,,the                                   
,,americans                             
,,by                              ,,hugo
 ,m,,nsterberg                          
,,professor ,,of ,,psychology           
,,at ,,harvard ,,university             
,,translated ,,by                       
,,edwin ,b4 ,,holt1 ,,ph4,d4            
,,instructor ,,at ,,harvard ,,university
  ,illustration                         
,,new ,,york                            
,mc,c,l,u,r,e1 ,,phillips  ,,co4        
,,mcmiv                                 
,copyright1 #aijd1 by                   
,mc,c,l,u,r,e1 ,,phillips  ,,co4        
,published ,november1 #aijd1 ,n         
----------------------------------------
--------------------------------        
,,preface   ,in the ,preface to my      
8,american ,traits10 in which ,i        
defended ,german ideals and criticised  
some ,american tendencies1 ,i said1 some
 years ago3 8,it has been often         
questioned whether ,i am right in       
fighting merely against ,american       

shortcomings from a ,german point of    
view1 and in trying to destroy          
prejudices on this side of the water2   
whether it is not1 in a still higher    
degree1 my duty to attempt the same for 
the other side2--for ,german prejudices 
concerning the ,united ,states are      
certainly not less severe1 and the      
points in which ,germany might learn    
from ,american culture not less         
numerous4 ,the question is fair1 and ,i 
shall soon put before the ,german public
 a book on ,american life--a book which 
deals in a detailed way with the        
political1 economic1 intellectual1 and  
social aspects of ,american culture4    
,its purpose is to interpret            
systematically the democratic ideals of 
,america40  ,here is the book2 it       
fulfils the promise1 and it might appear
 that no further explanation is needed4 
,and yet1 in sending a book into the    
world1 ,i have never felt more strongly 
the need of prefatory excuses--excuses  
not for writing the book1 but for       

agreeing to its translation into        
,english4  ,to outline ,american life   
for readers beyond the sea is one thing2
 to appear before an ,american audience 
and to tell them solemnly that there is 
a ,republican and a ,democratic party1  
and that there are troubles between     
capital and labour1 is quite another    
thing4 ,to inform my ,german countrymen 
about ,america may be to fill a         
long-felt want2 but1 as a ,german1 to   
inform the ,americans on matters which  
they knew before they were born seems1  
indeed1 worse than superfluous4  ,when  
,i was urged1 on so many sides1 to bring
 my 8,americans0 before the ,americans1 
it was1 therefore1 clear to me from the 
outset that ,i ought not to do it myself
 under any circumstances4 ,if ,i had    
translated the book myself1 it would    
have become simply an ,english book1    
written in ,english by the author2 and  
yet its only possible right to existence
 must lie in its reflected character1 in
 its having been written for others1 in 

its coming back to the ,new ,world from 
the ,old4 ,my friend1 ,dr4 ,holt1 who   
has been for years my assistant in the  
,harvard ,psychological ,laboratory1 has
 assisted1 therefore1 in this social    
psychological experiment1 and translated
 the book from the ,german edition4  ,i 
have been still more influenced by      
another consideration4 ,if the book were
 chiefly a record of facts1 it would be 
folly for a foreigner to present it to  
the citizens2 but the aim of the book is
 a quite different one4 ,to make a real 
scientific study of the facts1 ,i should
 have felt utterly incompetent2 indeed1 
it may be doubted whether any one could 
hope to master the material of the      
various fields3 a division of labour    
would then become necessary4 ,the       
historian1 the politician1 the          
economist1 the jurist1 the engineer1 and
 many others would have to co-operate in
 a scholarly investigation of ,american 
events2 and ,i have no right to any of  
these titles4 ,i am merely a            

psychologist1 and have not set out to   
discover new material4 ,the only aim of 
the book is to study the ,american man  
and his inner tendencies2 and1 perhaps1 
a truer name for my book would have been
 8,the ,philosophy of ,americanism40    
,for such a task the outsider may be1   
after all1 not quite unsuited1 since the
 characteristic forces make themselves  
more easily felt by him than by those   
who have breathed the atmosphere from   
their childhood4 ,i am1 therefore1      
anxious to insist that the accent of the
 book lies on the four chapters1        
8,spirit of ,self-,direction01 8,spirit 
of ,self-,realization10 8,spirit of     
,self-,perfection10 and 8,spirit of     
,self-,assertion02 while those chapters 
on the economic and political problems  
are the least important of the book1 as 
they are meant merely by way of         
illustration4 ,the lasting forces and   
tendencies of ,american life are my     
topics1 and not the problems of the day4
 ,for this reason the book is translated

 as it appeared six months ago in       
,germany1 and the events and statistical
 figures of the last few months have not
 been added2 the ,philosophy of         
,americanism is independent of the      
happenings of yesterday4 ,the only      
changes in the translation are          
abbreviations2 for instance1 the        
industrial tables1 which every ,american
 can get easily from the government     
reports1 are abridged2 and1 above all1  
the chapters which deal with the        
,german-,americans are left out1 as     
better remaining an esoteric discussion 
for the ,germans4  ,the purpose of      
finding the deeper impulses in ,american
 life necessarily demands a certain     
ignoring of the shortcomings of the     
hour4 ,if we aim to work out and to make
 clear the essentials of the ,american  
mission in the world1 we cannot take the
 attitude of the reformer1 whose        
attention belongs1 first of all1 to the 
blunders and frailties of the hour2 they
 are to us less important by-products4  

,the grumbler in public life sees in    
such a view of the ,american1 of course1
 merely a fancy picture of an imaginary 
creature2 he is not aware that every    
portrayal involves abstraction1 and that
 a study in ,americanism means1 indeed1 
a study of the ,americans as the best of
 them are1 and as the others should wish
 to be4  ,but the optimism of my book   
has still another source4 ,its outspoken
 purpose has been to awaken a better    
understanding of ,americans in the      
,german nation4 ,whoever fights against 
prejudices can serve the truth merely in
 emphasizing the neglected good sides1  
and in somewhat retouching in the       
picture the exaggerated shadows4 ,but   
just here arises my strong reluctance4  
,the optimism and the style of a        
defender were sincere1 and necessary to 
the book when it addressed itself to the
 ,germans2 is it necessary1 is it1      
indeed1 sincere1 to place such a eulogy 
of ,americanism before the ,americans8  
,i know too well that1 besides the      

self-direction1 self-realization1       
self-perfection1 and self-assertion     
there is1 more vivid still1 the spirit  
of self-satisfaction1 whose story ,i    
have forgotten to include in this       
volume4 ,have ,i the right to cater to  
this spirit8  ,but is it not best that  
the moods of criticism and optimism     
alternate8 ,the critical eagerness of   
the reformer which attacks the faults   
and follies of the day is most          
necessary2 but it turns into            
discouraging pessimism if it is not     
supplemented by a profession of faith in
 the lasting principles and deeper      
tendencies4 ,the rle of the critic ,i   
have played1 perhaps1 more often and    
more vehemently than is the foreigner's 
right4 ,my book on 8,american ,traits0  
has been its sharpest expression4 ,does 
that not give me1 after all1 a moral    
right to supplement the warning cry by a
 joyful word on the high aims of true   
,americanism8 ,my duty is only to       
emphasize that ,i am myself fully aware 

of the strong one-sidedness1 and that   
this new book is not in the least meant 
to retract the criticisms of my         
8,american ,traits40 ,the two books are 
meant to be like the two pictures of a  
stereoscope1 which must be seen both    
together to get the full plastic effect 
of reality4 ,it is certainly important  
to remind the nation frequently that    
there are political corruption and      
pedagogical blundering in the world2 but
 sometimes it is also worth while to say
 that ,americanism is something noble   
and inspiring1 even for the outsiders1  
with whom naturally other impulses are  
stronger--in fact1 to make clear that   
this ,americanism is a consistent system
 of tendencies is ultimately1 perhaps1  
only another way of attaining the       
reformer's end4  ,only one word more--a 
word of thanks4 ,i said the aim of the  
book was to bring the facts of ,american
 life under the point of view of general
 principles1 but not to embody an       
original research in ,american history  

and institutions4 ,i have had thus to   
accept the facts ready-made1 as the best
 ,american authors present them2 and ,i 
am thus their debtor everywhere4 ,since 
the book is popular in its style1 ,i    
have no foot-notes and scholarly        
quotations1 and so cannot enumerate the 
thousand ,american sources from which ,i
 have taken my material4 ,and ,i am not 
speaking here merely of the great       
standard books and specialistic         
writings1 but even the daily and weekly 
papers1 and especially the leading      
monthly magazines1 have helped to fill  
my note-books4 ,my thanks are due to all
 these silent helpers1 and ,i am glad to
 share with them the welcome which1 in  
competent quarters1 the ,german edition 
of the book has found4                  
,,hugo ,m,,nsterberg   ,,cambridge1     
,,mass41      ,october #be1 #aijd       
,,contents      ,i4 ,,political ,,life  
,,page         #a4 ,,the ,,spirit ,,of  
,,self-,,direction                      
#c         #b4 ,,political ,,parties    

#ce         #c4 ,,the ,,president       
#fc         #d4 ,,congress              
#he         #e4 ,,justice               
#aja         #f4 ,,city ,,and ,,state   
#aae         #g4 ,,public ,,opinion     
#acg         #h4 ,,problems ,,of        
,,population                            
#aee         #i4 ,,internal ,,political 
,,problems                              
#ahe        #aj4 ,,external ,,political 
,,problems                              
#bja     ,,ii4 ,,economic ,,life        
#aa4 ,,the ,,spirit ,,of                
,,self-,,initiative                     
#bbi        #ab4 ,,the ,,economic ,,rise
                                        
#bee        #ac4 ,,the ,,economic       
,,problems                              
#bgh                 ,the ,silver       
,question                               
#bgi                 ,the ,tariff       
,question                               
#bhi                 ,the ,trust        
,question                               
#cja                 ,the ,labour       

,question                               
#cah    ,,iii4  ,,intellectual ,,life   
#ad4 ,,the ,,spirit ,,of                
,,self-,,perfection                     
#cdg        #ae4 ,,the ,,schools ,,and  
,,popular ,,education                   
#cfe        #af4 ,,the ,,universities   
#cic        #ag4 ,,science              
#dbe        #ah4 ,,literature           
#ddi        #ai4 ,,art                  
#dgc        #bj4 ,,religion             
#dif     ,,iv4 ,,social ,,life          
#ba4 ,,the ,,spirit ,,of                
,,self-,,assertion                      
#eca        #bb4 ,,the                  
,,self-,,assertion ,,of ,,women         
#eeh        #bc4 ,,aristocratic         
,,tendencies                            
#eij     ,,part ,,one ,,political ,,life
                                        
,,chapter ,,one                         
,the ,spirit of ,self-,direction        
,whosoever wishes to describe the       
political life of the ,american people  
can accomplish this end from a number of

 starting points4 ,perhaps he would     
begin most naturally with the ,articles 
of the ,constitution and expound the    
document which has given to the         
,american body-politic its remarkable   
and permanent form2 or he might ramble  
through history and trace out from petty
 colonies the rise of a great           
world-power2 or he might make his way   
through that multitude of events which  
to-day arouse the keenest public        
interest1 the party strifes and         
presidential elections1 the burdens and 
amenities of city and state1 the        
transactions of the courts and of       
,congress4 ,yet all this would be but a 
superficial delineation4 ,whoever wishes
 to understand the secret of that       
baffling turmoil1 the inner mechanism   
and motive behind all the politically   
effective forces1 must set out from only
 one point4 ,he must appreciate the     
yearning of the ,american heart after   
self-direction4 ,everything else is to  
be understood from this4  ,in his social

 life the ,american is very ready to    
conform to the will of another4 ,with an
 inborn good-nature1 and often too      
willingly1 perhaps1 he lends himself to 
social situations which are otherwise   
inconvenient4 ,thus his guest1 for      
instance1 is apt to feel like a master  
in his house1 so completely is his own  
will subordinated to that of the guest4 
,but1 on the other hand1 in the sphere  
of public life1 the individual1 or a    
more or less restricted group of        
individuals1 feels that it must guide   
its own activities to the last detail if
 these are to have for it any value or  
significance whatsoever4 ,he will allow 
no alien motive to be                   
substituted--neither the                
self-renunciation of fidelity or        
gratitude1 nor the sthetic              
self-forgetfulness of hero-worship1 nor 
even the recognition that a material    
advantage would accrue or some desirable
 end be more readily achieved if the    
control and responsibility were to be   

vested in some one else4 ,this          
self-direction is neither arbitrary nor 
perverse2 least of all does it indicate 
a love of ease or aversion to toil4 ,in 
,russia1 as a well-known ,american once 
said1 serfdom could be wiped out by a   
stroke of the ,czar's pen1 and millions 
of ,russians would be freed from slavery
 with no loss of life or property4 8,we 
,americans had to offer up a            
half-million lives and many millions'   
worth of property in order to free our  
slaves4 ,and yet nothing else was to be 
thought of4 ,we had to overcome that    
evil by our own initiative1 and by our  
own exertions reach our goal4 ,and just 
because we are ,americans and not       
,russians no power on earth could have  
relieved us of our responsibility40     
,when in any people the desire of       
self-direction dominates all other      
motives1 the form of government of that 
people is necessarily republican4 ,but  
it does not conversely follow that every
 republic is grounded in this spirit of 

self-direction4 ,hence it is that the   
republic of the ,united ,states is so   
entirely different from all other       
republics1 since in no other people is  
the craving for self-determination so   
completely the informing force4 ,the    
republics of ,middle and ,south         
,america1 or of ,france1 have sprung    
from an entirely different political    
spirit2 while those newer republics1    
which in fundamental intention are      
perhaps more similar1 as for instance   
,switzerland1 are still not comparable  
because of their diminutive size4 ,the  
,french republic is founded on          
rationalism4 ,the philosophy of the     
eighteenth century1 with its destructive
 criticism of the existing order1       
furnished the doctrines1 and from that  
seed of knowledge there grew and still  
are growing the practical ideals of     
,france4 ,but the political life of the 
,united ,states sprang not from reasoned
 motives but from ideals2 it is not the 
result of insight but of will2 it has   

not a logical but a moral foundation4   
,and while in ,france the principles    
embodied in the constitution are derived
 from theory1 the somewhat doubtful     
doctrines enunciated in the ,declaration
 of ,independence are merely a corollary
 to that system of moral ideals which is
 indissolubly combined with the         
,american character4  ,it is not here to
 be questioned whether this character is
 purely the cause and not also the      
effect of the ,american system2 but so  
much is sure1 that the system of        
political relations which has sprung    
from these ethical ideals constitutes   
the actual body-politic of ,america4    
,such is the ,america which receives the
 immigrant and so thoroughly transforms 
him that the demand for                 
self-determination becomes the          
profoundest passion of his soul4 ,such  
is the ,america toward which he feels a 
proud and earnest patriotism4 ,for the  
soil on which his kingdom has been      
reared he knows but scanty sentiment or 

love2 indeed1 the early progress of     
,america was always an extension of the 
frontier1 an unremitting pushing forth  
over new domain4 ,the ,american may be  
linked by personal ties to a particular 
plot of land1 but his national          
patriotism is independent of the soil4  
,it is also independent of the people4  
,a nation which in every decade has     
assimilated millions of aliens1 and     
whose historic past everywhere leads    
back to strange peoples1 cannot with its
 racial variegation inspire a profound  
feeling of indissoluble unity4 ,and yet 
that feeling is present here as it is   
perhaps in no ,european country4        
,american patriotism is directed neither
 to soil nor citizen1 but to a system of
 ideas respecting society which is      
compacted by the desire for             
self-direction4 ,and to be an ,american 
means to be a partizan of this system4  
,neither race nor tradition1 nor yet the
 actual past binds him to his           
countryman1 but rather the future which 

together they are building4 ,it is a    
community of purpose1 and it is more    
effective than any tradition1 because it
 pervades the whole man4 ,participation 
in a common task holds the people       
together1 a task with no definite and   
tangible end nor yet any special victory
 or triumph to look forward to1 but     
rather a task which is fulfilled at each
 moment1 which has its meaning not in   
any result but in the doing1 its        
accomplishment not in any event which   
may befall1 but only in the rightness of
 the motive4 ,to be an ,american means  
to co-operate in perpetuating the spirit
 of self-direction throughout the       
body-politic2 and whosoever does not    
feel this duty and actively respond to  
it1 although perhaps a naturalized      
citizen of the land1 remains an alien   
forever4  ,if the newcomer is readily   
assimilated in such a society1 commonly1
 yet it must not be overlooked that     
those who come from across the seas are 
not selected at random4 ,those who are  

strong of will are the ones who seek out
 new spheres of activity4 ,just those   
whose satisfaction in life has been     
stunted by a petty and oppressive       
environment have always cherished a     
longing for the ,new ,world4 ,that      
conflict which every one must wage in   
his own bosom before he can finally tear
 himself away from home1 has schooled   
the emigrant for the spirit of his new  
home2 and only those who have been      
impelled by the desire for              
self-direction have had the strength to 
break the ties with their own past4     
,thus it is that those of ,germanic     
extraction adapt themselves so much more
 quickly and thoroughly to the political
 spirit of ,america than those of       
,romanic blood4 ,the ,latin peoples are 
much more the victims of suggestion4    
,being more excitable1 they are more    
imitative1 and therefore as individuals 
less stable4 ,the ,frenchman1 ,italian1 
or ,spaniard is often a sympathetic     
member of the social life of the        

country1 but in its political life he   
introduces a certain false note2 his    
republicanism is not the ,american      
republicanism4 ,as a moral ideal he has 
little or no concern with the doctrine  
of self-direction4  ,the ,american      
political system1 therefore1 by no means
 represents an ideal of universal       
significance2 it is the expression of a 
certain character1 the necessary way of 
living for that distinct type of man    
which an historically traceable process 
of selection has brought together4 ,and 
this way of living reacts in its turn to
 strengthen the fundamental type4 ,other
 nations1 in whom other temperamental   
factors no less significant or potent or
 admirable are the fundamental traits1  
must find the solution of their         
political problems in other directions4 
,no gain would accrue to them from any  
mere imitation1 since it would tend to  
nothing but the crippling and estranging
 of the native genius of their people4  
,the cultivated ,american of to-day     

feels this instinctively4 ,among the    
masses1 to be sure1 the old theme is    
still sometimes broached of the         
world-wide supremacy of ,american       
ideals3 and a part of the necessary     
paraphernalia of popular assemblages    
will naturally consist in a             
reaffirmation that the duty of ,america 
is to extend its political system into  
every quarter of the globe2 other       
nations will thus be rated according to 
their ripeness for this system1 and the 
history of the world appear one long and
 happy education of the human race up to
 the plane of ,american conceptions4    
,but this tendency is inevitable and not
 to be despised4 ,it must more nearly   
concern the ,american than the citizen  
of other states to propagate his ideals1
 since here everything depends on each  
individual co-operating with all his    
might1 and this co-operation must       
succeed best when it is impelled by an  
uncritical and blindly devoted faith4   
,and such a faith arouses1 too1 a       

zealous missionary spirit1 which wants  
to carry this inspired state-craft unto 
all political heathen4 ,but the         
foreigner is apt to overestimate these  
sentiments4 ,the cultivated ,american is
 well aware that the various political  
institutions of other nations are not to
 be gauged simply as good or bad1 and   
that the ,american system would be as   
impossible for ,germany as the ,german  
system for ,america4  ,those days are   
indeed remote when philosophy tried to  
discover one intrinsically best form of 
government4 ,it is true that in the     
conflicts of diverse nations the old    
opposition of realistic and idealistic1 
of democratic and aristocratic social   
forces is repeated over and over4 ,but  
new problems are always coming up4 ,the 
ancient opposition is neutralized1 and  
the problem finds its practical solution
 in that the opposing forces deploy     
their skirmish lines in other territory4
 ,the political ideas which led to the  
,french ,revolution had been outlived by

 the middle of the nineteenth century4  
,a compromise had been effected4 ,the   
whole stress of the conflict had        
transferred itself to social problems1  
and no one earnestly discussed any more 
whether republic or monarchy was the    
better form of government4 ,the         
intellectual make-up of a people and its
 history must decide what shall be the  
outward form of its political           
institutions4 ,and it is to-day tacitly 
admitted that there are light and shade 
on either side4  ,the darker side of    
democracy1 indeed1 as of every system   
which is founded on complete            
individualism1 can be hidden from no    
one2 nor would any one be so foolish1   
even though he loved and admired        
,america1 as to deny that weaknesses and
 dangers1 and evils both secret and     
public1 do there abound4 ,those who base
 their judgments less on knowledge of   
democratic forces than on obvious and   
somewhat sentimental social prejudices  
are apt to look for the dangers in the  

wrong direction4 ,a ,german naturally   
thinks of mob-rule1 harangues of the    
demagogue1 and every form of lawlessness
 and violence4 ,but true democracy does 
not allow of such things4 ,a people that
 allows itself to turn into a mob and to
 be guided by irresponsible leaders1 is 
not capable of directing itself4        
,self-direction demands the education of
 the nation4 ,and nowhere else in the   
world is the mere demagogue so          
powerless1 and nowhere does the populace
 observe more exemplary order and       
self-discipline4  ,the essential        
weakness of such a democracy is rather  
the importance it assigns to the average
 man with his petty opinions1 which are 
sometimes right and sometimes wrong1 his
 total lack of comprehension for all    
that is great and exceptional1 his      
self-satisfied dilettanteism and his    
complacency before the accredited and   
trite in thought4 ,this is far less true
 of a republic like the ,french1 with   
its genius for scepticism1 a republic   

nourished in sthetic traditions and     
founded on the ruins of an empire4 ,the 
intellectual conditions are there quite 
different4 ,but in an ethical democracy1
 where self-direction is a serious      
issue1 domination by the average        
intelligence is inevitable2 and those   
who are truly great are the ones who    
find no scope for their powers4 ,those  
who appear great are merely men who are 
exploiting to the utmost the tendencies 
of the day4 ,there are no great         
distinctions or premiums for truly high 
achievements which do not immediately   
concern the average man1 and therefore  
the best energies of the nation are not 
spurred on to their keenest activity4   
,all ambition is directed necessarily   
toward such achievements as the common  
man can understand and compete          
for--athletic virtuosity and wealth4    
,therefore the spirit of sport and of   
money-getting concerns the people more  
nearly than art or science1 and even in 
politics the domination of the majority 

easily crowds from the arena those whose
 qualifications do not appeal to its    
mediocre taste4 ,and by as much as      
mature and capable minds withdraw from  
political life1 by so much are the      
well-intentioned masses more easily led 
astray by sharp and self-interested     
politicians and politics made to cater  
to mean instincts4 ,in short1 the danger
 is not from any wild lawlessness1 but  
from a crass philistinism4 ,the         
seditious demagogue who appeals to      
passion is less dangerous than the sly  
political wire-puller who exploits the  
indolence and indifference of the       
people2 and evil intent is less to be   
feared than dilettanteism and the       
intellectual limitations of the general 
public4  ,but1 on the other hand1 it is 
also certain that when it comes to a    
critical comparison between the         
weaknesses and theoretical dangers of   
democracy and aristocracy1 the ,american
 is at no loss to serve up a handsome   
list of shortcomings to the other side4 

,he has observed and1 perhaps           
overestimating1 he detests the spirit of
 caste1 the existence of those          
restrictions which wrongfully hamper one
 individual and as undeservedly         
advantage another4 ,again1 the ,american
 hates bureaucracy and he hates         
militarism4 ,the idea of highest        
authority being vested in a man for any 
other reason than that of his individual
 qualifications goes against all his    
convictions2 and his moral feeling knows
 no more detestable breed of man than   
the incompetent aspirant who is servile 
with his superiors and brutal to his    
inferiors4 ,it is typically             
un-,american4 ,and if1 in contrast to   
this1 one tries to do justice to the    
proved advantages of monarchy1 of       
aristocracy and the spirit of caste1 to 
justify the ruler who stands above the  
strife of parties1 and to defend that   
system of symbols by which the sentiment
 of the past is perpetuated in a people1
 and the protection which is instituted 

for all the more ideal undertakings     
which surpass the comprehension of the  
masses1 or if one urges the value of    
that high efficiency which can arise    
only from compact political             
organization--then the ,american citizen
 swells with contempt4 ,what does he    
care for all that if he loses the       
inestimable and infinite advantage which
 lies in the fact that in his state     
every individual takes an active hand1  
assumes responsibility1 and fights for  
his own ideals8 ,what outward brilliancy
 of achievement would compensate him for
 that moral value of co-operation1      
initiative1 self-discipline1 and        
responsibility1 which the poorest and   
meanest citizen enjoys8 ,it may be that 
an enlightened and well-meaning monarch 
sees to it that the least peasant can   
sit down to his chicken of a ,sunday2   
but ,god raised up the ,united ,states  
as an example to all nations1 that it   
shall be the privilege of every man to  
feel himself responsible for his town1  

county1 state1 and country1 and even for
 all mankind1 and by his own free       
initiative to work to better them4 ,the 
strife of parties would better be1 than 
that a single man should be dead to the 
welfare of his country2 and it is good  
riddance to aristocracy and plenty1 if a
 single man is to be prevented from     
emulating freely the highest that he    
knows or anywise detained from his      
utmost accomplishment4  ,all such       
speculative estimates of different      
constitutional forms lead to no result  
unless they take into account the facts 
of history4 ,every side has its good and
 evil4 ,and all such discussions are the
 less productive in that superiorities  
of constitution1 although soundly       
argued1 may or may not in any given     
country be fully made use of1 while on  
the other hand defects of constitution  
are very often obviated4 ,indeed1 to    
take an example from present tendencies 
in ,america1 nothing is more            
characteristic than the aristocratic    

by-currents through which so many       
dangers of democracy are avoided4       
,officially1 of course1 a republic must 
remain a democracy1 otherwise it mines  
its own foundations1 and yet we shall   
see that ,american social and political 
life have developed by no means along   
parallel lines but rather stand out     
often in sharp contrast4 ,the same is   
true of ,germany4 ,official ,germany is 
aristocratic and monarchic through and  
through1 and no one would wish it other2
 but the intimate life of ,germany      
becomes every day more democratic1 and  
thus the natural weaknesses of an       
aristocracy are checked by irresistible 
social counter-tendencies4 ,it may have 
been the growing wealth of ,germany     
which raised the plane of life of the   
middle classes2 or the industrial       
advance which loaned greater importance 
to manufacturer and merchant1 and took  
some social gloss from the              
office-holding class2 it may have been  
the colonial expansion which broadened  

the horizon and upset a stagnant        
equilibrium of stale opinion2 or1 again1
 the renewed efforts of those who felt  
cramped and oppressed1 the labourers1   
and1 above all1 the women2 it does not  
matter how it arose--a wave of progress 
is sweeping over that country1 and a    
political aristocracy is being infused  
with new1 democratic blood4  ,now in    
,america1 as will often appear later1   
the days are over in which all          
aristocratic tendencies were strictly   
held back4 ,the influence of            
intellectual leaders is increasing1 art1
 science1 and the ideals of the upper   
classes are continually pushing to the  
front1 and even social lines and        
stratifications are beginning more and  
more to be felt4 ,the soul of the people
 is agitated by imperialistic and       
military sentiments1 and whereas in     
former times it was bent on freeing the 
slaves it now discovers 8the white man's
 burden0 to lie in the subjugation of   
inferior races4 ,the restrictions to    

immigration are constantly being        
increased4 ,now of course all this does 
not a whit prejudice the formal         
political democracy of the land2 it is  
simply a quiet1 aristocratic complement 
to the inner workings of the            
constitution4  ,the presence1 and even  
the bare possibility1 here1 of such     
by-currents1 brings out more clearly how
 hopeless the theoretical estimation of 
any isolated form of statehood is1 if it
 neglects the factors introduced by the 
actual life of the people4 ,the         
,american democracy is not an abstractly
 superior system of which a ,european   
can approve only by becoming himself a  
republican and condemning1 incidentally1
 his own form of government3 it is      
rather1 merely1 the necessary form of   
government for the types of men and the 
conditions which are found here4 ,and   
any educated ,american of to-day fully  
realizes this4 ,no theoretical          
hair-splitting will solve the problem as
 to what is best for one or another     

country2 for that true historical       
insight is needed4 ,and even when the   
histories of two peoples are so utterly 
dissimilar as are those of ,america and 
,germany1 it by no means follows1 as the
 social by-currents just mentioned show1
 that the real spirit of the peoples    
must be unlike4 ,democratic ,america1   
with its unofficial aristocratic        
leanings1 has1 in fact1 a surprising    
kinship to monarchical ,germany1 with   
its inner workings of a true democracy4 
,the two peoples are growing into strong
 resemblance1 although their respective 
constitutions flourish and take deeper  
root4  ,the beginnings of ,american     
history showed unmistakably and         
imperatively that the government of the 
,american people must be1 in the words  
of ,lincoln1 8a government of the       
people1 by the people1 and for the      
people40 ,no one dreamed when the       
,constitution of the ,united ,states was
 framed1 some hundred and seventeen     
years ago1 that this democratic         

instrument would ever be called on to   
bind together a mighty nation extending 
from ,maine to ,california4 ,and1       
indeed1 such a territorial expansion    
would undoubtedly have stretched and    
burst the unifying bonds of this        
,constitution1 if the distance between  
,boston and ,san ,francisco had not     
meanwhile become practically shorter    
than the road from ,boston to           
,washington was in those early days4    
,but that this ,constitution could so   
adapt itself to the undreamt broadening 
of conditions1 that it could continue to
 be the mainstay of a people that was   
indefinitely extending itself by        
exchange and purchase1 conquest and     
treaty1 and that in no crisis has an    
individual or party succeeded in any    
tampering with the rights of the people2
 all this shows convincingly that the   
,american form of state was not         
arbitrarily hit on1 but that it was the 
outcome of an historical development4   
99       99       99       99       99  

,the spirit of this commonwealth was not
 first conceived in the year #aghg4 ,it 
was strong and ripe long before the     
delegates from the ,thirteen ,states    
assembled under ,washington's leadership
 in ,independence ,hall at              
,philadelphia4 ,the history of the      
,english colonists to the ,atlantic     
coast shows from the very first what    
weight they attached to the duties and  
rights of the individual1 and foretells 
as well the inevitable result1 their    
unloosing from the mother country and   
final declaration of their independence4
  ,we may consider the different lines  
of development which began early in the 
seventeenth century1 after the feeble   
attempts at colonization from ,england1 
,france and ,spain in the latter half of
 the sixteenth century had miscarried   
and left socially no traces4 ,french    
settlements flourished as early as      
#afje1 chiefly however in ,nova ,scotia 
and other parts of ,canada1 and in #afji
 settlements of ,dutch1 whose colony on 

the ,hudson ,river1 the present ,new    
,york1 soon passed over into ,english   
hands4 ,the development of the ,spanish 
colonies on the ,gulf of ,mexico went on
 outside the territory of these young   
,united ,states2 and so the story of the
 meagre years of ,america is comprised  
in the history of the ,english colonies 
alone4  ,these colonies began diversely 
but came to resemble one another more   
and more as time went on4 ,there can be 
no greater contrast than between the    
pioneer life of stout-willed men1 who   
have left their native soil in order to 
live in undisturbed enjoyment of their  
,puritan faith1 seeking to found their  
little communities on simple forms of   
self-government1 and on the other hand  
the occupation of a rich trading company
 under royal charter1 or the            
inauguration of a colony of the crown4  
,but these differences could not be     
preserved4 ,the tiny independent        
communities1 as they grew in            
consideration1 felt the need of some    

protecting power and therefore they     
looked once more to ,england2 while1 on 
the other hand1 the more powerful1      
chartered colonies tended to loose      
themselves from the mother country1     
feeling1 as they soon did1 that their   
interests could not be well administered
 from across a broad ocean4 ,in spite of
 the protecting arm of ,england1 they   
felt it to be a condition of their sound
 growth that they should manage their   
domestic affairs for themselves4 ,thus  
it happened that all the colonies alike 
were externally dependent on ,england1  
while internally they were independent  
and were being schooled in citizenship4 
,the desire for self-government as a    
factor in the transformations which went
 on can very easily be traced2 but it   
would be harder to say how far          
utilitarian and how far moral factors   
entered in4 ,virginia took the first    
step4 ,its first settlement of #afjf was
 completely subject to the king1 who    
granted homesteads but no political     

rights to the colonists4 ,it was a      
lifeless undertaking until #afji1 when  
its political status was changed4 ,the  
administration of the colony was        
entrusted to those who were interested  
in its material success4 ,it became a   
great business undertaking which had    
everything in its favour4 ,at the head  
was a ,london company1 which for a      
nominal sum had been allowed to purchase
 a strip of land having four hundred    
miles of seacoast and extending inland  
indefinitely4 ,this land contained      
inestimable natural resources1 but      
needed labour to exploit them4 ,the     
company then offered to grant homes on  
very favourable terms to settlers1      
receiving in return either cash or      
labour2 and these inducements1 together 
with the economic pressure felt by the  
lower classes at home1 brought about a  
rapid growth of the colony4 ,now since  
this colony was organized like a        
military despotism1 whose ruler1        
however1 was no less than three thousand

 miles away1 the interests of the       
company had to be represented by        
officials delegated to live in the      
colony4 ,the interests of these         
officials were of course never those of 
the colonists1 and presently1 moreover1 
unscrupulous officials commenced to     
misuse their power2 so that as a result1
 while the colony flourished1 the       
company was on the brink of failure4    
,the only way out of this difficulty was
 to concede something to the colonists  
themselves1 and harmonize their         
interests with those of the company by  
granting them the free direction of     
their own affairs4 ,it was arranged that
 every village or small city should be a
 political unit and as such should send 
two delegates to a convention which sat 
to deliberate all matters of common     
concern4 ,this body met for the first   
time in #afai2 and in a short time it   
happened1 as was to be expected1 that   
the local government felt itself to be  
stronger than the mercantile company    

back in ,london4 ,disputes arose1 and   
before five years the company had ceased
 to exist1 and ,virginia became a royal 
province4 ,but the fact remained that in
 the year #afai for the first time a    
deliberative body representing the      
people had met on ,american soil4 ,the  
first step toward freedom had been      
taken4 ,and with subtle irony fate      
decreed that in this same year of grace 
a ,dutch ship should land the first     
cargo of ,african negroes in the same   
colony1 as slaves4  ,that other form of 
political development1 which started in 
the voluntary compact of men who owned  
no other allegiance1 was first          
exemplified in the covenant of those    
hundred and two ,puritans who landed    
from the ,mayflower at ,plymouth1 in the
 year #afbj1 having forsaken ,england in
 order to enjoy religious freedom in the
 ,new ,world4 ,a storm forced them to   
land on ,cape ,cod1 where they remained 
and amid the severest hardships built up
 their little colony1 which1 as no      

other1 has been a perpetual spring of   
moral force4 ,even to-day the best men  
of the land derive their strength from  
the moral courage and earnestness of    
life of the ,pilgrims4 ,before they     
landed they signed a compact1 in which  
they declared that they had made this   
voyage 8for ye glory of ,god and        
advancement of ye ,christian faith1 and 
honour of our ,king and countrie10 and  
that now in the sight of ,god they would
 8combine 444 togeather into a civil    
body politik for our better ordering and
 preservation and furtherance of ye end 
aforesaid1 and by vertue hearof to      
enacte1 constitute and frame such just  
and equal lawes1 ordinances1 actes1     
constitutions and offices from time to  
time1 as shall be thought most meete and
 convenient for ye generall good of ye  
colonie40  ,the executive was a governor
 and his assistants1 elected annually   
from the people3 while the power to make
 laws remained with the body of male    
communicants of the church4 ,and so it  

remained for eighteen years1 until the  
growth of the colony made it hard for   
all church-members to meet together1 so 
that a simple system of popular         
representation by election had to be    
introduced4 ,this colony united later   
with a flourishing trading settlement1  
which centred about ,salem2 and these   
together formed the ,massachusetts ,bay 
,colony1 which in #afdj numbered already
 twenty thousand souls4  ,the covenant  
which was drawn up on board the         
,mayflower is to be accounted the first 
voluntary federation of independent     
,americans for the purposes of orderly  
government4 ,the first written          
constitution was drawn up in the colony 
of ,connecticut1 a colony which repeated
 essentially the successful experiments 
of ,new ,plymouth1 and which consisted  
of agricultural settlements and small   
posts for trading with the ,indians     
situated at ,windsor and ,hartford and  
other places along the ,connecticut     
,valley4 ,led by common interests1 they 

adopted in #afch a formal constitution4 
,there was still a third important type 
of colonial government1 which was at    
first thoroughly aristocratic and       
,english1 and nevertheless became       
quickly ,americanized4 ,it was the      
custom of the ,king to grant to         
distinguished men1 under provision of a 
small tribute1 almost monarchical rights
 over large tracts of land4 ,the first  
such man was ,lord ,baltimore1 who      
received in #afcb a title to the domain 
of ,maryland1 on the ,chesapeake ,bay4  
,he enjoyed the most complete princely  
prerogatives1 and pledged to the crown  
in return about a fifth part of the gold
 and silver mined in his province4 ,in  
#affd ,charles the ,second gave to his  
brother1 the ,duke of ,york1 a large    
territory1 which was soon broken up1 and
 which included what are now known as   
the ,states of ,vermont1 ,new ,jersey1  
and ,delaware4 ,the great provinces of  
,georgia and ,carolina--now ,north and  
,south ,carolina--were awarded by the   

same ,king to one of his admirals1 ,sir 
,william ,penn1 for certain services4   
,penn died1 and his son1 who found      
himself in need of the sixteen thousand 
pounds which his father had loaned to   
the ,king1 gratified that monarch by    
accepting in their stead a stretch of   
coast lands extending between the       
fortieth and forty-third degrees of     
latitude4  ,in this way extensive       
districts were turned over to the       
caprice of a few noblemen2 but          
immediately the spirit of self-direction
 took everywhere root1 and a            
social-political enthusiasm proceeded to
 shape the land according to new ideals4
 ,carolina took counsel of the          
philosopher1 ,locke1 in carrying out her
 experiment4 ,maryland1 which was       
immediately prospered with two hundred  
men of property and rank1 chiefly of    
,roman ,catholic faith1 started out with
 a general popular assembly1 and soon   
went over to the representative system4 
,and ,penn's constructive handiwork1 the

 ,quaker ,state of ,pennsylvania1 was   
intended from the first to be 8a        
consecrated experiment40 ,penn himself  
explained that he should take care so to
 arrange the politics of his colony that
 neither he himself nor his successors  
should have an opportunity to do wrong4 
,penn's enthusiasm awoke response from  
the continent3 he himself founded the   
8city of brotherly love10 ,philadelphia2
 and ,franz ,daniel ,pastorius brought  
over his colony of ,mennonites1 the     
first ,german settlers1 who took up     
their abode at ,germantown4  ,thus it   
was that the spirit of self-reliant and 
self-assertive independence took root in
 the most various soils4 ,but that which
 led the colonies to unite was not their
 common sentiments and ambitions1 but it
 was their common enemies4 ,in spite of 
the similarity of their positions there 
was no lack of sharp contrasts4 ,and    
perhaps the most striking of these was  
the opposition between the southern     
colonies1 with their languid climate1   

where the planters left all the work to 
slaves1 and the middle and northern     
provinces1 where the citizens found in  
work the inspiration of their lives4    
,the foes which bound together these    
diverse elements were the ,indians1 the 
,french1 the ,spanish1 and lastly their 
parent race1 the ,english4  ,the ,indian
 had been lord of the land until he was 
driven back by the colonists to remoter 
hunting territory4 ,the more warlike    
tribes tried repeatedly to wipe out the 
white intruder1 and constantly menaced  
the isolated settlements1 which were by 
no means a match for them4 ,soon after  
the first serious conflict in #afcf1 the
 ,pequot war1 ,rhode ,island1 which was 
a small colony of scattered settlements1
 made overtures toward a protective     
alliance with her stronger neighbours4  
,in this she was successful1 and        
together with ,massachusetts1 ,plymouth1
 ,new ,haven1 and ,connecticut1 formed  
the ,united ,colonies of ,new ,england4 
,this union was of little practical     

importance except as a first lesson to  
the colonies to avoid petty jealousies  
and to consider a closer mutual alliance
 as a possibility which would by no     
means impair the freedom and            
independence of the uniting parties4    
,the wars with the ,french colonies had 
more serious consequences4 ,the ,french1
 who were the natural enemies of all    
,english settlements1 had originally    
planted colonies only in the far north1 
in ,quebec in #afjh4 ,but during those  
decades in which the ,english wayfarers 
were making homes for themselves along  
the ,atlantic coast1 the ,french were   
migrating down from the north through   
the valley of the ,saint ,lawrence and  
along the ,great ,lakes to the          
,mississippi ,river4 ,then they pressed 
on down this stream to its mouth and    
laid title to the tremendous tracts     
which it drains1 in the name of the     
,french crown4 ,this country they called
 after ,king ,louis ,,xiv1 ,louisiana4  
,they had not come as colonists1 but    

solely with an eye to gain1 hoping to   
exploit these untouched resources in    
behalf of the ,canadian fur traffic2 and
 close on the heels of the trader came  
the ,catholic priest4 ,thus the         
territory that flanked the ,english     
colonies to inland fell into ,french    
hands1 whereas the land-grants of the   
,english crown so read that only the    
,pacific ,ocean should be the western   
boundary4 ,a collision was therefore    
inevitable1 although indeed mountains   
and virgin forests separated the        
coastland settlements from the inland   
regions of the ,mississippi where the   
,french had planted and fortified their 
trading posts4  ,when1 in #afhi1 war    
broke out in ,europe between ,england   
and ,france1 a fierce struggle began    
between their representatives in the    
,new ,world4 ,but it was not now as it  
had been in the ,indian war1 where only 
a couple of colonies were involved4 ,all
 the colonies along the coast were      
threatened by a common enemy4 ,a        

congress of delegates convened at ,new  
,york in ,april of #afij1 in which for  
the first time all the colonies were    
invited to take part4 ,three long wars  
followed4 ,the greatest advantage on the
 ,french side was that from the first   
they had been on good terms with the    
,indians1 whose aid they were now able  
to enlist4 ,but the ,french were        
numerically weak1 and received but      
little assistance from their mother     
country4 ,when in #agff the last great  
war broke out the ,english colonies had 
a population of a million and a quarter1
 while the ,french had only a tenth as  
many4 ,chiefly and finally1 the ,english
 colonists were actual settlers1        
hardened and matured through carrying   
the responsibilities of their young     
state1 and fighting for hearth and home2
 the ,french were either traders or     
soldiers4 ,the principle of free        
government was destined on this         
continent to triumph4 ,washington1 then 
a young man1 led the fight2 the ,english

 ,secretary of ,state1 ,william ,pitt1  
did everything in his power to aid2 and 
the victory was complete4 ,by the treaty
 of #agfc all ,french possessions east  
of the ,mississippi were given to       
,england1 with the exception of ,new    
,orleans1 which1 together with the      
,french possessions west of the         
,mississippi1 went to ,spain4 ,spain    
meanwhile ceded ,florida to ,england4   
,thus the entire continent was divided  
between ,england and ,spain4  ,but the  
,seven ,years ,war had not merely       
altered the map of ,america2 it had been
 an instructive lesson to the colonists4
 ,they had learned that their fortunes  
were one2 that their own generals and   
soldiers were not inferior to any which 
,england could send over2 and lastly1   
they had come to see that ,england      
looked at the affairs of the colonies   
strictly from the point of view of her  
own gain4 ,herewith was opened up a new 
prospect for the future3 the ,french no 
longer threatened and everything this   

side of the ,mississippi stood open to  
them and promised huge resources4 ,what 
need had they to depend further on the  
,english throne8 ,the spirit of         
self-direction could now consistently   
come forward and dictate the last move4 
,it is true that the colonists were     
still faithful ,english subjects1 and in
 spite of their independent ambitions   
they took it for granted that ,england  
would always direct their foreign       
policy1 would have the right to veto    
such laws as they passed1 and that the  
,english governors would always be      
recognized as official authorities4 ,but
 now the ,english ,parliament planned   
certain taxations that were the occasion
 of serious dispute4 ,the ,thirteen     
,colonies1 which in the meantime had    
grown to be a population of two million1
 had by their considerable war          
expenditures shown to the               
debt-encumbered ,britons the thriving   
condition of colonial trade4 ,and the   
latter were soon ready with a plan to   

lay a part of the public taxation on the
 ,americans4 ,it was not in itself      
unfair to demand of the colonies some   
contribution to the public treasury1    
since many of the expenditures were     
distinctly for their benefit2 and yet it
 must have seemed extraordinary to these
 men who had been forced from childhood 
to shift for themselves1 and who        
believed the doctrine of self-government
 to be incontrovertible4 ,they objected 
to paying taxes to a ,parliament in     
which they had no representation2 and   
the phrase1 8no taxation without        
representation10 became the motto of the
 hour4  ,the ,stamp ,tax1 which         
prescribed the use of revenue stamps on 
all ,american documents and newspapers1 
was received with consternation1 and    
societies called the ,sons of ,freedom  
were formed throughout the land to      
agitate against this innovation4 ,the   
,stamp ,tax ,congress1 which met in ,new
 ,york in #agfe1 repudiated the law in  
outspoken terms4 ,nor did it halt with a

 mere expression of opinion2 the spirit 
of self-direction was not to be molested
 with impunity4 ,close on the resolve   
not to observe the law1 came the further
 agreement to buy no ,english           
merchandise4 ,england had to waive the  
,stamp ,tax1 but endless mutterings and 
recriminations followed which increased 
the bitterness4 ,both sides were ripe   
for war when1 in #aggj1 ,england issued 
a proclamation laying a tax on all tea  
imported to the colonies4 ,the citizens 
of ,boston became enraged and pitched an
 ,english ship-load of tea into the     
harbour4 ,thereupon ,england1 equally   
aroused1 proceeded to punish ,boston by 
passing measures designed to ruin the   
commerce of ,boston and indeed all      
,massachusetts4 ,the ,thirteen ,colonies
 took sides with ,massachusetts and a   
storm became imminent4 ,the first battle
 was fought on the #aith of ,april1     
#agge2 and on ,july #dth1 #aggf1 the    
,thirteen ,colonies declared their      
independence of ,england4 ,henceforth   

there were to be no colonies but in     
their place thirteen free states4  ,the 
,declaration of ,independence was       
composed by ,jefferson1 a ,virginian1   
and is a remarkable document4 ,the      
spirit that informs it is found in the  
following lines3 8,we hold these truths 
to be self-evident1 that all men are    
created equal2 that they are endowed by 
their ,creator with certain unalienable 
rights2 that among these are life1      
liberty1 and the pursuit of happiness4  
,that to secure these rights1           
governments are instituted among men1   
deriving their just powers from the     
consent of the governed44440 ,the sins  
of the ,english king and people against 
,america are enumerated at length1 and  
in solemn language the ,united ,states  
of ,america are declared independent of 
the ,english people1 who are henceforth 
to be as 8the rest of mankind1 enemies  
in war1 in peace friends40 ,this        
,declaration was signed by delegates    
from the states in ,independence ,hall1 

in ,philadelphia1 where hung the famous 
bell1 with its inscription1 8,proclaim  
liberty throughout all the land1 unto   
all the inhabitants thereof40  ,the     
spirit of self-direction had triumphed2 
but the dangers were by no means wholly 
passed4 ,england sent over no more      
governors1 and had indeed been repulsed2
 but she had as yet no intention of     
giving in4 ,the war dragged on for five 
long years1 and the outcome was         
uncertain until in #agha ,cornwallis was
 brought to surrender4 ,then ,england   
knew that she had lost the contest4 ,the
 king desired still to prolong the war1 
but the people were tired of it and1 the
 ministry having finally to yield1 peace
 was declared in ,april of the year     
#aghc4 ,this was no assurance of an     
harmonious future1 however4 ,that       
solidarity which the colonies had felt  
in the face of a common enemy now gave  
way to petty jealousies and oppositions1
 and the inner weakness of the new      
,union was revealed4 ,in itself the     

,union had no legal authority over the  
several states1 and while during the war
 the affairs of the country had fallen  
into disorder1 yet the ,union had no    
power to conduct foreign diplomacy or   
even to collect customs4  ,it was rather
 in their zeal for self-direction that  
at first considerable portions of the   
population seemed disinclined to enlarge
 the authority of the central           
organization4 ,self-direction begins    
with the individual or some group of    
individuals4 ,the true self-direction of
 society as a whole was not to be       
allowed to encroach on the rights of the
 individual1 and this was the danger    
feared4 ,each state1 with its separate  
interests and powers1 would not give up 
its autonomy in favour of an impersonal 
central power which might easily come to
 tyrannize over the single state in much
 the same way as the hated ,english     
throne had done4 ,and yet the best men  
of the country were brought at length   
more and more to the opposite view2 a   

strong central authority1 in which the  
states as a whole should become a larger
 self-directing unit1 carrying out and  
ensuring the self-direction of the      
component members1 was seen to be a     
necessity4 ,another congress of         
representatives from all the states was 
convened in ,independence ,hall1 at     
,philadelphia1 and this body of         
uncommonly able men sat for months      
deliberating ways by which the opposing 
factions of federalism and              
anti-federalism could be brought        
together in a satisfactory alliance4 ,it
 was obvious that compromises would have
 to be made4 ,so1 for instance1 it was  
conceded that the smallest state1 like  
the largest1 should be represented in   
the senate by two delegates3 and the    
single state enjoyed many other rights  
not usual in a federation4 ,but1 on the 
other hand1 it was equally certain that 
the chief executive must be a single man
 with a firm will1 and that this office 
must be refilled at frequent intervals  

by a popular election4 ,a few had       
tentatively suggested making ,washington
 king1 but he stood firm against any    
such plan4 ,the republican form of      
government was in this instance no      
shrewdly devised system which was       
adopted for the sake of nicely spun     
theoretical advantages--it was the      
necessity of the time and place1 the    
natural culmination of a whole movement4
 ,it was as absolutely necessary as the 
consolidation of the ,german states1    
eighty years later1 under an imperial   
crown4 ,the congress eventually         
submitted a constitutional project to   
the several state legislatures1 for     
their summary approval or rejection4    
,whereon the anti-federalistic factions 
made a final effort1 but were outvoted1 
and the ,constitution was adopted4 ,in  
#aghi ,george ,washington was elected   
the first president of the ,united      
,states4  ,it would take a lively       
partisan to assert1 as one sometimes    
does1 that this ,constitution is the    

greatest achievement of human intellect1
 and yet the severest critics have      
acknowledged that a genius for          
statesmanship is displayed in its text4 
,penned in an age which was given over  
to bombastic declamation1 this document 
lays down the fundamental lines of the  
new government with great clearness and 
simplicity4 8,we1 the people of the     
,united ,states10 it begins1 8in order  
to form a more perfect union1 establish 
justice1 insure domestic tranquillity1  
provide for the common defence1 promote 
the general welfare1 and secure the     
blessings of liberty to ourselves and   
our posterity1 do ordain and establish  
this ,constitution for the ,united      
,states of ,america40 ,this is the      
entire introduction4 ,the contents come 
under seven articles4 ,the first article
 provides for the making of laws1 this  
power to be vested in a ,congress       
consisting of a ,senate and ,house of   
,representatives2 for the business and  
daily routine of this ,congress1 as well

 as its powers and obligations4 ,the    
second article provides for the         
executive power1 to be vested in the    
person of the ,president1 who is elected
 every fourth year2 the third article   
provides for a judiciary2 the fourth    
defines the mutual relations of separate
 states2 and the last three articles    
concern the adoption of the             
,constitution and the conditions under  
which it may be amended4  ,the need of  
amendments and extensions to this       
,constitution was foreseen and provided 
for4 ,how profoundly the original       
document comprehended and expressed the 
genius of the ,american people may be   
seen from the fact that during a century
 which saw an unexampled growth of the  
country and an undreamed-of             
transformation of its foreign policy1   
not a single great principle of the     
,constitution was modified4 ,after      
seventy-seven years one important       
paragraph was added1 prohibiting        
slavery2 and this change was made at a  

tremendous cost of blood4 ,otherwise the
 few amendments have been insignificant 
and concerned matters of expediency or  
else1 and more specially1 further       
formulations of what1 according to      
,american conceptions1 are the rights of
 the individual4 ,although the original 
,constitution did not contain a formal  
proclamation of religious freedom1      
freedom of speech1 of the press1 and of 
public assemblage1 this was not because 
those who signed the document did not   
believe in these things1 but because    
they had not aimed to make of the       
,constitution of the ,union either a    
treatise on ethics or yet a book of law4
 ,but as early as #aghi the states      
insisted that all the rights of the     
individual1 as endorsed by the national 
ideals1 should be incorporated in the   
articles of this document4 ,in the year 
#ahgj one more tardy straggler was added
 to the list of human rights1 the last  
amendment2 the right of the citizens to 
vote was not to be abridged on account  

of race1 colour1 or previous condition  
of servitude4  ,of the other amendments1
 the tenth had been tacitly assumed from
 the first year of the ,republic2 this  
was that 8,the powers not delegated to  
the ,united ,states by the              
,constitution1 nor prohibited by it to  
the ,states1 are reserved to the ,states
 respectively1 or to the people40 ,this 
principle also was surely in no way at  
variance with the spirit of the original
 document4 ,it was1 indeed1 the lever   
that ensured the great efficacy of the  
,constitution1 so that by its provisions
 the centrifugal forces were never      
disturbed by centripetal ones2 an       
equilibrium was effected between the    
tendencies that made for unity and those
 that made against it1 in such a way    
that the highest efficiency was ensured 
to the whole while the fullest          
encouragement was given to the          
enterprise and initiative of the parts4 
,in no direction1 probably1 would an    
improvement have been possible4 ,more   

authority concentrated at the head would
 have impeded general activity1 and less
 would have lost the advantages of      
concerted action2 in neither case would 
material growth or the reconciliation of
 conflicting opinions have been         
possible4 ,constant compensation of old 
forces and the quickening of new ones   
were the secret of this documented      
power1 and yet it was only the complete 
expression of the spirit of             
self-direction1 which demands           
unremittingly that the nation as a whole
 shall conduct itself without           
encroaching on the freedom of the       
individual1 and that the individual     
shall be free to go his own ways without
 interfering with the unfettered policy 
of the nation4  ,under the auspices of  
this ,constitution the country waxed and
 throve4 ,as early as #ahjc its land    
area was doubled by the accession of    
,louisiana1 which had been ceded by     
,spain to ,france1 and was now purchased
 from ,napoleon for fifteen million     

dollars--an event of such far-reaching  
importance that the people of ,st4      
,louis have not inappropriately invited 
the nations of the earth to participate 
in a ,louisiana ,purchase ,exposition4  
,in #ahde ,texas was taken into the     
,union1 it having broken away from      
,mexico just previously and constituted 
itself an independent state4 ,the large 
region on the ,pacific slope known as   
,oregon came in #ahdf to the ,united    
,states by treaty with ,england1 and    
when finally1 in #ahdg1 after the war   
with ,mexico1 ,new ,mexico and          
,california became the spoils of the    
victor and in #ahfg ,russia relinquished
 ,alaska1 the domain of the country was 
found to have grown from its original   
size of #cbd1jjj square miles to one of 
#c1fjj1jjj4 ,the thirteen states had    
become forty-five1 since the newly      
acquired lands had to be divided4 ,but  
all this growth brought no alteration in
 the ,constitution1 whose spirit of     
self-direction1 rather1 had led to this 

magnificent development1 had fortified  
and secured the country1 and inspired it
 with energy and contentment4 ,the      
population also has grown under this    
benevolent ,constitution4 ,millions have
 flocked hither to seek and to find     
prosperity on this new and inexhaustible
 soil4 ,the area has increased tenfold1 
but the population twenty-fold2 and the 
newcomers have been disciplined in the  
school of self-direction and educated to
 the spirit of ,american citizenship4   
99       99       99       99       99  
,there is a certain kind of character   
which must be developed in this school4 
,it is true1 of course1 that there is no
 one model which just fits every one1   
the native-born ,yankee as well as the  
,european immigrant1 the farmer as well 
as the resident in cities4 ,the         
,irish-,american is not the             
,german-,american1 nor is the ,new      
,englander like the ,virginian1 nor the 
son of the ,east like his brother in the
 ,west4 ,the infinite shadings of       

personal character1 temperament1 and    
capacity which nature has produced1     
have1 of course1 not been lost4 ,and1   
nevertheless1 just as the human race in 
,america has begun to differentiate into
 a species which is anthropologically   
distinct1 and this partly under the     
influence of the climate since the      
species has several characters in common
 with the aboriginal ,indian1 so also in
 the moral atmosphere of this           
body-politic a distinct type of human   
character is undoubtedly being evolved2 
and one may note with perpetual surprise
 how little the other great divisions of
 social life1 as of rich and poor1      
cultivated and ignorant1 native-born and
 immigrant1 manual labourer and         
brain-worker--how little these          
differentiate the ,american citizen in  
his political capacity4 ,of course only 
the political life is in question here2 
that new groupings and divisions are    
being continually formed in the         
economic1 intellectual1 and social life 

need not concern us for the present4 ,in
 the individual it may not be easy to   
follow the threads through the tissue of
 his psychic motions1 but in the        
abstract and schematic picture of the   
type it is by no means impossible to    
trace them out4  ,what is it1 then1     
which the ,american has gotten from his 
training8 ,many and apparently unrelated
 lessons are taught in the school of    
self-direction1 and perhaps none of them
 are without their dangers4 ,for it is  
here not a matter of theoretical        
knowledge1 which may be remembered or   
forgotten and may be well or ill        
selected1 but which in itself involves  
no scale of excellence and1 therefore1  
has no need to be tempered or           
restrained4 ,theoretical knowledge      
cannot be overdone or exaggerated into  
untruth4 ,but the practical conduct     
which is here in question is different2 
it involves an ideal1 and in such a way 
that a man may not only misapprehend or 
forget what is the best course of       

action1 but also he may err in following
 it1 he may give it undue place and so  
neglect opposing motives which in their 
place are no less requisite4 ,in short1 
conduct1 unlike knowledge1 demands a    
fine tact and unflagging discernment for
 the fitness of things4 ,in this sense  
it cannot be denied that the teaching of
 ,american democracy is itself the      
source of serious errors1 and that the  
typical ,american citizen is by no means
 free from the failings of his virtues4 
,his fundamental traits may be briefly  
sketched1 and from the excellencies     
which he strives for many of his defects
 can be understood4  ,there is1 firstly1
 a group of closely related impulses1   
which springs from the ,american's      
unbounded belief in his own strength1 a 
trait which in the last analysis must   
be1 of course1 the foundation-stone of  
any doctrine of self-direction4 ,he will
 not wait for others to look out for    
him1 counsel him1 or take cognizance of 
his interests1 but relies wholly on his 

own judgment and his own strength1 and  
believes no goal too high for his       
exertions to attain4 ,every true        
,american will have found in himself    
some trace of this spirit4 ,each day of 
his life has suggested it to him1 and   
all the institutions of his country have
 reinforced the teaching4 ,its most     
immediate result is such a strength of  
initiative as no other people on earth  
possesses1 an optimism1 a self-reliance 
and feeling of security which contribute
 more than half to his success4 ,faint  
heart is not in the ,american's         
dictionary4 ,individual1 corporation1 or
 country may be undecided1 and dispute  
whether a certain end is desirable or   
whether a certain means is best to a    
given end1 but no one ever doubts or    
goes into his work with misgivings lest 
his strength be not enough to traverse  
the road and reach the goal4 ,and such  
an attitude encourages every man to     
exert himself to the utmost4 ,the spirit
 of self-direction is here closely      

allied with that self-initiative which  
is the mainspring of the economic life  
of ,america4 ,but the initiative and    
optimistic resolution shown in the      
political arena astonish the stranger   
more than the same traits displayed in  
the economic field4 ,it is shown in the 
readiness for argument1 in which every  
one can express himself accurately and  
effectively2 in the indefatigable demand
 that every public office shall be open 
to the humblest incumbent1 and in the   
cool assurance with which thousands and 
thousands of persons1 without any       
technical knowledge or professional     
training1 assume the most exacting      
political offices1 and become           
postmasters1 mayors1 ministers and      
ambassadors1 without even pausing before
 their grave responsibilities4 ,but most
 of all1 ,american initiative is shown  
in the structure of all her             
institutions1 great or small1 which     
minimizes transitions and degrees       
between higher and lower1 and so        

facilitates the steady advance of the   
individual4 ,each and all must have the 
chance to unfold and there must be no   
obstacles to hinder the right ambition  
from its utmost realization4 ,every     
impulse must be utilized2 and however   
far toward the periphery a man may be   
born he must have the right of pressing 
forward to the centre4 ,the strength of 
this nation lies at the periphery1 and  
the ,american government would never    
have advanced so unerringly from success
 to success if every village stable-lad 
and city messenger-boy had not known    
with pride that it depends only on      
himself if he is not to become          
,president of the ,united ,states4  ,but
 the transition is easy and not well    
marked from such strength to a          
deplorable weakness4 ,the spirit of     
initiative and optimism is in danger of 
becoming inexcusable arrogance as to    
one's abilities and sad underestimation 
of the value of professional training4  
,dilettanteism is generally             

well-meaning1 often successful1 and     
sometimes wholly admirable2 but it is   
always dangerous4 ,when brawny young    
factory-hands sit on a school committee1
 sturdy tradesmen assume direction of a 
municipal postal service1 bankers become
 speakers in legislature1 and           
journalists shift over to be cabinet    
ministers1 the general citizen may      
sometimes find cold comfort in knowing  
that the public service is not roped off
 from private life1 nor like to become  
effete through stale traditions4 ,it is 
very evident that ,america is to-day    
making a great effort to ward off the   
evils of amateurish incompetence and    
give more prominence to the man of      
special training4 ,and yet it cannot be 
denied that very noticeably in the      
intellectual make-up of the ,american   
his free initiative and easy optimism   
are combined with a readiness to        
overestimate his own powers and with a  
bias for dilettanteism4  ,another       
psychological outcome of this           

individualism seems inevitable4 ,when   
every member of a nation feels called on
 to pass judgment on all subjects for   
himself1 it will come about that public 
opinion reaches an uncommonly high mean 
level1 but it will also happen that the 
greatest intellects are not recognized  
as being above this mean4 ,the genius1  
who in his day is always                
incomprehensible to the masses1 goes to 
waste2 and the man who sees beyond the  
vulgar horizon fights an uphill battle4 
,the glittering successes are for the   
man whose doings impress the multitude1 
and this fact is necessarily reflected  
in the mind of the aspirant1 who        
unconsciously shapes his ambitions to   
the taste of the many rather than of the
 best4 ,wherever the spirit of          
initiative possesses all alike1 a truly 
great individual is of course           
insufferable2 any great advance must be 
a collective movement1 and the best     
energies of the country must be futilely
 expended in budging the masses4 ,it is 

no accident that ,america has still     
produced no great world genius4 ,and    
this is the other side of the vaunted   
and truthful assertion1 that whenever in
 a ,new ,england town a question is     
brought to an open debate1 the number of
 those who will take a lively1 earnest1 
orderly1 and intelligent part in the    
discussion is perhaps greater in        
proportion to the total number of       
inhabitants than in any place in        
,europe4  ,this leads us to a second    
consequence of the desire for           
self-direction4 ,it stimulates not only 
initiative and self-reliance1 but also  
the consciousness of duty4 ,if a man    
earnestly believes that the subject must
 also be potentate1 he will not try to  
put off his responsibilities on any one 
else but will forthwith set himself to  
work1 and prescribe as well his own due 
restrictions4 ,if a neighbourhood or    
club1 town1 city1 or state1 or yet the  
whole federation sees before it some    
duty1 the ,american will not be found   

waiting for a higher authority to stir  
him up1 for he is himself that          
authority2 his vote it is which         
determines all who are to figure in the 
affair4 ,wherefore he is constrained by 
the whole system to an earnest and      
untiring co-operation in everything4    
,this is not the superficial politics of
 the ale-house1 with its irresponsible  
bandying of yeas and nays4 ,when        
,secretary of the ,navy under           
,mc,kinley1 ,mr4 ,long said that when   
the cabinet at ,washington was in       
conference1 every member was of course  
better posted on the matter than the    
average citizen2 but that nevertheless a
 dozen villagers1 say in northern       
,maine1 would read their ,new ,york and 
,boston papers and talk over the affairs
 with as much intelligence and as good a
 comprehension of the points at issue as
 would appear at any cabinet debates4   
,this was by no means meant as a        
reflection on his colleagues of the     
cabinet1 but as a frank recognition of  

an aspect of ,american life which       
invariably surprises the foreigner4 ,one
 needs only to recall the discussion    
which preceded the last presidential    
election1 and more especially the one   
preceding that2 the silver question was 
the great issue1 and evening after      
evening hundreds of thousands listened  
to technical arguments in finance such  
as no ,european orator could hope to lay
 before a popular assembly4 ,huge       
audiences followed with rapt attention  
for hours lectures on the most difficult
 points of international monetary       
standards4 ,and this intellectual       
seriousness springs from the feeling of 
personal responsibility which is        
everywhere present4 ,the ,european is   
always astonished at the exemplary      
demeanour of an ,american crowd2 how on 
public occasions great multitudes of men
 and women regulate their movements     
without any noticeable interference by  
the police1 how the great transportation
 companies operate with almost no       

surveillance of the public1 trusting    
each person to do his part1 and how in  
general the whole social structure is   
based on mutual confidence to a degree  
which is nowhere the case in ,europe4   
,the feeling that the ruler and the     
ruled are one pervades all activities1  
and its consequences are felt far beyond
 the political realm4 ,especially in the
 social sphere it makes for self-respect
 among the lower classes2 they adapt    
themselves readily to discipline1 for at
 the same time they feel themselves to  
be the masters2 and the dignity of their
 position is the best security for their
 good behaviour4  ,but here1 too1       
excellence has its defects4 ,where every
 one is so intensely aware of an        
identity between political authority and
 political subject1 it is hard for the  
feeling of respect for any person       
whatsoever to find root4 ,the feeling of
 equality will crop out where nature    
designed none1 as for instance between  
youth and mature years4 ,a certain lack 

of respect appears in the family and    
goes unpunished because superficially it
 corresponds to the political system of 
the land4 ,parents even make it a       
principle to implore and persuade their 
children1 holding it to be a mistake to 
compel or punish them2 and they believe 
that the schools should be conducted in 
the same spirit4 ,and thus young men and
 women grow up without experiencing the 
advantages of outer constraint or       
discipline4  ,hitherto we have          
considered only those intellectual      
factors derived from the spirit of      
self-direction which bear on the will of
 the individual1 his rights and duties2 
but these factors are closely bound up  
with the others which concern the rights
 and privileges of one's neighbour4 ,we 
may sketch these briefly4 ,deeply as he 
feels his own rights1 the ,american is  
not less conscious of those of his      
neighbour4 ,he does not forget that his 
neighbour may not be molested and must  
have every opportunity for development  

and the pursuit of his ambitions1 and   
this without scrutiny or supervision4   
,he recognizes the other's equal voice  
and influence in public affairs1 his    
equally sincere sense of duty and       
fidelity to it4 ,this altruism expresses
 itself variously in practical life4    
,firstly1 in a complete subordination to
 the majority4 ,in ,america the         
dissenting minority displays remarkable 
discipline1 and if the majority has     
formally taken action1 one hears no     
grumbling or quibbling from the         
discontented1 whether among boys at play
 or men who have everything at stake4   
,the outvoiced minority is              
self-controlled and good-natured and    
ready at once to take part in the work  
which the majority has laid out2 and    
herein lies one of the clearest results 
of the ,american system and one of the  
superior traits of ,american character4 
,closely related to this is another     
trait which lends to ,american life much
 of its intrinsic worth--the            

unconditional insistence in any         
competition on equal rights for both    
sides4 ,the demand for 8fair play0      
dominates the whole ,american people1   
and shapes public opinion in all matters
 whether large or small4 ,and with this1
 finally1 goes the belief in the        
self-respect and integrity of one's     
neighbour4 ,the ,american cannot        
understand how ,europeans so often      
reinforce their statements with explicit
 mention of their honour which is at    
stake1 as if the hearer is likely to    
feel a doubt about it2 and even         
,american children are often apt to     
wonder at young people abroad who       
quarrel at play and at once suspect one 
another of some unfairness4 ,the        
,american system does not wait for years
 of discretion to come before exerting  
its influence2 it makes itself felt in  
the nursery1 where already the word of  
one child is never doubted by his       
playmates4  ,here too1 however1 the     
brightest light will cast a shadow4     

,every intelligent ,american is somewhat
 sadly aware that the vote of a majority
 is no solution of a problem1 and he    
realizes oftener than he will admit that
 faith in the majority is pure nonsense 
if theoretical principles are at issue4 
,this is a system which compels him     
always where a genius is required to    
substitute a committee1 and to abide by 
the majority vote4 ,the very theory of  
unlimited opportunity has its obvious   
dangers arising1 here as everywhere1    
from extremes of feeling and so         
exaggeration of the principle4 ,the     
recognition of another's rights leads   
naturally to a sympathy for the weaker1 
which is as often as not unjustified1   
and easily runs over into               
sentimentalism1 not to say an actual    
hysteria of solicitude4 ,and this is in 
fact a phase of public opinion which    
stands in striking contrast to the      
exuberant health of the nation4 ,what is
 even worse1 the ever-sensitive desire  
not to interfere in another's rights    

leads to the shutting of one's eyes and 
letting the other do what he likes1 even
 if it is unjust4 ,and in this way a    
situation is created which encourages   
the unscrupulous and rewards rascality4 
,for a long time the blackest spot on   
,american life1 specially in the opinion
 of ,german critics1 has been the       
corruption in municipal and other       
politics4 ,we need not now review the   
facts4 ,it is enough to point out that a
 comparison with conditions in ,germany1
 say1 is entirely misleading if it is   
supposed to yield conclusions as to the 
moral character of the ,american people4
 ,unscrupulous persons who are keen for 
plunder1 are to be found everywhere2    
merely the conditions under which the   
,german public service has developed and
 now maintains itself make it almost    
impossible for a reprobate of that sort 
to force his entrance4 ,and if a ,german
 official were discovered in dishonest  
practices it would be1 in fact1         
discrediting to the people4 ,in ,america

 the situation is almost reversed4 ,the 
conditions on which1 according to the   
,american system1 the lesser officials  
secure their positions1 specially in    
municipal governments1 and the many     
chances of enriching oneself unlawfully 
and yet without liability to arrest1    
while the regular remuneration and above
 all the social dignity of the positions
 are relatively small1 drive away the   
better elements of the population and   
draw on the inferior4 ,the charge       
against the ,americans1 then1 should not
 be that they make dishonest officials1 
but that they permit a system which     
allows dishonest persons to become      
officials4 ,this is truly a serious     
reproach1 yet it is not a charge of     
contemptible dishonesty but of          
inexcusable complacency2 and this       
springs from the national weakness of   
leniency toward one's neighbour1 a trait
 which comes near to being a fundamental
 democratic virtue4 ,it cannot be       
denied1 moreover1 that the whole nation 

is earnestly and successfully working to
 overcome this difficulty4  ,the        
denunciations of the daily papers1      
however1 must not be taken as an        
indication of this1 for the uncurbed    
,american press makes the merest        
unfounded suspicion an occasion for     
sensational accusations4 ,any one who   
has compared in recent years the records
 of unquestionably impartial judicial   
processes with the charges which had    
previously been made in the papers1 must
 be very sceptical as to the hue and cry
 of corruption4 ,even municipal politics
 are much better than they are painted4 
,the easiest way of overcoming every    
evil would be to remove the public      
service from popular and party          
influences1 but this is1 of course1 not 
feasible since it would endanger the    
most cherished prerogatives of          
individualism4 ,besides1 the ,american  
is comforted about his situation because
 he knows that just this direct         
efficiency of the people's will is the  

surest means of thoroughly uprooting the
 evil as soon as it becomes really      
threatening4 ,he may be patient or      
indifferent too long1 but if he is once 
aroused he finds in his system a strong 
and ready instrument for suddenly       
overturning an administration and       
putting another in its stead4 ,moreover1
 if corruption becomes too unblushing an
 8educational campaign0 is always in    
order4 ,james ,bryce1 who is of all     
,europeans the one most thoroughly      
acquainted with ,american party         
politics1 gives his opinion1 that the   
great mass of civil officials in the    
,united ,states is no more corrupt than 
that of ,england or ,germany4 ,an       
,american would add1 however1 that they 
excel their ,european rivals in a better
 disposition and greater readiness to be
 of service4  ,but the situation is     
complicated by still another tendency   
which makes the fight for clean and     
disinterested politics difficult4 ,the  
spirit of self-direction involves a     

political philosophy which is based on  
the individual2 and the whole           
commonwealth has no other meaning than  
an adding up of the rights of separate  
individuals1 so that every proposal must
 benefit some individual or other if it 
is to commend itself for adoption4 ,now 
since the state is a collection of      
numberless individuals and the law      
merely a pledge between them all1 the   
honour of the state and the majesty of  
the law do not attach to a well         
organized and peculiarly exalted        
collective will1 which stands above the 
individual4 ,such a thing would seem to 
an individualist a hollow abstraction1  
for state and law consist only in the   
rights and responsibilities of such as  
he4 ,from this more or less explicitly  
formulated conception of political life 
there accrue to society both advantages 
and dangers4 ,the advantages are        
obvious3 the ,mephistophelian saying1   
8,vernunft wird ,unsinn1 ,wohltat       
,plage10 becomes unthinkable1 since the 

body-politic is continually tested and  
held in check by the lively interests of
 individuals4 ,any obvious injustice can
 be righted1 for above the common weal  
stands the great army of individuals by 
whom and for whom both state and law    
were made4  ,but the disadvantages      
follow as well4 ,if state and law are   
only a mutual restraint agreed on       
between individuals1 the feeling of     
restraint becomes lively in proportion  
as the particular individuals in        
question can be pointed to1 but         
vanishingly weak when1 in a more        
intangible way1 the abstract totality   
requires allegiance4 ,so one finds the  
finest feeling for justice in cases of  
obligation to an individual1 as in      
contracts1 for instance1 and the minimum
 sense of right where the duty is toward
 the state4 ,there is no country of     
,europe where the sense of individual   
right so pervades all classes of the    
inhabitants1 a fact which stands in no  
wise contradictory to the other         

prevalent tendency of esteeming too     
lightly one's righteous obligations to  
city or state4 ,men who1 in the         
interests of their corporations1 try to 
influence in irregular ways the         
professional politicians in the         
legislatures1 observe nevertheless in   
private life the most rigid principles  
of right2 and many a one who could      
safely be trusted by the widows and     
orphans of his city with every cent     
which they own1 would still be very apt 
to make a false declaration of his      
taxable property4  ,there is a parallel 
case in the sphere of criminal law4     
,possibly even more than the abuses of  
,american municipal politics1 the crimes
 of lynch courts have brought down the  
condemnation of the civilized world4    
,corruption and 8lynch justice0 are     
usually thought of as the two blemishes 
on the nation1 and it is from them that 
the casual observer in ,europe gets a   
very unfavourable impression of the     
,american conception of justice4 ,we    

have already tried to rectify this      
estimate in so far as it includes       
corruption1 and as regards lynching it  
is perhaps even more in error4 ,lynch   
violence is of course not to be excused4
 ,crime is crime2 and the social        
psychologist is interested only in      
deciding what rubric to put it under4   
,now the entire development of lynch    
action shows that it is not the wanton  
violence of men who have no sense of    
right1 but rather the frenzied          
fulfillment of that which we have termed
 the individualistic conception of      
justice4 ,the typical case of lynching  
is found1 of course1 in ,southern       
,states with a considerable negro       
population4 ,a negro will have attempted
 violence on a white woman1 whereon all 
the white men of the neighbourhood1     
assuming that through the influence of  
his fellow negroes the criminal would   
not be duly convicted1 or else feeling  
that the regular legal penalty would not
 suffice to deter others from the same  

crime1 violently seize the culprit from 
out the jurisdiction of the law1 and    
after a summary popular trial hang him4 
,but these are not men who are merely   
seeking a victim to their brutal        
instinct for murder4 ,it is reported    
that after the deed1 when the horrid    
crime has been horribly expiated1 the   
participants will quietly and almost    
solemnly shake one another by the hand  
and disperse peacefully to their homes1 
as if they had fulfilled a sacred       
obligation of citizenship4 ,these are   
men imbued with the individualistic     
notion of society1 confident that law is
 not a thing whose validity extends     
beyond themselves1 but something which  
they have freely framed and adopted1 and
 which they both may and must annul or  
disregard as soon as the conditions     
which made it necessary are altered4 ,it
 is a matter of course that such        
presumption is abhorred and condemned in
 the more highly civilized states of the
 ,union1 also by the better classes in  

the ,southern ,states2 and a lyncher is 
legally a murderer4 ,his deed1 however1 
is not to be referred psychologically to
 a deficient sense of justice4 ,that    
which is the foundation of this sense1  
resentment at an infringement of the    
individual's rights and belief in the   
connection between sin and expiation1   
are all too vividly realized in his     
soul4  ,we have dwelt on these two      
offshoots of the individualistic idea of
 law because they have been used        
constantly to distort the true picture  
of ,american character4 ,rightly        
understood1 psychologically1 these      
phenomena are seen to be black and ugly 
incidents1 which have little to do with 
the national consciousness of right and 
honour2 they are the regrettable        
accompaniments of an extreme            
individualism1 which in its turn1 to be 
sure1 grows naturally out of the        
doctrine of self-direction4 ,every      
,american knows that it is one of the   
most sacred duties of the land to fight 

against these abuses1 and yet the       
foreigner should not be deceived into   
thinking1 because so and so many negroes
 are informally disposed of each year1  
and the politicians of ,philadelphia or 
,chicago continue to stuff their pockets
 with spoils in ways which are legally  
unpunishable1 that the ,american is not 
thoroughly informed with a respect for  
law4 ,he has not taken his instruction  
in the system of self-direction in vain4
 ,and the ,german who estimates the tone
 of political life in ,america by the   
corruption and lynch violence narrated  
in the daily papers1 is like the        
,american who makes up his opinion of   
the ,german army1 as he sometimes does1 
from the harangues of social democrats  
on the abuses of military officers1 or  
from sensational disclosures of small   
garrisons on the frontier4  ,one more   
trait must be mentioned1 finally1 which 
is characteristic of every              
individualistic community1 and which1   
having been impressed on the individual 

by the ,american system1 has now reacted
 and contributed much to the working out
 of this system4 ,the ,american         
possesses an astonishing gift for rapid 
organization4 ,his highest talents are  
primarily along this line1 and in the   
same way every individual has an        
instinct for stationing himself at the  
right place in any organization4 ,this  
is true both high and low1 and can be   
observed on every occasion1 whether in  
the concerted action of labouring men1  
in a street accident1 or in any sort of 
popular demonstration4 ,for instance1   
one has only to notice how quickly and  
naturally the public forms in orderly   
procession before a ticket-office4 ,this
 sure instinct for organization1 which  
is such an admirable complement to the  
spirit of initiative1 gives to the      
,american workman his superiority over  
the ,european1 for it is lamentably     
lacking in the latter1 and can be       
replaced only by the strictest          
discipline4 ,but this instinct finds its

 fullest expression in the political    
sphere4 ,it is this which creates       
parties1 guarantees the efficiency of   
legislatures1 preserves the discipline  
of the state1 and is in general the most
 striking manifestation of the spirit of
 self-direction4 ,but we have seen that 
none of the merits of this system are   
quite without their drawbacks1 and this 
gift for organization has also its      
dangers4 ,the political parties which it
 fosters may become political           
8machines10 and the party leader a      
8boss0--but here we are already in the  
midst of those political institutions   
with which we must deal more in detail4 
,,chapter ,,two                         
,political ,parties   ,the ,presidency  
is the highest peak in the diversified  
range of political institutions1 and may
 well be the first to occupy our        
attention4 ,but this chief executive    
office may be looked at in several      
relations3 firstly1 it is one of the    
three divisions of the ,government1     

which are the executive1 the            
legislative1 and the judicial4 ,and     
these might well be considered in this  
order4 ,but1 on the other hand1 the     
,president stands at the head of the    
federation of states2 and the structural
 beauty of the ,american political      
edifice consists in the repetition of   
the whole in each part and of the part  
in every smaller part1 and so on down4  
,the top governmental stratum of the    
federation is repeated on a smaller     
scale at the head of each of the        
forty-five states1 and again1 still     
smaller1 over every city4 ,the governor 
of a state has in narrower limits the   
functions of the ,president1 and so1    
within still narrower1 has the mayor of 
a city4 ,we might1 then1 consider the   
highest office1 and after that its      
smaller counterparts in the order of    
their importance4  ,but neither of these
 methods of treatment would bring out   
the most important connection4 ,it is   
possible to understand the ,president   

apart from the miniature presidents of  
the separate states1 or apart from the  
,supreme ,court1 or even ,congress1 but 
it is not possible to understand the    
,president without taking account of the
 political parties4 ,it is the party    
which selects its candidate1 elects him 
to office1 and expects from him in      
return party support and party politics4
 ,the same is true1 moreover1 of        
elections to ,congress and to the state 
legislatures4 ,for here again the party 
is the background to which everything is
 naturally referred1 and any description
 of the ,president1 or ,congress1 or the
 courts1 which1 like the original       
,constitution1 makes no mention of the  
parties1 appears to us to-day as lacking
 in plastic reality1 in historical      
perspective4 ,we shall1 therefore1      
attempt no such artificial analysis1 but
 rather describe together the           
constitutional government and the       
inofficial party formations4 ,they imply
 and explain each other4 ,then on this  

background of party activities we can   
view more comprehensively the           
,president1 ,congress1 the ,supreme     
,court1 and the entire politics of the  
federation and the states4  ,we must not
 forget1 however1 that in separating any
 of these factors from the rest1 we deal
 at once with highly artificial         
abstractions1 so that this description  
will have continually to neglect many   
facts and cut the threads that cross its
 path4 ,the history of the ,american    
,presidency shows at all times its close
 connection with other institutions4 ,a 
treaty or even a nomination by the      
,president requires the ratification of 
the ,senate before it is valid2 and on  
the other side1 the ,president can veto 
any bill of ,congress4 ,even the        
,supreme ,court and the ,president can  
hardly be considered apart1 as was seen1
 for instance1 in the time of           
,cleveland1 when his fiscal policy took 
final shape in an income tax which the  
,supreme ,court declared                

unconstitutional1 and therefore         
unlawful2 or again when the colonial    
policy of ,mc,kinley was upheld and     
validated by a decision of the same     
court4 ,again1 the party politics of    
state and town are no less intimately   
related to the federal government and   
the ,presidency4 ,here1 too1 the        
leadings are in both directions2 local  
politics condition the national1 and    
these in turn dominate the local4       
,cleveland was a man who had never      
played a part in national politics until
 he became the executive head of the    
nation4 ,as ,mayor of ,buffalo he had   
been so conspicuous throughout the      
,state of ,new ,york as to be elected   
,governor of that state1 and then in the
 state politics so won the confidence of
 his party as to be nominated and       
elected to the highest national office4 
,mc,kinley1 on the other hand1 although 
he1 too1 had been the ,governor of a    
state1 nevertheless gained the          
confidence of his party during his long 

term of service in ,congress4           
,similarly it may be said that local    
politics are the natural path which     
leads to any national position1 whether 
that of senator or representative4 ,and 
inversely the great federal problems    
play an often decisive rle in the       
politics of the states with which they  
strictly have no connection4 ,federal   
party lines divide legislatures from the
 largest to the smallest1 and even      
figure in the municipal elections4      
,unreasonable as it may seem1 it is a   
fact that the great national questions1 
such as expansion1 free trade1 and the  
gold standard1 divide the voters of a   
small village into opposing groups when 
they have to elect merely some one to   
the police or street-cleaning           
department4 ,it is1 therefore1 never a  
question of a mechanical co-ordination  
and independence of parts1 but of an    
organic interdependence1 and every least
 district of the ,union is thoroughly en
 rapport with the central government and

 doings of the national parties4  ,there
 are political parties in every country1
 but none like the ,american parties4   
,the ,english system presents the       
nearest analogy1 with its two great     
parties1 but the similarity is merely   
superficial and extends to no essential 
points4 ,even in the comparison between 
,america and ,germany it is not the     
greater number of the ,german parties   
that makes the real difference4 ,for the
 ,german his party is in the narrower   
sense a group of legislators1 or1 more  
broadly1 these legislators together with
 the general body of their constituents4
 ,the party has in a way concrete       
reality only in the act of voting and   
the representation in parliament of     
certain principles4 ,of course1 even in 
,germany there exists some organization 
between the multitude of voters and the 
small group which they return to the    
,reichstag4 ,party directors1 who are   
for the most part the representatives   
themselves1 central committees and local

 directors1 local clubs and assemblies  
are all necessary to stir up the voters 
and to attend to various formalities of 
the election2 but no one has dreamt of a
 horde of professional politicians who  
are not legislators1 of party leaders   
who are more powerful than the          
representative to be elected1 or of     
parties which are stronger than either  
the parliament or the people4 ,the      
,american party is first of all a       
closely knit organization with extensive
 machinery and rigid discipline2 to be  
represented in ,congress or legislature 
is only one of its many objects4  ,this 
situation is1 however1 no accident4 ,one
 may easily understand the incomparable 
machinery and irresistible might of the 
parties1 if one but realizes a few of   
the essential factors in ,american party
 life4 ,first1 of course1 comes the     
tremendous extent of the field in which 
the citizens' ballots have the decision4
 ,if it were as it is in the ,german    
elections to the imperial diet1 the     

,american party organization would never
 have become what it is4 ,but besides   
the elections to ,congress1 the state   
legislatures and local assemblies1 there
 is the direct choice to be made for    
,president1 vice-president1 governor1   
the principal state officials and       
deputies1 judges of the appellate court1
 mayor and city officials1 and many     
others4 ,the entire responsibility falls
 on the voters1 since the doctrine of   
self-direction ordains that only        
citizens of the state shall vote for    
state officials1 and of the city for    
city officers4 ,the governor1 unlike an 
8,oberprsident10 is not appointed by the
 ,government1 nor a mayor by any        
authority outside his city4 ,the voter  
is nowhere to be politically disburdened
 of responsibility4 ,but1 with the      
direct suffrage1 his sphere of action is
 only begun4 ,almost every one of the   
men he elects has in turn to make       
further appointments and choices4 ,the  
members of a state legislature elect    

senators to ,congress1 and both governor
 and mayor name many officials1 but most
 of all1 the ,president has to give out 
offices from ambassadors and ministers  
down to village postmasters and         
light-house keepers1 in all of which    
there is ample chance to put the        
adherents of one's party in influential 
positions4 ,thus the functions of the   
,american voter are incomparably more   
important and far-reaching than those of
 the ,german voter4  ,but even with     
this1 the political duties of the       
,american citizen in connection with his
 party are not exhausted4 ,the spirit of
 self-direction demands the carrying out
 of a principle which is unknown to the 
,german politician4 ,the choice and     
nomination of a candidate for election  
must be made by the same voting public2 
it must be carried on by the same       
parliamentary methods1 and decided      
strictly by a majority vote4 ,there are 
in theory no committees or head         
officials to relieve the voting public  

of responsibility1 by themselves        
benignly apportioning the various       
offices among the candidates4 ,a party  
may propose but one candidate for each  
office1 whereas there will often be     
several men within the party who wish to
 be candidates for the same office1 as  
for instance1 that of mayor1 city       
counsellor1 or treasurer4 ,in every case
 the members of a party have to select  
the official nominee of their party by  
casting ballots1 and thus it may happen 
that the contest between groups within  
the party may be livelier than the      
ultimate battle between the parties4    
,now on a large scale such transactions 
can be no longer carried on directly4   
,all the citizens of the state cannot   
come together to nominate the party     
candidate for governor4 ,for this       
purpose1 therefore1 electors have to be 
chosen1 every one by a strict majority  
vote1 and these meet to fix finally on  
the candidates of the party4 ,and when  
it comes to the ,president of the whole 

country1 the voting public elects a     
congress of electors1 and these in turn 
choose other electors1 and this         
twice-sifted body of delegates meets in 
national convention to name the         
candidate whom the party will support in
 the final1 popular elections4 ,through 
such a strict programme for nominations 
the duties of the voters towards their  
party are just doubled1 and it becomes  
an art considerably beyond the ability  
of the average citizen to move through  
this regressive chain of elections      
without losing his way4 ,it requires1 in
 short1 an established and well         
articulated organization to arrange and 
conduct the popular convocations1 to    
deliberate carefully on the candidates  
to be proposed for nomination1 and to   
carry the infinitely complicated and yet
 unavoidable operations through to their
 conclusion4  ,finally1 another factor  
enters in1 which is once more quite     
foreign to the political life of        
,germany4 ,every ,american election is  

strictly local1 in the sense that the   
candidate is invariably chosen from     
among the voters4 ,in ,germany1 when a  
provincial city is about to send a      
representative to the ,reichstag1 the   
party in power accounts it a specially  
favourable circumstance if the          
candidates are not men of that very     
city1 to suffer the proverbial dishonour
 of prophets in their own country1 and  
prefers to see on the ballot the names  
of great party leaders from some other  
part of the empire4 ,and when ,berlin1  
for example1 selects a mayor1 the city  
is glad to call him from ,breslau or    
,knigsberg4 ,this is inconceivable to   
the ,american4 ,it is a corollary to the
 doctrine of self-determination that    
whenever a political district1 whether  
village or city1 selects a              
representative1 the citizens shall not  
only nominate and elect their candidate1
 but that they shall also choose him    
from their own midst4 ,but this makes it
 at once necessary for the party to have

 its organized branches in every nook   
and corner of the country4 ,a single    
central organization graciously to      
provide candidates for the whole land is
 not to be thought of4 ,the party       
organization must be everywhere         
efficient1 and quick to select and weigh
 for the purposes of the party such     
material as is at hand4 ,it is obvious  
that this is a very intricate and       
exacting task1 and that if the          
organization were sentimental1 loose1 or
 undisciplined1 it would go to pieces by
 reason of the personal and other       
opposing interests which exist within   
it4 ,and if it were less widely branched
 or less machine-like in its intricate  
workings1 it would not be able to do its
 daily work1 pick candidates for posts  
of responsibility1 nominate electors1   
and elect its nominees2 and eventually  
it would sink out of sight4 ,the        
,american political party is thus an    
essentially complete and independent    
organization4  ,two evils are           

necessarily occasioned by this          
invulnerable organization of party      
activities1 both of which are peculiar  
and of such undoubtedly bad consequences
 as to strike the most superficial      
observer1 and specially the foreigner2  
and yet both of which on closer view are
 seen to be much less serious than one  
might have supposed at first4 ,after a  
party has grown up and become well      
organized in its purpose of representing
 these or those political principles and
 of defending and propagating them1 it  
may at length cease to be only the means
 to an end1 and become an end unto      
itself4 ,there is the danger that it    
will come to look on its duties as being
 nothing else than to keep itself in    
power1 even by denying or opposing the  
principles with which it has grown up4  
,moreover1 such an organization exacts a
 colossal amount of labour which must be
 rewarded in some form or other2 and so 
it will find it expedient1 quite apart  
from the political ideals of the party1 

to exert its influence in the patronage 
of state and other offices4 ,the result 
is that the rewards and honours         
conferred necessarily draw men into the 
service of the party who care less for  
its ideals than for the emoluments they 
are to derive4 ,and thus two evils      
spring up together2 firstly1 the parties
 lose their principles1 and1 secondly1  
take into their service professional    
politicians who have no principles to   
lose4 ,we must consider both matters    
more in detail1 the party ideals and the
 politicians4  ,america has two great   
parties1 the ,republican1 which is just 
now in power1 and the ,democratic4      
,other parties1 as1 for instance1 the   
,populist1 are small1 and while they may
 for a while secure a meagre            
representation in ,congress1 they are   
too insignificant to have any chance of 
success in the presidential elections3  
although1 to be sure1 this does not     
prevent various groups of               
over-enthusiastic persons from seizing  

the politically unfitting and           
impracticable occasion to set up their  
own presidential candidate as a sort of 
figure-head4 ,any political amateur1 who
 finds no place in the official parties1
 may gather a few friends under his     
banner and start a new1 independent     
party2 but the bubble bursts in a few   
days4 ,and even if it is a person like  
,admiral ,dewey1 whose party banner is  
the flag under which he has sent an     
enemy's fleet to the bottom1 he will    
succeed only in being amusing4 ,the     
regular1 organized parties are the only 
ones which seriously count in politics4 
,it sometimes happens1 however1 that a  
few months before the elections a small 
band of politically or industrially     
influential men will meet to consider   
the project of a third party1 while     
their real aim is to create a little    
organization whose voting power will be 
coveted by both of the great parties4   
,in this way the founders plan to force 
one or both of these to make concessions

 to the principles of their little      
group1 since the most important feature 
is that ,republicans and ,democrats are 
so nearly equally balanced that only a  
slight force is needed to turn the      
scales to either side4 ,in recent       
elections ,mc,kinley and ,cleveland have
 each been elected twice to the         
,presidency1 and no one can say whether 
the next presidential majority will be  
,republican or ,democrat4 ,on           
,cleveland's second election the        
,democrats had #e1eef1iah1 and the      
,republicans #e1agf1ajh votes1 while the
 ,populists made a showing of one       
million votes4 ,but four years later the
 tables were turned1 and ,mc,kinley won 
on #g1ajf1aii votes1 while ,bryan lost  
on #f1ejb1fhe4 ,it is clear1 therefore1 
that neither of the parties has to fear 
that a third party will elect its       
candidate2 nor can either rest on old   
laurels1 for any remission of effort is 
a certain victory for the other side4 ,a
 third party is dangerous only in so far

 as it is likely to split up one of the 
two parties and so weaken it in an      
otherwise almost equal competition4     
,what1 now1 are the principles and aims 
of the ,republican and ,democratic      
parties8 ,their names are not           
significant1 since neither do the       
,republicans wish to do away with       
,american democracy1 nor do the         
,democrats have any designs on the      
republican form of government4 ,at the  
opening of the nineteenth century the   
present ,democrats were called          
8,democratic-,republicans10 and this    
long abandoned name could just as well  
be given to all surviving parties4      
,neither aristocracy nor monarchy nor   
anarchy nor plutocracy has ever so far  
appeared on a party programme1 and      
however hotly the battle may be waged   
between ,republicans and ,democrats1 it 
is forever certain that both opponents  
are at once ,democrats and ,republicans4
 ,wherein1 then1 do they differ8  ,the  
true party politician of ,america does  

not philosophize overmuch about the     
parties2 it is enough for him that one  
party has taken or is likely to take    
this1 and the other party that position 
on the living questions1 and beyond this
 his interest is absorbed by special    
problems4 ,he is reluctant enough when  
it comes to taking up the nicer question
 of deducing logically from the general 
principles of a party what attitude it  
ought to take on this or that special   
issue4 ,the nearest he would come to    
this would be conversely to point out   
that the attitude of his opponents      
directly refutes their party's most     
sacred doctrines4 ,those who            
philosophize are mostly outsiders1      
either sojourners in the country1 or    
indigenous critics who are considerably 
more alive to the unavoidable evils of  
party politics than to the merits4 ,from
 such opponents of parties as well as   
from foreigners1 one hears again and    
again that the parties do not really    
stand for any general principles at the 

present time1 that their separate       
existence has lost whatever political   
significance it may have had1 and that  
to-day they are merely two organizations
 preserving a semblance of individuality
 and taking such attitude toward the    
issues of the day as is likely to secure
 the largest number of votes1 in order  
to distribute among their members the   
fruits of victory4 ,the present parties1
 say these critics1 were formed in that 
struggle of intellectual forces which   
took place during the third quarter of  
the last century2 it was the dispute    
over slavery which led to the ,civil    
,war4 ,the ,republican party was the    
party of the ,northern ,states in their 
anti-slavery zeal2 the ,democratic was  
the party of the slave-holding ,southern
 ,states2 and the opposition had        
political significance as long as the   
effects of the war lasted1 and it was   
necessary to work for the conciliation  
and renewed participation of the        
defeated ,confederacy4 ,but all this is 

long past4 ,harrison1 ,cleveland1       
,blaine1 ,bryan1 ,mc,kinley1 and        
,roosevelt became the standard-bearers  
of their respective parties long after  
the wounds of the war had healed4 ,and  
it is no outcome from the original1     
distinguishing principles of the        
parties1 if the slave-holding party     
takes the side of free-trade1 silver    
currency and anti-imperialism1 while the
 anti-slavery elements stay together in 
behalf of the gold standard1 protection1
 and expansion4  ,it looks1 rather1 as  
if the doctrines had migrated each to   
the other's habitat4 ,the party which   
was against slavery was supporting the  
rights of the individual2 how comes it1 
then1 to be bitterly opposing the       
freedom of trade8 ,and how do the       
friends of slavery happen to champion   
the cause of free-trade1 or1 more       
remarkably1 to oppose so passionately   
to-day the oppression of the people of  
the ,philippines8 ,and what have these  
questions to do with the monetary       

standard8 ,it looks as if the           
organization had become a body without a
 soul4 ,each party tries to keep the    
dignity of its historic traditions and  
at every new juncture bobs and ducks    
before the interests and prejudices of  
its habitual clientle1 while it seeks to
 outwit the opposite party by popular   
agitation against persistent wrongs and 
abuses or by new campaign catch-words   
and other devices4 ,but there is no     
further thought of consistently standing
 by any fundamental principles4 ,this   
hap-hazard propping up of the party     
programme is evinced by the fact that   
either party is divided on almost every 
question1 and the preference of the     
majority becomes the policy of the party
 only through the strict discipline and 
suppression of the minority4 ,the       
,republicans won in their campaign for  
imperialism1 and yet no anti-imperialist
 raised his voice more loudly than the  
,republican ,senator ,hoar4 ,the        
,democrats acclaimed the silver schemes 

of ,bryan1 but the ,gold ,democrats     
numbered on their side really all the   
best men of the party4 ,again1 on other 
important issues both parties will adopt
 the same platform as soon as they see  
that the masses are bound to vote that  
way4 ,thus neither party will openly    
come out for trusts1 but both parties   
boast of deprecating them2 and both     
profess likewise to uphold civil-service
 reform4 ,this is so much the case that 
it has often been observed that within a
 wide range the programmes of the two   
parties in no way conflict4 ,one party  
extols that which the other has never   
opposed1 and the semblance of a         
difference is kept up only by such      
insistent vociferation of the policy as 
implies some sly and powerful gainsayer4
 ,and then with the same histrionic rage
 comes the other party and pounces on   
some scandal which the first had never  
thought of sanctioning4 ,in short1 there
 are no parties to-day but the powerful 
election organizations which have no    

other end in view than to come into     
power at whatever cost4 ,it should seem 
better wholly to give up the outlived   
issues1 and to have only independent    
candidates who1 without regard to party 
pressure1 would be grouped according to 
their attitude on the chief problems of 
the day4  ,and yet1 after the worst has 
thus been said1 we find ourselves still 
far removed from the facts4 ,each       
separate charge may be true1 but the    
whole be false and misleading3 even     
although many a party adherent admits   
the justness of the characterization1   
and declares that the party must decide 
every case 8on its merits10 and that to 
hold to principles is inexpedient in    
politics4 ,for the principles exist1    
nevertheless1 and have existed1 and they
 dominate mightily the great to and fro 
of party movements4 ,just as there have 
always been persons who pretend to      
deduce the entire history of ,europe    
from petty court intrigues and          
jealousies of the ante-room or the      

boudoir1 so there will always be        
wise-heads in ,america to see through   
party doings1 and deduce everything from
 the speculative manipulations of a     
couple of banking houses or the private 
schemes of a sugar magnate or a silver  
king4 ,such explanations never go       
begging for a credulous public1 since   
mankind has a deep-rooted craving to see
 lowness put on exhibition4 ,no man is a
 hero1 it is said1 in the eyes of his   
valet4 ,nations1 too1 have their valets2
 and with them1 too1 the fact is not    
that there are no heroes1 but that a    
valet can see only with the eyes of a   
valet4  ,it is true that the party lines
 of to-day have developed from the      
conflicting motives of the ,civil ,war4 
,but the fundamental error which        
prevents all insight into the deeper    
connections1 lies in supposing that the 
anti-slavery party was first inspired by
 the individual fate of the negro1 or in
 general the freedom of the individual4 
,we must recall some of the facts of    

history4 ,the question of slavery did   
not make its first appearance in the    
year #ahfj1 when the ,republican party  
became important4 ,the contrast between 
the plantation owners of the ,south1 to 
whom slave labour was apparently        
indispensable1 and the industry and     
trade of the ,north1 which had no need  
of slaves1 had existed from the         
beginning of the century and was in     
itself no reason for the formation of   
political parties4 ,it was mainly an    
economic question which1 together with  
many other factors1 led to a            
far-reaching opposition between the ,new
 ,england ,states and the ,south1 an    
opposition which was strengthened1 to be
 sure1 by the moral scruples of the     
,puritanical ,north4 ,but the earlier   
parties were not marked off by degrees  
of latitude1 and furthermore the        
,southerner was by no means lacking in  
personal sympathy for the negro4 ,the   
question first came into politics       
indirectly4 ,it was in those years when 

the ,union was pushing out into the     
,west1 taking in new territories and    
then making them into states by act of  
,congress1 according to the provisions  
of the ,constitution4 ,in #ahai the     
question came up of admitting ,missouri 
to the ,union1 and now for the first    
time ,congress faced the problem as to  
whether slavery should be allowed in a  
new state4 ,the ,south wished it and the
 ,north opposed it4 ,congress finally   
decided that ,missouri should be a slave
 state1 but that in the future slavery  
should be forbidden north of a certain  
geographical line4 ,thus slavery came to
 be recognized as a question within the 
jurisdiction of the federal ,congress4  
,wherewith1 if ,congress should vote    
against slavery by a sufficient         
majority1 it could forbid the practice  
in all the ,southern states4 ,and this  
would mean their ruin4  ,it came thus to
 be for the interest of the ,southern   
states1 which at that time had a        
majority1 to see to it that for every   

free state admitted to the ,union there 
should be at least one new slave state2 
this in order to hold their majority in 
,congress4 ,now it happened at that time
 that the territories which1 by reason  
of their population1 would have next to 
be admitted1 lay all north of the       
appointed boundary and would1 therefore1
 be free states4 ,therefore the         
slave-holders promulgated the theory    
that ,congress had exceeded its         
jurisdiction and interfered with the    
rights of the individual states4 ,the   
matter was brought before the ,supreme  
,court1 and in #aheg a verdict was given
 which upheld the new theory4 ,thus     
,congress1 that is1 the ,union as a     
whole1 could not forbid slavery in any  
place1 but must leave the matter for    
each state to decide4 ,herewith an      
important political issue was created1  
and a part of the country stood out for 
the rights of the ,union1 a part for    
those of the individual states4 ,the    
group of men who at that time foresaw   

that the whole ,union was threatened1 if
 so far-reaching rights were to be      
conceded to the states1 was the         
,republican party4 ,it rose up defiantly
 for the might and right of the         
federation1 and would not permit one of 
the most important social and economic  
questions to be taken out of the hands  
of the central government and left to   
local choice4 ,it was1 of course1 not a 
matter of chance that slavery became the
 occasion of dispute1 but the real      
question at issue was the jurisdiction  
of the ,federal ,government4 ,the       
federal party won1 under the leadership 
of ,abraham ,lincoln4 ,his election was 
the signal for the slave states to      
secede1 ,south ,carolina being the      
first4 ,in ,february1 #ahfa1 these      
states formed a ,confederation1 and the 
,union was formally cleft4 ,in his      
inaugural speech of the following       
,march1 ,lincoln firmly declared that   
the ,union must be preserved at all     
cost4 ,the ,civil ,war began in ,april1 

and after fearful fighting the          
secessionists were returned to the      
,union1 all slaves were freed1 and the  
,southern states were reconstructed     
after the ideas of the ,republican      
party4 ,the opposing party1 the         
,democratic1 was the party of           
decentralization4 ,its programme was the
 freedom of the individual state but not
 the servitude of the individual man4   
,when one understands in this way the   
difference between the two parties1 one 
sees that the ,republicans were not for 
freedom nor the ,democrats for slavery1 
but the ,republicans were for a more    
complete subordination of the states to 
the federation and the ,democrats were  
for the converse4 ,this is a very       
different point of view1 and from it    
very much which seems incompatible with 
the attitude of the two parties toward  
the question of slavery may now be seen 
as a necessary historical consequence4  
,if we cast a glance at foregoing       
decades1 we see that ever since the     

early days of the republic there has    
been hardly a time when these two       
forces1 the centralizing and the        
decentralizing1 have not been in play4  
,it has lain deep in the nature of      
,teutonic peoples to pull apart from one
 another1 while at the same time the    
struggle for existence has forced them  
to strong and well unified organization1
 so that scarcely a single ,teutonic    
people has been spared that same        
opposition of social forces which is    
found in ,america4 ,the origin of the   
,constitution itself can be understood  
only with reference to these            
antagonistic tendencies4 ,the country   
wanted to be free of the miserable      
uncertainty1 the internal discord and   
outward weakness which followed the     
,declaration of ,independence2 it wanted
 the strength of unity4 ,and yet every  
single state guarded jealously its own  
rights1 suspected every other state1 and
 wished to be ensured against any       
encroachment of the federal power4 ,and 

so the ,constitution was drawn up with  
special precautions ensuring the        
equilibrium of power4 ,at once1 in      
,washington's cabinet1 both tendencies  
were distinctly and notably represented4
 ,there sat the distinguished ,hamilton1
 the minister of finance and framer of  
the ,constitution1 who was a tireless   
champion of the federal spirit1 and     
beside him sat ,jefferson1 the minister 
of state1 who would have preferred to   
have the federation transact nothing but
 foreign affairs and who believed in    
general the less the legislation the    
better for the people4 ,the adherents of
 ,hamilton's policy formed the          
federalist party1 while ,jefferson's    
supporters were called the ,democratic  
,republicans4 ,the names have changed   
and the special issues have altered with
 the progress of events2 indeed1        
apparently the centralist party has gone
 twice out of existence1 yet it was     
actually this party of which ,lincoln   
became the leader4 ,jefferson's party1  

on the other hand1 in spite of its      
change of name1 has never as an         
organization ceased to exist4 ,the      
,democrats who1 in #ahfj1 wished to     
submit the question of slavery to the   
individual states1 were the immediate   
heirs of the anti-federalists who had   
elected their first president in #ahjj4 
,now if the centralizing and            
decentralizing character of the two     
parties is borne in mind1 their further 
development down to the present day can 
be understood4 ,this development seems  
disconnected and contradictory only when
 the slavery question is thought to be  
the main feature and the ,republicans   
are accounted the champions of freedom  
and the ,democrats of slavery4 ,even    
,bryce1 who has furnished by far the    
best account of the ,american party     
system1 underestimates somewhat the     
inner continuity of the parties4 ,even  
he believes that the chief mission of   
the ,republican party has been to do    
away with slavery and to reconstruct the

 ,southern states1 and that since this  
end was accomplished as far back as in  
the seventies1 new parties ought        
naturally to have been formed by this   
time4 ,although the old organizations   
have in fact persisted1 a certain       
vagueness and lack of vitality can be   
detected1 he says1 in both parties4     
,according to that conception1 however1 
it would be incomprehensible why those  
who formerly went forth to put an end to
 slavery now advance to bring the       
,filipinos into subjection1 and to      
detain the poor man from purchasing his 
necessities where they are the cheapest4
  ,as we have seen1 the ,democrats were 
the party which was true to the         
,jeffersonian principles1 and in        
opposition to the supporters of         
congressional authority defended the    
rights and free play of the individual  
states4 ,and the ,republicans were those
 who wished to exalt beyond any other   
the authority of the ,federal           
,government4 ,this is the key to        

everything which has since come to pass4
 ,at the last presidential elections    
there were three great party issues--the
 tariff1 the currency1 and the question 
of expansion4 ,in deciding on all three 
of these points1 the parties have       
conformed to their old principles4      
,free-trade versus protective tariff was
 not a new bone of contention4          
,jefferson's party had urged free-trade 
with all the nations of the earth at the
 very beginning of the century1 and1 of 
course1 a decentralizing party which    
likes as little supervision and         
paternalism as possible1 will always    
concede to the individual his right to  
buy what he requires where it will cost 
the least4 ,the ,democrats did not      
oppose a tariff for revenue1 to help    
defray the public expenses1 but they    
objected on principle to that further   
tariff which was laid on goods in order 
to keep the prices of them high and so  
to protect home industries4 ,the        
centralists1 that is1 the whigs or the  

,republicans1 on the contrary1 by their 
supreme confidence in the one national  
government1 had early been led to expect
 from it a certain protection of the    
national market and some regulation of  
the economic struggle for existence4    
,and protective tariff was one of the   
main planks in their platform early in  
the century4  ,it is clear1 once more1  
that the anti-centralists had a direct  
and natural interest in the small man1  
his economic weaknesses and burdens2    
every member of society must have equal 
right and opportunity to work out his   
career4 ,it does not contradict this    
that the ,democrats believed in slavery4
 ,in the ,southern states the negro had 
come in the course of generations to be 
looked on as property1 as a possession  
to be held and utilized in a special    
way1 and any feeling of personal        
responsibility was of a patriarchal and 
not a political nature4 ,the peculiarly 
democratic element in the position taken
 was the demand that the slavery        

question be left with the separate      
states to decide4 ,as soon as fellow    
citizens were concerned1 the            
anti-centralist party held true to its  
principles of looking out for the       
members on the periphery of society4 ,in
 this way the party favoured the        
progressive income tax1 and has always  
espoused any cause which would assist   
the working-man against the superior    
force of protected capital1 or the      
farmer against the machinations of the  
stock market4 ,the exaggerated notions  
as to the silver standard of currency   
originated outside of the ,democratic   
party1 and have intrinsically nothing to
 do with democracy4 ,but as soon as a   
considerable part of the people from one
 cause or another began really to       
believe that nothing but a silver       
currency could relieve the condition of 
the artisans and farmers1 it became     
logically necessary for the party which 
opposed centralization to adopt and     
foster this panacea1 however senseless  

it might seem to the more thoughtful    
elements within the party4 ,and it was  
no less necessary for the party which   
upholds federal authority to oppose     
unconditionally anything which would    
endanger the coinage and credit of the  
country4 ,the gold standard is          
specifically a ,republican doctrine only
 when it is understood to repudiate and 
oppose all risky experimenting with     
bimetallism4  ,in the new imperialistic 
movement1 on the other hand1 it was the 
,democrats who were put on the          
defensive4 ,any one who leans toward    
individualism must instinctively lean   
away from militarism1 which makes for   
strength at the centre2 from aggressive 
movements to annex new lands1 whereby   
the owners are deprived of their natural
 rights to manage their own affairs1 and
 from any meddling with international   
politics1 for this involves necessarily 
increased discretionary powers for the  
central government4 ,it is not that the 
,democrats care less for the greatness  

of their fatherland1 but they despise   
that jingo patriotism which abandons the
 traditions of the country by bringing  
foreign peoples into subjection4 ,it is 
left for the centralists to meet the new
 situation squarely1 undertake new      
responsibilities1 and convince the      
nation that it is strong and mature     
enough now to play a decisive rle in the
 politics of the world4 ,and thus the   
two great parties are by no manner of   
means two rudderless derelicts carried  
hither and thither by the currents ever 
since the ,civil ,war1 but1 rather1     
great three-deckers following without   
swerve their appointed courses4  ,the   
parties have sometimes been             
distinguished as conservative and       
liberal1 but this is rather a           
reminiscence of conditions in ,europe4  
,both of the parties are really         
conservative1 as results from both the  
,american character and the nature of   
the party organization4 ,even in the    
most radical ,democratic gathering the  

great appeal is never made in behalf of 
some advantageous or brilliant          
innovation but on the grounds of        
adherence to the old1 reliable1 and     
well-nigh sacred party principles4 ,if  
either party is at present departing    
from the traditions of the past1 it is  
the ,republican party1 which has always 
figured as the more conservative of the 
two4 ,yet such a distinction is partly  
true1 since the centralists in          
conformity to their principles must     
specially maintain the ,federal         
authority and precedent1 while the      
,democratic party is more naturally     
inclined to give ear to discontented    
spirits1 clever innovators1 and         
fantastic reformers1 lest some          
decentralizing energy should be         
suppressed4 ,so the ,republican party   
gains a fundamental and cheerful        
complacence with the prevailing order of
 things1 while the ,democratic party1   
even when it is in power1 can never come
 quite to rest4 ,the contrast is not    

that between rich and poor2 the         
,democratic party has its quota of      
millionaires1 and the ,republican has1  
for instance1 in its negro clientage    
many of the poorest in the land4 ,but   
the ,republican party is filled with    
self-satisfaction and the consciousness 
of power and success1 while the         
,democrats are forever measuring the    
actual according to an ideal which can  
never be realized4 ,like all            
centralists1 the ,republicans are       
essentially opportunists and            
matter-of-fact politicians2 and the     
,democrats1 like all anti-centralists1  
are idealists and enthusiasts4 ,it has  
been well said that a ,democratic       
committee is conducted like a debating  
club1 but a ,republican like a meeting  
of the stockholders in a corporation4   
,these facts clearly hint at a certain  
personal factor which influences the    
citizen's allegiance to one or other of 
the parties4 ,in meeting a man on a     
journey one has very soon the           

impression1 though one may often be     
mistaken1 as to what party he belongs   
to1 although he may not have spoken a   
word about politics4 ,but more          
distinctive than the personal bias are  
the groupings by classes and regions    
which have come about during the course 
of time4 ,in the ,north and ,west the   
,republicans have the majority among the
 educated classes1 but in the ,south the
 educated people are ,democrats1        
particularly since the negro population 
there holds to the old abolition party1 
so that the whites are the more ready to
 be on the other side4 ,the lower       
classes are moved by the most diverse   
motives2 the farmer is inclined to be   
,republican and the artisan of the      
cities ,democratic2 ,protestants are    
more often ,republicans and ,catholics  
,democrats1 a partition which began with
 the early identification of the        
,puritan clergy of ,new ,england with   
the ,republican party4 ,this resulted in
 an affiliation of ,catholicism and     

,democracy which has had very important 
consequences1 particularly in municipal 
politics2 the ,irish1 who are invariably
 ,catholics1 vote with the ,democratic  
party4 ,the ,germans and ,swedes1       
specially in the ,west1 are mostly      
,republicans4 ,in these ways the most   
complicated combinations have come      
about1 particularly in the ,middle      
,west1 where many of the larger states  
are always uncertain at election time4  
,in the elections of the ,state of ,new 
,york1 the ,democrats and ,republicans  
have been alternately successful4 ,very 
often the capital city votes differently
 from the rural districts1 as in        
,massachusetts1 which is a stalwart     
,republican state1 although ,boston1    
owing to the ,irish population1 is      
,democratic4                    99      
99       99       99       99  ,these   
considerations as to the groupings of   
the party adherents bring us directly to
 our second question--who are the party 
politicians8 ,we have aimed to refute   

the assertion that the parties are      
without their principles1 but there is  
the further assertion that the          
politicians are without principles4 ,in 
asking whether politics are really in   
the hands of unscrupulous men1 one      
should first ascertain whether there are
 any honourable motives which would lead
 a man to devote himself thereto4 ,and  
it appears that nowhere else are there  
such powerful inducements for a         
conscientious man to go into politics4  
,first of all there is the best possible
 motive1 the wish to see one's country  
governed according to one's own ideas of
 justice and progress1 and the desire to
 work in this way for the honour1       
security1 and welfare of the nation4    
,any one who has witnessed the ,american
 presidential elections once or twice   
will be convinced that the overwhelming 
majority of voters casts its votes in a 
truly ethical spirit1 although1 of      
course1 the moral feeling is now more1  
now less1 profound4 ,at times when      

technical matters are chiefly the order 
of the day1 or at best matters of       
expediency1 enthusiasm for a party      
victory has to be kept up in other ways2
 but when it comes to questions of the  
national solidarity and honour1 or of   
justice and freedom1 then really high   
ethical enthusiasm holds place before   
all other political motives4 ,in fact1  
the keen party spirit of the ,american  
is rather in danger of making him feel a
 virtuous indignation against the       
opposing party1 even in regard to purely
 technical issues1 as if it had fallen  
into mere frivolity or been criminally  
irresponsible4 ,and in this way the     
,american is never at a loss for a moral
 stream of some sort to keep the        
political mill-wheel turning4  ,after   
patriotic enthusiasm come the economic  
and social motives which even the most  
high-flown idealist would not designate 
as corrupt4 ,it is not only just1 but it
 is actually the ideal of politics that 
every portion of the population1 every  

class and calling1 as well as every     
geographical section1 should see its    
peculiar interests brought up for       
political debate4 ,it is possible for an
 equilibrium of all existing forces to  
be reached only when all elements alike 
are aware of their chance to assert     
themselves4 ,nothing could be gained if 
agriculture were to become political    
sponsor for the industrial interests1 or
 if industry were to assume the care and
 protection of agriculture4 ,a due and  
proper emphasis by the respective       
interests of their own needs will always
 be an honourable and1 for the public   
welfare1 useful incentive to political  
efficiency4 ,it is not to be doubted    
that in this way ,american politics have
 always induced millions of citizens to 
the liveliest participation4 ,as we have
 seen1 free-trade and protective tariff 
grew out of the chief demands of the two
 parties2 but this does not prevent the 
same party opposition from standing in a
 way for the diverse and partly         

contradictory interests of ,northern    
industry and ,southern plantation life4 
,hence the parties are immediately      
interested in trade and commerce4 ,in a 
similar way the interests of the ,west  
have been bound up in bimetallism       
schemes1 while the commercial integrity 
of the ,east depends on a gold currency4
 ,legislation affecting trusts and banks
 and the policy of expansion touch some 
of the deepest economic problems1 and   
summon all those concerned to come      
forward and play their part4 ,the same  
holds true of social interests4 ,the    
negro1 struggling against legislation   
aimed directly at himself1 seeks social 
protection through the ,republican      
party1 while the ,irish1 ,swedes1 and   
,russians also look for political       
recognition to advance their social     
interests4  ,now these moral1 social1   
and economic motives interest the       
citizen of every land in politics2 but  
there are other considerations here in  
play1 which1 although no less           

honourable1 figure less importantly in  
,germany for example4 ,first of all     
stands loyalty to the traditions of     
one's party4 ,the son joins the party of
 his father1 and is true to it for life4
 ,in this way many are held in the party
 net who otherwise might not agree to   
its general tenets4 ,in a country where 
there are many parties with only slight 
shades of difference1 where1 say1 the   
national-liberals are only a step       
removed from the independents or the    
independent-conservatives1 each new     
election period offers the voter a free 
choice between parties4 ,but where there
 are only two camps a party loyalty is  
developed which leaves very much less to
 personal inclination1 and makes        
possible a firm party discipline4 ,then 
the citizen may come to say of his party
 as of his fatherland1 8,it may be right
 or wrong1 it is still my party40 ,a man
 like ,hoar may use all the force of his
 rhetoric to condemn imperialism and to 
stigmatize it as a crime1 and he may    

leave no stone unturned to bring his own
 ,republican party to abandon the       
imperialistic policy1 and yet1 if his   
recommendations are officially          
outvoiced1 he will not falter in        
supporting the regular candidates of his
 party1 imperialists though they be1 as 
against the anti-imperialist ,democratic
 candidates4 ,the typical ,american will
 rather wait for his own party to take  
up and correct the evils which he most  
deplores than go over to the other party
 which may be already working for the   
same reforms4  ,to be sure1 there are   
,americans who account this point of    
view narrow or even culpable1 and who   
reserve the right of judging the        
programmes of both parties afresh each  
time and of casting their lot on the    
side which they find to be right4 ,the  
example of ,carl ,schurz will be readily
 recalled1 who in #ahif delivered       
notable speeches in favour of ,mc,kinley
 against ,bryan1 but came out in #aijj  
for ,bryan as against ,mc,kinley4 ,he   

was a ,republican on the first occasion1
 because at that time the question of   
currency was in the foreground1 and he  
thought it paramount to preserve the    
gold standard1 while in the next        
election he went over to the ,democrats 
because the question of expansion had   
come to the fore1 and he preferred the  
short-sighted silver policy to the      
unrighteous programme of war and        
subjugation4 ,the number of such        
independent politicians is not small1   
and among them are many of the finest   
characters in the land4 ,behind them    
comes the considerable class of voters  
who may be won over to either party by  
momentary considerations of business    
prosperity1 by any popular agitation for
 the sake of being with the crowd1 by   
personal sympathies or antipathies1 or  
merely through discontent with the      
prevailing rgime4 ,if there were not an 
appreciable part of the people to       
oscillate in this way between the       
parties1 the elections would fall out   

the same way from year to year1 the     
result could always be told beforehand1 
and neither party would have any        
incentive to active effort2 in short1   
political life would stagnate4 ,thus the
 citizens who owe no party allegiance   
but take sides according to the merits  
of the case are very efficient          
practically3 in a way they represent the
 conscience of the country1 and yet     
three-fourths of the population would   
look on their political creed with      
suspicion1 or1 indeed1 contempt4 ,they  
would insist that the ,american system  
needs great parties1 and that parties   
cannot be practically effective if there
 is no discipline in their              
organization--that is1 if the minority  
of their membership is not ready to     
submit cheerfully to the will of the    
majority4 ,if any man wishes to make    
reforms1 he should first set about to   
reform his party4 ,whereas1 if on every 
difference of opinion he goes over to   
the enemy's camp1 he simply destroys all

 respect for the weight of a majority1  
and therewith undermines all democracy4 
,it is as if a party1 which found itself
 defeated at the polls1 should start a  
revolution2 whereas it is the pride of  
the ,american people to accept without  
protest the government which the        
majority has chosen4 ,and so party      
allegiance is taken as the mark of      
political maturity1 and the men who hold
 themselves superior to their parties   
are influential at the polls1 but in the
 party camps they see their arguments   
held in light esteem4 ,they are         
mistrusted by the popular mind4  ,in    
addition to all this the ,american      
happens to be a born politician4 ,on the
 one hand the mere technique of politics
 fascinates him2 every boy is acquainted
 with parliamentary forms1 and to frame 
amendments or file demurrers appeals    
vastly to his fancy4 ,it is an          
hereditary trait4 ,on the other hand1 he
 finds in the party the most diversified
 social environment which he may hope to

 meet4 ,aside from his church1 the      
farmer or artisan finds his sole social 
inspiration in his party1 where the     
political assemblies and contact with   
men of like opinions with himself make  
him feel vividly that he is a free and  
equal participant in the mighty game4   
,moreover1 local interests cannot be    
separated from those of the state1 nor  
these from the affairs of the whole     
country2 for the party lines are drawn  
even in the smallest community1 and     
dominate public discussions whether     
great or small1 so that even those who  
feel no interest in national questions  
but are concerned only with local       
reforms1 perhaps the school system or   
the police board1 find themselves1      
nevertheless1 drawn into the machinery  
of the great national parties4  ,yet    
another motive induces the ,american to 
enter politics1 a motive which is       
neither good nor bad4 ,party politics   
have for many an aspect of sport1 as can
 be easily understood from the          

,anglo-,saxon delight in competition and
 the nearly equal strength of the two   
parties4 ,all the marks of sport can be 
seen in the daily calculations and the  
ridiculous wagers which are made1 and in
 the prevalent desire to be on the side 
of the winner4 ,not otherwise can the   
parades1 torch-light processions1 and   
other demonstrations be explained1 which
 are supposed to inspire the indifferent
 or wavering with the conviction that   
this party and not the other will come  
out victorious4  ,the ,american1 it is  
seen1 has ample inducements to engage in
 the activities of party1 from the      
noblest patriotic enthusiasm down to the
 mere excitement over a sport4 ,and it  
is doubtless these various motives which
 sustain the parties in their activity  
and supply such an inexhaustible sum of 
energy to the nation's politics4 ,by    
them the masses are kept busily turning 
the political wheels and so provided    
with a political schooling such as they 
get in no other country4  ,but we have  

seen that to enlist in the service of a 
political party means more than to      
discuss and vote conscientiously1 to    
work on committees1 or to contribute to 
the party treasury4 ,every detail of    
elections1 local or national1 in every  
part of the country1 has to be planned  
and worked out by the party             
organization2 and particularly in the   
matter of nomination of candidates by   
the members of the party1 the work of   
arranging and agitating one scheme or   
another has become a veritable science1 
demanding far more than merely amateur  
ability4 ,it must not be forgotten that 
in questions of a majority the ,american
 complacent good humour is put aside4   
,the party caucuses are managed on such 
business-like methods that even in the  
most stormy debates the minutest points 
of expediency are kept well in mind4 ,if
 the several interests are not          
represented with all that expertness    
with which an attorney at court would   
plead the cause of a client1 their case 

is as good as lost4 ,the managers have  
to study and know the least details1 be 
acquainted with personal and local      
conditions1 with the attitude of the    
press1 of the officials1 and of the     
other party leaders4 ,those members of  
the organization who conduct the large  
federal sections and so deal with more  
than local affairs1 have to be at once  
lawyers1 financiers1 generals1 and      
diplomats4 ,shrewd combinations have to 
be devised in which city1 state1 and    
national questions are nicely interwoven
 and matters of personal tact and       
abstract right made to play into each   
other2 and these arrangements must be   
carried out with an energy and          
discretion that will require the        
undivided attention of any man who hopes
 to succeed at the business4 ,thus the  
,american conditions demand in the way  
of organization and agitation such an   
outlay of strength as could not be      
expected of the citizens of any country1
 except in times of war1 unless in      

addition to patriotic motives some more 
concrete inducements should be offered4 
,and thus there are certain advantages  
and rewards accruing to the men who     
devote themselves to this indispensable 
work4  ,the first of these inducements  
is1 presumably1 honour4 ,the personal   
distinctions which may be gotten in     
politics cannot easily be estimated     
after ,german standards4 ,there are both
 credits and debits which the ,german   
does not suspect4 ,to the former belongs
 the important fact that all offices up 
to the very highest can be reached only 
by the way of party politics4 ,the      
positions of president1 ambassadors1    
governors1 senators1 ministers1 and so  
forth are all provided with salaries1   
but such inadequate ones as compared    
with the scale of living which is       
expected of the incumbents that no one  
would even accept any of these positions
 for the sake of the remuneration4 ,in  
most cases an actual financial sacrifice
 has to be made1 since the holding of   

office is not an assured career1 but    
rather a brief interruption of one's    
private business4 ,it is to be          
remembered1 moreover1 that a civil      
office carries no pension4 ,and thus it 
frequently happens that a man ends his  
political career because he has spent   
all of his money1 or because he feels it
 a duty to secure his financial         
position4 ,reed1 who was in a way the   
most important ,republican leader1 gave 
up his position as speaker of the ,house
 of ,representatives and broke off all  
political entanglements in order to     
become partner in a law firm4 ,in the   
same way ,harrison1 on retiring from the
 presidency1 resumed his practice of    
law1 and ,day resigned the secretaryship
 of state because his financial         
resources were not adequate4 ,an        
ambassador hardly expects his salary to 
be more than a fraction of his          
expenditures4 ,now this circumstance    
need excite no pity1 since there is an  
abundance of rich men in ,america1 and  

the ,senate has been nicknamed the      
,millionaire's ,club2 but it should     
serve to show that honour1 prestige1 and
 influence are the real incentives to a 
political career1 and not the 8almighty 
dollar10 as certain detractors would    
have one believe4 ,there are persons1 to
 be sure1 who have gotten money in      
politics1 but they are few and          
insignificant beside those who have been
 in politics because they had money4    
,the political career in ,america thus  
offers greater social rewards than in   
,germany1 where the holding of office is
 divorced from politics1 where the      
government is an hereditary monarchy and
 strongly influenced by an hereditary   
aristocracy1 and where even the merest  
mayor or city councilman must have his  
appointment confirmed by the government4
  ,since the social premiums of the     
political life are so many and so       
important it may seem astonishing that  
this career does not attract all the    
best strength of the nation1 and even   

embarrass the parties with an overplus  
of great men4 ,the reasons why it does  
not are as follows3 ,firstly1           
distinctions due merely to office or    
position have not in a democratic       
country the same exclusive value which  
they have with an aristocratic nation4  
,the feeling of social equality is much 
stronger1 and all consideration and     
regard are paid to a man's personal     
qualities rather than to his station4 ,a
 land which knows no nobility1 titles1  
or orders is unschooled in these        
artificial distinctions1 and while there
 is some social differentiation it is   
incomparably less4 ,one looks for one's 
neighbour to be a gentleman1 and is not 
concerned to find out what he does      
during office hours4 ,the reputation and
 influence which are earned in political
 life are much more potent than any     
honour deriving from position4 ,but here
 is found a second retarding factor3 the
 structure of ,american politics does   
not conduce to fame4 ,in ,germany the   

party leaders are constantly in the     
public eye2 they deliver important      
speeches in the ,reichstag or the       
,landtag1 and their oratorical          
achievements are read in every home4 ,in
 ,america the debates of ,congress are  
very little read1 and those of the state
 legislatures almost not at all2 the    
work of government is done in           
committees4 ,the speeches of the ,senate
 are the most likely to become known1   
and yet no one becomes famous in        
,america through his parliamentary      
utterances1 and public sentiment is     
seldom influenced by oratorical         
performances at ,washington4  ,in the   
third place1 every ,american party      
officer must have served in the ranks   
and worked his way up4 ,it is not every 
man's business to spend his time with   
the disagreeable minuti of the local    
party organization2 and even if he does 
not dislike the work1 he may well object
 to the society with which he is thrown 
in these lower political strata4 ,a     

fourth and perhaps the principal item   
comes in here4 ,in its lowest           
departments politics can be made to     
yield a pecuniary return1 and for this  
reason attracts undesirable and perhaps 
unscrupulous elements whose mere        
co-operation is enough to disgust better
 men and to give the purely political   
career a lower status in public opinion 
than might be expected in such a        
thoroughly political community4  ,this  
question of the pecuniary income from   
political sources is even by the        
,americans themselves seldom fairly     
treated4 ,there are three possible      
sources of income4 ,firstly1 the        
representatives of the people are       
directly remunerated2 secondly1 the     
politician may obtain a salaried        
federal1 state1 or municipal office2    
and1 thirdly1 he may misuse his         
influence or his office unlawfully to   
enrich himself4 ,it is a regrettable    
fact that the first source of revenue   
attracts a goodly number into politics4 

,it is not the case with ,congress1 but 
many a man sits in the state            
legislatures who is there only for the  
salary1 while in reality the monetary   
allowance was never meant as an         
inducement but as a compensation1 since 
otherwise many would be deterred        
altogether from politics4 ,but the      
stipend is small and attracts no one who
 has capacity enough to earn more in a  
regular profession4 ,it attracts1       
however1 all kinds of forlorn and       
ill-starred individuals1 who then       
scramble into local politics and do     
their best to bring the calling into    
disrepute4 ,and yet1 after all1 these   
are so small a fraction of the          
politicians as to be entirely           
negligible4 ,there would be much worse  
evils if the salaries were to be        
abolished4 ,there are others who make   
money in criminal ways1 and of course   
they have ample opportunity for         
deception1 theft1 and corruption in both
 town and country4 ,their case is not   

open to any difference of opinion4 ,it  
is easy for a member of the school      
committee to get hold of the land on    
which the next school-house is to be    
built1 and to sell it at a profit2 or   
for a mayor to approve a street-car line
 which is directly for the advantage of 
his private associates2 or for a captain
 of police to accept hush money from    
unlawful gambling houses4 ,everybody    
knows that this sort of thing is        
possible1 and that the perpetrators can 
with difficulty be convicted1 yet they  
occasionally are and then get the       
punishment which they deserve4 ,but this
 is no more a part of the political     
system than the false entries of an     
absconding cashier are a part of        
banking4 ,and even if every unproved    
suspicion of dishonesty were shown to be
 well founded1 the men who so abuse     
their positions would be as much the    
exceptions as are those who enter       
politics for the sake of the salary4 ,we
 shall return later to these            

excrescences4  ,of the three sources of 
income from politics1 only one remains  
to be considered--the non-legislative   
but salaried offices with which the     
politician may be rewarded for his      
pains4 ,this is the first and surest    
means by which the party keeps its great
 and indispensable army of retainers    
contentedly at work4 ,and here the      
familiar evils enter in which are so    
often held up for discussion in         
,germany4 ,an ,american reformer1 in    
criticizing the condition of the        
parties1 is very apt not to distinguish 
between the giving out of offices to    
professional politicians as rewards and 
the later corrupt using of these offices
 by their incumbents4 ,and as soon as   
the politician receives an income from  
the public treasury1 the reformer will  
cry 8stop thief40 ,the so-called 8spoils
 system10 by which the federal offices  
in the patronage of the ,president are  
distributed to those who have worked    
hardest in the interests of the         

victorious party1 will occupy our       
attention when we come to the political 
problems of the day4 ,we shall have then
 to mention the advantages and          
disadvantages of civil service reform4  
,but it must be said right here that1   
however commendable this reform movement
 may be in many respects1 and in none   
more than in the increased efficiency   
which it has effected in the public     
service1 nevertheless the spoils system 
cannot be called dishonourable1 and no  
one should characterize professional    
politicians as abominable reprobates    
because they are willing to accept civil
 positions as rewards from the party for
 which they have laboured4  ,it is a    
usage which has nothing to do with the  
corrupt exploitation of office1 and the 
,german who derives from it the         
favourite prejudice against the         
political life of the ,united ,states   
must not suppose that he has thereby    
justified the ,german conception of     
office4 ,quite on the contrary1 no one  

ever expects the ,german government to  
bestow offices1 titles1 or orders on    
members of the political opposition1 to 
confirm1 for instance1 an independent   
for the position of ,landrat or a social
 democrat for city councillor1 while    
co-operation in the plans of the        
government never goes unrewarded4 ,above
 all1 a ,german never looks on his      
official salary as a sort of present    
taken from the public treasury1 but as  
the ordinary equivalent of the work     
which he does1 while the ,american has a
 curious conception of the matter quite 
foreign to the ,german1 which is the    
ground for his contempt of the 8spoils  
system40 ,to illustrate by a short      
example3 a state attorney who had been  
elected to the same office time after   
time1 was asked to renew his candidacy  
at the coming elections4 ,but he        
declined to do so1 and explained that he
 had been supported for twenty years out
 of the public funds1 and that it was   
therefore high time for him to earn his 

own living by the ordinary practice of  
law4 ,a ,german cannot understand this  
conception1 traditional though it is in 
,america1 but he can easily see that the
 man who shares such views as to public 
salaries will naturally consider it an  
act of plunder when the party in power  
distributes the best public posts to its
 own followers4  ,the case would be     
somewhat different if the politicians   
who step into offices were essentially  
incapable or indolent1 though this is   
aside from the principle in question4   
,germans have recently become used to   
seeing a general or a merchant become   
minister4 ,in ,america it is a matter of
 course that a capable man is qualified1
 with the aid of technically trained    
subordinates1 for any office4 ,and no   
one denies that politicians make        
industrious office-holders4 ,and yet the
 same remarkable charge is always made1 
that the holder of an office receives a 
gift from the public chest4  ,these     
considerations are not meant as an      

argument against civil service reform1  
which is supported by the best men of   
both parties1 although they are not     
exactly the most zealous party          
8heelers40 ,but the superficial         
assertion must be refuted1 that the     
spoils system shows lack of morality in 
party politics4 ,no unprejudiced        
observer would find anything improper in
 the attitude of those who endure the   
thankless and arduous labours imposed by
 the party for the sake of a profitable 
position in the government service4 ,it 
would be equally just to reproach the   
,german official with lack of character 
because he rises to a high position in  
the service of the government4 ,if this 
were the true idea1 ,grover ,cleveland1 
who has done more than any other        
president for the cause of civil service
 reform1 could be said actually to have 
favored the spoils system4 ,in an       
admirable essay on the independence of  
the executive1 he says3--  8,i have no  
sympathy with the intolerant people who1

 without the least appreciation of the  
meaning of party work and service1      
superciliously affect to despise all    
those who apply for office as they would
 those guilty of a flagrant misdemeanor4
 ,it will indeed be a happy day when the
 ascendancy of party principles and the 
attainment of wholesome administration  
will be universally regarded as         
sufficient rewards of individual and    
legitimate party service4444 ,in the    
meantime why should we indiscriminately 
hate those who seek office8 ,they may   
not have entirely emancipated themselves
 from the belief that the offices should
 pass with party victory1 but in all    
other respects they are in many         
instances as honest1 as capable1 and as 
intelligent as any of us40  ,there are  
such strong arguments for separating    
public office from the service of party1
 that every reformer is amply justified 
if on his native soil he stigmatizes the
 present usage as corrupt4 ,but the     
representation that all professional    

politicians are despicable scamps       
because they work for their party in the
 hope of being preferred for public     
office1 is unjust and misleading when it
 is spread abroad in other countries4   
,abuses there are1 to be sure1 and the  
situation is such as to attract swarms  
of worthless persons4 ,it is true1      
moreover1 that even in the higher strata
 of professional politics there is      
usually less of broad-minded            
statesmanship than of ingenious         
compromise and clever exploitation of   
the opposing party's weaknesses and of  
popular whims and prejudices4 ,petty    
methods are often more successful than  
enlightened ones1 and cunning men have  
better chances than those who are more  
high-minded4 ,in the lower strata1      
moreover1 where it is important to      
cajole the voting masses into the party 
fold1 it may be inevitable that men     
undertake and are rewarded for very     
questionable services4 ,nevertheless the
 association of party and office is not 

intrinsically improper4  ,in the same   
category of unjust reproaches1 finally1 
belongs the talk over the money paid    
into the party treasury4 ,it is1 of     
course1 true that the elections both    
great and small eat up vast sums of     
money2 the mountains of election        
pamphlets1 the special trains for       
candidates who journey from place to    
place in order to harangue the people at
 every rural railway station1 from the  
platform of the coach--,roosevelt is    
said at the last election in this way to
 have addressed three million           
persons--the banquet-halls and bands of 
music1 and the thousand other requisites
 of the contest are not to be had for   
nothing4 ,it is taken as a matter of    
course that the supporters of the party 
are taxed1 and of course just those will
 be apt to contribute who look for      
further material benefit in case of     
victory2 it is also expected that1 of   
course1 the larger industries will help 
the propaganda of the high-tariff party1

 that the silver mine owners will       
generously support bimetallism1 and that
 the beer brewers will furnish funds    
when it is a question between them and  
the ,prohibitionists4 ,but in the       
endeavour to hurt the opposing party    
some persons make such contributions a  
ground of despicable slander4 ,any one  
who considers the matter really without 
prejudice will see not only that the    
,american party politics are a necessary
 institution1 but also that they are    
infinitely cleaner and better than the  
,european newspaper reader will ever be 
inclined to believe4                    
,,chapter ,,three                       
,the ,president   ,the ,president of the
 ,united ,states is elected by the      
people every four years4 ,he may be     
re-elected and1 so far as the           
,constitution provides1 he may hold the 
first position in the land for life1 by 
terms always of four years at a time4 ,a
 certain unwritten law1 however1 forbids
 his holding office for more than two   

terms4 ,george ,washington was elected  
for two terms1 and after him ,thomas    
,jefferson1 ,james ,madison1 ,james     
,monroe1 ,andrew ,jackson1 ,abraham     
,lincoln1 ,ulysses ,grant1 ,grover      
,cleveland1 and ,william ,mc,kinley2    
that is1 nine out of twenty presidents  
have received this distinction4 ,no     
president has served a third term of    
office1 because since ,washington       
declined to be nominated for a third    
time the conservative sense of the      
,americans has cherished the doctrine   
that no man should stand at the helm of 
the nation longer than eight years4  ,at
 the present day it is urged from many  
sides that the provisions of the        
,constitution ought to be changed4 ,it  
is said that the frequently recurring   
presidential elections1 with the popular
 excitement which they involve during   
the months immediately preceding1 are an
 appreciable disturbance to economic    
life and that the possibility of being  
re-elected is too apt to make the       

,president in the first term of office  
govern his actions with an eye to his   
second election4 ,it is proposed1       
therefore1 that every ,president shall  
be elected for six years and that       
re-election shall be forbidden by the   
,constitution4 ,experience of the past1 
however1 hardly speaks for such a plan4 
,the inclination shown by the ,president
 to yield to popular clamours or the    
instances of his party has been very    
different with different presidents1 but
 on the whole it has not been noticeably
 greater in the first than in the second
 term of office4 ,more especially1 the  
disadvantages which come from the       
excitement over elections are certainly 
made up for by the moral advantage which
 the act of election brings to the      
people4 ,the presidential election is a 
period of considerable reflection and   
examination of the country's condition1 
and everybody is worked up to           
considerable interest2 and the more     
changeable the times are so much the    

more rapidly new problems come up4      
,therefore there should be no thought of
 putting the decisive public elections1 
with their month-long discussions1 at   
further intervals apart4  ,the most     
important duties and prerogatives of the
 ,president involve foreign as well as  
domestic affairs1 and of the latter the 
most important concern the              
administration2 a less important1       
although by no means an insignificant1  
part of his duties relates to           
legislation4 ,the ,president is         
commander-in-chief of the army and of   
the navy1 and with the approval of a    
majority of the ,senate he appoints     
ambassadors1 consuls1 judges of the     
,supreme ,court1 and all the higher     
federal officials4 ,subject to the      
ratification of two-thirds of the       
,senate1 he concludes treaties with     
foreign powers and regulates diplomatic 
relations4 ,he has1 moreover1 the right 
to send back inside of ten days1 with   
his veto1 any bill which ,congress has  

passed1 and in this case the bill can   
become law only by being once more voted
 on by ,congress and receiving in both  
houses a two-third's majority4 ,the     
,president has the power to convene both
 houses in special sessions1 and is     
expected to send messages to both houses
 when they meet1 in which he describes  
the political situation of the country  
and recommends new measures4 ,in        
addition to this he has the right of    
pardon and the right to afford          
protection to individual states against 
civil violence1 if they cannot          
themselves quell the disturbance4  ,such
 are the principal features of the      
presidential office1 and it is clear    
that here as everywhere in ,american    
civil law the spirit of precaution has  
tried from the outset to limit the      
possibilities of abuse4 ,although he is 
commander-in-chief of the army1 the     
,president has not the right to declare 
war1 this right being given to          
,congress4 ,the ,president negotiates   

with foreign representatives and signs  
all treaties1 but these are not valid   
until the ,senate has approved them with
 a two-thirds vote4 ,he nominates       
government officials1 but once again    
only with the sanction of the ,senate4  
,the ,president convenes ,congress and  
recommends matters for its legislative  
consideration1 but the ,president       
cannot1 like the ,german ,government1   
lay bills before ,congress for its      
ratification4 ,while the ,president     
sends his message to ,congress his      
ministers have not1 as in ,germany1 a   
seat in parliament1 and cannot1         
therefore1 in the debates actively      
support the ,president's policy4  ,the  
,president is authorized to veto any    
bill that is passed through ,congress1  
but his veto is not final since the bill
 can still become a law if ,congress is 
sufficiently of one accord to override  
his veto4 ,therefore a whimsical or     
arbitrary president would find small    
scope for his vagaries so long as he    

keeps within his powers1 while if he    
exceeds them he can be impeached1 like a
 king under old ,english law4 ,the      
,house of ,representatives can at any   
time file complaint against the         
,president if he is suspected of treason
 or corruption or any other crime4 ,in  
such case the ,senate1 under the        
chairmanship of a judge of the ,supreme 
bench1 constitutes a court of trial     
which is empowered to depose the        
,president from office4 ,up to the      
present time but one president1 ,andrew 
,johnson1 has been impeached1 and he was
 acquitted4 ,the seditionary ambition of
 a man who should try to gain complete  
control1 to overthrow the ,constitution1
 and at the head of the army1 or of the 
populace1 or1 as might be more likely1  
of the millionaires1 to institute a     
monarchy1 would have no chance of       
success4 ,neither a ,napoleon nor a     
,boulanger would be possible in         
,america4  ,in spite of these           
provisions1 it is to be observed that   

tremendous power is in the hands of this
 one man4 ,thousands and thousands of   
officials appointed by his predecessor  
can be removed by a stroke of his pen1  
and none can take their places except   
those whom he nominates4 ,and he can put
 a barrier before any law such as       
,congress could only in exceptional     
cases ride over4 ,cleveland1 for        
instance1 who to be sure made the freest
 use of his authority in this respect1  
vetoed more than three hundred bills1   
and only twice did ,congress succeed in 
setting aside his veto4 ,the ,president 
may negotiate with foreign powers up to 
the point where a loyal and patriotic   
,congress has hardly any choice but to  
acquiesce4 ,the ,president can virtually
 force ,congress to a declaration of    
war1 and if insurrection breaks out in  
any state he can at his pleasure employ 
the federal troops on behalf of one or  
the other faction1 and when war has once
 been declared the presidential         
authority grows hourly in importance4   

,the army and navy stand under his      
direction1 and since the ,constitution  
makes him responsible for the           
maintenance of law and order in the     
country he becomes virtually dictator in
 case of an insurrection4 ,bryce says   
very justly that ,abraham ,lincoln      
exercised more power than any man in    
,england since ,oliver ,cromwell1 and   
the anti-imperialistic papers of        
,america always assert that in their    
,philippine policy ,mc,kinley and       
,roosevelt have taken on themselves more
 authority than any ,european monarch1  
excepting the ,czar1 could acquire4  ,in
 two respects the ,president is more    
important as compared with the          
representatives of the people1 even in  
times of peace1 than the king of        
,england or the ,president of ,france4  
,firstly1 his cabinet is entirely       
independent of the voice of parliament1 
and it has often been the case that     
while a majority in ,congress sharply   
opposed the party policy of the         

,president1 this has not influenced the 
composition of his cabinet4 ,the cabinet
 ministers are the representatives of   
the presidential policy1 and they do not
 even take part in the doings of        
,congress4  ,secondly1 the ,president is
 not less but rather more than ,congress
 a representative of the people4 ,a     
monarch who takes up a position against 
the parliament thereby antagonizes the  
people4 ,the ,president of ,france is   
elected by the people1 but only through 
their parliamentary representatives2 the
 chambers elect him1 and therefore he is
 not an independent authority4 ,the     
,president of the ,united ,states1 on   
the other hand1 is in his own person a  
symbol of the collective will of the    
people1 as opposed to the different     
members of ,congress1 which is of       
diverse composition and chosen on more  
local issues4 ,there is moral authority1
 therefore1 vested in the ,president4   
,he is the true will of the people and  
his veto is their conscience4 ,it is    

almost astonishing that a ,republican   
democracy should have put such          
tremendous power into the hands of a    
single man4 ,it is the more striking    
inasmuch as the ,declaration of         
,independence related at length the sins
 of the ,english monarch4 ,but we must  
bear in mind that the framers of the    
,constitution had to make a new and     
dangerous experiment1 wherein they were 
much more afraid of that so far unknown 
and incalculable factor1 the rule of the
 people1 than the power of that single  
person whose administrative             
possibilities they had1 in the colonial 
days1 been able to observe in the       
governors of the several states4 ,these 
had been diminutive but1 on the whole1  
encouraging examples4 ,before all else  
the great and incomparable ,george      
,washington1 the popular1 dashing1 and  
yet cautious aristocrat1 had presided at
 the deliberations in which the         
,constitution was discussed1 and had    
himself stood tangibly before the       

popular mind as the very ideal of a     
president4  ,thus the ,president stands 
with tremendous powers at the helm of   
the nation4 ,who has sought him out for 
this position from the hundreds of      
thousands1 whose hot ambition has led   
them to dream of such a distinction1 and
 who has finally established him in this
 highest elective office on the face of 
the earth8 ,the ,constitution makes no  
other provision for the selection of a  
candidate than that he shall have been  
born in the land1 that he shall be at   
least thirty-five years old1 and shall  
have resided at least fourteen years in 
this his native country4 ,on the other  
hand1 the ,constitutional provisions for
 his election are highly complicated1   
much more so indeed than the            
circumstances really call for4 ,in fact1
 while the electoral procedures still   
comply with the wording of the original 
,constitution1 actual conditions have so
 changed since the establishment of the 
,union that the prescribed machinery is 

not only partly unnecessary1 but in some
 cases even works in opposition to what 
had been originally intended1 and       
inconsistently with itself4 ,the law    
requires1 merely to mention the main    
point1 that every state shall elect by  
popular vote a certain number of men who
 are called electors1 and that a        
majority of the electors shall choose   
the ,president4 ,for each state the     
number of electors is the same as that  
of the representatives which it sends to
 both houses of ,congress together2 it  
depends1 therefore1 on the number of    
inhabitants4 ,out of the #ddg electors1 
#cf come from the ,state of ,new ,york1 
#cb from ,pennsylvania1 #bd from        
,illinois1 #bc from ,ohio1 #ae from     
,massachusetts1 but only #d from        
,colorado1 ,florida1 or ,new ,hampshire2
 and only #c from ,delaware1 ,idaho1    
,north ,dakota1 ,utah1 and several      
others4 ,in case the vote of the        
electors should give no absolute        
majority to any candidate1 the ,house of

 ,representatives has to elect the      
,president from among the three         
candidates who have received the        
greatest number of electoral votes4     
,the intention of the men who framed the
 ,constitution in making these          
roundabout electoral provisions is clear
 enough2 the election was not meant to  
be made directly by the people4 ,when in
 the first discussions of the           
,constitution it was suggested that the 
,president be elected directly by the   
people1 some of the framers called the  
scheme chimerical and others called it  
impracticable4 ,indeed1 some even       
doubted whether the people would be     
competent to choose the electors since1 
it was said1 they would know too little 
about the persons and so would be liable
 to grave errors4 ,this mistrust went so
 far1 it is said1 that leaving the      
election of the highest executives      
directly to the people seemed as        
unnatural as asking a blind man to match
 colors4 ,the first plan which was at   

all approved by the ,assembly was that  
,congress should elect the ,president2  
and not until later did it adopt the    
system of electors4 ,it was hoped that  
for the electoral college the people    
would select the best1 most experienced1
 and most cautious men of the country1  
and that these men should be left quite 
free to choose the highest executive as 
carefully and conscientiously as        
possible3 and so it really happened when
 the electors met for the first time and
 fixed unanimously on ,george           
,washington4  ,but the situation is     
somewhat changed to-day3 for a hundred  
years it has been the case that the     
electors have inevitably been deprived  
of all free choice4 ,they are as passive
 as a printed ballot4 ,they are no      
longer elected in order to come to a    
decision as to the best ,president1 but 
merely to vote for this or that special 
candidate as designated1 and for a      
hundred years not a single elector has  
disappointed this expectation4 ,thus the

 election of the ,president is          
practically accomplished on the day in  
,november when the electors are voted   
for4 ,mc,kinley defeated ,bryan for the 
,presidency on the ninth of ,november1  
#aijj1 although no elector had          
officially voted for either one or the  
other2 nor would he have a chance to    
vote until the first day of ,january1   
when he was mechanically to deposit his 
ballot4  ,the indirect election         
prescribed by the ,constitution has     
therefore become to all intents and     
purposes a direct one1 and the whole    
machinery of electors is really         
superfluous4 ,it may1 indeed1 be said to
 have become contradictory in itself4   
,since the original intention to make an
 electoral college of the best citizens 
has been frustrated by the popular      
spirit of self-determination1 the       
electoral apparatus can have to-day no  
other significance than to give         
expression to the voice of the majority4
 ,but now just this it is in the power  

of the electoral system completely to   
suppress4 ,let us suppose that only two 
candidates are in question4 ,if the     
election were simply a direct one1 of   
course that candidate would win who     
received the most votes2 but with       
electors this is not the case1 because  
the number of electors who are pledged  
to vote for these two candidates need   
not at all correspond to the number of  
ballots cast on the two sides4 ,if in   
the ,state of ,new ,york1 for instance1 
three-fifths of the population are for  
the first candidate and two-fifths for  
the second1 the three-fifths majority   
determines the whole list of #cf        
electors for the first candidate1 and   
not an elector would be chosen for the  
other4 ,now it can very well happen that
 a candidate in those states in which he
 secures all the electors will have     
small majorities1 that is1 his opponent 
will have large minorities1 while his   
opponent in the states which vote for   
him will have large majorities2 and in  

this way the majority of electors will  
be pledged for that candidate who has   
received actually the smaller number of 
votes4 ,it is a fact that both ,hayes in
 #ahgg and ,harrison in #ahhi were      
constitutionally elected for the        
,presidency by a minority of votes4     
,while in form the voters choose only   
the electors from their state1          
nevertheless these ballots thus actually
 count for a certain candidate4 ,at the 
last election #bib electors voted for   
,mc,kinley1 and #aee for ,bryan1 while  
for the ,mc,kinley electors #hcb1bhj    
more votes were cast than for the ,bryan
 electors4 ,we have already seen how it 
is that the best man will no longer1 as 
in ,washington's time1 be unequivocally 
elected by the people1 and why1 although
 a unanimous choice of ,president has   
not taken place since ,washington's     
time1 nevertheless no more than two     
candidates are ever practically in      
question4 ,it was for this that we have 
discussed the parties first4 ,the       

parties are the factor which makes it   
impossible for a ,president to be       
elected without a contest1 and which1 as
 early as #agig1 when the successor of  
,washington had to be nominated1 divided
 the people in two sections1 the        
supporters of ,jefferson and of ,adams4 
,at the same time1 however1 the parties 
prevent the division from going further1
 and bring it about that this population
 of millions of people compactly        
organizes itself for ,presidential      
elections in only two groups1 so that   
although never less than two1 still     
never more than two candidates really   
step into the arena4  ,for both great   
parties alike1 with their central and   
local committees1 with their            
professional politicians1 with their    
leaders and their followers1 whether    
engaging in politics out of interest or 
in hope of gain1 as an ideal or as      
sport--for all alike comes the great day
 when the ,president is to be elected4  
,for years previous the party leaders   

will have combined and dissolved and    
speculated and intrigued1 and for years 
the friends of the possible candidates  
have spoken loudly in the newspapers1   
since here1 of course1 not only the     
election but also the nomination of the 
candidate depends on the people4        
,although the election is in ,november1 
the national conventions for nominating 
the party candidates come generally in  
,july4 ,each state sends its delegation1
 numbering twice as many as the members 
of ,congress from that state1 and each  
delegation is once more duly elected by 
a convention of representatives chosen  
by the actual voters out of their party 
lists4 ,in these national conventions   
the great battles of the country are    
fought1 that is1 within the party1 and  
here the general trend of national      
politics is determined4 ,it is the great
 trial moment for the party and the     
party heroes4 ,at the last election     
,mc,kinley and ,bryan were the opposing 
candidates1 and it is interesting to    

trace in their elections by the         
respective conventions two great types  
of party decision4  ,mc,kinley had grown
 slowly in public favour2 he was the    
accomplished politician1 the interesting
 leader of ,congress1 the sympathetic   
man who had no enemies4 ,when the       
,republican convention met at ,chicago1 
in #ahhh1 he was a member of the        
delegation from ,ohio and was pledged to
 do his utmost for the nomination of    
,john ,sherman4 ,the ballots were cast  
five different times and every time no  
one candidate was found to have a       
majority4 ,on the sixth trial one vote  
was cast for ,mc,kinley1 and the        
announcement of this vote created an    
uproar4 ,a sudden shifting of the       
opinions took place amid great          
acclamation1 and the delegations all    
went over to him4 ,he jumped up on a    
stool and called loudly through the hall
 that he should be offended by any man  
who voted for him since he himself had  
been pledged to vote for ,sherman4      

,finally a compromise was found in      
,benjamin ,harrison4 ,at the convention 
in ,minneapolis four years later        
,mc,kinley was chairman1 and once more  
the temptation came to him4 ,the        
opponents of ,harrison wished to oppose 
his re-election by uniting on the ,ohio 
statesman1 and again it was ,mc,kinley  
himself who turned the vote this time in
 favour of ,harrison4 ,his own time came
 finally in #ahif4 ,in the national     
convention at ,st4 ,louis #ffa votes    
were cast in the first ballot for       
,mc,kinley1 while #hd were cast for     
,thomas ,reed1 #fa for ,quay1 #eh for   
,morton1 and #ce for ,allison4 ,and     
when1 in #aijj1 the national convention 
met in ,philadelphia1 #ibf votes were   
straightway cast for ,mc,kinley1 and    
none opposing4 ,his was the steady1     
sure1 and deserved rise from step to    
step through tireless exertions for his 
party and his country4  ,bryan was a    
young and unknown lawyer1 who had sat   
for a couple of years in the ,house of  

,representatives like any other         
delegate1 and had warmly upheld         
bimetallism4 ,at the ,democratic        
national convention at ,chicago in #ahif
 almost nobody knew him4 ,but it was a  
curious crisis in the ,democratic party4
 ,it had been victorious four years     
previous in its campaign for ,cleveland 
against ,harrison1 but the party as such
 had enjoyed no particular satisfaction4
 ,the self-willed and determined        
,cleveland1 who had systematically      
opposed ,congress tooth and nail1 had   
fallen out with his party and nowhere on
 the horizon had appeared a new leader4 
,and after a true statesman like        
,cleveland had come to grief1 the petty 
politicians1 who had neither ideas nor a
 programme1 came to their own4 ,every   
one was looking for a strong personality
 when ,bryan stepped forth to ingratiate
 himself and his silver programme in the
 affections of his party4 ,his arguments
 were not new1 but his catch-words were 
well studied1 and here at last stood a  

fascinating personality with a forceful 
temperament which was all aglow1 and    
with a voice that sounded like the tones
 of an organ4 ,and when he cried out1   
8,you must not nail humanity to a cross 
of gold10 it was as if an omen had      
appeared4 ,he became at once the        
,democratic candidate for the           
,presidency1 and six months later six   
and one-half million votes were cast for
 him against the seven million for      
,mc,kinley4 ,nor did the silver         
intoxication succumb to its first       
defeat4 ,when the ,democrats met again  
in #aijj1 all the endeavours of those   
who had adhered to a gold currency were 
seen to be futile4 ,once again the      
silver-tongued ,nebraskan was carried   
about in triumph1 and not until its     
second defeat did the ,democratic party 
wake up4 ,bryanism is now a dead issue1 
and before the next ,presidential       
election the programme of the           
,democratic party will be entirely      
reconstructed4  ,thus the presidents of 

the nation grow organically out of the  
party structure1 and the parties find in
 turn their highest duty and their      
reward in electing their ,president4    
,the people organized in a party and the
 chief executive which that party elects
 belong necessarily together4 ,they are 
the base and the summit4 ,nothing but   
death can overthrow the decision of the 
people2 death did overthrow1 indeed1 the
 last decision after a few months1 in   
,september1 #aija1 when the cowardly    
assassination accomplished by a ,polish 
anarchist brought the administration of 
,mc,kinley to an end4 ,as the           
,constitution provides1 the man whom the
 people had elected to the relatively   
insignificant office of ,vice-,president
 became master in the ,white ,house4    
,the ,vice-,presidency is from the point
 of view of political logic the least   
satisfactory place in ,american         
politics4 ,very early in the history of 
the ,united ,states the filling of this 
office occasioned many difficulties1 and

 at that time the provisions of the     
,constitution referring to it were      
completely worked over4 ,the            
,constitution had originally said that  
the man who had the second largest      
number of votes for the ,presidency     
should become ,vice-,president4 ,this   
was conceived in the spirit of the time 
when the two-party system did not exist 
and when it was expected that the       
electors should not be restricted by the
 voting public in their choice of the   
best man4 ,as soon1 however1 as the     
opposition between the two parties came 
into being1 the necessary result of such
 provision was that the presidential    
candidate of the defeated party should  
become ,vice-,president1 and therefore  
that ,president and ,vice-,president    
should always represent diametrically   
opposed tendencies4 ,a change in the    
,constitution did away with this        
political impossibility4 ,each elector  
was instructed to deposit separate      
ballots for ,president and              

,vice-,president1 and that candidate    
became ,vice-,president who received the
 largest number of votes for that       
office1 both offices being thus         
invariably filled by candidates of the  
same party4  ,in spite of this the      
position has developed rather           
unsatisfactorily for an obvious reason4 
,the ,constitution condemns the         
,vice-,president1 so long as the        
,president holds office1 to an          
ornamental inactivity4 ,it is his duty  
to preside at sessions of the ,senate1 a
 task which he for the most part        
performs silently1 and which has not    
nearly the political significance       
enjoyed by the ,speaker of the ,house of
 ,representatives4 ,on the other hand1  
men still in the prime of life are      
almost always elected to the            
,presidency2 the possibility is         
therefore almost always lost sight of   
that the ,president can die before the  
expiration of his four years' term of   
office4 ,the result has been that less  

distinguished men1 who have1            
nevertheless1 served their parties1 are 
usually chosen for this insignificant   
and passive rle4 ,the office is designed
 to be an honour and a consolation to   
them1 and sometimes for one reason or   
another their candidacy is supposed     
otherwise to strengthen the outlook of  
the party4 ,it is not accident that     
while in the several states the         
,lieutenant-,governor is very often the 
next man to be elected ,governor1 it has
 never so far happened that a           
,vice-,president has been elected to the
 ,presidency4  ,now in the unexpected   
event of the ,president's death a man   
stands at the helm whom no one really   
wants to see there2 and it has five     
times happened that the chief executive 
of the nation has died in office1 and   
four times1 indeed1 only a few months   
after being installed1 so that the      
,vice-,president has had to guide the   
destinies of the country for almost four
 years4 ,when ,tyler succeeded to the   

place of ,harrison in #ahda1 there arose
 at once unfavourable disputes with the 
,whig party1 which had elected him4     
,when1 after the murder of ,lincoln in  
#ahfe1 ,johnson took the reins1 it was  
his own ,republican party which         
regretted having elected this impetuous 
man to the ,vice-,presidency2 and when1 
in #ahha1 after the assassination of    
,garfield1 his successor1 ,arthur1      
undertook the office1 and filled it     
indeed by no means badly1 considerable  
consternation was felt throughout the   
country when people saw that so ordinary
 a professional politician was to       
succeed ,garfield1 on whom the country  
had pinned its faith4  ,on the death of 
,mc,kinley a ,vice-,president succeeded 
him toward whom1 in one respect at      
least1 the feeling was very different4  
,if ever a man was born to become       
,president that man was ,theodore       
,roosevelt4 ,nevertheless1 he had not   
been elected in expectation of becoming 
,president1 and at first the whole      

country felt once more that it was a    
case which had lain outside of all      
reasonable calculations4 ,roosevelt's   
friends had asked him to make a         
sacrifice and to accept a thankless     
office because they knew that his name  
on the ballot of the ,republican        
party--for his ,rough ,rider reputation 
during the war was still fresh--would be
 pretty sure to bring about the election
 of ,mc,kinley4 ,the opponents also of  
this strong and energetic young man1    
against his stoutest protestations1     
upheld his candidacy with every means in
 their power4 ,firstly because they     
wanted to get rid of him as ,governor of
 the ,state of ,new ,york1 where he made
 life too hard for the regular          
politicians1 and secondly because they  
relied on the tradition that holding the
 ,vice-,presidency would invalidate him 
as a ,presidential candidate in #aijd4  
,neither friends nor enemies had thought
 of such a possibility as ,mc,kinley's  
death4 ,roosevelt's friends had rightly 

judged2 the hero of ,san ,juan did bring
 victory to his party4 ,his enemies1 on 
the other hand1 had entirely missed     
their mark not only on the outcome1 but 
from the very beginning4 ,odell became  
,governor of ,new ,york1 and quite      
unexpectedly he stood out even more     
stoutly against the political           
corruptionists4 ,and1 on the other hand1
 ,roosevelt's impulsive nature quickly  
found ways to break the traditional     
silence of the ,vice-,president and to  
keep himself before the eyes of the     
world4 ,there is no doubt that in spite 
of all traditions his incumbency would  
have been a preparation for the         
presidential candidacy4 ,but when1      
through the crime committed at ,buffalo1
 everything came out so differently from
 that which the politicians expected1 it
 seemed to the admirers of ,roosevelt   
almost like the tragic hand of fate2 he 
had done his best to attain on his own  
account the ,presidency1 and now it came
 to him almost as the gift of chance4   

