,transcriber's ,notes3 ,the spelling1 punctuation and hyphenation are as the original except for apparent typographical errors1 which have been corrected4 ,italic text is denoted thus4 ,bold text is denoted thus4 ,bold1 sans serif text1 representing physical appearance e4g41 of a #8,vee' shaped thread is denoted thus ,v4 ,subscripts are denoted thus #a4 ,some page numbers printed in the original #8,index to ,part ,one' do not appear in the body of the book 4 ,the transcriber has endeavoured to make assumptions as to the most appropriate anchor locations4 ,the appearance of the original index has not been changed4 ,examples 7possibly relocated1 by the author1 into ,part ,two7 are3 ,air1 des41 composition of1 #ae1 #af ,air pump1 #ac ,nitrogen1 what part of air1 #ae ,oxygen1 what part of air1 #ae ,value of ,reidler belt-driven pump1 ills4 and des41 #bch-bdj changed in the ,index to3- ,valve of ,riedler belt-driven pump1 ills4 and des41 #bch-bdj ,all references to #8,reidler' pumps have been corrected to #8,riedler' 7,alois ,riedler1 #ahej-aicf1 ,austrian professor of engineering74 ,,pumps ,,and ,,hydraulics4 ,,in ,,two ,,parts4 ,part ,one4 8,there are many fingers pointing to the value of a training in science1 as the one thing needful to make the man1 who shall rise above his fellows40--,,frank ,,allen4 ,illustration3 ,elephant 8,the motto marked upon our foreheads1 written upon our door-posts1 channeled in the earth1 and wafted upon the waves is and must be1 #8,labour is honorable and ,idleness is dishonorable4'0--,,carlyle4 ,this work is respectfully dedicated to ,,maj4 ,,abram ,b4 ,,garner1 of ,newark1 ,n4 ,j41 --,,and-- ,,alberto ,h4 ,,caffee1 ,,esq41 of ,new ,york ,city4 #8,gentlemen without fear and without reproach4' ,illustration3 ,henry ,r4 ,worthington 8,thought is the principal factor in all mechanical work2 the mechanical effort is an incident rather than the principal equipment in any trade or occupation40 8,any trade is easily learned by an apt scholar who uses his reasoning faculties and makes a study of cause and effect40--,,chas4 ,j4 ,,mason4 ,,pumps --,,and-- ,,hydraulics --,,by-- ,,william ,,rogers ,author of 8,drawing and ,design10 etc4 ,illustration ,,relating ,,to ,,hand ,,pumps2 ,,power ,,pumps2 ,,parts ,,of ,,pumps2 ,,electrically ,,driven ,,pumps2 ,,steam ,,pumps1 ,,single1 ,,duplex ,,and ,,compound2 ,,pumping ,,engines1 ,,high ,,duty ,,and ,,triple ,,expansion2 ,,the ,,steam ,,fire ,,engine2 ,,underwriters' ,,pumps2 ,,mining ,,pumps2 ,,air ,,and ,,vacuum ,,pumps2 ,,compressors2 ,,centrifugal ,,and ,,rotary ,,pumps2 ,,the ,,pulsometer2 ,,jet ,,pumps ,,and ,,the ,,injector2 ,,utilities ,,and ,,accessories2 ,,valve ,,setting2 ,,management2 ,,calculations1 ,,rules ,,and ,,tables4 ,,with ,,illustrations4 ,,also ,,general ,,considerations2 ,,glossary ,,of ,,pump ,,terms2 ,,historical ,,introduction1 ,,with ,,illustrations2 ,,the ,,elements ,,of ,,hydro-,,mechanics1 ,,hydrostatics ,,and ,,pneumatics2 ,,gravity ,,and ,,friction2 ,,hydraulic ,,memoranda2 ,,laws ,,governing ,,fluids2 ,,water ,,pressure ,,machines2 ,,pumps ,,as ,,hydraulic ,,machines1 ,,etc4 ,,part ,,one4 ,,published ,,by ,,theo4 ,,audel ,,company #gb ,,fifth ,,ave41 ,,new ,,york1 ,u4,s4,a4 #g1 ,,imperial ,,arcade1 ,,ludgate ,,circus1 ,e4,c41 ,,london1 ,,eng4 ,copyrighted1 #aije1 by ,,theo4 ,,audel ,,co41 ,,new ,,york4 ,entered at ,stationers ,hall1 ,london1 ,england4 ,protected by ,international ,copyright in ,great ,britain and all her ,colonies1 and1 under the provisions of the ,berne ,convention1 in ,belgium1 ,france1 ,germany1 ,italy1 ,spain1 ,switzerland1 ,tunis1 ,hayti1 ,luxembourg1 ,monaco1 ,montinegro and ,norway4 ,printed in the ,united ,states4 ,,table ,,of ,,contents ,part ,,one4 ,the divisions of ,part ,one are represented by the following headings3 each subject is fully treated and illustrated on the pages shown3 ,,pages ,,introductory ,,considerations #a-af ,,glossary ,,of ,,pump ,,and ,,hydraulic ,,terms #ag-cd ,,historical ,,introduction #ce-gj ,,elementary ,,hydraulics #gj-ajd ,,flow ,,of ,,water ,,under ,,pressure #aje-aaf ,,water ,,pressure ,,machines #aag-aed ,,water ,,wheels #aai-abe ,,turbine ,,water ,,wheels #abf-ace1 #ada-add ,,turbine ,,pumps #acf-aci ,,water ,,pressure ,,engines #ade-adg ,,hydraulic ,,motors #adg-aed ,,hydraulic ,,apparatus #aee-ahd ,,hydraulic ,,jack #aei-afh ,,hydraulic ,,press #afi-agj ,,hydraulic ,,accumulator #aga-agc ,,hydraulic ,,ram #age-ahj ,,pumps ,,as ,,hydraulic ,,apparatus #aha-ahd ,,classification ,,of ,,pumps #ahe-cde ,,hand ,,pumps #ahi-bjd ,,power ,,pumps #bje-bbd ,,belted ,,pumps #bbe-bdj ,,the ,,electric ,,pump #bda-bgf ,,the ,,steam ,,pump #bbg-ccj ,,the ,,duplex ,,pump #cca-cdc ,,underwriter ,,fire ,,pumps #cdd ,,specifications ,,of ,,the ,,national ,,board ,,of ,,fire ,,underwriters ,,relating ,,to ,,the ,,duplex ,,fire ,,pumps #cdg-cih ,,ready ,,reference ,,index ,,to ,,part ,,one 8,among the first things a practical engineer should know1 and among the last things he will1 after becoming such1 forget1 is that in handling water within pipes he has a fluid which1 while it is flexible to the greatest extent and is susceptible of the influence of power1 or force1 of greater or less intensity1 and while it may be drawn from below and raised to the heights above1 can be turned to the right or to the left at will1 and while1 with a seeming docility which is as flattering as it is deceptive1 it bends itself to the will of the engineer1 still there are some things it will not do1 and which all the complicated appliances of the engineer have as yet failed to compel it to do4 ,when inclosed within chambers and pipes1 to an extent that fills them1 it will not permit the introduction of an added atom without bursting its bounds4 ,while inclosed within long lines of pipes it will not suddenly start into motion1 or when in motion suddenly come to a rest1 without shocks or strains more or less disastrous2 and so1 while it seems to be handled with the greatest ease1 it is only in the manner it chooses to go1 and all mechanical appliances not designed with reference to following these imperative laws are sure to meet trouble1 if not disaster4 ,in other words1 when an unyielding force meets an unyielding resistance1 their coming together means a shock to all about40 ,,introductory ,,considerations 8,whenever a full mind meets an empty one1 it is a call to teach1 not to scoff40--,,anon4 ,illustration3 ,,orifices ,,of ,,pipes1 ,,etc41 ,,symbolical ,,of ,,irrigation4 8,he who sedulously attends1 pointedly asks1 calmly speaks1 coolly answers and ceases when he has no more to say1 is in possession of some of the best requisites of man40--,,levater4 ,,preface4 ,it should be a matter of thankfulness to author and reader1 or rather to both instructor and student1 for this is designed to be an educational work1 that the ,laws of ,nature are unchangeable4 ,from age to age and co-extensive with the globe the immutable principles underlying and actuating the physical states of all matter remain steadfast2 gaseous bodies expand by unchanging laws which are obeyed down to the merest atom1 fluids flow by law and the earth to the smallest particle remains firm1 all things at all times responsive to the mandates of the ,author of ,creation4 ,the silent1 mighty1 unanswering physical characteristics of ,gravity1 ,cohesion1 ,tenacity1 furnish an agreeable contrast to the din1 discord and frequent argument1 to the verge of hatred1 that have too often accompanied the efforts of mankind to co-operate with the forces of ,nature4 ,but now1 between author and reader1 let it be hoped1 that in the unfolding of the subject-matter of this work that kind consideration will be extended and that some of that peacefulness and trust which existed on the earth1 when flints were the weapons and the gourds the only goblets1 may prevail from beginning to the 8finis0 of the volumes4 ,the author in planning the outlines of this work has aimed to keep close to real things belonging to the practical side of hydraulics1 pumps1 pumping-engines1 and to the simple explanation of the ,natural ,laws pertaining to their industrial application4 ,a knowledge of the real things in the objective world about us and the laws that govern them in their inter-relations is of practical value to every man2 all branches of science are simply branches of one great science and all phases of human activity are touched by it2 man is so constituted that he must have something to be interested in1 and if he has no resources within himself he looks elsewhere1 and often to his own disadvantage4 ,and so1 the author has aimed to make the subjects of this book interesting as well as useful2 #a1 by their self-help arrangement2 #b1 by the illustrations1 and #c1 by leaving very much to the further research and investigation of the reader1 as1 in a well-told story1 many things are left to the imagination of the listeners4 ,it should be borne in mind by the reader1 that the work is designed to be seriously ,educational in its plan and scope1 and ,progressive in the presentation of its subject-matter2 nothing has been withheld that might add to its lasting value4 ,this is said in the way of an introduction to the ,table of ,contents to which the student is referred as showing the method of treatment1 in the wide range of the theory and practice1 of this important branch of ,industrial ,science4 ,in the back of the volume may be found a ,ready ,reference ,index which by its admirable method of arrangement affords a speedy key to the contents of the book when occasion requires4 ,,what ,a ,,steam ,,pump ,,would ,,say ,,if ,,it ,,could ,,talk4 ,the well-known pump expert1 ,mr4 ,f4 ,meriam ,wheeler1 writes us saying that if the manufacturers of steam pumps would send out with their pumps a card reading something like the following1 it would probably impress the men who run the pumps more forcibly than anything that could be said or written in the ordinary way of giving instructions3 8,please do not gorge me with oil1 as it will give my steam chest indigestion4 ,what ,i like is a steady diet and thus enable my valves to work smoothly and with durability4 ,a very small amount of oil fed to me steadily is the thing--it saves oil and repair bills4 8,two or three times a year give me a good dose of kerosene1 to clean out any obstructions that may have accumulated in the passageways of my steam chest1 or on the face or working parts of the valve and valve-seat1 or on the chest piston4 8,do all you can to help me make a full length of stroke1 as it means that ,i will use less steam and do better work4 ,the adjustable collars on the valve rod will allow you to regulate the length of my stroke to a nicety4 8,by allowing me to make short strokes1 you prevent my steam piston from getting in its proper cushion1 which it would do if it could complete its full stroke4 ,my steam piston is supposed to run up to the end of the cylinder and pass across the exhaust port1 cushioning on the confined steam between said port and the cylinder cover4 8,the hand wheels on the side of my steam cylinder are for controlling the amount of this cushion4 ,for slow speeds these cushion valves should be shut tight4 ,when running at ordinary speed or a high rate of speed1 these cushion valves should be slightly opened4 8,once in a while take a look at my water cylinder4 ,see that the packing of the water piston is not set up so tight that it makes me grunt1 producing unnecessary friction and wear4 ,or1 perhaps the packing is too loose a fit1 or is worn out and needs renewing4 8,please see that my water valves are seating properly1 because if they are not tight ,i cannot pump as much water as ,i ought to do for a given speed4 ,sometimes the springs on the backs of my water valves need renewing or looking after4 8,if you have not already provided a good suction air chamber for my water cylinder1 you ought to do it1 because it will prevent the water column in the suction pipe from slapping the face of my water piston at the end of each stroke in a harsh manner and so produce #8water hammer4' ,a good suction air chamber1 properly located1 saves wear and tear1 and makes a pump quiet running4 8,please keep me nice and clean4 ,i may not be of as much importance as your big engine1 but there is no reason why ,i should not be kept free from dirt and grease4 ,i hate to have oil slobbered all over my steam chest1 or my stuffing-boxes left leaking4 8,you will find it pays to keep me in good condition1 like a well-groomed horse4 ,treat me well and ,i'll serve you well and long6660--,,the ,,engineer4 ,,glossary ,,of ,,pump ,,and ,,hydraulic ,,terms4 ,air-bound4 ,this word applies to both pump and piping and expresses the confinement of air between the discharge valve of the pump and the check-valve or the point of delivery4 ,air-cock4 ,is the same as a pet-cock and is used to relieve pipes that are air-bound4 ,illustration3 ,,air ,,cock4 ,annular ,valve4 ,from annular--a ring--i4 e41 a round valve with a hole in the middle4 ,area4 ,the extent of surface1 as the area of a piston4 ,assembling4 ,putting together the parts of a machine4 ,atmospheric ,pressure4 ,the pressure of atmospheric air1 not only downward but in every direction1 this amounts to about #ad4g lbs4 per square inch at the sea level4 ,usually taken at #ae lbs4 to facilitate calculations4 ,auxiliary4 ,something to 8help out10 as an auxiliary cylinder or an auxiliary piston4 ,ball ,check-valve4 ,one in which a metal ball is used in place of a poppet-valve4 ,illustration3 ,,ball ,,check-,,valve4 ,balanced ,valve4 ,a valve having an equal pressure on all sides4 ,see equilibrium valve4 ,basket4 ,the outer casing or netting of a foot valve which forms a strainer on a pump suction pipe4 ,bends4 ,in pipe1 the turns in lines of pipe may be angle bends 7called 8elbows87 or offset bends4 ,bibb-cock4 ,this is a plug cock having an elbow or curved outlet directing the outflow downward4 ,illustration3 ,,bibb-,,cock4 ,illustration3 ,,bibb ,,compression4 ,bibb ,compression4 ,a bibb-cock having in place of the plug a stem with thread and handle to open by unscrewing2 the valve contains fibrous packing and is made tight by compression4 ,bonnets4 ,these are covers for the opening into valve chambers of pumps4 ,boss4 ,any round protuberance on a casting to support a stud or to strengthen a steam chest cover1 etc4 ,bushing4 ,a nut used in pipe fitting1 threaded inside and outside to accommodate two sizes of pipe4 ,illustration3 ,,bushing4 ,check ,valve4 ,a valve through which fluid can pass only in one direction2 used between pump and reservoir or boiler4 ,see swing-check4 ,check-,nut4 ,a second nut screwed against the first to hold it firmly in place2 also called a lock-nut4 ,circulating ,pump4 ,a pump arranged to force water through the tubes of a surface condenser4 ,frequently a centrifugal pump is used as a circulating pump4 ,clack ,valve4 ,this takes its name from the noise it makes in seating2 it is made of leather with a metal weight on top1 the leather forming a hinge on one side4 ,in the cut the lifted valve is the 8clack40 ,illustration3 ,,clack ,,valve4 ,clearance4 ,the space or distance by which one piece clears another4 ,the space between piston and cylinder head4 ,cock4 ,a faucet or device for opening or closing a passage4 ,the illustration shows a straight-way cock4 ,illustration3 ,,plain ,,cock4 ,column ,pipe4 ,a column may be considered as a beam set on end and a column pipe may1 similarly1 be defined as a pipe set on end4 ,the pipes leading from a water column to boiler4 ,compression ,gauge ,cock4 ,a device having a threaded steam spindle and made tight by compression4 ,the figure exhibits an outside view of a locomotive compression gauge cock4 ,illustration3 ,,compression ,,gauge ,,cock4 ,corrosion4 ,rusting or wasting away of the surfaces of metals4 ,crow4 ,a claw with a screw attached to support and feed a drill brace for drilling holes in pipes4 ,cup ,leather ,packing4 ,the leather packing used around the ram of a press4 ,in section it resembles a cup--hence the name4 ,illustration3 ,,cup ,,leather ,,packing4 ,cushioning4 ,this term applied to the operation of pumps1 etc41 is the imprisoning of steam1 water or air between the piston and cylinder head to prevent the piston from impact with the head4 ,cylinder ,head or ,cylinder ,cover4 ,a plate which encloses or covers the end of a cylinder4 ,dead end of a pipe4 ,the closed end of a pipe or system of pipes4 ,disk or ,disc4 ,a cylinder1 whose length is very short in proportion to its diameter2 a round plate with a hole in its center4 ,double-eye or ,knuckle ,joint4 ,a joint formed of two forks or jaws with a cube of iron between them1 with a bolt or pin through each jaw and the cube at right angles4 ,will work freely in all positions from a straight line up to #de4 ,double seated poppet valve4 ,a poppet valve having two valves on one stem1 with two seats in the same shell4 ,illustration3 ,,double-,,seated ,,poppet ,,valve4 ,drafting water4 ,another term for 8raising8 water by suction1 in distinction to 8forcing water40 ,drip-pipe4 ,a device used to draw off the water of condensation from systems of piping1 steam cylinders1 heaters1 etc4 ,drain-cocks are used for similar purposes4 8,dutchman40 ,a piece 8fitted in0 to restore a worn part or to hide a defect4 ,duct4 ,a passage or conduit4 8,duty0 of pumps4 ,this indicates the measurement of the work performed by pumps4 8,duty trials0 are careful tests of the work done by the larger pumping-engines4 ,elbow4 ,this fitting is used for uniting two pipes together at right angles4 ,the illustration shows a malleable-iron gas-pipe elbow4 ,illustration3 ,,elbow4 ,equilibrium ,valve4 ,a valve balanced by an equal pressure on both ends4 ,expansion ,joint4 ,a telescopic slip joint having a packed stuffing box1 permitting the parts it connects to expand and contract under variations of temperature4 ,illustration3 ,,expansion ,,joint4 ,face4 ,the broadest flat surface of a piece of work1 or the one having the greatest area4 ,factor of ,safety4 ,when a calculation of the ultimate strength of a machine is to be made it is necessary to provide for contingencies--this takes the form of a multiplier1 and is called the factor of safety1 or the margin of safety4 ,feather1 or sunk key4 ,a key that is fast in one piece of work1 and an easy fit in the other1 as a feather in a shaft4 ,flow4 ,motion of a fluid or liquid in one direction4 8,flow-gate8 is a term sometimes applied to a riser4 ,flume4 ,an open trough for conveying water4 ,illustration3 ,,gate ,,valve4 ,illustration3 ,,globe ,,valve4 ,gate ,valve4 ,a valve which opens the full area of the pipe1 on the principle of a gate in a water flume4 ,globe ,valve4 ,a valve having a round ball-like shell as shown in the engraving4 ,gland4 ,the sliding bushing for holding packing into a stuffing box1 adjusted by studs and nuts4 ,goose neck4 ,a pipe fitting having two bends in opposite directions which resemble the neck of a goose4 ,gridiron ,valve4 ,a type of slide valve familiarly called a 8grid10 which may be circular or rectangular1 consisting of alternate bars and spaces1 sliding over a similarly formed seat1 the object being to obtain the necessary steam way with a diminished amount of valve travel4 ,hand-,nut4 ,a nut having wings or projections so that it may be screwed up by hand without the aid of a wrench4 ,illustration3 ,,hand-,,nut4 ,head of water4 ,in hydraulics 8head8 means pressure due to height of column of water4 ,heat ,units4 ,the unit of heat is the amount of heat required to raise one pound of water one degree1 usually from #cb to #cc ,fahr4 8,hesitates40 ,a pump is said to 8hesitate0 when the motion becomes uncertain4 ,horse-power of a pump4 ,is the same as is used to designate that of a steam engine1 with this exception3 the initial pressure in the pump remains constant throughout the stroke4 ,formula is the same as for a steam engine4 8,hump40 ,this is an arch or bend which causes an 8air pocket0 in a water-pipe line4 ,hydrant4 ,a valve and spout connecting with a street main4 ,hydraulic ,belt4 ,an endless woolen band for raising water4 ,the lower bight is immersed in water1 and the upper bight passes over a roller4 ,the belt travels about #a1jjj feet per minute1 and discharges at its upper turn4 ,hydraulic ,jack4 ,a lifting device in which a ram1 a pump1 and liquid is used instead of a screw4 ,illustration3 ,,hydraulic ,,jack4 ,hydraulic ,pivot4 ,a 8slippery liquid support0 for an upright shaft1 a film of water being introduced beneath it by pressure to support the weight thereof and prevent the usual friction of the shaft on its step4 ,hydraulic ,shears4 ,a machine for shearing or cutting metals1 etc41 by the force of water pressure operating cutters4 ,hydraulic ,valve4 ,a valve for regulating the distribution of water in the cylinders of hydraulic elevators1 cranes and other water pressure machines and devices4 ,hydraulic ,wheel4 ,one for raising water by applied power1 as the ,noria ,scoop wheel1 tympanum1 etc4 ,see illustrations in section relating to the history of the pump4 ,impact4 ,the single instantaneous shock of a body in motion when it strikes against another body either in motion or at rest4 ,leakage4 ,the loss of water from any cause4 8,lift and drop of a valve40 ,this term indicates the amount of 8play0 up and down1 designed to be given to a valve by its designer4 ,liner4 ,a piece of iron or other metal put behind or on a piece to take up its wear4 ,lost ,motion4 ,motion that is not transmitted on account of the looseness of the parts1 hence it is lost4 8,losing water40 ,a term used when the pump stops1 caused by air leaking into the suction pipe1 or foreign matter clogging the strainer at the end of the suction pipe4 ,low pressure steam4 ,steam which is either below #cj lbs41 or but a few pounds in excess of the atmospheric pressure4 ,lug4 ,that which projects like an ear1 especially that by which anything is supported1 or against which anything bears1 or through which a belt passes4 ,main4 ,a principal pipe or duct as distinguished from lesser ones1 especially a principal pipe leading to or from a reservoir or a fire-main2 a 8forcing main0 is the delivery pipe of a pump4 ,mean gradient4 ,the grade of a pipe-line which should be made as nearly straight as possible to avoid air pockets4 ,miner's ,inch4 ,the amount of water that will flow per minute through an opening one inch square in a plank two inches thick1 under a head of four inches of water above the upper edge of the opening1 and is equal to nine ,united ,states gallons4 ,mississippi ,river gauge cock4 ,a cock without a handle or thread upon the stem and designed to be opened by pressure upon the top end of the stem as shown4 ,illustration3 ,,mississippi ,,river ,,gauge ,,cock4 8,modulus0 of a steam pump4 ,the measure or multiplier of power used in operating pumps4 ,modulus has nearly the same meaning as measure4 ,nipple4 ,a short connecting piece of pipe threaded upon both ends4 ,illustration3 ,,nipple4 ,outboard delivery pipe4 ,the pipe which leads1 in steam vessels1 from the condenser through the side of the ship4 ,pipette4 ,a small tube used to withdraw and transfer fluids or gases from one vessel to another4 ,the shape differs with the special use to which it is adapted3 some are graduated to measure fluids accurately as well as to transfer them4 ,penstock4 ,the barrel of a pump in which the piston plays and through which the water presses up2 also the conduit or trough from the source of supply to a water wheel4 ,pet-cock4 ,this is an air-cock4 ,see air-cock4 ,pipe-clamp4 ,a device for connecting one pipe to another without cutting the pipe and inserting a tee2 a pipe-saddle performs the same office as the above1 but for larger pipes4 ,pitcher ,pump4 ,a hand pump which takes its name from the shape of its discharge4 ,illustration3 ,,pitcher ,,pump4 ,plug-valve4 ,this is a tapering plug which turns in a shell1 example1 the plug of a faucet4 ,see ,cock4 ,a fire-plug is a street hydrant to which a hose may be attached4 ,illustration3 ,,plumb ,,bob4 ,plumb-bob4 ,this is a device for testing whether anything stands exactly vertical2 a plumb-rule contains a plumb-bob4 ,pressure-reducing ,valve4 ,a valve for reducing high boiler pressure to low pressure1 for steam heating1 etc4 ,illustration3 ,,pressure ,,reducing ,,valve4 ,illustration3 ,,section4 ,priming4 ,to fill a pump with water when it refuses to lift of its own action1 is called 8priming the pump40 ,pump-brake4 ,the handle or lever by which a pump is worked4 ,pump-box4 ,a cap or case covering the top of a pump2 the casings of the upper and lower valves are the upper and lower pump boxes4 ,pump-chain4 ,an endless chain with discs forming valves at proper distances1 working on two wheels1 one above and one below1 and passing down outside and returning upward through a wooden tube like a belt4 ,pump-cheeks4 ,a forked piece serving as a fulcrum for the handle of a pump4 ,pump-well4 ,a compartment extending from a ship's bottom to the lower or the upper deck1 as the case may be1 to contain the pump stocks1 etc4 ,the bilge water collects in the limbers and is discharged through a spout called the pump-dale4 ,rain-gauge4 ,a vessel graduated to measure the fall of rain in a given period4 ,illustration3 ,,reducing ,,coupling4 ,reducing-coupling4 ,a fitting for connecting two sizes of threaded pipe4 ,resistance4 ,the force that a pump has to work against1 caused by gravity1 friction1 head of water1 etc4 ,right-hand ,thread4 ,a screw thread in which1 with the threaded end of the bolt towards you1 the top of the nut must revolve from left to right like the hands of a watch1 in order to cause the nut to screw upon the bolt4 ,illustration3 ,,open4 ,,rope ,,sockets4 ,,closed4 ,rope-socket4 ,a device fastened to the end of a rope by means of which the rope may be attached to its load4 ,the socket may be open or closed4 ,rust-joint4 ,a joint which is made by being filled with sifted cast-iron borings1 mixed with sal ammoniac1 sulphur and water2 this causes the cuttings to rust and form a solid cement4 ,sea ,injection4 ,the pipe and valve through which sea water is injected into the condenser of a marine engine4 ,screw jack or lifting jack4 ,a screw working in a threaded base or stationary nut and turned by a lever inserted into holes near the top1 of which there are usually four4 ,a loose plate or swivel is placed on top of screw4 ,illustration3 ,,screw ,,jacks4 8,slams0 and 8,shocks40 ,banging1 clanking and jarring noises indicating a derangement of the action of a pump4 ,illustration3 ,,sleeve ,,coupling4 ,sleeve-coupling4 ,a threaded connection for uniting the two ends of pipes of equal size4 8,slippage40 ,the difference between the calculated and actual work performed by a pump4 ,sluice4 ,a water-gate2 a channel to run off waste water4 ,slurry pump4 ,a special pump for handling a mixture of earth water4 ,socket-wrench4 ,a wrench for turning nuts1 having a socket in the end made to a special size and shape of the nut to be turned4 ,spanner4 ,is a wrench for turning round nuts having holes or slots4 ,illustration3 ,,spanner4 ,spline or feather4 ,a key made fast in a shaft4 ,split-pin or cutter4 ,an iron pin divided at the end which is to be spread apart after inserting in the hole4 8,spread40 ,a term used to indicate the distance from center to center of the cylinders of a duplex pump4 ,spring-seat4 ,an elastic seat for a valve4 ,steam thrown valves4 ,valves moved by steam only4 ,steam end of a pump4 ,the end operated by steam4 8,sticking of valves40 ,inability to work caused by the introduction into the valves of sand1 soil1 etc42 or it may be caused by too tight a fit of the moving parts1 rust or corrosion4 ,illustration3 ,,street ,,elbow4 ,street elbow4 ,an elbow having an extension piece at one end4 8,stroke0 of pump4 ,the distance traveled by the piston in one motion4 ,illustration3 ,,stud-,,bolt4 ,stud-bolt4 ,a piece of round bar metal with a thread upon each end4 ,a represents thread for nut2 ,b body of bolt and ,c thread to fit in casting4 ,illustration3 ,,stub-,,end4 ,stub-end4 ,either end of a connecting rod4 ,illustration3 ,,strainer4 ,strainer4 ,a device for separating solid particles from the liquid which contains them4 ,stuffing box4 ,a recess to receive the packing around piston rods1 plungers and valve stems4 ,submerged pump4 ,a pump which works under water4 8,sucking wind40 ,a leakage of air into the suction part of a pump4 ,supplemental piston4 ,the piston which operates the main valve in the steam pump4 ,illustration3 ,,swing ,,check ,,valve4 ,swing check valve4 ,one which swings upon a pivot or hinge in opening and closing4 ,illustration3 ,,switch ,,cock4 ,switch cock or valve4 ,a device for conducting exhaust steam into the smoke stack or atmosphere4 ,a three-way cock4 ,illustration3 ,,syphon ,,cock4 ,syphon ,cock4 ,a cock having a combined chamber which is partially filled with water of condensation1 attached to a steam gauge to keep steam from entering and damaging the works of the instrument4 ,illustration3 ,,thumb-,,nut4 ,thumb-nut4 ,the same as a wing-nut1 but a smaller size of the two1 shown above1 applied to hand-vice4 ,tobin-bronze4 ,an alloy of copper1 tin and zinc treated in a special manner2 it is non-corrosive1 has great tensile strength and can be forged at a cherry red heat4 8,trailing ,water40 ,water can be trailed1 i4e41 carried through pipes to pumps a very great distance so long as 8the lift0 is not over #be to #cc feet4 8,trompe40 ,the term used to designate a water-blast--a form of pump4 ,turbine4 ,a water wheel driven by the impact or reaction of streams of water flowing through it or by the impact and reaction combined2 it is also distinguished by the manner in which it discharges the water1 as outward1 vertical or central discharge turbine wheels4 ,turbine-pump4 ,a pump in which water is raised by the action of a turbine wheel driven by exterior power in the opposite direction from that in which it is turned when used as a motor4 ,illustration3 ,,tube-,,plug4 ,tube-plug4 ,a tube stopper to be used in case of a leak in a boiler tube2 it consists of two wood pistons joined together so that the leak will come between them4 ,tube plugs are frequently made of turned tapered cast iron1 one of which is to be driven into each end of a leaking tube4 ,illustration3 ,,union4 ,union4 ,a fitting designed to unite the two screwed ends of a pipe1 with a single nut to secure them4 ,vacuum4 ,a void space2 an inclosed chamber from which the air 7or other gas7 has been very nearly removed1 as by an air pump4 ,valve4 ,any device or appliance used to control the flow of a liquid1 vapor1 or gas1 or loose material1 through a pipe1 outlet or inlet2 the term includes air1 gas1 steam and water-cocks of all kinds2 water-gates1 air-gates1 etc4 ,one hundred and fifty of such devices are named by ,knight in his 8,mechanical ,dictionary40 ,viscosity4 ,glutinous1 adhering1 or sticky1 as tar1 gums1 molasses4 ,internal friction or resistance to change of shape4 ,v thread4 ,a thread on a rod or bolt cut in the form of a letter ,v4 ,washer4 ,a circular piece of leather1 rubber1 metal1 or other material with a hole in its center1 through which a rod or bolt may pass4 ,water ,arch4 ,a chamber of plates or of pipes over the furnace door of brick set boilers to take the place of the usual cast iron or fire brick arch1 and connected with the boiler to supply it with water4 ,the feed water is often introduced through the water arch4 ,water-bellows4 ,a form of pump1 like a bellows--of great antiquity4 ,water-cap4 ,the cover for discharge valves on a steam pump4 ,water-end4 ,the pump end of a steam-pump2 in distinction from the steam end4 ,water-hammer4 ,a noise caused by the pulsative motion of water inside a steam pipe1 resembling the blows of a hammer4 ,water ,ram4 ,a hydraulic ram4 ,working ,barrel4 ,the water end of a pump4 ,whirlpool-chamber4 ,a chamber attached to the discharge end of the centrifugal pump in which the whirling water gradually loses its rotation1 thereby reducing friction4 ,wing-nut4 ,an iron nut having a wing at each side4 ,sometimes called a 8butterfly nut40 ,illustration3 ,,yoke4 ,yoke4 ,a branch pipe1 or a two-way coupling for pipes1 particularly twin hot and cold-water pipes that unite in their discharge4 ,y4--,a pipe fitting for uniting two pipes at an angle of #de4 ,,historical ,,introduction4 ,the very small degree of antiquity to which machine tools can lay claim appears forcibly in the sparse records of the state of the mechanic arts a century ago4 ,illustration3 ,,gourd1 ,,cauldron ,,and ,,pipkin4 ,a few tools of a rude kind1 such as trip-hammers 7worked by water wheels71 and a few special ones1 which aimed at accuracy but were of limited application1 such as 8mills0 for boring cannon1 or 8engines0 for cutting the teeth of clock wheels1 were almost their only representatives4 ,the transmission of power was unthought of1 except for the very limited distances which were possible with the ill-fitted 8gudgeons0 and 8lanterns and trundles0 of the old millwrights4 ,the steam-engine1 however1 changed all this2 on the one hand the hitherto unheard of accuracy of fit required by its working parts created a demand for tools of increased power and precision1 and on the other it rendered the use of such tools possible in almost any situation4 ,thus1 acting and re-acting on each other1 machine tools and steam engines have grown side by side1 although the first steps were costly and difficult to a degree which is not now easy to realize4 ,james ,watt1 for instance1 in #aggi was fain to be content with a cylinder for his 8fire-engine10 of which1 though it was but #ah inches in the bore1 the diameter in one place exceeded that at another by about #c_/h of an inch2 its piston was not unnaturally leaky2 though he packed it with 8paper1 cork1 putty1 pasteboard and old hat40 ,the early history of the pumping-engine is the history of the steam-engine1 for originally and for many years the only way in which the steam-engine was utilized was for pumping water out of the coal mines of ,england and from the low lands of the ,netherlands4 ,in #afih ,capt4 ,thomas ,savery secured ,letters ,patent for a machine for raising water by steam4 ,it consisted of two boilers and two receivers for the steam1 with valves and the needful pipes4 ,one of the receivers being filled with steam1 its communication with the boiler was then cut off and the steam condensed with cold water outside of it2 into the vacuum thus formed the atmosphere forced the water from below1 when the steam was again caused to press upon the water and drive it still higher4 ,this engine was used extensively for draining mines and the water was1 in some instances1 made to turn a water wheel1 by which lathes and other machinery were driven4 ,in #agje ,thomas ,newcomen1 with his associates1 patented an engine which combined1 for the first time1 the cylinder and piston and separate boiler4 ,this soon became extensively introduced for draining mines and collieries1 and the engines grew to be of gigantic size1 with cylinders #fj inches in diameter and other parts in proportion4 ,this engine was1 in course of years1 used in connection with the ,cornish pump1 whose performance in raising water from mines came to be a matter of the nicest scientific investigation1 and adopted as the standard for the duty or work1 by which to compare the multitudinous experimental machines very soon introduced by many inventors4 ,but there is an earlier history which long antedates the achievements of ,savery1 ,newcomen and ,watt1 which belongs1 however1 principally to the domain of hydraulics4 ,before proceeding to discuss the advancements made within the memory of men now living1 it may be well to take a glance backward and occupy a few pages with their appropriate illustrations1 with the facts recorded in history4 ,it were vain to even try1 to trace the advances made toward the mammoth city pumping stations1 from the early beginning hereafter described1 which have inspired the words recorded by ,j4 ,f4 ,holloway1 ,m4 ,e43 8,in looking upon the ponderous pumping engines which lift a volume of water equal to the flow of a river1 sending it with each throbbing beat of their pulsating plungers through the arteries and veins that now reach out in every direction in our great cities1 bringing health1 comfort1 cleanliness and protection to every home therein1 we cannot but wonder what is the history of their beginning1 what the process of their evolution out from the crude appliances of long ago4 ,just who the first man was1 and by what stream he sat gazing on his parched fields1 on which the cloudless skies of the ,orient shed no rain1 and where the early rising sun with eager haste lapped up the dew drops which the more kindly night in pity over his hard lot had shed1 and who1 looking on his withering grain stalks on the one side and the life-giving waters which flowed by on the other1 first caught the inspiring thought that if one could only be brought to the other1 how great would be the harvest1 we shall never know4 ,knowing1 as we do1 that such still is the problem that confronts the toiler on the plains of that far-off ,eastern land where man's necessities first prompted man's invention1 it does not require a great stretch of the imagination to conceive of such a situation1 and to believe that1 acting on the impulse of the moment1 he called his mate1 and tying thongs to the feet of a sheep-skin and standing on either side of the brook1 with alternate swingings of the suspended skin they lifted the waters of the stream to the thirsty field1 making its blanched furrows to bloom with vegetation1 and at the same time introducing to the world the first hydraulic apparatus ever invented1 and certainly the first hydraulic ram ever used40 ,the figures shown on the opening page of this section of the work represent the very first utensils used for collecting and containing water4 ,the gourd or calabash was undoubtedly the very first2 it was common among the ancient ,romans1 ,mexicans and ,egyptians1 and in the most modern times continues to be in use in ,africa1 ,south ,america and other warm countries4 ,the ,new ,zealanders possessed no other vessels for holding liquids1 and the same remark is applicable to numerous other savage tribes4 ,although not strictly connected with the subject1 it may be observed that the gourd is probably the original vessel for heating water1 cooking1 etc4 ,in these and other applications the neck is sometimes used as a handle and an opening made into the body by removing a portion of it1 as shown in the engraving1 its exterior being kept moistened by water while on the fire1 while others apply a coating of clay to protect it from the effects of the flame4 ,when in process of time vessels for heating water were formed wholly of clay1 they were fashioned after the cauldron as shown4 ,illustration3 ,,figs4 #dg-eb4 ,the above illustrations are representations of ancient vases2 it is curious to note their conformation to the figure of the gourd4 ,the first three on the left are from ,thebes4 ,golden ewers of a similar form were used by rich ,egyptians for containing water to wash the hands and feet of their guests4 ,similar shaped vessels of the ,greeks1 ,romans and other people might be easily produced4 ,in ,egypt1 ,india1 ,chaldea and ,china the clepsydra or water-clocks date back beyond all records4 ,plutarch mentions them in his life of ,alcibiades who flourished in the ,fifth ,century ,b4 ,c4 when they were employed in the tribunals at ,athens to measure the time to which the orators were limited in their addresses to the judges4 ,julius ,csar found the ,britons in possession of them4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ec4--,,water-,,clock4 ,the clepsydra is a device for measuring time by the amount of water discharged from a vessel through a small aperture1 the quantity discharged in a given unit of time1 as an hour being first determined4 ,in the earlier clepsydras the hours were measured by the sinking of the surface of the water in the vessel containing it4 ,in others the water ran from one vessel to another1 there being in the lower a cork or piece of light wood which as the vessel filled1 rose and thus indicated the hour4 ,in later clepsydras the hour has been indicated by a dial4 ,fig4 #ec shows a water-clock described by ,hero of ,alexandria1 ,egypt1 made to govern the quantities of fluids flowing from a vessel4 ,the note below gives the exact wording of the description which has come down to us4 8,a vessel containing wine1 and provided with an open spout1 stands upon a pedestal3 it is required by shifting a weight to cause the spout to pour forth a given quantity1--sometimes1 for instance1 a half cotyle 7#a_/d pint71 sometimes a cotyle 7#a_/b pint71 and in short1 whatever quantity we please4 ,a ,b 7fig4 #ec71 is the vessel into which wine is to be poured3 near the bottom is a spout ,d3 the neck is closed by the partition ,e ,f1 and through ,e ,f is inserted a tube1 ,g ,h1 reaching nearly to the bottom of the vessel1 but so as to allow of the passage of water4 ,k ,l ,m ,n is the pedestal on which the vessel stands1 and ,o ,x another tube reaching within a little of the partition and extending into the pedestal in which water is placed so as to cover the orifice ,o1 of the tube4 ,fix a rod1 ,p ,r1 one-half within1 and the other without the pedestal1 moving like the beam of a lever about the point ,s2 and from the extremity ,p of the rod suspend a water-clock1 ,t1 having a hole in the bottom4 ,the spout ,d having been first closed1 the vessel should be filled through the tube ,g ,h before water is poured into the pedestal1 that the air may escape through the tube ,x ,o2 then pour water into the pedestal1 through a hole1 until the orifice ,o is closed1 and set the spout ,d free4 ,it is evident that the wine will not flow1 as there is no opening through which air can be introduced3 but if we depress the extremity ,r of the rod1 a portion of the water-clock will be raised from the water1 and1 the vent ,o being uncovered1 the spout ,d will run until the water suspended in the water-clock has flowed back and closed the vent ,o4 ,if1 when the water-clock is filled again1 we depress the extremity ,r still further1 the liquid suspended in the water-clock will take a longer time to flow out1 and there will be a longer discharge from ,d3 and if the water-clock be entirely raised above the water1 the discharge will last considerably longer4 ,to avoid the necessity of depressing the extremity ,r of the rod with the hand1 take a weight ,q1 sliding along the outer portion of the rod1 ,r ,w1 and able1 if placed at ,r1 to lift the whole water-clock2 if at a distance from ,r1 some smaller portion of it4 ,then1 having obtained by trial the quantities which we wish to flow from ,d1 we must make notches in the rod ,r ,w and register the quantities2 so that1 when we wish a given quantity to flow out1 we have only to bring the weight to the corresponding notch and leave the discharge to take place40 ,,the ,,syphon4 ,the ,syphon is a bent pipe or tube with legs of unequal length1 used for drawing liquid out of a vessel by causing it to rise in the tube over the rim or top4 ,for this purpose the shorter leg is inserted in the liquid1 and the air is exhausted by being drawn through the longer leg4 ,the liquid then rises by the pressure of the atmosphere and fills the tube and the flow begins from the lower end4 ,the general method of use is to fill the tube in the first place with the liquid1 and then1 stopping the mouth of the longer leg1 to insert the shorter leg in the vessel2 upon removal of the stop1 the liquid will immediately begin to run4 ,the flow depends upon the difference in vertical height of the two columns of the liquids1 measured respectively from the bend of the tube1 to the level of the water in the vessel and to the open end of the tube4 ,the flow ceases as soon as1 by the lowering of the level in the vessel1 these columns become of equal height or when this level descends to the end of the shorter leg4 ,the atmospheric pressure is essential to the support of the column of liquid from the vessel up to the top of the bend of the tube1 and this height is consequently limited2 at sea