material from the ,google ,books project47 ,j4 ,,bryer ,,son1 ,nautical ,instrument ,makers ,yacht ,fitters1 #ajd1 ,,minories1 ,,london4 #ac-;in4 high1 #e #ajs4 ,nickel-plated1 #f #ajs4 ,blocks4 ,rope4 ,cleats4 ,fairleads4 ,flags4 ,pumps4 ,chains4 ,anchors4 ,cork ,seats4 ,stoves4 ,knives1 etc4 ,masts4 ,spars4 ,wire ,rigging4 ,illustration ,spirit ,compasses4 ,dry ,compasses4 ,clocks and ,aneroid ,barometers4 ,charts4 ,books4 ,night ,glasses4 ,lamps3 ,port1 ,starboard1 and ,anchor4 ,cabin ,lamps4 99 99 99 99 99 ,rowlocks4 ,boat ,hooks4 ,fendoffs4 ,extreme ,height only #ad inches4 #e-;inch ,card ,liquid ,compass4 ,these ,binnacles are much approved of for small yachts1 #c and #e tonners4 ,compass is perfectly steady in a sea way4 ,rope of all ,kinds for ,yachts1 ,boats1 and ,canoes4 ,,catalogues ,,free4 ,the only ,prize ,medal awarded for ,construction of ,boats at the ,international ,inventions ,exhibition1 #ahhe4 ,by ,appointment to the ,queen4 ,illustration ,,established ,,over #ajj ,,years4 ,r4 ,j4 ,,turk1 ,,boat1 ,,punt1 ,,and ,,canoe ,,builder1 ,,kingston-,,on-,,thames1 ,,surrey4 ,boats1 ,punts1 and ,canoes of every kind ,built with all the ,latest ,improvements4 ,,head ,,quarters ,,of ,,the ,,royal ,,canoe ,,club4 ,,cruising ,,canoe1 with ,,self-,,reefing ,,gear ,,sails4 ,illustration ,gold ,medal1 ,melbourne1 #ahhh-ahhi4 ,gold ,medal1 ,edinburgh1 #ahhf4 ,gold ,medal1 ,glasgow1 #ahhf-ahhg4 ,silver ,medal1 ,liverpool1 #ahhf4 ,gold ,medal1 ,paris ,international ,exhibition1 #ahhe4 ,silver and ,bronze ,medals1 ,falmouth ,exhibition1 #ahhe4 ,the ,medal of the ,sanitary ,institute of ,great ,britain1 ,leicester1 #ahhe4 ,only ,prize ,medal1 ,inventions ,exhibition1 #ahhe1 for ,construction of ,boats4 ,silver ,medal1 ,havre1 #ahhg4 ,medal1 ,saltaire1 #ahhg4 ,highest ,award1 ,first ,order of ,merit1 ,adelaide ,international ,exhibition1 #ahhg1 for ,rowing ,skiff and ,canoe4 ,silver ,medal1 ,brussels1 #ahhh4 ,silver and ,bronze ,medals1 ,barcelona1 #ahhh4 ,builder of the ,nautilus ,sailing ,canoe1 awarded ,silver ,medal1 ,inventions ,exhibition1 #ahhe4 ,,radix ,,folding ,,centre ,,board 7,patent74 ,gold ,medal1 ,new ,orleans4 ,silver ,medal1 ,philadelphia4 ,sole ,agent for ,europe1 ,r4 ,j4 ,,turk4 ,,norie ,,wilson1 ,,chart ,,publishers1 #aef1 ,,minories1 ,,london4 ,,sailing ,,and ,,steam ,,yachts ,,for ,,sale ,,or ,,hire4 ,,yachting ,,requisites ,,of ,,every ,,kind4 ,charts1 ,books1 ,nautical ,instruments1 ,signal ,flags1 ,burgees1 ,ensigns1 etc4 ,illustration ,,catalogues ,,post ,,free4 ,,sailing4 ,e4 ,f4 ,,knight4 ,,the ,,all-,,england ,,series4 ,small #hvo1 cloth1 price #as4 each4 ,,cricket4 ,by the ,,hon4 ,,ivo ,,bligh4 ,,lawn ,,tennis4 ,by ,h4 ,w4 ,w4 ,,wilberforce1 ,sec4 ,a4,e4,l4,t4,c4 ,,rowing ,,and ,,sculling4 ,by ,w4 ,b4 ,,woodgate1 ,diamond ,sculls4 ,,sailing4 ,by ,e4 ,f4 ,,knight1 ,author of 8,the ,cruise of the #8,falcon1'0 c4 ,double volume1 #bs4 ,,golf4 ,by ,w4 ,t4 ,,linskill1 ,cam4 ,univ4 ,golf ,club4 ,,swimming4 ,by ,,martin ,,cobbett4 ,,cycling4 ,by ,h4 ,h4 ,,griffin1 ,l4,a4,c41 ,n4,c4,u41 ,c4,t4,c4 ,,athletics4 ,by ,h4 ,h4 ,,griffin1 ,l4,a4,c4 ,,football--,,rugby ,,game4 ,by ,,harry ,,vassall4 ,,football--,,association ,,game4 ,by ,c4 ,w4 ,,alcock4 ,,boxing4 ,by ,r4 ,g4 ,,allanson-,,winn1 ,winner of ,middle and ,heavy ,weights1 ,cambridge1 #ahgf-h4 ,,wrestling4 ,by ,,walter ,,armstrong1 ,author of 8,wrestliana40 ,,tennis4 ,by ,,julian ,,marshall4 ,,fencing4 ,by ,h4 ,a4 ,,colmore ,,dunn1 ,inns of ,court ,school of ,arms4 ,,skating4 ,by ,,douglas ,,adams1 ,london ,skating ,club4 ,,london3 ,,george ,,bell ,,sons4 ,,sailing4 ,,by ,e4 ,f4 ,,knight1 ,,barrister-,,at-,,law1 ,,author ,,of 8,,the ,,cruise ,,of ,,the #8,,falcon1'0 8,,the #8,,falcon' ,,on ,,the ,,baltic10 ,,etc4 ,,with ,,numerous ,,illustrations4 ,,london3 ,,george ,,bell ,,sons1 ,,york ,,street1 ,,covent ,,garden4 #ahhi4 ,,london3 ,,printed ,,by ,,william ,,clowes ,,and ,,sons1 ,,limited1 ,,stamford ,,street ,,and ,,charing ,,cross4 ,,contents4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,introductory4 ,,page ,the choice of a boat--,description of the various parts of a cutter #a ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,the ,,ropes4 ,knots1 bends1 and hitches #f ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,the ,,theory ,,of ,,sailing4 ,leeway and lateral resistance--,heeling--,balancing sails-- ,tacking--,action of rudder--,longitudinal resistance--,deep keel or centre-board #ae ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,on ,,small ,,boats4 ,open and half-decked boats--,ballast--,the centre-board-- ,false keels--,lee-boards--,counters1 square and pointed sterns--,battened sails #bb ,,chapter ,v4 ,,the ,,rigs ,,of ,,small ,,boats4 ,spritsails--,dipping lugs--,standing lugs--,leg of mutton sails--,the balance lug--,the ,una rig--,balance reefs--,the sloop--,rules of open boat sailing #bh ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,a ,,cutter',s ,,rigging4 ,the bowsprit--,backstays--,main halyards--,tack tricing line--,lacing mainsail to boom--,maintack tackle--,the gaff--,foresheets--,forehorse--,jib sheets--,mainsheet-horse--,topsail--,spi nnaker--,strops for block1 etc4--,the ,,yawl--,the ,,ketch #db ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,how ,,to ,,sail ,a ,,yacht4 ,to get under way from moorings or anchorage--,setting sail--,close hauled--,tacking--,missing stays--,waring--,squalls--,shifting jibs--,jibing--,scandalizing mainsail--,hove to--,reefing--,returning to moorings--,running aground #ef ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,miscellaneous ,,hints4 ,towing a dinghy--,berthon boats--,to prevent a dinghy bumping against an anchored yacht--,foul anchor--,mooring--,the drogue--,the management of open boats in a heavy sea--,management of a yacht in a rough sea--,boarding #ga ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,fitting ,,out4 ,ballasting a yacht--,lead on keel--,the anchor--,setting up rigging--,ventilation and dry rot--,mildew in sails--,stretching new sails--,laying up a boat for the winter--,inventory #hb ,,chapter ,x4 ,,the ,,economy ,,between ,,decks4 ,the well--,arrangement of cabin--,leaky decks--,cabin lights--,the forecastle--,cooking stoves #ia ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,,the ,,laws ,,of ,,the ,,sea4 ,board of ,trade regulations concerning lights1 fog signals1 steering and sailing rules1 pilot signals1 etc4--,custom ,house clearance on returning from a foreign port--,explanation of the terms used in giving steering directions1 etc4 #ig ,,chapter ,,xii4 ,,instruments ,,of ,,navigation ,,necessary ,,for ,,coasting4 ,mercator's chart--,the mariner's compass--,the spirit compass--,variation--,deviation--,the log ship and line--,the lead line #aji ,,chapter ,,xiii4 ,,how ,,to ,,find ,,one',s ,,way ,,at ,,sea4 ,cross bearings--,tacking across the sea--,leeway--,how to allow for a current--,to find the hour of high water #aai ,,chapter ,,xiv4 ,,weather ,,wisdom4 ,use of the instruments--,forecasting weather from natural phenomena1 etc4 #abi ,,chapter ,,xv4 ,,yacht ,,racing4 ,the new ,y4,r4,a4 rule of measurement--,sail area--,time allowance--,rules of racing--,methods of starting #acd ,,chapter ,,xvi4 ,,glossary ,,of ,,nautical ,,terms #adf ,,index #aec ,,sailing4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,introductory4 ,the choice of a boat--,description of the various parts of a cutter4 ,more1 probably1 could be written on boat-sailing than on any other sport2 for this pursuit owes much of its extraordinary fascination to the fact that its science is practically infinite2 the most experienced sailor has always something new to learn1 and is ever acquiring fresh wrinkles4 ,of all inanimate objects a boat is surely the most beloved of its owner2 there is something almost human in its ways and vagaries2 and whereas it is possible to conceive the attainment of perfection in the design of the instrument employed in any other sport1 the complexity of the problem involved in producing the ablest craft renders improvement ever possible1 and the sailing of a boat is not more fascinating than the designing of one4 ,it is easy to acquire the art of sailing a boat under favourable circumstances2 but it is only after considerable experience that the sailor is able to do the right thing promptly in the various emergencies which he is sure to encounter4 ,the tyro will soon discover that the more he knows the more he has left to learn1 and if once he commences to acquire this knowledge of seamanship1 he will be thirsty for more1 and he will never weary of his favourite sport all the days of his life4 ,this book is intended for the tyro1 and in it1 therefore1 only the more necessary and elementary portions of nautical science will be treated of4 ,in the first place1 he must have his boat1 and to assist him in the selection of this is no easy task--so much depends on the idiosyncrasy of the tyro1 the character of the waters he proposes to navigate1 and other circumstances4 ,it may be safely premised that he cannot possibly know what sort of boat will best satisfy his needs1 and as his more experienced friends have each their separate views as to what he should procure in the way of a craft--their views of course depending not on his1 but on their separate idiosyncrasies--it is many chances to one that1 whether he follows the friend's advice or his own inexperienced inclination1 he will not in the first instance obtain the boat he really requires4 ,it is1 indeed1 as an old salt remarked1 as impossible to choose for another man the boat that will suit him as to pick out a wife for him2 and some men--good sailors too--never succeed in mating themselves with the right craft1 but are perpetually building or buying and selling again without ever satisfying themselves4 ,we1 therefore1 recommend the novice not to be over-ambitious at first4 ,let him content himself with a modest and inexpensive craft until he has acquired at least the rudiments of the art of sailing1 and is better capable of deciding what he wants4 ,of course1 if he has friends who own boats1 on board which he can pass his apprenticeship1 so much the better2 but we have observed that as soon as a young fellow is bitten with a taste for sailing1 he--small blame to him--insists on having a boat of his very own1 and will take little pleasure in the boat of another4 ,in recommending the novice to content himself at first with a cheap boat1 we of course do not mean a cheap bad boat1 not one of those extraordinary bargains one comes across in the advertisement columns of the newspapers--a five-ton yacht1 for instance1 going for the ridiculous sum of five pounds1 an ancient hull patched up with paint and putty1 which will certainly cause much heartburning to the innocent novice who acquires possession of her1 and will probably so disgust him that he will abandon yachting altogether4 ,for first she requires a new mast1 then she must have new sails1 then it is found necessary to re-timber her1 possibly re-deck her1 and then1 after twenty times the purchase-money has been spent upon her1 it is discovered that the hull is so rotten that it were madness to put to sea in her at all2 so all the expense has been for nothing1 and the great bargain slowly falls to pieces1 neglected1 on a mud flat4 ,the following hints may prove of some service to a novice who1 despite what we have said1 determines to commence his aquatic career by purchasing a second-hand yacht1 without having a friend who can assist him in the examination of a vessel4 ,though a craft will often be found to be as sound after thirty years or more as on the day she was launched1 still if sappy wood was used in her construction1 or if she has been neglected while lying up1 she may become utterly worthless in less than ten years4 ,in surveying an old vessel1 soft spots can be detected by thrusting a penknife into the wood4 ,those streaks of her planking that are between wind and water1 alternately dry and wet will generally rot first4 ,the interior of the bottom should be carefully examined1 in order to ascertain the soundness of the planking and timbers4 ,dry rot is likely to find its way into the inner sides of the stem and stern posts4 ,if possible remove some of the saloon panels1 for the space between a vessel's skins is a favourite nest for dry rot4 ,if a vessel is coppered and she is hauled up1 the sheathing will be wrinkled in a horizontal direction if she has been in any way strained4 ,these wrinkles beneath the channels show infallibly that her sides have been strained by the rigging4 ,vertical or irregular wrinkles on other portions of her copper may merely indicate that she has rubbed against some hard substance4 ,look to the nails and bolts and see if they are corroded1 or if copper nails have worked loose in consequence of the vessel's straining4 ,if spars are cracked in the direction of their length1 this is of little consequence1 unless the cracks are very deep4 ,such cracks should be stopped with putty when the wood is quite dry1 so as to keep the wet out4 ,when a spar is sprung the cracks will be transverse as well as lengthways4 ,a mast is liable to decay where it passes through the deck1 also under the hounds4 ,look with suspicion on a vessel that has cement in her bottom2 for this prevents a proper examination of her interior4 ,to fill up the spaces between the lower timbers with ,portland cement is1 as we shall show further on1 an admirable plan2 but it is often resorted to in order to conceal serious defects4 ,the bottom of many an old craft is practically held together by cement4 ,before describing the various forms of boats suitable for pleasure sailing1 it will be well to give to the reader a general idea of the rigging and other parts of a small craft1 so that certain terms which we shall have to use constantly may be understood by him4 ,fig4 #a represents a small cutter rigged as simply as possible4 ,illustration3 ,fig #a4 ,the spars are 7#a7 the mast1 which is what is known as a pole mast1 that is1 a mast complete in itself1 having no topmast above it2 7#b7 the bowsprit2 7#c7 the boom2 and 7#d7 the gaff4 ,to support the mast and bowsprit1 shrouds and stays are employed4 ,the mainshrouds 7#e7 and the forestay 7#f7 are now generally of iron wire rope2 the former rest on the projecting shoulders known as hounds 7#ac71 and are attached to the channels 7#ad7 on the side of the boat2 #g is the bobstay and #h are the backstays or runners4 ,the sails are1 ,a1 the mainsail2 ,b1 the foresail2 ,c1 the jib4 ,the mainsail is spread between the gaff and boom1 being laced to the former4 ,the foresail is hoisted up the forestay1 to which it is attached by iron hoops4 ,the upper edge of a sail is called the head2 the lower edge is the foot2 the fore edge is the luff1 and the after edge is the leach4 ,the upper fore corner is the throat of a sail2 the upper after corner is the peak2 the lower fore corner is the tack1 and the lower after corner is the clew4 ,the ropes by which the sails are hoisted are called halyards4 ,the mainsail has two halyards1 the throat halyards which hoist the fore end of the gaff1 and the peak halyards which raise its after end4 ,the topping lift 7#aj7 tops up the boom and relieves the sail of its weight4 ,the reef pennant 7#ae71 passing through an iron ring called the cringle 7#ab7 and the rows of reef points 7#aa71 serve to reef or shorten sail when necessary4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,the ,,ropes4 ,knots1 ,bends1 and ,hitches4 ,a man cannot be even an amateur sailor until he knows his ropes4 ,a great number of knots1 hitches1 bends1 et ctera1 are employed by sailors2 but the skipper of a small fore-and-after will find that the different manipulations of cordage which we will now describe will suffice his needs4 ,the ropes in ordinary use are what are known as hawser-laid ropes1 and are thus put together4 ,several threads of hemp1 called yarns1 are twisted together to form a strand4 ,three strands twisted together from right to left form the hawser-laid or right-handed rope4 ,what is called a cable-laid rope contains nine strands1 that is1 three ordinary right-handed ropes twisted together from left to right into one large rope4 ,right-handed rope must be coiled 8with the sun0 from right to left4 ,cable-laid ropes must be coiled from left to right4 ,the ends of all ropes should be whipped to prevent the strands from unravelling4 ,this is done with spun-yarn or tarred twine4 ,the twine is wound round the rope in such a way that both ends of the twine are covered1 and so secured by the laps1 and no knot is necessary4 ,it is very easy to whip a rope's end1 but very difficult to describe the process in such a way as to make one's self intelligible to one who has never seen it4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #b4 ,where a rope is liable to be chafed1 as in the eyes of the rigging1 it is wormed1 parcelled1 and served4 ,fig4 #b will show how these operations are performed4 ,worming consists of laying spun-yarn between the strands1 so as to fill up the spiral groove which every rope presents1 and obtain a smooth surface4 ,parcelling is wrapping narrow strips of tarred canvas over the worming1 it is put on with the lay1 that is1 follows the direction of the strands4 ,serving a rope is the laying on of spun-yarn or other small stuff over the parcelling and worming4 ,service is put on against the lay of the rope4 ,before commencing to protect a rope in this way it should be stretched out as taut as possible with tackle1 and the worming1 parcelling1 and service should be laid on as tightly as possible4 ,the service is hauled taut by a serving mallet4 ,if the rope is a small one1 it may be served without worming1 as the grooves between the strands are not deep enough to cause great unevenness of surface4 ,splicing1 by which the ends of ropes are neatly and permanently joined1 is a necessary accomplishment of the yachtsman1 and is easily acquired4 ,a ,short ,splice 7,fig4 #c74--,unlay the strands of both rope ends for a little way4 ,interlace the three loose strands of one rope with the three loose strands of the other1 so that each strand of one rope is between two strands of the opposite rope4 ,then force each strand under the next strand but one opposite to it1 and draw all tight4 ,repeat this operation with each strand1 and the splice is made2 but to finish it off neatly1 untwist each strand end1 cut away half the yarns1 and tuck in these reduced strands as before4 ,a marline-spike or pricker is necessary to force open the strands under which the ends have to pass4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #c4 ,when two rope ends are joined by a ,long ,splice 7,fig4 #d71 the joined portion is no thicker than the rest of the rope1 and will reeve through any block that will admit that rope2 this splice is therefore very useful for repairing a halyard that has broken4 ,unlay the ends of the two ropes for a distance six times greater than for a short splice1 and place the strands together as for a short splice4 ,unlay one strand of one rope for a considerable distance further1 and fill up the interval thus left with the opposite strand from the other rope4 ,repeat this process with one strand of the other rope4 ,where the opposite strands meet divide them1 take an overhand knot in them1 and tuck them in as in a short splice2 but before cutting off the half-strands the rope should be well stretched4 ,the yachtsman will use the ,eye ,splice 7,fig4 #e7 more frequently than any other4 ,the end of the rope is bent round so as to form a loop of the required size and the unlaid strands are tucked into the rope exactly as in the short splice4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #d4 ,if one strand of an otherwise sound rope be cut through it can be replaced thus4 ,cut off about two feet of the injured strand4 ,take a somewhat greater length of a strand of the same size and lay it in the interval left by the removed portion of injured strand1 then proceed to halve the strands1 knot and tuck in as in a long splice4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #e4 ,a ,grommet 7,fig4 #f7 is a rope ring4 ,unlay a strand1 without stretching it and so disturbing the turns in it4 ,form a ring of the required size by bending the end round on to the standing part4 ,then wind the strand twice round this ring1 fitting it carefully into the crevices1 so that the ring then presents exactly the appearance of the original rope from which the strand was taken4 ,where the ends meet1 take an overhand knot with them1 halve the yarns1 and tuck them in as in the long splice4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #f4 ,we now come to the various useful knots1 bends1 and hitches1 all easy to acquire1 but difficult to describe in words4 ,however1 if the reader will study the accompanying diagrams with a bit of rope in his hand1 he will soon discover for himself how these knots are formed4 ,they all serve their purpose admirably--that is1 they are quickly made1 are secure1 and cannot slip1 and yet are readily undone again4 ,we must explain that the standing part of a rope is the portion held in the hand2 the bight is the loop made in tying the knot2 the end is that extremity of the rope on which the knot is to be made4 ,first we have the common ,overhand ,knot 7,fig4 #g71 to which we have already alluded4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #g4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #h4 ,one overhand knot on the top of another will form a ,reef ,knot 7,fig4 #h71 that is if the ends are crossed the right way2 for otherwise it will be a granny 7,fig4 #i71 the sailor's detestation4 ,the novice on board a yacht is sure to be unmercifully chaffed should he have assisted at reefing the mainsail1 and a granny be afterwards discovered among the reef points4 ,the figures will show that in the reef-knot both parts--the standing part and the end--pass through the bight the same way1 not one under and one above1 as in the granny4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #i4 ,a ,common ,bend 7,fig4 #aj7 will bend two ropes together4 ,take up the end of one rope into a bight1 and pass the end of the other rope through the bight round both parts and under its own standing part4 ,a common bend also serves to bend a rope into an eye spliced into the end of another rope4 ,the signal halyards are thus bent on to the burgee4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aj4 ,a ,carrick ,bend 7,fig4 #aa7 will bend two ropes together more securely than the common bend4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aa4 ,when it is desired to fasten one rope on to the middle of another rope1 so as to haul upon it1 a ,rolling ,hitch must be used1 as this1 when jammed1 cannot slip down the rope1 and yet it is easily cast off again4 ,fig4 #ab represents a watch-tackle1 with the tail of its upper block bent with a rolling hitch on to the rope it is intended to pull upon1 while the hook on its lower block is made fast with a ,blackwall hitch4 ,a watch-tackle is a very handy tackle on board ship1 and is used for a variety of purposes4 ,a tail is strapped to the upper block and an iron hook to the lower block4 ,a very powerful purchase is obtained by using two watch-tackles in combination4 ,this is done by making fast the tail of one watch-tackle to the hook on the lower block of the other tackle4 ,with a ,blackwall ,hitch a rope can be rapidly and securely fastened to a hook for a temporary purpose4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ab4 ,the diagram will show how it is formed4 ,the hitch is prevented from slipping by the jamming of the rope between its own standing part and the stem of the hook4 ,two ,half ,hitches 7,fig4 #ac7 are very useful for bending a rope to a ring1 a boat's painter to a post1 and other purposes4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ac4 ,a ,clove ,hitch 7,fig4 #ad7 is employed to fasten a rope to a spar or to a stouter rope4 ,in this way the ratlines are hitched to the shrouds1 and a buoy-rope is fastened to an anchor4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ad4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ae4 ,the ,bowline ,knot 7,fig4 #ae7 is somewhat more difficult to make than any of the preceding1 but if the reader diligently imitate the form of the diagram with a piece of rope or string he will soon acquire the secret4 ,where an easily running noose is required1 a ,running ,bowline 7,fig4 #af7 is useful4 ,a rope can be quickly bent on to a spar by means of a ,timber ,hitch 7,fig4 #ag71 which does not readily slip4 ,a ,topsail ,halyard ,bend 7,fig4 #ah7 is still less likely to slip4 ,in this case a description may assist the diagram4 ,take three turns round the spar2 come back round the standing part2 pass under all three turns1 then over the last two turns and under the first turn4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #af4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ag4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ah4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ai4 ,the most secure way of fastening a hawser to a mooring ring or dolphin is by means of the ,fisherman's ,bend 7,fig4 #ai74 ,this is also one of the best ways of bending a hemp cable on to an anchor ring4 ,when used for this last purpose it is well to seize the ends as shown in the diagram4 ,new rope1 especially manilla rope1 is very apt to twist itself up into loops or kinks4 ,this tendency to kink can be prevented by stretching the rope well before using it4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,the ,,theory ,,of ,,sailing4 ,leeway and lateral resistance--,heeling--,balancing sails--,tacking--,action of rudder--,longitudinal resistance--,deep keel or centre-board4 ,any object floating on the water will have a tendency to drift before the wind2 but a boat1 with its scientifically constructed hull1 sails1 and rudder1 can be so guided as to sail with the wind on her quarter or abeam1 or even close-hauled1 as it is called1 that is1 with the wind meeting her at an angle of about forty-five degrees4 ,fig4 #bj represents the deck plan of a boat sailing close-hauled under two sails4 ,the sails ,a and ,b are drawn aft with the sheets till they form an acute angle with the line of the keel4 ,the wind1 whose direction is indicated by the arrow ,w1 strikes the sails at a very acute angle1 so that they do not shake1 but are just full4 ,the result of this pressure on the sails is that the boat is propelled forward and also sideways away from the wind1 making leeway1 as it is called4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bj4 ,if a boat has a deep keel1 her lateral resistance to the water will cause the leeway to be insignificant4 ,if the boat is of very shallow draught and so offers little lateral resistance to the water1 she will not go ahead at all1 and the entire force of the wind will be expended in driving her bodily to leeward4 ,lee-boards and centre-boards are fitted to shallow boats in order to obviate this4 ,the pressure of the wind on the sails1 in addition to producing the above effects1 heels a boat over4 ,a sailing-boat is so constructed as to resist this tendency to capsize4 ,either she is made narrow and deep and is weighted with ballast as far as possible below the water-line1 or she is shallow but of considerable beam4 ,the deep and weighted boat will heel over more readily than the beamy shallow boat1 but the further she heels the greater pressure of wind is necessary to make her heel still more1 for the leverage of her ballast increases as she heels1 and many boats with lead upon their keels are practically uncapsizable4 ,on the other hand1 the beamy shallow boat does not heel so readily1 but after she has heeled to a certain angle she will capsize4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the pressure of the wind on the sails not only propels1 drives to leeward1 and heels over a boat1 but1 unless the sails are absolutely balanced1 it tends to turn her in one direction or the other4 ,in ,fig4 #bj we have a boat with two sails4 ,if the after sail is the more powerful1 it is obvious that the wind will drive round that sail and the stern of the boat with it in the direction of the arrow ,c1 while the head of the boat will run up into the wind4 ,if1 on the other hand1 the head sail be the more powerful of the two1 the bow will be driven off the wind and the boat will bear away4 ,the sails of a boat should be so balanced that she has a slight tendency to run up into the wind2 and to counteract this weather helm1 as it is called1 the steersman will have to keep the rudder slightly to leeward of the line of the keel4 ,if a boat carrying weather helm be left to her own devices in a squall she will at once do the right thing1 luff up into the wind and be in safety2 whereas a boat with too much head-canvas and carrying lee-helm will run off her course and put herself in a dangerous position4 ,a boat should not gripe1 that is1 carry too much weather helm1 for steering will then be very hard1 and the rudder1 forced far over to counteract the helm1 will act as a serious drag in the water4 ,in balancing the sails1 it must be remembered that the further out a sail is on an extremity of a boat1 the greater its effect in driving that end of the boat off the wind4 ,sometimes a vessel's sails are not properly balanced because the ballast has not been stowed in the right place4 ,it is obvious1 for instance1 that if ballast be shifted aft the weather helm will be diminished1 for the stern of the boat will draw more water and so offer more lateral resistance1 whereas the stem of the boat will draw less water1 and will therefore be more easily blown round4 ,a centre-board1 again1 is generally placed well forward1 so it is found that when this is lowered the weather helm of the boat is considerably increased4 99 99 99 99 99 ,we have explained that a boat properly constructed and rigged can sail within forty-five degrees of the wind4 ,now1 if it be desired to sail to some point more directly to windward than this1 what is called tacking becomes necessary4 ,this consists of sailing a certain distance close hauled with the wind on one side1 and then turning round and sailing close hauled with the wind on the other side4 ,a zigzag course is thus taken1 each tack being at about right angles to the last4 ,one diagram of ,fig4 #ba illustrates the process of tacking with the wind right ahead1 and in the other diagram the wind is a point or two off1 so that one tack is longer than the other1 there being1 in sailor language1 a short leg and a long leg4 99 99 99 99 99 ,that the action of the rudder1 when forced over till it is at an angle with the keel1 is to act as a drag on that side and so deflect the boat's course1 is plain enough4 ,but it is not so obvious a fact that this action of the rudder in turning the boat is not to turn her bow round through the water1 but to push the stern sideways while the bow is almost at a standstill4 ,for the centre of rotation of a boat1 that is1 the imaginary pivot on which she turns1 is always well forward4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ba4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ba4 ,in ,fig4 #bb1 ,a is the centre of rotation4 ,so when the rudder is put over to the right1 the boat will revolve on the pivot ,a till she is in the position indicated by the dotted lines4 ,it will be observed that the stern has moved about twice as far as the bow4 ,the further forward the centre of rotation the greater will this disproportion be4 ,it is very important to remember this effect when sailing very near any object such as a buoy1 for while steering so as to turn the boat's head away from the object and avoid it1 the stern is made to approach the object1 and the very action that seems calculated to prevent a collision may become the cause of one4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bb4 99 99 99 99 99 ,having shown what are the relations of the sails1 hull1 and rudder of a boat to the wind and water1 and explained how a vessel requires either ballast or beam to prevent the wind from capsizing her1 and needs draught to increase her lateral resistance and prevent her from being blown to leeward1 it remains to add that the longitudinal resistance to the water must be diminished as much as possible1 so that the boat can slip easily through the water and travel with speed4 ,for this reason a sharp stem is put on a vessel1 so that she can open a way for herself through the water like a wedge1 and she is given what is called a fine