,an ,appeal to the ,people in ,behalf of ,their ,rights as ,authorized ,interpreters of ,the ,bible by ,catharine ,e4 ,beecher ,author of 8,common ,sense ,applied to ,religion10 8,domestic ,economy10 8,domestic ,receipt,book10 8,letters to the ,people on ,health and ,happiness10 8,physiology and ,calisthenics10 ,etc41 ,etc4 ,new ,york ,harper ,brothers1 ,publishers #ahfj ,,contents ,chapter ,i4 ,introduction4 ,chapter ,,ii4 ,the ,augustine ,theory of the ,origin of ,evil4 ,chapter ,,iii4 ,questions ,connected with the ,augustinian ,theory4 ,chapter ,,iv4 ,the ,difficulties ,involved in the ,augustinian ,theory4 ,chapter ,v4 ,the ,augustinian ,theory in ,creeds4 ,chapter ,,vi4 ,modes of ,meeting ,difficulties by ,theologians4 ,chapter ,,vii4 ,theologians ,themselves ,concede the ,augustinian ,dogmas ,indefensible4 ,chapter ,,viii4 ,the ,augustinian ,theory ,contrary to the ,moral ,sense of ,mankind4 ,chapter ,,ix4 ,the ,principles of ,common ,sense ,defined4 ,chapter ,x4 ,common ,sense ,applied to ,gain the ,existence of ,god4 ,chapter ,,xi4 ,the ,people's ,mental ,philosophy4 ,chapter ,,xii4 ,the ,nature of ,mind1 or ,its ,powers and ,faculties4 ,chapter ,,xiii4 ,nature of ,mind4--,regulation of the ,thoughts4 ,chapter ,,xiv4 ,nature of ,mind4--,the ,moral ,sense1 or ,moral ,susceptibilities4 ,chapter ,,xv4 ,the ,nature of ,mind4--,the ,will4 ,chapter ,,xvi4 ,constitutional ,varieties of the ,human ,mind4 ,chapter ,,xvii4 ,nature of ,mind4--,habit4 ,chapter ,,xviii4 ,the ,nature of ,mind ,our ,guide to the ,natural ,attributes of ,god4 ,chapter ,,xix4 ,the ,nature of ,mind ,our ,guide to the ,moral ,attributes of ,god4 ,chapter ,,xx4 ,additional ,proof of the ,moral ,attributes of ,god4 ,chapter ,,xxi4 ,nature of ,mind as ,perfect in ,construction4 ,chapter ,,xxii4 ,right and ,wrong--,true ,virtue4 ,chapter ,,xxiii4 ,laws and ,penalties--,sin and ,holiness4 ,chapter ,,xxiv4 ,love to ,god ,and ,love to ,man4 ,chapter ,,xxv4 ,increased ,civilization ,increases ,moral ,difficulties4 ,chapter ,,xxvi4 ,humility and ,meekness4 ,chapter ,,xxvii4 ,the ,standard of ,right and ,wrong ,decided by ,the ,risks of ,eternity4 ,chapter ,,xxviii4 ,the ,destiny of ,man in the ,future ,life4 ,chapter ,,xxix4 ,what ,must ,we ,do ,to ,be ,saved8 ,chapter ,,xxx4 ,how ,far ,reason and ,experience are ,sufficient ,without ,revelation4 ,chapter ,,xxxi4 ,augustinian ,creeds and ,theologians ,teach the ,common,sense ,system4 ,chapter ,,xxxii4 ,augustinian ,creeds and ,theologians ,contradict the ,common ,sense ,system1 and ,thus1 ,also1 ,contradict ,themselves4 ,chapter ,,xxxiii4 ,the ,augustinian ,theory ,not ,in ,the ,bible4 ,chapter ,,xxxiv4 ,a ,reliable ,revelation ,from ,the ,creator ,impossible ,if ,it ,contains ,the ,augustinian ,theory4 ,chapter ,,xxxv4 ,tendencies of the ,two ,opposing ,systems4 ,chapter ,,xxxvi4 ,tendencies of the ,two ,systems ,as ,they ,respect the ,cultivation of the ,moral and ,intellectual ,powers4 ,chapter ,,xxxvii4 ,tendencies of the ,two ,systems in ,respect to ,individual ,religious ,experience4 ,chapter ,,xxxviii4 ,tendencies of the ,two ,systems in ,reference to the ,character of ,god4 ,chapter ,,xxxix4 ,tendencies of the ,two ,systems as to ,church ,organizations4 ,chapter ,,xl4 ,tendencies of the ,two ,systems in ,regard to ,humility1 ,meekness and a ,teachable ,spirit4 ,chapter ,,xli4 ,tendencies of the ,two ,systems in ,regard to ,dogmatism1 ,persecution and ,ecclesiastical ,tyranny4 ,chapter ,,xlii4 ,tendencies of the ,two ,systems as ,shown in ,controversy and ,sects4 ,chapter ,,xliii4 ,practical ,tendencies of the ,two ,systems4 ,chapter ,,xliv4 ,tendencies of the ,two ,systems in the ,training of ,children4 ,chapter ,,xlv4 ,the ,people ,rejecting the ,augustinian ,system4--,position of ,theologians4 ,chapter ,,xlvi4 ,present ,position of the ,church4 ,chapter ,,xlvii4 ,state of the ,pastors of ,churches4 ,chapter ,,xlviii4 ,the ,position of ,popular ,education4 ,chapter ,,xlix4 ,the ,position of ,woman as ,chief ,educator of ,mind4 ,chapter ,l4 ,present ,position of ,young ,america4 ,chapter ,,li4 ,present ,position of the ,religious ,press4 ,chapter ,,lii4 ,the ,present ,position of the ,secular ,press4 ,chapter ,,liii4 ,what ,the ,people ,will ,do8 ,note4 ,notes4 ,footnotes ,cover ,art ,,to ,the ,editors of the ,secular ,press1 ,,the ,,true ,,tribunes ,,of ,,the ,,people1 ,,called ,,of ,,god ,,in ,,behalf ,,of ,,the ,,commonwealth ,,to ,,defend ,,liberty ,,of ,,conscience1 ,,freedom ,,of ,,speech1 ,,and ,,the ,,right ,,of ,,all ,,to ,,interpret ,,the ,,bible ,,for ,,themselves1 ,,unrestrained ,,by ,,any ,,ecclesiastical ,,power1 ,,this ,,volume ,,is ,,respectfully ,,dedicated4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,introduction4 ,there is an obvious crisis approaching1 in the religious world1 on questions of the highest moment4 ,in past time such periods of change have been preceded by a slow and silent preparation1 in which multitudes have been led into the same course of thought and feeling4 ,then1 as the crisis approached1 some efficient leader lifted the last stone which sustained the protecting dyke1 and rode on the summit of the inrushing tide to notoriety and influence4 ,thus it was in the day of ,luther1 in the day of ,wesley1 and at other periods of religious movement4 ,at the present time there are indications of a great impending change1 which has been preceded by a long course of unobserved preparation4 ,but it is believed that1 in this case1 it is not to be exhibited1 like former ones1 by leaders forming new sects and parties1 amid more or less of conflict and commotion1 but by the agency of the people1 and by a healthful1 quiet process1 which1 like leaven1 shall gradually assimilate surrounding particles till the whole be leavened4 ,the matter involved is the great question of questions1 to each individual for himself1 and to every parent and educator for their children3 8,what must we ,,do to be saved80 ,it is the object of this volume to show that the answer to this great question has1 for ages1 been involved in mystery and difficulty by means of a philosophical theory to account for the 8origin of evil10 which1 in the fifth century1 was forced on the people by popes and ecclesiastical councils1 and which has been sustained by persecution ever since--that this theory is the basis of a system of religious doctrine incorporated into creeds and churches1 which is so contrary to the moral sense of humanity1 that theologians have failed to render it consistent and satisfactory1 even to themselves--that the people are endowed with principles of common sense by which they can educe from the works of ,god a system of natural religion far superior1 which system is briefly set forth1 and also the tendencies of the two opposing systems--that both systems are so incorporated into church creeds1 and into theological teachings1 that they are a compound of contradictions1 and all the great religious controversies have been efforts to eviscerate the false system from the true1 while through the long conflict1 it is theologians who have proved the noble confessors and martyrs for truth--that it is impossible to establish the claims of the ,bible1 or of any other writings1 as revelations from the ,creator1 when the ,augustinian theory is made a part of their teachings2 so that the real question for the people1 is 8,bible or no ,bible0--that the leading theological teachers of the chief sects in this country have virtually conceded that this theory is sustained neither by common sense nor the ,bible2 and1 finally1 that the people are about to cast off this dogma1 which for ages has darkened the way to eternal life1 and by applying the principles of common sense to the ,bible1 thus establish its agreement with the system of natural religion herein set forth4 ,in conclusion1 the indications of the predicted change are set forth as they are manifested in the present position of theologians--of the parochial clergy--of the church--of educational interests--of women--of 8,young ,america0--and of the religious and secular press4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,the ,,augustine ,,theory ,,of ,,the ,,origin ,,of ,,evil4 ,the theory in question was introduced into the ,christian church1 as an article of faith1 in the fifth century1 chiefly by the influence of ,augustine1 an ,african bishop4 ,to understand how it was brought about1 it is needful to bear in mind the distinction between facts and the philosophical theories that explain the how and the why of these facts4 ,christ and his ,apostles taught the fact that all men are sinners1 and the way to escape from sin and its penalties4 ,as1 at first1 ,christianity prevailed chiefly among the uneducated1 it was not till some three or four hundred years after ,christ1 that the philosophy of these facts agitated the churches4 ,augustine was a man of powerful mind and great learning1 and with other philosophers1 speculated as to 8the origin of evil10 or the ,,why and the ,,how all men came to be sinners4 ,by the aid of a few misinterpreted passages in the ,bible1 the following theory was introduced and mainly by ,augustine4 ,the ,augustinian ,theory4 ,the ,creator has proved his power to make minds with such 8a holy nature0 that they will have no propensity to sin1 by creating the minds of angels and of ,adam on this pattern4 ,adam having this holy nature1 with no propensity to sin1 did sin1 and1 as a penalty1 or in consequence1 all his posterity commence existence without this holy nature1 and with such a depraved nature that every moral act is sin and only sin until ,god regenerates each mind4 ,this favor is bestowed only on a certain 8elect0 number1 whose salvation was purchased by the sufferings and death of ,jesus ,christ4 ,the rest of the race1 after death1 are to continue an existence of hopeless torment in hell4 ,this depraved nature is the 8origin of evil20 that is to say1 it is the cause of all the sin and consequent misery of our race in time and through eternity4 ,it is what is meant by the terms 8total depravity10 and 8original sin0 as used by theologians4 ,at first the pope and the church councils refused this theory1 but eventually1 the ,augustinian party triumphed2 ,pelagius and his followers were persecuted and driven out of the church1 and thus this dogma was established as a leading feature in all the creeds and confessions of both ,catholic and ,protestant churches4 ,so thoroughly has it been adopted that1 since the time of ,pelagius1 there has been little discussion among the great ,christian sects on the theory itself4 ,these disputes have chiefly related to certain questions connected with this dogma1 which will next be noticed4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,questions ,,connected ,,with ,,the ,,augustinian ,,theory4 ,in discussing the topics of this chapter it is needful to refer to certain religious sects and parties of this country in their relations to the subject4 ,the first class may be denominated the old school ,calvinists1 embracing the ,old ,school ,presbyterian churches1 the ,reformed ,dutch and most of the ,baptist denominations4 ,their views are ably presented by the theologians of ,princeton and their quarterly1 and by the ,baptist theologians of the ,newton ,theological ,seminary and the ,baptist periodicals4 ,the second class may be called the new school ,calvinists1 embracing ,congregational and ,new ,school ,presbyterian churches4 ,these are ably represented in ,new ,england by the ,andover and ,new ,haven ,theological ,seminaries and their respective quarterlies2 and out of ,new ,england1 by the ,theological ,seminaries of ,union and ,lane1 and their quarterly at ,philadelphia4 ,the third class are the ,arminian sects1 including the ,methodists and ,episcopalians1 whose views are ably presented in their quarterlies and other periodicals in ,new ,york and ,philadelphia4 ,in what does the depraved nature transmitted from ,adam consist8 ,in seeking a definite and clear answer to the question1 what is the depraved nature transmitted from ,adam1 we find so much vagueness and mistiness1 that it will be needful to state first what it is not1 and then it will be more easy to approximate to the affirmative reply4 ,we find1 then1 that theologians teach that this depraved nature does not consist in any of those constitutional powers and faculties of mind1 of which ,god is the author4 ,for they maintain that all that ,god has made is perfect and right1 and that he is not the creator of that which is the cause or origin of sin1 inasmuch as this would make him 8the author of sin10 which they expressly deny4 ,this depraved nature1 then1 is something which ,god did not create4 ,this is what is affirmed when theologians say that they do not teach a 8physical depravity0 which demands 8physical regeneration0 on the part of ,god4 ,then on the positive side1 we find that this depraved nature is something that mind can be created without1 for ,god made the angels and ,adam without it4 ,it is something which does not prevent sinful action1 for ,adam sinned before it existed4 ,it is something which ,god can at any time remedy1 at least to some extent1 by regeneration4 ,it is something which makes every moral act of every human being sin and only sin until regeneration takes place4 ,it is something which man created himself1 either in ,adam1 or by ,adam1 or before ,adam4 ,it is something which man never can or never will rectify1 so that he is entirely dependent on ,god for the remedy4 ,it is something which most theologians describe as 8a bias10 or 8a tendency10 or 8a propensity10 or 8an inclination10 or 8a proclivity0 to sin1 while its opposite is called a holy nature which was created by ,god1 and which consists in a bias1 tendency1 propensity1 inclination or proclivity to holiness4 ,according to this1 ,god created the holy nature of angels and our first parents1 and man caused the depraved nature of all of ,adam's posterity4 ,some theologians attempt to define it as an unbalanced state of the faculties1 while holiness consists in the perfect balance of the faculties4 ,this balanced state of the faculties conferred at his creation on ,adam has been withheld from all his descendants by a constitution formed by ,god in consequence of ,adam's sin4 ,some theologians define this depravity as like a habit4 ,others hold that it is a state of the will1 sometimes called a disposition or ruling purpose4 ,some theologians teach that the presence of ,god's ,spirit1 in the soul of man is indispensable to its right action1 and that his depraved nature is the result of the 8deprivation0 of ,god's ,spirit1 which was bestowed on ,adam1 and is withheld from his descendants on account of his first sin4 ,according to this view1 a holy mind is one which enjoys the presence of ,god's ,spirit1 and a depraved mind is one that is deprived of it4 ,ability and ,inability4 ,the next question connected with the ,augustine theory is in regard to man's power or ability to obey ,god4 ,the old school ,calvinists hold that man has no power of any kind to obey any of ,god's laws acceptably until his depraved nature is regenerated by ,god1 and also that he has no power to do any thing that has any tendency to secure regeneration4 ,every act and feeling is sin and only sin from birth to regeneration4 ,the new school ,calvinists hold that man has full power to obey all that ,god requires1 but that owing to his depraved nature1 he never will perform a morally right act in a single instance1 until regenerated1 nor will he do any thing that has any promise1 or encouragement from the ,word of ,god1 as tending to secure regeneration4 ,he is as entirely dependent on ,god as if he had no power of any kind4 ,and as the inability1 whether natural or moral1 is all owing to the depraved nature consequent on ,adam's sin1 the fact that man has power to do what he never will do1 only adds to the misery of the condition thus entailed4 ,the ,arminian sects agree in the fact that the sin of ,adam entailed such a depraved nature to all the race1 as more or less incapacitates for right moral action until regeneration takes place4 ,the ,episcopal ,arminians hold to the ,catholic view that baptism in part remedies the effects of ,adam's sin1 so that by the use of the means afforded by a ministry regularly transmitted from the ,apostles1 the unregenerate can gain eternal life4 ,the ,methodist ,arminians hold that depravity consists in the 8deprivation0 of ,god's ,spirit which was given to ,adam1 and that the death of ,christ has so availed1 that man now has some measure of this ,spirit restored before regeneration1 so that all men have power1 by the use of certain appointed means of grace1 to gain regeneration4 ,the main point where the ,calvinists and ,arminians differ is1 that the ,arminians teach that man has an appointed mode for gaining regeneration1 and the ,calvinists teach that he has not4 ,what is ,regeneration8 ,the next question is1 in what does that great change consist which is called regeneration1 and which is indispensable to salvation from eternal woe8 ,the old school ,calvinists say it is a new nature created by ,god which naturally acts right1 in place of a depraved nature which naturally acts wrong and only wrong4 ,with this new nature man has power to obey ,god acceptably1 and without it he has no power of any kind4 ,the new school ,calvinists say that regeneration is a change of the depraved nature of man by ,god1 attended by a choice or ruling purpose to obey ,god in all things made by man himself4 ,they teach also that man can and ought to make this choice without any help from ,god in changing his depraved nature1 and yet1 owing to this evil nature1 he never will do so till ,god changes it4 ,meantime ,god points out no certain way of obtaining this indispensable aid from him47#a7 ,the ,arminians teach that regeneration consists either in the implanting of a new nature by baptism1 and the use of other means of grace1 or in the restoration of ,god's ,spirit which was withdrawn from man on account of ,adam's sin1 and in some degree restored by ,christ's death4 ,what must we do to be saved8 ,the next question for a race thus mournfully ruined is1 8,what must we do to be saved80 ,in reply1 the old school ,calvinist says1 you can do nothing at all4 ,whoever is saved will be regenerated by ,god1 without reference to any unregenerate doings4 ,it is all decided not by man in any way1 but by the 8decrees0 and 8election0 of ,god4 ,the new school ,calvinist says1 ,you can do all that ,god requires1 so as to be perfect in every thought1 word and deed1 from the beginning of moral action to the close of life1 but you certainly never will feel or do a single thing that is right and acceptable until regenerated2 nor will you ever do any thing to which any promise is offered by ,god as that which will secure his interference to regenerate4 ,it is all decided1 not by man1 but by the 8decrees0 and 8election0 of ,god4 ,the ,arminians say you can obtain regeneration and eternal life1 by the use of the means of grace set forth in the ,bible and by 8the ,church40 ,true virtue1 or right moral action4 ,the next question is1 what is true virtue1 or right moral action8 ,by moral action is meant the act of mind in choosing1 in distinction from intellectual and other acts of mind4 ,the ,calvinists1 both old and new school1 teach that true virtue1 or right moral action in man1 is choosing to obey ,god's laws after regeneration takes place4 ,previous to regeneration1 every choice is sin and has no moral goodness or rectitude4 ,thus truth1 honesty1 justice1 selfdenial for the good of others1 obedience to parents1 are all sin in an unregenerate mind1 and true virtue in the regenerate mind4 ,the ,antinomian ,calvinist goes so far as to claim that every choice of a regenerate mind is right and holy1 just as every choice of the unregenerate is sin4 ,thus the practice of the most hideous vices and crimes becomes virtue in the regenerate4 ,but all other ,calvinists maintain that after regeneration we can and do sin1 though previous to this change no truly virtuous act is ever performed4 ,the ,arminians hold that true virtue consists in obeying ,god's laws1 without reference to the question of regeneration4 ,they do not hold1 as do all ,calvinists1 that all the doings of the unregenerate are sinful1 and thus have no promise or encouragement in the ,bible as having an influence to secure regeneration4 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,the ,,difficulties ,,involved ,,in ,,the ,,augustinian ,,theory4 ,the difficulties involved in the ,augustinian theory of 8the origin of evil10 result from these facts4 ,our only idea of a benevolent being is that wherever he has the power to produce either happiness or misery1 he prefers to make happiness4 ,our only idea of a malevolent being is that wherever he has this power he prefers to make misery4 ,consequently1 the affirmation that all the sin and misery of man is the result of a depraved nature which the ,creator has power both to prevent and to remove1 conveys no other idea than that ,god prefers to make misery when he has power to make happiness1 and thus is a malevolent being4 ,if ,god would make all minds perfectly holy1 as theologians claim he has power to do1 all sin would cease4 ,he chooses not to do so1 but rather to perpetuate the depraved nature transmitted from ,adam1 which is 8the origin of all evil40 ,now all classes of theologians who hold to the depravity of man's nature consequent on ,adam's sin1 agree that this is the cause or origin of all sin and its consequent suffering4 ,they all agree1 also1 that ,god has proved his power to make a perfectly holy nature in the case of angels and of ,adam1 and that in consequence of the first sin of ,adam1 every human mind begins to exist with a depraved nature1 according to a constitution of things instituted by ,god4 ,they all agree that ,god can regenerate every human mind1 and that this boon is withheld1 not for want of power1 but for want of will on the part of ,god4 ,the difficulty that they have to meet is this--,how can the ,creator1 having done thus1 be regarded as any other than a malevolent being1 the malignant and hateful 8author of sin10 and all its consequent sufferings8 ,the following exhibits the several modes of attempting to meet this question4 ,the ,catholic ,method4 ,the first mode of meeting this difficulty is called that of mystery and sovereignty4 ,it is simply saying that there is no explanation to be given4 ,it is a mystery that ,god as a sovereign does not choose to explain1 and it must be submitted to in uncomplaining silence4 ,this is the ,catholic mode which has been perpetuated by many ,protestants4 ,it is the same method as is adopted in defending the ,catholic doctrine of transubstantiation4 ,all who do not resort to the ,catholic mode of mystery and sovereignty1 endeavor to relieve the ,creator from the charge of being the author of sin by maintaining that man made his own depraved nature4 ,this they set forth in the following ways3 ,mode of ,augustine and of ,president ,edwards4 ,augustine1 the father of this dreadful system1 maintained that all men had a common nature in ,adam1 which was ruined by his act1 after ,god had made this common nature perfect4 ,that is to say1 every human soul existed as a part of ,adam1 and thus his act was the act of each and of all4 ,this act vitiated the common nature of all1 and thus ,adam and each of his posterity caused the depravity of their common nature4 ,and thus1 though ,god had the power to create each mind as perfect as he created ,adam's1 still he is not the author of sin4 ,president ,edwards1 the great ,new ,england theologian1 taught that all the minds of our race so existed in ,adam1 and were so one with his mind1 that when he chose to eat the forbidden fruit1 all his descendants chose to do so too1 and thus each man ruined his own nature1 and ,god is not the author of the evil4 ,the ,princeton ,mode4 ,the theologians of ,princeton set forth the following as the mode in which man caused his own depraved nature3 ,god created ,adam with a perfectly holy nature4 ,adam sinned and ruined his own nature4 ,god had previously 8made a covenant with ,adam1 not only for himself1 but for all his posterity1 or in other words1 ,adam having been placed on trial1 not only for himself1 but also for his race1 his act was in virtue of this relation regarded 7by ,god7 as our act4 ,god withdrew from us as he did from him2 in consequence of this withdrawal1 we begin to exist in moral darkness1 destitute of a disposition to delight in ,god and prone to delight in ourselves and in the world4 ,the sin of ,adam therefore ruined us2 and the intervention of the ,son of ,god for our salvation is an act of pure1 sovereign1 and wonderful grace40 ,the above is extracted from a standard writer of the ,princeton ,theological ,seminary1 and expresses the views of the ,old ,school ,presbyterian church in this matter4 ,it is simply saying that man made his own depraved nature1 inasmuch as ,god regarded ,adam's act as our act when it was not1 being performed before we existed1 and that he punished us by withdrawing from us1 as he did from ,adam1 and thus our nature becomes ruined and totally depraved4 ,the ,constitutional ,transmission ,mode4 ,the next way in which man is made to be the author of his own nature is called the constitutional transmission mode4 ,it is as follows3 ,god made ,adam with a perfectly holy mind1 and then ,adam sinned and ruined his own nature4 ,in consequence of this act1 ,god established such a constitution of things that ,adam transmitted his depraved nature to all his posterity1 just as bodily diseases are transmitted from parents to children4 ,in this way man is said to be the author of his own depraved nature1 meaning1 by man1 ,adam4 ,in this case it is conceded that ,god had power to make such a constitution of things as that all human minds would begin existence1 as ,adam did1 with perfectly holy minds1 and that instead of this1 he chose that such a depraved nature should be transmitted to all as would insure universal sin4 ,and yet it is claimed that by this mode1 man1 and not ,god1 is shown to be 8the author of sin40 ,this is the mode adopted by most of the ,andover and ,new ,haven theologians4 ,dr4 ,edward ,beecher1 in his work 8,the ,conflict of ,ages10 advocates the idea that man ruined his own nature in a prexistent state before ,adam4 ,but the evidence of this has not yet been presented4 ,thus all who do not take the ,catholic mode of mystery and sovereignty maintain that man made his own depravity of nature1 either in or by or before ,adam4 ,condition of infants4 ,the most difficult point of all1 is the probable condition of infants after death4 ,on the ,augustinian theory they all have been ruined in nature by ,adam's sin1 and when they die1 go with this depraved nature to their final state4 ,augustine acquired the name of 8durus pater0 7cruel father7 because he was consistent with his theory and taught that these little ones1 if unbaptized1 were doomed to endless torments4 ,but as humanity and common sense have gained ground this hideous tenet has passed away1 and few are now found who do not sacrifice consistency to humanity1 and allow that in spite of their total depravity1 all infants go directly to heaven and are forever blessed4 ,formerly some would confine this favor to the 8elect infants10 others to the infants of 8elect parents10 but few are found at this day who venture to teach that ,god sends even one newborn being to eternal misery for ,adam's sin4 ,the difficulties not removed but rather increased by these methods4 ,but the difficulties involved in the ,augustine theory do not lie in the mode by which it came to pass that all men begin existence with depraved natures1 but in the fact1 that ,god1 having power to create all minds as perfect as ,adam's1 and also the power to regenerate all1 has chosen not to do so1 and thus has preferred the consequent sin and misery to the happiness resulting from making perfect minds4 ,this grand difficulty stands entirely unrelieved by the above methods4 ,nay more1 they all serve but to increase a sense of the folly and enormity of the awful result1 and to present our ,maker as the cruel cause of all our miseries1 and the fullest and most awful realization of our idea of a perfectly malevolent being47#b7 ,illustration of the ,augustinian ,theory4 ,the following illustrates the case1 though but very imperfectly1 inasmuch as any finite temporal evils are as nothing compared to the eternal torments to which are assigned all of our race1 whose ruined nature is not regenerated before death4 ,a father places a poison in the way of his wife1 forbids her to taste it1 but knows she will do so and that the consequence will be that all his children will be born blind4 ,then he places the children thus deprived of sight1 in a dreadful morass filled with savage beasts and awful pitfalls1 with a narrow and difficult path of escape1 which it is certain no one will ever find without sight4 ,the consequence is1 that a large part of his children sink into the pitfalls and perish4 ,then he justifies himself in these ways4 ,to some he says1 ,i have a right to treat my children as ,i please1 and ,i allow no one to question me on the matter4 ,all that ,i do is right and benevolent1 and you must not inquire how or why4 ,to all the rest he says1 ,i am not the author of this evil1 it is the mother of the children who took the poison when ,i forbade her to do so4 ,she either made herself blind by taking the poison1 and then transmitted the evil to her children as a hereditary boon1 or she had 8a common nature0 with her children and ruined all together1 or they all 8sinned in her0 and became blind before they were born4 ,and so ,i am not 8the author of sin0 in this matter4 ,to intelligent persons not educated in the belief of the above theory of ,augustine1 and of these modes of explaining the difficulties connected with it1 this account of the matter will seem so incredible and monstrous that they will demand evidence that the preceding statements are true4 ,in the next chapters this evidence will be presented4 ,,chapter ,v4 ,,the ,,augustinian ,,theory ,,in ,,creeds4 ,the preceding chapters have presented the ,augustinian theory of 8the origin of evil10 and certain questions connected with it which have been debated by theologians2 also the difficulties involved in the theory1 and the modes of meeting these difficulties4 ,the next aim will be to verify these statements by extracts from the creeds and theologians of the great ,christian sects4 ,creed of the ,catholic ,church4 ,it is well known that the ,catholic organization preceded that of the ,protestant sects4 ,it is also well known that this church maintains that the decisions of her pope and councils are infallible4 ,the following extracts1 then1 from the decisions of the celebrated ,councils of ,trent at the period of the ,reformation1 exhibit the theory of ,augustine incorporated as a part of the ,roman ,catholic creed3 ,extract from a decree of the ,council of ,trent4 8,infants derive from ,adam that original guilt which must be expiated in the laver of regeneration in order to obtain eternal life4 ,adam lost the purity and righteousness which he received from ,god1 not for himself only but also for us40 ,the catechism of the ,council of ,trent says3 8,the pastor1 therefore1 will not omit to remind the faithful that the guilt and punishment of original sin were not confined to ,adam1 but justly descended from him1 their source and cause1 to all posterity4 ,hence a sentence of condemnation was pronounced against the human race immediately after the fall of ,adam40 ,john ,calvin4 ,the celebrated ,john ,calvin1 one of the greatest ,protestant theologians at the period of the ,reformation1 wrote a complete system based on the ,augustinian theory4 ,this system has been perpetuated in all the various sects which from him are named ,calvinistic4 ,the following extract gives his views on this subject3 ,john ,calvin4 8,it is a hereditary depravity and corruption of our nature1 diffused through all parts of the soul1 which1 in the first place1 exposes us to the wrath of ,god1 and then produces in us those works which the ,scripture calls the works of the flesh40 ,of infants1 he says3 8,they bring their condemnation with them from their mother's womb1 being liable to punishment1 not for the sin of another1 but for their own4 ,for although they have not as yet produced the fruits of their iniquity1 yet they have the seed inclosed in themselves2 nay1 their whole nature is1 as it were1 a seed of sin2 therefore they can not but be odious and abominable to ,god4 ,whence it follows that it is properly considered sin before ,god1 because there could not be liability to punishment without sin40 8,the corruption of nature precedes and gives rise to all sinful acts1 and is in itself deserving of punishment40 ,westminster ,assembly4 ,the ,westminster ,assembly represented the ,calvinistic sects of ,great ,britain near the period of the ,reformation4 ,the confession of faith and catechisms prepared by them have ever since been received as a true statement of the system of religious doctrine1 as held by the ,presbyterian1 ,congregational1 and ,calvinistic ,baptist denominations in ,great ,britain and ,america4 ,the following presents the ,augustinian theory1 as contained in their creed3 8,a corrupted nature was conveyed from our first parents to all their posterity4 ,from this original corruption1 whereby we are utterly indisposed1 disabled1 and made opposite to all good1 and wholly inclined to all evil1 do proceed all actual transgressions4 ,every sin1 both original and actual1 being a transgression of the righteous law of ,god1 and contrary thereunto1 doth in its own nature bring guilt upon the sinner1 whereby he is bound over to the wrath of ,god and curse of the law1 and so made subject to death1 with all miseries1 spiritual1 temporal and eternal40 ,the ,episcopalians4 ,the following from the ,thirtynine ,articles of the ,church of ,england presents the same doctrine1 as held by the ,episcopalians of ,great ,britain and ,america3 8,original sin is the fault and corruption of the nature of every man1 that naturally is engendered in the offspring of ,adam2 whereby man is very far gone from original righteousness1 and is of his own nature inclined to evil--and this infection of nature doth remain in the regenerated40 8,the condition of man after the fall of ,adam is such1 that he can not turn and prepare himself 7by his own natural strength and good works7 to faith and calling upon ,god4 ,wherefore we have no power to do good works pleasant and acceptable to ,god1 without the grace of ,god by ,christ preventing us2 that we may have a good will1 and working with us when we have that good will40 ,the ,methodists4 ,in the ,methodist ,quarterly ,review for ,july1 #aheg1 the editor1 in speaking of the works of ,arminius1 says1 p4 #cde1 8,our denomination1 whose creed agrees so completely with the teachings of this learned1 accomplished and holy man1 is bound to maintain the freshness of his precious memory40 ,arminius4 ,in the same article are the following extracts from the works of ,arminius1 which1 on so good authority1 may be received as the views of the ,methodist churches on this topic3 8,the will of man1 with respect to true good1 is not only wounded1 bruised1 crooked and attenuated1 but is likewise captivated1 destroyed and lost1 and has no powers whatever1 except such as are excited by grace4 8,adam1 by sinning1 corrupted himself and all his posterity1 and so made them obnoxious to ,god's wrath40 8,infants have rejected the grace of the gospel in their parents and forefathers1 by which act they have deserved to be deserted by ,god4 ,for ,i would like to have proof adduced how all posterity could sin in ,adam against law1 and yet infants1 to whom the gospel is offered in their parents and rejected1 have not sinned against the grace of the gospel40 8,for there is a permanent principle in the covenant of ,god1 that children should be comprehended and adjudged in their parents40 ,watson1 the leading ,arminian theologian1 says that in the doctrine of the corruption of our common nature and man's natural incapacity to do good1 the ,arminians and ,calvinists so well agree1 8that it is an entire delusion to represent this doctrine1 as is often done1 as exclusively ,calvinistic40 ,various ,protestant doctrines4 ,the following extracts from the creeds of various ,european bodies of ,protestant ,christians show the same doctrine4 ,the ,synod of ,dort was a great council of ,protestant divines at the period of the ,reformation4 ,it contained representatives from most of the large bodies of ,protestants in ,europe4 ,the following gives their views on this subject3 ,synod of ,dort4 8,therefore all men are conceived in sin and born the children of wrath1 disqualified for all saving good1 propense to evil1 dead in sins1 the slaves of sin2 and without the grace of the regenerating ,holy ,spirit1 they neither are willing nor able to return to ,god1 to correct their depraved nature1 or to dispose themselves to the correction of it40 ,confession of ,helvetia4 8,we take sin to be that natural corruption of man derived or spread from those our parents unto us all2 through which we1 being not only drowned in evil concupiscences and clean turned away from ,god1 but prone to all evil1 full of all wickedness1 distrust1 contempt and hatred of ,god1 can do no good of ourselves--no1 not so much as think of any40 ,confession of ,belgia4 8,we believe that1 through the disobedience of ,adam1 the sin that is called original hath been spread and poured into all mankind4 ,now original sin is a corruption of the whole nature1 and an hereditary evil wherewith even the very infants in their mother's womb are polluted3 the which also1 as a most noisome root1 doth branch out most abundantly all kinds of sin in men1 and is so filthy and abominable in the sight of ,god1 that it alone is sufficient to the condemnation of all mankind40 ,confession of ,bohemia4 8,original sin is naturally engendered in us and hereditary1 wherein we are all conceived and born into this world4444 ,let the force of this hereditary destruction be acknowledged and judged of by the guilt and fault involved1 by our proneness and declination to evil1 by our evil nature1 and by the punishment which is laid upon it4 8,actual sins are the fruits of original sin1 and do burst out within1 without1 privily and openly1 by the powers of man2 that is1 by all that ever man is able to do1 and by his members1 transgressing all those things which ,god commandeth and forbiddeth1 and also running into blindness and errors worthy to be punished with all kinds of damnation40 ,french ,confession 7,protestant74 8,man's nature is become altogether defiled1 and being blind in spirit and corrupt in heart1 hath utterly lost all his original integrity4 ,we believe that all the offspring of ,adam are infected with this contagion1 which we call original sin1 that is a stain spreading itself by propagation4 ,we believe that this stain is indeed sin1 because that it maketh every man 7not so much as those little ones excepted which as yet lie hid in their mother's womb7 deserving of eternal death before ,god4 ,we also affirm that this stain1 even after baptism1 is in nature sin40 ,moravian ,confession4 8,this innate disease and original sin is truly sin1 and condemns under ,god's eternal wrath all those who are not born again through water and the ,holy ,ghost40 ,the preceding is sufficient to establish the unanimous agreement of ,catholic and ,protestant creeds and confessions in maintaining the ,augustinian theory of the depraved nature of all mankind consequent on the sin of ,adam1 as it has been set forth in the preceding chapters4 ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,modes ,,of ,,meeting ,,difficulties ,,by ,,theologians4 ,having presented the ,augustinian theory1 as it is set forth in both ,catholic and ,protestant creeds1 the next object will be to verify the statements of the preceding chapters as to the modes of meeting difficulties adopted by theologians4 ,the first extract will show that ,augustine taught that all men had a common nature in ,adam1 so that his choosing to eat the forbidden fruit was the act of each and all human minds which were existing in or with him at that time4 ,and thus that it was man and not ,god that caused our depravity of nature4 ,the extract introduced to verify the above was written to ,st4 ,jerome1 who taught that all minds commenced their first existence at or near the birth of each4 ,this ,augustine denied1 and the passage shows not only that he taught a common nature which was ruined in ,adam1 but also that all unbaptized infants go to endless punishment for the sin thus committed in ,adam ages before they were born4 ,augustine's ,mode4 8,how can so many thousands of souls which leave the bodies of unbaptized infants be with any equity condemned1 if they were newly created and introduced into these bodies for no previous sins of their own1 but by the mere will of him who created them to animate these bodies1 and foreknew that each of them1 for no fault of his own1 would die unbaptized8 ,since1 then1 we can not say that ,god either makes souls sinful by compulsion1 or punishes them when innocent1 and yet are obliged to confess that the souls of the little ones are condemned if they die unbaptized1 ,i beseech you tell me how can this opinion be defended1 by which it is believed that souls are not all derived from that one first man1 but are newly created for each particular body80 ,thus ,augustine supposed that he escaped the charge of making ,god the author of sin by teaching that ,god created all the souls of the race in ,adam1 so that ,adam's sin ruined the nature of himself and his posterity all at one stroke1 while it made it right and just to send all unbaptized infants to eternal misery4 ,the next extract is introduced to verify the statement made as to the ,princeton mode of making man the author of his own depraved nature4 ,this mode is the one adopted by most theologians of the ,old ,school ,presbyterian church4 ,it is thus set forth by ,dr4 ,hodge1 of ,princeton1 in his ,commentary on ,romans3 ,princeton ,mode4 8,the great fact in the apostle's mind was1 that ,god regards and treats all men1 from the first moment of their existence1 as out of fellowship with himself1 as having forfeited his favor4 ,instead of entering into communion with them the moment they begin to exist 7as he did with ,adam71 and forming them by his ,spirit in his own moral image1 he regards them as out of his favor1 and withholds the influences of the ,spirit4 ,why is this8 ,why does ,god thus deal with the human race8 ,here is a form of death which the violation of the law of ,moses1 the transgression of the law of nature1 the existence of innate depravity1 separately or combined1 are insufficient to account for4 ,its infliction is antecedent to them all2 and yet it is of all evils the essence and the sum4 ,men begin to exist out of communion with ,god4 ,this is the fact which no sophistry can get out of the ,bible or the history of the world4 ,paul tells us why it is4 ,it is because we fell in ,adam2 it is for the offense of one man that all thus die4 ,the covenant being formed with ,adam1 not only for himself but also for his posterity--in other words1 ,adam having being placed on trial1 not for himself only1 but also for his race1 his act was1 in virtue of this relation1 ,,regarded ,,as ,,our ,,act4 8,god withdrew from us as he did from him2 in consequence of this withdrawal1 we begin to exist in moral darkness1 destitute of a disposition to delight in ,god1 and prone to delight in ourselves and the world4 ,the sin of ,adam1 therefore1 ruined us2 was the ground of the withdrawing of the divine favor from the whole race4 ,but such evil was inflicted before the giving of the ,mosaic law2 it comes on men before the transgression of the law of nature1 or even the existence of inherent depravity4 ,it must1 therefore1 be for the offense of one man that judgment has come upon all men to condemnation40 ,constitutional ,transmission ,mode4 ,dr4 ,dwight's system of theology is regarded as the fairest exhibition of the theological opinions of the majority of the ,new ,england ,congregational clergy4 ,while the ,catholic mode1 as taught by ,dr4 ,woods so many years at ,andover1 is probably adopted by many1 the views of ,dr4 ,dwight1 and his successor1 ,dr4 ,taylor1 on the point under consideration1 are taught now both at the ,andover and ,new ,haven seminaries1 and probably are adopted by the great majority of the clergy in the ,congregational and ,new ,school ,presbyterian denominations4 ,these theologians maintain that man is the author of his own depraved nature in this way4 ,adam sinned and ruined his own nature1 and then1 in consequence of this sin1 ,god instituted such a constitution of things1 that this ruined nature has been transmitted to all his posterity1 after the same manner as bodily diseases are transmitted from parent to child4 ,this constitution also was established when ,god had the power to bestow on each human mind the same 8holy nature0 which he gave to ,adam4 ,the following from ,dr4 ,dwight sustains this statement3 8,the corruption of mankind exists in consequence of the apostacy of ,adam4 ,by means of the offense or transgression of ,adam1 the judgment or sentence of ,god came upon all men unto condemnation1 because1 and solely because all men in that state of things which was constituted in consequence of the transgression of ,adam1 became sinners40 ,that is to say1 ,god having the power to make all men with minds as perfect as ,adam's before his fall1 on account of ,adam's sin constituted a state of things that would insure the universal sinfulness of the whole race4 ,dr4 ,taylor1 the successor of ,dr4 ,dwight as head of the ,new ,haven school of divines1 teaches thus3 8,men are entirely depraved by nature4 ,i do not mean that their nature is in itself sinful1 nor that their nature is the physical or efficient cause of their sinning2 but ,i mean that their nature is the occasion or reason of their sinning--that such is their nature1 that in all the appropriate circumstances of their being they will sin and only sin40 ,he further states3 8,that sin is by nature owing to propensities to inferior good1 with a difference between ,adam's mind and ours 7though we can not assert that in which this difference may consist72 that our propensities are the same in kind1 though different in degree1 from those of ,adam2 that perhaps this distinction may consist in mental differences--or in superior tendencies1 compared with ,adam's1 to natural good1 and less tendency to the highest good40 ,thus1 on account of the first sin of the first pair1 ,god constituted such a state of things1 that instead of perfect minds1 such as ,god gave to the angels and to ,adam1 all men receive such 8a nature0 as insures 8sin and only sin10 until regeneration takes place4 ,the next extracts will verify the statements made as to the mode adopted by ,catholic theologians4 ,catholic ,mode4 ,the ,catholic mode is that of mystery and sovereignty1 and is based on the assumption that the mind of man1 being utterly depraved1 has no capacity to judge of what is right and wrong4 ,according to this1 the most abominable and horrible crimes are to be considered virtues if ,god should commit them1 or should teach us that they are so4 ,among the most distinguished of the ,catholic theologians is the learned ,abelard1 who teaches thus3 8,would it not be deemed the summit of injustice among men1 if any one should cast an innocent son1 for the sin of a father1 into those flames1 even if they endured but a short time8 ,how much more so if eternal8 ,truly ,i confess this would be unjust in men1 because they are forbidden to avenge even their own real injuries4 ,but it is not so in ,god1 who says1 #8,vengeance is mine1 ,i will repay2' and again1 in another place1 #8,i will kill and ,i will make alive4' ,now ,god commits no injustice towards his creature in whatever way he treats him--whether he assigns him to punishment or to life4444 ,in whatever way ,god may wish to treat his creature1 he can be accused of no injustice2 nor can any thing be called evil in any way if it is done according to his will4 ,nor can we in any other way distinguish good from evil1 except by noticing what is agreeable to his will40 ,another celebrated ,catholic theologian1 8the good ,pascal10 thus disparages our natural sense of justice as 8wretched10 and of no account before this awful doctrine4 8,what can be more contrary to the rules of our wretched justice than to damn eternally an infant incapable of volition1 for an offense in which he seems to have had no share1 and which was committed six thousand years before he was born8 ,certainly nothing strikes us more rudely than this doctrine2 and yet without this mystery1 the most incomprehensible of all1 we are incomprehensible to ourselves40 ,thus it is seen that ,pascal concedes it as a truth that infants are to be eternally damned for offenses in which they 8seem to have no share10 and that our sense of justice1 which revolts from it1 is 8wretched40 ,the ,andover ,theological ,seminary was the first one established in ,new ,england for educating ministers1 and for nearly half a century ,dr4 ,woods filled the leading theological chair4 ,the following is introduced1 from the ,,conflict ,,of ,,ages1 to verify the statement that the ,catholic mode of mystery and sovereignty was the method adopted by him in training the clergy of ,new ,england on this subject4 8,he ,dr4 ,woods expressly teaches that there is in the nature of man1 anterior to knowledge or choice1 a proneness or propensity to sin1 which is in its own nature sinful1 #8the essence of moral evil1 the sum of all that is vile and hateful4' ,he also teaches that ,god inflicts this #8tremendous calamity' on all men for the sin of one man4 #8,this1' he says1 #8has been the belief of the church in all ages4' 8,he then asks1 #8,but how is this proceeding just to ,adam's posterity8 ,what have they done1 before they commit sin1 to merit pain and death8 ,what have they done to merit the evil of existing without original righteousness1 and with a nature prone to sin8 ,here1' he says1 #8our wisdom fails4 ,we apply in vain to human reason or human consciousness for an answer4' ,nay more2 he even admits that such conduct is #8contrary to the dictates of our fallible minds4' ,yet he still insists that we ought not to judge at all in the case1 but to believe that it is right because ,god has done it4 #8,god has not made us judges4 ,the case lies wholly out of our province4 ,it is a doctrine which is not to be brought for trial to the bar of human reason4 ,mere natural reason1 mere philosophy or metaphysical sagacity transcends its just bounds1 and commits a heinous sacrilege1 when it attacks this primary article of our faith1 and labors to distort it1 to undermine it1 or to expose its truth or its importance to distrust4' 0 ,the preceding serves to establish the correctness of the writer's statements as to the modes of meeting difficulties adopted by theologians4 ,in the next chapter we shall see that none of these methods prove satisfactory even to theologians themselves4 ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,theologians ,,themselves ,,concede ,,the ,,augustinian ,,dogmas ,,indefensible4 ,although each theologian claims that the mode of meeting difficulties adopted by his school is satisfactory1 yet as each maintains that all other modes are unavailing1 it comes to pass that a majority of theologians declare each attempt to make the ,augustinian dogma consistent with the moral sense of humanity an utter failure4 ,it has been shown that the ,catholic mode is not to attempt to defend the dogma4 ,it is 8decreed0 by 8the church10 which is the only infallible interpreter of ,god's ,word1 to be in the ,bible1 and it is to be received1 like the doctrine of transubstantiation1 as an inscrutable mystery4 ,this is the mode also adopted by ,dr4 ,woods and many other ,protestants4 ,the following from the ,princeton theologians presents their protest against this ,catholic method4 ,they perceive that if they allow it in this case1 they have no excuse for denying the validity of the ,catholic defense of transubstantiation4 ,and so they proceed to claim that imputing to children sins that they never committed1 and thus involving them in endless misery1 is the true mode1 while the ,catholic one is vain4 ,the ,princeton ,mode against the ,catholic ,mode4 ,the ,princeton ,reviewers1 in opposing the ,catholic mode1 as defended by ,dr4 ,woods1 say3 8,how is it to be reconciled with the divine character that the fate of unborn millions should depend on an act over which they had not the slightest control1 and in which they had no agency8 ,this difficulty presses the opponents of the doctrine 7of imputation7 more heavily than its advocates4 ,god must produce such results either on the ground of justice or of sovereignty4 ,the defenders of imputation take the ground of justice--their opponents that of sovereignty4 8,is it more congenial with the unsophisticated moral feelings of men that ,god1 out of his mere sovereignty1 should determine that because one man sinned all men should sin1 that because one man forfeited his favor all men should incur his curse1 or because one man sinned all should be born with a contaminated moral nature1 than that1 in virtue of a most benevolent constitution by which one was made the representative of the race1 the punishment of the one should come upon all80 ,that is to say1 they affirm interrogatively that imputing sins to innocent beings that they never committed1 as the ground of penal inflictions1 is a better defense of ,god from the charge of being the author of sin and of cruel injustice than the ,catholic mode of sovereignty and mystery4 ,at the same time they discard the constitutional transmission mode of ,andover and ,new ,haven4 ,the following from ,president ,edwards the younger1 gives the argument of a constitutional transmission divine against the imputation mode4 ,the ,transmission ,mode against the ,imputation ,mode4 8,the common doctrine has been1 that ,adam's posterity1 unless saved by ,christ1 are damned on account of ,adam's sin1 and that this is just1 because his sin is imputed or transferred to them4 ,by imputation his sin becomes their sin4 8,when the justice of such a transfer is demanded1 it is said that the constitution which ,god has established makes the transfer just4 8,to this it may be replied1 that the same way it may be proved just to damn a man without any sin at all1 either personal or imputed4 ,we need only to resolve it into a sovereign constitution of ,god40 ,the ,andover and ,new ,haven theologians regard both the ,catholic and the ,princeton modes as utterly unsatisfactory1 and offer instead the mode of constitutional transmission as relieving the difficulties4 ,but ,dr4 ,woods thus argues the case against them1 and appeals powerfully to 8intelligent and candid men30 ,dr4 ,woods in behalf of the ,catholic ,mode against the ,constitutional ,transmission ,mode4 8,and is there not just as much reason to urge this objection against the theory just named8 ,its advocates hold that ,god brings the whole human race into existence without holiness1 and with such propensities and in such circumstances as will certainly lead them into sin2 and that he brings them into this fearful condition in consequence of the sin of their first father1 without any fault of their own4 ,now1 as far as the divine justice or goodness is concerned1 what great difference is there between our being depraved at first1 and being in such circumstances as will certainly lead to depravity the moment moral action begins8 ,will not the latter as infallibly bring about our destruction as the former8 ,and how is it more compatible with the justice or the goodness of ,god to put us into one of these conditions than into the other1 when they are both equally fatal8 ,it is said that our natural appetites and propensities and our outward circumstances do not lead us into sin by any absolute or physical necessity2 but they do in all cases certainly lead us into sin1 and ,god knows that they will when he appoints them for us4 ,now1 how can our merciful ,father voluntarily place us1 while feeble1 helpless infants1 in such circumstances as he knows beforehand will be the certain occasion of our sin and ruin8444 ,what difference does it make1 either as to ,god's character1 or the result of his proceedings1 whether he constitutes us sinners at first1 or knowingly places us in such circumstances that we shall certainly become sinners1 and that very soon8 ,must not ,god's design as to our being sinners be the same in one case as in the other2 and must not the final result be the same8 ,is not one of these states of mankind fraught with as many and as great evils as the other8 ,what ground of preference then would any man have8444 8,let intelligent1 candid men1 who do not believe either of these schemes1 say whether one of them is not open to as many objections as the other40 ,the idea of a prexistence of the race before ,adam1 is not held by any denomination4 ,thus it appears that whenever any person claims that each of these attempts to make the ,augustine theory1 as held by the great ,christian sects1 consistent with the moral sense of humanity is an utter failure1 he is sustained by a majority of the most learned and acute theologians of our age and nation4 ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,the ,,augustinian ,,theory ,,contrary ,,to ,,the ,,moral ,,sense ,,of ,,mankind4 ,having presented evidence that both ,catholics and ,protestants of ,europe and ,america unite in holding the ,augustinian theory of the origin of evil1 and also that theologians themselves find it indefensible1 the next aim will be to present a portion of the evidence to show that this system is at war with the moral feelings and common sense of mankind4 ,there are remains of the writings of those who were the opposers of this theory in the time of ,augustine1 which show the strong emotions called forth at that remote period by the introduction of this doctrine4 ,the following is from one of the theologians of that day1 addressed to the author of the theory3 ,julian to ,augustine4 8,the children1 you say1 do not bear the blame of their own1 but of another's sins4 ,what sort of sin can that be8 ,what an unfeeling wretch1 cruel1 forgetful of ,god and of righteousness1 an inhuman barbarian1 is he who would make such innocent creatures as little children bear the consequences of transgressions which they never committed1 and never could commit8 ,god1 you answer4 ,what god8 ,for there are gods many and lords many2 but we worship but one ,god and one ,lord ,jesus ,christ4 ,what ,god dost thou make the malefactor8 ,here1 most holy priest and most learned orator1 thou fabricatest something more mournful and frightful than the brimstone in the valley of ,amsanctus4 ,god himself1 say you1 who commendeth his love towards us1 who even spared not his own ,son1 but hath given him up for us all1 he so determines--he is himself the persecutor of those that are born4 ,he himself consigns to eternal fire for an evil will1 the children who1 as he knows1 can have neither a good nor an evil will40 ,the following is from the celebrated ,dr4 ,watts1 whose sacred lyrics endear his name to the ,christian world3 ,dr4 ,watts4 8,this natural propagation of sinful inclinations from a common parent1 by a law of creation1 seems difficult to be reconciled with the goodness and justice of ,god4 ,it seems exceeding hard to suppose that such a righteous and holy ,god1 the ,creator1 who is also a being of such infinite goodness1 should1 by a powerful law and order of creation1 which is now called nature1 appoint young1 intelligent creatures to come into being in such unhappy and degenerate circumstances1 liable to such intense pains and miseries1 and under such powerful tendencies and propensities to evil1 by the mere law of propagation1 as should almost unavoidably expose them to ten thousand actual sins1 and all this before they have any personal sin or guilt to deserve it4 8,if it could be well made out that the whole race of mankind are partakers of sinful inclinations1 and evil passions1 and biases to vice1 and also are exposed to many sharp actual sufferings and to death1 merely and only by the original divine law of propagation from their parents who had sinned2 and1 if the justice and goodness of ,god could be vindicated in making and maintaining such a dreadful law or order of propagation through six thousand years1 we have no need of further inquiries1 but might here be at rest4 ,but1 if the scheme be so injurious to the goodness and equity of ,god as it seems to be1 then we are constrained to seek a little further for a satisfactory account of this universal degeneracy and misery of mankind40 ,the following was written by an ,american divine at the time of the commencement of the conflict in this country between the ,old and ,new ,school ,calvinists4 ,at that time this theory of a depraved nature was accompanied1 even in pulpit teachings1 by the assumption of man's total inability to do any thing to gain salvation1 and that ,christ died1 not for all men1 but only for 8the elect40 ,dr4 ,whelpley4 8,the idea that all the numerous millions of ,adam's posterity deserve the ineffable and endless torments of hell for a single act of his1 before any one of them existed1 is repugnant to that reason that ,god has given us1 and is subversive of all possible conceptions of justice4 ,i hesitate not to say1 that no scheme of religion ever propagated amongst men contains a more monstrous1 a more horrible tenet4 ,the atrocity of this doctrine is beyond comparison4 ,the visions of the ,koran1 the fictions of ,sadder1 the fables of the ,zendavesta1 all give place to this2 ,rabbinical legends1 ,brahminical vagaries1 all vanish before it40 8,the whole of their doctrine1 then1 amounts to this3 that a man is in the first place condemned1 incapacitated1 and eternally reprobated for the sin of ,adam2 in the next place1 that he is condemned over again for not doing what he is totally and in all respects unable to do2 and in the third place that he is condemned1 doubly and trebly condemned1 for not believing in a ,saviour who never died for him1 and with whom he has no more to do than a fallen angel40 ,the elder ,president ,adams at first designed to enter the clerical profession1 but was deterred by doctrinal difficulties1 of which he thus writes3 ,john ,adams4 8,if one man1 or being1 out of pure generosity1 and without any expectation of return1 is about to confer any favor or emolument upon another1 he has a right and is at liberty to choose in what manner and by what means to confer it4 ,he may confer the favor by his own hand or by the hand of a servant2 and the obligation to gratitude is equally strong upon the benefited being4 ,the mode of bestowing does not diminish the kindness1 provided the commodity or good is brought to us equally perfect and without our expense4 ,but1 on the other hand1 if one being is the original cause of pain1 sorrow1 or suffering to another1 voluntarily and without provocation1 it is injurious to that other1 whatever means he might employ1 and whatever circumstances the conveyance of the injury might be attended with4 ,thus we are equally obliged to the ,supreme ,being for the information he has given us of our duty1 whether by the constitution of our minds or bodies1 or by a supernatural revelation4 ,for an instance of the latter1 let us take original sin4 ,some say that ,adam's sin was enough to damn the whole human race1 without any actual crimes committed by any of them4 ,now this guilt is brought upon them1 not by their own rashness and indiscretion1 not by their own wickedness and vice1 but by the ,supreme ,being4 ,this guilt brought upon us is a real injury and misfortune1 because it renders us worse than not to be2 and therefore making us guilty on account of ,adam's delegation1 or representing all of us1 is not in the least diminishing the injury and injustice1 but only changing the mode of conveyance40 ,the celebrated ,dr4 ,channing was educated a ,calvinist4 ,the following exhibits his views on this subject1 after embracing ,unitarianism3 ,dr4 ,channing4 ,he says of such views3 8,they take from us our ,father in heaven1 and substitute a stern and unjust ,lord4 ,our filial love and reverence rise up against them4 ,we say1 touch any thing but the perfections of ,god4 ,cast no stain on that spotless purity and loveliness4 ,we can endure any errors but those which subvert or unsettle the conviction of ,god's paternal goodness4 ,urge not upon us a system which makes existence a curse1 and wraps the universe in gloom4 ,if ,i and my beloved friends and my whole race have come from the hands of our ,creator wholly depraved1 irresistibly propense to all evil and averse to all good--if only a portion are chosen to escape from this miserable state1 and if the rest are to be consigned1 by the ,being who gave us our depraved and wretched nature1 to endless torments in inextinguishable flames--then do ,i think that nothing remains but to mourn in anguish of heart2 then existence is a curse1 and the ,creator is----4 ,o1 my merciful ,father6 ,i can not speak of thee in the language which this system would suggest4 ,no6 thou hast been too kind to me to deserve this reproach from my lips4 ,thou hast created me to be happy2 thou callest me to virtue and piety1 because in these consists my felicity2 and thou wilt demand nothing from me but what thou givest me ability to perform60 ,the following is from the pen of a celebrated writer educated in the ,baptist denomination1 who finally became a ,universalist3 ,john ,foster4 8,i acknowledge my inability 7,i would say it reverently7 to admit this belief together with a belief in the divine goodness--the belief that #8,god is love1' that his tender mercies are over all his works4 ,goodness1 benevolence1 charity1 as ascribed in supreme perfection to him1 can not mean a quality foreign to all human conceptions of goodness4 ,it must be something analogous in principle to what himself has defined and required as goodness in his moral creatures1 that1 in adoring the divine goodness1 we may not be worshiping an #8unknown ,god4' ,but1 if so1 how would all our ideas be confounded while contemplating him bringing1 of his own sovereign will1 a race of creatures into existence in such a condition that they certainly will and must--must by their nature and circumstances--go wrong and be miserable1 unless prevented by especial grace1 which is the privilege of only a small portion of them1 and at the same time affixing on their delinquency a doom of which it is infinitely beyond the highest archangel's faculty to apprehend a thousandth part of the horror4 8,it amazes me to imagine how thoughtful and benevolent men1 believing that doctrine1 can endure the sight of the present world and the history of the past4 ,to behold successive1 innumerable crowds carried on in the mighty impulse of a depraved nature1 which they are impotent to reverse1 and to which it is not the will of ,god1 in his sovereignty1 to apply the only adequate power1 the withholding of which consigns them inevitably to their doom2 to see them passing through a short term of moral existence 7absurdly sometimes denominated a probation7 under all the world's pernicious influences1 with the addition of the malign and deadly one of the great tempter and destroyer1 to confirm and augment the inherent depravity1 on their speedy passage to everlasting woe2--,i repeat1 ,i am1 without pretending to any extraordinary depth of feeling1 amazed to conceive what they contrive to do with their sensibility1 and in what manner they maintain a firm assurance of the divine goodness and justice40 ,the following is the experience of the author of the ,conflict of ,ages3 ,dr4 ,edward ,beecher4 8,if any one would know the full worth of the privilege of living under1 worshiping1 loving and adoring a ,god of honor1 righteousness and love1 let him1 after years of joyful ,christian experience and soulsatisfying communion with ,god1 at last come to a point where his lovely character1 for a time1 vanishes from his eyes1 and nothing can be rationally seen but a ,god selfish1 dishonorable1 unfeeling4 ,no such person can ever believe that ,god is such2 but he may be so situated as to be unable rationally to see him in any other light4 ,all the common modes of defending the doctrine of native depravity may have been examined and pronounced insufficient1 and the question may urgently press itself upon the mind1 ,is not the present system a malevolent one8 and of it no defense may appear4 8,who can describe the gloom of him who looks on such a prospect8 ,how dark to him appears the history of man6 ,he looks with pity on the children that pass him in the street4 ,the more violent manifestations of their depravity seem to be the unfoldings of a corrupt nature given to them by ,god before any knowledge1 choice or consent of their own4 ,mercy now seems to be no mercy1 and he who once delighted to speak of the love of ,christ is obliged to close his lips in silence2 for the original wrong of giving man such a nature seems so great that no subsequent acts can atone for the deed4 ,in this state of mind1 he who once delighted to pray1 kneels and rises again1 because he can not sincerely worship the only ,god whom he sees4 ,his distress is not on his own account4 ,he feels that ,god has redeemed and regenerated him2 but this gives him no relief4 ,he feels as if he could not be bribed by the offer of all the honors of the universe to pretend to worship or praise a ,god whose character he can not defend4 ,he feels that he should infinitely prefer once more to see a ,god whom he could honorably adore1 and a universe radiant with his glory1 and then to sink into nonexistence1 rather than to have all the honors of the universe for ever heaped upon him by a ,god whose character he could not sincerely and honestly defend4 ,never before has he so deeply felt a longing after a ,god of a spotless character4 ,never has he so deeply felt that the whole light and joy of the universe are in him1 and that when his character is darkened all worlds are filled with gloom40 ,the following is from the ,rev4 ,albert ,barnes1 a leading ,new ,school ,calvinistic divine1 and the author of a very popular ,commentary on the ,bible3 8,that the immortal mind should be allowed to jeopard its infinite welfare1 and that trifles should be allowed to draw it away from ,god and virtue and heaven2 that any should suffer for ever--lingering on in hopeless despair amidst infinite torments1 without the possibility of alleviation and without end2 that since ,god can save men and will save a part1 he has not purposed to save all2 that on the supposition that the atonement is ample1 and that the blood of ,christ can cleanse from all and every sin1 it is not in fact applied to all2 that1 in a word1 a ,god who claims to be worthy of the confidence of the universe1 and to be a being of infinite benevolence1 should make such a world as this1 full of sinners and sufferers1 and then1 when an atonement has been made1 he did not save all the race1 and put an end to sin and woe for ever2--these and kindred difficulties meet the mind when we think on this great subject4 ,and they meet us whenever we endeavor to urge our fellowsinners to be reconciled to ,god4 ,on this ground they hesitate4 ,these are real and not imaginary difficulties4 ,they are probably felt by every mind that has ever reflected on the subject2 and they are unexplained1 unmitigated1 unremoved40 8,i have never known a particle of light thrown on these subjects that has given a moment's ease to my tortured mind2 nor have ,i an explanation to offer1 or a thought to suggest1 that would be of relief to you4 ,i trust other men1 as they profess to do--understand this better than ,i do1 and that they have not the anguish of spirit which ,i have2 but ,i confess1 when ,i look on a world of sinners and of sufferers1 upon deathbeds and graveyards1 upon the world of woe filled with hosts to suffer for ever2 when ,i see my friends1 my parents1 my family1 my people1 my fellowcitizens2 when ,i look upon a whole race1 all involved in this sin and danger1 and when ,i see the great mass of them wholly unconcerned1 and when ,i feel that ,god only can save them and yet that he does not do it--,i am struck dumb4 ,it is all dark1 dark1 dark to my soul1 and ,i can not disguise it40 ,this is but a brief specimen of the shuddering protest which has arisen in all ages and from all sects1 against this stern and awful dogma1 and which has poured its most powerful records from the shivering hearts of theologians themselves47#c7 ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,the ,,principles ,,of ,,common ,,sense ,,defined4 ,the preceding extracts exhibit a portion of the evidence to prove that the ,augustinian system is contrary to the moral sense of mankind1 and that theologians have failed1 by their own concessions1 to render it consistent and satisfactory even to themselves4 ,the next attempt will be to show that the people are endowed with principles of common sense1 by the aid of which they can educe from the works of the ,creator1 independently of any revealed ,word1 a system of religion far superior to the one based on the ,augustinian theory4 ,our first aim will be to designate what is intended by 8the principles of common sense40 ,it is claimed1 then1 that there are certain truths1 the belief of which exists in every rational human mind4 ,this belief1 in some cases1 as all must allow1 results from the constitution of mind given by the ,creator1 and not from any instruction or knowledge gained by other modes4 ,of this class is the belief of every mind in its own existence1 and also the belief in the existence of other things beside ourselves4 ,there are other truths universally believed by every rational mind1 where there may be room for question as to whether this belief is acquired or the result of constitutional organization4 ,but this question is waived1 as of little practical consequence for the present purpose of this work4 ,the fact on which the name and classification of these truths rests is1 that the belief in them is common to all rational minds1 and is regarded as so indispensable to true rationality1 that whenever any person shows by words and actions that a belief in any one of these truths does not exist1 he is regarded as deranged1 that is to say1 his reason is said to be more or less destroyed4 ,this1 therefore1 is the test by which we are to distinguish these principles of common sense from all other knowledge4 ,they are truths which are believed by all rational persons1 so that the disbelief of any one of them1 evinced in words and actions1 is universally regarded as proof of a deranged mind4 ,in such cases1 a man1 in common parlance1 would be said to have 8lost his mind10 or to have 8lost his reason20 inasmuch as he is lacking in some of those peculiar features which constitute man a rational being4 ,in this work the question is also waived as to the number of truths which are to be included in this class4 ,in regard to certain of them there can be no dispute4 ,of those involving any discussion1 there probably will be no occasion to speak in this work4 ,the writer does not claim that the common people1 or that metaphysicians1 when they speak of 8common sense10 always refer to what is here designated by this term4 ,all that the writer claims is that there are certain truths1 the belief of which is common to all minds1 either as the result of constitutional organization or of acquired knowledge2 and that these can be classified by this test1 viz41 that men universally talk and act as if they believed them1 and when they cease to do so1 are regarded as more or less insane4 ,moreover1 it is claimed that it is proper to call them principles of common sense1 because they are that kind of sense which is common to the whole race1 and also they are often referred to1 both by metaphysicians and by the common people1 by this term4 ,in the following chapters it will be shown that by the application of these principles1 a system of natural religion can be gained from the works of the ,creator by the same methods that men employ in all the ordinary concerns of life1 and that thus we are as fully qualified to gain religious knowledge and peace as we are to secure temporal comfort and prosperity4 ,,chapter ,x4 ,,common ,,sense ,,applied ,,to ,,gain ,,the ,,existence ,,of ,,god4 ,having explained what is intended by the principles of common sense1 the next attempt will be to apply certain of these principles to gain a system of natural religion2 meaning by this term that religion which may be gained from the works of the ,creator independently of any revealed ,word4 ,in all systems of religion the first article relates to the existence and character of the ,deity to be worshiped and obeyed4 ,the first principle of common sense to guide us in this inquiry is this3 ,every change has a producing cause4 ,in the widest sense of the word1 cause signifies something as an antecedent1 without which a given change will not occur1 and with which it will occur4 ,this is the leading idea in every use of this word4 ,then there are two classes of causes2 the first are necessary or producing causes1 and the second occasional causes4 ,a producing cause is an antecedent which produces a given change4 ,occasional causes are those circumstances which are indispensable to the action of producing causes4 ,thus1 fire applied to powder is the producing cause of an explosion1 while the placing of the two together is the