,only the next election may be expected 
to do him full justice4  ,the successive
 moments in his rapid rise are generally
 known4 ,roosevelt was born in ,new     
,york in #aheh1 his father being a      
prosperous merchant and well-known      
philanthropist1 and a descendant of an  
old ,knickerbocker family4 ,the son was 
prepared for college and went to        
,harvard1 where he made a special study 
of history and political economy4 ,after
 that he travelled in ,europe1 and when 
he was still only twenty-four years old1
 he plunged into politics4 ,he soon     
obtained a ,republican seat in the state
 legislature of ,new ,york1 and there   
commenced his tireless fight for reform 
in municipal and state administration4  
,in #ahhi ,president ,harrison appointed
 him ,commissioner of the ,civil        
,service1 but he resigned this position 
in #ahie in order to become ,chief of   
,police in ,new ,york4 ,only two years  
later he was once more called from      
municipal to national duties4 ,he was   

appointed ,assistant ,secretary of the  
,navy4 ,all this time his administrative
 duties did not interrupt his literary1 
historical1 and scientific work4 ,he had
 begun his career as an author with his 
studies in the history of the navy and  
his admirable biographies of ,american  
statesmen4 ,when he was thirty years old
 he wrote the first part of his great   
work1 8,the ,winning of the ,west10 and 
often between the publication of his    
scientific works he published lesser    
books1 describing his adventures as     
huntsman in the primeval wilderness1 and
 later on volumes in which his social   
and political essays were collected4    
,then the ,spanish ,war arose and the   
,assistant ,secretary could not bear to 
sit at his desk while others were moving
 to the field of battle4 ,he gathered   
about him a volunteer regiment of       
cavalry1 in which the dare-devil        
cow-punchers of the prairie rode side by
 side with the adventurous scions of the
 most distinguished families in ,boston 

and ,new ,york4 ,roosevelt's friend1    
,wood1 of the regular army1 became      
,colonel in this soon-famous regiment1  
and ,roosevelt himself                  
,lieutenant-,colonel4 ,a few days after 
they had successfully stormed the hill  
at ,san ,juan1 ,wood became ,general and
 ,roosevelt ,colonel4  ,his native      
,state of ,new ,york received him on his
 home-coming with general rejoicing1 and
 he found himself a few months later    
,governor of the ,state4 ,at ,albany he 
showed tremendous energy1 put through   
popular reforms1 and fought against the 
encroachments of the industrial         
corporations4 ,it had been his personal 
wish to be ,governor for a second year1 
but this was denied him by the admirable
 doings of his ,eastern enemies and     
,western admirers at the national       
convention of ,june1 #aijj1 held in     
,pennsylvania1 where he was forced to   
become candidate for the position of    
,vice-,president4 ,on the #adth of      
,september1 #aija1 in ,buffalo1 he took 

the ,presidential oath of office4  ,at  
that time a quiet anxiety for the future
 was mingled with the honest sorrow     
which the whole land felt for the death 
of ,mc,kinley4 ,a nation which had been 
sunning itself in peace suddenly found  
itself under the leadership of an       
impulsive colonel of cavalry1 who       
carried in his hand the banner of war4  
,the nation was in the midst of an      
economic development which needed before
 everything else to have a mature and   
careful leader who was honoured and     
trusted by all classes1 and who would be
 able to effect some work of            
reconciliation between them2 when       
suddenly there stood in the place of a  
most conservative statesman an impetuous
 young man who was not intimately       
connected with industrial life1 who had 
for a long time made himself unpopular  
with party politicians1 and whom even   
his admirers in the land seemed hardly  
to trust on account of his hasty and    
determined impetuosity4 ,roosevelt had  

been envisaged by the masses1 through   
the cinematograph of the press1 in      
campaign hat and khaki uniform1 just in 
the attitude of taking ,san ,juan hill4 
,nearly everybody forgot that he had for
 a long time quietly carried on the     
exacting labours of ,police             
,commissioner in the largest city of the
 country2 and forgot how1 from his first
 year of study at ,harvard on1 every day
 had been given to preparing himself for
 public service and for acquiring a     
thorough understanding of all the       
political1 social1 and economic problems
 which the country had to face2 they    
forgot also that he had wielded the     
sword for only a few months1 but the pen
 of the historian for about two decades4
 ,roosevelt's first public utterance was
 a pledge to continue unchanged the     
peaceful policy of his predecessor and  
always to consider the national         
prosperity and honour4 ,still1 people   
felt that no successor would be able to 
command that experience1 maturity1 and  

party influence which ,mc,kinley had    
had4  ,there have been differences of   
opinion1 and1 as was to be expected1    
complaints and criticisms have come from
 the midst of his own party4 ,yet anyone
 who looks at his whole administration  
will see that in those first years      
,roosevelt won a more difficult and     
brilliant victory than he had won over  
the ,spanish troops4  ,he had three     
virtues which especially overcame all   
small criticism4 ,the people felt1 in   
the first place1 that a moral force was 
here at work which was more powerful    
than any mere political address or      
diplomatic subtlety4 ,an immediate      
ethical force was here felt which owned 
to ideas above any party1 and set inner 
ideals above merely outward success4    
,roosevelt's second virtue was courage4 
,a certain purely ethical ideal exalted 
above all petty expediencies was for him
 not only the nucleus of his own creed1 
but was also his spring of action2 and  
he took no account of personal dangers4 

,here was the keynote of all his        
speeches--it is not enough to approve of
 what is right1 it is equally necessary 
to act for it fearlessly and            
unequivocally4 ,then he went on to his  
work1 and if1 indeed1 in complicated    
political situations the ,president has 
had at times to clinch some points by   
aid of compromise1 nevertheless the     
nation has felt with growing confidence 
that at no serious moment has he wavered
 a hair's breadth from the straight line
 of his convictions1 and that he has had
 the courage to disregard everything but
 what he held to be right4 ,and1        
thirdly1 ,roosevelt had the virtue of   
being sincere4  ,mc,kinley also had     
purposed to do right1 but he had hardly 
an occasion for displaying great courage
 since so incomparably discreet a       
politician as he was could avoid every  
conflict with his associates1 and he was
 ever the leader on highways which the  
popular humour had indicated4 ,thus the 
masses never felt that he was at bottom 

lacking in courage or that he always put
 off responsibility on others4 ,the     
masses did1 however1 instinctively feel 
that ,mc,kinley's astute and kindly     
words were not always sincere2 his words
 were often there to conceal something  
which was locked up behind his          
,napoleonic forehead4 ,and now there    
succeeded him an enthusiast who brimmed 
over with plain expressions of what he  
felt1 and whose words were so           
convincingly candid and so without      
reservation that every one had the      
feeling of being in the personal        
confidence of the ,president4  ,there   
was a good deal more besides his moral  
earnestness1 his courage1 and his frank 
honesty which contributed to            
,roosevelt's entire success4 ,his lack  
of prejudice won the lower classes1 and 
his aristocratic breeding and education 
won the upper1 while the middle classes 
were enthusiastic over his              
sportsmanship4 ,no ,president had been  
more unprejudiced or more truly         

democratic4 ,he met the poor miner on   
the same footing as he met the mine     
owner2 he invited the negro to the      
,white ,house2 he sat down and broke    
bread with the cow-boys2 and when he    
travelled he first shook the sooty hand 
of the locomotive engineer before he    
greeted the gentlemen who had gathered  
about in their silk hats4 ,and1         
nevertheless1 he was in many years the  
first real aristocrat to become         
,president4 ,the changes in the ,white  
,house itself were typical4 ,this       
venerable ,presidential dwelling had    
been1 up to ,roosevelt's time1 in its   
inner arrangements a dreary combination 
of bare offices1 somewhat crudely       
decorated private dwelling1 and         
cheerless reception-halls4 ,to-day it is
 a very proper palace1 containing many  
fine works of art1 and office-seekers no
 longer have access to the inner rooms4 
,his predecessors1 the ,clevelands and  
,harrisons and ,mc,kinleys1 had been1 in
 fact1 very respectable philistines4    

,they had come from the middle classes  
of the country1 which are in thought and
 feeling very different from that upper 
class which1 up to a short time ago1 had
 bothered itself less about practical   
politics than about general culture1    
literature1 art1 criticism1 and broadly 
conceived industrial operations1        
combined with social high-life4 ,this   
class1 however1 had begun at length to  
feel that it ought not to disdain to    
notice political abuses1 to walk around 
the sea of troubles2 but had begun to   
take up arms and by opposing end them4  
,aristocracy had too long believed in   
political mercenaries4  ,roosevelt was  
the first to lift himself from these    
circles and become a great leader4 ,not 
alone the nobility of his character but 
also of his culture and traditions was  
shown in his entire habit of mind4      
,never in his speeches or writings has  
he cited that socially equalizing       
,declaration of ,independence1 and while
 his speeches at banquets and small     

gatherings of scholarly men have been   
incomparably more fascinating than his  
strenuous utterances to the voters1     
which he has made on his public tours1  
it has been often less the originality  
of his thoughts and still less the      
peculiarly taking quality of his        
delivery1 than the evidences of ripe    
culture1 which seem to pervade his      
political thought4 ,thus the smaller the
 circle to which he speaks the greater  
is his advantage2 and in speaking with  
him personally on serious problems one  
feels that distinction of thought1      
breadth of historical outlook1 and      
confidence in self have united in him to
 create a personality after the grand   
manner4  ,the impression which          
,roosevelt has made on his own country  
has not been more profound than his     
influence on the galaxy of nations4 ,at 
the very hour when the ,united ,states  
by their economic and territorial       
expansion stepped into the circle of    
world powers1 they had at their head a  

personality who1 for the first time in  
decades1 had been able to make a great1 
characteristic1 and1 most of all1 a     
dramatic impression on the peoples of   
,europe4 ,and if this hour was to be    
made the most of it was not enough that 
this leader should by his impulsiveness 
and self-will1 by his picturesque       
gestures and effective utterance1 chain 
the attention of the masses and excite  
all newspaper readers1 but he must also 
win the sympathies of the keener and    
finer minds1 and excite some sympathetic
 response in the heads of monarchies4 ,a
 second ,lincoln would never have been  
able to do this1 and just this was what 
the moment demanded4 ,the nation's      
world-wide position in politics needed  
some comparable expansion in the social 
sphere4 ,other peoples were to welcome  
their new comrades not only in the      
official bureau but also in the         
reception-room1 and this young          
,president had always at his command a  
graceful word1 a tactful expedient1 and 

a distinguished and hospitable address4 
,he was1 in short1 quite the right man4 
,any new person taking hold so firmly   
has to disturb a good many things2      
busied with so much1 he must overturn a 
good deal which would prefer to be left 
as it was4 ,the honest man has his      
goodly share of enemies4 ,and it is not 
to be denied that ,roosevelt has the    
failings of his virtues1 and these have 
borne their consequences4 ,many national
 dangers1 which are always to be feared 
from officials of ,roosevelt's type1 are
 largely obviated by the democratic     
customs of the country4 ,he lives amid a
 people not afraid to tell him the whole
 truth1 and every criticism reaches his 
ear4 ,and there is another thing not    
less important3 democracy forces every  
man into that line of activity for which
 the nation has elected him4 ,a somewhat
 overactive mind like ,roosevelt's has  
opinions on many problems1 and his      
exceptional political position easily   
betrays one at first into laying        

exceptional weight on one's own opinions
 about every subject4 ,but here the     
traditions of the country have been     
decisive2 it knows no ,president for    
general enlightenment1 but only a       
political leader whose private opinions 
outside politics are of no special      
importance4 ,in this as in other        
respects ,roosevelt has profited by     
experience4 ,there is no doubt that when
 he came to the ,white ,house he        
underestimated the power of ,senators   
and party leaders4 ,the invisible       
obstructions1 which were somehow hidden 
behind the scenes1 have no doubt given  
him many painful lessons4 ,in his       
endeavour to realize so many heartfelt  
convictions1 he has often met with      
arbitrary opposition made simply to let 
the new leader feel that obstructions   
can be put in his way unless he takes   
account of all sorts of factors4 ,but   
these warnings have really done him no  
harm1 for ,roosevelt was not the man to 
be brought by them into that party      

subserviency which had satisfied        
,mc,kinley4 ,they merely held him back  
from that reckless independence which is
 so foreign to the ,american party      
spirit1 and which in the later years of 
,cleveland's administration had worked  
so badly4 ,indeed1 one might say that   
the outcome has been an ideal synthesis 
of ,cleveland's consistency and         
,mc,kinley's power of adaptation4  ,for 
the fanatics of party ,roosevelt has    
been1 of course1 too independent1 while 
to the opponents of party he has seemed 
too yielding4 ,both of these criticisms 
have been made1 in many different       
connections1 since everywhere he has    
stood on a watch tower above the        
fighting lines of any party4 ,when in   
the struggles between capital and labour
 he seriously took into account the just
 grievances of the working-man he was   
denounced as a socialist4 ,and when he  
did not at once stretch out his hand to 
demolish all corporations he was called 
a servant of the stock exchange4 ,when  

he appointed officials in the ,south    
without reference to their party        
allegiance1 the ,republicans bellowed   
loudly2 and when he did not sanction the
 ,southern outrages against the negro   
the ,democrats became furious4 ,when    
everything is considered1 however1 he   
has observed the maxim of ,president    
,hayes1 8,he best serves his party who  
serves his country best40  ,in this     
there has been another factor at work4  
,roosevelt may not have had ,mc,kinley's
 broad experience in legislative        
matters1 nor have known the reefs and   
bars in the ,congressional sea1 but for 
the executive office1 for the           
administration of civil service and the 
army and navy1 for the solution of      
federal1 civil1 and municipal problems  
his years of study and travel have been 
an ideal preparation4 ,behind his       
practical training he has had the clear 
eye of the historian4 ,the ,united      
,states had their proverbial good luck  
when the ,mephistos of the ,republican  

party prevailed on the formidable       
,governor of ,new ,york to undertake the
 thankless office of ,vice-,president4  
,if this nomination had gone as the     
better politicians wished it to go1 the 
death of ,mc,kinley would have placed a 
typical politician at the helm instead  
of the best ,president which the country
 has had for many years4                
99       99       99       99       99  
,the ,president is closely associated   
with the ,cabinet1 and he is entirely   
free in his choice of advisers4 ,there  
is no question here of the influence of 
majorities on the composition of the    
ministry1 as there is in ,england or    
,france4 ,in this way ,cleveland1 in his
 second term1 had already announced by  
his choice of cabinet ministers that he 
should go his own ways regardless of the
 wire-pullers of the party4 ,he gave the
 ,secretaryship of ,war to his former   
private secretary2 the position of      
,postmaster-,general to his former      
partner in law2 the ,secretaryship of   

,justice to a jurist who had never taken
 any interest in politics4 ,his         
,secretary of the ,interior was a       
personal friend1 and the ,secretary of  
,foreign ,affairs a man who shortly     
before had left the ranks of the        
,republican party to become a ,cleveland
 ,democrat4 ,the ,secretaryships of     
,commerce and the ,treasury were the    
sole cabinet positions which were given 
to well-known party leaders4 ,the very  
opposite was to have been expected from 
a man of ,mc,kinley's disposition4 ,even
 when he became the chief executive of  
the country he remained the devoted     
servant of his party1 and just as his   
success was owing in large part to his  
sympathetic relations with all the      
important factions in ,congress1 so the 
success of his ,cabinet was due to his  
having chosen none but men who had      
enjoyed for a long time the confidence  
of the party4  ,roosevelt did at the    
outset an act of political piety when he
 left the ,cabinet1 for the time being1 

unchanged4 ,it was at the same time a   
capital move toward reassuring public   
opinion1 which had stood in fear of all 
sorts of surprises1 owing to his        
impetuous temperament4 ,slowly1 however1
 characteristic readjustments were made 
and a new cabinet office was created    
under his administration1 the           
,secretaryship of ,commerce and ,labour4
 ,this was entrusted to ,cortelyou1 who 
had been the private secretary of two   
presidents1 and who1 through his tact1  
discretion1 and industry1 had           
contributed not a little to their       
practical success4  ,the highest        
minister in order of rank is the        
,secretary of ,state1 who is the        
,minister for ,foreign ,affairs1 and    
who1 in the case that both the          
,president and ,vice-,president are     
unable to complete their term of office1
 assumes the ,presidency4 ,he is        
responsible for the diplomatic and      
consular representation of the ,united  
,states and he alone negotiates with    

representatives of foreign powers at    
,washington2 moreover1 it is through him
 that the ,president treats with the    
separate states of the ,union4 ,he      
publishes the laws passed by ,congress  
and adds his signature to all of the    
,president's official papers4 ,he is1   
next to the ,president1 so thoroughly   
the presiding spirit of the             
administration that it is hardly a      
mistake to compare him to the           
,chancellor of the ,german ,empire4 ,it 
happens at the moment that the present  
incumbent makes this comparison still   
more apt1 since ,john ,hay1 the present 
,secretary of ,foreign ,affairs1        
resembles ,count von ,blow in several   
ways4 ,both have been in former years   
closely affiliated to the national      
heroes of the century1 both have gotten 
their training in various diplomatic    
positions1 both are resourceful1        
accommodating1 and brilliant statesmen1 
and both have a thoroughly modern       
temperament1 intellectual independence  

bred of a broad view of the world1 both 
are apt of speech and have fine literary
 feeling4 ,hay was the secretary of     
,president ,lincoln until ,lincoln's    
death1 and has been secretary of the    
embassies in ,france1 ,austria1 and     
,spain1 has taken distinguished place in
 party politics1 has been ,assistant    
,secretary of ,state1 ,ambassador to    
,england1 and in #ahih was placed at the
 head of foreign affairs4 ,his          
8,ballads10 8,castilian ,days10 and     
8,life of ,lincoln10 call to mind his   
literary reputation4  ,how far foreign  
affairs are really conducted by the     
,president and how far by the ,secretary
 of ,state is1 of course1 hard to say1  
but1 at any rate1 the representatives of
 foreign powers treat officially only   
with the ,secretary1 who has his regular
 days for diplomatic consultation1 so   
that the relations of foreign           
representatives to the ,president1 after
 their first official introduction1     
remain virtually social4 ,yet all       

important measures are undertaken only  
with the approval of the ,president1 and
 on critical questions of international 
politics the whole cabinet deliberates  
together4 ,hay's personal influence came
 clearly before the public eye          
especially in his negotiations regarding
 the ,central ,american canal1 and in   
his handling of the ,russian and        
,asiatic problems4 ,particularly after  
the ,chinese imbroglio he came to be    
generally reputed the most astute and   
successful statesman of the day4 ,it    
will probably not be far wrong to       
ascribe such tendencies in ,american    
politics as are friendly toward ,england
 chiefly to his influence4 ,on the other
 hand1 he is supposed to feel no special
 leanings toward ,germany4  ,the        
,secretary of the ,treasury is next in  
rank4 ,he administers the ,federal      
finances to all intents and purposes    
like a large banker1 or1 rather1 like a 
bank president who should have ,congress
 for his board of directors4 ,since     

customs and international revenues are  
levied by the ,federal ,government1 and 
not by the several states1 and since the
 expenditures for the army and navy1 for
 the postal service1 and for the        
,federal ,government itself1 the        
national debt and the mints come under  
,federal administration1 financing      
operations are involved which are so    
extensive as to have a deciding         
influence on the banking system of the  
entire country4  ,the third official in 
rank is the ,secretary of ,war1 while   
the ,secretary of the ,navy holds only  
the sixth place1 with the               
,attorney-,general and the              
,postmaster-,general in between4 ,the   
,general ,staff of the ,secretary of    
,war1 which was organized in #aijc1 is  
composed of officers of high rank1      
although the ,secretary himself is a    
civilian4 ,in the case of the army1 as  
well as of the navy1 the functions of   
the secretary are decidedly more        
important than those1 say1 of a         

,prussian ,minister4 ,they concern not  
only administration1 but also1 in case  
of war1 are of decisive weight on the   
movements of all the forces1 since the  
,president as commander-in-chief has to 
act through these ministers4 ,elihu     
,root was for almost five years         
,secretary of ,war2 and on his          
retirement in ,january1 #aijd1          
,roosevelt declared3 8,root is the      
greatest man who has appeared in our    
times in the public life of any country1
 either in the ,new ,world or the ,old40
  ,the position of ,attorney-,general is
 less comparable with a corresponding   
office in the ,german state4 ,this      
minister of the ,president has no       
influence on the appointment of judges  
or the administration of the courts4    
,the official representative of justice 
in the ,cabinet is really an exalted    
lawyer1 who is at the same time the     
,president's legal adviser4 ,so far as  
appointments to office go1 the          
,secretary of the ,post ,office         

,department has practically no influence
 regarding those who are under him1     
since the tremendous number of postal   
officials of any considerable importance
 have to be confirmed in their          
appointments by the ,senate1 so that the
 appointing power has virtually gone    
over to that body4 ,on the other hand1  
the whole postal service is under his   
direction2 but it is here not to be     
forgotten that the ,american railroads  
and1 what the ,german may think more    
extraordinary1 the telegraph lines1 are 
not government property4  ,the          
,secretary of the ,interior is merely a 
name for a great many unrelated         
administrative functions4 ,in the long  
list of duties which fall to this office
 comes education1 although this         
seemingly most important responsibility 
is really rather slight1 since all      
educational matters fall to the separate
 states and the ,federal ,government has
 nothing to do but to give out          
statistics and information1 to collect  

material1 and to offer advice4 ,the     
national ,bureau of ,education is not   
empowered to institute any practical    
changes4 ,a much more important         
function1 practically1 of the ,secretary
 of the ,interior is the ,pension       
,bureau1 since the ,united ,states pay  
yearly about #ach1jjj1jjj in pensions4  
,other divisions are the ,patent        
,office1 which grants every year about  
#cj1jjj patents1 the ,railroad ,bureau1 
the ,indian ,bureau1 and the ,geological
 ,survey4 ,the ,secretary of            
,agriculture has not only certain duties
 connected with agriculture1 but is also
 in charge of the ,weather ,bureau1 and 
of zological1 botanical1 and chemical   
institutes1 and especially of the large 
number of scientific departments which  
indirectly serve the cause of           
agriculture4 ,last in rank comes the    
recently created ,secretary of ,commerce
 and ,labour1 who has charge of the     
,corporation ,bureau1 the ,labour       
,bureau1 the ,census ,bureau1 and the   

,bureaus of ,statistics1 ,immigration1  
and ,fisheries4  ,there are some        
#bdj1jjj positions under the direction  
of these ministers2 and all of these1   
from ambassadors to letter-carriers1 are
 in the national service and under the  
appointment of the ,president1 and are  
entirely independent of the government  
of the separate states in which the     
offices are held4                       
,,chapter ,,four                        
,congress   ,there is an avenue which   
leads from the ,white ,house in a direct
 line to the ,capitol1 the dominating   
architectural feature of ,washington4   
,on walking up the broad terraces one   
comes first to the great central hall1  
over which rises the dome2 to the right 
one passes through the ,hall of ,fame   
and comes finally to the uncomfortably  
large parliamentary chamber1 in which   
#chf ,representatives sit together as   
the direct delegates of the people4     
,going from the central hall to the left
 one passes by the apartments of the    

,supreme ,court1 and comes finally to   
the attractive room in which the ninety 
state delegates hold their sessions4    
,the room on the right is called the    
8,house10 on the left the ,senate2 both 
together make up ,congress1 the         
law-giving body of the nation4 ,when the
 thirteen states which first formed the 
,union in the year #aggh adopted the    
,articles of ,federation1 it was        
intended that ,congress should be a     
single body1 in which each state1       
although it might be represented by a   
varying number of members1 should       
nevertheless have the right to only one 
vote4 ,nine years later1 however1 the   
final ,constitution of the ,united      
,states replaced this one simple system 
by dividing ,congress into ,senate and  
,house of ,representatives1 doing this  
simply by analogy with the traditions of
 the state governments4 ,pennsylvania   
was the only state which had but one    
legislative chamber1 while the others   
had taken over from ,england the system 

of double representation and had carried
 out the ,english tradition1 although   
probably nothing was further from their 
intention than to divide their          
legislators into lords and commoners4   
,for the ,united ,states the dual       
division inevitably seemed the shortest 
way to balance off conflicting          
requirements4 ,on the one side every    
state1 even the smallest1 should have   
the same prerogatives and equal         
influence3 on the other side1 every     
citizen must count as much as every     
other1 so that the number of inhabitants
 must be duly represented4 ,it was      
necessary1 therefore1 to create one     
chamber in which all ,states should have
 the same number of ,representatives1   
and another in which every delegate     
should represent an equal number of     
voters4 ,furthermore1 on the one hand a 
firm and conservative tradition was to  
be built up1 while on the other the     
changing voice of the people was to be  
reflected4 ,it was1 therefore1 necessary

 to remove one chamber from popular     
election and leave it to the appointment
 of the separate state legislatures4 ,it
 was also necessary to put the age for  
candidacy for this chamber high1 and to 
make the term of office rather long1 and
 finally to contrive that at any one    
time only a fraction of the numbers     
should be replaced1 so that a majority  
of the members could carry on their work
 undisturbed4 ,the other chamber1       
however1 was to be completely replaced  
by frequent direct popular elections4   
,thus originated the two divisions of   
,congress which so contrast in every    
respect4 ,a comparison with ,european   
double legislative systems is very      
natural1 and yet the ,senate is neither 
a ,bundestag1 nor a ,herrenhaus1 nor a  
,house of ,lords2 and the ,house of     
,representatives is fundamentally       
different from the ,reichstag4 ,one who 
wishes to understand the ,american      
system must put aside his recollections 
of ,european institutions1 since nothing

 except emphasis on the difference      
between the ,american and ,european     
legislatures will make clear the        
traditions of ,washington4  ,as has been
 said1 the ,senators are representatives
 of the several states2 every state     
sends two4 ,the ,state of ,new ,york1   
with its seven million inhabitants1 has 
no more representatives in the ,senate  
than the ,state of ,wyoming1 which has  
less than one hundred thousand          
inhabitants4 ,every ,senator is elected 
for six years by the law-giving body of 
the individual state4 ,every second year
 a third of the ,senators retire1 so    
that the ,senate as a whole has existed 
uninterruptedly since the foundation of 
the ,union4 ,curiously enough1 however1 
the ,senators vote independently1 and   
thus it often happens that the two      
,senators from one ,state cast opposite 
votes4 ,a candidate for the ,senate has 
to be thirty years old4  ,the members of
 the ,house are elected every two years 
and by direct popular vote4 ,the number 

of delegates is here not prescribed by  
the ,constitution4 ,it is constantly    
modified on the basis of the ten-year   
census1 since every state is entitled to
 a number of delegates proportionate to 
its population4 ,while there were       
slaves1 who could not vote1 the slave   
states nevertheless objected to the     
diminution in the number of their       
representatives1 due to the fact that   
the negro was not considered an         
inhabitant1 and it was constitutionally 
provided to compute the number of       
,representatives on the basis that every
 slave was equivalent to three-fifths of
 a man4 ,to-day neither colour nor race 
constitutionally affects the right to   
vote4 ,on the other hand1 the nation as 
such does not concern itself to consider
 who is allowed to vote1 but leaves this
 completely to the different states1 and
 requires only that for the national    
elections in every state the same       
provisions are observed which are made  
for the elections to the state          

legislature4 ,moreover1 it is left to   
every state in what wise it shall choose
 the allotted number of ,representatives
 at ,washington4 ,thus1 for instance1 in
 those four ,western ,states in which   
women are allowed to vote for members of
 the legislature1 women have also the   
right to vote for ,congressmen4  ,the   
first ,house of ,representatives had #fe
 members1 while the ,house of #aijb had 
#ceg1 and the political centre of       
gravity of the country has so shifted   
that the states which originally made up
 ,congress send now only #acg of the    
members4 ,the number of delegates has   
recently been increased to #chf4 ,the   
age of candidacy is #be1 and while a    
,senator must have lived in the country 
for nine years1 only seven years are    
required of a ,representative4  ,the    
differences in the conditions of        
election are enough to bring it about   
that the personal make-up of the two    
,houses1 as had been originally         
intended1 give very different           

impressions4 ,the dignity of being      
,senator is granted to but few1 and to  
these for a long time1 and as it is     
bestowed by that somewhat small circle  
of the legislators of the state1 is     
naturally accounted the highest         
political honour2 it is thus desired by 
the most successful leaders of public   
life and the most respected men of the  
several states4 ,the ideal condition is1
 to be sure1 somewhat frustrated1 since 
in reality the members of a state       
legislature are generally pledged1 when 
they themselves are elected1 to support 
this or that particular candidate for   
the ,senate4 ,thus the general body of  
voters exerts its influence after all   
pretty directly2 and1 moreover1 this    
distinction depends not a little1 in the
 ,west and especially in the thinly     
populated states1 on the possession of  
great wealth4 ,since1 however1 in these 
cases such wealth has generally been won
 by exceptional energy and keen insight1
 even in this way men come to           

,washington who are a good deal above   
the average voter1 and who represent the
 most significant forces in ,american   
popular life earnestly1 worthily1 and   
intelligently4  ,in the last ,senate the
 average age of ninety ,senators was    
sixty years1 and seventeen were more    
than seventy years old4 ,sixty-one of   
them were jurists1 eighteen were        
business men1 three were farmers1 and   
two had been journalists4 ,as to the    
jurists1 they are not men who are still 
active as attorneys or judges4          
,generally men are in question who went 
over early from the legal profession    
into politics1 and who have lived almost
 entirely in politics4 ,indeed1 not a   
few of these lawyers who have become    
legislators have been for some years in 
commercial life at the head of great    
industrial or railroad corporations1 so 
that the majority of jurists is no      
indication whatsoever of any legal      
petrifaction4 ,all sides of ,american   
life are represented1 and only such     

professions as that of the university   
scholar or that of the preacher are     
virtually excluded because circumstances
 make it necessary for the ,senator to  
spend six winters in ,washington4 ,it   
will be seen that politics must have    
become a life profession with most of   
these men1 since many are elected four  
and five times to the ,senate4 ,among   
the best known ,senators1 ,allison1     
,hoar1 ,cockrell1 ,platt1 ,morgan1      
,teller1 and several others have been   
there for more than twenty-five years4  
,of course the conservative traditions  
of the ,senate are better preserved by  
such numerous re-elections than by any  
possible external provision4  ,it is    
also characteristic of the composition  
of the ,senate that1 with a single      
exception1 no ,senator was born on the  
,european continent4 ,nelson1 the       
,senator from ,minnesota1 came from     
,norway when he was a boy4 ,thus in this
 conservative circle there is little    
real representation of the millions who 

have immigrated to this country4 ,in the
 autobiographies of the ,senators1 two  
relate that1 although they were born in 
,america1 they are of ,german descent2  
these are ,wellington1 the ,senator from
 ,maryland1 and ,dietrich1 the ,senator 
from ,nebraska4 ,the ,senators are      
notoriously well-to-do1 and have been   
called the 8,millionaires' ,club02 and  
yet one is not to suppose that these men
 have the wealth of the great industrial
 magnates4 ,senator ,clarke1 of         
,montana1 whose property is estimated at
 one hundred million dollars1 is the    
single one who1 according to ,american  
standards1 could be called rich4 ,most  
of the others have merely a few modest  
millions1 and for many the expensive    
years of residence in ,washington are a 
decided sacrifice4 ,and1 most of all1 it
 is certain that the ,senators who are  
materially the least well-off are among 
the most respected and influential4 ,the
 most highly educated member of the     
,senate would probably be the young     

delegate from ,massachusetts1 the       
historian ,lodge1 who is the            
,president's most intimate friend2 but  
the most worthy and dignified member has
 been the late ,senator from            
,massachusetts1 the impressive orator1  
,hoar4  ,it is a matter of course that  
the social level of the ,house of       
,representatives lies considerably      
lower4 ,here it is intended that the    
people shall be represented with all    
their diverse interests and ambitions4  
,the two-thirds majority of lawyers is  
found1 however1 even here2 of the #ceg  
members of the last ,house1 #bcf had    
been trained in law1 #fc were business  
men1 and #ag were farmers4 ,the ,house  
is again like the ,senate1 since1 in    
spite of the fact that the membership is
 elected entirely anew1 it remains in   
good part made up of the same people4   
,the fifty-eighth ,congress contained   
#bej members who had already sat in the 
fifty-seventh4 ,about one-tenth of the  
,representatives have been in the ,house

 ten years4 ,the general physiognomy is1
 however1 very different from that of   
the ,senate4 ,it is more youthful1 less 
serene and distinguished1 and more      
suggestive of ordinary business4 ,the   
average age is forty-eight years1 while 
there are some men under thirty4 ,the   
total impression1 in spite of several   
exceptions1 suggests that these men come
 from the social middle class4 ,however1
 it is from just this class that the    
notably clear-cut personalities of      
,america have come2 and the number of   
powerful and striking countenances to be
 seen in the ,house is greater than that
 in the ,german ,reichstag4 ,the        
,representatives1 like ,senators1 have a
 salary of #e1jjj and their travelling  
expenses4  ,what is now the actual work 
of these two chambers in ,congress1 and 
how do they carry it on8 ,the work      
cannot be wholly separated from its     
manner of performance4 ,perhaps the     
essentials of this peculiar task and    
method could be brought together as     

follows3 on the basis of committee      
reports1 ,congress decides whether or   
not to accept bills which have been     
proposed by its members4 ,this is indeed
 the main part of the story4 ,congress  
thus passes on proposed bills2 its      
function is purely legislative1 and     
involves nothing of an executive nature4
 ,on the other hand1 these bills have to
 be proposed by members of ,congress2   
they cannot be received from the        
,president or from members of his       
,cabinet4 ,thus the ,executive has no   
influence in the law-giving body4 ,the  
method of transacting business1 finally1
 consists of laying the emphasis on the 
deliberations in committees1 and it is  
there that the fate of each bill is     
virtually settled4 ,the committee       
determines whether the proposed measure 
shall come before the whole ,house2 and 
both ,house and ,senate have finally to 
decide about accepting the measure4     
,each of these points requires further  
comment4  ,so far as the separation of  

the legislative and executive functions 
of the government is concerned1 it is   
certainly exaggeration to say that it is
 complete1 as has often been said4      
,there is1 to be sure1 a somewhat       
sharper distinction than is made in     
,germany1 where the propositions of the 
,executive form the basis of legislative
 activity2 and yet even in the ,united  
,states the ultimate fate of every      
measure is dependent on the attitude    
taken by the ,president4 ,we have seen  
that a bill which is sent by ,congress  
to the ,president can be returned with  
his veto1 and in that case becomes a law
 only when on a new vote in both ,houses
 it receives a two-thirds majority4 ,a  
law which obtains only a small majority 
in either one of the ,houses can thus   
easily be put aside by the ,executive4  
,on the other hand1 ,congress has a very
 important participation in executive   
functions1 more particularly through the
 ,senate1 inasmuch as all appointments  
of federal officers and the ratification

 of all treaties require the approval of
 the ,senate4 ,international politics1  
therefore1 make it necessary for the    
,president to keep closely in touch with
 at least the ,senate1 and in the matter
 of appointments the right of the       
,senators to disapprove is so important 
that for a large number of local        
positions the selection has been        
actually left entirely to the ,senators 
of the respective states4 ,the          
,constitution gives to ,congress even a 
jurisdictional function1 in the case    
that any higher federal officers abuse  
their office4 ,when there is a suspicion
 of this1 the ,house of ,representatives
 brings its charges and the ,senate     
conducts the trial4 ,the last time that 
this great machinery was in operation   
was in #ahgf1 when the ,secretary of    
,war1 ,belknap1 was charged and         
acquitted2 thus suspicion has not fallen
 on any of the higher officials for     
twenty-eight years4  ,the separation of 
the ,legislative from the ,executive is 

most conspicuously seen in the fact that
 no member of the ,cabinet has a seat in
 ,congress4 ,at the beginning of the    
,congressional session the ,president   
sends his message1 in which he is       
privileged politically to pour out his  
entire heart4 ,yet he may only state his
 hopes and desires1 and may not propose 
definite bills4 ,the ,cabinet ministers1
 however1 are responsible solely to the 
,president1 and in no wise to ,congress1
 where they have no right to discuss    
measures either favourably or           
unfavourably4 ,they do not come into    
contact with ,congress4 ,this is in     
extreme contrast with the situation in  
,england1 where the ministers are       
leaders of the ,parliamentary party4    
,the ,american sees in this a strong    
point of his political system1 and even 
such a man as the former ambassador to  
,germany1 ,andrew ,d4 ,white1 who       
admired so much of what he saw there1   
considers the ministerial benches in the
 ,german and ,french representative     

chambers a mistake4 ,it occasions1 he   
says1 a constant and vexatious          
disagreement between the delegates of   
the people and the ministers1 which     
disturbs the order and effectiveness of 
parliamentary transactions4 ,the        
legislative work should be transacted   
apart1 and the popular representatives  
ought to have only one another to take  
care of4  ,we must not1 however1        
understand that there are practically no
 relations existing between ,congress   
and the ministry4 ,a considerable part  
of the bills1 which have to be          
discussed1 consist1 of course1 in       
appropriations for public expenditures1 
so far as these come out of the federal 
rather than the state treasuries4 ,such 
appropriations included at the last time
 #aci1jjj1jjj for pensions1 #ach1jjj1jjj
 for the post office1 #ia1jjj1jjj for   
the army1 #gh1jjj1jjj for the navy1     
#bf1jjj1jjj for rivers and harbours1 and
 so on2 making in all #hjj1jjj1jjj for  
the annual appropriations1 besides      

#bec1jjj1jjj for special contracts4     
,thus the total sum of appropriations in
 one session of ,congress amounted to   
over #a1jjj1jjj1jjj1 in ,america called 
a billion4 ,this authorized             
appropriation has to be made on the     
basis of proposals1 submitted by the    
members of ,congress2 but it is a matter
 of course that every single figure of  
such propositions has to come originally
 from the bureau of the army or navy1 or
 whatever department is concerned1 if it
 is to serve as the basis of discussion4
 ,thus while the ,executive presents to 
,congress no proposals for the budget1  
it hands over to the members of         
,congress so empowered the whole        
material2 and this is1 after all1 not   
very different from the ,european       
practice4 ,however1 the voice of the    
,executive is indeed not heard when the 
budget is under debate4 ,the members of 
,congress who are to receive the        
ministerial propositions through        
mediation of the ,treasury1 must belong 

to the ,house2 for one of the few       
advantages which the ,house of          
,representatives has over the ,senate is
 that it has to initiate all bills of   
appropriation4 ,this is a remnant of the
 fundamental idea that all public       
expenditures should be made only at the 
instance of the taxpayers themselves1   
wherefore the directly elected members  
of the ,house are more fitted for this  
than are the ,senators1 who are         
indirectly elected4 ,this single        
advantage is less than it looks to be1  
since the ,senate may amend at will all 
bills of appropriation that it receives 
from the ,house4  ,thus every measure   
which is ever to become law must be     
proposed by members of ,congress4 ,one  
can see that this privilege of proposing
 bills is utilized to the utmost1 from  
the simple fact that during every       
session some fifteen thousand bills are 
brought out4 ,we may here consider in   
detail the way in which the ,house      
transacts its affairs4 ,it is clear that

 if more than three hundred voluble     
politicians are set to the task of      
deliberating in a few months on fifteen 
thousand laws1 including all proposed   
appropriations1 that a perfect babel of 
argument will arise which can lead to no
 really fruitful result1 unless sound   
traditions1 strict rules and discipline1
 and autocratic leadership hold this    
chaotic body within bounds4 ,the        
,american instinct for organization     
introduced indeed long ago a compact    
orderliness4 ,here belongs first of all 
that above-mentioned committee system1  
which in the ,house is completed by the 
unique institution of the ,speaker4 ,but
 one thing we must constantly bear in   
mind3 the whole background of           
,congressional doings is the two-party  
system4 ,if the ,house or the ,senate   
were to break out in the prismatic      
variegation of the ,german parliamentary
 parties1 no speaker and no system of   
committees would be able to keep the    
elements in hand4 ,it is1 after all1 the

 party in majority which guarantees     
order1 moulds the committees into       
effective machines1 and lends to the    
,speaker his extraordinary influence4   
,the essential feature of the whole     
apparatus lies in the fact that a bill  
cannot come up before the ,house until  
it has been deliberated in committee4   
,the chairman of the committee then     
presents it personally at some meeting4 
,the presiding officer1 the so-called   
,speaker1 exerts in this connection a   
threefold influence2 firstly1 he        
appoints the members of all the         
committees1 of which1 for instance1     
there were in the last ,congress        
sixty-three4 ,the most important1 and1  
therefore1 the largest1 of these        
committees are those on appropriations1 
agriculture1 banking1 coinage1 foreign  
and ,indian affairs1 interstate and     
foreign commerce1 pensions1 the post    
office1 the navy1 railroads1 rivers and 
harbours1 patents1 and finance4 ,both   
the majority and minority parties are   

represented in every committee1 and its 
chairman has almost unlimited control in
 its transaction of business4 ,all      
members of the more important committees
 are experienced men1 who have been well
 schooled in the traditions of the      
,house4  ,the ,speaker is allowed       
further to decide as to what committee  
each bill shall be referred4 ,in many   
cases1 of course1 there is no choice2   
but it not seldom happens that there are
 several possibilities1 and the decision
 between them often determines the fate 
of the bill4 ,in the third place1 the   
,speaker1 as chairman of the ,committee 
on ,rules1 decides what reports1 of     
those which have been so far prepared by
 the committees1 shall come up for      
discussion at each meeting of the       
,house4 ,as soon as the committee has   
agreed on recommendations1 its report is
 put on the calendar2 but whether it    
then comes up for debate in the ,house  
depends on a good many factors4 ,in the 
first place1 of course1 many of the     

proposed matters take naturally first   
rank1 as for instance1 the              
appropriations4 ,the chairman of the    
,committee on ,appropriations is given  
the floor whenever he asks for it2 thus 
there are express trains on this        
,congressional railroad which have the  
right-of-way before suburban trains1 and
 then1 too1 there are special trains    
which take preference before everything 
else4 ,but aside from such committee    
reports as are especially privileged1 a 
very considerable opportunity of        
selection exists among those which      
remain4  ,it is here that the really    
unlimited influence of the ,speaker     
comes in4 ,he is in no way required to  
give the floor to the committees which  
ask for it first4 ,if the chairman of   
the committee is not called on by the   
,speaker for his report1 he is said to  
be not 8noticed0 and he is helpless4 ,of
 course1 whether he is noticed or not   
depends on the most exact               
prearrangement4 ,if now a bill is       

finally reported to the ,house1 it is   
still not allowed an endless debate1 for
 the ,speaker is once more empowered to 
appoint a particular time when the      
debate must end1 and thereby he is able 
to come around any efforts at           
obstruction4 ,if1 however1 the minority 
wishes to make itself heard by raising  
the point of no quorum1 then not only   
those who are voting1 but all those who 
are present in the ,house1 are counted1 
and if these are not enough the         
delinquents can be hunted out and forced
 to come in4 ,but in most cases there is
 little or no debate1 and the           
resolutions of the committee are        
accepted by the ,house without a word4  
,in certain of the most important cases1
 as in matters of appropriation or      
taxation1 the ,house constitutes itself 
a so-called committee of the whole4     
,then the matter is seriously discussed 
under a special chairman1 as at the     
session of an ordinary committee4 ,even 
here it is not the custom to make long  

speeches1 and the members are often     
contented with a short sketch of their  
arguments1 and ask permission to have   
the rest published in the ,congressional
 ,report4 ,the speeches which thus have 
never been delivered are printed and    
distributed in innumerable copies       
through the district from which that    
speaker comes and elsewhere as well4    
,thus if an ordinary ,representative    
proposes a measure1 which perhaps       
expresses the local wishes of his       
district1 such a bill goes first to the 
,secretary and from him to the ,speaker4
 ,he refers it to a special committee1  
and at the same time every              
,representative receives printed copies 
of it4 ,the committee decides whether   
the bill is worth considering4 ,if it   
has the good fortune to be deliberated  
by the committee it is often so amended 
by the members that little remains of   
its original substance4 ,if it then has 
the further good fortune to be accepted 
by the committee1 it comes on the ,house

 calendar1 and waits until the          
,committee on ,rules puts it on the     
order of the day4 ,if it then has the   
exceptional good fortune of being read  
to the ,house it has a fairly good      
chance of being accepted4  ,but of      
course its pilgrimage is not ended here4
 ,it passes next to the ,senate1 and    
goes through much the same treatment    
once more2 first a committee1 then the  
quorum4 ,if it does not there come up   
before the quorum1 it is lost in spite  
of everything2 but if it does finally   
come up1 after all hindrances1 it may be
 amended once more by the ,senate4 ,if  
this happens1 as is likely1 its         
consideration is begun all over again4  
,a composite committee from both ,houses
 considers all amendments1 and if it    
cannot come to an agreement the measures
 are doomed4 ,if the committee does     
agree1 the close of the session of      
,congress may intervene and prevent its 
last hearing in the ,house1 and in the  
next ,congress the whole process is     

repeated4 ,but if a measure has passed  
through all these dangers and been      
approved by both ,houses1 the ,president
 then has the opportunity to put his    
veto on it4  ,thus it comes about that  
hardly a tenth part of the bills which  
are introduced each year ever become    
laws1 and that they are sifted out and  
amended surely and speedily4 ,indeed1 it
 can hardly be doubted that a large part
 of the fifteen thousand bills are      
introduced out of personal consideration
 for constituents1 or even out of less  
worthy motives1 with no expectation that
 they will possibly be accepted4        
,moreover1 the popular tribunal1 the    
,house1 spares itself too great pains1  
because it knows that the ,senate will  
certainly amend all its provisions2 and 
the ,senate indulges itself in voting   
unnecessary favours to constituents     
because it relies on their negation by  
the ,house4  ,the ,senate works on      
fundamentally the same plan4 ,when a    
,senator brings his proposition1 it goes

 likewise to the appropriate committee1 
then is read before a quorum1 and is    
passed on to the other chamber4         
,nevertheless1 there is a considerable  
difference in procedure2 the ,house     
behaves like a restless popular         
gathering1 while the ,senate resembles a
 conference of diplomats4 ,the ,house is
 a gigantic room1 in which even the best
 orators can hardly make themselves     
heard1 and where hundreds are writing or
 reading newspapers without paying any  
attention to the man who speaks4 ,but   
the ,senate is a parliamentary chamber1 
where a somewhat undue formality        
prevails4 ,a strict discipline has to be
 observed in the ,house in order to     
preserve its organization1 while the    
,senate needs no outward discipline     
because the small circle of elderly     
gentlemen transacts its business with   
perfect decorum4 ,thus the ,senate      
tolerates no ,speaker over it1 no       
president with discretionary powers4 ,in
 the ,senate both parties have the right

 to appoint the members of the          
committees4 ,the ,chairman of the       
,senate must also not fail to notice any
 one who asks for the floor2 whoever    
wishes to speak has every chance1 and   
this freedom implies of course that the 
debates shall not be arbitrarily        
terminated by the ,chairman4 ,a debate  
can be closed only by unanimous consent4
 ,the influence of the ,chairman of the 
,senate is1 therefore1 only a shadow    
beside that of the ,speaker1 and since  
the ,chairman is not elected by the     
,senate itself1 but is chosen directly  
by the people in the person of the      
,vice-,president of the ,united ,states1
 it may happen that this ,chairman      
belongs to the party in minority1 and   
that he has practically no influence at 
all4 ,conformably with the extreme      
formality and courtesy of the ,senate1  
majorities are counted on the basis of  
the votes actually cast1 and not1 as in 
the ,house1 on the basis of members     
actually present4 ,for both ,houses     

alike it is possible for those who      
intend to be absent to be paired off    
beforehand1 so that if one absentee has 
announced himself for1 and another      
against1 a certain bill1 they can both  
be counted as having voted4  ,it is     
clear what the consequences of this     
unlimited exchange of ,senatorial       
courtesy must be2 the concessions in    
outward form must lead immediately to   
compromises and tacit understandings4   
,if a debate can be closed only by      
unanimous agreement1 it is possible for 
a single opposing politician to obstruct
 the law-making machinery4 ,a handful of
 opponents can take the stand for weeks 
and block the entire ,senate4 ,such     
obstructionist policy has to be         
prevented at any cost1 and therefore on 
all sides and in every least particular 
friendly sympathy must be preserved4 ,of
 course1 the opposition between the two 
parties cannot be obviated2 so much the 
more1 then1 it is necessary for each man
 to be bound by personal ties to every  

other1 and to feel sure of having a free
 hand in his own special interests so   
long at least as he accords the same    
right to others in theirs4 ,thus1 merely
 from the necessity of preserving mutual
 good feeling1 it too often happens that
 the other members close their eyes when
 some willing ,senator caters to local  
greed or to the special wishes of       
ambitious persons or corporations1 by   
proposing a ,congressional bill4  ,this 
8,senatorial courtesy0 is most marked in
 the matter of the appointment of       
officials1 where matters go smoothly    
only because it has been agreed that no 
proposals shall be made without the     
approval of the ,senators of the state  
concerned4 ,every ,senator knows that if
 to-day one local delegate is outvoted1 
the rebellion may to-morrow be directed 
against another2 and thus many a        
doubtful appointment1 given as hush     
money or as a reward for mean political 
services1 is approved with inward       
displeasure by courteous colleagues     

merely in order to save the principle of
 individual omnipotence4 ,there is no   
doubt that in this way the individual   
,senator comes to have much more power  
than does a single ,representative4 ,the
 latter is really the member of a party1
 with no special opportunities for      
satisfying his individual wishes2 while 
the ,senator may have his personal      
points of view1 and is really an        
independent factor4  ,if to-day the     
,senate1 contrary to the expectation of 
former times1 really plays a much more  
important rle before the public than the
 ,house1 this is probably not because   
more important functions are given to   
the ,senate1 but because it is composed 
of persons of whom every one has        
peculiar significance in the political  
situation1 while the ,house is nothing  
but a mass-meeting with a few leaders4  
,this increased importance before the   
public eye works back again on the      
,senator's opinion of himself1 and the  
necessary result is a steady increase in

 the ,senate's aspirations and the      
constant growth of its rights4 ,perhaps 
the most characteristic exhibition of   
this has been the gradual evolution of  
the part taken by the ,senate in the    
matter of foreign treaties4 ,the        
,constitution requires the ratification 
of the ,senate1 and the original        
construction was that the               
,administration should present a treaty 
all made out1 which the ,senate had to  
accept or reject as it stood4 ,but soon 
the ,senate arrogated to itself the     
right to amend treaties1 and then it    
came about that the ,senate would never 
accept a treaty without injecting a few 
drops of its own diplomatic wisdom4 ,it 
might be that these would be merely a   
change of wording1 but just enough to   
let the ,president feel the ,senatorial 
power4 ,the result has been that the    
treaties that are now presented to the  
,senate are called nothing but          
proposals4  ,looking behind the scenes  
one discovers that at bottom1 even in   

the ,senate1 only a few have real       
influence4 ,the more recently appointed 
,senators earn their spurs in           
unimportant committees1 and even if they
 get into more important ones they are  
constrained by tradition to fall in line
 behind the more experienced members4   
,in the ,house there is half a dozen1   
and in the ,senate perhaps a dozen men  
who shape the politics of the country4  
,here1 as in all practical matters1 the 
,american is ready to submit to an      
oligarchical system so long as he knows 
that the few in question derive their   
power from the free vote of the many4   
,in fact nothing but oligarchy is able  
to satisfy the profoundly conservative  
feeling of the ,american4 ,behind the   
scenes one soon discovers also that the 
,senatorial courtesy1 which neutralizes 
the party fanaticism and encourages     
compromises to spring up like mushrooms1
 still leaves room for plenty of        
fighting2 and even intrigue thrives     
better on this unctuous courtesy than in

 the coarser soil of the lower house4   
,the sanctified older ,senators1 such as
 ,allison1 ,frye1 ,platt1 ,aldrich1 and 
,hale1 know where to place their levers 
so as to dislodge all opposition4       
,perhaps ,mc,kinley's friend1 ,hanna1   
who was the grand virtuoso in           
,republican party technique1 knew how   
always to overcome such political       
intrigue2 but even ,roosevelt's friend1 
,lodge1 has sometimes found that the    
arbitrarily shaped traditions of the    
seniors weigh more than the most        
convincing arguments of the younger men4
  ,the moral level of ,congress is1 in  
the judgment of its best critics1 rather
 high4 ,the fate of every one of the    
thousands of bills is settled virtually 
in a small committee1 and thus1 time    
after time1 the weal and woe of entire  
industries or groups of interests depend
 on one or two votes in the committee4  
,the possible openings for corruption   
are thus much greater in ,congress than 
in any other parliament1 since no other 

has carried the committee system to such
 a point4 ,in former times political    
scoundrels went around in great numbers 
through the hotels in ,washington and   
even in the corridors of the ,capitol   
trying to influence votes with every    
device of bribery4 ,to be sure1 it is   
difficult to prove that there are no    
such hidden sins to-day2 but it is the  
conviction of those who are best able to
 judge that nothing of the sort any     
longer exists4 ,to be sure1 there are   
still lobbyists in ,washington1 who as a
 matter of business are trying to work  
either for or against impending bills1  
but direct bribery is no longer in      
question4 ,on the slightest suspicion   
the ,house itself proceeds to an        
investigation and appoints a committee1 
which has the right of collecting sworn 
testimony2 and time after time these    
suspicions have been found to be unjust4
  ,a different verdict1 however1 would  
have to be passed if only that delegate 
were to be called morally upright who   

surveys every question from the point of
 view of the welfare of the entire      
nation2 for then indeed the purity of   
,congress will be by no means free from 
doubt4 ,few ,americans1 however1 would  
recognize such a political standard4    
,when great national questions come up  
for discussion ,congress has always     
shown itself equal to the occasion1 and 
when the national honour is at stake1 as
 it was during the ,spanish ,war1 party 
lines no longer exist2 but when the     
daily drift of work has to be put       
through it is the duty of every man to  
uphold as obstinately as possible the   
interests of his constituency4          
,especially the political interests of  
his party then become predominant1 and1 
seen from a higher point of view1 there 
are no doubt many sins committed in this
 direction4 ,many a measure is given its
 quietus by one party1 not because of   
any real inexpediency1 but simply in    
order to embarrass the other party1 to  
tie up the ,administration1 and thus to 

weaken the hopes of that party at the   
next election4 ,in recent years such    
party tactics on both sides have        
prevailed time after time4 ,most        
frequently it is the present minority1  
under its leader1 ,senator ,gorman1     
which has resorted to this policy and   
held out against the most reasonable    
propositions of the ,republicans1 simply
 because these measures would have      
increased the ,republican respect before
 the nation4  ,on the other hand1 party 
lines are all the time being broken     
through by these or those local         
interests1 and any one observing the    
distribution of votes cast in the ,house
 will see clearly how1 oftentimes1 the  
parties mingle while the issue lies     
perhaps between two different           
geographical sections4 ,when            
oleomargarine is the order of the day   
the representatives of the farming      
districts are lined up against those    
from industrial sections4 ,if it is a   
question of getting ,congress to approve

 the great irrigation measures1 whole   
troops of ,democrats hasten to forget   
that1 according to their fundamental    
principles1 such an undertaking belongs 
to the state1 and not to the federal1   
government2 the representatives from all
 the ,democratic states which are to be 
benefited by such irrigation1 fall into 
sweet accord with the ,republicans4     
,thus the party divisions are all the   
time being forgotten for the moment1 and
 it looks as if this weakening of party 
bonds were on the increase4 ,by         
supporting his party principles each    
,congressman assists toward the next    
victory of his party1 but by working for
 the interests of his locality he is    
surer of his own renomination4 ,the     
requirement that a candidate must reside
 in the district that elects him        
naturally strengthens his consideration 
for the selfish claims of his           
constituency4 ,thus it is only at       
notable moments that the popular        
representative stands above all parties2

 he generally stands pat with his own   
party1 and if the voters begin to nod he
 may take his stand somewhat below the  
parties4  ,yet1 on looking at ,congress 
as a whole1 one has the impression that 
it accomplishes a tremendous amount of  
work1 and in a more sober1              
business-like1 and efficient way than   
does any other parliament in the world4 
,there is less talking against time2 in 
fact1 there is less talking of any kind1
 and because the ,administration is not 
represented at all there is less        
fighting4 ,the transactions as a whole  
are therefore somewhat less exciting2 a 
single ,congressman has less opportunity
 to become personally famous4 ,yet no   
,american would desire to introduce a   
ministerial bench at the ,capitol1 or to
 have the next ,congress adopt          
,austrian1 ,french1 ,german1 or ,english
 methods4                               
,,chapter ,,five                        
,justice   ,going from the hall beneath 
the central dome of the ,capitol toward 

the ,senate1 in the left wing one passes
 by an extraordinary room1 in which     
there is generally a crowd of people4   
,the nine judges of the federal court1  
the ,supreme ,court of the ,united      
,states1 are sitting there in their     
black gowns1 between ,greek columns4    
,the ,president and his ,cabinet1 the   
,senate1 and the ,house of              
,representatives fill the ,american with
 a pride which is tempered by some      
critical judgment on this or that       
feature1 or perhaps by a lively party   
dissatisfaction4 ,but every ,american   
who is competent to judge looks on the  
,supreme ,court with unqualified        
admiration4 ,he knows very well that no 
force in the country has done more for  
the peace1 prosperity1 and dignity of   
the ,united ,states4 ,in the            
constitutional make-up of the ,federal  
,government1 the ,supreme ,court is the 
third division1 and co-ordinate with the
 ,legislative and the ,executive        
departments4  ,the jurisprudence of a   

nation forms a totality2 and therefore  
it will not do to discuss the work of   
the nine men sitting at the ,capitol1   
without throwing at least a hasty glance
 at the administration of justice       
throughout this enormous country4 ,there
 is hardly anything more confusing to a 
,european2 and while the ,englishman    
finds many features which are           
reminiscent of ,english law1 the ,german
 stands helpless before the complicated 
situation4 ,it is1 most of all1 the     
extreme diversity of methods which      
disquiets him4 ,it will be quite        
impossible to give here even a          
superficial picture of the machinery of 
justice4 ,a few hints must suffice at   
this point1 while we shall consider many
 features in other connections1         
especially in discussing social         
problems4  ,the jurisprudence adopted by
 the ,united ,states comes from three   
sources4 ,the average ,american1 on     
being asked what the law of his country 
is1 would say that it is 8common law40  

,if we except the ,state of ,louisiana1 
which by a peculiarity has the          
,napoleonic ,code1 this reply suffices  
for a rough idea4 ,but if a ,german1    
having in mind perhaps the two ,german  
law books1 the penal and the civil      
codes1 both of which he can put so      
easily into his pocket1 were to ask     
after some formulation of the common    
law1 he would be shown a couple of huge 
bookcases with several hundred stout    
volumes4 ,common law is not a law book1 
nor is it a system of abstract          
formulations1 nor yet a codification of 
the prevailing ideas of justice4 ,it is1
 in fact1 the sum total of judicial     
decisions4 ,the establishment of common 
law signifies that every new case as it 
comes up is decided in conformity with  
previous decisions4 ,the earlier        
decision may be a bad one1 and very much
 offend one's sense of justice2 but if  
no superior authority has annulled it1  
it becomes historic law and determines  
the future course of things4 ,american  

law came originally from the ,english4  
,the early ,english colonists brought   
with them across the ocean the ideas of 
the ,english judges1 and the states     
which have sprung up lately have taken  
their law from the thirteen original    
states4 ,if to-day1 in ,boston or ,san  
,francisco1 any one finds a piece of    
jewelry on the street and another       
snatches it from him1 he can have the   
thief arrested1 although the object     
found is not his property4 ,the judge   
will decide that he has a right to the  
object which he has found until the     
original owner appears1 and the judge   
will so decide because in the year #agbb
 a ,london chimney-sweep found a        
valuable ornament1 out of which a       
jeweler later stole a precious stone2   
and the ,english judge decided in favour
 of the chimney-sweep4  ,the            
disadvantages of such a system are      
obvious4 ,instead of a single book of   
law embodying the will of the nation1   
the decisions handed down by single     

insignificant judges in different parts 
of the world1 decisions which originated
 under wholly other states of           
civilization and from other traditions1 
still have final authority4 ,again and  
again the judge has to adapt himself to 
old decisions1 against which his sense  
of right morally rebels4 ,yet the deep1 
ethical motive behind this legal system 
is certainly plainly evident4 ,the      
,anglo-,saxon would say that a national 
code cannot be constructed arbitrarily  
and artificially4 ,its only source is in
 the careful1 responsible decisions     
given down by the accredited            
representatives of the public will in   
actual disputes which have arisen4      
,there is no right or wrong1 he would   
say1 until two persons disagree and make
 a settlement necessary1 and the judge  
who decides the case creates the right  
with the help of his own conscience2 but
 as soon as he has given his decision1  
and it is set aside by no higher        
authority1 the principle of the decision

 becomes justice for all times4 ,every  
day sees new formulations of justice1   
because new conflicts between human     
wills are always arising and require new
 settlements2 but up to the moment when 
a decision is made there exist only two 
conflicting desires existing in the     
matter1 but nothing which could be      
called justice4  ,although it seems at  
first sight as if a legal system1 which 
is composed of previous decisions1 would
 soon become antiquated and petrified1  
the ,anglo-,saxon would say with firm   
conviction that just such justice is the
 only one which can be living1 because  
it springs not out of rationalistic     
preconceptions1 but from actual         
experience4 ,the ,anglo-,saxon          
jurisprudence is full of historical     
reality and of picturesque              
individuality4 ,it has grown as         
organically as language1 and is1 in the 
estimation of the ,anglo-,saxon1 as much
 superior to a mere code as the ordinary
 speech of a people1 in spite of all its

 historical inconsistencies1 is superior
 to an artificially constructed speech  
like ,volapk4 ,and he would find many   
other points of superiority4 ,he would  
say1 for instance1 that this is the only
 system which gives to every man on the 
judge's bench the serious sense of his  
responsibility2 for the judge knows that
 in every case which he decides1 he     
settles not only the fortunes of ,james 
and ,john there present1 but he         
influences for all times the conception 
of justice of the entire nation4 ,he    
feels especially that the binding force 
of previous decisions reassures the     
public sense of right1 and lends a      
continuity which could never be afforded
 by the theoretical formulations of an  
abstract code4  ,another factor must be 
taken into account4 ,a judicial decision
 which is forgotten as quickly as the   
voice of the judge who speaks it1 can   
never have so considerable an influence 
on the public mind as one which itself  
creates law4 ,in one sense1 to be sure1 

the ,german judge creates law too2 the  
penal code sets wide limits to the      
punishment of a criminal1 and within    
these limits the judge assigns a certain
 penalty4 ,he does in a sense create the
 right for this particular case2 but the
 characteristic difference is1 that in  
the ,german ,empire no subsequent       
decision is in the least affected by    
such preceding decision4 ,the ,german   
judge finds justice prescribed for him  
and he is its servant1 while the        
,american makes it and is its master4   
,this gives to the judicial utterance an
 historical weight and enduring         
significance1 which contribute vastly   
toward keeping judicial doings in the   
focus of the public consciousness4  ,the
 same is brought about in still another 
way4 ,since the decision of the judge is
 largely dependent on previous cases1   
the fate of the parties contending may  
depend on whether they are able to point
 to previous decisions which are        
favourable to their side4 ,the layman   

cannot do this1 and it falls to the     
counsel4 ,in this wise a sphere of      
action is open to the ,american lawyer  
which is incomparably greater than that 
of any ,german ,anwalt4 ,the former has 
to concern himself not only with the    
case in hand1 but he has to connect this
 concrete instance with the whole       
historic past4 ,thus the profession of  
the lawyer comes to have an inner       
importance which is unknown to the      
,european1 and which in many cases      
necessarily exceeds the importance of   
the judge1 since he is bound to comply  
with the decisions adduced by the       
counsels for both sides4 ,the judges are
 selected from the ranks of lawyers1 and
 are1 therefore1 brought up in the idea 
that law is composed of former          
decisions1 and that the decisions of the
 bench are admirable only so far as they
 are consistent enough with the earlier 
ones to force the conviction and respect
 of the lawyers4 ,thus barristers and   
judges are entirely at one1 and are     

together entrusted with the public sense
 of right1 as it has developed itself   
historically1 and as it is day by day   
added to and perpetuated1 so that it    
shall be a never-failing source of      
quickening to the conscience of the     
masses4  ,in the masses of the people1  
on the other hand1 the natural          
tendencies are favourable anyhow for    
developing a lively sense of justice4   
,it is a necessity devolving naturally  
on the individualistic view of things4  
,the protection of individual rights and
 the inviolability of the individual    
person1 with all that belongs to it1 are
 the individualist's most vital concern4
 ,many outward features of ,american    
life may seem1 indeed1 to contradict    
this1 but any one who looks more deeply 
will see that everywhere the desire for 
justice is the essential trait of both  
the individual and the nation2 and the  
public consciousness would rather endure
 the crassest absurdities and           
misunderstandings in public affairs than

 the least conscious violation in the   
administration of justice4 ,again and   
again important trials go to pieces on  
small technical errors1 from which the  
severe sense of justice of the ,american
 is not able to free itself4 ,the public
 is always willing to endure any        
hardship rather than to tolerate any    
maladministration of justice4  ,on the  
finest square in ,boston stands a large 
and magnificent hotel1 erected by rich  
capitalists4 ,the building laws provide 
that structures facing that square shall
 not exceed a height of ninety feet2 but
 in violation of the law certain        
cornices and balustrades were added to  
this building above the ninety-foot     
line1 in order to give an artistic      
finish to the structure1 and still to   
turn practically every inch allowed by  
law to account for rentals1 which are   
high in so palatial a building4 ,every  
one agreed that this ornamental finish  
was highly decorative and satisfactory  
in the sthetic sense1 but that it must1 

nevertheless1 be taken down1 because it 
violated the law by some seven feet4    
,the cornice and balustrades have1      
therefore1 been demolished at great     
expense1 and a handsome structure has   
been made absolutely hideous--a         
veritable monstrosity4 ,the best square 
in the city is disfigured1 but every    
,bostonian looks on this building with  
gratification4 ,beautiful architectural 
detail may indeed have been sacrificed2 
but the public conscience has won1 and  
it is on this that the nation rests4    
,it is merely incidental that very much1
 and indeed much too much1 of that which
 the ,germans account matters of        
justice1 is relegated by the ,american  
point of view to other tribunals2 some1 
for instance1 are held to be political  
questions1 and thus it often appears to 
the foreigner as if there had been a    
violation of justice where really there 
has been only some political abuse4 ,but
 matters of that sort loom up whenever  
any nation tries to form an opinion     

about another4 ,in ,germany1 indeed1 the
 ,american seems to see many violations 
of justice1 where the ,german would find
 only an historically established social
 or political abuse4  ,as we have said1 
,american justice is based on the       
decisions handed down in earlier cases4 
,but this is1 after all1 only one of the
 three sources of law4 ,that form of    
law-making is also here recognized which
 in ,europe is the only form2 the       
law-making by the majority of the       
people's representatives4 ,we have seen 
how ,congress passes every year hundreds
 of laws4 ,many of these are indeed     
special measures1 with no universal     
application2 not a few1 however1 are of 
very broad application and involve an   
unlimited number of possible instances4 
,and just as the ,congress of the       
,united ,states1 so also can the        
legislature of each state prescribe     
general regulations1 applicable within  
the state4 ,such laws made by the       
legislature are technically called      

statutes4 ,these are engrossed in the   
statute-books of the state1 and         
supersede all opposed decisions which   
may then exist4 ,the federal judge1 like
 the judge in a special state1 is       
therefore bound to earlier decisions    
only so far as these are not expressly  
annulled by statutes4  ,here we find one
 of the main reasons for the            
extraordinary complexities of the       
,american law2 forty-five legislatures  
are making laws for their several       
states1 and in this way they of course  
give expression to the diversity of     
local needs and the varying grades of   
culture4 ,at the same time1 the         
principle of law1 based on earlier      
decisions1 is always combined with the  
principle of the statute-book4 ,in the  
cases1 both of the laws of ,congress and
 those of the separate states1 the      
judges who first come to apply the      
statutes in practice1 are privileged to 
make their own interpretation2 and here1
 too1 the interpretation handed down in 

the judge's decision is valid for all   
future cases4  ,in both the federal and 
state courts a legal action may be      
carried from the lower to the higher    
courts1 and the decision of the highest 
tribunal becomes definitely law4 ,the   
forty-five-fold diversity refers thus   
not merely to the statutes of the       
separate states1 but also to the        
interpretations of those statutes which 
have been given by the upper courts of  
those states4  ,the third source of law 
is the only one that prescribes absolute
 uniformity for all parts of the        
country4 ,this is the ,constitution of  
the ,united ,states4 ,the ,constitution 
must not be conceived as the creation of
 ,congress2 ,congress was created by the
 ,constitution4 ,therefore every        
provision of the ,constitution is a     
higher law than any bill which ,congress
 can pass1 just as the law made by      
,congress is higher than the decision of
 any judge4 ,no ,congress can modify a  
clause of the ,constitution4 ,the assent

 of the entire people is necessary for  
such a revision4 ,congress can1 however1
 propose an amendment to the            
,constitution1 and a two-thirds majority
 in the ,senate and the ,house suffice  
to bring the proposed change before the 
nation1 to be voted on4 ,it has then to 
be passed on by the forty-five state    
legislatures1 and will become a law with
 the approval of three-quarters of the  
states4  ,at first glance it seems as if
 this were a judicial machinery which   
would be far too complicated to work    
smoothly2 it seems as if sources of     
friction had been arbitrarily devised1  
and as if continual collisions between  
the authorities of the several systems  
would be inevitable4 ,this is true in   
two instances especially2 firstly1 the  
judicial machinery1 which carries out   
the federal laws1 sometimes collides    
with that of the separate states4 ,then1
 secondly1 the complicated system of    
,constitutional provisions1 devised a   
hundred years since1 may interfere with 

the progressive measures of ,congress or
 the separate states2 and this must be a
 source of much uncertainty in law4     
,these are the actual difficulties of a 
legal sort4 ,everything else1 as for    
instance the enormous diversity of the  
laws in the separate states1 is of      
course very inconvenient1 but gives rise
 to no conflicts of principle4  ,neither
 of these two difficulties finds its    
counterpart in ,germany4 ,in no         
,prussian city is there a ,german       
tribunal side by side with the          
,prussian1 no imperial judge beside the 
local judge2 nor can one conceive of a  
conflict in the ,german ,empire between 
the creators of the legal code and the  
law-givers who frame the provisions of  
the ,constitution4 ,this doubleness of  
the judicial officials is in every part 
of the ,union1 however1 characteristic  
of the ,american system and necessary to
 it4 ,the wonderful equilibrium between 
centripetal and centrifugal forces which
 characterizes the whole ,american      

scheme of things makes it impossible    
from the outset for either the whole    
,federation to become the sole          
administrator of justice1 or for such   
administration1 on the basis of federal 
law1 to be left entirely to the separate
 states4 ,as a matter of course1 a clear
 separation of jurisdiction has been    
necessary4 ,the ,constitution provides  
for this in a way clearly made necessary
 by the conditions under which the      
,federation was formed4 ,justice in the 
army and navy1 commercial policies1 and 
political relations with other          
countries2 weights and measures1        
coinage1 provisions1 interstate         
commerce1 and the postal system1 the    
laws of patents and copyrights1 of      
bankruptcy1 and of naturalization1 the  
laws of river and harbour1 cases of     
treason1 and much else are left to the  
,federation as a whole4 ,while all these
 matters fall naturally within the scope
 of federal law1 there are1 on the other
 hand1 obvious reasons whereby certain  

classes of persons should be under the  
jurisdiction of the federal courts4     
,these are1 firstly1 diplomatic         
ministers and consuls2 secondly1 either 
actual or legal parties when they belong
 in different states2 thirdly1 and most 
important1 the states themselves4       
,wherever a state is party to an action1
 the ,supreme ,federal ,court must hear 
the case and give the decision4 ,on the 
other hand1 the ,constitution declares  
expressly that1 wherever jurisdiction is
 not explicitly conferred on the federal
 courts1 it pertains to the individual  
states2 therefore1 much the larger part 
of criminal law belongs to the states1  
and so the laws of marriage and         
inheritance1 of contract1 property      
ownership1 and much else4  ,for the     
administration of cases within its      
jurisdiction1 the ,federation has       
divided the whole country into          
twenty-seven districts1 whose boundaries
 coincide partly with state lines1 and  
of which each has a district court4     

,groups of such districts form a        
circuit1 of which each has a circuit    
court1 which sits on the more important 
cases1 especially civil cases involving 
large interests4 ,and1 finally1 there is
 a court of appeals4 ,these districts   
and circuits are now coincident with the
 regions lying in the jurisdiction of   
the several states4 ,in their method of 
procedure the federal and the state     
courts resemble each other1 especially  
in the general conduct of criminal      
cases1 which is everywhere the same1    
because the ,constitution itself has    
fixed the main features4 ,both state and
 federal courts are alike bound by the  
extraordinarily rigid rules framed by   
the ,constitution in order to protect   
the innocent man against the severity of
 the law4  ,no criminal can be condemned
 except by a jury which has been sworn  
to perform its duty1 and before he comes
 before this jury a provisional jury has
 to make the accusation against him4    
,thus one sworn jury must be convinced  

of the justice of the suspicion before a
 second jury can give its verdict4 ,a   
person cannot be brought up for trial   
twice for the same crime2 no one can be 
compelled to testify against himself2   
every one has the right to be brought   
before a jury in the district where the 
crime was committed1 to hear all the    
testimony against him1 to have counsel  
for his own defence1 and to avail       
himself of the strong arm of the law in 
bringing to court such witnesses as     
would speak in his favour2 cruel or     
excessive penalties may not be fixed1   
nor a man's freedom or property         
interfered with except after due process
 of law4 ,the ,constitution provides    
this1 and a good deal else1 and thus    
makes the conduct of trials uniform4 ,in
 other respects1 however1 there are not 
a few differences which are not so      
obvious in the courts4 ,among these is  
the circumstance that federal judges are
 appointed for life1 while the judges of
 the separate states are elected for    

short periods of from four to seven     
years4  ,the relations between          
constitutional laws and legislative laws
 seem even more complicated4 ,here1 too1
 in a way1 the same province is covered 
by a two-fold system of laws4 ,the fixed
 letter of the ,constitution and the    
living decisions by a majority in       
,congress or in a state legislature1    
stand in opposition to each other4 ,it  
is established that no legislature can  
ride over the ,constitution2 and if the 
interpretation of a court brings out a  
contradiction between the two systems1 a
 conflict arises which in principle     
makes justice uncertain4 ,if we now ask 
how it is possible that all such        
conflicts have disappeared without the  
least prejudice to the national sense of
 justice1 how in spite of all these     
possibilities of friction no disturbance
 is seen1 or how in a land which has    
been overrun with serious political     
conflicts1 a jurisprudence so lacking in
 uniformity has always been the north   

star of the nation--the reply will be   
that the ,supreme ,court has done all   
this4 ,the upper federal court has been 
the great reconciling factor in the     
history of the ,united ,states1 and has 
left behind it a succession of          
honourable memorials4 ,its most         
distinguished chief justice has been    
,john ,marshall1 who presided over it   
from #ahja to #ahce4 ,he was ,america's 
greatest jurist1 and contributed more   
than any one else toward impressing the 
spirit of the ,constitution on the      
country4  ,the ,german reader who hears 
of the ,supreme ,court sitting at the   
,capitol1 must not turn back in his mind
 to the ,imperial ,court at ,leipzig4   
,the ,supreme ,court is by no means the 
sole court of highest instance1 for the 
suits in single states which properly   
fall within the jurisdiction of a state 
can go no higher than the highest court 
of appeal of that state4 ,the ,supreme  
,court in ,washington is the court of   
last instance for federal cases2 but in 

order to disburden the judges in        
,washington1 there are large classes of 
civil cases pertaining to the federal   
courts1 which can be carried no higher  
than the federal court of appeals of a  
given circuit4 ,much more important than
 the cases in which the ,supreme ,court 
is really the court of highest instance 
for federal suits1 are those others in  
which it is at once the court of first  
and last instance2 these are the        
processes which the ,constitution       
assigns immediately to the ,supreme     
,court4 ,they are chiefly suits in which
 a single state1 or in which the ,united
 ,states is itself a party1 for the     
,supreme ,bench alone can settle        
disagreements between states and decide 
whether the federal or state laws       
conflict with the ,constitution4 ,in    
this sense the ,supreme ,court is higher
 than both ,president and ,congress4 ,if
 it decides that a treaty which the     
,executive has concluded1 or a law which
 has been passed by the ,legislative1   

violates the ,constitution1 then the    
doings of both ,congress and the        
,president are annulled4 ,there is only 
one way by which a decision of the      
,supreme ,court can be set              
aside--namely1 by the vote of a         
three-fourths majority of all the       
states2 that is1 by an amendment of the 
,constitution4 ,there are some instances
 of this in the history of the ,united  
,states2 but virtually the decision of  
the nine judges of the ,supreme ,court  
is the highest law of the land4  ,the   
,supreme ,court has annulled            
,congressional measures twenty-one times
 and state statutes more than two       
hundred times1 because these were at    
variance with the ,constitution4 ,many  
of these have been cases of the greatest
 political importance1 long and bitterly
 fought out in the legislatures1 and    
followed with excitement by the public4 
,the whole country has often been       
divided in its opinion on a legal       
question1 and even the decision itself  

of the nine judges has sometimes been   
handed down with only a small majority4 
,nevertheless1 for many years the       
country has every time submitted to the 
oracle of the ,supreme ,court1 and      
considered the whole issue definitely   
closed4  ,one is not to suppose that the
 ,supreme ,court occupies itself with   
handing down legal verdicts in the      
abstract and in a way declaring its veto
 whenever ,congress or some legislature 
infringes the ,constitution4 ,such a    
thing is out of the question1 since     
theoretically the ,supreme ,court1      
although the equal is not the superior  
of ,congress2 most of all1 it is a court
 and not a legislature4 ,the question of
 law does not come up then before this  
tribunal until there is a concrete case 
which has to be decided1 and the        
,supreme ,court has always declined to  
hand down a theoretical interpretation  
in advance of an actual suit4 ,as early 
as the eighteenth century1 ,washington  
was unable to elicit from the ,supreme  

,court any reply to a hypothetical      
question4 ,even when the actual case has
 come up1 the ,supreme ,court does not  
say that a certain law is invalid1 but  
decides strictly on the one case before 
it1 and announces on what principle of  
the law it has based its decision4 ,if  
there is a disagreement between two     
laws1 the decision of the ,court simply 
lays the practical emphasis on one      
rather than on the other4 ,it is true   
that in this way nothing but one single 
case is decided2 but here the principle 
of common law comes in--one decision    
establishes a point of law1 and the     
,supreme ,court and all lower courts    
likewise must in future hand down       
verdicts conformable thereto4 ,the      
legislative law so superseded is thus   
practically annulled and made           
non-existent4 ,in the ,supreme ,court   
one sees again that the security of     
national justice rests on the binding   
force of former decisions4  ,it will be 
enough to point out two decisions which 

have been given in recent years and     
which have interested the whole country4
 ,in the year #ahid ,congress passed a  
new tax law2 one clause of this law     
taxed every income which was larger than
 a certain amount4 ,it was taxation of  
the wealthy4 ,so far as income was      
obtained by actual labour the tax was   
undoubtedly valid4 ,but ,new ,york      
barristers doubted the constitutionality
 of this tax in so far as it was laid on
 the interest from securities or on     
rents2 because the ,constitution        
expressly says that direct taxation for 
the country must be levied by the       
separate states1 and in such a way that 
the whole sum to be raised shall be     
apportioned among the different states  
according to their population4 ,the     
counsels of the wealthy ,new ,yorkers   
said this provision ought to apply here4
 ,the difference would be for every rich
 man in thickly populated states a very 
considerable one4 ,if the tax was to be 
apportioned according to population1 the

 poor states must also bear their share4
 ,while it came to be levied on the     
individuals the largest part of the     
burden would fall to the millionaires1  
who are grouped in a few states4 ,the   
,supreme ,court would say nothing so    
long as the discussion was theoretical4 
,finally1 a case was tested2 when the   
lawyers were prepared1 a certain citizen
 refused to pay the income tax and let  
the matter go to court4 ,the first      
barristers in the country were divided  
on the question1 as was also the        
,supreme ,court4 ,the majority decided  
in favour of the citizen who refused to 
pay the tax1 because in its opinion the 
tax was a direct one1 and therefore the 
constitutional provision relating to    
direct taxation was in force4 ,by this  
one decision the income tax was set     
aside1 and instead of ten thousand new  
suits being brought1 of which the       
outcome was already clear1 the excess   
taxes were everywhere paid back4 ,at    
bottom this was the victory1 over both  

,president and ,congress1 of a single   
eminent barrister1 who is to-day the    
ambassador to ,england4  ,a still more  
important decision1 because it involved 
the whole political future of the       
,united ,states1 was that on the island 
possessions4 ,by the treaty with ,spain1
 ,porto ,rico had become a possession of
 the ,united ,states1 and was therefore 
subject to ,united ,states law2 but     
,congress proceeded to lay a tariff on  
certain wares which were imported from  
the island4 ,there were two possible    
views4 ,on the one hand1 the            
,constitution prescribes that there     
shall be no customs duties of any sort  
between the states which belong to the  
,union2 and since ,porto ,rico is a part
 of the ,union the rest of the states   
may not levy a tariff on imports from   
the island4 ,on the other hand1 the     
,constitution empowers ,congress to     
regulate at its discretion the affairs  
of such territory as belongs to the     
,united ,states1 but has not yet been   

granted the equal rights of states2 thus
 the other provision of the             
,constitution would not immediately     
apply to this island4 ,the question had 
never before been decided1 because the  
,indian territories1 the ,mexican       
accessions1 and ,alaska had never been  
treated as ,porto ,rico now was4        
,congress had previously taken for      
granted that the ,constitution was in   
force for these territories1 but now the
 imperialistic tendencies of politics   
had created a new situation1 and one    
which had to be settled4  ,here too1 of 
course1 the ,supreme ,court did not try 
to settle the theoretical question which
 was stirring the whole country2 but    
presently came the action of ,downes vs4
 ,bidwell1 a simple suit in which a ,new
 ,york commercial house was the         
complainant1 and the ,new ,york ,customs
 the defendant4 ,in case the provisions 
of the ,constitution were to hold for   
the entire domain of the ,united        
,states1 the tariff which ,congress had 

enacted was unconstitutional1 but if the
 ,constitution was to hold only for the 
states1 while ,congress was sovereign   
over all other possessions1 the tariff  
was constitutional4 ,the ,supreme ,court
 decided for this latter interpretation 
by five votes against four1 and the     
commercial house paid its tax4          
,therewith the principle was decided for
 all time1 and if to-morrow the ,united 
,states should get hold of ,asia and    
,africa1 it is assured from the outset  
that the new domain would not be under  
the ,constitution1 but under the        
authority of ,congress--simply because  
,downes lost his case against ,customs  
,inspector ,bidwell1 and had to pay six 
hundred dollars in duty on oranges4     
,this last case shows clearly that the  
decisions by no means always support the
 ,constitution against legislative      
bodies2 and statistics show that        
although in two hundred cases the       
verdict has been against the            
legislatures1 it has been more often    

decided in their favour4 ,the entire    
history of the ,supreme ,court shows    
that in a conservative spirit it has    
always done full justice to both the    
centralizing and particularizing        
tendencies4 ,it has shown this          
conciliatory attitude especially by the 
firm authority with which it has decided
 the hazardous disputes over boundaries 
and other differences1 between the      
several states1 so that such disputes   
really come up no longer4 ,for a century
 the ,supreme ,court has been a shining 
example of a federal tribunal4  ,such   
complete domination of the national life
 could not have been attained by the    
,supreme ,bench if it had not remained  
well above all the doings of the        
political parties1 and that it does so  
may seem surprising when one considers  
the conditions under which the judges   
are appointed4 ,the ,president selects  
the new judge whenever1 by death or     
retirement1 a vacancy occurs among the  
nine judges2 and the ,senate confirms   

the selection4 ,party factors1          
therefore1 determine the appointment1   
and in point of fact ,democratic        
,presidents have always appointed judges
 belonging to their own party1 and      
,republicans have done the same4 ,the   
result is that both parties are         
represented in the ,supreme ,court4     
,that in political questions1 such as   
the case of ,porto ,rico1 which we have 
mentioned1 party conceptions figure     
somewhat in the decision of the judges  
is undoubted4 ,yet they figure only in  
the sense that allegiance to one or the 
other party involves certain fundamental
 convictions1 and these necessarily come
 into play in the judicial verdict4 ,on 
the other hand1 there is never the least
 suspicion that the judges harbour      
political schemes or seek in their      
decision to favour either political     
party4 ,this results from the fact that 
it is a matter of honour with both      
parties to place really the most        
distinguished jurists in these highest  

judicial offices--jurists who will be   
for all time an honour to the           
administration which appointed them4    
,they are almost exclusively men who    
have never taken part in technical      
politics1 but who have been either      
distinguished judges elsewhere or else  
leading barristers1 and who1 from the   
day of their appointment on1 will be    
only judges4 ,their position is counted 
among the most honourable which there   
is1 and it would almost never happen    
that a jurist would decline his         
appointment1 although the position1 like
 all ,american official positions1 is   
inadequately rewarded2 the salary is ten
 thousand dollars1 while any great      
lawyer is able to earn many times that  
sum4 ,at the present moment there sits  
on the ,supreme ,bench a group of men1  
every one of whom represents the highest
 kind of ,american spirit4 ,the bustle  
and confusion1 which prevail in the two 
wings of the ,capitol1 does not invade  
the hall where the nine judges hold     

their sessions4 ,these men are1 in the  
,american public mind1 the very symbol  
of conscience4  ,we shall have occasion 
to consider later on the administration 
of justice by the nation1 under various 
points of view4 ,while in many respects 
this will appear less conscientious and 
more especially less deliberate1 it     
will1 nevertheless1 recall not a few    
admirable features of the ,supreme      
,court4                                 
,,chapter ,,six                         
,city and ,state   ,the ,constitution1  
the ,president and his ,cabinet1 the    
,senate1 the ,house of ,representatives1
 and the ,supreme ,court1 in short all  
of those institutions which we have so  
far sketched1 belong to the ,united     
,states together4 ,the ,european who    
pictures to himself the life of an      
,american will inevitably come to think 
that these are the factors which most   
influence the life of the political     
individual4 ,but such is not the case2  
the ,american citizen in daily life is  

first of all a member of his special    
state4 ,the organization of the ,union  
is more prominent on the surface than   
that of the single state1 but this      
latter is more often felt by the        
inhabitants4  ,the quality of an        
,american state can be more easily      
communicated to a ,german than to an    
,englishman1 ,frenchman1 or ,russian4   
,the resident of ,bavaria or ,saxony    
knows already how a man may have a      
two-fold patriotism1 allegiance to the  
state and also to the empire2 so that he
 can recognize the duties as well as the
 privileges which are grouped around two
 centres4 ,the essentials of the        
,american state1 however1 are not       
described by the comparison with a state
 in the ,german ,empire1 which is       
relatively of too little importance2 for
 in comparison with the ,union the      
,american state has more independence   
and sovereignty than the ,german4 ,we   
have observed before that it has its own
 laws and its own court of last appeal2 

but these are only two of the many      
indications of its practical and        
theoretical independence4 ,the          
significant organic importance of the   
state shows itself not less clearly if  
one thinks of the cities subordinate to 
it1 rather than of the ,federation which
 is superior to it4 ,while the ,german  
state is more dependent on the          
,federation than is the ,american1 the  
,german city is more independent of the 
state than is any city in the ,united   
,states4 ,the political existence of the
 ,american city is entirely dependent on
 the legislature of its state4 ,the     
,federation on the one hand and the     
cities on the other1 alike depend for   
their administrative existence on the   
separate states4  ,it is not merely an  
historical relic of that time when the  
thirteen states united1 but hesitated to
 give up their individual rights to the 
,federation2 a time when there were only
 six cities of more than eight thousand 
inhabitants4 ,nothing has changed in    

this respect1 and it is not only the    
,democratic party to-day which jealously
 guards state rights2 the state all too 
often tyrannizes still over the large   
cities within its borders4 ,there are   
some indications1 indeed1 that the state
 rights are getting even more emphasis  
than formerly--perhaps as a reaction    
against the fact that1 in spite of all  
constitutional precautions1 those states
 which have close commercial relations  
tend practically to merge more and more 
with one another4  ,on observing the    
extraordinary tenacity with which the   
federal laws and the local patriotism of
 the individual cling to the            
independence of each one of the         
forty-five states1 one is inclined to   
suppose that it is a question of        
extremely profound differences in the   
customs1 ideals1 temperaments1 and      
interests of the different states4 ,but 
such is not at all the case4 ,the states
 are1 of course1 very unlike1 especially
 in size2 ,texas and ,rhode ,island1 for

 instance1 would compare about as       
,prussia and ,reuss4 ,there are even    
greater differences in the density of   
population2 and the general cast of     
physiognomy varies in different regions 
of the country4 ,the ,southerner shows  
the character bred by plantation life2  
the citizen of the ,north-east evinces  
the culture bred of higher intellectual 
interests2 while the citizens of the    
,west attest the differences between    
their agricultural and mining districts4
 ,yet the divisions here are not states1
 but larger regions comprising groups of
 states1 and it sometimes happens that  
more striking contrasts are found within
 a certain state than would be found    
between neighbouring states4 ,the state 
lines were after all often laid down on 
paper with a ruler1 while nature has    
seldom made sharp lines of demarcation1 
and the different racial elements of the
 population are fairly well mixed4 ,for 
the last century the pioneers of the    
nation have carried it steadily         

westward1 so that in many states the    
number of those born in the state is    
much less than of those who have        
migrated to it2 and of course the       
obstinate assertion of the prerogatives 
of such a state does not arise from any 
cherished local traditions to which the 
inhabitants are accustomed4 ,the special
 complexion of any provincial district1 
moreover1 is assailed from all sides and
 to a large extent obliterated1 in these
 days of the telegraph and of           
extraordinarily rapid commercial        
intercourse and industrial organization4
  ,the uniformity of fashions1 the      
wide-spread distribution of newspapers  
and magazines1 the great political      
parties1 and the intense national       
patriotism all work towards the one     
end--that from ,maine to ,california the
 ,american is very much the same sort of
 man1 and feels himself1 in contrast    
with a foreigner1 to be merely an       
,american4 ,and yet in spite of all this
 each single state holds obstinately to 

its separate rights4 ,it is the same    
principle which we have seen at work in 
the ,american individual4 ,the more the 
individuals or the states resemble one  
another the more they seem determined to
 preserve their autonomy2 the more      
similar the substance1 the sharper must 
be the distinctions in form4  ,the inner
 similarity of the different states is  
shown by the fact that1 while each one  
has its own statute-book and an upper   
court which jealously guards its special
 constitution1 nevertheless all of the  
forty-five state constitutions are      
framed very much alike4 ,the            
,constitution of the ,united ,states    
would by no means require this1 since it
 prescribes merely that every state     
constitution shall be republican in     
form2 and yet not a single state has    
taken advantage of its great freedom4   
,the constitutions of the older states  
were modelled partly on the institutions
 of the ,english fatherland1 partly on  
those of colonial days2 and when many of

 these features were finally embodied in
 the ,federal ,constitution1 they were  
reflected back once more in the         
constitutions of the states which later 
came to be4 ,the new states have simply 
borrowed the general structure of the   
older states and of the ,federation1    
without much statesmanlike imagination2 
although here and there is some         
adaptation to special circumstances4    
,there are indeed some odd differences  
at superficial points1 and inasmuch as1 
in contrast to the ,federal             
,constitution1 the state constitutions  
have frequently been reshaped by the    
people1 a reactionary tendency or some  
radical and hasty innovation has here   
and there been incorporated4  ,the      
principles1 however1 are everywhere the 
same4 ,each state has framed a reduced  
copy of the ,federal ,constitution1 and 
one finds a still more diminutive       
representation of the same thing in the 
,american city charter4 ,yet we must not
 forget here that1 although             

theoretically and constitutionally the  
state is greater than the city1 yet in  
fact the city of ,new ,york has a       
population eighty times as large as the 
,state of ,nevada1 with its bare #dj1jjj
 inhabitants2 or1 again1 that the budget
 of the ,state of ,massachusetts is     
hardly a quarter as large as that of    
,boston1 its capital city4  ,thus1 like 
the ,union1 both city and state have a  
charter and an executive1 a dual        
legislature1 and a judiciary1 all of    
which reproduce on a small scale all the
 special features of the federal        
organization4 ,the city charter is      
different from that of the state1 in    
that it is not drawn up by the          
inhabitants of the city1 but1 as we have
 said1 has to be granted by the state   
legislature4 ,the head of the state     
executive1 the governor1 is in a way a  
small president1 who is elected directly
 by the people1 generally for a two     
years' term of office4 ,in the city     
government the mayor corresponds to him1

 and is likewise elected by the         
citizens2 and in the larger cities for  
the same period4 ,a staff of executive  
officers is provided for both the mayor 
and the governor4  ,under the city      
government are ranged the heads of      
departments1 who are generally chosen by
 the mayor himself2 ,new ,york1 for     
instance1 has eighteen such             
divisions--the departments of finance1  
taxation1 law1 police1 health1 fire1    
buildings1 streets1 water-supply1       
bridges1 education1 charities1 penal    
institutions1 park-ways1 public         
buildings1 etc4 ,the most important     
officials under the state government are
 always the state secretary1 the state  
attorney-general1 and the treasurer4    
,close to the governor stands the       
lieutenant-governor1 who1 after the     
pattern of the federal government1 is   
president of the upper legislative      
chamber4 ,the governor is empowered to  
convene the legislature1 to approve or  
to veto all state measures1 to pardon   

criminals1 to appoint many of the lower 
officials1 although generally his       
appointment must be confirmed by the    
upper legislative body1 and he is       
invariably in sole command of the state 
militia4 ,the legislature of the state  
is always1 and that of the cities       
generally1 divided into two chambers4   
,here again the membership in the upper 
chamber is smaller than that of the     
lower and more difficult to obtain4     
,often the state legislature does not   
meet in the largest city1 but makes for 
itself a sort of political oasis1 a     
diminutive ,washington4 ,the term of    
office in the legislature is almost     
always two years1 and everywhere the    
same committee system is followed as at 
the ,capitol in ,washington4 ,only a    
member of the legislative body can      
propose bills1 and such propositions are
 referred at once to a special          
committee1 where they are discussed and 
perhaps buried4 ,they can come to the   
house only through the hands of this    

committee4 ,the freedom given to the    
state legislature is somewhat less than 
that given by the ,constitution to      
,congress4 ,while all the parliamentary 
methods are strikingly and often very   
navely copied after those in use at     
,washington1 the state constitutions    
were careful from the outset that       
certain matters should not be subject to
 legislative egotism4 ,on the other hand
 the state legislature hands down many  
of its rights to inferior bodies1 such  
as district1 county1 and city           
administrations2 but in all these cases 
in which there is a real transfer of    
powers1 it is characteristic that these 
really pertain to the state as such1 and
 can1 therefore1 be withdrawn by the    
state legislatures from the smaller     
districts at any time4  ,the entire     
administration of the state falls to the
 state legislature2 that is1 the        
measures for public instruction1        
taxation1 public works1 and the public  
debt1 penal institutions1 the           

supervision of railroads1 corporations1 
factories1 and commerce4 ,in addition to
 this there are the civil and criminal  
statutes1 with the exception of those   
few cases which the ,constitution       
reserves for federal legislation2 and1  
finally1 there is the granting of       
franchises and monopolies to public and 
industrial corporations4 ,of course1    
within this authority there is nothing  
which concerns the relation of one state
 to other states or to foreign powers1  
nor anything of customs revenues or     
other such matters as are enacted       
uniformly for all parts of the country  
by the federal government4 ,the state   
has1 however1 the right to fix the      
conditions under which an immigrant may 
become a naturalized citizen2 and a     
foreigner becomes an ,american citizen  
by being naturalized under the law of   
any one of the forty-five states4 ,all  
this gives an exceedingly large field of
 action to state legislatures1 and it is
 astonishing how little dissimilar are  

the provisions which the different      
states have enacted4  ,the city         
governments are very diverse in size1   
but in all the larger cities consist of 
two houses4 ,the ,german reader must not
 suppose that these work together like  
the ,german magistrate and the municipal
 representative assembly4 ,since in     
,america the legislative and executive  
are always sharply sundered1 the heads  
of departments under the executive--that
 is1 the ,german ,stadtrte--have no     
place in the law-making body4 ,the dual 
legislative is1 therefore1 in a way an  
upper and lower municipal representative
 assembly1 elected in different ways and
 having similar differences in function 
as the two chambers of ,congress4 ,here 
too1 for instance1 bills of             
appropriation have to originate in the  
lower house4 ,oddly enough1 the city    
legislative is generally not entrusted  
with education1 but this is administered
 by a separate municipal board1 elected 
directly by the people4 ,one who becomes

 acquainted with the intellectual       
composition of the average city father1 
will find this separation of educational
 matters not at all surprising1 and very
 beneficent and reasonable4  ,in        
general1 one may say that the mayor is  
more influential in the city government 
than that body which represents the     
citizens2 this in contrast to the       
situation in the state government1 where
 the governor is relatively less        
influential than the legislature4 ,the  
chief function of the governor is really
 a negative one1 that of affixing his   
veto from time to time on an utterly    
impossible law4 ,the mayor1 on the other
 hand1 can shape things and leave the   
stamp of his personality on his city4   
,in the state1 as in the city1 it often 
happens that the head of the executive  
and a majority of the legislative belong
 to opposite parties1 and this not      
because the party issues are forgotten  
in the local elections1 but because the 
methods of election are different4  ,the

 division of public affairs into city   
and state issues leaves1 of course1 room
 for still a third group1 namely1 the   
affairs of communities which are still  
smaller than cities4 ,these1 too1 derive
 their authority entirely from the state
 legislature1 but all states leave      
considerable independence to the smaller
 political units4 ,in local village     
government the historic differences of  
the various regions show out more       
clearly than in either state or city    
government4 ,the large cities are to all
 intents and purposes cast in the same  
mould everywhere2 their like needs have 
developed like forms of life2 and the   
coming together of great numbers of     
people have everywhere created the same 
economic situation4 ,but the scattered  
population gets its social and economic 
articulation in the ,north1 ,south1 and 
,west1 in quite different ways2 and this
 difference1 at an early time when the  
problems of a large city were so far not
 known1 led to different types of       

village organizations1 which have been  
historically preserved4  ,when the      
,english colonies were growing up1 the  
differences in this connection between  
the ,new ,england states and ,virginia  
were extreme4 ,the colonies on the      
northern shores1 with their bays and    
harbours1 their hilly country and large 
forests1 could not spread their         
population out over large tracts of     
land1 and were concentrated within      
limited regions2 and this tendency was  
further emphasized by ,puritan          
traditions1 which required the          
population to take active part in church
 services4 ,there naturally was         
developed a local form of government for
 small districts1 which corresponded to 
old ,english traditions4 ,the citizens  
gathered from all parts of every        
district to discuss their common affairs
 and to decide what taxes should be     
raised1 what streets built1 and1 most of
 all1 what should be done for their     
churches and schools1 and for the poor4 

,in ,virginia1 on the other hand1 where 
very large plantations were laid out1   
there could be no such small            
communities2 the population was more    
scattered1 and affairs of general       
interest had necessarily to be entrusted
 to special representatives1 who were in
 part elected by small parishes and in  
part appointed by the governor4 ,the    
political unit here was not the town1   
but the county4  ,the difference in     
these two types is the more worthy of   
consideration because it explains how   
the ,north and ,south have been able to 
contribute such different and yet such  
equally valuable factors to all the     
great events of ,american history4 ,new 
,england and ,virginia were the two     
centres of influence in ,revolutionary  
times and when the ,union was being     
completed1 but their influences were    
wholly different4 ,new ,england served  
the country by effecting an             
extraordinarily thorough education of   
its masses by giving them a long        

schooling in local self-government2 each
 individual was obliged to meditate on  
public affairs4 ,virginia1 however1 gave
 to the country its brilliant leaders2  
the masses remained backward1 but the   
county representatives practised and    
trained themselves to the rle of leading
 statesmen4 ,between these two extremes 
lay the ,middle ,atlantic ,states1 where
 a mixed form of town and county        
representation had necessarily developed
 from the social conditions2 and these  
three types1 the ,northern1 ,southern1  
and mixed1 worked slowly back during the
 nineteenth century from the coast      
toward the ,west4 ,settlers in the new  
states carried with them their familiar 
forms of local government1 so that      
to-day these three forms may still be   
found through the country4 ,to-day the  
chief functions of town governments are 
public instruction1 care for the poor1  
and the building of roads4 ,religious   
life is1 of course1 here as in the city1
 state1 and ,union1 wholly separated    

from the political organization4 ,the   
police systems of these local           
governments in town and village are     
wholly rudimentary4 ,while the police   
system is perhaps the most difficult    
chapter in ,american city government1   
the country districts have always done  
very well with almost none4 ,this       
reflects the moral vigour of the        
,american rural population4 ,the people 
sleep everywhere with their front doors 
open1 and everywhere presuppose the     
willing assistance of their neighbours4 
,it was not until great populations     
commenced to gather in cities1 that     
those social evils arose1 of which the  
police system1 which was created to     
obviate them1 is itself not the least4  
,any one overlooking this interplay of  
public forces sees that in town and     
city1 state and ,union1 it is not a     
question of forcing administrative      
energies into a prescribed sphere of    
action4 ,they expand everywhere as they 
will1 both from the smaller to the      

larger sphere and from the larger to the
 smaller4 ,therefore1 the ,union        
naturally desires to take on itself     
those functions of state legislation in 
which a lack of uniformity would be     
dangerous2 as1 for instance1 the divorce
 laws1 the discrepancies in which       
between different states are so great   
that the necessity of more uniform      
divorce regulations is ever becoming    
more keenly felt4 ,at present it is a   
fact that a man who is divorced under   
the laws of ,dakota and marries again   
can be punished in ,new ,york for       
bigamy4 ,a similar situation exists in  
regard to certain trade regulations1    
where there are unfortunate             
discrepancies4 ,many opponents of the   
trusts want even an amendment to the    
,constitution which will bring them     
under federal law1 and prevent these    
huge industrial concerns from           
incorporating under the too lax laws of 
certain states4  ,still easier is it for
 the states to interfere in the city    

governments4 ,if the ,union wishes to   
make new regulations for the state1 the 
,federal ,constitution has to be        
amended2 while if the state wants to    
hold a tighter rein on city government  
it can do so directly1 for1 as we have  
seen1 the cities derive all their powers
 from the state legislature4 ,there is1 
indeed1 considerable tendency now to    
restrict the privileges of cities1 and  
much of this is sound1 especially where 
the state authority is against open     
municipal corruption4 ,the general      
tendency is increasing to give the state
 considerable rights of supervision over
 matters of local hygiene1 industrial   
conditions1 penal and benevolent        
institutions4 ,the advantages of        
uniformity which accrue from state      
supervision are emphasized by many      
persons1 and still more the advantage   
derived from handing over hygienic1     
technical1 and pedagogical questions to 
the well-paid state experts1 instead of 
leaving them to the inexperience of     

small districts and towns4 ,there is no 
doubt that on these lines the functions 
of the state are being extended slowly  
but steadily4  ,then again the cities   
and towns in their turn are tending to  
absorb once more such forces as are     
subordinate to them1 and thus to        
increase the municipal functions4 ,the  
fundamental principles which have       
dominated the economic life in the      
,united ,states and brought it to a     
healthful development1 leave the        
greatest possible play for private      
initiative2 thus not very long ago it   
was a matter of course that the water   
supply1 the street lighting1 the steam  
and electric railways should be wholly  
in the hands of private companies4 ,a   
change is coming into these affairs1 for
 it is clearly seen that industries of  
this sort are essentially different from
 ordinary business undertakings1 not    
only because they make use of public    
roads1 but also because such plants     
necessarily gain monopolies which find  

it easy to levy tribute upon the public4
 ,in recent years1 therefore1 city      
governments have little by little taken 
over the water supplies1 and tend       
somewhat to limit the sphere of other   
private undertakings of this sort--as1  
for instance1 that of street-lighting4  
,at the same time there is an           
unmistakable tendency for city and town 
to undertake certain tasks which are not
 economically necessary1 and which have 
been left hitherto to private           
initiative4 ,cities are building        
bath-houses and laundries1 playgrounds  
and gymnasiums1 and more especially     
public libraries and museums1 providing 
concerts and other kinds of amusements  
and bureaus for the registration of     
those needing employment2 in short1 are 
everywhere taking up newly arisen duties
 and performing them at public expense4 
,there is1 on the other hand1 a strong  
counter-current to these tendencies of  
the large units to perform the duties of
 the small--the strong those of the     

weak1 the city those of the individual1 
the state those of the city1 and the    
,union those of the state4 ,the         
opposition begins already in the        
smallest circle of all1 where one sees a
 strong anti-centralizing tendency4 ,the
 county or city is not entitled1 it is  
said1 to expend the taxpayers' money for
 luxuries or for purposes other than    
those of general utility4 ,it should be 
generous philanthropists or private     
organizations that build museums and    
libraries1 bath-houses and gymnasiums1  
but not the city1 which gets its money  
from the pockets of the working classes4
 ,although optimists have proposed it1  
there will certainly be for a long time 
yet no subsidized municipal theatres2   
and it is noticeable that the liberal   
offers of ,carnegie to erect public     
libraries are being more and more       
declined by various town councils1      
because ,carnegie's plan of foundation  
calls for a considerable augmentation   
from the public funds4 ,and wherever it 

is a question of indispensable services1
 such as tramways and street-lighting1  
the majority generally says that it is  
cheaper every time to pay a small profit
 to a private company than to undertake 
a large business at the public expense4 
,from the ,american point of view       
private companies are often too         
economical1 while public enterprises are
 invariably shamelessly wasteful4  ,the 
city pays too dear and borrows at too   
high a rate2 in short1 regulates its    
transactions without that wholesome     
pressure exerted by stockholders who are
 looking for dividends4 ,worst of all1  
the undertakings which are carried on by
 municipalities are often simply handed 
over to political corruption4 ,instead  
of trained experts1 political           
wire-pullers of the party in office are 
employed in all the best-paid positions1
 and even where no money is consciously 
wasted1 a gradual laxness creeps in     
little by little1 which makes the       
service worse than it would ever be in a

 private company1 which stands all the  
time in fear of competition4 ,for this  
reason the ,american is absolutely      
against entrusting railroads and        
telegraph lines to the hands of the     
state4 ,when a large telegraph company  
did not adequately serve the needs of   
the public1 another concern spread its  
network of wires through the whole      
country2 and since then the ,western    
,union and ,postal ,telegraph have been 
in competition1 and the public has been 
admirably served4 ,but what relief would
 there have been if the state had had a 
monopoly of the telegraph lines1 with   
politicians in charge who would have    
been indifferent to public demands8 ,the
 wish to be economical1 to keep business
 out of politics1 and to keep           
competition open1 all work together1 so 
that the extension of municipal         
functions1 although ardently wished on  
many sides1 goes on very slowly2 and it 
is justly pointed out that whenever     
private corporations in any way abuse   

their privileges the community at large 
has certainly plenty of means for       
supervising them1 and of giving them    
franchises under such conditions as     
shall amply protect public interests4   
,when a private company wishes to use   
public streets for its car-tracks1 gas  
or water pipes1 or electric wires1 the  
community can easily enough grant the   
permission for a limited length of time1
 reserving perhaps the right to purchase
 or requiring a substantial payment for 
the franchise and a portion of the      
profits1 and can leave the rest to      
public watchfulness and to the regular  
publication of the company's reports4   
,it is not to be doubted that the       
tendencies in this direction are to-day 
very marked4  ,just as private          
initiative is trying not to be swallowed
 up by the community1 so the community  
is trying to save itself from the state4
 ,so far as the village1 town1 or county
 is concerned1 nobody denies that state 
experts could afford a better public    

service than the inexperienced local    
boards1 and1 nevertheless1 it is felt   
that every place knows best after all   
just what is adapted to its own needs4  
,the closest adaptation to local        
desires1 as1 say1 in questions of public
 schools and roads1 has been always a   
fundamental ,american principle4 ,this  
principle started originally from the   
peculiar conditions which existed in the
 several colonies and from the needs of 
the pioneers2 but it has led to such a  
steady progress in the country's        
development that no ,american would care
 to give it up1 even if here and there  
certain advantages could be had by      
introducing greater uniformities4 ,there
 is a still more urgent motive2 it is   
only this opportunity of regulating the 
affairs of the small district which     
gives to every community1 even every    
neighbourhood1 the necessary schooling  
for the public duties of the ,american  
citizen4 ,if he is deprived of the right
 to take care of his own district1 that 

spirit of self-determination and        
independence cannot develop1 on which   
the success of the ,american experiment 
in democracy entirely depends4          
,political pedagogy requires that the   
state shall respect the individuality of
 the small community so far as this is  
in any way possible4  ,the relation     
between the city and the state is       
somewhat different2 no one would ask the
 parliamentarians of the state          
legislature to hold off in order that   
the population of the large city may    
have the opportunity to keep their      
political interests alive and to        
preserve their spirit of                
self-determination4 ,this spirit is at  
home in the streets of the great city2  
it is not only wide-awake there1 but it 
is clamorous and almost too urgent4     
,when1 now1 the municipalities in their 
struggle against the dictation of the   
state1 meet with the sympathies of      
intelligent people1 this is owing to the
 simple fact that the city1 in which all

 cultured interests are gathered        
generally1 has in all matters a higher  
point of view than the representatives  
of the entire state1 in which the more  
primitive rural population predominates4
 ,when1 for instance1 the provincial    
members which the ,state of ,new ,york  
has elected meet in ,albany1 and with   
their rural majority make regulations   
for governing the three million citizens
 of ,new ,york ,city1 regulations which 
are perhaps paternally well meant1 but  
which sometimes show a petty distrust   
and disapproval of that great and wicked
 place1 the result is often grotesque4  
,the state laws1 however1 favour this   
sort of dictation4  ,the state          
constitutions still show in this respect
 the condition of things at a time in   
which the city as such had hardly come  
into recognition4 ,the nineteenth       
century began in ,america with six      
cities of over eight thousand           
inhabitants1 and ended with #ede4       
,moreover1 in #ahjj those six places    

contained less than four per cent4 of   
the population1 while in #aijj the #ede 
cities contained more than thirty-three 
per cent4 thereof4 ,since only a        
twenty-fifth part of the nation lived in
 cities1 the greater power of the       
scattered provincial population seemed  
natural2 but when now a third of the    
nation prefers city life1 and especially
 the more intelligent1 more educated1   
and wealthy third1 the limitations to   
independent municipal rights become an  
obstacle to culture4  ,finally1 the     
states themselves are opposing on good  
grounds every assumption of rights by   
the ,federation--the same good grounds1 
indeed1 which the community has for     
opposing the state1 and many others     
besides4 ,it is felt that historically  
it has been the initiative of           
individuals rather than of the central  
government which has helped the nation  
to make its tremendous strides forward1 
and that this initiative should not only
 be rewarded with privileges1 but should

 also be stimulated by duties4 ,the more
 nearly one state is like another1 so   
much the more energetically does it     
forbid the others to interfere in its   
affairs2 and the more it is like the    
,union the more earnestly it seeks not  
to let its distinct individuality be    
swallowed up4 ,besides the moral effort 
toward state individuality1 there is a  
powerful state egotism at work in many  
states which makes for the same end4    
,back of everything1 finally1 there is  
the fear of the purely political dangers
 which are involved in an exaggerated   
centralization4 ,we have seen in this a 
fundamental sentiment of the ,democratic
 party4  ,thus at every step in the     
political organization centrifugal and  
centripetal forces stand opposite each  
other in the ,federal ,union1 in the    
state1 in the county1 and in the city4  
,and public opinion is busy discussing  
the arguments on both sides4 ,every day 
sees movements in one or the other      
direction1 and there is never any let   

up4 ,in all these discussions it is a   
question of conflicting principles1     
which in themselves seem just4 ,there   
is1 however1 another contrast--that     
between principle and lack of principle4
 ,in the ,union1 the state1 and the     
city1 centralists and anti-centralists  
meet on questions of law2 but in each   
one of these places there are groups of 
people working against the law and      
trying in every way to get around it4   
,in these discussions there is a true   
and false1 but in the conflicts there is
 a right and wrong2 and here            
argumentation is not needed1 but sheer  
resistance4 ,if one does not purposely  
close one's eyes1 one cannot doubt that 
the public life of ,america holds       
certain abuses1 which are against the   
spirit of the ,constitution and which   
too often come near to being criminal4  
,one can ask1 to be sure1 if that lack  
of conscience does not have place in    
every form of state in one way or       
another1 and if the necessity of        

developing a sound public spirit to     
fight against abuse may itself not be an
 important factor in helping on the     
spirit of self-determination to victory4
  ,any one who should write the history 
of disorganizing forces in ,american    
public life will have the least to say  
about federal politics1 a good deal more
 about those of the state1 and most of  
all about those of the city4 ,certain   
types of temptation are repeated at     
every stage4 ,there is1 for instance1   
the legislative committee1 which is     
found alike in ,congress1 in the state  
legislatures1 and in the city councils4 
,bills are virtually decided at first by
 two or three persons who exert their   
influence behind the closed doors of the
 committee room2 and naturally enough   
corrupt influences can much more easily 
make their way there than in the        
discussions of the whole house4 ,if a   
municipal committee has a bill under    
discussion1 the acceptance of which     
means hundreds of thousands of dollars  

saved or lost to the street railway     
company1 then certainly1 although the   
president and directors of the company  
will not themselves take any unlawful   
action1 yet in some way some less       
scrupulous agent will step in who will  
single out a bar-keeper or hungry       
advocate or fourth-class politician in  
the committee1 who might be amenable to 
certain gilded arguments4 ,and if this  
agent finds no such person he will find 
some one else who does not care for     
money1 but who would like very well to  
see his brother-in-law given a good     
position in the railway company1 or     
perhaps to see the track extended past  
his own house4  ,of course the same     
thing happens when a measure is brought 
before the state legislature1 and the   
vote of some obscure provincial attorney
 on the committee means millions of     
dollars to the banking firm1 the trust1 
the mining company1 or the industrial   
community as a whole4 ,here the lobby   
gets in its work4 ,the different states 

are1 of course1 very different in this  
respect2 the cruder forms of bribery    
would not avail in ,massachusetts and   
would be very dangerous2 but they feel  
differently about such things in        
,montana4 ,as we have already said1     
,congress is free of such taints4       
,another source of temptation1 which    
likewise exists for all ,american       
law-giving bodies1 arises from the fact 
that all measures must be proposed by   
the members of such body4 ,thus local   
needs are taken care of by the activity 
of the popular representatives1 and1    
therefore1 the number of bills proposed 
becomes very large4 ,just as during the 
last session of ,congress1 #ag1jjj      
measures were proposed in the lower     
house1 hundreds of thousands of bills   
are brought before the state            
legislatures and city councils4 ,there  
is never a lack of reasons for bringing 
up superfluous bills4 ,and since the    
system of secret committees makes it    
difficult for the individual            

representative to appear before the     
whole house and to make a speech1 it    
follows that the introduction of a few  
bills is almost the only way in which   
the politician can show his constituency
 that he was not elected to the         
legislature in vain1 and that he is     
actually representing the interests of  
his supporters4 ,a milder form of this  
abuse consists of handing in bills which
 are framed by reason of personal       
friendships or hatreds2 and the same    
thing appears in uglier form when it is 
not a question of personal favour1 but  
of services bought and paid for1 not of 
personal hatred1 but of a systematic    
conspiracy to extort money from those   
who need legislation4 ,the milder form  
of wrongdoing1 in which it is only a    
question of personal favours1 can be    
found everywhere1 even in the ,capitol  
at ,washington1 and the much-boasted    
,senatorial courtesy lends a sort of    
sanction to the abuse4  ,this evil is   
strengthened1 as it perhaps originated1 

by the tacit recognition of the         
principle that every legislator         
represents1 first of all1 his local     
district4 ,it is not expected of a      
senator that he shall look at every     
question from the point of view of the  
general welfare1 but rather that he     
shall take first of all the point of    
view of his state4 ,it has indeed been  
urged that the senator is nothing but an
 ambassador sent to represent his state 
before the federal government4 ,if this 
is so1 it follows at once that no state 
delegate ought to have any control over 
the interests of another state1 and so  
the wishes of any senator should be     
final in all matters pertaining to his  
own state4 ,from this it is only a small
 step to the existing order of things1  
in which every senator is seconded on   
his own proposals by his colleagues1 if 
he will second them on theirs4 ,in this 
way each delegate has the chance to     
place the law-giving machinery at the   
service of those who will in any way    

advance his political popularity among  
his constituents1 and help him during   
his next candidacy4 ,and then1 too1 a   
good deal is done merely for            
appearances2 bills are entered1 printed1
 and circulated in the local papers to  
tickle the spirits of constituents1     
while the proposer himself has not      
supposed for a moment that his          
proposition will pass the committee4    
,things go in the state legislatures in 
quite the same way4 ,each member is     
first of all the representative of his  
own district1 and he claims a certain   
right of not being interfered with in   
matters which concern that district4 ,in
 this way he is accorded great freedom  
to grant all sorts of legislative       
favours which will bring him sufficient 
returns1 or to carry through legal      
intrigues to the injury of his political
 opponents4 ,and here in the state      
legislature1 as in the city council1    
where the same principles are in use1   
there is the best possible chance of    

selling one's friendly services at their
 market value4 ,if a railroad company   
sees a bill for public safety proposed  
which is technically senseless and      
exaggerated1 which will impede traffic  
in the state1 and involve ruinous       
expenditures1 it will naturally be      
tempted not to sit idle in the hope that
 a majority of the committee will set   
the bill aside2 for that course would be
 hazardous4 ,it may be that all sorts of
 prejudices will work together toward   
reporting the bill favourably4 ,if the  
company wants to be secure1 it will     
rather try such arguments as only       
capitalists have at their command4 ,and 
it has here two ways open3 either to    
8convince0 the committee or else to make
 arrangements with the man who proposed 
the bill1 so that he shall recall it4   
,if the possibility of such doings once 
exists in politics1 there is no means of
 preventing dishonourable persons from  
making money in such ways2 not only do  
they yield to temptation after they have

 been elected1 but also they seek their 
elections solely in order to exploit    
just such opportunities4  ,here we meet 
that factor which distinguishes the     
state legislature1 particularly of those
 states whose traditions are less firmly
 grounded1 and still more the city      
councils1 so completely from the federal
 chambers in ,washington4 ,the chance to
 misuse office is alike in all three    
places1 but men who have entered the    
political arena with honourable motives 
very seldom yield to criminal           
temptation4 ,the usual abuses are       
committed almost wholly by men who have 
sought their political office solely for
 the sake of criminal opportunities2 and
 this class of pseudo-politicians can   
bring itself into the city council very 
easily1 in the state legislature without
 much difficulty1 but almost never into 
,congress4 ,if it were attractive or    
distinguished or interesting to be in   
the state legislature1 or on the board  
of aldermen1 there would be a plenty of 

worthy applicants for the position1 and 
all doubtful persons would find the door
 closed2 but the actual case is quite   
different4  ,to be a member of          
,congress1 to sit in the ,house of      
,representatives or perhaps in the      
,senate1 is something which the very    
best men may well desire4 ,the position 
is conspicuous and picturesque1 and     
against the background of high political
 life the individual feels himself      
entrusted with an important rle4 ,and   
although many may hesitate to transfer  
their homes to the federal capital1     
nevertheless the country has never had  
difficulty in finding sufficient        
,representatives who are imbued with the
 spirit of the ,constitution4 ,on the   
other hand1 to serve as popular         
representative in the state legislature 
means for the better sort of man1 unless
 he is a professional politician1 a     
considerable sacrifice4 ,the legislature
 generally meets in a remote part of the
 state1 at every session requires many  

months of busy work on some committee1  
and most of this work is nothing but    
disputing and compromising over the     
thousand petty bills1 in which no really
 broad political considerations enter4  
,it is a dreary1 dispiriting work1 which
 can attract only three kinds of men3   
firstly1 those who are looking forward  
to a political career in the service of 
the party machine and undergo a term in 
the state legislature only as           
preparation for some more important     
office2 secondly1 those who are glad of 
the small and meagre salary of a        
representative2 and finally1 those whose
 modest ambition is satisfied if they   
are delegated by their fellow-citizens  
in any sort of representative capacity4 
,therefore the general level of         
personality in the state legislature is 
low4 ,men who have important positions  
will seldom consent to go1 and when     
influential persons do enter state      
politics it is actually with a certain  
spirit of renunciation1 and not so much 

to take part in the business of the     
legislature as to reform the legislature
 itself4 ,since this is the case1 it is 
not surprising that the most unwholesome
 elements flock thither1 extortioners   
and corrupt persons who count on it1    
that in regard to dishonourable         
transactions1 the other side will have  
the same interest in preserving silence 
as themselves4  ,we must also not forget
 that the ,american principle of        
strictly local representation works in  
another way to keep down the level of   
the smaller legislative bodies4 ,if the 
,representative of a certain locality   
must have his residence there1 the      
number of possible candidates is very   
much restricted4 ,this is even more true
 of the city government1 where the      
principle of local representation       
requires that every part of the city1   
even the poorest and most squalid1 shall
 elect none but men who reside in it4   
,to be sure1 there is a good deal in    
this that is right2 but it necessarily  

brings a sort of people together in     
public committee with whom it is not    
exactly a pleasure for most men to work4
 ,the questions which have to be talked 
over here are still more trivial1 and   
more than that1 the motives which       
attract corrupt persons are somewhat    
more tangible here2 since in the rapid  
growth of the great city the awarding of
 monopolies and contracts creates a sort
 of spoilsman's paradise4 ,as the better
 elements hold aloof from this city     
government1 by so much more do corrupt  
persons have freer play4  ,the relation 
of the city to both the state and       
,federation is even more unfavourable   
when one comes to consider not the      
legislative1 but the executive1         
department4 ,whereas in ,washington1 for
 example1 a single man stands at the    
head of every department in the         
administration1 and is entirely         
responsible for the running of things1  
there has frequently been in the city   
administrations1 up to a short time ago1

 a committee which is so                
responsible--this in agreement with the 
old ,american idea that a majority can  
decide best4 ,where1 however1 a single  
man was entrusted with administrative   
powers1 he was selected generally by the
 mayor and the city council together1   
and they seldom called a real expert to 
such a position4 ,in any case1 since the
 administration depends wholly on party 
politics1 and the upper staff changes   
with each new party victory1 there is no
 such chance for a life career here as  
would tempt competent men to offer their
 services4  ,in this part of the        
government1 moreover1 there is more     
danger from the administration by       
committees than anywhere else4 ,the     
responsibility of a majority cannot be  
fixed anywhere2 and where the mayor and 
aldermen work together in the selection 
of officials1 neither of the two parties
 is quite responsible for the           
outcome--which is naturally not to be   
compared with the closely guarded       

election of officials under ,german     
conditions4 ,for in ,germany the        
selection of the head of a city         
department will lie between a few       
similarly trained specialists1 while the
 administration of a ,new ,york or a    
,chicago department1 as1 say1 that of   
the police or of street-cleaning1 is    
thought to presuppose no special        
preparation1 and therefore the number of
 possible candidates is unlimited4 ,it  
is not surprising that such             
irresponsible committees are not above  
corruption1 and that many a man who has 
received a well-paid administrative     
position in return for his services to  
the party1 proceeds to make his hay     
while the sun shines4 ,it is true that  
there are many departments where no such
 temptation comes in question4 ,it is1  
for example1 universally believed that  
the fire departments of all ,american   
cities are admirably managed4 ,the      
situation is most doubtful in the case  
of the police departments1 which1 of    

course1 are subject to the greatest     
temptations2 and here1 too1 there can be
 the worst abuses in some ways along    
with the highest efficiency in others4  
,the service for public protection in a 
large city may be admirably organized   
and crime strenuously followed up1 and  
nevertheless the police force may be    
full of corruption4 ,thieves and        
murderers are punctiliously suppressed1 
while at the same time the police are   
extorting a handsome income from        
bar-rooms which evade the ,sunday laws1 
from public-houses which exist in       
violation of city statutes1 and from    
unlawful places of amusement4  ,to be   
sure1 we must again and again emphasize 
two things4 ,in the first place1 it is  
probable that nine-tenths of the charges
 are exaggerated and slanderous4 ,the   
punishments are so considerable1 the    
means of investigation so active1 and   
the public watchfulness so keen1 both on
 account of the party hostility and by  
virtue of a sensational press1 that it  

would be hardly comprehensible          
psychologically1 if political crime in  
the lowest strata of city or state were 
to be really anything but the exception4
 ,the many almost fanatically conducted 
investigations produce from their       
mountains of transactions only the      
smallest mice1 and the state attorney is
 seldom able to make out a case of      
actual bribery4 ,in this matter the     
,anglo-,americans are pleased to point  
out that wherever investigations have   
ended in making out a case which could  
really be punished1 the person has been 
generally an ,irishman or some other    
,european immigrant4 ,in any case1 the  
collection of immigrants from ,europe in
 the large cities contributes           
importantly to the unhappy condition of 
city politics4  ,in the second place1 we
 must urge once more that the mere      
distribution of well-paid municipal     
positions to party politicians is not   
necessarily in itself an abuse4 ,when1  
for instance1 in a large city1 a        

,republican is succeeded by a           
,democratic mayor1 he can generally     
bestow a dozen well-paid and a hundred  
or two more modest commissions to men   
who have helped in the party victory4   
,but he will be careful not to pick out 
those who are wholly unworthy1 since    
that would not only compromise himself1 
but would damage his party and prevent  
its being again victorious4 ,if he      
succeeds1 on the other hand1 in finding 
men who will serve the city             
industriously1 intelligently1 and ably  
in proportion to their pay1 it is       
ridiculous to call the promise of such  
offices by way of party reward in any   
sense a plundering of the city1 or to   
make it seem that the giving of         
positions to colleagues of one's party  
is another sort of corruption4  ,the    
evils of public life and the possibility
 of criminal practices are not confined 
to legislative and executive bodies4    
,the judiciary also has its darker side4
 ,one must believe fanatically in the   

people in order not to see what judicial
 monstrosities occasionally come out of 
the emphasis which is given to the jury 
system4 ,the law requires that the      
twelve men chosen from the people to the
 jury must come to a unanimous decision2
 they are shut in a room together and   
discuss and discuss until all twelve    
finally decide for guilty or not guilty4
 ,if they are not unanimous1 no verdict 
is given1 and the whole trial has to    
begin over again4 ,a single obstinate   
juryman1 who clings to his particular   
ideas1 is able1 therefore1 to outweigh  
the decision of the other eleven4 ,and  
it is to be remembered that every       
criminal case is tried before a jury4   
,the case is still worse if all twelve  
agree1 but agree only in their          
prejudices4 ,especially in the ,south1  
but also in the ,west sometimes1 juries 
return decisions which simply insult the
 intelligence of the country4 ,it is    
true that the unfairness is generally in
 the direction of declaring the         

defendant not guilty4  ,the law's delay 
is also exceedingly regrettable1 as well
 as the extreme emphasis on             
technicalities1 in consequence of which 
no one dares1 even in the interests of  
justice1 to ignore the slightest        
inaccuracy of form--a fact whose good   
side too1 of course1 no one should      
overlook4 ,it is most of all regrettable
 that the choice of judges depends to so
 large an extent on politics1 and that  
so many judicial appointments are made  
by popular elections and for a limited  
term4 ,the trouble here is not so much  
that a faithful party member is often   
rewarded with a judicial position1 since
 for the matter of that there are       
equally good barristers to be chosen    
from either party for vacant positions  
on the bench2 the real evil is that     
during his term of office the judge     
cannot help having an eye to his        
relection or promotion to some higher   
position4 ,this brings politics into his
 labours truly1 and it too often happens

 that a ready compliance with party     
dictates springs up in the lower        
judicial positions4 ,only the federal   
and the superior state courts are       
entirely free from this4  ,in a similar 
way1 politics sometimes play a part in  
the doings of the state attorney4 ,he is
 subordinate to the state or federal    
executive1 that is1 to a party element  
which has contracted obligations of     
various sorts1 and it may so happen that
 the state attorney will avoid          
interfering here and there in matters   
where a justice higher than party       
demands interference4 ,especially in the
 quarrels between capital and labour1   
one hears repeatedly that the state     
attorney is too lenient toward large    
capitalists4 ,then there are other evils
 in judicial matters arising from the   
unequal scientific preparation of       
jurists2 the failing here is in the     
judicial logic and pregnancy of the     
decision4  ,finally1 one source which is
 a veritable fountain of sin against the

 commonwealth is the power of the party 
machine4 ,we have traced out minutely   
how the public life of the ,united      
,states demands two parties1 how each of
 these may hope for victory only if it  
is compactly organized1 and how such    
organizations need an army of more or   
less professional politicians4 ,they may
 be in the legislature or out of it2 it 
is their position in the party machine  
which gives them their tremendous       
powers--powers which do not derive from 
constitutional principles nor from law1 
but which are in a way intangible1 and  
therefore the more liable to abuse4     
,richard ,croker has never been mayor of
 ,new ,york1 and yet he was for a long  
time dictator of that city1 no matter   
what ,democratic mayor was in office1   
and remained dictator even from his     
country place in ,england4 ,he ruled the
 municipal ,democratic party machine1   
and therefore all the mayors and        
officials were merely pawns in his      
hands4 ,millions of dollars floated his 

way from a thousand invisible sources1  
all of which were somehow connected with
 municipal transactions2 and his        
conscience was as elastic as his        
pocket-book4 ,that is what his enemies  
say1 while his friends allege him to be 
a man of honour2 and nothing has really 
been proved against him4 ,but at least  
one thing is incontestable1 that the    
system of the party machine and the     
party boss makes such undemonstrable    
corruption possible4 ,almost every state
 legislature is in the clutches of such 
party mandarins1 and even men who are   
above the suspicion of venality misuse  
the tempting power which is centred in  
their hands in the service of their     
personal advantage and reputation1 of   
their sympathies and antipathies1 and   
transform their ,democratic leadership  
into autocracy and terrorism4 ,in the   
higher sense1 however1 every victory    
which they win for their party is like  
the victory of ,pyrrhus1 for their      
selfish absolutism injures the party    

more than any advantage which it wins at
 the polls benefits it4 ,their          
omnipotence is1 moreover1 only apparent1
 for in reality there is a power in the 
land which is stronger than they1 and   
stronger than ,presidents or            
legislatures1 and which takes care that 
all the dangers and evils1 sins and     
abuses that spring up are finally thrown
 off without really hindering the steady
 course of progress4 ,this power is     
public opinion4                         
,,chapter ,,seven                       
,public ,opinion   ,we have spoken of   
the ,president and ,congress1 of the    
organization of court and state1 and1   
above all1 of the parties1 in order to  
show the various forms in which the     
genius of the ,american nation has      
expressed itself4 ,it may seem almost   
superfluous to recognize public opinion 
as a separate factor in political       
affairs4 ,it is admitted that public    
opinion is potent in sthetic1 literary1 
moral1 and social problems1 with all of 

which parties and constitutions have    
nothing to do4 ,but it might be supposed
 that when a people has surrounded      
itself with a network of electoral      
machinery1 supports hundreds of         
thousands of representatives and        
officials1 has perfected parties with   
their armies of politicians and         
legislatures which every year discuss   
and pass on thousands of laws--it might 
be supposed that in regard to political 
questions public opinion would have     
found its complete expression along     
official channels1 and in a sense would 
have exhausted itself4 ,yet this is not 
the case4 ,the entire political routine1
 with its paraphernalia1 forms a closed 
system1 which is distinct in many ways  
from the actual public opinion of the   
country4  ,it is indeed no easy matter  
to find under what conditions the will  
of a people can most directly express   
itself in the official machinery of     
politics4 ,many ,germans1 for instance1 
entertain the notion that no government 

is truly democratic except the cabinet  
be in all matters dependent on a        
majority in parliament2 and they are    
astonished to learn that in democratic  
,america ,congress has no influence on  
the election of the highest officials2  
that the ,president1 in fact1 may       
surround himself with a cabinet quite   
antagonistic to the political complexion
 of ,congress4 ,but no ,american        
believes that politics would represent  
public opinion any better if this       
independence of the ,executive and his  
cabinet were to be modified1 say in     
conformity with the ,english or ,french 
idea4 ,the reasons for a discrepancy    
between public opinion and official     
politics lie anyhow not in the special  
forms prescribed by the ,constitution1  
but in the means by which the forms     
prescribed by the ,constitution are     
practically filled by the nation4 ,in   
the ,english ,constitution1 for         
instance1 there is nothing about a      
cabinet2 and yet the cabinet is the     

actual centre of ,english politics4     
,american politics might keep to the    
letter of the ,constitution1 and still  
be the truest reflection of public      
opinion4 ,that they are not such a      
reflection is due to the strong position
 of the parties4 ,the rivalry of these  
encourages keen competition1 in which   
the success of the party has now become 
an end in itself quite aside from the   
principles involved4 ,personal          
advantages to be derived from the party 
have become prominent in the minds of   
its supporters2 and even where the      
motives are unselfish1 the tactics of   
the party are more important than its   
ideals4 ,but tactics are impossible     
without discipline1 and a party which   
hopes to be victorious in defending its 
own interests or in opposing others'    
will be no mere debating club1 but a    
relentlessly strict and practical       
organization4 ,wherewith the control    
must fall to a very few party leaders1  
who owe their positions to professional 

politicians--that is1 to men who for the
 most part stand considerably below the 
level of the best ,americans4  ,the     
immense number of votes cast in the     
,presidential elections is apt to hide  
the facts4 ,millions vote for one       
candidate and millions for the other1   
without knowing perhaps that a few      
months before the national convention   
some ten or twelve party leaders1       
sitting at a quiet little luncheon1 may 
have had the power to fix on the        
presidential candidate4 ,and these wise 
foreordainings are even less conspicuous
 in the case of governors1 senators1 or 
representatives4 ,everywhere the masses 
believe that they alone decide1 and so  
they do between the nominees of one     
party and of the other1 or sometimes    
between several candidates within the   
party2 but they are not aware that a    
more important choice is made behind the
 scenes before these candidates make    
their appearance4  ,as with the         
incumbents1 so it is with the platform4 

,the party leaders practically decide   
what questions shall be made the        
political issues2 and this is the most  
important function of all4 ,we have seen
 that dissenting groups can hardly hope 
on ordinary occasions to make a break in
 the firm party organization1 and though
 they may vigorously discuss questions  
which have not been approved by the     
party leaders1 they will1 nevertheless1 
arrive at no practical results4 ,it     
therefore happens very often that voters
 are called on to decide issues which   
seem to them indifferent1 or to choose  
between two evils1 and can expect       
nothing from either candidate in the    
matters which they think most vital4    
,they go to the polls merely out of     
consideration for their party4 ,thus1 in
 reality1 the people do not decide the  
issues on which they are to vote1 nor on
 the candidates whom they elect1 nor yet
 on the party leaders who do decide     
these things4 ,nor can the people1 if   
discontented with the party in power1   

recall that party during its term of    
office4 ,in ,germany the government can 
dissolve parliament if new issues arise2
 in ,england the ,cabinet resigns if it 
fails to carry a measure2 but in        
,america the party with a congressional 
majority has nothing to fear during its 
appointed term4 ,in short1 the political
 life of ,america is dominated by those 
forces which rule the parties1 and only 
in so far as the nation is filled with  
the party spirit1 is the official       
political hierarchy an expression of the
 nation's will4  ,now it is not in the  
nature of public opinion to nerve itself
 up to clear and definite issues4       
,unless worked on by party demagogues1  
it never formulates itself in a mere yes
 or no1 but surveys the situation       
impartially1 seeing advantages and      
disadvantages on both sides1 and passes 
a conservative judgment4 ,the man who   
thinks only of parties will often agree 
to a compromise which is unjust to both 
parties and in general unworthy of them2

 but the man who takes his stand above  
the parties knows that many problems are
 not fathomed with a yea or nay2 he does
 not see two opposite sides between     
which an artificial compromise is to be 
found1 but he appreciates the given     
situation in its organic unity and      
historical perspective4 ,historical     
understanding of the past and moral     
seriousness for the future guarantee his
 right judgment4 ,he sees the practical 
opposition of interests1 which is always
 more complex than the two-horned       
dilemma that the parties advertise1 in a
 true light1 and testimony of experts   
instead of politicians suggests to him  
the rational solution of the problem4   
,the actual course of action to be      
followed may coincide with the plan of  
one or the other party1 or may be a     
compromise between them1 and yet it will
 be a distinct policy4 ,in such         
decisions there lives ever the spirit of
 immediate reality2 no artificial       
dichotomy nor any political tactics are 

involved1 and the natural moral feeling 
of a healthy nation is then sufficient  
for every issue4 ,nowhere is this nave  
moral sense more potent among the masses
 than in ,america2 will then these      
unpartisan convictions have no weight in
 political life8 ,will they not rather  
strive to have an independent effect on 
the destinies of the nation8 ,the centre
 and real expression of these politics  
for essentials is the system of public  
opinion4  ,we have seen that every      
,american legislature has two parts1 an 
upper and a lower house1 which have     
different ways of procedure and         
different prerogatives4 ,one might      
similarly say that the parties with all 
their paraphernalia are merely the lower
 house of the nation1 while ,public     
,opinion is the upper house2 and only   
the two houses together constitute the  
entire national political life4 ,the    
nation is represented in each branch1   
but in different senses4 ,in a way the  
parties express quantitatively the will 

of the nation1 and public opinion does  
it qualitatively4 ,whenever a           
quantitative expression is wanted1 the  
issues must be sharply contrasted in    
order to separate clearly the adherents 
of each2 all fine shades and            
distinctions have to be sacrificed to an
 artificial clearness of definition1    
much as is done in mechanics1 when any  
motion is schematically represented1 as 
the diagonal in a parallelogram of two  
other forces4 ,as a quantity any yea or 
nay is as good as any other1 and the    
intensity of any party movement is due  
to the accumulation of small increments4
 ,the great advantage of this lower     
house is1 as of every lower house1 that 
its deliberations can be brought to an  
end and its debates concluded4 ,every   
political election is such a provisional
 result4  ,it is very different in the  
upper house4 ,public opinion accepts no 
abstract schematizations1 but considers 
the reality in all its complication1 and
 in its debates no weight is given to   

any show of hands or other demonstration
 of mere numbers4 ,crass contrasts do   
not exist here1 but only subtle         
shadings2 men are not grouped as friends
 and foe1 but they are seen to differ   
merely in their breadth of outlook1     
their knowledge1 their energy1 and in   
their singleness of heart4 ,the end in  
view is not to rush politics1 but to    
reform politics and in all matters to   
shape public events to national ideals4 
,here one vote is not like another1 but 
a single word wisely and conscientiously
 spoken is heard above the babel of     
thousands4 ,and here the best men of the
 nation have to show themselves1 not    
with programmes nor harangues1 but with 
a quiet force which shapes and unites   
public opinion and eventually carries   
all parties before it4  ,public opinion 
may be responsible now for a            
presidential veto on a bill of          
,congress1 now for the sudden eclipse of
 a party leader1 or the dropping of a   
list of candidates1 or again it may     

divide a party in the legislature4      
,public opinion forces the parties1 in  
spite of themselves1 to make mere party 
advantage secondary to a maturer        
statesmanship4  ,germans will not       
readily appreciate this double          
expression of the popular will2 they    
would find it more natural if party life
 and public opinion were one4 ,for in   
,germany the conditions are quite       
different4 ,in the first place there are
 a dozen parties1 which express the     
finer shades of public opinion more     
adequately than the two parties can in  
,america4 ,and this division into many  
small parties prevents the development  
of any real party organization such as  
would be needed by a party assuming     
entire responsibility for the affairs of
 the nation4 ,the nearest approach to   
two great parties is the opposition     
between all the 8brgerliche0 parties on 
the one hand and the social democrats on
 the other4 ,but the development of     
really responsible parties is hardly to 

be expected1 since the ,german party is 
allowed only a small degree of          
initiative4 ,the representatives of the 
people have the right to accept or      
reject or to suggest improvements in the
 proposals of the government2 but with  
the government rest the initiative and  
the responsibility4 ,the government     
stands above the parties1 and is not    
elected by the people nor immediately   
dependent on them4 ,it originates most  
of the legislative and executive        
movements1 and therewith represents     
exactly that moral unity of the nation  
which is above all parties1 and which is
 represented in ,america by public      
opinion2 while in ,america the          
government is the creature of the       
parties4  ,one should not draw the      
conclusion that the public opinion of   
,america is the quintessence of pure    
goodness4 ,public opinion in the ,united
 ,states would be no true indication of 
the forces at work in the nation if it  
did not represent all the essentials of 

the typical ,american4 ,in order to find
 this typical man1 it would be          
misleading simply to take the average of
 the millions2 one leaves out of account
 the great herd of colourless           
characters1 and selects the man who     
harmoniously combines in himself1       
without exaggeration1 the most striking 
peculiarities of his countrymen4 ,he is 
not easy to find1 since eccentricity is 
frequent2 one man is grotesquely        
patriotic1 another moral to intolerance1
 another insipidly complacent1 and      
another too optimistic to be earnest or 
too acquisitive to be just4  ,and yet if
 one goes about much in ,american       
society1 one finds oneself now and then1
 not only in ,new ,york or ,boston or   
,washington1 but quite as well in some  
small city of the ,west1 in a little    
circle of congenial men who are talking 
eagerly1 perhaps over their cigars after
 dinner2 and one has the feeling that   
the typical ,american is there4 ,his    
conversation is not learned nor his     

rhetoric high-flown2 but one has the    
feeling that he is alive and worth      
listening to1 that he sees things in    
sharp perspective1 is sincerely moral1  
and has something of his own to say4    
,party politics do not interest him     
specially1 although as citizen he goes  
to a few meetings1 contributes to the   
party funds1 and votes on election day  
if the weather permits4 ,but he speaks  
of politics generally with a half-smile1
 and laughs outright at the thought of  
himself running for the legislature4 ,he
 sees the evil about him1 but is        
confident that everything will come     
around all right2 the nation is young1  
strong1 and possessed of boundless      
resources for the future4 ,of course he 
understands the prejudices of the       
masses1 and knows that mere slap and    
dash will not take the place of real    
application in solving the problems     
which confront the nation2 he knows1    
too1 that technical proficiency1 wealth1
 and luxury alone do not constitute true

 culture4 ,and herewith his best        
energies are enlisted2 he contributes   
generously to libraries and             
universities1 and very likely devotes   
much of his time to the city schools4   
,but he is frank to confess1 as well1   
that he has a weakness for              
good-fellowship and superficiality1     
preferring operetta to tragedy every    
time4 ,he is not niggardly in anything2 
to be so is too unsthetic4 ,at first one
 is astonished by his insouciance and   
the optimism with which he makes the    
best of everything4 ,one feels at once  
his good nature and readiness to help1  
and finds him almost preternaturally    
ready to be just to his opponents and   
overlook small failings4 ,he envelops   
everything with his irrepressible sense 
of humour1 and is always reminded of a  
good story1 which he recounts so drolly 
and felicitously that one is ready to   
believe that he never could be angry4   
,but this all changes the instant the   
talk turns from amusing stupidities or  

little weaknesses and goes over to      
indecency or corruption or any baseness 
of character4 ,then the typical         
,american is quite changed2 his genuine 
nobility of soul comes out and he gives 
his unvarnished opinion1 not            
blusteringly1 but with self-controlled  
indignation4 ,one feels that here is the
 real secret of his character2 and one  
is surprised to see how little he cares 
for political parties or social classes4
 ,he will fiercely condemn the          
delinquencies of his own party or the   
unfair dealings of his own social set4  
,it now appears how honestly religious  
he is1 and how far the inner meaning of 
his life lies beyond the merely         
material4  ,such a good fellow it is1   
with all his greater and lesser traits1 
who may at any time voice undiluted     
public opinion4 ,thousands who are      
better1 wiser1 more learned1 or less the
 spendthrift and high-liver1 and the    
millions of inferior natures1 will show 
one trait or another of the national    

character in higher relief4 ,and yet the
 type is well marked2 it is always      
optimistic and confident in the future  
of ,america1 indifferent to party       
tactics1 but enthusiastically patriotic4
 ,it is anxious to be not merely        
prosperous but just and enlightened as  
well2 it is almost hilariously full of  
life1 and yet benevolent and friendly2  
conservative although sensitive1 without
 respect for conventions and yet        
religious1 sanguine but thoughtful1     
scrupulously just to an opponent but    
unrelenting toward any mean intent4     
,probably the most characteristic traits
 of public opinion are a patient        
oversight of mistakes and weaknesses1   
but relentless contempt and indignation 
for meanness and lack of honour4 ,this  
is in both respects the very reverse of 
the party spirit1 which is too apt to   
hinge its most boasted reforms on       
trivial evils1 and pass over the        
greatest sins in silence4  ,one element 
of public opinion should be suggested in

 even the briefest sketch--its          
never-failing humour4 ,it is the        
antiseptic of ,american politics1       
although it would be better1 to be sure1
 if political doings could be aseptic   
from the outset4 ,but probably dirty    
ambition and selfishness are harder to  
keep down in a democracy than anywhere  
else4 ,the humour of public opinion     
stands in striking contrast1 moreover1  
to party life2 as one cannot fail to    
discover on looking closely4 ,party     
tactics demand that the masses have     
hammered into them the notion that the  
sacred honour of the nation lies with   
their party1 but that on the other side 
there lies hopeless ruin4 ,the man who  
urges this dogma must keep a very solemn
 face1 for if he were to bring it out   
with a twinkle in his eye1 he would     
destroy the force of his suggestion4    
,the voter1 too1 is serious in his      
duties as a citizen1 and demands of the 
candidates this extremely practical mien
 and solemn party arrogance4 ,but when  

the same citizen talks the matter over  
with his friends1 he is no longer a     
stickler for party1 but a voicer of     
public opinion1 and he sees at once the 
humour of the situation4 ,he punctures  
the party bubbles with well-aimed       
ridicule4 ,so it happens that the       
population is more ruled by humour here 
than anywhere else1 while the party     
leaders stand up1 at least before the   
public1 in the most solemn guise4 ,just 
as in some ,american states the men     
drink wine at home1 but at official     
banquets call for mineral water2 so out 
of the political harness one may commit 
excesses of humour1 but in it one must  
be strictly temperate4 ,this is1 of     
course1 the reverse of the well-known   
,english method1 where the masses are   
rather dull1 while the leaders are      
famous wits and cynics4 ,america would  
never allow this4 ,when one meets       
leading politicians or members of the   
,cabinet in a social way1 one is often  
amazed at their ready wit1 and feels    

that these men have decidedly the       
capacity to shine as do their ,english  
colleagues4 ,but that would wreck the   
party service4 ,the people are          
sovereign2 public opinion has1          
therefore1 the right to ironical humour1
 and can smilingly look down on the     
parties from a superior height2 while   
those who play the party game of        
government have still to keep demure and
 sober4 ,in ,england it is the ,cabinet1
 in ,america public opinion1 which      
assumes the gentle rle of wit4 ,hardly  
could the contrast between aristocracy  
and democracy be more clearly           
exemplified4  ,if some one should ask   
who makes public opinion1 he might well 
be referred at first to that class which
 at present does not enjoy the suffrage1
 and presumably will not for some time  
to come--the women4 ,the ,american woman
 cares little enough for party politics1
 and this is not so much because she has
 no rights4 ,if she had the interest she
 probably would have the rights4 ,but   

while the best people have no wish to   
see the women mix in with the routine of
 party machinery1 this is not at all in 
order that they may not concern         
themselves with the public problems of  
the day4 ,on the contrary1 women exert a
 marked influence on public opinion2 and
 here1 as might be expected1 it is not  
the organized crusades1 like the        
temperance movement1 which count1 but   
rather their less noisy demonstrations1 
their influence in the home and their   
general rightness of feeling4 ,every    
reform movement which appeals to moral  
motives is advanced by the public       
influence of women1 and many a bad piece
 of jobbery is defeated by their        
instrumentality4  ,if the boundaries    
between the sexes are forgotten in the  
matter of public opinion1 so even more  
are those between the various classes4  
,public opinion is not weakened by any  
class antipathies4 ,to be sure1 every   
profession and occupation has its       
peculiar interests1 and in different    

quarters the public opinion takes on    
somewhat different hues2 the            
agricultural states have other problems 
than the industrial2 the ,south others  
than the ,north2 and the mining         
districts still others of their own4    
,but these are really not differences of
 public opinion1 but different sectors  
of the one great circle4 ,in spite of   
the diverse elements and the prejudices 
which go to make up public opinion1 it  
is everywhere remarkably                
self-consistent4 ,this is because it is 
the voice of insight1 conscience1 and   
brotherly feeling1 as against that of   
carelessness1 self-interest1 and        
exclusiveness4 ,the particular interests
 of capital and labour1 of university   
and primary school1 of city and country1
 have not their special representatives 
at the court of public opinion4 ,and    
least in evidence of all1 of course1 are
 the officials and professional         
politicians4 ,these men are busy in     
strictly party affairs1 and have no time

 to dabble in the clear stream of public
 opinion4 ,at best1 a few distinguished 
senators or governors1 together with the
 ,president and an occasional member of 
the ,cabinet1 come to have an immediate 
influence on public opinion4  ,the      
springs of public opinion flow from the 
educated and substantial members of the 
commonwealth1 and are often tinged at   
first with a very personal colouring2   
but the streamlets gather and flow far  
from their sources and every vestige of 
the personal is lost4 ,ideas go from man
 to man1 and those which are typically  
,american find as ready lodgment with   
the banker1 the manufacturer1 or the    
scholar as with the artisan or the      
farm-hand4 ,any man who appeals to the  
conscience1 morality1 patriotism1 or    
brotherly feeling of the ,american1 or  
to his love of progress and order1      
appeals to no special parties or        
classes1 but to the one public opinion1 
the community of high-minded citizens to
 the extent of their disinterestedness4 

,yet even such a public opinion requires
 some organization and support4 ,bold as
 the statement may sound1 the ,american 
newspaper is the main ally of public    
opinion1 serving that opinion more      
loyally than it serves either official  
politics or the party spirit4 ,the      
literary significance of the newspaper  
we shall consider in another connection1
 but here only its public influence4 ,an
 ,american philosophizing on the        
newspapers takes it as a matter of      
course that they serve the ends of party
 politics2 and it is true enough that   
party life as it is would not be        
possible without the highly disseminated
 influence of the newspaper4 ,a ,german 
coming to the country is apt to deny it 
even this useful function4 ,he is       
acquainted in ,europe with those        
newspapers which commence on the first  
page with serious leading articles1 and 
relegate the items of the day to a back 
page along with the advertisements4 ,but
 here he finds newspapers which have on 

the first pages not a word of editorial 
comment and hardly even a serious piece 
of politics--nothing1 in fact1 but an   
unspeakable muddle of undigested news   
items2 and as his eye rests             
involuntarily on the front page1 with   
its screaming headlines in huge type1 he
 will find nothing but crimes1          
sensational casualties1 and other       
horrors4 ,he will not before have       
realized that the devouring hunger of   
the ,american populace for the daily    
news1 has brought into existence sheets 
of large circulation adapted to the     
vulgar instincts of the millions1 the   
giant headlines of which warn off the   
educated reader from as far as he can   
see them2 that paper is not for him4    
,but a foreigner does not realize the   
injustice of estimating the political   
influence of the press from a glance at 
these monstrosities1 which could not    
thrive abroad1 not so much because the  
masses are better and more enlightened  
as because they care less about reading4

 ,moreover1 he will come slowly to      
realize that what he missed from the    
front page is somewhere in the middle of
 the paper2 that the street-selling     
makes it necessary to make the most of  
sensations on the outside1 and to put   
the better things where they are better 
protected4 ,and so he learns that the   
,american newspaper does express        
opinions1 although its looks belie it4  
,the better sort of ,american newspaper 
is neither a party publication nor yet  
merely a news-sheet1 but the conscious  
exponent of public opinion4 ,its columns
 contain a tiresome amount of party     
information1 it is true2 but a part of  
this is directly in the interests of an 
intelligent public opinion1 since every 
citizen needs to be instructed in all   
the phases of party life1 of political  
and congressional doings1 and in regard 
to the candidates who are up for office4
 ,it is to be admitted1 moreover1 that  
some of the better newspapers1 although 
not the very best1 are unreservedly     

committed to the leaders of some        
party--in short1 are party organs4 ,in  
the same way several newspapers are     
under the domination of certain         
industrial interests and cater to the   
wishes of a group of capitalists4 ,but  
any such policy has to be managed with  
the utmost discretion1 for the ,american
 newspaper reader is far too experienced
 to buy a sheet day after day which he  
sees to be falsified2 and he has enough 
others to resort to1 since the          
competition is always keen1 and even    
middle-sized cities have three or four  
large daily papers4  ,it is perhaps     
fortunate that any such extreme         
one-sidedness is not to the commercial  
advantage of the newspapers1 for in     
,america they are preminently business  
enterprises4 ,their financial success   
depends in the first place on           
advertisements1 and only secondarily on 
their sales in the streets4 ,the        
advertising firm does not care whether  
the editorials and news items are       

,republican or ,democratic1 but it cares
 very much about the number of copies   
which are circulated2 and this depends  
on the meritorious features which the   
paper has over competing sheets4        
,newspapers like the ,german1 which     
count on only a small circle of readers1
 and these assured1 at least for the    
time being1 by subscriptions1 can far   
more readily treat their readers        
cavalierly and constrain their attention
 for a while to a certain party point of
 view4 ,in an ,american city the daily  
sales are much greater than the         
subscriptions1 and the sheets which get 
the most trade are those which          
habitually treat matters from all sides1
 and voice opinions which fall in with  
every point of view4 ,of course1 this   
circumstance cannot prevent every paper 
from having its special political       
friends and foes1 its special hobbies1  
its own style1 and1 above all1 its      
peculiar material interests4 ,but1 on   
the whole1 the ,american newspaper is   

extraordinarily non-partisan on public  
questions1 notwithstanding the          
statements in many ,german books to the 
contrary2 and the ordinary reader might 
peruse a given paper for weeks1 except  
just on the eve of an election1 without 
really knowing whether it was           
,republican or ,democratic4 ,now one    
party and now the other is brought up   
for criticism1 and even when the sheet  
is distinctly in favour of a certain    
side1 it will print extracts from the   
leading articles of opposing journals1  
and so well depict the entire situation 
that the reader can form an opinion for 
himself4  ,while the newspapers are in  
this way largely emancipated from the   
yoke of parties1 they are the exponents 
of a general set of tendencies which1 in
 opposition to party politics1 we have  
called public opinion4 ,in other words1 
the papers stand above the parties with 
their crudely schematic programmes and  
issues1 and aspire to measure men and   
things according to their true worth4   

,though ostensibly of one party1 a      
journal will treat men of its own side  
to biting sarcasm1 and magnanimously    
extol certain of its opponents4 ,the    
better political instincts1 progress and
 reform1 are appealed to2 and if        
doubtful innovations are often brought  
in and praised as reforms1 this is not  
because the newspaper is the organ of a 
party1 but rather of public sentiment1  
as it really is or is supposed to be4   
,the newspaper reflects in its own way  
all the peculiarities of public         
opinion--its light-heartedness and its  
often nervous restlessness1 its         
conservative and prudent traits1 its    
optimism1 and its ethical earnestness2  
above all1 its humour and drastic       
ridicule4 ,it is well known that the    
,american newspaper has brought the art 
of political caricature to perfection4  
,the satirical cartoon of the daily     
paper is of course much more effective  
than that of the regular comic papers4  
,and these pictures1 although directed  

at a political opponent1 are generally  
conceived in a broader spirit than that 
of any party4 ,the cap and bells are    
everywhere in evidence1 and there is    
nothing dry or pedantic4 ,from the      
dexterous and incisive leading article  
to the briefest jottings1 one notes the 
same good humour and playful satire     
which are so characteristic of public   
opinion4 ,this general humorous turn    
makes it possible to give an individual 
flavour to the most ordinary pieces of  
daily news1 so that they have a bearing 
considerably broader than the bare facts
 of the case1 and may conceivably add   
their mite to public opinion4 ,and      
herewith a special newspaper style has  
come in1 a combination of a             
photographically accurate report and the
 whimsical feuilleton4 ,thus it happens 
that the best papers editorially        
persuade where they cannot dictate to   
their readers1 and so1 apart from party 
politics1 nourish public opinion and    
create sentiment for or against persons1

 and legislative and other measures1    
while ostensibly they are merely giving 
the news of the last twelve hours4      
,there is another distinctly ,american  
invention--the interview4 ,doubtless it 
was first designed to whet the reader's 
curiosity with the piquant suggestion of
 something personal or even indiscreet4 
,in ,europe1 where this form of         
reporting is decidedly rudimentary1 it  
usually evinces neither tact nor taste2 
whereas in ,america it is really a      
literary form1 and so familiar now as to
 excite no remark4 ,it has come to be   
peculiarly the vehicle of public        
opinion1 as opposed to party politics4  
,the person interviewed is supposed to  
give his personal opinions1 and it is   
his authority as a human personality    
which attracts the reader4 ,a similar   
function is served by the carefully     
selected letters to the editor1 which   
take up a considerable space in the most
 serious sheets4  ,the outer form of the
 newspaper is a matter really of the    

technical ability of the ,american1     
rather than of his political tastes2 and
 it is to be observed at once that the  
general appearance1 and above all1 the  
whole system of getting and printing    
news rapidly1 is astonishing4 ,every one
 has heard of the intrepid and fertile  
reporters1 and how on important         
occasions they leave no stone unturned  
to obtain the latest intelligence for   
their papers4 ,but the persistence of   
these men is less worthy of note than   
the regular system by which the daily   
news is gathered and transmitted to     
every paper in the land4 ,with an       
infallible scent1 a pack of reporters   
follows in the trail of the least event 
which may have significance for the     
general public4 ,a good deal of gossip  
and scandal is intermingled1 to be sure1
 and much that is trivial served up to  
the readers2 but granted for once1 that 
millions in the lower classes1 as       
members of the ,american democracy1     
wish1 and ought to wish1 to carry home  

every night a newspaper as big as a     
book1 then1 of course1 such a hunger for
 fresh printed matter can be satisfied  
only by mental pabulum adapted to the   
vulgar mind4 ,the ,new ,york ,evening   
,post will have nothing of this sort2 it
 appeals more to bank directors and     
professors2 but shop-hands prefer the   
,world4 ,it is the same as with the     
theatres2 if the ordinary citizen is    
prosperous enough to indulge frequently 
in an evening at the theatre1 then1 of  
course1 melodrama and farce will become 
the regular thing1 since the common man 
must always either laugh or cry4  ,the  
lightning news service is1 of course1   
somewhat superficial and frequently in  
error1 not to say that it is served up  
often with the minimum of taste2 but the
 readers gladly take the risk of        
mistakes for the sake of the greater    
advantage it is to public opinion to    
have a searchlight which penetrates     
every highway and byway1 showing up     
every sign of change in the social or   

political situation1 and every          
intimation of danger4  ,and if reporters
 are accused of being indiscreet1 one   
must first inquire whether the fault    
does not really lie with some one or    
other who1 while pretending to shrink   
from publicity1 really wants to see his 
name in the paper4 ,anyone familiar with
 the newspapers of the country knows    
that he is perfectly safe in telling any
 editor1 and even any reporter1 whatever
 he likes if he adds the caution that he
 does not wish it given out4 ,it will   
not be printed4 ,the ,american          
journalist is usually a gentleman1 and  
can be relied on to be discreet4 ,the   
principal journalists and editors of the
 leading newspapers are among the ablest
 men of the country1 and they often go  
over to important political positions   
and become even ministers and           
ambassadors4  ,the powerful influence of
 the ,american newspapers is outwardly  
displayed in the sumptuous buildings    
which they occupy4 ,while in ,europe the

 newspapers are published generally in  
very modest quarters1 where the editors 
have to sit in dingy rooms1 the         
buildings of the ,american newspapers   
compare favourably with the best        
commercial edifices2 and the whole      
business is conducted on an elaborate   
scale4 ,scarcely less astonishing are   
their achievements in the way of        
illustration4 ,while the most select    
papers decline on principle to appeal to
 the taste for sensation1 many large    
papers have yielded to the demand1 and  
have brought the technique of           
illustration nearly to perfection4 ,a   
few hours after any event they will have
 printed a hundred thousand copies of   
the paper with pictures taken on the    
spot1 and reproduced in a manner of     
which any ,european weekly might well be
 proud4  ,taken all in all1 the         
,american press very worthily represents
 the energy1 prosperity1 and greatness  
of the ,american nation2 and at the same
 time with its superficial haste1 its   

vulgarity and excitability1 with its    
lively patriotism and irrepressible     
humour1 it clearly evinces the influence
 of democracy4 ,the better the paper the
 more prominent are the critical and    
reflective features2 while the wider the
 circulation1 the more noticeable are   
the obtrusive self-satisfaction and     
provincialism1 and the characteristic   
disdain of things ,european4 ,going from
 the ,east to the ,west1 one finds a    
fairly steady downward gradation in     
excellence1 although some samples of    
,new ,york journalism can vie for crude 
sensationalism with the most disgusting 
papers of the ,wild ,west4 ,and yet the 
best papers reach a standard which in   
many respects is higher than that of the
 best journals of the ,old ,world4 ,a   
paper like the ,boston ,transcript will 
hardly find its counterpart in the      
,german newspaper world2 and much good  
can be said of the ,sun1 ,tribune1      
,times1 and ,post in ,new ,york1 the    
,star in ,washington1 the ,public       