run aft1 so that her stern will not drag heavily4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bc4 ,again1 the larger the area of the boat's greatest cross-section 7,fig4 #bc71 the more resistance that results and the slower she will travel4 ,the area of the cross-section is diminished by making a boat of narrow beam1 while the necessary displacement is obtained by increased length and depth4 ,now1 the difficulty arises that most of the qualities that ensure speed in a boat have a tendency to lessen her stability and even her lateral resistance4 ,it follows that1 while constructing a boat1 a compromise has to be made between these three2 and the problem as to how to produce the fittest craft becomes a very complicated one that has never been solved yet1 and probably never will be4 ,thus a long narrow shallow boat will run the fastest before the wind1 but she will not turn to windward at all1 and will capsize with great ease4 ,as it is recognized that beam is opposed to speed1 it has been long the fashion in ,england to construct racing yachts extremely narrow and of great draught4 ,such craft do attain speed1 but at the expense of all comfort1 and when a heavy sea is running go through it instead of over it4 ,to come to the opposite extreme1 we have the flat-bottomed very shallow and very beamy craft1 with a deck plan not unlike a flat-iron--a veritable skimming-dish4 ,provided with a centre-board1 such a boat is well adapted for shallow and sheltered waters4 ,the centre-board can be raised while crossing a shoal1 and the boat will then draw only as many inches as a deep-keel boat of her size would draw feet4 ,she will be very fast in smooth water1 but in rough water she will pound heavily into the seas1 and1 having no good hold of the water and little momentum1 will lose her headway and soon prove dangerous4 ,for real comfort and seaworthiness--and some now maintain for racing purposes as well--a boat that is something between these two extremes answers the best2 that is1 a boat that is moderately beamy and has a moderate draught of water4 ,some years ago we sailed to ,south ,america in a yacht that well represented the class of vessel we are now speaking of4 ,her length was forty-two feet1 her beam thirteen feet1 and her draught seven feet six inches4 ,not being one of the narrow deep class1 she was an excellent sea boat2 indeed1 she once had the reputation of being the best sea boat of her size in the ,channel4 ,now the advocates of the narrow boats will contend that speed must have been sacrificed to obtain this comfort in heavy weather4 ,we scarcely agree with these gentlemen2 for this boat1 though furnished with exceptionally small sails1 could do her nine knots an hour1 and on one occasion travelled two thousand sea miles in ten days4 ,the author also once owned a centre-board yawl of five tons1 which drew between two and three feet without her centre-board4 ,she thus combined the advantages of the shallow boat with the seaworthiness of a boat that is sufficiently immersed to have a good hold of the water4 ,this compromise between the deep-keel and the centre-board types of boat has long been popular in ,america1 and probably the recent victories of the ,american yachts constructed on these principles1 over our own crack deep-keelers will gradually modify the ,english views on this subject4 ,most of our yachting men maintain that a long hole through the bottom of a boat must weaken her2 that the great strain of the centre-board1 concentrated as it is on one small portion of the keel1 must render a large craft thus fitted ill-adapted to buffet with a really heavy sea4 ,on the other hand1 the ,american builders emphatically deny that a centre-board is a cause of weakness1 and point to their noble pilot vessels and trading schooners1 which are all provided with centre-boards1 and which are exposed to every sort of weather4 ,it is unnecessary to dwell longer on this controversy2 for though there is much divergence of opinion as regards large craft1 there can be no question as to the advantages of fitting centre-boards into many kinds of small craft1 especially in those that are intended for river sailing4 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,on ,,small ,,boats4 ,open and half-decked boats--,ballast--,the centre-board--,false keels--,lee-boards--,counters1 square and pointed sterns--,battened sails4 ,the following observations apply chiefly to small boats1 which can be rowed as well as sailed1 and be easily handled by one man--that is1 boats from the smallest size up to about eighteen feet in length4 ,,open ,,and ,,half-,,decked ,,boats4--,a small boat is often half-decked1 that is1 she is provided with a small deck in the bows and a narrow deck on either side1 low coamings being carried round the inside edge4 ,such a boat must to a certain extent be safer than an entirely open boat2 that is1 if she be struck by a squall and heel far over1 or again1 if she run her nose into a sea1 the water will flow off her decks instead of pouring into her and possibly swamping her4 ,but a small boat is not a yacht1 and she ought not to be sailed in so reckless a manner as to drive her bows or gunwale under and ship large bodies of water in this way4 ,a quite open boat1 if she be properly constructed1 not over-ballasted1 not over-canvassed1 and of course properly sailed1 will go through an extraordinary amount of sea without taking a bucketful of water on board2 and not only this1 but she will sail as fast if not faster than the half-decked craft of the same size staggering along under excessive canvas1 with the water under her lee coamings4 ,the slight additional safety1 or rather inducement to recklessness afforded by the half-deck and waterways1 is more than counterbalanced by several disadvantages4 ,in the first place1 this deck--too narrow to walk along--will occupy much of the already limited space available on board a small boat1 and it will be in the way of and impede one working the sails or rowing to an extent that it is difficult to appreciate until one has tried the experiment4 ,in the next place1 this deck must be of considerable weight--a serious disadvantage if the boat has often to be beached4 ,and not only is the deck heavy in itself1 but1 situated as it is high above the water-line1 it tends to make the boat top-heavy1 and this must be counteracted by putting more ballast into her than would be required in an entirely open boat of the same dimensions4 ,now1 if a small boat is intended ever to venture into rough water1 the less ballast she carries and the more buoyant she is1 the better4 ,we therefore do not recommend half-decks for the class of boat of which we are now speaking4 ,when a boat is big enough to be a small yacht1 and the half-deck forward covers a cuddy large enough to afford sleeping accommodation to the crew1 the case is different1 and the half-deck becomes a decided advantage4 ,,ballast4--,a small boat's ballast1 whatever form it may take1 should be readily movable4 ,thus1 if lead is used1 it should be cast in small blocks of not more than half a hundredweight each1 and in order that it may be lifted with ease1 each block should be provided with a handle4 ,lead being very heavy1 and therefore occupying little space in a boat1 is the most convenient form of ballast1 but it is also by far the most expensive4 ,the iron half-hundredweights with handles at the top1 which can be purchased at any marine store dealer's1 are nearly as convenient as lead weights1 and are very cheap4 ,battens should be nailed to the bottom of the boat to keep the ballast in its place1 otherwise it might slide to leeward in a squall and cause a capsize4 ,stones and bags of sand are often employed as ballast1 but water contained in small barrels1 or1 better still1 in metal tanks1 shaped so as to fit closely into the bottom of the boat1 is far the safest ballast that can be used4 ,for if a boat provided with water ballast capsize and fill she will be no heavier than if she contained no ballast1 and1 consequently1 she will not sink4 ,another advantage of water ballast is that it can be pumped out to lighten the boat when a calm necessitates the use of oars1 and be quickly admitted again when a breeze springs up and the sail is hoisted4 ,again1 when the water-tanks are empty the boat is practically converted into a lifeboat1 and if a sea fill her she will still float4 ,the advantages of water over other forms of ballast are so numerous that nothing else would be used in small boats were it not for the great amount of space it occupies2 and so serious is this objection that one but rarely comes across a boat thus ballasted4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,centre-,,board4--,in ,england the centre-board of a small boat is generally of galvanized iron2 thus acting also1 to some extent1 as ballast4 ,in ,america wooden centre-boards are more often used4 ,if a boat has often to be beached or carried1 lightness is an important object1 and therefore the wooden centre-board is to be preferred4 ,one objection to the centre-board is that its trunk or case occupies so much space in the interior of the boat4 ,a telescopic or fan centre-board has recently been invented which folds up into itself when hauled up1 and therefore requires no trunk4 ,we believe1 however1 that this is only adapted for canoes and other very small boats4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,false ,,keels4--,if the tyro lives by the sea it is very likely that he will commence his nautical career by becoming the proud possessor of some old yacht's dinghy or ship's boat1 which1 when he puts sail on her1 runs before the wind to his complete satisfaction1 but is too shallow to turn to windward4 ,now1 to put a centre-board into a boat that has not been expressly built for one is an expensive and generally unsatisfactory job1 but any carpenter can nail a false keel on to the old one1 and so give the boat the necessary draught at a small expense4 ,a false keel should be rounded up towards the bow and stern1 and have its greatest depth some way abaft the middle of the boat4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,lee-,,boards4--,the tyro will find lee-boards even less expensive and possibly more effective than a false keel1 and when they are raised the boat will row more easily than if she were provided with the latter4 ,there is some prejudice against lee-boards in ,england1 and to eyes unaccustomed to see them on pleasure craft they appear ugly1 but in ,holland no boat or yacht is without them4 ,large lee-boards are made in several sections1 and are strengthened with iron bands1 while they require a good deal of gear to support and raise them2 but the author has found that with a small boat the following simple method of fitting lee-boards proved very satisfactory4 ,the shape and position of this lee-board is shown in ,fig4 #bd4 ,it is cut out of one plank and has no iron fittings1 and ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bd4 it is between three and four feet in length4 ,the inner side is flat4 ,the outer side1 as represented in the diagram1 maintains the thickness of the plank at the head and down the middle1 and is thence planed away to a narrow edge4 ,a rope is rove through a hole at the head of the lee-board1 and passing over the gunwale is secured to a cleat4 ,another rope rove through a hole at the bottom of the lee-board is led aft and serves to raise it1 while the first rope serves as a pivot4 ,when the lee-boards are not required they can be brought on board and placed at the bottom of the boat4 ,if the boat is wall-sided1 that is1 has perpendicular sides1 the lee-boards can rest against these2 but if1 as is the case with most boats1 her sides fall in beneath1 wooden pillows must be fastened on the outside of the boat to support the lee-boards and keep them at the right angle2 or1 and this is sometimes the better plan1 battens of the requisite breadth are nailed on the lee-boards themselves4 ,in working lee-boards the lee one is lowered and the weather one hauled up1 and when the boat is running both are raised4 ,all those who are accustomed to the use of lee-boards speak well of them1 and they certainly have some advantages over centre-boards1 notably1 that if the boat runs aground1 they will not bend1 break off1 or strain the boat1 as is often the case with a centre-board4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,counters1 ,,square ,,and ,,pointed ,,sterns4--,whatever it may be on a yacht1 a counter or overhanging stern is not an ornament on a small boat1 being1 as it is1 the very reverse of useful2 and to the educated eye the useful and beautiful go together in boats1 as they do in many other things4 ,in rough water1 if a sea strike a boat under the counter a variety of disagreeable results may ensue2 for instance1 the boat's bows may be driven under1 or she may broach to1 that is1 be driven broadside on to the sea1 and be swamped by the next wave4 ,a square stern1 as is usual in small boats1 is far better than a counter2 but far better still1 for a boat intended to be out in rough water1 is the pointed stern4 ,such a boat is undoubtedly safer1 especially when running before a sea1 and we maintain that she will be faster as well4 ,all lifeboats are thus constructed4 ,the author was caught in a north-west gale in the ,gulf of ,heligoland last summer1 and had to sail sixty miles before a high and dangerous sea4 ,he was in a little yacht of three tons1 which had a pointed stern4 ,she showed no tendency to broach to1 but rushed straight ahead across the steep sea in a fashion that gave us confidence and astonished us4 ,had she had the ordinary yacht's stern to present to those following masses of water instead of a graceful wedge offering little resistance1 we should have had a very uncomfortable time of it4 ,many men dislike a pointed stern1 and consider it ugly4 ,however that may be1 it behaves handsomely1 and we should certainly recommend any amateur building a sailing-boat for coasting purposes to give her the lifeboat stern4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,battened ,,sails4--,battens of pine tapering at the ends1 are sometimes fastened to the reef bands of balance lugs and other sails in use on small boats4 ,the object of battens is to make a sail stand very flat4 ,another advantage gained by the use of these is that if one is sailing a boat alone1 a reef can be taken down in a moment with one hand while the halyard is being slacked off a sufficient length with the other4 ,this is done by means of a line which1 when hauled taut1 draws the boom and batten close together4 ,it is not necessary to tie down reef points in a sail reefed as above1 but to do so makes a much neater reef4 ,battens are of great service on the sails of canoes and very small craft1 but they make a larger sail somewhat heavy and clumsy to handle4 ,,chapter ,v4 ,,the ,,rigs ,,of ,,small ,,boats4 ,spritsails--,dipping lugs--,standing lugs--,leg-of-mutton sails--,the balance lug--,the ,una rig--,balance reefs--,the sloop--,rules of open boat sailing4 ,the ,spritsail rig is much used on small boats all round the coast of ,england4 ,it is an exceedingly handy and safe rig1 and the spritsail will set flatter and is better adapted for turning to windward than almost any other form of sail4 ,it has no boom or gaff1 but is extended by a long diagonal spar called the sprit1 which tapers away at the two extremities1 the upper end of it fitting into an eye on the peak1 the lower end fitting into a loop on the mast called the snotter4 ,the snotter 7see ,fig4 #be7 is a grommet which is placed round the mast1 and then seized in the middle so as to form an eye for the sprit4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #be4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bf4 ,in using this rig1 the sail is hoisted first2 one end of the sprit is inserted into the eye of the peak1 and then the other end is inserted into the snotter4 ,lastly1 the snotter is pushed up the mast as far as it will go1 bringing the sail quite flat4 ,it is well to have a tackle for hoisting the snotter and preventing it from slipping down the mast4 ,it is important that the snotter should be quite sound4 ,there is a great strain on it1 and should it break1 the sprit end may drive a hole through the bottom of a boat or work some other serious damage4 ,a spritsail can be brailed up along the mast in a moment by means of a line leading through a block on the mast and passing round the sail4 ,a glance at any ,thames sailing barge at anchor will show how this is done4 ,an old ship's long-boat provided with a sprit mainsail1 sprit mizzen1 and jib1 as in ,fig4 #bf1 is a very convenient sort craft in which to take one's first lessons in sailing4 ,when it blows hard the mainsail can be stowed1 and the boat will sail under jib and mizzen1 or these last two sails can be taken in and the mainsail alone be left standing4 ,the mizzen sheet1 it will be observed1 is rove through a sheave-hole at the end of a bumpkin1 a small fixed spar projecting from the stern of the boat4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the ,,dipping ,,lug is a powerful sail very well adapted for sea work1 and a favourite with fishermen and other professional sailors1 but it cannot be recommended to the amateur2 for at every tack the sail has to be lowered and passed round to the other side of the mast4 ,this necessitates plenty of sea room1 and would be an awkward operation to undertake while turning up a narrow and crowded channel4 ,to handle a dipping lug with safety in a stiff breeze requires considerable experience both on the part of the steersman and of the hand or hands to whom the dipping of the sail is entrusted4 ,any one who wishes to rig a boat in this fashion should read ,w4 ,h4 ,s4's description1 in the ,yacht ,racing ,calendar and ,review for this year1 of a very useful invention of his1 whereby the dipping of a lug is made easy and the possibility of bungling in tacking reduced to a minimum4 ,,the ,,standing ,,lug1 though not so powerful a sail as the dipping lug1 is far more convenient2 as the sail has not to be lowered in tacking4 ,the tack1 instead of being carried forward1 is brought down to the mast1 where it is hooked on to an iron hook if the sail be a small one1 and if the sail be a large one it is fitted with a tackle1 so that the tack can be bowsed down after the sail is hoisted4 ,the yard is swung at about one-third of its length1 where it has a strop to pass over the hook on the traveller--an iron ring on the mast to which the end of the halyard is attached1 and which prevents the sail blowing away from the mast4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bg4 ,in order to ensure a lug sail that will stand well1 the peak should be cut high1 as in the drawing4 ,it is a common fault to cut the head of a lug sail too square4 ,such a sail can never be made to set flatly4 ,a short beamy dinghy with one lug is a handy little craft for the amateur2 but if the boat is a long one she will be better with a jib and mizzen1 as in ,fig4 #bg4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,leg-,,of-,,mutton ,,sail4--,a very handy rig and one that requires no spars but the masts is that represented in ,fig4 #bh4 ,the masts though long are slight1 as there is little strain on them4 ,each sail is hoisted to its masthead by one halyard1 and its luff is kept close to the mast by hoops or more usually by a lacing4 ,a boat thus rigged is possibly the safest of any1 and is not easily capsized4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bh4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the rigs we have so far described are well adapted for a novice1 insomuch as they need no booms4 ,as soon as a sail is provided with a boom the danger of sailing is much increased4 ,if you let go the sheet of a sail that has no boom--a spritsail1 for instance--it flaps away from the mast innocently like a flag4 ,put a boom on it1 and you at once have a great surface of canvas extended rigidly and offering the greatest possible resistance to the wind4 ,when running before a strong wind a jibe1 and especially if it be an unpremeditated jibe1 of a sail bent on to a long boom becomes a source of danger4 ,thus a green hand or a careless person cannot be safely trusted with a boom sail on a squally day2 but when the novice has acquired the rudiments of sailing1 and employs that constant caution and watchfulness of his ever-open weather-eye which are indispensable qualities for a sailor1 he will most certainly1 and very rightly too1 prefer the boom sail4 ,for a sail that has no boom is most unsatisfactory if one wishes to get any speed out of a boat4 ,when running free it curves into a bag1 and only presents half its area to the wind4 ,it never stands flat1 except when the boat is close-hauled1 and not always then1 unless the sheet is led exactly to the right place2 and though a sail without a boom jibes with greater safety1 it is much more liable to accidental jibes than one with a boom4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,balance ,,lug4--,the favourite sail for small centre-board craft in ,england is undoubtedly the balance lug4 ,most of the racing boats on the ,upper ,thames are fitted with this sail2 some have jibs1 others jibs and mizzens1 besides the mainsail2 but we will confine ourselves to describing the single-sail centre-board dinghy1 which little craft is perhaps unrivalled for the purpose of single-handed sailing on a river4 ,a handy boat is one fifteen feet long1 with five feet beam4 ,she should have a flat floor1 and therefore shallow draught4 ,the mast is supported with wire shrouds1 and is fitted into what is called a tabernacle1 that is1 a wooden case for the heel of the mast1 having a pivot through it1 on which pivot the mast is easily lowered when the boat is passing under a bridge4 ,the sail1 as is shown in ,fig4 #bi1 is hoisted on a yard similar to that of a standing lug1 but the foot of the sail is laced to a boom1 and extends some distance in front of the mast4 ,one end of the tack is fastened to the boom1 where it crosses the mast1 and the other end of it is secured to the mast4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bi4 ,the tack is a most important rope in a balance-lug boat1 for after the sail has been hoisted with the halyard and it is required to give that last haul on the sail which brings it to its proper tautness1 a much smaller amount of power will do this when applied to the tack than if applied to the halyard4 ,an efficient tack purchase is what is known as a watch tackle1 which is represented in ,fig4 #ab4 ,when after sailing awhile the ropes have stretched1 and the sail is no longer flat1 it is with this tackle1 and not with the halyard1 that one sets it up again4 ,a balance lug requires more frequent setting up to preserve its flatness than any other sort of sail4 ,in a small dinghy1 no purchase is needed for the halyards2 the sail will lower more easily and quicker without one4 ,the tabernacle also is unnecessary1 as the mast can be easily unstepped4 ,the sail is kept close to the mast by an iron traveller2 but if the sail be cut with a high peak it will be found that the traveller has a tendency to prevent the sail from lowering completely4 ,a traveller is also liable to jam if the mast is not kept well greased4 ,on this account the iron traveller is dispensed with on most of the ,upper ,thames boats1 and instead of it1 a line is fastened to the yard1 which passes round the mast and is rove through an eye on the yard4 ,when the sail is up1 this line is hauled taut1 and prevents the yard from blowing away from the mast4 ,this method will be understood by referring to ,fig4 #cj4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cj4 ,a well-cut balance lug properly hoisted should be nearly as flat as a board4 ,the fact of the tack being some way down the boom prevents the pressure of the wind from lifting the after-end of the boom and so forming a belly in the sail1 as is the case with the ordinary fore-and-aft sail4 ,a balance-lug sail is always rigid2 the boom and yard can only move together1 and this rigidity renders it somewhat unfit for rough water1 where it is apt to considerably strain mast and boat4 ,the balance lug is rather an awkward sail to lower1 and as it is impossible to brail it up1 or lower the peak1 or trice up the tack to temporarily reduce the canvas in a squall1 as can be done with other rigs1 the sail has to be lowered bodily if the boat is overpowered by the wind4 ,thus1 if one is overtaken by a violent squall while running before the wind1 the balance lug is perhaps the most dangerous sail one can have on a boat4 ,so as to facilitate reefing1 a grommet is sometimes placed on each reef cringle at the luff of a balance-lug sail4 ,in taking down a reef1 the fore end of the boom is thrust into this eye and an earing is thus dispensed with4 ,the usual method of fitting the sheet of a balance-lug sail is to fasten one end of it to one side of the stern1 and then to lead it through a single block strapped on to the boom1 and through another block fastened to the other side of the stern4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,una ,,rig4--,whereas the balance lug is the favourite ,english rig for small river craft1 the ,cat or ,una rig is generally preferred by the ,americans1 and it undoubtedly possesses some important advantages over the other rig4 ,the cat boat 7,fig4 #ca71 being intended for very shallow waters1 has the least possible draught4 ,this boat1 consequently1 has great beam1 and is often quite flat-bottomed4 ,the centre-board is of wood or iron4 ,the mast is stepped much more forward than in a balance-lug boat1 and carries one large sail laced to a boom and gaff4 ,the cat boat1 in our opinion1 will turn to windward in smooth water even more smartly than a balance lug1 and as a rule will row more easily1 for the displacement is very small1 and in consequence of the stability given by the great beam1 little1 often no1 ballast is used4 ,in ,england1 it is usual for a ,una boat to have but one halyard1 which serves to hoist both peak and throat4 ,we prefer two halyards1 one for the throat1 one for the peak1 the latter leading aft1 so that it can be let go in a squall1 and thus reduce the sail by one-half4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ca4 ,the author had recently a good deal of experience in an eighteen-foot cat boat among the quays of the ,gulf of ,mexico and on an extensive lake in ,florida1 and he came to the conclusion that for such work the cat rig was far handier than the balance lug1 especially when1 as was often the case1 there was a large party of ladies on board4 ,this was an entirely open boat1 carrying no ballast1 and having a wooden centre-board4 ,she was therefore very light for her size1 and could be rowed with singular ease4 ,the lake was subject to sudden and violent squalls1 and it was very convenient to be able to let go the peak halyards without leaving the tiller1 and have them up again in a moment as soon as the squall had passed1 without disturbing the passengers in the least4 ,had the sail been the uncompromising balance lug1 the whole sail would have had to be lowered in a body on to the heads of the passengers4 ,a topping lift1 always belayed so as to feel the weight of the boom1 is indispensable in a cat boat1 else the end of the boom would drop into the water when the peak was lowered4 ,strong winds would spring up suddenly on this lake1 so that the boat would be quite overpowered even under close-reefed sail1 and it became impossible to tack home until the wind dropped4 ,neither was it possible to row back1 for the very lightness of a cat boat renders her a troublesome boat to pull against the wind4 ,she is blown over the surface of the water before the wind1 despite all the efforts of the oarsman4 ,now1 as the swamps which surround this lake also made it out of the question to land and walk home1 one was liable to find one's self weather-bound among the dismal cypress swamps at the further end of the lake for three days at a stretch while a 8norther0 was blowing4 ,the author almost entirely did away with the chance of such an unpleasant adventure by putting what is known as a balance reef into the sail1 a plan he strongly recommends to all those who would sail ,una boats or small sloops on broad waters liable to sudden storms4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the ,,balance ,,reef 7,fig4 #ca7 extends diagonally across the sail from the throat to the clews4 ,in taking in this reef1 the jaws of the gaff are lowered till they touch the boom1 and are there tied4 ,the fall of the throat halyards will do for this purpose4 ,when the reef has been taken down and the peak is hoisted again1 it will be found that the gaff is nearly parallel to the mast1 and a very snug little triangular sail is formed1 under which the boat will tack or run--with boom well topped up--with safety2 and the moment the peak halyard is let go1 down the sail will fall into the bottom of the boat without making any fuss4 ,the boat we are speaking of was remarkably cranky1 but she would behave well in a strong gale under her balance reef4 ,the balance reef is much employed by our fishermen and coasters1 but scarcely ever on board yachts4 ,i believe that many amateurs consider this1 together with some other useful wrinkles1 to be unyachty4 ,from what we have said1 it will be seen that the ,una rig offers many advantages over its rival1 the balance lug1 but it likewise has some serious disadvantages4 ,the ,una boat is not easily capsized--the beam prevents that--but she soon becomes altogether overpowered by sea and wind4 ,like all flat-bottomed boats1 she pounds heavily into a head sea and is very wet4 ,the weight of the mast1 being so far forward1 makes her somewhat liable to run her nose under water and fill4 ,she steers wildly too before a sea1 and will broach to more readily than other boats1 while the length of her boom renders an accidental jibe dangerous4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,sloop4--,boats and small yachts are often sloop-rigged4 ,there is considerable discrepancy of opinion as to what constitutes the difference between a sloop and a cutter4 ,at any rate1 the generally understood distinction among boating men in ,england is1 rightly or wrongly1 that whereas a sloop's forestay is carried to the end of a fixed bowsprit or an iron bumpkin1 the forestay of a cutter is carried to the stem of the vessel2 and thus the sloop can only set one large foresail1 instead of a foresail and a jib as a cutter does4 ,we will adopt this definition of a sloop1 which is represented in ,fig4 #cb4 ,as the rig is in every other respect the same as that of a cutter1 we will reserve an explanation of its different parts till the next chapter1 wherein the cutter rig will be discussed4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cb4 ,the sloop rig is not one to be altogether recommended1 except for racing purposes on a river4 ,for cruising purposes1 if the boat be a small one1 one of the rigs above mentioned is preferable to the sloop rig4 ,if the boat be a good-sized one1 it is better to make a cutter or yawl yacht of her at once2 for a sloop's big foresail is an awkward sail to handle in rough weather4 ,the following important rules apply to the sailing of open boats1 such as we have described in this chapter3-- ,carefully coil your halyards after hoisting sail1 so that they will not get entangled and jam if you have to let go in a hurry4 ,see that your mainsheet is coiled out of every one's way4 ,many a boat has been capsized owing to a man's leg getting entangled in a sheet4 ,do not belay your mainsheet1 but hold it in your hand2 if the strain be great1 take one turn with the sheet round a cleat or pin4 ,sit to windward while steering4 ,if struck by a squall1 luff up to it1 or ease the sheet1 or do both4 ,always luff up in the wind before hoisting or lowering sail4 ,never climb the mast of a small boat4 ,if anything is wrong aloft1 lower the mast to set it right4 ,belay a halyard by taking a few turns round its cleat4 ,do not put a half-hitch on the top of the turns4 ,do not jibe in the middle of a squall1 if you can avoid doing so4 ,if a jibe is unavoidable1 lower your peak first2 haul in your mainsheet1 and pay it out on the other side1 so as to lessen the jerk as the boat jibes4 ,if it is blowing hard1 and all your crew are sitting to windward1 remember that a sudden drop in the wind may cause the boat to capsize to windward4 ,unless