height the maximum height is a little less than #cd feet for water1 but this varies according to the density of the fluid4 ,illustration3 ,,figs4 #ed #ee #ef #eg #eh #ei ,syphons are necessary in numerous manipulations of the laboratory1 and modern researches in chemistry have given rise to several beautiful devices for charging them1 and also for interrupting and renewing their action4 ,when corrosive liquids or those of high temperatures are to be transferred by syphons1 it is often inconvenient1 and sometimes dangerous to put them in operation by the lungs4 ,moreover cocks and valves of metal are acted on by acids1 and in some cases would affect or destroy the properties of the fluids themselves4 ,fig4 #ed shows how hot or corrosive liquids may be drawn off from a wide mouthed bottle or jar4 ,the short leg of a syphon is inserted through the cork1 and also a small tube1 through which the operator blows1 and by the pressure of his breath forces the liquid through the syphon4 ,fig4 #ee represents a syphon sometimes employed by chemists4 ,when used1 the short leg is first placed in the fluid to be decanted1 the flame of a lamp or candle is then applied to the underside of the bulb2 the heat rarefies the air1 and consequently drives out the greater part of it through the discharging orifice4 ,the finger is applied to this orifice1 and as the bulb becomes cool the atmosphere drives up the liquid into the void and puts the instrument in operation4 ,fig4 #ef is a syphon charged by pouring a quantity of the fluid to be decanted into the funnel1 the bent pipe attached to which terminates near the top of the discharging leg4 ,the fluid in descending through this leg bears down the air within it1 on the principle of the trompe1 and the atmosphere drives up the liquid in the reservoir through the short leg4 ,fig4 #eg is a glass syphon for decanting acids1 c4 ,it is charged by sucking1 and to guard against the contents entering the mouth1 a bulb is blown on the sucking tube4 ,the accumulation of a liquid in this bulb being visible1 the operator can always withdraw his lips in time to prevent his tasting it4 ,fig4 #eh is designed to retain its contents when not in use1 so that on plunging the short leg deep into a liquid the instrument will operate4 ,this effect however will not follow if the end of the discharging leg descend below the bend near it1 and if its orifice be not contracted nearly to that of a capillary tube4 ,fig4 #ei is a syphon by which liquids may be drawn at intervals1 viz41 by raising and lowering the end of the discharging leg according to the surface of the liquid in the cistern4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fj4 ,figs4 #fj1 #fa1 #fb are syphons described by ,hero of ,alexandria who lived #abj ,b4 ,c42 the descriptions of the figures are the translation of the original4 ,let ,a ,b ,c ,d 7,fig4 #fj7 be a vessel open at the top1 and through its bottom pass a tube1 either an inclosed pipe as ,e ,f ,g1 or a bent syphon ,g ,h ,k4 ,when the vessel ,a ,b ,c ,d is filled1 and the water runs over1 a discharge will begin and continue till the vessel is empty1 if the interior opening is so near the bottom of the vessel as only to leave a passage for the water4 ,as before1 let there be a vessel1 ,a ,b 7,fig4 #fa71 containing water4 ,through its bottom insert a tube1 ,c ,d1 soldered into the bottom and projecting below4 ,let the aperture ,c of the syphon approach to the mouth of the vessel ,a ,b1 and let another tube1 ,e ,f1 inclose the tube ,c ,d1 the distance between the tubes being everywhere equal1 and the mouth of the outer tube being closed by a plate1 ,e ,g1 a little above the mouth ,c4 ,if we exhaust1 by suction through the mouth ,d1 the air in the tube ,c ,d1 we shall draw into it the water in the vessel ,a ,b1 so that it will flow out through the projection of the syphon until the water is exhausted4 ,for the air contained between the liquid and the tube ,e ,f1 being but little1 can pass into the tube ,c ,d1 and the water can then be drawn after it4 ,and the water will not cease flowing because of the projection of the syphon below3--if1 indeed1 the tube ,e ,f were removed1 the discharge would cease on the surface of the water arriving at ,c1 in spite of the projection below2 but when ,e ,f is entirely immersed no air can enter the syphon in place of that drawn off1 since the air which enters the vessel takes the place of the water as it passes out4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fa4 ,let ,a ,b ,c 7,fig4 #fb71 be a bent syphon1 or tube1 of which the leg ,a ,b is plunged into a vessel ,d ,e containing water4 ,if the surface of the water is in ,f ,g1 the leg of the syphon1 ,a ,b1 will be filled with water as high as the surface1 that is1 up to ,h1 the portion ,h ,b ,c remaining full of air4 ,if1 then we draw off the air by suction through the aperture ,c1 the liquid also will follow4 ,and if the aperture ,c be level with the surface of the water1 the syphon1 though full1 will not discharge the water1 but will remain full3 so that1 although it is contrary to nature for water to rise1 it has risen so as to fill the tube ,a ,b ,c2 and the water will remain in equilibrium1 like the beams of a balance1 the portion ,h ,b being raised on high1 and the portion ,b ,c suspended4 ,but if the outer mouth of the syphon be lower than the surface ,f ,g1 as at ,k1 the water flows out1 for the liquid in ,k ,b1 being heavier1 overpowers and draws toward it the liquid ,b ,h4 ,the discharge1 however1 continues only until the surface of the water is on a level with the mouth ,k1 when1 for the same reason as before1 the efflux ceases4 ,but if the outer mouth of the tube be lower than ,k1 as at ,l1 the discharge continues until the surface of the water reaches the mouth ,a4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fb4 ,the ,syringe is an instrument of very high antiquity and was probably the first machine consisting of a cylinder and piston that was especially designed to force liquids4 ,in the closed end a short conical pipe is attached whose dimensions are adapted to the particular purpose for which the instrument is to be used4 ,the piston is solid and covered with a piece of soft leather1 hemp1 woolen listing1 or any similar substance that readily imbibes moisture1 in order to prevent air or water from passing between it and the sides of the cylinder4 ,when the end of the pipe is placed in a liquid and the piston drawn back1 the atmosphere drives the liquid into the cylinder2 whence it is expelled through the same orifice by pushing the piston down3 in the former case the syringe acts as a sucking pump3 in the latter as a forcing one4 ,they are formed of silver1 brass1 pewter1 glass1 and sometimes of wood4 ,for some purposes the small pipe is dispensed with1 the end of the cylinder being closed by a perforated plate1 as in those instruments with which gardeners syringe their plants4 ,,wells4 ,long before pumping devices were conceived1 wells existed as the invention of prehistoric man4 ,herewith is a sectional view of ,joseph's ,well to be seen at the present time at ,cairo1 ,egypt4 ,scientists think it the production of the same people that built the pyramids and the unrivaled monuments of ,thebes1 ,dendaroh and ,ebsambone4 ,the magnitude of the well and the skill displayed in its construction is perfectly unique4 ,illustration3 ,,joseph',s ,,well4 ,this stupendous well is an oblong square1 twenty four feet by eighteen1 being sufficiently capacious to admit within its mouth a moderate sized house4 ,it is excavated 7of these dimensions7 through solid rock to the depth of one hundred and sixty-five feet1 where it is enlarged into a capacious chamber1 in the bottom of which is formed a basin or reservoir1 to receive the water raised from below 7for this chamber is not the bottom of the well74 ,on one side of the reservoir another shaft is continued1 one hundred and thirty feet lower1 where it emerges through the rock into a bed of gravel1 in which the water is found1 the whole depth being two hundred and ninety-seven feet2 the lower shaft is not in the same vertical line with the upper one1 nor is it so large1 being fifteen feet by nine4 ,illustration3 ,,twelfth ,,century4 ,illustration3 ,,asiatic ,,pulley ,,and ,,bucket4 ,as the water is first raised into the basin1 by means of machinery propelled by horses or oxen within the chamber1 it may be asked1 how are these animals conveyed to that depth in this tremendous pit1 and by what means do they ascend8 ,a spiral passage-way is cut through the rock1 from the surface of the ground to the chamber1 independent of the well1 round which it winds with so gentle a descent1 that persons sometimes ride up or down upon asses or mules4 ,it is six feet four inches wide1 and seven feet two inches high4 ,between it and the interior of the well1 a wall of rock is left1 to prevent persons falling into1 or even looking down it 7which in some cases would be equally fatal71 except through certain openings or windows1 by means of which it is faintly lighted from the interior of the well4 ,the animals descend by this passage to drive the machinery that raises the water from the lower shaft into the reservoir or basin1 from which it is again elevated by similar machinery and other oxen on the surface of the ground4 ,in the lower shaft a path is also cut down to the water1 but as no partition is left between it and the well1 it is extremely perilous for strangers to descend4 ,,note4--,however old and numerous wells with stairs in them may be1 most of the ancient ones were constructed without them2 hence the necessity of some mode of raising the water4 ,from the earliest ages1 a vessel suspended by a cord1 has been used by all nations--a device more simple and more extensively employed than any other1 and one which was undoubtedly the germ of the most useful hydraulic machine of the ancients4 ,the figures shown on this and a few succeeding pages are from the collection made by ,ewbank--to whom reference has been made in another portion of this work4 ,illustration3 ,,pulley ,,and ,,two ,,buckets4 7,,ancient47 ,the square openings represented on each side of the upper shaft are sections of the spiral passage1 and the zig-zag lines indicate its direction4 ,the wheels at the top carry endless ropes1 the lower parts of which reach down into the water2 to these1 earthenware vases are secured by ligatures 7see ,a ,a7 at equal distances through the whole of their length1 so that when the machinery moves these vessels ascend full of water on one side of the wheels1 discharge it into troughs as they pass over them and descend in an inverted position on the other side4 ,illustration3 ,,chinese ,,windlass4 ,this celebrated production of former times1 as will be perceived1 resembles an enormous hollow screw1 the center of which forms the well and the threads a winding stair-case around it4 ,to erect of granite1 a flight of 8geometrical0 or 8well stairs10 two or three hundred feet high1 on the surface of the ground1 would require extraordinary skill1 although in its execution every aid from rules1 measures1 and the light of day1 would guide the workmen at every step2 but to begin such a work at the top1 and construct it downwards by excavation alone1 in the dark bowels of the earth1 is a more arduous undertaking1 especially as deviations from the correct lines could not be remedied2 yet in ,joseph's well1 the partition of rock between the pit and the passage-way1 and the uniform inclination of the latter1 seem to have been ascertained with equal precision1 as if the whole had been constructed of cut stone on the surface4 ,was the pit1 or the passage1 formed first2 or were they simultaneously carried on1 and the excavated masses from both borne up the passage1 are unanswered questions4 ,illustration3 ,,anglo-,,saxon ,,crane4 ,the extreme thinness of the partition wall1 excited the astonishment of ,m4 ,jomard1 whose account of the well is inserted in the second volume of ,memoirs in ,napoleon's great work on ,egypt4 ,it is1 according to him1 but sixteen centimetres thick1 about six inches6 ,he justly remarks that it must have required singular care to leave and preserve so small a portion while excavating the rock from both sides of it4 ,it would seem no stronger in proportion1 than sheets of paste-board placed on edge1 to support one end of the stairs of a modern built house1 for it should be borne in mind1 that the massive roof of the spiral passage next the well1 has nothing but this film of rock to support it1 or to prevent from falling1 such portions as are loosened by fissures1 or such1 as from changes in the direction of the strata1 are not firmly united to the general mass4 ,but this is not all3 thin and insufficient as it may seem1 the bold designer has pierced it through its whole extent with semi-circular openings1 to admit light from the well3 those on one side are shown in the engraving4 ,illustration3 ,,swape ,,or ,,sweep1 ,a4 ,d4 #adic4 ,aqueducts1 fountains1 cisterns and wells1 are in numerous instances the only remains of some of the most celebrated cities of the ancient world4 ,of ,heliopolis1 ,syene and ,babylon in ,egypt2 of ,tyre1 ,sidon1 ,palmyra1 ,nineveh1 ,carthage1 ,utica1 ,barca1 and many others4 8,the features of nature10 says ,dr4 ,clarke1 8continue the same1 though works of art may be done away3 the #8beautiful gate' of the ,jerusalem temple is no more1 but ,siloah's fountain still flows1 and ,kedron still murmurs in the valley of ,jehoshaphat40 ,according to ,chateaubriand1 the ,pool of ,bethesda1 a reservoir1 one hundred and fifty feet by forty1 constructed of large stones cramped with iron1 and lined with flints embedded in cement1 is the only specimen remaining of the ancient architecture of that city4 ,,note4--,roman wells are found in every country which that people conquered4 ,their armies had constant recourse to them when other sources of water failed4 ,pompey and ,csar often preserved their troops from destruction by having provided them4 ,it was ,pompey's superior knowledge in thus obtaining water1 which enabled him to overthrow ,mithridates1 by retaining possession of an important post4 ,illustration3 ,,picotah ,,of ,,hindostan4 ,,note4--,the operation of this primitive device may be thus described--,near the well or tank1 a piece of wood is fixed1 forked at the top2 in this fork another piece of wood is fixed to form a swape1 which is formed by a peg1 and steps cut out at the bottom1 that the person who works the machine may easily get up and down4 ,commonly1 the lower part of the swape is the trunk of a tree2 to the upper end is fixed a pole1 at the end of which hangs a leather bucket4 ,a man gets up the steps to the top of the swape1 and supports himself by a bamboo screen erected by the sides of the machine4 ,he plunges the bucket into the water1 and draws it up by his weight2 while another person stands ready to empty it4 ,ephesus1 too1 is no more2 and the temple of ,diana1 that according to ,pliny was #bbj years in building1 and upon which was lavished the talent and treasure of the east2 the pride of all ,asia1 also one of the wonders of the world1 has vanished1 while the fountains which furnished the citizens with water1 remain as fresh and perfect as ever4 ,cisterns have been discovered in the oldest citadels in ,greece4 ,the fountains of ,bounarbashi are perhaps the only objects remaining that can be relied on1 in locating the palace of ,priam and the site of ancient ,troy4 ,and the well near the outer walls of the temple of the sun at ,palmyra1 will1 in all probability1 furnish men with water1 when other relics of ,tadmor in the wilderness have disappeared2 a great number of the wells of the ancient world still supply man with water1 although their history generally1 is lost in the night of time4 ,we are now to examine the modes practised by the ancients1 in obtaining water from wells4 ,in all cases of moderate depth1 the most simple and efficient1 was to form an inclined plane or passage1 from the surface of the ground to the water2 a method by which the principal advantages of an open spring on the surface were retained1 and one by which domestic animals could procure water for themselves without the aid or attendance of man4 ,but when in process of time1 these became too deep for exterior passages of this kind to be convenient or practicable1 the wells themselves were enlarged1 and stairs for descending to the water1 constructed within them4 ,,historical ,,note4--,one of the most appalling facts that is recorded of suffering from thirst occurred in #ahje4 ,a caravan proceeding from ,timbuctoo to ,talifet1 was disappointed in not finding water at the usual watering places2 when1 horrible to relate1 all the persons belonging to it1 two thousand in number1 besides eighteen hundred camels perished by thirst6 ,occurrences like this1 account for the vast quantities of human and other bones1 which are found heaped together in various parts of the desert4 ,while the crusaders besieged ,jerusalem1 great numbers perished of thirst1 for the ,turks had filled the wells in the vicinity4 ,memorials of their sufferings may yet be found in the heraldic bearings of their descendants4 ,the charge of a foraging party 8for water10 we are told1 8was an office of distinction20 hence1 some of the commanders on these occasions1 subsequently adopted water buckets in their coats of arms1 as emblems of their labors in ,palestine4 ,wells with stairs by which to descend to the water1 are still common4 ,the inhabitants of ,arkeko in ,abyssinia1 are supplied with water from six wells1 which are twenty feet deep and fifteen in diameter4 ,the water is collected and carried up a broken ascent by men1 women and children4 ,fryer in his ,travels in ,india speaks of 8deep wells many fathoms underground1 with stately stone stairs40 ,near the village of ,futtehpore1 is a large well1 ninety feet in circumference1 with a broad stone staircase which is about thirty feet deep to descend to the water4 ,the fountain of ,siloam is reached by a descent of thirty steps cut in the solid rock1 and the inhabitants of ,libya1 where the wells often contain little water1 8draw it out in little buckets1 made of the shank bones of camels40 ,wells with stairs are not only of very remote origin1 but they appear to have been used by all the nations of antiquity4 ,they were common chiefly1 among the ,greeks and ,romans4 ,illustration3 ,,italian ,,mode ,,of ,,raising ,,water ,,to ,,the ,,upper ,,floors ,,of ,a ,,house4 ,as a matter of interest some six or eight representations of the early forms of wells1 have been introduced2 but little need to be written relating to them--the cuts with the titles speak for themselves and also indicate their manner of use4 7,see note47 ,in ,syria and ,palestine at the present time the antique bucket and rope1 in modified form1 is still used in raising water from wells for irrigation4 ,the buckets are attached to the ropes at regular intervals and pass over large drums going down empty and rising full4 ,they discharge at the top into a large open trough1 which conveys the water to the irrigating ditches4 ,illustration3 ,,roman ,,screw4--,,fig4 #gb4 ,a method much used where rivers are available is the wheel and bucket1 in which the buckets are mounted on the rim of a large wheel which is of a diameter equal to the height to which the water is to be raised4 ,the processes although extremely crude are well adapted to countries where labor is inexpensive as the running expense of the devices is very small4 ,,note4--,the source from which many of these have been derived is 8,eubank's ,hydraulics10 to which work credit is gladly given for nearly all the historical data so far used in this volume4 ,the author of the book named gave many years of research into the early records of all relating to hydraulics and water machines and kindred subjects4 ,,water-,,lifting ,,inventions4 ,the raising of water is one of the early arts2 beginning in ancient times with devices of the crudest form it has followed the progress of civilization with ever-increasing importance4 ,in the present era1 it demands engineering ability of the highest order and the finest of machinery4 ,important epochs in the gradual inventions relating to pumps and hydraulics are3 7#a7 ,the 8force pump10 due to ,ctesibius #bjj ,b4 ,c42 7#b7 the 8double-acting pump10 invented by ,la ,hire in #agah2 7#c7 the 8hydraulic ram10 by ,whitehurst in #aggb2 7#d7 the 8hydraulic press10 introduced by ,joseph ,bramah in #ahjb4 ,most of the machines hitherto noticed1 raise water by means of flexible cords or chains1 and are generally applicable to wells of great depth4 ,we now enter upon the examination of another variety1 which1 with one exception 7the chain of pots71 are composed of inflexible materials1 and raise water to limited heights only4 ,in preceding machines1 the 8mechanical powers0 are distinct from the hydraulic apparatus1 i4 e41 the wheels1 pulleys1 windlass1 capstan1 etc41 form no essential part of the machines proper for raising the water1 but are merely employed to transmit motion to them2 whereas those we are now about to describe1 are made in the form of levers1 wheels1 etc41 and are propelled as such4 ,the ,roman ,screw delineated upon the opposite page1 if not the earliest hydraulic engine that was composed of tubes1 or in the construction of which they were introduced1 is certainly the oldest one known of that description2 in its mode of operation it differs essentially from all other ancient tube machines2 in the latter the tubes merely serve as conduits for the ascending water1 and as such are at rest2 while in the screw it is the tubes themselves in motion that raises the liquid4 ,fig4 #gc represents one of the earliest forms of a double gutter1 placed across a trough or reservoir designed to receive the water4 ,a partition is formed in the center1 and two openings made through the bottom on each of its sides1 through which the water that is raised escapes4 ,the machine is worked by one or more men1 who alternately plunge the ends into the water1 and thus produce a continuous discharge4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gc4 ,sometimes1 openings are made in the bottom next the laborers1 and covered by flaps1 to admit the water without the necessity of wholly immersing those ends2 machines of this kind probably date from remote antiquity2 they are obviously modifications of the ,jantu of ,hindostan and other parts of ,asia4 ,the jantu is a machine extensively used in parts of ,india1 to raise water for the irrigation of land1 and is thus described3 8,it consists of a hollow trough of wood1 about fifteen feet long1 six inches wide1 and ten inches deep1 and is placed on a horizontal beam lying on bamboos fixed in the bank of a pond or river4 ,one end of the trough as shown in the figure rests upon the bank where a gutter is prepared to carry off the water1 and the other end is dipped in the water1 by a man standing on a stage1 plunging it in with his foot4 ,a long bamboo with a large weight of earth at the farther end of it1 is fastened to the end of the jantu near the river1 and passing over the gallows1 poises up the jantu full of water1 and causes it to empty itself into the gutter4 ,this machine raises water three feet1 but by placing a series of them one above another1 it may be raised to any height1 the water being discharged into small reservoirs1 sufficiently deep to admit the jantu above1 to be plunged low enough to fill it20 water is thus conveyed over rising ground to the distance of a mile and more4 ,in some parts of ,bengal1 they have different methods of raising water1 but the principle is the same4 ,the ,tympanum4 ,this is a water raising current wheel originally made in the form of a drum1 hence the name4 ,it is now a circular open frame wheel1 fitted with radial partitions as shown in ,fig4 #gd1 so curved as to point upward on the rising side of the wheel and downward on the descending side4 ,the wheel is so suspended that its lower edge is just submerged and is turned by the current 7or by other power71 the partitions scooping up a quantity of water which1 as the wheel revolves1 runs back to the axis of the wheel where it is discharged2 or it may discharge at some point of the periphery2 while one of the most ancient forms of water lifting machines it is still used in drawing works4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gd4 ,a little study of the figure 7#gd7 will explain its operation4 ,s1 is the shaft2 ,g ,g1 the gutters2 ,a1 a trough to take away the water4 ,the arrow indicates the direction in which the wheel turns2 each gutter1 as it revolves scoops up a portion of water and elevates it1 till by the inclination to the axle1 it flows towards the latter1 and is discharged through one end of it4 ,the prominent defect of the tympanum arises from the water being always at the extremity of a radius of the wheel1 by which its resistance increases as it ascends to a level with the axis1 being raised at the end of levers which virtually lengthen till the water is discharged from them2 this has been remedied by making the arms curving as shown in the ,scoop ,wheel 7,fig4 #ge47 ,as this revolves in the direction of the arrow the extremities of the partitions dip into the water and scoop it up and as they ascend discharge it into a trough placed under one end of the shaft which is hollowed into as many compartments as there are partitions or scoops4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ge4 ,fig4 #gf represents a sectional view of an improved tympanum2 this was invented by ,de ,la ,faye2 the illustration will be readily understood4 ,as shown in ,figs4 #gd and #ge the wheel is driven by the current of a stream impinging upon what in later times came to be known as boards or floats on the circumference of the wheel4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gf4 ,within the enclosure are arranged four scrolls of suitable proportions1 dipping the water1 at one end1 and emptying it out at the center of the wheel as more clearly shown in ,figs4 #gd and #ge4 ,the ,noria or ,egyptian ,wheel4 ,the tympanum has been described as an assemblage of gutters1 and the ,noria may be considered as a number of revolving swapes4 ,it consists of a series of poles united like the arms of a wheel to a horizontal shaft4 ,to the extremity of each1 a vessel is attached which fills as it dips into the water1 and is discharged into a reservoir or gutter at the upper part of the circle which it describes4 ,hence1 the former raises water only through half a diameter1 while this elevates it through a whole one4 7,fig4 #gg47 ,the ,chinese make the noria1 in what would seem to have been its primitive form1 and with an admirable degree of economy1 simplicity1 and skill4 ,with the exception of the axle and two posts to support it1 the whole is of bamboo1 and not a nail used in its construction4 ,even the vessels1 are often joints of the same1 being generally about four feet long and two or three inches in diameter4 ,they are attached to the poles by ligatures at such an angle1 as to fill nearly when in the water1 and to discharge their contents when at1 or near the top4 ,the periphery of the wheel is composed of three rings of unequal diameter and so arranged as to form a frustrum of a cone4 ,the smallest one1 to which the open ends of the tubes are attached1 being next the bank over which the water is conveyed4 ,by this arrangement their contents are necessarily discharged into the gutter as they pass the end of it4 ,when employed to raise water from running streams they are propelled by the current in the usual way--the paddles being formed of woven bamboo4 ,the sizes of these wheels1 vary from twenty to seventy feet in diameter2 some raise over three hundred tons of water in twenty-four hours4 ,a writer mentions others which raise a hundred and fifty tons to the height of forty feet during the same time4 ,,note4--,the mode of constructing and moving the noria by the ,romans1 is thus described by ,vitruvius1 who lived about the beginning of the ,christian ,era4 8,when water is to be raised higher than by the tympanum1 a wheel is made round on axis of such a magnitude as the height to which the water is to be raised requires4 ,around the extremity of the side of the wheel1 square buckets cemented with pitch and wax are fixed2 so that when the wheel is turned by the walking of men1 the filled buckets being raised to the top and turning again toward the bottom1 discharge of themselves what they have brought into the reservoir40 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gg4 ,the ,persian ,wheel4 ,two prominent defects exist in the noria4 ,first1 part of the water escapes after being raised nearly to the required elevation4 ,second1 a large portion is raised higher than the reservoir placed to receive it1 into which it is discharged after the vessels begin to descend2 to obviate this the ,persian wheel was devised4 ,the vessels in which the water is raised1 instead of being fastened to the rim1 or forming part of it1 as in the preceding figures1 are suspended from pins1 on which they turn1 and thereby retain a vertical position through their entire ascent2 and when at the top are inverted by their lower part coming in contact with a pin or roller attached to the edge of the gutter or reservoir1 as represented in the figure4 ,by this arrangement no water escapes in rising1 nor is it elevated any higher than the edge of the reservoir2 hence1 the defects in the noria are avoided4 ,it is believed1 to have been used in ,europe ever since the time of the ,romans4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gh4 ,,gaining ,,and ,,losing ,,buckets4 ,in the latter part of the ,sixteenth1 or beginning of the ,seventeenth ,century a machine which is entitled to particular notice on account of its being1 as claimed1 the first one of the kind to be self-acting1 for raising water was in use in ,italy4 ,it is ascribed to ,gironimo ,finugio who put one in operation at ,rome in #afaf4 ,illustration ,between the illustration and the following description its operation may be clearly understood4 ,on a pulley ,s1 are suspended by a rope two buckets ,a and ,b1 of unequal dimensions4 ,the smaller one ,b1 is made heavier than ,a when both are empty1 but lighter when they are filled4 ,it is required to raise by them part of the water from the spring or reservoir ,e1 into the cistern ,z4 ,as the smaller ,bucket ,b1 by its superior gravity1 descends into ,e1 7a flap valve in its bottom admitting the water71 it consequently raises ,a into the position represented in the figure4 ,a pipe ,f1 then conveys water from the reservoir into ,a1 the orifice or bore of which pipe is so proportioned1 that both vessels are filled simultaneously4 ,the larger bucket then preponderates1 descending to ,o1 and ,b at the same time rising to the upper edge of ,z1 when the projecting pins ,o ,o1 catch against others on the lower sides of the buckets1 and overturn them at the same moment4 ,the bails or handles are attached by swivels to the sides1 a little above their center of gravity4 ,as soon as both buckets are emptied1 ,b again preponderates1 and the operation is repeated without any attendance1 so long as there is water in ,e and the apparatus continues in order4 ,in ,moxon's machine1 the buckets were filled by two separate tubes of unequal bore2 the orifices being covered by valves to prevent the escape of water while the buckets were in motion2 these valves were opened and closed by means of cords attached to the buckets4 ,the efflux through ,f in the figure1 may easily be stopped as soon as ,a begins to descend1 by the action of either bucket on the end of a lever attached to a valve1 or by other obvious contrivances4 ,the water discharged from ,a1 runs to waste through a channel provided for that purpose4 ,these machines are of limited application1 since they require a fall for the descent of ,a1 equal to the elevation to which the liquid is raised in ,b4 ,they may however be modified to suit locations where a less descent only can be obtained4 ,thus1 by connecting the rope of ,b to the periphery of a large wheel1 while that of ,a is united to a smaller one on the same axis1 water may be raised higher than the larger bucket falls1 but the quantity raised will of course be proportionally diminished4 ,in the face of these securing advantages it has fallen into disuse2 it was much too complex and cumbersome1 and of too limited application4 ,the principle of self-action in all these machines is no modern discovery1 for it was described by ,hero of ,alexandria1 who applied it to the opening and closing the doors of a temple1 and to other purposes4 ,,the ,,pulley ,,and ,,windlass4 ,in those vast periods preceding the dawn of history1 water was as heavy and as necessary for the use of mankind and animals as it is to-day2 the toil and labor in securing it must indeed have been hard4 ,doubtless1 the first inventions of the primitive man were first made--perhaps1 after weapons of defence--to relieve himself of the painful endeavor of supplying the precious liquid4 ,there are reasons which render it probable that the single pulley was devised to raise water and earth from wells2 the latter are not only of the highest antiquity but they are the only known works of man in early times in which the pulley could have been required or applied4 ,that it preceded the invention of ships and the erection of lofty buildings of stone1 is all but certain2 but for what purpose1 save for raising of water1 the pulley could have been previously required it would be difficult to divine2 it seems to have been the first addition made to those primitive implements1 the cord and the bucket4 ,by it the friction of the rope in rubbing against the curb and the consequent loss of a portion of the power expended in raising the water1 were avoided1 and by it also a beneficial change in the direction of the power was attained2 instead of being exerted in an ascending direction1 it is applied more conveniently and efficiently in a descending motion as shown in the various figures and illustrations in the preceding pages4 ,but the grand advantage of the pulley in the early ages was this3--by it the vertical direction in which men exerted their strength1 could be directly changed into a horizontal line1 by which change animals could be employed4 ,the wells of ,asia1 frequently varying from two to three1 and even four hundred feet in depth1 obviously required more than one person to raise the contents of an ordinary sized vessel2 and where numbers of people depended on such wells1 not merely to supply their domestic wants1 but for the purposes of irrigation1 the substitution of animals in place of men to raise water1 became a matter almost of necessity1 and was certainly adopted at a very early period4 ,in employing an ox for this purpose1 the simplest way and one which deviated the least from their accustomed method1 was merely to attach the end of the rope to the yoke1 after passing it over a pulley fixed sufficiently high above the mouth of the well1 and then driving the animal a distance equal to its depth1 in a direct line from it1 when the bucket charged with the liquid would be raised from the bottom4 ,although it may never be known to whom the world is indebted for the windlass1 there are circumstances which point to the construction of wells and raising of water from them1 as among the first uses to which it as well as the pulley1 was applied4 ,the windlass possesses an important advantage over the single pulley in lifting weights1 or overcoming any resistance since the intensity of the force transmitted through it can be modified1 either by varying the length of the crank1 or the circumference of the roller on which the rope is coiled4 ,sometimes a single vessel and rope1 but frequently two1 are employed as shown in several of the preceding illustrations2 one of these is the ,chinese ,windlass4 ,this furnishes the means of increasing mechanical energy to almost any extent1 and as it is used to raise water from some of those prodigiously deep wells already noticed1 a figure of it1 page #dg1 has been inserted4 ,the roller consists of two parts of unequal diameters1 to the extremities of which the ends of the rope are fastened on opposite sides1 so as to wind round both parts in different directions4 ,as the load to be raised is suspended to a pulley1 every turn of the roller raises a portion of the rope equal to the circumference of the thicker part1 but at the same time lets down a portion equal to that of the smaller2 consequently the weight is raised at each turn1 through a space equal only to half the difference between the circumferences of the two parts of the roller4 ,the action of this machine is therefore slow1 but the mechanical advantages are proportionately great4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gi4 ,the fusee windlass is shown in ,fig4 #gi4 ,this is an early invention designed to overcome in a mechanical method the greater weight which the rope hung at its extremity has1 as compared to what it is when nearly wound up4 ,at the bottom of the well the rope then being at its heaviest period is wound upon the small end of the fusee2 and as the length diminishes it coils round the larger part4 7,see ,fig4 #gi71 which is however inaccurately drawn--as the bucket is at the top of the well2 it should have been represented as suspended from the large end of the fusee4 ,the value of a device like this will be appreciated when the great depth of some wells is considered and the consequent additional weight of the chains4 ,in the fortress of ,dresden is a well eighteen hundred feet deep2 at ,augustburgh is a well in which half an hour is required to raise the bucket2 and at ,nuremburgh another1 sixteen hundred feet deep4 ,in all these1 the water is raised by chains1 and the weight of the one used in the latter is stated to be upwards of a ton4 ,the tympanum and noria in all their modifications have been considered as originating in the gutter or jantu1 and the swape2 while the machine we are now to examine is evidently derived from the primitive cord and bucket4 ,the first improvement of the latter was the introduction of a pulley or sheave over which the cord was directed--the next was the addition of another vessel1 so as to have one at each end of the rope1 and the last and most important consisted in uniting the ends of the rope1 and securing to it a number of vessels at equal distances through the whole of its length--and the chain of pots was the result4 7,see ,fig4 #hj47 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hj4 ,the general construction of this machine will appear from an examination of those which are employed to raise water from ,joseph's well at ,cairo1 represented on page #de4 ,above the mouth of each shaft a vertical wheel is placed1 over which two endless ropes pass and are suspended from it4 ,these are kept parallel to1 and at a short distance from each other1 by rungs secured to them at regular intervals1 so that when thus united1 they form an endless ladder of ropes4 ,the rungs are sometimes of wood1 but more frequently of cord like the shrouds of a ship1 and the whole is of such a length that the lowest part hangs two or three feet below the surface of the water that is to be raised4 ,between the rungs1 earthenware vases 7of the design shown at ,a ,a7 are secured by cords round the neck1 and also round a knob formed on the bottom for that purpose4 ,,wheel ,,and ,,axle4 ,in all the preceding machines the roller is used in a horizontal position2 but at some unknown period of past ages1 another modification was devised1 one by which the power could be applied at any distance from the center4 ,instead of placing the roller as before1 over the well's mouth1 it was removed a short distance from it1 and secured in a vertical position1 by which it was converted into the wheel or capstan4 ,one or more horizontal bars were attached to it1 of a length adapted to the power employed1 whether of men or animals2 and an alternating rotary movement imparted to it1 as in the common wheel or capstan1 represented in the figure4 ,it appears that machines of this kind1 and worked by men were common in ,europe previous to1 and at the time he wrote4 ,sometimes the shaft was placed in the edge of the well1 so that the person who moved it walked round the latter1 and thus occupied less space4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ha4 ,,successive ,,inventions4 ,with the wide acceptance in practical use of the ,duplex steam pump1 may be dated the beginning of the modern inventive period of pumping machinery2 this introduction of the ,duplex pump was only one of five successive advances which it were well for the student to memorize3 #a4 ,the ,cornish1 #b4 ,the ,rotative1 #c4 ,the ,direct ,acting1 #d4 ,the ,duplex1 and #e4 ,the ,compounded ,steam ,pump4 ,the ,cornish engines have been alluded to in connection with the ,newcomen engine4 ,probably no large pumping engines in the past have held1 and deservedly so1 as high repute as have the ,cornish engines when used for deep mine pumping4 ,their construction1 with the rude appliances at hand1 is not only a marvel but as well a high tribute to the ingenuity of those who designed them and to the skill of the workmen who built them4 ,a rather full illustrated description of this almost unexcelled machine will be found later on in the book4 ,the next class of large steam pumping-engines which have played an important part in the history of hydraulic engineering may be grouped together as 8rotative engines40 ,what is here meant by the term 8rotative0 is engines in which there are parts which make complete and continuous rotary motion and in which are used1 in some way or another1 shafts1 cranks and fly-wheels4 ,these engines vary greatly in their design and in the details of their construction4 ,they are of varying sizes1 including some of the largest and most expensive in the world4 ,as a general thing they are employed in supplying towns and cities with water1 and in some cases freeing shallow mines of water4 ,the application of the power of the steam used in the steam cylinders in this class of engines to drive the plungers or pistons in the pumps1 varies greatly1 both as to the general design upon which they are built1 and in the detail of their construction4 ,in some instances it is through the use of long or short beams or bell cranks1 sometimes through gearing1 and occasionally through the plunger or piston of the pump direct2 but in all cases the limit of the stroke of the steam piston1 and of the pump plunger1 is governed by a crank on a revolving shaft4 ,attached to the revolving shaft is a fly-wheel of greater or less diameter and weight1 which1 in addition to assisting the crank to pass the center at each end of its stroke1 is employed to store up at the beginning of each stroke of the steam piston1 whatever excess of power or impulse there may be imparted to it1 beyond that required to steadily move the water column1 and to give out again1 toward the latter part of the stroke1 when the power of the steam is of itself below that required to move the water column1 the power previously stored in it4 ,in this respect the function of a revolving fly-wheel on a rotative engine is the same as is the weighted plunger in the ,cornish engine2 both being used for the purpose of permitting the steam to be cut off at a portion of its stroke in the steam cylinder1 and expanded during the rest of the stroke4 ,in short1 these devices1 as employed in both the classes of pumping engines described1 were used in order that the best economy in the consumption of steam by means of early cutoff and a high grade of expansion1 might be attained4 ,the succeeding class of pumps to be described1 driven by steam are direct acting steam-pumps4 ,what is here meant as 8direct-acting10 is a steam-driven pump in which there are no revolving parts1 such as shafts1 cranks and fly-wheels2 pumps in which the power of the steam in the steam cylinder is transferred to the piston or plunger in the pump in a direct line1 and through the use of a continuous rod or connection4 7,fig4 #hb47 ,the introduction of the direct-acting