,ledger in ,philadelphia1 the ,sun in   
,baltimore1 the ,eagle in ,brooklyn1 the
 ,tribune in ,chicago1 the ,herald in   
,boston1 the ,evening ,wisconsin in     
,milwaukee1 and many others which might 
be named4 ,even small cities like       
,springfield1 ,massachusetts1 produce   
such large and admirable papers as the  
,springfield ,republican4 ,and to be    
just1 one must admit that the bad papers
 could be condensed into tolerably good 
ones by a liberal use of the blue       
pencil4 ,for their mistakes lie not so  
much in their not having good           
contributions as in their inclusion of  
crude and sensational material by way of
 spice4 ,very often the front page of a 
paper will be overrun with the most     
offensive scandals1 caricatures1 and    
criminal sensations1 while the ninth and
 tenth pages will offer editorials and  
other articles of decided merit4 ,the   
newspapers which care only for a large  
circulation will have something for     
everybody2 and they are not far out of  

the way in calculating that the educated
 reader who looks first at the          
editorials and political dispatches1    
will have enough that is unregenerate in
 his soul to make him relish a sideward 
glance at the latest sensational        
reports4 ,the newspaper is content on   
the whole not to bore its readers1 and  
to hold a close rein on public opinion  
rather than on party politics4  ,with   
all this1 it is not to be denied that   
there are lower motives which degrade   
journalism4 ,one of the chief           
temptations lies in the amalgamation of 
newspaper politics and party activities4
 ,the editor who1 in the interests of   
public opinion1 scans all the parties   
with a critical eye and professes to be 
impartial1 is for this very reason the  
more tempted to misuse his position for 
private gain4 ,he may diligently support
 one party in the name of impartiality  
and fairness1 while in reality he counts
 on a remunerative office if that party 
is successful2 and from this point the  

steps are few to the moral state of     
those who attack a certain party or an  
industrial enterprise in order to       
discover the error of their position on 
receipt of a sufficient compensation4   
,the energy with which some newspapers  
stand up for certain financial interests
 casts grave doubt on their personal    
independence2 and yet direct bribery    
plays an exceedingly small role1 and the
 government or a foreign country is     
never the corrupting influence4 ,very   
much more important are the vanity and  
selfishness of newspaper proprietors1   
who for one reason or another choose to 
lead the public astray4 ,but such       
perversities are less dangerous than one
 might think1 for the ,american         
newspaper reader reads too much and is  
politically too discerning to take these
 newspapers at their face value4 ,the   
mood induced by one paper is corrected  
by another2 and while the journalist is 
tickled at his own shrewdness in writing
 only what his readers will like1 the   

reader slyly preserves his self-respect 
and belief in his own critical ability1 
by hunting out everything with which he 
does not agree and reading that         
carefully4 ,if the journal is above the 
party1 the reader is above the journal1 
and thus it is that the newspapers are  
the most influential support of public  
opinion4  ,in this1 however1 they do not
 enjoy a monopoly2 beside them are the  
weekly and monthly papers4 ,here again  
we shall consider their literary merits 
in another connection1 but their        
greatest significance lies in their     
influence on public opinion4 ,the       
political efforts of the weekly papers  
are mostly indirect2 they deal primarily
 with practical interests1 religious and
 social problems1 and literary matters2 
but the serious discussions are carried 
on as it were against a political       
background which lends its peculiar hue 
to the whole action4 ,the monthly       
magazines are somewhat more ambitious1  
and consider politics more directly4 ,in

 their pages1 not merely professional   
politicians1 but the very ablest men of 
the nation1 are accustomed to treat of  
the needs and duties of city and state2 
and these discussions are almost never  
from a one-sided point of view4 ,a      
magazine like the ,north ,american      
,review usually asks representatives of 
both parties to present their opinions  
on the same question2 and a similar     
breadth of view is adopted by the       
,atlantic ,monthly1 the ,review of      
,reviews1 and other leading monthlies1  
whose great circulation and influence   
are hardly to be compared with similar  
magazines of ,europe4 ,the point of view
 common to all is that of a very        
critical public opinion1 well above     
party politics and devoted to national  
reform and everything which makes for   
progress and enlightenment4 ,much the   
same can be said of those magazines     
which combine politics with literature  
and illustrations1 such as the ,century1
 ,harper's1 ,scribner's1 ,mc,clure's1   

and many others4 ,when ,mc,clure's      
,magazine1 for example1 presents to its 
half-million readers month after month  
an illustrated history of the ,standard 
,oil ,trust1 every page of which is an  
attack on secret evasions of the law1 it
 is not serving the interests of any    
party1 but is reading public opinion a  
lesson4  ,the spoken word vies with the 
printed4 ,the capacity of ,americans1   
and especially of the women1 to listen  
to lectures is well-nigh abnormal4 ,and 
in this way social and political        
propagandas find a ready hearing1       
although a purely party speech would not
 be effective outside of a party        
convention4 ,the wit and pathos of the  
speaker generally reach a level         
considerably above mere matters of      
expediency1 and appeal to public opinion
 from a broadly historical point of     
view4 ,the dinner speaker is also a     
power1 since he is not constrained1 as  
in ,germany1 to sandwich his eloquence  
in between the fish and game or to make 

every speech wind craftily around and   
debouch with the inevitable 8dreimal    
,hoch40 ,he is quite at liberty to      
follow either his whims or his          
convictions1 and herein has come to be a
 recognized spring of public opinion4   
,finally1 somewhat the same influence is
 exerted by the countless clubs and     
associations1 and the various local and 
national societies which are organized  
for specific ends4 ,every ,american of  
the better sort belongs to any number of
 such bodies1 and although concerning   
two-thirds of them he knows no more than
 that he pays his dues1 there is left a 
third for which he sincerely labours4   
,there is much in these organizations   
which is one-sided1 egotistical1 and    
trivial1 and yet in the most of them    
there is something which is sound and   
right4 ,there is not one at least which 
fails to strengthen the conviction that 
every citizen is called to be the bearer
 of public opinion4 ,just as the parties
 complain that the voters neglect the   

routine duties of the organization1 so  
to be sure do the strenuous reformers of
 the country complain that the ranks    
behind them informally break step4 ,but 
the main thing is that behind them there
 is a host1 and that public opinion is  
to-day as thoroughly organized as the   
official parties1 and that it sees each 
day more clearly that its qualitative   
effect on the national life is at least 
equally important with the quantitative 
efficacy of the parties4  ,every        
important question is treated by both   
organizations1 public opinion1 and the  
parties4 ,at the approach of a great    
election the parties create such a stir 
and bustle that for a couple of months  
the voice of public opinion seems       
hushed4 ,party tactics rule the day4    
,but on the other hand1 public opinion  
has its own festivals1 and above all1   
works on tirelessly and uninterruptedly1
 except for the short pause just before 
elections4 ,public opinion reacts       
equally on both parties1 forces them to 

pass laws that the politicians do not   
relish1 and to repeal others that the   
politicians would gladly keep2 and1     
ignoring these men1 it brings the public
 conscience to bear on the issues to be 
pressed1 the candidates to be nominated1
 and the leaders to be chosen4          
,,chapter ,,eight                       
,problems of ,population   ,we have     
surveyed public opinion and party       
politics as two distinct factors in the 
,american national consciousness1 as two
 factors which are seldom in complete   
agreement1 and which are very often in  
sharp opposition1 but which finally have
 to work together like an upper and     
lower legislative chamber in order to   
solve the problems of the day4 ,we have 
not the space to speak minutely of all  
these problems themselves with which the
 ,american is at the present moment     
occupied2 since the politics of the day 
lie outside of our purpose4 ,this       
purpose has been to study that which is 
perennial in the ,american spirit1 the  

mental forces which are at work1 and the
 forms in which these work themselves   
out4 ,but the single questions on which 
these forces operate1 questions which   
are to-day and to-morrow are not1 must  
be left to the daily literature4 ,it is 
our task1 however1 to indicate briefly  
in what directions the most important of
 these problems lie4 ,every one of them 
would require the broadest sort of      
handling if it were to be in the least  
adequately presented4  ,so many problems
 which in ,european countries occupy the
 foreground1 and which weigh            
particularly on the ,german mind1 are   
quite foreign to the ,american4         
,firstly1 the church problem as a       
political one is unknown to him4 ,the   
separation of church and state is so    
complete1 and the results of this       
separation are viewed on all sides with 
so much satisfaction1 that there is     
nowhere the least desire to introduce a 
change4 ,it is precisely in strictly    
religious circles that the entire       

independence of the church is regarded  
as the prime requisite for the growth of
 ecclesiastical influence4 ,even the    
relations between the church and party  
politics are distinctly remote1 and the 
semi-political movements once directed  
against the ,catholic ,church are       
already being somewhat forgotten4 ,there
 is no ,jesuit question1 and the single 
religious order which has precipitated a
 real political storm has been the sect 
of ,mormons1 which ecclesiastically     
sanctions an institution that the       
monogamous laws of the nation forbid4   
,even here the trouble has been         
dispelled by the submission of the      
,mormon ,church4  ,as a matter of       
course1 ,america has also never known a 
real conflict between the executive and 
the people4 ,the government being always
 elected at short intervals by the      
people and the head of the state with   
his ,cabinet having no part in          
legislation1 while his executive doings 
merely carry out the wishes of the      

dominant political party1 of course no  
conflicts can arise4 ,to be sure1 there 
can be here and there small points of   
friction between the legislative and    
executive1 and the ,president can1      
during his four years of office1 slowly 
drift away from the party which elected 
him1 and thus bring about some          
estrangement2 but even this would only  
be an estrangement from the professional
 politicians of his party4 ,for         
experience has shown that the           
,president1 and on a smaller scale the  
governor of a state1 is successful in   
breaking with his party only when he    
follows the wishes of public opinion    
instead of listening to the dictates of 
his party politicians4 ,but in that case
 the people are on his side4 ,one might 
rather say that the conflicts between   
government and people1 which in ,europe 
are practically disputes between the    
government and the popular              
representatives of political parties1   
repeat themselves in ,america in the    

sharp contrast between public opinion on
 the one hand and the united legislative
 and executive on the other2 since the  
government is itself of one piece with  
the popular representation4 ,public     
opinion1 indeed1 preserves its ancient  
sovereignty as against the whole system 
of elections and majorities4  ,there is 
another vexation spared to the ,american
 people2 it has no ,alsace-,lorraine1 no
 ,danish or ,polish districts2 that is1 
it has no elements of population which  
seek to break away from the national    
political unity1 and by their opposition
 to bring about administrative          
difficulties4 ,to be sure1 the country  
faces difficult problems of population1 
but there is no group of citizens       
struggling to secede2 and in the same   
way the ,american has nothing in the way
 of emigration problems4 ,perhaps one   
may also say finally that social        
democracy1 especially of the            
international variety1 has taken such   
tenuous root that it can hardly be      

called a problem1 from the ,german point
 of view4 ,for although there is a      
labour question1 this is not the same as
 social democracy4 ,the labour          
movements1 as part of the great economic
 upheaval1 are certainly one of the main
 difficulties to be overcome by the ,new
 ,world2 but the social democratic      
solution1 with its chiefly political    
significance1 is essentially unknown to 
the ,american4 ,all this we shall have  
to consider in other connections4       
,although this and that which worry the 
,european appear hardly at all in       
,american thought1 there is1 on the     
other hand1 a great sea of problems     
which have mercifully been spared to the
 ,european4 ,it is due to the           
transitional quality of our time that on
 this sea of problems the most          
tempestuous are those of an economic    
character4 ,the fierce conflicts of     
recent ,presidential elections have been
 waged especially over the question of  
currency1 and it is not until now that  

the silver programme may be looked on as
 at least provisionally forgotten4      
,these conflicts were immediately       
preceded by others which concerned      
protection and free-trade1 and the      
outlook is clear that these two parties 
will again meet each other in battle    
array4  ,meanwhile the formation of     
large trusts has loomed up rapidly as a 
problem1 and in this one sees the real  
influence of public opinion as against  
that of party politics1 since both      
parties would doubtless have preferred  
to leave the trusts alone4 ,at the same 
time the great strikes1 especially that 
of the ,pennsylvania coal districts1    
have brought the conflicts between      
capital and labour so clearly to the    
national consciousness that the public  
attention is strained on this point4    
,others say that the most serious       
economic problem of the ,united ,states 
is the irrigation of the parched deserts
 of the ,west1 where whole tracts of    
land1 larger than ,germany1 cannot be   

cultivated for lack of water2 while     
,american engineers1 however1 now think 
it entirely possible with a sufficient  
outlay of money to irrigate this region 
artificially4 ,still others regard the  
tax issue as of prime importance2 and   
the circle of those who believe in      
single-tax reform is steadily growing4  
,every one agrees also that the status  
of national banks needs to be           
extensively modified2 that the reckless 
devastation of forests must be stopped2 
and that the commercial relations       
between the states must be regulated by 
new laws4 ,some are hoping for new      
canals1 others for the subvention of    
,american ships4 ,in short1 the public  
mind is so filled with important        
economic questions that others which are
 merely political stand in the          
background2 and1 of course1 political   
questions so tremendous as was once that
 of independence from ,england and the  
establishment of the ,federation1 or    
later1 the slave question and the       

secession of the ,south1 have not come  
up through four happy decades4  ,besides
 the economic problems there are many   
social problems which appear in those   
quarters where public opinion is best   
organized1 and spread from there more   
and more throughout political life2 such
 are the question of woman's suffrage1  
and the half economic and half social   
problem of the extremes between poor and
 rich1 extremes which were unknown to   
the ,new ,world in the early days of    
,america and even until very recent     
times4 ,the unspeakable misery in the   
slums of ,new ,york and ,chicago1 in    
which the lowest immigrants from        
,eastern ,europe have herded themselves 
together and form a nucleus for all the 
worst reprobates of the country1 is an  
outcome of recent years and appeals     
loudly to the conscience of the nation4 
,on the other side1 the fatuous         
extravagance of millionaires threatens  
to poison the national sense of thrift  
and economy4  ,among these social       

problems there belongs specially the    
earnest desire of the best citizens to  
develop ,american art and science at a  
pace comparable with the extraordinary  
material progress of the country4       
,doubtless the admirable results which  
have here been obtained1 came from the  
extraordinary earnestness with which    
public opinion has discussed these      
problems4 ,the great development of     
universities1 the increase in the number
 of libraries and scientific            
institutions1 the creation of museums1  
the observance of beauty in public      
buildings1 and a hundred other things   
would never have come about if public   
opinion had let things go their own way2
 here public opinion has consciously    
done its duty as a governing power4     
,somewhat nearer the periphery of public
 thought there are various other social 
propagandas1 as that for the relief of  
the poor and for improving penal        
institutions2 the temperance movement is
 flourishing1 and the more so in        

proportion as it gives up its fanatical 
eccentricities4 ,also the fight against 
what the ,american newspaper reader     
calls the 8social evil10 attracts more  
and more serious attention4  ,besides   
all these1 there is a considerable      
number of purely political problems2    
first among these are the problems of   
population1 and notably the questions of
 immigration and of the negro2 then come
 internal problems of government1 such  
as civil service and municipal reforms1 
which especially engage the public eye2 
finally1 the problems of external       
politics1 in which the watchwords of    
imperialism and the ,monroe ,doctrine   
can be heard shouted out above all      
others4 ,at least we must briefly take  
our bearings1 and see why these problems
 exist1 although the treatment cannot be
 exhaustive4  ,the first issue in the   
problem of population is1 as we have    
said1 that which concerns immigration2  
and this is just now rather up before   
public opinion since the last fiscal    

year which was closed with the beginning
 of ,july1 #aijc1 showed the largest    
immigration ever reached1 it being      
one-tenth greater than the previous     
record1 which was for the year ending in
 #ahhb4 ,the facts are as follows3 ,the 
total immigration to the ,united ,states
 has been twenty million persons4 ,the  
number of those who now live in the     
,united ,states1 but were born in       
foreign countries1 is more than ten     
millions2 and if we were to add to these
 those who1 although born here1 are of  
foreign parentage1 the number comes up  
to twenty-six millions4 ,last year      
#heg1jjj immigrants came into the       
country4 ,out of the ten millions of the
 foreign-born population1 #b1ffi1jjj    
have come from ,germany1 and #a1fai1jjj 
from ,ireland4  ,the fluctuations in    
immigration seem to depend chiefly on   
the amount of prosperity in the ,united 
,states1 and1 secondly1 on the economic 
and political conditions which prevail  
from year to year in ,europe4 ,up to    

#ahaj the annual immigration is         
estimated to have been about #f1jjj2    
then it was almost wholly interrupted   
for several years1 owing to the         
political tension between the ,united   
,states and ,england2 as soon as peace  
was assured the immigration increased in
 #ahag to #bj1jjj2 and in the year #ahdj
 to #hd1jjj4 ,the hundred thousand mark 
was passed in #ahdb1 and from then on   
the figure rose steadily1 until in #ahed
 it amounted to #dbg1jjj4 ,then the     
number fell off rapidly4 ,it was a time 
of business depression in the ,united   
,states1 and1 moreover1 the slavery     
agitation was already threatening a     
civil war4 ,the immigration was least in
 #ahfa1 when it had sunk to #ia1jjj4    
,two years later it began to rise again1
 and in #ahgc was almost half a million4
 ,and again there followed a few years  
of business depression1 with its        
correspondingly lessened immigration4   
,but the moment economic conditions     
improved1 immigration set in faster than

 ever before1 and in #ahhb was more than
 three-quarters of a million4 ,since    
#ahhc the average number of persons     
coming in has been #dej1jjj1 the        
variation from year to year being       
considerable4 ,the business reverses of 
#ahic cut the number down to one-half1  
but since #ahig it has steadily risen   
again4  ,such bare figures do not show  
that which is most essential from the   
point of view of public opinion1 since  
the quality of the immigration1         
depending as it does on the social      
condition of the countries from which it
 comes1 is the main circumstance4 ,in   
the decade between #ahfj and #ahgj1     
#b1jfd1jjj ,european wanderers came to  
the ,american shores2 of these #ghg1jjj 
were ,germans1 #efh1jjj ,english1       
#dce1jjj ,irish1 #aji1jjj               
,scandinavians1 #ch1jjj ,scotch1 and    
#ce1jjj ,french4 ,now for the decade    
between #ahij and #aijj the total number
 was #c1hdd1jjj2 of these ,germany      
contributed #edc1jjj1 ,ireland #djc1jjj1

 ,norway and ,sweden #cbe1jjj1 ,england 
#bhb1jjj1 ,scotland #fj1jjj1 and ,france
 #cf1jjj4 ,on the other hand1 we find   
for the first time three countries      
represented which had never before sent 
any large number of immigrants2 ,italy1 
,russia1 and ,austria-,hungary4 ,in the 
decade ending #ahgj there were only     
#aa1jjj ,italians1 #g1jjj ,austrians1   
and #d1jjj ,russians1 while in the      
decade ending in the year #aijj the     
,russian immigrants1 who are mostly     
,poles and ,jews1 numbered #ehh1jjj1 the
 ,austrian and ,hungarian #eig1jjj1 and 
the ,italian no less than #fee1jjj2 and 
the proportion of these three kinds of  
immigrants is steadily increasing4 ,in  
the year #aijc ,germany sent only       
#dj1jjj1 ,ireland #ce1jjj1 and ,england 
#bf1jjj2 while ,russia sent #acf1jjj1   
,austria-,hungary #bjf1jjj1 and ,italy  
#bcj1jjj4 ,herein lies the problem4  ,a 
few further figures may help to make the
 situation clearer4 ,for instance1 it is
 interesting to know what proportion of 

the total emigration from ,europe came  
to ,america4 ,in round numbers we may   
say that since #ahgj ,europe has lost   
#bj1jjj1jjj souls by emigration1 and    
that some #ad1jjj1jjj of these1 that is1
 more than two-thirds1 have ultimately  
made their homes in the ,united ,states 
of ,america4 ,of the ,german emigrants  
some #he or #ij per cent4 have gone to  
the ,united ,states2 of the             
,scandinavian as many as #ig per cent42 
while of the ,english and ,italian only 
#ff and #de per cent4 respectively4 ,it 
is worth noting1 moreover1 that in spite
 of the extraordinary increase in       
immigration1 the percentage of          
foreign-born population has not         
increased2 that is1 the increase of     
native-born inhabitants has kept up with
 the immigration4 ,in #ahej there were a
 few more than two million foreign-born 
inhabitants1 in #ahfj more than four    
millions1 in #ahgj there were five and a
 half millions1 in #ahhj six and a half 
millions1 in #ahij nine and a quarter   

millions1 and in #aijj ten and one-third
 millions4 ,in #ahej these foreigners   
amounted1 it is true1 to only #aa per   
cent4 of the population2 but in #ahfj   
they had already become #ae per cent4 of
 the whole1 and diminished in #ahgj to  
#ad4d per cent41 in #ahhj to #ac4c per  
cent42 in #ahij they were #ad4h per     
cent41 and in #aijj #ac4f per cent4     
,the ,state of ,new ,york has the       
largest number of foreigners1 and in the
 last fifty years the percentage of     
foreigners has risen steadily from #ba  
per cent4 to #bf per cent4 ,pennsylvania
 stands second in this respect1 and     
,illinois third4 ,on the other hand1 the
 small states have the largest          
percentage of foreign population4 ,north
 ,dakota has #ce per cent4 and ,rhode   
,island #ca per cent4 ,the ,southern    
states have fewest foreigners of any4   
,these figures are1 of course1 greatly  
changed if we add to them the persons   
who were not themselves born in other   
countries1 but of whom one or both      

parents were foreigners4 ,in this way   
the foreign population in the so-called 
,north ,atlantic ,states is #ea per     
cent41 and is #cd per cent4 throughout  
the country4 ,if a foreigner is so      
defined1 the cities of ,new ,york and   
,chicago are both #gg per cent4 foreign4
  ,these figures are enough by way of   
mere statistics4 ,the thing which       
arouses anxiety is not the increasing   
number of immigrants1 but the quality of
 them1 which grows continually worse4   
,just fifty years ago the so-called     
,know-,nothings made the anti-foreign   
sentiment the chief plank of their      
programme1 but the 8pure0 ,american     
propaganda of the ,know-,nothings was   
forgotten in the excitement which waged 
over slavery2 and the anti-foreign issue
 has never since that time been so      
brutally stated4 ,there has always been 
much objection to the undeniable evils  
involved in this immigration1 and the   
continual cry for closer supervision and
 restriction of immigration has given   

rise to several new legal measures4     
,partly1 this movement has been the     
expression of industrial jealousy1 as   
when1 for instance1 ,congress in #ahhe1 
in an access of protectionist fury1     
forbade the immigration of 8contract    
labour10 that is1 forbade any one to    
land who had already arranged to fill a 
certain position4 ,this measure was     
meant to protect the workmen from       
disagreeable competition4 ,but right    
here the believers in free industry     
object energetically4 ,it is just the   
contract labour from the ,old ,world    
which brings new industries and a new   
development of old industries into the  
country1 and such a quickening of       
industry augments the demand for labour 
to the decided advantage of native      
workmen4 ,the law still stands in       
writing1 but in practice it appears to  
be extensively corrected1 since it is   
very easily evaded4  ,the more important
 measures1 however1 have arisen less    
from industrial than from social and    

moral grounds4 ,statistics have been    
carefully worked up again and again in  
order to show that the poor-houses and  
prisons contain a much larger percentage
 of foreigners than their proportionate 
numbers in the community warrant4 ,in   
itself this will be very easy to        
understand1 owing to the unfavourable   
conditions under which the foreigner    
must find himself1 particularly if he   
does not speak ,english1 in his struggle
 for existence in a new land4 ,but most 
striking has been the manner in which   
the magic of statistics has shown its   
ability to prove anything it will2 for  
other statistics have shown that if     
certain kinds of crime are considered1  
the foreign-born ,americans are the best
 children the nation has4 ,the question 
of illiteracy has been discussed in     
similar fashion4 ,the percentage of     
immigrants who can neither read nor     
write has seemed alarmingly high to     
those accustomed to the high cultivation
 of the northeastern states1 but        

gratifyingly small to those familiar    
with the negro population in the ,south4
 ,one unanimous opinion has been        
reached2 it is that the country is bound
 to keep out such elements from its     
borders as are going to be a public     
burden4 ,at first idiots and insane     
persons1 criminals1 and paupers made up 
this undesirable class1 but the         
definition of those who are not admitted
 to the country has been slowly         
broadened4 ,and since the immigration   
laws require the steamship companies to 
carry back at their own expense all     
immigrants who are not allowed to land1 
the selection is actually made in the   
,european ports of embarkation4 ,in this
 wise the old charge that the agents of 
,european packet companies encouraged   
the lowest and worst individuals of the 
,old ,world to expend their last        
farthing for a ticket to the ,new       
,world1 has gradually died out4         
,nevertheless1 in the last year1 #e1hab 
persons were sent back for lack of      

visible means of support1 #ea because of
 criminal record1 and #aggc by reason of
 infectious diseases4  ,the fact        
remains1 however1 that the social mires 
of every large city teem with           
foreigners1 and that among these masses 
the worst evils of municipal corruption 
find favourable soil1 that all the      
sporadic outbreaks of anarchy are       
traceable to these foreigners1 and that 
the army of the unemployed is mostly    
recruited from their number4 ,these     
opinions were greatly strengthened when 
that change in the racial make-up set in
 which we have followed by statistics1  
and which a census of the poorer        
districts in the large cities quickly   
proves3 ,italians1 ,russian ,jews1      
,galicians1 and ,roumanians everywhere4 
,the unprejudiced ,american asks with   
some concern whether1 if this stream of 
immigration is continued1 it will not   
undermine the virility of the ,american 
people4 ,the ,american nation will      
continue to fulfil its mission so long  

as it is inspired with a spirit of      
independence and self-determination2 and
 this instinct derives from the desire  
of freedom possessed by all the         
,germanic races4 ,in this way the       
,german1 ,swedish1 and ,norwegian       
newcomers have adapted themselves at    
once to the ,anglo-,saxon body politic1 
while the ,french have remained         
intrinsically strangers4 ,their number1 
however1 has been very small4 ,but what 
is to happen if the non-,germanic       
millions of ,italians1 ,russians1 and   
,turks are to pour in unhindered8 ,it is
 feared that they will drag down the    
high and independent spirit of the      
nation to their low and unworthy ideals4
 ,already many citizens wish to require 
of the immigrants a knowledge of the    
,english language1 or to make a certain 
property qualification by way of        
precaution against unhappy consequences1
 or perhaps to close entirely for awhile
 the portals of the nation1 or1 at      
least1 to make the conditions of        

naturalization considerably harder in   
order that the ,eastern ,european1 who  
has never had a thought of political    
freedom1 shall not too quickly receive a
 suffrage in the freest democracy of the
 world4 ,and those most entitled to an  
opinion unconditionally demand at the   
least the exclusion of all illiterates4 
,against all this there stand the       
convictions of certain rather broader   
circles of people who point with pride  
at that great ,american grist-mill1 the 
public school1 which is supposed to take
 the foreign youth into its hopper1     
grind him up quickly and surely1 and    
turn him out into good ,american        
material4 ,it is1 in fact1 astonishing  
to look at the classes in the ,new ,york
 schools down on the ,east ,side1 where 
there is not a child of ,american       
parentage1 and yet not one who will     
admit that he is ,italian1 ,russian1 or 
,armenian4 ,all these small people      
declare themselves passionately to be   
8,american10 with ,american patriotism  

and ,american pride2 and day by day     
shows that in its whole system of public
 institutions the nation possesses a    
similar school for the foreign-born     
adult4 ,grey-haired men and adolescent  
youths1 who in their native countries   
would never have emerged from their dull
 and cringing existence1 hardly touch   
the pavement of ,broadway before they   
find themselves readers of the          
newspaper1 frequenters of the political 
meetings1 and in a small way independent
 business men2 and they may1 a few years
 later1 be conducting enterprises on a  
large scale4 ,they wake up suddenly1 and
 although in this transformation every  
race lends its own colour to the spirit 
of self-determination1 nevertheless the 
universal trait1 the typical ,american  
trait1 can appear in every race of man1 
if only the conditions are favourable4  
,in the same direction it is urged once 
more that ,america needs the labour of  
these people4 ,if ,southern and ,eastern
 ,europe had not given us their cheaper 

grades of workmen1 we should not have   
been able to build our roads or our     
railroads1 nor many other things which  
we have needed4 ,in former decades this 
humble rle fell to the ,germans1 the    
,scandinavians1 and the ,irish1 and the 
opposition against their admission was  
as lively as it now is against the      
immigrants from the south and east of   
,europe2 while the development of the   
country has shown that they have been an
 economic blessing2 and the same thing1 
it is said1 will be true of the         
,russians and ,poles4 ,there are still  
huge territories at our disposal which  
are virtually unpopulated1 untold       
millions can still employ their strength
 to the profit of the whole nation1 and 
it would be madness to keep out the     
willing and peaceable workers4          
,moreover1 has it not been the proud    
boast of ,america that her holy mission 
was to be a land of freedom for every   
oppressed individual1 an asylum for     
every one who was persecuted8 ,in the   

times then of her most brilliant        
prosperity is she to be untrue to her   
noble role of protectress1 and leave no 
hope to those who have been deprived of 
their human rights by ,russian or       
,turkish despots1 by ,italian or        
,hungarian extortionists1 to disappoint 
their belief that at least in the ,new  
,world even the most humble man has his 
rights and will be received at his true 
value8 ,thus the opinions differ1 and   
public opinion at large has come as yet 
to no decision4  ,a curious feature in  
the immigration problem is the ,chinese 
question1 which has occasioned frequent 
discussion on the ,pacific coast4 ,the  
,chinaman does not come here to enjoy   
the blessings of ,american civilization1
 but merely in order to earn a          
competence in a short time so that he   
can return to his ,asiatic home and be  
forever provided for4 ,he does not bring
 his family with him1 nor attempt in any
 way to adapt himself2 he keeps his own 
costume1 stays apart from his white     

neighbours1 and lives1 as for instance  
in the ,chinese ,quarter of ,san        
,francisco1 on such meagre nourishment  
and in such squalid dwellings that he   
can save up wealth from such earnings as
 an ,american workman could hardly live 
on4 ,a tour through the ,chinese        
sleeping-rooms in ,california is in fact
 one of the most depressing impressions 
which the traveller on ,american soil   
can possibly experience4 ,the           
individuals lie on large couches1 built 
over one another in tiers1 going quite  
up to the ceiling2 and in twenty-four   
hours three sets of sleepers will have  
occupied the beds4 ,under such          
conditions the number of newcomers      
steadily increased because large        
commercial firms imported more and more 
coolie labour4 ,between #ahgj and #ahhj 
more than #abb1jjj had come into the    
country4 ,then ,congress began to oppose
 this immigration1 and since #ahgi has  
experimented with various laws1 until   
now the ,chinese workman is almost      

wholly excluded4 ,according to the last 
census there were only #ha1jjj ,chinese 
in the whole ,united ,states4  ,more    
attractive than the yellow immigrants to
 these shores are the red-skinned       
aborigines of the land1 the ,indians1   
whom the ,europeans found when they     
landed4 ,the world is too much inclined1
 however1 to consider the fate of the   
,indian in a false light1 just because  
his manner of life captures the fancy   
and his picturesque barbarity has often 
attracted the poet4 ,the ,american      
himself is rather inclined to see in his
 treatment of the ,indian a grave charge
 against his own nation1 and to find    
himself guilty of the brutal            
extermination of a native race4 ,to     
arrive at such an opinion he assumes    
that in former centuries great tribes of
 ,indians scoured the tremendous        
hunting-grounds of the land4 ,but       
science has done away with this fanciful
 picture1 and we know to-day that these 
millions of natives never existed4      

,there are to-day about #bgj1jjj        
,redskins1 and it is very doubtful      
whether the number was ever much        
greater4 ,it is true1 of course1 that   
between ,central ,america and the       
,arctic ,sea1 hundreds of different     
,indian languages were spoken1 and many 
of these languages have twenty or thirty
 different dialects4 ,but the sole      
community in which such a dialect       
developed would include only a few      
hundred persons1 and broad tracts of    
land would lie between the neighbouring 
communities4 ,they used to live in      
villages1 and wandered over the country 
only at certain seasons of the year in  
order to hunt1 fish1 and collect fruits4
  ,as soon as the ,european colonies    
established themselves in the country   
the ,indians used to take part in their 
wars1 and on such occasions were        
supplied by the colonists with arms and 
employed as auxiliary forces4 ,but the  
delights of these new methods of        
warfare1 which they learned quickly1    

broke up their own peaceful life4 ,the  
new weapons were employed for war       
between the ,indian races1 and          
eventually were turned by the ,indians  
against the white settlers themselves4  
,but1 after all1 the peaceful contact of
 ,indians and whites was more productive
 of results4 ,only the ,french and      
,spanish permitted a mixture of the     
races1 and in ,canada especially to-day 
there is a mixed race of ,french and    
,indians2 while in ,mexico a large part 
of the inhabitants is ,spanish and      
,indian4 ,the truly ,american population
 sought above all else peaceably to     
disseminate its own culture2 some       
,indian races became agricultural and   
devoted themselves to certain industrial
 pursuits4  ,since the time when the    
,united ,states gained actual possession
 of a larger part of the continent1 a   
systematic ,indian policy has been      
pursued1 although administered largely1 
it must be admitted1 in the ,american   
interests1 and yet with considerable    

consideration of the natural            
inclinations of these hunting peoples4  
,in various states1 territories were set
 apart for them1 which were certainly   
more than adequate to afford their      
sustenance2 schools were built1 and even
 institutions of higher learning2 and   
through solemn treaties with their      
chiefs important rights were assigned to
 different races4 ,to be sure1 the main 
idea has always been to persuade the    
,indians to take up agricultural        
pursuits2 to live merely by hunting     
flesh and eating wild fruits seemed     
hardly the thing at a time when millions
 of people were flocking westward out of
 ,europe4 ,therefore1 with every new    
treaty1 the ,indian reservations have   
been made smaller and smaller4 ,the     
,indians1 who would have preferred      
always to keep up their wild hunting    
life1 felt1 and still feel1 that this   
has been unjust1 and certainly many of  
their racial peculiarities have made it 
difficult to adapt ,american legal      

traditions fairly to their needs4 ,the  
,indians had no idea of the private     
ownership of the soil2 they considered  
everything as belonging to their tribe1 
and least of all had they any notion of 
the inheritance of property in the      
,american sense4 ,the ,indian children  
belonged to the mother's family and the 
mother never belonged to the tribe of   
the father4  ,although all these sources
 of friction have led the ,indian to    
feel unjustly treated1 it is still true 
that there has been scarcely any        
actually destructive oppression4 ,the   
very races which have been influenced   
most by ,american culture have developed
 favourably4 ,last year the ,indian     
mortality was #d1gbh1 and the number of 
births #d1gdb2 the ,indians are1        
therefore1 not dying out4 ,the largest  
community is in the so-called ,indian   
,territory and consists of #hf1jjj      
people1 while there are #db1jjj in      
,arizona4 ,the several ,indian          
reservations together embrace #aag1dbj  

square miles4                    99     
99       99       99       99  ,the     
,indian question is the least serious   
problem of all those which concern      
population in ,america2 by far the most 
difficult is the negro question4 ,the   
,indian lives within certain            
reservations1 but the negro lives       
everywhere side by side with the        
,american4 ,so also the ,indian troubles
 are narrowly confined to a small       
reservation in the great field of       
,american problems1 but the negro       
question is met everywhere in ,american 
thought1 and in connection with every   
,american interest4 ,there could hardly 
be a greater contrast than that between 
the ,indian and the negro2 the former is
 proud1 self-contained1 selfish and     
revengeful1 passionate and courageous1  
keen and inventive4 ,the negro1 on the  
other hand1 is subservient1 yielding1   
almost childishly good natured1 lazy and
 sensual1 without energy or ambition1   
outwardly apt to learn1 but without any 

spirit of invention or intellectual     
independence4 ,and still one ought not  
to speak of these millions of people as 
if they were of one type4 ,on the ,gulf 
of ,mexico there are regions where the  
black population lives almost wholly    
sunk in the superstitions of its        
,african home2 while in ,harvard        
,university a young negro student has   
written creditable essays on ,kant and  
,hegel4 ,and between these opposite     
poles exists a population of about nine 
millions4  ,the negro population of     
,america does not increase quite so     
rapidly as the white1 and yet in forty  
years it has increased two-fold4 ,in the
 year #ahfj1 before the slaves were     
freed1 there were #d1dda1jjj blacks2 in 
#ahgj1 #d1hhj1jjj2 in #ahhj1 #f1ehj1jjj2
 in #ahij1 #g1dgj1jjj2 in #aijj1        
#h1hjc1jjj4 ,in view of this            
considerable increase of the negro1 it  
is not to be expected that the problem  
will lose anything of its urgency by the
 more rapid growth of the white         

population4 ,and at the same time the   
physical contrast between the races is  
in no wise decreasing1 because there is 
no mixing of the white and black races  
to-day1 as there very frequently was    
before the war4 ,it will not be long    
before the coloured population will be  
twice the entire population which       
,canada to-day has4 ,these people are   
distributed geographically1 so that much
 the largest part lives in those states 
which before the war practised slavery4 
,to be sure1 an appreciable part has    
wandered into the northern states1 and  
the poorer quarters of the large cities 
are well infiltrated with blacks4       
,four-fifths1 however1 still remain in  
the ,south1 owing probably to climatic  
conditions2 the negro race thrives      
better in a warm climate4 ,but it       
belongs there economically also1 and has
 nearly every reason for staying there  
in future4  ,nevertheless1 the negro    
question is by no means a problem for   
the ,south alone2 the ,north has its    

interests1 and it becomes clearer all   
the time that the solution of the       
problem will depend in large part on the
 co-operation of the ,north4 ,in the    
first place it was the ,north which set 
the negro free1 and which1 therefore1 is
 partly responsible for what he is      
to-day2 and it must lie with the ,north 
to decide whether the great dangers     
which to-day threaten can in any way be 
obviated4 ,europe has so far considered 
only one feature of the negro           
question--that of slavery4 ,all ,europe 
read 8,uncle ,tom's ,cabin10 and thought
 the difficulty solved as soon as the   
negro was freed from his chains and the 
poorest negro came into his human right 
of freedom4 ,europe was not aware that  
in this 99wise still greater problems   
were created1 and that greater springs  
of misery and misfortune for the negro  
there took their origin4 ,nor does      
,europe realize that opposition between 
whites and blacks has never been in the 
history of ,america so sharp and bitter 

and full of hatred as it is to-day4     
,just in the last few years the hatred  
has grown on both sides1 so that no     
friend of the country can look into the 
future without misgivings4 8,das eben   
ist die ,frucht der bsen ,tat40  ,yet   
where did the sin begin8 ,shall the     
blame fall on the ,english ,parliament1 
which countenanced and even encouraged  
the trade in human bodies1 or shall it  
fall on the ,southern ,states1 which    
kept the slaves in ignorance1 and even  
threatened to punish any one who should 
instruct them8 ,or shall it fall on the 
,northern ,states1 which were chiefly   
responsible for immediately granting to 
the freedmen1 for the sake of party     
politics1 all prerogatives of           
fellow-citizenship8 ,or shall the fault 
be put on the negro himself1 who saw in 
his freedom from slavery an open door to
 idleness and worthlessness8  ,for      
generations the white man has regarded  
the black man as merchandise1 has       
forcibly dragged him from his ,african  

jungles to make him work in ignorance   
and oppression on the cotton1 rice1 and 
tobacco fields of a white master4 ,then 
all at once he was made free and became 
an equal citizen in a country which1 in 
its abilities1 its feelings1 its laws1  
and its ,constitution1 had the culture  
of two thousand years behind it4 ,how   
has this emancipation worked on these   
millions8 ,the first decade was a period
 of unrest and of almost frightened     
awakening to the consciousness of       
physical freedom1 in the midst of all   
the after-effects of the fearful war4   
,the negro was terrified by ,southern   
secret societies which were planning    
vengeance1 and confused by the dogmas of
 unscrupulous politicians who canvassed 
the states which had been so savagely   
shaken by the war1 in order to gather up
 whatever might be found2 and he was    
confused by a thousand other            
contradictions in public sentiment4     
,nowhere was there a secure refuge4     
,then followed the time in which the    

negroes hoped to employ their political 
power to advantage2 the negroes were to 
be prospered by their ballot4 ,but they 
found this to be a hopeless mistake4    
,then they believed a better way was to 
be found in the public schools and      
books4 ,but the negro was again turned  
back2 he needed not knowledge but the   
power to do1 not books but a trade4 ,so 
his rallying-cry has shifted4 ,the      
blacks have never lost heart1 and in a  
certain sense it must in justice be     
added the whites have never lacked      
good-will4 ,and yet1 after forty years  
of freedom1 the results are highly      
discouraging4  ,on the outside there is 
much that speaks of almost brilliant    
success4 ,the negroes have to-day in the
 ,united ,states #dej newspapers and    
four magazines2 #cej books have been    
written by negroes2 half of all the     
negro children are regularly taught in  
schools2 there are #cj1jjj black        
teachers1 school-houses worth more than 
#aj1jjj1jjj1 forty-one seminaries for   

teachers1 and churches worth over       
#be1jjj1jjj4 ,there are ten thousand    
black musicians and hundreds of lawyers4
 ,the negroes own four large banks1     
#acj1jjj farms1 and #aej1jjj homes1 and 
they pay taxes on #fej1jjj1jjj worth of 
real and personal property4 ,the four   
past decades have therefore brought some
 progress to the freedman4 ,and yet1 in 
studying the situation1 one is obliged  
to say that these figures are somewhat  
deceptive4 ,the majority of negroes are 
still in such a state of poverty and    
misery1 of illiteracy and mental        
backwardness1 that the negroes who can  
be at all compared with the middle class
 of ,americans are vanishingly few4     
,even the teachers and the doctors and  
pastors seem only very little to differ 
from the proletariat2 and although there
 is many a negro of means1 it is still a
 question whether he is able to enjoy   
his property1 whether the dollar in his 
hand is the same as in the hand of a    
white man4  ,a part of the black        

population has certainly made real      
progress1 but a larger part is humanly  
more degraded than before the slaves    
were freed2 and if one looks at it      
merely as a utilitarian1 considering    
only the amount of pleasure which the   
negroes enjoy1 one cannot doubt that the
 general mass of negroes was happier    
under slavery4 ,their temperament is    
crueller to them than any plantation    
master could have been4 ,the negro--we  
must have no illusions on that          
point--has partly gone backward4 ,the   
capacity for hard work which he acquired
 in four generations of slavery1 he has 
in large part lost again during forty   
years of freedom2 although1 indeed1 the 
tremendous cotton harvests from the     
,southern ,states are gathered almost   
wholly by negro labour4 ,it must be left
 to anthropology to find out whether the
 negro race is actually capable of such 
complete development as the ,caucasian  
race has come to after thousands of     
years of steady labour and progress4    

,the student of social politics need not
 go into such speculations2 he faces the
 fact that the ,african negro has not   
had the thousands of years of such      
training1 and therefore1 although he    
might be theoretically capable of the   
highest culture1 yet practically he is  
still unprepared for the higher duties  
of civilization4 ,under the severe      
discipline of slavery he overcame his   
lazy instincts and learned how to work  
both in the field and in the shop1      
according as the needs of his master    
required1 and became in this way a      
useful member of society2 but he was    
relieved of all other cares4 ,his owner 
provided him with house and nourishment1
 cared for him in illness1 and protected
 him like any other valuable piece of   
property4  ,all this was suddenly       
changed on the great day when freedom   
was declared2 no one compelled the negro
 to work then2 he was free to follow his
 instinct to do nothing2 no one punished
 him when he gave himself over to       

sensuality and indolence4 ,but on the   
other side nobody now took care of him2 
in becoming his own master he remained  
his own slave4 ,he was suddenly pushed  
into the struggle for existence1 and the
 less he was forced to learn the less he
 was ready for the fight4 ,there thus   
grew up an increasing mass of           
poverty-stricken negroes1 among whom    
immorality and crime could thrive2 and  
oftentimes the heavy weight of this mass
 has dragged down with it those who     
would have been better4 ,worst of all1  
it has strengthened the aversion of the 
whites a hundred-fold1 and the best     
members of the negro race have had to   
suffer for the laziness1 the sensuality1
 and the dishonesty of the great masses4
  ,the real tragedy is not in the lives 
of the most miserable1 but in the lives 
of those who wish to rise1 who feel the 
mistakes of their fellow-negroes and the
 injustice of their white opponents1 who
 desire to assimilate everything high   
and good in the culture about them1 and 

yet who know that they do not1 strictly 
speaking1 belong to such a culture4 ,the
 negroes of the lower type are sunk in  
their indifference2 they while away the 
hours in coarse enjoyments1 and are     
perfectly content with a few watermelons
 while they dance and sing4 ,the        
onlooker is disheartened1 but they      
themselves laugh like children4 ,the    
better negroes1 on the other hand1 feel 
all the hardship and carry the weight of
 the problem on their souls4 ,they go   
through life fully conscious of an      
insoluble contradiction in their        
existence2 they feel that it is denied  
them to participate immediately in life1
 and that they must always see          
themselves with the eyes of others1 and 
lead in a way a double existence4 ,as   
one of them has recently said1 they are 
always conscious of being a problem4    
,they themselves have not chosen their  
lot1 they did not come of their own     
accord from ,africa1 nor gladly take on 
the yoke of slavery2 nor were they by   

their own efforts saved from slavery4   
,they have been passive at every turn of
 fortune4 ,now they wish to commence to 
do their best and to give their best1   
and they have to do this in an          
environment for which they are wholly   
unprepared and which is wholly beyond   
them in its culture ,they have not      
themselves worked out this civilization2
 they belong historically in another    
system1 and remain here at best mere    
imitators4 ,and the better they succeed 
in being like their neighbours1 the more
 they become unlike what they ought     
naturally to develop into4  ,this       
feeling of disparateness leads directly 
to the feeling of embitterment4 ,in the 
general masses1 however1 it is the      
feeling of incompetence to support the  
struggle for existence successfully     
which turns necessarily into a bitter   
hatred of the whites4 ,and the more the 
lack of discipline and the laziness of  
the black cause the whites to hold him  
in check1 so much the more brightly     

burns this hatred4 ,but all students of 
the ,south believe that this hatred has 
come about wholly since the negro was   
declared free4 ,the slave was faithful  
and devoted to his master1 who took care
 of him2 he hated work1 but did not hate
 the white man1 and took his state of   
slavery as a matter of course1 much as  
one takes one's inability to fly4 ,a    
patriarchal condition prevailed in the  
,south before the war1 in spite of the  
representations made by political       
visionaries4 ,indeed1 it is sometimes   
difficult not to doubt whether it was   
necessary to do away with slavery so    
suddenly and forcibly2 whether a good   
deal of self-respect would not have been
 saved on both sides1 and endless       
hatred1 embitterment1 and misery spared1
 if the ,northern ,states had left the  
negro question to itself1 to be solved  
in time through organic rather than     
mechanical means4 ,perhaps slavery would
 then have gone gradually over into some
 form of patriarchal relation4  ,it is  

too late to philosophize on this point2 
doctrinarianism has shaped the situation
 otherwise4 ,the arms of the ,civil ,war
 have decided in favour of the ,north4  
,it is dismal1 but it must be said that 
the actual events of the ensuing years  
of peace have decided rather in favour  
of the view of the ,south4 ,to          
comprehend this fully1 it is not enough 
to ask merely1 as we have done so far1  
how the negro now feels2 but more       
specially to ask what the ,american now 
thinks4  ,what is to-day the relation   
between the white man and the negro8    
,there is a difference here between the 
,north and the ,south1 and yet one thing
 is true for both3 the ,american feels  
that the cleft between the white and    
black races is greater now than ever    
before4 ,so far as the ,north is        
concerned1 the political view of the    
problem has probably changed very       
little4 ,specially the ,new ,england    
,states1 whose exalted ethical motives  
were beyond all doubt--as perhaps is not

 so certain of the ,middle              
,states--still sympathize to-day with   
the negro as a proper claimant of human 
rights4 ,but unfortunately one may      
believe in the negro in the abstract1   
and yet shrink from contact with him in 
the concrete4 ,the personal dislike of  
the black man1 one might even call it an
 sthetic antipathy1 is really more      
general and wide-spread in the ,north   
than in the ,south4 ,south of           
,washington one can scarcely be shaved  
except by a negro1 while north of       
,philadelphia a white man would quite   
decline to patronize a coloured barber4 
,a ,southerner is even not averse to    
having a black nurse in the house1 while
 in the ,northern ,states that would    
never be thought of4 ,whenever the      
principle is to be upheld1 the negro is 
made welcome in the ,north4 ,he is      
granted here and there a small public   
office2 he delivers orations1 and is    
admitted to public organizations2 he    
marches in the parades of war veterans1 

and a few negroes attend the            
universities4 ,and still there is no    
real social intercourse between the     
races4 ,in no club or private house and 
on no private occasions does one meet a 
negro4 ,and here the ,european should   
bear specially in mind that negroes are 
not seldom men and women whose faces are
 perhaps as white as any ,yankee's1 and 
who often have only the faintest taint  
of ,african blood4  ,at the very best   
the ,northerner plays philanthropist    
toward the negro1 takes care of his     
schools and churches1 helps him to help 
himself1 and to carve out his economic  
freedom4 ,but even here the feeling has 
been growing more and more in recent    
years that the situation is somehow     
fundamentally false1 and that the ,north
 has acted hastily and imprudently in   
accepting the emancipated negro on terms
 of so complete equality4 ,the feeling  
of dissatisfaction is growing in the    
,north1 and it is not an accident that  
the negro population of the ,north grows

 so slowly1 although the negro is always
 ready to wander1 and would crowd in    
great numbers to the ,north if he might 
hope to better his fortunes there4 ,the 
negro feels1 however1 intensely that he 
is still less a match for the energetic 
,northerner in the industrial           
competition than for the white man of   
the ,south1 and that it is often easier 
to endure the hatred of the ,southerner 
than the coldly theoretical sufferance  
of the ,northerner when joined1 as it   
is1 with a personal distaste so         
pronounced4  ,in the ,south it is quite 
different4 ,there could hardly be an    
sthetic aversion for the race1 when for 
generations blacks and whites have lived
 together1 when all the servants of the 
home have been coloured1 and the        
children have grown up on the           
plantations with their little black     
playmates4 ,there has been a good deal  
in the easy good-nature of the negro    
which the ,southern white man has always
 found sympathetic1 and he responded in 

former times to the disinterested       
faithfulness of the slaves with a real  
attachment4 ,and although this may have 
been such fondness as one feels for a   
faithful dog or an intelligent horse1   
there was in it1 nevertheless1 no trace 
of that physical repulsion felt by the  
,northerner4 ,the same is fundamentally 
true to-day1 and the rhetorical emphasis
 of the physical antipathy toward the   
black which one finds in ,southern      
speeches is certainly in part           
hypocritical4 ,it is true that even     
to-day the poorest white man would think
 himself too good to marry the most     
admirable coloured woman2 but the reason
 of this would lie in social principles1
 and not1 as politicians would like to  
make it appear1 in any instinctive      
racial aversion1 since so long as the   
negroes were in slavery the whites had  
no aversion to such personal            
contamination4  ,the great opposition   
which now exists is two-fold3 it is on  
the one hand political and on the other 

social4 ,the political situation of the 
,south has been indeed dominated in the 
last forty years by the negro question4 
,there have been four distinct periods  
of development2 the first goes from the 
end of the ,civil ,war to #ahge4 ,it was
 the time when the negro had first      
received the suffrage and become a      
political factor1 the most dreary time  
which the ,south ever knew4 ,it was     
economically ruined1 was overrun with a 
disgusting army of unscrupulous         
politicians1 who wanted nothing but to  
pervert the ignorant coloured voters for
 the lowest political ends4 ,the        
victorious party in the ,north sent its 
menials down to organize the coloured   
quarry1 and by mere numbers to outdo all
 independent activities of the white    
population4  ,one can easily understand 
why a ,southern historian should say    
that the ,southern ,states look back    
without bitterness on the years of the  
war1 when brave men met brave men on the
 field of battle2 but that they are     

furious when they remember the years    
which followed1 when the victors1 partly
 out of mistaken philanthropy1 partly   
out of thoughtlessness and indifference1
 and partly out of evil intent1 hastened
 to put the reins of government into the
 hands of a race which was hardly out of
 ,african barbarism2 and thus utterly   
disheartened the men and women who had  
built up the splendid culture of the    
,old ,south4 ,perhaps there was no phase
 of ,american history1 he says1 so      
filled with poetry and romantic charm as
 the life of the ,south in the last ten 
years before the war2 and certainly no  
period has been so full of mistakes1    
uncertainties1 and crime as the decade  
immediately following4 ,a reaction had  
to come1 and it came in the twenty years
 between #ahge and #ahie4 ,the ,south   
betook itself to devious methods at the 
ballot-box4 ,it was recognized that     
falsification of election returns was an
 evil1 but it was thought to be a worse 
evil for the country to be handed over  

to the low domination of illiterate     
negroes4 ,the political power of the    
negro has been broken in this way4      
,again and again the same method was    
resorted to1 until finally the public   
opinion of the ,south approved of it1   
and those who juggled with the          
ballot-box were not pursued by the arm  
of the law1 because the general opinion 
was with them4  ,there has been another 
and more important fact4 ,slowly all    
party opposition between the whites     
vanished1 and the race question became  
the sole political issue4 ,to be sure1  
there have been free-traders and        
protectionists in the ,south1 and       
representatives of all other party      
principles2 but all genuine party life  
flagged and all less important          
distinctions vanished at the ballot-box 
when the whites rallied against the     
blacks1 and since the negroes voted     
invariably with the ,republican party1  
which had set them free1 the entire     
white population of the ,south has      

become ,democratic4 ,by this political  
consolidation1 the power of the negro   
has been further restricted4  ,people   
have gradually become convinced1        
however1 that political life stagnates  
when large states have only the one     
fixed idea1 as if hypnotized by the race
 issue4 ,the need has been felt anew of 
participating once more in all the great
 problems which interest the nation and 
which create the parties4 ,the ,south   
looks back longingly on the time when it
 used to furnish the most brilliant     
statesmen of the nation4 ,the ,south has
 become also aware that so soon as      
public opinion allows a systematic      
corruption of the ballot-box1 then every
 kind of selfishness and corruption has 
an easy chance to creep in4  ,let once  
the election returns be falsified in    
order to wipe out a negro majority1 and 
they may be falsified the next time in  
favour of some commercial conspiracy4   
,an abyss opens up which is truly       
bottomless4 ,so a third period has      

arrived4 ,in place of nullifying the    
negro suffrage by illegal means1 the    
,south has been thinking out legal      
measures for limiting it4 ,the          
,constitution prescribes merely that no 
one shall be deprived of his vote by    
reason of his colour1 but it has been   
left to the several states to determine 
what the other conditions shall be which
 govern the right to vote4 ,thus any    
state is free to place a certain        
property condition1 or to require a     
certain degree of education from every  
man who votes2 but all such conditions  
must apply to all inhabitants of the    
state alike2 thus1 for instance1 in four
 states1 and only in those four1 do     
women enjoy the suffrage4 ,now the      
,southern ,states have commenced to make
 extensive use of this state privilege4 
,they are not allowed to exclude the    
negro as a negro since the ,northern    
,states have added the ,fifteenth       
,amendment of the ,constitution1 and    
there would be no hope of altering this4

 ,but so long as the educational status 
of the negro is so far behind that of   
the white man1 the number of those who  
cannot read is still so large that a    
heavy blow is struck at negro political 
domination when a state decides to      
restrict the suffrage to those who can  
read and understand the ,constitution4  
,it is clear that at the same time the  
test of this which necessarily has to be
 made leaves the coveted free-play to   
the white man's discretion4  ,the last  
few years have witnessed a great advance
 of this new movement4 ,the political   
power of the negro is less than ever1   
and the former illegal measures to      
circumvent it are no longer needed4 ,it 
cannot be denied that in two ways this  
works directly in the interests of      
civilization4 ,on the one hand1 it      
incites the negro population to take    
measures for the education of its       
children1 since by going to school the  
negro can comply with the conditions of 
suffrage4 ,on the other hand1 it frees  

,southern politics from the oppressive  
race question1 and allows real party    
problems to become once more active     
issues among the whites4 ,the political 
contrast is1 therefore1 to-day somewhat 
lessened1 although both parties regard  
it rather as a mere cessation of        
hostilities2 since it is by no means    
certain that ,northern political forces 
at ,washington will not once more undo  
this infringement on the negroes'       
rights1 and whether once more1 in case  
of a real party division between the    
,southern whites1 the negroes will not  
have the deciding vote4 ,if the         
doctrinarianism of the ,north should    
actually prevail and be able to set     
aside these examinations in reading and 
in intelligence which have been aimed   
against the negro1 on the ground that   
they are contrary to the ,constitution1 
it would indeed frustrate a great       
movement toward political peace4 ,when  
the abolitionists at the end of the     
,civil ,war granted the suffrage to the 

negroes1 they were at least able to     
adduce one very good excuse2 they       
claimed that the ,southern ,states would
 continue in some new form to hold the  
negro in subjection if he was not       
protected by either a military guard or 
by his right to vote1 and since the army
 was to be disbanded the right to vote  
was given him4 ,to-day there is no such 
danger2 the legal exclusion of the      
,southern negro from the ballot-box must
 be accounted an advance4  ,the social  
question1 however1 is even more         
important to-day than the political one1
 and it is one which grows day by day4  
,we have said already that the          
,southerner has no instinctive aversion 
to the negro race1 and his desire for   
racial purity is not an instinct but a  
theory1 of which the fathers of the     
present white man knew nothing4 ,to be  
sure1 the situation cannot be simply    
formulated1 but it probably comes       
nearest to the truth to say that the    
white man's hatred is the inherited     

instinct of the slave-holder4 ,in all   
his sentiments the ,southerner is       
dominated by the once natural feeling   
that the negro is his helpless subject4 
,the white man is not cruel in this2 he 
wants to protect the negro and to be    
kind1 but he can allow him no will of   
his own4 ,he has accustomed himself to  
the slavish obedience of the negro1 as  
the opium-eater is accustomed to his    
opium4 ,and to give up the paralyzing   
drug is intolerable to his nervous      
system4  ,the everywhere repeated cry   
that the purity of the race is in       
danger1 if social equality is           
established1 is only a pretext2 it is in
 truth the social equality itself which 
calls forth the hysterical excitement4  
,no white man1 for instance1 in the     
,south would go into the dining-room of 
a hotel in which a single negro woman   
should be sitting2 but this is not      
because a mere proximity would be       
disagreeable1 as it would actually be to
 the ,northerner1 but because he could  

not endure such appearance of equality4 
,so soon as a little white child sits   
beside the negro woman1 so that she is  
seen to be a servant and her socially   
inferior station is made plain1 then her
 presence is no longer felt to be at all
 disagreeable4  ,in his fight against   
social equality with the negro1 the     
,southerner resorts to more and more    
violent means2 and while he works       
himself up to an increasing pitch of    
excitement by the energy of his         
opposition1 the resulting social        
humiliation increases the embitterment  
of the negro4 ,that no white hotel1     
restaurant1 theatre1 or sleeping-car is 
open to the black is a matter of course2
 this is virtually true also in the     
,north4 ,but it has contributed very    
much to renewed disaffection1 that also 
the ordinary railroad trains and street 
cars begin to make a similar            
distinction4  ,the ,south is putting a  
premium on every kind of harsh social   
affront to the black man1 and           

relentlessly punishes the slightest     
social recognition4 ,when the president 
of a negro college was the guest of a   
,northern hotel and the chamber-maid    
refused to put his room to rights and   
was therefore dismissed1 the ,south got 
together1 by a popular subscription1 a  
large purse for this heroine4 ,it is    
only from this point of view that one   
can understand the great excitement     
which swept through the ,south when     
,president ,roosevelt had the courage to
 invite to his table ,booker ,t4        
,washington1 the most distinguished     
negro of the country4 ,professor        
,basset1 the historian1 has declared1   
amid the fierce resentment of the       
,south1 that1 with the exception of     
,general ,lee1 ,booker ,washington is   
the greatest man who has been born in   
the ,south for a hundred years4 ,but who
 inquires after the merits of a single  
man when the principle of social        
inequality is at stake8 ,if the         
,president had worked for several months

 from early to late at his desk with    
,booker ,t4 ,washington1 the fact would 
have passed unnoticed4 ,but it is simply
 unpardonable that he invited him to the
 luncheon table1 and even very          
thoughtful men have shaken their heads  
in the opinion that this affront to the 
social superiority of the white man will
 very sadly sharpen the mutual          
antagonism4  ,we must not overlook in   
this connection the various minor       
circumstances which have strengthened   
the lingering feeling of the            
slave-owner4 ,first of all1 there is the
 unrestrained sensuality of the negro1  
which has led him time after time to    
attempt criminal aggressions on white   
women1 and so contributed infinitely to 
the misery of his situation4 ,it is a   
gross exaggeration when the ,southern   
demagogue reiterates again and again    
that no man in the ,south can feel that 
his wife1 his sister1 or daughter is    
secure from the bestiality of the       
blacks2 and yet it cannot be denied that

 such crimes are shockingly frequent1   
and they are the more significant1 since
 the continual fear of this danger      
seriously threatens the growth of       
farming life with its lonely            
farm-houses4 ,here the barbarities of   
lynch law have come in1 and the rapid   
growth of racial hatred may be seen in  
the increased number of lynchings during
 recent years4 ,but every lynching      
reacts to inoculate hatred and cruel    
ferocity in the public organism1 and so 
the bestial instincts and the lawless   
punishments work together to debase the 
masses in the ,southern ,states4  ,it is
 not only a question of the immorality  
of the negro and the lynch courts of the
 white man1 but in other ways the negro 
shows himself inclined to crime1 and the
 white man to all sorts of lawless acts 
against him4 ,the negroes are           
disproportionately represented in       
,southern prisons1 although this comes  
partly from the fact that the black man 
is punished for the slightest           

misdemeanour1 while the white man is    
readily let off4 ,in fact1 it is        
difficult in the ,south to find a jury  
to convict a white man of any crime done
 against a negro4 ,this application of a
 two-fold standard of justice leads     
quickly to a general arbitrariness which
 fits only too well with the natural    
instincts of the slave-holder4          
,arbitrary privileges in place of equal 
rights have always been the essential   
point in his existence1 and so it       
happens that even where no negroes are  
in question ,southern juries hand down  
verdicts which scandalize the whole     
country4 ,indeed1 there is no doubt that
 secret attempts have even been made1 in
 all sorts of devious forms1 to         
re-establish the state of slavery4 ,for 
some small misdemeanour negroes are     
condemned to pay a very heavy fine1 and 
to furnish this they have to let        
themselves out to some sort of contract 
labour under white masters1 which       
amounts to the same thing as slavery4   

,here again the whole country is        
horrified when the facts come to be     
known4 ,but no means have yet been      
thought of for lessening the bitter     
hatred which exists1 and so long as the 
sharp social contrast remains there will
 continue to be evasions and violations 
of the law1 to give vent to the hatred  
and bitter feeling4  ,what now may one  
look for1 that shall put an end to these
 unhappy doings8 ,the ,africans have had
 their ,zionists1 who wish to lead them 
back to their native forests in ,africa1
 and many people have recently fancied  
that the problem would be solved by     
forcible deportation to the             
,philippines4 ,these dreams are useless2
 nine million people cannot be dumped on
 the other side of the ocean1 cannot be 
torn from their homes4 ,least of all    
could they be brought to combine with   
the entirely different population of the
 ,philippines4 ,more than that1 the     
,south itself would fight tooth and nail
 against losing so many labourers2 it   

would be industrially ruined1 and would 
be more grievously torn up than it was  
after the ,civil ,war1 if in fact some  
magic ship could carry every black to   
the negro republic of ,liberia1 on the  
,african coast4 ,for the same reason it 
is impracticable to bring together all  
negroes in one or two ,southern ,states 
and leave them to work out their own    
salvation4 ,in the first place1 no state
 would be willing to draw this black    
lot1 while the white population of the  
other ,southern ,states would suffer    
fully as much4 ,the student of social   
politics1 finally1 cannot doubt for a   
moment that the negro progresses only   
when he is in constant contact with     
white men1 and degenerates with fearful 
speed when he is left to himself4       
,among those negroes who have been      
called to be the leaders of their       
people1 and who form an independent     
opinion of the situation1 one finds two 
very different tendencies4 ,one of these
 is to reform from the top down1 the    

other from the bottom up4 ,the energies 
of ,dubois are typical of the first     
tendency1 ,booker ,washington's of the  
second4 ,dubois1 and many of the most   
educated and advanced negroes with him1 
believe in the special mission of the   
negro race4 ,the negro does not want to 
be1 and ought not to be1 a second order 
of ,american1 but the ,united ,states   
are destined by ,providence to develop  
two great and diverse but co-operating  
peoples1 the ,americans and the negroes4
 ,it is therefore the work of the       
,african not simply to imitate the white
 man's culture1 but to develop          
independently a special culture suited  
to his own national traits4 ,they feel  
instinctively that a few great men of   
special physiognomy1 two or three       
geniuses coming from their race1 will do
 more for the honour of their people and
 for the belief in its possibilities1   
than the slow elevation of the great    
mass4 ,they lay strong emphasis on the  
fact that in his music1 religion1 and   

humour the negro has developed strongly 
individual traits1 and that the people  
who forty years ago were in slavery have
 developed in a generation under        
unfavourable circumstances a number of  
shining orators1 politicians1 and       
writers4 ,thus they feel a most natural 
ambition to make away for the best and  
strongest1 to elevate them1 and to      
incite them to their highest            
achievements4 ,the ideal is thus1 in the
 work of the most gifted leaders to     
present to the world a new negro        
culture1 by which the right of          
independent existence for the black race
 in ,america may be secured4  ,booker   
,washington and his friends wish to go a
 quieter road2 and he has with him the  
sympathies of the best white people in  
the country4 ,they look for salvation   
not from a few brilliantly exceptional  
negroes1 but from the slow and steady   
enlightenment of the masses2 and their  
real leaders are to be not those who    
accomplish great things as individuals1 

but rather they who best serve in the   
slow work of uplifting their people4    
,these men see clearly that there are   
to-day no indications of really great   
accomplishments and independent feats in
 the way of culture1 and that such      
things are hardly to be looked for in   
the immediate future4 ,at the very best 
it is a question of an unusual talent   
for imitating an alien culture4  ,if1   
then1 one can hardly speak of brilliant 
genius in the upper strata--and it is to
 be admitted that ,booker ,washington   
himself is not a really great1          
independent1 and commanding             
personality--it would be on the other   
hand much more distorted to estimate the
 negro from his lowest strata1 from the 
lazy and criminal individuals4 ,the     
great mass of negroes is uneducated and 
possesses no manual training for an     
occupation2 but it is honest1 healthy1  
and fit social material1 which only     
needs to be trained in order to become  
valuable to the whole community4 ,first 

of all1 the negro ought to learn what he
 has once learned as a slave--a manual  
trade2 he should perfect himself in work
 of the hands or in some honest         
agricultural occupation1 not seek to    
create a new civilization1 but more     
modestly to identify his race with the  
destinies of the white nation by real1  
honest1 thoughtful1 true1 and           
industrious labour4 ,brilliant writers  
they do not need so much as good        
carpenters and school-teachers2 nor     
notable individual escapades in the     
tourney-field of culture so much as a   
general dissemination of technical      
training4 ,they need schools for manual 
training and institutes for the         
development of technical teachers4      
,booker ,washington's own institution in
 ,tuskegee has set the most admirable   
example1 and the most thoughtful men in 
the ,north and ,south alike are very    
ready to help along all his plans4 ,they
 hope and believe that so soon as the   
masses of coloured people have begun to 

show themselves somewhat more useful to 
the industry of the country as          
hand-workers1 expert labourers1 and     
farmers1 that then the mutual           
embitterment will gradually die out and 
the fight for social equality slowly    
vanish4 ,for on this point the more     
thoughtful men do not deceive           
themselves2 social equality is nothing  
but a phrase when it is applied to the  
relation of millions of people to other 
millions4 ,among the whites themselves  
no one ever thinks of any real social   
equality2 the owner of a plantation no  
more invites his white workmen in to eat
 with him than he would invite a        
coloured man4 ,and when the ,southern   
white replies scornfully to any one who 
challenges his prejudices1 with the     
convincing question1 8,would you let    
your sister marry a nigger80 he is      
forgetting1 of course1 that he himself  
would not let his sister marry          
nine-tenths of the white men of his     
community4 ,social equality can be      

predicated only of small groups1 and in 
all exactness only of individuals4      
,thus it might be said that peace is    
advanced to-day chiefly by the          
increasing exertions for the technical  
industrial education of the black       
workman4 ,but it is not to be forgotten 
that the negro himself1 and with him    
many philanthropists of the ,north1     
comprehends the whole situation very    
differently from the ,southern          
supporters of the movement4 ,these      
latter are contented with recent        
tendencies1 because the negro's vote is 
curtailed in the political sphere1 and  
because he comes to be classed socially 
with the day-labourer and artisan4 ,the 
negro1 however1 looks on this as a      
temporary stage in his development1 and 
hopes in good time to outgrow it4 ,he is
 glad that the election returns are no  
longer falsified on his account1 and    
that legal means have been resorted to4 
,but of course he hopes that he will    
soon grow beyond these conditions1 and  

be finally favoured once more with the  
suffrage1 just as any white man is4  ,it
 is much the same in the social sphere4 
,he may be satisfied for the present    
that the advantages of manual training  
and farm labour are brought to the fore1
 but this must only be to lead his race 
up step by step until it has developed  
from a mere working class to entire     
social equality4 ,that which the negro  
approves for the moment is what any     
white man in the ,southern ,states would
 fix as a permanent condition4 ,and so  
it appears that even in this wise no    
real solution of the problem has been   
reached1 although a cessation of        
hostilities has been declared4 ,but all 
these efforts on the part of leaders and
 philanthropists1 these deliberations of
 the best whites and blacks in both the 
,north and ,south1 are still far from   
carrying weight with the general public2
 and thus1 although the beginnings      
toward improvement are good1 it remains 
that on the outside the situation looks 

to-day darker than ever before4         
,whoever frees himself from theoretical 
doctrines will hardly doubt that the    
leading whites of the ,southern ,states 
have to-day once more the better        
insight1 since they know the negro      
better than the ,northerners do4 ,they  
demand that this limitation of the negro
 in his political rights and in his     
daily occupation shall be permanent1 and
 that thus an organic situation shall   
come about in which the negro1 although 
far removed from an undeserved slavery1 
shall be equally far from the complete  
enjoyment of that civilization which his
 own race has not worked out4 ,that is1 
he is to be politically1 economically1  
and socially dependent4 ,if this had    
happened at the outset1 the mutual      
hatred which now exists would never have
 been so fierce2 and if the ,african    
succeeds materially he will hardly      
notice the difference1 while the white  
man will feel with satisfaction that his
 superiority has been vindicated4 ,the  

condition of the island of ,jamaica is a
 good instance in point4 ,its           
inhabitants are strikingly superior to  
the debased negroes of the ,republic of 
,hayti4  ,but it is not to be forgotten 
that history has repeatedly shown how   
impossible it is for a people numbering 
millions1 with limited rights1 to dwell 
in the midst of an entirely free race4  
,oppression and injustice constantly    
arise from the limitation of rights1 and
 thence grow retaliation and crime4 ,and
 the hour in which the ,american people 
narrow down the rights of ten million   
blacks may be the starting-point for    
fearful struggles4 ,the fact remains    
that the real solution of the question  
is nowhere in sight4 ,the negro question
 is the only really dark cloud on the   
horizon of the ,american nation4        
,,chapter ,,nine                        
,internal ,political ,problems   ,the   
problems of population1 especially those
 concerning the immigration and the     
negro1 have taken considerable of our   

attention4 ,we shall be able to survey  
problems of internal politics more      
quickly1 since we have already met most 
of them in considering the ,american    
form of government4 ,the insane         
programme of those who desire no        
government at all1 that is1 anarchy1 is 
one of the ,american's political        
problems only when the deed of some     
foreign assassin gives him a sudden     
fright4 ,then all sorts of propositions 
are on foot to weed out anarchism stem  
and root2 but after a little time they  
subside4 ,one sees how difficult it is  
to draw the lines1 and the idea of      
suppressing free political speech is too
 much against the fundamental principles
 of the ,american democracy4 ,but the   
fundamental principles of anarchism1 or 
rather its fundamental confusions1 have 
so little hope of influencing the       
conservative ideas of the ,americans1   
that there need be no fear of anarchism 
creeping into the national mind4 ,in so 
far as there is any such problem in     

,america1 it is connected solely with   
the question of immigration4 ,up to the 
present time1 the government has been   
content to forbid acknowledged          
anarchists to land2 but this involves   
such an un-,american intermeddling with 
private convictions that the regulation 
will hardly be tolerated much longer4   
,the true ,american1 in any case1       
believes in state ordinances and loves  
his governmental machinery4  ,this      
apparatus itself of government has many 
details which offer problems1 indeed1   
and are much discussed4 ,some of its    
elements have been added recently by    
,president ,roosevelt2 the most         
important of them is the newly created  
,department of ,commerce and ,labour4   
,this new division of the government1   
with over ten thousand officials1       
embraces also the ,bureau of            
,corporations1 which is designed to     
collect statistics regarding trusts and 
the overcoming of their influence2 but  
the struggle promises to be a two-sided 

one4 ,to the present administration     
belongs also the creation of a general  
staff for the ,army1 and on this head   
there seems to be a unanimous opinion   
that the ,army is distinctly benefited  
by the measure4 ,in some other          
directions1 moreover1 the make-up of the
 ,army has become more similar to       
,european models2 new schools of war    
have been founded and the plan of       
holding great manuvres introduced4 ,the 
weakness of the military system is that 
preferments go according to seniority4  
,it is clear to all that a merely       
mechanical advancement of officers is   
not advantageous to the military        
service2 and yet everybody is afraid1 if
 the uniform principle is given up and  
personal preferment is introduced1 that 
all sorts of regrettable political and  
social influences will be brought to    
bear in the matter4 ,many persons see a 
difficult problem here2 the young       
officer has almost no incentive to-day  
to special exertions4  ,the government  

has more and various plans with regard  
to the ,navy4 ,there1 too1 it seems as  
if a general staff similar to that of   
the ,army is indispensable4 ,the steady 
growth of the ,navy itself is assured1  
since everyone recognizes that ,america 
could not carry out its present policy  
without a strong fleet4 ,the fleet1     
which dates virtually from #ahhb1 won   
the hearts of the imperialistic public  
by its victories at ,manila and         
,santiago2 and its growth is nowhere    
seriously opposed4 ,likewise1 the ,navy 
is introducing more large manuvres4 ,the
 real difficulty lies in lack of men2 it
 becomes more and more difficult to get 
officers and sailors2 and even in the   
question of manning a ship1 the         
inevitable negro question plays a part4 
,there are many open questions also in  
regard to the diplomatic and consular   
service4 ,the ,united ,states maintains 
an uncommonly large number of consuls1  
whose enterprise is nowhere contested1  
but whose preparation1 tact1 and        

personal integrity often leave a good   
deal to be desired4 ,their remuneration 
through fees contributes a good deal    
toward creating unwholesome conditions4 
,the personnel of the diplomatic service
 is perhaps still more unequal than that
 of the consular4 ,since early times the
 ,united ,states has had the discernment
 to send some of its most distinguished 
men to fill important ambassadorial     
positions4 ,at a time when the          
international relations of the country  
were still insignificant1 such a        
position was often given to             
distinguished authors and poets1 who    
represented their country at a foreign  
court in an intellectual and cultivated 
way1 and contributed much to its esteem4
 ,this can happen no longer1 and yet    
,america has had again and again the    
good fortune to send to diplomatic      
positions men of uncommon caliber2      
scholars like ,andrew ,d4 ,white1       
statesmen like ,john ,hay1 and brilliant
 jurists like ,choate4 ,the danger still

 subsists1 however1 that men who are    
merely rich1 and who have done small    
services to ,senators1 expect in return 
a diplomatic appointment1 for the sake  
of the social glory4 ,there is a growing
 desire to make the diplomatic service a
 regular career1 in which a man         
progresses step by step4  ,as to the    
postal service1 the foremost problem is 
now that of free delivery in rural      
districts4 ,the tremendous extent of the
 country and the thinness of its        
population had at first made it a matter
 of course that the farmer should fetch 
his own mail from the nearest village4  
,the rural letter-carrier was unknown1  
as he is still unknown in small towns2  
every man in the village goes to the    
post-office to get his newspapers and   
letters4 ,but like every country at the 
present time1 the ,united ,states is    
trying to check the continual afflux of 
population into the cities4 ,it is      
obvious that specially with the         
intellectual make-up of the ,american1  

every effort must be made to make rural 
life less monotonous and tiresome1 and  
that it is necessary most of all to     
establish ready communication between   
the remote farm-houses and the rest of  
the world4 ,the more frequently and     
easily the farming people receive their 
letters and magazines1 so much the less 
do they feel tempted to leave the soil4 
,for this reason the very expensive     
rural delivery has spread rapidly4 ,in  
the last year nine thousand new         
appointments were made in this service4 
,another important problem connected    
with the ,post-,office is the fact that 
it does not pay for itself1 because it  
carries printed matter at unprofitably  
low rates1 and in this way has          
stimulated to an extraordinary degree   
the sending of catalogues and           
advertising matter4 ,one can see how far
 this goes from the fact that a short   
time ago a factory for medicine sent out
 so many copies of a booklet advertising
 its specific through the so-called     

8testimonials10 that a railway train    
with eight large freight cars was       
necessary to carry them to the nearest  
post-office4 ,part of the difficulty    
comes from the private ownership of the 
railroads1 whose contracts with the     
government for carrying the mails       
involve certainly no loss to the        
stockholders4  ,in similar wise1 all of 
the great departments of government have
 their problems1 large or small1 and the
 most important of these must be dealt  
with when we come to speak of the       
economic situation4 ,but there is one   
problem that is common to all branches  
of the government2 it is the most       
important one which concerns internal   
affairs1 and although it is discussed   
somewhat less actively to-day than in   
former years1 it continues none the less
 in some new form or other to worry the 
parties1 the government1 and more       
especially public opinion4 ,it is the   
question of civil-service reform4  ,we  
have touched on this question before    

when we spoke of the struggles between  
parties1 and of the motives which bring 
the individual into the party service4  
,some things remain to be said by way of
 completely elucidating one of the most 
important problems of ,american public  
life4 ,to commence with1 if we abstract 
from the civil service in city and      
state--although the question is much the
 same there--that is1 if we take into   
account only the federal service--we    
find over a hundred thousand official   
appointments3 and the question          
is--,shall these appointments1 with     
their assured salaries1 be distributed  
to adherents of the party in power1     
chiefly with reference to their services
 to the party1 or shall these positions 
be removed from all touch with the      
parties and given to the best and ablest
 applicants8 ,it is clear that the      
problem could easily be so exhibited    
that the appointment of the best and    
most capable applicant1 without         
reference to his party1 should seem to  

be absolutely and unequivocally         
necessary1 and as if any other opinion  
could proceed only from the desire to   
work corruption4 ,the situation is not  
quite so simple1 however4  ,in the first
 place1 every one is aware that the     
highest administrative positions are    
invariably places of confidence1 where  
it is very necessary that the incumbent 
shall be one in thought and purpose with
 the ,executive2 and this is more than  
ever necessary in a democracy composed  
of two parties4 ,if the majority of the 
people elects a certain ,president in   
order to carry out the convictions of   
one party in opposition to the other1   
the will of the people would be         
frustrated if the upper members of the  
governmental staffs were not to be      
imbued with the same party ideas4 ,a    
,republican ,president could not work   
together with a ,democratic ,secretary  
of ,state without sacrificing the       
efficiency of his administration1 and   
struggling along on such compromises as 

would ultimately make meaningless the   
existence of two organized parties4 ,a  
,republican ,secretary of ,state must   
have1 however1 if he is to be spared a  
good deal of friction1 an assistant     
secretary of state with whom he is      
politically in harmony2 and so it goes  
on down4  ,but if we begin at the bottom
 and work up1 the situation looks       
different4 ,the book-keeper to the      
ministry1 the small postal clerk1 or the
 messenger boy in the treasury1 has no  
opportunity to realize his personal     
convictions4 ,he has merely his regular 
task to perform1 and is not immediately 
concerned whether the policy of state is
 ,republican or ,democratic1            
imperialistic or anti-imperialistic4 ,we
 have then to ask--,where lie the       
boundaries between those higher         
positions in which the private          
convictions of the incumbents ought     
properly to be with the administration1 
and those lower positions where party   
questions are in no way involved8       

,opinions vary very widely as to where  
this boundary lies4 ,some put it rather 
low1 and insist that the ,american by   
his whole political training is so      
thoroughly a creature of the party1 that
 true harmony in state offices can be   
had only if the whole service from top  
to bottom is peopled with adherents of  
the ruling party2 and this opinion1     
although it may be refuted on good      
grounds1 is neither absurd nor          
dishonest4 ,the population of ,germany  
is divided to-day into a civil and a    
social-democratic party1 and it appears 
to the dominant civil party by no means 
unnatural to exclude the                
social-democrats so far as possible from
 participation in the public service4   
,it is quite possible1 moreover1 for    
each party to furnish competent         
incumbents for all the leading          
positions2 and so long as capable men   
can be found who will acquit themselves 
well in office1 there is of course no   
reason for charging the party with greed

 or spoils-gathering1 as if the public  
funds were a pure gift1 and it were     
unworthy to accept an official          
appointment given in recognition of     
services to the party4 ,we have already 
emphasized how extremely ,german        
conceptions differ from ,american on    
this point1 and how the customary       
reiteration in ,germany of the          
unfavourable comments made by certain   
,american reform enthusiasts1 leads to  
much misunderstanding4 ,it is well-known
 that ,germany has1 for instance1 for   
the university professors a system of   
state appointment1 which rests wholly on
 personal recommendation2 this in sharp 
contrast to ,england1 where the         
candidates for every vacant chair must  
compete1 and where no one can be called 
who does not compete2 or with ,france1  
where the positions are awarded on the  
basis of an examination4  ,the          
considerations which we have stated are 
not at all to be taken as an argument   
against civil-service reform1 but only  

as an indication that the problem is    
complicated and has its pros and cons4  
,in fact1 the grounds for the widest    
possible extension of a civil-service   
independent of party are many and       
urgent4 ,in the first place1 the service
 itself demands it4 ,the appointments by
 party are really appointments on the   
basis of recommendations and wishes of  
political leaders4 ,the ,senators1 for  
instance1 from a certain state advise   
the ,president as to who should be      
appointed for postmasters in the most   
important post-offices2 and the smaller 
positions are similarly filled on the   
recommendation of less influential      
politicians4  ,therefore1 it is only to 
a limited extent that there is any real 
estimation of the capacity and fitness  
of the proposed incumbent4 ,public      
opinion is always watchful1 however1 and
 the politician is generally afraid to  
press an appointment which he knows     
would be disapproved by public opinion1 
or which would later be seen to be      

absurd1 would damage his own political  
credit1 and perhaps even wreck his      
political future4  ,it is equally true  
that the political parties have become  
expert in sifting human material and    
finding just the right people for the   
places2 and that1 moreover1 the         
,american with his extraordinary        
capacity for adaptation and organization
 easily finds himself at home in any    
position and fills it creditably4 ,and  
yet it remains1 that in this way the    
best intentioned appointer works in the 
dark1 and that a technical examination  
would more accurately select the fittest
 man from among the various candidates4 
,most of all1 by this method of         
appointment on the ground of political  
influence1 where the petitions of the   
incumbent's local friends1 commendatory 
letters from well-known men1 and the    
thousand devices of the wire-puller play
 an important part1 the feeling of      
individual responsibility is always     
largely lost4 ,the head of the          

department must rely on local           
representatives1 and these politicians  
again know that they do not themselves  
actually make the appointments2 and the 
candidate is put into office with no    
exertion on his own part--almost        
passively4  ,it is not to be denied that
 in this way many an unworthy man has   
come to office4 ,the very lowest        
political services have been rewarded   
with the best positions4 ,political     
candidates have had to promise before   
their election to make certain          
appointments to office which had nothing
 at all to do with the fitness of the   
appointee2 and such appointee1 when     
actually instated1 has not only         
neglected his office1 but sometimes     
criminally misused it for embezzlement  
and fraudulent contracts1 for government
 deals in which he has had some personal
 advantage1 or for the smuggling in of  
friends and relatives to inferior       
positions4 ,politicians have too often  
sought to exact all sorts of devious    

personal and political services from    
those whom they have previously         
recommended for office in order to hush 
them up4 ,through the intrigues of such 
men all sorts of unnecessary positions  
have been created1 in order to provide  
for political friends from the public   
treasury2 and the contest for these     
personal nominations has consumed untold
 time and strength in the legislative   
chambers4 ,no one can fail to see that  
such sores will develop over and over in
 the political organism so long as the  
principle is recognized of making       
official appointments on the basis of   
party allegiance4 ,while criminal misuse
 of such a practice is the exception1   
and the honourable endeavour to pick out
 the best candidates and their honest   
performance of duty are the rule1       
nevertheless every thoughtful friend of 
the country's welfare must wish to make 
all such exceptions impossible4  ,there 
is another unfavourable effect which    
such a system must have1 within the     

party itself4 ,a man who is put into    
office by politicians1 unless he is a   
strong man1 will labour in the interests
 of his benefactors1 will carry party   
politics into places where they do not  
belong1 and be ready to let the party   
rob him of a certain portion of his     
salary as a contribution to the party   
treasury1 as has been customary for a   
long time4 ,in this way salaries have   
been increased in order that a          
considerable portion might redound to   
the party treasury1 and thus the means  
be won for bringing the party           
victoriously through the next elections2
 and in this way the official has been  
able to assure himself as good an       
office1 or perhaps a better one1 in the 
future4 ,the same thing happens once    
more in city politics where the funds   
levied on city officials have made a    
considerable share of the party's       
assets4 ,there has been good reason1    
therefore1 why public opinion has for a 
long time demanded1 and with increasing 

energy1 an entire change in such a state
 of things2 and aside from the positions
 of actual confidence1 in which in fact 
only men of a certain political faith   
could be of any service1 it has demanded
 that public offices be put on a        
non-partisan basis and given out with a 
view solely to the efficiency of the    
appointee4  ,such a problem hardly      
existed during the first forty years of 
,american constitutional government2    
officials were appointed in a           
business-like way4 ,a man in office     
stayed there as long as he did his      
duties well1 and the advent of a new    
party in the higher positions had very  
little influence on the lower ones4 ,it 
was deemed tyranny to dismiss a         
competent official in order to put a    
party adherent in his position4 ,the    
statistics show that at that time not   
more than forty-two changes on the      
average were made on such political     
grounds every year4 ,the opposite       
practice first arose in the cities1 and 

especially in ,new ,york1 whence it     
spread to the state1 where in #ahah a   
whole regiment of party followers was   
established in the government offices of
 the state by ,van ,buren4 ,and under   
,president ,jackson the principle       
finally became adopted in the federal   
government4 ,about the year #ahcj1 it   
became an unwritten law that official   
positions should be the spoils of       
victory at the elections and go to the  
favoured party4 ,people were aware that 
there was no better way of getting party
 adherents to be industrious than to    
promise them positions if they would    
help the party to gain its victory4 ,the
 reaction commenced at about the middle 
of the last century1 closely following  
on a similar movement in ,england4  ,as 
the power of the ,english ,parliament   
grew1 popular representatives had       
demanded their share in the distributing
 of offices1 and an obnoxious trading in
 salaries had become prevalent4 ,when at
 last the abuses became too frequent1   

just before the middle of the last      
century1 ,england instituted official   
examinations in order to weed out the   
obviously unfit candidates4 ,it was not 
really a true competition1 since the    
candidate was still appointed to office 
by the politicians4 ,but the examination
 made sure of a minimal amount of proper
 training4  ,the ,american ,congress    
followed this example during the        
fifties4 ,certain groups of minor       
positions were made1 for which          
appointment could be had only after an  
examination4 ,england now went further  
on the same course1 and ,america        
followed her lead4 ,on both sides of the
 ocean the insignificant examination of 
the candidate who had backing1 became a 
general examination for all who wished  
to apply2 so that the position came to  
be given to the best candidate4 ,the    
,civil-,service ,commission was         
instituted by ,president ,grant1 and for
 thirty years its beneficent influence  
has steadily grown1 and it has made     

great inroads on the old system4 ,the   
regular politicians who could not endure
 being deprived of the positions which  
they wished to pledge to their campaign 
supporters have naturally tried time    
after time to stem the current1 and with
 some success4 ,in #ahge ,congress      
discontinued the salaries which had been
 paid the ,commissioners2 then          
competitive examinations were given up1 
and in their stead single examinations  
instituted for candidates who had been  
recommended by political influence4     
,but here1 if anywhere1 public opinion  
has been stronger than party spirit4    
,under ,president ,hayes1 and then under
 ,garfield and ,arthur1 the competitive 
system was partly reinstated1 and while 
the number of positions which were open 
only to those who had successfully      
passed the public examinations          
increased1 at the same time the         
reprehensible taxation of officials for 
party ends was finally stopped4 ,this   
did not prevent a certain smaller number

 of positions from retaining their      
partisan complexion2 and the opinions   
and party creed of these incumbents     
continued to be important1 so that      
whenever one party succeeded another1 a 
certain amount of change was still      
necessary4 ,so there remain two great   
divisions of the public service--the    
political offices which the ,president  
fills by appointment in co-operation    
with the ,senate1 and the so-called     
8classified0 offices which are given out
 on the basis of public examinations4   
,public opinion and the sincere         
supporters of civil-service reform1     
among whom is ,president ,roosevelt     
himself1 are working all the time for an
 increase in the number of classified   
positions and a corresponding decrease  
in the political group4  ,the open      
opponents of this movement1 of whom     
there are many in both parties1 are hard
 at work in the opposite direction1 and 
are too often supported by the          
faint-hearted friends of the reform1 who

 recognize its theoretical advantages1  
but have some practical benefit to      
derive by pursuing the methods which    
they decry4 ,there is no doubt that     
again in the last ten years some steps  
have been taken backward1 and on various
 pretexts many important positions have 
been withdrawn from the classified      
service and restored to ,senatorial     
patronage4  ,the actual situation is as 
follows4 ,there are #aad1jjj            
non-classified positions1 with a total  
salary of #de1jjj1jjj1 and #aba1jjj     
classified positions which bring a      
salary of #he1jjj1jjj4 ,among the       
former1 where no competition exists1    
over #gg1jjj are postmasterships2 then  
there are consular1 diplomatic1 and     
other high positions1 and a large number
 of places for labourers4 ,in the       
classified service1 there are #ag1jjj   
positions for officials who live in     
,washington1 #e1jjj of which are in the 
treasury4 ,the committees on the        
commission have about #djj different    

kinds of examinations to give4 ,last    
year #dg1jge persons were examined for  
admission to the civil service2 #ba1jjj 
of these for the government service1    
#c1jjj for the customs1 and #ba1jjj for 
the postal service4 ,there were about   
#a1jjj examinations more for            
advancements in office and exchange from
 one part of the service to another1 and
 #dci persons were examined for service 
in the ,philippines4 ,out of all these  
applicants #cc1gci passed the           
examinations1 and of these #aa1gfd      
obtained positions which are theirs for 
life1 independent of any change which   
may take place at the ,white ,house4 ,it
 is a matter of course that the security
 which these positions give of life-long
 employment is the highest incentive to 
faithful service and conscientious and  
industrious labour4  ,the difference    
between the two services was again      
clearly brought out in the last great   
scandal1 which greatly stirred up the   
federal administration4 ,the            

,post-,office ,department had closed a  
number of contracts for certain utensils
 from which certain officials1 or at    
least their relatives1 made considerable
 profits4 ,everything had been most     
discreetly hidden1 and it took an       
investigation of several months to      
uncover the crookedness4 ,but when      
everything had come out1 it appeared    
that the officials who were seriously   
involved all belonged to the            
unclassified service1 while the         
classified service of the ,post-,office 
was found to be an admirable example of 
conscientious and faithful              
office-holding4 ,certain it is that such
 criminal misuse1 even among the        
confidential positions1 is a rare       
exception2 it is no less sure that the  
temptations are much greater there4 ,a  
man who holds office1 not because he is 
peculiarly fitted for it1 but because he
 has been generally useful in politics1 
knowing as he does that the next time   
the parties change places his term of   

office will be up1 will always be too   
ready to use his position for the party 
rather than for the country1 and finally
 for himself and his pocket-book rather 
than for his party4  ,now1 if           
civil-service reform is to spread or    
even to take no steps backward1 public  
opinion must be armed for continual     
battle against party politicians4 ,but  
it is an insult to the country when1 as 
too often happens1 some one tries to    
make it appear that the opponents of    
reform are consciously corrupt4 ,the    
difficulty of the problem lies just in  
the fact that most honourable motives   
may be uppermost on both sides2 and one 
has to recognize this1 although one may 
be convinced that the reformer has the  
better arguments on his side4 ,the      
filling of positions by party adherents1
 as a reward for their services1 puts an
 extraordinary amount of willing labour 
at the service of the party4 ,and       
undoubtedly the party system is         
necessary in ,america1 and demands for  

its existence just such a tremendous    
amount of work4 ,the non-classified     
positions are to the ,american party    
politicians exactly what the orders and 
titles which he can award are to the    
,european monarch2 and the              
dyed-in-the-wool party leader would in  
all honesty be glad to throw overboard  
the whole 8humbug0 of civil-service     
reform1 since he would rather see his   
party victorious--that is1 his party    
principles acknowledged in high federal 
places--than see his country served as  
economically1 faithfully1 and ably as   
possible4 ,in fact1 the regular party   
politician has come to look on the      
frequent shake-up among office-holders  
as an ideal condition4 ,just as no      
,president can be elected more than     
twice1 he conceives it to be unsound and
 un-,american to leave an official too  
long in any one position4  ,the full    
significance of the problem comes out   
when one realizes that the same is true 
once more in the separate state1 and    

again in every municipality4 ,the states
 and cities have their classified       
service1 appointment to which is        
independent of party allegiance1 as of  
governor or mayor1 and in addition to   
this confidential positions for which   
the governor and legislature or the     
mayor and city council are responsible4 
,municipal service has attracted an     
increasing amount of public attention in
 recent years1 owing to the extremely   
great abuses which it can harbour4      
,fraudulent contracts1 the grant of     
handsome monopolies to street railway1  
gas1 electric-light1 telephone1 and pier
 companies1 the purchase of land and    
material for public buildings1 and the  
laying out of new streets--all these    
things1 owing to the extraordinarily    
rapid growth of municipalities1 afford  
such rich opportunities for theft1 and  
this can be so easily hidden from the   
state attorney1 that frightfully large  
numbers of unscrupulous people have been
 attracted into public life4 ,and the   

more that purely municipal politics call
 for a kind of party service which is   
very little edifying or interesting to a
 gentleman in frock and silk hat1 so    
much the more other kinds of men force  
their way into politics in large cities 
and get control of the popular vote1 not
 in order to support certain principles1
 but to secure for themselves positions 
from the winning party1 of which the    
salary is worth something and the       
dishonest perquisites may be 8worth0 a  
great deal more4 ,even here again the   
service to the city is not necessarily  
bad1 and certainly not so bad as the    
scandal-mongering press of the opposite 
party generally represents it4 ,most of 
the office-holders are decent people1   
who are contented with the moderate     
salary and modest social honour of their
 positions4 ,nevertheless1 a good deal  
that is impure does creep in1 and the   
service would be more efficient if it   
could be made independent of the party  
machine4 ,public opinion is sure of     

this4  ,each party is naturally         
convinced that the greatest blame       
belongs with the other1 and in strict   
logic one can no more accuse one party  
of corruption than the other4 ,the      
,republican party in a certain sense    
whets the general instinct for greed    
more than the ,democratic1 so that its  
opponents like to call it 8the mother of
 corruption40 ,it is a part of the      
,republican confession of faith1 in     
consequence of its centralizing spirit1 
that the state cannot leave everything  
to free competition1 but must itself    
exert a regulating influence2 thus the  
,republican does not believe in         
free-trade1 and he thinks it quite right
 for an industry or any economic        
enterprise which is going badly1 or     
which fancies that it is not prospering 
enough1 or which for any reason at all  
would like to make more money1 to apply 
to the state for protection1 and to be  
favoured at the expense of the rest of  
the community4 ,the principle of        

complete equality is here lost1 and the 
spirit of preference1 of favours for the
 few against the many1 and of the       
employment of public credit for the     
advantage of the avaricious1 is         
virtually recognized4 ,and when this    
spirit has once spread and gone through 
all party life1 there is no way of      
preventing a situation in which every   
one applies to the public funds for his 
own enrichment1 and the strongest       
industries secure monopolies and        
influence the legislatures in their     
favour by every means which the party   
has at its disposal4  ,the ,democrats1  
on the other hand1 desire equal rights  
for all1 and free competition between   
all economic enterprises2 they approve  
of all centrifugal and individualistic  
tendencies4 ,and yet if the state does  
not exert some regulative influence1 the
 less moral elements of society will    
misuse their freedom1 and they will be  
freer in the end than the citizens who  
scrupulously and strictly govern        

themselves4 ,and the spirit of          
unrestraint and immorality will be ever 
more in evidence4 ,the ,democratic party
 will be forced to make concessions to  
this idea if it desires to retain its   
domination over the masses1 and any one 
who first begins to make concessions to 
individual crookedness is necessarily   
inoculated4 ,thus it happens that in the
 ,republican party there is a tendency  
to introduce corruption from above1 and 
in the ,democratic party from below4    
,if in a large town1 say1 the           
,republican party is dominant1 the chief
 public enemies will be the industrial  
corporations1 with their tremendous     
means and their watered securities2 but 
if the ,democratic party is uppermost1  
the worst enemies will be the liquor    
dealers1 procurers1 and gamblers4       
,correspondingly1 in the former case1   
the honour of the city council which    
closes huge contracts with stock        
companies will succumb1 while in the    
latter it will be the conscience of the 

policeman on the corner who pockets a   
little consideration when the bar-keeper
 wants to keep open beyond the legal    
hour4 ,and since the temptation to take 
small bribes are ten thousand times more
 frequent than the chances for graft on 
a large scale1 the total damage to      
public morals is about the same in both 
cases4 ,but we must repeat once more    
that these delinquencies are after all  
the exception rather than the rule1 and 
happily are for the most part expiated  
behind the bars of a penitentiary4      
,most of all1 it must be insisted that  
public opinion is all the time following
 up these excrescences on party life1   
and that public opinion presses forward 
year by year at an absolutely sure pace1
 and purifies the public atmosphere4    
,all these evil conditions are easy to  
change4 ,when ,franklin came to ,england
 he was alarmed to see what fearful     
corruptions prevailed in ,english       
official life2 such a thing was unknown 
at that time in ,america4 ,now ,england 

has long ago wiped out the blot1 and    
,america1 which fell into its political 
mire a half-century later1 will soon be 
out again and free2 just as it has got  
rid of other nuisances4 ,every year     
brings some advance1 and the student of 
,american conditions should not let     
himself be deceived by appearances4  ,on
 the surface1 for instance1 the last    
mayoralty election in ,new ,york ,city  
would seem to indicate a downward       
tendency4 ,new ,york two years          
previously had turned out the scandalous
 ,tammany ,hall gang with ,van ,wyck and
 his brutal extortionist1 ,chief of     
,police ,devery1 by a non-partisan      
alliance of all decent people in the    
city4 ,new ,york had elected by a       
handsome majority ,seth ,low1 the       
,president of ,columbia ,university1 to 
be its mayor1 and thereby had instated  
the principle that1 the best municipal  
government must use only business       
methods and be independent of political 
parties4 ,seth ,low was supported by    

distinguished reformers in both parties1
 and was brilliantly successful in      
placing the entire city government on a 
distinctly higher level4 ,the public    
schools1 the general hygiene1 the       
highways1 and the police force were all 
thoroughly cleansed of impure elements  
and reformed without regard to party1 on
 the purest and most business-like      
principle4  ,and then came the day for  
another election4 ,once more the        
independent voters1 including the best  
men in both parties1 the intellectual   
leaders and the socially dominant forces
 of the city1 were banded together again
 to save their city of three million    
inhabitants from party politics1 and to 
insure by their co-operation a          
continuance of the honest1 business-like
 administration4 ,they made ,seth ,low  
their candidate again2 he was opposed by
 ,mc,clellan1 the candidate of ,tammany 
,hall1 the party which loudly declares  
that 8,to the victors belong the        
spoils10 and that the thousands of      

municipal offices are to be the prey of 
party adherents4 ,this was the candidate
 of the party which admitted that all   
the hopes of the worst proletariat1 of  
prostitution and vagabondage1 depended  
on its success2 the candidate of a party
 which declared that it would everywhere
 rekindle the 8red light10 that it would
 not enforce the unpopular temperance   
laws1 and that it would leave the city  
8wide open40 ,on the day of election    
#bea1jjj votes were cast for ,mayor     
,low1 but #cac1jjj for ,colonel         
,mc,clellan4  ,now1 does this really    
indicate that the majority of the city  
of ,new ,york consists of gamblers1     
extortioners1 and criminals8 ,one who   
read the ,republican campaign literature
 issued before the election might       
suppose so4 ,after reading on every     
street corner and fence and on giant    
banners the campaign cry1 8,vote for    
,low and keep the grafters out10 one    
might think that #cjj1jjj pick-pockets  
had united to force out a clean         

administration and to place corruption  
on the throne4 ,but on looking more     
closely at the situation one must see   
that no such thing was in question4     
,seth ,low had furnished a clean        
administration1 yet not a perfect one1  
and his mistakes had so seriously       
disaffected many citizens that they     
would rather endure the corruption of   
,tammany ,hall than the brusqueness and 
various aggravations which threatened   
from his side4  ,of these grievances1 a 
typical one was the limitation of       
,german instruction in the public       
schools4 ,from the pedagogical point of 
view1 this was not wholly wrong2 and    
leading educationists1 even ,german     
ones1 had recommended the step4 ,but at 
the same time the great ,german         
population was bitterly offended1 and   
the whole discussions of the school     
board had angered the ,german citizens  
enough to cool off considerably their   
enthusiasm for reform4 ,then on top of  
this1 ,low's administration had         

rigorously enforced certain laws of     
,sunday observance which the ,german    
part of the population cordially hated4 
,here1 too1 ,mayor ,low was undoubtedly 
right2 he was enforcing the law2 but    
when two years previously he had wished 
to win over the ,german vote1 he had    
promised more than he could fulfill4    
,but1 most of all1 ,seth ,low was       
socially an aristocrat1 who had no      
common feeling with the masses2 and     
whenever he spoke in popular assemblies 
he displayed no magnetism4 ,every one   
felt too keenly that he looked down on  
them from his exalted social height4    
,against him were the ,tammany people1  
of whom at least one thing must be said3
 they know the people and their needs4  
,they have grown up among the people4   
,in contrast to many a ,republican      
upstart who1 according to the ,european 
fashion1 is servile to his superiors and
 harsh with his inferiors1 these        
,tammany men are harsh to their         
superiors--that is1 they shake the      

nerves of the more refined--but are     
servile before the masses and comply    
with every wish4 ,and most of all1 they 
are really the friends of the populace1 
sincerely true and helpful to it4       
,moreover1 just these great masses have 
more to suffer under a good             
administration than under the corrupt   
government which lets every one do as he
 likes4 ,these people do not notice that
 the strict1 hygienic administration    
reduced the death-rate and the list of  
casualties1 and improved the public     
schools2 but they notice when for such  
improvements they have to pay a cent    
more in taxation1 or have to put safer  
staircases or fire-escapes on their     
houses1 or to abandon tottering         
structures1 or if they are not allowed  
to beg without a permit1 or are         
forbidden to throw refuse in the        
streets4 ,in short1 these people notice 
a slight expense or an insignificant    
prohibition1 and do not see that in the 
end they are greatly benefited4 ,and so1

 when the day of reckoning comes1 when  
the election campaigns are fought1 in   
which distinguished reformers deliver   
scholarly addresses on the advantages of
 a non-partisan administration while the
 candidates of the people excite them   
with promises that they shall be free   
from all these oppressive burdens--it is
 no wonder that ,seth ,low is not       
returned to the ,city ,hall1 and that   
,mc,clellan1 who by the way is a highly 
educated and cultured politician1 is    
entrusted with the city government4     
,such an outcome is not a triumph for   
vice and dishonour4 ,in two years the   
reformers will probably conquer again1  
since every administration makes its    
enemies and so excites opposition4 ,but 
there can be no doubt that even on this 
occasion public opinion1 with its desire
 to reform1 has triumphed1 although the 
official friends of reform were outdone2
 such a man as the former ,chief of     
,police1 ,devery1 will be impossible in 
the future4 ,public opinion sees to it  

that when the two parties stand in      
opposition the fight is fought each     
successive time on a higher level4 ,and 
,tammany of to-day as compared with the 
,tammany of years gone by is the best   
evidence for the victory of public      
opinion and the reformers4              
,,chapter ,,ten                         
,external ,political ,problems   ,the   
attitude of ,america in international   
affairs can hardly be referred to any   
one special trait of mind4 ,if one were 
to seek a simple formula1 one would have
 to recognize in it a certain antithesis
 of mood2 an opposition which one       
encounters in the ,american people under
 the most varied circumstances1 and     
which perhaps depends on the fact that  
it is a people which has developed an   
entirely new culture1 although on the   
basis of the high culture of the ,old   
,world4 ,when we come to speak of       
,american intellectual life we shall    
have again to consider this             
extraordinary combination of traits4    

,the people are youthful and yet mature2
 they are fresher and more spontaneous  
than those of other mature nations1 and 
wiser and more mature than those of     
other youthful nations2 and thus it is  
that in the attitude of the ,americans  
toward foreign affairs the love of peace
 and the delight in war combine to make 
a contrast which has rarely been seen4  
,doubtless there is an apparent         
contradiction here1 but this            
contradiction is the historical mark of 
the national ,american temperament2 and 
it is not to be supposed that the       
contradiction is solved by ascribing    
these diverse opinions to diverse       
elements in the population1 by saying1  
for instance1 that one group of citizens
 is more warlike1 another more          
peaceable2 that perhaps the love of     
hostile interference springs from the   
easily excited masses1 while the love of
 peace is to be sought in their more    
thoughtful leaders1 or that perhaps1 on 
the other hand1 the masses are peaceably

 industrious while their leaders draw   
them into war4  ,such is not at all the 
case4 ,there is not any such contrast   
between the masses and the classes2     
personal differences of opinion there   
are and some individuals are more       
volatile than others1 but the craze for 
expansion in its newest form finds      
strong supporters and violent opponents 
in all parties and occupations4 ,the    
most characteristic feature is1 that    
just those who show the love for war    
most energetically are none the less    
concerned1 and most earnestly so1 for   
the advance of peace4 ,president        
,roosevelt is the most striking example 
of the profound combination of these    
opposing tendencies in one human breast4
  ,every movement toward peace1 in fact 
every international attempt toward doing
 away with the horrors of war1 has found
 in the ,new ,world the most jealous and
 enthusiastic supporters2 whenever two  
nations have come to blows the          
sympathies of the ,americans have always

 been on the side of the weaker nation1 
no matter which seemed to be the side of
 justice4 ,and the mere circumstance    
that two nations have gone to war puts  
the stronger power in a bad light in the
 eyes of ,america4  ,the nation has     
grown strong by peaceful industry2 its  
greatest strength has lain in trade and 
the arts1 its best population has come  
across the ocean in order to escape the 
military burdens of ,europe2 and the    
policy of the founders of the ,republic1
 now become a tradition1 was always to  
hold aloof from any dealings with the   
quarrelsome continent of ,europe4       
,during the short time of its existence1
 the ,united ,states has settled        
forty-nine international disputes in a  
peaceable court of arbitration1 and     
oftentimes these have been in extremely 
important matters2 and ,america has been
 a party in over half of the disputes   
which have been settled before a court  
of arbitration in recent times4 ,america
 was an important participant in the    

founding of the ,peace ,tribunal at ,the
 ,hague4 ,when negotiations for that    
tribunal threatened to be frustrated by 
the opposing nations of ,europe1 the    
,american government sent its           
representatives to the very centre of   
the opposition1 and won a victory for   
the side of peace4  ,it is almost a     
matter of course that it is the         
munificent gift of an ,american which   
has erected a palace at ,the ,hague for 
this international ,peace ,tribunal4    
,while the ,european nations are        
groaning under the burden of their      
standing armies1 and are weakened by    
wars over religious matters or the      
succession of dynasties1 happy ,america 
knows nothing of this2 her pride is the 
freedom of her citizens1 her battles are
 fought out at the ballot-box4 ,the     
disputes between sects and royal houses 
are unknown in the ,new ,world2 its only
 neighbours are two oceans on the east  
and west1 and on the north and south    
good friends4 ,no end of progress       

remains to be made1 but everything works
 together under the protection of the   
,american ,constitution to produce a    
splendid home in the ,new ,world for    
peace4 ,america is the one world power  
which makes for peace2 and it will only 
depend on the future growth of this     
nation1 which has been ordained to      
become such an example1 whether the idea
 of peace will finally prevail          
throughout the world over the immoral   
settlement of disputes by mere force of 
arms4  ,all this is not merely the      
programme of a party or of a group of   
people1 but the confession of faith of  
every ,american4 ,the ,american finds no
 problem here1 since none would dispute 
the contention4 ,it has all impressed   
itself so fully on the consciousness of 
the ,american people that it gives to   
the whole nation a feeling of moral     
superiority4 ,nor is this merely the    
pathos uttered in moral orations2 it is 
the conviction with which every child   
grows up and with which every farmer    

goes to his plough1 every artisan and   
merchant to his machine and desk1 and   
the ,president to his executive chamber4
 ,and this conviction is so admirable   
that it has always been contagious1 and 
all ,europe has become quite accustomed 
to considering the ,republic across the 
water as the firmest partisan of peace4 
,the ,republic has in fact been this1 is
 now1 and always will be so2 while the  
riddle is--how it can be such a friend  
of peace when it was conceived in war1  
has settled its most serious problems by
 war1 has gone to war again and again1  
has almost played with declarations of  
war1 is at war to-day1 and presumably   
will be at war many times again4  ,the  
,spanish war has shown clearly to       
,european onlookers the other side of   
the shield1 and many have at once       
concluded that the boasted ,american    
love of peace has been from the first a 
grand hypocrisy1 that at least under    
,mc,kinley's administration an entirely 
new spirit had suddenly seized the ,new 

,world4 ,but ,mc,kinley's predecessor1  
,cleveland1 in the disputes arising     
between ,england and ,venezuela1 had    
waved the sabre until it hissed so      
loudly that it was not at all due to the
 ,american love of peace but rather to  
,england's preoccupation in the         
,transvaal which prevented the          
,president's message and the national   
love of interference from stirring up a 
war4 ,and it is now several years since 
the successor of ,mc,kinley moved into  
the ,white ,house1 yet ,mc,kinley's war 
is still going on2 for although a war   
has never been officially declared in   
the ,philippines1 war seems the only    
correct name for the condition which    
there prevails4  ,this ,philippine      
question is a real political problem4   
,that ,america is to serve the interests
 of peace is certain2 every one is      
agreed on that2 and the great majority  
of the people was also enthusiastically 
in favour of ending the ,spanish misrule
 in ,cuba4 ,but the same is not true of 

the war in the ,philippines1 and becomes
 less true every day4 ,the enthusiasts  
have subsided1 the masses have become   
indifferent1 while the politicians carry
 on the discussion2 and since it is a   
question of motives which cannot be put 
aside for the present1 and which at any 
time may so excite the nation as to     
become the centre of political          
discussion1 it is well worth while to   
look more fully into these points4  ,the
 imperialists say that the events in the
 ,pacific ,ocean have followed exactly  
the traditions of the land2 that        
expansion has always been a fundamental 
instinct of the nation2 that its whole  
development shows that from the day when
 the ,union was founded it commenced to 
increase its territory4 ,the tremendous 
expansion gained by the purchase of     
,louisiana was followed by the          
annexation of ,florida1 and still later 
by that of the great tract called       
,texas4 ,in the war with ,mexico the    
region between ,texas and ,california   

was acquired4 ,alaska was next gathered 
in4 ,the narrow strip originally        
occupied by the ,thirteen ,states became
 a huge country within a century1 and   
thus the nation simply remains true to  
its traditions in stretching out over   
the ocean and carrying the ,stars and   
,stripes toward ,asia4  ,to this the    
anti-imperialists reply1 on the         
contrary1 that the ,united ,states is   
repudiating an honourable history and   
trampling down that which has been      
sacred for centuries4 ,for if there has 
been any underlying principle at all to 
guide the ,united ,states in moments of 
perplexity1 it has been a firm faith in 
the rights of people to govern          
themselves4 ,the ,united ,states has    
never exchanged or acquired a foot of   
land without the consent of those who   
dwelt thereon4 ,where such lands have   
held nothing but the scattered dwellings
 of isolated colonists there existed no 
national consent to be consulted1 and   
where there were no people no national  

self-government could come in question2 
neither ,louisiana1 ,california1 nor    
,alaska was settled by a real nation1   
and ,texas had of itself decided to     
become independent of ,mexico4 ,but the 
,philippines are inhabited by ten       
million people1 with striking national  
traits and an organized will2 and the   
,united ,states1 for the first time in  
history1 now misuses its strength by    
oppressing another nation and forcing   
its own will on a prostrate people4     
,now the imperialists reply they do not 
mean at all to dispute the right of     
self-government1 a principle on which   
the greatness of our nation is founded4 
,but it is a narrow and absurd          
conception of self-government which     
regards every people1 however backward  
and unruly1 capable thereof1 and        
divinely privileged to misrule itself4  
,the right of self-government must be   
deserved2 it is the highest possession  
of civilized nations1 and they have     
earned it by labour and self-discipline4

 ,the ,americans derive their right to  
govern themselves from the toil of      
thirty generations4 ,the ,filipinos have
 still to be educated up to such a      
plane4 ,to this the anti-imperialists   
enquire1 ,is that to be called education
 which subdues1 like rebels1 a people   
desirous of freedom8 ,are you helping   
those people by sending soldiers to     
assert your sovereignty8  ,and the      
imperialists reply again that we have   
sufficiently shown1 in the case of      
,cuba1 how seriously we take our moral  
obligations toward weaker peoples4 ,when
 we had done away by force of arms with 
all ,spanish domination in ,america1 and
 had ,cuba quite in our power1 all      
,europe was convinced that we should    
never relax our hold1 and that the war  
would result simply in a mere annexation
 of the rich island2 in short1 that we  
should pursue a typical ,european       
policy4 ,but we have shown the world    
that ,america does not send her sons to 
battle merely for aggrandizement1 but   

only in a moral cause2 just as we       
demanded of the conquered ,spaniards no 
indemnity1 so we have made a general    
sacrifice for ,cuba4 ,we have laboured  
tirelessly for the hygiene and the      
education of the island1 have           
strengthened its trade and awakened to  
new life the country which had been     
desolated by ,spanish misrule1 and1     
having finished the work1 we have       
restored to ,cuba her freedom and her   
right of self-government2 and we        
recognize that we owe a similar duty to 
the ,philippines4 ,we have not sought to
 obtain those islands4 ,at the outset of
 the war no ,american foresaw that the  
island kingdom in the tropics1 ten      
thousand miles away1 would fall into our
 hands2 but when the chain of events    
brought it about1 we could not escape   
the call of duty4 ,were we to leave the 
discontented ,philippine population once
 more to the cruelty of their ,spanish  
masters1 or were we to displace the     
,spaniards and then leave the wild race 

of the islands to their own anarchy1 and
 thus invoke such internal hostilities  
as would again wipe out all the         
beginnings which had been made toward   
culture8 ,was it not rather our duty to 
protect those who turned to us1 against 
the vengeance of their enemies1 and     
before all else to establish order and  
quietude8 ,the anti-imperialists        
retort--the quietude of a grave-yard4   
,if ,america's policy had been truly    
unselfish1 it should have made every    
preparation for dealing with the        
,philippines as it had dealt with ,cuba2
 instead of fighting with the ,filipinos
 we should at once have co-operated with
 ,aguinaldo and sent over a civil       
instead of a military regiment4 ,nor is 
the world deceived into supposing that  
our boasted civil rule in the           
,philippines is anything more than a    
name1 used in order somewhat to pacify  
the sentimentalists of the ,new ,england
 ,states2 while in reality our rule is a
 military one1 and the small success of 

a few well-meaning civil officials      
merely distracts the world's attention  
from the constant outbreaks of war4 ,we 
have not worked from the point of view  
of the ,philippines1 but from that of   
the ,united ,states4  ,the imperialists 
answer that it is no disgrace to have   
been patriotic to our ,fatherland2 the  
national honour requires us1 indeed1 to 
remain for the present in the           
,philippines1 and not to take down the  
flag which we have hoisted so           
triumphantly4 ,we should not flee before
 a few disaffected races living in those
 islands4 ,then the other side replies1 
you have not protected the honour of    
your nation1 but you have worked its    
disgrace4 ,the honour of ,america has   
been the moral status of its army2 it   
was ,america's boast that its army had  
never lost the respect of an enemy1 and 
that it had held strictly aloof from    
every unnecessary cruelty4 ,but ,america
 has learned a different lesson in the  
,philippines1 and such a one as all     

thoughtful persons have foreseen2 for   
when a nation accustomed to a temperate 
climate goes to the tropics to war with 
wild races which have grown up in       
cruelty and the love of revenge1 it     
necessarily forgets its moral standards1
 and gives free rein to the lowest and  
worst that is in it4 ,the ,american     
forces have learned there1 to their     
disgrace1 to conquer by deception and   
trickery2 to be cruel and revengeful1   
and so return torture for torture4      
,then the imperialists say that this is 
not a question of the army which was    
landed in the tropical islands1 but of  
the whole ,american people1 which       
undertook new duties and                
responsibilities for the islands1 and   
wished to try1 not only its military1   
but also its political1 economic1 and   
social powers along new lines4 ,a people
 also must grow and have its higher     
aspirations4 ,the youthful period of the
 ,american nation is over2 manhood has  
arrived1 when new and dangerous         

responsibilities have to be assumed4 ,to
 this the anti-imperialists reply1 that 
a nation is surely not growing morally  
when it gives up the principles which   
have always been its sole moral         
strength4 ,if it gives up believing in  
the freedom of every nation and carries 
on a war of subjugation1 it has         
renounced all moral development1 and    
instead of growing it begins internally 
to decay4 ,but this1 the imperialists   
say1 is absurd--since1 outwardly1 at    
least1 we are steadily growing2 our     
reputation before other nations is      
increasing with our military            
development2 we have become a powerful  
factor in the powers of the world1 and  
our ,philippine policy shows that our   
navy can conquer even in remote parts of
 the earth1 and that in the future      
,america will be a power to reckon with 
everywhere4 ,but1 on the contrary1 say  
the others1 our nation held a strong    
position so long as1 in accordance with 
the ,monroe ,doctrine1 it was able to   

keep any ,european power from getting a 
foothold on the ,american continents1   
and so long as we made the right of     
self-government a fundamental principle 
of our international politics4 ,but the 
instant we adopted a policy of conquest 
and assumed the right to subjugate      
inferior peoples because our armies were
 the stronger1 the ,monroe ,doctrine    
became at once and for the first time an
 empty phrase1 if not a piece of        
arrogance4 ,we are no better than the   
next nation2 we have no right to prevent
 others from acting like ourselves1 and 
we have sacrificed our strong position1 
and shall be led from war to war1 and   
the fortunes of war are always          
uncertain4  ,the imperialists reply     
somewhat more temperately3--,ah1 but the
 new islands will contribute very much  
to our trade4 ,their possession means   
the beginning of a commercial policy    
which will put the whole ,pacific ,ocean
 at the disposal of the ,american       
merchant4 ,who can foresee what         

tremendous developments may come from   
availing ourselves of regions lying so  
advantageously8 ,when ,congress in #ahjc
 started to buy the great ,province of  
,louisiana from ,france1 there were also
 narrow-minded protests4 ,at that time1 
too1 anti-imperialists and fanatics     
became excited1 and said that it was    
money thrown away2 the land would never 
be populated4 ,while to-day1 a hundred  
years later1 the world prepares to      
celebrate the anniversary of the        
purchase of ,louisiana by a magnificent 
exposition at ,st4 ,louis--a transaction
 which has meant for the country a      
tremendous gain in wealth and culture4  
,america is destined to be the mistress 
of the ,pacific ,ocean1 and as soon as  
the canal is built across the isthmus   
the economic importance of the          
,philippines will appear more clearly   
every day4 ,the anti-imperialists deny  
this4 ,the financial statement of the   
entire war with ,spain to the present   
moment shows that #fjj1jjj1jjj have been

 wasted and ten thousand young men      
sacrificed without any advantage being  
so much as in sight4 ,whereto the       
imperialists reply3--,there are other   
advantages4 ,war is a training4 ,the    
best thing which the nation can win is  
not riches1 but strength2 and in the    
very prosperity of ,america the         
weakening effect of luxury is greatly to
 be feared4 ,the nerves of the nation   
are steeled in the school of war1 and   
its muscles hardened4 ,but the other    
side says that our civilization requires
 thousands of heroic deeds of the most  
diverse kinds1 more than it needs those 
of the field of battle2 and that the    
,american doctrine of peace is much     
better adapted to strengthen the moral  
courage of the nation and to stimulate  
it than the modern training of war1     
which1 in the end1 is only a question of
 expenditure and science4 ,what we      
chiefly need is serious and moral       
republican virtue4 ,the incitements     
toward acquisition and the spirit of    

war1 on the other hand1 destroy the     
spirit of our democracy1 and breed      
un-,american1 autocratic ambitions4 ,war
 strengthens the blind faith of the     
leaders in their own dictatorial        
superiority1 and so annihilates the     
feeling of independence and             
responsibility in the individual2 and   
this is just the way for the nation to  
lose its moral and political integrity4 
,the true patriotism which our youth    
ought to learn is not found in noisy    
jingoism1 but in the silent fidelity to 
the ,declaration of ,independence of our
 fathers4  ,thus the opinions are waged 
against one another1 and so they will   
continue to be4 ,we must emphasize      
merely again and again that that        
majority which to-day is on the side of 
the imperialists believes at the same   
time enthusiastically in the            
international movement for peace1 and   
quite disinterestedly favours1 as far as
 possible1 the idea of the peace        
tribunal4 ,most of all1 the treatment of

 ,cuba certifies to the honourable and  
peaceful tendencies of the dominant     
party4 ,that which was done under       
,wood's administration for the hygiene  
of a country which had always been      
stricken with yellow fever1 for the     
school and judicial systems of that     
unfortunate people1 is remarkable2 and  
the readiness with which the new        
republic was afterward recognized1 and  
with which1 finally1 by special treaties
 extensive tariff reductions were made  
to a people really dependent on trade   
with ,america1 makes one of the most    
honourable pages in ,american history4  
,and all this happened through the      
initiative of these same men whose      
,philippine policy has been styled in   
the ,senate ,napoleonic4 ,thus the fact 
remains that there is an almost         
inexplicable mixture in the ,american   
nature of justice and covetiveness1     
conscience and indifference1 love of    
peace and love of war4  ,the latest     
phase in expansion has been toward the  

south4 ,america has assumed control of  
,panama4 ,constitutionally1 the case is 
somewhat different here4 ,panama        
belonged to the ,republic of ,colombia1 
and when the government of ,colombia1   
which conducts itself for the most part 
like the king and his advisers in a     
comic opera1 tried to extort more money 
than was thought just from ,washington  
before it would sign the treaty giving  
the ,united ,states a right to build a  
canal through ,panama1 and at first     
pretended to decline the treaty         
altogether1 a revolution broke out in   
the part of the country which was       
chiefly affected4 ,panama declared      
itself an independent state1 and the    
,united ,states recognized its claim to 
independence1 and concluded the canal   
treaty1 not with ,colombia1 but with the
 upstart government of ,panama4 ,this   
was really part and parcel of the       
general imperialistic movement4 ,we need
 not ask whether the ,american          
government encouraged ,panama to secede2

 it certainly did nothing of the sort   
officially1 although it is perfectly    
certain that the handful of people in   
,panama would not have had the slightest
 chance of escaping unpunished by       
,colombia if it had not been for        
,american protection2 indeed1 it seemed 
to feel sure beforehand that the ,united
 ,states would keep ,colombia at bay4   
,and in fact1 the baby republic was     
recognized with all the speed of        
telegraph and cable1 and the treaty was 
signed before ,panama had become quite  
aware of its own independence2 while at 
the same time ,colombia's endeavour to  
bring the rebellious district into line 
was suppressed with all the authority of
 her mighty neighbour4  ,it is not to be
 denied that this transaction called    
into play new principles of             
international politics2 nor can it be   
excused on the ground that new          
governments have been quickly recognized
 before4 ,never before had the ,united  
,states declared a rebellion successful 

so long as the old government still     
stood1 and the new one was able to hold 
out only by virtue of the interference  
of the ,united ,states itself4 ,it is to
 be admitted that this was an           
imperialistic innovation1 as was the    
subjugation of the ,filipinos4 ,but we  
should not be so narrow as to condemn a 
principle because it is new4 ,all past  
history makes the expansion of ,american
 influence necessary2 the same forces   
which make a state great continue to    
work through its later history4 ,america
 must keep on in its extension1 and if  
the methods by which the present nations
 grow are necessarily different from    
those by which the little ,union was    
able to stretch out into uninhabited    
regions a hundred years ago1 then1 of   
course1 the expansion of the twentieth  
century must take on other forms than it
 had in the nineteenth4 ,but expansion  
itself cannot stop1 nor can it be       
altered by mere citations from the      
,declaration of ,independence1 or       

pointings to the petty traditions of    
provincial days4 ,the fight which the   
anti-imperialists are waging is         
thoroughly justified in so far as it is 
a fight against certain outgrowths of   
such expansion which have appeared in   
the ,philippines1 and most of all when  
it is against the loss to the ,republic1
 through expansion1 of its moral        
principles and of its finer and deeper  
feelings through the intoxication of    
power4 ,but the fight is hopeless if it 
is waged against expansion itself4 ,the 
course of the ,united ,states is marked 
out4                    99       99     
99       99       99  ,it requires no   
special gift of prophecy to point out   
that the next expansion will be toward  
the north4 ,just as the relations in    
,panama were fairly obvious a half year 
before the catastrophe came1 the        
suspicion cannot be now put by that at a
 time not far hence the ,stars and      
,stripes will wave in the northwestern  
part of ,canada1 and that there too the 

,united ,states will be unwilling to    
lower its flag4  ,a newspaper is        
published in ,boston which announces    
every day1 at the top of the page1 in   
bold type1 that it is the first duty of 
the ,united ,states to annex ,canada4   
,on the other hand1 one hears the       
opinion that nothing could be worse for 
the ,united ,states than to receive this
 immense1 thinly populated territory    
even as a gift4 ,there are the same     
differences of opinion on the other side
 of the boundary2 some say that the     
,canadians are glad to be free from the 
problems which face the ,united ,states1
 from its municipal politics1 its boss  
rule in political parties1 and from the 
negro and ,philippine questions1 and    
that ,canadian fidelity to the ,english 
,crown is not to be doubted for a       
moment4 ,while others admit quite openly
 that to be annexed to the ,united      
,states is the only natural thing that  
can happen to ,canada4 ,the immediate   
future will probably see some sort of   

compromise4 ,it is wholly unlikely that 
the eastern part of ,canada1 in view of 
all its traditions1 will prove untrue to
 its mother country2 whereas the western
 part of ,canada is under somewhat      
different economic conditions2 it has so
 different a history1 and is to-day so  
much more closely related to the ,united
 ,states than to ,england that the      
political separation will hardly        
continue very long4 ,the thousands who  
have gone from the ,united ,states      
across the ,canadian frontier in order  
to settle the unpeopled ,northwest will1
 in the not distant future1 give rise to
 some occasion in which economic and    
political logic will decree a transfer  
of the allegiance of ,western ,canada1  
with the exception of a narrow strip of 
land along the ,pacific ,coast4 ,the    
area of the ,united ,states would then  
include a new region of about #bej      
million acres of wheat lands1 of which  
to-day hardly two millions are in       
cultivation4  ,the ,canadian problem1 of

 course1 arose neither to-day nor       
yesterday4 ,the first permanent colony  
in ,canada was a ,french colony1 begun  
in the year #afjd4 ,frenchmen founded   
,quebec in the year #afjh1 and ,french  
settlements developed along the ,st4    
,lawrence ,river4 ,in the year #agei    
,general ,wolfe conquered ,quebec for   
the ,english1 and in the following year 
the whole of ,canada fell into their    
power4 ,english and ,scotch immigrants  
settled more and more numerously in     
,upper ,canada4 ,the country was divided
 in #agia in two provinces1 which were  
later called ,ontario and ,quebec2 and  
in #ahfg1 by an act of the ,british     
,parliament1 ,ontario1 ,quebec1 ,new    
,brunswick1 and ,nova ,scotia were made 
into one country4 ,a short time         
thereafter the government of the new    
country bought the possessions of the   
,hudson ,bay ,company1 and soon         
afterward the large western region      
called ,manitoba was organized as a     
distinct province4 ,in #ahga ,british   

,columbia was taken in1 and in the      
eighties this extensive western land was
 divided into four provinces4 ,during   
this time there were all sorts of       
interruptions1 wars with the ,indians1  
and disputes over boundaries2 but there 
has never been open warfare between     
,canada and the ,united ,states4 ,the   
many controversies that have arisen have
 been settled by treaty1 and a court of 
arbitration met even recently in ,london
 to settle a dispute about boundaries   
which for many years had occasioned much
 feeling4 ,it was a question whether the
 boundary of the ,northwest should lie  
so as to leave to ,canada a way to the  
coast without crossing ,united ,states  
territory4 ,the boundaries were defined 
by the treaties as lying a certain      
distance from the coast2 was this coast 
meant to be mainland1 or was it         
coastline marked out by the off-lying   
groups of islands8 ,this was a question 
of great economic importance for a part 
of ,canada4 ,the court decided in favour

 of the ,united ,states1 but the        
decision does not belong on one of the  
most honourable pages of ,american      
history4 ,it had been agreed that both  
,england and the ,united ,states should 
appoint distinguished jurists to the    
court of arbitration2 and this the      
,english did1 while the ,united ,states 
sent prejudiced politicians4 ,this has  
created some embitterment in ,canada1   
and the mood is not to-day entirely     
friendly1 although this will doubtless  
give way in view of the great economic  
development which works toward union    
with the ,united ,states4  ,such a union
 would be hindered very much more by the
 friendly relations existing between the
 ,united ,states and ,england4 ,at the  
time when the family quarrel between    
mother and daughter countries had made  
an open breach1 it seemed almost certain
 that ,america would take the first good
 opportunity of robbing ,england of her 
,canadian possessions4 ,even before the 
early colonies decided on revolution1   

they tried to draw the northern         
provinces into their train4 ,and when   
the new ,union was formed1 it seemed a  
most natural thing for all ,english     
speaking inhabitants of the ,american   
,continent to participate therein4 ,it  
was no friendliness toward ,england that
 diverted the expansion of the young    
country toward the south rather than    
toward the north4 ,it was rather the    
influence of the ,southern ,states of   
the ,federation which encouraged the    
expansion toward the south1 because in  
that way their adjacent territory was   
increased1 and therewith the number of  
the slave states represented in         
,congress2 and the institution of       
slavery was thereby better protected    
from ,northern interference4 ,england   
was the hereditary foe of the country   
for an entire century1 and every school 
boy learned from his history book to    
hate ,england and to desire revenge4    
,but this has been wholly changed in    
recent years by the sympathy which ,john

 ,bull showed during the ,spanish war1  
and by his far-seeing magnanimity shown 
on a hundred occasions4 ,there are      
already preparations making for a       
special court of arbitration to sit on  
all ,anglo-,american disputes1 and the  
mood of the ,american people is         
certainly inclined to avoid everything  
that would unnecessarily offend         
,england4 ,american politicians would   
thus hesitate very long before          
attempting so bold a step as the        
annexation of ,canada2 and thus it is   
that the ,canadian problem gets into the
 programme of neither party4 ,another   
consideration which perhaps makes a     
difference is that no party is quite    
sure which side would be the gainer2    
whether among the millions of people in 
the ,canadian ,west there would be found
 to be more ,republicans or ,democrats4 
,therefore1 ,canada is not now an issue 
between the parties4 ,nevertheless1 the 
problem grows more and more important in
 public opinion1 and however much       

,congress may be concerned to avoid a   
war with ,england1 and determined never 
deliberately to bring about any         
disloyalty in ,canada1 we may be certain
 that once the ,american farmers and    
gold miners in ,northwestern ,canada    
have set the pro-,american ball rolling1
 then the general mood will speedily    
change and the friendly resolutions     
toward ,england which will be proposed  
by ,senators will sound very feeble4    
,the most natural desire1 which seems to
 be wide-spread1 is for reciprocity with
 ,canada4 ,both countries are aware that
 they are each other's best purchasers1 
and yet they put difficulties in the way
 of importing each other's products4    
,american industry has already invested 
more than #ajj1jjj1jjj for branch       
factories in ,canada1 in order to avoid 
duties2 and the industry of ,new        
,england would doubtless be much        
benefited if ,canadian coal might be    
delivered duty-free along the ,atlantic 
coast2 nevertheless1 the chief          

disadvantages in the present            
arrangements fall to ,canada4 ,a treaty 
was concluded in #ahed which guaranteed 
free entrance to the markets of the     
,united ,states for all ,canadian       
natural products1 and during the twelve 
years in which the treaty was in force1 
,canadian exports increased fourfold4   
,then the ,american protective tariff   
was restored2 and while1 for example1   
the agricultural products which ,canada 
sold to the ,united ,states in #ahff    
amounted to more than #be1jjj1jjj1 they 
had decreased by the beginning of the   
twentieth century to #g1cfg1jjj2 and all
 ,canadian exports to the ,united       
,states1 with the exception of coin and 
precious metals1 in spite of the        
tremendous growth of both countries1 had
 increased at the same time only #e per 
cent4 ,canada1 on the other hand1       
contented herself with modest duties1 so
 that the commerce of the ,united       
,states with ,canada has increased from 
#bh1jjj1jjj in the year #ahff to        

#aag1jjj1jjj in the year #aijj4 ,the    
necessary result of this policy of      
exclusion on the part of the ,united    
,states has necessarily been closer     
economic relations between ,canada and  
,england4 ,the ,canadian exports to     
,great ,britain have increased steadily1
 and the bold plans of those who are    
to-day agitating a tariff union for all 
,great ,britain would1 of course1       
specially benefit ,canadian commerce4   
,but the ,united ,states knows this1 and
 does not fail to think on the future4  
,the agitation for new commercial       
treaties with ,canada does not spring   
from the supporters of free-trade1 but  
from some most conservative             
protectionists1 and may be ascribed even
 to ,mc,kinley and ,dingley2 and this   
agitation is steadily growing4 ,on the  
other hand1 ,canada is by no means      
unanimously enthusiastic for the        
universal ,british reciprocity alliance4
 ,the industrial sections of ,eastern   
,canada see things with different eyes  

from the agrarians of ,western ,canada1 
and opinions are just as diverse as they
 are in ,england4 ,the economic needs of
 the ,east and ,west are so             
fundamentally different1 and since the  
,west so greatly needs reciprocity1 it  
is coming more and more to look for a   
solution of this problem by seeking1    
through a union of the ,west with the   
,united ,states1 all that which ,england
 cannot offer4 ,the government of       
,canada1 which comprises remarkably     
effective and intelligent men1 is aiming
 to nip the incipient disaffection of   
the ,west in the bud1 by means of its   
railroad policy4 ,railroad lines connect
 to-day the western portion of ,canada  
much more closely with the eastern      
portion than with the northern parts of 
the ,united ,states4  ,the economic     
possibilities of ,western ,canada are   
enormous1 and would suffice for a       
population of a hundred million4 ,the   
supply of lumber exceeds that of the    
,united ,states4 ,its gold regions are  

more extensive1 its coal and iron       
supplies are inexhaustible1 its nickel  
mines the richest in the world2 it has  
twice the supply of fish of the ,united 
,states1 and its arable lands could feed
 the population of the ,united ,states  
and ,europe together4 ,everything       
depends on making the most of these     
possibilities1 and the ,canadian of the 
,west looks with natural envy on the    
huge progress which the entirely similar
 regions of the ,united ,states are     
making1 and is moved to reflect how     
different things would be with him if   
only the boundary lines could be        
altered4  ,more than anything else1     
however1 the ,westerner feels that a    
spirit of enterprise1 industrial energy1
 and independent force is needed to     
exploit these enormous natural          
resources1 such as the inhabitants of a 
dependent colony can never have4 ,even  
when a colony like ,canada possesses a  
certain independence in the             
administration of its own affairs1 it is

 still only the appearance and not the  
fact of self-government4 ,one sees      
clearly how colourless and dull the     
intellectual life of ,canada is1 and how
 in comparison with the very different  
life of ,england on the one hand1 and of
 the ,united ,states on the other1 the  
colonial spirit saps and undermines the 
spirit of initiative4 ,the people do not
 suffer under such a rule2 they do not  
feel the political lack of fresh air1   
but they take on a subdued and listless 
way of life1 trying to adapt themselves 
to an alien political scheme1 and not   
having the courage to speak out boldly4 
,this depression is evinced in all their
 doings2 and this is not the spirit     
which will develop the resources of     
,western ,canada4 ,but this infinite1   
new country attracts to its pioneer     
labours fresh energies which are found  
south of the ,canadian line and across  
the ocean4 ,the ,scotch1 ,germans1      
,swedes1 and especially ,americans      
emigrate thither in great numbers4 ,the 

farmers in the western ,united ,states  
are to-day very glad to sell their small
 holdings1 in order to purchase broad   
tracts of new1 fresh ground in ,canada1 
where there is still no lack of room4   
,they will be the leaders in this new   
development of the ,west4 ,and while    
they bring with them their love of work 
and enterprise1 they are of course      
without sympathy with ,canadian         
traditions2 nor do they feel any        
patriotism toward the country3 their    
firmest convictions point toward such   
political freedom as the ,united ,states
 offers4 ,whether the tariff schemes of 
,england will be able to win back some  
advantages for ,canada1 only the future 
can say4 ,it is more likely that        
inasmuch as the ,philippine agitation   
has extended the influence of the       
,united ,states into the tropics1 the   
climatic equilibrium will be restored by
 another extension into the ,canadian   
,northwest4                    99       
99       99       99       99  ,the     

relations of the ,united ,states to     
,cuba and to the ,philippines1 to       
,panama and to ,canada1 have been       
regulated by the immediate needs of the 
country without bringing into special   
prominence any general principles4      
,economic interest and general ethics   
have so far sufficed1 and only here and 
there has mention been made of the      
fundamental doctrines contained in the  
,declaration of ,independence4 ,the case
 of ,south ,america is quite different2 
the policy of the ,united ,states toward
 ,south ,america is dictated to-day     
neither by economic interests nor moral 
principles2 in fact1 it is a mockery of 
morals and a great prejudice to         
,american industry4 ,the sole source of 
this policy is an abstract political    
doctrine1 which a long time ago was both
 economically and morally necessary1 but
 is to-day entirely without value2 this 
is the ,monroe ,doctrine4 ,the          
observance of this famous doctrine is   
one of the most interesting instances of

 the survival of an outlived political  
principle1 and the blind way in which   
this prejudice is still favoured by the 
masses1 so that even the leading        
politicians would not dare1 at the      
present time1 to defend the real        
interests of the country by opposing    
this doctrine1 shows clearly how        
democracy favours rule of thumb1 and how
 the ,american people is in its thought 
conservative to the last degree4 ,the   
,monroe ,doctrine has done the ,united  
,states good service1 and redounded to  
both its profit and its honour4 ,and so 
no one ventures to disturb it1 although 
it has long ceased to bring anything    
except disadvantage4 ,some of the best  
people know this2 but where the people  
rule it is as true as where a monarch   
rules1 that the misfortune of rulers is 
not to wish to hear the truth4  ,the    
blind folly of the ,americans in holding
 tenaciously to the antiquated ,monroe  
,doctrine is surpassed only by the      
madness of those ,europeans who wish to 

take up arms against that doctrine4 ,all
 the declarations of the ,old ,world to 
the effect that the ,monroe ,doctrine is
 an unheard of piece of arrogance1 and  
that the ,americans have no right to    
assert themselves in such a way1 and    
that it is high time forcibly to call   
their right in question1 are            
historically short-sighted as well as   
dangerous4 ,they are unhistorical1      
because there really was a time when    
this doctrine was necessary to the      
existence of the ,united ,states1 and   
when1 therefore1 the country had a right
 to assert such doctrine2 and now that  
it has been silently respected for a    
hundred years1 any protest against it   
comes too late4 ,opposition to the      
doctrine from the side of ,europe would 
be foolish1 because no ,european country
 has any really vital reason for calling
 it in question1 and there would be a   
very lively war indeed if ,europe were  
to try to overstep the ,monroe ,doctrine
 as long as the great mass of the       

,american people still hold it sacred4  
,the ,monroe ,doctrine must and will    
succumb1 but it will only be through the
 convictions of the ,americans1 never   
because some ,european nation threatens 
to batter down the wall4 ,the logic of  
events is1 after all1 stronger than the 
mere inertia of inherited doctrines4    
,the hour seems near when the error and 
folly of the ,monroe ,doctrine are about
 to be felt in wider circles than ever  
before4 ,the opposite side is already   
ably supported in addresses and essays4 
,soon the opposition will reach the     
newspapers1 which are to-day1 of course1
 still unanimous on the popular side2   
and whenever a wholesome movement       
commences among the ,american people it 
generally spreads with irresistible     
speed4 ,we have seen how rapidly the    
imperialistic idea took hold on the     
masses1 and the repudiation of the      
theory of ,monroe will follow quite as  
rapidly2 since the nation cannot1 for   
the sake of a mere whim1 permanently    

forget its best interests4 ,it is only a
 question of overcoming the inertia of  
long custom4  ,the spirit of the ,monroe
 ,doctrine was abroad long before the   
time of ,monroe4 ,it was agreed1 from   
the earliest days of the federal        
government1 that the new nation should  
keep itself clear of all political      
entanglement with ,europe1 that it would
 not mix in with the destinies of       
,european peoples1 and that it would    
expect of those peoples that they should
 not spread the boundaries of their     
possessions over to the ,american       
continents4 ,when ,president            
,washington1 in #agif1 took his farewell
 of the nation1 he recommended an       
extension of commercial relations with  
,europe1 but entire aloofness from their
 political affairs4 8,the nations of    
,europe10 he said1 8have important      
problems which do not concern us as a   
free people4 ,the causes of their       
frequent misunderstandings lie far      
outside of our province1 and the        

circumstance that ,america is           
geographically remote will facilitate   
our political isolation1 and the nations
 who go to war will hardly challenge our
 young nation1 since it is clear that   
they will have nothing to gain by it40  
,this feeling1 that ,america was to have
 nothing to do with ,european politics1 
and that the ,european nations should on
 no condition be allowed to extend their
 sphere of action on to the ,american   
continents1 grew steadily4 ,this        
national conviction rested primarily on 
two motives3 firstly1 ,america wanted to
 be sure of its national identity4 ,it  
felt instinctively that1 if it were to  
become involved in ,european conflicts1 
the ,european powers might interfere in 
the destinies of the smaller and growing
 nation1 and that the danger of such    
interference would increase tremendously
 if the great nations of ,europe were to
 gain a foothold in the neighbourhood of
 the young republic on this side of the 
ocean4 ,in the second place1 this nation

 felt that it had a moral mission to    
perform4 ,the countries of ,europe were 
groaning under oppression1 whereas this 
nation had thrown off the ,english yoke1
 and proposed to keep the new continent 
free from such misrule4 ,in order to    
make it the theatre for an experiment of
 modern democracy1 no absolute monarchs 
were to set foot in this new world2 the 
self-government of the people was to    
remain unquestioned1 and every republic 
was to be free to work out its own      
salvation4  ,thus the desire for        
self-protection and a moral interest in 
the fight against absolutism have       
prescribed a course of holding aloof    
from ,european affairs1 and of demanding
 that ,europe should not reach out      
toward the ,american continents4 ,this  
has become a cardinal principle in      
,american politics4 ,the opportunity    
soon came to express this principle very
 visibly in international politics4 ,the
 ,holy ,alliance between ,austria1      
,russia1 and ,prussia was believed by   

,america1 ever since #ahbb1 to have been
 arranged in order to regain for ,spain 
the ,spanish colonies in ,south         
,america4 ,england wished to ally itself
 with the ,united ,states2 but they1    
with excellent tact1 steered their      
course alone4 ,in #ahbb the ,united     
,states recognized the independence of  
the ,central ,american republics2 and in
 #ahbc1 ,president ,monroe1 in his      
message to ,congress1 which was probably
 penned by ,john ,quincy ,adams1 who was
 then ,secretary of ,state1 set down    
this policy in black and white4 ,monroe 
had previously asked ex-,president      
,jefferson for his opinion1 and         
,jefferson had written that our first   
and fundamental maxim should be1 never  
to involve ourselves in ,european       
disputes2 and our second1 never to      
permit ,europe to meddle in             
cis-,atlantic affairs1 ,north and ,south
 ,america having their own interests1   
which are fundamentally different from  
those of ,europe4 ,now the message of   

,president ,monroe contained the        
following declarations3 8,that we should
 consider any attempt on their part of  
the allied powers to extend their system
 to any portion of this hemisphere as   
dangerous to our peace and safety10 and 
8that we could not view any             
interposition for the purpose of        
oppressing governments on this side of  
the water whose independence we had     
acknowledged1 or controlling in any     
manner their destiny by any ,european   
power1 in any other light than as a     
manifestation of an unfriendly          
disposition toward the ,united ,states40
  ,thus the famous ,monroe ,doctrine was
 announced to the world1 and became an  
international factor sufficiently potent
 even to prevent ,napoleon from         
realizing his plans regarding ,mexico1  
and in more recent times to protect     
,venezuela from the consequences of her 
misdeeds4 ,and although1 at just that   
time of the ,venezuelan dispute1 the old
 ,monroe ,doctrine was in so far        

modified that the ,presidential message 
conceded to ,european powers their right
 to press their claims by force of arms1
 so long as they claimed no permanent   
right of occupation1 nevertheless the   
discussions ended with the extreme      
demand that foreign powers should be    
content with the promise of a ,south    
,american state to pay its debts1 and   
should receive no security2 nor did the 
,united ,states give security for the   
payment1 either4 ,after eighty years the
 doctrine is still asserted as it has   
been from the first1 although the       
situation is in all respects very       
different4 ,a few brief instances of    
these changes must suffice us4  ,in the 
first place1 the two fundamental motives
 which gave rise to the doctrine1 and in
 which all important documents are so   
clearly enunciated from the time of     
,washington to that of ,monroe1 have    
long since ceased to exist4 ,the        
contrast between ,europe as the land of 
tyranny and ,america as a democratic    

free soil1 no longer holds2 nor can the 
notion be bolstered up any longer1 even 
for political ends4 ,in the first place 
all countries of ,western ,europe now   
enjoy popular representation1 while the 
,latin republics of ,south ,america1    
with the exception of ,chili and the    
,argentine ,republic1 are the most      
absurd travesties of freedom and        
democracy4 ,conditions in ,venezuela and
 ,colombia are now pretty well known4   
,it has been shown1 for instance1 that  
about one-tenth of the population       
consists of highly cultivated           
,spaniards1 who take no part in         
politics1 and suffer under a shameless  
administrative misrule2 that some       
eight-tenths more are a harmless and    
ignorant proletariat of partly ,spanish 
and partly ,indian descent--people who  
likewise have no political interest1 and
 who are afraid of the men in           
power--while the remaining tenth1 which 
is of mixed ,spanish1 ,indian1 and negro
 blood1 holds in its hands the so-called

 republican government1 and keeps itself
 in power with every device of extortion
 and deception1 and from time to time   
splits up into parties which throw the  
whole country into an uproar1 merely for
 the personal advantages of the party   
leaders4  ,even in ,america there is no 
longer a political back-woodsman who    
supposes that a republic like what the  
founders of the ,united ,states had in  
mind1 can ever be made out of such      
material2 and when1 in spite of this1 as
 in the negro question1 some one gets up
 at the decisive moment of every        
discussion and tries to conjure with the
 ,declaration of ,independence1 even    
such an appeal now often misses its     
effect4 ,since the ,americans have gone 
into the ,philippines they can no longer
 hold it an axiom that every government 
must be justified by the assent of the  
governed4 ,people have learned to       
understand that the right of            
self-government must be earned1 and is  
deserved only as the reward of hard     

work2 that nations which have not yet   
grown to be orderly and peaceable need  
education like children who are not yet 
of age and do not know what is good for 
them4 ,to say that the pitiable citizen 
of a corrupt ,south ,american republic  
is freer than the citizen of ,england1  
,france1 or ,germany would be           
ridiculous2 to protect the anarchy of   
these countries against the introduction
 of some ,european political system is  
at the present time not a moral         
obligation1 surely1 which the ,american 
,republic need feel itself called on to 
perform4 ,the democratic idea1 as       
realized in ,american life1 has become  
much more influential on the governments
 of ,europe than on those of ,south     
,america1 notwithstanding their lofty   
constitutions1 which are filled with the
 most high-flown moral and philosophical
 utterances1 but are obeyed by no one4  
,now the other motive which supported   
the ,monroe ,doctrine1 namely1 the      
security of the ,united ,states and of  

their peaceful isolation1 has to-day not
 the slightest validity2 on the         
contrary1 it is the superstitious faith 
in this doctrine which might conceivably
 endanger the peace of the country4 ,of 
course1 this is only in so far as the   
doctrine applies to ,south ,america1 not
 to ,central ,america4 ,it would indeed 
be impossible for the ,united ,states to
 allow1 say ,cuba1 in passing from      
,spanish hands1 to come into possession 
of another ,european nation2 in fact1 no
 part of ,central ,america could become 
the seat of new ,european colonies      
without soon becoming a seat of war4    
,the construction of the canal across   
the isthmus confirms and insures the    
moral and political leadership of the   
,united ,states in ,central ,america and
 the ,antilles4 ,but the situation is   
quite different in ,south ,america4 ,the
 ,americans are too apt to forget that  
,europe is much nearer to the ,united   
,states than1 for instance1 the         
,argentine ,republic1 and that if one   

wants to go from ,new ,york to the      
,argentine ,republic1 the quickest way  
to go is by way of ,europe4 ,and the    
,united ,states have really very little 
industrial intercourse or sympathy with 
the ,latin republics4 ,a ,european power
 adjoins the ,united ,states from the   
,atlantic to the ,pacific ,ocean2 and   
the fact that ,england1 at one time     
their greatest enemy1 abuts along this  
whole border has never threatened the   
peace of the ,united ,states2 but it is 
supposed to be an instant calamity if   
,italy or ,england or ,holland gets hold
 of a piece of land far away in ,south  
,america1 in payment of debts or to     
ensure the safety of misused colonists4 
,so long as the ,united ,states were    
small and weak1 this exaggerated fear of
 unknown developments was intelligible2 
but now that the country is large and   
strong1 and the supposed contrast       
between the ,old and ,new ,worlds no    
longer exists1 since the ,united ,states
 are much more nearly like the countries

 of ,europe than like the ,south        
,american republics1 any argument for   
the ,monroe ,doctrine on the ground of  
misgivings or fear comes to be downright
 hysterical4 ,in the present age of     
ocean cables1 geographical distances    
disappear4 ,the ,american deals with the
 ,philippines as if they were before his
 door1 although they are much farther   
from ,washington than any ,south        
,american country is from ,europe4      
,occasions for dispute with ,european   
countries may1 on the other hand1 come  
up at any time without the slightest    
reference to ,south ,america1 since the 
,united ,states have now become an      
international power2 it requires merely 
an objectionable refusal to admit       
imports1 some diplomatic mishap1 or some
 unfairness in a matter of tariff4  ,if1
 on the other hand1 the ,european       
countries were to have colonies in      
,south ,america1 as they have in        
,africa1 no more occasions for complaint
 or dissatisfaction would accrue to the 

,united ,states than from the similar   
colonies in ,africa4 ,no ,russian or    
,french or ,italian colony in ,south    
,america would ever in the world give   
rise to a difficulty with the ,united   
,states through any real opposition of  
interests1 and could only do so because 
a doctrine forbidding such colonies1    
which had been adopted under quite      
different circumstances1 was still      
bolstered up and defended4 ,if the      
,monroe ,doctrine were to-day to be     
applied no farther than ,central        
,america1 and ,south ,america were to be
 exempted1 the possibilities of a       
conflict with ,european powers would be 
considerably decreased4 ,that which was 
meant originally to guarantee peace1    
has1 under the now wholly altered       
conditions1 become the greatest menace  
of war4  ,but the main point is not that
 the motives which first led to the     
,monroe ,doctrine are to-day invalid2   
the highest interests of the ,united    
,states demand that this moribund       

doctrine be definitely given up4 ,in the
 first place1 it was never doubted that 
the exclusion of the ,old ,world        
countries from the new ,american        
continents was only the conclusion of a 
premise1 to the effect that the         
,americans themselves proposed to       
confine their political interests to    
their own continent4 ,that was a wise   
policy in the times of ,washington and  
,monroe2 and whether or not it would    
have been wise in the time of           
,mc,kinley1 it was in any case at that  
time thrown over4 ,the ,americans have  
united with the ,european forces to do  
battle in ,china2 they have extended    
their own dominion toward ,asia2 they   
have sent men-of-war to ,europe on      
political missions2 in short1 the       
,americans have for years been extending
 their political influence around the   
world1 and ,secretary ,hay has for a    
long time played an influential part in 
the ,european concert of powers4 ,the   
,united ,states have too often defended 

their ,monroe claim on the ground of    
their own aloofness from these powers to
 feel justified in urging the claim when
 they no longer do keep aloof4  ,there  
is another and more important           
consideration4 ,the real interest of the
 ,united ,states with regard to ,south  
,america is solely that that land shall 
develop as far as possible1 that its    
enormous treasures shall be exploited1  
and that out of a prosperous commercial 
continent important trade advantages    
shall accrue to the ,united ,states4    
,this is possible only by the           
establishment of order there--the       
instant termination of anarchy4 ,as long
 as the ,monroe ,doctrine is so         
unnecessarily held to1 the miserable and
 impolitic stagnation of that ravaged   
country can never be bettered1 since all
 the consequences of that doctrine work 
just in the opposite direction4 ,it is  
sufficiently clear that progress will   
not be made until fresh1 healthy1       
enterprising forces come in from        

outside2 but now so soon as an          
,englishman or ,german or other         
,european undertakes to earn his        
livelihood there1 he is at once exposed 
to the shameless extortion and other    
chicanery of the so-called governments4 
,and when ,european capital wishes to   
help the development of these countries1
 it is given absolutely no protection   
against their wretched politics4 ,and   
all this is merely because the chartered
 rascals in power know that they can    
kill and steal with impunity1 so long as
 the sacred ,monroe ,doctrine is there1 
like an enchanted wall1 between them and
 the mother countries of their victims2 
they know only too well that no evil can
 come to them1 since the statesmen at   
,washington are bound down to a         
prejudice1 and required scrupulously to 
protect every hair on their precious    
heads4 ,all this prevents any infusion  
of good blood from coming into these    
countries1 and so abandons the land     
entirely to the indolence of its        

inhabitants4 ,the conditions would be   
economically sounder1 in almost every   
part of ,south ,america1 if more        
immigrants came in1 and more especially 
if those that came could take a larger  
part in the governments4  ,it would be  
somewhat different if the ,united       
,states were to admit1 as a consequence 
of the ,monroe ,doctrine1 its own       
responsibility for the public           
administration of these countries1 for  
their debts and for whatever crimes they
 commit2 in other words1 if the ,united 
,states were virtually to annex ,south  
,america4 ,there is no thought of this2 
the ,united ,states have recently1 in   
the ,venezuela matter1 clearly declined 
all responsibility4 ,if1 while declining
 the responsibility1 the ,united ,states
 persist in affirming the ,monroe       
,doctrine1 they are to be charged       
inevitably with helping on anarchy1     
artificially holding back the progress  
of one of the richest and least         
developed portions of the earth1 and    

thereby hurting their own commercial    
outlook more than any ,european         
protective tariff could possibly do4    
,the greater part ,europe takes in      
,south ,america1 so much the more will  
trade and commerce prosper2 and in this 
pioneer labour1 as history has shown1   
the patient ,german is the best         
advance-agent4 ,almost all the          
commercial relations between the ,united
 ,states and the ,south ,american       
republics are meditated by ,european1   
and especially ,german1 business houses4
 ,the trade of the ,united ,states with 
,south ,america is to-day astonishingly 
small1 but when finally the ,monroe     
barrier falls away it will develop      
enormously4  ,in all this ,america has  
not1 from its previous policy1 derived  
even the modest advantage of endearing  
itself to the inhabitants of these      
,south ,american republics4 ,quite on   
the contrary1 the ,monroe ,doctrine     
sounds like the ring of a sword in the  
,south ,american ear4 ,the ,american of 

the south is too vividly reminded that1 
although the province of the ,united    
,states is after all only a finite      
portion of the ,new ,world1 the nation  
has1 nevertheless1 set itself up as the 
master of both continents2 and the      
natural consequence is1 that all the    
small and weak countries join forces    
against the one great country and brood 
continually over their mistrust4 ,the   
attempts of the ,united ,states to win  
the sympathies of the rest of ,america  
have brought no very great              
results--since1 in the ,states1 sympathy
 has been tempered with contempt1 and in
 ,south ,america with fear4 ,in short1  
the unprejudiced ,american must come    
back every time to the ceterum censeo   
that the ,monroe ,doctrine must finally 
be given up4  ,one point1 however1 must 
always be emphasized--that all the      
motives speaking against the doctrine   
will be efficient only so far as they   
appeal to the soul of the ,american     
people1 and overthrow there the         

economically suicidal ,monroe ,doctrine4
 ,on the other hand1 ,europe would gain 
nothing by trying to tear in pieces the 
sacred parchment2 no possible ,european 
interest in ,south ,america would       
compare in importance with the loss of  
friendship of the ,united ,states4 ,and 
so long as the overwhelming majority of 
,americans holds to its delusions1 the  
hostility would be a very bitter one4   
,indeed1 there would be no surer way of 
stopping the gradual abandonment of the 
doctrine than for ,europe to attempt to 
dispute its validity4  ,the process of  
dissolution must take place in ,america2
 but the natural interest and needs of  
the country so demand this development  
that it may be confidently expected4 ,a 
new time has come3 the provinciality of 
the ,monroe ,doctrine no longer does for
 ,america as a world power1 and events  
follow their logical development2 the   
time will not be long before the land of
 the ,stars and ,stripes will have      
extended across ,western ,canada to     

,alaska1 and have annexed the whole of  
,central ,america2 while the ,latin     
republics of ,south ,america1 on the    
other hand1 will have been sprinkled in 
with ,english1 ,italian1 ,french1 and   
,german colonies2 and most of all1 those
 republics themselves1 by the lapse of  
the ,monroe ,doctrine1 will have been   
won over to law and order1 progress and 
economic health4 ,the ,united ,states   
are too sound and too idealistic to     
continue to oppose the demands of       
progress for the sake of a mere fetish4 
,thus the dominion of this world power  
will grow4 ,the influence of the ,army1 
and even more of the ,navy1 will help in
 this growth2 even if the dreams of     
,captain ,hobson are not realized4 ,to  
be sure1 the dangers will also grow     
apace2 with a great navy comes the      
desire to use it4 ,nevertheless1 one    
must not overlook the fact that         
international politics are much less a  
subject of public thought and discussion
 in ,america than in ,europe4 ,for the  