your companions are experienced boatmen1 do not carry so much sail as to necessitate their all sitting to windward4 ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,a ,,cutter',s ,,rigging4 ,the bowsprit--,backstays--,main halyards--,tack tricing line--,lacing mainsail to boom--,maintack tackle--,the gaff--,foresheets--,forehorse--,jib sheets--,mainsheet-horse--,topsail--,spi nnaker--,strops for blocks1 etc4--,the ,,yawl--,the ,,ketch4 ,as this is a treatise on small craft1 we will speak of the cutter1 yawl1 and ketch-rigged yachts only1 for the schooner rig is only adapted to a larger style of vessel4 ,with the object of familiarizing the reader with the names of those portions of her rigging common to nearly all boats1 we have already1 in ,chapter ,i41 given a slight description of a cutter4 ,we will now enter upon a more detailed explanation of this rig as applied to craft of under ten tons4 ,a cutter's bowsprit is not a fixture1 as it is on the small boats we have so far described1 but is made to slide in and out4 ,it can be run in altogether when no jib is set2 and when the large jib--for a cutter should be provided with two jibs at least--is shifted in a breeze for the smaller jib1 the bowsprit can be partly run in4 ,it is a great relief to a vessel plunging into a heavy sea thus to relieve her of this overhanging weight4 ,the bowsprit passes between strong wooden bits on the deck and through an iron ring covered with leather1 bolted on the stem1 called the gammon iron4 ,when the bowsprit has been run in to the required distance it is kept in its place by the fid1 an iron bolt which passes through the bowsprit and the bits4 ,it is essential that a bowsprit run in easily without jamming1 so the gammon iron should be made large1 and the fid should be a stout one1 else the pressure of the bowsprit will soon bend it1 and it will be impossible to draw it out4 ,when the bowsprit is reefed1 the bobstay and the bowsprit shrouds have also to be shortened and tautened up with the tackle attached to them4 ,the tack of the jib hooks on to an iron traveller on the bowsprit which is hauled out to the required distance with the jib outhaul4 ,the backstays or runners 7see ,fig4 #a71 support the mast when the vessel is running before the wind4 ,the lee runner must be always slacked out1 so that the boom can run out sufficiently far4 ,most of a cutter's halyards consist of systems of pulleys giving more or less mechanical advantage as the sail is large or small2 but it must be remembered that the more powerful the purchase employed1 the longer the time occupied in hoisting and lowering the sail and the greater the friction and chance of the halyard jamming1 so a purchase that will just enable one hand to hoist a sail with moderate ease is all that is necessary4 ,small yachts are often over blocked4 ,for example1 a cutter's throat halyards generally consist of a luff-tackle purchase1 the double block on the mast and a single one on the throat2 but in a very small cutter a gun-tackle purchase of two single blocks 7see ,fig4 #cc7 will suffice4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cc4 ,a gun-tackle purchase is also generally used for the jib halyards and fore halyards of a cutter under ten tons4 ,the tack tricing line serves to trice up or draw up the tack of the mainsail and so considerably reduce its size in a squall4 ,it is convenient also to be able to trice up the tack so as to see ahead better while sailing into a crowded harbour4 ,where the sail is small1 the tack tricing line is fastened on to the tack of the sail1 passes through a single block on the gaff close to the jaws1 and thence leads to the deck4 ,where the sail is large1 a gun-tackle purchase is used4 ,in large cutters1 the clew of the mainsail is hauled out on the boom with a traveller and tackle4 ,in smaller boats1 where the clew can be hauled out by hand1 it is generally permanently lashed to the end of the boom4 ,this plan is apt to pull the sail all out of shape1 for if the clew has been hauled out sufficiently taut when the sail is dry1 it will be stretched overmuch when the sail is shrunk with rain4 ,thus1 even if no traveller be used1 it is well to have the clew lashing so arranged that it can be easily cast off or slackened4 ,in ,america1 the foot of a cutter's mainsail is invariably laced to the boom4 ,there is some prejudice in this country against this method1 so far as sea-going boats are concerned4 ,there can be no doubt that a sail sets flatter when its foot is laced1 and another great advantage gained is that a much lighter boom can be employed2 for the lacing divides the strain throughout the whole length of the boom1 instead of concentrating it at the two extremities4 ,the buckling or bending of a boom is also much lessened by this method1 and consequently the sail is flatter in a strong wind4 ,in our opinion1 the sole objection of any importance to lacing the foot of the mainsail is that in doing so1 that very handy rope the tack trice must be dispensed with4 ,the tack of a mainsail is generally hauled down by means of a maintack tackle1 generally a luff tackle purchase1 but in smaller cutters a short rope spliced into the tack of the sail is sufficient1 which can be made fast to the boom or to a cleat on the mast4 ,the gaff travels up and down the mast on the jaws1 which are generally of wood in small cutters4 ,but as the necessary strength is obtained by iron jaws of much less thickness1 these are the best3 they look neater1 fit closer1 and the halyards are not so liable to get jammed between them and the mast4 ,the jaws are prevented from slipping from the mast by the parrel1 a line with beads of hard wood threaded on it1 which passes round the mast from one horn of the jaws to the other4 ,the boom is sometimes fitted to the mast with wooden jaws like those of the gaff2 but an iron gooseneck1 a joint that gives play in every direction to the boom1 is far preferable4 ,we will remark here1 once and for all1 that whenever we mention iron work of any description1 we speak of galvanized iron4 ,no other should be allowed on board a yacht under any pretence4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cd4 ,the hoops by which the luff of the sail is kept to the mast are sometimes of iron covered with leather1 but wooden hoops are perhaps preferable for a small yacht1 and are less liable to jam4 ,the simplest arrangement for the foresheets is as follows4 ,two single blocks are fastened to the clews of the foresail 7a double block may answer as well74 ,one end of each sheet is spliced into an eye on deck1 then the sheet is rove through one of the blocks1 and back through a lead to its cleat aft4 ,fig4 #cd illustrates this method4 ,a horse for the foresheet is a great convenience on any boat which has decks large enough to work upon4 ,the horse is an iron bar which crosses the deck just before the mast1 with a traveller running on it to which the foresheet--only one sheet is necessary when a horse is used--is made fast4 ,the foresail thus works itself when the vessel is tacked1 and there is no danger of its blowing away forward1 as there is with the jib and also with a foresail when no horse is employed4 ,in order to haul the foresail to windward and flatten it in1 two bowlines leading aft like fore or jib sheets are employed4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the sheets of the head sails of a small cutter should lead aft and belay to cleats within reach of the helmsman4 ,the jib has two sheets1 one on either side of the mast1 one of which is hauled in and the other slackened out1 according to the tack the vessel is on4 ,when the jibs are small the sheets require no purchase1 but each should lead either through a single block on the gunwale or a comb cleat 7,fig4 #ce7 on the deck4 ,it is important that this fairlead be exactly in the right spot1 for on this depends whether the jib stands flatly or becomes a loose bag4 ,the right spot can only be determined by experiment4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ce4 ,where the bulwarks are high1 it is sometimes found advantageous for the jib sheets to pass through holes in them4 ,a knot should be tied at the end of each jib sheet1 so that in case the sheet gets loose by accident it cannot escape through the fairlead4 ,the foresheets require a purchase1 more especially when no horse is used4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cf4 ,there are several methods of fitting a mainsheet4 ,it usually travels on a horse1 and the advantage of a horse is1 that in tacking1 the boom is hauled down directly into its right place1 and cannot lift and so give a belly to the sail1 as is the case where there is no horse4 ,fig4 #cf represents the usual fitting of a mainsheet with horse and two double blocks4 ,for a small cutter1 one double and one single block--the single block on the horse--would be sufficient1 and in a small yawl even two single blocks would do2 for it must be remembered that though mechanical advantage is gained by a number of pulleys1 friction is increased and time lost4 ,now it is very important at times that a mainsheet be rounded in or paid out smartly4 ,the cleat to which the mainsheet is belayed should be as nearly as possible in the middle of the deck or transom1 else the boom will have more sheet on one tack than on the other4 ,it is in our opinion a mistake to put a topmast with its complication of gear into a small yacht1 especially as a good-sized topsail can be set without a topmast at all4 ,an inspection of ,fig4 #cg will show how this is done4 ,in the first place the yard is laid on deck and the sail is laced to it4 ,then the end of the halyard is bent on to ,a1 a position which has been ascertained by experiment1 and which is marked1 or better still1 has a cleat on it to prevent the halyard from slipping4 7,see ,fig4 #ah for the topsail halyard bend47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cg4 ,then the sheet1 which passes through a sheave hole on the peak and a block under the throat1 is bent on to the clew of the sail4 ,next the downhaul1 ,b1 is bent on to the heel of the spar4 ,the sail is hoisted with the halyard till ,a is close up to the sheave hole on the mast1 and while it is hoisting1 a slight strain is kept on the downhaul to keep the spar perpendicular4 ,the downhaul is next hauled down as taut as possible and belayed to a cleat on the mast4 ,lastly1 the sheet is hauled in till the sail is quite flat4 ,a topmast slides through two iron caps on the foreside of the mast4 ,it is hauled up by the heel rope1 which is fastened to the heel of the spar and passes through a sheave hole at the masthead4 ,the topmast1 when hoisted1 is kept in position by an iron fid4 ,the topmast shrouds are spread out by the crosstrees1 of iron or hard wood1 projecting at right angles from the masthead4 ,the topmast stay is carried from the head of the topmast to the end of the bowsprit4 ,the topmast is also supported by preventer backstays leading aft4 ,in jibing1 the lee preventer stay must be slacked out as well as the lee runners4 ,two sorts of topsails can be set on a topmast--a yard topsail1 by which a large area of canvas is obtained1 and a jib-headed topsail4 ,in a good-sized yacht it is well to have both4 ,the jib-header can be used in strong winds4 ,when out at sea in really bad weather1 it is often of great advantage to set the jib-header over a reefed mainsail1 for the wind still fills it1 and the steerage way is preserved while the reefed mainsail is becalmed in the trough of the sea4 ,by means of a jackyard1 which extends the foot of the sail beyond the end of the main gaff1 the area of either a jib-header or a yard topsail can be increased4 ,when a cutter is running before the wind1 a jib-headed sail1 called a spinnaker1 can be set on the opposite side to the mainsail4 7,see ,fig4 #ch47 ,the spinnaker boom is fitted to the fore-side of the mast by a gooseneck1 and if the sail is intended for cruising purposes only1 the boom should1 when topped up along the mast with its topping-lift1 be able to pass under the forestay4 ,the spinnaker halyard passes through a block on the mast1 and the clew of the sail is hauled out to the end of the boom by an outhaul1 while the tack can be made fast to a cleat on deck4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ch4 ,in order to prevent the spinnaker boom from swinging fore or aft1 it is stayed or guyed with a fore guy leading to the stem1 and an after guy leading to the stern4 ,these guys also serve to trim the boom to the required angle4 ,most of the blocks now used on yachts have iron strops to them2 but it is still necessary that the amateur sailor should know how to strop a block4 ,if it be a tail block for which the strop is required1 this can be done by making an eye splice in the piece of rope that is to serve as the tail4 ,the common form of strop is a rope grommet coated with canvas4 ,the above strops are liable to stretch considerably1 and for blocks1 such as the mainsheet blocks1 which have a tendency to slip out1 the author has found that grommets of wire rope make serviceable strops4 ,these1 too1 should be coated with canvas or leather and afterwards painted4 ,selvagee strops are now much used for blocks1 are very strong1 look neat1 and are easily made4 ,to make a selvagee strop1 drive two spikes or nails into a board1 their distance apart depending upon the size of the required strop4 ,then make fast one end of a ball of rope yarn to one of the nails1 and wind the rope yarn round and round the two nails1 hauling each turn very taut until the strop thus formed is stout enough4 ,tie the yarns together at intervals1 and the strop will present the appearance shown in ,fig4 #ci4 ,leather should always be wet when it is sewn on a strop1 for it will shrink when dry and stretch tightly round the strop without showing any wrinkles4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ci4 ,the best form of block for yachting purposes is the patent iron-stropped block2 the lignum vit shell being fastened over the strop4 ,iron blocks should never be used in a small yacht4 ,they are only necessary on large craft1 where chain halyards are employed4 ,where a tackle is used1 as in the backstay runners1 it is advisable that one of the blocks should have a swivel hook4 ,in this way1 all turns will be taken out of the tackle1 and jamming will be prevented4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dj4 ,the difference between a cutter and a yawl is that the latter has not so big a mainsail as the cutter2 the main boom does not project over the stern1 but is all inboard1 thus permitting of a small mizzen-mast being stepped right aft4 7,fig4 #dj47 ,a yacht rigged as a cutter will1 under most circumstances1 be faster than if she were yawl rigged2 so1 in racing1 a yawl is granted a certain time allowance when competing with 8single-stick0 craft4 ,but for cruising purposes1 the yawl rig is undoubtedly the most comfortable1 the most handy1 and requires fewer hands to work it4 ,a yawl's mizzen is generally a standing lug1 sometimes a leg of mutton sail2 in either case working on a boom with a sheet leading through the end of a short wooden or iron outrigger or bumpkin projecting over the stern4 ,for single-handed sailing1 the yawl is much to be preferred to the cutter1 as the following examples will show4 ,should it come on to blow1 it is much easier to reef down on the short boom than on the overhanging boom of a cutter4 ,it is not so often necessary to reef a yawl's mainsail as a cutter's2 for1 instead of reefing1 the mizzen can be stowed and smaller headsail set1 or she can be made to sail under mainsail and foresail alone1 or under mizzen and foresail alone4 ,if it is required to take a reef in the mainsail1 the sail can be lowered on deck and reefed at leisure by one hand2 while the vessel1 hove to under foresail and mizzen1 is allowed to take care of herself4 ,when one is alone on board a cutter1 and it becomes necessary to reef1 the task is a difficult and often a dangerous one4 ,as the mizzen of a yawl is sometimes just before the rudder head1 the tiller must have a curve or loop in it1 so as to allow of its being put over to a sufficient angle4 ,an iron tiller is therefore generally used4 7,see ,fig4 #da47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #da4 ,a yawl's mizzen is always a very small sail1 and in a large majority of yachts of this rig it appears ridiculously small1 and can have only an inappreciable effect on the vessel4 ,but in a ketch 7,fig4 #db71 which differs from a yawl in having a still smaller mainsail and shorter boom1 with a mizzen mast stepped further inboard1 the mizzen is a much larger and more serviceable sail4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #db4 ,for real cruising on broad seas in all sorts of weather the ketch is the best of all fore-and-aft rigs4 ,it is the rig of many of our coasters1 and of nearly all of our deep sea fishing boats4 ,a ninety-ton ketch-rigged fishing smack1 such as one may see hundreds of1 any day1 tossing about on the steep seas of the ,dogger ,bank1 is as fine a sea boat as any sailor's heart can desire4 ,no bumpkin is needed for a ketch's mizzen sheet1 as the mast is so far inboard2 the sheet works on a horse on the taffrail or merely through a block bolted into the deck as far aft as possible4 ,in coasters and fishing smacks1 a topsail is set over the mizzen4 ,all those advantages which the yawl possesses over the cutter are magnified in the ketch1 and in addition to this1 the vessel can sail well under head sails and mizzen1 and can turn to windward under these1 a performance impossible for the average yawl1 with its pocket-handkerchief of a mizzen4 ,old ,peninsular and ,oriental and other large steamers' lifeboats can be purchased for a few pounds in the ,london ,docks2 for it is the custom to condemn them and sell them for what they will fetch after a certain number of years' service--or rather idle rest in their davits--whether they be sound or otherwise4 ,these boats1 generally built of double skins of teak1 are marvellously strong1 and are perhaps the best sea boats of their size in the world4 ,the author once timbered and decked one of these boats--thirty feet long by eight feet beam--and converted her into a ketch yacht1 in which he recently sailed to ,copenhagen and back1 encountering plenty of bad weather on the way4 ,after his experience1 he can strongly recommend those who desire a cheap1 strong cruising boat that will go through almost any sea1 to do the same4 ,as these lifeboats are of shallow draught1 it will be necessary either to fit a centre-board or false keel on the vessel4 ,the author's craft has lee-boards2 but he is aware that the amateur will seldom face the prejudice of his yachting friends1 professional or amateur1 and adopt this simple and very efficient method of stopping his vessel's leeway4 ,but let us tell him that a little doubled-ended craft of polished teak1 with neat1 polished oak lee-boards is anything but unsightly1 and is the very boat for the ,zuyder ,zee and shallow ,dutch waterways1 where no one will ridicule his lee-boards1 provided they be properly made4 ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,how ,,to ,,sail ,a ,,yacht4 ,to get under way from mooring or anchorage--,setting sail--,close hauled--,tacking--,missing stays--,waring--,squalls--,shifting jibs--,jibing--,scandalizing mainsail--,hove to--,reefing--,returning to moorings--,running aground4 ,each rig has its own little special tricks of sailing differing from those of other rigs2 but the main rules are the same for all1 and one who has thoroughly grasped the mechanical laws that govern the relation of a boat's sails1 hull1 and rudder to wind and water1 and has learnt how to sail one sort of craft1 can discover for himself1 by reasoning and experiment1 what methods must be employed on a boat of a different rig4 ,let us imagine ourselves on board a yawl yacht of five tons lying at anchor at the mouth of a tidal river4 ,we will now describe the principal manuvres that must be employed in getting her under way and sailing her4 ,to get under way may appear a simple matter enough2 yet to do so safely often taxes the skill of the cleverest sailor4 ,if the wind is moderate1 and we have plenty of sea room1 and no vessels are brought up near to us1 the process is easy4 ,we hoist all sail1 haul up the anchor1 and by holding the foresheet to windward cant the vessel off in the required direction1 then trim the sheets1 and away we go4 ,but supposing that a strong tide is running under us and a fresh breeze is blowing in the same direction as the tide1 it will not do to get under way after this fashion1 more especially if other vessels are brought up not far astern of us2 for the yacht will begin to drag her anchor when sail is hoisted1 or at any rate some time before the chain is a-peak2 the result being that before she can be canted and got under control she will drag astern and get foul of some of the other craft4 ,and even if she does not do this and her sails fill1 she will shoot ahead over her anchor and make it impossible to get it up4 ,our best method of getting under way under the above conditions would probably be as follows4 ,first the anchor is hove short1 so that the yacht is nearly over it4 ,then the mainsail or mizzen1 according to the strength of the wind1 is hoisted4 ,then1 while the anchor is being smartly got off the ground and hauled on board1 the foresail is hoisted4 ,the tide passing under a vessel while she is at anchor gives her steerage way2 so1 just before the anchor leaves the ground1 the tiller is put over to cant the vessel on the desired tack1 the foresheet is trimmed1 and thus we get way on our craft without any delay1 and are able to avoid the vessels that surround us4 ,if there is but little wind1 a strong tide under one1 and a crowd of vessels brought up close astern1 it sometimes happens that the following method is the only one by which one can get away clear4 ,let one hand get the anchor up till the chain is nearly straight up and down and the yacht commences to drag slowly4 ,let him1 by giving her chain or taking it in1 keep her going thus1 never letting her drag fast4 ,as the tide is running by the vessel faster than she is dragging astern1 she still has steerage way2 thus the helmsman is enabled to steer her1 so as to avoid the different craft4 ,as soon as she is astern of them and the road is clear1 the anchor is got on board1 the sails are hoisted1 and away she goes4 ,if the wind and tide are in opposite directions1 and the tide has most effect on a vessel at anchor so that she rides with her bows against the tide1 it is often advisable to heave the anchor short1 and just as it comes off the ground to set mainsail or foresail and run before the wind4 ,do not set too much sail and get speed on your vessel before your anchor is on deck1 or you will get it caught under your stem1 and have to luff up so that a hand can clear it4 ,if a yacht is not anchored1 but made fast to a buoy or other moorings1 from which one can slip in a moment1 the problem of getting under way is much simplified2 for one can carry the mooring line to either bow1 or to the quarter1 or even astern1 so as to direct the vessel's head in the desired direction4 ,then the mooring can be slipped1 and sail hoisted simultaneously1 and the vessel will get way on at once and can be steered clear of everything4 ,the amateur1 if he puts his mind to it1 will in time be able to reason out the best method of getting his craft under way under every contingency of tide1 wind1 and surrounding obstacles4 ,the manuvre is often a difficult one2 but luckily the novice has generally time to sit down quietly on deck and reason out his method before commencing operations1 which is far from the case with most of the manuvres which have to be performed when one is under way4 ,while we are on the subject of getting under way we will describe how the sails are to be set4 ,the mainsail1 when furled1 is tied up with small ends of rope1 called tyers4 ,first cast off the tyers4 ,then top the boom a little with the topping-lift and slack out the main sheet4 ,seize both main halyards together and hoist till the throat is nearly up4 ,then belay the peak halyards while you swing away at the throat till it is taut1 and belay the throat halyards4 ,then hoist the peak and belay the peak halyards4 ,then coil the halyards neatly close under their cleats4 ,after coiling halyards1 always capsize them1 that is1 turn them over so that the end of the halyards is under the coil4 ,if this precaution is not taken1 and a sail is lowered in a hurry1 the coil will probably be dragged up to the masthead1 possibly jam somewhere in a block1 and prevent the sail from lowering further until some one has gone aloft to undo the mischief4 ,having now got our boat under way--say under mainsail and foresail--we proceed to hoist our other sails as we sail close-hauled down the river4 ,it is blowing fresh1 and there is a look of more wind in the sky1 so we will dispense with the topsail 7the method of setting this sail has been already described71 and get the mizzen and second jib on her4 ,we are supposing that there are three jibs on board1 so the one we have decided to use is the medium one4 ,the method of setting the jib requires some explanation4 ,in the first place1 we take it for granted that the bobstay and bowsprit shrouds have been hove taut before we got under way4 ,lay the jib on the deck forward with its tack ahead4 ,hook the tack on the traveller1 and the jib halyard on to the head1 and then fasten the jib sheets on to the clew4 ,the jib sheets are often attached to the sail on a small yacht by spring hanks2 but these are somewhat liable to become unhooked when the sail is shaking in stays4 ,sister hooks1 which must be seized together with yarn--moused1 as the operation is called--or have a stout indiarubber ring round them are preferable4 ,toggles and shackles are also sometimes employed for this purpose4 ,the jib is now all ready for hoisting4 ,first haul out the tack on the traveller to its proper position1 and belay the outhaul4 ,if the jib is a biggish one and may touch the water while it is being hauled out1 hoist on the halyard at the same time just sufficiently to keep the jib clear of the water4 ,when the outhaul is belayed1 hoist the halyards taut and belay them4 ,then trim in the lee sheet4 ,we are now close-hauled1 sailing full and bye1 as it is called1 that is1 the sails are full while the vessel is sailing as near to the wind as she can4 ,the steersman should stand on the weather side of the vessel4 ,to sail a yacht to windward with the greatest advantage requires considerable practice1 and the novice is sure at first to yaw her about a good deal1 now keeping her off the wind too much and now luffing till all the sails are shaking and she loses her way4 ,the burgee or vane at the masthead will tell him when he is bearing away too much1 and the luff of the mainsail will shake when he is sailing as close as he should4 ,the luff of the mainsail is generally lifting slightly when a yacht is sailing close hauled2 but the best way of steering full and bye is by the feel of the wind on one's face2 and this is of course the only method of doing so on a dark night4 ,we have now come to a bend in the river where the wind heads us1 so it becomes necessary to tack4 ,the helmsman sings out 8,ready about60 and the crew stand by ready to tend the jib and foresheets4 ,the helmsman keeps the vessel a point or so off for a few moments1 so as to give her plenty of way2 then singing out 8,helm's a-lee60 puts the tiller slowly down--slowly1 be it remembered1 and not too far down4 ,the vessel now shoots up into the wind1 the jib sheet is let fly1 the foresail still kept to windward helps to pay the vessel off on the other tack4 ,the jib sheet on the other side1 which now becomes the lee jib sheet1 is trimmed in as soon as the vessel is turned sufficiently round4 ,if the jib sheet be hauled in too soon1 the jib becomes a back sail1 and will cause the vessel to miss stays4 ,next the foresheet is passed over1 and the yacht is rushing away on the other tack4 ,the mainsail and mizzen have been taking care of themselves during this operation2 but1 if it is blowing hard1 it is well to haul in the mainsheet and ease it over gently4 ,if the yacht be a smart one in stays1 it is not necessary to keep the foresheet to windward while tacking2 jib and foresheet can be let go together4 ,a small amount of clumsiness in tacking a vessel will cause her to miss stays and get in irons1 that is1 she will lie up in the wind1 all her sails shaking1 and refuse to fill on either tack4 ,she has now lost all headway1 and commences to go astern4 ,in order to get way on again1 haul the head sheets to windward1 which we will suppose is the port side4 ,put the tiller to starboard4 ,as the vessel is going astern1 the rudder will now produce the reverse effect of what it would were the vessel going ahead2 so putting the tiller to starboard turns the vessel's head to starboard4 ,to assist her still further in paying off1 slack out main and mizzen sheets2 for these sails have a tendency to keep her up in the wind4 ,when she has paid off sufficiently1 trim the sheets1 and she will soon gather way on the port tack4 ,sometimes1 in a choppy sea1 a boat will refuse to stay1 and it becomes necessary to ware her4 ,to do this1 slack out the mainsheet and bear away till the wind is brought on the other side and the sail jibes4 ,then luff till the vessel is close hauled4 ,whilst tacking in a river1 with the tide under one1 it must not be forgotten that close under either shore there is generally much less current than in the middle of the river1 sometimes no current at all or even a back eddy4 ,the yacht must therefore not be taken in too near the bank before going about1 for then her bows will be out of the tide while her stern will be in it2 the pressure on her stern will prevent her coming up in the wind when the helm is put down1 and she will consequently miss stays4 ,while we are tacking down this reach1 the wind freshens a lot1 and we are struck by several squalls1 to which the helmsman luffs up1 thereby lessening the force of their impact2 but he must be careful not to luff too much or too long1 else the yacht will lose all her way and get in irons4 ,it blows still harder1 and our vessel is running her nose into the short choppy sea1 so it is decided that we shift the second jib for the third or smallest4 ,to do this properly while one is under way requires an experienced hand4 ,to take in the jib1 let go the outhaul1 and as the sail on its traveller comes inboard along the bowsprit1 muzzle it1 that is1 clasp it in your arms2 then letting go the halyards1 pull the sail down on deck to leeward of the foresail4 ,untoggle the sheets1 unhook the tack and head from the outhaul and halyards2 secure these last to their respective cleats1 so that they cannot blow adrift1 and then carry the sail below4 ,get the third jib on deck1 and set it in the way before described4 ,if we had been out at sea instead of taking a short sail on a river1 we should have reefed the bowsprit when we shifted jibs1 and thus have relieved the vessel of the unnecessary leverage of this weight over her bows4 ,in the next reach1 the river bends round so that we have to put the helm up and run before the wind4 ,the lee-runner is slacked off and all the sheets are eased off4 ,further on1 the river bends round still more1 so that we have to jibe4 ,as the wind is strong1 this must be done with certain precautions4 ,first the peak is lowered4 ,then the runner is slacked off and the helm is put up4 ,the mainsheet must be rounded in quickly till the boom is amidships1 and then1 as the wind strikes the sail on the other side1 the sheet is paid out again4 ,if the boom were allowed to jibe over by itself1 and the mainsheet was not thus made to break the violence of the jerk1 the boom would be sprung or some other serious accident would probably occur4 ,when the boom has jibed over1 the runner which is now the weather one is set up taut and the head sheets are slacked out on the weather side and belayed on the lee side4 ,in the next reach1 the wind is a little before the beam1 so the sheets are trimmed in a bit4 ,so stiff a squall now strikes us that our lee gunwale and several planks of our deck are under water2 so1 until it is over1 the mainsail is scandalized4 ,scandalizing a mainsail consists of tricing up the tack and lowering the peak1 thus much reducing the area of canvas4 ,the squall