occasional cause of it4 ,the idea of a producing cause is one which probably is gained when we first discover that our own will moves our own limbs and other things around us4 ,when we will to move a thing1 and find the intended change follows our volition to move it1 then we can not help believing that our own mind produced this change4 ,at the same time we gain the idea of power to produce this change1 and the belief also that the thing changed had no power to refrain from the change4 ,our only mode of defining the idea of a producing cause1 of power and of want of power1 is to refer to occasions when1 by willing1 we cause changes1 and thus become conscious of the existence and nature of these ideas by experience4 ,so also we have no mode of defining our sensations but by stating the occasions in which we are conscious of them4 ,for instance1 whiteness is the sensation we have when we look at snow1 and blackness is the sensation we have when we look at charcoal4 ,the same idea of causation and power in ourselves which we have when we make changes by our will1 we always connect with any thing which by experiment and testimony we find1 in given circumstances1 to be an invariable antecedent of a given change4 ,our minds are so made1 that whenever we find an invariable antecedent of a given change1 we can not help believing that this antecedent produced the change1 just as we believe our own will produces changes in our bodies and in things around us4 ,and if any person were to talk and act as if lie did not believe this1 be would be regarded as having 8lost his reason40 ,moreover1 whenever men1 by frequent experiments1 find that a given change is invariably preceded by a certain antecedent1 they can not help believing that the antecedent has power to produce this change1 and that the thing changed has no power to do otherwise4 ,this idea of power and want of power always exists whenever men find an invariable antecedent to some change4 ,it is by finding what are thus invariably connected as antecedents and consequents that men learn what are causes1 and what are effects1 and what are the powers of things around us4 ,here1 then1 we have these as principles of common sense believed by all men1 viz43 #a4 ,every change 7in matter or mind7 has a producing cause as an antecedent4 #b4 ,every invariable antecedent of an invariable sequent is a producing cause1 and the thing changed has no power to refrain from that change4 #c4 ,a producing cause1 in appropriate circumstances1 has power to make a given change4 ,now every man1 however unlearned1 can judge for himself whether these principles of common sense exist in his own mind1 as here set forth4 ,for example1 let any person take a magnet and discover1 day after day1 that when it is placed near a piece of iron it draws it to itself2 let him find also1 by testimony from others1 that this is invariable and fails in not a single instance1 and the inevitable result is a belief that the magnet is the cause of the moving of the iron1 just as the mind is the cause of the movement of our bodies4 ,so also there is a belief that the magnet1 in given circumstances1 has power to move the iron1 as our will has power to move our body4 ,so also there is a belief that the piece of iron1 in the given circumstances1 has no power to refrain from being thus attracted4 ,we see1 then1 that it is a universal fact1 that when there is a change of any thing1 or any new mode of existence1 every sane man believes there is some producing cause of this change4 ,even the youngest child exhibits this principle as a part of its mental organization4 ,and should a person be found who was destitute of a belief in this truth1 so that he should talk and act as if things came into existence and were changing places and forms without any causes1 he would be called insane1 or a man who had 8lost his reason40 ,our minds being endowed with this principle1 we find the world around us to be a succession of changes which we trace back to preceding causes1 until we come to the grand question1 8,who1 or what first started this vast system of successive changes80 ,only two replies are conceivable4 ,the first is that of the ,atheist1 who1 contradicting his own common sense1 maintains that1 in some past period1 all this vast system of organization and changes began to exist without any cause4 ,the other reply is1 that there is a great1 eternal1 selfexistent ,first ,cause1 who himself never began to be1 and who is the author of all finite existences4 ,this being1 the ,creator of the heavens and the earth1 we call ,god4 ,the next principle of common sense is that by which we gain a knowledge of the natural attributes of the ,creator4 ,it is this3 ,design or contrivance to secure a given end1 is proof of an intelligent designer1 and the nature of a design proves the intention and character of its author4 ,the mind1 as has been shown1 is so formed that it can not believe that any existence can commence without some antecedent cause4 ,the existence of unorganized matter1 however1 would be no proof that the cause was an intelligent mind4 ,but when any existence is discovered where there is an adjustment of parts1 all conducing to accomplish some determinate end1 no person can examine and understand its nature and adaptations without the accompanying belief that the cause of that contrivance was a mind endowed with the capacity of adjusting means to accomplish an end1 and thus an intelligent mind4 ,nor is it possible1 when the object which any design is fitted to accomplish is clearly discovered1 to doubt the intention of the designer4 ,we can not help believing that it was the intention of the contriver to accomplish the end for which his contrivance is fitted4 ,as an example to illustrate the existence of these principles1 even in the simplest minds1 if a savage should find in the desert a gold watch1 nothing could lead him to believe that it sprang into existence there without any cause4 ,if he should open it and perceive the nice adjustment of the wheels and all its beautiful indications of contrivance1 he could not believe that the mind of an animal1 or that any but an intelligent mind constructed its machinery4 ,if he should have all its movements explained to him1 and learn how exactly all were fitted to mark the passage of time1 it would be equally impossible to convince him that the contriver did not design it for such a purpose4 ,very early childhood gives evidence of the existence of these principles4 ,an interesting instance of this is recorded by a celebrated philosopher1 who1 to test the existence of these principles in the mind of his child1 planted a bed with seeds arranged in the form of the letters which spelled the child's name4 ,when the green symbols had sprung from the ground and were discovered by the delighted child1 the father in vain endeavored to force his belief that the letters came without a cause and without a design4 8,no1 father4 ,somebody planted them2 somebody intended to have them come up and spell my name60 ,and thus infancy itself maintains the principles which are our guide to the ,great ,source of all finite existences4 ,another principle of common sense lends us still further aid in arriving at the natural attributes of the ,creator4 ,it is this3 ,things are and will continue according to our past experience till there is evidence of a change4 ,all the business of life rests on a belief of this truth4 ,our confidence that the sun will rise1 the seasons return1 the ocean and rivers flow1 the mountains remain2 and in thousands of other things that regulate our plans and conduct1 all depends on this implanted belief that things will continue according to our past experience till there is evidence of a change4 ,a man who acted as if he disbelieved this principle would be regarded as having 8lost his reason40 ,when1 therefore1 we have gained the idea that the ,creator is an intelligent mind1 we necessarily believe that his mind is such as we have ever known in past experience1 that is1 a mind like our own1 endowed with reason1 intellect1 susceptibilities and will4 ,we can not conceive of any other kind of mind1 because we have never had any experience or knowledge of any other kind4 ,the only respect in which we can conceive of the ,creator as differing from our own minds is in the extent of those natural faculties which are exhibited in his works4 ,thus by the use of the principles of common sense we have gained the positions that there is a ,being who is the ,author of all finite existences1 whose mind is like our own in natural faculties1 while in the extent of these faculties1 as exhibited in his works1 he is far beyond our conceptions4 ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,,the ,,people',s ,,mental ,,philosophy4 ,in the preceding chapter we have applied the principles of common sense to gain evidence of the existence of a ,creator1 or ,great ,first ,cause1 whose natural attributes we can discover only by the nature of our own minds4 ,this being so1 our next step in seeking after ,god is to examine the construction or nature of our own minds4 ,the only way to discover the nature of a thing is to examine what are its qualities1 how it acts1 and how it is acted upon4 ,this also is the same as studying the philosophy of things4 ,for when learned men set forth any branch of philosophy1 they only teach the qualities of certain things1 how they act1 and how they are acted upon4 ,whoever1 therefore1 gives attention to the nature of mind so as to discover its qualities1 how it acts1 and how it is acted upon1 is studying the philosophy of mind1 or mental philosophy4 ,the nature of mind1 the philosophy of mind1 and mental philosophy are terms all expressing the same thing4 ,now1 the only possible way in which any person can discover the nature of another mind is by a knowledge of his own4 ,we first learn by experience the qualities of our own mind1 how it acts and how it is acted upon1 and then1 by a process of reasoning1 we learn that there are other minds around us1 and that they have similar qualities4 ,the study of mental philosophy1 then1 is directing attention to the nature of our own mind1 and thus discovering the nature of other minds4 ,it differs from all other studies in this respect1 that all men have the materials of the knowledge sought in their own minds1 and are required simply to direct attention to their own mental states and acts4 ,this being so1 the common people are as fully qualified to settle all questions in regard to the nature or philosophy of their own minds as the most learned and profound metaphysicians or theologians can be4 ,all that is requisite to success is1 that they direct their attention to the subject by suitable methods4 ,it will be found1 on examination1 that the common people have secured a written system of mental philosophy as real as has ever yet been furnished by any metaphysician or theologian1 while it is free from the great defects which render many works on mental science unpractical and repulsive4 ,this--the people's system of mental philosophy--it will be the object of what follows to set forth4 ,in attempting it1 we shall find that mankind1 in the uses of everyday life1 have arranged the various acts and states of mind into classes and subdivisions1 and have given names to these classes1 and to the specific acts or states included in these classes4 ,these classifications and terms are recorded by lexicographers in their dictionaries4 ,all words have that meaning which is attached to them by the people who use them4 ,the business of the lexicographer is1 not to settle what meaning ought to belong to words1 but rather to state the meaning which men actually attach to them in writing and speaking4 ,in setting forth the people's system of natural philosophy as contained in lexicographies1 we find that almost every word is used to express several meanings1 similar in some respects and diverse in others4 ,in consequence of this1 we only can attempt thus much for mental science1 as for many other subjects1 viz41 to describe the thing intended1 and then to select the word most frequently used to express this idea1 as set forth in our dictionaries4 ,this1 then1 is the course pursued in the following pages4 ,a description is set forth of a given act or state of mind1 sufficient to identify it from all others1 and then the word is selected from dictionaries of our language which has most frequently been used by the common people in expressing the idea intended4 ,thus every person who cares enough about the matter to read and think1 can decide as well as the most celebrated metaphysician1 whether the description given is true to his own experience1 and also whether1 according to lexicographers1 the word selected is frequently used by man to express this idea4 ,the writer1 in her first attempts to investigate the philosophy of mind1 examined the works of ,stewart1 ,reid1 ,locke1 ,edwards1 ,brown1 ,coleridge1 ,cousin1 ,jouffroy1 ,coombe1 ,spurtzheim and several others4 ,more recently some attention has been given to the writings of ,sir ,william ,hamilton1 ,hickok and others4 ,the result has been the conviction1 that most of these works contain the people's system1 more or less disguised with diverse modes of classification and new technics1 which tend to render the whole subject misty and perplexing4 ,and still more unfortunately1 some of them attempt the discussion of questions which are unpractical and often unintelligible4 ,as an example1 certain metaphysicians have attempted to prove that there is nothing existing but mind1 and that all which we believe to be realities without ourselves are not so1 but merely ideas in the mind4 ,other metaphysicians have attempted to meet their arguments1 and to prove that the world around us is a reality4 ,both attempts have ended in books which seem to have no sort of practical influence either way4 ,men can not help believing that there is an outer world1 and that the men and things that affect our senses are realities1 and such arguments neither lessen nor increase this belief4 ,meantime1 the books written to prove or disprove this truth are incomprehensible to most common minds1 at least the writer of this work has in vain essayed to understand them1 or to find any person who could communicate any clear ideas of their contents4 ,,chapter ,,xii4 ,,the ,,nature ,,of ,,mind1 ,,or ,,its ,,powers ,,and ,,faculties4 ,we have seen1 in the preceding chapters1 that our only mode of gaining a knowledge of the natural attributes of ,god1 is by the study of the nature of mind4 ,we have seen also that the only way to discover the nature of mind is to examine what are its qualities1 and how it acts and is acted upon in our own experience4 ,when we discover what our minds actually do1 we find out what they have power to do4 ,the faculties of mind are its powers of acting as they are exhibited in our own experience4 ,the following presents a brief outline of the powers and faculties of mind as they have been classified and named by the people4 ,ideas is the word most frequently used to include all the operations and states of mind4 ,our ideas are often referred to as divided into two classes1 viz41 ideas gained by the senses1 and ideas that pass through the mind without the aid of the senses4 ,intellectual ,powers4 ,the power to gain ideas by the five senses is called sensation or perception4 ,the power to have ideas without the use of the senses is called conception4 ,per is the ,latin word for by1 and con is the word for without4 ,so we have perceptions by the senses1 and conceptions without the senses4 ,imagination or fancy1 is the power to make new combinations of our conceptions4 ,memory is the power of recalling past ideas1 and of recognizing them as having existed before4 ,judgment is the power of comparing ideas1 and noticing their relations to each other4 ,abstraction is the power of noticing certain parts or certain qualities of things1 while other parts or qualities are unnoticed4 ,association is the power of recalling past ideas according to certain modes1 called laws of association4 ,the above powers are usually classed together1 and called the intellectual powers1 or the intellect4 ,the ,susceptibilities1 or ,feelings4 ,the powers of feeling various kinds of pleasure and pain1 happiness and misery1 enjoyment and discomfort1 are called the susceptibilities1 the emotions and the feelings4 ,when any thing is found to be the cause of pleasurable feelings1 there follows a desire to secure it1 and it is called good4 ,when any thing causes pain1 a desire follows to avoid it1 and it is called evil4 ,these desires to secure good and avoid evil are called motives 7or movers71 because they move the mind to action in order to secure the good desired or to escape the evil feared4 ,the objects that cause such desires are also called motives4 ,for example1 gold is called the motive that led a man to murder1 and the desire of gold is also called the motive of that act47#d7 ,desires are measured as strong or weak by our own consciousness4 ,when we desire two incompatible things and must choose one or the other1 before the act of choice we are conscious that one creates a desire which is stronger than the other4 ,the only mode of deciding which desire is strongest1 is by our own consciousness4 ,the ,will4 ,the power of choosing1 or willing1 is called the will4 ,it is also called the power of volition4 ,when several desires coexist1 some of which must necessarily be denied in order to gratify others1 we ordinarily choose that object which excites the strongest desire1 as measured by our consciousness4 ,but it is often the case that we feel the strongest desire for that which is not best for us4 ,thus1 when sick we have tempting fruit and nauseous medicine before us1 with power to choose either4 ,our intellect decides that the medicine is best for us1 but our strongest desire is for the fruit4 ,in such a case we have power to choose either that which excites the strongest desire or that which the intellect decides to be best1 even when it does not excite the strongest desire4 ,this power is the chief feature of a rational mind in distinction from an irrational mind4 ,and the belief that we have this power is to be placed as one of the principles of common sense1 because all men talk and act as if they believe they possess this power4 ,and if any person were to talk and act as if he did not believe that he had power to choose in either of these two ways1 he would be regarded as having lost his reason4 ,reason1 or ,common ,sense4 ,of the thoughts which continually pass through the mind1 we find that some are attended with a feeling of the real existence of the objects of our thoughts1 and others are not so attended4 ,for example1 we may think of a man with a certain form carrying a dagger and going to commit murder1 and with this1 a feeling that no such thing is really existing4 ,again1 we may have this same idea attended with the conviction that it is a reality4 ,this feeling of the reality of the objects of our thoughts is called belief1 or faith4 ,our minds are so made1 that we necessarily believe not only that things are really existing at the present time1 but that things will occur that are not now in existence4 ,for example1 we believe the sun will rise tomorrow morning in another place nearer toward the north or south than it did the present morning4 ,we believe the tide will rise higher or lower on a coming day than it did the present day4 ,and thus multitudes of events are believed to be in the future4 ,those things which really do or will exist1 in distinction from those we may think of but which do not and will not exist1 are called truths1 or realities4 ,all our comfort and happiness depend on our believing the truth1 meaning by truth the reality of things4 ,to believe that things exist when they do not1 or that things are not existing when they are1 involves certain pain1 disappointment and mistake4 ,our great safeguard from this is that part of our mental organization called reason1 or common sense4 ,this1 as has been shown1 consists in the necessary belief of certain truths by all men4 ,the test by which these truths are identified and distinguished from all other knowledge1 is the fact that usually all men talk and act as if they believed them1 and that when they fail to do so1 they are regarded as having 8lost their reason40 ,the truths thus necessarily believed are the foundation of the process called reasoning1 which is a mode of establishing other truths by the aid of those already believed4 ,these principles of reason or common sense are often called by other names1 such as intuitions1 intuitive truths1 first principles1 etc4 ,thus all the powers of mind are arranged in the four general classes1 viz41 the intellect1 the susceptibilities1 the will1 and reason or common sense4 ,in regard to the power of mind called reason1 what is claimed here is1 not that either the common people or metaphysicians have usually thus clearly set forth what is here so described and named2 but that all men1 learned and unlearned1 allow that there are truths which are necessarily believed by all mankind2 that these are the foundation of all reasoning1 and that they often are called reason4 ,so when any one is found to lack a belief in certain of these intuitive truths1 he is said to have 8lost his reason40 ,and when any act or assertion is seen to contradict any of these truths1 it is said to be 8contrary to reason40 ,therefore it is proper to put the belief in these implanted truths as a distinct power of the mind1 and to call it 8the reason40 ,and as the belief of these truths is common to all men1 it is also proper to call it common sense4 ,,chapter ,,xiii4 ,,nature ,,of ,,mind4--,,regulation ,,of ,,the ,,thoughts4 ,a system of natural religion includes not only the existence and natural attributes of the ,creator1 but his moral character and the duties owed to ,him1 to our fellowbeings and to ourselves4 ,to discover these by the principles of common sense1 unaided by revelation1 we must again turn to our own minds as our only directory4 ,this demands a more enlarged consideration of many of the specific powers and operations of mind1 as developed by experience and observation4 ,mode of regulating our thoughts4 ,the mode by which the succession of our thoughts is regulated is intimately connected with several subjects to be discussed1 and will1 therefore1 first receive attention4 ,it will be found that our sensations and perceptions vary in vividness and distinctness according to the strength and permanency of certain feelings of desire which coexist with them4 ,for example1 we are continually hearing a multitude of sounds1 but in respect to many of them1 as we feel no desire to know the cause or nature of them1 these sensations are so feeble and indistinct as scarcely ever to be recalled to the mind or recognized by any act of memory2 but should we hear some strange wailing sound1 immediately the desire would arise to ascertain its nature and cause4 ,it would immediately become an object of distinct and vivid perception1 and continue so as long as the desire lasted4 ,while one sensation becomes thus clear and prominent1 it will be found that other sensations which were coexisting with it will become feebler and seem to die away4 ,the same impressions may still be made upon the eye as before1 the same sounds that had previously been regarded may still strike upon the ear1 but while the desire to learn the cause of that strange wailing sound continues1 the other sensations will all be faint and indistinct4 ,when this desire is gratified1 then other sensations resume their former distinctness and prominency4 ,our conceptions1 in like manner1 are affected by the coexistence of emotion or desire4 ,if1 for example1 we are employing ourselves in study or mental speculations1 the vividness of our conceptions will vary in exact proportion to the interest we feel in securing the object about which our conceptions are employed4 ,if we feel but little interest in the subject of our speculations1 every conception connected with them will be undefined and indistinct2 but if the desire of approbation1 or the admonitions of conscience1 or the hope of securing some future good stimulate desire1 immediately our conceptions grow more vivid and clear1 and the object at which we aim is more readily and speedily secured4 ,the mind is continually under the influence of some desire4 ,it constantly has some plan to accomplish1 some cause to search out1 or some gratification to secure4 ,the present wish or desire of the mind imparts an interest to whatever conception seems calculated to forward this object4 ,thus1 if the mathematician has a problem to solve1 and this is the leading desire of the mind1 among the various conceptions that arise1 those are the most interesting which are fitted to his object1 and such immediately become vivid and distinct4 ,if the painter or the poet is laboring to effect some new creation of his art1 and has this as the leading object of desire1 whatever conceptions seem best fitted to his purpose are immediately invested with interest1 and become distinct and clear4 ,if the merchant1 or the capitalist1 or the statesman has some project which he is toiling to accomplish1 whatever conceptions appear adapted to his purpose soon are glowing and defined1 in consequence of the interest with which desire thus invests them4 ,from this it appears that the chief end1 or leading object of desire of the mind1 will in a great measure determine the nature and the succession of its conceptions4 ,if a man has chosen to find his chief happiness in securing power and honor1 then those conceptions will be the most interesting to his mind that best fall in with his object4 ,if he has chosen to find happiness in securing the various gratifications of sense1 then those conceptions that most coincide with this desire will become prominent4 ,if a man has chosen to find his chief enjoyment in doing the will of ,god1 then his conceptions will1 to a great extent1 be conformed to this object of desire4 ,the current of a man's thoughts1 therefore1 becomes the surest mode of determining what is the governing purpose or leading desire of the mind4 ,but there are seasons in our mental history when the mind does not seem to be under the influence of any governing desire2 when it seems to relax1 and its thoughts appear to flow on without any regulating principle4 ,at such times the vividness of leading conceptions1 which otherwise is determined by desire1 seems to depend upon our past experience4 ,those objects which1 in past experience1 have been associated with emotion1 are those which thus begin to glow in the distinct lineaments with which emotion at first invested them4 ,in past experience1 all conceptions which were attended with emotion were most distinct and clear1 and therefore1 when such conceptions return united with others1 they are the ones which are most interesting1 and thus most vivid and distinct4 ,thus1 in our musing hours of idle reverie1 as one picture after another glides before the mind1 if some object occurs1 such as the home of our youth1 or the friend of our early days1 the emotions which have been so often united with these objects in past experience cause them to appear in clear and glowing lineaments1 and the stronger have been the past emotions connected with them1 the more clearly will they be defined4 ,it appears1 then1 that there are two circumstances that account for the apparent selection which the mind makes in its objects of conception4 ,the first is the feeling that certain conceptions are fitted to accomplish the leading desire of the mind2 and the second is1 that certain objects in past experience have been attended with emotion4 ,but there is another phenomenon in our mental history which has a direct bearing on the nature and succession of our conceptions4 ,when any conception1 through the influence of desire or emotion1 becomes the prominent object1 immediately other objects with which this has been associated in past experience begin to return and gather around it in new combinations4 ,thus a new picture is presented before the mind1 from which it again selects an object according as desire or emotion regulates1 which1 under this influence1 grows vivid and distinct4 ,around this new object immediately begin to cluster its past associates1 till still another scene is fresh arrayed before the mind4 ,in these new combinations1 those objects which are least interesting continually disappear1 while those most interesting are retained to form a part of the succeeding picture4 ,thus1 in every mental picture1 desire or emotion seems to call forth objects which start out1 as it were1 in bold relief from all others1 and call from the shade of obscurity the companions of their former existence1 which gather around them in new and varied combinations4 ,thus it is shown that the chief mode by which we regulate the nature and succession of our thoughts is by the choices we make of our objects of pursuit4 ,whatever we choose as our chief end1 or leading object of desire1 becomes the regulator of our emotions1 our desires and our thoughts4 ,thus we have power to control our thoughts aright only by choosing right objects of pursuit4 ,we have power to regulate them in this way1 and but very little power to control them in any other4 ,the mere determination to think only on certain subjects in which we feel very little interest avails but for a short time4 ,speedily the mind returns to its natural course1 and brings forward only those objects connected with our chief objects of desire and pursuit4 ,,chapter ,,xiv4 ,,nature ,,of ,,mind4--,,the ,,moral ,,sense1 ,,or ,,moral ,,susceptibilities4 ,those susceptibilities of pleasure and pain which are affected by the conduct of ourselves or others1 in reference to rules of right and wrong1 are called the moral sense1 or the moral susceptibilities4 ,in order to a more clear view of this part of the subject1 it is important to inquire as to the manner in which the ideas of right and wrong seem to originate4 ,the young child first notices that certain actions of its own are regarded with smiles and tones of love and approval1 while other acts occasion frowns and tones of displeasure4 ,next1 it perceives that whatever gives pleasure to itself is called good and right1 while whatever causes unpleasant feelings is called bad and wrong4 ,moreover1 it notices that there is a right and wrong way to hold its spoon1 to use its playthings1 to put on its clothes1 and to do multitudes of other things4 ,it thus perceives1 more and more1 that there are rules to regulate the use and action of all things1 both animate and inanimate1 and that such rules always have reference to some plan or design4 ,as its faculties develop and its observation enlarges1 the general impression is secured that all plans and contrivances of men are designed to promote enjoyment or to prevent discomfort1 and are called good and right just so far as this is done4 ,at the same time1 all that tend to discomfort or pain are called bad and wrong4 ,in all the works of nature around1 too1 every thing that promotes enjoyment is called good and right1 and the opposite is called evil and wrong4 ,at last there is a resulting feeling that the great design of all things is to secure good and prevent evil1 and that whatever is opposed to this is wrong1 and unfitted to the object for which all things exist4 ,the question whether this impression is owing solely to observation or partly to mental constitution is waived1 as of little practical consequence4 ,in the experience of infancy and childhood1 the law of sacrifice is speedily developed4 ,it is perceived that much of the good to be gained1 if sought to excess1 occasions pain1 so that there must be a certain amount of selfdenial practiced1 which1 to the young novice1 sometimes involves disappointment and discomfort4 ,it is also seen that frequently two or more enjoyments are offered which are incompatible1 so that one must be relinquished to gain the other4 ,it is perceived1 also1 that there is a constant calculation going on as to which will be the best--that is1 which will secure the most good with the least evil4 ,and the child is constantly instructed that it must avoid excess1 and must give up what is of less value to secure the greater good4 ,all this training involves sacrifices which are more or less painful1 so that a young child will sometimes cry as it voluntarily gives up one kind of pleasure as the only mode of securing what is best4 ,it is perceived1 also1 that there is a constant balancing of good and evil1 so that a given amount of enjoyment cancels or repays for a certain amount of evil4 ,when a great amount of enjoyment is purchased by a small degree of labor or trouble1 the compound result is deemed a good1 and called right2 on the contrary1 when the evil involved exceeds a given amount in comparison to the good1 the compound result is called evil and wrong4 ,thus is generated the impression that there is a law of sacrifice instituted requiring the greatest possible good with the least possible evil1 and that this is the great design of all things4 ,the impression is1 not merely that we are to seek enjoyment and avoid pain1 but that we are to seek the greatest possible good with the least possible evil1 and that in doing this we are to obey the law of sacrifice1 by which the greatest good is to be bought by a certain amount of evil voluntarily assumed4 ,moreover1 the child is thus gradually trained to understand that good and evil are to be regarded in two relations4 ,any thing and every thing is called good when it in any way gives enjoyment to any being4 ,but if the good can be secured only by sacrificing a greater good or by inflicting a greater evil1 then1 in this relation1 the good is called evil and wrong4 ,thus1 in one relation eating a delicious fruit is a good1 because it gives enjoyment4 ,but if such is the state of a child's stomach1 that sickness and suffering will follow the act1 then it is evil and wrong4 ,the early training of infancy introduces the first part of the great law of sacrifice in regard to self alone4 ,but as the intellect develops1 the existence of other minds is learned1 and their happiness or suffering become subjects of attention4 ,here the calculations of the balance of good and evil become more and more complicated4 ,and the two relations also become more definite and extensive4 ,whatever gives pleasure is always called good and right1 until some evil is discovered as connected with it1 not alone or chiefly to self1 but to others also4 ,then the compound result is sought for1 and if it is seen that1 on the whole1 what by itself would be good and right if dissevered from its connected evil1 does involve more evil than good1 then it is called evil and wrong4 ,but if the balance shows so great an amount of good as pays for certain incidental evils1 then the result is called good and right4 ,the child also very early learns that the character of those around is estimated by their reference to this mode of regarding good and evil1 right and wrong4 ,if a child simply seeks good to itself without any regard to the amount of evil involved as a consequence1 he is called a bad child4 ,on the contrary1 those who make sacrifice of their wishes and plans to avoid what would bring evil on others1 are called good1 generous1 lovely and virtuous4 ,the youngest child soon perceives that its mother and other friends are constantly making sacrifices for its own good1 and bearing inconveniences and trouble for the good of those around4 ,and those who perform such acts of benevolent selfsacrifice are praised1 and their conduct is called good and right4 ,thus arises a conviction or belief that the design or end for which every thing exists is to make the most happiness possible1 and that those who conform to this design are acting right1 while those who do not are acting wrong4 ,eventually there is established this conviction1 also1 that the voluntary sacrifice of selfenjoyment to promote the best good of all1 is the highest kind of right action1 and that those who practice this the most are the best in character4 ,the first feature of our moral sense1 then1 is1 that impression of the great design of all things which enables us to judge of the right and wrong in voluntary action4 ,this also may be placed as one of the principles of common sense4 ,god has so formed our minds and their circumstances1 that the result is a universal belief in every rational mind that whatever secures the most happiness with the least evil is right1 and whatever does not is wrong4 ,the wanton and needless destruction of happiness also men believe to be wrong4 ,their only diversities of opinion are in regard to what will be best and what will not4 ,the second feature of our moral constitution is what is ordinarily called the sense of justice4 ,it is that susceptibility which is excited at the view of the conduct of others as voluntary causes of good or evil4 ,in all cases where free agents act to promote happiness1 an emotion of approval arises1 together with a desire of reward to the author of the good4 ,on the contrary1 when there is a voluntary destruction of happiness1 there is an emotion of disapproval1 and a desire for retributive pain on the author of the wrong4 ,these emotions are instinctive1 and not at all regulated by reason in their inception4 ,when an evil is done1 an instant desire is felt to discover the cause2 and when it is found1 an instant desire is felt to inflict some penalty4 ,so irrational is this impulse1 that children will exhibit anger and deal blows on inanimate objects that cause pain4 ,even mature minds are sometimes conscious of this impulse4 ,that this impulse is an implanted part of our constitution1 and not the result of instruction1 is seen in the delight manifested by young children in the narration of the nursery tale where the cruel uncle who murdered the ,babes in the ,wood receives the retributions of ,heaven4 ,it is the office of the intellect to judge whether the deed was a voluntary one1 whether the agent intended the mischief1 and whether a penalty will be of any use4 ,the impulse to punish is never preceded by any such calculations4 ,another feature in this sense of justice is the proportion demanded between the evil done and the penalty inflicted4 ,that this also is instinctive1 and not the result of instruction1 is seen in the nursery1 where children will approve of slight penalties for slight offenses1 and severe ones for great ones1 but will revolt from any very great disproportion between the wrong act and its penalty4 ,as a general rule1 both in the nursery and in mature minds1 the greater the wrong done1 the stronger the desire for a penalty1 and the more severe the punishment demanded4 ,another very important point of consideration is the universal feeling of mankind that the natural penalties for wrongdoing are not sufficient1 and that it is an act of love as well as of justice to add to these penalties4 ,thus the parent who forbids his child to eat green fruit will not trust to the results of the natural penalty1 but will restrain by the fear of the immediate and more easily conceived penalty of chastisement4 ,so1 in the great family of man1 the natural penalties for theft are not deemed sufficient1 but severe penalties for the protection of property are added4 ,this particular is the foundation of certain distinctions that are of great importance1 which will now be pointed out4 ,we find the terms 8reward and punishment0 used in two different relations4 ,in the first and widest sense they signify not only the penalties of human law1 but those natural consequences which1 by the constitution of nature1 inevitably follow certain courses of conduct4 ,thus an indolent man is said to receive poverty as a punishment1 and it is in this sense that his children are said to be punished for the faults of their father4 ,the violations of natural law are punished without any reference to the question whether the evildoer intended the wrong1 or whether he sinned in ignorance1 or whether this ignorance was involuntary and unavoidable4 ,the question of the justice or injustice of such natural penalties involves the great question of the right and wrong of the system of the universe4 ,is it just and right for the ,creator to make a system in which all free agents shall be thus led to obedience to its laws by penalties as well as rewards1 by fear as well as by hope8 ,this question will not be discussed here4 ,most discussions as to just rewards and penalties ordinarily relate to the added penalties by which parents1 teachers and magistrates enforce obedience to natural or to statute law4 ,in these questions reference is always had to the probable results of such rewards and penalties in securing obedience4 ,if experience has shown that certain penalties do secure obedience to wise and good laws1 either of nature or of human enactment1 then they are considered just4 ,if they do not1 they are counted unwise and unjust4 ,so1 if certain penalties are needlessly severe--that is to say1 if a less penalty will secure equal obedience1 then this also decides so severe a penalty to be unjust4 ,in deciding on the rectitude of the penalties of human enactments1 it is always assumed to be unjust to punish for any lack of knowledge and obedience when the subject had no power to know and to obey4 ,if a choice to obey will not secure the act required of a free agent1 then a penalty inflicted for disobedience is always regarded as unjust4 ,the only seeming exception to this is the case where a person1 by voluntary means1 has deprived himself of ability to obey4 ,but in such cases the punishment is felt to be right1 not because he does not obey when he has no power1 but because he has voluntarily deprived himself of this power4 ,and he is punished for destroying his ability to obey1 and not for violating the law4 ,these things in human laws1 then1 are always demanded to make a penalty appear just to the moral sense of mankind1 namely1 that the subject have power to obey1 and that he has opportunity to know the law1 and is not ignorant by any voluntary and improper neglect4 ,in all questions of justice1 therefore1 it is important to discriminate between those penalties that are inherent as a part of the great system of the universe1 and for which the ,creator alone is responsible1 and those additional penalties which result from voluntary institutions of which men are the authors4 ,the next feature in our moral constitution is the susceptibility which is excited by the intellectual judgment of our own feelings and conduct as either right or wrong4 ,in case we decide them to be right1 we experience an emotion of self approval which is very delightful2 but if we decide that they are wrong1 we experience an immediate penalty in a painful emotion called remorse4 ,this emotion is always proportioned to the amount of evil done1 and the consciousness that it was done knowingly and intentionally4 ,no suffering is more keen than the highest emotions of this kind1 while their pangs are often enduring and unappeasable4 ,sometimes there is an attending desire to inflict retribution on one's self as a mode of alleviating this distress4 ,this susceptibility is usually denominated conscience4 ,sometimes this word is used to include both the intellectual judgment of our conduct as right or wrong1 and the consequent emotions of approval or remorse2 sometimes it refers to the susceptibility alone4 ,either use is correct1 as in the connection in which it is employed the distinction can ordinarily be easily made4 ,this analysis of our moral constitution furnishes means for a clear definition of such terms as obligated1 ought1 ought not1 and the like4 ,a person is obligated or ought to do a thing when he has the intellect to perceive what is best1 and thus right1 and the moral susceptibilities just described4 ,when he is destitute either of the intellect or of these susceptibilities1 he ceases to be a moral and accountable being4 ,he can no longer be made to feel any moral obligations4 ,,chapter ,,xv4 ,,the ,,nature ,,of ,,mind4--,,the ,,will4 ,the power to choose exists in other animals as well as in man1 so that it is not this faculty which distinguishes our race from the brutes4 ,it is another part of our nature which elevates us above the lower animals1 which will now be described4 ,irrational ,free ,agency4 ,we have seen that desires for good are measured as to their strength or feebleness by our own consciousness1 and that in multitudes of cases we choose those things which excite the strongest desire4 ,a mind so constituted as never to be able to choose any thing but that which excites the strongest desire1 would be entirely dependent on circumstances1 and thus the helpless sport of chance4 ,this is the kind of free agency which belongs to the brutes1 and may properly be called irrational free agency4 ,rational ,free ,agency4 ,in contrast with the above1 we have already described the mind of man as possessing the power to choose either that which excites the strongest desire or that which the intellect decides to be best for all concerned4 ,when there is nothing to excite desires1 there is no power at all to choose2 so that motives are as indispensable to the action of the will as physical causes are to the movement of matter4 ,the more strongly desire is excited the more the power of choice is increased4 ,this gives rise to the universal use of language which characterizes motives as stronger or weaker according as desire is more or less powerful4 ,the greater part of our choices are for things which are best1 so that there is no conflict between what excites the strongest desire and what is best for all4 ,thus to eat1 drink1 walk1 sleep and perform most of the daily duties of life1 are cases where the strongest desire and what is best coincide4 ,in all such cases we choose that which excites the strongest desire4 ,and when we assign the cause or reason for our choice1 we say it was the strongest desire which was the cause2 that is to say1 it was the occasional cause of our choice4 ,but our own mind is the only producing cause of its own volitions4 ,this exhibits the grand principle of free agency in distinction from its opposite1 which is called fatalism1 viz43 ,motives are producing causes of desire1 and are occasional causes of choice4 ,mind itself is the only producing cause of choice1 having power to choose either that which excites the strongest desire or that which reason and conscience decide to be best for all concerned4 ,in opposition to this1 the fatalist maintains that every act of choice follows the strongest desire1 so that there is the same invariable antecedence and sequence between the two as there is in material changes between the necessary cause and effect4 ,this being so1 the mind has no power to choose any thing but that which excites the strongest desire4 ,now1 this is a question which every person1 learned or unlearned1 can decide4 ,have we power to choose any other way than as we do choose8 ,here it is claimed that every human being believes that we have this power1 and proves that he believes it by word and action4 ,and if any person were habitually to talk and act as if he believed children and men had no power to choose right when they choose wrong1 he would be regarded as having lost his reason4 ,this1 therefore1 is placed as one of the principles of common sense1 viz41 every rational mind has power to choose either that which excites the strongest desire or that which the intellect decides to be best1 even when it does not excite the strongest desire4 ,moral power is the power to control rational minds by motives4 ,when no desire for any good and no fear of any evil exists1 the mind has no power to choose4 ,excited desires 7or motives7 are as indispensable to choice as physical causes are to any change in matter4 ,the stronger the desire for a thing1 the easier it is to choose it2 and the less desire there is for a given thing1 the harder it is to choose it4 ,this measuring of various degrees of power to choose1 is a matter of consciousness to every mind1 and it is recognized in all languages4 ,and we find that all mankind1 of all languages1 recognize the fact that men have power to choose what is best1 even when it conflicts with the strongest desire2 so much so1 that life itself has been relinquished for the good of others1 when there was little or no expectation of a future life1 or of any consequent good to self4 ,moreover1 it will be shown in a future chapter that our highest idea of virtue implies a conflict between the strongest desire and the conviction of what is right and best on the whole2 so that sometimes men choose what is seen to be wrong and yet excites the strongest desire1 and at other times what is right or best1 when it does not excite the strongest desire4 ,all selfcontrol1 selfdenial and selfgovernment involve the idea of a conflict between the decisions of reason and conscience as to what is best and right1 and the importunities of the strongest desire for what is not so4 ,subordinate and ,general ,purposes4 ,there is a constant succession of selections to be made between different modes of securing happiness4 ,a lesser good is given up for a greater1 or some good relinquished altogether to avoid some consequent pain4 ,often1 also1 some evil is sought as the means of securing some future good1 or of avoiding some greater evil4 ,thus men endure want1 fatigue and famine to purchase wealth4 ,thus the nauseous draught will be swallowed to avoid the pains of sickness2 and thus the pleasures of domestic affection will be sacrificed to obtain honor and fame4 ,the whole course of life is a constant succession of such decisions between different modes of securing happiness and of avoiding pain4 ,in noticing the operation of mind1 it will be seen that there is a foundation for two classes of volitions or acts of choice1 which may be denominated subordinate and general purposes4 ,a subordinate purpose is one that secures some particular act1 such as the moving of the arm or turning of the head4 ,such volitions are ordinarily consequent on some more general purpose of the mind1 which they aid in accomplishing1 and which is1 therefore1 denominated a general or generic purpose4 ,for example1 a man chooses to make a certain journey3 this is the general purpose1 and1 in order to carry it out1 he performs a great variety of acts1 each one of which aids in carrying out the generic decision4 ,it can be seen that the general purposes may themselves become subordinate to a still more comprehensive purpose4 ,thus the man may decide to make a journey1 which is a generic choice in reference to all acts subordinate to this end4 ,but this journey may be a subordinate part of a more general purpose to make a fortune1 or to secure some other important end4 ,it is frequently the case that a generic purpose1 which relates to objects that require a long time and many complicated operations1 exists when the mind seems almost unconscious of its power4 ,for example1 a man may form a generic purpose to enter a profession for which years will be required to prepare4 ,and while his whole course of action is regulated by this decision1 he engages in pursuits entirely foreign to it1 and which seem to engross his whole attention4 ,these pursuits may sometimes be such as are antagonistic to his grand purpose1 so as at least to imperil or retard its accomplishment4 ,and yet this strong and quiet purpose remains1 and is eventually carried out4 ,it is the case1 also1 that a generic choice may be formed to be carried out at some particular time and place1 and then the mind becomes entirely unconscious of it till the appointed period and circumstances occur4 ,then the decision becomes dominant1 and controls all other purposes4 ,thus a man may decide that1 at a specified hour1 he will stop his studies and perform certain gymnastic exercises4 ,this volition is forgotten until the hour arrives1 and then it recurs and is carried out4 ,this phenomenon sometimes occurs in sleep4 ,some persons1 in watching with the sick1 will determine to wake at given hours to administer medicines2 then they will sleep soundly till the appointed time comes1 when they will waken and perform the predetermined actions4 ,in regard to the commencement of a generic purpose1 we find that sometimes it is so distinct and definite as to be the subject of consciousness and memory4 ,for example1 a spendthrift1 in some moment of suffering and despondency1 may form a determination to commence a systematic course of thrift and economy1 and may actually carry it out through all his future life4 ,such cases are often to be found on record or in everyday life4 ,in other cases1 this quiet1 hidden1 but controlling purpose seems to be formed by unconscious and imperceptible influences1 so that the mind can not revert to the specific time or manner when it originated4 ,for example1 a child who is trained from early life to speak the truth1 can never revert to any particular moment when this generic purpose originated4 ,it is sometimes the case1 also1 that a person will contemplate some generic purpose before it occurs1 while the process of its final formation seems almost beyond the power of scrutiny4 ,for example1 a man may be urged to relinquish one employment and engage in another4 ,he reflects1 consults1 and is entirely uncertain how he shall decide4 ,as time passes1 he gradually inclines toward the proposed change1 until1 finally1 he finds his determination fixed1 he scarcely knows when or how4 ,thus it appears that generic purposes commence sometimes so instantaneously and obviously that the time and influences connected with them can be recognized4 ,in other cases1 the decision seems to be a gradual one1 while in some instances the process can be traced1 and in others it is entirely unnoticed or forgotten4 ,it is in reference to such generic purposes that the moral character of men is estimated4 ,an honest man is one who has a fixed purpose to act honestly in all circumstances4 ,a truthful man is one who has such a purpose to speak the truth at all times4 ,in such cases1 the degree in which such a purpose controls all others is the measure of a man's moral character in the estimate of society4 ,the history of mankind shows a great diversity of moral character dependent on such generic choices4 ,some men possess firm and reliable moral principles in certain directions1 while they are very destitute of them in others4 ,thus it will be seen that some have formed a very decided purpose in regard to honesty in business affairs1 who yet are miserable victims to intemperance4 ,others have cultivated a principle called honor1 that restrains them from certain actions regarded as mean1 and yet they may be frequenters of gambling saloons and other haunts of vice4 ,in the religions world1 too1 it is the case that some who are very firm and decided on all points of religious observances and in the cultivation of devotional emotions1 are guilty of very mean actions1 such as some worldly men of honor would not practice at the sacrifice of a right hand4 ,on a ,ruling ,purpose or ,chief ,end4 ,the most important of all the voluntary phenomena is the fact that1 while there can be a multitude of these quiet and hidden generic purposes in the mind1 it is also possible to form one which shall be the dominant or controlling one1 to which all the others1 both generic and specific1 shall become subordinate4 ,in common parlance this would be called the ruling passion4 ,it is also called the ruling purpose1 or controlling principle4 ,this consists in the permanent choice of some one mode of securing happiness as the chief end or grand object of life4 ,there is a great variety of sources of happiness and of suffering to the human mind4 ,now in the history of our race we find that each one of these modes of enjoyment has been selected by different individuals as the chief end of their existence--as the mode of seeking enjoyment to which they sacrifice every other4 ,some persons have chosen the pleasures of eating1 drinking1 and the other grosser enjoyments of sense4 ,others have chosen those more elevated and refined pleasures that come indirectly from the senses in the emotions of taste4 ,others have devoted themselves to intellectual enjoyments as their chief resource for happiness4 ,others have selected the exercise of physical and moral power1 as in the case of conquerors and physical heroes1 or of those who have sought to control by moral power1 as rulers and statesmen4 ,others have made the attainment of the esteem1 admiration1 and love of their fellowcreatures1 their chief end4 ,others1 still1 have devoted themselves to the promotion of happiness around them as their chief interest4 ,others have devoted themselves to the service of ,god1 or what they conceived to be such1 and sometimes by the most miserable life of asceticism and selftorture4 ,others have made it their main object in life to obey the laws of rectitude and virtue4 ,in all these cases1 the moral character of the person1 in the view of all observers1 has been decided by this dominant volition1 and exactly in proportion to the supremacy with which it has actually controlled all other purposes4 ,some minds seem to have no chief end of life4 ,their existence is a succession of small purposes1 each of which has its turn in controlling the life4 ,others have a strong1 defined and allcontrolling principle4 ,now experience shows that both of these classes are capable1 the one of forming and the other of changing such a purpose4 ,for example1 in a time of peace and ease there is little to excite the mind strongly2 but let a crisis come1 where fortune1 reputation1 and life are at stake1 and men and women are obliged to form generic decisions involving all they hold dear1 and many minds that have no controlling purpose immediately originate one1 while those whose former ruling aims were in one direction change them entirely to another4 ,this shows how it is that days of peril create heroes1 statesmen and strong men and women4 ,the hour of danger calls all the energies of the soul into action4 ,great purposes are formed with the strongest desire and emotion4 ,instantly the whole current of thought1 and all the coexisting desires and emotions1 are conformed to these purposes4 ,the experience of mankind proves that a dominant generic purpose may extend to a whole life1 and actually control all other generic and specific volitions4 ,how the ,thoughts1 ,desires and ,emotions are controlled by the ,will4 ,we will now consider some of the modes by which the will controls the thoughts1 desires and emotions4 ,we have seen1 in previous pages1 the influence which desire and emotion exert in making both our perceptions and conceptions more vivid4 ,whatever purpose or aim in life becomes an object of strong desire1 is always distinctly and vividly conceived1 while all less interesting objects are more faint and indistinct4 ,we have also seen that whenever any conception arises it always brings connected objects1 forming a new and complex picture4 ,whenever the mind is under the influence of a controlling purpose1 the object of pursuit is always more interesting than any other4 ,this interest always fastens on those particulars in any mental combination that are connected with the ruling purpose and seem fitted to promote it1 making them more vivid4 ,around these selected objects their past associated ideas begin to cluster1 forming other complex pictures4 ,in all these combinations1 those ideas most consonant with the leading interest of the mind become most vivid1 and the others fade away4 ,the grand method1 then1 for regulating the thoughts is by the generic decisions of the mind as to the modes of seeking enjoyment4 ,in regard to the power of the mind over its own desires and emotions1 it is very clear that these sensibilities can not be regulated by direct specific volitions4 ,let any person try to produce love1 fear1 joy1 hope or gratitude by simply choosing to have them arise1 and it is soon perceived that no such power exists4 ,but there are indirect modes by which the mind can control its susceptibilities4 ,the first method is by directing attention to those objects of thought which are fitted to call forth such emotions4 ,for example1 if we wish to awaken the emotion of fear1 we can place ourselves in circumstances of danger1 or call up ideas of horror and distress4 ,if we wish to call forth emotions of gratitude1 we can direct attention to acts of kindness to ourselves calculated to awaken such feelings4 ,if we wish to excite desire for any object1 we can direct attention to those qualities in that object that are calculated to excite desire4 ,in all these cases the mind can1 by an act of will1 direct its attention to subjects calculated to excite emotion and desire4 ,the other mode of regulating the desires and emotions is by the direction of our generic volitions4 ,for example1 let a man of business1 who has never had any interest in commerce1 decide to invest all his property in foreign trade4 ,as soon as this is done1 the name of the ship that bears his all can never be heard or seen but it excites some emotion4 ,a storm1 that before would go unnoticed1 awakens fear2 the prices in the commercial markets1 before unheeded1 now awaken fear or afford pleasure4 ,and thus multitudes of varied desires and emotions are called into existence by this one generic volition4 ,one result of a purpose to deny an importunate propensity is frequently seen in the immediate or gradual diminution of that desire4 ,for example1 if a person is satisfied that a certain article of food is injurious and resolves on total abstinence1 it will be found that the desire for it is very much reduced1 far more so than when the effort is to diminish the indulgence4 ,when a generic purpose is formed that involves great interests1 it is impossible to prevent the desires and emotions from running consonant with this purpose4 ,the only mode of changing this current is to give up this generic purpose and form another4 ,thus1 if a man has devoted his whole time and energies to moneymaking1 it is impossible for him to prevent his thoughts and feelings from running in that direction4 ,he must give up this as his chief end1 and take a nobler object1 if he would elevate the whole course of his mental action4 ,these are the principal phenomena of the grand mental faculty which is the controlling power of the mind1 and on the regulation of which all its other powers are dependent4 ,the nature of regeneration1 and the question whether it is instantaneous or gradual or both1 all are intimately connected with the subject of this chapter4 ,,chapter ,,xvi4 ,,constitutional ,,varieties ,,of ,,the ,,human ,,mind4 ,in the preceding chapters have been presented the most important mental faculties which are common to the race4 ,there are none of the powers and attributes of the mind as yet set forth which do not belong to every mind which is regarded as rational and complete4 ,but1 though all the race have these in common1 yet we can not but observe an almost endless variety of human character1 resulting from the diverse proportions and combinations of these several faculties4 ,these constitutional differences may be noticed1 first1 in regard to the intellectual powers4 ,some minds are naturally predisposed to exercise the reasoning powers4 ,others1 with precisely the same kind of culture1 have little relish for this1 and little power of appreciating an argument4 ,in other cases1 the imagination seems to be the predominating faculty4 ,in other minds there seems to be an equal balance of faculties1 so that no particular power predominates4 ,next we see the same variety in reference to the susceptibilities4 ,in some minds1 the desire for love and admiration is the predominating principle4 ,in others1 the love of power takes the lead4 ,some are eminently sympathizing4 ,others have a strong love of rectitude1 or natural conscience4 ,in some1 the principle of justice predominates4 ,in others1 benevolence is the leading impulse4 ,finally1 in regard to the power of volition1 as has been before indicated1 there are some that possess a strong will that is decisive and effective in regulating all specific volitions1 while others possess various and humbler measures of this power4 ,according to the science of ,phrenology1 some of these peculiarities of mind are indicated by the size and shape of different portions of the brain1 and externally indicated on the skull4 ,that these differences are constitutional1 and not the result of education1 is clear from the many facts showing that no degree of care or training will serve to efface these distinctive traits of the mind4 ,to a certain degree they may be modified by education1 and the equal balance of the faculties be promoted1 but never to such a degree as to efface very marked peculiarities4 ,in addition to the endless diversities that result from these varied proportions and combinations1 there is a manifest variety in the grades of mind4 ,some races are much lower in the scale of being every way than others1 while the same disparity exists in individuals of the same race4 ,the wisdom and benevolence of this arrangement is very manifest when viewed in reference to the interests of a commonwealth4 ,where some must lead and others follow1 it is well that some have the love of power strong1 and others have it less4 ,where some must be rulers1 to inflict penalties as well as to apportion rewards1 it is well that there be some who have the sense of justice as a leading principle4 ,and so in the developments of intellect4 ,some men are to follow callings where the reasoning powers are most needed4 ,others are to adopt pursuits in which taste and imagination are chiefly required2 and thus the varied proportions of these faculties become serviceable4 ,and if it be true that the exercise of the social and moral faculties secures the highest degree of enjoyment1 those disparities in mental powers which give exercise to the virtues of compassion1 selfdenial1 fortitude and benevolence in serving the weak1 and the corresponding exercises of gratitude1 reverence1 humility and devotion in those who are thus benefited1 then we can see the wisdom and benevolence of this gradation of mental capacity4 ,moreover1 in a commonwealth perfectly organized1 where the happiness of the whole becomes that of each part1 whatever tends to the highest general good tends to the best interest of each individual member4 ,this being so1 the lowest and humblest in the scale of being1 in his appropriate place1 is happier than he could be by any other arrangement1 and happier than he could be if all were equally endowed4 ,this subject is very important1 because some theologians present these disparities of mental organization as indications of the depravity consequent on ,adam's sin4 ,,chapter ,,xvii4 ,,nature ,,of ,,mind4--,,habit4 ,this chapter is introduced because some theologians claim that the depravity of man consists either in a habit or in something like a habit4 ,habit is a facility in performing physical or mental operations1 gained by the repetition of such acts4 ,as examples of this in physical operations may be mentioned the power of walking1 which is acquired only by a multitude of experiments2 the power of speech1 secured by a slow process of repeated acts of imitation2 and the power of writing1 gained in the same way4 ,success in every pursuit of life is attained by oftrepeated attempts1 which finally induce a habit4 ,as examples of the formation of intellectual habits1 may be mentioned the facility gained in acquiring knowledge by means of repeated efforts1 and the accuracy and speed with which the process of reasoning is performed after long practice in this art4 ,as examples of moral habits may be mentioned those which are formed by the oftrepeated exercise of selfgovernment1 justice1 veracity1 obedience1 and industry4 ,the will1 as has been shown1 gains a facility in controlling specific volitions and in yielding obedience to the laws of right action by constant use1 as really as do all the other mental powers4 ,the happiness of man1 in the present state of existence1 depends not so much upon the circumstances in which he is placed1 or the capacities with which he is endowed1 as upon the formation of his habits4 ,a man might have the organ of sight1 and be surrounded with all the beauties of nature1 and yet1 if he did not form the habit of judging of the form1 distance and size of bodies1 most of the pleasure and use from this sense would be wanting4 ,the world and all its beauties would be a mere confused mass of colors4 ,if the habits of walking and of speech were not acquired1 these faculties and the circumstances for employing them would not furnish the enjoyment they were designed to secure4 ,it is also the formation of intellectual habits by mental discipline and study1 which opens vast resources for enjoyment that otherwise would be for ever closed4 ,and it is by practicing obedience to parents that moral habits of subordination are formed1 which are indispensable to our happiness as citizens1 and as subjects of government4 ,there is no enjoyment which can be pointed out1 which is not1 to a greater or less extent1 dependent upon this principle4 ,the influence of habit in regard to the law of sacrifice is especially interesting4 ,the experience of multitudes of our race shows that such tastes and habits may be formed in obeying this law1 that what was once difficult and painful becomes easy and pleasant4 ,but this ability to secure enjoyment through habits of selfcontrol and selfdenial1 induced by long practice1 so far as experience shows1 could never be secured by any other method4 ,that the highest kinds of happiness are to be purchased by more or less voluntary sacrifice and suffering to procure good for others1 seems to be a part of that nature of things which we at least may suppose has existed from eternity4 ,we can conceive of the eternal ,first ,cause only as we imagine a mind on the same pattern as our own in constitutional capacities1 but indefinitely enlarged in extent and action4 ,knowledge1 wisdom1 power1 justice1 benevolence and rectitude1 must be the same in the ,creator as in ourselves1 at least so far as we can conceive2 and1 as the practice of selfsacrifice and suffering for the good of others is our highest conception of virtue1 it is impossible to regard the ,eternal ,mind as allperfect without involving this idea4 ,the formation of the habits depends chiefly upon the leading desire or governing purpose1 because whatever the mind desires the most it will act the most to secure1 and thus by repeated acts will form its habits4 ,the character of every individual1 therefore1 as before indicated1 depends upon the mode of seeking happiness selected by the will4 ,thus the ambitious man has selected the attainment of power and admiration as his leading purpose1 and whatever modes of enjoyment interfere with this are sacrificed4 ,the sensual man seeks his happiness from the various gratifications of sense1 and sacrifices other modes of enjoyment that interfere with this4 ,the man devoted to intellectual pursuits1 and to seeking reputation and influence through this medium1 sacrifices other modes of enjoyment to secure this gratification4 ,the man who has devoted his affections and the service of his life to ,god and the good of his fellowmen1 sacrifices all other enjoyments to secure that which results from the fulfillment of such obligations4 ,thus a person is an ambitious man1 a sensual man1 a man of literary ambition1 or a man of piety and benevolence1 according to the governing purpose or leading choice of his mind4 ,there is one fact in regard to the choice of the leading object of desire1 or the governing purpose of life1 which is very important4 ,certain modes of enjoyment1 in consequence of repetition1 increase the desire1 but lessen the capacity of happiness from this source2 while1 in regard to others1 gratification increases the desire1 and at the same time increases the capacity for enjoyment4 ,the enjoyments through the senses are of the first kind4 ,it will be found1 as a matter of universal experience1 that where this has been chosen as the main purpose of life1 though the desire for such pleasures is continually increased1 yet1 owing to the physical effects of excessive indulgence1 the capacity for enjoyment is decreased4 ,thus the man who so degrades his nature as to make the pleasures of eating and drinking the great pursuit of life1 while his desires never abate1 finds his zest for such enjoyments continually decreasing1 and a perpetual need for new devices to stimulate appetite and awaken the dormant capacities4 ,the pleasures of sense always pall from repetition--grow 8stale1 flat and unprofitable10 though the deluded being who has thus slavishly yielded to such appetites feels himself bound by chains of habit1 which1 even when enjoyment ceases1 seldom are broken4 ,the pleasures derived from the exercise of power1 when its attainment becomes the master passion1 are also of this description4 ,the statesman1 the politician1 the conqueror1 are all seeking for this1 and desire never abates while any thing of the kind remains to be attained4 ,we do not find that enjoyment increases in proportion as power is secured4 ,on the contrary1 it seems to cloy in possession4 ,alexander1 the conqueror of the world1 when he had gained all1 wept that objects of desire were extinct1 and that possession could not satisfy4 ,but there are other sources of happiness for which the desire ever continues1 and possession only increases the capacity for enjoyment4 ,of this class is the susceptibility of happiness from giving and receiving affection4 ,here1 the more there is given and received1 the more is the power of giving and receiving increased4 ,we find that this principle outlives every other1 and even the decays of nature itself4 ,when tottering age on the borders of the grave is just ready to resign its wasted tenement1 often from its dissolving ashes the neverdying spark of affection has burst forth with new and undiminished luster4 ,this is that immortal fountain of happiness always increased by imparting1 never surcharged by receiving4 ,another principle1 which increases both desire and capacity by exercise1 is the power of enjoyment from being the cause of happiness to others4 ,never was an instance known of regret for devotion to the happiness of others4 ,on the contrary1 the more this holy and delightful principle is in exercise1 the more the desires are increased1 and the more are the susceptibilities for enjoyment from this source enlarged4 ,while the votaries of pleasure are wearing down with the exhaustion of abused nature1 and the votaries of ambition are sighing over its thorny wreath1 the benevolent spirit is exulting in the success of its plans of good1 and reaching forth to still purer and more perfect bliss4 ,this principle is especially true in regard to the practice of rectitude4 ,the more the leading aim of the mind is devoted to right feeling and action1 or to obedience to all the laws of ,god1 the more both the desire and the capacity of enjoyment from this source are increased4 ,but there is another fact in regard to habit1 which has an immense bearing on the wellbeing of our race4 ,when a habit of seeking happiness in some one particular mode is once formed1 the change of this habit becomes difficult just in proportion to the degree of repetition which has been practiced4 ,a habit once formed1 it is no longer an easy matter to choose between the mode of securing happiness chosen and another which the mind may be led to regard as much superior4 ,thus1 in gratifying the appetite1 a man may feel that his happiness is continually diminishing1 and that1 by sacrificing this passion1 he may secure much greater enjoyment from another source2 yet the force of habit is such1 that decisions of the will perpetually yield to its power4 ,thus1 also1 if a man has found his chief enjoyment in that admiration and applause of men so ardently desired1 even after it has ceased to charm1 and seems like emptiness and vanity1 still1 when nobler objects of pursuit are offered1 the chains of habit bind him to his wonted path4 ,though he looks and longs for the one that his conscience and his intellect assure him is brightest and best1 the conflict with bad habit ends in fatal defeat and ruin4 ,it is true that every habit can be corrected and changed1 but nothing requires greater firmness of purpose and energy of will2 for it is not one resolution of mind that can conquer habit3 it must be a constant series of longcontinued efforts4 ,the influence of habit in reference to emotions deserves special attention as having a direct influence upon character and happiness4 ,all pleasurable emotions of mind1 being grateful1 are indulged and cherished1 and are not weakened by repetition unless they become excessive4 ,if the pleasures of sense are indulged beyond a certain extent1 the bodily system is exhausted1 and satiety is the consequence4 ,if the love of power and admiration is indulged to excess1 so as to become the leading purpose of life1 they are found to be cloying4 ,but1 within certain limits1 all pleasurable emotions do not seem to lessen in power by repetition4 ,but in regard to painful emotions the reverse is true4 ,the mind instinctively resists or flies from them1 so that often a habit of suppressing such emotions is formed1 until the susceptibility diminishes1 and sometimes appears almost entirely destroyed4 ,thus a person often exposed to danger ceases to be troubled by fear1 because he forms a habit of suppressing it4 ,a person frequently in scenes of distress and suffering learns to suppress the emotions of painful sympathy4 ,the surgeon is an example of the last case1 where1 by repeated