steam-pump marked a point of deviation1 and it entered the field almost without a rival1 and at a time when economy was overshadowed by its convenience4 ,in the brief description given of these three most prominent classes of pumping engines1 no attempt has been made to describe any of the peculiarities of their general construction1 beyond what was necessary to describe their action and the principles upon which they operate4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hb4 ,in pumps of this construction there are no weights in the moving parts other than that required to produce sufficient strength in such part for the work they are expected to perform1 and1 as there is consequently no opportunity to store up power in one part of the stroke1 to be given out at another1 it is impossible to cut off the steam in the steam cylinder during any part of its stroke4 ,the uniform and steady action of the direct-acting steam-pump is dependent alone on the use of a steady uniform pressure of steam through the entire stroke of the piston against a steady1 uniform resistance of water pressure in the pump2 the difference between the power exerted in the steam cylinders over the resistance in the pump governing the rate of speed at which the piston or plunger of the pump will move4 ,the length of the stroke of the steam piston1 within the steam cylinders of this class of pumps1 is limited and controlled alone by the admission1 suppression and release of the steam used in the cylinders4 ,,note4--,up to the introduction of the direct-acting steam pump1 all the other pumping machinery of the world then in use was the outcome of evolution4 ,it had been developed by slow stages1 in which one engineer after another aided by the experience of others and of his own1 supplemented by his inventive faculties1 added here and there slight improvements to which other engineers1 with increased experience1 were enabled to add still other improvements1 so that each new engine constructed under more favorable circumstances1 and with increasing expenditures1 was supposed to excel all previously built2 until at this time we have1 as it is fair to suppose1 pumping engines which combine all the wisdom of the past1 and which leave little or no room for further improvements in their respective classes4 ,the history of the ,direct-,acting ,steam ,pump differs from all others from the fact that it was the invention of one man1 and was in the main perfected during his lifetime4 ,it was so strikingly different from all that had preceded it1 that there was nothing in the way of precedent1 either in ancient or modern practice1 of which the inventor could avail himself by which to aid or guide him to success4 ,the date of the first patent on these pumps was ,september #g1 #ahda4 ,it was issued on a small pump used for supplying feed water to a steam boiler1 and consisted of one steam cylinder connected to a force pump1 and so arranged that by the use of levers1 trips1 springs1 and other connections between the piston rod and the slide valve1 the movement of the piston rod controlled the movements of the slide valve to an extent that not only regulated the length of the stroke of the piston1 but reversed its motion4 ,this pump was placed alongside of the steam boiler1 and was so connected by means of pipes and levers and floats within the boiler1 that when the water fell below the proper level in the boiler1 it would start the pump1 and stop it when the water rose too high4 ,,note4--,at the head of a list consisting of two names only1 who1 on the foremost pages of 8,the ,american ,society of ,mechanical ,engineers10 are recorded as the 8,honorary ,members in ,perpetuity0 of that large society1 and standing as well at the head of that long and increasing list of members who have accomplished their work on earth1 may be seen the name of ,henry ,rossiter ,worthington1 the inventor and original builder of the 8direct-acting steam pump40 ,feeling how incomplete was an invention which did not provide against the intermittent action of the pump1 ,mr4 ,worthington devoted much time and study to correct this trouble1 and a few years later he brought out an improved pump which1 in its simplicity of parts1 certainty of action1 and cheapness of construction more than rivaled the original invention itself4 ,this pump is now universally known as the 8,direct-,acting ,duplex ,steam ,pump40 ,in the main1 the construction of the steam ends and the water ends of the duplex pump differs but slightly from those of the single-acting pump1 but the mechanism which operates the steam valves is different1 and the effect on the water column was marvelously different2 the principle upon which it operates is this3 ,two pumps of similar construction are placed side by side1 a lever attached to the piston rod of each pump connects to the slide valve of the opposite steam cylinder2 thus the movement of each piston1 instead of operating its own slide valve as in the single pump1 operates the slide valve of the opposite cylinder4 ,the effect of this arrangement is1 that as the piston or plunger of one pump arrives near the end of its stroke1 the plunger or piston of the other begins its movement1 thus alternately taking up the load of the water column1 producing a regular1 steady1 onward flow of water1 without the unusual strains induced by such a column when suddenly arrested or started in motion4 ,while the 8duplex steam pump0 overcame one of the greatest objections to the former single pump1 there still remained in this class of pumping machinery one other difficulty4 ,it did not use steam expansively4 ,this not only debarred it from competing with other engines where a large quantity of water was required to be raised1 and where the cost of fuel was an item of importance1 but as well prevented the pump from taking rank among the hydraulic appliances required in supplying towns and cities4 ,this objection was one which seemed insurmountable1 steam in them could not be used economically4 ,applied to the propulsion of the plunger or piston of this pump it must be of sufficient quantity1 and pressure1 to overcome the height of the column of water on the pump1 together with its friction through the pump and its connections1 at the very beginning of the stroke2 and it must be maintained1 both as to its volume1 and its pressure up to the very last part of the stroke4 ,any diminution1 either of volume or pressure1 during any part of the stroke would simply bring the pump to a stop4 ,this apparent inability to cut off the steam in the steam cylinder1 and to complete the stroke of the pump by the aid of the steam remaining in the cylinder1 and by its expansive force1 had debarred this pump from coming into general use for large water works4 ,how this1 the only remaining objection to their use for such purposes1 was overcome1 forms an interesting chapter in the history of the 8,direct-,acting ,steam ,pump40 ,it was when this question had assumed a most formidable1 importance1 that the principle of using steam in compound steam engines had engaged the careful consideration of the most eminent engineers of this and other countries2 its adjustment to the ,duplex pumps was made1 and while it was easily done1 owing to their peculiar construction1 its application produced a most wonderful result in their working1 and their speedy introduction for water works use4 ,,note4--,at this time the man who had invented and built the little steam pump for the canal boat1 who had watched its growth and development1 supplemented one device after another to help it on through the trial period of its existence1 had merged it at last into the dual or duplex stage of its advancement1 had added to it the compound feature1 had seen it expanding in size and importance until1 growing up and out of the day of small things1 it had come to take its well-earned place alongside those old and massive machines whose invention and origin was lost amid the musty records of the past--it was1 at this time1 and of which any man might well have been proud1 that his lifelong labors came to an end ,dec4 #ah41 #ahhj1 at the ,everett ,house1 ,new ,york ,city4 ,,elementary ,,hydraulics ,,elementary ,,hydraulics4 ,there are three physical states or conditions of matter1 which are the solid1 liquid and gaseous1 which in this connection apply to ,ice1 ,water and ,steam4 ,a solid offers resistance both to change of shape and to change of bulk4 ,a ,fluid offers no resistance to change of shape4 ,again fluids can be divided into liquids and vapors or gases4 ,water is the most familiar example of a liquid4 ,a liquid can be poured out in drops while a gas or vapor flows in a stream or streams4 ,gas is a term at first used as meaning the same as the name air1 but is now restricted to fluids supposed to be permanently elastic1 as oxygen1 hydrogen1 etc41 in distinction from vapor such as steam which become liquid upon a reduction of temperature4 ,it is important to note that experiment proves that every vapor becomes a gas at a sufficiently high temperature or low pressure1 while1 on the other hand1 every gas becomes a vapor at sufficiently low and high pressures4 ,in present popular usage the term gas applies to any substance in the aeriform elastic condition4 ,hydraulics is that branch of science or of engineering which treats of the motion of liquids1 especially of water and of the laws by which it is regulated4 ,as a science1 hydraulics includes hydrodynamics or the principles of mechanics applicable to the motion of water4 ,as a branch of engineering1 hydraulics consists in the practical application of the mechanics of fluids1 to the control and management of water1 with reference to the wants of man1 including water works1 hydraulic machines1 pumps1 water wheels1 etc4 ,the term hydraulics1 so familiar in daily use1 is formed from two ,greek words meaning3 #a1 water2 #b1 a pipe2 hence1 it will be observed with interest how close the original meaning follows the development of the science in its practical adaptation2 there is always the 8pipe0 or holding vessel and the 8water0 or its equivalent4 ,from the same elementary word meaning water1 in the ,greek language1 has been formed very many other words in common use1 for example hydrophobia1 hydrogen1 hydrant1 hygrometer1 etc41 as well as the following3 ,hydromechanics is that branch of natural philosophy which treats of the mechanics of liquid bodies1 or in other words1 of their laws of equilibrium and motion4 ,hydromechanics comprises properly those phenomena of liquids by which these bodies differ from solids or from bodies at large2 hence1 its foundation is laid in the properties that distinguish the liquid from other states of bodies1 viz43 the presence of cohesion1 with great mobility of parts1 and perfect elasticity4 ,hydrostatics is that branch of science which relates to the pressure and equilibrium of non-elastic fluids1 as water1 mercury1 etc42 thus1 the hydrostatic press is a machine in which great force with slow motion is action communicated to a large plunger by means of water forced into the cylinder in which it moves1 by a forcing pump4 ,statics treats of forces that keep bodies at rest or in equilibrium1 the water through which the force operates in the hydrostatic press always remaining at rest serves as a good illustration4 ,pneumatics is that branch of science1 which relates to air1 or gases in general or their properties2 also of employing 7compressed7 air or other gas as a motive power4 ,the use of pneumatic pumping machinery is constantly increasing1 especially of the direct pressure types2 under the section of this work relating to ,air ,pumps additional data will be presented4 ,hydropneumatics is defined as involving the combined action of water and air1 or gas1 as shown1 for example1 in the hydropneumatic accumulator4 ,the word is a compound formed of the ,greek words meaning water and air4 ,semi-liquids4 ,all the results stated in reference to water are further modified in those semi-liquids which have greater or less viscidity1 as pitch1 syrup1 fixed oils1 etc4 ,viscosity may be defined as the quality of flowing slowly1 thus the viscosity of such liquids as have been named is very great as compared with that of a mobile liquid like alcohol4 ,,hydrodynamics4 ,water1 considered from a chemical standpoint1 is a compound substance consisting of hydrogen and oxygen1 in the proportion of two volumes of the former gas to one volume of the latter2 or by weight it is composed of two parts of hydrogen united with sixteen parts of oxygen4 ,it should be noted that the union of these two gases is effected by chemical action and not by mechanical mixture4 ,pure water is transparent1 inodorous and tasteless4 ,under ordinary conditions water passes the liquid form only at temperatures lying between #cb ,f4 and #bab ,f42 it assumes a solid form1 that of ice or snow at #cb ,f41 and it takes the form of vapor or steam at #bab ,f4 ,there are four notable temperatures for water1 namely3 #cb ,f41 or #j ,c4 the freezing point under one atmosphere4 #cia or #d the point of maximum density4 #fb or #afff the standard temperature4 #bab or #ajj the boiling point1 under one atmosphere4 ,the temperature #fb ,f4 is the temperature of water used in calculating the specific gravity of bodies1 with respect to the gravity or density of water as a basis1 or as unity4 ,weight of one cubic foot of ,pure ,water4 ,at #cb ,f4 #fbdah pounds4 ,at #cia4 #fbdbe ,at #fb 7,standard temperature7 #fbcee ,at #bab #eifdj ,the weight of a cubic foot of water is1 it may be added1 about #ajjj ounces 7exactly #iihh ounces71 at the temperature of maximum density4 ,the weight of a cylindrical foot of water at #fb ,f4 is #dhigc pounds4 ,weight of one cubic inch of ,pure ,water4 ,at #cb ,f4 #jcfab pound1 or #jeggi ounce4 ,at #cga #jcfabe #jeghj ,at #fb #jcfjh #jeggc or #bebeie grains4 ,at #bab #jcdea #jeebb ,the weight of one cylindrical inch of pure water at #fb ,f4 is #jbhcc pounds1 or #jdecc ounce4 ,volume of one pound of ,pure ,water4 ,at #cb ,f4 #jafjba cubic foot1 or #bgfhd cubic inches4 ,at #cia #jafjai #bgfhj ,at #fb #jafjcg #bggab ,at #bab #jafggj #bhigh ,the volume of one ounce of pure water at #fb ,f4 is #agcb cubic inches4 ,the weight of water is usually taken in round numbers1 for ordinary calculations1 at #fbd lbs4 per cubic foot1 which is the weight at #ebc ,f42 or it is taken at #fb-a_/b lbs4 per cubic foot4 ,salt water boils at a higher temperature than fresh water owing to its greater density1 and because the boiling point of water is increased by any substance that enters into chemical combination with it4 ,the density of water decreases as the temperature increases1 since heat destroys cohesion and expands the particles1 causing them to occupy greater space1 where precision is not required2 the pressure on a square foot at different ocean depths are approximate1 in the following ,,table4 ,depth in feet4 ,pressure on sq4 foot4 #h #ejj lbs4 #af #ajjj #bd #aejj #cb #bjjj #dj #bejj #dh #cjjj #ef #cejj #fd #djjj #gb #dejj #hj #ejjj #hh #eejj #if #fjjj ------------------------------------- #a mile1 or #e1bhj feet1 #ccj1jjj lbs4 #e miles1 #a1fej1jjj ,this table is based upon an allowance of #fb-a_/b lbs4 of water to the cubic foot1 thus #h feet #fb-a_/b #ejj1 etc4 ,,hydraulic ,,data4 ,water is practically non-elastic4 ,a pressure of #cj1jjj lbs4 to the square inch has been applied and its contraction has been found to be less than one-twelfth4 ,experiment appears to show that for each atmosphere of pressure it is condensed #dg-a_/b millionth of its bulk4 ,the mechanical properties of liquids are determined on the hypothesis that liquids are incompressible2 according to known general principles this is found to be for all practical purposes true1 yet liquids are more compressible than solids4 ,if water be confined in a perfectly rigid cylindrical vessel1 its compression would equal #a_/cjjjjj of its length for every pound per unit of area of the end pressure4 ,water is nearly #ajj times as compressible as steel1 yet for almost all practical purposes1 liquids may be considered as non-elastic bodies without involving sensible error4 ,the pressure upon the horizontal base of any vessel containing a fluid1 is equal to the weight of a column of the fluid1 found by multiplying the area of the base into the perpendicular height of the column1 whatever be the shape of the vessel4 ,this follows1 since here the distance of the center of gravity of the base from the surface of the fluid1 is the same as the perpendicular height of the column4 ,with a given base and height1 therefore1 the pressure is the same whether the vessel is larger or smaller above1 whether its figure is regular or irregular1 whether it rises to the given height in a broad open funnel1 or is carried up in a slender tube4 ,hence1 any quantity of water1 however small1 may be made to balance any quantity1 however great4 ,this is called the hydrostatic paradox4 ,the experiment is usually performed by means of a water-bellows1 as represented in ,fig4 #hd4 ,when the pipe ,,ad is filled with water1 the pressure upon the surface of the bellows1 and consequently the force with which it raises the weights laid on it1 will be equal to the weight of a cylinder of water1 whose base is the surface of the bellows1 and height that of the column ,,ad4 ,therefore1 by making the tube small1 and the bellows large1 the power of a given quantity of water1 however small1 may be increased indefinitely4 ,the pressure of the column of water in this case corresponds to the force applied by the piston in the hydrostatic press4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hd4 ,we have already seen that the pressure on the bottom of a vessel depends neither on the form of the vessel nor on the quantity of the liquid1 but simply on the height of the liquid above the bottom4 ,but the pressure thus exerted must not be confounded with the pressure which the vessel itself exerts on the body which supports it4 ,the latter is always equal to the combined weight of the liquid and the vessel in which it is contained1 while the former may be either smaller or greater than this weight1 according to the form of the vessel4 ,this fact is often termed the hydrostatic paradox1 because at first sight it appears paradoxical4 ,,cd 7,fig4 #he7 is a vessel composed of two cylindrical parts of unequal diameters1 and filled with water to a4 ,from what has been said before1 the bottom of the vessel ,,cd supports the same pressure as if its diameter were everywhere the same as that of its lower part2 and it would at first sight seem that the scale ,,mn of the balance1 in which the vessel ,,cd is placed1 ought to show the same weight as if there had been placed in it a cylindrical vessel having the same weight of water1 and having the diameter of the part ,d4 ,but the pressure exerted on the bottom of the vessel is not all transmitted to the scale ,,mn2 for the upward pressure upon the surface n o of the vessel is precisely equal to the weight of the extra quantity of water which a cylindrical vessel would contain1 and balances an equal portion of the downward pressure on m4 ,consequently the pressure on the plate ,,mn is simply equal to the weight of the vessel ,,cd and of the water which it contains4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #he4 ,pressure exerted anywhere upon a mass of liquid is transmitted undiminished in all directions1 and acts with the same force on all equal surfaces1 and in a direction at right angles to those surfaces4 ,to get a clearer idea of the truth of this principle1 let us conceive a vessel of any given form in the sides of which are placed various cylindrical apertures1 all of equal size1 and closed by movable pistons4 ,let us1 further1 imagine this vessel to be filled with liquid and unaffected by the action of gravity2 the pistons will1 obviously1 have no tendency to move4 ,if now a weight of ,p pounds be placed upon the piston ,a 7,fig4 #hf71 which has a surface ,a1 it will be pressed inwards1 and the pressure will be transmitted to the internal faces of each of the pistons ,b1 ,c1 ,d1 and ,e1 which will each be forced outwards by a pressure ,p1 their surfaces being equal to that of the first piston4 ,since each of the pistons undergoes a pressure1 ,p1 equal to that on ,a1 let us suppose two of the pistons united so as to constitute a surface #b;a2 it will have to support a pressure #b,p4 ,similarly1 if the piston were equal to #c;a1 it would experience a pressure of #c,p2 and if its area were #ajj or #a1jjj times that of a1 it would sustain a pressure of #ajj or #a1jjj times ,p4 ,in other words1 the pressure on any part of the internal walls of the vessel would be proportional to the surface4 ,the principle of the equality of pressure is assumed as a consequence of the constitution of fluids4 ,by the following experiment it can be shown that pressure is transmitted in all directions2 a cylinder provided with a piston is fitted into a hollow sphere 7,fig4 #hg74 in which small cylindrical jets are placed perpendicular to the sides4 ,the sphere and the cylinder being both filled with water1 when the piston is moved the liquid spouts forth from all the orifices1 and not merely from that which is opposite to the piston4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hf4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hg4 ,the reason why a satisfactory quantitative experimental demonstration of the principle of the equality of pressure cannot be given is that the influence of the weight of the liquid and of the friction of the pistons cannot be altogether eliminated4 ,,note4--,the influence of the weight 7or gravity7 of water and its fractional resistance in practical use is so great upon all the processes of numbers and of the application of the natural laws governing the operation of fluids1 as stated under the heading of ,hydraulic ,data1 that separate pages will hereafter be found devoted to a more extended explanation of this subject of gravity and friction of water4 ,yet an approximate verification may be effected by the experiment represented in ,fig4 #hh4 ,two cylinders of different diameters are joined by a tube and filled with water4 ,on the surface of the liquid are two pistons1 ,p and p1 which hermetically close the cylinders1 but move without friction4 ,let the area of the large piston1 ,p1 be1 for instance1 thirty times that of the smaller one1 p4 ,that being assumed1 let a weight1 say of two pounds1 be placed upon the small piston2 this pressure will be transmitted to the water and to the large piston1 and as this pressure amounts to two pounds on each portion of its surface equal to that of the small piston1 the large piston must be exposed to an upward pressure thirty times as much1 or of sixty pounds4 ,if now1 this weight be placed upon the large piston1 both will remain in equilibrium2 but if the weight is greater or less1 this is no longer the case4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hh4 ,it is important to observe that in speaking of the transmission of pressure to the sides of the containing vessel1 these pressures must always be supposed to be perpendicular to the sides4 ,equilibrium or state of rest of superposed liquids4 ,in order that there should be equilibrium when several heterogeneous liquids are superposed in the same vessel1 each of them must satisfy the conditions necessary for a single liquid1 and further there will be a stable state of rest only when the liquids are arranged in the order of their decreasing densities from the bottom upwards4 ,the last condition is experimentally demonstrated by means of the phial of four elements4 ,this consists of a long narrow bottle containing mercury1 water1 colored red1 saturated with carbonate of potash1 alcohol1 and petroleum4 ,when the phial is shaken the liquids mix1 but when it is allowed to rest they separate2 the mercury sinks to the bottom1 then comes the water1 then the alcohol1 and then the petroleum4 ,this is the order of the decreasing densities of the bodies4 ,the water is saturated with carbonate of potash to prevent its mixing with the alcohol4 ,this separation of the liquids is due to the same cause as that which enables solid bodies to float on the surface of a liquid of greater density than their own4 ,it is also on this account that fresh water1 at the mouths of rivers1 floats for a long time on the denser salt water of the sea2 and it is for the same reason that cream1 which is lighter than milk1 rises to the surface4 ,the pressure upon any particle of a fluid of uniform density is proportioned to its depth below the surface4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hi4 ,example #a4 ,let the column of fluid ,,abcd ,fig4 7#a7 be perpendicular to the horizon4 ,take any points1 x and y1 at different depths1 and conceive the column to be divided into a number of equal spaces by horizontal planes4 ,then1 since the density of the fluid is uniform throughout1 the pressure upon x and y1 respectively1 must be in proportion to the number of equal spaces above them1 and consequently in proportion to their depths4 ,example #b4 ,let the column be of the same perpendicular height as before1 but inclined as is ,fig4 7#b72 then its quantity1 and of course its weight1 is increased in the same ratio as its length exceeds its height2 but since the column is partly supported by the plane1 like any other heavy body1 the force of gravity acting upon it is diminished on this account in the same ratio as its length exceeds its height2 therefore as much as the pressure on the base would be augmented by the increased length of the column1 just so much it is lessened by the action of the inclined plane2 and the pressure on any part of ,cc will be1 as before1 proportioned to its perpendicular depth2 and the pressure of the inclined column ,,acac will be the same as that of the perpendicular column ,,abcd4 ,fluids rise to the same level in the opposite arms of a recurved tube4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ij4 ,let ,,abc1 7,fig4 #ij7 be a recurved tube3 if water be poured into one arm of the tube1 it will rise to the same height in the other arm4 ,for1 the pressure acting upon the lowest part at ,b1 in opposite directions1 is proportioned to its depth below the surface of the fluid4 ,therefore1 these depths must be equal1 that is1 the height of the two columns must be equal1 in order that the fluid at ,b may be at rest2 and unless this part is at rest1 the other parts of the column cannot be at rest4 ,moreover1 since the equilibrium depends on nothing else than the heights of the respective columns1 therefore1 the opposite columns may differ to any degree in quantity1 shape1 or inclination to the horizon4 ,thus1 if vessels and tubes very diverse in shape and capacity1 as in ,fig4 p4 #hd be connected with a reservoir1 and water be poured into any one of them1 it will rise to the same level in them all4 ,the reason of this fact will be further understood from the application of the principle of equal momenta1 for it will be seen that the velocity of the columns1 when in motion1 will be as much greater in the smaller than in the larger columns1 as the quantity of matter is less2 and hence the opposite momenta will be constantly equal4 ,hence1 water conveyed in aqueducts or running in natural channels1 will rise just as high as its source4 ,between the place where the water of an aqueduct is delivered and the spring1 the ground may rise into hills and descend into valleys1 and the pipes which convey the water may follow all the undulations of the country1 and the water will run freely1 provided no pipe is laid higher than the spring4 ,pressure of water due to its weight4 ,the pressure on any particle of water is proportioned to its depth below the surface4 ,the pressure of still water in pounds per square inch against the sides of any pipe1 channel1 or vessel of any shape whatever1 is due solely to the 8head0 or height of the level surface of the water above the point at which the pressure is considered and is equal to #dccjb lbs4 per square foot1 every foot of head or #fbcee lbs4 per square foot for every foot of head at #fb ,f4 ,the pressure per square inch is equal in all directions downwards1 upwards or sideways and is independent of the shape or size of the containing vessel2 for example1 the pressure on a plug forced inward on a square inch of the surface of water is suddenly communicated to every square inch of the vessel's surface1 however great and to every inch of the surface of any body immersed in it4 ,illustration3 ,various shapes of vessel4 ,it is this principle which operates with such astonishing effect in hydrostatic presses1 of which familiar examples are found in the hydraulic pumps1 by the use of which boilers are tested4 ,by the mere weight of a man's body when leaning on the extremity of a lever1 a pressure may be produced of upwards of #bj tons2 it is the simplest and most easily applicable of all contrivances for increasing human power1 and it is only limited by want of materials of sufficient strength to utilize it4 ,,universal ,,gravitation4 ,gravity or ,gravitation is that species of attraction1 or force by which1 all bodies or particles of matter in the universe tend towards each other2 it is also called attraction of gravitation and universal gravity2 gravity1 in a more limited1 sense is the tendency of a mass of matter toward a center of attraction especially the tendency of a body toward the center of the earth4 ,this influence is conveyed from one body to another without any perceptible interval of time4 ,if the action of gravitation is not instantaneous1 it comes very nearly to it by moving more than fifty millions of times faster than light4 ,gravity extends to all known bodies in the universe1 from the smallest to the greatest2 by it all bodies are drawn toward the center of the earth1 not because there is any peculiar property or power in the center1 but because the earth being a sphere1 the aggregate effect of the attractions exerted by all its parts upon any body exterior to it1 is such as to influence that body toward the center4 ,this property manifests itself1 not only in the motion of falling bodies1 but in the pressure exerted by one portion of matter upon another which sustains it2 and bodies descending freely under its influence1 whatever be their figure1 dimensions or texture1 all are equally accelerated in right lines perpendicular to the plane of the horizon4 ,the apparent inequality of the action of gravity upon different species of matter near the surface of the earth arises entirely from the resistance which they meet with in their passage through the air4 ,when this resistance is removed 7as in the exhausted receiver of an air-pump71 the inequality likewise disappears4 ,the law of gravity1 discovered by ,sir ,isaac ,newton1 toward the end of the seventeenth century1 may be stated as follows3 ,every particle of matter in the universe attracts every other particle with a force whose direction is that of a line joining the two particles considered1 and whose magnitude is directly as the product of the masses and inversely as the square of the distance between them4 ,as a groundwork for this great generalization1 ,newton employed the results of two of the greatest astronomers who preceded him1 ,copernicus and ,kepler4 ,about #aejj ,a4 ,d4 ,copernicus perceived and announced that the apparent rotation of the heavens about the earth could be explained by supposing the earth to rotate on an axis once in twenty-four hours4 ,previous to this time the earth had been regarded as the center of the universe4 ,he also showed that nearly all the motions of the planets1 including the earth1 could be explained on the assumption that these revolved in circular orbits about the sun1 whose position in the circle1 however1 was slightly eccentric4 ,thus1 building somewhat upon the labors of the two parties named1 ,newton was the first to prove the law of the forces which would account for the motions of all the bodies in the solar system4 ,,laws ,,of ,,falling ,,bodies4 ,since a body falls to the ground in consequence of the earth's attraction on each of its molecules1 it follows that1 all other things being equal1 all bodies1 great and small1 light and heavy1 ought to fall with equal rapidity1 and a lump of sand without cohesion should during its fall retain its original form as perfectly as if it were compact stone4 ,the fact that a stone falls more rapidly than a feather is due solely to the unequal resistances opposed by the air to the descent of these bodies2 in a vacuum all bodies fall with equal velocity4 ,in a vacuum1 however1 liquids fall like solids without separation of their molecules4 ,the water-hammer1 a model used in scientific schools1 illustrates this3 the instrument consists of a thick glass tube about a foot long1 half filled with water1 the air having been expelled by ebullition previous to closing one extremity with the blow-pipe4 ,when such a tube is suddenly inverted1 the water falls in one undivided mass against the other extremity of the tube1 and produces a sharp metallic sound1 resembling that which accompanies the shock of two solid bodies coming suddenly together4 ,,note4--,the resistance opposed by the air to falling bodies is especially remarkable in the case of liquids4 ,the ,staubbach in ,switzerland is a good illustration2 an immense mass of water is seen falling over a high precipice1 but before reaching the bottom it is shattered by the air into the finest mist4 ,see ,parker's ,philosophy1 pp4 #fi-gj4 ,it has been ascertained1 by experiment1 that from rest1 a body falling freely will descend #af-a_/ab feet in the first second of time1 and will then have acquired a velocity1 which being continued uniformly1 will carry it through #cb-a_/f feet in the next second4 ,therefore if the first series of numbers be expressed in seconds1 #a1 #b1 #c1 c41 the velocities in feet will be #cb-a_/f1 #fd-a_/c1 #if-a_/b1 c42 the spaces passed through as #af-a_/ab1 #fd-a_/c1 #add-c_/d1 c41 and the spaces for each second1 #af-a_/b1 #dh-a_/d1 #hj-e_/ab1 c4 ,,table4 ,showing the ,relation of ,time1 ,space and ,velocity4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,time in ,velocity ,space fallen ,whole space seconds ofacquired at,squares4 through ,space4fallen through in the body'sthe end of in that the last second fall4 that time4 time4 of the fall4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ #a #cbaf #a #afjh #a #afjh #b #fdcc #d #fdcc #c #dhbe #c #ife #i #addge #e #hjda #d #abhff #af #begcc #g #aabeh #e #afjhc #be #djbjh #i #addge #f #aic #cf #egi #aa #agfia #g #bbeag #di #ghhjh #ac #bjijh #h #begcc #fd #ajbicc #ae #bdabe #i #bhie #ha #acjbge #ag #bgcdb #aj #cbaff #ajj #aidfjh #ai #cjeeh ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,experience has shown that the measurement of all physical quantities may be expressed in terms of three fundamental magnitudes4 ,those commonly chosen for this purpose are time1 length and mass or quantity of matter4 ,it may be assumed that our ideas of time and space are sufficiently exact for all practical purposes4 ,the subject of matter1 however1 requires more particular consideration4 ,of the three magnitudes named1 matter alone is directly cognizable by the senses1 and invested with a variety of interesting properties4 ,for present purposes matter may be defined as anything that can be weighed1 and the quantity of matter as proportional to its weight2 i4 e41 its attraction towards the earth4 ,the weight of a body is the force it exerts in consequence of its gravity1 and is measured by its mechanical effects1 such as bending a spring4 ,we weigh a body by ascertaining the force required to hold it up1 or to keep it from descending4 ,hence1 weights are nothing more than measures of the force of gravity in different bodies4 ,again1 ,gravitation1 the most feeble of physical actions between small masses1 is almost imperceptible2 yet it is an energy abundant in proportion to the quantity of matter in the universe1 and fully competent1 by its gradual condensing agency1 to account for the origination of planetary systems and their movements4 ,it is not strange1 therefore1 that by some physicists this energy is supposed to be the beginning of that of which all other forms of force are residues or metamorphoses4 ,gravity is the name especially given to its terrestrial manifestations4 ,a particle or body without a sphere or spheroid1 solid or hollow1 is attracted to the center of the mass of such body2 within a hollow sphere1 it will remain at rest at any point4 ,at different depths below the earth's surface1 a body will be attracted with a force diminishing as the distance from its center decreases4 ,the slight variation in the gravitating force of the same falling body at different heights is in practice usually disregarded4 ,the weight of a body1 as the measure of its gravitating tendency1 must vary both with mass and with the force acting on it2 hence1 from the form of the earth1 the same body at the sea level will weigh less and less as it is removed from either pole toward the equator4 ,an elevation above the sea level gives a like result4 ,a stone falls through a less distance in a given time on a mountain than in the valley below1 less at the equator than at either pole4 ,the loss of weight in these cases cannot be tested by lever scales1 in which this loss is equal on both sides2 but it may be by the spring balance1 in which bodies are weighed by the pull they exert against the elasticity of a coiled wire4 ,the effect of centrifugal force1 increasing from the pole to the equator1 co-operates with increasing removal from the earth's center to lessen weight2 the result of the combined action of these two causes is1 that a body weighing #aie lbs4 at either pole will weigh but #aid over the equator4 ,the line of a falling body1 called also the line of direction1 is interesting as being that direction in space at any point of the earth's surface with reference to which all other directions are named1 and by which they are to be determined4 ,a few points remain to be named4 ,the flow of water is the result of the force of gravity2 the importance of this fact and its wide influence cannot be over stated2 the gently falling dew1 the mighty currents in the unfathomable depths of the ocean1 as well as the rivulet merrily falling over the rocks to a lower level are all subject to the laws of terrestrial gravity4 ,the upper surface of a liquid in a vessel exposed to the atmosphere is called the free surface and is pressed downwards by the air under about #ae lbs4 pressure per square inch4 ,the free surface of a small body of a perfect liquid1 at rest1 is horizontal and perpendicular to the action of gravity although in large bodies of liquid1 as lakes and ponds1 the free surface is spherical1 assuming the curvature of the earth's surface4 ,,rules ,,relating ,,to ,,the ,,velocity ,,of ,,falling ,,bodies4 #a4--,to find the ,velocity a falling ,body will acquire in any given time4 ,multiply the time1 in seconds1 by #cb-a_/f1 and it will give the velocity acquired in feet1 per second4 ,example4 ,required the velocity in seven seconds4 #cb-a_/f #g #bbe-a_/f feet4 ,ans4 #b4--,to find the ,velocity a ,body will acquire by falling from any given height4 ,multiply the space1 in feet1 by #fd-a_/c1 the square root of the product will be the velocity acquired1 in feet1 per second4 ,example4 ,required the velocity which a ball has acquired in descending through #bja feet4 #fd-a_/c #bja #abica2 #abica #aacg feet4 ,ans4 #c4--,to find the ,space through which a ,body will fall in any given time4 ,multiply the square of the time1 in seconds1 by #af-a_/ab1 and it will give the space in feet4 ,example4 ,required the space fallen through in seven seconds4 #af-a_/ab #g #ghh-a_/ab feet4 ,ans4 #d4--,to find the ,time which a ,body will occupy in falling through a given space4 ,divide the square root of the space fallen through by #d1 and the quotient will be the time in which it was falling4 ,example4 ,required the time a body will take in falling through #djb4jh feet of space4 #djbjh #bjjdi1 and #bjjdi #d #ejab4 ,ans4 #e4--,the ,velocity being given1 to find the ,space fallen through4 ,divide the velocity by #h1 and the square of the quotient will be the distance fallen through to acquire that velocity4 ,example4 ,if the velocity of a cannon ball be #ffj feet per second1 from what height must a body fall to acquire the same velocity8 #ffj #h #hbe #fhjfbe feet4 ,ans4 #f4--,to find the ,time1 the ,velocity per second being given4 ,divide the given velocity by #h1 and one-fourth part of the quotient will be the answer4 ,example4 ,how long must a bullet be falling1 to acquire a velocity of #dhj feet per second8 #dhj #h #fj #d #ae seconds4 ,ans4 ,,specific ,,gravity4 ,specific ,gravity is the proportion of the weight of a body to that of an equal volume of some other substance adopted as a standard of reference4 ,for solids and liquids the standard is pure water1 at a temperature of #fj ,f41 the barometer being at #cj inches4 ,ariform bodies are referred to the air as their standard4 ,a cubic foot of water weighs #a1jjj ounces2 if the same bulk of another substance1 as for instance cast iron1 is found to weigh #g1bjj ounces1 its proportional weight or specific gravity is #gb4 ,it is convenient to know the figures representing this proportion for every substance in common use1 that the weight of any given bulk may be readily determined4 ,for all substances the specific gravity is used in various tests for the purpose of distinguishing bodies from each other1 the same substance being found1 under the equal conditions of temperature1 c41 to retain its peculiar proportional weight or density4 ,hence tables of specific gravities of bodies are prepared for reference1 and in every scientific description of substances the specific gravity is mentioned4 ,in practical use1 the weight of a cubic foot is obtained from the figures representing the density by moving the decimal point three figures to the right1 which obviously from the example above1 gives the ounces1 and these divided by #af gives the pounds avoirdupois1 in the cubic foot4 ,different methods may be employed to ascertain the specific gravity of solids4 ,that by measuring the bulk and weighing1 is rarely practicable2 as a body immersed in water must displace its own bulk of the fluid1 the specific gravity may be ascertained by introducing a body1 after weighing it1 into a suitable vessel exactly filled with water1 and then weighing the fluid which overflows4 ,the proportional weight is thus at once obtained4 ,wax will cause its own weight of water to overflow2 its specific gravity is then #a4 ,platinum1 according to the condition it is in1 will cause only from #a_/ba to #a_/bae of its weight of water to overflow1 showing its specific gravity to be from #ba to #bae4 ,but a more exact method than this is commonly employed4 ,the difference of weight of the same substance weighed in air and when immersed in water1 is exactly that of the water it displaces1 and may consequently be taken as the weight of its own bulk of water4 ,see ,fig4 #ic and rule and example on page #ie4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ia4 ,the specific gravity is then obtained by weighing the body first in air1 and then1 suspended by a fibre of silk or a hair1 in water1 and dividing the weight in air by the difference4 ,it is hardly necessary to say that the substance examined must be free from mixture of foreign matters1 and especially from cavities that may contain air4 ,,note4--,hydrometers are instruments for determining the relative density of fluids2 distilled water is usually referred to as the standard of comparison4 ,they consist usually of a bulb or float weighted at bottom so as to float upright1 and having an elongated stem graduated to indicate the density of the liquid by the depth to which they sink therein4 ,,the ,,hydrostatic ,,balance4 ,every body immersed in a liquid is submitted to the action of two forces3 gravity which tends to lower it1 and the buoyancy of the liquid which tends to raise it with a force equal to the weight of the liquid displaced4 ,the weight of the body is