over1 we hoist the peak and lower the tack again4 ,the man at the tiller now complains that in this strong wind 8the vessel is carrying enough weather helm to pull his arms off40 ,the cause of this griping1 as it is called1 is plain enough4 ,when we got under way our sails were nicely balanced1 and the yacht steered easily with just a slight weather helm4 ,but we have shifted the second jib for the third1 thus reducing the head sail so much that the after sails are producing the most effect1 and a lot of helm is necessary to counteract the vessel's tendency to run up into the wind4 7,see ,chapter ,,iii41 on the balancing of sails47 ,we must now restore the proper balance of the sails by reducing the after sail4 ,we can do this either by taking in the mizzen or by reefing the mainsail1 and as the wind looks more like freshening than moderating1 we decide to take down one reef in the mainsail4 ,in the first place we heave our vessel to4 ,to do this we slack away our lee foresheet and haul in the weather one1 while we flatten in the main and mizzen sheets4 ,the wind striking the after sails drives the vessel up in the wind2 but the foresail being hauled to windward and becoming a back sail makes her pay off4 ,by trimming the sheets properly the head and after sails can thus be made to balance each other1 and the yacht will float on the water practically motionless1 with her head to the wind1 and remain so for as long as we please without any hand being required at the tiller4 ,we next lower the mainsail on deck1 and remain hove to under foresail and mizzen4 ,having now much less after sail set1 we must let the jib sheet flow and perhaps give the foresail a trifle more sheet to prevent our vessel from paying off too much4 ,and now to take down our reef4 ,if the reef-pendant is not already rove1 as it always should be on a short-handed craft1 we proceed to reeve it4 ,fig4 #dc will demonstrate how this is done4 ,the boom has a comb cleat on either side of it4 ,as we wish to take down only one reef1 we reeve the pendant through the first hole of one of these cleats1 a knot at the pendant end preventing it from slipping through4 ,then we pass it through the first reef cringle and down through the first hole of the other comb cleat4 ,now we haul on the pendant till we have boused down the cringle to the boom1 and then lash it securely4 ,next the tack is secured to the first reef cringle on the luff of the sail1 the foot of the sail is rolled up1 and the first row of reef points are tied4 ,having got our reef down1 we hoist up our reduced mainsail1 slack out the main and mizzen sheets to let the vessel pay off a bit1 then let go the weather foresheet and haul in the lee one and proceed on our voyage4 ,the sails are now nicely balanced again1 and the man at the tiller no longer grumbles at the arm pulling weather helm4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dc4 ,in the next reach the wind is ahead1 and we have to tack again2 but the tide has turned and is running strongly against us so that we find we are making no progress4 ,we therefore decide to return home4 ,the helm is put up1 the mainsheet is eased off1 and we bear away to run up the river4 ,by-and-by we are close hauled1 and we observe that our sails are standing very badly1 the jib especially so1 for its luff is bending round in a great bow4 ,the cause of this is that our ropes have stretched1 and a pull on the halyards all round becomes necessary4 ,while the steersman luffs up for a moment so that the sails shake1 a hand swigs down the jib halyards and belays them4 ,so again while a pull is being taken on each halyard in its turn1 the steersman luffs up1 thereby relieving the sail of the pressure of the wind1 but without stopping the vessel's way4 ,and now we approach our moorings2 the tide and wind are both with us4 ,we lower our head sails1 steer the yacht so that she takes a sweep round into the wind1 and we haul in the mainsheet as she comes up4 ,we bring her up head to wind1 and she loses her way just as we are alongside the mooring buoy4 ,a hand forward picks up the buoy rope with a boat hook and secures it4 ,then the mainsail and mizzen are quickly lowered1 and we stow the sails at our leisure4 ,the method here described is the most usual one of coming up to moorings4 ,to perform this manuvre with confidence requires considerable experience4 ,the moment at which the vessel should be luffed up into the wind and the nature of the curve she should be made to describe depend on a variety of circumstances4 ,the strength of the tide must be taken into consideration1 and also the tendency of the boat either to shoot far ahead or lose her way quickly after she has been luffed up into the wind4 ,a very slight mistake will bring the vessel up short of her moorings4 ,then1 having lost her way1 she will drop astern with the tide and possibly get foul of some other craft before head sail can be set and way can be got on her4 ,we would therefore recommend the novice to always have his anchor ready to let go when approaching his moorings4 ,when the wind and tide are in opposite directions the manuvre is sometimes rendered easier2 for then the vessel can be made to run before the wind up to her buoy under her mainsail1 and then1 the sail being scandalized1 she will no longer be able to stem the tide1 but will come to a standstill close to the buoy4 ,if the wind is strong1 she can run up under her foresail only1 which can be lowered as soon as the buoy is reached4 ,to come to an anchor1 the usual method is to lower the head sails1 haul in the mainsheet1 and luff the vessel up into the wind till she stops her way2 then let go4 ,before coming up to the anchorage a few fathoms of chain should be ranged before the windlass1 sufficient at least to allow the anchor to reach the bottom when let go4 ,it is best not to let go the anchor until the vessel has begun to gather stern way2 then give her chain gradually until she has taken out enough--that is1 under ordinary circumstances1 about three times as much length of chain as the depth of the water4 ,if the chain is allowed to run out all at once it will fall on the top of the anchor1 a coil will get round one of the flukes1 dislodge the other fluke from the ground1 and the vessel will drag4 ,the end of the chain1 especially if no windlass is used1 should be secured to a bolt in the chain locker or otherwise2 else a careless hand may let it all run overboard and thus lose both anchor and cable4 ,the chain should be marked at every five fathoms1 by attaching a small piece of cord to the link4 ,the loose end of the first cord can have one knot tied in it1 the second cord two knots1 and so on4 ,the length of chain that is overboard is thus easily ascertained4 ,our vessel being now moored or anchored1 we neatly stow our sails1 fasten the tyers round them1 belay all halyards and sheets1 and coil the mainsheet and the other falls4 ,if the ropes are dry1 belay them slack1 for a shower would shrink them1 and if they were belayed taut all the life would be stretched out of them4 ,in the course of our cruise we did not contrive to get our yacht aground1 which was perhaps well for us1 seeing how hard it was blowing4 ,when a vessel has run aground1 the method of getting her off again varies with circumstances4 ,if the keel is in soft mud and we were not running before the wind when our vessel struck1 we may get her off by slacking the main and mizzen right out1 so that the wind does not press on the sails1 or by lowering the mainsail and mizzen1 while we haul the head sheets to windward1 so that the head sails turn her bows round and drive her astern at the same time4 ,if this is not enough to move her1 we can assist the action of the sails by shoving her off with poles2 also by making our crew run from side to side to roll her and so dislodge her keel from the mud2 or1 if she is only aground forward and the rest of her is afloat1 by bringing the weight of all hands aft and so lightening the bows4 ,but if she has run upon a sloping shoal of sand or shingle1 the above method will seldom prove of any avail1 for the opposition of the hard bottom will prevent the keel from turning4 ,under these circumstances1 our only plan will be to lower all sail and drag her off by the same way that she came on1 that is1 we must shove her astern with the poles and if that is not sufficient1 take an anchor out in the dinghy and let it go in the deep water some distance astern1 when we can haul her off with the cable4 ,if the anchor holds well1 we can--in case our own strength is insufficient--clap a watch tackle on the cable or pass it round the windlass so as to gain more power4 ,if we were running before the wind when we got aground1 we must in this case also lower all sail and haul the vessel off stern first4 ,if the tide is dropping1 there must be no delay in getting her off1 or the water will leave us1 and we will have to remain where we are till the next flood4 ,be careful not to run aground on the top of high water spring tides1 or you may be neaped as it is called1 that is1 you will not have water to float you off until the next springs1 and must remain stuck in the mud for maybe a fortnight4 ,many of our smaller and little-navigated rivers have narrow channels winding among extensive shoals4 ,these channels are often but indifferently marked with beacons1 so that a stranger attempting to find his way up them at half flood or later1 when the shoals are covered1 will in all probability run his vessel ashore4 ,his best plan is to remain at anchor at the mouth of the river until low water1 he can then work his way up the channel on the young flood1 when the shoals are uncovered and the channels easily distinguished4 ,and even if he does run aground1 the water is rising under him so that he will soon float off4 ,while sailing a small craft1 if you pass close under the lee of a large vessel1 you will find that she will take all the wind out of your sails and you will be becalmed4 ,look out1 if the day be a breezy one1 for the sudden blow with which the wind will strike you again when the vessel is passed4 ,as your vessel will probably have lost nearly all her way while under the lee of the other1 the first pressure of the wind will be entirely exerted in heeling your craft over4 ,therefore lower your peak1 or have your sheets ready to slack out while under the lee of the other vessel4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the spinnaker is the only sail on board our yawl whose management has not been described4 ,when not in use1 the spinnaker boom is topped along the mast1 and secured by lashings to the shrouds4 ,to set the spinnaker1 cast off the boom lashings4 ,lower the boom over the side1 keeping it still well topped up4 ,guy it with the fore and the after guys4 ,bend the outhaul and halyards on the sail4 ,belay the sheet loosely4 ,first haul the sail up with the halyards4 ,then haul it along the boom with the outhaul4 ,then trim in the sheet4 ,before we leave the subject of handling a fore-and-after1 we will point out that if a vessel be sluggish in stays1 it is advisable1 instead of leaving the foresheet fast and keeping the foresail aback till the vessel has paid off on the other tack1 to let fly the foresheet as the vessel comes up into the wind1 thus taking the pressure off the head sails and making her come up the quicker2 then1 as soon as the vessel is in the wind's eye1 to haul the foresheet in again1 so that the foresail to windward helps the vessel round4 ,keep it to windward no longer than is necessary2 then1 as before1 let fly the weather sheet and trim in the lee4 ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,miscellaneous ,,hints4 ,towing a dinghy--,berthon boats--,to prevent a dinghy bumping against an anchored yacht--,foul anchor--,mooring--,the drogue--,the management of open boats in a heavy sea--,management of a yacht in a rough sea--,boarding--,inventory4 ,in the last chapter we have described the principal manuvres that must be employed on a small yacht4 ,this chapter will contain a variety of wrinkles connected with the management of a yacht or boat which may be of service to a novice4 ,,towing ,a ,,dinghy4--,if a yacht is running before a high sea1 a dinghy towing astern is apt to rush violently down upon the yacht at intervals and possibly stave herself in4 ,some give a dinghy a long scope of painter under these circumstances1 so as to keep her far astern out of the way4 ,but the long painter allows her more play1 and if she does swoop down upon the yacht and strike her it will be with far greater force than if the painter were short4 ,the author1 having no room for her on the deck of his yacht1 once towed a dinghy all the way to ,copenhagen and back1 and though on several occasions he was running before a high sea the dinghy never inflicted the slightest injury either on herself or on the yacht4 ,the method which he found to be the best in rough weather1 was to tow the dinghy with two very short painters1 one to either quarter of the yacht1 while an iron half-hundred weight was lashed to the floor of the dinghy close to her stern4 ,this weight steadied her so that she steered straight1 did not yaw about1 and did not run down upon the yacht4 ,the short painters kept her nose right out of the water so that she could not be swamped4 ,if a sea had filled her--it never did--it would have almost all run out over her stern again4 ,the yacht1 it may be mentioned1 had a pointed stern1 a great advantage when a boat must be towed4 ,overhanging counters have caused the destruction of many dinghys4 ,few small yachts have accommodation on deck for a wooden dinghy4 ,a ,berthon collapsible boat1 which can be easily stowed in the cabin or laid flat on deck is therefore a great advantage for a small craft4 ,for1 however safely a dinghy may tow astern1 she greatly impedes the speed of the yacht4 99 99 99 99 99 ,when a yacht is lying at anchor with her dinghy afloat1 it often happens that the wind and tide being opposed to each other1 now one and then the other influences the dinghy most1 so that she wanders in erratic fashion as far as her painter's length will allow1 now scraping along the yacht's sides1 and now thumping into her stern1 much to the damage of the new paint4 ,the patience of the novice is often severely tried by such tricks on his dinghy's part4 ,half a dozen times in the night he leaves his snug berth and leaps on deck to shift the dinghy's painter from one part of the vessel to the other1 first to one side1 then to the other1 then to the bows1 and then back to the stern again1 but all to no avail1 for as soon as he has turned in1 the dismal 8thud10 8thud0 recommences4 ,if the yacht be a large one1 and the bowsprit be therefore sufficiently high above the water1 the dinghy's painter can be made fast to the bowsprit end1 and the dinghy will thus keep clear of the yacht4 ,but if the vessel is a small one and this plan is not practicable1 the following method generally proves successful4 ,drop an iron bucket with a line attached to its handle over the dinghy's stern4 ,the bucket sinking in the water will offer so much resistance to the tide that the dinghy will ride to the tide only1 and the wind will not have power to blow her over the tide against the yacht's sides4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,foul ,,anchor4--,if a yacht is at anchor in a tideway1 the slack of the chain is very liable to get round the anchor and foul it when the vessel swings at the turn of the tide4 ,it is therefore advisable to get in the chain at slack water until the yacht is right over her anchor4 ,as soon as the new current has set in and the yacht has swung to it1 the necessary amount of chain can be given her4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,mooring4--,if it is blowing hard1 or the holding ground is bad1 it may be necessary to moor1 that is1 to ride to two anchors in different directions4 ,having come to with one anchor1 pay out chain and let the vessel drop astern until you have out twice the length of chain you intend to ride by4 ,then let go the other anchor4 ,slack out the last anchor chain and heave in that of the first till the same scope of chain is on each4 ,moor with open hawse towards the direction from which the greatest pressure of wind or current is expected1 that is1 with a line drawn between the two anchors opposite that direction4 ,the vessel in swinging round to the tide may get a foul hawse1 that is1 one chain may take turns over the other4 ,by steering the vessel1 setting a sail1 or by other means adapted to the particular circumstances1 so tend her while she is swinging at each turn of the tide that she never makes a complete revolution1 but swings backwards and forwards in the same semicircle4 ,foul hawse will thus be avoided4 ,,to ,,unmoor4--,heave in on one anchor and pay out chain to the other1 get the first anchor on board1 then heave in on the other anchor4 ,to ride easily in heavy weather put rope springs on the chain cables4 ,a coir rope makes an excellent cable for a small yacht4 ,it floats on the water1 and has plenty of spring in it1 so that the yacht rides very lightly4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,drogue4--,when a small yacht cruises on broad and stormy seas such as the ,north ,sea1 it is advisable to have a drogue or deep sea anchor among her inventory4 ,many a small fishing boat has been saved from destruction by this precaution4 ,a drogue is a conical bag of stout canvas sometimes having its mouth bent on to an iron ring4 ,when a little craft is far from the land and so high a sea is running that she cannot sail or even lie to with safety1 the drogue is attached by a bridle to a hawser and let go over the bows like an anchor4 ,it offers so much resistance to the water that as the vessel is driven astern by the wind the strain on the hawser keeps her head to wind and sea1 and she rides safely and easily4 ,a tripping line is attached to the pointed end of the drogue so that it can be capsized and easily hauled on board4 ,if an open boat is being pulled across the breakers on a bar so as to make a harbour1 or is being rowed towards the shore before a heavy surf1 a drogue or even a bucket towed astern will keep the boat's stern back and prevent her from broaching to4 ,if a small boat be blown right out to sea and it is impossible to bring her back to the shore either by rowing or sailing1 a floating anchor can be made by lashing the oars1 the mast1 and the yard with the sail bent on it1 together4 ,the sail must be loosed and a weight can be attached to its foot so as to sink it and offer more resistance to the water4 ,a short rope secured to both extremities of the raft forms a span to the middle of which the cable is bent4 ,such a floating anchor breaks the sea in a marvellous manner1 and small boats have been often known to ride out the most furious gales in this way4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,beaching ,,boats ,,in ,a ,,surf1 ,,etc4--,the ,national ,lifeboat ,institution has published a very useful series of rules on the management of open boats in rough water1 these rules being founded on information gathered from all parts of our coast as to the practice of the local boatmen and fishermen4 ,i4 ,,in ,,rowing ,,to ,,seaward4 ,as a general rule1 speed must be given to a boat rowing against a heavy surf4 ,indeed1 under some circumstances1 her safety will depend on the utmost possible speed being attained on meeting a sea4 ,for if the sea be really heavy1 and the wind blowing a hard on-shore gale1 it can only be by the utmost exertions of the crew that any headway can be made4 ,the great danger then is1 that an approaching heavy sea may carry the boat away on its front1 and turn it broadside on or up-end it1 either effect being immediately fatal4 ,a boat's only chance in such a case is to obtain such way as shall enable her to pass1 end on1 through the crest of the sea1 and leave it as soon as possible behind her4 ,if there be rather a heavy surf1 but no wind1 or the wind off shore1 and opposed to the surf1 a boat might be propelled so rapidly through it that her bow would fall more suddenly and heavily after topping the sea than if her way had been checked2 and it may therefore only be when the sea is of such magnitude and the boat of such a character that there may be chance of the former carrying her back before it1 that full speed should be given to her4 ,it may also happen that1 by careful management under such circumstances1 a boat may be made to avoid the sea1 so that each wave may break ahead of her2 which may be the only chance of safety in a small boat2 but if the shore be flat1 and the broken water extend to a great distance from it1 this will be impossible4 ,,ii4 ,,on ,,running ,,before ,a ,,broken ,,sea1 ,,or ,,surf1 ,,to ,,the ,,shore4 ,the one great danger1 when running before a broken sea1 is that of broaching to4 ,to that peculiar effect of the sea1 so frequently destructive of human life1 the utmost attention must be directed4 ,the cause of a boat's broaching to1 when running before a broken sea or surf is1 that her own motion being in the same direction as that of the sea1 whether it be given by the force of oars or sails1 or by the force of the sea itself1 she opposes no resistance to it1 but is carried before it4 ,thus1 if a boat be running with her bow to the shore and her stern to the sea1 the first effect of a surf or roller overtaking her is to throw up the stern1 and as a consequence to depress the bow2 if she then has sufficient inertia 7which will be proportioned to weight7 to allow the sea to pass her1 she will in succession pass through the descending1 the horizontal1 and the ascending position1 as the crest of the wave passes successively her stern1 her midships1 and her bow1 in the reverse order in which the same positions occur to a boat propelled to seaward against a surf4 ,this may be defined as the safe method of running before a broken sea4 ,but if a boat on being overtaken by a heavy surf1 has not sufficient inertia to allow it to pass her1 the first of the three positions above enumerated alone occurs--her stern is raised high in the air1 and the wave carries the boat before it1 on its front1 or unsafe side1 sometimes with frightful velocity1 the bow all the time deeply immersed in the hollow of the sea1 where the water being stationary1 or comparatively so1 offers a resistance1 whilst the crest of the sea1 having the actual motion which causes it to break1 forces onward the stern or rear end of the boat4 ,a boat will in this position sometimes1 aided by careful oar steerage1 run a considerable distance until the wave has broken and expended itself4 ,but it will often happen that1 if the bow be low1 it will be driven under water1 when the buoyancy being lost forward1 whilst the sea presses on the stern1 the boat will be thrown end over end2 or if the bow be high1 or if it be protected by a deck so that it does not become submerged1 that the resistance forward acting on one bow will slightly turn the boat's head1 and the force of the surf being transferred to the opposite quarter1 she will in a moment be turned round broadside by the sea1 and be thrown by it on her beam ends1 or altogether capsize4 ,it is in this manner that most boats are upset in a surf1 especially on flat coasts1 and in this way many lives are annually lost4 ,hence it follows that the management of a boat1 when landing through a heavy surf1 must1 as far as possible1 be assimilated to that when proceeding to seaward against one1 at least so far as to stop her progress shoreward at the moment of being overtaken by a heavy sea1 and then enabling it to pass her4 ,there are different ways of effecting this object-- #a4 ,by turning the boat's head to the sea before entering the broken water1 and then backing in stern foremost1 pulling a few strokes ahead to meet each heavy sea1 and then again backing astern4 ,if a sea be really heavy and a boat small1 this plan will be generally the safest1 as a boat can be kept more under command when the full force of the oars can be used against a heavy surf than by backing them only4 #b4 ,if rowing to shore with the stern to seaward1 by backing the oars on the approach of a heavy sea1 and rowing ahead again as soon as it has passed the bow of the boat2 or as is practised in some lifeboats1 placing the after oarsmen with their faces forward1 and making them row back at each sea on its approach4 #c4 ,if rowed in bow foremost1 by towing astern a pig of ballast or large stone1 or a drogue1 the object of each being to hold the boat's stern back and prevent her being turned broadside to the sea or broaching to4 ,heavy weights should be kept out of the extreme ends of a boat2 but when rowing before a heavy sea1 the best trim is deepest by the stern4 ,a boat running before a heavy sea should be steered by an oar as the rudder will then at times be of no use4 ,the following rules may therefore be depended on when running before a heavy surf4 #a4 ,as far as possible avoid each sea by placing the boat where the sea will break ahead of her4 #b4 ,if the sea is very heavy1 or if the boat is small1 and especially if she has a square stern1 bring her bow round to seaward and back her in1 rowing ahead against each heavy surf sufficiently to allow it to pass the boat4 #c4 ,if it be considered safe to proceed to the shore bow foremost1 back the oars against each sea on its approach1 so as to stop the boat's way through the water as much as possible1 and if there is a drogue or other instrument in the boat which may be used as one1 tow it astern4 #d4 ,bring the principal weights in the boat towards the end that is seaward1 but not to the extreme end4 #e4 ,if a boat worked by both sails and oars be running under sail for the land through a heavy sea1 her crew should1 under all circumstances1 unless the beach be quite steep1 take down her masts and sails before entering the broken water1 and take her to land under oars alone4 ,if she have sails alone1 her sails should be much reduced1 a half-lowered foresail or other small headsail being sufficient4 ,,iii4 ,,beaching ,,or ,,landing ,,through ,a ,,surf4 ,the running before a surf or broken sea1 and the beaching of a boat1 are two distinct operations2 the management of boats1 as above recommended1 has exclusive reference to running before a surf where the shore is so flat that the broken water extends to some distance from the beach4 ,thus1 on a very steep beach1 the first heavy fall of broken water will be on the beach itself1 whilst on some very flat shores there will be broken water as far as the eye can reach4 ,the outermost line of broken water1 on a flat shore1 where the waves break in three or four fathoms water1 is the heaviest1 and therefore the most dangerous1 and when it has been passed through in safety1 the danger lessens as the water shoals1 until1 on nearing the land1 its force is spent and its power is harmless4 ,as the character of the sea is quite different on steep and flat shores1 so is the customary management of boats on landing different in the two situations4 ,on the flat shore1 whether a boat be run or backed in1 she is kept straight before or end to the sea until she is fairly aground1 when each surf takes her further in as it overtakes her1 aided by the crew1 who will then generally jump out to lighten her1 and drag her in by her sides4 ,as above stated1 sail will1 in this case1 have been previously taken in if set1 and the boat will have been rowed or backed in by oars alone4 ,on the other hand1 on the steep beach1 it is the general practice1 in a boat of any size1 to retain speed right on to the beach1 and in the act of landing1 whether under oars or sail1 to turn the boat's bow half round towards the direction from which the surf is running1 so that she may be thrown on her broadside up the beach1 when abundance of help is usually at hand to haul her as quickly as possible out of reach of the sea4 ,in such situations1 we believe1 it is nowhere the practice to back a boat in stern foremost under oars1 but to row in under full speed as above described4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,management ,,of ,a ,,yacht ,,in ,a ,,rough ,,sea4--,when sailing a small yacht in a rough sea certain precautions must be observed which we will describe as briefly as possible1 for to handle a vessel properly under these circumstances requires a skill that cannot be imparted by books4 ,in the first place1 do not carry on too much2 for it will often be necessary to bear away or luff according to the seas1 regardless of the wind2 and if too much sail be carried this cannot be done4 ,a beam sea is the most dangerous4 ,if you are obliged to sail in a direction that brings the sea abeam1 keep a sharp look-out and luff up to every sea that looks dangerously steep1 so as to take it at a sharp angle instead of broadside on4 ,to run before a high sea is also dangerous1 especially if the vessel is a short and beamy one1 for a sea may strike the stern on one side and cause her to broach to2 or again the vessel may be pooped1 that is1 a sea may break on board over the stern1 filling the well and even swamping her4 ,while running before the sea1 steer with great care1 so that every dangerous sea strike the vessel right aft1 and not on the side1 and be ready to meet promptly with the tiller any tendency to broach to4 ,if you are sailing with the sea on the quarter1 bear away to every dangerous sea so as to bring it right aft4 ,to sail against the sea1 as when one is close hauled1 is the safest way of meeting it4 ,a sea breaking over the bows can do little harm in comparison to one coming over the stern4 ,luff up so as to meet a dangerous sea nearly end on1 and bear away after it has passed1 but take care that the way of the vessel is not lost in doing this4 ,we have already explained how to heave to1 the most prudent measure that can be taken in bad weather1 provided one has plenty of sea room to leeward4 ,it may happen that when one is sailing along the coast for some harbour of refuge1 the wind is dead on shore so that the seas are on one's beam4 ,if the seas are so dangerous that it becomes very hazardous to proceed in this way1 it is best to sail in a zigzag fashion towards one's port--that is1 first to sail almost close hauled out to sea1 then1 having watched one's opportunity in a smooth1 to bear away again and run right before wind and sea towards the shore1 and so on till the harbour is reached4 ,the sea and wind are fortunately generally in the same direction2 but what is called a cross sea sometimes rolls up at intervals1 especially if the direction of the wind has recently changed4 ,these cross seas must be carefully watched and steered for4 ,always wait for a smooth before tacking in rough water4 ,in open water there is a regular rhythm in the movement of the seas1 and it will be observed that at regular intervals three exceptionally heavy seas will follow each other in succession4 ,these heavy waves are invariably followed by a short period of comparatively smooth water2 and a sharp steersman will always wait for this smooth before putting his vessel about in rough weather4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,boarding4--,it will sometimes be necessary to go off in the dinghy to one's yacht when she is sailing or hove to in a rough sea1 or one may have to bring one's boat alongside some large vessel1 in order to board her4 ,in doing this1 certain precautions must be observed4 ,in the first place1 a vessel should be boarded to leeward1 as the sea will not be so violent on the lee as on the windward side4 ,in boarding a vessel that is rolling a good deal1 lower your boat's mast1 if she has one1 before getting alongside4 ,the line by which you make fast to the vessel must be long enough to allow for the rising and falling of the sea4 ,have this line ready to slip in a moment4 ,if the vessel is hove to1 do not get alongside while she has sternway2 wait till she has headway4 ,sometimes1 as in the case of boarding a stranded vessel1 it is dangerous to get under her leeside1 as the masts may fall on one1 or the boat may get entangled among drifting rigging4 ,it is the practice of lifeboats1 under such circumstances1 to anchor to windward of the wreck and veer cable until one can throw a line on board4 ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,fitting ,,out4 ,ballasting a yacht--,lead on keel--,the anchor--,setting up rigging--,ventilation and dry rot--,mildew in sails--,stretching new sails--,laying up a boat for the winter--,inventory4 ,,ballast4--,in ballasting a yacht1 