operations1 he has learned to suppress emotions until they seldom recur4 ,a person inured to guilt gradually deadens the pangs of remorse1 until the conscience becomes 8seared as with a hot iron40 ,thus1 also1 with the emotion of shame4 ,after a person has been repeatedly exposed to contempt1 and feels that he is universally despised1 he grows callous to any such emotions4 ,the mode by which the mind succeeds in forming such a habit seems to be by that implanted principle which makes ideas that are most in consonance with the leading desire of the mind become vivid and distinct1 while those that are less interesting fade away4 ,now no person desires to witness pain except from the hope of relieving it1 unless it be that1 in anger1 the mind is sometimes gratified with the infliction of suffering4 ,but1 in ordinary cases1 the sight of suffering is avoided except where relief can be administered4 ,in such cases1 the desire of administering relief becomes the leading one1 so that the mind is turned off from the view of the suffering to dwell on conceptions of modes of relief4 ,thus the surgeon and physician gradually form such habits that the sight of pain and suffering lead the mind to the conception of modes of relief1 whereas a mind not thus interested dwells on the more painful ideas4 ,the habits of life are all formed either from the desire to secure happiness or to avoid pain1 and the fear of suffering is found to be a much more powerful principle than the desire of happiness4 ,the soul flies from pain with all its energies1 even when it will be inert at the sight of promised joy4 ,as an illustration of this1 let a person be fully convinced that the gift of two new senses would confer as great an additional amount of enjoyment as is now secured by the eye and ear1 and the promise of this future good would not stimulate with half the energy that would be caused by the threat of instant and entire blindness and deafness4 ,if1 then1 the mind is stimulated to form good habits and to avoid the formation of evil ones most powerfully by painful emotions1 when their legitimate object is not effected they continually decrease in vividness1 and the designed benefit is lost4 ,if a man is placed in circumstances of danger1 and fear leads to habits of caution and carefulness1 the object of exciting this emotion is accomplished1 and the diminution of it is attended with no evil4 ,but if fear is continually excited1 and no such habits are formed1 then the susceptibility is lessened1 while the good to be secured by it is lost4 ,so1 also1 with emotions of sympathy4 ,if we witness pain and suffering1 and it induces habits of active devotion to the good of those who suffer1 the diminution of the susceptibility is a blessing and no evil4 ,but if we simply indulge emotions1 and do not form the habits they were intended to secure1 the power of sympathy is weakened1 and the designed benefit is lost4 ,thus1 again1 with shame3 if this painful emotion does not lead us to form habits of honor and rectitude1 it is continually weakened by repetition1 and the object for which it was bestowed is not secured4 ,and so with remorse3 if this emotion is awakened without leading to habits of benevolence and virtue1 it constantly decays in power1 and the good it would have secured is for ever lost4 ,it does not appear1 however1 that the power of emotion in the soul is thus destroyed4 ,this is evident from the fact that the most hardened culprits1 when brought to the hour of death1 where all plans of future good cease to charm the mental eye1 are often overwhelmed with the most vivid emotions of sorrow1 shame1 remorse and fear4 ,and often1 in the course of life1 there are seasons when the soul returns from its pursuit of deluding visions to commune with itself in its own secret chambers4 ,at such seasons1 shame1 remorse and fear take up their abode in their long deserted dwelling1 and ply their scorpion whips till they are obeyed1 and the course of honor and virtue is resumed1 or till the distracted spirit again flies abroad for comfort and relief4 ,there is a great diversity in human character1 resulting from the diverse proportions and combinations of those powers of mind which the race have in common4 ,at the same time1 there is a variety in the scale of being1 or relative grade of each mind4 ,while all are alike in the common faculties of the human mind1 some have every faculty on a much larger scale than others1 while some are of a very humble grade4 ,the principle of habit has very great influence in modifying and changing these varieties4 ,thus1 by forming habits of intellectual exercise1 a mind of naturally humble proportions can be elevated considerably above one more highly endowed by natural constitution4 ,so the training of some particular intellectual faculty1 which by nature is deficient1 can bring it up nearer to the level of other powers less disciplined by exercise4 ,in like manner1 the natural susceptibilities can be increased1 diminished or modified by habit4 ,certain tastes1 that had little power1 can be so cultivated as to overtop all others4 ,so of the moral nature3 it can be so exercised that a habit will be formed which will generate a strength and prominency that nature did not impart4 ,one of the most important results of habit is its influence on faith or belief4 ,those persons who practice methods of false reasoning1 who turn away from evidence and follow their feelings in forming opinions1 eventually lose the power of sure1 confiding belief4 ,on the contrary1 an honest1 conscientious steadiness in seeking the truth and in yielding to evidence1 secures the firmest and most reliable convictions1 and that peace of mind which alone results from believing the truth4 ,the will itself is also subject to this same principle4 ,a strong will1 that is trained to yield obedience to law in early life1 acquires an ease and facility in doing it which belongs ordinarily to weak minds1 and yet can retain all its vigor4 ,and a mind that is trained to bring subordinate volitions into strict and ready obedience to a generic purpose1 acquires an ease and facility in doing this which was not a natural endowment4 ,thus it appears that by the principle of habit every mind is furnished with the power of elevating itself in the scale of being1 and of so modifying and perfecting the proportions and combinations of its constitutional powers1 that often the result is that there is no mode of distinguishing between the effects of habit and those of natural organization4 ,,chapter ,,xviii4 ,,the ,,nature ,,of ,,mind ,,our ,,guide ,,to ,,the ,,natural ,,attributes ,,of ,,god4 ,the natural attributes of any mind are the powers and faculties to be exercised1 while it is the action or voluntary use of these faculties that exhibits the moral attributes4 ,having gained the existence of a ,great ,first ,cause by the use of one principle of common sense1 and the fact that this cause is an intelligent mind by another1 it has been shown that a third of these principles leads to the belief that the natural attributes of ,god are like our own4 ,we can not conceive of any other kind of minds than our own1 because we have never had any past experience or knowledge of any other4 ,but while we thus conclude that the mind of the ,creator is1 so far as we can conceive1 precisely like our own in constitutional organization1 we are as necessarily led to perceive that the extent of these powers is far beyond our own4 ,a mind with the power1 wisdom and goodness exhibited in the very small portion of his works submitted to our inspection1 who has inhabited eternity1 and matured through everlasting ages--our minds are lost in attempting any conception of the extent of such infinite faculties6 ,thus we are necessarily led to conceive of the ,creator as possessing the intellectual powers described in previous pages4 ,he perceives1 conceives1 imagines1 judges and remembers just as we do4 ,so also all our varied susceptibilities to pleasure and pain exist in the ,eternal ,mind4 ,the desire of good and the fear of evil which are the motive power in the human mind1 exist also in the divine4 ,thus by the light of nature we settle the question that the existence of susceptibilities to pain and evil are not the results of the ,creator's will1 but are a part of the eternal nature of things which he did not originate or control4 ,all the minds we ever knew or heard of are moved to action by desire to gain happiness and escape pain1 and as we can conceive of no other kind of mind than our own1 we must attribute to the ,creator this foundation element of mental activity4 ,thus we are led to attribute to the ,creator all those susceptibilities included in the moral sense1 as described in previous pages4 ,his mind1 like ours1 feels that whatever makes the most happiness with the least evil is right2 that is to say1 it is fitted to the eternal nature of things1 of which his own mind is a part4 ,so also the ,creator possesses that sense of justice implanted in our own minds1 which involves the desire of good to those who make happiness1 and of evil to those who destroy happiness2 and which also demands that such retributions be proportioned to the good and evil done1 and to the power of the agent4 ,so also we must conceive of the ,creator as possessing the susceptibility of conscience1 which includes in the very constitution of mind retributions for right and wrong action4 ,again1 we are led to conceive of ,god as a rational free agent1 with power to choose either that which excites the strongest desire or that which is perceived to be best on the whole for all concerned1 even if it does not excite the strongest desire4 ,again1 we are to conceive of the ,creator as possessing a belief in those principles of reason which he has implanted in our minds1 and made our guide in all matters1 both of temporal and religious concern4 ,again1 our experience of the nature and history of mind1 leads to the inference that no being has existed from all eternity in solitude1 but that there is more than one eternal1 uncreated mind1 and that all their powers of enjoyment from giving and receiving happiness in social relations have been in exercise from eternal ages4 ,this is the just and natural deduction of reason and experience1 as truly as the deduction that there is at least one eternal ,first ,cause4 ,again1 all our experience of mind involves the idea of the mutual relation of minds4 ,we perceive that minds are made to match to other minds1 so that there can be no complete action of mind1 according to its manifest design1 except in relation to other beings4 ,a mind can not love till there is another mind to call forth such emotion4 ,a mind can not bring a tithe of its power into appropriate action except in a community of minds4 ,the conception of a solitary being1 with all the social powers and sympathies of the human mind infinitely enlarged1 and yet without any sympathizing mind to match and meet them1 involves the highest idea of unfitness and imperfection conceivable1 while it is contrary to our uniform experience of the nature and history of mind4 ,it has been argued that the unity of design in the works of nature proves that there is but one creating mind4 ,this is not so1 for in all our experience of the creations of finite beings no great design was ever formed without a combination of minds1 both to plan and to execute4 ,the majority of minds in all ages1 both heathen and ,christian1 have always conceived of the ,creator as in some way existing so as to involve the ideas of plurality and of the love and communion of one mind with another4 ,and yet the unity and harmony of all created things as parts of one and the same design1 teach a degree of unity in the authorship of the universe never known in the complex action of finite minds4 ,thus a unity and plurality in the ,creator of all things is educed by reason and experience from the works of nature4 ,,chapter ,,xix4 ,,the ,,nature ,,of ,,mind ,,our ,,guide ,,to ,,the ,,moral ,,attributes ,,of ,,god4 ,having employed the principles of common sense to gain a knowledge of the natural attributes of ,god1 we are next to employ the same principles to gain his moral character2 or those attributes which are exhibited in willing4 ,in other words1 we are to seek the character of ,god as expressed in his works or deeds4 ,in our experience of the moral character of minds in this world1 we find that some of the highest grades as to intellect and susceptibilities1 are lowest as to goodwilling4 ,how is it1 then1 with the highest mind of all8 ,does he so prefer evil to good1 that he deliberately plans for the production of evil when he has power to produce happiness in its place8 ,or does he sometimes prefer evil and sometimes good1 with the variable humors of the human race8 ,or does he always prefer good when it costs him no trouble or sacrifice1 but never when it does8 ,or is he one who invariably chooses what is best for all1 even when it involves painful sacrifices to himself8 ,in seeking a reply to these momentous questions1 we return once more to the principle of common sense before stated1 i4e41 the nature of any work or contrivance is proof of the character and design of the author4 ,in examining the works of the ,creator1 we find that the material world impresses us as wisely adjusted and good in construction1 only as it is fitted to give enjoyment to sentient beings4 ,it is the intelligent1 feeling1 acting minds that give the value to every other existence4 ,if there were no minds1 all perception of beauty1 fitness and goodness would perish4 ,it is minds1 therefore1 which are the chief works of the ,creator's hand1 and which give value to all others4 ,if the nature of these minds is evil1 then the author of them is proved to be evil by his works4 ,if their nature is good and perfect1 then their author is proved to be good and perfect4 ,here again we are driven back to our own minds to gain the only conceptions possible to us1 not only of wisdom1 but of goodness or benevolence4 ,on examination1 we shall find that we can form no idea of these qualities which does not involve a limitation of power4 ,our idea of power is that which we gain when we will to move our bodies or to make any other change1 and this change ensues4 ,our only idea of a want of power is gained when the choice or willing of a change or event does not produce it4 ,whenever1 therefore1 it shall appear that the ,creator wills or wishes a thing to exist or to be changed1 and that change or existence does not follow his so willing1 we can not help believing that he has not the power to produce it8 ,again2 our idea of perfectness always has reference to power2 for a thing is regarded as perfect in construction only when there is no power in ,god or man to make it better4 ,when any arrangement is as good as it can be1 so that neither ,god nor man has power to make it better1 we regard it as perfect1 even when there is some degree of evil involved4 ,we are now prepared to define what is included in the terms perfect wisdom and perfect benevolence1 when applied to the ,creator or to any other being1 thus3 ,a perfectly wise being is one who invariably wills the best possible ends and the best possible means of accomplishing those ends4 ,an imperfectly wise being is one who does not invariably do this4 ,a perfectly benevolent being is one who invariably wills the most good and the least evil in his power4 ,an imperfectly benevolent being is one who does not invariably will thus4 ,the degree in which a being is ranked as wise and good is estimated by the extent to which his willing good or evil corresponds with his power4 ,thus it appears that1 in a system where evil exists1 the very idea of perfect benevolence and wisdom involves the supposition of a limitation of power4 ,to return1 then1 to the question as proposed at the commencement of the chapter--,is the ,creator a being who prefers good to evil invariably1 or is he one who only sometimes prefers evil to good1 and at other times prefers good to evil1 with the varying humors of man2 or does he invariably choose what is best for all1 even in cases where it may cost personal sacrifice and suffering to himself8 ,it will be the object of what follows to prove that the last supposition is the true one4 ,in attempting this1 we again take the principle of common sense1 that 8the nature of any contrivance proves the design and character of the author40 ,then we proceed to a review of the nature1 first of mind1 and next of the material world1 to prove that the design or chief end of the ,creator is1 not to make happiness irrespective of the amount1 but to produce the greatest possible happiness with the least possible evil4 ,in other words1 we are to seek for proof that ,god has done all things for the best1 so that he has no power to do better4 ,in still another form1 we are to seek for evidence1 in the nature of ,god's works1 that he has ever done the best he could1 so that the amount of evil that ever was or ever will exist1 is not caused by his willing it1 but by his want of power to prevent it2 so that any change would be an increase of evil and a lessening of good to the universe as a whole4 ,in pursuing this attempt1 it will be needful to reproduce two or three chapters of a work by the author1 already before the public1 entitled1 ,the ,bible and the ,people2 or1 ,common ,sense applied to ,religion4 ,in this work the nature of mind is presented very much more in detail1 for the same purpose as that here indicated4 ,what will now follow is a brief review of previous chapters in that work1 as a summary of the evidence there presented that the chief end of ,god in all his works is to produce the greatest possible happiness with the least possible evil4 ,whenever we find any contrivances all combining to secure a certain good result1 which1 at the same time1 involve some degree of inevitable evil1 and then discover that there are contrivances to diminish and avoid this evil1 we properly infer that the author intended to secure as much of the good with as little of the evil as possible4 ,for example1 a traveler finds a deserted mine1 and all around he discovers contrivances for obtaining gold1 and1 at the same time1 other contrivances for getting rid of the earth mixed with it4 ,the inevitable inference would be that the author of these contrivances designed to secure as much gold with as little earth as possible2 and should any one say that he could have had more gold and less earth if he chose to1 the answer would be that there is no evidence of this assertion1 but direct evidence against it4 ,again3 should we discover a piece of machinery in which every contrivance tended to secure a speed in movement1 produced by the friction of wheels against a rough surface1 and at the same time other contrivances were found for diminishing all friction that was useless1 we should infer that the author designed to secure the greatest possible speed with the least possible friction4 ,in like manner1 if we can show that mind is a contrivance that acts by the influence of fear of evil1 and that pain seems as indispensable to the action of a free agent as friction is to motion2 if we can show that there is no contrivance in mind or matter which is designed to secure suffering as its primary end2 if we can1 on the contrary1 show that the direct end of all the organizations of mind and matter is to produce happiness2 if we can show that it is only the wrong action of mind that involves most of the pain yet known1 so that right action1 in its place1 would secure only happiness2 if we can show contrivances for diminishing pain1 and also contrivances for increasing happiness by means of the inevitable pain involved in the system of things1 then the just conclusion will be gained that the ,author of the system of mind and matter designed 8to produce the greatest possible happiness with the least possible evil40 ,in the pages which follow1 we shall present evidence exhibiting all these particulars4 ,the only way in which we learn the nature of a thing is to observe its qualities and actions4 ,this is true of mind as much as it is of matter4 ,experience and observation teach that the nature of mind is such1 that the fear of suffering is indispensable to secure a large portion of the enjoyment within reach of its faculties1 and that the highest modes of enjoyment can not be secured except by sacrifice1 and thus by more or less suffering4 ,this appears to be an inevitable combination1 as much so as friction is inevitable in machinery4 ,we have the evidence of our own consciousness that it is fear of evil to ourselves or to others that is the strongest motive power to the mind4 ,if we should find that no pain resulted from burning up our own bodies1 or from drowning1 or from any other cause2 if every one perceived that no care1 trouble1 or pain resulted from losing all kinds of enjoyment1 the effort to seek it would be greatly diminished4 ,if we could desire good enough to exert ourselves to seek it1 and yet should feel no discomfort in failing2 if we could lose every thing1 and feel no sense of pain or care1 the stimulus to action which experience has shown to be most powerful and beneficent would be lost4 ,we find that abundance of ease and prosperity enervates mental power1 and that mind increases in all that is grand and noble1 and also in the most elevating happiness1 by means of danger1 care and pain4 ,we may properly infer1 then1 that evil is a necessary part of the experience of a perfectlyacting mind4 ,so strong is the conviction that painful penalties are indispensable1 that the kindest parents and the most benevolent rulers are the most sure to increase rather than diminish those that are already involved in the existing nature of things4 ,again3 without a revelation we have no knowledge of any kind of mind but by inference from our experience in this state of being4 ,all we know of the ,eternal ,first ,cause is by a process of reasoning1 inferring that his nature must be like the only minds of which we have any knowledge4 ,we assume1 then1 that he is a free agent1 regulated by desire for happiness and fear of evil4 ,we thus come to the conclusion that this organization of mind is a part of the fixed and eternal nature of things1 and does not result from the will of the ,creator4 ,his own is the eternal pattern of an allperfect mind1 and our own are formed on this perfect model1 with susceptibilities to pain as an indispensable motive power in gaining happiness4 ,we will now recapitulate some of the particulars in the laws and constitution of mind which tend to establish the position that its ,creator's grand design is 8to produce the greatest possible happiness with the least possible evil40 ,intellectual ,powers4 ,first1 then1 in reference to the earliest exercise of mind in sensation4 ,the eye might have been so made that light would inflict pain1 and the ear so that sound would cause only discomfort4 ,and so of all the other senses4 ,but the condition of a wellformed1 healthy infant is a most striking illustration of the adaptation of the senses to receive enjoyment4 ,who could gaze on the countenance of such a little one1 as its various senses are called into exercise without such a conviction8 ,the delight manifested as the light attracts the eye1 or as pleasant sounds charm the ear1 or as the limpid nourishment gratifies its taste1 or as gentle motion and soft fondlings soothe the nerves of touch1 all testify to the benevolent design of its ,maker4 ,next come the pleasures of perception as the infant gradually observes the qualities of the various objects around1 and slowly learns to distinguish its mother and its playthings from the confused mass of forms and colors4 ,then comes the gentle curiosity as it watches the movement of its own limbs1 and finally discovers that its own volitions move its tiny fingers1 while the grand idea that it is itself a cause is gradually introduced4 ,next come the varied intellectual pleasures as the several powers are exercised in connection with the animate and material world around1 in acquiring the meaning of words1 and in imitating the sounds and use of language4 ,the adult1 in toiling over the dry lexicon1 little realizes the pleasure with which the little one is daily acquiring the philosophy1 grammar1 and vocabulary of its mother tongue4 ,a child who can not understand a single complete sentence1 or speak an intelligible phrase1 will sit and listen with longcontinued delight to the simple enunciation of words1 each one of which presents a picture to his mind of a dog1 a cat1 a cow1 a horse1 a whip1 a ride1 and many other objects and scenes that have given pleasure in the past2 while the single words1 without any sentences1 bring back1 not only vivid conceptions of these objects1 but a part of the enjoyment with which they have been connected4 ,then1 as years pass by1 the intellect more and more administers pleasure1 while the reasoning powers are developed1 the taste cultivated1 the imagination exercised1 the judgment employed1 and the memory stored with treasures for future enjoyment4 ,in the proper and temperate use of the intellectual powers1 there is a constant experience of placid satisfaction1 or of agreeable and often of delightful emotions1 while no one of these faculties is productive of pain1 except in violating the laws of the mental constitution4 ,the ,susceptibilities4 ,in regard to the second general class of mental powers--the susceptibilities--the first particular to be noticed is the ceaseless and allpervading desire to gain happiness and escape pain4 ,this is the mainspring of all voluntary activity2 for no act of volition will take place till some good is presented to gain1 or some evil to shun4 ,at the same time1 as has been shown1 the desire to escape evil is more potent and effective than the desire for good4 ,thousands of minds that rest in passive listlessness1 when there is nothing to stimulate but hope of enjoyment1 will exert every physical and mental power to escape impending evil4 ,the seasons of longcontinued prosperity in nations always tend to a deterioration of intellect and manhood4 ,it is in seasons of danger alone that fear wakes up the highest energies1 and draws forth the heroes of the race4 ,mind1 then1 is an existence having the power of that selforiginating action of choice which constitutes free agency1 while this power can only be exercised when desires are excited to gain happiness or to escape pain4 ,this surely is the highest possible evidence that its ,author intended mind should thus act4 ,but a mind may act to secure happiness and avoid pain to itself1 and yet may gain only very low grades of enjoyment1 while much higher are within reach of its faculties4 ,so1 also1 it may act to gain happiness for itself as the chief end in such ways as to prevent or destroy the higher happiness of others around4 ,in reference to this1 we find those susceptibilities which raise man to the dignity of a rational and moral being4 ,in the first place1 there is that impression of the great design of the ,creator existing in every mind1 either as a result of constitution or of training1 or of both united1 which results in a feeling that whatever lessens or destroys happiness is unfit and contrary to the system of things4 ,next there is the power to balance pleasure and pain1 and estimate the compound result1 both in reference to self and to the commonwealth4 ,with this is combined the feeling that whatever secures the most good with the least evil is right and fit1 and that the opposite is wrong and unfitted to the nature of things4 ,next comes the sense of justice1 which results in an impulse to discover the cause of good and evil1 and when this cause is found to be a voluntary agent1 a consequent impulse to make returns of good for good1 and of evil for evil1 and also to proportion retributive rewards or penalties to the amount of good or evil done4 ,with this1 also1 is combined the feeling that those retributions should be applied only where there was voluntary power to have done otherwise4 ,when it is seen that there was no such power1 the impulse to reward or punish is repressed4 ,such is the deep conviction that such retributions are indispensable1 that where natural pains and penalties do not avail1 others are demanded1 both in the family and in the commonwealth4 ,lastly1 we find the susceptibility of conscience1 which1 by the very framework of the mind itself1 apportions the retributive pangs of remorse for wrong doing1 and the pleasure of selfapproval for well doing4 ,these1 too1 are retributions never to be escaped1 and the most exquisite1 both in elevated happiness and excruciating pain4 ,the mind carries about in itself its own certain and gracious remunerator--its own inexorable prosecutor1 judge1 and executioner4 ,this same design of the ,creator may be most delightfully traced in what may be called the economy of happiness and pain4 ,one particular of this is set forth at large in the chapter on the emotions of taste47#e7 ,here we find the mind formed not only to secure multitudinous enjoyment through the nerves of sensation1 but that1 by the principle of association1 there is a perpetual reproduction of these emotions in connection with the colors1 forms1 sounds1 and motions with which they were originally associated4 ,thus there are perpetually returning emotions of pleasure so recondite1 so refined1 so infinite in variety and extent1 and yet how little noticed or understood6 ,another indication of the same kind is the peculiarity pointed out on former pages1 where it is shown that securing certain enjoyments which tend to promote the general happiness increases both desire and capacity for enjoyment1 while those that terminate in the individual diminish by possession4 ,thus the enjoyment of power1 which must1 from its nature1 be confined to a few1 diminishes by possession4 ,thus1 too1 the pleasures of sense pall by indulgence4 ,but the enjoyment resulting from the exercise and reciprocation of love1 and that resulting from benevolent actions1 and that which is included in a course of perfect obedience to all the rules of rectitude1 increases the capacity for enjoyment4 ,another illustration of the same principle is exhibited in the chapter on ,habit1 where it is seen that the power of pleasurable emotions increases by repetition1 while painful emotions decrease when the good to be secured by their agency is attained4 ,thus fear serves to protect from danger till caution and habit reader it needless1 and then it decreases4 ,and so of other painful emotions4 ,it is interesting to trace the same design in the constitution of minds in regard to each other4 ,we find that the purest and highest kind of happiness is dependent on the mutual relations of minds4 ,thus the enjoyment resulting from the discovery of intellectual and moral traits in other minds--that resulting from giving and receiving affection--that gained by sympathy1 and by being the cause of happiness to others1 and that resulting from conscious rectitude1 all are dependent on the existence of other beings4 ,now we find that minds are relatively so constituted that what one desires1 it is a source of happiness in another to bestow4 ,thus one can be pleased by the discovery of certain traits in other minds1 while1 in return1 the exhibition of these traits1 and the consciousness that they are appreciated1 is an equal source of enjoyment4 ,one mind seeks the love of others1 while these1 in return1 are desiring objects of affection1 and rejoice to confer the gift that is sought4 ,the desire of knowledge or the gratification of curiosity is another source of pleasure1 while satisfying this desire is a cause of enjoyment to those around4 ,how readily do mankind seize upon every opportunity to convey interesting news to other minds6 ,again3 we find that1 both in sorrow and in joy1 the mind seeks for the sympathy of others1 while this grateful and soothing boon it is delightful to bestow4 ,so1 also1 the consciousness of being the cause of good to another sends joy to the heart1 while the recipient is filled with the pleasing glow of gratitude in receiving the benefit4 ,the consciousness of virtue in acting for the general good1 instead of for contracted1 selfish purposes1 is another source of happiness1 while those who witness its delightful results rejoice to behold and acknowledge it4 ,what bursts of rapturous applause have followed the exhibition of virtuous selfsacrifice for the good of others from bosoms who rejoiced in this display1 and who could owe this pleasure to no other cause than the natural constitution of mind1 which is formed to be made happy both in beholding and in exercising virtue4 ,this same beneficial economy is manifested in a close analysis of all that is included in the affections of love and gratitude4 ,it has been shown that1 in the commencement of existence1 the young mind first learns the sources of good and evil to self1 and its sole motives are desire for its own enjoyment4 ,soon1 however1 it begins to experience the happiness resulting from the relations of minds to each other1 and then is developed the superior power of love1 and its importance as a regulating principle4 ,in the analysis of this affection1 it is seen to consist1 first1 in the pleasurable emotions which arise in view of certain traits of character in another mind4 ,when these qualities are discovered1 the first result is emotions of pleasure in the contemplation4 ,immediately there follows a desire of good to the cause of this pleasure4 ,next follows the desire of reciprocated affection--that is1 a desire is awakened to become the cause of the same pleasure to another2 for the desire of being loved is the desire to be the cause of pleasurable emotions in another mind1 in view of our own good qualities4 ,when we secure this desired appreciation1 then follows an increased desire of good to the one who bestows it4 ,thus the affection of love is a combination of the action and reaction of pleasurable emotions1 all tending to awaken the desire of good to another4 ,this passion may become so intensified that it will become more delightful to secure enjoyments to another than to procure them for self4 ,in what is thus far presented1 we find that the desire of good to another results solely from the fact that certain mental qualities are causes of pleasure to self4 ,of course1 this desire ceases when those qualities cease to exist or cease to be appreciated4 ,this kind of love is the natural result of the constitution of minds in their relations to each other1 making it easy and pleasant to live for the good of another in return for the pleasure received from their agreeable qualities and manifestations4 ,but the highest element of love consists in the desire and purpose of good to another without reference to any good received in return4 ,it is good willing4 ,the desire of good to others exists as a natural impulse more or less powerful in differently constituted minds4 ,it is the cause of that pleasure which is felt in the consciousness of being the cause of good to another4 ,but this natural impulse can be so developed and increased by voluntary culture as to become the strongest impulse of the mind1 and thus the source of the highest and most satisfying enjoyments4 ,in many minds this becomes so strongly developed that securing happiness to others is sought with far more earnestness and pleasure than any modes of enjoyment that terminate solely in self4 ,this analysis lays the foundation for the distinction expressed by the terms impulsive benevolence and voluntary benevolence1 or the love of complacency and the love of benevolence4 ,the first is the involuntary result of good conferred on self2 the last is a voluntary act4 ,it is good willing toward others without reference to self4 ,the first can only exist where certain qualities are perceived and appreciated in another mind4 ,the second can result from voluntary effort1 and become the subject of law and penalties4 ,we can never be justly required to love another mind with the love of complacency except when qualities are perceived that1 by the constitution of mind1 necessarily call forth such regard4 ,but the love of benevolence can be justly demanded from every mind toward every being capable of happiness4 ,here it is important to discriminate more exactly in regard to the principle of benevolence and the principle of rectitude4 ,it is seen that the benevolence which is the subject of rewards and penalties as a voluntary act consists in good willing--that is1 in choosing the happiness of other minds as well as our own as the object of interest and pursuit4 ,but the principle of rectitude is more comprehensive in its nature4 ,it relates to obedience to all the laws of the system of the universe--those relating to ourselves as much as those relating to others4 ,it is true that1 as obedience to these laws includes the greatest possible amount of good with the least possible evil1 both to the individual and the commonwealth1 the tendency of the two principles is to the same result4 ,but benevolence may be exercised without any regard to the rules of right and wrong4 ,instead of striving to make the most possible happiness with the least possible evil1 as our ,maker's great design demands1 a course may be taken that makes some happiness to some minds at the expense of vast suffering and wrong to others4 ,no mind acts right1 even in willing happiness to others1 when it is done in disregard of those laws which demand that we should make happiness the right way1 that is1 the way which is best for all4 ,in the physical and mental constitution of man there is not a single arrangement the direct object of which is to produce suffering4 ,the susceptibilities to pain seem designed to protect and preserve1 while the greater the need the more strong is this protection4 ,for example1 in regard to physical organization1 fire is an element that is indispensable to the life1 comfort1 and activity of man1 and it must be accessible at all times and places4 ,but all its service arises from its power to dissolve and destroy the body itself1 as well as all things around it4 ,therefore the pain connected with contact with fire is more acute than almost any other4 ,thus even the youngest child is taught the care and caution needful to protect its body from injury or destruction4 ,another fact in regard to the susceptibilities of pain is their frequent coexistence with the highest degrees of enjoyment4 ,the experiences of this life often present cases where the most elevated and ecstatic happiness is combined with the keenest suffering1 while such is the nature of the case that the suffering is the chief cause of the happiness thus secured4 ,the highest illustration of this is in the suffering of saints and martyrs1 when they 8rejoice to be counted worthy to suffer shame10 or when1 amid torturing flames1 they sing songs of transport and praise4 ,even in common life it is constantly found that a certain relative amount of happiness is felt to be more than a recompense for a given amount of pain4 ,this relative amount may be such that the evil involved1 though great1 may count as nothing4 ,where there is a passionate attachment1 for example1 the lover exults in the labor and suffering that will joyfully be received as a proof of affection and will secure the compensating return4 ,it is a very common fact that painful emotions are sought1 not for themselves1 but as ministers to a kind of mental excitement which is desired4 ,this is the foundation of the pleasure which is felt in tragic representations1 and in poetry and novels that present scenes of distress4 ,the little child will again and again ask for the tale of the ,babes in the ,wood1 though each rehearsal brings forth tears2 and the mature matron or sage will spend hours over tales that harrow the feelings and call forth sighs4 ,this also is the foundation of that kind of music called the minor key1 in which certain sounds bring emotions of sadness or sorrow4 ,another striking fact in regard to the desire for pain is the emotions that are felt by the most noble and benevolent minds at the sight of cruelty and injustice4 ,at such scenes1 the desire for inflicting pain on the guilty offender amounts to a passion which nothing can allay but retributive justice4 ,and the more benevolent the mind1 the stronger this desire for retributive evil to another4 ,thus it appears that the mind is so made as to desire pain both for itself and for others2 not in itself considered1 but as the indispensable means to gain some consequent enjoyment4 ,the highest kinds of happiness result from painful emergencies4 ,the transports of love1 gratitude1 and delight1 when some benefactor rescues suffering thousands from danger and evil1 could exist in no other way4 ,all the long train of virtues included in patient toil for the good of others1 in heroic daring1 in brave adventure1 in fortitude1 in patience1 in resignation1 in heavenly meekness1 in noble magnanimity1 in sublime self sacrifice1 all involve the idea of trial1 danger1 and suffering4 ,it is only the highest and noblest class of minds that can fully understand that the most blissful of all enjoyments are those which are bought with pain4 ,but the most cheering feature in the constitution of mind is all that is included in the principle of habit4 ,we see in the commencement of existence that every action of mind and body is imperfect1 and more or less difficult1 while each effort to secure right action increases the facility of so doing4 ,we see that1 owing to this principle1 every act of obedience to law makes such a course easier4 ,the intellect1 the susceptibilities1 the will1 all come under this benign influence4 ,habit may so diminish the difficulty of selfdenial for our own good that the pain entirely ceases2 and selfsacrifice for the good of others may so develop benevolence and generate a habit that it will become pleasure without pain4 ,there are those even in this world1 who have so attained this capacity of living in the life of those around them1 that the happiness of others becomes their own1 so that there is even less pain in selfdenial for the good of others than for that of self4 ,when this habit of mind is attained by all1 the happiness of the commonwealth will become the portion of each individual1 and thus be multiplied to an inconceivable extent4 ,,chapter ,,xx4 ,,additional ,,proof ,,of ,,the ,,moral ,,attributes ,,of ,,god4 ,we have presented the 8nature0 of mind as the chief evidence of the grand design of its ,creator in forming all things1 and thus also presented the proof of his perfect wisdom1 benevolence1 and rectitude4 ,we now will trace the evidences of the same beneficent design in the nature of all social and material organizations4 ,first1 then1 in regard to the domestic relations4 ,we have seen that while all happiness depends on obedience to laws1 every mind comes into existence in perfect ignorance of them1 and without any power to learn what is good or evil but by experience and instruction4 ,the intention of the ,creator that each newborn being should be taught these laws and trained to obey them1 is clearly seen in the first and highest domestic relation4 ,in this we see two mature minds1 who have themselves been trained to understand these laws1 drawn by sweet and gentle influences to each other4 ,they go apart from all past ties of kindred2 they have one home1 one name1 one common interest in every thing4 ,the one who has most physical strength goes forth to provide supplies2 the delicate one remains behind1 by domestic ministries to render home the centre of all attractions4 ,then comes the beautiful1 helpless infant1 of no use to any one1 and demanding constant care1 labor1 and attention4 ,and yet1 with its profound ignorance1 its tender weakness1 its delicate beauty1 its utter helplessness1 its entire dependence1 how does it draw forth the strongest feelings of love and tenderness1 making every toil and care a delight6 ,and thus1 month after month1 both parents unite to cherish and support1 while1 with unceasing vigilance1 they train the newborn mind to understand and obey the laws of the system into which it is thus ushered4 ,its first lessons are to learn to take care of its own body4 ,and when the faroff penalty of pain can not be comprehended by the novice1 the parent invents new penalties to secure habits of care and obedience4 ,during all this period the great lesson of sacrifice constantly occurs4 ,the child must eat what is best1 not what it desires4 ,it must go to bed when it wants to sit up4 ,it must stay in the house when it wants to go out4 ,it must not touch multitudes of things which it wishes thus to investigate4 ,and so the habits of selfdenial1 obedience1 and faith in the parents are gradually secured1 while the knowledge of the laws of the system around are slowly learned4 ,but the higher part of the law of sacrifice soon begins to make its demands4 ,the child first learns of this law by example1 in that of the mother1 that most perfect illustration of selfsacrificing love4 ,then comes a second child1 when the firstborn must practice on this example4 ,it must give up its place in the mother's bosom to another2 it must share its sweets and toys with the newcomer2 it must join in efforts to protect1 amuse1 and instruct the helpless one4 ,and thus the family is the constant school for training ignorant1 inexperienced mind in the laws of the system of which it is a part1 especially in the great law of self control1 for the best good of self1 and of selfsacrifice for the best good of others4 ,next comes the discipline of the school and the neighborhood1 when the child is placed among his peers to be taught new rules of justice1 benevolence1 and selfsacrifice for the general good4 ,next come the relations of the body politic1 for which labors are demanded and pain is to be endured according to the grand law of sacrifice1 by which the individual is to subordinate his own interests and wishes to the greater general good1 so that the interests of the majority shall always control those of the minority4 ,lastly1 the whole world is to be taken into the estimate1 and the nations are to be counted as members of one great family of man1 for which every portion is to make sacrifices for the greater general good4 ,thus1 as age1 and experience1 and habits of obedience to the laws of rectitude increase1 the duties and obligations grow more numerous and complicated4 ,but the same grand principle is more and more developed1 that each individual is to seek the greatest possible happiness with the least possible evil1 for the vast whole as well as for each subordinate part1 while self is to receive only its just and proper share4 ,the same great design of the ,creator can be detected also in specific organizations1 by which minds so differ from each other as to fit them for the diverse positions and relations that the common good demands4 ,if all were exactly alike in the amount of constitutional powers and in the proportionate combinations1 it can easily be seen that the general result would be far less favorable to the happiness of the whole4 ,but as it is1 some have the love of power very large1 and seek to lead and control2 others have it small1 and prefer to follow4 ,some have elevated intellect1 and love to teach2 others have humbler capacities1 and prefer humbler pursuits4 ,these varied combinations also give scope to the virtues of pity1 tenderness1 patience1 mercy1 justice1 selfdenial1 and many other graces that could not be called into being without all the disparities1 social1 domestic1 intellectual1 and moral1 that we find existing4 ,meantime the principle of habit and the power of the will give abundant opportunities for modifying these natural peculiarities to accommodate to varying circumstances4 ,to these indications of benevolent design may be added the 8nature0 of the bodily system1 and the 8nature0 of the material world without4 ,in examining the body we inhabit1 so nicely adjusted1 so perfectly adapted to our necessities1 so beautifully and harmoniously arranged1 so 8fearfully and wonderfully made10 it is almost beyond the power of numbers to express the multiplied contrivances for ease1 comfort1 and delight4 ,we daily pursue our business and our pleasure1 thoughtless of the thousand operations which are going on1 and the busy mechanism employed in securing the objects we desire4 ,the warm current that is flowing from the centre to the extremities1 with its lifegiving energies1 and then returning to be purified and again sent forth2 the myriads of branching nerves that are the sensitive discerners of good or ill2 the unnumbered muscles and tendons that are contracting and expanding in all parts of our frame2 the nicelyadjusted joints1 and bands1 and ligaments1 that sustain1 and direct1 and support2 the perpetual expansion and contraction of the vital organ2 the thousand hidden contrivances and operations of the animal frame1 all are quietly and constantly performing their generous functions1 and administering comfort and enjoyment to the conscious spirit that dwells within4 ,nor is the outer world less busy in performing its part in promoting the great design of the ,creator4 ,the light of suns and stars is traversing the ethereal expanse in search of those for whom it was created2 for them it gilds the scenes of earth1 and is reflected in ten thousand forms of beauty and of skill4 ,the trembling air is waiting to minister its aid1 fanning with cool breezes1 or yielding the warmth of spring1 sustaining the functions of life1 and bearing on its light wing the thoughts that go forth from mind to mind1 and the breathings of affection that are given and returned4 ,for this design earth is sending forth her exuberance1 the waters are emptying their stores1 and the clouds pouring forth their treasures4 ,all nature is busy with its offerings of fruits and flowers1 its wandering incense1 its garnished beauty1 and its varied songs4 ,within and without1 above1 beneath1 and around1 the same ,almighty ,beneficence is found still ministering to the wants and promoting the happiness of the minds he has formed for ever to desire and pursue this boon4 ,we are now prepared to meet the questions proposed1 7i4e47 is the ,creator a being who1 with the varying humors of man1 sometimes prefers evil to good1 and sometimes prefers good to evil1 or does he invariably choose what is best for all1 even in cases where it may involve personal sacrifices and suffering to himself8 ,in attempting to answer this question1 we have set forth the evidence to be found in the works of the ,creator which establishes the position that his chief end or ruling purpose is to produce the greatest possible happiness with the least possible evil4 ,the question then reads1 does the ,creator destroy happiness and cause needless pain1 and thus thwart his own chief desire and great end2 the end for which he made all things8 ,the very statement of the question is its most forcible answer4 ,we have seen that we are obliged to conceive of ,god as possessing such a social and moral nature as our own4 ,this would lead him to desire the veneration1 confidence1 love1 and gratitude of the children he has created4 ,but he has formed their minds to hate selfishness and to admire and reverence selfsacrificing benevolence4 ,will the ,creator then oppose his own chief end and grand design by conduct which would make all his creatures necessarily1 by the nature he implanted1 withhold their respect and love1 and feel only dislike and contempt8 ,the very question involves its own answer4 ,add to this1 that all those causes which our experience and observation have shown to lead to wrong choices are necessarily excluded from our conceptions of the ,creator4 ,the ,eternal ,mind can not err for want of knowledge1 nor for want of habits of right action1 nor for want of teachers and educators1 nor for want of those social influences which generate and sustain a right governing purpose2 for an infinite mind1 that never had a beginning1 can not have these modes of experience which appertain to newborn and finite creatures4 ,again3 ,such is the eternal system of the universe1 as we learn it by the light of reason1 that the highest possible happiness to each individual mind and to the whole commonwealth is promoted by the right action of every mind in that system4 ,this1 of necessity1 is seen and felt by the ,allcreating and ,eternal ,mind1 and to suppose that1 with this knowledge1 he would ever choose wrong1 is to suppose that he would choose pure evil4 ,it is to suppose the ,creator would do what he has formed our minds to believe to be impossible in any rational mind4 ,it is to suppose that the ,creator would do that which1 if done by human beings1 marks them as insane4 ,,chapter ,,xxi4 ,,nature ,,of ,,mind ,,as ,,perfect ,,in ,,construction4 ,the first article in every system of religion is1 who is the ,god who controls our destinies1 and what is his character8 ,in attempting to answer this question by the light of nature1 independently of revelation1 we have gained these positions4 ,there is an ,intelligent ,mind who created all things1 whose natural attributes are the same as ours in kind1 but vast beyond our comprehension in extent4 ,in moral character1 or that which is exhibited in choice or action1 he is perfect in wisdom1 benevolence1 and rectitude2 that is to say1 he is a being whose chief end or ruling purpose is to do the best he can to make the most possible happiness with the least possible evil4 ,this being discovered as the grand design for which all human minds are created1 we are thus enabled to decide as to what is the right and perfect construction or 8nature0 of mind1 and also as to its right and perfect action4 ,in regard to the perfect construction of mind1 we must again refer to the fact that in a system of things where both natural and moral evil exist1 we are obliged to suppose a limitation of power by the nature of things1 so that a system is perfect1 not as excluding all evil2 for as evil does exist1 a system without any evil is impossible4 ,all that remains1 then1 to constitute the idea of perfection1 7as used in reference to things as they are7 is this1 that whatever is created by ,god1 is the best possible in the nature of things4 ,the question then must be this1 is the mind of man1 as a race1 the best in construction1 that is possible in the nature of things8 ,is our mind made as good as it can be1 so that no change is possible that would make it better8 ,in replying to this question1 we must regard the matter in two relations4 ,we have noticed1 in the chapter on the ,constitutional ,varieties of the ,human ,mind1 that while there are powers and attributes of mind which are common to all1 there is an endless variety of character resulting from the diverse proportions and combinations of these several faculties1 and also that there are diverse grades of mind1 each having these diverse combinations4 ,some races of men are much lower in the scale of being1 every way1 than other races1 while the same disparity exists among individuals of the same race4 ,now when we compare individuals with each other1 or when we compare races in these respects1 we regard them as more or less perfect in organization with reference to the highest grade or species known to us4 ,in this relation some minds are to be regarded as imperfect and defective in organization4 ,and in reference to any one individual or race in this relation1 we feel that the organization could be improved4 ,but when we regard each mind as a part of a vast system1 in which the highest good of the whole will prove the highest possible good of each individual part1 we are to judge of perfection in the organization of mind in another relation4 ,if it is for the greatest happiness of the whole that there should be grades and ranks in mental powers2 if disparities and varieties in organization give scope and exercise to virtues and modes of enjoyment that would be impossible were all minds exactly alike1 and on the pattern of the highest in the scale of being1 then the very points which are imperfections in the individual relations1 become perfections in relation to the great whole4 ,in this view1 the lowest and humblest in the scale of being1 when acting in his appropriate place and according to the great ,creator's design1 is perfect in mental construction1 and is fitted to be happier in every respect than he could be if the whole system were changed by placing him among the highest in mental organization4 ,just as it is with the human system--the lowly foot is perfect and complete in its place1 though inferior in construction and service to the regal head and cunning hand4 ,and should the foot be endowed with the higher gifts it would be a departure from its perfection in organization as related to the whole4 ,the question1 then1 of the perfect nature of each human mind requires that we regard each one as a part of an infinite system demanding grades and ranks1 and thus1 also1 relative disparities4 ,and having proved that the chief design of the ,creator is to make the best possible system1 we are necessarily led to the conclusion that the lowest order of mind is as perfect in its nature1 in relation to the great whole1 as is the highest of all4 ,from the above we gain this definition3 ,a perfect mind1 as to construction or nature1 is one which is better fitted to its position in the best possible system of minds than it would be by any possible change4 ,in this use of the words nature and perfect it is claimed that in the preceding pages it has been proved that the mind of man is perfect in nature4 ,our next inquiry will relate to the perfect action of mind in respect to that which is voluntary or selforiginated4 ,in other words1 we shall inquire as to the perfect moral action of the human mind1 as discoverable by reason and experience1 independently of revelation4 ,,chapter ,,xxii4 ,,right ,,and ,,wrong--,,true ,,virtue4 ,having discovered the end for which mind is made1 and thus gained the idea of what is meant by perfectness1 in its nature or construction1 we next inquire as to what is the perfect action of mind4 ,here we must again recognize the distinction between two classes of mental actions1 viz41 those acts which are natural as resulting necessarily from the constitution of mind1 of which ,god is the producing cause1 and those which are voluntary and of which man is the producing cause4 ,the first are natural and involuntary1 the latter are moral and voluntary4 ,this introduces the second part of the system of natural religion1 that which relates to man's obligations or duty toward the ,creator1 toward his fellow beings1 and toward himself4 ,in other words1 the question is1 8what is right voluntary or moral action80 ,in seeking the reply to this without the aid of revelation1 the following particulars demand attention3 ,in all discussions on this question there is no mental analysis more important than the distinction between the desire1 or what moves us to choose1 and the act of choice4 ,the mind is always moved to choice by desire for some good to be gained or some evil to be avoided4 ,the susceptibility or power of being thus led1 in popular language is called a 8bias10 an 8inclination10 a 8propensity10 a 8tendency10 or a 8proclivity0 toward the object which causes the desire4 ,thus the susceptibility to desire stimulating drinks is excited by liquors1 and this is called 8a propensity0 to strong drink4 ,the susceptibility to desire to amass money is called a bias1 or propensity to avarice4 ,the only thing ever meant by a bias or propensity to choose any thing is1 that there are such susceptibilities that desire can be excited for that thing4 ,but all such propensities or biases are from evil and toward good in the widest sense of these terms4 ,no rational mind ever desires pure evil1 but always desires good of some sort4 ,on the contrary1 it is one of the implanted principles of common sense that no rational mind will choose pure evil4 ,any man who should do this would be regarded as insane--as having lost the distinctive feature of a rational mind4 ,but we find that desires are called strong1 imperative1 powerful1 and the like1 not at all with reference to the question whether what is desired would be best for all concerned4 ,they are measured1 as to strength or weakness1 by the degrees of enjoyment their gratification secures1 or the amount of pain that selfdenial would involve4 ,this measurement of varied degrees of pleasure and pain is a matter of consciousness to every mind1 and is constantly referred to by all races and in all languages4 ,in this use of the term1 the strongest desire often exists for that which is perceived to be the best good for all concerned4 ,at other times the strongest desire is for that which is seen to be the lesser good4 ,when the strongest desire is for that which is best1 the choice is easy1 and the mind always chooses the best good4 ,but when the strongest desire is for that which is not best1 then choice is more difficult1 and there is a conscious struggle between the promptings of reason and conscience1 and the importunities of strong desire for the lesser good4 ,at such periods there is a conscious power in every mind to choose either way1 and sometimes we choose to gratify the strongest desire and give up the best good1 and at other times we choose the best good and deny the strongest desire4 ,every human being has been conscious of this struggle between excited desire and the dictates of reason1 and all the literature of the world refers to it as a universal fact4 ,the terms self denial1 selfcontrol1 selfgovernment1 all are based on this experience of all minds47#f7 ,right ,actions and ,rewardable ,actions4 ,the preceding furnishes the ground for the distinctions always recognized between voluntary action which is right as best for all concerned1 and those actions which are deemed praiseworthy1 rewardable1 and meritorious4 ,whenever the dictates of reason and our strongest desire are coincident1 so that choosing what is right and best involves no struggle2 then the ideas of merit and of desert of reward1 praise1 and commendation are wanting4 ,we say such acts are right1 but there is no merit in them1 and no proper ground for adding any other reward than that which naturally results from choosing what we desire most1 and which is best for us and for all concerned4 ,on the contrary1 when there is a struggle between a sense of what is right and best1 and the strongest desire1 and a choice is made which involves selfdenial and selfsacrifice1 we feel that the act is one which is meritorious1 and deserving of reward and praise4 ,any voluntary action1 then1 is right which is conformed to those rules of rectitude which tend to secure the most happiness for all1 even when there is no temptation to another course4 ,but an action is meritorious and rewardable only when there is a reference to the rules of rectitude in the mind of the actor and some degree of selfdenial4 ,to choose what we desire most1 without any regard to what is right or wrong1 even when it chances that our choice is that which is best1 and thus right1 does not meet our idea of a meritorious and praiseworthy act4 ,the greater portion of our choices are of those things which are good in all relations1 as best for self and best for all concerned4 ,thus when we desire to eat1 to drink1 to breathe the pure air1 to admire the beauties of nature1 to enjoy the society of friends1--to choose these and a thousand other daily blessings1 promotes our own best good and the best good of all concerned4 ,in all such cases choosing what we desire most is morally right in all relations4 ,but no acts of choice are meritorious1 except as they involve a regard to law in the mind of the actor1 and some degree of selfdenial in conforming to rule4 ,the only cases where moral evil 7or wrong choices7 can exist1 are where desires are excited for some good1 either for ourselves or for others1 which is not best for all concerned4 ,in all such cases there is a 8bias10 8tendency10 and 8propensity0 to choose good of some sort1 but it is not the best good1 and therefore to choose it would be morally wrong4 ,thus there is a bias or propensity to what is good in one relation1 but evil in another2 good as tending to give enjoyment1 but evil as contrary to a law which enjoins that the best good should always be preferred4 ,in such cases the desires for a good which is not for the best are not morally wrong1 for they arise involuntarily from those susceptibilities implanted by ,god1 which are not to be exterminated1 but only regulated by law4 ,the moral evil consists not in the existence of such desires1 but in choosing to gratify them at the sacrifice of the best good of self or of others4 ,it has been shown that one result of the wrong action of mind is such a change in its constitutional nature1 that there will be a desire to inflict evil on others as a malignant pleasure to the guilty mind4 ,in these cases such desires may properly be called morally wrong because they are the result of the voluntary action of the sinful mind1 and not of the natural susceptibilities implanted by the ,creator4 ,as they result wholly from wrong previous choices1 the guilty mind itself is the author of them and not the ,creator of mind4 ,here it is important to discriminate in regard to that natural impulse in all minds which is excited by the infliction of pain on self or on others4 ,it is this natural impulse to inflict evil on the author of evil which is the foundation of justice in the family and in the civil state4 ,its design is for the best good of all concerned1 and it becomes evil only by excess and misuse4 ,so long as it is controlled by reason and conscience it is good and only good4 ,in view of the above distinctions1 there can be no moral evil in desires for things which it would be wrong to choose1 except as these desires are the result of previous wrong choices47#g7 ,it has been shown that the principle of habit renders it more and more easy and agreeable to regulate our choices by the rules of rectitude4 ,the habit of sacrificing personal gratification to the rule of duty may be so cultivated that what at first was difficult1 and involved a painful struggle1 becomes easy4 ,it is possible so to cultivate such habits that our highest desires1 and the dictates of reason and conscience1 shall continually be more and more coincident4 ,we can conceive of newlycreated beings as placed in such circumstances that1 for a considerable period1 all their strongest desires may be coincident with the best good of themselves and of others1 so that there can be no opportunity to practice selfcontrol in regulating their desires by the rules of rectitude4 ,in such a case1 while acting simply from impulse1 without reference to rule1 they would always act right1 and yet they would form no habits of selfcontrol1 and thus would be liable to fail at the first temptation where their strongest desire conflicted with the known law of rectitude4 ,the preceding statements are made in order to arrive at correct and discriminating definitions of certain fundamental terms on which the whole question of the 8depraved nature0 of the human mind will be found to turn4 ,right in ,tendency and ,right in ,motive4 ,mankind in all ages and in all languages speak of certain acts as right or wrong in reference to their tendency or their effect on human happiness1 and without reference to the intention of the author4 ,thus they affirm that the stealing and selling of men is wrong1 whatever may be the motives of the slave trader4 ,again1 they speak of acts as right or wrong in reference to the motive or intention of the author4 ,thus they say a man who sacrificed his wealth and reputation1 rather than to violate his conscience1 acted right as to motive1 although he was mistaken in his views of duty1 so that his act1 as it respects its tendency1 may have been wrong4 ,right ,general ,purpose4 ,again1 it has been shown that a man may form a general purpose to act right in obeying all the laws of ,god as discoverable by reason or revelation4 ,this general purpose may be a quiet1 abiding principle1 so as to regulate the thoughts and emotions1 and may control most of the specific choices of a whole succeeding life4 ,the main purpose1 or chief end of such a man is to bring all his thoughts1 words1 and actions into perfect agreement with the rules of rectitude4 ,in reference to this and his consequent conduct1 his would be denominated a virtuous character4 ,no one will deny that this is a correct statement of the use of terms by mankind in everyday life4 ,thus then we have gained the following definitions as established1 not by metaphysicians and theologians1 but by the people4 ,definitions4 ,a right moral act1 as it respects its tendencies1 is one in which the thing chosen is for the best good of all concerned4 ,a right moral act1 as to motive1 is one in which the intention of the actor is to conform to the rules of rectitude4 ,a meritorious or praiseworthy act is one in which there is some sacrifice of feeling1 either immediate or remote1 in order to conform to law4 ,a virtuous act is one in which that which is chosen is right1 both in tendency and in motive4 ,a virtuous character is one in which a general purpose exists to obey all the rules of rectitude4 ,the degree of virtue is dependent on a correct judgment of what is right or wrong1 and the strength or measure of the general purpose in controlling all other purposes4 ,some men carry out a general purpose much more steadily and consistently than others1 and some men have much more correct ideas of what is right and wrong in conduct than others4 ,the natural character of a man is that which results from his constitutional powers and faculties of mind1 of which ,god is the author4 ,the moral character of a man is all that results from his own willing4 ,our highest idea of a virtuous character1 as gained by experience and observation1 is that of a mind so trained to habits of selfcontrol and obedience to rule1 that it has become easier to obey the laws of rectitude1 than to gratify any excited desire1 however imperative1 which is seen to violate law4 ,thus1 then1 it is shown that a virtuous character consists1 not in the nature of the mind which is given by ,god1 but in the purposes1 habits1 and feelings generated by voluntary acts1 of which the man himself is the author2 ,god being the cause or author1 of this virtue only as he is the ,creator of mind and of all its circumstances of temptation and trial4 ,in regard to the formation of a virtuous character1 as a matter of experience1 it usually results from a slow and gradual process of training and development4 ,the general purpose to obey all the laws of rectitude originates1 as a general fact1 not as a definitely formed purpose1 whose time of inception can be distinctly marked4 ,yet it is not unfrequently the case that persons who have passed a life of unrestrained indulgence1 by some marked and powerful influence1 are suddenly led to a decided and definitely marked purpose of virtuous obedience1 and carry out this purpose with great success4 ,any such sudden change1 in popular language1 would be called 8the commencement of a new life40 ,and when this sudden change takes place under the influence of motives presented in the ,bible1 it is called by one class of theologians the 8new birth0 or 8regeneration40 ,is ,true ,virtue ,possible before ,regeneration8 ,in the discussions which are to follow1 it will be found that almost every point debated involves1 as a foundation question1 8what is true virtue80 ,and the grand question at issue between the system of common sense and the teachings of all theologians who uphold the ,augustine theory1 is this3 is true virtue possible to an unregenerate mind8 ,theology says no1 common sense says yes4 ,theology teaches that previous to regeneration every voluntary act of every human mind is 8sin1 and only sin40 ,common sense maintains1 on the contrary1 that every voluntary act which is in agreement with the best good of all concerned1 when the intention is to act right1 is virtuous without any regard to the question of the regeneration of the mind4 ,in other words1 theology teaches that true virtue is the right voluntary action of a mind after its 8nature0 is changed by ,god1 and common sense teaches that true virtue is the right voluntary action of any mind without any change in its nature4 ,the discussion of this point involves the further consideration of certain mental experiences which will shed some light on the subject4 ,it will be found that in case of all persons who are said to 8act on principle10 or to be 8conscientious persons10 that1 in the greater portion of their voluntary acts1 they have no conscious immediate reference to the rules of rectitude4 ,there seems to be an unconscious general purpose to act right on all occasions1 which becomes obvious only when a case occurs involving a seeming violation of the rules of rectitude4 ,at such times the mind becomes conscious of its ruling purpose4 ,but the greater portion of all the daily acts of life have been decided upon as in agreement with the allcontrolling general purpose1 and a man chooses to do many things in which he has no conscious reference to rule4 ,and still such acts have1 in past time1 been subjects of reflection in reference to the question of right and wrong1 and have been decided to be right1 and it is in consequence of this decision that the mind no longer considers these questions with a conscious reference to rule4 ,the distinction between what is denominated 8a man of principle0 and an 8unprincipled man10 is simply this1 that the former is one who has formed habits of selfregulation by the rules of rectitude1 and the latter has not4 ,this mental analysis is important in reference to deciding the character of a virtuous action4 ,a virtuous act1 as defined above1 is one in which the thing chosen is right and the motive is right4 ,but it is not indispensable that the person who performs the act should be immediately conscious of a reference to rule in each right specific volition4 ,it is sufficient that the mind be under the control of a ruling purpose of rectitude1 so that all the subordinate minor purposes are in fact regulated1 though unconsciously1 by this purpose4 ,it is at this point that the class of theologians who make regeneration to include a voluntary act on the part of man1 are in antagonism with the experience and common sense of mankind4 ,such maintain that every act of every human being is 8sin1 and only sin10 until a ruling purpose is formed to obey ,god as the chief end1 and one also which is actually more efficient and stronger in controlling the ordinary acts of life than the purpose to gratify self4 ,previous to the existence of this general purpose1 they maintain that every act of selfdenial or selfsacrifice for the good of others is 8sin1 and only sin40 ,according to their theory1 choosing that which is right because it is right1 is not a virtuous act until a ruling purpose of universal obedience to ,god is formed4 ,that is to say1 it is the ruling purpose1 or the want of a ruling purpose to obey ,god in all things1 which decides the character of every specific act of choice4 ,thus if a child is trained to be honest1 truthful1 and selfdenying1 and succeeds very often in conforming to such instructions1 there is no true virtue in any such acts until a ruling purpose of obedience to ,god is generated1 which is habitually more controlling than the impulses of selfindulgence4 ,this is the point where the people and theologians are at issue4 ,the people insist that every act is virtuous when the thing chosen is right and the intention is right1 even before the mind of a child has attained a ruling purpose of universal obedience4 ,theologians say no2 such acts are 8sin1 and only sin10 in the sight of ,god47#h7 ,it will be shown hereafter that the theory of theology on this subject is not carried out consistently in practice1 but that in the early training of little children theologians contradict their own theory and adopt that of the people4 ,perfectness in ,construction and ,perfectness in ,action and ,character4 ,in a previous chapter we have seen p4 #ajc that our idea of perfectness in moral character and action always has reference to power4 ,in a system where evil is actually existing1 we regard a contrivance or an action as perfect when there is no power in ,god or man to make it better1 even when evil is involved4 ,a being is perfect in character and in action when his purpose is to do the best possible for all concerned1 and when this purpose is carried out to the full extent of his power4 ,we have shown in the preceding chapter that the mind of man is perfect in nature or construction as being better fitted to its place in the best possible system of mind than it would be by any change possible either to ,god or man4 ,the preceding pages of this chapter enable us to point out what is the perfect moral character of minds which are perfect in construction4 ,it consists in a ruling purpose to discover and to obey all the laws of the ,creator1 which is carried out to the full extent of power in the one who thus purposes4 ,it has been shown that the ,creator himself is limited by the eternal nature of things to a system which1 though the best possible1 makes him1 in one sense1 the author of some evil1 both natural and moral4 ,he is the author only as the ,creator of all things1 and thus the author of all the consequent results of creation1 even of those that are morally evil4 ,in this sense alone is he the author of either natural or moral evil4 ,the infinite and eternal mind of ,god is limited1 not by want of wisdom and knowledge1 but by the eternal nature of things of which his own existence and natural attributes are a part4 ,but finite minds are limited by a want of knowledge and wisdom