,,! ,,philosophy ,,( ,,augu/e ,,comte ,,! ,,philosophy ,,( ,,augu/e ,,comte ,,by ,l4 ,l,,vy-,,bruhl ,matre de ,confr5ces de ,philosophie la ,facult des ,lettres de l',univ]sit de ,p>is1 ,pr(esseur l',ecole libre des ,sci5ces politiques4 ,,au?oris$ ,,translation ,,to ,,:i* ,,is ,,prefix$ ,,an ,,introduction ,,by ,,fr$]ic ,,h>rison1 ,m4,a4 ,honor>y ,fell[ ( ,wadham ,college1 ,ox=d ,colophon ,london ,,swan ,,sonn5s*e9 ,,co4 ,,lim4 ,,pat]no/] ,,squ>e #aijc ,,note ,,by ,,mr4 ,,fr$]ic ,,h>rison ,! publication 9 #aijj ( ,pr(essor ,lvy-,bruhl's volume ,! ,philosophy ( ,augu/e ,comte 0 an ev5t 9 ! hi/ory ( ! ,positive movem5t4 ,! em95t position 9 ! ,univ]sity ( ,p>is & 9 rec5t philosophical hi/ory t is held by ,pr(4 ,lvy-,bruhl gave great int]e/ & importance to a sy/ematic judgm5t f 8 p5 su* z ! pres5t "w4 ,! commemorative fe/ival ( ,comte held ?is ye>1 :5 ! /atue 9 ! ,place de la ,sorbonne 0 unveil$ by ! ,m9i/] ( ,w>1 9 pres5ce ( an int]national ga!r+ ( delegates f ! civilis$ _w1 has call$ fre% att5tion to ! lifework ( ! philosoph] :o di$ #de ye>s ago4 ,accord+ly1 a translation ( ,pr(essor ,lvy-,bruhl's book 0 urg5tly dem&$4 ,:5 ,i 0 invit$ to add to ?is translation1 :i* ,i c confid5tly recomm5d to /ud5ts ( philosophy1 a slight introductory essay1 ,i propos$ to use a piece :i* ,i wrote on ! publication ( ! ,fr5* "w4 ,x appe>$ 9 8,! ,speak]10 7#ad ,april1 #aijj27 &1 z ,i see no reason to modify my op9ion ( ?is ma/]ly book1 ,i leave x ne>ly z !n writt54 ,i may add t ! le>n$ ,pr(essor 0 a memb] ( ! ,int]national ,committee ) _m em95t repres5tatives ( ! gov]nm5t ( ,france & ( ! ,univ]sities ( ! ,old & ,new ,_w1 :i* 9 ,may la/ rais$ ! monum5t to ,augu/e ,comte 9 ,p>is4 ,pr(essor ,lvy-,bruhl foll[$ up 8 ,hi/ory ( ,mod]n ,philosophy 9 ,france by a sub/antial "w on ! philosophy ( ,augu/e ,comte4 ,x =ms a volume ( ! ,biblio?que de ,philosophie ,contempora9e1 :i* has already devot$ f\r o!r works to ! ,positive ,philosophy4 ,x is z well to premise t ?is treatise dealt solely ) ! philosophy1 n ) ! polity1 or any "p ( ! religi\s s*eme ( ,comte4 ,pr(essor ,lvy-,bruhl writes z a /ud5t1 b n z an adh]5t ( ,augu/e ,comte4 ,8 entire "w is r an exposition1 n a refutation1 or a criticism1 or an advocacy ( ,comte's philosophical sy/em4 ,b x may be said at once t no "o abroad or at home1 c]ta9ly nei!r ,mill1 nor ,lewes1 nor ,sp5c]1 nor ,caird1 has s truly grasp$ & assimilat$ ,comte's ideas z ,m4 ,lvy-,bruhl has done4 ,9 8 ,introduction ,m4 ,lvy-,bruhl v cle>ly /ates ! scope ( 8 "w1 & 8 own g5]al attitude4 ,he traces ! orig9 ( ,comte's philosophy 9 ! m5tal eff]vesc5ce ( ! fir/ g5]ation ( ! pres5t c5tury t[>ds a reorganisation ( society1 aft] ! upheaval left by ! ,revolution & its consequ5ces4 ,he correctly /ates ! relation ( ,/4 ,simon to ,comte z be+ t ( an initial /imulus4 ,! c>d9al diff]5ce betwe5 ,comte & all ! sociali/s & f\nd]s ( social & religi\s ,utopias consi/$ 9 ?is1 t ,comte saw ! necessity ( a new sy/em ( philosophy z ! indisp5sable prelim9>y to any reorganisation ( society4 ,9 #ahbd1 at ! age ( tw5ty-six1 ,comte wrote3--8,discussions ab\t in/itutions are pure folly until ! spiritual recon/itution ( society is effect$ or mu* advanc$40 ,! con/ruction ( an intellectual reorganisation1 be=e any social re/oration 0 possible1 occupi$ tw5ty or ?irty ye>s ( ,comte's life4 ,& :5 he op5$ 8 ,polity1 or social & religi\s s*eme1 ! conditions _h mu* *ang$3 ! public & its int]e/s 7 no long] :at !y _h be5 9 #ahbj-cj4 ,m4 ,lvy-,bruhl effectively disposes ( ! objection ( ,littr1 to :i* ,mill gave c\nt5ance1 t ! ,polity1 ) ! :ole ( ,comte's second or social sy/em1 0 9 contradiction ) 8 fir/ & philosophic sy/em z prop\nd$ 9 ! ,philosophy4 ,z ,m4 ,lvy-,bruhl proves1 ! six ,opuscules dat+ f #ahai to #ahbf1 "s ye>s be=e ! ,c\rs1 :i* only began 9 #ahcj & occupi$ twelve ye>s1 conta9 9 g]m ! s*eme ultimately elaborat$ 9 ! ,politique1 f #ahea to #ahed4 ,besides ?is1 ! ,lett]s to ,mill1 :i* ,m4 ,lvy-,bruhl edit$ 9 #ahii1 & ! ,lett]s to ,valat1 :i* are long antec$5t to ! ,politique1 %[ ! same gov]n+ design4 ,to ! unity ( ,comte's doctr9e ,m4 ,lvy-,bruhl be>s emphatic te/imony3-- 8,8 :ole life 0 ! me?odical execution ( 8 programme4444 ,he _h b "o sy/em1 n two4 ,f ! ,opuscules ( 8 tw5tie? ye>1 to ! ,syn?se ( 8 la/ ye>1 x is ! developm5t ( "o & ! same conception40 ,m4 ,lvy-,bruhl !n expla9s t1 :il/ recognis+ ! entire coh]5ce ( ,comte's collective lab\rs1 he proposes to conf9e 8 pres5t /udy to ! e>li] & pr9cipal "w1 ! ,philosophy1 :i* 9 ,m4 ,lvy-,bruhl's op9ion is ! dom9ant & m fruitful composition4 ,?is he reg>ds z ! repres5tative "w ( ! n9ete5? c5tury1 z %[n by ! intellectual hi/ory ( ! p]iod4 ,he po9ts to its influ5ce on ?\ght 9 ,engl&1 9 ,europe1 & 9 ,am]ica4 ,x w surprise _m p]sons to le>n t 9 ,m4 ,lvy-,bruhl's op9ion two em95t ,fr5* writ]s1 :o assur$ly nei!r 71 nor 7 suppos$ to be1 ,positivi/s1 8h done m = ! diffusion ( ! ideas & me?od ( ,comte ?an ,littr & all ! o!r ,positivi/s toge!r40 ,^! two are ,ta9e & ,r5an1 mu* z !y diff]$ f ,comte's actual s*eme & doctr9es4 ,r5an inde$ spoke ( ,comte z de/9$ to prove "o ( ! typical names ( ! c5tury4 ,! pres5t writ] rememb]s ,r5an say+ to him ) a mo/ g5ial welcome1 8,i too am a believ] 9 ! religion ( humanity40 ,hi/ory1 romance1 poetry1 says ,m4 ,lvy-,bruhl1 h all reflect$ ! positive _s3-- 8,contempor>y sociology is ! creation ( ,comte2 sci5tific psy*ology1 9 a c]ta9 degree has sprung f him4 ,x is n ra% to conclude t ! ,positivi/ ,philosophy expresses "s ( ! mo/ *>act]i/ic t5d5cies ( ! age40 ,x is cle> t1 if ,m4 ,lvy-,bruhl is 9 no s5se an adh]5t ( ,comte1 he is a mo/ sympa!tic & disc]n+ ma/] ( ! positive sy/em4 ,m4 ,lvy-,bruhl op5s 8 analysis ( ,comte's philosophy by exam9+ 8 ma9 conceptions3--7#a7 ,! law ( ! ?ree /ates1 !ological1 metaphysical1 & positive1 ?r\gh :i* all human ideas pass2 7#b7 ! ,classification ( ! ,sci5ces2 7#c7 ! s*eme ( ea* sci5ce 9 turn4 ,& he closes ) an explanation ( ! g5]al doctr9es ( ,humanity1 z ! c5tre ( human ?\ght1 feel+1 & activity4 ,! law ( ! ?ree /ates ann\nc$ by ,comte 9 #ahbb1 is ?or\ghly expla9$ & entirely assimilat$ by ,m4 ,lvy-,bruhl4 ,its demon/ration1 he ?9ks1 is complete :5 we recognise t1 al?\gh _m ord]s ( ideas h n f9ally rea*$ _! positive /ate1 all ( !m exhibit ! t5d5cy to ! same evolution1 & !re is no s+le in/ance ( a conception ( a positive sci5ce ev] retrograd+ into unv]ifi$ figm5t4 ,( c\rse ! t]ms !ological & metaphysical h to be und]/ood 9 ! s5se adopt$ by ,comte--i4e4 8an?ropomorphic0 & 8hypo!tical10 a b>e hypo!sis we>+ a sci5tific =m4 ,m4 ,lvy-,bruhl himself reg>ds ! law z irrefutable & ( capital importance1 8! corn] /one ( ! positive sy/em40 ,our pr(essor is equally conclusive 9 8 e/imate ( ,comte's classification ( ! sci5ces4 ,he q demoli%es ! objections made to x by ,mr4 ,h]b]t ,sp5c] 9 8 essay ) t title4 ,m4 ,lvy-,bruhl repeats ! criticisms to :i* ,sp5c] has be5 expos$ 9 ?is c\ntry & abroad by ,littr1 ,lewes1 ,mill1 & o!rs4 ,& he has no difficulty 9 %[+ t ,mr4 ,sp5c]'s objections are due to 8 v slight acqua9tance ) ,comte's text1 & 8 own sup]ficial /udy ( ! ,engli% abridgm5ts4 ,9 propos+ a classification ( ! concrete sci5ces1 ,mr4 ,sp5c] ent]s on a task :i* ,comte di/9ctly repudiates1 & :i* on good gr\nds he treats z philosophically impracticable = purposes ( evolution>y sequ5ce4 ,comte's /rictly relative !ory excludes su* a scale ( concrete sci5ce2 :il/ ,sp5c]'s absolute !ory ( ! univ]se =ces him to attempt x 9 va94 ,if x be object$ t ,comte's asc5d+ scale ( ! sci5ces is 8an?ropoc5tric10 ! answ] is t1 :5 reasonably und]/ood z a philosophic device = sort+ human ideas1 n z a /atem5t ( absolute tru?1 ! 8an?ropoc5tric0 arrangem5t ( human k is ! only "o :i* is at once possible & useful4 ,x w\ld ne$ a long essay ev5 to sket* ,m4 ,lvy-,bruhl's analysis ( ,comte's conception ( sci5ce1 ( law1 & ( ! six dom9ant sci5ces4 ,he has ?or\ghly assimilat$ ! positive _s1 t sci5ce implies a co-ord9ation ( laws1 n an encyclopdia ( facts1 t x is relative to our p[]s ( obs]vation & reason+ & n an absolute explanation ( ! univ]se 9 itself4 ,he goes ?r\gh ! sci5ces1 physical1 social1 & moral1 9 turn1 z treat$ by ,comte1 & ju/ly expla9s t ,comte nev] attempt$ or conceiv$ a vade-mecum or h&book ( contempor>y sci5tific k1 b a s*eme = ! co-ord9ation ( g5]al ideas ( sci5ce4 ,a real 8philosophy ( ! sci5ces0 is some?+ :olly di/9ct f a comp5dium ( all ! sci5ces--a ?+ :i* 9 #ahdj 0 f> less possible ?an x might be n[4 ,controv]siali/s h reproa*$ ,comte ) ! obvi\s fact t 8 concrete sci5ce is n[ sixty ye>s old4 ,9 deal+ ) ^! %all[ criticisms1 ,m4 ,lvy-,bruhl has %[n h[ little able is any n>r[ speciali/ to und]/& ! ab/ract conceptions ( a real philosoph]4 ,"o ( ! mo/ common ( ^! misconceptions is ! ignorant *>ge t ,comte repudiat$ 8psy*ology10 9 ! s5se ( ! laws ( man's intellectual & moral nature4 8,psy*ologie10 z ,m4 ,lvy-,bruhl %[s1 :5 ,comte wrote1 meant ,c\s9's futile introspection ( ! ego4 ,comte c]ta9ly reject$ t z idle1 z d all compet5t psy*ologi/s ( our "t4 ,psy*ology1 mean+ ! laws ( m9d & w1 0 n only an indisp5sable basis ( ,comte's sy/em1 b its rational1 sy/ematic f\ndation dates f ,comte's sugge/ions4 ,8 signal contribution to psy*ology lies1 n 9 8 doctr9e ( its physiological basis1 b 9 8 ref]r+ x to sociology z its guide & inspiration4 ,m4 ,lvy-,bruhl concludes 8 /udy ) a co-ord9ate table ( twelve contra/$ propositions ( ! metaphysical & ( ! positive sy/ems respectively4 ,^! %[ h[ simple & rational a transition is t betwe5 ,positivism & ! old] !ological & metaphysical hypo!ses ( ! univ]se & ( ,man4 ,we welcome a book :i* all positivi/s w reg>d z fair1 le>n$1 & in/ructive1 & :i* all /ud5ts ( philosophy mu/ reg>d z a ma/]ly /udy ( a compreh5sive subject4 #de? ,anniv]s>y ( ! dea? ( ,comte1 7#e? ,,septemb]1 #aijb47 ,,translator',s ,,preface ,fifty ye>s h n[ elaps$ s9ce ,augu/e ,comte's monum5tal "w1 ! ,c\rs de ,philosophie ,positive1 0 fir/ introduc$ to ,engli% read]s by ,miss ,h>riet ,m>t9eau4 ,b h] "w 0 mu* m ?an a translation4 ,x 0 a cond5s$ exposition ( ,comte's doctr9es1 done ) su* ma/]y t x obta9$ ! emphatic approval ( ,comte himself :o1 9 su* matt]s1 0 n v easily satisfi$4 ,9 ,h>riet ,m>t9eau's case1 bo? ! sub/ance ( ! book & ! ,engli% =m 9 :i* x 0 (f]$ to ! public1 7 h] "w4 ,9 ! case ( ! pres5t volume1 :ile a woman is once m responsible = ! translation1 ! sub/ance ( ! book1 t is ! compreh5sive exposition ( ,comte's sy/em 9 ! light ( all 8 publi%$ works1 is f ! p5 ( ,pr(essor ,lvy-,bruhl1 & read]s :o are acqua9t$ ) ,h>riet ,m>t9eau's book w be all ! m 9 a position to appreciate ! importance ( ?is fre% contribution to ! elucidation ( ! ?\ght ( ,augu/e ,comte4 ,we fe> t ! cle>ness ( /yle1 ! ri*ness ( expression1 ! p[] ( cond5s$ ?\ght :i* *>act]ise our au?or w be f\nd to h be5 (t5 weak5$1 if n sometimes altoge!r oblit]at$1 9 ?is translation4 ,! /rik+ simplicity ( ! text at fir/ deceiv$ me into ! belief t ,i c\ld d ju/ice to x4 ,i 0 (t5 tempt$ to sacrifice ! lit]al s5se 9 ord] to pres]ve "s ( ! graces ( ! orig9al4 ,yet ,i hope to be =giv5 = hav+ uni=mly pref]r$ to err ?r\gh too mu* fai?fulness to ! lett]4 ,my sole object has be5 to enable ! ,engli% read] to get at ! mean+ ( ! text4 ,b1 :ile ,i h only too mu* reason to solicit ! indulg5ce ( my read]s1 consci\s z ,i am ( ! _m defects ( ?is translation1 ,i feel t no apology is ne$$ = br++ t ( :i* x is a translation )9 ! rea* ( ! ,engli%-speak+ public4 ,we live 9 times :5 ! intimate relation betwe5 ! natural sci5ces & social que/ions is increas+ly felt4 ,old l&m>ks are disappe>+1 new f\ndations are be+ laid1 new problems are con/antly aris+1 g5]at+ d\bts & p]plexities = :i* ! solutions ( o!r days supply no adequate answ]4 ,mean:ile1 z ! facts ( sci5ce reveal to u m ( ! conditions ( human life1 we give1 m or less consci\sly1 a l>g] place to sociology 9 our m5tal preoccupations4 ,?us r5ew$ int]e/ is be+ felt 9 ! writ+s ( ! ,f\nd] ( ! ,sci5ce ( ,sociology4 ,! mo/ conflict+ s*ools ( ?\ght /udy ! works ( ,augu/e ,comte & _m ask3 :o is t man ^: ideas appe> to conta9 a cle>] message to our g5]ation ?an !y did to 8 own8 ,= su* inquir]s ,pr(essor ,lvy-,bruhl's book %\ld prove s+ul>ly useful & timely4 ,x is a pla91 indep5d5t acc\nt ( :at ,comte really taught1 writt5 by "o possess$ ( ! fulle/ qualifications = su* a task1 & no "w ( rec5t date w enable /ud5ts to und]/& s cle>ly ! solution giv5 by ! ,fr5* philosoph] to ! p]plex+ moral1 social1 & religi\s problems ( our "t4 ,"h1 z else:]e1 8il s'agit de t\t compr5dre1 non de t\t admir]10 & ,pr(essor ,lvy-,bruhl is himself too mu* ( a philosoph] to =get t gold5 rule2 b1 nev]!less1 by 8 free1 indep5d5t judgm5t ( ,comte's tea*+1 he helps u to realise to :at an ext5t1 9 ^! days1 ,comte is inspir+ _m :o are n p]haps consci\s ( foll[+ him4 ,,ka?le5 ,,de ,,beaumont-,,kle94 ,,cont5ts ,,page ,note by ,mr4 ,fr$]ic ,h>rison v4 ,translator's ,preface xiii4 ,introduction by ,pr(essor ,lvy-,bruhl #a ,,book ,i4 ,,*apt] ,i4--,! ,philosophical ,problem #bc 8 ,,ii4--,! ,law ( ! ,?ree ,/ates #ce 8 ,,iii4--,! ,classification ( ! ,sci5ces #di 8 ,,iv4--,sci5ce #fj 8 ,v4--,sci5ce 7cont9u$7 ,ph5om5a & ,laws #gi 8 ,,vi4--,sci5ce 7cont9u$7 ,positive ,logic #ajc ,,book ,,ii4 ,,introduction4--,! ,philosophy ( ! ,sci5ces #aba ,,*apt] ,i4--,ma!matics #abe 8 ,,ii4--,a/ronomy #adb 8 ,,iii4--,sci5ces ( ! ,inorganic ,_w #aed 8 ,,iv4--,biology #aga 8 ,v4--,psy*ology #ahh ,,book ,,iii4 ,,*apt] ,i4--,transition f ,animality to ,humanity--,art & ,language #bac 8 ,,ii4--,g5]al ,consid]ations on ,social ,sci5ce #bcj 8 ,,iii4--,social ,/atics #bdi 8 ,,iv4--,social ,dynamics #bfj 8 ,v4--,! ,philosophy ( ,hi/ory #bgf ,,book ,,iv4 ,,*apt] ,i4--,! ,pr9ciples ( ,e?ics #cjc 8 ,,ii4--,social ,e?ics #cai 8 ,,iii4--,! ,idea ( ,humanity #ccd ,,conclusion #cdc ,,! ,,philosophy ,,( ,,augu/e ,,comte4 ,,introduction4 ,i4 ,e new sy/em ( philosophy1 h[ev] orig9al 9 appe>ance1 is m or less directly relat$ to ! doctr9es :i* h prec$$ x4 ,b x is also connect$ ) m g5]al conditions 9 a mann] no less close1 if n s imm$iately obvi\s4 ,x dep5ds ^u a :ole set ( social conditions4 ,! influ5ce ( ! religi\s1 political1 economical1 intellectual ph5om5a1 9 a ^w ( ! contempor>y milieu ^u ?is sy/em is z indisputable z its own influ5ce ^u ! milieu4 ,x is !re=e n en\gh to /udy x z a self-suffici5t :ole4 ,?is :ole :i* is 9 itself b a "p1 mu/ be re/or$ to its place )9 ! great] :ole :i* alone expla9s its ess5tial *>act]i/ics4 ,?is rule ( hi/orical me?od1 :i* ,comte likes to recall1 applies v well to 8 own sy/em4 ,9 ord] to rea* z complete an und]/&+ z possible ( 8 doctr9e1 to appreciate exactly its g5]al ori5tation1 to und]/& ! importance :i* ! au?or atta*es 9 x to ?is or t "p1 ! /udy ( ! text w n suffice4 ,we mu/ fur!r take into acc\nt ! hi/orical circum/ances 9 :i* ! doctr9e f\nd its bir?1 ! g5]al movem5t ( contempor>y ideas1 & ! manifold influ5ces :i* h react$ ^u ! m9d ( ! philosoph]4 ,n[ "o great fact1 above all o!rs1 dom9ates ! p]iod 9 :i* ! positive philosophy appe>$4 ,x is ! ,fr5* ,revolution1 z ,comte expressly /ates3 )\t x1 nei!r ! !ory ( progress1 nor consequ5tly social sci5ce1 nor consequ5tly aga9 positive philosophy w\ld h be5 possible4 ,0 x n1 moreov]1 inevitable t ?is extraord9>y social upheaval %\ld by reflex action h det]m9$ a va/ & prolong$ movem5t 9 philosophical & political speculation8 ,! effects ( ?is reflex action v>i$ accord+ to ! value & ! orig9ality ( ! m9ds :i* exp]i5c$ !m4 ,b 9 ! greate/ z 9 ! mo/ m$iocre we recognise infallibly c]ta9 common features4 ,= in/ance1 m5 & wom51 9 ! ris+ g5]ation at ! beg9n+ ( ! ,,xix4 c5tury1 nev] fail to put ! same "q to !mselves3 8,:at social in/itutions %\ld be e/abli%$ aft] ! ,revolution80 & by ?is all und]/& n only ! political =m ( gov]nm5t1 b ! v pr9ciples ( social ord]3 a problem :i* appe>$ z urg5t f ! practical po9t ( view1 z x 0 supreme f ! !oretical po9t ( view4 ,x is ?is problem 9 v>i\s =ms :i* preoccupies ,*ateaubri& z well z ,f\ri] & ,sa9t-,simon1 & ,joseph de ,mai/re z well z ,c\s9 & ,comte4 ,all agree ^u ! fir/ po9t4 ,we mu/ 8recon/ruct40 ,an 8organic0 p]iod mu/ succe$ ! 8critical0 p]iod :i* has j come to an end4 ,accord+ to ,sa9t ,simon's /rik+ expression1 humanity is n made to inhabit ru9s4 ,! revolution>y /orm _h be5 s =midable1 ! d9 s deaf5+1 ! social back-wa% s viol5t1 t no "o exactly measur$ ! effect :i* _h be5 produc$4 ,_m in/itutions :i* _h only be5 %ak5 seem$ to be ov]?r[n4 ,a good "p ( ! old rgime _h ev5 gone ?r\gh ! crisis )\t be+ too greatly damag$1 & _h surviv$4 ,b ?is fact1 :i* 0 v well appreciat$ by ! m5 ( #ahej1 c\ld n yet be discov]$ by ! fir/ g5]ation ( ! c5tury4 ,x consci5ti\sly believ$ t ! old rgime _h crumbl$ altoge!r1 & t ! task ei!r ( re/or+ x1 or ( aga9 lay+ d[n ! v bases ( society belong$ to x4 ,9 ?is ! fir/ g5]ation rema9$ fai?ful to ! _s ( ! ,revolution1 :i* _h consid]$ itself z an ef=t to in/itute an entirely new social & political sy/em1 a ?\ght 9 :i* ! civilis$ _w _h %>$4 ,n[1 9 spite ( ! lab\rs ( ! revolution>y assemblies1 9 spite ( ! p[] & ( ! great tal5t :i* ! ,conv5tion _h at its comm&1 ?is ambiti\s hope _h n be5 realis$4 ,! "q rema9$ op5 aft] ! ,directoire & aft] ! ,empire4 ,:5 ! old rgime 0 suppos$ to h be5 de/roy$1 h[ 0 society to be 8reorganis$08 ,?us1 at ! op5+ ( ! ,,xix4 c5tury1 philosophical speculation 0 at fir/ to be direct$ t[>ds ! religi\s & social problems4 ,und\bt$ly ! influ5ce ( ! un9t]rupt$ advance ( ! positive sci5ces 0 also felt at ! same "t4 ,a /udy ( ,augu/e ,comte's sy/em c\ld h>dly fail to recognise ! fact4 ,b1 ev5 ) ,comte1 sci5tific int]e/1 h[ev] active x may be1 is subord9at$ to ! social int]e/4 ,:at he asks ( philosophy is ! rational settlem5t ( ! bases ( mod]n society4 ,?us1 he means to discov] ! elem5ts ( a religion :i* c be sub/itut$ to ,ca?olicism1 ^: mission he consid]s z at an end4 8,! ,,xix4 c5tury10 ,ranke has said1 8is especially a c5tury ( re/oration40 ,a deep say+1 :i* exactly expresses "o ( ! lead+ features 9 ! hi/orical physiognomy ( ?is c5tury4 ,x is precisely ?us t x 0 conceiv$ by ^? :o inaugurat$ x4 ,su* inde$ is ! ma9 t5d5cy ( ! great] numb] ( philosophical doctr9es :i* h express$ its mo/ intimate *>act]i/ics4 ,only1 z is g5]ally ! case1 ?is re/oration absorbs & consolidates a l>ge "p ( ! results acquir$ dur+ ! crisis4 ,at ! same "t new problems1 rais$ especially by ! developm5t ( indu/ry 9 its l>g] aspects1 made cle>-sight$ m5 feel t ! revolution>y p]iod1 h[ev] desirable x might be to br+ x to a close1 0 really only beg9n+4 ,,ii4 ,l _m ( 8 contempor>ies ,augu/e ,comte ?\ght himself s+l$ out = ! mission ( =mulat+ ! pr9ciple ( 8social reorganisation40 ,b ?is is :]e he diff]s f !m4 ,ea* ( ! re=m]s beg9s by propos+ 8 own solution ( ! social problem1 & all 8 ef=ts only t5d to ju/ify x4 ,z ?is problem is ! mo/ urg5t "o 9 _! eyes1 x is also ! only "o :i* !y h put directly to !mselves4 ,n[ ?is me?od1 accord+ to ,comte1 is a bad "o1 & 9 foll[+ x !y c\rt c]ta9 failure4 ,= a social problem is su* t its solution _c be obta9$ imm$iately2 o!r problems1 m !oretical 9 "*1 mu/ be solv$ be=eh&4 ,x is !re=e ^! :i* mu/ fir/ be dealt )1 if we seek any?+ else ?an ! l5g!n+ ( ! hi/ory ( political dreams & ( social *im]as4 8,in/itutions10 ,comte says1 8dep5d on morals1 & morals1 9 _! turn1 dep5d on beliefs40 ,e s*eme ( new in/itutions w !re=e be useless s long z morals h n be5 8reorganis$10 & s long z1 to rea* ?is end1 a g5]al sy/em ( op9ions has n be5 f\nd$1 :i* are accept$ by all m9ds z true1 z 01 = in/ance1 ! sy/em ( ,ca?olic dogma 9 ,europe 9 ! ,middle ,ages4 ,!re=e1 ei!r ! social problem admits ( no solution--& ,comte does n /op at ?is pessimi/ic hypo!sis1--or ! solution s\ght = supposes t a new philosophy %all h be5 previ\sly e/abli%$4 ,?is is :y ,comte wi%es to be at fir/ only a philosoph]4 ,9 #ahbd he writes 8,i reg>d all discussions ^u in/itutions z pure nons5se1 until ! spiritual reorganisation ( society has be5 br\ght ab\t1 or at lea/ is v f> advanc$40#a ,comte's orig9ality w !re=e lie 9 tak+ f sci5ce & philosophy ! pr9ciples ^u :i* dep5ds ! social reorganisation1 :i* is ! real end ( 8 ef=ts4 ,:ile hav+ ! same aim z ! re=m]s ( 8 "t1 he w foll[ a diff]5t pa?4 ,x is inde$ a polity :i* he also claims to f\nd1 b ?is polity is positive3 x re/s ^u e?ics & philosophy bo? equally positive4 ,und\bt$ly ! polity is ! raison d'tre ( ! sy/em1 :i* ,comte has con/ruct$ = x4 ,b1 )\t ! sy/em1 ! ,polity w\ld rema9 arbitr>y4 ,x w\ld lack au?ority & t :i* w\ld make x legitimate4 ,philosophy is no less indisp5sable to ! f\ndation ( politics1 ?an are politics to ! completion & unification ( philosophy4 ,:5ce comes x t ,comte has put ?is great problem1 :i* preoccupi$ all ! m9ds ( 8 "t1 9 a =m :i* belongs to him alone8 ,we _c "h ent] into ! detail$ biographical /udy :i* w\ld ?r[ "s light ^u ?is "q4 ,let u only recall t ,comte 0 born 9 a ,ca?olic ,royali/ family4 ,f ! age ( ?irte51 he tells u1 he _h brok5 ) ! political convictions & ! religi\s beliefs ( 8 own p4 ,p]haps1 h[ev]1 ! trace ( ^! beliefs 0 less completely effac$ ?an he himself ?\ght4 ,dur+ ! :ole ( 8 life he pr(ess$ ! livelie/ admiration = ,ca?olicism4 ,on 8 own confession he 0 especially inspir$ 9 ?is by ,joseph de ,mai/re2 b1 if he s mu* appreciat$ ! book du ,pape1 did n 8 great sympa?y p>tly spr+ f impressions ( *ildhood indelibly /amp$ ^u a passionate & s5sitive nature8 ,:atev] may be ! case1 ! fir/ subject :i* s]i\sly occupi$ 8 m9d 0 ma!matics4 ,be+ admitt$ to ! ,ecole polyte*nique a ye> be=e ! usual age1 he began to /udy ! natural sci5ces4 ,at ! same "t he 8m$itates0 ^u ,montesquieu & ,condorcet4 ,he approa*es philosophy prop]ly s call$ by read+ ! ,scotti% philosoph]s1 ,f]guson1 ,adam ,smi?1 ,hume1 & he sees v well t ! la/ "o is f> above ! o!rs4 ,hav+ left ! ,ecole polyte*nique1 he rema9s 9 ,p>is1 & :ile giv+ lessons to e>n 8 liv+1 he completes 8 sci5tific education ) ,delambre1 de ,bla9ville1 & ! ,b>on ,?n>d4 ,he reads assidu\sly ,font5elle1 d',alemb]t1 ,did]ot1 & especially ,condorcet :o has di/ill$ & cl>ifi$ ! philosophy ( ! ,,xviii4 c5tury4 ,:ile /udy+ ,desc>tes & ! great ma!maticians :o came aft] him1 he also foll[s att5tively ! lab\rs ( naturali/s & ( biologi/s1 ( ,lam>ck1 = in/ance1 ( ,cuvi]1 ( ,gall1 ( ,cabanis1 ( ,bi*at1 ,br\ssais & ( s _m o!rs4 ,he und]/&s ! philosophical importance ( ^! new sci5ces1 z already po9t$ out by ,did]ot4 ,b = all t he does n neglect hi/orical & social /udies4 ,he has read ! ideologi/s1 among :om he especially e/eem$ ,de/utt de ,tracy4 ,)\t giv+ up ,montesquieu or ,condorcet1 he /udies ! traditionali/s3 ,m4 de ,bonald1 ?is 8en]getic ?9k]0 &1 m ?an ! o!rs1 ,joseph de ,mai/re :o made ! deepe/ & mo/ endur+ impression ^u 8 m9d4 ,be=e kn[+ ,sa9t-,simon !n--& 8 correspond5ce ) ,valat te/ifies to ! fact--,comte already possess$ a l>ge portion ( ! mat]ials = 8 future sy/em4 ,up to ?is "t 8 lab\rs _h borne ^u two di/9ct ord]s ( subjects4 ,! "o sci5tific prop] 7ma!matics1 physics & *emi/ry1 natural sci5ces7 ! o!r m prop]ly political 7hi/ory1 politics1 & social que/ions74 ,9 #ahah ,comte meets ,sa9t-,simon4 ,he is attract$ & surr5d]s himself almo/ unres]v$ly4 ,= f\r ye>s he works ) ,sa9t-,simon4 ,he loves & v5]ates him z a ma/]4 ,he fe$s ^u 8 ideas1 & collaborates 9 8 lab\rs & ent]prises4 ,he calls himself 8pupil ( ,m4 ,sa9t-,simon40 ,h[ev]1 f #ahbb he deta*es himself f ?is greatly-admir$ ma/]1 & 9 #ahbd ! rupture is complete & f9al4 ,:at c h happ5$8 ,! grievances br\ght =w>d by ,comte are only ( second>y importance4 ,z a matt] ( fact ma/] & pupil 7 b\nd to sep>ate soon] or lat]4 ,!re 0 a radical incompatibility betwe5 ^? two m9ds4 ,sa9t-,simon1 m>vell\sly inv5tive & orig9al1 ?r[s out a multitude ( new ideas & views1 ( :i* _m w be fruitful4 ,b he quickly affirms1 & proves little4 ,he has n ! pati5ce to cont9ue work+ long at ! same subject1 or to probe x to ! bottom 9 an ord]ly way4 ,comte1 on ! contr>y1 ?9ks ) ,desc>tes1 t me?od is ess5tial to sci5ce1 & t 8logical coh]5ce0 is ! sure/ sign ( tru?4 ,he c\ld n long rema9 satisfi$ ) ,sa9t-,simon's disconnect$ essays4 ,he c\ld ev51 )\t di%one/y1 turn to acc\nt ! brilliant b disord]ly intuition 9 :i* 8 ma/] ab\nds & believe t 8 own doctr9e alone gave ^? disconnect$ essays sci5tific value1 because 8 doctr9e alone 0 9 a position to sy/ematise !m & to connect !m ) _! pr9ciples4 ,x w\ld !re=e seem t we c admit at ! same "t t ,sa9t-,simon's influ5ce ^u ,comte 0 consid]able1 &1 on ! o!r h&1 t ,comte's philosophical orig9ality is no less c]ta94 ,sa9t-,simon's influ5ce w\ld *iefly h consi/$3 #a4 9 sugge/+ to ,comte a c]ta9 numb] ( g5]al ideas & ( views ( detail1 especially = 8 philosophy ( hi/ory2 #b4 9 %[+ him h[ ! two ord]s ( lab\rs :i* he _h be5 foll[+ until !n 7 to bl5d into a s+le "o1 ?r\gh ! creation ( a sci5ce :i* w\ld be social1 & consequ5tly ( a polity :i* w\ld be sci5tific4 ,w\ld ?is syn!sis ( ! two ord]s ( /udies :i* ,comte _h und]tak5 side by side h be5 produc$ 9 8 m9d1 _h he n kn[n ,sa9t-,simon8 ,9 any case x w\ld h be5 produc$ m sl[ly4 ,let u at lea/ leave ,sa9t-,simon ! cr$it :i* ,comte himself grant$ him1 t ( hav+ 8/>t$0 8 disciple ^u ! l9e be/ suit$ to 8 g5ius4 ,! intellectual intimacy betwe5 !m c\ld nev] be p]fect4 ,if ,comte ent]$ entirely into ,sa9t-,simon's ideas1 7)\t adopt+ !m all1 h[ev]71 9 return !re 0 an aspect 9 ,comte's ?\ght :i* ,sa9t-,simon sc>cely disc]n$ ?r\gh ! lack ( a suffici5tly /rong sci5tific education4 ,x is en\gh to see h[ he speaks ( ! law ( univ]sal attraction4 ,comte mu/ h be5 sc&alis$ by x4 ,s1 at ! v mom5t :5 he submits ) mo/ en?usiasm & y\?ful confid5ce to ,sa9t-,simon's influ5ce he does n neglect 8 special ma!matical /udies4 8,my lab\rs10 he writes to ,valat on ! #bh? ( ,septemb]1 #ahai1 8are & w be 9 two ord]s1 sci5tific & political4 ,i %\ld set little value ^u ! sci5tific /udies1 did ,i n cont9ually ?9k ( _! utility to ! human race4 ,z well !n amuse myself 9 deciph]+ v complicat$ puzzles4 ,i h a supreme av]sion = sci5tific lab\rs ^: utility1 ei!r direct or remote1 ,i d n see4 ,b ,i also confess1 9 spite ( all my philan?ropy1 t ,i %\ld put f> less eag]ness into political lab\rs1 if !y did n /imulate ! intellect1 if !y did n br+ my bra9 /rongly into play1 9 a ^w3 if !y 7 n difficult40#b ,a ye> lat]1 9 s5d+ a p>cel ( political tracts to 8 fri5d1 9 :i* he di/+ui%es :at is 9 8 own mann] & :at is f ,sa9t-,simon1 he says t he is besides v eag]ly occupi$ ) ma!matical "w4 ,he wants to take "p 9 ! competition op5$ by ! ,in/itut2 & 8 ambition is soon to ent] ! ,academie des ,sci5ces4 ,f #ahbb1 9 ! celebrat$ pamphlet entitl$ ,plan des travaux sci5tifiques ncessaires p\r rorganis] la socit1 ! syn!sis betwe5 ! two ord]s ( lab\rs is accompli%$ 9 ,comte's m9d1 ?anks to ! d\ble discov]y ( ! classification ( ! sci5ces & ( ! great law ( social dynamics4 ,we "k t ?is "w 01 if n ! pr9cipal reason1 at lea/ ! occasion ( ! rupture betwe5 ,comte & ,sa9t-,simon4 ,x is ! mom5t :i* ,comte himself consid]s to h be5 decisive 9 ! hi/ory ( 8 m9d4 ,! :ole ( 8 future doctr9e 0 ess5tially conta9$ 9 ?is pamphlet4 ,! preface add$ by ,sa9t-,simon %[s t he did n und]/& its full be>+s4 ,comte is h5ce=? 8 own ma/]4 ,at l5g? he has f\nd :at = sev]al ye>s he _h be5 seek+ )\t be+ cle>ly consci\s ( x2 & ! re/ ( 8 life is n[ consecrat$ to ! "w :i* he has conceiv$ & ( :i* he has j outl9$ ! plan4 ,s9ce he has e/abli%$ a philosophical hi]>*y ( ! sci5ces1 ^: summit is cr[n$ by social physics1 he has no fur!r occasion to ask h[ he c conciliate 8 sci5tific lab\rs ) 8 political /udies4 8,9 ! int]val ( my great philosophical lab\rs10 he writes on ! #h? ,septemb]1 #ahbd1 8,i propose to publi% a few m special works ^u ! fundam5tal po9ts 9 ma!matics1 :i* ,i h long conceiv$1 & :i* ,i h at la/ be5 able to connect ) my g5]al ideas ( positive philosophy3 s t ,i %all be free to give myself up to !m )\t break+ ?r\gh ! unity ( my ?\ght1 :i* is ! great condition = ! life ( a ?9k]40#c ,& 9 a v rem>kable lett] to de ,bla9ville1 on ! #bg? ,febru>y1 #ahbf1 he expla9s 9 ! cle>e/ way ! g5]at+ idea ( 8 sy/em4 8,my conception ( politics z social physics1 & ! law :i* ,i h discov]$ ^u ! ?ree successive /ates ( ! human m9d are b "o & ! same ?\ght1 consid]$ f ! two di/9ct po9ts ( view ( me?od & ( sci5ce4 ,t be+ e/abli%$1 ,i %all %[ t ?is s+le ?\ght directly & completely satisfies ! great actual social ne$1 consid]$ "u its two aspects ( !oretical ne$ & practical ne$4 ,i w !re=e %[ t :at on "o h& t5ds to consolidate ! future by re-e/abli%+ ord] & discipl9e among intellects1 t5ds1 on ! o!r h& to regulate ! pres5t1 z f> z possible1 by furni%+ /atesm5 ) rational l9es to "w ^u40#d ,h5ce=? ,comte's life 0 to be b ! me?odical execution ( 8 programme4 ,9 turn1 ) p]fect regul>ity1 he wrote & publi%$ ! philosophy ( ! sci5ces & ( hi/ory1 ! e?ics1 ! positive polity & ! positive religion4 ,does ?is mean t ,comte's ?\ght rema9$ /ation>y8 ,mo/ c]ta9ly n4 ,x evolv$ f #ahbb to #aheg4 ,b ?is evolution foll[$ a curve :i* an att5tive obs]v] might h sket*$ be=eh& aft] hav+ read ! ,plan des travaux sci5tifiques ncssaires p\r rorganis] la socit4 ,comte _h b "o sy/em1 n two4 ,f ! opuscules ( 8 tw5tie? ye> to ! ,syn?se subjective ( 8 la/ ye>1 x is ! developm5t ( "o & ! same conception4 ,,iii4 ,! unity ( ! doctr9e has be5 disput$4 ,comte himself di/+ui%$ two successive 8c>e]s0 9 8 life4 ,9 ! fir/1 he says1 )\t affect$ mode/y1 he 0 ,ari/otle3 9 ! second he w be ,/4 ,paul4 ,! f\nd] ( ! philosophy did b pave ! way = ! organis] ( ! religion4 8,i h sy/ematically devot$ my life to draw at la/ f real sci5ce ! necess>y basis ( a s\nd philosophy1 accord+ to :i* ,i 0 aft]w>ds to con/ruct ! true religion40#e ,_m ( ,comte's disciples1 ev5 "s ( ! m illu/ri\s1 & at fir/ m f]v5t1 su* z ,littr1 refus$ to foll[ him 9 8 8second c>e]40 ,_! admiration = ! philosoph] c\ld n p]suade !m to submit to ! pontiff4 ,littr & 8 fri5ds 7 und\bt$ly free to foll[ ,comte only up to a c]ta9 po9t1 &1 :ile accept+ 8 philosophy1 to reject 8 religion4 ,if !y _h /opp$ !re1 ,comte c\ld b h blam$ _! want ( logic & himself h dis[n$ 8^? incomplete positivi/s1 :o are n m intellig5t because !y call !mselves intellectual40 ,b x is !y1 on ! contr>y1 :o accus$ ,comte ( inconsi/5cy & ( self contradiction4 ,comte1 !y said1 betray$ 8 own pr9ciples4 ,! 8subjective me?od0 9 8 second c>e] ru9$ ! preci\s results he _h obta9$ 9 ! fir/ by 8 objective me?od4 ,9 refus+ to g beyond ! ,c\rs de philosophic positive !y rema9$ m fai?ful to ,comte's ma/]-?\ght ?an ,comte himself4 ,9 a ^w1 !y def5d$ true positivism aga9/ its misguid$ f\nd]4 ,comte answ]$ ^! attacks1 :i* 7 all ! m pa9ful to him because !y came f ^? :om he _h long reg>d$ z 8 fai?ful disciples & 8 be/ fri5ds4 ,9 ! c\rse ( ?is "w x w appe> t ^? attacks 7 unf\nd$4#f ,comte's two me?ods are n oppos$ to ea* o!r4 ,!y complete ea* o!r1 z d also ! two 8c>e]s0 :i* !y *>act]ize4 ,x is true t dur+ ! la/ two ye>s ( 8 life an increas+ly m>k$ t+e ( my/icism spread ov] 8 ?\ght & 8 writ+s4 ,8 brief fri5d%ip ) ,mme4 de ,vaux1 & ! dea? ( ?is 8holy0 fri5d _h /irr$ v /rong emotions )9 him1 & ^! emotions ) him 7 trans=m$ into ideas :i* came to be incorporat$ into 8 sy/em4 ,at ! same "t he lab\r$ to organise ! ,religion ( ,humanity4 ,he claim$ to secure = x an au?ority ov] s\ls at lea/ equal to t :i* _h be5 enjoy$ by ,ca?olicism at ! p]iod ( its greate/ p[]4 ,! exaltation ( 8 s5tim5ts1 ! preoccupation ( ! new religion :i* 0 to be e/abli%$1 ! ev]-pres5t consci\sness ( 8 sac]dotal mission1 all ?is 0 necess>ily b\nd to react ^u ! doctr9e :i* he _h f\nd$ 9 ! prec$+ p]iod4 ,?us ! philosophy ( ! sci5ces & ( hi/ory is no long] pres5t$ to u 9 ! same way 9 ! ,politique positive z x is 9 ! ,c\rs de philosophie positive4 ,b x is design$ly s4 ,! diff]5ce 9 tone & ! diff]5ce ( me?od 9 ! sett+ =? is expla9$1 accord+ to ,comte1 by ! diff]5t object :i* he has 9 view 9 ea* ( ^! works4#g ,ess5tially1 ! philosophical doctr9e has n v>i$4 ,all we c grant to ,littr is t by ! fact ( its be+ pres5t$ f ! religi\s1 t is to say f ! syn!tic1 po9t ( view 9 ! ,politique positive1 x und]goes an app>5t alt]ation4 ,if we only knew ! doctr9e ?r\gh ?is "w we %\ld n get ! p]fectly cle> view ( x giv5 9 ! ,c\rs de philosophie positive4 ,comte himself (t5 advises ! read] ( ! ,politique to ref] to 8 8great fundam5tal treatise40 ,b1 on ! o!r h&1 9 c>efully read+ ! ,c\rs1 we f9d num]\s indications ( ! future /ructure ( ! ,politique positive4 ,comte might h be5 cont5t ) a ref]5ce to ! ,c\rs1 to answ] ! objections ( 8 diss5t+ disciples4 ,he did bett]4 ,he repr9t$ at ! end ( ! f\r? volume ( 8 ,politique positive six pamphlets writt5 9 8 y\? f #ahah to #ahbf4 ,9 !m1 n only is 8 philosophy already sket*$ 9 its ma9 outl9es ) suffici5t precision2 b ! idea t philosophy is a prelim9>y "w1 a simple prelude & t ! ess5tial "w1 ! supreme end1 is ! positive religion :i* %all arise ^u ?is philosophy--?is idea is ! v s\l ( ^! pamphlets4 ,! pro( is giv54 ,^u ! "q ( ! unity ( 8 doctr9e ,comte w9s ! case aga9/ ,littr4 ,,iv4 ,9 8 correspond5ce ) ,/u>t ,mill :i* takes place betwe5 #ahda & #ahdf1 t is to say :i* embraces ! end ( 8 fir/ c>e] & ! beg9n+ ( ! second1 ,comte has repeat$ly expla9$ h[ ! two successive portions ( 8 "w are connect$ toge!r1 & 9 :at !y are di/9ct4 ,x may n be useless to quote 8 own words4 8,! second half ( my philosophical life10 he says1 8mu/ diff] notably f ! fir/1 especially 9 t feel+ mu/ take1 if n an obvi\s1 at lea/ a real "p 9 x1 "o z great z t ( ! intellect4 ,! great "w ( sy/ematization :i* has be5 res]v$ = our c5tury1 mu/ inde$ embrace equally1 bo? feel+s & ideas z a :ole4 ,truly x 0 ! ideas :i* _h fir/ to be sy/ematiz$1 "u pa9 ( fail+ to br+ ab\t a complete reg5]ation by fall+ into a m or less vague my/icism4 ,t is :y my fundam5tal "w _h to appeal almo/ exclusively to ! intellect4 ,x 0 to be a "w ( rese>*1 & accessorily ( discussion1 de/9$ to discov] & to con/itute ! true univ]sal pr9ciples1 9 ris+ by hi]>*ical degrees f ! simple/ sci5tific que/ions to ! highe/ social speculations40#h ,b ?is be+ done1 ,comte pass$ to ! sy/ematisation ( ! feel+s1 8a necess>y sequel to t ( ! ideas1 & an indisp5sable basis = t ( ! in/itutions40 ,x is1 !re=e1 an entirely new "w4 ,comte c imag9e )\t difficulty t x might h be5 res]v$ = ano!r ?an himself4 ,8 p]sonal mission might h be5 limit$ to ! f\ndation ( ! philosophy :i* puts an end to ! 8m5tal an>*y40 ,! e?ics & ! religion :i* 7 to be e/abli%$ ^u ?is philosophy1 to put an end to moral & political an>*y1 w\ld1 9 ?is case1 h be5 ! "w ( "o ( 8 successors4 ,/ubborn lab\r & good =tune all[$ ,comte to und]take ?is "w himself4 ,b ev5 9 #ahde1 he says h[ 8"u ! holy influ5ce ( ,mdme4 de ,vaux10 he _h v cle>ly se5 8 two c>e]s z di/9ct & z "o1 ^! two c>e]s ( :i* ! second 0 to trans=m philosophy into religion1 z ! fir/ _h *ang$ sci5ce into philosophy4 ,! object ( ! pres5t "w is to /udy ,comte's philosophy prop]ly s call$1 leav+ aside ! trans=mation ( ?is philosophy into religion4 ,! *oice :i* we ?us make is n an arbitr>y "o1 s9ce1 9 ord] to ju/ify x1 we h ! di/9ction =mally e/abli%$ by ,comte himself1 :5 he admits t 8 philosophy & 8 religion might h be5 ! "w ( two diff]5t p]sons4 ,x w p]haps be ask$ 9 :at our position diff]s f t ( ,littr1 & ( ! 8incomplete positivi/s40 ,by ! diff]5ce1 we %all answ]1 :i* sep>ates ! hi/orical f ! dogmatic po9t ( view4 ,x is f ! latt] po9t ( view t ,littr & 8 fri5ds reject ! 8sy/ematisation ( ! feel+s10 ! subjective me?od & ! religion ( ,humanity4 ,x is z positivi/s t !y connect !mselves ) ! fir/ half ( ! doctr9e1 & t !y exclude ! second half4 ,b we are "h work+ f ! hi/orical po9t ( view1 & ! hi/orian1 :ile us+ 8 "r to def9e ! limits ( 8 "w has no?+ to exclude f ! doctr9e :i* he sets =?4 ,z a matt] ( fact f> f claim+ ) ,littr t ! second "p ( ,comte's "w weak5s & contradicts ! fir/1 we h recognis$ t !y bo? =m a :ole ( :i* he _h drawn out ! plan 9 8 e>ly writ+s1 & t he 0 n wrong 9 tak+ z an epigraph = 8 ,politique positive ! f9e words ( ! poet-philosoph]3 ,:at is a great life8 ,a ?\ght ( y\? fulfill$ 9 rip] age4 ,b !n1 :y only /udy ! fir/ ( ! two c>e]s1 :y n respect ! integrity ( t :ole :i*1 accord+ to u1 ,littr ought n to h disreg>d$8--,we d respect x1 = we d n arbitr>ily exclude f ! doctr9e any ( ! p>ts :i* ,comte includ$ 9 x4 ,if we make ! philosophy prop] ! sole object ( ?is /udy1 9 x we %all ev] h be=e our m9ds ! idea ( ! great] :ole 9 :i* ,comte plac$ x4 ,on ?is condition alone1 our /udy w be accurate4 ,b once ?is condition is fulfill$ we d n consid] t we exce$ our "r1 9 conc5trat+ our ef=t ^u ! philosophy4 ,!re are two diff]5t ways ( conceiv+ ! hi/ory ( a doctr9e4 ,! hi/orian may place himself exactly 9 ! m5tal attitude ( ! philosoph] :om he /udies1 & ?9k aga9 aft] him 8 lead+ ideas1 z inde$ he %\ld d2 b fur!r1 he c judge1 j z ! philosoph] himself does1 ( ! respective importance ( problems1 )\t all[+ himself to di/+ui% :at is second>y f :at is ess5tial4 ,! hi/orical "w !n assumes ! %ape ( a 8monography10 or ( an 8intellectual biography20 or else1 :ile endeav\r+ to p5etrate to ! he>t ( ! sy/em1 9 ord] to grasp x 9 its pr9ciples1 ! hi/orian may nev]!less place himself outside x & above x1 & try to 8situate0 x 9 ! g5]al evolution ( philosophy4 ,!n ! sy/em is bett] und]/ood 9 its entirety1 s9ce we c see its relations ) ! prec$+1 contempor>y & foll[+ doctr9es4 ,at ! same "t x becomes possible to sep>ate :at is ( endur+ philosophical int]e/1 f :at 0 m]ely ( second>y or mom5t>y importance1 al?\gh ! au?or may h judg$ o!rwise4 ,to borr[ f ,comte a di/9ction :i* he (t5 uses1 ! =m] ( ^! me?ods is bett] suit$ to erudition1 ! latt] to hi/ory4 ,appli$ to ! /udy ( 8 doctr9e1 ! fir/ me?od w\ld h u to consid] positive philosophy ) him z simply prep>atory to ! ,religion ( ,humanity1 :i* 0 ! fir/ & ! la/ goal ( 8 ef=ts4 ,! writ] %\ld und\bt$ly give a l>ge place to ?is 8prambule indisp5sable10 to ?is great fundam5tal "w1 9 :i* ,comte lays d[n ! intellectual bases ( 8 political & religi\s sy/em4 ,b he ought nev]!less to subord9ate x to ?is sy/em & place 9 ! front rank ! 8social reorganisation10 ! dogma1 ! wor%ip & ! rgime ( ! ,religion ( ,humanity1 ! in/itution ( a spiritual p[]1 9 fact ! :ole ( t portion ( ,comte's "w 9 :i* he takes up aga9 8! ,ca?olic programme ( ! ,middle ,ages10 confid5t ( fulfill+ x bett] ?an ,ca?olicism itself ev] did4 ,n[ x is n 9 ?is "p ( 8 "w t ,comte %[s himself mo/ orig9al1 & t 8 ?\ght has be5 mo/ fruitful4 ,! problem ( 8social reorganisation0 does n belong to him alone4 ,its pres5ce is felt1 s to speak1 9 ! air at ! "t t ,comte's y\? 0 pass+ away4 ,! common aspirations ( ! g5]ation :i* grew up ) him 7 to re-e/abli% ord] & to fix ! conditions ( progress1 to det]m9e ! relations ( ,e?ics to ,politics1 & to put a new religion 9 ! place app>5tly left free by ,ca?olicism4 ,! ,politique positive :i* claims to satisfy ^! aspirations1 corresponds 9 ,comte's sy/em 7all prop] all[ance be+ made = ! sub/ance ( ! doctr9es7 to :at ! ,sa9t ,simon s*ool _h already attempt$ to d be=e #ahcj4 ,x comes ?irty ye>s lat] ?an ! previ\s attempts ( ! same k9d1 because ,comte want$ to f\nd 8 8social organisation0 ^u philosophy & morality1 & because ?is speculative ef=t occupi$ ! bett] "p ( 8 y\? & ( 8 maturity4 ,b x orig9at$ 9 fact 9 ! fir/ ?ird ( ! c5tury z is prov$ by ! pamphlets repr9t$ by ,comte4 ,:5 x appe>s betwe5 #ahej & #aheg1 a new g5]ation br\ght up 9 o!r political & social circum/ances gives x only pass+ att5tion4 ,o!r problems comm& att5tion m =cibly1 & claim a m urg5t solution4 ,! philosophy ( hi/ory no long] excites ! same passionate int]e/4 ,m5 are less anxi\s to see ! bir? ( a new religion1 & ,ca?olicism has prov$ t its vitality is /ill v /rong4 ,!re=e nei!r ,comte's g5ius1 nor ! precautions :i* he ?\ght he _h tak5 to place 8 8social reorganisation0 ^u a rational basis1 c\ld %ield x f ! common fate :i* soon] or lat] ov]takes all attempts simil> to 8 own4 ,und\bt$ly ! ,politique positive & ! o!r works ( ,comte's second c>e] are full ( j & deep views4 ,:atev] may be ! subject ^u :i* a great m9d has work$ x is always int]e/+ & pr(itable to see :at ! reflection ( t m9d has discov]$ 9 x4 ,b1 9 fact1 t portion ( 8 "w1 :i* to him 0 ! mo/ important1 is f> f ma9ta9+ ?is position 9 ! eyes ( ! hi/orian4 ,by 8 ,politique positive ,comte only repres5ts 8 g5]ation4 ,by 8 philosophy prop]ly s call$ he is a 8repres5tative man0 ( 8 entire c5tury4 ,is x necess>y to prove ?is8 ,! intellectual hi/ory ( our age witnesses to x at e /ep4 ,( all ! sy/ems :i* f\nd bir? 9 ,france 9 ! ,,xix4 c5tury1 ?is "o alone f\nd a he>+ beyond ! fronti]s & left a deep impression ^u =eign ?9k]s4 ,comte's philosophy 0 at fir/ receiv$ 9 ,engl& & 9 ,holl& ev5 ) m sympa?y ?an 9 ,france4 ,john ,/u>t ,mill1 ,h]b]t ,sp5c]1 ,george ,lewes1 ,george ,elliot & a numb] ( ,engli% philosoph]s & writ]s drew m or less ( _! inspiration f x4 ,to ?is day1 x is def5d$ by m5 ( great tal5t 9 ,engl&4 ,x is true t no ,g]man philosoph] _h ! same p]sonal relations ) ,comte z ,john ,/u>t ,mill1 b z a matt] ( fact1 = ?irty ye>s ! positive _s has gradually ga9$ gr\nd 9 ! ,g]man ,univ]sities4 ,to be conv9c$ ( ?is1 x is en\gh to see h[ metaphysics are set aside 9 !m & to obs]ve ! l9es on :i* ! moral & social sci5ces are taught4 ,9 ! ,lat9 c\ntries ( ! two hemisph]es ,comte's influ5ce has be5 ex]cis$ ) ev5 great] /r5g?1 9 ,spa91 9 ,portugal1 9 ,s\? ,am]ica2 & ,nor? ,am]ica has also its ,positivi/ societies4 ,9 8 life "t1 ,comte _h already f\nd !re "s ( 8 mo/ devot$ disciples4 ,9 ,france ! pr9cipal 8vehicles0 ( ,positivi/ philosophy h be5 ! works ( two writ]s :o1 9 _! "t1 7 ^? mo/ belov$ by ! public2 ,r5an & ,ta9e1 al?\gh !y 7 n positivi/s1 h p]haps done m = ! diffusion ( ! ideas & me?od ( ,comte ?an ,littr & all ! o!r positivi/s toge!r4 ,x is true t ,ta9e owes a great deal to ,sp9oza & to ,hegel1 & m /ill to ,condillac4 ,among 8 contempor>ies he seems to be especially connect$ ) ,john ,/u>t ,mill & ,sp5c]4 ,b ?r\gh !m x is f ,comte t he proce$s1 & !re we f9d ! orig9 ( ! great] numb] ( 8 lead+ ideas4 ,8 conception ( lit]>y hi/ory1 ( criticism1 ( ! philosophy ( art1 9 a ^w1 8 ef=t to br+ into ! /udy ( ! moral sci5ces ! me?od us$ 9 ! natural sci5ces1 all ?is is *iefly d]iv$ f ,augu/e ,comte4 ,! ,hi/oire de la ,litt]ature anglaise is1 9 a s5se1 an application ( ! positive !ory accord+ to :i* ! evolution ( ! arts & lit]atures is gov]n$ by necess>y laws :i* con/itute its solid>ity ) t ( morals1 ( in/itutions & ( beliefs4 ,! !ory ( ! 8mom5t0 & ( ! 8milieu0 :i* is ! *ief "o 9 ,ta9e's "w 0 c]ta9ly n unkn[n 9 ! ,,xviii4 c5tury4 ,b x is ,comte :o g5]alis$ x by br++ ,lam>ck ne>] to ,montesquieu2 x is he :o taught ,ta9e ! g5]al def9ition1 at once biological & social1 ( ! idea ( ! 8milieu40 ,r5an spoke ( ,comte ) extreme sev]ity1 & n )\t "s disda94 ,he own$1 h[ev]1 t lat] on ,comte's "n w\ld be "o ( ! mo/ repres5tative ones ( ?is c5tury1 & he _h himself /rongly felt 8 influ5ce4 ,we mu/ c]ta9ly take into acc\nt all ! o!r ,fr5* & =eign s\rces f :i* ?is m9d at once s supple & s l>ge1 drew inspiration4 ,b is x n f ,comte1 z mu* z f ,hegel1 t he le>nt to reg>d hi/ory z ! 8sacr$ sci5ce ( humanity10 to expect f x :at be=e 0 dem&$ f !ology1 to trans=m ! anci5t dogmas ( ,provid5ce & ( optimism into ! belief 9 ! positive idea ( progress1 & f9ally to conceive t tru? & goodness are n immutable & immoveable realities1 b are realis$ by degrees ?r\gh ! ef=t ( successive g5]ations8 ,^! two examples w suffice to %[ ! po9t ( extreme diffusion :i* has be5 rea*$ by ! positive _s4 ,?is _s is s intimately m+l$ ) ! g5]al ?\ght ( our "t t we sc>cely notice x1 j z we d n pay att5tion to ! air we brea!4 ,hi/ory1 romance1 &1 ev5 poetry h reflect$ its influ5ce &1 be+ *>g$ ) x1 h contribut$ to its diffusion4 ,contempor>y ,sociology is ! creation ( ,comte2 sci5tific ,psy*ology1 9 a c]ta9 degree has also sprung f him4 ,f all ^! signs1 x is n ra% to conclude t positive philosophy expresses "s ( ! mo/ *>act]i/ic t5d5cies ( ! age4 ,we are !re=e con=m+ to hi/orical reality :5 we atta* ourselves1 9 ,comte's "w1 to ! philosophy :i* con/itutes its mo/ orig9al1 & up to ! pres5t "t its mo/ fruitful & liv+ "p4 ,x matt]s little t he himself %\ld only h consid]$ x z a prelim9>y portion ( 8 "w4 ,h[ (t5 has ! speculative ef=t made by a great ?9k] = ! purpose ( e/abli%+ practical conclusions prov$ to be ( m endur+ int]e/ ?an ^? conclusions !mselves6 ,,footnotes3 #a ,lettres ,valat1 p4 #aef-g 7#be ,dcembre #ahbd74 #b ,lettres ,valat1 p4 #ii4 #c ,lettres ,valat1 p4 #abh4 #d ,revue ,occid5tale1 #ahha1 ,i1 p4 #bhh4 #e ,politique positive1 ,,ii1 p4 ,,xx4 #f ,v4 book1 ,i1 *4 vi4 p4 #g ,correspond5ce de ,j4 ,s4 ,mill et de ,comte1 ,lettre de ,comte du #ad juillet #ahde1 p4 #def-g4 #h ,correspondance de ,comte & de ,/u>t ,mill1 p4 #def-g4 ,lettre de ,comte du #ad juillet #ahde4 ,,book ,i ,,*apt] ,i ,,! ,,philosophical ,,problem ,accord+ to ,comte1 philosophy is de/9$ to s]ve z a basis = morality1 = politics & = religion4 ,x is n an end 9 itself b a means to rea* an end n o!rwise atta9able4 ,_h ,comte ?\ght x possible to reorganise society )\t fir/ reorganis+ morals1 & to reorganise morals )\t fir/ reorganis+ beliefs1 he w\ld n p]haps h writt5 ! six volumes ( ! 8,c\rs de ,philosophie positive0 :i* occupi$ him f #ahcj to #ahdb4 ,he w\ld h gone /raight to :at 0 ( supreme int]e/4 ,he e>ly became conv9c$ t ! %orte/ way w\ld n be ! be/4 ,9 8 view1 all endeav\r at religi\s1 moral1 or political reorganisation1 mu/ be va9 s long z m5tal reorganisation has n tak5 place4 ,x is !re=e ) a new philosophy t he mu/ beg94 ,indisp5sable to ! social end :i* ,comte has 9 view1 philosophy becomes1 at lea/ provisionally1 an end 9 itself4 ,comte is go+ to endeav\r to reorganise beliefs1 t is to say1 to sub/itute a demon/rat$ fai? to ! reveal$ fai? ^: =ce is n[ sp5t4 ,?is demon/rat$ fai? w h no?+ 9 common ) ! natural religion ( ! ,,xviii4 c5tury1 :i* 0 at bottom b a weak & deg5]ate =m ( belief 9 ! sup]natural4 ,"u ! metaphysical g>b ( ,deism we /ill recognise !ological ?\ght4 ,on ! contr>y ! demon/rat$ fai? w h its orig9 & its ju/ification 9 positive sci5ce4 ,! two words 8fai?0 & 8demon/ration0 appe> to cla% ) ea* o!r4 ,b ! contradiction lies m]ely on ! surface4 ,= we are /ill conc]n$ ) 8fai?0 s9ce ! great majority ( m5 w always h to take on fai? ! conclusions ( positive philosophy4 ,! numb] ( m5 ) suffici5t leisure & en\gh culture to exam9e ^! conclusions & to g into _! pro(s w always be small4 ,! attitude ( ! o!rs mu/ be "o ( submission & respect4 ,b1 diff]+ on ?is po9t f ! religi\s dogmas :i* humanity has kn[n until n[2 ! new fai? w be 8demon/rat$40 ,x w conta9 no?+ :i* has n be5 e/abli%$ & controll$ by sci5tific me?ods1 no?+ :i* goes beyond ! doma9 ( ! relative1 no?+ :i* at any mom5t _c be prov$ to a m9d capable ( foll[+ ! demon/ration4 ,?is =m ( 8fai?0 already exi/s 9 ! case ( a great numb] ( sci5tific tru?s4 ,?us all m5 to-day believe 9 ! !ory ( ! sol> sy/em :i* we owe to ,cop]nicus1 to ,galileo & to ,newton4 ,yet h[ _m are 9 a position to und]/& ! demon/rations ^u :i* ?is !ory re/s8 ,!y "k1 h[ev]1 t :at "h is a matt] ( fai? to !m1 is a matt] ( sci5ce to o!rs1 & w\ld be s equally = !mselves _h !y gone ?r\gh ! necess>y /udies4 ,fai? !re=e signifies "h n inde$ a volunt>y abdication ( ! intellect 9 pres5ce ( a my/]y :i* surpasses its p[] ( compreh5sion1 b a submission to fact1 :i* 9 no way encroa*es ^u ! rights ( reason4 ,e man is n capable1 at any mom5t1 ( ex]cis+ ?is "r to criticise4 ,9 practice1 ,comte w sev]ely re/rict ! use ( x4#i ,b 9 !ory ?is "r belongs to all m51 & mu/ ev] rema9 unalt]able4 ,9 ! la/ place ! legitimate exi/5ce ( ! demon/rat$ fai? re/s ^u ?is proposition3 8,if all m9ds 7 9 a condition to exam9e ! dogmas ( t fai?1 all1 )\t exception1 w\ld und]/& ! demon/ration1 & w\ld agree ) x40 ,! words 8belief0 & 8fai?0 mu/ n be misund]/ood4 ,9 ! 8reorganisation ( beliefs0 :i* he und]takes1 ,comte only conc]ns himself ) beliefs capable ( demon/ration4 ,he is "h fai?ful to ! ?\ght ( ,sa9t ,simon1 :o und]/ood 8religion0 *iefly z a basis ( political organisation4 ,at any rate1 9 ! e>ly "p ( 8 philosophical c>e] ,comte does n br+ into 8fai?0 ! my/ical1 s5tim5tal & non-intellectual elem5ts :i* ?is ^w usually implies & :i* s (t5 oppose x to 8reason40 ,! ^w signifies = ,comte t :i* man believes conc]n+ :at may be = him a subject ( k4 ,until n[ ^! beliefs h set =? a m or less my?ical or metaphysical explanation ( ! univ]se & ( man1 taught by prie/s & philosoph]s4 ,b ?is no long] satisfies ! human m9d4 ,by degrees positive sci5ce1 :i* works on a totally diff]5t plan1 sub/itutes a k ( ! laws ( ph5om5a to ^? 8explanations40 ,f ?is mom5t ! problem ?us pres5ts itself to ,comte3 ,to e/abli% by rational means a sy/em ( univ]sally accept$ tru?s conc]n+ man1 society & ! _w4 ,comte ?us takes = grant$3 #a/1 t ! 8op9ions10 ! 8beliefs0 & ! 8conceptions0 relat+ to ^! matt]s1 are to-day 8an>*ical03 #bnd1 t _! natural & normal condition is to be 8organis$40 ,!re is no ne$ to prove ! fir/ "p2 a glance at contempor>y society is en\gh4 ,! confus$ di/urb+ movem5ts :i* fill x ) tr\ble & agitation1 & :i*1 unless rational h>mony be at la/ e/abli%$1 ?reat5 its de/ruction are n due m]ely to political causes4 ,!y proce$ f moral disord]4 ,& ?is 9 turn proce$s f intellectual disord]1 t is to say f a lack ( pr9ciples common to all m9ds1 & f ! abs5ce ( univ]sally admitt$ conceptions & beliefs4 ,= 9 ord] t a human society may subsi/1 a c]ta9 h>mony ( s5tim5t or ev5 common int]e/s among its memb]s w n suffice4 ,above all ?+s1 intellectual concord :i* f9ds expression 9 a body ( common beliefs is necess>y4 ,if1 !re=e1 a society be a prey to *ronic disord]s1 :i* political rem$ies appe> p[]less to cure1 "o has e "r to believe t ! deep-root$ evil has its orig9 9 intellectual disorganisation4 ,all o!r tr\bles are m]ely symptoms4 ,?is1 accord+ to ,comte1 is precisely ! /ate ( contempor>y society4 ,x has nei!r 8intellectual0 nor 8spiritual0 gov]nm5t1 & does n ev5 feel ! want ( x4 ,! m9ds ( m5 recognise no common discipl9e4 ,n a pr9ciple subsi/s :i* negative & 8corrosive0 criticism has n attack$4 ,! individual erects himself z a judge ( all ?+s--philosophy1 e?ics1 politics1 religion4 ,! op9ion :i* he adopts mo/ frequ5tly )\t any special qualification = s do+1 & accord+ to 8 passions1 always appe>s to him to h z mu* "r to be admitt$ z ^? ( o!r m54 ,he claims to be am5able to no "o = 8 ?\ghts4 ,& ?is scatt]+ 7lat] on ,comte w say insurrection7 ( intellig5ces is :at he calls a /ate ( an>*y4 ,b1 we may say1 does n ?is /ate repres5t ! ord9>y condition ( human societies8 ,p]haps ! 8organic0 /ate only appe>s occasionally & z an exception8 ,su* a supposition is gr\ndless4 ,=1 if su* 7 ! case societies c\ld n subsi/1 & above all c\ld n develop4 ,we mu/ admit1 on ! contr>y1 t p]iods ( intellectual an>*y =m ! exception1 & t 9 a normal /ate ( society m5 are unit$ by _! unanim\s submission to a suffici5tly l>ge body ( pr9ciples & beliefs4 ,hi/ory confirms ?is view4 ,! immobility ( civilisation 9 ! ,f>-,ea/ is especially due to ! intellectual /ability :i* di/+ui%es x f our own condition4 ,! societies ( ,antiquity 7,grecian & ,roman71 re/$ ^u a conception ( man1 ( citiz5%ip & ( ! _w1 :i*1 z a matt] ( fact1 sc>cely v>i$ dur+ ! :ole p]iod ( _! exi/5ce4 ,la/ly1 9 ! ,middle-ages1 ,*ri/ianity _h con/itut$ an admirable spiritual au?ority4 ,! organisation ( ,ca?olicism1 8a ma/]piece ( political sagacity10 _h e/abli%$ a body ( beliefs :i* all m9ds accept$ ) complac5t docility4 ,x is ! decomposition ( ?is great sy/em :i* has produc$ ! majority ( ! evils ) :i* we are n[ /ruggl+4 ,m5tal an>*y is !re=e truly an abnormal /ate1 a pa?ological fact1 :at ,comte w call lat] on ! 8we/]n disease10 a mortal disease if x is to be prolong$4 ,ei!r mod]n society mu/ p]i%1 or m9ds mu/ rega9 _! /able equilibrium by submission to common pr9ciples4 ,! problem ( ! organisation ( beliefs w\ld seem to come "u two heads4 ,9 ! fir/ place we h ! philosophical problem3 h[ to e/abli% a sy/em ( pr9ciples & beliefs capable ( be+ univ]sally admitt$2 &1 9 ! second place1 a social problem3 h[ to br+ all m9ds into ! new fai?4 ,b ?is di/9ction only appe>s on ! surface4 ,z a matt] ( fact1 ! solution ( ! fir/ problem w necess>ily imply t ( ! second4 ,does n ! pr9cipal cause = ! lack ( common discipl9e lie 9 ! disord] :i* tr\bles ! m9d ( ea* individual8 ,if intellects are divid$ among !mselves x is because ea* intellect is divid$ aga9/ itself4 ,let "o ( !m succe$ 9 e/abli%+ a p]fect h>mony )9 itself1 & by ! m]e =ce ( logic1 ?is h>mony1 by gradual diffusion w be communicat$ to ! o!rs--once true philosophy is e/abli%$1 ! re/ w only be a matt] ( "t4 ,x w !re=e suffice to exam9e ! op9ions & beliefs :i* actually exi/ 9 "o m9d1 & to inquire into ! conditions necess>y to sub/itute 9 x h>mony to an>*y1 or 9 a ^w1 to realise )9 x a p]fect logical coh]5ce4 ,z ,desc>tes1 9 ord] to te/ all 8 k1 _h only to exam9e ! s\rces f :i* x orig9at$1 s ,comte1 9 ord] to v]ify ! logical compatibility ( 8 op9ions1 w cont5t himself ) ! consid]ation ( ! me?ods :i* h furni%$ him ) !m4 ,if he discov]s me?ods :i* mutually t5d to exclude ea* o!r1 he w h f\nd ! cause ( ! m5tal disord] :i* gives bir? to all ! evils we see tr\bl+ mod]n society4 ,at ! same "t he w h discov]$ ! rem$y :i* w br+ ab\t ! disappe>ance ( ^? contradictions4 ,! human m9d is s con/itut$1 t ! fir/ ?+ x requires is unity4 ,und]/&+ is spontane\sly sy/ematic4 ,op9ions m]ely 9 juxtaposition 9 ! m9d b logically irreconcilable _c satisfy x4 ,z a matt] ( fact1 ! contradiction1 ev5 :5 x is ignor$1 nev]!less impresses itself4 ,:e!r we "k x or n1 ea* ( our op9ions implies a complexus ( connect$ op9ions all arriv$ at by ! same me?od z ! "o 9 "q2 & ?is complexus is itself "p ( ! m consid]able :ole :i* f9ally completes itself 9 a compreh5sive conception ( ! _w giv5 9 exp]i5ce4 ,n[ ,comte saw 9 himself1 z 9 8 contempor>ies1 two g5]al me?ods1 two 8modes ( ?\ght0 :i* _c coexi/ )\t contradiction1 al?\gh nei!r "o nor ! o!r has obta9$ a full ma/]y up to ! pres5t "t4 ,conc]n+ sev]al categories ( ph5om5a he ?9ks z a s*ol> tra9$ 9 ! s*ool ( ,hobbes1 ( ,galileo1 ( ,desc>tes & ( _! successors4 ,he does n seek to expla9 !m by causes4 ,:51 by means ( obs]vation or d$uction1 he has arriv$ at a k ( _! laws he rema9s satisfi$4 ,= ! k ( ^! laws all[s him 9 c]ta9 cases to int]v5e 9 ! ph5om5a1 & to sub/itute to ! natural ord] an artificial ord] bett] suit$ to 8 requirem5ts4 ,x is ?us t me*anical1 a/ronomical1 physical1 *emical & ev5 biological ph5om5a are objects ( relative & positive sci5ce = him to-day4 ,b1 z soon z ! "q is "o ( facts :i* orig9ate 9 ! human consci5ce1 or :i* are connect$ ) social life & ) hi/ory1 an opposite t5d5cy becomes pr$om9ant4 ,in/ead ( solely seek+ = ! laws ( ph5om5a1 our m9d desires to expla9 !m4 ,x wants to f9d ! ess5ce & ! cause4 ,x speculates ^u ! human s\l1 ^u ! relation ( t s\l to ! o!r realities ( ! univ]se1 ^u ! end :i* society %\ld h 9 view1 ^u ! be/ possible gov]nm5t1 ^u ! social contract1 etc4 ,all ^! que/ions arise f ! 8metaphysical0 mode ( ?\ght1 & ?is mode is =mally incompatible ) ! prec$+ "o4 ,yet we see bo? ( !m subsi/+ 9 our m9ds to-day4 ,social dynamics w %[ h[ ?is condition mu/ h be5 produc$4 ,b :atev] ! hi/orical reasons may be1 ! reality is only too evid5t4 ,! human m9d to-day c nei!r adh]e entirely to nor give up entirely "o or ! o!r ( ^! two modes ( ?\ght4 ,und\bt$ly x feels t ! conque/s ( positive sci5ce are 8irrevocable40 ,= example1 h[ c\ld x return to a metaphysical or !ological explanation ( a/ronomical or physical ph5om5a8 ,b1 on ! o!r h&1 metaphysical & !ological conceptions seem to x no less indisp5sable4 ,x does n believe x c\ld d )\t !m4 ,& ?is is natural4 ,=1 to satisfy ! desire = unity1 :i* is its supreme requirem5t1 ! human m9d dem&s a conception ( ! :ole :i* embraces all ! ord]s ( ph5om5a1 :at ,kant call$ a totaliz+ ( exp]i5ce1 9 a ^w a 8philosophy40 ,n[1 up to ! pres5t "t1 ! positive mode ( ?\ght has n %[n itself 9 a position to respond to ?is dem&4 ,x has only produc$ individual sci5ces4 ,positive ,sci5ce has be5 8special0 & fragm5t>y1 always atta*$ to ! inve/igation ( a m or less re/rict$ gr\p ( ph5om5a4 ,) a laudable prud5ce1 :i* has made h] /r5g?1 %e has appli$ h]self solely to works ( analysis & p>tial syn!sis4 ,%e has nev] v5tur$ ^u a syn!sis ( ! :ole ( ! real )9 our rea*4 ,until n[ !ologies & metaphysics alone h made ! ef=t1 & ?is (fice is1 /ill to-day1 ! *ief reason ( _! exi/5ce1 ?is (fice mu/ be fulfill$4 ,! human m9d is c>ri$1 by a spontane\s & necess>y movem5t1 t[>ds ! po9t ( view ( ! univ]sal4 ,soon] ?an leave ! philosophical problems )\t an answ]1 x w\ld rema9 atta*$ indef9itely to ! solutions1 *im]ical z !y are1 :i* ! !ologies & metaphysics (f] him4 ,9 %ort1 9 ! pres5t /ate ( ?+s1 ! positive m9d is 8real0 b 8special40 ,! !ologico-metaphysical m9d is 8univ]sal0 b 8fictiti\s40 ,we c nei!r sacrifice ! 8reality0 ( sci5ce1 nor ! 8univ]sality0 ( philosophy4 ,:i* is ! way out ( ?is difficulty8 ,?ree solutions alone are conceivable3 #a4 ,to f9d a reconciliation :i* w make x possible = ! two modes ( ?\ght to coexi/ )\t contradiction3 #b4 ,to re-e/abli% unity by mak+ ! !ologico-metaphysical me?od univ]sal3 #c4 ,to re-e/abli% unity by mak+ ! positive me?od univ]sal3 ,,ii4 ,! fir/ solution at fir/ sight appe>s to be ! mo/ acceptable4 ,:y %\ld n ! positive inve/igation ( ! div]s ord]s ( natural ph5om5a be reconcil$ ) a !ological or metaphysical conception ( ! univ]se8 ,no?+ prev5ts "o f conceiv+ ! ph5om5a z gov]n$ by inv>iable laws1 & f seek+ at ! same "t1 by ano!r me?od1 = ! reason :i* r5d]s nature 9 g5]al intelligible4 ,positive sci5ce lib]at$ at la/ f !ology & metaphysics1 w\ld assure !m ( ! indep5d5ce :i* %e claims = h]self4 ,?us1 ) gr[+ precision w\ld be fix$ ! b\nd>ies on ! "o h& ( ! doma9 prop] ( positive sci5ce1 & on ! o!r t ( ! speculation :i* goes beyond exp]i5ce4 ,?is reconciliation1 says ,comte1 has = a long "t be5 consid]$ legitimate1 because = a long "t x 0 indisp5sable4 ,up to ! pres5t "t ,!ology & ,metaphysics h be5 ! only compreh5sive conceptions ( ! _w :i* ! human m9d has =m$4 ,!y h fulfill$ a necess>y function4 ,moreov]1 )\t !m positive sci5ce c\ld nei!r h orig9at$ nor h be5 develop$4 ,b1 z %e is _! heiress1 %e is also _! antagoni/4 ,h] progress necess>ily involves _! d[nfall4 ,! p>allel hi/ory ( religions & metaphysical dogmas on ! "o h& & ( positive k on ! o!r %[s t ! conciliation betwe5 !m has nev] be5 a la/+ "o4 ,n t ! antagonism betwe5 ! two modes ( ?\ght c be solv$ by a supreme dialectical /ruggle 9 :i* ! !ological & metaphysical dogmas w\ld be wor/$4 ,x is n ?us t dogmas come to an end4 ,!y disappe>1 accord+ to ,comte's /rik+ expression1 by desuetude1 z is ! case ) =sak5 me?ods4 ,z a matt] ( fact1 h !y n be5 z me?ods = ! human m9d1 :i* s\ght )9 a s+le po9t ( view to embrace ! univ]sality ( ?+s be=e !y _h be5 suffici5tly /udi$8 ,man dem&$ f 8 imag9ation at fir/ sight an absolute k ( ! real1 :i* reason c\ld only give him at a lat] /age1 on a v mode/ scale1 entirely relative & aft] ! pati5t lab\r ( ! sci5ces4 ,b by degrees1 z he has advanc$ 9 ! positive /udy ( ph5om5a1 he has =sak5 ! !ological & metaphysical 8explanations40 ,)\t rel9qui%+ altoge!r ! se>* aft] causes1 he has tak5 ! habit ( relegat+ !m to m & m remote regions4 ,already1 9 :at conc]ns ph5om5a ^: concept has rea*$ a positive /age we c v well d )\t any assumption ( causes4 ,x suffices = u to repres5t ^! ph5om5a to ourselves z subject to laws4 ,:5 all ! ph5om5a ( all ord]s are habitually conceiv$ 9 ?is way1 :5 ! idea ( _! laws1 :atev] !y may be1 w h become equally famili> to u1 ! metaphysical mode ( ?\ght w h disappe>$4 ,9 a ^w1 z soon z ! :ole ( sci5ce %all h become positive1 philosophy w necess>ily be positive also3 ,= we only h at our disposal "o po9t ( view conc]n+ ?+s4 ,all our real k be>s ^u ph5om5a & _! laws4 ,if1 !re=e1 consid]$ "o by "o1 all ! ord]s ( ph5om5a are conceiv$ accord+ to ! positive mode ( ?\ght1 h[ c\ld x be t consid]$ toge!r1 & 9 _! totality1 !y %\ld be conceiv$ accord+ to a mode ( ?\ght completely diff]5t1 & ev5 inconsi/5t ) ! =m] "o8 ,z a matt] ( fact1 ! coexi/5ce ( ^! two modes ( ?\ght la/s s long z ! positive _s has n rea*$ its complete expansion1 s long z a m or less consid]able portion ( natural ph5om5a is /ill expla9$ by _! ess5ce1 _! cause1 or _! end4 ,b ?is _c be indef9itely prolong$4 ,! m ! positive _s progresses1 ! m ! !ological & metaphysical conception ( ! _w loses gr\nd1 & x becomes m evid5t t we mu/ make our *oice4 ,! unity ( ! und]/&+ ! p]fect logical coh]5ce1 are at ?is price4 ,! conciliation be+ set aside1 ! alt]native ei!r to ?9k solely or n at all1 accord+ to ! positive mode1 pres5ts itself4 ,! traditionali/s1 & especially ,joseph de ,mai/re1 saw ?is aspect ( ! problem v cle>ly4 ,comte gives !m v great cr$it = x4 ,de ,mai/re admits no salvation = our society except 9 ! complete return to ! !ological mode ( ?\ght4 ,he ?us attacks at its v s\rce1 or to put x m pla9ly1 9 its _m s\rces1 ! _s ( mod]n philosophy4 ,he does n sp>e ,locke any m ?an ! philosoph]s ( ! ,,xviii4 c5tury :o proce$ f him1 ,bacon any m ?an ,locke2 ! promot]s ( ! ,re=mation any m ?an ,bacon4 ,he und]/ood t ! ,,xviii4 c5tury came z a mighty conclusion ( :i* ! ,,xvi4 & ,,xvii4 c5turies 7 ! premisses1 & t ! great de/ructive syllogism _h orig9at$ 9 a "w ( decomposition :i* began z e>ly z ! ,,xiv4 c5tury4 ,he is !re=e p]fectly consi/5t ) himself1 :5 he endeav\rs to combat ?is diabolical "w1 & to br+ ,europe back to ! m5tal & religi\s condition ( ! ,middle-ages4 ,! re-e/abli%m5t ( ! spiritual supremacy ( ! ,pope w\ld put an end to m5tal & moral an>*y4 ,! ca?olic doctr9e w\ld re/ore to m5's m9ds t unity :i* is _! supreme ne$4 ,?is solution fulfils ideally ! conditions ( ! problem1 b1 z a matt] ( fact1 ! solution is impracticable4 ,! tide ( hi/ory _c fl[ back4 ,9 ord] to br+ m5's m9ds once aga9 "u ! sway ( t spiritual p[] :i* !y freely accept$ 9 ! ,middle-ages1 we %\ld also h to recon/itute ! totality ( ! conditions 9 :i* !y liv$ at t "t4 ,h[ c we wipe f ! pages ( hi/ory ! discov]y ( ,am]ica1 ! inv5tion ( pr9t+1 & s _m o!r great social facts8 ,h[ c we pret5d t ,cop]nicus1 ,kepl]1 ,galileo1 ,desc>tes1 ,newton1 & all ! h]alds ( positive ,sci5ce nev] exi/$8 ,& if1 presum+ :at is impossible1 we %\ld succe$ 9 re/or+ ! m5tal & moral unity ( ,*ri/ian society 9 ! ,middle-ages1 h[ c\ld we prev5t ! natural laws :i* h once br\ght ab\t its decomposition1 f produc+ aga9 ! same result8 ,we are ?us necess>ily br\ght to ! ?ird & la/ solution4 ,s9ce ! conciliation betwe5 ! positive mode ( ?\ght & ! o!r "o is impossible2 s9ce ! exclusive asc5d5cy ( ! !ologico-metaphysical mode ( ?\ght is out ( ! "q2 s9ce :5 all is said ! human m9d ne$s a philosophy1 x foll[s t t philosophy c only proce$ f ! positive mode ( ?\ght itself4 ,!re is no?+1 a priori1 to prev5t ?is solution f be+ realis$4 ,= ! la/ positions ( ! !ologico-metaphysical _s are surely n impregnable4 ,?is _s1 8fictiti\s0 9 its ess5ce1 nev] c\ld become 8real40 ,! positive _s is only accid5tally 8special40 ,x is q capable ( acquir+ ! univ]sality :i* x lacks4 ,! new philosophy w\ld !n be f\nd$1 & ! problem ( p]fect logical coh]5ce w\ld be solv$4 ,! :ole difficulty ?us appe>s to be 9 8univ]salis+0 ! positive mode ( ?\ght4 ,to d ?is x mu/ be ext5d$ to ^? ph5om5a :i* are /ill habitually conceiv$ accord+ to ! !ologico-metaphysical mode1 t is to say1 to ! moral & social ph5om5a4 ,?is w be ,comte's cr[n+ discov]y4 ,he w f\nd 8social physics40 ,by s do+ he w take f !ology & metaphysics ! la/ reason ( _! exi/5ce4 ,he w make possible ! transition f a positive sci5ce to an equally positive philosophy4 ,?us w be realis$ 8! unity ( ! und]/&+10 & ?is m5tal h>mony w c>ry ) x z its consequ5ce ! moral & religi\s h>mony ( humanity4 ,,footnotes3 #i cf4 infra4 book iii4 *4 v4 p4 ,,*apt] ,,ii ,,! ,,law ,,( ,,! ,,?ree ,,/ates ,9 ,comte's sy/em ! con/itution ( sociology may be consid]$ at ! same "t z a t]m9us & z a />t+ po9t4 ,"o sees ! positive me?od atta9+ ) x to ! ord] ( ! highe/1 ! mo/ 8noble10 ! mo/ complicat$ ph5om5a3 9 ?is s5se sociology is ! t]m rea*$ by ! positive _s 9 its asc5t4 ,x ?us rea*es ! summit ( ! hi]>*y ( ! sci5ces1 & h5ce=? rules ov] !m all4 ,on ! o!r h&1 positive philosophy1 possible f ?is mom5t1 w make ?is a />t+ po9t = e/abli%+ ! pr9ciples ( morality & ( polity4 8,?r\gh ! f\ndation ( sociology10 says ,comte at ! beg9n+ ( ! ,c\rs1 8positive philosophy w acquire t univ]sal "* :i* x /ill lacks1 & w ?us become qualifi$ to take ! place ( !ological & metaphysical philosophy1 ^: only real prop]ty to-day is ?is univ]sality10#aj & at ! end ( ! ,c\rs he concludes3 8,! creation ( sociology end[s ) fundam5tal unity ! entire sy/em ( mod]n philosophy40#aa ,?is creation1 ^u :i* ev]y?+ else dep5d$1 dates f ! "t :5 ,comte discov]$ ! law ( ! ?ree /ates z x is call$4 ,=1 once ?is law is e/abli%$1 8social physics0 ceases to be a m]e philosophical conception1 & becomes a positive sci5ce4 ,?is law _h be5 anticipat$ & ev5 already =mulat$ 9 ! ,,xviii4 c5tury by ,turgot1 !n by ,condorcet1 & by ,dr4 ,burd94 ,comte1 nev]!less1 takes to himself ! m]it ( ! discov]y4 ,z he is g5]ally mo/ precise 9 do+ full ju/ice to 8 8precursors10 we mu/ admit t1 accord+ to him1 none ( !m _h se5 ! sci5tific importance ( ?is law4 ,x c]ta9ly is "o ?+ to ga!r ! notion ( a law out ( a numb] ( facts1 & ano!r to und]/& its capital importance1 & to disc]n 9 x ! fundam5tal law :i* gov]ns ! :ole ( ! evolution ( humanity4 ,?is is ! way 9 :i* ,comte en\nces x1 9 ! ,plan des travaux sci5tifiques ncessaires p\r rorganis] la socit 7#ahbb74 8,accord+ to ! v nature ( ! human intellect e bran* ( our k mu/ necess>ily pass successively 9 ! c\rse ( its progressive developm5t1 ?r\gh ?ree diff]5t !oretical /ates3 ! !ological or fictiti\s /ate1 ! metaphysical or ab/ract /ate1 f9ally ! sci5tific or positive /ate40#ab ,9 ! fir/ lesson ( ! ,c\rs de philosophie positive1 aft] hav+ reproduc$ ?is /atem5t1 ,comte adds3 8,9 o!r words ! human m9d1 by its nature1 9 ea* "o ( its rese>*es makes use successively ( ?ree me?ods ( philosophis+1 ess5tially diff]5t & ev5 oppos$ to ea* o!r3 fir/ly1 ! !ological me?od1 next1 ! metaphysical1 & la/ly ! positive4 ,h5ce we f9d ?ree k9ds ( philosophies1 or g5]al sy/ems ( conceptions ( ! totality ( ph5om5a1 :i* mutually exclude ea* o!r4 ,! fir/ is ! necess>y />t+-po9t ( human intellig5ce1 ! ?ird1 its fix$ & f9al /ate2 ! second is solely de/9$ to s]ve z a transition40#ac ,! words 8!ological0 & 8metaphysical0 are "h tak5 9 a p>ticul> s5se1 /rictly def9$4 ,comte calls 8!ology0 a g5]al sy/em ( conceptions conc]n+ ! univ]sality ( ph5om5a1 :i* expla9s ! appe>ance ( ^! ph5om5a by ! w ( gods4 ,he has n 9 8 m9d !ological speculation z "o usually und]/&s x1 z a rational or sacr$ sci5ce4 ,he does n 9 ! lea/ dream ( a /udy ( reveal$ tru?4 ,he only designat$ by ?is "n an int]pretation ( natural ph5om5a by means ( sup]natural & arbitr>y causes4 ,!ological--t is to say--fictiti\s4 ,else:]e ,comte calls ?is mode ( explanation 8imag9>y0 or 8my?ological40 ,x is 9 ?is s5se t he c\ld ask if ea* "o ( u did n rememb] hav+ be5 9 reg>d to 8 mo/ important notions1 a !ologian 9 8 infancy1 a metaphysician 9 8 y\?1 & a physici/ 9 8 manhood8#ad ,comte does n allude to ! religi\s traditions :i* ! *ild receives f 8 p>5ts1 b inde$ to ! spontane\s t5d5cy :i* causes him 9 ! fir/ place to expla9 natural ph5om5a by wills1 & n by laws4 ,!ology is "h synonym\s ) an?ropomorphism 9 ! conception ( causes4 ,simil>ly ,comte does n take ! ^w 8metaphysics0 9 ! mo/ usual ext5sion ( its mean+4 ,! sci5ce ( ,be+ z su*1 ! sci5ce ( ,sub/ance or ( fir/ ,pr9ciples1 is n "h 9 "q1 at lea/ directly4 ,he only ref]s to a c]ta9 mode ( expla9+ ph5om5a giv5 9 our exp]i5ce4 ,= example1 9 physics1 ! hypo!sis ( an e!r to expla9 optical & electrical ph5om5a is metaphysical4 ,s x is 9 physiology ) ! hypo!sis ( a vital pr9ciple1 or1 9 psy*ology1 ) ! hypo!sis ( a s\l4 8,metaphysical or ab/ract10 says ,comte4 ,at bottom ?is mode ( explanation is no o!r ?an ! prec$+ "o1 b m & m pale & col\rless1 vani%+1 s to speak1 z natural ph5om5a1 bett] obs]v$1 are ref]r$ no long] to caprici\s wills1 b to inv>iable laws4 ,let u !n be c>eful n to give "h to ! words 8metaphysics0 & 8!ology0 _! full mean+4 ,= in/ance1 to conclude f ! law ( ! ?ree ,/ates t ! evolution ( humanity ev] c>ries x fur!r f !ology1 to end 9 a f9al /ate :]e9 religion %\ld h no place is s+ul>ly to misappreh5d ,comte's doctr9e4 ,on ! contr>y ! evolution ( humanity is lead+ x to a /ate :i* w be pre-em95tly religi\s4 ,9 x religion w regulate ! :ole life ( man4 ,comte p]haps w\ld n refuse to def9e man1 z has (t5 be5 done1 z a religi\s animal4 ,! hi/ory ( humanity may be repres5t$1 9 a s5se1 z an evolution :i* proce$s f primitive religion 7feti*ism7 to f9al religion 7positivism74 ,b ! object ( ! law ( ! ?ree ,/ates is n to express ! religi\s evolution ( humanity4 ,x is only conc]n$ ) ! progress ( ! human intellect4 ,x sets =? ! successive philosophies :i* t intellig5ce has be5 oblig$ by turn to adopt 9 ! int]pretation ( natural ph5om5a4 ,x is1 9 a ^w1 ! g5]al law ( ! evolution ( ?