 7,j474 ,die ,rohstoffe des ,pflanzenreiches4 ,leipzig3 #ahgc4 ,wittmack 7,l474 ,die ,nutzpflanzen aller ,zonen4 ,berlin3 #ahgi4 ,leather ,trades ,circular and ,review4 ,london4 ,tanners' and ,curriers' ,journal4 ,london4 ,scottish ,leather ,trader4 ,glasgow4 ,shoe and ,leather ,reporter4 ,new ,york4 ,la ,halle aux ,cuirs4 ,paris4 ,der ,gerber4 ,vienna4 ,gerber ,zeitung4 ,berlin4 ,deutsche ,gerber ,zeitung4 ,berlin4 ,gerber ,courier4 ,vienna4 ,gazetta dei ,pellami4 ,milan4 ,,index4 ,abies bark1 #ec ---- tannin1 #ca ,acacia barks1 #cd-h ---- fruits1 #ec ---- tannin1 #bc-e ,acetic acid1 examining1 #ajb ,achromatic condenser1 #i ,acid1 digallic1 #gf-h ----1 dioxysalicylic1 #fi-ga ----1 ellagic1 #ga ----1 ellagitannic1 #gh ----1 gallic1 #fi-ga ----1 gallotannic1 #gf-h ----1 quercitannic1 #gh ---- solutions1 preparing standard1 #ie-g ,acids1 decomposition of tannins by1 #fh-gc ----1 examination of1 #aja ----1 free1 in tan-liquor1 determining1 #ajh-aa ,acorn cups1 #ej-c ---- galls1 #bg ,adipose tissue1 #h ,adjustment for thickness of cover-glasses1 #aa ,african kino1 #cd ,air1 capacity for moisture1 #bdi ,albumen1 #bj ,alder bark1 #ed ,aleppische ,gallen1 #bf-h ,aleppo galls1 #bf-h ,algarobilla1 #bc ,algarrobo1 #bc ,alkaline solutions1 preparing standard1 #ie-g ,allen and ,warren sprinkler leck1 #bda ,alligator skins1 #bee ,alnus tannin1 #ed ,alum in tanning1 #bah-bb ,amboyna kino1 #cc ,american press leck1 #bda ---- rocker1 #afi ---- union splitter1 #ahh ,ampelopsis hderacea1 #fg ,analysing tannins1 #aah-ca ----1 methods for the tannery1 #ij-aca ,analysis1 indicators1 #ia ----1 instruments1 #ia-e ----1 standard solutions1 #ij ,anatomical structure of hide1 #b-af ,aphis punctures1 #bh ,areca-nut cutch1 #be ,armadillo skins1 #bee ,artificial light for microscope1 #ab ,ash of leather1 estimating1 #ajg ,aspidosperma wood1 #ci ,ass skins1 #bee ,australian kino1 #cd ,babul tannin1 #ec ,bahera1 #ch ,balance1 #ic ,balsamocarpon pods1 #bc ,bark1 commerce1 #bgj ---- elevators1 #afb ---- mills1 #aeh-fa ,barkometer1 #afi ,bates for dressing leather1 #ahd-f ,beaming dressing leather1 #ahg ---- hides1 #aea ,bengal kino1 #cc ,bibliography1 #bgb-d ,blood vessels1 #h ,bloom1 source of1 #fb ,bloomers for butts1 #agf ,blue-back seal-skins1 #bjf ,boots and shoes1 commerce1 #bfe ,botany ,bay kino1 #cd ,breaking the nerve1 #h ,bristol finishing1 #ahc ,buffalo method of unhairing1 #add ---- skins1 #bee ,bulls'-eye condenser1 #ab ,burettes1 #ib ,burning-in strap butts1 #bja ,butea kino1 #cc ,butts1 cleansing lime from1 #aee ---- defined1 #aee ----1 striking1 #agi ,cachou1 #bc-e ---- jaune1 #bi-ca ,csalpinia pods1 #be1 #ed ,calf kid1 #bbc ---- skins1 #bef ,camata valonia1 #eb ,camatina valonia1 #eb ,cascalote tannin1 #ed ,castanea extract1 #bc ,catechin1 #gi-ha ,catechol1 #fg ,catechu1 #bc-e ,catechutannic acid1 #ha ,cellular structure