whatever material be used1 certain general rules must be observed4 ,in the first place no ballast should be stowed at either extremity of a vessel2 it should1 as far as is possible1 be concentrated in the midship section4 ,this cannot be done unless a heavy and therefore compact form of ballast such as lead or iron is employed4 ,if ballast be divided throughout the entire length of a vessel she will be sluggish in a sea-way2 her head will not rise to the waves1 but plunge into them1 and it will be the same with her stern2 she will be a wet and uncomfortable craft4 ,on the other hand1 a vessel whose ballast is concentrated amidships will be lively1 her bow and stern in succession will rise buoyantly to the seas1 and she will be a dry1 seaworthy craft4 ,it is always well to have some of the ballast or a small yacht outside1 on her keel2 for it will be generally found impossible to stow all the ballast in the midship section without raising the floor and so sacrificing head-room in the cabin4 ,in placing ballast on the outside of a vessel1 the same precaution must be taken as when stowing it inside--no weight must be put at the ends of the vessel4 ,the lead or iron keel should not be carried down her whole length1 as it often is1 but should be mortised into the central portion of the wooden keel4 ,in the next place1 ballast should be stowed as low as possible2 for the lower it is1 the less amount of it suffices to give the vessel the necessary stability4 ,here again the advantage of a metal keel is apparent4 ,the leverage of the outside ballast is so enormous that the yacht becomes practically uncapsizable4 ,but an excessive weight of lead on the keel will strain a vessel in rough water1 she will recover herself with a quick jerk after heeling over to a puff1 and her every motion will be violent4 ,the most comfortable vessel at sea is undoubtedly the one that carries only a moderate weight of ballast on her keel1 and the bulk of it inside4 ,should a vessel be coppered1 care must be taken that the sheathing does not touch--or even approach within an inch or two--the iron keel2 for the galvanic action set up between the two metals would rapidly corrode the iron4 ,in order that the ballast may fit closely and so lie as low as possible in a vessel's hold1 it is well to have it cast in moulds shaped like the interior of the vessel's bottom4 ,this is more important in the case of the limber ballast1 that is1 the lowest layer of ballast which rests on the vessel's timbers4 ,this can be so moulded as to project downwards between the limbers and fill up what would otherwise be empty space2 for ballast must on no account be supported by the planking1 but always by the timbers or framework of the vessel4 ,if you put pressure from the inside on your yacht's planking1 do not be surprised if she soon becomes nail-sick and leaky4 ,if ordinary pig and not moulded ballast be used1 the spaces between the bottom timbers are empty4 ,it is an excellent plan to fill them up fore and aft with ,portland cement4 ,this1 hardening to the shape of the vessel1 becomes as it were a part of her and1 far from exerting outward pressure on the planking1 strengthens the bottom considerably4 ,it not only serves as ballast1 but effectually prevents the water leaking through that portion of the vessel covered by it4 ,lead is far the best ballast that can be used1 the only objection to it being its great cost4 ,however1 it may be set off against this that lead does not corrode to any extent1 and if the yacht is broken up or sold1 the lead ballast can be sold at its market value with as much ease as if it were a precious metal4 ,the specific gravity of lead is to that of iron1 roughly1 as eleven to seven4 ,not oxidizing readily1 it makes much cleaner ballast than iron1 and it does not produce appreciable galvanic action and corrosion when in contact with another metal4 ,iron ballast1 unless it is painted1 fills the bilge water with rust1 which will stain everything it comes across when pumped on deck4 ,even if the pump leads1 as it should do1 over the side1 the water thrown out will leave an ugly stain on the paint4 ,if pig iron is used as ballast1 the interstices between the pigs can be fitted up with small fragments of scrap iron1 which can be purchased very cheaply4 ,if the spaces between the timbers are not filled with ,portland cement1 by which the bilge is kept quite sweet1 the limbers or holes through the bottom timbers must be kept clear1 so that the bilge water cannot accumulate anywhere and become offensive1 but will run down freely to the pump well4 ,with this object1 a small chain is generally kept rove through the limber holes4 ,by drawing it backwards and forwards the limbers are cleared of shavings or other obstacles that are blocking them up4 ,we may here remark that it is important to arrange the pump-well so that it can be got at in a moment2 if the pump is choked1 it can thus be quickly cleared4 ,to keep the inside of a vessel sweet1 tar the bottom timbers and plankings before putting the ballast in2 this of course also serves to preserve the wood4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,anchor4--,a good anchor should combine various qualities1 the chief of which1 so far as a yacht's anchors are concerned1 are1 holding power1 exemption from fouling1 and easy stowage4 ,trotman's patent anchors appear to us to be the best suited for small yachts4 ,they are manufactured in every size4 ,the two arms of a ,trotman's anchor are in one solid piece and oscillate on a pivot in the shank1 so that the arm that is holding the ground is spread out by the strain on the chain2 while the other arm folds up along the shank and so offers no projection round which the chain can get foul when the vessel swings4 ,this anchor has great holding power1 and is easily stowed on deck4 ,patent stockless anchors are now made1 in which the arms oscillate not to and from the shank1 as in ,trotman's1 but transversely to it1 so that the two arms enter the ground together4 ,these anchors are well spoken of by those who have tried them4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,setting ,,up ,,rigging4--,the forestays1 main shrouds1 and other portions of a yacht's standing rigging are now very seldom made of hemp1 but of galvanized wire4 ,these must always be set up taut as soon as they show signs of slackness1 but not quite so taut as hempen stays are set up1 for wire does not stretch like hemp does4 ,wire shrouds set up too taut put an enormous strain on the sides of a boat1 and will in course of time pull them quite out of shape4 ,the mast should not be so rigidly stayed down that it has no play2 on the contrary1 when sail is set1 a mast should be allowed to bend and so take upon itself a considerable proportion of the strain before any is thrown upon the weather shrouds4 ,the shroud lanyards are of rope1 but are not long enough to give sufficient play by stretching2 however1 they do give some life and spring to the rigging1 whereas the iron screws with which the shrouds on some small yachts are set up cannot give and take in the least1 must strain the boat1 and seem to us wholly objectionable1 though they do save some labour to an indolent mariner4 ,to set up a shroud1 get it taut with a watch tackle 7see ,fig4 #ab7--the smallest yacht ought to carry at least one watch tackle1 or 8handy billy10 as sailors call it2 it is useful for a variety of odd jobs--then reeve the lanyards through the dead-eyes and make the ends fast4 ,when a yacht is under way in a fresh breeze the weather shrouds are very taut and the lee shrouds slack4 ,so the lee shrouds can easily be set up by hand1 and when the vessel has gone about on the other tack the other shrouds will become the slack ones and can be set up in the same manner4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,ventilation ,,and ,,dry-,,rot4--,one cause of dry-rot is the use of unseasoned timber in the construction of a vessel1 but this fatal evil has its origin most frequently in want of ventilation4 ,the air should permeate freely every portion of a vessel's woodwork4 ,the ballast should be so stowed that it does not interfere with the ventilation of the hold2 and holes1 which can form an ornamental pattern1 must be drilled at intervals along the panelling of the cabin4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,mildew ,,in ,,sails is always the result of carelessness4 ,it is not wet that causes mildew1 but dampness combined with want of ventilation4 ,thus1 if a sail be furled when it is damp1 the inner folds will mildew4 ,a wet sail should always be furled loosely1 and it should be shaken out and dried at the earliest opportunity4 ,if it has been lying furled in a damp state for some time1 do not wait for the sun1 but shake it out and give it air1 even if the rain be falling4 ,do not1 because you have furled your sail dry and put its waterproof cover on it1 imagine that you can leave it thus with safety for an indefinite time4 ,the damp will get into it in some way1 and half the mildew in sails is due to a blind faith in sail-covers4 ,remember that the light cotton of which the topsails and spinnakers of small yachts are made is much more liable to mildew than flax canvas4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,stretching ,,new ,,sails4--,if a new sail is not treated with proper care when it first comes from the makers1 it will stretch irregularly1 forming a great bag in one place1 and having tight wrinkles in another4 ,if a sail be thus spoiled at the outset1 the fault can never be remedied1 and it will remain a badly standing sail to the end4 ,do not put too great a strain on any part of a new sail4 ,for instance1 while bending the mainsail1 do not haul out its peak and clews along the gaff and boom with powerful tackle4 ,have them out taut1 of course1 but do not try and stretch them out at first by main force so as to save yourself future trouble4 ,let the whole sail stretch equally4 ,it is a good plan1 and the delay will be well repaid1 not to get under way at once with one's new sails1 but to remain at anchor for a few days1 and haul the sails up for some hours each day4 ,they will then1 with their own weight and the slight action of the wind swinging them about without filling them1 stretch in a gradual and uniform way4 ,after this you will find your mainsail slack along the gaff1 and you can tighten up your peak lashing and lacing4 ,the first day that you get under way with your new canvas should be a fine one4 ,if it comes on to blow hard1 and you have to reef your mainsail1 it will certainly be pulled out of shape4 ,you must not expect your sails to stretch in a day4 ,you will have to tighten up the lacing and haul out the earing many times before your mainsail has stretched its full1 and the oftener the better for your sail's flatness4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,laying ,,up ,a ,,boat ,,for ,,the ,,winter4--,in laying up a small yacht1 it is well to have her upon shore1 and if possible1 under cover4 ,she will thus become thoroughly dry1 and she will be far more buoyant when she is launched again than if she had been lying on the mud all the winter with the water soaking through her4 ,all the ballast should be taken out of a boat when she is laid up4 ,if the limber pieces be moulded to fit the shape of the bottom1 each piece should be numbered so that its particular place in the hold will be known when fitting out again4 ,the bottom of the boat inside should be thoroughly cleaned and then tarred4 ,if any weeds are growing on the outside1 scrape them off as soon as the yacht is on shore4 ,it is much easier to do so when they are moist than after they have dried on the wood4 ,when taking the running rigging off a small yacht1 the simplest plan is not to unreeve the halyards1 but to unhook the blocks and carry them away with the halyards4 ,write the name of each halyard on one of its blocks1 or1 better still1 mark both blocks of a halyard1 showing which is the upper and which the under4 ,you will thus greatly simplify the task of rigging the vessel again on the following season2 for to recognize one's rigging when ropes and blocks are lying in front of one unmarked is no easy matter4 ,if the yacht is to be left out of doors for the winter1 cover the decks with common varnish and the spars with grease and white lead4 ,resin dissolved in boiled oil makes a very good varnish for coating woodwork that is to be exposed to the open air during the winter4 ,remember that there is nothing that will so spoil and blacken a vessel's decks as an accumulation of snow upon them4 ,it is a wise precaution to build a rough sloping roof over the deck1 of hurdles and old canvas1 or anything that comes handy1 when laying her up4 ,if she is laid up in a river where she may be exposed to floating ice1 fasten hurdles round her sides4 ,skylights and hatches must be frequently opened during the winter1 so as to ventilate the vessel1 and any water must be pumped out of her4 ,a yacht will deteriorate more through one winter's neglect than in ten years' fair sailing4 ,the sails should of course be thoroughly dried before being stowed away for the winter4 ,they should be stowed in a dry1 well-ventilated loft4 ,if they are soaked in sea water before being dried1 they are not so liable to mildew4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,inventory4--,there are many small but necessary articles which the amateur is likely to forget when starting for a cruise in his new boat4 ,we will enumerate some of the most important of these4 ,marline spikes1 a sail-maker's needle and palm1 plenty of spun-yarn and seaming twine4 ,spare ropes1 including stuff for lanyards1 etc4 ,spare blocks1 thimbles1 cliphooks1 shackles1 etc4 ,the more necessary carpenter's tools1 including the nails and screws likely to be required4 ,universal spanners1 for screwing on or unscrewing nuts of various sizes4 ,paints in tins1 with turpentine1 oil1 dryers1 and brushes4 ,scrapers for removing old paint1 etc4 ,stout fenders1 to be used while getting alongside a wharf1 and on other occasions1 when outside paint is in danger4 ,a good warp--grass rope or coir will answer the purpose well4 ,a watch tackle or 8handy billy10 which is1 as we have shown1 useful for a variety of purposes4 ,a snatch-block with a tail1 very handy when a pull is required on any rope1 as it can be clapped on in a moment4 ,a small screw-jack4 ,a serving mallet4 ,,chapter ,x4 ,,the ,,economy ,,between ,,decks4 ,the well--,arrangement of cabin--,leaky decks--,cabin lights--,the forecastle--,cooking stoves4 ,the available space in a small yacht is generally partitioned off into an open well1 a cabin1 and a forecastle4 ,the steering is done from the well1 and all the sheets are belayed to cleats within easy reach of it4 ,the well is surrounded with seats and lockers4 ,the after locker is sometimes used as a sail room3 but in a very small yacht the forecastle answers better for this purpose1 and the warps1 etc41 can be stowed in the after locker4 ,one of the side lockers of the well can be fitted with shelves1 and will then serve as a larder4 ,pierce holes for ventilation into the front of it at some height above the floor4 ,holes should be cut through the floor of the well1 so that any water that comes on board may escape into the bilge4 ,a wooden grating on the floor will keep one's feet dry4 ,the cabin generally communicates with the well by folding doors1 while a small hatch is made to slide back in the cabin roof1 thus making the aperture larger and facilitating ingress and egress4 ,personally we do not like cabin doors in a small yacht2 they are always in the way while open1 and as they cannot be--or at any rate never are--made water-tight1 if a little water is shipped in the well it will find its way through the closed doors and make the cabin uncomfortable4 ,a better plan is to have a water-tight bulkhead dividing the cabin from the well1 and at the top of the bulkhead to have a square opening which can be closed when necessary with a vertical shutter or slide4 ,when this is open1 and the hatch on the cabin roof is pushed back1 it is easy to step over into the cabin4 ,fig4 #dd illustrates this arrangement4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dd4 ,it adds considerably to the safety of a small vessel if her well be made completely water-tight4 ,in this case there must be an additional pump in the well1 to throw out any water that gets into it4 ,it is very convenient to have an awning that will fit over the well when the vessel is at anchor4 ,an additional room is thus obtained which will be found very useful to perform one's toilette in4 ,the raised roof over the cabin is generally covered with canvas and painted white4 ,this effectually prevents leakage4 ,it is not easy to keep a small yacht's decks quite water-tight1 and every one who has been to sea in a little craft has passed through the unpleasant sensation of having the water falling drop by drop upon his face1 as he lies in his bunk at night1 from the seams in the planking between the raised cabin roof and the waterways4 ,in dry weather1 water should be freely poured on the decks morning and evening1 to prevent them shrinking4 ,a black marine putty is now made which in our experience serves as well as pitch1 and as it does not require heating is much more convenient to use4 ,wherever a leak is discovered in the deck seams while on a voyage1 stop with cotton 7using a blunt knife1 not a caulking-iron7 and fill up the seam with this putty4 ,tagg's patent caulking1 which swells as the planking shrinks1 seems to be very well adapted for the decks of small yachts1 and can be recommended as the best method of preventing leakage1 next to covering all the deck with canvas1 an unyachty and unsightly way of meeting the difficulty4 ,the cabin of a small yacht generally has a bunk on either side1 serving as sofas by day and beds by night1 with lockers under them1 useful for the stowage of such stores as will not be spoiled by water4 ,two or more cupboards are in the corners1 and a table--one that can be folded up when not in use is best--stands in the centre of the floor4 ,water is sure to find its way into the cabin sometimes1 so every article of furniture must be chosen with a view to its getting wet4 ,a carpet is not suitable for the floor of a small yacht2 it is unpleasant when wet1 and is difficult to dry4 ,oilcloth or linoleum is better1 but these are cold to the feet4 ,the best material with which to cover the floor is cocoanut matting of a good quality4 ,it is made in every width1 so a piece of the breadth of the cabin floor can be procured4 ,cocoanut matting looks well1 is pleasant and warm to walk upon with bare feet1 can be washed easily1 and dries very quickly4 ,horsehair is of course the best material with which to stuff the cushions of the bunks4 ,these are often covered with ,american cloth1 which dries quickly1 but is cold and disagreeable1 especially if one's blanket slips off at night and one's naked foot comes in contact with it4 ,cretonnes and other cotton stuffs are cold when damp1 and are altogether unsuitable for the purpose4 ,after having tried many materials1 the author prefers dark blue flannel to any other for cushion covers4 ,the flannel feels warm even when it is wet1 and one will not catch cold while sleeping on it4 ,the panelling of the cabin should be1 if possible1 of some hard wood1 polished4 ,this is much more ornamental than painted wood1 and though more costly at the outset1 is more economical in the long-run1 for in order to keep up a smart appearance paint must often be renewed4 ,if the cabin be painted1 white panelling with a plain gilt moulding round the top looks very well2 but white paint gets dirty quickly1 and a fresh coat is required very frequently4 ,possibly the white enamel paints now largely manufactured would answer the purpose better1 as they form a very hard coat which can be thoroughly washed without injury4 ,for cabin lights1 spring candlestick lamps1 swinging on gimbals1 are the best2 these can be obtained at any yachting warehouse2 they are provided with globes1 and with smoke shades to be screwed into the ceiling above to prevent its discoloration4 ,they can be lit in a moment1 and are much cleaner to handle than other lamps4 ,but while on a cruise it will often be necessary to have a light burning all night in the cabin1 so as to be able to refer to the chart1 etc4 ,a paraffin lamp swung over the table will then be more convenient and economical4 ,the interior of a small yacht's cabin can be made to look very pretty and snug4 ,the library shelf can be on the forward wall1 with the aneroid on one side of it and the clock on the other4 ,on the side walls above the bunks the charts1 guns1 and fishing-rods can be slung4 ,a rack for glasses and another for pipes can be fitted where most convenient4 ,as the blankets that serve for the yachtsman's bedding cannot well be stowed out of sight in a small cabin1 it is well to have them as ornamental as possible4 ,red blankets neatly folded up at one end of the blue flannel bunk cushions give a bright appearance to the cabin4 ,the windows and the skylight should have little blinds--red silk looks very well4 ,the forecastle of a yacht of the size we are speaking of is rarely large enough to afford sleeping accommodation1 unless it be to a small boy4 ,the chain-locker is here1 and here too are stowed the spare sails1 the mops1 brooms1 buckets1 etc4 ,the cooking-stove should also be in the forecastle4 ,this1 in our opinion1 should invariably be a spirit stove1 on a small craft where little cooking is done4 ,a paraffin stove has an unpleasant smell1 even if the wick be kept carefully trimmed1 and it is the cause of a great deal of dirt4 ,excellent galvanized cooking-stoves for burning methylated spirits are now manufactured4 ,these produce no dirt4 ,it may be of use to mention here that spirits of wine for burning purposes can be procured in every little continental town1 and at a cost very far under that of methylated spirits in ,england4 ,mildew generates very quickly in the interior of a yacht2 therefore it is very necessary that all clothing and bedding be brought on deck to dry at every convenient opportunity4 ,any shackles or other small iron work not in use should--if ungalvanized--be greased before being put away in the lockers4 ,there are so many odd corners in a yacht in which dirt can accumulate and conceal itself that a scrupulous cleanliness is necessary4 ,scrub and swab everything like a ,dutch woman1 and take care that no morsels of meat or other perishable matter be swept through the chinks of the floor into the bilge4 ,even paper and straw will produce a very unpleasant odour after they have been lying sodden some while4 ,therefore take the paper covers off your tins of meat before stowing them under the bunks4 ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,,the ,,laws ,,of ,,the ,,sea4 ,board of ,trade regulations concerning lights1 fog signals1 steering and sailing rules1 pilot signals1 etc4--,custom ,house clearance on returning from a foreign port--,explanation of the terms used in giving steering directions1 etc4 ,any one who ventures to take charge of even a small yacht should be familiar with the ,board of ,trade regulations for preventing collisions at sea1 and not only with those rules which have been laid down for his own guidance1 but with those applying specially to steamers1 to fishing boats or other craft differing from his own1 that he may recognize their manuvres when he comes across them1 and thus be able to avoid collision with them4 ,we will now quote the ,board of ,trade regulations1 making such comments and explanations as we think will be useful4 ,,art4 #a4--;,in the following rules every steam ship which is under sail and not under steam is to be considered a sailing ship2 and every steam ship which is under steam1 whether under sail or not1 is to be considered a ship under steam4 ,the following are the ,,rules ,,concerning ,,lights3-- ,,art4 #b4--,the lights mentioned in the following ,articles1 numbered #c1 #d1 #e1 #f1 #g1 #h1 #i1 #aj1 and #aa1 and no others1 shall be carried in all weathers1 from sunset to sunrise4 ,,art4 #c4--;,a seagoing steam ship when under way shall carry-- 7a7 ,on or in front of the foremast1 at a height above the hull of not less than #bj feet1 and if the breadth of the ship exceeds #bj feet1 then at a height above the hull not less than such breadth1 a bright white light1 so constructed as to show an uniform and unbroken light over an arc of the horizon of #bj points of the compass2 so fixed as to throw the light #aj points on each side of the ship1 viz41 from right ahead to two points abaft the beam on either side1 and of such a character as to be visible on a dark night1 with a clear atmosphere1 at a distance of at least five miles4 7b7 ,on the starboard side1 a green light so constructed as to show an uniform and unbroken light over an arc of the horizon of #aj points of the compass2 so fixed as to throw the light from right ahead to two points abaft the beam on the starboard side1 and of such a character as to be visible on a dark night1 with a clear atmosphere1 at a distance of at least two miles4 7c7 ,on the port side1 a red light1 so constructed as to show an uniform and unbroken light over an arc of the horizon of #aj points of the compass2 so fixed as to throw the light from right ahead to two points abaft the beam on the port side2 and of such a character as to be visible on a dark night1 with a clear atmosphere1 at a distance of at least two miles4 7d7 ,the said green and red side lights shall be fitted with inboard screens projecting at least three feet forward from the light1 so as to prevent these lights from being seen across the bow4 ,,art4 #d4--;,a steam ship1 when towing another ship1 shall1 in addition to her side lights1 carry two bright white lights in a vertical line one over the other1 not less than three feet apart1 so as to distinguish her from other steam ships4 ,each of these lights shall be of the same construction and character1 and shall be carried in the same position as the white light which other steam ships are required to carry4 ,,art4 #e4-- 7a7 ,a ship1 whether a steam ship or a sailing ship1 which from any accident is not under command1 shall at night carry1 in the same position as the white light which steam ships are required to carry1 and1 if a steam ship1 in place of that light1 three red lights in globular lanterns1 each not less than #aj inches in diameter1 in a vertical line one over the other1 not less than three feet apart1 and of such a character as to be visible on a dark night1 with a clear atmosphere1 at a distance of at least two miles2 and shall by day carry1 in a vertical line one over the other1 not less than three feet apart1 in front of but not lower than her foremast head1 three black balls or shapes1 each two feet in diameter4 7b7 ,a ship1 whether a steam ship or a sailing ship employed in laying or in picking up a telegraph cable1 shall at night carry in the same position as the white light which steam ships are required to carry1 and1 if a steam ship1 in place of that light1 three lights in globular lanterns1 each not less than #aj inches in diameter1 in a vertical line over one another1 not less than six feet apart3 the highest and lowest of these lights shall be red1 and the middle light shall be white1 and they shall be of such a character that the red lights shall be visible at the same distance as the white light4 ,by day she shall carry in a vertical line one over the other not less than six feet apart1 in front of but not lower than her foremast head1 three shapes not less than two feet in diameter1 of which the top and bottom shall be globular in shape and red in colour1 and the middle one diamond in shape and white4 7c7 ,the ships referred to in this ,article1 when not making any way through the water1 shall not carry the side lights1 but when making way shall carry them4 7d7 ,the lights and shapes required to be shown by this ,article are to be taken by other ships as signals that the ship showing them is not under command1 and therefore cannot get out of the way4 ,the signals to be made by ships in distress and requiring assistance are contained in ,article #bg4 ,,art4 #f4--;,a sailing ship under way1 or being towed1 shall carry the same lights as are provided by ,article #c1 for a steam ship under way1 with the exception of the white light1 which she shall never carry4 ,,art4 #g4--,whenever1 as in the case of small vessels during bad weather1 the green and red side lights cannot be fixed1 these lights shall be kept on deck1 on their respective sides of the vessel1 ready for use2 and shall1 on the approach of or to other vessels1 be exhibited on their respective sides in sufficient time to prevent collision1 in such manner as to make them most visible1 and so that the green light shall not be seen on the port side nor the red light on the starboard side4 ,to make the use of these portable lights more certain and easy1 the lanterns containing them shall each be painted outside with the colour of the light they respectively contain1 and shall be provided with proper screens4 ,,art4 #h4--;,a ship1 whether a steam ship or a sailing ship1 when at anchor1 shall carry1 where it can best be seen1 but at a height not exceeding #bj feet above the hull1 a white light in a globular lantern1 of not less than #h inches in diameter1 and so constructed as to show a clear uniform and unbroken light visible all round the horizon1 at a distance of at least one mile4 ,,art4 #i4--;,a pilot vessel1 when engaged on her station on pilotage duty1 shall not carry the lights required for other vessels1 but shall carry a white light at the masthead1 visible all round the horizon1 and shall also exhibit a flare-up light or flare-up lights at short intervals which shall never exceed fifteen minutes4 ,a pilot vessel1 when not engaged on her station on pilotage duty1 shall carry lights similar to those of other ships4 ,,art4 #aj4--,open boats and fishing vessels of less than #bj tons net registered tonnage1 when under way and when not having their nets1 trawls1 dredges1 or lines in the water1 shall not be obliged to carry the coloured side lights2 but every such boat and vessel shall in lieu thereof have ready at hand a lantern with a green glass on the one side and a red glass on the other side1 and on approaching to or being approached by another vessel1 such lantern shall be exhibited in sufficient time to prevent collision1 so that the green light shall not be seen on the port side nor the red light on the starboard side4 ,the following portion of this article applies only to fishing vessels and boats when in the seas off the coast of ,europe lying north of ,cape ,finisterre3-- 7a7 ,all fishing vessels and fishing boats of #bj tons net registered tonnage1 or upwards1 when under way and when not required by the following regulations in this ,article to carry and show the lights therein named1 shall carry and show the same lights as other vessels under way4 7b7 ,all vessels when engaged in fishing with drift nets shall exhibit two white lights from any part of the vessel where they can be best seen4 ,such lights shall be placed so that the vertical distance between them shall be not less than six feet1 and not more than #aj feet2 and so that the horizontal distance between them measured in a line with the keel of the vessel shall not be less than five feet and not more than #aj feet4 ,the lower of these two lights shall be the more forward1 and both of them shall be of such a character1 and contained in lanterns of such construction as to show all round the horizon1 on a dark night1 with a clear atmosphere1 for a distance of not less than three miles4 7c7 ,a vessel employed in line fishing with her lines out shall carry the same lights as a vessel when engaged in fishing with drift nets4 7d7 ,if a vessel when fishing becomes stationary in consequence of her gear getting fast to a rock or other obstruction1 she shall show the light and make the fog signal for a vessel at anchor4 7e7 ,fishing vessels and open boats may at any time use a flare-up in addition to the lights which they are by this ,article required to carry and show4 ,all flare-up lights exhibited by a vessel when trawling1 dredging1 or fishing with any kind of drag net1 shall be shown at the after part of the vessel1 excepting that1 if the vessel is hanging by the stern to her trawl1 dredge1 or drag net1 they shall be exhibited from the bow4 7f7 ,every fishing vessel and