either totally or partially overcome by its buoyancy1 by which it is concluded that a body immersed in a liquid loses a part of its weight equal to the weight of the displaced liquid4 ,this principle1 which is the basis of the theory of immersed and floating bodies1 is called the principle of ,archimedes1 after the discoverer4 ,it may be shown experimentally by means of the hydrostatic balance 7,fig4 #ib74 ,this is an ordinary balance1 each pan of which is provided with a hook2 the beam being raised1 a hollow brass cylinder is suspended from one of the pans1 and below this a solid cylinder whose volume is exactly equal to the capacity of the first cylinder2 lastly1 an equipoise is placed in the other pan4 ,if now the hollow cylinder be filled with water1 the equilibrium is disturbed2 but if at the same time the beam is lowered so that the solid cylinder becomes immersed in a vessel of water placed beneath it1 the equilibrium will be restored4 ,by being immersed in water the solid cylinder loses a portion of its weight equal to that of the water in the hollow cylinder4 ,now1 as the capacity of the hollow cylinder is exactly equal to the volume of the solid cylinder the principle which has been before laid down is proved4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ib4 ,minerals1 if suspected of containing spaces1 should be coarsely pulverized1 and then the second method may be conveniently applied to determine their density--thus prepared1 a higher result will be obtained1 and even metals when pulverized were found to give a greater specific gravity than when this is determined from samples in their ordinary state4 ,very fine powders may also be examined by the method in use for ascertaining the specific gravity of fluids1 viz43 by comparing the weight of a measured quantity with that of the same quantity of water4 ,a glass vessel called a specific gravity bottle is commonly employed1 which is furnished with a slender neck1 upon which is a mark indicating the height reached by #a1jjj grains of water4 ,the substance to be examined is introduced till it reaches the same mark1 and1 the weight of the bottle being known1 only one weighing is required to obtain the result4 ,the specific gravity of fluids is also taken by the instrument called a hydrometer or alcometer4 ,such instruments are much used for ascertaining the specific gravity of spirituous and other liquors1 as an indication of their strength4 ,if the solid body to be tested is lighter than water1 it must be attached to some heavy substance to cause it to sink4 ,its specific gravity is then calculated by dividing its weight in the air by the sum of the weights of the attached body both in air and in water1 first subtracting from this sum the weight of the two bodies together in the water4 ,bodies soluble in water may be weighed in some other fluid1 as alcohol1 ether1 olive oil1 c41 and their proportional weight to that of this fluid being thus ascertained1 their density compared with that of water is readily calculated or they may be enveloped in wax or other suitable substance to protect them1 and then treated by the method just given for substances lighter than water4 ,gaseous bodies are weighed in a thin glass flask or other vessel made for the purpose1 and provided with a stop-cock4 ,the vessel is exhausted of air before the introduction of the gas4 ,,rule ,,for ,,finding ,,the ,,specific ,,gravity ,,of ,a ,,solid ,,body4 ,weigh the solid in air and then in pure water4 ,the difference is the weight of water displaced1 whose specific gravity is #a4jjj4 ,then1 as the difference of weight is to #ajjj1 so is the weight in air to the specific gravity2 or divide the weight of the body in air by the difference between the weights in air and in water4 ,,example4 ,a lump of glass is found to weigh in air #egg grains2 it is then suspended by a horse hair from the bottom of the scale pan1 and immersed in a vessel of pure water1 when it is found to weigh #cii4d grains4 ,what is its specific gravity8 #egg4j ,then1 as #agg4f 3 #a 33 #egg4j 3 sp4 gravity4 #cii4d #a ----- ----- #aggf the difference #aggf7eggj7cbdh1 ,ans4 #ecbh ----- #ddbj #ceeb ---- #hfhj #gajd ----- #aegfj #adbjh ----- #aeeb ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ic4 ,,note4--,the above figures are introduced to show more vividly the comparison between bulk and weight1 the size of the different substances1 of course1 being merely approximate4 ,a study of the ,table of ,specific ,gravities to be found in the next page is worthy of the time and attention4 ,,table ,,of ,,specific ,,gravities4 ,,metals4 ,iron1 7cast7 #gbjg 7wrought7 #gfhh ,steel 7soft7 #gghj 7tempered7 #ghdj ,lead 7cast7 #aadjj 7sheet7 #aadjg ,brass 7cast7 #hchd 7wire drawn7 #hedd ,copper 7sheet7 #hgfg 7cast7 #hfjg ,gold 7cast7 #aibch 7hammered7 #aicfa ,gold 7#bb carats7 #agdha 7#bj 7 #aegji ,silver 7pure1 cast7 #ajdgd 7hammered7 #ajeaa ,mercury 7#fj7 #acehj ,pewter #gbdh ,tin #gbic ,zinc 7cast7 #gbae ,platinum #baejj ,antimony #fgab ,arsenic #egfc ,bronze 7gun metal7 #hgjj ,,stones ,,and ,,earth4 ,coal 7,bituminous7 #abef 7,anthracite7 #adcf #afdj ,charcoal #dda ,brick #aijj ,clay #aicj ,common ,soil #aihd ,emery #djjj ,glass 7plalte7 #cbdh ,ivory #ahbb ,grindstone #badc ,diamond #ceba ,gypsum #bafh ,lime #bgbj ,granite #bfbe ,marble #bgjh ,mica #bhjj ,millstone #bdhd ,nitre #aijj ,porcelain #bche ,phosphorus #aggj ,pumice ,stone #iae ,salt #bacj ,sand #ahjj ,slate #bfgb ,sulphur #bjcc ,,woods4 ,ash #hde ,beech #heb ,birch #gbj ,oak #aabj ,pine 7yellow7 #ffj 7white7 #eed ,cherry #gae ,cork #bdj ,elm #fga ,poplar #chc ,walnut #fga ,willow #ehe ,,liquids4 ,acid ,sulphuric #ahea ,muriatic #abjj ,spirits of ,wine #iag ,alcohol #gij ,oil 7turpentine7 #hgj 7olive7 #iae ,oil 7linseed7 #icb 7castor7 #ifa ,pure water #ajjj ,vinegar #ajhj ,milk #ajcb ,sea water #ajbi ,,to ,,find ,,the ,,weight ,,of ,a ,,cubic ,,foot ,,of ,,anything ,,contained ,,in ,,these ,,tables4 ,rule4 ,multiply #fbe lbs4 7the weight of a cubic foot of pure water7 by the specific gravity of the given body4 ,example4 ,what is the weight of a cubic foot of sea water8 #fbe lbs4 #ajbi sp4 gravity4 ----- #efbe #abej #fbe ------- ,answer1 #fdcabe lbs4 is the actual weight3 but #fd lbs4 is taken in practice as the weight of a cubic foot of sea water4 ,example4 ,how many cubic feet of sea water will weigh a ton8 ,divide #bbdj lbs4 7#a ton7 by #fd lbs4 #h7bbdj #fd ---- #h7 #bhj ---- ,ans4 #ce ,example4 ,what is the weight of a cubic foot of wrought iron8 #fbe lbs4 #gfi sp4 gravity4 ----- #efbe #cgej #dcge ------- ,answer1 #dhjfbe lbs4 #dhj lbs4 in practice is the weight of #a cubic foot of wrought iron4 ,,note4--#ce cubic feet of sea water is accounted to be a ton1 as in sea water ballast for steamers1 and in calculating displacement of ships4 ,example4 ,what is the average weight of a cubic foot of ,bituminous coal8 #abef sp4 gravity4 #fbe lbs4 ----- #fbhj #beab #gecf ------- ,answer1 #ghejjj lbs4 ,this #ghe lbs4 is the weight of a cubic foot in a solid block1 but loose1 as used for fuel1 a cubic foot weighs about #di4g lbs4 which is the average of #ac kinds4 ,example4 ,what is the weight of a solid cast cylinder of copper1 #d inches diameter and #f inches high8 #hfjg sp4 gravity4 #fbe lbs4 ----- #dcjce #agbad #eafdb -------- #ecgicge lbs4 per cub4 ft4 -------- ,say #ech lbs4 #ghed #af diam4 squared4 ----- #dgabd #ghed ----- #abeffd area of base4 #f high ------- #gecihd cu4 in4 in volume ------- ,say #ged cubic inches4 cub4 in4 cub4 in4 lbs4 ,then1 as #agbh 3 #ged 33 #ech 3 ,answer4 #ech ---- #fjcb #bbfb #cggj ------ #ab7djefeb --------- #agbh #ab7cchjdcc --------- #ab7 #bhagjb ------- #bcdge lbs4 ,answer1 #bc-a_/b lbs4 nearly4 ,,friction ,,and ,,viscosity ,,of ,,fluids4 ,frictional ,resistance4--,the resistance with which bodies oppose the movement of one surface on another is termed friction4 ,it depends on the nature1 and the roughness of the surfaces in contact2 at the commencement of the sliding1 it is greater than when the motion is continued4 ,friction is in effect an equivalent force exerted in a direction opposite to that in which the sliding occurs4 ,its whole amount is the product of two factors3 the first of these1 which sums up the effect of the nature and condition of the surfaces1 is called the coefficient of friction2 the second1 which is the sum of all pressures1 as weight strain1 and the adhesion due to magnetism 7when employed71 which act to urge the two bodies together1 i4 e41 perpendicularly to the surface of contact1 is called the normal pressure4 ,but this law holds only where1 with dry surfaces1 the pressure is not enough to indent or abrade either2 or1 with wet surfaces1 not enough to force out the unguent4 ,in either of these cases1 the friction increases more rapidly than the ratio of normal pressure4 ,no surfaces can be made absolutely hard or smooth2 when one surface is made to slide over another1 the slight roughness of the one interlock with those of the other1 so that the surfaces must be separated or the points abraded to allow of the motion2 but if one surface roll upon another1 the prominent points are successively raised1 without the need of complete lifting of the body or wearing off those points4 ,hence1 there are two kinds of friction1 the sliding and the rolling4 ,the former of these in amount greatly exceeds the latter2 it is a leading element in the stability of structures and fabrics of all lands1 and the most important resistance and source of waste in all machinery1 and is therefore a chief object of regard in the arts of construction and the science of engineering4 ,sliding friction increases with the roughness of the surfaces in contact2 hence1 it is in practice diminished as these surfaces become worn1 also by polishing1 and by the use of lubricants1 which smooth the rubbing surfaces by filling their depressions4 ,it increases1 almost universally1 in exact proportion with the entire pressure1 owing to weight or other causes1 with which the two surfaces are held together2 but at very great pressures1 somewhat less rapidly4 ,consequently1 in all ordinary cases1 so long as the entire weight or pressure remains the same1 the friction is1 in general1 entirely independent of the extent of the surfaces in contact4 ,the exceptions are1 some increase when the rubbing surfaces under the same total pressure are very greatly extended1 or when either surface is comparatively soft2 and considerable lessening of friction when the bodies are very small1 as in the runners of skates upon ice4 ,for ordinary rates of motion1 the total friction within a given space or distance is in like manner entirely independent of the velocity with which one surface is caused to move over the other2 but in very slow motions it is increased1 and in very rapid motions perceptibly diminished4 ,friction is also increased in proportion to the tendency of the surfaces to adhere2 hence1 it is usually found greater between bodies of the same kind 7steel on steel proving almost an exception7 than between those of different kinds2 it is usually greater when the surfaces have been long in contact1 and at the beginning of motion1 and always so1 unless corrected by lubricants1 between metallic surfaces so highly polished that air may be excluded from between them4 ,the frictional resistance retarding the flow of water is subject to three laws3 #a4 ,it is proportioned to the amount of surface in contact4 #b4 ,it is independent of the pressure4 #c4 ,it is proportional to the square of the velocity4 ,it should be remembered that the laws relating to friction1 between solid bodies operate quite differently from what they do when applied to liquids2 hence1 the large mass of data relating to the general subject of friction must be disregarded in the consideration of hydromechanics and allied subjects4 ,for all fluids1 whether liquids or gaseous1 the resistance is independent of the pressure between the masses in contact4 ,this is in accordance with the second law as stated4 ,the friction for all fluids 7liquid or gaseous7 is in proportion to the area of the rubbing surface2 this follows from the first law and as the sectional area of a circle is the least1 pipes from their circular form present the smallest resistance to the flow of water4 ,from the third law1 in practice we desire the making of pipes as large as possible2 experiment having proved that low speeds are preferable to moderate and still more so1 as compared to high speeds in proportioning the piping of hydraulic apparatus4 ,friction of fluids is also independent of the nature of the solid against which the stream may flow1 but dependent to some extent upon their degree of roughness4 ,friction for all fluids is also proportional to the density of the fluid1 and related in some way to its adhesiveness4 ,water flowing through a pipe tends to drag the pipe along with it on account of friction2 in all actual fluids there is viscosity or internal friction1 but if the relative motion is only slow enough it makes little difference whether the fluid is viscous or not4 ,ordinary fluids will change in shape under the action of a force1 however small1 if enough time is given for the change to take place1 and the rate of change of shape is a measure of its viscosity4 ,the laws of friction1 both for solids and liquids1 have been established from experiments endlessly varied4 ,in investigating these principles we first proceed on the supposition that the forces in question act without any impediments4 ,great simplicity is attained by first bringing the subject to this ideal standard of perfection1 and afterwards making suitable allowances for all these causes which operate in any given case to prevent the perfect application of the law4 ,several tables and other data relating to the friction of water will be found in the other sections of this work1 reference to which is made in the ,index4 ,the term viscosity has been described in the ,glossary at the beginning of this work2 a perfect fluid is incapable of resisting--except by its weight or inertia--a change of shape4 ,such a substance does not actually exist for all fluids have viscosity or internal friction4 ,this is defined as a resistance to a change of shape depending on the rate at which the change is effected1 but1 as the fluids which engineers have to deal with are water and vapors and gases1 it simplifies nearly all the calculations to assume that they have no internal viscosity or friction4 ,a slow continuous change of the shape of solids or semi-solids under the action of gravity1 or external force1 is also by the extension of the term called viscosity1 as the viscosity of ice1 as observed in the slow movement of those rivers of ice1 the glaciers4 ,the viscosity of liquids arises from the mutual attractions of the molecules and is diminished by the effect of the wandering molecules 7,c4 ,d474 ,the viscosity of gases increases while that of liquids diminishes as the temperature is raised4 ,the viscosity of fluids presents a certain analogy with the malleability of solids4 ,vis ,viva is equivalent to active or living force2 temperature is the ,vis ,viva of the smallest particles of a body2 in bodies of the same temperature the atoms have the same vis viva1 the smaller mass of the lighter atoms being compensated by their greater velocity4 ,this term1 which is often met with in scientific treatises1 was invented by ,leibnitz4 ,it is well known that water in rapid circulation will absorb more heat than when stagnant or moving slowly2 this is caused by ,vis ,viva of the atoms4 ,,capillary ,,attraction4 ,capillary attraction is the attraction which causes the ascent of fluids in small tubes4 ,this word is derived from the ,latin capillus--a hair4 ,the tubes must be less than one-tenth of an inch in diameter in order to produce the most satisfactory results1 and tubes whose bores are no larger than a hair present the phenomenon the most strikingly4 ,but though the rise of water above its natural level1 is most manifest in small tubes1 it appears1 in a degree1 in vessels of all sizes and shapes1 by a ring of water formed around the sides with a concavity upward4 ,the following are the leading facts respecting capillary attraction4 7#a47 ,when small tubes1 open at both ends1 are immersed perpendicularly in any liquid1 the liquid rises in them1 to a height which is inversely as the diameter of the bore4 ,though tubes of glass are usually employed in experiments on this subject1 yet tubes made of any other material exhibit the same property4 ,nor does the thickness of the solid part of the tube1 or its quantity of matter1 make the least difference1 the effect depending solely on the attraction of the surface1 and consequently extending only to a very small distance4 7#b47 ,different fluids are raised to unequal heights by the same tube4 ,thus1 according to experiment1 a tube which will raise water #bc inches will raise alcohol only #i inches4 7#c47 ,a tube #a_/ajj of an inch in diameter raises water #e4c inches2 and since the height is reciprocally as the diameter1 the product of the diameter into the height is a constant quantity1 namely1 the 4#jecth part of an inch square4 7#d47 ,fluids rise in a similar manner between plates of glass1 metal1 c41 placed perpendicularly in the fluids1 and near to one another4 ,if the plates are parallel1 the height to which a fluid will rise1 is inversely as the distance between the plates2 and the whole ascent is just half that which takes place in a tube of the same diameter4 ,if the plates be placed edge to edge1 so as to form an angle1 and they be immersed in water1 with the line of their intersection vertical1 the water will ascend between them in a curve having its vertex at the angle of intersection4 ,this curve is found to have the properties and form of the hyperbola4 ,in the adjustment of the stems of barometers and the thermometer an allowance is made to compensate for the influence of capillary attraction4 ,illustration3 ,,figs4 #id-if4 ,such are the leading facts ascertained respecting capillary attraction4 ,various explanations of them have been attempted but that of ,la ,place is most generally received4 ,according to this high authority1 the action of the sides of the tube draws up the film of fluid nearest to it1 and that film draws along with it the film immediately below it1 and so each film drags along with it the next below1 until the weight of the volume of fluid raised exactly balances all the forces which act upon it4 ,the fact that the elevation of the water between the parallel plates is exactly half that in a tube of the same diameter1 clearly indicates that the force resides in the surrounding body2 and the additional fact that the thickness or quantity of that body makes no difference1 proves that the force resides in the surface1 and that the action extends only to a very small distance4 ,,note4--,several familiar examples of capillary attraction may be added4 ,a piece of sponge1 or a lump of sugar1 touching water at its lowest corner1 soon becomes moistened throughout4 ,the wick of a lamp lifts the oil to supply the flame1 to the height of several inches4 ,a capillary glass tube1 bent in the form of a syphon1 and having its shorter end inserted in a vessel of water1 will fill itself and deliver over the water in drops4 ,a lock of thread or of candle-wick1 inserted in a vessel of water in a similar manner1 with one end hanging over the vessel1 will exhibit the same result4 ,an immense weight or mass may be raised through a small space1 by first stretching a dry rope between it and a support1 and then wetting the rope4 ,the several figures above need no explanation to the attentive reader4 ,,flow ,,of ,,water ,,under ,,pressure4 ,under this head three general cases are to be considered3 #a1 that of liquids issuing from orifices2 #b1 their flow through tubes1 or in streams2 and1 #c1 the effects of the momentum and impact of liquids4 ,the principles governing the action of the two last will be introduced1 #b1 under that portion of the work relating to 8piping10 and1 #c1 under the sections pertaining to the jet pump4 ,throughout the different portions of the book will the three cases be still further elucidated4 ,now1 as to the laws governing the escape of liquids under pressure through an opening1 it may be understood that when the liquid escapes from a vessel1 owing to the excess of the internal pressure1 the volume which escapes depends on the section of the orifice and the velocity with which the liquid molecules move at the moment of their escape from it4 ,this velocity depends upon the density of the liquid1 the excess of pressure at the opening1 and the friction of the liquid1 both at the opening and against the walls4 ,when the aperture is made in a very thin wall of a large vessel1 so as to remove1 as much as possible1 the causes tending to modify the motion of the escaping fluid1 the laws of the escape are comprised in the following theorem1 discovered by ,torricelli1 in #afdc1 as a consequence of the law of the fall of bodies discovered by ,galileo3 8,liquid molecules1 flowing from an orifice1 have the same velocity1 as if they fell freely in vacuo from a height equal to the vertical distance from the surface to the center of the orifice40 ,deductions from the above3--#a1 the velocity depends on the depth of the orifice from the surface1 and is independent of the density of the liquid4 ,water and mercury in vacuo would fall from the same height in the same time2 and so escaping from an orifice at the same depth1 below the surface1 would pass out with equal velocity2 but mercury1 being #ace times as heavy as water1 the pressure exerted at the aperture of a vessel filled with mercury1 will be #ace times as great as the pressure exerted at the aperture of a vessel filled with water2 #b1 the velocity of liquids is as the square roots of the depths of the orifices below the surfaces of the liquids4 ,,note4--,torricelli discovered1 in the early part of the #agth century1 the remarkable fact that a fluid issues from a small orifice with the same velocity 7friction and atmospheric resistance excluded7 which it would have acquired in falling through the depth from its surface4 ,this was one of a long series of discoveries leading toward the now almost exact science of hydro-mechanics4 ,thus stating1 the velocity of a liquid escaping from an orifice one foot below the surface to be one2 from a similar orifice four feet below the surface1 it will be two1 and at nine feet three1 at sixteen feet four1 and so on4 ,from comparative experiments made by a great number of observers1 it is learned that the actual flow is only about two-thirds of the theoretical flow4 ,see note4 ,the form and constitution of liquid veins have been studied and found to be3 #a4--,that the fluid issuing vertically from an orifice made in a plane and thin horizontal wall1 is always composed of two distinct parts1 ,fig4 #ig1 the portion nearest the orifice is calm and transparent1 like a rod of glass1 gradually decreasing in diameter4 ,the lower part1 on the contrary1 is always agitated1 and takes an irregular form1 in which are regularly distributed elongated swellings1 called ventres1 whose maximum diameter is greater than that of the orifice4 ,,note4--,theoretical and actual flow4--,the actual flow from an orifice1 is the volume of liquid which escapes from it in a given time4 ,the theoretical flow1 is a volume equal to that of a cylinder which has for its base the orifice1 and for its height the velocity1 furnished by the discovery of ,torricelli4 ,that is1 the theoretical flow is the product of the area of the orifice multiplied by the theoretical velocity4 ,it is observed that the vein escaping from an orifice1 contracts quite rapidly1 so that its diameter is soon only about two-thirds of the diameter of the orifice4 ,if there was no contraction of the vein after leaving the orifice1 and its velocity was the theoretical velocity1 the actual flow would be the same as that indicated by theory4 ,but its section is much less than at the orifice1 and its velocity is not so great as the theoretical velocity1 so that the actual flow is much less than the theoretical flow2 and in order to reduce this to the first1 it is necessary to multiply it by a fraction4 #b4--;,in the lower part of the vein1 the liquid is not continuous2 for if we employ an opaque liquid1 as mercury1 we can see through the vein1 ,fig4 #ih4 ,the apparent continuity in a vein of water is owing to the fact that the globules which constitute it succeed each other at a distance inappreciable to the eye4 ,illustration3 ,,figs4 #ig1 #ih4 ,the time it takes by a vessel to empty itself is to the time required1 when it is kept constantly full1 to discharge the same quantity of water1 as #b to #a1 and the spaces described by the surface in its descent in a column of equal size throughout1 are as the odd numbers1 #i1 #g1 #e1 #c1 #a4 ,thus these spaces measure equal times4 ,since liquids are not perfectly mobile1 and their exit at an orifice must be retarded by cohesion and friction1 the results thus far given are much modified in practice4 ,when a liquid flows through an orifice in a vessel1 eddies are formed about the sides of the orifice1 preventing the escape of a jet equivalent to its full size2 and owing to these1 and to acceleration of velocity1 if the jet be downward1 it rapidly contracts in its diameter4 ,at a distance outside about equal to diameter of the opening1 it is contracted to #b_/c or #e_/g its original area2 and this part has been called the 8contracted vein40 ,it has been shown1 that below this the stream still contracts1 though less rapidly4 ,these swellings separate more widely as they descend with increased rapidity2 but falling through great heights1 the whole may finally be dissipated in a mist4 ,,note4--,the annular swellings contain air and arise from a periodical succession of pulsations near the orifice1 which must be produced by very small oscillations of the entire mass of the liquid1 so that the velocity of the flow is periodically variable4 ,the sucking1 whistling noise which is often heard in the descent of water through an orifice is caused by air drawn in by the whirling motion4 ,see ,fig4 #ajc4 ,if an orifice in a vessel looks downward1 and the column of liquid over it be short1 this will simply drop out by its own weight1 starting at a velocity of o4 ,but if a considerable depth of liquid be above1 its gravity produces a corresponding pressure on its base1 or on that liquid which is near it2 so that1 if a plug be removed from an orifice in or close to the base1 the liquid starts at once into rapid motion4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ii4 ,each particle of a jet ,a issuing from the side of a vessel moves horizontally with the velocity above mentioned1 but it is at once drawn downward by the force of gravity in the same manner as a bullet fired from a gun1 with its axis horizontal4 ,it is well known that the bullet describes a parabola with a vertical axis1 the vertex being the muzzle of the gun4 ,now1 since each particle of the jet moves in the same curve1 this jet ,c takes the parabolic form4 ,in every parabola there is a certain point called the focus1 and the distance from the vertex to the focus fixes the magnitude of a parabola in much the same manner as the distance from the center to the circumference fixes the magnitude of a circle4 ,now it can be proved that the focus ,b is as much below as the surface of the water is above the orifice4 ,accordingly1 if water issues through orifices which are small in comparison with the contents of the vessel1 the jets from orifices at different depths below the surface take different forms1 as shown at ,d4 ,if these curves are traced on paper held behind the jet1 then1 knowing the horizontal distance and the vertical height1 it is easy to demonstrate that the jet forms a parabola4 ,quantity of ,efflux4--,if we suppose the bottom of a vessel containing water to be thin1 and the orifice to be a small circle whose area is ,a 7see ,fig4 #ajj7 where ,a ,b represents an orifice in the bottom of a vessel4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajj4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aja4 ,every particle above ,a ,b tries to pass out of the vessel1 at once and in so doing exerts a pressure on those nearest4 ,those that issue near ,a and ,b exert pressures in the directions ,m ,m and ,n ,n2 those near the center of the orifice in the direction ,r ,q1 those in the intermediate parts in the directions ,p ,q1 ,p ,q4 ,in consequence1 the water within the space ,p ,q ,p is unable to escape1 and that which does escape1 instead of assuming a cylindrical form1 at first contracts1 and takes the form of a truncated cone4 ,it is found that the escaping jet continues to contract until at a distance from the orifice about equal to the diameter of the orifice2 this part of the jet is called the vena contracta or contracted vein1 as explained on a previous page4 ,influence of tubes on the quantity of efflux4--,the result before given has reference to an aperture in a thin wall4 ,if a cylindrical or conical efflux tube is fitted to the aperture1 the amount of the flow is considerably increased4 ,a short tube1 whose length is from two to three times its diameter1 has been found to increase the actual efflux per second to about #hb per cent4 of the theoretical4 ,in this case the water on entering the tube forms a contracted vein1 ,fig4 #aja4 just as it would do on issuing freely into the air2 but afterwards it expands1 and1 in consequence of the adhesion of the water to the interior surface of the tube1 has1 on leaving the tube1 a section greater than that of the contracted vein4 ,the contraction of the jet within the tube causes a partial vacuum shown in black in the figure4 ,now1 if an aperture is made in the tube1 near the point of greatest contraction1 and is carefully fitted with a vertical tube1 the lower end of which dips into water1 ,fig4 #aja1 it is found that water rises in the vertical tube1 thereby proving conclusively the formation of a partial vacuum4 ,if the nozzle has the form of a conic frustum whose larger end is at the aperture1 the efflux in a second may be raised to #ib per cent41 provided the dimensions are properly chosen4 ,if the smaller end of a frustum of a cone of suitable dimensions be fitted to the orifice1 the efflux may be still further increased1 which will fall very little short of the theoretical amount4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajb4 ,velocities of streams4--,the velocity of streams varies greatly4 ,the slower flow of rivers has a velocity of less than three feet per second1 and the more rapid1 as much as six feet per second1 which gives respectively about two and four miles per hour4 ,the velocities vary in different parts of the same transverse section of a stream1 for the air upon the surface of the water1 as well also as the solid bottom of the stream1 has a certain effect in retarding the current4 ,the velocity is found to be greatest in the middle1 where the water is deepest1 ,fig4 #ajb1 somewhere in m1 below the surface2 then it decreases with the depth towards the sides1 being least at a and b4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajc4 ,appearance of the surface during a discharge4--,a vessel containing a liquid1 discharging itself through an orifice1 does not always preserve a horizontal surface4 ,when the vein issues from an orifice in the bottom of a vessel1 and the level of the liquid is near the orifice1 the liquid forms a whirlpool1 ,fig4 #ajc4 ,if the liquid has a rotary movement1 the funnel is formed sooner2 if the orifice is at the side of the vessel1 there is a depression of the surface upon that side1 above the orifice1 ,fig4 #ajd4 ,these movements depend upon the form of the vessel1 the height of the liquid in it1 and the dimensions and form of the orifice4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajd4 ,in order to verify many of the laws of hydraulics in an accurate manner1 it is necessary to maintain a uniform pressure on the escaping liquid1 thereby obtaining a constant velocity at the orifice4 ,this may be done in various ways1 as by allowing the water to flow into the vessel in a little larger quantity than can escape from the orifice1 the excess being discharged over the upper edge of the vessel2 also by means of the syphon4 ,by suspending solid particles1 such as charred paper1 pulverized in the water1 we render the currents that are formed visible4 ,these solid particles arrange themselves1 in curved lines1 towards and into the orifice1 as a center of attraction1 ,fig4 #aje4 ,the particles in immediate contact with the orifice1 not moving so easily as those within1 must cause contraction2 so1 also1 we can see that gravity in accelerating the velocity1 must cause continual decrease in the section of the jet4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aje4 ,upward jets of water4--,as the velocity of a liquid escaping from an orifice is the same as that which a body acquires1 falling from a height equal to the distance from the level of the liquid to the orifice1 a jet of water escaping from a horizontal opening upwards1 should theoretically reach the level of the liquid in the vessel4 ,but this never takes place1 ,fig4 #ajf1 because of--#ast1 the friction in the conducting tubes destroying the velocity4 #bnd1 the resistance of the air4 #crd1 the returning water falling upon that which is rising4 ,the height of the jet is increased by having the orifices very small1 in comparison with the conducting tube2 piercing them in a very thin wall1 and inclining the jet a little1 thus avoiding the effect of the returning water4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajf4 ,height of the jet4--,if a jet issuing from an orifice in a vertical direction has the same velocity as a body would have which fell from the surface of the liquid to that orifice1 the jet ought to rise to the level of the liquid4 ,it does not1 however1 reach this2 for the particles which fall hinder it4 ,but by inclining the jet at a small angle with the vertical it reaches about #i_/aj of the theoretical height1 the difference being due to friction and to the resistance of the air4 ,the quantities of water which issue from orifices of different areas are very nearly proportional to the size of the orifice1 provided the level remains constant1 and this is true irrespective of the form of the opening which may be round1 square1 or any other shape4 ,escape of liquids through short tubes4--,we often place in an orifice1 to increase the flow1 a short tube 7called an adjutage7 either cylindrical or conical4 ,if the vein pass through the tube without adhering to it1 the flow is not modified2 if the vein adhere 7the liquid wetting the interior walls7 the contracted part is dilated1 and the flow is increased4 ,in the last case1 and with a cylindrical adjutage1 its length not being more than four times its diameter1 the flow is augmented about one-third4 ,conical pipes1 converging towards the exterior1 increase the flow still more than the preceding1 the flow and velocity of the vein varying with the angle4 ,escape of liquids through long tubes4--,when a liquid passes through a long straight tube1 the flow soon diminishes greatly in velocity1 because of the friction which takes place between the liquid particles and the walls4 ,if there be any bends or curves in the tube1 it is still further diminished by the same cause4 ,the discharge is then much less than it would be from an orifice in a thin wall1 and therefore the tube is generally inclined2 the liquid then passes down this inclined plane1 or it is forced through by pressure1 applied at the opposite end4 ,direction of the jet from lateral orifices4--,from the principle of the equal transmission of pressure1 water issues from an orifice in the side of a vessel with the same velocity as from an aperture in the bottom of a vessel at the same depth4 ,,measurement ,,of ,,water ,,pressure4 ,in reference to the table on the next page1 it may be well to say that it has two uses2 by it when the 8head0 is known the pressure can be ascertained to a fraction1 thus1 ,ex4 #a1 ,if the head is #adj feet1 then the pressure is #fjfd pounds per square inch4 ,again1 ,ex4 #b1 ,if the pressure is #aeaf per square inch1 then the head is #ce feet4 ,illustration3 ,,inside4 7,see ,page #aae47 ,,outside4 ,,pressure ,,of ,,water4 ,the pressure of water in pounds per square inch for every foot in height to #cjj feet2 and then by intervals1 to #ajjj feet head ,by this table1 from the pounds pressure per square inch1 the feet head is readily obtained2 and vice versa4 ---------------- ,feet ,pressure ,head4 per square inch4 ---------------- #a #jdc #b #jhf #c #acj #d #agc #e #baf #f #bei #g #cjc #h #cdf #i #chi #aj #dcc #aa #dgf #ab #ebj #ac #efc #ad #fjf #ae #fdi #af #fic #ag #gcf #ah #ggi #ai #hbb #bj #hff #ba #iji #bb #iec #bc #iif #bd #ajci #be #ajhb #bf #aabf #bg #aafi #bh #abab #bi #abee #cj #abii #ca #acdb #cb #achf #cc #adbi #cd #adgb #ce #aeaf #cf #aeei #cg #afjb #ch #afde #ci #afhi #dj #agcb #da #agge #db #ahai #dc #ahfb #dd #aije #de #aidi #df #aiib #dg #bjce #dh #bjgi #di #babb #ej #bafe #ea #bbji #eb #bbeb #ec #bbie #ed #bcci #ee #bchb #ef #bdbf #eg #bdfi #eh #beab #ei #beee #fj #beii #fa #bfdb #fb #bfhe #fc #bgbi #fd #bggb #fe #bhae #ff #bheh #fg #bijb #fh #bide #fi #bihh #gj #cjcb #ga #cjge #gb #caah #gc #cafb #gd #cbje #ge #cbdh #gf #cbib #gg #ccce #gh #ccgh #gi #cdba #hj #cdfe #ha #cejh #hb #ceeb #hc #ceie #hd #cfci #he #cfhb #hf #cgbe #hg #cgfh #hh #chab #hi #chee #ij #chih #ia #cidb #ib #cihe #ic #djbh #id #djgb #ie #daae #if #daeh #ig #dbja #ih #dbde #ii #dbhh #ajj #dcca #aja #dcge #ajb #ddah #ajc #ddfa #ajd #deje #aje #dedh #ajf #deia #ajg #dfcd #ajh #dfgh #aji #dgba #aaj #dgfd #aaa #dhjh #aab #dhea #aac #dhid #aad #dich #aae #diha #aaf #ejbd #aag #ejfh #aah #eaaa #aai #eaed #abj #eaih #aba #ebda #abb #ebhd #abc #ecbh #abd #ecga #abe #edae #abf #edeh #abg #eeja #abh #eedd #abi #eehh #acj #efca #aca #efgd #acb #egah #acc #egfa #acd #ehjd #ace #ehdh #acf #ehia #acg #eicd #ach #eigg #aci #fjba #adj #fjfd #ada #fajg #adb #faea #adc #faid #add #fbcg #ade #fbha #adf #fcbd #adg #fcfg #adh #fdaj #adi #fded #aej #fdig #aea #fedj #aeb #fehd #aec #ffbg #aed #ffgj #aee #fgad #aef #fgeg #aeg #fhjj #aeh #fhdc #aei #fhhg #afj #fica #afa #figd #afb #gjag #afc #gjfa #afd #gajd #afe #gadg #aff #gaia #afg #gbcd #afh #gbgg #afi #gcbj #agj #gcfd #aga #gdjg #agb #gdej #agc #gdid #agd #gecg #age #gehj #agf #gfbc #agg #gffg #agh #ggaj #agi #ggec #ahj #ggig #aha #ghdj #ahb #ghhd #ahc #gibg #ahd #gigj #ahe #hjad #ahf #hjeg #ahg #hajj #ahh #hadc #ahi #hahg #aij #hbcj #aia #hbgc #aib #hcag #aic #hcfj #aid #hdjc #aie #hddg #aif #hdij #aig #hecc #aih #hegf #aii #hfbj #bjj #hffc #bja #hgjg #bjb #hgej #bjc #hgic #bjd #hhcf #bje #hhhj #bjf #hibc #bjg #hiff #bjh #ijaj #bji #ijec #baj #ijif #baa #iaci #bab #iahc #bac #ibbf #bad #ibfi #bae #icac #baf #icef #bag #icii #bah #iddc #bai #idhf #bbj #iecj #bba #iegc #bbb #ifaf #bbc #iffj #bbd #igjc #bbe #igdf #bbf #igij #bbg #ihcc #bbh #ihgf #bbi #iibj #bcj #iifc #bca #ajjjf #bcb #ajjdi #bcc #ajjic #bcd #ajacf #bce #ajagi #bcf #ajbbc #bcg #ajbff #bch #ajcji #bci #ajcec #bdj #ajcif #bda #ajdci #bdb #ajdhc #bdc #ajebf #bdd #ajefi #bde #ajfac #bdf #ajfef #bdg #ajfii #bdh #ajgdc #bdi #ajghf #bej #ajhbi #bea #ajhgc #beb #ajiaf #bec #ajiei #bed #aajjc #bee #aajdf #bef #aajhi #beg #aaacb #beh #aaagf #bei #aabai #bfj #aabfb #bfa #aacjf #bfb #aacdi #bfc #aacib #bfd #aadcf #bfe #aadgi #bff #aaebb #bfg #aaeff #bfh #aafji #bfi #aafeb #bgj #aafif #bga #aagci #bgb #aaghb #bgc #aahbf #bgd #aahfi #bge #aaiab #bgf #aaief #bgg #aaiii #bgh #abjdb #bgi #abjhe #bhj #ababi #bha #abagb #bhb #abbae #bhc #abbei #bhd #abcjb #bhe #abcde #bhf #abchi #bhg #abdcb #bhh #abdge #bhi #abeah #bij #abefb #bia #abfje #bib #abfdh #bic #abfib #bid #abgce #bie #abggh #bif #abhbb #big #abhfe #bih #abijh #bii #abiea #cjj #abiie #caj #acdbh #cbj #achfb #ccj #adbie #cdj #adgbh #cej #aeafa #cfj #aeeid #cgj #afjbg #chj #afdfa #cij #afhid #djj #agcbg #ejj #bafeh #fjj #beiij #gjj #cjcbb #hjj #cdfed #ijj #chihf #ajjj #dccah ,,hydraulic ,,gauges4 ,the ,piezometer1 or pressure gauge1 is an instrument for measuring the pressure of water in a pipe4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajg4 ,it may be broadly stated that all pressures and weights relating to water1 steam1 gases1 etc41 are now recorded by gauges4 ,the principle of construction of the dial gauge is that the pressure may be indicated by means of a spring and pointer upon a divided dial similar to a clock face1 but marked in divisions1 indicating pounds1 hundreds1 etc41 pressure instead of hours and minutes4 ,the more approved forms of gauges are now constructed upon the principle of the ,bourdon spring or metallic barometer invented in #ahdi4 7,see page #aac for illus47 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajh4 ,the essential principle--or discovery--is this3 that a metal curved tube--oval cross section1 under pressure1 tends to straighten itself according to the force exerted by the pressure inside4 ,figs4 #ajg and #ajh show the ordinary style of gauge which consists of an elliptical tube1 connected at one end to a pipe in communication with the pressure1 and at the other end with toothed arc and pinion to a pointer spindle as shown in cuts4 ,,note4--,hydraulic gauges are indispensable as it is often necessary to stop the pressure at points below that at which the safety valve has been set4 ,within the gauges--or cases1 is a small coiled tube closed at one end1 while the other end is attached to the socket through which the water is admitted2 this tube has a tendency to straighten when under pressure1 and thus its free closed end moves1 and this motion is communicated to the pointer2 when the pressure is relieved the tube assumes its original position and the pointer returns to zero4 ,there are many modifications and special adaptations of the ,bourdon discovery1 but the principle remains1 and the same useful results are obtained with both single and double tubes1 the latter being the most resensitive4 ,fig4 #ajg shows the dial of a hydraulic gauge which is graduated to suit the work to which it is related4 ,these gauges are made for pressures from #a1jjj to #bj1jjj pounds per square inch4 ,the springs are formed of heavy solid bar steel turned and bored to size and are of the ,bourdon style4 ,they are in use in large railroad shops1 sugar refineries and cotton-seed oil mills4 ,these gauges are also made with connections through the back of the case4 ,the gauge illustrated in ,fig4 #ajh is used in connection with hot water heaters1 denoting the height of column of water in the tank or reservoir1 one hand being painted red and the other black4 ,as it is necessary to have at all times in the tank or reservoir a certain height of water1 the red hand is set at the point on the dial which denotes this height4 ,the black hand is connected with the working parts of the gauge and indicates on the dial the actual height of water in the tank or reservoir4 ,the dial of this gauge is graduated in feet1 instead of pounds4 ,a check valve is almost indispensable in using a hydraulic gauge1 as the pressure is often suddenly removed and the momentum of the hand will throw the pinion out of gear with the toothed arc1 and is liable to break the hair-spring4 ,a check valve prevents any trouble of this kind and should always be used4 ,,water ,,pressure ,,machines ,,water ,,wheels4 ,hydraulic machinery may be broadly divided into #a4 ,motor machines1 and1 #b4 ,pumps4 ,water motors may be divided into #a4 ,water wheels1 #b4 ,turbines1 and1 #c4 ,water pressure engines4 ,in hydraulic motor machines a quantity of water descending from a higher to a lower level1 or from a higher to a lower pressure1 drives a machine which receives energy from the water and applies it to overcoming the resistances of other machines doing work4 ,in the next general class1 work done on the machine by a steam engine or other source of energy is employed in lifting water from a lower to a higher level4 ,a few machines such as the ram and jet pump combine the functions of both motors and pumps4 ,the subject of water