of hide1 examining1 #ab ,chagrin1 #beh ,chamada valonia1 #eb ,chamois leather1 #baj-b ,charcala valonia1 #eb ,chemical composition of hide1 #ag-bb ,chemistry of tannins1 #eg-hb ,chestnut extract1 #bc ---- ---- for sole leather1 #aeh ,chinese galls1 #bh ,chlorine in water1 estimating1 #ih ,chromic and osmic acids for hardening and staining hide sections1 #ad ,churco bark1 #ee ,cleaning drains in tannery1 #bdj ,climax scourer1 #bjj ,commerce1 #bee-ga ,commercial tanning materials1 #bc-ef ,composition1 chemical1 of hide1 #ag-bb ,comptonia tannin1 #ed ,condense-water trap1 #bea ,connective tissue1 #g ---- ----1 nature of1 #ah ,constitution of tannins1 #gf-hb ,construction of tanneries1 #bca-db ,conveyors for bark1 #afb ,coriaria tannin1 #ed ,coriin1 #ai ---- in lime-liquors1 determining1 #ajd ,corium1 #b1 #g ,cork-tree bark1 #ch ,cover-glasses1 #aa ----1 screwing objective down on1 #aa ,cow skins1 #bfa ,crown leather1 #bac-g ,crust roans1 #bjf ,curried leather1 measuring1 #bjb ,currying1 #aic-bjb ---- crown leather1 #bag ---- defined1 #a ,cutch1 #bc-e ----1 commerce1 #bga ,cutting hide-sections1 #ab-e ,cynips punctures1 #bf ,decomposition of phlobaphenes by fusion with caustic alkali1 #gc-e ---- ---- tannins by acids1 #fh-gc ---- ---- ---- by heat1 #fe ---- ---- ----1 products of1 #fe-h ,deer skins1 #bef ,dgras1 #baa ,depilatories1 various1 #aej ,derma1 #b ,dhak kino1 #cc ,diffuseur for exhausting tan1 #afg ,digallic acid1 #gf-h ,dioxysalicylic acid1 #fi-ga ,diplolepis punctures1 #bf ,disintegrators1 #aeh-fa ,dissolving extracts1 #afh ,dividing hides1 #aee ,divi-divi1 #be ---- ---- for sole leather1 #aeg ,dog skins1 #bef ,drainage of tanyard1 #bca ,drains from latches and pits1 #bdj ,dressed leather1 commerce1 #bfe ---- skins1 commerce1 #bfc ,dressing leather1 #ahd-ib ,dry raw hides1 commerce1 #bfd ,drying1 principles1 #bdh-ed ---- -sheds1 #bdc-ed ---- sole leather1 #ahc ,dugong skins1 #bef ,dyeing calf kid1 #bbd ---- chamois leather1 #bab ---- glove kid1 #bbi ,east ,indian kino1 #cc ---- ---- kips1 #aia corces de ,chne1 #ch ,eichenrinden1 #ch ,einbrennen1 #bja ,elocarpus tannin1 #ed ,elastic fibres1 #h ---- ----1 nature of1 #ba ,elevators for bark1 #afb ,ellagic acid1 #fc1 #ga ,ellagitannic acid1 #gh ,enamelled leather1 #bjc-e ---- ----1 commerce1 #bfe ,ephreda tannin1 #ed ,epidermis of hide1 #b ,epithelial layer of hide1 #b ,erectores pili muscles1 #b1 #g ,espinillo tannin1 #ed ,estimating ash of leather1 #ajg ---- chlorine in water1 #ih ---- grease in leather1 #aje ---- hardness of water1 #ig ---- sulphur in sodium sulphide1 #ajd ,eucalyptus kino1 #cd ---- tannin1 #ed ,eugenia tannin1 #ed ,examination of acids1 #aja ---- of lime and lime-liquors1 #ajb-d ---- of water1 #ig-ajj ,examining cellular structure of hide1 #ab ,exhausting tanning materials1 #afa-h ---- tannins1 #aag ,extracts1 commerce1 #bga ----1 