which can be the result only of experience and training4 ,for the want of this knowledge and training every finite mind1 so far as we can discover by reason and experience1 must inevitably violate the laws of ,god4 ,and yet any mind may be perfect in moral character and action in exactly the same sense as ,god is perfect1 7i4e47 it may form and carry out a purpose to conform to the laws of the existing system of things to the full extent of its knowledge and power4 ,when this purpose is formed and carried out to the full measure of ability1 the finite creature becomes 8perfect1 even as our ,father which is in heaven is perfect40 ,common ,sense ,theory of the ,origin of ,evil4 ,what then is the cause or origin of evil as taught by reason and experience8 ,it is the eternal nature of things existing independently of the will of the ,creator or of any other being4 ,what is the cause of the existence of this created system8 ,it is the will of the ,creator4 ,what is the cause or reason why ,god willed that this system should be as it is1 with all the evil that exists8 ,it is because it is the best system possible in the nature of things4 ,what is the cause or reason that any given event1 however evil1 is not prevented by ,god8 ,it is because any change that would prevent it1 would alter the best possible system1 and thus make more evil than the one thus prevented4 ,,chapter ,,xxiii4 ,,laws ,,and ,,penalties--,,sin ,,and ,,holiness4 ,the laws of ,god1 in regard to voluntary action1 are those invariable arrangements in mind and matter by which happiness or pain are connected with certain feelings and actions4 ,thus it is an invariable arrangement that pain shall be connected with touching fire1 and pleasure with seeing the light4 ,so in regard to the intellect2 pleasure is invariably connected with the exercise of wit and humor1 and disgust with folly and fatuity4 ,so the moral sense is invariably pleased with truth1 justice1 and integrity1 and pained by the opposite4 ,whenever1 therefore1 we discover what invariably affords pleasure or pain1 we discover one of the laws of ,god4 ,to discover these laws1 and to believe in them1 is as indispensable to the right action of mind as light is indispensable to perfect eyes in order to see4 ,the first lesson of every newborn spirit is to discover the laws that relate to its own enjoyment4 ,whenever a child chooses any thing which secures enjoyment without harm to itself or to others1 it is acting as its ,creator designed1 and this action is therefore right4 ,and whenever it chooses what will cause needless pain to itself or to others1 it acts wrong4 ,most of the choices of a little child are of what is right as giving enjoyment without harm4 ,the grand law of ,god1 as learned by experience1 is that every mind must sacrifice the lesser for the greater good in gratifying its own desires4 ,when the interests of others are not concerned1 the child must always choose not what it desires the most1 but what is best for itself4 ,it is the first labor of the educator to make a child understand and obey this first part of the law of sacrifice4 ,but where the feelings and interests of others are involved1 the law of ,god is1 that the lesser good of the individual shall always be sacrificed to the greater good of the many4 ,each mind of the great commonwealth is to act1 not to make selfgratification the first thing1 but to make the greatest possible happiness with the least possible evil for the whole commonwealth the predominant purpose4 ,and such is the system of the ,creator that whatever is for the best good of the whole is for the best good of each individual4 ,thus it appears that obedience to the laws of ,god1 physical1 intellectual1 social1 and moral1 is to be chosen as the ruling purpose of each mind4 ,and this is the mode by which all rational beings are to promote the end or design for which all things are made1 7i4e417 happinessmaking on the greatest possible scale for the great commonwealth4 ,,now it is very certain that no human mind is able1 by its own solitary investigations1 to discover all the physical1 intellectual1 social1 and moral laws of ,god4 ,many of these laws we can learn by experience1 but for the greater portion we are dependent on the instruction of others4 ,therefore truth on the part of educators1 and faith on the part of the learners are as indispensable to the right action of mind as is light to the right action of the eye in seeing4 ,not a 8dead10 merely intellectual belief1 but a 8saving faith0 that controls the feelings and conduct4 ,we now are enabled to define the kind of inability as to obeying the laws of ,god1 which inevitably attends every mind that commences its existence in this world4 ,as yet there have never been perfectly true educators of young minds1 while perfect faith1 that is to say1 8saving faith10 in the teachings that are true is as much wanting4 ,the young child can not be made to understand1 and therefore can not believe1 or have faith in many of the laws of ,god and the penalties connected with them4 ,this no one will deny4 ,several ,classes of ,moral ,actions4 ,there are several classes of moral actions4 ,the first class includes those which in all cases destroy the best good of man4 ,of these are wanton cruelty to helpless creatures1 and ingratitude in returning needless evil for good4 ,in regard to such the mind1 by its very constitutional impulses1 revolts from them and feels them to be wrong without any process of reasoning4 ,so also all those actions that in all cases cause enjoyment without evil1 are instinctively felt to be right without any reflection4 ,but there are many actions that are entirely dependent on circumstances for their moral character4 ,thus to punish a little child in one case would be cruel and wrong1 in another it might be benevolent and right4 ,to take a woman1 when not married to another1 for a wife is right1 but wrong if she is married4 ,and so with thousands of other actions4 ,again1 some actions that do no harm to any individual at a given time1 are wrong because they would be destructive to general happiness1 if generally allowed2 or1 in other words1 they are wrong in tendency4 ,thus1 in a given case1 a lie might do a great deal of good and no immediate harm4 ,and yet it would be wrong1 because leaving it to every man's discretion when it was best to lie would in the end destroy all confidence in human testimony4 ,again1 many of the laws of ,god can be discovered only by long experience of many communities4 ,as soon as experience has shown that any practice will do more harm than good1 then the law of ,god is discovered and it becomes obligatory4 ,thus the question of polygamy has been settled4 ,thus1 too1 the vending of alcoholic drinks has been decided to be wrong as a general practice4 ,here comes up the distinction between wrong choices that deserve blame and punishment1 and those that do not4 ,in the natural system of the ,creator all violations of law are followed by the natural penalties without any reference to the motives1 knowledge1 or ability of the agent4 ,all questions among men1 as to blame and retribution1 have reference to the adding of other penalties and rewards in the present or future state4 ,it is only in regard to such that the questions of blame1 of justice1 and of mercy are to be debated4 ,without revelation we have no evidence that the natural penalties of law are ever suspended1 either as a matter of justice or mercy4 ,in the case of great crimes and wrongs1 that additional penalties are to follow in a future state is what all men fear1 and this it is which induces selfinflictions to secure pardon for sin4 ,now these are distinctions existing in all rational minds1 and are continually referred to in everyday life4 ,but it is impossible for any but an omniscient being to decide on all the motives that regulate the actions of others1 while even our own motives are often so hidden and complex that we are blinded as to their true character4 ,the language of common life does not always recognize these distinctions4 ,when a wrong action is done the actor is called a wrongdoer1 and is blamed for the deed4 ,and the fact that he believed that he was acting right1 and even that he practices selfdenial in performing what is imagined to be a duty1 though it palliates1 does not ordinarily end all displeasure4 ,for in multitudes of cases the ignorance of duty results from pride or selfish neglect of inquiry4 ,and few are competent to decide how far the ignorance is a misfortune and not a fault4 ,it is owing to this fact that most of the language of life assumes that all violations of law are blamably wrong1 and are to be punished here or hereafter4 ,in the most common use of the term1 8sin is the transgression of law40 ,at the same time men recognize the distinction between sins of ignorance and willful sin4 ,sin and ,holiness4 ,the preceding1 then1 warrants the definition of sin as 8the transgression of law10 whether known or unknown4 ,the question of the rectitude of penalties added to the natural consequences of violated laws1 is confined to those sins which are attended by a knowledge of law and ability to understand and obey4 ,these distinctions and definitions are important because a large class of theologians maintain that sin is the voluntary transgression of known law1 and make this definition the foundation of their assertion that all men have power to be perfect in conformity to all law1 meaning by this all the laws of ,god that they know and believe4 ,on this theory sin is the transgression of known law1 and not of that which is unknown4 ,and on this theory one way to keep children from sin would be to keep them in ignorance of ,god's laws4 ,the writer maintains that this limited use is not the common meaning4 ,mankind do not stop to settle the question whether men were ignorant of what was right1 before they decide that they sin4 ,often such ignorance results from an unwillingness or indolence that prevents attention1 and few can decide how far our ignorance of law results from guilty neglect4 ,it is true that when a perfect and innocent inability to know law is proved1 the added penalties of statute law are remitted4 ,but still the natural penalties are unremitted4 ,the word holy in its original use signifies set apart or consecrate to the special service of some deity4 ,thus the vessels of a temple1 the priests and the building are called holy in this sense4 ,in reference to moral acts or choices1 this term is used as recognizing the fact that a mind may be voluntarily consecrated or devoted to the service of ,god by right action1 or obedience to his laws4 ,god himself is called holy on the supposition that there are rules of right and wrong in the nature of things1 independent of his will1 and that his will is conformed to these rules1 while men are called holy in reference chiefly to the will or service of their ,creator4 ,in the ,creator holiness signifies perfect voluntary conformity to that which is for the best according to the eternal nature of things4 ,in men perfect holiness is perfect conformity of will to the laws or will of ,god1 both absolutely and in motive or intention4 ,a mind is consecrated to ,god when its ruling purpose is to obey him in all things4 ,in this use of the term holiness in man1 is what can not be created1 as it is a voluntary act of his own mind4 ,the question whether ,adam was created with 8a holy nature10 while his posterity begin existence here with an 8unholy nature10 must be settled by a clear definition of the words employed4 ,if the term 8nature0 refers to the construction of the mind itself as made by ,god1 a holy nature must signify that organization and combination of the natural powers of mind1 which is the best possible for a mind in its appointed place in the best possible system4 ,if1 on the contrary1 the term 8nature0 refers to that character of mind consequent on its own volitions1 then a holy nature can be caused or created only by man himself as the sole producing cause of his own volitions1 ,god being the author or cause of this nature only in the sense in which men are causes of voluntary action in other minds1 viz41 occasional causes by the use of motives or objects that excite desires4 ,,chapter ,,xxiv4 ,,love ,,to ,,god ,,and ,,love ,,to ,,man4 ,in a former chapter we have noticed the analysis of the principle of love4 ,it is needful to refer to this again1 as intimately connected with the question of the right moral action of finite minds4 ,we have seen that love is a complex exercise1 its first element being agreeable emotions in view of certain qualities and actions4 ,combined with these emotions coexists a desire of reciprocated regard1 that is to say1 a desire to be the cause of similar agreeable emotions to the one loved4 ,these are constitutional impulses not at all consequent on any volition or choice1 and as the involuntary element of love1 are properly called involuntary love4 ,such love can not be justly demanded except where those qualities are1 or can be1 perceived which naturally awaken agreeable emotions4 ,in cases where the qualities exist that would naturally awaken affection if noticed1 and the want of it is owing to inattention1 a proper regard to such qualities can be justly demanded4 ,but this is the only particular in which involuntary love can be made the subject of law and penalties4 ,but the main element of love1 as practically estimated among men1 is such a desire of good to the one loved as involves the good willing or voluntary effort to please and gratify4 ,if a friend simply is pleased with our good qualities1 and wishes to please us with his naturally agreeable traits in return1 it is of little value in comparison with the truer love which is shown in voluntary efforts to please and make happy4 ,this last is the main element of true affection1 and properly is called voluntary love or good willing4 ,theologians express this distinction by the terms the love of complacency and the love of benevolence4 ,thus we have gained these definitions3 ,involuntary love toward ,god and toward men consists in agreeable emotions in view of admirable qualities4 ,voluntary love toward ,god and toward men consists in good willing1 or the voluntary effort to please and make happy4 ,to 8love our neighbor as ourselves0 must refer solely to voluntary love1 for we have no regard to our own agreeable qualities in the love of self4 ,selflove is simply the desire and will to please and gratify self4 ,this then is the kind of love that can properly be demanded of all4 ,each one can justly be required to will or choose to please and gratify others the same as we do ourselves4 ,each can be required to estimate the happiness of every other mind as of the same value as his own1 and to exercise good willing for others as we do for our own enjoyment4 ,from this primary principle necessarily results the law demanding that the good of the commonwealth shall always take precedence of any individual concern4 ,if we are bound to value the happiness of each mind as equal in value to our own1 the inevitable result is that we are to estimate the happiness of many minds as of more value than our own1 so as always to make our own enjoyment and wishes subordinate and secondary to the general good4 ,still more are we to regard the feelings and wishes of our ,creator and ,supreme ,lord4 ,he has infinite susceptibilities of enjoyment and suffering1 and thus whatever retards or promotes his wishes and plans must be of as much more value as his powers of enjoyment and suffering are greater than ours4 ,the love of good willing then should have first reference to ,god as the one whose will and wishes are of more value than any other being in this relation alone4 ,still more are we bound to regard his will and wishes as first in value1 because his chief end and aim is the most possible happiness to all the creatures he has made4 ,to will to please ,god as the chief end of our existence is the same as to choose to make the most possible happiness1 not only to him1 but to all his creatures4 ,involuntary love is valuable as rendering it easier and more agreeable to labor for the welfare of others4 ,those whose interesting traits please us2 those who1 as children or friends1 contribute to our enjoyment1 and those who in any way give us pleasure1 it is far easier to will for their enjoyment than it is to do so for those who do nothing to please us1 and perhaps only give us discomfort1 anxiety or disgust4 ,this exhibits an indirect way of securing the love of good will toward those who neither please us by their agreeable qualities1 nor are causes of enjoyment to us in any way4 ,involuntary affection may be so strongly excited toward one whose qualities or conduct cause delight to self1 that the desire to please that friend may become more animating than the desire for any personal gratification4 ,should such a friend be deeply interested in the happiness of his children1 or of any other persons1 whose character and conduct may in no way please us1 still the desire to gratify such a friend may lead to good willing to those whom he loves1 for his sake1 in order to please and gratify him4 ,thus it is that love to parents tends to produce 8peace and good will0 among children1 who1 in their little broils1 are restrained by the desire to please their parents1 when love to each other fails4 ,here we have a view of the importance of right conceptions of ,god's character1 in order to secure the perfect action of finite minds1 especially in the first stage of existence4 ,it has been shown that the rules of right action are to be gained1 in many cases1 only by long experience and by a course of reasoning4 ,often1 too1 general rules 7such1 for example1 as that we are never to lie1 even to save life1 or for any reason17 must be obeyed when a person can see immediate evil1 and no good to self or to any one by obedience4 ,now it is impossible for a rational mind to choose pure evil4 ,there must be some good in an object to excite desire1 or it is impossible to choose it4 ,but pleasurable emotions toward an allwise ,creator1 whose benevolence and wisdom excite love1 delight1 and confidence1 may be such that to please him gives abundant motive to obey the rules of right he enjoins when no other good can be perceived except that obedience will please him4 ,and the more we perceive in him that excites admiration1 love1 and gratitude1 the more strength of motive is gained4 ,it has been shown that a choice or act is virtuous in all relations1 when it absolutely is best for all1 and when it is done in reference to a rule of rectitude1 or because it is right4 ,the motive or reason of a choice decides whether or not it is virtuous4 ,now as the ,creator's will and the rules of rectitude are the same1 when we say that any act1 in order to be virtuous1 must have reference to ,god's will1 the question comes up1 is an act virtuous because it pleases ,god1 or does it please ,god because it is virtuous8 i4e41 because it conforms to those rules by which his chief end in creation is secured1 and which rest on the eternal nature of things4 ,the last is the principle here assumed4 ,god's great end is the highest happiness of his creatures4 ,obedience to his laws is the mode for securing this end2 his own actions are right as they conform to this end2 and the actions of all his creatures are right only in the same relation4 ,so ,god's 8glory0 consists in the highest happiness of his creatures1 which can only be secured by their obedience to his laws4 ,this makes it clear that choosing as our chief end to obey all the physical1 social1 and moral laws of ,god1 as learned by experience1 is the same as loving ,god with all the heart1 and our neighbors as ourselves4 ,it is also living for ,god's glory as the chief end2 and it is being a truly righteous1 virtuous1 and pious man4 ,this distinction between voluntary and involuntary love enables us to discover certain dangers that result for want of such discrimination4 ,men may conceive of the ,creator as desiring to be loved1 admired1 and glorified1 just as selfish conquerors1 like ,alexander and ,napoleon have done4 ,in this view all their aims would be to excite agreeable emotions toward ,god by the contemplation of his various attributes4 ,and thus they might be so absorbed in the indulgence of such delightful emotions as to become entirely heedless of the wants and the wishes of those around them4 ,this kind of experience would cultivate selfishness instead of benevolence4 ,on the contrary1 choosing to obey all ,god's laws for happinessmaking on the largest scale1 and viewing the lovely and glorious attributes of the ,creator as means to this end1 would induce the only true virtue1 while it is the true mode of pleasing our ,maker and increasing his enjoyment4 ,the preceding furnishes the mode of harmonizing a great variety of expressions that may properly be given in answer to the great question1 8what must we do to be saved80 as we gain this answer independently of revelation4 ,the first answer is1 8believe in ,god's teachings--or have faith in ,god40 ,this means1 take the laws of ,god as revealed by reason and experience1 and obey them1 and you shall be saved4 ,it is a practical and not a mere intellectual belief that constitutes this 8saving faith40 ,the next answer is1 8repent10 or 8repentance toward ,god40 ,the word repent is used to signify1 sometimes1 simply remorse or pain for wrongdoing4 ,in another sense it signifies that sorrow for wrongdoing which includes reformation4 ,it is ceasing to disobey law and commencing a life of obedience4 ,it is in this sense that men are saved by repentance4 ,another answer is1 8thou shalt love the ,lord thy ,god with all thy heart1 and thy neighbor as thyself40 ,this has been shown to signify1 thou shalt choose as the chief end of life to make happiness the right way1 that is1 by obeying all the physical1 social1 and moral laws of ,god4 8,this is the love of ,god1 that we keep his commandments40 ,another answer is1 8make it thy chief end to glorify ,god40 ,inasmuch as ,god's glory consists in the exhibition of his character as a benevolent being1 all who promote his chief aim by making happiness according to his will1 are living to glorify ,god4 ,another answer is1 8live a truly virtuous life40 ,it has been shown that true virtue consists in obedience to the great law of sacrifice by which the lesser personal good is sacrificed to the greater good of all concerned4 ,thus faith1 repentance1 love to ,god and man1 making it our chief end to glorify ,god1 living a virtuous life1 all signify one and the same thing1 7i4e417 choosing to find out and to obey all the physical1 social1 and moral laws of ,god as our chief end or ruling purpose4 ,the righteous are those who have formed such a purpose1 and who exhibit its results in their daily life4 ,the wicked are those who have not formed such a purpose1 and do not exhibit it in their daily life4 ,in the common language of everyday life1 when a person is intensely interested in any pursuit1 it is said to be 8his life40 ,and when a man changes from a vicious to a virtuous course he is said to 8begin a new life40 ,thus it would be in agreement with the ordinary use of language to call a newformed purpose to obey all the laws of ,god the commencement of a new life4 ,and as the beginning of natural life is the commencement of a life of impulsive choices unregulated by law1 the commencement of a life of obedience to law would1 by a figure of speech1 very naturally be called 8a new birth40 ,we have seen1 in previous pages1 that the formation of a ruling principle or governing purpose is sometimes the result of a slow process of educational influences1 and sometimes it is a marked and sudden change4 ,in the history of mind we find1 as a general rule1 that it is the slow process of educational training that secures a virtuous character in childhood1 while the more sudden and marked changes are incident chiefly to more advanced life4 ,the term 8regeneration0 is used by theologians as meaning the formation of a ruling purpose to love and obey ,god1 by man himself4 ,by some1 this change of mind is regarded as in all cases instantaneous1 by others as sometimes a gradual and sometimes an instantaneous change4 ,the preceding still farther exhibits the fact that the whole foundation of religion and of morals rests on the answer to the question1 what is true virtue or right voluntary action8 ,,chapter ,,xxv4 ,,increased ,,civilization ,,increases ,,moral ,,difficulties4 ,from the preceding it appears that the more our race advances in civilization1 the more numerous and complicated are the laws of ,god which must first be discovered and then obeyed4 ,by advance in civilization is signified increase in the capacities of the human mind for varied enjoyments1 and increase in the appropriate supply of these capacities4 ,the early history of the race resembles the early period of individual life1 when the chief enjoyments are those of the senses4 ,the refined and varied pleasures of taste are but little attained except by cultivation4 ,so also the higher pleasures of the intellect and of the moral nature are dependent on culture4 ,as every new avenue to enjoyment is opened1 and every new capacity developed1 there are inevitably resulting difficulties and temptations which1 experience soon shows1 must be regulated by laws and penalties4 ,from this results the endless multitude of civil and statute laws1 in addition to the various domestic and social rules enforced in the family1 the school and the neighborhood4 ,all these laws and rules will be found to be only specific applications of the great law of sacrifice which demands that1 in all cases1 every mind shall choose what is best for self and best for the whole4 ,the great democratic principle that the majority shall rule is but one mode of applying this general law of sacrifice4 ,in this aspect we can perceive how it is1 that every attempt to develop any faculty of enjoyment in any created mind1 and every effort to provide aliment for such developed capacities is right1 as in agreement with the grand end designed by the ,creator2 provided it is done according to the great law of sacrifice disclosed by reason1 viz41 that individual enjoyment be made subordinate to the general good1 and that no greater good be sacrificed for a less1 either for self or for the commonwealth4 ,in this light1 music1 drawing1 painting1 sculpture1 architecture1 the drama1 poetry1 laughter1 all things that impart enjoyment to any mind are right1 provided no higher good is sacrificed in enjoying them4 ,nay1 more2 all these modes of imparting enjoyment may become positive duties1 in cases where they do not interfere with some higher good4 ,this view of the subject still further illustrates the nature of that inability which exists in all finite minds in discovering and obeying the laws of ,god4 ,there are only two conceivable modes by which we can learn these laws2 one is by the experience of finite beings2 the other is by revelation from the ,creator4 ,to learn what is right and wrong by experience involves not only the certainty1 but the necessity1 as it respects the absolute right1 of wrongdoing2 for no one1 however right the motive or intention may be1 can discover what will cause more or less good or evil but by experiments in which the evil as well as the good is detected by experience4 ,to learn what is right and wrong in all the thousand and million complications of life by revelation1 would involve the necessity of a direct revelation every hour of every day1 to every individual of the race4 ,but the only conceivable mode by which revelations from ,god are possible1 is by miracles and prophecy1 which are interruptions of the ordinary uniformity of nature4 ,it is the fact that the laws of nature are uniform that alone makes miracles possible1 so that incessant revelations by miracles would destroy such uniformity1 and thus destroy the only conceivable mode of communication from the ,creator4 ,this being so1 the only possible method by which mankind can discover what is right and wrong in the greater portion of their actions is by an experience involving1 more or less1 wrongdoing as a part4 ,there are general rules of right and wrong which can be communicated both by ,god and man1 but these rules are to be applied by men to the numberless and evervarying circumstances of life1 involving still the same necessity of experience of evil in order to detect the relative amount of good to be gained in the varied courses offered for pursuit to which these rules are to be applied4 ,now the grand difficulty1 as it respects both ,god and man1 as before shown1 is the positive inability of undeveloped mind to understand much of what is right and wrong4 ,this difficulty meets the mature mind as really as it does the infant's2 for while many of the general rules evolved by reason and experience are clear1 and easily perceived1 there are endless varieties of cases in which the application of these rules is a matter of uncertainty4 ,for example1 that men are to be honest and speak the truth1 are rules universally appreciated4 ,but then come the questions whether this and that thing is honest1 or whether in this or that emergency it may not be right to say what is false4 ,the higher men advance in civilization1 and the more means and modes of enjoyment are discovered1 the more complicated become the questions of right1 and the more frequent the temptations to wrong4 ,all that can be done is to cultivate the conscience and train the reasoning powers of mankind1 so that by means of the experience of life1 as developed by individuals and communities1 regard to the rules of right and wrong shall keep pace with the increasing civilization4 ,with these distinctions in the mind1 we can perceive that sin1 in its widest sense1 including transgression of unknown law1 is inevitable in a perfect system of finite minds1 while in the limited sense1 as transgression of known law1 it is not so4 ,so also we can see1 that without the intervention of the ,creator to teach us1 it is an impossibility for any human being to live without sin2 so that this intervention is impossible except to a limited extent1 without an entire change in the eternal nature of things to which ,god's own will is conformed4 ,,chapter ,,xxvi4 ,,humility ,,and ,,meekness4 ,we have seen that we can learn what is right and wrong only by aid received from the experience of our fellowbeings around us4 ,but in order to this1 there are certain virtues which are both difficult and indispensable4 ,in studying the history of mind1 it will be seen that the higher the grade of intellect and the greater its culture1 the stronger is the love of intellectual supremacy and the more energetic the pride of opinion4 ,it is a fact which none will dispute1 that1 as the general rule1 having some exceptions1 the class of minds most highly endowed by native talent and acquired culture1 are most unwilling to take the attitude of learners toward their associates1 and still more toward their inferiors in these endowments4 ,when this pride of intellect and of opinion is combined with benevolence of disposition and with sensitiveness of conscience1 there is nothing more difficult than to 8become as a little child0 in learning truth and duty4 ,for the more benevolence and conscientiousness1 the greater the unwillingness to be put in the wrong4 ,and yet1 in the smallest sphere of life1 between every individual and his neighbors1 thousands of questions of right and wrong turn on how our words and actions will affect the happiness of those around2 and there is no possibility of settling such questions but by leaving every person at liberty to communicate freely what does1 or does not1 give them pain or pleasure1 and thus teach others how to make happiness and save from pain4 ,in order to this1 it is indispensable that every one be made to understand that our chief aim is to make happiness the best and right way1 and that for this end we wish to have a perfectly free expression of wishes and opinions4 ,for if it is perceived that irritability and alienation result from such a course1 all those around us will conceal their feelings and opinions1 and thus1 for want of a true knowledge of circumstances1 we shall 8walk in darkness10 because we are not willing to be told the truths that put us in the wrong or expose our mistakes4 ,the same free expression of opinion and protest against all wrong1 are as indispensable to the discovery of those rules of right and wrong1 that are to be evolved from the general experience4 ,every man1 woman and child in the commonwealth1 should be perfectly free to set forth their opinions1 experience1 and reasoning1 for the purpose of finding out what is best for the whole4 ,nor should they be withheld by the fear that such a course would place a parent1 a brother1 a friend1 or a party in the wrong1 and expose those dearest to us to blame4 ,for the true happiness of each and all is to be secured by a knowledge of the truth1 and often such knowledge can be gained only by exposing the evil results of courses that are pursued by the best and most conscientious persons4 ,in carrying out this principle1 there must be discretion exercised as to time and manner of performing the duty2 and there are some limitations to be recognized1 which are matters of expediency4 ,for example1 a man must seek the best time to expose what is wrong1 and he must seek to do it in a manner that will secure the good aimed at with the least possible evil4 ,and if it can be done better by the agency of another1 the aid of that other should be invoked4 ,so in regard to limitations1 what is strictly personal should be confined to the party who alone is concerned4 ,what relates solely to the family concerns should be confined to the family4 ,nor should any wrongs or dissensions be brought before the public except those in which the public welfare is involved4 ,but with these limitations it is the demand of reason and common sense1 that every man1 woman and child freely protest against all that they believe to be wrong in opinion or conduct4 ,in taking such a course1 every man's success in discovering and propagating the truth will depend very much on the spirit with which it is attempted4 ,if it is done in a selfsufficient1 dictatorial1 and denunciatory mode1 the inevitable result will be to arouse those passions and prejudices which are most effectual in blinding the mind in discovering truth4 ,if1 on the contrary1 it is attempted with the humility1 meekness and benevolence which are befitting ignorant1 fallible and shortsighted beings1 encompassed with such appalling difficulties and dangers1 the most favorable of all influences will be exerted to secure a patient and candid attention4 ,still1 so sensitive are men to all implications of their motives or conduct1 so unwilling are they to acknowledge themselves mistaken1 that the faithful discharge of the duty of protesting against wrong1 will always be attended with more or less of illwill and bad passions4 ,in view of the above1 if we were to predict what would be the first preliminary teaching of a messenger from the ,creator imparting to us the true way of happinessmaking1 we should say1 reasoning from the experience of life1 it would read thus3 8,blessed are the poor in spirit20 that is1 those who feel their poverty of mind as to the knowledge required for right action4 8,blessed are they that mourn20 that is1 those who are troubled by this want4 8,blessed are the meek20 that is1 those that can quietly and patiently bear reproof and faultfinding4 8,blessed are they which do hunger and thirst after righteousness20 that is1 those who are as earnest to find the right way of happinessmaking as the hungry and thirsty are for food and drink4 8,blessed are the happinessmakers407#i7 8,blessed are they which are persecuted for righteousness' sake20 that is1 those who are willing to suffer for the right4 ,,chapter ,,xxvii4 ,,the ,,standard ,,of ,,right ,,and ,,wrong ,,decided ,,by ,,the ,,risks ,,of ,,eternity4 ,it has been shown1 that the more the capacities of men are cultivated1 and the sources of enjoyment multiplied1 the more complicated become the varying questions as to right and wrong moral action1 and the more our reasoning powers and our conscience need to be cultivated in order to decide correctly4 ,just as fast as men increase in the number and extent of the capacities and resources of enjoyment1 will questions of right and wrong multiply1 and rules be evolved1 every one of which will rest on the grand law of sacrifice1 which demands of every individual that he shall give up private feelings and choose what is best for all concerned4 ,these difficulties and complications are still more increased1 if we are to take into account an immortal existence1 and the influence which conduct and character in this life may have on a future eternity4 ,what is best for each individual1 and what is best for the commonwealth in such vast relations1 involve questions far beyond the reach of human capacities1 which only infinite wisdom can answer4 ,in all questions of right and wrong1 for individual and for public interests1 the degree of danger and risk involved1 always is the ruling consideration4 ,the greater the danger of the commonwealth1 or of the individual1 the greater are the demands for sacrifices on the part of all concerned4 ,what would be right in circumstances of ease and safety1 becomes the height of selfishness and crime in hours of peril and suffering4 ,to illustrate this point on a humble scale1 let it be supposed that a vast and dangerous morass is filled with a multitude of travelers1 of all ages and all degrees of intelligence1 who can press through it to their homes only by difficult1 dark1 and circuitous paths4 ,in addition to its morasses1 pitfalls1 swamps and fens1 each path is beset with venomous reptiles1 and its woods with ferocious beasts1 while it is the young and tender who are the special objects of pursuit to these terrific foes4 ,in such a community1 and amid such dangers1 all decisions of right and wrong1 as to what was owed to others or to one's self1 would be entirely diverse from what would be demanded were all in their safe homes4 ,sleepless nights1 constant watching1 painful toils1 incessant vigilance1 would be the imperious duty of every one1 who could render any service4 ,amusements and sports1 that in other circumstances would be wise and right1 would be allowed only just so far as they tended to give relaxation or repose of mind and body to those who needed them1 and only for the great end of securing a safe and speedy escape to all4 ,now suppose that1 in these circumstances1 some of the wanderers are taught that there were no such dangers1 that the paths were all safe and certain1 and that every one of them would sooner or later arrive safely at home4 ,others are taught that there probably is some danger and some doubt as to the amount of risks1 yet as no one knows much about the matter1 on any alternative1 it is very wise to be careful and prudent4 ,another class are taught that all these terrific dangers do exist2 nay more1 that it is certain that some are to be lost in pitfalls1 some torn with wild beasts1 some poisoned to death with venomous reptiles1 and some for ever lost in bleak and cold morasses4 ,meantime1 who should be the lost and who the saved1 and the number of the lost1 would be entirely dependent on the care1 vigilance1 labors and sacrifices endured by each1 not only for self1 but for others4 ,it can easily be seen1 that in these three classes there must be an entirely different standard for deciding all questions of right and wrong4 ,what would be right and wise1 in case there is little or no danger1 would be folly and crime amid such terrific perils4 ,in one case1 each would have little concern or responsibility for any but self2 in another case1 all benevolent minds would be overwhelmed with anxiety for others as well as for themselves4 ,this being so1 it is claimed that the deductions of reason as to the future immortality of man1 and his risks and dangers beyond the grave1 are indispensable to deciding multitudes of moral questions of the highest moment1 while every person's standard of morality must be regulated by their decision of this question4 ,,chapter ,,xxviii4 ,,the ,,destiny ,,of ,,man ,,in ,,the ,,future ,,life4 ,it has been shown1 that the teachings of reason as to the immortality of the soul1 and our risks and dangers after death1 are indispensable to a true standard of morality1 and to the decision of innumerable moral questions of the highest moment4 ,the next attempt1 therefore1 will be to set forth what can be learned by reason and experience1 independently of revelation1 in regard to the future destiny of man4 ,the first question relates to the existence of the soul after death1 and its immortality4 ,here we have to guide us that great principle of common sense1 which regulates mankind in all the practical business of life1 viz41 things are1 and will continue according to past experience1 until there is evidence of a change4 ,by the aid of this1 we go forward in all practical affairs1 believing that the beings and things around us are continued in existence till we have evidence that they are not4 ,if any man were to talk and act as if every person was destroyed1 and every town and village annihilated1 as soon as the evidence of his senses failed1 he would be deemed one who had 8lost his reason40 ,this same principle tends to the belief that the soul of man continues to exist after the dissolution of the body4 ,we have no evidence that the separation of soul and body is an event that either injures or destroys the spiritual part4 ,on the contrary1 there are many analogies in nature that would lead to the impression that death gives new strength and powers to the disembodied spirit4 ,this being so1 we have the same reason to believe that the soul of man exists after death as we have for believing that our friends are living when they leave us on a journey1 and we have no evidence of their death4 ,we can not see them1 hear them1 or feel them1 and yet we believe they are living1 we know not exactly where1 because we have no evidence of their death4 ,and so1 after the dissolution of the body1 though all evidence of sense as to the existence of their immaterial part ceases1 we believe the same thinking1 sentient spirits continue to exist1 because we have no evidence that they have ceased to do so4 ,we have perfect evidence that the body ceases to exist as a body1 for it moulders to dust4 ,we have no evidence at all that the soul is either injured or destroyed4 ,such a thing as the destruction or annihilation of a spirit was never known or heard of from any quarter of earth or heaven4 ,we therefore conclude1 that at the moment of death the soul is still existing with all its powers unchanged4 ,the same argument goes on still further1 and leads to the immortality of the soul4 ,we know of no cause or reason for the destruction of the soul at any future period4 ,we never have known or heard that any soul ever ceased to exist4 ,and so we infer1 that the soul will keep on a perpetuated existence1 by the same principle as that which leads us to believe the earth and the heavens will remain to future ages4 ,in regard to the character and condition of departed spirits1 again we have the same principle to guide us4 ,without revelation1 the past experience of mind is our sole beacon to give light as to its future destiny4 ,our next inquiry1 then1 is1 what does the past experience of mind teach us as to its condition beyond the grave8 ,in pursuing this inquiry1 we must recall1 in brief forms1 some of the points of mental experience set forth in previous chapters4 ,some of the most important of these relate to the principle of habit by which the exercise of all our faculties becomes more and more easy by use4 ,this is true of the intellect1 by which we gain our knowledge of what will secure the most happiness2 of the social nature1 by which we give happiness to other minds and receive the same from them2 of our moral nature1 by which we are guided to justice1 equity1 and the rule of conscience2 of our voluntary nature1 by which we regulate all our other powers4 ,each and all are developed1 strengthened1 and facilitated in right action1 by being exercised according to the laws of ,god4 ,the legitimate use of all our faculties induces also not only increased facility1 but increased enjoyment4 ,the more the intellect is trained1 the more agreeable its exercise4 ,the more our social nature is developed by use1 the more its powers are developed and its blessed influence increased4 ,the more our moral nature is exercised1 the more vigorous becomes our sense of justice and the sensibilities of conscience1 and the more pleasing their exercise4 ,and the more the will is exercised in controlling every other faculty by the rules of rectitude1 the more easy and delightful is this power of selfcontrol4 ,the influence of habit in regard to the great law of sacrifice for the best good of all1 is especially to be regarded4 ,such is its power that1 in many cases1 selfsacrifices that at first were annoying1 or even painful1 become sources of the highest and noblest enjoyment4 ,another not less important influence of habit is1 in regard to those modes of enjoyment which are most important to the commonwealth1 and most happifying4 ,the pursuit of these increases both desire and capacity for gratification1 while those less important and more dangerous1 if made the leading object of pursuit1 diminish capacity while desire is increased4 ,thus the happiness gained in giving and receiving affection1 in causing happiness to others1 and in rectitude of action1 all increase both the desire and the capacity for these important and elevated modes of enjoyments4 ,nor is there any danger of excess in forming habits in these directions4 ,but the pleasures of the senses and the pursuit of power1 honor1 and other enjoyments that terminate in self1 are liable to excess1 and this excess diminishes the capacity for enjoyment1 while the ceaseless craving of desire remains4 ,thus it appears that a mind that forms habits of happinessmaking according to right rules1 becomes more and more strongly drawn to that course by finding more and more enjoyment in it1 while a mind that pursues as a chief end the enjoyments that terminate in self1 constantly loses capacity for such good1 and yet the desire for it drives on to vain and cheerless efforts4 ,another ominous fact in our mental nature is1 the effect of habit in diminishing the control of the voluntary power4 ,when any excessive or illegitimate mode of exercising the faculties becomes a ruling passion1 the change of a habit thus formed becomes more and more difficult in exact proportion to the continuous repetition4 ,even when men see and feel that a habit is formed that increases their sorrow and diminishes their enjoyment1 and that another course would render them every way nobler and happier1 they find their purposes of change often are powerless4 ,the control of the will continually yields to the force of habit1 and so they are hopelessly driven on in their fetal pursuits4 ,again1 the effect of wrong action on the susceptibilities is as ominous as it is on the power of choice4 ,we have seen that the design of painful emotions is to stimulate to the formation of good habits1 and that when this legitimate object is not effected these emotions continually decrease in strength and vividness1 so that the designed benefit is lost4 ,thus fear is designed to induce habits of caution1 but if no such habits are the result1 danger ceases to excite this emotion1 and a man becomes at once fearless and careless4 ,so with sympathy in the sufferings of others2 if no habits of benevolent efforts to relieve are induced1 that sensibility diminishes1 and men become at once unsympathising1 hard and cruel4 ,so it is with shame2 if it does not lead to habits of honor and duty1 the susceptibility continually diminishes4 ,and so it is with remorse2 if habits of rectitude are not induced by its emotions1 the conscience becomes 8seared as with hot iron40 ,but the most deteriorating effect of wrong action is seen in regard to that fundamental point of the mental constitution which makes it a source of happiness to be the cause of happiness to others4 ,it is a universal fact that the tendency of disagreeable emotions is to lead to the infliction of pain on others4 ,this propensity to inflict pain on whoever is the cause of pain1 when regulated by the rules of rectitude1 is the source of justice in the family and state1 and leads only to good4 ,but when it is indulged and unregulated1 it is the most fearful feature in our mental constitution4 ,the records of history exhibit many monsters of our race1 whose mental constitution has become so disordered by habits of fatal indulgence1 that all love of happinessmaking for others seems destroyed1 and the baleful pleasure of tormenting becomes a ruling passion4 ,another feature of our mental conformation which directly bears on this subject1 is the fact1 that all those good qualities and benevolent acts which naturally tend to please and awaken the desire of good to others1 may become sources of pain and illwill4 ,this is the case when the lovely and benevolent traits of other minds are contrasted with opposite traits in self4 ,thus it is that the selfish1 cruel and malignant hate and are powerfully repelled from the generous1 just and virtuous1 while the good as instinctively fly from the wicked4 ,the natural result of these features in the nature of mind1 is a continual tendency toward a separation of the good and the bad1 the righteous and the wicked4 ,according to the teachings of experience1 a mind that forms habits of selfishness and sin is constantly tending to a deterioration of its nature in all directions4 ,and the course of obedience to the grand law of self sacrifice for the best good of all1 becomes more and more difficult and improbable4 ,as the natural result the good are more and more attracted toward each other1 and the bad are more and more repelled4 ,these tendencies1 so plainly exhibited here1 reasoning from experience1 we infer are to continue after death1 until the final result must be the entire exclusion of the evil from the good1 whenever power exists to compel the separation4 ,this power1 all must feel is held and will be exercised by the ,author of all minds1 whose great plan1 so far as reason teaches1 can be carried to perfection only by such a consummation4 ,one point in the history of our race has a mournful pertinence to this question4 ,we find that the improvement and the safety of the great commonwealth is always1 more or less1 promoted by the ruin of individuals4 ,multitudes are deterred from evil courses by the miserable end of those who pursue them2 so that the good are often preserved by the destruction of the bad4 ,so1 too1 we find exhibitions of the fact that minds are utterly ruined1 and ruined for ever1 so far as we can perceive4 ,the man who has stultified his intellect1 ruined his health1 seared his conscience1 and blunted all his generous and benevolent sensibilities by a course of debauchery1 cruelty and crime1 is a wreck as total and irretrievable1 so far as we can see1 as a watch whose springs and pivots are crushed beneath the hammer1 or a human body whose every lineament is effaced beneath the rushing locomotive train4 ,the common language of life expresses such mental facts in precisely the same terms as are applied to physical catastrophes4 ,thus1 a man who is given up to debauchery1 intemperance and crime1 is said to be a 8total wreck0--8entirely destroyed10--8utterly ruined40 ,add to this the teaching of experience1 that when men are bad1 the increase of blessings only increases indulgence and crime4 ,at the same time punishment does not tend to reformation4 ,the more men suffer for their folly and guilt1 the more hardened they become4 ,the victims of licentiousness and intemperance1 though they suffer such miseries1 have ever been regarded as the farthest removed from the probabilities of reformation4 ,add to all this1 the deductions of reason as to the moral nature of the ,creator and ,governor of all minds4 ,he has power to separate the good and bad2 his great design1 of which we here see only the tendencies1 makes it indispensable to the perfect happiness of the good that they be separated from the bad--a perfectly happy commonwealth can not be attained where the bad form a part--while the sense of justice exists in ,god on a scale far above ours1 demanding added penalties for the known and willful destruction of happiness4 ,he1 like his children on earth1 feels that craving for retributive justice1 which can never rest till the guilty and remorseless monster receives the just recompense for his cruelty and crimes4 ,these teachings of reason and experience lead to the conclusion1 not only that there is to be a grand consummation in which all sin and suffering shall be ended in a perfected commonwealth1 but also to the conclusion that those excluded from this community of the good are to continue their existence in sin and its natural results for ever4 ,that any portion1 either of matter or mind1 is to be annihilated1 can not be inferred from any past experience4 ,all that we can learn are the laws of perpetual succession and change4 ,one single fact of annihilation has never yet been made known to man by any process of reasoning1 or any recorded experience4 ,there is another question in reference to this awful subject1 which is of deepest interest4 ,although the deductions of reason lead to the doctrine of the eventual separation of mankind into two distinct communities1 the good and the evil1 what are its teachings as to the immediate state of each individual soul after the event of death8 ,here1 as before1 we have only the nature and past history of mind1 from which the future is to be deduced4 ,in this world we have found the changes in the character of individuals and of communities to proceed by slow and imperceptible movement4 ,we have nothing in the past to lead to the belief that this slow process of discipline1 culture and change may not proceed on for ages4 ,as in this life1 multitudes have the impress and direction of character given in early life1 so that the first few years determine all their future history in this world1 so the career of this short life may fix the future through eternal years4 ,and yet the process of change to the full consummation of character may involve ages4 ,in studying the works of the ,creator1 we find that every thing goes forward on a system of developments4 ,nothing comes into being in full perfection1 and unless there is an interruption of the natural tendencies of things1 every thing reaches its full and perfected state before its existence ends4 ,and the nobler1 larger1 and grander the existence1 the slower it proceeds to its consummated perfection4 ,the oak and the palm demand centuries ere they reach their perfected prime4 ,the highest grades of animal life are slowest in gaining their full development4 ,the horse1 the elephant1 and the camel1 are going forward to perfection for years after the feebler tribes that started with them have perfected and perished4 ,guided1 then1 by the analogies of experience1 we should infer that mind1 the noblest work of its ,creator's hand--mind1 that begins its career in such low and feeble development1 is not to form the mournful exception to the general rule4 ,on the contrary1 we infer from all past experience1 both of matter and mind1 that the soul1 when it lays aside its outer covering1 proceeds onward in its career of development4 ,and if its period of progressive development is proportioned to its relative value in comparison with all other created things1 the fleeting years of this life in relation to the ages previous to its prime1 may be but as the first days of puling infancy to the whole career of manhood4 ,but this subject is imperfectly treated1 if we neglect to consider the fact1 that the soul1 so far as we can perceive1 is disembodied at death4 ,we have perfect evidence1 that the material part is destroyed1 as to its organized existence4 ,we have the same sort of evidence that the soul continues to exist1 and will continue to exist1 as we have that the sun exists when all evidence of sight ceases4 ,but what is the experience of a disembodied spirit1 we have no means of learning4 ,it may be that its powers of knowledge and action are greatly increased1 when freed from its earthly prison4 ,if this be so1 the experience of this life leads to the inference that its dangers and temptations are increased in exact proportion4 ,increase of civilization is only increase in sources of knowledge and enjoyment1 and each addition brings new temptations1 new rules1 and the need of new penalties4 ,it may be the same in the future life4 ,we can suppose the body a veil to hide our mind from another1 and that death makes every soul 8open and naked10 in all its thoughts and feelings1 to every other disembodied spirit4 ,what would be the effect of such a revelation1 no one could say4 ,but we should fear rather than hope4 ,if men are exasperated by words that exhibit only a portion of the scorn1 contempt1 and disgust felt toward the base and mean1 not only by the pure and good1 but by the wicked themselves1 such a full revelation of all minds to all minds presents a theme for awful forebodings to the guilty4 ,and even the purest might tremble to encounter such an ordeal4 ,but over such terrific conjectures rest the darkness and silence of the grave4 ,the following1 then1 are the deductions of reason and experience as to the future condition of our race after death4 ,the soul1 at the dissolution of the body1 remains unchanged in its tastes1 habits and character4 ,the tendencies indicated in this life are continued indefinitely1 and eventually will result in the separation of the good and the bad into two separate communities1 the one1 being obedient to all the laws of ,god1 will be for ever and perfectly happy1 and the other are to reap the natural results of disobedience1 and whatever added penalties the best good of the universe may demand4 ,the final consummation in which this separation will be achieved1 may be at the distance of ages1 and in the meantime all those minds that have passed1 or will pass from this life1 are in the same process of culture1 discipline1 and upward or downward progress1 which exists in this life4 ,whether these advantages and temptations will be greater or less in the disembodied state1 we have no data for inference or conjecture4 ,the conduct and character formed in this life will have an abiding influence on the character and happiness of every mind through eternal ages47#aj7 ,,chapter ,,xxix4 ,,what ,,must ,,we ,,do ,,to ,,be ,,saved8 ,we have considered the risks and dangers of the future state1 as taught by reason and experience1 and also as the foundation of a true standard of morality4 ,we have seen that the true mode of escape from these dangers is the formation of a truly virtuous character1 or in other words1 it is making it our chief end to obey all the laws of ,god4 ,the next question is1 what are the teachings of reason and experience as to the most successful modes of securing true virtue1 or voluntary obedience to all the laws of ,god8 ,this brings up the inquiry as to the causes of voluntary action1 and of the power which one mind has of securing right or wrong volitions in another4 ,in a previous chapter was pointed out the distinction to be recognized between the producing cause and the occasional causes of volition4 ,mind itself is the only producing cause of its own volitions4 ,excited desires1 and those objects which excite desire1 are the occasional causes of choice4 ,the question is1 in what sense can any being be the cause of virtuous actions1 or virtuous character1 in another mind8 ,here we must recur to the fact that the ,creator1 as the author of all minds1 and of all the things that excite desire1 is the cause1 in one sense1 of all the volitions and of all the characters of all finite minds4 ,it is in this sense that1 in the ,bible1 the ,jehovah of the ,old ,testament says1 8,i make peace and create evil40 ,no other being but the ,creator can be regarded as the cause of volitions in this sense1 viz41 as the author of all minds and their circumstances of temptation4 ,there is a second sense in which the ,creator is never the cause of sinful action in any mind4 ,it is this3 creating or modifying our susceptibilities1 or arranging temptations with the design or intention of producing sinful action4 ,this is established by proving1 that the chief end of ,god is to make the most possible happiness1 and that sin is the needless destruction of happiness1 resulting from disobedience to the laws of ,god4 ,the only sense1 then1 in which ,god can be called the author or cause of sinful volitions in the minds of his creatures1 is the fact that he is the author of all created minds and of their circumstances of temptation4 ,in regard to man1 there are only two conceivable modes1 in which he can be the cause of sinful or virtuous character in other minds4 ,the first mode is so to combine circumstances of temptation as to affect the most excitable and powerful sensibilities1 or to remove those objects and influences that sustain moral principle1 or by a long course of training1 to form habits and induce principles4 ,the combinations of motive influences that one mind can thus bring to bear on another1 as temptations to right or wrong action1 are almost infinite4 ,another mode is by changing the constitutional susceptibilities4 ,this can sometimes be effected to a certain degree by education1 and the formation of habits4 ,it can be still more directly effected through the physical organization4 ,for example1 a child may be trained to use coffee1 tea1 alcohol1 or tobacco1 till the nervous system is shattered1 and then a placid temper becomes excitable1 an active nature becomes indolent1 and multitudes of other disastrous changes are the result4 ,when these two modes are employed with the design to induce wrong action1 then men are blameable causes of sinful action and character in their fellow men4 ,god1 as above shown1 never thus causes sin4 ,when these modes are employed with the intention to induce virtuous actions and character1 then both ,god and man are causes of right moral action in mankind4 ,thus1 it appears1 that in the formation of virtuous character and habits1 ,god1 educators and self are the three combining causes1 each being indispensable to the result1 and thus each dependent on the others4 ,god decides the nature and combinations of our susceptibilities and our circumstances of temptation4 ,the educators of mind also modify the susceptibilities1 and regulate the temptations4 ,self1 as the producing cause of volition1 decides the nature of our own volitions1 and thus also coperates to regulate circumstances of temptation4 ,the attainment of virtuous character1 therefore1 depends conjointly on ,god1 man and self4 ,it has been shown that ,god invariably does the best he can to secure the most perfect action possible in all minds4 ,the blamable causes of all failure in right and virtuous action are self and the finite educators of self4 ,the unblamable causes are ,god1 educators and self1 so far as they are faithful in doing all they can to educate aright4 ,with these preliminary considerations1 we proceed in the inquiry as to those modes which in past experience have been found most successful in securing virtuous character1 or voluntary obedience to the laws of ,god4 ,the first cause of right moral action is a knowledge of and faith in the physical1 social1 intellectual and moral laws of ,god4 ,it is impossible1 in the nature of things1 that a newcreated mind should be possessed of such knowledge and faith4 ,all that is possible1 so far as we can learn by reason and experience1 is that there should be a slow and gradual development not only of each individual mind1 but of the whole race1 as each generation1 in turn1 receives by instruction the experience of the one previous1 and transmits it with its own experience to a succeeding generation4 ,the next thing that has been found efficacious in forming virtuous character is the formation of uniform habits of obedience to parental rule1 in the early periods of existence4 ,to secure this1 invariable steadiness in government has been found indispensable4 ,if a child finds that sometimes he is to obey and sometimes he is not1 there is always a temptation to struggle against law4 ,but if a parent's laws1 rewards and penalties are as steady and sure as those of ,god1 in due time the child submits as cheerfully to the domestic rules and commands1 as he does to the laws of nature4 ,he is no more tempted to contest parental commands than he is to attempt to stop the flow of a river or the falling of rain4 ,in this way a habit of submission to law is generated1 which makes all the future discipline and training of life comparatively easy4 ,a child learns cheerfully to obey a heavenly ,father1 just in proportion as he thus obeys his earthly parents4 ,the next thing taught by experience is that children should be instructed as fast as possible in the reasonableness and benevolence of all the laws they are required to obey4 ,obedience is made easy and sure just in proportion as a child is made to perceive1 that such obedience is best for himself and best for all concerned4 ,the next thing which experience has shown to be most effective in securing obedience to law1 is love on the part of the educator1 and corresponding love in return from the child4 ,to gain the love of a child an educator must exhibit all lovable traits1 and confer benefits1 so as to call forth at once admiration1 gratitude and affection4 ,this renders it easy to the child to conform to the rules and wishes of one so beloved4 ,sympathy with a child in all its trials and in all its enjoyments1 still further increases this power of another mind in right guidance4 ,this sympathetic influence is greatly increased by the power of a virtuous example--especially if this example is exhibited by a beloved friend and benefactor1 who would be gratified by thus guiding a dependent mind4 ,another influence that tends to secure virtuous action is the bearing of pain and hardships even when it is not voluntary4 ,those children who are trained in a cold clime and on a hard soil1 and who are early trained to hardships1 find it far easier to conform to rule1 and to bear sacrifices for the general good1 than those whose lives have been a course of uninterrupted ease and indulgence4 ,to these1 add the social influences of the example and sympathy of a surrounding community4 ,where all around are practicing virtuous conduct--where all admire and praise only what is good and right--it is far easier to secure obedience to the rules of rectitude1 than where the example and sympathy of surrounding minds are opposed to virtue4 ,but the most powerful of all influences in securing virtuous action1 is the principle of love and gratitude toward some noble benefactor1 who saves from some terrible evils at the expense of great personal suffering and sacrifices1 and who seeks his reward in the pleasure of redeeming those thus benefited1 from the snares and ruin of sin4 ,and the greater the evils averted1 and the more severe the suffering on the part of the benefactor1 the stronger the influence thus gained to secure virtuous character and action in the one thus rescued4 ,these are the influences which experience has shown to be most effective in securing virtuous character4 ,when the question is asked1 8,what must we do to be saved80 it may be answered in reference to all concerned in the matter2 that is to say1 8,what must self do--,what must our fellowmen do--,what must the ,creator do1 to secure obedience to his laws1 and thus to save from sin and its penalties80 ,in view of the above teachings1 each one for himself must seek1 first1 knowledge of the laws of ,god1 and of their rewards and penalties as discovered by the experience of mankind4 ,in order to do this1 each must take all means to gain true teachers1 and to receive their teachings in true faith1 that is1 that practical faith1 which includes the purpose of obedience4 ,each must cultivate the intellect1 the reason and the moral sense1 in order to judge correctly in receiving and applying the rules of rectitude2 each must seek to discover the reasonableness and benevolence of these laws1 and form habits of steady obedience2 each must seek to discover and rightly to appreciate all the good and lovable qualities of all who institute and administer laws1 from the ,creator to all subordinate rulers and governors in the domestic and civil state2 each must seek the society of those whose sympathy and example would encourage and promote virtuous conduct2 and finally1 each must make obedience to all the laws of ,god the chief end or ruling purpose4 ,these are briefly the reply to the great question in relation to self4 ,we are next to consider this question in relation to what men must do to save others4 ,here we are to take into account two subjects previously illustrated2 the first is that great law of sacrifice1 by which each individual must make his own wishes and welfare subordinate to the higher interests of the great commonwealth2 the second is the fact that all questions of right and wrong are dependent on the risks and dangers that threaten the commonwealth4 ,in cases where there is little peril or evil1 each individual has little responsibility for others4 ,on the contrary1 when all are exposed to terrific dangers and hazards1 every individual is bound to think and care as much for the danger of each one as for his own4 ,and just as much as the interests of all are of more value than those of one1 so much more should each place the public welfare above that of self4 ,in a preceding chapter have been exhibited the risks and dangers of our race in reference to the future life4 ,these are such1 that without any appeal to revelation1 every man of humanity and benevolence must feel that to save his fellowbeings from such dangers should become immediately his leading object of pursuit1 his chief end4 ,in pursuing this as the main object of life1 each individual is bound to follow the teachings of experience as to the most successful modes as set forth above4 ,each one1 then1 should become a teacher of the laws of ,god to all who are in ignorance1 to the full extent of his power1 and set forth all the motives to induce obedience2 each should strive to exhibit all those qualities and deeds which will excite admiration1 love and gratitude1 in order thus to gain influence over other minds and guide them to virtuous conduct4 ,each should confer benefits and practice selfdenying benevolence toward others and thus gain still farther influence4 ,each should strive to exhibit that example and that sympathy that are so effective in leading others aright4 ,in regard to those who are the educators of the young1 each must strive to maintain that invariable steadiness in governments which is so effective in forming virtuous habits and in rendering obedience to the laws of ,god more and more easy4 ,finally1 it should be the aim of each to establish such a community around all who are being trained to virtue1 that every social influence shall repress vice and encourage virtue4 ,next1 we are to consider the great question in reference to the ,creator4 ,what then must ,god do to save our race from sin and its miseries8 ,what would reason and experience teach us to expect he would do to secure obedience to his laws8 ,in answering this question we must again refer to the causes which experience has shown to be most effective1 for we can conceive of no other4 ,we have examined the evidence that the ,creator has given to each of his children such a constitution of mind and body1 and such circumstances of temptation and trial as is best on the whole1 as a part of an infinite system whose results are to develop through eternity4 ,at the same time it has been shown that ,god is limited1 by the eternal nature of things1 to a course in which some evil must exist1 so that all that is requisite to his character as perfectly benevolent1 is that this evil should be reduced by him to its least possible amount4 ,to suppose that ,god can impart at creation of each mind all the knowledge of the millions of rules needed for all the myriads of new relations1 of myriads of beings through all eternity1 is to suppose an impossibility in the nature of things4 ,if it be maintained that the ,creator is not thus limited by the nature of things1 but1 as theologians teach1 could make mind perfect in all needed knowledge as in all other respects1 at the first1 then we have the greater contradiction involved in the fact1 that a perfectly benevolent being chose for his children ignorance and sin in preference to knowledge and virtue4 ,to say that it may be best to create minds destitute of all needed knowledge when the want insures infinite wrong and suffering1 and when there is power to create the knowledge that would insure perfect happiness1 is simply a direct contradiction4 ,it is saying that less happiness may be greater than greater happiness4 ,for by 8what is for the best0 we understand 8that which secures the most happiness40 ,and saying that making misery where there is power to make happiness in its place1 is best1 means nothing else but the assertion above1 that less happiness is greater than greater happiness2 or that less is more than most1 which is a contradiction1 inconceivable and absurd1 so that no mind can either comprehend or believe it4 ,now1 every theologian of every school and of every sect maintains that 8,god does all things for the best40 ,every one who believes in a benevolent ,creator does the same4 ,this is simply saying that ,god does the best possible2 that is to say1 there is no power that can make a better system than ,god has made1 or administer it with more wisdom or benevolence4 ,he has chosen the best possible and so he can not do any better4 ,these things being granted1 the teachings of experience would lead us to suppose1 still farther1 that the ,creator must do all that is possible to maintain invariable steadiness of government4 ,we can see that this1 which is so important in family government1 must be still more so in an infinite family4 ,for this end1 the natural penalties for wrong doing1 must be as invariable as the rewards for well doing4 ,again1 the ,creator must instruct his creatures in his laws and their rewards and penalties to the full extent of his power4 ,that is to say1 he must provide welltrained educators of mind1 as fast and as fully as is possible in the nature of things1 having in view the results of eternal ages to guide his decisions4 ,again1 to secure voluntary obedience1 he must add to the natural rewards and penalties of his laws1 the other class of motives which experience has shown to be most effective4 ,thus1 he must present himself to his creatures as a being possessing all those qualities which call forth the delightful emotions of admiration1 reverence and love2 he must show himself as a constant benefactor1 and as one who 8does not willingly afflict or grieve the children of men40 ,he must manifest his love to his creatures by word as well as by deed4 ,he must come personally to provide for their wants and cheer them with his care4 ,he must show his tenderness and sympathy in their trials and sorrows as well as in their joys4 ,and if they are exposed to great dangers and evils from which they can be redeemed by self sacrifice and suffering on his part1 this highest and most effective proof of love must be exhibited47#aa7 ,to this must be added1 a manifestation of his chief desire1 so that when love and gratitude ask1 what can we do to please our benefactor in return1 the answer shall be1 obey his laws1 and work and suffer for the good of all1 as you see your ,heavenly ,parent does for you4 ,finally1 he must bring around each of his creatures the powerful social influence1 not only of his own sympathy and example1 but those also of a perfect commonwealth1 where all shall be perfect as is the ,father of all4 ,this is what we should evolve by the light of reason and experience1 as what the ,creator must do to save our race4 ,whether he has done all this1 is a question that belongs to that system of religion which we can gain only by revelation from ,god47#ab7 ,,chapter ,,xxx4 ,,how ,,far ,,reason ,,and ,,experience ,,are ,,sufficient ,,without ,,revelation4 ,the preceding chapters present the system of natural religion1 as it may be gained by experience and those principles of reason or common sense with which all men are endowed4 ,whether mankind ever have1 or ever would1 fully evolve this system of religious belief without any aid by revelation from the ,creator1 is a question which we can not readily decide--inasmuch as the claim of ,christianity is1 that from the first1 our race have been instructed by revelations from ,god1 which have been more or less preserved in traditions and written records4 ,it is certain that the elimination of this system1 by unaided humanity1 is dependent on the development of both the intellectual and moral powers1 just as much so1 as the physical discoveries of ,newton1 ,copernicus and ,columbus were dependent on the intellectual progress of the race4 ,in reference to the question of the necessity or importance of revelations from the ,creator1 it is interesting to examine how far those nations that have been most advanced in intellectual development1 have secured this system of common sense1 independently of the revelations contained in the ,bible--revelations which also have been more or less incorporated by ,mohammed into the ,koran4 ,in a brief review