wheels is but a continuation of much that has been illustrated and defined in the historical introduction to which is now added the following summary4 ,in every system of machinery deriving energy from a natural water-fall there exist the following parts3 7#a7 ,a supply channel1 leading the water from the highest accessible level1 to the site of the machine2 this may be an open channel of earth1 masonry1 or wood1 or it may be a closed cast or wrought-iron pipe2 in some cases part of the head race is an open channel1 part a closed pipe4 7#b7 ,leading from the motor there is a tail race1 culvert1 or discharge pipe delivering the water after it has done its work4 7#c7 ,a waste channel placed on or at the origin of the head race by which surplus water1 in floods1 escapes4 7#d7 ,the motor itself1 which either overcomes a useful resistance directly1 as in the case of a ram acting on a lift or crane chain1 or indirectly by actuating transmissive machinery1 as when a turbine drives the shafting1 belting1 and gearing of a mill4 ,with the motor is usually combined regulating machinery for adjusting the power and speed1 to the work done4 ,the great convenience and simplicity of water motors has led to their adoption in certain cases1 where no natural source of water power is available4 ,in these cases1 an artificial source of water power is created by using a steam engine to pump water to a reservoir at a great elevation1 or to pump water into a closed reservoir in which there is great pressure4 ,water flowing from the reservoir through hydraulic engines gives back the energy expended1 less so much as has been wasted in friction4 ,where a continuously acting steam engine stores up energy by pumping the water1 while the work done by the hydraulic engines is done intermittently1--this arrangement is considered the most useful4 ,,note4--8,wherever a stream flows from a higher to a lower level it is possible to erect a water motor4 ,the amount of power obtainable depends on the available head and the supply of water4 ,in choosing a site the engineer will select a portion of the stream where there is an abrupt natural fall1 or at least a considerable slope of the bed4 ,he will have regard to the facility of constructing the channels which are to convey the water1 and will take advantage of any bend in the river which enables him to shorten them4 ,he will have accurate measurements made of the quantity of water flowing in the stream1 and he will endeavor to ascertain the average quantity available throughout the year1 the minimum quantity in dry seasons1 and the maximum for which bye-wash channels must be provided4 ,in many cases the natural fall can be increased by a dam or weir thrown across the stream4 ,the engineer will also examine to what extent the head may vary in different seasons1 and whether it is necessary to sacrifice part of the fall and give a steep slope to the tail race to prevent the motor being flooded by backwater in freshet time4 ,in designing or selecting a water motor it is sufficient to consider only its efficiency in normal working conditions4 ,it is generally quite as important to know how it will act with a scanty water supply or a diminished head4 ,the greatest difference in water motors is in their adaptability to varying working conditions40--,,encyc4 ,,brit4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aaj4 ,water wheels are large vertical wheels driven by water falling from a higher to a lower level3 they are motors on which the water acts1 partly by weight1 partly by impulse4 ,turbines are wheels1 generally of small size compared with water wheels1 driven chiefly by the impulse of the water4 ,before entering the moving part of the turbine1 the water is allowed to acquire a considerable velocity2 during its action on the wheel this velocity is diminished1 and the impulse due to the change of momentum drives the turbine4 ,roughly speaking1 the fluid acts in a water-pressure engine directly by its pressure1 in a water wheel chiefly by its weight causing a pressure4 ,a flutter-wheel is shown in ,fig4 #aaj4 ,this is a water wheel of moderate diameter placed at the bottom of a chute so as to receive the impact of the head of water in the chute and penstock4 ,its name is derived from its rapid motion1 the effect of which is to cause a commotion of the water like 8the fluttering0 of a fowl4 ,impact ,wheels4--,the simplest and most imperfect of the horizontal wheels are the so-called impact wheels or impact turbines1 such as shown in ,fig4 #aaa4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aaa4 ,they consist of #af or #bj rectangular blades fastened to the wheel at an inclination of #ej to #gj with the horizon4 ,the water is brought on through a race of #dj to #bj inclination1 so that it strikes at about right angles upon the blades4 ,these wheels are used in falls from #aj to #bj ft41 where a large number of revolutions is necessary1 as in grain mills1 where the moving millstone is hung on the vertical shaft of the wheel1 hence intermediate gearing is unnecessary4 ,these crude machines are found in ,southern ,europe1 ,north ,africa1 in the ,alps1 ,pyrenees1 and in ,algiers4 ,they are about #e ft4 in diameter1 and the blades are #ae inches high and #h to #aj inches long 7measured radially74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aab4 ,fig4 #aab shows an 8undershot water wheel40 ,in this style of wheel1 the work is done by impact alone1 as the running water acts only on a few immersed buckets on the under side of the wheel4 ,in the breast wheel1 ,fig4 #aac1 the water is admitted on a level or slightly above the center of the shaft1 so that the water acts by impact and weight4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aac4 ,,note4--8,a weir is a dam erected across a river to stop and raise the water1 as for the purpose of taking fish1 of conveying a stream to a mill1 of maintaining the water at a level required for navigating it1 or for the purposes of irrigation40 ,for facilitating the computation of the quantity of water flowing over weirs1 ,weir ,tables1 are used1 based upon approved formulas1 of which 8,francis' ,formula0 is perhaps the most reliable4 ,these tables are applicable to the subject of water wheels but cannot be printed in this work4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aad4 ,fig #aad represents an over-shot water wheel 7,f ,g ,h ,l1 with axis at ,o7 in which the water flows upon the top of the wheel at h1 in the same direction in which it revolves1 therefore the impact of the water is utilized upon the upper buckets ,h1 a1 b1 after which the weight of the water acts in the buckets c1 d1 e1 ,f1 e1 d and c4 ,at b the buckets begin to overflow and empty themselves as shown at a4 ,it will be seen that the water acts upon almost one-half the circumference of this wheel1 thus realizing the greatest mechanical effect with the smallest quantity of water4 ,the current-wheel is perhaps the first application of the force of water in motion1 to drive machinery4 ,in the first century ,b4 ,c41 water-wheels for driving mills were used in ,asia ,minor and on the ,tiber4 ,in the former case we suppose1 but in the latter case we know1 that these were current-wheels4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aae4 ,the tide or current wheel1 7,fig4 #aae7 erected in the vicinity of the north end of ,london ,bridge1 and subsequently under its northern arch1 was erected by ,peter ,morice1 a ,dutchman1 in #aehb1 and operated force-pumps which supplied a part of ,london with water4 ,the stand-pipe from the pump was #abj feet high1 and conducted the water to a cistern at that height4 ,the amount raised was about #baf gallons per minute4 ,the wheel worked sixteen pumps1 each #g inches in diameter1 and having a uniform stroke of #cj inches4 ,during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries the works were extended from time to time1 and occupied one after another of the arches4 ,in the first arch of the bridge was one wheel working sixteen force-pumps4 ,in the third arch were three wheels1 working fifty-two pumps4 ,the united effect was #b1jeb gallons per minute1 raised #abj feet high4 ,in #agfg ,smeaton added wheels in the fifth arch4 ,steam-engines were added about this time to assist at low water and at neap-tides4 ,thus the matter remained till #ahba4 ,stow1 the antiquarian and historian1 describes the works in #afjj2 and ,beighton in #agca gives an account of them at that date4 ,the water-wheels at that time were placed under several of the arches4 ,the axis of these wheels was #ai feet long #c feet diameter4 ,the radial arms supported the rings and twenty-six floats1 #ad feet long by #ah inches wide4 ,the axis turned on brass gudgeons supported by counterpoised levers1 which permitted the vertical adjustment of the wheel as the tide rose and fell4 ,on the axis of the wheel was a cog-wheel #h feet in diameter and having forty-four cogs2 meshing into a trundle-wheel #d-a_/b feet in diameter and having #bj rounds1 or pins and whose iron axle revolved in brasses4 ,the axis of the trundle was prolonged at each end1 and had quadruple cranks which connected by rods to the ends of four walking beams #bd feet long1 whose other ends worked the piston-rods of the pumps4 ,the axis of oscillation of the lever supporting the wheel1 and by which it was adjusted to the height of the tide1 was coincident with the axis of the trundle1 so that the latter engaged the #h-;feet cog-wheel in all conditions of vertical adjustment4 ,cranks operated one end of the beams while pumps were attached to the other end4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aaf4 ,fig4 #aaf exhibits an overshot water wheel employed at ,laxey1 ,isle of ,man1 for driving the pumps which drain the mines at that village2 these have an extreme depth of #a1chj feet4 ,the wheel is #gb feet #f inches in diameter1 #f feet in breadth1 exerts a force of about #bjj horse-power and is capable of pumping #bej gallons per min4 from a depth of #a1bjj feet4 ,its crank-stroke is #aj feet4 ,the water for driving it is conducted by pipes from a reservoir on a neighboring hill1 and ascends in the column of masonry shown to the left of the wheel4 7,knight ,vol4 ,,iii47 ,an extra crank appears to be shown in the foreground of this reproduction of an old drawing4 ,,turbine ,,water ,,wheels4 ,the word turbine is derived from the ,latin1 8turbo0--that which spins or whirls around--a whirlwind4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aag4 ,the turbine is a horizontal water wheel1 and is similar to the hydraulic tourniquet or reaction wheel shown in ,fig4 #aag4 ,this consists of a glass vessel1 ,m1 containing water and capable of moving about its vertical axis4 ,at the lower part there is a tube1 ,c1 bent horizontally in opposite direction at the two ends4 ,if the vessel were full of water and the tubes closed1 the pressure of the sides of ,c would balance each other1 being equal and acting in contrary direction3 but1 being open1 the water runs out and the pressure is not exerted on the open part but only on the opposite side1 as shown in the figure ,a4 ,and this pressure1 not being neutralized by an opposite pressure1 imparts a rotary motion in the direction of the arrow1 the velocity of which increases with the height of the liquid and the size of the aperture4 ,this description and the illustration gives an idea of the crude reaction wheel invented by ,barker about #agdj2 again a turbine is simply a centrifugal pump reversed1 but the turbine is usually furnished with curved guide vanes to guide the water as it enters the wheel4 ,,note4--,the steam turbine has come into common use and competes in its economical performance with the simpler and less economical types of the steam engine2 it is impelled by steam jets1 the steam impinging upon vanes or buckets on the circumference of a rotating disc or cylinder4 ,in those turbines which are without guide blades--i4 e41 which have a high fall--the discharged water still possesses a great velocity and the wheel is thereby deprived of a considerable part of mechanical power4 ,this loss can1 however1 be obviated or lessened by using the energy of this discharged water to drive a second wheel4 ,a construction of this sort has been carried out by ,ober-,bergrath ,althaus in the tanning mill at ,vallendar near ,ehrenbreitstein4 ,the essential parts of the arrangement can be seen in ,fig4 #aah4 ,a ,e ,a is an ordinary reaction wheel with four curved revolving pipes and a fall of #abd ft41 and ,b ,b is a larger wheel with floats which is set in rotation by the water issuing from ,a4 ,a4 ,since the two wheels turn in opposite directions1 they must be connected together by a special form of wheel-work4 ,the outer wheel affords the additional advantage of serving at the same time as a fly-wheel1 thereby giving a more uniform rate of motion to the whole machinery4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aah4 ,turbines are variously constructed1 but all have curved floats or buckets against which the water acts by its impulse or reaction in flowing either outward from a #a central chamber1 #b inward from an external casing1 #c from above downward1 and1 #d from below2 these constructions are either divided into outward1 vertical or central discharge wheels4 ,turbines may also be divided into reaction turbines1 or those actuated substantially by the water passing through them 7their buckets moving in a direction opposite to that of the flow72 impulse turbines or those principally driven by impact against their blades or buckets 7the buckets moving with the flow72 and combined reaction and impulse wheels which include the best modern types of turbines4 ,in reaction turbines the wheel passages are designed to be always full and therefore the water under pressure2 in the impulse turbine the passages are not usually full4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aai4 ,turbines in which the water flows in a direction parallel to the axis are called parallel flow turbines--or journal turbines4 ,the turbine-dynamometer is a device used for measurings or testing the power delivered by turbines 7whence its name74 ,fourneyron's ,turbine4 ,this is1 in its latest form1 when properly constructed1 the nearest perfect of the horizontal water-wheels4 ,it revolves either in the air or under water1 and may be either high or low pressure4 ,for the low-pressure wheel1 the water enters the flume from the open reservoir1 with free surface1 as in ,fig4 #aai4 ,for high pressure1 the reservoir is boxed up and the water brought in at the side through a pipe1 as shown in ,fig4 #abd1 page #acf4 ,the first is for low and the second for high falls4 ,,note4--,the early history of the turbine is one of considerable interest especially in view of the development of the steam1 from the water turbine4 8,m4 ,fourneyron1 who began his experiments in #ahbc1 erected his first turbine in #ahbg1 at ,pont sur l',ognon1 in ,france4 ,the result far exceeded his expectations1 but he had much prejudice to contend with1 and it was not until #ahcd that he constructed another1 in ,franche ,comt at the iron-works of ,m4 ,caron1 to blow a furnace4 ,it was of #g or #h horse-power1 and worked at times with a fall of only #i inches4 ,its performance was so satisfactory that the same proprietor had afterwards another of #ej horse-power erected1 to replace #b water-wheels1 which together1 were equal to #cj horse-power4 ,the fall of water was #d feet #c inches1 and the useful effect1 varied with the head and the immersion of the turbine1 #fe to #hj per cent4 ,several others were now erected3 #b for falls of seven feet2 #a at ,inval1 near ,gisors1 for a fall of #f feet #f inches1 the power being nearly #dj-;horse1 on the river ,ept1 expending #ce cubic feet of water per second1 the useful effect being #ga per cent4 of the force employed40 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abj4 ,the ,leffel-,samson turbine wheel is shown in the engraving1 ,fig4 #abj1 page #abi1 where ,n4,n4 represents the bottom casting of the case flanged to support the wheel by resting upon the bottom of the penstock4 ,the draft tube ,i is of conical shape as represented at ,j4 ,j4 to reduce the friction of discharge water which after performing its work in the wheel escapes at the bottom of the draft tube4 ,this tube must always project into the tail water at least two or three inches4 ,the gates ,h4,h4,h4 are pivoted at the center so that they are balanced and are opened and closed with the least possible friction4 ,these gates are operated by rods ,l4 ,l41 connecting with a rack and pinion which are manipulated by the operator as occasion requires1 by an extension shaft from the coupling ,k1 having a hand-wheel on top4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aba4 ,power is transmitted from the wheel shaft ,f to the gears and pulleys connected with the coupling above2 the manner of setting turbine wheels in openstocks is shown a few pages further on4 ,from the construction of gates and guides upon turbine wheels one may readily see the absolute necessity of carefully guarding the flume against the admission of sticks and other solid materials that might wreck the wheel or jam the gates so that they could not be operated2 this is best accomplished by placing a water rack in front of the head gate at the entrance to the flume4 ,these water racks are best made of flat bars of wrought iron placed edgewise in a vertical position1 or what is better1 let the top incline say one foot or two 7depending upon the size of flume7 towards the head gates4 ,when placed in an inclined position it is very much easier to clean the rack from drift wood and the like than when placed in a vertical position as by means of a hoe or scraper these obstructions may be hauled up over the top of the inclined rack4 ,the racks should be made very strong and substantial to guard against being broken by ice in the winter1 for should the rack give way at any inopportune time the admission of sticks and other rubbish might wreck the wheel4 ,the 8runner0 which is the revolving part1 as shown in ,fig4 #aba1 is composed of two separate and distinct types of wheels1 and has two diameters1 as shown4 ,each wheel or set of buckets receives its separate quantity of water from one and the same set of guides but each set acts only once and independently upon the water used1 hence the water does not act twice upon the combined wheel as might be supposed1 as in the compound steam engine4 ,the upper wheel ,g receives the water as shown by the arrows at ,a1 and has a central and downward discharge1 while the lower wheel ,c receives the water as shown by the arrows at ,b and has an inward1 downward and outward discharge as shown by the arrows at ,d4 ,these two sets of buckets need to be exceedingly strong4 ,the lower set ,b are made of heavy flanged steel plate and are cast into their places by being placed in the sand mould1 and the cast iron flows around them forming the heavy ring ,c1 surrounding the outer and lower edges4 ,this ring is a part of the diaphragm which separates the two wheels4 ,the upper edge of the ring ,c is beveled to form a neat joint which prevents any unnecessary loss of water4 ,this runner is balanced and secured to a hammered iron or steel shaft ,f4 ,it is supported usually by a step of the best specially selected hard wood thoroughly soaked in oil for months before use4 ,the lower end of the shaft is dished out at ,e1 forming a true arc of a circle--concave--while the wooden step is made spherical--convex--to fit into the end of the shaft4 ,the step is formed in this way so that no sand can lodge between the bearing surfaces1 and cut them out4 ,the resident oil in the wood combined with the water make a most durable means of lubrication1 and these steps last for many months where the water is clear4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abb4 ,to get at the exact quantity of water consumed by a turbine wheel1 one cannot make an accurate calculation from the openings through the wheels but the water is measured after it has passed through the wheel1 as it flows away into the tail race4 ,any slight variation in the form of buckets or admission apertures will make an appreciable variation in the quantity of water discharged by a turbine wheel4 ,these wheels are made either for vertical or horizontal shafts and are also made single or double4 ,the engraving1 ,fig4 #abb1 shows a ,hercules turbine within the case and gate ready to set in the penstock4 ,up to the year #ahgf this make of wheel tested at the flume of the ,holyoke ,water ,works showed the highest efficiency at all stages of gate1 namely #hg per cent4 7page #ig1 ,emerson's tests74 ,the design of case will naturally lead the reader to conclude that this wheel has1 #a1 an inward1 #b1 downward and1 #c1 an outward discharge which is correct4 ,the gate is simply a curb or hollow cylinder which forms a sleeve outside the case and is raised and lowered by the gearing and rack shewn in the engraving4 ,as this sleeve rises it gradually uncovers the openings shown which admits water into the wheel4 ,horizontal ,turbine--,the turbine of #aj1ejj horse power installed in the ,shawinigan plant1 ,canada1 see ,,iv ,pt4 #b4 is of the horizontal type1 the water entering at1 ,a1 the lowest part of the turbine and flows around and fills the outer special tube1 passes through an annular gate1 flows radially through the wheel thence out through two draft tubes1 ,b1 one on each side4 ,the weight of the water wheel is #ahb tons1 the shaft weighing #aj tons and the bronze runner #e tons4 ,it is #cj feet from base to top and #cb feet #b-a_/b inches wide over all4 ,the shaft1 ,c1 is of solid forged steel1 #bb inches diameter in the middle1 tapering down to #aj inches diameter on one end and #af inches diameter on the other1 the distance between bearings being #bg feet4 ,the intake is #aj feet in diameter and the quantity of water going through the turbine when developing full power is #cie1jjj gallons a minute4 ,the speed of the wheel is #ahj revolutions per minute with a head of water acting on the turbine of #abe to #ace feet4 ,fig #abc is designed to show ,the ,setting of a turbine wheel in a wooden penstock4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abc4 ,the principal and most essential dimensions necessary to be considered in setting turbines are indicated by letters1 each size having its own particular dimensions4 ,in setting the wheel in the ordinary penstock it is necessary in the first place1 to have the floor exactly level1 and it is generally more convenient to lay down a ring of soft wood around the hole in the floor1 as it will be much easier to dress off with a plane than the plank floor4 ,the floor should be supported by posts under the timbers around the hole1 so that there will be no settling of the floor after being once made level4 ,as the flange on which the wheel rests is turned true1 the wheel will1 when placed on this level floor1 stand in the exact position required1 i4 e41 the shaft will be exactly vertical4 ,if the wheel is a large one and was taken apart for shipment1 the draft tube is first erected in position1 then the wheel is placed on its step1 the other parts being put on in their order4 ,the step and other bearings are adjusted before leaving the shop1 but it will sometimes happen that they will in some way get shifted1 and as the wheel is being put together1 they should be inspected and readjusted1 if necessary4 ,the only change that can occur in the step is its vertical adjustment1 which is regulated by screws4 ,when the right height is found1 the broad flange around the lower part of the wheel should stand about one-sixteenth of an inch below the under side of the base of the guide rim where it rests upon the draft tube4 ,the adjustable bearing on the top of the cover plate should be fitted up closely around the shaft1 but not screwed so tightly as to bind it4 ,all these wheels above fifteen inches in diameter are provided with chains and weights to counterbalance the weight of the gate1 so that it will move easily4 ,it is best1 when it can be done without much trouble1 to carry the weights outside of the flume1 but they can be used inside where the height is sufficient1 although it will require a little more weight to be as effective4 ,when the wheel is not likely to be started up at once1 it is a good plan1 when putting it together1 to smear the step and the shaft at the bearing with tallow1 as a protection against rust while it remains idle4 ,it is sometimes necessary to use a draft tube longer than is ordinarily attached to the wheel4 ,if properly constructed and applied there will be no sensible loss of power1 but it must be air tight1 and when of considerable length it is better enlarged gradually toward the lower end1 especially in cases where it may be necessary to carry this tube near the pit bottom4 ,iron cases for ,turbines4 ,fig4 #abd shows the setting of a ,hercules wheel within an iron case4 ,illustration3 ,,fig #abd4 ,although the expense of iron is as a rule considerably greater than wood1 the results obtained by the use of iron cases and penstocks are much better than could be possible with wood1 on account of their durability and freedom from leakage4 ,it is generally conceded that there is a great risk of the step becoming heated and burning out when placed in a draft tube above the tail-water1 and a jet of water is required to counteract this tendency to overheat4 ,as all such fixtures are liable to derangement and often fail to operate1 we are in favor of setting the wheel with the step immersed1 whenever it can be done without too great expense4 ,this case consists of two cast iron heads with boiler iron sides and is provided with a cover1 so that the wheel may be taken out entire4 ,this cover is fitted with stuffing boxes for both wheel and gate shafts1 and a manhole affords easy access to the wheel4 ,the bearing surfaces of the heads are nicely turned1 insuring tight joints1 and all holes for rivets are accurately spaced and drilled4 ,the heads of the larger cases are made to clamp1 the two halves being planed together2 the cases are fitted with mouthpieces having cast iron flanges for feeder connections1 to secure by bolts to either iron or wooden feeders4 ,where two wheels of the same or different diameters are to be used1 corresponding cases connected in the centre with one common feeder connection1 or are placed in cases provided with separate feeders4 ,in connection with these cases an iron draft tube of any desired length may be used4 ,the wheel is usually fitted to the case before leaving the works1 and in erecting the smaller wheels1 all that remains to be done is to set the case on the foundations provided for it and make the necessary connections as stated in explanation previously made for ,figs4 #abb and #abc4 ,the general arrangements required for the proper erection of turbines are well understood by competent millwrights and do not in ordinary cases present any serious difficulties4 ,it may be of interest to many1 and to the advantage of some who may consider the use of water power1 if a few general remarks on this subject are added4 ,in practice there is almost always a little loss of head due to the velocity with which the water passes through the channels leading to and away from the wheel1 and it should be the aim in constructing flumes to bring the loss to a minimum4 ,when the size of the wheel and the quantity of water to be used have been determined1 #a1 the size of the conduit for carrying the water to the wheel1 #b1 the width and depth of the wheel-pit and tail-race1 and #c1 the dimensions and location of the flume for the wheel are to be considered and properly arranged4 ,all of these should be of such dimensions as to insure the flow of water through them at a moderate velocity1 and with as little change of direction as may be practicable4 ,the larger the pipe or canal the better1 but there must be a limit in practice1 and it may be laid down as a general rule that a velocity of three feet per second is good practice in short tubes of uniform section of not more than fifty feet in length2 but the velocity should be reduced as the distance increases1 until in a length of #bjj feet1 it should not exceed two feet per second4 ,the same rule applies to the tail-race1 except that the velocity should be somewhat lower in ditches cut through rock or earth and having the naturally resulting roughness of sides and bottom4 ,the width and depth of the pit below the wheel may1 for a given wheel1 vary somewhat as the water discharged into it is greater or less2 therefore1 the dimensions should increase with a greater head for the same wheel4 ,the following is an approximate rule for the dimensions of the pit1 say for a head of twenty feet3 width of pit equal to four times the diameter of wheel1 depth below the level of tail-water one and a half times the diameter of wheel4 ,the flume for the wheel should be about three times the diameter of the wheel in its width or diameter1 and if it is decked over at the top it should be high enough inside to clear the coupling on the wheel shaft4 ,the ,watertight ,turbine is a special machine designed to keep the case tight by the pressure of the water against the gates at the sides1 no matter how much these gates wear4 ,fig4 #abe shows the plan of chutes1 gate-seats1 gates1 and buckets of the wheel4 ,part of the gates are shown open1 and others are closed4 ,the gates make a quarter of a turn in opening1 and the same in shutting1 and to open all the gates1 the gate wheel makes half a revolution4 ,the upper half of case shows the gate-wheel and pinion for operating its parts4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abe4 ,illustration ,the small illustration is a perspective view of the gate and gate segment used on the watertight turbine4 ,the part cut away forms part of the chute when the gate is open as shown in the lower left-hand side of the figure4 ,the sharp edge of the gate cuts off sticks and rubbish which are liable to get in the wheel1 which is an obvious advantage4 ,another desirable feature claimed for this wheel is the plan of operating the gates in opposite pairs2 by this means #b1 #d1 #f1 #h or #aj full gates may be opened at will1 according to the power required4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,niagara ,,falls ,,turbine4--,,fig4 #abf4 ,turbines at ,niagara ,falls4 ,a number of turbines installed at ,niagara ,falls1 ,n4 ,y41 are here briefly described2 they are about #e1jjj horse-power each2 a canal leads water from the river to the wheel pit4 ,the water is carried down the pit through steel penstocks to the turbines1 which are placed #acf feet below the water level in the canal4 ,after passing through the wheels the waste water is conveyed to the river below by a tunnel #g1jjj feet long4 ,the 8plan0 ,fig4 #abf shows a cross-section of the wheel pit1 with an end view of a penstock1 wheel case and shaft4 ,fig4 #abf exhibits part of a vertical section of the wheel pit and a side view of this penstock1 with the enclosing case and shaft of the turbine4 ,illustration3 ,,top ,,view ,,or ,,plan ,,of ,,fig4 #abf4 ,this turbine has a rock-surface wheel pit1 but this surface is protected by a brick lining having a thickness of about #ae inches4 ,the width of the wheel pit is #bj feet at the top and #af feet at the bottom1 and the cylindrical penstock is #g-a_/b feet in diameter4 ,the shaft of the turbine is a steel tube #ch inches in diameter1 built in three sections1 and connected by short solid steel shafts #aa inches in diameter1 which revolve in bearings4 ,on the top of each shaft is a dynamo for generating the electric power4 ,in ,fig4 #abf is shown a vertical section of the lower part of the penstock1 shaft1 and twin wheels4 ,the water fills the casing around the shaft1 passes both upward and downward to the guide passages1 through which it enters the two wheels1 causes them to revolve1 and then drops down to the tail race at the entrance to the tunnel1 which carries it away to the river4 ,the gate for regulating the supply is seen upon the outside of these wheels1 both at the top and bottom1 ,fig4 #abf4 ,fig4 #abh gives a larger vertical section of the lower wheel with the guides1 shaft1 and connecting members4 ,the guide passages1 and the wheel passages1 are triple as shown so that the latter may be filled not only at full gate1 but also when it is one-third or two-thirds open1 thus avoiding the loss of energy due to sudden enlargement of the flowing stream4 ,the two horizontal partitions in the wheel are also advantageous in strengthening it4 ,the inner radius of the wheel is #ca-a_/b inches and the outer radius is #cg-a_/b inches1 while the depth is about #ab inches4 ,in this figure the gate is represented closed and to open1 it moves downward uncovering the guide passages as shown in ,fig4 #abf1 the position it occupies loaded4 ,in ,fig4 #abg is shown a half-plan of one of the wheels1 in a part of which are seen the guides and vanes1 there being #cf of the former and #cb of the latter4 ,although the water on leaving the wheel is discharged into the air1 the very small annular space between the guides and vanes1 together with the decreasing area between the vanes from the entrance to the exit orifices1 ensures that the wheels move like reaction turbines for the three positions of the gates correspond to the three horizontal stages or openings through the guides as shown in ,fig4 #abh1 i4 e41 three stages of gate4 ,,note4--,a test of one of these wheels1 made in #ahie1 developed #e1dih electrical horse-power1 generated by an expenditure of #ddgb cubic feet of water per second under a head of #acea feet4 ,the efficiency of the dynamo being #ig per cent41 the efficiency of the wheel and approaches was #hb-a_/b per cent4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abg4 ,the average discharge through one of these twin turbines is about #dcj cubic feet per second1 and the theoretic power due to this discharge is #f1fde horse-power4 ,hence if #e1jjj horse-power be utilized the efficiency is #ge4b per cent4 ,under this discharge the mean velocity of water in the penstock is nearly #aj feet per second1 but the loss of head due to friction in the penstock will be but a small fraction of a foot4 ,the pressure-head in the wheel case is then practically that due to the actual static head1 or closely #ada-a_/b feet upon the lower and #acj feet upon the upper wheel4 ,the absolute velocity of the water when entering the wheel is about #ff feet per second1 so that the pressure-head in the guide passages of the upper wheel is nearly #ff feet4 ,the mean absolute velocity of the water when leaving the wheels is about #ai feet per second1 so that the loss due to this is only about #d per cent4 of the total head4 ,,note4--,the above description refers to the ten turbines in wheel pit ,no4 #a4 ,the illustrations are those of the wheels called units #a1 #b1 and #c which were installed in #ahid and #ahie4 ,units #d to #aj1 inclusive1 installed in #ahih-aijj1 are of the same type except that both the penstock and wheel case have cast-iron ribs on their sides which rest on massive castings built into the masonry of the side walls4 ,this arrangement dispenses with the supporting girders shown in ,fig4 #abf and gives much greater rigidity to both penstocks and wheels4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abh4--;,,enlarged ,,vertical ,,section ,,of ,,lower ,,wheel1 ,,showing ,,gates4 ,the weight of the dynamo1 shaft1 and turbine is balanced1 when the wheels are in motion1 by the upward pressure of the water in the wheel case on a piston placed above the upper wheel4 ,the upper disc containing the guides is1 for this purpose1 perforated1 so that the water pressure can be equalized4 ,,water ,,pressure ,,engines4 ,water pressure engines are machines with a cylinder and piston or ram1 in principle identical with the corresponding part of a steam engine2 the water is alternately admitted to and discharged from the cylinder1 causing a reciprocating action of the piston or ram4 ,it is admitted at a high pressure and after doing its work on the piston is discharged4 ,the water in some of these machines acquires a high velocity2 the useful work is due to the difference in the pressure of admission and discharge1 whether that pressure is due to the weight of a column of water of more or less considerable height1 or is artificially produced4 ,when an incompressible fluid such as water1 is used to actuate piston engines1 two special difficulties arise4 ,one is that the lost work in friction is very great1 if the water attains a considerable velocity2 another is that there is over-straining action on the machinery4 ,the violent straining action due to the more or less sudden arrest of the motion of water in machinery is termed hydraulic shock4 ,for these reasons the maximum velocity of flow of water in reciprocating hydraulic machines should generally not exceed #e to #aj feet per second4 ,under high pressure1 where there is less object in saving and it is very important to keep the dimensions of the machinery small1 ,mr4 ,anderson gives #bd feet per second as the limit of velocity4 ,in large water-pressure engines used for pumping mines the average piston speed does not exceed #a_/b to #b feet per second4 ,the suitability of water for the transmission of power has been fully recognized in recent years2 the facility with which water under pressure is capable of being utilized1 and the advantages that attend its use in motors have resulted in many practical difficulties being overcome1 which were at first considered insurmountable4 ,at the outset of the employment of water pressure it was feared that the water in the pipes and machinery might freeze4 ,this1 however1 has been found not to be a difficulty where well-known precautions are taken4 ,the working parts should1 where possible1 be placed under ground1 or should be cased in1 if they are above ground4 ,the water should be run out of all valves and cylinders which cannot be cased in1 and protected as soon as the working of the machine ceases4 ,a very small gas jet or lamp placed near the unprotected parts will prevent freezing4 ,experiments have also shown that a mixture of glycerine and water prevents the effects of frost at a temperature as low as #af ,fahr41 provided the glycerine has a specific gravity of #a4abe1 and that it is mixed in the proportion of one part of glycerine by weight to four parts of water4 ,where water is used over again in the machines 7by returning the exhaust water from the machines to a reservoir71 such addition of glycerine is more easily resorted to4 ,where moderate risks of frost have to be dealt with1 the proportion of one gallon of glycerine to #cjj gallons of water proves effectual4 ,if the water is at a high pressure1 such as #a1ejj lbs4 to the square inch1 it is less liable to freeze than when used at a low pressure4 ,again1 it was at first feared that accidents might be frequent from the bursting of hydraulic pipes and cylinders under high pressure4 ,such1 however1 has been proved not to be the case in practice1 and even where pipes or cylinders do burst1 the pressure is at once dissipated1 as the body of water which can escape at the opening is but slight4 ,it is desirable to use water which is as free as possible either from suspended matter or from chemical impurity4 ,the former increases the wear and tear of the packing1 and is otherwise inconvenient1 and the latter acts injuriously on the seats and fittings of valves4 ,sea-water can be used for hydraulic machinery1 but on account of its corrosion1 fresh-water is better4 ,water-pressure has sometimes been applied to operate machines which are worked continuously and not intermittently1 and to continuous working rotary machines4 ,this is unwise1 for in applying hydraulic power to the continuous working of shafting or shop tools1 the amount of power developed by the hydraulic engine cannot be varied to suit the work to be done1 neither can the speed be regulated with sufficient nicety4 ,,hydraulic ,,motors4 ,pressure or ,hydraulic ,motors form an interesting variety of hydraulic devices2 they consist of working cylinders with valves and pistons1 and resemble forcing pumps in their construction1 but differ from them in their operation2 the pistons not being moved by any external force applied to them through cranks1 levers1 etc41 but by the weight or pressure of a column of water acting directly upon or against the pistons4 ,pressure engines or motors are applicable to locations--such as afford a suitable supply of water for the motive column2 but where-ever refuse1 impure1 salt or other water can be obtained from a sufficient elevation1 such may be used to raise a quantity of fresh water by these machines4 ,the stress considered in hydro-mechanics is always a pressure1 as liquids are in general capable of sustaining only a slight tension without disruption3 the intensity of the pressure is measured by the number of units of force per unit of area4 ,thus we say1 one thousand pounds of pressure per square inch of piston--the pounds and the square inches are the units used in these calculations4 ,illustration3 ,,figs4 #abi1 #acj4 ,for description see page #aea4 ,the invention of pressure engines brought to light a new mode of employing water as a motive agent3 and also the means of applying it in locations where it could not otherwise be used2 with pressure engines the motive agent may be taken to the machine itself4 ,in valleys or lowlands1 having no natural fall of water1 but where that liquid can be conveyed in tubes from a sufficient elevation 7no matter how distant the source may be71 such water1 by these machines1 may be made to propel others2 unlike the steam engine1 a pressure engine is inexpensive1 and simple in construction--it requires neither chimneys1 furnaces nor fuel2 neither firemen nor engineers1 nor is there any danger of explosions4 ,it may be placed in the comer of a room1 or be concealed under a counter or a table4 ,it may be set in operation in a moment1 by opening a cock1 and the instant the work is done1 it may be stopped by shutting the same1 and thus prevent waste of power4 ,pressure engines afford an illustration of the variety of purposes to which a piston and cylinder may be applied4 ,these were probably first used in piston bellows2 next in the syringe2 subsequently in pumps of every variety2 and then in water-pressure and steam engines4 ,the moving piston is the nucleus or elemental part that gives efficiency to them all2 and the apparatus that surround it in some of them1 are but its parts4 ,the history of machines composed of pistons and cylinders also illustrates the process by which some simple inventions have become applied to purposes1 foreign to those for which they were originally designed--each application opening the way for a different one4 ,in another form hydraulic motors have been adopted1 in favorable locations1 as first movers of machinery1 and when thus used1 they exhibit a very striking resemblance to high pressure steam engines4 ,indeed1 the elemental features of steam and pressure engines are the same1 and the modes of employing the motive agents in both are identical--it is the different properties of the agents that induces a slight variation in the machines--one being an elastic fluid1 the other a non-elastic liquid4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aca4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #acb4 ,in steam engines a piston is alternately pushed forward and back in its cylinder by steam2 and by means of the rod to which the piston is secured1 motion is communicated to a crank and fly-wheel1 and through these to the machinery to be driven3 it is the same with pressure engines when used to move other machines1 except that instead of the elastic vapor of water1 a column of that liquid drives the pistons to and fro4 ,,note4--8,the hydraulic engine of ,huelgoat1 in ,brittany1 is used to drain a mine2 is single-acting1 and acts directly to lift the piston of the pump4 ,it makes five and a half strokes per minute1 the stroke being a little more than eight feet in length4 ,the