,american thinks firstly of internal    
politics1 and secondly of internal      
politics1 and lastly of internal        
politics2 and only at some distant day  
does he plan to meditate on foreign     
affairs4 ,unless the focus of public    
attention is distinctly transferred1 the
 idea of expansion will meet with       
sufficient resistance to check its undue
 growth4  ,there is specially a         
thorough-going distrust of militarism1  
and an instinctive fear that it works   
against democracy and favours despotism2
 and there is1 indeed1 no doubt that the
 increasingly important relations       
between this country and foreign powers 
put more authority into the hands of the
 ,presidential and ,senatorial oligarchy
 than the general public likes to see4  
,every slightest concealment on the part
 of the ,president or his ,cabinet goes 
against the feelings of the nation1 and 
this state of feeling will hardly alter2
 it comes from the depths of the        
,american character4 ,on the other hand1

 it is combined with a positive belief  
in the moral mission of the ,united     
,states1 which are destined to gain     
their world-wide influence1 not by      
might1 but by the force of exemplary    
attainment1 of complete freedom1        
admirable organization1 and hard work4  
,any one who observes the profound      
sources of this belief will be convinced
 that any different feelings in the     
public soul1 any greed of power1 and any
 imperialistic instincts1 are only a    
passing intoxication4 ,in its           
profoundest being1 ,america is a power  
for peace and for ethical ideals4       
,,part ,,two ,,economic ,,life          
,,chapter ,,eleven                      
,the ,spirit of ,self-,initiative       
8,the spirit aids6 from anxious scruples
 freed1 ,i write1 #8,in the beginning   
was the deed6'0 ,others might write3 ,in
 the beginning was the inexhaustible    
wealth of the soil2 and still others1 if
 their memory is short1 might be tempted
 to say3 ,in the beginning were the     

trusts6 ,one who wishes to understand   
the almost fabulous economic development
 of the ,united ,states must1 indeed1   
not simply consider its ore deposits and
 gold mines1 its coal and oil fields1   
its wheat lands and cotton districts1   
its great forests and the supplies of   
water4 ,the ,south ,americans live no   
less in a country prospered by nature1  
and so also do the ,chinese4 ,south     
,africa offers entirely similar         
conditions to those of the ,north       
,american continent1 and yet its        
development has been a very different   
one2 and1 finally1 a consideration of   
the peculiar forms of ,american         
industrial organization1 as1 for        
instance1 the trusts1 reveals merely    
symptoms and not the real causes which  
have been at work4  ,the colossal       
industrial successes1 along with the    
great evils and dangers which have come 
with them1 must be understood from the  
make-up of the ,american character4     
,just as we have traced the political   

life of ,america back to a powerful     
instinct for self-determination1 the    
free self-guidance of the individual1 so
 we shall here find that it is the      
instinct for free self-initiative which 
has set in motion this tremendous       
economic fly-wheel4 ,the pressure to be 
up and doing has opened the earth1      
tilled the fields1 created industries1  
and developed such technical skill as   
to-day may even dream of dominating the 
world4  ,but to grant that the          
essentials of such movements are not to 
be found in casual external             
circumstances1 but must lie in the      
mental make-up of the nation1 might lead
 in this case to ascribing the chief    
influence to quite a different mental   
trait4 ,the average ,european1 permeated
 as he is with ,old ,world culture1 is1 
in fact1 convinced that this intense    
economic activity is the simple result  
of unbounded greed4 ,the search for gold
 and the pursuit of the dollar1 we often
 hear1 have destroyed in the ,american  

soul every finer ambition2 and since the
 ,american has no higher desire for     
culture1 he is free to chase his mammon 
with undisguised and shameless greed4   
,the barbarity of his soul1 it is said1 
gives him a considerable economic       
advantage over others who have some     
heart as well as a pocket-book1 and     
whose feelings incline to the humane4   
,whether such a contemptuous allegation 
is a useful weapon in the economic      
struggle1 is not here in question4 ,one 
who desires to understand the historical
 development of events in the ,new      
,world is bound to see in all such talk 
nothing but distortion1 and to realize  
that ,europe could face its own economic
 future with less apprehension if it    
would estimate the powers of its great  
competitor more temperately and justly1 
and would ask itself honestly if it     
could not learn a thing or two here and 
there4  ,merely to ape ,american doings 
would1 in the end1 avail nothing2 that  
which proceeds from intellectual and    

temperamental traits can be effectively 
adopted by others only if they can      
acquire the same traits4 ,it is useless 
to organize similar factories or trusts 
without imitating in every respect the  
men who first so organized themselves4  
,whether this last is necessary1 he     
alone can say who has understood his    
neighbours at their best1 and ,i has not
 been contented to make a merely        
thoughtless and uncharitable judgment4  
,a magnificent economic life such as    
that of ,america can never spring from  
impure ethical motives1 and the person  
is very nave who supposes that a great  
business was ever built up by mere      
impudence1 deception1 and advertising4  
,every merchant knows that even         
advertisements benefit only a solid     
business1 and that they run a bad one   
into the ground4 ,and it is still more  
nave to suppose that the economic       
strength of ,america has been built up  
through underhanded competition without 
respect to law or justice1 and impelled 

by nothing but a barbarous and purely   
material ambition4 ,one might better    
believe that the twenty-story office    
buildings on lower ,broadway are        
supported merely by the flagstones in   
the street2 in point of fact1 no mere   
passer-by who does not actually see the 
foundations of such colossal structures 
can have an idea of how deep down under 
the soil these foundations go in order  
to find bed-rock4 ,just so the colossal 
fabric of ,american industry is able to 
tower so high only because it has its   
foundation on the hard rock of honest   
conviction4  ,in the first place1 we    
might look into the ,american's greed   
for gold4 ,a ,german observes           
immediately that the ,american does not 
prize his possessions much unless he has
 worked for them himself2 of this there 
are innumerable proofs1 in spite of the 
opposite appearances on the surface4    
,one of the most interesting of these is
 the absence of the bridal dower4 ,in   
,germany or ,france1 the man looks on a 

wealthy marriage as one of the most     
reliable means of getting an income2    
there are whole professions which depend
 on a man's eking out his entirely      
inadequate salary from property which he
 inherits or gets by marriage2 and the  
eager search for a handsome dowry--in   
fact1 the general commercial character  
of marriage in reputable ,european      
society everywhere--always surprises    
,americans4 ,they know nothing of such a
 thing at home4 ,even when the parents  
of the bride are prosperous1 it is      
unusual for a young couple to live      
beyond the means of the husband4        
,everywhere one sees the daughters of   
wealthy families stepping into the      
modest homes of their husbands1 and     
these husbands would feel it to be a    
disgrace to depend on their prosperous  
fathers-in-law4 ,an actual dowry        
received from the bride's parents during
 their lifetime is virtually unknown4   
,another instance of ,american contempt 
for unearned wealth1 which especially   

contrasts with ,european customs1 is the
 disapproval which the ,american always 
has for lotteries4 ,if he were really   
bent on getting money1 he would find the
 dower and the lottery a ready means2   
whereas1 in fact1 the lottery is not    
only in all its forms forbidden by law1 
but public opinion wholly disapproves of
 games of chance4 ,the ,president of    
,harvard ,university1 in a public       
address given a short time since1 in    
which he spoke before a large audience  
of the change in moral attitude1 was    
able to give a striking illustration of 
the transformation in the fact that two 
generations ago the city of ,boston     
conducted a lottery1 in order to raise  
money for rebuilding a university       
structure which had been destroyed by   
fire4 ,he showed vividly how such a     
transaction would be entirely           
unthinkable to-day1 and how all         
,american feelings would revolt at      
raising money for so good a cause as an 
educational institution by so immoral a 

means as a public lottery4 ,the entire  
audience received this as a matter of   
course1 apparently without a suspicion  
as to how many cathedrals are being     
built in ,europe to-day from tickets at 
half a dollar4 ,it was amusing to       
observe how ,carnegie's friend1 ,schwab1
 who had been the greatly admired       
manager of the steel works1 fell in     
public esteem when news came from the   
,riviera that he was to be seen at the  
gaming-tables of ,monaco4 ,the true     
,american despises any one who gets     
money without working for it4 ,money is 
not the thing which is considered1 but  
the manner of getting it4 ,this is what 
the ,american cares for1 and he prizes  
the gold he gets primarily as an        
indication of his ability4  ,at first   
sight it looks as if this disinclination
 to gambling were not to be taken       
seriously4 ,it would signify nothing    
that the police discover here and there 
a company of gamblers who have          
barricaded the door2 but a ,european    

might say that there is another sort of 
speculative fever which is very         
prevalent4 ,even ,americans on the stock
 exchange often say1 with a smile3 ,we  
are a gambling nation2 and from the     
point of view of the broker it would be 
so4 ,he sees how all classes of people  
invest in speculative securities1 and   
how the public interests itself in      
shares which are subject to the greatest
 fluctuations2 how the cab-driver and   
the hotel waiter pore nervously over the
 quotations1 and how new mining stocks  
and industrial shares are greedily      
bought by school teachers and commercial
 clerks4 ,the broker sees in this the   
people's desire for gambling1 because he
 is himself thoroughly aware of the     
great risks which are taken1 and knows  
that the investors can see only a few of
 the factors which determine prices4    
,but in the public mind all this buying 
and selling looks very different4 ,the  
small man1 investing a few dollars in   
such doubtful certificates1 never thinks

 of himself as a gambler2 he thinks that
 he understands the market2 he is not   
trusting to luck1 but follows the       
quotations day by day for a long time1  
and asks his friends for 8tips10 until  
he is convinced that his own discretion 
and cunning will give him an advantage4 
,if he were to think of his gain as     
matter of chance1 as the broker thinks  
it is1 he would not only not invest his 
money1 but would be no longer attracted 
by the transactions4 ,and whenever he   
loses1 he still goes on1 believing that 
he will be able the next time to figure 
out the turn of the market more         
accurately4  ,the same is true of the   
wagers which the ,anglo-,saxon is always
 making1 because he loves excitement4   
,for him a wager is not a true wager    
when it is merely a question of chance4 
,both sides make calculations1 and have 
their special considerations which they 
believe will determine the outcome1 and 
the winner feels his gain to be earned  
by his shrewdness4 ,an ordinary game of 

chance does not attract the ,american--a
 fact which may be seen even in the     
grotesque game of poker4 ,in a certain  
sense1 the ,american's aversion to      
tipping servants reveals1 perhaps1 the  
same trait4 ,the social inferiority     
which he feels to be implied in the     
acceptance of a fee1 goes against the   
self-respect of the individual2 but     
there is the additional disinclination  
here to receiving money which is not    
strictly earned4  ,there are positive   
traits corresponding to these negative  
ones2 and especially among them may be  
noticed the use to which money is put   
after it is gotten4 ,if the ,american   
were really miserly1 he would not       
distribute his property with such a free
 hand4 ,getting money excites him1 but  
keeping it is less interesting1 and one 
sees not seldom the richest men taking  
elaborate precautions that only a small 
part of their money shall fall to their 
children1 because they think that the   
possession of money which is not        

self-earned is not a blessing4 ,from    
these motives one may understand at once
 the magnificent generosity shown toward
 public enterprises4  ,public           
munificence cannot well be gauged by    
statistics1 and especially not in       
,america4 ,most of the gifts are made   
quietly1 and of course the small gifts  
which are never heard about outweigh the
 larger ones2 and1 nevertheless1 one can
 have a fair idea of ,american          
generosity by considering only the large
 gifts made for public ends4 ,if we     
consider only the gifts of money which  
are greater than one thousand dollars1  
and which go to public institutions1 we 
have in the year #aijc the pretty sum of
 #gf1ice1jjj4 ,there can be no doubt    
that all the gifts under one thousand   
dollars would make an equal sum4  ,of   
these public benefactions1 #dj1gjj1jjj  
went to educational institutions4 ,in   
that year1 for instance1 ,harvard       
,university received in all #e1jjj1jjj1 
,columbia ,university #c1jjj1jjj1 and   

,chicago ,university over #aj1jjj1jjj2  
,yale received #fjj1jjj1 and the negro  
institute in ,tuskegee the same amount2 
,johns ,hopkins and the ,university of  
,pennsylvania received about half of a  
million each4 ,hospitals and similar    
institutions were remembered with       
#ba1gbf1jjj2 #g1ehc1jjj were given to   
public libraries1 #c1iif1jjj for        
religious purposes1 and #b1ibg1jjj to   
museums and art collections4 ,any one   
who lives in ,america knows that this   
readiness to give is general1 from the  
,carnegies and ,rockefellers down to the
 working-men1 and that it is easy to    
obtain money from private purses for any
 good undertaking4  ,one sees clearly1  
again1 that the real attraction which   
the ,american feels for money-making    
does not lie in the having but only in  
the getting1 from the perfect           
equanimity1 positively amazing to the   
,european1 with which he bears his      
losses4 ,to be sure1 his irrepressible  
optimism stands him in good stead2 he   

never loses hope1 but is confident that 
what he has lost will soon be made up4  
,but this would be no comfort to him if 
he did not care much less for the       
possession than for the getting of it4  
,the ,american chases after money with  
all his might1 exactly as on the        
tennis-court he tries to hit the ball1  
and it is the game he likes and not the 
prize4 ,if he loses he does not feel as 
if he had lost a part of himself1 but   
only as if he had lost the last set in a
 tournament4 ,when1 a short time ago1   
there was a terrific crash in the ,new  
,york stock market and hundreds of      
millions were lost1 a leading ,parisian 
paper said3 8,if such a financial crisis
 had happened here in ,france1 we should
 have had panics1 catastrophies1 a slump
 in rentes1 suicides1 street riots1 a   
ministerial crisis1 all in one day3     
while ,america is perfectly quiet1 and  
the victims of the battle are sitting   
down to collect their wits4 ,france and 
the ,united ,states are obviously two   

entirely different worlds in their      
civilization and in their way of        
thinking40  ,as to the estimation of    
money and its acquirement1 ,france and  
the ,united ,states are indeed as far   
apart as possible1 while ,germany stands
 in between4 ,the ,frenchman prizes     
money as such2 if he can get it without 
labour1 by inheritance or dowry1 or by  
gambling1 so much the better4 ,if he    
loses it he loses a part of himself1 and
 when he has earned enough to be sure of
 a livelihood1 he retires from          
money-making pursuits as soon as        
possible4 ,it is well known that the    
ambition of the average ,frenchman is to
 be a rentier4 ,the ,american has       
exactly the opposite idea4 ,not only    
does he endure loss with indifference   
and despise gain which is not earned1   
but he would not for any price give up  
the occupation of making money4 ,whether
 he has much or little1 he keeps        
patiently at work2 and1 as no scholar or
 artist would ever think of saying that 

he had done enough work1 and would from 
now on become a scientific or literary  
rentier and live on his reputation1 so  
no ,american1 as long as he keeps his   
health1 thinks of giving up his regular 
business4  ,the profession of living    
from the income of investments is       
virtually unknown among men1 and the    
young men who take up no money-making   
profession because they 8don't need to10
 are able to retain the social respect  
of their fellows only by undertaking    
some sort of work for the commonwealth4 
,a man who does not work at anything1 no
 matter how rich he is1 can neither get 
nor keep a social status4  ,this also   
indicates1 then1 that the ,american does
 not want his money merely as a means   
for material comfort4 ,of course1       
wealthy ,americans are becoming more and
 more accustomed to provide every       
thinkable luxury for their wives and    
daughters4 ,nowhere is so much expended 
for dresses1 jewelry1 equipages and     
service1 for country houses and yachts1 

works of art and private libraries2 and 
many men have to keep pretty steadily at
 work year in and year out in order to  
meet their heavy expenditures4 ,and the 
same thing is repeated all down the     
social scale4 ,according to ,european   
standards1 even the working-man lives   
luxuriously4 ,but1 in spite of this1 no 
person who has really come into the     
country will deny that material         
pleasures are less sought after for     
themselves in the ,new ,world than in   
the ,old4 ,it always strikes the        
,european as remarkable how very        
industrious ,american society is1 and   
how relatively little bent on pleasure4 
,it has often been said that the        
,american has not yet learned how to    
enjoy life2 that he knows very well how 
to make money1 but not how to enjoy it4 
,and that is quite true2 except that it 
leaves out of account the main          
point--which is1 that the ,american     
takes the keenest delight in the        
employment of all his faculties in his  

work1 and in the exercise of his own    
initiative4 ,this gives him more        
pleasure than the spending of money     
could bring him4  ,it is1 therefore1    
fundamentally false to stigmatize the   
,american as a materialist1 and to deny 
his idealism4 ,a people is supposed to  
be thoroughly materialistic when its    
sphere of interests comprises problems  
relating only to the world of matter1   
and fancies itself to be highly         
idealistic when it is mainly concerned  
with intangible objects4 ,but this is a 
pure confusion of ideas4 ,in philosophy1
 indeed1 the distinction between        
materialistic and idealistic systems of 
thought is to be referred to the        
importance ascribed to material and to  
immaterial objects4 ,materialism is1    
then1 that pseudo-philosophical theory  
which supposes that all reality derives 
from the existence of material objects2 
and it is an idealistic system which    
regards the existence of matter as      
dependent on the reality of thought4    

,but it is mere play on words to call   
nations realistic or idealistic on the  
strength of these metaphysical          
conceptions1 instead of using the words 
in their social and ethical             
significations4 ,for in the ethical     
world a materialistic position would be 
one in which the aim of life was        
enjoyment1 while that point of view     
would be idealistic which found its     
motive not in the pleasant consequences 
of the deed1 but in the value of the    
deed itself4  ,if we hold fast to the   
meaning of materialism and idealism in  
this ethical sense1 we shall see clearly
 that it is entirely indifferent whether
 the people who have these diametrically
 opposed views of life are themselves   
busy with tangible or with intangible   
things4 ,the man who looks at life      
materialistically acts1 not for the act 
itself1 but for the comfortable         
consequences which that act may have2   
and these consequences may satisfy the  
selfish pleasure as well if they are    

immaterial as if they are material      
objects4 ,it is indifferent whether he  
works for the satisfaction of the       
appetites1 for the hoarding up of       
treasures1 or for the gratification to  
be found in politics1 science1 and art4 
,he is still a materialist so long as he
 has not devotion1 so long as he uses   
art only as a means to pleasure1 science
 only as a source of fame1 politics as a
 source of power2 and1 in general1 so   
long as the labour that he does is only 
the means to an end4 ,but the man who is
 an idealist in life acts because he    
believes in the value of the deed4 ,it  
makes no difference to him whether he is
 working on material or intellectual    
concerns2 whether he speaks or rhymes1  
paints1 governs1 or judges2 or whether  
he builds bridges and railroad tracks1  
drains swamps and irrigates deserts1    
delves into the earth1 or harnesses the 
forces of nature4 ,in this sense the    
culture of the ,old ,world threatens at 
a thousand points to become crassly     

materialistic1 and not least of all just
 where it most loudly boasts of         
intellectual wealth and looks down with 
contempt on everything which is         
material4 ,and in this sense the culture
 of the ,new ,world is growing to the   
very purest idealism1 and by no means   
least where it is busy with problems of 
the natural world of matter1 and where  
it is heaping up economic wealth4  ,this
 is the main point3 ,the economic life  
means to the ,american a realizing of   
efforts which are in themselves         
precious4 ,it is not the means to an    
end1 but is its own end4 ,if two blades 
of grass grow where one grew before1 or 
two railroad tracks where there was but 
one2 if production1 exchange1 and       
commerce increase and undertaking       
thrives1 then life is created1 and this 
is1 in itself1 a precious thing4 ,the   
,european of the ,continent esteems the 
industrial life as honest1 but not as   
noble2 economic activities seem to him  
good for supporting himself and his     

family1 but his duty is merely to supply
 economic needs which are now existing4 
,the merchant in ,europe does not feel  
himself to be a free creator like the   
artist or scholar3 he is no discoverer1 
no maker2 and the mental energy which he
 expends he feels to be spent in serving
 an inferior purpose1 which he serves   
only because he has to live4 ,that      
creating economic values can itself be  
the very highest sort of accomplishment1
 and in itself alone desirable1 whether 
or not it is useful for the person who  
creates1 and that it is great in itself 
to spread and increase the life of the  
national economic organization1 has     
been1 indeed1 felt by many great        
merchants in the history of ,europe1 and
 many a ,hanseatic leader realizes it   
to-day4 ,but the whole body of people in
 ,europe does not know this1 while      
,america is thoroughly filled with the  
idea4 ,just as ,hutten once cried3      
8,jahrhundert1 es ist eine ,lust1 in dir
 zu leben3 die ,wissenschaften und die  

,knste blhen10 so the ,american might   
exclaim3 ,it is a pleasure to live in   
our day and generation2 industry and    
commerce now do thrive4 ,every          
individual feels himself exalted by     
being a part of such a mighty whole1 and
 the general intellectual effects of    
this temper show themselves in the      
entire national life4  ,a nation can    
never do its best in any direction      
unless it believes thoroughly in the    
intrinsic value of its work2 whatever is
 done merely through necessity is never 
of great national significance1 and     
second-rate men never achieve the       
highest things4 ,if the first minds of a
 nation look down with contempt on      
economic life1 if there is no real      
belief in the ideal value of industry1  
and if creative minds hold aloof from   
it1 that nation will necessarily be     
outdone by others in the economic field4
 ,but where the ablest strength engages 
with idealistic enthusiasm in the       
service of the national economic        

problems1 the nation rewards what the   
people do as done in the name of        
civilization1 and the love of fame and  
work together spur them on more than the
 material gain which they will get4     
,indeed1 this gain is itself only their 
measure of success in the service of    
civilization4  ,the ,american merchant  
works for money in exactly the sense    
that a great painter works for money2   
the high price which is paid for his    
picture is a very welcome indication of 
the general appreciation of his art3 but
 he would never get this appreciation if
 he were working for the money instead  
of his artistic ideals4 ,economically to
 open up this gigantic country1 to bring
 the fields and forests1 rivers and     
mountains into the service of economic  
progress1 to incite the millions of     
inhabitants to have new needs and to    
satisfy these by their own              
resourcefulness1 to increase the wealth 
of the nation1 and finally economically 
to rule the world and within the nation 

itself to raise the economic power of   
the individual to undreamt-of           
importance1 has been the work which has 
fascinated the ,american4 ,and every    
individual has felt his co-operation to 
be ennobled by his firm belief in the   
value of such an aim for the culture of 
the world4  ,to find one's self in the  
service of this work of progress        
attracts even the small boy4 ,as a      
,german boy commences early to write    
verses or draw little sketches1 in      
,america the young farmer lad or city   
urchin tries to come somehow into this  
national1 industrial activity2 and      
whether he sells newspapers on the      
street or milks the cow on a neighbour's
 farm1 he is proud of the few cents     
which he brings home--not because it is 
money1 but because he has earned it1 and
 the coins are the only possible proof  
that his activities have contributed to 
the economic life of his country4 ,it is
 this alone which spurs him on and fills
 him with ambition2 and if the young    

newspaper boy becomes a great railroad  
president1 or the farmer's lad a wealthy
 factory owner1 and both1 although worth
 their millions1 still work on from     
morning till night consumed by the      
thought of adding to the economic life  
of their nation1 and to this end        
undertake all sorts of new enterprises1 
the labour itself has been1 from        
beginning to end1 its own reward4 ,the  
content of such a man's life is the work
 of economic progress4  ,men who have so
 felt have made the nation great1 and no
 ,american would admit that a man who   
gave his life to government or to law1  
to art or science1 would be able to make
 his life at all more significant or    
valuable for the ends of culture4 ,this 
is not materialism4 ,thus it happens    
that the most favoured youths1 the      
socially most competent talents1 go into
 economic life1 and the sons of the best
 families1 after their course at the    
university1 step enthusiastically into  
the business house4 ,one can see merely 

from ordinary conversation how          
thoroughly the value of economic        
usefulness is impressed on the people4  
,they speak in ,america of industrial   
movements with as much general interest 
as one would find manifested in ,europe 
over politics1 science1 or art4 ,men who
 do not themselves anticipate buying or 
selling securities in the stock market1 
nevertheless discuss the rise and fall  
of various industrial and railroad      
shares as they would discuss            
,congressional debates2 and any new     
industrial undertaking in a given city  
fills the citizens with pride1 as may be
 gathered from their chance             
conversations4  ,the central point of   
this whole activity is1 therefore1 not  
greed1 nor the thought of money1 but the
 spirit of self-initiative4 ,it is not  
surprising that this has gone through   
such a lively development4 ,just as the 
spirit of self-determination was the    
product of ,colonial days1 so the spirit
 of self-initiative is the necessary    

outcome of pioneer life4 ,the men who   
came over to the ,new ,world expected to
 battle with the natural elements2 and  
even where nature had lavished her      
treasures1 these had still to be        
conquered2 the forests must be felled   
and the marshes drained4 ,indeed1 the   
very spot to which the economic world   
comes to-day to celebrate the hundredth 
anniversary of the ,louisiana ,purchase1
 the city of ,st4 ,louis1 which has     
to-day #h1jjj factories1 it must not be 
forgotten was three generations ago a   
wilderness4  ,from the days when the    
first pioneers journeyed inland from the
 coast1 to the time1 over two hundred   
years later1 when the railroad tracks   
were carried over the ,rocky ,mountains 
from the ,atlantic to the ,pacific      
,ocean1 the history of the nation has   
been of a long struggle with nature and 
of hard-earned conquests2 and for many  
years this fight was carried on by men  
who toiled single-handed1 as it were--by
 thousands of pioneers working all at   

once1 but far apart4 ,the man who could 
not hold out under protracted labour was
 lost2 but the difficulty of the task   
spurred on the energies of the strong   
and developed the spirit of             
self-initiative to the utmost4 ,it was  
fortunate that the men who came over to 
undertake this work had been in a way   
selected for it3 for only those who had 
resolution had ventured to leave their  
native hearth-stones4 ,only the most    
energetic risked the voyage across the  
ocean in those times1 and this desire to
 be up and doing found complete         
satisfaction in the ,new ,world2 for1 as
 ,emerson said3 8,america is another    
name for opportunity40  ,the heritage of
 the pioneer days cannot vanish1 even   
under the present changed conditions4   
,this desire to realize one's self by   
being economically busied is indeed     
augmented to-day by many other          
considerations4 ,both the political and 
the social life of the democracy demand 
equality1 and therefore exclude all     

social classes1 and titles1 and all     
honourary political distinctions4 ,now1 
such uniformity would1 of course1 be    
unendurable in a society which had no   
real distinctions1 and therefore        
inevitably such distinguishing factors  
as are not excluded come to be more and 
more important4 ,a distinction between  
classes on the basis of property can be 
met in monarchial countries by a        
distinction in title and family1 and so 
made at least very much less important  
than in democratic nations4 ,and thus it
 necessarily comes about that1 where an 
official differentiation is objected to 
on principle1 wealth is sought as a     
means to such discrimination4 ,in the   
,united ,states1 however1 wealth has    
this great significance only because it 
is felt to measure the individual's     
successful initiative2 and the simple   
equation between prosperity and real    
work is more generally recognized by the
 popular mind than the actual conditions
 justify4 ,thus it happens also that the

 ,american sets his standard of life    
high4 ,he wishes in this way to express 
the fact that he has passed life's      
examination well1 that he has been      
enterprising1 and has won the respect of
 those around him4 ,this desire for a   
high standard of living which springs   
from the intense economic enthusiasm    
works back thereon1 and greatly         
stimulates it once more4  ,one of the   
first consequences of this spirit of    
initiative is1 that every sort of true  
labour is naturally respected1 and never
 involves any disesteem4 ,in fact1 one  
sees continually in this country men who
 go from one kind of labour to another  
which1 according to ,european ideals1   
would be thought less honourable4 ,the  
,american is especially willing to take 
up a secondary occupation besides his   
regular calling in order to increase his
 income1 and this leads1 sometimes1 to  
striking contrasts4 ,of course there are
 some limits to this1 and social        
etiquette is not wholly without         

influence1 although the ,american will  
seldom admit it4 ,no one is surprised if
 a preacher gives up the ministry in    
order to become an editor or official in
 an industrial organization2 but every  
one is astonished if he becomes agent   
for an insurance company2 amazed if he  
goes to selling a patent medicine1 and  
would be positively scandalized if he   
were to buy a beer-saloon4  ,it is much 
the same with avocations4 ,if the       
student in the university tutors other  
students1 it is quite right2 if1 during 
the university vacation1 he becomes     
bell-boy in a summer hotel1 or during   
the school year attends to furnaces in  
order to continue his studies1 people   
are sorry that he has to do this1 but   
still account him perfectly respectable2
 but if1 on the other hand1 he turns    
barber or artist's model1 he is lost1   
because being a model is passive--it is 
not doing anything2 and cutting hair is 
a menial service1 not compatible with   
the dignity of the student4 ,and thus it

 is that the social feeling in the ,new 
,world practically corrects the         
theoretical maxims as to the equal      
dignity of every kind of labour1        
although1 indeed1 such maxims are very  
much more generally recognized than in  
the ,old ,world4 ,and everywhere the    
deciding principle of differentiation is
 the matter of self-initiative4  ,the   
broadly manifest social equality of the 
country1 of which we shall have to speak
 more minutely in another connection1   
would be actually impossible if this    
belief in the equivalence of all kinds  
of work did not rule the national mind4 
,whether the work brings much or little1
 or requires much or little preparation1
 is thought to be unimportant in        
determining a man's status2 but it is   
important that his life involves        
initiative1 or that he not merely       
passively exists4  ,a people which      
places industrial initiative so high    
must be industrious2 and1 in fact1 there
 is no profounder impression to be had  

than that the whole population is busily
 at work1 and that all pleasures and    
everything which presupposes an idle    
moment are there merely to refresh      
people and prepare them for more work4  
,in order to be permanently industrious1
 a man has to learn best how to utilize 
his powers2 and just in this respect the
 ,american nation has gone ahead of     
every other people4 ,firstly1 it is     
sober4 ,a man who takes liquor in the   
early part of the day cannot accomplish 
the greatest amount of work4 ,when the  
,american is working he does not touch  
alcohol until the end of the day1 and   
this is as true of the millionaire and  
bank president as of the labourer or    
conductor4 ,on the other hand1 the      
,american workman knows that only a     
well-nourished body can do the most     
work1 and what the workman saves by not 
buying beer and brandy he puts into     
roast beef4 ,it has often been observed1
 and especially remarked on by ,german  
observers1 that in spite of his         

extraordinary tension1 the ,american    
never overdoes4 ,the working-man in the 
factory1 for example1 seldom perspires  
at his work4 ,this comes from a         
knowledge of how to work so as in the   
end to get out of one's self the        
greatest possible amount4  ,very much   
the same may be said of the admirable   
way in which the ,americans make the    
most of their time4 ,superficial        
observers have often supposed the       
,american to be always in a hurry1      
whereas the opposite is the case4 ,the  
man who has to hurry has badly disposed 
of his time1 and1 therefore1 has not the
 necessary amount to finish any one     
piece of work4 ,the ,american is never  
in a hurry1 but he so disposes his      
precious time that nothing shall be     
lost4 ,he will not wait nor be a moment 
idle2 one thing follows closely after   
another1 and with admirable precision2  
each task is finished in its turn2      
appointments are made and kept on the   
minute2 and the result is1 that not only

 no unseemly haste is necessary1 but    
also there is time for everything4 ,it  
is astonishing how well-known men in    
political1 economic1 or intellectual    
life1 who are loaded with a thousand    
responsibilities and an apparently      
unreasonable amount of work1 have1 by   
dint of the wonderful disposition of    
their own time and that of their        
assistants1 really enough for everything
 and even to spare4  ,among the many    
things for which the ,american has time1
 by reason of his economical management 
of it1 are even some which seem         
unnecessary for a busy man4 ,he expends1
 for example1 an extraordinary large    
fraction of his time in attending to his
 costume and person1 in sport1 and in   
reading newspapers1 so that the notion  
which is current in ,europe that the    
,american is not only always in a hurry1
 but has time for nothing outside of his
 work1 is entirely wrong4  ,this saving 
of strength by the proper disposal of   
time corresponds to a general           

practicality in every sort of work4     
,business is carried on in a            
business-like way4 ,the banker1 whose   
residence is filled with sumptuous      
treasures of art1 allows nothing        
unpractical to come into his office for 
the sake of adornment4 ,a certain strict
 application to duty is the feeling one 
gets from every work-room2 and while the
 foreigner feels a certain barrenness   
about it1 the ,american feels that      
anything different shows a lack of      
earnestness and practical good sense4   
,the extreme punctuality with which the 
,american handles his correspondence is 
typical of him4 ,statistics show that no
 other country in the world sends so    
many letters for every inhabitant1 and  
every business letter is replied to on  
the same day with matter-of-fact        
conciseness4 ,it is like a tremendous   
apparatus that accomplishes the greatest
 labour with the least friction1 by     
means of the precise adaptation of part 
to part4  ,a nation which is after      

self-initiative must inspire the spirit 
of initiative in every single           
co-operator4 ,nothing is more           
characteristic of this economic body    
than the intensity with which each      
workman--taking the word in its broadest
 sense--thinks and acts for himself4 ,in
 this respect1 too1 outsiders often     
misunderstand the situation4 ,one hears 
often from travellers in ,america that  
the country must be dwarfing to the     
intelligence of its workmen1 because it 
uses so much machinery that the         
individual workman comes to see only a  
small part of what is being done in the 
factory and1 so to say1 works the same  
identical lever for life4 ,he operates  
always a certain small part of some     
other part of the whole4 ,nothing could 
be less exact1 and a person who comes to
 such a conclusion is not aware that    
even the smallest duties are extremely  
complex1 and that1 therefore1           
specialization does not at all introduce
 an undesirable uniformity in labour4   

,it is specialization on the one hand   
which guarantees the highest mastery1   
and on the other lets the workman see   
even more the complexity of what is     
going on1 and inspires him to get a full
 comprehension of the thing in hand and 
perhaps to suggest a few improvements4  
,any man who is at all concerned with   
the entire field of operations1 or who  
is moving constantly from one special   
process to another1 can never come to   
that fully absorbed state of the        
attention which takes cognizance of the 
slightest detail4 ,only the man who has 
concentrated himself and specialized1   
learns to note fine details2 and it is  
only in this way that he becomes so much
 a master in his special department that
 any one else who attempts to direct him
 succeeds merely in interfering and     
spoiling the output4 ,in short1 such a  
workman is face to face with intricate  
natural processes1 and is learning      
straight from nature4 ,it is in the     
matter of industrial technique exactly  

as in science4 ,a person not acquainted 
with science finds it endlessly         
monotonous1 and cannot understand how a 
person should spend his whole life      
studying beetles or deciphering         
,assyrian inscriptions4 ,but a man who  
knows the method of science realizes    
that the narrower a field of study      
becomes1 the more full of variety and   
unexpected beauties it is found to be4  
,the triumph of technical specialization
 in ,america lies just in this4 ,if a   
single man works at some special part of
 some special detail of an industrial   
process1 he more and more comes to find 
in his narrow province an amazing       
intricacy which the casual observer     
looking on cannot even suspect2 and only
 the man who sees this complexity is    
able to discover new processes and      
improvements on the old4 ,so it is that 
the specialized workman is he who       
constantly contributes to perfect       
technique1 proposes modifications1 and  
in general exercises all the            

intelligence he has1 in order to bring  
himself on in his profession4 ,just as  
we have seen how the spirit of          
self-determination which resides at the 
periphery of the body politic has been  
the peculiar strength of ,american      
political life1 so this free initiative 
in the periphery1 this economic         
resourcefulness of the narrow           
specialists1 is the peculiar strength of
 all ,american industry4  ,the spirit of
 self-initiative does not know          
pettiness4 ,any one who goes into       
economic life merely for the sake of    
what he can get out of it1 thinks it    
clever to gain small1 unfair profits2   
but whosoever views his industry in a   
purely idealistic spirit1 and really has
 some inner promptings1 is filled with  
an interest in the whole play--sees an  
economic gain in anything which profits 
both capital and labour1 and only there1
 and so has a large outlook even within 
his narrow province4 ,the ,americans    
constantly complain of the economic     

smallness of ,europe1 and even the      
well-informed leaders of ,american      
industry freely assert that the actual  
advance in ,american economic culture   
does not lie in the natural resources of
 the country1 but rather in the broad1  
free initiative of the ,american people4
 ,the continental ,europeans1 it is     
said1 frustrate their own economic      
endeavours by being penny-wise and      
observant of detail in the wrong place1 
and by lacking the courage to launch big
 undertakings4 ,there is no doubt that  
it was the lavishness of nature which   
firstly set ,american initiative at work
 on a broad scale4 ,the boundless       
prairies and towering mountains which   
the pioneers saw before them inspired   
them to undertake great things1 and to  
overlook small hindrances1 and in laying
 out their first plans to overlook small
 details4 ,american captains of industry
 often say that they purposely pay no   
attention to a good many ,european      
methods1 because they find such pedantic

 endeavour to economize and to achieve  
minute perfections to be wasteful of    
time and unprofitable4  ,the same spirit
 is found1 as well1 in fields other than
 the industrial4 ,when the ,american    
travels he prefers to pay out round sums
 rather than to haggle over the price of
 things1 even although he pays          
considerably more thereby than he       
otherwise would4 ,and nothing makes him 
more angry than to find that instead of 
stating a high price at the outset1 the 
person with whom he is dealing ekes out 
his profit by small additional charges4 
,this large point of view involves such 
a contempt of petty detail as to        
astonish ,europeans4 ,machines costing  
hundreds of thousands of dollars1 which 
were new yesterday1 are discarded       
to-day1 because some improvement has    
been discovered2 and the best is        
everywhere found none too good to be    
used in this magnificent industrial     
system4 ,if the outlay is to correspond 
to the result1 there must be no         

parsimony4  ,a similar trait is revealed
 in the way in which every man behaves  
toward his neighbour4 ,it is only the   
petty man who is envious1 and envy is a 
word which is not found in the ,american
 vocabulary4 ,if one's own advantage is 
not the goal1 but general economic      
progress1 then the success of another   
man is almost as great a pleasure as    
one's own success4 ,it is for the       
,american an sthetic delight to observe1
 and in spirit to co-operate with       
economic progress all along the line2   
and the more others accomplish the more 
each one realizes the magnificence of   
the whole industrial life4 ,men try to  
excel one another1 as they have to do   
wherever there is free competition2 and 
such rivalry is the best and surest     
condition for economic progress4        
,americans use every means in their     
power to succeed1 but if another man    
comes out ahead they neither grumble nor
 indulge in envy1 but rather gather     
their strength for a new effort4 ,even  

this economic struggle is carried on in 
the spirit of sport4 ,the fight itself  
is the pleasure4 ,the chess-player who  
is checkmated in an exciting game is not
 sorry that he played1 and does not envy
 the winner4  ,this conviction1 that one
 neither envies nor is envied1 whereby  
all competitive struggle comes to be    
pervaded with a certain spirit of       
co-operation1 ennobles all industrial   
activities1 and the immediate effect is 
a feeling of mutual confidence4 ,the    
degree to which ,americans trust one    
another is by no means realized on the  
,european ,continent4 ,a man relies on  
the self-respect of his commercial      
associates in a way which seems to the  
,european mind almost fatuous1 and yet  
herein lies just the strength and       
security of the economic life of this   
country4  ,it is interesting1 in a      
recently published harangue against the 
,standard ,oil ,company1 to read what a 
high-handed1 ,napoleonic policy         
,rockefeller has pursued1 and then1 in  

the midst of the fierce accusations1 to 
find it stated that agreements involving
 millions of dollars and the economic   
fate of thousands of people were made   
merely orally4 ,all his confederates    
took the word of ,rockefeller to be as  
good as his written contract1 and such  
mutual confidence is everywhere a matter
 of course1 whether it is a millionaire 
who agrees to pay out a fortune or a    
street urchin who goes off to change    
five cents4 ,just as public1 so also    
commercial1 affairs get on with very few
 precautions1 and every man takes his   
neighbour's check as the equivalent of  
money4 ,the whole economic life reveals 
everywhere the profoundest confidence2  
and undoubtedly this circumstance has   
contributed1 more than almost anything  
else1 to the successful growth of large 
organizations in ,america4  ,the spirit 
of self-initiative goes out in another  
direction4 ,it makes the ,american      
optimistic1 and so sure of success that 
no turn of fortune can discourage him4  

,and such an optimism is necessary to   
the man who undertakes great            
enterprises4 ,it was an undertaking to  
cross the ocean1 and another to press on
 from the coast to the interior2 it was 
an undertaking to bring nature to terms1
 to conjure up civilization in a wild   
country1 and to overcome enemies on all 
hands2 and yet everything has seemed to 
succeed4 ,with the expansion of the     
country has grown the individual's love 
of expansion1 his delight in undertaking
 new enterprises1 not merely to hold his
 own1 but to go on and to stake his     
honour and fortune and entire           
personality in the hope of realizing    
something as yet hardly dreamed of4 ,any
 ,yankee is intoxicated with the idea of
 succeeding in a new enterprise2 he     
plans such things at his desk in school1
 and the more venturesome they are the  
more he is fascinated4  ,nothing is more
 characteristic of this adventurous     
spirit than the way in which ,american  
railroads have been projected4 ,in other

 countries railroads are built to       
connect towns which already exist4 ,in  
,america the railroad has created new   
towns2 the engineer and capitalist have 
not laid their tracks merely where the  
land was already tilled1 but in every   
place where they could foresee that a   
population could support itself4 ,at    
first came the railroad1 and then the   
men to support it4 ,the freight car came
 first1 and then the soil was exploited 
and made to supply the freight4 ,western
 communities have almost all grown up   
around the railway stations4 ,to be     
sure1 every railway company has done    
this in its own interest1 but the whole 
undertaking has been immediately        
productive of new civilization4  ,any   
person who optimistically believes that 
a problem has only to be discovered in  
order to be solved1 will be sure to     
develop that intellectual quality which 
has always characterized the ,american3 
the spirit of invention4 ,there is no   
other country in the world where so much

 is invented4 ,this is shown not merely 
in the fact that an enormous number of  
patents is granted every year1 but also 
where there is nothing to patent1 the   
,yankee exercises his ingenuity every   
day4 ,from the simplest tool up to the  
most complicated machine1 ,american     
invention has improved and perfected1   
and made the theoretically correct      
practically serviceable as well4 ,to be 
sure1 the cost of human labour in a     
thinly settled country has had a great  
influence on this development2 but a    
special talent also has lain in this    
direction--a real genius for solving    
practical problems4 ,every one knows how
 much the ,american has contributed to  
the perfection of the telegraph1        
telephone1 incandescent light1          
phonograph and sewing-machine1 to       
watch-making machinery1 to the steamboat
 and locomotive1 the printing-press and 
typewriter1 to machinery for mining and 
engineering1 and to all sorts of        
agricultural and manufacturing devices4 

,invention and enterprise are seen      
working together in the fact that every 
new machine1 with all its improvements1 
goes at once to every part of the       
country4 ,every farmer in the farthest  
,west wants the latest agricultural     
machinery2 every artisan adopts the     
newest improvements2 in every office the
 newest and most approved telegraphic   
and telephonic appliances are used2 in  
short1 every man appropriates the very  
latest devices to further his own       
success4 ,of course1 in this way the    
commercial value of every improvement is
 greatly increased1 and this encourages 
the inventor to still further           
productiveness4 ,it so happens that     
larger sums of money are lavished in    
perfect good faith in order to solve    
certain problems than any ,european     
could imagine4 ,if an inventor can      
convince a company that his principle is
 sound1 the company is ready to advance 
millions of dollars for new experiments 
until the machine is perfected4  ,the   

extraordinarily wide adoption of every  
invention does not mean that most       
inventions are made by such men as      
,edison and ,bell and their colleagues4 
,every factory workman is quite as much 
concerned to improve the tools which his
 nation uses1 and every artisan at his  
bench is busy thinking out this or that 
little change in a process or method2   
and many of them1 after their work1     
frequent the public libraries in order  
to work through technical books and the 
,patent ,reports4 ,it is no wonder that 
an ,american manufacturer1 on hearing   
that a new machine had been discovered  
in ,europe1 conservatively declared that
 he did not know what the machine was1  
but knew for sure that ,america would   
improve on it4  ,only one consequence of
 the spirit of self-initiative remains  
to be spoken of--the absolute demand for
 open competition4 ,in order to exercise
 initiative1 a man must have absolutely 
free play2 and if he believes in the    
intrinsic value of economic culture1 he 

will be convinced that free play for the
 development of industrial power is     
abstractly and entirely right4 ,this    
does not wholly exclude an artificial   
protection of certain economic          
institutions which are weak--as1 for    
instance1 the protection of certain     
industries by means of a high tariff--so
 long as in every line all men are free 
to compete with one another4 ,monopoly  
is the only thing--because it strangles 
competition--which offends the instinct 
of the ,american2 and in this respect   
,american law goes further than a       
,european would expect4 ,one might      
suppose that1 believing as they do in   
free initiative1 ,americans would claim 
the right of making such industrial     
combinations as they liked4 ,when       
several parallel railroads1 which       
traverse several states and compete     
severely with one another1 finally make 
a common agreement to maintain prices1  
they seem at first sight to be          
exercising a natural privilege4 ,the    

traffic which suffers no longer by      
competition is handled at a less expense
 by this consolidation1 and so the      
companies themselves and the travelling 
public are both benefited4 ,but the law 
of the ,united ,states takes a different
 point of view4 ,the average ,american  
is suspicious of a monopoly1 even when  
it is owned by the state or city2 he is 
convinced from the beginning that the   
service will in some way or other be    
inferior to what it would be under free 
competition2 and most of all1 he        
dislikes to see any industrial province 
hedged in so that competitors are no    
longer free to come in4 ,the reason why 
the trusts have angered and excited the 
,american to an often exaggerated degree
 is1 that they approach perilously near 
to being monopolies4  ,this spirit of   
self-initiative under free competition  
exists1 of course1 not alone in         
individuals4 ,towns1 cities1 counties1  
and states evince collectively just the 
same attitude2 the same optimism and    

spirit of invention and initiative1 and 
the same pioneer courage1 inspire the   
collective will of city and state4      
,especially in the ,west1 various cities
 and communities do things in a         
sportsmanlike way4 ,it is as if one city
 or state were playing foot-ball against
 another1 and exerting every effort to  
win3 and here once more there is no     
petty jealousy4 ,it was from such an    
optimistic spirit of enterprise1        
certainly1 that the city of ,st4 ,louis 
resolved to invite all the world to its 
exposition1 and that the ,state of      
,missouri gave its enthusiastic approval
 and support to its capital city4 ,the  
sums to be laid out on such bold        
undertakings are put at a generous      
figure1 and no one asks anxiously       
whether he is ready or able to undertake
 such a thing1 but he is fascinated by  
the thought that such an industrial     
festival around the cascades of ,forest 
,park1 near the ,city of ,st4 ,louis1   
will stimulate the whole industrial life

 of the ,mississippi ,valley4 ,one      
already sees that ,missouri is disposed 
to become a ,pennsylvania of the ,west1 
and to develop her rich resources into a
 great industry4  ,we must not suppose1 
in all this1 that such a spirit of      
initiative involves no risk1 or that no 
disadvantages follow into the bargain4  
,it may be easily predicted that1 just  
by reason of the energy which is so     
intrinsic to it1 self-initiative will   
sometime overstep the bounds of peace   
and harmony4 ,initiative will become    
recklessness1 carelessness of nature1   
carelessness of one's neighbour1 and1   
finally1 carelessness of one's self4  ,a
 reckless treatment of nature has1 in   
fact1 characterized the ,american       
pioneer from the first4 ,the wealth of  
nature has seemed so inexhaustible1 that
 the pioneers found it natural to draw  
on their principal instead of living on 
their income4 ,everywhere they used only
 the best which they found2 they cut    
down the finest forests first1 and sawed

 up only the best parts of the best     
logs4 ,the rest was wasted4 ,the farmers
 tilled only the best soil1 and nature  
was dismantled and depleted in a way    
which a ,european1 who is accustomed to 
precaution1 finds positively sinful4    
,and the time is now passed when this   
can go on safely4 ,good1 arable land can
 nowhere be had for nothing to-day2 the 
cutting down of huge forests has already
 had a bad effect on the rainfall and   
water supply1 and many efforts are now  
being made to atone for the sins of the 
past by protecting and replanting4      
,intensive methods are being introduced 
in agriculture2 but the work of         
thoughtful minds meets with a good deal 
of resistance in the recklessness of the
 masses1 who1 so far as nature is in    
question1 think very little of their    
children's children1 but are greedy for 
instant profits4  ,the man1 moreover1   
who ardently desires to play an         
important part in industry is easily    
tempted to be indifferent of his        

fellows4 ,we have shown that an         
,american is not jealous or distrustful 
of them1 that he gives and expects      
frankness1 and that he respects their   
rights4 ,but when he once begins to     
play1 he wants to win at any cost2 and  
then1 so long as he observes the rules  
of the game1 he considers nothing else2 
he has no pity1 and will never let his  
undertaking be interfered with by       
sentimental reasons4 ,there is no doubt 
at all that the largest ,american       
industrial enterprises have ruined many 
promising lives2 no doubt that the very 
men who give freely to public ends have 
driven their chariots over many         
industrial corpses4 ,the ,american1 who 
is so incomparably good-natured1        
amiable1 obliging1 and high-minded1     
admits himself that he is sharp in      
trade1 and that the ,american industrial
 spirit requires a sort of military     
discipline and must be brutal4 ,if the  
captain of industry were anxiously      
considerate of persons' feelings1 he    

would never have achieved industrial    
success any more than a compassionate   
and tearful army would win a victory4   
,but the ,american is harder on himself 
than on any one else4 ,we have shown    
how1 in his work1 he conserves his      
powers and utilizes them economically2  
but he sets no bounds to the            
intellectual strain1 the intensity of   
his nervous activities1 and only too    
often he ruins his health in the too    
great strain which brings his success4  
,the bodies of thousands have fertilized
 the soil for this great industrial     
tree--men who have exhausted their power
 in their exaggerated commercial        
ambitions4 ,the real secret of ,american
 success is that1 more than any other   
country in the world1 she works with the
 young men and uses them up4 ,young men 
are in all the important positions where
 high intellectual tension is required4 
,in other directions1 too1 the valuable 
spirit of self-initiative shows great   
weaknesses and dangers4 ,the confidence 

which the ,american gives his neighbour 
in business often comes to be           
inexcusable carelessness4 ,in reading   
the exposures made of the               
,ship-,building ,trust1 one sees how1   
without a dishonest intent1 crimes can  
actually be committed merely through    
thoughtless confidence4 ,one sees that  
each one of the great capitalists here  
involved relied on the other1 while no  
one really investigated for himself4    
,there is another evil arising from the 
same intense activity1 although1 to be  
sure1 it is more a matter of the past   
than of the future4 ,this is the vulgar 
display of wealth4 ,when economic       
usefulness is the main ambition1 and the
 only measure of success is the money   
which is won1 it is natural that under  
more or less primitive social conditions
 every one should wish to attest his    
merits by displaying wealth4 ,large     
diamonds have then much the same        
function as titles and orders2 they are 
the symbols of successful endeavour4 ,in

 its vulgar form all such display is now
 virtually relegated to undeveloped     
sections of the country4 ,in the parts  
where culture is older1 where wealth is 
in its second or third generation1 every
 one knows that his property is more    
useful in the bank than on his person4  
,in spite of this1 the nation expends an
 unduly large part of its profits in    
personal adornment1 in luxuries of the  
toilet1 in horses and carriages and     
expensive residences4 ,the ,american is 
bound to have the best1 and feels       
himself lowered if he has to take the   
second best4 ,the most expensive seats  
in an auditorium are always the best    
filled1 and the opera is thinly attended
 only when it is given at reduced       
prices4 ,it is just in the most         
expensive hotels that one has to engage 
a room beforehand4 ,everywhere that     
expenditure can be observed by others1  
the ,american would rather renounce a   
pleasure entirely than enjoy it in a    
modest way4 ,he wants to appear         

everywhere as a prosperous and          
substantial person1 and therefore has a 
decided tendency to live beyond his     
means4 ,extravagance is1 therefore1 a   
great national trait4 ,everything1      
whether large or small1 is done with a  
free hand4 ,in the kitchen of the       
ordinary man much is thrown away which  
the ,european carefully saves for his   
nourishment2 and in the kitchens of the 
government officials a hundred thousand 
cooks are at work1 as if there were     
every day a banquet4 ,even when the     
,american economizes he is fundamentally
 extravagant4 ,his favourite way of     
saving is by buying a life insurance    
policy2 but when one sees how many      
millions of dollars such companies spend
 in advertising and otherwise competing 
with one another1 and what prodigious   
amounts they take in1 one cannot doubt  
that they also are a means of saving for
 wealthy men1 who1 after all1 do not    
know what real economy is4  ,if the     
whole outward life is pervaded by this  

pioneer spirit of self-initiative1 there
 is another factor which is not to be   
overlooked2 it is the neglect of the    
sthetic4 ,any one who loves beauty      
desires to see his ideal realized at the
 present moment1 and the present itself 
becomes for him expressive of the past1 
while the man whose only desire is to be
 active as an economic factor looks only
 into the future4 ,the bare present is  
almost valueless1 since it is that which
 has to be overcome2 it is the material 
which the enterprising spirit has to    
shape creatively into something else4   
,the pioneer cannot be interested in the
 present as a survivor of the past2 it  
shows to him only that which is to do1  
and admonishes his soul to prepare for  
new achievement4 ,on ,italian soil one's
 eye is offended by every false note in 
the general harmony4 ,the present1 in   
which the past still lives1 fills one's 
consciousness1 and the repose of sthetic
 contemplation is the chief emotion4    
,but a man who rushes from one          

undertaking to another seeks no unity or
 harmony in the present2 his retina is  
not sensitive to ugliness1 because his  
eye is forever peering into the future2 
and if the present were to be complete  
and finished1 the enterprising spirit   
would regret such perfection and account
 it a loss--a restriction of his        
freedom1 an end to his creation4 ,it    
would mean mere pleasure and not action4
 ,in this sense the ,american expresses 
his pure idealism in speaking of the    
8glory of the imperfect40  ,the ,italian
 is not to be disparaged for being      
unlike the ,american and for letting his
 eye rest on pleasing contours without  
asking what new undertakings could be   
devised to make reality express his own 
spirit of initiative4 ,one must also not
 blame the ,american if he does not     
scrutinize his vistas with the eye of a 
,florentine1 if he is not offended by   
the ugly remains of his nation's past1  
the scaffolding of civilization1 or if  
he looks at them with pride1 noting how 

restlessly his countrymen have stuck to 
their work in order to shape a future   
from the past4 ,in fact1 one can hardly 
take a step in the ,new ,world without  
everywhere coming on some crying        
contrast between mighty growth and the  
oppressive remains of outgrown or       
abortive activities4 ,as one comes down 
the monumental steps of the             
,metropolitan ,museum1 in which         
priceless treasures of art are          
collected1 one sees in front of one a   
wretched1 tumbled-down hut where sundry 
refreshments are sold1 on a dirty       
building-lot with a broken fence4 ,it   
looks as if it had been brought from the
 annual county fair of some remote      
district into this wealthiest street of 
the world4  ,of course such a thing is  
strikingly offensive1 but it disturbs   
only a person who is not looking with   
the eye of the ,american1 who can       
therefore not understand the true       
ethical meaning of ,american culture1   
its earnest looking forward into the    

future4 ,if the incomplete past no      
longer met the ,american's eye in all   
its poverty and ugliness and smallness1 
he would have lost the mainspring of his
 life4 ,that which is complete does not 
interest him1 while that which he can   
still work on wholly fascinates and     
absorbs him4 ,it is true here1 as in    
every department of ,american life1 that
 superficial polish would be only an    
imitation of success2 friction and that 
which is sthetically disorganized1 but  
for this very reason ethically valuable1
 give to his life its significance and  
to his industry its incomparable        
progress4                               
,,chapter ,,twelve                      
,the ,economic ,rise   ,introite1 nam et
 hic dii sunt--here1 too1 the gods are  
on their throne4 ,the exploiting of the 
country1 the opening of the mines1 the  
building of factories and railroads1    
trade and barter1 are not in question   
here as the mere means of livelihood1   
but as a spontaneous and creative       

labour1 which is undertaken specifically
 in the interests of progress4 ,in this 
confession of faith we have found the   
significance of ,american industrial    
life1 in the spirit of self-initiative  
its greatest strength4 ,only such men as
 desire to take part in the economic era
 of creation1 to meet their neighbours  
openly and trustingly and to rely on    
their spoken word1 in short1 to believe 
in the intrinsic worth of industry--only
 such men can weave the wonderful fabric
 of ,new ,world industry4 ,a race of men
 carrying on commerce merely in order to
 live1 feeling no idealism impelling    
them to industry1 would never1 even in  
this richly-endowed ,america1 have      
produced such tangible results or gained
 such power4  ,nevertheless1 the country
 itself must not be forgotten by reason 
of its inhabitants4 ,it was the original
 inducement to the inhabitants to turn  
so industriously to the spade and       
plough4 ,where the spade has dug1 it has
 brought up silver and gold1 coal and   

iron2 and where the plough has turned1  
it has evoked a mammoth growth of wheat 
and corn4 ,seas and rivers1 bays and    
mountains have produced a happy         
configuration of the land and pointed   
out the routes for traffic2 oil-wells   
have flown freely1 and the waterpower is
 inexhaustible2 the supply of fish and  
fowl1 the harvests of tropical fruits   
and of cotton have been sufficient to   
supply the world4 ,and all this was     
commenced by nature1 before the first   
,american set his foot on the continent4
  ,and while it was the lavish hand of  
nature which first brought prosperity to
 the inhabitants1 this prosperity       
became1 in its turn1 a new stimulus to  
the economic exploitation of further    
natural resources4 ,it provided the     
capital for new undertakings2 it also   
helped on the extraordinary growth of   
economic demand1 it made the farmer and 
the artisan the best patrons of thriving
 industries1 and made the economic      
circulatory system pulsate with         

increasing strength through the national
 organization4  ,there are1 besides the 
purely economic conditions1 certain     
political and administrative ones4      
,american history has developed in a    
free atmosphere such as cannot be had in
 countries with ancient traditions1 and 
which1 even in the ,new ,world1 at least
 in the eastern part of it1 is          
disappearing day by day4 ,of course1    
such elbow-room has not been an         
unqualified blessing4 ,it has been      
attended by evils and has made          
sacrifices necessary4 ,but these have   
always touched the individual4 ,the     
community has gained by the freedom of  
economic conditions4 ,for instance1     
railroads1 such as were built through   
the whole ,west during the pioneer years
 of ,america1 would not be permitted for
 a moment by a ,german government4 ,such
 flimsy bridges1 such rough-and-ready   
road-beds1 such inadequate precautions  
on crossings were everywhere a serious  
menace2 but those who were injured were 

soon forgotten1 while the economic      
blessings of the new railroads which    
transported hundreds of thousands of    
people into uninhabited regions1 and    
left them to gather the treasure of the 
soil1 continued4 ,they could never have 
been built if people had waited until   
they were able to construct by approved 
methods4 ,after the great pioneer       
railroads had accomplished their        
mission1 the time came when they were   
replaced by better structures4 ,and they
 have been built over many times1 until 
to-day the traffic is sufficiently safe4
 ,it still belongs1 in a way1 to the    
confession of faith of this religion of 
self-initiative that each man shall be  
free to risk not only his property1 but 
also his own life1 for the sake of      
enterprise4 ,no board of commissioners  
may interfere to tell an ,american not  
to skirt a precipice4  ,such instances  
of complete freedom1 where life and limb
 are unsafe1 disappear day by day4      
,guide-posts are put at every railroad  

crossing1 and civil authorities take    
more and more interest in safety        
appliances for factories and in the     
security of city buildings2 in fact1    
hygienic regulations in some ,eastern   
cities to-day go even further than they 
go in ,germany4 ,nevertheless1 in such  
matters as involve not dangers1 but     
merely traditions or preferences1 a     
large amount of democratic freedom can  
still be had in the ,new ,world4 ,over  
the broad prairies there are no signs   
lawfully warning persons to turn to the 
right and not to walk on the grass4 ,the
 ,american himself not only regards this
 country as the land of 8unlimited      
possibilities10 but more specially he   
regards the ,european ,continent as the 
country of impossible limitations4      
,bureaucracy is to his mind the worst   
enemy of industrial life1 because it    
everywhere provides the most trivial    
obstacles to that spirit of adventure   
and daring which seeks to press on into 
the future2 and in the end it is sure to

 bring all enterprise to a standstill4  
,it is important for this freedom that  
the whole economic legislation is       
regulated1 first of all1 not by the     
,union1 but by the several states1 and  
that thus every variety of industrial   
life going on in any state shall be so  
well represented that every attempt to  
bring up artificial restraints shall be 
nipped in the bud4  ,to this negative   
factor is to be added a positive one4   
,every one knows that the mighty growth 
of the ,american industry and of its    
whole commercial life would not have    
been possible without the carefully     
adapted protective tariff of recent     
years4 ,the ,dingley and the ,mc,kinley 
tariff laws have not1 of course1        
produced that great advance1 but they   
have powerfully aided it4 ,and at the   
same time enormous sums have been       
derived therefrom and expended by the   
government in improving the water-ways  
and harbours4 ,the government has spent 
vast sums in helping agriculture1 and   

done much to irrigate the arid portions 
of the country4 ,economic problems in   
general receive great consideration in  
,washington and in every state capital4 
,besides such general political         
activities1 there are more special ones4
 ,the nation's agriculture1 for         
instance1 is tremendously assisted by   
scientific researches1 which are carried
 on by the ,department of ,agriculture4 
,the army of ,american consuls is       
incomparably alert in seeking out       
favourable openings for ,american trade 
with other nations1 and the consular    
reports are distributed promptly and    
free of charge from ,washington to all  
parts of the country4  ,the political   
attitude of the nation works in still   
another way to favour general           
prosperity4 ,the country has a unified  
organization which favours all economic 
enterprises4 ,although seventeen times  
as large as ,germany1 the country is    
nevertheless one splendid unit without  
internal customs barriers1 under one    

law1 and free from sectional distrusts4 
,for1 wherever commercial intercourse   
goes on between different states1 the   
common federal law is in force4         
,perhaps even more important than the   
national unity is the democratic        
equality throughout the population4     
,however diverse these eighty million   
people may be1 they form a homogeneous  
purchasing public4 ,every new style or  
fashion spreads like wild-fire from ,new
 ,york to ,san ,francisco1 and in spite 
of their differences1 the day-labourer  
and the millionaire both have a certain 
similarity of tastes and requirements1  
so that the industrial producer and the 
distributor find it easy to make and    
keep in stock all articles which are    
called for4 ,instead of the freakish and
 fanciful demand which makes the        
,european industrial life so difficult1 
everybody in ,america wants the same    
pattern as his neighbour1 perhaps a     
little finer and better1 but still the  
same general thing4 ,and this brings it 

about that producers can manufacture in 
large quantities1 and wholesale         
production and the ease of placing wares
 on the market encourage again the      
uniformity of taste and requirement1 and
 help on the popular tendency toward    
mutual imitation throughout the country4
  ,but now1 instead of recounting the   
conditions which have helped to make the
 story1 we must narrate the story       
itself4 ,the ,german can listen to it   
with pleasure1 since it is about one of 
,germany's best patrons--a nation which 
always buys from ,germany in proportion 
to its own prosperity1 and one whose    
adversity would bring misfortune to     
,germany4 ,the story can be most quickly
 told in figures1 as is the favourite   
,american way2 for1 if the ,american has
 a special mania1 it is to heap up all  
sorts of statistics4  ,we shall best    
study the statistical variations through
 long intervals of time1 in order not to
 be led astray by temporary             
fluctuations4 ,when1 a few years ago1 an

 industrial and financial relapse had   
set in in ,germany1 and ,england was    
suffering from the war in the           
,transvaal1 while ,america was          
undertaking a gigantic work of          
organization which promised to have     
marvellous results1 the ,united ,states 
suddenly appeared as the economic       
mistress of the world1 to the           
astonishment and apprehension of all    
other countries4 ,soon after that       
,german trade and industry began to     
revive and ,england recovered itself1   
while in ,america industrial            
extravagance and financial inflation    
were bringing about their necessary evil
 consequences4 ,then the public opinion 
of other countries swung at once to the 
other extreme1 as if ,america's success 
had been entirely spurious4 ,people     
suddenly turned about and believed that 
the time of ,american prosperity was    
over1 rejoiced with ghoulish glee over  
the weakness of the enemy1 despised his 
foolhardiness1 and gossiped about his   

industrial leaders4 ,but it was only in 
other countries that men like ,schwab1  
the president of the ,steel ,trust1 had 
been looked on as a ,napoleon of        
industry2 and when he was not able to   
retain his position1 ,european papers   
were as pleased as if a ,napoleonic army
 had been wiped out4 ,such insignificant
 events of the day are able to distort  
the judgment of great movements2        
picturesque mishaps strike the          
attention1 and are taken to indicate    
great movements4  ,the actual advance in
 economic life of the ,united ,states   
was not such a sudden thing as it seemed
 to nervous ,europe1 nor was there any  
reverse such as ,europe delighted to    
record4 ,to be sure1 ,america has passed
 through several great crises2 but her  
history is nevertheless one of steady1  
even and healthy development in economic
 organization4 ,the ,american himself is
 inclined to believe that severe crises 
are not to be feared any more2 but      
however that may be1 the long-predicted 

downfall has not come to-day1 and is not
 even in sight4 ,the general progress   
persists1 and the decline in            
stock-market securities1 which has been 
here and there abroad the signal for    
alarm1 is itself a part of the sound    
development4 ,when one looks at the     
whole rise one realizes that the young  
nation's development has been great and 
powerful1 and such as was never before  
known in the history of civilization4   
,figures will show this better than     
adjectives4 ,what now do the ,united    
,states produce8 ,the wheat of the      
country amounted1 in the year #ahej1 to 
only #ajj million bushels2 in #ahgj to  
#bce millions2 #ebb millions in #aijj2  
#fcg in #aijc4 ,the corn harvest was    
#eib millions in #ahej2 #a1jid in #ahgj2
 #b1aje in #aijj2 #b1bdd in #aijc4      
,there were #eb million pounds of wool  
in #ahej2 #afb in #ahgj2 #bhh in #aijj2 
#caf in #aijb4 ,but cotton is 8king40   
,in #ahej the cotton harvest amounted to
 #b4c million bales2 #c4a millions in   

#ahgj2 #i4d in #aijj and #aj4g in #aijc2
 #aaj1jjj tons of sugar were produced in
 #ahej and last year #caj1jjj tons4 ,the
 dreaded ,american petroleum was not    
flowing in #ahej4 ,it appears in the    
statistical tables of #ahei in the      
modest quantity of #h1djj gallons2 in   
#ahgj there were #bbj million gallons2  
in #aijj1 #b1ffa million1 and in #aijc  
there were #c1gjg million gallons4 ,the 
coal output of the country began in     
#ahbj with #cfe tons and amounted in    
#ahej to #c million tons2 in #ahgj to   
#cc million2 in #aijj to #bdj million2  
in #aijb to #bfi million tons4 ,in the  
middle of the last century #efc1jjj tons
 of iron ore were mined2 #a4f million   
tons in #ahgj2 #ac4g in #aijj1 and #ah  
million in #aijc4 ,the manufacture of   
steel began in #ahfg with #ai1jjj tons  
and in #ahgj amounted to #fh1jjj tons1  
to #aj4a million tons in #aijj2 #ad4i   
millions in #aijb4 ,of copper1 #fej tons
 were mined in #ahej2 #ab1jjj tons in   
#ahgj2 #bgj1jjj tons in #aijj2 and      

#bid1jjj tons in #aijb4 ,the silver     
production in the middle of the century 
was estimated at #ej1jjj2 in #ahgj at   
#af1jjj1jjj1 and in #aijj at            
#gd1jjj1jjj2 in the last three years it 
has gone back to #ga1jjj1jjj4 ,the      
highest point was reached in #ahib1 with
 #hb1jjj1jjj4 ,on the other hand1 the   
production of gold has grown steadily in
 the last twenty years1 although it had 
reached its first high point back in the
 fifties4 ,in the year #ahec1           
#fe1jjj1jjj worth of gold was produced4 
,the amount decreased slowly but        
steadily to #cj1jjj1jjj in the year     
#ahhc1 and has since risen almost       
steadily until in #aijc it amounted to  
#gd1jjj1jjj4 ,the total output of       
minerals was valued at #bah1jjj1jjj in  
#ahgj1 and #a1jfc1jjj1jjj in #aijj4     
,this steady growth of natural products 
is repeated in the agricultural and     
industrial spheres4 ,the number of farms
 was given at #a4d million in the middle
 of the last century1 with the total    

value of #c1ifg1jjj1jjj2 in #ahgj there 
were #b4f million farms valued at       
#h1idd1jjj1jjj2 and in #aijj there were 
#e4g million1 valued at #bj1ead1jjj1jjj4
 ,in #ahgj1 #e4i million people engaged 
in agriculture2 #aj4d million in #aijj4 
,the total value of agricultural        
products amounted1 in #ahgj1 to         
#a1ieh1jjj1jjj1 and in #aijj to         
#c1gfd1jjj1jjj4 ,all domestic           
animals--cattle1 horses1 mules1 sheep   
and pigs--amounted in #ahej to          
#edd1jjj1jjj2 in #ahgj to               
#a1hbb1jjj1jjj2 in #aijj to             
#b1bbh1jjj1jjj1 and in #aijc to         
#c1ajb1jjj1jjj4  ,the greatest growth1  
however1 is shown in industry4 ,in #ahej
 there were #abc1jjj industrial plants  
with #ieg1jjj employees1 paying wages of
 #bcf1jjj1jjj1 and with an output worth 
#a1jai1jjj1jjj4 ,in #ahgj there were    
#beb1jjj factories1 with #b million     
workmen1 paying #gge1jjj1jjj in wages1  
and with an output worth #d1bcb1jjj1jjj2
 in #ahij there were #c1eej1jjj         

factories1 #d4g million workmen1 a      
salary list of #b1bhc1jjj1jjj1 and a    
product worth #i1cgb1jjj1jjj4 ,in #aijj 
there were #eab1jjj factories1 with #e4g
 million workmen1 a pay-roll of         
#bgc1ejj1jjj1 and an output worth       
#ac1jci1jjj1jjj4 ,statistics here cannot
 be brought up to the present time1     
since a careful industrial census is    
made only every ten years2 but this     
glance over the half century shows at   
once that there has been a very steady  
increase1 and that it is no mushroom    
growth due to the recently enacted      
protective tariffs4  ,the economic rise 
of the nation is well reflected in its  
foreign commerce4 ,if we disregard the  
imports and exports of precious metals1 
the international commerce of the       
,united ,states shows a total import in 
the year #aijc of #a1jbe1gai1bcg1 and a 
total export of #a1dbj1ada1fgi4 ,we must
 analyze these two figures in several   
ways1 and compare them with similar     
figures in the past4 ,in one way they   

show a decrease1 since in the year #aijc
 the exports exceeded the imports by    
over #cid millions1 but in the preceding
 year by #dgg millions4 ,this           
unfavourable change is not from any     
decrease in exports1 but from a         
remarkable increase in imports2 in fact1
 the exports were #ch millions more than
 during the previous year1 while the    
imports were #abb millions more4  ,thus1
 in the year #aijc1 the total foreign   
trade of the ,united ,states exceeded   
that of all previous years1 and reached 
the astonishing figure of               
#b1dde1jjj1jjj4 ,although before the    
year #aijj the total trade was less than
 two billions1 it reached the sum of one
 billion as early as the year #ahgb2    
exports and imports together amounted in
 #ahcj to #acd millions2 in #ahej to    
#cag millions2 in #ahfj to #fhg         
millions2 in #ahgj to #hbh millions2 in 
#ahhj to #a1ejc millions2 in #ahij to   
#a1fdg millions1 and in #aijj to #b1bdd 
millions4 ,during this period the       

balance of trade shifted frequently4 ,in
 #ahjj1 for instance1 there was an      
import balance of #ba millions1 and     
similarly in the decades ending in      
#ahaj1 #ahbj1 and #ahcj4 ,in the decade 
which ended in #ahdj there was an       
average export balance of #bi millions4 
,the tables turned in the next decade   
ending in the year #ahej1 when there was
 an average import balance of #bi       
millions2 in the decade ending #ahfj1 of
 #bj millions1 and in the following     
decade1 of #dc millions4 ,but then the  
exports suddenly increased1 and have    
exceeded the imports for the last       
twenty-five years4 ,in #ahhj the imports
 were #ffg millions1 and the exports    
#hce millions2 in #ahij the imports were
 #ghi millions1 and the exports #heg    
millions2 in #aijj the imports were #hdi
 millions1 and the exports #a1cid       
millions2 in #aija the imports were     
#hbc1 and the exports #a1dhg2 in #aijb  
the imports were #ijc1 and the exports  
#a1cha2 and in #aijc1 as given above1   

the imports were #a1jbe1 and the exports
 #a1dbj millions4  ,let us now look at  
the ,american imports more closely4     
,letting all our figures represent      
million dollars1 we learn that during   
the last year imports of breadstuffs and
 live animals were #bab2 of raw         
materials #chc2 of half-finished        
products #ig2 of manufactured products  
#afi1 and of articles of luxury in      
general #ade4 ,the food products        
imported1 which comprise to-day #ba per 
cent4 of all imports1 comprised #ca per 
cent4 in #ahhj2 and at that time the    
necessary manufactured articles were    
also a larger proportion of the whole1  
being then #bj per cent4 against #af per
 cent4 to-day4 ,on the other hand1 raw  
materials1 which were then #be per      
cent41 are to-day #ch per cent41 and    
articles of luxury have increased from  
#aj to #ad per cent4 of the total       
imports4 ,of the half-manufactured      
products imported1 the most important   
were the chemicals1 valued at #ch       

millions2 then come wooden wares worth  
#aa1 oil worth #aj1 iron worth #h1 skins
 and leather worth #e millions4 ,of raw 
materials the most valuable were skins  
and furs1 which amounted last year to   
#eh millions2 raw silk was next1 with   
#ej2 vegetable fibres1 such as hemp1    
#cd2 rubber #cb1 iron and steel #cj4    
,this last figure is an exceptional one1
 and is due to the fact that during the 
year the ,american steel industries were
 taxed to their utmost by consumers'    
demands4 ,in the year #aijb the iron and
 steel imports were only #i1 and in     
#aija only #c millions4 ,the imports of 
raw chemicals amounted to #bc millions1 
and tin the same2 wool #ba1 copper #bj2 
wood #aa1 and cotton #aa4  ,the exports1
 arranged according to the sources of   
production1 amounted1 last year1 to #hgc
 million dollars' worth of agricultural 
products1 #djg of factory products1 #eg 
of products of the forest1 #ci of mines1
 and #g from fisheries4 ,of the         
remainder1 #f millions were from other  

domestic sources1 and #bg had come from 
other countries4 ,the agricultural      
exports reached their highest point in  
#aija1 when they amounted to #idc1 and  
also the export of manufactured articles
 is now #c4d less than in #aija and #bf 
less than in #aijj4 ,but the statistics 
of manufactures show sufficiently that  
there has been no decrease in output1   
but merely that the home consumption has
 increased4 ,apart from these accidental
 fluctuations of the past three years1  
the exports have steadily increased4 ,in
 #ahjj the agricultural exports were #be
 millions2 the industrial #b2 in #ahej  
the former were #ajh1 the latter #ag2 in
 #ahhj they were #fhe and #ajb          
respectively1 and in #aijj they were    
#hce and #dcc4  ,if we look at the      
foreign trade with regard to the        
countries traded with1 we shall find    
,europe first in both exports and       
imports4 ,in the year #aijc the imports 
from ,europe to the ,united ,states were
 #edg1 the exports to ,europe #a1jbi2   

the imports from ,canada and ,mexico    
were #ahi1 and the exports thereto #bae4
 ,from ,south ,america the imports were 
#ajg1 the exports #da2 from ,asia the   
imports were #adg1 the exports #eh2 from
 ,australia they were #ba and #cg1 and  
from ,africa #ab and #ch4  ,the trade   
balances with individual countries in   
,europe were as follows3 ,england bought
 from the ,united ,states #ebc million  
dollars' worth1 and sold the value of   
#ahj2 then comes ,germany1 which bought 
#agd and sold #aaa2 ,france bought only 
#gj and sold #hg2 ,austria bought #f and
 sold #aj2 ,russia bought #g and sold   
the same amount4 ,after ,england and    
,germany the best purchaser was ,canada1
 which imported from the ,united ,states
 #abc and exported thereto #ed4 ,germany
 imports more from the ,united ,states  
than from any other country4 ,germany   
imports very much less from ,russia1 and
 still less from ,austria and ,great    
,britain4 ,among the countries to which 
,germany exports her wares the ,united  

,states has third place1 ,england and   
,austria having the first and second4   
,america imports from ,germany firstly  
drugs and dye-stuffs1 then manufactured 
cotton1 silk1 and iron goods1 books1    
pictures1 and works of art1 clay ware1  
china1 lithographs1 toys1 etc4 ,no other
 class amounts to more than #aj million 
marks4 ,there is a steady increase in   
almost every class1 and the total       
imports from ,germany were #ag per cent4
 larger last year than during the year  
previous2 #ga per cent4 more than in    
#ahih2 #ach per cent4 more than in      
#ahhj2 #aih per cent4 more than in      
#ahge1 and #cdc per cent4 more than in  
#ahgj4  ,the principal export of the    
,united ,states to ,germany is cotton4  
,ten years ago the amount exported was  
#cd million dollars' worth2 in #aija1 it
 was #gf2 in the following year only    
#gj1 but in the year #aijc1 #hd1 the    
amount exported in that year being      
#ieg1jjj1jjj pounds4 ,the exports of    
wheat to ,germany amounted in #ahif to  

only #j4fjh million dollars2 in the     
following year to #a4i2 in the next year
 to #c4a2 in #ahii to #g4f2 and in #aijb
 to #ad4i2 but in #aijc to only #aa4a4  
,the exports of corn fluctuate still    
more widely4 ,in the year #aija ,germany
 bought #ag millions1 in #aijc only     
#f4f4 ,the exportation of petroleum     
reached its largest figure in #aijj1    
with #h millions1 and in #ahic was #f4c4
  ,enough of these dry figures4 ,they   
would look still more striking if       
compared with the statistics of other   
countries4 ,more wheat grows in the     
,united ,states than in any other       
country1 and more corn than in all the  
other countries put together2 more      
cattle and hogs are slaughtered than in 
any other country1 and three-fourths of 
the world's cotton harvest is grown in  
the ,united ,states4 ,no other country  
mines so much coal1 petroleum1 iron1    
copper1 and lead1 or produces so much   
leather or charcoal4 ,in short1 the most
 important articles entering into       

manufactures are more plentiful than in 
any other country of the world4 ,but    
even on looking over these figures of   
international trade1 one does not get so
 adequate an impression of the immense  
economic activity as by actually seeing 
the wheels of this great machine in     
motion4 ,one must see the power stations
 at ,niagara1 the steel works of        
,pittsburg1 the slaughter-houses of     
,chicago1 the textile factories of ,new 
,england1 the printing-presses of ,new  
,york1 the watch factories of           
,massachusetts and ,illinois1 the       
grain-elevators of ,buffalo1 the mills  
of ,minneapolis1 the locomotive and ship
 works near ,philadelphia1 and the water
 front of ,new ,york ,city1 in order to 
understand the tremendous forces which  
are constantly at work4  ,a single      
factory turns out #a1ejj locomotives    
every year4 ,a ,chicago factory which   
makes harvesting machinery covers #adj  
acres1 employs #bd1jjj men1 and has made
 two million machines which are now in  

use4 ,it has fifty ships to bring its   
wood and iron1 and every day loads a    
hundred freight cars with its finished  
products4 ,and enterprise on this large 
scale is found not merely in staple     
articles1 but in more trivial wares4 ,it
 is a familiar fact that in ,germany the
 large department stores make very slow 
progress against small shops1 while in  
,america the great shops meet at once   
with popular favour4 ,their huge        
advertisements in newspapers and        
magazines vie with their shop windows in
 attracting trade4 ,it is nothing       
uncommon for the manufacturer of a      
breakfast food or some chemical         
preparation to spend over a million     
dollars a year for humorous             
advertisements4 ,in the ,ladies' ,home  
,journal one insertion on the           
advertising pages costs six dollars per 
line1 and the lines are short4 ,a short 
time ago a soap concern leased the back 
outside cover of a magazine for a period
 of time and paid #aej1jjj therefor4    

,more impressive1 however1 than anything
 that the traveller is able to see      
to-day is the comparison with what      
existed yesterday4 ,our figures have    
very well shown that the speed of       
development has been rapid everywhere   
and sometimes almost explosive4 ,a      
typical example of this is found in     
agricultural machinery4 ,the manner of  
tilling the ground was wholly           
revolutionized in #ahgj1 when the first 
ploughing-machine was offered for sale  
to the ,american farmer4 ,since then    
improvements have been made continually1
 until to-day every farmer rides on his 
machines2 and the steam-plough1 which   
sows and harrows at the same time1 has  
reduced the amount of time spent on     
these processes to one-fifteenth of what
 it formerly was1 and the cost of every 
sheaf of wheat to one-quarter4 ,the     
machines of to-day sow and fertilize at 
the same time1 and place the seeds at   
just the desired depth beneath the      
surface4 ,there are other machines which

 take the corn from the cob1 at the same
 time cutting up the cobs1 and turn out 
a bushel of corn in a minute1 for which 
a good labourer used to take two hours4 
,the threshing-flail was abandoned long 
ago1 and the combined mowing and        
threshing machine is perhaps the most   
clever invention of all4 ,it cuts the   
kernels from the stalk1 threshes and    
winnows them1 and packs them in bags2   
and all this as quickly as the horses   
are able to travel down the field4 ,the 
machines which separate the cotton from 
the cotton seed are the only thing that 
makes it possible to gather a harvest of
 ten million bales4 ,in former times it 
took a person about ten hours to remove 
the seeds from a pound and a half of    
cotton4 ,the machine cleans #g1jjj      
pounds in the same time4  ,in just the  
same way the inventive genius of the    
,american has everywhere increased the  
output of his factories4 ,his chief aim 
is to save labour1 and hence to devise  
automatic processes wherever they are   

possible1 so that turning a crank or    
touching a lever shall accomplish as    
much as hard work once accomplished4    
,this continual process of invention and
 improvement1 and the fertile           
resourcefulness of every workman and    
capitalist1 their readiness to introduce
 every improvement without delay and    
without regard to expense1 have         
contributed more to the enormous        
economic progress than all the          
protective tariff or even than the      
natural resources of the soil itself4   
,extreme jingoes see in this huge growth
 only the beginning of something yet to 
come1 and in their dreams imagine a day 
when ,america shall rule the markets of 
the world4 ,but no one should be        
deceived by such ideas4 ,the thoughtful 
,american knows very well that1 for     
instance1 the great increase of his     
export trade has by no means overcome   
all obstacles4 ,he knows that ,american 
wages are high1 and that prosperity     
makes them more so1 because the         

,american workman is better able than   
the ,european to demand his share of all
 profits4 ,also the thoughtful ,american
 does not expect to gain the ,european  
market by 8dumping0 his wares4 ,in the  
apprehension of dull times he may snatch
 an expedient for getting rid of        
accumulations which the home market will
 not take off his hands4 ,in ordinary   
times industry will not do this1 because
 it knows the demoralizing effect       
produced on the home country when it is 
known that the manufacturer is selling  
more cheaply abroad than at home4 ,the  
,american is afraid of demoralizing the 
domestic market more than anything else2
 since1 owing to the strong tendency    
toward industrial imitation1 any        
economic depression spreads rapidly1 and
 can easily cause a general collapse of 
prices4 ,even the elaborate pains taken 
to replace human labour in the ,american
 labour-saving machines are often quite 
made up for by the thoughtless waste of 
by-products and by the general          

high-handedness of conducting business4 
,while ,america has a tremendous        
advantage in the fact that coal can be  
readily brought to the industrial       
centres1 and that the products can be   
delivered cheaply throughout the        
country1 it stands under the            
disadvantage that most of its exports   
are shipped in foreign bottoms1 so that 
the freight charges go to foreigners2   
for the ,american merchant-marine is    
wholly inadequate to the needs of       
,american trade4 ,if ,america is strong 
by reason of protective tariff1 ,england
 intends1 perhaps1 to remind her        
daughter country that the ,american game
 can be played by two4 ,protection is no
 monopoly4 ,while the natural wealth of 
this country is inexhaustible1 the      
,american knows that the largest profits
 will go to the country which           
manufactures them2 and while the        
,american is energetic and intelligent  
in getting a foothold in foreign        
markets1 he finds that other nations    

also have some counterbalancing virtues 
which he neither has nor can get4 ,first
 of these is the patience to study      
foreign requirements1 and then the ways 
of guarding against wastefulness4 ,he   
has one incomparable advantage1 as we   
have seen--his economic idealism1 his   
belief in the intrinsic value of        
economic progress1 his striving to be   
economically creative in order to       
satisfy the restlessness which is in    
him4 ,the economic drawback of this     
point of view is not far to seek4 ,the  
spirit of individual initiative awakens 
in the workman the demand for equal     
rights1 and intensifies the fight       
between capital and labour more than in 
any other country1 and puts such chains 
on industry as are spared to ,america's 
competitors in the markets of the world4
 ,in short1 the thoughtful ,american    
knows very well that the markets of the 
world are to be won for his products    
only one by one1 and that he will meet  
competitors who are his equals2 that    

there will be difficulties on           
difficulties1 and that the home market  
from time to time will make heavy       
imports necessary4 ,he knows that he    
cannot hope simply to overthrow the     
industry of all ,europe1 nor to make the
 industrial captains of the ,new ,world 
dictators of the earth4  ,that which he 
does expect1 however1 is sure to happen2
 namely1 that the progress of ,america  
will be in the future as steady as it   
has been in the past4 ,the harvests of  
all the states will not always prosper1 
nor speculators be always contented with
 their profits1 but the business life of
 the nation as a whole1 unless all signs
 fail1 need fear no setbacks or serious 
panics4  ,the ,united ,states have gone 
through six severe crises--in #ahad1    
#ahai1 #ahcg1 #aheg1 #ahgc1 and #ahic4  
,there is much to indicate that the     
trite idea of the rhythmical recurrence 
of crises will be given up henceforth4  
,and although just now1 after years of  
great expansion1 contraction is setting 

in1 still the times are not to be       
compared with preceding crises1 and     
particularly not with the bitter days of
 #ahic4 ,let us examine what happened in
 that year4 ,the unhappy experiences of 
the early nineties resulted naturally   
from an abnormal expansion of credit4   
,five or six years of prosperity had    
gone before1 and therewith every        
industry which contributed to personal  
gratification was stimulated to excess4 
,an unreasonable craze for building went
 over the country1 and real estate rose 
constantly4 ,but the country had not    
developed economically in other         
directions to a corresponding degree4   
,too many superfluous undertakings had  
been started1 and houses and lands were 
everywhere heavily mortgaged4 ,as early 
as #ahij things began to tremble1 and   
three years later the final crash came4 
,more than #ae1jjj bankruptcies followed
 one another during that year1 of which 
the total obligations were #cej1jjj1jjj2
 and in the three following years       

matters were hardly any better4         
,everything was paralyzed4 ,the farmer  
was in debt1 the artisan out of         
employment1 the miner had to be fed by  
charity1 and since the purchasing power 
of millions of people was destroyed1    
there was no one to support industry and
 trade4 ,it was a veritable economic    
collapse1 with all the symptoms of      
danger2 but the organism recovered      
without the aid of a physician1 by its  
own healthy reaction1 and in such wise  
that a relapse will hardly take place in
 the future4  ,the catastrophe prepared 
for the return to strength by destroying
 many business concerns which were not  
fit to survive1 and leaving only the    
strongest in the field4 ,but this result
 is1 of course1 not a lasting one1      
because in prosperous years all sorts of
 poor businesses start up again2 good   
years stimulate superfluous production4 
,the permanent result was the lesson    
which industry learned1 in prudence and 
economy4 ,there is very much in this    

direction still to be learned1 yet the  
last crisis accomplished a great deal4  
,for instance1 in the stock-yards a     
single company had formerly thrown away 
annually portions of the animals which  
would have yielded six million pounds of
 lime1 #cj million pounds of fat1 and   
#aje million pounds of fertilizer1 and a
 few years later the total dividends of 
that company were paid by the           
by-products which had been thrown away a
 short time before4 ,the same thing has 
happened in the mines and oil-wells1 in 
the fields and in the forests4  ,owing  
to the special gift which the ,american 
has for invention1 this period brought  
out a great number of devices looking   
toward economy4 ,in iron factories and  
coal mines1 and in a thousand places    
where industry was busy1 expenses were  
cut down and profits were increased1    
more labour-saving devices were         
invented1 and all sorts of processes    
were accomplished by ingenious machines4
 ,american industry derived advantages  

from this period in which the nation had
 to be economical1 which it will never  
outlive4  ,although such great economy  
helps out in bad times1 it does not in  
itself revive trade4 ,it is difficult to
 say where and how the revival set in1  
since the most diverse factors must have
 been at work4 ,but the formation of the
 great trusts was not a cause of such   
revival1 but merely a symptom of it4    
,the real commencement seems to have    
been the great harvest which the country
 enjoyed in the fall of #ahig4 ,when    
wheat was scarce in ,russia and ,india1 
and therefore throughout the world1     
,america reaped the largest harvest in  
years1 and despite the enormous quantity
 the ,european demand carried prices up 
from week to week4 ,the farmer who in   
#ahid had received forty-nine cents for 
each bushel of wheat1 now received      
eighty-one cents1 and at the same time  
had his bins full4 ,of course there     
could be only one result4 ,the farmers  
who had been economizing and almost     

impoverished for several years became   
very prosperous1 and called for all     
sorts of things which they had had to go
 without--better wagons and farming     
implements1 better clothing1 and better 
food4 ,in a country where agriculture is
 so important1 this means prosperity for
 all industries4  ,the shops in every   
village were busy once more1 and the    
large industries again started up one by
 one4 ,the effect on the railroads was  
still more important4 ,the good times   
had stimulated the building of many     
competing lines of railroad1 which were 
very good for the country1 but less     
profitable to their owners4 ,the lean   
years just passed had brought great     
demoralization to these lines4 ,one     
railroad after another had gone into a  
receiver's hands1 and the service was   
crippled4 ,every possible cent was saved
 and coaches and road-beds were         
sparingly renewed4 ,now came an enormous
 freight demand to carry the great      
harvest to market1 and to serve the     

newly revived industries4 ,the railroads
 rapidly recovered2 their service was   
restored4 ,the railroads brought        
prosperity once more to the iron and    
steel industries2 new rails and ties    
were absolutely necessary1 and the steel
 industry started forward and set       
everything else in motion with it4      
,artisans became prosperous again and   
further stimulated the industries which 
they patronized2 coal was wanted        
everywhere1 and so the mines awakened to
 new life4  ,then the ,spanish ,war was 
begun and brought to the nation an      
unexpected amount of self-confidence1   
which quickened once more its industrial
 activity4 ,such were the internal      
conditions which made for growth1 and   
the external conditions were equally    
favourable4 ,in #ahih ,america harvested
 #fge million bushels of wheat1 and the 
enormous quantity of #aa million bales  
of cotton4 ,by chance1 moreover1 the    
production of gold increased to         
#fd1jjj1jjj2 and this1 with the enormous

 sums which foreign countries paid for  
,american grain1 considerably increased 
the money in circulation4 ,this was the 
time for the stock market to enjoy a    
similar boom4 ,during the crisis it had 
nervously withheld from activity and    
looked with distrust on the ,west and   
,south1 which were now being prospered  
by great harvests4 ,everything had      
formerly been mortgaged in those        
regions1 and from the despair of the    
,western farmer the ill-advised silver  
schemes had arisen to fill the eastern  
part of the country with anxiety4 ,but  
now the election of ,mc,kinley had      
assured the safety of the currency2 the 
silver issue was laid low2 the debts of 
the ,western farmer had been paid within
 a few years by magnificent crops1 and  
the ,western ,states had come into a    
healthy state of prosperity4 ,now the   
stock markets could pluck up courage4   
,in the stock market of ,new ,york in   
the year #ahid only #di1jjj1jjj shares  
were bought and sold4 ,in #ahig the     

market began to recover1 and #gg1jjj1jjj
 shares were exchanged2 in #ahih there  
were #aab1jjj1jjj1 and in #ahii1        
#age1jjj1jjj shares4  ,in the winter of 
#ahih-ii the formation of trusts        
commenced in good earnest1 and this was 
a glad day for the stock markets4 ,large
 amounts of capital which had been only 
cautiously offered now sought           
investment1 and since the market        
quotations could rise more quickly than 
industries could grow1 it was a         
favourable time for reorganizing        
industry and making great combinations  
with a capital proportioned to the happy
 industrial outlook4 ,in the ,state of  
,new ,jersey alone1 a state which       
specially invited all such organizations
 by means of its very lenient laws of   
incorporation1 hundreds of such         
combinations were incorporated with a   
total nominal capital of over           
#d1jjj1jjj1jjj4 ,to be sure1 in just    
this connection there was very soon a   
recoil4 ,in ,december of #ahii1 a great 

many of these watered-stock issues      
collapsed1 although the industries      
themselves went on unharmed4 ,but this  
activity of the stock market1 in spite  
of its fluctuating quotations1 was of   
benefit to industrial life4  ,meanwhile 
wealth in town and country increased1   
owing to the general activity of all    
factors4 ,in a few years the number of  
savings-banks accounts was doubled1 and 
railroads had only the one              
complaint--that they could not get      
enough cars to carry all the wheat1     
corn1 wood1 iron1 cattle1 coal1 cotton1 
and manufactures offered for            
transportation4 ,in two years the number
 of money-orders sent through the       
post-offices increased by #g millions1  
and the number of letters and packages  
by #cfa millions4 ,now1 too1 came a time
 of magnificent philanthropy2 private   
endowments for education and art        
increased in one year more than         
#ej1jjj1jjj4  ,along with all this came 
an increase in foreign trade2 here1 too1

 bad times had prepared the way4 ,when  
the home market was prostrate1 industry 
had sought with great energy to get a   
footing in foreign markets2 and by low  
prices1 assiduous study of foreign      
demands1 and good workmanship1 it had   
slowly conquered one field after        
another1 so that when good times came   
there was a splendid foundation built   
for a foreign commerce4 ,america sold   
bicycles and agricultural machinery1    
boots1 cotton cloth1 paper1 and watches1
 and eventually rails1 bridges1 and     
locomotives in quantities which would   
never have been thought of before the   
panic4 ,and the country became at the   
same time more than ever independent of 
,european industry4 ,in #ahij ,america  
bought #ceg1jjj1jjj of foreign          
manufactures and sold of her own only   
#aea1jjj1jjj4 ,in #ahii its purchases   
were #ajj1jjj1jjj less and its exports  
nearly #bjj1jjj1jjj more4  ,and at the  
same time1 owing to the tremendous      
crops1 the total export of native       

products reached the sum of             
#a1bcc1jjj1jjj1 and therewith the       
,united ,states had for the first time  
reached the highest place among the     
exporting countries of the world--a     
position which had formerly belonged to 
,great ,britain4 ,the trade balance of  
the ,united ,states1 even in the first  
year of prosperity1 #ahih1 brought      
#fae1jjj1jjj into the country4 ,the year
 in which the ,american ,navy1 by a     
rapid succession of victories1          
demonstrated that the nation was        
politically a world power1 brought the  
assurance that it was no less a world   
power commercially4 ,already the        
,russian trans-,siberian ,railway was   
using ,american rails1 ,american        
companies were building bridges in      
,india1 ,american cotton goods driving  
out ,british competition in ,china1 and 
the movement was still going on4 ,one   
large harvest followed another4  ,the   
wheat harvest in #aija reached the      
unprecedented figure of #gcf million    

bushels1 and in #aijb of #ihg millions4 
,in the same year there were #fgj       
million bushels of barley1 and as many  
as #b1ebc million bushels of corn4 ,a   
corn harvest is almost always           
profitable1 because it keeps and can    
easily be stored until the right time   
comes to sell it2 and then1 too1 the    
farmers are always ready to use it for  
feed1 which further helps its price4    
,corn has done more than any other      
harvest to bring wealth into the ,west4 
,the cotton crop stayed at its          
ten-million mark1 and nearly #gj million
 barrels of petroleum flowed every year4
 ,the demands made on the railroads     
increased month by month1 until finally 
last year there were weeks in which no  
freight could be received1 because the  
freight yards were full of unloaded     
cars4 ,and at the head of everything    
moved the iron and steel industries4    
,the larger the harvests the more lively
 was the industry of the country1 and   
the more busy the factories and         

railroads became the more the iron      
industry prospered4 ,the manufacture of 
iron and steel increased steadily1 and  
in #ahih amounted to #aa4i million      
meter-tons of pig-iron1 and #i million  
of steel2 in #aijj1 to #ad of pig-iron  
and #aj of steel2 in #aijb1 to #ah and  
#ae3 while the production of the entire 
earth was only #dd and #cf respectively4
  ,but in spite of this tremendous      
growth1 the prices also rose4 ,railroads
 which in the spring had made contracts 
for new rails were able a few months    
later to sell their old rails at prices 
which were #be per cent4 higher than the
 former price of new rails1 because     
meanwhile the price of steel had risen  
enormously4 ,if it is true that the iron
 industry can be taken as an index of   
national prosperity1 there is no doubt  
at all that prosperity was here4 ,no    
city in the country experienced such a  
growth in its banking as ,pittsburg1    
where the banking transactions in #ahii 
amounted to #a1ejj1jjj1jjj4  ,this      

tempestuous expansion in every          
direction1 which lasted from #ahig to   
#aijc1 is no longer going on4 ,a        
counter-movement has set in again4 ,so  
many factors are at work that it is hard
 to say where the reaction commenced1   
although undoubtedly the great coal     
strikes were the first important        
indication4 ,the feverish building      
activity of the country is very largely 
over1 and this decrease has considerably
 affected the steel industry4 ,perhaps  
the refusal of bankers further to       
countenance the financial operations of 
the railroads has been an even more     
important matter4 ,during the years of  
prosperity the railroads had obtained   
credit so easily that the scale of      
expenditure on most railroads had become
 too lavish1 and in particular large    
sums had been spent in converting       
railroad shares into bonds4 ,now the    
financial world began to react and      
refused to furnish any more funds1      
whereon the railroads1 which were among 

the best patrons of the steel industry1 
had to retrench4 ,and this depressed the
 state of business1 and the otherwise   
somewhat diminished industry cut down   
the freight traffic4 ,other industries  
had to suffer when the building and iron
 industries declined4 ,the purchasing   
power of the working-man has decreased  
somewhat1 and general industry is a     
trifle dull4 ,this has affected stock   
quotations1 and nervousness in financial
 circles has been increased by the      
mishaps and miscalculations of          
well-known operators4 ,this has worked  
back in various directions1 and so it is
 natural that pessimists at home and the
 dear friends of the country abroad have
 predicted a panic4  ,but it will not   
come4 ,the situation has been too       
largely corrected1 and the country has  
learned a lasting lesson from previous  
years4 ,when a collapse came in the     
early nineties1 after a time of         
prosperity and over-expenditure in every
 sort of undertaking1 the national      

situation was in every way different4   
,there was a great deal of real         
weakness1 and there were many           
unnecessary and unconservative business 
ventures on foot4 ,all this is different
 to-day4 ,the credit which the railroads
 at that time had overdrawn on had been 
used to lay thousands of miles of tracks
 where as yet there was no population4  
,during the recent years of prosperity1 
on the contrary1 the railroads have been
 extended relatively little1 and the    
expenditures have been mainly for       
improved equipment and service4 ,the    
railroads have been made more efficient 
and substantial1 their indebtedness is  
less1 and the considerable contraction  
of business cannot do them serious harm4
 ,indeed1 many persons believe that the 
great strain which the boom of the last 
few years has put on the railroads has  
been a decided disadvantage to them4    
,the excessive traffic has disturbed    
regular business1 increased the danger  
from accidents1 and considerably raised 

the charges for maintenance4 ,in        
general1 the railroads would prefer a   
normal to an abnormal traffic demand4   
,the same is true of industry4 ,such    
tremendous pressure as the last few     
years have brought cannot be borne      
without loss4 ,the factories were       
obliged to hire working-men much below  
the average grade of intelligence1 and  
the slight decline of industrial demand 
has made it possible to dismiss the     
inferior men and to keep only the more  
efficient4 ,industry itself is to-day   
like the railroads1 thoroughly sound and
 prosperous1 and the small fluctuations 
in profits are not nearly so great as   
the declines in market quotations4      
,financial operations and labour are    
largely independent of each other4 ,the 
output can be undisturbed when the value
 of shares is being wiped out in the    
market4 ,american stocks do not         
represent the actual value of the       
industrial plants which have been       
combined to form a trust1 but represent 

in part certain advantages which it is  
calculated will accrue from the         
consolidation of business--economies of 
administration and obviation of         
competition4 ,the real economic life    
will not be damaged if such shares1     
which for the most part have remained in
 the strongboxes of the very rich1      
decline from their fictitious values4   
,such fluctuations have always happened1
 and may happen in the very height of   
prosperity1 without doing any harm to   
industry itself4 ,thus1 for instance1 in
 #ahih an enormous over-speculation     
commenced in copper shares4 ,their price
 was artificially raised and raised1 and
 in the summer of #ahii this house built
 of share certificates collapsed1 and   
great was the fall thereof2 but the     
price of copper itself was uninfluenced4
 ,a pound of copper in the year #ahig   
brought only the average price of #aa   
cents2 in #ahii its average price was   
#ag cents1 although the copper          
securities were going down steadily4    

,not only is industry itself on a sound 
basis1 and the improvements which it    
introduced in the last panic are not    
only still in force1 but also certain   
needs have now been met at home which   
formerly were met only by foreign       
countries2 and at the same time commerce
 has been so energetically carried into 
other countries1 that there is now a    
readier outlet than ever in case the    
domestic purchasing power should again  
be suspended4  ,but there are still more
 important factors4 ,the first of these 
is the recent and complete independence 
of this country from ,european capital4 
,since year after year the exports of   
the ,united ,states to ,europe have     
exceeded the imports by hundreds of     
millions of dollars1 the debt which     
,europe so contracted has been paid for 
the most part by returning the          
industrial and other bonds which ,europe
 owned against ,america4 ,it was this   
which had greatly contributed to the    
crisis in the early nineties2 ,europe   

withdrew her capital4 ,in #ahib the     
,united ,states paid back #ejj1jjj1jjj  
of ,european capital1 and to-day very   
little is left to pay4 ,in #ahic the    
,united ,states exported #ajh1jjj1jjj in
 gold1 but imported only #bb1jjj1jjj4   
,in the year #ahih the imports of gold  
to the ,united ,states were #aje1jjj1jjj
 more than the exports4 ,last year the  
balance was still in favour of the      
,united ,states2 and it would be        
impossible to-day1 in case of any       
stringency in the money market of the   
country1 for the withdrawal of ,european
 capital to precipitate a panic4        
,another factor is that the political   
situation is now certain1 as it was not 
at the time of the last panic4 ,the     
silver schemes of the ,west then filled 
the country with apprehension1 whereas  
to-day there are no such political      
fears4 ,however the ,presidential       
election may turn out1 there will be no 
dangerous experiments tried with the    
currency2 and even if both parties      

should mildly oppose the trusts1 the    
nation nevertheless knows that just the 
formation of these trusts has           
contributed to the steadiness and       
security of economic prosperity1 that it
 has done away with unnecessary         
competition1 has brought about an       
orderly and uniform production1 and that
 although the purchasers of watered     
stocks may have been bitten1 the        
purchasers of the finished products have
 suffered little inconvenience4  ,then  
there are two other factors whose       
significance for economic solidity      
cannot be overestimated4 ,the first of  
these is the increasing independence of 
the agricultural ,west1 and the second  
is the industrial revival of the ,south4
 ,the financial condition of the ,new   
,york ,stock ,exchange to-day no more   
represents the industrial life of the   
whole nation1 as it did ten years ago4  
,the ,west1 which before the panic of   
#ahic was up to its ears in debts owned 
by the ,east1 is now1 by reason of six  

tremendous harvests1 prosperous and     
independent1 and its purchasing power   
and business enterprise are no longer   
affected by the fluctuations of ,wall   
,street4 ,even if the shares of all ,new
 ,jersey corporations should collapse1  
the nation could continue to buy and    
sell1 produce1 manufacture1 and         
transport1 because the ,western         
agricultural states would suffer no     
relapse of prosperity4 ,they have paid  
off their mortgages and laid money by2  
the farmer has bought his daughter a    
parlour organ1 sent his sons to college1
 and bent all his energies to making his
 ,west into an economic paradise4       
,migration has once more set in from the
 ,eastern to the ,western ,states1 while
 during the poor years it had almost    
stopped2 and ,western economic influence
 is asserting itself more and more in   
the political field4  ,the same is more 
or less true of the ,south4 ,in former  
times1 whenever a cotton harvest brought
 prosperity1 the ,south still did not   

take the trouble to utilize its ample   
resources outside of the plantations4   
,it did not try to mine its coal and    
iron deposits1 nor exploit its forests1 
nor grow wheat and corn1 nor manufacture
 cotton into cloth1 nor the cottonseed  
into oil4 ,it left all this to the      
,north4 ,but during hard times the      
,south has learned its lesson1 and at   
the time of the last great revival the  
whole ,south developed an almost        
undreamed-of economic activity4 ,the    
exploitation of forests and coal and    
iron deposits made great strides1 and   
the factories turned out articles to the
 value of #b1jjj1jjj1jjj4 ,cotton is    
still the staple article of the ,south1 
but the bales no longer have to be sent 
to the ,north to be made into cloth4 ,as
 early as #ahii there were #e million   
spindles in operation1 and the          
manufacture of cotton has made the      
,south more independent than any number 
of bales produced for export could have 
made it4  ,this economic independence of

 one another of large sections of the   
country1 and at the same time of        
,european capital1 combined with the    
large increase of commerce with the     
whole world1 the improvement in economic
 appliances1 and a surprising growth in 
technical science and technical         
instruction1 has created a national     
economic situation which is so different
 from that which prevailed in the       
beginning of the nineties1 that there is
 no analogy to justify the pessimist in 
predicting another such panic4 ,it had  
to come at that time4 ,industrial forces
 had suffered a serious disaster and had
 to go back to camp in order to         
recuperate4 ,since then they have been  
striding forward1 swerving a little now 
and then1 it may be1 to avoid some      
obstacle1 but they are still marching on
 as they have marched for seven years   
with firm and steady step1 and keeping  
time with the world-power tune which the
 national government is playing4        
,,chapter ,,thirteen                    

,the ,economic ,problems   ,we have     
aimed to speak of the ,american as he   
appears in the economic world--of the   
,american in his actual economic life   
and strife--rather than merely of his   
inanimate manufactures4 ,that is1 we    
have wished specially to show what      
forces have been at work in his soul to 
keep him thus busied with progress4 ,and
 although we have gone somewhat further1
 in order to trace the economic uplift  
of the last decades1 nevertheless we    
have chiefly aimed merely to show the   
workings of his mind and heart--not the 
economic history of the ,american1 but  
the ,american as little by little he    
builds that history1 has been the point 
of interest4  ,seen from this point of  
view1 everything which stands in the    
foreground of the actual conflict       
becomes of secondary interest4 ,the     
problems leading to party grievances    
which are solved now one way1 now       
another1 and which specially concern    
different portions of society1 different

 occupations or geographical sections1  
contribute very little to reveal the    
traits that are common to all sections1 
and that must1 therefore1 belong to the 
typical ,american character4 ,if we have
 given less thought to the political    
problems of the day than to the great   
enduring principles of democracy1 we    
need still less concern ourselves with  
the disputes of the moment in the       
economic field4 ,the problems of        
protection1 of industrial organization1 
of bimetallism1 and of labour unions are
 not problems for which a solution can  
be attempted here4  ,and nevertheless1  
we must not pass by all the various     
considerations which bear on these      
questions4 ,we might neglect them as    
problems of ,american economy2 and      
purely technical matters1 like bank     
reform or irrigation1 we shall indeed   
not discuss4 ,but as problems which     
profoundly perplex the national mind1   
exercise its best powers1 and develop   
its ,americanism1 silver1 trusts1       

tariff1 and labour unions require       
minuter consideration4 ,the life and    
endeavour of the ,americans are not     
described if their passionate interest  
in such economic difficulties is not    
taken into account2 not1 once more1 as  
problems which objectively influence the
 developing nation1 but as problems     
which agitate the spirit of the         
,american4 ,an exhaustive treatment is1 
of course1 out of the question1 if for  
no other reason than that it would      
distort our perspective of things4 ,had 
we only the objective side of the       
problems to consider1 we might1 perhaps1
 doubt even whether there were any      
problems2 whether they were not rather  
simple events1 bringing in their train  
certain obvious consequences1 whether   
deplorable or desirable4 ,these economic
 problems are1 indeed1 not in the least 
problematical4 ,the silver question will
 not be brought up again2 the trusts    
will not be dissolved2 the protective   
tariff will not be taken off and labour 

unions will not be gotten rid of4 ,these
 are all natural processes1 rather than 
problems2 but the fact that these events
 work diversely on men's feelings1 are  
greeted here with delight and there with
 consternation1 and are accompanied by a
 general chorus of joy and pain1 gives  
the impression that they are problems4  
,this impression seizes the ,american   
himself so profoundly that his own      
reaction comes to be an objective factor
 of importance in making history4 ,it is
 not to be doubted that the course of   
these much-discussed economic movements 
is considerably influenced by           
prejudices1 sentiments1 and hobbies4    
,the ,silver ,question  ,perhaps the    
power of mere ideas--of those which are 
clear1 and1 even more1 those which are  
confused--is shown in none of these     
problems more strongly than in the      
silver question4 ,if any problem has    
been really solved1 it is this one2 and 
still no one can say that it has dropped
 out of the ,american mind1 although1   

for strategic reasons1 politicians      
ignore it4 ,the sparks of the fire still
 glow under the ashes of two            
,presidential campaigns4 ,the silver    
schemes have too strongly fixed public  
attention to be so quickly forgotten1   
and any day may see them revive again4  
,just here the possibility of prejudices
 which would not profit by experience   
has been remarkably large1 since the    
question of currency involves such      
complicated conceptions that fallacious 
arguments are difficult to refute4 ,and 
such a situation is just the one where  
the battle of opinions can be waged the 
hottest3 the silver question has1 in    
fact1 more excited the nation than any  
other economic problem of the last ten  
years4 ,and there can be no doubt that  
many valid arguments have been urged on 
the wrong side1 and some untenable      
theses on the right side4  ,the         
starting-point of the discussion lay in 
the law of #ahgc1 which1 for the first  
time in the ,united ,states1 excluded   

silver coin from the official currency4 
,there had already been differences of  
opinion before the passage of this law4 
,the friends of silver say that in #agib
 the ,united ,states permitted the      
coinage of both silver and gold without 
limit1 and that silver was the actual   
monetary standard4 ,and1 although by    
accidents of production the relative    
value of the precious metals1 which had 
been #ae to #a1 later became #af to #a1 
nevertheless the two metals continued to
 be regarded equally important until the
 surreptitious crime of #ahgc4 ,it was a
 secret crime1 they say1 because the law
 was debated and published at a time    
when the nation could have no clear idea
 of what it meant4 ,the ,civil ,war had 
driven gold coin out of the country1    
every one was using paper1 and no one   
stopped to ask whether this paper would 
be redeemed in gold or silver1 and no   
one was accustomed to seeing gold coins 
in circulation4 ,general ,grant1 who was
 ,president at that time1 signed the    

bill without any suspicion that it was  
anything more than a technical measure1 
much less that it was a criminal holdup 
of the nation on the part of the rich4  
,and great was the disaster2 for the law
 demonetized silver1 brought a          
stringency of gold1 lowered prices      
tremendously1 depressed the condition of
 the nation1 and brought the farmers to 
poverty1 so it was said4  ,the opponents
 of bimetallism recognize no truth in   
this story4 ,they say that in the first 
third of the nineteenth century the     
silver dollar was counted equal to the  
gold dollar1 at the ratio of #ae ounces 
to #a ounce of metal2 but since this    
ratio did not continue to correspond    
with the market price1 and the gold of  
the country went to ,europe1 because it 
there brought a better value1 the       
official ratio was changed as early as  
#ahcd to #af to #a4 ,this rate put a    
small premium on gold1 and virtually    
established a gold standard for         
,american currency4 ,the owners of      

silver mines no longer had silver coined
 in the country1 because they could get 
more money for their silver bars abroad2
 and so1 as a matter of fact1 during the
 next decade only #h million silver     
dollars were coined1 and this           
denomination virtually went out of      
circulation4 ,only the fractional silver
 currency could be kept in the country1 
and that only by resorting to the trick 
of making the coins proportionately     
lighter than the legal weight of the    
silver dollar4  ,the currency became1   
therefore1 to all intents and purposes1 
a gold one1 and nobody was discontented 
with it1 because silver was then less   
mined4 ,from #ahea to #ahee1 for        
instance1 the average silver production 
of the ,united ,states was only         
#cge1jjj1 while that of gold was        
#fb1jjj1jjj4 ,then came the lean years  
of the ,rebellion4 ,the government      
borrowed from the banks1 in the autumn  
of #ahfa1 #ajj1jjj1jjj in gold1 and in  
the following year issued #aej1jjj1jjj  

of unsecured greenbacks4 ,thereupon the 
natural laws of exchange drove all sound
 currency out of the country1 and       
#aej1jjj1jjj more greenbacks were soon  
issued4 ,the premium on gold went higher
 and higher1 and reached its highest    
point in #ahfd1 when the price was #ahe 
per cent4 of the normal value4 ,after   
the war confidence was restored1 the    
paper dollar rose from #dc to #hj cents2
 but the quantity of paper in           
circulation was so tremendous that      
metallic money was never seen1 and not  
until the early seventies did conditions
 become solid enough for the treasury to
 take steps to redeem the greenbacks4   
,but this was just the time when all the
 civilized nations were adopting the    
gold standard--a time in which the      
production of gold had become incredibly
 large4 ,the two decades between #ahej  
and #ahgj had brought five times as much
 gold bullion into the world as the     
preceding two decades1 and the leading  
financiers of all countries were agreed 

that it was high time to make gold the  
universal standard of exchange4 ,the    
general movement was begun in the       
conference of #ahfg held in ,paris4     
,germany led in adopting the gold       
standard2 the ,united ,states followed  
in #ahgc4 ,the gold dollar1 which since 
the middle of the century had been the  
actual standard of ,american currency1  
became now the official standard1 and   
silver coinage was discontinued4 ,there 
was nothing of secrecy or premeditated  
injustice1 for the debates lasted       
through several sessions of ,congress4  
,if1 nevertheless1 the so-called crime  
remained unnoticed1 and so many         
,senators failed to know what they were 
doing1 this was not because the         
transactions went on in secret1 nor     
because the use of paper money had made 
every one forget the problems of        
metallic currency1 but rather because no
 one felt at that time that he would be 
injured by the new measure1 although the
 attention of everybody had been called 

to the discussions4 ,the owners of      
silver mines themselves had no interest 
in having their mineral made into coin1 
and no one was disturbed to see silver  
go out of circulation4 ,all the trouble 
and all the hue and cry about a secret  
plot did not commence until several     
years later1 when1 for entirely         
independent reasons1 circumstances had  
considerably changed4 ,the step had been
 taken1 however1 and the principle has  
not been repudiated4 ,the unlimited     
coinage of silver has not been permitted
 by the ,united ,states since #ahgc4    
,nevertheless1 silver was destined soon 
again to become regular currency4 ,hard 
times followed the year #ahgc1 prices   
fell and the value of silver fell with  
them1 and bimetallic coinage had been   
discontinued4 ,bimetallists connected   
these facts1 and said that the price of 
silver fell because the commercial world
 had stopped coining it4 ,for this      
reason the only other coined metal1     
which was gold1 became dear1 which      

meant1 of course1 that prices became    
cheap1 and that the farmer got a low    
price for his harvests4 ,and thus the   
population was driven into a sort of    
panic4  ,a ready expedient was          
suggested3 it was to coin silver once   
more1 since that would carry off the    
surplus and raise the price2 while on   
the other hand1 the increased amount of 
coin in circulation would bring prices  
up and restore the prosperity of the    
farmers and artisans4 ,this is the main 
argument which was first heard in #ahgf1
 and was cried abroad with increasing   
loudness until twenty years later it was
 not merely preached1 but shouted by    
frenzied masses1 and still in #aijj1    
misled the ,democratic party4 ,but the  
desire for an increased medium of       
circulation is by no means the same as  
the demand for silver coinage4 ,after   
the ,civil ,war the public had demanded 
more greenbacks just as clamorously as  
it now demanded silver4 ,it was also    
convinced that nothing but currency was 

needed to make high values1 no matter   
what the value of the currency itself4  
,so far as these main facts are         
concerned1 which have been so unjustly  
brought into connection1 there can be no
 doubt that the depreciation of silver  
was brought about only in very small    
part by the coinage laws4 ,to be sure1  
the cessation of silver coinage by      
several large commercial powers had its 
effect on the value of silver2 but      
,india1 ,china1 and other countries     
remained ready to absorb large amounts  
of silver for coinage2 and in fact the  
consumption of silver increased steadily
 for a long time4 ,the real point was   
that the production of silver increased 
tremendously at just the time when the  
production of gold was falling off4     
,from #ahea to #ahge1 #abg1jjj1jjj worth
 of gold on an average was mined        
annually1 but from #ahgf to #ahij the   
average was only #ajh1jjj1jjj2 while1 on
 the other hand1 the average production 
of silver in those first twenty-five    

years was only #ea1jjj1jjj1 but in the  
following fifteen years came up to      
#aaf1jjj1jjj4 ,the output of gold       
therefore decreased #ae per cent41 while
 that of silver increased #abg per cent4
 ,of course1 then silver depreciated4   
,now the future was soon to show that   
increased coinage of silver would not   
raise its price4 ,above all1 it was an  
arbitrary misconstruction to ascribe bad
 times to the lack of circulating       
medium4 ,later times have shown that1   
under the complicated credit system of  
the country1 prices do not depend on the
 amount of legal tender in circulation  
in the industrial world4 ,the speed of  
circulation is a factor of equal        
importance with the amount of it2 and1  
most important of all1 is the total     
credit1 which has no relation to the    
amount of metallic currency4 ,when more 
money was coined it remained for the    
time being unused1 and could not be put 
in circulation until the industrial     
situation recovered from its depression4

  ,thus the bad times of the seventies  
were virtually independent of coinage   
legislation3 but public agitation had   
set in1 and as early as #ahgh met with  
considerable success4 ,in that year the 
so-called ,bland ,bill was passed1 over 
the veto of ,president ,hayes1 which    
required the treasury of the ,united    
,states to purchase and coin silver bars
 to the value of not less than #b       
million1 and not more than four million1
 dollars every month4 ,this measure     
satisfied neither the one side nor the  
other4 ,the silverites wanted unlimited 
coinage of silver2 for1 if a limit was  
put1 the standard was still gold1 even  
though the price of silver should be    
somewhat helped4 ,the other side saw    
simply that the currency of the country 
would be flooded with depreciated metal1
 and one which was really an unofficial 
and illegal circulating medium4 ,it was 
known that the silver1 after being      
coined into dollars1 would be worth more
 than its market value1 and it was      

already predicted that all the actual   
gold of the country would be taken      
abroad and replaced by silver4 ,the     
8gold bugs0 also saw that this          
legislation would artificially stimulate
 the mining of silver if there should   
actually be any increase in its price4  
,the new law was thus a bad compromise  
between two parties1 although to many it
 seemed like a safe middle way between  
two dangers4 ,some recognized in the    
unlimited coinage of silver the dangers 
of a depreciated currency1 but believed 
that the adoption of the gold standard  
would be no less dangerous1 because gold
 was too scarce to satisfy the needs of 
the commercial world4 ,it was said that 
free silver would poison the social     
organism and free gold would strangle   
it1 and that limited silver coinage1    
along with unlimited gold coinage1 would
 therefore be the only safe thing4  ,but
 it soon appeared that such legal       
provisions would have no effect in      
restoring the value of the white metal4 

,although the government facilitated in 
every way the circulation of the new    
silver coins1 they nevertheless came    
back to the treasury4 ,no matter how    
many silver dollars were distributed as 
wages1 they found their way at once to  
the retail shops1 then to the banks1 and
 then to ,washington4 ,it appeared that 
the nation could not keep more than     
sixty or seventy million dollars' worth 
in circulation1 while there were already
 more than #djj1jjj1jjj lying idle in   
,washington4 ,the banks boycotted silver
 at first2 but the more important fact  
was that the price of silver did not    
rise1 but kept on falling4 ,it was the  
amount produced and naturally consumed1 
and not the amount coined1 which        
regulated the price of silver4 ,in the  
year #ahhi the relative values of silver
 and gold were as #bb to #a2 and the    
true value of the silver dollar coined  
under the ,bland ,bill was only         
seventy-two cents4 ,congress now        
proposed to take a more serious measure 

looking toward a higher price for       
silver4  ,in ,july1 #ahij1 a law was    
passed whereby the treasury was obliged 
to buy four and one-half million ounces 
of silver every month at the market     
price1 and against this to issue        
treasury certificates to the            
corresponding amount1 which should be   
redeemable either in gold or silver2    
since1 as that law declared1 the ,united
 ,states asserted the equal status of   
the two metals4 ,the law did not        
prescribe the number of silver          
certificates which were to be issued1   
since the weight of silver to be        
purchased was fixed and the value of it 
depended on the market4 ,only a few     
months afterward it became clear that   
even this energetic stroke would not    
much help the price of silver4 ,the     
silver and gold dollars would have been 
really equal to each other if an ounce  
of silver had brought a market price of 
#a4bi4 ,in ,august1 #ahij1 silver came  
up to #a4ba an ounce1 and fell the next 

year to #a4jj1 and in #ahib to #j4he4   
,but while the price of silver was      
falling1 gold was rapidly leaving the   
country4  ,in ,april1 #ahic1 the gold   
reserve of the treasury fell for the    
first time below the traditional hundred
 millions4 ,it was a time of severe     
economic depression4 ,the silverites    
still believed that the rise of silver  
had not commenced because its purchase  
was restricted to monthly installments1 
and they clamoured for unlimited        
purchases of silver4 ,but the nation    
opposed this policy energetically4      
,president ,cleveland called an extra   
session of ,congress1 and after a bitter
 fight in the ,senate1 the law providing
 for the purchases of silver and issue  
of silver certificates was repealed1 in 
,november of #ahic4 ,the ,democratic    
party had split on this measure1 and    
then arose the two divisions1 the ,gold 
,democrats who followed ,cleveland1 and 
the ,silver ,democrats who found a      
leader a year later in ,bryan1 and      

dictated the policy of the ,democratic  
party for the following decade4         
,looking on ,american economic history  
from the early seventies to the middle  
nineties without prejudice1 one cannot  
doubt not only that the entire          
legislation relative to coinage has had 
scarcely any influence on the price of  
gold and silver--since the price of     
silver has fallen steadily in spite of  
the enormous amounts purchased--but also
 that the general industrial situation1 
the movement of prices1 and the volume  
of business have been very little       
affected by these financial measures4   
,the strongest influence which they have
 had has been a moral one4 ,business    
became active and foreign commerce      
revived as soon as the confidence in the
 ,american currency was restored4 ,this 
result1 of course1 contradicted the     
expectations and wishes of the apostles 
of silver4 ,international confidence    
declined in proportion as a legal tender
 standing for a depreciated metal was   

forced into circulation4 ,it was not the
 amount of silver1 but the fear of other
 countries as to what that amount might 
become1 which most injured ,american    
commerce4 ,and the great achievement of 
,cleveland's ,administration was to     
reassure the world of our solidity4     
,otherwise the economic fluctuations    
depended on events which were very      
little related to the actual amount of  
gold on hand4 ,if1 in certain years1 the
 amount of circulation increased1 it was
 the result rather than the cause of    
industrial activity2 and when1 in other 
years1 a speculative movement collapsed1
 less money was used afterward1 but the 
shortage of money did not cause the     
collapse4 ,then1 too1 harvests were     
sometimes good and at other times bad1  
and foreign commerce changed in         
dependence on quite external events in  
,europe4 ,there were1 moreover1 certain 
technical improvements in agricultural  
and industrial processes which rapidly  
lowered prices and which took effect at 

independent times and seasons4  ,the    
year #ahic was a time in which a great  
many factors worked in one direction4   
,the overbuilding of railways and a too 
great expansion of iron industries had  
been followed by a terrible reaction2 a 
surplus of commodities on all the       
markets of the world caused prices to   
fall1 and the international distrust of 
silver legislation in the ,united       
,states made the situation worse4       
,european capital1 on which all         
undertakings then depended1 was         
hurriedly withdrawn2 thousands of       
businesses failed1 and small men fell   
into debt4 ,the actual panic did not    
last long1 and ,cleveland's successful  
move of #ahic restored the international
 confidence4 ,but the situation of the  
general public was not so readily       
improved4 ,this was the psychological   
moment in which the silver question1    
which had hitherto interested relatively
 restricted circles1 so suddenly came to
 excite the entire nation that in #ahif 

the main issue of the ,presidential     
campaign was silver or gold currency4   
,the silver craze spread most rapidly   
among the farmers1 who had suffered more
 from overproduction than had the       
manufacturers4 ,the manufacturer sold   
his wares more cheaply1 but in greater  
quantities1 because he improved his     
methods1 and1 moreover1 he bought his   
raw materials more cheaply4 ,but the    
fall in the prices of wheat and corn and
 other agricultural products which      
affected the farmer was only in small   
part due to more intensive cultivation1 
but rather to the greater area of land  
which had been planted4 ,the farmer in  
one state was not benefited by the fact 
that great areas in some other state    
were now for the first time laid down to
 wheat and corn4 ,as prices fell he     
produced no more1 and thus agriculture  
suffered more severely than industry4   
,while the farmer was able to get for   
two sheaves of wheat only as much as he 
used to get for one1 he thought1 of     

course1 that his patrons had too little 
money1 and was readily convinced that if
 more money could only be coined1 he    
would get good prices again4  ,there was
 another argument in addition to this1  
which could still even more easily be   
imposed on the ignorant1 and not only on
 the farmer1 but on all classes that    
were in debt4 ,silver was cheaper than  
gold1 and if debts were paid in it the  
creditor lost and the debtor won4 ,it   
was at this time that the conflict of   
interests between the great capitalists 
and the labouring masses began to arouse
 political excitement4 ,distrust found  
its way into a good part of the         
population1 and finally a hatred of     
capitalists and monopolies1 and of the  
stock market most of all4  ,this hatred 
vented itself in a mad clamour for      
silver4 ,if ,congress would authorize an
 unlimited silver coinage at the ratio  
of #af to #a1 while the market ratio was
 down to #cc to #a--so that the silver  
dollar would be worth hardly fifty      

cents1 and so that the farmer could sell
 his wheat or maize for a dollar when it
 was really worth but half a            
dollar--then at last the robbers on the 
stock exchange would be well come up    
with4 ,in reality1 these two arguments  
contradicted each other1 for the farmer 
would be benefited by more silver money 
only if the market value of silver could
 be brought up to that of gold2 while he
 would be favoured in the payment of    
debts only if gold could be brought down
 to the value of silver4 ,but once let  
there be any sort of distress1 and any  
ghost of relief haunting the general    
mind1 then logic is totally forgotten4  
,a new faith arises1 the power of which 
lies in suggestion4 ,the call for       
free-silver coinage at the old ratio of 
#af to #a fascinated the agricultural   
masses as well as the lower classes in  
cities1 just as the idea of a future    
state of socialism fascinates ,german   
working-men to-day4  ,and just as one   
cannot understand the ,german people    

without taking into account their       
socialistic delusions1 so one cannot    
understand the ,american masses to-day  
without tracing out the course of the   
silver propaganda4 ,it was the          
organizing power of a watchword which   
gave the delusion such significance1 and
 which1 for perhaps the first time1 gave
 voice to the aversion which the masses 
felt toward the wealthy classes2 and so1
 like the socialistic movement in       
,germany1 it took effect in far wider   
circles than the points over which the  
discussion started would have justified4
  ,but the masses could hardly be       
stirred up to such a powerful agitation 
merely on the basis of the specious     
arguments spread about by ignorant      
fanatics1 or even with the substantial  
support of the indebted farmer4 ,in the 
middle nineties the literature of the   
silver question swelled enormously4 ,a  
mere appeal to the passions of those who
 hated capital would not have been      
enough1 and even the argument that the  

amount of money in a country alone      
regulates prices could have been refuted
 once for all4 ,a financial and an      
intellectual impetus were both necessary
 to the agitation1 and both were to be  
had4 ,distinguished political economists
 saw clearly certain unfairnesses and   
evils in a simple gold standard1 and    
urged many an argument for bimetallism  
which the masses did not wholly follow1 
but which provided material for general 
discussion4 ,and financial aid for the  
silver side flowed freely from the      
pockets of those who owned silver mines4
 ,of course1 there was no doubt that    
these mine-owners would be tremendously 
prospered by any radical legislation for
 silver4 ,in the days of the ,bland     
,bill even the poorest silver mines were
 in active operation1 whereas now       
everything was quiet4 ,the discussions  
which ostensibly urged the right of the 
poor man against the rich said nothing  
at all of the deep schemes of the       
silver-mine owners4 ,these men did not  

urge their claims openly1 but they paid 
their money and played the game         
shrewdly4  ,we have already fully       
compared the political traits of the two
 parties2 and it will be understood at  
once that the contest for silver1 as a  
movement for the rights of the poor man 
against those of the capitalist1 would  
have to be officially waged by the      
,democratic party1 while the ,republican
 party would1 of course1 take the other 
side4 ,the nation fought out the great  
battle in two heated ,presidential      
campaigns2 and in #ahif as well as in   
#aijj1 the contest was decided in favour
 of the gold currency4 ,the currency    
legislation of the ,republican          
,congresses has held to a conservative  
course4 ,in ,march1 of #aijj1 the       
treasury was instructed1 on demand1 to  
redeem all ,united ,states notes in     
gold1 so that all the money in          
circulation came to have absolutely the 
same value4 ,the old silver             
certificates1 of which to-day           

#dej1jjj1jjj are in circulation1 can at 
any time be exchanged for gold coin1 and
 the ,secretary of the ,treasury was    
entirely right in showing in his last   
annual report that it was this wise     
provision alone which obviated a panic  
at the time when stock market quotations
 dropped so suddenly in the year #aijc4 
,thus the finances of the country are   
definitely on a gold basis4  ,but1 as we
 have said1 we are not interested in the
 material aspects of the currency       
situation1 and still less shall we      
undertake a profound discussion of      
bimetallism1 as scientific circles are  
to-day considering it4 ,the significance
 of a limited double standard1          
especially in view of the commerce with 
the ,east1 and of the effect it will    
have in quieting the international      
struggle to get the yellow metal1 is    
much discussed by thoughtful persons4   
,the ,united ,states have sent a special
 commission to visit other countries in 
order to persuade them that some        

international agreement as to the       
monetary recognition of silver is       
desirable4  ,all this does not interest 
us4 ,we care for the silver question    
only as a social movement4 ,no other    
problem has so profoundly moved the     
nation2 even the questions of expansion 
and imperialism have so far aroused less
 general interest4 ,it is only too      
likely that if hard times return once   
more1 the old craze will be revived in  
one form or another4 ,the silver        
intoxication is not over to-day1 and the
 western part of the country is merely  
for the moment too busy bringing its    
tremendous crops to harvest1 and        
carrying its gold back home1 to think of
 anything else4                         
,the ,tariff ,question  ,the silver     
question1 which was of such great       
significance yesterday1 was very        
complicated1 and only very few who      
discussed it knew all the difficulties  
which it involved4 ,this is not true of 
the tariff question1 which may at any   

time become the main political issue4   
,as the problem of protective tariff is 
generally discussed1 it involves only   
the simplest ideas4  ,the dispute has   
come from a conflict of principle and   
motive1 but not from any difference of  
opinion as to the effect of protective  
measures4 ,here and there it has been   
maintained1 as it has in other          
countries1 that the foreigner pays the  
tariff2 and this argument has1 indeed1  
occasioned keen and complicated         
discussions4 ,but1 for the most part1 no
 academic questions are involved1 rather
 conditions merely which are obvious to 
all1 but toward which people feel very  
differently1 according to their         
occupation1 geographical position1 and  
political convictions4 ,the struggle is 
not to be conceived as one between      
protective tariff and free trade1 but   
rather as between more or less          
protective tariff--since1 in spite of   
variations1 the ,united ,states have1   
from the very outset1 enacted a tariff  

greater than the needs of the public    
treasury1 with the idea of protecting   
domestic labour from foreign            
competition4  ,indeed1 it can be said   
that the policy of protection belongs   
even to the prehistory of the ,united   
,states1 and that it has contributed    
measurably to building up the ,union4   
,while ,america was an ,english colony1 
,england took care to suppress ,american
 industries2 agriculture and trade were 
to constitute the business of the       
colonists4 ,the ,war for ,independence  
altered the situation1 and native       
industries began to develop1 and they   
had made a brave start in many states   
before the war was ended4 ,but as soon  
as the ties with ,england had been      
broken1 the separate states manifested  
diverse interests1 and interfered in    
their trade with one another by enacting
 customs regulations4 ,it looked as if a
 tariff war on ,american soil would be  
the first fruits of freedom from the    
common oppressor4 ,there was no central 

power to represent common interests1 to 
fix uniform revenues for the general    
good1 and uniform protection for the    
industry of the country4 ,and when one  
state after another was persuaded to    
give up its individual rights to the    
,federation1 one of the main            
considerations was the annulment of such
 interstate customs1 which were         
hindering economic development1 and the 
establishment of a uniform protection   
for industry4 ,the tariff law of #aghi  
contained1 first of all1 such provisions
 as ensured the necessary public        
revenue1 tariff on goods in whose       
manufacture the ,americans did not      
compete2 and then other tariffs which   
were meant to protect ,american         
industries4  ,so1 at the outset1 the    
principle of protective tariff was made 
an official policy by the ,united       
,states2 and since1 through the highly  
diversified history of more than eleven 
decades1 the nation has still held      
instinctively to this policy1 we can    

hardly doubt that the external and      
internal conditions under which the     
country has stood have been favourable  
to such a policy4 ,the tremendous       
natural resources1 especially of iron1  
copper1 lumber1 fur1 cotton1 wool1 and  
other raw materials1 and the            
inexhaustible supply of energy in the   
coal-fields1 oil-wells1 and water-falls1
 have afforded the material conditions  
without which an industrial independence
 would have been impossible4 ,the       
optimistic ,american has found himself  
in this land of plenty with his energy1 
his inventive genius1 and his spirit of 
self-determination4 ,it was predestined 
that the nation should not only till the
 fields1 produce raw materials1 and     
engage in trade1 but that it should set 
stoutly to work to develop its own      
industries4 ,therefore1 it seemed       
natural to pass laws to help these      
along1 although the non-industrial      
portions of the country1 and all classes
 which were not engaged in industry1    

were for a time inconvenienced by higher
 prices4  ,once launched1 the country   
drifted further and further in the      
direction of protective duties4 ,in     
#ahjd a tariff was enacted on iron and  
on glassware1 with unquestionably       
protective intent4 ,it is true that1 in 
general1 the principal increases in the 
beginning of the century were planned to
 accelerate the national income4 ,the   
,war of #ahab especially caused all     
tariffs to be doubled4 ,but this war    
stirred up patriotism and a general     
belief in the abilities of the nation4  
,native industries were now supported by
 patriotic enthusiasm1 so that in #ahaf 
the duties on cotton and woollen goods  
and on manufactured iron were increased 
for the sake of protection4 ,and the    
movement went on4 ,new tariff clauses   
were enacted1 and new friends won over1 
often in their own selfish interests1   
until the early thirties4 ,the reaction 
started in the ,south1 which profited   
least from the high tariff4 ,compromises

 were introduced1 and many of the       
heaviest duties were taken off4 ,by the 
early forties1 when the movement lapsed1
 duties had been reduced by about #bj   
per cent4  ,at this time the divided    
opinions in favour of raising or        
lowering duties commenced to play an    
important part in politics4 ,protective 
tariff and tariff reduction were the    
watchwords of the two parties4 ,in #ahdb
 the ,protectionist party got the reins 
of government1 and at once put heavy    
duties on iron1 paper1 glass1 and cotton
 and woollen goods4 ,four years later1  
tariffs were somewhat reduced1 owing to 
,democratic influences2 but the         
principle of protection was still       
asserted1 as is shown by the fact that  
tea and coffee1 which were not grown in 
the country1 were not taxed1 while      
industrial manufactured articles were   
taxed on the average #cj per cent4 ,the 
,democrats continued to assert their    
influence1 and won a victory here and   
there4 ,wool was admitted free in #aheg4

 ,then came bad times4 ,after a severe  
commercial crisis1 imports decreased and
 therewith the customs revenues4 ,the   
demand for high tariff then increased1  
and the ,republicans got control of     
,congress1 and enacted in the year #ahfa
 the ,morrill ,tariff1 which1 although  
strongly protective1 was even more      
strongly a ,republican party measure4   
,it aimed to discriminate in protecting 
the industries of those states which the
 ,republican party desired to win over4 
,then came the ,civil ,war1 the enormous
 expense of which required all customs  
and taxes to be greatly increased4  ,the
 war tariff of #ahfd was enacted for the
 sake of revenue1 but its effect was    
decidedly protective4 ,and when the war 
was over1 and tariffs might have been   
reduced so far as revenue went1         
industries were so accustomed to the    
artificial protection that no one was   
willing to take off duties4 ,some       
customs1 even such as those on woollen  
and copper1 were considerably increased 

in the next few years1 while those on   
coffee and tea were again entirely      
removed4  ,in general1 it was a time of 
uncertain fluctuations in the tariff    
until the year #ahhc1 when the whole    
matter was thoroughly revised4 ,in      
certain directions1 the customs were    
lowered2 in others1 increased4          
,specially the higher grades of         
manufactured articles were put under a  
higher tariff1 while the cheaper        
articles used by the general public were
 taxed more lightly4 ,a short time after
 this1 ,president ,cleveland1 as leader 
of the ,free-,trade ,democrats1 came out
 with a famous message against          
protection4 ,the unexpected result was1 
that after the tariff question had thus 
once more been brought to the front1 the
 ,republicans gained a complete victory 
for their side1 and enacted a tariff    
more extreme than any which had gone    
before1 and which protected not only    
existing industries1 but also such as it
 was hoped might spring up4 ,even sugar 

was now put on the free list1 because it
 had been taxed merely for revenue1 and 
not for protection4 ,while1 on the other
 hand1 almost all manufactured articles 
which were made in the country were     
highly protected4 ,this was specially   
the case with velvet1 silk1 woollen1 and
 metal goods4 ,this was the well-known  
,mc,kinley ,tariff4  ,the ,democrats won
 the next election1 although not on the 
issue of industrial legislation1 and as 
soon as they came into power they upset 
the high tariffs4 ,their ,wilson ,tariff
 ,bill of #ahid1 the result of long     
controversies1 showed little internal   
consistency4 ,too many compromises had  
been found necessary with these or those
 influential industries in order to pass
 the bill at all4 ,yet1 on the whole1   
customs were considerably lowered1 and  
for the first time in a long while raw  
materials1 such as wool1 were put on the
 free list4 ,but ,democratic rule did   
not last long4 ,mc,kinley was victorious
 in #ahif1 and in the following year the

 ,dingley ,tariff was passed in         
accordance with ,republican ideas of    
protection1 and it is still in force4   
,the total revenues derived from this   
source in the year #aijb were           
#bea1jjj1jjj1 and in #aijc were         
#bhj1jjj1jjj4 ,let us analyze the first 
amount4 ,its relative importance in the 
total revenue may be seen from the fact 
that the internal duties on liquor1     
tobacco1 etc41 amounted to #bga1jjj1jjj1
 and that the postal budget for the year
 was #aba1jjj1jjj4 ,the customs duties  
of #bea1jjj1jjj are officially divided  
into five classes4 ,the first is live   
animals and breadstuffs1 with sugar at  
the head bringing in #eb1jjj1jjj4 ,the  
sugar duty had not existed ten years    
before1 but the ,wilson ,tariff of #ahid
 could not have been enacted if the     
beet-sugar ,senators from ,louisiana had
 not been tossed a bone4 ,in #ahie the  
revenue on sugar amounted to            
#ae1jjj1jjj1 and in #aija to            
#fb1jjj1jjj4 ,after sugar1 in this year 

of #aijc1 came fruits and nuts with #e1 
vegetables with #c1 meat1 fish1 and rice
 with only #a million dollars each4 ,the
 second class comprises raw materials4  
,wool yielded #aj4i1 skins #b4f1 coal #a
 million dollars1 and every other class 
still less4 ,in the third class are the 
semi-manufactured products1 with        
chemicals yielding #e4d1 tin plate #b4i1
 wooden-ware #a4h1 silk #a4a1 and fur #a
 million dollars4 ,the fourth class     
comprises finished products4 ,linen     
goods yielded #ad1 woollen goods #ac1   
cotton goods #aj1 metallic wares #f1    
porcelain #e4f1 leather goods #c4a1 and 
wooden and paper wares each #a million  
dollars4 ,articles of luxury make the   
last class1 with tobacco bringing #ah4g1
 silk goods #af1 laces #ac1 alcoholic   
drinks #aj1 jewelry #b4d1 feathers #a4d1
 and toys #a4c million dollars4 ,the    
total imports for the year were         
#ijc1jjj1jjj1 of which #cif1jjj1jjj     
entered free of duty2 but of these last 
only #aj per cent4 were half or wholly  

finished products1 #ij per cent4 being  
food or raw materials4 ,the duty was    
collected from imports worth            
#ejg1jjj1jjj1 and #fd per cent4 came    
from manufactured articles4 ,thus the   
,dingley ,tariff was a complete victory 
for protection4  ,no one now asks to    
have the duties raised1 but the         
,democratic party is trying all the time
 to have them lowered1 so that the      
question is really whether they shall be
 lower or remain where they are4 ,of    
course1 the ,republicans have a capital 
argument which looks                    
unanswerable--success4 ,the history of  
,american protection1 they say1 is the  
history of ,american industrial         
progress4 ,the years during which native
 industry has been protected from       
foreign competition by means of heavy   
duties have been the times of great     
development1 and years of depression1   
disaster1 and panic have regularly      
followed whenever free-traders have     
removed duties4 ,the tariff has never   

been higher than under the ,mc,kinley   
and the ,dingley bills1 and never has   
the economic advance been more rapid or 
forceful4 ,what is the use1 they say1 of
 representing to the working-man that he
 could buy a suit so much cheaper if the
 tax on woollen goods were removed8 ,for
 if it were1 and free-trade were to be  
generally adopted1 he would go about    
without employment1 his wife and        
children would be turned out into the   
street1 and he would be unable to buy   
even the cheapest suit4 ,whereas to-day1
 he is well able to pay the price which 
is asked4 ,the wealth of fancy with     
which this sort of argument is          
constantly varied1 and tricked out with 
word and phrase suited to every taste1  
is almost overpowering4 ,but the        
alternative between the high wage which 
can afford to pay for the expensive     
suit1 and the lower wage which cannot   
afford to pay for the cheap suit1       
becomes still more cogent since the     
fanatical protectionist is able to prove

 that under a high tariff wages have in 
fact risen1 while the price of the suit 
has not4 ,yet the extreme free-trader   
can prove1 with equal certainty1 that   
under free-trade the suit would actually
 be much cheaper1 while wages would in  
the end be even higher4  ,it cannot be  
doubted that a number of industries are 
to-day very prosperous which could not  
have gotten even a foothold except by a 
century of protection4 ,and no ,democrat
 denies this4 ,but he doubts whether the
 hot-house forcing of such industries   
has benefited the country1 and he       
believes that the artificial            
perpetuation of great industrial        
combinations1 which have been able1 by  
means of a protective tariff1 to put an 
artificially high price on the food and 
other necessary articles used by the    
masses1 has worked infinitely more harm 
than good4  ,it is undoubtedly true that
 many industries have not only been     
protected1 but have actually been       
created4 ,the tin plate industry is1    

perhaps1 the best example of this4 ,the 
,united ,states used to obtain the tin  
plates needed in industry from ,wales1  
and at unreasonably high prices4 ,twice 
the ,americans tried to introduce the   
industry at home1 but were at once      
undersold by the ,english and 8frozen   
out40 ,then the ,mc,kinley ,tariff put a
 duty on tin plate of #gj per cent4 ad  
valorem1 and the ,american industry was 
able to make headway4 ,in #ahia1 #a1jcf 
million pounds of tin plate were        
imported1 and none was produced at home2
 two years later only #fbh million      
pounds were imported1 and #ajj million  
pounds manufactured at home2 and ten    
years later only #aag million pounds    
came over the sea1 while #hid million   
pounds were produced in this country4   
,it has been much the same in the       
manufacture of watches4 ,the ,united    
,states imported all their watches a few
 years ago4 ,they were then taxed #aj   
per cent4 for revenue1 being accounted  
articles of luxury1 and could not be    

profitably made inside the country4 ,but
 when ,congress taxed them #be per      
cent41 the industry grew up4 ,it        
produced at first watches after         
,european models2 but ,american         
ingenuity soon came to be extended to   
this field1 improved machinery for the  
manufacture of watches was devised1 and 
now a tremendous industry provides every
 ,american school-boy with a watch which
 is better and cheaper than the         
corresponding ,european article4 ,even  
the silk industry may well be considered
 the foster child of protection4  ,the  
free-traders reply1 that all this may   
have been very well for a period of     
transition from an agricultural to an   
industrial state2 but that the great    
change has now been completed1 and the  
burdensome duties which keep our prices 
high might perfectly well be dropped1   
since our industries are now strong     
enough to compete with foreign          
industries4  ,but just at this point the
 ,republican comes out less             

optimistically than before4 ,he says    
that ,american industry has indeed      
developed with fabulous speed1 and that 
the industrial exports of the country1  
which now amount to #cj per cent4 of the
 total1 are a great showing1 but this is
 a symptom which ought not to be        
overrated4 ,when prices throughout the  
rest of the world fell1 and ,england was
 paralyzed for the moment1 although the 
domestic demand had not yet reached its 
height1 conditions combined so          
favourably1 it is true1 as to cause the 
export trade in ,american manufactured  
articles to increase rapidly4 ,but this 
may not be permanent4 ,industry is still
 not able to fill all the demands of the
 home market2 on the contrary1 at the   
very time when ,american iron and steel 
industries seemed likely to conquer     
foreign markets1 it was found that some 
sudden increase in domestic requirements
 necessitated large importations4 ,while
 the iron and steel exports decreased by
 #be1jjj1jjj between #aijj and #aijc1   

the imports during the same time        
increased #ca1jjj1jjj1 and iron and     
steel include mostly unfinished         
products4  ,thus even the strongest and 
most powerful industries greatly need   
protection still against foreign        
competition4 ,it is1 ,thomas ,reed has  
said1 entirely mistaken to look on      
protection as a sort of medicine1 to be 
left off as soon as possible4 ,it is not
 medicine1 but nourishment4 ,the high   
tariff has not only nursed infant       
industries1 but it is to feed them      
through life4 ,for it is not a happy    
expedient1 but a system which is        
justified by its results1 and of which  
the final import is that the ,american  
market is for the ,american people4     
,protection is a wall behind which the  
,american people can carry on their     
industrial life1 and so arrange it that 
wages shall be not only absolutely but  
relatively greater than wages in        
,europe4  ,at a time when everything    
looked so prosperous as in the last few 

years of industrial activity1 it is     
difficult to contest the powerful       
argument which the ,republicans make in 
appealing to success4 ,every one is     
afraid that a change in tariff might    
turn back this tide4 ,and if there have 
been reverses in the last few years it  
has been pointed out that speculators   
and corporation magnates have been the  
chief sufferers1 and they are the ones  
who1 least of all1 would wish the       
tariffs removed4  ,it has been an       
unfavourable time1 therefore1 for the   
free-traders1 and their really powerful 
party has been rather faint-hearted in  
its fight against the ,dingley ,tariff4 
,its satisfaction with the ,wilson      
,tariff was not unmixed1 and although it
 could truthfully say that the law as   
actually passed was not a ,democratic   
measure since it received six hundred   
and forty amendments in the ,senate1    
nevertheless it realizes that the       
legislative measures of the last        
,democratic rgime pleased nobody        

thoroughly and contributed a good deal  
to the subsequent ,republican victory4  
,nevertheless1 the ,democrats feel that 
the ,republican arguments are           
fallacious4 ,it is not the protective   
tariff1 they say1 which has brought     
about ,american prosperity1 but the     
natural wealth of the country1 together 
with the energy and intelligence of its 
inhabitants4 ,the high level of         
education1 the free government1 the     
pioneer ardour of the people1 and the   
blessings of quick and rapid railway    
connections have made ,america great and
 prosperous4 ,if1 indeed1 any legal     
expedients have been decisive in        
producing this happy result1 these have 
been the free-trade measures1 since the 
,republicans quite overlook the fact    
that the main factor making for our     
success has been the absolute free-trade
 prevailing between the forty-five      
states4 ,what would have become of      
,american industries if the states had  
enacted tariffs against one another1 as 

the country does against the rest of the
 world1 and as the countries of ,europe 
do against one another8 ,the entire     
freedom of trade from ,maine to         
,california1 and from ,canada to        
,mexico1 that is1 the total absence of  
all legislative hindrances and the      
possibility of free exchange of natural 
products and manufactures without       
payment of duties1 has made ,american   
industry what it is2 and it is the same 
idea which the ,democrats cherish for   
the whole world4 ,they desire to get for
 ,america the advantages from free-trade
 which ,england has derived4  ,all the  
well-known free-trade arguments--moral1 
political1 and economic--are then urged2
 and it is shown1 again and again1 that 
every nation will succeed best in the   
long run by carrying on only such       
industries as it is able to in free     
competition with the world4 ,it is true1
 admittedly1 that if our tariff were    
removed a number of manufactures would  
have to be discontinued1 and that the   

labourers would for a time be without   
work1 as happens whenever a new machine 
is discovered1 or whenever means of     
transportation are facilitated4 ,the    
immediate effect is to take labour from 
the workman4 ,but in a short time       
adaptation takes place1 and in the end  
the new conditions automatically provide
 a much greater number of workmen with  
profitable employment than before4      
,america would lose a part of the home  
market if she adopted free-trade1 but   
would be able to open as many more doors
 to foreign countries as recompense4    
,her total production would in the end  
be greater1 and all articles of         
consumption would be cheaper1 so that   
the workmen could buy the same wares    
with a less amount of labour1 and the   
adjustment of the ,american scale of    
wages would better enable the ,americans
 to compete with the labour of other    
countries4  ,but no doubt the times do  
not favour such logic4 ,the ,americans  
are too ready to believe the statement  

of ,harrison1 that the man who buys a   
cheaper coat is the cheaper man4 ,and   
quite too easily the protectionists     
reply to all arguments against excluding
 foreign goods with the opposite showing
 that1 in spite of the high tariff1 the 
imports from abroad are steadily        
increasing4 ,under the ,dingley ,tariff1
 in the year #aijc1 not only the raw    
materials1 but also the half and wholly 
manufactured articles1 and articles of  
luxury1 imported increased to a degree  
which had never been reached in the     
years of the ,wilson ,tariff4 ,the raw  
materials imported under a ,democratic  
tariff reached their high point in      
#ahig1 with #bjg1jjj1jjj2 when the      
,dingley ,tariff was adopted the figure 
decreased to #ahh1jjj1jjj1 but then rose
 rapidly and amounted in #aijb to       
#cbh1jjj1jjj1 and in #aijc to           
#chc1jjj1jjj4 ,finished products        
declined at first from #afe1jjj1jjj to  
#id1jjj1jjj1 but increased in #aijc to  
#afi1jjj1jjj4 ,articles of luxury sank  

from #ib1jjj1jjj to #gd1jjj1jjj1 but    
then mounted steadily until in the year 
#aijc they were at the unprecedented    
figure of #ade1jjj1jjj4  ,in spite of   
this1 the ,democratic outlook is        
improving2 not because people incline to
 free-trade1 but because they feel that 
the tariff must be revised1 that certain
 duties must be decreased1 and others1  
so far as reciprocity can be arranged   
with other countries1 abolished4        
,everybody sees that the international  
trade balance of last year shows a      
movement which cannot keep on4 ,america 
cannot1 in the long run1 sell where she 
does not buy4 ,she will not find it     
profitable to become the creditor of    
other nations1 and will feel it to be a 
wiser policy to close commercial        
treaties with other nations to the      
advantage of both sides4 ,reciprocity is
 not a theory of the ,democratic party  
merely1 but is the sub-conscious wish of
 the entire nation1 as may be concluded 
from the fact that ,mc,kinley's last    

great speech voiced this new desire4    
,he had1 more than any one else1 a fine 
scent for coming political tendencies2  
and his greatness always consisted in   
voicing to-day what the people would be 
coming to want by to-morrow4 ,on the    
fifth of ,september1 #aija1 at the      
,buffalo ,exposition1 he made a         
memorable speech1 in which he said3 8,we
 must not repose in fancied security    
that we can forever sell everything and 
buy little or nothing4 ,if such a thing 
were possible1 it would not be best for 
us or for those with whom we deal4 ,we  
should take from our customers such of  
their products as we can use without    
harm to our industries and labour4      
,reciprocity is the natural outgrowth of
 our wonderful industrial development   
under the domestic policy now firmly    
established4 ,what we produce beyond our
 domestic consumption must have a vent  
abroad4 ,the excess must be relieved    
through a foreign outlet1 and we should 
sell anywhere we can and buy wherever   

the buying will enlarge our sales and   
productions1 and thereby make a greater 
demand for home labour4 ,the period of  
exclusiveness is past4 ,the expansion of
 our trade and commerce is the pressing 
problem4 ,commercial wars are           
unprofitable4 ,a policy of good will and
 friendly trade relations will prevent  
reprisals4 ,reciprocity treaties are in 
harmony with the spirit of the times4   
,measures of retaliation are not4  8,if 
perchance some of our tariffs are no    
longer needed for revenue or to         
encourage and protect our industries at 
home1 why should they not be employed to
 extend and promote our markets abroad80
  ,this was the same ,mc,kinley whose   
name had been the apprehension of       
,europe1 and who in fact more than any  
one else was morally responsible for the
 high-tariff movement in the ,united    
,states4 ,the unique position which his 
service of protection had won him in the
 party1 would perhaps have enabled this 
one man to lead the ,republican party   

down from its high tariff to            
reciprocity4 ,but ,mc,kinley has        
unhappily passed away1 and no one is    
here to take his place4  ,his successor 
has not had1 in the first place1 a great
 interest in questions of commerce4 ,he 
has necessarily lacked1 moreover1 such  
strong authority within his party as    
would enable him to bring opposing      
interests into line on such a new       
policy4 ,the young ,president was too   
much suspected of looking askance on    
great industrial companies4 ,if he had  
placed himself at the head of the       
,republicans who were hoping to reduce  
the tariff1 he would have been branded  
as a free-trader1 and would not have    
been credited with that really warm     
feeling for protected ,american         
industries which in the case of         
,mc,kinley was taken as a matter of     
course4 ,more than that1 the opponents  
deterred him1 and would have deterred   
any one else who might have come in     
,mc,kinley's footsteps1 or perhaps even 