every open boat when at anchor between sunset and sunrise shall exhibit a white light visible all round the horizon at a distance of at least one mile4 7g7 ,in fog1 mist1 or falling snow1 a drift net vessel attached to her nets and a vessel when trawling1 dredging1 or fishing with any kind of drag net1 and a vessel employed in line fishing with her lines out1 shall at intervals of not more than two minutes make a blast with her fog horn and ring her bell alternately4 ,,art4 #aa4--;,a ship which is being overtaken by another shall show from her stern to such last-mentioned ship a white light or a flare-up light4 ,it follows from the above regulations that the following lights must be carried on board a small sailing boat--,a white riding light1 a green starboard light1 a red port light1 and a bull's-eye lantern1 with which last one can carry out the instructions conveyed in ,article #aa4 ,a very convenient lantern is now sold by the yachting outfitters1 which not only combines in itself the port and starboard lights1 as permitted by ,article #aj2 but on the removal of a slide serves as a riding-light as well4 ,small yachts are generally provided with lanterns of smaller size and lesser illuminating power than those enjoined in the regulations2 but it is best to comply with these rules if possible1 so that one can have the right on one's side in case of a collision4 ,it often happens again that small lights burn in an unsatisfactory manner1 and frequently go out4 ,a riding light that does this is a great nuisance1 and spoils one's night's rest when one is brought up in a crowded thoroughfare4 ,we prefer lanterns that burn paraffin1 for sea work2 if colza is used1 some camphor should be dissolved in it3 this increases the illuminating power1 and in our opinion the light is not so likely to go out when this is done4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the following rules relate to ,,fog ,,signals4 ,it will be observed that the old-fashioned fog horn which is sounded with the mouth is not recognized by the present regulations4 ,it is1 however1 still generally used on small craft1 and will certainly make more noise than some of the mechanical fog horns3-- ,,art4 #ab4--;,a steam ship shall be provided with a steam whistle or other efficient steam sound signal1 so placed that the sound may not be intercepted by any obstructions1 and with an efficient fog horn to be sounded by a bellows or other mechanical means1 and also with an efficient bell4 ,a sailing ship shall be provided with a similar fog horn and bell4 ,in fog1 mist1 or falling snow1 whether by day or night1 the signals described in this ,article shall be used as follows2 that is to say-- 7a7 ,a steam ship under way shall make with her steam whistle1 or other steam sound signal1 at intervals of not more than two minutes1 a prolonged blast4 7b7 ,a sailing ship under way shall make with her fog horn1 at intervals of not more than two minutes1 when on the starboard tack one blast1 when on the port tack two blasts in succession1 and when with the wind abaft the beam three blasts in succession4 7c7 ,a steam ship and a sailing ship1 when not under way1 shall1 at intervals of not more than two minutes1 ring the bell4 ,,art4 #ac4--;,every ship1 whether a sailing ship or steam ship1 shall in fog1 mist1 or falling snow1 go at a moderate speed4 ,next come the articles relating to the ,,rules ,,of ,,steering ,,and ,,sailing4 ,in applying these the novice must never forget that when he stands on his deck and looks forward1 the port side of his vessel is on his left1 the starboard side on his right4 ,when a vessel is on the port tack the wind is blowing from the port or left side of him2 when she is on the starboard tack from the starboard or right side4 ,let him also remember that though he should observe these rules as closely as possible1 ,article #bc affords a fine loophole for the huge and clumsy steamers that crowd the ,thames and other rivers4 ,it is a well-known fact that big steamers will not get out of the way of small sailing craft1 even when they can do so without difficulty1 and the little boat is expected to get out of their way4 ,the moral of this is3--,keep out of the way of the big steamers1 not by getting flurried and altering your course at the last moment1 against all the rules of the road1 and so putting yourself in the wrong if there is a collision1 but by altering your course and showing them your intentions some time before they are near you4 ,,art4 #ad4--,when two sailing ships are approaching one another1 so as to involve risk of collision1 one of them shall keep out of the way of the other1 as follows1 viz43-- 7a7 ,a ship which is running free shall keep out of the way of a ship which is close hauled4 7b7 ,a ship which is close hauled on the port tack shall keep out of the way of a ship which is close hauled on the starboard tack4 7c7 ,when both are running free with the wind on different sides1 the ship which has the wind on the port side shall keep out of the way of the other4 7d7 ,when both are running free with the wind on the same side1 the ship which is to windward shall keep out of the way of the ship which is to leeward4 7e7 ,a ship which has the wind aft shall keep out of the way of the other ship4 ,,art4 #ae4--;,if two ships under steam are meeting end on1 or nearly end on1 so as to involve risk of collision1 each shall alter her course to starboard1 so that each may pass on the port side of the other4 ,this ,article only applies to cases where ships are meeting end on1 or nearly end on in such a manner as to involve risk of collision1 and does not apply to two ships which must1 if both keep on their respective courses1 pass clear of each other4 ,the only cases to which it does apply are1 when each of the two ships is end on1 or nearly end on1 to the other2 in other words1 to cases in which1 by day1 each ship sees the masts of the other in a line1 or nearly in a line1 with her own2 and by night1 to cases in which each ship is in such a position as to see both the side lights of the other4 ,it does not apply1 by day1 to cases in which a ship sees another ahead crossing her own course2 or by night1 to cases where the red light of one ship is opposed to the red light of the other1 or where the green1 light of one ship is opposed to the green light of the other1 or where a red light without a green light1 or a green light without a red light1 is seen ahead1 or where both green and red lights are seen anywhere but ahead4 ,,art4 #af4--;,if two ships under steam are crossing1 so as to involve risk of collision1 the ship which has the other on her own starboard side shall keep out of the way of the other4 ,,art4 #ag4--;,if two ships1 one of which is a sailing ship and the other a steam ship1 are proceeding in such directions as to involve risk of collision1 the steam ship shall keep out of the way of the sailing ship4 ,,art4 #ah4--;,every steamship1 when approaching another ship1 so as to involve risk of collision1 shall slacken her speed or stop and reverse1 if necessary4 ,,art4 #ai4--;,in taking any course authorized or required by these ,regulations1 a steam ship under way may indicate that course to any other ship which she has in sight by the following signals on her steam whistle1 viz43-- ,one short blast to mean 8,i am directing my course to starboard40 ,two short blasts to mean 8,i am directing my course to port40 ,three short blasts to mean 8,i am going full speed astern40 ,the use of these signals is optional2 but if they are used1 the course of the ship must be in accordance with the signal made4 ,,art4 #bj4--,notwithstanding anything contained in any preceding ,article1 every ship1 whether a sailing ship or a steam ship1 overtaking any other1 shall keep out of the way of the overtaken ship4 ,,art4 #ba4--;,in narrow channels every steam ship shall1 when it is safe and practicable1 keep to that side of the fairway or mid-channel which lies on the starboard side of such ship4 ,,art4 #bb4--,where1 by the above rules1 one of two ships is to keep out of the way1 the other shall keep her course4 ,,art4 #bc4--;,in obeying and construing these rules1 due regard shall be had to all dangers of navigation2 and to any special circumstances which may render a departure from the above rules necessary in order to avoid immediate danger4 ,,art4 #bd4--,nothing in these rules shall exonerate any ship1 or the owner1 or master1 or crew thereof1 from the consequences of any neglect to carry lights or signals1 or of any neglect to keep a proper look-out1 or of the neglect of any precaution which may be required by the ordinary practice of seamen1 or by the special circumstances of the case4 ,,art4 #be4--,nothing in these rules shall interfere with the operation of a special rule1 duly made by local authority1 relative to the navigation of any harbour1 river1 or inland navigation4 ,,art4 #bf4--,nothing in these rules shall interfere with the operation of any special rules made by the ,government of any nation with respect to additional station and signal lights for two or more ships of war1 or for ships sailing under convoy4 ,the next article relates to ,,signals ,,of ,,distress3-- ,,art4 #bg4--,when a ship is in distress and requires assistance from other ships or from the shore1 the following shall be the signals to be used or displayed by her1 either together or separately1 that is to say3-- ,in the daytime-- #a4 ,a gun fired at intervals of about a minute4 #b4 ,the ,international ,code signal of distress indicated by ,n4,c4 #c4 ,the distant signal1 consisting of a square flag1 having either above or below it a ball1 or anything resembling a ball4 ,at night-- #a4 ,a gun fired at intervals of about a minute4 #b4 ,flames on the ship 7as from a burning tar barrel1 oil barrel1 etc474 #c4 ,rockets or shells1 throwing stars of any colour or description1 fired one at a time at short intervals4 ,the flags of the ,international ,code of signals should be carried on every cruising yacht1 they will often be found of service4 ,for a small yacht1 flags #b feet by #a will suffice4 ,these1 together with the ,code ,signal ,book1 will cost a little over two pounds4 ,the book explains the use of the flags1 which is easily acquired4 ,while we are dealing with the ,board of ,trade ,regulations1 it may be well to remind the amateur skipper that should he call at any foreign port1 he is bound under a heavy penalty to report himself to the ,customs ,officers at the first ,british port he enters on his return home2 and that if1 after sailing from some foreign port1 he is ascending the ,thames1 he must bring up opposite the ,customs landing-stage at ,gravesend1 that the authorities may clear him1 and until he has obtained his clearance he must fly the national ensign by day and carry a light under his bowsprit by night4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the yachtsman will occasionally require the services of a pilot or local fisherman to show him the way into some difficult harbour1 and it is probable that he will be considerably confused by the steering directions given to him by his guide1 and put the helm to port when he should have put it to starboard or vice vers4 ,and this is not to be wondered at2 for even professionals are often puzzled by the somewhat uncertain signification of the terms now in use4 ,first as to the orders most frequently given at sea--8,port60 and 8,starboard60 ,surely there can be no vagueness about their meaning2 but every sailor will tell you that there is a vagueness1 and one that is no doubt responsible for many accidents4 ,when an ,english pilot cries out 8,port60 or what comes to the same thing1 holds his hand out to port1 he does not wish the vessel's head to be turned to port1 but that the helm or tiller be put to port1 this action of course turning the vessel's head in a starboard direction4 ,wheels are now generally used in the place of tillers on all craft of any size4 ,now a wheel works in a contrary direction to a tiller1 that is1 a wheel turning to port turns the vessel's head to port4 ,in this case1 when an ,english pilot cries out 8,port60 he means that the wheel rudder and head of the vessel are all to be turned to starboard4 ,if this rule--viz41 that on every occasion on which the orders 8port0 or 8starboard0 are given1 the vessel's head must be turned in the opposite direction--prevailed everywhere1 all would accustom themselves to it and there would not be much confusion4 ,but1 if we cross the ,channel to ,france1 or visit some other continental countries1 we find the pilots always speak of the vessel's head and not of the helm when they give an order4 ,in ,france1 8,port60 does not signify 8,port your helm60 but 8,turn your vessel's head to port10 which is the reverse of what a ,british pilot would mean when giving the same order4 ,there are other methods of giving orders to the man at the tiller which must be thoroughly understood by every amateur4 ,the author has seen a somewhat experienced yachtsman puzzled when a boatman1 who had come on board to pilot us1 cried out1 8,bear up60 at the same time holding his hand to windward4 ,had he cried out 8,bear away60 the yachtsman would have understood that the order applied to the head of the vessel--that the vessel was to be steered away from the wind4 ,but 8,bear up60 and the hand pointing to windward confused him1 and he steered to windward or luffed4 ,now these two orders mean exactly the same2 but whereas 8,bear away60 applies to the vessel's head1 8,bear up60 applies to the vessel's helm or tiller which must be pushed up to windward4 ,so1 too1 the pilot's hand1 pointing to windward1 signified1 8,put the helm in that direction10 and not 8,turn the vessel in that direction40 ,in the table below the orders in general use are defined3-- #a4 8,,port0 signifies 8,turn the helm or tiller to port40 #b4 8,,starboard0 signifies 8,turn the helm or tiller to starboard40 #c4 8,,luff0 signifies 8,turn the vessel's head to windward40 #d4 8,,bear ,,away0 signifies 8,turn the vessel's head away from the wind40 #e4 8,,bear ,,up0 signifies 8,turn the helm or tiller to windward40 #f4 8,,put ,,the ,,helm ,,down0 signifies 8,turn the helm or tiller away from the wind40 #g4 8,,put ,,the ,,helm ,,up0 signifies 8,turn the helm or tiller to windward40 ,it will be seen that #d1 #e1 and #g are various methods of giving the same order1 while #c and #f are the same4 ,the following regulations relate to ,,pilot ,,signals3-- ,,in ,,the ,,daytime4--,the following signals1 numbered #a and #b1 when used or displayed together or separately1 shall be deemed to be signals for a pilot in the daytime3-- #a4 ,to be hoisted at the fore1 the jack or other national colour usually worn by merchant ships1 having round it a white border1 one-fifth of the breadth of the flag2 or #b4 ,the international code pilotage signal1 indicated by ,p4,t4,a ,,at ,,night4--,the following signals1 numbered #a and #b1 when used or displayed together or separately1 shall be deemed to be signals for a pilot at night3-- #a4 ,the pyrotechnic light1 commonly known as a blue light1 every fifteen minutes1 or #b4 ,a bright white light1 flashed or shown at short or frequent intervals1 just above the bulwarks1 for about a minute at a time4 ,and 8,any master of a vessel who uses or displays1 or causes or permits any person under his authority to use or display1 any of the said signals for any other purpose than that of summoning a pilot1 or uses1 or causes1 or permits any person under his authority to use any other signal for a pilot1 shall incur a penalty not exceeding twenty pounds40 ,,chapter ,,xii4 ,,instruments ,,of ,,navigation ,,necessary ,,for ,,coasting4 ,mercator's chart--,the mariner's compass--,the spirit compass--,variation--,deviation--,the log ship and line--,the lead line4 ,as soon as the amateur leaves the bay or river with whose features he is well acquainted and ventures to take his vessel along a coast unknown to him1 he must provide himself with the necessary instruments for finding his way and make himself familiar with their use4 ,as the management of large yachts is not within the scope of this book1 it will be unnecessary to treat here of navigation properly so called1 that is1 the art of guiding a vessel across broad seas1 out of sight of land1 by observation of the sun ,illustration ,a3 ,this is a square blue flag1 having in its centre a white square1 hoisted over a flag of a similar shape--the latter showing three vertical bars1 coloured red1 white1 and blue4 and stars and by dead reckoning4 ,but we may remark that an educated man will find no difficulty in rapidly acquiring the art of navigation if he wishes to do so4 ,it is the seamanship that will give him trouble2 for to acquire that a long apprenticeship and considerable natural capacity are necessary4 ,for coasting purposes and for crossing narrow seas such as the ,channel1 and the ,north ,sea1 and even for a voyage to the ,baltic1 sextants1 chronometers1 and other instruments of navigation proper are not required1 and the following is a complete list of all that is needed for the purpose of finding one's way4 #a4 ,the necessary charts4 #b4 ,a mariner's compass4 #c4 ,a parallel rule4 #d4 ,a pair of compasses or dividers4 #e4 ,a log ship and line4 #f4 ,a hand-lead and line4 #g4 ,one of the small nautical almanacs which give the tide tables for the principal harbours of ,europe4 ,pearson's almanac1 which only costs sixpence1 is one of the best of these and1 in addition to the tides1 imparts a great deal of useful information4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,charts4--,whatever method is employed for representing a portion of a globe on a plane surface1 the result can only be approximately correct4 ,charts are drawn on what is known as ,mercator's projection1 which1 though it greatly distorts the relative magnitudes1 is the most convenient for purposes of navigation4 ,the parallels of latitude on the globe are everywhere equidistant4 ,on the other hand1 the meridians of longitude are furthest apart at the equator1 and gradually approach till they meet at the poles4 ,in ,mercator's chart the meridians of longitude are drawn parallel and equidistant4 ,the distortion in the direction of longitude resulting from this projection is counterbalanced by distorting the latitude to a proportionate extent2 that is1 the parallels of latitude are drawn further apart as the poles are approached4 ,thus1 on a chart of the world1 the polar regions are greatly magnified when compared to the regions near the equator2 still1 as the degrees of latitude and those of longitude are proportionately magnified1 the general shape of any particular tract is preserved4 ,the reason why this projection is the most adapted for purposes of navigation is that it produces no errors of direction2 that is1 if one place is north-west of another1 it appears so on a ,mercator's chart4 ,it follows1 from what has been said1 that one scale of miles will not serve for a chart2 as the scale is ever varying4 ,the method of overcoming this difficulty while measuring the distance from one place to another on the chart will now be explained4 ,on inspecting an ordinary chart it will be found that the top of it is true north the bottom true south4 ,along the top and bottom are graduated parallels1 which are divided into degrees and minutes1 and which enable us to distinguish the longitude of any position on the chart4 ,so1 too1 on the right and left sides of the chart we find graduated meridians also divided into degrees and minutes and which enable us to measure the latitude of any position on the chart4 ,now1 as a degree or a minute of latitude is the same length everywhere1 we can use these graduated meridians as scales of miles4 ,each degree is divided into sixty minutes4 ,a minute or nautical mile is about one-sixth longer than an ,english mile4 ,but as ,mercator's chart distorts the latitudes1 each portion of the graduated meridians serves as a scale of miles only to that part of a chart immediately opposite to it1 that is1 on the same latitude4 ,consequently1 to measure the distance between two places on the chart1 for instance1 ,falmouth harbour in latitude #ej and ,madeira in latitude #cj1 we proceed as follows4 ,the dividers are spread out till their points are over the two places on the chart4 ,this distance is then measured off on the graduated meridian1 by so placing the dividers on the scale that the mean latitude of the two places1 that is1 latitude #dj1 is marked on the graduated meridian exactly halfway between the two points of the dividers4 ,the graduated parallels cannot1 of course1 be used as scales of miles for purposes of measurement4 ,while measuring distances on the large scale charts used for coasting purposes it matters little what portion of the graduated meridians be used as a scale1 for the error will be imperceptible4 ,it is only while using what are known as general charts1 which extend across many degrees of latitude1 that a considerable error will result from not measuring from the mean latitude4 ,compasses are generally designed on various portions of a chart4 ,these compasses usually indicate the magnetic and not the true bearings4 7,see ,,compass74 ,various abbreviations are used on charts which are generally explained in a corner of the chart itself4 ,thus the nature of the bottom is indicated by sft for soft1 c4 for coarse1 h4 for hard1 etc41 while buoys are marked ,r4 for red1 ,h4,s4 for horizontally striped4 ,the soundings in fathoms or feet are indicated by numbers1 the depth being calculated at low water ordinary spring tides4 ,where shoals sometimes dry1 their height above low water spring tides is given by underlined numerals4 ,roman numerals on a chart give the hour of high water at that spot at the full and change of the moon4 ,the velocity of the tide in knots is also indicated and its direction shown by arrows4 ,the yachtsman should provide himself with large scale ,admiralty charts2 for these alone can guide him into those shallow intricate channels frequented by small coasters only1 which he will be so often tempted to enter4 ,,the ,,mariner',s ,,compass4--,every one is more or less familiar with the use of the mariner's compass1 the instrument which enables us to know the direction in which a vessel is sailing when out of sight of land4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #de4 ,the compass card 7,fig4 #de7 is divided into thirty-two points1 so1 as a circle contains #cfj1 the distance from one point to the next is #aa4 ,sometimes a point is expressed in its angular value1 that is1 the number of degrees the point is west or east of the meridional line joining north and south4 ,thus ,n4 by ,e4 would be called ,n4 #aa ,e41 and ,n4,e41 ,n4 #de ,e4 ,compass bearings are calculated to quarter points1 as ,n4,e4 ,e41 which signifies ,n4,e4 and a quarter of a point towards ,e4 ,the compass card moves freely on a pivot in the compass bowl1 which in its turn is balanced on gimbals1 enabling it to preserve a horizontal position despite the vessel's rolling and pitching4 ,the binnacle or case in which the compass bowl is swung is provided with a lamp1 so that the man steering can read the compass card by night4 ,inside the bowl is a small mark1 called the 8lubber's line10 which is exactly in a line with the head of the ship4 ,that portion of the card which touches the lubber's line therefore indicates the direction in which the vessel is pointing4 ,the jerky motion of a small craft will often cause an ordinary compass card to oscillate and even to completely revolve1 so that the direction in which one is steering cannot be ascertained4 ,it is therefore necessary to use a heavy compass card whose movement will be more sluggish4 ,a spirit compass--such as ,dent's spirit compass--in which the card is surrounded by fluid--is the best adapted for small vessels4 ,but when a little craft is pitching quickly the very best compass will oscillate to some extent4 ,in this case1 one must observe the extreme points on either side reached by the swinging card and take the mean between them as the ship's direction4 ,the needle points to the magnetic north1 which coincides with the true north in certain portions of the earth only4 ,the difference between the magnetic and real north is called the variation of the compass1 it differs in different places1 and is constantly but very slowly changing4 ,the variation at the mouth of the ,thames1 for instance1 is now roughly #bj ,w41 that is1 the needle is dragged #bj to the west of north1 so that if a vessel's head be pointing true north1 her compass will indicate a direction of about ,n4,n4,e4 ,the compasses designed on a chart generally show1 as we have already explained1 the magnetic and not the true bearings4 ,consequently1 in order to ascertain the course that should be steered from one place to another1 we lay one edge of the parallel rules on the two places on the chart1 and by opening the rule we slide the other edge along--always preserving the direction--until it is on the centre of one of the compass designs on the chart4 ,the direction thus indicated represents the course to be steered by compass4 ,but if the compasses on the chart are1 as sometimes happens1 true and not magnetic1 the course shown by the rule is not the one to be steered by compass4 ,we must1 in this case1 discover the variation existing in the locality--generally given on the chart--and convert the true course as indicated by the edge of the rule into a compass or magnetic course4 ,to do this1 if the variation is so many degrees west1 the course to be steered will be that number of degrees east of the true course2 if the variation is so many degrees east1 the course to be steered will be that number of degrees west of the true course4 ,where there is local attraction1 as in an iron ship1 the compass bearings will not be correct magnetic1 but the needle will be dragged on one side or the other of the magnetic meridian4 ,this error is called the deviation of the compass4 ,on board a wooden yacht1 if certain precautions are observed1 there should be no perceptible deviation of the compass4 ,as iron ballast is generally used on a yacht1 the compass should be as high as possible above it4 ,if the boat have a well1 the binnacle can at least be on a level with the raised hatch on the deck4 ,care must be taken that no elongated iron mass1 especially if vertical1 such as a bolt1 be near the compass4 ,deviation is not uniform1 like variation4 ,when the vessel's head is pointing about ,e4 or ,w4 the deviation is generally greatest1 and it is different with every direction the vessel is turned to4 ,the deviation1 if any1 is ascertained by what is termed swinging the vessel4 ,the correct magnetic bearing of some distant object is first obtained4 ,the vessel is then slowly swung round--this can often be done by carrying the mooring line along one side of the deck aft1 and then along the other side to the bows again--and as the vessel's head comes to each point of the compass1 a compass bearing is taken of the object1 and the difference between that bearing and the true magnetic one is noted4 ,a table can then be drawn out showing the deviation to be applied for each point of the compass towards which a vessel is steering4 ,when steering by compass1 do not keep the eyes constantly fixed on the compass card1 as this is extremely wearying1 especially by night4 ,when you have got the vessel on her course1 get some object ahead--a distant vessel1 a cloud1 a star1 if no land is in sight--in line with the mast1 or one of the shrouds1 and steer for that2 referring only occasionally to the compass1 so as to correct the direction and get a new mark to steer for when necessary4 ,,the ,,log ,,ship ,,and ,,line are employed to calculate the speed at which a vessel is travelling through the water4 ,the log ship 7,fig4 #df7 is a quadrant-shaped piece of wood1 loaded with lead at the bottom1 so that it may preserve an upright position in the water4 ,it is attached to the log line by means of a bridle4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #df4 ,the ordinary log line is #abj fathoms long4 ,the log glass generally used is a common sand-glass1 running out in #bh seconds4 ,the line is divided into equal distances by knots1 each distance being the same fraction of a nautical mile as #bh seconds is of one hour2 the distance therefore between two knots is about #dg feet4 ,a bit of bunting is attached to the line about #ab fathoms from the log ship4 ,these #ab fathoms are called the stray line4 ,the process known as 8heaving the log0 is performed as follows3 ,one hand stands by1 with the glass in hand1 full end downwards2 another hand heaves the log ship overboard1 which floats away astern2 the line is then steadily paid out from the reel1 in such a way that no strain is put on the log ship4 ,at the moment when the piece of bunting marking the stray line goes overboard1 the glass is smartly turned4 ,as soon as the sand has run out1 the man holding the glass calls out1 8,stop60 and the log line is suddenly checked4 ,the number of knots that have been reeled off represent the number of sea miles the vessel is sailing an hour4 ,several forms of self-registering logs are now in general use4 ,these are towed astern1 and communicate the revolutions of a screw rotator to a register--either overboard or on the taffrail of the vessel--which indicates the distance run4 ,these patent logs do not act in an altogether satisfactory way on small sailing craft4 ,they generally under log the distance run when the vessel is sailing slowly1 and are more adapted for use on steamers4 ,for ordinary cruising purposes1 on a small fore-and-after1 we prefer the old-fashioned log ship and line1 and it is not very often that one has occasion to use even that4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,lead ,,line4--,two leads are employed on vessels--the deep sea lead weighing #bh lb41 and the hand lead weighing #ad lb4 ,the latter1 or even a lead weighing somewhat less1 is sufficient for a small yacht4 ,the line used for a hand lead is #be fathoms long1 and is generally marked as follows3-- ,at #b fathoms1 ,leather1 with two ends4 #c 8 ,leather1 with three ends4 #e 8 ,white calico4 #g 8 ,red bunting4 #aj 8 ,leather1 with hole through it4 #ac 8 ,blue serge4 #ae 8 ,white calico4 #ag 8 ,red bunting4 #bj 8 ,strand1 with two knots in it4 ,it is possible1 by the different feel of the materials used1 to tell what mark is in one's hand in the dark4 ,the above depths are called marks2 the intervening depths in fathoms which are unmarked are called the deeps4 ,thus1 in five fathoms1 the leadsman sings out1 8,by the mark five10 in eleven fathoms1 8,by the deep eleven40 ,he also calls out the halves and quarters of fathoms thus1 8,and a half six10 for six and a half fathoms1 8,a quarter less six10 for five fathoms and three-quarters4 ,to sound when the vessel is under way1 swing the lead round and throw it as far forward as possible1 so that the lead be at the bottom and the line tight from it to the hand1 when the vessel is just over the lead4 ,if the lead be hove properly1 so that it draws the line through the hands1 it is easy to tell when it has reached the bottom1 by the sudden withdrawal of the strain4 ,when sailing on very shallow waters1 soundings can be taken much quicker with a pole or boathook than with a lead4 ,there is a hollow at the heel of a lead which can be filled--armed as it is termed--with tallow2 a specimen of the bottom--mud1 sand1 or shingle--is brought up with the lead1 and this1 by reference to the chart1 which generally marks the nature of the bottom1 may enable us to find our position4 ,,chapter ,,xiii4 ,,how ,,to ,,find ,,one',s ,,way ,,at ,,sea4 ,cross bearings--,tacking across the sea--,leeway--,how to allow for a current--,to find the hour of high water4 ,having in the last chapter described the various instruments which enable a mariner to direct his course1 we will now give some further explanations of the method of employing the chart and compass4 ,,cross ,,bearings4--,when a vessel is in sight of land1 her position can be calculated with exactness by several methods4 ,first4 ,by cross bearings of two known objects4 ,if two well-known landmarks are visible on shore1 we observe how each of them bears by our compass4 ,we then refer to the chart1 lay down these bearings with the parallel rule1 and the point where the lines cut will represent the vessel's position4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dg4 ,for instance 7see ,fig4 #dg71 the beacon ,a is found to be ,n4,w4 of us1 the beacon ,b ,n4,e4 of