dissolving1 #afh ----1 preparing1 #cb ,fat glands1 #f ,fish skins1 #bef-h ,fitzhenry scouring machine1 #aif ,flasks1 #ia ,fleshing hides1 #aeb-e ,focus of microscope1 #aj ,french morocco1 #bjf ,frizing by hard water1 #he ,fuchsia tannin1 #ed ,furnaces for burning tan1 #afd ,gallpfel1 #bf-h ,galle d',alep1 #bf-h ,gallic acid1 #fi-ga ,gallotannic acid1 #gf-h ,galls1 #be-i ----1 commerce1 #bga ,galuchat1 #beh ,gambia kino1 #cd ,gambier1 #bi-ca ----1 commerce1 #bga ,gambir1 #bi-ca ,gammuzza sumach1 #df ,gelatin in lime liquors1 determining1 #ajd ----1 nature of1 #ag ,gerbersumach1 #dj-ej ,glands of skin1 #b1 #f ,glove kid1 #bbe-cj ,gloves1 commerce1 #bff ,goat skins1 #beh-fj ,grain of tanned leather1 #f1 #h ,graining dressing leather1 #ahi ,grease in leather1 estimating1 #aje ,grinding tanning materials1 #aeh-fa ,hair cuticle1 #d ----1 growth1 #b ,handler liquors1 table of determinations1 #aaa ,handlers1 #afi1 #agc ,handling hides1 #afi ,har1 #ch ,hardening hide for cutting1 #ad ,hardness of water1 #hd-f ---- ---- ----1 estimating1 #ig ,harra1 #ch ,hartnack's objectives and eye-pieces1 #aj ,head required to pass air in pipes1 #bec ,heat1 decomposition of tannins by1 #fe-h ,heating effect of pipes1 #bej ---- leaches1 #bdb ---- liquors1 #bdb ,hemlock1 #ca ---- extract for sole leather1 #aeh ,henle's layer1 #e ,hide albumen1 #bj ----1 anatomical structure1 #b-af ----1 chemical composition1 #ag-bb ----1 examining cellular structure1 #ab ----1 hardening1 for cutting1 #ad ----1 holding1 for cutting1 #ac ----1 influence of water in plumping1 #he ----1 microscopic examination1 #i-af ----1 section1 #b ----1 sections1 cutting1 #ab-ae ---- ----1 mounting1 #ad ---- ----1 rendering transparent1 #ac ---- ----1 simultaneous hardening and staining1 #ad ---- ----1 staining1 #ad ---- substance in leather1 determining1 #ajh ,hides1 beaming1 #aea ----1 dividing1 #aee ----1 fleshing1 #aeb-e ---- for sole leather1 preparing1 #acb-h ----1 handling1 #afi ----1 imports1 #bff-gj ----1 liming1 #aci-de ----1 preparing for tanning1 #acc-h ----1 rounding1 #aee ----1 soaking1 #acc-f ----1 softening1 #ach ----1 stocking1 #acf ----1 sweating1 #ade-g ----1 unhairing1 #aci-ef ----1 ---- by sulphides1 #adg-ej ,high-power objectives1 #aa ,hiusache tannin1 #ec ,holding hide for cutting1 #ac ,holmes' tool carriage1 #aif ,horny layer of hide1 #b ---- tissues1 nature of1 #ba ,horse skins1 #bfj ,hot air pipes1 #beb ---- water pipes1 #beb ,howard scrubber1 #agf ,huxley's layer1 #e ,hyaline1 #f ,hydrochloric acid1 examining1 #aja ,hydrometer1 #afi ,hygrometer table1 #bdi ,hymena pods1 #bc ,illuminating apparatus1 #aj ---- microscope1 #ab ,immersion lenses1 #i ,indicators for analysis1 #ia ,infusions for ,lwenthal's analytical method1 #acj ,inga tannin1 #ee ,instruments for analysis1 #ia-e ,iodina wood1 #dj ,iron in tanyards1 #bda ,jackson scouring machine1 #aif ,japanese galls1 #bh ,japanned leather1 #bjc-e ---- ----1 commerce1 #bfe ,jiggers1 #bjg ,juchtenleder1 #bjh ,kamai bark1 #ef ,kangaroo skins1 #bfj ,kt1 #bc-e ,keratin1 #ba ,kid skins1 #beh-fj ,kifushi galls1 #bh ,kino1 #cb-d ,kinoin1 #ha ,kiri-hinau tannin1 #ed ,kiri-toa-toa bark1 #ee ,knoppern galls1 #bg ,kut1 #bc-e ,lamb skins1 #bfj ,lancashire finish1 #ahc ,latches1 construction1 #bda ---- for exhausting tan1 #afd-h ,laurus tannin1 #ee ,layers for butts1 #agf ,leaches1 heating1 #bdb ,leather1 chemical examination of1 #aje-h ----1 determining hide substance1 #ajh ----1 estimating ash of1 #ajg ----1 estimating grease in1 #aje ----1 estimating matters soluble in water1 #ajf ---- manufacture defined1 #a ,lecks for exhausting tan1 #afd-h ,levantische ,gallen1 #bf-h ,levelling glove kid1 #bbf ,libi-dibi1 #be ,lime1 examination of1 #ajb ---- for unhairing1 #aci-de ---- -liquors1 determining gelatin and coriin in1 #ajd ---- ----1 examination of1 #ajb ,liquors1 heating1 #bdb ,literature1 #bgb-d ,llama skins1 #bfa ,lockwood automatic scourer1 #aig ,london finish1 #ahc ,lwenthal's modified process for analysing tannins1 #abg-ca ,loxopterygium wood1 #ci ,lymph vessels1 #h ,machrium wood1 #dj ,maintenance of tanneries1 #bca-db ,malphigia tannin1 #ee ,manatee skins1 #bef ,mangrove bark1 #ee ,manquitta bark1 #ee ,measuring curried leather1 #bjb ,methods of analysis for the tannery1 #j-aca ,microscope1 artificial light for1 #ab ----1 choice of1 #i ----1 illuminating1 #ab ----1 price of1 #aj ,microscopic examination of hide1 #i-af ,mills for grinding bark1 #aeh-fa ---- ---- ---- sumach leaves1 #di ,mimosa bark1 #cd-h ---- ---- for sole leather1 #aeh ---- tannin1 #bc-e ,mineral tanning1 #bah-bb ,miscellaneous tannins1 #ec-f ,mise au vent1 #aid ,mollon1 #baa ,molinier's hide-working machine1 #ahg ,morocco leather1 #bjf ,mounting hide-sections1 #ad ,myrobalans1 #ch ----1 commerce1 #bga ---- for sole leather1 #aeg ,naucite tannin1 #ee ,nauclea extract1 #bi-ca ,nerve1 breaking the1 #h ,nitrogen bulb1 #ajc ,noix de galle1 #bf-h ,nut-galls1 #bf-h ,oak-bark for sole leather1 #aeg ---- ---- tannin1 #gh ---- -barks1 #ch ---- -galls1 #bf-h ---- -wood extract for sole leather1 #aeh ,objective1 screwing down on cover1 #aa ,objectives1 #h ,oiling in currying1 #aie ,osmic acid solution1 preserving1 #ae ---- and chromic acids for hardening and staining hide-sections1 #ad ,ox skins1 #bfa ,oxalic acid1 examining1 #ajb ,oxalis tannin1 #ee ,oxyphenic acid1 #fg ,palas kino1 #cc ,pale catechu1 #bi-ca ,panniculus adiposus1 #ae ,pars papillaris1 #b ---- reticularis1 #b ,patent leather1 #bjc-e ,pay-pay pods1 #ee ,permanganate process for analysing tannins1 #abh-ca ,persea bark1 #ee ,phlobaphenes1 #gb ----1 decomposition by fusion with caustic alkali1 #gc-e ,phloroglucin1 #gd ,phloroglucol1 #gd ,phyllocladus bark1 #ee ,pipes1 heating effect