,mc,kinley himself1 with the ghost of   
bad times which are to come whenever a  
certain feeling of insecurity is        
spreading through the commercial world4 
,everybody felt that1 if the question of
 tariff should be opened up1 unforeseen 
disputes might ensue4 ,on questions of  
tariff every industry wields a lever in 
its own favour1 and the ,wilson ,tariff 
had sufficiently shown how long and how 
tragi-comic can be the course from the  
law proposed to the law accomplished4   
,it was felt everywhere that if the     
country should be brought into unrest by
 the fact that no industry could know   
for some years what its future was to be
 or where ,congress might chance to take
 off protection1 that all industry would
 be greatly injured4 ,there could be no 
new undertakings for years1 and whatever
 the ultimate result might be1 the mere 
feeling of uncertainty would make a     
crisis sufficient to turn the tide of   
prosperity4 ,and ,american reciprocity  
was after all only a matter of          

philanthropy2 for the experience with   
,canada and ,hawaii1 it was said1 only  
showed that reciprocity meant           
benevolence on the part of ,america4    
,if ,america is to be philanthropical1  
there is enough to do in other ways2 but
 if ,america is to preserve her         
commercial interests and her prosperous 
industries1 it is absolutely necessary  
not to stir up trouble and push the     
country once more into tariff           
disturbances and expose industry to     
doubts and misgivings4 ,and this ghost  
has made its impression4 ,mc,kinley's   
words have aroused only a faint echo in 
the party4 ,the need1 however1 which he 
instinctively felt remains1 and public  
opinion knows it4 ,it is only a question
 as to when public opinion will be      
stronger than party opinion4  ,there is 
another thing which gives the           
anti-protectionists a better chance4    
,democrats say that high tariff has     
favoured the trusts4 ,this may be true  
or false1 and statistics speak for both 

views4 ,but here is a watchword for the 
party which makes a deep impression1 for
 the trusts are popularly hated4 ,this1 
too1 may be right or wrong1 and may be  
still more easily argued for both sides1
 but the fact remains1 and the seductive
 idea that abolishing high tariff will  
deal a fatal blow to the hated1         
extortionate1 and tyrannical trusts gets
 more hold on the masses day by day4 ,in
 vain the protectionists say that there 
is not a real monopoly in the whole     
country2 that every instance of         
extortionate price calls out competition
 at once1 and injures the trust which   
charges such price2 that protection     
benefits the small and poor companies as
 much as the large1 and that an attempt 
to injure the large companies by        
free-trade enactments would kill all    
small companies on the instant4 ,and1   
besides1 politics ought not to be run in
 the spirit of hatred4 ,but the         
embitterment exists1 and arguments avail
 little4 ,it is incontestable that1 of  

all the motives which are to-day felt to
 work against protection1 the one most  
effective with the masses is their      
hatred of the trusts4 ,herewith we are  
led from the tariff question to this    
other problem--the trusts4              
,the ,trust ,question  8,von der        
,parteien ,hass und ,gunst verwirrt0--to
 be hated and to be favoured by the     
parties is the fate of the trusts4 ,but 
the odd thing is that they are not hated
 by one party and favoured by the other2
 but both parties alike openly profess  
their hatred and yet show their favour  
by refraining after all from any action4
 ,and this inconsistency is not due to  
any intentional deception4  ,to be sure1
 a good deal of it is political policy4 
,the evils and dangers of many trust    
formations are so obvious that no party 
would like to praise them openly1 and no
 party will dispense with the cheap and 
easy notoriety of declaring itself for  
open competition and against all        
monopolies4 ,on the other hand1 the     

power of the trusts is so great that    
neither party dares to break with them1 
and each has its special favourites1    
which could not be offended without     
prejudicing its campaign funds4         
,nevertheless1 the deeper reason does   
not lie in the matter of expediency1 but
 rather in the fact that no relief has  
been proposed which promises to be      
satisfactory4 ,some want to treat the   
evil superficially1 as a quack doctor   
tries to allay secondary symptoms2 and  
others want1 as ,president ,roosevelt   
has said1 to end the disease by killing 
the patient4 ,the fact that this        
inventive nation has still not solved   
its great economic problem1 is probably 
because the trusts have grown           
necessarily from the organic conditions 
of ,american life1 and would continue to
 exist in spite of all legislative      
hindrances which might be proposed      
against them4  ,when ,queen ,elizabeth1 
in violation of the spirit of           
,anglo-,saxon law1 distributed in the   

course of a year nearly fifty industrial
 monopolies1 and caused the price of    
some commodities to be doubled1 the     
,house of ,commons protested in #afja1  
and the ,queen solemnly declared that   
she would revoke all privileges which   
endangered industrial freedom2 and from 
that time on1 monopolies were done away 
with4 ,the ,american people are their   
own sovereign1 and the effect of        
monopolies is now about the same as it  
was in ,england three hundred years ago4
 ,but the ,new ,world sovereign cannot  
issue a proclamation revoking the       
monopolies which it has granted1 or at  
least it knows that the monopolies1 if  
taken from one1 would be snatched by    
another4 ,it is true that the present   
form of trusts could be made illegal for
 the future1 but some other form would  
appear1 to compass the same ends2 and if
 certain economic departments should be 
liberated by a free-trade legislation1  
the same forces would gather at other   
points4 ,we must consider the essence of

 the matter rather than its outward     
form4  ,the essence is certainly not1 as
 the opponents of trusts like to        
represent1 that a few persons are       
enriched at the expense of many2 that   
the masses are plundered to heap up     
wealth for a small clique4 ,the essence 
of the movement does not lie in the     
distribution of wealth1 but in the      
distribution of power4 ,the significance
 of the movement is that in recent times
 the control of economic agencies has   
had to become more strongly             
concentrated4 ,it is a mere attendant   
circumstance that in the formation of   
the trusts large financiers have        
pocketed disproportionately large       
profits1 and that the leading trust     
magnates are the richest men of the     
country4 ,the significance of their     
position lies in the confidence which is
 put in them4 ,but the actual economic  
endeavour has been for the organized    
control of larger and larger            
undertakings4 ,it has been very natural 

for the necessary consolidation of      
smaller parts into new and larger units 
to be accomplished by men who are       
themselves rich enough to retain a      
controlling share in the whole business2
 but this is a secondary factor1 and the
 same result could have been had if mere
 agents had been appointed by the owners
 to all the great positions of          
confidence4  ,almost the same movement  
has gone on in other economic spheres   
than the industrial4 ,railroad companies
 are all the time being consolidated    
into large companies1 controlled by     
fewer and fewer men1 until finally a    
very few1 like ,morgan1 ,vanderbilt1    
,rockefeller1 ,harriman1 ,gould1 ,hill1 
and ,cassatt1 virtually control the     
whole railroad system4 ,but this        
economic movement in the railroad world 
would not really stop if the state were 
to take over all the railroads1 and a   
single badly paid secretary of railroads
 should be substituted for the group of 
millionaires4 ,the main point is that   

the savings of the whole country are    
invested in these undertakings1 and are 
looking for the largest possible        
returns1 and get these only when        
leadership and control are strongly     
centralized4  ,the very obvious opulence
 of the leaders naturally excites       
popular criticism1 but it has been often
 shown that the wealth of these rich    
people has not increased relatively to  
the average prosperity of other classes1
 and the corporations themselves make it
 possible to distribute the profits     
saved by concentration throughout the   
population4 ,the famous ,united ,states 
,steel ,company had last year #fi1jjj   
stockholders1 and the shares of         
,american railroads are owned by more   
than a million people4 ,for instance1   
the ,pennsylvania ,railroad alone has   
#cd1jjj stock and bond holders1 who     
intrust the control to a very few       
capitalists4 ,in fact1 the whole railway
 system belonging to a million people is
 controlled by about a dozen men2 and   

the ,steel ,company with its #fi1jjj    
owners is managed by twenty-four        
directors1 who in turn are guided by the
 two presidents of the administration   
and finance committees4 ,the chief point
 is thus not the concentration of       
ownership1 but the concentration of     
power4  ,this same movement toward      
concentration has taken place in the    
banking business2 and here the point is 
certainly1 not that one man or a few men
 own a main share in the banks1 but only
 that a few men are put in charge of a  
group of financial institutions for the 
sake of organized management4 ,in this  
way the public is more uniformly and    
systematically served1 and the banks are
 more secure1 by reason of their mutual 
co-operation4  ,among the directors of  
the ,bank of ,commerce there are1 for   
instance1 directors of two              
life-insurance companies which have a   
capital of #gej1jjj1jjj1 and of eight   
trust companies2 and the directors of   
these trust companies are at the same   

time directors of other banks1 so that  
they all make a complete chain of       
financial institutions4 ,and they stand 
more or less under the influence of     
,morgan4 ,there is1 likewise1 another   
system of banks1 of which the chief is  
the ,national ,city ,bank1 which is     
dominated by ,rockefeller2 and these    
personal connections between banks are  
continued to the industrial enterprises1
 and then on to the railroad companies4 
,for instance1 the ,rockefeller         
influence dominates not only banks and  
trust companies whose capital is more   
than #djj1jjj1jjj1 the famous ,standard 
,oil ,company with a capital of         
#ajj1jjj1jjj1 the ,lackawanna ,steel    
,company worth #fj1jjj1jjj1 and the gas 
companies of ,new ,york worth           
#adg1jjj1jjj1 but also the ,st4 ,paul   
,railroad1 which is capitalized at      
#bcj1jjj1jjj1 the ,missouri1 ,kansas and
 ,texas at #adh1jjj1jjj1 and the        
,missouri ,pacific at #bab1jjj1jjj4  ,it
 is certainly true that such tremendous 

influence under present conditions can  
be gotten only by men who actually own a
 huge capital4 ,and yet the essential   
economic feature is always the          
consolidation of control1 which is found
 necessary in every province of         
industry1 and which entirely overtops   
the question of ownership4 ,it has been 
estimated that the twenty-four directors
 of the ,united ,states ,steel ,company 
exert a controlling influence in two    
hundred other corporations2 that back of
 them are the largest banks in the whole
 country1 about half the railroads1 the 
largest coal1 oil1 and electric         
companies1 and the leading telegraph1   
express1 and life-insurance companies1  
etc4 ,they control corporations with a  
capital of nine billions of dollars3 and
 such consolidation is not to be undone 
by any artificial devices of            
legislation4  ,if economic life1 by     
reason of the dimensions which it has   
assumed in the last decades1 requires   
this welding together of interests in   

every department1 then the formation of 
syndicates and trusts is only a phase in
 the necessary development2 and to      
prevent the formation of trusts would   
affect the form1 and not the essence of 
the movement4 ,indeed1 the form has     
already changed a number of times4 ,the 
earliest trusts were so organized that a
 number of stock companies united as    
such and intrusted their business to a  
new company1 which was the 8trust40     
,that system was successfully abolished2
 the trust itself seemed unassailable1  
but the state could revoke the charters 
of the subsidiary companies1 because by 
the law of most states these latter     
might continue only so long as they     
carried on the functions named in their 
charters2 that is1 so long as they      
carried on the transaction of their     
affairs themselves4 ,a stock company has
 not the right1 possessed by an         
individual1 to intrust its property to  
another4 ,and if the stock companies    
which came together into a trust were   

dissolved1 the trust did not exist4 ,in 
this way the ,state of ,new ,york       
proceeded against the ,sugar ,trust1    
,ohio against the ,standard ,oil        
,company1 and ,illinois against the     
,chicago ,gas ,company4  ,but the course
 of events has shown that nothing was   
gained by this4 ,although it was        
recognized that corporations could not  
legally combine to form a trust1        
nevertheless the stockholders           
controlling the stock of separate       
companies could join as individuals and 
contribute their personal holdings to a 
new company which was virtually a trust2
 and in this form the trusts which had  
been demolished were at once            
reorganized4 ,moreover1 of course any   
number of stock companies can simply    
dissolve and merge into one large       
company1 or they may keep their         
individuality but make important trade  
agreements with one another1 and so     
indirectly fulfil the purposes of a     
trust4 ,in short1 the ways of bringing  

assenting industrial enterprises under  
one management and so of virtually      
making a given industry into a monopoly1
 are manifold4  ,to promote the         
development of trusts1 there was nothing
 necessary but success at the outset4   
,if the first trusts were successful1   
the device would be imitated so long as 
there was any prospect of profit4 ,it   
really happened that this imitation went
 on finally as a sort of mania1 where no
 special saving of profits could be     
predicted2 one trust followed another1  
and the year #aijc saw #bcc purely      
industrial trusts incorporated1 of which
 #ca had a capital of over #ej1jjj1jjj  
each1 and of which the total            
capitalization was over nine billions4  
,at first sight it might look as if this
 movement would be really sympathetic to
 the ,american people in general4 ,the  
love of size generated in the nation by 
the lavishness of nature must welcome   
this consolidation of interest1 and the 
strong spirit of self-initiative        

claiming the right of individuals to    
unite and work together must surely     
favour all sorts of co-operation4 ,as a 
fact now an opposite tendency operates1 
which after all springs from the same   
spirit of self-initiative4 ,the freely  
acting individual must not be prevented 
by a stronger force from using the      
strength he has4 ,everything which      
excludes free competition and makes the 
individual economically helpless seems  
immoral to the ,american4 ,that is old  
,anglo-,saxon law4  ,the common law of  
,england has at all times condemned     
agreements which tend toward monopoly1  
and this view dominates the ,american   
mind with a force quite surprising to   
the ,european who has become accustomed 
at least to monopolies owned by the     
state4 ,the laws of almost all the      
separate states declare agreements      
tending toward a monopoly to be illegal2
 and federal legislation1 in its        
anti-trust measures of #ahhg and #ahij1 
has seconded this idea without doing    

more than formulating the national idea 
of justice4 ,the law of the country     
forbids1 for instance1 all agreements   
looking to the restriction of trade     
between different states of the country 
or with foreign nations4 ,senator       
,foraker1 in ,february1 #aijd1 called   
down public displeasure by proposing a  
law which permitted such agreements     
restricting commerce so long as the     
restriction was reasonable4 ,it was     
feared at once that the courts would    
think themselves justified in excusing  
every sort of restraint and monopolistic
 hindrance4 ,and yet there is no doubt  
that the interpretation of what should  
constitute 8restriction0 to commerce was
 quite as arbitrary a matter as the     
interpretation of what should be        
8reasonable40 ,indeed1 the economic     
consolidation of competing organizations
 by no means necessarily cuts off the   
beneficent effects of competition4      
,when1 for instance1 the ,northern      
,securities ,company united several     

parallel railway lines1 it asserted     
justly that the several roads under     
their separate corps of officials would 
still compete for public favour4 ,yet   
the public and the court objected to the
 consolidation4 ,the one real hindrance 
to the propagation of trusts lies in    
this general dread of every artificial  
check to free competition4  ,many       
circumstances which have favoured the   
formation of trusts are obvious4 ,in the
 first place1 the trust can carry on    
business more cheaply than the component
 companies individually4 ,the general   
administration is simplified by doing   
away with parallel positions1 and all   
expenses incident to business           
competition are saved4 ,then1 too1 it   
can make larger profits since when      
competition stops1 the fixing of prices 
lies quite with itself4 ,this is of     
course not true1 in so far as other     
countries are able to compete2 but here 
comes in the function of the protective 
tariff1 which permits the trust to raise

 its prices until they equal those of   
foreign markets plus the tariff4  ,the  
good times which ,america has enjoyed   
for some years have also favoured the   
development of trusts4 ,when the        
harvests are good and the factories all 
busy1 high prices are readily paid4 ,the
 trusts can do even better than single  
companies by shutting down unprofitable 
plants and adapting the various         
remaining plants for mutual             
co-operation4 ,then1 too1 their great   
resources enable them to procure the    
best business intelligence4 ,in addition
 to all this came a series of favourable
 external circumstances4 ,first was the 
rapid growth of ,american capital which 
was seeking investment4 ,in the         
seventies1 the best railroad companies  
had to pay a rate of #g per cent4 in    
order to attract investors2 now they pay
 #c per cent4 ,capital lies idle in     
great quantities and accumulates faster 
than it can find investment4 ,this has  
necessarily put a premium on the        

organization of new trusts4 ,then1 too1 
there was the well-known uniformity of  
the market1 so characteristic of        
,america4 ,the desire to imitate on the 
one side1 and patience and good nature  
on the other1 give to this tremendous   
region of consumption extending from the
 ,atlantic to the ,pacific ,ocean a     
uniformity of demand which greatly      
favours manufacture on a gigantic scale4
 ,this is in sharp contrast with the    
diversity of requirements in ,europe4   
,it has been1 doubtless1 also important 
that the ,american feels relatively     
little attached to his special business4
 ,just as he loves his ,fatherland      
really as a conception1 as an ideal     
system1 but feels less bound to the     
special piece of soil where he was born 
and will leave his own farm if he is a  
farmer and go westward in search of     
better land1 so the ,american           
passionately loves business as a method1
 without being over attached to his own 
particular firm4 ,if the opening is     

favourable1 he gives up his business    
readily to embark on another1 just as he
 gives up an old-fashioned machine in   
favour of an improved one4  ,just this  
quality of mind is so different from the
 ,german that here would be probably the
 greatest hindrance to the organization 
of trusts in ,germany4 ,the ,german     
feels himself to have grown up in his   
special business1 which he may have     
inherited from his father1 just as the  
peasant has grown up on his farm1 and he
 does not care to become the mere       
employee of a large trust4 ,another     
contributory mental trait has been the  
friendly confidence which the ,american 
business man puts in his neighbour4 ,the
 name is here appropriate2 the trusts in
 fact repose to a high degree on mutual 
trust1 and trusts like the ,american    
could not develop wherever there should 
be mutual distrust or jealousy in the   
business world4 ,finally1 the laws      
themselves have been favourable1 in so  
far as they have favoured the issue of  

preferred stock in a way very convenient
 to trusts1 but one which would not have
 been approved in ,europe4 ,and1        
moreover1 the trusts have made          
considerable use of the diversity       
existing between the laws of different  
states4  ,there have been retarding     
factors1 too4 ,we have mentioned the    
most important of all--the legal        
discountenance of all business          
agreements tending to create a monopoly 
or to restrain trade4 ,there have been  
others1 however4 ,one purpose of the    
trusts is to put prices up and so to    
make the necessities of life dearer4 ,it
 is the people who pay the prices--the  
same people who elect ,congress and     
determine the tariffs and the laws2 so  
that every trust works in the knowledge 
that putting up prices tends immediately
 to work back on business by calling    
forth tariff revision and anti-trust    
laws4  ,one source of great profit to   
the trusts has been the possibility of  
restricting output4 ,this method        

promised gain where natural products    
were in question1 such as oil1 tobacco1 
and sugar1 of which the quantity is     
limited1 and further for all technical  
patents4 ,where1 however1 there is no   
such limitation the most powerful       
corporation will not be able to avoid   
competition1 and if it tries to buy up  
competing factories to stop such        
competition1 still more are built at    
once1 solely with the purpose of        
extorting a high ransom from the trusts2
 and this game is ruinous4 ,in other    
departments again consolidation of      
business means very little economy2     
,morgan's marine trust is said not to   
have succeeded for this reason4 ,in     
short1 not all industries are           
susceptible of being organized as       
trusts1 and the dazzling profits of     
certain favoured trusts too easily      
misled those who were in pursuit of     
fortune into forgetting the difference  
between different businesses4 ,trusts   
were formed where they could not be     

profitable4 ,perhaps the real founders  
themselves did not overlook the         
difference2 but they counted on the     
great hungry public to overlook it1     
until at least most of the shares should
 have been disposed of4  ,as a fact1    
however1 the reluctance of the great    
investing public has been a decidedly   
restraining factor too4 ,the securities 
spoiled before the public had absorbed  
them2 everywhere the complaint went up  
of undigested securities4 ,the public   
came early to suspect that the promoters
 were making their profits not out of   
the legitimate economies to be saved by 
the trusts1 but by enormously           
overcapitalizing them and taking large  
blocks of stock for themselves4  ,there 
was still another unfavourable influence
 on public opinion4 ,the main profits of
 a protected trust lie in its being able
 to sell more dearly than it could if   
exposed to foreign competition4 ,but now
 if the consolidated industry itself    
proposes to sell to other countries1 it 

must of course step down to the         
prevailing level of prices4 ,it must    
therefore sell more cheaply abroad than 
at home4 ,but this is soon found out1   
and creates a very unfavourable         
impression4 ,the ,american is willing to
 pay high prices1 as far as that goes2  
but when he has to pay a price double   
what the same factory charges for the   
same goods when delivered in ,europe1 he
 finds the thing wholly unnatural1 and  
will protest at the next election4 ,thus
 there have been plenty of factors to   
counteract the favourable conditions1   
and the history of trusts has certainly 
not been for their promoters a simple   
tale of easy profits4  ,now1 if we do   
not ask what has favoured or hindered   
the trusts1 nor how they have benefited 
or jeopardized their founders1 but      
rather look about to see what their     
effect on the nation has been and will  
be1 some good features appear at once4  
,however much money may have been lost1 
or rather1 however fictitious values may

 have been wiped out in the market1 the 
great enterprises are after all         
increasing the productive capacity of   
the nation and its industrial strength  
in the fight with other peoples4 ,they  
give a broad scope to business1 and     
bring about relations and mutual        
adaptations which would never have      
developed in the chaotic struggling of  
small concerns4 ,they produce at the    
same time by the concentration of       
control an inner solidarity which allows
 one part to function for another in    
case there are hindrances or disasters  
to any part of the great organism1 and  
this is undoubtedly a tremendous factor 
for the general good4 ,a mischance      
which1 under former conditions1 would   
have been disastrous can be survived now
 under this system of mutual            
interdependence3 thus it can hardly be  
doubted that the combined action of the 
banks in the year #aijc prevented a     
panic2 since1 when stocks began to fall1
 the banks were able to co-operate as   

they would not have been able previously
 to their close affiliation4            
,furthermore1 economic wealth can now be
 created more advantageously for the    
nation4 ,the saving of funds which were 
formerly spent in direct competition is 
a true economy1 and the trusts have     
asserted again and again that as a      
matter of fact they do not put up       
prices1 but that they make sufficient   
profits in saving what had formerly been
 wasted in business hostilities4        
,certainly the trusts make it possible  
to isolate useless or superannuated     
plants1 without causing a heavy loss to 
the owners1 and thus the national       
industry is even more freely adaptable  
to changing circumstances than before2  
and this advantage accrues to the entire
 country4 ,the spirit of enterprise is  
remarkably encouraged and the highest   
premiums are put on individual          
achievement4 ,almost all the men who    
hold responsible positions in the       
mammoth works of the ,steel ,trust have 

worked up1 like ,carnegie himself1 from 
the bottom of the ladder1 and made their
 millions simply by working better than 
their fellows4  ,on the other hand1 the 
trusts have their drawbacks4 ,one of the
 most regrettable to the ,american mind 
is their moral effect4 ,the ,american   
distrusts such extreme concentration of 
power and capital2 it looks toward      
aristocracy1 oligarchy1 and tyranny4 ,at
 the same time the masses are           
demoralized1 and in very many cases     
individual initiative is strangled4     
,there are1 as it were1 nothing but     
officials obeying orders2 no men acting 
wholly on their own responsibility4     
,work ceases to be a pleasure1 because  
everything goes by clock-work2 the trust
 supersedes the independent merchant and
 manufacturer just as the machine has   
superseded the independent artisan4     
,the trusts have other demoralizing     
effects4 ,their resources are so        
tremendous as in the end to do away with
 all opposition4 ,the independent man   

who hopes to oppose the great rival1 can
 too easily be put in a position in     
which he is made to choose between      
beggary and the repudiation of all his  
principles4 ,everybody knows the        
shameless history of the ,standard ,oil 
,company1 which has strangled not merely
 weak proprietors1 but1 much more1 has  
strangled strong consciences4 ,then1    
too1 the whole system of                
over-capitalization is immoral4 ,large  
trusts can hardly be formed except by   
purchasing the subsidiary companies at  
fancy prices1 and issuing stock which in
 large part represents the premium paid 
to the promoters4 ,indeed1 this whole   
system of community of interests which  
puts thousands of corporations into the 
hands of a few men who everywhere play  
into one another's hands1 must bring it 
about that these men will soon grow     
careless and overlook one another's     
irregularities in a way which will      
threaten sober business traditions4 ,the
 whole country was shocked on hearing   

the revelations of the ,shipbuilding    
,trust1 and seeing with what criminal   
carelessness the organization went on in
 a little group of friends1 and how the 
methods of poker-playing were applied to
 transactions of great moment4 ,the     
fundamental objection1 however1 is      
always that it is immoral to kill       
competition by agreements which create a
 monopoly4  ,now1 what can be done to   
obviate these evils8 ,apparently the    
first thing would be a revision of the  
tariff2 and yet even their opponents    
must agree that there is only an        
indirect relation between the protective
 tariff and the trusts4 ,it is true that
 the high tariffs have helped to create 
those industries which have now come    
together in trusts1 and if the          
industries were to be wiped out1 of     
course there would be nothing left of   
consolidations4 ,but it is surely not   
true that the trusts are the immediate  
effect of the tariff1 and the more a    
revised tariff were to let in foreign   

competition so much the more would the  
national industries need to form        
themselves into trusts for the sake of  
the benefits of consolidated management4
 ,all the business advantages and all   
the moral evils of trusts would still   
remain1 even though the dividends were  
to sink4 ,and the trusts would not be   
carried off the field unless ,american  
industry itself should utterly succumb  
to the foreign enemy4  ,most of all1    
however1 it seems clear that any policy 
prejudicial to the conditions of        
production and distribution would first 
of all1 and most sadly1 hit the         
competitors of the trusts4 ,there is no 
absolute monopoly in any ,american      
industry4 ,indeed1 even the ,sugar      
,refining ,company has a few outside    
competitors1 and there is a legion of   
independent producers outside of the    
,steel ,trust who are themselves in part
 organized in groups1 and in many       
industries the trusts do not comprise   
even half of the manufacturers4 ,now1 if

 the high tariff wall should be torn    
down so that a flood of cheap foreign   
manufactures could come in1 it is       
certain that the first sufferers would  
be the small independent companies1     
which would be drowned out1 while the   
mighty trusts would swim for a long     
time4 ,indeed1 the destruction of such  
home competition would greatly benefit  
the trusts4 ,some of the strongest of   
these would hardly be reached at all by 
a reduction of the tariff--as1 for      
instance1 the strongest of them1 the    
,petroleum ,trust1 which does not enjoy 
any protection4 ,and it is also to be   
asked if trusts do not prosper in       
free-trade ,england8 ,so soon as the    
water is squeezed out of their stocks1  
as has in good part lately happened1 the
 trusts would still have a great        
advantage after protective duties should
 be abolished4 ,and at the same time the
 necessary depression of wages which    
would result from that movement would   
endanger the whole industrial fabric4   

,moreover1 the social and moral evils of
 the trusts would persist4 ,therefore   
the ,republican party1 which is just now
 in power1 will take no part in solving 
the trust question by reducing the      
tariff4  ,those ,republicans who oppose 
the trusts are much more inclined to    
proceed to federal legislation4         
,president ,roosevelt has1 in a number  
of speeches which are among the most    
significant contributions to the whole  
discussion1 pointed to this way again   
and again4 ,the situation is complicated
 and has shifted from time to time4 ,the
 real difficulty lies in the double     
system of legislative power which we    
have already explicitly described4 ,we  
have seen that all legislative power    
which is not expressly conferred on the 
,union belongs to the several states2   
specially has each state the right to   
regulate the commercial companies to    
which it has given charters4 ,but if the
 company is such a one as operates      
between several states--as1 for         

instance1 one which transports goods    
from one state to another--it is        
regulated by federal law4 ,now1 as long 
ago as the year #ahij1 in the so-called 
,sherman ,act1 ,congress passed draconic
 regulations against interstate trusts4 
,the law threatens with fine and        
imprisonment any party to a contract    
which restricts interstate commerce4 ,it
 can be said of this law that it        
entirely did away with the trusts in    
their original form1 in which the       
various companies themselves composed   
the trust4 ,at the same time the federal
 officials were strongly seconded by the
 judicial doings of the separate states1
 as we have already seen4 ,but the      
effect has only been to drive industry  
into new forms1 and forms which are not 
amenable to federal regulations1 but    
fall under the jurisdiction of the      
separate states4 ,corporations were     
formed which have their home in a       
certain state1 but which by the         
tremendous capital of their members have

 been able to acquire factories         
distributed all through the country4    
,indeed1 they are not real trusts any   
more1 and the name is kept up only      
because the new corporations have       
descended from trusts and accomplish the
 same purpose4  ,of course1 this change 
would have been of no advantage for the 
several companies if the stern spirit   
shown by ,congress in this legislation  
had been manifested once more by the    
separate states1 that is1 if each       
separate state had forbidden what the   
,union had forbidden2 but so long as a  
single state in the whole forty-five    
permitted greater freedom to business   
than the others1 of course all new      
companies would be careful to seek out  
that state and settle there4 ,and1 what 
was more important1 would there pay     
taxes--a fact which tended to persuade  
every state to enact convenient trust   
laws4  ,now1 it is not a question       
between one state and forty-four others1
 but rather between the diversities of  

all the forty-five4 ,almost every state 
has its peculiar provisions1 and if its 
laws are favourable to the trusts this  
is because1 as each state says1 if it   
were to stand on high moral grounds it  
would only hurt itself by driving away  
profitable trusts1 and would not benefit
 the whole country1 because the trusts  
would simply fly away and roost in some 
other state4 ,more especially the       
industrially backward ,western ,states  
would be always ready to entertain the  
trusts and pass most hospitable laws1   
for the sake of the revenue which they  
could thereby get for their local       
purposes4 ,and so it is quite hopeless  
to expect the trusts to be uprooted by  
the legislation of the separate states4 
,if all forty-five states were to pass  
laws such as govern stock companies in  
,massachusetts1 there would be no need  
of further legislation2 and it is also  
no accident1 of course1 that there are  
very few trusts in the ,state of ,new   
,york4 ,all the great trusts whose      

directors reside in the metropolis have 
their official home across the river in 
the ,state of ,new ,jersey1 which has   
made great concessions to the companies4
  ,if these companies are to be reached 
by law1 the surest way seems to be by   
taking a radical step and removing the  
supervision of large stock companies    
from the single states1 and transferring
 it to the federal government2 this is  
the way which ,president ,roosevelt has 
repeatedly recommended4 ,in our         
political section we have explicitly    
shown that such a change cannot be      
introduced by an act of ,congress1 but  
only by an amendment to the             
,constitution1 which cannot be made by  
,congress1 since it is in itself a      
product of the ,constitution4 ,congress 
would be able only to take the          
initiative1 and two-thirds of both      
houses would have to support the        
proposition to change the ,constitution2
 and this change would have to be       
ratified by three-fourths of the state  

legislatures themselves4 ,now1 it would 
be difficult to get a two-thirds        
majority in both houses on any question 
hostile to trusts2 but it is quite out  
of the question to induce the           
three-fourths of the states to cripple  
their own rights in so important a      
matter as the regulation of stock       
companies2 particularly as in economic  
matters local power is necessary to     
local optimism1 and the weaker states   
would never consent to give up such     
rights1 since they would be forced to   
see industrial laws framed according to 
the requirements of the more highly     
developed states4 ,was the ,president1  
then1 in his speeches1 like ,don        
,quixote1 tilting against the windmills2
 or was he proposing1 as some of his    
opponents said1 quite impracticable     
solutions in order to divert attention  
from such a handy solution as that of   
tariff reduction8 ,and was he declaiming
 loudly against the trusts before the   
public in order really to help on the   

friends of capital8  ,perhaps another   
point of view may be found4 ,it may be  
that ,president ,roosevelt proposed a   
constitutional amendment in order to    
arouse discussion along certain lines1  
and in order specially to have the      
chance of demonstrating that federal    
control of those overgrown business     
enterprises is necessary1 and that their
 control by the several states is       
dangerous4 ,it looks indeed as if such  
discussion would have been highly       
superfluous if not insincere1 if it were
 true that the sole way of helping the  
situation were the quite impossible     
constitutional amendment4  ,but such is 
not the case2 there is another way of   
reaching the same end without meeting   
the difficulties involved in changing   
the ,constitution4 ,of course1 the      
,president was not free to discuss this 
means1 nor even to mention it4 ,this way
 is1 we think1 for the ,supreme ,court  
to reverse its former decision1 and to  
modify its definition of interstate     

commerce in closer accord with the      
latest developments of the trusts4 ,we  
have seen that there are drastic laws   
relating to interstate commerce which   
have overthrown all the earlier trusts2 
but a corporation claiming home in ,new 
,jersey1 although owning factories in   
different states and dependent on the   
co-operation of several states for its  
output1 is to-day treated by the        
,supreme ,court as a corporation        
pertaining to one state4 ,if1 now1 the  
,supreme ,court were to decide that such
 a corporation transacts interstate     
commerce1 then all the severity of the  
existing federal laws would apply to    
such corporations1 and everything which 
could be accomplished by an amendment to
 the ,constitution would be effected by 
that one decision4 ,of course1 the      
,president could not suggest this1 since
 the ,supreme ,court is co-ordinate with
 the ,executive2 yet if public attention
 should be awakened by such a           
discussion1 even the judges of the      

,supreme ,court might consider the      
matter in a new light4  ,to be sure1    
this would at the same time require the 
,supreme ,court somewhat to modify its  
previous interpretation of the          
,anti-,trust ,law itself1 and not merely
 its application2 since otherwise1 if   
the trusts come under federal           
jurisdiction1 the law might wipe out the
 new trusts1 as it did the old1 instead 
merely of regulating them4 ,in view of  
the recently published memoirs of       
,senator ,hoar1 there can be no doubt   
that the ,supreme ,court has interpreted
 the law forbidding the restraint of    
trade more strictly than was originally 
intended in the bill which ,hoar himself
 drew up4 ,congress meant to refer to   
agreements in restraint of trade in a   
narrow1 technical sense1 while the court
 has interpreted this law as if it were 
to apply to every agreement which merely
 regulates production or sale in any    
place4 ,but this unnecessarily severe   
construction of the law by the          

unexpected verdict of the court can of  
course be set aside by a further        
,congressional measure1 and therefore   
offers no difficulty4  ,the             
,administration might proceed in still  
another way4 ,a good deal has been said 
of greater publicity in public affairs1 
and in the last few years energetic     
measures have already been taken at the 
instance of the ,president4 ,many of the
 evils of trusts lie in their           
concealment of the conditions under     
which they have been organized2 and the 
new ,department of ,commerce is         
empowered to take official testimony    
concerning all such matters1 and to     
demand this under oath4 ,whether this   
will be an ultimate gain is doubted by  
many1 since those acquainted with the   
matter say that the secrets of modern   
book-keeping make it impossible to      
inspect the general condition of a large
 industrial concern when its promoters  
desire to conceal the truth4 ,while if  
one were to go back of the books and lay

 bare every individual fact to the      
public eye1 the corporations would be   
considerably injured in their legitimate
 business4 ,and in any case1 this new   
effort at publicity has so far no       
judicial sanction4 ,one large trust has 
already refused to give the information 
desired because its counsel holds the   
,congressional law to be                
unconstitutional1 and this matter will  
have to be settled by the ,supreme      
,court4  ,the most thoughtful minds are 
coming slowly to the opinion that       
neither tariff provisions nor           
legislation is necessary1 but that the  
matter will eventually regulate itself4 
,the great collapse of market values has
 opened the eyes of many people1 and the
 fall in the price of commodities       
manufactured by trusts works in much the
 same direction4 ,people see1 more and  
more1 that most of the evils are merely 
such troubles as all infant organisms   
pass through4 ,the railroads of the     
country were also at first enormously   

overcapitalized1 but the trouble has    
cured itself in the course of time4 ,the
 surpluses have been spent on           
improvements1 and railroad shares to-day
 represent actual values4 ,such a change
 has in fact already set in among the   
trusts4 ,paternal regulation by the     
government1 which prescribes how        
industry shall go on1 is always         
essentially distasteful to ,americans4  
,exact regulative measures which shall  
be just cannot be framed beforehand by  
any government4 ,even ,adam ,smith      
believed1 for instance1 that the form of
 organization known as a stock company  
was suitable for only a few kinds of    
business4 ,the ,american prefers to     
submit all such questions to the actual 
business test4 ,all experimental        
undertakings are sifted by natural      
selection1 and the undesirable and      
unnecessary ones fall through4 ,it is   
true that many lose their property in   
such experiments1 but that is only a    
wholesome warning against thoughtless   

undertakings and against hasty belief   
that the methods profitable in one field
 must be profitable in every other4 ,it 
is true that here and there a man will  
make large profits rather too easily1   
but ,roosevelt has well said that it is 
better that a few people become too rich
 than that none prosper4  ,the          
development of affairs shows most of all
 that prices can be inflated for a short
 time1 but that they slowly come back to
 a reasonable figure so long as there   
are no real monopolies4 ,the experience 
of the last ten years teaches1 moreover1
 that the most important factor which   
works against the trusts is the desire  
for independence on the part of         
capitalists1 who do not for a long time 
willingly subordinate themselves to any 
corporation1 but are always tempted to  
break away and start once more an       
independent concern4  ,and comparing the
 situation in #aijd with that of #aijj1 
one sees that in spite of the seeming   
growth of the trust idea1 the trusts    

themselves have become more solid by the
 squeezing out of fictitious valuations2
 they are more modest1 content          
themselves with less profits1 and they  
are much less dangerous because of the  
competition which has grown up around   
them4 ,the trusts which originally ruled
 some whole industry through the country
 are to-day satisfied if they control   
two-thirds of it4 ,a single fundamental 
thought remains firm1 that the          
development of industry demands a       
centralized control4 ,this idea works   
itself out more and more1 and would     
remain in spite of any artificial       
obstruction which might be put before   
it4 ,but the opposite tendencies are too
 deeply rooted in human nature1 in      
,anglo-,saxon law1 and in the           
,american's desire for self-initiative1 
to let this centralization go to        
dangerous limits4  ,but those who will  
not believe that the trusts1 with their 
enormous capitals1 can be adequately    
restrained in this way1 may easily      

content themselves with that factor     
which1 as the last few years have shown1
 speaks more energetically than could   
,congress itself--this is organized     
labour4 ,the question of capital in     
,american economy is regulated finally  
by the question of labour4              
,the ,labour ,question  ,as the negro   
question is the most important problem  
of internal politics1 so the labour     
question is the most important in       
,american economic life2 and one who has
 watched the great strikes of recent    
years1 the tremendous losses due to the 
conflicts between capital and labour1   
may well believe that1 like the negro   
question1 this is a problem which is far
 from being solved4 ,yet this may not be
 the case4 ,with the negro pessimism is 
justified1 because the difficulties are 
not only unsolved1 but seem unsolvable4 
,the labour question1 however1 has      
reached a point in which a real organic 
solution is no longer impossible4 ,of   
course1 prophecies are dangerous2 and   

yet it looks as if1 in spite of hard    
words1 the ,united ,states have come to 
a condition in which labourers and      
capitalists are pretty well satisfied1  
and more so perhaps than in any other   
large industrial nation4 ,it might be   
more exact to say that the ,americans   
are nearer the ideal condition for the  
,american capitalist and the ,american  
labourer1 since the same question in    
other countries may need to be solved on
 wholly different lines4  ,in fact1 the 
,american problem cannot be looked into 
without carefully scrutinizing how far  
the factors are peculiar to this nation4
 ,merely because certain general factors
 are common to the whole industrial     
world1 such as capital1 machinery1 land 
values1 labour1 markets1 and profits1   
the social politician is inclined to    
leave out of account the specific form  
which the problem takes on in each      
country4 ,the differences are chiefly of
 temperament1 of opinions1 and of mode  
of life4  ,it is1 indeed1 a             

psychological factor which makes the    
,american labour question very different
 from the ,german problem4 ,this fact is
 neglected1 time after time1 in the     
discussions of ,german theorists and    
business men4 ,it is1 for instance1     
almost invariably affirmed in ,germany  
that the ,american government has done  
almost nothing toward insuring the      
labourer against illness1 accident1 or  
old age1 and that therefore ,america is 
in this respect far inferior to         
,germany4 ,it can easily be foreseen1   
they say1 that ,american manufacturers  
will be considerably impeded in the     
world's market as soon as the progress  
of civilization forces them to yield    
this to the working-man4  ,the fact is  
that such an opprobrium betrays a lack  
of understanding of ,american character4
 ,the satisfaction felt in ,germany with
 the laws for working-men's insurance is
 fully justified2 for they are doubtless
 excellent under ,german conditions1 but
 they might not seem so satisfactory to 

the average ,american nor to the average
 ,american labourer4 ,he looks on it as 
an interesting economic experiment1     
admirable for the ill-paid ,german      
working-man1 but wholly undesirable for 
the ,american4 ,the accusation that the 
,american government fails in its duty  
by not providing for those who have     
served the community1 is the more       
unjust1 since ,america expends on the   
average #adj1jjj1jjj in pensions for    
invalid veterans and their widows1 and  
is equally generous wherever public     
opinion sees good cause for generosity4 
,it cannot be doubted that the ,american
 labourer is a different sort of        
creature from the ,continental labourer2
 his material surroundings are          
different1 and his way of life1 his     
dwelling1 clothes and food1 his         
intellectual nourishment and his        
pleasures1 would seem to the ,european  
workmen like luxuries4 ,the number of   
industrial labourers in the year #ahhj  
was #b4g million1 and they earned       

#idg1jjj1jjj2 in #ahij it was #d4b      
million earning #a1hia1jjj1jjj2 and in  
#aijj there were #e4c million labourers 
earning #b1cbj1jjj1jjj2 therefore1 at   
the time of the last census1 the average
 annual wage was #dcg4 ,this average    
figure1 however1 includes men1 women1   
and children4 ,the average pay of grown 
men alone amounts to #ejj4 ,this figure 
gives to the ,german no clear idea of   
the relative prosperity of the          
working-man without some idea of the    
relation between ,german and ,american  
prices4  ,one reads often that          
everything is twice as expensive in     
,america as in ,germany1 while some say 
that the ,american dollar is worth only 
as much as the ,german mark--that is1   
that the ,american prices are four times
 the ,german2 and still others say that 
,american prices are not a bit higher   
than ,german4 ,the large                
,german-,american steamships buy all    
their provisions of meat in ,new ,york  
rather than in ,hamburg or ,bremen1     

because the ,american prices are less4  
,if one consults1 on the other hand1 a  
doctor or lawyer in ,new ,york1 or      
employs a barber or any one else for his
 personal services1 he will find it a   
fact that the ,american price is four   
times as high as the ,german4 ,the same 
may be said of articles of luxury2 for  
bouquets and theatre tickets the dollar 
is equal to the mark4 ,it is the same   
with household service in a large town2 
an ordinary cook receives five dollars  
per week1 and the pay of better ones    
increases as the square of their        
abilities4 ,thus we see at once that an 
actual comparison of prices between the 
,united ,states and ,europe cannot be   
made4 ,a dollar buys five marks' worth  
of roast beef and one mark's worth of   
roses4  ,in general1 it can be said that
 the ,american is better off as regards 
all articles which can be made in large 
quantities1 and worse off in articles of
 luxury and matters of personal service4
 ,the ready-made suit of clothes is no  

dearer in ,america than in ,germany and 
probably better for the price1 while the
 custom-made suit of a first-class      
tailor costs about four times what it   
would cost in ,germany4 ,all in all1 we 
might say that an ,american who lives in
 great style and spends #ej1jjj a year  
can get no greater material comforts    
than the man in ,germany who spends a   
third as much--that is1 #gj1jjj marks4  
,on the other hand1 the man who keeps   
house with servants1 but without        
luxuries1 spending1 say1 #e1jjj a year1 
lives about like a man in ,germany who  
spends #aj1jjj marks--that is1 about    
half as much4 ,but any one who1 like the
 average labourer1 spends #ejj in       
,america1 unquestionably gets quite as  
much as he would get with the equal     
amount of #b1ajj marks in ,germany4     
,but the more skilled artisan gets #ijj 
on the average--that is1 about three    
times as much as the ,german skilled    
workman2 so that1 compared with the     
wages of higher-paid classes1 the       

working-men are paid relatively much    
more than in ,europe4 ,the average      
labourer lives on the same plane as the 
,german master artisan2 and if he is    
dissatisfied with the furnishings of his
 home it is not because he needs more   
chairs and tables1 but because he has a 
fancy for a new carpet or a new         
bath-tub4 ,in this connection we are    
speaking always of course of the real   
,american1 not the recent immigrants    
from ,southern and ,eastern ,europe1 who
 are herded together in the worst parts 
of large cities1 and who sell their     
labour at the lowest rate4 ,the native  
,american labourer and the better class 
of ,german and ,irish immigrants are    
well clothed and fed and read the       
newspapers1 and only a small part of    
their wages goes for liquor4  ,more     
important than the economic prosperity  
of the ,american working-man1 though not
 wholly independent of it1 is the social
 self-respect which he enjoys4 ,the     
,american working-man feels himself to  

be quite the equal of any other citizen1
 and this not merely in the legal sense4
 ,this results chiefly from the intense 
political life of the country and the   
democratic form of government1 which    
knows no social prerogatives4 ,it       
results also from the absence of social 
caste4 ,there is a considerable class   
feeling1 but no artificial lines which  
hinder any man from working up into any 
position4 ,the most modest labourer     
knows that he may1 if he is able1 work  
up to a distinguished position in the   
social structure of the nation4  ,and   
the most important thing of all is      
probably the high value put on industry 
as such4 ,we have spoken of this in     
depicting the spirit of self-initiative4
 ,in fact1 the background of national   
conceptions as to the worth of labour   
must be the chief factor in determining 
the social condition of the working-man4
 ,when a nation comes to that way of    
thinking which makes intellectual       
activities the whole of its culture1    

while economic life merely serves the   
function of securing the--outward       
comforts of the nation as it stretches  
on toward its goal of culture1 then the 
industrial classes must content         
themselves with an inferior position1   
and those who do bodily labour1 with the
 least possible amount of personal      
consideration4 ,but when a nation1 on   
the other hand1 believes in the         
intrinsic worth of industrial culture1  
then the labour by which a man lives    
becomes a measure of his moral worth1   
and even intellectual effort finds its  
immediate ethical justification only in 
ministering to the complex social life2 
that is1 only so far as it is industry4 
,such now is the conception of the      
,american4 ,whether a person makes laws1
 or poetry1 or railway ties1 or shoes1  
or darning-needles1 the thing which     
gives moral value to his life's work is 
merely its general usefulness4 ,in spite
 of all intellectual and sthetic        
differences1 this most important element

 of activity is common to all1 and the  
manual labourer1 so far as he is        
industrious1 is equal to those who work 
with their brains4 ,on the other hand1  
the social parasite1 who perhaps has    
inherited money and uses it only for    
enjoyment1 is generally felt to be on a 
lower plane than the factory hand who   
does his duty4 ,for the ,american this  
is not an artificial principle1 but an  
instinctive feeling1 which may not do   
away with all the thousand different    
shadings of social position1 but        
nevertheless consigns them to a         
secondary place4 ,one may disapprove of 
such an industrial conception of        
society1 and like better1 for example1  
the sthetic conception of the ,japanese1
 who teach their youth to despise       
mercantile business and tastefully to   
arrange flowers4 ,but it is clear that  
where such an industrial conception     
prevails in a nation the working-man    
will feel a greater self-respect and    
greater independence of his             

surroundings1 since the millionaire is  
also then only a fellow-workman4        
,undoubtedly just this self-respect of  
the ,american labourer makes him the    
great industrial force which he is4 ,the
 ,american manufacturer pays higher     
wages than any of his competitors in the
 markets of the world and is not        
disconcerted at this load1 because he   
knows that the self-respecting          
working-man equalizes the difference of 
price by more intense and intelligent   
labour4 ,it is true that the perfection 
of labour-saving machinery is a         
tremendous advantage here1 but after all
 it is the personal quality of the      
working-man which has brought about that
 in so many industries ten ,american    
workmen do more than fifteen or1 as     
experts often say1 twenty ,italian      
workmen4 ,the ,american manufacturer    
prefers to hire a hundred heads rather  
than a thousand hands1 even if the wages
 are equal1 and even the greedy         
capitalist prefers the labourer who is  

worth thirty dollars a week to one who  
is worth only twenty4 ,the more the     
working-man feels himself to be a free  
co-operator1 the more intelligently does
 he address himself to the work4 ,we    
hear constantly of improvements which   
artisans have thought out1 and this     
independent initiative of theirs does   
not in the least impair the discipline  
of industry4 ,american discipline does  
not mean inferiority and the giving up  
of one's own judgment1 but is a free    
willingness to co-operate and1 for the  
common end1 to intrust the leadership to
 some one else4 ,this other person is   
exalted to the trustworthy position of  
leader by the desire of those concerned1
 so that each man is carrying out his   
own will in obeying the foreman4        
,therefore1 everything which in any wise
 savours of compassion is entirely out  
of the question for him4 ,in fact1 the  
friendly benevolence1 however graciously
 expressed1 intended to remind the      
workman that he is after all a human    

creature1 perhaps the friendly provision
 of a house to live in or of some sort  
of state help for his family1 must      
always be unwelcome to him1 since it    
implies that he is not able1 like other 
fathers of a family1 to be              
forethoughtful and provident4 ,he       
prefers to do everything which is       
necessary himself4 ,he insures himself  
in a life-insurance company and1 like   
anybody else1 he looks out for his own  
interests--tries to improve his         
conditions by securing good contracts   
with his employer1 by arranging         
organizations of his fellow-workmen1 and
 by means of his political rights4 ,but 
whatever he accomplishes1 he enjoys it  
because he has worked in free           
competition against opposing interests4 
,any material benefits which he might   
purchase by enduring the patronizing    
attitude of capitalists or legislators  
would be felt to be an actual           
derogation4  ,and thus it happens that  
social democracy1 in the technical      

sense1 makes no advance among ,american 
workmen4 ,the ,american labourer does   
not feel that his position is inferior2 
he knows that he has an equal           
opportunity with everybody else1 and the
 idea of entire equality does not       
attract him1 and would even deprive him 
of what he holds most valuable--namely1 
his self-initiative1 which aims for the 
highest social reward as a recognition  
of the highest individual achievement4  
,american society knows no unwritten law
 whereby the working-man of to-day must 
be the same to-morrow1 and this gives to
 the whole labour question in ,america  
its distinction from the labour question
 in ,european aristocratic countries4   
,in most cases the superiors have       
themselves once been labourers4         
,millionaires who to-day preside over   
the destinies of thousands of           
working-men have often themselves begun 
with the shovel or hod4 ,the workman    
knows that he may set his ambition as   
high as he likes1 and to exchange his   

equal opportunity for an equality of    
reward would mean for him to sink back  
into that social condition in which     
industry is thought to be only a means  
to something else1 and not in itself a  
valuable activity4 ,although ,bellamy   
may already dream of the common         
umbrella1 his native country is probably
 further from social democracy than any 
country in ,europe1 because the spirit  
of self-initiative is here stronger than
 anywhere else1 and because the general 
public is aware that no class           
distinctions cut it off from the highest
 positions in the country4 ,it knows    
that everything depends on industry1    
energy1 and intelligence4  ,this does   
not hinder the working-men1 in their    
fight for better conditions of labour1  
from adopting many socialistic tenets4  
,the ,american calls it socialism even  
to demand that the government own       
railways1 telegraph lines1 express      
companies1 or coal-fields1 or that the  
city conduct tramways1 or gas or        

electric-light works4 ,socialism of this
 sort is undoubtedly progressing1       
although the more extravagant ideas find
 more wordy orators to support them than
 hearers to give belief4 ,it is also    
very characteristic that the labour     
leaders do not make such agitation their
 life work1 but often after a few years 
go over to one or another civil         
occupation4 ,the relation between       
working-man and capitalist1 moreover1 is
 always felt to be temporary4 ,a man is 
on one side of the line to-day and on   
the other to-morrow4 ,there is no firm  
boundary between groups of men1 but     
merely a distribution in temporary      
groups2 and this separates the ,american
 labour unions from even the ,english   
unions1 with which otherwise they have  
much in common4  ,many other conditions 
by which the ,american working-man's    
life is separated from the ,englishman's
 are of an economic sort4 ,it is        
remembered1 for instance1 how successful
 the ,english unions have been in       

establishing co-operative stores1 while 
in ,america they have failed in this4   
,the department shops in the large      
cities have been able to sell cheaper   
and better goods1 and have been in every
 way more popular4 ,but enough of       
comparing ,america with the ,old        
,world--we must discuss the actual      
situation in the ,new4  ,the labour     
movement of the ,united ,states really  
began in the third decade of the last   
century4 ,of course1 only the ,north is 
in question2 in the ,south slavery      
excluded all alliances and independent  
movements for improving the condition of
 the manual labourer4 ,there had been   
small strikes as early as the eighteenth
 century1 but the real movement began   
with the factories which were built     
during the nineteenth4  ,from the very  
beginning the demand for shorter hours  
and higher wages were the main issues4  
,at the same time the ,american world   
was filled more or less with fantastic  
notions of co-operation1 and these      

influenced the course of affairs4       
,boston and ,new ,york were the centres 
of the new movement4 ,as early as #ahbe 
in ,new ,york there appeared the first  
exclusively labour newspaper1 the       
8,labour ,advocate02 it commenced a     
literature which was to increase like an
 avalanche4 ,the labourers figured      
independently in politics in #ahcj1 when
 they had their own candidate for       
governor4 ,but all political endeavours 
of the working people have been mere    
episodes1 and the chief labour movements
 of the century have taken place outside
 of politics2 the leading unions have   
generally found that their strength lay 
in renouncing political agitation4 ,only
 when legal measures for or against the 
interests of labourers have been in     
question1 has there been some mixing in 
with politics1 but the ,american workmen
 have never become a political party4   
,at the beginning of the thirties1      
working-men of different industries     
united for the first time in a large    

organization1 such as later became the  
regular form4 ,but at the outset of the 
movement there appeared also the        
opposite movement from the side of the  
capitalists4 ,for instance1 in #ahcb    
merchants and shipholders in ,boston met
 solemnly to declare it their duty to   
oppose the combinations of working      
people which were formed for the illegal
 purpose of preventing the individual   
workman from making a free choice as    
regards his hours of labour1 and for the
 purpose of making trouble with their   
employers1 who already paid high wages4 
,the organization of the working-man and
 that of the employer have grown        
steadily1 and the nation itself has     
virtually played the rle of an attentive
 but neutral spectator4 ,in the case of 
direct conflict the sympathy of the     
country has almost always been on the   
side of the working-man1 since in the   
concrete case the most impressive point 
was generally not the opposition between
 capital and labour1 but the personal   

contrast of the needy day-labourer and  
the rich employer2 and the              
sentimentality of the ,american has     
always favoured the weaker classes4 ,the
 nation however1 has shown an equal     
amount of sympathy toward capital       
whenever a general matter of legislation
 was in question2 that is1 whenever the 
problem has seemed more theoretical than
 personal4 ,in such cases the           
capitalists have always been felt to be 
the pioneers of the ,american nation by 
putting their enterprise into all sorts 
of new undertakings1 applying their     
capital and intelligence to economic    
life2 so that they have seemed to a     
greater extent in need of national      
protection than the workman1 who may    
always be easily replaced by some one   
else4  ,considering the matter as a     
whole1 it can be said indeed that the   
nation has preserved a general          
neutrality1 and let both parties        
virtually alone4 ,a change has very     
recently taken place4 ,the new          

conditions of the industrial struggle   
make it clearer day by day that there   
are three parties to the conflict1      
rather than two2 that is1 not only      
capitalist and labourer1 but also the   
general public1 which is dependent on   
the industrial output1 and therefore so 
immediately concerned in the settlement 
of differences as to seem1 even in      
concrete cases1 entitled to take active 
part4 ,the turning-point came perhaps   
during the coal strike in the winter of 
#aijb-jc1 when the ,president himself   
stood out to represent this third party4
 ,but we must follow the development    
more minutely--must speak of the labour 
organizations as they exist to-day1 of  
the results of legislation1 of the      
weapons employed by the labourers and   
those used by the capitalists1 of their 
advantages and disadvantages1 and of the
 latest efforts to solve the problem4   
,three forms of working-men's           
organizations can be discriminated      
to-day--the ,knights of ,labour1 the    

independent trades-unions1 and the      
federated trades-unions4  ,the ,knights 
of ,labour are by principle different   
from both of the other groups2 and their
 influence1 although once very great1 is
 now waning4 ,their fundamental idea is 
a moral one1 while that of their rivals 
is a practical one4 ,this is1 of course1
 not to be taken as meaning that the    
labour unions pursue immoral ends or the
 ,knights of ,labour unpractical ones4  
,the ,knights of ,labour began very     
modestly in #ahfi as a secret           
organization1 somewhat like the ,free   
,masons1 having an elaborate initiation 
and somewhat unusual procedures4 ,their 
constitution began with the motto1      
8,labour is noble and sacred10 and their
 first endeavours were for the          
intellectual uplifting of the labourer  
and opposition to everything which made 
labour mean or unworthy4 ,the order grew
 steadily1 but at the same time the     
practical interests of different groups 
of working-men necessarily came into    

prominence4 ,in the middle eighties1    
when they gave up their secret          
observances1 the society had about a    
million members1 and its banner still   
proclaimed the one sentiment that       
industry and virtue not wealth are the  
true measure of individual and national 
greatness4 ,their members1 they         
insisted1 ought to have a larger share  
of the things which they produced1 so as
 to have more time for their            
intellectual1 moral1 and social         
development4 ,in this moral spirit1 the 
society worked energetically against    
strikes and for the peaceful settlement 
of all disputes4  ,its principal        
weakness was perhaps that1 when the     
membership became large1 it began to    
take part in politics2 the ,knights     
demanded a reform in taxation1 in the   
currency1 in the credit system1 and a   
number of other matters in line with    
state socialism4 ,it was also a source  
of weakness that1 even in local         
meetings1 working-men of different      

trades came together4 ,this was of      
course quite in accordance with the     
ethical ideal of the society4 ,as far as
 the moral problems of the workmen are  
in question1 the baker1 tailor1 mason1  
plumber1 electrician1 and so on1 have   
many interests which are identical2 but 
practically it turned out that one group
 had little interest in its neighbour   
groups1 and oftentimes even strongly    
conflicting interests were discovered4  
,thus this mixed organization declined  
in favour of labour societies which     
comprised members of one and only one   
trade1 so that at the present time the  
,knights of ,labour are said to number  
only #bjj1jjj and their importance is   
greatly reduced4 ,it is still undoubted 
that the idealistic formulation in which
 they presented the interests of labour 
to the nation has done much to arouse   
the public conscience4  ,at the present 
time the typical form of organization is
 the trades-union1 and between the      
independent and the federated           

trades-unions there is no fundamental   
difference4 ,there are to-day over two  
million working-men united in           
trades-unions2 the number increases     
daily4 ,and this number1 which comprises
 only two-fifths of all wage-earners1 is
 kept down1 not because only two-fifths 
of the members of each trade can agree  
to unite1 but because many trades exist 
which are not amenable to such          
organization2 the unions include almost 
all men working in some of the most     
important trades4 ,the higher the       
employment and the more it demands of   
preparation1 the stronger is the        
organization of the employed4 ,printers1
 for instance1 almost all belong to     
their union1 and in the building and    
tobacco trades there are very few who   
are not members4 ,the miners' union     
includes about #bjj1jjj men1 who        
represent a population of about a       
million souls4 ,on the other hand1 it   
would be useless and impossible to      
perfect a close organization where new  

individuals can be brought in any day   
and put to work without any experience  
or training2 thus ordinary day-labourers
 are not organized4 ,the number of two  
million thus represents the most        
important trades1 and includes the most 
skilled workers4  ,the oldest           
trades-union in ,america is the         
,international ,typographical ,union1   
which began in #ahej4 ,it is to be      
noticed at once that the distinction    
between national and international      
trades-unions is a wholly superficial   
one1 for in the hundreds of so-called   
international unions there has been no  
effort to stretch out across the ocean4 
8,international0 means only that        
citizens of ,canada and1 in a few cases1
 of ,mexico are admitted to membership4 
,it has been the experience of other    
countries1 too1 that the printing trades
 were the first to organize4 ,in        
,america the hatmakers followed in      
#ahed1 the iron founders in #ahei1 and  
the number of organized trades increased

 rapidly during the sixties and         
seventies4 ,the special representation  
of local interests soon demanded1 on the
 one hand1 the division of the larger   
societies into local groups1 and1 on the
 other1 the affiliation of the larger   
societies having somewhat similar       
interests4 ,thus it has come about that 
each locality has its local union1 and  
these unions are affiliated in state    
organizations for purposes of state     
legislation and completely unified in   
national or international organizations4
 ,on the other hand1 the unions         
belonging to different trades are       
pledged locally and nationally to mutual
 support4 ,but here it is no longer a   
question1 as with the ,knights of       
,labour1 of the mixing up of diverse    
interests1 but of systematic mutual aid 
on practical lines4  ,the largest union 
of this sort is the ,american           
,federation of ,labour1 which began its 
existence in ,pittsburg in #ahha1 and   
has organized a veritable labour        

republic4 ,the ,federation took warning 
at the outset from the sad fate of      
previous federations1 and resolved to   
play no part in politics1 but to devote 
itself exclusively to industrial        
questions4 ,it recognized the industrial
 autonomy and the special character of  
each affiliating trades-union1 but hoped
 to gain definite results by            
co-operation4 ,they first demanded an   
eight-hour day and aimed to forbid the  
employment of children under fourteen   
years of age1 to prevent the competition
 of prison labour and the importation of
 contract labour2 they asked for a      
change in laws relating to the          
responsibility of factory owners and for
 the organization of societies1 for the 
establishment of government bureaus for 
labour statistics1 and much else of a   
similar sort4 ,at first the ,federation 
had bitter quarrels with the ,knights of
 ,labour1 and perhaps even as bitter a  
one with socialistic visionaries in its 
own ranks4 ,but a firm and healthy basis

 was soon established1 and since the    
,federation assisted in every way the   
formation of local1 provincial1 and     
state organizations1 the parts grew with
 the help of the whole and the whole    
with the help of the parts4 ,to-day the 
,federation includes #aaa international 
trades-unions with #bi state            
organizations1 #edb central             
organizations for cities1 and also      
#a1hej local unions which are outside of
 any national or international          
organizations4 ,the interests of this   
,federation are represented by #bej     
weekly and monthly papers4 ,the head    
office is naturally ,washington1 where  
the federal government has its seat4    
,gompers is its indefatigable president4
 ,outside of this ,federation are all   
the trades-unions of railway employees  
and several unions of masons and        
stonecutters4 ,the railway employees    
have always held aloof2 their union     
dates from #ahic1 and is said to        
comprise #bjj1jjj men4  ,the            

trades-unions are not open to every one2
 each member has to pay his initiation  
fees and make contributions to the local
 union1 and through it to the general   
organization4 ,many of the trades-unions
 even require an examination for        
entrance2 thus the conditions for       
admission into the union of electrical  
workers are so difficult that membership
 is recognized among the employers      
themselves as the surest evidence of a  
working-man's competence4 ,every member 
is further pledged to attend the regular
 meetings of the local branch1 and in   
order that these local societies may not
 be too unwieldy1 they are generally    
divided into districts when the number  
of members becomes too great to admit of
 all meeting together4 ,the cigarmakers 
of the ,city of ,new ,york1 for example1
 have a trades-union of #f1jjj members1 
which is divided into ten smaller       
bodies4 ,every single society in the    
country has its own officials4 ,if the  
work of the official takes all his time1

 he receives a salary equal to the      
regular pay for work in his trade4 ,the 
small organizations send delegates to   
the state and national federations2 and 
wherever these provincial or federal    
affiliations represent different trades1
 each of these trades has its own       
representative1 and all decisions are   
made with that technical formality which
 the ,american masters so well4 ,in     
accordance with this parliamentary      
rigour1 every member is absolutely      
pledged to comply with the decisions of 
the delegates4 ,any one who refuses to  
obey when a strike is ordered thereby   
loses all his rights4  ,the rights      
enjoyed by the members of the           
trades-unions are in fact considerable4 
,firstly1 the local union is a club and 
an employment agency1 and especially in 
large cities these two functions are    
very important for the ,american        
working-man4 ,then there are the        
arrangements for insurance and aid4     
,thus the general union of cigarmakers  

of the country1 which combines #dad     
local unions having a total membership  
of #cd1jjj men1 has given in the last   
twenty years #hch1jjj for the support of
 strikes1 #a1dec1jjj for aid to ill     
members1 #gid1jjj for the families of   
deceased members1 #gce1jjj for          
travelling expenses1 and #iag1jjj for   
unemployed members2 and most of the     
large unions could show similar figures4
 ,yet these are the lesser advantages4  
,the really decisive thing is the       
concessions which have been won in the  
economic fight1 and which could never   
have been gotten by the working-men     
individually4 ,nevertheless1 to-day not 
a few men hold off from the unions and  
get rid of paying their dues1 because   
they know that whatever organized labour
 can achieve1 will also help those who  
stay outside4  ,the main contention of  
these trades-unions refers to           
legislation and wages1 and no small part
 of their work goes in fighting for     
their own existence--that is1 in        

fighting for the recognition of the     
union labourer as opposed to the        
non-union man--a factor which doubtless 
is becoming more and more important in  
the industrial disputes4 ,many a strike 
has not had wages or short hours of     
labour or the like in view1 but has     
aimed solely to force the employers     
officially to recognize the             
trades-unions1 to make contracts with   
the union delegates rather than with    
individual men1 and to exclude all      
non-union labourers4  ,the newly        
introduced contention for the union     
label is in the same class4 ,the labels 
were first used in ,san ,francisco1     
where it was aimed to exclude the       
,chinese workmen from competition with  
,americans4 ,now the labels are used all
 over the country4 ,every box of cigars1
 every brick1 hat1 or piano made in     
factories which employ union labour1    
bears the copyrighted device which      
assures the purchasing public that the  
wares were made under approved social   

and political conditions4 ,the absence  
of the label is supposed to be a        
warning2 but for the population of ten  
millions who are connected with labour  
unions1 it is more than a warning2 it is
 an invitation to boycott1 and this is  
undoubtedly felt as a considerable      
pressure by manufacturers4 ,the more the
 factories are thus compelled to concede
 to the unions1 and the more inducements
 the unions thus offer to prospective   
members1 and the faster therefore these 
come in1 the more power the unions      
acquire4 ,so the label has become to-day
 a most effective weapon of the unions4 
,but this is only the means to an end4  
,we must consider these ends themselves1
 and first of all labour legislation4   
,most striking and yet historically     
necessary is the diversity in the       
statutes of different states1 which was 
formerly very great but is gradually    
diminishing4 ,the ,new ,england states1 
and especially ,massachusetts1 have gone
 first1 and still not so fast as public 

opinion has often desired4 ,in the      
thirties there were many lively fights  
for the legislative regulation of the   
working hours in factories1 and yet even
 the ten hours a day for women was not  
established until much later2 on the    
other hand1 the employment of children  
in factories was legislated on at that  
time1 and in this direction the movement
 progressed more rapidly4  ,a           
considerable step was taken in #ahfi1   
when ,massachusetts established at the  
expense of the state a bureau for labour
 statistics1 the first in the world2    
this was required to work up every year 
a report on all phases of the labour    
question--economic1 industrial1 social1 
hygienic1 educational1 and political4   
,one state after another imitated this  
statistical bureau1 and especially it   
led to the establishment of the         
,department of ,labour at ,washington1  
which has already had a world-wide      
influence4 ,during the seventies there  
followed strict laws for the supervision

 of factories1 for precautionary        
measures1 and hygienic improvements4    
,most of the other states came after1   
but none departed widely from the       
example of ,massachusetts1 which was    
also the first state to make repeated   
reductions in the working-day4 ,here it 
followed the example of the federal     
government4 ,to be sure1 the reduction  
of the working-day among federal        
employees was first merely a political  
catering to the labour vote1 but the    
,federation kept to the point and the   
separate states followed4 ,twenty-nine  
states now prescribe eight hours as the 
day for all public employees and the    
federal government does the same4  ,the 
legislative changes in the judicial     
sphere have been also of importance for 
trades-unions4 ,according to ,old       
,english law at the beginning of the    
nineteenth century1 it was conspiracy   
for workmen to unite for the purposes   
which the trades-unions to-day hold     
before themselves4 ,this doctrine of    

conspiracy1 which to be sure from the   
beginning depended largely on the       
arbitrary interpretation of the judges1 
has been weakened from time to time     
through the century1 and has finally    
given away to legal conceptions which   
put no obstacles in the way of the      
peaceful alliance of working-men for the
 purpose of obtaining better conditions 
of labour4 ,they especially regard the  
strike as lawful so long as violence is 
not resorted to4 ,nearly all states have
 now passed laws which so narrow the old
 conception of criminal conspiracy that 
it no longer stands in the way of       
trades-unions4 ,other legal provisions  
concern the company stores4 ,in some    
mining districts far removed from public
 shops1 the company store may still be  
found1 where the company buys the       
articles needed by its employees and    
sells these things to them at a high    
price4 ,but nearly every state has      
legally done away with this system2 it  
was1 indeed1 one of the earliest demands

 of the trades-unions4  ,there have been
 great improvements too in legislation  
relating to the responsibility of       
employees4 ,the ,anglo-,saxon law makes 
an employer responsible for injury      
suffered by the workmen by reason of his
 work1 but not responsible if the       
injuries are due to the carelessness of 
a fellow-workman4 ,the penalty fell then
 on the one who had neglected his duty4 
,it was said that the workman on taking 
up his duties must have known what the  
dangers were4 ,but the more complicated 
the conditions of labour have become1   
the more the security of any individual 
has depended on a great many            
fellow-labourers who could not be       
identified1 so that the old law became  
meaningless4 ,therefore1 the pressure of
 trades-unions has in the last half     
century steadily altered and improved   
the law in this respect4 ,american state
 law to-day virtually recognizes the    
responsibility of the employer for every
 accident1 even when due to the         

carelessness of some other labourer than
 the one injured4  ,thus on the whole a 
progress has been made all along the    
line4 ,it is true that some states have 
still much to do in order to come up    
with the most advanced states1 and the  
labour unions have still many demands in
 store which have so far been nowhere   
complied with--as1 for instance1 that   
for the introduction of the ,swiss      
referendum1 and so forth4 ,government   
insurance is not on this programme--one 
point in which the ,american working-man
 remains individualistic4 ,he prefers to
 make provision for those dependent on  
him1 against old age1 accident and      
illness1 in his own way1 by membership  
in unions or insurance companies4 ,as a 
fact1 more than half the labouring men  
are insured4 ,then too the number of    
industrial concerns is increasing which 
make a voluntary provision for their    
employees against illness and old age4  
,this was started by railroad companies1
 and the largest systems fully realize  

that it is in their interest to secure  
steady labour by putting a pension      
clause in the contract4 ,when a workman 
takes work under companies which offer  
such things1 he feels it to be a        
voluntary industrial agreement1 while   
state insurance would offend his sense  
of independence4  ,the state has had to 
deal with the labour question again in  
the matter of strikes1 lockouts1        
boycotts1 and black-lists4 ,during the  
last two decades of the nineteenth      
century1 there were #bb1gic strikes in  
the country1 which involved #aag1eji    
workers2 the loss in wages to the       
workmen was #beg1jjj1jjj and in profit  
to the employers #abb1jjj1jjj2 besides  
that #af1jjj1jjj were contributed to aid
 the strikes1 so that the total loss    
made about #djj1jjj1jjj4 ,the problems  
here in question are of course much more
 important than the mere financial loss4
 ,about #ea per cent4 of these strikes  
resulted successfully for the workmen1  
#ac per cent4 partially successfully1   

and in #cf per cent4 the employers won4 
,since #agda1 when the bakers of ,new   
,york ,city left work and were          
immediately condemned for conspiracy1   
there has been no lack of strikes in the
 country4 ,the first great strike was   
among sailors in #ahjc1 but frequent    
strikes did not occur until about #ahcj4
 ,the first strike of really historical 
importance was on the railroads in      
#ahgg2 great irregularities and many    
street riots accompanied the cessation  
of work1 and the state militia had to be
 called out to suppress the disturbances
 in ,cincinnati1 ,st4 ,louis1 ,chicago1 
and ,pittsburg4 ,the losses were        
tremendous1 the whole land suffered from
 the tumults1 and in the end the        
working-men won nothing4 ,when in the   
year #ahhc all the telegraphers in the  
country left their work and demanded    
additional payment for working on       
,sunday1 most of the country was in     
sympathy with them2 but here too the    
employers1 although they lost millions  

of dollars1 were successful4 ,in #ahhf  
there were great strikes again in the   
railroad systems of the ,southwest4     
,the bitterness reached its highest     
point in #ahib1 when the ,carnegie      
,steel ,works at ,homestead were the    
scenes of disorder4 ,wages were the     
matter under dispute2 the company1 which
 could not come to an agreement with the
 labour union1 proposed to exclude      
organized labour and introduced         
non-union workmen4 ,the union sought by 
the use of violence to prevent the      
strangers from working2 the company     
called for aid from the state2 the union
 still opposed even the militia1 and    
actual battles took place1 which only   
the declaration of martial law by the   
governor1 after the loss of many lives1 
was able to suppress4  ,the ,chicago    
strike in #ahid was more extensive4 ,it 
began with a strike in the ,pullman     
factories in ,chicago1 and at its height
 succeeded in stopping the traffic on a 
quarter of all ,american railroads4 ,the

 interruption of railway connections    
meant a loss to every person in the     
country1 and the total loss is estimated
 at #hj1jjj1jjj4 ,the worst             
accompaniments of strikes soon          
appeared--riots1 intimidations1         
assaults1 and murders4 ,and again it was
 necessary to call out troops to restore
 peace4 ,great wage disputes followed   
presently in the iron and steel trades2 
but these were all surpassed in inner   
significance by the great coal strike of
 the winter before last4  ,the          
conditions of labour in the anthracite  
coal mines of ,pennsylvania were        
unfavourable to the labourers4 ,they had
 bettered themselves in a strike in     
#aijj1 but the apparently adequate wages
 for a day's labour yielded a very small
 annual income1 since there was little  
employment at some seasons of the year4 
,the working-men felt that the coal     
trusts refused to raise the wages by    
juggling with arguments2 the capitalists
 tried to prove to them that the profit 

on coal did not permit a higher wage4   
,but the labourers knew too well that   
the apparently low profits were due only
 to the fact that the trusts had watered
 their stock1 and especially that the   
coal mines were operated in connection  
with railroads under the same ownership1
 so that all profits could be brought on
 the books to the credit of the         
railroads instead of the mines4 ,the    
trades-unions thought the time was ripe 
for demanding eight hours a day1 a ten  
per cent4 increase in wages1 and a      
fundamental recognition of              
trades-unions1 along with a few other   
technical points4 ,the organized miners1
 under their leader1 ,mitchell1 offered 
to wait a month1 while the points of    
difference might be discussed between   
both parties2 ,senator ,hanna1 whose    
death a short time later took from      
politics one of the warmest friends of  
labour1 offered his services as         
mediator1 and left no doubt that the    
workmen would accept some compromise4   

,in spite of this moderation of the     
working-men1 the representatives of the 
mine owners refused in any way to treat 
with them4 ,their standpoint was that if
 they recognized the trades-unions in   
their deliberations1 they were beginning
 on a course which they might not know  
how to stop2 if eight hours were        
demanded to-day by the trades-unions1   
seven hours might be demanded in the    
same way next year4 ,the employers      
thought it high time once for all to    
break up the dictatorial power of the   
trades-unions4 ,president ,baer         
explained that trades-unions are a      
menace to all ,american industry4 ,the  
strike continued4 ,now the anthracite   
miners produce five million tons every  
month1 which supply all the homes in the
 eastern part of the country4 ,a cold   
winter came on1 and the lack of coal    
throughout the country brought about a  
condition which resembled the misery and
 sufferings of a time of siege4 ,in many
 places it was not even a matter of     

price1 although this was four times what
 it ordinarily is1 but the supply of    
coal was actually used up4 ,schools and 
churches had to be closed in many       
places4 ,and now the public understood  
at last perfectly clearly that1 if the  
trades-unions wanted to exert their     
whole power1 the country would be       
absolutely helpless under their tyranny4
 ,nevertheless1 the embitterment turned 
most strongly against the employers1 who
 still affirmed that there was nothing  
to arbitrate1 but that the workmen      
simply must give in4  ,the workmen then 
put themselves on the wrong side by     
threatening with violence all men who   
came to take their places in the mines2 
indeed1 they forced back by barbarous   
methods the engineers who came to pump  
out the water which was collecting in   
the mines4 ,troops had to be called1 but
 at that moment the ,president took the 
first steps toward a solution of the    
problem by calling representatives of   
both parties to ,washington4 ,a         

commission was finally appointed1       
composed of representatives of both     
parties and well-known men who were     
neutrally inclined1 and after ,pierpont 
,morgan on the side of the capitalists  
gave the signal to consent to           
arbitration1 the coal miners went back  
to work4 ,the commission met1 and some  
time later in the year #aijc decided    
about half of the points under dispute  
in favour of the miners1 the other half 
against them4 ,this was by no means the 
last strike2 the building trades in many
 parts of the country1 and specially in 
,new ,york1 were thoroughly demoralized 
during the year #aijc1 the movement     
proceeding from the strikes of #e1jjj   
bridge builders3 then too1 the textile  
workers of the ,east and miners of the  
,south have been restless4 ,and at the  
present time1 every day sees some small 
strike or other inaugurated1 and any day
 may see some very large strike         
declared4 ,it was the coal strike1      
however1 which set the nation thinking  

and showed up the dangers which are     
threatening4  ,the results of the coal  
strike had shown the friends of         
trades-unions more clearly than ever the
 strength which lies in unity4 ,they had
 seen that results could be achieved by 
united efforts such as could never have 
been gotten by the unorganized          
working-man4 ,they had seen with        
satisfaction that the trades-unions had 
taken a conservative part by putting off
 the great strike as long as possible2  
and they had seen that the employers    
would not have consented for their part 
to any arbitration4 ,in the end not only
 many of the union demands had been     
granted1 but1 more than that1 the policy
 of the trades-unions had been put in   
the most favourable light4 ,a whole     
country had to suffer1 human lives were 
sacrificed and millions lost1 and in the
 end the trades-unions won their point2 
if the mine owners had been willing in  
the autumn to do what they had to do in 
winter1 a great deal of injury would    

have been spared4 ,but the trades-unions
 could truthfully say that they had been
 true to their policy and had always    
preferred peace to war4 ,the majority of
 votes within the trades-unions was     
against thoughtless and unnecessary     
strife1 against declaring a strike until
 all other means had been tried4 ,many  
people felt that the interests of that  
neutral party1 the nation at large1 were
 better looked out for by the more      
thoughtful union leaders than by such   
capitalists as were the ,pennsylvania   
coal magnates4  ,on the other hand1 it  
was felt that the most calmly planned   
strikes can lead to embitterment and    
violence1 and the tyrannical and        
murderous suppression of the non-union  
working-man4 ,and here the ,american    
sense of freedom is touched4 ,every man 
has the right to decide freely under    
what conditions he shall work2 the      
strike-breaker was regarded as a hero1  
and the trusts did their best to        
convince the world that the interference

 of the trades-unions in the movements  
of non-union workmen is a menace to     
,american democracy4 ,the unionists     
admit that it is unlawful power which   
they have used1 but pretend that they   
had a moral right2 they say that every  
working-man has a claim on the factory  
more than his weekly wage3 for he has   
contributed to its success2 he has in a 
way a moral share1 which brings him no  
income1 but which ought to assure him of
 his position4 ,and now1 if during a    
strike an outside person comes in and   
takes his place1 it is like being robbed
 of something which he owns1 and he has 
the right of asserting his claim with   
such means as any man would use on being
 assaulted4  ,capitalists turned against
 the trades-unions with the greater     
consternation1 because these latter put 
not only the independent working-man1   
but also the companies1 in a powerless  
position4 ,they showed that their right 
to manage their own property was gone1  
and that the capitalist was no longer   

the owner of his own factory the instant
 he was not able to treat with the      
individual working-man1 but forced to   
subject himself to the representatives  
of trades-unions4 ,it was easy to show  
that while he1 as undertaker of the     
business1 had to take all the risks and 
be always energetic and industrious1 the
 working-men were simply showing their  
greed and laziness by wanting shorter   
days1 and that they would never be      
really satisfied4 ,it was affirmed that 
the best workman was an unwilling party 
to the strike1 and that he would more   
gladly attend to his work than to       
trades-union politics1 and that as a    
fact he let his trades-union be run by  
irresponsible good-for-nothings1 who    
played the part of demagogues4 ,every   
man who had ever saved a cent and laid  
it up1 ought to be on the side of the   
capitalist4  ,but the public took a     
rather different attitude1 and felt that
 the group of capitalists had been      
revealed in a bad light by the strike1  

and when their representatives came to  
instruct the ,president of the ,united  
,states1 in a brusque way1 on the rights
 of property1 the public began to revise
 its traditional ideas4 ,the public came
 to see that such large corporations as 
were here in question were no longer    
private enterprises in the ordinary     
sense of the word2 that a steel trust or
 coal trust cannot be such an           
independent factor in the commonwealth  
as a grocery shop in a country town4 ,it
 was felt that the tremendous growth of 
the business was the product of national
 forces1 and in part dependent on public
 franchises2 wherefore1 the business    
itself1 although privately owned1       
nevertheless had a semi-public          
character1 so that the public should not
 be refused the right to interfere in   
its management4 ,belief in state        
socialism1 in state ownership of        
railroads and mines1 made great progress
 in those days2 and the conviction made 
still greater progress that the         

working-man has a moral right to take an
 active hand in managing the business in
 which he works4  ,and so public opinion
 has come round to think that violence  
on the part of working-men1 and refusal 
to treat with trades-unions on the part 
of employers1 are equally to be         
condemned4 ,the community will hardly   
again permit capital and labour to fight
 out their battles in public and make   
the whole nation suffer4 ,it demands    
that1 now that labour is actually       
organized in unions1 disputes shall be  
brought up for settlement before        
delegates from both sides1 and that     
where these cannot come to a solution   
the matter shall be brought before a    
neutral court of arbitration which both 
sides agree to recognize4  ,of course   
these disputes will continue to arise1  
since the price of manufactured articles
 is always changing2 the employer will  
always try to lower wages in dull times1
 and the labourers will try to force    
wages up during busy times4 ,but it may 

be expected that the leaders of         
trades-unions will be able to consider  
the whole situation intelligently and to
 guide the masses of working-men        
carefully through their ambitions and   
disappointments4 ,although the employers
 of labour continue to assert that1 so  
soon as they are handed over to the     
mercies of the trades-unions1 the spirit
 of enterprise will be entirely         
throttled and capital will decline to   
offer itself1 because all profit is     
sacrificed to the selfish tyranny of the
 working people1 nevertheless1          
experience does not show this to be     
true4 ,trades-unions are convinced that1
 in these days of machinery1 too small a
 part of the profit falls to the        
labouring man2 but they know perfectly  
well that they themselves can prosper   
only when the industry as a whole is    
prosperous1 and that it cannot prosper  
if it is burdened by too high wages4    
,trades-unions know also that after all 
they will be able to gain their point in

 courts of arbitration and elsewhere    
only so long as they have the sympathy  
of the public on their side1 and that   
every undue encroachment on the profits 
of capital and every discouragement of  
the spirit of enterprise will quickly   
lose them the sympathy of the ,american 
nation4 ,if they really attack ,american
 industry1 public opinion will go       
against them4 ,that they know1 and      
therefore the confidence is justified   
that1 after all1 their demands will     
never endanger the true interests of    
capital4 ,capitalists know to-day that  
they will always have trades-unions to  
deal with1 and that it will be best to  
adapt themselves to the situation4 ,many
 thoughtful captains of industry admit  
that the discipline of trades-unions has
 had some salutary effect1 and that some
 of their propositions1 such as the     
sliding wage-scale1 have helped on      
industry4  ,thus both parties are about 
to recognize each other with a          
considerable understanding4 ,they       

instinctively feel that the same        
condition has developed itself on both  
sides2 on the one side capital is       
combined in trusts1 and on the other    
labour has organized into unions4       
,trusts suppress the competition of     
capital1 trades-unions kill the         
non-union competitor4 ,the trusts use as
 weapons high dividends1 preferential   
rates1 and monopoly of raw material2 the
 unions use the weapons of old-age      
insurance1 free aid during illness1 the 
union label1 strikes1 and boycotts4     
,both sides have strengthened their     
position by the consolidation of many   
interests2 just as the steel works are  
allied with large banks1 railroads1     
steamship lines1 copper mines1 and oil  
companies1 so the leaders of            
trades-unions take care to spread the   
disputes of one industry into other     
industries4  ,moreover1 both parties    
fight alike by means of artificially    
limiting the market2 and this is1       
perhaps1 the most dangerous factor of   

all4 ,while the trusts are continually  
abandoning factories or temporarily     
shutting them down in order to curtail  
production1 so the trades-unions        
restrict the offering of labour4 ,not   
every man who wants to learn a trade is 
admitted to an apprenticeship2 the      
trades-union does not allow young men to
 come in while old men who have         
experience are out of work4 ,the        
regulation of the flow of labour into   
the trades which require training1 and  
the refusal of union men to work with   
non-union men1 are certainly the most   
tyrannical features of the situation2   
but the trades-unions are not           
embarrassed to find high-sounding       
arguments for their course1 just as the 
trusts have found for their own similar 
doings4  ,things will continue in this  
way on both sides1 no doubt2 and the    
nation at large can be content1 so far  
at least as1 through this concentration 
and strict discipline on both sides1 the
 outcome of the labour question is      

considerably simplified4 ,as long as the
 mass of capitalists is split up and    
that of working-men chaotically divided1
 arbitration is difficult1 and the      
results are not binding4 ,but when two  
well-organized parties oppose each other
 in a business-like way1 with mutual    
consideration and respect1 the          
conference will be short1 business-like1
 and effective4  ,the next thing        
necessary is simply an arrangement which
 shall be so far as possible automatic  
for appointing an unprejudiced court of 
arbitration in any case when the two    
parties are not able to agree4 ,in this 
matter public opinion has gone          
energetically to work4 ,in ,december1   
#aija1 at the instigation of the        
,national ,civic ,league1 a conference  
of leading representatives of capital   
and labour was called1 and this         
appointed a standing commission to pass 
on disputes between employers and       
labourers4 ,all three parties were      
represented here--capital by the        

presidents of the largest trusts1       
railroads1 and banks1 trades-unions by  
the leaders of their various            
organizations1 and the public by such   
men as ,grover ,cleveland1 ,charles     
,francis ,adams1 ,archbishop ,ireland1  
,president ,eliot1 and others1 who enjoy
 the confidence and esteem of the whole 
nation4  ,it has been objected that the 
millions of unorganized working-men are 
not represented1 but in fact these      
neutral leading men of the nation are at
 the same time the representatives of   
unorganized labour4 ,if these were in   
any other way to be represented by      
delegates1 they would have to organize  
in order to choose such delegates4 ,but 
this is just what unorganized labour    
does not wish to do4 ,everything looks  
as if this permanent commission would   
have the confidence of the nation and1  
although created unofficially1 would    
contribute a good deal to prevent the   
outbreak of real industrial wars4 ,but  
there can be no doubt that the nation is

 ready to go further1 and that if the   
two well-organized parties1 together    
with the men in whom both sides put     
their confidence1 are still not able to 
come to harmonious agreement1 nor even  
to the appointment of a court of        
arbitration1 then the nation will quite 
likely appoint an official and legally  
authorized board for compulsory         
arbitration4  ,the example of ,new      
,zealand is encouraging in this         
direction1 although the experience of a 
small country may not be immediately    
applicable to a large one4              
,nevertheless1 there is some wish to    
imitate that example1 and to disregard  
the outraged feelings of capitalists who
 predict that ,american industry will   
collapse utterly if the country becomes 
socialistic enough to appoint           
arbitrators with the power to prescribe 
to capital what wages it shall pay1 and 
how otherwise it shall carry on         
business4 ,the nation has learned a good
 deal in the last two or three years4   

,a peaceable solution of the problem is 
promised also from another direction4   
,the dramatic wars have concerned       
generally very large companies1 which   
employ thousands of workmen4 ,the whole 
thing has been repeated1 however1 on a  
more modest scale1 where thousands of   
working people stood opposed not to     
large trusts but to hundreds of small   
employers1 who were not separated from  
the working-men by any social cleft4    
,here the battles have often been more  
disastrous for the employers and their  
helplessness before small unions more   
patent4 ,then it became natural for them
 to imitate the example of the workmen  
and to form organizations to regulate   
the situation4  ,the first employers'   
union was formed in #ahij by the owners 
of newspapers1 for whom sudden strikes  
are of course especially disastrous4    
,for ten years very few trades followed 
this example2 but in the last few years 
trades-unions of employers have been    
quietly forming in almost all trades1   

and here the situation has been much    
more favourable from the outset for     
bringing employer and labourer to a     
mutual understanding4 ,while the        
employers were not organized1 an        
understanding was hard to arrive at2 but
 now both sides are able to make        
contracts which must be in all respects 
advantageous1 and one of the most       
important clauses has regularly been    
that disputes shall be submitted to a   
court of arbitration4  ,whether this    
solution will be a source of great      
satisfaction to the public seems        
doubtful1 since1 as soon as local       
employers and working-men close an      
agreement for offensive and defensive   
co-operation1 the general public is left
 in the lurch1 and an absolute monopoly 
is created4 ,when1 for instance1 in a   
large city1 all the proprietors in the  
electric trades have agreed to employ   
only union workmen1 and all workmen have
 agreed to work for only such as belong 
to the employers' union1 it is hardly   

possible for a new employer to step in  
as competitor and lower prices1 since he
 would have difficulty in getting       
workmen4 ,the consequence is that every 
house owner in the city who wants an    
electric bell must pay such prices as   
the employers' and workmen's unions have
 seen fit to agree on4 ,free competition
 is killed4  ,the problem of so-called  
economic freedom is thus opened up      
again4 ,trades-unions are1 of course1   
the product of free and lawful          
agreement1 but one of their most        
important achievements is to pledge     
themselves to furnish the employers'    
union with a certain number of workmen1 
which is sufficient for all needs4 ,in  
return for this they receive the promise
 of the employers to hire only members  
of the working-men's union4 ,the result 
is1 then1 that the workman himself      
becomes a mere pawn1 and is dealt about 
like a ,chinese coolie4  ,it is clear   
that these latest movements are able to 
contribute a great deal1 and already    

have so contributed1 to the             
reconciliation of capital and labour and
 to an appreciation of their common     
interests4 ,the right is being more and 
more conceded to labour unions of       
controlling certain matters which relate
 to the discipline and conditions of    
work1 and more assurance is given to the
 working-men of permanent employment1 so
 that they are able to bring up their   
families with more confidence and       
security4 ,and cases of dispute are more
 and more looked on as differences of   
opinion between partners of equal rank4 
,a good deal may still be done on both  
sides2 especially the labour unions must
 be more strict in their discipline3    
they must become responsible for seeing 
that their members refrain from every   
sort of violence during wage wars1 and  
that every violation of law1            
particularly with regard to             
strike-breakers1 is avoided4 ,it is true
 that labour unions have always preached
 calmness1 but have nevertheless looked 

on willingly when individual members or 
groups of members1 in their anger1 have 
indulged in lawlessness and crime4 ,this
 must be stopped4 ,it was in the wish to
 avoid such responsibility that labour  
unions have hitherto struggled against  
being forced to become legal            
corporations2 they have not wished to be
 legally liable for damages committed by
 their members4 ,but such legal         
liability will be absolutely necessary  
if contracts between the unions of      
employers and those of labourers are to 
become important4 ,it is perhaps even   
more necessary for both sides to learn  
what apparently ,american public opinion
 has forgotten1 that a court of         
arbitration must really arbitrate       
judicially and not merely hit on        
compromises4  ,the labour question is   
still not solved in ,america2 but one   
must close one's eyes to the events of  
recent years in order to think that it  
is unsolvable1 or even unlikely to be   
solved soon4 ,the period of warfare     

seems in the ,east nearly over2 both    
sides have found ways of asserting      
themselves without impairing the        
progress of the nation's industry4 ,and 
the nation knows that its progress will 
be more rapid in proportion as both     
parties maintain their equilibrium and  
protect industrial life from the tyranny
 of monopolies1 whether of capital or   
labour4     ,,part ,,three              
,,intellectual ,,life                   
,,chapter ,,fourteen                    
,the ,spirit of ,self-,perfection       
,there are three capital cities in the  
,united ,states--,washington the        
political capital1 ,new ,york the       
commercial1 and ,boston the intellectual
 capital4 ,everything in ,washington is 
so completely subordinated to the       
political life that even the outward    
aspect of the city is markedly different
 from that of other ,american cities2   
buying and selling scarcely exist4 ,in  
spite of its three hundred thousand     
inhabitants1 one is reminded of ,potsdam

 or ,versailles2 diplomats1 legislators1
 and officials set the keynote4         
,washington is unique in the country1   
and no other large city tries to compete
 with it2 unless1 indeed1 on a very     
small scale a few state capitals1 like  
,albany1 which are situated away from   
the commercial centres4 ,being unique1  
,washington remains isolated1 and its   
influence is confined to the political  
sphere4 ,as a result1 there is a slight 
feeling of the unnatural1 or even the   
unreal1 about it2 any movements         
emanating from ,washington which are not
 political1 hardly come to their full   
fruition4 ,and although the city aspires
 to do1 and does do1 much for art1      
culture1 and especially for science1 its
 general initiative seems always to be  
lying under the weight of officialdom4  
,it will never become the capital of    
intellect4  ,in a like way1 ,new ,york  
is really informed by but a single      
impulse--the struggle for economic      
greatness4 ,this is the meaning and the 

moral of its life4 ,in this respect1    
,new ,york is not1 like ,washington1    
unique4 ,chicago makes terrific strides 
in emulation of ,new ,york2 and yet1 so 
far as one now sees1 the city of three  
million dwellers around the mouth of the
 ,hudson will continue to be the        
economic centre of the ,new ,world4 ,the
 wholesale merchants1 the banker        
potentates1 and the corporation         
attorneys set there the pace1 as the    
senators and diplomats in ,washington1  
and dominate all the activities of the  
metropolis4 ,through their influence    
,new ,york has become the centre of     
luxury and fashion1 and wealth the most 
powerful factor in its social life4 ,all
 this cannot take place1 and in such    
extreme wise1 without affecting         
profoundly the other factors of culture4
 ,the commercial spirit can be detected 
in everything that comes from ,new      
,york4 ,on the surface it looks as if   
the metropolis of commerce and luxury   
might perhaps be usurping for itself a  

leading place in other matters4 ,and it 
is true that the politics of ,new ,york 
are important1 and that her newspapers  
have influence throughout the land4 ,but
 yet a real political centre she will   
never become2 new and great political   
impulses do not withstand her commercial
 atmosphere4 ,new ,york is the chief    
clearinghouse for politics and industry2
 purely political ideas it transforms   
into commercial4  ,this is still more   
true of strictly intellectual movements4
 ,one must not be misled by the fact    
that there is no other city in the land 
where so many authors reside1 where so  
many books and magazines are published1 
or so many works of art of all kinds are
 sold2 or yet where so many apostles of 
reform lift up their voices4 ,that the  
millions of inhabitants in ,new ,york   
constitute the greatest theatre for     
moral and social reforms1 does not prove
 that the true springs of moral energy  
lie there4 ,and the flourishing state of
 her literary and artistic activities   

proceeds1 once more1 from her economic  
greatness rather than from any real     
productive energy or intellectual       
fruitfulness4 ,the commercial side of   
the intellectual life of ,america has   
very naturally centred itself in ,new   
,york and there organized2 but this     
outward connection between intellect and
 the metropolis of trade has very little
 to do with real intellectual           
initiative4 ,such association rather    
weakens than strengthens the true       
intellectual life2 it subjects art to   
the influence of fashion1 literature to 
the demands of commerce1 and would make 
science bow to the exigencies of        
practical life2 in short1 it makes      
imminent all the dangers of             
superficiality4 ,the intellectual life  
of ,new ,york may be outwardly          
resplendent1 but it pays for this in    
depth2 it brings into being no movements
 of profound significance1 and therefore
 has no standing as a national centre in
 these respects4 ,as the intellectual   

life of the political capital bears the 
stamp of officialdom1 so is that of the 
commercial capital marked with the      
superficiality characteristic of trade  
and luxury4 ,intellectual life will     
originate new thoughts and spread them  
through the country only when it is     
earnest1 pure1 and deep2 and informed1  
above all1 with an ideal4  ,the capital 
of the intellectual life is ,boston1 and
 just as everything which comes out of  
,washington is tinged with politics1 or 
out of ,new ,york with commerce1 so are 
all the activities of ,boston marked by 
an intellectual striving for ideal      
excellence4 ,even its commerce and      
politics are imbued with its ideals4    
,it is surprising how this peculiar     
feature of ,boston strikes even the     
superficial observer4 ,the ,european1   
who after the prescribed fashion lands  
at ,new ,york and travels to            
,philadelphia1 ,washington1 ,chicago1   
and ,niagara1 and then winds up his     
journey through the ,united ,states in  

,boston1 has in this last place         
generally the impression that he has    
already come back from the ,new ,world  
into the ,old4 ,the admirable traditions
 of culture1 the thoroughly intellectual
 character of the society1 the          
predominance of interests which are not 
commercial--in fact1 even the quaint and
 picturesque look of the                
city--everything strikes him as being so
 entirely different from what his fancy 
had pictured1 from its ,old ,world point
 of view1 as being specifically         
,american4 ,and no less is it different 
from what the rest of his experience of 
the ,new ,world has given him4 ,not     
until he knows the country more         
thoroughly does he begin to understand  
that really in this ,yankee city the    
true spirit of the purely ,american life
 is embodied4  ,the ,american himself   
recognizes this leading position of     
,boston in the intellectual life of his 
country1 although he often recognizes it
 with mixed feelings4 ,he is fond1 with 

the light irony of ,holmes1 to call     
,boston 8the hub of the universe40 ,he  
likes to poke fun at the ,boston woman  
by calling her a 8blue-stocking10 and   
the comic papers habitually affirm that 
in ,boston all cabbies speak ,latin4    
,but this does not obscure from him the 
knowledge that almost everything which  
is intellectually exalted and           
significant in this country has come    
from ,boston1 that ,massachusetts1 under
 the leadership of ,boston1 has become  
the foremost example in all matters of  
education and of real culture1 and that 
there1 on the ground of the oldest and  
largest academy of the country--,harvard
 ,university--the true home of ,new     
,world ideals is to be found4 ,and the  
intellectual pre-eminence of ,new       
,england is no less recognizable in the 
representatives of its culture which    
,boston sends forth through the country2
 the artistic triumph of the ,columbian 
,exposition may be ascribed to ,chicago1
 but very many of the men who           

accomplished this work came from        
,massachusetts2 the reform movement     
against ,tammany belongs to the moral   
annals of ,new ,york1 but those workers 
whose moral enthusiasm gained the       
victory are from ,new ,england4 ,this   
latent impression1 that all the best    
sthetic and moral and intellectual      
impulses originate in ,new ,england1    
becomes especially deep the instant one 
turns one's gaze into the past4 ,the    
true picture is at the present day      
somewhat overlaid1 because owing to the 
industrial development of the ,west the 
emigration from ,new ,england has taken 
on such large proportions that the      
essential traits of ,massachusetts have 
been carried through the whole land4 ,in
 past times1 her peculiar pre-eminence  
was much more marked4  ,whoever traces  
back the origins of ,american           
intellectual life must go to the fourth 
decade of the seventeenth century4 ,then
 the colonies in the ,southern and      
,middle ,states were flourishing as well

 as the ,northern colonies of ,new      
,england2 but only in these last was    
there any real initiative toward        
intellectual culture4 ,in the year      
#afcf1 only eight years after the       
foundation of ,boston1 ,harvard ,college
 was founded as the first1 and for a    
long while the only1 school of higher   
learning4 ,and among the products of the
 printing-press which this country gave 
forth in the whole seventeenth century  
such an astonishing majority comes from 
,new ,england that ,american literary   
history has no need to consider the     
other colonies of that time4 ,the most  
considerable literary figure of the     
country at that time was ,cotton        
,mather1 a ,bostonian4 ,the eighteenth  
century perpetuated these traditions4   
,the greatest thinker of the country1   
,jonathan ,edwards1 was developed at    
,harvard1 and ,benjamin ,franklin was   
brought up in ,boston4 ,the literature  
of ,new ,england was the best which the 
country had so far produced1 and when   

the time came for breaking away         
politically from ,england1 then in the  
same way the moral energy and enthusiasm
 of ,boston took front rank4  ,not until
 these days of political independence   
did the true history of the free and    
independent intellectual life of        
,america begin4 ,now one name followed  
close on another1 and most of the great 
ones pertained to ,new ,england4 ,poets 
like ,longfellow1 ,lowell1 and ,holmes  
were ,bostonians2 ,whittier and         
,hawthorne also sprang from the soil of 
,new ,england4 ,here1 too1 appeared the 
intellectually leading magazines2 in the
 first half of the century the ,north   
,american ,review1 in the second half   
the ,atlantic ,monthly4 ,here the       
religious movement of ,unitarianism     
worked itself out1 and here was formed  
that school of philosophers in whose    
midst stood the shining figure of ,ralph
 ,waldo ,emerson4 ,here sounded the most
 potent words against slavery2 here     
,parker1 ,garrison1 ,phillips1 and      

,sumner poured forth their charges      
against the ,south into the midst of a  
public morally aroused4 ,here1 also1    
first flourished the quiet work of      
scientific investigation4 ,since the day
 when ,ticknor and ,everett studied in  
,gttingen in the year #ahae1 there      
sprang up in ,massachusetts1 more than  
anywhere else1 the custom which caused  
young ,american scholars to frequent    
,german schools of higher learning4 ,the
 historians ,prescott1 ,sparks1         
,bancroft1 ,parkman1 and ,motley were   
among this number4 ,here in ,boston was 
the classic ground for the cultivation  
of serious music1 and here was founded  
the first large public library4 ,and all
 these movements have continued down to 
this day4 ,none of the traditions are   
dead2 and any one who is not deceived by
 superficial impressions knows that the 
most essential traits of ,boston and    
,new ,england are the ones which1 in    
respect to intellectual life1 lead the  
nation4 ,quite as the marble ,capitol at

 ,washington is the symbol of the       
political power of ,america1 and the    
sky-scrapers of lower ,broadway are the 
symbol of ,america's economic life1 so  
we may say the elm-shaded college yard  
of ,harvard is the symbol of ,american  
intellectual capacity and               
accomplishment4  ,it may seem           
astonishing at first that a single      
vicinity can attain such eminence1 and  
especially that so small a part of the  
,union is able to impress its character 
on the whole wide land4 ,the phenomenon1
 however1 becomes almost a matter of    
course1 if we put before ourselves how  
this world-power slowly grew from the   
very smallest beginnings1 and how this  
growth did not take place by successive 
increments of large and compact masses  
of people who had their own culture and 
their own independent spirit1 but took  
place by the continual immigration of   
wanderers who were detached and         
isolated1 and who joined themselves to  
that which was already here1 and so     

became assimilated4 ,then1 as soon as a 
beginning had been made1 and in a       
certain place a specific expression had 
been given to intellectual life1 this   
way of thinking and this general        
attitude necessarily became the         
prevailing ones1 and in this way spread 
abroad farther and farther4 ,if in the  
seventeenth century1 instead of the     
little ,new ,england states1 the        
,southern colonies1 say1 had developed a
 characteristic and independent         
intellectual life1 then by the same     
process of constant assimilation the    
character and thought of ,virginia might
 have impressed itself on the whole     
nation as have the character and thought
 of ,massachusetts4 ,yet it was by no   
means an accident that the spirit which 
was destined to be most vital did not   
proceed from the pleasure-loving        
,virginians1 but rather came from the   
severely earnest settlers of the ,north4
  ,the way of thinking of those         
,northern colonists can be admirably    

characterized by a single word--they    
were ,puritans4 ,the ,puritan spirit    
influenced the inner life of ,boston    
,bay in the seventeenth century1 and    
consequently the inner life of the whole
 country down to our time1 more deeply  
and more potently than any other factor4
 ,the ,puritanical spirit signifies     
something incomparably precious--it is  
much more admirable than its detractors 
dream of2 and yet at the same time1 it  
carries with it its decided limitations4
 ,for nearly three hundred years the    
genius of ,america has nourished itself 
on these virtues and has suffered by    
these limitations4 ,that which the      
,puritans strove for was just what their
 name signifies--purity2 purity in the  
service of ,god1 purity of character1   
and1 in an evil time1 purity of life4   
,filled with the religious doctrines of 
,calvinism1 that little band of         
wanderers had crossed the ocean in spite
 of the severest trials1 in order to    
find free scope for their ,puritan      

ideals2 had left that same ,england     
where1 some time later under ,cromwell1 
they were to achieve a victory1 although
 a short and after all insignificant    
one4 ,they much more cared for the      
spotlessness of their faith than for any
 outward victory1 and every impulse of  
their devout and simple lives was       
informed by their convictions4 ,under   
these circumstances it was no accident  
that here the intellectual and moral    
ideals were not obscured by any economic
 or political preoccupations2 but from  
the very outset were accounted in       
themselves of prime importance4 ,harvard
 ,college was founded as a school for   
the ,puritan clergy1 and almost the     
entire ,american literature1 which is to
 say the literature of ,new ,england1 of
 the seventeenth century is purely      
religious1 or at any rate is thoroughly 
permeated with the ,calvinistic way of  
thought4  ,of course1 externally this is
 all entirely changed1 and it is almost 
a typical example of this               

transformation1 that ,harvard1 once a   
seminary for ministers1 to-day prepares 
not one-fiftieth part of its five       
thousand students for the clerical      
calling4 ,indeed1 as early as the year  
#agjj1 ,yale ,university was founded in 
,connecticut1 largely in the aim of     
creating a fortress for the old faith1  
because ,harvard had become too much a  
place of free thought2 and the great    
scholar of ,harvard1 the preacher       
,jonathan ,edwards1 went away from      
,boston in anger because it seemed to   
him1 even in the eighteenth century1    
that the old ,calvinistic traditions had
 been lost4 ,and then finally1 in the   
nineteenth century1 appeared            
,unitarianism--a creed which became the 
most energetic enemy of ,calvinism4     
,these changes and disruptions were1    
however1 rather an internal matter4     
,they were actually nothing but small   
differences within the ,puritan         
community4 ,from the meagre days of the 
,pilgrim ,fathers down to the time when 

,emerson in rhapsodic flights preached  
the ethical idealism of ,fichte1 and    
,longfellow wrote his 8,psalm of ,life10
 the old ,puritan spirit remained       
predominant4  ,one fundamental note     
sounded through the whole4 ,life was not
 to be lived for the sake of pleasure1  
but for the sake of duty4 ,existence got
 its sense and value only in ethical    
endeavour2 self-perfection was the great
 duty which took precedence over all    
others4 ,among the particularly dogmatic
 tenets of the ,calvinistic theology    
this self-searching became1 in the last 
resort1 perhaps a somewhat dispiriting  
searching after inner signs by which    
,god was expected to show somewhat      
arbitrarily his favour4 ,more broadly   
taken1 however1 it signified rather a   
continual searching of the conscience--a
 conscious suppression of impure1 of    
worldly1 and of selfish impulses2 and so
 in effect it was an untiring moral     
purification4 ,and if in this           
theological atmosphere it appeared as if

 ,god had led a singularly large number 
of predestined spirits together into the
 ,new ,england colonies1 the reason was 
obviously this--that in such a community
 of earnest1 self-searching characters a
 moral purity developed such as was to  
be found nowhere in the wild turmoil of 
the ,old ,world4 ,when the entire life  
is so permeated by ethical ideals1 there
 indeed the nobler part of man's nature 
cannot be conquered by lower instincts  
or by the sordid demands of every-day   
life4  ,such a place could not fail to  
be a favourable environment for any     
intellectual undertakings4 ,there       
serious books were more welcome than the
 merely amusing ones which flourished in
 the rest of the colonies4 ,in ,new     
,england more was done for education1   
the development of law and the service  
of ,god1 than for any outward show or   
material prosperity4 ,in short1 the life
 of the intellect throve there from the 
very outset4 ,and yet of course this    
spirit of culture necessarily took a    

turn very different from what it had    
been in the mother land1 different from 
what it was on the ,continent1 and      
different from what it would have been  
if the ,southern colonies had been      
intellectually dominant4  ,for the      
,puritan1 absolutely the whole of       
culture was viewed from the moral point 
of view4 ,but the moral judgment leads  
always to the individual2 neither in the
 physical nor in the psychical world can
 anything be found which has an ethical 
value except the good will of the       
individual4 ,no work of culture has any 
value in itself2 it becomes ethically   
significant only in its relation to the 
individual will1 and all intellectual   
life has ethically a single aim--to     
serve the highest development of the    
individual4 ,from this point of view1   
therefore1 science1 poetry1 and art have
 no objective value3 for the ,puritan1  
they are nothing to accept and to make  
himself subordinate to2 but they are    
themselves subordinate means merely     

toward that one end--the perfection of  
the man4 ,life was a moral problem1 for 
which art and science became important  
only in so far as they nourished the    
inner growth of every aspirant4 ,in the 
language of the newer time we might say 
that a community developed under        
,puritan influences cared considerably  
more for the culture of its individual  
members than for the creation of things 
intellectual1 that the intellectual     
worker did not set out to perfect art   
and science1 but aimed by means of art  
and science to perfect himself4  ,of    
course there must be some reciprocal    
working between the general body of     
culture and the separate personalities1 
but the great tendency had to be very   
different from that which it would have 
been had the chief emphasis been laid on
 sthetic or intellectual productions as 
such4 ,in ,europe during the decisive   
periods the starting-point has been and 
to-day is1 the objective2 and this has  
only secondarily come to be significant 

for the subjective individual life4 ,but
 in ,puritan ,america the soul's welfare
 stood in the foreground1 and only      
secondarily was the striving for        
self-perfection1 self-searching1 and    
self-culture made to contribute to the  
advance of objective culture4 ,as a     
consequence individual characters have  
had to be markedly fine even at a time  
in which all creative achievements of   
enduring significance were very few4    
,just in the opposite way the history of
 the culture of non-puritanical ,europe 
has shown the greatest creative         
achievements at the very times when     
personal morals were at their lowest    
ebb4  ,but the spirit of self-perfection
 can have still an entirely different   
source4 ,in ethical idealism the        
perfection of personality is its own    
end2 but this perfection of the         
individual may also be a means to an    
end1 an instrument for bringing about   
the highest possible capacity for       
achievement in practical life4 ,this is 

the logic of utilitarianism4 ,for       
utilitarianism as well as for ,puritan  
idealism the growth of science and art1 
and the development of moral            
institutions1 are nothing in themselves1
 but are significant only as they work  
backward on the minds of the            
individuals4 ,idealism demands the      
intellectual life for the sake of the   
individual soul's welfare1              
utilitarianism for the sake of the      
individual's outward success4 ,a greater
 antithesis could hardly be thought of2 
and nevertheless the desire for         
self-perfection is common to both1 and  
for both the increase of the national   
products of culture are at the outset   
indifferent4 ,it is clear that both of  
these tendencies in their sociological  
results will always reach out far beyond
 their initial aims4 ,puritanism and    
utilitarianism1 although they begin with
 the individual1 nevertheless must bear 
their fruits in the whole intellectual  
status of the nation4 ,ethical idealism 

aims not only to receive1 but also to   
give4 ,to be sure1 it gives especially  
in order to inspire in others its own   
spirit of self-perfection1 but in order 
so to inspire and so to work it must    
give expression to its inner ideals by  
the creation of objects of art and      
science4 ,utilitarianism1 on the        
contrary1 must early set such a premium 
on all achievements which make for      
prosperity that in the same way again   
the individual1 from purely utilitarian 
motives1 is incited to bring his thought
 to a creative issue4 ,the intellectual 
life of the nation which is informed    
with ,puritan and utilitarian impulses1 
will therefore1 after a certain period1 
advance to a new and national stage of  
culture2 but the highest achievements   
will be made partly in the service of   
moral ideals1 partly in the service of  
technical culture4 ,as the result of the
 first tendency1 history1 law1          
literature1 philosophy1 and religion    
will come to their flowering2 in        

consequence of the second tendency1     
science and technique4  ,in modern      
,continental ,europe1 both these        
tendencies have been rather weakly      
developed4 ,from the outset idealism has
 had an intellectual and sthetic bias4  
,any great moral earnestness has been   
merely an episode in the thought of     
those nations2 and in the same way1 too1
 utilitarianism has played really a     
subordinate rle in their intellectual   
life1 because the desire for free       
initiative has never been a striking    
feature in the intellectual physiognomy4
 ,the love of truth1 the enjoyment of   
beauty1 and the social premiums for all 
who minister to this love and pleasure  
have been in ,continental ,europe more  
potent factors in the national          
intellectual life than either ethical   
idealism or practical utilitarianism4   
,and it is only because of its steady   
assimilation of all ,european immigrants
 that the ,puritan spirit of the ,new   
,england colonies has become the        

fundamental trait of the country1 and   
that moral earnestness has not been a   
mere episode also in the life of        
,america4  ,there is no further proof   
necessary that1 along with idealism1    
utilitarianism has in fact been an      
efficient factor in all intellectual    
activities of ,america4 ,indeed1 we have
 very closely traced out how deeply the 
desire for self-initiative has worked on
 the population and been the actual     
spring of the economic life of all      
classes4 ,but for the ,american it has  
been also a matter of course that the   
successful results of initiative        
presuppose1 in addition to energy of    
character1 technical training and the   
best possible liberal education4 ,here  
and there1 to be sure1 there appears a  
successful self-made man--a man who for 
his lack of making has only himself to  
thank--and he comes forward to warn     
young people to be wary of the higher   
culture1 and to preach to them that the 
school of practical life is the sole    

high-road to success4 ,but the exemplary
 organization of the great commercial   
corporations is itself a demonstration  
against any such fallacious paradoxes4  
,precisely there the person with the    
best training is always placed at the   
head1 and the actual results of         
,american technique would be still      
undreamt of if the ,american had        
preferred1 before the solid intellectual
 mastery of his problems1 really nothing
 but energy or 8dash0 or1 say1 mere     
audacity4 ,the issues which really      
seriously interest the ,american are not
 between the adherents of culture and   
the adherents of mere push1 undeterred  
by any culture2 the material value of   
the highest possible intellectual       
culture has come to be a dogma4 ,the    
real issues are mainly even to-day those
 between the ,puritanical and           
utilitarian ideals of self-perfection4  
,of course those most in the heat of    
battle are not aware of this2 and yet   
when in the thousandfold discussions the

 question comes up whether the higher   
schools and colleges should have fixed  
courses of instruction for the sake of  
imparting a uniform and general culture1
 or whether on the other hand           
specialization should be allowed to step
 in and so to advance the time for the  
technical training1 then the ,puritans  
of ,new ,england and the utilitarians of
 the ,middle ,states are ranged against 
each other4  ,in fact1 it is the        
,middle1 and a little later on the      
,western1 ,states1 where along with the 
tremendous development of the instinct  
of individual initiative the pressure   
for the utilitarian exploitation of the 
higher intellectual powers has been most
 lively4 ,also this side of the         
,american spirit has not sprung up      
to-day nor yesterday2 and its influence 
is neither an immoral nor a morally     
indifferent force4 ,utilitarianism has  
decidedly its own ethics4 ,it is the    
robust ethics of the ,philistine1 with  
its rather trivial references to the    

greatest good of the greatest number and
 citations of the general welfare4      
,benjamin ,franklin1 for instance1      
preached no mean morality1 along with   
his labours for politics and science2   
but his words1 8,honesty is the best    
policy10 put morality on a level with   
the lightning-rod which he invented4    
,both are means toward human prosperity4
 ,although born and bred in ,boston1    
,franklin did not feel himself at home  
there1 where for the best people life   
was thought to be 8a trembling walk with
 ,god40 ,for him ,philadelphia was a    
more congenial field of activity4       
,to-day there is no single place which  
is specially noted for its utilitarian  
turn of mind4 ,it is rather a matter of 
general dissemination1 for the influence
 of the entire ,western population goes 
in this direction4 ,but no one should   
for a moment imagine that this          
utilitarian movement has overcome or    
destroyed the ,puritan spirit4 ,the     
actual state of the national culture can

 be understood only as a working        
together of these two types of the      
spirit of self-perfection2 and even     
to-day1 the ,puritan spirit is the      
stronger--the spirit of ,new ,england is
 in the lead4  ,all that we have so far 
spoken of relates to that which is      
distinctly of national origin2 over and 
above this there is much which the      
,american has adopted from other        
nations4 ,the most diverse factors work 
to make this importation from foreign   
thought more easy4 ,the wealth and the  
fondness for travel of the ,american1   
his craze for collections1 and his      
desire to have in everything the        
best--this in addition to the           
uninterrupted stream of immigration and 
much else--have all brought it about    
that anything which is foreign is only  
too quickly adopted in the national     
culture4 ,not until very lately has a   
more or less conscious reaction against 
this sort of thing stepped in1 partly   
through the increased strengthening of  

the national consciousness1 but more    
specially through the surprisingly quick
 rise of native achievement4 ,the time  
for imitation in architecture has gone  
by and the prestige of the ,english     
romance is at an end4 ,and yet to-day   
,english literature1 ,french art1 and   
,german music still exercise here their 
due and potent influence4  ,now1 in     
addition to these influences which      
spring from the culture of foreign      
nations1 come finally those impulses    
which are not peculiar to any one       
nation1 but spring up in every country  
out of the lower instincts and          
pleasures4 ,everywhere in the world mere
 love of diversion tries to step in and 
to usurp the place of sthetic pleasure4 
,everywhere curiosity and sensational   
abandon are apt to undermine purely     
logical interests1 and everywhere a mere
 excitability tries to assume the rle of
 moral ardour4 ,everywhere the weak and 
trivial moral1 sthetic1 and intellectual
 appeals of the variety stage may come  

to be preferred over the serious appeals
 of the drama4 ,it is said that this    
tendency1 which was always deeply rooted
 in man's nature1 is felt more          
noticeably in our nervous and excitable 
times than it was in the old days4 ,in a
 similar way one may say that it shows  
out still stronger in ,america than it  
does in other countries4 ,the reason for
 this is clear4 ,political democracy is 
responsible for part of it2 for in the  
name of that equality which it          
postulates1 it instinctively lends more 
countenance to the sthetic tastes1 the  
judgment1 and the moral inspiration of  
the butcher1 the baker and              
candlestick-maker than is really        
desirable if one has at heart the       
development of absolute culture4        
,perhaps an even more important factor  
is the purely economic circumstance that
 in ,america the masses possess a       
greater purchasing power than in any    
other country1 and for this reason are  
able to exert a more immediate influence

 on the intellectual life of the land4  
,the great public is not more trivial in
 the ,united ,states than elsewhere2 it 
is rather1 as in every democracy1 more  
mature and self-contained2 but in       
,america this great public is more than 
elsewhere in the material position to   
buy great newspapers1 and to support    
theatres2 and is thus able to exert a   
degrading influence on the intellectual 
level of both newspaper and theatre4    
,in this way1 then1 the tendency of the 
lower classes toward those things which 
are trivial may sometimes conceal the   
fine traits in the picture of the       
national intellectual life2 just as the 
readiness for imitation may1 for a time1
 bring in many a foreign trait4 ,but    
nevertheless1 there is in fact a clearly
 recognizable1 a free and independent   
intellectual life1 which everywhere     
reveals the opposition or the balance   
between ,puritanism and utilitarianism1 
and which is everywhere dominated by    
that single wish which is common both to

 ,puritans and to utilitarians--the     
desire for the best possible development
 of the individual1 the desire for      
self-perfection4  ,since1 however1 it   
remains a somewhat artificial           
abstraction to pick out a single        
trait--even if that is the most         
typical--from the intellectual make-up  
of the nation1 so of course it is       
understood from the outset that all the 
other peculiarities of the ,american    
work together with this one to colour   
and shape his real intellectual life4   
,everywhere1 for instance1 one notes the
 easily kindled enthusiasm of the       
,american and his inexhaustible         
versatility1 his religious temperament  
and his strongly marked feeling of      
decorum1 his lively sense of justice and
 his energy1 and perhaps most of all his
 whimsical humour4 ,each one of these   
admirable traits involves some          
corresponding failing4 ,it is natural   
that impetuous enthusiasm should not    
make for that dogged persistence which  

so often has brought victory to various 
,german intellectual movements2 so1 too1
 a nice feeling for form grows easily   
impatient when it is a question of      
intellectual work requiring a broad and 
somewhat careless handling4 ,devotion to
 the supersensuous is inclined to lead  
to superstition and mysticism1 while a  
too sensitive feeling for fair play may 
develop into hysterical sympathy for    
that which is merely puny2 versatility1 
as is well known1 is only too apt to    
come out in fickle dilettante           
activities1 and the humour that bobs up 
at every moment destroys easily enough  
the dignity of the most serious         
occasion4 ,and yet all this1 whether    
good or bad1 is a secondary matter4 ,the
 spirit of self-perfection remains the  
central point1 and it must be always    
from this point that we survey the whole
 field4  ,a social community which      
believes its chief duty to be the       
highest perfection of the individual    
will direct its main attentions to the  

church and the school4 ,the church life 
in ,america is1 for political reasons1  
almost entirely separated from the      
influence of the state2 but the force   
with which every person is drawn into   
some church circle has not for this     
reason lost1 but rather gained1         
strength4 ,the whole social machine is  
devised in the interests of religion1   
and the impatience of the sects and     
churches against one another is slight  
indeed as compared with the intolerance 
of the churches as a whole against      
irreligion4 ,the boundaries are drawn as
 widely as possible1 so that ethical    
culture or even ,christian ,science may 
be included under the head of religion2 
but countless purely social influences  
make strongly toward bringing the spirit
 of worship in some wise into every     
man's life1 so that an hour of          
consecration precedes the week of work1 
and every one in the midst of his       
earthly turmoil heeds the thought of    
eternity1 in whatever way he will4 ,and 

these social means are even stronger    
than any political ones could be4       
,there is very much which contributes to
 deepen the religious feeling of the    
people and to increase the efficiency of
 the churches4 ,the very numerousness of
 the different sects is not the least   
factor in this direction1 for it allows 
every individual conscience to find     
somewhere its peculiar religious        
satisfaction4 ,an additional impulse is 
the high position which woman occupies1 
for she is more religiously endowed than
 man4 ,and yet another factor is the    
many social functions which the churches
 have taken on themselves4 ,in this last
 there is much that may seem to the     
stranger too secular3 the church which  
is at the same time a club1 a           
circulating library1 and a place to     
lounge in1 seems at first sight to lose 
something of its dignity2 but just      
because it has woven itself in by such  
countless threads to the web of daily   
life1 it has come to pass that no part  

of the social fabric is quite           
independent of it4 ,of course the       
external appearance of a large city does
 not strongly indicate this state of    
things2 but the town and country on the 
other hand give evidence of the strong  
religious tendency of the population1   
even to the superficial observer2 and he
 will not understand the ,americans if  
he leaves out of account their religious
 inwardness4 ,the influence of religion 
is the only one which is stronger than  
that of politics itself1 and the        
accomplished professional politicians   
are sharp to guide their party away from
 any dangerous competition with that    
factor4  ,the church owes its power more
 or less to the unconscious sentiments  
in the soul of the people1 whereas the  
high position and support of the public 
school is the one end toward which the  
conscious volition of the entire nation 
is bent with firmest determination4 ,one
 must picture to one's self the huge    
extent of the thinly populated country1 

the incomparable diversity of the       
population which has come in1 bringing  
many differences of race and language1  
and finally the outlay of strength which
 has been necessary to open up the soil 
to cultivation1 in order to have an idea
 of what huge labours it has taken to   
plant the land from the ,atlantic to the
 ,pacific with a thick sowing of        
schools4 ,the desire for the best       
possible school system is for the       
,american actually more than a social   
duty--it has become a passion2 and      
although here and there it may have gone
 astray1 it has never been afraid of any
 difficulty4  ,the ,european who is     
accustomed to see the question of       
education left to the government can    
hardly realize with what intensity this 
entire population participates in the   
solution of theoretical problems and in 
the overcoming of practical             
difficulties4 ,no weekly paper or       
magazine and no lecture programme of any
 association of thinking men could be   

found in which questions of nurture and 
education are not treated4 ,pedagogical 
publications are innumerable1 and the   
number of those who are technically     
informed is nearly identical with the   
number of those who have brought up     
children4 ,the discussions in ,germany  
over1 we may say1 high schools and      
technical schools1 over modern and      
ancient languages1 or the higher        
education of women1 interest a          
relatively small circle as compared with
 similar discussions in ,america4 ,the  
mere fact that this effort toward the   
best school instruction has so deeply   
taken hold of all classes of society1   
and that it leads all parties and sects 
and all parts of the country to a united
 and self-conscious struggle forward is 
in itself of the highest value for the  
education of the whole people4  ,in the 
broad basis of the public school is     
built a great system of higher          
instruction1 and the ,european does not 
easily find the right point of view from

 which to take this4 ,the hundreds of   
colleges1 universities1 professional    
schools1 and polytechnics seem to the   
casual observer very often like a merely
 heterogeneous and disordered collection
 of separate institutions1 because there
 seems to be no common standard1 no     
general level1 no common point of view1 
and no common end2 in short1 there seems
 to be no system4 ,and nevertheless1    
there is at the bottom of it all an     
excellent system4 ,it is here that one  
finds the most elaborate and astonishing
 achievement of the ,american spirit1   
held together in one system by the      
principle of imperceptible gradations2  
and no other organization1 specially no 
mere imitation of foreign examples1     
could so completely bring to expression 
the ,american desire for                
self-perfection4  ,the topics of school 
and university would not make up        
one-half of the history of ,american    
popular education4 ,in no other country 
of the world is the nation so much and  

so systematically instructed outside of 
the school as in ,america1 and the      
thousand forms in which popular         
education is provided for those who have
 grown beyond the schools1 are once more
 a lively testimony to the tireless     
instinct for personal perfection4       
,evening schools1 summer schools1       
university extension courses1 lecture   
institutes1 society classes1 and        
debating clubs1 all work together to    
that end2 and to omit these would be to 
give no true history of ,american       
culture4 ,the background of all this1   
however1 is the great national stock of 
public library books1 from which even   
the poorest person can find the best    
books and study them amid the most      
delightful surroundings4  ,the popular  
educational libraries1 together with the
 amazingly profuse newspaper and        
magazine literature1 succeed in reaching
 the whole people2 and1 in turn1 these  
institutions would not have become so   
large as they are if the people         

themselves had not possessed a strong   
desire for improvement4 ,this thirst for
 reading is again nothing new2 for      
,hopkinson1 who was acquainted with both
 ,england and ,america in the middle of 
the eighteenth century1 reported with   
surprise the difference in this respect 
between the two countries4 ,and since   
that time the development has gone on   
and on until to-day the magazines are   
printed by the hundreds of thousands1   
and historical romances in editions of  
half a million copies2 while public     
libraries exist not only in every small 
city1 but even in the villages1 and     
those in the large cities are housed in 
buildings which are truly monuments of  
architecture4 ,as the influence of books
 has grown1 the native literature has   
increased and the arts of modelling and 
sculpture have come forward at an equal 
pace1 as means of popular culture4      
,museums have arisen1 orchestras been   
established1 the theatre developed1 and 
an intellectual life has sprung up which

 is ready to measure itself against the 
best that ,european culture has         
produced4 ,but the real foundation of   
this is even to-day not the creative    
genius1 but the average citizen1 in his 
striving after self-perfection and      
culture4  ,once every year the ,american
 people go through a period of formal   
meditation and moral reflection4 ,in the
 month of ,june all the schools close4  
,colleges and universities shut their   
doors for the long summer vacation2 and 
then1 at the end of the year of study1  
according to an old ,american custom1   
some serious message is delivered to    
those who are about to leave the        
institutions4 ,to make such a farewell  
speech is accounted an honour1          
depending1 of course1 on the rank of the
 institution1 and the best men in the   
country are glad to be asked4 ,thus it  
happens that1 in the few weeks of ,june1
 hundreds of the leading men--scholars1 
statesmen1 novelists1 reformers1        
politicians1 officials1 and             

philanthropists--vie with one another in
 impressing on the youth the best1      
deepest1 and most inspiring sentiments2 
and since these speeches are copied in  
the newspapers and magazines1 they are  
virtually said to the whole people4 ,the
 more important utterances generally    
arouse discussions in the columns of the
 newspapers1 and so the month of ,june  
comes to be a time of reflection and    
meditation1 and of a certain refreshment
 of inspiration and a revival of moral  
strength4 ,now1 if one looks over these 
speeches1 one sees that they generally  
are concerned with one of two great     
themes4 ,some of them appeal to the     
youth1 saying2 ,learn and cultivate     
yourselves1 for this is the only way in 
which you will arrive at becoming useful
 members of society3 while the others   
urge2 ,cultivate yourselves1 for there  
is in life nothing more precious than a 
full and harmonious development of the  
soul4 ,the latter sentiment is that of  
the ,puritan1 while the former is that  

of the utilitarian4 ,and yet the        
individualistic tendency is in both     
cases the same4 ,in both cases youth is 
urged to find its goal in the perfection
 of the individual4                     
,,chapter ,,fifteen                     
,the ,schools and ,popular ,education   
,the ,dutch population of ,new          
,amsterdam started a school system in   
the year #afba4 ,the first public ,latin
 school was founded in ,boston in the   
year #afce4 ,the other colonies soon    
followed4 ,clearly the ,english governor
 of ,virginia1 ,berkeley1 had not quite 
grasped the spirit of the ,new ,world1  
when at about that time he wrote home1  
that1 thank ,god1 no public schools and 
no printing-press existed here1 and when
 he added his hope that they would not  
be introduced for a hundred years1 since
 learning brings irreligion and         
disobedience into the world1 and the    
printing-press disseminates them and    
fights against the best intentions of   
the government4 ,for that matter it was 

precisely ,virginia which was the first 
colony1 even before ,boston and ,new    
,york1 to consider the question of      
education4 ,as early as #afai the       
treasurer of the ,virginia ,company had 
proposed1 in the ,english ,parliament1  
that #ae1jjj acres of land should be set
 aside in the interests of a school for 
higher education4 ,the ,english churches
 became interested in the plan1 and an  
abundant supply of money was got        
together4 ,ground and buildings had been
 procured for lower and higher          
instruction and all was in working      
order1 when in #afbb the fearful ,indian
 war upset everything4 ,the buildings   
were destroyed1 and all thought of      
public education was for a long time    
given up4 ,this is how that condition   
came about which so well pleased        
,governor ,berkeley4 ,but this mishap to
 the ,virginia colony shows at once how 
the ,american system of education has   
not been able to progress in any        
systematic way1 but has suffered        

frequent reverses through war or        
political disturbance4 ,and it has      
developed in the different parts of the 
country at a very different pace1       
sometimes even in quite different       
directions4 ,it was not until after the 
,civil ,war--that is1 within the last   
thirty years--that these differences    
have to a large extent been wiped out4  
,it is only to-day that one can speak of
 a general ,american system4 ,the       
outsider will1 therefore1 come to a     
better understanding of the ,american   
educational system if he begins his     
study with conditions as they are       
to-day1 for they are more unified and   
therefore easier to understand1 than if 
he were to try to understand how the    
present has historically come from the  
complicated and rather uninteresting    
past4  ,so we shall not ask how the     
educational system has developed1 but   
rather what it is to-day and what it    
aims to be4 ,even the present-day       
conditions may easily lead a ,german    

into some confusion1 because he is      
naturally inclined to compare them with 
the conditions at home1 and such a      
comparison is not always easy4          
,therefore1 we must picture to ourselves
 first of all the fundamental points in 
the system1 and describe its principal  
variations from the conditions in       
,germany4 ,a few broad strokes will     
suffice for a first inspection4  ,the   
unit of the system in its completest    
form is a four years' course of         
instruction4 ,for the easier survey we  
may think of a boundary drawn at what in
 ,germany would be between the          
,obersekunda and ,prima of a ,gymnasium 
or ,realschule4 ,now1 three such units  
of the system lie before and two after  
this line of demarcation4 ,the son of a 
well-to-do family1 who is to study      
medicine in ,harvard ,university1 will  
probably reach this line of demarcation 
in his eighteenth year4 ,if he is       
advanced according to the normal scheme 
he will have entered a primary school at

 six years of age1 the grammar school at
 ten1 and the high school at fourteen4  
,thus he will complete a twelve years'  
course in the public schools4 ,now he   
crosses our line of demarcation in his  
eighteenth year and enters college4 ,and
 as soon as he has finished his four    
years' course in college he begins his  
medical studies in the university1 and  
he is twenty-six years old when he has  
finished4 ,if we count in two years of  
early preparation in the kindergarten1  
we shall see that the whole scheme of   
education involves twenty-two years of  
study4 ,now1 it is indeed possible that 
our young medical student will have     
progressed somewhat more rapidly2       
perhaps he will have reached the high   
school after six instead of eight years 
of study2 perhaps he will finish his    
college course in three years1 and it   
may be that he will never have gone to  
kindergarten4 ,but we have at first to  
concern ourselves with the complete plan
 of education1 not with the various     

changes and abbreviations of it1 which  
are very properly allowed and even      
favoured4  ,the line which we call the  
great boundary is the time when the lad 
enters college4 ,now1 what is the great 
significance of this moment8 ,the       
,german1 who thinks in terms of         
,gymnasium and ,universitt1 is almost   
sure to fall into a misapprehension2 for
 college is neither the one nor the     
other4 ,so far as the studies themselves
 go1 it coincides rather well with the  
,prima of the ,gymnasium and the first  
two or three semesters in the           
philosophical faculty of the ,german    
university4 ,and yet even this by no    
means tells one what a college really   
is4 ,above all1 it does not explain why 
the ,american makes the chief division  
at the time of entering college1 while  
the ,german makes it when he enters the 
medical or law school4 ,this needs to be
 explained most clearly1 because very   
important factors are here involved1    
which bear on the future of ,american   

civilization4 ,and so we must give      
especial attention to college and the   
professional schools4 ,but that         
discussion is to be reserved for the    
chapter on the universities4 ,for the   
present1 we have only to deal with the  
system of instruction in those schools  
which prepare for college4  ,and so1    
leaving the kindergarten out of the     
question1 we shall deal with those three
 institutions which we have called      
primary1 grammar1 and high schools4     
,usually1 the first two of these are    
classed together as one eight years'    
course of training4 ,the ,european will 
be struck at once that in this system   
there is only one normal plan of public 
education4 ,the future merchant1 who    
goes to the high school and ends his    
studies in the eighteenth year1 has to  
follow the same course of study in the  
primary and grammar schools as the      
peasant and labourer who studies only   
until his fourteenth year1 and then     
leaves school to work in the field or   

the factory4 ,and this young merchant1  
although he goes into business when he  
is eighteen years old1 pursues exactly  
the same studies as the student who is  
later to go to college and the          
university4 ,now in fact1 in just this  
connection the actual conditions are    
admirably adapted to the most diverse   
requirements2 the public schools find an
 admirable complement in private        
schools2 and1 more than that1 certain   
very complicated differentiations have  
been brought about within the single    
school1 in order to overcome the most   
serious defects of this uniformity4     
,nevertheless1 the principle remains2   
the system is uniform1 and the ,american
 himself finds therein its chief merit4 
,the motive for this is clear4 ,every   
one1 even the most humble1 should find  
his way open2 every one must be able to 
press on as far as his own intelligence 
permits2 in other words--words which the
 ,american pedagogue is very fond of    
uttering--the public school is to make  

the spirit of caste impossible4 ,it is  
to wipe out the boundaries between the  
different classes of society1 and it is 
to see to it1 that if the farmer's lad  
of some remote village feels within     
himself some higher aspiration1 and     
wants to go beyond the grammar school to
 the high school and even to college1 he
 shall find no obstacle in his way4 ,his
 advance must not be impeded by his     
suddenly finding that his entrance into 
the high school would need some         
different sort of previous training4    
,this general intermingling of the      
classes of society is thought to be the 
panacea of democracy4 ,the younger      
generations are to be removed from all  
those influences which keep their       
parents apart1 and out of all the       
classes of society the sturdiest youth  
are to be free of all prejudice and free
 to rise to the highest positions4 ,only
 in this wise can new sound blood flow  
through the social organism2 only so can
 the great evils incident to the        

formation of castes which have hindered 
old ,europe in its mighty progress be   
from the very outset avoided4 ,the      
classic myth relates of the hero who    
gained his strength because he kissed   
the earth4 ,in this way the ,american   
people believe that they will become    
strong only by returning with every     
fresh generation to the soil1 and if the
 ,german ,gymnasia were a hundred times 
better than they are1 and if they were  
able to prepare a boy from early        
childhood for the highest intellectual  
accomplishment1 ,america would still    
find them unsuited to her needs1 because
 from the outset they are designed for  
only a small portion of the people1 and 
for this reason they make it almost     
impossible for the great mass of boys to
 proceed to the universities from the   
ordinary public schools4  ,all of this  
is the traditional confession of belief 
of the pedagogue of the ,new ,world4    
,but now since ,america1 in the most    
recent times1 has nevertheless begun to 

grow in its social structure            
considerably more like antiquated       
,europe1 and sees itself less and less  
able to overcome the tendencies to a    
spirit of caste1 so a sort of mild      
compromise has been made between the    
democratic creed and aristocratic       
tendencies1 especially in the large     
cities of the ,east4 ,nevertheless1 any 
one who keeps his eyes open will admit  
that1 so far as the public school goes1 
intellectual self-perfection is in every
 way favoured1 so that every single     
child of the people may rise as high as 
he will4 ,grammar school leads to the   
high school1 and the high school leads  
to college4  ,there is another factor   
which is closely related to the         
foregoing4 ,education is free and       
obligatory4 ,in olden times there was   
more the tendency for the parents of the
 children1 rather than for the general  
taxpayer1 to pay for the maintenance of 
the schools4 ,indeed1 there were times  
in which the remission of the special   

school tax was considered almost an act 
of charity1 which only the poorest of   
the parents would accept4 ,but now it is
 quite different4 ,the school system    
knows no difference between rich and    
poor1 and it is a fundamental principle 
that the support of the schools is a    
matter for the whole community4 ,the    
only question is in regard to the high  
school1 since after all only a small    
percentage of school children comes as  
far as the high school2 and it is       
unjust1 some say1 to burden the general 
taxpayer with the expenses of such      
school4  ,nevertheless1 on this point   
the opinions of those have won who      
conceive that it is the duty of the     
community to nurture any effort toward  
self-culture1 even in the poorest child4
 ,the chief motive in olden times1      
wherefore the expenses of the schools   
were paid by all1 was that the school   
was leading toward religion2 to-day the 
official motive for the application of  
taxes to the maintenance of schools is  

the conviction that only an educated and
 cultivated people can rule itself4 ,the
 right to vote1 it is said1 presupposes 
the right to an education by means of   
which every citizen becomes able to read
 the papers of the day and to form his  
own independent opinion on public       
matters4 ,but since every public school 
is open also to the daughters of the    
citizens who possibly want the right to 
vote1 but do not so far have it1 it     
becomes clear that the above-mentioned  
political motive is not the whole of the
 matter4 ,it is enough for technical    
discussions of taxation1 but what the   
community is really working for is the  
greatest possible number of the most    
highly educated individuals4 ,free      
instruction is further supplemented in  
various states--as1 for instance1 in    
,massachusetts--by supplying text-books 
gratis4 ,some other states go so far as 
to supply the needy children with       
clothing4 ,the obligatory character of  
education goes with the fact that it is 

free4 ,in this respect1 too1 the laws of
 different states are widely divergent4 
,some require seven1 others eight1 still
 others even nine years1 of school      
training4 ,and the school year itself is
 fixed differently in different states4 
,these differences between the states   
point at once to a further fact which   
has been characteristic of the ,american
 school system from the very beginning4 
,responsibility for the schools rests at
 the periphery2 and in extremely happy  
fashion the authority is so divided that
 all variations1 wherever they occur1   
are adaptations to local conditions2 and
 nevertheless unity is preserved4 ,a    
labile equilibrium of the various       
administrative factors is brought about 
by harmonious distribution of the       
authority1 and this is1 in all          
departments of public life1 the peculiar
 faculty of the ,americans4  ,the       
federal government1 as such1 has no     
direct influence on education4 ,the     
tirelessly active ,bureau of ,education 

at ,washington1 which is under the      
direction of the admirable pedagogue1   
,mr4 ,harris1 is essentially a bureau   
for advice and information and for the  
taking of statistics4 ,the legal        
ordinances pertaining to school systems 
is a matter for the individual state1   
and the state again leaves it to the    
individual community1 within certain    
limits of course and under state        
supervision1 to build schools and to    
organize them1 to choose their teachers1
 their plans of education1 and their    
school-books4 ,and at every point here1 
exactly as in the striking example of   
the federal ,constitution1 the          
responsibility is divided between the   
legislative and the executive bodies4   
,the state inspector of schools is      
co-ordinate with the state legislature1 
and the school inspector of a city or a 
country district1 who is elected now by 
the mayor1 now by the council1 now      
perhaps directly by the community1 is a 
sort of technical specialist with       

considerable discretionary power2 he is 
co-ordinated to the school committee1   
which is elected by the community1 and  
which directs the expenditures and      
confirms all appointments4  ,the        
responsibility for the moral and        
intellectual standards1 for the         
practical conditions1 and for the       
financial liabilities incurred by every 
school1 rests therefore immediately with
 the community1 which has to pay for    
their support1 and whose children are to
 derive advantage4 ,and nevertheless1   
the general oversight of the state sees 
to it that neither whimsicality nor     
carelessness abuses this right1 nor     
departs too widely from approved        
traditions4 ,these authorities are      
further supplemented in that the state  
legislature is more or less able to make
 up for differences between rich and    
poor districts and between the city and 
the country1 besides directly carrying  
on certain normal schools in which the  
teachers for the elementary and grammar 

schools are trained4  ,very great and   
very diverse advantages are the         
immediate outcome of this administrative
 system4 ,firstly1 an interest in the   
well-being of the schools is developed  
in every state1 city1 and town1 and the 
spirit of self-perfection is united with
 the spirit of self-determination4      
,secondly1 there is a good deal of free 
play for local differences--differences 
between states and differences within   
the state4 ,nothing would have been more
 unsuitable than in this whole          
tremendous territory to institute a     
rigidly fixed school system1 as say by  
some federal laws or some interstate    
agreements4 ,if there were the same     
educational provisions for the negro    
states of the ,south and for the ,yankee
 states of ,new ,england1 for the       
thickly settled regions of the ,east and
 the prairies of the ,west1 these       
provisions would be either empty words  
or else they would tend to drag down the
 more highly educated parts of the      

country to the level of the lowest      
districts4 ,the ,german who objects to  
this on the ground of uniformity1 does  
so because he is too apt to think of the
 great similarity which exists between  
the different sections of ,germany4 ,the
 only proper basis for a comparison1    
however1 would be his taking ,europe as 
a whole into consideration4  ,if now the
 outward unity of this system which we  
have described is nevertheless to be    
maintained1 it is absolutely necessary  
that this form shall be filled with very
 different contents4 ,and this          
introduction of diversity is intrusted  
to the state legislatures and local     
authorities1 who are familiar with the  
special conditions4 ,in this way the    
so-called school year in the school     
ordinances of a rich state may be about 
twice as long as in another state whose 
poorer population is perhaps not able   
entirely to do without the economies of 
child labour4 ,but the differences      
between the schools take particularly   

such a form that the attainments of the 
different schools1 corresponding to the 
culture and prosperity of the state in  
which they are1 and of the community1   
are consciously designed to be quite    
different4 ,the remoter rural schools   
which1 on account of the poverty of     
their patronage perhaps1 have to get on 
with one badly trained teacher and have 
to carry on four grades of instruction  
in one school-room1 and other schools   
which employ only university graduates1 
which bring their scholars together in  
sumptuous buildings1 afford them        
laboratories and libraries1 and have all
 the wealth of a great city to back     
them--these schools cannot seriously    
enter into competition with each other4 
,two years of study in one place will   
mean more than four in another2 and     
there is no special danger in this1     
since this very inequality has brought  
it about that the completion of one     
grade in a school by no means carries   
with it the right to enter the next     

higher grade of any other school4 ,it is
 not the case that a scholar who has    
passed through any grammar school       
whatsoever will be welcome in every high
 school4 ,this is regulated by an       
entrance examination for the higher     
school1 which will not accept merely the
 certificate of graduation from a lower4
  ,there are still other forms of this  
differentiation4 ,in the first place1   
the schools have shown a growing        
tendency to establish various parallel  
courses1 between which the scholars are 
allowed to choose4 ,in the simplest case
 there is1 perhaps1 on the one hand a   
very practical plan of education1 and a 
second course which is rather more      
liberal2 or1 again1 there may be a      
course for those who are not meaning to 
study further1 and another course for   
those who are preparing for the entrance
 examinations to some higher school4    
,the fiction of uniformity is preserved 
in this way4 ,the child does not1 as in 
,germany1 choose between different      

schools2 but he chooses between plans of
 education in the same school1 and every
 day the tendency deepens to make this  
elective system more and more labile4   
,but the most modern pedagogues are not 
content even with this1 and insist1     
especially in the grade of the high     
school1 that the make-up of the course  
of study must be more and more1 as they 
say1 adapted to the individuality of the
 scholars2 or1 as others think1 to the  
whimsies of the parents and the         
scholars4 ,since1 in accordance with    
this1 the entrance examinations for the 
colleges leave considerable free play   
for the choice of specialties1 this     
movement will probably go on developing 
for some time4 ,it appeals very cleverly
 to the instincts of both the ,puritans 
and the utilitarians4 ,the ,puritan     
demands the development of all          
individual gifts1 and the utilitarian   
wants the preparation for an individual 
career4 ,nevertheless1 there are some   
indications of an opposite tendency4    

,even the utilitarian begins to         
understand that he is best fitted for   
the fight who bases his profession on   
the broadest foundation--who begins1    
therefore1 with his specialization as   
late as possible4 ,and the ,puritan1    
too1 cannot wholly forget that nothing  
is more important for his personal      
development than the training of the    
will in the performance of duty1 in the 
overcoming of personal inhibitions1 and 
that therefore for the scholar those    
studies may well be the most valuable   
which at the first he seems least       
inclined to pursue4 ,further            
differentiation results from the almost 
universal opportunity to pass through   
the schools in a somewhat shorter time4 
,it is also possible for a student to   
progress more rapidly in one branch of  
study1 and so in different branches to  
advance at different rates4  ,we have   
over and above all these things1 and    
more particularly in the large cities1 a
 factor of differentiation which has so 

far been quite left out of account4     
,this is the private school4 ,the goal  
for the student who wants to advance is 
not the diploma of graduation1 but      
preparation for the entrance            
examinations which are next higher4     
,this preparation can perhaps be        
obtained more thoroughly1 more quickly1 
and under more fortunate social         
conditions1 in a private school1 which  
charges a high tuition1 but in this way 
is able to engage the very best         
teachers1 and able perhaps to have      
smaller classes than the public schools4
 ,and such a private school will be able
 to extend its influence over all       
education4 ,large and admirably         
conducted institutions have grown up1   
often in some rural vicinity1 where     
several hundred young persons lead a    
harmonious life together and are        
educated from their earliest youth1     
coming home only during vacation4 ,in   
such ways the private school has taken  
on the most various forms1 corresponding

 to obvious needs4 ,they find justly the
 encouragement of the state4  ,this     
diversity which we have sketched of     
public and private educational          
institutions brings us at once to       
another principle1 which has been and   
always will be of great significance in 
,american material and intellectual     
history--the principle that everywhere  
sharp demarcations between the          
institutions of different grades are    
avoided1 and that instead1 sliding      
gradations and easy transitions are     
brought about1 by means of which any    
institution can advance without any     
hindrance4 ,this is in every case the   
secret of ,american success--free play  
for the creations of private initiative4
 ,the slightest aspiration must be      
allowed to work itself out1 and the most
 modest effort must be helped along4    
,where anything which is capable of life
 has sprung up1 it should be allowed to 
grow4 ,sharp demarcation with official  
uniformity would make that impossible2  

for only where such unnoticeably small  
steps form the transitions1 is any      
continuous inner growth to be expected4 
,we have emphasized the local           
differences4 ,the grammar school in ,new
 ,york is probably more efficient than  
the high school in ,oklahoma1 and the   
high school in ,boston will carry its   
students probably as far as some little 
college in ,utah4  ,the thousands of    
institutions which exist afford a       
continuous transition between such      
extremes1 and every single institution  
can set its own goal as high as it      
wishes to4 ,a school does not1 by any   
act of law1 pass into a higher class2   
but it perfects itself by the fact that 
the community introduces improvements1  
makes new changes1 appoints better and  
better teachers1 augments the           
curriculum1 and adds to its physical    
equipment4 ,in such ways1 the school    
year by year imperceptibly raises its   
standard4 ,and the same is true of the  
private school4 ,everything is a matter 

of growth1 and in spite of the outward  
uniformity of the system every school   
has its individual standard4 ,if one    
were to require that only such          
institutions should exist as had        
distinctly limited and similar aims1    
then the ,american would look on this as
 he would on an attempt to force all    
cities to be either of ten thousand1 a  
hundred thousand1 or a million          
inhabitants4 ,of course1 all this would 
have to be changed1 if as in ,germany1  
certain school grades carried with them 
certain privileges4 ,in ,america no     
school diploma carries officially any   
privilege at all4 ,it is the entrance   
examination1 and not the tests for      
graduation1 which is decisive2 and if   
there is any question of filling a      
position1 the particular schools which  
the candidates have gone through are the
 things which are chiefly taken into    
account4  ,we must mention one more     
trait which differentiates the ,american
 from the ,german school system4 ,the   

,american public school is              
co-educational4 ,co-education means     
theoretically that boys and girls are   
entitled to common education1 but       
practically it means that boys are also 
tolerated4 ,the idea that the school    
should not recognize differences of sex 
is most firmly rooted in the            
,middle-,western ,states1 where the     
population is somewhat coldly matter of 
fact2 but it has spread through the     
entire country4 ,it is said that family 
life lends the authority for such an    
intermingling of boys and girls2 that1  
through a constant and mutual influence1
 the boys are refined and the girls are 
made hardy2 and that1 during the years  
of development1 sexual tension is       
diminished4 ,it is one of the chief     
attractions that the private school     
offers to smaller circles that it gives 
up this hardening of the girls and      
refining of the boys1 and is always     
either a boys' or a girls' school4      
,even more striking than the presence of

 girls in the boys' schools is1 perhaps1
 the great number of women who figure as
 teachers4 ,the employment of women     
teachers began in the ,northern ,states 
after the ,civil ,war1 because as a     
direct result of the decimation of the  
population there were not men teachers  
enough4 ,since that time this practice  
has increased throughout the country2   
and although high schools generally try 
to get men teachers1 the more elementary
 schools are really wholly in the hands 
of women4 ,men do not compete for the   
lower schools1 since the competition of 
the women has brought down the wages1   
and more remunerative1 not to say more  
attractive1 situations are to be found  
in plenty4 ,women1 on the other hand1   
flock in in great numbers1 since their  
whole education has made them look      
forward to some professional activity1  
and no other calling seems so peculiarly
 adapted to the feminine nature4 ,the   
merits and drawbacks of co-education and
 of the predominance of women teachers  

cannot be separated from the general    
question of woman's rights2 and so the  
due treatment of these conditions must  
be put off until we come to consider the
 ,american woman from all sides4  ,it is
 not difficult to criticise rather      
sharply the school system1 and any one  
living in the midst of ,american life   
will feel it a duty to deliver his      
criticism without parsimony4 ,a system  
which expects the best it is to have1   
from the initiative of the periphery1   
must also expect the ceaseless critical 
co-operation of the whole nation4  ,in  
this way1 then1 crying and undeniable   
evils are often pointed out4 ,we hear of
 political interference in the          
government of the schools1 and of the   
deficient technical knowledge of local  
authorities1 of the insufficient        
preparation of the women teachers1 the  
poorness of the methods of instruction1 
of waste of time1 of arbitrary          
pedagogical experiments1 and of much    
else4 ,in every reproach there is a     

kernel of truth4 ,the connection of the 
schools with politics is in a certain   
sense unavoidable1 since all city       
government is a party government4 ,and  
the attempts to separate elections for  
the school committee entirely from      
politics will probably1 for a long time 
yet1 meet with only slight success4     
,since1 however1 every party is able to 
put its hand on discrete and competent  
men1 the only great danger is lest the  
majority of those concerned misuse their
 influence for party ends1 and perhaps  
deal out school positions and           
advancements as a reward for political  
services4  ,such things certainly       
happen2 but they never escape the notice
 of the opposite party1 and are         
faithfully exploited in the next year's 
election4 ,in this way any great abuses 
are quickly checked4 ,the secret doings1
 which have nothing to do with politics1
 are a great deal more dangerous4 ,it is
 certain that the enormous school       
budgets of the large cities offer the   

possibility for a deplorable plundering 
of the public treasury1 when it is a    
question of buying new land for         
school-houses1 of closing building      
contracts1 or of introducing certain    
text-books4 ,a committee-man who in     
these ways is willing to abuse his      
influence is able to derive a           
considerable profit2 and so it may well 
happen that men come to be on the school
 boards through political influence or  
through a professed interest in school  
matters1 who have really no other aim   
than to get something out of it4 ,it is 
very hard in such matters to arrive at a
 really fair judgment1 since the rival  
claimants who are unsuccessful are very 
apt to frame the opinion that they have 
been so because the successful man had  
8connections40  ,this sharply suspicious
 tendency and spirit of                 
over-watchfulness on the part of the    
public are certainly very useful in     
preserving the complete integrity of the
 schools1 but they occasion such a      

considerable tumult of rumour that it   
easily misleads one's judgment as to the
 real condition of the institutions4 ,in
 general1 the school committees         
appointed in the local elections perform
 their work in all conscientiousness4   
,it is1 of course1 the fact that they   
are rather frequently ignorant of things
 which they need to know2 but the       
tendency to leave all technical         
questions in the hands of pedagogical   
specialists1 and to undertake any       
innovations only at the advice of the   
school superintendent and directors1 is 
so general that on the whole things do  
not go quite so badly as one might      
expect4  ,the preparation of the        
teachers leaves very much to be wished4 
,those teachers who have been educated  
in higher seminaries are by no means    
numerous enough to fill all the public  
school positions2 and even less does the
 number of college graduates suffice for
 the needs of the high schools4 ,the    
fact that the teaching profession is    

remarkably versed in pedagogics only    
apparently relieves this defect2 for    
even the very best methods of teaching  
are of course no substitute for a firm  
grasp of the subject which is being     
taught4 ,in the elementary schools the  
lack of theoretical training in a       
teacher is1 of course1 less felt4 ,the  
instinct of the teacher1 her interest in
 the child1 her tact and sympathy1 in   
short the personal element1 are what is 
here most important4 ,and since all     
this1 even in the superficially educated
 woman1 springs purely from her         
feminity1 and since the energetic women 
are extraordinarily eager and           
self-sacrificing1 so it happens that    
almost everywhere the elementary schools
 are better conducted by their women    
teachers than are the high schools4  ,so
 far as method goes1 a great deal too   
much stress is laid on the text-book2   
too much is taught mechanically out of  
the book1 and too little is directly    
imparted by the teacher4 ,the teacher   

submits passively to the text-book2 and 
the ,american himself is inclined to    
defend this1 since his democratic belief
 in the power of black and white is     
unlimited4 ,before all1 he regards it as
 the chief aim of the public school to  
prepare the citizen for the independent 
reading of newspapers and books4        
,therefore1 the scholars are expected to
 become as much acquainted as possible  
with the use of books4 ,there is no     
doubt that the ,american school children
 read more newspapers in later life than
 do the ,european1 and it must also be  
borne in mind that for the most part the
 text-books are notably good4 ,perhaps1 
in regard to attractiveness1 they even  
go rather too far4 ,in this way not only
 the books of natural history1 but also 
of history and literature1 are crowded  
with illustrations4 ,the geographies are
 generally lavishly gotten-up volumes   
with all sorts of entertaining pictures4
 ,the appeals to the eye1 both by means 
of the text-books and even more by the  

aid of demonstrations and experiments1  
are carried really to excess4 ,even the 
blackboards1 which run along all four   
walls of the school rooms1 encourage the
 teacher to appeal rather more to the   
eye than to the ear4  ,also the         
much-discussed experimentation with new 
pedagogical ideas is an unfortunate fact
 which cannot be denied4 ,a central     
authority1 which was held fully         
responsible for a large district1 would 
of course be conservative2 but where the
 details of teaching are left entirely  
to every local school inspector1 then of
 course many shallow reforms and many   
unnecessary experiments with doubtful   
methods will be undertaken4 ,the school 
inspector will feel himself moved to    
display his modern spirit and to show   
his pedagogical efficiency in just these
 ways4 ,and many a private school1 in   
order to make itself attractive to the  
public1 is obliged to introduce the     
latest pedagogical foibles and to make  
all sorts of concessions1 perhaps       

against its will4 ,to-day the method of 
writing will be oblique1 to-morrow      
vertical1 and the day after to-morrow   
8reformed vertical40 ,the pupils to-day 
are taught to spell1 to-morrow to       
pronounce syllables1 the next day to    
take the whole word as the least unit in
 language2 and a day later they may be  
taught the meaning of the words by means
 of appropriate movements4  ,it is not  
quite easy for a professional           
psychologist1 who lectures every year to
 hundreds of students in that subject1  
to say openly that this irregular and   
often dilettante craze for reform is    
encouraged by nothing more than by the  
interest in psychology which rages      
throughout the country4 ,the public has 
been dissatisfied with teachers1 and    
conceived the idea that everything would
 be better if the pedagogues concerned  
themselves more with the psychical life 
of their pupils4 ,and since for this    
purpose every mother and every teacher  
has the materials at hand1 there has    

sprung up a pseudo-psychological study  
of unexampled dimensions4 ,it is only a 
small step from such a study to very    
radical reforms4 ,yet everything here   
comes back in the end to the independent
 interests and initiative of the        
teacher2 and although many of these     
reforms are amateurish and immature1    
they are nevertheless better than the   
opposite extreme would be--that is1 than
 a body of indifferent and thoughtless  
teachers without any initiative at all4 
,it is also not to be denied that the   
,american school wastes a good deal of  
time1 and accomplishes the same         
intellectual result with a much greater 
outlay of time than the ,german school4 
,there are plenty of reasons for this4  
,firstly1 it is conspicuous throughout  
the country that ,saturday is a day of  
vacation4 ,this is incidental to the    
,puritan ,sunday4 ,the school day begins
 at nine o'clock in the morning1 and the
 long summer vacations are everywhere   
regarded as times for idleness1 and are 

almost never broken in on by any sort of
 work4 ,again1 the home duties required 
of the school children are fewer than   
are required of the ,german child1 and  
all the instruction is less exacting4   
,the ,american girls would hardly be    
able to stand so great a burden if the  
schools demanded the same as the ,german
 boys' schools4 ,herewith1 however1 one 
must not forget that this time which is 
taken from work is dedicated very       
specially to the development of the     
body1 to sport and other active         
exercises1 and in this way the          
perfection of the whole man is by no    
means neglected4 ,moreover1 ,america has
 been able1 at least so far1 to afford  
the luxury of this loss of time2 the    
national wealth permits its young men to
 take up the earning of their daily     
bread later than ,european conditions   
would allow4  ,when the worst has been  
said and duly weighed1 it remains that  
the system as a whole is one of which   
the ,american may well be proud--a      

system so thoroughly elastic as to be   
suited to all parts of the country and  
to all classes of society4 ,it is a     
system which indubitably1 with its broad
 foundation in the popular school1      
embodies all the requirements for the   
sound development of youth1 and one1    
finally1 which is adapted to a nation   
accustomed to individualism1 and which  
meets the national requirement of       
perfection of the individual4  ,and now 
finally we may give a few figures by way
 of orientation4 ,in the year #aijb out 
of the population of over #ge1jjj1jjj1  
#ag1dfj1jjj pupils attended institutions
 of learning4 ,this number would be     
increased by more than half a million if
 private kindergartens1 manual training 
schools1 evening schools1 schools for   
,indians1 and so forth were taken into  
account4 ,the primary and intermediate  
schools have #af1dgi1agg scholars1 and  
private schools about #a1bdj1jjj4 ,this 
ratio is changed in favour of the       
private institutions when we come to the

 next step above1 for the public high   
schools have #efj1jjj and the private   
ones #aej1jjj students4 ,the remainder  
is in higher institutions of learning4  
,to consider for the moment only the    
public schools2 instruction is imparted 
by #abg1ebi male and #bic1gei female    
teachers4 ,the average salary of a male 
teacher is more than #df a month1 and of
 the female teacher #ci4 ,the           
expenditures were something over        
#bac1jjj1jjj2 and of this about #fi per 
cent4 came from the local taxes1 #af per
 cent4 from the state taxes1 and the    
remainder from fixed endowments4 ,again1
 if we consider only the cities of more 
than #h1jjj inhabitants1 we find the    
following figures3 in #aijb ,america had
 #ehj such cities1 with #be1jjj1jjj     
inhabitants1 #d1agd1hab scholars and    
#ij1gdd teachers in the municipal public
 schools1 and #hgg1baj students in      
private schools4 ,these municipal       
systems have #e1jbe superintendents1    
inspectors1 etc4 ,the whole outlay for  

school purposes amounted to about       
#aaj1jjj1jjj4  ,the high schools are    
especially characteristic4 ,the increase
 of attendance in these schools has been
 much faster than that of the           
population4 ,in #ahij there were only   
#ei pupils for every #aj1jjj            
inhabitants2 in #ahie there were #gi2   
and in #aijj there were #ie4 ,it is     
noticeable that this increase is        
entirely in the public schools4 ,of     
those #ei scholars in #ahij1 #cf were in
 public high schools and #bc in private4
 ,by #aijj there were #be in private1   
but #gj in the public schools4 ,of the  
students in the public high schools #ej 
per cent4 studied ,latin1 #i per cent4  
,french1 #ae per cent4 ,german4 ,the    
principal courses of study are ,english 
grammar1 ,english literature1 history1  
geography1 mathematics1 and physics4 ,in
 the private schools #bc per cent4 took 
,french1 #ah per cent4 ,german1 #aj per 
cent4 ,greek4 ,only #aa per cent4 of    
students in the public high schools go  

to college1 but #cb per cent4 of those  
in private schools4 ,out of the #a1igh  
private high schools in the year #aijj1 
#ide were for students of special       
religious sects2 #cfa were ,roman       
,catholic1 #ih were ,episcopalian1 #if  
,baptist1 #ic ,presbyterian1 #fe        
,methodist1 #ee ,quaker1 #cb ,lutheran1 
etc4 ,there were more than #a1jjj       
private high schools not under the      
influence of any church4 ,one real      
factor of their influence is found in   
the statistical fact that1 in the public
 high schools1 there are #bf scholars   
for every teacher1 while in the private 
schools only #aa4  ,the following       
figures will suffice to give an idea of 
the great differences which exist       
between the different states3 ,the      
number of scholars in high schools in   
the state of ,massachusetts is #ae to   
every #a1jjj citizens2 in the state of  
,new ,york1 #aa2 in ,illinois1 #i2 in   
,texas1 #g2 in the ,carolinas1 #e2 and  
in ,oklahoma1 #c4 ,in the private high  

schools of the whole country the boys   
were slightly in the majority2 #ej4c per
 cent4 against #di4g per cent4 of girls4
 ,in order to give at least a glimpse of
 this abyss1 we may say that in the     
public high school the boys were only   
#da4f per cent41 while the girls were   
#eh4d per cent4  ,so much for the       
schools proper4 ,we shall later consider
 the higher institutions--colleges1     
universities1 and so forth--while the   
actual expanse of the school system in  
,america1 as we have said before1 is    
broader still4 ,in the first place1 the 
kindergarten1 a contribution which      
,germany has made1 deserves notice4     
,very few creations of ,german thought  
have won such complete acceptance in the
 ,new ,world as ,froebel's system of    
education2 and seldom1 indeed1 is the   
,german origin of an institution so     
frankly and freely recognized4 ,froebel 
is everywhere praised1 and the ,german  
word 8,kindergarten0 has been           
universally adopted in the ,english     

language4  ,miss ,peabody1 of ,boston1  
took the part of pioneer1 back in the   
fifties4 ,very soon the movement spread 
to ,st4 ,louis and to ,new ,york1 so    
that in #ahge there were already about  
one hundred kindergartens with #c1jjj   
children4 ,to-day there must be about   
#e1jjj kindergartens distributed over   
the country1 with about a quarter of a  
million children4 ,during this          
development various tendencies have been
 noticeable4 ,at first considerable     
stress was laid on giving some rational 
sort of occupation to the children of   
the rich who were not quite old enough  
for school4 ,later1 however1            
philanthropic interest in the children  
of the very poorest part of the         
population became the leading           
motive--the children1 that is1 who1     
without such careful nurture1 would be  
exposed to dangerous influences4 ,both  
of these needs could be satisfied by    
private initiative4 ,slowly1 however1   
these two extremes came to meet2 not    

only the richest and poorest1 but also  
the children of the great middle classes
 from the fourth to the sixth year1 were
 gradually brought under this sort of   
school training4 ,as soon as the system 
was recognized to be a need of the      
entire community1 it was naturally      
adopted into the popular system of      
instruction4 ,to-day two hundred and    
fifty cities have kindergartens as a    
part of their school systems4           
,meanwhile there has sprung up still    
another tendency1 which took its origin 
in ,chicago4 ,chicago probably has the  
best institution with a four years'     
course for the preparation of teachers  
for the kindergarten4 ,in this school   
not only the professional teachers1 but 
the mothers1 are welcomed4 ,and through 
the means of this institution in        
,chicago1 the endeavour is slowly       
spreading to educate mothers everywhere 
how to bring up their children who are  
still in the nursery so as to be bodily1
 intellectually1 and morally sound4 ,the

 actual goal of this very reasonable    
movement may well be the disappearance  
of the official kindergarten4 ,the child
 will then find appropriate direction   
and inspiration in the natural          
surroundings of its home1 and the       
kindergarten will1 as at first1 limit   
itself chiefly to those rich families   
who wish to purchase their freedom from 
parental cares1 and to such poor        
families as have to work so hard that   
they have no time left to look after    
their children4 ,a slow reaction1       
moreover1 is going on among the public  
school teachers4 ,the child who comes   
out of the ,froebel school into the     
primary school is said to be somewhat   
desultory in his activities1 and so     
perhaps this great popularity of the    
kindergarten will gradually decrease4   
,nevertheless1 for the moment the       
kindergarten must be recognized as a    
passing fashion of very great           
importance1 and1 so far as it devotes   
itself philanthropically to children in 

the poor districts1 its value can hardly
 be overestimated4  ,now1 all this      
instruction of the child before he goes 
to school is much less significant and  
less widely disseminated than those     
thousandfold modes of instruction which 
are carried on for the development of   
men and women after they have passed    
their school days4 ,any one who knows   
this country will at once call to mind  
the innumerable courses of lectures1    
clubs of study1 ,chautauqua             
institutions1 university extension      
courses1 women's clubs1 summer and      
correspondence schools1 free scientific 
lectures1 and many other such           
institutions which have developed here  
more plentifully than in any other      
country4 ,after having dwelt on the     
kindergarten1 one is somewhat tempted to
 think also of these as men and women   
gardens4 ,there is really some          
resemblance to a sort of intellectual   
garden1 where no painful effort or hard 
work is laid out for the young men and  

women who wander there carelessly to    
pluck the flowers4 ,but it is1 perhaps1 
rather too easy for the trained person  
to be unjust to such informal means of  
culture4 ,it is really hard to view the 
latter in quite the right perspective4  
,whosoever has once freed himself from  
all prejudices1 and looked carefully    
into the psychic life of the            
intellectual middle classes1 will feel  
at once the incomparable value of these 
peculiar forms of intellectual          
stimulation1 and their great            
significance for the self-perfection of 
the great masses4  ,while the           
kindergarten was imported from ,germany1
 the university extension movement came 
from ,england4 ,this movement1 which was
 very popular about a decade ago1 is    
decidedly now on the wane4 ,those forms 
of popular education which are          
distinctly ,american have shown         
themselves to possess the most vigour4  
,there is one name which1 above all     
others1 is characteristic of these      

native institutions4 ,it is ,chautauqua4
 ,this is the old ,indian name for a    
lake which lies very pleasantly situated
 in the ,state of ,new ,york1 about two 
hours by train from ,buffalo4 ,the name 
of the lake has gone over to the village
 on its banks1 the name of the village  
has been carried over to that system of 
instruction which was first begun there1
 and now every institution is called    
,chautauquan which is modelled after    
that system4 ,even to-day the school at 
,chautauqua is the fountain-head of the 
whole movement4 ,every summer1 and      
particularly through ,july and ,august1 
when the school-teachers have their     
vacation1 some ten thousand men and     
women gather together to participate in 
a few weeks of recreation and           
intellectual stimulation4 ,the life     
there is quiet and simple2 concerts and 
lectures are given in the open air in an
 amphitheatre which seats several       
thousand1 and there are smaller classes 
of systematic instruction in all        

departments of learning4 ,the teachers  
in special courses are mostly           
professors4 ,the lecturers in the       
general gatherings are well-known       
politicians1 officials1 scholars1       
ministers1 or otherwise distinguished   
personalities4 ,for the sake of         
recreation1 there are excursions1       
dramatic performances1 and concerts4 ,a 
few hours of systematic work every day  
serve as a stimulus for thought and     
culture1 while the mutual influence of  
the men and women who are so brought    
together and the whole atmosphere of the
 place generate a real moral enthusiasm4
  ,the special courses which range from 
,greek1 the study of the ,bible1 and    
mathematics to political economy1       
philosophy1 and pedagogics1 are         
supplemented on the one hand by         
examinations from which the             
participators get a certificate in black
 and white which is highly prized among 
teachers2 and on the other side1 by     
suggestions for the further carrying on 

by private reading of the studies which 
they have elected4 ,the enthusiastic    
banner-bearer of ,chautauqua is still   
to-day one of its founders1 ,bishop     
,vincent4 ,he has done more than any one
 else toward bringing harmony into the  
monotonous and intellectually hungry    
lives of hundreds of thousands          
throughout the country1 and especially  
of public school teachers4 ,and in this 
work the instruction1 the religious     
strengthening1 the instillation of      
personal contentment1 patriotic         
enthusiasm1 sthetic joy in life1 and    
moral inspiration1 are not to be        
separated4  ,when ,theodore ,roosevelt1 
who was then governor of ,new ,york1    
spoke in the ,chautauqua amphitheatre to
 more than ten thousand persons1 he     
turned enthusiastically to ,bishop      
,vincent and said1 8,i know of nothing  
in the whole country which is so filled 
with blessing for the nation40 ,and when
 he had finished1 the whole audience    
gave him the ,chautauqua salute2 ten    

thousand handkerchiefs were waved in the
 air--an extraordinary sight1 which in  
,chautauqua signifies the greatest      
appreciation4 ,this custom began years  
ago1 when a deaf scholar had given a    
lecture1 and while the thundering       
applause was sounding which the speaker 
himself could not hear1 ,bishop ,vincent
 brought out this visible token of      
gratification2 and this form of applause
 not only became a tradition there1 but 
also spread to all other ,chautauqua    
institutions throughout the country4    
,to-day there are more than three       
hundred of these1 many of them in       
beautifully situated summer resorts1 and
 some equipped with splendid libraries1 
banquet halls1 casinos1 and clubs4 ,some
 of these concentrate their energies in 
particular lines of learning1 and of    
course they are very different in scope 
and merit4 ,and nevertheless the        
fundamental trait of idealism shows     
through all these popular academies4    
,among other varieties of popular       

instruction there are the attempts at   
university extension1 which are very    
familiar4 ,the chief aim is here to     
utilize the teaching forces and other   
means of instruction of the higher      
educational institutions for the benefit
 of the great masses4 ,often the thing  
has been treated as if it were a matter 
of course1 in a political democracy1    
that colleges and universities ought not
 to confine themselves to the narrow    
circles of their actual students1 but   
should go out and down to the artisans  
and labourers4 ,but it was always       
asserted that this education should not 
consist merely in entertaining lectures1
 but should involve a form of teaching  
that presupposed a certain participation
 and serious application on the part of 
the attendants4 ,and the chief emphasis 
has been laid on having every subject   
treated in a series of from six to      
twelve meetings1 on distributing to the 
hearers a concise outline of the        
lectures with references to literature1 

on allowing the audience after the      
lecture to ask as many questions as it  
desired1 and on holding a written       
examination at the end of the course4   
,any one who has passed a certain number
 of these examinations receives a       
certificate4 ,in one year1 for example1 
there were #dc places in which the      
,university of ,philadelphia gave such  
courses of lectures4 ,the ,university of
 ,chicago has arranged as many as #ada  
courses of six lectures each1 in #ib    
different places4 ,other higher         
institutions have done likewise2 and if 
indeed the leading universities of the  
,east have entirely declined to take    
part1 nevertheless the country1 and     
particularly the ,west1 is everywhere   
scattered with such lecture courses4    
,these lectures can be divided into two 
groups2 those which are instructive and 
educate their hearers1 and those which  
are inspiring and awaken enthusiasm4    
,the first are generally illustrated    
with stereopticon pictures1 the last are

 illustrated with poetical quotations4  
,here1 as everywhere in the world1 the  
educational lectures are often merely   
tiresome1 and the inspiring ones merely 
bombastic4 ,but the reason for the rapid
 decline in this whole movement is      
probably not the bad quality of the     
lectures1 but the great inconvenience   
which the lecturers feel in going so far
 from their accustomed haunts4 ,it is   
not to be doubted that very much good   
has come after all from this form of    
instruction4 ,the summer schools have a 
similar relation to the higher          
institutions1 but a much more           
thorough-going character2 and while the 
university extension movement is waning1
 the summer school instruction is on the
 increase4 ,first of all1 even the      
leading universities take part in it1   
although it is mostly the second violins
 who render the music2 that is to say1  
younger instructors rather than the     
venerable professors are the ones who   
teach4 ,high school teachers and        

ministers often return in this way to   
their alma mater1 and the necessity of  
devoting one's self for six weeks to a  
single subject gives to the whole       
enterprise a very much more scholarly   
character4 ,that interesting summer     
school which was held a few years ago in
 ,cambridge is still remembered1 when   
,harvard invited at its own expense     
#a1djj of the most earnest ,cuban school
 teachers1 and instilled in them through
 six long weeks something of ,american  
culture4  ,again1 and this quite        
independent of the higher institutions  
and of any formal courses1 there are the
 institutions for free lectures4        
,indeed1 there are so many that one     
might almost call them lecture          
factories4 ,the receptive attitude of   
the ,american public of all classes     
toward lectures surpasses the           
comprehension of the ,european4 ,in many
 circles1 indeed1 this is positively a  
passion2 and the extraordinary          
plentifulness of opportunity1 of course1

 disciplines and strengthens the demand1
 which took its origin in the same      
strong spirit of self-perfection4  ,a   
favourable fact is undoubtedly the high 
perfection to which the lecture has been
 cultivated in ,america4 ,as compared   
with ,european countries1 a larger      
proportion of lectures may fairly be    
called works of art as regards both     
their content and their form4 ,the      
,american is first of all an artist in  
any sort of enthusiastic and persuasive 
exposition4 ,for this very reason his   
lectures are so much more effective than
 whatever he prints1 and for this       
reason1 too1 the public flocks to hear  
him4 ,this state of things has also been
 favoured by the general custom of going
 to political meetings and listening to 
political speeches4 ,in ,boston and its 
suburbs1 for example1 although it is not
 larger than ,hamburg1 no less than five
 public lectures per day on the average 
are delivered between ,september and    
,june4 ,in contrast to ,german views1 it

 is considered entirely appropriate for 
lecturers on all public occasions to    
receive financial compensation2 just as 
any ,german scholar would accept from a 
publisher some emolument for his        
literary productions4 ,this is1 of      
course1 not true of lectures at         
congresses1 clubs1 or popular           
gatherings4 ,in a state like            
,massachusetts1 every little town has   
its woman's club1 with regular evenings 
for lectures by outside speakers2 and   
the condition of the treasury           
practically decides whether one or two  
hundred dollars shall be paid for some  
drawing speaker who will give a         
distinguished look to the programme2 or 
whether the club will be satisfied with 
some teacher from the next town who will
 deliver his last year's lecture on     
,pericles1 or the tubercle bacillus1 for
 twenty dollars4 ,and so it is through  
the entire country2 the quantity        
decreases as one goes ,south1 and the   
quality as one goes ,west4  ,all this is

 no new phenomenon in ,american life4   
,in the year #afci lectures on religious
 subjects were so much a matter of      
course in ,new ,england1 and ,bostonians
 were so confirmed in the habit of going
 to lectures1 that a law was passed     
concerning the giving of such lectures4 
,it said that the poor people were      
tempted by the lecturer to neglect their
 affairs and to harm their health1 as   
the lectures lasted well into the night4
 ,scientific lectures1 however1 came    
into popular appreciation not earlier   
than the nineteenth century4 ,in the    
first decade of that century1 the famous
 chemist1 ,silliman1 of ,yale           
,university1 attained a great success in
 popular scientific lectures4 ,after the
 thirties 8lyceums0 flourished          
throughout the land1 which were         
educational societies formed for the    
purpose of establishing public lecture  
courses4  ,to be sure1 these were       
generally disconnected lectures1 in     
which political and social topics       

predominated4 ,those were the classic   
days of oratory1 when men like ,webster1
 ,channing1 ,everett1 ,emerson1 ,parker1
 ,mann1 ,sumner1 ,phillips1 ,beecher1   
,curtis1 and others enthused the nation 
with their splendid rhetoric1 and       
presented to the masses with pathos that
 we no longer know those great arguments
 which led to the ,civil ,war4 ,the     
activities of later decades emphasized  
the intellectual side4 ,splendid        
institutions have now been organized for
 popular lectures and lecture courses in
 all the leading cities4 ,thus the      
,peabody ,institute in ,baltimore1 the  
,pratt ,institute in ,new ,york1 the    
,armour ,institute in ,chicago1 and the 
,drexel ,institute in ,philadelphia have
 come into existence4 ,the catalogue of 
the lectures and courses which1 for     
instance1 the ,pratt ,institute         
announces every winter fills a whole    
volume2 and nevertheless1 every one who 
pays his annual fee of five dollars is  
entitled to take part in all of them4   