\ght4 ,^? :o made a mi/ake ab\t x probably only consid]$ ?is law 9 ! fir/ lesson ( ! ,c\rs1 :]e x is sep>ately pres5t$4 ,b ! error is no long] possible :5 "o ref]s to ! f\r? volume ( ! ,c\rs1 :]e ! law is put 9 its place1 9 social dynamics1 especially 9 ! fifty-eigh? lesson1 9 ! six? volume4 ,x is n1 h[ev]1 )\t reason t ,comte set =? ?is law 9 ! fir/ pages ( 8 ,c\rs de philosophie positive4 ,9 sociology z he conceives x1 ! law ( ! intellectual evolution ( humanity1 t is to say ! law ( ! ?ree ,/ates is ! ess5tial law ( dynamics1 & !re=e ( ! :ole ( social sci5ce4 ,=1 ( all ! social factors ( :i* ! concomitant & jo9t evolution con/itutes ! progress ( humanity1 ! intellectual factor is ! mo/ important4 ,x is ! dom9ant "o1 9 ! s5se t ! o!rs dep5d f> m ^u x ?an x does ^u !m4 ,! hi/ory ( art1 ( in/itutions1 ( morals1 ( law1 ( civilisation 9 g5]al c\ld n be und]/ood )\t ! hi/ory ( intellectual evolution1 t is to say ( sci5ce & ( philosophy1 :]eas ?is "o1 /rictly speak+1 w\ld /ill be intelligible )\t ! o!rs4 ,?is evolution is !re=e ! pr9cipal axis ar\nd :i* ! o!r s]ies ( social ph5om5a are arrang$4 ,?us ! law :i* expresses x is ! mo/ 8fundam5tal10 ! mo/ 8g5]al10 9 ! precise s5se 9 :i* ,comte und]/&s ?is ^w4 ,9 enunciat+ ?is law he decl>es legitimate by anticipation ! exi/5ce ( a social sci5ce4 ,he proves ipso facto n only t x is possible1 b t x already exi/s4 ,h5ce ! em95t position :i* he gives to ! law ( ! ?ree /ates4 ,,ii4 ,! demon/ration ( ?is law pres5ts itself "u two di/9ct =ms4 ,9 ! fir/ place ,comte supports 8 argum5t by hi/ory4 ,?is proves inde$ t e bran* ( our k passes 9 turn ?r\gh ! ?ree /ates1 ) nev] a s+le retrogression4 ,x is true t mu* ( our k has n yet rea*$ ! positive /ate4 ,b at any rate x is e/abli%$ t up to ! pres5t ev5 ^? sci5ces :i* h n yet rea*$ t /ate h all describ$ ! same curve1 already describ$ by ^? t h rea*$ x4 ,hi/orical v]ification w\ld suffice1 if necess>y1 provid$ x 7 complete4 ,comte is n satisfi$ ) x4 ,he claims moreov] to d$uce ! law ( ! ?ree /ates f ! nature ( man4 ,he w ?us give a direct demon/ration ( x4 ,h[ev] useful hi/ory may appe> to him z an in/rum5t ( pro(1 he /ill wi%es to r5d] its v]dict intelligible4 ,to rea* ?is end he has rec\rse to psy*ology4 8,we ought10 he says1 8c>efully to *>act]ise ! g5]al motives1 drawn f an exact k ( human nature1 :i* mu/ h r5d]$ p>tly inevitable1 p>tly indisp5sable1 ! necess>y succession ( social ph5om5a1 consid]$ directly ) respect to ! intellectual developm5t :i* dom9ates ess5tially _! *ief advance40#ae ,9 ! fir/ place1 ! human m9d c\ld only beg9 to int]pret nature by a philosophy ( ! !ological type4 ,= x is ! only "o :i* is spontane\sly produc$1 ! only "o :i* does n presuppose ano!r4 ,man at fir/ conceives all activity on ! same plan z 8 own4 ,9 ord] to und]/& ph5om5a1 he lik5s !m to 8 own actions1 ^: mode ( production he ?9ks he appreh5ds1 because he has ! feel+s ( 8 own ef=ts & ! consci\sness ( 8 own volitions4 ,?is an?ropomorphic explanation comes s naturally to u t we are always ready to give way to x4 ,ev5 to-day1 if we =get positive discipl9e = a mom5t1 if we v5ture to ask = ! mode ( production ( "s ph5om5on1 we imm$iately dimly imag9e an activity m or less l our own4 ,& among ! metaphysicians :o pr(ess to give an idea ( ,god1 ! mo/ consi/5t1 accord+ to ,comte1 are ^? :o make a p]son ( ,him4 ,! spontaneity :i* *>act]ises ! !ological mode ( ?\ght has be5 extremely useful4 ,)\t x1 we d n see h[ man's intellig5ce c\ld h begun to unfold itself4 ,=1 9 ord] to =m a sci5tific !ory1 h[ev] mode/ & fragm5t>y1 ( natural ph5om5a1 ! m9d ne$s previ\s obs]vations1 :ile1 on ! o!r h&1 9 default ( a !ory1 or at any rate ( a preexi/+ hypo!sis1 no sci5tific obs]vation is possible4 ,absolute empiricism1 says ,comte1 is b>r51 & ev51 /rictly speak+1 inconceivable4 ,simple collections ( facts1 h[ev] num]\s we may suppose !m to be1 d n possess by !mselves any sci5tific significance4 ,su*1 = in/ance1 w\ld be ! case 9 ! meteorological facts1 mak+ int]m9able li/s1 & fill+ volumes4 ,!y w\ld only become obs]vations if 9 collect+ !m ! m9d tri$ to put ^u !m "s int]pretation1 h[ev] vague or precise1 real or *im]ical4 ,caught betwe5 ! two equally imp]ative necessities ( obs]v+ 9 ! fir/ place 9 ord] to rea* 8suitable conceptions01 & ( conceiv+ at ! same "t "s !ory 9 ord] to make coh]5t obs]vations1 ! human m9d saves itself by ! !ological mode ( ?\ght4 ,= x has no ne$ ( previ\s obs]vations to imag9e ev]y:]e 9 nature activities simil> to its own4 ,once ?is hypo!sis has aris51 obs]vation comes into play1 fir/ to confirm x1 b soon to oppose x4 ,f t mom5t ! impulse has be5 giv54 ,! evolution ( ! sci5ces & ( philosophy w be cont9u$ ?r\gh doctr9es :i* w succe$ ea* o!r 9 a necess>y ord]4 ,9 ! same way1 f ! moral po9t ( view1 a !ological philosophy alone c\ld at fir/ inspire weak & ignorant humanity ) suffici5t c\rage & confid5ce to %ake (f its primitive torpor4 ,to-day1 if man kn[s t ph5om5a are subject to inv>iable laws1 he also kn[s t a k ( ^! laws gives him a c]ta9 control ov] nature4 ,b 9 ! days :5 man c\ld n =esee ! p[] ( sci5ce1 ! idea t ph5om5a obey$ necess>y laws w\ld h fill$ him ) despair4 ,x w\ld probably h p>alys$ him = all ex]tion4 ,! !ological mode ( ?\ght 0 f> m enc\rag+ s9ce ! ph5om5a are imag9$ to be arbitr>ily modifiable4 ,any?+ may happ54 ,no?+ is impossible1 nei!r is any?+ necess>y4 ,! w ( ! gods suffices = a ?+ to happ5 or n to happ54 ,directly1 man has no p[] ov] nature2 indirectly he c d ev]y?+1 provid$ only t he c propitiate ! div9ities ^: w is law4 ,9 ?is way1 x is at ! mom5t :5 man's impot5ce is greate/1 t 8 confid5ce 9 8 own p[] is ! /ronge/4 ,f9ally1 f a social po9t ( view1 !ological philosophy 0 indisp5sable = human society to subsi/ & to be develop$4 ,= ?is society does n m]ely imply sympa?y ( feel+ & union ( int]e/s among its memb]s1 b fir/ & above all unanim\s adhesion to c]ta9 beliefs4 ,)\t a 8c]ta9 sy/em ( common prelim9>y op9ions0 !re c be no human society4 ,b1 on ! o!r h&1 h[ c we conceive ! appe>ance ( su* a sy/em1 if social life is n organis$8 ,"h is a new vici\s circle1 out ( :i* ! !ological philosophy alone c release u4 ,x con/itutes at fir/ sight a totality ( common beliefs4 ,all ! memb]s ( ! society def5d !m all ! m en]getically1 because ) !m are b\nd up _! hopes & _! fe>s1 = ?is _w1 & = ! next1 if !y already believe 9 x4 ,at ! same "t1 ?is !ological philosophy det]m9es ! =mation1 9 society1 ( a special class1 consecrat$ to speculative activity4 ,:at an imm5se progress ?is division betwe5 practice & !ory mu/ h be51 h[ev] r\ghly outl9$6 ,su* a division 0 e/abli%$ z soon z a sac]dotal class began to be di/+ui%$ f ! re/ ( ! social body4 ,& h[ sl[ ?is progress mu/ h be51 :5 we see ev5 to-day h[ h>d x is = m5 to accept any innovation :i* does n seem to c>ry ) x any imm$iate practical advantage6 ,! sac]dotal class1 inve/$1 by ! nature ( its functions ) an au?ority :i* 0 preci\s = social progress1 at ! same "t enjoy$ t leisure :i* is indisp5sable = !oretical rese>*4 8,)\t ! spontane\s e/abli%m5t ( su* a class10 says ,comte1 8all our activity1 !nce=? exclusively practical1 w\ld h conf9$ itself to ! improvem5t1 v soon *eck$1 ( "s processes hav+ ref]5ce to milit>y or indu/rial life40#af ,! subsequ5t division ( lab\r dep5d$ ^u ?is initial /ep4 ,our savants1 our philosoph]s1 our eng9e]s desc5d f ! fir/ prie/s1 sorc]]s & ra9 conjurors4 ,?us1 giv5 ! nature ( ,man1 ! !ological philosophy 0 b\nd to appe> spontane\sly4 ,?is appe>ance 0 at ! same "t 8inevitable & indisp5sable10 9 a ^w1 necess>y4 ,imm$iately beg9s :at "o might call ! dialectics ( ! intellectual hi/ory ( humanity4 ,! !ological philosophy has made possible ! obs]vation ( ph5om5a4 ,9 its turn1 ?is obs]vation introduces ! idea ( inv>iable laws into ! m9d1 :]eby ! !ological philosophy beg9s to be compromis$4 ,! "t comes :5 x appe>s antiquat$ & p]nici\s & reason t5ds to take ! place ( ! imag9ation 9 ! int]pretation ( nature4 ,! m evolution advances1 ! m m>k$ becomes ! pref]5ce ( ! human m9d = ! positive mode ( ?\ght1 &1 9 ! sev]al ord]s ( ! sci5ces1 aft] a m or less prolong$ conflict1 ?is latt] ends by obta9+ ! asc5dancy4 ,z a matt] ( fact1 ! !ological /age ( our k1 ev5 :5 x ex]cises its greate/ dom9ion1 t is to say1 at ! "t ne>e/ to its orig91 already conta9s ! g]ms ( its own decomposition4 ,x is nev] p]fectly homog5e\s4 ,!re are v common ph5om5a ^: regul>ity man has nev] fail$ to recognize1 & :i* he has nev] conceiv$ z dep5d+ ^u arbitr>y wills4 ,comte likes to quote a passage f ,adam ,smi?1 :]e t philosoph] rem>ks t 9 no "t & 9 no c\ntry d we f9d a god ( ,weight4 ,moreov]1 s9ce ! exi/5ce ( society1 man mu/ h _h "s idea ( psy*ological laws s9ce he 0 oblig$ to regulate 8 conduct accord+ to ! way 9 :i* 8 fell[s ?\ght & act$4 ,consequ5tly 8! elem5t>y g]m ( positive philosophy is q z primitive1 at bottom1 z t ( !ological philosophy1 al?\gh x c\ld only be develop$ v mu* lat]40#ag ,n be+ univ]sal1 !ological philosophy c\ld only be provisional4 ,! philosophy1 t is to say1 ! me?od ( int]pretation ( natural ph5om5a1 w alone be f9al1 :i* w be applicable to all ph5om5a )\t exception1 f ! mo/ simple to ! mo/ complicat$4 ,= ?is philosophy alone w realise ! unity dem&$ by ! und]/&+4 ,! passage f !ological to positive philosophy is nev] sudd5ly accompli%$4 ,_! opposition is too %>ply def9$1 & our intellig5ce does n l5d itself to su* an abrupt *ange4 ,! metaphysical /ate s]ves z a transition4 ,?is /ate is di/+ui%$ f ! two o!rs1 9 t x has no pr9ciple prop] :i* def9es x4 ,!ological philosophy is suffici5t to itself4 ,x =ms a h>moni\s :ole1 at lea/ s long z ! g]m ( positiv5ess :i* x conta9s has n yet reveal$ its activity4 ,9 ! same way1 ! positive /ate w be p]fectly homog5e\s4 ,on ! contr>y1 ! metaphysical /ate is only describ$ by a mixture ( ! two o!rs4 8,! metaphysical conceptions10 wrote ,comte 9 #ahbe1 8proce$ at ! same "t f !ology & physics1 or r are only ! =m] modifi$ by ! latt]40#ah ,"u ev] v>y+ & progressively att5uat$ =ms1 metaphysics procure ! indisp5sable conciliation 9 ord] t ! !ological & positive philosophies may coexi/ 9 m5's m9ds1 s long z ! latt] is n p]fectly work$ out4 ,"u cov] ( metaphysical hypo!ses1 ! sci5tific me?od has be5 able to pu% its conque/s1 )\t greatly al>m+ ! def5d]s ( !ological philosophy4 ,?us metaphysical speculation has a v active critical quality4 ,x has n slightly contribut$ to ! decomposition ( ! anci5t sy/em ( beliefs4 ,9 ?is s5se1 ,comte reg>ds ! ,fr5* philosoph]s ( ! ,,xviii4 c5tury1 = ! mo/ "p1 z excell5t repres5tatives ( ! metaphysical _s4 ,nev]!less1 if we mu/ ref] ?is int]m$iate /age to "o ( ! two extremes1 ,comte does n hesitate to approximate x to ! !ological /age4 ,z a matt] ( fact1 metaphysical philosophy sub/itutes entities to w1 & ,nature to ! ,creator1 b ) a v analog\s function4 ,x supplies1 at bottom1 ! same 8explanation0 ( ! real1 al?\gh weak5$ by a /rong] & /rong] s5se ( ! ne$ ( natural laws4 ,?is equivocal me?od pres]ves !ology1 8:ile de/roy+ its pr9cipal m5tal consi/5cy40 ,x d5ies ! consequ5ces 9 ! "n ( ! pr9ciples4 ,moreov]1 x (f]s no gu>antee aga9/ an (f5sive return ( !ological conceptions1 s long z !y h n be5 replac$ by positive notions4 ,9 ! f9al conflict betwe5 ! !ological _s1 & ! positive _s1 ! metaphysicians w probably be se51 ) ! ,dei/s1 involv$ 9 a retrograde conc5tration40#ai 8,positive philosophy10 says ,comte1 8has nei!r hi/orical nor dogmatic solid>ity ) ?is negative philosophy1 & c only contemplate x z a f9al prep>atory trans=mation ( !ological philosophy40#bj ,?us ! metaphysical /age is nev] o!r ?an an un/able compromise4 ,x only la/s on condition t x *anges cont9ually4 ,9 default ( a pr9ciple ( its own1 metaphysical philosophy is purely critical 9 "*4 ,z a fact1 !re are b two philosophies1 t is to say two me?ods1 two organic modes ( ?\ght4 ,only !ological philosophy & positive philosophy all[ ! m9d to con/ruct a logical & h>moni\s sy/em ( ideas1 ! basis ( a morality & ( a religion4 ,! !ological _s is 8ideal 9 its advance1 absolute 9 its conception1 arbitr>y 9 its application40 ,! positive _s sub/itutes ! me?od ( obs]vation to t ( imag9ation1 relative notions to absolute notions4 ,x does n flatt] itself ) unlimit$ dom9ion ov] ! ph5om5a ( nature2 x kn[s t its p[] is measur$ by its k4 ,! intellectual hi/ory ( humanity %[s by :at /ages x has pass$ f ! =m] mode ( ?\ght to ! latt]4 ,,iii4 ,comte reg>ds ! law ( ! ?ree /ages z demon/rat$4 8,sev5te5 ye>s ( cont9u\s m$itation on ?is great subject10 he writes 9 #ahci1 8discuss$ "u all its aspects1 & subject$ to all possible te/s1 au?orise me to affirm be=eh&1 )\t ! slighte/ sci5tific hesitation1 t we %all always see confirm$ ?is hi/orical proposition1 :i* n[ seems to me z fully demon/rat$ z any ( ! g5]al facts actually admitt$ 9 ! o!r p>ts ( natural philosophy40#ba ,x c\ld only be d\bt$ if we f\nd any bran* ( our k :i* _h gone back f ! metaphysical to ! !ological /ate1 or f ! positive /ate to ei!r ( ! two prec$+ /ates4 ,b ?is case has nev] pres5t$ itself4 ,! !oretical demon/ration ( ! law has e/abli%$ t x c\ld n pres5t itself4 ,inde$ ?is demon/ration has %[n t ! successive advance ?r\gh ! ?ree /ages1 9 inv>iable ord]1 0 ! necess>y =m ( progress ( ! human m9d 9 ! k ( ph5om5a4 ,x is f\nd$ ^u ! nature ( ! m9d4 ,9 ,comte's ?\ght1 ! law ( ! ?ree /ates c\ld !re=e h be5 equally call$ psy*ological or hi/orical4 ,b we are n "h conc]n$ ) introspective ,psy*ology1 :i* uses self-consci\sness z a means ( inve/igation4 ,comte does n recognize any sci5tific value 9 ?is me?od4#bb ,he ev5 d5ies its possibility4 ,moreov] ! obs]vation ( a subject by himself1 7 x possible1 w\ld be ( no help 9 ! pres5t case4 ,= x w\ld only reveal to him ! pres5t /ate ( 8 individual intellect1 & n ! law ( ! evolution ( ! human m9d4 ,= ?is law to become manife/1 we mu/ consid] n ! individual1 b ! species4 ,giv+ up a fruitless ef=t at self-contemplation 9 its activity1 ! intellect mu/ grasp ! law ( its successive phases 9 ! progress ( :at x has produc$4 ,! philosophical hi/ory ( our beliefs1 ( our conceptions1 & ( our sy/ems3 su* is ! consci\sness :i* ! human intellect c h ( itself4 ,!re only1 ! philosoph] sees ! faculties ( :i* ?is intellect conta9$ ! g]m com+ into play by turns1 to rea* a 8durable h>mony40 ,!n1 once discov]$1 ! law ( ! ?ree ,/ates helps u to und]/& ! intellectual evolution ( ea* individual1 & ! /udy ( ! individual !n furni%es u ) a supplem5t>y v]ification ( ! law4 ,b1 by itself1 ?is /udy ( ! individual c\ld n h e/abli%$ x4 ,:atev] utility ,i may h (t5 d]iv$ f ! consid]ation ( ! individual1 says ,comte1 x is evid5tly to ! direct /udy ( ! species t ,i ow$1 n only ! fundam5tal ?\ght 9 my !ory1 b aft]w>ds its specific developm5t4 ,! law ( ! ?ree ,/ates is !n ! g5]al =mula ( ! progress ( ! human intellect1 consid]$ n 9 an individual subject1 b 9 ! univ]sal subject1 :i* is humanity4 ,x is inde$ also ! 8univ]sal subject0 t ,kant has /udi$ 9 8 ,critic ( ,pure ,reason4 ,b ,kant's me?od is altoge!r ab/ract & metaphysical1 ! univ]sal subject ( :i* he seeks ! laws is a human m9d 89 itself10 consid]$ 9 its ess5ce4 ,comte1 on ! contr>y1 repres5ts ! univ]sal subject z a concrete unity1 :i* realiz$ itself 9 "t4 ,= him1 ! /udy ( ! m5tal functions *>act]i/ic ( man only becomes positive :5 x is c>ri$ out f an hi/orical & sociological po9t ( view4 ,t is :y ! discov]y ( ! law ( ! ?ree ,/ates is an ev5t ( capital importance4 ,x inaugurates ! positive sci5ce ( humanity1 :i* 0 an indisp5sable condition = positive philosophy to be e/abli%$4 ,x m>ks ! "t :51 all ph5om5a be+ h5ce=? /udi$ aft] ! same me?od1 ! 8p]fect logical coh]5ce0 is def9itely assur$4 ,?is law ( social dynamics is ! corn]-/one ( ! :ole positive sy/em4 ,,footnotes3 #aj ,c\rs de philosophie positive1 ,i1 #ai 7#e;e edition1 ,p>is1 #ahib74 #aa ,c\rs1 ,,vi1 #ghf4 #ab ,pol4 pos4 ,,iv1 app5dice1 p4 #gg4 #ac ,c\rs1 ,i4 #c4 #ad ,c\rs1 ,i4 #f4 #ae ,c\rs ,,iv1 #ebf4 #af ,c\rs ,,iv1 #edh4 #ag ,c\rs1 ,,iv1 #eed-e4 #ah ,pol4 pos41 ,,iv4 ,app5dix1 p4 #add4 #ai ,correspond5ce de ,h4 ,comte avec ,john ,/u>t ,mill4 ,lettre du #e avril #ahdb1 p4 #ea4 #bj ,c\rs1 ,v4 #egc-e4 #ba ,c\rs1 ,,iv1 #ebc4 #bb ,cp4 infra1 book ,,ii1 *ap4 ,v1 p4 ,,*apt] ,,iii ,,! ,,classification ,,( ,,! ,,sci5ces ,accord+ to ! law ( ! ?ree ,/ates1 all our conceptions 9 ! diff]5t ord]s ( k1 beg9 by be+ !ological1 pass ?r\gh ! metaphysical transition1 & end by becom+ positive4 ,if ?is evolution 7 t]m9at$ at ! pres5t$ "t1 ! philosophy :i* ,comte wi%es to f\nd w\ld be ipso facto e/abli%$4 ,b we are f> f su* a /ate ( ?+s4 ,on ! contr>y1 ! ?ree modes ( ?\ght !ological1 metaphysical1 & positive1 coexi/1 /ill to-day1 ev5 9 ! mo/ cultivat$ m9ds4 ,9 a diff]5t measure1 all lack ! 8logical coh]5ce40 ,ev5 9 ^? sci5ces :]e ! positive me?od has be5 f9ally & = a long "t e/abli%$1 9 physics1 & 9 *emi/ry1 = in/ance1 we obs]ve und\bt$ traces ( ! metaphysical _s4 ,to a /ill great] degree ?is _s is manife/$ 9 :at are call$ ! moral & social sci5ces4 ,nev]!less1 ?is 8incoh]5ce0 _c la/4 ,n[ t ! positive _s has assum$ full consci\sness ( itself1 x is possible to proce$ ) a sy/ematic purification1 :i* w dis5tangle x f ! !ological & metaphysical _s4 ,b is n ?is critical review ( ! :ole ( human k an ent]prise above ! p[]s ( a man8--,happily positive philosophy itself furni%es a means ( light5+ ! task4 ,x e/abli%es an ord] :i* all[s u to det]m9e )\t too mu* tr\ble to :at degree ( positiv5ess ! conception ( a giv5 category ( ph5om5a has rea*$ up to ! pres5t "t4 ,comte calls ?is ord] ! classification1 or1 m precisely ! 8positive hi]>*y0 ( ! fundam5tal sci5ces4 ,x is 8! plan :i* he w foll[ 9 ! exposition ( positive philosophy40#bc ,?is plan is n a simple artifice de/9$ to make ! entirety ( ! doctr9e cle>]1 or its exposition easi]4 ,x is n ext]nal to ! "w4 ,x is born f ! v _s ( positive philosophy2 x expresses ! _s ( t philosophy 9 a new =m4 ,x is ! natural complem5t ( ! law ( ! ?ree ,/ates4 ,comte puts x 9 pla9 words3 8,! diff]5t bran*es ( our k h n be5 able ) equal rapidity to pass ?r\gh ! ?ree great phases 9 _! developm5t1 nor consequ5tly to rea* simultane\sly ! positive /ate4 ,!re exi/s1 9 ?is respect1 an inv>iable & necess>y ord]1 :i* our diff]5t k9ds ( conceptions h foll[$ & h be5 oblig$ to foll[ 9 _! progress1 & ( :i* ! exact consid]ation is ! indisp5sable complem5t to ! fundam5tal law previ\sly en\nc$40#bd ,comte did n1 l 8 contempor>y ,ampre1 set himself ! logical problem ( ! classification ( ! sci5ces 9 _! entirety4 ,he did n seek accord+ to :at pr9ciple we c\ld arrange !m all 9 an ord] :]e ! fact ( _! respective subord9ation w\ld be ma9ta9$4 ,he ev5 d\bts h[ f> su* a pr9ciple exi/s1 & he is s f> f ?9k+ ( e/abli%+ a complete classification ( ! sci5ces1 t he beg9s by leav+ out ! great] numb] ( !m4 ,he fir/ sets aside all =ms ( human k :i* ref] to art1 t is to say all ! appli$ sci5ces1 practical & te*nical4 ,simil>ly he sets aside all ! concrete sci5ces1 su* z zoology1 m9]alogy1 geography1 etc4 ,he only places )9 8 classification ! !oretical & ab/ract sci5ces1 t is to say ^? :i* h no o!r object b ! k ( laws1 & :i* /udy ph5om5a1 exclusive ( ! concrete be+s 9 :i* ^! ph5om5a pres5t !mselves4 ,comte calls !m 8fundam5tal0 because ! o!r sci5ces suppose _! exi/5ce1 :]eas ! ab/ract sci5ces d n suppose ! exi/5ce ( ! o!rs be=e !m4 ,^! sci5ces are ! only ones ^: consid]ation is ( consequ5ce to ! end :i* ,comte has 9 view4 ,= :y does he ne$ a classification ( ! sci5ces8 ,x is 9 ord] to /udy ! asc5t ( ! positive _s ?r\gh ! successive ord]s ( ph5om5a4 ,= ?is1 he has no occasion to consid] ! appli$ or concrete sci5ces1 :i* receive _! pr9ciples f ! !oretical & ab/ract sci5ces4 ,x suffices = him to be conc]n$ ) ^!4 ,x is 9 ! me?ods & ! progress ( ^! sci5ces t ! *>act]i/ic ef=ts ( ! human m9d h be5 manife/$2 & x is !re=e "h t we c grasp ! laws ( its evolution4 ,9 ord] to classify ! fundam5tal sci5ces1 ,comte w con=m to ! pr9ciples ( ! positive me?od4 ,he w be guid$ by ! rational classifications ( :i* ! model is to be f\nd 9 ! natural sci5ces4 ,! classification mu/ spr+ f ! v /udy ( ! objects :i* are to be classifi$1 & mu/ be det]m9$ by ! real aff9ities & ! s]ies ( connect$ l9ks :i* !y pres5t1 9 su* a way t ?is classification may itself be ! expression ( ! mo/ g5]al tru?1 made manife/ by ! se>*+ comp>ison ( ! objects :i* x embraces4 ,comte w n !re=e /op to consid] ! classifications :i* h prec$$ 8 own4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 :5 !y appe>$1 ! rational me?od ( classification 0 n e/abli%$4 ,fur!r1 h[ c\ld anyone h unit$ ! :ole ( ! sci5ces into an encyclopdic conception1 :5 "s _h already rea*$ ! positive /ate1 :ile o!rs rema9$ 9 ! !ological or metaphysical /ates8 ,h[ c\ld anyone rationally arrange het]og5\s conceptions 9 a s+le sy/em8 ,^? premature attempts 7 doom$ to failure4 ,9 ord] t ! und]tak+ might succe$1 x 0 necess>y t all our conceptions1 relat+ to ! v>i\s ord]s ( ph5om5a %\ld h rea*$ ! positive =m4 ,"h aga91 ! creation ( sociology has be5 ! decisive ev5t1 = x has all[$ ! s]ies ( fundam5tal sci5ces to be made complete4 ,! discov]y ( ! law ( ! ?ree ,/ates has f\nd$ sociology1 & at ! same "t x has accompli%$ ! homog5eity ( human k4 ,9 its "t1 ?is homog5eity r5d]s possible ! rational classification ( ! sci5ces4 ,,ii4 ,h5ce=?1 ! fundam5tal sci5ces are all conceiv$ z equally positive4 ,!y h all giv5 up ! pursuit ( ! absolute = ! /udy ( ! relative1 & ! se>* aft] causes = ! k ( laws4 ,all n[ proce$ by means ( ! same g5]al me?ods & _! diff]5ces c !re=e only arise f _! object1 t is to say f ! nature ( ! ph5om5a :i* are /udi$4 ,consequ5tly _! relations ( mutual dep5d5ce w solely result f ! relations ( ^! ph5om5a4 ,n[1 obs]vation %[s u t ^! ph5om5a =m !mselves into a c]ta9 numb] ( natural categories1 su* t ! rational /udy ( ea* category presupposes a k ( ! laws ( ! prec$+ category1 & t a k ( ?is "o is 9 turn presuppos$ = und]/&+ ! "o t foll[s4 ,?is ord] is det]m9$ by ! degree ( g5]ality ( ! ph5om5a1 f :i* _! successive dep5d5ce ^u ea* o!r results1 & z a consequ5ce ! great] or less] simplicity ( ea* sci5ce results f x also4 ,^u ?is pr9ciple1 ! encyclopdic ladd] ( ! fundam5tal sci5ces is easily con/ruct$4 ,aft] ! ma!matics1 9 an ord] ( dim9i%+ g5]ality & ( gr[+ complexity1 come a/ronomy1 physics1 *emi/ry1 physiology or biology1 social physics or sociology4 ,! fir/ sci5ce consid]s ! mo/ g5]al1 ! mo/ simple1 ! mo/ ab/ract ph5om5a1 & ^? fur!/ remov$ f humanity4 ,!y influ5ce all ! o!rs1 )\t be+ influ5c$ by !m4 ,! ph5om5a consid]$ by ! la/ are ! mo/ p>ticul>1 ! mo/ complicat$1 ! mo/ concrete1 & ! mo/ directly int]e/+ = man2 !y dep5d m or less ^u all ! prec$+ ones4 8,betwe5 ^! two extremes1 ! degrees ( specialisation1 ( complication1 & ( individualisation1 are 9 an ev]-gr[+ quantity40 ,?is classification is confirm$1 9 fact1 by ! g5]al usage ( le>n$ m54 ,x reproduces ! hi/oric ord] ( ! developm5t ( ! sci5ces4 ,?us1 = a long "t1 ma!matics 0 ! only sci5ce ( a positive type4 ,on ! o!r h&1 social sci5ce has be5 ! la/ to rea* ?is po9t4 ,nev]!less1 ,comte does n mean to say t ! fundam5tal sci5ces came into exi/5ce "o aft] ! o!r1 nor t1 = e "o ( !m1 ea* p]iod is suffici5tly expla9$ by ! p]iod imm$iately prec$+ x4 ,8 ?\ght is v diff]5t4 ,on ! contr>y1 he repres5ts ! developm5t ( ! sev]al sci5ces z simultane\s4 ,!y act & react "o ^u ano!r 9 a ?\s& ways4 ,(t5 "s progress 9 a sci5ce is ! direct effect ( a discov]y made 9 an art :i* has app>5tly no aff9ities ) x4 ,su* is1 to quote an example :i* ,comte c\ld n 9 ! lea/ h =ese51 ! progress ( a/ronomical obs]vations due to photography4 ,9 fact1 ! hi/ory ( a sci5ce dur+ a giv5 p]iod is closely alli$ to t ( ! o!r sci5ces & arts dur+ ! same "t1 or r1 to be m explicit1 to ! g5]al hi/ory ( civilisation4 ,b _! respective transitions to ! positive /ate is accompli%$ 9 ! ord] set =? 9 ! classification4 ,= individually !y c\ld n rea* ?is /ate1 if ! fundam5tal sci5ce imm$iately prec$+ _h n atta9$ to x be=e !m4 8,x is 9 ?is ord] t ! progress1 al?\gh simultane\s1 mu/ h tak5 place40#be ,,iii4 ,mr4 ,h]b]t ,sp5c] has made sev]al objections to ,augu/e ,comte's classification ( ! sci5ces2 ,littr has l5g?ily refut$ !m4 ,x is n 9 our design to reop5 ?is discussion4 ,b x results f ! prec$+ explanations t ! great] numb] ( ,mr4 ,sp5c]'s criticisms miss ! m>k1 p]haps because he has n read ,comte prop]ly4 ,on 8 own admission1 he only kn[s ! two fir/ lessons 9 ! ,c\rs de philosophie positive 9 ! text1 fur!r ! inorganic ,physics & ! fir/ *apt] ( ! ,biology 9 ,miss ,m>t9eau's cond5sation1 & f9ally ! rema9d] 9 ,lewes's summ+ up 9 8 ,hi/ory ( ,philosophy4#bf ,if ,mr4 ,sp5c] _h be5 able to obta9 a k ( ! ,c\rs de philosophie positive 9 its entirety1 & especially ( ! ?ree la/ lessons1 or at lea/ ( ! ,disc\rs sur l',esprit positif or ( ! ,disc\rs sur l'ensemble du positivisme he w\ld probably h appreciat$ diff]5tly ! positive classification ( ! sci5ces4 ,8 own classification1 9 :i* he includes ! concrete & concrete-ab/ract sci5ces1 is n really oppos$ to t ( ,augu/e ,comte :o only wi%$ to classify ! fundam5tal ab/ract sci5ces4 ,comte nev] s\ght to d :at ,mr4 ,sp5c] reproa*es him ) n hav+ done4 ,among ,mr4 ,sp5c]'s objections1 !re is "o :i*1 be>+ ^u ! v conception ( ! classification ( ! sci5ces1 %[s v cle>ly ! misund]/&+ :i* we are po9t+ out4 ,mr4 ,sp5c] insi/s ^u ! 8an?ropoc5tric0 "* ( ,comte's classification1 :i* is inde$ rem>kable2 & he is surpris$ at :at appe>s to him to be a gl>+ contradiction4 ,is n ! conception ( ?+s f man's po9t ( view1 "o ( ! ess5tial =ms ( ! !ological mode ( ?\ght1 accord+ to ,comte himself8 ,does n positive philosophy tea* t man mu/ n consid] himself z a sort ( 8imp]ium 9 imp]io10 b z a be+ subord9ate to ! :ole ( nature8 ,if !re=e we mu/ sub/itute ! objective to ! subjective po9t ( view 9 :i* man at fir/ spontane\sly places himself1 h[ c ! classification ( ! sci5ces be at ! same "t 8an?ropoc5tric0 & positive8 ,?is objection w\ld p]haps be a /rong "o aga9/ positive philosophy z ,littr und]/ood x4 ,aga9/ ,augu/e ,comte x has no =ce1 = he accepts x4 ,he admits t 8 classification pres5ts ^! two *>act]s at ! same "t1 & he does n ?9k t 9 s do+ he is contradict+ himself4 ,we mu/ only di/+ui% ) him two successive & diff]5t p]iods4 ,s long z positive philosophy is 9 process ( =mation1 7t is to say s long z ! positive _s rema9s special7 x is q true t x is ori5tat$ f ! objective po9t ( view1 9 o!r words1 t x goes f ! _w to man4 ,dur+ ?is p]iod1 x is inde$ oppos$ to ! nave belief :i* makes man ! c5tre & ! end ( ! univ]se4 ,b1 :5 f special ! positive _s has become univ]sal1 :5 x has ris5 f sci5ce to philosophy1 :5 sociology is at l5g? f\nd$1 & :5 ! und]/&+ realises1 f ! positive po9t ( view ! logical unity :i* is indisp5sable to x1 ?is unity is only complet$ :51 9 its turn1 x takes man = its c5tre4 ,consid]$ z an exact reproduction ( ! real _w1 says ,comte1 our sci5ce is n capable ( be+ completely sy/ematis$2 & 9 ?is s5se we mu/ n seek = any unity save t ( me?od1 aspir+ only to homog5eity & to ! conv]g5ce ( ! diff]5t doctr9es4 ,x is o!rwise 9 reg>d to ! inn] s\rce ( human !ories contemplat$ z ! results ( our individual & collective m5tal evolution4 8,?us ref]r$1 n to ! univ]se1 b to man1 or r to humanity1 our real k t5ds on ! contr>y t[>ds an entire sy/ematization4 ,we mu/ !n conceive a s+le sci5ce1 ! human sci5ce1 m precisely social1 ( :i* our exi/5ce con/itutes at once ! pr9ciple & ! end4 ,into ?is human sci5ce ! rational /udy ( ! ext]nal _w becomes fus$1 at once z a necess>y elem5t & a fundam5tal preamble40#bg ,comte w\ld !re=e n h repudiat$1 = 8 classification ( ! sci5ces1 ! qualification ( 8an?ropoc5tric0 on condition t x 7 und]/ood4 ,x is no long] ! spontane\s subjectivism f :i* ! !ological philosophy />ts2 x is ! consci\s subjectivism to :i* ! positive philosophy atta9s4 ,x has ! m]it ( unit+ 9 itself ! two me?ods call$ objective & subjective4 ,! =m] has be5 9 ! asc5dant dur+ ! long evolution ( ! sci5ces1 :i* 7 by degrees & successively rea*+ ! positive /ate4 ,! latt] all[s u to conc5trate ! aim ( ! di/9ct sci5ces ?us con/itut$ into a supreme sci5ce1 :i* subord9ates all ! o!rs to itself1 )\t absorb+ !m4 ,,iv4 ,! classification ( ! sci5ces is1 at ! same "t1 a plan = ! sett+ =? ( ! positive philosophy1 & a complem5t ( ! law ( ! ?ree ,/ates4 ,b1 :ile ?is law expresses ! progress ( ! human intellect 9 ! con/itution ( sci5ce & philosophy1 ! classification supposes t sci5ce & philosophy are already con/itut$4 ,x expresses _! ord]1 & enunciates f ! /atic po9t ( view :at ! law =mulates f ! dynamic po9t ( view4 ,x %[s ! relations ( ! v>i\s elem5ts ( philosophy among !mselves1 & to ! :ole4 ,s long z ?is idea ( ! :ole 0 n def9$1 t is to say1 s long z positive sci5ce rema9$ special1 ^! relations c\ld n be rationally e/abli%$4 ,b1 once sociology 0 creat$1 & ) x positive philosophy1 x became possible to embrace ! :ole ( ! fundam5tal sci5ces 9 a s+le conception4 ,=1 f t "t1 !y c be repres5t$ z be+ v>i\s aspects ( ! developm5t ( ! human intellect4 ,truly1 ! object ( sci5ce is s+le1 & ! divisions :i* are introduc$ into x = our conv5i5ce1 )\t be+ arbitr>y1 are artificial4 ,all ! bran*es ( our k1 t is to say all ! fundam5tal sci5ces1 mu/ be consid]$ z issu+ f a s+le trunk4 ,n t ^! sci5ces c ev] be r$uc$ "o to ano!r4 ,x suffices t !y be homog5e\s1 & _! homog5eity results f _! subjection to ! same me?od2 fur!r1 f _! t5d5cy t[>ds ! same end1 & f9ally1 f _! subord9ation to ! same law ( progress4 ,9 respect to ! la/ & highe/ ( ^! sci5ces1 ! o!rs 8mu/ only be f9ally reg>d$ z indisp5sable prelim9>ies 9 a progressive ord]40#bh ,?us ! ladd] ( ! fundam5tal sci5ces repres5ts1 9 ,comte's m9d1 ! me?odical asc5t ( ! positive _s t[>ds univ]sality & unity4 ,x is a hi]>*y1 a scala intellectus1 accord+ to ,bacon's expression4 ,x includes ! :ole ( ! 8philosophia prima0 also =e%ad[$ by ,bacon & va9ly s\ght aft] by philosoph]s4 ,! memory ( ,bacon does n prev5t ! prepond]at+ influ5ce 9 ?is conception ( ,comte f be+ t ( ,desc>tes4 ,comte is f> f ignor+ x4 ,he calls himself ! cont9uator & by a dreadful b>b>ism1 ! complet] ( ,desc>tes4#bi ,und\bt$ly ,desc>tes _h n l him conceiv$ ! s]ies ( ! fundam5tal sci5ces4 ,aft] hav+ appli$ a positive me?od to ! /udy ( inorganic nature1 & ev5 ( liv+ nature1 = ! re/ he _h rev]t$ to a metaphysical me?od4 ,b ?is 8c>tesian compromise0 c\ld only be provisional4 ,none ! less to ,desc>tes belongs ! m]it ( hav+ def9itely acquir$ sev]al ord]s ( ph5om5a = ! positive _s1 & ( affirm+ ! unity ( sci5ce at ! same "t z ! unity ( me?od4 ,he 0 unable himself to realise ?is tw(old unity1 = its "t _h n come1 & ! necess>y conditions _h n yet be5 br\ght toge!r4 ,moreov] 9 ! c>tesian idea ( sci5ce metaphysical elem5ts subsi/1 & ,desc>tes wrongly believ$ t ! univ]sal me?od 0 to be obta9$ by a trans=mation ( ! ma!matical me?od4 ,comte takes up ! lead+ ideas ( ,desc>tes aga91 &1 at ! same "t1 he corrects !m1 accord+ z ! progress ( ! positive _s dur+ two c5turies enabl$ him to d4 ,! position ( 8lead+ sci5ce10 if ?is expression c be all[$1 passes f ma!matics to sociology4 ,moreov]1 ! unity ( sci5ce1 z ,comte conceives x1 no long] prev5ts ! fundam5tal sci5ces f be+ irr$ucible to "o ano!r4 ,?is unity is suffici5tly secur$ by ! homog5eity ( ! sci5ces1 :i* =m a cont9u\s s]ies1 an 8encyclopdic hi]>*y10 & :i* are all subord9at$ to ! f9al sci5ce4 ,la/ly ! unity ( ! positive me?ods does n imply its uni=mity ev]y:]e4 ,ea* fundam5tal sci5ce1 z w be se5 fur!r on1 has its me?ods :i* are special to itself4#cj ,! classification ( ! sci5ces ?us %[s h[ positive philosophy /ret*es back ov] ! ,,xviii4 c5t41 :5ce x spr+s1 to l9k itself ) ,bacon & ,desc>tes4 ,comte has reta9$ ,bacon's view on ?is po9t1 t all sci5tific k re/s ^u facts :i* h be5 fully obs]v$1 & t a sy/em ( positive sci5ces con/itutes ! indisp5sable basis = ! only philosophy :i* is )9 our rea*4 ,to ,desc>tes he "h owes ! idea ( ! unity ( me?od & ( ! unity ( sci5ce4 ,we might almo/ say t he has receiv$ f ,bacon 8 idea ( ! cont5ts ( ! sci5ces & f ,desc>tes 8 idea ( _! =m4 ,by :at means did he inve/ su* matt] ) su* a =m8 ,! answ] to ?is "q is f\nd 9 ! positive !ory ( sci5ce4 ,,footnotes3 #bc ,c\rs1 ,i1 #df-dg4 #bd ,c\rs1 ,i1 #ad-ae4 #be ,c\rs1 ,i1 #hb1 #ab4 #bf ,h]b]t ,sp5c]3 ,! ,classification ( ! ,sci5ces4 ,london1 #ahfd1 p4 #db4 #bg ,disc\rs sur l'esprit positif 7#ahdd7 p4 #bd4 #bh ,c\rs1 ,,vi4 #faj4 #bi ,correspond5ce de ,h4 ,comte & de ,john ,/u>t ,mill4 ,lettre du #e novembre #ahdb1 p4 #acb4 #cj ,cp4 infra1 book ,i1 *4 ,,vi4 ,,*apt] ,,iv ,,sci5ce ,we may admit1 ) ,ari/otle1 t curiosity is natural to man1 & t we are incl9$ to inquire into ?+s = ! pleasure ( kn[+ !m4 ,b x mu/ be admitt$1 adds ,comte1 t ?is incl9ation is "o ( ! lea/ active & ! lea/ imp]ative 9 our nature4 ,x mu/ h be5 /ill less s 9 ! beg9n+ ( mank9d's developm5t2 & x 01 9 any case1 mu* weak] ?an ! incl9ation to laz9ess1 or ?an ! repugnance to accept any?+ new4 ,x has !re=e be5 necess>y1 9 ord] t man might em]ge f 8 primitive intellectual torpor1 t ! activity ( 8 m9d %\ld be induc$ & ev5 compell$ to ex]t itself by press+ circum/ances4 ,su* 7 und\bt$ly ! necessities ( hunt+1 ! dang]s ( w>1 & 9 a g5]al way1 ! desire to avoid suff]+ & dea?4 ,moreov]1 ! k :i* ! human m9d acquires at fir/ is only v imp]fectly real2 = !ological philosophy furni%es ! m9d ) its fir/ conceptions4 ,man beg9s by suppos+ ev]y:]e wills l 8 own1 & ! _w :i* surr\nds him is peopl$ ) gods or feti%es4 ,nev]!less1 f ?is fir/ p]iod1 ! rudim5ts ( a m positive k already appe>4 ,9 e ord] ( ph5om5a "s are v simple & ( su* /rik+ regul>ity1 t evid5tly no arbitr>y w int]v5es 9 _! work+4 ,man mu/ v quickly h _h a 8real0 idea ( ^! ph5om5a4 ,9 all ! o!r cases in/ead ( obs]v+ ! ph5om5a he imag9$ ! mode ( _! production2 b "h he obs]v$ ! sequ5ces & concomitances :i* he c\ld n resi/2 & he regulat$ 8 conduct ^u ?is obs]vation4 ,f ?is humble beg9n+ sci5ce came into be+4 ,9 ?is way1 f> f oppos+ sci5tific ?\ght to common ?\ght1 z mo/ ( ! philosoph]s d1 ,comte1 )\t disreg>d+ ! special "* ( "o & ( ! o!r %[s t bo? spr+ f ! same s\rce1 & t !y d n pres5t any ess5tial po9t ( diff]5ce4 ,h[ev] ab/ract & h[ev] elevat$ sci5ce may become1 x always rema9s1 accord+ to him1 a 8simple special prolongation0 ( good s5se1 ( common s5se & ( 8univ]sal wisdom40 ,! "* ( 8positivity10 by :i* sci5tific k is di/+ui%$ f !ological & metaphysical conceptions1 belongs also to popul> wisdom4 ,l ?is wisdom1 :i* ! practical necessities ( life h =m$1 sci5ce ab/a9s f se>*+ aft] ! causes1 ! ends1 ! sub/ances1 & :atev] is beyond ! rea* ( v]ification by exp]i5ce4 ,its ef=ts be> exclusively ^u ! laws ( coexi/5ce & ( succession :i* gov]n ! ph5om5a4 ,& aga9 x is f ?is wisdom t x has borr[$ ! _s ( its positive me?od1 :i* consi/s 9 obs]v+ facts & 9 sy/ematis+ obs]vations to rise to ! concept ( laws4 ,x foll[s f ?is t sci5ce conta9s )9 itself nei!r its />t+-po9t nor its t]m9us4 ,bo? are giv5 x by 8common s5se0 :5ce x spr+s4 ,! />t+-po9t is ! spontane\s obs]vation ( con/ant relations betwe5 ! mo/ simple ph5om5a4 ,! t]m9us is ! k ( ^! same relations among all giv5 ph5om5a1 z complete & z precise z our requirem5ts dem&4 ,inde$ ! common s5se1 or ! popul> wisdom1 is soon baffl$ by ! complexity ( ph5om5a4 ,if we _h no o!r guide we %\ld "k v little1 & 9 ne>ly all cases we %\ld be r$uc$ to a k9d ( empirical div9ation4 ,! function ( sci5ce is to sub/itute a real k ( laws to ?is div9ation4 ,?is function w\ld nev] h be5 fulfill$ if ! human m9d _h n possess$ ! prop]ty ( be+ able to sep>ate !ory f practice4 ,und\bt$ly ! =m] proce$s f ! latt]4 ,z has be5 said1 e sci5ce is born f a correspond+ art1 & f ! desire to p]fect x4 ,b ?is p]fect+ w\ld n h gone v f>1 if ! human m9d _h nev] lo/ sight ( x4 ,happily1 man is capable ( tempor>ily =gett+ 8 imm$iate int]e/s 9 ! pursuit ( k4 ,by degrees1 f ! complexity ( concrete cases1 he has le>nt to dis5gage ! elem5ts common to a :ole class ( ph5om5a4 ,he has ?us =m$ ! idea ( law1 or ! inv>iable relation betwe5 giv5 ph5om5a4 ,beyond ! intellectual satisfaction :i* ?is k gave him1 he f\nd 9 "t applications ( x :i* he w\ld nev] h imag9$ be=eh&4 ,to quote an example f a civilisation already v advanc$1 :5 ! ,greek geomet]s pati5tly appli$ !mselves to ! /udy ( conic sections1 did !y suspect t _! lab\rs w\ld "o day s]ve 9 calculat+ c]ta9 a/ronomical det]m9ations ^u :i* ! safety ( m>9]s w\ld dep5d8 ,9 ?is way1 sci5ce1 utilit>ian 9 its orig91 s9ce x sprang f ! practical ne$s ( man1 utilit>ian 9 its end1 s9ce x aims at provid+ = ^? ne$s1 has nev]!less be5 unable to develop itself & w be unable /ill to d s 9 ! future1 except by neglect+ ?is v utility4 ,bett] to fulfil its de/9y1 x mu/ provisionally =get x2 & x w be ! m useful1 9 ! long run1 9 proportion z x w h be5 ! m dis9t]e/$4 ,we nev] "k1 a priori1 if a discov]y :i* f9ds no application to-day1 comb9$ lat] ) ano!r "o1 w n be ( capital int]e/ = mank9d4 ,!re=e x is ( ! highe/ importance t !oretical ord] %\ld rema9 cle>ly di/9ct f ! practical ord]4 ,t is :y ,comte reg>d$ ! appe>ance ( a sac]dotal class1 specially occupi$ ) speculative rese>*1 z a decisive mom5t 9 hi/ory ( humanity4 ,x matt]s little t ^! rese>*es %\ld h rema9$ *im]ical & absurd dur+ long c5turies4 ,! ess5tial po9t 0 t ! human m9d %\ld =m & keep ! habit ( dis9t]e/$ speculation1 t x %\ld n re/ cont5t ) imm$iately applicable k1 & t x %\ld ex]t itself t[>ds a !oretical conception ( nature1 h[ev] simple at fir/ t conception 0 b\nd to be4 ,?us1 sci5ce has1 prop]ly speak+1 two roots1 ! "o practical1 ! o!r !oretical4 ,if x orig9at$ 9 ! primitive arts1 x is no less closely alli$ ) primitive philosophy4 ,x /ill be>s features :i* enable u to disc]n ?is tw(old filiation4 ,on ! "o h&1 x has rema9$ speculative z 0 ! !ological philosophy :i* fir/ dom9at$ ov] ! human m9d4 ,only ?is speculation has gradually ab&on$ ev]y?+ except ! laws ( ph5om5a1 & x has end$ by und]m9+ ! !ological conceptions f :i* x came4 ,on ! o!r h&1 sci5ce has rema9$ real1 l ! popul> wisdom :i* gave x bir?4 ,b1 :ile deal+ ) giv5 ph5om5a 9 exp]i5ce1 x has develop$ 9 ! direction ( !ory4 ,in/ead ( only consid]+ sc5es ( concrete objects1 x has resolv$ !m into _! elem5ts4 ,a m & m p[]ful analysis has rais$ x to ! consid]ation ( laws m & m g5]al & ab/ract4 ,?us1 :ile ! popul> wisdom is limit$ to empirical g5]alisations1 a sci5ce su* z1 = in/ance1 a/ronomy discov]s ! law :i* gov]ns ! :ole ( an imm5se ord] ( ph5om5a4 ,f ?is g5]al idea ( sci5ce ! foll[+ consequ5ces at once foll[3 #a4 ,sci5ce is ! collective "w ( humanity4 ,x be>s ^u an object common to all3 ,reality4 ,x employs ! me?od common to all3 ! positive me?od4 ,all intellects "w 9 ! same mann] on a common gr\nd4 ,x is :at ,comte calls 8! pr(\nd m5tal id5tity ( le>n$ m5 ) ! cr[d ^: de/9y fulfils itself 9 active "w4#ca0 ,! progress ( ! sci5tific m9d is a me?odical ext5sion ( popul> common s5se to all subjects accessible to human reason4 ,b "h me?od does almo/ ev]y?+4 8,! :ole sup]iority ( ! philosophical m9d ov] ! popul> common s5se results f a special & cont9u\s application to common speculations1 9 />t+ prud5tly f ! initial /ep1 aft] hav+ br\ght !m back to a normal /ate ( judici\s ab/raction1 = ! purpose ( g5]alis+ & coord9at+4 ,=1 :at ord9>y intellects *iefly lack1 is less ! precision & p5etration appropriate = disc]n+ p>tial approximations1 ?an ! aptitude = g5]alis+ ab/ract relations1 & = e/abli%+ a p]fect logical coh]5ce among our v>i\s notions40#cb ,! g]m ( ! highe/ sci5tific conceptions is (t5 to be f\nd 9 common reason4 ,comte delights 9 giv+ z an example "o ( ! discov]ies :i* he mo/ admires1 ,desc>tes' inv5tion ( analytical ,geometry4 ,to det]m9e at e mom5t ! position ( a po9t 9 space by its di/ance f fix$ axes3 is n t :at geograph]s h be5 do+ = s long 9 ord] to det]m9e ! longitude & latitude ( a place ^u ! t]re/rial sph]e8 ,& has n ?is proce$+ itself be5 sugge/$ to ! geograph] by simple common s5se8 ,= he in/9ctively seeks to m>k ! inaccessible po9ts :i* int]e/ him1 by means ( _! di/ance f giv5 po9ts or l9es4 ,f ?is ! idea ( ! ,c>tesian co-ord9ates only diff]s by a sup]ior degree ( ab/raction & ( g5]ality4 ,?us all m5 mu/ be reg>d$ z collaborat+ 9 ! discov]y ( tru? z mu* z 9 mak+ use ( x4 ,speak+ g5]ally1 if ! great philosoph]s & sci5tific m5 ( g5ius seem to be ! intellectual guides ( humanity1 x is because !y are ! fir/ to be affect$ by ea* m5tal revolution4 ,!y are ! fir/ to pass f a traditional to a new attitude & _! example is decisive4 ,b1 says ,comte1 8! *anges relat+ to ! me?od ( ?9k+ ) orig9ality only become manife/ :5 !y are almo/ accompli%$40 ,! great m5 ^: names are ju/ly au?ors atta*$ to are1 h[ev]1 m ! h]alds ?an ! ( ^! *anges4 #b4 ,sci5ce is ! "w ( all3 x mu/ !re=e be accessible to all4 ,x is a patrimony common to ! :ole ( mank9d2 & ! inh]itance mu/ be tak5 f no "o4 ,z a consequ5ce1 ! ,/ate owes sci5tific in/ruction to ^? :o are n 9 a position to procure x = !mselves4 ,n t all m51 all ! p ought to acquire a deep k ( ! sev]al fundam5tal sci5ces1 l ^? :o make x ! p>ticul> occupation ( _! lives4 ,! impossibility ( su* a ?+ is too evid5t = sev]al reasons4 ,nei!r is x a "q ( popul>is+ ! great sci5tific !ories1 = ! use ( badly prep>$ m9ds4 ,comte condemns sev]ely ?is way ( 8simplify+0 sci5ce4 ,= in/ance1 he w n all[ ,newton's laws to be sep>at$ f _! demon/rations4 ,x w always be ! duty ( ! great] numb] ( m5 to adopt ! majority ( sci5tific tru?s on ! te/imony ( ^? :o w h discov]$1 criticis$ & v]ifi$ !m4 ,b1 :at x w be ! duty ( common education to give to e m9d1 is ! habit ( conceiv+ all ph5om5a1 f ! mo/ simple to ! mo/ complex1 z equally gov]n$ by inv>iable laws1 &1 consequ5tly1 ( und]/&+ ! :ole ( nature z an ord] :i* ! positive me?od alone all[s u to discov] & to modify4 ,& z ?is me?od _c be /udi$ ap>t f ! sci5ces 9 :i* x is us$1 x w be necess>y = e man to be made acqua9t$ ) a summ>y ( ea* fundam5tal sci5ce1 f ma!matics to sociology4 ,!re is no?+ impracticable 9 ?is s*eme4 ,comte has drawn out1 9 ! positive ,polity1 a plan ( education conceiv$ on ?is pr9ciple4 ,on ?is condition alone w philosophy1 f\nd$ ^u positive sci5ce1 succe$ 9 realis+ ! h>mony ( m9ds1 & 9 8reorganis+ ! beliefs40 ,,ii4 ,augu/e ,comte (t5 says t ! positive _s consi/s 9 keep+ oneself equally di/ant f two dang]s1 my/icism & empiricism4#cc ,by my/icism he und]/&s ! rec\rse to non-v]ifiable explanations & to transc5d5t1 hypo!ses4 ,m5's imag9ation f9ds pleasure 9 ^! ?+s1 b we mu/ be able to br+ all 8real0 k back to a g5]al or p>ticul> fact4 ,positive sci5ce !re=e ab/a9s f se>*+ aft] sub/ances1 ends1 & ev5 causes4 ,x only be>s ^u ph5om5a & _! relations4 ,empiricism1 9 its turn1 is no less ?an my/icism contr>y to ! _s ( sci5ce1 ,empiricism signifies = ,comte ! k :i* does n g beyond ! pure & simple asc]ta9m5t ( a fact4 ,n[1 an accumulation ( ev5 precisely not$ facts has no !oretical int]e/4 ,x may1 at mo/1 be erudition1 b x is n sci5ce4 ,to ?9k t by ?us ga!r+ facts toge!r "o is lab\r+ at ! "w ( sci5ce1 is 8to take a qu>ry = an edifice40#cd ,9 a ^w1 8sci5ce is made up ( laws1 & n ( facts40#ce ,/rictly speak+1 no sci5tific obs]vation is ev5 possible )\t a previ\s !ory1 t is to say1 )\t a presuppos$ law1 ^: v]ification is 9 "q4 ,und\bt$ly 9 sci5ce :5 x has become positive1 ! imag9ation no long] con/ructs 8causes0 or 8ess5ces40 ,x mu/ submit to reason1 t is to say1 to ! me?odical inve/igation ( ph5om5a4 ,nev]!less1 ?is inve/igation _c take place )\t guid+ hypo!ses1 & ?us ! imag9ation plays a "p 9 sci5ce1 subord9ate x is true1 b indisp5sable4 ,comte "h sep>ates himself f ,bacon4 ,accord+ to ! ,engli% philosoph]1 9 ! k ( nature1 ! m9d mu/ make itself z receptive z possible4 ,9 introduc+ any?+ ( itself x w\ld falsify sci5ce1 & its :ole ef=t mu/ be to hold itself up to ph5om5a z a p]fectly pla9 & unspott$ mirror1 s z to reflect !m z !y are4 ,n[ ?is is precisely ! idea ( sci5ce :i* ,comte rejects "u ! "n ( empiricism4 ,)\t ! hypo!ses or ! !ories sugge/$ by ! v activity ( ! m9d sci5ce w\ld nev] be con/itut$1 accord+ to him4 ,!re w\ld nev] ev5 be an appreh5sion ( fact1 at lea/ an appreh5sion su* t x c\ld be ( s]vice to sci5ce4 ,9 a ^w 8absolute empiricism is impossible40 ,9 ! simple obs]vation ( a ph5om5on by ! human m9d1 ! entire m9d is int]e/$1 & 9 x ! subjective conditions ( sci5ce are already virtually giv54 ,?is be+ grant$1 sci5ce may be def9$ z a me?odical processus ( ! connection & ext5sion ( our k4 ,x consi/s1 9 e dep>tm5t 89 ! exact relations e/abli%$ betwe5 obs]v$ facts1 s z to d$uce f ! lea/ possible numb] ( fundam5tal data1 ! mo/ ext5sive s]ies ( second>y ph5om5a1 9 r5\nc+ absolutely ! va9 se>* aft] causes & ess5ces40 ,s long z m5 seek to 8expla90 ph5om5a ! !ological & metaphysical _s has n yet disappe>$4 ,positive sci5ce ab/a9s f all explanations ( ?is k9d4 ,?us1 ,newton has plac$ 9 ! same category univ]sal gravitation & ! attraction ( bodies4 ,we _c "k :at ?is mutual action ( ! />s & ! attraction ( t]re/rial bodies are 9 !mselves4 ,b we "k ) full c]ta9ty1 ! exi/5ce & ! law ( ^! two ord]s ( ph5om5a & moreov] we "k t !y are id5tical4 ,= ! geomet] weight is expla9$ :5 he conceives x z a p>ticul> case ( g5]al gravitation4 ,on ! contr>y x is weight :i* makes ! physici/ prop] und]/& cele/ial gravitation4 ,we c nev] g beyond su* juxtapositions 8( ideas40#cf ,b :ile sci5ce br+s toge!r simil> ph5om5a1 its *ief function is to connect !m1 t is to say to det]m9e !m "o by ano!r accord+ to ! relations :i* exi/ betwe5 !m4 ,all sci5ce1 says ,comte1 consi/s 9 ! co-ord9ation ( facts2 & if ! sev]al obs]vations rema9$ isolat$ !re w\ld be no sci5ce4 ,we may ev5 say g5]ally t sci5ce is de/9$1 z f> z ! v>i\s ph5om5a p]mit1 to disp5se ) direct obs]vation1 9 all[+ u to d$uce ! greate/ possible numb] ( results f ! smalle/ numb] ( acquir$ data4 ,if a con/ant relation is f\nd to subsi/ betwe5 two ph5om5a1 x becomes useless to obs]ve !m bo?2 = f ! obs]vation ( "o ! v>iations ( ! o!r w be d$uc$4 ,b ! fir/ may 9 its turn be ! function ( a ?ird1 & s on2 until at la/ we conceive a con/ant connection betwe5 all ! ph5om5a ( a giv5 ord]1 :i* may all[ u to d$uce !m all f a s+le law4 ,su* = ,comte w\ld be ! p]fect =m ( sci5ce3 h[ ne> x is to ! ,c>tesian ideal6 8,! positive _s10 he says1 8)\t fail+ to recognize ! prepond]ance ( reality directly asc]ta9$1 t5ds to enl>ge ! rational at ! exp5se ( ! exp]im5tal doma91 by sub/itut+ ! prevision ( ph5om5a to _! imm$iate obs]vation40 ,sci5tific progress consi/s 9 dim9i%+ ! numb] ( di/9ct & indep5d5t laws1 by cont9ually multiply+ _! respective connections4#cg 8,prevision0 ?us becomes ! ess5tial *>act]i/ic ( sci5tific k1 & t indep5d5tly ( any utilit>ian m5tal res]vation4 ,= ! ev5tual applications ( sci5ce d n det]m9e its !oretical advance4 ,! prevision ) :i* we are "h conc]n$ consi/s solely 9 ! possibility ( kn[+ ) c]ta9ty )\t obs]v+4 ,x is k a priori 9 ! ,ari/otelian s5se ( ! ^w1 ( :i* ma!matics pres5t ! mo/ p]fect model4 ,a rectil9e> triangle be+ giv51 ,i d n ne$ exp]i5ce to "k ) c]ta9ty t ! sum ( ! angles 9 x is equal to two "r angles4 ,?us und]/ood prevision applies to ! pres5t1 & ev5 to ! pa/1 z well z to ! future4 ,:5 ,comte writes 8,all sci5ce has prevision = its aim10#ch we mu/ und]/&3 8,all sci5ce t5ds to sub/itute d$uction to exp]i5ce1 rational to empirical k40 ,?is prevision1 a necess>y consequ5ce ( ! con/ant relations discov]$ betwe5 ph5om5a1 w all[ m5 nev] to mi/ake real sci5ce = fruitless erudition1 :i* accumulates facts )\t d$uc+ !m "o f ano!r4 ,?us ! =mula cit$ above enl>ges itself3 8,sci5ce is compos$ ( laws & n ( facts40 ,! m d$uction is sub/itut$ to exp]i5ce1 ! bett] is ! ext5sion & connection ( our k realis$4 ,consequ5tly1 ! m also does sci5ce draw ne> to t unity :i* is imp]atively claim$ by our und]/&+1 & :i* is = x ! crit]ion ( tru?4 8,real sci5ce10 says ,comte1 8reg>d$ f ! highe/ po9t ( view1 has no o!r g5]al object b to e/abli% or to =tify unceas+ly ! intellectual ord]1 :i* is ! basis ( all o!r ord]40#ci ,! m9d :i* applies itself to ! contemplation ( ! _w requires1 be=e ev]y?+1 to f9d x intelligible4 8,real0 sci5ce satisfies x1 n 9 imag9+ wills & causes1 z did !ology & metaphysics1 b 9 discov]+ ord] 9 ! con/ant relations betwe5 ph5om5a4 ,:5 ?is ord] is h>moni\s1 t is to say1 :5 ! sev]al classes ( ph5om5a are conceiv$ z homog5\s1 & z simil>ly gov]n$ by laws1 8! spontane\s unity ( our und]/&+ is consolidat$40 ,x matt]s little t ! v>i\s ord]s ( ph5om5a are giv5 to u z irr$ucible to "o ano!r4 ,! highe/ object ( sci5ce is to det]m9e ! po9t ( view f :i* all ph5om5a appe> intelligible1 & ?is po9t ( view is "o z ! und]/&+ itself is "o4 ,,iii4 ,p]haps x w\ld h be5 easy to pass f ?is conception ( positive sci5ce to a !ory ( k1 & to a metaphysical view ( nature1 bo? ideali/ic4 ,b ,comte nei!r c\ld nor w\ld pu% 8 !ory 9 ?is direction4 ,9 ?is respect no?+ is m significant ?an 8 way ( und]/&+ ! relativity ( sci5ce4 ,?is relativity is usually pres5t$ z ! conclusion ( a criticism ( our und]/&+1 ( its nature1 ( its be>+s1 & ( its relations to its objects4 ,b1 accord+ to ,comte1 an inquiry pursu$ on ^! l9es1 has no *ance ( rea*+ a conclusion4 ,! only !ory ( k :i* is positive & 8real10 is drawn f ! hi/ory ( ! human m9d4 ,! laws ( ! m9d are only reveal$ 9 ! exam9ation ( ! successive products ( its activity1 t is to say 9 its beliefs & 9 its sci5ce4 ,! relativity ( sci5ce c !re=e only be /at$ at fir/1 z a fact1 leav+ x = subsequ5t inquiry to det]m9e ! reason ( t fact4 ,! law ( ! ?ree ,/ates suffices = ?is1 = x %[s t man began by seek+ = absolute k4 ,! philosophy to :i* he fir/ turns is1 at ! same "t1 ! mo/ nave & ! mo/ ambiti\s4 ,b a necess>y evolution causes him to ab&on ! pursuit ( ! absolute1 fir/ 9 its !ological =m & !n 9 ! metaphysical =m4 ,hav+ rea*$ ! positive /ate1 man kn[s t 8 sci5ce1 necess>ily relative1 is limit$ to 8! sy/ematic co-ord9ation ( ph5om5a10 & ! k ( _! laws4 ,! condemnation :i* ?us /rikes rese>*es be>+ on ! absolute is itself1 moreov]1 only relative 9 "*4 ,x prejudges no?+ respect+ ! ultimate solution ( que/ions4 ,positive philosophy 9 no way takes sides 9 respect to ^! problems4 ,x simply /ates t sci5ce has m & m cut !m (f f ! numb] ( ^? :i* x /udies4 ,inde$ x is impossible to apply ! positive me?od to que/ions :i* conc]n ! absolute4 ,n[1 ?is me?od be+ ! only "o :i* our m9d c h5ce=? foll[1 at lea/ if x wi%es to ma9ta9 ! logical unity :i* is its supreme requirem5t1 x foll[s t ^! problems are 9 fact ab&on$4 ,no?+ m & no?+ less4 8,s\nd philosophy10 says ,comte1 8sets aside1 x is true1 insoluble que/ions02 b 89 /at+ ! motive ( _! rejection1 x avoids d5y+ any?+ respect+ !m1 :i* w\ld be contradictory to t sy/ematic disuse by :i* alone uncontrov]tible op9ions mu/ die out40 7,comte means3 op9ions :i* d n come )9 ! range ( positive discussion47 ,! problems relat+ to ! ess5ce ( ! s\l or to ! 8sub/antia prima0 w melt away1 z ! majority ( ! metaphysical problems :i* ! s*ola/ics put to !mselves h already disappe>$4 ,ev5 to positive sci5ce1 we mu/ be c>eful n to attribute an absolute "*--t is to say1 9 a s5se slightly diff]5t f ! prec$+ "o1 b v frequ5tly ) ,comte--a def9ite & immutable "*4 ,! laws :i* we c det]m9e are nev] true except "u c]ta9 conditions4 ,we h no "r to consid] !m z true absolutely4 ,newton's law is demon/rat$ = our sol> sy/em3 b d we "k t x is v]ifi$ 9 all ! sy/ems ?r\gh\t space8 ,d n let u conf\nd ! _w1 :i* we c /udy ) ! unit$ res\rces ( obs]vation & calculation ) ! univ]se1 ( :i* we "k sc>cely any?+1 & :i* outranges all our p[]s4 ,9 spite ( ! fam\s pr9ciple ( ! suffici5t reason ! abs5ce ( motives = negation does n con/itute ! "r ( affirmation1 )\t any direct pro(4 ,absolute notions1 says ,comte1 seem to me s impossible t ,i w\ld n ev5 d>e1 :atev] probability ,i may see 9 x1 to w>rant ! necess>y & unalt]able p]petuity ( ! !ory ( gravitation re/rict$ to ! int]ior ( our _w1 if "o day1 7:i* is moreov] v difficult to admit7 ! precision ( our pres5t obs]vations came to be p]fect$ z mu* z we h done 9 comp>ison to ,hipp>*us4#dj ,9 ! same way1 mu/ n attraction h seem$ to be an absolute quality 7t is to say an immutable "o7 ( bodies1 s9ce nei!r *ange ( %ape1 nor ! passage f "o physical con/itution to ano!r1 nor any *emical metamorphosis1 nor ev5 ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! /ate ( life & dea? c\ld modify ?is quality1 s long z ! integrity ( ! sub/ance 0 ma9ta9$8 ,! ,newtonian conception came & de/roy$ entirely at a signal /roke ?is "* :i* mu/ h appe>$ s inde/ructible1 by %[+ t ! weight ( a body is a ph5om5on purely relative to ! position ( ?is body 9 ! _w1 or1 m precisely1 to its di/ance f ! c5tre ( ! e>?4#da ,9 ord] t our positive sci5ce ( any "p ( nature %\ld be absolute1 t is to say1 f9al1 x w\ld h to be complete4 ,b1 z all ?+s are caus$ or caus+1 help$ or help+1 accord+ to ,pascal's expression1 all ! ph5om5a 9 a reciprocal univ]sal action1 all ! laws relative "o to ano!r1 our sci5ce w nev] be complete on any po9t4 ,x only furni%es m or less imp]fect approximations4#db ,! discov]y ( new facts & new laws is always possible4 ,h[ _m times does n positive sci5ce f9d itself oblig$ to modify & to readju/ a sy/em ( long acquir$ notions1 9 ord] to make a place = new elem5ts8 ,?is is a "w (t5 v labori\s1 b f :i* sci5ce nev] dreams ( %r9k+1 kn[+ t x is made liable to x1 s to speak1 by def9ition1 t is to say1 t x is relative4 ,examples ( ?is ab\nd1 n only 9 ! hi/ory ( physical & natural sci5ce1 b ev5 9 t ( s-call$ exact sci5ces4 ,d we n he> ,m4 ,po9c> decl>+ 9 accordance ) ,h]tz1 t giv5 ! sy/em ( ,galileo & ( ,newton 9 me*anics x is impossible to give a satisfactory idea ( mass & ( =ce8#dc ,?us ! def9itions1 & ev5 ! laws1 e/abli%$ by ! positive sci5ces1 are at e p]iod approximations correspond+ to ! k we h ( facts4 ,& z ?is k c always be enri*$ ! approximation may also become /rict]1 )\t ev] rea*+ its conf9es4 ,leibnitz already said t ! analysis ( any?+ real rea*es to inf9ity4 ,?is ?\ght is ) him1 closely alli$ to ! :ole ( 8 metaphysics4 ,we f9d 9 ,comte an expression 9 "s way equival5t1 al?\gh positive4 ,he says1 al?\gh ! progress ( ! sci5ce ( nature consi/s 9 sub/itut+ z mu* z possible ! rational me?od to ! exp]im5tal me?od1 ! limit c nev] be atta9$1 we c nev] affirm t exp]i5ce w n br+ new elem5ts :i* w oblige u to modify ! edifice ( sci5ce4 ,! relativity ( sci5ce ?us s]ves to ma9ta9 an equal balance betwe5 ! ne$ ( unity :i* comes f ! und]/&+1 & ! inexhau/ible div]sity ( ! _w ( reality :i* ?is und]/&+ /udies4 ,z a fact1 !n1 positive sci5ce is always relative4 ,rightly1 x _c be o!rwise1 & ?is = two ess5tial reasons4 ,x dep5ds necess>ily ^u 8our organisation0 & 8our situation0#dd or1 9 o!r words1 x is relative 8bo? to ! individual & to ! species 9 its advance40 ,x is relative 9 ! fir/ place to our organisation4 ,"h ,comte takes up aga9 an idea :i* 0 de> to ! philosoph]s ( ! ,,xviii4 c5tury & 9 p>ticul> to ,did]ot4 ,if our organisation 7 diff]5t1 ! data :i* our sci5ce elaborates w\ld be o!r t !y are4 ,) m organs we might p]haps grasp k9ds ( problems ( :i* we h no idea4 ,if we suppose our species to be bl9d1 a/ronomy w\ld n exi/ = x4 ,& fur!r1 a natural law requires t ! m complex & ! high] ph5om5a 9 reg>d to _! conditions ( exi/5ce1 %\ld be subord9at$ to ! m g5]al & ! m common ph5om5a4 ,! intellectual ph5om5a ?us dep5d1 fir/1 ^u ! biological ph5om5a1 & !n ^u all ^? to :i* ! biological ph5om5a are subord9at$4 ,9 ?is s5se1 !re=e1 sci5ce is relative to our organisation1 :i* is itself relative 9 respect to ! milieu 9 :i* we live4 ,b1 reciprocally1 ! repres5tation ( ?is milieu & ( ?is organisation re/s ^u intellectual laws :i* imp>t to sci5ce a ne$ ( unity & h>mony special to ! m9d4 ,comte concludes1 !re=e1 t to endeav\r to apportion :at belongs to ! object & :at to ! subject 9 sci5tific k is a hopeless attempt4 ,we simply "k t sci5ce is n ! exclusive product ei!r ( ! subject or ! object4 ,giv+ too mu* to ! object leads u to 8empiricism40 ,fall+ to ! opposite extreme leads to 8my/icism40 ,! ef=ts ( philosoph]s to con/ruct an ab/ract !ory ( k h only end$ 9 mis]able results4 ,we h n gone beyond ,ari/otle's 8axiom z correct$ by ,leibnitz40 ,nihil e/ 9 intellectu quod non prius fu]it 9 s5su1 nisi ipse intellectus4 ,we are only c]ta9 ( "o ?+3 our sci5ce1 necess>ily condition$ by our organisation1 is also necess>ily relative4 ,b ?is is n ! mo/ decisive consid]ation = x only makes u see t our sci5ce w\ld be diff]5t1 if our organisation 7 to *ange4 ,n[1 z a matt] ( fact1 our organisation does n *ange4 ,human nature1 accord+ to ,comte1 rema9s simil> to itself 9 ! :ole c\rse ( its evolution4 ,x is ?is evolution :i* itself becomes a cause1 & a decisive "o1 ( relativity = sci5ce4 ,=1 if our organisation does n v>y1 ! sy/em ( our conceptions & ( our sci5ce necess>ily v>ies1 accord+ to our 8situation10 t is to say1 accord+ to ! position :i* we occupy 9 ?is evolution1 :i* accompli%es itself accord+ to laws4 ,our conceptions1 our religions1 our philosophies1 are n only individual ph5om5a2 !y are also & *iefly social ph5om5a1 mom5ts 9 a collective & cont9u\s life1 ( :i* all ! phases are int]dep5d5t4 ,we only "k 9 a giv5 ord] ( k1 :at is compatible at t mom5t ) ! g5]ally admitt$ philosophy1 ) ! k already acquir$ 9 ?is & 9 ! o!r ord]s ( ph5om5a1 ) ! great hypo!ses consid]$ z true1 ) ! me?ods 9 =ce1 etc4 ,z soon z ! human m9d has become consci\s ( ! evolution to :i* x is subject1 z soon z x has grasp$ its mo/ g5]al law 7! law ( ! ?ree /ates71 9 a ^w1 z soon z sociology is f\nd$1 sci5ce c no long] be conceiv$ z o!r ?an relative4 ,= f t mom5t ! v>i\s sci5ces appe> z s _m great social facts1 :i* v>y z s _m functions ( ! re/ ( civilisation4 ,our speculations1 8dep5d+ on ! totality ( social progression10 c !re=e nev] admit ( t absolute fixity :i* metaphysicians h suppos$4 ,! cont9u\s movem5t ( hi/ory modifies1 9 ! long run1 ! beliefs :i* appe> to be ! mo/ immutable4 ,our !ories t5d to repres5t m & m fai?fully ! objects ( our inve/igations1 t is to say ! laws ( ph5om5a4 ,we are ?us br\ght back to ! idea ( limit1 :i* is nev] atta9$1 t[>ds :i* we are advanc+ by means ( approximations ev] m exact4 ,! "t is n yet f> di/ant1 :5 a doctr9e ( ?is k9d c\ld n h be5 advanc$ )\t at once be+ reject$ z sceptical4 ,! human m9d is sc>cely beg9n+ to und]/& t tru? _c be immutable4#de ,m5 believ$ t tru? mu/ always be id5tical ) itself1 always id5tical = all m9ds at all times & at all places4 ,x seems t 9 los+ ?is "*1 x mu/ cease to be tru?4 ,t is :y philosophy has be5 s p]si/5t 9 ! pursuit ( ! absolute4 ,x 0 believ$ t no tru? c\ld be c]ta91 unless x re/$1 ultimately1 ^u an immutable f\ndation4 ,sci5ce 0 !re=e made to hang on metaphysics4 ,& ! defeats1 a ?\s& times repeat$1 ( metaphysics w\ld n h disc\rag$ ! human m9d _h n positive philosophy at la/ %[n t ! tru? ( :i* we are capable1 because x is relative does n cease to be tru?4 ,we are n condemn$ to *oose betwe5 ! pursuit ( an inaccessible absolute & ! crumbl+ d[n ( all sci5ce4 ,x suffices to und]/& t human sci5ce evolves & t ?is evolution is subject to laws4 ,x is nev] end$3 x always 8becomes40 ,x is n a 8/ate30 x is a 8progress40 ,!re are !re=e provisional1 &1 if "o may s speak1 tempor>y tru?s4 ,does sci5ce ev] e/abli% any o!rs8 ,! ideas :i* ,hipp>*us & ! ,greek a/ronom]s _h ( ! heav5s 0 n false 9 all respects4 ,x 0 ! a/ronomical tru? compatible ) ! conditions ( ! society 9 :i* !y liv$4 ,aft] ! lab\rs ( ! obs]v]s ( ! ,middle ,ages1 utilis$ by ,cop]nicus1 ?is idea fad$ be=e ano!r "o :i* became m p]fect ) ,newton & ,laplace4 ,p]haps ?is "o w be modifi$ 9 its turn1 9 consequ5ce ( new discov]ies6 ,simil>ly x 0 ?\ght t ! e>? 0 a flat surface1 !n a r\nd disc4 ,!n x 0 repres5t$ z a sph]e & f9ally z an ellipsoid4 ,to-day we "k t ?is ellipsoid is irregul>4 ,tru? is !n at ea* p]iod 8! p]fect logical coh]5ce10 or ! correspond5ce betwe5 our conceptions & our obs]vations4 ,! hi/ory ( human ?\ght is compos$ ( a progressive s]ies ( alt]nat+ p]iods4 ,at a c]ta9 mom5t ! m9d has plac$ :at x conceives 9 accordance ) :at x kn[s4 ,b1 by degrees1 new facts are obs]v$1 kn[n facts are bett] int]pret$1 discov]ies bur/ =?4 ,! h>mony betwe5 ! conceptions & ! obs]vations !n becomes prec>i\s4 ,m9ds f9d a great] & great] difficulty 9 fitt+ all ! acquir$ k into ! traditional frame4 ,at la/ ! frame gives way4 ,!n ! h>mony is re-e/abli%$ 9 a m compreh5sive =m1 :i* 9 its turn is de/9$ to become insuffici5t4 ,"h positive philosophy recognises a sociological law4 ,x gives up ! va9 dream ( immutable tru?4 ,x no long] reg>ds ! tru? ( to-day z absolutely true1 nor ! tru? ( ye/]day z absolutely false4 ,x ceases to be critical 9 reg>d to ! pa/40 ,to conclude1 ! !ory ( sci5ce c !re=e only be accompli%$ f ! sociological po9t ( view4 ,x rema9s imp]fect s long z 8we0 has n be5 sub/itut$ to 8,i10 ! univ]sal subject :i* is humanity to ! individual subject1 & a philosophical hi/ory ( ! sci5ces to m]e reflective analysis4 ,to ! logical conditions ( sci5ce1 to def9e x completely1 its biological & social conditions mu/ be jo9$4 ,!n1 b !n only1 x w be und]/ood1 t1 at ea* p]iod1 sci5ce is at ! same "t true & relative1 )\t its relativity plac+ its tru? 9 dang]4 ,,footnotes3 #ca #a ,c\rs1 vi4 #fea-c4 #cb #b ,c\rs1 vi4 #fea-c4 #cc ,disc\rs sur l'esprit positif1 p4 #af2 ,pol4 pos4 ,,iii1 #be4 #cd ,c\rs1 ,,iii1 #d4 #ce ,c\rs1 ,,vi1 #fdg4 #cf ,c\rs1 ,i4 #ajh3 ,,ii4 #ah1 #ahh-i4 #cg ,c\rs1 ,,vi4 #fdf sqq4 #ch ,c\rs1 ,,ii4 #ah3 ,,iii1 #aa-ab4 #ci ,c\rs1 ,,iv1 #adg4 #dj ,c\rs1 ,,ii1 #aie-g4 #da ,c\rs1 ,,ii1 #ahg4 #db ,c\rs1 ,,iv1 #fgb-c4 #dc ,revue gnrale des ,sci5ces1 #cj septembre1 #ahig4 #dd ,disc\rs sur l',esprit positif1 p4 #ae4 #de ,c\rs1 #gef41 ,,vi4 ,,*apt] ,v ,,sci5ce 7,,cont9u$7 ,,ph5om5a ,,& ,,laws ,! p]fection ( ! positive sy/em1 t[>ds :i* x unceas+ly t5ds1 al?\gh v probably x may nev] rea* x1 w\ld be to repres5t all obs]vable ph5om5a z p>ticul> cases ( a s+le g5]al fact1 su* z1 = example1 t ( gravitation4 ,! fundam5tal id5tity ( ph5om5a1 ! r$uction ( p>ticul> laws to a supreme law2 ?is is an ideal :i* we are free to ent]ta94 ,comte1 aft] d',alemb]t & ,sa9t-,simon1 has =mulat$ x himself at ! beg9n+ ( ! ,c\rs de philosophie positive4#df ,un=tunately ?is ideal is n realisable4 ,we apply a v weak intellect to a v complicat$ _w4#dg ,! unity :i*1 scorn+ exp]i5ce1 we might e/abli%1 w\ld naturally be valueless4 ,= ! sev]al categories ( ph5om5a propos$ to u seem irr$ucible4 ,if ?is#dh be ! case1 ! pursuit aft] sci5tific unity is 8irrational40 ,comte end$ by treat+ x z an 8absurd utopia40#di ,h[ev]1 ?is utopia is =ev] reappe>+2 = ! human m9d is secretly atta*$ to x4 ,x is because1 on ! "o h&1 unity pleases x above all ?+s1 & on ! o!r h& because !re is "h an illusion produc$ & ma9ta9$ by a philosophy born ( ma!matical inspiration4 ,desc>tes' discov]y :i* all[$ que/ions ( geometry to be dealt ) by algebra has be5 ! occasion ( a grave error4 ,x gave rise to ! ?\ght t diff]5ces ( quality c\ld be r$uc$ to diff]5ces ( quantity4 ,h5ce ! idea ( 8r$uc+0 ! v>i\s categories ( ph5om5a to "o ano!r4 ,b ?is 0 a wrong int]pretation ( ! pr9ciple ( analytical geometry4 ,ev5 !re1 we h a translation1 n r$uction1 8,! geometrical ideas ( =m & ( situation10 says ,comte--& ,mr4 ,r5\vi] w repeat x aft] him--8are n naturally m l num]ical notions ?an ! o!r real conceptions4 ,e ph5om5on1 ev5 social1 w\ld c]ta9ly h its equation1 z a figure or a motion if its law 7 kn[n to u ) suffici5t precision4 ,analysis is !re=e b an in/rum5t ( incomp>able p[] = ! /udy ( ph5om5a4 ,b1 f ! fact t we c make use ( x1 x does n 9 ! lea/ foll[ t ! ph5om5a may be all br\ght back to an id5tical type4 ,quality is 9 no way by ?is means r$uc$ to quantity1 :i* is some?+ entirely ab/ract1 & ?is no m takes place 9 ! case ( geometrical quality ?an 9 ! case ( any o!r4 ,nei!r c ! geometrical quality be r$uc$ to pure analysis1 nor ! physical to ! geometrical1 nor ! liv+ to ! inorganic1 nor ! social to ! biological4 ,at e /age some?+ qualitatively new appe>s4 ,:e!r or no we c =mulate ! relations ( ph5om5a 9 ! =m ( an equation1 _! het]og5eity subsi/s always irr$ucible4 ,:at is true ( ph5om5a is also true ( _! laws4 ,ea* ord] ( ph5om5a has its special laws ov] & above ^? :i* result f its relations ) ! less complicat$ & m g5]al ord]s4 ,! idea ( a supreme law f :i* all ! o!rs w\ld be d$uc$ mu/ !re=e be =sak54 ,ev5 )9 ! range ( ea* fundam5tal sci5ce1 x is d\btful h[ f> ! unity dreamt ( c\ld ev] be atta9$4 ,! numb] ( irr$ucible laws is f> m consid]able ?an is imag9$ by a false appreciation ( our m5tal p[]s & ( sci5tific difficulties4 ,= in/ance1 9 physics1 h[ c optics & ac\/ics be r$uc$ to "o ano!r8 ,physiological consid]ations1 9 default ( o!r reasons1 w\ld be oppos$ to su* a confusion ( ideas4#ej ,likewise 9 biology1 h[ c ! laws ( animal life be r$uc$ to ^? ( l[] organic life8 & 9 sociology1 ! laws ( human society1 imply+ a c\rse ( hi/ory1 to ^? ( animal societies :i* d n d s8 ,in/ead1 !re=e1 ( conceiv+ a priori1 ! ph5om5a & ! laws z capable ( a 8r$uction0 :i* is1 9 fact1 impossible1 ! positive me?od requires ! det]m9ation ( ! g5]al *>act]s ( ^! ph5om5a & ( ^! laws by obs]vations4 ,x fir/ e/abli%es ! foll[+3 #a4 ,! m complex ph5om5a become1 ! m also our means ( /udy+ !m increase 9 numb]4 ,x is a natural b an insuffici5t comp5sation4 ,= ! difficulty ( e/abli%+ ! sci5ce ( ph5om5a gr[s mu* m quickly ?an ! numb] & ! p[] ( our me?odical processes4 ,h[ev]1 )\t ?is comp5sation1 sc>cely any fundam5tal sci5ce w\ld ev] rea* ! positive /ate4 ,?us1 to ! me?od ( pure ma!matics obs]vation 9 a/ronomy comes to be add$4 ,exp]im5tation appe>s 9 physics1 ! art ( nom5clatures 9 *emi/ry1 ! comp>ative me?od 9 biology1 ! hi/orical me?od 9 social sci5ce4 ,) ?is f9al sci5ce1 ! positive me?od is h5ce=? complete4 #b4 ,! m complex ph5om5a become1 ! m modifiable !y are4 ,we h no p[] ov] a/ronomical ph5om5a4 ,ev5 ! p]fect k ( _! laws w\ld only all[ u to =esee !m4 ,b we c1 9 a great numb] ( cases1 br+ ab\t or arre/ physical & *emical ph5om5a4 ,our int]v5tion is /ill m efficaci\s if we are conc]n$ ) biological ph5om5a1 z is suffici5tly prov$ by ! good & ! evil wr\ght by m$ic9e & surg]y4 ,& x f9ally rea*es ! height ( its p[] 9 social & political life4 ,s mu* s t ev5 cultivat$ m5 f9d x difficult to p]suade !mselves t social ph5om5a are gov]n$ by inv>iable laws1 & t politics c become ! object ( a sci5ce4 ,exp]i5ce seems to tell !m1 on ! contr>y1 t ! activity ( man1 & especially t ( ! man ( g5ius1 is all-p[]ful 9 ?is doma94 ,nev]!less x is n s1 z sociology1 by ! m]e fact ( its exi/5ce suffici5tly proves4 ,b x rema9s true t1 ( all ! ph5om5a ( nature1 ! social & moral ph5om5a are ^? 9 :i* man's int]v5tion is at once ! easie/ & ! mo/ efficaci\s4 #c4 ,! m complex ! ph5om5a ! m imp]fect !y are4 ,we %all p]haps be surpris$ to see ,comte appeal+ to ! idea ( p]fection4 ,x seems t he ought to h exclud$ x z be+ some?+ metaphysical4 ,fur!r on we %all consid] 8 !ory ( f9ality4 ,at pres5t let u only say t if he consid]s natural ph5om5a z imp]fect1 x is 9 ! s5se 9 :i* ,helmholtz calls ! eye a poor optical in/rum5t4 ,he simply /ates t c]ta9 ends1 9 fact1 be+ realiz$ by a natural arrangem5t ( a gr\p ( ph5om5a1 ! same end might be bett] or m economically rea*$1 by o!r arrangem5ts t we c easily conceive4 ,9 ?is s5se our sol> sy/em is imp]fect1 b less s ?an _m liv+ =ms ^: organism might pres5t a mu* high] degree ( advantage\s adaptation4 ,& yet ^! liv+ =ms are !mselves less imp]fect ?an societies subject z !y are to all sorts ( pa?ological alt]ations1 z hi/ory cle>ly %[s4 ,x is rem>kable t ! mo/ imp]fect ph5om5a %\ld precisely be ! mo/ modifiable1 & also ^? ^: /udy only became positive 9 ! la/ /age4 ,,ii4 ,m or less complex1 modifiable & imp]fect1 all ph5om5a are subject to laws4 ,x is ! supreme pr9ciple1 ! 8fundam5tal dogma0 ( sci5ce & ( positive philosophy4 ,comte ?us enunciates x3 8,all ph5om5a :atev]1 inorganic or organic1 physical or moral1 individual or social1 are all subject$ 9 a cont9u\s mann] to rigor\sly inv>iable laws40#ea ,und\bt$ly ?is pr9ciple is n yet ext5d$1 by ! majority ( m9ds1 to all ph5om5a4 ,?is is %[n cle>ly en\gh by _! mode ( reason+ 9 e?ics & 9 politics4 ,b x is1 h[ev]1 impli$ 9 _! g5]al conception ( nature4 ,x ?us assumes a univ]sal "*1 :i* has caus$ x to be reg>d$ by _m philosoph]s z an innate1 or at lea/ a primitive notion1 9 ! human m9d4 ,accord+ to ,comte1 ?is is errone\s4 ,l ,john ,/u>t ,mill1 :om he expressly quotes on ?is po9t1#eb he sees 9 ?is pr9ciple ! result ( a long1 gradual induction1 at ! same "t individual & collective4 ,except 9 ! case ( ! mo/ famili> ph5om5a1 ^: regul>ity is mo/ /rik+1 ! human m9d does n beg9 by believ+ 9 an inv>iable ord]4 ,ev5 ! m9d's conceptions1 7!ological & metaphysical71 conceal ! exi/5ce ( laws1 long aft] obs]vation w\ld h made x see !m1 7 x fre$ f bias4 ,x is true t ! 8fir/ g]ms0 ( ?is pr9ciple exi/ z soon z human reason beg9s to be ex]cis$1 s9ce ! dom9ion ( !ological philosophy nev] c\ld be absolute4 ,b ^! g]ms are only develop$ v sl[ly1 l ! positive me?od & conceptions !mselves4 ,! induction ^u :i* ?is pr9ciple is f\nd$ only began to acquire solidity :5 x 0 def9itely v]ifi$ = a :ole ord] ( important ph5om5a1 t is to say :5 ma!matical a/ronomy _h be5 f\nd$4 ,ph5om5a ( ! highe/ importance1 f ! !oretical z well z f ! practical po9t ( view1 c\ld !n be pr$ict$ ) p]fect c]ta9ty4 ,! inv>iability ( _! laws _h be5 plac$ beyond d\bt4 ,f t mom5t1 ! pr9ciple mu/ h be5 ext5d$ by analogy1 to ! m complex ord]s ( ph5om5a1 ev5 be=e _! own laws c\ld be kn[n4 ,b accord+ to ,comte ?is 8vague logical anticipation0 rema9$ valueless & fruitless4 ,x is ( no use to conceive1 9 ! ab/ract t a c]ta9 ord] ( ph5om5a mu/ be subject to laws4 ,?is empty conception _c outweigh ! !ological & metaphysical beliefs1 :i* h ! =ce ( habit 9 _! fav\r4 ,9 ord] t ! pr9ciple ( laws %\ld be really e/abli%$ 9 an ord] ( ph5om5a1 "s laws mu/ 9 fact h be5 discov]$ & demon/rat$ 9 x4 ,consequ5tly1 :ile 9 ! a priori doctr9es ! possibility ( all sci5ce re/s ^u ! pr9ciple ( laws1 9 ,comte's doctr9e1 on ! contr>y1 x is ! progress ( positive sci5ce :i* by degrees f\nds ! pr9ciple1 & :i* f9ally br+s x to ! univ]sal =m 9 :i* we f9d x to-day4 ,until ! creation ( sociology1 ?is pr9ciple did n yet possess an effective univ]sality1 s9ce ! moral & social ph5om5a 7 n conceiv$ z subject to inv>iable laws4 ,b :5 ! la/ conque/ ( ! positive _s is once accompli%$1 8?is great pr9ciple at once acquires a decisive fulness1 & may be =mulat$ z apply+ univ]sally to all ph5om5a40 ,und\bt$ly1 9 ea* ord]1 we h only e/abli%$ = a few :at h5ce=? we affirm = all ph5om5a )\t previ\s v]ification4 ,b we ?9k t laws1 unkn[n to u1 nev]!less exi/4 ,9 ?is we yield to an 8irresi/ible analogy10 :i* has nev] be5 prov$ to be false4 ,?us1 8! mo/ fundam5tal dogma ( ! :ole ( positive philosophy1 t is to say1 ! subjection ( all real ph5om5a to inv>iable laws1 only results ) c]ta9ty f an imm5se induction1 )\t really be+ d$ucible f any notion :atev]40#ec ,?is imm5se induction is a progressive sum ( inductions :i* h tak5 place successively 9 ea* category ( ph5om5a4 ,x w\ld n be absurd1 /rictly speak+1 t a c]ta9 category %\ld n be submitt$1 l ! o!rs to inv>iable laws4 ,b1 s9ce sociology has be5 f\nd$1 we "k t all are 9 fact s subject$4 ,! laws are kn[n to u1 sometimes by exp]i5ce1 sometimes by reason+4 ,?is div]sity ( orig9 9 no way influ5ces ei!r ! c]ta9ty or ! philosophical dignity ( ! laws4 ,ea* ( ! six fundam5tal sci5ces gives examples ( ^! two di/9ct modes ( advance :i* mutually complete ea* o!r4 8,!re is n less g5ius 9 ! discov]y ( ,kepl] ?an 9 t ( ,newton4 ,! initial laws ( me*anics & ev5 ( geometry re/ solely ^u obs]vation4 ,! logical p]fection consi/s 9 confirm+ by "o ( ^! ways :at mu/ h be5 f\nd by ! o!r4 ,b "o ( ! two suffices :5 all ! conditions requir$ by ! me?od are fulfill$40#ed ,h[ %\ld ! laws obta9$ by induction be reg>d$ z less c]ta9 ?an ! laws obta9$ by d$uction1 s9ce ! pr9ciple ( laws itself re/s ^u an induction8 ,,iii4 ,9 proportion z ! sev]al ord]s ( ph5om5a are conceiv$ z gov]n$ by inv>iable laws1 ! belief 9 f9al causes becomes weak] & t5ds to disappe>4 ,! f9al causes are imag9$ by ! m9d to expla9 c]ta9 comb9ations ( natural ph5om5a4 ,:5 ! laws ( ^! ph5om5a are kn[n1 ?is explanation becomes useless1 x ceases to h curr5cy4 ,x %>es ! fate ( ! :ole ( !ological & metaphysical philosophy1 ( :i* x is a "p4 ,! doctr9e ( f9al causes is g5]ally reg>d$ z a con/itu5t pr9ciple ( religi\s sy/ems4 ,a special argum5t 9 fav\r ( ! exi/5ce ( ,god has ev5 be5 drawn f x4 ,comte rem>ks t x is m probably a consequ5ce ( ^! sy/ems4 ,s long z man believes 9 ! cont9ual action ( ! gods1 or ( ,god1 9 nature1 he does n ne$ ! consid]ation ( f9al causes ^u :i* to f\nd 8 belief4 ,he does n ev5 dream ( x4 ,lat] on only1 :5 ! religi\s conception ( ! _w has become weak]1 :5 ,god has s f> )drawn f ! _w z to be no long] any?