piston-rod is #gfg feet long1 and it weighs #af tons4 ,the power of the engine is derived from a source at a height #cgj feet above its own level40--,,knight4 ,in default of a natural head of sufficient pressure1 the head is sometimes established in an accumulator of power2 this is a body of water driven into a reservoir under heavy pressure1 by forcing pumps worked by power4 ,in cities where the water distribution is from elevated reservoirs1 and in which the water supply is sufficiently abundant to justify the application of a portion of it to industrial uses1 the water-engine or motor is recommended4 ,the following description of a water engine of world-wide adaptation will1 if attentively studied1 show the working of an approved type of this machine3 ,ramsbottom's hydraulic engine 7,figs4 #abi and #acj71 is oscillating1 and employs two cylinders b1 l1 operating one crank-shaft1 a1 by means of two cranks at right angles to each other4 ,in one of the accompanying figures the channels of induction are marked j and are cast on the cylinders2 the dotted circle c shows the position of the supply and discharge pipes2 in the other figure these pipes are indicated by arrows4 ,the two views are vertical cross-sections at right angles to each other1 one being through the axis of the cylinders and the other through the middle post in which the inner trunnions of the cylinders are journaled4 ,the apertures of induction are seen at h and those of eduction at i1 and have the form of truncated circular sectors1 whose center is the center of motion4 ,the induction and eduction spaces are divided by a sectoral partition2 the apertures of admission and discharge on the sides of the cylinders are of similar construction4 ,the surfaces of contact between the cylinders b1 l and the support d are planed and polished and are made water-tight by the adjusting screws m m of the pivots4 ,when the piston p is at the end of its course in either direction the cylinder and crank are vertical1 and the valves all momentarily closed1 the openings by which the channels j j communicate with the discharge and supply pipes presenting themselves exactly opposite the solid sectors which separate h from i4 ,in the next moment the flow of water will recommence1 the cylinder discharging itself from the full side of the piston1 and filling anew from the opposite side4 ,air chambers and relief-valves are used as a provision against counter-pressure and hydraulic shocks4 ,the ,brotherhood three-cylinder reciprocating engine is an appliance for producing rotary motion by water-pressure4 ,the working parts of the ,brotherhood three-cylinder hydraulic engine consist only of the three pistons and connecting rods1 one crank and one rotating balanced valve and spindle which fits into the driver and is turned direct from the crank-pin2 there are no glands1 stuffing boxes1 or oscillating joints4 ,it is shown by ,figs4 #aca1 #acb4 ,the three cylinders1 ,a 7made in one casting7 are always open at their inner ends1 and are attached to a central chamber1 ,b4 ,they contain three pistons1 ,p1 which transmit motion to the crank-pin through the rods1 ,c4 ,the water is admitted and exhausted by means of the circular disc valve1 ,v1 having a lignum-vit seat4 ,the valve is rotated by the eccentric pin1 ,e4 ,a face view of this valve is shown above the steam chest4 ,it has segmental ports which1 in rotating1 pass over apertures in the valve seat4 ,there being no dead centers1 the engine will start from all positions of the crank-pin1 and a uniform motion of the shaft is produced without a flywheel4 ,the pressure is always on the outer end of the piston1 so that the rods1 ,c1 are in compression1 and take up their own wear4 ,this engine is well adapted for transmitting pressure to appliances which are worked intermittently1 as1 owing to the great speed at which it can be run1 it will not only save the loss from friction 7where gearing is employed71 but will also reduce the friction in the machine itself by enabling the gearing for increasing speed to be dispensed with4 ,the production of this simple hydraulic rotary engine led to its wide application to capstans4 ,fig4 #acc represents a small hydraulic engine--,the ,compton ,hydraulic ,motor--attached to and operating a gas-compressor4 ,it shows a style of water motor in large use in connection with city water-mains4 ,a pressure of #ae to #bj lbs4 per square inch is sufficient to operate it2 the motor here illustrated occupies a floor space of #i x #bc inches2 it will supply gas burners to the extent of #f1jjj candle-power4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #acc4 ,the valve motion on the motor is unique in this1 the outlets and inlets have a positive motion by which they are simultaneously opened and closed by the motion of the piston2 this valve motion is designed to overcome the back pressure2 it has a governor1 incorporated in the valve-motion for the purpose of maintaining uniform pressure on the main pipes4 ,,hydraulic ,,packings4 ,generally speaking a packing is a contrivance or a material to close a joint4 ,various greasy materials with gaskets1 flax1 hemp1 etc41 are used in joints which are screwed down1 also collars of rubber1 red lead1 luting1 graphite1 etc4 ,illustration3 8,u0 ,,packing--,,fig4 #acd4 ,a most important part in the practical working of nearly all water-pressure machines is the leather collar1 the invention of which by ,bramah removed the difficulties which had been experienced in making the large ram work water-tight when submitted to great pressure4 ,it consists of a circular piece of stout leather 7see cut page #bj71 in the center of which a circular hole is cut4 ,this piece of leather is thoroughly soaked in water and is pressed into a metallic mould and so that a section of it represents a reversed ,u1 and is fitted into a groove made in the neck of the cylinder4 ,this collar being concave downwards1 then in proportion as the pressure increases1 the edge nearest the ram being trimmed down1 it fits the more tightly against the ram plunger on one side and the neck of the cylinder on the other4 ,it should be saturated with ,neatsfoot or ,castor oil so as to be impervious to water4 ,illustration3 ,,cup ,,packing--,,fig4 #ace4 ,when the least amount of friction possible is desired in the operating of a hydraulic plunger1 there is no form of packing which can surpass a properly prepared and applied ,leather 8,u0 ,packing 7,fig4 #acd71 and in practice its position is according to conditions1 either in a groove near the upper end of the cylinder1 or at the lower end of the ram4 ,when for any reason it is not desired to use the outer lip of the packing1 the resulting form is known as a ,cup ,packing1 7,fig4 #ace71 and when the inner lip is used then we have the ,hat or ,flange ,packing4 ,fig4 #acf4 ,illustration3 ,,flange ,,packing4 ,,fig4 #acf4 ,when the water pressure is not over #b1jjj lbs4 to the square inch1 and a greater allowance for friction is not important1 a fibrous packing can be used1 which is easier of application than these for large sized cylinders4 ,the loss of power by the best of leather packings is #a per cent4 on #d in4 ram1 #a_/b per cent4 with #h in4 ram and #a_/d per cent4 with #af in4 ram4 ,,hydraulic ,,apparatus ,,hydraulic ,,apparatus4 ,apparatus is another name for machinery but it also carries the particular meaning of a complete collection of instruments or devices prepared for a particular use1 hence1 hydraulic apparatus may be said to include very many combinations of machines to utilize the pressure or weight of water4 ,a number of these devices are illustrated in the succeeding pages4 ,it were vain to attempt to describe all4 ,knight in his ,mechanical ,dictionary has grouped some six hundred and seventy five terms and names under the heading of 8,hydraulic ,engineering and ,devices40 ,in the note are given some terms1 the definition of which the student may1 perhaps1 look up2 thus3 ,gyle 7the first term given7 is a large cistern or vat4 ,the liquor gyle in a brewery is the water-vat or gyle-tun4 ,hydraulic apparatus has been developed mainly from two sources4 ,the 8cut and try0 method1 which of course was the first and second from scientific calculations1 based upon both the experiments and upon the mathematics of hydraulics4 ,it is difficult at this date to say to which procedure the world is the most indebted1 but it is plainly discernable that the two methods have been necessary as a check upon each other4 ,untold thousands of practical experiments and an almost equal number of tables1 rules and calculations have been made4 ,the result has been that out of many failures the point of economy and efficiency1 aimed at1 of hydraulic apparatus is well defined4 ,,note4--,terms relating to hydraulics named by ,edward ,h4 ,knight1 ,civil and ,mechanical ,engineer1 as above4 ,gyle2 ,sluice ,valve2 ,the ,sough2 ,stade2 ,worm-safe2 ,weel2 ,water-twist2 ,water-lute2 ,water-gilding2 ,vineficatur2 ,tun2 ,tide-lock2 ,tail-bag2 ,swash-bank2 ,sump2 ,stop-plank2 ,sterhydraulic apparatus2 ,staith2 ,rip-rap2 ,quay2 ,puffer2 ,psychrometer2 ,levee2 ,leam2 ,leach2 ,land tank2 ,kiddle2 ,kimelin2 ,keir2 ,jetty2 ,invert ,burette2 ,hydraulic ,blower1 etc4 ,some of these terms go 8way back10 and the above are a specimen only of the #fge headings4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #acg4 ,,section ,,of ,,claw ,,type ,,hydraulic ,,jack4 ,,hydraulic ,,jack4 ,a ,lifting-,jack is a contrivance for raising great weights by force from below2 also called a jack-screw4 ,from its derivation from ,jack1 equivalent to lad or boy1 has arisen its modern use as denoting a contrivance which is subject to rough usage4 ,it is operated by a screw1 whereas--a hydraulic jack is a jack or lifting apparatus operated by some liquid1 usually oil1 acting against a piston or plunger1 the pressure on the liquid being produced by a force pump4 ,the hydraulic jack consists of1 #a1 a cylinder2 #b1 a ram or plunger2 and #c1 a pump4 ,one of these machines is shown and described in the ,glossary1 page #bd1 another is illustrated by ,fig4 #ach4 ,the ,fig4 #acg on the opposite page shows the inside view of ,fig4 #ach but on a different scale4 ,the names of the parts are particularly to be noted4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ach4 ,movable hydraulic1 or screw1 jacks serve on numerous occasions most effectively for lifting or propping-up of less accessible parts4 ,eye-bolts and jack-bolts are arranged for1 in all parts that are likely to be handled1 to facilitate and accelerate the work in necessarily crowded quarters4 ,the base or foot is usually made of cast iron or cast steel and may be either round or square to suit requirements4 ,the cylinder is bored from a seamless steel ingot and having a thread upon its lower end is screwed into the base4 ,the ram is also a tube of seamless steel having a thread at the top and is screwed into the head or cap which is made either of cast iron or cast steel4 ,the lower end of the ram has a thread inside to receive the pump plug which contains the delivery valve1 while upon its outside is placed the cup leather packing and the ram packing ring4 ,the pump for operating the ram is from five-eighths to three-quarters of an inch in diameter depending upon the capacity of the jack1 and has a plunger packed with a cup leather4 ,a suction valve is contained within the plunger4 ,a short arm is fitted upon a socket which enters through the side of the head or reservoir4 ,this arm is connected by a pin to the pump inside the ram while the outer end of the socket has a tapered rectangular hole through it to receive the jack-lever4 ,a leather collar packing makes the socket tight where it enters the side of the reservoir4 ,to properly use a hydraulic jack4 ,place the head under the weight to be raised1 be careful to set the jack plumb with a good solid footing2 put the lever into the socket with its projection on the bottom side2 work the lever until the weight has been raised to the desired height or an escape of liquid blows out of the safety vent4 ,hold the lever up or raise it to its highest position and remove it from the socket to prevent the valve from opening4 ,in lowering insert the lever in the socket with the projection underneath and then cautiously press it slowly down until it brings up against the stop2 remove the lever and turn it over with the projection on top2 insert the lever in the socket and gently but firmly press it on the end with the right hand clasping the ram with the fore finger1 and thumb of the left hand3 thus the workman has full control of the jack and can lower and stop as frequently as may be found necessary4 ,if from any cause the valves stick a few sharp quick strokes of the lever will usually release it and cause it to work1 if not1 it should be thoroughly cleaned4 ,before shipping the brass filling screw should always be screwed down tight1 and before using this screw should always be loosened to let the air out and in4 ,,note4--,a prominent firm making these tools says3 8,in our ,jacks1 rams are cut and cylinders bored from solid high carbon steel4 ,we have nearly #cjj styles for pushing1 pulling or lifting40 ,this shows the wide use to which hydraulic jacks are put2 the style shown in the ,glossary with its broad base is to be used when the jack stands upon a light board on the ground and can be placed under the work1 or where steadiness is required4 ,fig4 #aci shows a style to be used when there is not room enough to get the head of the jack under the work1 and is the style generally used for moving engines1 boilers1 machinery1 etc4 ,in repairing hydraulic jacks the following points should be carefully observed2 before attempting to repair a hydraulic jack the trouble should be definitely located1 next3 ,put the jack under a weight and attempt to raise it1 carefully watching its action4 ,should the liquid leak out around the lever socket1 the gland should be tightened slightly until this leak disappears4 ,if the packing is worn out unscrew the set screw at the back of the head about one-quarter inch1 then withdraw the socket not more than one inch1 unscrew the gland and put in a new packing of lamp wick braided and well oiled with mineral oil1 which is free from gum4 ,afterwards put the socket back to its former place and tighten the set screw4 ,when the pump valve leaks the lever can be worked up and down without raising the ram4 ,this is also true when the plunger packing becomes worn4 ,if the trouble is found with the valve it can be ground by taking out the pump plug and unscrewing the brass bonnet which covers the valve4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aci4 ,sometimes the jack will become air bound by reason of the accumulation of dirt around the filling plug2 this must be removed before the jack will work4 ,sometimes the liquid will all have been displaced before the ram is half way up1 in this emergency the reservoir must be refilled4 ,it often happens that when the workman stops working the lever it will persist in rising to its highest position4 ,this indicates the presence of dirt under the lower or delivery valve4 ,one or two sharp quick strokes of the lever will generally dislodge such obstructions2 if this does not bring relief the valve is probably worn so as to need regrinding4 ,when a jack has been taken apart each part should be thoroughly washed in clean water4 ,while using1 if the liquid escapes over the top of the cylinder the ram packing is too loose1 and may be set out by inserting a strip or strips of tin or any sheet metal between the leather and the ram packing ring2 all leathers should be kept soft and pliable by saturating with a proper leather dressing such as ,frank ,miller's ,leather ,preservative or ,shoemakers' ,dubbing4 ,castor ,oil is excellent as well4 ,one man can exert upon the lever all the pressure that the jack is capable of raising and this pressure should not exceed #aej lbs4 ,beyond this the jack will be strained4 ,to repack the pump remove the pump plug1 and unscrew the set screw in the head1 then withdraw the socket far enough to permit it to revolve clear of the lug1 on the head1 which brings the piston head out of the pump4 ,after the new packing is in place the piston should be worked in and out a few strokes to see if it is right1 then replace the plug4 ,to fill the reservoir remove the filling screw in the top of the head1 and fill with a mixture of proof alcohol 7#ie per cent471 two parts and water three parts for winter use1 or for summer use one part alcohol to four parts water4 ,when not in use the ram in a hydraulic jack should be kept in its lowest position1 that is to say1 all the way down1 or in1 as the case may be4 ,,important4--,jacks should never be filled with kerosene oil1 water or wood alcohol1 for the following reasons3 ,kerosene oil destroys the leather packing1 water will rust the parts and make them rough1 while wood alcohol attacks the smooth steel surfaces1 and thus destroys both the cylinder and ram4 ,all liquids should be well strained before putting them into the reservoir and great care should be exercised to prevent any dirt from getting into this reservoir4 ,the ,pulling ,jack4--,the pulling jack1 ,fig4 #aci1 is used in connection with travelling cranes over wheel presses1 quartering machines1 planers1 drill presses and lathes4 ,its operation is the reverse of lifting jacks4 ,this ,jack has an improved force-pump on the outside1 worked by a lever1 which draws the liquid from the upper end and forces it into the space on the opposite side of the piston4 ,the piston rod has one of the rings attached at the end4 ,by this operation the rings are drawn together and with them the body to be lifted or moved1 for it will be understood that this style of jack works either in a horizontal or vertical position4 ,hooks are furnished instead of rings when desired4 ,the liquid is introduced into a hole in the side of cylinder1 care1 being observed to push the piston into the cylinder4 ,the proportions of filling liquid are proof alcohol two parts and water three parts4 ,to use this jack extend it as far as it can be pulled apart1 first opening the valve in the side of force-pump4 ,now close this valve and work the pump lever4 ,this jack appeals particularly to the marine engineer1 to be attached to the trolley over the engine for the purpose of raising pistons1 rods and lifting various parts of the machinery4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #adj4 ,horizontal ,jack4--,the accompanying engraving1 ,fig4 #adj1 shows a horizontal type for pulling armatures on to shafts1 putting in cranks pins1 and marine work4 ,the directions given for the care and handling of the regular hydraulic jack apply also to this as well as other devices of the same description4 ,this pump has two plungers of different diameters1 the small one inside of the large1 so that by throwing a clutch1 both plungers may work together as one1 or they may be separated1 and the smaller one used2 as for example1 in starting1 the larger pump is used as far as possible1 i4e41 until the pressure becomes too great for the large plunger1 then the clutch is thrown and the smaller one finishes the work4 ,the speed of this appliance may be changed to three times greater1 and its power reduced to one-third of the maximum by throwing the clutch which brings the large plunger into operation4 ,a rack and pinion with handle is connected with the main ram to cause its return when forced out to its full length4 ,the size shown in ,fig4 #adj represents a capacity of #bjj tons and its approximate weight is #a1bjj lbs4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ada4 ,the ,hydraulic ,bolt ,extractor4--,much harm is done to coupling bolts in driving them out with a hammer or sledge4 ,the hydraulic bolt extractor shown in ,fig4 #ada is an admirable device to do this work without injuring the bolts or threads4 ,this same apparatus may be used for other purposes as well as that for which it was designed1 as will appear from time to time4 ,the ,hydraulic ,punch4--,the hydraulic punch has been found of greatest utility in the erection of steel structures1 such as buildings1 bridges and ship building4 ,it consists of a hydraulic jack attached to a 8punching bear0 instead of the usual screw to operate the punch4 ,by an ingenious device the punch can be shoved down close upon the work without pumping all the way1 as in the earlier styles of hydraulic punches2 this means a considerable saving of time and muscle4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #adb4 ,the construction and operation of working parts of this punch will be easily understood by referring to the engraving1 ,fig4 #adb where #ah represents the body or 8punching bear10 #ag the ram1 #ai the raising and lowering pinion to move the ram quickly to its work2 #bj shows the die with punch in place above it1 secured by its gland2 #c the punch head cistern1 the screwed cover having a hole in its center to guide the end #b of pump plunger #i1 having cup leather packing #aj1 at its lower end2 #e represents the lower socket which carries the arm #d to operate the piston #f4 ,the suction valve #aa is supported by the spring underneath2 #ab is the safety vent2 #ac the release or lowering valve operated by the stem #g which is pushed downward by the projection of the piston #f whenever the lever is turned and pressed downwards as described in lowering the lifting jacks4 ,the relief valve is kept seated by the spring #ad4 #h represents the body of the pump #af its packing and #ae the ram packing ring4 ,no4 #af does not move1 but the ram #ag does1 having a cup leather reversed at its upper end applied in the same way and manner as #af1 with screwed packing ring4 ,the discharge valve is located behind the pump plunger #i and is1 therefore1 invisible4 ,a hydraulic punch mounted upon three legs or supports is shown in ,fig4 #adc1 and it also has a shackle at its back to suspend the punch in mid air as occasion requires4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #adc4 ,the details of this punch are like ,fig4 #adb4 ,it has two guards1 one each side of the punch to pull the material operated upon off the punch as it is raised by the lower lever4 ,another very convenient style of hydraulic punch is shown in ,fig4 #add where ,a represents the body of punch1 ,b the operating lever with the lowering or adjusting lever shown broken off4 ,the punch proper is shown at ,c4 ,the center of gravity of this punch has been so nicely located that by suspending from the handle the ram hangs plumb4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #add4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ade4 ,,the ,,hydraulic ,,press4 ,the hydraulic press consists of #a4 ,a ,lever1 #b4 ,a ,pump1 #c4 and a ,ram working in a #d4 ,cylinder4 ,bramah in the year #agif brought out a very interesting apparatus which illustrates the law of the equality of pressure which has been widely adopted in the practical use of the hydraulic press4 ,the principle upon which this press works is due to ,pascal but it remained for ,bramah to put it to practical use4 ,enormous pressures are developed by operating the hand lever shown at ,m in ,fig4 #ade1 which is connected with pump plunger ,p4 ,the pump barrel ,a is very thick and receives its supply from the cistern ,h through the suction pipe a4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #adf4 ,water is delivered from the pump ,a through a heavy lead pipe into the cylinder ,b of the hydraulic press4 ,the ram ,p is made tight by the leather packing n and has a table or platform attached to its upper end as shown4 ,the stationary part ,q consists of a heavy cast-iron plate supported by four wrought-iron or machinery steel columns4 ,by operating the handle ,m of the pump any substances placed between the table on the ram ,p and the plate ,q may be compressed to any reasonable extent4 ,the pressure which can be obtained by this press depends on the relation of the ram ,p to that of the plunger ,p4 ,if the former has a transverse section fifty or a hundred times as large as the latter1 the upward pressure on the ram will be fifty or a hundred times that exerted upon the pump plunger4 ,by means of the lever ,m an additional advantage is obtained4 ,if the distance from the fulcrum to the point where the power is applied is five times the distance from the fulcrum to the plunger ,p the pressure on it will be five times the power4 ,thus1 if a man acts on ,m with a force of sixty pounds1 the force transmitted by the plunger ,p will be #cjj pounds1 and the force which tends to raise the ram will be #c1jjj1 supposing the section of ram is a hundred times that of the pump plunger4 ,over-pressure1 is prevented by safety-valve shown in front of the pump ,a4 ,fig4 #adf shows an enlarged section of the pump used in connection with this press4 ,when the plunger ,p rises a partial vacuum is formed below it and the suction valve ,o rises allowing the pump barrel to fill with water through the strainer and suction pipe in the cistern4 ,when the plunger descends the valve ,o closes and the water passes through the discharge valve h into the pipe ,k1 thence into the cylinder ,b of the press where it acts upon the ram4 ,when the press has done its work the ram may be lowered by opening the relief valve r4 ,the safety valve is shown at i4 ,by removing the plug h the discharge valve can be reached to grind it in when necessary4 ,,note4--,hydraulic ,pressure ,transmission4 ,water under high pressure--#ejj to #cjjj lbs4 per square inch and upwards--affords a very satisfactory method of transmitting power to a distance1 especially for the movement of heavy loads at small velocities1 as by cranes and elevators4 ,the system consists usually of one or more pumps capable of developing the required pressure2 #b1 accumulators1 described on the next page2 #c1 the distributing pipes1 and #d1 the presses1 cranes1 or other machinery to be operated4 ,this property of fluids invests us with a power of increasing the intensity of a pressure exerted by a comparatively small force1 without any other limit than that of the strength of the materials of which the engine itself is constructed4 ,it also enables us with great facility to transmit the motion and force of one machine to another1 in cases where local circumstances preclude the possibility of instituting any ordinary mechanical connection between the two machines4 ,thus1 merely by means of water-pipes1 the force of a machine may be transmitted to any distance1 and over inequalities of ground1 or through any other obstructions4 ,,the ,,hydraulic ,,accumulator4 ,this useful and indispensable apparatus was designed by ,sir ,william ,armstrong4 ,its use was to secure a uniform pressure of water in a reservoir by weight so that however much or little of this water was used the pressure would remain constant4 ,illustration3 ,,elevation4 ,,fig4 #adg4 ,in the first accumulator which is still in use the ram was attached to the foundation while the cylinder rose and fell as the pressure was utilized4 ,the weights were annular in shape and were hung upon the outside of cylinder4 ,in the modern types of accumulators the cylinder is stationary and the ram supporting the weights is made to rise and fall4 ,by means of a hydraulic accumulator a uniform pressure can be established and maintained on all parts of a hydraulic main or system4 ,illustration3 ,,plan ,,at ,,bottom4 ,,fig4 #adh4 ,the volume of water which is used intermittently for the purpose of operating presses--draw-benches for brass and copper tubing and the like is replaced by a pump or pumps which are started and stopped automatically by a connection between the accumulator and the throttle or belt shifter of the pump4 ,the accumulator is used for a double purpose of maintaining a constant pressure and to store up any surplus force of the pumps4 ,the friction loss in the transmission of power by water through mains is very small1 as for example3 ,it has been found that water under a pressure of #gjj lbs4 per square inch may be transmitted through well proportioned mains1 one mile with a loss of only two per cent4 ,the useful work stored in an accumulator may be calculated by the following rule3 ,multiply the area of ram in square inches by the length of the stroke in inches by the pressure m pounds per square inch divided by #cc1jjj lbs4 the equivalent of one ,h4 ,p4 ,this represents the work done by one full stroke of the accumulator ram in descending from its highest position to its lowest4 ,example4 ,required the work done by one stroke of a ram twelve inches in diameter1 and a stroke of twenty-two feet1 under a pressure of #gej lbs4 to the square inch4 ,area of #ab ram #aacjig square inches4 ,no4 of ins4 in #bb ft4 #bfd4 ,then #aacjig #bfd #gej ------------------- #fghehb ,h4,p4 #cc1jjj ,mr4 ,tweddel designed the accumulator shown in ,figs4 #adg and #adh to furnish the varying demand for water where only one appliance of this kind is used in connection with a hydraulic system of shop tools more especially where these tools are numerous4 ,the ram or spindle ,a is fixed top and bottom and acts as a guide for the cylinder ,b which slides up and down upon it4 ,illustration3 ,,vertical ,,section4 ,,fig4 #adi4 ,this cylinder is loaded with weights marked to indicate the pressure which the accumulator will balance with those weights in use4 ,the water is pumped into the bottom through the pipe ,c1 and fills the annular space around the spindle4 ,the entire weight of cylinder is raised by the pressure of water acting only on the area of the end of brass sleeve ,d ,d1 which is only #a_/b inch thick all around the center spindle1 and extends down through the bottom packing in cylinder1 as shown in sectional view4 ,fig4 #adi4 ,a compact arrangement is thus gained and any reasonable1 required cubical capacity may be reached by lengthening the stroke4 ,the accumulator is supplied by two pumps having plungers #a-c_/h diam4 by #c-a_/b stroke1 speed #ajj to #abj rev4 per minute4 ,when the loaded cylinder ,b reaches the top of its stroke1 by means of a small chain it closes the suction cock ,e1 which shuts off the water supply of the pumps4 ,to put in a new bottom packing1 the cylinder is let down to rest on the wooden blocks ,g1 and the spindle is lifted out of its tapered seat at the bottom by a tackle hooked into the eye-bolt at the top4 ,to renew the top leather the bracket holding the top end of spindle ,a1 has to be removed4 ,this accumulator 7having only a small area7 falls quickly when the water is withdrawn1 thus producing a combined blow and squeeze1 which is of great advantage in hydraulic riveting4 ,the ,hydraulic ,intensifier is a cylinder having two diameters1 in principle very like the tandem compound engine4 ,it is used for increasing the pressure of water in hydraulic mains1 pipes1 or machines1 using only the energy of the pressure water to effect the change4 ,but for this distinction a steam pump would be an intensifier4 ,an intensifier worked the reverse way is a 8diminisher0 as a hydraulic pump usually is1 giving a reduced pressure4 ,the intensifier is in some respects analogous to the electric transformer4 ,the intensifier as used in connection with hydraulic apparatus was patented in the year #ahfi by ,mr4 ,aschroft1 but the principle upon which it works is very much older4 ,intensifiers are made both single and double acting4 ,,percentage ,,of ,,the ,,total ,,amount ,,of ,,water ,,taken ,,from ,,the ,,reservoir4 ,elevation of discharge above delivery valve of ram in feet4 ,height ------------------------------ of fall #ae #ah #ba #bd #bg in feet4------------------------------ ,percentage4 -------------------------------------- #b #jgbd #jehc #jdjb #jcjg #jbee #c #acbg #ajbj #jhjg #jfea #jecb #d #aifj #aece #abcd #ajbj #jhed #e #bfad #bjfh #afhf #adjd #aahi #f #cbhb #bfad #badf #ahjj #aece #g #cifj #cagj #bfad #bbjc #ahhe #h #dfdg #cgcc #cjij #bfad #bbdh #i #ecda #dcjc #cegb #cjcj #bfad #aj #fjdj #dhgg #djeh #cdej #bihd #aa #fgde #edei #dedi #chgd #cceg #ab #gdec #fjdj #ejdc #dcjb #cgcc #ac #haff #ffbg #eedj #dgcb #daab #ad #hhha #gbag #fjdj #eaff #ddid #ae #ifjj #ghji #fedc #efja #dhgg #af -- #hdjd #gjdh #fjdj #ebfc #ag -- #ijja #geee #fdhj #efej #ah -- #ifjj #hjfd #fiba #fjdj #ai -- -- #hegd #gcfd #fdcj #bj -- -- #ijhf #ghjj #fhbc #ba -- -- #ifjj #hbed #gbag #bb -- -- -- #hgja #gfab #bc -- -- -- #iaej #hjjg #bd -- -- -- #ifjj #hdjd -------------------------------------- ,elevation of discharge above delivery valve of ram in feet4 ,height ------------------------------ of fall #cj #ce #dj #de #ej in feet4------------------------------ ,percentage4 -------------------------------------- #b #jaha #jaab #jjfc #jjbg -- #c #jdda #jcbf #jbdc #jaha #jacb #d #jgbd #jefj #jdda #jcdh #jbha #e #ajbj #jhjg #jfeb #jecc #jdda #f #acbg #ajfc #jhgj #jgbd #jfjh #g #afdj #acbg #ajif #jibj #jghb #h #aifj #aeie #acbg #aaba #jifj #i #bbhe #ahfh #aefa #acbg #aadb #aj #bfad #bade #ahjj #aece #acbg #aa #bidg #bdbe #bjda #agdf #aead #ab #cbhb #bgjh #bbhe #aifj #agjd #ac #cfbj #biid #becb #bagg #ahif #ad #cifj #cbhb #bghj #bcie #bjij #ae #dcjc #cegb #cjcj #bfad #bbhe #af #dfdg #chfc #cbhb #bhce #bdhb #ag #diic #daeg #cece #cjeh #bfhj #ah #ecda #ddea #cgij #cbcb #bchj #ai #efij #dgdf #djdf #cejg #cjha #bj #fjdj #ejdb #dcjc #cgcc #cbhb #ba #fcib #ecdj #defa #cifj #cdhf #bb #fgde #efdj #dhbj #dahh #cfhh #bc #gjih #eidj #ejhj #ddag #chib #bd #gdcc #fbda #ecda #dfeg #djig -------------------------------------- ,elevation of discharge above delivery valve of ram in feet4 ,height ------------------------------ of fall #fj #gj #hj #ij #ajj in feet4------------------------------ ,percentage4 -------------------------------------- #b -- -- -- -- -- #c #jjfc #jjag -- -- -- #d #jahj #jaab #jjfc #jjbg -- #e #jcjg #jbag #jaej #jjii #jjfc #f #jdda #jcbe #jbdc #jahj #jacb #g #jehj #jdda #jcdj #jbfd #jbje #h #jgbd #jefj #jdda #jcea #jbha #i #jhgj #jfhb #jede #jdda #jcfj #aj #ajbj #jhjg #jfea #jecc #jdda #aa #aagb #jicd #jgfj #jfbg #jebd #ab #acbg #ajfc #jhgj #jgbc #jfjh #ac #adhc #aaid #jihc #jhba #jfid #ad #afdj #acbg #ajif #jibj #jghb #ae #ahjj #adfj #abaa #ajbj #jhgj #af #aifj #aeie #acbg #aaba #jifj #ag #babc #agca #addd #abbc #ajej #ah #bbhf #ahfh #aefa #acbg #aadb #ai #bddi #bjjf #afhj #adcj #abfb #bj #bfad #bade #ahjj #aece #acbg #ba #bghj #bbhf #aibj #afdj #adbj #bb #bidg #bdbe #bjda #agdf #aead #bc #caad #befg #bafc #ahec #afji #bd #cbhb #bgjh #bahe #aifj #agjd ,for explanation of these tables see page #agg4 ,,hydraulic ,,ram4 ,a hydraulic ram or water-ram is a substitute for a pump for raising water by means of the energy of the moving water1 of which a portion is to be raised4 ,it was considered a notable discovery when it was demonstrated by ,daniel ,bernovilli1 in the beginning of the #ahth century1 that water flowing through a pipe1 and arriving at a part in which the pipe is suddenly contracted1 would have its velocity at first very greatly increased4 ,the hydraulic ram owes its efficacy to the fact that when a flow of water in a pipe is suddenly stopped1 a considerable force is generated by the momentum of the water1 by its change from a state of motion to a state of rest4 ,in practice1 the pipe conveying water from the reservoir or head1 connects with a chamber which has a valve opening downward1 or outlet valve1 allowing the current of water to pass on or escape when the valve is open2 but on flowing the current in the pipe acquires sufficient force to close this valve1 which checks the flow in the pipe4 ,the current is thus suddenly stopped2 this causes a reaction1 which produces pressure sufficient to open another valve 7inlet valve7 between the current-pipe and an air chamber1 and a portion of water enters by means of the force of the current1 but by so doing the current has spent its force2 the outlet valve at the end of the chamber falls by its own weight1 and the pressure in the pipe ceasing1 the inlet valve in the air-chamber falls and closes the opening4 ,the condition of things is then restored2 the water then acquires a momentum which closes the outlet valve and forces more water again into the chamber4 ,a very slight descending column is capable of raising one ascending very high4 ,in all cases the drive-pipe or inlet pipe must be sufficiently long to prevent water being forced back into the reservoir4 ,the air-chamber serves to keep up a steady supply from the reservoir1 preventing spasmodic action4 ,to prevent admixture of air with the water in the air chamber1 which is caused by pressure of water when raised to a great height1 a small hole should be made on the upper side of the inlet pipe1 immediately in front of the same4 ,by the action of the ram at each stroke1 a partial vacuum is formed below the air chamber1 and the air rushing through the small hole in the inlet pipe1 passes into the air chamber1 making good that which the water absorbs4 ,,note4--,in #agig ,matthew ,boulton 7manufacturer and practical engineer1 and in later life a partner of ,jas4 ,watt1 the ,father of the steam engine7 obtained a patent for a mode of raising water by impulse4 ,the apparatus had excited much attention in ,france1 under the name of ,montgolfier's hydraulic ram1 and ,boulton added to it a number of ingenious modifications1 which were the basis of his patent4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aej4 ,fig4 #aej shows in section the construction of the ram in its simplest form in which ,e is the reservoir1 ,a the pipe in which the water falls1 ,b the channel1 a and b the valves1 ,c the air-chamber1 and ,d the discharge4 ,water first flows out in quantity through the valve a1 and as soon as it has acquired a certain velocity it raises that valve1 closing the aperture4 ,the impact thus produced1 acting on the sides of the pipe and the valve b1 raises this valve1 and a quantity of water passes into the air-chamber shutting off air and compressing it in the space above the mouth d of the discharge ,d4 ,this air by its electric force closes the valve b1 and the water which has entered is raised in the discharge ,d4 ,as soon as the impulsive action is over1 and the water in the channel ,a comes to rest1 the valve a again falls by its own weight1 the flow begins afresh1 and when it has acquired sufficient velocity the valve b again closes1 and the whole process is repeated4 ,the efficiency of hydraulic rams has been much discussed2 exhaustive practical tests have been made and the results have been reduced to formulas4 ,whittaker's ,mechanical ,engineer's ,pocket ,book gives the following3 ,g ,h ,e ----- g h where ,e the efficiency2 ,g gallons of drive water used2 g gallons of water raised2 ,h height of fall1 in feet2 h height to which the water is raised1 in feet4 ,the ,table given on page #agd is from the ,american ,engineer4 ,its use is apparent1 thus3 when the height of fall in feet is1 say #ab feet1 and the elevation of discharge above the delivery valve of ram1 in feet1 is #cj feet1 the efficiency or per cent41 is #cbhb4 7,example7 of #ajj gallons #cb-hb_/ajj gallons would be delivered4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aea4 ,the double hydraulic ram is shown in ,fig4 #aea4 ,a sectional view of the same device is shown in ,fig4 #aeb1 the cuts represent the ,rife hydraulic engine1 or ram1--a so-called double acting or double supply type of the water ram4 ,it is more clearly described by considering it1 first1 as a single machine by disregarding its double supply feature4 ,first1 suppose the opening at ,h1 ,fig4 #aeb1 to be closed1 the valve ,b being open1 the water from the source of supply from more or less elevation above the machine flows down the drive pipe1 ,a1 and escapes through the opening at ,b until the pressure due to the increasing velocity of the water is sufficient to close the valve1 ,b4 ,when the flow through this valve ceases1 the inertia of the moving column of water produces a reaction1 called the ramming stroke1 which opens the valve at ,c1 and compresses the air in the air chamber1 ,d1 until the pressure of the air plus the pressure due to the head of the water in the main1 is sufficient to overcome the inertia of the moving column of water in the drive pipe4 ,this motion may be likened to the oscillation of water in a ,u shaped tube4 ,the instant the column of water in the drive pipe comes to rest1 and the air pressure being greater than the static head alone1 the motion of the moving column is reversed1 and the valve1 ,c1 closes4 ,the water in the drive pipe then moves backward1 and with the closing of valve ,c a partial vacuum is formed at the base of the drive pipe4 ,this negative pressure causes the valve1 ,b1 to open again1 and completes the cycle of operations4 ,at the moment negative pressure appears the little snifting valve1 ,e1 admits a small quantity of air1 and at the following stroke this air rises into the air chamber ,d1 which would otherwise gradually fill with water1 or the air is gradually absorbed by the water4 ,in this machine the valve1 ,b1 is made as light as is consistent with the necessary strength1 and the negative pressure at the completion of the stroke opens the valve4 ,in the largest size of these machines this valve is #ah inches in diameter1 with a head of #h feet1 which is a common head for use with hydraulic rams2 the static pressure on the under side of this valve is #hhc pounds2 it is seen that so great a shock in a valve of this weight would rapidly destroy both valve and seat4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aeb4 ,the waste in a mechanism of the ,rife engine consists of a large port with ample opening and a large rubber valve or overflow with a balance counterweight and spring seat1 which removes almost entirely the jar of closing4 ,the valve1 ,c1 in the air chamber consists of a rubber disc with gridiron ports and convex seats fastened at the center and lips around its circumference4 ,the object of this arrangement is to transfer the shock from the power of the driving water to the air cushion with the smallest possible friction and vibration4 ,after the valve1 ,c1 closes1 the pressure in the air chamber forces the water in the air chamber out into the delivery pipes4 ,the ,rife engine is claimed to elevate water #cj feet for each foot of fall in the driving head2 the machine is built in sizes to elevate as much as #aej1jjj gallons per day1 the efficiency being about #hb per cent4 ,when a water supply pipe is attached to ,h1 the engine is called double acting2 spring water1 or that which is purer than the water used to drive the engine1 may then be supplied through the supplemental drive pipe ,i1 and by a proper adjustment of the relative flow of the impure driving water1 and that of the pure supply1 the engine may be made to deliver only the pure water into the mains4 ,this method is employed where the supply of pure water is limited4 ,the most important detail in which the ,rife engine differs from the ordinary hydraulic ram is the waste valve4 ,it will be seen in the engraving that the counterweight on the projecting arm of this valve permits the adjustment of this valve to suit varying heads and lengths of drive pipe4 ,by adjusting the counterweight so that the valve is nearly balanced1 the valve comes to its seat very quickly after the flow past it begins4 ,the result is that the ram makes a great number of short1 quick strokes1 which are much easier on the valves and seats than slower and heavier strokes4 ,the stroke must be sufficiently powerful to act efficiently in overcoming the head in the delivery pipe4 ,the adjustable weight permits this to be effected with great nicety4 ,,note4--,the engine illustrated weighs approximately #b1hjj pounds2 the capacity of the air chamber is #bj-c_/d cubic feet2 diameter of drive pipe1 #h inches2 diameter of the waste valve1 #ah inches2 weight of waste valve1 #ej pounds2 diameter of delivery pipe1 #d inches2 height to top of air chamber1 #g-a_/b feet4 ,lifts and ,cranes4 ,these1 as hydraulic machines1 are adapted to very many places where other power apparatus is too slow2 they operate on the same principle as the hydraulic press2 having a cylinder and a ram3 they have chain wheels attached to the outer end of the ram1 as shown in the illustration4 ,illustration3 ,crane ,as the ram advances the chain is shortened and when it recedes the chain is lengthened1 thus1 the weight attached to the end of the chain is raised and lowered4 ,the hydraulic 8lift0 in passenger elevators operates upon the same principle and this gives an idea of the rapid motion capable of being imparted to the load4 ,it is by the adaptation of hydraulic lifts and cranes in steel mills that such economical results have been attained4 ,,pumps ,,as ,,hydraulic ,,apparatus4 ,in ,figs4 #aec and #aed are shown representations of certain apparatus1 long used in schools1 to explain the rather obscure operation1 of even the simplest of pumps2 these models are made of glass so that all the movements of the valves1 etc41 may be clearly noted4 ,credit is due to ,monsieur ,ganot1 author of ,elements of ,physics1 for the following4 ,fig4 #aec represents a model of a suction-pump such as is used in lectures1 but which has essentially the same arrangement as the pumps in common use4 ,it consists1 #ast1 of a glass cylinder1 ,b1 at the bottom of which is a valve1 ,s1 opening upwards2 #bnd1 of a suction-tube1 ,a1 which dips into the reservoir from which water is to be raised2 #crd1 of a piston1 which is moved up and down by a rod worked by a handle1 ,p4 ,the piston has a hole in its center2 this upper aperture is closed by a valve1 ,o opening upwards4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aec4 ,when the piston rises from the bottom of the cylinder ,b1 a vacuum is produced below1 and the valve ,o is kept closed by the atmospheric pressure1 while the air in the pipe ,a1 in consequence of its elasticity1 raises the valve ,s1 and part of it passes into the cylinder4 ,the air being thus rarefied1 water rises in the pipe until the pressure of the liquid column1 together with the pressure of the rarefied air which remains in the tube1 counterbalances the pressure of the atmosphere on the water in the reservoir4 ,when the piston descends1 the valve ,s closes by its own weight1 and prevents the return of the air from the cylinder into the tube ,a4 ,the air compressed by the piston opens the valve ,o1 and escapes into the atmosphere by the pipe ,c4 ,with a second stroke1 the same series of phenomena is produced1 until after a few strokes the water reaches the cylinder4 ,the effect is now somewhat modified2 during the descent of the piston the valve ,s closes1 and the water raises the valve ,o1 and passes above the piston by which it is lifted into the upper reservoir ,d4 ,there is now no more air in the pump1 and the water forced by the atmospheric pressure rises with the piston1 provided that when it is at the summit of its course it is not more than #cd feet above the level of the water into which the tube ,a dips4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aed4 ,in practice the height of the tube ,a does not exceed #bf to #bh feet2 for although the atmospheric pressure can support a higher column1 the vacuum produced in the barrel is not perfect1 owing to the fact that the piston does not fit exactly on the bottom of the barrel4 ,but when the water has passed the piston1 it is the ascending force of the latter which raises it1 and the height to which it can be brought depends on the power which works the piston4 ,the action of this pump1 a model of which is represented in ,fig4 #aed1 depends both on exhaustion and on pressure4 ,at the base of the barrel1 where it is connected with the tube ,a1 there is a valve1 ,s1 which opens upwards4 ,another valve1 ,o1 opening in the same direction1 closes the aperture of a conduit1 which discharges from a hole1 o1 near the valve ,s1 into a vessel1 ,m1 which is called the air-chamber4 ,from this chamber there is another tube1 ,d1 up which the water is forced4 ,at each ascent of the piston ,b1 which is solid1 the water rises through the tube ,a into the barrel4 ,when the piston sinks the valve ,s closes1 the water is forced through the valve ,o into the reservoir ,m1 and thence into the tube ,d4 ,the height to which it can be elevated in this tube depends solely on the motive power which works the pump4 ,if the tube ,d were a prolongation of the tube ,jao1 the flow would be intermittent2 it would take place when the piston descended1 and would cease as soon as it ascended4 ,but between these motions there is an interval1 which1 by means of the air in the reservoir ,m1 ensures a continuous flow4 ,the water forced into the reservoir ,m separates into two parts1 one of which1 rising in ,d1 presses on the water in the reservoir by its weight2 while the other1 by virtue of this pressure1 rises in the reservoir above the lower orifice of the tube ,d1 compressing the air above4 ,consequently1 when the piston ascends1 it no longer forces the water into ,m1 the air of the reservoir1 by the pressure it has received1 reacts on the liquid1 and raises it in the tube ,d1 until the piston again descends1 so that the jet is continuous4 ,hydraulic ,machine ,tools4 ,probably in no department of engineering has the use of hydraulic power met with more success than in its application to certain machine tools4 ,this success is owing to the peculiar suitability of pressure--water as the motive agent for the performance of a certain class of operations requiring the exertion of a great force with comparative slow motion1 as in punching1 riveting1 forging and the like4 ,the wide spread and successful use of hydraulic machines--of which a few only have been described and illustrated upon the pages of this book--is due to the necessity for such tools and the inventive ability of our tool designers4 ,a large fixed hydraulic riveter is shown in ,fig4 below2 it is capable of exerting on the rivet a pressure of #dj tons or more2 the machine has a working pressure of #a1ejj pounds per square inch4 ,working pressures of #e1jjj to #aj1jjj pounds per square inch are used in hydraulic forging presses1 but in the riveter much less pressure is required4 ,illustration3 ,large fixed hydraulic riveter4 ,,note4--,the proportions of this machine are immense4 ,the platform weighs #bb1ejj lbs4 and is operated by a single lever shown in the side view4 ,the 8gap0 is #h feet across4 ,the machine has a large steel 8stake0 carrying the stationary die2 this is held in tension strain by the two steel bolts shown1 one upon each side of the machine4 ,the other part of the jaw is cast iron4 ,,classification ,,of ,,pumps ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aee4--,,the ,,bellows ,,pump4 ,,classification ,,of ,,pumps ,,and ,,pumping ,,engines4 ,the simplest division of the subject matter relating to this branch of practical mechanics is that which goes back to the very earliest of times2 it is thus3 #a4 ,hand ,pumps4 #b4 ,power ,pumps4 ,the names indicate the dividing line between the two4 ,the following are more modern divisions1 indicating the method of action distinguishing each3 #a4 ,suction or ,lift ,pumps4 #b4 ,force ,pumps4 #c4 ,suction and ,force ,pumps4 ,these again may be reciprocating or rotary4 ,the powers actuating pumps are1 in the main1 as follows3 #a4 ,manual4 #b4 ,animal4 #c4 ,belts4 #d4 ,water4 #e4 ,wind4 #f4 ,steam4 #g4 ,gas4 #h4 ,electricity4 ,these various motors give distinct names to general classes1 thus1 electric pumps1 belt pumps1 elevator pumps1 etc4 ,a sub-division of titles indicating differences in construction are these3 #a4 ,vertical ,pumps4 #b4 ,horizontal ,pumps1 or again #a4 ,single ,acting ,pumps4 #b4 ,double ,acting ,pumps4 ,the list is still further extended1 as pumps vary in design to suit their several uses1 and are defined as rope1 chain1 diaphragm1 jet1 centrifugal1 rotary1 oscillating1 cylinder4 ,it is with the last named with which this volume has principally to deal2 cylinder pumps cause the last given classification1 as they are either single or double acting4 ,a single acting pump does its work through one end of the cylinder or barrel of the pump4 ,in double acting pumps the motion of the piston in one direction causes an inflow of water1 and a discharge at the same time1 in the other2 and on the return stroke this action is renewed as the discharge end alternately becomes the suction end2 the pump is thus double acting4 ,finally pumps may be classified with reference to particular uses to which they are specifically adapted by their form and the materials they are required to handle4 ,pumps now raise1 convey and deliver beer1 molasses1 acids1 oils1 and melted asphalt4 ,they also handle such gases as air1 ammonia1 lighting gas and even oxygen4 ,in the orderly progress of the contents of the volume1 it will be seen that the main subject1 occupying many pages with illustrations1 is that relating to 8,steam pumps20 those having a steam-end and a water-end and which consist of pump and steam-motor combined4 ,an interesting class under ,vacuum-pumps will be found1 #a1 the combined vacuum and feed2 #b1 the combined vacuum and circulating and1 #c1 the combined vacuum and refrigerating pumps4 ,under ,pumping ,engines and the ,steam ,fire ,engine will be found a description of the most brilliant and fascinating of modern scientific and mechanical achievements2 these two sections relate to hydraulic engineering in its highest development4 ,,hand ,,pumps4 ,the theoretical action of a pump has already been described and illustrated2--the practical operation is described in the note below4 ,the subject is important enough to justify the space it takes to present these two descriptions of the action of a pump4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aef4 ,the parts of which a pump is composed are3 #a1 the barrel or cylinder2 #b1 the plunger or piston2 #c1 the valves2 #d1 the pipes4 ,the barrel of a modern pump is a tube of metal having a water tight plunger or piston which moves freely up and down at the pleasure of the operator4 ,this plunger is in its simplest form made of cast iron in two parts4 ,the upper part consists of an arched part having a hole in its center to receive a bolt which passes through it and a jaw on the lower end of the pitman or connecting rod4 ,the upper end of this pitman is attached to the pump handle by means of a bolt4 ,the inside of the upper part of the plunger is threaded to receive the lower part with a cup leather packing and contains a valve of metal having a conical seat4 ,fig4 #aef shows a design of a pump in common use in the #adth century4 ,,note4--,the action of a pump is as follows3 ,the piston or plunger by moving to one end1 or out of the pump cylinder1 leaves the space it occupied1 or passed through1 to be filled by something4 ,as there is little or no air therein a partial vacuum is formed unless the supply to the pump is of sufficient force to follow the piston or plunger of its own accord4 ,if this is not the case1 however1 as it is when the water level from which the pump obtains its supply is below the pump itself1 there being a partial vacuum produced1 the atmospheric pressure forces the water into the space displaced by the plunger or piston1 continuing its flow until the end of stroke is reached4 ,the water then ceases to flow in1 and the suction valve of the pump closes1 forbidding the water flowing back the route it came4 ,the piston or plunger then begins to return into the space it has just vacated1 and which has become filled with water1 and immediately meets with a resistance which would be insurmountable were the water not allowed to go somewhere4 7,see next page47 ,its only egress is by raising the discharge valve by its own pressure1 and passing out through it4 ,this discharge valve is in a pipe leading to the boiler1 and in going out of the cylinder by that route the water must overcome boiler pressure and its own friction along the passages4 ,water is inert and cannot act of itself2 so it must derive this power to flow into the feed pipe and boiler from the steam acting upon the steam piston of the pump4 ,the steam piston and pump piston are at the two ends of the same rod4 ,therefore the steam pressure exerted upon the steam piston will be exerted upon the pump piston direct4 ,between the upper and lower parts of the plunger a cup leather is introduced before these parts are screwed together4 ,this cup leather1 while it allows the plunger to move freely1 also makes a water-tight joint4 ,the lower valve consists of a piece of cast-iron flat on the bottom and circular in shape about three-eighths inch thick with a curved toe at one side4 ,this iron disc is secured to the flat leather valve by a screw that passes through the valve and is threaded in the disc4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aeg4 ,the object of this toe upon the disc is to open the lower valve by means of raising the pump handle as far as it will go which lowers the plunger upon the toe and tips the lower valve upon its seat4 ,this same operation also lifts the valve in the plunger off its seat1 so that all the water in the barrel drains back into the well so the pump is kept from freezing up in winter4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aeh4 ,the leather which forms the lower valve is held in place by clamping the pump barrel upon it1 so that it is held between the barrel and the base plate4 ,hand pumps are primarily divided into3 #a1 suction or lift pumps2 #b1 force pumps1 and #c1 suction and forcing pumps2 #d1 also pumps for exhausting air from vessels4 ,of the first class1 the common single-acting house-pumps shown in ,figs4 #aeg and #aeh are examples2 the pumps are simply modifications of the suction-pump2 a common form of lift-pump has a pitman-rod which pushes the water up instead of lifting it through a spout at or near the top of the cylinder4 ,the details of the suction-pump are as follows--at the bottom of the cylinder is a pipe communicating with the liquid to be raised1 and a valve which opens from beneath4 ,a similar valve is placed in the piston4 ,a force-pump is shown in ,fig4 #aei2 from the two figures the difference between the lift and the force-pump may be understood2 while the former raises the liquid above its piston from which it flows under no pressure1 the latter forces it out of the barrel under a varying pressure which depends upon circumstances4 ,when the piston rises the suction valve opens1 and the valve in the piston closes by the air-pressure4 ,the liquid then enters the barrel beneath the piston4 ,on the descending stroke the suction valve closes1 and the liquid flows upward into the discharge pipe4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aei4 ,in ,fig4 #afj is shown an air-chamber attached to a force-pump for the purpose of preventing shocks in the discharge1 and for producing a steady flow2 air-chambers are also frequently attached to suction pipes for a similar purpose4 ,according to the underlying principles of action thus far explained hundreds of thousands of pumps have been constructed and operated4 ,it is beyond the limits of this volume--or any single book to give the names and details of these so-called 8hand-pumps10 however1 three approved styles are shown in ,figs4 #afa1 #afb1 #afc4 ,fig4 #afa represents a double acting force pump used extensively on ship-board1 wharves1 around factories1 mills1 etc41 and in residences1 for tank pumping4 ,on ships these pumps perform the three-fold purpose of filling boilers when cold1 washing down decks and to satisfy government inspection as to fire protection2 in service in mines they are unaffected by mine water1 the working parts being made non-corrosive4 ,it is claimed that a three-inch diameter cylinder with a stroke of four and a half inches with a #a-a_/d-;inch suction pipe and #a-;inch discharge pipe will lift and force water #aej ft4 high and has a capacity of #bh gallons for each stroke1 with the water not more than twenty-five feet below the pump4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #afj4 ,fig4 #afb represents a two cylinder force pump2 this has vertical single acting pistons actuated by one lever1 producing the same results as a double-acting pump4 ,it is claimed that the total lift and force1 from supply to point of delivery1 with the pump not more than twenty-five feet above water will attain one hundred feet2 that a #c-;inch #d inch cylinder1 #a-a_/b-;inch suction and #a-a_/d-;inch discharge will deliver #bd gallons of water for each stroke4 ,fig4 #afc represents a widely used type of suction pump1 it is designed for vessels of not more than fifteen to twenty feet deep2 for contractors who wish to pump large quantities of water from excavations1 etc42 for irrigation or any other purpose where a compact and capacious pump is desired4 ,the lever may be worked from three different points as shown by lugs on the illustration4 ,the lever socket is made at such an angle that the bent wrought iron lever when put in one side up1 is right for ordinary pumping and by simply changing it the other side up1 it becomes a vertical lever4 ,the valves are accessible and removable by hand from above4 ,it is claimed that with #h-a_/b-;in4 diameter cylinder and #f-;in4 stroke that the capacity is #a-dg_/ajj gallons for each stroke1 with #bj feet lift--the suction pipe being #c-;in4 in diameter4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #afa4 ,in the illustrations 7,figs4 #afa and #afb7 it will be noticed that the discharge is conveniently arranged to receive either fire hose1 or iron pipe connections for other uses1 as in mines and on ship-board4 ,being made in large factories1 there are immense numbers in world-wide use2 every detail of these pumps is carefully considered2 the sizes manufactured range from #b inches to #f inches diameter of cylinders1 with strokes #d1 #d-a_/b and #e inches4 ,the capacity of each pump is also given in the published lists by the makers2 this is given under the heading 8,capacity per ,revolution0 with the added information as to the best sizes to be used for the suction and discharge pipes4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #afb4 ,,note4--,it were well for the student to know that in case of breakage or worn out parts of an otherwise serviceable apparatus that the makers have provided for their repairs as will be indicated by the following taken from the catalogue of a well known manufacturer4 8,in the following lists will be found descriptions of pieces for all the staple pumps1 which will prove of decided convenience4 ,in this connection we desire to impress most emphatically on the minds of dealers that the threads are cut to exact and accurate gauges2 all holes in flanges1 etc41 drilled to templets2 all castings made from exact metal patterns1 similar parts being always the same4 ,therefore1 repairs will invariably take the place of the broken parts40 ,fig4 #afc represents a ,pitcher ,spout ,pump1 of large size for contractors1 and ,fig4 #afd the parts of a common house pump4 ,the two figures show pumps substantially the same4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #afc4 ,the smallest size 8listed0 of this pump has a cylinder diameter of #b-a_/b inches1 fitted with #a-a_/d in4 pipe and it has a capacity of #ji gal4 per stroke and it takes more than eleven strokes to pump a single gallon4 ,with a cylinder #d-a_/b inches1 with pipe #a-a_/b in4 diam41 the pump has a capacity of #cd gal4 per stroke4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #afd4 ,the engraving #afd shows a pitcher pump dissected1 in which ,a represents the lever or handle1 ,b the plunger which contains the discharge valve and is made tight by a cup leather packing1 ,c is the fulcrum for the lever1 ,d the barrel or cylinder1 ,e the lower or suction valve1 ,f the base which supports the pump4 ,the leather which forms the valve ,e also makes the joint between the cylinder and the base4 ,fig4 #afe represents a ,two-,cylinder ,suction and ,force ,pump arranged with extension levers4 ,when these levers are put in place1 they afford room for a large force of men to work1 renders this pump a most powerful engine for throwing water on fires1 or supplying it for many uses about factories1 warehouses1 wharves1 etc4 ,the discharge hose can be fitted both ends for wrought-iron pipe or either end for hose4 ,the ,table below gives the makers' numbers1 the diameter of the cylinders1 etc41 and also distance to which the water can be lifted or forced4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #afe4 ,,table ,,of ,,sizes1 ,,capacities1 ,,etc4 ----------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,no4,diameter ,stroke ,capacity ,discharge ,suction 99,lift and ,cylinder per ,rev4 ,force ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- #d #c in4#f-a_/b in4 #dj gal4#a-a_/d in4 hose#a-a_/b in4 pipe#ajj ft4 #d #c #f-a_/b #dj gal4#a-a_/d #a-a_/b #ajj ft4 #f #c-a_/b #f-a_/b #ed #a-a_/b #b #ge #h #d #h #hg #b #b-a_/b #ge #aj #d-a_/b #h #aaj #b #b-a_/b #ge #ab #e #h #acf #b #b-a_/b #ge #af #f #g #aif #b-a_/b #d #ej ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- 99 ,total lift and force from supply to point of delivery1 ,pump not more than #be feet above water4 ,fig4 #aff represents a hand1 rotary force pump provided with a balance wheel4 ,a sectional view of this pump is given in ,fig4 #afg2 these pumps are adapted for almost any place or purpose where lift or force pumps can be used1 they can be moved to any place where water is within suction distance and immediately operated4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aff4 ,the provision of a foot valve at the end of the suction pipe will keep it always filled4 ,in the rotary pump there are no pistons4 ,as will be seen in the ,fig4 #afg1 there are two pinions of extremely coarse pitch meshing into one another with neat fit in the case2 the joints become practically air-tight by the water which surrounds them and passes through the case4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #afg4 ,both pinions are supported by a journal at each end1 the shaft of one being extended to receive a pulley or hand wheel as shown in ,fig4 #aff1 hence1 one pinion causes the other to revolve4 ,the teeth on the bottom side of the pinions move away from each other and form a partial vacuum which the water fills and is carried around between the teeth of the pinions on opposite sides and is discharged through a central opening in the case at the top1 thence through the discharge pipe into the tank or reservoir4 ,in the small sizes of the rotary pump there is no trouble from leakage1 until the parts become much worn4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #afh4 ,bag ,pump4 ,this is a form of bellows-pump in which the valve disc ,a1 which takes the place of the bucket1 is connected with the base of the barrel by an elastic bag distended at intervals by rings4 ,this bag may be made of leather or of double canvas4 ,the upper end of the bag should be firmly tied with a cord in a groove gouged out of the rim of the board at ,a4 ,into this board is fixed the fork of the piston rod1 and the bag is kept distended by a number of wooden hoops or rings of wire1 fixed to it at a few inches distance from one another1 and kept at equal distances by three or four cords binding them together and stretching from the top to the bottom of the bag4 ,now let this trunk be immersed in the water3 it is evident that if the bag be stretched from the compressed form which its own weight will give it by drawing up the piston rod1 its capacity will be enlarged1 the valve ,a will be shut by its own weight1 the air in the bag will be rarefied1 and the atmosphere will press the water into the bag4 ,when the rod is thrust down again1 the water will come out at the valve ,a1 and fill part of the trunk4 ,a repetition of the operation will have a similar effect2 the trunk will be filled1 and the water will at last be discharged at the spout4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #afi4 ,bellows-pump 7,page #ahf74 ,this is an atmospheric pump in which the part of the piston is played by the top leaf of the bellows4 ,a very simple method of describing an invention1 from which great good in drainage of waste lands in ,europe1 was realized4 8,there was of course a valve covering the interior orifice of the nozzle and opening outwards1 to prevent the air from entering when the upper board was raised4 ,this valve is not shown because the art of representing the interior of machines by section1 was not then understood1 or not practiced4 ,the lower board is fastened to the ground by a platform while the suction pipe dips into the water4 ,a weight is placed on the upper board to assist in expelling the water40 ,fig4 #afi represents a ,double ,lantern ,bellows-,pump as used in the #afth century4 ,this engraving is plain and requires no description4 ,fig4 #agj shows a diaphragm pump in which a sheet of rubber or its equivalent is used as a substitute for a piston in a cylinder4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #agj4 ,,note4--,when an ox or a horse plunges his mouth into a stream1 he dilates his chest and the atmosphere forces the liquid up into his stomach precisely as up the pipe of a pump4 ,it is indeed in imitation of these natural pumps that water is raised in artificial ones4 ,the thorax is the pump2 the muscular energy of the animal1 the power that works it2 the throat is the pipe1 the lower orifice of which is the mouth1 and which he must necessarily insert into the liquid he thus pumps into his stomach4 ,the capacious chest of the tall camel1 or of the still taller cameleopard or giraffe1 whose head sometimes moves twenty feet from the ground1 is a large bellows-pump which raises water through the long channel or pipe in his neck4 ,the elephant by a similar pneumatic apparatus1 elevates the liquid through that flexible 8suction pipe10 his proboscis2 and those nimble engineers1 the common house-flies1 raise it through their minikin trunks in the manner of the gigantic animals which in remote ages roamed over this planet1 and which quenched their thirst as the ox does4 ,there could have been none which stood so high as to have their stomachs thirty feet above the water they thus raised into them4 ,rope ,pump4 ,this machine consists of one or more endless ropes1 all stretched on two pulleys as shown in ,figs4 #aga and #agb4 ,these pulleys have grooves formed in their surfaces for the reception of the ropes4 ,a rapid rotary motion is communicated to the upper pulley1 by a multiplying wheel1 and the ascending side of each rope carries up the water absorbed by it1 and which is separated from it while passing over the upper pulley1 partly by centrifugal force1 and partly by being squeezed in the deep groove4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aga4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #agb4 ,in the beginning of the motion1 the column of water adhering to the rope1 is always less than when it has been worked for some time1 and continues to increase till the surrounding air partakes of its motion4 ,by the utmost efforts of a man1 nine gallons of water were raised by one of these machines from a well1 ninety-five feet deep1 in one minute4 7,adam's ,philos47 ,the hydraulic belt is a similar contrivance4 ,it is an endless double band of woolen cloth1 passing over two rollers1 not here shown4 ,it is driven with a velocity of not less than a thousand feet per minute2 when the water contained between the two surfaces is carried up and discharged as it passes over the upper roller1 by the pressure of the band4 ,some machines of this kind are stated to have produced an effect equal to seventy-five per cent4 of the power expended1 while that of ordinary pumps seldom exceeds sixty per cent4 7,lon4 ,mechan4 ,mag47 ,spray ,pump4 ,fig4 #agc exhibits a carefully designed pump made to spray trees1 plants1 etc4 ,all the working parts are of brass1 the valves are metal2 the air chamber is made of galvanized iron or copper and has large capacity4 ,it will hold sufficient compressed air to keep the spray going from six to ten minutes after the pumping stops4 ,the 8agitators0 are placed so that they keep the liquid thoroughly stirred4 ,the plungers can be easily removed and packed without the necessity of taking the pump to a shop4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #agc4 ,the pump is fastened to the bottom of the barrel by a bolt passing through the barrel and secured by a nut underneath1 with packing to prevent leakage1 and by an iron plate at the top covering the opening through which the pump is placed in the barrel4 ,this pump is arranged with one1 or two levers1 and for one or two lines of discharge hose4 ,the cylinders are #b-a_/b inches diameter with stroke #c inches2 its capacity per stroke is #jac gal4 ,combined ,pump and ,horse ,power4 ,the 8horse power0 7apparatus7 with its 8pole0 for one horse and two poles for two horses and its wrought iron 8tumbling shaft0 has been so modified that a horse operates the pump1 by means of a 8sweep10 direct connected to the pump crank shaft4 ,the animal will make three to four circuits per minute1 giving the pump crank shaft a speed of #dj to #ej revolutions per minute4 ,the capacity of a #d in4 plunger and #h in4 stroke is given as #cabj gallons per hour2 the suction pipe is given as #c-a_/b in4 diam4 and the discharge as #c in4 pipe4 ,,driven ,,or ,,tube ,,wells4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #age4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #age-;,a4 ,aside from the wells described on page #de and those following it1 there are wells made by forcing iron tubing down into the earth until a water supply is reached4 ,within reasonable distances and in a remarkably large proportion1 these pipe wells are directly connected with the suction part of hand pumps4 ,,note4--8,when a well fails to yield a fair amount of oil or water1 an increase in the flow is often effected by means of the ,roberts torpedo4 ,this is a thin water-tight cylinder of metal or paper1 #d to #f ft4 long and #b or #c in4 in diameter1 charged with powder1 gun-cotton or nitro-glycerine4 ,it is lowered to the bottom of the well1 or to a depth that will bring it opposite the desired stratum1 and the well is then flooded4 ,the charge is exploded by a cap or electric spark1 and the explosion often clears away the obstruction from the oil or water vein4 ,this applies particularly to deep wells40 ,to this class also belong the famous oil and artesian wells which penetrate through earth and rock thousands of feet1 many of them operated by power pumping machines4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #agf4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #agg4 ,the process of driving tube-wells resembles pile-driving1 but with this distinction1 that while piles receive the blows of the 8monkey0 on their heads1 the tubes are not struck at all1 the blow being communicated by the clamp1 which receives the blow near the ground4 ,the tube-well1 as in ordinary use1 is not intended for piercing rock or solid formations1 but is quite capable of penetrating very hard and compact soils1 and can be also successfully driven through chalk1 breaking through the flints which may obstruct its passage downward4 ,when solid masses of rock or stone are reached1 special means of drilling have to be provided for it4 ,when coming upon rock or stone1 the best plan is to pull up the tube and try in another spot4 ,this applies also when deep beds of clay are driven into2 for1 by going a little distance off1 and testing again1 in many cases water will be found4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #agh4 ,the operation is as follows3 ,the first or pioneer tube1 shown in ,fig4 #age is furnished with a steel point of bulbous form1 and perforated with holes varying from one-eighth to an inch1 extending from #ae in4 to #c ft4 from the point1 ,fig4 #agh4 ,the enlargement of the point serves to clear a passage for the couplings by which the tubes are screwed together4 ,on this tube the clamp ,fig4 #agf is held about #c ft4 from the point by two bolts2 the clamp is of wrought iron with steel bushing screwed internally so as to form teeth to grip the tube4 ,next1 the cast-iron driving-weight or monkey is slipped on to the tube above the clamp4 ,the monkey is operated with ropes4 ,sucker-,rod ,couplings4 ,these couplings are usually made of iron galvanized and are used to connect the ends of wooden sucker rods for deep well pumps4 ,each half of coupling is secured to the end of wooden rods by three bolts2 the ends of the couplings are joined by male and female threads in the usual way4 ,either bolts or rivets may be used to attach the rods to the couplings4 7,see ,fig4 #agi47 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #agi4 ,,points ,,for ,,erecting ,,and ,,operating ,,hand ,,pumps4 ,foundation--,for the smaller sizes a foundation is not necessary1 other than a good floor4 ,with the large sizes it is advisable to have a substantial foundation4 ,concrete1 well rammed into place1 surmounted by a capstone1 is as good as any4 ,the foundation allows the pump to be run at a higher speed2 a plan showing location of bolt-holes1 position of flanges1 and general dimensions1 so that there may be no delay in setting the pump upon arrival at its destination4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ahj4 ,suction ,pipe--,the suction pipe should be as short and direct as possible1 avoiding all turns not necessary4 ,place a strainer and foot-valve1 ,fig4 #ahj1 on the suction pipe4 ,it is better for the pump to have a slight suction except when hot water is pumped1 than to supply the water to the pump under a slight head4 ,discharge ,pipe--,make the discharge piping as straight as possible1 using long bends4 ,packing--,the stuffing boxes should be carefully packed and the gland brought up firmly against the packing2 screwing up the gland by hand should be sufficient4 ,large sizes of suction and discharge pipe are desirable1 because the friction of the water in the pipes thus reduced makes the pump work easier4 ,,power ,,pumps ,,power ,,driven ,,pumps4 ,by a power-driven pump is meant one actuated by ,belt1 ,rope-transmission1 ,gear1 ,shafting1 ,electric-motor1 ,water-wheel1 ,friction1 or by direct connection to a power shaft4 ,it thus becomes very frequently a question which apparatus is most desirable4 ,these are classified1 thus-- #a4 ,single power pumps1 #b4 ,duplex power pumps1 #c4 ,triplex 7triple7 power pumps1 #d4 ,quadruplex1 etc4 ,where the sizes still further increase they are named from the number of barrels or water cylinders1 but when of much larger size than the ,triplex they come under the classification of pumping engines4 ,where power can be had from a shaft in motion there is no pump so economical as the power or belt driven pump4 ,this fact is shown by the rapid increase in the number of applications of this type of pump3 the reduced cost of manufacture in making the teeth of the gear wheels1 the use of automatic machinery1 the production of interchangeable parts have tended to produce a high grade of machine at an attractive price4 ,the energy expended in operating the power driven pump is obtained at the same economy as that required by the machinery in the mill or factory1 and as a modern automatic cutoff engine will develop a horse power with considerable less steam than the direct acting steam pump the cost of the power required by the power driven pump is correspondingly less2 it participates in the economy of the steam engine using from one and a half pounds of coal to five or six pounds per ,h4 ,p4 per hour4 ,for this reason the power driven pump is oftentimes the more economical1 and especially where shafting is adjacent to the location of the pump1 or can be conveniently arranged by simply adding another length of shafting with the necessary pulleys1 or even by cutting suitable openings through the walls for the belts4 ,single1 duplex and triplex power pumps are described and illustrated upon the succeeding pages2 power pumps are built with one1 two1 three1 four or five cylinders and for either high or low pressure or general service1 and their sizes1 capacities1 and the materials they handle are no more numerous than their combinations in erection4 ,the portion of this work devoted to power pumps should be especially interesting and instructive to the attendants operating steam1 compressed air and power driven pumps4 ,particular attention has been given to single-cylinder steam pumps because of the great variety of steam-actuated valves to be found in practice1 each differing from the other in one or more essential features4 ,it is due very largely to the numerous designs of steam valves1 that difficulty has been encountered in managing single-cylinder pumps as successfully as those of the duplex type1 the similarity of construction in the latter type1 even in minor details1 being much more marked4 ,the successful operation of a pump depends to a great extent upon the intelligence displayed in its management1 and an engineer can scarcely hope to obtain quiet and smooth running pumps and freedom from breakdowns and perplexing delays except by a thorough knowledge of the details of construction and operation4 ,it must be remembered that power pumps are to be illustrated and explained in a class entirely excluding steam pumps2 the latter are pumps in which the moving force is steam4 ,electric ,pumps are properly power pumps in which the moving force is electricity which is conducted to the pumps by wires4 ,,pump ,,parts4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aha4 ,water ,ends4 ,there are properly speaking four kinds of water ends to steam and power pumps3 #a1 ,a solid plunger1 with a stuffing box used for heavy pressings in hydraulic apparatus1 or as shown in ,fig4 #ahb1 for larger plungers4 #b1 ,a piston packed with fibrous material within the cylinder4 ,see ,fig4 #aha4 ,the letter ,p in ,fig4 #ahb and the following cuts indicates the plunger4 #c1 ,a plunger packed with a metal ring around the outside1 as illustrated in ,fig4 #ahc4 #d1 ,two plungers1 ,fig4 #ahd1 connected outside of the cylinder with a stuffing box in two cylinder heads1 through which the plungers work4 ,these are more fully explained and illustrated as they occur in many examples as they are referred to in the oncoming chapters of this work4 ,the construction of the water ends of single cylinder and duplex pumps is practically the same2 any slight differences which may be found are confined to minor details1 which in no way affect the general design or operation of the pump4 ,the steam or power ends of numerous and varied makes of pumps are also as shown in the following pages of this work2 all pumps actuated by power--steam1 electric1 etc4--are possessed of these two distinguishing features--#a1 a steam or power end1 and #b1 the water end4 ,,note4--,this statement has exception in the cases of large pumping engines having a fly wheel or supplemental cylinders attached to an accumulator1 in which case the steam is worked expansively4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ahb4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ahc4 ,the steam end of the ordinary single steam pump1 and also of the duplex pump1 differs from the steam cylinder of the steam engine in that the former has four ports to each cylinder1 i4 e41 two steam ports and two cushioning ports as shown hereafter in figures4 ,under the division of the work allotted to the 8,steam ,pump0 will be found all necessary further notice of the steam ends of ,pumps4 ,pump ,valves4 ,the valve apparatus is perhaps the most important part of any form of pump and its design has a material bearing upon its efficiency4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ahd4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ahe4 ,the valves shown in ,fig4 #aha are carried by two plates or decks1 the suction valves being attached to the lower plate and the delivery valves to the upper one4 ,the upper deck1 and sometimes both decks1 are removable4 ,the valves are secured to the plates by means of bolts or long machine screws1 which1 in turn1 are screwed into the bridge across the board in the plate1 as shown in ,figs4 #ahe and #ahf or capped as in ,fig4 #ahg4 ,the valves in all pumps except the large sizes1 which may properly be classed with pumping engines1 are of the flat rubber disc type1 with a hole in the center to enable the valve to rise easily on the bolt1 the latter serving as a guide4 ,a conical spring is employed to hold the valve firmly to its seat1 the spring being held in position by the head of the bolt1 or cap1 as shown4 ,certain improvements in pump-valves have been made which tend to increase the durability and to prevent the liability of sticking1 which is not an uncommon occurrence after the valves have become badly worn4 ,the improved forms of pump valves are shown in ,figs4 #ahf and #ahg4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ahf4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ahg4 ,when these valves leak through wear the disc may be reversed1 using the upper side of the disc next to the valve seat4 ,this can be done with ordinary valves also1 provided the spring has not injured the upper surface of the disc4 ,valve seats are generally pressed into the plates1 although instances may be found where they are screwed4 ,when pressed in they may be withdrawn by substituting a bolt having longer screw threads than the regular bolt1 and provided with a nut1 as shown in ,fig4 #ahh4 ,the bolt is slipped through a yoke and screwed into the bridge4 ,by turning the nut the seat can generally be started without difficulty4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ahh4 ,fig4 #ahi represents the customary gland and stuffing-box in which the gland is adjusted by the nuts ,c and ,d upon two studs4 ,after the adjustment has been properly made lock-nuts are tightened which leaves the gland free yet preserves the alignment4 ,it has been proven by practice--after long and costly experiments--that a number of small valves instead of one large one are far the most durable2 durability being the question4 ,corliss1 ,leavitt1 ,holly and other leading pump builders had occasion to find the truth of this statement early in their careers4 ,the 8slamming0 of large valves under moderate speeds proved itself an almost insurmountable difficulty until the principle of keeping the valve area as low as possible within reasonable limits had been fully demonstrated4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ahi4 ,to illustrate the advantage of having a number of comparatively small valves instead of one large one1 suppose a pump to be fitted with four #c-a_/b-;inch delivery valves at each end1 the valves covering ports #b-a_/b inches in diameter4 ,the area of each port is #di square inches4 ,in order to provide an equal area between the valve and the seat the valve must rise a distance equal to one-fourth the diameter of the port4 ,the combined area of the four ports is #aif square inches1 which corresponds to the area of a circular opening #e inches in diameter1 one-fourth of which is #a-a_/d inches4 ,it will be understood that the smaller valves can seat much more quickly and with less jar than the larger one1 hence a larger number of small valves is not only better because of the great reduction in slippage1 but they are also more economical1 being subjected to less wear and tear4 ,the lift of valves for moderate or low speed pumps is seen in ,fig4 #aij and those for higher speeds in ,fig4 #aia4 ,these engravings clearly show the relative position of the suction and discharge valves during the movements of the piston4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aij4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aia4 ,pump slip or slippage is a term used to denote the difference between the calculated and the actual discharge of a pump1 and is generally expressed as a percentage of the calculated discharge4 ,thus1 when the slippage is given as #ae per cent4 it indicates that the loss due to slip amounts to #ae per cent4 of the calculated discharge4 ,slippage is due to two causes1 the time required for the suction and discharge valves to seat4 ,when pumps run very fast the piston speed is so high that the water cannot enter the pump fast enough to completely fill the cylinder and