,every day from morning to night he may 
listen to lectures by men who are more  
or less well known throughout the       
country1 and who come specially to ,new 
,york in order to give their short      
courses of some six lectures4  ,the     
highest undertaking of this sort is the 
,lowell ,institute in ,boston4 ,in      
#ahch1 after a tour through ,egypt1     
,john ,a4 ,lowell added a codicil to his
 will1 whereby he gave half of his large
 income for the free1 popular1          
scientific instruction of his native    
town4 ,the plan that has been followed  
for sixty years is of inviting every    
winter eight or ten of the most         
distinguished thinkers and investigators
 in ,america and ,england to give cycles
 of six or twelve connected lectures4   
,the plentiful means of this foundation 
have made it possible to bring in the   
really most important men2 and on the   
other hand1 for just this reason an     
invitation to deliver the ,lowell       
,lectures has come to be esteemed a high

 honour in the ,english-speaking world4 
,men like ,lyell and ,tyndall and many  
others have come across the ocean2 even 
,agassiz1 the well-known geologist1 came
 to the ,new ,world first as a ,lowell  
lecturer1 and then later settled at     
,harvard ,university4 ,up to this time  
some five thousand lectures have been   
held before large audiences by this     
institute4 ,the great advantage which   
this has been to the population of      
,boston can in no wise be estimated1 nor
 can it ever be known how much this     
influence has done for the spirit of    
self-perfection in ,new ,england4  ,in a
 certain sense1 however1 we have already
 overstepped the field of popular       
education4 ,the high standard of the    
,lowell ,institute and the position of  
its speakers have brought it about that 
almost every course has been an original
 exposition of new scientific lines of  
thought4 ,while the other popular       
courses have got their material         
second-hand1 or have been at least for  

the speaker a repetition of his habitual
 discourses to students1 in the ,lowell 
,institute the results of new           
investigations have been the main thing4
 ,and so we have come already to the    
domain of productive science1 of which  
we shall have later to treat4  ,one who 
looks somewhat more deeply will realize 
that1 outside the ,lowell ,institute1   
there is no thought in by far the larger
 part of these lectures and readings1 of
 original scientific endeavour4 ,and the
 question inevitably comes up1 whether  
the intellectual life of the country    
does not lose too much of its strength  
because the members of the community who
 should be especially devoted to        
intellectual production are enticed in  
so many different ways into the paths of
 mere reproduction4 ,to be sure1 it is  
never a professional duty with these    
men1 but the temptation is so great as  
to overcome the latent resistance of    
even the best of them4 ,there are a few1
 it is true1 who see their highest goal 

in these popular and artistic           
expositions of their department of      
science2 and a few who feel that their  
highest call1 their most serious        
life-work1 is to bear science           
philanthropically out to the masses4    
,but it is different with most of them4 
,many like the rewards2 it is such an   
easy way for the ready speaker1 perhaps1
 of doubling his salary from the        
university3 and especially the younger  
men whose income is small1 find it hard 
to resist the temptation1 although just 
they are the ones who ought to give all 
their free energy to becoming proficient
 in special lines of investigation4 ,yet
 even this is not the chief motive4 ,in 
countless cases where any financial     
return to the speaker is out of the     
question1 the love of rhetoric exerts a 
similar temptation4 ,the chief motive1  
doubtless1 is that the ,american popular
 opinion is so extraordinarily          
influenced by the spoken word1 and at   
the same time popular eloquence is      

spread abroad so widely by the press1   
that not only a mere passing reputation1
 but also a strong and lasting influence
 on the thought of the people1 can most 
readily be gotten in this way4  ,and so 
everything works together to bring a    
large amount of intellectual energy into
 the service of the people4 ,the        
individual is hardly able to resist the 
temptation2 and certainly very many thus
 harm seriously their best energies4    
,their popularization of knowledge      
diminishes their own scholarship4 ,they 
grow adapted to half-educated audiences2
 their pleasure and capacity for the    
highest sort of scientific work are     
weakened by the seductive applause which
 follows on every pretty turn of        
thought1 and by the deep effect of      
superficial arguments which avoid and   
conceal all the real difficulties4 ,this
 is most especially true of that merely 
mechanical repetition which is          
encouraged by the possession of a       
lecture manuscript4 ,if it is true that 

,wendell ,phillips repeated his speech  
on the ,lost ,arts two thousand times1  
it was doubtless a unique case1 and is  
hardly possible to-day4 ,nevertheless1  
to-day we find most regrettably frequent
 repetitions2 and a few competent       
intellects have entirely abandoned their
 activities on regular academic lines to
 travel through the country on lecture  
tours4 ,for instance1 a brilliant       
historian like ,john ,fiske1 would      
undoubtedly have accomplished much more 
of permanent importance if he had not   
written every one of his books1 in the  
first instance1 as a set of lectures    
which he delivered before some dozen    
mixed audiences4  ,on the other hand1 we
 must not suppose that these lectures   
before educational institutions are all 
hastily and mechanically produced4 ,if  
the lectures were so trivial their      
preparation would demand little energy1 
and their delivery would much less      
satisfy the ambition of those who write 
them2 and so1 on both accounts1 they    

would be much less dangerous for the    
highest productiveness of their authors4
 ,the level is really extremely high4   
,even the audience of the smallest town 
is rather pampered2 it demands the most 
finished personal address and a certain 
tinge of individuality in the           
exposition4 ,and so even this form of   
production redounds somewhat to the     
intellectual life of the nation4 ,the   
often repeated attempt to depict some   
phase of reality1 uniquely and          
completely in a one-hour lecture1 or to 
elucidate a problem in such a short     
time1 leads necessarily to a mastery in 
the art of the essay4 ,success in this  
line is made easier by the marked       
feeling for form which the ,american    
possesses4 ,in a surprisingly large     
number of ,american books1 the chapters 
read like well-rounded and complete     
addresses4 ,the book is really a        
succession of essays1 and if one looks  
more carefully1 one will often discover 
that each one was obviously first       

thought out as a lecture4 ,thus the     
entire system of popular education by   
means of lectures has worked1 beyond    
doubt1 harmfully on creative production1
 but favourably on the development of   
artistic form in scientific exposition1 
on the art of essay1 and on the popular 
dissemination of natural and social     
sciences and of history and economics   
most of all4  ,if one wished to push the
 inquiry further1 and to ask whether    
these advantages outweigh the           
disadvantages1 the ,american would      
decline to discuss the problem within   
these limits2 since the prime factor1   
which is the effect on the masses who   
are seeking cultivation1 would be left  
out of account4 ,the work of the scholar
 is not to be estimated solely with     
reference to science or to its practical
 effects1 but always with reference to  
the people's need for self-perfection4  
,and even if pure science in its higher 
soarings were to suffer thereby1 the    
,american would say that in science1 as 

everywhere else1 it is not a question of
 brilliant achievements1 but of moral   
values4 ,for the totality of the nation1
 he would say1 it is morally better to  
bring serious intellectual awakenings   
into every quiet corner of the land1    
than to inscribe a few great            
achievements on the tablets of fame4    
,such is the sacrifice which democracy  
demands4 ,and yet to-day the pendulum   
begins very slowly to swing back4 ,a    
certain division of labour is creeping  
in whereby productive and reproductive  
activities are more clearly             
distinguished1 and the best intellectual
 energies are reserved for the highest  
sort of work1 and saved from being      
wasted on merely trivial tasks4  ,but   
even the effect on the masses has not   
been wholly favourable4 ,we have seen   
how superficiality has been greatly     
encouraged4 ,it is1 indeed1 an          
artificial feeding-ground for that      
immodesty which we see to spring up so  
readily in a political democracy1 and   

which gives out its opinion on all      
questions without being really informed4
 ,to be sure1 there is no lack of       
admiration for what is great2 on the    
contrary1 such admiration becomes often 
hysterical4 ,but since it is not based  
on any sufficient knowledge1 it remains 
after all undiscriminating2 the man who 
admires without understanding1 forms a  
judgment where he should decline to take
 any attitude at all4 ,it may be1       
indeed1 that the village population     
under the influence of the last lecture 
course is talking about ,cromwell and   
,elizabeth instead of about the last    
village scandal2 but if the way in which
 it talks has not been modified1 one    
cannot say that a change of topic       
signifies any elevation of standard4    
,and if1 indeed1 the village is still to
 gossip1 it will seem to many more      
modest and more amiable if it gossips   
about some indifferent neighbour1 and   
not about ,cromwell4  ,on the other     
hand1 we must not fail to recognize     

that1 especially in the large           
institutions1 as the ,chautauquas1 and  
in the university extension courses and 
the summer schools1 everything possible 
is done to escape this constant danger4 
,in the first place1 the single lectures
 are very much discouraged1 and a course
 of six to twenty lectures rather is    
given on a single topic2 then the       
written examinations1 with their        
certificates1 and finally1 the constant 
guidance in private reading have their  
due effect4 ,indeed1 the smallest       
women's club is particular to put before
 its members the very best books which  
relate to the subjects of their         
lectures2 and smaller groups are        
generally formed to study carefully     
through together some rather large      
treatise4  ,the total amount of actual  
instruction and intellectual inspiration
 coming to the people outside of the    
schools1 is1 in these ways1             
immeasurable4 ,and the disadvantages of 
superficiality are somewhat outweighed  

by a great increase and enrichment of   
personality4 ,of course1 one could ask  
whether this traditional way is really  
the shortest to its goal4 ,some may     
think that the same expenditure of time 
and energy would give a better result if
 it were made on a book rather than on a
 course of lectures4 ,yet the one does  
not exclude the other4 ,hearing the     
lecture incites to the reading of the   
book2 and nowhere is more reading done  
than in the ,united ,states4 ,there is  
one other different and quite important 
factor in the situation4 ,the man who   
reads is isolated1 and any personal     
influence is suppressed4 ,at a lecture1 
on the other hand1 the peculiarly       
personal element is brought to the      
front1 both in the speaker and in the   
hearer--the spoken word touches so much 
more immediately and vitally than the   
printed word1 and gives to thought an   
individual colouring4 ,most of all1 the 
listener is much more personally        
appealed to than the reader2 his very   

presence in the hall is a public        
announcement of his participation4 ,he  
feels himself called1 with the other    
hearers1 to a common task4 ,and in this 
way a moral motive is added to the      
intellectual4 ,they both work together  
to fill the life of every man with the  
desire for culture4 ,perchance the      
impersonal book may better satisfy the  
personal desire for self-perfection1 and
 yet the lecture will be more apt to    
keep it alive and strengthen it as a    
force in character and in life4  ,it is 
indifferent whether this system of      
popular education1 these lectures before
 the public1 has really brought with it 
the greatest possible culture and       
enlightenment4 ,it is at least clear    
that they have spread everywhere the    
most profound desire for culture and    
enlightenment1 and for this reason they 
have been the necessary system for a    
people so informed with the spirit of   
individual self-perfection4             
,,chapter ,,sixteen                     

,the ,universities   ,when ,american    
industry began1 a short time ago1 to    
disturb ,european circles1 people very  
much exaggerated the danger1 because the
 event was so entirely unexpected4 ,the 
8,american peril0 was at the door before
 any one knew about it1 or even supposed
 that ,america really possessed an      
industry which amounted to anything4 ,it
 will not be long before ,europe will   
experience a like surprise in the       
intellectual sphere4 ,a great work will 
certainly appear1 as if accomplished in 
a moment1 before any one supposes that  
,america so much as dreams of science   
and investigation4 ,at the time1 people 
tardily said to themselves that such    
industry could only have been built on  
firm rock1 and never would have been    
able to spring up if ,american economic 
life had really been founded1 as was    
then supposed1 on avarice and           
corruption4 ,and similarly1 in the      
intellectual sphere1 people will have to
 trace things back1 and say in          

retrospect that such achievements could 
not be brought forth suddenly1 and that 
serious and competent scientific work   
throughout the country must really have 
gone before4 ,it is not here1 in this   
world of intellectual labour1 as in the 
economic world2 there is no question of 
threatening rivalry1 there is no        
scientific competition2 there is nothing
 but co-operation4 ,and yet even here no
 people can1 without danger to its own  
achievements1 afford to ignore what     
another nation has done4 ,the sooner    
that ,europe1 and in particular         
,germany1 acquaints itself with the     
intellectual life of ,america1 so much  
more organically and profitably the     
future labour in common will develop4   
,for any one who knows the real         
situation can already realize1 without  
the gift of prophecy1 that in science   
more than in other spheres the future   
will belong to these two countries4  ,on
 the part of ,germany to-day there      
prevails an almost discouraging         

ignorance of everything which pertains  
to ,american universities2 and we may   
say1 at once1 that if we speak of       
science we shall refer to nothing but   
the universities4 ,as in ,germany1 so it
 is in the ,united ,states1 in sharp and
 notable contrast to ,france and        
,england1 that the academic teacher is  
the real priest of science4 ,in ,england
 and ,france1 it is not customary for   
the great investigator to be at the same
 time the daily teacher of youth4 ,in   
,america and ,germany he is exactly     
this4 ,america has1 to be sure1         
historians and national economists like 
,rhodes1 ,lodge1 ,roosevelt1 ,schouler1 
and others who are outside of academic  
circles2 and very many lawyers1 doctors 
and preachers1 who are scientifically   
productive2 and her most conspicuous    
physicists1 so far as reputation goes1  
like ,edison1 ,bell1 ,tesla1 and so many
 others1 are advancing science          
indirectly through their discoveries and
 inventions4 ,strictly speaking1 the    

officials of the scientific institutions
 at ,washington are likewise outside of 
the universities1 and the greatest      
intellectual efficiency has always been 
found among these men4 ,nevertheless1 it
 remains true that on the whole1 the    
scientific life of the nation goes on in
 the universities1 and that the academic
 instruction conveyed there is the most 
powerful source of strength to the      
entire ,american people4  ,the ,german  
still has no confidence in ,american    
science1 is fond of dwelling on the     
amusing newspaper reports of ,western   
8universities0 which are often          
equivalent to a ,german ,sekunda1 or on 
those extraordinary conditions which    
prevailed 8a short time ago0 in the     
study of medicine4 ,this 8short time    
ago0 means1 however1 in the intellectual
 life of ,germany an entirely different 
length of time from that which it means 
in the ,new ,world4 ,one is almost      
tempted to compare the intellectual     
development of ,germany and ,america by 

epochs in order to get a proper means of
 comparing intervals of time in these   
respective countries4 ,the primitive    
times of the ,germans1 from the days of 
,tacitus down to their conversion to    
,christianity under ,charlemagne in     
about the year #hjj1 would correspond1  
then1 to the one hundred and fifty years
 from the discovery of ,america up to   
the beginning of the ,puritan era in    
#afcj4 ,the next period would embrace in
 ,germany seven hundred years more--up  
to the time when ,germany freed itself  
from ,rome4 ,in ,america this would be  
again a century and a half1 up to #aggf1
 when the nation freed itself from      
,england4 ,then follow after the        
,reformation during a period of three   
hundred years1 the ,thirty ,years' ,war1
 the ,renaissance of the eighteenth     
century1 the downfall of the ,napoleonic
 influence1 and1 finally1 the war for   
freedom4 ,and once again the            
corresponding intervals on this side of 
the ocean have been of very much shorter

 duration2 firstly years of war1 then   
the sthetic rise in the middle of the   
century1 then the sufferings of the     
,civil ,war1 the period of              
reconstruction1 and1 finally1 peace4    
,after #ahac a new period commences1    
which ends in #ahgj with the ,german    
amalgamation into a nation4             
,historically incomparable with         
,germany's great war against the        
,french1 ,america had in #ahih an       
insignificant war with ,spain2 but for  
the national consciousness of the       
,americans it played1 perhaps1 no less  
important a rle4 ,in fact1 there began  
at that time probably a certain         
culmination in ,american intellectual   
development which in its six years is   
comparable in effect with what the      
,germans went through during several    
decades after the ,franco-,prussian     
,war4 ,indeed1 all that happened in     
,america a hundred years ago is felt to 
lie as far back as the events which took
 place in ,germany three hundred years  

ago2 and1 in matters of higher education
 and scientific research1 conditions    
have probably changed more in the last  
ten years than they have changed during 
fifty years in ,germany4  ,the many     
false ideas1 however1 depend for        
credence1 so far as they have any       
foundation1 not alone on the reports of 
the previous condition of things1 but   
also on misleading accounts of the      
conditions to-day4 ,for even the        
best-intentioned narrator is very apt to
 be misled1 because he finds it so hard 
to free himself from ordinary ,german   
conceptions4 ,the position of the       
,german schools of higher education is  
so easily grasped1 while that in        
,america is so complicated1 that the    
,german is always tempted to bring      
clearness and order into what he sees as
 confusion1 by forcing it into the      
simple scheme to which he is accustomed1
 and thus to misunderstand it4  ,the    
,german traveller is certain to start   
from the distinction so familiar to him 

between the ,gymnasium and the          
university with four faculties1 and he  
always contents himself with making but 
one inquiry3 8,is this institution a    
university with four faculties80 ,and   
when he is told that it is not1 he is   
convinced to his entire satisfaction    
that it is therefore only a ,gymnasium4 
,indeed1 very many of the educated      
,germans who have lived in ,america for 
some decades would still know no better2
 and1 nevertheless1 the conditions are  
really not complicated until one tries  
to make them fit into this abstract     
,german scheme4 ,the principle of       
gradations which is manifest in all     
,american institutions is in itself     
fully as simple as the ,german principle
 of sharp demarcations4 ,most foreigners
 do not even go so far as to ask whether
 a given institution is a university4   
,they are quite content to find out     
whether the word university is a part of
 its name4 ,if they then ascertain from 
the catalogue that the studies are about

 the same as those which are drilled    
into the pupils of a ,sekunda1 they can 
attest the shameful fact3 8,there are no
 universities in ,america to be in any  
wise compared with the ,german          
universities40  ,in the first place1 it 
should be said that the word            
8university0 is not used in ,america in 
the same sense as in ,germany1 but is   
almost completely interchangeable with  
the word 8college10 as a rather         
colorless addition to the proper name of
 any institution whatsoever1 so long    
only as its curriculum goes beyond that 
of the high school1 and so long also as 
it is not exclusively designed to train 
ministers of the gospel1 doctors1 or    
lawyers4 ,a higher school for medical   
instruction is called a 8medical        
school10 and there are similarly 8law   
schools0 and 8divinity schools10        
whereas1 in the college or university1  
as the term is generally used1 these    
three subjects are not taught4 ,college 
is the older word1 and since the        

institutions in the ,east are in general
 the older ones1 the name college has   
been and still is in that region the    
more common4 ,but in the ,west1 where in
 general the institutions are on a      
considerably lower level1 the newer name
 of university is the more usual4 ,no   
confusion necessarily arises from this1 
since the institutions which are styled 
now college and now university represent
 countless gradations1 and the general  
term is without special significance4   
,no one would think of saying that when 
he was young he went to a university1   
any more than he would say that on a    
journey he visited a city4 ,in order to 
make the statement entirely clear1 he   
would add the explicit name of the      
institution4 ,every specialist knows    
that a man who has spent four years in  
,taylor ,university in ,indiana or at   
,blackburn ,university in ,illinois1 or 
at ,leland ,university in ,louisiana1 or
 at other similar 8universities10 will  
not be nearly so well educated as a man 

who has been to ,yale ,college or       
,princeton ,college or ,columbia        
,college4 ,the proper name is the only  
significant designation1 and the        
addition of 8college0 or 8university0   
tells nothing4  ,out of this            
circumstance there has independently    
developed1 in recent years in           
pedagogical circles1 a second sense for 
the word 8university40 ,by 8university0 
there is coming to be understood an     
institution which is not only a college 
or a university in the old sense1 but   
which furthermore has various           
professional schools4 ,even in this     
sense of the word1 it is not exactly the
 same as the ,german conception1 since  
such an institution includes the        
college1 whereas there is nothing in    
,germany which would correspond to this 
collegiate department4 ,moreover1 here  
belongs also a part of what the ,germans
 have only in the technological         
institute4 ,finally1 there is one more  
usage which arises in a way from a      

confusion of the two that we have       
mentioned4 ,some persons are inclined to
 mean by 8university0 a first-class     
college1 and by 8college0 an institution
 of an inferior standard2 and so1       
finally1 the proper name of the         
institution is the only thing to go by1 
and the entire higher system of         
education in the country can be         
understood only in this way4            
,therefore1 we shall abstract from the  
designations of these institutions1 and 
consider only what they really are4 ,we 
have before us the fact that hundreds of
 higher institutions of learning exist  
without any sharp demarcation between   
them2 that is1 they form a closely      
graded scale1 commencing with secondary 
schools and leading up to universities1 
of which some are in many respects      
comparable with the best institutions of
 ,germany4 ,in the second place1 the    
groupings of the studies in these       
institutions are entirely different from
 those which prevail in ,germany1       

especially owing to the fact that       
emphasis is laid on the college1 which  
,germany does not have4 ,it could not be
 different2 and this condition is1 in   
fact1 the patent of ,american success4  
,if we try to understand the conditions 
of to-day from those of yesterday1 the  
real unity of this system comes out     
sharply4 ,what was1 then1 we have to    
ask1 the national need for higher       
instruction at the time when these      
states organized themselves into one    
nation8  ,in the first place1 the people
 had to have preachers1 while it was    
clear1 nevertheless1 that the state1 and
 therefore the entire political         
community1 was independent of any       
church1 and must never show any favour  
to one sect over another4 ,and so it    
became the duty of each separate sect to
 prepare its own preachers for their    
religious careers as well or as badly as
 it was able4 ,the people1 again1 had to
 have lawyers and judges4 ,now the      
judges1 in accordance with the          

democratic spirit1 were elected from the
 people1 and every man had the right to 
plead his own case in court3--so that if
 any man proposed to educate and prepare
 himself to plead other men's cases for 
them1 it was his own business to give   
himself the proper education and not the
 business of the community4 ,he had to  
become an apprentice under experienced  
attorneys1 and the community had not to 
concern itself in the matter1 nor even  
to see to it that such technical        
preparation was grounded on real        
learning4 ,school-teachers were         
necessary1 but in order to satisfy the  
demands of the times it was hardly      
necessary for the teacher to go in his  
own studies very much beyond the members
 of his classes4 ,a few more years of   
training than could be had in the public
 schools was desirable1 but there was no
 thought of scholarship or science4 ,on 
the lowest level of all1 a hundred years
 ago1 stood the science of medicine4 ,it
 was a purely practical occupation1 of  

which anybody might learn the technique 
without any special training4 ,he might 
be an apprentice with some older        
physician1 or he might pick it up in a  
number of other ways4  ,as soon as we   
have understood the early conditions in 
this way1 we can see at once how they   
would have further to develop4 ,it is   
obvious that in their own interests the 
sects would have to found schools for   
preachers4 ,the administrators of       
justice would of course consult together
 and found schools of law1 in which     
every man who paid his tuition might be 
prepared for the legal career4 ,doctors 
would have to come together and found   
medical schools which1 once more1 every 
one with a public school training would 
be free to attend4 ,finally1 the larger 
communities would feel the necessity of 
having schools for training their       
teachers4 ,in all this the principle of 
social selection would have to enter in 
at once4 ,since there were no formal    
provisions which might prescribe and fix

 standards of excellence1 so everything 
would be regulated by the laws of supply
 and demand4 ,the schools which could   
furnish successful lawyers1 doctors1    
teachers1 and clergymen would become    
prosperous1 while the others would lead 
a modest existence or perhaps disappear4
 ,it would not be1 however1 merely a    
question of the good or bad schools1 but
 of schools having entirely different   
standards1 and these adapted to purely  
local conditions4 ,the older states     
would1 of course1 demand better things  
than the new pioneer states2 thickly    
settled localities would fix higher     
requirements than rural districts2 rich 
districts higher than poor4 ,in this way
 some schools would have a longer course
 of study than others1 and some schools 
demand more previous training as a      
condition of entrance than others4 ,so  
it would soon come to mean nothing to   
say simply that one had taken the legal1
 or medical1 or theological course1 as  
the one school might offer a four years'

 course and the other a course of two   
years1 and the one1 moreover1 might     
demand college training as preparation1 
and the other merely a grammar-school   
education4 ,every school has its own    
name1 and this name is the only thing   
which characterizes its standard of     
excellence4 ,in this way there is no    
harm at all if there are three or four  
medical schools in one city1 and if     
their several diplomas of graduation are
 of entirely different value4  ,what is 
the result of this8 ,it is a threefold  
one4 ,in the first place1 popular       
initiative is stimulated to the utmost1 
and every person and every institution  
is encouraged to do its best4 ,there are
 no formal regulations to hamper        
enterprising impulses1 to keep back     
certain more advanced regions1 or to    
approve mediocrity with an artificial   
seal of authority4 ,in the second place1
 technical education is able to adapt   
itself thoroughly to all the untold     
local factors1 and to give to every     

region such schools of higher training  
as it needs1 without pulling down any   
more advanced sections of the country to
 an artificially mediocre level more    
adapted to the whole country4 ,in the   
third place1 the free competition       
between the different institutions      
insures their ceaseless progress4 ,there
 are no hard and fixed boundary lines1  
and whatsoever does not advance surely  
recedes2 that which leads to-day is     
surpassed to-morrow if it does not adapt
 itself to the latest requirements4     
,this is true both as regards the       
quality of the teachers and their means 
of instruction1 as regards the length of
 the course1 and more especially the    
conditions of entrance4 ,these last have
 steadily grown throughout the country4 
,fifty years ago the very best          
institutions in the most advanced       
portions of the country demanded no more
 for entrance than the professional     
schools of third class situated in more 
rural regions demand to-day4 ,and this  

tendency goes steadily onward day by    
day4 ,if there were any great departures
 made1 the institutions would be        
disintegrated2 the schools which prepare
 pupils would not be able suddenly to   
come up to new requirements1 and        
therefore few scholars would be able to 
prepare for greatly modified entrance   
examinations4 ,in this way1 between the 
conservative holding to historic        
traditions and the striving to progress 
and to exceed other institutions by the 
highest possible efficiency1 a          
compromise is brought about which       
results in a gradual but not over-hasty 
improvement4  ,we have so far entirely  
left out of account the state4 ,we can  
speak here only of the individual state4
 ,the country as a whole has as little  
to do with higher education as with     
lower4 ,but the single state has1 in    
fact1 a significant task--indeed1 a     
double one4 ,since it aims at no        
monopoly1 but rather gives the freest   
play to individual initiative1 we have  

recognized the fundamental principle    
that restrictions are placed nowhere4   
,on the other hand1 it becomes the duty 
of the state to lend a helping hand     
wherever private activities have been   
found insufficient4 ,this can happen in 
two ways3 either the state may help to  
support private institutions which      
already exist1 or it may establish new  
ones of its own1 which in that case     
offer free tuition to the sons and      
daughters of all taxpayers4 ,these      
so-called state universities are1 in a  
way1 the crowning feature of the free   
public school system4 ,wherever they    
exist1 the sons of farmers have the     
advantage of free instruction from the  
kindergarten to the degree of doctor of 
philosophy4  ,now private initiative is 
weakest where the population is poor or 
stands on a low level of culture1 so    
that few can be found to contribute     
sufficient funds to support good        
institutions1 and at the same time the  
rich citizens of these less advanced    

states prefer to send their children to 
the universities of the most advanced   
states4 ,the result is1 and this is what
 is hardest for the foreigner to        
understand1 that the higher institutions
 of learning which are subsidized by the
 state stand for a grade of culture     
inferior to that of the private         
institutions1 and that not only the     
leading universities1 like ,harvard1    
,columbia1 ,johns ,hopkins1 ,yale1      
,chicago1 ,cornell1 and ,stanford1 carry
 on their work without the help of the  
state1 but also that the leading        
,eastern ,states pay out much less for  
higher instruction than do the ,western4
 ,the ,state of ,massachusetts1 which   
stands at the head in matters of        
education1 does not give a cent to its  
universities1 while ,ohio entirely      
supports the ,ohio ,state ,university   
and gives aid to six other institutions4
  ,the second task of the states in     
educational matters is shared alike by  
all of them2 the state supervises all   

instruction1 and1 more than that1 the   
state legislature confers on the        
individual institution the right to     
award grades1 diplomas1 and degrees to  
its students4 ,no institution may change
 its organization without a civil       
permit4 ,as culture has advanced the    
state has found it necessary to make the
 requirements in the various            
professional schools rather high4 ,in   
practice1 once more1 a continual        
compromise has been necessary between   
the need to advance and the desire to   
stay1 by traditions which have been     
proved and tried and found practical4   
,here1 once again1 any universal scheme 
of organization would have destroyed    
everything4 ,if a high standard had been
 fixed it would have hindered private   
initiative1 and given a set-back to     
,southern and ,western states and robbed
 them of the impulses to development4 ,a
 lower universal standard1 on the other 
hand1 would have impeded the advance of 
the more progressive portions of the    

country4 ,therefore the various state   
governments have taken a happy middle   
position in these matters1 and their    
responsibility for the separate         
institutions has been made even less    
complete in that the degrees of these   
institutions carry in themselves no     
actual rights4 ,every state has its own 
laws for the admission of a lawyer to   
its bar1 or to the public practice of   
medicine1 and it is only to a small     
degree that the diplomas of professional
 schools are recognized as equivalent to
 a state examination4  ,the history of  
the professional schools for lawyers1   
ministers1 teachers1 and physicians in  
,america is by no means the history of  
the universities4 ,we have so far left  
out of account the college1 which is the
 nucleus of ,american education4 ,let us
 now go back to it4 ,we saw in the      
beginning of the development of these   
states a social community in which      
preparation for the professions of      
teaching1 preaching1 law or medicine    

implied a technical and specialized     
training1 which every one could obtain  
for himself without any considerable    
preparation4 ,there was no thought of a 
broad1 liberal education4 ,now1 to be   
sure1 the level of scholarship required 
for entrance into the professional      
schools has steadily risen1 the duration
 and character of the instruction has   
been steadily improved2 but even to-day 
the impression has not faded from the   
public consciousness1 and is indeed     
favoured by the great differences in    
merit between the special schools1 that 
such a practical introduction to the    
treatment of disease1 to court          
procedure1 the mastery of technical     
problems1 or to the art of teaching1    
does not in itself develop educated men4
 ,all this is specialized professional  
training1 which no more broadens the    
mind than would the professional        
preparation for the calling of the      
merchant or manufacturer or captain4    
,whether a man who is prepared for his  

special career is also an educated man1 
depends on the sort of general culture  
that he has become familiar with4 ,it is
 thought important for a man to have had
 a liberal education before entering the
 commercial house or the medical school1
 but it is felt to be indifferent       
whether he has learned his profession at
 the stock exchange or at the clinic4   
,the ,european will find it hard to     
follow this trend of thought4 ,in       
,europe the highest institutions of     
learning are so closely allied to the   
learned professions1 and these          
themselves have historically developed  
so completely from the learned studies1 
that professional erudition and general 
culture are well-nigh identical4 ,and   
the general system of distinctions and  
merits favours in every way the learned 
professions4 ,how much of this1 however1
 springs out of special conditions may  
be seen1 for instance1 from the fact    
that in ,germany an equal social        
position is given to the officer of the 

army and to the scholar4 ,even the      
,american is1 in his way1 not quite     
consistent1 in so far as he has at all  
times honoured the profession of the    
ministry with a degree of esteem that is
 independent of the previous preparation
 which the minister had before entering 
his theological school4 ,this fact has  
come from the leading position which the
 clergymen held in the ,american        
colonial days1 and the close relation   
which exists between the study of       
theology and general philosophy4  ,the  
fact that by chance one had taken the   
profession of law1 or teaching1 or      
medicine1 did not exalt one in the eyes 
of one's contemporaries above the great 
mass of average citizens who went about 
their honest business4 ,the separation  
of those who were called to social      
leadership was seen to require1         
therefore1 some principle which should  
be different from any professional      
training4 ,at this point we come on yet 
another historical factor4 ,the nation  

grew step for step with its commercial  
activities and undertakings4 ,so long as
 it was a question of gaining and       
developing new territory1 the highest   
talent1 the best strength and proudest  
personalities entered the service of    
this nationally significant work4 ,it   
was a matter of course that no secondary
 position in society should be ascribed 
to these captains of commerce and of    
industry4 ,the highest degree of culture
 which they were able to attain         
necessarily fixed the standard of       
culture for the whole community2 and1   
therefore1 the traditional concept of   
the gentleman as the man of liberal     
culture and refinement came to have that
 great social significance which was    
reserved in ,germany for the learned    
professions4  ,in its outer form1 the   
education of such a gentleman was       
borrowed from ,england4 ,it was a four  
years' course coming after the high     
school1 and laying special stress on the
 classical languages1 philosophy1 and   

mathematics--a course which1 up to the  
early twenties1 kept a young man in     
contact with the fine arts and the      
sciences1 with no thought for the       
practical earning of a livelihood2      
which1 therefore1 kept him four years   
longer from the tumult of the world1 and
 in an ideal community of men who were  
doing as he was doing2 which developed  
him in work1 in sport1 in morals and    
social address4 ,such was the tradition2
 the institution was called a college   
after the ,english precedent4 ,any man  
who went to college belonged to the     
educated class1 and it was indifferent  
what profession he took up2 no studies  
of the professional school were able to 
replace a college education4 ,now1 it   
necessarily happened that the endeavour 
to have students enter the professional 
schools with as thorough preparation as 
possible led eventually to demand of    
every one who undertook a professional  
course the complete college education4  
,in fact1 this last state of development

 is already reached in the best         
institutions of ,america4 ,for instance1
 in ,harvard and in ,johns ,hopkins1 the
 diploma of a four years' college course
 is demanded for entrance into the      
legal1 medical1 or theological faculty4 
,but in popular opinion the dividing    
line between common and superior        
education is still the line between     
school and college1 and not1 as in      
,germany1 between liberal and technical 
institutions of learning4 ,one who has  
successfully passed through college     
becomes a graduate1 a gentleman of      
distinction2 he has the degree of       
bachelor of arts1 and those who have    
this degree are understood to have had a
 higher education4  ,this whole complex 
of relations is reflected within the    
college itself4 ,it is supposed to be a 
four years' course which comes after the
 high school1 and we have seen that the 
high school itself has no fixed standard
 of instruction4 ,the small prairie     
college may be no better than the       

,tertia or ,sekunda of a ,german        
,realschule1 while the large and        
influential colleges are certainly not  
at all to be compared simply with       
,german schools1 but rather with the    
,german ,prima of a ,gymnasium1 together
 with the first two or three semesters  
in the philosophical faculty of a       
university4 ,between these extremes     
there is a long1 sliding scale1         
represented by over six hundred         
colleges4 ,we must now bear in mind that
 the college was meant to be the higher 
school for the general cultivation of   
gentlemen4 ,of course1 from the outset  
this idealistic demand was not free from
 utilitarian considerations2 the same   
instruction could well be utilized as   
the most appropriate practical training 
of the school-teacher1 and if so1 the   
college becomes secondarily a sort of   
technical school for pedagogues4 ,but1  
then1 in the same way as the entrance   
into legal and medical faculties was    
gradually made more difficult1 until now

 the best of these schools demand       
collegiate preparation1 so also did the 
training school for teachers necessarily
 become of more and more professional   
character1 until it gradually quite     
outgrew the college4 ,the culmination is
 a philosophical faculty which1 from its
 side1 presupposes the college1 and     
which1 therefore1 takes the student     
about where a ,german student enters his
 fourth semester--a technical school for
 specialized critical science laying    
main stress on seminaries1 laboratories1
 and lectures for advanced students4    
,such a continuation of the college     
study beyond the time of college--that  
is1 for those who have been graduated   
from college--is called a graduate      
school1 and its goal is the degree of   
doctor of philosophy4 ,the graduate     
school is in this way parallel with the 
law1 medical1 or divinity school1 which 
likewise presuppose that their students 
have been graduated from college4  ,the 
utilitarian element inevitably affects  

the college from another side4 ,a       
college of the higher type will not be a
 school with a rigid curriculum1 but    
will adapt itself more or less to the   
individuality of its students4 ,if it is
 really to give the most it can1 it     
must1 at least during the last years of 
the college course1 be somewhat like a  
philosophical faculty1 and allow some   
selection among the various studies3--so
 that every man can best perfect his    
peculiar talent and can satisfy his     
inclinations for one or other sort of   
learning4 ,so soon1 now1 as such        
academic freedom has been instituted1 it
 is very liable to be used for          
utilitarian purposes4 ,the future doctor
 and the future lawyer in their election
 of college studies will have the       
professional school already in mind1 and
 will be preparing themselves for their 
professional studies4 ,the lawyer will  
probably study more history1 the doctor 
will study biology1 the theologian      
languages1 the future manufacturer may  

study physics1 the banker political     
economy1 and the politician will take up
 government4 ,and so the ideal training 
school for gentlemen will not be merely 
a place for liberal education1 but at   
the same time will provide its own sort 
of untechnical professional training4   
,inasmuch as everything really technical
 is still excluded1 and the majority of 
college students even to-day come for   
nothing more than a liberal education1  
it remains true that the college is     
first of all a place for the development
 and refinement of personal character2 a
 place in which the young ,american     
spends the richest and happiest years of
 his life1 where he forms his           
friendships and intellectual preferences
 which are to last throughout his life1 
and where the narrow confines of school 
life are outgrown and the confines of   
professional education not yet begun2   
where1 in short1 everything is broad and
 free and sunny4 ,for the ,american the 
attraction of academic life is wholly   

centred in the college2 the college     
student is the only one who lives the   
true student life4 ,those who study in  
the four professional faculties are     
comparable rather to the ,german medical
 students of the last clinical          
semesters--sedate1 semi-professional    
men4 ,the college is the soul of the    
university4 ,the college is to-day1 more
 than ever1 the soul of the whole       
nation4  ,we have to mention one more   
factor1 and we shall have brought       
together all which are of prime         
importance4 ,we have seen that the      
professional and the collegiate schools 
had at the outset different points of   
view1 and were1 in fact1 entirely       
independent4 ,it was inevitable that as 
they developed they should come into    
closer and closer relations4 ,the name  
of the college remained during this     
development the general designation4    
,special faculties have grouped         
themselves about the college1 while a   
common administration keeps them        

together4 ,there are certain local      
difficulties in this4 ,according to the 
original idea1 a college ought to be in 
a small1 rural1 and attractively        
situated spot4 ,the young man should be 
removed from ordinary conditions2 and as
 he goes to ,jena1 ,marburg1 and        
,gttingen1 so he should go to ,princeton
 or ,new ,haven1 or ,palo ,alto1 in     
order to be away from large cities in a 
little academic world which is inspired 
only by the glory of famous teachers and
 by the youthful happiness of many      
student generations4 ,a medical or law  
school1 on the other hand1 belongs1     
according to ,american tradition1 in    
some large city1 where there is a plenty
 of clinical material at hand1 and where
 great attorneys are in contact with the
 courts4 ,it so happened that the       
college1 as it grew up into a complete  
university1 was especially favoured if  
it happened to be in the vicinity of a  
large city1 like ,harvard ,college in   
,cambridge1 which had all the           

attractions of rural quiet and          
nevertheless was separated from the     
large city of ,boston only by the       
,charles ,river bridge4 ,in later times1
 to be sure1 since the idyllic side of  
college life is everywhere on the wane1 
and the outward equipment1 especially of
 laboratories1 libraries1 etc41 has     
everywhere to grow1 it is a noticeable  
advantage for even collegiate prosperity
 to have the resources of a large city  
at hand4 ,and1 therefore1 the           
institutions in these cities1 like ,new 
,york1 ,baltimore1 ,chicago1 and ,san   
,francisco1 develop more rapidly than   
many colleges which were once famous but
 which lie in more isolated places4  ,at
 the head of the administration there is
 always a president1 a man whose        
functions are something between those of
 a ,rektor and a ,kultus-,minister1 most
 nearly1 perhaps1 comparable with a     
,kurator1 and yet much more independent1
 much more dictatorial4 ,the direction  
of the university is actually           

concentrated in his person1 and the rise
 or fall of the institution is in large 
measure dependent on his official       
leadership4 ,in olden times the         
president was almost always a           
theologian1 and at the same time was apt
 to be professor in moral philosophy4   
,this is true to-day of none but small  
country colleges1 and even there the    
,puritan tradition disappears as        
financial and administrative problems   
come to be important4 ,the large        
universities have lately come almost    
always to place a professor of the      
philosophical faculty at their head4    
,almost invariably these are men of     
liberal endowments4 ,mostly they are men
 of wide outlook1 and only such men are 
fit for these positions1 which belong to
 the most influential and important in  
the country4 ,the opinions of men like  
,eliot of ,harvard1 ,hadley of ,yale1   
,butler of ,columbia1 ,shurman of       
,cornell1 ,remsen of ,johns ,hopkins1   
,wheeler of ,california1 ,harper of     

,chicago1 ,jordan of ,leland ,stanford1 
,wilson of ,princeton1 and of many      
others1 are respected and sought on all 
questions of public life1 even in       
matters extending far beyond education4 
,the university president is elected for
 a life term by the administrative      
council--a deliberative body of men who1
 without emoluments1 serve the destinies
 of the university1 and in a certain    
sense are the congress of the university
 as compared with the president4 ,they  
confirm appointments1 regulate          
expenditures1 and theoretically conduct 
all external business for the           
university1 although practically they   
follow in large part the recommendations
 of the faculties4 ,the teaching body is
 composed everywhere of professors1     
assistant professors1 and instructors4  
,all these receive a fixed stipend4     
,there are no such things as private    
tuition fees1 and unsalaried teachers1  
like the ,german ,privatdocenten1 are   
virtually unknown4 ,the instruction     

consists1 in general1 of courses lasting
 through a year and not a semester4 ,the
 academic year begins1 in most cases1 at
 the end of ,september and closes at the
 end of ,june4  ,during his four years' 
college course the student prefers to   
remain true to some one college4 ,if    
this is a small institution1 he is very 
apt1 on being graduated1 to attend some 
higher institution4 ,even the students  
in professional schools generally come  
back year after year to the same school 
till they finish their studies4 ,it is  
only in the graduate school--that is1   
the ,german philosophical faculty--that 
migration after the ,german manner has  
come in fashion2 here1 in fact1 the     
student frequently studies one year here
 and one year there1 in order to hear   
the best specialists in his science4    
,except in the state institutions of the
 ,west1 the student pays a round sum for
 the year2 in the larger institutions   
from one hundred to one hundred and     
fifty dollars4 ,in the smaller colleges 

the four years' course of study is      
almost wholly prescribed1 and only in   
the final year is there a certain       
freedom of choice4 ,the higher the      
college stands in the matter of         
scholarship1 so much the more its       
lecture programme approaches that of a  
university2 and in the foremost colleges
 the student is from the very beginning 
almost entirely free in his selection of
 studies4  ,a freedom in electing       
between study and laziness is less      
known4 ,the student may elect his own   
lectures2 he must1 however1 attend at   
least a certain number of these1 and    
must generally show in a semi-annual    
examination that he has spent his time  
to some purpose4 ,the examinations at   
the end of the special courses are in   
the college substituted for a final     
examination4 ,any man receives a degree 
who has passed the written examinations 
in a certain number of courses4 ,the    
examinations concern not only what has  
actually been said in the lectures1 but 

at the same time try to bring out how   
much the student has learned outside in 
the way of reading text-books and       
searching into literature4 ,originally  
the students roomed in college          
buildings1 but with the growth of these 
institutions this factor of college life
 has declined4 ,in the larger           
universities the student is1 in matters 
of his daily life1 as free as the       
,german2 but dwelling in college        
dormitories still remains the most      
popular mode of living1 since it lends a
 social attraction to academic life4    
,to go over from this general plan to a 
more concrete presentation1 we may      
perhaps sketch briefly a picture of     
,harvard ,college1 the oldest and       
largest academy in the country4 ,the    
colony of ,massachusetts established in 
#afcf a little college in the vicinity  
of the newly founded city of ,boston4   
,the place was called ,cambridge in     
commemoration of the ,english college in
 which some of the colonists had        

received their education4 ,when in #afch
 a young ,english minister1 ,john       
,harvard1 left this little academy half 
his fortune1 it was decided to name the 
college for its first benefactor4 ,the  
state had given #djj1 ,john ,harvard    
about #hjj4 ,the school building was one
 little structure1 the number of        
students was very small1 and there were 
a few clergymen for teachers4 ,on the   
same spot to-day stands ,harvard        
,university1 like a little city within a
 city1 with fifty ample buildings1 with 
#eej members of the teaching staff1 over
 five thousand students1 with a regular 
annual budget of a million and a half   
dollars1 and in the enjoyment of        
bequests which add year by year millions
 to its regular endowments4  ,this      
growth has been constant1 outwardly and 
inwardly2 and it has grown in power and 
in freedom in a way that well befits the
 spirit of ,american institutions4      
,since the colonial rgime of the        
seventeenth century gave to the new     

institution a deliberative body of seven
 men--the so-called ,corporation--this  
body has perpetuated itself without     
interruption down to the present time by
 its own vote1 and without changing any 
principle of its constitution has       
developed the home of ,puritanism into  
the theatre of the freest investigation1
 and the school into a great university 
of the world4  ,now1 as then1 there     
stands at the head this body of seven   
members1 each of whom is elected for    
life4 ,to belong to this is esteemed a  
high honour4 ,beside these1 there is the
 board of overseers of thirty members1  
elected by the graduates from among     
their own number4 ,five men are elected 
every ,june to hold office for six years
 in this advisory council4 ,every       
,harvard man1 five years after he has   
received his degree of bachelor1 has the
 right to vote4 ,every appointment and  
all policies of the university must be  
confirmed by this board of overseers4   
,only the best sons of the alma mater   

are elected to this body4 ,thus the     
university administration has an upper  
and lower house1 and it is clear that   
with such closely knit internal         
organization the destiny of the         
university is better guarded than it    
would be if appointments and            
expenditures were dependent on the      
caprice and political intrigues of the  
party politicians in the state          
legislature4 ,just on this account      
,harvard has declined1 for almost a     
hundred years1 all aid from the state2  
although this was once customary4 ,on   
the other hand1 it would be a mistake to
 suppose that1 say in contrast with     
,germany1 this self-government of the   
university implies any greater          
administrative rights for the           
professors4 ,the ,german professors have
 much more administrative influence than
 their colleagues in ,america4 ,if1     
indeed1 the advice of the professors in 
matters of new appointments or          
promotions is important1 nevertheless   

the administrative bodies are in no wise
 officially bound to follow the         
recommendations of the faculty4  ,the   
president of the university is ,charles 
,w4 ,eliot1 the most distinguished and  
influential personality in the whole    
intellectual life of ,america4 ,eliot   
comes from an old ,puritan family of    
,new ,england4 ,he was a professor of   
chemistry in his thirty-fifth year2 and 
his essays on methods of instruction1   
together with his talents for           
organization1 had awakened considerable 
attention1 when the overseers1 in spite 
of lively protestations from various    
sides1 were prompted by keen insight in 
the year #ahfi to call him to this high 
office4 ,it would be an exaggeration to 
say that the tremendous growth of       
,harvard in the last three decades is   
wholly the work of ,eliot2 for this     
development is1 first of all1 the result
 of that remarkable progress which the  
intellectual life of the whole land has 
undergone4 ,but the fact that ,harvard  

during all this time has kept in the    
very front rank among all academic      
institutions is certainly due to the    
efforts of ,president ,eliot2 and once  
again1 if the progress at ,harvard has  
resulted in part from the scientific    
awakening of the whole country1 this    
national movement was itself in no small
 measure the work of the same man4 ,his 
influence has extended out beyond the   
boundaries of ,new ,england and far     
beyond all university circles1 and has  
made itself felt in the whole           
educational life of the country4 ,he was
 never a man after the taste of the     
masses2 his quiet and distinguished     
reserve are too cool and deliberate4    
,and if to-day1 on great occasions1 he  
is generally the most important speaker1
 this is really a triumph for clear and 
solid thought over the mere tricks of   
blatancy and rhetoric4 ,throughout the  
country he is known as the incomparable 
master of short and pregnant ,english4  
,his life work has contained nothing of 

the spasmodic2 nor have his reforms been
 in any case sudden ones4 ,to whatever  
has been necessary he has consecrated   
his patient energy1 going fearlessly    
toward the goal which he recognized as  
right1 and moving slowly and surely     
forward4 ,year by year he has exerted an
 influence on the immediate circles of  
his community1 and so indirectly on the 
whole land1 to bring up the conditions  
for entrance into college and           
professional schools until at the       
present time all the special faculties  
of ,harvard demand as an entrance       
requirement a complete college course4  
,he has made ,harvard ,college over into
 a modern academy1 in which every       
student is entirely free to select the  
course of studies which he desires1 and 
has introduced through the entire       
university and for all time1 the spirit 
of impartial investigation4 ,even the   
theological faculty has grown under his 
influence from a sectarian institution  
of the ,unitarian ,church into a        

non-sectarian ,christian institution in 
which future preachers of every sect are
 able to obtain their preliminary       
training4 ,and this indefatigable       
innovator is to-day1 as he now has      
completed his seventieth year1 pressing 
forward with youthful energies to new   
goals4 ,just as he has introduced into  
the college the opportunity of perfectly
 free specialization1 so now he clearly 
sees that if a college education is     
necessary for every future student in   
the special departments of the          
university1 that the college course must
 be shortened from four to three years1 
or in other words1 must be compressed4  
,there is much opposition to this idea4 
,all traditions and very many apparently
 weighty arguments seem to speak against
 it4 ,nevertheless1 any student of      
average intelligence and energy can now 
get the ,harvard ,a4 ,b4 in three years2
 before long this will be the rule1 and 
in a short time the entire country will 
have followed in the steps of this      

reform4  ,it is true that ,eliot's      
distinguished position has contributed  
very much to his outward success--that  
position which he has filled for        
thirty-five years1 and which in itself  
guarantees a peculiar influence on      
academic life4 ,but the decisive thing  
has been his personality4 ,he is        
enthusiastic and yet conservative1 bold 
and yet patient1 always glad to consider
 the objections of the youngest teacher2
 he is religious1 and nevertheless a    
confident exponent of modern science4   
,first of all1 he is through and through
 an aristocrat3 his interest is in the  
single1 gifted1 and solid personality   
rather than in the masses2 and his      
conception of the inequality of man is  
the prime motive of his whole endeavour4
 ,but at the same time he is the best of
 democrats1 for he lays the greatest    
stress on making it possible for the    
earnest spirit to press on and emerge   
from the lowest classes of the people4  
,harvard has set its roots as never     

before through the whole country1 and   
thereby has drawn on the intellectual   
and moral energies of the entire nation4
  ,under the president come the         
faculties1 of which each one is presided
 over by a dean4 ,the largest faculty is
 the faculty of arts and sciences1 whose
 members lecture both for the college   
and for the ,graduate ,school4 ,there is
 really no sharp distinction1 and the   
announcement of lectures says merely    
that certain elementary courses are     
designed for younger students in the    
college1 and that certain others are    
only for advanced students4 ,moreover1  
the seminaries and laboratory courses   
for scientific research are open only to
 students of the ,graduate ,school4 ,the
 rest is common ground4  ,as always     
happens1 the faculty includes very      
unlike material1 a number of the most   
distinguished investigators1 along with 
others who are first of all teachers4   
,in general1 the older generation of men
 belongs to that time in which the      

ability to teach was thought more       
important than pure scholarship4 ,on the
 other hand1 the middle generation is   
much devoted to productive              
investigations4 ,the youngest generation
 of instructors is somewhat divided4 ,a 
part holds the ideal of creative        
research1 another part is in a sort of  
reactionary mood against the modern high
 estimation of specialized work2 and has
 rather a tendency once more to         
emphasize the idealistic side of        
academic activity--the beauty of form   
and the cultivating value of            
belles-lettres as opposed to the dry    
details of scholarship4 ,this last is   
generally accounted the peculiar work of
 ,german influence1 and in opposition to
 this there is a demand for ,gallic     
polish and that scientific              
connoisseurship of the ,english         
gentleman4 ,since1 however1 these men   
are thinking not of the main fact1 but  
rather of certain insignificant         
excrescences of ,german work1 and since 

after all nothing but the real work of  
investigation can lead to new           
achievements which justify in a real    
university any advancement to higher    
academic positions1 there is no ground  
for fearing that this reactionary mood  
will exert any particularly harmful     
influence on more serious circles of    
workers4 ,such a movement may be even   
welcomed as a warning against a possible
 ossification of science4 ,particularly 
the college would be untrue to its      
ideals1 if it were to forget the        
humanities in favour of scientific      
matters of fact4  ,the lectures         
naturally follow the principle of       
thorough-going specialization1 and one  
who reads the ,annual ,report will      
probably be surprised to discover how   
many students take up ,assyrian or      
,icelandic1 ,old ,bulgarian1 or ,middle 
,irish4 ,the same specialization is     
carried into the seminaries for the     
advanced students2 thus1 for instance1  
in the department of philosophy1 there  

are special seminaries for ethics1      
psychology1 metaphysics1 logic1         
sociology1 pedagogy1 ,greek1 and modern 
philosophy4 ,the theological faculty is 
the smallest4 ,in spite of an admirable 
teaching staff there remains something  
still to do before the spirit of science
 is brought into perfect harmony with   
the strongly sectarian character of the 
,american churches4 ,on the other hand1 
the faculty of law is recognized as the 
most distinguished in the               
,english-speaking world4 ,the difference
 between the ,anglo-,american law and   
the ,romano-,german has brought it about
 that the entire arrangement and method 
of study here are thoroughly different  
from the ,german4 ,from the very        
beginning law is taught by the study of 
actual decisions2 the introduction of   
this 8case system10 in opposition to the
 usual text-book system1 was the most   
decisive advance of all and fixed the   
reputation of the law faculty4 ,and this
 system has been gradually introduced   

into other leading schools of law4 ,the 
legal course lasts three years1 and each
 year has its prescribed courses of     
lectures4 ,in the first year1 for       
instance1 students take up contracts1   
the penal code1 property rights1 and    
civil processes4 ,perhaps the departure 
from the ,german method of teaching law 
is most characteristically shown by the 
fact that the law students are from the 
very first day the most industrious     
students of all4 ,these young men have  
passed through their rather easy college
 days1 and when now they leave those    
early years of study in the elm-shaded  
college yard and withdraw to ,austin    
,hall1 the law building of the          
university1 they feel that at last they 
are beginning their serious life-work4  
,in the upper story of ,austin ,hall    
there is a large reading-room for the   
students1 with a legal reference library
 of over sixty thousand volumes4 ,this  
hall is filled with students1 even late 
at night1 who are quite as busy as if   

they were young barristers industriously
 working away on their beginning        
practice4  ,the ,german method is much  
more followed in the four-year medical  
course of studies1 and still there are  
here striking differences4 ,the medical 
faculty of ,harvard1 which is located in
 ,boston on account of the larger       
hospitals to be found in the city1 is at
 this moment in the midst of moving4    
,already work has been commenced on a   
new medical quadrangle with the most    
modern and sumptuous edifices4 ,in      
somewhat the same way1 the course of    
studies is rather under process of      
reformation4 ,it is in the stage of     
experimentation1 and of course it is    
true throughout the world that the      
astonishing advance of medicine has     
created new problems for the            
universities4 ,it seems impossible now  
for a student to master the whole       
province1 since his study time is of    
course limited4 ,the latest attempt at  
reform is along the line of the greatest

 possible concentration4 ,the student is
 expected for several months morning and
 night to study only anatomy1 to hear   
anatomical lectures1 to dissect and to  
use the microscope2 and then again for  
several months he devotes himself       
entirely to physiology1 and so on4 ,much
 is hoped1 secondly1 from the intuitive 
method of instruction4 ,while in        
,germany the teaching of physiology is  
chiefly by means of lectures and        
demonstrations1 every ,harvard student  
has in addition during the period of    
physiological study to work one hundred 
and eighty hours on prescribed          
experiments1 so that two hours of       
experimentation follow every one-hour   
lecture4 ,in certain lines of practical 
instruction1 especially in pathological 
anatomy1 the ,american is at a          
disadvantage compared with the ,german1 
since the supply of material for autopsy
 is limited4 ,popular democratic        
sentiment is very strong against the    
idea that a man who dies in a public    

poor-house must fall a prey to the      
dissecting knife4 ,the clinical         
demonstrations are not given in special 
university clinics1 but rather in the   
large municipal hospitals1 where all the
 chief physicians are pledged to give   
practical instruction in the form of    
demonstrations4 ,in the third place1    
there is an increasing tendency to give 
to the study of medicine a certain      
mobility2 in other words1 to allow a    
rather early specialization4 ,as to the 
substance itself which is taught1       
,harvard's medical school is very much  
like a ,german university1 and becomes  
daily more similar4 ,in the ,american as
 in the ,german university1 the         
microscope and the retort have taken    
precedence over the medicine chest4     
,harvard has about five thousand        
students4 ,any boy who wishes to enter  
must pass1 at the beginning of the      
summer1 a six-day written examination2  
and these examinations are conducted in 
about forty different places of the     

country under the supervision of        
officers of the university4 ,any one    
coming from other universities is       
carefully graded according to the       
standard of scholarship of his          
particular institution4 ,the amount of  
study required is not easily determined4
 ,unlike the ,german plan1 every course 
of lectures is concluded at the end of  
the year with a three-hour examination1 
and only the man who passes the         
examination has the course in question  
put to his credit4 ,whoever during the  
four1 or perhaps three1 college years   
has taken eighteen three-hour lecture   
courses extending through the year      
receives the bachelor's degree4 ,in     
practice1 indeed1 the matter becomes    
enormously complicated1 yet extensive   
administrative machinery regulates every
 case with due justice4 ,in the legal   
and medical faculties1 everything is    
dependent on the final examinations of  
the year4 ,in the philosophical two1 or 
more often three1 years of study after  

the bachelor's degree lead to the       
doctorate of philosophy4  ,the graduate 
student always works industriously      
through the year1 but the college       
student may be one of various types4    
,part of these men work no less         
industriously than the advanced         
students2 while another part1 and by no 
means the worst1 would not for anything 
be guilty of such misbehaviour4 ,these  
men are not in ,harvard to learn facts1 
but they have come to college for a     
certain atmosphere--in order to         
assimilate by reflection1 as they say4  
,of course1 the lectures of enthusiastic
 professors and a good book or two      
belong to this atmosphere2 and yet1 who 
can say that the hours spent at the     
club1 on the foot-ball field1 at the    
theatre1 in the ,boston hotel1 on the   
river or on horseback do not contribute 
quite as much--not to mention the       
informal discussions about ,god and the 
world1 especially the literary and      
athletic worlds1 as they sit together at

 their window seats on the crimson      
cushions and smoke their cigarettes8    
,harvard has the reputation through the 
country of being the rich man's         
university1 and it is true that many    
live here in a degree of luxury of which
 few ,german students would ever think4 
,and yet there are as many who go       
through college on the most modest      
means1 who perhaps earn their own       
livelihood or receive financial aid from
 the college4 ,a systematic evasion of  
lectures or excessive drinking or       
card-playing plays no role at all4 ,the 
distinctly youthful exuberance of the   
students is discharged most especially  
in the field of sport1 which gets an    
incomparable influence on the students' 
minds by means of the friendly rivalry  
between different colleges4 ,the        
foot-ball game between ,harvard and     
,yale in ,november1 or the base-ball    
game in ,june1 or the ,new ,london      
races1 are national events1 for which   
special trains transport thousands of   

visitors4 ,next to the historical       
traditions it is indeed sport1 which    
holds the body of ,harvard students most
 firmly together1 and those who belong  
to the same class most firmly of        
all--that is1 those who are to receive  
their ,a4 ,b4 in the same year4 ,year   
after year the ,harvard graduates come  
back to ,boston in order to see their   
old class-mates again4 ,they know that  
to be a ,harvard man means for their    
whole life to be the body-guard of the  
nation4 ,they will stand for ,harvard1  
their sons will go to ,harvard1 and to  
,harvard they will contribute with      
generous hands out of their material    
prosperity4  ,harvard reflects all the  
interests of the nation1 and all its    
social contrasts4 ,it has its political1
 religious1 literary and musical clubs1 
its scientific and social organizations1
 its daily paper for the discussion of  
,harvard's interests1 edited by         
students1 and three monthly magazines2  
it has its public and serious           

parliamentary debates1 and most popular 
of all1 operatic performances in the    
burlesque vein given by students4       
,thousands of most diverse personalities
 work out their life problems in this   
little city of lecture halls1           
laboratories1 museums1 libraries1       
banquet halls1 and club buildings1 which
 are scattered about the ancient        
elm-shaded yard4 ,each student has come1
 in the ardour and ambition of youth1 to
 these halls where so many intellectual 
leaders have taught and so many great   
men of the outside world have spent     
their student years2 and each one goes  
away once more into the world a better  
and stronger man4  ,one thing that a    
,european visitor particularly expects  
to find in the lecture room of an       
,american university is not found in    
,harvard4 ,there are no women students  
in the school4 ,women graduates who are 
well advanced are admitted to the       
seminaries and to scientific research in
 the laboratories1 but they are excluded

 from the college2 and the same is true 
of ,yale1 ,columbia1 ,princeton1 and    
,johns ,hopkins4 ,of course1 ,harvard   
has no prejudice against the higher     
education of women2 but ,harvard is     
itself an institution for men4 ,in an   
indirect way1 the teaching staff of     
,harvard ,university is utilized for the
 benefit of women1 since only a stone's 
throw from the ,harvard ,college gate is
 ,radcliffe ,college1 which is for      
women1 and in which only ,harvard       
instructors give lectures4  ,this       
picture of the largest university will  
stand as typical for the others1        
although of course each one of the great
 academies has its own peculiarities4   
,while ,harvard seeks to unite          
humanitarian and specialized work1      
,johns ,hopkins aims to give only the   
latter1 while ,yale and ,princeton aim  
more particularly at the former4 ,johns 
,hopkins in ,baltimore is a workshop of 
productive investigation1 and in the    
province of natural sciences and        

medicine ,johns ,hopkins has been a     
brilliant example to the whole country4 
,yale ,university1 in ,new ,haven1      
stands first of all for culture and     
personal development1 although many a   
shining name in scholarship is graven on
 the tablets of ,yale4 ,columbia        
,university1 in ,new ,york1 gets its    
peculiar character from that great city 
which is its background2 and this to a  
much greater extent than the ,university
 of ,chicago1 which has created its own 
environment and atmosphere on the       
farthest outskirts of that great city4  
,chicago1 and ,cornell ,university at   
,ithaca1 the ,university of             
,pennsylvania1 ,ann ,arbor in ,michigan1
 ,berkeley and ,stanford in ,california 
are the principal institutions which    
admit women1 and therein are outwardly  
distinguished from the large            
institutions of the ,east4  ,the male   
students from the ,west have somewhat   
less polish1 but are certainly not less 
industrious4 ,the ,western students come

 generally out of more modest           
conditions1 and are therefore less      
indifferent with regard to their own    
future4 ,the student from ,ann ,arbor1  
,minnesota1 or ,nebraska would compare  
with the student at ,yale or ,princeton 
about as a student at ,knigsberg or     
,breslau would compare with one at      
,heidelberg or ,bonn4 ,along with that  
he comes from a lower level of public   
school education4 ,the ,western         
institutions are forced to content      
themselves with less exacting conditions
 for entrance1 and the ,south has at the
 present time no academies at all which 
are to be compared seriously with the   
great universities of the country4      
,next to ,harvard the oldest university 
is ,yale1 which a short time ago        
celebrated its two-hundredth            
anniversary4 ,after ,yale comes         
,princeton1 whose foundation took place 
in the middle of the eighteenth century4
 ,yale was founded as a protest against 
the liberal tendencies of ,harvard4     

,puritan orthodoxy had been rather      
overridden at ,harvard1 and so created  
for itself a more secure fortress in the
 colony of ,connecticut4 ,in this the   
mass of the population was strictly in  
sympathy with the church2 the free      
spirit of ,harvard was too advanced for 
the people1 and remained so in a certain
 way for nearly two centuries4 ,therein 
has lain the strength of ,yale4 ,until a
 short time ago ,yale had the more      
popular place in the nation2 it was the 
democratic rallying-ground in contrast  
with ,harvard1 which was too haughtily  
aristocratic4 ,yale was the religious   
and the conservative stronghold as      
contrasted with the free thought and    
progress of ,harvard4 ,for some time it 
seemed as if the opposition of ,yale    
against the modern spirit would really  
prejudice its higher interests1 and it  
slowly fell somewhat from its great     
historic position4 ,but recently1 under 
its young1 widely known president1      
,hadley1 the political economist1 it has

 been making energetic and very         
successful endeavours to recover its    
lost position4  ,the history of         
,columbia ,university1 in ,new ,york1   
began as early as #aged4 ,at that time  
it was ,king's ,college1 which after the
 ,war for ,independence was rechristened
 ,columbia ,college4 ,but the real      
greatness of ,columbia began only in the
 last few decades1 with a development   
which is unparalleled4 ,under its       
president1 ,seth ,low1 the famous       
medical1 legal1 and political economical
 faculties were brought into closer     
relations with the college1 the         
,graduate ,school was organized1        
,teachers' ,college was developed1 the  
general entrance conditions were brought
 up1 and on ,morningside ,heights a     
magnificent new university quadrangle   
was erected4 ,when ,seth ,low left the  
university1 after ten years of          
irreproachable and masterly             
administration1 in order to become      
,mayor of ,new ,york in the service of  

the ,reform party1 he was succeeded in  
the presidency by ,butler1 a young man  
who since his earliest years had shown  
extraordinary talents for               
administration1 and who for many years  
as editor of the best pedagogical       
magazine had become thoroughly familiar 
with the needs of academic instruction4 
,columbia is favoured by every          
circumstance4 ,if signs are not         
deceptive1 ,columbia will soon stand    
nearest to ,harvard at the head of      
,american universities4 ,while ,harvard 
and ,yale1 ,princeton1 ,pennsylvania1   
and ,columbia are the most successful   
creations of the ,colonial days1 ,johns 
,hopkins and ,chicago1 ,cornell and     
,leland ,stanford are the chief         
representatives of those institutions   
which have recently been founded by     
private munificence4 ,the state         
universities of ,wisconsin1 ,michigan1  
,nebraska1 ,kansas1 ,minnesota1         
,missouri1 and ,california may be       
mentioned1 finally1 as the most notable 

state universities4  ,johns ,hopkins was
 an able railroad president1 who died   
after a long life1 in #ahgc1 and        
bequeathed seven million dollars for a  
university and academy to be founded in 
his native city of ,baltimore4 ,the     
administrative council elected ,gilman  
as its president1 and it is ,gilman's   
memorable service to have accomplished  
that of which ,america was most in need 
in that moment of transition--an academy
 which should concentrate its entire    
strength on the furtherance of serious  
scientific investigation quite without  
concessions to the ,english college     
idea1 without any attempt to reach a    
great circle of students1 or without any
 effort to annex a legal or theological 
faculty4 ,its sole aim was to attract   
really eminent specialists as teachers  
in its philosophical faculties1 to equip
 laboratories and seminaries in the most
 approved manner1 to fill these with    
advanced students1 and to inspire these 
students with a zeal for scientific     

productiveness4 ,this experiment has    
succeeded remarkably4 ,it is clear      
to-day that the further development of  
the ,american university will not       
consist in developing the special       
professional school1 but will rather    
combine the ideals of the college with  
the ideals of original research4 ,but at
 that time when the new spirit which had
 been imported from ,germany began to   
ferment1 it was of the first importance 
that some such institution should       
avowedly1 without being hampered by any 
traditions1 take up the cause of that   
method which seeks to initiate the      
future school-teacher into the secrets  
of the laboratory4 ,since ,gilman       
retired1 a short time ago1 the famous   
chemist1 ,ira ,remsen1 has taken his    
place4 ,a brilliant professor of ,johns 
,hopkins1 ,stanley ,hall1 has undertaken
 a similar experiment on a much more    
modest scale1 in the city of ,worcester1
 with the millions which were given by  
the philanthropist ,clark4 ,his ,clark  

,university has remained something of a 
torso1 but has likewise succeeded in    
advancing the impulse for productive    
science in many directions1 especially  
in psychology and education4  ,in the   
year #ahfh1 ,cornell ,university was    
founded in the town of ,ithaca1 from the
 gifts of ,ezra ,cornell2 and this      
university had almost exactly opposite  
aims4 ,it has aimed to create a         
university for the people1 where every  
man could find what he needed for his   
own education2 it has become a          
stronghold for the utilitarian spirit4  
,the truly ,american spirit of restless 
initiative has perhaps nowhere in the   
academic world found more characteristic
 expression than in this energetic      
dwelling-place of science4 ,the first   
president was the eminent historian1    
,andrew ,d4 ,white1 who was appointed   
later to his happy mission as           
,ambassador to ,berlin4 ,at the present 
day the philosopher ,shurman stands at  
the helm1 whose efforts in colonial     

politics are widely known4 ,senator     
,stanford1 of ,california1 aimed to     
accomplish for the extreme ,west the    
same thing that ,cornell had done for   
the ,east1 when in memory of his        
deceased son he applied his entire      
property to the foundation of an academy
 in the vicinity of ,san ,francisco4    
,leland ,stanford is1 so far as its     
financial endowment goes1 probably the  
richest university in the country4 ,as  
far as its internal efficiency has gone1
 the thirty million dollars have not    
meant so much1 since the ,west has to   
depend on its own students and it has to
 take them as it finds them4 ,in spite  
of this1 the university accomplishes an 
excellent work in many directions under 
the leadership of the zologist ,jordan1 
its possibly too energetic president4   
,while its rival1 the ,state ,university
 of ,california1 near the ,golden ,gate 
of ,san ,francisco1 is perhaps the most 
superbly situated university in the     
world1 ,leland ,stanford can lay claim  

to being the more picturesque4 ,it is a 
dream in stone conjured up under the    
,californian palms4 ,finally1 quite     
different1 more strenuous than all      
others1 some say more ,chicagoan1 is the
 ,university of ,chicago1 to which the  
petroleum prince1 ,rockefeller1 has     
deflected some twelve million dollars4  
,the ,university of ,chicago has        
everything and offers everything4 ,it   
pays the highest salaries1 it is open   
the whole year through1 it has          
accommodations for women1 and welcomes  
summer guests who come to stay only a   
couple of months4 ,it has the richest   
programme of collateral lectures1 of    
university publications and of its own  
periodicals1 has an organic alliance    
with no end of smaller colleges in the  
country1 has observatories on the       
hill-tops and laboratories by the sea2  
and1 whatever it lacks to-day1 it is    
bound to have to-morrow4 ,it is almost  
uncanny how busily and energetically    
this university has developed itself in 

a few years under the distinguished and 
brilliant presidential policy of        
,harper4 ,one must admire the great     
work4 ,it is possible that this place is
 still not equal to the older ,eastern  
universities as the home of quiet       
maturity and reflection2 but for hard1  
scholarly work it has few rivals in the 
world4  ,johns ,hopkins and ,cornell1   
,stanford and ,chicago1 have been       
carefully designed and built according  
to one consistent plan1 while the state 
universities have developed slowly out  
of small colleges more like the old     
institutions of ,colonial days4 ,their  
history is for the most part uneventful2
 it is a steady and toilsome working to 
the top1 which has been limited not so  
much by the finances of the states1 but 
rather by the conditions of the schools 
in the regions about them4 ,the largest 
state university is that of ,michigan1  
at ,ann ,arbor1 not far from ,detroit4  
,in number of students it is next to    
,harvard4 ,one of its specialties is a  

homopathic medical faculty in addition  
to the allopathic4  ,it would be a great
 mistake to suppose that1 with the      
blossoming out of the large and         
middle-sized universities1 all of which 
have colleges as one of their           
departments1 the small colleges have    
ceased to play their part4 ,quite on the
 contrary2 in a certain sense the small 
college situated in rural seclusion has 
found a new task to work out in contrast
 to the great universities4 ,it is only 
in the small college that the young     
student is able to come into personal   
contact with the professor1 and only    
there can his special individuality be  
taken into account by his alma mater4   
,one scheme does not fit all the        
students1 and not only in those regions 
where the homely college represents the 
highest attainable instruction of its   
kind1 but also in many districts of the 
maturest culture1 the college is for    
many youths the most favourable place   
for development4 ,thus the ,new ,england

 ,states would feel a great loss to the 
cause of culture if such old colleges as
 ,williams1 ,brown1 ,amherst1 and       
,dartmouth should simply deliver over   
its students to ,harvard4  ,these       
smaller colleges fulfil a special       
mission1 therefore1 and they do their   
best when they do not try to seem more  
than they really are4 ,there was the    
danger that the colleges would think    
themselves improved by introducing some 
fragments of research work into their   
curriculum1 and so spoiling a good      
humanitarian college by offering a bad  
imitation of a university4 ,of course1  
there can be no talk of a sharp         
separation between college and          
university1 for the reasons which we    
have emphasized many times before4 ,it  
is necessary1 as we have seen1 that     
there should be a long continuous scale 
from the smallest college up to the     
largest university4 ,it is true that    
many of the small institutions are      
entirely superfluous1 and not capable of

 any great development1 and so from year
 to year some are bound to disappear or 
to be absorbed by others4 ,many are     
really business enterprises1 and many   
more are sectarian institutions4 ,but in
 general there exists among these       
institutions a healthy struggle for     
existence which prospers the strongest  
of them and makes them do their best4   
,the right of existence of many of the  
small and isolated professional schools 
is much more questionable4 ,almost all  
the best medical1 legal1 and theological
 schools of this order have already been
 assimilated to this or that college1   
and the growing together of the         
academies which started separately and  
from small beginnings into organic      
universities is in conformity with the  
centralizing tendency everywhere in     
progress in our time4  ,many of the     
smaller colleges are1 like all the state
 institutions1 open to both sexes4      
,besides these1 however1 there thrive   
certain colleges which are exclusively  

for women4 ,the best known of these are 
,bryn ,mawr1 ,vassar1 ,wellesley1       
,smith1 ,radcliffe1 and ,barnard4       
,barnard ,college1 in ,new ,york1 stands
 in the same relation to ,columbia      
,university as ,radcliffe ,college does 
to ,harvard4 ,every one of these leading
 women's colleges has its own           
physiognomy1 and appeals rather to its  
special type of young woman4 ,vassar1   
,wellesley1 ,smith1 and ,bryn ,mawr lie 
in quiet1 retired little towns or       
villages3 and the four years of college 
life spent together by something like a 
thousand blooming1 happy young women    
between the years of eighteen and       
twenty-two1 in college halls which are  
surrounded by attractive parks1 are four
 years of extraordinary charm4 ,only    
,bryn ,mawr and ,radcliffe lay any      
special stress on the advanced critical 
work of the graduates4 ,in ,smith1      
,vassar1 and ,wellesley it is mostly a  
matter of assimilation1 and the standard
 of scholarship is not much higher than 

that of the ,german                     
,arbiturientenexamen1 together with     
possibly one or two semesters of the    
philosophical faculty4 ,in ,wellesley1  
women are almost the only teachers2     
while in ,bryn ,mawr almost all are men1
 and in ,smith the teachers are both men
 and women4  ,in statistical language1  
the following conditions are found to   
hold4 ,if for the moment we put college 
and graduate schools together as the    
8philosophical faculty10 there studied  
in the year #aijj in the philosophical  
faculties1 #a1cjh students for every    
million inhabitants2 in the legal       
faculties #aff1 in the medical #ccc1 and
 in the theological faculties #ajf4 ,ten
 years previously the corresponding     
figures were #hgg1 #gb1 #bff1 #aab1     
respectively1 and twenty-five years ago 
they were #gdd1 #fa1 #aif1 and #abj1    
respectively4 ,thus the increase in the 
last ten years has been a remarkable    
one2 theology alone shows some          
diminution in its numbers4 ,if we       

consider now the philosophical faculties
 more closely1 we discover the          
surprising fact that in the last decade 
the male students have increased #fa per
 cent41 while the female have increased 
#adi per cent4 ,the degrees conferred in
 the year #aijj were as follows3 college
 degrees of bachelor of arts--to men    
#e1abi1 to women #b1adj4 ,the degree of 
bachelor of science1 which is somewhat  
lower in its standard1 and requires no  
classical preparation1 was given to     
#b1dgc men and #eia women4 ,the degree  
of doctor of philosophy to #cbb men and 
#bj women4 ,the private endowment of all
 colleges together amounts to #cfj      
million dollars1 of which #afj million  
consist in income-bearing securities4   
,the annual income amounted to #bh      
millions1 not counting donations of that
 year1 of which #aa millions came from  
the fees of students1 about #g millions 
were the interest on endowments1 and    
#g4e millions were contributed by the   
government4 ,thus the student pays about

 #ci per cent4 of what his tuition      
costs4 ,the larger donations for the    
year amounted to about #ab millions     
more4 ,the number of colleges for men or
 for both sexes was #dhj1 for women     
alone #ada4 ,this figure says very      
little2 since1 in the case of many      
women's institutions1 the name college  
is more monstrously abused than in any  
other1 and in the ,west and ,south is   
assumed by every upstart girls' school4 
,there are only #ac women's colleges    
which come up to a high standard1 and it
 may at once be added that the number of
 polytechnic and agricultural schools   
whose conditions for entrance correspond
 on the average to those of the colleges
 amounts to #dc4 ,also these stand on   
many different levels1 and at the head  
of them all is the ,massachusetts       
,institute of ,technology1 in ,boston1  
which is now under the brilliant        
leadership of ,president ,pritchett4    
,almost all the technical schools are   
state institutions4  ,there were1 in the

 year #aijj1 #aea medical faculties     
having #be1bac students3 all except     
three provide a four years' course of   
study4 ,besides these1 there were #g1ibh
 dental students studying in #ed dental 
schools1 and #d1jdb students of pharmacy
 in #ec separate institutions4 ,there   
were #ab1eaf law students1 and #h1jji   
theological students4 ,out of the law   
students #aea1 and of the theological   
#aha1 were women4                       
,,chapter ,,seventeen                   
,science   ,one who surveys1 without    
prejudice1 the academic life of the     
country in reference to scientific work 
will receive a deep impression of the   
energy and carefulness with which this  
enormous national machinery of education
 furthers the higher intellectual life4 
,and the continuous gradation of        
institutions by which the higher academy
 is able to adapt itself to every local 
need1 so that no least remnant of free  
initiative can be lost and unlimited    
development is made possible at every   

point1 must be recognized by every one  
as the best conceivable system for the  
country4  ,it is not to be denied that  
it brings with it certain difficulties  
and disadvantages4 ,the administrative  
difficulties which proceed from the     
apparent incomparability of the         
institutions are really not serious1    
although the foreigner who is accustomed
 to uniformity in his universities1     
,gymnasia1 certificates and doctorial   
diplomas1 is inclined to overemphasize  
these difficulties in ,america4 ,the    
real disadvantages of the system of     
continuous gradations is found1 not in  
the outer administration1 but in its    
inner methods4 ,the ,german             
undergraduate takes the attitude of one 
who learns2 his teacher must be         
thoroughly well informed1 but no one    
expects a school-teacher himself to     
advance science4 ,the graduate student1 
on the other hand1 is supposed to take a
 critical attitude1 and therefore his   
teacher has to be a teacher of          

methods--that is1 he must be a          
productive investigator4 ,wherever1 as  
in ,germany1 there lies a sharp         
distinction between these two provinces1
 it is easy to keep the spirit of       
investigation pure2 but where1 as in    
,america1 one merges into the other1 the
 principles at stake are far too likely 
to be confused4 ,men who fundamentally  
are nothing but able school-teachers are
 then able to work up and stand beside  
the best investigators in the university
 faculties1 because the principle of    
promotion on the ground of scientific   
production solely cannot be so clearly  
separated from the methods of selection 
which are adapted to the lower grades of
 instruction4 ,to be sure1 this has its 
advantages in other directions2 because1
 in so far as there is no sharp         
demarcation1 the spirit of investigation
 can also grow from above down1 and     
therefore in many a smaller college     
there will be more productive scientists
 teaching than would be found1 perhaps1 

in a ,german school2 but yet the        
influences of the lower on the higher   
departments of instruction are the      
predominant ones4 ,investigation thrives
 best when the young scholar knows that 
his advancement depends ultimately on   
strictly scientific achievements1 and   
not on work of a popular sort1 nor on   
success in the teaching of second-hand  
knowledge4 ,this fact has often been    
brought home to the public mind in      
recent years1 and the leading           
universities have already more and more 
recognized the principle of considering 
scientific achievements to be the main  
ground for preferment4  ,but productive 
scholarship is interfered with in still 
other ways4 ,professors are often too   
much busied with administrative         
concerns2 and although this sort of     
administrative influence may be         
attractive for many professors1 its     
exercise requires much sacrifice of     
time4 ,more particularly1 the professors
 of most institutions1 although there   

are many exceptions among the leading   
universities1 are overloaded with       
lectures1 and herein the graded         
transition from low to high works       
unfavourably4 ,especially in ,western   
institutions1 the administrative bodies 
do not see why the university professor 
should not lecture as many hours in the 
week as a school teacher2 and most      
dangerous of all1 as we have already    
mentioned in speaking of popular        
education1 is the fact that the scholar 
is tempted1 by high social and financial
 rewards1 to give scientifically        
unproductive popular lectures and to    
write popular essays4  ,and the list of 
factors which have worked against       
scientific productiveness can be still  
further increased4 ,to be sure1 it would
 be false here to repeat the old tale   
that the ,american professor is         
threatened in his freedom by the        
whimsical demands of rich patrons1 who  
have founded or handsomely endowed many 
of the universities4 ,that is merely    

newspaper gossip2 and the three or four 
cases which have busied public opinion  
in the last ten years and have been     
ridiculously overestimated1 are found1  
on closer inspection1 to have been cases
 which could have come up as well in any
 non-partisan institution in the world4 
,there may have been mistakes on both   
sides2 perhaps the university councils  
have acted with unnecessary rigour or   
lack of tact1 but it has yet to be      
proved that there has been actual       
injustice anywhere4 ,even in small      
colleges purely scientific activity     
never interferes with the welfare of a  
professor4 ,a blatant disrespect for    
religion would hurt his further         
prospects there1 to be sure1 just as in 
the ,western state institutions the     
committees appointed by the legislature 
would dislike a hostile political       
attitude4 ,yet not even in the smallest 
college has any professor ever suffered 
the least prejudice by reason of his    
scientific labours4 ,science in ,america

 is not hampered by any lack of academic
 freedom4  ,on the other hand1 the      
,american university lacks one of the   
most important forces of ,german        
universities--the ,privatdocent1 who    
lives only for science1 and without     
compensation places his teaching        
abilities in the service of his own     
scientific development4 ,the young      
,american scholar is welcome only where 
a paid position is vacant2 but if he    
finds no empty instructorship in a large
 university1 he is obliged to be content
 with a position in a small college1    
where the entire intellectual           
atmosphere1 as regards the studies1     
apparatus1 and amount of work exacted1  
all work against his desire to be       
scientifically productive1 and finally  
perhaps kill it entirely4 ,the large    
universities are just beginning to      
institute the system of voluntary       
docents--which1 to be sure1 encounters  
administrative difficulties4 ,there is  
also a dangerous tendency toward        

academic in-breeding4 ,the former       
students of an institution are always   
noticeably preferred for any vacant     
position1 and the claims of capable     
scholars are often disregarded for the  
sake of quite insignificant men4        
,scientific productiveness meets further
 with the material obstacle of the high 
cost of printing in ,america1 which     
makes it often more difficult for the   
young student here than in ,germany to  
find a publisher for his works4         
,against all this there are some        
external advantages3 first1 the         
lavishness of the accessories of        
investigation4 ,the equipment of        
laboratories1 libraries1 museums1       
observatories1 special institutes1 and  
the fitting out of expeditions yield    
their due benefits4 ,then there are     
various sorts of free                   
assistance--fellowships1 travelling     
scholarships1 and other                 
foundations--which make every year many 
young scholars free for scientific work4

 ,there is also the admirable           
8sabbatical year40 ,the large           
universities give every professor leave 
of absence every seventh year1 with the 
express purpose of allowing him time for
 his own scholarly labours4 ,another    
favourable circumstance is the excellent
 habit of work which every ,american    
acquires during his student years2 and  
here it is not to be doubted that the   
,american is on the average1 and in     
consequence of his system has to be1    
more industrious than the ,german       
average student4 ,from the beginning of 
his course1 he is credited with only    
such lecture courses as he has passed   
examinations on1 and these are so       
arranged as to necessitate not only     
presence at the lectures1 but also the  
study of prescribed treatises2 the      
student is obliged to apply himself with
 considerable diligence4 ,a student who 
should give himself entirely to idling1 
as may happen in ,germany1 would not    
finish his first college year4 ,if the  

local foot-ball gossip is no more       
sensible than the talk at duelling      
clubs1 at least the practice of drinking
 beer in the morning and playing skat   
have no evil counterpart of comparable  
importance in ,america4 ,the ,american  
student recreates himself on the        
athletic field rather than in the       
ale-house4 ,germany is exceedingly      
sparing of time and strength during     
school years1 but lets both be wasted in
 the universities to the great advantage
 of a strong personality here and there1
 but to the injury of the average man4  
,america wastes a good deal of time     
during school years1 but is more sparing
 during the college and university      
courses1 and there accustoms each       
student to good1 hard work4  ,and most  
of all1 the intellectual make-up of the 
,american is especially adapted to      
scientific achievements4 ,this          
temperament1 owing to the historical    
development of the nation1 has so far   
addressed itself to political1          

industrial1 and judicial problems1 but a
 return to theoretical science has set  
in2 and there1 most of all1 the happy   
combination of inventiveness1           
enthusiasm1 and persistence in pursuit  
of a goal1 of intellectual freedom and  
elasticity1 of feeling for form and of  
idealistic instinct for self-perfection 
will yield1 perhaps soon1 remarkable    
triumphs4  ,we have hitherto spoken only
 of the furtherance of science by the   
higher institutions of learning1 but we 
must look at least hastily on what is   
being done outside of academic circles4 
,we see1 then1 first of all1 the        
magnificent government institutions at  
,washington which1 without doing any    
teaching1 are in the sole service of    
science4 ,the cultivation of the        
sciences by twenty-eight special        
institutions and an army of #f1jjj      
persons1 conducted at an annual expense 
of more than #h1jjj1jjj1 is certainly a 
unique feature of ,american government4 
,there is no other government in the    

world which is organized for such a     
many-sided scientific work2 and         
nevertheless1 everything which is done  
there is closely related to the true    
interests of government--that is1 not to
 the interests of the dominant political
 party1 but to those of the great       
self-governing nation4 ,all the         
institutes1 as different as they are in 
their special work1 have this in        
common--that they work on problems which
 relate to the country1 population1     
products1 and the general conditions of 
,america1 so that they meet first of all
 the national needs of an economical1   
social1 intellectual1 political1 and    
hygienic sort1 and only in a secondary  
way contribute to abstract science4     
,the work of these government institutes
 is peculiar1 moreover1 in that the     
results are published in many handsomely
 gotten-up volumes1 and sent free of    
cost to hundreds of thousands of        
applicants4 ,the institutions are       
devoted partly to science and partly to 

political economy4 ,among the scientific
 institutes are the admirable ,bureau of
 ,geological ,survey1 which has six     
hundred officials1 and undertakes not   
only geological but also palontological 
and hydrographic investigations1 and    
carries on mineralogical and            
lithological laboratories2 then the     
,geodetic ,survey1 which studies the    
coasts1 rivers1 lakes1 and mountains of 
the country2 the ,marine ,observatory1  
for taking astronomical observations2   
the ,weather ,bureau1 which conducts    
more than one hundred and fifty         
meteorological stations2 the ,bureau of 
,biology1 which makes a special study of
 the geographical distribution of plants
 and animals2 the ,bureau of ,botany1   
which studies especially all problems   
connected with seeds2 the ,bureau of    
,forestry1 which scientifically works on
 questions of the national timber       
supply2 the important ,bureau of        
,entomology1 which has studied with     
great success the relations of insects  

to agriculture2 the ,bureau of          
,agriculture1 which statistically works 
out experiments on planting1 and which  
directs government experiment stations  
situated throughout the country2 the    
,department of ,fisheries1 which        
conducts stations for marine biology2   
and many others4 ,among the political   
economic institutes in the broad sense  
of the word are the ,bureau of ,labour1 
which undertakes purely sociological    
investigations into labour conditions2  
the ,corporation ,bureau1 which studies 
the conditions of organized business2   
the ,bureau of ,general ,statistics2 the
 ,census ,bureau1 which every ten years 
takes a census more complete than that  
of any other country4 ,the ,census of   
#ahij consisted of #ci large folio      
volumes1 and the collecting of          
information alone cost #aj1jjj1jjj4 ,the
 ,census of #aijj is still in course of 
publication4 ,the ,bureau of ,education 
also belongs here1 which studies purely 
theoretically the statistics of         

education4 ,then there are the ,bureau  
of ,immigration and several others4 ,all
 these bureaus are really designed to   
impart instruction and advice2 they have
 no authority to enforce any measures4  
,but the extraordinary publicity which  
is given to their printed reports gives 
them a very considerable influence2 and 
the thoroughness with which the         
investigations are carried on1 thanks to
 the liberal appropriations of          
,congress1 makes of these bureaus       
scientific and economic institutions of 
the highest order4  ,we have still to   
speak of the most famous of the         
government bureaus1 the ,smithsonian    
,institution4 ,in #ahcf the government  
came into the possession1 by bequest1 of
 the whole property of the ,englishman  
,smithson1 as a principal with which an 
institution should be founded bearing   
his name1 and serving the advance and   
dissemination of science4 ,it was never 
known just why this ,oxonian and        
mineralogist left his large property to 

the city of ,washington1 which then     
numbered only #e1jjj inhabitants4       
,although he had never visited ,america1
 he wrote to a friend3 8,the best blood 
of ,england flows in my veins2 my       
father's family is from ,northumberland1
 my mother's is related to kings4 ,but  
,i desire to have my name remembered    
when the titles of the ,northumberlands 
and the ,percys shall have been         
forgotten40 ,his instinct guided him    
aright1 and the ,smithsonian            
,institution is to-day an intellectual  
centre in ,washington--that city which  
is the political centre of the ,new     
,world4 ,it should be mentioned1 in     
passing1 that ,congress accepted the    
bequest only after lively opposition2 it
 was objected that to receive the gift  
of a foreigner was beneath the dignity  
of the government4 ,as a fact1 however1 
the success of the institution is not   
due so much to this foreign endowment as
 to the able labours of its three       
presidents3 the physicist ,henry1 who   

served from #ahdf to #ahgh1 the zologist
 ,baird from #ahgh to #ahhg1 and the    
physicist ,langley1 who has been at the 
head since #ahhg4 ,all three have been  
successful in finding ways by which the 
institute could serve the growth and    
dissemination of science4  ,it was      
agreed from the outset not to found a   
university which would compete with     
others already existing1 but an         
institute to complement all existing    
institutions1 and to be a sort of centre
 among them4 ,the great institution was 
divided into the following divisions3   
first1 the ,national ,museum1 in which  
the visible results of all the national 
expeditions and excavations are gathered
 and arranged4 ,the ,american idea is   
that a scientific museum should not be a
 series of articles with their labels1  
but rather a series of instructive      
labels1 illustrated by typical          
specimens4 ,only in this way1 it is     
thought1 does a museum really help to   
educate the masses4 ,the collection1    

which is visited every year by more than
 #cjj1jjj persons1 includes #gej1jjj    
ethnological and anthropological        
objects2 almost #b1jjj1jjj zological1   
#djj1jjj botanical1 and almost #cjj1jjj 
palontological specimens4 ,then there is
 the ,national ,zological ,park1 which  
contains animal species that are dying  
out2 the ,astrophysical ,observatory1 in
 which ,langley carries on his famous   
experiments on the invisible portion of 
the solar spectrum2 the ,ethnological   
,bureau1 which specially studies the    
,indian2 and much else4 ,the department 
of exchanges of this institute is a     
unique affair2 it negotiates exchanges  
between scientists1 libraries1 and other
 ,american institutions1 and also       
between these and ,european             
institutions4 ,as external as this      
service may seem1 it has become         
indispensable to the work of ,american  
science4 ,moreover1 the library of the  
institution is among the most important 
in the country2 and its zological1      

ethnological1 physical1 and geological  
publications1 which are distributed free
 to #d1jjj libraries1 already fill      
hundreds of volumes4  ,any one examining
 the many-sided and happily             
circumstanced scientific work of these  
twenty-eight institutes at ,washington  
will come to feel that the equipment    
could be used to better advantage if    
actual teaching were to be undertaken1  
and that the organization of the        
institutes into a national university   
attracting students from all parts of   
the country would tend to stimulate     
their achievements4 ,in fact1 the       
thought of a national university as the 
crowning point of the educational system
 of the country has always been         
entertained in ,washington2 and those   
who favour this idea are able to point  
to ,george ,washington as the one who   
first conceived such a plan4 ,in spite  
of vigorous agitation1 this plan is     
still not realized1 chiefly because the 
traditions of the country make education

 the concern of the separate states1 and
 reserve it for such institutions as are
 independent of politics4  ,it is a     
different question1 whether the time    
will not come when the nation will      
desire an institution of a higher       
sort--one which will not rival the other
 large universities of the country1 but 
will stand above them all and assume new
 duties4 ,a purely scientific           
institution might exist1 admitting      
students only after they have passed    
their doctorial examination1 and of     
which the professors should be elected  
by the vote of their colleagues through 
the country4 ,there is much need of such
 a university2 but the time may not be  
ripe for it now1 and it may be a matter 
of the far future4 ,and yet at the      
present rate at which science is        
developing in the country1 the far      
future means only ten or fifteen years  
hence4 ,when the time is ripe1 the      
needed hundreds of millions of dollars  
will be forthcoming4  ,for the present1 

a sort of half-way station to a national
 university at ,washington has been     
reached4 ,this is the ,carnegie         
,institute1 whose efficiency can so far 
not be wholly estimated4 ,with a        
provisional capital of #aj1jjj1jjj given
 by ,andrew ,carnegie1 it is proposed to
 aid scientific investigations          
throughout the country1 and on the      
recommendation of competent men to      
advance to young scientists the         
necessary means for productive          
investigations4 ,there is1              
unfortunately1 a danger here that in    
this way the other universities and     
foundations of the country may feel     
relieved of their responsibility1 and so
 relax their efforts4 ,it may be that   
people will look to the centre for that 
which formerly came from the periphery1 
and that in this way the general        
industry will become less intense4 ,most
 of all1 the ,carnegie ,institute has1  
up to this point1 lacked broad fruitful 
ideas and a real programme of what it   

proposes to do4 ,if the institute cannot
 do better than it has so far done1 it  
is to be feared that its arbitrary and  
unsystematic aid will do1 in the long   
run1 more harm than good to the         
scientific life of the country4  ,the   
same general conditions1 on a smaller   
scale and with many variations1 are     
found outside of ,washington in a       
hundred different scientific museums and
 collections--biological1 hygienic1     
medical1 historical1 economic1 and      
experimental institutions2 zological and
 botanical gardens2 astronomical        
observatories2 biological stations1     
which are found sometimes under state or
 city administration1 sometimes under   
private or corporate management4 ,thus  
the ,marine ,laboratory at ,woods ,hole 
is a meeting-place every summer for the 
best biologists4 ,sometimes important   
collections can be found in the most    
unlikely places--as1 for instance1 in   
the historic museum of the city of      
,salem1 which1 although it has gone to  

sleep to-day1 is still proud of its     
history4 ,the large cities1 however1    
like ,new ,york1 ,philadelphia1 ,boston1
 ,chicago1 and ,baltimore1 have         
established admirable institutions1 on  
which scientific work everywhere        
depends4 ,then there are the political  
capitals1 such as ,albany1 with their   
institutions4 ,that ,german who is most 
thoroughly acquainted with conditions of
 scientific collections1 ,professor     
,meyer1 the director of the scientific  
museums at ,dresden1 has given his      
opinion in his admirable work on the    
museums of the ,eastern ,united ,states 
as follows3 8,i have received a profound
 impression of ,american capabilities in
 this direction1 and can even say that  
the museums of natural history of that  
country are generally on a higher plane 
than those of ,europe4 ,we have1 so far 
as buildings and administrative         
machinery go1 very few good and many    
moderate or downright poor museums1     
while the ,americans have many more good

 and many fewer bad ones2 and those     
which are poor are improving at the     
rapid ,american pace1 while with us     
improvement is hopelessly slow40  ,there
 is still another important factor in   
the scientific societies1 whose         
membership1 to be sure1 is chiefly      
composed of the personnel of the higher 
educational institutions1 but which     
nevertheless exert an independent       
influence on scientific life4 ,the      
,national ,academy of ,science is       
officially at the head4 ,it was founded 
in #ahfc1 having a hundred members and  
electing five new members each year4    
,while its annual meetings in           
,washington observe only the ordinary   
scientific programme1 the society has as
 a special function the advising of     
,congress and the government on         
scientific matters4 ,thus1 this academy 
drew up the plans for organizing the    
,geological ,survey and for replanting  
the national forests4 ,the political    
atmosphere of ,washington1 however1 has 

not been too favourable to the success  
of the ,academy1 and it has never       
attained the national significance of   
the ,paris and ,london academies4  ,the 
,american ,historical ,association has a
 similar character2 and its transactions
 are published at the expense of the    
government4 ,the popular associations1  
of course1 reach much larger circles2   
thus1 for instance1 the ,american       
,society for the ,advancement of        
,science1 which has existed for fifty   
years1 has about the same functions as  
the ,german ,naturforscherversammlung4  
,it brings together at its annual       
meetings1 which are always held in      
different places1 a thousand or so      
scientists1 and holds in different      
sections a great many lectures4 ,still  
more popular are the meetings of the    
similarly organized ,national           
,educational ,association1 which brings 
together more than ten thousand members 
at its summer meetings1 which are often 
held in pleasant and retired spots4 ,in 

these and similar sessions1 scientific  
work is popularized1 while in the       
specialized societies it is stimulated  
toward greater profundity4 ,in fact1    
there is no medical1 natural-historical1
 legal1 theological1 historical1        
economic1 philological1 or philosophical
 specialty which has not its special    
national societies with annual          
congresses4 ,it is increasingly the     
custom to hold these popular sessions   
during the summer holidays1 but the     
strictly scientific congresses during   
the first week in ,january4 ,the        
physicians1 by exception1 meet at       
,easter4 ,in order that the             
business-like separation of subjects may
 not exclude a certain contact of       
scientific neighbours1 it is            
increasingly the plan to organize groups
 of congresses2 thus1 the seven         
societies of anatomy1 physiology1       
morphology1 plant physiology1           
psychology1 anthropology1 and folk-lore 
always meet at the same time in the same

 city4  ,besides these wandering        
meetings1 finally1 there are the local  
societies4 ,of these1 the veteran is the
 ,academy in ,philadelphia4 ,it was     
founded by ,franklin in #agdc1 and so   
far as its membership goes1 may claim to
 have a national character4 ,in a       
similar way the ,american ,academy1     
founded in #aghj1 has its home in       
,boston4 ,then there are the ,new ,york 
,academy1 the ,washington ,academy1     
which has recently enlarged so as to    
include members from the whole country1 
and which ultimately will probably merge
 into the ,national ,academy2 the       
academies of ,baltimore1 ,chicago1 ,new 
,haven1 and a hundred smaller           
associations1 which for the most part   
are not merely interested in spreading  
scientific information1 but in helping  
on the results of science4  ,we cannot  
hope to call the complete roll here of  
scientific production4 ,our purpose was 
merely to relate some of the favourable 
and unfavourable influences under which 

the ,american has to make his           
contribution to the science of the day4 
,merely for a first orientation1 we may 
give some more detailed accounts in a   
few departments4 ,at first sight1 one   
might be tempted to give a sketch of    
present-day production by directly      
depicting the production with reference 
to the special higher institutions4     
,much more than in ,germany1 the results
 of scientific research are brought     
before the public eye with the official 
seal of some university4 ,every large   
educational institution publishes its   
own contributions to many different     
sciences2 thus1 the ,university of      
,chicago1 which perhaps goes furthest in
 this respect1 publishes journals of    
sociology1 pedagogy1 biblical studies1  
geology1 astronomy1 botany1 etc42 and1  
besides these1 regular series of studies
 in science1 government1 classical      
philology1 ,germanic and ,romance       
languages1 ,english philology1          
anthropology1 and physiology4 ,johns    

,hopkins ,university publishes          
mathematical1 chemical1 and biological  
magazines2 a journal for experimental   
medicine1 one for psychiatry1 for modern
 philology1 for history1 and            
,assyriology4 ,among the periodical     
publications of ,harvard ,university1   
the astronomical1 zological1            
cryptogamic1 ethnological1 ,oriental1   
classical philological1 modern          
philological1 historical1 and economic  
journals are the best known4 ,columbia1 
,pennsylvania1 and several other        
universities publish equally many       
journals4 ,there are also a great many  
books published under the auspices of   
institutions of learning1 which relate  
to expeditions or other special matters4
 ,thus1 for instance1 ,yale ,university1
 on the occasion of its two-hundredth   
anniversary in #aija1 published         
commemorative scientific papers by its  
professors in twenty-five large volumes2
 the papers themselves ranging from such
 subjects as the ,hindu epic and ,greek 

metre to thermo-dynamics and            
physiological chemistry4  ,the various  
universities have always been known to  
have their scientific specialties4 ,that
 of ,johns ,hopkins is natural science2 
of ,columbia1 the science of government2
 of ,harvard1 literature and philosophy4
 ,but the universities are1 of course1  
not confined to their specialties2 for  
instance1 ,johns ,hopkins has done very 
much in philology1 ,columbia in biology1
 and while ,harvard has been famous for 
its literary men1 like ,longfellow1     
,holmes1 ,norton and ,child1 it has also
 had such distinguished men on its      
faculty as the zologist ,agassiz1 the   
botanist ,gray1 and the astronomer      
,pickering4  ,it may be more natural to 
classify scientific production according
 to the separate sciences4 ,the list is 
too long to be given entire4 ,the       
venerable subject of philosophy is      
generally placed first in the university
 catalogues of lectures4 ,this subject  
shows at once how much and how little is

 being done4 ,a ,german1 to be sure1 is 
apt to have false standards in this     
matter2 for if he thinks of ,german     
philosophy1 he recalls the names of     
,kant1 ,schopenhauer1 ,fichte1 and      
,hegel2 and he asks what ,america has   
produced to compare with these4 ,but we 
have seen that the work of productive   
science was commenced in the ,new ,world
 only a few decades ago1 and for this   
reason we must compare the present day  
in ,america with the present day in     
,germany2 and to be just1 we should     
compare the ,american scholar only with 
the younger and middle-aged ,germans who
 have developed under the scientific    
conditions of the last thirty           
years--that is1 with men not over sixty 
years old4 ,young geniuses are not      
plentiful1 even in ,germany to-day2 and 
not only are men like ,kant and ,hegel  
lacking in philosophy1 but also in other
 departments of science2 men like ,ranke
 and ,helmholtz seem not to belong to   
our day of specialization4 ,a new wave  

of idealistic and broadly generalizing  
thought is advancing4 ,the time of great
 thinkers will come again2 but a young  
country is not to be blamed for the     
spirit of the times1 nor ought its      
present accomplishment to be measured   
after the standards of happier days4 ,if
 we make a perfectly fair comparison1 we
 shall find that ,american philosophy is
 at present up to that of any other     
country4  ,externally1 in the first     
place1 ,america makes a massive showing1
 even if we leave out of account        
philosophical literature of the more    
popular sort4 ,while1 for example1      
,england has only two really important  
philosophical magazines1 ,america has at
 least five which are as good as the    
,english2 and if philosophy is taken in 
the customary wider sense1 sociological 
and pedagogical journals must be        
included1 which are nowhere surpassed4  
,the emphasis is laid differently in    
,america and ,germany2 and this         
difference1 which may be seen in almost 

all sciences1 generally1 though not     
always1 has deeper grounds than merely  
personal ones1 and is in every case apt 
to distort the judgment of a foreigner4 
,america1 for instance1 is astonishingly
 unproductive in the history of         
philosophy4 ,every need seems to be     
satisfied by translations from the      
,german or by very perfunctory text-book
 compilations4 ,on the other hand1 the  
theory of knowledge1 ethics1 and above  
all psychology1 are very prosperous4    
,disputes in epistemology have always   
been carried on in ,america1 and the    
,calvinistic theology1 more especially1 
arrived at important conclusions4 ,at   
the beginning of the eighteenth century 
lived ,jonathan ,edwards1 who was       
perhaps the greatest metaphysical mind  
in the history of ,america4 ,the        
transcendental way of thought1 which is 
profoundly planted in the ,american     
soul1 was nurtured by ,german idealism1 
and found expression through the genius 
of ,emerson4 ,then1 in more systematic  

and academic ways1 there have been      
philosophers like ,porter and ,mc,cosh1 
who stood under ,scotch influence and   
fought against positivism2 others1 like 
,harris and ,everett1 who have          
represented ,german tendencies2 while   
,draper1 ,fiske1 ,cope1 ,leconte1 and   
others have preached the philosophy of  
science4 ,in the front ranks to-day of  
philosophers are ,ladd1 ,dewey1         
,fullerton1 ,bowne1 ,ormond1 ,howison1  
,santayana1 ,palmer1 ,strong1 ,hibben1  
,creighton1 ,lloyd1 and most influential
 of all1 ,royce1 whose latest work1     
8,the ,world and the ,individual10 is   
perhaps the most significant            
epistemological system of our day4      
,psychology is the most favoured of all 
the philosophical disciplines in        
,america at the present time4 ,this is  
shown outwardly in the growth of        
laboratories for experimental           
psychology1 which in size and equipment 
far exceed those of ,europe4 ,america   
has more than forty laboratories4       

,foremost in this psychological movement
 is ,william ,james1 who is1 next to    
,wundt1 the most distinguished          
psychologist living1 and whose          
remarkable analysis of conscious        
phenomena has been set down with a      
freshness and liveliness1 an energy and 
discrimination1 which are highly        
characteristic of ,american intellect4  
,then there are other well-known        
investigators like ,stanley ,hall1      
,cattell1 ,baldwin1 ,ladd1 ,sanford1    
,titchener1 ,angell1 ,miss ,calkins1    
,scripture1 and many others4 ,in        
pedagogy1 which is now disporting itself
 in a great display of paper and ink1   
the names of ,harris1 ,eliot1 ,butler1  
,hall1 ,da ,garmo1 and ,hanus are the   
most respected4  ,just as theological   
and metaphysical speculations1 ever     
since the early ,colonial days1 have    
preceded present-day scientific         
philosophy1 so in the science of history
 systematic investigators were preceded 
in early days by the ,colonial          

historians1 beginning with ,bradford and
 ,winthrop4 ,a people which are so      
restless to make history1 so proud of   
their doings1 so grateful to their      
heroes1 and which more than any other   
people base their law and public policy 
avowedly on precedent1 will necessarily 
have enjoyed the recounting of their own
 past4 ,america has had a systematic    
history1 however1 only since the        
thirties1 and two periods of work are   
generally distinguished2 an earlier one1
 in which historians undertook to cover 
the whole subject of ,american history1 
or at least very large portions of it1  
and a later period embracing the last   
decade1 in which historical interest has
 been devoted to minuter studies4       
,bancroft and ,parkman stand for the    
first movement4 ,george ,bancroft began 
to write his history in #ahcj1 and      
worked patiently thereon for half a     
century4 ,by #ahhc the development of   
the country1 from its discovery up to   
the adoption of the ,american           

,constitution1 had been completed in a  
thorough-going fashion4 ,parkman was the
 greater genius1 and one who opened an  
entirely new perspective in ,american   
history by his investigations and       
fascinating descriptions of the wars    
between the ,english and the ,french    
colonists4 ,the great works of ,hildreth
 and ,tucker should also be mentioned   
here4  ,the period of specialized work1 
of course1 covers less ground4 ,the     
large monographs of ,henry ,adams1 ,john
 ,fiske1 ,rhodes1 ,schouler1 ,mc,master1
 ,eggleston1 ,roosevelt1 and of ,von    
,holst1 if an adoptive son of ,america  
may be included1 are accounted the best 
pieces of work4 ,they have described    
,american history partly by geographical
 regions and partly by periods2 and they
 show great diversity of style1 as may  
be seen by comparing the martial tone of
 ,holst and the majestic calmness of    
,rhodes4 ,to these must be added the    
biographies1 of which the best known    
form the series of 8,american           

,statesmen40 ,americans are particularly
 fond of studying a portion of national 
history from the life of some especially
 active personality4 ,then too1 for     
twenty years1 there has been a          
considerable and indispensable          
fabrication of historical research4     
,large general works and reference      
books1 like those of ,winsor1 ,hart1 and
 others2 the biographies1 archive       
studies1 correspondences1 local         
histories1 often published by learned   
societies2 series of monographs1        
journals1 the chief of which is the     
,american ,historical ,review--in short1
 everything necessary to the modern     
cultivation of historical science are to
 be found abundantly4 ,the ,revolution1 
the beginnings of the ,federation1 the  
,civil ,war1 and ,congress are specially
 favoured topics4 ,it is almost a matter
 of course that the independent         
investigation into ,european history is 
very little attempted2 although very    
good things have been done1 such as     

,prescott's work on ,spanish history1   
,motley's ,rise of the ,dutch ,republic2
 and in recent times1 for instance1     
,taylor has made important studies in   
,english history1 ,perkins in ,french1  
,henderson in ,german1 ,thayer in       
,italian1 ,lea and ,emerton in          
ecclesiastical history1 ,mahan in the   
history of naval warfare1 and similarly 
others4  ,this lively interest in       
philosophy and history is itself enough 
to disprove the old fable that ,american
 science is directed only toward        
material ends4 ,perhaps1 to be sure1    
some one might say that philosophy is   
practiced to better mankind and history 
to teach politicians some practical     
lessons1 while both statements are in   
point of fact false4 ,no such charge1   
however1 can be made against classical  
philology2 and yet no one can read the  
transactions1 which constitute many     
volumes1 of the five hundred members of 
the ,philological ,association1 or read 
the numbers of the ,american journal of 

,philology1 or the classical studies    
published by ,harvard1 ,cornell1 and    
,chicago1 without feeling distinctly    
that here is scientific work of the     
strictest sort1 and that the methods of 
investigations are steadily improving4  
,the movement is younger in this        
department than in the others4 ,to be   
sure1 the classical authors have been   
well known in ,america for two          
centuries2 but in no province has the   
dilettanteism of the ,english gentleman 
so thoroughly prevailed4 ,it was not    
until the young philologians commenced  
to visit ,german universities1 and      
especially ,gttingen1 that a            
thorough-going philology was introduced4
 ,and such a work as the forty-four     
students of the great classicist1       
,gildersleeve1 published on the occasion
 of his seventieth birthday1 would have 
been impossible twenty years ago4 ,the  
greatest interest is devoted to         
syntactical investigation1 in which the 
best-known works are those of ,goodwin1 

,gildersleeve1 and ,hale2 while there   
are some works on lexicography and      
comparative languages1 and fewer still  
on textual criticism4 ,every classical  
philologian knows the names of ,hadley1 
,beck1 ,allen1 ,lane1 ,warren1 ,smyth1  
,white1 ,wheeler1 ,shorey1 ,dressier1   
and many others4  ,there is an unusual  
interest in ,oriental philology1 which  
is slightly influenced indeed by        
practical motives4 ,for instance1 the   
great religious interest taken in the   
,bible--not by scientists1 but by the   
general public--has sent out special    
expeditions and done much to advance the
 study of cuneiform inscriptions4 ,the  
,assyrian collections of the ,university
 of ,pennsylvania are accounted1 in many
 respects1 the most complete in         
existence4 ,its curator1 ,hilprecht1 is 
well known1 and ,lyon1 ,haupt1 and      
others almost as well4 ,whitney1 of     
,yale1 was undoubtedly the leader in    
,sanskrit4 ,lanman1 of ,harvard1 is his 
most famous successor1 and besides him  

are ,jackson1 ,buck1 ,bloomfield1 and   
others4 ,toy is the great authority on  
,semitic languages4  ,it would lead us  
too far away if we were to follow       
philological science into modern        
languages4 ,as a matter of course1 the  
,english language and literature are the
 most studied2 in fact1 ,english        
philology has had its real home in the  
,new ,world since the days of ,child4   
,francis ,james ,child1 one of the most 
winning personalities in the history of 
,american scholarship1 has contributed  
much on ,chaucer and ancient ,english   
dramas2 and as his great work1 has      
gathered together ,english and ,scottish
 ballads into a collection of ten       
volumes4 ,this work has often been      
esteemed as ,america's greatest         
contribution to philology4 ,kittredge1  
who has succeeded ,child at ,harvard1   
works on much the same lines4 ,lounsbury
 is known especially for his brilliant  
works on ,chaucer2 ,manley has also     
studied ,chaucer and the                

pre-,shakesperian drama2 ,gummere the   
early ballads1 while ,wendell and       
,furness are the great ,shakesperian    
scholars4 ,the ,arthurian legends have  
been especially studied by ,schofield1  
,mead1 ,bruce1 and others2 the          
,anglo-,saxon language by ,bright1      
,cook1 ,brown1 and ,callaway4 ,lowell   
was the first great critic of           
literature1 and he has been followed by 
,gates and many others4 ,the            
belles-lettres themselves have given    
rise to a large historical and critical 
literature1 such as the admirable       
general works of ,steadman1 ,richardson1
 and ,tyler1 and the monographs by      
,woodberry1 ,cabot1 ,norton1 ,warner1   
and ,higginson4 ,the very best work1    
however1 on ,american literature1 in    
spite of all aspersions cast on the     
extreme aristocrat1 is ,barrett         
,wendell's 8,literary ,history of       
,america40 ,we might mention a long list
 of works on ,romance and ,germanic     
languages and literature4 ,at least     

emphasis must be laid on one1 ,kuno     
,francke's extraordinary book on        
8,social ,influences in ,german         
,literature10 the work of the most      
gifted herald of ,german culture in     
,america4 ,we may also mention the works
 of ,thomas and ,hempl in ,germanic1 and
 ,todd1 ,elliot1 and ,cohn in romance   
languages4  ,political economy is the   
favourite study of the ,american1 since 
the history of this country has been    
determined by economic factors more     
directly than that of any other nation1 
and since all the different economic    
periods have been lived through in the  
still surveyable past4 ,in a sense1 the 
country looks like a tremendous         
experimental laboratory of political    
economy4 ,the country is so unevenly    
developed that the most diverse economic
 stages are to be found in regions which
 are geographically near each other1 and
 everything goes on1 as it were1 under  
the scientific magnifying glass of the  
statistical student4 ,remarkably enough1

 the actual history of economics has    
been rather neglected in ,american      
studies1 in spite of many beginnings    
made in ,germany on the history of      
,american economics4 ,the chief         
attention of the nation has been given  
rather to the systematic analysis and   
deductive investigation of special      
conditions4 ,in political economy there 
are1 of course1 first the well-known    
agitators like ,henry ,carey1 the great 
protectionist of the first half of the  
century2 ,henry ,george1 the single-tax 
theorist1 whose book1 8,progress and    
,poverty10 found in #ahgi extraordinary 
circulation2 and ,bellamy1 whose        
8,utopia0 was in much the same style3   
and the political tracts on economic    
subjects are far too numerous to think  
of mentioning4 ,the really scientific   
works form another group4 ,at first we  
find the pioneer efforts of the         
seventies and eighties--,wells's work on
 tariff and commerce1 ,charles ,francis 
,adams's work on railways1 ,sumner's on 

the history of ,american finance1       
,atkinson's on production and           
distribution1 ,wright's on wages1       
,knox's on banking1 and the general     
treatises of ,walker1 who conducted the 
censuses of #ahgj and #ahhj4 ,in recent 
times the chief works are those of      
,hadley on railroads1 of ,clark on      
capital1 of ,james on political finance 
and municipal administration1 of ,ely on
 taxation1 of ,taussig on tariff1 silver
 and wages1 of ,jenks on trusts1 of     
,brooks on labour movements1 of         
,seligman on the politics of taxation1  
of ,h4 ,c4 ,adams on scientific finance1
 of ,gross on the history of ,english   
economics1 of ,patten on economic       
theory1 and of ,lowell on the science of
 government4 ,moreover1 the political   
economists and students of government   
have an unusually large number of       
journals at their disposal4 ,in         
sociology there are ,giddings1 ,small1  
and ,ward1 known everywhere1 and after  
them ,willcox1 ,ripley1 and others4  ,we

 have spent too much time over the      
historical disciplines4 ,let us look at 
the opposite pole of the scientific     
globe from the mental sciences to the   
natural sciences1 and at first to       
mathematics4 ,mathematicians were       
especially late in waking up to really  
scientific achievements2 and this was   
scarcely ten years ago1 so that all the 
productive mathematicians are the       
younger professors4 ,of the older       
period1 there are but three             
mathematicians of great                 
importance--,benjamin ,peirce1 perhaps  
the most brilliant of ,american         
mathematicians1 and his pupils1 ,hill   
and ,newcomb4 ,their chief interest has 
been mathematical astronomy4 ,of their  
generation are also ,willard ,gibbs in  
mathematical physics1 ,mc,clintock in   
algebra1 and ,charles ,peirce in        
mathematical logic4 ,in the last ten    
years1 it is no longer a question of a  
few great names4 ,the younger generation
 has taken its inspiration from ,germany

 and ,france1 and is busily at work in  
pure mathematics2 there are ,moore and  
,dixon1 of ,chicago2 ,storey and ,taber1
 of ,clark2 ,bcher and ,osgood1 of      
,harvard2 ,white at ,evanston2 ,van     
,vleck at ,wesleyan1 and many others4   
,we find again1 in the natural sciences1
 that the ,american by no means favours 
only practical studies4 ,there is no    
less practical a science than astronomy1
 and yet we find a series of great      
successes4 ,this is externally          
noticeable in a general interest in     
astronomy2 no other country in the world
 has so many well-equipped observatories
 as the ,united ,states1 and no other   
country manufactures such perfect       
astronomical lenses4 ,america has       
perfected the technique of astronomy4   
,roland1 for instance1 has improved the 
astronomical spectroscope1 and          
,pickering has made brilliant           
contributions to photometry4 ,the       
catalogue of stars by ,gould and        
,langley is an indispensable work1 and  

,america has contributed its full share 
to the observation of asteroids and     
comets4 ,newcomb1 however1 who is the   
leader since forty years1 has done the  
most brilliant work1 in his thorough    
computations of stellar paths and       
masses4 ,we should also not forget      
,chandler's determination of magnitudes1
 ,young's work on the sun1 ,newton's on 
meteorites1 and ,barnard's on comets4   
,surprisingly enough1 the development of
 scientific physics has been less       
brilliant so far4 ,only in optics has   
really anything of high importance been 
done2 but in this field there have been 
such accomplishments as ,michelson's    
measurements of lightwaves1 ,rowland's  
studies of concave gratings1 ,newcomb's 
measurements on the speed of light1 and 
,langley's studies of the ultra-red     
rays4 ,in all other fields the work is  
somewhat disconnected2 although1 to be  
sure1 in the branches of electricity1   
acoustics1 and heat1 important          
discoveries have been made by           

,trowbridge1 ,woodward1 ,barus1 ,wood1  
,cross1 ,nichols1 ,hall1 ,b4 ,o4        
,pierce1 ,sabine1 and many others4 ,in  
purely technical subjects1 especially   
those related to electricity1 much has  
been done of serious scientific         
importance2 and these triumphs in       
technical branches are1 of course1      
famous throughout the world4 ,from the  
hand tool of the workman to locomotives 
and bridges1 ,american mechanics have   
been victorious4 ,applied physics has   
yielded the modern bicycle1 the         
sewing-machine1 the printing-press1     
tool-making machinery1 and a thousand   
other substitutes for muscular labour2  
has also perfected the telegraph1 the   
incandescent lamp1 the telephone and the
 phonograph1 and every day brings some  
new laurel to the ,american inventor4   
,but it is not to be supposed that      
,edison1 ,tesla1 and ,bell are the sole 
representatives of ,american physics4   
,quiet scientific work of the highest   
order is carried on in a dozen          

laboratories4 ,meteorology ought to be  
mentioned as a branch of physics2 it has
 been favoured by the large field of    
observation which ,america offers and   
has developed brilliantly under ,ferrel1
 ,hazen1 ,greely1 ,harrington1          
,mendenhall1 ,rotch1 and others4  ,it is
 still more true of chemistry than of   
physics that advance has been           
independent of the industrial           
application of science4 ,the leading    
chemists have all worked in the         
interests of pure science2 and this work
 started at the beginning of the last   
century1 when ,benjamin ,silliman1 of   
,yale1 the editor of the first magazine 
for natural science1 laid the           
foundations for his scientific school4  
,he was followed in succeeding          
generations by ,hare1 ,smith1 ,hunt1 and
 most notably ,cooke1 whose studies on  
the periodic law and the atomic weight  
of oxygen are specially valuable4 ,of   
later men there are ,willard ,gibbs1 the
 ,nestor of chemical thermo-dynamics1   

who became famous by his theory of the  
phase rule1 and ,wolcott ,gibbs through 
his studies on complex acids4 ,crafts is
 known for his researches into organic  
compounds1 and ,mallet by classical     
investigations into the atomic weight of
 aluminum4 ,other valuable contributions
 have been ,hillebrand's analysis of    
minerals1 ,stieglitz's organic          
syntheses1 ,noyes's studies on ions1 the
 work of ,clark and ,richards on atomic 
weights1 ,gooch's technical discoveries1
 ,hill's synthetic production of benzol 
compounds1 ,warren's work with mineral  
oils1 ,baskerville's study of thorium1  
not to mention the highly prized        
text-books of ,ira ,remsen1 the         
discoverer of saccharin4 ,among the     
physiological and agricultural chemists1
 the best known are ,chittenden1 ,pfaff1
 ,atwater1 and ,hilgard4 ,the pioneer of
 physical chemistry is ,richards1 of    
,harvard1 probably the only ,american   
professor so far who has been called to 
the position of a full professor at a   

,german university4 ,he remained in     
,america1 although invited to ,gttingen4
 ,bancroft and ,noyes are at work on the
 same branch of chemistry4  ,the work in
 chemistry is allied in many ways to    
mineralogy1 petrography1 and geology4   
,oddly enough1 mineralogy has centred   
distinctly at one place--,yale          
,university4 ,the elder ,dana used to   
work there1 whose 8,system of           
,mineralogy0 first appeared in #ahcg1   
and while frequently revised has        
remained for half a century the standard
 book in any language2 ,dana's chemical 
classification of minerals has also     
found general acceptance4 ,his son1 the 
crystallographer1 worked here1 as also  
,brush and ,penfield1 who has           
investigated more kinds of stone than   
any other living man4 ,beside these     
well-known leaders1 there are such men  
as ,lawrence ,smith1 ,cooke1 ,gerth1    
,shepard1 and ,wolff4 ,the advances in  
geology have been still more brilliant1 
since nature made ,america an           

incomparable field of study4 ,hall had  
already made an early beginning here1   
and ,dana and ,whitney1 ,hayden and     
,king1 ,powell and ,gilbert1 ,davis1    
,shaler1 and ,branner have continued the
 work4 ,remains of the ,glacial ,epoch  
and mountain formation have been the    
favourite topics4 ,and the investigation
 which has frequently been connected    
with practical mining interests is among
 the most important1 and in ,europe the 
most highly regarded of ,american       
scientific achievements4  ,closely      
related to the geological are the       
geographical studies4 ,the ,government  
,bureau of ,survey figures prominently  
here1 by reason of its magnificent      
equipment4 ,most famous are the coast   
surveys of ,pache and ,mendenhall1 and  
the land surveys of ,rogers1 ,whitney1  
and ,gannet4 ,the hydrographic          
investigations of ,maury have perhaps   
had more influence on geography1 and his
 physical geography of the ocean has    
opened up new lines of inquiry2 ,guyot  

has done most to spread the interests of
 geography4 ,americans have always been 
greatly interested in expeditions to    
dangerous lands1 wherefore many         
,americans have been pioneers1          
missionaries1 and scientific travellers4
 ,in this spirit ,lewis and ,clark      
explored the ,northwest1 ,wilkes crossed
 the ,pacific ,ocean1 ,perry went to    
,japan1 and ,stanley to ,africa2 others 
have travelled to ,south ,america1 and  
many expeditions have been started for  
the ,north ,pole since the first        
expedition of ,kane in #ahec4           
,palontology has been well represented  
in ,america1 and has contributed a good 
deal to the advance in geology4 ,hall   
commenced the work with studies on      
invertebrate fossils2 then came ,hyatt1 
who studied fossil cephalopods1 ,scudder
 fossil insects1 ,beecher brachiopods2  
and then ,leidy1 ,cope1 ,osborne1 and   
above all1 the great scientist1         
,marsh--all of whom have studied fossil 
vertebrates4  ,almost every one of these

 men was at the same time a systematic  
zologist4 ,especially in former days1   
many young men devoted themselves to    
systematic zology under the leadership  
of ,audubon1 whose pioneer work on 8,the
 ,birds of ,america0 appeared in #ahbg2 
then later of ,say1 the first           
investigator of butterflies and mussels2
 and still later of ,louis ,agassiz1 the
 great student of jelly-fish1 hydroids  
and polyps1 whose son1 ,alexander       
,agassiz1 has carried on the famous     
studies of coral islands4 ,besides these
 men have laboured ,le,conte1 ,gill1    
,packard1 and ,verrill in the province  
of invertebrates2 ,baird1 ,ridgeway1    
,huntington1 ,allen1 ,meriam1 and       
,jordan in the field of vertebrates4 ,at
 the present time interest in ,america  
as well as in ,europe is turning toward 
histology and embryology4 ,here1 too1   
the two ,agassizes have taken the lead1 
the senior ,agassiz with his studies on 
turtles1 the younger ,agassiz in studies
 on starfishes4 ,next to theirs come the

 admirable works of ,wyman1 ,whitman1   
,brooks1 ,minot1 ,mark1 and ,wilson1 and
 the investigations of ,davenport on the
 subject of variation4 ,the phenomenon  
of life has been studied now by         
zologists and again by biologists and   
physiologists4 ,here belong the         
researches into the conscious life of   
lower animals carried on by ,lee and    
,parker1 and the excellent              
investigations of the ,german-,american 
,jacques ,loeb1 of ,california1 who has 
placed the tropisms of animals and the  
processes of fertilization in a wholly  
new light4 ,of his colleagues in        
physiology1 the best known are          
,bowditch1 ,howell1 ,porter1 and        
,meltzer4  ,the highest organism which  
the natural scientist can study is man1 
taken not historically1 but             
anthropologically4 ,the ,american has   
been forced to turn to anthropology and 
to ethnology1 since circumstances have  
put at his hand some hundred types of   
,indians1 with the most diverse         

languages and customs1 and since1       
moreover1 peoples have streamed from    
every part of the world to this country2
 millions of ,african negroes are here1 
the ground is covered with the remains  
of former ,indian life1 and the strange 
civilizations of ,central ,america have 
left their remains near by4 ,the        
,ethnological ,bureau at ,washington and
 the ,peabody ,museum at ,harvard have  
instituted many expeditions and         
investigations4 ,in recent times the    
works of ,morgan1 ,hale1 ,brinton1      
,powell1 ,dall1 ,putnam1 ,mc,gee1 and   
,boas have opened new perspectives1     
especially on the subject of the        
,american ,indian4  ,the ,american flora
 has contributed no less new material to
 science than the ,american fauna4      
,european botanists had commenced the   
work with tours of observation1 when in 
the middle of the last century ,asa     
,gray began his admirable life-work4 ,he
 was in the closest sympathy with       
,european botanists1 and published in   

all more than four hundred papers on the
 classification and systematic study of 
the profuse material4 ,gray died in     
#ahhh1 undoubtedly the greatest botanist
 that ,america has produced4 ,his       
labours have been supplemented by his   
teacher1 ,torrey2 by ,chapman1 who      
worked up the southeastern part of the  
country2 by scientific travellers1 such 
as ,wright and ,watson2 by ,engelmann1  
who studied cacti2 ,bebb1 who studied   
the fields2 by ,coulter1 the expert on  
the plants of the ,rocky ,mountains2 by 
,bailey and many others4 ,this great    
work is more or less pervaded by the    
ideas of ,gray2 but in the last twenty  
years it has branched off in several    
directions under a number of leaders4   
,farlow has reached out into cryptogamic
 botany1 ,goodale into plant physiology1
 and ,sargent into dendrology4 ,there   
has been1 moreover1 considerable        
specialization and subdivision of labour
 in the botanical gardens of ,new ,york1
 ,boston1 and ,st4 ,louis1 and the      

herbaria and botanical institutes of    
various universities and of the         
agricultural experiment stations4 ,these
 institutions put forth publications    
under the editorship of such able       
botanists as ,robinson1 ,trelease1      
,fernald1 ,smith1 and ,true2 and these  
works are not excelled by those of any  
other country4  ,we have had1 perhaps1  
too much of mere names2 and yet these   
have been only examples1 calculated to  
show the strength and the weakness of   
the scientific development of ,america4 
,we have sought specially to keep within
 the limits of the 8philosophical       
faculties40 ,it would be interesting to 
go into the subjects of theology1 law   
and medicine1 and of technology in a    
similar way2 but it would lead too far4 
,yet whether the unprejudiced observer  
considers such disciplines as we have   
described1 or whether he looks out into 
neighbouring academic fields1 he will   
find the same flourishing condition of  
things--a bold1 healthy1 and intelligent

 progress1 with a complete understanding
 of the true aim of science1 with       
tireless industry1 able organization1   
and optimistic energy4  ,of course1 the 
actual achievements are very uneven2    
they are1 in some directions1 superior  
to those of ,england and ,france--in a  
few directions even to those of         
,germany1 but in others far inferior to 
,german attainments4 ,we have seen that 
the conditions a short time ago were    
unfortunate for science1 and that only  
recently have they given way to more    
favourable factors4 ,most people see    
such favourable factors first of all in 
the financial support offered to the    
investigator2 but the chief aid for such
 work does not lie in the providing of  
appliances4 ,endowments can do no more  
than supply books1 apparatus1           
laboratories1 and collections for those 
who wish to study1 but all that never   
makes a great scientist2 the average    
level of study may be improved by       
material support1 but it will never be  

brought above a certain level of        
mediocrity4 ,for1 after all1 science    
depends chiefly on the personal factor2 
and good men can do everything1 even on 
narrow means4  ,the more important      
factor in the opulence which science now
 enjoys is an indirect one2 it improves 
the social status of scientific workers1
 so that better human material is now   
attracted to the scientific career4 ,as 
long as scientific life meant poverty   
and dependence1 the only people         
attracted to it were men of the         
schoolteaching stamp2 the better men    
have craved something fuller and        
greater1 and have wished to expend their
 strength in the more thoroughly living 
province of industrial and commercial   
life1 where alone the great social      
premiums were to be found4 ,but now the 
case is different4 ,science has been    
recognized by the nation2 scientific and
 university life has become rich in     
significance1 the professor is no longer
 a school-teacher1 and the right kind of

 young scholar is stepping into the     
arena4 ,another factor is working in the
 same direction4 ,substantial families  
are coming to the third generation1 when
 they go over from trade to art and     
science4 ,the sons of the best people   
with great vitality and great           
personality prefer now to work in the   
laboratory rather than in the bank4     
,each one brings ,yankee intelligence   
and ,yankee energy with him4 ,this      
social reappraisement of science1 and   
its effect on the quality of men who    
become productive scholars1 are the best
 indication of the coming greatness of  
,american science4                      
,,chapter ,,eighteen                    
,literature   ,what does the ,american  
read8 ,in 8,jrn ,uhl10 the apprentice in
 the ,hamburg bookshop says to his      
friend3 8,if ,i am to tell you how to be
 wise and cunning1 then go where there  
are no books4 ,do you know1 if ,i had   
not had my father1 ,i should have gone  
to ,america--for a fact6 ,and it would  

have gone hard with anybody who poked a 
book at me40 ,in that way many a man in 
,europe1 who is long past his           
apprenticeship1 still pictures to       
himself ,america3 ,over in ,america     
nobody bothers about books4 ,and he     
would not credit the statement that     
nowhere else are so many books read as  
in ,america4 ,the ,american's fondness  
for reading finds clearest expression in
 the growth of libraries1 and in few    
matters of civilization is ,america so  
well fitted to teach the ,old ,world a  
lesson4 ,europe has many large and      
ancient collections of books1 and       
,germany more than all the rest2 but    
they serve only one single purpose--that
 of scientific investigation2 they are  
the laboratories of research4 ,they are 
chiefly lodged with the great           
universities1 and even the large        
municipal libraries are mostly used by  
those who need material for productive  
labours1 or wish to become conversant   
with special topics4  ,exactly the same 

type of large library has grown up in   
,america2 and here1 too1 it is chiefly  
the universities whose stock of books is
 at the service of the scientific world4
 ,besides these1 there are special      
libraries belonging to learned          
societies1 state law libraries1 special 
libraries of government bureaus and of  
museums1 and largest of all the ,library
 of ,congress4 ,the collection of such  
scientific books began at the earliest  
colonial period1 and at first under     
theological auspices4 ,the ,calvinist   
,church1 more than any other1 inclined  
to the study of books4 ,as early as     
#agij the catalogue of ,harvard ,college
 contained #cej pages1 of which #aej    
were taken up by theological works4     
,harvard has to-day almost a million    
books1 mostly in the department of      
literature1 philology1 history1         
philosophy1 and jurisprudence4 ,there   
are1 moreover1 in ,boston the state     
library of law1 with over a hundred     
thousand volumes2 the ,athenum1 with    

more than two hundred thousand books2   
the large scientific library of the     
,institute of ,technology1 and many     
others4 ,similarly1 in other large      
cities1 the university libraries are the
 nucleus for scientific labours1 and are
 surrounded by admirable special        
libraries1 particularly in ,new ,york1  
,chicago1 and ,philadelphia4 ,then1 too1
 the small academic towns1 like         
,princeton1 ,ithaca1 ,new ,haven1 and   
others1 have valuable collections of    
books1 which in special subjects are    
often unique4 ,for many years the       
,american university libraries have been
 the chief purchasers of the special    
collections left by deceased ,european  
professors4 ,and it often happens1      
especially through the gift of grateful 
alumni1 that collections of the greatest
 scientific value1 which could not be   
duplicated1 come into the possession    
even of lesser institutions4  ,in many  
departments of investigation1           
,washington takes the lead with the     

large collection of the various         
scientific1 economic1 and technical     
bureaus of the government4 ,the best    
known of these is the unique medical    
library of the ,war ,department4 ,then  
there is the ,library of ,congress1 with
 many more than a million volumes1 which
 to-day has an official right to one    
copy of every book published in the     
,united ,states1 and so may claim to be 
a national library4 ,it is still not    
comparable to the many-sided and        
complete collection of the ,british     
,museum2 the national library is        
one-sided1 or at least shows striking   
gaps4 ,having started as the ,library of
 ,congress1 it has1 aside from its one  
copy of every ,american book and the    
books on natural science belonging to   
the ,smithsonian ,institution1 few books
 except those on politics1 history1     
political economy1 and law4 ,the lack of
 space for books1 which existed until a 
few years ago1 made it seem inexpedient 
to spend money for purposes other than  

the convenience of ,congressmen4 ,but   
the ,american people1 in its love for   
books1 has now erected such a building  
as the world had never before seen      
devoted to the storing of books4 ,the   
new ,congressional ,library was opened  
in #ahig1 and since the stacks have     
still room for several million volumes1 
the library will soon grow to an        
all-round completeness like that at     
,london4 ,this library has a specially  
valuable collection of manuscripts and  
correspondences4  ,all the collections  
of books which we have so far mentioned 
are virtually like those of ,germany4   
,but since they mostly date from the    
nineteenth century1 the ,american       
libraries are more modern1 and contain  
less dead weight in the way of unused   
folios4 ,much more important is their   
greatly superior accessibility4 ,their  
reading-rooms are more comfortable and  
better lighted1 their catalogues more   
convenient1 library hours longer1 and1  
above all1 books are much more easily   

and quickly delivered4 ,brooks ,adams   
said recently1 about the library at     
,washington as a place for work1 that   
this building is well-nigh perfect2 it  
is large1 light1 convenient1 and well   
provided with attendants4 ,in ,paris and
 ,london1 one works in dusty1           
forbidding1 and overcrowded rooms1 while
 here the reading-rooms are numerous1   
attractive1 and comfortable4 ,in the    
,national ,library at ,paris1 one has to
 wait an hour for a book2 in the        
,british ,museum1 half an hour2 and in  
,washington1 five minutes4 ,this rapid  
service1 which makes such a great       
difference to the student1 is found     
everywhere in ,america2 and everywhere  
the books are housed in buildings which 
are palatial1 although perhaps not so   
beautiful as the ,washington ,library4  
,still1 all these differences are       
unessential2 in principle the academic  
libraries are alike in the ,new and ,old
 ,worlds4 ,the great difference between 
,europe and ,america begins with the    

libraries which are not learned1 but    
which are designed to serve popular     
education4 ,the ,american public library
 which is not for science1 but for      
education1 is to the ,european          
counterpart as the ,pullman express     
train to the village post-chaise4  ,the 
scientific libraries of ,boston1        
including that of ,harvard ,university1 
contain nearly two million printed      
works2 but the largest library of all is
 distinct from these4 ,it is housed on  
,copley ,square1 in a renaissance palace
 by the side of the ,art ,museum1 and   
opposite the most beautiful church in   
,america4 ,the staircase of yellow      
marble1 the wonderful wall-paintings1   
the fascinating arcade on the inner     
court1 and the sunlit halls are indeed  
beautiful4 ,and in and out1 from early  
morning till late evening1 weekday and  
,sunday1 move the people of ,boston4    
,the stream of men divides in the lower 
vestibule4 ,some go to the newspaper    
room1 where several hundred daily       

newspapers1 a dozen of them ,german1    
hang on racks4 ,others wander to the    
magazine rooms1 where the weekly and    
monthly papers of the world are waiting 
to be read4 ,others ascend to the upper 
stories1 where ,sargent's famous        
pictures of the ,prophets allure the    
lover of art1 in order to look over more
 valuable special editions and the art  
magazines1 geographical charts1 and     
musical works4 ,the largest stream of   
all goes to the second floor1 partly    
into the huge quiet reading-room1 partly
 into the rotunda1 which contains the   
catalogue1 partly into the hall         
containing the famous frescoes of the   
,holy ,grail1 where the books are given 
out4 ,here a million and a half books   
are delivered every year to be taken    
home and read4 ,and no one has to wait2 
an apparatus carries the applicant's    
card with wonderful speed to the stacks1
 and the desired book is sent back in   
automatic cars4 ,little children        
meanwhile wander into the juvenile room1

 where they find the best books for     
children4 ,and everything invites even  
the least patient reader to sit down    
quietly with some sort of a             
volume--everything is so tempting1 so   
convenient and comfortable1 and so      
surpassingly beautiful4 ,and all this is
 free to the humblest working-man4  ,and
 still1 if the citizen of ,massachusetts
 were to be asked of what feature of the
 public libraries he is most proud1 he  
would probably not mention this         
magnificent palace in ,boston1 the      
capital of the state1 but rather the    
#cej free public libraries scattered    
through the smaller cities and towns of 
this state1 which is after all only     
one-third as large as ,bavaria4 ,it is  
these many libraries which do the       
broadest work for the people4 ,each     
little collection1 wherever it is1 is   
the centre of intellectual and moral    
enlightenment1 and plants and nourishes 
the desire for self-perfection4 ,of     
course1 ,massachusetts has done more in 

this respect than any other part of the 
country--especially more than the       
,south1 which is backward in this       
respect4 ,but there is no longer any    
city of moderate size which has not a   
large public library1 and there is no   
state which does not encourage in every 
possible way the establishment of public
 libraries in every small community1    
giving financial aid if it is necessary4
  ,public libraries have become the     
favourite ,christmas present of         
philanthropists1 and while the          
hospitals1 universities1 and museums    
have still no reason for complaint1 the 
churches now find that superfluous      
millions are less apt to go to gay      
church windows than to well-chosen book 
collections4 ,in the year #aijj there   
existed more than #e1chc public         
libraries having over a thousand        
volumes2 of these #add had more than    
fifty thousand1 and #ed had more than a 
hundred thousand volumes4 ,all together 
contained1 according to the statistics  

of #aijj1 more than forty-four million  
volumes and more than seven million     
pamphlets2 and the average growth was   
over #h per cent4 ,there are probably   
to-day1 therefore1 fifteen million      
volumes more on the shelves4 ,the many  
thousand libraries which have fewer than
 #iii books are over and above all this4
  ,the make-up of such public libraries 
may be seen from the sample catalogue   
gotten out by the ,library ,association 
a few years since1 as a typical         
collection of five thousand books4 ,this
 catalogue which1 with the exception of 
the most important foreign classics1    
contains only books in ,english1        
including1 however1 many translations1  
contains #bbg general reference books1  
#gef books on history1 #fce on          
biography1 #dac on travel1 #cee on      
natural science1 #fid in belles-lettres1
 #hji novels1 #bbe on art1 #bbj on      
religion1 #dbd on social science1 #bfh  
on technical subjects1 etc4 ,the cost of
 this sample collection is #ab1jjj4 ,the

 proportions between the several        
divisions are about the same in larger  
collections4 ,in smaller collections1   
belles-lettres have a somewhat greater  
share4 ,the general interest taken by   
the nation in this matter is shown by   
the fact that the first edition of      
twenty thousand copies of this sample   
catalogue1 of six hundred pages1 was    
soon exhausted4  ,the many-sidedness of 
this catalogue points also to the       
manifold functions of the public        
library4 ,it is meant to raise the      
educational level of the people1 and    
this can be done in three ways3 first1  
interest may be stimulated along new    
lines2 second1 those who wish to perfect
 themselves in their own subjects or in 
whatsoever special topics1 may be       
provided with technical literature2 and 
third1 the general desire for literary  
entertainment may be satisfied by books 
of the best or at least not of the worst
 sort4 ,the directors of libraries see  
their duties to lie in all three        

directions4 ,the libraries guide the    
tastes and interests of the general     
public1 and try to replace the ordinary 
servant-girl's novel with the best      
romances of the day and shallow         
literature with works which are truly   
instructive4 ,and no community is quite 
content until its public library has    
become a sort of general meeting-place  
and substitute for the saloon and the   
club4 ,america is the working-man's     
paradise1 and attractive enough to the  
rich man2 but the ordinary man of the   
middle classes1 who in ,germany finds   
his chief comfort in the ,bierhalle1    
would find little comfort in ,america if
 it were not for the public library1    
which offers him a home4 ,thus the      
public library has come to be a         
recognized instrument of culture along  
with the public school2 and in all      
,american outposts the school teacher   
and librarian are among the pioneers4   
,the learned library cannot do this4 ,to
 be sure1 the university library can    

help to spread information1 and         
conversely the public library makes room
 for thousands of volumes on all sorts  
of scientific topics4 ,but the emphasis 
is laid very differently in the two     
cases1 and if it were not so neither    
library would best fulfil its purpose4  
,the extreme quiet of the reference     
library and the bustle and stir of the  
public library do not go together4 ,in  
the one direction ,america has followed 
the dignified traditions of ,europe2 in 
the other1 it has opened new paths and  
travelled on at a rapid pace4 ,every    
year discovers new ideas and plans1 new 
schemes for equipment and the selection 
of books1 for cataloguing1 and for      
otherwise gaining in utility4 ,when1 for
 instance1 the library in ,providence   
commenced to post a complete list of    
books and writings pertaining to the    
subject of every lecture which was given
 in the city1 it was the initiation of a
 great movement4 ,the juvenile          
departments are the product of recent   

years1 and are constantly increasing in 
popularity4 ,there are even1 in some    
cases1 departments for blind readers4   
,the state commissions are new1 and so  
also the travelling libraries1 which are
 carried from one village to another4   
,the great schools for librarians are   
also new4 ,the ,german librarian is     
mostly a scholar2 but the ,american     
believes that he has improved on the    
,european library systems1 not so much  
by his ample financial resources as by  
having broken with the academic custom1 
and having secured librarians with a    
special library training4 ,and since    
there are such officials in many        
thousand libraries1 and the great       
institutions create a constant demand   
for such persons1 the library schools1  
which offer generally a three years'    
course1 have been found very successful4
  ,admittedly1 all this technical       
apparatus is expensive2 the ,boston     
library expends every year a quarter of 
a million dollars for administrative    

expenses4 ,but the ,american taxpayer   
supports this more gladly than any other
 burden1 knowing that the public library
 is the best weapon against alcoholism  
and crime1 against corruption and       
discontent1 and that the democratic     
country can flourish only when the      
instinct of self-perfection as it exists
 in every ,american is thoroughly       
satisfied4  ,the reading of the         
,american nation is not to be estimated 
wholly by the books in public libraries1
 since it also includes a tremendous    
quantity of printed material that goes  
to the home of every citizen4 ,three    
hundred and forty ,american publishers  
place their wares every year on the     
market1 and the part bought by the      
public libraries is a very small        
proportion4 ,a successful novel         
generally reaches its third hundred     
thousand2 of course1 such gigantic      
editions are limited to novels and      
school-books4 ,the number of annual book
 publications is much smaller than in   

,germany2 but it must be considered     
that1 first1 the ,american electrotype  
process does not lend itself to new and 
revised editions2 and that small        
brochures are replaced in ,america by   
the magazine articles4 ,on the other    
hand1 the number of copies published is 
perhaps larger than in ,germany4 ,and   
then1 too1 among the upper classes1 a   
great many ,german1 ,french1 and        
,italian books are purchased from       
,europe4  ,the great feature for all    
classes of the population is the        
tremendous production of periodical     
literature4 ,statistics show that in the
 ,united ,states in the year #aijc1     
there were published #b1cjj daily       
papers1 more than #ae1jjj weeklies1     
#b1hjj monthlies1 and #bjj              
quarterlies--in all1 #ba1jjj            
periodicals4 ,these are more periodicals
 than are published in all ,europe2 in  
,germany alone there are #g1ejj4 ,the   
tremendous significance of these        
figures1 particularly as compared with  

the ,european1 becomes clear only when  
one considers the number of copies which
 these periodicals circulate4 ,not      
merely the newspapers of the three      
cities having over a million            
inhabitants1 but also those of the      
larger provincial towns1 reach a        
circulation of hundreds of thousands2   
and more surprising still is the        
unparalleled circulation of the weekly  
and monthly papers4 ,huge piles of      
magazines1 containing the most serious  
sort of essays1 are sold from every     
news-stand in a few hours4 ,and anybody 
who knows ,new ,england is not surprised
 at the statement which ,t4 ,w4         
,higginson makes in his recollections1  
that he came once to a small            
,massachusetts village of only          
twenty-four homes1 nineteen of which    
subscribed to the ,atlantic ,monthly1 a 
publication which is most nearly        
comparable to the ,deutsche ,rundschau4 
,the surprisingly large sales of        
expensive books among rich families is  

quite as gratifying as the huge         
consumption of magazines among the      
middle classes4 ,editions de luxe are   
often sold entire at fabulous prices    
before the edition is out1 and          
illustrated scientific works costing    
hundreds of dollars always find a ready 
sale4 ,these are merely the symptoms of 
the fact that every ,american home has  
its bookcases proportionate to its      
resources1 and large private libraries  
are found not merely in the homes of    
scholars and specialists4 ,in the       
palaces of merchant princes1 the library
 is often the handsomest room1 although 
it is sometimes so papered with books   
that it looks as if the architect had   
supplied them along with the rugs and   
chandeliers4 ,one more commonly finds   
that the library is the real living-room
 of the house4 ,if one looks about in   
such treasure apartments1 one soon loses
 the sense of wonder completely2 rare   
editions and valuable curiosities are   
there brought together with the greatest

 care and intelligence into an          
appropriate home4 ,there are probably   
very few ,german private houses with    
collections of books and paintings      
comparable1 for instance1 to that of ,j4
 ,montgomery ,sears in ,boston4 ,the    
whole interior is so wonderfully        
harmonious that even the autograph poems
 and letters of ,goethe and ,schiller   
seem a matter of course4 ,but from the  
book-shelves of the millionaire to the  
carefully selected little shelf of the  
poor school-ma'am1 from the monumental  
home of the national library to the     
modest little library building of every 
small village1 from the nervous and     
rapid perusal of the scholar to the slow
 making-out of the working-man who pores
 over his newspaper on the street       
corner1 or of the shop-girl with the    
latest novel in the elevated train1     
there is everywhere life and activity   
centring around the world of print1 and 
this popularity of books is growing day 
by day4  ,by far the most of what the   