of the pagan systems1 that of ,boodhism occupies the first place1 as one which has had longest and largest control over civilized pagandom--one which has been most unimpeded by resistance1 and one which now controls one half the human race4 ,we have seen that the commonsense system teaches an eternally self existent ,creator1 perfect in knowledge1 wisdom1 power and benevolence1 administering a perfect system by laws--his chief design being to produce the most possible happiness with the least possible evil4 ,it teaches also1 that the right voluntary action of mind1 as a part of this system1 consists in good willing toward the ,creator1 toward self1 and toward our fellowbeings1 according to the laws of ,god1 so as to secure what is best for all concerned--making it imperative that self be made subordinate to the public good4 ,it teaches also1 that the most effective mode of securing this right action is1 first1 by imparting a knowledge of these laws and their sanctions1 and thus influencing mind by the motives of hope and fear2 next1 by the motive influences of love1 gratitude1 sympathy and example1 as mutually exercised by ,god1 our fellowmen and self4 ,finally1 it teaches that all questions as to what is right and wrong1 are to be regulated with reference to the risks and dangers of a future life1 and not with chief reference to this life alone--and that in this estimate the interests of self are to be made subordinate to those of the commonwealth4 ,we will now notice how far the system of ,boodh corresponds with that of common sense4 ,this religion7#ac7 is one in which there is no intervention of any supreme ,god1 or any selfexistent being1 or any ,creator2 on the contrary1 all souls and all the universe exist from eternity4 ,all souls from eternity have gone on transmigrating from one body to another1 rising or falling in the scale of existence according to their merit or demerit4 ,boodh is a general name for a divinity or god4 ,there have been innumerable ,boodhs in different worlds and different ages1 but in this world only four4 ,these four are beings who have risen by merit through various transmigrations1 and then became incarnate in human bodies4 ,at last they were annihilated1 none of them being now in existence--so that this world for centuries has been without any ,god4 ,the last ,boodh of this world was ,gaudama4 ,he passed through innumerable transmigrations in four hundred millions of worlds1 and attained immense merit4 ,at last1 he was born into this world the son of a king1 about six hundred years before ,christ4 ,the moment he was born he exclaimed1 8,now am ,i the noblest of men2 this is the last time ,i shall ever be born60 ,he remained fortyfive years as ,boodh of this world--performed all sorts of meritorious deeds1 promulgated excellent laws1 and then was annihilated4 ,ever since1 this world has had no ,god1 and will have none for eight thousand years1 when the next ,boodh is to appear4 ,the first three ,boodhs left no laws or sayings4 ,those of ,gaudama1 the last ,boodh1 were reduced to writing ,a4 ,d4 #id1 and these are the ,bedegat1 or ,bible of the ,boodhists4 ,these teachings of ,gaudama are so obligatory1 that disbelief of them is the only crime that incurs eternal punishment4 ,according to this system1 true virtue or rewardable merit1 consists in obeying the teachings of ,gaudama4 ,these teachings relate first to sins to be avoided4 ,the five general laws are1 not to kill1 not to steal1 not to commit adultery1 not to lie1 and not to drink intoxicating liquors4 ,these are subdivided so as to include all sins of similar kinds under each head4 ,for example1 the first law includes even the killing of animals for food1 also capital punishments and war4 ,sins are divided into these three classes3 first1 those of the body1 such as killing1 theft1 fornication1 etc42 those of the tongue1 as falsehood1 harsh language1 idle talk1 etc42 and those of the mind1 as pride1 covetousness1 envy1 heretical thoughts1 etc4 ,these writings of ,gaudama strongly denounce the evils of pride1 anger1 covetousness1 and all inordinate appetites4 ,men are exhorted to avoid excess in perfumes1 ornaments and laughter--also strong drink1 smoking1 opium1 night wanderings1 bad company1 idleness1 anger under abuse1 flattery to benefactors1 annoying jests1 and all that leads to strife4 ,for all such sins the most awful conceivable punishments are to follow in a future state1 and for millions of ages4 ,rewardable merit is of three kinds3 #a4 ,obedience to all the preceding precepts and prohibitions1 and the performance of all duties fairly deducible from them1 such as integrity1 gentleness1 lenity1 forbearance1 condescension1 veneration to parents and love to mankind in general4 #b4 ,almsgiving and votive offerings4 ,this includes feeding priests1 building temples and accommodations for priests and for travelers1 making roads1 tanks and wells1 planting fruit and shade trees1 feeding criminals and animals1 and finally1 giving alms to all classes of men in need4 #c4 ,prayers and reading the ,bedegat1 or religious books4 ,of this last kind of merit1 there are three kinds3 the first is the senseless repetition of prayers and reading2 the second1 reading intelligently2 the last1 is performing these exercises with strong desires and feelings4 ,prayers are not addressed to any ,god1 as there is none existing now for this world4 ,gaudama1 at his death1 advised that1 in addition to obeying his laws1 his relics and image should be worshiped1 and temples be built to his honor till the next ,boodh came4 ,votive offerings of fruit1 rice and flowers are made to priests or placed in temples4 ,the prayers consist of the repetition of soliloquies that express our liability to bodily evils and to mental suffering1 and our inability to escape4 ,also of protestations of this kind1 8,i will not lie20 8,i will not steal20 8,i will not kill10 etc4 ,there are four ,sabbaths or days for public worship each month1 when the people go with votive offerings and prayers to the temple of ,gaudama1 but they have no general united worship4 ,the ,boodhists have a hierarchy very much like the ,catholic church1 with varied grades and ranks4 ,the priests are required to practice celibacy1 and are mainly supported by voluntary gifts from the people4 ,they reside in buildings erected especially for them1 and as celibacy and the avoidance of women are enjoined on all1 these establishments very much resemble ,catholic monasteries4 ,few of the priests preach1 and only by special request1 after which1 presents are made to them4 ,they attend funerals only when invited1 and then expect presents4 ,part of them spend some time in teaching novitiate priests1 but most of them1 regarding work as unprofessional1 spend their time in sheer idleness4 ,it is the rule that each priest perambulate the streets every morning till he receives boiled rice enough for his daily wants4 ,the higher class of priests avoid this4 ,in ,burmah the priests are at the rate of one to every thirty persons1 and they are well supported by the people1 and without interference from the government to enforce it4 ,as to the motives that sustain this religion1 there being no ,god to the ,boodhist1 all motives arising from relations and regard to him are excluded4 ,all the motives presented appeal to hope of good and fear of evil to self4 ,those who attain a certain measure of merit in obeying ,gaudama's teachings go to some of the celestial regions1 according to their attainments4 ,these consist of twentysix heavens1 one above another1 which offer various degrees of enjoyment according to merit obtained4 ,there are eight principal hells2 four that torment with cold and four with heat4 ,in the other hells are other sufferings1 although not connected with heat and cold4 ,worms bite1 bowels are torn out1 limbs are racked1 bodies are lacerated1 they are pierced with hot spits1 crucified head downward1 gnawed by dogs1 torn by vultures4 ,these are described with minuteness in the ,bedegat and often depicted by the native artists in drawings1 reminding one of ,dante's ,inferno illustrated4 ,for killing a parent or a priest a man will suffer in one of the hells of fire for inconceivable millions of ages4 ,denying the doctrines of ,gaudama incurs eternal suffering in fire4 ,insulting women1 old men or priests1 receiving bribes1 selling intoxicating drinks and parricide1 are punished in the worst hell4 ,merit gained by any good conduct in these hells enables the person to rise even to the celestial regions4 ,the souls of all the universe have existed from eternity1 transmigrating for ever1 and thus rising and falling in the scale of existence according to the degrees of merit at each birth4 ,this is decided not by any deity but by immutable fate4 ,in passing through these changes the amount of sorrow is incalculable4 ,the ,bedegat declares that the tears shed by one soul in its various changes are so great that the ocean in comparison is but a drop4 ,sorrow is declared to be the inevitable attendant of all existence1 and therefore 8the chief end10 and the highest reward of ,boodhism is1 annihilation4 ,the system of ,boodhism commenced about six hundred years before ,christ1 and has pervaded eastern1 central and southern ,asia about as long and as fully as ,christianity has pervaded ,europe4 ,the ,burman empire1 where this account of that faith was obtained1 presents the most favorable results of this system on the character and condition of its votaries4 ,in ,china1 ,buddhism 7another name for ,boodhism7 is the popular religion4 ,with it is associated ,confucianism1 which is a system of morals and politics instituted by ,confucius1 ,b4 ,c4 #eej1 which teaches nothing in regard to any ,god or a future state4 ,with them coexist the sect of ,laotze1 which is a kind of rationalism4 ,most of the temples and priests are those of ,boodh or ,budda1 but there is no such organized priesthood as in ,burmah1 nor is this religion maintained by governmental power4 ,it is also considerably modified by the more ancient system of polytheism4 ,in ,thibet and ,tartary1 the religion of the ,grand ,lama chiefly prevails1 which is one form of ,boodhism4 ,in western ,india1 ,brahmanism is in constant warfare with ,boodhism1 and the two systems are perfectly antagonistic4 ,brahmanism teaches one eternal deity and three hundred and thirtythree millions of other gods1 with hosts of idols representing them2 ,boodhism has no deity at all1 and only one image1 that of ,gaudama4 ,brahmanism enjoins sacrifices2 ,boodhism forbids killing4 ,brahmanism requires atrocious tortures2 ,boodhism inculcates fewer austerities than even ,popery4 ,brahmanism makes lying1 fornication and theft sometimes commendable1 and describes the gods as excelling in such crimes2 ,boodhism never confounds right and wrong1 and never excuses any sin4 ,brahmanism makes the highest good or chief end of man to be absorption into the supreme deity2 ,boodhism makes annihilation the highest hope and aim of existence4 ,these two systems1 together with ,mohammedanism1 so prevail in ,hindostan that the distinct results of each can never be compared4 ,these are the prevailing religions in the most advanced pagan nations at the present time2 and of the two1 ,boodhism is the best1 and probably has been the most fairly tested in ,burmah4 ,in past ages the two most highly developed heathen nations were those of ,greece and ,rome1 and of their religion we have the fullest records4 ,it is not probable that any one will consider their system of religion superior to this now exhibited of modern paganism4 ,the result is that the most highly developed heathen nations1 as yet1 have attained but very imperfectly the system of common sense4 ,no heathen religion ever taught an eternallyexisting ,creator1 perfect in knowledge1 wisdom1 power and benevolence4 ,none ever taught that the chief end of our ,creator is happinessmaking on the greatest possible scale4 ,none ever taught that this also is the chief end for which man is created4 ,none ever taught that right moral action1 or true virtue1 consists in good willing toward the ,creator1 toward self1 and toward our fellow beings1 according to the laws of the ,creator1 so that every mind shall make the good of self subordinate to the general good4 ,none ever taught that all questions of right and wrong1 or what is for the best1 are to be decided with reference to the risks and dangers of a future life4 ,none ever presented communion with1 and the care1 sympathy1 sacrifices1 and example of a 8longsuffering0 ,creator1 as motives to secure virtuous self sacrifice from his creatures4 ,if all this is taught by revelations from ,god in the ,bible1 it is what was never taught by any other religion yet known on earth4 ,in the history of the heathen world1 we find anxious inquiries on these subjects pressing on every thoughtful spirit4 ,who made this world with its profound and ceaseless sorrows8 ,are there contending deities1 and are the malignant powers in the ascendant8 ,if there be one supreme ,creator of all1 is he propitious or hostile to a race so guilty as ours8 ,does he feel any pity or sympathy for our profound ignorance1 our infinite sorrows8 ,can we do any thing to gain his help in our darkness and misery8 ,where do we go when we die8 ,does our short and painful span of being end in eternal night1 or are we to go on in another career of similar suffering and change8 ,when we lay our beloved ones in the grave1 shall we ever meet them again1 or is 8the only proper utterance of a broken heart1 vale1 vale1 in eternum vale80 ,these have been the mournful questionings of every age and every race1 while the wisest sages of the wisest nations1 without a revelation1 have been unable to give any satisfactory reply4 ,greece and ,rome were the most civilized of all ancient nations1 and they give us ,socrates1 ,plato1 ,aristotle and ,cicero1 as their best and wisest men1 who most deeply pondered these great questions4 ,aristotle held to one superior deity1 but taught that the stars are true and eternal deities4 ,cicero leads to the belief of many gods1 and approves of worshiping distinguished men as gods4 ,socrates held to a plurality of deities1 and also to transmigration4 ,he held that the common sort of good men will go into the forms of bees1 ants1 and other animals of a mild and social kind4 ,plato held to two principles1 ,god and matter1 and that ,god was not concerned either in the creation or government of this world4 ,he argued for the immortality of the soul on the ground of its preexistence1 and concludes some of his speculations thus3 8,we can not of ourselves know what will be pleasing to ,god1 or what worship to pay him2 but it is needful that a lawgiver be sent from heaven4 ,such an one do ,i expect1 and ,o how greatly do ,i desire to see him1 and who he is60 ,,chapter ,,xxxi4 ,,augustinian ,,creeds ,,and ,,theologians ,,teach ,,the ,,common,,sense ,,system4 ,in the former portion of this work the ,augustinian theory1 with the system based on it1 has been presented as it is taught by creeds and theologians4 ,in contrast with it1 has been presented the commonsense system of religion as evolved by reason and experience4 ,the evidence will now be presented1 to show that those who teach the ,augustinian system1 at the same time teach the main points of the common sense system2 and where the two systems are contradictory1 that they teach both sides of the contradiction1 at once affirming and denying the same things4 ,a leading feature of the commonsense system is1 that the nature of the human mind is our only guide to the natural attributes of ,god4 ,it will now be shown that leading theologians and metaphysicians of the ,augustinian school teach the same4 ,the ,calvinistic theologians of ,new ,england have been universally acknowledged as among the most acute and profound metaphysicians in the world4 ,at the head of these stands ,president ,jonathan ,edwards4 ,in reference to our modes of gaining a knowledge of ,god1 he says3 8,if respect to the ,divine ,being is of any importance1 then speculative points are of importance1 for the only way we can know what he is1 is by speculation40 ,dr4 ,woods1 for near half a century a leading theological teacher of ,new ,england1 says3 8,all our particular conceptions of ,god may be found to take their rise from the conceptions we form of created intelligences40 ,dr4 ,emmons1 a distinguished ,new ,england divine1 says of man3 8,in the very frame and constitution of his nature he still bears the natural image of his ,maker4 ,in a word1 man is the living image of the living ,god1 in whom is displayed more of the divine nature and glory than in all the works and creatures of ,god upon earth40 ,dr4 ,taylor1 the ,new ,haven divine1 says3 8,the only ultimate source of knowledge1 and ultimate umpire of truth1 is the knowing mind40 ,the celebrated ,scotch metaphysician1 ,sir ,w4 ,hamilton1 says3 8,we can know ,god only as we know ourselves40 ,in proof of this from the ,bible1 these writers quote from the ,apostle ,james1 that 8men are made after the similitude of ,god40 ,another leading feature of the commonsense system is the position1 that we can discover the chief end or design of the ,creator1 by the nature of his works1 and that this end is to produce the greatest possible happiness with the least possible evil4 ,it will now be shown that leading theologians teach the same4 ,president ,edwards1 in his ,dissertation concerning the end for which ,god created the world1 teaches that 8,what ,god had respect to as an ultimate end of his creating the world1 was to communicate of his own infinite fullness of good40 ,he teaches that ,god is in no way dependent on his creatures for happiness1 but that his enjoyment consists in outpouring his own good to his vast family4 ,no one can read that essay without perceiving that1 though disconnected passages may make a different impression1 the above is a correct statement of the doctrine of that dissertation4 ,it is supposed that this view has been assented to by most of those ,american and ,european theologians who most strenuously defend the ,augustinian system4 ,the end or design of mind being ascertained1 its right mode of action is thus determined4 ,accordingly we shall find that the great ,new ,england divines and metaphysicians1 though they use different language1 all express the same idea in defining true virtue or holiness4 ,thus ,president ,edwards taught1 as his son states1 that 8,every voluntary action which1 in its general tendency and ultimate consequence1 leads to happiness--happiness in general--happiness on the largest scale--is virtuous2 and every such action which has not this tendency1 and does not lead to this consequence1 is vicious40 ,here let it be noted that ,president ,edwards expressly teaches that it is not voluntary happinessmaking1 irrespective of the amount1 that constitutes virtue2 but it is 8happiness in general--happiness on the largest scale40 ,this corresponds exactly with the commonsense system1 demanding that happinessmaking be on the greatest possible scale1 and in order to this1 it must be according to law or rules4 ,dr4 ,dwight1 whose system of theology is accepted as the most satisfactory exposition of the new school ,calvinistic views1 teaches that 8,true virtue is the love of doing good1 or the love of promoting happiness4 ,its excellence consists in this1 that it is the voluntary and only source of happiness in the universe4 ,god wills our happiness2 it is1 therefore1 right1 it is virtuous in us1 to seek to promote it both here and hereafter40 ,in this case1 the language of ,dr4 ,dwight is not so discriminating and clear as that of ,president ,edwards--for he does not show so clearly as does ,president ,edwards that his real meaning is voluntary happinessmaking on the largest scale4 ,in this1 and all the following quotations from other writers1 it is a fact1 as gained by their combined expressions1 that the distinction made by ,president ,edwards was accepted1 and that by the 8love of doing good10 or the 8love of promoting happiness10 is intended that voluntary love or good willing which seeks not merely some good1 but the best good of all4 ,dr4 ,taylor1 the distinguished successor of ,dr4 ,dwight1 teaches the same doctrine1 as is so abundantly manifest in his published writings1 that no quotations will be deemed needful4 ,the ,westminster ,assembly's ,catechism teaches that 8,the chief end of man is to glorify ,god and enjoy him for ever40 ,the glory of ,god can be secured only by true virtue in himself and in his creatures2 and if this consists in voluntary happinessmaking on the greatest possible scale1 then the chief end of man1 as taught in that old standard of orthodoxy1 is exactly the same as is taught in the system of common sense4 ,man is to make happiness on the greatest possible scale1 guided by the laws of ,god--and thus doing1 he will 8glorify ,god and enjoy him for ever40 ,the same theologians also teach that the laws of ,god are our guide as to what is good and evil1 and that true virtue1 or right action1 is secured only by obeying these laws4 ,they hold1 therefore1 the doctrine of common sense1 that all true virtue consists in voluntary obedience to the will of ,god as manifested in his natural and revealed laws4 ,the next point of agreement is in the proposition1 that ,god always has1 and always will do what is 8for the best0--so that it always is and will be1 out of his power to do better--inasmuch as to do better than best1 is a contradiction and absurdity4 ,every theologian1 in one form of words or another1 maintains that ,god always has done1 and always will do1 the best he can1 so that he has no power to do better4 ,this being so1 it is the same as teaching that the past1 present and future existence of sin and misery1 is what is inevitable in the best system which ,god has power to create1 so that any change in ,god's plans1 laws1 and their results1 would imply an act of folly and malevolence on his part4 ,this does not imply that the sinful conduct of man is what is desired or intended by the ,creator--nor does it imply that sin was desired or intended by ,god as the 8necessary means to the greatest good40 ,instead of this1 it is clear that if it had been possible--i4e41 if ,god had the power--to create all minds with all the knowledge and all the motives that would secure perfect obedience to law from all the race of ,adam1 there would have been more happiness4 ,the universal obedience of all free agents to all ,god's laws for making happiness on the greatest possible scale1 would secure perfect happiness to all1 while every act of disobedience would lessen the amount4 ,to deny this is the same as saying that less happiness is more than the most happiness1 which is absurd4 ,the result is1 that sin is not the fault of the ,creator1 but is the inevitable result of the commencement of finite1 ignorant1 inexperienced minds1 and is what neither ,god nor man could prevent1 in a perfect system of finite1 free agents4 ,at the same time1 it is the fault of all free agents who sin when they have adequate knowledge and motives4 ,and it is only sins against known law and appropriate motives which are the proper subject of penalties in addition to the natural consequences of wrong doing4 ,it is claimed1 therefore1 that when theologians teach--as all do--that 8,god orders all things for the best10 they really teach1 in another form1 the commonsense doctrine as stated above4 ,having gained the teachings of leading theologians as to the nature of true virtue or right voluntary action1 we also gain their definition of wrong moral action1 or sin4 ,in the words of ,president ,edwards1 8,every voluntary action which in its general tendency and ultimate consequence leads to happiness--happiness in general--happiness on the largest scale--is virtuous2 and every such action which has not this tendency1 and does not lead to this consequence1 is vicious10 or sinful4 ,that is to say1 every volition that tends to lessen the general happiness1 is vicious or sinful1 and every violation of ,god's physical1 social and moral laws1 has this tendency4 ,thus the ,bible definition of sin is the one accepted by theologians--i4e41 8sin is the transgression of law10 without reference to the question whether the law is known or not4 ,true virtue is voluntary obedience to law1 and sin is the voluntary transgression of law4 ,these definitions then are a part of the ,augustinian system as much as they are of the commonsense system4 ,the next point of the commonsense system taught by theologians1 is that our moral power to obey ,god--i4e41 power to choose according to law instead of impulse--is proportioned to our knowledge of law1 and the motives of fear1 hope1 love and gratitude1 as they are employed by ,god and man4 ,this doctrine is taught by all theologians1 except those who hold that the sin of ,adam so ruined the human mind1 that there is no power of any kind to obey ,god1 except as he gives new capacities4 ,no quotations will be given to establish this point1 because1 it is believed1 that no one will question it4 ,no quotations are needed to show that the ,augustinian creeds and theologians agree with the commonsense system1 in teaching that the soul is immortal--that our destiny in a future state depends on our conduct in this life--that there is to be an eternal separation of the righteous and the wicked1 whose immortality will be happy or miserable according to their characters4 ,,chapter ,,xxxii4 ,,augustinian ,,creeds ,,and ,,theologians ,,contradict ,,the ,,common ,,sense ,,system1 ,,and ,,thus1 ,,also1 ,,contradict ,,themselves4 ,the preceding chapter shows the agreement of distinguished ,augustinian theologians with the leading points of the commonsense system4 ,we next are to notice the particulars in which these theologians and the ,augustinian creeds contradict the commonsense system1 and thus1 also1 contradict themselves4 ,the grand point1 which involves these contradictions1 is the dogma that all mankind have a depraved nature consequent on the sin of ,adam1 which makes it certain that every voluntary act of every human mind is 8sin1 and only sin10 until this depravity of nature is more or less rectified by the ,spirit of ,god4 ,the opposite of this is the commonsense doctrine that all men have a perfect nature1 created by ,god1 which is unchanged and not in any way depraved by the sin of ,adam4 ,as involved in this commonsense view1 true virtue consists in the right action of a perfect nature1 as it now is4 ,in opposition1 ,augustinianism teaches that true virtue consists in the right action of a depraved nature after it has been more or less renewed by the ,spirit of ,god4 ,common sense claims that the indispensable requisites to secure right voluntary action are1 knowledge1 training and motives1 for which we are dependent on ,god1 on man1 and on self1 conjointly4 ,in opposition1 ,augustinianism claims that knowledge1 training and motives are of no avail to secure true virtue1 until the damage done by ,adam's sin to the nature of every human mind1 is more or less rectified1 and that for this we are entirely dependent on the ,spirit of ,god4 ,common sense claims that man1 at birth and through life1 is entirely unable to obey many of the physical1 social and moral laws of ,god1 for want of adequate knowledge1 training and motives2 but that he is fully able to obey these laws as fast as he has the appropriate knowledge1 training and motives1 and that before regeneration he does perform truly virtuous acts4 ,augustinianism1 in opposition1 claims that man never obeys the laws of ,god acceptably until the ,spirit of ,god more or less rectifies the depraved nature consequent on ,adam's sin1 and that previous to this influence of the ,spirit1 every voluntary act is 8sin1 and only sin407#ad7 ,common sense teaches that the commencement of 8a new life0 consists1 not in the change of the nature of man1 but in the commencement of a ruling purpose to obey all the laws of ,god1 which purpose may be an unconscious1 gradual process by educational training1 or it may be an instantaneous and conscious act4 ,augustinianism teaches that 8regeneration0 or the 8new birth0 consists in the recreation or change of the nature of mind1 so as1 more or less1 to remedy the depravity consequent on ,adam's sin4 ,common sense teaches that every volition of every mind1 which in act and intention is conformed to the laws of rectitude1 is truly virtuous in every proper use of the term1 without any reference to the question either of a ruling purpose or a change of nature4 ,augustinianism teaches that every volition of every mind is sin1 and only sin1 previous to the act of regeneration accomplished by the ,spirit of ,god47#ae7 ,to illustrate the above by examples1 suppose that a child is trained to deny itself1 to relieve suffering1 or to make others happy4 ,in its earlier efforts this is very difficult1 though by practice the principle of habit renders it more and more easy4 ,common sense teaches that the first act of selfdenial for the best good of others1 in which the aim or intention is to do right1 is truly virtuous4 ,for the thing done is right1 and the motive or intention is right4 ,but ,augustinianism says no2 such an act is 8sin1 and only sin10 previous to regeneration1 though it is true virtue after regeneration4 ,again1 a young man is trained to abhor meanness and deceit and to suffer any thing rather than to violate his plighted faith4 ,he is brought into an extremity where1 by a false statement1 he can escape poverty and disgrace to himself and his family4 ,he sacrifices all rather than to violate his word and honor4 ,if he is not a regenerate man1 ,augustinianism says this act is not truly virtuous1 but is 8sin1 and only sin40 ,common sense says1 it is a virtuous act in every sense of the term as used among men4 ,we have shown by quotations that ,augustinian theologians teach that man's nature is the only guide to the nature of ,god1 and1 as his work and image1 is perfect in construction4 ,at the same time they teach that man's nature is so totally depraved that it never acts morally right1 in a single instance1 until it is regenerated by ,god1 and that all sin is the natural result of this depravity of nature4 ,in consequence of this contradictory startingpoint1 they proceed to other contradictory instruction4 ,for example1 in the education of very young children most theologians1 of whatever school1 teach them that to speak the truth1 to obey parents1 to deny one's self for the good of others1 is right1 good and virtuous4 ,they teach that when little children act thus1 before regeneration1 they not only act virtuously1 but that ,god approves and loves them for it4 ,in doing this1 they use the words good1 right and virtuous1 in the ordinary sense in which men understand these terms4 ,but at the same time1 the same theologians are teaching from the pulpit and the press1 that every voluntary act of every child is 8sin1 and only sin10 previous to regeneration2 that there is no good1 right and virtuous act in an unregenerated mind1 and that ,god feels no approbation or complacency in such acts or the unregenerated as the above1 which are called virtuous1 but are really sin4 ,it is manifest that the educational training of the young must be radically diverse just in proportion as one or the other of these two systems prevails4 ,on the ,augustinian theory1 there is no hope of any right moral action1 or truly virtuous conduct1 until the depraved nature transmitted from ,adam is regenerated4 ,on the commonsense theory1 every attempt of a parent or educator1 and every effort of a child to secure what is best and right with the intention thus to secure it1 is truly virtuous1 and every repetition is valuable as tending to secure virtuous habits and character4 ,on the ,augustinian theory1 religious instruction is only an appointed mode by which ,god chooses to regenerate a depraved nature4 ,it is a process for securing a new nature from ,god4 ,on the commonsense theory1 religious training is a process for securing the development and right action of mind by the influences of knowledge1 training and motives1 and without any change of its nature4 ,it is also clear that these two systems must be very diverse in reference to the interpretations of the ,creator's will as gained by reason or by revelations from ,god4 ,on the ,augustinian theory1 mind is so totally depraved as to be incapable of interpreting correctly1 either the natural teachings of reason and experience1 or the recorded revelations from ,god4 ,owing to this1 authorized interpreters of ,god's will are indispensable4 ,this makes the whole human race dependent on a class of men authorized by ,god to interpret his natural laws and revealed will4 ,on the contrary1 the commonsense theory claims that every mind1 in proportion as its powers are cultivated and developed1 has the means of discovering the end for which all things are created1 and of interpreting the teachings of reason and experience1 and also of interpreting any revealed records of ,god's will4 ,it thus appears that theologians and creeds that adopt the ,augustinian theory contradict themselves mainly in these two points3 ,first1 they teach that man's nature is depraved and that it is not depraved4 ,next1 that previous to regeneration1 men do not perform any truly virtuous acts1 and yet that while unregenerated they do perform such acts4 ,the quotation from creeds and theologians1 in preceding chapters1 is proof that they teach that man's nature is thus depraved1 and that previous to regeneration he never performs a single truly virtuous act4 ,this and the preceding chapter present some of the evidence that they teach the opposite4 ,the following is submitted as still further evidence of such contradictions4 ,in the first place1 it is allowed by all1 that the ,augustinian creeds and theologians teach that man1 as a race1 including every individual1 has a depraved nature4 ,the question1 then1 all turns on the meaning of the word nature1 and whether they affirm its depravity in the same sense as they affirm that in nature man is the living image of the living ,god and our only guide to a knowledge of him4 ,it is claimed that they do use the word nature in one and the same sense when they affirm that man's nature is and is not depraved4 ,in proof of this we must resort to our lexicographers who have collected the various senses in which mankind use the word nature4 ,and here we must again recognize the fact that the true meaning of every word is settled simply by ascertaining what meaning men attach to it when they use it4 ,in examining our dictionaries1 we shall find that the word nature is used sometimes to signify every thing that ,god has created2 as when it is said1 8all nature speaks its ,maker's praise40 ,sometimes1 by a figurative use1 the ,author of all things is called ,nature1 as when it is said that 8,nature paints the flowers and spreads her repasts40 ,no one will claim that either of these is the sense in which the word is used in reference to the nature of the mind of man as a race4 ,the leading and primary signification of the word nature is that which is intended and understood when we say that 8the nature of a design or construction is proof of the character and intention of the author40 ,it is in this sense that men use the word when they speak of the nature of animals1 the nature of trees1 and the nature of the soul4 ,in this use1 it has but one signification1 and that is1 those qualities1 powers and faculties which are discovered by experience and observation4 ,or in other words1 when we discover the qualities of a thing1 how it acts1 and how it is acted upon1 we learn its nature4 ,in regard to all other existences except mind1 the only mode of discovering their nature is to ascertain by experience and observation how they invariably appear and act4 ,thus we decide that it is the nature of water to run down hill by finding that it invariably does so2 and that it is the nature of smoke to rise in the atmosphere by observing that it invariably ascends4 ,owing to this1 mankind often use the word nature as signifying that which is according to ordinary experience4 ,that is to say1 the same word is used to express the qualities and powers of things1 and also to express that invariable experience by which we learn these qualities and powers4 ,what is according to our ordinary experience we say is according to nature1 and what is contrary to ordinary experience is contrary to nature4 ,thus it is according to nature for water to run down hill1 and it is contrary to nature for it to run up hill4 ,it is mind1 in distinction from matter1 which has the power of willing1 and this is a power which never is exercised invariably one way or another4 ,but theologians have practiced this fallacy on themselves and others4 ,they first assume1 what is contrary to fact1 that mind invariably chooses one way1 and that is wrong1 from birth to regeneration4 ,this being assumed without proof1 they claim that the nature of the human mind is thus proved to be depraved1 and totally so4 ,having thus1 as they imagine1 established its depraved voluntary nature1 they claim that1 like all other things1 the mind must act according to its nature1 which1 being wholly depraved1 all its moral acts are consequently depraved4 ,this is what logicians call arguing in a circle2 i4e41 they prove that it acts invariably wrong because it is totally depraved1 and it is totally depraved because it acts invariably wrong4 ,but common sense denies the starting assumption2 i4e41 the invariably wrong volitions of every mind from birth to regeneration4 ,on the contrary1 it is claimed that every choice which secures enjoyment without violating law1 is right1 and that whenever a mind chooses what is right1 with the intention to act right1 the choice is a truly virtuous act1 and that all men make such choices very often before regeneration4 ,whatever is according to ordinary experience in the qualities and action of mind1 is said to be according to its nature4 ,it is according to the nature of mind1 then1 sometimes to choose what is good1 right and virtuous1 and at other times to choose what is evil and wrong1 according to its knowledge1 temptations and habits4 ,such a case never was known as a mind that invariably chose wrong4 ,in view of the preceding1 it is maintained that the word nature1 as applied to mind1 as settled by lexicographers1 is always used to signify the same as its constitutional powers and faculties1 and that this is the sense in which it is employed when we say 8the nature of a construction or design is proof of the character and intention of the author40 ,we are now prepared to show that theologians use the word nature in this same sense when they affirm that it is totally depraved1 and when1 at the same time1 they teach that it is the image of ,god1 and our only guide to his nature and character4 ,we shall first present the evidence that they use the word in this sense1 when they teach that every human mind is so depraved in nature that from birth to regeneration every moral act is sin1 and only sin4 ,the first item of evidence is the fact that all the other meanings of the word1 in our dictionaries1 except this1 can be shown to be not the ones in which theologians use the word in reference to men as a race1 so that this use is the only one remaining4 ,they must use it in this sense1 as the only one left1 all others being necessarily excluded4 ,again1 the mode by which they attempt to prove that man has a depraved nature1 shows that they use the word in this sense4 ,for they exhibit the wrong action1 or sinful feelings and conduct of the race1 as the chief proof4 ,their argument is this3 the nature of a thing is proved by its qualities1 how it acts1 and how it is acted upon4 ,the human mind invariably acts depraved1 therefore its nature is depraved4 ,no one will deny that theologians always present the wicked feelings and conduct of children and of men as the proofs of a depraved nature4 ,it is true1 that in doing this they misstate facts1 and maintain that all the actions of men are sin1 and only sin4 ,this contradicts experience and common sense1 which affirm that the human mind sometimes acts right and sometimes wrong1 from the first2 showing that the nature of mind is such that it naturally acts right as well as wrong4 ,but this attempt proves that they used the word in the sense here stated4 ,again3 that theologians use the word in this sense1 is manifest from their attempts to relieve the character of ,god from the charge of being 8the author of sin40 ,they can not deny that the nature of a contrivance proves the character and intention of the author1 and that1 if ,god is the author of man's depravity by a wrong construction or nature of mind1 it would be proof that he is the author of all the sin resulting from it1 and thus a depraved character4 ,instead of denying this use of the term1 they allow it1 and then try to make man himself the author of this depraved nature1 either by1 or in1 or before ,adam4 ,that is1 they allow that man's mind is wrong in construction1 but claim that he himself is the author of this wrong4 ,again3 that theologians use the word nature in this sense1 is proved by their description of the depravity intended by them4 ,when they are urged to point out what the depraved nature of man consists in1 they always state something which shows it to be wrong in construction1 and which is exhibited in the wrong action of mind4 ,there are these following methods of describing this depravity1 viz43 #a4 ,it is called a bias1 propensity1 or inclination to sin4 #b4 ,it is called an unbalanced state of the faculties4 #c4 ,it is called a habit of sinning formed in a preexistent state4 #d4 ,it is called a wrong combination1 or proportion1 in the mental faculties4 #e4 ,it is called a state resulting from the deprivation of ,god's ,spirit4 ,it will now be shown that each and all of these equally involve the idea of that malformation or wrong construction which proves its author depraved4 ,the first is the most common method4 ,on this view1 it is claimed that the minds of angels and of ,adam were constructed with such a bias or tendency to good as secured their perfect action for a given period4 ,the mind of man1 on the contrary1 begins existence here so constructed that it has a contrary bias to evil2 so that it never1 in a single instance1 chooses right till regenerated4 ,the angels and ,adam had a holy nature1 meaning a bias1 which ,god created4 ,mankind have a contrary bias1 which is a depraved nature1 and of this1 man is the author1 either in1 or by1 or before ,adam4 ,and they all allow1 that if ,god had created this depraved bias1 or depraved nature1 he would be 8the author of sin40 ,the second mode is1 the claim that man's depravity consists in an unbalanced state of his faculties or propensities4 ,the angels and ,adam were created by ,god with the proper balance1 and this is the holy nature made by ,god4 ,man is born with an unbalanced state of the faculties1 and this was created by man himself1 either by1 or in1 or before ,adam4 ,now the balance of the faculties is as much a part of the construction of mind as any thing else1 and if ,god created this depraved1 he is proved to be depraved4 ,the third mode is1 the claim that the depravity of man's mind consists in a habit of sinning4 ,on this view1 ,god created man's mind aright1 in all respects1 in a prexistent state4 ,in this normal condition of mind1 every propensity was toward not only good1 but to the best good1 while there was sufficient knowledge of right created also1 to save from all mistakes of judgment as to what is best and right4 ,in this perfect state some minds began to sin1 and thus formed a habit of sinning1 and were then sent into this world to be reformed4 ,here it is plain1 that the depravity intended is depravity of construction4 ,for habit1 as men use the term1 expresses the fact that repetition in the use of any faculty increases its power4 ,it is a change in the constitutional construction of mind induced by use4 ,for example1 a child has little constitutional power of mind to reason or to calculate figures4 ,by use1 this deficiency of construction is modified4 ,habit1 then1 modifies the constitutional organization of mind4 ,this mode of describing the depravity of mind teaches the misconstruction of constitutional organization as much as all the others1 but it furnishes another mode by which it was induced1 so as to make man the author in a way that is comprehensible1 and not absurd47#af7 ,the fourth mode is the claim that the depravity of the human mind consists in the disparities1 or varieties1 of constitutional organization4 ,it has been shown that such disparities1 as parts of a vast system in which the best good of the whole is the best good of each part1 are indispensable to the perfect construction of mind in relation to that system4 ,but the depravity claimed is1 that which is common to every mind1 and is so total that not a single mind1 however highly endowed1 ever1 even in one case1 acts virtuously till regenerated4 ,thus the best in mental construction are as totally depraved as the worst4 ,at the same time1 it is clear that it is constitutional malformation that is taught1 and nothing else4 ,the fifth mode of describing the depravity of mind is that it consists in the deprivation of ,god's ,spirit4 ,the result of this deprivation is thus described by ,dr4 ,hodge1 of the ,princeton ,calvinist school of divines3 8,in consequence of this withdrawal we begin to exist in moral darkness1 destitute of a disposition to delight in ,god40 ,arminius1 the chief theologian of the ,methodists1 describes it thus3 8,the will of man1 with respect to the true good1 is not only wounded1 bruised1 inferior1 crooked and attenuated1 but is likewise captivated1 destroyed and lost2 and has no powers whatever1 except such as are excited by grace40 ,thus the presence of ,god's ,spirit in ,adam's mind1 according to ,dr4 ,hodge1 insured a 8disposition0 to delight in ,god1 which was lost by its withdrawal4 ,according to ,arminius1 this withdrawal so affected the whole race1 that 8in respect to the true good0 the will of man has no powers whatever1 except such as are excited by grace--that is1 by a measured return of ,god's ,spirit1 withdrawn for ,adam's sin1 which return was purchased by ,christ's death4 ,it is clear1 that it is the powers and faculties of mind that are meant here1 in this explanation of the depravity of man's nature4 ,thus it is shown that every attempt to explain what depravity consists in1 by theologians1 results in their teaching a constitutional malformation1 which proves the author of the construction to be depraved4 ,we will now present the evidence1 that theologians contradict themselves1 and deny that they use the word nature in the sense of constitutional organization or construction1 and maintain that they use it in some other sense4 ,in all creeds and all theological teachings1 the authors expressly disclaim that they maintain any thing which makes ,god 8the author of sin40 ,and they allow1 that making ,god the creator of a depraved nature1 would make him the author of sin4 ,therefore1 to escape the difficulty1 they claim that ,god is the author of one nature1 which is perfect and in his own image1 and that there is another nature which man himself made1 either by1 or in1 or before ,adam1 which is depraved4 ,then when they are driven to identify the nature that ,god made and the nature that man made1 they are again at fault4 ,man really has but one nature1 and that is the nature which is discovered by his qualities and actions1 as learned by experience4 ,there is no other nature conceivable1 and no other idea that men ever attach to the word when applied to the mind or soul of man4 ,therefore1 theologians really do use it in the sense which they deny1 for there is no other4 ,again1 theologians deny that they teach 8physical depravity0 and 8physical regeneration10 and the only intelligible sense of this disclaimer is1 that they do not teach depravity of construction and the reformation of this depravity of construction4 ,but1 as before shown1 when they describe the depravity and regeneration1 they make out what actually is physical depravity and physical regeneration1 and nothing else4 ,again1 when they attempt to describe what they mean1 one class of theologians--i4e41 new school ,calvinists--teach that the whole depravity consists in a want of 8right willing40 ,and this is exactly what the commonsense system teaches--i4e41 that the depravity of man is in the wrong action and not in the wrong construction of mind4 ,and yet when they are charged with holding the ,pelagian doctrine of perfect mental construction1 they deny it1 and say they teach depravity of nature4 ,as an example of this1 is presented the following extract from the writings of ,dr4 ,bennet ,tyler1 the president of a theological seminary established to sustain the ,new ,england theology of the ,president ,edwards' type1 in opposition to the supposed ,pelagian innovations of the ,new ,haven theologians3 8,god has endowed you with understanding to perceive the rule of duty1 with conscience to feel obligation1 and with will to choose between good and evil4 ,possessing these powers1 you are complete moral agents1 and have all the ability to obey the commands of ,god that you ever will have1 or ever can have--we do not mean that all the powers and faculties of his 7man's7 soul are so impaired that he could not do his duty if he would1 but that he will not do his duty when he can40 ,in reading the above1 one would suppose that there was nothing wrong at all in the construction of the human mind1 and that the whole difficulty consisted in not willing aright--that is1 that the depravity is not in a wrong nature1 but in the wrong action of a perfect nature4 ,and yet1 at the time of this writing1 the author was the leader of an effort to oppose this very doctrine1 which was supposed to be taught by the ,new ,haven divines4 ,in a recent work by the chief theological teacher of the leading ,baptist ,seminary17#ag7 we find similar contradictory statements4 ,he thus writes3 8,regeneration is not only characterized by the sacred writers as a creative act1 by which the subject of it becomes a new creature in ,christ ,jesus1 and a generation from above1 by which the soul is brought into new spiritual life2 but also a washing1 a bathing1 effected by the ,holy ,ghost1 by which the polluted soul is cleansed2 as an illumination1 by which it is filled with the knowledge of ,god1 and qualified to appreciate spiritual things4 ,the eye of conscience is cleared1 the desires and affections are renewed and flow into new channels1 and the selfish views1 prejudices and motives1 which formerly reigned in the soul1 are superseded by faith1 love and hope1 resting in ,christ1 and leading to every good work4 ,the entire spirit is readjusted morally1 its aspirations1 tendencies and relations to ,god are rectified1 and it enters1 so to speak1 upon a new life40 ,in this passage1 regeneration is called 8a creative act0 changing the conscience1 the desires1 the views1 the prejudices and the motives--so that 8the entire spirit is readjusted10 and all its 8aspirations1 tendencies and relations to ,god are rectified40 ,it is not in the power of language to express a change in the faculties and constitutional elements of mind more entirely than this2 and yet the very next paragraph reads thus3 8,but all this pertains to the moral condition of the soul1 affording no evidence that its essence has been changed2 that any faculty or constitutive element has been added1 any fresh vigor or new principle of existence infused40 ,but the most remarkable illustration of selfcontradiction among theologians1 involved in every attempt to maintain a depraved nature consequent on ,adam's sin1 is found in the teachings of ,dr4 ,taylor1 the leader of the ,new ,haven school of divines4 ,in his ,concio ad ,clerum1 in #ahbh1 one aim probably was1 to meet the charges against himself1 of teaching the ,pelagian tenet1 that man's depravity consists1 not in nature1 but in action4 ,in reference to this he writes thus3 8,men are entirely depraved by nature4 ,i do not thereby mean that their nature is itself sinful1 nor that their nature is the physical or efficient cause of their sinning2 but ,i mean that their nature is the occasion or reason of their sinning--that such is their nature1 that in all the appropriate circumstances of their being they will sin and only sin40 ,again-- 8,it is important to say that sin is by nature1 owing to propensities to inferior good1 with a difference between ,adam's mind and ours--though we can not assert that1 in which this difference may consist2--that our propensities are the same in kind1 though different in degree from those of ,adam2 that perhaps this distinction may consist in mental differences1 or in superior tendencies1 compared with ,adam's to natural good1 and less tendency to the highest good40 ,in the above extract1 it is as clear as language can make it1 that ,dr4 ,taylor taught1 in #ahbh1 that in men sin by nature is owing to propensities to inferior good1 which are 8different from ,adam's10 who was created perfect1 and that this is 8the occasion or reason0 of their sinning1 and that 8such is their nature1 that in all appropriate circumstances of their being1 they will sin1 and only sin40 ,this must mean the construction of mind4 ,he does not claim to describe1 certainly1 what this difference is between the nature of ,adam and that of his descendants2 but he maintains that while ,adam's nature was not so created by ,god at first1 the nature of all his descendants is so depraved1 that1 as the result1 they 8sin1 and only sin10 till regenerated4 ,but1 in contradiction to this1 is presented the extract below1 sent by ,dr4 ,taylor to the author1 in a letter in which he was attempting to show that he did not teach the depravity of man in his constitutional faculties4 ,and he claims that what he thus writes is what he has 8always taught30 8,i have always taught that man1 after the fall of ,adam1 was as truly created in ,god's image as was ,adam2 that ,christ was tempted in all points like as we are2 that the stronger are our inferior propensities1 if we govern them1 as we can1 by the morally right act of the will1 the greater is the moral excellence of the act4 ,i do not maintain that man has full power to change his depraved nature without divine aid--for ,i have never supposed that he has a depraved nature in ,,any sense1 or a corrupt nature1 much less a sinful nature1 to be changed2 but rather1 that in nature he is like ,god4 ,in discussions ,i have always opposed the use of language by your father and ,mr4 ,barnes1 of a corrupt nature not sinful40 ,now it is not possible to make these two extracts any thing other than exact contradictions4 ,for in one he teaches that men are so totally depraved in nature1 that 8in all the appropriate circumstances of their being they will sin1 and only sin40 ,in the other1 he says of man1 8,i have never supposed that he has a depraved nature1 in any sense1 or a corrupt nature1 much less a sinful nature1 to be changed2 but rather that in nature he is like ,god40 ,if it is asked1 8,how is it possible that a man1 at once so honest and so acute1 can thus contradict himself and not perceive it80 it may be replied1 that he has done it no more than does every other theologian and every creed that teaches at once1 that the nature of man is so depraved at birth that every moral act is sin1 and only sin1 till regeneration--and yet1 that ,god1 the ,creator of all minds1 is not the author of the sin resulting from such a depraved nature4 ,and theologians are not peculiar in selfcontradictions4 ,every error is a contradiction to some principle of common sense4 ,thus it is a fact1 that1 as all men believe and maintain1 by a necessity of nature1 the principles of common sense1 every false principle or error which they defend1 is a flat contradiction to some of their other declarations on other occasions4 ,meantime1 it is the great mission of all free and fair discussion to bring men to see their own inconsistencies1 and to forsake all which are shown to be contrary to reason and common sense4 ,,chapter ,,xxxiii4 ,,the ,,augustinian ,,theory ,,not ,,in ,,the ,,bible4 ,in the preceding chapters it is shown that theological creeds and teachings maintain the commonsense system1 and at the same time the contradictory ,augustinian system4 ,in other words1 it is shown that the ,augustinian theologians contradict at once our common sense1 our moral sense1 and themselves4 ,it will next be shown that the ,augustinian theory is not contained in the ,bible1 and that theologians conflict with each other in regard to this point also4 ,there is only one passage in the ,bible which was ever claimed by any one as teaching a depraved nature consequent on ,adam's sin4 ,that passage is ,romans v41 from the #abth to the #aith verse3 #ab ,wherefore1 as by one man sin entered into the world1 and death by sin2 and so death passed upon all men1 for that all have sinned3 #ac ,for until the law1 sin was in the world2 but sin is not imputed when there is no law4 #ad ,nevertheless1 death reigned from ,adam to ,moses1 even over them that had not sinned after the similitude of ,adam's transgression1 who is the figure of him that was to come4 #ae ,but not as the offense1 so also is the free gift4 ,for if through the offense of one many be dead1 much more the grace of ,god1 and the gift by grace1 which is by one man1 ,jesus ,christ1 hath abounded unto many4 #af ,and not as it was by one that sinned1 so is the gift4 ,for the judgment was by one to condemnation1 but the free gift is of many offenses unto justification4 #ag ,for if by one man's offense death reigned by one2 much more they which receive abundance of grace1 and of the gift of righteousness1 shall reign in life by one1 ,jesus ,christ4 #ah ,therefore1 as by the offense of one judgment came upon all men to condemnation1 even so by the righteousness of one the free gift came upon all men unto justification of life4 #ai ,for as by one man's disobedience many were made sinners1 so by the obedience of one shall many be made righteous4 ,in this passage these things are taught3 #a4 ,by one man sin entered and death by sin1 and so i4e41 by one man death passed on all men1 for that all have sinned4--,verses #ab1 #ac1 #ad4 #b4 ,through the offense of one many have died4--,verse #ae4 #c4 ,the judgment was by one to condemnation4--,verse #af4 #d4 ,by one man's offense death reigned by one4--,verse #ag4 #e4 ,by the offense of one1 judgment came on all to condemnation4--,verse #ah4 #f4 ,by one man's disobedience many were made sinners4--,v4 #ai4 ,there are three modes of interpreting this passage1 and the question all turns on whether the death spoken of is natural death or spiritual4 ,interpretation of the ,apostolic ,age4 ,the first interpretation is that of the ,apostolic age and onward to the time of ,augustine4 ,it is briefly this3 ,adam is a type of ,christ1 and as by ,adam's sin natural death came on all who are his natural children1 7for they all1 like ,adam1 have sinned and suffer death as the consequence17 so by one man1 ,christ1 spiritual life comes to all who are ,christ's spiritual children4 ,this simply teaches that ,adam as the head of a sinning race1 who suffer death in consequence of his sin and their own1 is an emblem or type of ,christ1 the head of a holy family1 who by him receive spiritual life4 ,condemnation and natural death come from sinning1 both to ,adam and to all the children brought into being by him4 ,justification and spiritual life come from ,christ to all whom he has caused to become his spiritual children4 ,for abundant proof that this was the interpretation of this passage1 from the apostles to the time of ,augustine1 the author refers to ,dr4 ,e4 ,beecher's ,conflict of ,ages1 book v41 chapter #b4 ,augustinian ,interpretation4 ,the ,augustinian interpretation is this3 ,the sin of ,adam caused a depraved nature and consequent spiritual death to all his descendants4 ,so also the obedience and death of ,christ have purchased or caused a holy nature and spiritual life to all who are regenerated4 ,princeton ,interpretation4 ,it has been shown that the ,princeton theologians teach1 that though all men did not sin in ,adam1 or sin at all1 before they were born1 yet ,god imputes ,adam's sin to them1 and regards and treats them as if they had committed it4 ,their interpretation of this passage then is briefly this3 ,as by1 or on account of1 ,adam's sin a condemning sentence came on all men1 so by ,christ's obedience a sentence of acquittal 7i4e41 justification7 came on all who are regenerated4 ,according to these divines1 verse #ab does not refer to a depraved nature nor to actual sin1 but only to the fact that all suffer the penalty for ,adam's sin through all time and eternity1 unless they are regenerated4 ,the ,princeton school of divines are the most strongly ,calvinistic in maintaining the total depravity of man and his entire inability to perform any truly virtuous act previous to regeneration4 ,here1 then1 we have these results3 ,the ,augustinian theory of the depraved nature of man1 consequent on ,adam's sin1 contradicts the common sense and moral sense of mankind1 contradicts the creeds and teachings that contain it1 and is not taught in the chief passage in the ,bible claimed as teaching it1 as interpreted by the whole ,christian world in the first four centuries1 and by a large body of ,calvinistic divines who teach total depravity at the present time4 ,whoever1 then1 denies that this passage of the ,bible teaches this doctrine is sustained by the whole ,church of the ,apostolic ages and by a great body of the highest ,calvinistic churches at this day4 ,there are some other passages that may be referred to as relating to this subject4 ,the first is ,romans1 chapter ii41 #f to #af3 8,who will render to every man according to his deeds3 to them who by patient continuance in welldoing1 seek for glory1 and honor1 and immortality2 eternal life3 but unto them that are contentious1 and do not obey the truth1 but obey unrighteousness1 indignation and wrath1 tribulation and anguish1 upon every soul of man that doeth evil2 of the ,jew first and also of the ,gentile2 but glory1 honor1 and peace to every man that worketh good2 to the ,jew first1 and also to the ,gentile2 for there is no respect of persons with ,god4 ,for as many as have sinned without law1 shall also perish without law2 and as many as have sinned in the law shall be judged by the law2 7for not the hearers of the law are just before ,god1 but the doers of the law shall be justified4 ,for when the ,gentiles1 which have not the law1 do by nature the things contained in the law1 these having not the law1 are a law unto themselves1 which show the work of the law written in their hearts1 their conscience also bearing witness1 and their thoughts the mean while accusing1 or else excusing one another27 in the day when ,god shall judge the secrets of men by ,jesus ,christ1 according to my gospel40 ,taken in its connection1 the word nature1 as used in this passage1 evidently is used in its primary and chief meaning1 to signify the constitutional powers or organization of mind4 8,the work of the law written in their hearts10 8their conscience also bearing witness20 these are what are referred to when it is said1 8the ,gentiles do by nature the things contained in the law40 ,and it is doing those things which secures 8glory1 honor and peace0--8to the ,jew first1 and also to the ,gentile40 ,another passage is ,ephesians1 ii41 #ac3 8,and you hath he quickened1 who were dead in trespasses and sins2 wherein in time past ye walked according to the course of this world1 according to the prince of the power of the air1 the spirit that now worketh in the children of disobedience3 among whom also we all had our conversation in times past in the lusts of our flesh1 fulfilling the desires of the flesh and of the mind2 and were by nature the children of wrath1 even as others40 ,in this passage the apostle is addressing those who in a succeeding verse are told1 8remember that ye being in times past ,gentiles in the flesh30 this being so1 they are those who1 the same writer says1 8do by nature the things contained in the law40 ,the signification of nature in this passage must be that which is according to ordinary experience4 ,that is1 according to ordinary experience mankind 8are children of wrath10 i4e41 subject to the wrathful penalties of disobedience to the laws of ,god4 ,but by the influences brought by ,christ1 8a new life0 is secured1 which is a life of intelligent and voluntary obedience to law1 an obedience which the natural penalties of law could not secure1 but which the knowledge and love of ,god1 as manifested by ,christ1 do secure4 ,one other text merits attention3 #a ,corinthians1 chapter ii41 #ad4 8,but the natural man receiveth not the things of the ,spirit of ,god1 for they are foolishness unto him2 neither can he know them1 because they are spiritually discerned40 ,in this passage the 8natural man0 must signify 8man as he is found in our ordinary experience40 ,the idea evidently intended1 is that mankind1 as a race1 do not understand or obey the truth as it is taught by ,christ and the ,spirit of ,god4 ,the fact is affirmed that without ,christ and the divine ,spirit to aid1 man as a race does not come to such knowledge of and obedience to the laws of ,god as secures eternal life4 ,in reference to most other texts quoted to prove a depraved nature1 it will be found that they simply affirm depraved action4 ,men1 in the ,bible1 are described as wrongdoers by their own wrong willing or choice and not by a depraved nature4 ,sometimes they are said to choose wrong and sometimes right1 and their wrong willing no more proves a depraved nature than the right willing proves a holy nature4 ,,chapter ,,xxxiv4 ,a ,,reliable ,,revelation ,,from ,,the ,,creator ,,impossible ,,if ,,it ,,contains ,,the ,,augustinian ,,theory4 ,the object aimed at in this chapter demands attention to the following preliminaries4 ,before we can gain a reliable revelation from our ,creator1 we are obliged to establish the truth that there is such a ,creator4 ,our only mode of doing this is by the method already set forth in chapter #aj1 and for which we are dependent on our reason or common sense4 ,having1 by the aid of reason1 arrived at a knowledge of the existence and character of the ,creator1 we next inquire as to the mode by which we can receive direct revelations from him4 ,here we find that we are again wholly dependent on reason or common sense4 ,the principle on which we alone rely for revelations from ,god is this3 ,a ,,change ,,in ,,the ,,established ,,order ,,of ,,nature ,,surpassing ,,human ,,power1 ,,is ,,evidence ,,of ,a ,,supernatural ,,agency ,,that ,,is ,,sanctioned ,,by ,,the ,,author ,,of ,,the ,,laws ,,of ,,nature4 ,the conviction of the wisdom and power of the ,author of this vast and wonderful frame around us is such that1 whatever changes may occur in its established order1 must be felt to be by his permission4 ,to illustrate this1 suppose a man appeared1 claiming to be a teacher sent from ,god4 ,in proof of this1 he commands a mountain to be uptorn and thrown into the sea4 ,now1 if this phenomenon should follow his command1 it would be impossible for any who witnessed it1 to refrain from believing that the ,author of ,nature performed this miracle to attest the authority of his messenger4 ,in order to insure this belief in the interference of the ,creator1 there must be full evidence that there can be no deception1 and that the miraculous performance is entirely beyond human power and skill4 ,men always talk and act on the assumption that such miracles are from ,god1 and all rational minds so regard them4 ,we have shown that the chief cause of a wrong action of mind1 is that it commences existence in perfect ignorance1 while all those causes which experience shows to be indispensable to its right action1 to a greater or less degree are wanting4 ,the grand want of our race is perfect educators to train newborn minds1 who are infallible teachers of what is right and true4 ,we have presented the evidence gained by reason and experience that the ,creator is perfect in mental constitution1 and that he always has acted right1 and always will thus act4 ,this being granted1 we infer that he always has done the best that is possible for the highest good of his creatures in this world1 and that he always will continue to do so4 ,we proceed to inquire in regard to what would be the best that is possible to be done for us in this state of being1 so far as we can conceive4 ,inasmuch as the great cause of the wrong action of mind is the ignorance and imperfection of those who are its educators in the beginning of its existence1 we should infer that the best possible thing to be done for our race1 would be to provide some perfect and infallible teacher to instruct those who are to educate mind4 ,this being granted1 then all would concede that the ,creator himself would be our best teacher1 and that1 if he would come to us himself in a visible form1 to instruct the educators of mind in all they need to know1 for themselves and for the newborn minds committed to their care1 it would be the best thing we can conceive of for the highest good of our race4 ,we next inquire as to the best conceivable mode by which the ,creator can manifest himself so as to secure credence4 ,to decide this1 let each one suppose the case his own4 ,let a man make his appearance claiming to be the ,creator4 ,we can perceive that his mere word would never command the confidence of intelligent practical men4 ,thousands of impostors have appeared and made such claims1 deceiving the weak and ignorant and disgusting the wise4 ,a person with such claims1 were he ever so benevolent and intelligent1 but having had no other evidence than his word to support them1 would1 by sensible persons1 be regarded as the victim of some mental hallucination4 ,but suppose that a person claiming to be the ,creator of all things1 or to be a messenger from him1 should attest his claim by shaking the earth1 or turning back the floods of the ocean1 it would be impossible for any man to witness these miracles without believing1 that the ,author of all things thus attested his own presence or the authority of his messenger4 ,we have shown that the very organization of mind would necessarily force such a belief on all sane minds4 ,one other method would be as effective4 ,should this person predict events so improbable and so beyond all human intelligence1 as to be equivalent to an equal interruption of experience as to the laws of mind1 as time developed the fulfillment of these predictions1 the same belief would be induced in the authority of the person thus supernaturally endowed4 ,in the case of miracles1 the evidence would be immediate and most powerful in its inception4 ,in the case of prophecy1 the power of the evidence would increase with time4 ,miracles and prophecy1 then1 are the only methods that we can conceive of1 that would1 as our minds are now constituted1 insure belief in revelations from the ,creator4 ,but if every human being1 in order to believe1 must have miracles1 there would result such an incessant violation of the laws of nature as to destroy them1 and thus to destroy all possibility of miracles4 ,the only possible way1 then1 to establish revelations to the race1 is to have them occur at certain periods of time1 and then have them adequately recorded and preserved4 ,the ,bible is a collection of books written at different periods of the world's history4 ,these books profess to be records of the various manifestations and teachings of the ,creator to mankind4 ,it is claimed for them1 that their authority is established by miracles and prophecy1 with all the evidence that is possible1 so far as we can conceive1 and that there are no other books in the world having any such evidence of authorized revelations from ,god4 ,no attempt will be made to set forth this evidence1 which1 it is claimed1 is peculiar to the ,bible4 ,the point here attempted is1 to show that1 were the ,augustinian system contained in these writings1 it would destroy their claims as reliable revelations from ,god1 even allowing that miracles and prophecy attested their authority4 ,all must allow that it is possible to have such things given in a revelation from ,god as would destroy its reliability4 ,for example1 suppose it were a fact that a revelation1 supported by miracles1 taught that there was no ,god4 ,this would necessarily destroy its authority as a revelation from ,god4 ,suppose again1 that it taught that the ,creator1 who wrought the attesting miracles1 was a liar1 and loved to deceive his creatures2 this would also destroy its reliability as a guide to truth4 ,suppose again1 that it taught that the ,creator was a being who preferred evil to good1 and chose to have his creatures ignorant and miserable1 when he has power to make them wise and happy4 ,this also would destroy the reliability of any revelation from the ,creator1 even were it sustained by undisputed miracles and prophecy4 ,this last is precisely what the ,augustinian system does teach1 and1 as its advocates claim1 it is a part of a revelation from the ,creator1 supported by miracles and prophecy4 ,in opposition to this1 it is maintained that this system is not to be found in the ,bible1 and that were it there1 all the miracles and prophecy conceivable could not prove these writings to be revelations from the ,creator1 which are reliable as our guide to truth and happiness4 ,a ,creator who wills ignorance and misery to his creatures1 when he has power to will knowledge and happiness in their place1 is not a being to be believed or trusted as our guide to truth and happiness4 ,it is in this light that the ,augustinian theory1 as a part of the ,bible1 brings the question fairly before the people1 as 8,bible or no ,bible80 ,,chapter ,,xxxv4 ,,tendencies ,,of ,,the ,,two ,,opposing ,,systems4 ,the preceding chapters have presented the distinctive features of two systems which1 in their main points1 are shown to be contradictory1 while both are exhibited as incorporated into the chief creeds and theological teachings of the ,christian world4 ,it is the object of this chapter to point out the tendencies of these antagonistic systems4 ,it is maintained1 that the commonsense system1 resting as it does on implanted principles common to all minds1 is evolved and held very much in proportion to the development of the reasoning powers and the moral sense4 ,that part of this system which relates to man's duties and best interests in this life1 without reference to a future state1 has been more harmoniously evolved by the wise and good of all ages and nations than any other4 ,thus1 in the teachings of ,confucius1 ,zoroaster1 ,gaudama1 ,solon1 ,socrates1 ,plato1 ,aristotle1 ,seneca1 and the ,antonines1 who are among the chief heathen sages1 we can find nearly all the moral duties of man1 to himself and to his fellowman1 which are to be found in the ,bible4 ,it is true that there are diversities and deficiencies in all2 but a large body of pure morality could be made up from their united teachings4 ,the account given of the system of ,boodhism in a previous chapter is one illustration of this fact4 ,but1 while it is comparatively easy for the good and wise heathen to reason out what is best for man in this life1 as taught by experience1 the grand failure is in motives which will secure obedience to the rules of virtue4 8,we see the right and yet the wrong pursue10 has been the universal lament of humanity4 ,the character of the ,creator1 as 8the ,lord1 the ,lord ,god1 merciful and gracious1 slow unto anger1 of great kindness20 8who doth not willingly afflict or grieve the children of men20 who 8like as a father pitieth his children20 who is 8a father of the fatherless and a judge of the widow20 8a ,god without iniquity1 just and right20 8a judge of the fatherless and the poor20 who 8shall judge the world with righteousness20 8a righteous ,god1 who trieth the heart and the reins20 who 8will regard the prayer of the destitute20 who 8knoweth the wants of the heart20 8who knoweth our downsitting and uprising1 and is acquainted with all our ways20 who is 8a righteous ,lord who loveth righteousness20 8whose judgments are all right20 whose 8word is right20 whose 8word is truth from the beginning20 who is 8plenteous in mercy and truth20 such a character as this1 as it is recorded in the ,jewish sacred books1 was never evolved or set forth by the wisest and best sages of all the earth1 unaided by these writings4 ,that such a ,being regards our race with longsuffering compassion1 and came himself to earth1 by his teachings1 example and selfsacrificing love1 to save us from sin1 this was never even imagined by any of the heathen sages of earth4 ,the power of motive1 secured by a belief in the omnipresence1 sympathy and love of such a ,god1 never was attained by the unaided reasoning of any human being4 ,the fact that the soul survives the dissolution of the body1 and that the good go where they are happy1 and the wicked where they are punished1 has been more or less clearly evolved by the heathen world4 ,in some nations1 as for example the followers of ,boodhism1 this doctrine is quite definite and distinct1 but with most heathen nations all their notions on this subject are dim1 shadowy and unpractical4 ,it is those nations alone1 who have had access to the ,bible1 who have ever attained the powerful motives which are found in the system of common sense4 ,and yet1 as has been shown1 these influences have been1 to a great extent1 nullified by a contradictory system4 ,it is claimed1 that the system of common sense is the one on which the revelations of the ,creator1 contained in the ,bible1 are founded4 ,this being so1 those who are most developed in their reasoning powers1 and who also yield the most reverence to the ,bible1 are those who are most powerfully protected against the pernicious tendencies of the antagonistic system of ,augustine4 ,thus1 a system which is antagonistic to reason and common sense1 has1 by ecclesiastical authority and perversion1 been fastened most firmly on that class of minds who bring all their cultivated powers to its defense1 while at the same time the very cultivation of these powers1 and their reverence for the ,bible1 tend to the destruction of the same system4 ,we consequently find the strongest defenders1 and the strongest antagonists of the ,augustinian system1 in those sects who were educated within its entrenchments4 ,if common sense and the ,bible are to conquer this false system1 it must be done by those whose common sense and reverence for the ,bible are most effective and most prominent4 ,and yet this class of persons are the ones1 who would the most vigorously apply their energies in the defense of a system in which they have been trained from infancy1 and which is sustained by all the power of public sentiment1 and church organization4 ,this being premised1 the tendencies of the two antagonistic systems will now be set forth4 ,,chapter ,,xxxvi4 ,,tendencies ,,of ,,the ,,two ,,systems ,,as ,,they ,,respect ,,the ,,cultivation ,,of ,,the ,,moral ,,and ,,intellectual ,,powers4 ,the system of common sense rests on the assumption that there are principles of right and wrong founded on the eternal nature of things1 existing independently of the will of the ,creator in his own eternal mind1 and by which his character and conduct may be judged4 ,the human mind is constructed in accordance with these principles1 as the embryo image of the ,eternal ,creator4 ,by the aid of these principles1 we discover the design and character of ,god in the nature of his works1 and can perceive what is right or wrong in moral action as tending to fulfill or oppose this design4 ,thus we are enabled to understand and to adore the rectitude1 wisdom and goodness of our ,creator1 as manifested either in his works or in more direct revelations from him4 ,according to this system1 all voluntary action is right which produces happiness without violating the laws of ,god4 ,thus every person who is making self or others happy in the best way1 guided by the teachings of experience or by revelations from ,god1 is fulfilling the great design of our ,maker1 and thus pleasing him by promoting his chief desire4 ,on the contrary1 the ,augustinian system assumes that the human mind1 being totally depraved1 is entirely disqualified to judge of the character and ways of ,god4 ,nay more1 it assumes that there is no standard of right and wrong by which we can judge of the rectitude of the ways of ,god4 ,according to this theory1 the fact that ,god wills a thing is what makes it right2 so that any thing is right if ,god does it1 and true if he says it1 however contrary it may be to our moral nature and common sense4 ,in the teachings of moral science1 founded on this theory1 it is maintained that ,god has formed our minds to feel certain emotions of approval or disapproval in view of certain relations and actions1 which are right or wrong only as agreeing or disagreeing with his will4 ,but as the mind of man is depraved1 this constitution is no certain guide1 and we are dependent on direct revelations from ,god to teach us what is in agreement with his will4 ,yet here again we are at fault2 for such is our depravity that we are disqualified to interpret these revelations1 except as we are regenerated by ,god4 ,accordingly1 man has no means of judging of the designs or character of his ,maker--nor1 while unregenerate1 as most of our race are and have been1 has he any sure means of discovering the will of ,god1 either by reason or revelation1 saving as he may find infallible priestly interpreters4 ,tendencies of the ,two ,systems in ,regard to the ,cultivation of the ,reasoning ,powers and ,moral ,sense4 ,the commonsense system1 resting on the assumption that happinessmaking1 according to the laws of ,god1 is the chief end of man1 naturally leads to the development of the intellect and reason in order to discover these laws1 and to the devotion of all our powers to happinessmaking1 according to these laws4 ,this being so1 every thing that tends to make enjoyment and diminish evil without violating law1 is valued as good and right4 ,all noble1 generous1 selfsacrificing and honorable sentiments and acts are regarded as right1 pleasing to the ,father of all1 and tending equally to promote the best good of ourselves and of all our fellowbeings4 ,in this light we become one with the ,father and with all good beings just so far as we obey all the physical1 social and moral laws of our ,creator1 and thus conform to his will1 and add to his happiness4 ,thus the direct tendency of this system is to promote an earnest desire1 first to discover all that is true and right1 and then to follow it4 ,and such efforts naturally tend both to develop our highest powers1 and to bring the mind into harmony and communion with the ,father of our spirits4 ,on the contrary1 the ,augustinian system1 resting on the assumption that all the plans and ways of ,god are a mystery beyond our comprehension2 that man1 by nature1 has no power to understand what is right or wrong in ,god's dispensations2 that what we call goodness and virtue in unregenerate minds is not so in ,god's sight2 that every act of every unrenewed mind is sin1 and only sin2 that until regenerated we never do any thing to move ,god to recreate our ruined nature2 all this in its tendency leads to recklessness1 hopelessness and neglect of all virtuous efforts1 as useless in regard to our highest interests4 ,as before intimated1 these tendencies are more or less counteracted by the teachings of common sense and the ,bible4 ,still1 such tendencies must always be1 more or less1 effective and disastrous4 ,,chapter ,,xxxvii4 ,,tendencies ,,of ,,the ,,two ,,systems ,,in ,,respect ,,to ,,individual ,,religious ,,experience4 ,the ,augustinian system1 assuming that true personal religion consists in the exercises of 8a new nature10 tends to introverted mental efforts1 in order to discover whether the signs of such a nature exist in ourselves4 ,as1 on this theory1 it is certain that man will do nothing to change his fallen nature until the ,spirit of ,god is given to aid1 the great attention and effort must be directed to those methods1 which 8the church0 decides1 or experience has proved1 to be connected with the bestowal of this spiritual gift4 ,not knowing clearly what the depraved nature is1 which is to be changed1 nor the certain signs of its existence or recreation1 nor any certain mode of securing the desired change1 there is a perplexing variety of vague instructions as to 8what we must do to be saved80 ,in illustration of this1 the following from an article by the editor of the ,methodist ,quarterly1 shows how ,wesley and his followers instruct on this subject3 8,i have continually testified1 in private and in public10 says ,wesley1 8that we are sanctified as well as justified by faith40 ,this being first stated1 the great question follows1 what is that faith by which we are justified and sanctified8 ,the answer is this3 8,it is a divine evidence and conviction1 first that ,god hath promised it in the holy ,scriptures2 secondly1 that what ,god hath promised he is able to perform2 thirdly1 that he is able and willing to do it now4 ,to this1 is to be added one thing more3 a divine conviction that he doeth it4 ,in that hour it is done407#ah7 ,that is1 in order to be justified and sanctified we must have a divine evidence and conviction that ,god is able and willing1 and actually does now give the justification and sanctification we seek4 ,in other words1 in order to gain what we seek we must believe that we have gained it4 ,in order to get a blessing we must believe that we possess it4 ,thus it is1 that one of the largest sects of our country is instructed by its founder and his most intelligent and learned followers1 as to the way of salvation from everlasting and inconceivable misery4 ,it will be remembered1 that this class of divines teach that the depravity of man's mind consists in the deprivation of ,god's ,spirit1 which is withheld from all the descendants of ,adam on account of his sin4 ,the following presents the mode of instruction in which the author was educated4 ,it is contained in a letter from ,dr4 ,nettleton1 a celebrated revival preacher1 who often resided with the author's father during revivals in which they were colaborers4 ,this letter was written to oppose the views of the ,new ,haven divines1 who maintained that1 although in consequence of ,adam's sin1 there is a tendency or bias to evil so powerful as to insure 8sin1 and only sin0 till regeneration occurs1 yet that the act of regeneration consists in a choice or purpose on the part of man himself4 ,in reference to these views of ,dr4 ,taylor and others1 ,dr4 ,nettleton says3 8,they adopt a new theory of regeneration4 ,it has been said by some that regeneration consists in removing this sinful bias1 which is anterior to actual volition2 this they deny4 ,but whether we call this propensity sinful or not1 all orthodox divines who have admitted its existence have1 ,i believe1 united in the opinion that regeneration does consist in removing it10 which the ,new ,haven divines denying1 they are excluded from the 8orthodox0 ranks1 in the view of ,dr4 ,n4 ,he continues thus3 8,no sinner ever did or ever will make a holy choice prior to an inclination1 bias or tendency to holiness4 8,on the whole their i4e41 the ,new ,haven divines views of depravity1 of regeneration and of the mode of preaching to sinners can not fail1 ,i think1 of doing very great mischief4 ,this exhibition i4e41 that regeneration consists in man's choice overlooks the most alarming feature of human depravity and the very essence of experimental religion4 ,it is directly calculated to prevent sinners from coming under conviction of sin44440 8,the progress of conviction ordinarily is as follows3 ,trouble and alarm first1 on account of outward sins2 secondly1 on account of hardness of heart1 deadness and insensibility to divine things1--tendency1 bias1 proneness or propensity to sin1 both inferred and felt2 and this the convicted sinner always regards1 not merely as calamitous1 but as awfully criminal in the sight of ,god4 ,and the sinner utterly despairs of salvation without a change in this propensity to sin4 ,and while he feels this propensity to be thus criminal1 he is fully aware that if ,god1 by a sovereign act of his grace1 does not interpose to remove or change it1 he shall never give his heart to ,god1 nor make one holy choice40 ,the great point taught by ,dr4 ,nettleton and his associates was1 that man has a depraved nature consisting in a bias or propensity to sin1 consequent on ,adam's sin1 for which we are 8awfully criminal in the sight of ,god10 and which man himself will never remedy2 that regeneration consists in the change of this bias by ,god1 and that until ,god does make this change man will 8never give his heart to ,god nor make one holy choice40 ,and yet his sermons1 as the writer heard them month after month1 abounded in pungent addresses to sinners1 commanding them in ,god's name to 8give their hearts to ,god10 and maintaining that their inability to do so was owing to their own fault and unwillingness to do so4 ,at the same time1 the ,new ,haven divines1 in the same pulpit1 were urging their views1 showing that regeneration consisted in 8choosing ,god and his service20 that man was fully able to do this1 and yet that owing to his depraved nature1 he never would do it1 until that nature was in some way changed by ,god4 ,meantime1 on their view also1 every voluntary act1 previous to regeneration1 was 8sin1 and only sin40 ,nor had ,god pointed out any sure mode of obtaining from him the gift of regenerating grace4 ,they1 however1 urged that the results of experience proved that regeneration1 though not promised to unregenerate doings1 is1 as a matter of fact1 bestowed more frequently on those who use 8the means of grace10 such as prayer1 reading the ,bible and frequenting religious meetings1 than on those who do not4 ,the points of difference between the ,new ,haven theologians and their opponents1 seemed to be1 that the former taught that regeneration was the act of man himself in choosing ,god's service2 while ,dr4 ,nettleton and his associates taught that it consisted in the change of man's nature by ,god1 and not in what was done by man himself4 ,the ,new ,haven theologians have been more definite in their attempts to explain the exact nature of regeneration than any other class4 ,they all agree1 however1 that man never will1 in any case1 become regenerated until ,god in some measure rectifies the injury done to human nature by ,adam's sin2 that ,god points out no definite way to secure this aid2 and that previous to regeneration every moral act of man is 8sin1 and only sin40 ,as to the signs or evidence of regeneration1 those who teach that man's depravity consists in the deprivation of ,god's ,spirit1 on account of ,adam's sin1 often lead to the expectation of some sudden 8light and joy10 as the first evidence of regeneration4 ,such1 also1 follow ,wesley's direction1 and try to believe that they are justified and sanctified1 in order to become so4 ,others point out certain emotions toward ,god or toward ,jesus ,christ as the proof of the commencement of a new nature4 ,some divines lead to the impression that the new nature consists in a mysterious indwelling of ,god in the soul1 or a union of our nature to his1 so that when it takes place1 there is a natural outflowing of good feelings and good works1 as there was of evil before this union4 ,but they point out no intelligible way of gaining this union4 ,the ,catholic church teaches that regeneration is conferred by the rite of baptism1 and that thus a seed or some mysterious principle is implanted1 which is developed by use of the forms and rites of 8the church10 and exhibited in 8good works40 ,the ,episcopal churches1 more or less1 retain this view in the teachings of their clergy4 8,saving faith10 or the 8faith which justifies10 is described by religious teachers with most singular and inconsistent forms of expression4 ,if any person will make a collection of the various diverse explanations of this indispensable requisite to eternal life1 it would prove a most mournful illustration of vague teachings in reply to the great question1 8,what must we do to be saved80 ,the following extract was prepared by a very intelligent theological student at the request of the author1 in reference to the great question1 8,what must we do to be saved80 as set forth in a recent work1 highly recommended for its clear and practical views on this great matter4 ,this work1 entitled 8,the ,higher ,christian ,life10 exhibits not only the author's views of what regeneration consists in1 but his views of another subject that has greatly interested many minds in the religious world1 under the name of ,christian ,perfection3 8,i have examined1 as you requested1 the book entitled #8,the ,higher ,christian ,life1' with a view of gaining the author's definition of #8conversion1' or #8regeneration1' and his directions for securing it1 and also his idea of what the #8second conversion' consists in4 ,his view of the first conversion1 or regeneration1 is the generally entertained one1 i4e41 it is the pardon of our sins4 ,this pardon is instantaneous and entire4 ,the moment a soul believes in ,christ1 and accepts his atonement1 that moment it experiences a complete sense of pardoned sin4 8,luther experienced this when1 after fasting1 and watching1 and struggling under the weight of sins unforgiven had brought him to the brink of the grave1 these words were brought home to his mind1 #8,i believe in the forgiveness of sins4' ,from that moment #8joy filled his soul1 and he arose quickly from the depths of despair and the bed of sickness4' 8,second conversion is the cleansing from sin1 which the author says #8is a work of indefinite length1' and in this particular alone differs from the first conversion4 8,but1 in the examples cited by him1 the experience of this second conversion has been as instantaneous as the first4 ,luther1 climbing ,pilate's staircase on his hands and knees1 for the purpose of gaining holiness1 was brought to his feet by the truth1 #8,the just shall live by faith4' #8,then1' ,luther says1 #8,i felt myself born again4 ,as a new man ,i entered by an open door into the very ,paradise of ,god4' 8,so in all the other examples of this author1 the apprehension of ,christ as the way1 is instantaneous2 and yet he says #8the work of ,christ remains yet to be done in the future4' ,in this point only does it differ from the first conversion1 that it is not all done in an instant1 although1 as ,i have said before1 his examples all make the impression that in both cases the work is instantaneous40 ,this extract is not given as a correct exhibition of the views of this author1 for it may not do him justice4 ,it is given to show how vague and indefinite are the teachings of religious writers and preachers on this subject4 ,here is a book recommended for its clear views by the highest class of minds4 ,it is read and reread by an intelligent1 welleducated young man1 who is studying theology in one of our first seminaries4 ,he then gives this author's view of regeneration1 as that which he supposes to be contained in that book1 and also as 8the one generally entertained40 ,and what is this answer to the great question1 8,what must we do to be saved80--a question on which the happiness of endless ages is suspended4 ,it is the pardon of sin1 which 8is instantaneous and entire40 ,this is something which ,god does1 and this1 as it would seem1 is regeneration4 ,next it is stated that 8the moment a soul believes in ,christ and accepts his atonement1 that moment it experiences a complete sense of pardoned sin40 ,here one must ask1 8what is signified by believing in ,christ and accepting his atonement8 ,is this also regeneration1 and if so1 does it consist in the intellectual assent to the proposition that ,christ as ,god suffered and died1 and by this act secured the pardon of our sin80 ,there is nothing given to decide these queries4 ,next1 it is stated that this act of faith is followed by 8a complete sense of pardoned sin40 ,is this regeneration1 or is it a part of it8 ,there is nothing given to decide this question4 ,it is certain that the young man1 totally failed in his efforts to secure any clear and definite conceptions of the author's meaning1 exactly as has been the case with the writer herself1 for whom the above extract was prepared4 ,it has been the privilege of the writer1 often to listen to the preaching of ,dr4 ,bushnell1 one of the most popular of all our religious teachers4 ,on one such occasion during the present season1 the object of his sermon seemed to be to teach what was that true knowledge of ,god1 which he urged on his hearers4 ,he stated that it was not merely an intellectual apprehension of his character and deeds1 but something which every soul must gain in order to secure eternal life1 something1 as it seemed1 which he deemed regeneration4 ,he finally enunciated this1 which seemed to be his idea of this indispensable experience3 8,it is the return of ,god into the human soul40 ,in enlarging on this1 he described something which was so vague and indefinite as to make it useless to attempt to state the impression made4 ,afterward1 aid was sought from one of the preacher's constant and most intelligent hearers4 8,does ,dr4 ,bushnell believe in a prexistent state1 when ,god1 in the manner set forth1 was in the soul of each human being8 ,if not1 what does he mean by a #8return of ,god into the soul8' 0 ,after some discussion1 this intelligent parishioner concluded that his meaning probably was1 that when we desire and intend wholly to submit our wills to that of ,god1 and to be guided wholly by him1 we become in this respect one with ,god4 ,and this is what is meant by ,god's return into the soul4 ,at what previous time this state of union was experienced1 and then lost1 so that regeneration is its 8return10 seemed to remain1 as it respects information to be gained from parishioners1 a matter of hopeless speculation4 ,in a family of whom eight are ministers of religion1 and several are theological professors1 the one who has seemed most fully to agree with the writer in explaining the nature of regeneration1 is the ,star contributor to the ,independent4 ,it has been shown that ,phrenology is antagonistic to the ,augustinian theory of implanted evil propensities1 by teaching that every faculty1 when developed and regulated aright1 tends to the best good of the race1 so that the extinction of any faculty or propensity would not be an improvement1 but rather an injury to the constitution of mind4 ,in regard to this brother1 here referred to1 the system of ,phrenology was embraced by him before his theological education was commenced1 and was never relinquished4 ,in consequence1 his mode of explaining the nature of regeneration has been diverse from most accepted methods of theological schools4 ,and yet1 when the writer1 applied both to his published articles and to some of his most intelligent1 regular hearers1 to ascertain if the commonsense view of regeneration1 as here stated1 was in perfect agreement with her brother's views1 it seemed difficult to decide4 ,in reading some of the ,star ,papers1 the commonsense view of regeneration is clear and unmistakable2 in others1 there are statements as to the distinctive nature of ,christian character1 which seem to be both additional and diverse4 ,the result is1 an uncertainty as to the exact idea of what regeneration consists in1 as taught by this brother47#ai7 ,the editors of the ,independent quote the following sentence from ,common ,sense ,applied to ,religion1 or the ,bible and the ,people1 as a statement of 8the doctrine of the new birth10 which is 8not materially different0 from that held by 8the fathers and mothers of ,new ,england for eight successive generations30 8,the #8second birth' is the sudden or the gradual entrance into a life1 in which the will of the ,creator is to control the selfwill of the creature1 while under the influence of love and gratitude to him1 and guided by #8faith' in his teachings1 living chiefly for the great commonwealth takes the place of living chiefly for self4 ,for this1 the supernatural aid of the ,holy ,spirit is promised to all who seek it1 and without this aid1 success is hopeless4 ,but the grand instrumentality is right training by parents and teachers40 7,common ,sense1 etc41 p4 #ccc47 ,let this statement1 by the ,independent1 of what the new birth consists in1 as held by the fathers and mothers of ,new ,england1 be compared with the preceding account of 8conversion10 given by a young theologian1 born in ,connecticut1 and educated at ,yale ,college1 as the 8generally entertained one10 and the case is rendered increasingly difficult and perplexing4 ,in the view of the author1 all theologians do so far hold the common sense theory of regeneration1 that when they find a person whose will seems to be entirely subjected to the will of ,god1 while 8under the influence of love and gratitude to ,him1 and guided by faith in his teachings1 living chiefly for the great commonwealth takes the place of living chiefly for self0--such a person is regarded by them as regenerated4 ,at the same time1 bound by the ,augustine system1 they give other views of the nature of regeneration1 which are vague and conflicting1 as has been illustrated in the preceding pages47#bj7 ,from all this results endless anxiety1 doubt and distress1 in conscientious minds1 from uncertainty whether their depraved nature has been changed1 and from perplexity in view of the multifarious modes of teaching in regard to the nature and signs of regeneration4 ,from this1 too1 results false confidence and indifference to right and wrong conduct1 in those who imagine they discover in themselves the signs of a regenerated nature1 which will1 as they are led to believe1 secure heaven without reference to the amount of good or evil deeds4 ,this same incertitude as to what regeneration is1 has also tended to induce the fanaticism1 extravagance and absurdities often connected with religious excitements4 ,the idea that there is to be some mysterious change in the soul by the gift of ,god's ,spirit2 that this is to be gained by prayer2 that the evidence of this change is to be found in sudden and great mental agitation2 together with the belief that an eternity of misery or bliss is depending on such a change2 and that death is the end of all hope--all this tends to great extremes of distress and excitement4 ,tendencies of the ,common,sense ,system4 ,in contrast to these tendencies of the ,augustinian system1 in regard to individual religious experience1 we notice those of the commonsense system4 ,according to the latter1 the first birth brings man into existence as an undeveloped being1 with perfect and wonderful capacities of knowledge1 enjoyment and selfcontrol4 ,the first period of existence is necessarily a period of experimenting1 in which mind is dependent on others for most of the knowledge indispensable to right action1 and also for the training of the physical1 social and moral habits4 ,it is impossible to choose aright1 intelligently1 until a child learns what is right1 and this is a slow and gradual process4 ,in some cases1 by a careful training1 early virtuous principles and habits may be so induced1 that there can not be any marked period in which the mind comes under the control of a ruling purpose to obey all the rules of rectitude as disclosed by reason and experience1 or by revelations from ,god4 ,in other cases1 the child may grow up to manhood entirely unregulated by any such purpose1 while selfgratification1 unrestrained by rules1 is the perpetual aim4 ,in such cases1 a sudden change1 in which the man forms and carries out a ruling purpose to act righteously and virtuously1 in all his relations to man1 to ,god and to himself1 may take place4 ,this change1 in the language of common life1 would be expressed thus3 8,the man has begun a new life2 he is a new creature40 ,and by a figurative use of language1 the change might be called 8a new birth10 or1 in theological language1 8regeneration40 ,in such a case1 the chief desire or ruling passion would be1 to discover and to obey all the physical1 social and moral laws of the ,creator1 as they are taught by reason and experience1 or by revelations from ,god4 ,such an experience would be properly expressed by the terms1 faith in ,god1 love to ,god1 repentance toward ,god1 as these terms are used by men in common life4 ,thus 8regeneration10 according to the commonsense system1 becomes an intelligible1 rational and practical matter4 ,in case of a revelation from ,god by a prophet or messenger1 confidence in1 and obedience to1 the teachings of that messenger1 would be practical or saving faith1 both in ,god and in his messenger also4 ,thus1 if ,christ is proved to be a messenger from ,god by miracles1 whoever practically believes in ,christ1 believes in ,god also4 ,and just so far as a man understands ,christ's teachings aright1 and purposes to obey him1 and carries out this purpose1 just so far he has faith1 and love1 and repentance toward ,god and toward ,christ4 ,and as men are named by the name of those they obey1 every man is a true ,christian just so far as he understands ,christ's teachings aright and obeys them4 ,in this view of the case1 the true 8signs of regeneration0 would be each person's consciousness of the great end and purpose of his life1 and the fruits or results of this purpose in an habitual obedience to the physical1 social and moral laws of ,god1 as learned by reason1 experience and revelation4 ,thus the answer to the great question of life becomes clear1 harmonious and practical1 furnishing the means for every person to judge of his own character and prospects4 ,,chapter ,,xxxviii4 ,,tendencies ,,of ,,the ,,two ,,systems ,,in ,,reference ,,to ,,the ,,character ,,of ,,god4 ,it has been shown 7chapter #bd7 that emotive love1 in view of noble and interesting traits of character1 affords a most powerful motive in securing voluntary love or good willing according to the laws of ,god4 ,this is the grand reason why it is so important that all his creatures should regard their ,creator1 whose laws they must obey1 as perfect in every noble and lovable quality4 ,this would render it easy and delightful to obey his will4 ,the principle of gratitude is the strongest in our nature1 in calling forth desires to please another4 ,this renders it so important that we should regard our ,maker1 not only as noble and lovely1 but as the dispenser of innumerable and constant favors to ourselves and to those whom we love4 ,the highest emotions of love and gratitude are evoked when a noble and lovely benefactor condescends to humiliation1 suffering1 and even to death to rescue from great calamity4 ,and the greater the danger and suffering from which this goodness rescues1 the stronger the gratitude and the desire to please the benefactor4 ,in this view we can conceive of no way in which our ,creator could so powerfully influence his creatures to virtuous selfsacrifice for the general good in obedience to his laws1 as by such an exhibition on his part4 ,it has been shown ,chapter #bh that by the light of reason and experience alone1 we infer that our race are exposed to dreadful risk and danger of evils1 which to some will prove interminable4 ,if1 then1 it can be made to appear that our ,creator has submitted to great humiliation and suffering to rescue us1 and that his chief desire is that his creatures should obey his beneficent laws1 the strongest conceivable motives would be secured to lead to glad obedience to the rules of virtue4 ,and having shown that the chief end of our ,creator is to do all in his power to make the most possible happiness1 we should infer that he had made or would make such a manifestation of his character to his creatures4 ,and were this revealed to us as done1 such a revelation would properly be called 8glad tidings10 as that which was best fitted to save men from sin and suffering4 ,according to the system of common sense1 our ,creator is presented as the ,almighty ,father1 who forms each finite mind an embryo image of his own all perfect mind1 with the great design of making all the happiness possible4 ,although the highest happiness of each and of all1 depends on the perfect action of every mind1 such action is not possible in the nature of things except as a knowledge of his laws and of the motives to secure obedience are made known by finite educators1 who must first be trained themselves by a long and slow process4 ,thus every mind is dependent for its final success in attaining perfect obedience to law1 and for perfected happiness1 on ,god1 on finite educators and on self4 ,in carrying forward the development and education of our race1 the ,creator always has done and always will do the best that is possible for the good of all4 ,and yet1 so far as reason and experience teach1 some will be ruined for ever4 ,the deteriorating process begun in this life1 and its baleful results1 will continue for ever4 ,the great consummation1 when those that are hopelessly ruined will be separated from the good1 is at an indefinite period ahead1 and may be many ages1 while the same process of labor and training are proceeding in the unseen world1 and yet so that the conduct and character formed in this life have a decided influence on the whole course of existence that follows4 ,thus when the good man dies we may hope that his upward career is eternally secure4 ,but when the wicked die there must be 8a certain fearful looking for of judgment and fiery indignation40 ,the ,creator does1 has done1 and will do all that is possible to save all that can be saved from this doom1 and as the highest possible motives we can conceive to secure this end1 would be the appearance of our ,creator in human form as a teacher of his laws1 an example of virtue and a selfsacrificing ,saviour1 we infer that he has done or will do this1 at the time and in the manner which is best fitted to the great end in view4 ,the ,augustinian system presents a view of the character and conduct of the ,creator in mournful contrast to this4 ,our only idea of a perfectly benevolent being is that of one who prefers happiness to suffering1 and who does all in his power to promote one and prevent the other4 ,our only idea of a malevolent being is1 that he wills misery when he has full power to make happiness in its stead4 ,our only evidence of the moral character of a being 7or that exhibited in willing7 is the nature of his works4 ,on the ,augustinian theory1 all the chief works of the ,creator's hand1 the immortal minds1 which alone give value to any other existences1 are depraved so totally that there is no really good act done by any one of them till created anew4 ,in other words1 the ,creator1 having full power to make every mind perfect in nature1 and who still has power to recreate all with perfect natures1 has instituted a system by which the sin of one man entails a depraved nature on a whole race1 while the evil as yet has been remedied only in the case of a small1 8elect0 number4 ,all the rest are doomed to eternal misery for conduct which is the certain consequence of this misformed nature4 ,to save men from the punishment of the sins consequent on their depraved nature1 ,christ1 the most perfect and only unsinning being that ever visited earth1 undergoes deep humiliation and excruciating sufferings4 ,to call such conduct as this just1 or kind1 or merciful1 is a violation of all our ideas of the meaning of such terms4 ,what kindness is there in giving existence to any being on such terms8 ,what blessings are all the comforts and enjoyments of this life1 so soon to be snatched away1 thus making the contrast of future misery so much the more horrible8 ,what mercy is there in any mode of rectifying a wrong so needlessly inflicted8 ,what mercy1 or what justice is there in adding to all the miseries of our race the sufferings of so noble and lovely a being as ,jesus ,christ1 when all1 and more than all1 effected by his agonies1 could be so much more justly and reasonably secured by regenerating all the minds thus needlessly ruined in their nature8 ,this strange and mysterious transaction only adds to the terror and gloom that shroud such a ,creator1 whose character can be learned only by the nature of his works4 ,to call all this a mystery is a misuse of terms1 for there is no mystery about it4 ,more direct1 clear1 and open injustice1 folly and malevolence1 can not possibly be expressed in human language than that here set forth and ascribed to ,god4 ,every mind instinctively asks1 why did not the ,creator give us a perfect nature when he has the power to do so8 ,why does he not stop all the sin and misery resulting from the depraved nature of man by regenerating all1 when he has power to do so8 ,how can we either respect or love a being who has done such awful and endless wrong to our race1 and for no conceivable good made known to us8 ,what cause of gratitude for the sufferings and death of ,christ to save the few of us who alone are to escape from such needless and intolerable evils8 ,meantime1 the various theories invented to relieve the baleful impression thus made as to the character of our ,creator1 only add new difficulties4 ,to say that this perpetuated mode of bringing ruined minds into existence1 is a penalty for a single sin of the first pair1 thousands of years ago1 what a violation of all our ideas of justice6 ,to say that this transaction is just because ,adam was 8regarded0 by ,god as 8the federal head0 of our race1 and that he 8imputes0 the sin of the father to all his descendants1 what is this1 to our conceptions1 but puerile folly added to the baldest cruelty and injustice8 ,to say that we all 8sinned in ,adam10 thousands of years before we were born1 and are punished by a ruined nature1 so far as we can conceive of such an absurd proposition1 what is this penalty better than inflicting endless tortures on myriads of newborn infants for their first ignorant and unconscious sin8 ,to say that man1 or ,adam is the author of all this ineffable wrong1 because it is done by 8a constitutional transmission0 from parent to child1 of which ,god is the author1 when he had full power to make each child perfect in nature1 what is this but adding to cruelty and injustice a mean subterfuge in order to cast the blame on ,adam and his race8 ,the mind turns from a ,god so represented1 with horror and dismay1 and it is only by concealing this system1 by representations that are perfectly contradictory1 that the baleful impression is lessened4 ,the view of ,god's character thus presented by the ,augustinian theory1 not only lessens the power of motive which the commonsense view of the ,creator's character affords1 but brings a powerful positive influence to turn the human mind from that love and obedience toward ,god which is so indispensable to peace and happiness4 ,,chapter ,,xxxix4 ,,tendencies ,,of ,,the ,,two ,,systems ,,as ,,to ,,church ,,organizations4 ,it has been shown that the commonsense theory teaches that all mankind must1 in order to eternal happiness1 be trained by human agencies to choose what is best1 guided by the laws of ,god1 as learned by experience or by revelation4 ,under the guidance of this general principle1 associated bodies would result1 whose aim would be discussion and instruction to discover and perpetuate a knowledge of the rules of rectitude1 and to secure all those motives which experience has proved to be most effective in securing obedience to these rules4 ,in other words1 the chief end of such associations would be to find out what is best and thus right1 and also the best modes of securing right action4 ,the experience of mankind has shown that the most effective way to extend and perpetuate any religion is to have a body of men supported who shall give their chief energies and time to this object4 ,social gatherings at regular periods have also been found effective to this end4 ,in short1 were a system of religion established1 founded exclusively and consistently on experience and common sense1 it would include sabbaths of interrupted worldly affairs1 social gatherings to promote worshipful obedience to the ,creator and a body of men educated and sustained for the express purpose of discovering1 instructing in and perpetuating the intellectual1 social1 moral and religious interests of humanity4 ,such a ministry would be not dogmatic teachers1 but leaders in discussions and investigations4 ,the great aim of all these arrangements would be to discover by inquiry and discussion what is best in all human interests and affairs1 in view of the immortality of man1 and the risks and dangers of eternity1 and also to devise the best modes of influencing all to right action4 ,were this life the end of our being1 and were all questions of right and wrong to be settled in reference to the wellbeing of our race in this short span1 no such separate class of religious leaders and organized instrumentalities would be needful4 ,but if men are to be trained to act with reference to the invisible state as the chief concern1 then organized instrumentalities to resist the overruling tide of worldliness become indispensable4 ,the full tendencies of such organizations1 based exclusively on the principles of common sense1 must be a matter of speculation merely1 for the world has had no experience of this kind4 ,as yet we have only the experience of mankind as to systems in which the teachings of common sense have been combined with contradictory influences of false dogmas1 which have been sustained by the strongest organizations1 civil and ecclesiastical4 ,we will now trace some of the tendencies of the ,augustinian system as they have been exhibited in the history of church organizations4 ,it has been shown that the ,augustinian theory of a depraved nature is the foundation doctrine alike of the ,catholic and the ,protestant churches4 ,all agree that man by nature is so miserably misformed that the gift of the ,holy ,spirit purchased by ,christ to recreate is his sole hope of escape from everlasting perdition1 while there is little or no ability to understand or obey ,god's revealed will until this gift is imparted4 ,from this originated a priesthood as the medium through which this renewing gift is to be obtained1 and who are the only authorized interpreters of ,god's revealed will4 ,the transmission of this power through the rite of ordination1 preserved in direct succession from the apostles1 is the leading point in the ,episcopal organization4 ,still more is this carried out to extreme results in the ,catholic church4 ,both organizations assume that 8the church0 which has this power1 does not include the people1 but is the priesthood alone4 ,it is the ecclesiastics of these churches who are to interpret the ,bible for the people1 and the people are to receive these decisions as from ,god4 ,this is the theory1 while common sense and the ,bible have more or less modified its practical adoption1 especially in the ,episcopal churches4 ,the ,puritans of ,england were the first among the ,protestants who organized churches as consisting solely of those who 8profess0 to be 8regenerated0 on the theory of the renewal of the depraved nature derived from ,adam4 ,to this profession in most cases must be added an examination by persons who are regenerated in order to ascertain whether the true signs of a new nature1 according to their pattern1 really exist4 ,such churches are a close corporation1 having a minister to preach and administer baptism and the sacrament of the ,lord's ,supper1 and deacons1 elders1 or committees to decide who shall be received as regenerate or turned out as unregenerate4 ,among the ,puritans and their descendants originated another practice which has become prevalent1 by which the churches thus organized as regenerated persons1 also claim the right of infallible interpreters of the ,bible1 so far as to exclude all from their communion who do not profess to agree with their interpretations4 ,that is to say1 all persons1 in order to be admitted to their corporation and to the ,lord's table1 must not only profess to be regenerate in the nature transmitted from ,adam1 but must confess that they interpret the ,bible according to the notions of the church they seek to join4 ,it will now be shown that most of our large denominations in this country are so founded on the ,augustinian dogma that were the people all to give up this theory the whole basis of sectarianism would be destroyed4 ,the ,congregational and ,baptist denominations are severed simply in reference to the rite of baptism as the mode of admission to their regenerated churches4 ,the ,congregationalists hold that baptism should be administered by sprinkling1 and to the infants of church members as well as to adults joining the church4 ,the ,baptists hold that baptism should be administered by immersion1 and only to adults who join the church4 ,this is all that divides the two sects4 ,of course1 if all the people ceased to hold that churches are to consist of persons whose nature received from ,adam is recreated1 all churches associated on the theory would be ended1 and so these disputes about modes of admission would be ended4 ,again1 the ,presbyterians and ,congregationalists separate on the question of the appointment and duties of the officers of their churches4 ,the ,congregationalists manage by church committees4 ,each church is the sole tribunal in its own affairs1 thus being strictly democratic4 ,the ,presbyterian churches manage the business of each church by sessions or elders appointed by the church1 and when they fail to give satisfaction1 an appeal is made to a ,presbytery consisting of ministers and elders of several churches4 ,thus again1 if churches organized on the ,augustine theory of the regeneration of a depraved nature should cease1 this dispute in regard to church officers would end1 and the ,presbyterians1 ,congregationalists1 and ,baptists would find all ground for separation gone4 ,again1 the old and new school ,presbyterian churches separate on questions relating to man's ability to regenerate himself and in regard to what is the nature of regeneration4 ,this all depends on the fact of a depraved nature transmitted from ,adam to be regenerated4 ,if this dogma is relinquished by the people then these two sects will have no ground for division4 ,again1 the ,methodists differ from the other ,augustinian sects chiefly in regard to the officers and management of churches organized on the theory of a depraved nature received from ,adam1 which is to be regenerated4 ,and if such organizations were ended the ground of separation between the ,methodists and the preceding sects would be removed4 ,again1 the ,episcopalian sect is founded on the idea of a succession of ordained priests through whose agency the gift of ,god's ,spirit to renew our depraved nature and to impart the true interpretation of his revelations is to be obtained4 ,if1 then1 the people discard the dogma of a depraved nature consequent on ,adam's sin1 and assume that they have perfect natures1 and are authorized to interpret the ,bible for themselves1 the chief ground for the existence of this as a separate sect will be removed4 ,the ,catholic church also would soon be ended as a distinct sect were all the people of that church to discard these and all opinions and practices immediately or remotely based on the ,augustinian dogma4 ,the preceding will serve to illustrate the position that the tendency of the commonsense system is to unite all men in efforts to discover and to obey all the laws of ,god for making happiness the best way for time and eternity4 ,on the contrary1 the ,augustinian system tends to organize mankind into sects contending1 not for truth and happiness1 but for certain outward rites and forms of organization4 ,,chapter ,,xl4 ,,tendencies ,,of ,,the ,,two ,,systems ,,in ,,regard ,,to ,,humility1 ,,meekness ,,and ,a ,,teachable ,,spirit4 ,the result of receiving church interpretations as infallible1 whether of priests or regenerated laity1 is the assumption of a similar infallibility by each person who thus accepts them4 ,this is accomplished by a very singular fallacy1 thus3 ,the regularly ordained priests1 or the regenerated priests and laity of the true church1 are claimed to be the only persons qualified to understand and interpret the meaning of ,god's revelations4 ,the question then is1 which is the true church8 ,the ,catholic says1 8,mine1 and no other40 ,the ,episcopalian says1 8,mine1 and no other20 and so says the ,presbyterian4 ,the result is1 each man decides that the true church is the one that agrees with his views of what the ,bible teaches4 ,having thus decided that the church that agrees with himself is the true church1 the man proceeds1 not only to receive reverently the decisions of his church1 but assumes that every other man is bound to do the same4 ,the ,catholic receives one set of interpretations from the church that he himself has infallibly decided to be the true church4 ,the ,protestant receives the creeds and confessions of the church he has infallibly decided to be the true church1 whose regenerated ministers and members are qualified to understand the ,bible1 as no unregenerated man can do4 ,being thus sustained by his own claims as a regenerated person1 and also by the claims of the church he adopts as the true one1 there is little foundation for poverty of spirit1 humility and meekness4 ,how can a man feel 8poor in spirit10 as destitute of the knowledge requisite for right action1 when he has his own regenerated mind and the guidance of the regenerated true church8 ,how can a man be meek when others strive to enlighten him by showing that he is in the wrong1 especially when such efforts are those of the unregenerated1 or those shut out of his true church8 ,how can a man become very humble and lowly in his own conceit1 when1 in contrast with most of the world1 he alone can feel and act virtuously or understand truly ,god's revelations8 ,the natural tendency to pride1 selfsufficiency and dogmatism is still further increased by the assumption that humility consists mainly in a low opinion of 8the nature0 with which we are endowed4 ,thus1 while assuming infallibility in one aspect1 they still can claim to be humble and lowly1 because they abhor and despise their depraved nature and its results in themselves4 ,at the same time1 the most remarkable selfdeception is practiced in regard to their own ,christian graces4 ,these all being supposed to spring from a regenerated nature imparted by ,god1 they disclaim all honor or merit1 and give all the glory to ,god1 who has wrought these graces from their dead and sinful nature4 ,by this method they imagine they attain a true humility and lowliness of spirit4 ,but every man of great genius1 and every woman of uncommon beauty1 understand as truly as the professedly regenerated person1 that their gifts are from ,god1 and are willing to give all the glory to him for thus distinguishing them from their fellowcreatures4 ,and the ascription of all the power and glory to ,god does not save the professedly regenerated person from selfcomplacency and pride any more than it does the genius or the beauty4 ,and yet we find religious writings abounding in such disclaimers and ascriptions1 which are evidently regarded as proofs of humility and lowliness of spirit4 ,it is true that such expressions do often flow from the hearts of the really humble and contrite2 but the fact that a person regards and acknowledges ,god as the author of his own extraordinary gifts1 that raise him above his fellows1 is no proof of humility1 while it is often so regarded4 ,in contrast to this tendency of the ,augustinian system1 the commonsense view teaches that while our nature is noble and perfect in construction--the embryo image of its ,maker--it is destitute of that knowledge1 experience and training1 for which it is equally dependent on ,god and on man4 ,and as the requisite knowledge can be gained only by the aid of those minds around1 whose happiness is affected by our conduct1 it is clear that a willingness to learn from any quarter and to be told our mistakes by any person1 is the natural result of an earnest desire to find out and obey the truth4 ,and a consciousness of our own liabilities to mistakes1 and a certainty that there is no one 8that liveth and sinneth not10 tends to induce compassionate sympathy for the failings of others1 and an indisposition to force opinions on them by any other mode than calm statement and argument4 ,at the same time1 an earnest desire for inquiry and discussion is generated1 which naturally leads to patient investigation1 courteous demeanor towards opponents1 and to all the graces that wait on a gentle1 humble and truthloving spirit4 ,,chapter ,,xli4 ,,tendencies ,,of ,,the ,,two ,,systems ,,in ,,regard ,,to ,,dogmatism1 ,,persecution ,,and ,,ecclesiastical ,,tyranny4 ,it has been shown that the ,augustinian system1 teaching as it does man's depraved nature and destitution of any principles of right guidance in his own mind1 makes him wholly dependent not only on revelations from his ,creator1 but on infallible interpreters4 ,thus we find that wherever this system became dominant there has coxisted the claim that the people are not to decide1 each one for himself1 what are the teachings of reason1 experience and revelation as to truth and duty4 ,instead of this1 first it was popes and councils1 in which the laity had no voice2 next1 as among the ,puritans1 it was the church1 including both the clergy and the regenerated portion of their flocks4 ,from this resulted religious persecutions1 in this manner3 ,men are to obey ,god as their first duty4 ,the church is ,god's mouthpiece to interpret his commands to mankind4 ,if men refuse to obey ,god1 speaking through his church1 they must be forced to do so by pains and penalties4 ,and as in view of eternal happiness and eternal misery1 all earthly interests are as nothing1 every temporal consideration must be put out of account4 ,moreover1 whoever leads men to disobey the church and thus to disobey ,god1 and so to peril not only their own eternal welfare1 but that of others1 commits a greater crime than is done by violating any human ordinances4 ,therefore1 the heaviest penalties should be employed to enforce obedience to the church1 and the church must take precedence of the civil government4 ,thus it came to pass that the more sincere1 conscientious and benevolent a person was1 while holding these views1 the more surely would he become a persecutor4 ,the pages of history give many mournful illustrations of this truth4 ,one of the most striking will be here introduced4 ,isabella of ,spain1 by whose generosity this western world was discovered1 was one of the most gentle1 conscientious1 benevolent and lovely characters that ever adorned a throne4 ,she was trained to believe the church to be the representative of ,god on earth1 and her father confessor1 ,torquemada1 the originator of the ,inquisition1 was the guide of her conscience4 ,by his commands the ,inquisition reared its horrid dungeons4 ,by his counsel the industrious1 cultivated and chivalrous ,moors1 the most useful of all her subjects1 were driven from their native soil4 ,by his commands the ,jews were brought to the cruel alternative of giving up their religion or relinquishing all that made life dear4 ,and thus the historian narrates this dreadful tale of religious persecution3 8,the experiment of conversion was tried upon the ,jews1 and it utterly and totally failed4 ,in the first place1 their position in ,christian society was a source of continual discussion4 #8,if we admit them to public offices1 we have gained nothing1' said the mercantile classes4 #8,if we exclude them1' said the clergy1 #8what motive is held out for the rest to join us8' ,but as a religious experiment1 the failure was even more complete4 ,the fathers were nominal converts1 and nominal converts the children continued to be4 ,ostentatiously they attended mass2 but in their own houses their ,sabbath was kept1 their ritual was read1 their psalms were sung4 ,meantime1 intercourse and intermarriage with ,christians became more fatally easy than it had been before4 ,shunned by the middle classes1 they intermarried with the 'blue blood' of the nobility1 they entered the priesthood1 and ascended the highest steps of the ,catholic hierarchy4 ,nay1 they became1 more than once1 inquisitors1 and wielded against their foes with cynical hatred the terrors of the ,holy ,office4 ,of the ,inquisition there is no space to speak here27#ba7 sufficient to say that the #8,new ,christians' were the chief cause of its institution1 and that during the eighteen years that ,torquemada held office1 ten thousand persons were burned alive4 8,but two thirds of the ,jews of ,spain had remained unconverted2 and with them the ,inquisition had nothing to do2 for they were under special laws and under royal protection4 ,but ,torquemada had not forgotten them4 ,working on the pride of ,ferdinand1 on the conscience of ,isabella1 he persuaded them to sign the celebrated ,edict of ,exile4 ,they were to leave ,spain in three months4 ,they were to take neither silver nor gold with them4 ,if it pleased ,god to change their hearts1 the church would most willingly receive them4 8,ruinous alike to banisher and banished1 this edict had cost a struggle4 ,isaac ,abarbenel1 wealthy1 learned1 high in royal favor1 rushed into the queen's audiencechamber1 on hearing what till then had been carefully concealed from his nation1 threw himself at her feet1 and doubtless won her over for the moment4 ,to ,ferdinand he offered thirty thousand ducats4 ,but1 in the wavering of debate1 ,torquemada appeared suddenly4 #8,judas1' he said1 #8sold his master for thirty pieces4 ,your ,majesties1 it seems1 want thirty thousand4 ,here ,he is2 take ,him2 and what ye do1 do quickly6' ,dashing a crucifix on the table1 he left them4 ,the omen was clear1 and the die was cast4 8,to the ,jews one road of deliverance was still left4 ,to renounce the outward garb of their religion1 never again to pass the threshold of a synagogue1 never to chant a ,hebrew hymn nor keep a ,hebrew ,sabbath2 to change every household custom1 to break all the rules of life1 dear from the nursery and clung to on the bed of death2 to repeat a false creed1 to enter an idolatrous temple1 to kneel down with ,god's enemies2--this road was open1 though treading it they would have trampled on their fathers' tombs4 ,yet1 on the other hand1 thousands had taken that course2 and would tell them that strict adherence to the laws of the land they lived in1 abstinence from all that might offend1 performance of harmless superstitions1 bowing down for a season in the house of ,rimmon1 that this was a course plainly marked out by ,providence4 ,the loss1 too1 that they would suffer in exile was immense2 and we must estimate this loss before we can estimate the worth of those who chose to suffer4 8,we have seen the ,jews of ,france leave it1 enter it1 leave it again1 and count the value of their sojourn at exactly the price at which rentrance could be bought4 ,it was a marketstall1 a field for acquisition2 but it was not the seat of ,jewish learning1 it was not the resting place of their fathers for many generations4 8,now ,spain was something more to them than this4 ,it was no foreign soil1 passed and repassed with the indifference of a stranger4 ,they had lived there for twelve hundred years4 ,they had seen the ,teutonic forestcreeds moulded and melted into the new faith of ,rome4 ,they had seen the ,ishmaelite sweep that faith away4 ,by him they had been welcomed as brothers4 ,with him they had lit the lamp of science when all the world was dark4 ,then they had seen the ,cross rise from the northern mountains1 and the ,crescent wane and wane before it4 ,by the kings of ,christian ,spain their worth had been acknowledged2 they had fostered their trade2 they had called them to their councils2 they had befriended and loved them4 ,persecution and jealousy had driven many of their brethren to accept another creed2 but the new ,christians were ,jews still2 they had married their daughters to the proudest nobles of a race where the peasant was proud2 and not a duke in all ,spain could despise them without despising his own mother's blood4 ,spain1 too1 was the land where ,jewish wisdom had unfolded and blossomed4 ,their physicians and their astronomers were the first in ,europe4 ,their poets and their philosophers were eminent among their nation4 ,the psalms of ,jehuda ,halevi were sung in the synagogues of the ,rhine4 ,aben ,esra had eclipsed the fame of the great ,eastern school of ,pombeditha2 above all1 ,spain claimed the son of ,maimon1 the great prophet of the ,exile1 famed from the ,seine to the ,euphrates as the second ,moses4 8,such1 besides escape from utter ruin1 were the temptations to apostacy4 ,and those who issued the decree fully hoped that apostacy would have been its result4 ,every means was taken4 #8,in the public squares1 in the synagogues1 ,catholic preachers thundered forth invective against the ,hebrew heresy4' ,they might thunder--they were not heard4 8 #8,come1' said their priests and elders1 #8let us strengthen ourselves in our faith and in the teachings of our ,god1 against the voice of the oppressor1 and the scorn of the enemy4 ,if they destroy us--well2 if they will let us live--well2 but we will not depart from the ,covenant1 neither make our hearts froward2 but we will go forth in the name of the ,lord our ,god1 who saved our fathers from ,egypt1 and brought them through the ,red ,sea4' 8,the spirit of ,moses and of ,joshua rested on the aged rabbis1 and their words prevailed4 ,few in number and bold in cowardice were those who yielded4 ,they made ready for this second ,exodus where no ,canaan glistened in the distance4 ,forced to sell their possessions in three months1 forbidden to sell them for gold1 they were glad to exchange large houses or estates for an ass or mule1 or for such trifling articles of travel as the wish to be first at the spoiling might induce purchasers to supply4 8,eastward1 westward1 northward--to ,africa1 to ,portugal1 to ,italy and the ,levant1--half a million ,jews went forth4 ,eighty thousand sought shelter in ,portugal1 but did not find it4 ,thousands fell into the hands of the barbarians of ,fez4 ,they were sold for slaves2 they were left to starve on desert isles2 their bodies1 yet living1 were ripped open for the hidden gold4 ,thus writes ,rabbi ,josef3 8 #8,and there were among them who were cast into the isles of the sea1 a ,jew and his old father1 fainting from hunger1 begging bread2 and there was none to break unto them in a strange country4 ,and the man went and sold his little son for bread1 to restore the soul of the old man2 and when he returned to his father1 he found him dead2 and he rent his clothes4 ,and he went back to the baker to take his son2 but the baker would not give him back2 and he cried out with a sore and bitter cry for his son1 but there was none to deliver4 ,all this befell us in the year ,rabbim--for the sons of the desolate are 8,many0--yet have we not forgotten thee1 neither have we dealt falsely in thy covenant4 ,hasten to help us1 ,o ,lord6 ,for thy sake we are killed all the day2 we are counted as sheep appointed for the slaughter4 ,make haste to help us1 ,o ,god of our salvation4' 8,or listen to the chronicler of ,genoa1 who saw them as they drifted eastward3 8 #8,this expulsion1' he says1 #8seemed to me at first a praiseworthy act1 done in the cause and for the honor of ,god4 ,yet1 when we remember that they were not brute beasts after all1 but men made by ,god1 surely it must be owned that some little cruelty was shown4 ,their woes were very piteous to see4 ,the first who starved were the infants at the breast2 then the mothers1 carrying their dead children till they fell down and died with them4 ,many perished of cold and of squalor4 ,unused to the sea1 countless numbers died from sickness2 many were drowned by the sailors for their wealth2 the poor1 who could not otherwise pay their passage1 sold their children4 ,lean1 pale1 with eyes deepsunken1 like ghosts from the dead1 hardly moving enough to show that they were alive1 they came into our city to find shelter for three days2 for our ancient laws forbade a longer stay4 ,yet for the repair of their ships1 and for health's sake1 a short respite was granted4 ,they were allowed to live on the ,mole1 while they made ready for their long voyage eastward4 ,thus the winter passed1 and many of them died4 ,the spring came1 and ulcers broke out that had been hitherto kept under by the cold1 and all that year there was a plague in that city4' 0 ,this mournful narrative exhibits one of the most sublime examples of religious faith and conscientious selfsacrifice to what was deemed truth and duty in the persecuted4 ,at the same time1 when the avaricious ,ferdinand relinquished thirty thousand ducats1 and the tender and benevolent ,isabella turned a deaf ear to such prayers and sufferings from her people1 there can be no doubt that conscience ruled the persecutors also4 ,even ,torquemada himself may have been acting from the most conscientious and benevolent motives in all the disastrous influences he brought to bear on his royal mistress4 ,this passage of history also teaches that honesty1 and sincerity1 and conscientiousness will not avail without a knowledge of the truth4 ,nay1 more2 had these persecutors been less conscientious1 the natural instincts of humanity or personal interests would have mitigated or withheld the cruel doom4 ,it is in this light that we are enabled1 in spite of their mistakes in opinions1 to look upon theologians as among the noblest sufferers and confessors for what they believed to be truth4 ,from the time of ,augustine and ,pelagius to the present day nothing can be more clear than that the combatants on both sides were actuated by a sincere love to ,god and to man1 each believing1 as sincerely as did ,saul of ,tarsus1 that in these conflicts they were verily doing ,god service1 and that all they were called to suffer was for the true church of ,god and the salvation of their fellowmen4 ,but the main purpose for which this record of history now appears is to illustrate the natural tendency of the ,augustine theory in leading to dogmatism1 persecution and ecclesiastical tyranny4 ,the tendency of the commonsense system can not be illustrated by history1 for unfortunately ,christendom has never yet had an opportunity to test by a fair experiment its true tendencies4 ,we can only imagine what would be the results were all ecclesiastical restraints and teachings based on the ,augustine theory removed from our pulpit ministries1 our hymns and prayers1 our religious literature1 and1 most of all1 from long established habits of thought and feeling4 ,then all our religious organizations would have for their leading aim1 not to maintain some outward rite or modes of organization1 but to promote free discussion for the discovery of truth and harmonious coperation to promote happiness according to the laws of ,god4 ,then the ministry of the ,word would be committed to men distinguished not only by natural endowments1 acquired knowledge and skill in debate1 but also ensamples to their flocks in the virtues of humility1 meekness1 and a gentle and teachable spirit4 ,then the points that would divide men into parties would be chiefly practical questions1 so that where no agreement in opinion could be secured1 each would peaceably try a fair experiment and eventually bring the results forward for the general good4 ,then every individual would be free to protest against all that he believes to be injurious and wrong1 in regard to individuals1 to the family1 to the church and to the state1 and be met in his efforts as a benefactor rather than an opposer or an enemy4 ,,chapter ,,xlii4 ,,tendencies ,,of ,,the ,,two ,,systems ,,as ,,shown ,,in ,,controversy ,,and ,,sects4 ,it is the aim of this chapter to show that the chief controversies and chief sects of ,christendom have resulted from the ,angustinian system1 and from attempts to eliminate it from the system of common sense with which it has been combined4 ,the dogma of a depraved nature consequent on ,adam's sin1 was a philosophical theory introduced to account for the prevailing sinfulness of the human race4 ,the attempt of ,pelagius and his associates to oppose this dogma1 was met by civil and ecclesiastical power and persecution4 8,and thus10 says the historian1 8the ,gauls1 ,britons and ,africans by their councils1 and the emperors by their edicts1 demolished this sect in its infancy and suppressed it entirely40 ,for long ages after this1 no attempt was made to oppose the system based on this theory in any of its branches4 ,the doctrine that man1 being so depraved in nature as to be incapable of knowing or judging aright1 and having no standard of right and wrong but express revelations from ,god1 resulted in the unresisted claim of popes and church councils as the only authorized interpreters of the ,bible4 ,then began the powerful influence of education4 ,every child was trained to believe the doctrine of a depraved nature as a part of the word of ,god1 to be received with unquestioning submission4 ,thus the most powerful influences were enlisted to enchain the feeble and plastic mind of childhood at the startingpoint of thought and reason4 ,it was also taught by theologians to all the young ecclesiastics as a system1 thus adding a new force to early educational training by the authority of the church1 with all its solemn and awful sanctions4 ,the idea that every man is to receive the teachings of ,christ1 uncontrolled by church authority1 as he understands them1 and that he is a ,christian just so far as he understands aright and obeys them1 found no advocates for long centuries4 ,meantime the ecclesiastics1 as the only infallible interpreters of ,god's word1 and the only source by which to gain regenerating influences1 abused the influence thus acquired1 to build up the awful prelatic power that ruled ,christendom for ages4 ,at last1 with many other abominations1 the regular sale of indulgences to commit all manner of crimes at fixed prices1 brought intolerable follies and crimes to a crisis4 ,then ,luther and his compeers arose and waged war1 not against the root of these evils1 but against those inevitable branches1 the infallibility of church interpretations and the substitution of outward creeds1 rites and forms for the spiritual principle of love to ,god and man exhibited by obedience to the ,creator's laws4 ,luther claimed that he and all men were bound to interpret the ,bible for themselves1 and not to submit their judgment to any pope1 council or ecclesiastical power4 ,and he claimed that the ,bible teaches that man is to be saved justified1 not by outward forms1 but by faith in ,jesus ,christ4 ,but retaining the doctrine of man's ruined and helpless nature1 his ideas of faith and of the mode of attaining it1 were vague and conflicting4 ,thus originated the long conflict between ,catholic and ,protestant ,christianity1 involving some of the most bloody and cruel wars and persecutions that ever afflicted humanity4 ,next came ,arminius and his associates1 who1 still clinging to the fatal root of a totally depraved nature1 labored to devise some way in which1 in spite of this ruin1 man could do something to secure regeneration from ,god4 ,for1 as shown in the early chapters1 ,calvinism maintained that man was utterly helpless1 and that all the doings of the unregenerate were sin and only sin1 and therefore utterly unavailing in gaining regenerating aid from ,god4 ,hence originated the long conflict between ,calvinism and ,arminianism1 which has been continued to this day4 ,both these schools of divinity rested on the dogma of an entirely depraved nature1 but their tendencies were diverse4 ,calvinism1 maintaining the utter helplessness of man1 tended to despairing inefficiency4 ,if man really could do nothing1 why should he attempt any thing to secure salvation8 ,on the other hand1 ,arminianism1 promising help through certain forms1 rites and influences conveyed by ecclesiastics1 tended to a reliance on rites and forms4 ,if man is to be saved by these instrumentalities and can do nothing himself except through them1 then1 these being secured1 the natural tendency must be to rest in them4 ,these two diverse tendencies finally resulted in an equal torpor and indifference to religion in both parties1 which was interrupted on the ,arminian side by ,wesley and ,whitfield1 and on the ,calvinistic side by ,jonathan ,edwards4 ,wesley and his colaborers taught anew the ,protestant doctrine of man's independence of ecclesiastical interpretations and church forms1 and the necessity of an immediate and higher spiritual life4 ,from his efforts and those of ,whitfield originated the great ,methodist denomination in ,great ,britain and ,america4 ,in this sect is carried out the theory of regeneration1 not as a slow process of educational training1 but as an instantaneous change1 manifested in excited sensibilities4 ,as the depravity consequent on ,adam's sin consists in the 8deprivation0 of ,god's ,spirit1 and regeneration is the return of this gift1 to be secured by prayer and other 8means of grace10 we find their prayers1 hymns and preaching all conformed to this theory4 ,they gain grace when the ,spirit comes1 and when it departs they 8fall from grace40 ,while ,wesley and ,whitfield1 in ,great ,britain1 appealed directly to the people in combatting the ,arminian tendency to forms and laxness1 ,jonathan ,edwards addressed the leaders of metaphysical thought in his profound and acute writings4 ,he attempted to meet the universal paralysis consequent on the ,calvinistic doctrine of man's inability1 amounting almost to the loss of a consciousness of personal freedom4 ,his aim was to restore to man a sense of ability and responsibility4 ,thus originated his theory of natural ability and moral inability1 which amounts simply to this3 that man has natural power to obey all that ,god requires1 but that he so lacks moral ability1 on account of his depraved nature1 that it is certain that he never will make a truly virtuous choice till he is regenerated1 and regeneration is not to be secured by any unregenerated doings4 ,from this resulted the division into the old and newschool ,calvinistic parties in the ,congregational and ,presbyterian churches4 ,lastly1 the ,new ,haven divines1 while in some of their writings they held exactly the views of ,president ,edwards1 and claimed to have made no innovation1 in others they came exactly to the ,pelagian ground1 maintaining that man 8has not a depraved nature in any sense1 nor a corrupt nature1 much less a sinful nature10 8but rather that in nature he is like ,god40 ,this is the same doctrine as was held by ,pelagius1 and if it were only carried out consistently and not contradicted1 would be the entire elimination1 root and branch1 of the ,augustinian system4 ,from this resulted a theological controversy that has agitated the ,presbyterian and ,congregational churches for the last thirty years4 ,there are two denominations which all the ,augustinian sects agree in excluding from their fellowship as not entitled to the name of ,christian sects1 which have had great influence in undermining the hold of the ,augustinian theory4 ,these are the ,universalists and the ,unitarians4 ,the former do not formally deny the ,augustinian theory of a depraved nature consequent on ,adam's sin1 but leaving it undisputed1 gain great influence by it4 ,they allow that ,god has power to restore man to his original perfectness1 and then maintain that the very idea of a benevolent being1 who is the loving parent of all his creatures1 makes it certain that he will do so4 ,for1 as shown before1 our only idea of a benevolent being is1 that he wills to do all in his power to secure that which will make the most happiness with the least evil4 ,as1 therefore1 all the ,augustinian sects concede that ,god has power to make all minds perfect at the first1 and to regenerate all minds that are ruined through the sin of ,adam1 ,universalists maintain that the very idea of the ,creator as a benevolent being necessarily involves the certainty that he will in the end1 bring all the creatures he has made to a state of perfectness1 both in mental construction and mental action4 ,this argument is unanswerable1 and the people very extensively are led to so regard it1 and to adopt this view of the future state of our race4 ,the question1 with this sect1 all turns on whether it is possible in the nature of things for ,god to construct mind on a more perfect pattern than that of the human mind2 and whether it is possible1 in the nature of things1 to make the best possible system of minds that are free agents1 and yet save all of them from perpetuated disobedience to the laws of that system and the consequent suffering of the natural penalties4 ,it has been shown that the commonsense system teaches that it is not possible1 so that it must be by revelation only1 that man could gain such a doctrine as the eventual perfect holiness and happiness of the whole human race4 ,while the ,universalists gain great power by not contesting the ,augustinian dogma1 the ,unitarians have taken the ground of a full recognition of the ,pelagian doctrine of the perfect construction of the nature of man4 ,at the same time they have1 as a sect1 almost universally adopted the ,universalist doctrine of the eventual salvation of the whole of our race4 ,both these sects have embraced men of great popular talents1 who have widely influenced the public mind1 in their attempts to lessen confidence in the doctrines and sects based on the ,augustinian theory4 ,meantime1 in the scientific world1 mental philosophy has made great progress in clear analysis and accurate definitions4 ,the ,scotch school of metaphysicians1 headed by ,reid and ,stewart1 have clearly developed and established in a popular form1 the principles of reason and common sense2 though as professors in a ,calvinistic university and community1 they never ventured to apply these principles to the investigation of religious theories as to the 8depraved nature0 of the human mind4 ,they passed over the whole question in utter silence4 ,still more recently has been developed the system of ,phrenology1 which is based on the constitutional diversities in mental faculties4 ,this system has effectively warred on the theological theory of implanted evil propensities1 by teaching that every faculty1 when developed and regulated aright1 tends to the best good of the race1 so that the extinction of any faculty or propensity would not be an improvement1 but rather an injury to the constitution of mind4 ,at the same time1 by the influence of our schools1 our colleges1 our pulpits1 our popular lectures and our widespread periodicals1 both religious and secular1 the mind of all classes has been rising to a larger development1 and to clearer and more discriminating views of mental and moral science in every department4 ,thus the people are gradually throwing off the chains of ecclesiastical authority and assuming that liberty of thought and action1 which their ,almighty ,father designed as the chief birthright of all his intelligent offspring4 ,,chapter ,,xliii4 ,,practical ,,tendencies ,,of ,,the ,,two ,,systems4 ,in the preceding pages it has been shown that the commonsense system presents an intelligible1 practical and consistent standard of right and wrong1 by which we can judge clearly of the character and conduct1 both of the ,creator and of his creatures4 ,the mind of the ,creator existing from all eternity1 independently of his own will1 is the pattern of perfectness in the construction of mind4 ,he has formed and sustains a system fitted to his own perfections4 ,the chief end of this system is happinessmaking on the greatest possible scale4 ,in order to this1 his laws1 by which the most possible good with the least possible evil will be secured1 must be discovered and obeyed4 ,accordingly1 all that tends to secure happiness without evil is right1 and all that needlessly lessens or destroys happiness is wrong4 ,every effort to discover the laws of ,god and to obey them is right and pleasing to him as promoting his chief desire and great end4 ,this view furnishes a foundation for clear conceptions in every practical question of right and wrong4 ,what is for the best as discovered by reason and experience8 ,this is the great question1 when we have no direct revelation from ,god4 ,and even when revelation intervenes1 it must be only in regard to general rules1 leaving it still a matter of experience and discussion in applying these rules to the multitudes of varying cases in human experience4 ,thus1 for example1 a command to be honest toward all1 leaves innumerable questions to be settled as to what is honest and fair in the multiplied cases arising between man and man4 ,but we always have the great principle of common sense to guide us1 that whatever is for the best is right1 leaving it for reason and experience to settle what is and what is not for the best4 ,but in contrast the ,augustinian system1 in many ways1 tends to becloud the mind in regard to practical questions of right and wrong4 ,thus the assumption that there are no principles in the human mind that enable us to judge of the character and conduct of ,god2 that we have no means of learning what is the object or end for which all things are made2 that man is so depraved as to be disqualified to know what is right and wrong1 except as taught by revelations from ,god2 and at the same time disqualified to interpret such revelations until regenerated1 or by the help of a priesthood2 all this tends to create the feeling of incertitude as to any question of right and wrong1 while the abuses of priestly interpretations have so often set the ,bible in opposition to our moral sense and common sense as greatly to increase the evil4 ,add to this1 the assumption that there is no true virtue in any acts of the unregenerate1 but that all their moral deeds are sin1 and only sin1 and the perplexity is increased as to what is right and what is wrong moral action4 ,again1 the fact that salvation from eternal misery is possible only to those who have gained a new 8nature10 while it is often seen that some of those received into churches as having this new nature1 are not so charitable1 amiable1 just or honest1 as many who are not thus admitted1 and the mind is still more beclouded as to the real nature of right and wrong in practical conduct4 ,again1 the manner in which this new nature is recognized by those appointed to decide who are regenerated and who are not1 in order to admit to or exclude from churches1 still farther increases the difficulty4 ,the questions often propounded on such occasions relate mainly to certain states of feeling toward ,god or ,christ1 or to certain doctrines involved in the ,augustinian theory4 ,if replies to these are satisfactory1 the candidate is pronounced regenerated and received to the church4 ,meantime1 ever since the days of ,luther1 the doctrine of 8justification by faith10 in opposition to 8salvation by works10 has been assumed to be the foundation principle1 both of ,protestantism and of true piety1 while there has been great indistinctness of conception as to the true meaning of these terms4 ,at the time of the great conflict between ,romanism and the ,reformers1 the grand evil to be combated was a reliance for salvation on the prescribed outward rites and forms of the church without any reference to an internal spiritual principle4 ,the attempt of the ,reformers was to substitute for these outward forms that spiritual principle which consists in a ruling purpose to discover and to obey the will of ,god according to the teachings of ,christ1 whom they regarded as 8,god manifest in the flesh40 ,they recognized the fact that no man ever did or ever could live without some violations of the laws of ,god1 so that no man could be saved on the ground of perfect obedience to law4 ,instead of this they assumed that man could gain eternal life by 8becoming a new creature in ,christ ,jesus10 meaning by this that 8new life0 which consists in ceasing to live to please self1 and living to please ,god in ,christ as the chief end of life1 by earnest conformity to his will as learned either by reason and experience or by the ,bible4 ,this is what they intended by faith in ,jesus ,christ4 ,and the opposite doctrine of 8salvation by works0 was that which the ,romish church was urging1 viz41 conformity to her outward rites and forms4 ,but in process of time1 and for want of clear conceptions and clear teaching1 it came about that the real good works1 commanded by ,christ1 as a part of the love of ,god required1 were confounded with the rites and forms1 and outward deeds commanded by the church1 and which may be performed without the principle of love to ,christ1 which is exhibited in obedience to his teachings4 ,the result has been that the teachings and writings of many ,protestants often make the impression that the good works of a pure morality are of no avail and often very much in the way of a man's final salvation4 ,thus has arisen the distinction often made between good moral men and good religious men4 ,this classification rests entirely on the ,augustinian dogma1 that until the depraved nature received from ,adam is regenerated1 all the moral acts of men1 however virtuous and excellent1 are 8sin1 and sin only40 ,the true meaning of 8justification by faith and not by works10 is that men are not to be saved by actually finding out in all possible cases what is for the best and then doing it1 which no man ever did or ever can do without mistake2 but rather by a ruling purpose to discover and to obey all the laws of the ,creator4 ,this last is the spiritual principle in opposition to mere outward acts4 ,it is practical faith in ,god which is to save the soul of man4 ,all1 therefore1 who believe ,christ to be ,god are 8justified0 by faith in ,christ4 ,that is1 they are regarded and treated as just and righteous1 when they have this internal principle of obedience to ,christ1 even though they are never free from actual transgression of law1 either known or unknown4 ,thus the ancient patriarchs were saved by faith in ,christ1 he being the ,god of the old dispensation as much as of the new4 ,that this is the sense in which the ,reformers used the words 8justification1 or salvation by faith10 in opposition to 8salvation by works10 may easily be proved4 ,at the same time1 it is as easy to show that they used this term in another sense also4 ,but at this time no reference will be made to any other use than the one under consideration4 ,their other use of this term in reference to the atonement of ,jesus ,christ will be referred to hereafter4 ,the preceding exhibits the several ways in which the ,angustinian theory tends to becloud the mind in regard to practical questions of right and wrong4 ,these tendencies have been more or less counteracted by the implanted principles of reason4 ,still more have they been rectified by the steady and clear teachings of the ,bible1 which never1 when truly interpreted1 contradict either the moral sense or common sense of man1 but rather strengthen them and guide them aright4 ,,chapter ,,xliv4 ,,tendencies ,,of ,,the ,,two ,,systems ,,in ,,the ,,training ,,of ,,children4 ,it has been shown that the commonsense system results from the implanted principles of mind1 so that no person can be entirely free from its influence4 ,the ,augustinian system has also been shown in its ,calvinistic and ,arminian tendencies4 ,the ,calvinistic form1 making it certain that1 owing to the depravity of nature consequent on ,adam's sin1 every moral act is sin and only sin1 while there is no revealed mode of securing regeneration1 leads to hopeless inefficiency and neglect of religious advantages4 ,the ,arminian form1 maintaining the efficacy of certain rites and ceremonies in securing regeneration1 tends to a disastrous dependence on outward observances4 ,those parents who are trained in the ,calvinistic school1 usually begin education more or less on the commonsense theory that children can and do please ,god when they are obedient1 gentle1 kind1 selfdenying and conscientious4 ,prayers and hymns are also taught to the little ones that make this impression4 ,but when advancing years bring the pulpit and other ,calvinistic influences to bear1 these impressions1 more or less1 fade away1 and are followed by the depressing feeling that nothing that a child does is either good or pleasing to the heavenly ,father till the 8wicked heart0 is changed by ,god1 and that there is no definite1 practical mode of securing this change4 ,the consequence1 in many cases1 is1 that all prayer and all attention to religious instruction ceases1 and a desperate course of worldliness and departure from all recognition of ,god ensues4 ,in other cases1 the natural result of this ,augustinian theory is more or less counteracted by conscience1 common sense and the ,bible4 ,on the other hand1 the ,arminian view of the efficacy of rites and means of grace sanctioned by ,god as the mode of securing regeneration1 has led to great stress on the use of those rites and forms4 ,the ,catholic and a portion of the ,episcopal church1 have taught that the rite of baptism was the appointed mode of remedying the depravity engendered from ,adam4 ,and so indispensable was it deemed to the salvation of infants1 that not only laymen1 but women were allowed to administer this rite at the approach of death1 when no priest could be obtained1 lest the infant soul should go to endless perdition with the taint of ,adam's sin unremoved4 ,there have been great dissensions in the ,episcopal church as to the efficacy of baptism4 ,some have taught that regeneration was imparted by this rite4 ,others have taught that this rite secured the implanting of 8a seed10 or some new mysterious principle1 which if cherished and cultivated by the church1 would result in ,christian character4 ,those who hold this view1 rely chiefly on the training of children in the church as the appointed mode of securing their salvation4 ,that branch of the ,arminian school which left the ,episcopal church under ,wesley and his associates1 were driven off by the laxity and want of spiritual life consequent on these tendencies to reliance on rites and forms4 ,in place of this1 they urged the doctrine of instantaneous regeneration1 to be gained by certain means of grace4 ,according to these teachers1 regeneration consists in the return of ,god's ,spirit to the soul1 which is withheld in consequence of ,adam's sin4 ,the tendency of this view was to lessen reliance on educational training and to exalt the importance of other means of grace by which regeneration seemed to be secured1 and to which the ,bible1 as was claimed1 promised success4 ,thus1 in the ,arminian sects1 where the efficacy of rites and forms by a regularly ordained and authoritative priesthood has been relinquished1 educational training has conformed more to the ,calvinistic view4 ,as eternal salvation depends on securing regeneration1 every thing is made secondary to those methods by which regeneration is to be gained4 ,the ,episcopal ,arminians1 therefore1 depend more on educating the young aright1 and have little dependence on revivals1 while the ,methodist ,arminians look less to education and more to revivals and other modes of securing religious excitement4 ,but the foundation difficulty alike of the ,calvinists1 the ,episcopal ,arminians and the ,methodist ,arminians1 is the assumption that regeneration of a ruined nature is the thing to be sought1 both by children and by adults1 as the indispensable prerequisite to salvation1 and that 8the means of grace0 are not for the training and development of a perfect nature1 but to gain from ,god the cure of a ruined and helpless one4 ,in contrast to this1 the commonsense system recognizes all that is practical in any of the three methods4 ,it teaches that man's nature is perfect1 and yet that he is utterly helpless without the knowledge1 training and motives1 for which he is dependent alike on ,god and on man4 ,it teaches that this nature can be trained to 8a new life0 by educational instrumentalities and by a slow and gradual process4 ,at the same time it teaches1 that when men have lived a worldly life there may be a sudden change of character by voluntarily commencing a life of love and obedience to ,god1 in place of a life of unregulated selfindulgence4 ,since the days of ,pelagius and ,augustine1 there has never been any large body of ,christians who have trained children on the commonsense system dissevered from the ,augustinian theory4 ,this experiment is yet to be tried before its full and proper tendency can be truly developed4 ,the ,unitarian sect1 who reject the ,augustinian dogma1 also reject some of the fundamental principles of the commonsense system1 especially that on which the whole system of moral and religious duty and motive rests1 the dangers of the race in the invisible world1 and the power of motive secured by 8,god manifest in the flesh0 as the longsuffering and self denying ,creator1 coming to aid his creatures by his teaching1 sympathy1 example1 and abounding love4 ,,chapter ,,xlv4 ,,the ,,people ,,rejecting ,,the ,,augustinian ,,system4--,,position ,,of ,,theologians4 ,it is the object of what follows to present the evidence that the people are rejecting the ,augustinian system1 while they are retaining the system of common sense1 as that alone which is taught in the ,bible4 ,preliminary to this1 a brief statement of the prominent points of these systems1 where their antagonism is most practical and apparent1 will be allowed4 ,the ,augustinian system teaches that on account of ,adam's sin1 man is born with a nature so totally depraved1 that he never performs any truly virtuous acts till this nature is regenerated2 that the true church of ,god on earth consists only of those who are thus regenerated2 and that a visible church consists of an organization of persons who profess to possess a nature that has been recreated1 so that they perform truly virtuous acts1 as the unregenerated never do4 ,in opposition to this1 the commonsense system teaches that man is born with a perfect nature1 so that he can and does act virtuously without any change in this nature2 also that the true church of ,god on earth consists of all those whose chief end and earnest purpose is to discover and to obey all his laws2 and a visible church consists of any who associate by some outward organization to aid each other in attempts to discover and to obey the laws of ,god4 ,the evidence that the people are rejecting the former1 and assuming the latter view as that which is taught in the ,bible1 will now be presented under these heads3 ,the present position of theologians2 ,the state of the church2 ,the position of the pastors of churches2 ,the state of popular education2 ,the position of woman2 ,the position of ,young ,america2 ,the position of the religious and secular press4 ,present ,position of ,theologians4 ,in attempting to portray the present state of the theological world1 it is needful first to distinguish between a class which may distinctively be termed theologians and the much larger class which are pastors of the people4 ,the two classes are so commingled that it would be impossible to draw any line so exact as to arrange all in these two classes2 for sometimes the same person is both theologian and pastor4 ,still there is foundation for classification as distinct as ordinarily exists in regard to other professions where men combine diverse pursuits4 ,in attempting this classification1 it must be noticed that the religious world is divided into great denominations1 each having its theological schools1 its colleges1 its theological magazines and its religious newspapers4 ,all these are conducted by men whose business is not that of pastors1 and yet a great majority of whom were educated for this office by a regular theological training4 ,meantime1 their position1 professional reputation and daily bread depend on maintaining the particular peculiarities in doctrine and practice of a given sect4 ,by this is meant1 that should they publicly avow a renunciation of the peculiarities that distinguish their sect1 they would suffer in the public estimation of their supporters1 and be immediately removed from their professional employment4 ,it is this class who are usually among the chief leaders of each denomination1 and who therefore are exposed to all the difficulties and temptations which beset those whose power1 influence1 profession and pecuniary support are more or less connected with a conservative course in all matters of religious opinion--difficulties and dangers to which a pastor is much less exposed1 so long as he maintains his hold on the confidence and affection of his people1 who are his chief protection against theological persecution of any kind4 ,the first class depend on a whole denomination for reputation and a livelihood2 the last class depend chiefly on their own people4 ,the first class1 on every practical question1 must regard the views and opinions of a sect1 as leaders and guardians of the interests of a great organization1 whose very existence depends on the dominance of certain opinions4 ,the latter class must chiefly regard the highest spiritual good of the souls committed to their care4 ,thus1 for example1 the ,baptist theological professors1 and editors of religious periodicals1 must maintain that baptism by immersion is the only scriptural mode of admission to the visible church of ,god and to the sacrament1 or give up their influence1 reputation and professional livelihood4 ,and they must sustain the organized interests of that sect as its most trusted and talented leaders4 ,moreover1 the very existence of the sect and of their position as its leaders1 depend on the maintenance of this tenet1 for it is this alone that separates them from the ,congregational sect4 ,in like manner1 the ,congregational theological professor and editor must maintain that form of church organization or give up his post4 ,and so the ,presbyterian1 ,episcopal and ,methodist theological professors and editors are equally bound4 ,this representation does not necessarily imply any thing invidious4 ,if it is regarded as a duty to keep up the sectarian divisions1 which1 as has been shown1 all result from the ,augustinian dogma1 then men must be supported to do it by theological schools and periodicals4 ,and when men are put into positions for the express purpose of sustaining the peculiar views of a sect1 it is not honest for them to hold these positions after they can no longer conscientiously do the work they are hired to perform4 ,but each pastor is the leader of his flock2 and their opinions and practices are more or less at his control as their religious teacher4 ,and so long as he can carry his people with him he is independent of every other ecclesiastical power4 ,true1 he may be censured1 deposed and excluded from a given sect or party1 but his people only have to declare themselves independent1 and that they choose to retain him as their religious teacher1 and no one can harm him as to his professional employment or his support4 ,thus it is that the pastors of churches have fewer of those difficulties to meet which restrain the chief theological leaders of a sect4 ,we are now prepared to notice the present position of theologians in this country4 ,it has been shown that the chief theological conflicts1 since the days of ,augustine1 and also the chief sects1 have resulted from attempts to throw off the dogma introduced by him in some one of its developments4 ,thus the conflict headed by ,luther was against the substitution of external rites and forms resulting from man's helpless depravity for an internal principle of love and obedience4 ,the conflict commenced by ,arminius was to maintain man's ability to do something by his own efforts to gain eternal life1 in opposition to the utter inability taught by ,calvinism4 ,the conflict commenced by ,wesley and his associates1 was to rouse men from a resting in outward rites and forms and educational training1 by making instantaneous regeneration a practicable aim1 and one to be secured by the use of 8the means of grace40 ,the conflict commenced by ,president ,edwards was to remedy the ,calvinistic tendency to hopeless inefficiency and waiting for ,god to regenerate1 by insisting on man's ability to obey all that ,god requires4 ,the conflict led by the ,new ,haven school of divines1 was1 in fact1 an attempt to cut up the ,augustinian system by the root1 in maintaining that sin consists in the wrong action of a right nature1 and not in a depraved nature and its inevitable results4 ,all these controversies have been carried on1 more and more1 in the audience of the people1 who1 in the meantime1 have been continually advancing in mental culture and knowledge4 ,especially has this been the case in this country1 where religion has been freed from civil restraints4 ,several of the religious sects have been so divided on these matters as to involve civil suits to settle questions of property1 thus bringing theologians and lawyers on to the same arena4 ,and thus discussions on theological points were reported in secular papers4 ,this was the case in the rending of the ,presbyterian church into the ,old and ,newschool sections4 ,during this controversy1 some of the most honored and talented of the clergy were suspended from their pulpit duties and threatened with dismission from theological professorships1 solely on the charge of denying certain points of doctrine of the ,augustinian system4 ,and the highest judicature of the nation was called to decide whether the men thus charged had1 or had not so departed from orthodox creeds as to warrant the loss of place and income4 ,in this discussion1 the endowments of colleges1 of theological schools1 and of church property1 were so at stake1 that the laymen all over the land were obliged to inquire into and understand the merits of a discussion strictly metaphysical and theological4 ,in ,massachusetts1 at one time1 the whole ,state was excited by the question whether there were any other churches except the congregations that worshiped together and supported the minister4 ,this question was argued before the highest court of the ,state1 and decided in the negative1 while for years the controversy was prolonged4 ,meantime1 the study of mental science has been introduced into both colleges and schools all over the land1 and the sons1 and even the daughters of our farmers and mechanics1 have gained clearer and more discriminating views on such subjects than can now be found in the writings of ,aristotle1 ,plato1 and the wisest men of past ages4 ,phrenology1 also1 has drawn maps of the mental faculties1 so that even the senses have been trained to aid in metaphysics4 ,the pulpit1 the press and public lecturers now1 when they refer to the intellect1 the susceptibilities1 the will1 the moral powers1 and use other metaphysical terms1 are understood by all4 ,in short1 the human mind has developed in all directions1 until it is impossible any longer to conceal absurdities under cover of hard names and metaphysical abstrusities1 especially when the practical concerns of this life1 as well as the life to come1 are equally involved4 ,meantime1 the most vigorous and acute minds in the various opposing sects and theological schools1 have been exhibiting1 in magazines and newspapers1 the difficulties and absurdities each finds in the creed and teaching of all who differ1 while it is the laymen who read and pay for these periodicals4 ,in these1 and many other ways1 the discussions which once were confined to metaphysicians and theologians1 have come before the people1 and the ,augustinian system has been more and more clearly exhibited as contrary to the moral sense and common sense of mankind4 ,a few years since1 ,dr4 ,edward ,beecher published the ,conflict of ,ages1 in which1 with a calm and ,christian spirit and in a popular form1 was set forth the difficulties consequent on the ,augustinian system1 which for ages have agitated all ,christendom4 ,in this work1 it is shown that there are 8principles of honor and right0 which all theologians agree in maintaining that ,god must and does regard and obey2 that these principles are violated by ,god on the supposition that he has brought mankind into being in this world with a depraved nature2 and finally1 that all theories as yet invented by theologians to relieve the ,creator from such an imputation are failures1 except the theory1 which is there presented1 of a preexistent state1 according to which1 mankind were created with perfect natures1 which they ruined by sinning1 and came into this life to be restored to their former perfect state4 ,much that appears in the early portion of this work is from this source4 ,still more has been gained from that work in the clear manner in which it is there proved1 that the ,bible does not teach that the sin of ,adam had any effect on 8the nature0 of the human race1 and that the interpretation given to the passage in ,romans v41 which is the chief one claimed as teaching this doctrine1 not only has been interpreted wrong1 but is contrary to the rendering of the whole ,christian world from the apostles to ,augustine4 ,in other words1 the ,conflict of ,ages came before the people with the claim1 that the ,augustinian theory of a depraved nature consequent on the sin of ,adam1 as taught by all theologians of the great ,catholic and ,protestant sects1 is contrary to the moral sense of mankind and entirely unsupported by the ,bible4 ,this work was read1 not only by theologians and pastors1 but by intelligent laymen1 to an extent never known before of a strictly theological work4 ,and what was the ground taken by theologians of all schools8 ,they were bound to show to the people1 in opposition to this work1 if they could1 that this ,augustinian dogma was not contrary to the moral sense of mankind1 and that it was taught in the ,bible4 ,but not a single attempt of this kind has ever been made4 ,this universal silence is as direct a confession of inability to reply as ever was known in the theological world4 ,all that ever has been attempted has been1 to show that the theory of a prexistent state1 offered by that author1 affords little or no relief1 and is without scriptural authority4 ,the words of a distinguished theologian and editor of a theological quarterly1 addressed to the writer1 express the case exactly3 8,your brother has succeeded in throwing us all into the ditch1 but he has shown us no way to get out40 ,that is to say1 so long as the doctrine of a depraved nature that insures 8sin1 and only sin10 in every unregenerate mind1 is maintained1 there is no satisfactory way yet devised of proving the wisdom and benevolence of ,god1 by the concessions of theologians themselves4 ,at the same time1 the ,conflict of ,ages1 in removing the chief passage in the ,bible relied on for proving that in consequence of ,adam's sin the nature of all men has become depraved1 has equally removed the evidence most relied on to prove that there is any such depravity of nature taught in the ,bible at all4 ,this universal1 tacit concession of theologians of all schools1 in reference to this famous passage of ,scripture1 had no little influence in bringing before the public the volume entitled ,common ,sense ,applied to ,religion1 or the ,bible and the ,people before referred to4 ,in this work1 the principles of common sense and the nature or construction of mind are by the author exhibited more at large than in this volume4 ,and the commonsense system of religion as thus educed is also set forth1 though less completely and extensively than in this work4 ,the laws of language and interpretation also are introduced into that work for the purpose of showing 7in the second volume not yet published7 that the commonsense system is also taught in the ,bible4 ,but preliminary to this1 it was seen to be important to apply the principles of common sense to prove that the ,bible is a collection of reliable records1 of reliable revelations from the ,creator to mankind4 ,it was seen also1 that if the ,augustinian system is really taught in these writings1 it is impossible to prove them to be reliable revelations from ,god1 as is set forth at large in chapter #cd of this present volume4 ,for this reason1 in the ,addenda to the first volume the ,augustinian theory is introduced1 and very briefly shown to be1 not only contrary to the common sense and moral sense of mankind1 but also without support from the ,bible4 ,before publication1 this work was sent to a large number of those regarded as among the most acute and profound theologians of the several classes described herein1 with the request that if they detected inaccuracies as to facts1 or fallacious reasonings1 they would point them out for revision4 ,in making this appeal it was stated that the writer had little taste for metaphysics or theology1 and had been driven to them in the stress of great sorrow and under a tremendous pressure of motive as narrated in the ,introduction4 ,several of those thus addressed1 returned criticisms and remarks in reply4 ,the book was then issued1 in which the author appeared not in the attitude of a teacher1 but as an inquirer4 ,and the closing inquiries were3 ,are these principles of common sense accepted8 ,is the system of natural religion evolved by their aid accepted8 ,is the ,augustinian theory of depravity1 as tried by these principles and the rules of interpretation1 supported either by reason or the ,bible8 ,the work1 as thus revised1 was again sent to these same theologians1 and it was noticed in most of the periodicals4 ,the result was the same as was accorded to the arguments of the ,conflict of ,ages4 ,some criticisms on style1 language and minor matters appeared in the notices of the book1 but the above main questions thus submitted were met with an ominous silence4 ,none of the theologians of any school has pointed out any misstatement of any specific fact2 nor have they attempted to dispute the principles of common sense set forth1 or the results of their application in the system thus evolved4 ,nor have they attempted to show that the passage in the ,bible on which the ,augustinian theory chiefly rests1 is sanctioned by the interpretations of the apostolic ages1 or that the interpretation of it in the ,conflict of ,ages1 is incorrect4 ,moreover1 in the columns of the ,independent1 in reply to their notice of her work1 the following statement was made by the author3 8,the case stands thus3 ,i am aiming to present1 in a short and popular form1 in my next volume1 the evidence that1 in the ,bible1 we have reliable and authoritative revelations from the ,creator1 and to educe from these documents the true answer1 not only to the question1 #8,what must we do to be saved8' but to the grand question of my own profession1 #8,what must we do the most effectively to train the young mind to virtue and immortality8' 8,at my first step ,i am met by #8,young ,america1' with such an honest1 amiable1 and powerful leader as ,theodore ,parker4 ,regarded as holding the creed in which ,i was educated1 and most of my life have advocated1 ,i am thus interrogated3 8 #8,is not the ,creator the author of the constitution of mind8 8 #8,if the ,creator had power to make it right and yet has made it wrong1 is he not proved by his works 7the only mode of learning his character7 to be unwise and malevolent1 and is not a reliable revelation from such a being1 to teach the way of virtue and happiness1 impossible8 8 #8,do you not claim that the ,bible teaches that ,god has proved his power to make mind perfect by creating angels and ,adam with perfect minds1 and at the same time1 as a penalty for the sin of the first parent1 has made such a constitution of things1 that every human mind comes into existence with a ruined and depraved nature1 that never can1 or never will1 act right till ,god re creates it1 while as yet1 for the great mass of mankind1 he never remedies this wrong8 8 #8,do you not claim that the ,bible teaches that no human being has any right and acceptable feelings or actions till ,god thus re creates the mind8 8 #8,if the ,bible does teach thus1 we can find a nobler ,creator and more perfect system of religion by the light of nature without any revelation at all1 while the ,god of the ,bible1 by its own showing1 is proved unworthy of confidence as a teacher of the way to virtue and happiness4' 8,pressed by these questions1 ,i have searched the ,bible in vain to find any such doctrines in its pages4 ,i find nothing of the kind1 and so ,i acknowledge that ,i have been in the wrong1 and relinquish the ,augustinian dogma in which ,i have been educated1 as unsupported either by reason or revelation2 and first privately and then publicly ask for any evidence to sustain it4 8,i come before the public1 not as a teacher of metaphysics or theology1 but as an inquirer for the truth4 ,i state1 as nearly as ,i am able1 the difficulties ,i have met1 and take every possible method to avoid mistake and misrepresentation in regard to the opinions of both those with whom ,i agree and those from whom ,i differ4 8,i assume that theology is capable of improvement2 that ,protestant divines are no more infallible than ,catholic2 that a humble and teachable spirit is the distinctive mark of a ,christian teacher2 and that the courage and manliness that can acknowledge mistakes is not only more ,christian1 but even in the eye of the world1 is more honorable and dignified than any assumption of infallibility1 however well sustained4 8,in publicly meeting such an amount of talent1 learning1 and influence as seems now to be arrayed against me1 ,i deem that it in no way implies a presumptuous or selfconfident spirit4 ,i concede that many of those ,i thus meet are my equals or superiors in natural abilities1 and certainly all are so in learning4 ,i believe also they are men of conscientious integrity1 and that1 probably1 most of them1 would go to the stake rather than knowingly to sacrifice their allegiance to truth1 duty1 and ,god4 ,and ,i believe that if ,i have any special mission in this matter1 it is to illustrate the truth that common sense1 without any unusual talents or learning1 united to a sincere desire to learn and to obey the truth1 are sufficient for all men and all women1 in all important decisions for this life1 and as much so for the life to come4 8,nor do ,i regard this as a resort to old and unpractical meta physical abstrusities4 ,it rather involves that great practical question of life1 before which all others fade into nothingness--that question which meets every parent and every teacher for every child--which meets every human being1 as in sorrow1 or disappointment1 or sickness1 or death1 the soul asks from its ,creator help and guidance for the dread and eternal future4 ,instead of leading to metaphysical and theological abstrusities1 my hope is to entice from their dark and sorrowful mazes to the plain and cheerful path of common sense4 8,the great question involved is1 have the people a reliable revelation from the ,creator in the ,bible1 and are they qualified to decide what are its true teachings on that great question of life1 #8,what must we do to be saved8' 8,and at the same time1 the great practical question for my sex is no less at issue1 #8,how are we best to train the mind of childhood to virtue and eternal happiness8' ,these questions surely are capable of being1 and should be1 discussed in the language of the common people1 and not in those scholastic and metaphysical terms which they can not1 and will not seek to comprehend4 8,in these circumstances ,i endeavor first to meet the charge of my friends of the ,independent1 that ,i have misrepresented the views of that class of theologians with whom they fraternize1 and with whom ,i claim to agree4 8,i offer the following as the exact words in which ,i have heard the ,new ,haven divines express their opinions1 and which1 on my application1 were sent to me as a correct statement of their views1 as taught for more than a quarter of a century1 in the ,new ,haven ,school of ,theology4 8,they maintain that #8man1 after the fall of ,adam1 was as truly created in ,god's image as was ,adam2 that ,christ was tempted in all points like as we are2 that the stronger are our inferior propensities1 if we govern them1 as we can1 by the morally right act of the will1 the greater is the moral excellence of the act4 ,they do not maintain that man has full power to change his depraved nature without divine aid1 for they have never supposed he has a depraved nature in any sense1 or a corrupt nature1 much less a sinful nature1 to be changed2 but rather that in nature he is like ,god4 ,in discussions1 they have always opposed the use of language by my father and ,mr4 ,barnes of a corrupt nature1 not sinful4' 8,i present this as an exact statement of my own views1 and ,i claim that1 on the point of the native character of the human mind1 it is the ,pelagian ground in opposition to the ,augustinian1 and that no third ground is possible4 ,if ,i am wrong in either particular1 ,i ask to be enlightened by the editors of the ,independent1 and by the ,new ,haven divines themselves4 ,i claim also that1 so far as ,i can see1 this is the only ground on which the argument above stated1 as that of #8,young ,america1' can be successfully met4 8,i understand the editors of the ,independent that they occupy the ,augustinian ground1 and ,i therefore appeal to them1 as well as to the theologians of ,princeton1 ,andover1 ,union1 and ,lane1 to instruct me and the public wherein ,i have misstated their views1 and above all1 to instruct us how1 with this dogma fastened to it1 the ,bible can be sustained against the above infidel argument4 ,in reference to this1 should any thing be attempted1 ,i offer these questions for attention3 8,is there any passage in the ,bible that teaches that the minds of the angels or of ,adam were not made exactly like those of the descendants of ,adam1 and subjected to the same slow and gradual process of acquisition and development8 8,i have looked and inquired in vain to find any such passage1 or to find any person who ever found one4 8,is there any passage in the ,bible that teaches that the nature or constitution of the mind of man is not the best that is possible in the nature of things8 ,i have never been able to find any4 8,is there any passage in the ,bible that teaches that man has received a ruined nature in consequence of ,adam's sin8 8,i have read long arguments from ,dr4 ,hodge of ,princeton1 proving that there is no such thing taught in ,romans v41 the only passage ever claimed to teach this doctrine that ,i ever heard of4 ,my brother1 ,dr4 ,e4 ,beecher1 thus concludes a long argument on this subject in the ,conflict of ,ages3 #8,the doctrine that our depraved natures or our sinful conduct have been caused or occasioned by the sin of ,adam1 is not asserted in any part of ,god's word4' 0 ,the high1 moral and intellectual character of the gentlemen to whom this appeal was thus made1 forbids the idea that they would allow such statements and arguments and appeals to go unnoticed if they felt able to afford any light in reply to these questions4 ,it was their highest duty as teachers of theology1 if they could do it1 to show how to answer the argument of 8,young ,america0 against the ,bible as containing the ,augustinian dogma2 to show that the passage introduced above as a specimen of the ,pelagianism taught by the ,new ,haven divines either is not the doctrine they teach or is not ,pelagianism2 to show that there are some passages in the ,bible that teach that the nature or the constitution of man is not the best possible in the nature of things1 and is different from that of the unsinning angels or unfallen ,adam2 and finally1 to show that there is some passage in the ,bible that teaches that the depraved nature of man was caused or occasioned by the sin of ,adam4 ,not only the professors and editors thus addressed1 but all the theologians of all schools1 so far as the writer can learn1 have maintained a profound silence on all these questions4 ,the ,independent also declined any discussion thus3 8,we have no intention of surrendering our columns to a theological or psychological controversy such as might be introduced by the communication we now publish40 ,the writer after this1 in several cases1 suggested to some of the most active and intelligent minds in some of the above theological seminaries1 to endeavor to secure a full discussion of these topics in their lecture rooms1 and was told1 in reply1 that all such efforts were decidedly discouraged4 ,she also addressed notes to several editors of the secular press to see if their columns could be used for the purpose4 ,from the one whose past freedom led to the expectation of an affirmative answer1 the reply was1 that he had promised his orthodox friends that he would not needlessly introduce heresy into his paper1 and that the greatest of all heresies was common sense6 ,finally1 on consulting one of the most shrewd and best informed publishers in regard to the future volume1 he expressed the opinion that 8in whatever else theologians differed1 they were all united in the determination that the investigation proposed by the author should not be permitted40 ,this being so1 the author has concluded1 and the public probably will conclude1 that the most profound and acute theologians of this country have relinquished the idea of attempting any farther defense of the ,augustinian dogma4 ,,chapter ,,xlvi4 ,,present ,,position ,,of ,,the ,,church4 ,the word 8church10 as used in this article1 refers chiefly to those close corporations which claim to be regenerated persons1 whose depraved nature1 transmitted from ,adam1 has been so far rectified by recreation1 that they are1 more or less1 in the practice of true virtue1 of which the unregenerate world are supposed to be totally destitute4 ,in this sense they claim to be 8the saints10 8the righteous10 8the elect10 8the children of ,god10 8the salt of the earth10 8the light of the world10 8a holy nation10 8a peculiar people40 ,while the members of these churches do not claim that all who do not come into their organizations are of the opposite class1 they do1 by their profession and admission to such churches1 claim to be of the regenerated class1 to whom the above terms of the ,bible are to be applied1 while the great majority of mankind1 not in these organizations1 are called by them 8the world10 8the unregenerate10 8sinners10 8the wicked10 and by other similar terms4 ,so long as the great body of the people were guided chiefly by ecclesiastics1 and were thus trained to believe that heaven was to be gained by some unintelligible 8change of nature10 imparted by priestly agency1 or by some supernatural intervention of ,god's ,spirit1 these claims were regarded with mystified fear and doubt4 ,but the more intelligence and discussion have spread among the people1 the more such claims have been questioned and distrusted4 ,many things have combined to increase such distrust4 ,among these may be mentioned the discussions already noticed1 conducted by theologians themselves1 by which the absurdities and inconsistencies maintained by each1 were exposed by all the others4 ,another cause of distrust has been the great variety of tests and signs of regeneration4 ,one class of religious teachers claim a certain kind of experience as indispensable to admission to the church4 ,a second class reprobate this sign and set up another4 ,a third class depreciate both and insist upon still another4 ,and thus it is made apparent1 that theologians do not agree among themselves what the 8depraved nature0 of man consists in1 nor what are the true signs or evidence of its 8saving change40 ,another cause of distrust has arisen from attempts to carry out a system of church discipline4 ,some churches expel persons for interpreting the ,bible in a different mode from themselves or their creed4 ,others expel their members for vending alcoholic drinks1 or for dancing1 or for holding slaves1 or for marrying the sister of a deceased wife4 ,meantime1 the sins of pride1 anger1 covetousness1 avarice1 worldliness1 evil temper1 unfairness in business1 hard dealings with the poor1 and many other developments of selfishness1 often are made no bar to full and honorable communion4 ,again1 in churches and sects that are most strenuous in attempting to maintain by church discipline a uniformity of interpretation of the ,bible conformed to their own1 it has come to pass that orthodoxy of interpretation is sometimes practically placed before morality of conduct4 ,thus1 if a member of a church or a minister is suspected of denying the supreme divinity of ,christ1 or the depravity and need of regeneration of nature in man1 a great agitation is produced1 and attempts are made1 by church discipline1 to rectify the evil as very dangerous4 ,in the meantime1 a slanderous tongue1 or dishonest dealings1 or selfish worldliness1 excite less concern1 and arouse to less effort4 ,the inevitable result is an impression that churches and ministers place conformity of interpretation to their own creeds or opinions before morality1 and consequently the feeling is engendered1 that church organizations1 founded on the ,augustinian theory1 tend to immorality4 ,this impression as to the immoral tendency of such church organizations1 has been increased by the fact that in times of special religious excitement1 that class of men in many cases1 become most prominent as leaders in prayer meetings and other public ministries whose character for consistency in private life1 or in business matters1 is low4 ,it is perceived that this fact does not prevent these men from being regarded as religious men1 and as superior to others1 who1 living exemplary lives1 are unable or unwilling to take any conspicuous place in religious movements4 ,and when the period of excitement is passed1 it is found that these leaders in revival seasons are no better in their private life and business dealings than before4 ,it is also sometimes the case that men of high character and position1 can not be reached by church discipline as are the humbler members1 and thus sin is made respectable by its association at once with talents1 influence1 wealth and church membership4 ,in addition to this1 the fact that so many ministers and churches have taken such an antagonistic course in the public movements to remove intemperance and slavery from our land1 has led to open attacks on ministers and churches in the newspapers1 in public lectures and in many other ways1 in which their inconsistencies have been held up to public ridicule as well as to more serious denunciation4 ,so long as the 8change of nature10 which fits man for heaven1 was regarded as a supernatural mystery which no one could understand or explain1 while the approved signs of regeneration were submitted only to ministers1 deacons1 elders and church committees1 the matter was exclusively in their keeping4 ,but as soon as the nature of regeneration began to be explained intelligibly1 and men adopted the commonsense view1 that the true church consists of persons who not only believe in ,christ intellectually1 but believe practically1 i4e41 that they are those who obey ,christ1 the case bore a different aspect4 8,these are the persons10 they say1 8who organize on the assumption that they are regenerated because they obey ,christ's teachings1 while so many virtuous persons are shut out as totally and entirely disobedient1--as never feeling or acting truly virtuously in the sight of ,god in a single instance60 ,the more this questionable assumption has become apparent1 the more has been the disturbing influence on both the church and the world4 ,multitudes of serious1 virtuous and conscientious persons1 who are really living ,christian lives and making it their chief concern to obey the great ,master1 have refused to join associations that make such dubious claims4 ,still more has been the revulsion from those churches which demand as terms to admission professed belief in certain modes of interpreting the ,bible contained in a creed4 ,they1 holding the ,protestant doctrine that every man is to interpret the ,bible for himself1 responsible to no man or body of men1 can not thus resign their religious liberty4 ,meantime1 the ,christian profession has ceased to be a cross in any way1 and has rather become honorable4 ,those who have been taught that a purpose or determination to obey ,christ was regeneration1 have in many cases formed such a purpose1 confessed belief in the needful creeds and joined the church in great numbers1 before they had time to ascertain whether they had moral strength to carry out this purpose4 ,they find on trial that they have not1 and then discover that though there is an open door to enter the church there is none for exit that is not discreditable1 and so they remain4 ,others come into the church for worse motives1 to secure the confidence1 respect and trust that is accorded to that profession4 ,thus it has come to pass that the class1 denominated 8the world10 has been growing in ,christian character and practical virtue1 while1 as a body1 8the church0 has been deteriorating4 ,the writer1 in her very extensive travels and intercourse with the religious world1 has had unusual opportunities to notice how surely and how extensively the conviction of this fact has been pressed on the minds of the best class of ,christian ministers and laymen4 ,more than twenty years ago1 one of the most laborious ,episcopal bishops of the western ,states1 in reply to inquiries as to the state of religion in his large diocese replied1 8the world is growing better and the church is growing worse40 ,more than ten years ago1 a distinguished lawyer1 who had extensive financial business to transact1 himself an honored and exemplary member of the church1 stated to the writer that he was decided in the conviction that the better class of worldly men were more honorable and reliable in business matters than the majority of church members4 ,when asked to account for this1 the reply was that religious men were chiefly interested to get to heaven1 which in their view was to be secured 8by faith and not by works10 and so good works became a secondary concern4 ,but the chief concern of worldly men is to succeed in this life1 and they have learned that honesty is the best policy in attaining their chief end4 ,this statement was repeated to another exemplary church member1 who1 as a bank officer and lawyer of distinguished integrity1 was said to transact more business than any other man in the northwestern ,states4 ,he remarked that the above was exactly his own opinion1 and1 moreover1 he stated that a friend of his1 also a church member1 who1 he said1 did more business than any other man in ,central ,new ,york1 had expressed to him the same opinion4 ,these statements were repeated not long ago to a business man1 an exemplary member of an orthodox church in ,boston1 and he expressed the same opinion4 ,in repeated other instances that need not be enumerated1 in various sections of the country1 the same opinion has been expressed by intelligent and consistent members of the church1 whose prejudices would naturally lead them to the most favorable view of the case4 ,such impressions have not been decreased by the recent multiplied defalcations1 forgeries1 and other business dishonesties that have occurred in the last three years among church members and officers of religious charities in high places of trust4 ,to all this add the fact1 that a large class of men of exemplary private life1 who are spending their time1 money and influence for the relief of human woes and the redress of social and political wrongs1 are at the same time openly attacking the church as the chief bulwark of these wrongs1 while all the delinquencies of ministers and churches are freely discussed and denounced by them before the people4 ,the result is1 that a large portion of the most exemplary and intelligent part of the church feel themselves to be in a dubious and false position1 and are daily querying whether professing to be a peculiar people is not doing more harm than good2 and whether it would not be better that the influence of good men should rest on their unassociated individual character1 and not on organizations making such high profession where the light of goodness is obscured by associated darkness4 ,great doubt and skepticism1 both in the church and out of it1 have thus arisen also as to what real religion consists in1 and as to what are the true claims of the church and its ministry4 ,multitudes who would enter the church if it was regarded simply as an association of persons to support the ordinances appointed by ,jesus ,christ1 and to aid each other in obeying his ,word1 turn from its present position and claims with distrust or disgust4 ,at the same time ministers and church members1 feeling these difficulties1 have more and more relinquished the ,augustinian theory as the basis of their organization1 and are advancing to an open avowal of the commonsense ground1 i4e41 that the real invisible church of ,christ embraces all those who acknowledge him as their ,lord and ,master1 and make it their chief aim to understand and to obey his teachings1 and that a visible church is any association of persons who organize to aid each other in this object1 by sustaining a ministry and worship as they understand to be most in agreement with the teachings of ,christ4 ,the ,episcopal church1 both in ,great ,britain and in this country1 although as strictly ,augustinian in its articles as any other1 has taken the lead of all others in practically renouncing that system4 ,any man can more readily secure all the privileges of membership in that church without any confession of faith or public profession of a 8change of nature10 than in any of the other ,augustinian denominations1 and this is probably one great reason of its prosperity in this country4 ,any sensible man of good moral character1 who should state in a respectful and candid spirit1 that he could not conscientiously submit to acknowledging in any form1 the rights of any man or body of men to decide for him in regard to the interpretation of the ,bible2 that according to his understanding of its teachings1 he was bound to acknowledge ,jesus ,christ as his ,lord and ,master in all matters of faith and practice1 and to associate himself with other avowed followers of ,christ by some form of open acknowledgment2 that as he understands the ,new ,testament1 the rites of baptism and the ,lord's ,supper were instituted as forms of such acknowledgment and communion1 and that he wished thus to connect himself with the ,episcopal church without any creed1 confession or acknowledgment2 it is believed1 that in such a case1 there are few ministers and still fewer laymen who would not think it right to gratify such a desire4 ,it is believed that there are many1 also1 of the highest standing for intellect1 piety and position in the ,presbyterian1 ,baptist1 ,methodist and ,congregational churches1 who have so far thrown aside the system of ,augustine1 that they also would receive such a man to their communion on these terms4 ,in this state of feeling among laymen the developments of sectarianism1 which1 as has been shown1 all relate to matters of rites and forms1 resulting from the ,augustinian theory1 have become more and more suspicious and offensive4 ,especially is this the case in the newer ,states1 where union and harmony among good men are most needed4 ,in the volume1 of ,common ,sense ,applied to ,religion1 page #cdb1 statistics are introduced from the reports of three of the largest sects of this country1 the ,old and ,new school ,presbyterian and the ,congregational churches1 showing that1 owing to their sectarian divisions1 nearly one third of their churches are without ministers1 and nearly one half of these churches have not over fifty members1 the majority of these being women1 while the relative amount of ministers to churches is constantly decreasing4 ,not only in the large1 but the smaller towns1 the struggle to build churches and support ministers among the various sects1 that differ only as to rites and forms1 is most mournful1 making a taxation both on the ,east and ,west for their support which is incredible4 ,each denomination is trained to regard itself as 8the church of ,god0 and to labor for its increase as a service to ,god's cause1 while the extension of other sects is not so regarded4 ,although few intelligent ,protestants now believe that any forms or rites are indispensable to salvation1 each sect regards its own peculiarity as of very great importance4 ,and as all the large sects are divided only on modes of baptism or of church organization there is a constant tendency to magnify these points of difference4 ,were it not for this1 in small places and in new settlements1 all would unite in one large1 harmonious church1 that could not only support its own ordinances1 but send of its surplus to supply the destitute4 ,instead of this1 the feuds1 envies1 jealousies and bickerings between small and struggling churches1 of from four to twenty diverse sects1 are an occasion of reproach and contempt to the world1 and of mortification to all honorable and pious minds4 ,so in regard to education1 each sect is now acting as a sect1 in starting new colleges and seminaries1 or in endowing those already started1 and this often with little reference to the supply provided by other sects4 ,for example1 in ,ohio there are twentysix endowed colleges1 in ,indiana there are eleven1 and thus at the same rate in other new ,states4 ,besides endowments to support professors1 vast sums have been spent in buildings1 many of them unused for want of pupils4 ,after each sect has thus gained its colleges1 it must struggle to find pupils1 and thus multitudes of young boys are pressed into a ,latin and ,greek course1 not at all demanded in their future pursuits1 and often forsaken before the college is ever reached4 ,the waste of educational benefactions in these ways is enormous4 ,these expenditures are all to be met by the laity1 and the more the nature of these sectarian divisions is understood1 the more distrustful are the people in regard to these profuse expenditures to keep up such divisions4 ,multitudes of intelligent laymen contribute simply because their clergymen urge it1 and entirely without intelligent approval of these things4 ,to their own view1 ,christianity1 as exhibited by contending sects1 is a source of more evil feeling1 contention and needless expense than of compensating benefits1 and distrust and misgiving increase and abound4 ,in such a position of the organized church1 one of the most remarkable indications to be noted is the occurrence of a 8revival0 among all sects1 in which the people take the lead1 and theologians and pastors willingly resign their wonted place4 ,all badges of sect are dropped1 and the dogmas of ,augustine1 from which they originated1 are thrown aside4 ,the system of common sense is recognized1 and its intelligent and harmonizing influence secures1 for the first time1 the respectful attention of worldly men toward religious developments1 which in all past time have been regarded by them with suspicion or scorn4 ,,chapter ,,xlvii4 ,,state ,,of ,,the ,,pastors ,,of ,,churches4 ,that portion of the clerical world who1 as pastors1 are most nearly in connection with the people1 are necessarily affected with the influences that touch theologians1 and also with the condition of their people4 ,they find that what they have been trained to regard as a fundamental doctrine of the ,bible1 has ceased to be defended by those who have been their teachers in theology1 and who are the leaders of their sect4 ,they find their own minds very greatly in doubt as to many points taught them in their theological training4 ,they find intelligent laymen refusing to enter the church1 whom they feel to be as really followers of ,christ in heart and life as any in their churches1 while they see many professors of religion as selfish1 worldly and unprincipled as most of the world around1 and yet they can not exclude them4 ,they find intelligent young men coming to them expressing a desire to obey ,christ and to unite with his followers in efforts to 8be good and to do good10 but unable to subscribe to the creed of the church in regard to a depraved nature and associated tenets1 while by one expedient or another these pastors waive the difficulty and receive them into their churches4 ,they find intelligent mothers and ,sundayschool teachers throwing aside the ,augustinian dogma1 and training their little ones to believe that they can love and serve their ,saviour with their present nature and faculties1 and that every attempt to conform to the rules of duty is wellpleasing to ,god1 and a step forward in the path to heaven4 ,they find intelligent ,christian mothers wishing to bring their children to the communion with no other profession than that they desire and intend to obey their ,saviour in all things4 ,in this state of things1 some of the most successful and intelligent pastors have decided1 in such cases1 to cut loose from their creeds and confessions1 and to receive to the communion any young children whom their parents believe and feel to be thus prepared for it4 ,the position assumed by the parochial clergy in the great revival of the past year1 has been a remarkable index4 ,the people of all sects and creeds came together to express their wish and intention to serve the ,lord ,christ by obedience to his word in heart and life1 and their pastors sat with them as equals in all respects before the common ,father4 ,they related their experience2 they exhorted each other to persevere2 they united in prayers for help and guidance1 and their pastors ceased to urge attention to those 8doctrines0 founded on the ,augustinian theory1 which in former revivals were made so prominent4 ,there are incidents that have come under the personal observation of the writer the past year in regard to the parochial clergy which are very ominous on account of the character of the persons involved1 who not only are among the first in intelligence and influence1 but may properly be denominated1 in reference to the leading class of pastors1 8representative men40 ,in one case1 a young man of great intelligence and moral worth1 who might properly be regarded as a 8representative man0 of the better portion of 8,young ,america10 informed the writer that he and his wife had accepted the general invitation of their pastor to receive the communion4 ,inasmuch as the doctrines of the creed of that church were not accepted by him1 the inquiry was made whether this step was taken with the approval of his pastor1 and the reply was in the affirmative4 ,the inquiry was then made1 on what ground he united in this ordinance4 ,the reply was1 substantially1 that he wished to be good and to do good1 guided by the teachings of ,christ2 that he wished to be united in feeling and action with good men1 who cherish the same aims1 and also to make it manifest that he was associated with that class2 that he regarded this sacramental ordinance as instituted for this very purpose1 while his minister1 as a consistent ,protestant1 did not insist that he should interpret the ,bible according to his creed or be shut out from this privilege4 ,in another case1 an intelligent mother who had trained her children exclusively on the commonsense theory1 informed the writer that she had taken them to the ,lord's ,table with the consent of one of the most distinguished pastors of the land1 without any examination or admission to the church4 ,she simply narrated to him her own opinion that her children from early years had learned to love the ,saviour and to be conscientious in daily efforts to obey his teachings2 that they and she felt that they were commanded by their ,saviour openly to acknowledge themselves as his followers1 8even to the death10 if need be1 in order to fulfill all righteousness1 and that they did not and could not believe the creed of that church1 nor in the right of any man1 or body of men1 to exact such belief under penalty of exclusion from the table of their ,lord4 ,the pastor welcomed these lambs of the fold with their mother1 and felt that had he driven them away it would have been in defiance to their ,saviour's word1 8,suffer the little children to come unto me1 and forbid them not40 ,in still another case1 one of the most honored ,congregational pastors of ,new ,england openly declared to friends of the writer that it was in vain to try to preach this ,augustinian system any longer2 that the people would not hear it1 and that he should have to preach to bare walls if he attempted it any more4 ,many other similar incidents that have come to the knowledge of the writer in different quarters of the country1 might be added1 but the above will suffice as illustrative indications of the present position of pastors4 ,,chapter ,,xlviii4 ,,the ,,position ,,of ,,popular ,,education4 ,it is a significant fact in regard to the religious training of the young in this country1 that the most influential leaders of popular education1 especially in its earlier stages of improvement1 have been laymen1 and laymen who reject the ,augustinian dogma1 and all organizations founded on it4 ,and yet they are men who believe in1 and have exhibited by their example1 the great duty of love to ,god and love to man1 in a life of obedience to the physical1 social and moral laws of ,god4 ,meantime1 the laws of the land which forbid any exclusive favor to any religious sect1 do1 in fact1 forbid any religious training in common schools that conflicts with the commonsense system4 ,it has been shown 7chapter #ci7 that the larger ,christian sects are all founded1 in their distinctive features1 on the ,augustinian dogma4 ,this being so1 the law that excludes distinctive sectarian teaching excludes the ,augustinian system4 ,in regard to smaller sects1 not ,augustinian1 the distinctive doctrine of the ,unitarian creed is such a unity in regard to the ,creator as forbids the idea of more than one divine person who has all the attributes of ,god4 ,this1 it has been shown in chapter #ah1 is contrary to the commonsense system4 ,the distinctive doctrine of the ,universalist creed forbids the idea of the perpetuated existence of sinful and miserable beings2 this1 also1 is contrary to the commonsense system1 as shown in chapter #bh4 ,thus the chief sects that are not counted as ,augustinian or ,evangelical1 are also excluded from introducing their distinctive tenets into the common schools of the people4 ,moreover1 while the people1 in the schools under their control1 thus forbid by law any religious training which conflicts with the commonsense system1 they permit prayers to ,god and the use of the ,bible1 provided the privilege is not used1 in opposition to the spirit of the above law1 to introduce distinctive sectarian tenets4 ,it is also very noticable that in ,great ,britain the most influential patrons of popular education1 and writers on the training of the young1 have1 though members of the established church1 vigorously opposed the ,augustinian system4 ,archbishop ,whateley has written a most powerful argument1 and one which none have attempted to answer1 in favor of the commonsense view of church organization4 ,he also has given all his influence to the establishment of schools for the people1 in which every parent and child shall1 as far as possible1 be free in regard to religious matters4 ,the beloved and honored name of ,arnold1 dear to every liberal educator of every sect and name1 has set the example of a religious training that is based entirely on the commonsense system4 ,and probably there is not a man living or dead whose influence has been so extensive in guiding public opinion on this subject4 ,without openly denying the articles1 or forsaking the established church1 ,whateley1 ,arnold and their associates have warred on the ,augustinian theory and its offsets more energetically and effectively than any two men that can be named4 ,thus1 it appears1 that the people themselves1 and the chief leaders in popular education1 have decided that no teaching that conflicts with the system of commonsense shall be introduced into the common schools4 ,,chapter ,,xlix4 ,,the ,,position ,,of ,,woman ,,as ,,chief ,,educator ,,of ,,mind4 ,one of the most important indices of religious change is the advance in the character of female education during the last thirty years4 ,fifty years ago1 to read1 write and cipher1 and a few accomplishments1 were all that were attempted in the school education of women4 ,a little history and one or two other branches were added in some of the higher schools4 ,it being assumed that the equal culture of all the faculties1 so as to insure a wellbalanced mind1 is the chief aim of all education1 it is probable that the mental culture of women in this country for the last thirty years has approached nearer to the true standard than was ever known in the experience of any other nation4 ,the training to the handicraft of the needle1 even if only for ornament1 the measure of domestic duty that most young girls learn to perform1 the culture of the musical taste and the art of drawing1 the combination in female schools of mathematics1 languages and general knowledge1 and the immense variety of culture from lectures and general reading1 all have tended to develop the female mind on a scale of advancement and equable culture never before known4 ,the result is a generation of women well trained for high and independent thought and action4 ,at the same time1 it is probable that there never before was so large a proportion of the best educated women who were so decidedly conscientious and religious4 ,it is granted by all1 that it is to woman more than to man1 that is committed the chief business of training the human mind at its most important stage of development4 ,it is granted1 also1 that in order to success in culture1 both physical and mental1 it is the first step to understand the nature of that which is to be trained and developed4 ,the first question1 then1 to every woman1 in reference to her first duty is1 what is the nature of the minds given us to train8 ,in this light1 it is as if a gardener were to receive some rare and delicate plant with directions from his lord to train it with the utmost care2 his first inquiry would be1 ,what is its nature8 ,does it require sun or shade8 ,does it need a moist or a sandy soil8 ,is it a climber1 or a shrub1 or a tree8 ,or1 it is as if a young machinist should receive from his master a collection of wheels and springs1 and a great variety of delicate machinery1 with the direction to put them together and adjust them for right action4 ,his first inquiry would be1 what is the nature of the thing to be thus arranged8 ,for what end or purpose is it constructed8 ,what is the mode of working it which will best accomplish the end designed8 ,in like manner woman receives from her ,lord the delicate physical form and immortal spirit of her child to train aright for an existence never to end4 ,she asks of those who are her ,lord's messengers for this very end1 what is the nature of this wonderful and delicate organization8 ,what is the end or purpose for which it is made8 ,what is the mode of training which will best accomplish the end designed8 ,the preceding pages exhibit the kind of replies that for ages have met these heartwrenching queries of womanhood4 ,from most1 it is shown1 she hears that the ruined nature of her offspring is such that she can do absolutely nothing to secure any right development4 ,others tell her that no one knows what was the end or purpose for which the mind of her child was made4 ,others tell her that no one knows what are right means in regard to the training and action of mind4 ,others tell her that the mind of her child is constructed wrong1 and that nothing can be done to secure its right training and development1 but in some way to induce its ,maker to recreate it4 ,meantime1 also1 her teachers are in conflict as to what is the difficulty with the nature of her child1 and what would be its right action1 and what is to be done to secure its right development4 ,at the same time1 the greater portion of the teachings on this great matter are so enveloped in abstruse theological and metaphysical technics as to baffle the wisest in their attempts to gain clear and definite ideas from them4 ,in this state of the case many sensible mothers and teachers1 all over the land1 have adopted a course dictated by their own common sense and their experience of the nature of mind1 as discovered in their attempts to train it4 ,in pursuing such a course1 many of them have taught simply the system of common sense1 leaving out entirely the ,augustinian contradictions4 ,they have in various forms of language taught their little ones after this fashion3 8,your heavenly ,father made you to be happy and to make others happy4 ,in order to this1 he wishes that you should always have what you like best1 except when it would injure you or others4 ,but when what you like best and want the most1 is not best for you or best for others1 you must always choose what is for the best1 and in so doing you act virtuously and please and obey ,god4 ,and just so far as you do all that is best for yourself and for others1 guided by the teachings of ,christ1 and with the desire and purpose to obey him1 you become a virtuous1 pious and holy child1 and a true ,christian40 ,in taking such a course as this1 many mothers and teachers find themselves in antagonism with the teachings of the pulpit1 the ,sunday ,school and the great body of religious books1 and yet they persevere4 ,and sometimes they take their children from the ,sunday ,school because the home training is there so directly assailed4 ,and they would1 in some cases1 keep them from the church also1 were not the theological technics so effective in protecting childhood from all comprehension of a large portion of pulpit teachings4 ,it is such intelligent1 cultivated and pious mothers and teachers that go to their pastors with their perplexities and troubles1 and not unfrequently find that tender sympathy which those only can give who have suffered the same kind of distress4 ,,chapter ,l4 ,,present ,,position ,,of ,,young ,,america4 ,by the term 8,young ,america10 as it is used at this day1 seems to be intended that class of youthful minds who are striving to free themselves from all past ecclesiastical and conventional restraints1 and who are aiming to think and act with entire freedom on all subjects4 ,the most active and efficient of this class are those who by general reading and study have both strengthened their reasoning powers and been most affected by the causes before described1 which have tended to lessen respect for the church founded on the ,augustinian theory of such a depraved nature transmitted from ,adam1 that all unregenerate doings are 8sin1 and only sin40 ,these young minds find the power of the pulpit1 the church1 the religious press1 and the religious training of the family1 the school and the college all combined to enforce this doctrine4 ,they feel galled and indignant at the chains which they find around them2 and trained to interpret the ,bible as teaching this doctrine and the system based on it1 they secretly revolt from the authority of that book4 ,they feel that the ministers and churches which sustain this doctrine are the grand impediments to freedom of thought and opinion1 and the chief fortress of a system which to them is hateful in theory1 and1 in their view1 destructive alike to a true manhood and a pure morality4 ,but if they speak out their feelings they will be denounced as infidels and avoided as dangerous persons4 ,what is more trying still1 the mother they love so much will be distressed1 their father will be equally grieved and perhaps offended with their selfconceit1 and all their ,christian friends will be disturbed and displeased4 ,under these conflicting influences there exists a constant conflict between their honest convictions and desire for truth and independent action1 and their gentle and generous impulses4 ,this is the condition of multitudes of young minds1 who to please a mother1 a father1 a sister or a friend1 attend church and listen in silence to much that they do not believe and to some things which they abhor4 ,others quietly withdraw from all religious ministries1 on the plea that ,sunday is more profitably spent by them in quiet strolls or reading at home1 while the real trouble1 secretly burning in their hearts1 is scarcely breathed aloud4 ,of this class of minds not a few are found in our theological seminaries4 ,and here they encounter new difficulties4 ,as the system of ,augustinianism is developed as the basis of their professional training1 they attempt to meet it with some discussion4 ,in this they find little or no