+ b a sov]eign :o reigns1 b does n gov]n1 !n ! ne$ is felt to demon/rate ,8 exi/5ce1 & ! ord] ( nature becomes an argum5t4 ,! consid]ation ( f9al causes f ?is po9t ( view is a symptom ( ! weak5+ ( ! !ological _s2 x is ?us pre-em95tly a metaphysical doctr9e4 ,:atev] may be ! case1 exp]i5ce witnesses aga9/ x4 ,positive sci5ce does n lay d[n t ! _w mu/ be conceiv$ z ! "w ( an all-p[]ful intellig5ce4 ,= in/ance1 ! sci5tific k ( our sol> sy/em has %[n 9 ! mo/ obvi\s mann]1 & 9 v>i\s ways1 t ! elem5ts ( ?is sy/em 7 c]ta9ly n dispos$ 9 ! mo/ advantage\s mann]1 & t sci5ce all[$ u to conceive ( a bett] arrangem5t4#ee ,a/ronom]s may admire a natural f9ality 9 ! organisation ( animals2 b ! anatomi/s :o "k all its imp]fections1 fall back ^u ! arrangem5ts ( ! />s4 ,9 :at conc]ns animals1 a bl9d admiration wond]s ev5 at evid5tly detrim5tal complications3 x is ! case ) ! eye1 ) ! bladd]1 etc4#ef ,b 8x is an almo/ univ]sal disposition ( physiologi/s to draw1 ev5 f _! ignorance1 z _m motives = ! admiration ( ! pr(\nd wisdom ( a me*anism :i* !y decl>e !y _c und]/&40 ,9 tru?1 ! natural ord]1 s mu* extoll$1 is extremely imp]fect1 & we c )\t difficulty conceive a bett] "o4 ,! human works1 says ,comte1 f ! mo/ simple me*anical appliances to ! mo/ sublime political con/ructions1 are g5]ally f> sup]ior ei!r 9 exp$i5cy1 or 9 simplicity1 to ev]y?+ t ! mo/ p]fect natural economy c (f] u4#eg ,our geomet]s & our physicians 8suffici5tly prep>$0 w\ld d f> bett] ?an nature1 if !y d>$ 8to take ! direct conception ( a new animal me*anism z ! object ( an intellectual ex]cise40 ,?is idea ( artificial organisms pleases ,comte & he (t5 returns to x4 ,he consid]s t fictions ( ?is k9d may be useful 9 biology to int]calate int]m$i>ies betwe5 ! sev]al kn[n organisms1 9 su* a mann] z to facilitate comp>ison 9 mak+ ! biological s]ies m homog5e\s & cont9u\s4#eh ,9 fact ?is is :at ,broca attempt$ to d1 :5 he endeav\r$ to connect man ) ! o!r primates by hypo!tical an?ropoids4 ,q rec5tly ,m4 ,delage has made use ( a simil> fiction 9 8 ,trait de ,zoologie4 ,comte seldom misses an opportunity ( smil+ at ! /upid admiration ( ^? :o believe t nature has done ev]y?+ 8= ! be/10 or t ev]y?+ 9 x has be5 ord]$ by a provid5tial wisdom4 ,b we c surprise him also 9 ! v act ( admiration2 n d\btless on ! subject ( a/ronomical or biological ph5om5a1 b 9 ! *apt] :i* lies ne>e/ to 8 he>t1 t ( social facts4 ,he writes1 8we _c exp]i5ce too mu* respect & admiration :5 we see ?is univ]sal natural disposition :i* is ! prim>y basis ( all society44440#ei & else:]e3 8,c "o really conceive1 9 ! :ole ( natural ph5om5a1 a m m>vell\s spectacle ?an ?is regul> & cont9u\s conv]g5ce ( an imm5sity ( individuals44440#fj ,h[ev]1 !re is n "h a contradiction4 ,9 reality1 al?\gh ,comte says t ! consid]ation ( f9al causes mu/ be accept$ altoge!r1 or reject$ altoge!r1 he does n himself reject x z entirely z he seems at fir/ to d4 ,:at he =mally rejects1 is ! f9ality und]/ood 9 ! !ological or metaphysical mann]3 ,cli en>rant gloriam ,dei4 ,he does n admit t we c 8expla90 ! natural ord] by a sup]natural wisdom4 ,b he 9 no way conte/s ! f9ality :i* ,kant call$ int]nal4 ,?is f9ality1 or bett]1 ?is reciprocal causality appe>s 9 liv+ be+s1 :]e ! :ole & ! p>ts are reciprocally end & means4 ,! tree c\ld n subsi/ )\t ! leaves any m ?an ! leaves )\t ! tree4 ,comte expresses ?is idea 9 t]ms :i* are almo/ id5tical ) ^? ( ,kant1 al?\gh he did n "k !m4 8,we %all10 he says1 8cease def9+ a liv+ be+ by ! collection ( its organs1 z if ^! c\ld exi/ isolat$4444 ,9 biology ! g5]al notion ( ! be+1 always prec$es t ( any ( its p>ts :atev]4 ,9 sociology1 :]e p>tial int]dep5d5ce is less intimate al?\gh wid]1 x w\ld be a s]i\s h]esy to def9e humanity by man 444 a =tiori 9 biology we ought n to conceive ! :ole f its p>ts40#fa ,z soon z we rise above ! inorganic _w1 ! fir/ condition = ! /udy ( ph5om5a is ! idea ( _! cons5sus1 fir/ 9 biology1 & !n 9 sociology4 ,?is cons5sus corresponds to ,kant's int]nal f9ality4 ,b ! di/9ction betwe5 int]nal f9ality & ext]nal f9ality _c be /rictly ma9ta9$4 ,we w nev] affirm t "s be+s 7 made 9 view ( o!rs4 ,?is w\ld be 9 ! highe/ degree a !ological 8explanation0 ( ! fir/ ord]4 ,b f ! positive po9t ( view1 we obs]ve t1 9 ord] to subsi/1 organisms ne$ n only special intimate /ructure1 b fur!r require a c]ta9 equilibrium ( ext]nal conditions4 ,at ea* mom5t _! exi/5ce dep5ds at once on _! con/itution & on ! 8milieu40 ,?is ^w1 :i* 0 de/9$ to atta9 su* popul>ity & ! !ory ( ! 8milieu0 :i* ,ta9e has r5d]$ no less popul>1 belong to ,comte4 ,und\bt$ly1 ! idea 0 sugge/$ to him1 on ! "o h& by ,montesquieu & by 8 successors1 & on ! o!r by ! lab\rs ( ,lam>ck & ( ! contempor>y biologi/s4 ,he also drew inspiration f ,bi*at's celebrat$ ,re*]*es sur la vie et la mort4 ,b ,bi*at especially insi/$ ^u ! antagonism betwe5 ! liv+ be+ & ! =ces ( ! inorganic _w :i* press ^u him f all sides4 ,comte ?9ks1 on ! contr>y1 t ! v exi/5ce ( liv+ be+s is ! pro( ( a suffici5t h>mony betwe5 _! organism & ! milieu4 ,& :at we _c dispute is 8 m]it 9 hav+ g5]alis$ ! idea specially appli$ by ,montesquieu to social facts1 & also specially appli$ by ,lam>ck & ,bi*at to ! ph5om5a ( life4 8,i designate by ?is ^w 8milieu10 says ,comte1 9 excus+ himself = ! new mean+ :i* he gives x1 8n only ! fluid 9 :i* ! organism is imm]s$1 b1 9 g5]al1 ! totality ( ext]nal circum/ances ( any k9d :atev] necess>y to ! exi/5ce ( ea* det]m9$ organism40#fb ,prop]ly speak+ !n1 ,comte does n reject ! doctr9e ( f9al causes2 he only trans=ms x4 ,he _h decl>$ ?is himself 9 8 opuscule 9 #ahbb4 8,! doctr9e ( f9al causes has be5 conv]t$ by ! physiologi/s into ! pr9ciple ( ! conditions ( exi/5ce40 ,positive philosophy appropriates1 8) ! und]/&+ ( a suitable *ange10 ! g5]al ideas primitively inv5t$ by ! !ological & metaphysical philosophies4 ,z ! positive notion ( ! ma!matical laws ( ph5om5a arose out ( ! metaphysical conceptions ( ! ,py?agoricians conc]n+ ! prop]ties ( numb]s1 s ! sci5tific pr9ciple ( ! conditions ( exi/5ce spr+s f ! hypo!sis ( f9al causes4#fc ,an example w all[ u to realise ?is trans=mation 9 ! act4 ,! /ability ( ! sol> sy/em r5d]s ! exi/5ce ( liv+ species on ! e>? possible4 ,a good example ( f9ality x w\ld seem4 ,nev]!less ?is /ability is simply a necess>y consequ5ce1 accord+ to ! me*anical laws ( ! _w1 ( "s circum/ances *>act]i/ic ( our sy/em3 extreme smallness ( ! planet>y masses 9 comp>ison to ! c5tral mass1 small ecc5tricity ( _! orbits1 slight mutual incl9ation ( _! planes1 etc4 ,s9ce1 9 fact1 we exi/ x mu/ be t ! sy/em ( :i* we =m a "p is arrang$ s z to all[ ( ?is exi/5ce40 ,! s-call$ f9al cause w\ld !n r$uce itself "h1 z on all analog\s occasions1 to ?is *ildi% rem>k3 ! only />s inhabit$ are ^? :i* are habitable4 ,9 a ^w1 we return to ! pr9ciple ( ! conditions ( exi/5ce1 :i* is ! true positive trans=mation ( ! doctr9e ( f9al causes1 & ^: be>+s & f]tility are f> sup]ior40#fd ,9 ord] to give ! =mula ( ?is pr9ciple1 we mu/ h rec\rse to ! g5]al di/9ction e/abli%$ by de ,bla9ville betwe5 ! /atic po9t ( view & ! dynamic po9t ( view4 ,e active be+1 & 9 p>ticul> e liv+ be+1 c be analys$ f ^! two po9ts ( view4 ,! /atic analysis consid]s its elem5ts 9 _! relations ( simultane\s connexions4 ,! dynamic analysis discov]s ! laws ( _! jo9t evolution4 ,! fir/ is ! %>e ( ! anatomi/1 ! second t ( ! physiologi/4 ,n[ x is cle> t ^! two analyses are complem5t>y to "o ano!r1 & are ev5 sep>ately un9telligible4 ,= in/ance1 ! anatomi/ is con/antly guid$ by physiological consid]ations4 ,conv]sely1 )\t anatomical k !re is no positive physiology4 ,?us1 ! /atical analysis e/abli%es ! laws ( coexi/5ce1 ! dynamic analysis ! laws ( succession or ( movem5t4 ,! pr9ciple ( ! conditions ( exi/5ce is no?+ else ?an ! direct & g5]al conception ( ! necess>y h>mony ( ^! two analyses1 t is to say1 ( ! agreem5t ( ^! two ord]s ( laws4#fe ,if ?is h>mony1 9 fact1 0 n realis$1 no liv+ be+1 no natural sy/em ( ph5om5a c\ld subsi/4 ,f ! po9t ( view ( ! object ?is pr9ciple acc\nts = ! p]man5ce ( be+s3 f ! po9t ( view ( ! subject x expresses ! possibility ( sci5ce4 ,:y does ,comte say t ! importance & f]tility ( ?is pr9ciple are f> sup]ior to ^? ( ! doctr9e ( f9al causes8 ,x is because ?is latt] doctr9e claims to 8expla940 ,9 ref]r+ ! natural ord] to ! wisdom ( a ,provid5ce1 x disp5ses 9 "s measure ) sci5tific rese>*1 or at lea/ x does n require x4 ,! pr9ciple ( ! conditions ( exi/5ce1 on ! contr>y1 is closely alli$ to ! positive conception ( natural ph5om5a4 ,x only implies ! exi/5ce ( laws4 ,x only e/abli%es ! cont9uity ( ! relations betwe5 ^! laws1 a cont9uity v]ifi$ by exp]i5ce1 s9ce be+s subsi/ & reproduce !mselves4 ,9 a ^w1 x all[s u to connect ! laws ( succession ) ! laws ( coexi/5ce ev]y:]e4 ,n[1 to connect is ! ess5tial function ( sci5ce4 ,by means ( ?is pr9ciple n only ! successive mom5ts ( any natural evolution :atev] are und]/ood z hav+ solid>ity ) ea* o!r b ! :ole ( ?is evolution becomes intelligible by its relation to ! /atical conditions to :i* x corresponds4 ,&1 9 virtue ( ! relativity ( sci5ce1 or1 if we pref] x1 ( ! univ]sal reciprocal action ( all ph5om5a1 ! pr9ciple ( ! conditions ( exi/5ce leads ! human m9d to a sci5tific inve/igation ev] m exact & nev] complet$4 ,?is positive trans=mation ( ! doctr9e ( f9al causes _h already be5 cle>ly sket*$ by ! philosoph]s ( ! ,,xviii4 c5tury :om ,comte knew v well1 by ,did]ot1 by ,hume1 by d',holba*4 ,hume says1 = in/ance1#ff 8,x is useless to insi/ ^u ! uses ( p>ts 9 animals or 9 plants1 & on _! curi\s adaptation "o to ano!r4 ,i %\ld mu* l to "k h[ an animal c\ld subsi/ )\t ?is adaptation4 ,d we n see t if x ceases he p]i%es at once1 & t ! matt] ( :i* he 0 compos$ takes "s o!r %ape80 ,& d',holba*1 8,^! :oles w\ld n exi/ 9 ! =m :i* !y be>1 if _! p>ts ceas$ to act z !y d2 t is to say1 ceas$ to be arrang$ 9 su* a way z to l5d !mselves to be+ mutually helpful to ea* o!r4 ,to be surpris$ t ! he>t1 ! bra91 ! eyes1 ! art]ies1 etc41 ( an animal act z !y d2 or t a tree produces fruit1 is to be surpris$ t a tree or an animal exi/s4 ,^! be+s w\ld n exi/ or w\ld no long] be :at !y are1 if !y ceas$ to act z !y d3 ?is is :at happ5s :5 !y die40#fg ,comte makes ?is criticism ( ! doctr9e ( f9al causes 8 own4 ,b1 fai?ful to 8 maxim1 8,we only de/roy :at we replace10 he claims to sub/itute a positive pr9ciple to ?is metaphysical doctr9e1 :i* pres]ves ! elem5ts 9 x :i* are compatible ) ! sci5tific me?od4 ,x is ! pr9ciple ( ! conditions ( exi/5ce4 ,9 virtue ( ?is pr9ciple1 by ! v fact t su* an organ is "p ( su* a liv+ be+1 x necess>ily co-op]ates 9 a det]m9$ al?\gh p]haps unkn[n mann]1 ) ! totality ( ! acts :i* make up its exi/5ce3 an organ no m exi/s )\t a function ?an a function )\t an organ4 ,b x 9 no way foll[s f ?is t all ! organic functions are p]=m$ z p]fectly z we c\ld imag9e !m to be4 ,= in/ance pa?ological analysis demon/rates t ! di/urb+ action ( ea* organ ^u ! :ole ( ! economy is v f> f be+ always comp5sat$ = by its utility 9 ! normal /ate4 8,if1 )9 c]ta9 limits1 ev]y?+ is necess>ily arrang$ 9 su* a way z to be able to exi/1 we %\ld seek 9 va91 9 ! majority ( effective arrangem5ts1 = pro(s ( a wisdom sup]ior or ev5 equal to human wisdom40#fh ,ext5d+ ^! consid]ations to ! :ole ( ! ph5om5a kn[n to u1 ,comte concludes 9 almo/ ! same way z ,c\rnot w lat] on4 ,an ord] e/abli%es itself 9 nature1 s9ce x subsi/s1 s9ce x is intelligible1 s9ce !re are laws4#fi ,does n ! v idea ( a law induce at once ! correspond+ idea ( a c]ta9 spontane\s ord]8 ,b 8?is consequ5ce is n m absolute ?an ! pr9ciple f :i* x is d]iv$40#gj ,! exp]i5ce :i* reveals ?is ord] to u also %[s u t x is imp]fect1 ( an imp]fection :i* gr[s ) ! complexity ( ph5om5a4 ,e "t t ! necess>y & suffici5t conditions are realis$ = a natural sy/em to be able to exi/1 ?is sy/em exi/s 9 fact1 h[ev] full ( imp]fections x may be 9 o!r respects4 8,und\bt$ly1 an inevitable necessity :i* l9ks toge!r a s]ies ( ev5ts1 & a prem$itat$ plan :i* directs !m1 resemble ea* o!r v mu* s f> z ! consequ5ces are conc]n$40#ga ,b1 if ! necessity is e/abli%$1 !re is no ne$ to suppose ! plan4 ,n[ ! pr9ciple ( ! conditions ( exi/5ce1 9 %[+ t all t is 8indisp5sable10 is at ! same "t 8inevitable10 r5d]s ?is supposition sup]flu\s4 ,a d\ble t5d5cy makes itself felt 9 ?is !ory4 ,on ! "o h& ,comte1 fai?ful to ! _s ( 8 philosophy1 rejects all t claims to g beyond exp]i5ce1 t is to say ! transc5d5tal hypo!sis ( f9al causes & ( optimism4 ,on ! o!r h&1 he wi%es to acc\nt = ! ord] ( nature1 :i* is a fact4 ,n[ ?is ord]1 all imp]fect z x is1 implies n only ! exi/5ce ( laws1 b moreov] a p]man5t h>mony betwe5 ^! laws4 8,! pres5t is full ( ! pa/1 & big ) ! future40 ,! pr9ciple ( ! conditions ( exi/5ce expla9s ?is p]man5ce ( ord]1 at lea/ z mu* z x ne$s to be expla9$ f ! positive po9t ( view4 ,= x /ates t ev]y:]e1 9 fact1 ! dynamical laws are 9 h>mony ) ! /atical laws1 & t 8progress is a developm5t ( ord]40 ,! pr9ciple ( ! conditions ( exi/5ce is no m a priori ?an ! pr9ciple ( laws4 ,l x x is f\nd$ ^u an 8imm5se induction40 ,l x aga91 x only acquires its full p[] :5 social sci5ce is creat$1 & positive philosophy e/abli%$4 ,%\ld we n be tempt$ to see 9 ?is doctr9e a k9d ( projection ( an idealism su* z t ( ,leibnitz on ! l9es ( positive ?\ght8 ,j z ,leibnitz makes me*anism re/ ^u a deep] dynamism1 s ,comte completes ! pr9ciple ( laws by ! pr9ciple ( ! conditions ( exi/5ce4 ,true1 betwe5 ^! two doctr9es !re lies all ! di/ance :i* sep>ates ! positive f ! metaphysical _s4 ,b none ! less bo? give symmetrical solutions ( ! same problem :i* correspond to "o ano!r1 ! "o a priori ! o!r a po/]iori4 ,,iv4 ,all natural laws1 mu/ be conceiv$ z rigor\sly inv>iable1 :e!r x be a "q ( ma!matical or ( sociological laws4 ,if we c\ld conceive1 9 any case1 t "u ! influ5ce ( conditions exactly simil> ! ph5om5a %\ld n rema9 p]fectly id5tical1 n only 9 k9d1 b also 9 degree1 all sci5tific !ory w\ld at once become impossible4#gb ,?is pr9ciple is ! v condition ( ! possibility ( prevision1 & consequ5tly ( positive sci5ce4 ,claude ,b]n>d w call x 8! absolute det]m9ism ( ph5om5a40 ,comte admits no absolute3 b he consid]s nev]!less t ! inv>iability ( natural laws does n p]mit ( exception4 ,9 ! case ( c]ta9 laws _! inv>iability c be directly v]ifi$1 s9ce !y come be=e u 9 a ma!matical =m4 ,su* are1 = in/ance1 ! me*anical1 a/ronomical & physical laws4 ,o!rs1 on ! contr>y1 su* z ! biological laws1 refuse to be dealt ) by numb]s & _c be r$uc$ to equations4 ,b ?is evid5tly comes f _! complexity3 8,if x 7 possible rigor\sly to isolate ea* "o ( ! simple causes :i* concur 9 produc+ ! same physiological ph5om5on1 ev]y?+ t5ds to %[ t "u well det]m9$ circum/ances1 x w\ld appe> to be possess$ ( a k9d ( influ5ce & ( a quantity ( action1 z exactly fix$ z we see x to be 9 univ]sal gravitation40#gc ,e elem5t>y ph5om5on has its curve4 ,if !n 9 all cases we c\ld g back to ! elem5t>y ph5om5a1 we c\ld und\bt$ly also =mulate _! ma!matical law4 ,9 ?is s5se1 ma!matical analysis w\ld apply to all ! ph5om5a ( ! _w )\t exception4 ,b1 ne>ly always1 ! decomposition ( giv5 ph5om5a into elem5t>y ph5om5a is impossible to u4 ,at any rate ! "w ( syn!sis or ( re-composition tak5 9 ! rev]se ord] is f> beyond our ma!matical p[]s4 ,! only ph5om5a to :i* we apply ! analysis )\t too mu* tr\ble are ! mo/ simple ( all1 ! geometrical & me*anical ph5om5a4 ,! difficulty gr[s v rapidly ) ! complication ( a/ronomical1 physical1 & especially *emical ph5om5a4 ,:5 we rea* ! realm ( liv+ nature1 ! elem5t>y ph5om5a escape u altoge!r4 ,!y are giv5 to u 9 a /ate ( almo/ inf9ite complexity1 &1 9 virtue ( ! biological cons5sus1 closely b\nd up ) o!rs ( no less complex a "*4 ,^! ph5om5a are 9 !mselves syn!ses dep5d+ ^u o!r syn!ses all 9 a /ate ( mutual influ5ce & ( con/ant in/ability4 ,!n1 al?\gh1 9 pr9ciple1 x rema9s true t id5tical antec$5ts c only h id5tical consequ5ts1 9 fact1 because ( ! v great numb] ( elem5t>y actions :i* concur 9 ! production ( ea* ph5om5on1 !re h p]haps nev] be51 !re p]haps nev] w be1 two cases rigor\sly simil>4 ,x foll[s t we mu/ n confuse 8! subord9ation ( any ev5ts :atev] to inv>iable laws ) _! irresi/ible necess>y accompli%m5t40#gd ,relatively s+le ph5om5a appe> inde$ to u to be produc$ ) an irresi/ible necessity3 = in/ance1 ! facts ( gravitation4 ,b complex ph5om5a1 9 virtue ( ! m & m v>i$ comb9ations :i* _! sev]al necess>y conditions admit ( no long] pres5t ?is "*4 ,!y are m 8modifiable0 & less 8irresi/ible40 ,9 o!r words1 z "o consid]s m elevat$1 m complex1 m 8noble0 categories ( facts1 ! laws become remov$ f ! type ( ma!matical necessity1 & admit m ( an ev] increas+ elem5t ( 8cont+5cy08 ,! ord] ( ! _w c !n be conceiv$ z a 8modifiable fatality40#ge ,9 ! eyes ( ! great] numb] ( pres5t ?9k]s1 says ,comte1 ?is =mula w seem contradictory4 ,?is comes f old habits ( m9d :i* are n easily brok5 )4 ,9 ! same way1 z we h _h a great deal ( tr\ble 9 repres5t+ tru? to ourselves o!rwise ?an z immutable1 s we are unwill+ to conceive ord] o!rwise ?an z necess>y4 ,dur+ a long "t ! sci5ce ( ma!matics has be5 ! only positive sci5ce4 ,! idea ( law =m$ itself 9 ?is sci5ce1 t is to say accord+ to ! necess>y relations :i* are demon/rat$ 9 x4 ,x came to be aft]w>ds transf]r$1 j z x 01 into ! o!r ord]s ( ph5om5a1 z ! positive _s progress$4 ,b ord]s ( ph5om5a diff] qualitatively f "o ano!r4 ,all laws ought n to be conceiv$ accord+ to ! s+le type ( geometrical & algebraical laws4 ,9 ord] to obta9 a complete idea ( a natural law1 we mu/ n conf9e ourselves to ! ma!matical ord]1 :i* is an 8exception0 9 ?is respect4 ,all ! ord]s ( ph5om5a mu/ be consid]$4 ,we !n see t law mu/ be def9$ 8con/ancy 9 v>iety40 ,9 fact1 8! normal type is nev] suit$ to any b a m$ium /ate1 m ideal ?an real1 ar\nd :i* effective exi/5ce ceaselessly oscillates1 s long z ! deviation does n g beyond ! limits :i* are compatible ) ! duration ( ! sy/em4 ,ord]1 ev5 isolat$1 is no m et]nal ?an x is absolute40#gf ,9 ?is passage1 ,comte is speak+ ( a/ronomical ord]1 b ! same consid]ation applies to all ! sy/ems or gr\ps ( ph5om5a4 ,e law is necess>ily some?+ ab/ract4 ,be+ indisp5sable to ! intelligibility ( ! real1 e law all[s prevision & sci5ce to exi/4 ,b x is n an adequate expression ( ?is reality1 :i* nev] rema9s id5tical ) itself4 ,comte goes s f> z to say t our requirem5t ( precision 9 ! /udy ( natural laws mu/ n be pu%$ too f>4 ,= ! laws :i* x has be5 possible to e/abli% )9 c]ta9 degrees ( approximation vani% if ?is approximation is pu%$ fur!r4 ,n t ! ph5om5a cease to be subject to laws2 b ^! laws becom+ too complex1 escape u4 ,= in/ance1 x has be5 possible to e/abli% ) our !rmomet]s ! laws ( ! v>iation ( temp]ature ( a body "u c]ta9 conditions4 ,) v mu* m s5sitive !rmomet]s ! v>iations becomes incessant & v complicat$4 ,! kn[n laws disappe> )\t our be+ 9 a condition to e/abli% o!rs4#gg ,! ord] :i* positive sci5ce %[s u 9 nature is !n v f> f be+ absolute4 ,x is1 to speak truly1 ! outcome ( ! comb9$ activity ( our m9d & ( ?+s4 ,we _c sep>ate :at belongs to ea* ( ^! two factors1 b x appe>s f :at has j be5 said t ! m9d plays a great "p1 t ! ext]nal relations are f> m cont+5t ?an suits our bl9d in/9ct ( univ]sal connection40#gh ,nev]!less ! ph5om5a are n irr$ucible to ord]1 s9ce sci5ce & prevision rema9 possible4 ,b ?is ord]1 entirely relative 9 respect to our und]/&+ is only e/abli%$ )9 c]ta9 limits4 ,m p[]ful m9ds ?an ours w\ld probably con/ruct ri*] & m complex ord]s = !mselves4 ,= u1 beyond a c]ta9 po9t ( complexity our vision becomes confus$ & our logical requirem5ts are no long] satisfi$4 ,limits w\ld ?us seem to be plac$ ^u sci5tific inve/igation1 & ^! 9 ! int]e/ ( sci5ce itself4 ,f9ally we rea* ! la/ consequ5ce ( ?is !ory f\nd$ ^u exp]i5ce1 ! pr9ciple ( laws & ! pr9ciple ( ! conditions ( exi/5ce only insure a provisional ord]4 ,comte readily admits t x might n exi/4 8,?is ord] might become s irregul> t x might ev5 escape bra9s sup]ior to ours4 ,!re is no?+ to prev5t u f imag9+ words outside our sol> sy/em1 always giv5 ov] to an inorganic & entirely disord]$ agitation1 :i* w\ld n ev5 all[ ( a g5]al law ( gravitation40#gi ,?is is ! v hypo!sis =mulat$ by ,john ,/u>t ,mill1 9 almo/ simil> t]ms1 & 9 :i* a k9d ( r$uctio ad absurdum ( 8 own !ory 0 ?\ght to be f\nd4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 compatible ) ! exi/5ce ( a sci5ce :i* does n claim to possess an absolute value4 ,moreov] ,comte at once adds1 8,/ill1 ev5 if ord] %\ld be f\nd to be p>ticul> to our _w1 9 fact1 x w\ld be 9 no way accid5tal 9 x1 s9ce x is ! fir/ condition = human exi/5ce40 ,9 virtue ( ! pr9ciple ( ! conditions ( exi/5ce1 ! pres5ce ( a be+ su* z man implies ! :ole ( ! laws :i* gov]n our _w4 ,v4 ,! laws :i* = u con/itute ! ord] ( ! _w are ( two k9ds4 ,"s are e/abli%$ by ! positive me?od 9 ea* ord] ( ph5om5a sep>ately consid]$2 ! a/ronomical laws1 physical laws1 *emical laws1 etc4 ,!y belong to ! doma9 ( sci5ce prop]ly s-call$4 ,! o!rs are appreh5d$ :5 ! m9d leaves ! special po9t ( view ( sci5ce1 & places itself at ! univ]sal po9t ( view ( philosophy4 ,!y are f\nd aga9 9 ! diff]5t ord]s ( ph5om5a1 ^: relations !y express )\t compromis+ _! respective indep5d5ce4 ,!y repres5t !m sev]ally connect$1 or1 accord+ to ,comte's expression1 z conv]g5t4 ,comte calls ^! la/ encyclopdic laws4 ,!y t5d to realise ! unity :i* ! m9d claims1 n 9 pursu+ ! *im]ical r$uction ( all laws to a supreme law1 b 9 %[+ t ! sy/ems ( irr$ucible laws are nev]!less h>moni\s among !mselves4 ,g5]ally speak+1 ^! laws h be5 kn[n = a long "t1 b only z special laws ( su* & su* an ord] ( ph5om5a4 ,x belongs to positive philosophy to give !m _! encyclopdic "*1 t is to say1 to make !m univ]sal4 ,= in/ance1 d',alemb]t's pr9ciple is kn[n 9 me*anics z a law :i* connects que/ions ( movem5t ) que/ions ( equilibrium4 ,philosophy f9ds a simil> law 9 biology3 7physiological que/ions are correlat$ to anatomical que/ions72 & also 9 sociology 78progress is ! developm5t ( ord]074 ,x !n =mulates ! encyclopdic law :i* g5]alises ^! ?ree laws1 t is1 ! pr9ciple ( ! conditions ( exi/5ce4 ,simil>ly ! ?ree great laws ( me*anics1 kn[n "u ! "n ( ! laws ( ,kepl]1 ( ,galileo & ( ,newton1 mu/ be univ]salis$ & become encyclopdic = !y are applicable to all ! ord]s ( ph5om5a4#hj ,! law ( ,kepl]1 9 ! fir/ place1 expresses ! spontane\s t5d5cy ( all natural ph5om5a to p]sev]e indef9itely 9 _! /ate1 if no di/urb+ influ5ce sup]v5es2 a t5d5cy :5ce are d]iv$ in]tia 9 me*anics1 habit 9 liv+ bodies1 & ! cons]vative in/9ct 9 societies4 ,! law ( ,galileo :i* reconciles e common movem5t ) ! v>i\s p>ticul> movem5ts1 applies to all ! organic & inorganic ph5om5a4 ,=1 9 any sy/em1 we c always asc]ta9 ! indep5d5ce ( ! sev]al active or passive mutual relations ) reg>d to any action :i* is exactly common to ! v>i\s p>ts1 :atev] may be _! k9d & degree4 ,f9ally ! univ]sal "* ( ,newton's law 7reaction is equal to action71 is evid5t at fir/ sight4 ,x is accid5tally1 n ess5tially1 t ^! laws h at fir/ be5 me*anical laws4 ,!y c\ld h be5 equally atta9$ by ! /udy ( biological or social ph5om5a4 ,if ! sci5ce ( me*anics 0 ! fir/ to =mulate !m x is because x has = its object ! less complicat$ ph5om5a4 ,a complete & rational sy/em ( encyclopdic laws w\ld realise ! 8philosophia prima0 :i* ,bacon dimly =esaw4 ,9 ! actual condition ( ! sci5ces ?is w\ld probably be a ra% und]tak+4 ,comte attempt$ x 9 ! f\r? volume ( ! ,politique positive4#ha ,"o c h>dly say t ! trial 0 a decisive "o4 ,x is true t at t mom5t ,comte 0 already entirely tak5 up ) religi\s preoccupations4 ,h[ev]1 ! encyclopdic laws are de/9$ to play a "p 9 ! positive philosophy ( nature1 :i* may be comp>$1 9 "s respects1 ) t ( ! categories 9 ,ari/otle's philosophy4 ,!y are ! mo/ g5]al =ms "u :i* ! ph5om5a giv5 9 exp]i5ce become objects ( sci5tific ?\ght = u4 ,z 9 ea* class ( ph5om5a we det]m9e laws1 pr9ciples ( ord] & ( h>mony1 s ! encyclopdic laws make ! ord] & ! h>mony ( ! diff]5t classes among !mselves4 ,!y are1 s to speak1 ! laws ( laws4 ,?r\gh !m ! human m9d :i* has already rea*$ unity ( me?od1 may "s day rea* a c]ta9 unity ( k4 ,b ?is unity w always diff] by two ess5tial *>act]i/ics f t :i* metaphysicians h pursu$ up to ! pres5t "t3 x w respect ! irr$ucibl5ess ( ! v>i\s fundam5tal sci5ces1 & x w rema9 relative1 bo? by ! conditions ( ! object & by ^? ( ! subject1 ^u :i* x equally dep5ds4 ,our conception ( univ]sal ord] 8results f a necess>y concurr5ce betwe5 t :i* is )\t u1 & t :i* is )94 ,! laws1 t is to say ! g5]al facts1 are nev] any?+ b hypo!ses confirm$ by obs]vation4 ,if h>mony 9 no way exi/$ outside u our m9d w\ld be entirely incapable ( conceiv+ x1 b 9 no case is x v]ifi$ s mu* z we suppose x to be40#hb ,we nei!r make ord] nor p]ceive x entirely4 ,by long & ardu\s lab\r ! human intellect gradually dis5gages ! concept ( ord] out ( ! facts t come cr[d+ )9 its rea*4 ,x is an imp]fect1 cont+5t1 p]i%able ord]1 9 a ^w1 an ord]1 relative l ! m9d itself4 ,x is ord] nev]!less1 & a necess>y condition = e?ics z well z = sci5ce4 ,,footnotes3 #df ,c\rs1 ,i4 #d4 #dg ,disc\rs sur l',esprit positif1 p4 #bc4 #dh ,c\rs1 ,,ii4 #eje4 #di ,c\rs1 ,,vi4 #fdh4 #ej ,c\rs1 ,,vi1 #fei4 #ea ,c\rs1 ,,vi1 #fee4 #eb ,disc\rs sur l'esprit positif1 p4 #ag4 #ec ,lettre in$ite a ,m4 ,papot1 #h mai #ahea 7ar*ives de la socit positivi/e74 #ed ,c\rs1 ,,vi1 #ffb4 #ee ,c\rs1 ,,ii1 #cf4 #ef ,c\rs1 ,,iii1 #cfb4 #eg ,c\rs1 ,,vi1 #hcc4 #eh ,c\rs1 ,,iii1 #cci1 #cfe4 #ei ,c\rs1 ,,iv1 #deb4 #fj ,c\rs1 ,,iv1 #dgj4 #fa ,pol4 pos4 i1 #fda4 #fb ,c\rs1 ,,iii1 #bce4 #fc ,pol4 pos4 iv1 ,app5dice p4 #ag4 #fd ,c\rs1 ii1 #bf-bg4 #fe ,c\rs1 iii1 #cff4 #ff ,dialogues on natural religion1 ,,viii4 #fg ,sy/me de la nature1 ,,ii4 #ahg4 #fh ,c\rs1 ,,iii4 #cfc-d4 #fi ,pol4 pos4 ,,ii4 #db4 #gj ,c\rs1 ,,iv4 #bgd4 #ga ,pol4 pos4 ,app5dice1 p4 #be4 #gb ,c\rs1 ,,iii4 #cbe4 #gc ,c\rs1 ,i1 #abh-i4 #gd ,c\rs1 ,,iii4 #fdb4 #ge ,pol4 pos4 ,,ii4 #dbg4 #gf ,pol4 pos4 #dca4 #gg ,c\rs1 ,,vi4 #fij4 #gh ,pol4 pos4 ,i4 #ehh4 #gi ,pol4 pos4 ,,ii4 #cj4 #hj ,c\rs1 ,,xi41 #gdj-df2 ,pol4 pos41 ,i1 #did-e4 #ha ,pol4 pos41 ,,iv41 #agc-hj4 #hb ,pol4 pos41 ,,ii4 #cc4 ,,*apt] ,,vi ,,sci5ce 7,,cont9u$7--,,positive ,,logic ,logic1 says ,comte1 almo/ 9 ! t]ms ( ,desc>tes1 is ! sole portion ( anci5t philosophy :i* is capable ( /ill pres5t+ "s appe>ance ( utility4#hc ,& does ev5 ?is appe>ance correspond to a v solid reality8 ,if we di/+ui%1 accord+ to cu/om1 =mal logic f appli$ logic1 ,comte 9 8 sy/em w f9d no place = ! =m]1 :i* e/abli%es a priori ! pr9ciples & ! me*anism ( reason+4 ,z to ! pr9ciples1 :i* are ! laws ( ! und]/&+1 positive philosophy has %[n t ! only way to discov] !m is to /udy ! products ( ! human intellect1 t is to say1 ! developm5t ( ! sci5ces4 ,& x is aga9 f ^! sci5ces t1 ?r\gh obs]vation1 ! !ory ( reason+ mu/ be drawn4 ,=mal logic1 z metaphysicians h con/ruct$ x1 especially develops ! dialectical faculty1 t is to say1 an aptitude m h>mful ?an useful1 = prov+ )\t f9d+4#hd ,desc>tes said ! same1 9 speak+ ( ! syllogism1 t x s]ves m = expla9+ to o!rs ! ?+s :i* we "k1 ?an to discov] ^? :i* we ignore4 ,all ! utility :i* we c attribute to ! /udy ( logic prop]ly s-call$ is f\nd aga9 m ext5d$1 m v>i$1 m complete1 m lum9\s1 9 ma!matical /udies4 ,! me*anism ( reason+ is ev]y:]e ! same4 ,:atev] may be ! ph5om5a :i* are ! objects ( a sci5ce ! nature ( d$uction & induction nev] *anges 9 !m4 ,?us 9 practis+ ^! =ms ( reason+ 9 ! mo/ simple & ! mo/ g5]al ph5om5a1 ^? ^: sci5ce is mo/ advanc$1 we le>n to "k !m ) ! mo/ entire evid5ce1 & 9 all ! g5]ality ( :i* !y are capable4 ,n[h]e is reason+ s exact1 s rigor\s z 9 ma!matics4 ,!y accu/om ! m9d n to fe$ ^u false reasons1 & x is 9 t s*ool t m5 ought to le>n ! !ory & ! practice ( reason+4 ,b1 if ! old pure logic is ?us replac$ by ma!matics1 mu/ we n at lea/ pres]ve ! g5]al /udy ( ! processes us$ 9 ! v>i\s sci5ces1 :i* is call$ me?odology8 ,has n ,comte himself insi/$ ^u ! irr$ucibl5ess ( ! sev]al ord]s ( laws to "o ano!r1 & 9 p>ticul> to ! ma!matical laws8 ,is n ! legitimate object ( logic to def9e ! processes ( inve/igation & ( pro( p>ticul> to ea* ( ! fundam5tal sci5ces8 ,comte does n ?9k s4 ,?is appli$ logic does n appe> to him to be m indisp5sable ?an =mal logic4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 ! =m]1 9 fact1 supposes ! latt]4 ,x proce$s f ! same philosophical conception4 ,9 ord] to det]m9e a priori1 9 a g5]al way1 ! rules ( ! application ( ! m9d to its v>i\s sci5tific objects1 we %\ld fir/ h to possess a k ( ! laws ( ! m9d4 ,b1 accord+ to ,comte1 ?is k c only be obta9$ by ! obs]vation ( ! me?ods :i* ! m9d has inde$ foll[$4 ,moreov]1 no art is taught ab/ract$ly1 n ev5 ! art ( reason+ well1 nor t ( exp]im5t+1 ( f9d+ hypo!ses1 etc4 ,x has nev] be5 suffici5t to "k ! rules ( v]sification 9 ord] to write true poetry4 ,a deep k ( ! rules ( me?od w n lead to sci5tific discov]ies4#he ,:atev] we le>n ( an art1 x is practice t has taught u4 ,no?+ "h c replace "t1 natural disposition1 & exp]i5ce4 ,me?ods !n _c be /udi$ ap>t f ! positive rese>*es 9 :i* m5 ( le>n+ make use ( !m4 ,ev5 suppos+ t 9 ! f> future1 :5 ! sci5ces are advanc$1 ! me?ods & _! applications c\ld be taught by !mselves1 ! /udy w\ld run a great risk ( yield+ poor results4#hf ,up to ! pres5t "t all t has be5 said ( ! me?od1 consid]$ 9 ! ab/ract1 r$uces itself to vague g5]alities4 ,:51 9 logic1 we h ?or\ghly e/abli%$ t all our sci5ce ( nature mu/ be f\nd$ ^u obs]vation1 t we mu/ proce$ sometimes f facts to pr9ciples1 sometimes f pr9ciples to facts1 & a few o!r simil> aphorisms1 we "k f> less ( ! me?od ?an ! man :o has /udi$ a s+le "o ( ! positive sci5ces some:at deeply1 ev5 )\t any philosophical purpose4 ,x is ?us t ,eclectic philosoph]s h imag9$ to make _! psy*ology into a sci5ce1 ?9k+ !y c\ld und]/& & practice ! positive me?od because !y _h read ! ,novum ,organum & ! ,disc\rs de la ,m?ode4 ,b did n ,bacon1 ,pascal1 ,desc>tes1 & ! o!r great sci5tific lead]s insi/ on ! uselessness ( ab/ract consid]ations ab\t me?od8 ,!y nev] sep>at$ ! rules !y =mulat$ f _! application to positive rese>*4 ,comte himself1 _! successor & _! heir1 uses no o!r language4 ,9 8 long /udy ( ! fundam5tal sci5ces he nev] fails to di/+ui% ! cont5ts ( ! sci5ce f its me?od1 :at he calls 8! sci5tific po9t ( view & ! logical po9t ( view40 ,b1 :ile di/+ui%+ !m1 he consid]s t !y are correlat$ & closely alli$ among !mselves4 ,he no m conceives me?od z sep>at$ f ! sci5ce :i* he /udies1 ?an sci5ce z sep>at$ f its me?od4 ,bo? con/itute "o intellectual reality se5 "u two aspects closely alli$ to "o ano!r4#hg ,to conclude1 traditional logic is fa/ disappe>+4 ,9 its !oretical p>ts x is sup]annuat$ l ! metaphysical philosophy :5ce x proce$s4 ,9 its appli$ p>ts x is b>r5 if sep>at$ f ! practice ( ! sci5ces4 ,,ii4 ,!re is h[ev] a positive logic1 & 9 x we c also di/+ui% a !oretical & a practical "p4 ,! !oretical "p deals ) logical laws4 ,^! laws :i*1 f9ally1 gov]n ! intellectual _w1 are inv>iable1 & common n only to all "t & places1 b also to all subjects :atev] )\t any di/9ction ev5 betwe5 ^? :i* ,comte calls real & *im]ical4 ,!y are obs]v$1 fundam5tally1 ev5 9 dreams4#hh ,b ?is univ]sality ( logical laws is n und]/ood by him 9 ! s5se 9 :i* ! rationali/ philosoph]s und]/& x4 ,comte is only conc]n$ ) a p]man5ce & cont9uity purely hi/orical 9 "*4 ,! m9d ( man1 l ! re/ ( 8 nature rema9s id5tical ) itself1 ?r\gh ! div]sity ( epo*s & situations4 ,x evolves )\t *ang+ fundam5tally 8)\t o!r diff]5ces ?an ^? ( gradually develop$ maturity & exp]i5ce40 ,anci5t philosophy claim$ to discov] ! intellectual laws by reflection1 z if ! m9d c\ld ?9k & at ! same "t see itself ?9k+1 reason & obs]ve its reason+ ,comte rejects ?is introspective me?od1 :i* yields no sci5tific results4 ,if we apply ! me?od ( positive inve/igation to ! intellectual ph5om5a z to all ! o!rs1 two ways only are op54 ,we c look at x f ! /atic po9t ( view1 t is to say1 /udy ! conditions ^u :i* ^! ph5om5a dep5d1 & ref] ! ph5om5a to !m z we ref] g5]ally ! function to its organ4 ,9 ?is s5se ! /udy ( ! intellectual ph5om5a belongs to biology4 ,or else1 f ! dynamic po9t ( view1 we c consid] ^! ph5om5a 9 _! evolution1 by obs]v+ ! successive phases ?r\gh :i* !y pass4 ,& s9ce ! life ( ! individual is too %ort = ?is 8progress0 to be appreciable1 x mu/ be /udi$ 9 ! life ( ! species4 ,s und]/ood1 ! sci5ce ( ! intellectual laws comes )9 ! sph]e ( sociology4 ,n[1 high] biology :i* deals ) moral & intellectual ph5om5a1 has only j be5 f\nd$ by ,cabanis & ,gall4 ,comte discov]$ t x c\ld n be con/itut$ z a sci5ce )\t ! help ( sociology4 ,x is !n to ?is newly born /udy t ! se>* aft] intellectual laws 9 e way belongs4 ,positive logic ab/a9s1 z we see1 f speculat+ ^u ! lead+ pr9ciples ( k1 pr9ciples ( id5tity1 ( contradiction ( causality1 etc4 ,^! k9ds ( pr9ciples are n objects ( exam9ation or ( discussion4 ,comte ^u ?is po9t is 9 full accord ) ! ,scotti% s*ool4 ,no positive sci5ce que/ions its own pr9ciples1 = h[ c we submit ! v pr9ciples ( all reason+ to criticism8 ,no?+ is less 9 accordance ) ! positive _s ?an an attempt ( ?is k9d4 ,x is simply metaphysical & has no *ance ( success4 ,! intellectual laws ( :i* ! rese>* is positive are su* z ! law ( ! ?ree /ates 7:i* is ! mo/ g5]al ( all71 or su*1 = in/ance1 z ^!3 ! human m9d always makes an ef=t to place its conceptions 9 accordance ) its obs]vations2 9 e case ! human m9d =ms ! simple/ hypo!sis1 etc4 ,^! laws1 :i* are d]iv$ f ! nature ( ! human m9d1 & ^: action has always be5 felt1 c\ld only be discov]$ & =mulat$ q rec5tly4 ,= biology & sociology1 to :i* !y are relat$1 c\ld n be con/itut$ be=e ! m simple fundam5tal sci5ces 7 suffici5tly advanc$4 ,to rea* a sci5tific k ( ! intellectual laws1 to f\nd a 8positive logic10 no?+ less 0 ne$$ ?an ! long evolution ^: t]m is m>k$ by ,comte's philosophy4 ,appli$ logic1 or !ory ( me?od1 also f9ds a new mean+ 9 ! positive doctr9e4 ,comte does n fall into ! mi/ake :i* he has criticis$4 ,he does n propose to tea* an art ex pr(esso1 & he w n =mulate ! rules :i* positive rese>* mu/ foll[ 9 ord] to be productive4 ,"h aga9 ,comte w f\nd 8 doctr9e ^u ! intellectual evolution ( humanity4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 l ! sci5ces1 ! positive me?ods are collective works1 8! "w ( ! species gradually develop$ 9 ! long sequ5ce ( c5turies40 ,comte consid]s z imp]t95t ! pret5sions ( "s mod]n sci5ti/s1 :o pride !mselves ^u hav+ inv5t$ ! comp>ative me?od 9 biology4 ,z if ,ari/otle _h n already practis$ x6 ,& ,ari/otle _h n be5 ! fir/ to d s4 ,! processes ( ! positive me?ods d n reveal !mselves all at once1 "u a p]fect & f9al =m4 ,!y gradually come to light dur+ a long p]iod ( grop+4 ,! human m9d notices ! processes :i* h succe$$ 9 simple cases4 ,x endeav\rs to g5]alize !m1 & te/s !m 9 new & slightly m complex cases4 ,x seeks = ! reason :y 9 c]ta9 cases ! end is rea*$1 9 o!rs x is miss$4 ,me?od is ?us ins5sibly =m$ by a k9d ( practical induction4 ,its ess5tial processes are1 l ! lead+ ideas 9 ! sci5ces1 8inspirations f univ]sal wisdom40 ,! (fice ( great m5--& ?is is suffici5t = !m to e>n our gratitude--is to recognise ! value & ! fecundity ( ^! inspirations1 to set !m at "w1 & especially to end[ !m ) an (t5 indef9ite ext5sion by sep>at+ !m f ! concrete conditions 9 :i* !y 7 at fir/ manife/$4 ,?us positive philosophy1 less ambiti\s ?an its pr$ecessors1 does n take ^u itself to legislate ^u me?od4 ,b nei!r does x conf9e itself to ! m]e duty ( mak+ /atem5ts1 t is to say to simply regi/] ! processes made use ( 9 ! sci5ces4 ,is n its prop] function to repres5t 9 human k ! 8univ]saliz+ m9d0 :i* 9 ,comte's language is synonym\s ) gov]nm5t8 ,he himself calls ! fifty-eigh? lesson ( ! ,c\rs de philosophie positive 8 ,disc\rs de la ,m?ode4#hi ,he rises above ! necess>ily peculi> position :i* belongs to speciali/s1 & places himself at ! c5tral & univ]sal po9t ( view :i* is prop] to ! philosoph]4 ,!nce he embraces "u "o po9t ( view1 ! entire hi]>*y ( ! fundam5tal sci5ces4 ,out ( ?is well-ord]$ :ole1 he wat*es z !y arise1 fir/ ! ess5ce ( ! positive me?od1 & !n ! relations ( ! v>i\s elem5ts 9 ?is me?od to "o ano!r4 ,9 its ess5ce1 ! positive me?od is "o1 z sci5ce is "o4 ,= x ev] t5ds t[>ds ! same end3 ! e/abli%m5t ( ! inv>iable relations :i* con/itute ! effective laws ( all obs]vable ev5ts1 8?us capable ( be+ rationally =ese5 f "o ano!r40 ,! positive me?od proce$s to ?is by means ( a ?reefold ab/raction4 ,x fir/ sep>ates ! practical requirem5ts f !oretical k1 to be only conc]n$ ) ! latt]1 x seeks = ! laws ( ph5om5a )\t tr\bl+ itself1 at lea/ provisionally1 ) any possible applications4 ,x also puts aside /hetic consid]ations1 :i* ought n to int]v5e 9 sci5tific inve/igation4 ,f9ally--& "h is ! condition = ! v exi/5ce ( sci5ce--! positive me?od always c>efully di/+ui%es betwe5 ! ab/ract & ! concrete po9t ( view4 ,x /udies n be+s1 b ph5om5a4 ,ev5 9 ! simple/ cases1 9 a/ronomy = in/ance1 no g5]al law c be e/abli%$ s long z bodies are consid]$ 9 _! concrete exi/5ce4 ,! pr9cipal ph5om5on has _h to be deta*$1 s to speak1 s z to submit x alone to an ab/ract /udy1 aft]w>ds all[+ u to return successfully to ! consid]ation ( m complex realities4 ,?is is :at ! anci5ts _h kn[n h[ to d 9 geometry2 & ?is is :at ,comte himself has done 9 ! mo/ complex ( all sci5ces1 9 sociology4 ,in/ead ( /opp+ at ! concrete reality ( hi/ory1 he det]m9$1 by a bold ab/raction1 ! law ( ! ess5tial movem5t 9 human society 8leav+ to subsequ5t lab\rs ! c>e ( br++ app>5t anomalies into l9e ) x40#ij ,9 ! ma91 ^! g5]al *>act]i/ics ( ! positive me?od br+ x s+ul>ly ne> to ! ,c>tesian me?od4 ,comte's 8,?reefold gradual ab/raction0 seems inde$ to h = its end1 l ,desc>tes' analysis1 to g back to :at is simple/ & easie/ to "k1 & !n to come d[n1 by a syn!tic & progressive advance1 t[>ds ! reality :i* is giv5 to u 9 exp]i5ce4 ,! "o & ! o!r ( ^! me?ods witness1 "h1 to an ef=t t[>ds g5]alis+ ! _s ( ! ma!matical me?od4 ,let u nev] =get1 writes ,comte1 t ! g5]al _s ( positive philosophy 0 fir/ =m$ by ! culture ( ma!matics1 & t we mu/ necess>ily g back s f>1 9 ord] to "k ?is _s 9 its elem5t>y purity4 ,! ma!matical processes & =mul are r>ely capable ( be+ appli$ to ! effective /udy ( natural ph5om5a1 :5 we wi% to g beyond ! mo/ extreme simplicity 9 ! real conditions ( ! problems4 ,b 8! true ma!matical _s1 s di/9ct f ! algebraical _s1 ) :i* x is too (t5 conf\nd$1 is on ! contr>y1 con/antly ( value40#ia ,we mu/ !re=e n take too mu* notice ( ,comte's urg+ & bitt]ness1 :5 he criticises ! n>r[ness ( m9d & ! 8imphilosophisme0 ( geomet]s4#ib ,und\bt$ly he nev] tires ( safegu>d+ ! high] sci5ces aga9/ ! encroa*m5ts ( ma!matics1 & ( %[+ ! impossibility ( a philosophy f\nd$ exclusively ^u _! pr9ciples4 ,b he none ! less recognises t ?is sci5ce possesses ! d\ble privilege ( hav+ furni%$ hi/orically1 ! fir/ model ( ! positive me?od1 & ( pres5t+ /ill to-day its f9e/ & pure/ examples4 ,h[ev]1 ,comte1 ev5 m ?an ,desc>tes1 takes c>e n to trans=m ! ma!matical me?od into a univ]sal me?od by a simple g5]alisation4 ,no?+ w\ld be m contr>y to ! positive _s4 ,= ! developm5t ( ?is _s ! /udy ( ma!matics is a necess>y introduction4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 b an introduction4 ,! use :i* ma!matics c make ( d$uction1 on acc\nt ( ! extreme simplicity ( _! subject produces a v false idea ( ! p[] ( our und]/&+1 & disposes u to reason m ?an to obs]ve4 ,f> f prep>+ u = ! me?od :i* mu/ be foll[$ = ! /udy ( ! o!r ord]s ( natural ph5om5a1 ! exclusive habit ( ma!matics t5ds r to draw u f x4 ,9 a ^w x is a dang]\s error to take ?is 8initial degree ( s\nd logical education = ! f9al degree40#ic ,9 ord] to grasp ! positive me?od 9 its entirety1 we mu/ n consid] only ma!matics1 b ! :ole s]ies ( ! fundam5tal sci5ces4 ,?is me?od1 always fundam5tally id5tical1 takes p>ticul> det]m9ations 9 adapt+ itself to ea* new ord] ( ph5om5a4 ,ea* ( ^! ord]s introduces1 s to speak1 ! use ( "s ( ! pr9cipal processes ( :i* ! me?od is compos$1 & 8x is always at _! s\rce t ^! notions ( univ]sal logic mu/ be exam9$4 ,?us ! ma!matical sci5ce is ! "o :i* gives ! be/ k ( ! elem5t>y conditions ( positive sci5ce4 ,9 x all ! artifices ( ! art ( reason+1 f ! mo/ spontane\s to ! mo/ sublime are cont9ually practis$ ) f> m v>iety & fecundity ?an any:]e else4 ,a/ronomy !n tea*es u1 9 its initial purity1 ! art ( obs]vation accompani$ by t ( =m+ hypo!ses4 ,x %[s 9 :at ! rational provision ( ph5om5a consi/s1 & t sci5ce always ends 9 assimilation or 9 comb9ation4 ,physics initiate u to ! !ory ( exp]im5t+1 *emi/ry to ! g5]al art ( nom5clatures1 ! sci5ce ( organic bodies to ! !ory ( classifications4 ,biology specially makes use ( ! comp>ative me?od1 & f9ally ) sociology appe>s ! 8transc5dant0 process :i* ,comte calls ! hi/orical me?od4#id ,positive logic ext5ds to all ! fundam5tal sci5ces ! use ( ! processes at fir/ peculi> to ea* "o ( !m4 ,ea* great logical artifice1 once /udi$ 9 ! portion ( natural philosophy :i* %[s its mo/ spontane\s & mo/ complete developm5t1 c aft]w>ds be appli$1 ) ! necess>y modifications1 to ! p]fect+ ( ! o!r sci5ces4 ,= in/ance1 ! comp>ative me?od belongs 9 ! fir/ place to biology4 ,b1 :5 br\ght back to its pr9ciple & g5]alis$1 x becomes a preci\s in/rum5t = sociology1 = physics1 & ev5 = ma!matics4 ,9 e sci5ce1 ! me?od is complet$ by ! auxili>y use ( ! processes ^: p[] & ^: sph]e ( action h be5 made kn[n by ! o!r sci5ces4 ,by ^! mutual loans1 9 ea* "o ( !m1 ! positive me?od rea*es its maximum ( production4 ,to be cultivat$ 9 ! mo/ rational mann] possible1 ! sci5ces mu/ !n be subject to ! direction ( a g5]al sy/em ( positive philosophy1 8! common basis & ! uni=m comb9+ elem5t ( all truly sci5tific lab\rs40#ie ,! sci5tific man mu/ at ! same "t be a philosoph]1 s9ce philosophy alone puts him 9 possession ( all ! res\rces ( positive me?od4 ,= in/ance1 ?is philosophy w %[ ! geomet] t he mu/ at lea/ h a g5]al k ( biology & ( sociology4 ,biology w tea* him ! comp>ative me?od1 ( :i* he c make use :5 occasion (f]s1 & sociology by %[+ him ! hi/ory ( 8 sci5ce 9 ! g5]al developm5t ( ! human m9d1 w help him bett] to und]/& x4 ,if ! geomet]s _h a m philosophical m9d1 _! sci5ce w\ld be bett] taught4 ,! great conceptions ( ,desc>tes1 ( ,leibnitz1 ( ,lagrange1 w\ld be m intellig5tly expla9$ & br\ght to light4 ,if x is useful = ! geomet] to h /udi$ ! o!r fundam5tal sci5ces1 x is n less indisp5sable = o!r le>n$ m5 to h gone ?r\gh ! /udy ( ma!matics4 ,z an 8initial0 discipl9e1 ?is sci5ce c be neglect$ by no "o4 ,x is ! common s*ool ( positivity = all m9ds4 ,x is !re=e to be regrett$ t ! sci5tific education ( future physiologi/s %\ld be ma9ly made up ( lit]>y /udies & ( a few notions ( physics & *emi/ry4 ,! m complex ! ph5om5a ^: laws !y w h to seek1 ! m necess>y w x be = !m to h become famili>is$ 9 ma!matics & 9 a/ronomy1 ) ! precise idea ( sci5tific tru?4 ,&1 z a matt] ( fact1 until ?is c5tury1 ! /udy ( ! exact sci5ces _h always be5 reg>d$ z a prelim9>y condition = t ( ! natural sci5ces4 ,buffon & ,lam>ck 9 _! day _h /ill receiv$ ?is discipl9e4 ,if x has be5 s difficult to con/itute social sci5ce1 x comes1 among o!r reasons1 f ! lack ( sci5tific education among ^? :o1 up to ! pres5t "t1 h wi%$ to /udy social ph5om5a4 ,:]e1 = in/ance1 c\ld economi/s h f\nd ! sci5tific idea ( :at con/itutes natural laws1 ignor+ z mo/ ( !m did n only biology :i* 0 be+ =m$ beside !m1 b ev5 ! sci5ces :i* _h already rea*$ a positive /ate8 ,! exclusive cultivation ( a s+le sci5ce is always a dang] = ! intellect4 ,nev]!less1 s long z ! *ief task ( ! positive _s 0 to disorganise ! sy/em ( beliefs :i* con/itut$ !ological & metaphysical philosophy1 ! speciality ( ! works & ( ! me?ods 0 an inconv5i5ce ( second>y importance4 ,x matt]$ little t ! discov]ies ( ! a/ronom]s1 ! physicians1 ! biologi/s %\ld be m or less co-ord9at$ & direct$ by a univ]sal positive me?od1 s long z !y did _! "w & prep>$ ! future4 ,b1 :5 ! positive _s _h to become organic in/ead ( critical1 :5 x _h to sub/itute a new philosophy to ! "o :i* x _h ov]?r[n1 !n x 0 oblig$ to subord9ate ! special processes :i* x _h made use ( until !n to a s+le univ]sal me?od4 ,%\ld ! 8sci5tific an>*y0 h la/$1 ! progress ( ! positive _s w\ld und\bt$ly h l$ to ! discr$it+ ( ! metaphysical rgime1 b )\t replac+ x1 & consequ5tly )\t hav+ done ) x4 ,by reject+ any new g5]al discipl9e1 mod]n sci5tific m5 w\ld unkn[+ly t5d to re-e/abli% ! sy/em :i* !y seem$ to h %att]$ = ev]4 ,9 a ^w1 ! triumph ( ! positive me?od1 to be f9al1 presupposes ! acceptance ( ! positive philosophy by all m5 ( le>n+4 ,! old logic 0 b\nd by ! n>r[e/ ties to ! metaphysical doctr9es :i* 7 !n dom9ant4 ,9 ! same way positive logic is b\nd up ) positive philosophy4 ,speak+ m precisely1 x is an expression ( ?is v philosophy4 ,,iii4 ,is ! g5]al me?od ( positive philosophy objective1 or subjective1 or bo? at once8 ,z we "k1 ?is "q has rais$ passionate discussion among positivi/s4#if ,outside ! s*ool x has be5 solv$ by "s hi/orians z if ,augu/e ,comte1 at ! end ( 8 life1 _h gone back to a doctr9e v diff]5t f ! "o set =? by him 9 ! ,c\rs de philosophie positive4 ,x suffices1 h[ev]1 to di/+ui%1 ) him1 two successive po9ts ( view1 to see h[ ! two me?ods1 antagoni/ic 9 a c]ta9 s5se1 c1 9 ano!r "o1 be v well reconcil$4 ,if we only consid] ! process foll[$ by our m9d 9 ! explanation ( natural ph5om5a1 t is to say ! object ( positive philosophy tak5 9 ! /rict s5se ( ! ^w1 x is true t two opposite me?ods are f\nd face to face4 ,! subjective me?od goes f ! consid]ation ( man to t ( ! _w1 ! objective me?od goes f ! k ( ! _w to t ( man4 ,! fir/ gives rise to !ological & metaphysical philosophy1 ! latt] to positive philosophy4 ,! incompatibility ( ! two philosophies proce$s f t ( ! me?ods1 :i* is irr$ucible4 ,x all[s u to say3 8,?is w kill t40#ig ,9 ?is s5se1 ! f9al e/abli%m5t ( ! objective me?od1 :i* is complet$ by ! f\ndation ( sociology1 implies ! exclusion1 also f9al1 ( ! subjective me?od4 ,b 8hav+ rea*$ its full maturity1 true philosophy %\ld inevitably t5d to reconcile ^! two antagoni/ic me?ods10 wrote ,comte 9 #ahch1 9 ! ?ird volume ( ! ,c\rs de philosophie positive1 t is to say1 long be=e ! "t ( :at has be5 wrongly call$ 8 second philosophy4#ih ,?is reconciliation w be accompli%$ by means ( ! di/9ction betwe5 ! special po9t ( view ( ! sci5ces1 & ! univ]sal po9t ( view ( philosophy4 ,! sci5tific inve/igation ( ! laws ( natural ph5om5a c only be made by means ( ! objective me?od3 ,comte nev] v>ies 9 8 ?\ght on ?is po9t4 ,b ^! sci5ces are b ! p>ts 9 a great] :ole1 = :i* ! subjective me?od alone is suitable4 ,two argum5ts especially prove ?is1 "o belong+ to ! logical1 ! o!r to ! moral & ! religi\s ord]4 ,! supreme requirem5t ( our intellect is unity4 ,%all we ev] rea* ?is unity by us+ ! objective me?od 9 ! sci5ces8 ,evid5tly n4 ,ev5 9 ea* ord] ( ph5om5a sep>ately consid]$ we d n see h[ to r$uce ! laws :i* we "k to a s+le law ( a m g5]al "*4 ,& :at are ! laws kn[n to u comp>$ ) ^? :i* elude our se>*1 & :i* p]haps may d s = ev]8 ,consid]$ 9 its object1 ea* "o ( our sci5ces rea*es1 s to speak1 to inf9ity1 f> beyond our limit$ horizon4 ,if !n1 9 ord] to satisfy u1 a s+le conception ( ! _w is necess>y1 we %all nev] obta9 su* a conception f ! objective po9t ( view4 ,b if we *ange our po9t ( view1 if we ref] ! :ole ( ! sci5ces to man1 or bett]1 to humanity1 z a c5tre1 we %all !n be able to realise ! unity :i* we seek4 ,?is is precisely :at is made possible by sociology1 by subord9at+ ! hi]>*y ( ! positive sci5ces to ! f9al sci5ce ( humanity4 ,to consid] ! o!r fundam5tal sci5ces z 8indisp5sable prelim9>ies10#ii to repres5t ! evolution :i* has br\ght !m =? 9 turn z ! v hi/ory ( human progress2 to v]ify ! law ( ! ?ree /ates 9 all our beliefs1 & 9 all our k2 f9ally1 to control all sci5tific rese>* f ! sociological po9t ( view3 ?is is :at ,comte und]/&s by ! conciliation ( ! two me?ods4 ,! :ole developm5t ( positive sci5ce f ma!matics to sociology1 lies betwe5 ! new use :i* is made ( subjective me?od & t :i* 0 spontane\sly made ( x by !ological philosophy4 ,:5 !ological philosophy consid]$ ! k ( man & t ( ! _w z int]dep5d5t1 ! in/9ct :i* animat$ x 0 a j "o4 ,b x 0 imag9+ in/ead ( obs]v+4 ,x repres5t$ ! _w z fill$ ) 8causes0 analog\s to ! w ( man & equally caprici\s4 ,! new subjective me?od re/s1 on ! contr>y1 ^u ! v results ( ! positive sci5ces1 br\ght to a syn!sis 9 sociology4 ,x takes z e/abli%$ t ! intellectual & moral ph5om5a dep5d ^u ! biological laws1 & t ! biological laws !mselves are subord9ate to ! laws ( ! inorganic milieu4 ,b1 s9ce ! 8f9al sy/ematisation ( all ^! laws0#ajj mu/ always rema9 impossible f ! objective po9t ( view1 ! new subjective me?od und]takes x f ! po9t ( view ( humanity z a c5tre4 ,we c ?us di/+ui% two great p]iods 9 ! intellectual advance ( humanity4 ,dur+ ! fir/1 ! positive _s successively applies ! sci5tific1 t is to say objective1 me?od1 to high] & high] ord]s ( ph5om5a4 ,! f\ndation ( sociology m>ks ! t]m ( ?is progress4 ,!n ! second p]iod beg9s4 ,! positive _s f special has become univ]sal1 f analytical syn!tical4 ,x reacts ^u ! p>ticul> sci5ces1 & h5ce=? makes use ( ! 8reg5]at$0 subjective me?od1 to gov]n ! :ole ( !m4 ,f ! moral & religi\s po9t ( view1 once sociology has be5 con/itut$1 & positive philosophy has be5 e/abli%$1 ! functions prop] to religion appe>4 ,! intellect recognises t its end does n lie )9 itself1 & t x is incapable ( det]m9+ its own rule & aim4 ,x submits to a direct+ au?ority1 :i* w guide its ef=ts & fix _! object4 ,to act f affection1 & to ?9k 9 ord] to act4 ,b if ! m9d und]/&s t x is de/9$ to be us$ 9 ! s]vice ( humanity1 x sees at ! same "t t 9 ! complete positive doctr9e1 :i* conta9s religion1 ! objective me?od gives prec$5ce to ! subjective1 or r t !y mutually support ea* o!r4 ,if we 7 pure intellects we %\ld probably always g f ! _w to man4 ,b 9 u ! intellect is only a means4 ,love is ! pr9ciple1 action is ! end2 & x is to man1 f9ally1 t our /udy ( ! _w mu/ be ref]r$4 ,t[>ds ! end ( 8 life1 ,comte replac$ ! logic ( ! m9d1 8especially guid$ by artificial signs10 by ! logic ( ! he>t 8f\nd$ ^u ! direct connection ( ! feel+s40#aja ,we %all n "h insi/ ^u a conception :i* is closely alli$ to 8 religi\s sy/em4 ,we w only conclude t1 f ! philosophical po9t ( view ! two me?ods objective & subjective1 9 ,comte's ?\ght1 are easily reconcil$1 provid$ t bo? h be5 8sy/ematically reg5]at$40 ,n[1 ! reg5]ation is obta9$ z soon z sociology is f\nd$4 ,on ! "o h&1 z a matt] ( fact1 x furni%es ! sci5ces =m$ by ! objective me?od ) a pr9ciple ( unity1 s9ce h5ce=? !y are all subord9at$ to ! s+le sci5ce ( ,humanity4 ,&1 on ! o!r h&1 ! subjective me?od acquires ! positivity :i* x lack$1 = sociology has sub/itut$ to ! arbitr>y 8individual subject10 ! 8univ]sal subject10 t is to say aga91 ,humanity4 ,,footnotes3 #hc ,c\rs1 ,,iii4 #ccf-g4 #hd ,syn?se subjective1 p4 #he4 #he ,c\rs1 ,,vi41 #gjh4 #hf ,c\rs1 ,i1 #cb4 #hg ,c\rs1 ,,vi1 #gji4 #hh ,c\rs1 ,v1 #gi4 #hi ,c\rs1 ,,vi1 #gca4 #ij ,c\rs1 ,,vi1 #gjd4 #ia ,c\rs1 ,,ii4 #cbd-e4 #ib ,lettres ,valat1 p4 #ic 7#bd septembre1 #ahbh74 #ic ,c\rs1 ,,vi4 #gab-ae4 #id ,c\rs1 ,,vi4 #gbj sq4 #ie ,c\rs1 ,,vi4 #gd4 #if ,see above1 ,introduction1 pp4 #ig ,an allusion to a fam\s passage 9 ,victor ,hugo's 8,notre ,dame de ,p>is40 #ih ,c\rs1 ,,iii1 #baj4 #ii ,c\rs1 ,,vi4 #faj4 #ajj ,pol4 pos41 ,i4 #ddg4 #aja ,pol4 pos41 ,,ii4 #aja-b4 ,,book ,,ii ,,! ,,philosophy ,,( ,,! ,,sci5ces ,,introduction ,! ,philosophy ( ! ,sci5ces is "o ( ! lead+ p>ts ( ,comte's "w4 ,no o!r br+s out m cle>ly ! ess5tial diff]5ces :i* di/+ui% 8 doctr9e f previ\s sy/ems4 ,9 ,comte's eyes ! philosophy ( ! sci5ces is insep>able f ! philosophy ( hi/ory & f ! !ory ( progress4 ,= ! sci5ces are great sociological facts &1 z su*1 are subject1 9 _! evolution1 to inv>iable laws4 ,! me?od ( ! philosophy ( ! sci5ces c\ld !re=e only be ! positive me?od1 ev] l to itself4 ,moreov]1--& ?is is an imm$iate consequ5ce ( ?is fir/ consid]ation1--! object ( ! positive philosophy ( ! sci5ces is 9 no way to 8expla90 :at ! sci5ces !mselves d n expla94 ,! sci5ces1 z is well kn[n1 d n inquire into _! data & _! pr9ciples4 ,!y consid] !m z suffici5tly e/abli%$ by ! implicit cons5t ( all m51 or at lea/ by ! univ]sal usage ( le>n$ m54 ,! geomet] leaves to o!rs ! c>e ( speculat+ ^u ! ess5ce ( space1 or ^u ! a priori "* ( 8 def9itions4 ,! physici/1 if he =m an idea ( matt] = himself1 unhesitat+ly adopts ! "o :i* appe>s to be ! mo/ imm$iately advantage\s1 t is to say1 ! "o :i* is be/ 9 accordance ) :at he kn[s ( its prop]ties & ( its laws4 ,he attributes no m value ?an t ( a simple hypo!sis to ?is idea4 ,up to ! pres5t ! bus9ess ( solv+ ! que/ions :i* ! sci5tific man does n exam9e has belong$ to ! philosoph]--und]/& by ?is t]m ! metaphysician4 ,x is = him to seek :at matt]1 "t1 movem5t1 space1 etc41 may be 89 !mselves40 ,:e!r he desc5ds f metaphysics to ! positive sci5ces1 or asc5ds f ! latt] to metaphysics1 he always endeav\rs to %[ t su* & su* a transc5d5tal hypo!sis is m 9 accordance ?an any o!r ) :at we "k to-day ( ! laws ( nature4 ,9 a ^w2 ! philosophy ( ! sci5ces has be51 9 g5]al1 an ef=t to int]pret sci5tific k metaphysically4 ,?is explanation rema9s 9 respect to su* a k an 8extr9sic d5om9ation40 ,x expla9s b does n t\* x4 ,n[1 accord+ to ,comte1 !re are n two =ms ( k1 ! "o positive & prop]ly speak+ sci5tific ! o!r metaphysical & prop]ly call$ philosophical4 ,! :ole ( our real k 9 ! end be>s ^u special or g5]al facts4 ,!re c !re=e be no "q ( a philosophy :i* %\ld be ess5tially di/9ct f positive k4 ,any attempt to expla9 by ess5ces1 causes1 pr9ciples or ends1 is exclud$ by ! positive me?od4 ,metaphysical problems c no long] be set &1 9 ?is s5se1 :5 !y disappe>1 ! philosophy ( ! sci5ces disappe>s ) !m4 ,b1 on ! o!r h&1 z we h already se51 ! positive sci5ces are n self-suffici5t4 ,!y ne$ to be cr[n$ & ord]$ by a philosophy4 ,if !n a philosophy is indisp5sable1 & if1 at ! same "t1 ?is philosophy mu/ be positive1 relative l ! sci5ces !mselves1 & homog5e\s ) !m1 only "o solution rema9s possible4 ,! philosophy ( ! sci5ces w consi/ 9 sub/itut+ ! po9t ( view ( ! :ole to t ( ! p>ts4 ,x w /ill be a product ( ! positive _s2 b 9 x ?is _s f special w h become g5]al2 f p>ticul> x w h become univ]sal4 ,?is univ]sal "* rema9s common to ,comte's philosophy & to t ( 8 pr$ecessors4 ,b ,comte did n und]/& x z !y did4 ,= metaphysicians 9 g5]al1 & /ill = ,kant1 univ]sality is ! di/9ctive sign ( k :i* does n come f exp]i5ce1 :i* is !re=e necess>y & a priori4 ,comte1 :o does n "k ( any a priori 9 ! ,kantian s5se1 calls t k univ]sal :i* rema9s relative1 & :i* is f\nd$ ^u induction1 b :i* regulates ! o!r =ms ( k 9 ! ord] ( g5]ality4 ,?us ! pr9ciple ( laws is univ]sal4 ,! encyclopdic laws ( ph5om5a are univ]sal4 ,! po9t ( view ( humanity is univ]sal1 because f ?is po9t ( view a syn!sis ( ! :ole ( our k is possible4 ,&1 z univ]sality is a relative ?+1 we conceive univ]salities ( diff]5t ord]s4 ,h5ce=? ! philosophy ( ! sci5ces is easily def9$4 ,are we conc]n$ ) a c]ta9 sci5ce consid]$ by itself8 ,! philosophy ( ?is sci5ce consi/s 9 embrac+ at a glance ! :ole1 ! object & ! me?od1 z oppos$ to ! special po9t ( view ( ! sci5tific man :o foll[s ! discov]y ( m or less special laws 9 a bran* ( ?is sci5ce1 b su* a philosophy necess>ily rema9s imp]fect & fragm5t>y4 ,! philosophy ( a sci5ce is only really e/abli%$ 9 ! g5]al philosophy ( ! sci5ces1 t is to say by a view at once syn!tic & s+le ( all ! sci5ces1 9 :i* are co-ord9at$ ! objects :i* !y /udy1 ! laws :i* !y discov]1 ! me?ods :i* !y make use (1 & ! ends :i* !y %\ld pursue4 ,x has be5 said t ?is is n a philosophy ( ! sci5ces b simply a 8syn!sis ( ! mo/ g5]al results ( ! positive sci5ces40 ,comte p>tly accepts & p>tly rejects ! objection4 ,if he is reproa*$ ) n hav+ con/ruct$ a philosophy ( ! sci5ces accord+ to ! old _s1 t is to say an ef=t at 8explanation10 :i* goes beyond ! po9t ( view ( positive sci5ce1 he grants ! objection4 ,he consid]s all philosophy ( ?is k9d z out ( ! "q4 ,is x said t !re is no diff]5ce betwe5 8 po9t ( view & t ( ! sci5tific man prop]ly s call$1 unless x be t he successively goes ?r\gh all ! fundam5tal sci5ces8 ,comte calls our att5tion to ! fact t x is n en\gh to place ^! sci5ces side by side to obta9 _! philosophy4 ,a new po9t ( view1 truly univ]sal1 al?\gh always relative1 is ne$$4 ,h[ c\ld ,comte h di/+ui%$ o!rwise1 9 ea* sci5ce1 :at is la/+ & 9 con=mity ) ! positive _s f :at is decay+ & /ill be>s ! m>k ( ! !ological & metaphysical _s8 ,c\ld he especially h fix$ ! relations :i* ! sci5ces %\ld ma9ta9 among !mselves1 & c\ld he h impos$ ^u !m a discipl9e ^: pr9ciple 0 n to be f\nd 9 any "o ( !m8 ,?us1 until ,augu/e ,comte's "t1 ! philosophy ( ! sci5ces _h be5 a metaphysical conception1 jo9$ m or less closely to ! :ole ( positive k4 ,comte endeav\r$ to =m a conception ( ?is :ole1 :i* %\ld be philosophical :ile rema9+ positive4 ,x is ?is conception :i* is especially set =? 9 ! ?ree fir/ volumes ( ! ,c\rs de philosophie positive4 ,f ! /atic po9t ( view x is f\nd$ ^u ! hi]>*y ( ! sci5ces1 ! unity ( ! me?od1 & ! homog5eity ( k4 ,f ! dynamic po9t ( view1 x endeav\rs to %[ ! progressive conv]g5ce ( all ! sci5ces t[>ds sociology1 ! f9al & univ]sal sci5ce4 ,) ?is 8guid+ ?read10 ,comte w be able to e/abli% 9 turn ! philosophy ( ea* fundam5tal sci5ce1 )\t ev] los+ sight ( ! relation :i* x be>s to ! :ole ( ! o!rs4 ,,*apt] ,i ,,ma!matics ,9 ! eyes ( philosoph]s1 ma!matics has always occupi$ a privileg$ place among ! sci5ces4 ,plato locat$ _! object 9 an int]m$iate region betwe5 ! _w ( s5sible ph5om5a & t ( intelligible realities4 ,on ! "o h& ma!matical objects1 & 9 p>ticul> ! geometrical figures1 appeal to ! imag9ation z s5sible ?+s2 on ! o!r h&1 ma!matical tru?s l ideas & ! relations betwe5 ideas1 are *>act]is$ by immutable & et]nal fixity4 ,?is is :y ! /udy ( ma!matics is an excell5t prep>ation = philosophy1 :i* is ! sci5ce ( ideas4 ,:ile /ill leav+ to ! m9d ! help ( direct s5sible p]ception1 x accu/oms x to p]man5t tru?4 ,dur+ ! :ole ( antiquity ! sci5ce ( ma!matics1 z ! "n indicates1 0 pre-em95tly ! sci5ce4 ,! sci5ce ( physics1 less sure ( its object & ( its me?od1 0 h>dly di/+ui%$ f philosophical speculation1 & l5t itself ) difficulty to ! purely sci5tific =m4 ,= ,plato !n1 & = ^? :o foll[$ him1 ma!matics has *>act]i/ics :i* di/+ui% x f ! /udy ( ph5om5a4 ,9 a c]ta9 measure1 x p>takes ( ! nature ( sci5ce1 conceiv$ z be>+ ^u :at is1 ^u ! absolute reality :i* is nei!r subject to *ange nor to motion4 ,x is true t !y />t f def9itions & hypo!ses4 ,b1 once ! pr9ciples are e/abli%$1 !y are develop$ a priori by a succession ( necess>y demon/rations l ! dialectics ( ideas4 ,?is conception (f]s a mixture ( metaphysical & positive elem5ts4 ,x implies t ! object ( sci5ce is reality su* z x is 9 itself2 b1 at ! same "t1 x sees 9 ! demon/ration ! ess5tial "* ( sci5ce4 ,a long evolution1 :i* culm9ates 9 ,comte's doctr9e1 has driv5 ! metaphysical elem5ts out ( sci5ce :ile ! o!r elem5ts subsi/ 9 x /ill4 ,f> f say+ ) ,plato or ) 8 successors t !re is no sci5ce ( ! ph5om5on or ( t :i* passes away1 ,comte ?9ks on ! contr>y1 t ! only object ( sci5ce is ph5om5al reality s f> z x is subject to laws4 ,sci5ce has n to se>* = causes or sub/ances2 x suffices = x to det]m9e inv>iable relations4 ,if ! ma!matical sci5ces h long be5 ! only sci5ces prop]ly s call$1 & if to-day !y are /ill m advanc$ ?an any o!rs1 x is because ! geometrical & me*anical ph5om5a are inde$ ! simple/ ( all1 & ^? :i* are mo/ naturally connect$ among !mselves4 ,! p]iod dur+ :i* !y c\ld be /udi$ by obs]vation c\ld !re=e be v %ort1 s %ort t x is ev5 n absurd to ma9ta9 t x nev] exi/$1 & t1 9 ?is case1 rational k 0 n prec$$ by ! empirical e/abli%m5t ( facts4 ,b ! diff]5ce betwe5 ma!matics & ! o!r sci5ces none ! less rema9s "o ( degree & n ( k9d4 ,! ,sci5ce ( ,ma!matics is 9 advance ( ! o!r sci5ces2 b all "w on common gr\nd4 ,9 a ^w1 l all o!r sci5ces x is a natural sci5ce4 ,?is endeav\r to pres5t ! :ole ( ! sci5ces z homog5e\s1 t is to say1 to avoid two di/9ct classes be+ =m$ ( ma!matics on ! "o h&1 & ( ! sci5ces ( nature on ! o!r1 _h already be5 attempt$ be=e ,comte4 ,?is endeav\r impos$ itself1 s to speak1 ^u mod]n philosoph]s1 f ! "t :5 ,desc>tes s\ght = a univ]sal me?od = sci5ce conceiv$ z a :ole4 ,comte1 :o saw v well ! defect 9 ! ,c>tesian conception1 9 :i* ! asc5d5cy ( ma!matics 0 /ill too mu* felt1 did n1 h[ev]1 d5y t 8 own conception proce$$ f t ( ,desc>tes4 ,9 ano!r =m1 ! idea ( ! homog5eity ( ! sci5ces is also f\nd 9 ,leibnitz & ev5 9 ,kant4 ,does n ! ,critique de la raison pure %[ t ma!matics on ! "o h&1 & physics on ! o!r1 equally re/ ^u pr9ciples :i* are syn!tic a priori8 ,9 ! ,prolgom5es t\te mtaphysique future j z ! *apt] correspond+ to l'e/htique transc5d5tale is entitl$ 8,h[ are pure ma!matics possible a priori80 s ! *apt] correspond+ to ! ,logique transc5d5tale be>s z its title 8,h[ are pure physics possible a priori80 ,on ano!r plan ,comte's !ory is p>allel to ,kant's4 ,"h z !re ma!matics z well z physics re/s ^u syn!tic pr9ciples--8sup]ior to exp]i5ce10 says ,kant--proce$+ f exp]i5ce1 says ,comte4 ,! latt]1 x is true1 did n "k ,kant's !ory1 &1 _h he kn[n x he w\ld n h accept$ x4 ,b ! analogy ( t5d5cy subsi/s none ! less b5ea? ! div]sity ( doctr9es4 ,! imm$iate antec$5t ( ,comte's !ory is f\nd 9 d',alemb]t4 ,! au?or ( ! ,disc\rs prlim9aire _h said1 8,we w divide ! sci5ce ( nature into physics & ma!matics40 ,,ii4 ,e sci5ce has its orig9 9 ! art correspond+ to x4 ,ma!matics arose out ( ! art ( measur+ magnitudes4 ,inde$ ?is art w\ld be v rudim5t>y if we only practis$ direct measurem5t4 ,among ! magnitudes :i* int]e/ u !re are v few :i* we c measure ?us4 ,consequ5tly ! human m9d _h to seek "s indirect way ( det]m9+ magnitudes4 ,9 ord] to "k ! magnitudes :i* d n all[ ( direct measurem5t1 we mu/ evid5tly connect !m ) o!rs :i* are capable ( be+ imm$iately det]m9$1 & accord+ to :i* we succe$ 9 discov]+ ! =m]1 by means ( ! relations :i* exi/ betwe5 !m & ! latt]4 8,su* is ! precise object ( ma!matical sci5ce 9 its entirety40#ajb ,we see imm$iately h[ extremely va/ x is4 ,if we mu/ ins]t a l>ge numb] ( int]m$i>ies betwe5 ! quantities :i* we desire to "k1 & ^? :i* we c measure imm$iately1 ! op]ations may become v complicat$4 ,fundam5tally1 accord+ to ,comte1 !re is no "q1 :atev] x may be1 :i* _c be f9ally conceiv$ z consi/+ 9 det]m9+ "o quantity by ano!r1 & consequ5tly :i* does n dep5d ultimately ^u ma!matics4 ,x w be said t we mu/ take into acc\nt n only ! quantity1 b also ! quality ( ! ph5om5a4 ,?is objection1 decisive 9 ! eyes ( ,ari/otle1 :o c\ld n conceive t we c\ld legitimately ,greek3 metaballe9 ,greek3 eis allo g5os1 no long] holds good = mod]n ?9k]s4 ,s9ce ,desc>tes' "t1 !y h se5 analysis appli$ to geometrical1 me*anical & physical ph5om5a4 ,!re is no absurdity 9 conceiv+ t :at has be5 done = ^! ph5om5a is possible = ! o!rs4 ,we mu/ be able to repres5t e relation betwe5 any ph5om5a :atev] by an equation1 all[+ = ! difficulty ( f9d+ ?is equation & ( solv+ x4#ajc ,z a matt] ( fact1 we are quickly /opp$ by ! complexity ( ! data4 ,9 ! pres5t /ate ( ! human m9d !re are only two great categories ( ph5om5a ( :i* we regul>ly "k ! equations3 ^! are geometry & me*anics4 ,?is be+ e/abli%$1 ! :ole ( ma!matical sci5ce is divid$ into two p>ts3 ab/ract & concrete ma!matics4 ,! "o /udies ! laws ( geometrical & me*anical ph5om5a4 ,! o!r is con/itut$ by ! calculus1 :i*1 if we take ?is ^w 9 its l>ge/ s5se1 applies to ! mo/ sublime comb9ations ( transc5d5t analysis1 z well z to ! simple/ num]ical op]ations4 ,x is purely 8in/rum5tal40 ,fundam5tally1 x is no?+ else ?an an 8imm5se admirable ext5sion ( natural logic to a c]ta9 ord] ( d$uctions40 ,?is "p ( ma!matical sci5ce is indep5d5t ( ! nature ( ! objects :i* x exam9es1 & only be>s ^u ! num]ical relations :i* !y pres5t4 ,consequ5tly1 x may happ5 t ! same relations may exi/ among a great numb] ( diff]5t ph5om5a4 ,not)/&+ _! extreme div]sity ^! ph5om5a w be consid]$ by ! ma!matician z pres5t+ a s+le analytical "q1 :i* c be solv$ once = all4 8,?us1 = in/ance1 ! same law :i* reigns betwe5 space & "t :5 we exam9e ! v]tical fall ( a body 9 vacuo1 is f\nd aga9 = o!r ph5om5a :i* pres5t no analogy ) ! =m] nor among !mselves2 = x also expresses ! relation betwe5 ! area ( a sph]e & ! l5g? ( its diamet]s2 x equally det]m9es ! decrease 9 int5sity ( light or ( heat by reason ( ! di/ance ( ! objects light$ & heat$1 etc40#ajd ,we h no g5]al me?od :i* s]ves indiff]5tly = e/abli%+ ! equations ( any natural ph5om5a :atev]3 we ne$ special me?ods = ! sev]al classes ( geometrical1 optical1 me*anical ph5om5a1 etc4 ,b1 :atev] may be ^! ph5om5a1 once ! equation is e/abli%$1 ! me?od = solv+ x is uni=m4 ,9 ?is s5se1 ab/ract ma!matics is really an 8organon40 ,geometry & me*anics1 on ! contr>y1 %\ld be reg>d$ z real natural sci5ces1 re/+ z ! o!rs d ^u obs]vation4 ,b1 adds ,comte1 ^! two sci5ces pres5t ?is peculi>ity1 t 9 ! pres5t /ate ( ! human m9d1 !y are already us$1 & w cont9ue to be us$ z me?ods f> m ?an z direct doctr9e4 ,9 ?is way ma!matics is 9 fact 8in/rum5tal10 n only 9 ab/ract p>ts1 b also 9 its relatively concrete p>ts4 ,x is entirely us$ z a 8tool0 by ! m complicat$ sci5ces1 su* z a/ronomy & physics4 ,x is truly ! real logic ( our age4 ,9 ! philosophical /udy ( ab/ract ma!matics1 ,comte proce$s successively f ari?metical to algebraical calculation1 & f ! latt] to ! transc5d5t analysis or diff]5tial & integral calculus4 ,aft] hav+ /at$ ! mann] 9 :i* ?is calculus is pres5t$ accord+ to ,leibnitz & to ,newton1 he adopts t ( ,lagrange1 :i* appe>s to him ! mo/ satisfactory4 ,x is true t at ! end ( 8 life 8 admiration = ! au?or ( ! ,mcanique analytique _h greatly dim9i%$4 ,)\t "h ent]+ into ! detail ( que/ions1 we w limit ourselves to ! indication ( a consid]ation ^u ! be>+s ( ab/ract ma!matics1 :i* appe>s to be ( capital importance to ,comte4 ,:e!r x be a "q ( ord9>y analysis1 or especially ( transc5d5tal analysis1 ,comte br+s out at once ! extreme imp]fection ( our k1 & ! extraord9>y fecundity ( _! applications4 ,he c only solve a v small "p ( ! que/ions :i* come be=e u 9 ^! sci5ces4 ,h[ev]1 89 ! same way z 9 ord9>y analysis we h succe$$ 9 utilis+ to an imm5se degree a v small am\nt ( fundam5tal k ^u ! solution ( equations1 s1 h[ev] little advanc$ geomet]s may be up to ! pres5t "t 9 ! sci5ce ( integrations1 !y h none ! less drawn1 f ^! v few ab/ract notions ! solution ( a multitude ( que/ions ( ! fir/ importance1 9 geometry1 9 me*anics1 9 !rmology1 etc41 etc40#aje ,! reason ( ?is is t ! lea/ ab/ract k naturally corresponds to a quantity ( concrete rese>*es4 ,! mo/ p[]ful ext5sion ( intellectual means :i* man has at 8 disposal = ! k ( nature consi/s 9 8 ris+ to ! conception ( m & m ab/ract ideas1 :i* are nev]!less positive4 ,:5 our k is ab/ract )\t be+ positive1 x is 8fictiti\s0 or 8metaphysical40 ,:5 x is positive )\t be+ ab/ract1 x lacks g5]ality1 & does n become rational4 ,b :51 )\t ceas+ to be positive1 x c rea* to a high degree ( ab/raction1 at ! same "t x atta9s ! g5]ality1 &1 along ! l9es ( its fur!/ ext5sion1 ! unity :i* are ! end ( sci5ce4 ,h5ce ! importance ( ,desc>tes' f9e ma!matical discov]y1 & also ( ! inv5tion ( diff]5tial & integral calculus1 :i* may be consid]$ z ! complem5t to ,desc>tes' fundam5tal idea conc]n+ ! g5]al analytical repres5tation ( natural ph5om5a4 ,x is only1 says ,comte1 s9ce ! inv5tion ( ! calculus1 t ,desc>tes' discov]y has be5 und]/ood & appli$ to ! :ole ( its ext5t4 ,n only does ?is calculus procure an 8admirable facility0 = ! se>* aft] ! natural laws ( all ! ph5om5a2 b1 ?anks to _! extreme g5]ality1 ! diff]5tial =mul c express ea* det]m9$ ph5om5on 9 a s+le equation1 h[ev] v>i$ ! subjects may be 9 :i* x is consid]$4 ,?us1 a s+le diff]5tial equation gives ! tang5ts ( all curves1 ano!r expresses ! ma!matical law ( e v>iety 9 motion1 etc4 ,inf9itesimal analysis1 especially 9 ! conception ( ,leibnitz1 has !re=e n only furni%$ a g5]al process = ! indirect =mation ( equations :i* x w\ld h be5 impossible to discov] directly1 b 9 ! eyes ( ! philosoph] x has ano!r & a no less preci\s advantage4 ,x has all[$ u to consid]1 9 ! ma!matical /udy ( natural ph5om5a1 a new ord] ( m g5]al laws4 ,^! laws are con/antly ! same = ea* ph5om5on1 9 :atev] objects we /udy x1 & only *ange :5 pass+ f "o ph5om5on to ano!r 8:]e we h be5 able moreov]1 9 comp>+ ^! v>iations1 to rise sometimes1 by a /ill m g5]al view1 to a positive comp>ison betwe5 sev]al classes ( v>i\s ph5om5a1 accord+ to ! analogies pres5t$ by ! diff]5tial expressions ( _! ma!matical laws40#ajf ,comte _c contemplate ?is imm5se range ( transc5d5t analysis )\t en?usiasm4 ,he calls x 8! highe/ ?\ght to :i* ! human m9d has atta9$ up to ! pres5t "t40 ,! highe/1 because be+ ! mo/ pr(\ndly ab/ract among all ! positive notions1 ?is ?\ght r$uces ! mo/ compreh5sive range ( concrete ph5om5a to rational unity4 ,z ! consid]ation ( analytical geometry sugge/$ to ,desc>tes ! idea ( 8univ]sal ma!matics10 :i* lies at ! basis ( 8 me?od1 s we c ?9k t philosophical reflection ^u transc5d5tal analysis l$ ,comte to ! idea ( ^? 8encyclopdic laws10 :i* hold su* an important place 9 8 g5]al !ory ( nature4 ,= ^! encyclopdic laws1 analog\s z !y are to ! diff]5tial =mul spok5 ( by ,comte1 are equally v]ifiable 9 ord]s ( o!rwise irr$ucible ph5om5a1 & all[ u to conceive !m z conv]g5t4 ,,iii4 ,geometry is ! fir/ portion ( concrete ma!matics4 ,und\bt$ly ! facts ) :i* x deals are m connect$ among !mselves ?an ! facts /udi$ by ! o!r sci5ces1 & ?is all[s u easily to d$uce "s ( ^! facts once ! o!rs are giv54 ,b !re is a c]ta9 numb] ( prim>y ph5om5a :i*1 n be+ e/abli%$ by any reason+1 c only be f\nd$ ^u obs]vation1 & :i* /& z ! basis ( all geometrical d$uctions4#ajg ,al?