,american reads is written by           
,americans4 ,this does not mean that any
 important book which appears in other  
parts of the world escapes him2 on the  
contrary just as the ,american          
everywhere wants only the best1 uses the
 latest machines and listens to the most
 famous musicians1 so in the matter of  
literature he is observant of every new 
tendency in poetry1 whether from ,norway
 or ,italy1 and the great works of the  
world's literature have their thoughtful
 readers4 ,there are probably more      
persons who read ,dante in ,boston than 
in ,berlin4 ,of ,german intellectual    
productions1 the scientific books are   
most read1 and if strictly scientific   
they are read in the original by the    
best educated ,americans2 the popular   
books are mostly read in translation4   
,of the belles-lettres1 ,schiller and   
,lessing are generally put aside with   
the school-books1 while ,goethe and     
,heine remain welcome2 and beside them  
are translations of modern story-writers

 from ,freytag and ,spielhagen down to  
,sudermann4 ,french literature is more  
apt to be read in the original than     
,german1 but with increasing distaste4  
,the moral feeling of the ,american is  
separated by such a chasm from the      
atmosphere of the ,parisian romance that
 modern ,french literature has never    
become so popular in ,america as it has 
in ,germany4  ,as a matter of course1   
,english literature of every sort has by
 far the greatest influence2 ,english   
magazines are little read or            
appreciated1 while ,english poetry1     
novels1 dramas1 and works of general    
interest are as much read in ,america as
 in ,england4 ,books so unlike as the   
novels of ,mrs4 ,ward1 of ,du ,maurier1 
and of ,kipling have about the same very
 large circulation2 and all the standard
 literature of ,england1 from ,chaucer  
to ,browning1 forms the educational     
background of every ,american1          
especially of every ,american woman4 ,in
 spite of all this1 it remains true that

 the most of that which is read in the  
,united ,states is written by           
,americans4  ,how and what does the     
,american write8  ,europe has a ready   
answer1 and pieces together a mental    
picture of 8echt amerikanische0         
literature out of its unfriendly        
prejudices1 mostly reminiscent of       
,buffalo ,bill and ,barnum's circus4 ,it
 is still not forgotten how ,england    
suddenly celebrated ,joaquin ,miller's  
freakish and inartistic poems of the    
,western prairie as the great ,american 
achievement1 and called this tasteless  
versifier1 who was wholly unrecognized  
in his own country1 the ,american       
,byron4 ,he was not only unimportant1   
but he was not typically ,american4 ,and
 of ,american humour the ,european      
observer has about as just an opinion4  
,nothing but ridiculous caricatures are 
considered4 ,mark ,twain's first        
writings1 whose sole secret was their   
wild exaggeration1 were more popular in 
,germany than in ,america2 while the    

truly ,american humour of ,lowell or    
,holmes has lain unnoticed4 ,the        
,american is supposed to be quite       
destitute of any sense for form or      
measure1 and to be in every way         
inartistic2 and if any true poet were to
 be granted to the ,new ,world1 he would
 be expected to be noisy like ,niagara4 
,in this sense the real literature of   
,america has hitherto remained          
un-,american1 perhaps too un-,american4 
,for the main thing which it has lacked 
has been force4 ,there have been men    
like ,uhland1 ,geibel1 and ,heyse1 but  
there has so far been no one like       
,hebbel4  ,there is no absolutely new   
note in ,american literature1 and       
especially no one trait which is common 
to all ,american writings and which is  
not found in any ,european4 ,if there is
 anything unique in ,american           
literature1 it is perhaps the peculiar  
combination of elements long familiar4  
,an enthusiastic ,american has said that
 to be ,american means to be both fresh 

and mature1 and this is in fact a       
combination which is new1 and which well
 characterizes the literary temperament 
of the country4 ,to be fresh and young  
generally means to be immature1 and to  
be mature and seasoned means to have    
lost the enthusiasm and freshness of    
youth4 ,of course1 this is not a        
contradiction realized4 ,it would be    
impossible1 for instance1 to be both    
nave and mature2 but the ,american is   
not and never has been nave4 ,just as   
this nation has never had a childhood1  
has never originated ballads1 epics1 and
 popular songs1 like other peoples      
during their nave beginnings1 because   
this nation brought with it from ,europe
 a finished culture2 so the vigorous    
youthfulness in the national literary   
temperament has in it nothing of nave   
simplicity4 ,it is the enthusiasm of    
youth1 but not the innocence of boyhood4
 ,it would also be impossible to be both
 fresh and decadent2 the ,american is   
mature but not over-ripe1 not weakened  

by the sceptical ennui of senility4  ,to
 be fresh means to be confident1        
optimistic and eager1 lively1 unspoiled1
 and courageous2 it means to strive     
toward one's best ideals with the ardour
 of youth2 while to be mature means to  
understand things in their historic     
connection1 in their true proportions1  
and with a due feeling for form2 to be  
mature means to be simple1 and          
reposeful1 and not breathlessly anxious 
over the outcome of things4 ,to be sure1
 this optimistic feeling of strength1   
this enthusiastic self-confidence1 is   
hardly able to seize the things which   
are finest and most subtle4 ,it looks   
only into the full sunlight1 never into 
the shadows with their less obvious     
beauties4 ,there are no half-tones1 no  
sentimental and uncertain moods2 wonder 
and meditation come into the soul only  
with pessimism4 ,and most of all1 the   
enthusiasm of youth not only looks on   
but wants to work1 to change and to make
 over2 and so the ,american is less an  

artist than an insistent herald4 ,behind
 the observer stands always the         
reformer1 enthusiastic to improve the   
world4 ,on the other hand1 the          
disillusionment of maturity should have 
cooled the passions1 soothed hot        
inspiration1 and put the breathless     
tragic muse to sleep4 ,it avoids        
dramatic excitement1 holds aloof1 and   
looks on with quiet friendliness and    
sober understanding of mankind4 ,so it  
happens that finished art is            
incompatible with such an enthusiastic  
eagerness to press onward1 and sensuous 
emotion is incompatible with such an    
idealism4 ,and so we find in the        
,american temperament a finished feeling
 for form1 but a more ethical than      
artistic content1 and we find humour    
without its favourite attendant of      
sentiment4 ,of course1 the exceptions   
crowd quickly to mind to contradict the 
formula3 had not ,poe the demoniac      
inspiration2 was not ,hawthorne a       
thorough artist2 did not ,whitman       

violate all rules of form2 and does not 
,henry ,james see the half-tones8 ,and  
still such variations from the usual are
 due to exceptional circumstances1 and  
every formula can apply only in a       
general way4  ,still1 in these general  
traits1 one can see the workings of     
great forces4 ,this enthusiastic        
self-confidence and youthful optimism in
 literature are only another expression 
of ,american initiative1 which has      
developed so powerfully in the fight    
with nature during the colonial and     
pioneer days1 and which has made the    
industrial power of ,america4 ,and1 as  
,barrett ,wendell has shown1 not a      
little of this enthusiastic and         
spontaneous character is inherited from 
the old ,english stock of three hundred 
years ago4 ,in ,england itself1 the     
industrial development changed the      
people2 the subjects of ,queen ,victoria
 were very little like those of ,queen  
,elizabeth2 the spontaneity of          
,shakespeare's time no longer suits the 

smug and insular ,john ,bull4 ,but that 
same ,english stock found in ,america   
conditions that were well calculated to 
arouse its spontaneity and enthusiasm4  
,then1 on the other hand1 the clear1    
composed1 and formal maturity which     
distinguish the literary work of the new
 nation is traceable principally to the 
excellent influence of ,english         
literature4 ,the ancient culture of     
,england spared this nation a period of 
immaturity4 ,then1 too1 there has been  
the intellectual domination of the ,new 
,england ,states1 whose ,puritan spirit 
has given to literature its ethical     
quality1 and at the same time           
contributed a certain quiet superiority 
to the common turmoil4 ,throughout the  
century1 and even to-day1 almost all of 
the best literature originates with     
those who are consciously reacting      
against the vulgar taste4 ,just because 
the number of sellers and readers of    
books is so much greater than in        
,europe1 the unliterary circles of      

readers who1 as everywhere1 enjoy the   
broadly vulgar1 must by their numbers   
excite the disgust of the real friend of
 literature2 and this conscious duty of 
opposition1 which becomes a sort of     
mission1 sharpens the artistic          
consciousness1 fortifies the feeling of 
form1 and struggles against all that is 
immature4  ,undoubtedly these external  
conditions are as responsible for many  
of the failings of ,american literature 
as for its excellences2 most of all for 
the lack of shading and twilight tones1 
of all that is dreamy1 pessimistic1     
sentimental1 and 8decadent40 ,this is a 
lack in the ,american life which in     
other important connections is doubtless
 a great advantage4 ,there are no old   
castles1 no crumbling ruins1 no         
picturesque customs1 no church          
mysticism1 nor wonderful symbols2 there 
are no striking contrasts between social
 groups1 no romantic vagabondage1 and   
none of the fascinating pomp of         
monarchy4 ,everywhere is solid and      

healthy contentment1 thrifty and well   
clothed1 on broad streets1 and under a  
bright sun4 ,it is no accident that true
 poets have not described their own     
surroundings1 but have taken their      
material so far as it has been          
,american1 as did ,hawthorne1 from the  
colonial times which were already a part
 of the romantic past1 or out of the    
,indian legends1 or later from the      
remote adventurous life of the ,west1 or
 from the negro life in far ,southern   
plantations2 the daily life surrounding 
the poet was not yet suitable for       
poetry4 ,and by being so cruelly clear  
and without atmosphere as not to invite 
poetic treatment1 it has left the whole 
literature somewhat glaringly sharp1    
sane1 and homely4  ,fiction stands in   
the centre of the characteristic        
literary productions2 but also          
literature in the broader sense1        
including everything which interprets   
human destinies1 as history and         
philosophy1 or even more broadly        

including all the written products of   
the nation1 everything reflects the     
essential traits of the literary        
temperament4 ,in fact1 the practical    
literature1 especially the newspaper1   
reveals the ,american physiognomy most  
clearly4 ,in better circles in ,america1
 it is proper to deplore the newspaper  
as a literary product1 and to look on it
 as a necessary evil2 and doubtless most
 newspapers serve up a great deal that  
is trivial and vulgar1 and treat it in a
 trivial and vulgar way4 ,but no one is 
forced1 except by his own love for the  
sensational1 to choose his daily reading
 out of this majority4 ,everybody knows 
that there is a minority of earnest and 
admirable papers at his disposal4 ,apart
 from newspaper politics and apart from 
the admirable industrial organization of
 the newspaper--both of which we have   
previously spoken of--the newspapers of 
the country are a literary product whose
 high merit is too often underestimated4
 ,the ,american newspapers1 and of these

 not merely the largest1 are an         
intellectual product of well-maintained 
uniformity of standard4  ,to be sure1   
the style is often light1 the logic     
unsound1 the information superficial2   
but1 taken as a whole1 the newspaper has
 unity and character4 ,thousands of     
loose-jointed intellects crowd into     
journalism every year--more than in any 
other country2 but ,american journalism1
 like the nation as a whole1 has an     
amazing power of assimilation4 ,just as 
thousands of ,russians and ,italians    
land every year in the rags of their    
wretchedness1 and in a few years become 
earnest ,american citizens1 so many land
 on the shores of ,american journalism  
who were not intended to be the teachers
 or entertainers of humanity1 and who   
nevertheless in a few years are quite   
assimilated4 ,the ,american newspapers1 
from ,boston to ,san ,francisco1 are    
alike in style and thought2 and it must 
be said1 in spite of all prejudices1    
that the ,american newspaper is         

certainly literature4 ,the ,american    
knows no difference between unpolitical 
chatter written with a literary ambition
 and unliterary comment written with a  
political ambition4 ,in one sense the   
whole newspaper is political1 while at  
the same time it is nothing but         
feuilleton1 from the editorials1 of     
which every large newspaper has three or
 four each day1 to the small paragraphs1
 notes1 and announcements with which the
 editorial page generally closes4 ,from 
the ,washington letter to the sporting  
gossip1 everything tries in a way to    
have artistic merit1 and everything     
bears the stamp of ,american literature4
 ,nothing is pedantic4 ,there is often a
 great lack of information and of       
perspective--perhaps1 even1 of          
conscientiousness in the examination of 
complaints--but everything is fresh1    
optimistic1 clear and forcible1 and     
always humorous between the lines4  ,in 
the weekly papers1 ,america achieves    
still more4 ,the light1 fresh1 and      

direct ,american style there finds its  
most congenial field4 ,the same is true 
of the monthly papers in a somewhat more
 ambitious and permanent way4 ,the      
leading social and political monthlies1 
like the venerable ,north ,american     
,review1 which errs merely in laying too
 much emphasis on the names of its      
well-known contributors1 and others are 
quite up to the best ,english reviews4  
,the more purely literary ,atlantic     
,monthly1 which was founded in #aheg by 
a small circle of ,boston friends1      
,lowell1 ,longfellow1 ,emerson1 ,holmes1
 ,whittier1 and ,motley1 and which has  
always attracted the best talent of the 
country1 is most nearly comparable to   
the ,revue des ,deux ,mondes4 ,every    
monthly paper specially cultivates that 
literary form for which ,america has    
shown the most pronounced talent--the   
essay4 ,the magazine essay entirely     
takes the place of the ,german brochure1
 a form which is almost unknown in      
,america4 ,the brochure1 depending as it

 does wholly on its own merits to       
attract the attention of the public1    
must be in some way sensational to make 
up for its diminutive size2 while an    
essay which is brought before the reader
 on the responsibility of a magazine    
needs no such motive power4 ,it is one  
among many1 and takes its due place1    
being only one of the items of interest 
that make up the magazine4  ,while in   
,german literary circles the problems of
 the day are mostly argued in brochures1
 and the essay is a miniature book      
really written for the easy instruction 
of a public which would not read long   
books1 the ,american essay is half-way  
between4 ,it is living and satirical    
like the ,german brochure1 but          
conservative and instructive like the   
,german 8,abhandlung40 ,only when a     
number of essays on related topics come 
from the same pen are they put together 
and published as a separate book4 ,we   
have already mentioned that ,america is 
oversupplied with such volumes of       

essays1 which have almost all the same  
history--they were first lectures1 then 
magazine articles1 and now they are     
revised and published in book form4     
,their value is1 of course1 very        
diverse2 but in general1 they are       
interesting and important1 often        
epoch-making1 and the form is admirable4
 ,a distinguished treatment1 pointed    
humour1 a rich and clear diction1       
uncommonly happy metaphors1 and a       
careful polish are united so as to make 
one forget the undeniable haste with    
which the material is gathered and the  
superficiality of the conclusions       
arrived at4 ,so it happens that the     
essayists who appear in book form are   
much more appreciated by the reading    
public than their ,german colleagues1   
and that every year sees several hundred
 such volumes put on the market4 ,the   
motto1 8fresh and mature10 is nowhere   
more appropriate4  ,but the ,american   
remains an ,american1 even in the       
apparently international realm of       

science4 ,it is a matter of course for  
an historian to write in the personal   
style4 ,parkman1 ,motley1 ,prescott1 and
 ,fiske are very different types of     
historians2 and nevertheless1 they have 
in common the same way of approaching   
the subject and of giving to it form and
 life4 ,but even in so purely a         
scientific work as ,william ,james's    
two-volume 8,principles of ,psychology10
 one finds such forcible and convincing 
turns of thought1 so personal a form    
given to abstract facts1 and such       
freshness together with such ripe       
mastery1 as could come only from an     
,american4  ,oratory may be accounted an
 off-shoot of actual literature4 ,a     
nation of politicians must reserve an   
honourable place for the orator1 and for
 many years thousands of factors in     
public life have contributed to develop 
oratory1 to encourage the slightest     
talent for speaking1 and to reward able 
speakers well4 ,every great movement in 
,american history has been initiated by 

eloquent speakers4 ,before the          
,revolution1 ,adams and ,otis1 ,quincy  
and ,henry1 precipitated the ,revolution
 by their burning words4 ,and no one can
 discuss the great movement leading up  
to the ,civil ,war without considering  
the oratory of ,choate1 ,clay1 ,calhoun1
 ,hayne1 ,garrison1 and ,sumner2 of     
,wendell ,phillips1 the great popular   
leader1 and ,edward ,everett1 the great 
academician1 and of ,daniel ,webster1   
the greatest statesman of them all4  ,in
 the present times of peace1 the orator 
is less important than the essayist1 and
 most of the party speeches to-day have 
not even a modest place in literature4  
,but if one follows a ,presidential     
campaign1 listens to the leading lawyers
 of the courts1 or follows the          
parliamentary debates of university     
students1 one knows that the rhetorical 
talent of the ,american has not died    
since those days of quickening1 and     
would spring up again strong and        
vigorous if any great subject1 greater  

than were silver coinage or the         
,philippine policy1 should excite again 
the nation4 ,keenness of understanding1 
admirable sense of form in the single   
sentence as in the structure of the     
whole1 startling comparisons1 telling   
ridicule1 careful management of the     
climax1 and the tone of conviction seem 
to be everybody's gift4 ,here and there 
the phrase is hollow and thought is     
sacrificed to sound1 but the general    
tendency goes toward brevity and        
simplicity4 ,a most delightful variation
 of oratory is found in table eloquence2
 the true ,american after-dinner speech 
is a finished work of art4 ,often1 of   
course1 there are ordinary speeches     
which simply go from one story to       
another1 quite content merely to relate 
them well4 ,in the best speeches the    
pointed anecdote is not lacking either1 
but it merely decorates the             
introduction2 the speaker then          
approaches his real subject half        
playfully and half in earnest1 very     

sympathetically1 and seeming always to  
let his thoughts choose words for       
themselves4 ,the speeches at the        
,capitol are sometimes better than those
 in the ,reichstag2 but those at        
,american banquets are not only better  
than the speeches at ,festessen and     
,kommersen1 but they are also           
qualitatively different--true literary  
works of art1 for which the ,american is
 especially fitted by the freshness1    
humour1 enthusiasm1 and sense of        
symmetry which are naturally his4       
,whoever looks about among journalists1 
essayists1 historians1 and orators will 
return more than once to the subject of 
belles-lettres2 and this is truer in    
,america than elsewhere4 ,as we have    
already seen1 pure literature is        
strongly biased toward the practical2 it
 is glad to serve great ideas1 whether  
moral or social4 ,poetry itself is      
sometimes an essay or sermon4 ,we need  
not think here of romances which merely 
sermonize1 and are therefore            

artistically second-rate1 such as       
8,uncle ,tom's ,cabin10 or of such      
literary rubbish as ,bellamy's          
8,utopia02 even true poets like         
,whittier must1 in the history of       
emancipation1 be classed with the       
political writers4 ,and although the    
problem novel in the three-volume       
,english form is not favoured in        
,america because of its poor literary   
form1 the short satirical and clean-cut 
society novel1 which may break away at  
any moment into the essay or            
journalistic manner1 has become all the 
more popular4 ,further1 this being the  
time of ,america's industrial struggle1 
society has not become so intellectually
 aristocratic that being a poet is a    
life profession4 ,the leading novelists 
have had to be active in almost all     
fields of literature2 they have         
frequently begun as journalists1 and    
have generally been essayists1 editors1 
or professors at the same time4  ,the   
eighteenth century was unfruitful for   

the ,new ,world1 in lyric as in epic    
literature4 ,the literary history       
discovers many names1 but they are of   
men who created nothing original1 and   
who cannot be compared with the great   
,english geniuses4 ,america was         
internally as well as externally        
dependent on ,england2 and if one       
compares the utter intellectual         
unfruitfulness of ,canada to-day with   
the feverish activity of her southern   
neighbour1 one will inevitably ask      
whether political colonies can ever     
create literature4 ,when freedom was    
first obtained by the colonies1 a       
condition of new equilibrium was reached
 after a couple of decades of           
uncertainty and unrest1 and then        
,american literature woke up4 ,even then
 it was not free1 and did not care to be
 free1 from ,english precedents2 and yet
 there were original personalities which
 came to the front4 ,washington ,irving 
was1 as ,thackeray said1 the first      
ambassador which the ,new ,world of     

literature sent to the ,old4 ,english   
influences are unmistakable in the tales
 of ,irving1 although he was a strong   
and original writer4 ,his               
8,sketch-,book10 published in #ahai1 has
 remained the most popular of his books1
 and the poetic muse has never been     
hunted away from the shores of the      
,hudson where ,rip ,van ,winkle passed  
his long slumbers4  ,the ,american novel
 had still not appeared4 ,the romances  
of ,brown1 laid in ,pennsylvania1 were  
highly inartistic in spite of their     
forcible presentation4 ,then ,james     
,fenimore ,cooper discovered the        
untouched treasures of the infinite     
wilderness4 ,his 8,spy0 appeared in     
#ahba1 and he was at once hailed as the 
,american ,scott4 ,in the next year     
appeared 8,the ,pioneers10 the first of 
his ,leather-stocking ,tales of wild    
,indian life4 ,and after ,cooper's      
thirty-two romances there followed many 
tales by lesser writers4 ,miss ,sedgwick
 was the first woman to attain literary 

popularity1 and her romances were the   
first which depicted the life of ,new   
,england4 ,at the same time a ,new      
,england youth began to write verses    
which1 by their serene beauty1 were     
incomparably above all earlier lyric    
attempts of his native land4 ,bryant's  
first volume of poems appeared in #ahba1
 and therewith ,america had a           
literature1 and ,england's sarcastic    
question1 8,who ever reads an ,american 
book80 was not asked again4  ,the       
movement quickly grew to its first      
culmination4 ,a brilliant period        
commenced in the thirties1 when         
,hawthorne1 ,holmes1 ,emerson1          
,longfellow1 ,thoreau1 ,curtis1 and     
,margaret ,fuller1 all of ,new ,england1
 became the luminaries of the literary  
,new ,world4 ,and like the prelude to a 
great epoch rings the song of the one   
incomparable ,edgar ,allan ,poe1 who did
 not fight for ideas like a moral ,new  
,englander1 but sang simply in the love 
of song4 ,poe's melancholy1 demoniacal1 

and melodious poetry was a marvellous   
fountain in the country of hard and     
sober work4 ,and ,poe was the first     
whose fantasy transformed the short     
story into a thing of the highest       
poetical form4 ,in ,new ,england no one 
was so profoundly a poet as ,nathaniel  
,hawthorne1 the author of 8,the ,scarlet
 ,letter40 ,his 8,marble ,faun10 of     
which the scene is laid in ,italy1 may  
show him in his fullest maturity1 but   
his greatest strength lay in the        
romances of ,massachusetts1 which in    
their emotional impressiveness and      
artistic finish are as beautiful as an  
autumn day in ,new ,england4 ,ralph     
,waldo ,emerson1 the rhapsodical        
philosopher1 wrote poems teeming over   
with thought1 and yet true poems1 while 
,whittier was the inspired bard of      
freedom2 and besides these there was the
 trio of friends1 ,longfellow1 ,lowell1 
and ,holmes4 ,harvard professors they   
were1 and men of distinguished ability1 
whose literary culture made them the    

proper educators of the nation4 ,thomas 
,wentworth ,higginson is the only one of
 this circle now living1 remaining over1
 as it were1 from that golden age4 ,he  
fought at first to free the slaves1 and 
then he became the stout defender of the
 emancipation of women1 and is to-day1  
as then1 the master of the reflective   
essay4 ,his life is full of 8cheerful   
yesterdays02 his fame is sure of        
8confident tomorrows40  ,longfellow is1 
to the ,german1 mainly the sensitive    
transposer of ,german poetry2 his       
sketch-book1 8,hyperion10 opened up the 
,german world of myth1 and brought the  
,german romance across the ocean4 ,his  
ballads and his delightful idyll of     
8,evangeline0 clothed ,new ,england     
life1 as it were1 in ,german sentiment2 
and even his ,indian edda1 8,hiawatha10 
sounds as if from a ,german troubadour  
wandering through the ,indian country4  
,longfellow became the favourite poet of
 the ,american home1 and ,american youth
 still makes its pilgrimage to the house

 in ,cambridge where he once lived4     
,lowell was perhaps more gifted than    
,longfellow1 and certainly he was the   
more many-sided4 ,his art ranged from   
the profoundest pathos by which         
,american patriotism was aroused in     
those days of danger1 to the broadest   
and most whimsical humour freely        
expressed in dialect verses2 and he also
 wrote the most finished idyllic poetry 
and keenly satirical and critical       
essays4 ,it is common to exalt his      
humorous verses1 8,the ,biglow ,papers10
 to the highest place of typical        
literary productions of ,america2       
nevertheless1 his essential quality was 
fine and academic4 ,real ,american      
humour undoubtedly finds its truer      
expression in ,holmes4 ,holmes was also 
a lyric poet1 but his greatest work was 
the set of books by the 8,autocrat40    
,his 8,autocrat of the ,breakfast       
,table0 has that serious smile which    
makes world literature4 ,it was the     
first of a long series1 and at the      

writing he was a professor of anatomy1  
sixty-four years old4  ,then there were 
many lesser lights around these great   
ones4 ,at the middle of the century     
,harriet ,beecher ,stowe wrote her      
8,uncle ,tom's ,cabin10 of which ten    
thousand copies were sold every day for 
many months4 ,and romance literature in 
general began to increase4 ,at the same 
time appeared the beautiful songs of    
,bayard ,taylor1 whose later translation
 of ,faust has never been surpassed1 and
 the scarcely less admirable lyrics of  
,stedman and ,stoddard4 ,so it happened 
that at the time when the ,civil ,war   
broke out1 ,america1 although deficient 
in every sort of productive science     
except history1 had a brilliant         
literature4 ,science needed1 first of   
all1 solid academic institutions1 which 
could only be built patiently1 stone on 
stone--a work which has been witnessed  
by the last three decades of the        
century4 ,poetry1 however1 needed only  
the inner voice which speaks to the     

susceptible heart1 and the encouragement
 of the people4 ,for science there has  
been a steady1 quiet growth1 parallel   
with the growth of the institutions2 for
 letters there have been changing       
fortunes1 times of prosperity and times 
of stagnation4 ,when the powder and     
smoke of the ,civil ,war had blown away 
the happy days of literature were over2 
it began to languish1 and only at the   
present day is it commencing to thrive  
once more4  ,this does not mean that    
there has been no talent for three      
decades1 or that the general interest in
 literature has flagged4 ,ambitious     
writers of romance like ,howells1       
,james1 ,crawford1 and ,cable2 novelists
 like ,aldrich1 ,bret ,harte1 and ,hale1
 ,mary ,wilkins1 and ,sarah ,orne       
,jewett2 poets like ,lanier and         
,whitman1 and humourists like ,stockton 
and ,mark ,twain1 have done much        
excellent work1 and work that is partly 
great1 and have shown the way to large  
provinces of literary endeavour4        

,nevertheless1 compared with the great  
achievements which had gone before1     
theirs is rather a time of intermission4
 ,and yet many persons are quite        
prepared to say that ,howells is the    
greatest of all ,american authors1 and  
his realistic analyses among the very   
best modern romances4 ,and ,howells     
himself pays the same tribute to ,mark  
,twain's later and maturer writings4    
,but there is one poet about whom only  
the future can really decide2 this is   
,walt ,whitman4 ,his 8,leaves of        
,grass10 with their apparently formless 
verse1 were greatly praised by some2 by 
others felt to be barbarous and         
tasteless4 ,there has been a dispute    
similar to that over ,zarathustra of    
,nietzsche4 ,and even as regards        
content1 ,whitman may be compared with  
,nietzsche1 the radical democrat with   
the extreme aristocrat1 for the         
exaggerated democratic exaltation of the
 ego leads finally to a point in which  
every single man is an absolute dictator

 in his own world1 and therefore comes  
to feel himself unique1 and proudly     
demands the right of the ,uebermensch4  
8,when they fight1 ,i keep silent1 go   
bathing1 or sit marvelling at myself10  
says this prophet of democracy4 8,in    
order to learn1 ,i sat at the feet of   
great masters4 ,oh1 that these great    
masters might return once more to learn 
of me40 ,the similarity between         
,american and ,german intellects could  
readily be traced further1 and was1     
perhaps1 not wholly unfitted to reveal a
 certain broad literary perspective4 ,as
 we have compared ,whitman and          
,nietzsche1 so we might compare ,bryant 
with ,platen1 ,poe with ,heine1         
,hawthorne with ,freytag1 ,lowell with  
,uhland1 ,whittier with ,rckert1 ,holmes
 with ,keller1 ,howells with ,fontane1  
,crawford with ,heyse1 and so on1 and we
 should compare thus contemporaries of  
rather equal rank4 ,but such a          
parallelism1 of course1 could not be    
drawn too far1 since it would be easy to

 show in any such pair important traits 
to belie the comparison4  ,in the       
positively bewildering literature of    
to-day1 the novel and the short story   
strongly predominate4 ,the ,americans   
have always shown a special aptitude and
 fondness for the short story4 ,poe was 
the true master of that form1 and the   
grace with which ,aldrich has told the  
story of ,marjorie ,daw1 and ,davis of  
,van ,bibber1 the energy with which     
,hale has cogently depicted the ,man    
,without a ,country1 or ,bret ,harte the
 ,american pioneer1 and the intimacy    
with which ,miss ,wilkins and ,miss     
,jewett have perpetuated the quieter    
aspects of human existence1 show a true 
instinct for art4 ,a profound           
appreciation1 fresh vigour1 and fine    
feeling for form1 graceful humour and   
all the good qualities of ,american     
literature1 combine to make the short   
story a perfect thing4 ,it is not the   
,german ,novelle1 but is1 rather1       
comparable to the ,french conte4 ,the   

short stories are not all of the single 
type2 some are masculine and others     
feminine in manner4 ,the finely cut     
story1 which is short because the charm 
of the incidents would vanish if        
narrated in greater detail1 is of the   
feminine type4 ,and1 of the masculine1  
is the story told in cold1 sharp relief1
 which is short because it is energetic 
and impatient of any protracted waits4  
,in both cases1 everything unessential  
is left out4 ,perhaps the ,american is  
nowhere more himself than here2 and     
short stories are produced in great     
numbers and are specially fostered by   
the monthly magazines4  ,of humourists  
there are fewer to-day than formerly4   
,neither the refined humour of ,irving1 
,lowell1 and ,holmes1 nor the broader   
humour of ,bret ,harte and ,mark ,twain1
 finds many representatives of real     
literary importance4 ,there are several1
 it is true1 who are delighted with     
,dooley's contemporary comment in the   
,irish dialect1 but there is a much     

truer wit in the delicately satirical   
society novels of ,henry ,james1 and to 
a less degree in those of ,grant1       
,herrick1 ,bates1 and a hundred others1 
or in the romances of common life1 such 
as ,westcott's 8,david ,harum40  ,the   
historical romance has flourished       
greatly4 ,at first the fantasy went to  
far regions1 and the traditional old    
figures of romance were tricked out in  
the gayest foreign costumes4 ,the most  
popular of all has been ,wallace's 8,ben
 ,hur40 ,the ,americans have long since 
followed the road which ,german writers 
have taken from ,ebers to ,dahn and     
,wildenbruch1 and have revived their own
 national past4 ,to be sure1 the        
tremendous editions of these books are  
due rather to the desire for information
 than the love of poetry4 ,the public   
likes to learn its national history     
while being entertained1 since the      
national consciousness has developed so 
noticeably in the last decade and the   
social life of ,america in the          

seventeenth and eighteenth centuries has
 doubtless become thus living and real  
for millions of ,americans4 sthetic     
motives predominate1 nevertheless1 and  
although books like ,churchill's 8,the  
,crisis10 ,bacheller's 8,d'ri and ,i10  
,miss ,johnston's 8,audrey10 ,ford's    
8,janice ,meredith10 and others similar 
are merely books of the day1 and will be
 replaced by others on the next         
,christmas-trees1 nevertheless they are 
works of considerable artistic merit4   
,they are forcibly constructed1         
dramatic1 full of invention and         
delightful diction4 ,it is undeniable   
that the general level of the ,american 
romance is to-day not inferior to that  
of ,germany4  ,historical romance aims1 
first of all1 to awaken the national    
consciousness4 ,so1 for instance1 the   
romances of the versatile physician1    
,weir ,mitchell1 are first of all       
histories of the ,revolutionary period  
of the whole nation1 and1 secondarily1  
histories of early ,pennsylvania4 ,but  

the story which depends on local colour 
flourishes too4 ,here shows itself      
strongly that trait which is            
distinguishable in ,american writing    
through the whole century1 from ,irving1
 ,cooper1 and ,bryant to the present    
day--the love of nature4 ,almost every  
part of the country has found some      
writer to celebrate its landscape and   
customs1 not merely the curious         
inhabitants of the prairie and          
gold-fields1 but the outwardly          
unromantic characters of the ,new       
,england village and the ,tennessee     
mountains1 of the ,southern plantations 
and the ,western ,states4 ,and new      
stories of this sort appear every day4  
,especially the new ,west figures       
prominently in literature2 and the      
tireless ambition on which the city of  
,chicago is founded is often depicted   
with much talent4 ,the novels of        
,fuller1 ,norris1 and others are all    
extraordinarily forceful descriptions of
 ,western life and civilization4 ,the   

,south of to-day1 which shows symptoms  
of awaking to new life1 is described    
more from the ,northern than from the   
,southern point of view4 ,it is         
surprising that the mental life of the  
,american negro has attracted so little 
attention1 since the short stories of   
,chestnut point to unexplored treasures4
  ,the longer efforts are always in     
prose1 and since the time of ,evangeline
 epic verse has found almost no         
representative4 ,verse is almost wholly 
lyrical4 ,the history of ,american lyric
 is contained in the large and admirable
 collections of ,stedman1 ,onderdonk1   
and others2 and it is the history of1   
perhaps1 the most complete achievement  
of ,american literature4 ,one who knows 
the ,american only in the usual         
caricature1 and does not know what an   
idealist the ,yankee is1 would be       
surprised to learn that the lyric poem  
has become his favourite field4 ,the    
romantic novel1 which appeals to the    
masses1 may have1 perhaps1 a commercial 

motive1 while the book of verse is an   
entirely disinterested production4 ,the 
lyric1 in its fresh1 intense1 and       
finished way1 reveals the inner being of
 ,american literature1 and surprisingly 
much lyric verse is being written       
to-day4 ,even political newspapers1 like
 the ,boston ,transcript1 publish every 
day some lyric poem2 and although here  
as everywhere many volumes of           
indifferent verse see the light of day1 
still the feeling for form is so general
 that one finds very seldom anything    
wholly bad and very often bits of deep  
significance and beauty4 ,here1 too1 the
 best-known things are not the most     
admirable4 ,we hear too much of         
,markham's 8,the ,man ,with the ,hoe10  
and too little of ,santayana's sonnets  
or of ,josephine ,preston ,peabody4     
,here1 too1 local colour is happily in  
evidence--as1 for instance1 in the      
well-known verses of ,riley4 ,the       
,western poet goes a different road from
 the ,eastern4 ,the ,south has never    

again sent a messenger so full of       
melodies as ,sidney ,lanier4  ,there is 
a strong lyric tendency also in the     
dramatic compositions of the day4 ,the  
true drama has always been more         
neglected than any other branch of art1 
and if it is true that the ,americans   
have preserved the temperament and point
 of view of ,elizabethan ,england1 it is
 high time for some ,american           
,shakespeare to step forth4 ,until now1 
extremely few plays of real literary    
worth have been written between the     
,atlantic and the ,pacific ,oceans4     
,dramatists there have been always1 and 
the stage is now more than ever supplied
 by native talent2 but literature is too
 little considered here4 ,the rural     
dramas having the local colour of       
,virginia and ,new ,england are         
generally better than the society       
pieces3 and the very popular            
dramatizations of novels are stirring1  
but utterly cheap4 ,on the other hand1  
the ,american has often applied the     

lyric gift in dramatic verse1 and in    
dramas of philosophic significance such 
as ,santayana's admirable 8,lucifer0 or 
,moody's 8,masque of ,judgment40 ,the   
stunted growth of ,american dramatic    
writing is closely connected with the   
history of the ,american stage1 a       
subject which may lead us from          
literature to the sister arts4          
,,chapter ,,nineteen                    
,art   ,the history of the theatre leads
 us once more back to ,puritan ,new     
,england4 ,every one knows that the     
,puritan regarded the theatre as the    
very temple of vice1 and the former     
association of the theatre and the      
bar-room--a tradition that came from    
,england--naturally failed to make      
public opinion more favourable4 ,in the 
year #agej theatrical productions were  
entirely forbidden in ,boston4 ,one     
theatre was built in #agid1 and a few   
others later1 but the public feeling    
against demoralizing influences of the  
stage so grew that one theatre after    

another was turned from its profane uses
 and made over into a lecture hall or   
something of the sort4 ,in #ahci it was 
publicly declared that ,boston should   
never again have a theatre4             
,nevertheless by #ahgj1 it had five     
theatres1 and to-day it has fifteen4    
,other cities have always been more     
liberal toward the theatre1 and in the  
city of ,new ,york1 since #agcc1        
ninety-five theatres have been built1 of
 which more than thirty are still       
standing to-day and in active operation4
 ,thus the ,puritan spirit seems long   
since to have disappeared1 and the      
backwardness of the drama seems not to  
be connected with the religious past of 
the country4 ,but this is not the case4 
,let us survey the situation4 ,there is 
certainly no lack of theatres1 for      
almost every town has its 8opera house10
 and the large cities have really too   
many4 ,nor is there any lack of         
histrionic talent2 for1 although the    
great ,shakespearian actor1 ,edwin      

,booth1 has no worthy successor1 we have
 still actors who are greatly applauded 
and loved--,mansfield1 ,sothern1        
,jefferson1 ,drew1 and ,gillette2 ,maude
 ,adams1 ,mrs4 ,fiske1 ,blanche ,bates1 
,henrietta ,crosman1 ,julia ,arthur1    
,julia ,marlowe1 ,ada ,rehan1 ,nance    
,o',neill1 and many others who are      
certainly sincere artists2 and the most 
brilliant actors of ,europe1 ,irving and
 ,tree1 ,dus1 ,bernhardt1 ,sorma1 and   
,campbell come almost every year to play
 in this country4 ,the ,american's      
natural versatility gives him a great   
advantage for the theatrical career2 and
 so it is no accident that amateur      
theatricals are nowhere else so popular1
 especially among student men and women4
 ,the equipments of the stage1 moreover1
 leave very little to be desired1 and   
the settings sometimes surpass anything 
which can be seen in ,europe2 one often 
sees marvellous effects and most        
convincing illusions4 ,and these1 with  
the ,american good humour1 verve1 and   

self-assurance1 and the beauty of       
,american women1 bring many a graceful  
comedy and light opera to a really      
artistic performance4 ,the great public1
 too1 is quite content1 and fills the   
theatres to overflowing4 ,it seems      
almost unjust to criticise unfavourably 
the country's theatres4  ,but the       
general public is not the only nor even 
the most important factor2 the          
discriminating public is not satisfied4 
,artistic productions of the more       
serious sort are drowned out by a great 
tide of worthless entertainments2 and   
however amusing or diverting the        
comedies1 farces1 rural pieces1         
operettas1 melodramas1 and dramatized   
novels may be1 they are thoroughly      
unworthy of a people that is so         
ceaselessly striving for cultivation and
 self-perfection4 ,such pieces should   
not have the assurance to invade the    
territory of true art4 ,and1 although   
the lack of good plays is less          
noticeable1 if one looks at the         

announcements of what is to be given in 
,new ,york on any single evening1 it is 
tremendously borne home on one by the   
bad practice of repeating the plays     
night after night for many weeks1 so    
that a person who wants to see real art 
has soon seen every production which is 
worth while4 ,in this respect ,new ,york
 is distinctly behind ,paris1 ,berlin1  
or ,vienna1 although about on a level   
with ,london2 and in the other large    
cities of ,america the situation is     
rather worse4 ,everywhere the stage     
caters to the vulgar taste1 and for one 
,hamlet there are ten ,geishas4  ,it    
cannot be otherwise1 since the theatre  
is entirely a business matter with the  
managers4 ,sometimes there is an artist 
like the late ,daly1 who is ready to    
conduct a theatre from the truly        
artistic point of view1 and who offers  
admirable performances2 but this is an  
expensive luxury1 and there are few who 
will afford it4 ,it is a question of    
making money1 and therefore of offering 

humorous or sentimental pieces which    
fill the theatre4 ,there is another fact
 of which the ,european hardly knows2 it
 is cheaper to engage a company to play 
a single piece for a whole year with    
mechanical regularity than to hire      
actors to give the study necessary to a 
diversified repertoire4 ,after many     
repetitions1 even mediocre actors can   
attain a certain skill1 while in        
repertoire only good actors are found at
 all satisfactory1 and the average will 
not be tolerated by the pampered public4
 ,then1 too1 the accessories are much   
cheaper for a single piece4  ,now1 in a 
town of moderate size1 one piece cannot 
be repeated many nights1 so that the    
companies have to travel about4 ,the    
best companies stay not less than a     
week1 and if the town is large enough1  
they stay from four to six weeks4 ,these
 companies are known by the name of the 
piece which they are presenting1 or by  
the name of the leading actor1 the      
8star40 ,the theatre in itself is a mere

 tenantless shell4 ,in early fall the   
whole list of companies which are to    
people its stage through the next thirty
 weeks is arranged4 ,in this way1 it is 
true that the small city is able to see 
the best actors and the newest pieces4  
,yet one sees how sterile this principle
 is by considering some of the extreme  
cases4 ,jefferson has played his ,rip   
,van ,winkle and almost nothing else for
 thirty years2 and the young people of  
,chicago1 ,philadelphia1 and ,boston    
would be very unhappy if he were not to 
come in this rle for a couple of weeks  
every winter4 ,and he has thus become   
several times a millionaire4  ,but the  
business spirit has not stopped with    
this4 ,the hundreds of companies compete
 with one another1 so that very         
naturally a theatrical trust has been   
formed4 ,the syndicate of ,klaw1        
,erlanger  ,frohman was organized in    
#ahif with thirty-seven leading theatres
 in large cities1 all pledged to present
 none but companies belonging to the    

syndicate1 while1 in return1 the        
syndicate agreed to keep the theatres   
busy every week in the season4 ,the     
favourite actors and the favourite      
companies were secured1 and the         
independent actors who resisted the     
tyranny found that in most of the large 
cities only second-rate theatres were   
open to them4 ,one after another had to 
give in1 and now the great trust under  
the command of ,frohman has virtually   
the whole theatrical business of the    
country in its hands4 ,the trust        
operates shrewdly and squarely2 it knows
 its public1 offers variety1 follows the
 fashions1 gives the great mimes their  
favourite rles1 pays them and the       
theatre owners well1 relieves the actors
 from the struggle for promotion1 and   
vastly amuses the public4 ,it is        
impossible to resist this situation1    
which is so adverse to art4  ,all are   
agreed that there is only one way to    
better matters4 ,permanent companies    
must be organized1 in the large cities  

at first1 to play in repertoire4 ,and   
these must be subsidized1 so as not to  
be dependent for their support on the   
taste of the general public4 ,then and  
then only will the dramatic art be able 
to thrive1 or the theatre become an     
educational institution1 and so slowly  
cultivate a better demand1 which in the 
end will come to make even the most     
eclectic theatre self-supporting4 ,so it
 has always been on the ,european       
,continent2 princes and municipalities  
have rivalled with one another to raise 
the level of dramatic art above what it 
would have to be if financially         
dependent solely on the box-office4 ,in 
the ,united ,states there is certainly  
no lack of means or good will to        
encourage such an educational           
institution4 ,untold millions go to     
libraries1 museums1 and universities1   
and we may well ask why the slightest   
attempt has not been made to provide1 by
 gift or from the public treasury1 for a
 temple to the drama4  ,it is just here 

that the old ,puritan prejudice is still
 felt to-day4 ,the theatre is no longer 
under the ban of the law1 but no step   
can be taken toward a subvention of the 
theatre4 ,most taxpayers in ,america    
would look with disfavour on any project
 to support a theatre from public funds4
 ,why a theatre more than a hotel or    
restaurant8 ,the theatre remains a place
 of frivolous amusement1 and for that   
reason no millionaires have so far      
endowed a theatre4 ,men like ,carnegie  
know too well that the general mass of  
people would blame them if they were to 
give their millions to the theatre1 as  
long as a single town was still wishing 
for its library or its college4  ,the   
history of music in ,america has shown  
what can be attained by endowment--how  
the public demand can be educated so    
that even the very best art will finally
 be self-supporting4 ,the development of
 the ,boston ,symphony ,orchestra1 which
 is still the best musical organization 
in the country1 is thoroughly typical4  

,it was realized that symphony concerts1
 like the best given in ,germany1 would 
not be self-supporting1 in view of the  
deficient musical education of the      
country4 ,in #ahhj ,boston had two      
symphony orchestras1 but both were of   
little account4 ,they were composed of  
over-busied musicians1 who could not    
spare the time needed for study and     
rehearsals4 ,then one of the most       
liberal and appreciative men of the     
country1 ,henry ,lee ,higginson1 came   
forward and engaged the best musicians  
whom he could find1 to give all their   
time and energy to an orchestra2 and he 
himself guaranteed the expenses4 ,during
 the first few years he paid out a      
fortune annually1 but year by year the  
sum grew less1 and to-day ,boston so    
thoroughly enjoys its twenty-four       
symphony concerts1 which are not        
surpassed by those of any ,european     
orchestra1 that the large music-hall is 
too small to hold those who wish to     
attend4 ,this example has been imitated1

 and now ,new ,york1 ,chicago1          
,philadelphia1 and other cities have    
excellent and permanent orchestras4     
,likewise various cities1 but especially
 ,new ,york1 enjoy a few weeks of       
,german1 ,french1 and ,italian opera    
which is equal to the best opera in     
,europe1 by a company that brings       
together the best singers of ,europe and
 ,america4 ,in the case of opera the    
love of music has prevailed over the    
prejudice against the theatre4          
,extraordinarily high subscriptions for 
the boxes1 and a reduced rental of the  
,metropolitan ,opera ,house1 which was  
erected by patrons of art1 have given   
brilliant support to the undertaking4   
,without going into questions of        
principle1 an impartial friend of music 
must admit that even the performances of
 ,parsifal were artistically not        
inferior to those of ,bayreuth1 and the 
audience was quite as much in sympathy  
with the great masterpiece as are the   
assemblages of tourists at ,bayreuth4   

,the artistic education proceeding from 
these larger centres is felt through the
 entire country1 and there is a growing 
desire for less ambitious but permanent 
opera companies4  ,the symphony and the 
opera are not the only evidences of the 
serious love of music in ,america4      
,every large city has its conservatory  
and its surplus of trained music        
teachers1 and almost every city has     
societies which give oratorios1 and     
innumerable singing clubs1 chamber      
concerts1 and regular musical festivals4
 ,even the concerts by other soloists   
than that fashionable favourite of      
,american ladies1 ,paderewski1 are well 
attended4 ,and these are not new        
movements2 opera was given in ,new ,york
 as early as #agej1 and the ,english    
opera of the eighteenth century was     
followed in #ahbe by ,italian opera4    
,also ,baltimore1 ,philadelphia1 and    
,new ,orleans early developed a love for
 music4  ,boston has been the great     
centre for oratorio4 ,the ,hndel and    

,haydn ,society dates from #ahaj1 and in
 #ahbj a great many concerts were given 
all through the ,east1 even in small    
towns4 ,and the influence of the musical
 ,germans was strongly felt by the      
middle of the century4 ,the ,germania   
,orchestra of ,boston was founded in    
#ahdh1 and now all the ,western cities  
where ,german influences are strong1    
such as ,milwaukee1 ,cincinnati1        
,chicago1 and ,st4 ,louis1 are centres  
of music1 with many male choruses and   
much private cultivation of music in the
 home4  ,the churches1 moreover1 are a  
considerable support to music4 ,the     
,puritan spirit disliked secular music  
no less than the theatre2 but the       
popular hymns were always associated    
with the service of ,god1 and so the    
love for music grew and its cultivation 
spread4 ,progress was made from the     
simplest melodies to fugue arrangements2
 organs and stringed instruments were   
introduced2 the youth was educated in   
music1 and finally in the last century  

church worship was made more attractive 
by having the best music obtainable4    
,and thus1 through the whole country1   
chorus and solo singing and instrumental
 skill have been everywhere favoured by 
the popular religious instinct4  ,so    
much for the performance of music4      
,musical composition has not reached    
nearly such a high point4 ,it is        
sufficient to look over the programmes  
of recent years4 ,wagner leads among    
operatic composers1 then follow ,verdi1 
,gounod1 and ,mozart2 ,beethoven is the 
sovereign of the concert-hall1 and ,the 
,messiah and ,the ,creation are the most
 popular oratorios4 ,sometimes a        
suspicion has been expressed that       
,american composers must have been      
systematically suppressed by the leading
 ,german conductors like ,damrosch1     
,seidl1 ,gericke1 ,thomas1 and ,paur4   
,but this is not remotely true4 ,the    
,american public is much more to be     
blamed2 for1 although so patriotic in   
every other matter1 it looks on every   

native musical composition with         
distrust1 and will hardly accept even   
the ,american singer or player until he 
has first won his laurels in ,europe4   
,still1 there has been some composition 
in ,america4 ,there were religious      
composers in the eighteenth century1 and
 when everything ,english was put away  
at the time of the ,revolution1 the     
colonists replaced the psalm-tunes which
 they had brought over with original    
airs4 ,billings and his school were     
especially popular1 although there was  
an early reaction against what he was   
pleased to call fugues4 ,the nineteenth 
century brought forth little more than  
band-master music1 with no sign of      
inspiration in real orchestral or       
operatic music4 ,only lately there have 
stepped into the field such eminent     
composers as ,mac,dowell1 ,paine1       
,chadwick1 ,strong1 ,beech1 ,buck1      
,parker1 and ,foot4 ,paine's opera of   
8,azara10 ,chadwick's overtures1 and    
,mac,dowell's interesting compositions  

show how ,american music will develop4  
,more popular was a modest branch of    
musical composition1 the song in the    
style of folk-songs4 ,america has no    
actual folk-songs4 ,the average         
,european imagines 8,yankee ,doodle0 to 
be the real ,american song1 anonymous   
and dreadful as it is1 and in diplomatic
 circles the antiquated and bombastic   
8,hail ,columbia0 is conceived to be the
 official hymn of ,america4 ,the        
,americans themselves recognize neither 
of these airs4 ,the 8,star ,spangled    
,banner0 is the only song which can be  
called national2 it was written in #ahad
 to an old and probably ,english melody4
 ,the ,civil ,war left certain other    
songs which stir the breast of every    
patriotic ,american4  ,on the other     
hand1 folk-songs have developed in only 
one part of the country--on the         
,southern plantations--and with a very  
local colouring4 ,the negro slaves sang 
these songs first1 although it is       
unlikely that they are really ,african  

songs4 ,they seem to be ,irish and      
,scotch ballads1 which the negroes heard
 on the ,mississippi steamboats4        
,baptist and ,methodist psalm-tunes and 
,french melodies were also caught up by 
the musical negroes and modified to     
their peculiar melody and rhythm4 ,a    
remarkable sadness pervades all these   
,southern airs4  ,many song composers   
have imitated this most unique musical  
product of the country4 ,in the middle  
of the century ,stephen ,foster rose to 
rapid popularity with his 8,old ,folks  
at ,home10 which became the popular     
song1 rivalled only by 8,home ,sweet    
,home10 which was taken from the text of
 an ,american opera1 but of which the   
melody is said to have originated in    
,sicily4 ,there are to-day all sorts of 
composers1 some in the sentimental style
 and others in the light opera vein1    
whose street tunes are instantly sung1  
whistled and played on hurdy-gurdies    
from the ,atlantic to the ,pacific1 and1
 worst of all1 stridently rendered by   

the graphophones1 with megaphone        
attachments1 on verandahs in summer4    
,there are composers of church hymns1 of
 marches  la ,sousa1 and writers of     
piano pieces by the wholesale4 ,all     
serious musicians agree that the        
,american1 unlike the ,englishman1 is   
decidedly musically inclined1 but he is 
the incontestable master of only a very 
modest musical art--he can whistle as   
nobody else4  ,unlike ,american music1  
,american paintings are no longer       
strange to ,europe4 ,in the art division
 of the last ,paris ,exposition         
,americans took their share of the      
honours1 and they are highly appreciated
 at most of the ,berlin and ,munich     
picture shows4 ,sargent and ,whistler   
are the best known4 ,sargent1 as the    
painter of elegant ladies1 prosperous   
men1 and interesting children1 has      
undoubtedly the surest and most refined 
gift with his brush of any son of the   
,new ,world4 ,when1 a few years ago1 a  
large exhibition of his works was       

brought together in ,boston1 one felt on
 standing before that gathering of      
ultra-polite and almost living humanity1
 that in him the elegant world has found
 its most brilliant1 though perhaps not 
its most flattering1 transcriber4       
,whistler is doubtless the greater1 the 
real sovereign4 ,this most nervous of   
all artists has reproduced his human    
victims with positively uncanny         
perspicacity4 ,like ,henry ,james1 the  
novelist1 he fathoms each human riddle1 
and expresses it intangibly1            
mysteriously4 ,everything is mood and   
suggestion1 the dull and heavy is       
volatilized1 the whole is a sceptical   
rendering in rich twilight tones4       
,america is proud of both artists1 and  
still one may doubt whether the art of  
the ,new ,world would be justly         
represented if it sent across the ocean 
only these two pampered and somewhat    
whimsical artists4 ,firstly1 in spite of
 much brilliant other work1 they are    
both best known as portraitists1 while  

it becomes plainer every day that       
landscape painting is the most typical  
,american means of expression4 ,the     
profound feeling for nature1 which      
pervades ,american poetry and reflects  
the national life and struggle          
therewith1 brings the ,american to study
 landscape4 ,many persons think even    
that if ,american artists were to send  
ever so many easel pictures across the  
ocean1 the artistic public of ,europe   
would still have no adequate judgment of
 ,american painting1 because the best   
talent is busied with the larger pieces 
intended for wall decoration4 ,the great
 number of monumental buildings1 with   
their large wall surfaces and the desire
 for ambitious creations1 attract the   
,american to-day to wall-painting4 ,and 
they try to strengthen the national     
character of this tendency by a         
democratic argument4 ,the easel picture1
 it is said1 is a luxury designed for   
the house of the wealthy and is1        
therefore1 decadent1 while the art of a 

nation which is working out a democracy 
must pertain to the people2 and         
therefore just as early art adorned the 
temples and churches1 this art must     
adorn the walls of public buildings1    
libraries1 judicial chambers1           
legislatures1 theatres1 railway stations
 and city halls4 ,and the more this     
comes to be the case1 the less correct  
it is to judge the pinctile efforts of  
the time by the framed pictures that    
come into the exhibitions4 ,moreover1   
many of the more successful painters do 
not take the trouble to send any of     
their works across the ocean4  ,sargent 
and ,whistler also--and this is more    
important--speak a language which is not
 ,american1 while the country has now   
developed its own grammar of painting1  
and the most representative artists are 
seldom seen in ,europe4 ,in painting1 as
 in so many other branches1 the ,united 
,states has developed from the          
provincial to the cosmopolitan and from 
the cosmopolitan to the national1 and is

 just now taking this last step4 ,it is 
very characteristic that the untutored  
provincial has grown into the national  
only by passing through a cosmopolitan  
stage4 ,the faltering powers of the     
beginner do not achieve a self-conscious
 expression of national individuality   
until they have first industriously and 
systematically imitated foreign methods1
 and so attained a complete mastery of  
the medium of expression4  ,at first the
 country1 whose poor population was not 
able to pay much attention to pictures1 
turned entirely to ,england4 ,west and  
,copley are the only pre-,revolutionary 
,americans whose pictures possess any   
value4 ,the portraits of their          
predecessors--as1 for instance1 those in
 ,memorial ,hall at ,harvard--are stiff1
 hard1 and expressionless4 ,then came   
,gilbert ,stuart at the end of the      
eighteenth century1 whose portraits of  
,george and ,martha ,washington are     
famous1 and who showed himself an       
artistic genius and quite the equal of  

the great ,english portraitists4 ,john  
,trumbull1 an officer in the            
,revolutionary ,army1 who lived at the  
same time1 was still more important for 
the national history by his war         
pictures1 the best of which were        
considerably above contemporary         
productions4 ,the historical            
wall-paintings which he made in #ahag1  
for the ,capitol at ,washington1 are in 
his later and inferior manner4 ,they    
seem to-day1 like everything which was  
done in the early part of the century to
 decorate the ,capitol1 hackneyed and   
tiresome4 ,and if one goes from the     
,capitol to the ,congressional ,library1
 which shows the condition of art at the
 end of the nineteenth century1 one     
feels how far the public taste of       
,trumbull's time was from appreciating  
true art4 ,portraiture was the only art 
which attained tolerable excellence1    
where1 besides ,stuart1 there were      
,peale1 ,wright1 and ,savage4 ,then came
 the day of the 8,american ,titian10    

,allston1 whose ,biblical pictures were 
greatly praised for their brilliant     
colouring4  ,hitherto artists had gone  
to ,england to study or1 indeed1        
sometimes to ,italy4 ,in the second     
third of the century they went to       
,dsseldorf2 they painted ,american      
landscapes1 ,american popular life1 and 
historical pictures of ,american heroes1
 all in ,german fashion4 ,they delighted
 in genre studies in the ,dsseldorf     
manner1 and painted the ,hudson ,river  
all bathed in ,german moonlight4 ,while 
the popular school was still painting   
the world in blackish brown1 the        
artistic secession began at about the   
time of the ,civil ,war4 ,then artists  
began to go to ,paris and ,munich1 and  
,american painting developed more       
freely4 ,it was a time of earnest1      
profound1 and independent study such as 
had so far never been4 ,the artist      
learned to draw1 learned to see values1 
and1 in the end1 to be natural4 ,the    
number of artists now began to increase1

 and to-day ,americans produce thousands
 of pictures each year1 and one who sees
 the ,european exhibitions in summer and
 the ,american in winter does not feel  
that the latter are on a much lower     
level4  ,since ,allston's time the      
leaders in landscape have been ,cole1   
,bierstadt1 ,kensett1 and ,gifford2 in  
genre1 ,leslie1 ,woodville1 and         
particularly ,mount2 in historical      
painting1 ,lentze and ,white2 and in    
portraiture1 ,inman and ,elliott4 ,the  
first who preached the new doctrine of  
individuality and colour was ,hunt1 and 
in the early seventies the new school   
just graduated from ,paris and ,munich  
was bravely at work4 ,there are many    
well-known names in the last thirty     
years1 and it is a matter rather of     
individual choice what pictures one     
prefers of all the large number4 ,yet no
 one would omit ,george ,inness from the
 list1 since he has seen ,american      
landscapes more individually than any   
one else4 ,besides his pictures every   

one knows the marines of ,winslow       
,homer1 the street scenes of ,childe    
,hassam1 the heads of ,eaton1 the autumn
 forests of ,enneking1 the apple trees  
in spring-time of ,appleton ,brown1 the 
delicate landscapes of ,weir and ,tryon1
 the wall pictures of ,abbey1 ,cox1 and 
,low1 ,gaugengigl's little figure       
paintings1 ,vedder's ambitious          
symbolism1 the brilliant portraits of   
,cecilia ,beaux and ,chase1 the women's 
heads of ,tarbell1 the ideal figures of 
,abbot ,thayer1 and the works of a      
hundred other ,american artists1 not to 
mention those who are really more       
familiar in ,london1 ,paris1 and ,munich
 than in ,america itself4  ,besides the 
oil pictures1 there are excellent       
water-colours1 pastelles1 and etchings2 
and1 perhaps most characteristic of all1
 there is the stained glass of ,la      
,farge1 ,lathrop1 the late ,mrs4        
,whitman1 ,goodhue1 and others4 ,the    
workers in pen-and-ink are highly       
accomplished1 of whom the best known is 

,gibson1 whose ,american women are not  
only artistic1 but have been socially   
influential on ,american ideals and     
manners4 ,his sketches for ,life have   
been themselves models for real life4   
,nor should we forget ,pennell1 the     
master of atmosphere in pen-and-ink4    
,sculpture has developed more slowly4   
,it presupposes a higher understanding  
of art than does painting2 and1 besides 
that1 the prudishness of the ,puritan   
has affected it adversely4 ,when ,john  
,brazee1 the first ,american amateur    
sculptor1 in the early part of the      
nineteenth century1 asked advice of the 
president of the ,new ,york ,academy of 
,arts1 he was told that he would better 
wait a hundred years before practicing  
sculpture in ,america4 ,the speech      
admirably showed the general lack of    
interest in plastic art4 ,but the       
impetuous pressure toward               
self-perfection existing in the nation  
shortened the century into decades2     
people began to journey through ,italy4 

,the pioneers of sculpture were         
,greenough1 ,powers1 ,crawford1 and     
,palmer1 and their statues are still    
valued for their historical interest4   
,the theatrical genre groups of ,john   
,rogers became very popular2 and        
,randolph ,rogers1 who created the      
,columbus bronze doors of the ,capitol1 
was really an artist4 ,then came        
,storey1 ,ball1 ,rinehart1 ,hosmer1     
,mead1 and many others with works of    
greater maturity4 ,squares and public   
buildings were filled with monuments and
 busts which1 to be sure1 were generally
 more interesting politically than      
artistically1 and which to-day wait     
patiently for a charitable earthquake4  
,and yet they show how the taste for    
plastic art has slowly worked upward4   
,more recent movements1 which are       
connected with the names of ,ward1      
,warner1 ,partridge1 ,french1           
,mac,monnies1 and ,st4 ,gaudens1 have   
already left many beautiful examples of 
sculpture4 ,cities are jealously        

watchful now that only real works of art
 shall be erected1 and that monuments   
which are to be seen by millions of     
people shall be really characteristic   
examples of good art4 ,more than        
anything else1 sculpture has at length  
come into a closer sympathy with        
architecture than perhaps it has in any 
other country4 ,the admirable sculptural
 decorations of the ,chicago ,world's   
,fair1 the effective ,dewey ,triumphal  
,arch and the permanent plastic         
decorations of the ,congressional       
,library1 the more restrained and       
distinguished decorations of the ,court 
of ,appeals in ,new ,york ,city1 and of 
many similar buildings show clearly that
 ,american sculpture has ended its      
period of immaturity4 ,such a work as   
,st4 ,gaudens's ,shaw ,memorial in      
,boston is among the most beautiful     
examples of modern sculpture2 and it is 
thoroughly ,american1 not only because  
the negro regiment marches behind the   
mounted colonel1 but because the        

,american subject is handled in the     
,american spirit4 ,these men are        
depicted with striking vigour1 and the  
young hero riding to his death is       
conceived with ,puritan sobriety4       
,vigorous and mature is the ,american1  
in plastic art as well as in poetry4    
,the development of architecture has    
been a very different one4 ,a people    
must be housed1 and cannot stay out of  
doors until it has learned what is      
beautiful in architecture4 ,people could
 wait for poetry1 music1 and painting   
while they were busy in keeping off the 
,indians and felling the forests2 but   
they had to have houses at once4 ,and   
since at that time they had no          
independent interests in art1 they      
imitated forms with which they had been 
familiar1 and everywhere perpetuated the
 architectural ideas of their mother    
country4 ,but the builder is at a       
disadvantage beside the painter1 the    
singer1 and the poet1 in that when he   
imitates he cannot even do that as he   

will1 but is bound down by climate1 by  
social requirements1 and especially by  
his building material4 ,and when he is  
placed in new surroundings1 he is forced
 to strike out for himself4  ,although  
the ,american colonist remained under   
the influence of ,english architecture1 
his environment forced him in the first 
place to build his house of wood instead
 of stone as in ,england1 and in wood he
 could not so easily copy the pattern4  
,it had to be a new variation of the    
older art4 ,and so architecture1        
although it more slavishly followed the 
mother country than any other art1 was  
the earliest to strike out in some      
respects on an independent course4 ,it  
borrowed its forms1 but originated their
 applications2 and while it slowly      
adopted new ideas of style and became   
gradually free of ,european styles1 it  
became free even earlier in their       
technical application1 owing to the new 
,american conditions4 ,more than any    
other feature of her civilization1      

,american architecture reveals the      
entire history of the people from the   
days when the ,puritans lived in little 
wooden villages to the present era of   
the sky-scraper of the large cities2 and
 in this growth more than in that of any
 other art the whole country            
participates1 and specially the ,west1  
with its tremendous energy1 which is    
awkward with the violin-bow and the     
crayon but is well versed in piling     
stone on stone4  ,in colonial days1     
,english renaissance architecture was   
imitated in wood1 a material which      
necessitated slender columns and called 
for finer detail and more graceful lines
 than were possible in stone4 ,one sees 
to-day1 especially in the ,new ,england 
,states1 many such buildings quite      
unaltered2 and the better of these in   
,salem1 ,cambridge1 and ,newport are1 in
 spite of their lightness1 substantial  
and distinguished as no ,european would 
think possible in so ordinary a material
 as wood4 ,large1 beautiful halls1 with 

broad1 open staircases and broad        
balusters1 greet the visitor2 large     
fireplaces1 with handsomely carved      
chimney-pieces1 high wainscotings on the
 walls and beautiful beams across the   
ceilings4 ,the more modest houses show  
the same thing on a smaller scale4      
,there was this one style through the   
whole town1 and its rules were regarded 
as canonical4 ,in certain parts of the  
country there were inconspicuous traces 
of ,spanish1 ,french1 and ,dutch        
influence1 which survive to-day in many 
places1 especially in the ,south1 and   
contribute to the picturesqueness of the
 architectural whole4  ,after the       
,revolutionary period1 people wished to 
break with ,english traditions1 and the 
immigration from many different         
countries brought a great variety of    
architectural stimulation4 ,a time of   
general imitation had arrived1 for in   
architecture also the country was to    
grow from the provincial to the national
 through a cosmopolitan stage4 ,at the  

end of the eighteenth century1          
architecture was chiefly influenced by  
the classic ,greek4 ,farmhouses         
masqueraded as big temples1 and the     
thoughtless application of this form    
became so monotonous that it was not    
continued very long in private houses4  
,then the ,capitol at ,washington was   
begun by ,latrobe and finished by the   
more competent ,bulfinch1 and it became 
the model for almost all state capitols 
of the ,union4 ,bulfinch himself        
designed the famous ,state ,house of    
,massachusetts1 but it was the ,puritan 
spirit of ,boston which selected the    
austere ,greek temple to typify the     
public spirit4 ,the entire century1 in  
spite of many variations1 stood under   
this influence1 and until recently      
nobody has ventured to put up a civil   
structure in a freer1 more picturesque  
style4  ,many of these single state     
capitols built during the century1 such 
as the old one at ,albany1 are          
admirable2 while the post-offices1      

custom-houses1 and other buildings      
dedicated to federal uses have been put 
up until recently cheaply and without   
thought4 ,lately1 however1 the architect
 has been given freer play4 ,meanwhile  
taste had wandered from the classic era 
to the ,middle ,ages1 and the ,english  
,gothic had come to be popular4 ,the    
romantic took the place of the classic1 
and the buildings were made picturesque4
 ,the effect of this was most happy on  
church edifices1 and about the middle of
 the century ,richard ,upjohn1 8the     
father of ,american architecture10 built
 a number of famous churches in the     
,gothic style4  ,but in secular edifices
 this spirit went wholly to             
architectural lawlessness4 ,people were 
too little trained to preserve a        
discipline of style along with the      
freedom of the picturesque4 ,and even   
more unfortunate than the lack of       
training of the architect1 who committed
 improprieties because uncertain in his 
judgment1 there was the tastelessness of

 the parvenu patron1 and this           
particularly in the ,west4 ,then came   
the time of unrest and vulgar splurge1  
when in a single residential street     
palaces from all parts of the world were
 cheaply copied1 and just as in ,europe 
forgotten styles were superficially     
reproduced4 ,the ,queen ,anne style     
became fashionable2 and then native     
colonial and ,dutch motives were        
revived4  ,this period is now long past4
 ,the last twenty-five years in the     
,east and the last ten years in the     
,west have seen this tasteless1         
hap-hazard1 and ignorant experimenting  
with different styles give place to     
building which is thoughtful1           
independent1 and generally beautiful2   
though1 of course1 much that is ugly has
 continued to be built4 ,architecture   
itself has developed a careful school1  
and the public has been trained by the  
architects4 ,of course1 many regrettable
 buildings survive from former periods1 
so that the general impression to-day is

 often very confused2 but the newer     
streets in the residential1 as well as  
the business1 portions of cities and    
towns display the fitting homes and     
office buildings of a wealthy1          
independent1 and art-loving people4 ,in 
comparison with ,europe1 a negative     
feature may be remarked2 namely1 the    
notable absence of rococo tendencies4   
,it is sometimes found in interior      
decorations1 but never on exteriors4    
,the positive features which especially 
strike the ,european are the prevalence 
of ,romanesque and of the sky-scrapers4 
,the round arch of the ,romans comes    
more immediately from southern ,france2 
but since its introduction to ,america1 
notably by the architectural genius     
,richardson1 the round arch has become  
far more popular than in ,europe1 and   
has given rise to a characteristic      
,american style1 which is represented   
to-day in hundreds of substantial       
buildings all over the country4 ,there  
is something heavy1 rigid1 and at the   

same time energetic1 in these great     
arches resting on short massive columns1
 in the great1 pointed1 round towers1 in
 the heavy balconies and the low        
arcades4 ,the primitive force of        
,america has found its artistic         
expression here1 and the ease with which
 the new style has adapted itself to    
castle-like residences1 banks1 museums1 
and business houses1 and the quickness  
with which it has been adopted1 in the  
old streets of ,boston as in the newer  
ones of ,chicago and ,minneapolis1 all  
show clearly that it is a really living 
style1 and not merely an architectural  
whim4  ,the ,romanesque style grew from 
an artistic idea1 while the sky-scraper 
has developed through economic          
exigencies4 ,new ,york is an island1    
wherefore the stage of her great        
business life cannot be extended1 and   
every inch has had to be most           
advantageously employed4 ,it was        
necessary to build higher than          
commercial structures have ever been    

carried in ,europe4 ,at first these     
buildings were twenty stories high1 but 
now they are even thirty4 ,to rest such 
colossal structures on stone walls would
 have necessitated making the walls of  
the lower stories so thick as to take up
 all the most desirable room1 and stone 
was therefore replaced by steel4 ,the   
entire structure is simply a steel      
framework1 lightly cased in stone4      
,herewith arose quite new architectural 
problems4 ,the subdivision of the       
twenty-story faade was a much simpler   
problem than the disposal of the        
interior space1 where perhaps twenty    
elevators have to be speeding up and    
down1 and ten thousand men going in and 
out each day4 ,the problem has been     
admirably solved4 ,the absolute         
adaptation of the building to its       
requirements1 and its execution in the  
most appropriate material--namely1 steel
 and marble--the shaping of the rooms to
 the required ends1 and the carrying out
 of every detail in a thoroughly        

artistic spirit make a visit to the best
 office buildings of ,new ,york an      
sthetic delight4 ,and since very many of
 these are now built side of one        
another1 they give the sky-line of the  
city a strength and significance which  
strike every one who is mature enough to
 find beauty in that to which he is not 
accustomed4 ,when the problem had once  
been solved1 it was natural for other   
industrial cities to imitate ,new ,york1
 and the sky-scraper is now planted all 
over the ,west4  ,american architecture 
of to-day is happily situated1 because  
the population is rapidly growing1 is   
extraordinarily wealthy1 and seriously  
fond of art4 ,an architect who has to be
 economical1 must make beauty secondary 
to utility4 ,in the western part of the 
country1 considerable economy is often  
exercised and mostly in the very worst  
way4 ,the pretentious appearance of the 
building is preserved1 but the          
construction is made cheap2 the exterior
 is made of stucco instead of stone1 and

 the interior finish is not carved1 but 
pressed4 ,this may not1 after all1 be so
 much for the sake of economy1 as by    
reason of a deficient sthetic sense4    
,people who would not think of          
preferring a chromo-lithograph to an    
oil-painting do not as yet feel a       
similar distinction between             
architectural materials4 ,for the most  
part1 however1 the buildings now erected
 are rich and substantial4 ,the large   
public and semi-public buildings1       
court-houses and universities1 state    
capitols and city halls1 libraries and  
museums are generally brilliant examples
 of architecture4 ,the same is true of  
the buildings for industrial            
corporation1 offices1 banks1 hotels1    
life-insurance companies1               
stock-exchanges1 counting-houses1       
railway stations1 theatres and clubs1   
all of which1 by their restrained       
beauty1 inspire confidence and attract  
the eye4 ,these are companies with such 
large capital that they never think of  

exercising economy on their buildings4  
,the architect can do quite as he likes4
 ,new ,york has a dozen large hotels1   
each one of which is1 perhaps1 more     
splendid in marble and other stones than
 any hotel in ,europe2 and while        
,chicago1 ,boston1 and other cities have
 fewer such hotels1 they have equally   
handsome ones4  ,the fabulously rapid   
and still relatively late growth of     
handsome public buildings in the last   
decade is interesting from still another
 point of view4 ,it reveals a trait in  
the ,american public mind which we have 
repeatedly contrasted with the thought  
of ,europe4 ,american ambitions have    
grown out of the desire for             
self-perfection4 ,the ,american's own   
person must be scrupulously1 neatly1 and
 carefully dressed1 his own house must  
be beautiful2 and only when the whole   
nation1 as it were1 has satisfied the   
needs of the individual can sthetic     
feeling go out to the community as a    
whole--from the individual persons to   

the city1 from the private house to the 
public building4 ,it has been exactly   
the opposite on the ,european           
,continent4 ,the ideal individual was   
later than the ideal community4         
,splendid public buildings were first   
put up in ,europe1 while people resided 
in ugly and uninviting houses4  ,there  
was a period in which the ,american did 
not mind stepping from his daily bath1  
and going from his sumptuous home       
immaculately attired to a railway       
station or court-house which was        
screamingly hideous and reeking with    
dirt4 ,and similarly there was a time in
 which the ,germans and the ,french     
moved in and out of the wonderful       
architectural monuments of their past in
 dirty clothing1 and perhaps without    
having bathed for many days4 ,in        
,germany the public building has        
influenced the individual1 and          
eventually worked toward beautifying his
 house4 ,in ,america the individual and 
the private house have only very slowly 

spread their sthetic ideals through the 
public buildings4 ,the final results in 
both countries must be the same4 ,there 
is exactly the same contrast in the     
ethical field2 whereas in ,germany and  
,france public morals have spread into  
private life1 in ,america individual    
morals have spread into public life4 ,as
 soon as the transition has commenced it
 proceeds rapidly4  ,in ,germany few    
private houses are now built without a  
bathroom1 and in ,america few public    
buildings without consideration for what
 is beautiful4 ,the great change in     
railway stations indicates the rapidity 
of the movement4 ,even ten years ago    
there were huge car-sheds in the cities1
 and little huts in country districts1  
which so completely lacked any          
pretensions to beauty that sthetic      
criticism was simply out of place4 ,now1
 on the contrary1 most of the large     
cities have palatial stations1 of which 
some are among the most beautiful in the
 world1 and many railway companies have 

built attractive little stations all    
along their lines4 ,as soon as such a   
state of things has come about1 a       
reciprocal influence takes place between
 the individual and the communal desire 
for perfection1 and the sthetic level of
 the nation rises daily4 ,so1 too1 the  
different arts stimulate one another4   
,the architect plans his work from year 
to year more with the painter and       
sculptor in mind1 so that the erection  
of new buildings and the growth and     
wealth of the people benefit not merely 
architecture1 but the other arts as     
well4  ,still other factors are doing   
their part to elevate the artistic life 
of the ,united ,states4 ,and here       
particularly works the improved         
organization of the artistic            
professions4 ,in former times1 the true 
artist had to prefer ,europe to his     
native home1 because in his home he     
found no congenial spirits2 this is now 
wholly changed4 ,there is still the     
complaint that the ,american cities are 

even now no ,kunststdte2 and1 compared  
with ,munich or with ,paris1 this is    
still true4 ,but ,new ,york is no more  
and no less a ,kunststdte than is       
,berlin4 ,in all the large cities of    
,america the connoisseurs and patrons of
 art have organized themselves in clubs1
 and the national organizations of      
architects1 painters1 and sculptors1    
have become influential factors in      
public life2 and the large art schools  
with well-known teachers and the studios
 of private masters have become great   
centres for artistic endeavour4 ,a      
general historical study of architecture
 has even been introduced in            
universities1 and already the erection  
of a national academy of art is so      
actively discussed that it will probably
 be very soon realized4 ,certainly every
 ,american artist will continue to visit
 ,europe1 as every ,german artist visits
 ,italy2 but all the conditions are now 
ripe in ,america for developing native  
talent on native soil4  ,the artistic   

education of the public is not less     
important nor far behind the            
professional education of the artist4   
,we have discussed the general          
appreciation of architecture1 and the   
same public education is quietly going  
on in the art museums4 ,of course1 the  
public art galleries of ,america are    
necessarily far behind those of ,europe1
 since the art treasures of the world   
were for the most part distributed when 
,america began to collect4 ,and yet it  
is surprising what treasures have been  
secured1 and in some branches of modern 
painting and industrial art the         
,american collections are not to be     
surpassed4 ,thus the ,japanese          
collection of pottery in ,boston has    
nowhere its equal1 and the ,metropolitan
 ,museum in ,new ,york leads the world  
in several respects4 ,modern ,german art
 is unfortunately ill represented1 but  
modern ,french admirably4 ,here is a    
large field open for a proper ,german   
ambition2 ,german art needs to be       

recognized much more throughout the     
country4 ,it must show that ,american   
distrust is absolutely unjustified1 that
 it has made greater artistic advances  
than any other nation1 and that ,german 
pictures are quite worthy of a large    
place in the collections4  ,there are   
many extraordinary private collections  
which were gathered during the          
cosmopolitan period that the nation has 
gone through4 ,just as foreign          
architecture was imitated1 so the       
treasures of foreign countries in art   
and decoration were secured at any      
price2 and owing to the great wealth1   
the most valuable things were bought1   
often without intelligent appreciation1 
but never without a stimulating effect4 
,one is often surprised to find famous  
,european paintings in private houses1  
often in remote ,western cities2 and the
 fact that for many years ,americans    
have been the best patrons of art in the
 markets of the world1 could not have   
been without its results4 ,at the height

 of this collecting period ,american art
 itself probably suffered3 a moderately 
good ,french picture was preferred to a 
better ,american picture2 but all these 
treasures have indirectly benefited     
native art1 and still do benefit it1 so 
much that the better artists of the     
country are much opposed to the absurd  
protective tariff that is laid on       
foreign works of art4 ,the ,italian     
palace of ,mrs4 ,gardner in ,boston     
contains the most superb private        
collection2 but just here one sees that 
the cosmopolitan period of collection   
and imitation is1 after all1 merely an  
episode in the history of ,american art4
 ,an ,italian palace has no organic     
place in ,new ,england1 although the    
artistic merits of the ,gardner         
collection are perhaps nowhere          
surpassed4  ,the temporary exhibitions  
which are just now much in fashion have1
 perhaps1 more influence than the       
permanent museums4 ,every large city has
 its annual exhibitions1 and in the     

artistic centres1 one special collection
 comes after another4 ,and the strongest
 general stimulation has emanated from  
the great expositions4 ,when the nation 
visited ,philadelphia in #ahgf1 the     
,american artistic sense was just waking
 up1 and the impetus there started was  
of decisive significance4 ,it is said   
that the taste for colour in household  
decoration and fittings1 for handsome   
carpets and draperies1 came into the    
country at that time4 ,when ,chicago    
built its ,court of ,honour in #ahic1   
which was more beautiful than what      
,paris could do seven years later1 the  
country became for the first time aware 
that ,american art could stand on its   
own feet1 and this sthetic              
self-consciousness has stimulated       
endeavour through the entire nation4 ,in
 ,chicago1 for the first time1 the      
connection between architecture and     
sculpture came properly to be           
appreciated2 and1 more than all else1   
the art of the whole world was then     

brought into the ,american ,west1 and   
that which previously had been familiar 
only to the artistic section between    
,boston and ,washington was offered to  
the masses in ,illinois1 ,michigan1     
,ohio1 and ,missouri4 ,chicago has      
remained since that time one of the     
centres of ,american architecture1 and  
the sthetic level of the entire ,west   
was raised1 although it is still below  
that of the ,eastern ,states4 ,and once 
more1 after a very short pause1 ,st4    
,louis is ambitious enough to try the   
bold experiment which ,new ,york and    
,boston1 like ,berlin and ,munich1 have 
always avoided4 ,the ,world's ,fair at  
,st4 ,louis will surely give new impetus
 to ,american art1 and especially to the
 artistic endeavour of the ,western     
,states4  ,if a feeling for art is      
really to pervade the people1 the       
influence must not begin when persons   
are old enough to visit a world's fair1 
but rather in childhood4 ,the           
instruction in drawing1 or rather in    

art1 since drawing is only one of the   
branches1 must undertake the sthetic    
education of the youth in school4 ,it   
cannot be denied that ,america has more 
need of such sthetic training of        
children than ,germany4 ,the            
,anglo-,saxon love of sport leads the   
youth almost solely to the bodily games 
which stimulate the fancy much less than
 the ,german games of children1 and     
other influences are also lacking to    
direct the children's emotional life in 
the road of sthetic pleasure4 ,on the   
other hand1 it must be admitted that the
 problem has been well solved in        
,america4 ,the ,american art training in
 school1 say on the ,prang system1 which
 more than #bj1jjj teachers are using in
 class instruction1 is a true           
development of the natural sense of     
beauty4 ,the child learns to observe1   
learns technique1 learns the value of   
lines and colours1 and learns1 more than
 all1 to create beauty4 ,in place of    
merely copying he divides and fills a   

given space harmoniously1 and so little 
by little goes on to make small works of
 art4 ,generations which have enjoyed   
such influences must look on their      
environment with new eyes1 and even in  
the poorest surroundings instinctively  
transform what they have1 in the        
interests of beauty4  ,corresponding to 
these popular stimulations of the sense 
of beauty is the wish to decorate the   
surroundings of daily life1 most of all 
the interior2 even in more modest       
circles to make them bright1 pleasing1  
and livable1 whereas they have too long 
been bare and meaningless4 ,the arts and
 crafts have taken great steps forward1 
have gotten the services of true        
artists1 and accomplished wonderful     
results4 ,the glittering glasses of     
,tiffany and many other things from his 
world-famous studios are unsurpassed4   
,there are also the wonderfully         
attractive silver objects of ,gorham1   
the clay vases of the ,rockwood         
,pottery1 objects in cut-glass and      

pearl1 furniture in ,old ,english and   
,colonial designs1 and much else of a   
similar nature4 ,and for the artistic   
sense it is more significant and        
important that at last even the cheap   
fabrics manufactured for the large      
masses reveal more and more an          
appreciation of beauty4 ,even the cheap 
furniture and ornaments have to-day     
considerable character2 and no less     
characteristic is the general demand1   
which is much greater than that of      
,europe1 for ,oriental rugs4 ,the       
extravagant display of flowers in the   
large cities1 the splendid parks and    
park-ways such as surround ,boston1 the 
beautification of landscapes which      
,charles ,eliot has so admirably        
effected1 and in social life the        
increasing fondness for coloured and    
sthetic symbols1 such as the gay        
academic costumes1 the beautiful        
typography and book-bindings1 and a     
thousand other things of the same sort1 
indicate a fresh1 vigorous1 and intense 

appreciation of beauty4  ,while such a  
sense for visible beauty has been       
developed by the wealth and the artistic
 instruction of the country1 one special
 condition more has affected not only   
the fine arts but also poetry and       
literature4 ,this is the development of 
the national feeling1 which more than   
anything else has stimulated literary   
and artistic life4 ,the ,american feels 
that he has entered the exclusive circle
 of world powers1 and must like the best
 of them realize and express his own    
nature4 ,he is conscious of a mission1  
and the national feeling is unified much
 less by a common past than by a common 
ideal for the future4 ,his national     
feeling is not sentimental1 but         
aggressive2 the ,american knows that his
 goal is to become typically ,american4 
,all this gives him the courage to be   
individual1 to have his own points of   
view1 and since he has now studied      
history and mastered technique1 this    
means no longer to be odd and freakish1 

but to be truly original and creative4  
,he is now for the first time thoroughly
 aware what a wealth of artistic        
problems is offered by his own          
continent1 by his history1 by his       
surroundings1 and by his social         
conditions4 ,and just as ,american      
science has been most successful in     
developing the history1 geography1      
geology1 zology1 and anthropology of the
 ,american ,continent1 so now his new   
art and literature are looking about for
 ,american material4  ,his hopes are    
high2 he sees indications of a new art  
approaching which will excite the       
admiration of the world4 ,he feels that 
the great writer is not far off who will
 express the ,new ,world in the great   
,american novel4 ,who shall say that    
these hopes may not be realized         
to-morrow8 ,for it is certain that he   
enjoys an unusual combination of        
favourable conditions for developing a  
world force4 ,here are a people         
thoroughly educated in the appreciation 

of literature and art--a people in the  
hey-day of success1 with their national 
feeling growing1 and having1 by reason  
of their economic prosperity1 the       
amplest means for encouraging art2 a    
people who find in their own country    
untold treasures of artistic and        
literary problems1 and who in the       
structure of their government and       
customs favour talent wherever it is    
found2 a people who have learned much in
 cosmopolitan studies and to-day have   
mastered every technique1 who have      
absorbed the temperament and ambitions  
of the most diverse races and yet       
developed their own consistent1 national
 consciousness1 in which indomitable    
will1 fertile invention1 ,puritan       
morals1 and irrepressible humour form a 
combination that has never before been  
known4 ,the times seem ripe for         
something great4                        
,,chapter ,,twenty                      
,religion   ,the individualistic        
conception of life and the religious    

conceptions of the world favour each    
other4 ,the more that an individual's   
religious temperament sees this earthly 
life merely as a preparation for the    
heavenly1 the more he puts all his      
efforts into the development of his     
individual personality4 ,general        
concepts1 civilizations1 and political  
powers cannot1 as such1 enter the gates 
of heaven2 and the perfection of the    
individual soul is the only thing which 
makes for eternal salvation4 ,on the    
other hand1 the more deeply             
individualism and the desire for        
self-perfection have taken hold on a    
person1 so much the deeper is his       
conviction that the short shrift before 
death is not the whole meaning of human 
existence1 and that his craving for     
personal development hints at an        
existence beyond this world4 ,through   
such individualism1 it is true1 religion
 is in a sense narrowed2 the idea of    
immortality is unduly emphasized4 ,yet  
the whole life of an individualistic    

nation is necessarily religious4 ,the   
entire ,american people are in fact     
profoundly religious1 and have been from
 the day when the ,pilgrim ,fathers     
landed1 down to the present moment4  ,on
 the other hand1 individualism cannot   
decide whether we ought to look on ,god 
with fear or with joy1 to conceive ,him 
as revengeful or benevolent1 to think   
human nature sinful or good4 ,the two   
most independent ,american thinkers of  
the eighteenth century1 ,jonathan       
,edwards and ,benjamin ,franklin1       
represent here the two extremes4 ,the   
men who have made ,american history and 
culture took in early times the point of
 view of ,edwards1 but take to-day      
rather that of ,franklin4  ,can it be   
said that ,america is really religious  
to-day8 ,from first impressions1 a      
,european may judge the opposite2 first 
and most of all1 he observes that the   
government does not concern itself with 
the church4 ,article ,,vi of the        
,constitution expressly forbids the     

filling of any office or any political  
position of honour in the ,united       
,states being made dependent on         
religion1 and the first amendment adds  
that ,congress may never pass a law     
aiming to establish any official        
religion or to hinder religious freedom4
 ,this provision of the ,constitution is
 closely followed in the ,constitutions 
of the several states4 ,the government  
has nothing to do with the church2 that 
is1 the church lacks the powerful       
support of the state which it receives  
in all monarchical countries2 and in    
fact the state interprets this          
neutrality prescribed by the            
,constitution so rigorously that1 for   
example1 statistics of religious        
adherence for the last great census were
 obtained from the church organizations1
 because the state has not the right to 
inquire into the religious faith of     
citizens4 ,ecclesiastics pass no state  
examinations to show their fitness to   
preach2 millions of people belong to no 

church organization2 the lower masses   
are not reached by any church1 and the  
public schools have no religious        
instruction4 ,it might thus appear as if
 the whole country were as indifferent  
to religion as ,european humourists have
 declared it to be1 in saying that the  
,almighty ,dollar is the ,american's    
only god4  ,on looking more closely1 one
 finds very soon that the opposite is   
the case4 ,although it is true that the 
state is not concerned with religion1   
yet this provision of the ,constitution 
in no wise signifies any wish to        
encourage religious indifference4 ,the  
states which united to form the         
,federation were profoundly religious2  
both ,protestants and ,catholics had    
come to the ,new ,world to find         
religious freedom1 had made great       
renunciations to live in their faith    
untroubled by the persecutions of the   
,old ,world1 and every sect of ,europe  
had adherents on this side of the ocean4
 ,not a few of the states were1 in their

 general temperament1 actually          
theocratic4 ,not only in ,puritan ,new  
,england had the church all the power in
 her hands1 but in the colony of        
,virginia1 the seat of the ,english     
,high-,churchmen1 it was originally the 
law that one who remained twice away    
from church was flogged1 and on the     
third time punished with death4 ,when   
,america broke away from ,england1      
almost every state had its special and  
pronounced religious complexion4 ,the   
majority of the population in the       
separate colonies had generally forced  
their religion on the whole community1  
and religious interests were everywhere 
in the foreground4  ,although1 finally1 
,jefferson's proposition                
constitutionally to separate church and 
state was accepted1 this move is not to 
be interpreted as indifference1 but     
rather as a wish to avoid religious     
conflicts4 ,in view of such pronounced  
differences as those between ,puritans1 
,quakers1 ,high-,churchmen1 ,catholics1 

etc41 the establishment of any church as
 a state institution would have required
 a subordination of the other sects     
which would have been felt as           
suppression4 ,the separation of the     
church from the state simply meant      
freedom for every sect4 ,then1 too1 not 
all the separate states followed the    
federal precedent2 the ,new ,england    
,states especially favoured1 by their   
taxation laws1 the ,calvinistic faith   
until the beginning of the nineteenth   
century2 and ,massachusetts was the last
 to introduce complete religious        
neutrality1 as lately as #ahcc4 ,in the 
,southern ,states1 the relations between
 church and state were more easily      
severed2 and in the ,middle ,states1    
even during colonial times1 there was   
general religious freedom4  ,whether or 
not the separation was rapid or slow1 or
 whether it took place under the passive
 submission1 or through the active      
efforts of the clergy1 the churches     
everywhere soon became the warmest      

supporter of this new condition of      
things4 ,all the clergy found that in   
this way the interests of religion were 
best preserved4 ,the state does nothing 
to-day for the churches except by way of
 laws in single states against blasphemy
 and the disturbance of religious       
worship1 and by the recognition1 but not
 the requirement1 of church marriage4   
,there are also remnants of the         
connection in the recognized duty of the
 ,president to appoint the annual day of
 ,thanksgiving1 and in cases of signal  
danger to appoint days of fasting and   
prayer1 and one more remnant in the fact
 that the legislatures are opened by    
daily prayer4 ,otherwise1 the state and 
church move in separate dimensions of   
space1 as it were1 and there is no      
attempt to change this condition4  ,it  
was1 therefore1 no case of an orthodox  
minority being forced to content itself 
with an unchurchly state2 but neither   
party nor sect nor state had the        
slightest wish to see church and state  

united4 ,the appreciation of this mutual
 independence is so great that public   
opinion turns at once against any church
 which tries to exert a political       
influence1 whether by supporting a      
certain political body in local         
elections or by trying to obtain public 
moneys for its educational institutions 
and hospitals4 ,when1 for instance1 the 
principal anti-,catholic organization1  
the so-called ,american ,protective     
,association1 became regrettably        
wide-spread1 it got its strength1 not   
from any ,protestant ecclesiastical     
opposition1 but only from the political 
antipathy against that church which     
seemed the most inclined to introduce   
such un-,american side influences in    
party politics4 ,every one felt that a  
great ,american principle was there at  
stake4  ,thus the legal status of the   
churches is that of a large private     
corporation1 and nobody is required to  
connect himself with any church4        
,special ecclesiastical legislation is1 

therefore1 superfluous2 every church may
 organize1 appoint officers1 and        
regulate its property matters and       
disciplinary questions as it likes1 and 
any disputed points are settled by civil
 law1 as in the case of all             
corporations4 ,just as with business    
companies1 a certain sort of collective 
responsibility is required2 but the     
competition between churches1 as between
 industrial corporations1 is unhampered1
 and the relation of the individual to  
his church is that of ordinary contract4
 ,one hundred and forty-eight different 
sects appeal to-day for public favour4  
,to the ,european this sounds at first  
like secularization1 like a lowering of 
the church to the level of a stock      
company--like profanation4 ,and still no
 ,catholic bishop nor ,orthodox minister
 would wish it different4 ,now how does 
this come about8  ,in the first place   
individualism has even here victoriously
 carried through its desire for         
self-determination4 ,nobody is bound to 

belong to any congregation1 and one who 
belongs is therefore willing to submit  
himself to its organization1 to         
subscribe to its by-laws1 and to support
 its expenditures4 ,nobody pays public  
taxes for any church1 nor is under      
ecclesiastical authority which he does  
not freely recognize4 ,the church is1   
therefore1 essentially relieved of any  
suspicion of interfering with individual
 freedom4 ,the individual himself is for
 the same reason not only free to adopt 
or to reject religion1 but also to      
express his personal views in any form  
or creed whatsoever4 ,only where the    
church exercises no authority on thought
 or conscience can it be supported by   
the spirit of self-determination4 ,thus1
 the ,mennonite ,church has already     
developed twelve sects1 the ,baptist    
thirteen1 the ,methodist seventeen1 and 
all of these are equally countenanced4  
,at the same time the reproach can never
 be made that the church owes its       
success to the assistance of the state3 

what it does is by its own might2 and so
 its success is thoroughly intrinsic and
 genuine1 its zeal is quickened1 and its
 whole activities kept apart from the   
world of political strife and directed  
toward ideals4  ,the church which is not
 supported by any written laws of the   
state is not1 for that reason1 dependent
 alone on the religious ideals of its   
adherents1 but also on the unwritten law
 of the social community4 ,the less the 
authority of the state1 the more the    
society as a whole realizes its duties2 
and while society remains indifferent as
 long as religion is enforced by        
external means1 it becomes energetic as 
soon as it feels itself responsible for 
the general religious situation4 ,the   
church has had no greater fortune than  
in having religion made independent of  
the state and made the affair of society
 at large4 ,here an obligation could be 
developed1 which is perhaps more firm   
and energetic than that of the state1   
but which is nevertheless not felt as an

 interference1 firstly1 because the     
political individual is untouched1 and  
secondly1 because the allegiance to a   
certain social class is not             
predetermined1 but becomes the goal and 
the honourable achievement of the       
individual4 ,of course1 even the social 
obligation would not have developed had 
there not been a deep religious         
consciousness living in the people2 but 
such individual piety has been able to  
take much deeper root in a soil socially
 so favourable4 ,a religiously inclined 
population1 which has made churchliness 
a social and not a political obligation1
 affords the ,american church the most  
favourable condition for its success    
that could be imagined4  ,one may see   
even from the grouping of sects1 how    
much the church is supported by society4
 ,if anywhere democracy seems natural1  
it should be in the eyes of ,god2 and   
yet1 if ,americans show anywhere social 
demarcations1 it is in the province of  
religion4 ,this is true1 not only of    

different churches where the expense of 
membership is so unequal that in large  
cities rich and poor are farther apart  
on ,sundays than on week-days1 but it is
 true of the sects themselves4          
,methodists and ,episcopalians or       
,baptists and ,unitarians form in       
general utterly different social groups1
 and one of these sects is socially     
predominant in one section of the       
country1 another in another4 ,but just  
because religious differences are so    
closely related to the differences      
existing in the social world1 the       
relations between the sects are         
thoroughly friendly4 ,each has its      
natural sphere4  ,it is certain that the
 large number of sects are helpful in   
this direction1 since they make the     
distinction between related faiths      
extremely small1 sometimes even         
unintelligible to all except the        
theological epicure2 and1 indeed1 they  
often rest on purely local or ancestral 
distinctions4 ,thus the ,german         

,reformed and the ,dutch ,reformed      
churches are called two sects1 and even 
the ,african ,methodist ,episcopalians  
and the ,coloured ,methodist            
,episcopalians wish to be distinguished 
from each other as from the other negro 
sects4 ,where large parties oppose each 
other1 a war for principles can break   
out2 but where the religions merge into 
one another through many small          
gradations1 the consciousness of        
difference is less likely to be joined  
to any feeling of opposition4 ,the real 
opponent of churches is the common      
enemy1 the atheist1 although the more   
straitlaced congregations are not quite 
sure that the ,unitarians1 who are most 
nearly comparable to members of the     
,german ,protestantenverein1 are not    
best classed with the atheists4 ,and1   
lastly1 envy and jealousy do not belong 
to the ,american optimistic temperament1
 which does not grudge another his      
success4 ,thus everything works together
 to make the churches get on peacefully 

with one another4 ,the religion of the  
country stretches from one end to the   
other1 like a brilliant and many-hued   
rainbow4  ,the commingling of church and
 society is shown everywhere4 ,the      
church is popular1 religious worship is 
observed in the home1 the minister is   
esteemed1 divine worship is well        
attended1 the work of the church is     
generously supported1 and the cause of  
religion is favoured by the social      
community4 ,these outlines may now be   
filled in by a few details4 ,the        
,american grows up with a knowledge of  
the ,bible4 ,the church1                
,sabbath-school1 and the home influences
 work together2 a true piety rules in   
every farm-house1 and whosoever supposes
 this to be in anywise hypocrisy has no 
notion of the actual conditions4 ,in    
many city homes of artisans the         
occupants do not know the ,bible and do 
not wish to know it2 but they are in    
nowise hypocritical1 and in the country 
at large religion is so firmly rooted   

that people are much more likely to make
 sham pretences of general enlightenment
 than of religious belief4 ,thus1 it is 
mostly a matter of course that          
festivals1 banquets1 and other meetings 
which in ,germany would not call for any
 religious demonstration whatsoever1 are
 opened and closed by prayer4 ,religious
 discussions are carried on with        
animation in every class of society1 and
 one who travels about through the      
country finds that business and religion
 are the two great topics of            
conversation1 while after them come     
politics4 ,it is only among individuals 
who are so religiously disposed1 that   
such vagaries of the supernatural       
consciousness1 as spiritualism1 healing 
by prayer1 etc41 could excite so much   
interest4 ,but also normal religious    
questions interest an incomparably large
 circle of people2 nine hundred         
ecclesiastical newspapers and magazines 
are regularly published and circulated  
by the millions4  ,we have said1        

furthermore1 that divine service is well
 attended1 and that clergymen are highly
 esteemed4 ,in the non-political life1  
especially in the ,east1 the great      
preachers are among the most influential
 people of the day4 ,the most brilliant 
ecclesiastic of recent decades was1 by  
common consent1 ,phillips ,brooks1 by   
whose speech and personality every one  
was attracted and ennobled2 and it has  
often been said that at his death1 a few
 years ago1 the country mourned as never
 before since the death of ,lincoln4 ,no
 one equal to him has appeared since1   
but there are many ministers whose      
ethical influence must be accounted     
among the great factors of public life2 
and this is true1 not only of the       
,protestant ministers1 but also of      
several ,catholic ecclesiastics4  ,the  
same is true in the more modest         
communities4 ,the influence of the      
preacher is more profound in small      
communities of ,america than it is in   
,germany4 ,but it is weakened at once if

 the representative of the church       
descends to politics4 ,he is welcomed as
 an appropriate fellow-worker only in   
questions that border both on politics  
and on morals--as1 for instance1 the    
temperance question4 ,the high position 
of the clergy is interestingly shown    
from the fact that the profession is    
very often recruited from the best      
classes of society4 ,owing to the       
,american effort to obliterate social   
differentiation as much as possible1 it 
is difficult to make sure of the facts  
of the situation2 but it seems pretty   
certain that the men who study for the  
ministry1 especially in the             
,episcopalian1 ,presbyterian1           
,congregational1 and ,unitarian         
churches1 are better born than the men  
who become school teachers and          
physicians4  ,the preacher steps into   
the pulpit and faces his hearers in a   
way which is typically ,american4 ,of   
course1 it is impossible to reduce the  
ministerial bearing in the #aid1jjj     

churches of the country to a single     
formula2 but one thing may always be    
noted1 by the ,european1 in contrast to 
what he has seen at home--the obvious   
reference of the sermon to the worldly  
interests of the congregation4 ,its     
outer form already shows this2 the      
similes and metaphors are borrowed from 
ordinary and even vulgar life1 the      
applications are often trivial1 but     
forcible and striking1 and even         
anecdotes are introduced and given in   
colloquial form4 ,more than that1 the   
topic itself is chosen so as to concern 
personally nearly every one sitting in  
the pews2 the latest vexation or        
disappointment1 the cherished hope1 or  
the duty lying nearest to the individual
 forms the starting-point of the sermon1
 and the words of the ,bible are brought
 home to the needs of the hearers like  
an expected guest4 ,the preacher does   
not try to lure the soul away from daily
 life1 but he tries to bring something  
higher into that life and there to make 

it living2 and if he is the right sort  
of a preacher1 this never works as a    
cheapening of what is divine1 but as an 
exaltation of what is human4  ,doubtless
 it is just on this account that the    
church is so popular and the services so
 well attended4 ,to be sure1 frequently 
the minister is a sensational pulpit    
elocutionist1 who exploits the latest   
scandal or the newest question of the   
day in order to interest the public and 
attract the curious to church4 ,often   
the worldly quality of the sermon tends 
to another form of depreciation4 ,the   
sermon becomes a lecture in general     
culture1 a scientific dissertation1 or  
an educational exercise4 ,of course1 the
 abandonment of the strictly religious  
form of sermon brings many temptations  
to all except the best preachers2 yet1  
in general1 the ,american sermon is     
unusually powerful4  ,the popularity of 
the church does not depend only on the  
applicability of the sermon1 but in part
 on social factors which are not nearly 

so strong in any part of ,europe4 ,if   
the congregation desires to bring the   
general public to church1 it will gain  
its end most surely by offering         
attractions of a religiously indifferent
 nature4 ,these attractions may         
indirectly assist the moral work of the 
church1 although their immediate motive 
is to stimulate church-going4 ,the man  
who goes to church merely in order to   
hear the excellent music has necessarily
 to listen to the sermon2 and one who   
joins the church for the sake of its    
secular advantages is at least in that  
way detained from the frivolous         
enjoyments of irreligious circles4      
,thus1 the church has gradually become a
 social centre with functions which are 
as unknown in ,germany as the 8parlours0
 which belong to every church in        
,america4 ,the means of social          
attraction must naturally be adapted to 
the character of the congregation2 the  
picnics which are popular in the small  
towns1 with their raffles and social    

games1 their lemonade and cake1 would   
not be appropriate to the wealthy       
churches on ,fifth ,avenue4 ,in the     
large cities1 sthetic attractions must  
be substituted--splendid windows1 soft  
carpets1 fine music1 elegant costumes1  
and fashionable bazars for charity's    
sake4  ,but the social enjoyment        
consists not solely in what goes on     
within the walls of the church1 but     
specially in the small cities and rural 
districts the church is the mediator of 
almost all social intercourse4 ,a person
 who moves to a new part of the town or 
to an entirely new village1 allies      
himself to some congregation if he is of
 the middle classes1 in order to form   
social connections2 and this is the more
 natural since1 in the religious as in  
the social life of ,america1 the women  
are the most active part of the family4 
,even the ,young ,men's ,christian      
,associations and similar social        
organizations under church auspices play
 an important rle utterly unlike        

anything in ,europe4 ,in ,germany such  
organizations are popularly accounted   
flabby1 and their very name has a stale 
flavour4 ,in ,america they are the      
centres of social activity1 even in     
large cities1 and have an extraordinary 
influence on the hundreds of thousands  
of members who meet together in the     
splendid club buildings1 and who are as 
much interested in sport and education  
as in religion4  ,how fully the church  
dominates social life may be seen in the
 prevalent custom of church weddings4   
,the state does not make a civil wedding
 obligatory4 ,as soon as the local civil
 board has officially licensed the      
married couple1 the wedding may legally 
be performed either by a civil officer  
or by a minister2 yet it is a matter of 
course with the great majority of the   
population that the rings shall be      
exchanged before the altar4 ,an avowed  
atheist is not received in any social   
circles above that of the ordinary      
saloon1 and while a politician need not 

fear that his particular religion will  
prevent his being supported by the      
members of other churches1 he has no    
prospects for election to any office if 
he should be found an actual            
materialist4 ,when ,ingersoll1 who was  
the great confessed atheist of the      
country1 travelled from city to city for
 many years preaching somewhat          
grotesquely and with the looseness of a 
political agitator1 the arguments of    
,david ,friedrich ,strauss1 in return   
for an admission price1 he found        
everywhere large audiences for his      
striking oratory1 but very few believers
 among all the curious listeners4  ,the 
man who is convinced that this          
mechanical interaction of material      
forces is the whole reality of the      
world1 and who therefore in his soul    
recognizes no connection between his    
will and a moral or spiritual power--in 
short1 the man who does not believe     
something1 no matter whether he has     
learned it from the church or from      

philosophy--is regarded by the typical  
,american as a curious sort of person   
and of an inferior type2 the ,american  
does not quite understand what such a   
man means by his life4 ,by picturing to 
one's self the history of ,america as   
the history of a people descended from  
those who have been religiously         
persecuted1 and who have made a home for
 such as are persecuted1 ever since the 
days when the 8,mayflower0 landed with  
the ,puritans down to these days when   
the ,jews are flocking over the ocean   
from ,russia and the ,armenians from    
,turkey1 and by picturing how this      
people have had to open up and master   
the country by hard fighting and hard   
work1 and how they were therefore       
constrained to a rigid sense of duty1 a 
serious conception of life1 and an      
existence almost devoid of pleasure1 and
 how now all historical and social      
traditions and all educational          
influences strengthen the belief in ,god
 and the striving for the soul's        

salvation--one sees that it cannot be   
otherwise1 and that the moral certainty 
of the nation cannot be shaken by       
so-called arguments4  ,it is true1 of   
course1 that one hears on all sides     
complaints against the increasing       
ungodliness2 and it is not to be denied 
that the proletariat of the large cities
 is for the most part outside of the    
church4 ,the population which owns no   
church allegiance is estimated at five  
millions1 but among these there is a    
relatively large fraction of indifferent
 persons1 who are too lazy to go to     
church2 a free-thinking animosity to    
religion is uncommon4 ,the ,american who
 feels that his church no longer        
corresponds to his own belief has an    
ample opportunity to choose among all   
the many sects one which is just adapted
 to himself4 ,he will leave his own     
church in order to join some other      
straightway2 but even if he leaves      
church attendance in future to his wife 
and daughters1 or if he with his whole  

family leaves the congregation1 this    
generally means that he can serve ,god  
without a minister4 ,real irreligion    
does not fit his character2 and any     
doubt which science may perhaps occasion
 in him ends1 not by shaking his        
religion1 but by making it more liberal4
 ,this process of increasing freedom    
from dogma and of intellectualization of
 the church goes on steadily in the     
upper classes of society4 ,the          
development of the ,unitarian ,church   
out of ,orthodox ,calvinism has been    
most influential on the intellectual    
life of the nation1 but its fundamental 
religious tone has not been lessened    
thereby4  ,to be churchly means not only
 to comply with the ordinances of the   
church1 but to contribute to the funds  
of the church and to give one's labour4 
,and since the state does not impose any
 taxes in the interests of the church1  
material support is wholly dependent on 
the good will of the community4 ,in     
fact1 lay activity is everywhere        

helpful4 ,of this the ,sunday-schools   
are typical1 which are visited by eight 
million children1 and supported         
everywhere by the willing labour of     
unpaid teachers4 ,the known property    
belonging to churches is estimated at   
seven hundred million dollars1 and the  
rental of seats brings them handsome    
incomes4 ,more than this1 all church    
property is exempt from taxation4       
,nevertheless1 so many ecclesiastical   
needs remain unsatisfied that a great   
deal of money has to be raised by       
mite-boxes1 official subscriptions1 and 
bequests1 in order for the churches to  
meet their expenses2 and they seldom beg
 in vain4 ,members of the congregations 
carry on their shoulders the missions   
among the irreligious population in     
large cities and the heathen of foreign 
lands1 the expense of church buildings1 
and of schools and hospitals belonging  
to the sect1 and the salaries of        
ministers4 ,the theological faculties   
are likewise church institutions1       

whether they are formally connected with
 universities or not4 ,there are to-day 
#aed such seminaries1 and this number   
has for some time remained almost       
unchanged4 ,in #ahgj there were only    
#hj1 but there were #adb in #ahhj1 and  
#ade in #ahij4 ,it appears from the     
statistics that1 of the present #aed1   
only #ba have more than a hundred       
students1 while twelve have less than   
ten students4 ,the total number of      
students was #h1jji1 and of teachers    
#iid4 ,the property of these theological
 seminaries amounts to thirty-four      
million dollars1 and more than a million
 was given them during the last year4   
,the pedagogical function of the church 
is not limited to the ,sunday-school for
 children and the seminaries for        
ministers2 but in these two branches it 
has a monopoly1 while in all other      
fields1 from the elementary school to   
the university1 it competes with secular
 institutions1 or more exactly1 it      
complements their work4 ,we have already

 shown how important a rle private      
initiative plays in the educational life
 of the ,united ,states1 and it is only 
natural that such private institutions  
should be welcomed by a part of the     
public when they bear the sanction of   
one or another religious faith4 ,there  
are grammar schools1 high schools1      
colleges1 and universities of the most  
diverse sects to meet this need2 and    
their relation to religion itself is    
equally diverse1 and ranges from a very 
close to a very loose one4 ,boston      
,college1 for instance1 is an excellent 
,catholic institution consisting of a   
high school and college under the       
instruction of ,jesuits1 in which the   
education is at every moment strongly   
sectarian4 ,the university of ,chicago1 
on the other hand1 is nominally a       
,baptist institution3 yet nobody asks   
whether a professor who is to be        
appointed is a ,baptist2 no student is  
conscious of its ,baptist character1 and
 no lectures give any indication        

thereof4 ,its ,baptist quality is       
limited to the statute that the         
president of the university and         
two-thirds of the board of overseers    
must be ,baptists1 as was the founder of
 the institution4  ,while among the     
larger universities1 ,harvard1          
,columbia1 ,johns ,hopkins1 ,princeton1 
,cornell1 and all state universities1   
are officially independent of any sect1 
,yale is1 for instance1 said to be      
,congregational1 although neither       
teachers nor students trouble themselves
 with the question4 ,the smaller        
colleges have a much more truly         
sectarian character2 and there is no    
doubt that this is approved by large    
circles1 especially in the ,middle and  
,western ,states4 ,the sectarian        
colleges outnumber the non-sectarian2   
and1 to take a random example1 we may   
note that in the state of ,michigan the 
,state ,university at ,ann ,arbor is    
independent of sect1 while ,adrian      
,college is ,methodist1 ,albion ,college

 ,episcopalian1 ,alma ,college          
,presbyterian1 ,detroit ,college        
,catholic1 ,hilledale ,college ,baptist1
 ,hope ,college ,reformed1 and ,olivet  
,college is ,congregational4 ,this      
inclination1 especially noticeable in   
country districts1 to a religious       
education however so slightly coloured1 
shows how deeply religion pervades the  
whole people4  ,to follow the separate  
religions and their diverse religious   
offshoots cannot be our purpose2 we must
 be content with a few superficial      
outlines4 ,there is no really new       
religious thought to record2 an         
,american religion has1 so far1 not     
appeared4 ,the history of the church in 
the ,new ,world has only to report how  
,european religions have grown under new
 conditions4 ,the apparently new        
associations are only unimportant       
variations4 ,some enthusiasts have      
appeared from time to time to preach a  
new religion with original distortions  
of the moral or social sense1 but they  

have expressed no moral yearning of the 
time1 and have remained without any deep
 influence4 ,this rests in good part on 
the conservative nature of ,americans4  
,they snatch enthusiastically at the    
newest improvements and the most modern 
reform1 but it must be a reform and not 
a revolution4 ,the historical continuity
 must be preserved4 ,the ,mormons1 the  
,spiritualists1 and the adherents of    
,christian ,science might1 with some    
propriety1 be called pure ,american     
sects2 but although all three of these  
excite much public curiosity1 they have 
no importance among those religions     
which are making the civilization of the
 present moment4  ,the religions of the 
,united ,states which have the most     
communicants are the ,methodist1        
,baptist1 and ,roman ,catholic4 ,the    
religions1 however1 which have had the  
most important influence on culture are 
the ,congregational1 ,episcopalian1     
,presbyterian1 and ,unitarian4 ,besides 
these1 there are the ,lutheran1 the     

,reformed1 and the ,jewish churches2 all
 the other denominations are small and  
uninfluential4 ,the churches which we   
have named can be more or less          
distinguished by their locality1        
although they are represented in almost 
every state4 ,the ,congregationalists   
and ,unitarians are specially numerous  
in the ,new ,england ,states1 the       
,episcopalians and ,presbyterians in    
,new ,york and ,pennsylvania1 while the 
,methodists are specially strong in the 
,south1 the ,baptists in the ,middle    
,west1 and the ,catholics all through   
the ,east4 ,such special demarcation    
rests firstly on the relation of the    
churches to different races which have  
settled in different places2 the        
,episcopalians and ,congregationalists  
are mainly ,english1 the ,presbyterians 
are ,scotch1 the ,catholics are ,irish  
and ,south ,german1 the ,lutherans are  
,north ,german and ,scandinavian1 the   
,reformed ,church is ,german and ,dutch1
 and ,methodism has spread widely among 

the negroes4  ,in close connection      
herewith are the social distinctions4   
,the ,methodist1 ,baptist1 and ,catholic
 religions are specially religions of   
the masses2 the others are more         
exclusive4 ,it is especially those      
religions of the lower classes which    
yield to every tendency toward breaking 
up into sects2 only ,catholicism        
maintains a firm unity in the ,new as in
 the ,old ,world4  ,the old ,calvinistic
 faith which was brought over by the    
,puritans to the ,new ,england colonies 
still lives in the ,congregational      
,church4 ,this church has played a      
greater political part than any other   
from the colonial days1 when no one     
could vote who was not a communicant1   
down to the time when it took an active 
stand against slavery4 ,its expansion   
was limited by an agreement with the    
,presbyterian ,church2 only since this  
was given up1 has it entered all the    
states of the ,union4 ,and yet to-day   
there are in ,massachusetts almost #gjj 

,congregational church buildings1 and   
#djj in the small ,state of             
,connecticut2 but only #cjj in the      
,state of ,new ,york1 #ajj in           
,pennsylvania1 a few in the ,west1 and  
still fewer in the ,south4  ,as in the  
case of all churches1 the proportion of 
the population belonging to this church 
can only be approximately given4 ,since 
the official census may ask no questions
 concerning religion1 we have to rely on
 the figures of the church itself1 which
 regularly refer to the actual members  
in the congregations4 ,now in these     
,evangelical1 ,catholic1 and ,jewish    
congregations1 the conditions for       
membership are so unlike that the       
figures are not directly comparable2 and
 even among the ,evangelical churches1  
it is clearly false to find the total   
number of souls allied to that church1  
as this is usually found1 by multiplying
 the number of communicants by some     
average figure1 like #c4e4 ,in view of  
the social and ethnical differences     

between these churches1 the percentage  
of children1 for instance1 is very      
different4 ,it may be said then1        
although with caution1 that the         
,congregational population embraces     
about two million souls2 but their      
importance in the shaping of ,american  
civilization has greatly exceeded their 
numerical representation4 ,the spirit of
 this church has lent ethical           
seriousness and a vigorous sense of duty
 to the whole nation4 ,it has founded   
the first schools1 and is responsible   
for the independence of the country4    
,it is even more necessary to weigh the 
votes and not to count them1 when we    
speak of the optimistic daughter church 
of austere ,calvinism1 the ,unitarian4  
,probably not more than one quarter of a
 million persons belong to the          
,unitarian ,church2 but the influence of
 these people on literature and life1   
science and philosophy1 has been        
incomparable4 ,the church has existed   
officially since #ahae1 although the new

 faith began to spread much earlier     
within the ,calvinistic ,church itself4 
,there is nothing theologically new     
here1 since the main teachings1 that the
 ,trinity is only a dogma1 that ,god is 
,one1 and that ,christ was an exemplary 
man but not ,god1 go back1 of course1 to
 the fourth century4 ,these are the     
,arian ideas1 which have also been held 
in ,europe in times past4 ,the          
significance of the ,american           
,trinitarian controversy does not lie in
 the province of theology4 ,in a sense1 
the ,unitarian ,church has no binding   
belief1 but aims only to be an influence
 of ever-increasing faith in ,god1 which
 welcomes investigation1 advance1 and   
difference of individual thought1 within
 the unity of a moral and ideal view of 
the universe4  ,thus it has been an     
entirely natural development1 for       
example1 for the theological faculty of 
,harvard ,university to go over from the
 ,congregational to the ,unitarian faith
 as early as the second decade of the   

last century1 and in recent times to    
become non-sectarian and broadly        
,christian1 filling its professional    
chairs with theologians of the most     
diverse denominations4 ,the significance
 for civilization does not lie in the   
,unitarian view of ,god1 but in its     
anti-,calvinistic conception of man4    
,this church says that man is not       
naturally sinful1 but1 being the image  
of ,god1 is naturally good1 and that the
 salvation of his soul is not determined
 by a predestination of divine grace1   
but by his own right-willing4 ,channing 
was the ,unitarian leader1 and the      
thinkers and writers in the middle of   
the century followed in his footsteps4  
,their work was a source of moral       
optimism4 ,this confession has          
necessarily remained small by reason of 
its radical theology1 which too little  
satisfies the imagination of the        
profoundly pious2 but the ,unitarian    
ideas have come everywhere into the     
worship of aristocratic churches4  ,the 

,episcopalian faith1 which is ,english  
,protestantism1 came to the shores of   
the ,new ,world even earlier than the   
faith of ,calvin4 ,the ,english faith   
was organized in ,virginia as early as  
#afjg1 and for a long time no other     
faith was even tolerated2 and in the    
middle colonies the ,english ,high      
,church spread rapidly under the        
influence of many missionaries from     
,england4 ,the secession of the colonies
 from the mother country was destined to
 bring a check1 but soon after the war  
the ,episcopalian ,church of ,america   
organized itself independently1 and grew
 steadily through the ,east4 ,it has    
to-day seventy-five bishops4 ,it is     
governed by a council which meets every 
three years in two divisions--an upper1 
which consists of bishops1 and a lower1 
composed of delegates sent from the     
various dioceses4 ,the diocese elects   
its own bishop4 ,their creed is1 to all 
intents and purposes1 identical with    
that of the ,church of ,england1 and    

some two million souls are affiliated   
with this church4  ,also the            
,presbyterian ,church of the ,new ,world
 goes back to the seventeenth century2  
it was first definitely organized in the
 beginning of the eighteenth1 under     
,scotch and ,irish influences4 ,it      
stands on a ,calvinistic foundation1 but
 the church government is the           
distinguishing feature2 at its head are 
the elders1 the ,presbyters4 ,twelve    
different sects have grown out of this  
church--as1 for instance1 the           
,cumberland ,presbyterians1 who broke   
away in a popular religious movement in 
#ahaj2 other sects had started already  
on ,european soil--as1 for instance1 the
 ,presbyterian ,church of ,wales1 which 
is perpetuated in ,america4 ,the        
,presbyterian population amounts to     
about four million souls4  ,the         
,methodist and ,baptist congregations   
are much larger4 ,methodism comes from  
that great movement1 at the ,university 
of ,oxford in #agbi1 of ,john and       

,charles ,wesley1 whose ,sacred ,club1  
with its ,biblical bigotry1 was1 on     
account of its methodical precision1    
ridiculed as the ,methodist ,club2 and  
the nickname was accepted and held to4  
,it was a question of bringing the      
,english church closer to the heart1 of 
profoundly moving every individual and  
instilling a deeper piety in the people4
 ,in order to preach the word of ,god1  
it needed neither professional          
theologians nor church buildings2 laymen
 were to be the preachers1 and the      
canopy of heaven their church4 ,the     
movement began to spread in ,america in 
#agff1 and while in ,england it remained
 for a longer time nominally within the 
established church1 ,american ,methodism
 took very early a different course from
 ,episcopalianism4  ,the peculiar       
organization of the congregation is a   
prominent feature4 ,candidates for      
membership are accepted after a six     
months' probation1 popular              
prayer-meetings are held at any chosen  

spot1 the lay preachers are permitted to
 deliver religious talks without giving 
up their secular occupations1 and no    
pastor may remain longer than five years
 over any congregation4 ,these and other
 provisions are rather in the nature of 
concessions to the religious needs of   
ordinary people2 the special items of   
faith differ slightly from those of the 
mother church1 and are of comparatively 
little significance4 ,the number of     
communicants has grown rapidly1         
especially among the negroes of the     
,south1 owing to the large              
camp-meetings1 where many persons sing  
and pray together1 and work themselves  
up to a more or less hysterical point of
 excitement under the open sky4 ,as is  
usual among less cultivated classes1 the
 tendency to form sects has been very   
great2 small groups are continually     
breaking away1 because they cannot      
believe in this or that feature of the  
main church4 ,seventeen principal groups
 may be distinguished1 and some of these

 only by the colour of the communicants4
 ,the ,methodist ,episcopalians are by  
far the most numerous1 and all the      
,methodist churches together must       
embrace more than sixteen million       
people4  ,the twelve or thirteen sects  
of ,baptists are in some cases widely   
different in the matter of faith1       
although the main body of regular       
,baptists are ,calvinistic1 and the     
church is organized like the            
,calvinistic ,congregational ,church4   
,each congregation governs itself1 and  
the one point which all have in common  
is that they renounce infant baptism2 he
 only may be baptized who is formally   
able to acknowledge ,christ1 and he must
 be baptized not by sprinkling1 but by  
immersion4 ,this cult originated in     
,switzerland at the time of the         
,reformation1 and gradually gained      
adherents all through ,europe1 but it   
first became widely spread in ,america1 
where it embraces about twelve million  
people4 ,just as ,methodism is a sort of

 popular form of the ,episcopalian      
,church1 the ,baptist faith is a        
popularization of the ,congregational   
,church4 ,the main division of the      
regular ,baptists is made between the   
,northern and ,southern churches1 a     
division which originated in the middle 
of the century1 owing to the diversity  
of opinion about slavery2 and the third 
main group of ,baptists is made up of   
negroes4  ,the first ,lutherans to come 
to the ,new ,world were ,dutchmen1 who  
landed on ,manhattan ,island in #afbc4  
,but the ,dutch authorities there       
suppressed all churches except the      
,reformed ,church1 and it was not until 
,new ,york came into the hands of the   
,english that the ,lutheran ,church got 
its freedom4 ,lutherans from the        
,palatinate settled in ,pennsylvania in 
#agaj1 and in the middle of the         
eighteenth century began their definite 
organization into synods under the      
influence of their pastor1 ,mhlenberg4  
,the church grew in consequence of      

,german1 and later of ,scandinavian1    
immigration4 ,most of its communicants  
still speak ,german1 ,swedish1          
,norwegian1 ,finnish1 and ,icelandic1   
and those who speak ,english are mostly 
of ,german descent4 ,all together they  
make a population of four million       
persons1 of whom one-fifth live in      
,pennsylvania4 ,the ,lutherans have     
formed sixteen sects4  ,there is another
 small ,protestant sect1 which likewise 
originated in ,germany2 this is the sect
 of ,mennonites4 ,as is well known1 they
 combine the ,baptist refusal of infant 
baptism with the principle of           
non-resistance4 ,they came from ,germany
 to ,pennsylvania at the end of the     
seventeenth century in order to escape  
persecution1 and were there known as the
 ,german ,friends4 ,their little band   
has the honour of having registered1 in 
#afhh1 the first protest against        
,american slavery4 ,their numbers have  
since been augmented from ,holland1     
,switzerland1 ,germany1 and ,russia1 and

 to-day the largest part of the         
,mennonites is said to be in            
,america--in spite of which they number 
hardly more than #aej1jjj persons4  ,in 
many respects the ,quakers may be       
compared with the ,mennonites4 ,the     
,quaker ,church was founded in the      
middle of the seventeenth century by an 
,englishman1 ,john ,fox1 and spread to  
,america as early as #afef1 where it now
 numbers1 perhaps1 #djj1jjj persons1    
living chiefly in ,indiana1 ,ohio1 and  
,pennsylvania4 ,the ,quakers lay great  
emphasis on silence1 and even in their  
meetings they observe long pauses1 in   
which each member communes with the     
,holy ,spirit4 ,the sins for which a    
,quaker may be excommunicated from his  
church are the denial of the divinity of
 ,christ or of the divine origin of the 
,bible1 enlistment in the army1         
encouragement of war1 trading in        
alcohol1 drunkenness1 blasphemy1 making 
wagers1 participation in lotteries1     
giving an oath in court1 and requiring  

an oath4 ,they dress in black or grey1  
and are known for their mild1 gentle1   
and yielding characters4  ,the ,roman   
,catholic ,church in ,america is little 
different from the ,church in ,europe4  
,it has grown rapidly in the nineteenth 
century1 owing to the tremendous numbers
 of ,irish1 ,south ,german1 ,polish1    
,hungarian1 ,italian1 and ,spanish      
immigrants4 ,catholic missionaries1 it  
is true1 were the first ,christian      
ministers in the ,new ,world4 ,they     
accompanied the ,spanish expeditions1   
and their first bishop landed in #aebh4 
,maryland was the chief ,english colony 
of ,catholics1 while most of the other  
colonies were very intolerant of the    
,romish ,church4 ,in #agjj ,new ,york1  
which has to-day a half million         
,catholics1 is said to have had only    
seven ,catholic families2 and even in   
#ahjj the ,catholic population of the   
whole ,united ,states was estimated at  
less than #aej1jjj4 ,in #ahdj they had  
increased tenfold1 and number to-day    

probably ten millions1 with sixteen     
archbishops and a cardinal4 ,the        
,catholic centres1 in the order of the  
size of congregations1 are1 ,new ,york1 
,boston1 ,chicago1 ,philadelphia1 ,st4  
,paul1 ,new ,orleans1 ,baltimore1       
,cleveland1 ,buffalo1 ,newark1          
,providence1 ,pittsburg1 ,cincinnati1   
and ,milwaukee4  ,the ,jews1 who are    
said to have first come from ,brazil in 
#afed1 have likewise increased rapidly  
in recent years1 owing to the           
extraordinary immigration from the ,east
 of ,europe4 ,they must number to-day   
about a million people1 and if the      
latest estimates are correct1 nearly    
one-half of these have not gone farther 
than ,new ,york ,city1 which would      
therefore have a larger ,jewish         
population than any other city in the   
world4 ,the larger part of these people 
are ,russian ,jews1 who live together in
 great poverty and are very little      
,americanized4 ,the division made by the
 census into ,orthodox and ,reformed    

,jews does not represent two sects1 but 
merely a manner of grouping1 since the  
congregations present a very gradual    
transition from rigid ,asiatic orthodoxy
 to a reform so complete as to be hardly
 ,jewish at all1 and in which the rabbis
 are merely lecturers on 8ethical       
culture40  ,many other churches might be
 mentioned1 such as the widely spread   
sect of ,disciples of ,christ1 which    
originated in ,america1 or the          
,moravians1 ,dunkards1 and others which 
have come from ,europe4 ,but it will be 
enough here to speak of only a few      
specially typical sects that have been  
manufactured in ,america4 ,the profane  
expression is in place1 since they are  
all artificially devised organizations1 
whose founders have often been thought  
dishonest2 such are the ,adventists1 the
 ,mormons1 the ,spiritualists1 and the  
,christian ,scientists4 ,the ,adventists
 were gathered in by ,william ,miller1  
of ,massachusetts1 who in the year #ahca
 calculated from figures which he found 

in the ,bible that ,christ would appear 
again on earth in the year #ahdc4 ,this 
prophecy caused a great many small      
congregations to spring up1 and when the
 momentous year came and brought        
disillusionment1 and even after a second
 similar disappointment at a later year1
 these congregations did not break up1  
but contented themselves with the less  
risky prediction that ,christ would make
 ,his appearance soon4 ,there are       
,adventists in all the states1 and      
especially in ,michigan4 ,they have     
broken up into smaller sects1 of which a
 few are always making new computations 
for the coming of ,christ4 ,in all1 they
 amount to about two hundred thousand   
people4  ,more famous1 or perhaps more  
notorious1 are the ,mormons4 ,their     
first prophet1 ,joseph ,smith1 began in 
#ahbc1 when he was eighteen years of    
age1 to have dreams in which he was     
intrusted with a religious mission4     
,four years later1 with the help of     
certain persons of his dreams1 he       

8discovered0 the ,book of ,mormon--a set
 of metal tablets on which the history  
of ,america was written in 8reformed    
,egyptian0 characters4 ,the first       
,american colony had been organized1    
according to the ,book of ,mormon1 by a 
race of people which had helped to build
 the ,tower of ,babel1 and which in #fjj
 ,b4,c4 had settled in ,south ,america4 
,the ,american ,indians1 the book says1 
descend from this race2 and ,christ     
also1 it says1 was for a time in        
,america4 ,finally1 an angel came who   
appointed ,smith and a friend of his as 
priests1 and they then began the regular
 formation of a church4 ,miracles were  
rumoured2 missionaries were sent out and
 congregations formed in several states1
 even before polygamy was ordained4 ,in 
#ahdc ,smith received the inspired      
message which proclaimed the new        
ordinance of 8heavenly marriage40 ,in   
the following year ,smith was murdered1 
and his successor1 ,brigham ,young1 when
 hostile demonstrations became frequent1

 led the group of believers on a bold   
expedition into what was at that time   
the almost impassable ,west--to ,utah1  
on the ,great ,salt ,lake4  ,the        
settlement grew1 and under its          
rigorously theocratic government made   
remarkable economic progress4 ,a large  
garden was planted in the wilderness1   
and ,salt ,lake ,city is to-day a large1
 modern town on the railroad line to    
,california1 and the ,mormons compose   
only half its population4 ,but they     
alone and under terrific difficulties   
carried civilization across the         
prairies1 and as a token of their       
industry the largest church in ,america 
stands there1 the ,mormon ,temple1 which
 they built by forty years of labour1   
exactly according to the plans which    
,young saw in a vision4 ,while people   
are readily admitted to the curious hall
 of prayer1 no strangers are allowed to 
enter the ,temple4 ,polygamy was        
introduced1 undoubtedly1 from no immoral
 motives1 but from the religious belief 

that an unmarried woman will not go to  
heaven4 ,economic motives may have      
helped the matter along1 since the      
priests permitted new marriages only    
when the contracting parties had        
sufficient means to support several     
families1 and so used the satisfaction  
of polygamous instincts as a reward for 
unusual economic industry4  ,the stern  
morality of the ,american people has    
always looked on the ,mormon tribe as a 
thorn in the flesh1 and yet it was      
difficult for a long time for the       
federal government to suppress the      
abuse4 ,serious opposition began in the 
early eighties with the passing of      
special laws2 thousands of ,mormons were
 put in prison1 and millions of dollars 
were paid in fines4 ,the ,mormons fought
 with every legal means1 but were       
repudiated by the ,supreme ,court1 and  
finally gave in4 ,in the year #ahij     
their president1 ,woodruff1 published an
 ordinance forbidding new polygamous    
marriages4 ,this has not prevented the  

,mormons from holding polygamy sacred1  
and they have abandoned it only on      
compulsion4 ,the marriages which were   
solemnized before #ahij are still in    
force4 ,such polygamous families do not 
impress a stranger unfavourably1 since1 
in spite of its complexity1 their family
 life appears to be a happy one4 ,from  
,utah the sect has spread to ,idaho and 
other ,western ,states1 and embraces now
 perhaps half a million people4  ,there 
have been some other curious religious  
congregations with unusual marriage     
ordinances4 ,for instance1 the ,oneida  
,community has had an apparently most   
immoral form of cohabitation4 ,it is    
here a question not so much of religion 
as of a communistic and economic        
experiment4 ,such experiments are1 for  
the most part1 short-lived and flourish 
secretly4 ,celibacy is practised by     
fifteen communities of ,shakers1 who    
live in a communistic way4 ,they broke  
away from the ,quakers at the end of the
 eighteenth century1 and have unique    

religious ideas4 ,god1 and1 therefore1  
every human soul1 is thought to be a    
double principle1 both male and female4 
,the male principle was revealed in     
,christ1 the female in an ,english      
woman1 ,anne ,lee1 a ,quakeress whose   
visions during imprisonment occasioned  
the formation of this sect4  ,the       
,shakers were so called because they are
 8shaken0 by religious fervour2 and the 
lower classes of the ,american populace 
are uncommonly predisposed to this      
ecstatic and hysterical religious       
excitement4 ,general revivals1 great    
camp-meetings1 and hysterical and       
tumultuous meetings of prayer1 with     
theatrical conversions and divine       
illuminations1 have always played a     
prominent role in ,america4 ,thus at the
 end of the fifties1 after a time of    
declining piety1 a wave of religious    
conversion swept over the country1      
having all the appearance of a nervous  
epidemic4 ,the doings of the rapidly    
growing ,salvation ,army also often have

 a somewhat neurotic character4  ,it is 
difficult to say why this is so4 ,as in 
every form of hysteria1 suggestion is1  
of course1 an important factor2 but the 
manifestations are so marked that there 
must be some special disposition        
thereto4 ,it almost seems as if a lack  
of other stimulants produced a          
pathological demand for religious       
excitement4 ,certainly in those portions
 of the country which are most affected1
 the life of the great masses1 at least 
until recently1 has been colourless and 
dull4 ,there has been no stimulation of 
the fancy1 such as is afforded by the   
,catholic ,church1 or in former days was
 provided by the romantic events of     
monarchical history4 ,people have lacked
 the stimulation of amusements1         
festivals1 the theatre and music2 daily 
life has been hard1 morality rigorous1  
and alcohol was thought sinful4 ,where  
religion has been the single            
intellectual stimulus1 it has become an 
intoxicant for the pining soul3 and     

persons drank until they obtained a sort
 of hysterical relief from deadly       
reality4  ,the seeds of mysticism easily
 take root on such a soil1 and it is no 
accident that the chief mystical        
movements of our times have gone on in  
,america1 the country which so many     
suppose to be the theatre of purely     
material interests4 ,here we find1 first
 of all1 the ,spiritualistic movement   
which began in #ahdh1 when mysterious   
knockings were heard by the ,fox family 
in a village of ,new ,york ,state4 ,the 
sounds were interpreted as messages from
 dead friends1 and as soon as these     
spirits commenced their material        
manifestations it was only a short step 
for them to appear in person4 ,the      
leading card of ,spiritualism is its    
supposed proof of life after death1 and 
all its other features are secondary4   
,on the other hand1 it is natural for a 
teaching which depends on such          
mysterious phenomena to turn its        
interest to other supposably unexplained

 phenomena1 and therewith to become a   
general rallying-ground for mysticism4  
,although the ,spiritualistic ,church   
has about fifty thousand members1 these 
are by no means all of the actual       
,spiritualists in ,america4 ,indeed1 if 
,spiritualism were to be taken in a     
broader sense1 including a belief in    
telepathic influences1 mysterious       
communications1 etc41 the number of     
believers would mount into the millions1
 with some adherents in the most highly 
educated circles4 ,even in enlightened  
,boston a ,spiritualistic church stands 
in the best section of the town4 ,its   
services have been grievously exposed   
from time to time1 but the deceptions   
have been quickly forgotten1 and this   
successful 8religious0 enterprise is    
once more given credence4 ,a short time 
ago1 in ,philadelphia1 the spirit of    
,darwin was constrained to write a pious
 final contribution to his works for the
 benefit of a well-paying audience1 on a
 typewriter which stood in the middle of

 the room1 and which1 of course1 could  
be easily operated electrically from    
some other room4  ,to be sure1 it would 
be unfair to say that all spiritualism  
is based on deception1 although the     
lively wish to see dead relatives1 or   
receive communications from them1 puts a
 high premium on the pious fraud4       
,indeed1 it would be over-hasty to say  
that all the spiritualistic conceptions 
go against the laws of nature2 for1     
since the philosophy of ,spiritualism   
has conceived of an ether organism which
 pervades the molecular body and        
survives death1 it has fairly cleverly  
met the demands of casual explanation4  
,and it may well be thought probable    
that in the world of mental influences  
there is much remaining to be found out1
 just as a hundred years ago there were 
hypnotism and ,rntgen rays2 so that the 
zeal of very many people to assist in   
the solving of these mysteries is1      
perhaps1 easily understood4  ,but just  
where these most serious motives prevail

 and all idea of conscious deception is 
excluded1 one sees the profound         
affiliation of intellectual interests   
with the mystical tendency4 ,even the   
,society for ,psychical ,research1 which
 aims to investigate mysterious         
phenomena in a thoroughly scientific    
way1 has1 after all1 mostly held the    
interest of men who are more inclined to
 mysticism than to science4 ,mrs4       
,piper1 of ,arlington1 may be called the
 most important spiritualistic medium1  
and ,hodgson her most interesting       
prophet4 ,the whole movement is1 after  
all1 religious4 ,spiritualism has a near
 neighbour in ,theosophy1 which is      
specially strong in ,california4 ,the   
great literary charm of ,hindu          
philosophy makes this form of mysticism 
more attractive to minds that are       
repelled by its vulgar forms4 ,hindu    
mysticism has1 undoubtedly1 a future in 
,america4  ,there is a still larger     
circle of people who believe in         
,christian ,science1 the discovery of   

,mary ,baker ,g4 ,eddy4 ,when ,mrs4     
,eddy suffered a severe illness at ,lynn
 in #ahfg1 she was seized by the idea   
that all illness might be only an       
illusion or hallucination of the soul1  
since ,god alone is real1 and in ,him   
there can be naught but good4 ,it was   
therefore necessary only to realize this
 deceptive unreality1 in order to       
relieve the soul of its error and so to 
regain health4 ,she herself became well 
and proceeded to read her principle of  
mental healing into the ,bible1 and so  
to develop a metaphysical system4 ,she  
commenced her work of healing without   
medicine1 and in #ahge published her    
book1 8,science and ,health1 ,with a    
,key to the ,holy ,scriptures40 ,the    
book is a medium-sized work1 has a      
system not unskilfully constructed1     
although unskilfully expressed1 and one 
who is familiar with the history of     
philosophy will find in it not one      
original thought4 ,in spite of this1 the
 book must be called one of the most    

successful of modern times4 ,it is a    
rather expensive book1 but has been     
bought by the hundreds of thousands4    
,congregations have formed all over the 
country1 and built some magnificent     
churches2 and1 finally1 the infectious  
bacillus of this social malady has been 
wafted across the ocean4 ,the great     
feature of this new sect is its practice
 of healing2 there are to-day some      
thirty institutions giving instruction  
in the art of metaphysical healing1 and 
the public supports thousands of        
spiritual healers4  ,the movement is    
benefited by the general mistrust of    
academic medicine which pervades the    
lower classes of ,america1 as may be    
seen from the ridiculous popularity of  
patent medicines4 ,the cult is also     
undoubtedly helped by actual and often  
surprising cures4 ,the healing power of 
faith is no new discovery2 the effects  
of auto-suggestion are always important 
in nervous disorders1 and there are     
indeed few pathological conditions in   

which nervous disorders do not play a   
part4 ,mrs4 ,eddy's disciples1 in their 
consultation offices1 do with the help  
of the inner consistency of their       
metaphysical system1 which the logic of 
the average patient cannot break down1  
what ,catholicism does at ,lourdes by   
stimulating the imagination4 ,the main  
support of ,christian ,science is1 after
 all1 the general mystical and religious
 disposition4 ,where religion plays such
 a mighty rle in the popular mind1      
religious vagaries and perversions must 
be the order of the day2 but even the   
perversions show how thoroughly the     
whole ,american people is pervaded by   
the religious spirit4  ,not only would  
it be unfair to estimate the religion of
 ,america by its perversions1 but even  
if the religious life of the country    
were amply described in the many forms  
of its conservative congregations and   
confessions1 the most important thing   
would be still unmentioned3 the spirit  
of moral self-perfection common to all  

the religions of the country4 ,to be    
sure1 it is not to be supposed that all 
the morality in this nation is of       
religious origin4 ,one sees clearly that
 this is not the case if one looks at   
,american social ethics1 which are      
independent of religious ethics1 and if 
one notices how often motives from the  
two spheres unite in bringing about     
certain actions4 ,the ,americans would  
have developed a marked morality if they
 had not been brought up in church2 but 
the church has co-operated1 specially   
when the nation was young and when      
far-reaching impulses were being        
developed4 ,and while the forms of faith
 have changed1 the moral ideas have     
remained much the same4  ,benjamin      
,wadsworth was president of ,harvard    
,college in the beginning of the        
eighteenth century1 and no greater      
religious contrast could be found than  
that between him and his present        
successor in office2 between the        
orthodox ,calvinist who said that it is 

by ,god's unmerited grace that we are   
not all burning in the flames of hell1  
as our sins so richly deserve1 and the  
liberal ,unitarian of to-day4 ,and yet  
,president ,eliot could rightly say     
that1 even after these two hundred      
years1 he gladly subscribes to all the  
moral tenets of his early predecessor4  
,wadsworth exhorted parents to teach    
their sons to live soberly1 virtuously1 
and in the fear of ,god2 to keep them   
from idleness1 pride1 envy1 and malice2 
to teach them simple1 kindly1 and       
courteous behaviour2 to see that they   
learn to be useful in the world1 and so 
marry and carry on their daily business 
as to avoid temptation and to grow in   
grace and in the fear of ,god4          
,benjamin ,franklin's catalogue of      
virtues which he desired to realize in  
himself1 was3 temperance1 silence1      
order1 simplicity1 industry1 honesty1   
justice1 self-restraint1 purity1        
peacefulness1 continence1 and modesty4  
,in this he was not thinking of the     

church1 but his worldly morals came to  
much the same thing as the ,puritan's   
ethics4 ,the goal is everywhere moral   
self-perfection--to learn1 first of all1
 to govern one's natural desires1 not   
for the sake of the effect on others1   
but for the effect on one's self4 ,to   
put it extremely1 the religious         
admonition might have read3 ,give1 not  
that your neighbour may have more1 but  
that you may have less2 not in order to 
give your neighbour pleasure1 but to    
discipline yourself in overcoming greed4
 ,the social morality developed the     
opposite motives2 and even to-day the   
joining of both tendencies may be       
followed everywhere1 and especially in  
many philanthropic deeds4 ,the two      
extremes go together3 social enthusiasm 
for being helpful1 and the fundamentally
 religious instinct to give alms4       
,within the circle of ecclesiastical    
influences1 moral concern for the self  
is everywhere in great evidence--the    
desire to be sober1 temperate1          

industrious1 modest1 and ,god-fearing4  
,it has been said that these centuries  
of self-mastery are the cause of        
,america's final triumph4 ,too many     
other factors are there left out of     
account1 but undoubtedly the theocratic 
discipline which held back all          
immoderation and indulgence1 and often  
intolerantly extinguished the lower     
instincts1 has profoundly influenced    
national life4 ,and to this all churches
 have contributed alike4 ,it seems as if
 the ,calvinistic ,god of severity had  
been complemented by a ,god of love2 but
 practically all churches have worked as
 if it was necessary1 first of all1 to  
improve radically evil men1 to convert  
evildoers1 and to uproot natural        
instincts4 ,the ,american church is     
to-day what it has always been1 whether 
in or outside of ,calvinism1 a church   
militant1 strong in its battle against  
unrighteous desires4 ,to be churchly    
means to be in the battle-camp of a     
party2 in the camp itself they make     

merry1 but every one is armed against   
the enemy4  ,the final result in the    
great masses of people is an uncommonly 
high degree of personal purity as       
compared with the masses of ,europe4    
,here one is not to think of the slums  
of large cities nor of the masses of    
still un-,americanized immigrants from  
,southern ,europe1 nor of those people  
who are under the influence of temporary
 abnormal conditions1 such as the       
adventurers who flock together wherever 
gold and silver are discovered4 ,one    
must look at the people in the fields   
and the work-shops1 in the country and  
the small city1 or at the average       
citizen of the large city1 and one will 
get from these bustling millions an     
impression of moral earnestness1        
simplicity1 and purity4 ,these people   
are poor in imagination and vulgar2 and 
yet one feels that1 in the humble home  
where the average man has probably grown
 up1 the family ,bible lay on the table4
 ,it is not accidental that the zealous 

,puritans of ,colonial times believed   
not only that man is preserved from     
hellfire by the special grace of ,god1  
but also that the colonists were a      
chosen people and favoured by ,god with 
a remarkably large proportion who       
enjoyed ,his grace4 ,they saw a moral   
rigour everywhere around them1 and could
 not suppose that such ,puritan living  
was the path to everlasting torment4    
,since then life has become endlessly   
complicated1 the pressure of            
circumstances has increased1 temptations
 are a thousandfold more numerous1 and  
consequently the general level of       
morality has shifted4 ,much is to-day   
called harmless which was then called   
sinful2 but to-day1 as then1 the number 
of those who live above the general     
level of moral requirements is          
astonishingly large4  ,as everywhere in 
the world1 so in ,america2 temptation   
and distress fill the prisons with      
unfortunate and mistaken human beings4  
,but this fact belongs in a wholly      

different social connection4 ,we are    
thinking here of the life of those who  
are not amenable to law2 for            
intemperance1 envy1 incontinence1       
coarseness1 servility1 brutality1 lack  
of character and kindness1 and vulgarity
 are1 in themselves1 not punishable4 ,if
 we speak of those who are thus within  
the law1 we find that life in ,america  
is purer1 simpler1 and more moral than  
in ,europe4 ,and the average ,american  
who lives for some time on the          
,continent of ,europe comes home        
dismayed at the exaggerated and specious
 politeness of ,europe and rejoiced at  
the greater humanity of the ,americans4 
,the incontinence of ,france1 the       
intemperance of ,germany1 the business  
dishonesty of ,southern ,europe1 are    
favourite examples in ,america of       
,european lack of virtue2 and aside from
 all local differences1 the ,americans  
believe that they find everywhere in    
,europe the symptoms of moral decadence 
and laxity1 and on finding the same     

things in large ,american cities1 they  
put the blame on ,europe4  ,at first    
sight it looks as if one who lives in a 
glass house were throwing stones4 ,the  
foreigner1 on hearing of ,american      
,sabbath observance1 piety1 temperance1 
continence1 benevolence1 and honesty1 is
 at once inclined to call up the other  
side of the situation3 he has seen cases
 of hypocrisy1 he knows how many        
divorces and bank robberies there are2  
he has heard about benevolence from     
purely selfish motives1 and about       
corruption4  ,all this is true1 and1    
nevertheless1 false4 ,on examining the  
situation more closely1 the foreigner   
will see that however many sins there   
are1 the life of the people is          
intrinsically pure and moral and devout4
 ,it is true that there are many        
divorces1 and that these are made       
extremely easy in some states2 but      
infidelity is seldom the motive4 ,the   
cause lies in the democratic spirit of  
self-determination1 which wants to      

loosen bonds that individuals no longer 
freely recognize4 ,it might be said that
 this is a higher individual morality   
which ends marriage when it has lost its
 inner sanctity4 ,the ,american divorce 
does not indicate any lack of marriage  
fidelity2 married life is1 throughout   
the nation1 distinctly purer than it is 
in ,europe1 and this is still more true 
of the life of young men4 ,to be sure1  
it is easy to get material for piquant  
booklets1 as 8,from ,darkest ,america10 
and there is very much vice in ,chicago1
 ,new ,orleans1 and ,san ,francisco4    
,the ,american is no saint1 and a large 
city is a large city the world over4    
,but undoubtedly the sexual tension is  
incomparably less in ,american life than
 in ,european1 as may be seen by        
comparing the life of ,american students
 with that of ,german students of the   
same age4 ,this is not due to deficient 
romantic feeling1 for there is nowhere  
more flirting going on than in ,america2
 but a genuine respect of womanhood1    

without regard to social class1 lends   
purity to the life of the men4  ,it is  
true that ,american temperance does not 
prevent some men from drinking too much1
 and the regular prohibition laws of    
many of the states have not succeeded in
 suppressing a desire for physiological 
stimulation2 and it may be even affirmed
 that the legal interdiction of the sale
 of alcohol in states or communities1   
unless an overwhelming majority of the  
population believes in abstinence1 has  
done more harm than good4 ,but it is    
clear that the fight against alcohol    
which has been carried on for a hundred 
years1 and notably by the church1 has   
done an infinite amount of good4 ,the   
whole nation is strongly set against    
tippling1 and only the dregs of society 
gather in the saloons4 ,and much more   
has been done by moral than by          
legislative influence to suppress the   
unhappy licentious and criminal         
consequences of drink among the lower   
classes2 and among higher classes the   

deadening intellectual influence of     
sitting in beer-houses and so wasting   
strength1 time1 and moral vigour1 is    
almost unknown4 ,in good society one    
does not drink in the presence of ladies
 except at dinner1 and the total        
abstainer becomes thereby no more       
conspicuous than the man in ,germany who
 will not smoke2 and those who drink at 
table are content with very little4     
,evening table gatherings1 such as the  
,german ,kommerse1 are accounted        
incorrect1 and drunkenness is           
dishonourable4 ,these ideas are making  
their way among the lower classes2      
railway companies and other corporations
 have not the least difficulty in       
employing only temperance men4 ,the     
temperance movement1 in spite of its    
mistakes and exaggerations1 and aside   
from its great benefit to the health of 
the social organism1 represents a       
splendid advance in moral self-control4 
,a nation which accounts as immoral all 
indulgence in alcohol that interferes   

with self-control has made thereby a    
tremendous ethical advance4  ,it would  
be still easier to expose the           
caricatures which are published relative
 to ,sabbath observance4 ,one may say it
 is hypocritical for the law to forbid  
theatrical performances on ,sunday for  
which the scenes are changed and the    
curtain dropped1 but to allow several   
,new ,york theatres to perform the      
cheapest vaudeville without curtain and 
without a change of scenes4 ,but the    
fact is merely that the heavy           
immigration from ,europe has brought    
about conditions in the metropolis which
 do not accord with the ideas of the    
rural majority in the state4 ,in ,boston
 no one would think of evading such a   
law1 because the theatres would remain  
empty2 where the attempt has been made  
to keep large exhibitions open on       
,sunday1 it has been unsuccessful4  ,the
 ,american people still cling to a quiet
 ,sabbath observance1 and the day of    
rest and meditation is a national       

institution4 ,no law and no scruples    
forbid the railway companies to run more
 trains on ,sunday than on other days1  
as they do in ,germany2 but instead of  
this there are fewer railway trains1 and
 these are poorly patronized4 ,people do
 not travel on ,sunday1 even if they no 
longer visit the grave-yard1 which was  
the ,puritan idea of a permissible      
,sunday stroll4 ,concessions are more   
and more made to ,sunday amusements1 it 
is true2 golf is played on ,sunday in   
many places1 and in contrast to ,england
 the ,sunday newspapers have become so  
voluminous that if one read their fifty 
or sixty pages through1 one would not   
have time to go to church4 ,but in the  
main the entire ,american-born          
population1 without constraint and      
therefore without hypocrisy1 observes   
,sunday as a day of self-abnegation2 and
 even many men who are not abstainers   
during the week drink no wine on        
,sunday4  ,the masses of the people are 
to a high degree truthful and           

honourable4 ,it has been well said that 
the ,american has no talent for lying1  
and mistrust of a man's word strikes the
 ,yankee as specifically ,european4     
,from the street urchin to the minister 
of state1 frankness is the predominant  
trait2 and all institutions are arranged
 for a thorough-going and often         
exaggerated confidence4 ,we have shown  
before that in the means of conveyance1 
such as street cars1 the honesty of the 
public is not watched1 that in the      
country the farm-house door is hardly   
locked1 and that the most important     
mercantile agreements are concluded by a
 word of mouth or nod of the head4      
,there are scoundrels who abuse all     
this1 who swindle the street-car        
companies and circulate false checks2   
but the present customs could never have
 arisen if the general public had not   
justified this blind confidence4 ,it is 
true that many a bank cashier robs the  
treasury2 but it is much more           
characteristic to see a newspaper boy1  

when one gives him five cents by        
mistake1 run after one in order to      
return the right amount4 ,it is true    
that many an ,irish politician has      
entered politics in order to steal from 
the public funds1 but it is a more      
characteristic fact that everywhere     
letters too large to go in the          
letter-box are laid on top of it in the 
confidence that they will not be stolen4
 ,a school-boy who lies to the teacher  
often has1 in ,europe1 the sympathy of  
the whole class1 but not in ,america2   
children despise a lie1 and in this     
sense the true ,american remains a child
 through life4  ,as the ,american       
education makes for honesty1 so it does 
for self-sacrifice1 which is the finest 
result of the ,puritan idea of          
self-perfection4 ,the ascetic sacrifice 
for the mere sake of sacrifice goes     
against the ,american love of activity1 
although if the many ,new ,england      
popular tales are really taken from     
life1 even this way of pleasing ,god is 

not uncommon in the ,north-,eastern     
,states4 ,but all classes of the        
population are willing to make          
sacrifices for an end1 however abstract 
and impersonal4 ,the spirit of sacrifice
 is not genuine when it parades itself  
before the public2 it works in secret4  
,but anybody who watches what goes on   
quietly1 who notes the life of the      
teacher1 the minister1 and the physician
 in all country districts1 who sees how 
parents sometimes suffer in order to    
give their children a better education  
than they themselves had1 will be       
surprised at the infinite and patient   
sacrifices which are daily made by      
hard-working people4 ,the spirit of     
quiet forbearance1 so little noticeable 
on the surface1 is clear to every one   
who looks somewhat deeply into ,american
 life4  ,thus the more dangerous forms  
of missionary activity have always      
attracted ,americans2 and nowhere else  
has the nurse's profession1 which       
requires so much patience1 attracted so 

many women4 ,all the world knows the    
sacrificing spirit which was shown      
during the war against slavery1 and     
there is no less of that spirit in times
 of peace4 ,every day one observes the  
readiness of men to risk their own lives
 in order to save those of others2 and  
one is surprised to see that the public 
understands this as a matter of course4 
,the more modest and naturally more     
frequent form of self-sacrifice consists
 in giving of one's own possessions1    
whether a small sum to the              
contribution-box of the ,salvation      
,army1 or a present of millions to      
benevolent institutions4 ,it is true    
that private benefactions are open to   
interpretation2 sometimes they are made 
for the sake of social recognition1 more
 often they are merely superficial1     
inconsiderate1 or ill-timed1 and        
therefore they are often detrimental to 
the community4 ,but after all           
allowances1 the volume of contributions 
to all benevolent purposes is simply    

astonishing2 and here1 too1 the         
historical development shows that of all
 motives the religious has been the     
strongest4  ,yet in all these movements 
the religious motive1 the soul's        
salvation1 has been only one among other
 influences that are rather social4     
,american philanthropy is perhaps more  
often religiously coloured than it is in
 ,germany2 but the more benefaction     
comes to be in the hands of             
organizations with a trained            
administration1 the more the social and 
economic factors appear4 ,in the same   
way1 ,sunday observance and temperance  
have come to be social problems which   
are almost distinct from ecclesiastical 
considerations2 and if the ,american is 
honest1 upright1 and pure1 he himself   
scarcely knows to-day whether he is so  
as a ,christian or as a gentleman4      
,questions of morality point everywhere 
from religious to social considerations4
     ,,part ,,four ,,social ,,life      
,,chapter ,,twenty-,,one                

,the ,spirit of ,self-,assertion   ,on  
landing in ,new ,york1 the ,european    
expects new impressions and             
surprises--most of all1 from the        
evidences of general equality in this   
,new ,world4 ,some have heard1 with     
misgivings1 of the horrors of upstart   
equality2 but more look with glad       
expectancy on the country where no      
traditions of caste impose distinctions 
between human beings1 and where the     
,declaration of ,independence has       
solemnly recognized as a fundamental    
truth that all men are born free and    
equal4 ,those who fear the equality are 
generally soon put at ease4 ,they find  
that social classes1 even in ,new ,york1
 are nicely distinguished2 no           
work-stained overalls are found where a 
frock coat is in order4 ,the other      
travellers are just as quickly          
disillusioned in their hopes of         
equality4 ,it is a short distance from  
the luxury of ,fifth ,avenue to         
miserable tenement districts2--an abrupt

 social contrast1 in all its ,old ,world
 sharpness and hardness4  ,if the       
newcomer1 then1 in his surprise turns to
 those who know the country1 his        
questions will be differently answered  
by different persons4 ,the average      
citizen will try to save the reputation 
of equality4 ,no doubt1 he says1        
equality rules in ,america--equality    
before the law1 and equality of         
political rights4 ,and such average     
patriot would be surprised to hear that 
this sort of equality is found in       
,europe also4 ,but perhaps our newcomer 
chances on a mind of less typical habit4
 ,this one may reply1 with the          
incomparably sly wink of the thoughtful 
,american1 that there is no more        
equality in ,america than in ,europe4   
,we indulge in such glittering          
generalities in our ,declaration of     
,independence1 to give our good local   
politicians a congenial theme on public 
holidays1 and so that badly paid shop   
clerks may solace themselves with such  

brave assertions as a compensation for  
their small pay4 ,but we are not so     
foolish as to run amuck of nature1 which
 after all has very wisely made men     
unlike one another4  ,but both replies  
are in a way false1 or1 at least1 do not
 touch the root of the matter4 ,it is   
undeniable that one can no longer speak 
of an equality of wealth or means of    
enjoyment1 or even1 in spite of         
occasional modest claims to the         
contrary1 of an equal opportunity for   
education and development4 ,in spite of 
this1 it is a mistake to suppose that on
 this account the spirit of equality is 
found only in judicial and political    
spheres4 ,there is another1 a social    
equality1 of which most ,americans are  
not conscious1 because they do not know 
and can hardly imagine what life would  
be without such equality2 they do not   
meditate on social equality1 because1   
unlike political or legal equality1 it  
is not abstractly formulative4 ,the     
,american is first aware of it after    

living some time in ,europe1 and the    
,european grasps the idea only after a  
serious study of ,american life4  ,the  
social sentiment of equality1 although  
variously tinged yet virtually the same 
throughout the ,united ,states1 in      
nowise militates against social         
distinctions which result from          
difference of education1 wealth1        
occupation1 and achievement4 ,but it    
does demand that all these different    
distinctions shall be considered        
external to the real personality4       
,fundamentally1 all ,americans are      
equal4 ,the statement must not be       
misunderstood4 ,it by no means coincides
 with the religious distinction that men
 are equal in the eyes of ,god1 and it  
is not to be associated with any ethical
 ideas of life4 ,equality before ,god1  
and the equal worth of a moral act1     
whether done by the greatest or the     
humblest of ,god's children1 are not    
social conceptions2 they are significant
 only in religious1 and not in social1  

life4 ,and these two spheres can        
everywhere be separated4 ,it can even be
 said that1 as profoundly as religion   
pervades every-day life in ,america1 the
 characteristic principle of equality in
 the social community is wholly         
independent of the ethics of the ,new   
,testament4  ,it is still less a        
metaphysical conception4 ,the ,american 
popular mind does not at all sympathize 
with the philosophical idea that        
individuality is only an appearance1 and
 that we are all fundamentally one      
being4 ,the ,american thinks            
pluralistically1 and brings to his      
metaphysics a firm belief in the        
absolute significance of the individual4
 ,and finally1 the ,american principle  
of equality which we wish to grasp is   
not rationally humanitarian2 whether all
 human beings are really equal is left  
out of account4 ,it is a question       
actually of this one social community   
living together in the ,united ,states  
and having to regulate its social       

affairs4  ,let us suppose that a group  
of similarly employed good friends were 
on an excursion1 and that the young     
people for the sake of diversion were   
agreed to represent for a while various 
sorts of human occupation--one is to    
play millionaire1 another beggar1 still 
others judge1 teacher1 artisan1         
labourer1 high official1 and valet4     
,each one plays his part with the       
greatest abandon2 one commands and the  
other obeys1 one dictates and the other 
trembles4 ,and yet behind it all there  
is a pleasant feeling that at bottom    
they are all just alike1 and that the   
whole game is worth while merely because
 they know that one is in fact as good  
as another4 ,if a real beggar or servant
 were to come into the circle1 there    
would be no more fun1 and the game would
 be wholly meaningless4 ,strange as it  
may sound1 this feeling is at the bottom
 of social life in ,america4 ,every one 
says to himself3 ,all of us who inhabit 
this incomparable country are at bottom 

comrades2 one bakes bread and the other 
eats it1 one sits on the coachman's box 
and the other rides inside2 but this is 
all because we have agreed so to assign 
the rles4 ,one commands and the other   
obeys1 but with a mutual understanding  
that this merely happens to be the most 
appropriate distribution of functions   
under the circumstances in which we     
happen to be placed4  ,the real man1 it 
is felt1 is not affected by this        
differentiation1 and it would not be    
worth while either to command or to obey
 if all men did not tacitly understand  
that each esteems the other as an equal4
 ,a division of labour is necessary1 but
 as long as any one does the work       
apportioned to him he belongs of course 
to the fraternal circle1 quite as well  
as the one who by reason of industrial  
conditions or natural talents comes to  
take a more distinguished or agreeable  
position4 ,whoever makes this claim     
honestly for himself assumes that every 
one else does likewise4 ,on the other   

hand1 whosoever thinks himself equal to 
those above him1 but superior to those  
beneath him1 conceives external         
differences to be intrinsic1 and makes  
thus a presumptuous demand for himself4 
,the man who truly sees social equality 
as a real part of the social contract1  
will feel toward those above as toward  
those below him4 ,he will make his own  
claims good by the very act of          
recognizing the claims of others4 ,the  
spirit of social self-assertion requires
 the intrinsic equality of all one's    
neighbours who belong to the social     
community in question4  ,so long as one 
seeks equality by trying to imitate     
one's more wealthy1 more educated1 or   
more powerful neighbours and trying to  
gloze over the differences1 or by       
consciously lowering one's self to the  
level of the poor1 the uninfluential1   
and the uneducated1 and either by       
spiritual or by material aid            
obliterating the distinction1 one is not
 really believing in equality1 but is   

considering the outer distinctions as   
something actual4 ,indeed1 the zeal to  
wipe out distinctions is the most       
obvious admission that one feels actual 
differences to exist in the social      
fabric4 ,where the spirit of            
self-assertion1 with the recognition of 
one's neighbour as an equal social      
being1 prevails1 there will be no lack  
of striving for outward similarity1 of  
trying to help one's self along1 and of 
helping others up to one's own position2
 but this is looked on as a technical   
matter and not as referring             
intrinsically to the participants in the
 social game4  ,it is doubtful whether a
 ,european can fully appreciate this    
social point of view1 because he is too 
apt to distort the idea into an ethical 
one4 ,he is ready to abstract           
artificially from all social            
differences1 and to put the ethical idea
 of moral equality in the stead of      
social differentiation4 ,the social     
system is secondary then to the moral   

system1 as in fact religion actually    
teaches4 ,the ,american1 however1 goes  
in just the opposite direction4 ,he     
presupposes1 as a matter of course1 that
 the citizens of the ,united ,states are
 socially equal1 whether they live in   
the ,white ,house or work in the coal   
mine2 and this point of view is not     
dependent on any ethical theory1 but is 
itself the basis of such a theory4 ,when
 we were speaking of the influence of   
religion on morality1 we especially     
emphasized the fact that religious      
ethics are everywhere complemented by a 
purely social ethic1 and now we meet    
this new form of ethics4 ,religion      
requires a morality of which the        
principle is clearly1 though somewhat   
derogatorily1 designated in             
philosophical discussions as the        
morality of submission1 and which finds 
its counterpart in the ethical theories 
of moral lordship--the forcible and     
conscious suppression of the weak4 ,now 
the ,american constructs a morality of  

comradeship which is as far from the    
morality of submission as from that of  
lordship2 which is unlike either the    
morality of the pietist based on the    
religious idea of immortality1 or the   
morality of ,nietzsche1 based on        
biological exigencies4 ,this morality of
 comradeship is based entirely on the   
idea of society4  ,this does not mean   
that it is a question of fulfilling     
moral requirements in order to escape   
social difficulties1 or to gain social  
advantages1 but of recognizing this     
morality simply as a social requirement4
 ,such actions may be called moral      
because they are unselfish and arise    
from no other motive than that of the   
inner desire2 and still they are not1 in
 the ordinary sense1 moral because they 
are not universally valid1 and refer no 
further than the circle of the special  
social community4 ,they may be compared 
to the requirements which arise in some 
communities out of a peculiar conception
 of honour2 but the society here is a   

whole nation1 without caste and without 
distinction4 ,and1 moreover1 an idea of 
honour gets its force from the          
self-assertion of a personality1 while  
the social morality of the ,american    
arises in a demand for the recognition  
of another4 ,the fundamental feeling is 
that the whole social interplay would   
have no meaning1 and social ambition and
 success would yield no pleasure1 if it 
were not clearly understood that every  
other member of the social community is 
equal to one's self1 and that he has the
 absolute right to make such a claim4   
,the criminal and the man without honour
 have forfeited that right2 they are    
excluded from the community and cut off 
from the social game4 ,but distinctions 
of position1 of education1 of heredity1 
and of property1 have nothing to do with
 this right4 ,if we are to strive for   
social success1 we must be perfectly    
sure at the outset that we are all      
comrades1 participating in the various  
labours of the great gay world with     

mutual approval and mutual esteem2 and  
we must show that we believe this1 by   
our actions4 ,and because here it is not
 a question of rigorous morality1 but   
rather of the moral consequences of     
social ideals1 the ethical goes by      
inappreciable steps into the ethically  
indifferent1 into purely social customs 
and habits2 and in many cases into evils
 and abuses that follow from the same   
social ideals4 ,we may picture to       
ourselves the salient traits which are  
essential to this spirit of social      
self-assertion4  ,a stranger first      
notices1 perhaps1 the perfect confidence
 with which everybody goes about his    
business1 without feeling oppressed by  
those above nor exalted by those beneath
 him4 ,he feels himself an equal among  
equals4 ,there is no condescension to   
those beneath nor servility to those    
above4 ,the typical ,american feels     
himself in every social situation       
self-assured and equal2 he is simply    
master of himself1 polite but frank1    

reserved but always kind4 ,he detests   
patronage and condescension as much as  
servility and obsequiousness4 ,for      
condescension emphasizes the difference 
in the rank1 and presumes to challenge a
 possible forgetting of this difference 
by suggesting that both the persons do  
recognize the distinction as intrinsic4 
,a man who asserts his true equality and
 expects in every other honourable man  
the same self-assertion1 scarcely       
understands how purely technical        
differences of social position can      
affect the inner relations of man to    
man4  ,one who grows up in such a social
 atmosphere does not lose his feeling of
 assurance on coming into quite a       
different society4 ,archibald ,forbes1  
the ,englishman1 describes somewhere the
 ,american war correspondent1           
,mac,gahan1 who was the son of an ,ohio 
farmer1 as he appeared in a ,russian    
camp4 8,never before10 writes ,forbes1  
8have ,i seen a young man appear so     
confident among high officers and       

officials4 ,there was no trace in his   
manner of impudence or presumption4 ,it 
was as if he had conceived the matter on
 a single principle3 ,i am a man--a man 
who1 in an honourable way and for a     
specific purpose1 which you know or     
which ,i will gladly tell you1 needs    
something which you are best able to    
give me--information1 a pass1 or        
something of the sort2 therefore ,i ask 
it of you4 ,it is indifferent to the    
logic of the situation whether you are a
 small lieutenant or a general in       
command1 a messenger boy1 or an imperial
 chancellor40 ,and some one else has    
added1 8,mac,gahan could do anything    
with ,ignatieff2 he calmly paid court to
 ,mme4 ,ignatieff1 patronized ,prince   
,gortschakoff1 and gave a friendly nod  
to the ,grand ,duke ,nicholas40  ,it is 
not surprising that ,englishmen are the 
ones who feel this trait of the         
,americans most markedly4 ,england1     
which is most similar to ,america       
politically1 is1 in this respect of real

 belief in social equality1 most        
dissimilar2 and in curious contrast to  
,russia1 which is politically the very  
furthest removed from ,america1 but     
which in its common life has developed  
most of all a feeling of social         
equality4 ,and still the ,american      
feeling is very different from the      
,russian4 ,in the ,russian man1 all the 
deeper sensibilities are coloured by a  
religious conception2 he accounts       
himself at bottom1 neither better nor   
worse than the most miserable3 whereas  
the ,american feels1 on the contrary1   
that he is at bottom not inferior to the
 very best4 ,the ,russian sense of      
equality pulls down and the ,american   
exalts4  ,as for the ,englishman1       
,muirhead relates as follows in his     
book1 8,the ,land of ,contrasts03       
8,there is something wonderfully rare   
and delicate in the finest blossoms of  
,american civilization--something that  
can hardly be paralleled in ,europe4    
,the mind that has been brought up in an

 atmosphere theoretically free from all 
false standards and conventional        
distinctions acquires a singularly      
unbiased1 detached1 absolute1 purely    
human way of viewing life4 ,in ,matthew 
,arnold's phrase1 #8it sees life        
steadily and sees it whole'2 just this  
attitude seems unattainable in ,england2
 neither in my reading nor my personal  
experience have ,i encountered what ,i  
mean elsewhere than in ,america4444 ,the
 true-born ,american is absolutely      
incapable of comprehending the sense of 
difference between a lord and a plebeian
 that is forced on the most             
philosophical among ourselves by the    
mere pressure of the social atmosphere4 
,it is for him a fourth dimension of    
space2 it may be talked about1 but      
practically it has no existence4444 ,the
 ,british radical philosopher may attain
 the height of saying1 #8,with a great  
sum obtained ,i this freedom'2 the      
,american may honestly reply1 #8,but ,i 
was free-born4'0  ,but what ,muirhead   

thus says of the colour of the finest   
flowers is true1 if we look more        
closely1 of the entire flora2 it may not
 be so delicate and exquisite as in     
these flowers2 it is often mixed with   
cruder colours1 but every plant on      
,american soil1 if it is not just an    
ordinary weed1 has a little of that dye4
  ,it is not correct to suppose that    
inequalities of wealth work directly    
against this feeling4 ,in spite of all  
efforts and ambitions toward wealth and 
the tendencies to ostentation1 the      
,american lacks just that which makes   
the possession of property a distinction
 of personal worth--the offensive lack  
of consideration toward inferiors and   
the envy of superiors4 ,as gladly as the
 ,american gets the best and dearest    
that his purse can buy1 he feels no     
desire to impress the difference on     
those who are less prosperous4 ,he does 
not care to outdo the poorer man2 his   
luxury signifies his personal pleasure  
in expenditure as an indication of his  

success in the world4 ,but so far as he 
thinks of those who are looking on1 it  
is of those richer persons whom he would
 like to imitate1 and not of those who  
can afford less than himself4  ,envy was
 not planted in the ,american soul4     
,envy is not directed at the possession1
 but at the possessor2 and therefore1 it
 recognizes that the possessor is made  
better by what he owns4 ,a person who   
asserts himself strains every nerve to  
improve his own condition1 but never    
envies those who are more favoured4 ,and
 envy would be to him as great a        
degradation as pure servility4          
,undoubtedly here is one of the most    
effective checks to socialism4          
,socialism may not spring directly from 
envy1 but a people given to envy are    
very ready to listen to socialism2 and  
in ,america socialism remains a foreign 
cult1 which is preached to deaf ears4 ,a
 man who feels himself inferior1 and who
 envies his wealthier fellows1 would be 
glad to bring about an artificial       

equality by equalizing ownership3       
whereas the man who accounts himself    
equal to every one else is ready to     
concede the external inequality which   
lends fresh impetus and courageous      
endeavour to his existence2 and this the
 more as the accumulation of capital    
becomes an obviously technical matter1  
not immediately contributory to the     
enjoyment of life4 ,the billionaire     
enjoys no more than the millionaire1 but
 merely works with a more complicated   
and powerful apparatus4 ,even direct    
economic dependence does not depress the
 spirit of self-assertion4 ,we shall    
have later to speak1 indeed1 of strong  
opposite tendencies1 and to speak of    
social differentiation2 but this trait  
remains everywhere4 ,it is much more    
strongly in evidence in town and country
 than in the large city1 and much more  
in the ,west than in the ,east4  ,the   
tokens of greeting are thoroughly       
characteristic4 ,an ,american doffs his 
hat to ladies out of respect to the sex2

 but men meet one another without that  
formality1 and the finer differences in 
the nod of the head1 expression of the  
eyes1 and movements of the hat indicate 
the degree of personal familiarity and  
liking1 but not of social position4     
,position is something technical1       
professional1 and external1 which is not
 in question when two men meet on the   
street4 ,they greet because they know   
each other1 and in this mutual relation 
of personal acquaintance they are merely
 equal human beings1 and not the        
representatives of professional grades4 
,the careful ,german adjustment of the  
arc through which the hat is carried and
 of the angle to which the body bends1  
in deference to social position1 strikes
 the ,american as nonsensical4 ,the     
fundamental disregard of titles and     
orders is1 of course1 closely connected 
with such a feeling4 ,this has two      
sides1 and has particularly its         
exceptions1 which we shall not fail to  
speak of2 but1 on the whole1 titles and 

orders are under the ban4 ,the ,american
 feels too clearly that every form of   
exaltation is at the same time a        
degradation1 for it is only when all are
 equal that no one is inferior1 and so  
soon as some one is distinguished1 the  
principle of the inequality is admitted 
and he in turn subordinates himself to  
others4  ,it would be unfair to draw the
 conclusion from this that ,americans   
hate every sort of subordination4 ,on   
the contrary1 one who watches ,american 
workmen at their labour1 or studies the 
organization of great business houses1  
or the playing of games under the       
direction of a captain1 knows that for a
 specific purpose ,american             
subordination can become absolute4 ,the 
much-boasted ,american talent for       
organization could not have been so     
brilliantly confirmed if it had not     
found everywhere an absolute willingness
 for conscious subordination4 ,but the  
foot-ball player does not feel himself  
inferior to the captain whose directions

 he follows4 ,the profound objection to 
subordination comes out only where it is
 not a question of dividing up labour1  
but of the real classification and      
grading of men4 ,it is naturally        
strongest1 therefore1 in regard to      
hereditary titles where the distinction 
clearly cannot be based on the personal 
merits of the inheritor4  ,one of the   
most interesting consequences of this   
feeling is very noticeable to a         
stranger4 ,the ,american thinks that any
 kind of work which is honourable is in 
principle suitable for everybody4 ,to be
 sure1 this looks differently in theory 
and in practice2 the banker does not    
care to be a commercial traveller1 nor  
the commercial traveller a bar-tender1  
nor the bar-tender a street-cleaner2 and
 this not merely because he regards his 
own work as pleasanter1 but as more     
respectable4 ,nevertheless1 it is at    
once conspicuous with what readiness    
every useful sort of labour is          
recognized as honourable2 and while the 