encouragement4 ,free discussion seems to be deemed inadmissible1 and those who urge it find themselves in an uncomfortable minority1 who are regarded rather as agitators than as manly and independent seekers after truth4 ,but the most powerful influence on the most influential class of 8,young ,america10 as highest in intellectual and moral development1 has been the practical working of two false principles4 ,the first of these is1 that organizations to promote truth and righteousness are of more consequence than truth and righteousness4 ,thus1 to a ,catholic1 the reputation and interests of the church--that is1 the clergy--are to be regarded first1 so that its pope and priesthood are to be shielded from the public exposure of whatever crimes they may commit1 lest the influence of the church should suffer4 ,thus1 in ,protestant ecclesiastical organizations1 the sins of their chief leaders are sometimes covered and palliated1 lest their church and order be discredited4 ,thus the college faculty are sometimes sustained by parents or the public in unjust proceedings1 lest the respect and confidence of the pupils or the public toward them should be impaired4 ,thus1 also1 the officers of benevolent associations are tolerated and shielded from odium for conduct that should receive universal disapprobation4 ,in such cases1 the end is made secondary to the means--the instrumentalities to promote virtue receive more regard than virtue itself4 ,this1 among 8fishers of men10 is making taking the fish secondary to the care of the net4 ,the other false principle is1 that men are to be restrained from protesting against wrong1 in cases where it would make great trouble and difficulty to individuals or to communities involved in it4 ,that men are to use discretion and consult expediency as to the time and manner of exposing and denouncing wrong1 is one of the teachings of common sense4 ,but that men are to protest against wrong only when it makes little or no trouble to any one1 and be silent when contention and trouble would result from such protesting1 is a principle that would have inhibited the spread of ,christianity by the apostles1 of the ,reformation by ,luther1 and of every other great reform4 ,the extent to which wise and good men have adopted and acted on these false principles has probably done more to undermine faith in the ,bible and the church than all other causes united4 ,the tendency has been to generate the feeling that the great organizations based on the ,bible and aiming to extend its authority1 are really little better than associations to sustain the power and the influence of a certain privileged class1 at the sacrifice of not only truth and righteousness1 but of manly freedom of thought and speech4 ,the extent of real infidelity1 not only in our colleges1 but among the young mechanics of our shops and manufactories1 the young farmers in our fields1 the clerks in our offices and stores1 and ,young ,america all over the nation1 is little imagined by those1 who1 on the field of conservatism1 are striving to repress free discussion4 ,there are seething and glowing fires gathering for vent1 which such attempts are as vain to restrain as are bands of cobwebs to confine an outbursting volcano4 ,in speaking thus confidently of the present position of woman and of 8,young ,america10 it seems proper to notice the opportunities that have been furnished to attain some knowledge in this direction4 ,during twelve years of service as principal of institutions at the ,east and ,west1 in which nearly a thousand young girls from the most influential classes and from nearly every ,state in the ,union have been under her training1 the writer gained no little insight into the varied experiences of the young4 ,later in life1 ill health and other causes led to frequent reunions with former pupils all over the land1 who as mothers1 wives and sisters sought sympathy and counsel4 ,thus was gained the private history and the personal acquaintance of their husbands1 brothers and sons1 in many professions and in various colleges4 ,in many cases the sons would disclose to a candid and sympathizing friend mental experiences and histories of themselves and their companions1 which1 from motives of tenderness1 were hidden even from the most kind and judicious parents4 ,the affiliated societies that bring the most influential young men of different colleges together1 their meetings for anniversary and club reunions1 have generated a common pulse1 as it were1 through the great body of the most highly educated and most influential young men in the land2 so that learning what affects a small portion teaches also what affects the whole4 ,these intimations indicate but a small portion of the opportunities which have led to the opinions expressed in this and the preceding chapter4 ,,chapter ,,li4 ,,present ,,position ,,of ,,the ,,religious ,,press4 ,to any one who examines the religious press of the different sects of the present time1 it is clear that there never was a period in which the ecclesiasticism founded on the ,augustinian theory was more a leading object of effort4 ,at the time that the ,bible ,society and other benevolent religious associations originated1 the tendency of the different sects was to a harmonious union for the great end of sending the gospel to the destitute4 ,at that time1 questions in relation to the modes of ordination and baptism1 and as to church officers1 seemed to vanish as matters of small concern to all whose chief aim was to save the lost4 ,but now the reverse tendency is manifest4 ,every sect is engaged in magnifying the importance of its own distinctive peculiarity1 in getting up publishing houses to disseminate its own peculiar modes of religious teaching1 in raising funds to build churches1 and in building up its own distinctive schools and colleges4 ,and this is done not so much1 as it would seem1 because the salvation of ignorant and guilty men depends on these sectarian peculiarities1 as because the extent1 respectability and influence of a sect will be thus promoted4 ,every editor of every religious paper1 therefore1 is a chief leader in an effort to build up a sect1 which as before shown1 originates from the ,augustinian dogma4 ,it is an established maxim in law and all administration of justice1 that where a man's property1 character1 and professional success are involved1 he is barred from testimony as an incompetent witness4 ,and it is deemed no disparagement to the most honorable and highminded men in the community to be dealt with on the assumption that such personal interests so bias men's judgment that they can not be trusted4 ,now it will not be denied by any one1 that our religious periodicals are all supported by the differing sects with the express understanding that each shall advocate the views of the sect that especially patronizes it4 ,and should any editor become convinced that the opinions he was appointed to advocate are false1 he could not honorably retain his office without declaring his change of opinion1 and this declaration would inevitably result in the loss of his professional character and income among his friends and supporters4 ,for example1 if the editor of the ,independent were to become convinced that churches organized on the ,congregational mode were unscriptural1 and should attempt to defend such a view1 he would either resign his post or be removed from it4 ,the same would be true in regard to the editors of the ,presbyterian1 ,episcopal1 ,baptist and ,methodist religious magazines and newspapers4 ,so in regard to the professors of our theological schools1 who are the chief supporters of theological magazines4 ,they must all teach the ,augustinian dogma of a depraved nature transmitted from ,adam to all his descendants1 or resign their professional reputation1 their office and its income4 ,these being facts1 it may properly be affirmed that the religious press in this country is barred from the full and free discussion of the great question of eternal life1 8,what must we do to be saved80 ,one of the most remarkable indications of this fact is the course pursued by the leading religious periodicals of each sect in noticing the work before referred to1 ,common ,sense applied to ,religion1 or the ,bible and the ,people4 ,in that work1 and in an article in the ,independent1 as well as by private letters1 an appeal was made to their editors1 who1 many of them1 are personal friends of the writer1 to instruct her and to instruct the public wherein there was any failure in that work1 either in setting forth truly the principles of common sense and the rules of interpretation1 or in deducing by these principles the system of common sense1 or in proving that the ,augustinian dogma and the system founded on it were contrary to the common sense and the moral sense of mankind1 and unsupported by the ,bible4 ,as these editors are not only honorable and ,christian gentlemen1 but among the most acute and profound metaphysicians in the world1 it would be the height of ill manners to assume that1 discerning any failures1 they refused to specify them1 either in private or in public1 except for the reasons intimated4 ,no editor whose periodical is supported by a sect for the express purpose of maintaining its distinctive peculiarities1 could indorse that work as correct in its statements and arguments without giving up the basis on which the existence of that sect depends which supports his periodical4 ,in these circumstances the editors of the ,independent fairly and openly avowed that they could not open their columns to 8a psychological and theological discussion0 of this sort4 ,and every editor of every other religious periodical tacitly made the same declaration by entire silence on the main subject of the volume--the very principles1 involving the existence of the sect for whose defense they were appointed4 ,so manifest was this position of these leaders of the theological world1 that the most intelligent and best informed publishers came to the conclusion that whatever else theologians differed about1 they were all united in the determination that such a discussion of these points as was sought by the author should not be permitted4 ,and even the editors of the secular press were urged not to allow their columns to be used for such purposes4 ,,chapter ,,lii4 ,,the ,,present ,,position ,,of ,,the ,,secular ,,press4 ,the most decided index of the coming agency of the people1 in throwing off the ,augustinian system1 is the present position of the secular press4 ,it has been shown how much the religious press is restrained in liberty of opinion and expression1 so that it is probable that there is not a professedly religious paper in the nation that could controvert the distinctive doctrines of the sect that patronizes it without losing its character and income4 ,but the secular press is far less encumbered with such difficulties4 ,the progress of this great power toward the discussion of such subjects has been very striking4 ,at first there began to be seen simple reports of the religious anniversaries in some secular papers4 ,this proving popular1 next there came notices of missionary and benevolent operations4 ,then notices of the sermons of distinguished clergymen were given1 and then whole columns of daily papers were occupied with sermons from ministers1 without regard to denomination4 ,finally1 the great 8revival0 became a topic of the secular press4 ,reports of religious meetings1 the number who were counted as converts1 and all the details connected with this great popular movement were chronicled in the secular almost as fully as in the religious press4 ,the comments of editors1 also1 on this subject1 were usually respectful1 candid1 and in many cases very able and discriminating4 ,the result has been1 that inasmuch as the religious press circulates chiefly among 8the church0 and the secular press among 8the world10 the gospel has been preached to sinners far more by secular than by religious editors4 ,and it may be assumed as a fact1 that the secular editors of this nation have far more power and influence in guiding the religious opinions and moral conduct of 8the world0 than either the clergy or the religious press1 and probably more than both combined4 ,in this state of the case1 all the interests of the religious press are opposed to free investigation and discussion1 and all the interests of the secular press are as powerfully interested to promote it4 ,in appealing1 therefore1 from the theological world to 8the people10 it is the editors of the secular press--the true 8,tribunes of the people0--who will render the verdict1 and this verdict is awaited with very little doubt or apprehension in regard to its nature4 ,the questions submitted for decision are not so comprehensive as those of the volume referred to in which theologians chiefly were invoked1 and which they have as yet declined to answer4 ,the questions submitted to the people are briefly these3 ,does common sense1 or does the ,bible teach that every human being possesses such a depraved nature as never to perform any truly virtuous act until this nature is recreated by ,god8 and are the churches organized on the assumption that its members are diverse from the world1 in that they1 as regenerated persons1 perform virtuous acts as no unregenerated person ever does1 sanctioned by common sense or by the ,bible8 ,,chapter ,,liii4 ,,what ,,the ,,people ,,will ,,do8 ,it has been shown that the ,augustinian dogma of a depraved nature is the foundation of all the large sectarian organizations in this country1 and of the contentions1 evil passions and waste of property resulting from such divisions among ,christians4 ,it has been shown that the leading theologians have ceased to defend this dogma1 that the pastors of churches are practically evading it1 that the educators of the young are throwing it aside1 and that the people in all directions are rejecting it4 ,this process of eliminating the ,augustinian system from the system of common sense and the ,bible1 with which1 for ages1 it has been entwined1 thus far has gone on as the result chiefly of the development of the intellectual and moral nature of all classes1 but especially of the common people4 ,a period has now arrived in which the question has become so far an intelligible and a practical one1 that the two great principles of society indicated by the words conservatism and progress are arranging and accumulating antagonistic forces for an open and decided manifestation on this great question4 ,what will be the precise nature of this manifestation no human mind can predict4 ,but the distinctive principles of the two parties furnish some data for anticipating some future results1 as they may occur in the several classes referred to in preceding chapters under the following heads3 ,what ,theologians will do8 ,in attempting to indicate the probable future course of theologians1 it is important to notice the relative positions of persons trained to sustain a system of doctrines1 and of those who seek for truth and duty without any such commitment4 ,most theologians grow up from infancy under a system of doctrines inculcated both from the pulpit and in the family4 ,this enlists all the strong and inveterate influences of early education in its favor4 ,next1 the collegiate pulpit instructions and associations all favor the same system4 ,next1 the theological school brings the young under the direct training of the most acute minds1 whose express business it is to teach all methods of supporting and defending that system4 ,here the young minister is taught how to construct his sermons so as most effectually to bring the popular mind under its control1 and so as to most effectively oppose all antagonistic sects and teachings4 ,finally1 the office of a clergyman involves such ecclesiastical relations as subjects a man to constant espionage1 and to ecclesiastical discipline and ejection if he adopts any views that would essentially modify the system in which he is trained4 ,if1 therefore1 any theologian or pastor finds himself doubting as to any doctrine1 he perceives that it is so interlocked with the system of which it is a part that he is at once brought face to face with the question1 ,shall ,i give up the whole system in which ,i was educated1 all the lectures and sermons framed on that system1 all my ecclesiastical connections1 my professional character and my salary8 ,it is as if a man should find himself in some emergency upholding by a single timber a portion of a building which so interlocks with every other portion that he can not let it go without throwing down the only house that can shelter himself and all he holds dear4 ,in such a case a man must come to a decision as to whether the piece of timber ought to be removed1 and when and how it should be done1 with an anxiety1 deliberation and forecast that would be inappropriate to a man who finds only a disconnected stick of timber in his way4 ,this illustrates the relative position and difficulties of theologians in contrast with those which impede the common people in the search after truth and duty4 ,in this view of the case it would be unreasonable to expect that theologians as a class1 though among the wisest and best of men1 are to be leaders in any great or sudden change in religious opinions4 ,on the contrary1 it is to be anticipated that they will be the most earnest1 energetic1 and at the same time honest1 defenders of timehonored religious dogmas1 which it is their professional business to uphold4 ,nor is it any implication of their talents1 learning1 honesty or piety to suppose that they will be among the last to perceive the fallacies and evils involved in whatever system they defend4 ,yet there are considerations which indicate that the experience of the past is not to be the exact image of the future4 ,the progress of mind is as distinctly marked among theologians as it is among any class of society1 and this being toward the system of common sense1 involves the waning of the dogmatic spirit of infallibility and the increase of that humble and teachable spirit1 which is alike the mark of true philosophy and of ,christianity4 ,in the infantile development of our race mere physical prowess was deemed the chief virtue and was the grand aim of all manly culture4 ,in the next higher stage of development intellectual power became the object of highest veneration and assiduous cultivation4 ,the advent of a still higher stage of development is now dawning1 which is best illustrated by the docile spirit of a little child1 which feels exalted by taking a low place1 which understands that true dignity and magnanimity consists1 not in assumed infallibility1 but in a modest and humble acknowledgment of ignorance1 of mistakes1 and of the need of knowledge and guidance1 not only from ,god but from men4 ,it is believed that it is not too much to expect that this stage of high development is to be found even among that class most unfavorably placed for the attainment of it4 ,should this be the case1 there will soon be the conservative and the progressive parties among theologians2 the one holding on to both of the contradictory systems1 and maintaining their infallibility2 the other1 openly cutting loose from all that conflicts with their common sense and moral sense1 will manfully and honestly confess their fallibility and past mistakes4 ,between these two parties will be a third class1 who either from policy or from timidity1 or from inability to form decided opinions1 will maintain entire silence as to any thing involving entire commitment to either party4 ,what the ,pastors will do8 ,the pastors of the people are that class in which the division of conservatism and progress must most immediately and most distinctly appear4 ,and the reason is1 that the question to them is a practical one1 more so than it can be to any other class of men4 ,it is their business and calling to teach men what they must do to be saved1 and every week they must appear before the public to give their opinions on this very question4 ,in this situation1 the conservative class will include all who have taken the opinions of their theological teachers as an act of memory1 with very little original thought or investigation4 ,these1 being helpless as to any ability to investigate or to reason independently1 will continue to preach and teach in the same round as was given them in their course of theological study4 ,such will be alarmed and distressed at the changes in opinion all around them1 and will mourn over them as departures from the good old paths of truth and safely4 ,such will be sustained chiefly by the old and conservative portion of their parishes1 while the most active minds1 both young and old1 will become more and more restless and dissatisfied1 or forsake entirely such ministrations4 ,in the progressive class of pastors1 there will be a marked division4 ,the first will include those who have clear and decided perceptions of truth and duty1 and at the same time a full conviction that outspoken frankness and honesty is not only a duty1 but the best policy4 ,thus1 when they find their minds perplexed and doubtful as to the system in which they have been trained1 they will1 if called to speak1 frankly say so4 ,if they advance to a new position1 and yet are not clear in regard to certain connected topics1 they will say so4 ,if they are clear that the system of ,augustine is false1 root and branch1 they will say so1 and carry out all the results involved in this position4 ,in short1 they will go forward in a perfect faith in truth1 honesty and freedom of speech4 ,nor will they consult 8expediency10 except as to the time and the manner of making known their change of opinion4 ,the other portion will adopt the policy which assumes that peace and quiet in holding error is more important than truth which involves trouble and contention4 ,such will conceal their real opinions under forms of expression that will deceive the conservative portion of their people1 by making the impression that they hold to old creeds and formularies1 in the sense in which they formerly did1 when they do not4 ,they will use the stereotyped forms of orthodoxy1 knowing that those of their people who are alarmed at supposed changes1 will be quieted by impressions which are false4 ,and they will do this1 believing it to be ,christian expediency1 although it is a course exactly opposite to that pursued by ,christ and his disciples4 ,what the ,church will do8 ,in regard to church organizations1 it has been shown that there are two diverse principles on which these organizations may be perpetuated4 ,the first is the ,augustinian1 in which the principle of union is a supposed change of the nature transmitted from ,adam1 enabling a man to perform truly virtuous acts1 as none ever do who are not thus recreated4 ,the second is that of common sense1 in which the principle of union is the acknowledgment of ,jesus ,christ as ,lord and ,master1 and the purpose to obey him in all things2 or1 in the words of the ,episcopal formula1 8a church is a congregation of faithful men1 in which the pure word is preached and the sacraments duly administered according to ,christ's ordinances40 ,this definition1 in order to represent the commonsense view1 assumes that 8faithful men0 are persons who believe in ,christ's authority1 as the ,lord of all1 and who purpose to obey him4 ,it has been also shown1 in a previous chapter1 that the church organizations based on the ,augustinian theory1 are gradually modifying their practice so as more and more to recognize the commonsense principle4 ,it is believed that this process of quiet change is to be greatly accelerated by discussion4 ,the people are not aware that the mode of church organization and discipline now most prevalent is an innovation1 which has existed less than two centuries1 and chiefly in this country1 and that there can be found no authority for it1 either in the ,bible or church history4 ,the word 8church10 as used in the ,new ,testament1 in the original ,greek means congregation1 and includes all who unite in one assembly to worship4 ,no case can be found in the ,bible of any such organization as corresponds with that which is now called by the name of 8church10 as distinct from the 8congregation40 ,these being facts1 the whole matter of church organization and discipline is soon to become a matter of general discussion1 the result of which1 of course1 can not be predicted in any details4 ,but it is certain that the more discussion there is1 the more the commonsense system will become dominant4 ,and it is certain that the portion of the people connected with churches will more and more demand discussion4 ,they will assume that their pastors are not to be their authoritative1 dogmatic teachers2 but their leaders in worship and ordinances2 their presiding officers in discussions1 and the administers of much of that kind of knowledge needed by the people1 to enable them to act independently in interpreting the ,bible for themselves4 ,what ,women will do8 ,the great principle of ,protestantism1 in distinction from ,catholicism1 is1 that every person is to be an independent interpreter of the ,bible1 responsible to no man or body of men2 and that every person is to protest against all that conflicts with this right4 ,this principle carried out consistently1 makes theologians and pastors a class sustained by the people1 not as dogmatic teachers of their own opinions1 but as persons set apart for the purpose of gaining and of communicating to the people all the knowledge needful to fit them to use their rights as authorized interpreters of the ,bible4 ,but though all ,protestants hold this principle theoretically1 by far the larger portion have never practically adopted it1 but1 as a matter of fact1 go to theologians and pastors for their opinions1 and not for the knowledge on which opinions are to rest4 ,thus it is that ecclesiastics control the faith of a large portion of the ,protestant churches1 as authoritatively as do the pope and priests control that of the ,catholic church4 ,we have seen1 in the case of ,isabella of ,spain1 one of the most benevolent1 conscientious and lovely of women led on to the most unjust and cruel deeds1 simply from practically adopting the principle1 that her religious teachers must be authoritative guides of her opinions1 and that her own common sense and moral sense must bow to ecclesiastical dictation4 ,the present time is one in which the women of this country must decide in regard to this same principle and on practical questions of the deepest moment4 ,it has been shown1 that with small exceptions1 the ,catholic and ,protestant theologians and clergy unite in teaching a depravity of nature in every human being1 involving these questions3 ,are we so depraved as to be incapacitated to interpret the ,bible1 and made dependent on ecclesiastical and regenerated persons to interpret for us8 ,does the invisible true church consist only of those whose nature has been recreated1 or of those who1 without any newlycreated nature1 truly desire and purpose to use all their natural powers according to the teachings of ,christ8 ,does a 8visible church of ,christ0 consist of persons possessing a newly created nature1 by which alone any truly virtuous acts can be performed1 or does it consist of persons who unite to sustain the public worship1 ordinances and teachings of ,jesus ,christ8 ,are children to be trained to believe that all their feelings and actions are 8sin and only sin10 till they receive a new nature from ,god1 or be taught that whenever they choose what is right1 with the intention to do right1 they act virtuously and please ,god8 ,are children to be allowed to come to the table of their ,lord and ,saviour as soon as they can understand the nature of the ordinance1 and wish and intend to obey ,jesus ,christ in all things1 or are they to be excluded until church officers decide whether the signs of a new nature are to be found8 ,are women and children to be excluded from the ,lord's table because they interpret the ,bible diversely from the church with which they worship8 ,these are the practical questions involved in the doctrine of the depraved nature of man1 as taught by the clergy of the great ,christian sects4 ,it has been stated that many intelligent and pious women in various parts of our country have already quietly assumed their rights as authorized interpreters of the ,bible on all these questions1 have cast off the ,augustinian theory1 and thus1 in fret1 have set themselves in opposition to the clergy1 except so far as the clergy themselves have come to the same results4 ,the writer1 in this work1 has done little more than has also been done by many pious and intelligent mothers and teachers1 except to define1 methodize and publicly express opinions which other women have practically adopted in training children1 as the result of their own experience1 common sense and study of the ,bible4 ,some of the leading organs of the ,high ,church party in the ,episcopal church1 and thus the most strenuous defenders of ecclesiastical infallibility and authority1 in noticing the writer's volume1 ,common ,sense ,applied to ,religion1 previously referred to1 ask with naive simplicity1 what right has a woman to apply common sense to religion1 or to have any opinions except as she is taught them by the church1 at the same time sneering at the idea1 that 8the dear people0 are competent to understand and interpret the ,bible for themselves4 ,this shows that the issue is now fairly presented and understood4 ,the ecclesiastical party1 more or less1 openly claim that the only authorized interpreters of the ,bible are the ordained priesthood1 or the regenerated church4 ,on the other hand1 the people1 and women1 as that half of the people to whom the training of the human mind is especially committed1 maintain that they are ordained to this office by a ,higher ,power and by the imposition of a nobler hand than any who boast an uninterrupted apostolical succession4 ,moreover1 it is claimed that every welleducated1 pious woman of good common sense1 who has trained young children1 is better qualified to interpret the ,bible correctly1 on all points pertaining to such practical duties1 than most theologians possibly can be4 ,and the reasons are1 that she is free from those biasing difficulties which have been pointed out as embarrassing theologians1 while all her employments and all her culture eminently tend to aid rather than to embarrass her judgment on such subjects4 ,add1 also1 that the ,bible was written for common people1 and not for metaphysicians1 and in the language of common life1 and not in theological terms1 and that if it teaches the system of common sense1 it is better fitted to the apprehension of those whose training has been practical rather than scholastic4 ,finally1 the promises of aid from the ,author of the ,bible1 is to the meek and lowly of heart4 8,the meek will he guide in judgment2 the meek will he teach his way40 ,that the position of those accustomed to rule and teach is as favorable to the cultivation of a meek1 humble and teachable spirit as that of those trained to learn and to obey1 few will maintain4 ,these facts being so1 it is believed that ere long the greater portion of the most intelligent and conscientious women in this country1 will gradually and quietly take this course4 ,they will perceive that they are bound1 not only to assume and exercise the distinctive rights of ,protestantism1 as authorized interpreters of the ,bible1 but to protest1 by word and deed1 against all that opposes the exercise of these rights4 ,in accordance with this1 they will respectfully and privately express to their pastor and fellow,christians their protest against the ,augustinian system1 as involving a dreadful slander on their ,lord and ,saviour1 vailing in mystery and gloom his lovely character1 which is the light and life of the soul2 they will protest against every creed or confession or church ordinance that is based on this system1 as an indorsement of this fatal slander2 they will protest against being regarded as members of a church in any other sense than as persons united with a congregation to sustain the worship and ordinances instituted by ,christ1 and to aid each other in obeying his word2 they will make it clear to all concerned1 that they do not claim to possess any other nature than that received from ,god at birth1 nor to be regenerated in any other sense than that they now desire and sincerely purpose to obey ,christ in all things4 ,they will1 moreover1 protest against the exclusion of themselves or their children from the ,lord's table1 for interpreting the ,bible diversely from the church with which they worship1 and against the interference of church officers to examine them or their children in order to ascertain their mode of interpreting the ,bible or the any other signs of regeneration1 than the expressed desire to unite with the congregation in the worship and ordinances appointed by ,christ4 ,should such a course as this result in exclusion from the ,lord's table1 those thus protesting can depart peaceably to some church which could conscientiously receive them on such terms4 ,and if no such church is to be found1 they can quietly relinquish the privilege1 until such time as it can be enjoyed without a sacrifice of principle and religious liberty4 ,if those thus protesting act consistently1 they will accord to the church excluding them the same liberty to interpret the ,bible1 in regard to duty on this subject1 as they claim for themselves4 ,the church in cutting them off may feel as conscientiously bound to the course they adopt1 according to their way of understanding the ,bible1 as those do who protest and withdraw4 ,and if the true spirit of ,christ1 the spirit of humility1 meekness and love prevails1 such disruptions will occur without contentions or ill feelings on either side4 ,but in churches embracing many who possess very little of this spirit and cherishing the claim of infallibility1--first in deciding which is the true church and next in maintaining its dogmas1--there would result a mode of dealing with such ,protestants very similar to that of former ages4 ,this would lead to agitation and discussion4 ,but even on this trying alternative more good than evil might be hoped1 especially if those who protest and withdraw1 maintain the meek1 peaceable and quiet spirit required and exhibited by their ,master4 ,what ,young ,america will do8 ,the higher the development of humanity1 the more the capacities for enjoyment and suffering are increased1 and the more civilization multiplies the means and modes of gratifying increasing desires1 the stronger becomes the deepfelt anxiety in regard to the invisible future4 ,are all these capacities1 so infinite in their tendencies1 to expand for ever1 only to be wrenched and crossed and baffled as they are in this life8 ,what are our dangers8 ,what are we to do to escape them8 ,this is more and more the agonizing demand of humanity4 ,it has been shown that a system of doctrine has been forced upon ,christendom which has shrouded this great question in mysterious gloom4 ,it has been shown also that the great organizations of the religious world are so vitally based on this system that its renunciation involves their certain dissolution4 ,and though the advance of humanity has1 more or less1 modified the opinions and practice of the individuals embraced in such organizations1 still the principle remains unchanged4 ,consequently any formal1 open attack on this principle involves the combined antagonism of all the most powerful religious organizations of society4 ,free discussion is not to be expected in our theological schools1 where the young men know that they can not be recommended for license if they fail to adopt the creed of their sect4 ,nor can it be found in our colleges1 most of which depend for patronage on1 or are pledged to the interests of a sect4 ,nor can it be expected in our pulpits1 where the minister teaches and the people have no chance of rejoinder or disputation4 ,nor can it be expected of the religious press1 which is also bound to sustain sectarian interests4 ,what power is there then which can contend against such portentous combinations1 sustained not only by the prestige of ages and all the innate forces of longdrilled organizations1 but by the honest and conscientious convictions of the great majorities thus enrolled8 ,it is the power of truth evolved by free discussion1 and mainly as it is and will be administered in the hands of ,young ,america and the secular press4 ,the young men of the nation have the control of their literary societies in our colleges and seminaries1 and of the popular lyceums and other associations1 where every member has a vote in deciding what shall be discussed2 and here the battle will be fought for religious liberty and the ,bible4 ,in this conflict there will appear two distinct classes4 ,the first will be those of shallow capacity and acquirements1 who1 perceiving themselves to be in the party of reason and common sense1 will imagine that they have acquired this position1 not by the progress of the age1 brought about to a great extent by the discussions1 the labors and sufferings of wise and good men1 many of them distinguished as metaphysicians and theologians1 but that it is all owing to their own remarkable genius and independent thought4 ,thus they will become 8heady1 highminded10 rash and contemptuous4 ,of these1 some will be borne away to utter skepticism1 immorality and final ruin4 ,others1 unable to reason correctly1 and bewildered by the conflict1 will swing around to the opposite extreme1 and enter a church where they can rest their faith on a priesthood claiming to be heaveninspired1 which shall decide all questions of faith and practice for them4 ,but the nobler portion of ,young ,america will understand truly their great mission1 and1 taught by the mistakes and darkness of the past1 with a modest and humble sense of their own inability to go forward without help1 both from ,god and their fellowmen1 will seek for truth1 duty and happiness in the appropriate path of calm1 honest1 fair and free discussion4 ,and their generous hearts and strong arms will be shield and buckler even to the feeblest who may enter the lists4 ,what the ,religious ,press will do8 ,this question is the most perplexing of all1 at least to those who have attentively marked the recent developments in the religious world4 ,what is there that more clearly defies at once the moral sense1 the common sense and the teachings of the ,bible1 than the system of slavery as it now exists in this country1 and yet a majority of not only editors1 but of the ministers of ,christ1 in some of our most intelligent and large denominations1 openly refuse freedom of discourse on this subject2 nay1 more1 some of the religious papers are openly justifying the slave trade1 which politicians1 even those without any pretensions to religious principle1 have placed as piracy1 the highest civil crime4 ,and the last year has witnessed the deliberate crushing of free debate on this subject1 in one of our largest and most effective benevolent associations4 ,and some of those whose whole lives have exhibited them among the most amiable1 conscientious and exemplary men1 are to be found upholding such a course4 ,who then can predict what will be the course of the religious press1 when every editor must maintain the distinctive tenets of a sect1 or at once lose his professional character and his income8 ,it is very easy to predict what will be the course of those who will make no sacrifice for truth4 ,a large portion will neither read1 or think or discuss1 or1 so far as they have power to prevent1 allow others to do so4 ,some will take this course in the satisfied belief that they1 and the church which they have infallibly decided to be infallible1 can never err4 ,others will avoid all discussion for fear of being convinced of mistakes1 obliging them1 if acknowledged1 to sacrifices of pride1 character and income4 ,others will make some show of discussion1 so far as to use the disgraceful arts sometimes resorted to1 in order to satisfy and blind ignorant and unreflecting readers4 ,unfair and garbled quotations1 misstatement of facts1 depreciating implications of character and motives1 invidious allusions to family or party connections1 the use of unpopular terms1 which humbler minds have been trained to regard as designating the most dangerous and destructive heresies1 these1 and many other discreditable methods1 will probably be employed to stave off discussion1 or to nullify its power4 ,but there is a class of minds who have access to the religious press1 and can more or less control its action1 who are far above such humiliating littleness and dishonesty4 ,in regard to these1 such are the influence of education and longtrained habits of thought1 that an entire change of a whole system must be a gradual process4 ,and when sermons1 lectures1 books and pulpit ministries have all been in accordance with one system1 they can not be modified to meet another without many practical difficulties4 ,nor can men1 whose professional associations with ecclesiastical bodies and with parishes impede them1 settle many practical questions involved in any change of views1 without demanding time for reflection1 examination and consultation4 ,in this position of affairs in the religious world1 a measure of retention1 and even of protracted silence1 in many cases1 may be wise and justifiable4 ,and charges of compromise1 or of cowardice1 or of intellectual deficiency1 in such cases1 would be false1 ungenerous and unjust4 ,all this should be taken into account in judging of the future action of those who control the religious periodicals and literature4 ,what the ,secular ,press will do8 ,the answer to this question is much more clear than the preceding one1 inasmuch as the secular press1 to a great extent1 is free from the embarrassments that restrain the religious press4 ,it has become so manifest that the great body of the people are determined to enjoy perfect liberty of conscience1 and to defend the right of free discussion in religion and morals1 as well as in politics1 that it is clearly for the interests of editors1 not committed to sectarianism1 to uphold these rights4 ,the distinguished popularity and success of that ,daily which now boasts the largest circulation in the nation1 is a most significant fact4 ,its career began long before the religious world had its distinctive tenets rudely assailed by any but ecclesiastical hands1 and long before the secular press ventured to bring its commonsense maxims to bear on religious topics4 ,singlehanded1 it fearlessly opened its columns to discussions on ,fourierism1 women's rights1 intemperance1 slavery1 religious doctrines1 and all other matters that concerned the public weal1 giving every party a fair chance to speak for itself4 ,the religious world took the lead in the outcry and alarm against this course4 ,but the people1 and even a large proportion of the religious people1 sustained this attempt at fair and free discussion1 so honestly and fearlessly pursued1 until the battle was fairly won4 ,and now it is probable that the larger proportion of the most candid and intelligent editors of the secular press perceive that their pecuniary interests1 in regard to free religious discussion1 are in the same direction as their reason and conscience4 ,this being so1 it is probable that the most powerful1 fair and effective discussions of the grand question of life hereafter1 will be found more in the secular than in the religious press1 at least for a considerable period of time4 ,should this be so1 there would probably be an improvement in modes of discussion in several respects4 ,among these may be anticipated an advance in a spirit of ,christian humility1 charity and of gentlemanly courtesy in dealing with the character and motives of those whose opinions1 either in religion or morals1 are discussed4 ,the true spirit of ,christian charity demands that we endeavor to present the best rather than the worst construction of our opponent's character1 motives and arguments4 ,a true humility implies such a selfdistrust1 and such a sense of our need of aid in discovering truth1 not only from ,god but from our fellowmen1 as will be indicated in a modest and unimpassioned exhibition of opinions and arguments1 and a courteous reception of all criticisms and counter arguments4 ,with this spirit the weakness or mistakes1 or sophistries of an opponent would be exhibited more in sorrow than in triumph or scorn4 ,a true gentlemanly courtesy would enforce the same rules of delicacy and good breeding in public encounters as are regarded by wellbred persons in the drawing room4 ,this would necessarily banish all allusion to personal or family failings1 and all invidious or disrespectful modes of address or language4 ,no one who is familiar with the controversies on doctrine and morals1 as conducted in the religious papers1 can doubt that there is room for improvement in all these particulars4 ,such improvement is to be anticipated1 not on account of any mental or moral superiority of the conductors of the secular press1 but rather from the fact that they are free from many of the embarrassments and exciting influences already pointed out as surrounding those who conduct the religious periodicals4 ,another improvement to be anticipated is the withdrawal of the great questions in debate from the mists of metaphysical and theological technics to the clear1 popular language of common life4 ,in the preceding pages it is shown that the most important questions of religious truth and duty can be discussed in the language of common life1 so as to be made intelligible to all persons of ordinary education1 who are sufficiently interested to give their attention to matters which demand intellectual exertion4 ,men will find that they must 8labor to enter into the strait gate10 intellectually as well as morally1 and that they are to 8work out their own salvation with fear and trembling10 while thus they will learn to understand the nature of the encouraging assurance that 8it is ,god that worketh in us to will and to do of his own good pleasure40 ,when1 therefore1 the secular press and the popular lyceum take up these great questions they will insist that the discussions shall be carried on in popular language1 so that the labor demanded shall not be increased by the unknown tongue of theological and metaphysical science4 ,again1 there will be an improvement in the mode of conducting such discussions1 by the banishment of all adventitious topics and the firm grasping of the one great fundamental point in debate4 ,it will be insisted that the question is not at all whether ,arminians or ,universalists1 or ,unitarians hold this or that opinion1 nor whether advocating such and such views would injure the cause of this or that institution1 or sect or individual2 nor whether this or that person has certain faults1 or is a proper advocate of some innovations2 nor whether undesirable results would follow from expressing certain views1 but simply what is the truth1 so far as it can be discovered by honest statements and fair discussion4 ,the grand question in debate is not whether men are depraved in character and action as they appear in the history of the world4 ,all parties agree in the fact of such dreadful depravity4 ,the question is in regard to the philosophy of this fact1 that is to say1 ,what is the cause or reason of this depravity8 ,here it will be found that two classes exist in all the great ,protestant sects1 viz43 ,those who hold that the cause is a depraved nature1 signifying what men mean when in common life they use the terms1 nature1 organization1 construction or constitution1 and those who deny that any such depraved nature exists4 ,these two opposite opinions1 ever since the third century1 have been expressed by the terms1 ,augustinian and ,pelagian4 ,the case is now so fairly and clearly before the people1 that every theologian who has capacity and training sufficient to understand an argument must knowingly do one of these things3 #a4 ,deny depravity of nature and allow that he is a ,pelagian2 or #b4 ,affirm such depravity1 take rank as an ,augustinian and then meet the argument which1 on this assumption1 destroys all evidence of the benevolence of ,god1 and renders a reliable revelation from him impossible4 #c4 ,withdraw from all discussion either by entire silence1 or by hiding in the fogs of metaphysical and theological technics1 or by the disgraceful arts of debate practiced to alarm and delude the ignorant4 ,heretofore the editors of secular papers have practically conceded that the religious disputes and conflicts that agitated the churches were matters out of their province and to be turned over to the clergy and religious editors4 ,and inasmuch as most of these contentions have related to matters of rites and forms1 or to abstract doctrinal points having little practical bearings on the daily life1 such abstinence seemed appropriate4 ,but the progress of the age has at last fairly brought the organized church front to front with the unregenerate world on the greatest of all practical questionsa question with which every editor of every secular paper has as deep a personal and family interest as has any religious editor1 or any doctor of theology1 or any parochial pastor4 ,is it a fact1 or is it not1 that every man at birth is so depraved in nature that every one of his moral acts is sin1 and sin only1 until a change in this nature is wrought by the creative power of ,god1 and must all young children be educated on this assumption8 ,the training of the family1 our institutions of education1 the church organizations of the great religious sects1 all depend on this question4 ,the answer to it must be yes or no1 for no third supposition is possible4 ,every intelligent man then must speak out in the affirmative1 or in the negative1 or else hide in silence or in the mists of deceit4 ,in this view of the case1 it is believed that the educated class of powerful and cultivated minds1 who are1 by their position and talents1 the leaders of the secular press1 will not turn this matter over to their theological contributors1 but will take the case into their own hands1 and fearlessly and earnestly meet their high responsibilities4 ,thus they may prove not only the most effective leaders in the intellectual and moral advance of humanity1 but the protectors of many suffering1 struggling minds1 who unaided would sink in the conflict before them4 ,in this exhibition of the position of the religious world1 the attitude of this work is very remarkable4 ,it is in open and direct antagonism with all the religious organizations of the ,christian world1 and that too in regard to the very fundamentals on which each of these organizations depends for its existence4 ,all the ,augustinian sects are against the position of this work1 that the mind of man is perfect in nature1 and should they adopt the ,pelagian ground consistently1 every one of them would either come to an end1 or change the very basis of its organization4 ,the only sect that openly and consistently avows the ,pelagian view1 is the ,unitarian2 but this organization is founded on the distinctive tenet of such a unity in ,god as forbids the idea of a plurality of eternal1 self existent ,persons1 having the highest attributes of ,god4 ,this is contrary to the system of common sense1 as exhibited in this work1 page #ajj4 ,the ,universalist organization is based on the doctrine that none of the human race will continue sinful for ever1 and thus insure the natural consequences of sin4 ,this also is shown to be contrary to the system of common sense1 as presented in this work1 page #agg4 ,the great body of persons1 as yet unorganized1 who agree in resisting the claims of the ,bible as containing reliable revelations from the ,creator1 and thus authoritative rules of faith and practice1 will be arrayed against such claims maintained in this work1 as one of the inevitable results of the application of the principles of common sense4 ,consequently1 the whole religious organizations of the world1 who rest their faith on the ,bible1 are antagonistic to this work1 while those who repudiate the authority of the ,bible are equally so4 ,still more remarkable is the fact exhibited in this volume1 that the writer1 in a family circle embracing so many theologians and pastors1 appears before the public as antagonistic to most1 and supported openly by not one of them4 ,what then is the foundation of that confiding and cheerful equanimity with which all this imposing array of organizations and individual talents1 learning and influence is regarded8 ,it is1 first1 confidence in truth and the ,god of truth1 and next1 the intimate knowledge gained by the writer1 of the characters and the mental experiences of some of the most powerful minds that are leaders of this host1 and at the same time a similar knowledge of some of the noblest minds1 who are most effectively influencing that great portion of the popular mind which is not embraced in these organizations4 ,whatever may be the opinions of these powerful classes1 who may in form and position appear antagonistic1 they will never be leaders in any attempt to crush perfect freedom of thought and expression1 or to restrain that free and earnest discussion which is impending4 ,nay more1 if the distinctive feature of a follower of ,christ is to be humble and teachable in spirit1 8meek and lowly of heart10 and if that highest form of human development is dawning1 when moral magnanimity shall take precedence of intellectual power in human estimation1 then the world will soon behold what as yet has been deemed impossible1 great and learned men1 even doctors in theology1 nay more1 even men that have written books1 resigning the claim of infallibility1 and confessing that they have made mistakes4 ,the hope of this1 moreover1 is sustained by the character and position of some1 who not only stand high in the theological world1 but are among the most revered and beloved in that family circle1 where the golden chain of perfect love has never for a moment been sundered by the widest diversities of opinion or the freest discussion of differences4 ,what has transpired in one ,christian family1 it is believed1 may be but the emblem of what is yet to prevail among the true children of ,him1 8of whom the whole family in heaven and on earth is named407#bb7 ,,note4 ,the work often referred to in the preceding pages1 was written1 at first1 on a more limited plan than now appears4 ,after a portion was printed1 it was perceived that the discussion contained in this volume was indispensable1 and the title at first designed for the whole work1 became inappropriate to the first portion when issued alone4 ,in making a change1 the result has been1 that the work has sometimes been advertised by its first name1 the ,,bible ,,and ,,the ,,people1 and sometimes by its second name1 ,,common ,,sense ,,applied ,,to ,,religion1 and sometimes by both together4 ,hereafter1 the title of the first volume will be ,,common ,,sense ,,applied ,,to ,,religion4 ,this volume is the second portion4 ,the final portion1 not yet published1 will be entitled ,,the ,,bible ,,interpreted ,,by ,,common ,,sense4 ,,notes4 ,note ,a4 ,the new school divines agree with the old school in teaching that previous to regeneration every moral act is sin and only sin1 and that ,god has made no promises to unregenerate doings1 which would obligate him to re create the soul1 in return for such performances4 ,on the contrary1 they urge man himself to change his own heart1 as that which is possible without any aid from ,god4 ,and the interference of ,god to regenerate is represented by them as an act of sovereign1 elective mercy1 unbought by any labor or striving on the part of man4 ,still1 they encourage the use of the means of grace as the way in which ,god ordinarily meets the sinner1 in bestowing this gift4 ,they urge that experience proves1 that though regeneration is not promised to the use of the means of grace1 it is more frequently bestowed on those who use them than on those who neglect them4 ,note ,b4 ,there are three points on the subject of the future state1 which need to be discussed separately4 ,the first is1 will there be an eventual separation of the human race1 at some final consummation1 so that from that point1 through all eternity1 there will be two separate communities1 the good being perfect in character and happiness1 and the bad reaping the natural results of their evil tempers and conduct for ever8 ,the second is1 does our conduct in this life have an influence in deciding our degrees of happiness or misery in a future state1 so that we reap the natural good or evil consequences of all we do here for ever8 ,the third is entirely independent of the other two1 and is this3 ,is the eternal condition of every human being fixed at the hour of death2 or is there with some a continued process of culture and discipline1 and of upward and downward progress in a future state1 extending to the day of final separation and consummation8 ,that some may become so good in this life as to insure an eternal upward progress1 and that some may become so bad as to insure a perpetual downward progress1 may be true1 and yet1 to others new opportunities may be given4 ,it is by revelations from the ,creator alone that these points can be effectually settled4 ,it is shown in chapter #bg1 that every system of religion or morals must be decided by these questions4 ,therefore1 these questions1 and the authority of the ,bible on these points1 must become the subject of renewed and earnest discussion4 ,note ,c4 ,the doctrine of the ,atonement can be regarded simply as a fact without any reference to the philosophy of it1 i4e41 the mode or cause of this fact4 ,jesus ,christ came into this world to save men from sin and its inevitable penalties1 by his teachings1 sufferings and death4 ,this fact may be received without any attempt to explain the why or the how it came to pass1 or how it is made efficacious1 which are the philosophy of this fact4 ,in regard to this philosophy1 various theories have been incorporated into creeds and theological systems4 ,the most common theory at the present time1 in this country1 is1 that the sufferings and the death of ,christ avail to sustain the justice and the laws of ,god as effectually as would the infliction of eternal misery on all who are regenerated4 ,that is to say1 if by repentance and reformation1 without an atonement1 men should escape all the penalties for past sin1 the result would be that ,god's justice would be impeached and his laws be nullified1 just as human lawgivers become unjust and their laws are made void when all penalties are remitted4 ,this difficulty1 it is supposed1 on the common theory1 was met by the sufferings and the death of ,jesus ,christ1 as a vicarious substitute in behalf of those saved4 ,that is to say1 this atoning sacrifice operates to preserve the justice of ,god and the efficiency of laws1 as effectually as would the eternal punishment1 from which all regenerated persons are thus rescued4 ,this mode of explaining the why and the how may be relinquished and another mode adopted1 or no theory at all may be deemed needful1 while belief may remain in the great fact1 that ,jesus ,christ wrought out the salvation of those who are saved1 by his advent1 sufferings and death1 and that they could be saved by no other mode4 ,it is very important to recognize this distinction between the fact and the philosophical theories invented to explain the fact2 because it is frequently the case that the denial of a theory is regarded as a denial of the great fact1 when such is not the case4 ,all may agree in the fact when very diverse theories are held to explain it4 ,whether our ,creator actually has come in human form into this world1 and exhibited an example of selfsacrifice and suffering for the general good1 is what we may infer as probable by the light of nature1 but which we can fully prove only by revelation4 ,note ,d4 ,whether the ,creator ever communes with the human spirit except through the material organizations1 is one on which reason and experience furnish no intimations4 ,no record is to be found of any communications from the ,creator to mankind that were not made either by visible forms or intelligible sounds1 or by visions and dreams in sleep4 ,all the revelations recorded in the ,bible were by some one of these methods4 ,this being so1 the system of common sense neither affirms or denies the direct access of the creative mind to the minds of his creatures4 ,it is a question to be settled solely by revelation4 ,note ,e4 ,this mode of explaining the depravity of mind is to be found in the ,conflict of ,ages4 ,on page #ij the following passage exhibits the author's idea1 both of a perfectly constructed mind1 and of a depraved mind3 8,so there is a life of the mind4 ,it involves an original and designed correlation to ,god1 and such a state of the affections1 passions1 emotions1 intellect and will1 that communion with ,god shall be natural1 habitual1 and the life of the soul4 ,he who has been so far healed by divine grace as to reach this state1 has a true idea of the normal and healthy state of the soul4 ,and if he finds that there is that in the state of his moral constitution and emotions which seems to lie beneath his will and undermine its energy to follow the convictions of reason and conscience1 and that by divine grace this has been changed1 and an energy not only to will but to do good is supplied1 is it to be wondered at that1 in some way1 he should come to the conclusion that there is in his nature or moral constitution1 depravity or pollution1 anterior to the action of the will80 ,the theory which this author adopts is1 that the 8normal0 state of man's 8nature or moral constitution0 was created in man by ,god in a prexistent state1 and that man's 8depravity or pollution anterior to the action of the will0 consists in 8a habit of sinning10 generated in this prexistent state4 ,this habit of sinning was not a part of the perfectlyconstructed nature made by ,god4 ,man himself introduced it into his own mind1 thus rendering it so depraved that every moral act is sin1 and only sin4 ,regeneration1 according to this theory1 consists in a change of the 8state of the moral constitution10 whereby 8an energy not only to will but to do good is supplied40 ,that is to say1 the 8habit of sinning0 can be lessened or removed by some supernatural change of the 8moral constitution0 by ,god4 ,and yet all men are born with this depravity which ,god can remedy1 and will not1 except for a select few4 ,it is manifest1 therefore1 that this writer holds to a depravity of nature in the true and proper sense of the term1 signifying constitution or construction4 ,this being so1 his theory puts it out of his power to prove the benevolence of the ,creator1 or to establish any revelation from him as a reliable guide to truth and happiness4 ,for it is the nature of any created thing which proves the character and intentions of its creator4 ,if then all human minds are depraved in nature or 8constitution10 the ,creator of these minds is thus proved to be depraved1 and no revelations from him can be reliable4 ,he prefers sin and evil to virtue and happiness1 and of course his teachings can be no guide to truth1 virtue and happiness4 ,thus1 by his own theory1 this author is debarred from any proof of a prexistent state by revelation4 ,on page #bj it is further stated that 8inasmuch as the mind of man is depraved1 and there may be danger in trusting its unrevised1 uncorrected decisions as to these principles of honor and right1 it is of great importance1 for purposes of revision1 carefully to study those developments of benevolent1 honorable and just feelings1 towards which the human mind1 after regeneration1 and under the guidance of the ,holy ,spirit1 is found most directly to tend40 ,this passage shows that this depravity of the 8moral constitution10 generated in a prexistent state1 in the view of this author1 is such that there is danger in trusting our mental decisions as to the principles of honor and right at first implanted by ,god1 but vitiated and impaired by the 8habit of sinning40 ,this danger1 it is suggested1 is lessened 8after regeneration10 so that regenerated persons are thus entitled to guide their unregenerate fellowmen in matters of truth and duty4 ,this lays the foundation for the claims of a regenerate church and clergy to superior authority in deciding on the interpretations of the ,bible4 ,the tendencies of such claims to pride1 dogmatism and persecution1 are pointed out in chapter #da4 ,note ,f4 ,the following extract from the ,views and ,experiences of ,religion1 by ,henry ,ward ,beecher1 is an example of the vagueness and uncertainty referred to4 ,it is part of an article entitled ,how to ,become a ,christian4 8,the moment you realize this goodness of ,christ1 his helpfulness to you1 his lenient1 forgiving1 sympathizing spirit1 then you know what faith in ,christ means4 ,if such a ,saviour attracts you1 and you strive all the more ardently1 from love toward him and trust in him1 then you are a ,christian3 not a religious man1 but a ,christian4 8,a man may worship through awe1 or through a sense of duty1 and ,i think there are hundreds of men in the churches who are only religious men1 and not ,christians4 ,a man who feels toward ,god only awe or fear1 who obeys merely from a sense of duty1 who is under the dominion of conscience rather than of love1 may be religious1 but he is not a ,christian40 ,there is nothing said in this article of any need of any new creation of the nature of the mind2 nor is this ,augustinian dogma to be found in any of this author's published works4 ,in this article1 written expressly to give clear views of what it is to become a ,christian1 and how to do it1 we find it taught 8a man who feels toward ,god only awe or fear1 who obeys merely from a sense of duty1 who is under the dominion of conscience rather than of love1 may be religious1 but he is not a ,christian40 ,suppose1 then1 a person with a strong sense of justice and great natural benevolence1 is trained to believe the ,calvinistic form of the ,augustinian system1 so that ,god appears to him only the awful1 incomprehensible author of this dreadful system1 and ,jesus ,christ1 this same ,god1 so united to a man 7as this transaction is usually represented7 that the human soul alone bears all the grief and suffering involved in the expiatory sacrifice demanded4 ,suppose1 also1 that1 in this view1 unable to feel any emotions but fear and awe1 he says1 8,there must be a dreadful mistake somewhere4 ,i can not fathom it2 but ,i can and will do this3 ,i will trust the word of ,jesus ,christ as to the character of ,god1 and ,i will obey his teachings conscientiously in all things1 as nearly as ,i am able20 and this determination is carried out in his life4 ,is such a man a ,christian1 or is he not8 ,guided only by the above extract1 it would be very difficult to decide1 or to state what is this author's view of regeneration2 nor is there any thing in his published writings to remove the vagueness and uncertainty caused by such teachings as are embraced in the above extract1 as to what change makes a man a true ,christian4 ,according to the system of common sense 7as explained chapter #bd1 and also on page #beh7 to form and carry out a ruling purpose to obey the laws of ,god1 as made known by ,jesus ,christ1 is loving ,god and ,christ in the only way in which love can justly be made a subject of command4 ,and when a man forms and carries out such a purpose1 he is 8under the dominion of conscience10 and is a true ,christian4 ,the point where this writer seems to fail1 in this extract1 is1 in a want of the distinction1 pointed out in the chapter above mentioned1 between voluntary and involuntary love4 ,a person may be 8under the dominion of conscience10 by a purpose to obey all the laws of ,god1 and for want of the true view of ,god's character1 as exhibited in ,jesus ,christ1 may experience only emotions of fear and awe in performing such obedience4 ,it is the true1 efficient purpose to obey ,christ which constitutes a man a ,christian4 ,it is right views of ,god's character1 as seen in ,jesus ,christ1 that gives new strength to carry out such a purpose4 8,when we were yet without strength1 in due time ,christ died for the ungodly10 thus giving new motives of love and gratitude1 in addition to those of fear and awe4 ,not until all the false theories that hitherto have vailed the atoning sacrifice of ,jesus ,christ are cast away1 will the full meaning of the above text be fully understood4 ,note ,g4 ,among theologians and pastors there are two classes now existing1 in all the great ,protestant sects1 the one holding to a real depravity of nature1 and striving to make such a fact consistent with common sense and with the ideas of benevolence and justice in the ,creator2 the other1 holding only to a depravity of action and of character1 resulting from such action in this life1 are striving to evade open antagonism with the ,augustinian theory4 ,no third position being possible1 every man is necessarily ,augustinian or ,pelagian2 either holding that man is depraved in nature1 or that he is not4 ,in the first class1 is one whom1 above all others1 the writer would prefer to meet in a discussion on this great question4 ,it is one who is remembered in early life as the honest1 serious1 bookloving boy2 next as the earnest ,christian and faithful student1 winning the highest honors of a collegiate course2 next as a student of theology called to several of the highest city pulpits1 even before finishing his preparatory course2 next1 even in youth1 the president of a flourishing western college1 taking a decided stand on the slavery question1 defending the freedom of the press with its first martyr1 and very nearly sharing his fate2 next resuming the pastor's office1 mainly to gain more freedom to write and publish his peculiar views1 which he well understood would encounter all the organized interests of ,christendom1 and place a dragchain on all his personal and professional interests2 finally1 one who1 as scholar1 metaphysician and theologian1 in the writer's view1 has never been surpassed1 while he never has1 and never will1 resort to a cowardly or unfair mode to weaken or escape an argument4 ,thus much1 if not allowable toward a brother1 may be permitted toward an antagonist4 ,it is this brother who for years has been laboring to sustain the ,augustinian dogma by a theory which--could it be proved--is the only one yet devised that is at once rational1 intelligible and actually secures the end designed4 ,for if it were a fact that the nature of mind is depraved1 and if it were possible to prove that our race originally1 in a prexistent state1 were created with a perfect nature1 ruined themselves1 and were born into this world for purposes of pardon and redemption1 the grand difficulty would all be remedied1 and ,god could be exhibited as wise1 just and good in spite of this mournful fact4 ,but it is the fact of the depraved nature of the human mind1 where the writer and this brother are at issue1 and not on any theory to relieve the difficulties incident to that fact4 ,the argument of this work1 to prove that there is no possible mode of proving the benevolence of ,god1 or of proving that the ,bible is a reliable revelation from him1 to any man who teaches that the nature of the human mind is depraved in any sense that can be made intelligible by human language1 this is the place where the author of the ,conflict of ,ages1 in due time1 will meet this discussion fairly1 openly and honorably4 ,in the second class1 mentioned above1 is another brother1 whom the writer believes to be as decidedly on the ,pelagian ground4 ,whether he yet fully understands his position1 is not affirmed by one1 who has1 for so short a time1 fully understood her own bearings in this matter4 ,but ere long1 the only question remaining for him will be1 whether he shall openly attack this stronglyentrenched error1 this wholesale slander on his ,lord and ,master1 or take the ,tract ,society mode of evading discussion4 ,all who best know the writer of the ,star ,papers1 best understand that any question of expediency will relate1 not to the fearless1 outspoken exhibition of his opinions1 but only to the time and manner in which it shall be done4 ,he must soon perceive that it is as much his duty openly to attack the ,african,a enslavement of ,anglo,saxon minds1 as it ever was to combat the ,anglo,saxon enslavement of ,african bodies4 ,it will be noticed that this public appeal to family friends was not made until all other theologians1 especially obligated to meet this discussion1 had evaded it1 and some of them by unfair1 ungentlemanly and unchristian methods4 ,transcriber's ,note3 ,obvious printer's errors have been corrected4 ,,footnotes #a ,note ,a4 #b ,the theory of ,dr4 ,e4 ,beecher1 as it has not been accepted by any denomination1 is not referred to here4 #c ,most of the extracts in this and the preceding chapter are furnished by ,dr4 ,e4 ,beecher in his ,conflict of ,ages4 #d ,in scientific language1 the object of desire is called the objective motive1 and the desire itself is called the subjective motive4 #e ,these references are to portions of the volume before mentioned which are not introduced into this work4 #f ,metaphysicians have mystified this subject thus3--,they say 8the will0 7or choice7 invariably1 8is as is the greatest apparent good40 ,but when it is inquired1 does 8greatest good10 as here used1 signify that which the intellect decides to be best far all concerned1 and thus right1 or does it signify that which causes the strongest desire as measured by our own consciousness8 ,it will be found that1 in this metaphysical statement above1 it means both4 ,this leads to the same sort of confusion as would result from using the word straight to include the two ideas of both straight and crooked4 ,with such an enlarged1 but improper1 definition1 it could truly be said that men invariably go straight1 and as truly that they also invariably go crooked4 ,the only way in which the expression1 8the will is as is the greatest apparent good10 can be true1 is to use the term to include both what is the greatest good as judged by the intellect1 and also the greatest good as causing the strongest desire1 thus making one word express two diverse ideas4 ,it is this want of discrimination in the use of the term 8greatest apparent good10 by ,president ,edwards1 which accounts for the fact that one class of the most acute metaphysicians regard him as the defender of free agency1 and another class1 equally acute1 maintain that he teaches the exactly opposite doctrine of fatalism4 ,it is by this deceptive use of the words greatest apparent good1 and strongest motive1 that such invariableness of antecedence and consequents is made out1 as is the proof of producing causes and necessary effects in the material world4 ,thus results the idea of irrational free agency1 making the mind of man like irrational brutes1 inevitably and necessarily controlled by the strongest desire1 7or strongest motive7 and destroying all idea of rational free agency4 #g ,this is a very important point in regard to the question of a depraved nature4 #h ,this refers to those theologians who teach that regeneration consists not in a change of nature but of purpose4 #i ,in the ,greek1 the word in the ,new ,testament translated 8peacemakers10 is more correctly rendered 8happinessmakers40 #aj ,note ,b4 #aa ,note ,c4 #ab ,note ,d4 #ac ,this account is taken from ,rev4 ,howard ,malcom's ,travels in ,asia4 #ad ,the ,arminians hold that ,christ's death has purchased the return of ,god's ,spirit withdrawn for ,adam's sin1 and that owing to this aid1 man has some power to obey ,god previous to regeneration1 so that all the doings of the unregenerate are not sin4 #ae ,those new school ,calvinists1 who teach that regeneration consists in the formation of a ruling purpose by man himself1 hold that this never takes place until the ,spirit of ,god more or less rectifies the depraved nature consequent on ,adam's sin1 and that previous to regeneration every moral act of every mind is 8sin1 and only sin40 #af ,note ,e4 #ag 8,state of the ,impenitent ,dead10 by ,alvah ,hovey1 ,d4,d4 #ah ,from the article on ,sanctification1 in the magazine ,beauty of ,holiness1 ,january1 #ahei4 #ai ,note ,f4 #bj ,in regard to the author of the ,conflict of ,ages1 the writer is still uncertain whether he would or would not assent to the common sense view of regeneration1 here stated1 as exact and complete1 or whether he supposes that the 8habit of sinning1 generated in a prexistent state10 is changed by some direct operation of the ,spirit of ,god on the 8nature0 or faculties of the human mind1 which is antecedent to any right voluntary action on the part of man1 and without which1 every moral act of every unregenerated mind is 8sin1 and only sin40 ,these personal references are introduced to illustrate more effectively the vague and diversified teachings of theologians and religious teachers in answer to the great question1 on which they claim that an eternity of blessedness or misery is depending4 #ba ,the extent to which ,judaism had spread among the upper ranks is strikingly shown by the fact that one of the first inquisitors1 ,peter ,arbues1 was assassinated by a conspiracy formed of the chief officers of the ,arragonese government1 who were most of them1 according to ,llorente1 of ,jewish blood or connections4 ,the ,inquisition1 however1 was odious on other grounds1 as a royalist institution1 like our ,star ,chamber4--,see ,llorente's ,history of ,inquisition4 #bb ,note ,g4