\gh v small1 ?is "p ( obs]vation is indisp5sable because x is ! initial "o1 & nev] c q vani%4 ,9 ?is way1 metaphysical discussions ^u ! orig9 ( geometrical def9itions & space are set aside4 ,comte "h adopts d',alemb]t's op9ion4 ,! latt] _h said3 8,! true pr9ciples ( ! sci5ces are simple recognis$ facts1 :i* d n suppose any o!rs1 & :i* consequ5tly c nei!r be expla9$ nor que/ion$3 9 geometry !y are ! prop]ties ( ext5sion z appreh5d$ by s5se4 ,^u ! nature ( ext5sion !re are notions common to all m51 a common po9t at :i* all sects are unit$ z x 7 9 spite ( !mselves1 common & simple pr9ciples f :i* unaw>es !y all />t4 ,! philosoph] w seize ^u ^! common primitive notions to make !m ! basis ( ! geometrical tru?s40#ajh ,ext5sion is a prop]ty ( bodies4 ,b1 in/ead ( consid]+ ?is ext5sion 9 ! bodies !mselves1 we consid] x 9 an indef9ite milieu :i* appe>s to u to conta9 all ! bodies1 ( ! univ]se & :i* we call space4 ,let u ?9k1 = in/ance1 ( ! impression left by a body 9 a fluid 9 :i* x might be imm]s$4 ,f ! geometrical po9t ( view ?is impression c q conv5i5tly be sub/itut$ to ! body itself4 ,?us1 by a v simple ab/raction1 we dive/ matt] ( all its s5sible prop]ties1 only to contemplate 9 a c]ta9 mann] its phantom1 accord+ to d',alemb]t's expression4 ,f t mom5t we c /udy n only ! geometrical =ms realis$ 9 nature1 b also all ^? :i* c be imag9$4 ,geometry assumes a 8rational0 "*4 ,simil>ly1 x is by a simple ab/raction ( ! m9d t geometry reg>ds l9es z hav+ no ?ickness1 & surfaces z be+ )\t dep?4 ,x suffices to conceive ! dim5sion to be dim9i%$ z becom+ gradually small] & small] until x rea*es su* a degree ( ?9ness t x c no long] fix ! att5tion4 ,x is ?us t we naturally acquire ! 8real idea0 ( surface1 !n ( ! l9e1 & !n ( ! po9t4 ,!re is !re=e no necessity to appeal to ! a priori4 ,?us con/itut$1 ! object ( geometry is ! measurem5t ( ext5sion4 ,b s9ce ?is measurem5t c h>dly ev] be directly tak5 by sup]position1 ! aim ( geometry is to r$uce ! comp>ison ( all k9ds ( ext5sions1 volumes1 surfaces or l9es to simple comp>isons ( /raight l9es1 ! only ones reg>d$ z capable ( be+ imm$iately e/abli%$40#aji ,! object ( geometry is ( unlimit$ ext5t1 = ! numb] ( diff]5t =ms subject to exact def9itions is unlimit$4 ,9 reg>d+ curv$ l9es z g5]at$ by ! movem5t ( a po9t subject to a c]ta9 law1 we c conceive z _m curves z laws4 ,! human m9d1 9 ord] to cov] ?is imm5se field1 ! ext5sion ( :i* x 0 v late 9 appreh5d+1 may pursue two diff]5t me?ods4 ,p]fect geometry w\ld1 inde$1 be ! "o :i* w\ld demon/rate all ! prop]ties ( all imag9able =ms1 & ?is c be obta9$ 9 two ways4 ,ei!r we c successively conceive ea* ( ! =ms1 ! triangles1 ! circle1 ! sph]e1 ! ellipse1 etc41 & seek = ! prop]ties ( ea* "o ( !m4 ,or else we c gr\p toge!r ! correspond+ prop]ties ( v>i\s geometrical =ms1 9 su* a way z to /udy !m toge!r1 &1 s to speak1 to "k be=eh& _! application to su* & su* a =m :i* we h n yet exam9$4 8,9 a ^w10 says ,comte1 8! :ole ( geometry c be ord]$1 ei!r 9 relation to bodies :i* are be+ /udi$1 or 9 relation to ph5om5a :i* are to be consid]$40 ,! fir/ plan is t ( ! geometry ( ! anci5ts1 or special geometry2 ! second is t ( ! geometry s9ce ,desc>tes1 or g5]al geometry4#aaj ,at its orig9 geometry c\ld only be special4 ,! anci5ts1 = in/ance1 /udi$ ! circle1 ! ellipse1 ! p>abola1 etc41 endeav\r+1 9 ! case ( ea* geometrical =m1 to add to ! numb] ( kn[n prop]ties4 ,b1 if ?is l9e ( advance _h be5 ! only "o :i* c\ld be foll[$1 ! progress ( geometry w\ld nev] h be5 a v rapid "o4 ,! me?od inv5t$ by ,desc>tes has trans=m$ ?is sci5ce1 by enabl+ x to become g5]al1 & to ab&on ! individual /udy ( geometrical =ms = ! common /udy ( _! prop]ties4 ,?is revolution has n always be5 well und]/ood4 ,(t5 9 tea*+ ma!matics1 its be>+s are n suffici5tly %[n4 ,f ! mann] 9 :i* x is usually pres5t$1 ?is 8admirable me?od0 w\ld at fir/ seem to h no o!r end ?an ! simplification ( ! /udy ( conic sections or ( "s o!r curves1 always consid]$ "o by "o accord+ to ! _s ( anci5t geometry4 ,?is w\ld n be ( great importance4 ,! di/9ctive "* ( our mod]n geometry consi/s 9 /udy+ 9 a g5]al way ! v>i\s que/ions relat+ to any l9es or surfaces :atev] by trans=m+ geometrical consid]ations & rese>*es into analytical consid]ations & rese>*es4#aaa ,all geometrical ideas necess>ily relate to ! ?ree univ]sal categories2 magnitude1 =m1 position4 ,magnitude already belongs to ! doma9 ( quantity4 ,=m c be r$uc$ to position1 s9ce e =m c be consid]$ z ! result ( ! advance ( a po9t1 t is to say ( its successive positions4 ,! problem is !re=e to br+ all ideas ( situation :atev] back to ideas ( magnitude4 ,h[ did ,desc>tes solve x8 ,by g5]alis+ a process :i* we may say is natural to ! human m9d1 s9ce x comes spontane\sly into be+ "u ! /ress ( necessity4 ,inde$1 if we mu/ indicate ! situation ( an object )\t %[+ x imm$iately1 d we n ref] x to o!rs :i* are kn[n1 by /at+ ! magnitude ( geometrical elem5ts by :i* we conceive ! object to be connect$ ) !m8 ,geograph]s act 9 ! same way 9 _! sci5ce to det]m9e ! longitude & latitude ( a place1 & a/ronom]s to det]m9e ! "r asc5sion & ! decl9ation ( a />4 ,^! geographical & a/ronomical co-ord9ates fulfil ! same (fice z ! ,c>tesian co-ord9ates4 ,! only diff]5ce1 b x is a capital "o1 consi/s 9 ! fact t ,desc>tes c>ri$ ?is me?od to ! highe/ degree ( ab/ract g5]ality ?us giv+ x its maximum ( f]tility & p[]4 ,al?\gh g5]al geometry is inf9itely sup]ior to special geometry x _c1 nev]!less1 altoge!r disp5se ) ! latt]4 ,z ! anci5ts did1 s x w always be necess>y to beg9 ) special geometry4 ,= g5]al geometry re/s ^u ! use ( calculation4 ,b if1 z ,comte has said1 geometry is truly a sci5ce ( facts calculation w evid5tly nev] be able to supply u ) ! fir/ k ( ^! facts4 ,9 ord] to lay ! f\ndations ( a natural sci5ce simple ma!matical analysis w\ld nev] suffice1 nor c\ld x give a fre% demon/ration ( x1 :5 ^! f\ndations h already be5 laid4 ,be=e all ?+s a direct /udy ( ! subject is necess>y1 until ! precise relations are discov]$4 8,! application ( ma!matical analysis c nev] beg9 any sci5ce :atev]1 s9ce x c\ld nev] take place except :5 ! sci5ce has be5 suffici5tly elaborat$ to e/abli%1 9 relation to ! ph5om5a "u consid]ation1 "s equations :i* might s]ve z a />t+-po9t = analytical "w40#aab ,9 a ^w1 ! creation ( analytical geometry does n prev5t geometry f rema9+ a natural sci5ce4 ,ev5 :5 x has become z purely rational z possible1 x none ! less rema9s root$ 9 exp]i5ce4 ,,iv4 ,! second "p ( concrete ma!matics 7me*anics7 is also "o ( ! natural sci5ces :i* owes its m>vell\s progress to analysis4 ,"h aga9 we mu/ di/+ui% ! data :i* are at ! basis ( sci5ce1 & :i* are facts1 f ! ab/ract developm5t und]gone by ?is sci5ce because ( ! simplicity ( ^! facts & ! precision ( ! relations :i* exi/ betwe5 !m4 ,! di/9ction betwe5 :at is 8really physical0 & :at is 8purely logical0#aac is n always an easy "o4 ,we mu/1 h[ev]1 sep>ate facts furni%$ by exp]i5ce1 f artificial conceptions ^: object is to facilitate ! e/abli%m5t ( g5]al laws ( equilibrium & ( motion4 ,only to consid] in]tia 9 bodies is a fiction ( ?is k9d4 ,physically ! =ce ( in]tia does n exi/4 ,nature n[h]e %[s u bodies :i* are devoid ( int]nal activity4 ,we t]m ^? :i* are n alive inorganic1 b n in]t4 ,7 gravitation alone common to all molecules1 x w\ld suffice to prev5t ! conception ( matt] z devoid ( =ce4 ,nev]!less1 me*anics only consid]s ! in]tia ( bodies4 ,:y8 ,because ?is ab/raction pres5ts _m advantages = ! /udy1 8)\t1 moreov]1 (f]+ disadvantages 9 ! application40 ,inde$1 if me*anics _h to take into acc\nt ! int]nal =ces ( bodies & ! v>iations ( ^! =ces1 ! complications w\ld imm$iately become su* t ! facts c\ld nev] be submitt$ to calculation4 ,me*anics w\ld run ! risk ( los+ its "* z a ma!matical sci5ce4 ,&1 on ! o!r h&1 z x only consid]s ! movem5ts 9 !mselves1 reg>dless ( _! mode ( production1 x is always lawful = me*anics to replace1 if necess>y1 ! int]nal =ces by an equival5t ext]nal =ce0 appli$ to ! body4 ,! in]tia ( matt] is !re=e an ab/raction1 ! end ( :i* is to secure ! p]fect homog5eity ( me*anical sci5ce1 by all[+ u to consid] all mov+ bodies z id5tical 9 k9d1 & all =ces z ( ! same nature4 ,! 8physical0 "* ( ?is sci5ce is aga9 evid5t f ! consid]ation ( ! ?ree fundam5tal laws ^u :i* x re/s4#aad ,! fir/1 call$ ,kepl]'s law1 is ?us def9$3 8,all movem5t is naturally rectil9e> & uni=m2 t is to say1 any body subject to ! action ( a s+le =ce :i* acts ^u x in/antane\sly1 moves con/antly 9 a /raight l9e ) inv>iable spe$40 ,x has be5 said t ?is law is d]iv$ f ! pr9ciple ( suffici5t reason4 ,! body mu/ cont9ue 9 a /raight l9e because !re is no reason :y x %\ld deviate f x m on "o side ?an on ! o!r4 ,b1 answ]s ,comte1 h[ d we "k t !re is no reason = ! body to deviate1 except precisely because we see t x does n deviate8 ,! reason+ 8r$uces itself to ! repetition 9 ab/ract t]ms ( ! fact itself1 & to say+ t bodies h a natural t5d5cy to move 9 a /raight l9e1 :i* is precisely ! proposition :i* we h to e/abli%40 ,x is by simil> argum5ts t ! philosoph]s ( antiquity1 & especially ,ari/otle1 _h1 on ! contr>y be5 l$ to reg>d circul> motion z natural to ! />s1 9 t x is ! mo/ p]fect ( all1 a conception :i* is only ! ab/ract enunciation ( a imp]fectly analys$ ph5om5on4 ,! t5d5cy ( bodies to move 9 a /raight l9e ) con/ant spe$ is kn[n to u by exp]i5ce4 ,! second fundam5tal law ( me*anics1 call$ ,newton's law1 expresses ! con/ant equality ( action & reaction4 ,x is pretty g5]ally agre$ to-day to consid] ?is law z result+ f ! obs]vation ( facts4 ,newton himself und]/ood x s4 ,f9ally ! ?ird law e/abli%es t 8e movem5t exactly possess$ 9 common by all ! bodies ( any sy/em does n alt] ! p>ticul> movem5ts ( ^? diff]5t bodies 9 respect to ea* o!r2 b ^? movem5ts cont9ue to take place z if ! :ole ( ! sy/em 0 motionless40 ,?is law 8( ! indep5d5ce or ( ! coexi/5ce ( movem5ts0 0 =mulat$ by ,galileo4 ,x is no m a priori ?an ! two prec$+ ones4 ,h[ c\ld we be sure1 if exp]i5ce did n %[ x to u1 t a common motion communicat$ to a sy/em ( bodies mov+ 9 relation to "o ano!r1 w\ld *ange no?+ 9 _! p>ticul> motions8 ,:5 8 law 0 made kn[n by ,galileo1 on all h&s !re arose a cl\d ( objections1 t5d+ to prove a priori t ?is proposition 0 false & absurd4 ,x 0 only admitt$ lat] :51 9 ord] to exam9e x1 ! logical po9t ( view 0 set aside = ! physical po9t ( view4 ,x 0 !n se5 t exp]i5ce always confirm$ ?is law1 & t1 if x ceas$ to op]ate1 ! :ole economy ( ! univ]se w\ld be ?r[n into utt] confusion4 ,= in/ance1 ! movem5t ( ! translation ( ! e>? 9 no way affects ! me*anical ph5om5a :i* take place ^u ! surface or )9 ! globe4 ,z ! law ( ! indep5d5ce ( motions 0 unkn[n :5 ! !ory ( ,cop]nicus appe>$1 an objection 0 put to him :i* 0 ?\ght to be drawn f exp]i5ce4 ,he 0 told t if ! e>? mov$ r\nd ! sun all ! movem5ts :i* take place ^u x or )9 x w\ld be modifi$ by ! action4 ,lat] on :5 ,galileo's law became kn[n1 ! fact 0 expla9$ & ! objection disappe>$4 ,once ^! ?ree laws are e/abli%$1 me*anics has suffici5t f\ndation4 ,h5ce=? ! sci5tific edifice c be con/ruct$ by simple logical op]ations1 & )\t any fur!r ref]5ce to ! ext]nal _w4 ,b ?is purely rational developm5t no m trans=ms me*anics into an a priori sci5ce ?an ! application ( analysis deprives geometry ( its "* z a natural sci5ce4 ,:at proves ?is1 9 "o case z 9 ! o!r1 is ! possibility ( pass+ f ! ab/ract to ! concrete & ( apply+ ! results obta9$ to real cases1 m]ely re/or+ ! elem5ts :i* sci5ce _h be5 compell$ to set aside4 ,if x 7 possible entirely to con/itute ! sci5ce ( me*anics accord+ to simple analytical conceptions1 we c\ld n imag9e h[ su* a sci5ce c\ld ev] become applicable to ! effective /udy ( nature4 ,:at gu>antees ! reality ( rational me*anics is precisely its be+ f\nd$ ^u "s g5]al facts1 9 a ^w1 ^u ! data ( exp]i5ce4 ,comte c\ld assur$ly n =esee ! controv]sies :i* to-day be> ^u ! pr9ciples ( me*anics & :i* h be5 summ$ up by ,mr4 ,po9c> 9 an article ^u ,h]tz's me*anical !ories4#aae ,mr4 ,po9c> says t ! pr9ciples ( ,dynamics h be5 /at$ 9 _m ways1 b nobody suffici5tly di/+ui%$ betwe5 :at is def9ition1 :at is exp]im5tal tru?1 & :at is ma!matical !orem4 ,mr4 ,po9c> is satisfi$ nei!r ) ! 8classical0 conception ( me*anics1 ^: insuffici5cy has be5 %[n by ,h]tz1 nor ) ! conception ) :i* ,h]tz wi%es to replace x4 ,9 any case x is a high philosophical lesson to see ! classical sy/em ( analytical me*anics--a sy/em con/ruct$ ) su* admirable accuracy1 & made by ,laplace to arise altoge!r1 z ,comte says1 out ( a s+le fundam5tal law1--to see x aft] a c5tury lab\r+ "u grave difficulties1 n unconnect$ ) ! progress ( physics4 ,might n ?is be an argum5t 9 support ( ! !ory ( d',alemb]t & ( ,comte on ! nature ( concrete ma!matics8 ,geometry & me*anics w\ld only diff] f ! o!r natural sci5ces by ! precision ( ! relations betwe5 ! ph5om5a ( :i* !y treat1 by ! facility :i* !y h = deal+ ) ^! relations by means ( calculus & analysis1 &1 consequ5tly1 by assum+ an entirely rational & d$uctive =m4 ,= ! extraord9>y p[] ( ! in/rum5t %\ld n hide f u ! nature ( ! sci5ces :i* make use ( x4 ,^!1 l ! o!rs1 be> ^u natural ph5om5a4 ,only1 z ^! ph5om5a are ! mo/ simple1 ! mo/ g5]al & ! mo/ closely alli$ ( all1 ^! sci5ces are also ^? :i* respond 9 ! be/ way to ! positive def9ition ( sci5ce4 ,!y h 8v easily & v quickly replac$ empirical /atem5t by rational prevision40 ,!y are compos$ ( laws & n ( facts4 ,b1 con=m+ 9 ?is aga9 to ! positive def9ition ( sci5ce1 !y are empirical 9 _! orig91 & !y rema9 relative 9 ! c\rse ( _! developm5t4 ,?us positive philosophy1 hav+ rea*$ ! full consci\sness ( itself1 reacts ^u ! conception ( ! sci5ces :i* h mo/ contribut$ to its =mation4 ,:5 ! philosophy is univ]sally accept$ ! idea t a sci5ce c be a priori1 t is bo? absolute & immutable1 w h disappe>$4 ,precisely because x is ! mo/ p]fect type ( a positive sci5ce1 ma!matics w no long] claim ^! *>act]i/ics1 & its anci5t connection ) metaphysics w be f9ally sev]$4 ,,footnotes3 #ajb ,c\rs1 ,i1 #aja4 #ajc ,c\rs1 ,i1 #aba-d4 #ajd ,c\rs1 ,i1 #aab #aje ,c\rs1 ,i1 #bef4 #ajf ,c\rs1 ,i1 #aie-g4 #ajg ,c\rs1 ,i1 #bhf-g4 #ajh ,elem5ts de philosophie1 ,i1 p4 #acb-c4 #aji ,c\rs1 ,i1 #bih4 sq4 #aaj ,c\rs1 i1 #cad-af4 #aaa ,c\rs1 i1 #chc-d4 #aab ,c\rs1 i4 #cbb-c4 #aac ,c\rs1 i4 #dbb4 sq4 #aad ,c\rs1 i1 #dee-dfc4 #aae ,revue gnrale des sci5ces pures et appliques1 #cj septembre #ahig4 ,,*apt] ,,ii ,,a/ronomy ,! object ( a/ronomy is ! discov]y ( ! laws ( ! geometrical & me*anical ph5om5a pres5t$ by ! cele/ial bodies2 &1 by ! k ( ^! laws to obta9 ! precise & rational prevision ( ! /ate ( our sy/em at any giv5 p]iod :atev]4 ,x is 9 a ^w1 8! application ( ma!matics to cele/ial ph5om5a40#aaf ,mr4 ,h4 ,sp5c] has tak5 occasion ( ?is def9ition to criticise ! place assign$ by ,comte to a/ronomy 9 8 classification ( ! sci5ces4 ,he makes him contradict himself4 ,he says3 y t]m fundam5tal sci5ces ! ab/ract sci5ces :i* d n /udy be+s 9 nature1 b ! laws :i* gov]n ph5om5a 9 ^? be+s2 by :at "r is a/ronomy plac$ among ^! sci5ces1 betwe5 ma!matics & physics8 ,is n ! object ( a/ronomy ! /udy ( c]ta9 be+s 9 nature8 ,9 :at does ! application ( ma!matics to cele/ial ph5om5a diff] f _! application to o!r cases8 ,x appe>s evid5t t "h ,comte introduces into ! s]ies ( ab/ract sci5ces a sci5ce :i* is really concrete1 or at lea/1 accord+ to ,mr4 ,sp5c]'s expression1 ab/ract-concrete4 ,comte _h =ese5 ! objection4 ,! answ] :i* he makes ?r[s a /rong light ^u ! s5se 9 :i* he und]/&s ! words 8ab/ract0 & 8g5]al0 z appli$ to ! sci5ces4 ,he p>tly accepts ! objection4 ,! true a/ronomical notions1 he says1 only diff] f purely ma!matical notions by _! special re/riction to ! cele/ial case2 & ?is1 at fir/ sight1 mu/ appe> contr>y to ! ess5tially ab/ract nature ( ! speculations :i* belong to ! fir/ philosophy4 ,b on ! o!r h&1 ^! speculations be> ^u ! ph5om5a giv5 9 exp]i5ce1 & ! ord] ( ! ab/ract sci5ces %\ld reproduce ! real ord] ( dep5d5ce ( ! ph5om5a4 ,?us ! fir/ ( ^! sci5ces1 ma!matics1 det]m9es ! ess5tial laws ( ! mo/ g5]al ph5om5a1 :i* are common to all mat]ial be+s 7=m1 position1 movem5t74 ,n[1 are n ! mo/ g5]al ph5om5a aft] ^!1 ^? 8( :i* ! ! cont9u\s asc5d5cy inevitably dom9ates ! c\rse ( all ! o!r ph5om5a80#aag ,9 o!r words1 be=e pass+ to ! /udy ( physical1 *emical1 biological ph5om5a1 etc41 x is indisp5sable to "k ! g5]al laws ( ! milieu 9 :i* ^! ph5om5a are manife/$4 ,outside ( ?is milieu1 !y w\ld be impossible1 or at any rate1 x s conditions !m t1 7 x o!rwise1 ^! ph5om5a w\ld also be diff]5t f :at !y are4 ,! "* ( g5]ality :i*1 ) t ( ab/raction1 is made use ( to in/itute ! hi]>*y ( ph5om5a is ?us r$uc$ to ! idea ( dep5d5ce4 ,x is ! consid]ation ( ?is dep5d5ce :i* assigns to a/ronomy its place betwe5 ma!matics & physics 9 ! encyclopdic ladd] ( ! sci5ces4 ,consid]$ s+ly 9 !mselves1 ! ph5om5a /udi$ by a/ronomy are purely geometrical & me*anical4 ,!y w\ld n1 !re=e1 con/itute ! object ( a sci5ce di/9ct f ma!matics4 ,b positive philosophy consid]s ev]y?+ f ! po9t ( view ( humanity4 ,n[1 = humanity1 ?is 8special case0 is ( unequall$ importance4 ,all ! o!r ph5om5a giv5 to u by exp]i5ce 7except ! ma!matical ph5om5a7 dep5d1 9 a m or less direct mann]1 ^u a/ronomical ph5om5a4 ,! k ( a/ronomical laws is !re=e ! necess>y condition = ! k ( all ! o!rs4 ,?us1 ! infr+em5t ( ! pr9ciple ( ! hi]>*y ( fundam5tal sci5ces is only app>5t4 ,an analog\s case is f\nd 9 *emi/ry4 ,! analysis ( air & wat] is incorporat$ 9 ab/ract *emi/ry1 because air & wat] con/itutes ! g5]al milieu1 89 :i* all ult]ior ph5om5a occur40#aah ,! place giv5 to a/ronomy is !re=e ju/ifi$4 ,?is sci5ce1 moreov]1 rema9s ab/ract4 ,= x to be a concrete sci5ce1 all aspects ( ! exi/5ce ( cele/ial bodies w\ld h to be /udi$ & consid]$ 9 _! relations1 to ea* o!r 9 x4 ,b1 on ! contr>y1 a/ronomy only /udies ! geometrical & me*anical ph5om5a 9 ! cele/ial bodies1 all physical & *emical consid]ations1 etc41 be+ elim9at$4 ,comte concludes t 9 pass+ on to ! cele/ial case ma!matics does n lose its ab/ract nature4 ,x only becomes m develop$ 9 ! case ( a special example1 ^: extreme importance dem&s su* a specialisation4 ,! ab/ract "* ( a/ronomy belongs to x almo/ a priori4 ,! facts ^u :i* x re/s are only reveal$ to u by "o ( our s5ses1 ! mo/ intellectual ( !m inde$1 b by :i* we are only in=m$ ( ! ma!matical prop]ties ( bodies4 ,our eyes alone t\* ! />s4 ,!re is no a/ronomy = a bl9d race4 ,d>k />s1 if su* !re be1 are = ev] hidd5 f u4 ,all t is giv5 to u1 !re=e1 is ! %ape1 ! position & ! motion ( visible cele/ial bodies4 ,we c nev] by any means "k h[ to /udy _! *emical composition1 nor _! m9]al /ructure1 nor a =tiori ! nature ( ! organic bodies :i* may live ^u !m4 ,comte might h =mulat$ 9 less categorical t]ms affirmations :i* 7 soon to be contradict$ by spectral analysis & by photography4 ,b he 0 confirm$ 9 ! entirely ab/ract & ma!matical conception :i* he _h ( a/ronomy by 8 p]suasion t no discov]ies ( s f>-rea*+ a nature 7 possible4 ,?us1 a/ronomy appe>$ to be an excell5t type ( a positive sci5ce1 because x is at once natural & ab/ract1 & 9 x ^! two *>act]i/ics are equally app>5t1 :i* 0 n ! case 9 ma!matics4 ,9 ?is sci5ce ! %>e ( obs]vation is s limit$1 s transi5t1 t x becomes inappreciable4 ,9 a/ronomy1 on ! contr>y1 det]m9ation ( c]ta9 facts evid5tly plays a "p 9 ! sci5ce4 ,b1 at ! same "t1 n[h]e d we see m cle>ly t sci5ce does n consi/ 9 ! m]e appreh5sion ( facts4 ,"h !y are s simple1 & moreov] s un9t]e/+1 t _! connexion & ! k ( _! laws alone des]ves ! "n ( sci5ce4 ,9 g5]al1 :at is an a/ronomical fact8 ,none o!r ?an ?is3 su* a /> has be5 se5 at su* a precise in/ant1 & "u su* an angle duly measur$4 ,! m or less pr(\nd elaboration ( ^! obs]vations is indisp5sable to sci5ce1 ev5 9 its mo/ imp]fect /ate4 ,a/ronomy1 says ,comte1 did n really come into be+ :5 ! prie/s ( ,egypt or ,*aldea made a s]ies ( m or less exact empirical obs]vations 9 ! heav5s2 b only :5 ! fir/ ,greek philosoph]s began to r$uce ! g5]al ph5om5on ( diurnal motion to a few geometrical laws4#aai ,( all ! natural sci5ces1 aft] ma!matics1 a/ronomy is also ! mo/ p]fectly free f all !ological & metaphysical consid]ations4 ,f e po9t ( view x is positive4 ,a/ronom]s no long] h rec\rse to a ,provid5ce1 :i* z ! intellig5t cause ( ! ord] ( ! cele/ial _w1 w\ld 9 its turn1 witness to ! exi/5ce ( ?is cause4 ,!y d n inquire any m into ! intimate nature ( =ces 7gravitation1 attraction1 etc474 ,a/ronomy is cont5t to det]m9e ! inv>iable relations ( ph5om5a ) ! greate/ possible precision4 ,x is "h t philosophical m9ds c /udy ! ess5tial *>act]i/ics ( a positive sci5ce4 ,9 x !y w also see h[ dis9t]e/$ x mu/ be 9 ord] to become useful4 8,)\t ! highe/ speculations ( geomet]s ^u cele/ial me*anics1 :i* h s greatly increas$ ! precision ( a/ronomical tables1 x w\ld be impossible to det]m9e ! longitude ( a %ip ) ! degree ( accuracy :i* is n[ atta9able40#abj ,f9ally no sci5ce has ex]cis$ a great] influ5ce ^u ! evolution ( ! human m9d ?an ?is "o4 ,! great epo*s 9 a/ronomy are also ^? 9 cosmological philosophy4 ,! desp]ate resi/ance :i* 0 (f]$ by !ological dogmatism to ,galileo's discov]y respond$ to a j appreh5sion ( ! consequ5ces involv$ 9 ?is discov]y4 ,to admit t ! e>? 0 n ! c5tre ( ! _w 0 to take a fir/ & a decisive /ep 9 ! way :i* leads away f ! an?ropoc5tric prejudice4 ,x 0 l pl$g+ oneself to sub/itute soon] or lat] ! relative po9t ( view to ! absolute "o 9 philosophy4 ,x 0 introduc+ ! positive _s1 to-day 9 speculative physics1 to-morr[ 9 speculative e?ics4 ,,ii4 ,al?\gh a/ronomy is an 8em95tly ma!matical0 sci5ce1 ! me?od ( work+ by obs]vation is us$ 9 x4 ,! a/ronom] obs]ves be=e calculat+1 & he obs]ves aga9 aft] hav+ calculat$4 ,! art ( obs]vation = :i* !re is no use 9 ma!matics appe>s "h !n1 &1 ) x1 ! inductive me?od4 ,inde$ !re is no 8absolute sep>ation0 betwe5 obs]v+ & reason+4#aba ,! m9d does n fir/ obs]ve facts 9 a receptive or 8passive0 mann]1 9 ord] to "w out comb9ations ( ^! facts aft]w>ds4 ,9 reality e obs]vation is a comb9ation1 & ?is is p>ticul>ly true 9 a/ronomical obs]vation4 ,! facts :i* we obs]ve are really con/ruct$4 ,we c only see simultane\s or successive directions1 accord+ to :i* ! m9d mu/ con/ruct ! =m or ! movem5t :i* ! eye c\ld n take 94 ,! necess>y & con/ant association 8betwe5 prevision & inspection0 is m intimate & m evid5t "h ?an 9 any o!r sci5ce4 ,9 ! same way1 hypo!sis 7:i* is insep>able f obs]vation7 c be /udi$ 9 a/ronomy 9 its mo/ simple =m4 ,"h x is pres5t$ 9 its cle>e/ aspect1 &1 if "o may say s1 9 ! "o :i* mo/ reveals its ess5tial nature4 ,n[1 hypo!sis 9 a/ronomy 8s]ves to fill up ! necess>y gaps 9 obs]vation40 ,x provisionally supplem5ts ! k--n inde$ ( causes1 = positive sci5ce seeks no?+ ( ?is k9d--b ( facts & laws :i* we ignore4 ,= in/ance1 ! simple geometrical sket* ( a diurnal motion w\ld rema9 impossible )\t an ab/ract hypo!sis :i* be+ comp>$ ) ! concrete spectacle pres5t$ by ! movem5t itself enables u to connect toge!r ! v>i\s cele/ial positions4 ,mod]n a/ronomy1 :i* has de/roy$ primitive assumptions reg>d$ z real laws ( ! _w1 has ma9ta9$ _! p]man5t value = conv5i5tly repres5t+ ph5om5a provisionally4 ,&1 z we are n deceiv$ z to ! reality ( su* assumptions we c use )\t scruple any "o :i* seems to u mo/ advantage\s4#abb ,! use ( hypo!sis1 z x is employ$ 9 a/ronomy1 mu/ be c>ri$ into ! o!r sci5ces4 ,?is mode ( proc$ure ev]y:]e rema9s l to itself1 al?\gh we d n always conceive x s cle>ly4 8,its normal doma9 co9cides ) t ( obs]vation40 ,an hypo!sis completes by anticipation :at we "k ( facts & ( _! laws4 ,consequ5tly1 x is subject to be modifi$1 correct$1 or contradict$ by a wid] or deep] k ( facts4 ,hypo!ses !n are only valid dur+ ! "t :5 !y are advantage\s1 t is to say1 z long z !y s]ve to unite & co-ord9ate our obs]vations4 ,z has be5 said1 !y lab\r to r5d] !mselves useless4 ,b !y are indisp5sable1 & sci5ce1 )\t !m1 c\ld nei!r advance nor ev5 beg94 ,f> f giv+ too small a %>e to hypo!sis1 l ,bacon1 ,comte w\ld r incur ! repro( ( hav+ giv5 x too l>ge a "o4 ,he made too mu* use ( x himself at ! end ( 8 life4 ,b ! !ory :i* he gave ( x 9 ! ,c\rs de philosophie positive & ( :i* c]ta9 features appeal aga9 9 ,claude ,b]n>d's ,introduction a l'tude de la mdec9e exp]imntale1 0 a c>eful /udy ( its nature & function4 ,,iii4 ,a/ronomy1 or at lea/ t "p ( a/ronomy :i* be>s ! "n ( cele/ial me*anics1 ( all ! physical sci5ces is ! "o :i* has be5 c>ri$ to ! highe/ degree ( p]fection4 ,n[h]e else h ! ph5om5a be5 bett] r$uc$ to a supreme law :i* all[s u to =esee !m ) suffici5t precision4 ,b ?is result c\ld only h be5 obta9$ by sub/itut+ ! notion ( a sol> _w to t ( a univ]se4#abc ,?is _w is ! only "o :i* we c compreh5d z a sy/em4 ,if ! object ( a/ronomy 7 ! g5]al laws ( ! univ]se1 ?is sci5ce w\ld be extraord9>ily imp]fect1 n to say impossible4 ,= :at d we "k ab\t cosmic laws8#abd ,we d n ev5 "k :e!r ,newton's law applies to any or all sy/ems ( />s4 ,we mu/ !n di/+ui% betwe5 a/ronomy z ! sci5ce ( our _w & sid]eal a/ronomy4 ,! latt] is n absolutely =bidd5 u1 b we "k v little on ?is subject1 & we %all probably nev] "k mu* m4 ,d ! innum]able suns scatt]$ 9 space =m a g5]al sy/em1 or d indep5d5t sy/ems exi/8 ,is space limitless8 ,is ! numb] ( cele/ial bodies an inf9ite "o8 philosoph]s ask4 ,9 tru? ! consid]ation ( our _w is positive4 ,! consid]ation ( ! univ]se is n4 ,hi/ory helps u to und]/& ! transition :i* l$ f "o to ! o!r4 ,anci5t philosophy made ! e>? ! c5tre ( ! univ]se4 ,not)/&+ ! div]sity ( _! p>ticul> *>act]i/ics & ( _! motions1 x 0 natural !n = all ! cele/ial bodies to be conceiv$ z ! p>ts ( a s+le sy/em4 ,a m or less cle>ly express$ po/ulate support$ ?is a/ronomical conception3 ! purpose ( ! univ]se 0 ! exi/5ce ( man4 ,!re 0 no occasion to di/+ui% our _w f ! :ole _w4 ,b c\ld ?is conception /& :5 ! e>? 0 r$uc$ to ! condition ( a planet revolv+ r\nd a sun s l a multitude ( o!r suns4 ,sudd5ly ! />s 7 c>ri$ to di/ances inf9itely m consid]able ?an ! greate/ planet>y int]vals4 ,und\bt$ly ! human m9d c\ld cont9ue to reg>d ! v small gr\ps ( :i* ! e>? =ms a "p z a sy/em4 ,b ! sy/em 7if x exi/s7 :i* embraces ! :ole ( ! cele/ial bodies ceas$ h5ce=? to be )9 our rea*4 ,s9ce !n 8! notion ( ! _w has become cle> & habitual1 & t ( ! univ]se has become unc]ta9 & almo/ un9telligible40#abe ,x matt]s little1 moreov]1 =1 accord+ to "o ( ,comte's fav\rite maxims1 :at we h no means ( kn[+1 nei!r h we any ne$ to "k2 & e ?+ :i* x is our int]e/ to le>n we c also atta94 ,nor %\ld we see 9 ?is any provid5tial h>mony4 ,t :i* x is our int]e/ to "k mu/ always 9 "s way influ5ce ! conditions ( our exi/5ce4 ,by ! m]e fact t ?is action makes itself felt1 x is inevitable t soon] or lat]1 directly or indirectly1 we %\ld come to "k ( x4 ,?is reflection c be well appli$ to a/ronomy4 ,! /udy ( ! laws ( ! sol> sy/em1 ( :i* we =m a "p1 is ( supreme int]e/ = u3 & we h rea*$ v great precision on ?is po9t4 ,on ! contr>y1 ! exact notion ( ! univ]se is inaccessible to u2 b x is unimportant to u leav+ out ( ! "q our 8insatiable curiosity40 ,! indep5d5ce ( our _w is c]ta94 ,! ph5om5a :i* take place )9 ! sol> sy/em d n appe> to be affect$ by ! m g5]al ph5om5a :i* relate to ! mutual action ( suns4 ,our tables ( cele/ial ev5ts1 drawn up long be=eh& & tak+ into consid]ation no o!r _w ?an our own1 s f> accord /rictly ) direct obs]vations4 ,suppos+ ! law ( gravitation to ext5d to ! entire univ]se1 ! p]turbation 9 our _w caus$ by a mass equal to a million times its own1 & :i* w\ld be situat$ at ! di/ance ( ! ne>e/ sun to our own1 w\ld be sev]al ?\s& million times less ?an t :i* br+s ab\t our tides1 t is to say practically nil4 ,"h1 says ,comte1 is ! only exception to ! encyclopdic law accord+ to :i* ! m g5]al ph5om5a control ! m p>ticul> ones )\t be+ influ5c$ by !m4#abf ,f ?is he simply concludes t ! ph5om5a ( our sy/em are ! mo/ g5]al to :i* positive rese>* c ext5d1 & t ! /udy ( ! univ]se mu/ h5ce=? be exclud$ f natural philosophy4 ,! encyclopdic law !n rema9s true = ! :ole ( positive philosophy4 ,! delimitation ( ! object ( a/ronomy is "o ( ! po9ts :]e we c be/ foll[ ! successive modifications ( ,comte's ?\ght4 ,9 ! second volume ( ! ,c\rs de philosophie positive he gave to a/ronomy ! place :i* is g5]ally conc$$ to x by sci5tific m54 ,he ev5 claims1 z a condition = its utility1 ! mo/ p]fect dis9t]e/$ness ( sci5tific rese>* 9 ! :ole ext5t ( its prov9ce4 ,! example :i* he gives ( x 7! det]m9ation ( longitude at sea71 is borr[$ f ,condorcet4 ,und\bt$ly1 ,comte already insi/s ^u ! di/9ction betwe5 ! ideas ( _w & univ]se1 ! =m] only be+ positive4 ,nev]!less1 he /ill admits t we %\ld n give up all hope ( obta9+ "s sid]eal k1#abg & t x w\ld be v preci\s = u to "k ! relative motions ( multiple />s1 etc4 ,b already 9 ! six? volume ( ! ,c\rs he condemns entirely ! 8s-call$ sid]eal a/ronomy1 :i* to-day con/itutes ! only grave sci5tific ab]ration peculi> to cele/ial /udies40#abh ,t5 ye>s lat]1 9 ! fir/ volume ( ! ,politique positive1 he 8reg5]ates0 a/ronomy f ! syn!tic po9t ( view4 ,he is no long] cont5t to limit x to ! k ( ! sol> sy/em4 ,he conf9es ! p>ticul> /udy ( our _w )9 n>r[ limits4 ,a/ronomy1 l ! o!r sci5ces1 f objective mu/ become subjective4 ,in/ead ( ! vague 7t is to say indef9ite7 /udy ( ! heav5s its end mu/ be ! k ( ! e>?1 & ! consid]ation ( ! o!r cele/ial bodies only 9 _! relation to ! human planet4 ,at ?is price alone c ! unity ( ?is sci5ce be secur$4#abi ,?us ,comte came back to ,ari/otle's clos$ _w ) ! e>? z its c5tre4 ,he po9ts x out himself 9 %[+ 9 :at way he diff]s f ! anci5t conception4 8,?is unity10 he says1 8exi/$ = ! anci5ts1 b 0 ( an absolute "* :i* at t "t 0 legitimate40 ,:5 ! motion ( our planet became kn[n1 ! anci5t con/itution ( cele/ial sci5ce might m]ely h be5 modifi$ 8by pres]v+ 9 x1 z subjective1 ! c5tre :i* 0 at fir/ suppos$ to be objective40 ,t w\ld h suffic$ to *ange a/ronomy f an absolute sci5ce to a relative "o4 ,und\bt$ly ! anci5ts 7 deceiv$ 9 believ+ ! e>? to be ! c5tre ( ! _w2 b1 9 ord] to correct _! error1 x suffic$ to say1 ! c5tre ( our _w4 ,! subjective syn!sis 8inde$ conc5trates ! cele/ial /udies r\nd ! e>?40 ,! o!r />s only des]ve our att5tion 9 s f> z ! k ( our planet requires x4 ,comte ends by say+ 9 ! f\r? volume ( ! ,politique positive t1 /rictly speak+1 ! /udy ( ! sun & moon w\ld suffice4 ,we may add to !m ! anci5t planets1 b n ! 8little telescopic planets40#acj ,?is progressive n>r[+ ( ! a/ronomical doma9 does n indicate a radical *ange 9 ,comte's philosophical ?\ght4 ,x only results f ! gr[+ subord9ation ( ! sci5tific int]e/ to o!r sup]ior int]e/s4 ,to "k = ! sake ( kn[+1 appe>s to ,comte to be a wrong use ( ! human intellect4 ,! ,newtons & ! ,laplaces 9 ! pa/ h fulfill$ a necess>y function1 & humanity owes !m et]nal gratitude4 ,!y /ruck a decisive bl[ aga9/ !ological & metaphysical philosophy2 & secur$ ! victory = ! positive _s4 ,9 _! "t sci5tific speculation :i* t5d$ to ! discov]y ( ! laws ( ph5om5a1 & especially ( cele/ial ph5om5a1 0 at once ! mo/ sublime & ! mo/ useful occupation :i* ^? m5 ( g5ius c\ld set !mselves4 ,b n[ t _! ef=ts h culm9at$ 9 ! f\ndation ( positive philosophy1 & ?is philosophy itself 9 ! 8f9al religion10 !re is no long] any reason to cont9ue rese>*es ) :i* h5ce=? humanity c disp5se4 ,we mu/ ev5 8cut d[n _m idle acquisitions40#aca ,9 a ^w1 f ! religi\s po9t ( view1 ,comte1 9 ord] to rem$y ! an>*y ( sci5ce1 suppresses its lib]ty4 ,^! extreme1 b logically d$uc$ consequ5ces1 are "p ( ! :ole ( ,comte's religi\s conceptions1 t is to say ( a di/ant ideal4 ,!y mu/ n bl9d u to ! pr(undity ( 8 philosophical consid]ations on a/ronomy4 ,8 reflections ^u ! relation betwe5 ! ideas ( ! _w & ( ! univ]se correspond1 f ! positive po9t ( view1 to ! fir/ ant9omy ( ! transc5d5tal ,dialectics 9 ! ,critique de la raison pure4 ,c we ev] be m fully consci\s ( ! relativity ( our k1 t :5 we see t :at we "k ( cele/ial ph5om5a is admirably precise s long z ! sol> sy/em is conc]n$1 b is r$uc$ to almo/ no?+ if we look beyond x8 ,our _w w p]i%1 & its disappe>ance l its exi/5ce1 w p]haps be an imp]ceptible incid5t4 ,by ! cont9u$ resi/ance ( ! g5]al milieu1 says ,comte1 9 ! end our _w mu/ be re-unit$ to ! sol> mass f :i* x came1 until1 9 ! imm5sity ( future ages1 a fre% dilatation ( ?is mass %all organise a new _w 9 ! same mann]1 de/9$ to repeat m or less completely ! =m] cycle4 ,moreov]1 all ^! imm5se alt]natives ( de/ruction & ( r5ewal h to be accompli%$ )\t influ5c+ 9 any way ! m g5]al ph5om5a due to sol> int]action2 s t ! great revolutions 9 our _w w\ld only be second>y &1 s to speak1 local ev5ts1 9 relation to trans=mations ( a really univ]sal "*4#acb ,?is outlook into ! 8imm5sity0 ( space & ( duration suffices to %[ t ,comte 0 n a prison] 9 ! little sol> fa!rl& 9 :i* he seems to seclude himself4 ,x may be t = moral & religi\s reasons he w n all[ himself to g beyond x4 ,b1 l ,pascal1 he well kn[s t he inhabits 8a little out ( ! way di/rict ( nature40 ,,*apt] ,,iii4 ,,! ,,sci5ces ,,( ,,! ,,inorganic ,,_w ,if we d n sep>ate *emi/ry f physics1 _! common object is ! k ( ! laws ( ! inorganic _w4 ,9 ?is way !y are cle>ly di/+ui%$ on "o h& f a/ronomy :i* we may consid] z an 8emanation f ma!matical sci5ce10 & on ! o!r h& f biology4 ,! di/9ction betwe5 physics & *emi/ry pres5ts a great] difficulty4 ,nev]!less ?is di/9ction mu/ be ma9ta9$1 s9ce ! physical ph5om5a are m 8g5]al10 & ! *emical ph5om5a m 8special10 t is to say1 ! latt] dep5d ^u ! =m]1 )\t ?is dep5d5ce be+ = ! mo/ "p reciprocal4 ,ev5 if "s day we succe$$ 9 e/abli%+ t *emical ph5om5a are 9 reality physical1 ! di/9ction w\ld none ! less subsi/1 9 ?is s5se1 t 9 a fact t]m$ *emical1 !re is always some?+ m ?an 9 a fact :i* is simply physical1 namely1 ! *>act]i/ic alt]ation :i* ! molecul> composition ( bodies und]goes1 & :i* consequ5tly affects ! totality ( _! prop]ties4#acc ,to speak only ( physics 9 ! fir/ place1 ?is sci5ce pres5ts diff]5t *>act]i/ics f ^? ( a/ronomy4 ,! speculative p]fection ( a sci5ce is measur$ by two correlative al?\gh di/9ct consid]ations1 by ! m or less complete co-ord9ation ( ! laws1 & by ! m or less accurate prevision ( facts4 ,n[1 "u "o aspect or ! o!r1 ev5 suppos+ t physics %\ld make v important progress1 x w always rema9 v mu* beh9d a/ronomy4 ,inde$1 ! cele/ial sci5ce pres5ts an almo/ p]fect unity2 physics1 on ! contr>y1 is compos$ ( sev]al bran*es :i* are almo/ isolat$ f "o ano!r1 & ea* "o tak5 by itself _c ev5 r$uce all its laws to a m g5]al law4 ,&1 z to ! second po9t1 :ile a v small numb] ( direct obs]vations all[s ( rational & exact prevision ( ! :ole ( ! cele/ial ph5om5a1 physics only r5d]s possible pr$ictions :i* are g5]ally f\nd$ ^u exp]i5ce at once imm$iate & )9 easy rea*4 ,und\bt$ly "s p>ts ( physics all[ ( ! use ( ma!matical analysis 7we %all see pres5tly "u :at conditions74 ,nev]!less1 ! "p play$ by exp]i5ce is inf9itely great] 9 physics ?an 9 a/ronomy4 ,s x is 9 ! =m] sci5ce t we fir/ meet ) ! inductive me?od1 :i* is aft]w>ds us$ & develop$ 9 ! o!r positive sci5ces4 ,al?\gh d$uction cont9ues to fulfil an important "p1 x already ceases to pr$om9ate "h1 because1 says ,comte1 9 x ! in/itution ( true pr9ciples beg9s to become m tr\blesome ?an ! developm5t ( accurate consequ5ces4#acd ,! inductive me?od implies ^! ess5tial processes2 #a obs]vation prop]ly s call$1 t is to say ! direct exam9ation ( ! ph5om5on su* z x appe>s naturally3 #b exp]im5t+1 :i* is usually def9$ z ! exam9ation ( ! ph5om5on m or less modifi$ by artificial circum/ances in/itut$ by u 9 ord] to /udy x bett]2 #c comp>ison1 t is to say ! gradual consid]ation ( a succession ( analog\s cases1 9 :i* ! ph5om5on becomes m & m simple4 ,( ^! ?ree processes a/ronomy only makes use ( ! fir/4 ,physics _c use ! ?ird :i* is res]v$ = biology2 b x avails itself ( ! fir/ & in/itutes ! second4 ,?is is a fre% confirmation ( ! law e/abli%$ by ,comte3 to ! complexity & increas+ difficulty ( ! sci5ces1 corresponds an increas+ developm5t ( ! processes ( ! positive me?od applicable to !m4 ,rese>* by way ( exp]im5t1 :i* is impossible 9 ,a/ronomy1 appe>s 9 ,physics4 ,x is !re=e "h :]e x orig9ates t we mu/ /udy x4 ,x is also "h t x is mo/ successful1 & gives ! greate/ numb] ( results4 ,inde$1 to exp]im5t successfully we mu/ be able to comp>e two cases 8:i* pres5t no o!r diff]5ce direct or indirect1 ?an t :i* relates to ! c\rse ( ! ph5om5on "u analysis40#ace ,by exp]im5t+1 ,comte "h cle>ly designates :at ,john ,/u>t ,mill w call ! me?od ( diff]5ce1 t is to say ! mo/ p[]ful ( 8 me?ods = ! inve/igation ( ph5om5a4 ,n[1 exp]im5t+1 s und]/ood1 is extremely difficult :5 v complicat$ ph5om5a are conc]n$4 ,9 physiology1 = in/ance1 ! exp]im5ts mu/ be comb9$ 9 su* a way z to ma9ta9 ! subjects 9 ! liv+ /ate1 & ev51 z f> z possible1 9 ! normal /ate4 ,b any modification ( "o "p ( ! organism imm$iately affects ! o!r p>ts4 ,! liv+ be+ reacts in/antly1 & adapts itself z be/ x c to ! new conditions 9 :i* x has be5 plac$ by ! exp]im5tali/4 ,we c !re=e h>dly ev] e/abli% 9 physiology :at is s easily obta9$ 9 physics3 two cases exactly simil> 9 all respects1 except 9 ! "o :i* we want to analyse4 ,9 *emi/ry1 x is true1 exp]im5t+ w\ld seem to be ev5 easi] ?an 9 physics1 s9ce 9 x1 z a rule1 we m]ely consid] facts result+ f circum/ances :i* are produc$ by man's int]v5tion4 ,b ?is is to mi/ake ! nature ( ! exp]im5tal me?od4 ,! ess5ce ( ?is process does n consi/ 9 man's in/itution ( ! circum/ances surr\nd+ ! ph5om5a2 x lies 9 ! 8free/ possible *oice ( ! case be/ suit$ to %[ ! law ( ! ph5om5on10 :e!r ?is case be1 moreov]1 natural or artificial4 ,n[1 ?is *oice is ne>ly always easi] 9 physics ?an 9 *emi/ry4 ,= ! *emical ph5om5a m complex 9 !mselves1 9 g5]al c only be br\ght ab\t by ! co-op]ation ( a great numb] ( diff]5t influ5ces2 = ?is reason 9 *emi/ry1 x is m difficult to modify ! circum/ances "u :i* ph5om5a are produc$1 & /ill m difficult to isolate z completely z 9 physics ! v>i\s conditions by :i* ph5om5a are det]m9$4 ,to ! use ( ! exp]im5tal me?od1 physics c (t5 jo9 t ( ma!matical analysis4 ,b 9 ! employm5t ( ! latt] x mu/ be extremely cauti\s1 & we mu/ only h rec\rse to ?is application ( ma!matics aft] hav+ 8c>efully consid]$ ! reality ( ! />t+ po9t10 :i* alone c gu>antee ! solidity ( ! d$uctions4 ,9 a ^w1 ! _s prop] to physical inve/igation1 mu/ con/antly direct ! use ( ?is p[]ful in/rum5t4 ,n[1 ?is condition has n always be5 fulfill$4 ,too (t5 ! prepond]ance ( ma!matical analysis has be5 ! cause ( ! neglect ( exp]im5tal /udies4 ,n only has ma!matical analysis 9 ?is way ret>d$ ! progress ( physics b x has ev5 t5d$ to vitiate ! conception ( t sci5ce1 & to br+ x back to a /ate ( obscurity & unc]ta9ty :i*1 says ,comte1 not)/&+ ! app>5t sev]ity ( ! =ms diff]s little1 at bottom1 f its old metaphysical /ate4#acf ,= ?is reason1 ! application ( analysis to physics mu/ n be left to geomet]s :o are *iefly conc]n$ ) ! in/rum5t4 ,x mu/ belong to ! physici/s :o be=e all ?+s consid] ! use to be made ( x4 ,ma!maticians h (t5 encumb]$ physics ) a quantity ( analytical lab\r f\nd$ ^u v d\btful hypo!sis2 !y mu/ give way to physici/s tra9$ 9 exp]im5tal /udies1 &1 nev]!less1 ) suffici5t k ( ma!matics to make use ( ! analysis :5ev] x is possible4 ,)9 ^! limits ma!matical analysis w r5d] ! greate/ s]vice to ! sci5ce ( physics4 ,w\ld optics1 ac\/ics1 ! !ories ( heat & ( electricity h rea*$ ! po9t :]e we see !m to-day )\t ! p[]ful help ( analysis8 ,yet ev5 "h1 physical rese>*es are almo/ always s complex t1 9 ord] to assume a ma!matical =m1 !y dem& ! sett+ aside ( a m or less ess5tial portion ( ! conditions ( ! problem4 ,inde$ we are "h 9 pres5ce ( ! g5]al problem ( ! translation ( ! concrete into ! ab/ract4 ,?is problem1 :i* is admirably solv$ 9 ma!matics1 & suffici5tly 9 a/ronomy1 is only imp]fectly solv$ 9 physics4 ,! art ( closely comb9+ exp]i5ce & analysis1 says ,comte1 is /ill almo/ unkn[n4 ,x con/itutes ! f9al progress ( ! me?od prop] to ! deep] /udy ( physics4#acg ,we may add1 & ?is is 9 ,comte's m9d1 t conv]sely ! progress made by ?is art w\ld be useful to analysis itself4 ,,ii4 ,a/ronomy has rea*$ a p]fect /ate ( 8positivity40 ,all trace ( ! metaphysical _s has disappe>$ f x4 ,c we say z mu* ( physics8 ,x w\ld n seem s1 :5 we see ! hypo!ses :i* play s great a "p 9 ?is sci5ce1 & ( :i* a few are ke5ly conte/$ by ,comte4 ,h[ c we di/+ui% ! valuable hypo!ses f ! useless ones1 ^? :i* are useful to physics f ^? :i* are m]ely an encumbrance & %\ld be reject$8 ,?is is n a "q :i* c be solv$ by ref]r+ to ab/ract rules4 ,9 ord] to answ] x1 we mu/ /udy ! use ( hypo!ses :]e x is p]fect1 & decide accord+ to ?is example4 ,to my m9d1 says ,comte1 ! deep] /udy ( ! art ( hypo!ses 9 a/ronomy c alone e/abli% ! rules :i* are suitable to direct ! use ( ?is preci\s artifice 9 physics1 & m s /ill 9 ! rema9d] ( natural philosophy4#ach ,n[ ( :at use is x to a/ronom]s8 ,to anticipate ! results ( d$uction or ( induction1 8by mak+ a provisional supposition conc]n+ "s ( ! v notions :i* con/itute ! f9al object ( ! rese>*40 ,x is a process ( :i* ! me?ods ( approximation us$ by geomet]s orig9ally sugge/$ ! g5]al idea4 ,!y 8suppos$0 t ! circumf]5ce 0 ! limit ( ! p]imet]s ( inscrib$ & circumscrib$ polygons ! numb] ( ^: sides w5t on increas+4 ,9 ! same way1 hypo!ses provisionally fill up ! 8lacun0 ( our k4 ,an hypo!sis %\ld always be op5 to a positive v]ification1 8^: degree ( precision is 9 h>mony ) t ( ! correspond+ ph5om5a40 ,= x only expresses be=eh& :at exp]i5ce & reason+ might h made kn[n imm$iately1 if ! circum/ances ( ! problem _h be5 m fav\rable4 ,if1 !re=e1 an hypo!sis claim$ to atta9 t :i* 9 its nature is inaccessible to obs]vation & to reason+1 x w\ld imm$iately become illegitimate & h>mful4 ,9 a ^w1 x mu/ be> exclusively ^u laws1 & nev] ^u causes or ! modes ( production ( ph5om5a4 ,9 ! physics ( 8 own "t ,comte f9ds ! two k9ds ( hypo!ses1 b he also f9ds m bad hypo!ses ?an good ones4 ,he especially prote/s aga9/ ! e!rs & ! fluids to :i* ! ph5om5a ( heat1 light1 electricity & magnetism 7 attribut$4 ,^! hypo!ses1 accord+ to him1 are de/9$ to disappe> f sci5ce4 ,x is true t ! physici/s d5y t !y attribute an objective reality to _! e!rs & _! fluids4 ,!y claim to ne$ !m absolutely 9 ord] to facilitate ! conception & ! comb9ation ( ph5om5a4 ,h[ev]1 9 spite ( !mselves1 !y are drawn into speak+ ( _! e!rs z if !y really exi/$4 ,moreov]1 d !y n see t a/ronomy gets on v well )\t simil> hypo!ses8 ,9 ord] to conceive ! ph5om5a x is en\gh to obs]ve & analyse !m att5tively4 ,&1 z to comb9+ !m1 t dep5ds ^u ! k :i* has be5 obta9$ ( _! positive relations4 ,! corpuscul> !ory is1 on ! contr>y1 an example ( a good hypo!sis 9 physics1 :]e x plays a "p analog\s to t ( ! in]tia ( bodies 9 me*anics4#aci ,! inn]mo/ /ructure ( bodies is unkn[n to u4 ,b we h a "r to introduce all ! hypo!ses :i* c help u 9 our rese>*1 & 9 p>ticul> ! hypo!sis ( atoms1 s long z we d n und]/& x z some?+ repres5t+ a reality4 ,! e!rs & ! fluids t5d to 8expla90 ! physical ph5om5a by ! nature ( ! ag5t :i* produces !m4 ,x is "h t ^! hypo!ses be> ! m>k ( ! metaphysical _s4 ,to und]/& ! appe>ance & especially ! p]si/5ce ( ^! hypo!ses1 x is n en\gh to consid] !m 9 !mselves4 ,we mu/ get back to ! hi/ory ( physics1 & comp>e x ) t ( ! o!r fundam5tal sci5ces4 ,0 x possible = physics to pass sudd5ly f ! p]iod 9 :i* ph5om5a are ref]r$ to causes & ess5ces1 to ! positive p]iod :]e !y are conceiv$ z simply subject to laws8 ,a p]iod ( transition 0 necess>y4 ,! s*ola/ic entities1 be=e disappe>+1 became semi-mat]ialis$4 ,!y 7 trans=m$ into fluids4 ,:at is heat conceiv$ z exi/+ ap>t f a hot body1 light indep5d5t ( a lum9\s body1 electricity sep>at$ f an electric body8 ,!y are ! old entities 9 a new g>m5t1 m easily grasp$1 9 spite ( _! 8equivocal corporeity40 ,!y gradually lead to ! m & m exclusive consid]ation ( ph5om5a & ( laws1 until1 9 _! turn1 !y disappe>4 ,a/ronomy w5t ?r\gh ! same phases be=e ,physics4 ,9 x we h also se5 hypo!ses :i* _c be v]ifi$ come to facilitate ! transition f ! !ological to ! positive /ate4 ,su* 0 ! conception ( ,desc>tes :o expla9$ ! cele/ial motions by ! sy/em ( vortices4 ,^? fam\s vortices introduc$ ! idea ( a me*anism :]e ,kepl] himself _h only d>$ to conceive ! incompreh5sible action ( s\ls & g5ii4 ,!n ,newton came1 :o pres]v$ ! idea ( me*anism1 :ile giv+ up ! vortices4 ,9 va9 did ! ,c>tesians fight aga9/ 8 entirely positive conception4 ,_! argum5ts 9 fav\r ( fluids & e!rs 7 z plausible z ^? ( ! physici/s ( our own "t4 ,b we h ceas$ to li/5 to !m4 ,hav+ become entirely positive1 a/ronomy no long] seeks any?+ b ! laws at "w 9 ! ph5om5a obs]v$4 ,e accessory hypo!sis aim+ at any?+ else has no fur!r int]e/ = u4 ,! mo/ advanc$ portions ( physics h already rea*$ ?is po9t4 ,take1 = in/ance1 ! /udy ( gravitation4 ,!re 0 n p]haps a s+le sci5tific man ( any importance 9 ! ,,xvii4 c5tury1 ev5 long aft] ,galileo1 :o did n con/ruct or adopt a sy/em conc]n+ ! fall ( bodies4 ,at t "t any sci5ce on ?is subject seem$ impossible )\t a hypo!sis ( ?is k9d4 ,:o tr\bles himself ) x to-day8 ,we may be all[$ to ?9k t ! o!r p>ts ( physics w foll[ ! same l9e1 & t 9 turn !y w con=m to ?is rule ( ! positive me?od3 8,e hypo!sis mu/ be> exclusively ^u ! laws ( ph5om5a1 & nev] ^u _! modes ( production40 ,,iii4 ,9 ! s]ies ( ! fundam5tal sci5ces ,*emi/ry appe>s to fill a some:at second>y & subord9ate place4 ,9 x ! positive me?od is n enri*$ by any process ( capital importance1 b x conf9es itself to develop+ ! processes already made use ( 9 physics4 ,9 spite ( appe>ances1 ev5 exp]im5t+ is less easy & less f]tile 9 *emi/ry ?an 9 physics4 ,! only new process :i* we see appe>+ is ! art ( nom5clature4 ,:5ev] we wi% to /udy ?is art 8at its s\rce0 we %all h to ref] to *emi/ry4#adj ,! ph5om5a :i* x /udies are ! mo/ complicat$ ( ! inorganic _w4 ,if !n physics is extremely imp]fect1 x is n surpris+ t *emi/ry %\ld be mu* m s4 ,9 ! great] numb] ( its rese>*es 8! *emi/ry ( ! pres5t day h>dly des]ves ! "n ( sci5ce40#ada ,b ?is inf]iority ( *emi/ry is n only due to ! nature ( its object4 ,!re are o!r causes :i* x w\ld be easi] to rem$y4 ,! progress ( *emi/ry is ret>d$3 #a1 by ! wrong direction giv5 to mu* ( its "w up to ! pres5t "t2 #b1 by ! defective education ( ! majority ( ! sci5tific m5 :o give !mselves to its /udy4 ,be=e all ?+s1 *emi/s lack a cle> & rational idea ( _! sci5ce1 ( its relation to ! sci5ces :i* /& ne>e/ to x & ! way 9 :i* its problems %\ld be /at$4 ,be+ int]m$iate betwe5 physics & biology1 *emi/ry has suff]$ f ! vic9ity ( bo?4 ,z ! m advanc$ sci5ces always h a m>k$ t5d5cy to encroa* ^u ^? above !m1 *emi/ry mu/ 9 ! fir/ place def5d itself aga9/ ! asc5d5cy ( physics1 z physics itself mu/ fight aga9/ t ( ma!matics4 ,! *emi/ mu/ und\bt$ly h /udi$ physics1 9 ord] to make use ( ! results obta9$ by ?is sci5ce1 & to turn !m1 if he c1 into a me?od = 8 own use4 ,! relation ( ^! two sci5ces is v close1 & a k ( ! laws ( calorific & electric ph5om5a1 = in/ance1 is ( ! highe/ importance = *emical rese>*4 ,b1 = all ?is1 ! *emi/ has 8 own po9t ( view4 ,he /udies1 7:i* ! physici/ does n d71 ! laws ( ! ph5om5a ( composition & decomposition :i* are ! result ( ! molecul> & specific action ( div]se natural or artificial sub/ances ^u ea* o!r4 ,he mu/ !re=e make use ( physics1 b n subord9ate himself to x4 ,on ! o!r h& physiological rese>* is n )9 ! prov9ce ( *emi/ry4 ,:at has be5 call$ 8biological *emi/ry0 belongs1 accord+ to ,comte1 to biology alone4 ,= ! physiologi/ to h gone ?r\gh ! s*ool ( *emi/ry is natural & ev5 indisp5sable4 ,b 8 po9t ( view is q diff]5t f t ( ! *emi/4 ,z a matt] ( fact1 *emi/s h %[n !mselves unqualifi$ = physiological /udies4 ,none ( _! num]\s attempts h succe$$ 9 e/abli%+ a s+le po9t ( g5]al doctr9e1 9 biology4 ,!y m]ely furni%$ mat]ials4 ,moreov] ^! _c be us$ j z !y are by ! physiologi/1 :o is oblig$ to take up ! rese>*es aga9 8"u ! prepond]at+ influ5ce ( biological consid]ations40 ,comte admires ! self-confid5ce ( ! *emi/s :o approa* physiological que/ions )\t hav+ measur$ or ev5 suspect$ ! special difficulties4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 cle> t ! mo/ c>efully made *emical analyses mu/ be fruitless "h s long z !y are n direct$ 9 ! fir/ place by a precise physiological notion ( ! :ole ( ! ph5om5on1 & !n modifi$ by ! k ( ! limits ( ! normal v>iations to :i* ! ph5om5a may be liable4 ,n[1 = proce$+ 9 ?is mann]1 ! physiologi/s alone are compet5t4#adb ,analog\s consid]ations lead ,comte to reject ev5 organic *emi/ry4 ,al?\gh ! *emical ph5om5a pres5t *>act]i/ics :i* 9 ! inorganic _w come ne>e/ to ! solid>ity :i* subsi/s betwe5 ! elem5ts ( liv+ =ms1 nev]!less *emical ph5om5a rema9s irr$ucible to liv+ ph5om5a4 ,t :i* is *emical is n yet organic2 & t :i* is organic is no long] purely *emical4 ,we mu/ d away ) ?is het]og5\s & fictiti\s gr\p+ :i* is call$ organic *emi/ry1 to unite ! diff]5t p>ts1 accord+ to _! respective nature1 "s to *emi/ry prop]1 ! o!rs to biology4#adc ,h[ c we def9e ! object ( ?is sci5ce1 s imp]fectly det]m9$ at ! pres5t "t8 ,comte kn[s t he is ab\t to dep>t f ! me?ods g5]ally 9 use among *emi/s1 b he is n afraid ( ?is4 ,=1 he says1 9 ord] to und]/& ! real nature ( a sci5ce1 we mu/ always suppose x to be p]fect4#add ,z *emi/ry1 is 9 an extreme /ate ( imp]fection1 ! 8sci5tific type0 :i* ! philosoph] conceives respect+ x w appe> to be v f> remov$ f :at exi/s at pres5t4 ,x matt]s little s long z ?is type is p]fectly 8rational40 ,:at is ess5tial to sci5ce is ! possibility ( =esee+ ph5om5a4 ,giv5 ! *>act]i/ic prop]ties ( ! simple or complex sub/ances plac$ 9 *emical relations ) ea* o!r "u well def9$ circum/ances1 ! object ( *emi/ry w !re=e be to det]m9e exactly 9 :at _! action w consi/1 & :at w be ! prop]ties ( ! new sub/ances produc$4#ade ,accord+ to ?is def9ition1 ! fundam5tal data ( *emi/ry %\ld be ultimately1 r$ucible to ! k ( ! ess5tial prop]ties ( ! simple elem5ts alone1 :i* w\ld lead to t ( ! v>i\s imm$iate *emical sub/ances1 & consequ5tly to ! mo/ complex & di/ant comb9ations4 ,obvi\sly1 ! /udy ( simple bodies c only be made by means ( exp]im5ts1 :i* alone reveal _! prop]ties4 ,b1 once ?is basis is laid d[n1 8all ! o!r *emical ph5om5a1 not)/&+ _! imm5se v>iety1 %\ld be capable ( rational solutions1 accord+ to a small numb] ( inv>iable laws1 e/abli%$ by ! sci5ce ( *emi/ry = ! v>i\s classes ( comb9ations40 ,?us1 ,comte sees cle>ly t ! complexity ( ! *emical ph5om5a prev5ts u f express+ _! relations 9 a =m :i* all[s ( ! use ( ma!matical analysis4 ,b none ! less1 9 ?is sci5ce z 9 ! prec$+ ones1 he p]si/s 9 mak+ ! exp]im5tal me?od a m]e />t+-po9t4 ,! exp]im5tal me?od furni%es ! data :i* x alone c supply4 ,b ^! data are aft]w>ds elaborat$ )\t its int]v5tion4 ,! sci5tific ideal 9 *emi/ry1 z 9 physics & 9 a/ronomy1 is to sub/itute z mu* z possible rational prevision to exp]im5tal v]ification4 ,sci5ce always seeks to d$uce ! greate/ numb] ( consequ5ces f ! smalle/ numb] ( data1 & ! smalle/ numb] ( data 9 ?is case are ! prop]ties ( simple bodies4 ,d$uction w e/abli% a priori :at ! prop]ties ( a giv5 comb9ation ( two simple bodies1 or ( two complex bodies w be4 ,9 ! "n ( ?is sci5tific ideal1 ,comte reproa*es ! *emi/s ) ! sup]abundance ( _! analytical "w4 ,9 default ( a rational conception ( *emi/ry !y d n make _! "w be> ^u ! necess>y po9ts4 ,:at is ! use ( /udy+ su* & su* a body1 plac$ 9 su* & su* conditions1 9 an arbitr>y way & accord+ to ! fancy ( inve/igation8 ,! progress ( *emi/ry %\ld consi/ f> less 9 ! acquisition ( new mat]ials ?an 9 ! sy/ematisation ( ^? :i* we already possess4 ,*emi/ry is to-day z ri* 9 details z x is imp]fectly con/itut$ z a sci5ce4#adf ,its pres5t /ate 9 no way gives an idea ( :at its normal /ate w be4 ,n cont5t ) %[+ to *emi/s ! 8sci5tific type0 t[>ds :i* _! sci5ce %\ld t5d1 ,comte sugge/s a contrivance 9 me?od :i* w br+ !m ne>] to x4 ,x is 9 no way l ! hypo!sis ( aff9ities1 = ?is appe>s to him to be ev5 m 8ontological0 ?an ! hypo!sis ( imag9>y fluids or e!rs4 ,z always happ5s :5 we are conc]n$ ) metaphysical conceptions1 ! explanations :i* we draw f aff9ities consi/ 9 ! reproduction 9 ab/ract t]ms ( ! v /atem5t ( ! ph5om5on4#adg ,to ?is hypo!sis1 :i* is n a sci5tific "o s9ce x be>s up ! mode ( production ( facts1 ,comte sub/itutes :at he calls ! 8duali/ hypo!sis40 ,we ignore1 he says1 & x is n = u to seek ! real mann] 9 :i* ! elem5ts ( :i* bodies are compos$ come to be gr\p$ toge!r4 ,b1 consequ5tly1 x is lawful = u1 9 ! v circumscrib$ sph]e ( our positive rese>*1 to conceive ! imm$iate composition ( any sub/ance :atev] z m]ely b9>y1 ea* ( ! two bodies s sep>at$ be+ able1 accord+ z ! case may be1 to l5d itself to a simil> analysis1 equally b9>y1 & s on1 z ! occasion arises4 ,we d n affirm t dualism is a real law ( nature4 ,x w be a fundam5tal contrivance 9 *emi/ry1 l ! hypo!sis ( in]tia 9 me*anics1 & t ( atoms 9 physics4 ,x w s]ve to 8simplify our elem5t>y conceptions0 9 *emi/ry1 & 9 hav+ rec\rse to x we d n exce$ 8! special k9d ( lib]ty0 ( :i* our intellect may avail itself1 9 ! in/itution ( sci5ce4#adh ,! use ( ?is hypo!sis w\ld all[ u to end[ *emi/ry ) a 8f9e0 "* ( unity & rationality :i* x lacks to-day4 ,x is true t ,comte himself confess$ t ?is hypo!sis1 propos$ by him 9 #ahch1 _h yet 8produc$ no?+0 9 #ahea4 ,b he expla9s ?is /]ility to himself by ! metaphysical _s1 f :i* *emi/s are n suffici5tly fre$4 ,,iv4 ,we c n[ take 9 at a s+le glance ! relations ( ! sci5ces ( ! inorganic _w 7includ+ a/ronomy71 ) ! totality ( positive philosophy4#adi ,9 sev]al ways ^! sci5ces h contribut$ to ! progress ( ! positive _s4 ,by _! con/itution1 !y all[$ & prep>$ ! =mation ( ! m complex sci5ces ( ,biology & ( ,sociology4 ,moreov]1 _! developm5t /ruck a mortal bl[ at !ological & metaphysical philosophy4 ,?r\gh !m m9ds became famili>is$ ) ! idea ( natural law4 ,?is idea 0 n s cle>ly br\ght to light by ma!matics on acc\nt ( _! almo/ purely ab/ract "*1 & ( ! imp]ceptible "p play$ 9 !m by obs]vation4 ,x appe>s1 on ! contr>y1 z ! ma9spr+ ( a/ronomy1 ( physics1 & ( *emi/ry4 ,! :ole ef=t ( ^! sci5ces t5ds to discov] inv>iable relations betwe5 ph5om5a giv5 9 exp]i5ce4 ,!ological philosophy is ! 8explanation0 ( nature :i* ! human m9d fir/ makes = itself4 ,9 ord] t x may give up ?is 8explanation0 "s contr>y evid5ce mu/ oblige x to d s4 ,x may see = in/ance1 t ph5om5a c be pr$ict$ ) a p]fect exactness :i* is always confirm$ by exp]i5ce1 or t man1 "u c]ta9 conditions1 c modify !m ) c]ta9ty4 ,a/ronomy gives u an example ( ! =m] case4 ,x /udies ph5om5a :i*1 x is true1 are remov$ f our sph]e ( action4 ,b1 9 return1 x pr$icts !m ) a c]ta9ty ( :i* ! effect has be5 practically infallible 9 ! long run4 ,x is a/ronomy :i* has done mo/ to discr$it ! religi\s & philosophical doctr9e ( f9al causes4#aej ,n only has x prov$ t ! univ]se is n dispos$ ) ref]5ce to man1 b x has %[n ! imp]fections ( our sol> sy/em4 ,x has help$ m ?an any o!r sci5ce to *eck ! m5tal habit ( seek+ ! mode ( production ( ph5om5a4 ,physics is f> f all[+ ( a rational prevision :i* is comp>able to t practis$ by a/ronomy4 ,b1 z a comp5sation1 x %[s h[ ! k ( laws gives ! p[] to cause ph5om5a to v>y ) c]ta9ty4 ,?is second way leads u no less surely ?an ! fir/ to ! positive conception ( nature4 ,= example1 ,frankl9 de/roy$ ! religi\s !ory ( ?und]1 ev5 9 ! lea/ cultivat$ intellects4 ,! discov]y ( ! means ( direct+ lightn+ !re=e _h ! same effect1 9 ano!r way1 z ! exact prevision ( ! return ( comets4#aea ,on ! o!r h& ! sci5ces ( ! inorganic _w furni% ! g5]al positive me?od ) "s ( its mo/ p[]ful processes4 ,a/ronomy introduces obs]vation & hypo!sis into ?is me?od1 ,physics adds exp]im5t+ to x1 & ,*emi/ry ! art ( nom5clatures4 ,! inductive me?od1 :i* virtually consi/s 9 simple sci5tific obs]vation1 becomes1 h[ev]1 enri*$ & is develop$1 accord+ z ! ph5om5a 9 "q become m complicat$4 ,b1 9 return1 positive philosophy ex]cises a consid]able influ5ce ov] ^! sci5ces4 ,x claims no?+ less ?an to direct & 8reg5]ate0 !m4 ,view+ !m f above & z a :ole1 philosophy c br+ a rem$y to ! difficulties :i* arise f _! specialism4 ,x sets an exact limit to ea* ( ! sci5ces4 ,x deliv]s physics f ! 8algebraical yoke10 & protects ! indep5d5ce ( *emi/s aga9/ ! encroa*m5ts ( ! physici/s4 ,x places ! entirety ( ! positive me?od at ! s]vice ( ea* p>ticul> sci5ce4 ,= in/ance1 x directs ! use ( hypo!sis 9 physics by ! !ory drawn f ! use :i* is made ( x 9 a/ronomy2 = classifications1 x ext5ds to *emi/ry ! use ( ! comp>ative me?od :i* prop]ly belongs to biology4 ,:51 lat]1 ! integral & f9al con/itution ( ! philosophy ( our age %all h organis$ ! relations betwe5 all ! sci5ces1 x w be almo/ impossible1 save f ! hi/orical po9t ( view1 to und]/& h[ ! /udy ( nature 0 ev] conceiv$ & direct$ o!rwise4#aeb ,positive philosophy organises lab\r )9 ea* sci5ce1 & puts an end to 8an>*y40 ,x di/+ui%es betwe5 8idle0 rese>*es1 & ^? :i* %\ld be pursu$4 ,x avoids wa/e ( ef=ts & prev5ts digressions4 ,we h se5 )9 :at limits ,comte wi%es to enclose a/ronomy 9 ! "n ( philosophy4 ,he does n p]ceive ! means by :i* he c unite ! v>i\s bran*es ( physics2 b he claims to replace ! fragm5t>y & scatt]$ *emi/ry ( 8 "t by a s+le sy/ematic sci5ce1 :i* w =sake ! rese>*es ( detail :i* are )\t int]e/ = humanity4 8,almo/ ! :ole ( ^? innum]able comp\nds w n f9ally be wor?y ( any sci5tific att5tion4 ,"s well-*os5 s]ies may ev5 be able to satisfy ! logical requirem5ts ( *emi/ry = ! discov]y ( ! ab/ract laws :i* belong to ea* ord] ( composition40#aec ,f9ally positive philosophy causes ! disappe>ance ( ! la/ rema9s ( ! !ological & metaphysical _s f ! sci5ces ( inorganic nature4 ,?is philosophy has already %[n t ma!matics is n a m absolute sci5ce ?an ! o!rs1 & t x orig9ates 9 exp]i5ce4 ,9 physics & 9 *emi/ry x bani%es ! hypo!ses :i*1 m or less av[$ly1 t5d to make u conceive ! ess5ce or ! mode ( production ( ph5om5a4 ,x is ?us t x dem&s a sci5ce ( physics fre$ f e!rs & fluids1 & a :olly rational *emi/ry :i* %all give up aff9ities4 ,comte is n !re=e possess$ ( a sup]/iti\s respect = ! sci5ces 9 ! /ate 9 :i* !y appe> be=e him4 ,on ! contr>y1 he int5ds t !y %\ld be subject to deep modifications1 & t !y %\ld /rive t[>ds an ideal =m :i* is laid d[n = !m by philosophy4 ,he calls ?is =m 8positive40 ,9 reality x is ,c>tesian4 ,,footnotes3 #aaf ,pol4 pos4 ,i1 #dii-ejg4 #aag ,c\rs1 ,,vi1 #gdi4 #aah ,c\rs1 ,,iii1 #ic4 #aai ,c\rs1 ,,ii1 #af-ag4 #abj ,c\rs1 ,,ii1 #ad-ae4 #aba ,pol4 pos4 ,i4 #ejj4 #abb ,c\rs1 ,,ii1 #aec4 #abc ,c\rs1 ,,ii1 #acb-c4 #abd ,c\rs1 ,,vi1 #gea4 #abe ,c\rs1 ,,ii1 #acc4 #abf ,c\rs1 ,,ii1 #bff-g4 #abg ,c\rs1 ,,ii4 #g4 #abh ,c\rs1 ,,vi1 #gea4 #abi ,pol4 pos4 ,i1 #ejh4 #acj ,pol4 pos4 ,,iv4 #bab4 #aca ,pol4 pos4 ,i4 #ejh-ac4 #acb ,c\rs4 ,,ii4 #big4 #acc ,c\rs ,,ii4 #caj4 #acd ,pol4 pos4 ,i1 #eaf-ah4 #ace ,c\rs1 ,,ii1 #cac-ae2 ,pol4 pos4 ,i1 #eai4 #acf ,c\rs1 ,,ii1 #cag4 #acg ,c\rs1 ,,ii1 #cba4 #ach ,c\rs1 ,,ii1 #ccf sq4 #aci ,pol4 pos4 #ebj4 #adj ,pol4 ,pos41 ,i1 #ecb4 #ada ,c\rs1 ,,iii1 #c-d4 #adb ,c\rs1 ,,iii1 #ahf-i4 #adc ,c\rs1 ,,iii1 #aie4 #add ,c\rs1 ,i4 #aah3 ,,ii4 #caa4 #ade ,c\rs ,,iii4 #aa-ab4 #adf ,c\rs1 ,,iii4 #bjf4 #adg ,c\rs1 ,,iii4 #ce4 #adh ,c\rs1 ,,iii4 #hg-h4 #adi ,pol4 pos4 ,i4 #eea4 #aej ,c\rs1 ,,ii4 #bd-bf4 #aea ,c\rs1 ,,ii4 #cca4 #aeb ,c\rs1 ,,iii4 #ge4 #aec ,pol4 pos4 ,i1 #efa4 ,,*apt] ,,iv ,,biology ,! passage f ! inorganic _w to ! _w ( ,life con/itutes a critical /ep 9 natural philosophy4 ,a/ronomy1 ,physics1 & ,*emi/ry repres5t$ successive /eps 9 ! same s]ies4 ,if ea* ord] ( ph5om5a pres5t$ 9 itself some?+ :i* 0 irr$ucible to previ\s ord]s1 nev]!less all ^! ph5om5a1 9 a c]ta9 s5se1 rema9$ homog5e\s4 ,)\t ra%ness1 ,desc>tes c\ld conceive t physics1 l a/ronomy1 w\ld "o day assume ! ma!matical =m4 ,& to-day m ?an "o sci5tific man consid]s ! di/9ction betwe5 physics & *emi/ry z provisional4 ,b z soon z life appe>s1 we ent] a new _w4 ,at ?is degree ! 8enri*m5t ( ! real0 is sudd5ly s consid]able t we f9d x difficult to admit ! homog5eity ( ^! ph5om5a ) ! prec$+ ones4 ,comte "h reaps ! b5efit ( 8 prud5ce4 ,8 philosophy has gu>d$ aga9/ r$uc+ all sci5ce to a s+le type1 & x is cont5t ) ! unity ( me?od & ! homog5eity ( doctr9e4 ,x only dem&s t ea* sci5ce %\ld limit itself to ! se>* aft] ! laws ( ph5om5a4 ,z to ! way 9 :i* ?is rese>* is to be c>ri$ out1 x is evid5tly subord9at$ to ! nature ( ! ph5om5a 9 "q4 ,n[1 biological ph5om5a pres5t a numb] ( *>act]i/ics :i* belong to !m alone1 & ! fir/ duty ( ! positive sci5ce :i* /udies !m is to respect _! orig9ality4 ,comte1 !re=e1 "h breaks ) ,desc>tes :o conceiv$ biology z a prolongation ( physics4 ,he takes an entirely diff]5t view ( ?is sci5ce1 :i*1 9 a s5se1 is oppos$ to ! :ole ( ! sci5ces ( ! inorganic _w4 ,f ?is !re arises a d\ble ef=t4 ,on ! "o h&1 ,comte wi%es to ma9ta9 ! cont9uity ( ! encyclopdic s]ies ( ! sci5ces3 he ?us %[s ,biology z imm$iately foll[+ *emi/ry1 & ma9ta9+ ! close/ relations ) a/ronomy & physics4 ,on ! o!r h& he cle>ly br+s out ! irr$ucible "* ( ! vital ph5om5a1 & ! modifications :i* ! positive me?od mu/ und]go :5 appli$ to !m4 ,despite ! extreme diff]5ce betwe5 ! po9ts ( view & ! doctr9es1 he (t5 makes u ?9k ( ^? deep & difficult passages 9 ! ,critique du ,jugem5t :]e ,kant has %[n t )\t ! hypo!sis ( an inn] f9ality1 7al?\gh ?is hypo!sis is 9 itself obscure71 ! ph5om5a :i* take place 9 liv+ be+s rema9 un9telligible4 ,) biology1 says ,comte1 necess>ily appe> ! ideas ( cons5sus1 ( hi]>*y1 ( 8milieu01 ( ! conditions ( exi/5ce1 ( ! relation betwe5 ! /atic & ! dynamic /ates1 betwe5 ! organ & ! function4#aed ,9 a ^w1 a biological ph5om5on1 consid]$ alone is devoid ( mean+4 ,/rictly speak+1 x does n ev5 exi/4 ,x c only be und]/ood by its relations ) ! o!r ph5om5a :i* take place 9 ! liv+ be+1 ph5om5a :i* react ^u x4 ,at ! same "t x reacts ^u !m4 ,"h1 9 opposition to :at takes place 9 ! inorganic _w1 ! p>ts are only intelligible ?r\gh ! idea ( ! :ole4 ,und\bt$ly a c]ta9 solid>ity ( ph5om5a exi/s 9 ! inorganic _w1 :i* all[s u to consid] unit$ :oles 9 x4 ,b ! solid>ity ( biological ph5om5a is f> clos]1 =1 )\t x we c\ld n conceive !m1 :ile1 z reg>ds ! ph5om5a ( ! inorganic _w1 !re is no?+ impossible 9 ?is ab/raction4 ,h5ce=?1 ! positive me?od mu/ adapt itself to ! *>act]i/ics :i* belong to biological ph5om5a4 ,x does n always dem&1 z x has be5 wrongly /at$1 t we %\ld g f ! simple to ! complex1 b only t we %\ld proce$ f ! kn[n to ! unkn[n4 ,x is true t 9 ! sci5ces ( ! inorganic _w we proce$ f ! lea/ complex to ! mo/ complex cases2 we beg9 by ! /udy ( ph5om5a :i* are z isolat$ z possible f "o ano!r4 ,b1 on ! contr>y1 liv+ be+s are all ! bett] kn[n to u 9 proportion z !y are m complex4 ,! idea ( ! animal is 9 "s respects cle>] to u ?an ! idea ( ! vegetable4 ,! idea ( ! sup]ior animals is cle>] to u ?an t ( ! inf]ior ones4 ,f9ally man = u is ! pr9cipal biological unity1 & x is f ?is unity t speculation />ts 9 ?is sci5ce4 ,?us1 9 deal+ ) ,biology ! positive me?od und]goes a v]itable inv]sion4 ,9 ! prec$+ sci5ces1 ! la/ degree ( composition is =bidd5 u3 we nev] succe$ 9 unit+ ! :ole ( ! inorganic _w into a s+le syn!sis4 ,9 biology1 on ! contr>y1 sums ( ph5om5a are giv52 b x is ! la/ degree ( simplicity :i* escapes u4 ,we h to />t f ^? sums ( ph5om5a1 & biology mu/ 9 ?is way assume a syn!tic "*4 ,9 x ! analysis ( ph5om5a w be z m9ute z possible2 b ! analytical op]ations w always be m or less directly subord9at$ to ! lead+ idea ( ! vital cons5sus4#aee ,,ii4 ,l ! o!r fundam5tal sci5ces ,biology mu/ be ab/ract1 t is to say x mu/ n be> ^u individual be+s1 b ^u ph5om5a4 ,x is ?us di/9ct f zoology & botany :i* are concrete sci5ces4 ,9 its wide/ g5]ality x is def9$ ?r\gh ! con/ant correspond5ce betwe5 ! anatomical & ! physiological po9t ( view4 ,its object is to con/antly unite !m to "o ano!r4 ,9 reality ^! two po9ts ( view are ! two aspects ( a s+le problem4 ,x is ow+ to hi/orical reasons t1 dur+ a c]ta9 "t1 ^! two sci5ces appe>$ to develop indep5d5tly ( "o ano!r4 ,physiology rema9$ atta*$ to ! metaphysical me?ods1 t is to say1 to unv]ifiable hypo!ses & to pr9ciples :i* w5t beyond exp]i5ce1 :ile anatomi/s already made use ( ! positive me?od4 ,b to-day1 ! two sci5ces be+ equally positive1 8_! opposition is r$uc$ to t :i* subsi/s betwe5 ! /atic & ! dynamic po9ts ( view40#aef ,ano!r elem5t :i* %\ld ent] into ! m g5]al def9ition ( biology1 al?\gh x has sometimes be5 neglect$1 is ! consid]ation ( ! milieu4 ,! relation betwe5 ! organism & its milieu is no less ess5tial to life ?an ! relation ( ! organ to ! function4 ,life supposes n only t ! be+ %\ld be organis$ 9 a c]ta9 way1 b also t a c]ta9 numb] ( ext]nal circum/ances %\ld su/a9 ?is organisation1 & %\ld be compatible ) its activity4 ,liv+ be+s are ?us dep5d5t ^u _! milieu1 & ?is dep5d5ce gr[s z we rise 9 ! organic s]ies4 ,! sy/em ( ! conditions ( exi/5ce becomes all ! m complex z ! functions develop & become m v>i$4 ,inf]ior organisms are subject to less num]\s ext]nal conditions2 b1 says ,comte1 a little v>iation 9 "o ( ^! conditions suffices to make !m p]i%4 ,! sup]ior organisms /& a v>iation ( ?is k9d bett]4 ,b1 9 return1 ! numb] ( conditions ^u :i* !y dep5d is f> great]4 ,! /udy ( milieux 9 _! relations to organisms1 a /udy :i* is h>dly outl9$1 und\bt$ly has _m discov]ies 9 /ore = ! future4#aeg ,"h is an ord] ( problems ( :i* ,lam>ck probably sugge/$ ! idea to ,comte1 & ^u :i* ,d>w9's g5ius w "w4 ,bi*at !n 0 wrong 9 say+ 9 8 celebrat$ def9ition ( life t x is 8! sum ( ! =ces :i* resi/ dea?40 ,! radical antagonism betwe5 inorganic & liv+ nature is an incomplete & consequ5tly a false idea4 ,inde$ if1 z ,bi*at suppos$1 ev]y?+ :i* surr\nds liv+ bodies t5d$ to de/roy !m1 _! exi/5ce w\ld become un9telligible4#aeh ,:]e c\ld !y f9d /r5g? to resi/ su* =midable pressure1 ev5 = a %ort "t8 ,on ! contr>y1 ! fundam5tal condition = life is a c]ta9 8h>mony0 betwe5 ! organism & ! milieu 9 :i* x is plac$4 ,! pro( ( ?is is furni%$ at e turn by exp]i5ce4 ,?is be+ e/abli%$1 :at w be ! mo/ g5]al problem ( ! sci5ce ( life8 ,f ! anatomical po9t ( view1 says ,comte1 all possible organisms1 all p>ts :atev] ( ea* organism1 & all ! v>i\s /ates ( ea* necess>ily pres5t a common basis ( /ructure & ( composition1 f :i* ! tissues1 organs & app>atus h em]g$ by means ( a progressive diff]5tiation4 ,9 ! same way1 f ! physiological po9t ( view1 all liv+ be+s1 f ! vegetable k+dom up to man1 consid]$ 9 all _! actions & all ! p]iods ( _! exi/5ce1 necess>ily possess a common basis ( vital activity1 :5ce ! innum]able ph5om5a ( nutrition1 secretion1 etc41 proce$1 by means ( progressive diff]5tiation4 ,n[1 f bo? ^! po9ts ( view1 t :i* is simil> 9 ^! cases1 is m important ?an t :i* di/+ui%es !m1 s9ce ! m g5]al ph5om5a gov]n ^? :i* are less s4 ,we mu/ !re=e dis5gage ! elem5t>y physiological ph5om5on & ! anatomical /ructure :i* corresponds to x1 we mu/ det]m9e _! relation1 &1 ) ! help & confirmation ( exp]i5ce1 we mu/ d$uce ! increas+ly m complex1 physiological & anatomical1 ph5om5a f x4#aei ,?is conception :i*1 despite ,comte's res]vation1 /ill appe>s to be entirely saturat$ ) ! ,c>tesian _s1 leads him to ! 8mo/ ma!matical /atem5t possible0 ( ! biological problem4 8,giv5 ! organ1 or ! organic modification1 to f9d ! function or ! act1 & vice v]sa40#afj ,!re is no?+ m 9 con=mity ) ! g5]al def9ition ( sci5ce1 :i* consi/s 9 sub/itut+ ! k ( laws to t ( facts1 & rational prevision to empirical obs]vation4 ,"h1 x is true1 we h an 8ideal sci5tific type10 f :i* biology1 :i* has sc>cely rea*$ ! positive /ate1 is v f> remov$4 ,b !re is no sci5ce :i* does n fall %ort ( its def9ition m or less4 ,! use ( ?is def9ition is already a help = a sci5ce1 & provides a means = measur+ its progress4 ,,iii4 ,9 "p1 or ev5 entirely1 biology is depriv$ ( c]ta9 me?odical processes :i* are utilis$ by ! sci5ces :i* prec$e x4 ,x _c avail itself ( calculation4 ,und\bt$ly ea* ( ! elem5ts :i* g to make up a physiological ph5om5on v>ies accord+ to a def9ite law4 ,b ! sum ( ^! elem5ts =ms su* a complex :ole1 t we %all nev] be able to express _! relations 9 ! t]ms ( an equation4 ,fur!r1 ! numb]s :i* are relative to ! ph5om5a ( liv+ bodies pres5t cont9ual & irregul> v>iations1 :i* d n all[ u to e/abli% ! data ( a ma!matical calculation4#afa ,ea* liv+ be+ has its individuality1 its p]sonal =mula1 its *>act]i/ic reactions1 :i* prev5t u f treat+ x z id5tical ) ! o!r be+s ( ! same species4 ,ea* physiological or pa?ological 8case0 is di/9ct f any o!r case4 ,t is :y ,comte di/ru/s /ati/ics4 ,9 8 judgm5t !y are mislead+ 9 physiology1 & fatal 9 m$ic9e4 ,9 ! same way1 ,claude ,b]n>d w prote/ vigor\sly aga9/ av]ages4 ,is ! inductive me?od at lea/ a conv5i5t "o to make use ( 9 biology8 ,simple obs]vation _c lead u f> 9 ! /udy ( su* complex ph5om5a1 ( :i* _m are n directly accessible to our s5ses or to our in/rum5ts4 ,exp]im5t+ is v difficult 9 biology1 = no?+ is easi] ?an to di/urb1 to susp5d1 or ev5 to br+ ab\t ! entire cessation ( ! ph5om5a ( life4 ,b x is almo/ impossible to introduce an exactly det]m9$ p]turbation1 :e!r ( k9d1 or1 a =tiori1 ( degree4 ,inde$ a modification ( a s+le condition ( ! ph5om5on almo/ at once affects ! great] numb] ( ! o!r ph5om5a1 by reason ( _! cons5sus4 ,9 pr9ciple1 exp]im5t+ is n =bidd5 9 biology4 ,on ! contr>y x is ( rem>kable efficacy1 b x is (t5 impracticable4 ,nev]!less1 z we "k1 x is n man's int]v5tion 9 ph5om5a :i* con/itutes exp]im5t+ prop]ly s call$4 ,x consi/s1 be=e all ?+s1 9 ! rational selection ( cases1 7natural or artificial1 x matt]s little71 :i* are mo/ appropriate = br++ out ! law ( v>iation ( ! ph5om5on "u obs]vation4 ,nature gives u su*1 = illnesses resemble exp]im5ts :i* we c foll[ ?r\gh _! entire c\rse & to _! t]m9ation4 ,!y are (t5 difficult to int]pret1 on acc\nt ( _! extreme complexity1 b less s1 h[ev]1 ?an ! majority ( ! exp]im5ts :i* we br+ ab\t ourselves4 ,= are !y n m or less viol5t diseases1 sudd5ly produc$ by our int]v5tion1 )\t our be+ able to =esee all _! indirect & future consequ5ces8 ,x is pa?ological anatomy :i* l$ ,bi*at to 8 f9e discov]ies 9 hi/ology & 9 physiology4 ,& to pa?ology we mu/ jo9 t]atology :i* is1 z x 71 its prolongation4 ,"h aga91 nature supplies exp]im5ts :i* we %\ld n "k h[ to in/itute4#afb ,:atev] may be ! help :i* biology d]ives f ^! natural ways ( exp]im5t+1 its progress c\ld only be a v sl[ "o1 if x did n possess besides a p[]ful me?od = proce$+ :i* is peculi> to x3 comp>ison4 ,x is true t e inductive op]ation implies comp>ison4 ,we comp>e :at we obs]ve ) o!r real & possible cases4 ,aga9 we comp>e :5 we are exp]im5t+4 ,b1 9 ! comp>ative me?od1 prop]ly s call$1 we d n limit ourselves to br++ two cases toge!r4 ,comp>ison be>s ^u a long sequ5ce ( analog\s cases1 9 :i* ! subject is modifi$ by a cont9ual succession ( almo/ ins5sible gradations4#afc ,h[ w\ld ! g5]al problems ( biology receive a solution )\t ?is me?od8 ,if we consid] an organism by itself1 ! complication ( functions & organs is inextricable 9 x4 ,b1 if we comp>e ?is organism ) ^? :i* come ne>e/ to x1 & !n ) o!rs :i* are ne> to !m & s on1 dis5gag+ :at !y h 9 common1 a simplification is produc$4 ,! accessory *>act]i/ics disappe> by degrees1 z we desc5d 9 ! biological s]ies1 &1 if we h set ourselves to /udy a c]ta9 function1 we c f9ally det]m9e its relation to its organ4 ,al?