of1 #bej ,pipettes1 #ib ,pits1 construction1 #bch-dj ,plan of tannery1 #bcb-f ,plumping hide1 influence of water on1 #he ,pokako tannin1 #ed ,polygonum leaves1 #ee ,pomegranate tannin1 #ee ,preller's leather1 #bac-g ,preparation of tannins1 #eh ,preparing hides for sole leather1 #acb-h ,preparing hides for tanning1 #acc-h ---- standard solutions1 #ie-g ,preserving osmic acid solution1 #ae ,price of microscope1 #aj ,priestman's striking machine1 #ahj ,prosopis pods1 #bc ,protocatechuic acid1 #ge ,pterocarpus kinos1 #cc1 #cd ,pumps for tannery1 #bda ,punica tannin1 #ee ,pures for dressing leather1 #ahd-f ,purification of tannins1 #eh ,putz's patent filling1 #bb ,pyrocatechin1 #fg ,pyrocatechol1 #fg ,pyrogallic acid1 #ff ,pyrogallol1 #ff ,quebrachia wood1 #dj ,quebrachitannic acid1 #hb ,quebracho1 #ci ---- catechin1 #ha ,quercitannic acid1 #gh ,quercus acorn cups1 #ej-c ---- barks1 #ch ,reagents for analysing tannins1 #abj-c ,rete malpighi1 #b ,retenage1 #aid ,rhabdisto valonia1 #eb ,rhizophora bark1 #ee ,rhus galls1 #bh ---- leaves1 #dj-ej ,roble ,colorado bark1 #ef ,rocker1 #afi ,rounding hides1 #aee ,rove galls1 #bh ,russia leather1 #bjh ,salt in water1 effect of1 #hf ,salts for tanning1 #bah-bb ,sampling tannins1 #aaf ,sangue del drago1 #cd ,schmack1 #dj-ej ,screwing objective down on cover1 #aa ,seal skins1 #bfa ,sebaceous glands1 #f ,section of hide1 #b ,sections of hide1 cutting1 #ab-ae ,shafting in tannery1 #bcf ,shagreen1 #beh ,shaving dressing leather1 #ahg ,sheep skins1 #bfb ,shumac1 #dj-ej ,site for tannery1 #bca ,skins1 trade in1 #bee-gj ,soaking hides1 #acc-f ,sod oil1 #baa ,sodium sulphide1 estimating sulphur in1 #ajd ,softening hides1 #ach ,sole-leather1 #acb-hc ---- ----1 preparing hides1 #acb-h ---- ----1 tanning materials1 #aeg-fh ---- ----1 treatment in the shed1 #agi-hc ---- ----1 treatment in the tan-house1 #afi-gh ---- ----1 unhairing hides1 #aci-ef ,soluble matters in leather1 estimating1 #ajf ,splitting dressing leather1 #ahh ,staining hide-sections1 #ad ,standard solutions1 #ij ---- ----1 preparing1 #ie-g ---- ----1 table of1 #ig ,statistics1 #bee-ga ,steam pipes1 #bej ---- power in tannery1 #bcf ---- trap1 #bea ,stieleiche bark1 #ch ,stocking hides1 #acf ,stretching dressing leather1 #aia ,striking butts1 #agi ,structure1 anatomical1 of hide1 #b-af ,stuffing strap-butts1 #bjj ,sudoriferous glands1 #f ,sulphides for unhairing1 #adg-ej ,sulphur1 estimating1 in sodium sulphide1 #ajd ,sulphuric acid1 examining1 #aja ,sumach1 #dj-ej ----1 commerce1 #bga ---- extract1 #ej ---- mill1 #di ---- plantations1 #dj-h ,suspender liquors1 #agb ---- pits1 #afi ,sweat glands1 #f ,sweating hides1 #ade-g ,sweet-fern tannin1 #ed ,table1 analyses of spring and river waters1 #hi ----1 capacity of air for moisture1 #bdi ----1 head for passing air1 #bec ----1 heating effect of pipes1 #bej ----1 hygrometric1 #bdi ----1 reactions of tannins1 #aab ----1 standard solutions1 #ig ,tan burning furnaces1 #afd ---- liquor1 determining free acids in1 #ajh-aa ,tanneries1 construction1 #bca-db ----1 maintenance1 #bca-db ,tanning defined1 #a ---- materials1 commerce1 #bgj ---- ----1 commercial1 #bc-ef ---- ----1 exhausting1 #afa-h ---- ---- for sole leather1 #aeg-fh ---- ----1 grinding1 #aeh-fa ,tannins1 action on gelatin1 #eg ----1 analysing1 #aah-ca ----1 bloom from1 #fb ----1 characters1 #eg-h ----1 chemistry of1 #eg-hb ----1 classification1 #fd ----1 constitution1 #gf-hb ----1 decomposition by acids1 #fh-gc ----1 ---- by heat1 #fe ----1 exhausting1 #aag ----1 general chemistry1 #ei-fd ----1 ---- methods of examination1 #fe-ge ----1 preparation1 #eh ----1 products of decomposition by heat1 #fe-h ----1 purification1 #eh ----1 qualitative detection1 #aaa-d ----1 quantitative determination1 #aad-ca ----1 reagents for analysing1 #abj-c ----1 sampling1 #aaf ----1 table of reactions1 #aab ,taps for exhausting tan1 #afd-h ,tawed leather1 #bbc ,tawhero towai bark1 #ef ,tawing defined1 #a ,tecoma bark1 #ef ,terminalia fruits1 #ch ,terra japonica1 #bc-e1 #bi-ca ,tiffany's bate1 #ahe ,tipuana wood1 #dj ,trade in skins1 #bee-gj ,transparent hide-sections1 #ac ,traubeneiche bark1 #ch ,turkey galls1 #bf-h ,turret driers1 #bde ,tutu tannin1 #ed ,uncaria extract1 #bi-ca ,undressed leather1 commerce1 #bfe ---- skins1 commerce1 #bfc ,unhairing hides1 #aci-ef ---- ---- by lime1 #aci-de ---- ---- by sulphides1 #adg-ej ---- ---- by sweating1 #ade-g ,valonia1 #ej-c ----1 commerce1 #bga ---- for sole leather1 #aeg ,varnished leather1 commerce1 #bfe ,vlandes1 #ej-c ,ventilation of drying-sheds1 #bdf ,virginia creeper1 #fg ,wagatea pods1 #ef ,walrus skins1 #bfc ,wash leather1 #baj-b ,water as used in tanning1 #hc-i ----1 counteracting chlorides in1 #hg ----1 detecting various impurities in1 #ii ----1 dissolved mineral matters in1 #hd ----1 effect of salt in1 #hf ----1 estimating chlorine in1 #ih ----1 ---- hardness of1 #ig ----1 examination of1 #ig-ajj ----1 filtering1 #hc ----1 hardness of1 #he ----1 influence on plumping1 #he ----1 permanent hardness of1 #hd ----1 suspended matters in1 #hc ----1 table of spring and river1 #hi ,wattle-bark1 #cd-h ---- ---- plantations1 #cf-g ,weinmannia bark1 #ef ,wet hides1 commerce1 #bfc ,whawhako tannin1 #ed ,whitening in currying1 #aie ,wilson's spring butt-roller1 #aha ---- striking machine1 #aha ,wu-pei-tze galls1 #bi ,,london3 ,,printed ,,by ,,william ,,clowes ,,and ,,sons1 ,,limited1 ,,stamford ,,street ,,and ,,charing ,,cross4 99 99 99 99 99 ,transcriber ,note ,illustrations were moved to avoid splitting paragraphs4 ,hyphenization was standardized to the most commonly used form4 ,several minor typos were corrected4 ,this file was produced from images generously made available by ,the ,internet ,archive4