us4 ,we lay our parallel rule on the magnetic compass design on the chart so that its edge passes through ,n4,w4 and also through the centre of the compass4 ,we then slide the rule to the beacon ,a on the chart--preserving the direction--and draw with a pencil the line from ,a indicated by the edge of the rule4 ,in the same way we carry the direction ,n4,e4 from the compass design to the beacon ,b1 and draw the line from ,b indicated by the rule4 ,the point ,c where these lines cut represents the position of the vessel1 and the distance between ,c and the beacons or the shore can be measured with the dividers by referring to the graduated meridian on the side of the chart as a scale4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dh4 ,while a vessel is sailing along the shore her distance from it can be calculated as follows3 ,we select any prominent point on the shore1 as the tree ,a in ,fig4 #dh4 ,we take its bearing1 which we find to be ,n4,w4 ,from ,a we draw the line ,a ,b in a ,n4,w4 magnetic direction by the compass design4 ,our vessel's course is ,n4 by ,w4 ,from any point ,b on the line ,a ,b we draw a line ,b ,c in a ,n4 by ,w4 direction4 ,when we have sailed a certain distance1 say five miles by the log1 we take another bearing of the tree and find it is now ,n4,e4 of us4 ,from ,a we draw a line corresponding to this last bearing1 which cuts the line ,c ,b at ,c4 ,taking ,c ,b a distance of five miles as our scale1 we can measure the distance between the vessel's position ,c and the tree ,a4 ,a chart is not needed for the above method of calculating one's distance4 ,a sheet of paper with a compass design sketched on it is all that is necessary4 ,the following is a very easy method of calculating the distance of an object that one is passing1 and requires no chart or diagram4 ,take a bearing of the object1 and observe the angle this bearing makes with the vessel's course2 also note the time4 ,as the vessel sails on1 this angle will increase until at last it is doubled4 ,the vessel's distance from the object will then equal the distance she has travelled since the first bearings were taken4 ,fig4 #di will make this method clear4 ,a is the object on shore1 ,c and ,b the position of the vessel when the bearings were taken4 ,a ,c ,d is the angle formed by the course ,e ,d and the first bearings4 ,when this angle is doubled1 as at ,a ,b ,d1 the line ,b ,c will equal the line ,a ,b4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #di4 ,if one is sailing parallel to a coast1 the following is a rapid method of ascertaining one's distance from the shore4 ,note the time when an object on shore is exactly at right angles to the vessel's course4 ,when one has brought the object at an angle of #de to the vessel's course--looking aft--calculate the distance travelled since the time was noted4 ,the distance from the shore will be the same4 ,thus1 in ,fig4 #ej1 the vessel's direction when she is at ,b is at right angles to the bearings of ,a the object on shore4 ,when the vessel has arrived at ,c1 the angle ,a ,c ,b has a value of #de4 ,it follows that ,c ,d1 the distance from the shore1 equals ,c ,b1 the distance travelled4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ej4 ,an azimuth compass is one specially adapted for taking bearings4 ,its card is more carefully divided than that of the steering compass1 and it is fitted with sight vanes4 ,however1 bearings sufficiently accurate for practical purposes can be taken with the ordinary compass4 ,hold a piece of string across the centre of the compass1 and1 looking along it1 direct it towards the object whose bearing is required1 as if taking an aim with a gun4 ,the direction of the string will then indicate the bearing on the compass card beneath4 ,in taking cross bearings endeavour to obtain a difference between them of as near #ij as possible2 for if the difference be small1 as1 for example1 #aj1 or large1 as #aej1 a small error in the bearing will cause a great error in the calculation of the vessel's position4 ,if1 when directing one's course out of sight of land1 as1 for instance1 from ,yarmouth to the mouth of the ,elbe1 head winds are met with1 and it becomes necessary to tack1 it is an advantage as a general rule to sail on that tack on which the vessel looks up best for her port1 and not to go about until she has brought herself to a position on which the other tack is the most favourable1 and so on4 ,the ship thus constantly keeps her port in the wind's eye1 and any change in the direction of the wind can be taken advantage of4 ,but if a vessel stands on1 till the tack be a losing one in order that she may fetch her destination on the next tack1 a change in the wind may put her dead to leeward of her port and she will have lost ground by the ill-judged tactics4 ,when tacking out of sight of land1 the direction and length of each successive board can be pricked out on the chart by using the dividers and parallel rule in the manner already described1 and the position of the vessel at any time will thus be known4 ,before land is lost sight of1 what is termed a departure is taken from the last well-known object on the shore4 ,its bearing is taken by compass1 its distance by log is estimated1 and the time is noted4 ,a departure can also be taken by cross bearings4 ,it is from the departure that the voyage is reckoned out4 ,in determining the course and position of a vessel at sea1 allowance must be made for leeway and for the set of the tide4 ,the leeway is greater when the sea is rough and when the sails are reefed4 ,the amount of leeway can be roughly estimated by looking over a vessel's stern at her wake1 which will not be in the same line as her keel1 but at an angle to it4 ,having measured this angle1 apply it to the left when the vessel is on the starboard tack1 to the right when she is on the port tack4 ,if the strength and direction of a current are known1 its effect upon the vessel's course and distance made must be allowed for4 ,if the set of the current is in the same direction as the ship's direction--either with her or opposed to her--her course is unaffected1 but her rate of motion over the ground is increased or lessened by as many knots an hour as the current is flowing4 ,the rate of current must therefore be added to or deducted from the distance logged4 ,the log1 of course1 only indicates the vessel's speed through the water1 and does not register the current4 ,if the current is across a vessel's direction1 it will influence both her course and rate of sailing4 ,in order to find the course that should be steered so as to make good a required course in a cross current we proceed as follows4 ,in either of the two ,figs4 #ea and #eb1 let ,a be the position of the vessel1 ,b the port we desire to make1 and let the arrow represent the direction of the current4 ,with the dividers take from the scale at the side of the chart the number of miles the current runs per hour1 and lay down this distance ,a ,c in the direction of the arrow4 ,then take from the scale the number of miles the vessel is going per hour1 and with this distance as radius1 and ,c as the centre1 describe a circle4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ea4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #eb4 ,the line joining ,c and ,d--the point where the circle and the line ,a ,b cut--represents the direction in which the vessel must be steered so as to keep on the line ,a ,b4 ,draw ,a ,e parallel and equal to ,c ,d4 ,then if the vessel be steered from ,a towards ,e1 and travel the distance ,a ,e through the water she will in reality have made the distance ,a ,d in the direction of her port4 ,in the two figures the alteration of the vessel's course is about the same1 but as the current is contrary in ,fig4 #ea1 ,a ,d1 the distance made1 is much less than ,a ,e1 the distance sailed1 whereas in ,fig4 #eb the current is favourable and therefore the distance made is greater than the distance sailed4 ,in current sailing1 every advantage must be taken of the tide1 and it is often possible to fetch a port dead to windward on one tack by what is termed underbowing the tide4 ,for instance1 if we are bound for a port due north of us1 and the wind is also due north1 while we have a current running to the eastward1 we can1 by putting our vessel on the tack that directs her to the westward of north1 that is1 in this case the starboard tack1 bring the tide on the lee bow so that the result of our north-west course and the easterly current is that our vessel travels due north4 ,hence it is very necessary1 while tacking across the sea1 to know exactly when the tide will turn1 so that we can put the vessel about to the best advantage4 ,if we are crossing a broad stretch of water such as the ,north ,sea1 with the wind free1 and are likely to be in more than one tide1 we can usually with advantage steer a course straight for our port1 without paying much attention to the currents1 as the effects of the ebb and flood will cancel each other1 and we will be able to make a good land-fall4 ,the rise1 rate1 and direction of the tide at springs and neaps are generally given on the chart4 ,if the hour of high water for the particular day and place are known1 the speed of the current and the height above low water can be roughly calculated from the following data4 ,unless the conformation of the coast produces a variation from the general rule1 the tide rises from low to high water in six hours and a quarter and falls from high to low water in the same time4 ,the rise and fall are not uniform4 ,during the first and last hours of flood the rise is smallest4 ,during the second hour it greatly increases4 ,at the fourth hour the tide has reached its maximum rate1 and from then the rate of rising diminishes in the same proportion until high water4 ,the same1 rule applies to the ebb tide4 ,fig4 #ec represents the range of the tide in the open sea1 which we have divided into sixteen equal parts4 ,it has been found that the tide will rise one division in the first hour1 three in the second hour1 four in the third hour1 four in the fourth hour1 three in the fifth hour1 and one in the last sixth hour and a quarter4 ,we have already explained that the time of high water at any particular spot at the full and change of the moon is indicated on the chart--thus1 for instance1 ,h4,w4 at ,f4 and ,c4 #f h4 #aj m41 which signifies high water at full and change of the moon at six hours ten minutes4 ,if we have no tide tables at hand1 we can roughly calculate the time of high water for the day by adding forty-eight minutes for every day that has passed since the last full or new moon to the time at full and change given on the chart4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ec --,high ,water #f ,hours4 --#eth4 ,hour - - --#dth4 ,hour - - - --#crd4 ,hour - - - --#bnd4 ,hour - - --#ast4 ,hour of ,flood --,low ,water ,but a more accurate method is to refer to the ,admiralty tide tables1 or1 what will answer the purpose equally well1 to ,pearson's ,nautical ,almanac1 a little book which we strongly recommend to the yachtsman4 ,here he will find daily tide tables1 morning and afternoon1 for ,london and other principal ,english ports1 together with the height of the rise in feet4 ,besides these1 there is an extensive lists of ports and positions on the coast of ,england and ,europe with their ,tidal ,constants4 ,the constant for a given place is the number of hours and minutes that are to be added to or subtracted from the time of high water at the standard port or port of reference in order to obtain the time of high water at the given place4 ,for instance1 supposing ,london to be the standard port1 as it is in ,pearson's ,almanac1 and we require to know the hour of high water at ,portland ,breakwater on a given day4 ,we first refer to the table of constants1 and find #e h4 #c m4 to be the constant of ,portland ,breakwater4 ,we then turn to the ,london tide table1 and find the time of high water for the day--morning or afternoon1 as the case may be4 ,we add five hours and three minutes to this1 and the result will be the required time4 ,had the sign before the constant been-instead of we should have subtracted and not added4 ,if we require the high water at a port where the tidal constant is not given in the tables1 but where high water at full and change is given on the chart1 find the high water at full and change of some port--,london1 for example1 whose constant is in the tables4 ,subtract the lesser of these two times from the greater1 the remainder will be the constant of our port--additive if the full and change at the port be greater than that of ,london1 subtractive if it be less4 ,,chapter ,,xiv4 ,,weather ,,wisdom4 ,use of the instruments--,forecasting weather from natural phenomena1 etc4 ,weather wisdom is more necessary to the man who travels along the coast in a small vessel than to any one else4 ,a large vessel is constructed to encounter any weather with safety1 and she must take fair and foul as she finds it2 but the safety of a small craft often depends entirely on an accurate forecast of the wind4 ,when the skipper of the little yacht undertakes a voyage1 say from ,harwich to ,rotterdam1 he has to pick his weather4 ,he waits in port till he gets a slant--that is1 until he has satisfied himself that in all human probability no wind of dangerous strength will blow in the course of the next few days--then he weighs his anchor1 hoists his sails1 and speeds across the broad sea as fast as he is able1 knowing that should a gale of wind spring up before he has made the opposite coast1 he will be in considerable peril and not improbably be lost4 ,but the mariner who has made himself acquainted with the science of meteorology can make a coasting voyage1 even in a tiny craft1 from one end of ,europe to the other1 sailing from port to port in favourable weather1 and dodging the storms that would infallibly destroy him1 by foreseeing them and remaining in snug harbours until they have passed by4 ,in following the rules which we shall now lay down1 the amateur will sometimes find that his forecast of storm will prove a false alarm and will keep him in port idle while he might have been at sea2 but on the other hand--and what is far more important--a forecast of fair weather is very rarely wrong2 a really dangerous wind is scarcely ever known to spring up without having given a due warning of its approach4 ,if about to sail from any ,british port--for instance1 across the ,channel--in a small yacht1 it is useful to remember that one can telegraph to the ,meteorological ,office1 ,london1 for a weather forecast for that particular voyage4 ,the reply--the charge for which is one shilling--will be returned by telegraph without delay4 ,such a forecast is more to be relied on than the opinion of all the weather-wise old sailors on the coast4 ,the weather can be foretold with considerable accuracy by observing the appearance of many natural phenomena1 the clouds1 the water1 the sun and moon1 and also by the movements of fish and fowl2 but the changes of the barometer are far more to be depended on than the above as indications of coming weather4 ,every small yacht should be provided with an aneroid barometer1 which is more sensitive and indicates change more quickly than the mercurial barometer1 also with a thermometer1 and1 if the yachtsman wishes to have a complete meteorological outfit1 with a hygrometer or wet bulb thermometer4 ,these three instruments will enable him to measure the weight1 the temperature1 and the degree of moistness of the atmosphere4 ,the last of the instruments mentioned is not often found on a small yacht1 and indeed the aneroid and thermometer suffice for ordinary purposes of weather-forecast4 ,it must be remembered1 while foretelling the weather1 that the barometer is affected-- ,firstly1 by the direction of the wind4 ,the greatest rise being with the north-east wind1 the lowest fall with the south-west wind4 ,secondly1 by moisture1 an increase of which will cause a fall4 ,thirdly1 by the force of the wind4 ,if a wind freshens1 the moisture and direction of the wind remaining the same1 the glass will fall4 ,these three causes do not often act in accord2 one is generally affecting the glass in a way opposite to the other two4 ,it is for this reason that an observation of the barometer alone will often mislead us4 ,it must be read in conjunction with the thermometer and also with the hygrometer1 in order to determine the true cause of the rise or fall of the mercury4 ,admiral ,fitzroy's two well-known rules are-- ,,the ,,barometer ,,rises for northerly wind 7including from ,n4,w4 by the ,n4 to ,e471 for dry or less wet weather1 for less wind1 or for more than one of these changes2 except on a few occasions1 when rain 7or snow7 comes from the ,n4 with strong wind4 ,,the ,,barometer ,,falls for south wind 7including from ,s4,e4 by the ,s4 to ,w471 for wet weather1 for stronger wind1 or for more than one of these changes2 except on a few occasions1 when moderate wind with rain 7or snow7 comes from the northward4 ,the following rules are selected from the official computation1 which is very comprehensive and should be studied by every yachtsman4 ,admiral ,fitzroy's book should be on every yacht's library shelf4 ,if the barometer has been at its ordinary height--about thirty inches at sea-level--and is steady or rising1 while the thermometer falls1 and dampness lessens1 ,n4,w41 ,n41 or ,n4,e41 or less wind may be expected4 ,if the barometer is falling1 the thermometer rising1 and the dampness increasing1 wind and rain1 or snow may be expected from ,s4,e41 ,s41 or ,s4,w4 ,the most dangerous shifts of wind and the heaviest gales from ,n4 happen after the mercury first rises from a very low point4 ,a rapid rise of the barometer indicates unsettled weather2 a slow rise1 or steadiness with dryness shows fair weather4 ,the greatest depressions of the barometer are with gales from ,s4,e41 ,s41 or ,s4,w42 the greatest elevations with winds from ,n4,w41 ,n41 or ,n4,e4 ,sudden falls of the barometer with west wind are sometimes followed by violent storms from ,n4,w4 and ,n4 ,if a gale sets in from the ,e4 or ,s4,e41 and the wind veers by the ,s41 the barometer will continue falling until the wind becomes ,s4,w41 when a comparative lull may occur1 after which the gale will be renewed1 and the shifting of the wind towards the ,n4,w4 will be indicated by a fall of the thermometer as well as a rise of barometer4 99 99 99 99 99 ,if a change of weather is long foretold by the barometer1 the longer the presaged weather will last1 and vice versa4 ,the sailor expresses this in the rhyme-- 8,long foretold1 long last2 ,short warning--soon past40 ,many more rules have been laid down by the meteorological observers1 for which we have no space here2 but we will now give a few brief rules on the forecast of weather by the observation of natural phenomena1 which are useful by themselves1 but still more so when confirming the forecast we have made from the instruments4 ,a halo round the moon1 especially if it appear distant and yet very distinct1 indicates a gale of wind1 and probably rain4 ,when high lands are shrouded in mists1 south-west gales and rain may be expected4 ,if distant objects are very clear and raised by reflection1 rain 7possibly wind also7 is near4 8,wind dogs10 which are like broken portions of a rainbow seen to windward in the morning1 are very certain signs of a gale4 8,mare's tails10 which are ragged streaks of cloud1 having little motion1 foretell gales from the direction they radiate from4 ,in fine weather the wind generally follows the sun1 that is1 it blows from the east in the morning and from the west in the evening4 ,if the wind blows from west in the morning1 and 8backs0 against the sun1 till it is east in the evening1 bad weather will follow4 ,a red sunset presages fine weather4 ,a red sunrise presages bad weather4 ,a bright yellow sky at sunset is a sign of wind2 a pale yellow1 of wet4 ,a gloomy dark blue sky is a sign of wind1 while a light blue sky indicates fine weather4 ,the sun's setting or rising behind a bank of clouds indicates rough weather4 ,a phosphorescent sea is a very certain sign of a continuance of fine weather4 ,the presence of vast quantities of jelly-fish presages fine weather4 ,sea-birds fly far out to sea in fine weather2 but if they fly inland bad weather may be expected4 ,when porpoises come into shallow water and ascend the rivers1 stormy weather is near4 ,in conclusion1 we will remind the yachtsman that the ,meteorological ,office issues a daily forecast of the weather for different portions of the ,british ,isles4 ,this forecast is now published in nearly all the leading morning papers1 and should always be studied1 if possible1 before one starts across a broad sea in a little yacht2 for it warns us of the 8,yankee gale0 that is on its way across the ,atlantic1 and whose approach has been announced by cable long before the barometer or appearance of the sky has given us any sign4 ,,chapter ,,xv4 ,,yacht ,,racing4 ,the new ,y4,r4,a4 rule of measurement--,sail area--,time allowance--,rules of racing--,methods of starting4 ,other things being equal1 the speed of a vessel increases with her size2 so it has always been the custom to handicap yachts competing in a race by giving time allowance to smaller craft4 ,in order to carry out this handicapping1 it is of course necessary to have some general rule of measurement by which the size--so far as racing is concerned--of any yacht can be determined with exactitude4 ,it has taxed the brains of yachting men from the earliest days of the sport to discover some standard of measurement which will be fair to all1 and which will tend to encourage the building of a class of seaworthy pleasure vessels1 and not of mere racing machines4 ,until within the last two years the ,yacht ,racing ,association rule for measuring a yacht's tonnage was as follows3 8,add the yacht's greatest breadth to her length along the load-line2 multiply the sum thus obtained by itself1 and by the breadth2 then divide the product by #agcj2 and the quotient shall be the tonnage in tons and hundredths of a ton40 ,thus the length and beam were the only factors to be taken into consideration while calculating a yacht's tonnage4 ,the displacement1 draught1 and sail area counted for nothing4 ,the natural result followed4 ,as beam was discouraged1 it became apparent that the fastest boat for her tonnage1 according to this artificial rule1 was a long narrow craft with great draught1 large sail area1 and a lead mine on her keel2 consequently uncomfortable in a sea way1 and affording1 for her size1 very cramped accommodation to her passengers2 in short1 a cup-winning machine unfit for anything but racing4 ,but now1 at last1 all this has been changed4 ,the old ,y4,r4,a4 rule has been done away with1 and a system of measurement on entirely new principles has been introduced which does not tax a vessel's beam1 and the sole factors in the calculation for which are length and sail area4 ,this revolution in yacht rating has taken place so recently that its results1 as regards the type of vessels that will be constructed with a view to meeting the new conditions1 have not yet had time to declare themselves2 but it is claimed by many sanguine people that under these rules the old-fashioned wholesome beamy vessel will have its day again1 that the 8plank set up on edge0 style of craft is doomed1 and that the fastest yacht will also be the best boat4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the following are the new ,y4,r4,a4 rules of measurement4 ,we will quote the more essential rules1 and those parts only of these which apply to small yachts such as we are writing about4 ,,rule #c4--,the rating of every yacht entered to sail in a race shall be ascertained by multiplying the sail area in square feet 7as found in the manner hereinafter enjoined7 by the length in feet on the load water-line1 and dividing the product by #fjjj2 the quotient shall be the rating1 and in rating above #aj1 a fraction of or exceeding #ja shall count as #a2 but in rating from #a to #aj1 a fraction smaller than 4#ja shall count as #a 7see ,rule #d74 ,the length shall be taken in a straight line from the fore-end to the after-end of the load water-line1 provided always that if any part of the stem or stern-post or other part of the vessel below the load water-line project beyond the length taken as mentioned1 such projection or projections shall1 for the purpose of the rule1 be added to the length taken as stated2 and pieces of any form cut out of the stem1 stern post1 or fair-line of the ridge of the counter1 with the intention of shortening the load water-line1 shall not be allowed for in measurement of length1 if at or immediately below the load-line1 nor above if within six inches of the water-level4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,mainsail4--,a1 measured from the top of the boom 7over the pin for outhaul sheave7 to the gaff under the pin of the topsail sheet sheave1 provided the peak cringle of the mainsail does not extend beyond the pin3 in the case of the yacht having no topsail1 or of the peak cringle extending beyond the pin of the topsail sheet sheave1 then the measurement to be taken to the peak lacing-hole4 ,b1 perpendicular to ,a1 measured to underside of gaff close into the mast4 ,c1 measured from top of boom over the pin of the sheave for outhaul to underside of gaff close into the mast4 ,d1 perpendicular to ,c1 measured in to the mast1 in a line with the top of the boom1 or to tack cringle of mainsail1 if below top of boom4 ,to find the area of the ,,mainsail1 multiply ,a by ,b and ,c by ,d1 and add the two products together and divide by two4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ed4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,jib-,,headed ,,topsail4--,k1 measured from top of gaff close in to mast to pin of halyard sheave in topmast4 ,l1 perpendicular to ,k1 measured to pin of topsail sheet sheave in gaff2 or to lacing-hole in jackyard4 ,to find the area of the ,,jib-,,header1 multiply ,k by ,l and divide the product by two4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,head ,,sails4--,i1 measured from the main boom gooseneck to the shoulder of topmast1 or in cases where no sails are attached to the topmast stay or pole stay1 the measurement to be taken from the main boom gooseneck to the pin of the highest sheave in or on the topmast or pole1 or to the pin of the sheave of any block secured to the topmast or pole1 and used in either case for head sail or spinnaker4 ,j1 measured from the foreside of the mast to top of cranse iron on bowsprit end where cut by line of topmast stay or pole stay2 or1 in cases where no sail or sails are attached to the stay1 the measurement to be taken from the foreside of the mast to the pin of the sheave for jib outhaul4 ,in all cases1 if the distance from the centre fore and aft line of the mast to the outer end of spinnaker boom 7when shipped in its place and square to the keel7 exceeds the distance from the fore side of the mast to the cranse iron on the bowsprit end 7where cut by the line of topmast stay71 or pin of sheave for jib outhaul as the case may be1 the excess shall be added to the base of the triangle formed by the head sails2 and the area of the head sail to be computed accordingly4 ,in the case of a yacht having no head sail1 but carrying a spinnaker1 the area for head sail shall be computed from the length of spinnaker boom and the height from main boom gooseneck to shoulder of topmast1 or highest pin in sheave of polemast1 as provided for in this rule4 ,the length of head-stick or head-yard to spinnaker shall not exceed one-twentieth the length of spinnaker boom4 ,foot yards not allowed on spinnakers4 ,to find the area of ,,head ,,sails1 jib1 topsail1 or spinnaker1 multiply ,i by ,j and divide by two4 ,to find the area of ,,head ,,sail1 for ,,pole ,,mast1 multiply ,i by ,j and divide by two4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,lug ,,sails ,,with ,,head ,,sails4--,in the case of a lug sail1 standing lug sail1 or balance lug sail being carried1 the actual area of the same shall be computed2 and if head sail be also carried1 the measurements for computing the area of the same shall be taken from foreside of mast1 etc41 in accordance with the method provided in the rule for head sails4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,yawl ,,sails4--,the area of a schooner's sail or a yawl's sail would be similarly found2 in the case of a yawl having a lug mizzen1 the lacing-holes in the yard would be taken as the upper boundaries4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,time ,,allowance 7,rule #d74--,time shall be allowed on arrival for differences in rating1 according to the annexed scales1 increased or decreased in proportion to the length of different courses4 ,in all time1 where time has to be allowed for difference of rating in yachts of #aj rating and under1 it shall be computed by the rating and fractions of the rating in accordance with the time scales4 ,the explanation of the calculations on which the time allowances are based will be found in the little volume of the ,y4,r4,a4 rules1 annually published by ,messrs4 ,harrison1 of ,st4 ,martin's ,lane1 ,london1 in which also will be found a scale of allowances for differences of rating worked out in fractions of tenths for vessels of from #a to #ega rating4 ,it will suffice to say here1 that if a vessel's rating is x1 t1 the allowance she makes per knot to a yacht whose rating is #a1 will be thus found3 t #cfj-cfj_/ex4 ,the result is the allowance in seconds4 ,as the allowance is calculated for one knot1 the allowance for another distance will be found by multiplying t by the length of the course in knots4 ,to calculate the allowance that should be made by one yacht to another1 find the t1 as above1 for both yachts4 ,subtract the lesser from the greater t4 ,the result will be the time in seconds to be allowed per knot by the yacht rating highest4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,allowance ,,to ,,schooners ,,and ,,yawls4--,the ,yacht ,racing ,association recommend for the consideration of sailing committees3 7#a7 ,that as mixed races are no satisfactory test of the relative speed of yachts1 the different rigs should1 whenever practicable1 be kept separate2 but when mixed races are unavoidable1 the following rule shall be observed3-- ,the rating of schooners and yawls to be reckoned for time allowance as follows1 viz4 schooners at three-fifths1 and yawls at four-fifths of their actual rating2 provided that in case of a yawl1 her mainsail does not exceed #cg of her total sail area1 and that her mizzen is not less than #jf of her total sail area4 ,in the case of a pole-masted yawl1 her mainsail shall not exceed #df of her total sail area1 and her mizzen shall not be less than #ge of her total sail area4 ,in schooners1 the foreside of the mainmast shall1 at the deck1 be not further forward than the middle of length of the load water-line4 ,ketches and luggers shall be reckoned for time allowance at three-fifths their rating2 provided that in a ketch the distance between the masts does not exceed half the length of the load water-line of the yacht1 and that the smaller sail is carried aft4 ,in the case of a lugger1 to be entitled to the rig allowance1 the yacht must have two or more masts1 and the after1 or the middle mast1 at the deck must not be forward of the middle of length of the load water-line1 and in the case of a two-masted lugger1 if the area of the after lug be less than half the area of the main lug1 she will be rated as a yawl4 ,in calculating the deduction for difference of rig1 the rating by certificate to the exact fraction must be used4 ,the time allowances to be calculated from each yacht's reduced rating2 but schooners and yawls shall not be allowed to qualify to enter by their reduced rating in a class race4 ,in racing for mixed rigs1 the time allowances between yachts of the same rig must be calculated on each yacht's reduced rating4 99 99 99 99 99 ,yachts fitted with centre-boards have up till now been prohibited by the ,y4,r4,a4 rule from competing in races sailed under those rules4 ,but this has now been changed1 and in place of the old ,rule #h1 we have the following regulation3 ,rule #h4--8;,in the case of a yacht fitted with a centre-board or plate1 or other form of shifting keel1 manual power only shall be employed in working in it40 ,in ,rule #ag1 the rules of the road for yachts racing are given4 ,as these