\gh x belongs to biology1 ?is me?od has its analogy 9 o!r sci5ces1 & especially 9 ma!matics4 ,x appe>s to me1 says ,comte1 to pres5t a "* simil> to t ( ma!matical analysis1 :i* br+s =w>d1 9 ea* sequ5ce ( analog\s cases 8! fundam5tal portion :i* is common to all1 :i* portion1 be=e ?is ab/ract g5]alisation1 0 conceal$ b5ea? ! second>y specialities ( ea* isolat$ case40 ,! comp>ative me?od1 9 a ^w1 is a me?od = analys+ biological cont9uity4 ,:e!r x be a "q ( an anatomical disposition or ( a physiological ph5om5on 8! me?odical comp>ison ( ! regul> sequ5ce ( ! gr[+ diff]5ces :i* relate to !m w always pres5t ! sure/ & mo/ efficaci\s means ( ?r[+ light ^u ev5 ! ultimate elem5ts ( ! propos$ "q40 ,we see t ,comte _h "h 8 conception ( ! inf9itesimal calculus 9 8 m9d4 ,bett] /ill1 :]e t]ms are lack+ 9 ! organic s]ies he does n hesitate to suppose !m to re-e/abli% cont9uity4 ,he introduces int]m$i>y 8fictiti\s organisms0 hypo!ses :i* "s day p]haps palontology w turn into realities4 ,by means ( ?is me?od1 n only we %all "k a f> great] numb] ( cases1 b1 :at is ( m importance1 we %all "k ea* "o among !m bett]1 8z an inevitable consequ5ce ( _! be+ drawn ne>] toge!r40 ,we assume1 x is true1 t all ^! v>i\s cases pres5t a fundam5tal simil>ity accompani$ by gradual modifications1 :i* always foll[ a regul> c\rse4 ,b ?is hypo!sis z we h se51 is impli$ 9 ! v def9ition ( g5]al biology4 ,! comp>ative me?od w !n apply successively to ! diff]5t p>ts ( an organism1 to ! diff]5t ages ( ! same organism1 & to ! diff]5t organisms 9 ! animal & vegetable s]ies4 ,x w ev5 apply to embryonic life1 ,comte cle>ly =mulates von ,ba]'s law1 :ile mak+ indisp5sable res]vations4 ,! primitive /ate ( ! highe/ organism1 he says1 mu/ repres5t1 f ! anatomical & physiological po9t ( view1 ! ess5tial *>act]i/ics ( ! complete /ate :i* belongs to ! m inf]ior organism1 & s on successively 8)\t our be+ able to f9d aga9 ! exact analogy ( ea* ( ! pr9cipal t]ms ( ! inf]ior organic s]ies 9 ! sole analysis ( ! v>i\s phases ( developm5t ( ea* sup]ior organism40 ,?is comp>ison1 s to speak1 all[s u to realise 9 ! same individual ! gr[+ complication ( organs & ( functions :i* *>act]ises ! :ole biological hi]>*y4 ,?us x is p>ticul>ly 8lum9\s40#afd ,von ,ba]'s book _h appe>$ 9 ,g]man 9 #ahbg4 ,_h ,comte kn[n x1 x is mo/ probable t1 accord+ to 8 habit1 he w\ld h quot$ x4 ,,iv4 ,9 ord] to consid] organisms 9 ! regul> sequ5ce :i* all[s ( comp>ison1 we mu/ fir/ h e/abli%$ ! ord] 9 :i* !y %\ld be arrang$4 ,b1 conv]sely1 to e/abli% ?is ord]1 a k ( anatomy & physiology is indisp5sable4 ,s betwe5 ^! two sci5ces on ! "o h& & 8biotaxy0 on ! o!r !re is a /rict solid>ity4 ,! problem ( classification is ?us an ess5tial "p ( g5]al biology4 ,9 ! natural classification s\ght aft] by sci5ce1 ! position assign$ to ea* organism w\ld suffice to def9e at once ! :ole ( its anatomical & physiological nature1 9 relation to ! organisms :i* prec$e & to ^? :i* foll[4#afe ,any natural classification _c1 h[ev]1 be any?+ b imp]fect4 ,accu/om$ z we are to artificial classifications1 :i* admit ( absolute & imm$iate p]fection1 we are surpris$ t ! same %\ld n be ! case 9 natural classification4 ,b1 if ! latt] is a real sci5ce1 we mu/ own t1 "h z else:]e1 we c only rea* m or less di/ant approximations4 ,! co-ord9ation ( liv+ species is a problem l ! /atic or dynamic analysis ( a det]m9$ organism4 ,l ?is analysis1 x only all[s ( solutions :i* are approa*$ r ?an realis$4#aff ,h[1 9 ! fir/ place1 mu/ we und]/& species8 ,betwe5 ,cuvi] & ,lam>ck1 ,comte sides ) ,cuvi]1 ) ?is res]vation1 h[ev]1 t 8our ideas ^u ?is "q ( capital importance are n yet prop]ly fix$40 ,two reasons especially incl9e him to admit ! fixity ( ( species4 ,lam>ck's !ory is n suffici5tly prov$3 we n[h]e see t ! milieu ex]cises ! almo/ b\ndless influ5ce ^u organisms :i* is attribut$ to x by ,lam>ck4 ,und\bt$ly1 )9 c]ta9 limits1 ! ex]cise induc$ by ext]nal circum/ances t5ds to modify ! primitive organisation4 ,b ?is action ( ! milieu & ?is aptitude ( ! organism are c]ta9ly v limit$4 ,on ! o!r h&1 if we h a *oice betwe5 ! two hypo!ses1 ! int]e/ ( sci5ce w\ld prompt u to use ?is lib]ty 9 fav\r ( ,cuvi]4 ,! fixity ( species gu>antees t ! s]ies ( organisms w always be compos$ ( t]ms :i* are cle>ly di/9ct1 sep>at$ by insup]able int]vals4 ,?is 8increases ! degree ( rational p]fection ( :i* ! f9al e/abli%m5t ( ?is hi]>*y is capable40#afg ,x is !n "u ! influ5ce ( a purely =mal motive t ,comte's pref]5ce is "h decid$4 ,= he felt ! /r5g? & ! import ( ,lam>ck's lab\rs4 ,( ! two celebrat$ antagoni/s1 he said1 ,lam>ck 0 unque/ionably ! "o 8:o manife/$ ! cle>e/ & deepe/ s5se ( ! true organic hi]>*y40#afh ,comte has ev5 dealt ) c]ta9 objections :i* d n g aga9/ ,lam>ck4 ,?us1 we might ?9k at fir/ t1 9 8 hypo!sis1 !re is no real zoological s]ies1 s9ce animal organisms w\ld be ess5tially id5tical1 _! diff]5ces be+ h5ce=? attribut$ to ! div]se & unequally prolong$ influ5ce ( ! ext]nal conditions4 ,b1 on look+ into x m closely1 we see1 on ! contr>y1 t ?is hypo!sis only pres5ts ! s]ies 9 a new aspect :i* w\ld ev5 r5d] its exi/5ce /ill m evid5t4 ,= ! :ole ( ! zoological s]ies w\ld !n become1 9 fact z well z ideally1 altoge!r analog\s to ! :ole ( ! individual developm5t1 conf9$ at lea/ to its asc5d+ p]iod4 ,x w\ld !n be conceiv$ z cont9u\s4 8,! progressive advance ( ! animal organism1 :i* = u is only a conv5i5t ab/raction1 w\ld be conv]t$ into a natural law40#afi ,= ! logical p]fection ( sci5ce1 ,comte pref]s to reg>d species z fix$ 9 ! abs5ce ( contr>y pro(s4 ,none ! less ,lam>ck has /at$ a problem ( ! highe/ int]e/4 ,comte po9ts out its importance4 8,! rational !ory ( ! necess>y action ( ! v>i\s milieux on ! diff]5t organisms has /ill almo/ entirely to be =mulat$4 ,su* an ord] ( rese>*1 al?\gh greatly neglect$1 con/itutes "o ( ! f9e/ subjects :i* ! pres5t condition ( biology c pres5t40 ,by ?is means1 he adds1 we might obta9 a !ory = ! p]fect+ ( liv+ species ev5 includ+ mank9d4#agj ,v4 ,comte's anatomical & physiological philosophy is naturally alli$ to ! sci5ce ( 8 "t4 ,x is especially connect$ ) ! lab\rs ( ,bi*at & ( de ,bla9ville4 ,"h aga9 he endeav\rs to /ate ! problems 9 ! mo/ g5]al =m possible4 ,anatomy %\ld beg9 by ! /udy ( ! tissues1 to asc5d aft]w>ds to ! association ( sev]al tissues1 t is to say1 to ! organs1 & to ! associations ( sev]al organs1 t is to say1 to sy/ems4 ,b analysis mu/ n be conc]n$ ) ! tissue itself4 ,to attempt ! passage f ?is notion to t ( ! molecule1 is to all[ ! organic to ent] into ! inorganic philosophy4 ,9 biology1 ! tissue corresponds to :at ! molecule is 9 physics4 ,su*1 at lea/1 is ! doctr9e ( ! ,c\rs de philosophie positive4 ,lat] on1 in/ruct$ by ,s*wann's works1 ,comte admits 9 ! ,politique positive t ! anatomical elem5t is ! cell4 ,be x tissue or cell1 !re mu/ be a fundam5tal anatomical elem5t4 ,! simultane\s exi/5ce ( sev]al elem5ts indep5d5t ( "o ano!r w\ld greatly m> 8! admirable unity ( ! organic _w10 & consequ5tly ! p]fection ( biological sci5ce4 ,life is always ess5tially ! same4 ,to ?is dynamic consid]ation1 !re mu/ correspond1 9 ! /atic ord]1 t ( a common basis inv>iable 9 its primordial organisation1 successively produc+1 by deep] & deep] modifications1 ! v>i\s special anatomical elem5ts4 ,simil>ly1 physiology w n be entirely organis$ until x /udies functions 7at lea/ ! organic functions71 ?r\gh\t ! :ole *a9 ( liv+ be+s1 f ! vegetable k+dom up to man4 ,?is conception ( a g5]al physiology leads ,comte to dwell1 z ,claude ,b]n>d w lat] on1 ^u ! ph5om5a ( life :i* are common to plants & to animals4 ,"s are bett] /udi$ 9 plants & o!rs 9 animals4 ,b1 :e!r x be animal or vegetable e organism always pres5ts two fundam5tal functions3 #a4 ! absorption ( nutriti\s mat]ials borr[$ f ! milieu 7! assimilation ( ^! mat]ials & f9ally nutrition72 #b4 ! rejection ( unassimilat$ mat]ials4 ,h[ev]1 plants are ! only organis$ be+s :i* live directly ^u ! inorganic milieu4#aga ,comte 0 ignorant ( ! physiology ( fungi4 ,comte unres]v$ly adopts ! di/9ction e/abli%$ by ,bi*at betwe5 ! functions ( organic life & ^? ( animal life4 ,9 ! fir/ place he concludes f ?is1 9 virtue ( ! correlation ( ! dynamic to ! /atic po9t ( view1 t di/9ct tissues correspond to ^! di/9ct functions4 ,!n1 he goes m deeply into ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! two k9ds ( functions4 ,/rictly speak+1 ! ph5om5a ( organic life only con/itute a special ord] ( composition & ( decomposition4 ,!y come v ne> to *emi/ry1 & may s]ve z a transition betwe5 ! inorganic _w & ! _w ( life4#agb ,on ! contr>y1 ! ph5om5a ( animal life 7irritability1 s5sibility71 (f] no analogy ) ! ph5om5a ( ! inorganic _w4 ,we might almo/ believe1 accord+ to ,comte1 t ! sep>ation is e/abli%$ n betwe5 ! *emical & biological ph5om5a1 b betwe5 organic & animal life1 ! ph5om5a ( ! =m] r$uc+ !mselves to physico-*emical ph5om5a1 & ^? ( ! latt] pres5t+ entirely diff]5t *>act]i/ics4 ,su* is n1 h[ev]1 ,comte's ?\ght4 ,und\bt$ly1 consid]$ "o by "o1 ! ph5om5a ( organic life 7absorption1 circulation1 exhalation1 etc47 are inde$ physico-*emical ph5om5a4 ,b :at r5d]s _! biological "* irr$ucible is t x is impossible to consid] !m sep>ately3 9 ord] to und]/& !m we mu/ fir/ look at !m f ! po9t ( view ( ! :ole1 & appeal to ! organic cons5sus1 9 a ^w1 to :at ,claude ,b]n>d1 w call l'ide directrice4 ,9 ! /udy ( organic functions we %all beg9 by ! l[] extremity 9 ! s]ies ( liv+ be+s1 t is to say by ! mo/ rudim5t>y =ms ( ! vegetable k+dom1 = x is "h t we %all grasp ! ph5om5a 9 _! simple/ =m4 ,!n we %all foll[ _! gr[+ complexity4 ,= ! animal functions1 on ! contr>y1 x is exp$i5t to beg9 by man1 8! only be+ 9 :i* su* an ord] ( ph5om5a is ev] imm$iately intelligible40 ,f ?is po9t ( view man is pre-em95tly ! biological unity4 ,z soon z x is a "q ( ! *>act]i/ics ( animality1 we mu/ beg9 ) man & see h[ !y desc5d by degrees1 r ?an />t f ! sponge1 & look = _! mode ( developm5t4 ,man's animal life helps u to und]/& t ( ! sponge2 b ! rev]se is n true4#agc ,moreov]1 ! ph5om5a ( organic life1 be+ ! mo/ g5]al1 are also ! mo/ fundam5tal4 ,! functions ( animal life are fir/ useful = ! ne$s ( organic life1 by p]fect+ x4 ,x is 9 man alone t ! vegetative life is subord9ate to ! life ( relation3 & ev5 = t he mu/ h rea*$ a high degree ( civilisation4#agd ,,vi4 ,x is n surpris+ t biology1 ev5 m ?an physics & *emi/ry1 pres]ves ! metaphysical _s4 ,su*1 = in/ance1 is ! hypo!sis ( spontane\s g5]ation4 ,positive philosophy recognizes t ea* liv+ be+ always emanates f ano!r simil> be+4 ,?is is n e/abli%$ a priori1 b is ! result ( an 8imm5se induction40#age ,omne vivum ex vivo4 ,ef=ts to expla9 h[ ! g5]at+ tissue %\ld itself be =m$ by k9ds ( organic monads1 7an allusion to c]ta9 !ories aris+ out ( ,s*ell+'s philosophy7 c only fail4 ,we %\ld nev] "k h[ to connect ! organic ) ! inorganic _w except ?r\gh ! fundam5tal laws belong+ to ! g5]al ph5om5a :i* are common to !m bo?4 ,positive speculations 9 anatomy & 9 physiology =m a limit$ sy/em1 )9 :i* we mu/ e/abli% ! mo/ p]fect unity1 b :i* mu/ ev] rema9 sep>at$ f ! :ole ( inorganic !ories4#agf ,we see cle>ly1 x is true1 t !re is no matt] :i* is ( itself liv+4 ,life is n peculi> to c]ta9 sub/ances :i* are organis$ 9 a c]ta9 mann]4 ,x nev] belongs to !m = m ?an a "t3 e organism ( :i* ! molecules are n r5ew$ is dissolv$4 ,b 8we c no m expla9 ?is in/ability ?an ?is speciality40#agg ,9 ! same way we see t 9 liv+ bodies ! nutritive functions are ! basis ( ! o!rs2 b !re is no contradiction 9 8dream+0 ( ?\ght & sociability 9 be+s ^: sub/ance w\ld rema9 unalt]able4 ,f ?is po9t ( view spiritualism is n less admissible ?an mat]ialism1 9 s mu* z dea? does n seem to be a necess>y consequ5ce ( life4 ,?is aga9 is an idea :i* is common to ,desc>tes & to ,comte4 ,!y bo? conceive an organism 9 :i* ! play ( functions %\ld n cease ( itself4 ,! !ory ( dea?1 says ,comte1 al?\gh x is f\nd$ ^u t ( life1 is entirely di/9ct f x4#agh ,if biology /ill (t5 hesitates 9 ! /atem5t ( its problems & 9 ! *oice ( its hypo!ses1 x is 9 a great measure due to ! two opposite t5d5cies betwe5 :i* x oscillat$ 9 ! la/ c5tury4 ,on ! "o h&1 ,bo]haave1 & ! s*ool ( physiology :i* is m or less directly connect$ ) ,desc>tes1 s\ght a me*anical explanation ( biological ph5om5a1 & t5d$ to r$uce biology to physics & *emi/ry4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ,/ahl 9 ,g]many1 & ! vitali/ s*ool ( ,montpelli] 9 ,france1 appeal$ to metaphysical pr9ciples & to unv]ifiable hypo!ses4 ,be+ ?us sway$ f "o extremity to ano!r1 biology only escap$ ! 8oppression0 ( ! inorganic sci5ces to involve itself 9 conceptions :i* 7 sc>cely sci5tific4#agi ,x is only at ! end ( ! ,,xviii4 ,c5tury1 ) ,hall]1 ,gall & ,bi*at1 t x f9ds its equilibrium1 takes possession ( its me?od1 & at la/ ent]s into its positive phase4 ,by its l[] extremity x is contigu\s to inorganic sci5ce 7! physico-*emical ph5om5a ( vegetative life74 ,by its high] extremity1 7intellectual functions71 x rea*es to ! f9al sci5ce1 or sociology4 ,b ! adh]5ce is f> f be+ z close 9 "o case z 9 ! o!r4 ,at ! mom5t :5 we pass f ! inorganic _w to ! _w ( liv+ be+s1 accord+ to positive philosophy1 !re is a sudd5 8enri*m5t ( ! real40 ,! transition is v m>k$4 ,! doma9 ( biology is n s %>ply sep>at$ f t ( sociology4 ,= ! high] biological functions1 ! intellectual functions1 _c be analys$ f ! po9t ( view ( ! individual1 at lea/ 9 man1 b only f ! po9t ( view ( ! species4 ,we mu/ !n1 :ile pres]v+ ! di/9ction betwe5 ! two sci5ces1 admit a k9d ( int]-relation betwe5 !m4 ,und\bt$ly sociology c\ld n be f\nd$ s long z biology _h n made decisive progress4 ,b1 conv]sely1 sociology once f\nd$ alone completes ! positive /udy ( ! highe/ biological functions4 ,c]ta9ly1 biology has n be5 less trans=m$ ?an *emi/ry dur+ ! la/ sixty ye>s1 & ! /ate 9 :i* we see x to-day diff]s s+ul>ly f t 9 :i* ,comte knew x4 ,x has be5 develop$ & diff]5tiat$ f> beyond :at he c\ld =esee4 ,none ! less he conceiv$ "s ( its pr9ciples ) rem>kable p[]4 ,he _h a precise idea ( t :i* c\ld con/itute a g5]al biology t is1 a s+le physiology & anatomy = ! :ole ( liv+ be+s4 ,he knew ! fecundity ( ! comp>ative me?od1 & he po9t$ out its analogy ) ! me?od ( analysis 9 ma!matics4 ,f9ally1 al?\gh he refus$ to adopt ! trans=mi/ hypo!sis1 he _h und]/ood ! importance ( ,lam>ck's "w4 ,,footnotes3 #aed ,c\rs1 ,,vi1 #ggb4 #aee ,c\rs1 ,,iv1 #bhe-g4 #aef ,c\rs1 ,,iii1 #h-bci4 #aeg ,c\rs1 ,,iii1 #dij1 #eaj4 #aeh ,c\rs1 ,,iii1 #bbd-g4 #aei ,c\rs1 ,,iii1 #bga-b4 #afj ,c\rs1 ,,iii1 #bcg4 #afa ,c\rs1 ,,iii1 #cbf sq4 #afb ,c\rs1 ,,iii4 #bei-fe4 #afc ,c\rs1 ,,iii4 #bhd-e4 #afd ,c\rs1 ,,iii4 #bhb-edf4 #afe ,c\rs1 ,,iii4 #dcg4 #aff ,c\rs1 ,,iii4 #def-g4 #afg ,c\rs1 ,,iii1 #deb4 #afh ,c\rs1 ,,iii1 #ddd4 #afi ,c\rs1 ,,iii1 #dda-b4 #agj ,c\rs1 ,,iii1 #deb-c4 #aga ,c\rs1 ,,iii1 #ebi-ca2 ,pol4 pos41 ,i1 #eid4 #agb ,c\rs1 ,,iii1 #eec-f4 #agc ,c\rs1 ,,iii1 #chj-a4 #agd ,c\rs1 ,,iii1 #efb-c4 #age ,pol4 ,pos41 ,i1 #eia4 #agf ,pol4 ,pos41 ,i1 #ehg4 #agg ,pol4 ,pos41 ,i1 #ehg2 ,c\rs1 ,,iii1 #dai-bj4 #agh ,pol4 ,pos41 ,i1 #ehi4 #agi ,c\rs1 ,,vi1 #gff-fh4 ,,*apt] ,v ,,psy*ology ,psy*ology has no place 9 ! classification ( ! fundam5tal sci5ces4 ,9 x ,sociology imm$iately succe$s ,biology4 ,use has be5 made ( ?is fact 9 ord] to reproa* ,comte ) hav+ neglect$ an ord] ( mo/ important ph5om5a4 ,a grave objection has be5 rais$ aga9/ 8 doctr9e 9 g5]al4 ,:at are we to ?9k ( a philosophy :i*1 delib]ately1 omits a "p1 &1 accord+ to _m philosoph]s1 ! *ief "p ( reality1 ! _w ( consci\sness1 ! spiritual nature ( man8 ,pres5t$ 9 ?is way1 ! objection re/s ^u _m confus$ notions ab\t words & ideas4 ,:at d we und]/& by psy*ology8 ,if ! ^w means3 8! sci5ce ( ! s\l rea*$ ?r\gh ! introspective me?od10 we mu/ own t ,comte does n admit ! possibility ( su* a sci5ce4 ,b ! same objection w also hold good aga9/ ! majority ( ! psy*ologi/s ( our "t4 ,= !y d n admit ?is possibility any m ?an ,comte1 & !y h endeav\r$ to con/itute ! sci5ce ( psy*ical facts by a diff]5t me?od ?an t ( introspection1 pure & simple4 ,is psy*ology def9$ z 8! sci5ce :i* inve/igates ! laws ( feel+1 ( ! intellect & ( moral ph5om5a 9 man & 9 animals80 ,!n x is inaccurate to say t !re is no psy*ology = ,comte4 ,on ! contr>y1 he ?9ks t positive psy*ology has j be5 f\nd$ by contempor>y sci5ce ( ^: me?ods he approves4 ,if he did n use ! ^w 8psy*ology10 he did s 9 ord] to avoid confusion4 ,at t mom5t ! ^w 01 s to speak1 ! prop]ty ( ! eclectic s*ool4 ,by ! 8psy*ological0 me?od1 ev]yone !n und]/ood t ( ,j\ffroy4 8,psy*ology0 0 ! sci5ce f\nd$ by ,c\s9 on ! analysis ( ! ego4 ,comte :o opposes ^! philosoph]s1 did n wi% 8 !ory ( psy*ical ph5om5a1 :i* diff]s f !irs1 to be call$ by ! same "n4 ,x is ?is v precaution :i* has come to be no long] und]/ood1 n[ t 8psy*ology0 does n designate ! eclectic doctr9e alone1 b any !ory :atsoev] conc]n+ m5tal facts4 ,i4 ,comte f9ds ! field occupi$ by ?ree psy*ological s*ools1 & he combats all ?ree1 = reasons ( me?od & also ( doctr9e4 ,he looks to !m to refute ea* o!r mutually1 & he w only attack :at is common to !m all4#ahj ,! repres5tatives ( ^! ?ree s*ools are ! ,ideologi/s1 ) ,condillac1 f :om !y proce$1 !n ! ,eclectics1 & f9ally ! philosoph]s ( ! ,scotti% s*ool4 ,comte sometimes calls ! eclectics ! ,g]man s*ool1 9 opposition to ! ideologi/s1 :o are ! ,fr5* s*ool1 & to ! ,scotti% s*ool1 ! fir/ ( ! ?ree 9 po9t ( "t4 ,b he always speaks sympa!tically ( ! ,scotti% s*ool1 rememb]+ t1 9 "p1 he owes to x 8 philosophical education4 ,he also e/eems ! s9c]ity & logical vig\r ( ! ideologi/ ,de/utt de ,tracy4 ,b1 aft] all1 we h "h metaphysicians1 z are also ! eclectics ^u :om he passes a m sev]e judgm5t4 ,by 8metaphysicians10 he und]/&s all ^? :o /udy ph5om5a1 79 ?is case psy*ical ph5om5a71 by means ( a me?od :i* is no long] !ological1 b :i* has n yet become positive4 ,9 ?is s5se1 ,locke is a metaphysician1 z well z ,condillac & 8 o!r successors 9 ! ,,xviii4 c5tury1 ,hume alone except$4 ,comte %[]s d]ision ^u ! me?od ( int]nal obs]vation :i* is practis$ by ! 8psy*ologi/s40 ,! %>pness ( 8 language is at lea/ p>tially expla9$ by ! indignation ) :i* ,c\s9's 8*>latanisme0 inspir$ him4 ,?is 8fam\s sophi/10 9 :om he recognises "s ( ! gifts ( an orator1 & 9 p>ticul> t ( a mimic1 accord+ to him1 ex]cises mo/ unfav\rable influ5ce ov] ! m9ds ( m54#aha ,he turns !m aside f ! positive pa?1 :i* !y are ab\t to ent]1 to br+ !m back to metaphysical dialectics1 or to holl[ & sonor\s rhetoric4 ,&1 to cr[n all1 ?is 8psy*ology0 claims to foll[ a sci5tific me?od6 ! v me?od :i* has succe$$ s well 9 ! natural sci5ces6 ,x conceives ! idea ( practis+ int]nal obs]vation1 z physics makes use ( ext]nal obs]vation4 ,b :at is ?is int]nal obs]vation8 ,h[ c ! function ( ! same organ be to ?9k1 & at ! same "t to obs]ve t x ?9ks8 ,we conceive t man %\ld be able to obs]ve himself if x is a "q ( ! passions :i* animate him4 ,no anatomical reason is oppos$ to ?is s9ce ! organs :i* are ! seat ( ! passions1 are di/9ct f ^? :i* are us$ = ! obs]v+ functions4 ,b z to obs]v+ ! intellectual ph5om5a 9 ! same way1 x is manife/ly impossible4 ,9 ?is case1 ! organ :i* is obs]v$ be+ "o ) ! obs]v+ organ1 h[ c\ld ! obs]vation take place8 ,?is objection does n only hold aga9/ ! eclectics1 b also aga9/ ! ,scotti% s*ool & ! ideologi/s4 ,we already f9d x set =? 9 a lett] f ,comte to ,valat on ! #bd?1 ( ,septemb]1 #ahai1 :5 he 0 p]haps n yet acqua9t$ ) ,c\s94 8,) :at %\ld we obs]ve ! m9d itself1 its op]ations1 its activity8 ,we _c divide our m9d1 t is to say1 our bra91 into two p>ts1 ( :i* "o acts :ile ! o!r looks on1 to see h[ x goes to "w4 ,! s-call$ obs]vations made on ! human m9d1 consid]$ 9 itself & a priori1 are pure illusions4 ,all t we call logic1 metaphysics1 ideology1 is an idle fancy & a dream1 :5 x is n an absurdity40#ahb ,?is text1 to :i* we c\ld add _m simil> ones1 all[s u to rectify an errone\s1 al?\gh a frequ5t int]pretation ( ,comte's ?\ght4 ,he does n d5y t we are in=m$ by consci\sness ( ! exi/5ce ( psy*ical ph5om5a4 ,on ! contr>y1 he expressly recognises ! fact4 ,:at he reg>ds z impossible is to /udy ! activity ( ?\ght by means ( reflection1 t is to discov] ! 8intellectual laws0 by a me?od ( int]nal obs]vation4 ,9 a ^w1 x is su* works z ^? ( ,condillac1 ( ! ideologi/s1 ( ,reid1 etc41 :i* he condemns 9 _! pr9ciple4 ,9 ^! works ! subject matt] is ! !ory ( k1 & n t :i* is call$ to-day psy*ology prop]4 ,if1 in/ead ( seek+ specially = ! intellectual laws1 we wi% to /udy psy*ical ph5om5a 9 g5]al1 int]nal obs]vation w become possible 9 a c]ta9 numb] ( cases4 ,b x w n lead to ! end :i* we wi% to rea*4 ,x excludes ! use ( ! comp>ative me?od1 s f]tile & s indisp5sable 9 ! :ole doma9 ( biology4 ,x only /udies man1 & ev5 adult & heal?y man4 ,:at w x tell u ( ! *ild1 ( ! m5tally d]ang$1 ( ! animal8#ahc ,w x1 l ,desc>tes1 g s f> z to d5y ! exi/5ce ( a psy*ical life 9 animals8 ,/ill ?is life _c be /udi$ by int]nal obs]vation4 ,we mu/ !n h rec\rse to ano!r me?od4 ,/rictly speak+1 !re are only two me?ods :i* are suitable = ! sci5ce ( ^? ph5om5a4 ,ei!r we det]m9e ) all possible precision ! v>i\s organic conditions on :i* !y dep5d3 ?is is ! object ( :at ,comte calls phr5ological psy*ology4 ,or else we obs]ve directly ! products ( ! intellectual & moral activity1 & ?is /udy !n belongs to sociology4 ,b1 if by ?is suppos$ psy*ological1 me?od we set aside ! consid]ation ( ! ag5t1 t is to say ( ! organ1 & t ( ! action1 t is to say ( ! productions ( ! human faculties1 :at c rema9 8unless an un9telligible logoma*y10 or v]bal entities :i* are sub/itut$ to real ph5om5a8 ,"h !n is ! /udy ( ! mo/ difficult & mo/ complex functions susp5d$1 z x 71 9 ! air1 )\t any po9t at :i* x t\*es ! simpl] & m p]fect sci5ces1 8ov] :i*1 on ! contr>y1 x is claim$ t x %\ld reign maje/ically40 ,no?+ is m oppos$ to ! g5]al ord] ( nature1 9 :i* we always see ! m complex & high] ph5om5a subord9at$1 s f> z ! conditions ( _! exi/5ce are conc]n$1 to ! m simple & common] ones4 ,z ! biological dep5d ^u ! inorganic ph5om5a1 j z1 )9 biology1 ! ph5om5a ( animal life are subord9at$ to ^? ( organic life1 s ! intellectual & moral ph5om5a dep5d ^u ! o!r biological functions4 ,beyond _! own p>ticul> laws1 ! laws ( all ! subjac5t ord]s ( ph5om5a also gov]n !m4 ,c we /udy !m z if all ^! laws did n exi/8 ,let ! metaphysician be free to d s4 ,! sci5tific man :o foll[s ! positive me?od w proce$ on o!r l9es4 ,a defective me?od c\ld lead b to false results4 ,not)/&+ ! diff]5ces 9 _! doctr9es1 ideologi/s & psy*ologi/s h agre$ to place ! intellectual functions 9 ! front rank1 & to ?ru/ ! affective functions fur!r back4 ,! m9d has become ! almo/ exclusive subject ( _! speculations4 ,look at ! titles ( _! great works s9ce ,locke's 8,essay on ! ,human ,und]/&+--,pr9ciples ( ,human ,k--,on ! orig9 ( our ,ideas--,on ,s5sations--,ideology1 etc40 ,! v>i\s affective faculties h be5 left comp>atively 9 ! %ade4 ,n[1 x is ! contr>y :i* %\ld h be5 done4 ,exp]i5ce %[s t ! affections1 ! passions1 ! incl9ations1 play by f> ! mo/ important "p 9 ! life ( animals & ev5 ( man4 ,f> f be+ ! result ( intellig5ce _! 8spontane\s & indep5d5t0 impulse is indisp5sable = ! fir/ awak5+1 & aft]w>ds = ! developm5t1 ( ! v>i\s intellectual faculties4 8,aga9/ all evid5ce man has be5 repres5t$ z ess5tially reason+1 z be+ cont9ually p]=m+ unaw>e a multitude ( imp]ceptible calculations ) sc>cely any spontaneity1 ev5 f t5d]e/ *ildhood40#ahd ,_h ! /udy ( ! psy*ical functions be5 made ^u animals at ! same "t z ^u man1 ?is error w\ld n h la/$ long4 ,b philosoph]s 7 ma9ta9$ 9 x1 on ! contr>y1 by metaphysical & ev5 !ological preoccupations4 ,! sci5ce ( m5tal functions _h to e/abli% a diff]5ce1 n only ( degree b ( k9d betwe5 man & animals4 ,x 0 fur!r requir$1 by reason ( ano!r necessity closely alli$ to ! =m]1 t ! s\l %\ld be consid]$ z be+ immortal4 ,& x 0 consequ5tly necess>y t ! 8ego0 %\ld pres5t metaphysical *>act]i/ics ( unity1 ( simplicity & ( id5tity4 ,n[1 x is by ?\ght t man is mo/ di/+ui%$ f animals4 ,x is !re=e f ?\ght t ! *>act]i/ics attribut$ to ! s\l or to ! 8ego0 h be5 borr[$4 ,b 9 fact ! 8ego0 is n ! absolute unity :i* ! eclectic psy*ologi/s say t x is4 ,x repres5ts ! feel+ :i* ! sup]ior liv+ be+ has1 at e mom5t ( ! 8sympa?ies0 & ! 8syn]gies0 :i* take place )9 ! organism4 ,x is ! consci\s expression ( :at ! ,fr5* call to-day 8cne/hsie40 ,f> f be+ directly p]ceiv$ z ,c\s9 ass]ts1 x is ! indirect product ( a quantity ( s5sations & s5tim5ts1 ( :i* ! majority are n p]ceiv$ 9 ! normal /ate4#ahe ,x is especially by pa?ological facts1 7diseases ( ! p]sonality1 d\ble consci\sness1 lunacy1 etc471 t ! att5tion ( ! sci5tific man is drawn to ?is v complex ph5om5on4 ,x is1 moreov]1 impossible to reg>d ! s5tim5t ( ! 8ego0 z belong+ exclusively to man4 ,ev]y?+ leads u to believe t x also exi/s 9 ! o!r high] animals4 ,9 any case !re is no metaphysical doctr9e to be f\nd$ ^u ?is exce$+ly complex & v un/able s5tim5t4 ,comte is "h speak+ z ! successor ( ,hume & ( ,cabanis4 ,9 ! cle>e/ mann] he def9es 8 opposition to ,c\s9's doctr9e4 ,! latt] draws ! :ole ( philosophy f ! analysis ( ! 8ego10 ,comte draws no?+ f x4 ,he does n1 h[ev]1 /op to %[ ! sup]iority ( ! positive me?od ov] !ological or metaphysical me?od 9 ?is matt]4 ,( :at use w\ld x be8 ,! progress ( sci5ce1 9 ! end1 gets ! bett] ( me?ods :i* h become antiquat$ & b>r54 ,metaphysicians h already pass$ f ! /ate ( 8dom9ation0 to t ( 8prote/ation40#ahf ,& :5 ! positive me?od gets a foot+ 9 an ord] ( ph5om5a1 !re is no in/ance 9 :i*1 soon] or lat]1 x has n ass]t$ its ma/]y ov] x4 ,,ii4 ,! psy*ology ( ,comte is connect$ ) t ( ,cabanis & ( ,gall1 )\t1 h[ev]1 any actual confusion ) !m4 ,he praises ,cabanis = hav+ be5 "o ( ! fir/ to =m a positive conception ( intellectual & moral ph5om5a4#ahg ,cabanis set himself to %[ t ! ph5om5a s num]\s & s v>i$ :i* take place 9 ! be+ :o lives & feels1 con/antly act & react ^u ea* o!r4 ,! psy*ical ph5om5a d n escape ?is law4 ,at e mom5t1 ?r\gh ! m$ium ( ! n]v\s sy/em1 !y are subject to ! influ5ce ( ! /ate ( ! :ole body1 & !y make ! body feel _! own influ5ce4 ,cabanis gives a great numb] ( pro(s ( ?is1 borr[$ f ! action ( sex1 ( age1 ( temp]am5t1 ( illness1 etc4 ,moreov]1 ! relation ( psy*ical ph5om5a to ! bra9 is id5tical ) t :i* exi/s betwe5 any function :atev] & its organ1 = in/ance1 betwe5 dige/ion & ! /oma*4 ,accord+ to ,cabanis we are n necess>ily mat]iali/s because we refuse to expla9 ! functions ( feel+1 & ! intellectual functions by means ( a special pr9ciple4 ,fir/ causes always escape u4 ,"h1 z else:]e1 ! sci5tific man conf9es himself to ! obs]vation ( ph5om5a & to ! se>* aft] _! laws4 ,on ! o!r h&1 if psy*ology claim$ to />t f ! analysis ( ! 8ego10 x w\ld leave aside _m ph5om5a ) :i* our consci\sness does n acqua9t u1 & :i* are psy*ical nev]!less4 ,?is is a fruitful rem>k1 :i* w be tak5 up aga9 by ,ma9e de ,biran1 & :i* psy*ologi/s 9 our own "t h turn$ to great acc\nt4 ,cabanis conceiv$ psy*ical facts 9 a positive mann]1 b he did n attempt to con/ruct _! sci5ce4 ,9 ,comte's op9ion x is ,gall :o is ! real f\nd] ( positive psy*ology4 ,:atev] may be ! value ( 8 localisations--,comte does n ?9k x an endur+ "o1--to ,gall at lea/ belongs ! m]it ( hav+ set ! problem z x %\ld be set1 & ( pres5t+ a precise solution ( x4 ,moreov] ,gall did n conf9e himself to localis+ ! diff]5t faculties 9 diff]5t p>ts ( ! bra94 ,8 doctr9e prop] is prec$$ by an excell5t criticism direct$ aga9/ ! psy*ology usually receiv$ 9 ! ,,xviii4 c5tury4 ,9 ord] to combat ,condillac1 ,helvetius & ! ideologi/s1 ,gall takes 8 /& ^u exp]i5ce1 t is to say ^u m5tal physiology & pa?ology1 & also ^u ! obs]vation ( animals4 ,z a fact1 ea* individual comes into ! _w ) t5d5cies1 ) pr$ispositions1 ) innate faculties4 ,! suppos$ natural equality ( all m5 is an ill-f\nd$ ab/raction1 s9ce _! prop5sities & _! qualities (t5 diff] v greatly4 ,! p>adox ( ,helvetius :o attributes ! moral & intellectual inequality ( m5 to ! all p[]ful influ5ce ( education & ( circum/ances1 _c be upheld4 ,we _c1 z we w1 make j m9ds & upright s\ls4 ,v>iety ( organs entails div]sity ( functions2 ! diff]5ce betwe5 m5 & animals1 z t ( m5 among !mselves1 is !re=e due to anatomical & & physiological diff]5ces4 ,condillac's absolute s5sualism is ?us refut$ by facts4 ,moreov]1 if ! sci5ce ( psy*ology does n advance x is because di/9ctions betwe5 ! faculties ( ! s\l1 7memory1 imag9ation1 judgm5t1 etc47 h be5 arbitr>ily e/abli%$1 f a metaphysical & logical po9t ( view1 :i* does n correspond to ! real speciality ( ! functions4 ,gall lays d[n ! foll[+ pr9ciple z ! ultimate conclusion ( exp]i5ce1 & ! fundam5tal basis ( 8 doctr9e ( ! functions ( ! bra93#ahh ,! dispositions ( ! individual s\l & m9d are innate & _! manife/ation dep5ds ^u ! organisation4 ,we mu/ n see 9 ?is a return to ! a priori me?od4 ,gall gu>ds aga9/ rev]t+ to ! innat5ess ( ,desc>tes & ,leibnitz4 ,he means to speak simply ( dispositions1 or t5d5cies1 or 8faculties10 = in/ance1 ! faculty ( love1 ! feel+ ( ! j & ( ! unju/1 ambition1 ! faculty ( le>n+ languages1 t ( comp>+ sev]al judgm5ts or ideas1 ( d$uc+ consequ5ces f !m1 etc4 8,we conf9e ourselves10 says ,gall1 8to obs]vation40 ,we only consid] ! faculties ( ! s\l 9 s f> z !y become ph5om5a = u by means ( ! mat]ial organs4 ,we d5y & affirm no?+ except t :i* c be br\ght "u judgm5t by exp]i5ce4 ,comte ass5ts to all ?is4 ,) ,gall he condemns ! 8*ildi% dreams0 ( ,condillac & ( 8 successors ab\t trans=m$ s5sations#ahi2 ) him he admits ! speciality ( ! psy*ical functions1 correspond+ to ! speciality ( ! c]ebral organs4 ,b he only borr[s ,gall's pr9ciple4 ,he has ! /ronge/ objections ev5 to ,gall's psy*ology4 ,und\bt$ly at ! "t :5 ,gall liv$1 no "o c\ld h done bett]1 & 8 ef=t des]ves to be admir$4 ,b 8 errors1 al?\gh !y 7 inevitable1 are errors none ! less4 ,9 ! fir/ place ,gall 0 wrong 9 isolat+ ! n]v\s sy/em too mu* f ! bra91 :i* is 9 fact a prolongation ( ?is sy/em1 z is prov$ by comp>ative anatomy4#aij ,gall consid]$ ! sy/ems ( automatic life1 ( volunt>y motion1 & ( ! s5ses1 z entirely di/9ct f "o ano!r4 ,he only includ$ 9 ! bra9 ^? n]v\s organs1 :i*1 at any rate 9 ! mo/ p]fect animals1 are ! special organs ( consci\sness1 ( ! in/9ctive aptitudes1 ( ! incl9ations1 & ( ! faculties ( ! m9d & s\l4 ,to ?is !sis ,comte opposes ! facts assembl$ by ,cabanis1 & ! solid>ity ( all ! elem5ts 9 ! liv+ be+4 ,! bra9 c nei!r be isolat$ f ! re/ ( ! n]v\s sy/em1 nor ! n]v\s sy/em f ! re/ ( ! organism4 ,aga91 ,gall multiplies ! faculties 9 an arbitr>y mann]4 ,he _h e/abli%$ #bg ( !m4 ,spurzheim c>ri$ ?is numb] to #ce1 & o!rs h fur!r increas$ x4 ,e phr5ologi/ w soon create a function1 & its organ1 :5ev] x may seem opportune to him1 ) z mu* facility z ideologi/s & psy*ologi/s con/ruct entities4#aia ,^! creations are ne>ly always extremely clumsy4 ,?us an innate 8ma!matical aptitude0 has be5 e/abli%$4 ,:y n also a *emical1 an anatomical aptitude1 etc48 ,& ?is ma!matical aptitude is manife/$ by ! facility = execut+ calculations4 ,b ! ma!matical m9d1 f> f be+ an isolat$ & special aptitude1 pres5ts all ! v>ieties :i* ! human m9d c (f] by ! diff]5t comb9ations ( really elem5t>y faculties4 ,= in/ance1 "s great geomet]s h especially excell$ by ! sagacity ( _! inv5tions1 o!rs by ! ext5t ( _! comb9ations1 o!rs aga9 by ! g5ius ( language & ! in/itution ( signs & s on4 ,f ?is po9t ( view1 well drawn up monographies ( great sci5tific m5 & great arti/s w\ld be extremely preci\s = ! progress ( psy*ology4 ,9 conclusion1 8fundam5tal phr5ological analysis0 mu/ be recon/ruct$4 ,f ,gall1 ,comte only pres]ves 8! impulsion40 ,! great] "p ( ! localisations :i* ,gall ?\ght "r to e/abli% mu/ be ab&on$4 ,b he 0 "r 9 se>*+ = !m1 = ?us he %[$ sci5ce ! pa? to be foll[$4 ,ev5 an errone\s hypo!sis on positive l9es is always a s]vice r5d]$ 9 ! beg9n+s ( a sci5ce4 ,b ( ,gall's doctr9e only two pr9ciples h5ce=? indisputable subsi/4 #a/1 ! innat5ess ( ! v>i\s fundam5tal dispositions1 be !y affective or intellectual2 #bnd1 ! plurality ( faculties di/9ct & indep5d5t ( "o ano!r1 8al?\gh effective actions usually dem& _! m or less complex co-op]ation40 ,^! two pr9ciples are moreov] ! two correlative & int]dep5d5t aspects ( ! same conception1 :i* is 9 accordance ) :at 8common s5se0 has always ?\ght ( human nature4 ,x corresponds to ! division ( ! bra91 f ! anatomical po9t ( view into a c]ta9 numb] ( p>tial organs1 at once indep5d5t & dep5d+ ^u "o ano!r4 ,to e/abli% & to demon/rate ! detail ( ?is correspond5ce is ! object ( 8phr5ological physiology40 ,,iii4 ,comte took up ! attempt :]e ,gall _h fail$4 ,b 8 doctr9e pass$ ?r\gh two successive =ms4 ,he himself calls att5tion to ! importance & to ! causes ( ?is *ange4 ,9 #ahcg1 :5 he 0 writ+ ! ?ird volume ( ! ,c\rs de philosophie positive1 he /ill closely foll[$ n only ,gall's g5]al conception1 b also 8 anatomical & physiological hypo!ses4 ,he !n ?\ght t 8! doctr9e d$uc$ by ,gall f ! me?od repres5ts ! true moral & intellectual nature ( man & animals ) admirable fidelity40 ,he approv$ ( ! division ( ! faculties into ! affective & ! intellectual1 ! organs ( ! =m] occupy+ ! :ole ( ! po/]ior & middle regions ( ! bra91 & ! organs ( ! o!rs occupy+ only ! ant]ior region ( ! bra91 t is to say1 a qu>t] or a six? ( ! cephalic mass1 8:i* at once re-e/abli%es ! pre-em95ce ( ! affective faculties ^u a sci5tific basis40 ,he ev5 accept$ ! sub-division ( ^! faculties into incl9ations & feel+s1 & t ( ! intellectual faculties into p]ceptive faculties & reflective faculties4 ,at ?is mom5t1 8 objections 7 especially direct$ aga9/ ! excessive multiplication ( ! faculties1 & ^u ! insuffici5cy ( ! anatomy ( ! bra9 :i* accompani$ ! di/9ction ( s _m faculties4 ,he ?\ght ! anatomi/s 7 "r 9 prote/+ aga9/ ?is me?od ( ! phr5ologi/s :o1 f ! suppos$ exi/5ce ( an irr$ucible faculty1 assume ! exi/5ce ( a correspond+ organ 9 ! bra94 ,b anatomy _c ?us be treat$ a priori4 ,z ! aim ( e biological !ory is to e/abli% an exact h>mony betwe5 anatomical analysis & physiological analysis1 ?is evid5tly supposes t !y are n exactly modell$ ^u "o ano!r1 & t ea* "o ( !m has be5 work$ out 9 a di/9ct mann]4 ,we mu/ !n take up ! analysis ( ! c]ebral app>atus aga91 provisionally sett+ aside all idea ( function1 or at lea/ only mak+ use ( x z an auxili>y 9 anatomical rese>*4#aib ,9 #ahea1 9 ! fir/ volume ( ! ,politique positive1 ,comte's attitude is q diff]5t4 ,9 ,gall's psy*ology he no long] recognises any?+ b :at is ( hi/orical int]e/4 ,8 own conception ( psy*ology is completely alt]$4 ,?is great *ange has be5 det]m9$ by ! f\ndation ( sociology4 ,und\bt$ly ,gall's m]it rema9s v great1 = he r5d]$ a s]vice ( ! fir/ ord] 9 d>+ to con/ruct a positive !ory ( ! intellectual & moral functions4 ,)\t ?is !ory1 :i* at fir/ he consid]$ to be exact 9 its g5]al l9es1 ,comte c\ld n h und]tak5 to apply ! positive me?od to social facts1 nor consequ5tly to f\nd 8 philosophy4 ,s 8 gratitude to ,gall is almo/ z great z to ,condorcet1 88 spiritual fa!r40 ,b once sociology is f\nd$1 9 look+ back1 ,comte und]/&s t ,gall's 8c]ebral !ory0 _c be ma9ta9$4 ,x resembles a provisional bridge by means ( :i* positive philosophy pass$ ov] ! int]val :i* sep>ates biology prop] f sociology4 ,h>dly has x rea*$ ! o!r side :5 ! bridge collapses4 ,x matt]s little3 x suffices t1 ?anks to ! bridge1 ,comte %\ld h set foot ^u ! sociological gr\nd4 ,he c n[ return 9 all security to ! /udy ( ! m5tal functions4 8,:5 ,i _h f\nd$ sociology10 he says1 8,i und]/ood at la/ t ,gall's g5ius _h be5 unable to con/ruct a real physiology ( ! bra91 ow+ to ! lack ( a k ( ! laws ( collective evolution1 :i* alone mu/ furni% at once its pr9ciple & its end4 ,f t "t ,i felt t ?is task1 :i* be=e ,i expect$ biologi/s to accompli%1 belong$ to ! second "p ( my own philosophical c>e]40#aic ,! psy*ology1 :i*1 9 ! ,c\rs de philosophie positive1 0 ess5tially biological1 & end$ simply 9 sociology1 becomes1 9 ! ,politique positive ess5tially sociological1 & is only second>ily biological4 ,f #ahdf ,comte became consci\s ( ?is new ori5tation ( 8 ?\ght1 &1 dur+ ! five ye>s :i* foll[1 he nev] ceases work+ at 8 8c]ebral table40 ,at fir/1 he no long] dem&s an anatomical /udy p>allel to ! analysis ( ! m5tal functions1 & indep5d5t ( x4 ,he int5ds1 h5ce=?1 to det]m9e ^! functions outside all anatomical rese>*4 8,! logical pr9ciple ( ?is con/ruction consi/s1 = me1 9 its subjective in/itution40 ,he sy/ematically subord9ates anatomy to physiology1 & he h5ce=? conceives ! det]m9ation ( ! c]ebral organs z ! complem5t1 & ev5 z ! result1 ( ! positive /udy ( ! intellectual & moral functions4 ,at bottom1 8?is subject has nev] all[$ ( any o!r me?od b ! subjective1 well or ill employ$40 ,x has be5 equally us$ by ! disciples ( ,gall & by 8 adv]s>ies4 ,:at psy*ology has lack$ up to ! pres5t is1 n exact localisations b a suffici5tly deep analysis ( intellectual & moral ph5om5a4 ,& z a matt] ( fact x 0 impossible to treat ?is problem well1 s long z we ignor$ ! laws ( sociology1 8:i* alone is capable ( deal+ ) ^! noble functions40#aid ,?us1 9 ord] to det]m9e ! elem5t>y faculties1 ^? :i* are irr$ucible1 & :i* by _! co-op]ation produce ! complex ph5om5a :i* are appreh5d$ by consci\sness1 ! me?od mu/ be at once subjective & sociological4 ,= ! subject :i* we mu/ analyse is n ! individual consci\sness1 ( :i* ! /udy is too inaccessible1 & ^: life is too %ort3 x is ! univ]sal subject1 humanity1 8! case ( ! species be+ alone suffici5tly develop$ to *>act]ise ! v>i\s functions40 ,to ?is analysis1 z a sy/em ( control1 w be jo9$ ! obs]vation ( animals4 ,inde$1 all our innate dispositions belong also to ! o!r sup]ior animals4 ,if !n ! /udy ( man %\ld seem to e/abli% elem5t>y1 moral1 or ev5 intellectual functions1 ( :i* we see no trace 9 ^! animals1 by ?is alone we %\ld consid] t ! analysis has be5 imp]fect1 & t complex results h be5 consid]$ z irr$ucible4 8,sociological inspiration controll$ by zoological appreciation3 su* is ! g5]al pr9ciple ( ! positive !ory ( ! s\l40#aie ,by ?is me?od ,comte obta9s #ah irr$ucible faculties1 ( :i* #aj are repres5tative ( ! he>t1 #e ( ! m9d1 & #c ( ! "*4 ,to ea* ( ^! he assigns a special organ4 ,he places ! organ ( ! he>t 9 ! po/]ior portion ( ! bra9 & 9 ! c]ebellum1 ! organs ( ! m9d 9 ! ant]ior portion ( ! bra91 & ^? ( "* 9 ! int]m$i>y region4 ,anatomi/s are free to v]ify a po/]iori ! sep>ation ( ! #ah elem5ts :i* ,comte di/+ui%$ a priori 9 ! c]ebral app>atus4 ,! exi/5ce ( ^! organs1 9 any case1 appe>s to him to be suffici5tly demon/rat$1 & anatomical det]m9ation is n v important4 ,we might conf9e ourselves to ! specification ( ! numb] & ! situation ( ! organs1 :i* we h d$uc$ f ! numb] & relations ( ! elem5t>y functions4 ,x w\ld n be necess>y = u to "k _! %ape or _! size4 ,! utility ( c]ebral localisations resembles t :i* geomet]s draw f curves = ! bett] consid]ation ( equations4#aif ,! organ is simply ! /atic equival5t ( ! function ( ! s\l4 ,x suffices = u to "k its exi/5ce & its position s z to situate 9 x all ! relations ( ! function itself1 s to speak4 ,x plays ! "p ( a s*ematic draw+4 ,s1 ! !ory ( ! bra9 & ( ! s\l is no long] 8simultane\s40 ,9 fact1 ! !ory ( ! s\l is fir/ con/ruct$ by a subjective & indep5d5t me?od & )\t any consid]ation ( ! disposition ( ! c]ebral app>atus4 ,?is disposition is d$uc$1 aft]w>ds1 f ! !ory ( ! s\l1 once x is e/abli%$4 ,return+ !n to ,gall's psy*ology1 ,comte c expla9 its defects to himself4 ,gall _h 8oscillat$ betwe5 subjective inspiration & objective t5d5cies10 )\t adopt+ a sy/ematic plan4 ,!re has n be5 any v great disadvantage 9 ?is empirical fluctuation 9 :at conc]ns ! !ory ( ! affective functions4 ,)\t a d\bt1 ,gall _h e/abli%$ an ill-f\nd$ di/9ction betwe5 ! incl9ations & ! feel+s4 ,b he c\ld n be mi/ak5 conc]n+ ! fundam5tal incl9ations ( human nature4 ,9 default ( ! true me?od1 he 0 support$ on ?is po9t by common wisdom1 & by ! obs]vation ( animals4 ,x is on ! subject ( ! intellectual functions t he is entirely wrong1 because "h ?is tw(old help fail$ him1 & no?+1 9 ?is case1 fill$ ! place ( ! true me?od :i* 0 !n unkn[n4 ,9 ord] to discov] ! /atic & dynamic laws ( ! intellect1 x 0 necess>y to ab&on ! biological po9t ( view4 ,to ,gall's !ory ,comte !n sub/itutes a new classification ( ! intellectual functions4 ,he di/+ui%es betwe5 ! faculties ( conception & ! faculties ( expression4 ,he indicates ! relations ( ! intellectual functions prop] ) ! affective functions & ! functions ( motion4 ,he makes u appreh5d ! v intimate relations :i* connect desire & w4 ,f9ally1 to det]m9e ! fundam5tal intellectual functions1 he takes into acc\nt ! hi/orical evolution ( ! human species4 ,x does n ent] into ! purpose ( ?is "w to set =? ,comte's !ory 9 detail1 & to exam9e ! eighte5 irr$ucible faculties ( ! c]ebral table "o by "o4 ,b ! sy/ematic "* ( ! doctr9e does n prev5t u f tak+ up a c]ta9 numb] ( int]e/+ & deep psy*ological views 9 x4 ,to limit ourselves to a few examples1 ,comte drew imitation ne> to habit1 & he br\ght habit itself back 8to ! great cosmological law ( p]si/5ce10 :i*1 9 ! vital ord] is modifi$ by ! int]mittance ( ph5om5a4#aig ,he rem>k$ t att5tion is nev] produc$ )\t an affective ph5om5on ^u :i* x dep5ds4#aih ,he also indicat$ ! di/9ction betwe5 /rong /ates & weak /ates1 & ! 8r$uction0 ( images by actual p]ceptions4 8,if our images c\ld (f] z mu* int5sity1 he says1 z our ext]nal s5sations1 our m5tal /ate w\ld n all[ ( any consi/5cy4 ,! appreciation ( :at is )\t w\ld be tr\bl$ by ?is conflict ) :at is )944440 ,h5ce a !ory ( halluc9ation & insanity4#aii ,! !ory ( p]ception :i* ,comte opposes to ! ab/ract s5sualism ( ! ideologi/s is alli$ to 8 g5]al conception ( ! relations betwe5 ! subject & ! object4 ,our int]nal op]ations are nev] any?+ b ! direct or indirect prolongation ( our ext]nal impressions4 ,b 8reciprocally1 ! latt] are always complicat$ by ! o!rs1 ev5 9 ! mo/ elem5t>y cases40 ,! s5sation1 :i* appe>s simple1 is already ! result ( a v complex comb9ation4#bjj ,= no s5sations are really p]ceiv$ except aft] reit]at$ impressions4 ,if ! m9d is ev] passive1 x c only be ! fir/ "t4 ,= ! second1 x is already prep>$ by ! prec$+ "o1 comb9$ ) ! :ole ( previ\s acquisitions4 ,& ,comte insi/s ^u 8! habitual p>ticipation ( reason+ 9 ! op]ations :i* are attribut$ to s5sation alone40 ,! activity belong+ to ! m9d ent]s into all its actions1 ev5 ! smalle/ ( !m4 ,m5tal pa?ology sc>cely exi/s1 ow+ to ! lack ( ! sci5tific _s among speciali/s = ! diseases ( ! m9d4 ,/ill if ,br\ssais' pr9ciple be true1 t is to say1 if morbid ph5om5a are produc$ accord+ to ! same laws :i* gov]n normal ph5om5a1 :at advantage might n sci5tific m5 d]ive f ! obs]vation ( m5tal diseases8 ,!y are privileg$ cases :i* nature supplies = !m1 real exp]im5ts1 :]e t :i* is insep>able 9 ! normal /ate appe>s disassociat$4 ,:at light might be ?r[n by ?is means ^u _m physiological & ev5 anatomical que/ions1 9 p>ticul> 9 :at conc]ns ! s5tim5t ( ! ego 7diseases ( p]sonality1 ab\lia1 etc471 & ! faculties ( expression1 isolat$ f ! faculties ( conception 7diseases ( spee*74 ,animal psy*ology w\ld n be less in/ructive4 ,all ! affective & intellectual faculties are common to m5 & high] animals1 save p]haps ! highe/ intellectual aptitudes4 ,ev5 ?is exception is a d\btful "o1 if )\t prejudice we comp>e ! actions ( ! highe/ animals ) ^? ( ! lea/ develop$ savages4 ,we %\ld /udy ! habits & ! m9d ( wild animals4 ,we %\ld obs]ve ! *anges :i* are produc$ 9 !m by dome/ication4 ,"h aga9 almo/ ev]y?+ has to be done afre%4#bja ,,iv4 ,9 spite ( :atev] may h be5 said1 ,comte !n has a psy*ology4 ,&1 :at is m1 ?is psy*ology is 9 a s5se n f> remov$ f t ( ! ,scotti% s*ool & ( ! ,eclectics al?\gh he s mu* f\ght aga9/ _! me?ods4 ,! po9ts ( contact are num]\s & important4 ,9 bo? doctr9es ! psy*ical ph5om5a are ref]r$ to faculties & ^! are repres5t$ z 8dispositions10 innate 8prop]ties40 ,9 bo?1 ! ess5tial psy*ological problem appe>s to be ! det]m9ation ( ! numb] & ! relations ( ^! faculties1 ^: action v>i\sly comb9$ produces psy*ical ph5om5a3 be=e ev]y?+1 x is a "q ( n consid]+ z an elem5t>y faculty t :i* z a matt] ( fact results f ! comb9ation ( sev]al faculties1 or inv]sely4 ,f9ally 9 bo?1 x is claim$ to e/abli% ?is doctr9e ( ! innate faculties ^u ! obs]vation ( human nature4 ,comte himself _h se5 t1 at any rate 9 ! case ( ,condillac's criticism1 he 0 9 accordance ) ! eclectics4 ,on ?is po9t he only refus$ to grant !m orig9ality4 ,accord+ to him !y m]ely popul>is$1 9 obscure & emphatic declamations1 :at physiologi/s l ,*>les ,bonnet1 ,cabanis1 & *iefly ,gall & ,spurzheim _h long be=e /at$ on ?is subject 9 a f> cle>] & especially 9 a f> m exact mann]4 ,= 8 "p ,g>ni]1 ! au?or ( ! ,trait des ,facults de l'me _h cle>ly se5 ! relations ( eclecticism to ,gall's doctr9e1 & _h /udi$ !m 9 a "w entitl$ ,de la ,phrnologie et de la ,psy*ologie comp>es :i* appe>$ 9 #ahci4 ,:y !n does ,comte attack ! eclectics ) su* p]si/5ce & su* viol5ce1 if1 inde$1 ! results ( 8 psy*ology are n v f> remov$ f :at !y say8--,x is because 9 reality1 b5ea? ! app>5t resemblance ( doctr9e1 a diff]5ce ( me?od z s]i\s z c be conceiv$ is conceal$4 ,= ,c\s91 & especially = ! ,c\s9 we "k be=e #ahcj1 psy*ology is n an end 9 itself4 ,x is a means :i* he uses to rise to ! /udy ( be+ 9 itself & ( ! ,absolute4 ,! 8ego0 :i* he analyses is indep5d5t ( ! organism4 ,?is is :at ,comte condemns z a retrogression4 8,"s m51 n recogniz+ ! pres5t & irrevocable direction ( ! human m9d1 h endeav\r$ = t5 ye>s to transplant ,g]man metaphysics into our mid/1 & to con/itute1 "u ! "n ( psy*ology1 a s-call$ sci5ce entirely indep5d5t ( physiology1 sup]ior to x1 & to :i* %\ld exclusively belong ! /udy ( moral ph5om5a40#bjb ,& ?is attempt at reaction takes place at ! v mom5t :5 ! works ( ,cabanis & ( ,gall h br\ght ?is /udy ^u ! positive pa?6 ,x is ne$less to say t1 9 ,comte's sy/em1 psy*ical ph5om5a are subord9at$1 z f> z _! conditions ( exi/5ce are conc]n$1 to all ! ord]s ( m g5]al natural ph5om5a4 ,comte %\ld !n h foll[$ ,cabanis & ,gall1 z a matt] ( c\rse4 ,b he ?\ght t to e/abli% ! sci5ce ( ! 8transc5d5t functions10 ! biological po9t ( view 0 insuffici5t4 ,9 ?is case anatomical consid]ations are only a k9d ( r$uplication & transcription ( physiological consid]ations4 ,z ,ma9e de ,biran said1 9 t]ms curi\sly l ,comte's1 8a di/9ction ( places assign$ to ! ex]cise ( ea* faculty mu/ necess>ily be itself ref]r$ to ano!r pre-e/abli%$ division ( ! faculties4444 ,hypo!sis ?us graft$ ^u hypo!sis ( a diff]5t ord] w\ld n mu* contribute to ?r[ light ^u ! analysis ( our intellectual functions40#bjc ,only1 in/ead ( appeal+1 l ,ma9e de ,biran1 to reflection1 ,comte rises f ! biological to ! sociological po9t ( view ,he recognises t ! subjective me?od alone is suitable = ! sci5ce ( psy*ical ph5om5a1 b1 9 place ( ! metaphysical subjective me?od1 by means ( :i* ! 8ego0 is delud$ into ! belief t x analyses its op]ations1 & grasps its own activity1 he w make use ( ! positive subjective me?od4 ,! subject :i* he w analyse w be ! human m9d1 or bett]1 ! human s\l consid]$ 9 its cont9u\s evolution1 t is to say 9 its religions1 9 its sci5ces1 9 its philosophy1 9 its language & 9 its art4 ,"h is matt] = a psy*ology :i* w no long] be *im]ical1 b real1 :i* w be positive1 9 a ^w1 l ! biology ^u :i* x dep5ds & ( :i* x is ! fulfilm5t4 ,if we leave aside ! conception ( ! 8faculties0 :i* ,comte accept$ r ha/ily at ! h&s ( ! ,scotti% s*ool & ( ,gall1 & ! 8c]ebral table0 :i* he believ$ to be once = all con/ruct$1 8 psy*ology conta9$ m ?an "o important & f]tile se$4 ,to ! eclectic psy*ology1 :i* is n positive1 ,comte sub/itut$ two sci5ces :i* are su*4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 an exp]im5tal sci5ce ( ! psy*ical ph5om5a /udi$ 9 _! relation to _! organic conditions3 x is ! physiological psy*ology ( :i* no "o to-day que/ions ! legitimacy4 ,!n1 by ! introduction ( ! sociological po9t ( view1 ,comte op5$ ! way to a :ole s]ies ( /udies :i* beg9 to be develop$1 7social psy*ology1 e?nical psy*ology1 psy*ology ( ! masses1 etc74 ,x is (t5 said t sociological laws h _! f\ndation 9 psy*ological laws4 ,b ! rev]se is no less true4 ,! psy*ological laws1 at lea/ ! m5tal & moral laws1 are1 at ! same "t1 sociological laws1 s9ce !y are only reveal$ 9 ! /udy ( ! intellectual hi/ory ( ! human species4 8,we mu/ n expla9 humanity by man1 b man by humanity40 ,to ! 8 0 ( anci5t psy*ology1 ! positive me?od sub/itutes ?is precept3 8,to "k y\rself1 "k hi/ory40 ,man only becomes consci\s ( himself1 :5 he becomes aw>e ( 8 place 9 ! evolution ( ,humanity4 ,,footnotes3 #ahj ,correspondance de ,comte1 et de ,john ,/u>t ,mill1 p4 #afb 7#bg fvri] #ahdc47 p4 #cfe 7#ba oct4 #ahdd74 #aha ,pol4 pos41 ,,iv1 ,app5dix1 p4 #bah4 #ahb ,lettres ,valat1 p4 #hi-ia4 #ahc ,c\rs1 ,,iii4 #fad-af4 #ahd ,c\rs1 ,,iii1 #fah-ai4 #ahe ,c\rs1 ,,iii1 #fja-b2 #fba-bb4 #ahf ,c\rs1 ,,iii1 #faa4 #ahg ,lettres ,valat1 p4 #acd 7#h septembre #ahbd74 #ahh ,c\rs1 ,,iii1 #fca-b4--;,gall1 ,anatomie & physiologie du sy/me n]veux1 ,p>is #ahaj1 ,,ii1 #f-g4 #ahi ,c\rs1 ,,iii1 #fbf-g4 #aij ,c\rs1 ,,iii1 #fff-h4 #aia ,c\rs1 ,,iii1 #fed-e4 #aib ,c\rs1 ,,iii1 #ae-bf4 #aic ,pol4 pos41 ,i1 #gbi4 #aid ,pol4 pos41 ,i1 #fga-b4 #aie ,pol4 pos41 ,i1 #fgb-c4 #aif ,pol4 pos41 ,i1 #gca-b4 #aig ,c\rs1 ,,iii1 #eif-h2 ,pol4 pos4 ,i1 #eih-i4 #aih ,pol4 pos4 ,i1 #gbg4 #aii ,pol4 pos4 ,,ii1 #chc4 #bjj ,pol4 pos4 ,i1 #gab-ad4 #bja ,c\rs1 ,,iii1 #ffj4 #bjb ,pol4 pos41 ,,iv1 ,app5dice1 p4 #bah4 #bjc ,ma9e de ,biran1 uvres 9dites 7d4 ,c\s971 ,,ii1 #ee-eh4 ,,book ,,iii ,,*apt] ,i ,,! ,,transition ,,f ,,animality ,,to ,,humanity4 ,,art ,,& ,,language ,( ! philosoph]s :o fl\ri%$ be=e ! rise ( ! positive doctr9e1 ! great] numb] assum$ z a po/ulate 9 ! comp>ative /udy ( man & animals1 t !re 0 betwe5 !m a diff]5ce ( nature1 & n m]ely "o ( degree4 ,:atev] fundam5tal diff]5ce be attribut$ to reason1 language1 moral s5se1 religion1 etc41 ! 8human k+dom0 is conceiv$ = ! mo/ "p z sup]ior to ! animal k+dom & z cle>ly sep>at$ f x4 ,tak+ _! /& ^u an analysis ( ! pres5t /ate ( ! human consci5ce1 ^? philosoph]s recognise an ord] ( 8moral realities10 to :i* animals h no access4 ,?us !y give to ! sci5ce ( ,man a privileg$ object :i* sep>ates x f ! gr\p ( ! natural sci5ces4 ,! positive me?od admits nei!r ?is po/ulate1 nor ! consequ5ces :i* are drawn f x4 ,9 g5]al ?is me?od is *>act]is$ by ! sub/itution ( ! objective to ! an?ropoc5tric po9t ( view1 & also by ! sub/itution ( obs]vation to imag9ation4 ,x does n sudd5ly *ange its ori5tation :5 x comes to ! /udy ( man4 ,! positive me?od is n !re=e conc]n$ ) kn[+ :at idea man =ms ( himself to-day & ( 8 relations ) o!r liv+ be+s4 ,into ?is idea ent] elem5ts ( religi\s & metaphysical orig91 ^: pres5ce is expla9$ by hi/orical reasons4 ,! "q is to obs]ve ! nature ( man 9 8 real relations ) o!r be+s4 ,man1 s consid]$1 at once takes 8 place aga9 at ! top ( ! zoological scale4 ,! problem w !n be set 9 ! foll[+ t]ms3 ,giv5 t man is includ$ 9 ! animal s]ies1 ( :i* he is ! highe/ t]m1 b /ill a t]m1 to acc\nt = ! diff]5ces :i* to-day place him s high above ! t]m imm$iately bel[ him4 ,?is is tak+ ! v rev]se attitude ( ne>ly all ! philosoph]s1 ^: ma9 difficulty is to give an acc\nt ( ! lik5esses :i* exi/ betwe5 man & animals4 ,x is ! position :i* ,d>w9 w take 9 8 ,desc5t ( ,man4 ,comte takes 8 /& ^u two po/ulates4 ,! fir/ affirms ! fundam5tal id5tity ( ! ess5tial functions 9 man & animals4 ,s9ce ! :ole ( ! moral & intellectual functions con/itutes ! necess>y complem5t ( animal life prop]ly s-call$1 x w\ld be difficult to conceive t all ^? functions :i* are fundam5tal %\ld n1 by ?is v fact be 8common1 at v>i\s degrees1 to all ! high] animals1 & p]haps ev5 to ! entire gr\p ( ! v]tebrata40#bjd ,! animal functions are z a blossom+ out ( organic life1 de/9$ 9 ! fir/ place to make ?is life m p]fect & m complex3 9 ! same way1 ! intellectual & moral functions are1 orig9ally1 z x 71 ano!r blossom+ out ( animal life1 & mu/ consequ5tly be f\nd1 at lea/ z a possibility1 :]ev] animal life has rea*$ a c]ta9 degree ( developm5t4 ,?is po/ulate1 accord+ to ,comte1 is suffici5tly e/abli%$ by biology1 by means ( ! comp>ative me?od4 ,all ! pr9cipal *>act]i/ics :i* pride & ignorance set up z absolute privileges ( our species1 also appe>1 m or less rudim5t>y1 9 ! majority ( ! high] animals4#bje ,! mi/ake 0 made because metaphysical ideology & psy*ology place intellig5ce =emo/ 9 ! /udy ( psy*ical functions4 ,intellig5ce inde$ puts to-day an imm5se di/ance betwe5 man & animals4 ,b a m accurate psy*ology recognises t ! mo/ en]getic1 ! mo/ 8fundam5tal0 ( m5tal functions are ! affective functions1 s9ce1 9 default ( ! impulse giv5 by !m1 intellig5ce itself w\ld n be develop$4 ,! analogy betwe5 man & ! animals at once appe>s3 = ! affective functions are common to !m bo?4 ,x is ! same ) ! intellectual functions1 :5 all[ance is made = ! developm5t !y h assum$ 9 man4 ,9 a ^w1 if ! dynamical sup]iority ( ! human species ov] ! o!r species is /rong1 its /atical sup]iority is weak4 ,! problem consi/s 9 f9d+ h[1 to su* an app>5tly unimportant diff]5ce 9 ! organs1 su* a consid]able diff]5ce 9 ! functions corresponds4#bjf ,"h comes 9 ! second po/ulate3 8,! fundam5tal con/itution ( man is inv>iable40 ,evolution b n trans=mation3 ?is great pr9ciple1 transmitt$ by biology to sociology1 dom9ates ! latt] sci5ce entirely4 ,9 ! c\rse ( ! long hi/ory :i* leads humanity f savage animality to positive civilisation1#bjg no?+ absolutely new appe>s4 ,ev]y?+ :i* manife/s itself little by little1 pre-exi/$ 9 ! nature ( man--9 a pot5tial /ate x is true2 & ?is /ate w\ld p]haps nev] h ceas$ if a numb] ( fav\rable conditions _h n occurr$ toge!r4 ,! m5tal functions1 :i* are indisp5sable to organic & to animal life prop]ly s call$1 quickly atta9$ ! degree ( developm5t )\t :i* ! species w\ld h disappe>$4 ,on ! contr>y1 ! highe/ 8fundam5tal dispositions0 ( our nature rema9$ lat5t = a long "t1 & only manife/$ !mselves by degrees4 ,b if _! developm5t has be5 sl[1 x is1 9 return1 cont9u\s & indef9ite4 ,& ^! dispositions t5d to prepond]ate1 al?\gh ! 8inv]sion0 ( ! primitive economy c nev] become complete4 ,humanity em]ges progressively f animality4 ,! highe/ civilization is !n1 at bottom1 entirely 9 con=mity ) nature3 = x is only ! manife/ation m & m m>k$ ( ! mo/ *>act]i/ic prop]ties ( our species4 ,9 ?is s5se1 our social solution mu/ be und]/ood 8z ! extreme t]m ( a progression cont9u$ un9t]rupt$ly ?r\gh\t ! :ole liv+ k+dom f ! mo/ simple =ms ( vegetable life1 ! pr$om9ance ( ! organic functions becom+ less & less exclusive1 9 ord] 9 ! fir/ place to make room = ! pr$om9ance ( ! animal functions prop]ly s call$1 & f9ally = t ( ! intellectual & moral functions1 ^: developm5t is ! v def9ition ( humanity40#bjh ,?us1 ! *a9 ( be+ is un9t]rupt$4 ,b ,comte1 z we "k1 did n accept ,lam>ck's hypo!sis4 ,he believ$ 9 ! fixity ( species4 ,und\bt$ly he admits 9 a measure :i* sci5ce w "s day fix1 acquisitions sl[ly incorporat$ into organisms by h]$ity4 ,b he does n ?9k t !y w g s f> z to trans=m species4 ,! :ole evolution ( man mu/ !n be expla9$ by its orig9al con/itution4 ,inde$1 ,comte "h ma9ta9s1 z ev]y:]e 9 nature1 ! p]fect correspond5ce betwe5 ! /atical & ! dynamical po9t ( view4 ,! case ( man _c be an exception to ?is encyclopdic law1 :i* is v]ifi$ 9 all ! ord]s ( ph5om5a f ! mo/ simple to ! mo/ complex4 ,z ! :ole l9e ( ! curve corresponds to ! equation1 s ! :ole developm5t ( humanity mu/ correspond to ! 8fundam5tal nature0 ( man4 ,on ?is condition alone is sociology possible z a sci5ce4 ,n[ positive sociology exi/s3 !re=e ! po/ulate is ju/ifi$4 ,,ii4 ,! !ory ( ! relation betwe5 man & animals ?us f9ds itself d$uc$ f ! g5]al pr9ciples ( positive philosophy4 ,b x c also be v]ifi$ a po/]iori1 ?r\gh ! criticism ( ! argum5ts ( ! adv]se !ory by means ( obs]vation & exp]i5ce4 ,! fir/ ( ^! argum5ts & ! "o :i* 9 g5]al makes ! greate/ impression1 contra/s ! in/9ct ( animals ) ! intellig5ce ( man4 ,x repres5ts in/9ct z bl9d & fatal1 & intellig5ce z free & progressive4 ,b ?is anti!sis _c )/& ! exam9ation ( facts4 ,in/9ct is call$ too ha/ily a 8fatal t5d5cy ( animals to ! me*anical execution ( actions :i* are uni=mly det]m9$ by correspond+ circum/ances1 & n requir+ nor ev5 admitt+ ( any education prop]ly s-call$40 ,?is fatal t5d5cy does n exi/4 ,x is a gratuit\s supposition1 p]haps a remnant ( ! ,c>tesian !ory conc]n+ ! automatism ( animals4 ,georges ,l]oy1 9 8 *>m+ ,lettres sur les animaux1 has %[n t 9 ! mammals & 9 ! birds ( our di/ricts1 ! fixity 9 ! con/ruction ( habitations1 9 ! habits ( hunt+1 9 ! mode ( migration1 etc41 only exi/$ = naturali/s :o nev] left _! /udy1 or = inatt5tive obs]v]s4#bji ,und\bt$ly1 habits may become h]$it>y4 ,b "h we only h a ph5om5on common to m5 & animals1 & ^? habits are modifi$ if ! circum/ances :i* h produc$ !m come to *ange4 ,x is 9 ?is s5se alone t we c admit ,m4 de ,bla9ville's =mula3 8,l'in/9ct e/ la raison fixe1 la raison e/ l'in/9ct mobile40 ,we mu/ especially und]/& t in/9ct is n oppos$ to intellig5ce4 ,:at ought we really to indicate by in/9ct8 ,a spontane\s impulse 9 a direction det]m9$1 indep5d5tly ( any =eign influ5ce40 ,b 9 ?is s5se1 ! ^w applies to ! activity ( any faculty :atev]1 to ! intellectual faculties z well z to ! o!rs4 ,!re is no contra/ betwe5 in/9ct & intellig5ce4 ,we say ( a *ild t he has ! 8in/9ct0 ( music1 ( draw+1 ( calculation1 etc4 ,9 ?is s5se man has c]ta9ly z _m & m in/9cts ?an animals4 ,if1 on ! o!r h&1 we call intellig5ce ! faculty ( modify+ our conduct accord+ to ! circum/ances ( ea* case1 animals are1 l man1 m or less intellig5t & reasonable4 ,o!rwise !y w\ld be doom$ to disappe> v quickly4 ,b animals h no language6 ,ano!r error 9 obs]vation4 ,! high] animals h a c]ta9 degree ( language correspond+ to ! nature & to ! ext5t ( _! relations4 ,?is language is no m fix$ ?an ! s-call$ in/9cts4 ,! language ( ea* social species is *>act]is$ by an arre/ ( developm5t precisely l ! society :i* ?is species t5d$ to f\nd4 ,! limits ( its progress1 beyond :i* inde$ x does n g1 result f ! :ole ( ! ob/acles :i* x enc\nt]s1 9 consequ5ce ( ! competition ) ! o!r species1 & p>ticul>ly ) ! human species1 )\t nam+ ^? limits :i* ! imp]fection ( organs may create4#baj ,_m animals are capable ( exp]i5c+ ne$s )\t reg>d to a useful purpose4 ,= in/ance1 !y l to ex]cise _! animal functions = ! pleasure ( do+ s1 t is to say1 to play4 ,"s among !m exp]i5ce /hetic impressions4 ,!y are also1 )\t ! slighte/ d\bt1 capable ( altrui/ic feel+s4 ,sometimes ^! feel+s %[ !mselves 9 ! %ape ( dome/ic affection1 & t5d to make a solit>y life unbe>able to ! individual4 ,family life !n becomes p]man5t4 ,sometimes an animal devotes itself to ! s]vice ( a sup]ior race4 ,d we "k to :at l5g?s ! progress ( altruism w\ld g 9 c]ta9 animal species1 if _! intellig5ce c\ld h be5 m develop$1 & if _! surr\nd+s _h all[$ ( _! m ext5sive social progress8#baa ,f9ally1 animals ev5 possess a rudim5t ( religion1 if by ?is we und]/& an endeav\r to int]pret ! ph5om5a :i* /rike !m4 ,:5 suffici5tly develop$ to manife/1 :]e !re is suffici5t leisure1 a c]ta9 speculative activity1 !y rea* spontane\sly1 9 ! same way z we d ourselves1 a k9d ( l[ feti*ism1 :i* consi/s 9 suppos+ t ext]nal bodies are animat$ by w & by passions4#bab 8,a *ild1 a savage1 a dog1 a monkey1 see+ a wat* = ! fir/ "t1 w see 9 x a k9d ( animal40 ,b ,comte at once adds t ! *ief diff]5ce betwe5 man & animals lies 9 ! impossibility = ! latt] to em]ge f ! l[e/ degree ( feti*ism1 & to rise to a real religion4 ,no animal society 8comb9es sociability ) intellig5ce suffici5tly ev] to con/itute a religi\s association40#bac ,comte w\ld probably h approv$ ( ,m4 de4 ,quatrefages' def9ition 9 :i* he calls man a religi\s animal4 ,! decisive /ep 0 tak5 on ! day :5 man's intellect pass$ f feti*ism to a/rolatry4#bad ,t 8great creation ( ! gods0 0 ! fir/ trial 9 purely speculative activity made by 8 m9d4 ,! :ole subsequ5t developm5t ( humanity arose f ?is4 ,?us1 ! argum5ts :i* claim to e/abli% an insup]able di/ance betwe5 man & animals1 g5]ally re/ ^u imp]fectly obs]v$ facts4 ,on ! contr>y1 9 animals1 we f9d ! m or less visible rudim5ts ( ev]y?+ :i* has evolv$ s magnific5tly 9 humanity4 ,we _c describe 9 detail h[ & :y ?is species has become1 s to speak1 incomp>able & incomm5surable ) ! o!rs4 ,x mu/ h got ! upp]h&1 n 9 virtue ( ?is & t p>ticul> advantage1 7al?\gh an important "o71 su* z ! upright position or ! possession ( a h&1 b on acc\nt ( ! co-op]ation ( _m fav\rable conditions1 ( :i* ! totality all[$1 s to speak1 ( an almo/ indef9ite developm5t4 ,f a c]ta9 mom5t1 !re 0 a def9ite /oppage 9 ! social evolution ( ! o!r species1 & ! progress ( ! human species 0 decisive4 ,we _c e/imate ! initial influ5ce ( ! v>i\s conditions accord+ to ! pres5t developm5t ( ! sev]al human faculties1 = ?is developm5t is especially due to ! social life ( :i* ^? conditions all[$4 ,ea* sup]iority ( man may h be5 v little def9$ orig9ally4 ,"t1 ! action ( ! o!r high] functions1 ex]cise1 h]$ity h play$ _! "p "h4 ,! 8human attributes0 mu/ !n h gr[n con/antly1 ev] consolidat+ ! 8asc5d5cy0 :i* !y _h det]m9$4 ,at ! same "t ! correspond+ attributes mu/ h dim9i%$ 9 ! rival species1 z !y 7 br\ght to a /&/ill 9 _! developm5t4 ,und\bt$ly1 by degrees1 ! int]val has wid5$ until x has become a gap s broad & s deep z to make x impossible to imag9e h[ x c\ld ev] h be5 cross$4 ,b biology & sociology help u to judge bett]4 ,we mu/ see ?is1 9 "s detail1 9 connection ) ! important "q ( language4 ,,iii4 ,! !ory ( language1 dur+ ! eighte5? c5tury1 _h be5 "o ( ! fav\rite subjects ( philosophical speculation2 9 g5]al1 x _h proce$$ 9 ?is matt]1 by way ( ab/ract & logical analysis4 ,x *iefly saw 9 language a product ( ! intellectual faculties ( man4 ,b1 already1 f ! second half ( ! c5tury1 ?is conception _h be5 attack$ 9 ,g]many by ! s*ool :i* began ! reaction aga9/ ! 8philosoph]s10 & 9 :i* ! mo/ illu/ri\s "n is t ( ,h]d]4 ,9 ,france ! traditionali/ s*ool felt t "h "o ( ! weak po9ts ( ! philosophy ( ! eighte5? c5tury 0 be+ t\*$4 ,x insi/$ ^u ! *>act]s ( language :i* ?is philosophy did n expla94 ,comte knew ! works ( ?is s*ool1 &1 9 p>ticul>1 ^? ( ,m4 de ,bonald1 :om he calls an 8en]getic ?9k]40#bae ,b 8 me?od diff]s f !irs1 & he only agrees ) !m 9 ! critical "p ( _! doctr9e4 ,if ! !ory ( language1 says ,comte1 is encumb]$ ) insoluble que/ions1 ! fault lies 9 ! me?od made use ( by ! metaphysicians4 ,!y h only consid]$ man's language1 9 its /ate ( highe/ complication4 ,!y h attribut$ excessive importance to ! signs ( articulate human language1 !y h exagg]at$ ! "p play$ by reflection1 & misund]/ood t ( spontaneity4 ,condillac especially & 8 s*ool attribut$ f> too mu* importance to ! 8disponibilit0 ( signs4#baf ,! sci5tific me?od w n isolate humanity f ! o!r species :i* x dom9ates4 ,x w connect ! positive /udy ( language ) biology & ) sociology3 ) biology m p>ticul>ly = ! "q ( orig92 ) sociology 9 s f> z ! developm5t ( language dep5ds ^u ! reaction ( social life ^u dome/ic life4 ,! />t+-po9t ( ! !ory is a fact ( exp]i5ce4 ,e /rong emotion is accompani$ by ! impulse to manife/ x1 & ?is expression reacts ^u ! emotion itself4 ,_m species exhibit ?is4#bag ,s++ & mimick+1 or r cries & ge/ures1 are (t5 us$ by !m1 z by man1 n only to relieve ! passions1 b to excite !m m4 ,= in/ance1 ang] 9 c>nivor\s animals gr[s to exasp]ation1 ?r\gh ! ext]nal signs :i* ! animal gives ( x4 ,comte is 9 accordance ) ! obs]vations ( ,bell & ( ,gratiolet4 ,! movem5ts :i* co-op]ate 9 expression1 he says1 co9cide 9 g5]al ) ^? :i* are made use ( 9 action4 ,moreov]1 9 ! human species1 = ! mo/ "p1 ! individual expresses 8 affections 9 ord] to satisfy !m bett]1 by induc+ 8 fell[-creatures to second him4 ,x is an appeal to sympa?y4 ,if !n ! expression results f ! feel+1 x t5ds1 conv]sely to develop & to consolidate x4 ,! orig9 ( language is ?us affective1 t is to say /hetic1 s9ce 8we only express ourselves aft] hav+ felt /rongly40 ,language !re=e translates feel+s be=e ?\ghts1 & ?is is :at ! foll[]s ( ! ideologi/ !ory did n see4 ,ev5 to-day1 9 our mo/ develop$ language1 we c /ill trace ?is orig94 ,x reveals itself by ! musical acc5t ( ! slighte/ spee*4 ,expression is always inspir$ & ma9ta9$ by "s affection1 ev5 9 cases :]e x is app>5tly limit$ to a simple sci5tific or te*nical exposition4 ,! affective s\rce ( language1 dissimulat$ z x is by ! intellectual op]ations ( :i* x is ! in/rum5t1 reveals itself 9 ! inflexions ( ! voice4 ,language is made up ( signs4 ,accord+ to :at has j be5 said1 natural signs are spontane\sly produc$ by ! play ( ! emotions4 ,z a volunt>y manife/ation language is always artificial4 ,! involunt>y signs h be5 gradually divid$ into _! compon5t p>ts & simplifi$1 :ile rema9+ intelligible4 ,all artificial signs1 says ,comte1 ev5 9 our species1 spr+ f a volunt>y 8imitation0 ( ! natural signs :i* are spontane\sly produc$4 ,9 ?is way bo? ! =mation & ! int]pretation ( ^! signs are expla9$4#bah ,hobbes us$ to def9e a sign z a con/ant relation betwe5 two ph5om5a1 se5 by ! subject4 ,! two ph5om5a are "h a /ate ( consci\sness & a motion4 ,sometimes ! /ate ( consci\sness det]m9es ! motion1 sometimes ! motion causes ! reappe>ance ( ! /ate ( consci\sness4 ,! in/itution ( a sy/em ( signs is a means ( 8connect+ ! )9 ) ! )\t40 ,language is ?us = man a means ( mak+ ! s]ies ( 8 intellectual /ates p>ticipate 9 ! regul>ity :i* *>act]ises ext]nal ord]4 ,! logical function ( language !re=e spr+s f its v ess5ce 9 :i* ! ph5om5a ( ! objective _w & ! ph5om5a :i* belong to ! feel+ & ?9k+ subject are jo9$4 ,x is equival5t to a sy/em = r5d]+ ! m5tal life objective4#bai ,be+ ?us made objective1 ^! ph5om5a c h5ce=? be pres]v$ & communicat$1 )\t man or ! animals hav+ _h ea* an end 9 view1 s9ce ! in/itution ( ! fir/ signs is involunt>y1 & arises f 8! comb9ation betwe5 ! muscul> & n]v\s sy/ems40 ,ext]nal ord] "h acts z a regulator1 ev5 be=e ?\ght has grasp$ x4 ,! signs :i* are spontane\sly produc$ are n all trans=m$ into volunt>y signs4 ,^? :i* appeal to sight or to he>+ pres5t special advantages = ?is use1 & z a matt] ( fact1 ! two classes ( signs are concurr5tly us$ by ! high] animals4 ,ge/ures & cries are ! orig9 ( :at lat] becomes ! sy/em ( artificial signs4 ,by degrees1 ! communication ( emotions gives way to ! expression ( ?\ghts4 ,among v civilis$ populations x ev5 came to be believ$ t song _h come f spee*4 ,b1 on ! contr>y1 spee* came f song4 ,to be conv9c$ ( ?is a glance at ! animal _w is suffici5t4 ,up to ?is po9t ! !ory ( language has be5 biological1 & ! acquir$ facts c ?us be summ$ up3 #a1 ,man does n express 8 ?\ght 9 ord] to communicate x1 b he communicates because he expresses x4 #b1 ,:at is fir/ express$ is emotion1 n ?\ght4 ,by degrees language becomes intellectualiz$1 z ! m5tal life itself4 #c1 ,expression is spontane\s & prim>y4 ,x arises f ! relation betwe5 ! n]v\s & muscul> sy/ems4 ,9 ! progressive trans=mation :]e1 f be+ involunt>y1 ! signs gradually become volunt>y1 !y are at once causes & effects4 ,! ess5tial condition = ?is trans=mation to take place is social life4 ,und\bt$ly1 language appe>s v quickly1 z soon z individuals ( ! same species f9d !mselves 9 con/ant relations ) "o ano!r4 ,ea* "o le>ns to attribute ! "* ( signs to ! movem5ts :i* accompany 8 emotions4 ,simil> be+s 9 :om ! same ph5om5a take place1 become equally capable ( int]pret+ ^? signs4 ,f ?is mom5t a language is born2 & ?is is true = ! animal species z = man4 ,b human evolution foll[s an evolution :i* is peculi> to itself1 & :i* det]m9es t ( language4 ,our language w\ld n h f> exce$$ ! p]iod 9 :i* x especially expresses emotions1 if human societies _h rema9$ purely dome/ic gr\p+s1 )\t any o!r organisation ?an t ( ! family4 8,! in/itution ( human language10 says ,comte1 8appe>s1 9 sociology1 z ! *ief cont9u\s in/rum5t ( ! necess>y reaction ( political ^u dome/ic life40#bbj ,h5ce=? we c picture to ourselves1 9 its broad outl9es1 ! prehi/oric evolution ( language4 ,orig9ally x compris$ ge/ures & cries4 ,ge/ures pr$om9at$ 9 ! fir/ place z be+ m imm$iately expressive4 ,by degrees !y took a second place4 ,z ! natural signs became divid$ up s z to become artificial1 ! sup]iority ( vocal signs appe>$4 ,among o!r reasons x 0 due to ! 8spontane\s correspond5ce0 betwe5 ! voice & he>+ :i* all[s ev]yone to develop 8 own education4 ,we he> "y *ildr5 practis+ = long h\rs1 play+ ) ! articulate s\nds :i* !y beg9 to emit4 ,f ?is m or less organis$ s++1 /ill a melody ( vocal signs1 poetry 0 born4 ,f9ally f poetry1 mu* lat]1 spr+s1 :at is commonly call$ prose1 t is1 ! use ( non-rhy?mic phrases4 ,?ree great evolutions 9 ! hi/ory ( humanity3 h[ _m c5turies h n be5 requir$ = _! accompli%m5t6 ,writ+ is to draw+ :at speak+ is to s++4 ,orig9ally x 0 n an artifice inv5t$ to help vocal language4 ,"h aga9 ! ideological !ory aggravates ! "p play$ by reflection4 ,man 0 obey+ an in/9ct :5 by draw+ he reproduc$ ! famili> objects :i* met 8 gaze1 occupi$ 8 imag9ation1 & caus$ 8 /ronge/ & mo/ frequ5t emotions4 ,gradually1 ^! spontane\s endeav\rs at imitation assum$ ! "* ( signs1 became divid$ up & simplifi$1 & f9ally 7 co-ord9at$ ) vocal s\nds :i* !mselves _h gone ?r\gh a sep>ate evolution4 ,?us language & art h a common orig91 :i* is ! /hetic1 t is to say1 ! affective expression4 ,comte does n sep>ate ^! two t]ms4 ,he takes ! ^w 8/hetic0 at once 9 its etymological & 9 its mod]n s5se4 ,our movem5ts1 at fir/ involunt>y1 !n volunt>y1 translate our impressions & react ^u !m1 because !y spr+ f !m2 t is ! humble s\rce f :i* ev]y?+ else is d]iv$4 ,) animals x only gives rise to in>ticulate vocal s\nds1 & to a m or less expressive mimicry4 ,9 man1 x is ! pr9ciple ( language & ( art4 ,! latt] beg9s by be+ a simple imitation4 ,!n ! reproduction ( objects is p]fect$4 ,x becomes m fai?ful 8by br++ out bett] ! *ief features :i* 7 at fir/ obscur$ by an empirical mixture40 8,idealisation0 consi/s 9 ?is4 ,f9ally 8expression0 prop]ly s call$ is develop$1 & 8/yle40#bba ,?us1 if we call language ! :ole ( ! means suitable = ! transmission beyond ourselves ( our v>i\s impressions1 ?is :ole =ms a sy/em 9 :i* ! mo/ cu/om>y & lea/ expressive portion1 language1 0 at fir/ m+l$ ) ! portion :i* be>s ! "n ( art1 tak+ art 9 its mo/ primitive elem5ts3 song & draw+4 ,^! two p>ts became diff]5tiat$ 9 evolution4 ,our social requirem5ts h cont9ually increas$ ! use & ext5sion ( ! vocal & visual signs :i* are made use ( 9 active life & 9 speculative ?