,european of the better classes is vexed
 by the query how one can work and      
nevertheless remain respectable1 the    
,american finds it much harder to       
understand how one can remain           
respectable without working4 ,the way in
 which thousands of young students1 both
 men and women1 support themselves      
during their years of study is typical4 
,the ,german student would feel that    
some sort of teaching or writing was the
 only work suitable to him2 at the      
utmost he would undertake type-writing4 
,but we have seen in connection with the
 universities that the ,american student
 in narrow circumstances is not afraid  
during the summer vacations to work as  
porter in a hotel1 or as horse-car      
driver1 in order to stay a year longer  
at the university4 ,or perhaps1 during  
the student year1 he will earn a part of
 his board by taking care of a furnace4 
,and none of the sons of millionaires   
who sit beside him in the lecture rooms 
will look down on him on that account4  

,the thoughtless fellow who heaps up    
debts is despised1 but not the          
day-labourer's son1 who delivers milk in
 the early morning in order to devote   
his day to science4  ,this is everywhere
 the background of social conceptions4  
,no honourable work is a discredit1     
because the real social personality is  
not touched by the casual role which may
 be assumed in the economic fabric4     
,therefore it is quite characteristic   
that the only labour which is really    
disliked is such as involves immediate  
personal dependence1 such as that of    
servants4 ,the chamber-maid has         
generally much easier work than the shop
 girl2 yet all women flock to the shops 
and factories1 and few care to go into  
household service4 ,almost all servants 
are immigrants from ,ireland1 ,scotland1
 ,sweden1 and ,germany1 except the      
negroes and the ,chinese of the ,west4  
,even the first generation of children  
born in the country decline to become   
servants4 ,with the single individual1  

it is of course a matter of imitating   
his comrades and following general      
prejudices2 but these prejudices have   
grown logically out of the social       
ideals4 ,the working-man professionally 
serves industry and civilization1 while 
the servant appears to have no other end
 than complying with the will of another
 person4 ,the working-man adjusts       
himself to an abstract task1 quite as   
his employer2 while the servant sells a 
part of his free-will and therefore his 
social equality1 to another man4  ,most 
notorious is the fixed idea that        
blacking shoes is the lowest of all     
menial services2 and this is an         
hallucination which afflicts not only   
those born in the country1 but even the 
immigrant from ,northern ,europe1 as    
soon as he passes the ,statue of        
,liberty in ,new ,york harbour4 ,the    
problem of getting shoes blacked would  
be serious were it not for the several  
million negroes in the country and the  
heavy immigration from ,southern ,europe

 which does not get the instant         
prejudice against shoe-polish4 ,but the 
theoretical problem of why servants will
 gladly work very hard1 but strike when 
it comes to blacking shoes1 is still not
 solved4 ,there is possibly some vague  
idea that blacking shoes is a symbol of 
grovelling at some one's feet1 and      
therefore involves the utmost sacrifice 
of one's self-respect4  ,closely        
connected with this is the ,american    
aversion against giving or accepting    
fees4 ,any one giving a fee in a        
street-car would not be understood1 and 
there are few things so unsympathetic to
 the ,american who travels in ,europe as
 the way in which the lower classes look
 for an obolus in return for every      
trivial service or attention4 ,a small  
boy who accompanies a stranger for some 
distance through a village street in    
order to point out the way1 would feel  
insulted if he were offered a coin for  
his kindness4 ,the waiters in the large 
hotels are less offended by tips1 for   

they have adopted the custom brought    
over by ,european waiters2 but this     
custom has not spread much beyond the   
large cities4 ,it is1 in general1 still 
true that the real ,american will accept
 pay only in so far as he can justly    
demand it for his labour4 ,everything   
above that makes him dependent on the   
kindness of some one else1 and is       
therefore not a professional1 but a     
personal matter1 and for the moment     
obliterates social equality4  ,just as  
any sort of work which does not involve 
the sacrifice of the worker's free-will 
is suitable for every one1 so the       
individual is very much less identified 
with his occupation than he is in       
,europe4 ,he very often changes his     
occupation4 ,a clergyman who is tired of
 the pulpit goes into a mercantile      
employment1 and a merchant who has      
acquired some new interests proceeds to 
study until he is proficient in that    
field2 a lawyer enters the industrial   
field1 a manufacturer enters politics1 a

 book dealer undertakes a retail        
furniture business1 and a letter-carrier
 becomes a restaurant keeper4 ,the      
,american does not feel that a man is   
made by the accidents of his industrial 
position1 but that the real man puts his
 professional clothes on or lays them   
off without being internally affected4  
,the belief in social equality minimizes
 to the utmost the significance of a    
change of occupation2 and it may be that
 the well-known versatility and         
adaptability of the ,american are mainly
 due to this fact4 ,for he is so much   
more conscious than any ,european that a
 change of environment in nowise alters 
his personality1 and therefore requires 
no really new internal adjustment1 which
 would be difficult always1 but only an 
outward change--the mastery of a new    
technique4  ,a foreigner is most        
astonished at these changes of          
occupation when they come after a sudden
 reverse of fortune4 ,the readiness and 
quietness with which an ,american takes 

such a thing would be absolutely        
impossible1 if the spirit of            
self-assertion had not taught him       
through his whole life that outward     
circumstances do not make the man4 ,if a
 millionaire loses his property to-day1 
his wife is ready to-morrow to open a   
boarding-house2 circumstances have      
changed1 and as it has been her lot in  
the past to conduct her salon in a      
palace1 it is now her business to       
provide a good noon-day meal for young  
clerks4 ,she enjoyed the first a great  
deal more1 and yet it too brought its   
burdens4 ,the change is one of          
occupation1 and does not change her     
personality4 ,the onlooker is again and 
again reminded of actors who play their 
part2 they appear to live in every rle  
for the moment that they are playing it1
 but it is really indifferent to them at
 bottom whether they are called on to   
play in a cloak of ermine or in         
blue-jeans4 ,one is as good as the      
other1 even when the parts require one  

to swagger about and the other to sweat4
  ,if the members of the community feel 
themselves really equal1 they will lay  
special importance1 in their social     
intercourse1 on all such factors as     
likewise do not accentuate external     
differences1 but bind man to man without
 regard to position1 wealth1 or culture4
 ,this is the reason of the remarkable  
hold which sport has on ,american life4 
,the ,american likes sport of every     
sort1 especially such games as foot-ball
 and base-ball1 rowing1 wrestling1      
tennis and golf and polo1 in all of     
which bodily exercise is used in        
competition4 ,after these in favour come
 hunting1 fishing1 yachting1 riding1    
swimming1 and gymnastic exercises4 ,the 
sport of mountain-climbing is less      
popular1 and in general the ,american is
 not a great walker4  ,american sport   
is1 indeed1 combined with many          
unsportsmanlike elements4 ,in the first 
place1 betting has taken on such        
proportions that financial              

considerations are unduly influential1  
and the identification of opposing teams
 with special clubs1 universities1 or   
cities too often brings it about1 that  
the sportsmanlike desire to see the best
 side win is often made secondary to the
 unsportsmanlike desire to see one's own
 side win at any cost4 ,and yet even the
 fervour with which the spectators on   
the grand-stand manifest their          
partisanship is only another expression 
of the fact that the average ,american  
is intensely moved by sport2 and this   
interest is so great as to overcome all 
social distinctions and create1 for the 
time being1 an absolutely equal         
fellow-feeling4  ,base-ball is the most 
popular game1 and is played during the  
spring and summer4 ,the autumn game of  
foot-ball is too complicated1 and has   
become too much of a 8science0 to be a  
thoroughly popular game4 ,in the huge   
crowds which flock to see a university  
foot-ball game1 the larger part is not  
always aware of what is happening at    

every moment1 and can appreciate only   
the more brilliant plays4 ,tennis and   
golf are too expensive to be popular2   
and in golf1 moreover1 the success of a 
player is too independent of the skill  
of his antagonist4 ,water sports are out
 of the question in many localities4    
,but every lad in city or country plays 
base-ball4 ,it can be played everywhere1
 can be easily followed by spectators1  
and combines the interest of team work  
with the more nave interest in the      
brilliant single play4 ,it is said that 
on every warm ,saturday afternoon1      
base-ball matches are played in more    
than thirty thousand places1 before     
audiences of some five million amateurs 
in sport4 ,around the grounds sit       
labouring men1 clergymen1 shop-boys1    
professors1 muckers1 and millionaires1  
all participating with a community of   
interest and feeling of equality as if  
they were worlds removed from the petty 
business where social differences are   
considered4  ,there is only one more    

sovereign power than the spirit of sport
 in breaking down all social            
distinctions2 it is ,american humour4   
,we could not speak of political or     
intellectual life without emphasizing   
this irrepressible humour2 but we must  
not forget it for a moment in speaking  
of social life1 for its influence       
pervades every social situation4 ,the   
only question is whether it is the      
humour which overcomes every disturbance
 of the social equilibrium and so       
restores the consciousness of free and  
equal self-assertion1 or whether it is  
this consciousness which fosters humour 
and seeks expression in a good-natured  
lack of respect4 ,no immoderation1 no   
improper presumption1 and no pomposity  
can survive the first humorous comment1 
and the ,american does not wait long for
 this4 ,the soap-bubble is pricked amid 
general laughter1 and equality is       
restored4 ,whether it is in a small     
matter or whether in a question of      
national importance1 a latent humour    

pervades all social life4  ,not a single
 ,american newspaper appears in the     
morning without some political joke or  
whimsical comment1 a humorous story1 or 
a satirical article2 and those who are  
familiar with ,american papers and then 
look into the ,european newspaper1 find 
the greatest contrast to be in the      
absence of humour4 ,and the same is true
 of daily life2 the ,american is always 
ready for a joke and has one always on  
his lips1 however dry the subject of    
discussion may be1 and however diverse  
the social 8position0 of those present4 
,a happy humorous turn will remind them 
all that they are equal fellow-citizens1
 and that they are not to take their    
different functions in life too         
solemnly1 nor to suppose that their     
varied outward circumstances introduce  
any real inequality4 ,as soon as        
,americans hear a good story1 they come 
at once to an understanding1 and it is  
well-known that many political          
personalities have succeeded because of 

their wit1 even if its quantity was more
 than its quality4  ,american humour is 
most typically uttered with great       
seriousness2 the most biting jest or the
 most extravagant nonsense is brought   
out so demurely as not at all to suggest
 the real intent4 ,the ,american is a   
master at this1 and often remarks the   
,englishman's incapacity to follow him4 
,the familiar ,american criticism of    
their ,english cousins is1 in spite of  
,punch1 certainly exaggerated--as if    
there were no humour at all in the      
country which produced ,dickens4 ,but it
 cannot be denied that ,american humour 
to-day is fresher and more spontaneous4 
,and this may be in large part due to   
the irrepressible feeling of equality   
which so carries humour into every      
social sphere4 ,the assurance of this   
feeling also makes the ,american ready  
to caricature himself or his very best  
friend4 ,but it is necessary especially 
to observe the masses1 the participants 
in a festival1 citizens on voting day1  

popular crowds on the streets or in     
halls1 in order to feel how all-powerful
 their humour is4 ,a good word thrown in
 makes all of them forget their         
political differences1 and an amusing   
occurrence repays them for every        
disappointment4 ,they say1 ,let's forget
 the foolish quarrel about trivial      
differences2 we would rather be         
good-natured1 now that we are reminded1 
in spite of all differences1 of our     
social equality4  ,now1 out of this     
feeling of equality there spring        
far-reaching duties4 ,especially there  
are those which concern one's self1 and 
these are the same as proceeded from the
 ,puritan spirit of self-perfection4    
,they are the same requirements1        
although they are expressed in different
 ethical language and somewhat          
differently accentuated4 ,the           
fundamental impulse in this group of    
feelings is wholly un-,puritan and      
entirely social4 ,i assert myself to be 
equal to all others who are worthy of   

esteem1 and therefore ,i must recognize 
for myself all the duties which those   
who are richer1 more educated1 and more 
influential impose on themselves2 in    
short1 ,i must behave like a gentleman4 
,the motto1 which certainly has nothing 
to do with religion1 is noblesse oblige2
 but the nobility consists in being a   
citizen of ,america1 and as such        
subordinate to no man4 ,the duties which
 accrue are1 however1 quite similar to  
religious obligations4 ,the gentleman   
requires of himself firstly self-control
 and social discipline4 ,also in this   
connection we find a sexual purity which
 is not known on the ,continent2 one may
 sit in jovial men's society after      
dinner with cigars around the fireplace 
a hundred times without ever hearing an 
unclean story3 and if a young fellow    
tried to boast to his friends of his    
amorous adventures1 in the ,european    
manner1 he would be snubbed4 ,nowhere in
 the world is a young girl so safe in   
the protection of a young man4  ,the    

gentleman is marked1 first of all1 by   
his character2 everything which is low1 
unworthy1 malicious1 or even petty is   
fundamentally disagreeable to him4 ,the 
true ,american is not to be judged by   
certain scandal-mongering papers1 nor by
 city politics4 ,as known in private    
life1 he is admirable in all his social 
attitudes4 ,he has a real distaste1     
often in part sthetic1 for what is      
vulgar or impure2 and this is true in   
wider as in more exclusive circles4 ,in 
business he may look sharply to his own 
advantage2 but even there he is not     
stingy or trivial1 and he will seldom   
make use of a petty advantage1 of       
doubtful actions1 or dishonourable      
flattery and obsequiousness in order to 
gain his end1 nor be brutal toward a    
weak competitor4 ,that is opposed to the
 ,american national character4 ,it is   
less opposed1 however1 to the           
assimilated immigrant population1       
especially the ,irish4  ,the relation of
 one man to his neighbour is            

correspondingly upright4 ,the spirit of 
self-assertion educates to politeness1  
helpfulness1 good-nature1 and           
magnanimity4 ,european books on ,america
 are fond of saying that the fundamental
 principle of ,american life is1 8,help 
yourself40 ,if that is understood to    
mean that the individual person is not  
expected to keep quiet and wait for some
 higher power to help him1 and is       
expected1 instead of waiting for the    
government1 to go ahead and accomplish  
things for himself1 it is true4 ,we have
 already everywhere discovered the      
principle of individual and private     
initiative to be the great strength of  
the ,american state2 the community is to
 act only when the strength of the      
individual is not sufficient4 ,and the  
,american believes in self-help in still
 another sense4 ,he teaches his children
 to think early of economic             
independence2 the sons even of the      
wealthy man are to begin with a small   
income and work up for themselves4 ,here

 the traditions of the pioneers are in a
 way perpetuated1 for they had to       
conquer the soil by their own hard work4
 ,this training in self-help has        
contributed very much to make the       
,american strong1 and will doubtless    
continue to be regarded as the proper   
plan of education1 however much the     
increasing prosperity may tend in the   
opposite direction4  ,on the other hand1
 the motto 8,help yourself0 is          
thoroughly misleading1 if it is taken to
 mean that every one must help himself  
because his neighbour will not help him4
 ,a readiness to help in every way is   
one of the most marked traits of the    
,american1 from the superficial courtesy
 to the noblest self-sacrifice4 ,the    
,american's unlimited hospitality is    
well known4 ,where it is a question of  
mutual social intercourse1 hospitality  
is no special virtue1 and the lavish    
extravagance of present-day hospitality 
is rather a mistake4 ,but it is         
different when the guest is a stranger1 

who has brought1 perhaps1 merely a short
 note of introduction4 ,the heartiness  
with which such an one is promptly taken
 into the house and provided with every 
sort of convenience1 arises from a much 
deeper impulse than mere delight in     
well-to-do sociability4 ,in the large   
cities1 the ,american affords his guests
 such lodging and entertainment as a    
,european is accustomed to bestow only  
in the country4  ,more or less remotely1
 all hospitality involves an idea of    
exchange2 the entirely one-sided        
devotion begins first in philanthropy4  
,when men feel themselves essentially   
equal1 they may welcome external        
dissimilarities which incite them to    
redoubled efforts2 but they will not    
like to see this unlikeness go beyond a 
certain point4 ,differences of power1   
education1 and wealth are necessary to  
keep the social machinery moving2 but   
there is a certain lower boundary where 
helplessness1 illiteracy1 and poverty do
 really threaten the true personality4  

,and then the whole significance of     
social community is lost4 ,one's        
neighbour must not be debased nor       
deprived by outward circumstances of his
 inner self2 he must have at once the   
means of working for culture and        
striving for power and possessions4     
,otherwise1 an inner unlikeness would   
arise which would have to be recognized1
 and which would then contradict the    
presuppositions of democratic society4  
,the feeling of justice is aroused at   
the sight of helplessness1 the desire   
for reform at the sight of illiteracy2  
and poverty inspires eager assistance4  
,in its outward effects social          
helpfulness amounts to the same as      
religious benevolence1 although they are
 at bottom far removed1 and their       
difference may be recognized1 however   
much they work into one another4 ,in the
 world of self-perfection there is pity 
for the needy1 and benevolence is       
offered as a religious sacrifice4 ,in   
the world of self-assertion1 the        

consciousness of right is uppermost1    
which will not suffer the debasing      
influence of poverty2 and here          
benevolence is felt as a social duty by 
the performance of which social equality
 is preserved4 ,it is a natural         
consequence of pity and sacrifice to    
encourage beggary and unsystematic      
alms-giving2 and the fact that in       
,america everything is directed against 
beggary and against letting anybody feel
 that he is receiving alms1 speaks for  
the predominance of the social over the 
religious motive in ,america4 ,the one  
who receives alms lowers himself1 while 
the true social purpose is not in the   
charitable intent to help up the fallen1
 but to protect the social organism from
 the pathological symptom of such       
debasement2 the belief in equality and  
the right of self-assertion must not be 
taken from any individual in ,america4  
,the other extreme1 state aid1 legal    
enactments1 or illness and accident     
insurance1 or insurance against old age 

or lack of employment1 would be         
politically impossible4 ,they would be  
an attempt on the individual's right of 
self-determination1 which would be      
opposed for the sake of principle4 ,the 
,american social system demands1 rather1
 development along a line somewhere     
between individual alms-giving and      
government insurance4 ,it is a question 
of creating permanent social            
organizations to do away with poverty1  
illness1 depravity1 crime1 and distress 
in a systematic1 intelligent fashion4   
,the connection with the state would    
thus be preserved1 since the state      
poor-laws supervise and regulate such   
organizations2 on the other hand1 the   
connection with individuals would be    
preserved1 since they derive most of    
their means from private gifts and      
enlist a great deal of personal service1
 particularly that of women4 ,besides   
these private and semi-public           
organizations1 there is the co-operation
 of certain state institutions on the   

one hand1 and on the other of quiet     
individual benevolence1 for which any   
amount of organization always leaves    
plenty of scope4 ,care of the poor and  
of children1 social settlements and     
educational funds1 whatever the forms of
 helpfulness1 the same spirit of almost 
exaggerated benevolence inspires the    
gift of unlimited money1 advice1 time1  
and strength4 ,philanthropy could be    
improved in its outward technique in    
many states4 ,too often politics have a 
disturbing influence2 inexperience and  
religious narrowness are in evidence2   
efforts are sometimes directed partly   
against one another2 and many conditions
 of distress arising from the mixed     
population of the great thinly settled  
tracts of land1 present problems which  
are still unsolved4 ,but this has       
nothing to do with the recognition of   
the benevolent traits of ,american      
character4  ,the readiness of the       
,american to give to good purposes is   
the more impressive the closer one      

looks4 ,from a distance1 one sees gifts 
of millions of dollars which less       
impress one2 everybody knows that men   
like ,carnegie1 ,rockefeller1 and       
,vanderbilt make no sacrifices in       
contributing sums even in seven figures4
 ,but the person who is nearer the scene
 observes that there is also the widow's
 mite1 and that the well-to-do middle   
class often gives away a proportion of  
its income that seems almost too large1 
according to ,european ideas4 ,and this 
giving is never a thoughtless throwing  
away2 the giver always investigates4    
,almost everybody has a special         
interest1 where he fulfils his          
benevolent duties thoughtfully and      
intelligently1 ,vanity hardly figures at
 all2 the largest gifts are often       
anonymous and unheard of by the         
newspapers4 ,those who are often in the 
position of appealing to ,american      
public spirit for good purposes1 soon   
lose the feeling that they are reminding
 the public of a duty or asking for an  

offering4 ,the ,american gives in a way 
which suggests that he is delighted to  
be called on for so worthy a cause2 he  
often adds a word of thanks to a        
contribution which is larger than was   
expected1 for having his attention      
called to the cause in hand4  ,and his  
benevolence is not all a matter of the  
check-book4 ,whether the wind has blown 
some one's hat off in the street1 or    
some greater mischance has brought      
unhappiness1 the ,american feels that he
 lives in the midst of a kindly disposed
 community4 ,a feeling of comradeship is
 always more or less in evidence4 ,in   
any case of sudden accident or          
misfortune1 the way in which the        
,american unselfishly lends a hand1 or  
the crowd instinctively organizes itself
 to give aid1 always astonishes a       
newcomer4  ,this fundamental motive     
shows itself in many ways2 magnanimity  
is one of the most characteristic       
variations4 ,the ,american takes no     
advantage of the weakness or misfortune 

of another2 he likes competition1 but   
that presupposes that the competitors   
have equal advantages4 ,an opponent's   
disadvantage takes away the pleasure of 
victory4 ,during the ,spanish ,war1 the 
ovations accorded to the ,spanish       
8heroes0 were often decidedly beyond the
 limits of good taste2 and even during  
the ,civil ,war1 when the embitterment  
was extreme1 people outdid themselves in
 their kind treatment of the prisoners4 
,and leading men of the ,north have     
lately proposed1 in spirited public     
addresses1 to erect a national monument 
to ,general ,lee1 the great leader of   
the ,southern ,states4 ,as in war so it 
is in peace4 ,the presidential          
candidates of the two parties arranged  
some years ago to speak in the same     
places during the same week2 but one of 
them was detained by illness in his     
family1 and the other cancelled his     
speeches in order not to profit by the  
misfortune of his opponent4 ,in the case
 of a difference of opinion which is    

settled by vote1 say in a small club or 
committee meeting1 the cheerful         
submission of the minority is generally 
surpassed by the magnanimity of the     
majority4  ,this same magnanimity is    
shown in helping the weak2 there are no 
better-natured1 more considerate1 and   
patient people than the ,american1 so   
long as the social side of life is in   
question4 ,their temperamental coolness 
and humour stand them in good stead4 ,at
 bottom it is the feeling that they are 
all equal1 and that if one has made a   
miss-step to-day and needs help1 one    
needed it one's self yesterday1 and may 
need it again to-morrow4 ,the accident  
that one is doing one's duty at the     
moment while another is careless1       
indiscreet1 or foolish is not to be     
magnified nor taken to mean that one's  
self is a better sort of a man4 ,such   
kindliness greatly makes for general    
informality4  ,among the current        
complaints of ,europeans is1 that the   
,american life lacks just this serene   

cordiality1 the ,german ,gemtlichkeit4  
,it is true1 indeed1 that the rhythm of 
,american life is quicker and more      
energetic2 so that the stranger1 until  
he has become accustomed to the more    
strenuous pace1 remains at first        
oppressed by a disagreeable sense of    
haste2 just as the ,american who visits 
,germany has at first a disagreeable    
feeling of hide-bound pedantry and      
careless indifference4 ,such a first    
impression is superficial4 ,as soon as  
the ,american is adapted to the adagio  
of ,german life1 he feels that the      
slowness is not carelessness2 and the   
,german1 when he has learned the smarter
 marching time of ,american life1 knows 
in the same way that the quick1 strong  
accent by no means excludes serenity and
 comfort4 ,it is true that in the two   
countries these feelings are differently
 distributed4 ,the ,german              
,christmas-tide is certainly more       
fervent and serene than the ,american1  
but it is a question whether ,german    

popular life has any holiday more warmly
 solemnized than the ,thanksgiving ,day 
of ,new ,england4 ,the ,american nature 
favours a purely social comfort which   
has less to do with sentiment and       
feeling than with the sense of          
affiliation4  ,german informality       
develops itself always among social     
equals1 because in ,germany social      
differences seem to extend to the       
deepest traits of personality2 but      
social distinctions do not stand in the 
way of the sympathetic intercourse of   
,americans1 because they hardly ever    
forget that such differences are        
external4 ,in this sense the ,south     
,german enjoys more ,gemtlichkeit than  
the ,north ,german1 and the ,american   
more than any ,european4 ,the most      
indiscriminately chosen group can be    
brought to a unity of feeling by the    
merest comical or pathetic accident1 so 
that all social distinctions fall away  
like dead leaves4 ,in the most dignified
 assembly1 as at the busiest office1 a  

single word or jest creates             
unconsciously a sympathetic mood1 in    
which the youngest messenger and the    
most important director come at once    
into equality4 ,a feeling runs through  
the whole social life1 as if one would  
like to say1 with a jovial wink1 that no
 one believes really in all the social  
distinctions1 but is looking for what is
 good in the inner personality4  ,the   
most energetic expression of this inner 
striving for equality lies in the       
feeling of justice4 ,there is no        
province in which ,american and ,german 
feelings are so different4 ,this is     
especially true in the matter of penal  
law4 ,a crime is naturally a crime here 
as there1 and the differences in penalty
 are mainly due to different political1 
social1 and industrial institutions4    
,the ,american is perhaps astonished at 
the rigour of ,german law regarding the 
press or lse majest1 and at the mild    
punishment for duelling1 or certain     
social delinquencies2 while the ,german 

is amazed at the severe ,american laws  
relating to temperance and at the mild  
punishment for slander of officials1    
etc4 ,but all this does not show the    
least difference in the sense of        
justice1 but only in the institution4   
,the real difference is deeper4 ,the    
,german1 we might say1 lays the chief   
emphasis in seeing to it that on no     
account a criminal shall evade the law1 
while the ,american will on no account  
let an innocent man be punished4 ,it is 
a matter of course that every social    
community includes delinquents1 and that
 for the protection of society a penal  
code must do its best to suppress1 to   
intimidate1 or to improve the lawless   
will4 ,but in view of such necessary    
machinery1 the ,american feels that     
every effort should be made that his    
guiltless neighbour shall not be        
molested1 since the neighbour is one    
like himself4 ,it is better for a       
hundred guilty persons to escape the    
punishment they deserve than for a      

single innocent person to be in the     
least aggrieved4  ,the real             
distinctions1 therefore1 do not lie in  
the penal code1 but in the way it is    
administered2 to put it extremely1 the  
,german who is accused is guilty until  
he proves his innocence1 while the      
,american is innocent until he is proved
 guilty4 ,a single example will make the
 matter clear4 ,any one in the ,united  
,states who has been charged with murder
 or any other misdeed and on trial found
 not guilty1 can never again during his 
whole life be tried for the same crime2 
not even if entirely new and convincing 
evidence comes up later1 nor even if he 
should himself confess the crime4 ,the  
,american jurist says that the state has
 been given sufficient opportunity to   
prove the defendant's guilt4 ,if the    
counsel of the state as plaintiff has   
not been able to convince the jury1 the 
accused man is legally innocent1 and is 
protected as a matter of principle from 
the dread of any renewal of the         

accusation4 ,in ,american legal opinion 
the ,german method of procedure involves
 a certain arbitrariness1 which         
according to the opinion of many        
lawyers1 is tolerated in ,germany only  
because of the admirable quality of the 
judges4 ,american jurists say that about
 half of the testimony admitted in the  
,german court-room1 and two-thirds      
admitted in the ,french1 are entirely   
incompatible with the legal supposition 
that every man is innocent until proved 
guilty4  ,the different use of the oath 
is also characteristic of these two     
countries4 ,the sworn testimony on the  
basis of 8information and belief0 is    
admitted without more ado1 and so two   
contradictory pieces of evidence under  
oath are not only admissible1 but are   
very common2 and the ,german acceptance 
of the oath of one party and exclusion  
of that of the other seems a downright  
impossibility from the point of view of 
,american law4 ,in the same category is 
the requirement that the verdict of the 

jury shall be unanimous4 ,the twelve    
jurymen may not leave the court except  
under surveillance until they have      
pronounced the verdict2 and thus it     
happens that they often have to sleep   
and eat for days in the court house in  
order to be guarded from outside        
influences4 ,if after all they can come 
to no agreement1 the case is dropped and
 the situation remains exactly as it was
 before the trial2 and the state        
attorney is free to bring a new         
accusation4 ,only an unanimous 8guilty0 
or 8not guilty0 can be accepted4 ,in    
this connection1 too1 is found the      
unusual significance of the judicial    
injunctions1 and especially of the writ 
of habeas corpus1 derived from ,magna   
,charta1 which says that no free man is 
to be deprived of life1 liberty1 or     
property1 except according to the law of
 the land and by the verdict of his     
peers4  ,on looking over the judicial   
practice of the country as a whole1 one 
will feel1 quite as in ,germany1 that   

this great machinery succeeds in        
punishing crime and protecting society2 
but in ,america the instinctive fear of 
the law is accompanied by a profounder  
feeling that any innocent man is        
perfectly safe4 ,every trial shows1 in a
 way1 most clearly the negative side of 
the process1 that the rights of the     
defendant are to be carefully protected4
 ,and if a newcomer in the country      
recalls certain exaggerated reports in  
,german newspapers of corruption in     
,american courts1 he should bear in mind
 the words of ,choate4 ,shortly before  
going as ambassador to ,england1 he made
 a speech before a society of jurists1  
of which he was president1 on the       
advantages and disadvantages of trial by
 jury4 ,as to the theoretical           
possibility of bribery in such cases1 he
 said that he could pass the matter     
over1 since1 during his experience of   
forty years in law1 he had not seen a   
single case in which even one member of 
any jury had been accused of having been

 bribed4 ,unreliability in the          
administration of justice would do away 
at once with the fundamental principle  
of ,american social life4 ,when men     
believe sincerely in their equality1    
they naturally develop a strong sense of
 justice1 and regard the protection of  
the innocent man against every sort of  
prejudice1 hostility1 dislike1 or       
disregard as the very highest function  
of the law4  ,we have depicted the      
brighter side of the ,american sense of 
equality1 and may now1 with a few       
strokes1 put in the shadows4 ,no one has
 denied that there are unfortunate      
features1 although some assert that they
 must be accepted or else more important
 advantages sacrificed4 ,a stranger is  
at once struck by the tendency to       
uniformity which arises from the belief 
in general equality4 ,the spirit of     
comradeship is unfavourable to          
individual differentiation1 no matter   
whether it is a question of a man's hat 
and necktie or his religion and his     

theory of the universe4 ,he is expected 
to demonstrate his uniformity by seeming
 no different from every one else4 ,in  
outward matters this monotony is        
considerably favoured by industrial     
conditions1 which produce staple        
articles in great quantities and        
distribute them from one end of the     
country to another4 ,exactly the same   
designs in fashion1 arts and crafts1    
furniture and machinery are put on      
exhibition at the same time in the      
show-windows from ,new ,york to ,san    
,francisco4 ,on the other hand1 it is   
the economic custom of the ,american to 
replace everything which he uses very   
frequently4 ,this is due to the         
cheapness of all manufactured articles  
and the high price of the manual labour 
which is necessary to make repairs4 ,it 
is actually cheaper to buy new shoes and
 underclothing at frequent intervals    
than to have the old ones mended1 and   
this also provides every man with the   
latest styles4 ,if a new style of collar

 is brought out to-day1 there will1 say 
among the thousands of ,harvard         
students1 be hardly a hundred to-morrow 
wearing the old style4 ,this tendency   
is1 of course1 aided by the general     
prosperity1 which enables an unusually  
large proportion of persons to have     
considerably more than they need1 and to
 indulge1 perhaps imitatively1 in the   
fashionable luxuries of the day4  ,as   
much as the general prosperity favours  
this rapid adoption of new fashions1 it 
is still clear that wealth might1 in    
itself1 also help its possessors to     
distinguish themselves in outward ways2 
but this does not happen in the ,united 
,states by reason of these prevalent    
social ideals4 ,now1 the desire to do as
 others do affects even the inner life2 
one must play the same game and must    
read the same novel1 not because one    
thinks it is better1 but because others 
do it1 and because one feels in inner   
accord with the social community only by
 loving and hating the same things as   

it4 ,those who do not like what others  
like1 find themselves extremists at     
once2 they are instinctively held off by
 society as bizarre or over-intense1 and
 relegated to the social periphery4     
,there are too few intermediate stages  
between the many who follow one another 
and the few who follow no one1 and the  
finer shadings of personality are too   
much lost in this way4 ,americans ape   
one another as the officers of an army1 
and not merely in uniform1 but in the   
adjustment of all their habits and      
desires1 until comradeship becomes      
sterile uniformity4  ,in many ways the  
,american inventive talent tends to     
relieve the general monotony4 ,but this 
effort all the time to discover new     
solutions of this or that social        
problem1 new surprises1 new             
entertainments1 is itself only a sort of
 game which is played at by all         
uniformly4 ,the small city imitates the 
large one1 the rural population imitates
 the metropolitan2 no profession cares  

to keep its own social individuality2   
and the press and politics of the entire
 country tend to obliterate all         
professional and local differences in   
social life1 and to make of the whole   
nation a huge assembly of gentlemen and 
ladies who1 whether high or low1 desire 
to be just gentlemen and ladies at      
large4 ,it is still not difficult to-day
 to distinguish a gentleman of ,omaha   
from a ,new ,yorker2 but this is in     
spite of the former1 who1 as a matter of
 principle1 aims to present the same    
appearance4 ,east and ,west1 and        
recently in both ,north and ,south1 one 
sees the same countenance1 and it is    
seldom that one hears something of an   
intelligent effort to kindle local      
sentiment in contrast to national       
uniformity4 ,there is an appeal to      
provincialism to free itself from the   
system of empty mutual imitation1 and   
yet everybody must see that the         
profoundest instincts of this country   
are unfavourable to the development of  

individual peculiarities4  ,the dangers 
of this uniformity are chiefly sthetic1 
although it is not to be forgotten that 
uniformity very easily grows into       
intellectual mediocrity1 and under some 
circumstances may bring about a certain 
ethical listlessness4 ,on the other     
hand1 the unfavourable effects of that  
good-nature which dominates ,american   
life are all of them ethical4 ,their    
amiable good-nature is1 in a certain    
sense1 the great virtue of the          
,americans2 in another sense1 their     
great failing4 ,it is actually at bottom
 his good-nature which permits him      
everywhere to overlook carelessness and 
crookedness1 and so opposes with a      
latent resistance all efforts at reform4
 ,the individual1 like the nation1 has  
no gift for being cross2 men avoid for  
their own1 but more especially for      
others' sake1 the disagreeable          
excitement4 ,since the country is       
prosperous and the world wags pretty    
well1 no one ought to grumble if he is  

now and then imposed on1 or if some one 
gets an advantage over him1 or makes    
misuse of power4 ,among comrades nobody 
ought to play the stern pontiff4  ,an   
earnest observer of the country said1   
not long since1 that the hope of the    
country does not lie in those amiable   
people who never drop the smile from    
their lips1 but in those who1 on due    
provocation1 get thoroughly excited4    
,dust is settling on the country1 and   
there is no great excitement to shake it
 off4 ,the cobwebs of economic interests
 are being spun from point to point1 and
 will finally hide the nation's ideals4 
,good-nature produces a great deal of   
self-content in the ,united ,states1 and
 those are not the worst friends of the 
country who wish it might have 8bad     
times0 once more1 so that this pleasant 
smile might disappear1 and the general  
indifference give place to a real       
agitation of spirit4 ,the affair with   
,spain brought nothing of the sort2     
there was only enough anger to produce a

 pleasant prickling sensation1 and the  
easy victory strengthened in every way  
the national feeling of contentment4    
,there have been a few large disasters1 
due to somebody's neglect of duty1 such 
as the burning of a ,chicago theatre1   
which have done something to stimulate  
the public conscience and to impress on 
people how dangerous it is to let things
 go just as they will2 but even the     
disastrous accidents which result from  
this carelessness are quickly forgotten4
  ,the shadows are darkest where the    
spirit of social equality attempts      
artificially to do away with those      
differences which properly exist in     
school and family life4 ,it may be      
partly a reaction against the           
over-strict bringing up of former       
generations2 but everywhere pedagogical 
maxims seem senselessly aiming to carry 
over the idea of equality from the great
 social world into the nursery4 ,it has 
become a dogma to avoid all constraint  
and1 if possible1 all punishment of     

children1 and to make every correction  
and rebuke by appealing to their insight
 and good-will4 ,thus the whole         
education and schooling goes along the  
line of least resistance2 the child must
 follow all his own inclinations4 ,and  
this idea is nothing at bottom but a    
final consequence of the recognition of 
social equality between all persons4 ,to
 constrain another person1 even if he is
 a mere child1 means to infringe his    
personal liberty1 to offer him an       
ethical affront1 and so to accustom him 
to a sort of dependence that appears to 
be at variance with the ,american idea4 
,of course1 the best people know that   
lack of discipline is not freedom1 and  
that no strength is cultivated in the   
child that has always followed the line 
of least resistance and never           
experienced any friction4 ,but the mass 
of people thoughtlessly overlooks this1 
and is content to see even in the family
 the respect of children for their      
parents and elders sacrificed to this   

favourite dogma4  ,nature happily       
corrects many of these evils4 ,it may be
 sport1 most of all1 which early in the 
child's life introduces a severe        
discipline2 and here the ,american      
principle is saved1 since the outwardly 
rigid discipline which is enforced on   
every participant in the game is1       
nevertheless1 at every moment felt to be
 his own will4 ,the boy has himself     
sought out his comrades4 ,if he had also
 chosen his parents there would be      
nothing against their giving him a good1
 sound punishment occasionally1 instead 
of yielding indulgently to all his      
moods4 ,if sport and the severe         
competition of public life were not here
 to save1 it would be incomprehensible  
that such spoiled children should grow  
up into a population which keeps itself 
so strictly organized4 ,lack of         
discipline remains1 however1 in evidence
 wherever the constraint appears to be  
artificial and not self-chosen4 ,where1 
for instance1 the discipline of the army

 sometimes leads to situations which    
apparently contradict 8sound common     
sense10 the free ,american will never   
forget that the uniform is nothing but  
an external detail apart from his inner 
self4 ,and even the commanding general  
will resort to the publicity of the     
press4 ,in intellectual matters1 all    
this is repeated in the lack of respect 
shown in forming judgment2 every one    
thinks himself competent to decide all  
questions1 and the most competent       
judgments of others are often           
discounted1 because every one thinks    
himself quite as good and desires to    
assert himself1 and feels in nowise     
called on to listen with respect to the 
profounder knowledge1 reasoning1 or     
experience of another4  ,we have so far 
said nothing of those whose             
self-assertion and claims to equality   
are the most characteristic expression  
of ,american life--the ,american women4 
,we must not merely add a word about    
them at the end of the chapter2 they    

are1 at least1 a chapter by themselves4 
,and many who have studied ,american    
life would say that they are the entire 
story4                                  
,,chapter ,,twenty-,,two                
,the ,self-,assertion of ,women   ,it is
 said that the ,united ,states is the   
only country in which parents are       
disappointed on the appearance of a boy 
baby1 but will greet the arrival of a   
girl with undisguised pleasure4 ,who    
will blame them8 ,what1 after all1 will 
a boy baby come to be8 ,he will go to   
work early in life1 while his sisters   
are left to go on and on with their     
education4 ,he may work for a position  
in society1 but it will be mainly in    
order to let his wife play a rle2 he may
 amass property1 but most of all in     
order to provide bountifully for his    
daughter4 ,he will have to stand all his
 life that she may sit2 will have to    
work early and late1 in order that she  
may shine4 ,is it really worth while to 
bring up a boy8 ,but the little princess

 in the cradle has1 indeed1 a right to  
look out on the world with laughing     
eyes4 ,she will enjoy all the privileges
 which nature specially ordained for    
woman1 and will reach out confidently1  
moreover1 for those things which nature 
designed peculiarly for man4 ,no road is
 closed to her2 she can follow every    
inclination of her soul1 and go through 
life pampered and imperious4 ,will she  
marry8 ,she may not care to1 but nobody 
will think if she does not that it is   
because she is not able to realize any  
cherished desire4 ,will she be happy8   
,human destiny is1 after all1 destiny2  
but so far as nature and society1       
material blessings1 and intellectual    
considerations can contribute toward a  
happy life1 then surely the young       
,american woman is more favoured by     
fortune than either man or woman in any 
other part of the world can hope to be4 
,is this advantage of hers also a gain  
to the family1 to society1 and the      
nation8  ,it is not perfectly correct to

 speak of the ,american woman as a      
type--the ,southern girl is so different
 from the daughter of ,new ,england1 the
 women of ,california so different from 
those of ,chicago1 and the different    
elements of population are so much more 
traceable in women than in men4 ,and yet
 one does get a characteristic picture  
of the average woman4 ,it may be too    
much influenced by the feminine figures 
which move in the better circles to be a
 faithful average likeness4 ,perhaps the
 young girl student has been too often  
the model1 perhaps there is a           
reminiscence of the ,gibson girl2 and   
nevertheless1 one discovers some general
 features of such youth in the fair     
women whose hair has turned grey1 and   
there is something common to the        
daughters of distinguished families and 
the young women of the less favoured    
classes4  ,the ,american woman is a     
tall1 trim figure1 with erect and firm  
carriage2 she is a bit like the ,english
 girl1 and yet very different4 ,this    

latter is a trifle stiff1 while the     
,american girl is decidedly graceful2   
the lines of her figure are well        
moulded1 and her appearance is always   
aided by the perfect taste of her       
raiment4 ,in the expression of her face 
there is resolution and self-control1   
and with the resolution a subtle        
mischievous expression which is both    
tactful and amiable4 ,and with her      
evident self-control there is a certain 
winsome mobility and seemingly          
unreserved graciousness4 ,the strength  
appears not to contradict the grace1 the
 determination not to be at variance    
with the playfulness2 her eyes and play 
of expression reveal the versatile      
spirit1 fresh enthusiasm1 and easy wit2 
yet her forehead shows how earnestly she
 may think and desire to be helpful in  
society1 and how little contented simply
 to flirt and to please men4  ,and then 
her expression may change so suddenly   
that one asks in vain whether this      
energy was1 perhaps1 merely put on2 was 

perhaps a whimsical caprice2 perhaps her
 intellectual versatility was merely an 
elegant superficiality4 ,is she at      
bottom only in search of enjoyment8 ,is 
this show of independence real moral    
self-assertion1 and this decision real  
courage1 or does she emancipate herself 
merely out of ennui2 is it a search for 
excitement8 ,and is her eagerness to    
reach out for everything merely an      
effect of her environment which is ready
 to give everything8 ,but could this    
slim figure really be so wonderfully    
seductive1 if her eyes and features did 
not awaken doubt and unsolved questions2
 if everything were clear1 simple1 and  
obvious8 ,woman is everywhere full of   
contradictions2 and if the ,american    
woman is different from all her sisters1
 it is because the contradictions in her
 face and mien seem more modern1 more   
complex and unfathomable4  ,but it is   
vain to speak of the ,american woman    
without considering her relations to her
 environment--the background1 as it     

were1 of her existence1 the customs and 
institutions under which she has grown  
up and continues to live4 ,we must speak
 of the education and schooling1 the    
studies and occupations of women1 of    
their social and domestic position1     
their influence1 and their organized    
efforts2 and then we shall be better    
able critically to evaluate that in the 
,american woman which is good1 and that 
which is perhaps ominous4  ,the life of 
the ,american girl is different from    
that of her ,european sisters from the  
moment when she enters school4 ,public  
school instruction is co-educational1   
without exception in the lower grades1  
and usually in the upper4 ,of the six   
hundred and twenty-eight cities of the  
country1 five hundred and eighty-seven  
have public schools for boys and girls  
together1 from the primary to the most  
advanced classes2 and of those cities   
that remain1 only thirteen1 and all of  
them are in the ,east1 separate the boys
 and girls in every grade4 ,in the      

country1 boys and girls are always      
together at school4 ,in private schools 
in cities1 the instruction is more apt  
to be apart2 but the public schools     
educate #ia per cent4 of the youth--that
 is1 about #g1gjj1jjj boys and          
#g1fjj1jjj girls4  ,co-education has    
been adopted to a different extent in   
the different states1 and even in the   
different grades of school has not      
developed equally4 ,the instruction of  
boys and girls together has spread from 
the elementary classes1 and while the   
idea took the ,west by storm1 it was    
less immediately adopted by the         
conservative ,east4 ,practical          
exigencies1 and especially the matter of
 economy1 have greatly affected this    
development2 and yet1 on the whole1 it  
has been favoured by principle4 ,there  
is no doubt that1 quite apart from the  
expense1 a return to separate           
instruction for boys and girls would be 
regarded by the majority of the people  
to-day as an unallowable step backward3 

there has been considerable theoretical 
discussion of the matter2 but the fact  
remains that the nation regards the     
great experiment as successful4 ,this   
does not mean that the ,american        
thoughtlessly ignores sex differences in
 education2 he is aware that the bodily1
 moral1 and intellectual strength of the
 two sexes is different1 and that their 
development proceeds along different    
lines4 ,but firstly1 the ,american      
school system1 as we have seen1 leaves  
in general great freedom in the         
selection of studies4 ,the girls may    
take more ,french1 while the boys in the
 same class more often study ,latin2 and
 many subjects are introduced in the    
curriculum expressly for one or the     
other sex--such as sewing1 cooking1 and 
type-writing for the girls1 and         
carpentry for the boys4  ,it is said1   
moreover1 that just as boys and girls   
eat the same food at the family table1  
although it goes to make very different 
sorts of bodies1 so too the same        

intellectual nourishment will be        
digested in a different way1 and not    
work against the normal intellectual    
differences4 ,it is important only for  
the instruction like the nourishment to 
be of the best sort1 and it is feared   
that the girls' school would drop below 
the level of the boys' school if the two
 were to be made distinct4 ,equal       
thoroughness is assured only by having  
one school4 ,opponents of the idea      
affirm that this one school is virtually
 nothing but a boys' school after all1  
with girls merely in attendance1 and    
that the school is not sufficiently     
adapted to the make-up of the young     
girls4  ,the main point1 however1 lies  
not in the similarity of instruction1   
but in the bringing together of boys and
 girls4 ,it is true that the success of 
expensive private schools in large      
cities proves that there is considerable
 desire among parents to have their sons
 go to school with boys and their       
daughters only with girls2 but the      

nation1 as a whole1 does not take this  
point of view1 but believes that boys   
and girls1 growing up as they do        
together in the home and destined to    
live together as adults1 should become  
accustomed to one another during the    
formative period of school instruction4 
,the girls1 it is said1 are made        
stronger by actually working with the   
boys2 their seriousness is emphasized   
and their energy developed1 while the   
boys are refined by contact with the    
gentler sex--induced to be courteous1   
and influenced toward sthetic things4   
,and if theorists were actually to fear 
the opposite result--that is1 that the  
boys should be made weak and hysterical 
and the girls rough and coarse--they    
would need only to look to practical    
experience1 which speaks unanimously to 
the contrary4  ,a still less            
well-grounded fear is that of those who 
wish to separate the sexes especially   
during the adolescent period4 ,so far as
 this exceedingly complicated question  

admits of a brief summing up1 the nation
 finds that the sexual tension is       
decreased by the contact in the school2 
the common intellectual labour1 common  
ambitions1 and the common anxieties     
awaken comradeship and diminish all     
ideas of difference4 ,boys and girls who
 daily and hourly hear one another      
recite their lessons1 and who write     
together at the black-board1 are for one
 another no objects of romantic longing 
or seductive mystery4 ,such a result may
 be deplored from another point of      
view--namely1 that for reasons not      
connected with the school1 such         
romanticism is desirable2 but one must  
admit that the discouragement of unripe 
passion in the years of development     
means purer and healthier relations     
between the sexes1 both physically and  
mentally4 ,all regrettable one-sidedness
 is done away with4 ,just as in the     
stereoscope a normal perception of depth
 is brought out by the combination of   
two flat pictures1 so here the constant 

combination of the masculine and        
feminine points of view results in a    
normal feeling of reality4  ,then1 too1 
the school in this wise prepares the way
 for later social intercourse4 ,boys and
 girls are brought together without     
special supervision1 innocently and as a
 matter of course1 from the nursery to  
early manhood and womanhood4 ,it is only
 the artificial separation of the two   
sexes1 the ,american says1 which        
produces that unsound condition of the  
fancy that makes the relation of the    
sexes on the ,european ,continent so    
frivolous and dubious4 ,the moral       
atmosphere of the ,united ,states is    
undoubtedly much freer from unhealthful 
miasms4 ,a cooler and less sensual      
temperament contributes much to this1   
but the comradely intercourse of boys   
and girls from the early school days to 
the time of marriage is undoubtedly an  
equally purifying force4 ,the small boy 
very early feels himself the natural    
protector of his weaker playmate1 and   

the girl can always1 whether in the     
nursery or as a young lady in her       
mother's parlour1 receive her friends   
alone1 even when her parents are not at 
home4 ,a little coquetry keeps alive a  
certain sense of difference1 always1 but
 any least transgression is entirely    
precluded on both sides4 ,the boy       
profoundly respects his girl friend as  
he does his own sister1 and she could   
not be safer than in his protection4    
,the gallantry of the ,european is at   
bottom egotistic4 ,it is kind in order  
to win1 and flatters in order to please2
 while the gallantry of the ,american is
 not aimed to seduce1 but to serve2 it  
does not play with the idea of male     
submission1 but sincerely and truly     
gives the woman first place4  ,the only 
logical consequence1 when boys and girls
 enjoy not only equivalent but          
absolutely equal school training1 is    
that their further education shall go on
 parallel4 ,we have seen the peculiar   
position of the ,american college2 how  

it is almost incomparable with any      
,german institution1 being a sort of    
intermediate member between the high    
school and true university--the scene of
 a four-year intellectual activity1     
resembling in some respects the ,german 
school1 and in others the ,german       
university4 ,we have seen how the       
college removes the young man from the  
parental influences from his eighteenth 
to twenty-second years1 and places him  
in a new1 small1 and academic world of  
special ideals which is centred around  
some beautiful college yard4 ,we have   
seen how two things happen in these     
years2 on the one hand1 he is prepared  
for his future occupation1 especially if
 he is to enter a professional faculty  
of the university1 and on the other he  
receives a broad1 humanitarian training4
 ,we have seen also that these hundreds 
of colleges form a scale of very small  
gradations1 whose different steps are   
adapted to the different social needs of
 various sections of the country2 that  

the better colleges are like a ,german  
,prima1 with three or four semesters in 
the philosophical faculty of a          
university1 and that the inferior       
colleges hardly reach the level of the  
,unterprima4 ,in such an institution1 we
 have found the source of the best that 
is in ,american intellectual life4 ,now 
this institution opens wide its doors to
 women4  ,here1 in truth1 co-education  
is less prominent4 ,the conservative    
tendency of ,eastern colleges has worked
 against the admission of women into the
 better of them1 and the advantages of  
colleges for none but women are so well 
attested that the ,east at least will   
hardly make a change1 although the      
,middle and ,western ,states look on it 
virtually as a sin against inborn human 
rights1 to establish colleges for       
anything but the education of both sexes
 alike4 ,it was easier to oppose mixed  
education in the college sphere than in 
the school1 because the common          
elementary training was needed at the   

outset for both sexes1 while the demand 
for college training for women came up  
much later1 when the tradition of       
colleges for men was already well       
established4 ,harvard ,college was      
already two hundred years old when1 for 
the first time1 an ,american college as 
an experiment admitted women2 this was  
,oberlin ,college in ,ohio1 which began 
the movement in #ahcc4 ,the first       
women's college was established1 three  
years later1 in ,georgia--a pioneer     
institution in the ,south4  ,but        
progress was slow4 ,it was not until    
#ahfb that the government gave ten      
million acres of land for educational   
institutions2 and then higher           
institutions became much more numerous1 
especially in the ,west1 and from that  
time it was agreed that women should    
have equal privileges with men in these 
new colleges4 ,since then co-education  
in college and university has grown to  
be more and more the rule1 except in the
 ,east4 ,all state colleges and         

universities are open to women1 and also
 the endowed universities--,brown1      
,chicago1 ,cornell1 ,leland ,stanford1  
and the ,university of ,pennsylvania2   
some few others1 as ,yale1 ,columbia1   
and ,johns ,hopkins1 allow women to     
attend the graduate schools or the      
professional faculties1 but not the     
college4 ,statistics for all the        
colleges in the country show that1 in   
the year #ahhj1 only #ea per cent4 were 
co-educational2 in #ahij there were #fe 
per cent41 and in #aijj1 #gb per cent4  
,practically1 however1 the most         
significant form of female college      
education is not the co-educational1 but
 one which creates a special college    
paradise for young women1 where there   
are no male beguilements and            
distractions4  ,there are six principal 
institutions which have taken the lead  
in making the college life of women the 
significant thing that it now is4       
,vassar ,college was the first1         
established on the ,hudson ,river in    

#ahfa2 then came ,wellesley ,college1   
near ,boston2 ,bryn ,mawr1 near         
,philadelphia2 ,smith ,college1 in      
,northampton2 ,radcliffe ,college1 in   
,cambridge2 ,barnard1 in ,new ,york4    
,there is a large number of similar     
institutions1 as ,holyoke1 ,baltimore1  
and others in ever-diminishing series   
down to institutions which are hardly   
distinguishable from girls' high        
schools4 ,the number of girls attending 
strictly women's colleges in the whole  
country1 in #aijj1 was #bc1ijj2 while in
 mixed colleges and in the collegiate   
departments of universities there were  
#ai1bjj women students--just a quarter  
of the total number of college students4
 ,it is notable here that the students  
in women's colleges since #ahij have    
increased by #gjj1 and in mixed colleges
 by #i1jjj4 ,it may be mentioned1 in    
passing1 that there are #ce1jjj women   
students in normal schools4  ,the       
instruction in women's colleges is      
mostly by women1 who number #a1gdd--that

 is1 about #ga per cent4 of the         
instructors--while in mixed colleges the
 #heg women are only #aj per cent4 of   
the teaching staff4 ,in the leading     
co-educational universities1 like       
,chicago1 ,ann ,arbor1 ,leland          
,stanford1 ,berkeley1 and others1 the   
women are almost wholly taught by men4  
,the leading women's colleges pursue    
different policies4 ,wellesley has      
almost exclusively women2 ,bryn ,mawr1  
,vassar1 and ,smith have both2          
,radcliffe and ,barnard are peculiar1 in
 that by their by-laws ,radcliffe is    
taught only by ,harvard instructors1 and
 ,barnard only by instructors in        
,columbia ,university4 ,this            
identification with the teaching staffs 
of ,harvard and ,columbia assures these 
two women's colleges an especially high 
intellectual level4 ,and the same thing 
is accomplished1 of course1 for women by
 their being admitted to full privileges
 in ,chicago1 ,stanford1 and in the     
large state universities1 such as ,ann  

,arbor4 ,but one can realize the whole  
charm and poetry of women's colleges    
only on a visit to the quiet groves of  
,wellesley1 ,bryn ,mawr1 ,vassar1 or    
,smith4  ,in broad1 handsomely kept     
parks there lie scattered about         
attractive villas1 monumental halls of  
instruction1 club-houses and            
laboratories2 and here some thousand    
girls1 seldom younger than eighteen nor 
older than twenty-five1 spend four happy
 years at work and play1 apart from all 
worldly cares4 ,they row1 play tennis   
and basket-ball1 and go through         
gymnastic exercises2 and1 as a result1  
every girl leaves college fresher1      
healthier1 and stronger than when she   
entered it4 ,and the type of pale1      
over-worked neurasthenic is unknown4    
,these girls have their own ambitions in
 this miniature world--their positions  
of honour1 their meetings1 their clubs  
and social sets2 in which1 however1 only
 personality1 talent1 and temperament   
count1 while wealth or parental         

influence does not come in question4    
,the life is happy2 there are dancing1  
theatrical performances1 and innumerable
 other diversions from the opening      
celebration in the fall to the          
festivities in ,june1 when the academic 
year closes4 ,and the life is also      
earnest4 ,there is no day without its   
hours of conscientious labour in the    
lecture hall1 the library or study1     
whether this is in preparation for later
 teaching1 for professional life or1 as 
is more often the case1 solely for the  
harmonious development of all the       
student's faculties4 ,one who looks on  
these fresh young girls in their light  
costumes1 the venerable ,english        
mitre-caps on their heads1 sitting in   
the alcoves of the library or playing in
 the open air1 or in their formal       
debates1 in the seminary or in the      
festive procession on class-day1--sees  
that here is a source of the purest and 
subtlest idealism going out into        
,american life4  ,on such a foundation  

rests the professional training of the  
real university4 ,since the girl        
students in all the colleges of the     
country outdo the men in their studies1 
win the highest prizes1 and attend the  
most difficult lectures1 the old slander
 about deficient brain substance and    
mental incapacity can no longer serve as
 a pretext for closing the university to
 competing womanhood4 ,in fact1 the     
graduate schools1 which correspond to   
the advanced portion of a ,german       
philosophical faculty1 and the legal and
 medical faculties of all state         
universities and of a few private       
universities are open to women4 ,but one
 is not to suppose that the number of   
women who are thus preparing for the    
learned professions1 as that of         
medicine1 law1 or the ministry1 is very 
large4 ,there are to-day #dd1jjj women  
college students1 but only #a1bec women 
graduate students2 and in #ahij there   
were only #cfi4 ,there are hardly more  
than a thousand in the purely           

professional faculties1 and these form  
only #c per cent4 of the total number of
 students4 ,the ,american women study   
mostly in colleges1 therefore1 and their
 aim is generally to get a              
well-grounded1 liberal education1       
corresponding to a ,gymnasium training1 
together with a few semesters in the    
philosophical faculty4 ,but there are no
 limitations by principle2 woman as such
 is denied no 8rights10 and the verdict 
is unanimous that this national         
experiment is technically successful4   
,there is no indication of moral        
deterioration1 of a lowered level of    
instruction1 or of a mutual hindrance   
between men and women in the matter of  
study4 ,the university1 in short1 opens 
the way to the learned professions4     
,when a ,european hears of the          
independent careers of ,american women1 
he is apt to imagine something which is 
unknown to him--a woman in the judicial 
wig or the minister's robe2 a woman     
doctor or university professor4 ,thus he

 represents to himself the              
self-supporting women1 and he easily    
forgets that their number is vanishingly
 small beside the masses of those who   
earn their living with very much less   
preparation4 ,the professional life of  
the ,american woman1 her instinct to    
support herself1 and so to make herself 
equal to the man in the social and      
economic worlds1 cannot be understood   
merely from figures2 for statistics     
would show a much larger percentage of  
women in other countries who earn their 
living1 where the instinct for          
independence is very much less4 ,the    
motive is the main point4 ,one might say
 that the ,european woman works because 
the land is too poor to support the     
family by the labour of the man alone4  
,the ,american woman works because she  
wants her own career4 ,in travelling    
through ,europe1 one notices women      
toiling painfully in the fields2 this is
 not necessary in ,america1 unless among
 the negroes4 ,passing through ,new     

,england1 one sees a hammock in front of
 every farm-house1 and often catches the
 sound of a piano2 the wives and        
daughters have never thought of working 
in the fields4 ,but women crowd into all
 occupations in the cities1 in order to 
have an independent existence and to    
make themselves useful4 ,they would     
rather work in a factory or teach than  
to stay on the farm and spend their time
 at house-work or embroidery4  ,as a    
matter of course1 very many families are
 actually in need1 and innumerable      
motives may lead a woman to the earning 
of a living4 ,but if one compares the   
changes in the statistics of different  
employments1 and looks into the         
psychology of the different kinds of    
occupation1 one sees clearly that the   
spirit of self-determination is the     
decisive factor1 and that women compete 
most strongly in the professions which  
involve some rational interest1 and that
 they know where it pays to crowd the   
men out4 ,there is no male profession1  

outside of the soldiery and the fire    
department1 into which women have not   
felt themselves called4 ,between the    
,atlantic and ,pacific oceans there are 
#de female locomotive engineers1 #ca    
elevator attendants1 #afg masons1 #e    
pilots1 #aif blacksmiths1 #fbe coal     
miners1 #c auctioneers1 and #a1cbj      
professional huntresses4  ,apart from   
such curiosities1 and looking at only   
the large groups1 we shall discover the 
following professional activity of      
women3 ,in #aijj1 when the last census  
was made1 there were #bc1ged1jjj men and
 #e1cai1jjj women at paid               
employment--that is1 only #ah per cent4 
of the bread-winners were women4 ,of    
these1 only #iga1jjj were engaged in    
agriculture as against #i1djd1jjj men1  
while in the so-called professions1 the 
intellectual occupations1 there were    
#dcj1jjj women against #hbh1jjj men4 ,in
 domestic positions1 there were         
#b1jie1jjj women against #c1dhe1jjj men2
 in trade there were #ejc1jjj against   

#d1bfc1jjj1 and in manufactures         
#a1cac1jjj against #e4ggb4jjj4 ,the     
total number of wage-earning women has  
steadily increased4 ,in #ahij it        
amounted to only #ag per cent41 and in  
#ahhj to only #ae per cent4 ,the        
proportions in different parts of the   
country are different1 and not only     
according to the local forms of         
industry1 but also to the different     
stages of civilization2 the more        
advanced the civilization1 the more the 
women go into intellectual employments4 
,among a hundred wage-earning women1 for
 instance1 in the ,north ,atlantic      
,states1 there are only #a4i per cent4  
engaged in agriculture1 but #g4f per    
cent4 in intellectual occupations1 #cg4e
 per cent4 engaged in domestic service1 
#ab4i per cent4 in trade1 and #dj4a per 
cent4 in manufactures4 ,in the ,southern
 ,middle ,states1 on the other hand1 out
 of a hundred women only #g4b per cent4 
are in manufactures1 #b4f per cent4 in  
trade1 and #d4d per cent4 in            

intellectual professions4  ,of these    
occupations1 the most interesting are   
the intellectual1 domestic1 and trading 
activities of women4 ,the great majority
 in intellectual employments are        
teachers2 the whole story of ,american  
culture is told by the fact that there  
are #cbg1jjj women pedagogues--an       
increase of #hj1jjj in ten years--and   
only #aaa1jjj male teachers4 ,the number
 of physicians has increased from #d1eeg
 in #ahij to #g1cii in #aijj2 but this  
is not ominous in comparison with their 
#abd1jjj male colleagues4 ,there are    
#eb1jjj musicians and music teachers1   
#aa1jjj teachers in drawing1 #e1ihd     
authors--a figure which has doubled     
since #ahij2 and in the newspaper world 
the troup of women reporters and        
journalists has grown in ten years from 
#hhh to #b1aic4 ,there are #h1jjj women 
officials employed by the state1 over   
,i1#jjj architects produce feminine     
architecture1 and #c1dje ministers      
preach the gospel4  ,turning to domestic

 activity1 we find of course the        
international corps of house-servants to
 include the greater part2 they number  
#a4bhc4jjj1 and the statistics do not   
say whether1 perhaps1 one or two of     
these who have a white skin were born in
 the country4 ,this number was          
#a1baf1jjj in #ahij1 so that it has     
increased only #e4e per cent42 while    
during the same time population has     
increased #bj4g per cent41 and the      
increasing wealth has greatly raised the
 demand for service4 ,let us compare    
with this the increased number of       
trained nurses1 whose occupation is an  
arduous but independent and in itself   
useful career4 ,the number of trained   
nurses has increased from #da1jjj to    
#ajh1jjj--that is1 by #afc per cent4    
,the figures for all such domestic      
employments as admit of social          
independence have also increased4 ,the  
female restaurant keepers have increased
 from #hf1jjj to #adg1jjj2 the          
boarding-house proprietresses number    

#ei1dee1 double the figure of ten years 
ago4 ,the independent profession of     
washer-woman attracts #cbe1jjj1 while   
there are only #abd1jjj independent     
domestic labourers as compared with     
#b1ded1jjj men in the same occupations4 
,the increase in the figures for such   
free professions as are classed under   
trade and commerce is in part even more 
striking4 ,the number of female         
insurance agents1 which in #ahij was    
less than #e1jjj1 is now more than      
#aj1jjj2 book-keepers have increased    
from #bg1jjj to #gd1jjj2 sales-women1   
from #eh1jjj to #adi1jjj2 typists and   
stenographers from #ba1jjj to           
#hf1jjj--that is1 fourfold--and there   
are now #bb1jjj telephone and telegraph 
operators4 ,the number of shop-keepers  
at #cd1jjj has not increased much1 and  
is relatively small beside the #gef1jjj 
men4 ,there are only #bfa women         
wholesale merchants against #db1jjj men1
 #idf women commercial travellers       
against #ia1jjj men2 the profession of  

lady banker has decreased shamefully    
from #eaj to #bic1 although this is no  
ground for despairing of the future of  
,american banking1 since the number of  
bankers other than women has increased  
in the same time from #ce1jjj to        
#gb1jjj4  ,finally1 let us look at      
industry and manufactures4 ,the number  
of seamstresses has been the same for   
ten years with mathematical exactitude2 
that is1 #adf1jjj4 ,since the population
 has increased by one-fifth1 it is clear
 that this form of work has been        
unpopular1 doubtless because it involves
 personal abasement and exposure to the 
arbitrariness of customers1 and is      
therefore unfavourable to               
self-assertion4 ,at the same time the   
workers in woollen and cotton factories 
have increased from #ib1jjj to #abj1jjj1
 in silk factories from #bj1jjj to      
#cb1jjj1 and in cigar factories from    
#bg1jjj to #dc1jjj4 ,there are #cdd1jjj 
garment-workers1 #hf1jjj milliners1     
#ae1jjj book-binders1 #af1jjj printers1 

#ag1jjj box-makers1 and #ci1jjj in the  
shoe industry4 ,the whole picture shows 
a body of women whose labour is hardly  
necessary to support the families of the
 nation1 but who are firmly resolved to 
assert themselves in economic and       
intellectual competition1 who press     
their way into all sorts of occupations1
 but avoid as far as possible anything  
which restricts their personal          
independence1 and seek out any          
occupation which augments their         
personality and their consciousness of  
independence4 ,if all women who were not
 born on ,american soil1 or if so were  
born of coloured parentage1 were omitted
 from these statistics1 then the        
self-asserting quality of ,american     
women who earn their living would come  
out incomparably more clearly4  ,the    
bread-winning activity of women is1     
however1 only a fraction of their       
activity outside of the home4 ,if of the
 #ci1jjj1jjj men in the country1        
#bc1ged1jjj have an occupation1 and of  

the #cg1jjj1jjj women only #e1cai1jjj   
work for a living1 it is clear that the 
great majority of grown-up women earn   
nothing4 ,but nobody who knows ,american
 life would take these women who earn no
 wages from the list of those who exert 
a great influence outside of the family 
circle1 and assert themselves in the    
social organization4 ,between the two   
broad oceans there is hardly any        
significant movement outside of trade   
and politics which is not aided by      
unpaid women1 who work purely out of    
ideal motives4 ,vanity1 ambition1       
self-importance1 love of diversion1 and 
social aspirations of all kinds1 of     
course1 play a part2 but the actual     
labour which women perform in the       
interests of the church or school1 of   
public welfare1 social reform1 music1   
art1 popular education1 care of the     
sick1 beautification and sanitation of  
cities1 every day and everywhere1       
represents incontestably a powerful     
inborn idealism4  ,only one motive more1

 which is by no means unidealistic1     
dictates this purely practical devotion2
 it is the motive of helping on this    
very self-assertion of women4 ,work is  
done for the sake of work1 but more or  
less in the consciousness that one is a 
woman and that whatever good one does1  
raises the position of the sex4 ,thus1  
in women's clubs and organizations1     
through noisy agitation or quieter      
feminine influences1 the ,american      
woman's spirit of self-assertion        
impresses itself in a hundred thousand  
ways4 ,women are the majority in every  
public lecture and in every broadly     
benevolent undertaking2 schools and     
churches1 the care of the poor and the  
ill are enlivened by their zeal1 and in 
this respect the ,east and the ,west    
feel quite alike4 ,certainly this       
influence beyond the home does not end  
with direct self-conscious labour2 it   
goes on where there are no women        
presidents1 secretaries1 treasurers1 and
 committee members1 but wherever women  

go for enjoyment and relaxation4 ,women 
form a large majority in art            
exhibitions1 concerts1 theatres1 and in 
church services2 women decide the fate  
of every new novel2 and everywhere women
 stand in the foreground1 wide awake and
 self-assertive4  ,it is incredible to  
the ,european how very much the         
unselfish and high-minded women of      
,america are able to accomplish1 and how
 so many of them can combine a vast deal
 of practical work with living in the   
midst of bustling social affairs1 and   
themselves entertaining perhaps in a    
brilliant way4 ,such a woman will go    
early in the morning to the committee   
meeting of her club1 inspect a school or
 poor-house on the way1 then help to    
draw up by-laws for a society1 deliver  
an address1 preside at some other       
meeting1 and meet high officials in the 
interests of some public work4 ,she     
expends her energy for every new        
movement1 keeps in touch with every new 
tendency in art and literature1 and is  

yet a pleasant and comfortable mother in
 her own home4 ,this youthful freshness 
never succumbs to age4 ,in ,boston1 the 
widow of the zologist ,agassiz1 although
 now eighty years of age1 is still      
tirelessly active as honourary president
 of ,radcliffe ,college2 and ,julia     
,ward ,howe1 the well-known poetess1 in 
spite of her eighty-four years1 presides
 at every meeting of the ,boston        
,authors' ,club1 still with her quiet   
but fresh and delightful humour4  ,the  
leadership of women which is a problem  
to be discussed1 as far as public life  
is concerned1 is an absolute dogma which
 it would be sacrilege to call in       
question1 so far as social and domestic 
life go4 ,just as ,lincoln said that the
 ,american government is a government   
8of the people1 by the people1 and for  
the people10 so certainly ,american     
society is a government of the women1 by
 the women1 and for the women4 ,the part
 which the wife plays determines so     
unconditionally the social status of    

every home1 that even a man who has his 
own social ambitions can accomplish his 
end in no better way than by doing      
everything to further the plans and even
 the whims of his wife4 ,and the luxury 
in which she is maintained is so        
entirely a symbol of social position    
that the man comes instinctively to     
believe that he is himself enjoying     
society when he worries and over-works  
in order to provide jewelry and funds   
for the elaborate entertainments of his 
wife  ,just as the wife of the          
millionaire has her place arranged to   
suit herself1 so the modest townswoman  
does in her small home1 and so also the 
wife of the day labourer1 in her still  
narrower surroundings4 ,the man pushes  
the baby carriage1 builds the kitchen   
fire1 and takes care of the furnace1 so 
that his wife can attend to getting     
fashionable clothing2 he denies himself 
cigars in order to send her into the    
country for the summer4 ,and she takes  
this as a matter of course4 ,she has    

seen this done from her childhood by all
 men1 and she would be offended if her  
husband were to do anything less4 ,the  
,american woman's spirit of             
self-assertion would be aroused directly
 if social equality were to be          
interpreted in such a ridiculous way as 
to make the man anything but the social 
inferior4  ,the outward noise would make
 one believe that the self-assertion of 
the feminine soul were most             
energetically concerned with political  
rights2 woman's suffrage is the great   
watchword4 ,but the general noise is    
deceptive2 the demands for equal school 
and college education for young women1  
for admission to industrial positions on
 the same footing with men1 for an      
independent existence and life career   
for every woman who wants it1 and for   
social domination--all these are        
impulses which really pervade the       
national consciousness4 ,but the demand 
for equal suffrage is not nearly so     
universal4 ,in the nature of things1 it 

is often put forth by radical lecturers 
on woman's rights2 and it is natural    
that some large societies support the   
efforts1 and that even masculine logic  
should offer no objections in many      
cases4 ,the familiar arguments known to 
all the world have hardly been augmented
 by a single new reason on the woman's  
side4 ,but the old arguments appear on  
the surface to be such sound deductions 
from all the fundamental political1     
social1 and economic principles of      
,america that they come here to have new
 force4 ,if in spite of this their      
practical success is still exceedingly  
small1 and the most energetic opposition
 is not from the stronger sex but from  
the women themselves1 it shows clearly  
that there is some strong opposing      
impulse in the ,american public mind4   
,the social self-assertion of women1 in 
which every ,american believes with all 
his heart1 is just as little likely ever
 to lead to universal political suffrage
 for women as ,american industrial      

self-assertion will ever lead to        
socialism4  ,but the irony of world     
history has brought it about that women 
began with just those rights which      
to-day some of them are demanding4 ,when
 ,english law was brought across the    
ocean by the colonists in the           
seventeenth century1 the women had the  
constitutional right to vote1 and in    
exceptional cases made use of it2 not   
one of the constitutions of the thirteen
 states limited the suffrage to men4    
,the ,state of ,new ,york was the first 
to improve or to injure its constitution
 by adding the qualification 8male10 in 
the year #aggh4 ,one state followed     
after another1 and ,new ,jersey was the 
last1 in #ahdd4 ,but just as the last   
door was closed1 the hue and cry was    
raised that they all ought to be opened4
 ,the first woman's convention to make  
an urgent appeal for the restoring of   
these rights was held in ,new ,york in  
#ahdh4 ,there was a violent opposition2 
but the movement extended to a great    

many states1 and finally1 in #ahff1 a   
national organization was formed which  
asked for a national law4 ,this was just
 after the ,civil ,war1 when the        
amendment giving the suffrage to the    
negroes was the chief subject of        
political discussion4 ,a petition with  
eighty thousand signatures was gotten up
 urging that the ,constitution should be
 interpreted so as to give women the    
right to vote4 ,two women brought legal 
action1 which went up through all the   
courts to the ,supreme ,court1 but was  
there decided against the women1 and    
therefore the sex has not the suffrage4 
,no national movements have1 therefore1 
to-day any practical significance unless
 three-quarters of all state            
legislatures can be induced to vote for 
an amendment to the ,constitution in    
favour of woman's suffrage--that is1 to 
vote that no state be allowed to exclude
 women from the ballot4 ,this is hardly 
more likely to happen than a            
,constitutional amendment to introduce  

hereditary monarchy4 ,meanwhile1 the    
agitation in the various states has by  
no means entirely stopped4 ,time after  
time attempts have been made to alter   
the constitution of a single state1 but 
unsuccessfully4 ,the only states to     
introduce complete woman's suffrage have
 been ,wyoming in #ahfi1 ,colorado in   
#ahic1 and ,utah in #ahie4 ,kansas      
allows women to vote in municipal       
elections4 ,the agitation has been      
really successful in only one direction2
 it has succeeded in getting from a     
majority of the states the right to vote
 for the local school committees4  ,such
 experience as the country has had with 
woman's suffrage has not been specially 
favourable to the movement4 ,a good deal
 goes to show that1 even if full        
privileges were granted1 they would     
remain a dead letter for the            
overwhelming majority of women4 ,the    
average woman does not wish to go into  
politics4 ,it has been affirmed that in 
the modern way of living1 with servants 

to do all the house-work1 factories to  
do the spinning and weaving and every   
sort of economic convenience1 the       
married woman has too little to do1 and 
needs the political field in which to   
give her energies free play4 ,but so    
long as statistics show that four-fifths
 of the married women in the country do 
all their house-work1 and so long as    
such a great variety of ethical1        
intellectual1 sthetic and social duties 
lie before every woman1 it is no wonder 
that very few are eager to take on new  
responsibilities at the ballot-box4     
,those1 however1 who would make most use
 of the suffrage would be1 as the women 
who oppose the movement say1 the worst  
female element of the large cities1 and 
they would bring in all the worst evils 
of a low class of voters led by         
demagogues4 ,political corruption at the
 ballot would receive a new and         
specially dangerous impetus2 the        
political machines would win new and    
disgusting strength from the feebleness 

of these women to resist political      
pressure1 and instead of women's        
ennobling and refining political ethics1
 as their partisans hope1 they would be 
more apt to drag politics down to the   
very depths4 ,those who oppose the      
movement see a decided prejudice to     
political soundness even in the mere    
numerical doubling of the voting class4 
,most of all1 the conservative element  
can assert1 with an excellent array of  
facts1 that the healthy progress of     
woman's self-assertion best proceeds by 
keeping away from politics and turning  
directly toward the improvement of the  
conditions of living and of instruction1
 toward the opening up of professions1  
the framing of industrial laws1         
and-other reforms4 ,the radical         
political demands of women in all other 
fields1 and most especially in the      
socialistic direction1 inclining as they
 naturally do to be extreme1 have worked
 rather to hinder than to aid the social
 progress of women4 ,even where the     

social independence of women is properly
 contested1 there works the deterring   
consideration that politics might bring 
about differences between husband and   
wife4 ,taken all in all1 the            
self-assertion of women in political    
matters is hardly a practical question4 
,one who looks into their tracts and    
propaganda feels for a long while that  
the last one he has read1 on which ever 
side it is1 is wrong2 but when he has   
come to a point where he meets only the 
old arguments revamped1 he feels that on
 the whole the radical side has still   
less justice than the other4 ,and the   
nation has come to the same conclusion4 
,we may thus leave politics quite out of
 account in turning finally to the main 
question which relates to women2 this   
is1 ,how has this remarkable            
self-assertion of woman affected the    
life of the nation1 both on the whole   
and in special spheres8  ,let us look   
first at the sphere of the family4 ,the 
situation here is often decidedly       

misinterpreted2 the frequent divorces in
 ,america are cited very often in order 
to put ,american family life in an      
unfavourable light4 ,according to the   
census report of #aijj1 the ratio of    
divorced to married men was #j4f per    
cent41 and of women #j4h per cent42     
while in #ahij the respective figures   
were only #j4d per cent4 and #j4f per   
cent4 ,nevertheless1 the total number of
 divorced persons is only #j4c per cent4
 of the whole population1 as compared   
with #e4a per cent4 who are widows1     
#cf4e per cent4 who are married1 and    
#eg4i per cent4 of bachelors--with a    
small remainder unaccounted for4 ,it is 
true that divorced persons who have     
remarried are here included among the   
married persons2 but even if the number 
of dissolved marriages is somewhat      
greater than it appears in the          
statistics1 that fact shows nothing as  
to the moral status of marriage in      
,america4  ,anybody familiar with the   
country knows that1 much more often than

 in ,europe1 the real grounds which lead
 to divorce--not the mere legal pretexts
 given--are highly ethical ones4 ,we    
have hinted at this when we analyzed the
 religious life2 the main reason is the 
ethical objection to continuing         
externally in a marriage which has      
ceased to be spiritually congenial4 ,it 
is the women especially1 and generally  
the very best women1 who prefer to take 
the step1 with all the hardships which  
it involves1 to prolonging a marriage   
which is spiritually hypocritical and   
immoral4 ,infidelity of the woman is the
 ground of divorce in only a vanishingly
 small number of cases1 and the sexual  
purity of marriage is on a high plane   
throughout the people4 ,the pure        
atmosphere of this somewhat unemotional 
people1 which makes it possible for any 
woman to wend her way without escort    
through the streets of a large city in  
the evening and to travel alone across  
the ,continent1 and which protects the  
girl on the street from being stared at 

or rudely accosted1 protects even more  
the married woman4 ,although ,french    
society dramas are presented on the     
,american stage1 one feels from the     
general attitude of the public that it  
really fails to understand the          
psychology of what is being performed1  
because all the ethical presuppositions 
are so entirely different4 ,what the    
,parisian finds piquant1 the ,new       
,englander finds shameless2 and the     
woman over whom the ,frenchman smiles   
disgusts the ,american4  ,and in still  
another sense ,american marriage is     
purer than the ,european2 it lacks the  
commercial element4 ,as characteristic  
as this fact is in economic life1 it is 
even more significant in social life4   
,this does not mean that the man who    
pays court to the daughter of a         
millionaire is entirely unconscious of  
the economic advantages which such a    
marriage would bring4 ,but the          
systematic searching around for a dowry1
 with some woman attached to it1 is     

unknown in the ,new ,world1 and is      
thoroughly un-,american4 ,this may be   
seen in ,american plays2 the familiar   
,german comedies1 in which the search   
for a rich bride is a favourite motive1 
strike the ,american public as entirely 
vapid and humourless4 ,americans either 
do not understand or else look down with
 pity on the marital depravity of the   
,old ,world1 and such stage scenes are  
as intrinsically foreign as those       
others1 so familiar to ,europe1 in which
 the rich young nobleman who after all  
marries the poor governess1 is held up  
as a remarkable example of magnanimity4 
,the purely human elements are the only 
ones which count in marriage4 ,it is a  
congenial affiliation of two persons1   
without regard to social advantage or   
disadvantage1 if only the persons care  
for each other4 ,and this idea is common
 to the whole nation1 and gives marriage
 a high moral status4 ,moreover1 the    
surpassing education of the young       
,american woman1 her college life1 works

 in one way to exalt marriage4 ,if she  
has learned anything in her college     
atmosphere1 it is moral seriousness4    
,she has gone there to face duties      
squarely and energetically1 to account  
small things small1 and large things    
large2 and so1 when she approaches the  
new duty of making a home1 she overcomes
 all obstacles there with profound moral
 determination4  ,in spite of this1 one 
may ask1 ,is her development in the     
right direction for subsequent events8  
,while so much has contributed to the   
exaltation and purity of her marriage1  
has she not learned a great deal else   
which tends rather indirectly and       
perhaps unnoticeably to disorganize     
marriage1 the home1 the family1 and the 
people8 ,is the increasing social       
self-assertion of woman really in the   
interests of culture8 ,let us picture to
 ourselves the contrast1 say with       
,germany4 ,there too the interests in   
the social advance of women is lively on
 all sides2 but the situation is wholly 

different4 ,four main tendencies may be 
easily picked out4 ,one relates to a    
very small number of exceptional women  
who have shown great talent or perhaps  
real genius4 ,such women are to be      
emancipated and to have their own life  
career4 ,but the few who are called to  
do great things in art or science or    
otherwise1 are not very apt to wait for 
others to emancipate them1 and the      
number of these women is so small that  
this movement has hardly any social or  
economic importance in comparison with  
the other three which concern large     
numbers of women4  ,of these other      
three1 the first concerns the women of  
the lower classes1 who throughout       
,germany are so poor that they have to  
earn a livelihood1 and are in danger of 
sacrificing their family life4 ,the     
lever is applied to improve their social
 condition1 to put legal limits to the  
labour of women1 and to protect them1 so
 that the poor man's wife shall have    
more opportunities in the family4       

,another movement is to benefit the     
daughters of more well-to-do people1 to 
give them when they marry1 a more       
intellectual career1 to elevate the wife
 through a broader education above the  
pettiness of purely domestic interests  
and the superficiality of ordinary      
social life1 and so to make her the true
 comrade of her husband4 ,and the last  
movement concerns those millions of     
women who cannot marry because women are
 not only the more numerous1 but also   
because one-tenth of ,german men will   
not marry4 ,they are urged to replace   
the advantages which they would have in 
marriage by a life occupation2 and      
although women of the lower classes have
 had enough opportunity to work1 those  
of the upper classes have until recently
 been excluded from any such blessing4  
,a great deal has been done here to     
improve the situation and partly in     
direct imitation of the ,american       
example4  ,but the real background of   
all these movements in ,germany has been

 the conviction that marriage is the    
natural destiny of woman4 ,the aim has  
been to improve marriage in the lower   
classes by relieving the woman of       
degrading labour1 in upper classes by   
giving the woman a superior education2  
and the other two movements are merely  
expedients to supply some sort of       
substitute for life's profoundest       
blessing1 which is found only in        
marriage4 ,there is no such background  
in ,america2 there is a desire to       
protect ,american marriage1 but it is   
not presupposed that marriage is1 in and
 of itself1 the highest good for woman4 
,the completion of woman's destiny lies 
rather in giving to her as to the man an
 intrinsically high life content whether
 she is married or not married2 it is a 
question of her individual existence1 as
 of his4 ,marriage is thus not the      
centre1 and an independent career is in 
no sense a compensation or a makeshift2 
even the betterment of marriage is only 
intended as a means of bettering the    

individual4 ,woman is on exactly the    
same footing as man4 ,the fundamental   
,german principle that woman's destiny  
is found in marriage1 while the man is  
married only incidentally1 involves at  
once the inequality of the sexes2 and   
this fundamental inequality is only     
slightly lessened by these four new     
,german movements4 ,it is a secondary   
consequence that the woman is growing to
 be more nearly like the man4 ,but      
according to the ,american point of     
view1 her fundamental equality is the   
foundation principle2 both alike aim to 
expand their individual personalities1  
to have their own valuable life content1
 and by marriage to benefit each other4 
,and only secondarily1 after marriage is
 accomplished1 does the consequence     
appear that necessarily the woman has   
her special duties and her corresponding
 special rights2 and then the principle 
of equality between the two finds its   
limitations4 ,now when this takes place1
 the self-assertion of the ,american    

woman is found to be not wholly         
favourable to the institution of        
marriage2 it gives the married woman a  
more interesting life content1 but it   
inclines the unmarried woman much less  
toward marriage2 it robs society of that
 great support of marriage--the feeling 
that it is woman's destiny4  ,here1     
again1 the most diverse factors work    
together4 ,the social freedom of        
communication between men and women1 the
 secure propriety of associating with   
men1 and the independent freedom to go  
about which is peculiar to the ,american
 girl's education give to the unmarried 
girl all those rights and advantages    
which in ,europe she does not have until
 she is married4 ,the ,american girl has
 really nothing but duties to face1     
domestic cares and perhaps quite        
unaccustomed burdens1 in case she       
marries a man in limited circumstances2 
externally she has nothing to gain1 and 
internally she is little disturbed by   
any great passion4 ,she flirts from her 

youth up1 and is the incomparable       
mistress of this little social art2 but 
the moving passion is apt to be         
neglected1 and one may question whether 
all her mischievous roguery and graceful
 coquetry are anything more than a      
social accomplishment1 like dancing or  
skating or playing golf--whether it in  
any way touches the heart4 ,it is a     
diversion1 and not a true life content4 
,then1 too1 the girl has a feeling of   
intellectual superiority which for the  
most part is entirely justified4 ,the   
,european girl has been brought up to   
believe in the superiority of the man1  
accustomed to feel that her own gifts   
are incomplete1 that they come to have  
real value only in conjunction with a   
man1 and her inferior scientific        
training suggests to her unconsciously  
that she will be intellectually exalted 
when she allies herself to some man4    
,that will fill out her intellectual    
personality4 ,the ,american girl has    
hardly ever such an idea2 she has       

learned in the school-room how foolish  
boys are1 how lazy and careless1 and    
then1 too1 she has continued her own    
education it may be years after the men 
of her acquaintance have gone into      
practical life4 ,many high schools have 
one-third of their pupils boys and      
two-thirds girls1 and the ratio grows in
 favour of the girls4 ,moreover1        
everything tends to give the girl her   
own aspirations and plans independent of
 any man--aspirations which are not     
essentially furthered or completed by   
her marriage alliance4 ,american women  
often laugh at the way in which ,german 
women introduce abstract questions at   
the ,kaffeeklatsch3 8,now my husband    
says--40 ,the intellectual personality  
of the ,american girl must develop so   
much the more independently of male     
influence as the distinction which      
commences in school years is even more  
actual in the years of maturity4 ,the   
older the ,american man grows the more  
he concentrates himself on business or  

politics1 while his wife in a certain   
way continues her schooling1 devotes her
 entire time to every sort of           
intellectual stimulation2 the wife reads
 books1 while the husband reads         
newspapers4 ,it is undeniable that in   
the average ,american home the woman    
makes the profounder intellectual       
impression on every visitor1 and the    
number of women is continually growing  
who instinctively feel that there is no 
advantage in marrying a man who is      
intellectually an inferior2 they would  
rather remain single than contract a    
marriage in which they have to be the   
intellectual head4  ,while1 therefore1  
there are neither novel social          
advantages nor any emotional urgency1   
nor yet intellectual inducements1 to    
persuade women to marry1 there are other
 circumstances which urge her strongly  
not to do so4 ,in the first place1      
marriage may interfere directly with the
 life career which she has planned for  
herself4 ,a woman who has taken an      

occupation to save herself from misery  
looks on marriage with a man who earns  
enough to support a family as a sort of 
salvation2 while the woman who has      
chosen some calling because her life    
means so much more if it is useful to   
the world1 who is earnestly devoted to  
her work1 truly ambitious and thoroughly
 competent1 ponders a long time before  
she goes into a marriage which          
necessarily puts an end to all this4    
,she may well prefer to sacrifice some  
sentimental inclination to the profound 
interest she feels in her work4  ,the   
,american girl is1 moreover1 not fond of
 domestic cares4 ,it would not be fair  
to say that she is a bad house-keeper1  
for the number of wives who have to get 
along without servants is much greater  
than in ,germany4 ,and even in spite of 
the various economic advantages which   
she enjoys1 it is undeniable that the   
,american woman takes her home duties   
seriously1 looks after every detail1 and
 keeps the whole matter well in hand4   

,but nevertheless1 she feels very       
differently toward her capacities along 
this line4 ,the ,german woman feels that
 her household is a source of joy2 the  
,american woman1 that it is a necessary 
evil4 ,the ,american woman loves to     
adorn her home and tries to express in  
it her own personality1 not less than   
her ,german sister2 but everything      
beyond this--the mere technique of      
house-keeping1 cleaning1 purchasing1    
repairing1 and hiring servants--she     
feels to be1 after all1 somewhat        
degrading4 ,the young woman who has been
 to college attacks her household duties
 seriously and conscientiously1 but with
 the feeling that she would rather      
sacrifice herself by nursing the        
suffering patients in a hospital4 ,the  
perfect economic appliances for         
,american house-keeping save a great    
deal of labour which the ,german wife   
has to perform1 and perhaps just on that
 account the ,american woman feels that 
the rest of it is vexatious work which  

women have to do until some new machines
 can be devised to take their places4   
,this disinclination to household       
drudgery pervades the whole nation1 and 
it is only the older generations in     
country districts that take a pride in  
their immaculate house-keeping1 while   
the younger generations even there have 
the tendency to shirk household work4   
,the daughters of farmers would rather  
work in a factory1 because it is so much
 more stimulating and lively1 than      
ironing or washing dishes or tending    
baby brother and sister at home2 for the
 same reason1 they will not become      
domestic servants for any one else4 ,and
 so1 for the upper and the lower        
classes1 the disinclination to          
house-work stands very much in the way  
of marriage4  ,this disinclination      
affects marriage in still another way4  
,families are tending more and more to  
give up separate houses and live in     
family hotels1 or1 if more modestly     
circumstanced1 in boarding-houses4 ,the 

expense of servants has something to do 
with this1 but the more important factor
 is the saving of work for the wife4    
,the necessary consequence is the       
dissolution of intimate family life4    
,when a dozen families eat year in and  
year out in the same dining-room1 the   
close relations which should prevail in 
the family take on a very different     
shading4 ,and thus it is that the       
intellectual self-assertion of women    
works1 in the most diverse ways1 against
 the formation of marriages and against 
family life4 ,there is one argument1    
however1 which is always urged by the   
opponents of woman's emancipation which 
is not valid--at least1 not for         
,america4 ,it is the blue-stocking      
bugbear4 ,this unattractive type of     
woman is not produced by higher         
education in ,america4 ,many a young    
,american girl1 who has arrived at years
 of personal independence during her    
college life1 may have lost her interest
 in the average sort of marriage2 but   

she has by no means lost the attraction 
she exerts on men4  ,the tendency of    
woman's self-assertion against marriage 
appears to go even further2 the         
exaggerated expression1 8race suicide10 
has sometimes been used4 ,it is true    
that the increase of native population1 
especially in the more civilized parts  
of the country1 is ominously small2 this
 is probably the result of diverse      
factors4 ,there are physicians1 for     
instance1 who claim that the            
intellectual training of women and the  
nervous excitement incident to their    
independent1 self-reliant attitude are  
among the main causes2 but more         
important1 others say1 are the voluntary
 precautions which are dictated by the  
desire of ease and comfort4 ,this last  
is a serious factor1 and there lies     
behind it again the spirit of           
self-assertion2 the woman wants to live 
out her own life1 and her               
individualistic instinct works against  
the large family4 ,but there is nothing 

here which threatens the whole nation2  
since1 even aside from the very large   
immigration which introduces healthy1   
prolific1 and sturdy elements1 the      
births of the whole country exceed those
 of almost any of the ,european nations4
 ,in ,germany1 between #ahij and #aijj1 
for every thousand inhabitants the      
births numbered annually #cf4b and the  
deaths #bb4e--so that there were #ac4g  
more births2 in ,england the births were
 #cj4a and deaths #ah4d1 with a         
difference of #aa4g2 in the ,united     
,states the births were #ce4a and deaths
 #ag4d1 with a difference of #ag4g more 
births4  ,of course1 these figures would
 make all anxiety seem ridiculous1 if   
the proportions were equally distributed
 over the country1 and through all the  
elements of the population4 ,as a matter
 of fact1 however1 there are the        
greatest differences4 ,in               
,massachusetts1 for instance1 we may    
distinguish three classes of population2
 those white persons whose parents were 

born in the country1 and those whose    
parents were foreigners1 and the blacks4
 ,this negro population of              
,massachusetts has the same birth and   
death rate as the negro elsewhere2 for  
every thousand persons there are #ag4d  
more births than deaths4 ,for the second
 class--that is1 the families of foreign
 parentage--there are actually #de4f    
more births than deaths2 while in the   
white families of native parentage there
 are only #c4h4 ,in some other ,north   
,atlantic ,states1 the condition is     
still worse2 in ,new ,hampshire1 for    
instance1 the excess of births in       
families of foreign parentage is #eh4e1 
while in those of native parentage the  
situation is actually reversed1 and     
there are #aj4d more deaths than births4
 ,so it happens that for all the ,new   
,england ,states1 the native white      
population1 in the narrower sense1 has a
 death preponderance of #a4e for every  
thousand inhabitants2 so that1 in the   
intellectually superior part of the     

country1 the strictly native population 
is not maintaining itself4  ,interesting
 statistics recently gathered at        
,harvard ,university show that its      
graduates are also not holding their    
own4 ,out of #hha students who were     
graduated more than twenty-five years   
ago1 #fcd are married1 and they have    
#a1bfb children4 ,on the probable       
assumption that they will have no more  
children1 and that these are half males1
 we find that #hha student graduates in 
#ahgg leave in #aijb only #fca sons4    
,the climatic conditions cannot be      
blamed for this1 since the surplus of   
births in families born of foreign      
parents is not only very great1 but is  
far greater than in any of the ,european
 countries from which these immigrant   
parents came4 ,of ,european countries1  
,hungary has the greatest excess of     
births--namely1 #dj4e1 as compared with 
#ac4g in ,germany4 ,that population of  
,america which comes from ,german1      
,irish1 ,swedish1 ,french1 and ,italian 

parentage has1 even in ,new ,england1 a 
birth surplus of #dd4e4 ,the general    
conditions of the country seem1         
therefore1 favourable to fecundity1 and 
this casts a greater suspicion on social
 conditions and ideals4 ,and the        
circumstance must not be overlooked1    
that the increased pressure of women    
into wage-earning occupations lessens   
the opportunities of the men1 and so    
contributes indirectly to prevent the   
man from starting his home early in     
life4 ,in short1 from whatever side we  
look at it1 the self-assertion of woman 
exalts her at the expense of the        
family--perfects the individual1 but    
injures society2 makes the ,american    
woman perhaps the finest flower of      
civilization1 but awakens at the same   
time serious fears for the propagation  
of the ,american race4  ,there are      
threatening clouds in other quarters of 
the horizon4 ,the much-discussed        
retroactive effect of feminine          
emancipation on the family should not   

distract attention from its effect on   
culture as a whole4 ,here the           
dissimilarity to the ,german conditions 
is obvious4 ,the ,german woman's        
movement aims to give the woman a most  
significant rle in general matters of   
culture1 but still does not doubt1 as a 
matter of course1 that the general trend
 of culture will be determined by the   
men4 ,just as it is a dogmatic          
presupposition in ,germany that marriage
 is the most desirable occupation for   
women1 so it is tacitly presupposed that
 intellectual culture will take its     
actual stamp from the men4 ,in ,america 
not only this view of marriage1 but even
 this view of culture1 has been opposed 
for a long time2 and the people behave  
as if both were antiquated and          
superstitious notions1 devised by the   
stronger sex for its own convenience1   
and as if their reversal would benefit  
the entire race4  ,anybody who looks the
 matter squarely in the face is not left
 to doubt that everything in ,america is

 tending not only to sacrifice the      
superiority of man and to give the woman
 an equal position1 but to reverse the  
old situation and make her very much the
 superior4 ,in business1 law1 and       
politics1 the ,american man is still    
sovereign1 and in spite of the many     
women who press into the mercantile     
professions he is still in a position   
where he serves rather than directs4    
,and it is very characteristic of the   
moral purity of the people that1 in     
spite of the incomparable social power  
of women1 they have not a trace of      
personal influence on important         
political events4 ,on the other hand1   
they dictate in matters of education1   
religion1 literature and art1 social    
problems1 and public morals4 ,painting1 
music1 and the theatre cater to woman1  
and for her the city is beautified and  
purified2 although she does not do it   
herself1 it is her taste and feeling    
which decide everything2 she determines 
public opinion1 and distributes all the 

rewards at her good pleasure4 ,if the   
family problem is shown in a lurid light
 by the decrease of births in the native
 ,new ,england population1 the problem  
of culture comes out into broad daylight
 only in those figures which we have    
seen before2 the #cbg1fad women teachers
 and the #aaa1gaj men4  ,thus           
three-quarters of ,american education is
 administered by women2 and even in the 
high school where the boys go till they 
are eighteen or nineteen years old1     
#eg4g per cent4 of the teachers are     
women2 and in those normal schools where
 both men and women go to fit themselves
 for teaching1 #ga4c per cent4 of the   
instructors are women4 ,it appears1     
then1 that the young men of the country1
 even in the years when boyhood ripens  
to youth1 receive the larger part of    
their intellectual impetus from women   
teachers1 and that all of those who are 
going to be school teachers and shape   
the young souls of the nation are in    
their turn predominantly under the      

influence of women4 ,in colleges and    
universities this is still not the case1
 but soon will be if things are not     
changed2 the great number of young women
 who pass their doctorial examinations  
and become specialists in science will  
have more and more to seek university   
professorships1 or else they will have  
studied in vain4 ,and here1 as in the   
school1 the economic conditions strongly
 favour the woman2 since she has no     
family to support1 she can accept a     
position on a salary so much smaller    
that the man is more and more crowded   
from the field4 ,and it may be clearly  
foreseen that1 if other social factors  
do not change1 women will enter as      
competitors in every field where the    
labour does not require specifically    
masculine strength4 ,so it has been in  
the factories2 so it is in the schools2 
and so1 in a few decades1 it may be in  
the universities and in the churches4   
,even although the professorial chairs  
still belong for the most part to men1  

the presence of numerous women in the   
auditorium cannot be wholly without     
influence on the routine of work4 ,the  
lecturer is forced to notice1 as is the 
speaker in any public gathering1 that at
 least two-thirds of his hearers present
 the cheerful aspect of gay millinery   
and lace collar1 so that intellectual   
culture and public opinion on           
non-political questions come more and   
more to be dominated by women--as many  
persons are beginning to see4 ,most of  
them greet this unique turn in human    
history as the peculiar advantage of    
this nation2 the man looks after the    
industry and politics1 and the woman    
after moral1 religious1 artistic1 and   
intellectual matters4 ,if there is any  
doubt that she is competent to do this1 
most ,americans are satisfied to observe
 the earnestness and conscientiousness  
with which the ,american woman attends  
to her duties1 at the zeal and success  
with which she applies herself to her   
studies1 and at her victory over men    

wherever she competes4  ,here and there1
 however1 and their number is increasing
 every day1 men are feeling that        
earnestness is not necessarily power1   
zeal is not mastery1 and that success   
means little if the judgment is         
pronounced by those who are partial to  
the winners4 ,the triumph in industrial 
competition is no honour if it consists 
in bidding under the market price4 ,in  
fact1 it is not merely a question of the
 division of labour1 but a fundamental  
change in the character of the labour4  
,an impartial observer of the           
achievements of ,american women as      
teachers or as university students1 in  
professional life or social reform or   
any other public capacity1 is forced to 
admire the performance1 and even to     
recognize certain unique merits2 but he 
has to admit that it is a special sort  
of work1 and different from the         
achievements of men4 ,the emancipation  
of the ,american woman and her higher   
education1 although carried almost to   

the last extreme1 give not the slightest
 indication even yet that woman is able 
to accomplish in the intellectual field 
the same that man accomplishes4 ,what   
she does is not inferior1 but it is     
entirely different2 and the work which1 
in all other civilized countries1 is    
done by men cannot in the ,united       
,states be slipped into the hands of    
women without being profoundly altered  
in character4  ,the feminine mind has   
the tendency to unify all ideas1 while a
 man rather separates independent       
classes4 ,each of these positions has   
advantages and drawbacks4 ,the immediate
 products of the feminine temperament   
are tactfulness and sthetic insight1    
sure instincts1 enthusiasm1 and purity2 
and1 on the other hand1 a lack of       
logical consecutiveness1 a tendency to  
over-hasty generalization1              
underestimation of the abstract and the 
deep1 and an inclination to be governed 
by feeling and emotion4 ,even these     
weaknesses may be beautiful in domestic 

life and attractive in the social       
sphere2 they soften the hard and bitter 
life of men4 ,but women have not the    
force to perform those public duties of 
civilization which need the harder logic
 of man4 ,if the entire culture of the  
nation is womanized1 it will be in the  
end weak and without decisive influence 
on the progress of the world4  ,the     
intellectual high life in colleges and  
universities1 which seems to speak more 
clearly for the intellectual equality of
 women1 brings out exactly this         
difference4 ,that which is accomplished 
by the best women's colleges is         
exemplary and admirable2 but it is in a 
world which is1 after all1 a small      
artificial world1 with all rough places 
smoothed over and illumined with a soft 
light instead of the hard daylight4     
,although in the mixed universities     
women often do better than men1 it is   
not to be forgotten that the ,american  
lecture system1 with its many           
examinations1 puts a higher value on    

industry1 attention1 and good-will than 
on critical acumen or logical           
creativeness4 ,it cannot be denied that1
 even a short time since1 the ,american 
university cultivated in every          
department the spirit of learning rather
 than of investigation--was reproductive
 rather than productive--and that the   
more recent development which has laid  
the emphasis on productive investigation
 has gone on for the most part in the   
leading ,eastern universities1 such as  
,harvard1 ,johns ,hopkins1 ,columbia1   
,yale1 and ,princeton1 where women are  
still not admitted1 while the ,western  
universities1 and most of all the state 
universities1 which are found only in   
the ,west1 where women are in a         
majority1 belong in many respects to the
 old type4 ,to be sure1 there are       
several ,american women whose scientific
 work is admirable1 and to be classed   
with the best professional achievements 
of the country2 but they are still rare 
exceptions4 ,the tendency to learn      

rather than to produce pervades all the 
great masses of women2 they study with  
extraordinary zeal up to the point where
 critical production should begin1 and  
there they are all too apt to stop4 ,and
 unless one persistently looks at the   
very few exceptions1 one would hardly   
assert that the true spirit of science  
could unfold and grow if ,american women
 were to be its only guardians4  ,this  
distinction is much plainer in the lower
 walks of life4 ,the half-educated      
,american man refrains from judging what
 is beyond his scope2 but an ,american  
woman who has scarcely a shred of       
education looks in vain for any subject 
on which she has not firm convictions   
already at hand1 and her influence upon 
public opinion--politics always         
apart--spins a web of triviality and    
misconception over the whole culture4   
,cobwebs are not ropes1 and a good broom
 can sweep them down2 but the arrogance 
of this feminine lack of knowledge is   
the symptom of a profound trait in the  

feminine soul1 and points to dangers    
springing from the domination of women  
in intellectual life4 ,in no other      
civilized land is scientific medicine so
 systematically hindered by quack       
doctors1 patent medicines1 and mental   
healing2 the armies of uneducated women 
protect them4 ,and in no other civilized
 land are ethical conceptions so        
worm-eaten by superstitions and         
spiritualistic hocus-pocus2 hysterical  
women carry the day4 ,in no other       
country is the steady and sound advance 
of social and pedagogical reform so     
checked by whimsies and short-lived     
innovations1 and good sound work held   
back by the partisans of confused ideas2
 here the women work havoc with their   
social and pedagogical alarms4  ,this   
does not mean1 however1 that a good deal
 of the work of ,american women is not  
better done by them than it would be by 
the men4 ,in the first place1 there is  
no doubt that the assistance of women in
 teaching has had very happy results on 

,american culture4 ,when it was         
necessary to tame the wild ,west of its 
pioneer roughness and to introduce good 
manners1 the milder influence of women  
in the school-room was far more useful  
than that of men could have been2 and so
 far as it is a question of making over 
the immigrant children of the large     
cities into young ,americans1 the       
patient woman teacher is invaluable4    
,and the drama of the school-room is    
played in other more public places2 in a
 thousand ways the participation of     
women in public life has refined and    
toned down ,american culture and        
enriched and beautified it1 but not made
 it profounder or stronger4 ,woman's    
inborn dilettanteism works too often for
 superficiality rather than profundity4 
,and it is indubitable that this        
undertaking of the burdens of           
intellectual culture by woman has been  
necessary to the nation's progress--a   
kind of division of labour imperatively 
indicated by the tremendous economic and

 political duties which have preoccupied
 the men4 ,no ,european country has ever
 had to accomplish economically1        
technically1 and politically1 in so     
short a time1 that which the ,united    
,states has accomplished in the last    
fifty years in perfecting its           
civilization4 ,the strength of the men  
has been so thoroughly enlisted that    
intellectual culture could not have been
 developed or even maintained if the    
zeal and earnestness of women had not   
for a time taken up the work4 ,but is   
this to be only for a time8 ,will the   
man bethink himself that his political  
and economic one-sidedness will in the  
end hurt the nation8 ,this is one of the
 greatest questions for the future of   
this country4 ,it is not a question of  
woman's retrograding or losing any of   
her splendid acquirements2 no one could 
wish that this fine intellectuality1    
this womanly seriousness1 this desire   
for a meaning in her life should be     
thoughtlessly sacrificed1 nor that the  

sisters and the mothers of the nation   
should ever become mere dolls or        
domestic machines4 ,nothing of this     
should be lost or needs to be lost4 ,but
 a compensatory movement must be        
undertaken by the men of the country in 
order to make up for amateurish         
superficiality and an inconsequential   
logic of the emotions4  ,in itself1 the 
intellectual domination of the women    
will have the tendency to strengthen    
itself1 the more the higher life bears  
the feminine stamp4 ,for by so much1 men
 are less attracted to it4 ,thus the    
number of male school teachers becomes  
smaller all the time1 because the       
majority of women teachers makes the    
school more and more a place where a man
 does not feel at home4 ,but other      
factors in public opinion work strongly 
in the opposite direction2 industrial   
life has made its great strides1 the    
land is opened up1 the devastations of  
the ,civil ,war are repaired1 internal  
disturbances have yielded to internal   

unity1 recognition among the world      
powers has been won1 and within a short 
time the wealth of the country has      
increased many fold4 ,it will be a      
natural reaction if the energies of men 
are somewhat withdrawn from industry and
 agriculture1 from politics and war1 and
 once more bestowed on things           
intellectual4 ,the strength of this     
reaction will decide whether the        
self-assertion of the ,american women   
will1 in the end1 have been an unalloyed
 blessing to the country or an          
affliction4 ,woman will never contribute
 momentously to the culture of the world
 by remaining intellectually celibate4  
,,chapter ,,twenty-,,three              
,aristocratic ,tendencies   ,in the     
caricatures of the ,american which are  
so gladly drawn by the ,european1 and so
 innocently believed in1 there is       
generally1 beside the shirt-sleeved     
clown who bawls 8equality0 and the      
barbarian who chases the dollar1 the    
rich heiress bent on swapping her       

millions for a coronet4 ,the longing for
 bankrupt suitors of undoubted pedigree 
is supposed to be the one symptom of any
 social aspiration1 which the ,yankee   
exhibits4 ,the ,american begs leave to  
differ4 ,he is not surprised that the   
young ,american woman of good family1   
with her fine intellectual freshness and
 her faculty of adaptation1 should be   
sought out by men of all nations2 nor is
 he filled with awe if there are some   
suitors of historic lineage among the   
rest4 ,but the day is long gone in which
 such marriages are looked on as an     
enviable piece of good fortune for the  
daughter of any ,american citizen4 ,even
 the newspapers lightly smile at such   
marriages to a title1 and they are      
becoming less and less frequent in the  
really best circles of ,american        
society4 ,besides1 no such cheap and    
superficial aspirations are really      
indicative of aristocratic tendencies4  
,the ,american is1 by principle1 very   
far from making his way into the        

international aristocracy of ,europe1   
and he neither does nor will he ever    
attempt any artificial imitation of     
aristocratic institutions4  ,it is a    
capital mistake to suppose that the     
,american1 put face to face with        
,european princedom1 forgets or tries to
 hide his democracy4 ,aristocratic      
institutions1 particularly those of     
,england1 interest him as a bit out of  
history2 he seeks such social contact   
just as he wanders through quaint       
castles1 without wishing thereby to     
transfer his own country house on the   
,hudson into a decaying group of walls  
and turrets4 ,he takes an sthetic       
pleasure in the brilliancy of courts1   
the pomp of military life1 the wealth   
and colour of symbols2 and1 quite       
independently of that1 he feels indeed a
 lively interest in certain fascinating 
figures of ,european politics--most of  
all1 perhaps1 in the ,german ,kaiser4   
,but whether his interest is historical1
 sthetic1 or personal1 it is never      

accompanied by any feeling of           
inferiority to the persons who represent
 these aristocratic institutions4 ,when 
,prince ,henry1 on his visit to the ,new
 ,world1 quickly won the hearts of      
,americans as a man1 there was nothing  
in the tone or accent of the greetings  
addressed to him which was out of accord
 with the fundamental key of democracy4 
,the dinner speakers commenced their    
speeches in the democratic fashion1     
which is always first to address the    
presiding host3 8,mr4 ,mayor1 your      
,royal ,highness40  ,at the same time   
the peculiarly democratic contempt for  
things monarchical is disappearing1 too2
 the cultivated ,american feels         
increasingly that every form of state   
has arisen from historic conditions1 and
 that one is not in and for itself      
better than another4 ,he feels that he  
is not untrue to his republican         
fatherland in attesting his respect for 
crowned heads4 ,he shows most of all his
 respect1 because it is just the        

friendly1 neighbourly intercourse which 
makes possible a relation of mutual     
recognition4 ,democracy is itself the   
gainer by giving up the absurd pose of  
looking down on aristocracy4 ,thus it   
happens that1 of recent years1 even     
native-born ,americans have sometimes   
received ,european orders4 ,they know   
well enough that it will not do to wear 
the button-hole decoration on ,american 
soil1 but they feel it to be ungracious 
to decline what is offered in a friendly
 spirit2 unless1 indeed1 it is a        
politician who wishes to accentuate and 
propagate a certain principle4          
,democracy feels sure enough of itself  
to be able to accept a courtesy which is
 offered1 with equal courtesy2 but      
nobody supposes1 for a moment1 that     
,european monarchical decorations have  
any magic to exalt a man above his      
democratic equality4 ,indeed1 the       
feeling of entire equality1 and the     
belief in a mutual recognition of such  
equality1 are almost the presupposition 

of modern times1 and only in ,irish     
mass-meetings do we still hear protests 
against ,european tyranny4 ,this much is
 sure3 ,america shows not the slightest 
tendency to become aristocratic by      
imitating the historic aristocracies of 
,europe4  ,there are many who seem to   
believe that1 therefore1 the only       
aristocracy of ,america consists in the 
clique of multi-millionaires which holds
 its court in ,newport and ,fifth       
,avenue4 ,the whole country observes    
their follies and eccentricities2 their 
family gatherings are described at      
length by the press1 quite as any court 
ceremonies are described in ,european   
papers2 and to be taken into this sacred
 circle is supposed to be the life      
ambition of industrious millionaires4   
,many ,americans who are under the      
influence of the sensational press would
 probably agree with this2 and1 judging 
by outward symptoms1 one might in fact  
suppose that these ,crsuses along the   
,cliff-walk at ,newport were really the 

responsible social leaders of ,america4 
,this must seem very contemptible to all
 who look on from a distance1 for       
everything which the papers tell to the 
four winds of heaven about these people 
is an insult to real and sound ,american
 feeling4 ,the fountains of perfumery1  
the dinners on horseback1 the cotillons 
where the favours are sun-bursts of real
 gems--in short1 the senseless throwing 
away of wealth in the mere interests of 
rivalry and without even any sthetic    
compensations1 cannot profoundly impress
 a nation of pioneers4  ,on looking more
 closely1 one sees that the facts are   
not so bad1 and that the penny-a-liners 
rather than the multi-millionaires are  
responsible for such sensational        
versions4 ,in fact1 in spite of many    
extravagances1 there is a great deal of 
taste and refinement in those very      
circles2 much good sense1 an            
appreciation of true art1 honest        
pleasure in sport1 especially if it is  
on a grand scale2 polished address1     

accomplished elegance in costume1 and at
 table a hospitality which proudly      
represents a rich country4 ,in the      
matter of style and address1 these      
people are in fact leaders1 and deserve 
to be4 ,their society1 it is true1 is   
less interesting than that of many very 
much more modest circles2 but the same  
is true throughout the world of those   
people who make pleasure their sole duty
 in life4 ,their ostentatious enjoyments
 display much less individuality1 and   
are more along prescribed lines1 than   
those of ,european circles which live in
 a comparable luxury--a fact which is   
due largely to the universal uniformity 
of fashion that prevails in every class 
of ,americans1 and that is too little   
tolerant of individual picturesqueness4 
,in spite of all this1 neither          
diplomatic ,washington1 nor intellectual
 ,boston1 nor hospitable ,baltimore1 nor
 conservative ,philadelphia1 nor        
indomitable ,chicago1 nor cosmopolitan  
,san ,francisco1 can point to any       

collection of persons which1 in that    
world where one is to be amused         
expensively at any cost1 is better      
qualified to take the lead than just the
 ,four ,hundred of ,new ,york and       
,newport4  ,and yet there is a          
fundamental error in the whole          
calculation4 ,it is simply not true that
 these circles exercise any sort of     
leadership for the nation1 or have      
become the starting-point of a ,new     
,world aristocracy4 ,the average        
,american1 if he is still the true      
,puritan1 is outraged on reading of a   
wedding ceremony where more money is    
spent on decorating the church than the 
combined yearly salaries of thirty      
school teachers1 or of the sons of great
 industrial leaders wasting their days  
in drinking cocktails and racing their  
automobiles4 ,if1 on the other hand1 he 
is a true city-bred man1 he takes a     
considerable pleasure in reading in the 
newspaper about the design and equipment
 of the latest yacht1 the decorations in

 the ball-room of the recently built    
palace1 or about the latest divorce     
doings in those elect circles4 ,the two 
sorts of readers--that is1 the vexed and
 the amused--agree only in one          
thing2--neither of them takes all this  
seriously from the national point of    
view4 ,the one is outraged that in his  
large1 healthy1 and hard-working        
country1 such folderol and              
licentiousness are gaped at or          
tolerated4 ,and the other is pleased    
that his country has become so rich and 
strong as to be able to afford such     
luxuriousness and extravagance2 he looks
 on quizzically as at a vaudeville      
theatre1 but even he does not take the  
actors in this social vaudeville the    
least bit seriously4 ,the one accounts  
this clique a sort of moral slum1 and   
the other a quickly passing and         
interesting froth2 and both parties     
overestimate the eccentric whimsies and 
underestimate the actual constant       
influence of these circles in improving 

the taste for art and in really refining
 manners4 ,but this clique is accounted 
a real aristocracy merely by itself and 
by the tradesmen who purvey to it4  ,in 
spite of this1 ,american society is     
beginning to show important             
differentiations4 ,it is not a mere     
sentimental and fanciful aristocracy1   
trying to imitate ,european             
monarchianism1 and it is not the        
pseudo-aristocracy dancing around the   
golden dinner-set2 it is an aristocracy 
of leading groups of people1 which has  
risen slowly in the social life of the  
nation1 and now affords the             
starting-point of a steadily increasing 
individuation of social layers4 ,the    
influence of wealth is not absent here1 
but it is not mere wealth as such which 
exalts these people to the nobility2 nor
 is the historical principle of family  
inheritance left out of account1        
although it is not merely the number of 
one's identifiable ancestors that       
counts4 ,it is1 most of all1 the        

profounder marks of education and of    
personal talent4 ,and out of the        
combination of all these factors and    
their interpenetration proceed a ,new   
,world group of leaders1 which has in   
fact a national significance4  ,if one  
were to name a single person who should 
typically represent this new            
aristocracy1 it would be ,theodore      
,roosevelt4 ,in the year #afdi1 ,claes  
,roosevelt settled in ,new ,netherlands1
 which is now ,new ,york1 and from      
generation to generation his sturdy     
descendants have worked for the public  
good4 ,james ,roosevelt1 the            
great-grandfather of the ,president1    
gave his services without remuneration  
to the ,continental ,army in the war for
 independence2 the grandfather left the 
largest part of his fortune to          
charitable purposes2 and the father was 
tirelessly active in furthering         
patriotic undertakings during the ,civil
 ,war4 ,and as this family inherited its
 public spirit1 so also it inherited    

substance and a taste for sport and     
social life4  ,now this product of old  
family traditions has been greatly      
influenced by the best intellectual     
culture of ,new ,england4 ,theodore     
,roosevelt is distinctly a ,harvard     
graduate2 all the elements of his nature
 got new strength from the classic world
 of ,harvard4 ,the history of his nation
 has been his favourite study1 and he   
has written historical treatises of     
great breadth of view4 ,therewith he    
possesses a strong talent for           
administration1 and has advanced rapidly
 by reason of his actual achievements4  
,and thus education1 public service1    
wealth1 and family traditions have      
combined to make a character which      
exalts this man socially much higher    
than the ,presidential office alone     
could do4 ,mc,kinley was in some ways   
greater1 perhaps--but in ,mc,kinley's   
world there was no third dimension of   
aristocratic differentiation2 it was a  
flat picture1 where one might not ask   

nor expect any diversification in the   
other dimension4 ,roosevelt is the first
 aristocrat since many years1 to come   
into the ,white ,house4  ,aristocratic  
shadings can occur in a country that is 
so firmly grounded in democracy only    
when the movement goes in both          
directions1 upward and downward1 and    
when it evolves on both sides4 ,if it   
were a question on the one side of      
demanding rights and forcing credence in
 pretentious display1 and on the other  
side of demanding any sort of submission
 from less favoured persons or assigning
 them an inferior position1 the whole   
effort would be hopeless4 ,the claim to 
prerogative which is supported by an    
ostentation calculated to hypnotize the 
vulgar and a corresponding              
obsequiousness of the weak1 can do      
nothing more than perhaps to preserve   
aristocracy after it has taken deep     
historic root4 ,but such a degenerate   
form cannot be the first stage of       
aristocracy in a new country4 ,when a   

new aristocracy is formed1 it must boast
 not of prerogatives1 but of duties1 and
 the feeling of those not included      
cannot be one of inferiority1 but of    
confidence4 ,and this is the mood which 
is growing in ,america4  ,such duties   
are most clearly recognized by wealth1  
and wealth has perhaps contributed most 
to begin the aristocratic               
differentiation in ,american society2   
but it has not been the wealth which    
goes into extravagant display or other  
arrogant demonstration1 but the wealth  
which works toward the civilized advance
 of the nation4 ,however much it may    
contradict the prejudices of the ,old   
,world1 wealth alone does not confer a  
social status in ,america4 ,of course1  
property everywhere makes independence2 
but so long as it remains merely the    
power to hire things done1 it creates no
 social differentiation4 ,the ,american 
does not regard a man with awe because  
he stands well with trades-people and   
stock-brokers1 but discriminates sharply

 between the possessions and the        
possessor4 ,in his business life he is  
so accustomed to dealing with impersonal
 corporations1 that the power to        
dispense large sums of money gives a man
 no personal dignity in his eyes4 ,just 
in the ,western cities1 where society   
centres about questions of money much   
more than in the ,east1 the notion of   
property differentiation between men is 
developed least of all so far as it     
concerns social station4 ,the mere      
circumstance that one man has speculated
 fortunately and the other              
unfortunately1 that the real estate of  
one has appreciated and of the other    
deteriorated in value1 occasions no     
belief in the inner difference of the   
two men2 the changes are purely         
economic1 and suggest nothing of a      
social difference4  ,at most there is a 
certain curiosity1 since property opens 
up a world of possibilities to a man2   
and he is considerably scrutinized by   
his neighbours to see what he will do4  

,in this sense especially in the small  
and middle-sized cities1 the local      
magnates are the centre of public       
interest1 just as the billionaires are  
in large cities4 ,but to be the object  
of such newspaper curiosity does not    
mean to be elevated in the general      
respect4 ,the millionaire is in this    
respect very much like the operatic     
tenor2 or1 to put it less graciously1   
the hero of the last poisoning case4 ,it
 is the more a question of a mere       
stimulation to the public fancy1 since  
in reality the differences are          
surprisingly small4  ,if one looks away 
from the extravagant eccentricities of  
small circles1 the difference in general
 mode of life is on the whole very      
little in evidence4 ,the many citizens  
in the large ,american city who have a  
property of five to ten million dollars 
seem to live hardly differently from the
 unfortunate many who have to get on    
with only a simple million4 ,on the     
other hand1 the average man with a      

modest income exerts all his strength to
 appear in clothing and social habits as
 rich as possible4 ,he does not take    
care to store up a dowry for his        
children1 and he lays by little because 
he does not care to become a            
bond-holder2 he would rather work to his
 dying day1 and teach his children while
 they are young to stand on their own   
feet4 ,so it happens that the           
differences which actually exist are    
very little in evidence2 the banker has 
his palace and his coach1 and his wife  
wears sealskin2 but his shoe-maker has  
also his own house1 his horse and buggy1
 and his wife wears a very good         
imitation of seal--which one has to rub 
against in order to recognize4  ,but the
 situation becomes very different when  
it is a question of wealth1 not as a    
means of actual enjoyment1 but as a     
measure of the personal capacities that 
have earned it4 ,then the whole         
importance of the possession is indeed  
transferred to the possessor4 ,we must  

again emphasize the fact that this is   
the real impulse underlying ,american   
economic life--wealth is the criterion  
of individual achievements1 of          
self-initiative2 and since the whole    
nation stretches every nerve in a       
restless demonstration of this          
self-initiative1 the person who is more 
successful than his neighbours gains    
necessarily their instinctive           
admiration4 ,the wealth won by lucky    
gambles in stocks1 or inherited1 or     
derived from a merely accidental        
appreciation of values or by a chance   
monopoly1 is not respected2 but the     
wealth amassed by caution and brilliant 
foresight1 by indomitable energy and    
tireless initiative1 or by fascinating  
originality and courage1 meets with full
 recognition4 ,the ,american sees in    
such a creator of material wealth the   
model of his pioneer virtues1 the born  
leader of economic progress1 and he     
looks up to him in sincere admiration1  
and respects him far higher than his    

neighbour in the next palace who has    
accidentally fallen heir to a tenfold   
larger sum4 ,it is not the power which  
wealth confers1 but the power which has 
conferred wealth1 that is respected4    
,and then there is a more important     
factor--the respect for that force of   
mind which puts wealth1 even if it is   
only a modest amount1 in the service of 
higher ends4 ,men have different tastes2
 one who builds hospitals may not       
understand the importance of patronizing
 the fine arts2 one who supports        
universities may do very little for the 
church2 or another who collects         
sculptures may have no interest in the  
education of the negro4 ,but the        
fundamental dogma of ,american society  
is that wealth confers distinction only 
on a man who works for ideal ends2 and  
perhaps the deepest impulse toward the  
accumulation of wealth1 after the       
economic power which it confers1 is the 
desire for just this sort of dignity4   
,and this desire is deeper undoubtedly  

than the wish for pleasure1 which anyhow
 is somewhat limited by the outward     
uniformity of ,american life4 ,how far  
social recognition is gotten by         
public-spirited activities and how far  
social recognition incites men to such  
activity1 is in any particular case hard
 to decide4 ,but as a matter of fact1 a 
social condition has come about in which
 the noblesse oblige of property is     
recognized on all sides1 and in which   
public opinion is more discriminating as
 to the social respect which should be  
meted out to this or that public deed1  
than it could be if it were a question  
of conferring with the greatest nicety  
orders and titles of different values4  
,the right of the individual to         
specialize in various directions1 to    
focus his benefactions on ,catholic     
deaf-mutes or on students of insects1 on
 church windows1 or clay cylinders with 
cuneiform inscriptions1 is recognized   
fully4 ,confident of the good-will of   
men of property1 so many diverse claims 

have arisen1 that it would be quite     
impossible for a single man out of mere 
general sympathy with civilization to   
lend a helping hand in all directions4  
,the ,americans esteem just that        
carefulness with which the rich man sees
 to it that his property is applied     
according to his personal ideas and     
knowledge4 ,it is only thereby that his 
gifts have a profound personal          
significance1 and are fundamentally     
distinguished from sentimental sacrifice
 or from ostentatious patronage4 ,giving
 is a serious matter1 to which wealthy  
men daily and hourly devote             
conscientious labour4 ,a man like       
,carnegie1 whose useful bequests already
 amount to more than a hundred million  
dollars1 could dispose at once of his   
entire property if he were in a single  
week to respond favourably to all the   
calls which are made on him4 ,he        
receives every day hundreds of such     
letters of request1 and gives almost his
 entire strength to carrying out his    

benevolent plans4  ,and the same is true
 on a smaller scale of all classes4     
,every true ,american feels that his    
wealth puts him in a position of public 
confidence1 and the intensity with which
 he manifests this conviction decides   
the social esteem in which his property 
is held4 ,the real aristocrats of wealth
 in this part of the world are those men
 whom public opinion respects both for  
the gaining and the using of their      
property2 both factors1 in a way1 have  
to be united4 ,the admirable personal   
talents which accumulate large          
properties1 and the lofty ideals which  
put them to the best uses1 may appear to
 be quite independent matters1 and      
indeed they sometimes do exclude each   
other1 but the aristocratic ideal       
demands the two together4 ,and the      
,americans notice when either one is    
absent2 they notice when wealth is      
amassed in imposing quantities1 but then
 employed trivially or selfishly2 or1 on
 the other hand1 when it is employed for

 the very highest ends1 but in the      
opinion of competent men has been       
accumulated improperly4 ,the public     
feels more and more inclined to look    
into the business methods of men who    
make large gifts4 ,the ,american does   
not recognize the non olet1 and there   
have often been lively discussions when 
ill-gotten wealth has been offered in   
public benefaction4  ,wealth gotten by  
distinguished enterprise and integrity1 
and employed conscientiously and        
thoughtfully1 confers in fact high      
social distinction4 ,but it is only one 
factor among others4 ,a second factor is
 family tradition1 the dignity of a name
 long respected for civil               
high-mindedness and refinement4 ,a      
,european has only the barest impression
 of the great social significance of    
,american genealogies1 and would be     
surprised to see in the large libraries 
whole walls of book-shelves that contain
 nothing but works on the lineage of    
,american families4 ,the family tree of 

the single family of ,whitney1 of       
,connecticut1 takes up three thick      
volumes amounting to #b1gjj pages2 and  
there even exists a thick and handsome  
volume with the genealogies of ,american
 families of royal extraction4 ,there   
are not only special papers devoted to  
the scientific study of genealogies1 but
 even some of the large daily papers    
have a section devoted to this subject4 
,much of this is mere curiosity and     
sport--a fashionable whim1 which        
collects ancestors much like coins or   
postage stamps4 ,although the preserving
 of family traditions and an expansive  
pride in historic lineage do not        
contradict democratic principles1 yet   
the interest in pedigree1 if it takes   
real hold on the public mind1 very soon 
leads to a genuine social               
differentiation4  ,such differentiation 
will be superficial at first4 ,if none  
but descendants of ,puritans who came   
over in the 8,mayflower0 are invited to 
a set of dances1 a spirit of            

exclusiveness is shown which is indeed  
undemocratic2 but this sort of thing is 
in fact only a playful matter in        
,american society4 ,the large           
organizations that choose their         
membership on the ground of peculiar    
ancestry make no pretence to special    
privileges1 and many of them are nothing
 but philanthropic societies4 ,on the   
other hand1 if the aristocracy of family
 were to assume special rights1 it would
 be no innovation on ,american soil1    
because in the earliest colonial days   
many of the social differences of       
,english society were brought over1 and 
the ,english class spirit did not       
disappear until after the ,revolution1  
when the younger sons of ,english       
gentlemen no longer came over to this   
country4 ,in the ,south1 a considerable 
spirit of aristocracy persisted until   
after the ,civil ,war4  ,such           
superficial differentiation has         
virtually disappeared to-day4 ,the mere 
tinsel of family aristocracy has been   

torn off1 but for this reason the real  
importance and achievements of certain  
families come out all the more clearly4 
,the representatives of venerable family
 names are looked on with peculiar      
public confidence2 and the more the     
,american nation becomes acquainted with
 the history of these families1 which   
have been active on ,american soil for  
eight or ten generations1 the more it   
respects their descendants of the       
present day4  ,it is true that          
conditions are still provincial1 and    
that almost no family has a national    
significance4 ,the names of the first   
families of ,virginia1 which are        
universally revered in the ,south1 are  
almost unknown in the ,north2 the       
descendants of ,knickerbocker families1 
whose very name must not be mentioned in
 ,new ,york without a certain air of    
solemnity1 are very much less considered
 in ,baltimore or ,philadelphia2 and the
 western part of the country is         
naturally still too young to have       

established such traditions at all until
 recently4 ,but the following is a      
typical example for the ,east3  ,harvard
 ,university is governed by seven men   
who are chosen to fill this responsible 
position1 solely because the academic   
community has profound confidence both  
in their integrity and in their breadth 
of view4 ,and yet it is no accident that
 among these seven men1 there is not one
 whose family has not been of service to
 the ,state of ,massachusetts for seven 
generations4 ,so that1 even in such a   
model democratic community as ,puritan  
,new ,england1 the names of families    
that have played an important public    
part in the middle of the seventeenth   
century are as much respected as the old
 8mrkische ,adel0 in ,prussia4 ,and     
although they are without the privileges
 of nobility1 the whole dignity of the  
past is felt by every educated person to
 be preserved in such family names4     
,but the most important factor in the   
aristocratic differentiation of ,america

 is higher education and culture1 and   
this becomes more important every day4  
,in speaking of universities1 we have   
carefully explained why higher culture  
is less closely connected with the      
learned professions in ,america than in 
the ,european countries4 ,we have seen  
that the learned professions are fed by 
professional and very practical schools1
 which turn out a doctor1 lawyer1 or    
preacher without requiring a broad and  
liberal previous training2 and how1 on  
the other hand1 the college has been the
 independent institution for higher     
culture1 and how these two institutions 
have slowly grown together in the course
 of time1 so that the college course has
 come at length to be the regular       
preparation for those who attend        
professional schools4 ,now1 in          
considering the social importance of    
higher individual culture1 we have not  
to consider the learned professions1 but
 rather the general college training2   
and in this respect we find undoubtedly 

that common opinion has slowly shifted  
toward an aristocratic point of view4   
,the social importance ascribed to a    
college graduate is all the time        
growing4  ,it was kept back for a long  
time by unfortunate prejudices4 ,because
 other than intellectual forces had made
 the nation strong1 and everywhere in   
the foreground of public activity there 
were vigorous and influential men who   
had not continued their education beyond
 the public grammar school1 so the      
masses instinctively believed that      
insight1 real energy1 and enterprise    
were better developed in the school of  
life than in the world of books4 ,the   
college student was thought of as a     
weakling1 in a way1 who might have many 
fine theories about things1 but who     
would never take hold to help solve the 
great national problems--a sort of      
academic 8mugwump10 but not a leader4   
,the banking-house1 factory1 farm1 the  
mine1 the law office1 and the political 
position were all thought better places 

for the young ,american man than the    
college lecture halls4 ,and perhaps the 
unpractical character of college studies
 was no more feared than the artificial 
social atmosphere4 ,it was felt that an 
ideal atmosphere was created in the     
college to which the mind in its best   
period of development too readily       
adapted itself1 so that it came out     
virtually unprepared for the crude      
reality of practical life4 ,this has    
been a dogma in political life ever     
since the ,presidency of ,andrew        
,jackson1 and almost equally so in      
economic life4  ,this has profoundly    
changed now1 and changes more with every
 year4 ,it is not a question of         
identifying the higher culture with the 
learned professions1 as in              
,germany--there is no reason for this2  
and such a point of view has developed  
in ,germany only by an accident of      
history4 ,in ,america it is still       
thought that a graduate of one of these 
colleges--that is1 a man who has gone   

about as far as the ,german student of  
philosophy in the third or fourth       
semester--is equal to anybody in        
culture1 no matter whether he afterward 
becomes a manufacturer1 or banker1 or   
lawyer1 or a philologian4 ,the change   
has taken place in regard to what is    
expected of the college student2        
distrust has vanished1 and people       
realize that the intellectual discipline
 which he has had until his             
twenty-second year in the artificial and
 ideal world is after all the best      
training for the great duties of public 
life1 and that academic training1 less  
by its subject-matter than by its       
methods1 is the best possible           
preparation for practical activity4     
,the man of academic training is the    
only one who sees things in their right 
perspective1 and gives them the right   
values4 ,even the large merchant knows  
to-day that the young man who left      
college at twenty-two will be1 when he  
is twenty-seven years of age1 generally 

ahead of his contemporaries who left    
school at seventeen and 8went to work40 
,the great self-made men do indeed say a
 good deal to comfort those who have had
 only a school training1 but it may be  
noted that they send their own sons to  
college4 ,as a matter of fact1 the      
leading positions in the disposal of the
 nation are almost entirely in the hands
 of men of academic training1 and the   
mistrust of the theorizing college      
spirit has given place to a situation in
 which university presidents and        
professors have much to say on all      
practical questions of public life1 and 
the college graduates are the real      
supporters of every movement toward     
reform and civilization4  ,all in all1  
it can no longer be denied that a class 
of national leaders has risen above the 
social life of the masses1 and not      
wholly1 as democracy would really       
require1 by reason of their personal    
talents4 ,a wealthy man has a certain   
advantage by his wealth1 the man of     

family by his lineage1 the man of       
academic training by the fact that his  
parents were able to send him to the    
university4 ,this is neither plutocracy 
nor hereditary aristocracy1 nor         
intellectual snobbery4 ,we have seen    
that wealth wins consideration only when
 well expended1 that ancestry brings no 
privileges or prerogatives with it1 and 
that an academic education is not       
equivalent to merely technical          
erudition4 ,the personal factor is not  
lacking1 since we have seen that the    
rich man must plan his benefactions1 the
 man of family must play his public     
part1 and that academic training is in  
the reach of every young man who will   
try for it4 ,the fundamental principles 
of democracy are therefore not          
destroyed1 but they are modified4 ,the  
spirit of self-assertion which calls for
 absolute equality is everywhere brought
 face to face with men who are superior1
 whose claims cannot be discounted1 and 
who are tacitly admitted to belong      

rightfully to an upper class4           
,differentiation1 once more1 works not  
merely upward1 but also downward2 the   
public leader pushes himself ahead1 and 
at the same time the great masses are   
looking for some one whom they may      
follow4 ,it is not a matter of          
subjection1 but of                      
confidence--confidence in men who are   
recognizedly better than many others4   
,there can be no doubt that a reaction  
is going on throughout ,america to-day1 
not against democracy1 but against those
 opinions which have prevailed in the   
democracy ever since the days of the    
pioneers4 ,a great many people feel     
instinctively that the time is ripe to  
oppose the one-sidedness of domination  
by the masses2 people are forcibly      
impressed by the fact that in politics1 
government1 literature and art1 the     
great achievements are thwarted by      
vulgar influences1 that the original    
individual is impressed into the        
ordinary mould1 and that dilettanteism  

and mediocrity rule triumphant and keep 
out the best talents from public life4  
,people see the tyranny of greed1 the   
reproach of municipal corruption1 the   
unwholesome influence of a sensational  
press and of unscrupulous capital4 ,they
 see how public life becomes blatant1   
irresponsible1 and vulgar2 how all      
authority and respect must disappear if 
democracy is not to be curbed at any    
point4  ,the time has come1 a great many
 feel1 in which the moral influence of  
authority is needed1 and the educational
 influence of those more cultivated     
persons who will not yield to the       
sthetic tastes of the vulgar must be    
infused into the democracy4 ,the trained
 man must speak where the masses would  
otherwise act from mere caprice2 the    
disciplined mind must lead where        
incompetence is heading for blind       
alleys2 the best minds must have some   
say and people must be forced to listen1
 so that other voices and opinions shall
 have weight than those that make the   

babel of the streets4 ,the eclectic must
 prevail over the vulgar taste1 and the 
profound over the superficial1 since it 
is clear that only in that way will     
,america advance beyond her present     
stage of development4 ,america has      
created a new political world1 and must 
now turn to sthetics and culture4 ,such 
a reaction has not happened to-day or   
yesterday1 but has been going on        
steadily in the last few decades1 and   
to-day it is so strong as to overcome   
all resistance4 ,the desire for the     
beauty and dignity of culture1 for      
authority and thoroughness1 is creeping 
into every corner of ,american life4    
,the time is already passing which would
 do away with all discipline and        
submission in school and family life2   
public life brings the trained expert   
everywhere into prominence4 ,the disgust
 at the vulgarity of daily life1 as in  
the visible appearance of city streets1 
increases rapidly4 ,the sense of beauty 
is everywhere at work2 and men of taste1

 education1 and traditions1 rather than 
the city fathers who are elected by the 
rabble1 are finally being called to     
positions of leadership4 ,the democratic
 spirit is not crumbling1 and certainly 
the rights of the masses are not to be  
displaced by the rights of the better   
educated and more sthetic2 but democracy
 is in a way to be perfected1 to be     
brought as high as it can be brought by 
giving a representation to really all   
the forces that are in the social       
organism1 and by not permitting the more
 refined ones to be suppressed by the   
weight of the masses4 ,the nation has   
come to that maturity where the public  
is ready to let itself be led by the    
best men4  ,it is true that the public  
taste still prevails too widely in many 
branches of social life2 there is too   
much triviality2 too many institutions  
are built on the false principles that  
everybody knows best what is good for   
him1 and too many undertakings flatter  
the taste which they should educate4    

,but opposite tendencies are present    
everywhere4 ,the more the economic      
development of the country is rounded   
off1 the greater is its demand for      
social differentiation1 for the         
recognition of certain influences as    
superior1 for subordination1 and for    
finer organization4 ,just as economic   
life has long since given up free       
competition1 and the great corporations 
show admirably that subordination is    
necessary to great purposes1 and the    
world of labour has become an army with 
strictest discipline and blind          
allegiance1 so in the non-economic world
 a tendency toward subordination1       
individuation1 and aristocracy becomes  
every moment more evident4  ,to this    
tendency there is added the new         
conception of the state4 ,democracy is1 
from the outset1 individualistic4 ,we   
have seen everywhere that the           
fundamental force in this community is  
the belief of every man in his own      
personality and that of others4 ,the    

state has been the sum total of         
individuals1 and the state as something 
more than the individual has appeared as
 a bare abstraction4 ,the individual    
alone has asserted itself1 perfected and
 guided itself1 and taken all the       
initiative4 ,and this belief in the     
person is no less firm to-day2 but      
another belief has come up4 ,this is a  
belief in the ethical reality of the    
state4 ,public opinion is still afraid  
that if this belief increases1 the old  
confidence in the value of the          
individual1 and therewith of all the    
fundamental virtues of ,american        
democracy1 may be shaken4 ,but the      
belief spreads from day to day1 and     
produces its change in public opinion4  
,politics are trending as are so many   
other branches of life2 the emphasis is 
passing from the individual to the      
totality4 ,as we have seen that the     
,americans adorned their houses before  
their public buildings1 quite the       
opposite of what ,europeans have done1  

so they have given political value to   
the millions of individuals long before 
they laid weight on the one collective  
will of the state4 ,the men who would   
have sacrificed everything rather than  
cheat their neighbours have had no      
conscientious scruples in plundering the
 state4  ,it is different to-day4 ,the  
feeling grows that honour toward the    
state1 sacrifice for it1 and confidence 
in it are even more important than the  
respect for the totality of individuals4
 ,these opinions cannot be spread abroad
 without having their far-reaching      
consequences2 the state is visible only 
in symbols1 and its representatives get 
their significance by symbolizing not   
the population1 but the abstract state4 
,the individual representative of       
government is thus exalted personally   
above the democratic level4 ,to fill an 
office means not merely to do work1 but 
to experience a broadening of           
personality1 much as that which the     
priest feels in his office2 it is an    

enlargement which demands on the other  
side respect and subordination4 ,this   
tendency is still in its beginnings1 and
 will never be so strong as in ,europe1 
because the self-assertion of the       
individual is too lively4 ,nevertheless1
 these new notes in the harmony are much
 louder and more persistent than they   
were ten years ago4  ,thus there are    
many forces which work to check the     
spirit of self-assertion2 in spite of   
the liveliest feeling of equality1 a    
social differentiation is practically   
working itself out in all ,american     
life4 ,differences of occupation are1   
perhaps1 the least significant2 a       
profession which has such a great claim 
to superiority as1 for instance1 that of
 the army officer in ,germany1 does not 
exist in the ,united ,states4 ,perhaps  
the legal profession would be looked on 
as the most important1 and certainly it 
absorbs a very large proportion of the  
best strength of the nation4 ,the high  
position given the jurist is probably in

 good part because1 unlike his          
,continental colleague1 as we have      
explained at length1 he actually takes  
part in shaping the law4 ,in a different
 way the preacher is very greatly       
respected1 but his profession decreases 
slowly in attractiveness for the best   
talents of the country4 ,the academic   
professions1 on the other hand1 have    
drawn such talent more and more1 and    
will continue to do so as the           
distinction grows sharper between the   
college teacher and the real university 
professor4 ,the pre-eminently           
reproductive activities are naturally   
less enticing than those which are      
creative1 and wherever talent is        
attracted it quickly accomplishes great 
things1 and these work to improve the   
social status of the profession4 ,the   
political profession1 as such1 is far   
down in the scale2 only governors1      
senators1 and the highest ministerial   
officials play an important social part4
 ,of course1 one cannot speak of the    

especial recognition of mercantile or   
industrial professions1 because these   
offer too great a variety of attainment2
 but certainly their most influential   
representatives are socially inferior to
 none in the community4  ,social        
differentiation does not rest on a sharp
 discrimination of profession1 and yet  
it is realized from the highest to the  
lowest circles of society1 and to a     
degree which fifty years ago would have 
greatly antagonized at least the entire 
northern part of the country4 ,in       
,washington1 the exclusive hostess      
invites only the wives of senators1 but 
not those of representatives1 to her    
table2 and in the ,bowery1 according to 
the accounts1 the children of the peanut
 vendor do not deign to play with the   
children of the hurdy-gurdy man1 who are
 vastly more humble4 ,the ,four ,hundred
 in the large city quietly but          
resolutely decline to invite newly made 
millionaires to dinner2 and the         
seamstress1 who comes to the house to   

sew or mend1 refuses to sit down at     
table with the servants4 ,already1 in   
the large cities1 the children of better
 families are not sent to public1 but to
 private schools4 ,the railroads have   
only one class of passenger coach2 but  
the best society declines that1 and     
rides in the ,pullman cars4 ,the same   
distinctions hold everywhere1 and not   
merely as a matter of greater luxury for
 the rich1 but as a real social         
distinction4 ,at the theatre1 the person
 who socially belongs in the parquet    
prefers to sit in one of the worst seats
 there to going into the balcony1 where 
he does not belong1 even though he might
 hear and see better4  ,the increasing  
sympathy with badges1 costumes1 and     
uniforms--in short1 with the symbols of 
differentiation--is very typical4 ,there
 was a time in which a free ,american   
would have refused to wear a special    
livery2 but to-day nobody objects1 from 
the elevator boy to the judge1 to wear  
the marks of office4 ,the holiday       

processions of working-men and veterans 
become gayer and gayer4 ,those who have 
seen the recent inaugurations of the    
presidents of ,yale and ,columbia have  
witnessed parades of hundreds of gay    
and1 it seemed1 partly fantastic        
costumes1 such as are now worn at every 
university celebration in               
,america--symbolic emblems which would  
have seemed impossible in this          
monotonous democracy twenty years ago4  
,the inner life of universities gives   
also lively indication of social        
cleavage4 ,in ,harvard and ,yale1 there 
are exclusive clubs of the social       
leaders among the students4 ,it is true 
that hundreds of students go through the
 university without paying any attention
 to such things2 but there are almost as
 many more whose chief ambition is to be
 elected into an exclusive circle1 and  
who would feel compensated by no sort of
 scientific success if they were        
disappointed in their aspirations for   
club life4 ,in the same way many        

families which have become wealthy in   
the ,west move to ,new ,york or ,boston1
 in the vain hope of breaking into      
society4 ,the social difference between 
near-lying residential sections is1     
indeed1 much greater than in ,europe2   
and real estate on a street which comes 
to be occupied by socially inferior     
elements rapidly depreciates1 because   
the inhabitants of any residential      
section must stand on the same plane4   
,the transformations which the place of 
the ,president in public consciousness  
has gone through are very               
characteristic4 ,a newly elected        
,president is to-day inaugurated with   
almost monarchical pomp1 and he reviews 
the ,navy1 as he never would have       
thought of doing some years ago4 ,he    
sits down first at the table and is     
served first4 ,an invitation to the     
,white ,house is felt as a command which
 takes precedence over any other        
engagement4 ,all this has happened      
recently4 ,it was not long ago that     

persons refused an invitation to the    
,white ,house1 because of previous      
engagements4 ,in social life all men    
were merely 8gentlemen10 regardless of  
the capacities which they had during    
business hours1 and in matters of       
invitation one visited the host who was 
first to invite one4 ,all this is       
different now4  ,there is even some     
indication of the use of titles4 ,twenty
 years ago students addressed their     
professors with a mister1 but to-day    
more often with the title of professor2 
and the abuse of military titles which  
goes on in the ,west amuses the whole   
country4 ,in the army itself            
aristocratic tendencies are strongly    
manifest1 but only here and there come  
to general notice4 ,contrary to the     
spirit of official appointments1 men are
 not advanced so rapidly who work up    
from a socially inferior level1 but the 
social lite is favoured4 ,etiquette in  
social life is becoming more            
complicated2 there is more formality1   

more symbolism in social intercourse4 ,a
 nation which pays every year more than 
six million dollars for cut roses and   
four millions for carnations has        
certainly learned to decorate social    
life4 ,there is even more etiquette in  
professional life4 ,the professional    
behaviour of lawyers1 physicians1 and   
scholars is in some respects1 at least  
in the ,east1 more narrowly prescribed  
than it is even in ,europe4  ,looking at
 the situation as a whole1 one sees the 
power of this new spirit1 not so much in
 these petty symptoms as in the great   
movements of which we have spoken at    
length in other connections4 ,there is  
the spirit of imperialism in foreign    
politics1 and it cannot expand in its   
pride without working against the old   
democratic tendencies4 ,there is the    
spirit of militarism1 triumphantly proud
 of the victorious army and navy1       
demanding strict discipline and blind   
obedience to the commander4 ,there is   
the spirit of racial pride1 which       

persecutes the negro and the ,chinese1  
and hinders the immigration of ,eastern 
and ,southern ,europeans4 ,there is the 
spirit of centralization1 exalting the  
power of the state above the conflicting
 desires of the individual1 and in      
economic matters hoping more from the   
intelligent initiative of the state as a
 whole than from the free competition of
 individuals1 and assigning to the      
,federation tremendous undertakings1    
such as the irrigation of the ,west and 
the cutting of the ,panama ,canal4      
,there is the spirit of aristocracy1    
tempting more and more the academically 
cultured and the wealthy into the       
political arena4 ,there is the spirit of
 social differentiation coming into art 
and science1 and bringing to the life of
 the nation ideals of beauty and of     
knowledge which are far above the vulgar
 comprehension4 ,eclectic taste is      
winning a victory over popular taste4   
,the judgment of the most learned1 the  
refinement of the most educated1 and the

 wisdom of the most mature are being    
made prominent before the public mind4  
,we have already seen how this new      
spirit grows and unfolds1 and how the   
one-sidedness and eccentricities of     
political1 economic1 intellectual1 and  
artistic democracy are being outgrown   
day by day1 and how the ,america of     
,roosevelt's time is shaping itself in  
accordance with the civilizations of    
,western ,europe4  ,there are some who  
behold this development with profound   
concern4 ,that which has made ,america's
 greatness1 which seemed to be her      
mission in the world1 was the belief in 
the ethical worth of the individual4    
,the doctrines of self-determination1   
self-initiative1 and self-assertion1 and
 the civilization which rested on such a
 foundation1 have nothing to hope and   
much to fear from social differentiation
 and imperialism4 ,aristocratic         
tendencies appear to undermine this     
ethical democracy1 and the imperialistic
 symbols of our day mock the traditions 

of the past4 ,there will certainly be   
many reactions against these            
aristocratic tendencies2 perhaps they   
will be only small movements working    
through the press and at the ballot-box 
against the encroachments on the spirit 
of the past and against the expansion of
 office1 and hindering those            
aristocratic tendencies which depart too
 far from the traditions of the masses4 
,perhaps1 some day1 there will be a     
great reaction4 ,perhaps the tremendous 
power possessed by the labouring classes
 in the country will lead to battles for
 ethical principles1 in which the modern
 sthetic development will be reversed2  
it would not be the first time on       
,american soil that ethical reform has  
produced social deterioration1 for      
8reform0 means always the victory of    
naked1 equalizing logic over the        
conservative forces which represent     
historic differentiation4 ,so the       
,revolution abolished the patrician     
society of ,new ,england1 whose         

aristocratic members survive in the     
portraits of ,copley2 and the day may   
come when trades-unions will be         
victorious over that aristocracy which  
,sargent is now painting4 ,even the     
reform which emancipated the slaves     
destroyed a true and chivalrous         
aristocracy in the ,south4  ,but it is  
more likely that the steady development 
will go on1 and that there will be a    
harmonious co-operation between the     
fundamental democratic forces and the   
lesser aristocratic ones4 ,it cannot be 
doubted that that democracy of which we 
have aimed to describe the real intent1 
will remain the fundamental force under 
the ,american ,constitution2 and however
 strict military discipline may become1 
however aristocratic the social         
differentiations1 however imperialistic 
the politics1 however esoteric art and  
science1 undoubtedly the greatest       
question put by every ,american to his  
brother will be3 8,what do you1 purely  
as an individual1 amount to80 ,the      

ethical rights and the ethical duties of
 the individual will be the ultimate    
standard1 and aristocratic pomp will    
always be suppressed in ,america        
whenever it commences to restrain the   
passion for justice and for             
self-determination4  ,the most serious  
,americans are in the position of       
,tantalus2 they see1 in a thousand ways 
and at a thousand places1 that a certain
 advance could be made if somehow the   
vulgar masses could be got out of the   
way2 they see how civic and national    
ends could be attained almost without   
trouble by the ample means of the       
country1 if as in ,europe1 the most     
intelligent minds could be put in       
control4 ,they want all this most       
seriously2 and yet they cannot have it1 
because in the bottom of their hearts   
they really do not wish it4 ,they feel  
too profoundly that the gain would be   
only apparent1 that the moral force of  
the nation would be sacrificed if a     
single citizen should lose the          

confidence that he himself is           
responsible for the nation which he     
helps to guide and to make4 ,the easy   
attainment of success is only a         
secondary matter2 the purity of the     
individual will is the main             
consideration4 ,with this stands or     
falls ,american culture4 ,development is
 first of all an ethical problem2 just  
because the world is incomplete1 is     
hard1 and unbeautiful1 and everywhere   
needs to be transformed by human labour1
 just on that account human life is     
inexhaustibly valuable4 ,this is the    
fundamental thought1 and will remain so 
as long as the ,new ,world remains true 
to its ideals4 ,the finer notes are only
 an overtone in the great chord2 it is  
only faintly discerned that the world is
 valuable when it is beautiful--after it
 has been mastered and completed4  ,in  
this opposition between the ethical and 
the sthetic1 between the democratic and 
the aristocratic1 ,america will never   
sacrifice her fundamental conviction1   

will never follow aristocratic          
tendencies further than where they are  
needed to correct the dangerous         
one-sidedness and the excrescences of   
democratic individualism2 at least1     
never so far that any danger will       
threaten the democracy4 ,the pride of   
the true ,american is1 once and for all1
 not the ,american country1 nor yet     
,american achievements1 but the         
,american personality4  ,one who seeks  
the profoundest reality that history has
 to offer1 not in the temporal unfolding
 of events1 but in the interplay of     
human wills1 will agree with the        
,american's judgment of himself4        
,looking at the people of the ,new      
,world even from afar1 one will find the
 fascination1 novelty1 and greatness of 
the ,american world mission1 not in what
 the ,american has accomplished1 but in 
what he desires and will desire4        
,nevertheless1 this will not seem       
strange or foreign to any ,german4 ,in  
the depths of his soul1 he has himself a

 similar play of desires4 ,in the course
 of history1 reverence and faithfulness 
developed in the ,german soul more      
strongly than the individualistic       
craving for self-determination and      
self-assertion2 aristocratic love of    
beauty and truth developed before the   
democratic spirit of self-initiative4   
,but to-day1 in modern ,germany1 these  
very instincts are being aroused1 just  
as in modern ,america those forces are  
growing which have long dominated the   
,german soul4  ,the ,american still puts
 the higher value on the personal1 the  
,german on the over-personal2 the       
,american on the intrinsic value of the 
creating will1 the ,german on the       
intrinsic value of the absolute ideal4  
,but every day sees the difference      
reduced1 and brings the two nations     
nearer to a similar attitude of mind4   
,moreover1 both of these fundamental    
tendencies are equally idealistic1 and  
both of these nations are therefore     
destined to understand and to esteem    

each other1 mutually to extend their    
friendship1 to emulate each other1 and  
to work together1 so that in the        
confused play of temporal forces the    
intrinsically valuable shall be         
victorious over the temporary and       
fleeting1 the ideal over the accidental4
 ,for both nations feel together1 in the
 depths of their being1 that in order to
 give meaning to life man must believe  
in timeless ideals4                     
,,the ,,end                             
,,the ,mc,c,l,u,r,e ,,press1 ,,new      
,,york                                  
----------------------------------------
--------------------------------        
,,transcriber',s ,,notes    #a4         
,corrected 8,knste blhen0 to 8,knste    
blhen0 on p4 #bcg4  #b4 ,silently       
corrected typographical errors4  #c4    
,retained anachronistic and non-standard
 spellings as printed4  #d4 ,enclosed   
italics font in underscores4