are the same as the ,board of ,trade rules for avoiding collision1 which we have already quoted1 we need not recapitulate them here4 ,but the following additional rules of the road have been framed especially for yachts competing in a race4 ,,rule #ah4--,when rounding any buoy or vessel used to mark out the course1 if two yachts are not clear of each other at the time the leading yacht is close to1 and actually rounding the mark1 the outside yacht must give the other room to pass clear of it1 whether it be the lee or weather yacht which is in danger of fouling the mark4 ,no yacht shall be considered clear of another yacht1 unless so much ahead as to give a free choice to the other on which side she will pass4 ,an overtaking yacht shall not1 however1 be justified in attempting to establish an overlap1 and thus force a passage between the leading yacht and the mark1 after the latter yacht has altered her helm for the purpose of rounding4 ,,rule #ai4--,when passing a pier1 shoal1 rock1 vessel1 or other obstruction to sea room1 should yachts not be clear of each other1 the outside yacht or yachts must give room to the yacht in danger of fouling such obstruction1 whether she be the weather or the leeward yacht2 provided always that an overlap has been established before an obstruction is actually reached4 ,,rule #bj4--;,a yacht overtaking any other shall keep out of the way of the overtaken yacht2 and a yacht may luff as she pleases to prevent another yacht passing to windward1 but must never bear away out of her course to hinder the other passing to leeward--the lee side to be considered that on which the leading yacht of the two carries her main boom4 ,the overtaking vessel1 if to leeward1 must not luff until she has drawn clear ahead of the yacht she has overtaken4 ,,rule #ba4--;,if two yachts are standing towards a shore or shoal1 or towards any buoy1 boat1 or vessel1 and the yacht to leeward is likely to run aground or foul of such buoy1 boat1 or vessel 7a mark vessel excepted71 and is not able to tack without coming into collision with the yacht to windward1 the latter shall at once tack1 on being hailed to do so by the owner of the leeward yacht1 or the person acting as his representative1 who shall be bound to see that his own vessel tacks at the same time4 ,,rule #bb4--;,any yacht running on shore1 or foul of a buoy1 vessel1 or other obstruction1 may use her own anchors1 boats1 warps1 etc41 to get off1 but may not receive any assistance except from the crew of the vessel fouled4 ,any anchor1 boat1 or warp used1 must be taken on board again before she continues the race4 ,,rule #bc4--;,each yacht must go fairly round the course2 and must not touch any buoy1 boat1 or vessel1 used to mark it out1 but shall not be disqualified if wrongfully compelled to do so by another yacht4 ,any yacht causing a mark vessel to in any way shift her position to avoid being fouled by such yacht1 shall be disqualified4 ,if a yacht1 in consequence of her neglect of any of these rules1 shall foul another yacht1 or compel other yachts to foul1 she shall forfeit all claim to the prize1 and shall pay all damages4 ,,rule #bd4--,no towing1 sweeping1 poling1 or pushing1 or any mode of propulsion1 except sails1 shall be allowed1 except for the purpose set forth in ,rule #bb4 ,,rule #be4--;,a yacht may anchor during a race1 but must weigh her anchor again and not slip4 ,no yacht shall1 during a race1 make fast to any buoy1 pier1 or other object1 or send an anchor out in a boat1 except for the purpose of ,rule #bb4 ,,rule #bf4--,no other means of sounding than the lead and line allowed4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the following rules refer to various matters3-- ,,rule #f4--;,each yacht entered for a race1 must be the bon fide property of the person or persons in whose name or names she is entered1 who must be a member or members of a recognized yacht club4 ,a yacht1 whilst let on hire1 shall not be allowed to compete under these rules4 ,,rule #g4--,no owner shall be allowed to enter more than one yacht in a race1 except in cases in which a prize is given for each rig1 when one yacht of each rig may be entered2 nor shall he be entitled to enter the same yacht under different rigs for any race4 ,,rule #i4--;,every yacht sailing in a race shall have on board a member of a recognized yacht club1 who1 before the prize is awarded1 shall sign a declaration that the yacht under his charge has strictly conformed to all the sailing regulations4 ,,rule #ab4--,there shall be no restrictions as to sails1 or the manner of setting and working them2 but manual power only may be used for hoisting and working them4 ,,rule #ac4--,there shall be no limit as to the number of paid hands1 and no restriction as to the number of friends1 or to their working4 ,no paid hand shall join or leave a yacht after the signal to start1 except in case of accident or injury to any person on board4 ,this rule is not intended to apply to ,corinthian matches4 ,,rule #ad4--;,all yachts exceeding a rating of #aj shall be fitted below deck with the ordinary fittings of a yacht1 including two transverse bulkheads of wood4 ,the following shall apply to all yachts3 their platforms shall be kept down1 and bulkheads standing4 ,no water shall be started from or taken into the tanks after the signal to start has been made4 ,no more than the usual anchors and chains shall be carried during a race1 which must not be used as shifting ballast1 or for altering the trim of the yacht4 ,no bags of shot shall be on board1 and all ballast shall be properly stowed under the platform or in lockers1 and shall not be shifted or trimmed in any way during a race4 ,no ballast or other dead weight shall be shifted1 shipped1 or unshipped1 so as to alter the length of the load water-line1 after a yacht has been entered for a race1 nor without giving notice thereof to the secretary of the ,yacht ,racing ,association1 as enjoined in ,rule #c4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the races organized by the recognized yacht clubs of the ,british ,isles are all sailed under the ,y4,r4,a4 rules1 but those clubs that have been established to encourage the construction and racing of small boats1 such as are many of our ,corinthian and river sailing clubs1 adopt different methods of measurement from those of the ,y4,r4,a41 which last are not adapted for the classification of small craft4 ,as a rule1 small boats are classed by length2 in some cases1 their rating is ascertained by adding length1 breadth1 and depth together1 the sum being the measurement in feet and inches4 ,the ,y4,r4,a4 rules for ascertaining the area of sails for rating purposes seriously handicap small yachts rigged in what may be termed river fashion4 ,for instance1 the area of the head sails of a lug-sail boat is computed in accordance with the method provided in the rule for a cutter's head sails2 that is1 the after limit of the area is taken along the mast2 whereas a lugsail1 projecting before the mast1 prevents the boat from carrying head sails that will reach so far aft as the mast4 ,again1 in the case of a ,una or balance lug boat carrying a spinnaker1 but no head sails1 the whole area of the spinnaker is reckoned in the rating2 whereas in the case of a boat carrying head-sails as well as spinnaker1 the area of the spinnaker is not taken into account at all unless it be larger than that of the head sail1 in which case the difference between them is added to the sail area4 ,the result is that the first boat only carries the sail area for which she is rated when running before the wind4 99 99 99 99 99 ,there are various methods of arranging the start in a yacht race4 ,one plan is to have the competing yachts anchored or moored in a line with all sails down1 or after sails up and head sails down1 or all sail up1 as the sailing committee may direct4 ,lots are drawn for the different stations4 ,five minutes before the start a ,blue ,peter is hoisted and a gun is fired4 ,at the expiration of the five minutes the ,blue ,peter is hauled down1 and a second gun is fired as a signal to start4 ,the yachts then slip from their moorings4 ,if a yacht let go her moorings or drag her anchor before the second gun is fired1 she is liable to be disqualified1 unless the parting or dragging be explained to the satisfaction of the committee1 or unless she has returned1 after the signal to start1 within the line of starting buoys1 so as not to obtain any advantage from the accident4 ,another method of starting is what is known as a flying start4 ,the yachts are all under way1 and have to keep inside an imaginary line between two marks until the starting gun is fired4 ,then they cross the line4 ,if a yacht crosses the line before the signal1 she must return and recross it4 ,should the owner of any yacht or his representative consider that he has a fair ground of complaint against another for foul sailing1 or any violation of the rules1 he must1 if it arise during the race1 signify the same on first passing the committee vessel1 by showing an ensign conspicuously in the main rigging4 ,we refer the reader to the little book published by ,harrison and ,sons1 before mentioned1 for the other racing regulations of the ,yacht ,racing ,association1 and to the special rules of the sailing clubs in whose regattas he wishes to compete4 ,,chapter ,,xvi4 ,,glossary ,,of ,,nautical ,,terms4 ,those nautical terms whose meanings have already been defined at some length in this work1 will not be repeated in this glossary4 ,,aback4--,said of a sail when its sheet is to windward and it drives the vessel astern4 ,,about4--,on the other tack4 ,a-,,lee4--,the position of the helm when it is put in an opposite direction to the wind4 ,a-,,peek4--,when the chain is hove taut and the vessel is over her anchor4 ,a-,,trip4--,said of an anchor when it is hauled clear of the ground--same as weighed4 ,,balance ,,reef4--,a diagonal reef in a fore-and-aft sail extending from throat to clews4 ,,battens4--,pieces of wood fastened to the reef-bands of lug sails to make them stand flat4 ,,beamy4--,broad2 said of a vessel when her breadth is great in proportion to her length4 ,,bear ,,away4--,to steer so that a vessel sails off her course to leeward4 ,,belay4--,to make fast the end of a rope temporarily by turning it round a cleat4 ,,bight4--,the loop formed by a rope when a knot or hitch is being made4 ,,bolt ,,rope4--,the rope surrounding a sail1 and to which the canvas is sewed4 ,,brail ,,up4--,to furl a sail along the mast by hauling on a rope which is led from the mast round the sail4 ,,breaming4--,cleaning a vessel's bottom by burning the paint or tar off4 ,,bridle4--,a rope with its two ends fastened to the two ends of a spar--as to a trawl beam1 or to a deep-sea anchor--and held by a rope attached to the middle of the bight4 ,,broach ,,to4--,to fall off so much1 when going free1 as to bring the vessel nearly broadside on to the wind4 ,,bulkhead4--,partitions dividing a vessel into sections4 ,,bumpkin4--,a spar projecting from a vessel to which a sheet or other rope is led2 for instance1 the mizzen sheet is led through a block or sheave hole at the end of the mizzen bumpkin4 ,,channels4--,stout pieces of timber bolted on the outside of a vessel1 to which the dead-eyes of the rigging are fastened4 ,,chock ,a ,,block4--,when the upper and lower blocks of a tackle touch each other and one can hoist no higher4 ,,clew4--,the lower after corner of a fore-and-aft sail4 ,,clip-,,hook4--,a metal eye1 with two hooks attached to it1 working on the same pivot1 so that they overlap when closed4 ,,close-,,hauled4--,said of a vessel when she is sailing as close to the wind as possible4 ,,coamings4--,a raised ledge round the well of a boat to prevent the water running in4 ,,cranse-,,iron4--,an iron hoop at the bowsprit end1 with eyes fitted to it1 to which the bobstay and topmast stay are fastened4 ,,cringle4--,a rope eye spliced into the bolt rope of a sail enclosing an iron thimble1 through which a reef earing is rove4 ,,crown ,,of ,,an ,,anchor4--,where the arms and shank join4 ,,crutch4--,a wooden support for the main-boom when the mainsail is furled4 ,,dead-,,eye4--,a wooden block with three sheaveless holes through which the lanyards of the main-shrouds are rove4 ,,dinghy4--,the smallest of a yacht's boats4 ,,earing4--,a rope which passes through the cringle of a sail and serves to reef it4 ,,eyes ,,of ,,the ,,rigging4--,the loops of the shrouds and stays which are passed over the mast-head and rest on the hounds4 ,,fair-,,leader4--,a block or comb cleat for running rigging1 e4g41 jib sheets to lead through4 ,,flukes4--,the barbs at the extremities of an anchor's arms4 ,,forefoot4--,a piece of timber at the fore end of the keel1 to which the heel of the stem fits4 ,,forereach4--,to shoot ahead in stays4 ,,garboard ,,streak4--,the range of planks on each side of the keel4 ,,get ,,in ,,irons4--,a vessel is in irons when she is in the wind's eye1 and1 having lost all headway1 will not go off on either tack4 ,,gimbals4--,a contrivance consisting of two or more metal hoops balanced on pivots1 so that a compass or lamp swung within the gimbals will not oscillate1 but preserve a vertical position4 ,,grapnel4--,a small anchor having more than two arms4 ,,ground ,,tackle4--,the tackle--anchor1 cables1 and springs--used in anchoring a vessel4 ,,guy4--,a rope attached to anything to steady it and prevent its moving4 ,thus a spinnaker boom has its fore and after guys1 and a mainboom is guyed to prevent its swinging aft4 ,,hawse-,,hole4--,the hole in the bows through which the chain runs4 ,,hawser4--,a large rope used for warping1 etc4 ,,helm ,,down4--,when the helm is put over in the direction towards which the wind is blowing4 ,,helm ,,up4--,when the helm is put over in the direction the wind is blowing from4 ,,hounds4--,the wooden shoulders at the masthead on which the eyes of the shrouds rest4 ,,house4--,to house a topmast is to lower it4 ,,jibe4--,when running1 to bring the wind on the other quarter1 so that the boom swings over4 ,,kedge4--,a small anchor4 ,to kedge1 is to warp a vessel along with hawser and kedge4 ,,lanyards4--,ropes rove through the dead-eyes to set up the standing rigging4 ,,lee-,,helm4--,a vessel is said to carry lee-helm when she has a tendency to pay off before the wind1 and the tiller has to be kept down in order to counteract this4 ,,limbers4--,holes cut in the floor timbers to allow the water in the bilge to flow freely4 ,,list4--,said of a vessel when she leans sideways1 for instance to leeward before the pressure of the wind4 ,,marline4--,small cord or spun-yarn4 ,,mouse4--,to put turns of rope yarn round a hook so as to prevent it slipping out from what it is hooked to4 ,for instance1 the sister hooks of the jib sheets are moused to prevent them escaping from the clew of the jib4 ,,neaped4--,when a vessel has got aground at the top of the spring tides and must await the next springs before she can get off4 ,,preventer4--,an additional rope placed to assist another one in supporting a strain1 e4g41 a preventer backstay4 ,,purchase4--,an arrangement of ropes and pulleys by which a mechanical power is gained4 ,,quarter4--,the after part of a vessel's side4 ,,range4--,to range chain1 is to get a certain quantity before the windlass so that1 when the anchor is let go1 it will run out to the bottom without a check4 ,,reefing4--,to reduce the area of a sail by rolling and tying up a portion of it4 ,also to shorten the bowsprit by hauling it partly in board4 ,,round ,,in4--,to haul in on a rope4 ,,run4--,the run of a vessel is the after part of her narrowing up to the stern post4 ,to let a halyard go by the run is to let it go altogether and not to slack it out gently4 ,,running4--,sailing before the wind4 ,,running ,,rigging4--,the ropes1 such as halyards1 that are hauled upon in order to hoist or trim sails1 as opposed to the standing rigging--shrouds and stays which are not moved in working a vessel4 ,,sag4--,to sag to leeward is to drift before the wind or make leeway4 ,,scuppers4--,holes through which the water runs overboard off the decks4 ,,shake ,,up4--,to luff up for a short time without losing a vessel's way1 so that the sails may shake1 and the pressure of the wind being taken off them1 the crew are enabled to take a pull on the halyards or purchases4 ,,shank4--,the long bar or stem of an anchor connecting the arms with the stock4 ,,sheave-,,hole4--,a hole in a spar to reeve a rope through4 ,,sheet4--,a rope attached to the clews of a sail1 by means of which the sail is trimmed to the wind4 ,,small ,,stuff4--,spun-yarn1 marline1 etc41 used for serving1 seizing1 and other purposes4 ,,spars4--,the masts1 yards1 booms1 etc41 on which a vessel's sails are extended4 ,,stays4--,ropes supporting a mast4 ,,in ,,stays4--,when a vessel is in the wind's eye while going about from one tack to another4 ,,sternboard4--,when a vessel is going stern foremost4 ,,stiff4--,a vessel is stiff when she can carry plenty of sail without listing over4 ,the opposite to crank4 ,,stock4--,the cross bar at the end of an anchor's shank4 ,,stop4--,a fastening of small stuff4 ,,strop4--,an eye of rope or wire spliced round a block4 ,,tabernacle4--,a mast step on deck1 in which the mast works on an iron pivot1 and so can be easily lowered4 ,,tack4--,the lower fore corner of a sail4 ,,taffrail4--,the rail round a vessel's stern4 ,,thimble4--,an iron ring1 with a concave outer edge1 into which a strop can be fitted4 ,,toggle4--,a pin fastened to the end of a rope1 which can be thrust through the eye of another rope1 and so secure them together4 ,the jib sheets are often secured to the clew of the jib in this way4 ,,topping ,,lift4--,the rope which sustains the weight of the end of the boom1 and by hauling on which the boom can be raised to the required height4 ,,truck4--,a circular block of wood at the masthead with holes in it through which the signal halyards are rove4 ,,waist4--,the midships section of a vessel4 ,,wash-,,boards4--,board placed above the gunwale of a boat to keep the water out4 ,,water-,,ways4--,the long timbers running fore and aft that divide the decks from the vessel's sides4 ,,weather ,,helm4--,a ship is said to carry weather helm when she has a tendency to come up into the wind1 and requires the tiller to be kept to windward so as to counteract this4 ,,whip4--,a purchase formed by a rope rove through a single block4 ,,yaw4--,when a vessel goes off her course first to one side then to the other4 ,,index4 ,a ,admiralty charts1 #aac ,admiralty tide tables1 #abg ,almanac1 ,pearson's ,nautical1 #aaj1 #abg ,america1 sailing in1 #dd4 ,see also ,florida1 etc4 ,american yachts1 #ba ,anchor1 the1 #he2 foul1 #gc2 a floating1 #gd2 ,trotman's1 #hf ,aneroid barometer1 #acj ,azimuth compass1 the1 #abc ,b ,backstay1 #f ,balance lug1 the1 #cc ,balance reef1 #ch ,ballast1 #bc1 #hb ,barometer1 the aneroid1 #acj2 ,admiral ,fitzroy's rules1 #aca ,battened sails1 #bh ,beaching boats1 #ge1 #gi 8,bear away60 order to1 #ajh 8,bear up60 order to1 #ajh ,bends1 the common1 and the carrick1 #aa ,berthon collapsible boat1 the1 #gb ,bight of a rope1 #aj ,binnacle1 the1 #aad ,blackwall hitch1 the1 #aa ,board of ,trade ,regulations1 #ajf ,boarding1 #hb ,bobstay1 the1 #f ,boom1 the1 #e1 #cb1 #de ,bowline knot1 #ac ,bowsprit1 #e2 of a cutter1 #db ,broaching to1 #gf ,bumpkin1 the1 #cj1 ,burgee1 the1 #fj ,c ,cabin1 the1 of a yacht1 #id ,carrick bend1 the1 #aa ,capsize1 to1 halyards1 #ei ,cat rig1 the1 #cf ,caulking1 ,tagg's1 #ic ,cement in the boat1 #d ,centre-boards1 #af1 #bj1 #bd ,centre of rotation1 #ah ,channel1 weather in the1 #acj ,channels of a boat1 #f ,charts1 #aji1 #aaj1 #aac ,choice of a boat1 #a ,clew1 the1 #dd ,clove hitch1 the1 #ac ,coasting1 #aji2 in ,north ,sea1 #aaj ,code ,signal ,book1 #ajf ,collapsible boat1 a ,berthon1 #gb ,compass1 the azimuth1 #abc2 ,dent's spirit1 #aad2 the mariner's1 #aac ,constants1 tidal1 #abh ,corinthian matches1 #add ,counters1 #bg ,cringle1 the1 #f ,cross bearings1 #aai ,cross section1 the1 #bj ,customs landing-stage1 ,gravesend1 #ajf ,customs officers and yachtsmen1 #ajf ,cutter1 rigging of a1 #db ,d ,dent's spirit compass1 #aad ,dinghy1 the1 #gb2 towing a1 #ga ,dipping lug1 the1 #cj ,distress1 signals of1 #aje ,dogger ,bank1 a boat for the1 #ed ,drogue anchor1 the1 #gd ,dry-rot and ventilation1 #hg1 #ia ,dutch waterways1 boats for1 #ee ,e ,elbe1 the1 headwinds at its mouth1 #abc ,enamel paints for cabin1 #ie ,eye splice1 the1 #i ,f ,false keels1 #be ,fid1 the1 #db 8,fine ,run10 #ai ,finisterre1 ,cape1 fishing rules north of1 #ajj ,fisherman's bend1 #ad ,fishing rules1 north of ,cape ,finisterre1 #ajj ,fitzroy1 ,admiral1 his rules as to the barometer1 #aca ,flags1 ,international ,code of1 #ajf4 ,see also ,signals ,florida1 sailing in1 #cg ,fog signals1 #ajb ,foot sails1 #f ,fore halyards1 #dc ,foresail1 the1 #f ,forestay1 the1 #e ,foul anchor1 #gc ,foul hawse1 a1 #gc ,g ,gaff1 the1 #de ,gammon iron1 the1 #db ,glossary of nautical terms1 #adf ,gooseneck1 the1 #de ,granny1 a1 #aj ,gravesend1 the ,customs landing-stage there1 #ajf ,gripe of a boat1 #ag ,griping1 #fc ,grommet1 the1 #i1 #cf ,h ,half-decked boats1 #bb ,half-hitches1 #ac ,halyards1 #f1 #dc 8,handy ,billy10 #hg ,harwich to ,rotterdam1 the voyage and the weather1 #abi ,head-sails1 #f1 #acg ,heel rope1 the1 #di ,hitches1 #aa ,hoops1 the1 #de ,horse1 the1 of a foresheet1 #df ,hounds1 #e ,hygrometer1 the1 #acj ,i ,inventory for a boat1 #ij ,j ,jib halyards1 #dc ,jib-head topsail1 #acg ,jib outhaul1 the1 #dc ,jib-sail1 #f ,jibe1 a1 #cb ,k ,keels1 false1 #be ,knots1 #f ,l ,lamps for yachts1 #ajb ,lantern for yacht1 #aja ,laws of the sea1 #ig4 ,see also ,rules ,laying up for winter1 #hi ,leach sails1 #f ,lead line1 the1 #aah ,lee-boards1 #af1 #be ,lee-helm1 #ag ,leeway1 #abd ,leg of mutton sail1 #cb ,leg1 short1 in sailing1 #ah2 long leg1 ib4 ,lifeboat ,institution1 the ,national1 #ge ,lifeboats of the ,p4 and ,o4 steamers1 #ee ,lights at sea1 rules as to1 #ig 8,log1 heaving the10 #aag ,log ship and line1 the1 #aaf ,long leg1 #ah 8,lubber's line10 the1 #aad ,luff sails1 #f ,lug sails and head sails1 #ach ,lugs1 #cj ,m ,mainsail1 the1 #f1 #acf2 scandalizing a1 #fc ,mainsheet1 fitting a1 #dg ,mainshrouds1 #e ,maintack tackle1 #de 8,mare's tails10 #acc ,mariner's compass1 the1 #aac ,mast1 the1 #e ,measurement of yachts1 #ace ,mercator's chart1 #aji ,meteorological ,office weather forecasts1 #acj ,mexico1 the ,gulf of1 sailing in1 #cg ,mildew in sails1 #hg ,mooring1 #gc ,n ,national ,lifeboat ,institution1 #ge ,nautical ,almanac1 ,pearson's1 #aaj1 #abg ,nautical terms1 a glossary of1 #adf ,north ,sea1 coasting in the1 #aaj2 sailing in the1 #gd1 #abf ,o ,open boats1 #bb ,orders at sea1 #ajg ,overhand knot1 #aj ,p ,paraffin versus colza oil lamps for yachts1 #ajb ,parrel1 the1 #de ,peak halyards1 #f ,pearson's ,nautical ,almanac1 #aaj1 #abg ,peninsular and ,oriental steamers1 their lifeboats1 #ee ,pilot signals1 #ajh ,pilots1 services of1 #ajf ,porpoises and stormy weather1 #acc 8,port60 the order1 #ajg ,portland ,breakwater1 #abh ,preventer backstays1 #di ,pump-well1 the1 #he ,r ,reef1 the balance1 #ch ,reef knot1 #aj ,reef pennant1 #f ,reef points1 #f ,rigging of a cutter1 #db ,rigging1 setting up1 #hf ,rigging small boats1 #bi ,rolling hitch1 #aa ,rope1 standing part of a1 #aj ,ropes1 #f ,rotation of a boat1 the centre of1 #ah ,rotterdam and ,harwich1 the weather between1 #abi ,rowing to seaward1 #ge ,rudder1 the1 #ah ,rules of steering and sailing1 #ajc ,rules of the road for yacht racing1 #ada 8,run1 fine10 of a boat1 #ai ,runners1 #f ,running before a surf1 #gh ,running bowline1 #ad ,s ,sailing1 rules of1 #ajc ,sails1 #f2 battened1 #bh2 mildew in1 #hg2 stretching new1 #hh4 ,see also ,mainsails1 lug sails1 leg of mutton sails1 etc4 ,scandalizing a mainsail1 #fc ,sea1 laws of the1 #ig2 lights at1 #ig2 orders at1 #ajg2 a phosphorescent1 #acc2 rules of the road at1 #ada ,sea birds1 flight of1 #acc ,selvage strops1 #ea ,short leg1 #ah ,shrouds1 #e ,signal ,book1 ,code1 #ajf ,signals1 of distress1 #aje2 fog1 #ajb2 pilot1 #ajh ,sloop1 the1 #ci ,snotter1 the1 #bi ,snow on deck1 #ij ,spars1 #f ,speed1 #bj ,splicing1 #h ,spinnaker boom1 the1 #di ,spinnaker halyard1 the1 #ej ,spinnaker sail1 the1 #gj ,sprit1 the1 #bi ,spritsail1 the1 #cb ,spritsail rig1 the1 #bh ,standing lug1 the1 #ca 8,starboard60 the order1 #ajg ,stays1 #e ,steering1 rules of1 #ajc ,sterns1 square and pointed1 #bg ,stormy weather1 #acc ,strands of a rope1 #g ,surf1 running before a1 #gh ,t ,tack1 rope1 #cd ,tack tricing1 #dd ,tacking1 #ag2 across the sea1 #aai ,tagg's caulking1 #ic ,terms1 nautical1 glossary of1 #adf4 ,see also separate terms1 and under ,inventory4 ,thames' mouth1 variation of compass at1 #aae ,thames1 yachtsmen entering the1 #ajf ,theory of sailing1 #ae ,throat halyards1 #dc ,throat of a sail1 #f ,tidal constants1 #abh ,tide tables1 ,admiralty1 and ,pearson's1 #abg ,tides1 #abf ,tiller1 the1 #ec ,time allowance of yachts1 etc41 #aci ,tonnage of yachts1 #ace ,topmast1 a1 #di ,topping lift1 the1 #f ,topsail halyard bend1 #ad ,trotman's anchor1 #hf ,tyers1 #eh ,u ,una rig1 #cf1 #ace ,unmoor1 to1 #gd ,v ,ventilation and dry-rot1 #hg1 #ia ,w ,watch tackle1 #hg ,weather forecasts1 #acj ,weather helm1 #ag ,weather wisdom1 #abi ,well1 the1 of a yacht1 #ia 8,wind dogs10 #acc ,y ,yacht1 the1 #ef ,yacht racing1 #acd ,yacht ,racing ,association1 rules1 etc41 #ace1 #adf ,yacht ,racing ,calendar and ,review1 #cj ,yarmouth1 sailing from1 #abc ,yarns of hemp1 #g ,yawl1 the1 #eb ,yawl sails1 #acg ,z ,zuyder ,zee1 boats for the1 #ee ,,the ,,end4 ,,london3 ,,printed ,,by ,,william ,,clowes ,,and ,,sons1 ,,limited1 ,,stamford ,,street ,,and ,,charing ,,cross4 ,,recent ,,works ,,on ,,yachting4 #a vol41 crown #hvo41 with ,illustrations1 #gs4 #f;d4 ,,the 8,,falcon0 ,,on ,,the ,,baltic3 ,a ,coasting ,voyage from ,hammersmith to ,copenhagen in a ,three-,ton ,yacht4 ,by ,e4 ,f4 ,,knight1 ,author of 8,the ,cruise of the ,falcon4 ,the ,saturday ,review says3--8#8,the ,falcon on the ,baltic' will be warmly welcomed by all the readers of ,mr4 ,knight's delightful #8,cruise of the ,falcon4' 444 ,the unconscious humour of the #8,yankified ,dane's' conversation is really the most amusing thing we have read for a long while40 ,the ,morning ,post says3--8,mr4 ,knight's new volume is calculated to arouse an interest in many readers4 ,yachtsmen particularly will appreciate his account of his adventures1 and some may be tempted1 if not to emulate his wanderings1 at least to profit by the information he has amassed in the course of his trip1 and which he gives in a bright and informal manner40 ,,sketches ,,of ,a ,,yachting ,,cruise4 ,by ,major ,e4 ,,gambier-,,parry1 ,author of 8,life of ,reynell ,taylor40 #a vol4 ,demy #hvo4 ,twenty-six ,illustrations4 #ajs4 #f;d4 ,the ,saturday ,review says3--8,major ,gambier-,parry not only describes graphically what he sees with his outward eye1 but in his inward vision he sees1 and makes us see1 #8,the light that never was on sea or land1 ,the consecration and the poet's dream4'0 ,the ,manchester ,guardian says3--8,the pencil sketches accompanying the letter-press are many of them of great artistic excellence1 and in particular we can commend the exquisite aerial effects of the ,bay of ,algiers and of ,etna40 ,,to ,,gibraltar ,,and ,,back ,,in ,,an ,,eighteen-,,tonner4 ,by ,,one ,,of ,,the ,,crew4 ,with ,chart ,illustrations from ,sketches by ,,barlow ,,moore1 and ,photographs4 ,crown #hvo41 #fs4 8,this book is one for all yachtsmen to read40--,vanity ,fair4 8,he has1 however1 produced a delightfully interesting book1 and one that all lovers of yachting may read both with profit and pleasure40--,graphic4 ,,new ,,and ,,cheaper ,,edition4 ,,shooting ,,and ,,yachting ,,in ,,the ,,mediterranean4 ,with some ,practical ,hints to ,yachtsmen4 ,by ,captain ,a4 ,g4 ,,bagot 78,bagatelle074 ,crown #hvo41 paper boards1 #as4 8,mr4 ,bagot has written a capital little book1 which every gunner and yachtsman1 if not every sportsman1 should read4 ,the reader1 even if he has never seen the sea1 becomes an enthusiastic sailor before he has read a couple of chapters1 and he is then taken in the most entertaining manner nearly all round the ,mediterranean40--,land and ,water4 ,,london3 ,w4 ,h4 ,,allen ,co41 #ac1 ,waterloo ,place1 ,s4,w4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,pascall ,,atkey ,,son1 ,,yacht ,,fitters1 ,,compass ,,makers ,,adjusters1 ,,manufacturers ,,of ,yachts ,torpedo-,boat ,cooking-,stoves4 ,,porcelain ,,saloon ,,stoves4 ,,saloon ,,lamps1 ,,patent ,,mast ,,winches1 ,,capstans ,,and ,,windlasses4 ,,waterclosets1 ,,lavatories1 ,,deck ,,and ,,side ,,lights1 ,,etc41 ,,etc4 8,,lighthouse0 ,,regulation ,,lamps1 and ,yacht ,fittings of every description4 ,every requirement for a ,yacht from #c to #ajjj tons kept in stock for immediate delivery4 ,illustration ,,illustrated ,,catalogues ,,in ,,english ,,and ,,french ,,free ,,on ,,application4 ,,cowes1 ,,isle ,,of ,,wight4 ,illustration3 ,,city ,,offices ,,warehouse1 #dg #dh ,,king ,,william ,,street1 ,e4,c4 ,,william ,,good ,,son1 ,,london ,,bridge4 ,telegraphic ,address--,,good ,,rope1 ,,london4 ,,patent ,,rope ,,makers1 ,,manufacturers ,,of ,,specialities ,,for ,,yachts1 ,,boats1 ,,and ,,canoes4 ,cordage made from ,manilla1 ,russian and ,italian ,hemp1 and all other ,fibres4 ,coir ,rope and ,tow ,lines4 ,cotton ,rope1 ,bleached and ,unbleached4 ,wire ,rope1 ,iron or ,steel1 ,galvanized4 ,special ,plaited ,lines and ,cordage for ,canoes4 ,flags of all ,nations4 ,club ,ensigns and ,burgees4 ,sailcloth4 ,duck and all ,kinds of ,canvas4 ,life ,buoys4 ,hammocks4 ,lamps4 ,deep-,sea ,lines4 ,brass ,eyelets4 ,cleats4 ,deep-,sea ,leads4 ,brass ,thimbles4 ,prickers4 ,spunyarn4 ,brass ,rowlocks4 ,needles4 ,galvanized ,anchors of every weight from #c lbs4 upwards4 ,,chain ,,cable1 ,,shackles1 ,,hooks1 ,,thimbles1 ,,etc4 ,fendoffs of ,coir1 ,canvas1 or ,leather4 ,fishing ,nets for ,sea1 ,river1 or ,lake4 ,,works3 #eia1 ,,commercial ,,road ,,east1 ,e4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,lord ,,rothschild4 ,,lord ,,norbury4 ,patrons4 ,,earl ,,cairns4 ,,leopold ,,de ,,rothschild1 ,,esq4 ,,etc41 ,,etc4 ,f4 ,g4 ,,maynard ,,sons1 ,,steam ,,and ,,electric ,,launch ,,builders1 ,builders of 8,sibyl10 8,truant10 and 8,nina10 of ,thames and ,royal ,canoe ,sailing ,clubs4 ,,skiff1 ,,canoe1 ,,and ,,centre ,,board ,,gig ,,builders4 ,,specialities4 ,mahogany or ,oak ,centre ,board ,sailing ,gigs1 with all the most modern improvements1 fully rigged1 and provided with ,matting1 ,cushion1 ,sculls and ,boathook1 etc41 #ae feet long1 #e feet beam1 #ce4 ,sailing and ,paddling ,canoes from #aj upwards1 according to plans agreed upon and fittings supplied4 ,foreign ,orders completed with the greatest despatch4 ,,devonshire ,,boathouse ,,dockyard1 ,,grove ,,park1 ,,chiswick4 ,,sailing ,,boats ,,built ,,from ,,drawings4 ,estimates given for ,building and ,repairs4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,yachts ,,and ,,yachting4 ,,george ,,wilson1 #bj1 ,glasshouse ,st41 ,piccadilly ,circus1 ,london1 ,w4 ,telegraphic address3--8,,yachting1 ,,london40 ,,yachts ,,for ,,sale4 ,,george ,,wilson has always a large fleet of ,yachts of all ,rigs and ,tonnage ,,for ,,sale4--#d-ton ,cutter1 #aje2 #e-ton ,yawl1 #abj2 #e-ton ,cutter1 lead ballast1 racing sails1 #aej2 #g-ton ,cutter1 very fast1 #bjj2 #aj-ton ,cutters1 celebrated racers1 #bej and #cjj2 #ae-ton ,cutter1 splendid little ship1 #cjj2 #bj-ton ,cutters and ,yawls1 #djj1 #ejj1 and #fge2 #cj-ton ,cutters and ,yawls at #cej1 #ejj1 #gej1 and #ajjj2 also larger ,sailing ,yachts of #dj1 #ej1 #fj1 #gj1 and #ajj tons2 ,schooners of #aej to #bjj tons1 at all prices according to age and quality4 ,,yachts ,,for ,,hire of #e1 #ab1 #ae1 #bj1 #cj1 #dj1 #fj1 #hj1 #ajj1 up to #aej and #bjj tons4 ,enquiries solicited4 ,yachts shipped or delivered abroad4 ,,yachting ,,requisites4 ,,george ,,wilson',s ,,new ,,yachting ,,catalogue post free on demand4--,anchors1 ,chains1 ,capstans1 ,windlasses1 ,binnacles1 ,compasses1 ,lamps1 ,flags1 ,patent ,logs1 ,cooking ,stoves for ,coke1 ,oil1 and ,spirit1 ,yacht's ,varnish1 ,yacht's ,paint1 ,antifouling ,compositions4 ,every article used on board a ,yacht supplied4 ,yachtsmen abroad will have immediate attention paid to their commands1 if1 when stating their requirements1 they send ,cash on account4 ,bankers' ,drafts and ,cheques to be made payable to the ,order of 8,george ,wilson10 and crossed 8,lloyds ,co40 ,,note ,,my ,,only ,,address3-- ,,george ,,wilson1 #bj1 ,glasshouse ,street1 ,piccadilly ,circus1 ,london1 ,w4 ,agent to the 8,yacht ,club de ,france10 and numerous other ,yacht ,clubs4