\ght4 ,^! signs h become simpl] & simpl] & ev5 ab/ract3 to su* an ext5t t _! orig9 end$ by be+ consid]$ ! result ( a conv5tion4#bbb ,! primitive p>5tage ( language & ( art acc\nts = _m facts :i* curr5t !ories d n expla94 ,= in/ance1 language is n only creat$ b pres]v$ by ! p4 ,gramm>ians1 8ev5 m absurd ?an logicians10#bbc 9 g5]al h und]/ood no?+ ab\t x4 ,_! claim to au?ority is amus+4 ,b x is to popul> spontaneity1 at once cons]vative & progressive1 t our languages owe _! admirable rectitude4 ,! basis ( ea* language collects :at is ess5tial & univ]sal 9 ! /hetic evolution ( humanity4 ,h5ce ! magic *>m ( poetry1 ! mo/ anci5t ( all ! arts4 ,words possess a p[] ( evok+ images f :i* ! arti/ draws inexhau/ible effects4 ,(t5 dur+ ! long *ildhood ( human reason ev5 ! p[] ( words mu/ h seem$ to be sup]natural3 ,nom9a ,num9a4 ,by d9t ( consid]+ language z ideologi/s & logicians1 we h =gott5 t its nature is emotional & /hetic4 ,h[ev]1 ev5 to-day ! my/]i\s p[] ( words has n disappe>$4 ,h[ great is ! action ( =ms ( pray] on t5d] s\ls1 ev5 :5 fai? has des]t$ !m6 ,next to action itself1 language is ! mo/ p[]ful ( ! excit+ causes ( feel+1 & religions are well aw>e ( ?is fact4 ,!y "k h[ to make use ( x to conqu] or to reta9 s\ls4 ,,iv4 ,! logical function ( language is ! only "o :i* has be5 /udi$ by philosoph]s2 t is1 by ! 8ontologi/s0 & ! 8metaphysicians40 ,b ev5 _! /udy has rema9$ incomplete4 ,condillac & 8 s*ool h solely consid]$ ! language :i* l5ds itself to logical analysis4 ,consequ5tly1 !y only saw a s+le k9d ( comb9ation :i* may be call$ ! logic ( signs4 ,b1 9 reality1 ! logic ( signs re/s ^u ! logic ( images1 & ?is "o on ! logic ( feel+s4 ,! s-call$ logicians ?us conceive a n>r[ & false idea ( our intellectual me*anism1 :5 !y conc5trate all _! att5tion 8^u ! mo/ volunt>y1 b ! lea/ p[]ful ( ! ?ree ess5tial modes ( :i* ! m5tal comb9ation admits40#bbd ,! logic ( feel+s is ! art 8( facilitat+ ! comb9ation ( notions accord+ to ! connection betwe5 ! correspond+ emotions40 ,x is ! mo/ in/9ctive3 x is ! s\rce ( all ! great inspirations ( our intellig5ce4 ,we c ?9k no?+ :i* contradicts x1 or ev5 :i* is n impli$ 9 x4 ,b x has two grave defects4 ,its elem5ts are n precise en\gh1 & x is n at our disposal4 ,x only op]ates "u c]ta9 giv5 conditions1 & ! appe>ance ( ^! conditions does n re/ ) u4 ,we see x at "w1 = in/ance1 among animals1 :o occasionally provoke our admiration = ! m>vels sugge/$ to !m by ?is logic :i* is s closely b\nd up ) ! emotions4 ,! logic ( images1 ?\gh less /rong1 is m free & precise ?an ! logic ( feel+s4 ,nev]!less if we only _h ^! two we %\ld /ill be incapable ( realis+ comb9ations conceiv$ & prep>$ by u4 ,?is (fice belongs to ! logic ( signs4 ,= to u almo/ entirely belongs ! disposal ( ^! signs1 & x is ?is :i* has all[$ ( ! developm5t ( ab/ract language & ( ! sci5ces4 ,b we mu/ n sep>ate ?is la/ logic f ! two o!rs4 ,! laws ( our nature always cause ! logical use ( feel+s & images to prevail ov] t ( signs4 ,und\bt$ly1 ! union betwe5 signs & ?\ghts may become direct1 & moreov] 9 ! case ( ab/ract notions1 x c\ld n be o!rwise4 ,?us our inn] _w is artificially unit$ to ! out] _w4 ,we h an ab/ract & symbolical repres5tation ( x1 )\t go+ ?r\gh ! feel+s1 or ev51 /rictly speak+1 ?r\gh ! images4 ,b ?is relation has f> less consi/5cy ?an ! "o :i* is e/abli%$ by ! involunt>y int]v5tion ( images & ( feel+s4 ,z ! ab/ract sign has its orig9 9 ! sign appreciat$ by ! s5ses1 :i* itself proce$s f ! relation ( ! muscul> sy/em ) ! n]v\s sy/em2 s1 ! relations betwe5 signs h _! orig9 9 ! relations betwe5 images1 & ^!1 9 _! turn1 proce$ f ! relations betwe5 feel+s4 ,! facility ) :i* we manipulate signs hides ?is tru? f u3 x is none ! less c]ta9 t ^! signs are unit$ to our ?\ghts 9 a f> less intimate & less spontane\s mann] ?an ! feel+s & ev5 ! images4 ,! positive !ory fur!r all[s u1 n inde$ to solve1 b to adj\rn ! "q ( a univ]sal language4 ,inde$ are we conc]n$ ) a purely sci5tific language8 ,ma!matical analysis 9 "p fulfils ?is desid]atum4 ,x all[s u to express ! laws ( ! simple/ ph5om5a by symbols :i* are at ev]yone's disposal4 ,b if x is a "q ( a complete language1 de/9$ to be 9 common use among all m51 :o does n see t ?is conception is incompatible ) ! pres5t /ate ( humanity8 ,h[ c\ld we e/abli% a univ]sal language1 :ile all[+ ! preval5ce ( 8div]g5t beliefs & ( ho/ile cu/oms40#bbe ,! unification ( tongues w arise f ! unification ( peoples4 ,:5 ! latt] has be5 realis$1 "u ! action ( positive philosophy1 ! o!r w foll[ z a necess>y consequ5ce4 ,moreov]1 f ! pres5t "t1 a univ]sal language exi/s6 ,x is ,art1 8! only =m ( language :i* is univ]sally und]/ood at once 9 ! :ole ( our species40#bbf ,truly ?is univ]sal language has its dialects4 ,comte's rem>k is none ! less /rik+ly accurate4 ,! ma/]pieces ( ,greek sculpture1 ,rembr&t's pa9t+s1 ,bee?ov5's symphonies are accessible to millions ( human be+s :o h nev] kn[n a ^w ( ,greek1 ( ,dut*1 or ( ,g]man4 ,to tea* all *ildr5 music & draw+1 z ,comte requires 9 8 positivi/ plan ( education1 is n to make !m p>ticipate 9 ! luxury ( 8accompli%m5ts40 ,x is plac+ )9 _! rea* works :i* appeal to ! :ole ( humanity2 x is giv+ !m a /rong] s5se ( ! solid>ity :i* is ! ess5tial *>act]i/ic ( human society2 f9ally x is tea*+ !m ! univ]sal language ( :i* !y possess ! in/9ctive rudim5ts1 & :5ce h sprung ! v languages :i* to-day appe> z frigid sy/ems ( symbols & graphic repres5tations4 ,is x n fair to all[ !m ! enjoym5t ( a patrimony z anci5t p]haps z humanity h]self8 ,some:]e1 ,comte comp>es language to prop]ty4#bbg ,l x1 language has facilitat$ acquisitions & pres]v$ social weal?4 ,b x has an advantage ov] prop]ty1 t ( admitt+ ( equal possession by all at ! same "t4 ,art pres5ts ?is advantage no less ?an language4 ,works ( art are ! common prop]ty ( ! :ole ( humanity & no "o %\ld be depriv$ ( t inh]itance4 ,,footnotes3 #bjd ,c\rs1 ,,iii4 #ffa4 #bje ,pol4 pos41 ,i1 #fjb4 #bjf ,pol4 ,pos41 ,i4 #fch-i4 #bjg ,c\rs1 ,i4 #ha4 #bjh ,c\rs1 ,,iv1 #dih-ejj4 #bji ,c\rs1 ,,iii1 #fbd-e4 #baj ,pol4 pos4 ,,ii1 #bbi-cj4 #baa ,pol4 pos4 ,i1 #fac-d4 #bab ,c\rs1 ,v4 #cj4 #bac ,pol4 pos4 ,,ii1 #cdh-i4 #bad ,c\rs1 ,v1 #ajj-a4 #bae ,c\rs1 ,,iii1 #efc4 #baf ,pol4 ,pos4 ,,ii1 #bdh-eb4 #bag ,pol4 ,pos4 ,i1 #gbb-c4 #bah ,pol4 ,pos4 ,,ii1 #bbf4 #bai ,pol4 ,pos4 ,,ii1 #bbj-a4 #bbj ,pol4 ,pos4 ,,ii1 #bag4 #bba ,pol4 pos4 ,i1 #bhh-i4 #bbb ,pol4 pos41 ,,ii1 #bej-a4 #bbc ,pol4 pos41 ,,ii1 #bed-f4 #bbd ,pol4 pos41 ,,ii1 #bdj-a4 #bbe ,pol4 pos41 ,,ii1 #bfj-b4 #bbf ,pol4 pos41 ,,ii1 #bcg4 #bbg ,pol4 pos41 ,,ii1 #bed-f4 ,,*apt] ,,ii ,,g5]al ,,consid]ations ,,on ,,social ,,sci5ce ,social sci5ce _h at fir/ be5 call$ social physics by ,comte4 ,lat] on he inv5t$ ! "n ( 8sociology0#bbh = x4 ,x /&s at ! summit ( ! encyclopdic ladd] ( ! sci5ces4 ,accord+ly1 x (f]s c]ta9 *>act]i/ics :i* ! o!r sci5ces d n pres5t4 ,und\bt$ly1 by ! def9ition ( its object & by its me?od1 x is p]fectly homog5e\s ) ! re/ ( positive k4 ,sociology /udies ! laws ( social ph5om5a z ma!matics inquires into ! laws ( geometrical ph5om5a4 ,9 ?is s5se1 betwe5 ^! extreme sci5ces !re are no o!r diff]5ces ?an ^? :i* arise f ! div]sity ( ! ph5om5a :i* are /udi$4 ,b ma!matics1 & ! o!r fundam5tal sci5ces1 except+ sociology1 are di/9ctly prelim9>y4 ,sociology is f9al4 ,ea* ( ! prelim9>y sci5ces %\ld be cultivat$ only 9 ! measure necess>y 9 ord] t ! foll[+ "o may 9 turn assume ! positive =m4 ,social sci5ce1 :i* is n prep>atory to any o!r1 e/abli%es ! pr9ciples ( morals & ( politics4 ,x is1 z has be5 se51 ! key-/one ( positive philosophy4 ,x is 9 x1 & ?r\gh x1 t positive philosophy acquires ! univ]sality :i* hi!rto x _h lack$4 ,f9ally1 !re is a la/ diff]5ce :i* ,comte likes to ?9k he is successfully remov+2 ! o!r sci5ces are m or less =m$2 ev]y?+ has to be done = social sci5ce4 ,n t _m trials h n be5 attempt$4 ,comte does n ignore !m1 & he prides himself ^u do+ ju/ice to 8 precursors4 ,he goes back to ,ari/otle1 9 :om he admires an incomp>able sci5tific & philosophical g5ius4 ,9 him he sees ! inv5tor ( social /atics4 ,8 ,politics are /ill read ) pr(it4#bbi ,b ,ari/otle c\ld h no idea ( a sociology1 & 9 p>ticul> ( positive social dynamics4 ,= t he lack$ 7)\t speak+ ( ! fundam5tal sci5ces :i* except+ ma!matics 7 yet to be born71 a suffici5tly wide & v>i$ k ( hi/ory & ! idea ( progress4 ,montesquieu 0 9 advance ( 8 "t1 :51 by ! insight ( 8 g5ius1 he g5]alis$ ! idea ( natural law s z to br+ "u x ! political1 judicial1 economical1 &1 g5]ally speak+1 all social ph5om5a4 ,he really conceives ! idea ( social sci5ce4 ,b ! execution did n respond to ! conception4 ,h[ c\ld ,montesquieu h succe$$1 s9ce he 0 /ill )\t two indisp5sable elem5ts3 9 ! fir/ place1 ! positive sci5ce ( man f ! biological po9t ( view1 & !n ! idea ( progress1 a vital necessity = e positive philosophy ( hi/ory8 ,hav+ fail$ to appreh5d ! fundam5tal laws ( social dynamics1 ,montesquieu made too mu* use ( ! comp>ative me?od4 ,consequ5tly1 he took second>y laws = ess5tial laws1 su* z ! laws relat+ to ! influ5ce ( climate4 ,9 ! same way he has exagg]at$ ! importance ( v>i\s =ms ( political con/itution4#bcj ,condorcet came aft] ,montesquieu & ,turgot1 & _h be5 =m$ 9 ! s*ool ( d',alemb]t4 ,he came ne>] ?an anyone to ! social sci5ce :i* 0 to be f\nd$4 ,he und]/ood admirably t ! evolution ( ! human race1 consid]$ z a s+le be+1 is subject to laws4 ,he br\ght ! idea ( progress into full daylight4 ,b1 nev]!less1 positive sociology does n owe to him its orig94 ,he %>$ ! prejudice ( 8 "t on ! subject ( ! indef9ite p]fectibility ( man2 ?is prejudice 0 only to disappe> be=e ! positive sci5ce ( intellectual & moral man4 ,moreov]1 9 ! heat ( ! revolution>y conflict1 he misund]/ood ! concrete reality ( ! progress1 ^: ab/ract necessity he _h s well realis$4 ,by pa9t+ ! c5turies prec$+ ! ,,xviii4 c5tury1 9 ! d>ke/ col\rs1 he made ! progressive evolution ( humanity a k9d ( miracle1 8d\bly inadmissible 9 a doctr9e :i* does n imply a ,provid5ce40#bca ,b soon ,cabanis & ,gall br+ =w>d ! positive !ory ( ! moral & intellectual faculties ( man4 ,! ,fr5* revolution ?r[s a vivid light ^u ! p]iod :i* sep>ates u f ! ,middle ,ages4 ,at la/1 ! !ori/s ( ! c\nt]-,revolution %[ t ! philosophy ( ! ,,xviii4 c5tury1 if x excell$ 9 ! p[] ( demoli%+1 0 incapable ( recon/ruct+1 & !y also %[ t ord] mu/ be insep>able f progress4 ,comte reg>ds himself z a ,condorcet :o has pr(it$ by ^! lessons ( exp]i5ce4 ,he has work$ ) ,sa9t-,simon1 he has read ,de ,mai/re4 ,9 %ort1 he is possess$ ( all ! necess>y elem5ts = ! f\ndation ( sociology4 ,at ! mom5t :5 he und]takes x1 !ological & metaphysical philosophy is /ill dom9ant ov] ! contempor>y conception ( social facts4 ,9 x imag9ation is n subord9at$ to obs]vation4 ,m5 d n apply !mselves to ! analysis ( facts 9 ord] to discov] _! relations & _! laws2 !y pref] to con/ruct philosophies ( hi/ory1 :i* appe> z non-sci5tific hypo!ses1 t is to say1 :i* are n v]ifiable4 ,absolute results are s\ght =1 z if 9 ?is ord] ( facts1 z 9 all ! o!rs1 ! absolute 0 n inaccessible4 ,f ! practical po9t ( view1 nobody d\bts t man c modify social facts z he pleases1 & t 8 action c be ex]cis$ !re )\t any def9ite limits be+ plac$ ^u x4 ,x is suppos$1 9 a ^w1 t political society has no laws :i* regulate its natural developm5t4 ,! same prejudices & ! same false ideas h already pr$om9at$ 9 ! pa/ on ! subject ( ! m simple ph5om5a1 :i* aft]w>ds became objects ( positive sci5ce4 ,%\ld n ?is analogy cause philosoph]s to conceive 8! rational hope ( also succe$+ 9 ! dissipation ( ^? errors ( conception & ( me?od 9 ! sy/em ( political ideas40#bcb ,no?+ is m natural ?an t ! sci5ce ( ! mo/ complex ph5om5a %\ld be ! la/ to rea* ! positive /age4 ,x w\ld ev5 h be5 impossible = x to h be5 o!rwise4 ,f9ally1 beyond ! difficulties :i* belong to ! complexity ( its object1 sociology _h to ov]come o!rs1 :i* arise f political passions4 ,problems ( ?is k9d are indiff]5t to no "o4 ,9 !m ! int]e/s ( ea* "o are involv$1 & !y influ5ce ev5 )\t our k1 ! direction tak5 by our ?\ghts4 ,political p>ties excel 9 fram+ plausible !ories adapt$ to _! requirem5ts4 ,?us a con/ant ef=t at dis9t]e/$ness is necess>y on ! "p ( any "o :o purposes to take up ! sci5ce ( ab/ract politics4 ,at any rate1 if ^! reasons make u und]/& t sociology %\ld make its appe>ance la/ among ! fundam5tal sci5ces1 none ( !m imply t x w\ld n h aris5 9 its turn4 ,on ! contr>y1 beside 8vital physics0 & 8inorganic physics10 8social physics0 0 "o day to take its place4 ,f #ahbd1 ,comte _h a v cle> idea ( ?is4 ,we d n see1 he says1 :y ! ph5om5a :i* ! developm5t ( a social species pres5ts %\ld n h laws l ! o!rs1 :y ^! laws %\ld n be capable ( be+ discov]$ by obs]vation1 l ^? ( ! o!r ph5om5a1 ) ?is res]vation only t ! nature ( ?is section ( philosophy makes its /udy m difficult4 8,i w make x felt by ! v fact t !re are laws z det]m9$ = ! developm5t ( ! human species z = ! fall+ ( a /one40#bcc ,comte lat] on att5uat$ ! rigidity ( ^! expressions4 ,he recognis$ t ! social ph5om5a 7 ( all o!rs ! mo/ 8modifiable40 ,b he none ! less ma9ta9$ t !y 7 rul$ by laws4 ,,ii4 ,sociology1 an ab/ract & :olly !oretical sci5ce1 only sets itself ! task ( discov]+ ! laws ( ph5om5a1 )\t fir/ tak+ into acc\nt any possible applications4 ,i %all n h1 says ,comte1 to conc]n myself directly ) political an>*y4#bcd ,"h1 m ?an any:]e else1 sci5ce mu/ be sep>at$ f ! correspond+ art4 ,! same reasons :i* l$ to physiology be+ con/itut$ ap>t f m$ic9e1 ) :i* x _h = s long be5 confus$1 also require t social sci5ce %\ld be di/+ui%$ f politics1 ( :i*1 up to ! pres5t "t1 x has only be5 a m or less empirical or arbitr>y int]pretation4 ,comte :o took su* pa9s to def9e ! physical fact1 ! *emical fact1 ! biological fact1 has n giv5 a def9ition ( ! sociological fact4 ,! reasons = ?is are n difficult to see4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 ?is fact def9es itself s to speak1 by elim9ation4 ,z !re are no ph5om5a accessible to u m complicat$ ?an ^? ( ! social life1 all ! ph5om5a :i* are n /udi$ by ! prec$+ sci5ces are ( c\rse ! subject ( sociology4 ,moreov]1 !re might be a reason to seek = a def9ition ( ! sociological fact1 if we />t$ f ! consid]ation ( ! individual to rise to t ( society4 ,b ,comte's conception is radically diff]5t4 ,= him x is ! individual :o is an ab/raction2 & society is ! true reality4 ,he mu/ n expla9 humanity by man1 b on ! contr>y1 man by humanity4 ,f ?is mom5t1 all ! human ph5om5a prop]ly s-call$ are ipso facto sociological4 ,x is an ess5tial *>act]i/ic ( ,comte's sy/em t man1 consid]$ individually1 is n an object ( sci5ce4 ,! sci5ce ( man belongs = "o "p to biology1 = ! o!r to sociology4 ,to def9e ! sociological fact am\nts !n to e/abli%+ ! relations betwe5 biology & sociology4 ,we h already se5 t ^! relations are extremely close4 ,on ! "o h&1 sociology c\ld n be con/itut$ s long z high] biology _h n rea*$ a c]ta9 degree ( developm5t4 ,hi/ory has furni%$ u ) a pro( ( ?is3 ! /ate ( infancy ( biology contribut$ l>gely to ! failure ( ,montesquieu's & ,condorcet's sociological attempts4 ,b1 on ! o!r h&1 ! /udy ( ! intellectual & moral functions1 t is to say1 ! highe/ "p ( biology1 c only be made f ! sociological po9t ( view4 ,"h we h a k9d ( mix$ doma91 :i* prop]ly belongs nei!r to ! "o nor to ! o!r ( ! sci5ces4 ,c\ld we n !n consid] sociology z a simple ext5sion ( biology1 an ext5sion :i* w\ld be f> m important 9 ! case ( ! human species ?an 9 any ( ! o!rs8 ,d we n d ?is implicitly :5 we attribute ! /udy ( ! intellectual & moral functions to biology1 s9ce ev]y?+ :i* be>s ! "n ( 8moral sci5ce10 hi/ory1 law1 political economy1 etc41 f9ally re/s ^u ^! functions8 ,:at is ! use ( a new fundam5tal sci5ce = ! /udy ( ph5om5a :i* at bottom r$uce !mselves to biological ph5om5a8 ,comte prote/$ aga9/ ?is int]pretation ( 8 doctr9e4#bce ,accord+ to him1 sociology is no less irr$ucible to biology1 ?an ! latt] is to *emi/ry4 ,! sociological ph5om5a1 indep5d5tly ( ! m g5]al laws :i* are common to !m ) ! subjac5t ord]s1 h laws ( _! own :i* regulate !m4 ,if animal societies only exi/$ z we see !m to-day1 x w\ld p]haps n be impossible to consid] sociology z an app5dix ( biology4 ,b human society excludes any attempt ( ?is k9d4 ,= x is social life :i* has made ! extraord9>y developm5t ( ! intellectual & moral functions possible 9 man1 & ?is developm5t is ! v def9ition ( humanity4 ,n[1 ! fir/ consequ5ce ( ?is developm5t is t biology prop]ly s-call$1 no long] suffices = /udy+ x4 ,we ne$ a new me?od 9 x1 ! me?od ( hi/orical obs]vation4 ,already1 7 x = ?is reason alone1 !re c be no "q ( r$uc+ sociology to biology4 ,9 ! second place1 :5 we pass f ! individual to ! collective organism1 8! cont9u$ expansion & ! almo/ indef9ite p]petuity0 ( ! latt] makes x almo/ impossible n to sep>ate x f ! =m] 9 a sci5tific /udy4#bcf ,comte is n deceiv$ by ! analogy betwe5 ! two k9ds ( organism4 ,to speak accurately1 sociology ) him1 h>dly ev] consid]s any?+ except a s+le organism4 ,let u leave aside ! little t x says ( animal societies4 ,x repres5ts ! human race z con/itut+1 9 "t & 9 space1 8an imm5se & et]nal social unity1 ^: v>i\s organs1 individuals & nations1 unit$ by univ]sal solid>ity1 ea*1 accord+ to a det]m9$ mann] & degree concur 9 ! evolution ( ,humanity40 ,"o ( ! ideas :i* ,comte mo/ admires 9 ,condorcet1 & :i* he reg>ds z indisp5sable to social sci5ce1 is t :i* makes a s+le be+ 9 process ( evolution ( ! totality ( ! human species4#bcg ,h5ce=?1 ! p>allelism betwe5 ?is imm5se 8social unity10 & ! organisms /udi$ by biology c\ld n be a /rict "o4 8,! complex nature ( ! =m]10 says ,comte himself1 8deeply diff]s f ! indivisible con/itution ( liv+ be+s40 ,we mu/ !n "k h[ to re/ra9 comp>ison wisely1 89 ord] t x %\ld n give rise to faulty approximations1 in/ead ( preci\s indications40 ,comte has sometimes fail$ 9 c>ry+ out ?is prud5t precept1 = in/ance1 :5 9 ! social organism he looks = :at is analog\s to tissues1 organs1 & sy/ems /udi$ by ! anatomi/s4 ,b he has1 none ! less1 trac$ v firmly ! limits beyond :i* ! use ( analogy "h becomes an abuse4 ,^! limits are det]m9$ by ! specific "* ( ! social reality1 :i* escapes ! grasp ( ! biological me?od4 ,= ! pr9cipal ph5om5on 9 sociology1 ! "o :i* e/abli%es mo/ evid5tly its sci5tific orig9ality1 is ! gradual & cont9u\s influ5ce ( human g5]ations ^u "o ano!r4 ,n[ our intellig5ce _c 8guess ! pr9cipal decisive phases ( su* a complex evolution )\t an hi/orical analysis prop]ly s-call$40#bch ,"h is ! f9al ^w3 no hi/ory1 no sociology4 ,comte _h already writt5 9 #ahbb3 ,to r$uce sociology to biology is to annul ! direct obs]vation ( ! social pa/4 ,und\bt$ly ! reason = man's sup]iority ov] ! o!r animals lies 9 ! relative p]fection ( 8 organisation4 ,9 ?is s5se1 social physics1 t is to say1 ! /udy ( collective developm5t ( ! human species1 is really a bran* ( physiology4 ,9 ?is s5se1 ! hi/ory ( civilisation is b ! sequel & ! indisp5sable complem5t ( ! natural hi/ory ( man4 ,b1 important z x is to =m a prop] conception1 & nev] to lose sight ( ?is relation1 yet x w\ld be a mi/ake to conclude f x t no cle> division %\ld be e/abli%$ betwe5 social physics & physiology prop]ly s-call$4 ,=1 9 ! case ( ! human race1 !re is hi/ory :i* _c be rea*$ by a process ( d$uction4#bci ,,iii4 ,already1 9 biology ! nature ( ! object _h compell$ sci5tific m5 to />t f ! consid]ation ( ! :ole to rea* t ( ! p>ts1 to proce$ f ! complex to ! simple4 ,) /ill great] reason1 ! same inv]sion ( me?od imposes itself 9 sociology4 ,=1 al?\gh ! individual elem5ts ( society appe> to be m sep>able ?an ^? ( ! liv+ be+1 ! social cons5sus is /ill clos] ?an ! vital cons5sus4#bdj ,! _s ( ! sociological me?od w !n be always to consid] simultane\sly ! v>i\s social aspects1 :e!r 9 /atics1 or 9 dynamics4 ,und\bt$ly ea* ( !m c be ! object ( a special /udy1 by ! way ( 8prelim9>y elaboration40 ,b1 z soon z ! sci5ce is suffici5tly advanc$1 ! correlation ( ph5om5a w s]ve z a guide = _! analysis4 ,political economy has prov$ by facts t ! isolat$ /udy ( a s]ies ( social ph5om5a is condemn$ to rema9 irrational & b>r54 ,^? !n :o1 9 ! sy/em ( social /udies1 wi% to imitate 8! me?odical p>cell+ out1 :i* belongs to ! inorganic sci5ces10 misund]/& :at ! ess5tial conditions ( _! subject require4 ,"h ! mo/ g5]al laws mu/ be kn[n fir/4 ,x is f !m t sci5ce mu/ !n desc5d to ! m p>ticul> laws4 ,! m complex ! ph5om5a1 ! m num]\s are ! processes ( me?od at our disposal = /udy+ !m4 ,?is law ( comp5sation is v]ifi$ aga9 9 ! pres5t case4 ,sociology1 ov] & above ! processes made use ( by ! prec$+ sci5ces possesses "s :i* are peculi>ly its own4 ,to put x m pla9ly1 9 its capacity ( f9al sci5ce1 ! :ole positive me?od belongs to x4 ,z me?od is only le>nt by practice1 ! sociologi/ w !re=e h to be =m$ by a complete sci5tific education f ma!matics1 :i* w give him ! feel+ ( positivity1 to biology :i* w tea* him ! comp>ative me?od4 ,! ,c\rs de philosophie positive precisely retraces ?is me?odical asc5t1 :i* leads ! human m9d1 by successive degrees1 up to social sci5ce4 ,&1 s9ce ! intellectual evolution ( ! individual reproduces t ( ! species1 ! sociologi/ w cov] ! same gr\nd to rea* ! same end4 ,at any rate1 if a ma!matical education is indisp5sable s z to accu/om him to ! positive mode ( ?\ght1 he w1 h[ev]1 ackn[l$ge t social ph5om5a d n all[ ( ! use ( numb]s or ( ma!matical analysis1 nor m especially ( ! calculation ( probabilities4 ,comte treats ,laplace's attempt ^u ?is po9t z absurd1 an attempt :i* has be5 tak5 up aga9 by o!r ma!maticians4 ,he likes to quote x z a pro( ( ! lack ( ! philosophical _s among geomet]s4 ,inde$1 accord+ to him1 to apply ! calculation ( probabilities to hi/orical ev5ts1 implies a failure to und]/& t ^! ph5om5a are subject to inv>iable laws l all o!r ph5om5a4 ,9 default ( ! p[]ful in/rum5t furni%$ by ma!matics1 sociology makes use ( ! me?ods employ$ 9 ! physical & natural sci5ces4 ,( ^! obs]vation is ! fir/4 ,social ph5om5a seem easy to obs]ve1 because !y are v common1 & ! obs]v] takes "p 9 !m m or less4 ,b1 on ! contr>y1 ^! two circum/ances r5d] sociological obs]vation v difficult4 ,we only obs]ve well on condition t we place ourselves outside :at we obs]ve4#bda ,sociological facts ought !n to appe> objective to u1 deta*$ f u1 indep5d5t ( ! /ate ( our individual consci\sness4 ,no?+ is m difficult to realise4 ,9 ord] to obta91 & m especially to ma9ta91 8su* an inv]sion ( ! spontane\s po9t ( view10 ! m9d mu/ already h p>tly con/ruct$ :at x wi%es to see4 ,7 x n already provid$ ) a prelim9>y !ory1 = ! mo/ "p ! obs]v] w\ld n "k :at he mu/ look = 9 ! fact :i* is tak+ place "u 8 eyes4 ,x is !re=e by ! prec$+ facts t we le>n to see ! foll[+ ones4 ,!re lies 8! imm5se difficulty0 ( sociology1 9 :i* we are ?us oblig$1 9 a c]ta9 measure1 to det]m9e simultane\sly ! facts & ! laws4 ,if we are n already possess$ ( ! necess>y speculative indications to grasp !m1 ! facts rema9 b>r5 & ev5 unse51 al?\gh we are1 s to speak1 imm]s$ 9 !m4 ,consequ5tly1 a social fact c h no sci5tific significance if x is n br\ght into relation ) ano!r fact4 ,9 an isolat$ condition1 x rema9s 9 ! /ate ( a simple anecdote1 capable at mo/ ( satisfy+ 8idle curiosity10 b unfit = any rational use4 ,an inf9ite numb] ( facts may be useful to sociology1 app>5tly v insignificant cu/oms1 all k9ds ( monum5ts1 ! analysis & ! comp>ison ( languages2 b ! m9d mu/ be provid$ = _! obs]vation ) g5]al po9ts ( view4 ,only on ?is condition w a m9d1 well prep>$ by rational education1 be able to trans=m ! actions :i* take place b5ea? its eyes into sociological indications1 8accord+ to ! m or less direct po9ts ( contact1 :i* he w be able to disc]n 9 ^! actions ) ! highe/ notions ( sci5ce1 9 virtue ( ! connexion ( ! v>i\s social aspects40 ,!re c be no "q ( exp]im5t+ 9 sociology4#bdb ,n t we _c act ^u ! social ph5om5a3 !y are1 on ! contr>y1 ! mo/ modifiable ( all4 ,b an exp]im5t prop]ly s-call$ consi/s 9 comp>+ two cases :i* diff] f ea* o!r by a c]ta9 def9ite circum/ance1 & by t "o alone4 ,we h no means ( det]m9+ two cases ( ?is k9d 9 sociology4 ,x is true t 9 ! abs5ce ( direct exp]im5ts nature pres5ts indirect ones4 ,!y are ! pa?ological cases1 un=tunately too frequ5t 9 ! life ( societies1 ! m or less s]i\s p]turbations :i* !y und]go ?r\gh accid5tal or pass+ causes4 ,su* are ! revolution>y p]iods :i* correspond to diseases 9 liv+ bodies4 ,if we prop]ly ext5d ,br\ssais' pr9ciple to sociology1 t is to say1 if we admit t morbid ph5om5a are produc$ by ! effect ( ! same laws z normal ph5om5a1 !n social pa?ology w 9 "s measure replace exp]im5ts4 ,x w be said t ?is /udy has be5 fruitless up to ! pres5t "t4 ,b ! reason ( ?is is1 accord+ to ,comte1 t direct or indirect exp]im5t+ ought1 l simple obs]vation1 to be subject to rational conceptions4 ,bo? are only productive 9 a sociology already possess$ ( its ess5tial laws4 ,! comp>ative me?od1 s useful to ! biologi/1 is also preci\s = ! sociologi/4 ,x draws toge!r ! v>i\s /ates ( human society :i* coexi/ on ! diff]5t p>ts ( ! e>?'s surface1 & among peoples indep5d5t ( "o ano!r4 ,und\bt$ly1 if ! total developm5t only is consid]$1 ! evolution ( ,humanity is "o4 ,x nev]!less rema9s true t v consid]able & v v>i$ populations h z yet only rea*$ ! m or less inf]ior degrees ( ?is evolution4 ,we c ?us obs]ve !m simultane\sly & comp>e _! successive phases4 ,f ! ,fuegians to ! mo/ civilis$ nations 9 ,europe1 we c imag9e no 8social %ade0 :i* is n at pres5t realis$ on "s portion ( ! globe4 ,frequ5tly1 )9 ! same nation1 ! social condition ( ! v>i\s classes repres5ts /ates ( civilisation :i* are v f> remov$ f "o ano!r4 ,p>is to-day conta9s m or less fai?ful 8survivors0 ( ne>ly all ! ant]ior degrees ( social evolution1 especially f ! intellectual po9t ( view4#bdc ,?is comp>ative process holds good = social /atics z = social dynamics4 ,ev5 9 /atics a comp>ison c be e/abli%$ betwe5 animal societies & human society4 ,h[ev]1 ?is type ( me?od is n devoid ( inconv5i5ce 9 sociology4 ,x does n consid] ! necess>y succession ( ! v>i\s phases 9 ! social evolution3 x seems on ! contr>y to consid] !m all z simultane\s4 ,consequ5tly1 x prev5ts u f see+ ! filiation ( social =ms4 ,x also runs ! risk ( falsify+ ! analysis ( ! cases :i* are obs]v$1 & ( caus+ simple second>y factors to be tak5 = ma9 causes4 ,?is is :at happ5$ to ,montesquieu :o comp>$ indiff]5tly ! cities ( antiquity1 ! ,france ( ! ,middle ,ages1 ! ,engl& ( ! ,,xviii4 c5tury1 ! republic ( ,v5ice1 ! gov]nm5t ( ,byzantium1 ! ,empire ( ! ,sultan1 & t ( ! ,%ah ( ,p]sia4 ,s ! comp>ative me?od is only an auxili>y process 9 sociology4 ,l obs]vation & exp]im5t1 x has to be made subord9ate to a rational conception ( ! evolution ( humanity4 ,! latt] 9 turn dep5ds ^u ! use ( an orig9al me?od ( obs]vation1 belong+ to social ph5om5a1 & free f ! dang]s pres5t$ by ! prec$+ ones4 ,?is specific sociological me?od1 ?is 8transc5d5t0 process1 by :i* ! positive me?od is complet$1 is1 says ,comte1 ! hi/orical me?od4#bdd ,,iv4 ,sociology is an ab/ract sci5ce3 hi/ory1 :i* is its ess5tial me?od1 _c !re=e be hi/ory m]ely consid]$ z a n>rative4 ,!re are two ways ( conceiv+ hi/ory1 ! "o ab/ract & ! o!r concrete4 ,! latt] dom9ates 9 ! hi/orical works writt5 up to ! pres5t "t4 ,_! end is to relate & to array 9 *ronological ord] a c]ta9 sequ5ce ( ev5ts4 ,und\bt$ly 9 ! ,,xviii4 c5tury ef=ts 7 made to co-ord9ate political ph5om5a & to det]m9e _! filiation4 ,b = all t ?is k9d ( "w has n ceas$ to be descriptive & lit]>y4 ,! o!r =m ( hi/ory1 :i* does n exi/ up to ! pres5t1 has = its end ! rese>* ( ! laws :i* regulate ! social developm5t ( ! human species4#bde ,diff]5ce ( object leads to diff]5ce ( me?od4 ,if an hi/orian proposes to himself to compose exact 8annals10 to relate ?+s z !y took place1 he w beg9 by ! special hi/ory ( ! v>i\s peoples1 :i*1 9 its turn1 is f\nd$ ^u ! *ronicles ( ! prov9ces & ! t[ns4 ,x w be necess>y = him to inve/igate docum5ts 9 detail1 & to neglect no s\rce3 ! "w ( comb9ation w only come subsequ5tly4 ,b if our end is ! ab/ract sci5ce ( hi/ory1 t is to say ! l9k+ toge!r ( social ph5om5a1 q a diff]5t c\rse w h to be foll[$4 ,inde$ all ! classes ( ^! ph5om5a are simultane\sly develop$1 & "u ! mutual influ5ce ( "o ano!r4 ,we _c expla9 ! l9e ( advance foll[$ by anyone among !m1 )\t hav+ fir/ conceiv$ 9 a g5]al way 8! progression ( ! :ole40 ,be=e all ?+s !n we mu/ set ourselves to conceive ! developm5t ( ! human species 9 its wide/ g5]ality1 t is to say1 to obs]ve & to l9k toge!r among !mselves ! mo/ important /eps t[>ds progress :i* x has successively tak5 9 ! v>i\s fundam5tal directions4 ,!n we %all subdivide ! p]iods & ! classes ( ! ph5om5a to be obs]v$4#bdf ,^! 8v>i\s fundam5tal directions0 correspond to :at ,comte call$ lat] ! 8social s]ies40 ,by ?is he indicates ! gr\ps ( social ph5om5a arrang$ = a sci5tific /udy4 ,once ^! gr\ps are =m$1 !n1 accord+ to ! totality ( hi/orical facts1 ! sociologi/ seeks to det]m9e ! cont9u\s gr[? ( ea*1 physical1 moral1 intellectual or political disposition or faculty1 comb9$ ) ! indef9ite decrease ( ! opposite disposition or faculty3 = in/ance1 ! t5d5cy ( human society to pass f ! w>like =m to ! indu/rial =m1 f reveal$ religion to demon/rat$ religion1 etc4 ,f ?is w be drawn ! sci5tific =eca/ ( ! triumph ( ! "o & ! fall ( ! o!r1 provid$ t ?is conclusion is also 9 con=mity ) ! g5]al laws ( ! evolution ( ,humanity4 ,su* a =eca/ c\ld nev] be f\nd$ ^u ! k ( ! pres5t alone4 ,= ! pres5t exposes u to ! dang] ( confus+ ! pr9cipal ) ! second>y facts1 ( 8plac+ noisy pass+ demon/rations above deep-seat$ t5d5cies10 & ( reg>d+ in/itutions or doctr9es z gr[+ :i* are really on ! decl9e4 ,our /atesm5 sc>cely look back beyond ! ,,xviii4 c5tury1 our philosoph]s beyond ! ,,xvi4 ,?is is too little4 ,x does n ev5 suffice to make u und]/& ! ,fr5* revolution4 ,! /udy ( ! 8hi/orical s]ies0 alone all[s ! und]/&+ ( ! pres5t & ! prevision ( ! future4 ,! sociologi/ w ev5 ex]cise himself 9 pr$ict+ ! pa/1 t is to say1 9 acquir+ a rational k ( x1 & 9 d$uc+ ea* hi/orical situation f ! :ole ( its antec$5ts4 ,he w ?us become famili> ) ! _s ( ! hi/orical me?od4 ,h[ev]1 if ?is ab/ract hi/orical me?od 7 us$ by ! sociologi/ to ! exclusion ( e o!r1 he w\ld sometimes come to a wrong conclusion1 & take ! cont9u\s decrease 9 a natural faculty = a t5d5cy to total ext9ction4 ,= in/ance1 z civilisation becomes m ref9$1 man eats less ?an =m]ly4 ,nobody concludes f ?is t he t5ds n to eat at all4 ,b ! absurdity :i* is palpable "h1 might1 9 o!r cases pass unp]ceiv$4 ,t is :y ! hi/orical me?od 9 sociology requires to be controll$ by ! positive !ory ( human nature4 ,all ! inductions :i* might contradict ?is !ory are to be reject$4 ,inde$1 ! :ole social evolution is at bottom b a simple developm5t ( humanity1 )\t ! creation ( new faculties4 ,! g]m1 at any rate1 ( all ! dispositions or effective faculties :i* sociological obs]vation1 7& 9 p>ticul>1 hi/ory71 may make kn[n1 mu/ !n be f\nd 9 ! primordial type :i* biology has con/ruct$ be=eh& = sociology4 ,accordance betwe5 ! conclusions ( hi/orical analysis & ! prelim9>y notions ( ! biological !ory is ! indisp5sable gu>antee ( sociological demon/rations4#bdg ,v4 ,?us conceiv$ ! hi/orical me?od re/s ^u ! po/ulate giv5 by ,comte1 z we h se51 z a basis to 8 sociology4 ,?is po/ulate is ?us enunciat$3 ,! nature ( man evolves )\t be+ trans=m$4 ,! v>i\s physical1 moral & intellectual faculties1 mu/ be f\nd ! same at all ! degrees ( hi/orical evolution1 & always simil>ly co-ord9at$ among !mselves4 ,! developm5t :i* !y receive 9 ! social /ate c nev] *ange _! nature1 nor consequ5tly de/roy or create any "o ( !m1 nor ev5 int]v5e 9 ! ord] ( _! importance4 ,9 a ^w1 ! *ief regulator ( sociology is ! sci5ce ( human nature4 ,x c ev5 be said1 )\t =c+ ! mean+ ( ,comte's ?\ght1 t sociology is really a psy*ology3#bdh n inde$1 x is true1 a psy*ology f\nd$ ^u ! introspective analysis ( ! individual subject1 b a psy*ology ^: object is ! analysis by hi/ory1 ( ! univ]sal subject1 t is to say1 ( ,humanity4 ,comte endeav\rs to br+ ! complexity & ! extreme v>iety ( social ph5om5a into an intelligible unity4 ,?is complexity is su* t we c\ld n det]m9e ! laws by />t+ f ! obs]vation ( ! simple/ ph5om5a to rea* ! m complex ones aft]w>ds4 ,moreov]1 ^! facts only possess sociological significance if ! obs]v] is already provid$ ) a g5]al !ory be=e he asc]ta9s !m4 ,b1 on ! o!r h&1 hi/ory _c be d$uc$4 ,giv5 an already positive k ( human nature & ( ! 8milieu0 9 :i* x evolves1 we c\ld n say a priori h[ x w evolve4 ,hi/ory mu/ !n tea* u h[1 z a matt] ( fact1 social life has develop$ ,humanity4 ,nev]!less1 once ?is concession has be5 made to obs]vation ! me?od becomes aga9 d$uctive4 ,s9ce sociology is a sci5ce x ought1 l ! o!r sci5ces1 to be able to sub/itute rational prevision to ! empirical e/abli%m5t ( facts4 ,to complete ! *>act]is+ ( ?is f9al sci5ce1 x mu/ be at once positive1 l ! subjac5t fundam5tal sci5ces1 & univ]sal l philosophy1 :i* alone up to ! pres5t "t has look$ at ?+s f 8! po9t ( view ( ! :ole40 ,h5ce=? ^! two conditions are fulfill$4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 ! positivity ( sociology _c be d\bt$4 ,9 x social facts are conceiv$ z subject to laws1 & ,comte ab/a9s f any rese>* z to _! mode ( production4 ,!n1 sociology1 9 spite ( ! extreme difficulties ( its object1 has assum$ ! d$uctive =m1 & has br\ght second>y laws "u m g5]al laws4 ,comte is ev5 conv9c$ t 8 sociology comes ne>] to ! p]fect sci5tific =m ?an physics or *emi/ry4 ,by 8 discov]y ( ! great dynamic law ( ! ?ree /ates1 has he n giv5 x a unity :i* is to be f\nd z complete n[h]e else b 9 a/ronomy8 ,b1 at ! same "t1 x is truly univ]sal1 s9ce x is a philosophy ( hi/ory1 or1 9 o!r words1 ! sci5ce ( humanity consid]$ 9 its evolution4 ,z ?is sci5ce presupposes biology1 & z biology 9 turn presupposes ! sci5ce ( ! 8milieu0 9 :i* liv+ be+s are imm]s$1 sociology becomes at once ! summ>y & ! cr[n ( ! sci5ces :i* prec$e x4 ,?us 9 replac+ man 9 ,humanity1 & ,humanity 9 ! sy/em ( its conditions ( exi/5ce1 ,comte con/ructs a f9al sci5ce :i* is at ! same "t ! supreme sci5ce1 ! only sci5ce1 t is to say1 philosophy4 8,if ! laws ( sociology c\ld be suffici5tly kn[n to u1 !y alone w\ld suffice to replace all ! o!rs1 save ! difficulties ( d$uction40#bdi ,! sci5ce ( ,humanity is ! c5tre ar\nd :i* ! o!rs range !mselves 9 ord]4 ,already ) ,desc>tes1 ! an?ropological "* ( philosophy 0 /rongly m>k$4 ,aft] him1 philosophical speculation took man = its c5tre m & m4 ,?is t5d5cy also pr$om9ates 9 ,comte's doctr9e4 ,b 9 x x assumes a social "*4 ,"h ! 8univ]sal subject0 is no long] ! intellectual consci\sness ( ,kant1 or ! absolute 8ego0 ( ,fi*te2 x is ,humanity evolv+ 9 "t1 ^: unity is display$ ?r\gh ! succession ( g5]ations connect$ 9 /rict solid>ity ) ea* o!r4 ,h5ce=? ! philosophical problems1 no long] pres5t !mselves f ! po9t ( view ( man conceiv$ 9 ! ab/ract or 9 himself ap>t f "t4 ,! consid]ation ( hi/ory necess>ily int]v5es4 ,problems are =mulat$ 9 social t]ms4 ,!re lies ! deep significance ( ! doctr9e sy/ematis$ by ,comte4 ,,footnotes3 #bbh ,c\rs1 ,,iv1 #bjj4 #bbi ,c\rs1 ,,iv1 #aia-b4 #bcj ,c\rs1 ,,iv1 #aic-ii2 ,pol4 pos41 ,,iv1 ,app5dice1 p4 #ajf4 #bca ,c\rs1 ,,iv1 #bjj-bje2 ,pol4 pos4 ,,iv1 ,app5dice1 p4 #aji4 #bcb ,c\rs1 ,,iv1 #bdc-d4 #bcc ,lettres ,valat1 p4 #ach-i 7#h septembre1 #ahbd74 #bcd ,c\rs1 ,,iv1 #b-c4 #bce ,c\rs1 ,,iv1 #cia2 ,,vi1 #gge-f2 ,pol4 pos41 ,,iv1 ,app5dice1 p4 #abd-g4 #bcf ,pol4 pos41 ,,ii4 #bhh-i4 #bcg ,c\rs1 ,,iv4 #cbf4 #bch ,c\rs1 ,,iv4 #chg4 #bci ,pol4 pos41 ,,iv4 ,app5dix1 p4 #abd-g4 #bdj ,c\rs1 ,,iv4 #bgi-hj4 #bda ,c\rs1 ,,iv4 #ccg4 #bdb ,c\rs1 ,,iv1 #cdb-dd4 #bdc ,c\rs4 ,,iv4 #ced-sq4 #bdd ,c\rs1 ,,iv1 #cfj4 #bde ,c\rs4 ,,iv1 #bbe4 #bdf ,c\rs1 ,,iv41 #cff sq2 ,pol4 pos41 ,,iv4 ,app5dice1 p4 #ace sq4 #bdg ,c\rs1 ,,iv1 #cga-c2 ,pol4 pos41 ,i1 #fbd-f4 #bdh ,pol4 pos41 ,,iii1 #dg-dh4 #bdi ,pol4 pos41 ,i1 #ddb4 ,,*apt] ,,iii ,,social ,,/atics ,z biology di/+ui%es ! anatomical po9t ( view1 8relat+ to ! ideas ( organisation10 & ! physiological po9t ( view1 8relat+ to ! ideas ( life10 s sociology sep>ates ! /udy ( ! conditions ( exi/5ce ( a society 7social /atics71 & t ( ! laws ( its movem5ts 7social dynamics74 ,?is di/9ction has ! advantage ( correspond+ exactly to t ( ord] & progress1 f ! practical po9t ( view1 :ile x is closely alli$ to ! encyclopdic law call$ 8! pr9ciple ( ! conditions ( exi/5ce40 ,comte w n admit t he is mak+ two di/9ct sci5ces ( social /atics & social dynamics4 ,sociology1 accord+ to him1 is con/itut$ by ! con/ant draw+ toge!r ( ^! two correspond+ /udies4 ,h[ev]1 !y ea* h _! own object1 & ,comte has treat$ !m sep>ately4 ,inde$1 social /atics & dynamics are f> f hav+ ! same importance 9 8 "w4 ,! ess5tial "p1 on 8 own %[+1 is dynamics4#bej ,:5 he makes hi/ory ! *>act]i/ic process ( ! ,sociological me?od1 :5 he %[s t ! tradition transmitt$ f e g5]ation to ! foll[+ "o is pre-em95tly ! sociological ph5om5on1 :5 f9ally he consid]s ! new sci5ce z hav+ be5 f\nd$ f ! day :5 ! law ( ! ?ree /ates 0 discov]$1 is he n plac+ himself at ! dynamic po9t ( view8 ,aft] hav+ demon/rat$ t dynamic laws ( social ph5om5a exi/1 he concludes t ^! ph5om5a are also subject to /atic laws3 !re w\ld be a contradiction 9 admitt+ ! "o set ( laws )\t ! o!r4 ,9 ,comte's m9d !n dynamics prec$$ /atics4 ,ev5 f an objective po9t ( view1 dynamics seem to be ! mo/ important4 ,=1 if we knew ! dynamic laws x w\ld n be impossible to d$uce ! /atic laws f !m1 :ile to d ! rev]se w\ld be impracticable1 at any rate = m9ds con/itut$ l ours4 ,s1 9 ! ,c\rs de philosophie positive1 social /atics holds a v small place comp>$ ) t occupi$ by dynamics4 ,x is true t x takes up ! :ole ( ! second volume ( ! ,politique positive4 ,b !re ,comte br+s into x _m consid]ations :i* arise m f e?ics & religion ?an f sociology prop]ly s call$4 ,i4 ,! idea ( ! social cons5sus1 m re/rict$ ?an t ( ! vital cons5sus1 dom9ates ! :ole ( social /atics4 ,! sci5ce sets itself to /udy ! cont9ual actions & reactions :i* ! v>i\s p>ts ( ! social sy/em ex]cise ^u "o ano!r4 ,ea* ( ! num]\s elem5ts ( ?is sy/em1 in/ead ( be+ obs]v$ by itself1 mu/ be conceiv$ z 9 relation ) all ! o!rs1 ) :i* x has con/ant solid>ity4 ,f :atev] social elem5t we />t1 x is always connect$1 9 a m or less direct way1 ) ! :ole ( ! o!rs1 ev5 ) ^? :i* at fir/ sight appe> indep5d5t4#bea ,:at are ! ultimate 8social elem5ts80 ,9 biology1 anatomical analysis 0 to /op at ! tissue1 or at lea/ at ! cell4 ,9 sociology1 /atical analysis w /op at ! family4 8,human society is made up ( families & n ( individuals3 x is an elem5t>y axiom 9 /atical sociology40 ,9 ! eyes ( social sci5ce1 ! individual is an ab/raction4 ,all social /r5g? is ! result ( a 8m or less ext5d$ co-op]ation10 t is to say ( ! comb9$ action ( a great] or small] numb] ( individuals4 ,!re is no?+ purely individual except physical =ce4 ,b :at is ! physical =ce ( a man alone1 )\t arms or tools8 7= ^! already imply a co-op]ation ( social activities74 ,intellectual p[] is ( value only :5 o!rs p>ticipate 9 x3 s x is ) moral p[]4 ,on ! o!r h&1 if all social =ce is ! result ( union1 all social =ce is1 nev]!less repres5t$ by an individual4 ,! social organism is 8collective 9 its nature1 & individual 9 its functions40#beb ,9 ?is way ! "p play$ by ! individual aga9 becomes a v consid]able "o4 ,if ! individual1 9 s f> z he is a social =ce1 always repres5ts "s gr\p1 he is none ! less possess$ ( 8 own p]sonality :i* may precisely h tak5 a great "p 9 ! =mation ( su* or su* a gr\p4 ,we "k t ! social organism mu/ n on all po9ts be comp>$ ) ! liv+ organism4 ,if ! family is ! ultimate elem5t = social /atics1 ?is elem5t is h[ev] itself made up ( p]sons :o are naturally indep5d5t1 & :o _c be comp>$ to cells4 ,! positive !ory ( ! family is f\nd$ ^u ! biological !ory ( ! physical & moral nature ( man4 ,?is nature is sociable4 ,! human species belongs to ! category ( ^? 9 :i* individuals n only live 9 m or less p]man5t b&s1 b =m def9ite & durable societies4 ,?is is a fact 9 our exp]i5ce4 ,! social /ate is1 = m51 ! /ate ( nature4 ,! 8contract0 !ory _c !n be ma9ta9$4 ,comte does n /op to criticise x4 ,! !ori/s ( ! c\nt]-,revolution h suffici5tly refut$ ,r\sseau4 ,accord+ to ,comte1 sociability is spontane\s 9 ! human species1 9 virtue ( ! in/9ctive lean+ t[>ds common life1 8indep5d5tly ( any p]sonal calculation1 & (t5 aga9/ ! mo/ imm$iate int]e/ ( ! individual4 ,society is n !n f\nd$ ^u utility1 :i* c\ld moreov] only appe> 9 a /ate ( society already e/abli%$40#bec ,?us1 ! family is ! ultimate social elem5t4 ,be+ preoccupi$ by ?is idea1 ,comte1 :o _h su* a deep1 cle>-sight$ feel+ ( ! evolution ( societies1 does n ask himself :e!r ! family has evolv$ f some?+ :i* exi/$ previ\sly4 ,= him x is some?+ natural1 t is to say some?+ giv51 beyond :i* we %\ld n g back1 & ( :i* only ! biological conditions c be det]m9$4 ,x is f ?is po9t ( view t ,comte def9es ! relations ( man & woman 9 ! family4 ,he bases himself ^u biology 7t is to say bo? ^u physiology & psy*ology71 to repres5t ! female sex z liv+ 9 8a k9d ( /ate ( cont9u\s *ildhood40 ,:5ce he concludes to ! natural subord9ation ( woman4 ,?is inf]iority does n moreov] ext5d to ! :ole ( h] moral nature1 =1 89 g5]al1 wom5 are z sup]ior to m5 by ! natural developm5t ( sympa?y1 & sociability1 z !y are inf]ior to !m :]e intellect & reason+ p[]s are conc]n$40#bed ,on ?is la/ po9t1 ,john ,/u>t ,mill held ! contr>y op9ion1 & ?is disagreem5t contribut$ n a little to ali5ate him f positive philosophy4 ,lat] on1 9 8 8second c>e]10 ,comte1 :o m & m came to subord9ate ! intellect to ! he>t1 /ill m extoll$ ! moral excell5ce ( woman1 & end$ by consid]+ h] z 8int]m$i>y betwe5 humanity & man40 ,b ev5 !n1 :ile proclaim+ ! s5tim5tal1 moral1 & /hetic sup]iority ( woman1 he p]si/$ 9 ma9ta9+ t1 f ! intellectual po9t ( view1 by reason ( immutable biological conditions1 %e rema9s inf]ior to man4 ,f analog\s motives1 ,comte reg>ds m>riage z a 8univ]sal natural disposition1 ! fir/ necess>y basis ( all society40 ,e ?+ :i* t5ds to weak5 m>riage t5ds to disorganise ! family1 &1 consequ5tly1 to de/roy society 9 its con/itutive elem5ts4 ,comte w ?us condemn divorce1 ( :i* he himself _h ! be/ reasons = appreciat+ ! advantages4 ,g5]ally1 ,comte's !ory ( ! family is modell$ ^u ! ,*ri/ian family4 ,accord+ to 8 con/ant practice1 he seeks to deta* ! in/itutions ( ,ca?olicism1 :i* he admires1 f its dogmas :i* he believes to be almo/ dead4 ,^! in/itutions1 excell5t 9 !mselves only suff] f be+ b\nd up ) beliefs :i* are disappe>+4 ,s long1 he says1 z ! family cont9ues to h no o!r intellectual basis ?an religi\s doctr9es1 x w necess>ily p>ticipate 9 _! gr[+ discr$it4 ,positive philosophy 8c alone h5ce=? e/abli% ! _s ( ! family ^u an immoveable f\ndation1 ) ! modifications suitable to ! mod]n "* ( ! social organism40#bee ,?is new intellectual basis is e/abli%$ by positive psy*ology & social /atics4 ,! con/itution ( ! family rema9s ! same4 ,b its f\ndation is h5ce=? positive dogma in/ead ( religi\s dogma1 demon/rat$ belief in/ead ( reveal$ fai?4 ,p]haps we mu/ recognise 9 ! en]getic def5ce made by ,comte ( ! family & ( m>riage z he f\nd !m e/abli%$ by ! side ( ,ca?olic influ5ce1 a desire n to be confus$ ) ! foll[]s ( ,sa9t ,simon1 ( ,f\ri]1 & ! o!r re=m]s ( 8 "t4 ,^! did n hesitate to contradict curr5t & traditional cu/oms4 ,9 ,comte's view1 ?is contradiction is a sign ( error4 ,sci5tific tru? is f\nd 9 ! prolongation ( public reason & ( common s5se4 ,"h ,comte sees a new1 & n "o ( ! lea/1 important argum5ts1 9 support ( 8 own !ory4 ,,ii4 ,a society is compos$ ( families3 x is n itself a great] family4 ,nei!r is x an assemblage ( contigu\s families liv+ toge!r4 ,! family & society are di/+ui%$ f ea* o!r by v cle> diff]5tial *>act]i/ics4 ,! family is a 8union0 ( an ess5tially moral nature1 & second>ily intellectual4#bef ,! *ief con/itu5t ( ! family is f\nd 9 ! affective functions1 7! mutual t5d]ness ( husb& & wife1 ( ! p>5ts = ! *ildr51 etc474 ,society is1 on ! contr>y1 n a union1 b a co-op]ation0 ( an ess5tially intellectual nature1 & second>ily moral4 ,und\bt$ly1 an association ( m5 _c be conceiv$ z subsi/+ )\t _! sympa!tic feel+s be+ int]e/$ 9 x4 ,nev]!less1 :5 we pass f ! consid]ation ( ! s+le family to ! co-ord9ation ( sev]al families1 ! pr9ciple ( co-op]ation necess>ily ends by prevail+4 ,s ,r\sseau's !ory is n false on all po9ts4 ,metaphysical philosophy1 especially 9 ,france1 says ,comte1 has und\bt$ly committ$ an error ( capital importance by attribut+ ! v creation ( ! social /ate to ?is pr9ciple1 = x is evid5t t co-op]ation1 f> f hav+ be5 able to produce society1 presupposes x4 ,b if we conf9e ?is ass]tion to society prop]ly s-call$ 7! family be+ set aside7 x is n s />tl+4 ,=1 if co-op]ation c\ld n 8create0 human societies1 x alone at lea/1 has be5 able to 8communicate to ^! spontane\s associations a def9ite "* & a la/+ consi/5cy40 ,?is co-op]ation is call$ to-day 8! division ( lab\r40 ,comte knew ?is expression3 ,adam ,smi? _h already made x fam\s4 ,if ,comte did n make use ( x1 x is because economi/s _h limit$ ! idea & ! t]m to 8m]ely mat]ial usages40 ,he wi%es1 on ! contr>y1 to consid] co-op]ation 9 ! :ole ( its rational ext5sion4 ,x !n becomes an extremely g5]al pr9ciple1 dom9at+ ! :ole ( social /atics1 & f9d+ its application 9 ! greate/ z 9 ! mo/ limit$ social gr\ps4 ,?is pr9ciple leads u to reg>d n only individuals & classes1 b also1 9 _m respects ! diff]5t peoples1 8z p>ticipat+ toge!r 9 a suitable way & a det]m9$ degree1 9 an imm5se common "w ^: developm5t unites ^? actually co-op]at+ ) ! s]ies ( _! successors & _! pr$ecessors40 ,?us we see ! relation betwe5 ! dynamical & ! /atical laws ( social cont9uity :i* b9ds successive g5]ations1 ) social solid>ity :i* unites m5 liv+ 9 ! same p]iod4 ,?is solid>ity arises especially f ! division ( lab\r4 ,! latt] is ! 8primitive cause0 ( ! ext5sion & ( ! gr[+ complexity ( ! social organism1 :i* may be conceiv$ z compris+ ! :ole ( our species4 ,! f\nd] ( social /atics1 ,ari/otle1 _h =mulat$ its mo/ g5]al pr9ciple3 8sep>ation ( (fices & comb9ation ( ef=ts40#beg ,)\t ! 8sep>ation ( (fices0 !re w\ld only be an agglom]ation ( families & n a society4 ,b ! indisp5sable c\nt]p>t ( ! sep>ation ( (fices is ! comb9ation ( ef=ts1 t is to say a g5]al ?\ght :i* directs !m1 9 a ^w1 a gov]nm5t4 ,?us1 ! ideas ( society & ( gov]nm5t are impli$ 9 "o ano!r4 ,inde$1 !re is no society prop]ly s-call$ )\t ! division ( social lab\r1 a division imm$iately g5]at+ consequ5ces :i* make gov]nm5t a necessity4 ,society 9 develop+ gr[s m & m complex4 ,in/ead ( a small gr\p ( a few families1 x ends by numb]+ hundr$s1 ?\s&s1 & ev5 millions ( !m4 ,at ! same "t ! division ( lab\r (t5 gives rise to individual diff]5ces1 at once intellectual & moral4 ,m9ds are develop$1 b ea* "o accord+ to its special l9e1 at lea/ accord+ to t ( 8 pr(ession or ( 8 class4 ,! communion ( feel+ & ( ?\ght t5ds to become weak]4 ,?is la/ is n ! lea/ s]i\s inconv5i5ce4 ,smi? _h already po9t$ x out f ! economical po9t ( view1 & ! utopian re=m]s1 ,f\ri] especially1 h %[n /rongly its ext5t & its dang]s4 ,?is is1 accord+ to ,comte1 :at x is ! mission ( a gov]nm5t to rem$y4 ,its social function consi/s 9 repress+ & 9 oppos+ z f> z possible ! t5d5cy to ! scatt]+ ( ideas1 ( feel+s1 & ( int]e/s4 ,?is t5d5cy is ! result ( ! v developm5t ( society1 & left to itself1 x w\ld end by /opp+ ?is developm5t4 ,gov]nm5t may ?us be def9$ 9 its ab/ract & elem5t>y function z 8! necess>y reaction ( ! :ole ^u ! p>ts40#beh ,gov]nm5t1 at fir/1 appe>s 8spontane\sly40 ,z ,hobbes cle>ly saw1 x is !n 9 ! h&s ( ^? to :om =ce belongs4 ,b x soon becomes regul>is$ & organis$ into a def9ite social function4 ,z1 9 ! developm5t ( ! sci5ces1 ! gr[+ diff]5tiation ( _! object r5d]$ rese>* m & m special1 & at la/ caus$ ! appe>ance ( a p>ticul> class ( le>n$ m51 7! philosoph]s71 ^: own function is to attempt ! syn!sis ( human k2 s1 9 ! division con/antly m ramifi$ ( social functions1 a new "o _h to be con/itut$1 8capable ( int]v5+ 9 ! accompli%m5t ( all ! o!rs1 unceas+ly to recall 9 !m ! ?\ght ( ! :ole1 & ! feel+ ( common solid>ity40 ,we are !n entirely mi/ak51 :5 we want to r$uce ! function ( gov]nm5t to 8vulg> attributions ( mat]ial ord]40 ,gov]nm5t is n a simple in/itution ( police1 a gu>antee ( public ord]1 nor1 z 0 said 9 ! ,,xviii4 c5tury1 a necess>y evil :i* w r$uce itself to a m9imum ) progress1 or ev5 w t5d to disappe>4 ,on ! contr>y1 ! m a society is develop$1 ! m indisp5sable ! function ( gov]nm5t becomes 9 x1 ! m importance x assumes4 ,progress 9 ! future w make a m & m consid]able place = x 9 social life4 ,al?\gh x does n itself realise any det]m9$ social progress1 gov]nm5t necess>ily contributes to :atev] progress society c make4 ,if ! idea ( ! division ( lab\r is n to be und]/ood 9 a purely mat]ial & economical s5se1 ! pr9ciple ( social cohesion1 :i* ,comte calls gov]nm5t1 _c any m be f\nd$ ^u a s+le con=mity ( int]e/s4 ,?is w\ld n suffice to ma9ta9 a human society4 ,= su* a society to subsi/1 !re mu/ be a c]ta9 8communion0 ( beliefs1 & feel+s ( sympa?y1 :i* !mselves dep5d 9 a c]ta9 measure ^u ^! beliefs4 ,und\bt$ly1 society c\ld n resi/ a deep & durable div]g5ce ( int]e/s4 ,b x w\ld /ill less resi/ incompatibility ( feel+s1 & especially ( beliefs among its memb]s4 ,9 a ^w1 ! basis ( human society is intellectual be=e all ?+s4 ,&1 z ! fir/ object ( ! m9d ( man is ! int]pretation ( ! _w :i* surr\nds him1 ! con/itutive basis ( human society is religion4 ,! gr\ps :i* are unit$ 9 ! same g5]al conception ( ! univ]se are "p ( ! same society4 ,h5ce1 9 ! pa/1 we see endless conflicts betwe5 ! societies ^: religions 7 diff]5t2 h5ce1 9 ! future1 ! unity ( ! human species w f9ally become entirely ralli$ ar\nd positive religion4 ,if ?is is ! case1 gov]nm5t1 :i* is by def9ition ! highe/ & mo/ g5]al social function :i* repres5ts ! 8_s ( ! :ole10 _c be conf9$ to temporal action4 ,its object is n only to assure ! security ( prop]ty & ( p]sons4 ,x mu/ at ! same "t /r5g!n & pres]ve t 8communion0 ( beliefs :i* is ! basis ( human society4 ,x mu/ gu>antee ! union ( intellects1 by e/abli%+ & tea*+ univ]sally accept$ pr9ciples4 ,x mu/1 9 a ^w1 be a 8spiritual p[]40 ,9 ?is capacity1 9 positive society1 x w ex]cise an action at lea/ equal to t enjoy$ by ! ca?olic cl]gy 9 ! ,*ri/5dom ( ! ,middle ,ages1 z long z ! ,popes pres]v$ its supreme direction4 ,^! consequ5ces are legitimately drawn f ,comte's pr9ciples4 ,8 philosophy made social reorganisation dep5d5t ^u ! reorganisation ( morals1 & ! reorganisation ( morals ^u t ( ideas4 ,he 01 !re=e1 9 social /atics1 to seek = ! f\ndation ( society 9 ! h>mony ( intellects & to def9e gov]nm5t by its spiritual z mu* z by its temporal function4 ,,iii4 ,comte's social /atics are f> f fulfill+ ! programme :i* he indicat$ 9 a ^w :5 he call$ x 8social anatomy40 ,und\bt$ly he is "r 9 n pu%+ ! comp>ison betwe5 liv+ be+s & society to dang]\s or *ildi% attempts at precision4 ,b1 9 sociology z 9 biology1 he sep>ates ! /udy ( ! organs f t ( ! functions1 & we mu/ admit t he insi/$ v little ^u ! analysis ( ! social organs4 ,f ! /atical po9t ( view he only di/+ui%es ! individual1 ! family1 & society tak5 z a :ole4 ,moreov] ! consid]ation ( ! individual is only prelim9>y1 s9ce ! families repres5t ! real social elem5ts4 ,he !re=e sees1 or at lea/ he /udies no?+ int]m$i>y betwe5 ^! elem5ts & ! totality ( ! social body1 t is to say ! human species4 ,he limits himself to indicat+ ! sep>ation ( (fices :i* increases ) ! ext5sion ( ! social body4 ,b :at is ! /ructure ( ?is body1 :at div]sity ( organs & app>atus does x conta98 ,social /atics tells u no?+ ( ?is4 ,! ,politique positive sc>cely gives u a few brief indications on ?is po9t4 ,! collective organism w\ld be compos$ fir/ ( families1 :i* con/itute its real elem5t1 !n ( ! classes or ca/es :i* =m its tissues1 & f9ally ( t[ns or villages :i* are its real organs4 ,?is is v vague4 ,only 9 ! dynamics %all we f9d views a little m precise on ! appe>ance1 ! /ructure1 & ! functions ( ! diff]5t social =ms4 ,ev5 !n ,comte does n really take ! physiological po9t ( view1 any m ?an 9 /atics he takes ! really anatomical po9t ( view4 ,be=e all ?+s1 8 sociology rema9s a philosophy ( hi/ory4 ,x analyses ! pa/ ( humanity1 t x may f9d 9 x ! int]pretation ( its pres5t & ! rational prevision ( its future4 ,?is sci5ce diff]s pr(\ndly !n f ! fundam5tal sci5ces :i* prec$e x1 9 t x /udies a s+le be+1 ( :i* x _c analyse ! ph5om5a or discov] ! laws except by consid]+ x 9 ! fir/ place 9 its totality4 ,comte h>dly ev] 9 social /atics 7& f> less 9 dynamics7 says society1 z 9 biology he said1 animals & vegetables4 ,he says ! collective organism3 a simple1 imm5se organism1 ^: life indef9itely ext5ds into ! pa/ & into ! future1 9 a ^w1 ,humanity4 ,?is conception repres5t+ humanity z a s+le ,be+ :i* is an hypo!sis = sci5ce1 becomes an ideal = e?ics1 & an object ( love = religion4 ,ins5sibly ,comte passes f "o ( ^! po9ts ( view to ! o!r4 ,at ! same "t ! "* ( social /atics *anges4 ,f be+ an ab/ract sci5ce 9 ! ,c\rs1 9 ! ,politique x is trans=m$ into a picture ( future ,humanity4 ,,footnotes3 #bej ,c\rs1 ,,iv1 #dcj4 #bea ,c\rs1 ,,iv4 #beh4 #beb ,pol4 pos41 ,,ii1 #bfe4 #bec ,c\rs1 ,,iv1 #dcb-f4 #bed ,c\rs1 iv1 #dei4 ,correspondance de ,comte et de ,john ,/u>t ,mill1 p4 #bai-bhh4 #bee ,c\rs1 ,,iv1 #dej4 #bef ,c\rs1 ,,iv1 #dgb sq4 #beg ,pol4 pos41 ,,ii1 #bha-c2 ,,iv1 ,app5dice1 p4 #fg4 #beh ,c\rs1 ,,iv1 #dhb-e4 ,,*apt] ,,iv ,,social ,,dynamics ,= ,comte1 social dynamics is ! *ief "p ( sociology4 ,he tells u t x occupi$ 8 att5tion 89 a prepond]at+ & ev5 almo/ exclusive mann]40#bei ,?is pref]5ce is easily expla9$4 ,9 ! fir/ place ! idea :i* be/ di/+ui%es sociology f biology1 ! idea ( ! gradual developm5t ( humanity belongs to social dynamics4 ,!n1 ! me?od :i* p>ticul>ly belongs to sociology1 ! hi/orical me?od1 applies especially to dynamics4 ,f9ally1 ! v conception ( a social sci5ce became fix$ 9 ,comte's m9d by ! discov]y ( ! law ( ! ?ree /ates :i* is a dynamic law4 ,social dynamics is def9$ z 8! sci5ce ( ! necess>y & cont9u\s movem5t ( humanity10#bfj or1 m briefly1 ! sci5ce ( ! laws ( progress4 ,"h1 z 9 social /atics1 & ev5 /ill m exclusively1 a s+le case is /udi$1 namely1 ! case ( ! human species1 reg>d$ z a s+le individual1 & consid]$ 9 ! :ole ( its pa/ & future developm5t4 ,h5ce=?1 )\t misund]/&+ ! di/9ction betwe5 biology & sociology1 %\ld we n 9 ! fir/ place seek "s ( ! conditions ( social progress 9 ! physical & moral nature ( ! individual man8 ,?is "q did n escape ,comte1 & he says t x w\ld be "r to beg9 a me?odical treatise on social sci5ce ) x4 ,h[ev]1 he did n expressly deal ) ! "q4 ,he cont5t$ himself ) indicat+ 8?is fundam5tal in/9ct :i* is ! complex result ( ! necess>y co-op]ation betwe5 all our natural t5d5cies1 :i* urges man ceaselessly to ameliorate 8 condition 9 all respects1 & always to develop ! :ole ( 8 moral1 intellectual1 & physical life 9 e way z mu* z ! sy/em ( conditions 9 :i* he f9ds himself plac$ all[s ( x40#bfa ,?is indication is complet$ by ! /udy ( ! conditions :i* det]m9$ ! fir/ ef=ts ( man1 :5 he _h to ov]come 8 natural laz9ess1 at ! dawn ( civilisation4 ,x suffices at lea/ to %[ ! close union :i* exi/s 9 ,comte's ?\ght betwe5 social dynamics & psy*ology4 ,x is true t ! sociological laws _c be d$uc$ f ! biological laws4 ,no?+ c replace a direct obs]vation ( social ph5om5a4 ,b ! v fact ( progress1 :i* is ! object ( social dynamics1 w\ld n exi/ )\t ! 8individual impulses :i* are its own elem5ts40 ,i4 ,"u ! "n ( progress ,comte und]/&s a 8social advance t[>ds a def9ite al?\gh nev] atta9$ t]m9ation1 by a s]ies ( necess>ily det]m9$ /ages40 ,?is idea 0 nev] cle>ly def9$ 9 antiquity4#bfb ,! m5 ( anci5t times 7 m incl9$ to repres5t social movem5ts z oscillatory or circul>4 ,^u special po9ts1 = in/ance 9 morals1 !y _h a =e%ad[+ ( ! idea ( progress4#bfc ,!y conceiv$ an ef=t t[>ds improvem5t4 ,b ! sci5tific idea ( social progress 9 its entirety rema9$ =eign to !m4 ,= ?is idea is only =m$ by obs]vation & by ! analysis ( hi/ory4 ,_! hi/orical outlook 0 yet too n>r[ = su* a sugge/ion4 ,! idea ( progress appe>s ) ! philosophy ( hi/ory taught by ,*ri/ianity2 =1 ?is religion gives a rational explanation ( univ]sal hi/ory consid]$ z a :ole4 ,x proclaims ! sup]iority ( ! ,*ri/ian _w ov] ! pagan _w1 & ( ! new law ov] ! old4#bfd ,b1 sc>cely has ! idea ( progress ?us come into exi/5ce :5 x becomes cl\d$ ov] & t5ds to fade away4 ,ca?olicism cle>ly sees progress 9 ! s]ies ( ev5ts :i* caus$ x to succe$ a =m] /ate1 b x d5ies ! progress :i* cont9ues f t mom5t4 ,x consid]s itself z f9al4 ,x 8limits onw>d progress to ! adv5t ( ,*ri/ianity40 ,x claims to fix an inv>iable dogma :i* conta9s immutable & absolute tru?4 ,?is is ! v negation ( ! positive idea ( progress4 ,9 ord] to f9d ?is idea cle>ly conceiv$ & sci5tifically =mulat$1 we mu/ come to ,condorcet1 & ev5 to ! ,,xix4 c5tury1 t is to say1 to ! f\ndation ( social sci5ce by ,comte4 ,he 0 especially l$ to x1 he says1 by ! hi/orical /udy ( ! developm5t ( ! sci5ces4 ,=1 ( all ! social s]ies1 ?is is ! "o ^: evolution is mo/ advanc$4 ,no o!r sugge/s s cle>ly ! idea ( a 8progression0 ^: t]ms succe$ ea* o!r by virtue ( a necess>y filiation4 ,pascal already gave a v f9e =mula ( x1 9 8 ,prface du ,trait du ,vide4 ,is x n rem>kable t1 9 8 sket* ( ! positive idea ( progress1 he %\ld h be5 l$ at once to ! ess5tial hypo!sis ( social dynamics1 t is to say1 to consid] ! :ole succession ( g5]ations z a s+le man1 always liv+1 cont9ually le>n+8#bfe ,nev]!less1 ! idea ( progress1 s well appli$ to ! evolution ( ! sci5ces 9 ! ,,xvii4 c5tury1 c\ld n !n be ext5d$ to all social facts4 ,x _h met ) an insurm\ntable ob/acle 9 ! ,middle ,ages4 ,m5 consid]$ t p]iod z "o ( retrogression & b>b>ism1 al?\gh1 z a matt] ( fact1 x 0 8*>act]is$ by ! univ]sal p]fect+ ( human sociability40 ,! idea ( progress !re=e rema9$ a special "o4 ,?us orig9at$ ! qu>rel ( ! ,anci5ts & ! ,mod]ns#bff ^: importance has n be5 suffici5tly und]/ood4 ,! 8em95t0 ,font5elle & ! 8judici\s0 ,p]rault h v cle>ly %[n 9 respect to intellectual activity g5]ally consid]$1 :at ,pascal _h already e/abli%$ = sci5ce prop]ly s-call$4#bfg ,! ,,xviii4 c5tury 0 full ( ! idea ( progress4 ,b1 fail+ to foll[ a positive me?od1 x gave a false direction to ?is idea4 ,x believ$ 9 ! indef9ite p]fectibility ( man & ( society4 ,n[1 ?is notion does n co9cide ) t ( progress4 ,x is ev5 fundam5tally oppos$ to x4 ,progress signifies 8developm5t subject to fix$ conditions1 & op]at+ 9 virtue ( necess>y laws1 :i* det]m9e its advance & its limitations40 ,x is precisely ! ignorance ( ^! conditions & ( ^! laws :i* gives rise to ! idea ( indef9ite p]fectibility4 ,if ,helvetius & ,condorcet _h _h a positive k ( human nature1 !y w\ld n h ent]ta9$ s _m illusions & unreasonable hopes4 ,biology1 t is to say1 sci5tific psy*ology1 w\ld h taught !m t human nature is inv>iable 9 its basis1 t ! prepond]ance ( ! selfi% ov] ! altrui/ic in/9cts is ess5tial to ?is nature1 & t1 if progress fav\rs ! developm5t ( ! altrui/ic feel+s1 x _c1 h[ev]1 ov]turn ! natural equilibrium ( our incl9ations4 ,9 a ^w1 indef9ite p]fectibility is a metaphysical idea4 ,imag9ation plays a great] "p 9 x ?an obs]vation4 ,! philosoph]s :o conceiv$ x did n realise ! relations :i* b9d ! intellectual & ! moral life ( man to ! /ructure ( 8 organism4 ,9 ord] t ! idea ( progress %\ld rea* its f9al =m x 0 necess>y1 9 ! fir/ place1 t positive psy*ology %\ld h put an end to ! dreams ( indef9ite p]fectibility4 ,x 0 also necess>y t ! ,fr5* ,revolution %\ld come to r5d] ! c\rse ( ! hi/ory ( humanity intelligible4 ,inde$1 accord+ to ,comte1 a 8progression0 _c be und]/ood1 s long z we d n "k at lea/ ?ree ( its t]ms4 ,two t]ms d n suffice to def9e x4 ,n[1 up to ! "t ( ! ,fr5* ,revolution1 sev]al 8progressions0 or social s]ies und\bt$ly (f]$ ! requir$ numb] ( t]ms to sci5tific reflection2 = in/ance1 ! evolution ( su* & su* a sci5ce or ( su* & su* an art4 ,b1 9 sociology1 ! k ( second>y laws is subord9at$ to t ( prim>y laws1 & ! advance ( su* & su* a social s]ies c only be und]/ood if ! developm5t ( society 9 g5]al is kn[n 9 its fundam5tal law4 ,to discov] ?is law !n1 we mu/ possess at lea/1 ?ree t]ms ( ! g5]al 8progression40 ,n[1 be=e ! ,fr5* ,revolution two t]ms only 7 giv53 ! rgime ( ! societies ( antiquity1 & ! ,*ri/ian rgime 7t is to say1 ! "o :i* atta9$ its highe/ degree ( p]fection 9 ! ,ca?olic organisation ( ! ,middle ,ages47 ,! ,fr5* ,revolution came to furni% ! ?ird t]m4 ,x br\ght ! idea ( a new rgime4 ,z ,kant _h said1 9 t]ms :i* 7 c]ta9ly unkn[n to ,comte1 x gave m5 ! idea ( a social organisation f\nd$ ^u pr9ciples diff]5t f ^? ( ! exi/+ societies4 ,h5ce=? ! idea ( progress c\ld apply itself to ! :ole ( ! hi/orical developm5t ( humanity4 8,x is to ?is salut>y di/urbance10 says ,comte1 8t we owe ! /r5g? & ! audacity to conceive a notion ^u :i* re/s ! :ole ( social sci5ce1 & consequ5tly ! :ole ( positive philosophy1 ( :i* ?is f9al sci5ce alone c\ld con/itute ! unity40#bfh ,?is social sci5ce rema9$ to be con/ruct$4 ,x w be ! special "w ( ,augu/e ,comte4 ,accord+ to him1 ! ,fr5* ,revolution only br\ght an imp]fect idea ( social progress4 ,x help$ to br+ ab\t ! conception ( ! idea ( a diff]5t rgime1 b )\t actually f\nd+ x4 ,! functions ( ! new philosophy w be to realise ! positive idea ( social progress4 ,9 a ^w1 ! revolution>y impulse made ?is philosophy possible4 ,x has n done away ) its utility4#bfi ,,ii4 ,sociology be+ an ab/ract & speculative sci5ce 9 ! same way z ! o!r fundam5tal sci5ces1 progress 9 x is n und]/ood 9 a utilit>ian or moral s5se4 ,f #ahbf ,comte ex]t$ himself to prev5t any equivocation on ?is po9t4 ,! insuffici5cy ( language1 he says1 obliges him to make use ( ! words 8improvem5t0 & 8developm5t10 ( :i* ! =m] & ev5 ! latt]1 al?\gh cle>]1 recalls ideas ( absolute good & ( indef9ite amelioration1 :i* ,comte has no int5tion ( express+4 ,^! words = him h ! simple sci5tific object ( indicat+1 9 social physics1 a c]ta9 succession ( /ates ( ! human species1 8be+ effect$ accord+ to det]m9$ laws3 a usage exactly analog\s to ! "o :i* physiologi/s make ( !m 9 ! /udy ( ! individual organism1 to indicate a succession ( trans=mations ) :i* no idea ( cont9u\s amelioration or det]ioration is connect$40#bgj ,x w\ld be easy to treat ( ! :ole ( social physics )\t once us+ ! ^w improvem5t1 & always replac+ x by ! sci5tific t]m developm5t4 ,= ! "q is n to appreciate ! respective value ( successive /ates ref]r$ to an ideal /ate1 b simply to e/abli% ! laws ( _! succession4 8,! pres5t is full ( ! pa/ & big ) ! future40 ,liebnitz's =mula ?us expresses ! g5]al idea ( progress4 ,comte only makes x positive by discov]+ ! g5]al laws ( ?is progress1 & by %[+ t !y are correlat$ to ! laws ( social /atics4 ,z a matt] ( fact1 does ! developm5t ( humanity lead to improvem5t or progress1 9 ! moral & practical s5se ( ! ^w8 ,social sci5ce has n to answ] ?is "q4 ,h[ev]1 ,comte ?9ks t ?is improvem5t takes place1 & t progress1 s und]/ood1 c be %[n at once 9 our condition & 9 our nature4#bga ,z pro(s ( ?is1 9 ! fir/ place1 he gives ! increase 9 ! population1 at lea/ 9 t portion ( humanity :i* he ne>ly always consid]s alone1 ! :ite race2 !n he m5tions ! law--accord+ to :i* ex]cise p]fects ! organs4 ,?is progress is fix$ by h]$ity4 ,comte ?us admits ?is pr9ciple laid d[n by ,lam>ck1 ) ?is res]vation1 t evolution nev] trans=ms 8natural dispositions40 ,z to our condition1 x is improv$ accord+ to ! measure 9 :i* we c act ^u natural ph5om5a1 & ?is p[] 9 turn dep5ds ^u ! k we h acquir$ ( ! laws ( ph5om5a4 8,vision br+s prevision & ?us facilitates provision40 ,progress is "h manife/$ by ! ext5sion ( our sci5tific k & by ! improvem5t ( ! arts f\nd$ ^u ?is k4 ,if sci5tific k1 :i* is necess>ily ab/ract1 has to be sep>at$ f practice 9 ord] to seek = ! g5]al laws :i* regulate ph5om5a1 sci5ce1 once con/itut$1 makes possible a sy/em ( reason$ applications :i* rea*es immeasurably f>!r ?an empirical art4 ,l ,desc>tes1 ,comte f\nds ! mo/ ambiti\s hopes ^u ! positive sci5ce ( nature4 ,n[1 ! mo/ 8modifiable0 ph5om5a1 ^? 9 :i* our int]v5tion is mo/ efficaci\s1 are ! human ph5om5a1 be !y individual or collective4 ,on ! o!r h&1 our action ^u ! ext]nal _w especially dep5ds ^u ! dispositions ( ! ag5t4 ,9 e way !n we mu/ improve ^! dispositions4 ,! mo/ important improvem5t w be t ( our int]nal nature4 ,x w consi/ 9 br++ ab\t ! great] & great] preval5ce ( ! attributes :i* di/+ui% man f ! animals1 t is to say1 intellig5ce & sociability1 correlat$ faculties1 :i* are at once z a means & z an end to "o ano!r4 ,we "k1 moreov]1 t !re are limits to ?is progress4 ,! p]fect prepond]ance )9 ourselves ( humanity ov] animality is a limit1 ne>] to :i* our ef=ts mu/ ev] br+ u1 )\t ev] actually rea*+ x4#bgb ,:e!r x be a "q ( our condition or ( our nature ! improvem5t1 9 bo? cases1 c only be v sl[4 ,x is nev] easy to sub/itute to natural ord] an artificial ord] re/+ ^u ! sci5tific k ( ! =m]4 ,( ^? diff]5t =ms ( progress1 ! fir/1 :i* ,comte calls ! mat]ial progress1 because x is ! easie/1 is ! mo/ advanc$4 ,! great attraction :i* x has = ! m5 ( to-day is ?us expla9$1 b ! importance giv5 to x is q exagg]at$4 ,if our nature c\ld be br\ght to a high] degree ( p]fection x w\ld assur$ly be pref]able4 ,b x is p]haps necess>y t our mat]ial conditions ( exi/5ce %\ld fir/ h be5 ameliorat$8 ,! improvem5t 9 our nature may be physical1 intellectual1 or moral4 ,! fir/ w\ld consi/ 9 an addition to ! av]age duration ( human life2 x dep5ds ^u ! progress ( biology1 &1 consequ5tly1 ( m$ic9e & hygi5e4 ,intellectual 7sci5tific & /hetic7 improvem5t1 w\ld be /ill m desirable4 ,x 8means a great] so>+ upw>ds0 ?an is repres5t$ by all physical improvem5ts or a =tiori by any mat]ial improvem5ts3 = ! intellect is a 8univ]sal tool0 ^: uses h a univ]sal application4 ,b human happ9ess dep5ds f> m ^u moral progress 8ov] :i* we h1 also m comm&1 al?\gh x is m difficult40 ,no intellectual improvem5t c\ld be equal 9 value to an increase 9 goodness or 9 c\rage4 ,if we 7 wise our :ole endeav\r !re=e w\ld be 9 ?is direction4 ,at any rate we ought always to rememb] t o!r =ms ( progress are desirable simply z means1 & moral progress alone z an end4#bgc ,,iii4 ,! !ory ( progress is ! 8pr9ciple0 ( social dynamics1 itself ! ess5tial "p ( sociology1 :ile sociology lies at ! he>t ( positive philosophy4 ,x 0 !re=e to be expect$ t ! adv]s>ies ( ?is philosophy w\ld especially seek to ru9 ! !ory ( progress1 :i* supports ev]y?+ else4 ,inde$ ! objections h be5 num]\s & press+4 ,( ^! objections ,comte _h =ese5 ! two mo/ important1 & he _h endeav\r$ to answ] !m be=eh&4 ,accord+ to him1 ! !ory ( progress implies nei!r fatalism nor optimism1 nor ! quietism :i* has be5 repres5t$ z a consequ5ce ( x4#bgd ,on ! fir/ po9t1 ,comte draws our att5tion to ! fact t ! necess>y consequ5ce ( 8 pr9ciple ( laws is n ! absolute det]m9ism ( ph5om5a1 :e!r x be a "q ( social or o!r ph5om5a4 ,positive philosophy admits no?+ absolute4 ,det]m9ism1 l free-w1 is a metaphysical !sis1 ,comte is n compell$ to take sides ei!r ) "o or ! o!r3 he leaves !m to mutually refute ea* o!r4 ,! positive conception ( ! moral & intellectual faculties ( man1 z ,gall cle>ly e/abli%$1 does n imply t human actions might n be o!rwise ?an !y are4 ,simil>ly1 if 9 g5]al natural ph5om5a are subject to laws1 ?is does n prev5t u f conceiv+ ^! ph5om5a z modifiable by man's int]v5tion4 ,n[1 ( all natural ph5om5a1 social ph5om5a are precisely ! mo/ modifiable2 s mu* s t = a long "t x 0 possible to ignore t !y 7 gov]n$ by laws4 ,!re is !n no contradiction 9 affirm+ ! reality ( ^! laws1 & 9 consid]+ at ! same "t ! int]v5tion ( human activity 9 social ph5om5a z efficaci\s4 ,z e>ly z #ahbd ,comte wrote to 8 fri5d ,valat3 8,x w\ld be misund]/&+ my ?\ght to conclude f x t ,i =bid all improvem5t1 s9ce1 on ! contr>y1 ,i =mally e/abli% t e gov]nm5t mu/ *ange 9 consequ5ce ( ! progress ( civilisation1 & t x is 9 no way a matt] ( indiff]5ce t ^! *anges %\ld take place by ! m]e =ce ( circum/ances1 or by calculat$ planes bas$ ^u obs]vation4 ,i d n d5y ! p[] ( political measures1 ,i limit x40#bge ,x belongs to social sci5ce to det]m9e ! limits ( ! useful action ( man ^u social ph5om5a4 ,^! limits are n>r[ en\gh4 ,man c only modify1 f ! /atic po9t ( view1 ! int5sity1 & f ! dynamic po9t ( view1 ! spe$ ( social ph5om5a4 ,inde$1 "h z else:]e1 modifications c only be produc$ 9 con=mity ) laws4 ,to suppose ! contr>y w\ld be to d5y ! v exi/5ce ( ^! laws4 ,n[1 ! fundam5tal law ( /atics is ! intimate solid>ity & ! mutual dep5d5ce ( all social elem5ts1 at all ! mom5ts ( _! common evolution4 ,!re is1 !re=e1 no di/urb+ influ5ce1 :atev] its orig9 may be1 :i* c 8cause unsympa!tic oppos+ elem5ts to coexi/ 9 a giv5 society40#bgf ,r w\ld x de/roy ?is society4 ,all t is possible is to modify ! respective t5d5cies :i* inde$ coexi/ 9 ?is society1 b )\t caus+ ! appe>ance or disappe>ance ( any ( !m4 ,9 ! same way1 f ! dynamic po9t ( view1 ! ord] ( ! successive phases ( progress is det]m9$ by laws4 ,no ext]nal influ5ce 7nor 9 p>ticul> t ( man71 c\ld ov]turn or di/urb ?is ord]1 or 8skip0 "o ( ! /ages4 ,! evolution c\ld only be made m rapid1 t is to say1 easi]4 ,! /atesman1 infatuat$ ) 8 p[]1 w p]haps f9d ?is a v humble "p to play4 ,b1 ev5 )9 ^! limits1 human int]v5tion c\ld /ill be ( capital importance provid$ t x 7 direct$ by sci5ce4 ,hi/ory confirms ^! views4 ,9 x we nev] see social ph5om5a modifi$ by man o!rwise ?an 9 _! int5sity1 or 9 _! spe$4 ,:]e we be/ "k _! evolution1 t is to say1 9 ! social s]ies1 :i* includes ! hi/ory ( ! sci5ces1 ( ! arts1 ( morals & in/itutions1 ! v]ification ( ?is law is con/ant4 ,= in/ance1 among ! sci5tific m5 at ,alex&ria a/ronomy /opp$ at a c]ta9 po9t1 because ! fur!r developm5t ( ?is sci5ce 0 n compatible ) ! g5]al conditions ( society at t "t4 ,& if ,montesquieu's attempt to subject social facts to laws fail$1 x is because1 be=e sociology1 positive biology _h fir/ to be f\nd$4 ,analog\s examples ab\nd1 & a contr>y case has nev] pres5t$ itself4 ,?ree second>y factors1 race1 climate1 & man's political action especially modify progress1 9 ! measure :i* has j be5 indicat$4 ,9 ! pres5t /ate ( sci5ce x is impossible to arrange !m 9 ! ord] ( _! importance4 ,montesquieu1 made too mu* ( climates3 o!rs h made too mu* ( races4#bgg ,^? elem5ts ( social evolution h n yet be5 /udi$ by ! positive me?od4 ,until ! f\ndation ( social dynamics _! "p 01 ( necessity1 wrongly conceiv$4 ,x 0 n kn[n t ! ess5tial law1 ! law ( ! ?ree /ates1 is indep5d5t ( ^! second>y factors1 :il/ on ! contr>y ! second>y factors c only act 9 con=mity ) ?is law1 )\t ev] susp5d+ x4 ,9 ord] t ! modifications :i* !y produce %\ld become intelligible1 x 0 necess>y t ! normal type ( evolution %\ld fir/ be kn[n4 ,to /udy ! influ5ce ( climates & ( races be=e fir/ possess+ ! g5]al laws ( social dynamics1 01 almo/1 to pret5d to e/abli% pa?ology )\t hav+ fir/ con/itut$ physiology4 ,z to man's political action1 x too has be5 wrongly und]/ood4 ,9 ! abs5ce ( a positive conception ( social ph5om5a1 "s d5i$ ! efficacy ( ?is action1 o!rs exagg]at$ x4 ,:5 x 0 us$ 9 ! direction ( progress1 x almo/ necess>ily appe>$ to be ! pr9cipal cause ( ! results :i* social evolution w\ld h br\ght ab\t 9 any case4 ,! illusion 0 all ! m inevitable f ! fact t social =ces are always p]sonifi$ 9 individuals4 ,on ! o!r h&1 h[ (t5 h ! mo/ vigor\s political ef=ts only be5 successful = a day1 because ! g5]al evolution ( society 0 proce$+ 9 ! contr>y direction6 ,s long z ! !ological & metaphysical p]iod la/s1 man does n hesitate to ascribe to himself an almo/ b\ndless action ^u natural ph5om5a4 ,hav+ rea*$ ! positive p]iod1 he kn[s t ph5om5a are only1 modifiable )9 c]ta9 limits1 det]m9$ by _! laws1 & t he c only aspire to relative results4 ,once positive sociology is e/abli%$ x :olly trans=ms ! famili> idea ( political art4 ,b because x ent]ta9s less great & less gratify+ ambitions1 ?is art w only be all ! m effective4 ,comp>e :at m$ic9e & surg]y are able to d to-day = ! good ( ! sick ) :at !y c\ld d be=e *emi/ry & biology became positive sci5ces6 ,b1 x is said1 admitt+ t man c modify social ph5om5a1 :at reason has he to int]f]e ) !m1 s9ce progress takes place ( itself8 ,:y n all[ ! natural evolution :i* mo/ c]ta9ly realises x to "w itself out8 ,?is objection confuses progress und]/ood z a succession ( /ates :i* unfold accord+ to a law1 ) progress und]/ood 9 ! s5se ( indef9ite improvem5t4 ,on ?is po9t aga9 ! comp>ison ( society ) liv+ organisms is in/ructive4 ,d n ^! develop 9 con=mity ) inv>iable laws8 ,yet1 ,comte reg>ds !m z extremely imp]fect1 & 9 :at conc]ns ! human body1 ! int]v5tion ( ! doctor or ! surgeon is (t5 useful & ev5 indisp5sable4 ,:5 we reproa* ! sociological !ory ( progress ) hav+ optimism z its consequ5ce1 we take ! sci5tific notion ( spontane\s ord] = ! sy/ematic ju/ification ( any exi/+ ord]4#bgh ,!re is1 h[ev]1 a v long di/ance f "o to ! o!r4 ,spontane\s ord] may (t5 be a v r\gh =m ( ord]4 ,"h1 z ev]y:]e else1 positive philosophy sub/itutes ! sci5tific pr9ciple ( ! conditions ( exi/5ce to ! metaphysical pr9ciple ( f9al causes4 ,x admits t spontane\sly1 accord+ to natural laws1 a c]ta9 necess>y ord] is e/abli%$2 b x ackn[l$ges t ?is ord] (f]s s]i\s & num]\s disadvantages1 modifiable1 9 c]ta9 degrees1 by man's int]v5tion4 ,! m complex ^! ph5om5a1 ! m are ! imp]fections multipli$ & int5sifi$4 ,! biological ph5om5a are 8inf]ior0 9 ?is respect to ^? ( inorganic nature4 ,by reason ( _! complication1 :i* is maxima1 social ph5om5a mu/ be ! mo/ 8disord]ly0 ( all4 ,9 a ^w if ! idea ( a natural law implies t ( a c]ta9 ord]1 ! notion ( ?is ord] mu/ be complet$ by ! 8simultane\s consid]ation ( its inevitable imp]fection40 ,! !ory ( progress is !n incompatible nei!r ) ! asc]ta9m5t ( social evil1 nor ) ! ef=t to rem$y x4 ,! mo/ complex ( all organisms1 ! social organism1 is also ! "o mo/ subject to diseases & to crises4 ,?us1 ,comte =esees 9 a ne> future great int]nal /ruggles 9 our society1 9 consequ5ce ( our m5tal & moral an>*y4#bgi ,to-day1 only t is sy/ematis$ :i* is de/9$ to disappe>1 & :at is n yet sy/ematis$1 t is to say all t lives1 w n be organis$ )\t viol5t conflicts4 ,x is en\gh "h to ?9k ( ! relations betwe5 ma/]s & workm54 ,revolutions occur :i* no?+ c prev5t4 ,x is an inevitable evil1 & ,comte gives a /rik+ psy*ological reason = x4 ,our m9d is too weak & our life too %ort = u ev] to =m a positive idea ( a social sy/em o!r ?an ! "o 9 :i* we 7 born & 9 :i* we live4 ,x is f ?is "o t1 will+ly or unwill+ly1 we draw ! elem5ts ( our political & social ideas4 ,ev5 m5 ( a utopian turn ( m9d d n escape ?is necessity4 ,_! dreams always reflect1 at bottom1 ei!r ! pa/1 or a contempor>y social /ate4 ,9 ord] t a new political sy/em %\ld appe>1 & especially = x to f9d access to m5's m9ds1 ! de/ruction ( ! prece$+ sy/em mu/ be already v f> advanc$4 ,until !n 8ev5 ! mo/ op5 m9ds c\ld n p]ceive ! *>act]i/ic nature ( ! new sy/em hidd5 f all eyes by ! spectacle ( ! old organisation40#bhj ,h5ce1 ! l5g?y processes ( decomposition ( worn-out rgimes1 ! no less l5g?y bir? ( new in/itutions1 & ! cruel p]iods ( transition1 full ( tr\bles1 ( w>s1 & ( revolutions4 ,) ?is same cause are connect$ :at we may call ! ph5om5a ( survival4 ,in/itutions1 p[]s1 z also doctr9es1 h a t5d5cy to subsi/ beyond ! function :i* ! g5]al advance ( ! human m9d _h assign$ to !m4#bha ,conflicts !n take place :i* x is beyond anybody's p[] to prev5t3 happy is he :o c make !m %ort] & less acute6 ,! solution only comes ) "t :5 ! vanqui%$ ideas fall into 8disuse40 ,! combat nev] ceases except f ! lack ( combatants4 ,all ?is 9 no way excludes ! possibility = man to ex]cise a b5efic5t or a detrim5tal action4 ,to und]/& is n always to ju/ify4 ,x is true t a compreh5sive view ( hi/ory disposes u to be indulg5t1 because x br+s out ! close solid>ity ( all ! social elem5ts ( ! same p]iod4 ,! responsibilities be+ %>$1 & s to speak diffus$1 appe> to be less s]i\s = ea* individual4 ,nev]!less ?is philosophy all[s praise & blame = ! pa/1 & active int]v5tion 9 social ph5om5a = ! pres5t4 ,b ?is int]v5tion w only produce ! desir$ results if x re/s ^u social sci5ce4 ,! positive polity does n propose to direct ! human race t[>ds an arbitr>ily select$ end4 ,x kn[s t humanity is mov$ by its own impulse1 8accord+ to a law no less necess>y1 al?\gh m modifiable ?an t ( gravitation40#bhb ,x is only a "q = politics to facilitate ?is advance by ?r[+ light ^u x4 ,x is a v difficult ?+ to und]go ! action ( a law )\t und]/&+ x1 or to submit to x ) a full k ( ! case4 ,x rema9s 9 man's p[] to s(t5 & to %ort5 crises1 z soon z he grasps _! reasons & =esees ! issue4 ,he w n pret5d to gov]n ! ph5om5a1 b only to modify _! spontane\s developm5t4 8,?is dem&s t he %\ld "k _! laws40#bhc ,let u also "k h[ to own t 9 respect to _m ( ^! ph5om5a1 & n ! lea/ important ( !m1 we are absolutely p[]less4 ,_! conditions escape our grasp4 ,= in/ance1 ! duration ( human life is f> f be+ z fav\rable to social evolution z might be conceiv$4#bhd ,on ! contr>y1 aft] ! extreme imp]fection ( our organism1 ! brevity ( life is "o ( ! causes ( ! sl[ness ( social developm5t4 ,h[ _m p[]ful m9ds h di$ be=e _! full maturity _h yield$ all its fruit6 ,:at w\ld n h be5 expect$ ( _! g5ius if !y _h be5 9 full possession ( _! faculties dur+ ?ree or f\r c5turies6 ,! positive !ory ( progress !re=e entails nei!r optimism nor quietism4 ,! int]v5tion ( man be+ exclud$1 ! social /ate1 :i* evolves1 accord+ to laws1 at ea* p]iod is j z good & z bad z x c be1 8accord+ to ! :ole ( ! situation40#bhe ,m ?an "o pessimi/ w\ld be satisfi$ ) ?is =mula4 ,x is legitimately drawn f ! pr9ciple ( ! conditions ( exi/5ce4 ,b1 truly1 f ! po9t ( view ( ?is pr9ciple1 t is to say1 f ! po9t ( view ( positive & relative philosophy1 !re c be no "q ei!r ( optimism or ( pessimism4 ,metaphysics alone c (f] an absolute judgm5t ^u ! :ole ( ! social reality4 ,! positive doctr9e1 "h z else:]e1 only seeks ! /atical & dynamical laws ( ph5om5a4 ,x is true1 t x f9ds t ! social evolution is1 z a matt] ( fact1 accompani$ by improvem5t4 ,b ?is improvem5t is s sl[1 s labori\s1 int]rupt$ by s _m crises1 di/urb$ by s _m conflicts1 t if humanity aspires to a bett] condition1 x is ma9ly f h] own ef=ts t %e mu/ expect a slightly m rapid progress4 ,,footnotes3 #bei ,c\rs1 ,,iv1 #dcj4 #bfj ,c\rs1 ,,iv1 #bii4 ,see also *apt] ,,ii 9 ,book ,i4 #bfa ,c\rs1 ,,iv1 #bij-g4 #bfb ,c\rs1 ,,iv1 #ahb-f4 #bfc ,pol4 pos41 ,,ii1 #ccb-c4 #bfd ,c\rs1 ,v1 #cff4 #bfe ,c\rs1 ,,iv1 #ahe-g4 #bff ,?is ref]r$ 9 ! ,au?or's m9d to ! fam\s qu>rel 9 ,fr5* lit]ature betwe5 ! admir]s ( anci5t poetry l ,boileau1 :o decl>$ x to be sup]ior to mod]n poetry1 & _! oppon5ts l ,p]rault & ,font5elle1 :o took ! contr>y view4 #bfg ,c\rs1 ,,iv1 #beg-i4 #bfh ,pol4 pos41 ,i1 #fj-c4 #bfi ,c\rs1 ,,iv1 #ahh4 #bgj ,pol4 ,pos41 ,,iv1 ,app5dice1 p4 #aii4 #bga ,c\rs1 ,,iv1 #cjd-f4 #bgb ,disc\rs sur l'esprit positif1 p4 #ei-fj4 #bgc ,pol4 ,pos41 ,i1 #ajf-h4 #bgd ,pol4 ,pos41 ,i1 #ed-ef4 #bge ,lettres ,valat1 p4 #adj 7#h septembre1 #ahbd74 #bgf ,c\rs1 ,,iv1 #cad-bj4 #bgg ,pol4 pos4 ,,ii1 #dej4 #bgh ,c\rs1 ,,iv1 #bgc4 #bgi ,c\rs1 ,,vi1 #hbe4 #bhj ,c\rs1 ,,iv1 #cj-a2 ,v1 #bda-b4 #bha ,c\rs1 ,,iv1 #bff4 #bhb ,pol4 pos41 ,,iv1 ,app5dice1 p4 #ie4 #bhc ,c\rs1 ,,iv1 #cbf4 #bhd ,c\rs1 ,,iv1 #eaj-ab4 #bhe ,c\rs1 ,,iv1 #caj-aa4 ,,*apt] ,v ,,! ,,philosophy ,,( ,,hi/ory ,if social dynamics is a sci5ce1 & if ! law ( ! ?ree /ates1 discov]$ by ,comte1 is its fundam5tal law1 ?is law 7& ^? :i* proce$ f x71 mu/ expla9 ! successive phases ( humanity1 f ! fir/ dawn ( civilisation1 to ! pres5t condition ( ! mo/ advanc$ nations4 ,!y mu/ 8introduce unity & cont9uity into ?is imm5se spectacle1 :]e 9 g5]al we see s mu* confusion & incoh]5ce40#bhf ,?us ! c\nt]p>t ( social sci5ce is a philosophy ( hi/ory4 ,9 x1 social sci5ce f9ds its concrete expression & its v]ification4 ,9 ! abs5ce ( ! prevision ( social facts = ! future1 a prevision :i* is r5d]$ almo/ impossible by ! extreme complication ( ^! facts1 social sci5ce at lea/ all[s ( ! 8rational co-ord9ation0 ( ! :ole ( ! pa/4 ,9 ord] to e/abli% ?is philosophy ( hi/ory1 ,comte gave himself two po/ulates4 ,! fir/ is common to him & to all ^? :o endeav\r$ to set =? ! evolution ( humanity f its beg9n+s1 especially be=e ! rec5t progress made by an?ropology4 ,comte 8con/ructs0 primitive man & ! society 9 :i* he liv$4 ,! second po/ulate consi/s 9 consid]+1 in/ead ( ! hi/ory ( ! :ole ( humanity1 8! mo/ complete & ! mo/ *>act]i/ic evolution10 t is to say1 t ( ! :ite race2 & 9 ?is race1 only ! populations ( we/]n ,europe4#bhg ,comte w almo/ conf9e himself to ! p]iods dealt ) by ,bossuet 9 ! ,disc\rs sur l'hi/oire univ]selle1 :i*1 moreov]1 he greatly e/eems4 ,8 philosophy ( hi/ory only embraces ,egyptian civilisation1 v little kn[n 9 8 "t1 !n ,greece & ,rome1 & f9ally aft] ! fall ( ! ,roman ,empire1 ! developm5t ( "s ,lat9 & ,g]manic peoples 9 ,europe4 ,we c und]/& t ,bossuet %\ld h s limit$ univ]sal hi/ory z to include 9 x only a small portion ( humanity ga!r$ on ! %ores ( ! ,m$it]ranean4 ,he 0 oblig$ to d s by ! lead+ idea 9 8 "w :i* makes ! appe>ance ( ,*ri/ianity ! culm9at+ po9t 9 ! human drama4 ,all t prec$es x mu/ t5d to br+ x ab\t1 all t comes aft] x mu/ arise f x4 ,b is ,augu/e ,comte1 l ,bossuet1 ju/ifi$ 9 leav+ out ( univ]sal hi/ory ! great civilisations ( ! f> ea/1 almo/ ! :ole ( ,africa1 & ! :ole ( ! new _w8 ,s9ce1 accord+ to him1 !re is no *os5 p1 nor 8provid5tial direction10 mu/ he n consid] ! total evolution ( humanity8 ,he has no "r to isolate a "p ( x 9 an arbitr>y mann]1 & to neglect ! re/4 ,he has x all ! less 9 t he consid]s ! species 9 its entirety z an individual1 & t ?is hypo!sis ( ,condorcet has become a pr9ciple ( social sci5ce ) him4 ,b ,comte believes 8 po/ulate to be z well ju/ifi$ by 8 def9ition ( sociology1 z ,bossuet's plan c\ld h be5 by 8 !ological doctr9e4 ,resembl+ on ?is po9t ! o!r positive sci5ces1 sociology is made ( laws n ( facts4 ,! pure & simple k ( facts is only an end f ! po9t ( view ( s*ol>%ip4 ,sci5ce only seeks = ?is k 9 ! measure 9 :i* x is indisp5sable = ! det]m9ation ( laws4 ,consequ5tly1 if ! evolution ( human society proce$$ simultane\sly at diff]5t po9ts on ! globe1 z1 ?is evolution takes place1 z we suppose1 ev]y:]e accord+ to inv>iable laws1 & z climate & race c only modify x )9 v n>r[ limits1 ! sociologi/ is n b\nd to /udy all ! societies ( ! pa/ & ( ! pres5t4 ,he w only d s 9 ord] to make use ( ! comp>ative me?od1 9 ! measure :i* is judg$ useful & )9 ! limitations p]mitt$ by ?is me?od4 ,9 ! second place1 among ^? hi/orical evolutions1 up to ! pres5t "t indep5d5t ( "o ano!r1 to :i* w he give ! pref]5ce to seek 9 x ! v]ification ( ab/ract social dynamics8 ,evid5tly to ! mo/ complete & ! mo/ *>act]i/ic3 = !re he w h lea/ difficulty 9 dis5gag+ ! laws f ! extraord9>y complexity ( facts4 ,h we n se5 t ! idea ( progress1 )\t :i* sociology _c be con/itut$1 has only be5 def9itely =mulat$ s9ce ! ,fr5* ,revolution8 ,comte !n ?\ght himself au?oris$ to 8limit 8 hi/orical /udy to ! sole exam9ation ( a homog5e\s & cont9u\s s]ies1 :i* 0 nev]!less ju/ly qualifi$ z univ]sal40 ,at e mom5t 9 hi/ory1 ! p ^: evolution is mo/ advanc$ repres5t ! :ole ( humanity s9ce ! re/ ( humanity is de/9$1 soon] or lat] to pass ?r\gh ! same phase4 ,h5ce ! idea1 :i* is f\nd equally 9 ,hegel & 9 ,r5an1 ( a 8mission0 ( races & ( peoples4 ,a tempor>y mission :i*1 :ile x la/s1 con/itutes _! might & _! "r1 b :i*1 too (t51 !y h ! mis=tune to survive4 ,i4 ,! positive philosophy ( hi/ory takes z its guid+ pr9ciple ! idea ( unity4 ,9 virtue ( a po/ulate :i* is an audaci\s anticipation conc]n+ an unc]ta9 future1 ! human species1 9 x1 is reg>d$ z an imm5se social unity4 ,simil>ly1 9 x1 ! evolution ( humanity is reg>d$ z end+ 9 ! moral & religi\s unity ( all m54 ,humanity goes f spontane\s religion :]e x beg9s1 to demon/rat$ religion :]e x becomes f9ally e/abli%$4 ,betwe5 ! two lies ! doma9 ( hi/ory4 ,! successive /ates ?r\gh :i* humanity passes 9 evolv+ are n homog5e\s4 ,! !ological & ! positive _s are m+l$ 9 !m at v>i\s degrees4 ,!y /ruggle "o aga9/ ! o!r4 ,^! /ates !n conta9 )9 !mselves ! pr9ciple ( _! own de/ruction4 ,ea* "o necess>ily prep>es ! appe>ance ( ! foll[+ "o1 until ! f9al /ate 9 :i* ! positive _s alone w pr$om9ate4 ,! spr+ ( ^! concrete views ( hi/ory is ! logical ne$ ( unity4 ,x is ?is :i* det]m9$ ! initial movem5t4 ,= ! primitive religions1 unity 0 nev] p]fect4 ,ev5 at ! p]iod :5 feti*ism rules )\t "q1 "s rudim5ts ( ! positive _s exi/4 ,human nature1 be+ inv>iable1 ! g]m ( its f9al /ate 0 already conta9$ 9 a primitive /ate4 ,f t "t x 0 c]ta9 t1 if humanity em]g$ f its primitive /ate1 x w\ld evolve until x f\nd unity 9 ! f9al religion4 ,if ?is be s1 h[ is x t ,comte did n reg>d ! succession ( religi\s =ms z ! supreme dynamic law1 z ! pr9ciple ( ! philosophy ( hi/ory8 ,:y did he believe r t he _h f\nd ?is pr9ciple 9 ! law ( ! evolution ( philosophies8 ,x is because1 accord+ to him1 ! evolution ( religi\s =ms is a function ( intellectual evolution4 ,x is ev5 subord9ate to intellectual evolution1 9 ?is s5se1 t progress 9 ! k ( ! laws ( nature soon] or lat] br+s ab\t a religi\s revolution4 ,9 ! second place1 if ! philosophy ( hi/ory _h *os5 ! succession ( religi\s =ms z its *ief axis1 x w\ld only h /udi$ ! process ( decomposition ( beliefs1 :i*1 up to ! pres5t "t1 has l$ !m f ! p]iod :5 all ?\ght is religi\s 7feti*ism71 to t :5 no ?\ght seems to be s any m 7philosophical deism74 ,x w\ld n %[ at ! same "t ! inv]se & simultane\s process ( ! positive _s1 :i* n only det]m9es ?is progressive decomposition1 b also prep>es ! elem5ts ( a new fai?4 ,x w\ld n %[ h[ by degrees1 by means ( sci5ce1 ?is _s e/abli%es a conception ( nature :i* by becom+ social w become univ]sal1 & :i* w be ! basis ( ! f9al religion4 ,?is is :y ,comte1 :ile mak+ religion ! *ief elem5t 9 individual & social human life1 0 nev]!less to take ! evolution ( ! intellect1 t is to say1 ! sci5ces & ! philosophies1 z ! 8guid+ ?read0 ( 8 philosophy ( hi/ory4 ,,ii4 ,x does n come )9 ! purpose ( ?is "w to give ev5 a summ>y outl9e ( ! philosophy ( hi/ory develop$ by ,comte fir/ 9 ! ,c\rs de philosophie positive1 & !n 9 ! ?ird volume ( ! ,politique positive4 ,nei!r %all we dis5gage ! +5i\s or pr(\nd views ( detail ) :i* x ab\nds4 ,x w suffice = u to %[ h[1 accord+ to ,comte1 ! laws ( social dynamics are always v]ifi$1 & h[ app>5t exceptions end by be+ int]pret$ 9 ! direction ( ^! laws4 ,feti*ism1 prop]ly s-call$1 0 succe$$ by a/rology1 !n by poly!ism1 :i* 0 fir/ cons]vative 7! rgime ( ca/es 9 ,egypt71 !n intellectual 7,greece71 & social 7! ,roman empire74 ,) ! ,*ri/ian religion mono!ism comes to be sub/itut$ to poly!ism4 ,b does n ! !ory ( progress soon meet ) an insurm\ntable ob/acle8 ,h[ does x expla9 ! ,middle ,ages1 t long succession ( c5turies :i* ,voltaire & ! philosoph]s _h describ$ z full ( d>kness1 ( sup]/ition1 & ( ignorance1 z ! disgrace ( hi/ory8 ,h[ to reconcile ?is lam5table 8retrogression0 ) ! 8cont9uity0 ( progress affirm$ by social dynamics8 ,augu/e ,comte's answ] is pres5t$ 9 two =ms4 ,9 ! fir/ place ! 8retrogression0 0 nev] complete4 ,at ! "t :5 ! ,middle ,ages 7 at _! d>ke/ 9 ,europe1 ,arab civilisation 0 go+ ?r\gh its mo/ brilliant p]iod4 ,9 x _m ( ! sci5ces 7 go+ beyond ! extreme po9t rea*$ by !m 9 antiquity4 ,! cont9uity ( evolution 0 !n n int]rupt$4 ,x suffices to und]/&1 9 con=mity ) ! po/ulate laid d[n by ,comte at ! beg9n+ ( social dynamics1 t1 at ?is p]iod1 ! ,arabs 7 ! "p ( humanity ^: intellectual evolution 0 mo/ advanc$1 & :o1 consequ5tly1 repres5t$ ! re/4 ,b1 above all1 ! curr5t op9ion conc]n+ ! ,middle ,ages is errone\s4 ,! philosoph]s ( ! ,,xviii4 c5tury did n "k x4 ,!y only saw ?is p]iod ?r\gh _! prejudices1 or r !y did n deign to look at x4 ,nev]!less1 ! :ole spiritual movem5t ( mod]n c5turies goes back to ^? 8memorable times1 unju/ly qualifi$ z d>k by metaphysical criticism1 ( :i* ,prote/antism 0 ! fir/ organ40#bhh ,9 ! fir/ place--& ?is is a capital proposition 9 hi/orical philosophy#bhi--! feudal rgime z a temporal organisation1 0 ! natural result ( ! situation ( ! ,roman _w4 ,9 any case x w\ld h be5 =m$1 ev5 if ! invasions _h n tak5 place4 ,9 virtue ( ! cons5sus :i* is ! fundam5tal pr9ciple ( social /atics1 ! o!r s]ies ( ph5om5a :i* accompani$ ! e/abli%m5t ( ! feudal rgime 7 !n also produc$ z a 8natural developm5t10 & x is a misund]/&+ to see 9 !m an int]ruption ( 8progress40 ,! sup]iority ( ,antiquity ov] ! ,middle ,ages1 especially 9 ! f9e arts1 w be rais$ z an objection4 ,b ,comte only recognises ?is sup]iority 9 ! pla/ic arts1 & especially 9 sculpture4#bij ,accord+ to him1 x is expla9$ by c]ta9 features 9 ,greek cu/oms :i* 7 sure to make ! p ( antiquity incomp>able 9 ! art ( express+ ! beauty ( ! human =m4 ,= ! re/1 ! /hetic education ( humanity 8progress$ dur+ ! ,middle ,ages4 ,ar*itecture produc$ m>vels ( :i* antiquity _h no idea4 ,dante is a unique poet4 ,mod]n music has its orig9 9 ! old ,gregorian4 ,f9ally1 ! art ( ! ,middle ,ages pres5t$ two *>act]i/ics :i* ! art ( ! ari/ocratic societies ( antiquity did n possess1 at lea/ 9 ! same degree4 ,x 0 spontane\s1 t is to say1 9 full natural h>mony ) ! :ole ( ! surr\nd+ conditions4 ,consequ5tly1 x 0 popul>1 x express$ m>vell\sly = ! p1 ! v s\l ( ! p4 ,if !n x be true t 8! ma9spr+ ( ! f9e arts is to be f\nd "u ! sway ( poly!ism10 none ! less has ! developm5t ( our /hetic faculties be5 cont9u\s3 & ! law ( progress has n be5 rev]s$4 ,x is true t s9ce antiquity ^! faculties h n f\nd a comb9ation ( su* fav\rable circum/ances1 su* a direct & en]getic /imulus2 b t proves no?+ 8aga9/ _! intr9sic activity1 nor aga9/ ! real m]it ( _! productions40 ,! /hetic _s has become m widespread1 m v>i$1 & ev5 m complete ?an x c\ld ev] h be5 9 antiquity4#bia ,h5ce x is t ! ,r5aissance did m h>m ?an good to ! f9e arts4 ,x inspir$ an exclusive & s]vile admiration = ! ma/]pieces ( antiquity1 :i* are relat$ to an absolute social sy/em4 8,9 ?is s5se10 says ,comte1 8! appreciation ( ! pres5t romantic s*ool only s9s 9 ! direction ( hi/orical exagg]ation2 b its recrim9ations are f> f be+ gr\ndless40#bib ,simil>ly1 ! intellectual activity ( ! ,middle ,ages has be5 v unju/ly treat$4 ,c]ta9ly1 positive philosophy _c be suspect$ ( p>tiality 9 fav\r ( !ological dogmas & metaphysical subtleties4 ,b1 j z 9 physics we di/+ui% ! mat]ial *anges1 :i* are )9 rea* ( our s5ses1 & ! molecul> movem5ts :i* escape !m1 s at c]ta9 p]iods ! human intellect produces outside itself works :i* te/ify to its activity1 & at o!r mom5ts1 )\t be+ less active its lab\r rema9s an int]nal "o4 ,!re are p]iods ( secret & sil5t prep>ation4 ,su*1 = in/ance1 0 ! fir/ portion ( ! ,middle ,ages4 ,f> f ! human m9d rema9+ /ation>y & inactive at t "t x did1 on ! contr>y1 a v consid]able "w3 x 0 creat+ ! mod]n languages1 t is to say1 ! indisp5sable in/rum5t = subsequ5t progress ( ?\ght4 ,we mu/ also be fair to two imm5se s]ies ( lab\rs1 7al*emy & a/rology71 :i* h contribut$ s greatly & = s long to ! developm5t ( human reason4 ,9 com+ aft] ! a/rolog]s & ! al*emi/s1 mod]n sci5tific m5 n only f\nd 8sci5ce r\ghly outl9$ by ! p]sev]ance ( ^! bold precursors10#bic !y fur!r receiv$ f !m ! indisp5sable pr9ciple ( ! inv>iability ( natural laws4 ,a/rology t5d$ to sugge/ a high view ( human wisdom4 ,al*emy re/or$ ! feel+ ( man's p[]1 :i* _h be5 l[]$ by !ological beliefs4 ,9 speak+ ( ,rog] ,bacon1 ,comte goes s f> z to say t ! great] numb] ( ! sci5tific m5 ( to-day :o despise ! ,middle ,ages s mu*1 w\ld be incapable n only ( writ+ b ev5 ( read+ 8! great composition ( ?is admirable monk10 on acc\nt ( ! imm5se v>iety ( views on all ord]s ( ph5om5a conta9$ 9 x4#bid ,comte fur!r enl>ges ) pleasure ^u ! mutual obligations ( feudal t5ure1 8an admirable comb9ation ( ! in/9ct ( indep5d5ce & ( ! feel+ ( devotion10 ^u ! appe>ance ( *ivalry1 ^u ! rais+ ( ! condition ( wom51 ^u ! enfran*isem5t ( ! commons ^u ! =mation ( ! ti]s tat1 etc4#bie ,l ! romantic s*ool1 be+ preoccupi$ ) ! duty ( fight+ ! sy/ematic detractors ( ! ,middle ,ages1 he goes to ! opposite extreme4 ,he no long] sees ! fam9es1 ! ! plagues1 ! /akes1 ! int]m9able w>s4 ,he is n cont5t ) %[+ t1 9 spite ( all1 ! ,middle ,ages 0 a p]iod ( progress4 ,he wants x to be a model p]iod1 9 :i* we %\ld f9d ! indication1 9 all ess5tial aspects1 ( ! programme :i* we are to realise to-day4#bif ,! secret ( ,comte's p>tiality = ! ,middle ,ages is n h>d to discov]4 ,he nev] tires ( prais+ ! ,ca?olic organisation ( ?is p]iod1 ! sep>ation ( ! temporal f ! spiritual p[]1#big la/ ( all 8! miracle ( ! papal hegemony40 ,no?+ ( ! k9d 0 kn[n 9 antiquity4 ,t alone suffices to e/abli% ! sup]iority ( ! ,middle ,ages4 ,positive philosophy w re/ore ?is sep>ation ( ! two p[]s to-day4 ,x w complete ! 8admirable sket*0 drawn ( old by ! ,ca?olic ,*ur*4 ,positivism1 says ,huxley1 is 8,ca?olicism m9us ,*ri/ianity40 ,comte w\ld n h prote/$ v viol5tly aga9/ ?is def9ition4 ,inde$1 9 ! ,ca?olicism ( ! ,middle ,ages1 he di/+ui%es betwe5 ! doctr9e & ! in/itutions4 ,! doctr9e is on ! decl9e & w disappe>4 ,b ! in/itutions 7 ma/]pieces ( political wisdom1 & !y h only be5 ru9$ by hav+ seem$ to be insep>able f ?is doctr9e4 ,!y ought to be re-e/abli%$ ^u intellectual bases at once broad] & m p]man5t4#bih ,positive philosophy furni%es ^! bases4 ,x w "k h[ to re/ore ! 8gov]nm5t ( s\ls10 accord+ to ! model left by ! ,ca?olic ,*ur* ( ! ,middle ,ages4 ,x has (t5 be5 said t ! social action ( ,ca?olicism 0 especially due to its moral tea*+4 ,comte rev]ses ?is proposition4 ,! moral efficacy ( ,ca?olicism pr9cipally dep5d$ ^u ! con/itution ( ! ,*ur*1 & only 9 an accessory way ^u its doctr9e4#bii ,)\t ! con/ant action ( an organis$ spiritual p[]1 a religion1 h[ev] pure x may be1 _c h mu* p[] ov] ! conduct ( m54 ,ca?olicism _h und]/ood ?is4 ,x _h f\nd$ a sy/em ( common education :i* 0 equally receiv$ by ri* & poor4 ,morality ?us acquir$ ! 8asc5d5cy :i* belongs to x40 ,! feel+s 7 subject$ to an admirable discipl9e1 :i* ex]t$ itself to uproot ev5 ! smalle/ se$s ( corruption4#cjj ,to conclude1 8! et]nal hon\r0#cja ( ,ca?olicism is to h br\ght a decisive improvem5t into ! !ory ( ! social organism1 by ! sep>ation ( ! two p[]s4 ,_m causes h contribut$ to its be+ misund]/ood2 ! excessive admiration ( ! mod]n hi/orians = ! city ( classical times1 ! p>tiality ( ,prote/ants = ! e>ly ,*ur*1 & f9ally ! contempt ( philosoph]s = ! suppos$ d>kness ( ! ,middle ,ages4 ,we judge ( x bett] to-day4 ,positive philosophy does n conf9e itself to rehabilitat+ ! ,ca?olic organisation3 x takes x up aga9 on its own acc\nt4 8,! m ,i inve/igate ?is imm5se subject10 writes ,comte to ,john ,/u>t ,mill1 8! m confirm$ ,i become 9 ! view :i* ,i already held tw5ty ye>s ago1 at ! "t ( my "w ^u ! spiritual p[]1 ( reg>d+ ourselves1 we1 sy/ematic positivi/s1 z ! real successors ( ! great m5 ( ! ,middle ,ages1 by tak+ up ! social "w aga9 at ! po9t to :i* ,ca?olicism _h c>ri$ x40#cjb ,und\bt$ly ! conditions are n ! same to-day1 & we mu/ take ! diff]5ces into acc\nt4 ,b z to ! ext5t & ! int5sity ( action1 we may say t = ea* ( ! social relations on :i* ! ,ca?olic cl]gy _h to pron\nce1 an analog\s attribution exi/s = ! mod]n spiritual p[]4#cjc ,9 a ^w1 except+ = ! dogma1 ,comte borr[s f ! ,ca?olicism ( ! ,middle ,ages almo/ ev]y?+1 its organisation1 its rgime1 its wor%ip1 &1 if he c\ld1 its cl]gy & its ca!drals4 ,8 religion w be a ,ca?olicism rais$ ^u ano!r basis4 ,,iii4 ,! sep>ation betwe5 ! temporal & spiritual p[] realis$ by ,ca?olicism 9 ! ,middle ,ages m>ks a decisive progress 9 ! hi/ory ( humanity4 ,b x 0 n f9ally e/abli%$4 ,! rgime ( :i* x =m$ a "p 0 b\nd to disappe>1 because ( ! 8mutual antipa?y0 betwe5 ! elem5ts includ$ )9 x4 ,! ,ca?olic organisation ( ! ?irte5? c5tury 0 fir/ %ak5 & !n de/roy$ by ! advanc+ asc5dancy ( ! positive _s1 & ! resi/ance ( !ological dogma4 ,f ?is 8organic0 p]iod ,european society has pass$ to a 8critical0 p]iod :i* has fill$ c5turies1 & :i* positive philosophy alone is able to br+ to a close4 ,! :ole ( mod]n hi/ory1 political1 religi\s1 sci5tific1 /hetic1 economic1 etc41 is1 at bottom1 m]ely ! succession ( ! necess>y /ages 9 ?is d\ble "w2 ! decomposition ( ! rgime ( ! ,middle ,ages1 & ! prep>ation = ! positive p]iod4 ,9 a fir/ phase1 :i* occupies ! f\rte5? & fifte5? c5turies1 ! movem5t rema9s a spontane\s "o4 ,x ignores ! end to :i* x is t5d+4 ,9 ! second1 :i* ext5ds to ! end ( ! eighte5? c5tury1 ! disorganisation becomes deep] "u ! influ5ce ( an entirely negative philosophy4#cjd ,! fir/ signs ( ! decomposition :i* 0 beg9n+ 7 ( an economic ord]4 ,! ph5om5a ( ?is ord] are inde$ a factor ( ! highe/ importance 9 ! :ole ( social life4 ,! economic evolution1 accord+ to ,comte1 necess>ily prec$es ! /hetic & sci5tific evolution4 ,x is ! =m]1 f> m ?an ! two latt]1 :i* *>act]ises our civilisation 9 contra/ ) ! societies ( antiquity4#cje ,?r\gh x ! organisation ( mod]n societies 0 to beg94 ,! free+ ( ! s]fs1 ! f\ndation ( indep5d5t urban communes1 ! trans=mation ( indu/ry :i* arose f ?is1 are describ$ by ,comte almo/ 9 ! same t]ms z ^? us$ by ,augu/9 ,?i]ry1 7:o l him _h work$ by ! side ( ,sa9t-,simon74 ,x is ! end+ ( an economic organisation1 & ! h]ald+ ( a new rgime4 ,:5 ?is spontane\s decomposition _h rea*$ a c]ta9 po9t1 ! critical doctr9es c\ld appe> & pu% x fur!r4 ,b1 to see 9 ^! doctr9es ! orig9al cause ( ?is great movem5t1 is to cr$it !m ) an exagg]at$ influ5ce1 & ev51 /rictly speak+1 an incompreh5sible "o4 ,9 ord] t doctr9es may arise & prosp] !y mu/ f9d fav\rable gr\nd4 ,! contr>y op9ion exagg]ates 8beyond all possibility0 ! political influ5ce ( ! intellect1 & creates a k9d ( vici\s circle4#cjf ,! pr9ciple ( 8free exam9ation0 0 at fir/1 9 ! ,,xvi c5tury1 only a natural result ( ! new social situation gradually br\ght ab\t by ! two prec$+ c5turies4 ,= ?is pr9ciple corresponds to a /ate ( 8non-gov]nm5t0 ( m9ds4 ,& ?is /ate1 9 turn1 comes f ! progressive dissolution ( m5tal discipl9e4 ,x la/s s long z a spiritual p[] has n be5 recon/itut$ ^u new f\ndations4 ,9 a society :]e spiritual p[] is normally ex]cis$1 t is to say1 :]e x gov]ns ! univ]sality ( m9ds1 unit$ by a body ( common beliefs1 ! ne$ ( intellectual lib]ty is n develop$ 9 individuals4 ,at any rate x does n *all5ge unanim\sly accept$ pr9ciples4 ,b1 :5 ?is p[] is weak5$1 ! pr9ciples beg9 to be discuss$4 ,ea* "o soon claims to be a judge ( _! value4 ,ev]y?+ !n dep5ds on ! comb9ation ( social conditions4 ,we c no m produce ?an we c /ifle ?is disposition ( m9ds1 8outside ! conditions :i* are fav\rable or unfav\rable to x40 ,x is only develop$ dur+ ! p]iods :i* are n 8organic40 8,x is ?r\gh hav+ misund]/ood ?is law ( social /atics t s _m hi/orical errors h be5 committ$1 9 :i* ! symptom is mi/ak5 = ! cause1 & ! result = ! pr9ciple40#cjg ,! fir/ g5]al =m ( ! pr9ciple ( fre$om ( exam9ation express$ itself 9 ,prote/antism4 ,9 x ?is fre$om at fir/ rema9$ conf9$ )9 ! m or less n>r[ limits ( ,*ri/ian !ology4 ,! _s ( criticism at fir/ especially endeav\r$1 9 ! v "n ( ,*ri/ianity1 to ru9 ! admirable sy/em ( ! ,ca?olic hi]>*y1 :i* 0 its social realisation4 ,?is is ! *>act]i/ic inconsequ5ce ( ! metaphysical _s1 :i* always d5ies ! logical d$uctions :ile claim+ to ma9ta9 ! pr9ciples1 & :i*1 9 ?is p>ticul> case1 aspir$ to re=m ,*ri/ianity at ! same "t t x de/roy$ ! necess>y conditions ( its exi/5ce1 t is to say1 its organisation4 ,9 ! same way1 z 9 ! ,ca?olicism ( ! ,middle ,ages1 ,comte *iefly admires 8! ma/]piece ( political wisdom10 :i* knew h[ to sep>ate ! attributes ( temporal p[] f ^? ( spiritual p[]2 s 9 ,prote/antism he especially sees ! de/ructive pr9ciple ( ?is ma/]piece4 ,he unceas+ly reproa*es x ) hav+ subord9at$ ! spiritual to ! temporal p[] 9 ! :ole ( ,europe4 ,?is 8*ief p]turbation0 0 ! orig9 ( all ! o!rs4 ,9 accordance ) ! lead]s ( ! traditionali/ s*ool1 ) de ,mai/re & de ,bonald 9 ,france1 ) ,hall] 9 ,g]many1 ,comte insi/s ^u ! close relation%ip betwe5 ! ,prote/ant _s & ! revolution>y _s4 ,once x has be5 dem&$1 ! "r ( exam9ation spreads by a necessity :i* is at once m5tal & social & _c be ov]come1 to all individuals & all que/ions4 ,! "n ( ,prote/antism %\ld n be re/rict$ to religi\s re=m4 ,x is no less suitable = ! :ole ( ! revolution>y philosophy4 ,= ?is philosophy1 f ,lu!ranism to ! ,deism ( ! ,,xviii4 c5tury1 8)\t exclud+ ,a!ism :i* con/itutes its extreme phase0 is a prote/ation1 at fir/ aga9/ ! pr9ciples ( ! old social ord]1 & !n aga9/ any organisation1 :atev]4#cjh ,! 8absolute & indef9ite0 dogma ( free exam9ation sets up ea* individual judgm5t z an arbit] ^u all social que/ions4 ,f ?is dogma gradually em]ge absolute lib]ty 9 speak+ & writ+1 ! political sov]eignty ( ! masses at w creat+ or de/roy+ in/itutions1 ! equality ( all m51 ! isolation ( nations3 9 a ^w1 z ,hall] has said1 8social & political atomism40 ,^! consequ5ces _h become inevitable f ! day :5 ,prote/antism gave ! supreme decision 9 religi\s que/ions to e "o1 )\t tak+ into acc\nt conditions ei!r ( compet5ce1 or au?ority4 ,?is fir/ /ep 0 a decisive "o4 ,if1 suppos+ an impossibility1 mod]n society 7 replac$ 9 ! /ate 9 :i* x 0 :5 ,prote/antism succe$$ 9 becom+ e/abli%$1 ! same necess>y succession ( social & political consequ5ces w\ld aga9 unfold !mselves4 ,aft] t1 x matt]s little t ,prote/antism %\ld h f\ght aga9/ ! revolution>y _s1 & t x %\ld h disav[$ 8an>*ical0 philosophy4 ,x matt]s little t x %\ld h made repeat$ ef=ts to con/itute a spiritual au?ority1 & t x %\ld h produc$ a multitude ( sects 8( :i* ea* piti$ ! prec$+ "o & abhorr$ ! "o :i* foll[$ x40#cji ,:atev] x may d1 ,prote/antism rema9s purely critical1 negative & disorganis+4 ,consequ5tly ! "p x plays c only be transitory4 ,x conta9s no elem5t :i* ! positive organisation %\ld pres]ve4 ,x naturally ends 9 philosophical ,deism4 ,?is ,deism appe>s z e>ly z ! ,,xvii4 c5tury 9 ,engl&1 & 9 ,holl& ) ,hobbes1 ,sp9oza & ,bayle4 ,! "r ( exam9ation is h5ce=? recognis$ z indef9ite 9 pr9ciple1 b 9 fact1 x is ?\ght possible to ma9ta9 ! metaphysical discussion )9 ! m g5]al limits ( mono!ism4#caj ,at bottom !y cont9ue 8to de/roy religion 9 ! "n ( ! religi\s pr9ciple40 ,a 8rational !ology0 is con/ruct$2 & ! natural religion1 de> to ! ,,xviii4 c5tury1 is f9ally rea*$4 ,n[1 9 ,comte's eyes1 rational !ology is an 8incoh]5t expression10#caa & natural religion 8a mon/r\s draw+ toge!r ( t]ms40 ,z if e religion 7) ! exception ( ! positive "o71 0 n necess>ily sup]natural6 ,! h>mony betwe5 reason & belief1 ev5 :5 s\ght = ) p]fect s9c]ity1 is deadly = fai?4 ,= ! /r5g? ( !ological conceptions lies 9 _! spontaneity4 ,logical pro(1 ev5 admitt+ t x be really demon/rative1 nev] =tifies & c only weak5 !m4 ,! innum]able pro(s ( ! exi/5ce ( ,god :i* h appe>$ s9ce ! ,,xii4 c5tury1 n only /ate ! bold d\bts ( :i* ?is exi/5ce has be5 ! object3 x c also be ass]t$ t !y h l>gely contribut$ to ! propagation ( ^? d\bts1 8ei!r ?r\gh ! contempt :i* ! weakness ( _m ( ^! argum5ts 0 b\nd to reflect ^u anci5t beliefs1 or ev5 by consid]ation ( ! /ronge/ ( ^! argum5ts40#cab ,popul> in/9ct 0 n mi/ak5 9 call+ ! metaphysicians :o 7 work+ at ^! pro(s a!i/s4 ,_! "w 0 ess5tially anti-!ological4 ,our c5tury sees x 9 ano!r light4 ,z ! decay ( !ology /ill cont9ues1 t :i* =m]ly 0 judg$ by public op9ion z impi\s1 may to-day appe> to be a pi\s occupation4 ,! criticism ( religi\s beliefs has be5 develop$ & spread )\t giv+ too mu* (f5ce to temporal p[]1 ?anks to ! c>e tak5 by philosoph]s 9 g5]al to reassure x ^u ! imm$iate consequ5ces ( _! lab\rs4 ,hobbes 9 ! ,,xvii4 c5tury1 ,voltaire 9 ! ,,xviii4 are z cons]vative f ! political po9t ( view z !y are revolution>y f ! religi\s po9t ( view4 ,! precaution 0 a v wise "o on _! "p4 ,b x did n arre/ ! consequ5ces :i* arose f _! pr9ciples4 ,critical philosophy1 urg+ ! dogma ( ! fre$om ( exam9ation to ! assault ( all ! pr9ciples ( ! e/abli%$ rgime1 %ook & ru9$ !m "o aft] ! o!r1 until ! 8f9al explosion0 ( ! ,fr5* ,revolution4 ,?is 0 ! conclusion 9 fact ( ! long "w ( decomposition :i* _h be5 go+ on dur+ five c5turies4 ,! old rgime 0 rott52 ! ,revolution ov]turn$ x1 mean+ to cle> ! gr\nd4 ,b did x lay d[n ! basis ( ! rgime :i* 0 to succe$ ?is "o8 ,x did n1 replies ,comte ) ,sa9t-,simon & de ,mai/re4 ,he admires ! en]gy ( ! political gifts ( ! ,conv5tion4 ,nev]!less x 0 wrong 9 believ+ t 8critical0 pr9ciples c\ld take ! place & c>ry out ! functions ( 8organic0 pr9ciples4 ,s long z ! /ruggle la/$1 ! critical pr9ciples _h be5 all ! m effective 9 t !y 7 cr$it$ ) an absolute value4 ,?us ! dogma ( b\ndless lib]ty ( consci5ce _h s]v$ to de/roy ! spiritual p[] ( ! ca?olic cl]gy1 ! dogma ( ! sov]eignty ( ! p to upset ! temporal gov]nm5t1 f9ally ! dogma ( natural equality to decompose ! sy/em ( social classes4 ,b1 once ! old rgime 0 aboli%$ ! error ( tak+ ^! dogmas z ! basis ( 8reorganisation0 0 committ$4 ,x 0 n se5 t !y 7 incompatible n only ) ! rgime :i* !y _h j de/roy$1 b ) any social sy/em :atev]4 ,9 ?is way x is moral & political disord] :i* 0 upheld z ! end ( social p]fection4 ,=1 ea* ( ! dogmas ( ! critical doctr9e1 :5 x is tak5 9 an organic s5se1 8comes exactly to lay d[n z a pr9ciple t 9 ?is p>ticul> respect society mu/ n be organis$40#cac ,:at becomes ( gov]nm5t1 = in/ance 9 ?is sy/em8 8,by a direct & total sup]vision ( ! mo/ fundam5tal political notions10 gov]nm5t is repres5t$1 ! necess>y enemy ( society4#cad ,! latt] mu/ always hold x 9 a /ate ( suspicion & ( sup]vision1 x mu/ m & m re/rict its modes ( activity1 & f9ally only leave x functions ( g5]al police1 )\t its contribut+ 9 any way to ! direction ( ! collective life & social developm5t4 ,9 a ^w1 ) no action ^u ideas1 ^u beliefs or feel+s1 ! gov]nm5t w\ld only h *>ge ( ! protection ( int]e/s4 ,b is n ?is =mally d5y+ ! v idea ( gov]nm5t1 :i* by def9ition1 %\ld on ! contr>y repres5t 8! _s ( ! :ole10 & ! 8direct+ function0 ( society8 ,is x n giv+ up at ! same "t ! great progress realis$ by ! ,middle ,ages1 t is to say a spiritual p[] indep5d5t ( ! temporal p[]8 ,ev5 consid]+ int]e/s alone1 ?is sy/em only ma9ta9s ord] ) great difficulty4 ,x is oblig$ to h rec\rse to corruption1 & x leads to cont9ual increase 9 public exp5diture4 ,! pr9ciples ( critical philosophy _c !n be us$ z a f\ndation = a new social organisation4 ,! attempt has be5 made & has be5 condemn$ by hi/ory4 ,?is failure c\ld h be5 =etold4 ,=1 be+ ess5tially metaphysical1 ?is philosophy implies a contradiction :i* necess>ily r5d]s x p[]less4 ,x t5ds to pres]ve ! g5]al bases ( ! old political sy/em1 ^: *ief conditions ( exi/5ce x has h[ev] de/roy$4#cae ,!re is a v close relation%ip betwe5 ! natural religion ( philosoph]s & ! political conceptions ( ! revolutioni/s4 ,! latt] are /ill connect$ by _! deepe/ roots ) ! old ord] ( beliefs :i* !y h f\ght aga9/ ) all _! /r5g?4 ,lib]ty1 equality1 ! sov]eignty ( ! p1 ! :ole ( ! 8absolute0 rights :i* con/itute ! basis ( ! revolution>y doctr9e is %ield$1 9 ! la/ place1 by a k9d ( 8religi\s al?\gh vague consecration40 ,! ,fr5* ,revolution 0 ! "w ( ! ,dei/s4 ,comte has set ap>t ! ?9k]s ( ! ,,xviii c5tury :om he consid]s z 8 precursors1 t is to say1 z ! anticipatory repres5tatives ( ! positive _s3 ,font5elle1 ,hume1 ,montesquieu1 ,did]ot1 & d',alemb]t1 ,turgot1 ,condorcet & a few o!rs4 ,he judges ! re/ ( ! philosophy ( ! c5tury m sev]ely4 ,he does n sp>e ! ,encyclopdie1 & 9 ! majority ( ! philosophical writ+s ( ?is p]iod he f9ds little b 8a frivol\s & feeble sophi/ic argum5tation40 ,circum/ances almo/ alone h made its success4 ,?is philosophy is incomp>ably inf]ior to t :i* ! c\nt]-revolution oppos$ to x4 ,9 ! logical respect :i* f9ally pr$om9ates1 says ,comte1 ! revolution>y criticism _c to-day resi/ ! sy/em ( ! 8retrograde s*ool40 ,9 a regul> discussion1 ! latt] w\ld soon h compell$ x to admit t x all[s ! ess5tial pr9ciples ( ! old rgime :ile refus+ to accept _! mo/ indisp5sable consequ5ces4#caf ,! inmo/ contradiction f :i* ! revolution>y philosophy suff]s w become m & m app>5t4 ,a n f> di/ant mom5t w arrive :5 ! ef=t to re/ore ! pa/ w include a l>ge numb] ( ^? :o h contribut$ to its de/ruction4 ,! p>tisans ( natural religion1 & ev5 ^? ( ! mo/ advanc$ ,deism w rally to ,ca?olicism z to ! real f\ndation ( ! social organisation :i* !y def5d4 ,! alt]native w !n be set up betwe5 ! only two solutions :i* are logical & organic3 ei!r ! old rgime1 ) ! ,ca?olic organisation1 or ! new1 ) ! positive organisation4 ,betwe5 ^! two !re is no room = ! critical1 lib]al1 metaphysical1 revolution>y sy/em1 :i*1 by :atev] "n x may be call$1 signifies 8no organisation at all40 ,,iv4 ,! old rgime 0 b\nd to p]i% because 9 x1 ! social organisation 0 connect$ ) a sy/em ( beliefs & ( dogmas :i* c\ld n )/& ! _s ( inve/igation4 ,9 ord] t ! new rgime may escape ?is cause ( dea?1 mu/ x be able )\t suff]+ to be> ! indef9ite ex]cise ( an absolute fre$om ( exam9ation8----,no1 replies ,comte1 !re is no sy/em capable ( endur+ "u ^! conditions4 ,b x suffices t 9 con/itut+ itself1 ! new fai?1 :i* is ! basis ( social ord]1 %\ld h und]gone ! te/ ( free exam9ation z we see x practis$ 9 ! positive sci5ces4 ,x suffices t1 in/ead ( a reveal$ fai?1 we %\ld h a demon/rat$ fai? :i* w !n be immovable1 & :i* w no m h to be call$ 9 "q4 ,comte !n admits ! prelim9>y te/1 b he is oppos$ to free exam9ation indef9itely r5ew$4 ,?is di/9ction all[s u to reconcile "s ( 8 decl>ations :i* o!rwise w\ld appe> contradictory4 ,8 language diff]s accord+ z he speaks ( ! positive dogma 9 ! process ( =mation1 or ( t dogma once x has be5 =m$4 ,:5 x is 9 process ( =mation ! dogma is subject to criticism1 & if x is n victori\s 9 resi/+ x x does n become an object ( belief4 ,no matt] h[ mu* we may deplore ! ev]-dissolv+ en]gy ( ! _s ( analysis & ( exam9ation1 x rema9s b5eficial none ! less1 by compell+1 = ! intellectual & moral reorganisation1 ! production ( a philosophy capable ( su/a9+ ! decisive te/ ( a deep discussion1 8freely prolong$ until ! entire conviction ( public reason0 has tak5 place4 ,?is is a condition f :i* no?+ h5ce=? c exempt u4#cag ,! spiritual reorganisation1 says ,comte1 w be ! result ( purely intellectual action4 ,x supposes a volunt>y & unanim\s ass5t at ! end ( complete discussion )\t ! int]v5tion ( ! spiritual p[]s to ha/5 ! conclusion4 ,b does x foll[ t fre$om ( exam9ation %\ld rema9 indef9itely )\t limits8 ,und\bt$ly x has be5 a good ?+ t m5 %\ld see 9 ?is lib]ty an indefeasible "r :i* !y 7 all to enjoy4 ,! dissolution ( old beliefs 9 ?is way 0 easi] & m rapid4 ,! bett] ?is 8s+ul> phase0 9 our social developm5t is analys$1 ! m w ! conviction ga9 gr\nd t )\t ! conque/ & use ( ?is unlimit$ fre$om social reorganisation c\ld n h be5 prep>$4 ,b ?is s+ul> phase 0 a transitory "o4 ,:5 x has be5 gone ?r\gh1 :5 common pr9ciples h aga9 become univ]sally accept$1 8aft] suffici5t v]ification10 ! "r ( exam9ation w aga9 return )9 its normal & p]man5t limits1 :i* consi/ 9 discuss+ ! connection ( consequ5ces ) fundam5tal & uni=mly respect$ rules1 b )\t aga9 que/ion+ ^! rules !mselves4#cah ,! "q !n r$uces itself to kn[+ :5 ! te/ may be legitimately consid]$ z at an end4 ,w ! individual approbation ( all ! memb]s ( society be requir$1 & a k9d ( consecration by univ]sal suffrage8 ,z a matt] ( fact1 su* unanimity w p]haps nev] be realis$4 ,9 ju/ice x is n necess>y4 ,:5 we dem& x we =get t ,politic sci5ce is a positive sci5ce1 ! highe/ & mo/ complicat$ ( all4 ,no "o possesses any au?ority 9 ! sci5ces if he is n compet5t4 ,! p has no ?\ght ( mak+ its op9ion prevail 9 !m2 &1 9 matt]s ( sci5ce1 all :o are n 9 a condition to und]/& demon/rations are ! p4 ,! conv]g5ce ( intellects presupposes ! volunt>y & int5tional r5unciation on ! "p ( ! great] numb] ( _! 8sov]eign "r ( exam9ation40#cai ,9 ?is way ! "r is tak5 f no "o4 ,! use ( x is simply intru/$ by ^? :o are incompet5t to ! compet5t ones4 ,?is intru/+1 freely accept$ by all1 la/s z long z ! conditions :i* made x necess>y4 ,no moral ord] c\ld be compatible ) ! 8w&]+ lib]ty ( m9ds at ! pres5t "t10 if x 7 to p]si/ indef9itely4 ,x is n possible t any man1 :e!r he be compet5t or n1 %\ld e day call into discussion ! v bases ( society4 8,sy/ematic tol]ance _c exi/1 & has nev] really exi/$1 except on ! subject ( op9ions :i* are reg>d$ z indiff]5t or z d\btful40#cbj ,su* is ! mean+ ( ! celebrat$ passages on lib]ty ( consci5ce ) :i* ,comte has s (t5 be5 reproa*$4 ,he _h writt5 x 9 #ahbb1 & quot$ x himself 9 ! f\r? volume ( ! ,c\rs de philosophie positive1#cba nev] suspect+ t any?+ c\ld be said aga9/ x4 8,!re is no lib]ty ( consci5ce 9 a/ronomy1 9 physics1 9 *emi/ry1 9 physiology1 9 ! s5se t ev]yone w\ld deem x absurd n to take on tru/ ! pr9ciples e/abli%$ 9 ^! sci5ces by compet5t m54 ,if x is o!rwise 9 politics1 x is because ! old pr9ciples h fall51 &1 z ! new ones are n yet =m$1 !re are1 prop]ly speak+1 9 ?is int]val no e/abli%$ pr9ciples40 ,x is !n 9 no way a "q ( impos+ beliefs ^u m5 ( :i* !y are n to judge1 by a k9d ( spiritual despotism4 ,comte m]ely wi%es to ext5d to politics1 consid]$ z a positive sci5ce1 :at is admitt$ 9 ! o!r sci5ces by common cons5t4 ,v4 ,)\t mu* tr\ble1 x is easy to see :5ce orig9ate ! ess5tial features ( ?is philosophy ( hi/ory4 ,9 s f> z x repres5ts ! developm5t ( humanity z subject to a law ( evolution1 :i* causes x to g ?r\gh a succession ( phases ^: ord] is rationally det]m9$1 9 a ^w z progress1 ! lead+-idea is due to ,comte's 8spiritual fa!r10 to ,condorcet4 ,= ! int]pretation ( m rec5t ev5ts1 & = ! judgm5t pass$ ^u ! ,middle ,ages1 ,comte draws 8 inspiration f ,joseph de ,mai/re1 f ! traditionali/ s*ool1 & f ,sa9t-,simon4 ,to ! latt]1 among o!r ideas1 ,comte owes ! di/9ction betwe5 ! critical & ! organic p]iods4 ,b1 on ,comte's own confession1 ,joseph de ,mai/re's influ5ce ov] 8 m9d 0 especially decisive4 ,l de ,mai/re1 he ?9ks t ! entirely negative philosophy ( ! ,,xviii4 c5tury knew v well h[ to de/roy1 b %[$ itself p[]less to con/ruct4 ,l de ,mai/re aga91 he is p]suad$ ( ! fact t social ord] requires a spiritual p[] beside ! temporal p[]1 & t ! rgime ( ! ,middle ,ages 0 a 8ma/]piece ( political wisdom0 precisely because at t p]iod ! ,ca?olic ,*ur* _h br\ght ab\t ! indep5d5ce ( ! spiritual p[]4 ,f9ally1 l de ,mai/re1 he makes ! salvation ( humanity 9 ! future dep5d ^u _! return to a unity ( beliefs4 ,comte !n equally proce$s f ! le>n$ ideologi/ ) :om ! philosophical ef=t ( ! ,,xviii4 c5tury ends1 & f ! ard5t traditionali/ = :om ?is v c5tury is ! abhorr$ p]iod ( error & ( moral p]v]sion4 ,he und]takes1 n inde$ to reconcile !m 7:o c reconcile ?+s :i* exclude ea* o!r871 b to f\nd a m compreh5sive doctr9e 9 :i* he w comb9e :at he has receiv$ f ! "o & ! o!r4 ,z su* 8 own task appe>s to him1 & he does n believe x to be above 8 p[]2 he feels himself 9 a position to avoid ! mi/akes :i* 8 pr$ecessors 7 b\nd to make4 ,condorcet _h a cle> idea ( social sci5ce2 b t did n prev5t him f misund]/&+ ! real onw>d movem5t ( ! human m9d1 & only to e/imate 8 own c5tury ju/ly at ! exp5se ( prec$+ p]iods4 ,de ,mai/re 9 8 turn1 no less prejudic$1 ?\gh 9 ano!r way1 does n und]/& hi/ory any bett]4 ,to re/ore society1 to re-e/abli% x 9 ! /ate 9 :i* x 0 9 ! ,,xiii4 c5tury1 he goes to absurd l5g?s4 ,he claims to take no notice ( ! advance ( civilisation1 & ( ! developm5t ( ! sci5ces4 ,condorcet1 :o br\ght to light ! idea ( progress1 und]/ood no?+ 9 ! ,middle ,ages4 ,de ,mai/re1 :o s cle>ly saw ! excell5ce ( ! ,middle ,ages1 d5ies ! gl>+ fact ( progress4 ,bo? are excusable1 because !y 7 /ill too close to ! ,fr5* ,revolution to grasp its full mean+4 ,9 ! he>t ( ! fray !y 7 /ill p>tially bl9d$4 ,comte1 :o sees ?+s f a great] di/ance1 also sees !m f a high] /&po9t4 ,he especially has at 8 disposal an in/rum5t :i* nei!r ,condorcet nor de ,mai/re possess$3 he has complet$ ! positive me?od1 & he applies x to ! sci5ce ( hi/orical ph5om5a4 ,9 a ^w1 he has f\nd$ ,sociology4 ,if he did n pu% social sci5ce z f> =w>d z he believ$1 at any rate he 0 "r 9 ?9k+ t 8 orig9ality lay 9 ?is attempt4 ,! problem 0 cle>ly set3 to bl5d into a new & positive sci5ce ! social ideas proce$+ f ! speculation ( ! ,,xviii4 c5tury ) ! hi/orical tru?s br\ght to light by ! adv]s>ies ( ?is philosophy4 ,! solution giv5 by ,comte is ! v s\l ( 8 sy/em4 ,by a tw(old & vigor\s ef=t1 he creat$ 8social physics40 ,on ! "o h&1 he c>ries to ! pa/ ! idea ( progress :i* ,condorcet c\ld only apply to ! future1 & ?is all[$ him to in/itute a positive philosophy ( hi/ory4 ,at ! same "t1 he projects into ! future t spiritual ord] :i* de ,mai/re _h only se5 9 ! pa/1 & ?is furni%es him ) ! frame = 8 8social reorganisation04 ,?is philosophy ( hi/ory1 :i* no long] conta9s any?+ metaphysical1 is social dynamics2 ?is 8reorganisation0 ( society1 by means ( a spiritual p[]1 w be ! positive polity4 ,,footnotes3 #bhf ,c\rs1 ,,vi1 #deg4 #bhg ,c\rs1 ,v1 #d-e4 #bhh ,c\rs1 ,v1 #cfj-a3 ,,vi1 #ej4 #bhi ,c\rs1 ,v1 #cah4 #bij ,c\rs1 ,v1 #abd-g4 #bia ,c\rs1 ,,vi1 #adh4 #bib ,c\rs1 ,,vi1 #aef-g4 #bic ,c\rs1 ,,vi1 #bdh4 #bid ,c\rs1 ,,vi1 #aid4 #bie ,c\rs1 ,v1 #cbe4 #bif ,pol4 pos41 ,,ii1 #aba-aca4 #big ,c\rs1 ,v1 #cjf sq4 #bih ,c\rs1 ,v1 #cfb4 #bii ,c\rs1 ,v1 #cce4 #cjj ,pol4 pos41 ,,ii4 #cja ,c\rs1 ,v1 #eda-e4 #cjb ,correspondance de ,comte et de ,john ,/u>t ,mill1 p4 #deh 7#ad1 juillet #ahde47 #cjc ,pol4 pos41 ,,iv1 ,app5dice1 p4 #aic4 #cjd ,c\rs1 ,v1 #dac4 #cje ,c\rs1 ,,vi1 #bc4 #cjf ,c\rs1 ,v1 #dad4 #cjg ,c\rs1 ,v1 #cad-af4 #cjh ,c\rs1 ,v1 #dca-cc2 #dfg-h2 #eaa-ac4 #cji ,c\rs1 ,v1 #eca4 #caj ,c\rs1 ,v1 #dce4 #caa ,c\rs1 ,,vi1 #bcf4 #cab ,c\rs1 ,v1 #ehi4 #cac ,pol4 pos41 ,,iv1 ,app5dice1 p4 #ahj-a4 #cad ,c\rs1 ,,vi1 #cf4 #cae ,c\rs1 ,,iv1 #fj4 #caf ,c\rs1 ,,iv1 #aei4 #cag ,c\rs1 ,,iv1 #ge sq4 #cah ,c\rs1 ,,iv1 #dj4 #cai ,c\rs1 ,,iv1 #ajj4 #cbj ,c\rs1 ,,iv1 #df4 #cba ,c\rs1 ,,iv1 #df4 ,,book ,,iv ,,*apt] ,i ,,! ,,pr9ciples ,,( ,,e?ics ,9 ,comte's sy/em ,e?ics occupies an int]m$iate place betwe5 !oretical philosophy & politics4 ,e?ics re/s ^u ! philosophy z ,politics re/s on ! pr9ciples ( ,e?ics4 ,e?ics is n an ab/ract speculative sci5ce2 x does n !re=e belong to ! hi]>*y ( ! fundam5tal sci5ces4 ,x is true t1 at ! end ( 8 life1 ,comte add$ a sev5? to ! six sci5ces ( ! e>ly li/1#cbb :i* precisely 0 e?ics1 t is to say ! sci5ce ( ! laws :i* gov]n ! emotions1 passions1 desires1 etc41 ( man consid]$ z an individual4 ,b "h x is m a "q ( e?ical psy*ology ?an ( e?ics und]/ood 9 ! s5se usual ) philosoph]s4 ,! latt]1 9 ,comte's eyes1 nev] con/itut$ ! object ( a special sci5ce4 ,z a matt] ( fact1 ei!r ! laws ( moral ph5om5a are /udi$1 & ?is rese>*1 f\nd$ ^u ! positive k ( individual & collective human nature1 =ms a "p ( sociology4 ,or1 />t+ f ! k ( ^! laws1 we ask ourselves :at w\ld be ! be/ use = ! p[] possess$ by man ( modify+ ph5om5a2 9 ?is case x is an art ^: rules mu/ be det]m9$4 ,b = ^! rules to be rationally e/abli%$1 social sci5ce itself mu/ be rationally f\nd$4 ,?us1 f ! practical z f ! speculative po9t ( view1 positive e?ics dep5ds ^u sociology4 ,i4 ,9 ! ,,xviii4 c5t4 ,comte di/+ui%es ?ree s*ools ( ,e?ics3 ! utilit>ian s*ool1 especially repres5t$ 9 8 view by ,helvetius2 ! ,kantian ,s*ool1 :i* he kn[s ?r\gh ,c\s92 & f9ally ! philosophy ( ! moral s5tim5t2 t is to say1 ! ,scotti% s*ool2 by none ( ! ?ree is he fully satisfi$4 ,! ,utilit>ianism ( ,helvetius re/s ^u an inadequate psy*ology1 :i* di/orts human nature by d5y+ aga9/ all evid5ce ! exi/5ce ( altrui/ic incl9ations4 ,he involunt>ily t5ds to 8r$uce all ! social relations to l[ coalitions ( private int]e/s40 ,! e?ics ( duty1 z pres5t$ by ,c\s91 at any rate1 organises 8a k9d ( my/ification1 9 :i* ! s-call$ p]man5t disposition ( ea* "o to direct 8 conduct accord+ to ! ab/ract idea ( duty w\ld end 9 a small numb] ( clev] s*em]s tak+ advantage ( ! human race40 ,^! rem>ks1 9 ,comte's m9d address !mselves less to ! doctr9e ?an to ! p]son ( ,c\s94 ,f9ally ! ,scotti% s*ool 0 ne>] to ! tru? ?an ! o!rs1 s9ce x admitt$ ! exi/5ce ( ! altrui/ic t5d5cies beside ! selfi% ones4 ,b x lack$ precision & /r5g?4 ,^! v>i\s s*ools ( e?ics _h a common fail+ by :i* !y /ood condemn$ z errone\s3 !y 7 con/itut$ be=e ! sci5ce ( human nature _h become positive4 ,?us utilit>ian morality is q d$ucible f a psy*ology su* z t ( ,condillac3 b ?is 8metaphysical0 psy*ology treat$ man *iefly z a reason+ & calculat+ be+1 & misund]/ood ! prepond]ance ( ! affective faculties4 ,9 ! same way1 ! 8g]man10 t is to say ,c\s9's philosophy1 repres5ts ! ego z be+ free1 ( an absolute fre$om1 & z be+ subject$ to no law :atev]3 h5ce a /range & metaphysical sy/em ( e?ics ( duty4 ,!ological doctr9es ( e?ics hi!rto h be5 v sup]ior to ^? :i* h be5 produc$ by philosophical speculation4 ,! reason = ?is is simple4 ,)\t any sci5tific app>atus1 religion implies a f> m exact psy*ology ?an t ( philosoph]s up to ! pres5t "t4 ,x deals ) man 8concrete0 & real4 ,x 0 b\nd n to misund]/& ! relative importance ( 8 faculties1 & ! respective p[] ( 8 incl9ations & 8 passions4 ,! prie/ v (t5 has a bett] k ( m5 ?an ! metaphysician4 ,comte especially admires ,*ri/ian morality or1 m precisely1 ! tea*+ ( ?is morality z x 0 giv5 by ! ,ca?olic *ur* 9 ! ,middle ,ages4 8,all ! diff]5t bran*es ( ?is morality h receiv$ mo/ important improvem5ts f ,ca?olicism40 ,9 say+ 8,love ?y neighb\r z ?yself10 9 mak+ *>ity ! supreme virtue1 9 fight+ aga9/ selfi%ness z ! s\rce ( all vices1 ,*ri/ian morality has taught :at above all o!r ?+s mu/ be engrav$ ^u m5's he>ts4 ,positive philosophy w use ! same language4 8,= anyone :o has gone deeply into ! /udy ( humanity1 univ]sal love z ,ca?olicism conceiv$ x is /ill m important ?an ! intellect itself 9 ! economy ( our individual or social exi/5ce1 because to ! ga9 ( ea* "o & ( all1 love makes use ev5 ( ! lea/ ( our m5tal faculties1 :ile selfi%ness disfigures or p>alyses ev5 ! be/ dispositions40#cbc ,b ! greate/ m]it ( ,ca?olicism has be5 t x consid]$ e?ics z 8! fir/ ( social necessities40 ,ev]y?+ is subord9at$ to x3 x is subord9at$ to no?+4 ,x dom9ates ! entire life ( man s z ceaselessly to direct & control all 8 actions4 ,9 anci5t society1 morals dep5d$ ^u politics4 ,9 ,*ri/ian society ev5 politics borr[s its pr9ciples f morals4 ,t 0 ! f9e/ triumph ( 8,ca?olic wisdom10 :i* in/itut$ a spiritual p[] indep5d5t ( ! temporal p[]4 ,un=tunately ?is pure & l(ty morality has l9k$ its de/9ies ) ^? ( ,ca?olicism4 ,n[1 ,ca?olicism has be5 unable to keep pace ) ! progress ( ! intellect & ( ! positive me?od4 ,at fir/ x gave pro( ( 8admirable lib]ality40 ,lat] x became indiff]5t1 & !n ho/ile1 to sci5tific progress4 ,f9ally x %[$ itself to be 8retrograde10 :5 x _h to /ruggle = its own exi/5ce4 ,ca?olic dogmas und]w5t a decomposition ! necess>y /ages ( :i* h be5 already describ$#cbd z x 0 b\nd to happ51 & z a matt] ( fact did happ51 ! morality itself came to be affect$ by ! attacks :i* 7 loos5+ ! f\ndations ( dogma4 ,! "w ( criticism1 aft] hav+ successively ru9$ all ! f\ndations ( ! old intellectual sy/em1 0 subsequ5tly to attack ^? ( e?ics4 ,s we see ! family1 m>riage1 h]$ity1 8assail$ by s5seless sects40#cbe ,to be sure1 private morality dep5ds ^u o!r conditions ?an ^? ( unanim\s op9ions immovably e/abli%$4 ,natural feel+ speaks 9 x4 ,nev]!less x is n beyond ! rea* ( 8corrosive discussion10 :5 op9ions ( ?is k9d are lack+1 b public morality is all ! m ?reat5$4 ,"h1 )\t nam+ !m1 b cle>ly po9t+ !m out1 ,comte attacks ! s*ools ( ,sa9t-,simon & ,f\ri]4 8,:ile dream+ ab\t reorganisation ( society !y only develop$ ! mo/ dang]\s an>*y40 ,sa9t-,simonism endeav\r$ to ru9 ! family :i* ! revolution>y /orm1 8) a few exceptions10 _h respect$4 ,f\ri]ism d5ies ! mo/ g5]al & ! commone/ pr9ciple ( individual morality3 ! subord9ation ( ! passion to reason4 ,mu/ we !n g back1 z ! retrograde s*ool w\ld h u d1 & 9 ord] to save morality base x once aga9 ^u reveal$ religion8 ,b ! rem$y1 if x be n worse ?an ! disease1 is at lea/ p[]less to cure x4 ,h[ c\ld ! religi\s dogmas be us$ z a support = morality :5 !y _c su/a9 !mselves8 ,:at1 9 ! future1 c we expect f beliefs :i* h n )/ood ! progress ( reason8 ,f> f be+ able to furni% a solid basis = morality to-day1 religi\s beliefs t5d m & m to become d\bly detrim5tal to x4 ,on ! "o h& !y are oppos$ to ! human m9d plac+ x on a m solid f\ndation2 &1 on ! o!r h&1 !y are n active en\gh1 ev5 among ^? :o believe 9 !m1 to ex]t a m>k$ influ5ce ^u conduct4 ,! cle>e/ result ( ^! dogmas is to inspire ! great] numb] ( m5 :o are /ill imbu$ ) !m1 ) an in/9ctive & insurm\ntable hatr$ ( ^? :o h %ak5 !m (f4 ,,ii4 ,be+ f\nd$ ^u positive sci5ce1 ,comte's e?ics w reproduce its ess5tial *>act]i/ics4 ,9 ! fir/ place x w be 8real10 t is to say x w re/ ^u obs]vation & n ^u imag9ation4 ,x w consid] man z he is & n z he fancies himself to be4 ,x w !n re/1 n ^u ! ab/ract analysis :i* he may make ( 8 own he>t1 b ^u ! pro(s giv5 by humanity ( its incl9ations & ( ! usual motives = its actions1 dur+ ! c5turies made kn[n to u by hi/ory4 ,9 a ^w1 ?r\gh ! use ( an objective & truly sci5tific me?od1 x w avoid s]i\s causes = mi/akes4 ,be+ positive1 ?is morality w be relative4 ,= ! imm$iate & necess>y consequ5ce ( ! relativity ( k is ! relativity ( morality4 ,kant1 :om ,comte himself call$ 8! la/ ( 8 great precursors10 attempt$ to pres]ve an absolute "* = e?ics3 x is because1 at bottom1 he also pres]v$ metaphysics4 ,! moral law1 says ,kant1 is univ]sally valid = e free & reasonable be+4 ,b ! only species ( be+s ( ?is k9d :i* we "k1 ! human species1 is develop$ 9 "t accord+ to ! laws ( a necess>y progress4 ,at e /age 9 ?is developm5t x 0 n possess$ ( an equal aptitude = und]/&+ a moral law4 ,! mo/ we c say is t1 ) "t1 ! aptitude becomes great] & great]4 ,!n1 ! exi/5ce ( our species dep5ds ^u a great numb] ( natural conditions--a/ronomical1 physical1 biological1 sociological4 ,if ^! conditions 7 diff]5t1 :i* is n an absurd hypo!sis1 our morality w\ld be diff]5t also4 ,x is !n relative at once to our situation & to our organisation40 ,! idea ( a relative morality is /ill a s\rce ( anxiety to _m m9ds1 :o take x to be a prelim9>y /ep t[>ds ! negation ( all morality4 ,!y ?9k t1 ei!r good is absolute or ! di/9ction betwe5 good & evil vani%es2 !re is no middle c\rse4 ,h[ev]1 hi/ory %[s t !re is a way out ( su* deadlocks4 ,0 n a simil> dilemma put on ! subject ( k8 ,0 x n ev5 said3 ei!r tru? is absolute1 or !re is n tru? at all8 ,! dilemma 0 a false "o4 ,! human m9d has become accu/om$ to relative tru?s2 & an analog\s solution w end by be+ also accept$ = e?ics4 ,! ackn[l$gm5t ( its relativity w n be any m fatal = x ?an x has be5 = sci5ce4 ,z ! di/9ction betwe5 ! true & ! false subsi/s1 al?\gh good is no long] conceiv$ z absolute & immutable1 s ! di/9ction betwe5 good & evil subsi/s1 al?\gh good is no long] conceiv$ z a supreme !ological or metaphysical reality1 b z a 8progress0 t[>ds an end indef9itely approa*$ b nev] rea*$4 ,! evolution ( morality corresponds to t ( k4 ,bo? g ?r\gh successive phases1 ( :i* ea* "o implies ! prec$+ ones1 & pres]ves :ile modify+ !m4 ,!re are !n 8goods0 z !re are 8tru?s10 provisional & tempor>y4 ,positive philosophy c ?us give a reason = moral ideas1 sometimes s poor & ev5 s horrible1 ^u :i* humanity =m]ly liv$4 ,x does n judge ! e?ics ( ! pa/ z comp>$ ) ! ideals ( to-day4 ,x gives full ju/ice to ! !ological & philosophical e?ics :i* x replaces1 & ( :i* x proclaims itself ! legitimate heir4 ,f9ally x claims nei!r to be moral nor orig9al 9 morality4 ,already positive sci5ce is 8a prolongation ( public reason40 ,9 its nature x does n diff] f simple commons5se1 to :i* x owes its ess5tial ideas3 only 9 sci5ce ^! ideas assume a m sy/ematic def9ition1 & an ab/ract "* :i* all[s u to make ! mo/ ?or\gh use ( !m4 ,9 ! same way sy/ematic morality is a prolongation ( spontane\s morality4#cbf ,x simply dis5gages ! pr9ciples :i*1 z a matt] ( fact1 h direct$ ! moral developm5t ( humanity4 ,does x foll[ f ?is t x only has1 s to speak1 an int]e/ = curiosity1 & t moral progress takes place ( itself z rapidly & z completely z possible1 ev5 if philosophical reflection is n appli$ to x8 ,b ,comte has already repli$ to ?is =m ( inept sophism4 ,:at is true ( ! evolution ( humanity 9 g5]al is true ( ! moral evolution includ$ 9 x4 ,?is evolution all[s ( crises1 ( diseases1 ( /oppages 9 developm5t1 etc4 ,x is !n n at all a matt] ( indiff]5ce t sy/ematic morality %\ld br+ out /rongly ! end t[>ds :i* man's ef=ts mu/ t5d1 accord+ to 8 nature & to ! :ole ( ! conditions 9 :i* he is plac$4 ,by ?r[+ light ^u its advance x helps progress z effectually z x is 9 man's p[] to help x4 ,,iii4 ,9 its positive =m ! enunciation ( ! moral problem is z mu* z possible to make ! sympa!tic in/9cts pr$om9ate ov] ! selfi% impulses1 8sociability ov] p]sonality40#cbg ,t human nature admits ( sympa!tic in/9cts1 or1 accord+ to ! "n giv5 !m by ,comte1 altrui/ic in/9cts1 is n a po/ulate b a fact4 ,positive psy*ology proves x4 ,x is "o ( ! solid portions ( ,gall's doctr9e4 ,to be conv9c$ ( ?is x is en\gh to obs]ve m51 *ildr51 & ev5 animals4 ,)\t ^! in/9cts1 moreov]1 society w\ld n subsi/4 ,metaphysicians :o consid]$ man z a be+ act+ *iefly ?r\gh reason+1 may h imag9$ a society f\nd$ ^u ! express$ or tacit cons5t ( ! contract+ p>ties4 ,9 reality1 be=e all ?+s m5 obey _! incl9ations4 ,if !y live 9 society1 x is assur$ly because _! affective faculties lead !m to x4 ,)\t inborn altrui/ic t5d5cies !re c be no society & no morality4 ,b biology has prov$ t1 s9ce organic life prepond]ates ov] animal life1 ! selfi% in/9cts are naturally /rong] ?an ! sympa!tic ones4 ,h[ c\ld ! latt] succe$ fir/ 9 c\nt]-balanc+ & !n 9 dom9at+ ! =m]8 ,?is problem w\ld h no solution if ! progressive asc5d5cy ( ! altrui/ic in/9cts1 v weak orig9ally1 7 n fav\r$ by two ord]s ( conditions1 ! "o subjective1 ! o!r objective1 ^: action is unceas+ly felt4 ,! foll[+ developm5t ( dome/ic & social affection is1 9 ! fir/ place1 ! result ( ! fact t man lives 9 society1 &1 consequ5tly1 9 cont9ual relation ) 8 neighb\rs & 8 fell[s4 ,=1 z we "k1 habitual ex]cise fav\rs ! developm5t ( organs & ( functions4 ,fur!r1 ! natural inf]iority ( ! altrui/ic incl9ations is comp5sat$ = by _! aptitude = 8indef9ite ext5sion40 ,!y c gr[ 9 all ! memb]s ( a gr\p at ! same "t4 ,f> f _! be+ ob/acles 9 ea* o!r's way1 ! /rong] altruism 9 "o awak5s & enc\rages nasc5t altruism 9 o!rs4 ,on ! contr>y1 =ms ( selfi%ness t5d to exclude ea* o!r4 ,save 9 ! case ( a m or less durable coalition1 _! rival claims cla% ) ea* o!r1 to ! p]il ( social peace4 ,!y are b\nd to make mutual concessions4 ,!y are nev] altoge!r repress$2 h[ev]1 social life obliges !m to dissimulate & to re/ra9 _! mo/ viol5t outbur/s4 ,add to ?is t ! b5evol5t affections f9d 9 !mselves _! own satisfaction1 & t ?is satisfaction is inexhau/ible4 ,we tire ( act+1 said ,comte1 we ev5 tire ( ?9k+2 we nev] tire ( lov+4 ,! affections :i* x is sweete/ to exp]i5ce h also a t5d5cy to occupy a l>g] & l>g] place 9 ! he>t ( man4 ,moreov] ! "q = !m is n to take ! place ( egoism b to hold x m & m 9 *eck4 ,if human nature evolves x is1 z we "k1 )\t any ess5tial trans=mation4 ,! prepond]ance ( selfi%ness 9 u is connect$ ) organic reasons :i* are beyond our p[] & :i* w nev] *ange4 ,to wi% to uproot egoism is folly2 qui veut faire l'ange fait la bte4 ,:atev] ef=ts we make1 we _c p]man5tly *ange ! relations betwe5 our altrui/ic & egoi/ic in/9cts4 ,! latt] w always be ! /ronge/4 ,b we c reg>d ?is *ange z an ideal :i* we %all approa* always )\t ev] actually rea*+ x4#cbh ,f9ally1 x is r>e t our selfi% in/9cts d n awak5 "s altrui/ic feel+ z a c\nt]-result4 ,= example1 ! sexual in/9ct det]m9es ! developm5t ( mat]nal love4 ,! desire to impose "o's w g5]ates devotion to ! common weal4 ,once ! b5evol5t affection has aris5 x p]si/s & gr[s1 &1 aft] ! selfi% in/9ct has ceas$ to op]ate1 x is sometimes s\ght aft] = its own sake4 ,?is fact1 says ,comte1 greatly facilitates ! 8solution ( ! great human problem40#cbi ,?is solution w\ld h[ev] rema9 exce$+ly unc]ta9 & v prec>i\s if its only gu>antee 7 ! :ole ( ! subjective conditions :i* h j be5 analys$4 ,=1 9 ord] t x may become e/abli%$ & la/1 ?is gr\p ( conditions itself requires :at ,comte calls an 8objective basis40 ,! moral ord] )9 u mu/ be unit$ to ! ord] ( ! _w outside ourselves4 ,x is true t1 includ+ ! altrui/ic ones1 our incl9ations t5d to become spontane\sly develop$4 ,b x is also true t ! ext]nal _w t5ds con/antly to modify !m1 ?r\gh ! m$ium ( ! impressions :i* x makes ^u u4 ,= ! developm5t ( ^! incl9ations is necess>ily affect$ by ! direction ( our conceptions & by ! success ( our und]tak+s4 ,n[ bo? are ev] becom+ m subord9at$ to ext]nal ord]1 s9ce ! end ( sci5ce is to "k ?is ord]1 & t ( ! useful arts is to modify x4 ,9 ?is way1 indep5d5tly ( ourselves1 ord] t5ds 9 a tw(old mann] to regulate our in/9cts1 8ei!r by ! excitem5t result+ f ! notions :i* x procures1 or by ex]cise correspond+ to ! ef=ts :i* x dem&s40#ccj ,9 a ^w1 ! laws ( ! 8milieu0 9 :i* we live act l a regulation ^u our incl9ations4 ,al?\gh an indirect "o1 ! influ5ce ( ^! laws ^u !m becomes 9 ! long run irresi/ible4 ,& fur!r1 9 ord] to be felt1 ?is action does n require t we %\ld h a m or less cle> k ( x4 ,ev5 at ! "t :5 man knew almo/ no?+ ( ! laws ( nature1 8 activity 0 m or less controll$ by !m4 ,! ends s\ght aft] by man h always dep5d$ ^u 8 moral & physical nature3 ! reason ( ! failure or ! success ( 8 ef=ts h always be5 f\nd 9 ! natural laws4 ,gradually positive k 0 develop$4 ,man became consci\s ( ! ord] by :i* he is himself surr\nd$1 ( :i* he feels himself to be a portion1 & 9 :i* 8 intellect collaborates 9 a measure difficult to det]m9e b yet c]ta94 ,! ext]nal regulator :i*1 :atev] our w may be1 imposes itself ^u our activity is ?us reveal$ to our m9d4 ,! la/ degree to be rea*$ is t x %\ld f9ally be accept$ by our feel+4 ,?is is precisely ! result obta9$ by positive philosophy4 ,= x makes u "k our individual & social nature4 ,x has %[n u t humanity mu/ n be expla9$ by man1 b man by humanity4 ,x has expla9$ ! gr[+ developm5t ( social life & t ( altruism1 :i* is at once its condition & its consequ5ce4 ,we n[ und]/& t our b5evol5t affections f9d !mselves 8spontane\sly 9 con=mity ) ! natural laws :i* gov]n ! developm5t ( society40#cca ,?us x is ! cont9ual pressure ( ext]nal ord] :i* makes our egoti/ic in/9cts capable ( be+ tra9$4 ,!y w\ld und\bt$ly get ! ma/]y1 if our sympa!tic incl9ations did n f9d )\t1 9 ! laws ( nature1 a con/ant support :i* reason ends by und]/&+4 ,moral p]fection w\ld be h>mony realis$ among all m51 by _! mutual goodwill1 accord+ to ! pr9ciple3 ,live = o!rs1 &1 at ! same "t1 h>mony realis$ 9 ea* individual s\l1 by ! subjection ( egoism to ! altrui/ic s5tim5ts4 ,b ?is h>mony is n :at is produc$ 9 ! fir/ place4 ,on ! contr>y1 w> rages betwe5 ! social gr\ps1 discord betwe5 ! memb]s ( ! same gr\ps1 ! passions 9 ea* individual s\l4 ,sometimes "o1 sometimes ano!r ( our t5d5cies influ5ces u1 accord+ to circum/ances ^: details v>y to inf9ity4 ,no /able ord] ( subord9ation is e/abli%$ among our t5d5cies3 human nature1 consid]$ by itself1 does n conta9 any pr9ciple :i* c\ld ma9ta9 su* an ord]4 ,left to itself1 ! human s\l w\ld rema9 9 ! /ate call$ by ,sp9oza 8fluctuation40 ,! moral problem w\ld h no durable solution4 ,h5ce ! necessity ( a 8univ]sal brake10 to make sure ( ! developm5t ( ! altrui/ic t5d5cies4 ,?is brake is no o!r ?an ! inevitable & cont9ual pressure ( ! ord] ( ! _w ^u our conduct1 & 9 ! long run1 ^u our motives4 ,:5 ! human m9d wi%es to direct its own ph5om5a1 x in/9ctively seeks1 9 ! g5]al sy/em ( intelligible facts :i* con/itutes ! _w1 a gr\p ( well comb9$ data1 9 ord] to ref] its own less /able ph5om5a to x4 ,we h already se5 an example ( ?is k9d 9 ! =mation ( language4 ,man 8consolidates0 8 ?\ght by coord9at+ x ) a comb9ation ( signs :i* !mselves are movem5ts1 &1 z su*1 are subject to ! g5]al laws ( ! univ]se4 ,9 e?ics we f9d some?+ analog\s4 ,! ma9 artifice 9 moral p]fection1 writes ,comte1 lies 9 dim9i%+ ! inconsi/5cy1 indecision & div]g5cy 9 our purposes1 by connect+ our moral & practical intellectual habits ) ext]nal motives4 ,! mutual l9ks betwe5 our v>i\s t5d5cies are incapable ( secur+ _! /ability1 until !y h f\nd an immovable fulcrum outside !mselves4 ,to endure1 ! h>mony ( ! s\l mu/ be realis$ by itself z f\nd$ on reason1 t is to say1 ^u ! ord] ( ! _w4 ,,iv4 ,:at place mu/ we assign to ?is positive e?ics1 9 ! usual classification ( e?ical doctr9es8 ,x is (t5 consid]$ z a !ory ( ! moral s5tim5t4 ,&1 z a matt] ( fact1 ,comte himself *>act]ises 8 e?ics by 8! direct prepond]ance ( ! social feel+40 ,9 its orig9 also x belongs to ?is gr\p4 ,comte makes use ( ,adam ,smi? & ( ,hume1 :5 he affirms ! exi/5ce ( inborn altrui/ic t5d5cies )9 ! s\l4 ,he indicates ^! t5d5cies1 9 8 ,c]ebral ,table1 "u ! g5]al "n ( 8sympa?y10 :i* comes f ! ,scotti% s*ool4 ,e/abli% ^! altrui/ic feel+s1 he says1 & morality is giv51 take !m away1 & morality disappe>s4 ,b ^! philosoph]s did n pu% analysis any fur!r4 ,!y neglect$ to inquire h[ morality is develop$ 9 fact1 al?\gh ! altrui/ic t5d5cies are less p[]ful ?an ! o!rs4 ,comte reproa*es ! e?ics ( ! ,scotti% s*ool ) its sup]ficial "* & its lack ( sy/ematic /rictness4 ,he praises _! psy*ology :i* is less incomplete ?an t ( _! contempor>ies2 he is n satisfi$ ) _! !ory ( human activity4 ,if ! exi/5ce ( sympa!tic incl9ations is a fact1 _! evolution mu/ none ! less be expla9$4 ,! latt] only becomes intelligible ?r\gh ! cont9u$ action ( ! objective ord] ^u ! s\l ( man1 an action :i* becomes all ! m decisive z man becomes m consci\s ( x1 by ! discov]y ( ! laws ( nature4 ,?us1 9 ord] to give an acc\nt ( human morality1 ,comte adds a rational elem5t to ! feel+-elem5ts4 ,und\bt$ly x is n an a priori elem5t4 ,b x is t :i* = ,comte is ! sub/itute ( ! a priori 9 metaphysical doctr9es3 t is ! inv>iabl5ess ( ! laws ( ph5om5a1 :i* makes ! _w intelligible4 ,f ! speculative po9t ( view ?is intelligibility1 "u ! "n ( 8! pr9ciple ( laws10 is ! basis ( our sci5ce4 ,f ! practical po9t ( view1 ! ord] ( ! _w alone c gu>antee ! la/+ h>mony ( our incl9ations4 ,9 ?is way x becomes ! f\ndation ( morality4 ,9 spite ( ! m ?an evid5t diff]5ces ( all k9ds :i* sep>ate ,comte f ,malebran*e & f ,leibnitz1 x !n appe>s t 9 8 philosophy z 9 !irs1 ! idea ( ord] is made use ( to pass f ! doma9 ( k to t ( action4 ,und\bt$ly1 ) ,comte1 f !ological or metaphysical ?is idea has become positive4 ,he does n int5d to g beyond exp]i5ce1 & affirms no?+ :i* _c be v]ifi$ z a fact4 ,b1 l ! philosoph]s 8 pr$ecessors1 he is none ! less anxi\s to f9d ! unity ( ! s\l b5ea? ! div]sity ( its modes ( activity1 & to %[ t !oretical reason & practical reason are "o & ! same4 ,malebran*e solv$ ! problem by appeal+ to ! idea ( div9e p]fection1 express$ ev]y:]e by ord]4 ,comte expla9s t ! pressure ex]cis$ by ext]nal ord] g5]ates ord] 9 our m9d 7:i* moreov] collaborates 9 x71 !n1 z a consequ5ce1 9 our feel+s & f9ally 9 our actions4 ,! /oics _h already said some?+ simil> on ?is subject4 ,briefly1 ,comte's e?ics may be pres5t$ z ! positive =m ( ! e?ics ( univ]sal ord]4 ,%all we !n say t1 be+ s5tim5tal & rational at once1 ?is morality is n def9ite 9 "*8 ,is x m]ely an eclectic attempt at conciliation8--,eclecticism 9 a c]ta9 s5se w\ld n fright5 ,comte4 ,positive philosophy flatt]s itself on be+ j 9 reg>d to its pr$ecessors4 ,x takes pleasure 9 prais+ ea* ( !m = ! portion ( tru? :i* x conta9s4 ,b1 9 ! pres5t case !re is no occasion = x to be eclectic4 ,x suffices = x to be relative1 &1 s9ce x is a "q ( moral & social ?+s1 to appeal to hi/ory4 ,?us we see t ! s5tim5tal & ! rational pr9ciples 9 no way exclude ea* o!r4 ,f ! hi/orical po9t ( view1 t is to say1 if we consid] ! g5esis ( morality1 ! latt] f9ds bir? 9 ! sympa!tic feel+s :i* man1 l _m o!r animals1 exp]i5ces1 & :i* are spontane\sly develop$ 9 dome/ic affection & 9 social life4 ,h[ is x t subsequ5tly ?is morality evolves1 t fri5dly relations gr[ indef9itely 9 relative importance1 9 spite ( ! inborn /r5g? ( selfi%ness1 t humanity1 9 a ^w1 %\ld gradually rise above animality8 ,)\t any d\bt1 t is due to ! developm5t ( intellig5ce1 itself b\nd up ) ! ef=ts :i* man is oblig$ to make to adapt himself to ! 8milieu0 9 :i* he lives4 ,in/9ctive 9 its animal orig91 morality becomes rational 9 its human evolution4 ,we c say z mu* ( language1 ( art1 ( sci5ce1 & ev5 ( religion4 ,all ?is 0 9 embryo 9 ! primitive nature ( man1 s9ce no?+ absolutely new ev] appe>s 9 x4 ,all ?is only manife/$ itself "u pressure f ext]nal ord]1 :i*1 consci\sly or unconsci\sly1 is always be+ ex]cis$4 ,only :5 we "k ?is ord]1 we c make use ( our sci5ce to turn ! natural =ces to our own ends1 :i* 9 !mselves are rational4 ,x is 9 ?is way t sy/ematic morality is sub/itut$ to spontane\s morality4 ,if we 7 m intellig5t1 says ,comte1 x w\ld be equival5t to our be+ m moral4 ,und]/&+ bett] ! intimate connection :i* 9 a ?\s& ways1 at e mom5t1 b9ds ea* "o ( u to ! :ole ( our fell[s1 we %\ld m surely obs]ve ! precept3 8,live = o!rs40 ,&1 if we 7 m moral1 x w\ld be equival5t to our be+ m intellig5t4 ,we w\ld !n act precisely z a m op5 & a deep] intellig5ce ?an our own w\ld lead u to act4 ,n[1 we _c become m moral by an imm$iate modification ( our incl9ations4 ,positive psy*ology has e/abli%$ t we ex]cise no direct action ^u ! affective "p ( our nature4 ,b we c endeav\r to become m intellig5t3 e successful ef=t t we make to und]/& ! ord] ( nature af=ds u ! means ( mak+ fre% attempts4#ccb ,9 ?is indirect mann] morality c gr[4 ,f9ally1 x gr[s /ill m surely1 :5 ! intellect has und]/ood t x does n conta9 its end )9 itself1 t x mu/ be subord9at$ to ! he>t1 & t ! only happ9ess compatible ) ! nature ( man is f\nd 9 devotion & 9 love4 ,,footnotes3 #cbb ,pol4 pos41 ,,ii1 #dcf-g2 ,,iii1 #df-ej2 ,,iv1 #bcc1 ,cat*isme positivi/e1 #eg-ei1 #aba-abc4 #cbc ,c\rs1 ,v1 #cde-f4 #cbd ,c\rs1 ,,iv1 #ajc-h4--,see ,book ,,iii1 *apt] ,v4 #cbe ,c\rs1 ,,iv1 #ajd4 #cbf ,pol4 pos41 ,i1 #i4 #cbg ,pol4 pos41 ,i1 #ib4 #cbh ,cat*isme positivi/e1 p4 #aj4 #cbi ,cat*isme positivi/e1 p4 #ach4 #ccj ,pol4 pos41 ,,ii4 #bf-cj4 #cca ,pol4 pos41 ,i1 #bc4 #ccb ,pol4 ,pos41 ,,iv1 app5dix1 p4 #ah4 ,,*apt] ,,ii ,,social ,,e?ics 8,live = o!rs03 su* is ! supreme =mula ( positive e?ics4 ,feel+ be>s witness to its ju/ice2 sci5ce discloses its f>-rea*+ importance & its deep consequ5ces4 ,b ?is =mula is n only appli$ 9 a g5]al way to ! natural society =m$ by m5 among !mselves1 a society 9 :i* ,comte ev5 includes animals capable ( affection & ( devotion1 ^: s]vices des]ve our gratitude4 ,! moral law f9ds a precise application 9 ! def9ite relations e/abli%$ among m5 by civic society1 t is to say 9 ! rights & 9 ! mutual duties ( individuals4 ,if x be true t e?ics & politics are di/9ct f ea* o!r1 politics is none ! less closely subord9at$ to e?ics4 ,! spiritual p[] does n gov]n2 h[ev] x directs ^? :o gov]n z well z ^? :o are gov]n$4 ,x is ?is p[] :i* gives to all ! sum ( common beliefs & feel+s :i* enable ,society to live4 ,?us to e?ics belongs ! task ( det]m9+ ! pr9ciples accord+ to :i* positive politics w regulate ! relations betwe5 m54 ,n[1 z a matt] ( fact1 ^! relations are 9 a v unsettl$ condition to-day4 ,public ord] is un/able1 revolutions are frequ5t1 suff]+ is excessive4 ,are we to lay ! blame ^u public in/itutions8 ,!y are r an effect ?an a cause4 ,9 ord] to und]/& ! pres5t condition x is necess>y to grasp ! law ( ! g5]al evolution ( humanity1 & 9 p>ticul> t ( ,european ,society4 ,x !n becomes app>5t t ! actual di/urbances proce$ f ! great conflict inaugurat$ by ! ,fr5* revolution4 ,?is conflict is /ill go+ on4 ,! old rgime has n yet q disappe>$1 & ! rgime :i* is to take its place is n yet organis$4 ,! /ruggle is prolong$ betwe5 ! !ologico-metaphysical _s & ! positive _s1 betwe5 reveal$ belief :i* is becom+ weak] & demon/rat$ belief :i* is be+ =m$1 & f9ally betwe5 ! old economic l&m>ks & an indu/rial activity ^: laws h n yet be5 discov]$4 ,! relations betwe5 ma/]s & workm5 are at ! pres5t "t 8an>*ical40 ,! advance ( indu/ry1 z x gr[s1 oppresses ! majority ( ^? ^: co-op]ation 9 x is indisp5sable4 ,& ! ev] m /rongly m>k$ division betwe5 8bra9s & h&s0 is f> m due to ! political incapacity1 ! social ?\ghtlessness1 & especially to ! bl9d selfi%ness ( ! ma/]s ?an to ! inord9ate dem&s ( ! workm54#ccc ,! capitali/s h n dreamt ( organis+ a lib]al education = ! p to def5d x aga9/ ! s$uctions ( ! revolution>y propag&a4 ,!y seem to fe> t ! p %\ld receive in/ruction4 ,z f> z !y c1 !y take ! place ( ! anci5t *iefs ^: social rank !y covet4 ,b !y d n inh]it _! g5]osity4 ,!y d n und]/& t 8noblesse oblige40 ,9 ?is way ! great ma/]s ( indu/ry too (t5 t5d to utilise _! political influ5ce to ! detrim5t ( ! public1 to appropriate important monopolies & to take ! advantage ( ! p[] ( capital to make ! claims ( ! ma/]s pr$om9ate ov] ^? ( ! work]s1 )\t any reg>d = equity1 s9ce ! "r ( coalition :i* is all[$ to ! =m] is refus$ to ! latt]4 ,comte saw ! b\rgeoisie at "w dur+ ,l\is-,philippe's reign1 & he passes sev]e judgm5t ^u x4 ,its political conceptions1 he says1 ref] n to ! aim & ex]cise ( p[]1 b especially to its possession4 ,x reg>ds ! revolution z t]m9at$ by ! e/abli%m5t ( ! p>liam5t>y rgime1 :]eas ?is is only an 8equivocal halt+ place40 ,a complete social reorganisation is n less fe>$ by ?is middle class ?an by ! old upp] classes4 ,al?\gh fill$ ) ! critical _s ( ! ,,xviii4 c5tury1 ev5 "u a ,republican =m x w\ld prolong a sy/em ( !ological hypocrisy1 by means ( :i* ! respectful submission ( ! masses is insur$1 :ile no /rict duty is impos$ ^u ! lead]s4#ccd ,?is is h>d ^u ! prolet>iat1 ^: condition is f> f improv+4 ,x 8e/abli%es dungeons = ^? :o ask = bread40#cce ,x believes t ^! millions ( m5 w be able to rema9 indef9itely 8encamp$0 9 mod]n society )\t be+ prop]ly settl$ 9 x ) def9ite & respect$ rights4#ccf ,! capital :i* x holds 9 its h&s1 aft] hav+ be5 an in/rum5t ( emancipation1 has become "o ( oppression4 ,x is ?us t1 by a p>adox difficult to uphold1 ! inv5tion ( ma*9]y1 :i* a priori1 "o w\ld be l$ to believe1 w\ld s(t5 ! condition ( ! prolet>iat1 has1 on ! contr>y1 be5 a new cause ( suff]+ to !m1 & has made _! lot a d\bly h>d "o4#ccg ,"h1 9 brief1 we h a =midable indictm5t aga9/ ! middle classes1 & 9 p>ticul> aga9/ ! political economy :i* has n\ri%$ !m4 ,comte has 9 view sometimes ! classical economi/s ( ! end ( ! ,,xviii4 c5tury1 sometimes _! or?odox successors 9 ! ,,xix4 ,^? ( ! ,,xviii4 he reg>ds z hav+ collaborat$ 9 ! great revolution>y "w4 ,!y took "p 9 ! diffusion ( critical doctr9es & ( negative philosophy4 ,9 ?is capacity !y h1 no d\bt1 r5d]$ c]ta9 s]vices4 ,!y contribut$ to ! decomposition ( ! old rgime4 ,political economy _h succe$$ 9 conv9c+ ! gov]nm5ts !mselves ( _! unfitness to direct ! comm]cial & indu/rial movem5t4#cch ,! aff9ities betwe5 ! philosoph]s & ! economi/s ( ! ,,xviii4 c5tury are evid5t en\gh3 is x necess>y to recall ! _s ( 8individualism0 ( ! economi/s1 & _! *>act]i/ic t5d5cy to re/rict ! functions ( gov]nm5t z mu* z possible8 ,despite ! ef=ts ( a great numb] among !m1 cons]vatives by temp]am5t or by political t5d5cies1 ! logical consequ5ces ( _! pr9ciples 7 b\nd to come to light4 ,?us 8! sup]fluity ( all regul> moral tea*+1 ! suppression ( all (ficial enc\ragem5t ( sci5ce & ! f9e arts2 ev5 ! rec5t attacks aga9/ ! fundam5tal in/itution ( prop]ty f9d _! orig9 9 economical metaphysics40 ,x 0 ) ?is doctr9e z ) ! o!r p>ts ( negative philosophy2 aft] hav+ accompli%$ its "w ( de/ruction1 x s\ght to trans=m its critical pr9ciples into organic ones1 )\t realis+ t ?is am\nt$ to repudiat+ be=eh& any positive organisation4 ,! fam\s =mula1 8,laissez faire1 laissez pass]10 is no m a real pr9ciple 9 political economy ?an lib]ty itself is "o 9 politics prop]ly s-call$4 ,comte vigor\sly opposes ! dogma ( non-int]v5tion4 ,because 9 "s p>ticul> & second>y cases political economy has asc]ta9$ 8! natural t5d5cies ( societies 9 ! direction ( a c]ta9 necess>y ord]1 x conclud$ f ?is t any special in/itution is useless40 ,b ?is ord] is extremely imp]fect4 ,! k ( sociological laws w give u ! p[] ( improv+ x1 z we already d 9 ! case ( m$ic9e & surg]y4 ,m]ely to admit ! degree ( ord] :i* is spontane\sly e/abli%$ 9 practice is equival5t to 8a solemn dismissal 9 ! case ( e difficulty :i* arises40 ,look at ! social crisis br\ght ab\t by ! developm5t ( ma*9]y4 ,9 reply to ! j & urg5t claims ( ! workm5 sudd5ly depriv$ ( _! means ( livelihood1 & unable 9 a day to f9d ano!r1 our economi/s c only repeat1 8) m]ciless p$antry10 _! b>r5 aphorism ab\t absolute indu/rial lib]ty4 ,to all compla9ts !y d>e to answ] t x is a "q ( "t6 ,& ?is to m5 :o require food to-day6 8,su* a !ory proclaims its own social impot5ce40#cci ,& s nei!r is political economy a sci5ce yet1 nor1 s f>1 are economi/s m5 ( sci5ce4 ,orig9ally be+ ne>ly all b>ri/]s or m5 ( lett]s1 !y 7 /rang]s to ! idea ( sci5tific obs]vation1 to ! precise notion ( a natural law1 & f9ally to ! s5se ( :at con/itutes a demon/ration4 ,if we make an exception ( ,adam ,smi? & ( a few o!rs1 h[ c\ld !y apply ! positive me?od :i* !y did n "k to ! mo/ difficult cases ( analysis8 ,de/utt de ,tracy plac$ political economy betwe5 logic & e?ics4 ,& ?is 0 n )\t reason3 = x is ne>] to metaphysics ?an to positive sci5ce4 ,9 x1 "w pres]ves its p]sonal "*1 s*ools cont5d ) ea* o!r1 ! discussions z to ! elem5t>y notions ( value1 ( utility1 etc41 sav\r ( s*ola/icism4 ,! v idea ( /udy+ economical ph5om5a sep>ately is n sci5tific1 s9ce ! v>i\s 8social s]ies0 are int]dep5d5t1 & s9ce 9 sociology m p>ticul> laws dep5d ^u m g5]al laws4#cdj ,!re is no sci5tific /udy ( economical facts unless we fir/ look at !m f ! sociological po9t ( view4 ,we c no m isolate ! laws :i* regulate ! mat]ial exi/5ce ( societies ?an we c describe man z an ess5tially calculat+ be+1 only actuat$ by ! motive ( p]sonal int]e/4 ,! same objections naturally hold good aga9/ ! adv]s>ies ( ! economi/s1 s9ce1 9 g5]al1 sociali/s & communi/s h conf9$ !mselves to an analog\s conception ( _! sci5ce4 ,h[ev]1 :ile criticis+ !m1 ,comte recognises ! fact t !y h e/abli%$ "s tru?s4 ,ev]y?+ !y say is n false4 ,?us1 !y ju/ly claim ! "r = ! gov]nm5t to int]v5e 9 economical relations4 ,&1 if x be absurd to wi% to aboli% private prop]ty1 z c]ta9 sects dem&$1 x is v true t prop]ty is ( a social nature1 & t x is necess>y to regulate x4#cda ,to end[ x ) an absolute "* is1 says ,comte1 an 8anti-social0 !ory4 ,no prop]ty c be creat$1 nor ev5 transmitt$1 by its m]e possessor )\t ! concurr5ce ( society4 ,?us always & ev]y:]e ! community has int]v5$ 9 ! ex]cise ( ! "r ( prop]ty4 ,! tax makes ! public a p>tn] 9 e private =tune4 ,9 discuss+ ! ess5tial problems ( prop]ty1 ! communi/s 7:om ,comte confuses ) ! sociali/s71 to-day r5d] an important s]vice4 ,! v dang]s call$ =? by ! solution !y propose concur 9 fix+ ! g5]al att5tion ^u ?is great subject1 8)\t :i* ! metaphysical empiricism & ! ari/ocratic selfi%ness ( ! lead+ classes w\ld cause x to be set aside or disda9$40 ,m]ely to /ate ! problem )\t ! solution ) :i* ! communi/s associate x1 w\ld n suffice4 ,our weak intellect does n fa/5 ^u a "q = long1 unless a reply to x1 be x true or false1 :i* we mu/ accept or reject is =?com+ at ! same "t4 ,moreov]1 are ! communi/ 8ab]rations0 m useless1 & at bottom1 m dang]\s ?an ! curr5t illusion accord+ to :i* ! ,revolution is end$ by ! e/abli%m5t ( ! p>liam5t>y rgime8#cdb ,b1 ?is be+ admitt$ ! innovat+ s*ools h all fall5 into grave mi/akes4 ,9 g5]al1 be+ devoid ( ! hi/oric s5se1 & on ! o!r h&1 ignor+ ! pr9ciples ( social /atics1 !y d n see t man's action ^u social ph5om5a is only usefully ex]cis$ )9 c]ta9 limits4 ,! idea t a revolution c1 9 a mom5t1 trans=m ! rgime ( prop]ty & all ! social conditions :i* dep5d ^u x is de/9$ to disappe>1 :5 ! 8positive mode ( ?\ght0 %all h ext5d$ to ! social ph5om5a 9 ! same way z x has to all o!rs4 ,!n ! 8extravagant proposals0 ( ! sociali/s w f9d no adh]5ts1 & ! dem& = :at is recognis$ z impossible w no long] be made by anyone4#cdc ,f9ally1 ,comte reproa*es communism ) its t5d5cy to re/ra9 individuality4 ,?is objection1 com+ f him1 is rem>kable1 = x has v (t5 be5 made 9 8 own case4 ,z an organis] ( despotism1 ,john ,/u>t ,mill has comp>$ him to ,ignatius ( ,loyola4 ,b ,comte rem9ds u t1 accord+ to him1 ! collective organism1 or society1 diff]s f ! individual organisms1 or liv+ be+s1 by ! fact t 9 x ! elem5ts live an indep5d5t life4 ,! problem consi/s 9 conciliat+1 z mu* z possible1 ?is free division ) ! conv]g5ce ( ! activities4 ,nei!r ( ! two mu/ be sacrific$ to ! o!r4 ,to re/ra9 individualities w\ld t5d to de/roy ! dignity ( man by do+ away ) 8 responsibility1 :ile ! want ( indep5d5ce1 & ! subjection to a community indiff]5t to him w\ld make life intol]able4 8,su* is ! imm5se dang] ( all utopias :i* sacrifice real lib]ty to an an>*ical equality1 or ev5 to an exagg]at$ frat]nity40#cdd ,on ?is po9t1 positive philosophy on its own acc\nt takes up aga9 ! 8decisive criticism0 ( communism made by our economi/s4 ,,ii4 ,positive philosophy does n conf9e itself to refut+ ! or?odox economi/s & ! sociali/s by ! help ( _! own argum5ts4 ,9 its turn x takes up all ! que/ions rais$ by !m1 &1 = _! solution1 takes its /& ^u ! results obta9$ by sociology4 ,9 ! fir/ place x /ates ! problem ( 8social reorganisation0 9 its mo/ g5]al =m4 ,sociali/s1 9 ! same way z _! adv]s>ies1 are only conc]n$ ) ri*es z if !y 7 ! only ill-divid$ & ill-adm9i/]$ social =ces4 ,b !re are o!rs4 ,! re=m ( economical conditions dep5ds1 9 conclusion1 ^u t ( morals4 ,be=e all ?+s !n we mu/ 8reorganise0 morals4 ,we mu/ det]m9e ! rights & mutual duties ( citiz5s1 & inspire ev]yone ) ! feel+ ( 8 duty & ) respect = ! rights ( o!rs4 ,! two ideas ( "r & ( duty are n dealt ) by ,comte 9 ! same mann]4 ,he accepts ! idea ( duty )\t subject+ x to a special criticism4 ,duty is ! rule ( action prescrib$ to ea* "o bo? by feel+ & by reason4 ,x is our duty to d :at we recognise z mo/ suitable to our individual & social nature4 ,on ! contr>y1 ! idea ( "r 8disappe>s0 9 ! positive /ate4 ,! ^w 8"r0 mu/ be remov$ f political language1 9 ! same way z ! ^w 8cause0 is f philosophical language4 ,!y are two metaphysical notions4 ,ev]yone has duties1 & t[>ds all4 ,no "o has any "r prop]ly s-call$4 8,! idea ( "r is z false z x is immoral1 because x presupposes an absolute individuality40#cde ,^! =mul call$ =? /rong prote/s1 p>ticul>ly f ,m4 ,r5\vi] & 8 disciples4 ,inde$1 9 ! con/itution ( civil society1 !y appe> to neglect ju/ice entirely1 to e/abli% ! relations betwe5 m5 m]ely ^u *>ity & feel+4 ,h[ev]1 if we look into x closely1 ,comte's ?\ght z is (t5 ! case1 has be5 =c$ & w>p$1 by its expression4 ,b ! comp>ison betwe5 ! ideas ( "r & ( cause sugge/$ by him1 satisfactorily ?r[s a light ^u 8 mean+4 ,positive sci5ce has giv5 up ! se>* aft] causes1 9 ord] to conf9e itself to e/abli%+ ! inv>iable relations betwe5 ph5om5a4 ,b ^! relations correspond to :at 0 =m]ly call$ causal action4 ,!y repres5t :at 0 real 9 ?is suppos$ action4 ,! only diff]5ce--b x is important--consi/s 9 ! fact t ! human m9d has =sak5 ! absolute po9t ( view = ! relative "o1 & is h5ce=? cont5t to e/abli% ! connection betwe5 ph5om5a1 )\t imag9+ 8connect+ entities0 accord+ to ,malebran*e's /rong expression4 ,! idea ( "r has gone ?r\gh an analog\s trans=mation4 ,9 ! same way z ! idea ( cause1 x 0 !ological = a long "t1 & !n metaphysical4 ,9 antiquity x 0 closely alli$ to religion4 ,9 mod]n times ! rights ( peoples1 & ev5 ! rights ( individuals1 are conceiv$ accord+ to ! anci5t /&>d ( ! rights ( pr9ces & ma/]s4 ,b1 hav+ become e/abli%$ by triumph+ ov] ! rights ( pr9ces1 ! rights ( peoples & individuals ultimately re/1 z !y did1 ^u a sup]natural & my/ical basis4 ,! rights :i* e citiz5 claims are ! *ange 9 small co9 ( ! absolute "r =m]ly possess$ by ! sov]eign :o repres5t$ ! :ole nation4 ,hav+ become metaphysical 9 ! ,,xviii4 c5tury1 ! idea ( absolute1 intangible1 indefeasible "r1 :i* atta*es to ! human p]son1 has be5 mo/ useful = ! decomposition ( ! old rgime4 ,b1 once ?is "w has be5 accompli%$1 x _c be made use ( 9 ! "w ( reorganisation any m ?an ! o!r metaphysical pr9ciples4 ,positive philosophy admits no?+ absolute4 ,ev]y?+ 9 society is at once subject to conditions1 & places conditions ^u all ?+s4 ,no?+ is unconditional2 & sociology tea*es t we mu/ g n f ! individual to society1 b f society to ! individual4 ,9 consequ5ce1 "h aga9 we mu/ give up endeav\r+ to trans=m a critical pr9ciple into an organic "o4 ,und\bt$ly rights w rema91 z ! con/ant connections betwe5 ph5om5a subsi/4 ,b we %all cease to base ^! rights ^u a metaphysical conception ( human nature1 9 ! same way z we h ceas$ to ref] ! connections betwe5 ph5om5a to metaphysical entities call$ causes4 ,in/ead ( mak+ individual duties consi/ 9 ! respect ( univ]sal rights1 we %all conceive inv]sely ! rights ( ea* "o z ! result ( ! duties ( o!rs t[>ds him4 ,9 a ^w1 duty is e/abli%$ be=e "r4 ,?is pr9ciple is ( ! highe/ importance 9 ,comte's eyes4 ,9 x he sees an expression & a pro( ( ! pr$om9ance ( ! positive ov] ! metaphysical _s1 & ( ! subord9ation ( politics to e?ics4 ,he likes to say t 8! consid]ation ( duty is b\nd up ) ! _s ( ! :ole40 ,on ! contr>y1 ! consid]ation ( "r1 if x be conceiv$ z absolute1 leads to a d5ial ( all gov]nm5t & ( all social organisation4 ,! new philosophy w t5d m & m to replace 8! vague & /ormy discussion ( rights1 by ! calm & /rict det]m9ation ( respective duties40 ,h5ce=?1 ! problem rais$ by ! communi/s assumes a new aspect4 ,t !re %\ld be p[]ful indu/rial ma/]s is only an evil if !y use _! p[] to oppress ! m5 :o dep5d ^u !m4 ,x is a good ?+1 on ! contr>y1 if ^! ma/]s "k & fulfil _! duties4 ,x is ( little consequ5ce to popul> int]e/s 9 ^: h&s capital is accumulat$1 s long z ! use made ( x is b5eficial to ! social masses4#cdf ,n[ ?is ess5tial condition 8dep5ds f> m ^u moral ?an ^u political measures40 ,! latt] c und\bt$ly prev5t ! accumulation ( ri*es 9 a small numb] ( h&s1 at ! risk ( p>alys+ indu/rial activity4 ,b ^! 8tyrannical0 proce$+s w\ld be f> less efficaci\s ?an ! univ]sal repro( inflict$ by positive e?ics ^u a selfi% use ( ! ri*es possess$4 ,! repro( w\ld be all ! m irresi/ible1 because ( ! fact t ! v p :o w\ld h to submit to x c\ld n *all5ge its pr9ciple1 inculcat$ 9 all by ! common moral education40 ,x is ?us t 9 ! ,middle ,ages1 excommunication 0 n less fe>$ by ! pr9ces :o incurr$ x ?an x 0 by ! peoples :o witness$ x4 ,once common education 0 e/abli%$1 "u ! direction ( ! spiritual p[]1 ! tyranny ( ! capitali/ class w\ld be no m to be fe>$4 ,ri* m5 w\ld consid] !mselves z ! moral gu>dians ( public capital4 ,x is n "h a "q ( *>ity4 ,^? :o possess w h ! 8duty0 ( secur+1 fir/1 education & !n "w = all4 ,^! ideas seem p]haps p>adoxical & *im]ical4 ,b1 says ,comte1 ?is is because mod]n society has n yet got its sy/em ( morality4 ,indu/rial relations :i* h become imm5sely develop$ 9 x are ab&on$ to a dang]\s empiricism1 in/ead ( be+ sy/ematis$ accord+ to moral laws4 ,w>1 m or less op5ly decl>$1 alone regulates ! relations betwe5 capital & lab\r4 ,9 a normal /ate ( humanity ^! relations1 on ! contr>y1 are 8organis$40 ,/r5g? does n g5]ate oppression4 ,e citiz5 is a 8public function>y10 ^: well-def9$ functions det]m9e at once 8 obligations & 8 claims 7t is to say 8 rights74 ,prop]ty is a function l any o!r1 & n a privilege4 ,x s]ves = ! =mation & adm9i/ration ( capital by means ( :i* ea* g5]ation prep>es ! "w ( ! next4 ,^? :o hold x mu/ n turn x f its public use to _! own individual advantage4#cdg ,9 ! same way z ! capitali/s1 ! work]s are public function>ies1 & !y p]=m a no less important s]vice4 ,indep5d5tly ( _! sal>y1 !y are des]v+ social gratitude4 ,our cu/oms already admit ( ?is feel+ 9 ! case ( ! lib]al pr(essions 9 :i* ! sal>y does n disp5se ) gratitude4 ,?is feel+ w h to be ext5d$ to all "w :i* contributes to ! common weal4 ,! s]vice ( humanity1 says ,comte1 is a gratuit\s "o4 ,! sal>y1 :atev] x may be1 only pays = ! mat]ial "p 9 e (fice4 ,x s]ves to repair ! consumption dem&$ by ! organ & ! function4 ,z to ! ess5ce ( s]vice itself x all[s ( no o!r rew>d ?an ! v satisfaction ( p]=m+ x1 & ! gratitude :i* x ar\ses4#cdh ,consequ5tly 9 a 8truly organis$0 society 7note ?is expression :i* ,m4 de ,bonald (t5 uses71 ! vulg> di/9ction betwe5 public & private function>ies is de/9$ to disappe>4 ,z1 9 an army1 ev5 ! private soldi] has 8 own dignity :i* comes f ! close solid>ity ( ! milit>y organisation1 & f ?is fact1 t all %>e ! same hon\r 9 x2 s1 :5 positive education has made evid5t to all ! "p play$ by ea* "o 9 ! social "w1 pr(essions :i* are humble/ to-day w become ennobl$4#cdi ,! indu/rial rgime ( to-day1 :i* %[s u little else ?an ! conflict ( rival egoisms1 is an an>*ical rgime1 or1 to put x bett]1 an 8abs5ce ( rgime40 ,mod]n society has n yet got its morals4 ,x w =m !m gradually1 9 ! same way z milit>y society did4 ,milit>y life1 m ?an any o!r1 is rul$ by ! pr$om9at+ selfi% incl9ations4 ,nev]!less1 z x c\ld only be develop$ by ! _s ( union1 ?is condition alone suffic$ = x to det]m9e admirable devotion4#cej ,:y %\ld x n be ! same 9 indu/rial life :i* re/s ^u ! peaceful & con/ruct+ in/9ct8 ,o!rwise1 if ! pres5t 8an>*y0 ( morals 7 to la/1 mod]n society w\ld rema9 bel[ ! level ( ! ,middle ,ages1 :i* really 0 organis$ by its spiritual p[]4 ,x w\ld ev5 be bel[ ! level ( milit>y societies4 ,:at w\ld be ! use ( sub/itut+ monopoly to conque/1 & a despotism bas$ ^u ! "r ( ! ri*e/ to ! despotism re/+ ^u ! "r ( ! /ronge/8#cea ,ev]y?+ !n dep5ds ^u ! common moral education1 :i* itself dep5ds ^u ! e/abli%m5t ( a spiritual p[]4 ,! sup]iority ( ! positive doctr9e lies 9 ! fact t x has re/or$ ?is p[]4 ,! innovat+ s*ools all wi% to secure normal education & regul> "w = ! prolet>iat4 ,b !y want bo? at once1 or "w be=e education4 ,positivism wi%es to organise education fir/4#ceb ,naturally1 9 positive education duties w be pres5t$ 9 _! social aspect4 ,?us ! elem5t>y virtues ( temp]ance1 ( *a/ity1 etc41 are recomm5d$ by positive morality2--b n f ! po9t ( view ( _! usefulness to ! individual4 ,ev5 if 8an exceptionally con/itut$ nature %\ld %ield ! individual f ! consequ5ces ( intemp]ance or debau*]y10 sob]ness & cont95ce w\ld be no less /rictly requir$ ( him z be+ indisp5sable = ! fulfilm5t ( 8 social duties4#cec ,9 ! same way1 ! object ( dome/ic morality is n to =m 8a selfi%ness %>$ by sev]al10 b to develop ! sympa!tic affections :i*1 f ! family w gradually ext5d to ! social gr\p1 & !n to humanity4 ,! pr9ciple is to get man into ! habit ( subject+ himself to humanity1 ev5 9 8 smalle/ actions1 & 9 all 8 ?\ghts4 ,once ?is po9t is rea*$1 mod]n society w spontane\sly become organis$ & ! positive rgime w ( itself be e/abli%$4 ,,footnotes3 #ccc ,c\rs1 ,,vi1 #cgf4 #ccd ,pol4 pos4 ,i1 #abh-i4 #cce ,c\rs1 ,v1 #ceg4 #ccf ,pol4 pos41 ,,ii1 #daj-ab4 #ccg ,c\rs1 ,,vi1 #bfh-i4 #cch ,c\rs1 ,v1 #fjh2 ,pol4 pos4 ,,iii1 #ehe4 #cci ,c\rs1 ,,iv1 #bah-bd4 #cdj ,c\rs1 ,,iv1 #bab-ae4 #cda ,pol4 pos4 ,i1 #aed4 #cdb ,pol4 pos4 ,i1 #afj-c4 #cdc ,c\rs1 ,,iv1 #ig-i4 #cdd ,pol4 pos4 ,i1 #aei4 #cde ,c\rs1 ,,vi1 #dhj2 ,pol4 pos4 ,i1 #cfa-c2 ,,ii1 #hg4 #cdf ,c\rs1 ,,vi1 #edc-f4 #cdg ,pol4 pos4 #aef-fd4 #cdh ,pol4 pos4 ,,ii1 #dji4 #cdi ,c\rs1 ,,vi1 #eaa-ae4 #cej ,pol4 pos4 ,,ii1 #af4 #cea ,pol4 pos4 ,,iv1 ,app5dice1 p4 #baa4 #ceb ,pol4 pos4 ,i1 #afi4 #cec ,pol4 pos4 ,i1 #ig-h4 ,,*apt] ,,iii ,,! ,,idea ,,( ,,humanity ,9 ?is _w !re is no?+ absolute1 ev]y?+ is relative2 ,comte wrote ?is to 8 fri5d ,valat z e>ly z #ahah4ced ,b z a matt] ( fact1 !re exi/s a supreme reality to :i* all o!rs are subord9at$1 ! idea ( :i* is ! pr9ciple ( a rational conception ( ! _w4 ,comte calls ?is reality humanity4 ,in/ead ( be+ ! ultimate end ( all ?\ght & all action 89 itself10 x is ! ultimate end 8= u40 ,b ?is diff]5ce simply signifies t ! new philosophy leaves ! metaphysical = ! positive po9t ( view4 ,) ^! limitations ! idea ( humanity 8corresponds0 to ! old idea ( ! absolute4 ,x takes its place & fulfils its religi\s "p4 ,x is truly1 if "o d>es to say s1 a 8relative absolute40 ,9 ,comte's doctr9e1 ! idea ( humanity is pres5t$ "u sev]al successive aspects1 or1 to put x bett]1 ! developm5t ( 8 sy/em has br\ght to light1 9 turns1 ! v>i\s attributes ( ?is 8,great ,be+40 ,9 8 fir/ c>e]1 ,comte pref]s to consid] humanity z an object ( sci5ce4 ,9 8 second c>e]1 x r appe>s to him z an object ( adoration & ( love4 ,"h we c foll[ ! progress ( ! my/ical & religi\s feel+ :i*1 especially f #ahdf1 fill$ 8 ?\ghts & modifi$ 8 language1 8 philosophical doctr9e1 nev]!less1 rema9+ ess5tially ! same4 ,i4 ,we mu/ n1 says ,comte1 def9e ,humanity by man1 b on ! contr>y man by ,humanity4 ,9 g5]al ?is =mula is und]/ood 9 a moral & social s5se4 ,x is und]/ood z a condemnation ( 8individualism10 & "o ( ! direct+ pr9ciples ( ! positivi/ rgime4 ,?is int]pretation is n a false "o1 & consequ5ces ( ?is k9d c inde$ be drawn f ,comte's =mula4 ,b !y are only consequ5ces4 ,! imm$iate object ( ! =mula is n to subord9ate ! individual to ! multitude4 ,9 ! fir/ place x expresses a fact4 ,if we consid] a man by himself1 positive sci5ce only all[s u to def9e him z an animal1 9 :om z 9 all o!rs1 ! end ( animal life is to insure organic life4 ,d we wi% to def9e him by :at is ess5tially human 9 him1 t is to say1 by intellect & sociability8 ,"o mu/ !n pass f ! consid]ation ( ! individual to t ( ! species4 ,f ! /rictly biological po9t ( view ,m4 ,bonald's say+ mu/ be rev]s$2 we mu/ say t man is an organism s]v$ by an intellect4 ,x is only if we leave ! biological = ! social po9t ( view1 if we look ^u ! human species z a s+le 8imm5se & et]nal0 individual 7a conception :i* is ju/ifi$ by ! cont9u$ developm5t ( intellig5ce & sociability71#cee t we c consid] ! volunt>y & sy/ematic subord9ation ( vegative to animal life z ! ideal type t[>ds :i* civilis$ humanity is t5d+4 ,we c !n make use ( ?is subord9ation to ref9e x4 ,9 a ^w1 we are really m5 only by our p>ticipation ( humanity4 ,! ess5tial attributes ( ?is 8imm5se & et]nal social unity0 are solid>ity & cont9uity4#cef ,^! attributes are at once social & moral & x c\ld h no o!rs4 ,! attributes ( ! !ological & metaphysical absolute _h ref]5ce to ! categories ( sub/ance1 ( cause1 ( "t1 ( space1 etc4 ,x 0 "o1 simple1 inf9ite1 etc41 all (t5 incompreh5sible & contradictory expressions ( ?is idea t ! supreme pr9ciple is 8absolute40 ,on ! contr>y1 positive philosophy admits t 9 ! scale ( be+s1 dep5d5ce gr[s ) dignity4 ,humanity1 :i* is ! mo/ 8complex0 & ! 8noble/0 ( all be+s kn[n to u1 is !re=e also ! mo/ dep5d5t4 ,its exi/5ce w necess>ily end ) t ( ! planet :i* x inhabits4 ,its unity is "o ( 8collection40 ,x is imp]fect & subject to crises ( all k9ds4 ,su* z x is1 h[ev]1 sci5ce & morality %[ u 9 x ! highe/ t]m :i* our m9d c rea*1 ! l(tie/ ideal :i* our he>t c love1 & f9ally ! object mo/ wor?y ( our devotion4 ,human solid>ity has be5 /udi$ by /atical sociology4 ,we h se5 ) :at admiration ! social cons5sus inspir$ ,comte1 a cons5sus1 accord+ to him1 ev5 clos] & m intimate ?an ! vital cons5sus4 ,positive education w develop ! feel+ ( solid>ity & make x ! pr9ciple ( moral in/ruction4 ,e individual 9 all 8 ways ( ?9k+ & act+1 w be imbu$ ) two convictions :i* imply "o ano!r4 ,9 ! fir/ place he w "k t he is only really a man by 8 p>ticipation 9 humanity1 s9ce 8 intellig5ce & 8 morality are ess5tially social ?+s4 ,he w also "k t ! life ( humanity is 9 "p made up ( :at he br+s to x1 & t ea* ( 8 actions1 indep5d5tly ( 8 w has a social int]e/ & a social c\nt]p>t4 ,once we are ?or\ghly p]suad$ t we live 9 humanity & by humanity1 we %all also become conv9c$ t we mu/ live = humanity4 ,malebran*e said t ,god is ! locus ( intellects3 ,comte w\ld readily say t humanity is ! locus ( good wills4 ,z1 9 sociology1 dynamics is m important ?an /atics1 s among ! attributes ( humanity1 cont9uity is plac$ above solid>ity4 ,n only are ! individuals & ! peoples ( ! same epo* b\nd by a common solid>ity1 b ! successive g5]ations co-op]ate 9 ! same "w4 ,ea* "o has its 8det]m9$ p>ticipation0 9 x3 & _! comb9ation 9 "t produces 8a /ill nobl] & m p]fect conception ( human unity40 ,?is is ! conception :i* ,comte admir$ s mu* 9 ,condorcet1 :i* he borr[$ f him1 & :i* he develop$ 9 ! positive idea ( progress4 ,humanity s und]/ood w inspire u ) ! /ronge/ feel+s ( gratitude4 ,d we n owe to h] all t is good1 preci\s & human 9 u8 ,man w see 8co-op]ators0 9 ! m5 ( all "t4#ceg ,ea* ( u has to reflect only ^u 8 physical1 intellectual & moral be+ to realise :at he owes to ! :ole ( 8 pr$ecessors4 ,! man :o w\ld ?9k himself indep5d5t ( o!rs c\ld n ev5 =mulate ?is error 7:i* 9 ,comte's eyes becomes blasphemy7 )\t contradict+ himself2 = is n language itself a collective & social "w8#ceh ,hi/ory w become ! 8sacr$ sci5ce0 ( humanity4 ,to put x m simply1 x w be ! ev] cle>] consci\sness :i* humanity w h ( itself1 ?r\gh ! /udy ( its intellectual & moral activity 9 ! pa/4 ,gradually1 ) ! progress ( ! hi/orical _s1 ! idea ( an evolution subject to laws1 ! idea ( 8ord] conceiv$ z capable ( developm5t10 w become sub/itut$ to ! prejudice :i* attributes to man b\ndless p[] ( action ^u social facts4 ,x w become app>5t t ! "p play$ by ea* g5]ation 9 ! common "w ( humanity is necess>ily a v small "o1 z comp>$ ) :at is transmitt$ to x by previ\s g5]ations4 ,to refuse ?is inh]itance w\ld be to refuse to be :at we are3 x w\ld be an absurd & immoral pret5tion1 &1 moreov]1 entirely fruitless4 ,x is impossible = man to dis[n humanity )\t ceas+ to exi/4 ,he necess>ily repres5ts1 :ile he lives1 a long pa/ ( intellectual & moral ef=ts4 ,& ?is is ! mo/ ess5tial attribute ( human life1 al?\gh we meet ) m or less develop$ solid>ity also among o!r animal species4 ,b cont9uity belongs to humanity alone4 ,9 a ^w1 accord+ to ,comte's f9e =mula3 8,humanity is made up m ( ! dead ?an ( ! liv+40 ,h[ev]1 nei!r ! 8yoke0 :i* presses ^u ! liv+ ) all ! weight ( hi/ory & ( prehi/oric times1 nor ! cons5sus :i* makes ( humanity a great 8collective organism0 take f man 8 lib]ty ( action4 ,! consequ5ce ( human solid>ity & cont9uity is n a k9d ( fatalism4 ,individuals rema9 responsible4 ,we mu/ reg>d !m nei!r z ! :eels 9 a ma*9e1 nor z ! cells 9 an organism1 nor z ! memb]s ( an animal colony4 ,humanity is n a polyp4 ,?is comp>ison1 says ,comte1 8%[s a v imp]fect philosophical appreciation ( our social solid>ity1 & a great biological ignorance ( ! k9d ( exi/5ce peculi> to polypi40#cei ,x lik5s a volunt>y & delib]ate association to an involunt>y & indissoluble p>ticipation4 ,humanity1 z a collective organism1 /&s out1 on ! contr>y1 z di/9ct by its own *>act]i/ics f animal colonies4 ,9 ^! colonies1 ! individuals are physically b\nd toge!r & physiologically indep5d5t4 ,9 humanity1 ! individuals are indep5d5t physically1 & are only b\nd toge!r 9 space & 9 "t by _! highe/ functions4 ,?us ?is 8imm5se organism0 is especially di/+ui%$ f o!r be+s 9 t x is made up ( sep>able elem5ts1 ( :i* ea* "o c feel its own co-op]ation1 c w x1 or ev5 )hold x1 s long z x rema9s a direct "o4#cfj ,! individual und\bt$ly _c 8unhumanise0 himself3 t is too evid5t4 ,b he reta9s a p>tial indep5d5ce4 ,z he c collaborate 9 ! collective "w by free cons5t1 he is also free to imp$e x 9 ! measure ( 8 /r5g?4 ,briefly1 al?\gh ! evolution ( ! ,great ,be+ is subject to laws1 e individuality1 f> f be+ annull$1#cfa plays its "p & c h its m]it 9 x4 ,! v k ( sociological laws is a rule = human activity & n a tyranny4 ,,ii4 ,9 ! latt] "p ( 8 life1 ,comte drew out precisely ! features ( :at he h5ce=? call$ ! new ,great ,be+4 ,al?\gh we 7 n "h to und]take to write an acc\nt ( positive religion1 we mu/ nev]!less1 9 a few words1 indicate ! =m :i* ?is supreme idea end$ by assum+ 9 ,comte's m9d4 ,fir/ly1 humanity is n conceiv$ simply z ! sum ( all ! individuals or human gr\ps pres5t1 pa/ & future4 ,= all m5 are necess>ily born *ildr5 ( humanity2 b all d n become h] s]vants4 ,_m rema9 9 ! condition ( p>asites4 ,all ^? :o are n or 7 n 8suffici5tly assimilable10#cfb all ^? :o 7 only a burd5 to our species1 d n =m a "p ( ! ,great ,be+4 ,a selection takes place among m54 ,"s f9ally ent] into humanity nev] to leave x2 o!rs leave x nev] to return4 ,! selection takes place accord+ to ! life !y h pref]r$4 ,^? :o h liv$ 9 ! purely biological s5se ( ! ^w1 t is to say1 ^? 9 :om ! high] faculties h be5 made to s]ve ! organic function1 ^? :om ) brutal en]gy ,comte calls 8producteurs de fumi]10#cfc w only h be5 "p ( humanity 9 a transitory mann]4 ,dea? = !m1 z = _! anatomical sy/em1 w be an end )\t fur!r appeal4 ,^? 9 :om ! 8sublime inv]sion0 has be5 accompli%$1 or at lea/ ^? :o h made an ef=t to subord9ate ! organic to ! high] functions1 ^? f9ally :o h work$ = a pre-em95tly human end3 to make ! intellect pr$om9ate ov] ! incl9ations1 & altruism ov] egoism2 ^? hav+ liv$ = humanity w always live 9 h]4 human end3 to make ! intellect pr$om9ate ov] ! incl9ations1 & altruism ov] egoism2 ^? hav+ liv$ = humanity w always live 9 h]4 ,z ! conduct ( ea* "o c only be f9ally judg$ aft] 8 dea?1 humanity is ess5tially made up ( ! dead & 8! admission ( ! liv+ )9 h] w h>dly ev] be m ?an provisional40#cfd ,ea* g5]ation1 :ile x lives1 furni%es ! indisp5sable physiological sub/ratum = ! ex]cise ( ! sup]ior human functions4 ,b ?is privilege :i* mom5t>ily di/+ui%es x f ! o!rs1 soon slips away f x1 z x slipp$ away f ! prec$+ ones1 & f ! m5 ( :i* !y 7 compos$2 !y alone :o are wor?y ( x are incorporat$ into humanity4 ,moreov]1 !y are only incorporat$ 9 x by _! noble/ elem5ts4 ,dea? causes !m to pass ?r\gh a 8purification40 ,?is !ory all[s ,comte to atta9 at ! same "t two results1 :i* he consid]s equally desirable4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 ! religi\s idea ( humanity rema9s 9 p]fect accordance ) ! idea giv5 ( x by biology & sociology4 ,humanity conceiv$ z ! ,great ,be+1 is a k9d ( hypo/asis ( ! functions by :i* man t5ds to become di/+ui%$ f ! animal4 ,x is ! progressive realisation ?r\gh "t1 ( ! intellectual & moral pot5tialities conta9$ 9 human nature3 x is also its ideal imp]sonation4 ,9 ?is la/ s5se1 x becomes an object ( love & adoration4 ,?us1 ! positivi/ religion naturally leads to a 8commemoration0 ( great m51 ! b5efactors ( humanity4 ,"h we h "o ( ! ideas :i* 7 def9$ v e>ly 9 ,comte's m9d4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! desire = immortality is v /rong 9 ! he>t ( man4 ,on pr9ciple ,comte recognis$ at any rate a provisional value 9 all t arises spontane\sly f human nature4 ,9 sci5ce he saw a prolongation ( 8public reason10 9 sy/ematic morality a developm5t ( spontane\s morality4 ,he 0 ?us l$ to take into acc\nt ! almo/ irresi/ible t5d5cy :i* impels man to desire to triumph ov] dea?4#cfe ,?is t5d5cy1 up to ! pres5t "t1 has satisfi$ itself by means ( illusions4 ,b beliefs ( ?is k9d h become incompatible ) ! progress ( our m5tal evolution4 ,moreov]1 ! social efficacy ( hopes & fe>s conc]n+ ! future life has be5 mu* exagg]at$4 ,z a matt] ( fact1 says ,comte 7& ! sci5ce ( religions be>s him out on ?is po9t71 ! t5d5cy to desire1 & consequ5tly to accept ! idea ( an ultimate survival1 exi/$ = a long "t be=e x 0 made use ( to support religi\s beliefs or to pres]ve public ord]4 ,"h1 aga91 positive philosophy does n d5y1 does n de/roy3 x trans=ms4 ,to ! *im]ical & vulg> notion ( objective immortality1 x sub/itutes ! notion1 :i* is alone acceptable1 ( subjective immortality4 ,! same doctr9e :i* takes f u ! consolations s de> to pa/ g5]ations1 gives u an adequate comp5sation1 by all[+ ea* "o to hope t he may be unit$ to ! ,great ,be+4 8,to cont9ue to live 9 o!rs10 is a v real mode ( exi/5ce4#cff ,x is ! only "o :i* we c hope = aft] dea?2 b x is also ! only "o :i* we ought to desire1 if x be true t :at mo/ con/itutes ourselves 9 u does n consi/ 9 ! individual 9 ! biological s5se ( ! ^w1 b truly 9 intellig5ce & good w1 t is to say1 9 ! social & human elem5t4 ,he :o has only liv$ = himself1 :o has selfi%ly s\ght = life1 has lo/ x3 = dea? takes him away altoge!r4 ,he :o has liv$ = o!rs1 he :o has n s\ght life = himself1 has f\nd x3 = he survives 9 o!rs4 ,9 ! religions ( ! pa/1 salvation 0 f\nd 9 union ) ,god3 9 ! positive religion1 salvation is f\nd 9 union ) humanity4 ,once incorporat$ 9 ! ,great ,be+1 ! individual becomes insep>able f x4#cfg ,be+ f t "t )drawn f ! influ5ce ( all ! physical laws1 he only rema9s subject$ to ! high] laws :i* regulate directly ! evolution ( humanity4 ,be+ ev5 )drawn f ! influ5ce ( ! laws ( "t & space1 he c live aga9 at ! same "t 9 sev]al organisms4 ,d we n see t ! ?\ght ( a poet1 ( an arti/1 ( a man ( sci5ce revives 9 a great numb] ( liv+ m5 at ! same "t on ! mo/ di/ant po9ts ( ! globe8 ,subjective immortality1 r5ew$ by an un9t]rupt$ sequ5ce ( successive resurrections1 w la/ z long z humanity itself4 8,to live ) ! dead10 says ,comte 8con/itutes "o ( our mo/ preci\s privileges40#cfh ,b1 9 ! same way1 ! dead live ) u4 ,!y live 9 u1 & ^? :o h be5 mo/ truly m51 ^? :o h made humanity by ! ef=t ( _! intellect & _! w1 !y are )9 u ! be/ & mo/ la/+ "p ( ourselves4 ,=1 :5 our g5]ation disappe>s1 x is ?is "p ( u :i* w survive4 ,we %all also survive 9 ! measure 9 :i* we h contribut$ to ! increase ( ?is inh]itance1 9 ! measure 9 :i* we %all h des]v$ well ( our contempor>ies & our successors4 ,! pres5t life is a trial4 ,! 8subjective0 life1 t is to say1 incorporation into humanity1 is at once a lib]ation & a rew>d = ^? :o h pass$ victori\sly ?r\gh ?is trial4#cfi ,we see to :at ext5t ! old moral & religi\s ideal subsi/s 9 ! positive conception4 ,we are little surpris$ at ?is1 :5 we "k t1 t[>ds ! end ( 8 life1 ,comte made ! ,imitation 8 daily read+4 ,x is !n t[>ds ! idea ( humanity z _! c5tre t ! sci5tific1 social & religi\s ideas ( ,augu/e ,comte conv]ge4 ,if ?is conv]g5ce be p]fect1 8 "w is accompli%$4 ,h5ce=? m5tal & moral an>*y is cur$2 political & religi\s an>*y is ab\t to disappe>4 ,unity w be ev]y:]e re-e/abli%$4 ,?is is already done 9 ! und]/&+1 s9ce h5ce=? all our conceptions are homog5\s1 t is to say positive1 s9ce ! same me?od is made use ( 9 all our rese>*es1 s9ce f9ally ! :ole sum ( ! sci5ces is regulat$ f ! social po9t ( view4 ,unity is also accompli%$ 9 ! :ole s\l1 s9ce ! intellect1 h5ce=? consci\s ( its laws & ( its ess5tial functions1 subjects itself to ! he>t1 to be direct$ by love4 ,f9ally1 unity w be br\ght ab\t 9 society1 s9ce a new spiritual p[]1 possess$ ( univ]sally admitt$ pr9ciples1 w give to all m5 & wom5 a common education1 w tea* !m all ! same morality1 & w rally !m all )9 a same religion ( love & goodness4 ,! h>mony :i* is realis$ 9 ! individual s\l is ! symbol &1 z x 71 ! gu>antee ( ! h>mony :i* w be e/abli%$ 9 ! social body4 ,und\bt$ly1 ob/acles rema9 to be ov]come4 ,! positive _s mu/ /ill /ruggle to become altoge!r univ]sal4 ,! old m5tal rgime w n disappe> )\t /ruggles :i*1 ,comte =esees1 w be bo? =midable & bloody4 ,b ^! crises1 h[ev] acute !y may be1 _c prev5t ! human evolution f tak+ place 9 accordance ) its law4 ,,footnotes3 #ced ,lettres ,valat1 p4 #ed1 7#ae mai #ahah74 #cee ,c\rs1 ,,iii1 #bcb sq4 #cef ,c\rs1 ,,iv1 #haj-aa2 ,pol4 pos4 ,i1 #cfc-e4 #ceg ,c\rs1 ,,iv1 #cfe4 #ceh ,pol4 pos4 ,i1 #bba4 #cei ,c\rs1 ,,iv1 #cea4 #cfj ,pol4 pos41 ,,ii1 #ei4 #cfa ,pol4 pos41 ,i1 #cda4 #cfb ,pol4 pos41 ,i1 #daa4 #cfc ,cat*isme positivi/e1 p4 #cj-ca4 #cfd ,pol4 pos41 ,i1 #daa4 #cfe ,disc\rs sur l'esprit positif1 #ge-f4 #cff ,pol4 pos41 ,i1 #cdf-g4 #cfg ,pol4 pos4 ,,ii1 #fj-fb4 #cfh ,pol4 pos41 #bfb4 #cfi ,pol4 pos41 ,,iv1 #cf4 ,,conclusion ,at ! end ( ! ,c\rs de philosophie positive ,comte has himself summ$ up ! results :i* he believ$ himself to h e/abli%$4 ,9 ! fir/ place x is1 f ! intellectual po9t ( view 7:i* at fir/ takes prec$5ce ( all o!rs1 al?\gh1 9 ! positive /ate1 ! m9d mu/ be subject to ! he>t71 a 8p]fect m5tal coh]5ce :i*1 z yet1 has nev] be5 able to exi/ 9 a l degree10 n ev5 9 ! primitive p]iod :5 man expla9$ ! ph5om5a ( nature by ! action ( wills4 ,= already1 9 ?is p]iod1 al?\gh imp]ceptibly1 ! positive _s 0 mak+ itself felt1 :ile1 9 ! positive p]iod1 no?+ w subsi/ ( ! !ological & metaphysical mode ( ?\ght4 ,f ! moral po9t ( view1 :i* comes next1 ! agreem5t ( m9ds ^u speculative problems1 & 9 p>ticul> ^u ! relations betwe5 man & humanity1 w all[ ( a common education1 :i* w br+ ab\t ard5t moral conviction 9 all4 ,p[]ful 8public prejudices0 w develop1 & ) !m1 su* irresi/ible fulness ( conviction1 accord+ to ,comte1 t ,humanity w be able to realise :at our p5al sy/em is incapable ( a*iev+3 to prev5t in/ead ( puni%+1 at lea/ 9 ! majority ( cases4 ,f ! political po9t ( view1 ! two spiritual & temporal p[]s w be duly sep>at$1 & a la/+ organisation w at once insure ord] & progress4 ,f9ally1 f ! /hetic po9t ( view1 a new art w appe>4 ,no long] an ari/ocratic & le>n$ art l ! "o :i* has be5 ) u s9ce ! ,r5aissance1 b an art closely connect$ ) ! convictions & ! life ( all1 :i* w be accessible & famili> to all1 z 0 ! case ) ! art ( ! ,middle ,ages4 ,! positive conception ( man & ( ! _w1 w become an 8inexhau/ible spr+0 ( poetical beauty4 ,all ^! results w be ord]$1 protect$ & sanctifi$ by ! positive religion1 or religion ( ,humanity1 ( :i* ,augu/e ,comte1 9 8 8second c>e]0 e/abli%$ ! dogma1 ! wor%ip & ! rgime4 ,)\t ent]+ into ! details ( ?is religi\s con/ruction we see t1 l ! e?ics & ! politics1 x dep5ds ^u ! 8p]fect m5tal coh]5ce0 f\nd$1 9 ! fir/ place1 by positive philosophy4 ,9 its turn1 ?is p]fect m5tal coh]5ce1 r$uces itself to ! unity ( ! und]/&+1 ^: necess>y & suffici5t conditions are 8homog5eity ( doctr9e & unity ( me?od40 ,n[1 :5 ,comte began to write1 ?is homog5eity & ?is unity already exi/$ = all ! categories ( natural ph5om5a4 ,! moral & social ph5om5a alone 7 /ill an exception4 ,9 conclusion ev]y?+ 0 r$uc$ to ?is "q3 8c moral & social facts be /udi$ 9 ! same way z ! o!r natural ph5om5a80 ,if n1 we mu/ be resign$ to ! indef9ite duration ( ! disord] ( m9ds1 & consequ5tly ( ! disord] ( cu/oms & in/itutions4 ,b1 if ! contr>y is true1 !n ! human und]/&+ rea*es ! unity to :i* x aspires4 ,is sociology impossible8 !n we h no politics & no religion4 ,is sociology f\nd$8 !n all ! re/ is bas$ ^u x4 ,?us1 ! creation ( social sci5ce is ! decisive mom5t 9 ,comte's philosophy4 ,ev]y?+ />ts f x & comes back to x4 ,z 9 ,platonism1 all pa?s lead to ! !ory ( ideas1 s1 f all ! av5ues ( positivism we see sociology4 ,"h1 z 9 a common c5tre1 are jo9$ ! philosophy ( ! sci5ces1 ! !ory ( k1 ! philosophy ( hi/ory1 psy*ology1 e?ics1 politics & religion4 ,"h1 9 a ^w1 is realis$ ! unity ( sy/em1 a unity :i*1 9 ,comte's eyes1 is ! be/ pro( ( its tru?4 ,if1 9 sociology1 we *iefly consid] ! end :i* ,comte proposes to atta9 by its means1 x is true t ?is doctr9e is pr9cipally a political "o1 & ! v title ( ,comte's second great "w be>s ?is out4 ,b1 consid]$ 9 itself1 x is ess5tially a speculative ef=t1 & ! pr9ciple ( a philosophy 9 ! prop] s5se ( ! t]m4 ,:at ,kant call$ a totality ( exp]i5ce is made possible by ! creation ( social sci5ce4 ,be=e ,comte1 ?is totality _h be5 attempt$ _m times4 ,b ^? :o attempt$ x />t$ f ?is po/ulate t philosophy is specifically di/9ct f sci5tific k prop]4 ,:e!r philosophy 7 dogmatic or critical1 :e!r x _h be>+s ^u ! ess5ce ( ?+s or r ^u ! laws ( ! m9d1 x none ! less pres5t$ *>act]i/ics ( its own1 :i* seem$ to sep>ate x f positive sci5ce1 & ev5 all[$ x to dom9ate ov] ?is sci5ce1 & to 8expla90 its pr9ciples4 ,comte rejects ?is po/ulate4 ,he is go+ to endeav\r to see if1 by tak+ ! contr>y po/ulate z 8 f\ndation1 he w n succe$ bett] ?an 8 pr$ecessors4 ,9 ord] to reject ! po/ulate admitt$ by philosoph]s be=e him1 he appeals at ! same "t to argum5ts f\nd$ on facts & demon/ration2 b we mu/ notice t1 9 8 doctr9e1 ^! two ord]s ( argum5ts logically r$uce !mselves to "o ano!r4 ,inde$ he says1 up to ! pres5t "t no philosophy :i* comm&s acceptance by all m9ds has be5 e/abli%$4 ,idealisms1 mat]ialisms1 pan!isms f all s\rces & 9 e %ape h nev] done m ?an ru9 ! doctr9es oppos$ to !m1 )\t becom+ f9ally e/abli%$ !mselves4 ,^? sy/ems claim$ to give a rational k ( t :i* by nature is beyond ! rea* ( sci5ce4 ,!y prid$ !mselves ^u expla9+ ! ess5ce1 ! cause1 ! end & ! ord] ( ! ph5om5a ( ! univ]se4 ,?us !y c\ld only build up tempor>y conceptions :i* 7 und\bt$ly indisp5sable at ! "t b :i* 7 doom$ to die4 ,metaphysics is nev] any?+ b a rationalis$ !ology :i* is weak5$ by ?is v fact1 & depriv$ ( :at con/itut$ its /r5g? dur+ ! p]iod :5 x 0 an object ( belief4 ,b 9 ! "n ( :at pr9ciple c ,comte disc]n :at is & :at is n 8beyond ! rea* ( sci5ce80 ,9 ord] to ju/ify a di/9ction ( ?is k9d %\ld he n be=e ev]y?+ beg9 by a criticism ( ! human m9d1 t is to say by a !ory ( k simil> to t propos$ by ,kant 9 8 8,criticism ( ,pure ,reason08 ,m4 ,r5\vi] endeav\rs to %[ t1 ?r\gh ! abs5ce ( ?is prelim9>y criticism1 ) :i* ,comte disp5s$1 8 philosophy rema9s sup]ficial4 ,mr4 ,max ,mull] expressly says t !re is no ne$ to take into acc\nt a philosophical doctr9e :i* proce$s z if ! 8,criticism ( ,pure ,reason0 _h n be5 writt54 ,on ! :ole ! objection r$uces itself to reproa*+ ,comte ) n hav+ attempt$ to d :at he consid]$ to be impracticable3 namely1 n to h det]m9$ ! intellectual laws by ! analysis ( ! m9d reflect+ ^u itself4 ,b1 x is said1 by :at "r does he affirm t ?is is impossible8 ,because1 l all ! o!rs1 ^! laws c only be discov]$ by means ( ! obs]vation ( facts1 & because ! only me?od :i* is suitable = ! discov]y ( intellectual facts is ! sociological me?od3 ! nature ( ^! facts be+ su* t1 especially f ! dynamic po9t ( view1 !y c only be grasp$ 9 ! evolution ( humanity4 ,! !ory ( k dem&$ by ,m4 ,r5\vi] & ,mr4 ,max ,mull] is n want$ 9 positive philosophy4 ,x is n se5 9 ?is philosophy1 because x is n pres5t$ 9 its traditional =m4 ,x is !re none ! less2 b1 in/ead ( consi/+ 9 an analysis a priori ( ?\ght1 z a prelim9>y to philosophy1 x is n sep>at$ f ! philosophy itself4 ,x is "o ( ! _m aspects ( sociology4 ,9 ! positive doctr9e1 z 9 all ! o!rs1 !re are dialectics--dialectics :i* are no long] ab/ract & logical1 b real & hi/orical4 ,!y d n seek to see ! laws ( ! human m9d ?r\gh an ef=t at reflection 9 :i* ! m9d1 b5ea? ! ph5om5a1 appreh5ds its v ess5ce4 ,!y endeav\r to discov] ^! laws 9 ! necess>y sequ5ce ( p]iods :i* con/itute ! progress ( ! human m9d4 ,!y1 9 _! turn1 /udy ! 8univ]sal subject0 ^: =ms1 categories & pr9ciples h be5 det]m9$ by ,kant a priori4 ,b ?is univ]sal subject is no long] reason grasp+ itself1 s to speak1 outside & above ! conditions ( "t & ( exp]i5ce3 x is ! human m9d becom+ consci\s ( ! laws ( its activity ?r\gh ! /udy ( its own pa/4 ,in/ead ( ! 8absolute ego0 ( 8imp]sonal reason10 or ( ! 8consci5ce ( ! und]/&+10 positive philosophy analyses ! intellectual hi/ory ( humanity4 ,x has !n nei!r ignor$ nor neglect$ ! problem4 ,x has put x 9 new t]ms1 & has be5 oblig$ to deal ) x by a new me?od4 ,! critic is free to po9t out ! defects ( ?is me?od & ! insuffici5cy ( ^! t]ms4 ,b1 to reproa* positive philosophy ) n hav+ dealt ) ! problem 9 ! usual =m 9 :i* x is tak5 by metaphysicians1 &1 = ?is reason1 to put x aside unexam9$1 is to commit a k9d ( 8petitio pr9cipii40 ,if ,comte ab/a9s f attempt+ an ab/ract !ory ( k1 he gives philosophical reasons = 8 refusal to d s4 ,be=e condemn+ him1 x is b "r to exam9e !m4 ,_h he done :at ,m4 ,r5\vi] & ,mr4 ,max ,mull] reproa* him ) hav+ omitt$1 he w\ld h contradict$ himself4 ,!re w\ld h be5 no reason = ! exi/5ce ( 8 sy/em4 ,he claim$ to h re=m$ ! v conception ( philosophy3 c we reproa* him ) ! fact t 8 conception does n co9cide ) ! view pref]r$ by 8 adv]s>ies8 ,briefly t :i*1 accord+ to ,comte1 *>act]ises positive philosophy1 is t x no long] requires = its con/itution :at 9 ! judgm5t ( ,m4 ,r5\vi] & ,mr4 ,max ,mull] on ! contr>y1 is indisp5sable4 ,are !y or is he 9 ! "r8 ,! "q _c evid5tly be solv$ by ! m]e affirmation ( ^? int]e/$4 ,! exam9ation ( ! doctr9es !mselves is necess>y4 ,,ii4 ,! position tak5 by ,comte may be briefly def9$ 9 a few words4 ,see+ t philosophy1 su* at lea/ z x _h be5 conceiv$ until ! ,,xix4 c5tury1 c\ld n assume ! *>act]i/ics ( sci5ce1 he asks himself :e!r "o w\ld n succe$ bett] by endeav\r+ to give ! *>act]i/ics ( sci5ce to philosophy4 ,l ,kant1 he might h comp>$ ! revolution he 0 attempt+ to t accompli%$ by ,cop]nicus 9 a/ronomy1 _h he n pref]r$ to pres5t x z prep>$ & gradually br\ght ab\t by ! v 8progress0 ( sci5ce & philosophy4 ,accord+ to 8 own expression !n he endeav\rs 8to trans=m sci5ce into philosophy40 ,b on :at conditions w ! trans=mation be effect$8 ,if sci5ce 7 to lose 9 x its *>act]i/ics ( positiv5ess1 ( reality1 & ( relativity1 to assume ^? ( a metaphysical doctr9e1 ?is *ange w\ld be nei!r desirable nor possible4 ,! trans=mation w simply consi/ 9 giv+ to sci5ce ! philosophical "* :i* x does n yet possess1 namely univ]sality4 ,:ile ?us acquir+ a new prop]ty1 positive sci5ce %\ld lose none ( ^? :i* x already possesses1 & :i* con/itute its value4 ,?us1 9 ! 8trans=mation ( sci5ce into philosophy10 :at is trans=m$ at bottom is n sci5ce :i* rema9s itself :ile becom+ g5]al f be+ special3 x is philosophy r :i* is trans=m$4 ,! latt] w h5ce=? und\bt$ly be conceiv$ z ! highe/ & mo/ compreh5sive =m ( positive k1 b z con/itut+ a "p ( t k4 ,x has be5 said t ,comte does away ) philosophy1 by r$uc+ x to be+ m]ely ! 8g5]alisation ( ! highe/ results ( ! sci5ces40 ,?is is n a prop] int]pretation ( 8 ?\ght4 ,up to ! pres5t "t ! duties p]=m$ by ! philosophical doctr9es h be5 indisp5sable4 ,comte int5ds t 8 sy/em %all fulfil !m 9 future4 ,beside sci5ce prop]ly s-call$1 :i* is always special1 philosophy :i* repres5ts ! 8po9t ( view ( ! :ole0 mu/ arise4 ,on ?is condition alone c ! gov]nm5t ( m9ds & ! 8p]fect logical coh]5ce0 become possible4 ,philosophy w !n n m]ely be a 8g5]alisation ( ! highe/ results ( ! sci5ces40 ,! syn!sis ( ! sci5ces mu/ be br\ght ab\t accord+ to a pr9ciple to :i* !y w be all relat$4 ,x mu/ really be a 8summ+ up ( exp]i5ce40 ,b if ?is philosophy ?us coalesces ) sci5ce x mu/ also be real l x1 & all real k is necess>ily positive & relative4 ,9 %ort1 ! di/9ction betwe5 sci5ce & philosophy implies no specific diff]5ce betwe5 ^! two k9ds ( speculation4 ,on ! contr>y1 !re exi/s betwe5 !m homog5eity ( doctr9e & unity ( me?od4 ,!re9 lies ! novelty ( ,comte's sy/em4 ,! "q 01 )\t leav+ ! sci5tific po9t ( view1 to discov] a s+le univ]sal conception ( ! :ole ( ,reality z we f9d x 9 exp]i5ce4 ,! solution ( ?is problem 0 f\nd on ! day :5 ,comte creat$ social sci5ce4 ,= inde$1 9 ! fir/ place1 sociology makes ! positive me?od univ]sal by ext5d+ x to ! highe/ ord] ( natural ph5om5a accessible to u4 ,moreov]1 once x is e/abli%$ z a special sci5ce1 ipso facto x assumes ! "* ( a univ]sal sci5ce1 & consequ5tly ( a philosophy4 ,"u a c]ta9 aspect1 sociology is ! six? & la/ ( ! fundam5tal sci5ces4 ,"u ano!r aspect x is ! only sci5ce1 s9ce ! o!r sci5ces may be reg>d$ z great sociological facts1 & s9ce ! :ole ( :at is giv5 to u is subord9at$ to ! supreme idea ( humanity4 ,su* is ! way 9 :i* ! trans=mation ( sci5ce into philosophy takes place4 ,if x dates f ! f\ndation ( sociology1 x is because1 once ?is la/ positive sci5ce has be5 creat$1 no?+ rema9s 9 nature ( :i* we conceive ! possibility ( obta9+ an absolute k4 8,! relative "* ( sci5tific conception is necess>ily insep>able f ! true notion ( natural laws1 9 ! same way z ! *im]ical t5d5cy to absolute k spontane\sly accompanies :atev] use we make ( ! logical fictions or ( metaphysical entities40#cgj ,consid]$ z a :ole1 ! object ( positive sci5ce1 accord+ to ,comte1 necess>ily co9cides ) t ( philosophy4 ,= bo? ( !m x is ! :ole ( ! reality giv5 to u4 ,! human m9d _c ex]t itself 9 a vacuum4 ,:at x might draw f itself1 )\t ! help ( exp]i5ce1 7if su* a conception be n absurd71 is purely fictiti\s1 & has no objective value4 ,if !n ! human m9d rema9s atta*$ to a metaphysical philosophy1 ?is c only be 9 s f> z ! m9d /ill conceives ! :ole or a "p ( reality f ! absolute po9t ( view1 t is to say 9 s f> z x /ill fails to und]/& t ! laws ( ph5om5a alone are )9 its rea*1 & p]si/s 9 seek+ ! ess5ce & ! fir/ or f9al cause = "s among !m4 ,!re 0 a "t :5 ! :ole ( reality 0 s und]/ood4 ,! conception ( ! _w 0 !n entirely metaphysical or p>tly !ological4 ,b ! human m9d has gradually con/itut$ ! positive sci5ce1 fir/ ( ! m simple & m g5]al ph5om5a1 & !n ( ! m complicat$ ones4 ,f9ally ! mo/ complex ( all1 t is to say1 ! moral & social ph5om5a alone rema9$ unt\*$ by ! sci5tific =m4 ,let u suppose t ?is la/ ord] ( facts is conqu]$ by ! positive me?od3 ! metaphysical mode ( ?\ght be+ no long] possess$ ( real objects1 ipso facto disappe>s4 ,at ! same "t ! positive mode ( ?\ght becomes univ]sal1 & positive philosophy is f\nd$4 ,9 ?is way two great connect$ facts :i* occupy a consid]able place 9 ! philosophical hi/ory ( our c5tury are expla9$4 ,we und]/&3 #a4 t ! fate ( metaphysics appe>s to be closely b\nd up ) t ( psy*ology1 ( e?ics ( ! philosophy ( hi/ory & ( ! moral sci5ces 9 g5]al1 :ile ! connection betwe5 physics1 = in/ance & metaphysics seems to be v weak2 #b4 t ! f\ndation ( sociology det]m9es t ( positive philosophy4 ,s long z psy*ology speculates ^u ! nature ( ! s\l & ^u ! laws ( ?\ght2 e?ics1 ^u ! f9al cause ( man1 ! philosophy ( hi/ory1 ^u ! f9al cause ( humanity2 metaphysics rema9s /&+4 ,inde$ x seems bett] able ?an positive k to lead ! human m9d to a conception ( ! :ole ( ! real4 ,x appe>s to be all ! m appropriate = do+ ?is 9 t ! po9t ( view ( ! ,absolute c be easily made to h>monise ) ! po9t ( view ( ! ,univ]sal1 9 ! same way z ! conception ( sub/ance1 :atev] x may be1 leads )\t any difficulty to ! conception ( ! unity ( sub/ance4 ,b1 f ! day :5 we no long] %\ld seek any?+ b ! laws ( psy*ical1 moral & social facts1 refra9+ f any hypo!sis z to causes & ess5ces1 7a me?od already made use ( = all ! o!r categories ( ph5om5a71 ?ree results w\ld be obta9$ at a s+le bl[3 metaphysical philosophy w\ld disappe>1 social sci5ce w\ld be creat$1 & positive philosophy w\ld be f\nd$4 ,accord+ to ! ess5tial law ( social dynamics1 ! metaphysical /age is nev] any?+ b a transitory "o betwe5 ! !ological & ! positive /ages4 ,! human intellect c\ld n pass imm$iately f ! =m] to ! latt]4 ,! metaphysical /age :i* c assume an endless numb] ( =ms & ( degrees1 ins5sibly leads x f "o to ! o!r4 ,metaphysical philosophy p>takes ( ! !ological 9 s f> z x claims to 8expla90 ! totality ( ! ,real by means ( a fir/ pr9ciple1 & ( ! positive1 9 s f> z x endeav\rs to demon/rate its 8explanations10 & to br+ !m into accordance ) ! real k already acquir$4 ,x orig9ates 9 !ology & x ends 9 sci5ce4 ,b1 h[ev] ne> x may come to positive k1 its orig9al !ological br& is nev] effac$4 ,7 !y compell$ to *oose betwe5 ! !ological & ! positive doctr9es1 metaphysicians w\ld c]ta9ly adopt ! =m]4 ,! ess5ce ( metaphysical philosophy is to t5d t[>ds ! absolute1 :il/ positive philosophy only seeks ! relative4 ,9 fav\r+ ! progress ( positive sci5ce1 metaphysical philosophy 0 work+ to make itself useless4 ,to ^? !n :o reproa* him ) n leav+ any function prop] to philosophy1 ,comte w\ld answ] t1 9 8 doctr9e1 philosophy is on ! contr>y bett] def9$ & m fully con/itut$ ?an 9 any o!r4 ,inde$ metaphysical philosophy has nev] be5 any?+ b a compromise1 de/9$ to satisfy m or less1 ! ne$s ( !ological explanation & ( rational sci5ce4 ,b positive philosophy is pure & unalloy$ ) het]og5\s elem5ts4 ,x gives to ! :ole ( exp]i5ce all ! intelligibility :i* we c hope =1 ?r\gh ! discov]y ( laws1 &1 9 p>ticul>1 ( ! encyclopdic laws4 ,by mak+ humanity ! supreme end at once ( our speculation & ( our activity1 x furni%es morality & politics ) a def9ite basis1 & gives religion an object4 ,9 ?is way1 accord+ to ,comte1 positive philosophy is m truly a philosophy ?an metaphysics1 s9ce x secures ! homog5eity ( k & ! 8p]fect m5tal coh]5ce10 & x is also m truly religi\s s9ce1 z its f9al conclusion1 x %[s t ! end ( ! intellect itself lies 9 devotion to humanity4 ,,iii4 ,e new philosophical doctr9e is 9 g5]al guid$ by a d\ble t5d5cy4 ,at ! same "t x seeks to e/abli% its orig9ality & to f9d out its antec$5ts4 ,9 ord] to rea* ! =m] result1 x criticises prec$+ & contempor>y doctr9es1 & %[s t1 bett] ?an any ( ! o!rs1 x succe$s 9 8summ+ up exp]i5ce40 ,b1 at ! same "t1 x discov]s a p$igree = itself 9 hi/ory :i* is nev] v difficult to e/abli%4 ,l ! o!rs1 positive philosophy fulfils ?is tw(old requirem5t1 9 su* measure1 h[ev]1 z its p>ticul> nature & ! def9ition ( its object reasonably all[4 ,prop]ly speak+1 x does n und]take to refute ! metaphysical sy/ems :i* x deems itself de/9$ to replace4 ,^? sy/ems 9 refut+ positive philosophy1 are fai?ful to _! pr9ciple2 & positive philosophy is fai?ful to its own pr9ciple 9 n foll[+ _! example4 ,x suffices = x to 8locate0 !m 9 ! g5]al evolution ( ! human m9d1 & to %[1 accord+ to ?is law ( evolution1 h[ ! v necessity :i* br\ght !m into be+ is also ! cause ( _! disappe>ance4 ,_! (fice is fulfill$1 _! "p is end$4 ,x matt]s little t !y %\ld seek to prolong an ebb+ exi/5ce2 cases ( survival may slack5 ! rate ( progress1 b !y are p[]less to arre/ x4 ,& s positive philosophy is ! only "o :i* c be p]fectly j t[>ds its adv]s>ies4 8,x ceases10 says ,comte1 8be+ critical 9 reg>d to ! :ole ( ! pa/40 ,9 ord] to be e/abli%$1 x does n require to combat & to supplant ! philosophies :i* h prec$$ x4 ,) itself1 x places all doctr9es 9 hi/ory4 ,x sub/itutes ! hi/orical g5esis to ab/ract dialectics4 ,und\bt$ly ,comte recognises a long s]ies ( 8 precursors prop]ly s-call$1 9 ! d\ble l9e ( philosoph]s & sci5tific m5 :o h contribut$ to ! progress ( ! positive _s f ,ari/otle & ,ar*im$es to ,condorcet & ,gall4 ,b positive philosophy1 none ! less1 looks ^u itself z heir to all ! philosophies1 ev5 to ^? :i* are mo/ oppos$ to its pr9ciple4 ,= !y1 l ! o!rs1 h be5 necess>y mom5ts 9 ! progress :i* 0 to end 9 ! positive sy/em4 ,?us consid]$ 9 its relation to ! metaphysical speculation :i* prec$$ x1 ?is sy/em does n refute x1 = x is nei!r necess>y nor ev5 possible = x to d s4 ,nei!r does x incorporate x )9 itself1 = x c\ld n d s )\t a =mal contradiction4 ,/ill1 accord+ to ,comte's own confession1 x proce$s f metaphysics z mu* z f sci5ce prop]ly s-call$4 ,9 :at !n does ?is relation consi/1 if positive philosophy nei!r opposes nor adopts previ\s doctr9es8--,x transposes !m4 ,:at its pr$ecessors _h /udi$ f ! absolute po9t ( view1 x projects ^u ! relative plane4 ,z we proce$$ we h not$ m ?an "o ( ^! transpositions4 ,x may p]haps n be useless to make a recapitulation ( !m "h1 )\t1 h[ev]1 claim+ = x p]fect complet5ess4 ,metaphysical ,philosophy4 ,positive ,transpositions4 ,i4 ,di/9ction betwe5 ,i4 ,di/9ction betwe5 ! /atical pot5tiality & reality4 & ! dynamical po9ts ( view1 or betwe5 ord] & progress4 ,,ii4 ,pr9ciple ( f9ality4 ,,ii4 ,pr9ciple ( ! conditions ( exi/5ce4 ,,iii4 ,!ory ( innat5ess4 ,,iii4 ,def9ition ( human nature z immutable1 evolution creat+ no?+1 b br++ out ! lat5t pot5tialities 9 t nature4 ,,iv4 ,! idea ( ! univ]se4 ,,iv4 ,! idea ( ! _w4 ,v4 ,all ! ph5om5a ( ,v4 ,! idea ( humanity is ! univ]se are relat$ to ! only really univ]sal conception1 "o ano!r4 because ! conditions ( exi/5ce ( human societies are 9 a necess>y relation1 n only ) ! laws ( our organisation1 b also ) all ! physical & *emical laws ( our planet1 & ! me*anical laws ( ! sol> sy/em4 ,,vi4 ,! ,ari/otelian !ory ,,vi4 ,sci5ce consi/s 9 sub/itut+ ( sci5ce1 7k rational prevision to ! ?r\gh causes1 a priori71 empirical e/abli%m5t ( facts4 & ,c>tesian !ory1 7d$uctive k />t+ f ! simple74 ,,vii4 ,! pr9ciples ( ,,vii4 ,geometry & me*anics ma!matics are syn!tical a are natural sci5ces1 & pure priori propositions4 7,kant74 analysis c nev] e/abli% _! pr9ciples4 ,,viii4 ,! ord] ( ! univ]se ,,viii4 ,! conduct ( man is ! basis ( moral ord]3 is regulat$ ext]nally by ! 7,/oics1 ,sp9oza1 ,leibnitz74 :ole ( ! laws ( ! _w 9 :i* he lives4 ,,ix4 ,! hi/ory ( humanity ,,ix4 ,! evolution ( humanity is direct$ by a provid5tial is accompli%$ accord+ to a wisdom4 law4 ,x4 ,! notion ( a natural ,x4 ,! v>i\s ord]s ( law does n necess>ily natural ph5om5a are irr$ucible imply a me*anism4 & nev]!less conv]g5t1 ! real becom+ ri*] at ea* new degree4 ,,xi4 ,!ory ( ! immortality ,,xi4 ,!ory ( ! 8subjective ( ! s\l4 exi/5ce10 or ( survival 9 ! consci\sness ( o!rs4 ,,xii4 ,rational !ology4 ,,xii4 ,! positive sci5ce ( ,humanity4 ,?is li/ might easily be prolong$4 ,once aga9 x %[s u t1 9 ! hi/ory ( philosophy z 9 hi/ory 9 g5]al1 ! result ( ! mo/ app>5tly radical revolutions is n s mu* to aboli% z to trans=m4 ,?us1 ,kant's philosophy might seem to be entirely oppos$ to t ( ,leibnitz4 ,yet we see t ! metaphysics ( ,leibnitz is to be f\nd almo/ 9 its entirety 9 ,kant4 ,( ?is dogmatic philosophy ,kant has pres]v$ ! doctr9e4 ,he only reject$ its dogmatism2 :i*1 z a matt] ( fact1 0 ( capital importance4 ,9 ! same way1 positive philosophy has (t5 be5 pres5t$ z ! =mal negation ( ! philosophy :i* prec$$ x4 ,:5 we v]ify ?is1 we ne>ly always f9d !m bo? conc]n$ ) ! same problems1 & (t5 rea*+ analog\s solutions4 ,"h aga9 x is only a "q ( transposition2 an extremely s]i\s "o x is true1 on acc\nt ( all t x implies4 ,errors ( int]pretation are v (t5 due to a lack ( hi/orical p]spective4 ,once !y h be5 =mulat$ & adopt$ by curr5t op9ion !y are difficult to rectify4 ,"t is ne$$ 9 ord] t b5ea? sup]ficial diff]5ces1 deep seat$ resemblances may appe>4 ,dur+ _m ye>s ,kant 0 9 all s9c]ity look$ ^u z a sceptic 9 ,france4 ,^? :o criticis$ him c\ld n conceive h[ any "o c\ld give up metaphysical dogmatism1 )\t at ! same "t ab&on+ ! doctr9es :i* _h be5 ca/ 9 ! metaphysical =m be=e ,kant4 ,9 ! same way1 9 ! eyes ( mo/ ( 8 adv]s>ies1 ,comte's sy/em mu/ h appe>$ z ! v negation ( philosophy1 because ! t]ms 8philosophy0 & 8relative0 seem$ incompatible to !m4 ,b ?is sy/em1 :i* is an ef=t to realise1 f ! po9t ( view ( positive sci5ce1 ! unity ( ! und]/&+1 & ! 8p]fect logical coh]5ce10 9 reality ends by putt+ ! traditional problems ( philosophy 9 a =m suitable to ! _s ( our age4 ,,iv4 ,if ! relation%ip betwe5 ,comte's philosophy & ! doctr9es :i* prec$$ x is suffici5tly evid5t1 x does n foll[ t ?is philosophy has br\ght ) x no?+ new4 ,on ! contr>y1 ! 8transposition0 ( problems & ! con/ant ef=t to sub/itute ! relative to ! absolute po9t ( view1 entails s]i\s consequ5ces ) v f> rea*+ effects4 ,"s ( ^! 7 at once app>5t1 & fir/ s]v$ to *>act]ise positive philosophy 9 ! eyes ( ! public4 ,o!rs1 m remote1 b no less important1 appe>$ m sl[ly4 ,! negative consequ5ces almo/ alone attract$ att5tion at fir/4 ,! *ief *>act]i/ic ( ! new philosophy seem$ to be ! d5ial ( ! legitimacy & ev5 ( ! possibility ( metaphysics 9 all its =ms3 rational psy*ology1 ! philosophical !ory ( matt] & ( life1 rational !ology1 etc4 ,x seem$ also to d5y ! possibility ( introspective psy*ology1 ( e?ics 9 its traditional =m1 z well z ( logic4 ,9 a ^w1 "o aft] ano!r1 x exclud$ all ! p>ts ( :at con/itut$ a 8c\rse ( philosophy40 ,no wond]1 !n1 if ?is doctr9e :i* took ! "n ( 8positive0 appe>$ to be *iefly negative4 ,h[ev]1 9 reality1 ! negation only affect$ ! s-call$ 8rational0 or 8philosophical sci5ces40 ,comte reproa*$ !m ) :at ,ari/otle calls 4 ,/r+5tly apply+ ! pr9ciple ( ! relativity ( k1 he refus$ to admit any?+ absolute4 ,he 0 !re=e p]fectly true to himself 9 reject+ doctr9es f\nd$ ^u metaphysical pr9ciples4 ,b ?is entirely negative aspect ( 8 philosophy is v f> f be+ ! "o accord+ to :i* we c be/ und]/& x4 ,truly speak+1 x is only prep>atory1 & hi/orians h (t5 committ$ ! mi/ake ( all[+ p to believe t x is ess5tial4 8,we only de/roy :at we replace10 said ,comte4 ,! "q 0 n to ru9 b to trans=m ! psy*ological1 moral & social sci5ces4 ,z we h se51 positive philosophy does n d5y ! possibility ( a psy*ology4 ,on ! contr>y1 x e/abli%es t psy*ical ph5om5a1 l ! o!rs1 are subject to laws1 & t ^! laws mu/ be look$ = by ! positive me?od4 ,x only rejects ! psy*ology ( ! ideologi/s z ab/ract1 & t ( ,c\s9 z metaphysical4 ,x claims t1 9 pres5ce ( ! ph5om5a :i* he is /udy+1 ! psy*ologi/ %\ld assume ! same attitude z ! biologi/ or ! physici/1 t any se>* aft] cause or ess5ce %\ld be c>efully avoid$1 t any metaphysical or e?ical aft]-?\ght %\ld be set aside4 ,!n a sci5ce ( physical ph5om5a w be e/abli%$2 /ill x w only be able to /udy ! highe/ m5tal functions 9 ! 8univ]sal subject10 9 humanity4 ,if we wi% to d s1 we may cont9ue to call x by its traditional "n1 al?\gh x is to ! old psy*ology only :at ! *emi/ry ( our day is to al*emy4 ,a simil> trans=mation gives rise to social sci5ce4 ,"h aga91 ! indisp5sable condition = ! sci5tific k ( facts & ( laws is a new attitude ( m9d 9 pres5ce ( ^! facts4 ,we mu/ set aside :at int]e/s u subjectively 9 !m1 & consid] :at is 8specifically social0 9 !m1 j z ! physiologi/ /udies :at is 8specifically biological0 9 ! ph5om5a ( ! organism4 ,m4 ,durkheim1 z a real heir ( ,augu/e ,comte1 reasonably ma9ta9s t ?is is a condition s9e qua non ( positive sociology4 ,?is only exi/s z a sci5ce if !re are facts :i* are prop]ly social1 subject to special laws1 besides ! m g5]al laws ( nature :i* rule !m also1 & if ^! facts1 by con/ant objective *>act]i/ics1 are suffici5tly di/9ct f ! ph5om5a call$ psy*ological4 ,positive psy*ology is n[ already con/itut$4 ,positive sociology is be+ =m$4 ,! sci5ce ( language1 ! sci5ce ( religions1 ! hi/ory ( art are also assum+ a positive =m4 ,! movem5t :i* has begun1 & ( :i* we only see ! beg9n+s1 w probably ext5d mu* fur!r ?an we ?9k4 ,x supposes at lea/ a provisional sep>ation betwe5 ! sci5tific int]e/ & ! political1 moral & religi\s int]e/s4 ,be+ already con/itut$ = a consid]able "p ( our k1 ?is sep>ation = ! rema9d] is /ill di/a/eful to ! traditional habits ( ! majority ( m9ds4 ,we are accu/om$ to speculate ^u physical or *emical nature ) p]fect dis9t]e/$ness z to ! metaphysical consequ5ces ( ! results :i* we may obta94 ,= we are conv9c$ t ! laws ( ^! ph5om5a d n necess>ily imply any consequ5ces ( ?is k9d1 or t !y c be almo/ indiff]5tly br\ght into accord ) any =m ( metaphysics we may be pleas$ to adopt4 ,:at d physics1 *emi/ry1 natural philosophy prove1 z to ! de/9y ( man or ! supreme cause ( ! univ]se8 ,no?+1 & x does n occur to u to be surpris$ at x4 ,we consid] t ^! sci5ces are 9 accordance ) _! def9ition if !y give u a k ( ! laws ( ph5om5a1 & if ?is k enables u )9 c]ta9 limits to ex]cise a rational & efficaci\s action ^u nature4 ,are we 9 ! same position 9 :at conc]ns psy*ology & ! moral & social sci5ces8 ,?is is d\btful4 ,! v "n ( 8moral sci5ces0 is significant en\gh on ?is po9t4 ,we _c refra9 f ?9k+ t ^! sci5ces 8prove0 some?+ outside !mselves4 ,= sev]al ( ! s*ools ( ?is c5tury1 psy*ology is /ill ! pa? t leads to metaphysics4 ,spirituality & ! immortality ( ! s\l seem to h a direct int]e/ 9 x4 ,9 a m or less consci\s mann] or?odox political economy has f\nd itself 8prov+0 ! legitimacy ( ! mod]n capitali/ rgime1 & has repres5t$ x z be+ 9 con=mity ) ! immutable laws ( nature4 ,! hi/orical mat]ialism ( ,m>x 8proves0 ! necessity ( collectivism4 ,hi/ory too (t5 s]ves national int]e/s1 or political p>ties4 ,comte's mo/ int]e/+ & f]tile lead+ idea is t ! sci5ces conceiv$ 9 ?is way are /ill 9 _! infancy & d n des]ve _! "n4 ,^? :o take !m up %\ld1 9 ! fir/ place1 conv9ce !mselves ( ! fact t !y prove no m 9 fav\r ( spiritualism or mat]ialism1 ( protection or ( free ex*ange1 ?an physics or *emi/ry prove 9 fav\r ( ! unity or ! plurality ( sub/ances 9 ! univ]se4 ,9 ! s*ool ( ! m advanc$ sci5ces m5 may be taught to di/+ui% betwe5 ! objects ( positive rese>* & ! metaphysical or practical que/ions4 ,!y w see also t ! human m9d did n beg9 by mak+ ?is di/9ction 9 ! case ( inorganic & ( liv+ nature4 ,= a long "t x c\ld only ?9k ( physical ph5om5a religi\sly4 ,)\t ! admirable ef=t ( ! ,greek m5 ( sci5ce & philosoph]s1 we might yet f9d ourselves 9 ?is p]iod1 & positive philosophy might /ill be await+ ! h\r ( its bir?4 ,to-day ?is philosophy has come into be+4 ,9 ord] to prove f9ally e/abli%$1 x requires t individual & social human nature %\ld become ! object ( a sci5ce z dis9t]e/$ z physics & biology h already become4 ,f t day alone w ! 8,social sci5ces0 be def9itely con/itut$4 ,x is true t s9ce 9 a c]ta9 way ! object ( ^! sci5ces is ourselves1 x seems p>adoxical to look ^u !m 9 ! same way z if x 7 a "q ( salts or ( cry/als4 ,we p]si/ 9 believ+ t any k ( ?is ord]1 z soon z x is acquir$1 admits ( imm$iate applications to our condition or conduct4 ,b ?is is an illusion4 ,is n ! importance ( ! 8milieu0 9 :i* we f9d ourselves1 & ( ! =ces :i* affect u f )\t = our welf>e & ev5 = our pres]vation :i* dep5ds ^u !m at e mom5t1 a simple matt] ( evid5ce8 ,nev]!less1 we seek a purely ab/ract1 sci5tific k ( ! laws ( ph5om5a1 because we "k t our effective p[] ^u natural =ces is subord9ate to sci5ce4 ,9 ! same way we sep>ate physiology f !rapeutics & m$ic9e1 & we especially await ! progress ( ^! f physiology4 ,s 9 ! same way1 pdagogy1 rational economy1 politics1 & 9 g5]al all ! social arts 9 ! future w be subord9at$ to ! !oretical sci5ce ( ! individual & social nature ( man1 :5 ?is sci5ce has be5 con/itut$ by means ( a purely positive me?od1 & is no long] expect$ to 8prove0 any?+ b its laws4 ,?is may p]haps be ! "w ( c5turies4 ,we are only witness+ its e>ly beg9n+s4 ,we /ill h only a vague idea ( a polity f\nd$ ^u sci5ce2 & we d n yet "k :at individual & social psy*ology w yield z a positive sci5ce4 ,comte anticipat$ results :i* c\ld n be imm$iate4 ,?is is yet ano!r feature :i* he has 9 common ) ,desc>tes1 to :om we h s (t5 _h occasion to comp>e him4 ,hav+ conceiv$ a c]ta9 ma!matical ideal ( physical sci5ce1 ,desc>tes pictur$ ! problems ( nature1 & especially ( liv+ nature1 z be+ inf9itely less complex ?an !y are4 ,our sci5tific m5 to-day no long] v5ture to put to !mselves ! biological que/ions ^: solution appe>$ to ,desc>tes to be comp>atively easy4 ,9 ! same way1 ,augu/e ,comte1 hav+ recognis$ t moral & social ph5om5a %\ld be objects ( sci5ce1 j z ^? ( inorganic & liv+ nature1 believ$ ?is new sci5ce to be f> m advanc$ by 8 own lab\rs ?an x 0 9 reality4 ,x is easy to und]/& 8 mi/ake4 ,he 0 anxi\s to proce$ to ! 8social reorganisation10 9 view ( :i* he 0 con/ruct+ 8 philosophy4 ,!n1 giv5 ! conception he _h =m$ ( social sci5ce1 he 0 b\nd to ?9k t ! discov]y ( ! great dynamic law ( ! ?ree ,/ates 0 suffici5t to f9ally con/itute x4 ,9 8 eyes 8! h>de/ "p ( ! "w 0 done40 ,sociologi/s at pres5t believe t almo/ ev]y?+ rema9s to be done4 ,b1 "h aga91 we may r5ew ! comp>ison betwe5 ,desc>tes & ,comte4 ,9 ! "w ( bo?1 )\t mu* difficulty1 we c di/+ui% :at is done by ! sci5tific man prop]ly s-call$ & :at is done by ! philosoph]4 ,x is ! same ) ,comte ! sociologi/ z ) ,desc>tes ! physici/4 ,_! hypo!ses h met ) ! fate common to sci5tific lab\rs1 ( :i* ,comte himself has s well set =? ! necess>y transitor9ess4 ,! o!r portion ( _! "w1 m g5]al 9 "*1 is possess$ ( m endur+ qualities4 ,9 ?is s5se1 & sett+ aside 8 political & religi\s views1 :i* belong to ano!r ord]1 ! speculative philosophy ( ,comte is liv+ /ill1 & pursues its evolution ev5 )9 ! m9ds ( ^? :o are engag$ 9 oppos+ x4 ,,! ,,end4 ,w4 ,jolly ,sons1 ,pr9t]s1 ,albany ,press1 ,ab]de54 ,,footnotes3 #cgj ,c\rs1 ,,iv1 #bcg4 99 99 99 99 99 ,transcrib]'s ,notes ,obvi\s typographical errors h be5 sil5tly correct$4 ,v>iations 9 hyph5ation & acc5ts h be5 /&>dis$ b all o!r spell+ & punctuation1 9 p>ticul> ! inconsi/5t punctuation ( ! footnotes1 rema9s un*ang$4 ,op5+ or clos+ quotation m>ks are frequ5tly omitt$4 ,:]e ^! are obvi\s !y h be5 ins]t$1 o!rwise !y h be5 left un*ang$4 ,9 ,book ,i ,*apt] ,,vi1 "p ,,ii ! quotion 8! "w ( ! species gradually develop$ 9 ! long sequ5ce ( c5turies40 is ref]5c$ z a footnote1 b no footnote is pres5t4 ,italics are repres5t$ ?us italic4