consequently a partial cylinder full of water is delivered at each stroke4 ,high speeds also increase slippage1 due to the seating of the valves4 ,fig4 #aia represents a sectional view of the water end of a pump1 showing the position of the valves during a quick reversal in the direction of the arrows1 which illustrates the position of the valves corresponding to high speed4 ,the valves in a pump1 like almost every other detail in the operation of machinery1 do not act instantaneously1 but require time to reach the seats4 ,when pumps run at high speed the piston will move a considerable distance1 while the valves are descending to their seats1 and water flows back into the pump cylinder until the valves are tightly closed4 ,the valves will remain in the raised position shown in ,fig4 #aia until the piston stops at the end of the stroke1 and under high speed the piston will reach the position on the return stroke indicated by the dotted line ,l by the time the valves are closed4 ,the cylinder will be filled up to this point with water from the delivery chamber so that no vacuum can be formed until after the piston reaches this position4 ,the volume of water that can be drawn into the cylinder must necessarily be represented by the cubic inches cf space1 minus the quantity which flows back during the time the valves are closing4 ,it will thus be seen that the actual volume of water discharged is considerably less than a cylinderful1 and the difference1 whatever it may prove to be1 is called1 and is due to slippage4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aib4 ,fig4 #aij represents the same pump running at a comparatively low speed4 ,it will be noticed that the valves have not been raised as high as in ,fig4 #aia1 because a longer time being allowed for the discharge of the water1 a smaller orifice is sufficient4 ,it will be seen also that the piston1 moving at a lower velocity1 cannot travel as far in ,fig4 #aij before the valves seat1 and consequently a vacuum can be created in the cylinder earlier in the stroke1 and a larger volume of water can therefore be drawn in during the return stroke4 ,in the latter case it is evident that the volume of water drawn into the cylinder will be nearly equal to a cylinderful and consequently the loss by slippage must be correspondingly less4 ,in order to reduce the loss by slippage several valves are used instead of a single valve of equal area4 ,a flat disc valve will rise a distance equal to one-fourth the diameter of the port or of the opening in the seat to discharge the same volume of water that can flow through the port in the same time4 ,in practice the rise exceeds this proportion of one-fourth a trifle1 owing to the friction of the water1 and this is especially true at high speeds4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aic4 ,reinforced pump valves4 ,where pure gum has been used for pump valves it has always proved too soft and when it has been compounded with other substances it has been found too hard to withstand the severe duty to which it is subjected as a material for pump valves4 ,in the accompanying ,fig4 #aib is shown the ,braden pump valve1 which is made of composition of rubber having wire rings embedded in the center of the disc4 ,the composition has been removed from a section to show these rings4 ,a ferrule of composition metal forms a hub around the center through which the bolt or stud passes to guide the valve and to prevent excessive wear of the hole4 ,its wire coil frame work clothed with rubber maintains a due amount of stiffness1 with a degree of flexibility which prevents its bulging into the holes in the seats1 or sticking therein1 and thus impairing the suction and discharge4 ,both sides1 the upper as well as the lower1 are made available for service4 ,these qualities of stiffness and flexibility combined1 permit this valve to adjust itself to form a water-tight seat4 ,illustration3 ,,figs4 #aid1 #aie1 #aih4 ,illustration3 ,,figs4 #aif1 #aig4 ,armored pump valves4 ,as represented in ,fig4 #aic this is a valve made by stamping a metal disc out of steel which is then plated with copper to protect the surface and secure the adhesion of the rubber4 ,marginal notches are left on the inside and outside edges of the plate and rubber is moulded around these1 and vulcanized to the required hardness2 a brass or copper plate may be used instead of steel and the plates may be corrugated radially to increase their stiffness when the area of the valve is large4 ,experience proves that the water valve adopted together with its location1 has a material bearing upon the efficiency of any pump2 easy seating valves are subject to more or less slippage1 owing to tardy seating2 the location of water valves should be above the pump cylinder1 inasmuch as in operation the pump is always primed1 while if suction valves are placed below1 any wear on the valves or valve seats1 or obstruction under the valves1 will cause the water to leak entirely out of the water cylinder1 making it necessary to prime the pump before it can be started4 ,,note4--,the screwed seat is shown in ,fig4 #aid1 ,stud ,fig4 #aie1 ,metal ,valve ,fig4 #aif1 ,spring ,fig4 #aig1 and all put together in ,fig4 #aih4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aii4 ,valve seats1 bolts and springs should be of the best composition or gun-metal2 and valves of composition1 or hard or soft rubber1 to suit the duty such pump is required to perform4 ,these valve seats are screwed into the valve plate1 and valves may be changed from composition to rubber by merely removing bolt1 and substituting one for the other without removing the seat4 ,this is of great advantage where a pump is to be used for hot water after being used for cold water4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bjj4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bja4 ,air chambers are placed upon the top of a pump1 see ,figs4 #aii and #bjj1 and contain air for the purpose of introducing an air cushion to counteract the solidity of the water1 thus preventing shocks as the water flows through the valves2 and also for the purpose of securing a steady discharge of water4 ,the water being under pressure in the discharge chamber1 compresses the air in the air chamber during each stroke of the water piston and1 when the piston stops momentarily at the end of the stroke1 the air expands to a certain extent and tends to produce a gradual stopping of the flow of water1 thus permitting the valves to seat easily and without shock or jar4 ,the capacity of the air chamber varies in different makes of pumps from #b to #c-a_/b times the volume of the water cylinder in single cylinder pumps1 and from #a to #b-a_/b times the volume of the water cylinder in the duplex type4 ,the volume of the water cylinder is represented by the area of the water piston multiplied by the length of stroke4 ,for single-cylinder1 boiler-feed pumps and those employed for elevator and similar service the volume of the air chamber should be #c times the volume of the water cylinder1 and for duplex pumps1 not less than twice the volume of the water cylinder4 ,high speed pumps1 such as fire pumps1 should be provided with air chambers containing from #e to #f times the volume of the water cylinder4 ,the diameter of the neck should not exceed one-third the diameter of the chamber4 ,when the pumps work under pressure exceeding #he or #ij pounds per square inch1 it is frequently found that the air gradually disappears from the air chamber1 the air passing off with the water by absorption4 ,in this case air should be supplied to the air chamber unless the pump runs at very low speeds1 say1 from #aj to #bj strokes for the smaller sizes and from #c to #e strokes per minute for pumping engines4 ,at higher speed and with no air in the air chamber the valves are apt to seat heavily and cause more or less jar and noise1 and the flow of water will not be uniform4 ,the water level in the air chamber should be kept down to from one-fourth to one-third the height of the air chamber for smooth running at medium and high speeds4 ,,note4--,in large pumping plants small air pumps are employed for keeping the air chambers properly charged4 ,in smaller plants an ordinary bicycle pump and a piece of rubber tubing are used to good advantage4 ,vacuum chambers are shown in ,figs4 #aii1 #bjj and #bja4 ,these devices are attached to the suction pipe4 ,when the column of water in the suction pipe of a pump is once set in motion1 it is quite important1 especially under high speeds1 to keep the water in full motion1 and when it is stopped1 to stop it gradually and easily4 ,this is accomplished by placing a vacuum chamber on the suction pipe1 as shown in the figures4 ,the location of the vacuum chamber may be varied to suit the convenience of the engine room arrangements4 ,fig4 #aii represents the vacuum chamber at the side of the pump1 ,fig4 #bjj shows it opposite the suction and ,fig4 #bja represents its position at the end of the pump4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bjb4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bjc4 ,vacuum chambers are practically of two designs1 as shown in ,figs4 #bjb and #bjc4 ,the one shown in ,fig4 #bjc should be placed in such position as to receive the impact of the column of water in the suction pipe4 ,in order to do this effectively it should be placed in the position shown in ,figs4 #aii1 #bjj or #bja4 ,the chamber illustrated in ,fig4 #bjb is placed in the suction pipe below1 but close to the pump4 ,the action of the vacuum chamber is practically the reverse of that of the air chamber4 ,the object of the vacuum chamber is to facilitate changing continuous into intermittent motion4 ,the moving column of water compresses the air in the vacuum chamber at the ends of the stroke of the piston1 and when the piston starts the air expands 7thus creating a partial vacuum above the water7 and aids the piston in setting the column of water in motion again4 ,thus the flow of water into the suction chamber of the pump is much more uniform during each stroke of the piston than without the vacuum chamber1 and consequently the pump can be run at higher speeds without increasing the loss due to slippage and without 8slamming0 of the valves4 ,vacuum chambers should be slightly larger than the suction pipe and of considerable length rather than of large diameter and short4 ,the size of the neck is substantially the same as in the air chamber4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bjd4 ,,piping ,a ,,pump4 ,fig4 #bjd on the opposite page represents the pipe connections1 etc41 of a pump with the delivery opening on the opposite side4 ,d represents the foot valve and strainer placed on the lower end of the suction1 which should be not less than a foot from the bottom of the well2 the distance named provides for the gradual filling of the well4 ,c is the suction pipe proper1 screwed into the elbow1 ,e1 which changes its direction into the suction chamber1 which contains the strainer1 ,a4 ,this strainer can be removed for cleaning by lifting the bonnet secured by stud bolts on top4 ,in connecting large pumps it is customary to attach a vacuum chamber1 ,f1 which in the absence of any regular pattern1 may be made of a piece of pipe of the same diameter as the suction and screwed into a ,t1 instead of the elbow1 ,e1 with a regulation screwed cap on top as shown in the dotted lines4 ,a priming pipe is shown by the letter ,j1 often used to fill the pump on starting4 ,the discharge pipe connection is shown at ,g with the air chamber attached4 ,this figure is introduced for the purpose of showing an approved method of piping a pump4 ,it may be observed that the flange joints in this design are so arranged that they may be disconnected without unscrewing any part of the suction pipe2 this feature is almost essential in view of needed repairs4 ,the foregoing description of the parts of a pump relate to the water end solely2 there remain the more complex and widely differing parts of the steam-end which constitute the distinguishing characteristics of the pumps built by the different makers4 ,there remain also the particular parts belonging to the large pumping engines1 air-pumps1 etc4 ,these will be described under their respective chapters with much added and essential matter4 ,particular details as to the conditions of service under which it is proposed to operate pumps are to be found on the next page4 ,,conditions ,,of ,,service ,,required ,,of ,a ,,pump4 ,it is especially important that the makers and also the sellers of pumps and pumping machinery should be informed regarding the proper type1 size1 pattern and proportion of parts for any peculiar service1 as well as to the plan of their connections and the kind of material to be used in their construction4 ,this information regarding the conditions of the service under which the pump is to be worked is quite pertinent to the foregoing pages regarding the parts of pumps4 ,the following questions are extracted from the catalogue of an extensive manufacturer4 ,first--,to what service is it to be applied8 ,second--,the quality of the liquid to be pumped1 whether salt1 fresh1 acid1 clear or gritty1 and whether cold or hot8 ,third--,to what height is the water to be lifted by suction1 and what are the length and diameter of the suction and discharge pipes8 ,fourth--,of what material is the suction pipe1 and what is its general arrangement as regards other pipes leading into it1 etc48 ,fifth--,will the supply be taken from a driven well8 ,if not1 from what source8 ,sixth--,to what height1 or against what pressure1 is the water to be pumped8 ,seventh--,what is the greatest quantity of water to be delivered per hour8 ,eighth--,what boiler pressure of steam is carried8 ,ninth--,will the pump exhaust into the atmosphere1 into a condenser1 or against a back pressure8 ,if the latter1 how much8 ,,belted ,,pumps4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bje4 ,fig4 #bje represents an approved form of steam boiler feed pump1 single acting4 ,it has a crank shaft and a tight and loose pulley4 ,it may be driven direct from any line shaft1 a countershaft being unnecessary4 ,this is a compact form of a boiler feed pump2 formerly the pump crank shaft was attached to floor beams or timbers above and connected by a long pitman to the pump which stood upon the floor2 the objections to the older system of apparatus were found to be the vibration of the long pitman and the springing of the floors4 ,to obviate these two difficulties the pump and countershaft were attached to a post bringing them nearer together but finally resulting in the design of pump here shown4 ,the broad base insures great stability in the operation of the pump especially when fixed to a rigid floor or timber foundation4 ,in the ,table below are given some details furnished by the makers relating to six sizes of this style of pump1 to which may be added that the speed ordinarily used varies from #ajj revolutions per minute for the small sizes1 to #bj revolutions for the larger sizes4 ,,table4 ,no4 ,size ,suction fitted ,discharge fitted,stroke4,size piston4 for4 for4 pulleys1 in4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------ #a #b in4 #a in4 pipe #a in4 pipe #c in4 #af #d #b #b-a_/b #a #a #c #af #d #c #c #a-a_/d #a-a_/d #c #af #d #d #b #a-a_/d #a-a_/d #f #ah #d #e #b-a_/b #a-a_/d #a-a_/d #f #ah #d #f #c #a-a_/b #a-a_/b #f #ah #d ---------------------------------------- ------------------ ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bjf4 ,fig4 #bjf exhibits two independent pumps4 ,the description of the pump shown in ,fig4 #bje will apply to the left-hand pump which is a boiler feed pump4 ,the improvement consists in the addition of another pump at the right-hand side2 this is a suction force pump with an air chamber and is used to draw water from a well and discharge it into a tank from which it is taken by the other pump and forced into the boiler1 as occasion requires4 ,these two pumps work simultaneously1 being driven from the same shaft with cranks set opposite each other4 ,like the pump previously described this has a tight and loose pulley4 ,the larger sizes are geared1 having a pinion on the pulley shaft and a spur wheel on the crank shaft4 ,these two pumps represent a high service and a low service1 the left-hand pump working under high pressure1 against that in the boiler and the right one against the head of water in the tank4 ,each pump has its own separate connections--one or more--to suit the required conditions4 ,the right-hand pump is double acting2 the plunger-rod is guided by a steadiment which holds it in line and preserves this alignment and the power is transmitted through a forked connecting rod4 ,the ,table below refers to both these pumps4 ,,table4 ,,boiler ,,pump4 ,,dble4-,,acting ,,force ,,pump4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------- ,diam4 ,suc4 and ,gal4 per ,diam4 ,suc4 and ,gal4 per cyl4 dis4 stroke cyl4 dis4 rev4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------- #b-a_/b in4 #a-a_/d in4 #a--h #c in4 #a-a_/b in4 #b--e #b-a_/b #a-a_/d #a--h #d #b #d--e ---------------------------------------- ---------------- ,in ,fig4 #bjg is shown a double acting power pump used principally for feeding boilers but may be employed for any purpose in forcing water or other liquids against pressure4 ,this pump is double acting1 is made with four check valves1 as shown in engraving1 and will draw water through #be feet of suction pipe4 ,on a high lift like the foregoing a foot valve 7as shown at ,d in ,fig4 #bjd7 should be used4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bjg4 ,the form of valves used in this type of pump are the regular commercial check valves1 made of steam-metal1 extra heavy2 the valve proper is of the wing pattern as shown in the small cuts4 ,there are four of these wings on each valve1 at right angles to one another forming a cross with arms of equal lengths4 ,illustration3 ,,straight ,,wings4 ,illustration3 ,,spiral ,,wings4 ,the seat of the valve has an angle of #de to which the valve is adjusted4 ,a part of this valve projects above the top and has a slot1 shown by the dotted line in it to receive the edge of a screw-driver1 held in a bit stock to grind the valve seat in refitting4 ,the lift of the valve is regulated by the distance between the top of the stem and the bottom of the covering nut or cap4 ,in hydraulic pumps it is found to be good practice to give the wings of these valves a twist1 or pitch1 so that the water in passing through will cause the valve to rotate and fall in a new position every time it comes in contact with the seat4 ,fig4 #bjh represents a very compact design of double acting low service belt driven pump4 ,the water cylinder is bored and has a piston fitted to it2 both ends of this cylinder are covered with 8heads10 one of which has a stuffing box through which the piston operates2 the outer end of this piston rod is fitted to a slotted yoke which slides upon a guide at the bottom4 ,this mechanism1 just described1 takes the place of a pitman connection and occupies very much less space4 ,the crank shaft is supported at each end in pillow blocks and is driven by a belt having a tight and loose pulley2 larger sizes are geared4 ,access to the two sets of valves can be had by slacking up four nuts upon the long belts1 two of which are shown in the engraving4 ,the broad base secures great stability for this size pump4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bjh4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bji4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #baj4 ,fig4 #bji exhibits two single acting plunger pumps actuated by one shaft having a crank upon each end with crank pins opposite to one another4 ,this shaft is supported on the top of two pillars which form a part of the solid cast iron frame4 ,the boxes are babbited4 ,the crank shaft has a cast iron spur gear keyed to it and meshes into a pinion upon the pulley shaft4 ,the teeth are cut to insure smooth and quiet running4 ,the power is transmitted through a belt upon a tight and loose pulley4 ,each pump is secured to the frame by four bolts4 ,the lower end of the pitman has an arrangement to take up the wear by means of two set screws with lock-nuts as shown in the figure on the top of each plunger4 ,this pump is largely used as a boiler feed pump4 ,these pumps can be used separately or together and with single or compound connections4 ,duplex ,power ,pump4 ,this engraving1 ,fig4 #baj1 shows a special boiler feed pump having ball valves1 as shown in section1 and which is also intended for use in pulp mills and in other places where it is necessary to pump sandy or muddy water1 or chemicals1 soap and other heavy bodied liquids4 ,these pumps have composition ball valves1 composition plungers and composition lined cylinders and glands4 ,the two barrels or cylinders of this pump are brought together so as to occupy as little space as possible4 ,instead of cranks eccentrics are used having very large wearing surfaces4 ,each pitman has a ball at its lower extremity forming a 8ball and socket0 joint1 which is adjustable to compensate for wear4 ,all the bearings are ,babbitted and like the last pump described the gears have cut teeth4 ,it is belt driven4 ,if there are two cranks as in the duplex power pump they are placed opposite to one another or #ahj apart1 the circle described by the crank-pin containing #cfj degrees4 ,in the triplex pump this circle is divided into three equal parts of #abj each which is represented by the position of the cranks2 a quadruplex or two duplex pumps attached to the same shaft the cranks will be #ij apart4 ,this arrangement effects a uniform distribution of load on the crank shaft and one of the pumps is continuously discharging at its maximum capacity4 ,this duplex power pump should not be confounded with the 8,duplex ,pump0 so called4 ,the latter has two steam cylinders and two water cylinders and is double acting while the former is single acting4 ,the successful operation and durability of these1 as of all power pumps1 depends largely upon the judicious selection and application of a proper packing to the stuffing boxes4 ,as for example1 plaited flax dipped in a mixture of warm graphite and tallow1 braided rawhide1 ,selden's packing1 etc41 have proved by long service to have a low co-efficient of friction and are not liable to cut the plungers4 ,the triplex power gang pump is shown in ,fig4 #baa4 ,the engraving represents two triplex pumps bolted to one bed1 and having an extended pulley shaft with pinions near each end to drive all of the pumps4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #baa4 ,,table4 ,no4 #a #b #c #d #e ---------------------------------------- ----------- ,size of ,plunger #b-a_/d #c #d-a_/b #f #h in inches ---------------------------------------- ----------- ,length of ,stroke #b-c_/d #c-a_/d #d-c_/d #f-a_/b #h-a_/b in ,inches ---------------------------------------- ----------- ,gallons per ,stroke 4#bh 4#eh #a4if #dgf #aa4jh or #a ,rev4 ---------------------------------------- ----------- ,revolutions per #bj to #ejaj to #djaj to #djaj to #cjaj to #be ,minute ---------------------------------------- ----------- ,size of ,suction #a-a_/d #a-a_/b #b-a_/b #d #e in ,inches ---------------------------------------- ----------- ,size of ,discharge #a-a_/d #a-a_/b #b #c-a_/b #d in ,inches ---------------------------------------- ----------- ,size of ,,according ,,to ,,duty ,,required ,pulleys ---------------------------------------- ----------- ,geared 99#af 99#af 99#ac 99#bj 99#bj #gb #hj #ga #hi #hj ---------------------------------------- ----------- ,pressure #age #age #agj #afe #afj ,pounds ---------------------------------------- ----------- 99 ,teeth in ,pinion4 ,teeth in ,spur ,gear4 ,the description of the duplex power pump just given1 applies to this type also4 ,the exception is that the triplex has three plungers and barrels instead of two4 ,there are two spur wheels and two pinions on each pump to equalize the power to better advantage1 as by this arrangement one eccentric is placed between each pair of spur wheels and two eccentrics outside4 ,the pinion shaft is in one piece having tight and loose pulleys4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bab4 ,the eccentrics--six in number--are set at #fj1 and an even strain on the belt at all points of the stroke is thus obtained1 and connecting both discharges together insures a steady flow without shock4 ,where light duty only is required1 these pumps are made without gears to run with the belt over pulleys4 ,fig4 #bab represents a single acting triplex plunger pump actuated by a belt over a tight and loose pulley4 ,the principal characteristic of this pump is the long connecting rods4 ,these have at their upper ends regular connecting rod straps with brasses fitted to them and adjusted by wedges and set screws4 ,at the plunger or lower ends of these rods bronze bushings and steel pins are used4 ,these pumps are largely employed for pumping semi-liquids such as tar1 soap1 mud1 tan-liquor1 oils1 chemicals1 sewage1 etc4 ,the teeth of the pinion and the meshing part of the two gears are protected by a shield to prevent clothing being caught or parts of the body from being injured4 ,for these various materials different valves are necessary to be used each suited to the substance to be elevated or conveyed4 ,the removal of one cover1 in this pump1 exposes all the discharge valves and a plate uncovers each of the three groups of suction valves1 as shown4 ,the suction pipe may be attached at either end of the suction chamber while the discharge pipe may be connected with one or both ends of the discharge chamber4 ,the pump here represented has barrels #h-;inch in diameter by #aj-;inch stroke4 ,the air chamber is very large in proportion to the pump4 ,,table4 ,,plungers ,capacity one ,,sizes ,,of ,,pipe ,tight ---------------,revolution of-----------------,gearedand ,loose ,diameter ,stroke ,crank ,shaft ,suction ,discharge ,pulleys ---------------------------------------- --------------------- #d in4 #d in4 #jfe gals4 #c in4 #c in4 #e to #abj #c in4 #d #f #a #c #c #e to #abj #c #e #f #ae #d #d #d to #abj #d #e #h #b #d #d #d to #abj #d #g #h #d #e #e #d to #acj #e #h #aj #fe #f #f #e to #acf #f #h #ab #gh #f #f #e to #acf #f ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,the ,deane single acting triplex power pump is shown in ,fig4 #bac4 ,pumps of this type are used for general service in places where a large quantity of water is to be obtained in a short time and delivered under high pressure2 they are adapted for tank service1 water works1 boiler feed1 etc4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bac4 ,the pillar1 or column design of frame is employed in this pump which secures great strength with the least weight of material1 and at the same time is accessible for adjustment or repairs4 ,the bearings for both the steel shafts are unusually long1 which reduces the pressure per square inch below the factor of safety and increases the durability4 ,the crankpins are set #abj degrees with one another so that the strokes successively overlap1 which promotes an easy flow of water through the delivery pipe4 ,the crank shaft is of the composite design1 the center crank pin is of equal diameter and forming a part of the shaft1 with discs and crank pins attached to each end by shrinking fits and keys4 ,either disc1 crank1 or their crank pins1 can be duplicated without sacrificing any other part1 which in itself is a great advantage4 ,the connecting rods have solid ends with adjustable boxes1 with adjustment by means of wedge and screws4 ,the brasses are lined with a special anti-friction metal bored to exact size4 ,the crossheads are of the box design with adjustable shoes having large wearing surfaces in bored guides4 ,these guides are secured to the frame by studs and nuts4 ,the plungers are outside packed1 the cylinders are submerged1 thus keeping the pump primed at all times4 ,the plungers are bolted to the crossheads and are readily removed when necessary4 ,the cylinders are single acting and are cast separate from the base and other parts of the machine1 so that repairs can be made at small cost1 and1 furthermore1 should it be desirable to use the pump for moving liquids which would be injurious to cast iron1 cylinders of other metals are substituted4 ,the water chest is cast separate from the cylinders and is provided with large handholes1 affording easy access to the interior and to the valves for inspection and cleaning4 ,the handholes are located so that one valve may be removed independent of the others4 ,improved grease cups are placed on all the bearings4 ,this pump is very popular with the users of power driven pumps and is generally selected for high pressures and for hot or gritty water4 ,its simplicity of design and construction1 together with the convenient arrangement of working parts1 renders it desirable in isolated places where little attention is given to any kind of pumps4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bad4 ,fig4 #bad represents the ,gould triplex single acting power pump and is one of many designs of this class of power pumps4 ,the frame consists of two standards1 which contain the two end cylinders1 and the seats to which the outside crosshead guides are bolted4 ,these are held together by two castings1 one containing the center crosshead guide1 and the other the center cylinder4 ,the crankshaft is a solid steel forging1 while the bearings are of phosphor bronze1 and the pinion shaft bearings ,babbitted4 ,the gear wheels are machine cut1 the pinion and the adjacent teeth of the large gear are covered by suitable guards4 ,the crossheads are provided with adjustable shoes or gibs1 which work in bored guides4 ,the connecting rods are fitted with straps and bronze boxes1 which are adjustable for wear by means of wedge and set screws1 the wristpin brasses being of the marine type4 ,the cylinders are provided with bronze liners1 which are readily removable when necessary for repairs1 the plungers being ground to size1 present a smooth polished surface to resist the wear4 ,the valve boxes are separate castings1 and each contains a set of suction and discharge valves4 ,these valves are rubber discs1 held firmly against the bronze seats by cylindrically wound springs4 ,all of these pumps are furnished with air chambers1 and vacuum chambers are provided when the nature of the service demands it4 ,all valves and other working parts of the pump are accessible for inspection1 cleaning and repairs1 all internal parts being arranged within easy reach through the large handholes4 ,the pumps here shown are intended for moderately light pressures as for example not to exceed #aej lbs4 per square inch1 but they are also made in heavier proportions for very high pressures 7#e1jjj lbs4 to #ae1jjj lbs47 such as is necessary to operate hydraulic presses1 draw benches for brass and copper tubing and that class of work4 ,a very simple automatic regulator and by-pass connection 7shown in the chapter on accessories7 can be attached to these pumps in situations where a constant pressure is to be maintained and allow the pump to run continuously at its maximum speed4 ,this regulator is adjusted to open the by-pass valve whenever the pressure in the compression tank or pipe system exceeds the limit pressure1 and so fills the office of a safety valve by allowing the surplus water to return to the tank4 ,the ,riedler belt driven pump is shown in ,fig4 #bae4 ,the principal feature of this pump is its valve2 there is but one valve for the suction and one for the discharge1 which greatly simplifies the pump end4 ,when working against high pressures1 the ordinary rubber or leather faced valves are oftentimes pounded to pieces1 but in this pump1 on account of the mechanical control1 the valves work well under all pressures4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bae4 ,this valve and valve seat are circular in form1 and made of bronze1 as shown in ,fig4 #baf4 ,the valve has a lift of from #a to #b inches1 and an area sufficiently large to reduce the velocity of the water flowing through it to a few feet per second4 ,at the beginning of the stroke the valve opens automatically1 controlled1 however1 by a very simple and effective mechanical device1 and it remains open practically during the entire stroke4 ,when near the end1 it is positively closed at the proper moment by the controller4 ,this valve1 see ,fig4 #baf1 may be briefly described as follows4 ,the seat1 ,a1 is turned to slip into its place in the pump and is made tight by a round rubber hydraulic packing1 ,b1 in a groove near the bottom4 ,a spindle or stud1 ,c1 in the center of this seat supports and guides the valve1 ,d1 which is made tight by a leather seal1 ,e4 ,the rubber collar or buffer spring holds the valve above its seat1 and this valve unlike ordinary pump valves1 always remains open except when pressure is brought to bear to close it4 ,the valve bonnet1 ,g1 also forms the bearing for the valve stem with fork1 which spans the spindle1 ,c1 at one end and having the valve lever and pin1 ,h1 for operating at the other end4 ,the valve stem is made tight by a stuffing-box and gland as shown4 ,the operation of this valve is substantially as follows4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #baf4 ,at the beginning of the suction stroke the valve is opened by the rubber spring1 ,f1 the pressure upon the collar being relieved by lifting of the valve fork arms through motion of the eccentric4 ,it will be observed from an inspection of ,fig4 #bae that both the suction valve and the discharge valve are controlled by an eccentric--rock arm--and valve levers similar to the motion of ,corliss valves4 ,as the plunger nears the end of its stroke and before it starts on the return stroke1 the valve fork closes the valve1 and thus prevents slip and avoids pounding1 so common in pumps having valves that close by their own weight4 ,in case of any obstruction between the valve and its seat the rubber buffer spring will be compressed thus preventing all injury to mechanism4 ,the lost work expended in closing the valves is hardly worth any consideration as it is practically the friction only of the eccentric and the members of the valve gearing1 the bearings of which are all small4 ,the motion for these valve gears is usually taken from an eccentric on the main shaft4 ,the standard speed of the ,riedler pumps is about #aej revolutions per minute4 ,smaller pumps run even faster than this4 ,it may be desired to connect a pump directly to a high speed electric motor or water wheel already installed4 ,to meet these conditions1 a special design known as the ,riedler ,express pump1 is built4 ,the chief feature of this pump1 is its suction valve4 ,this valve is concentric with1 and outside of the plunger1 and lifts in the opposite direction to that of the plunger when on its suction stroke4 ,at the end of the suction stroke1 the plunger presses the valve to its seat1 thus making it certain that the valve is seated when the plunger starts on its delivery stroke1 allowing practically no slip4 ,a high air suction chamber containing a column of water is placed immediately before the suction valve1 so it is certain that the pump will fill as the plunger moves4 ,ordinarily the pump would not completely fill1 owing to the high speed of the plunger4 ,these pumps are also built with steam cylinders both of the plain slide valve and ,corliss designs4 ,,the ,,electric ,,pump ,illustration3 ,,compass ,,needle--,see ,,page #bff4 ,,electricity ,,and ,,electrical ,,machinery4 ,each kind of power requires its own special machinery so constructed and adapted as to utilize it2 hence1 to be serviceable to mankind1 electricity demands machinery suited to its nature2 what that is1 will be indicated in the following few paragraphs4 ,electricity is a name derived from the ,greek word electron--amber4 ,it was discovered more than #b1jjj years ago that amber when rubbed with a ,fox's tail possessed the curious property of attracting light bodies4 ,it was discovered afterwards that this property could be produced in a dry steam jet by friction1 and in ,a4 ,d4 #afjj or thereabouts1 that glass1 sealing-wax1 etc41 were also affected by rubbing1 producing electricity4 ,whatever electricity is1 it is impossible to say1 but for the present it is convenient to consider it as a kind of invisible something which pervades all bodies4 ,while the nature and source of electricity are a mystery1 and a constant challenge to the inquirer1 many things about it have become known--thus1 it is positively assured that electricity never manifests itself except when there is some mechanical disturbance in ordinary matter1 and every exhibition of electricity in any of its multitudinous ways may always be traced back to a mass of matter4 ,,note4--,the great forces of the world are invisible and impalpable2 we cannot grasp or handle them2 and though they are real enough1 they have the appearance of being very unreal4 ,electricity and gravity are as subtle as they are mighty2 they elude the eye and hand of the most skillful philosopher4 ,in view of this1 it is well for the average man not to try to fathom1 too deeply1 the science of either4 ,to take the machines and appliances as they are 8on the market10 and to acquire the skill to operate them1 is the longest step toward the reason for doing it1 and why the desired results follow4 ,electricity1 it is also conceded1 is without weight1 and1 while electricity is1 without doubt1 one and the same1 it is for convenience sometimes classified according to its motion1 as-- #a4 ,static electricity1 or electricity at rest4 #b4 ,current electricity1 or electricity in motion4 #c4 ,magnetism1 or electricity in rotation4 #d4 ,electricity in vibration4 ,other useful divisions are into-- #a4 ,frictional and #b4 ,dynamical1 ,and into-- #a4 ,static1 as the opposite of #b4 ,dynamic electricity4 ,there are still other definitions or divisions which are in every-day use1 such as 8vitreous0 electricity1 8atmospheric0 electricity1 8resinous0 electricity1 etc4 ,static ,electricity4--,this is a term employed to define electricity produced by friction4 ,it is properly employed in the sense of a static charge which shows itself by the attraction or repulsion between charged bodies4 ,when static electricity is discharged1 it causes more or less of a current1 which shows itself by the passage of sparks or a brush discharge2 by a peculiar prickling sensation2 by an unusual smell due to its chemical effects2 by heating the air or other substances in its path2 and sometimes in other ways4 ,current ,electricity4--,this may be defined as the quantity of electricity which passes through a conductor in a given time--or1 electricity in the act of being discharged1 or electricity in motion4 ,an electric current manifests itself by heating the wire or conductor1 by causing a magnetic field around the conductor and by causing chemical changes in a liquid through which it may pass4 ,,note4--,statics is that branch of mechanics which treats of the forces which keep bodies at rest or in equilibrium4 ,dynamics treats of bodies in motion4 ,hence static electricity is electricity at rest4 ,the earth's great store of electricity is at rest or in equilibrium4 ,radiated electricity is electricity in vibration4 ,where the current oscillates or vibrates back and forth with extreme rapidity1 it takes the form of waves which are similar to waves of light4 ,positive ,electricity4--,this term expresses the condition of the point of an electrified body having the higher energy from which it flows to a lower level4 ,the sign which denotes this phase of electric excitement is 2 all electricity is either positive or1-1 negative4 ,negative ,electricity4--,this is the reverse condition to the above and is expressed by the sign or symbol-4 ,these two terms are used in the same sense as hot and cold4 ,atmospheric electricity is the free electricity of the air which is almost always present in the atmosphere4 ,its exact cause is unknown4 ,the phenomena of atmospheric electricity are of two kinds2 there are the well-known manifestations of thunderstorms2 and there are the phenomena of continual slight electrification in the air1 best observed when the weather is fine2 the aurora constitutes a third branch of the subject4 ,dynamic ,electricity4--,this term is used to define current electricity to distinguish it from static electricity4 ,this is the electricity produced by the dynamo4 ,frictional electricity is that produced by the friction of one substance against another4 ,resinous ,electricity4--,this is a term formerly used1 in place of negative electricity4 ,the phrase originated in the well known fact that a certain 7negative7 kind of electricity was produced by rubbing rosin4 ,vitreous electricity is a term1 formerly used1 to describe that kind of electricity 7positive7 produced by rubbing glass4 ,magneto-electricity is electricity in the form of currents flowing along wires2 it is electricity derived from the motion of magnets--hence the name4 ,voltaic ,electricity4--,this is electricity produced by the action of the voltaic cell or battery4 ,electricity itself is the same thing1 or phase of energy1 by whatever source it is produced1 and the foregoing definitions are given only as a matter of convenience4 ,,electro-,,motive ,,force4 ,the term is employed to denote that which moves or tends to move electricity from one place to another4 ,for brevity it is written ,e4 ,m4 ,f42 it is the result of the difference of potential1 and proportional to it4 ,just as in water pipes1 a difference of level produces a pressure1 and the pressure produces a flow so soon as the tap is turned on1 so difference of potential produces electro-motive force1 and electro-motive force sets up a current so soon as a circuit is completed for the electricity to flow through4 ,electro-motive force1 therefore1 may often be conveniently expressed as a difference of potential1 and vice versa2 but the reader must not forget this distinction4 ,in ordinary acceptance among engineers and practical working electricians1 electro-motive force is considered as pressure and it is measured in units called volts4 ,the usual standard for testing and comparison is a special form voltaic cell1 called the ,clark cell4 ,this is made with great care and composed of pure chemicals4 ,the term positive expresses the condition of the point having the higher electric energy or pressure1 and1 negative1 the lower relative condition of the other point1 and the current is forced through the circuit by the 7,e4 ,m4 ,f47 electric pressure at the generator1 just as a current of steam is impelled through pipes by the generating pressure at the steam-boiler4 ,care must be taken not to confuse electro-motive force with electric force or electric energy1 when matter is moved by a magnet1 we speak rightly of magnetic force2 when electricity moves matter1 we may speak of electric force4 ,but1 ,e4 ,m4 ,f4 is quite a different thing1 not 8force0 at all1 for it acts not on matter but on electricity1 and tends to move it4 ,,the ,,dynamo1 ,,or ,,generator4 ,the word dynamo1 meaning power1 is one transferred from the ,greek to the ,english language1 hence the primary meaning of the term signifying the electric generator is1 the electric power machine4 ,the word generator is derived from a word meaning birth giving1 hence also the dynamo is the machine generating or giving birth to electricity4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bag4--,see page #bea4 ,again1 the dynamo is a machine driven by power1 generally steam or water power1 and converting the mechanical energy expended in driving it1 into electrical energy of the current form4 ,to summarize1 the dynamo-electric generator or the dynamo-electric machine1 proper1 consists of five principal parts1 viz3 #a4 ,the armature or revolving portion4 #b4 ,the field magnets1 which produce the magnetic field in which the armature turns4 #c4 ,the pole-pieces4 #d4 ,the commutator or collector4 #e4 ,the collecting-brushes that rest on the commutator cylinder and take off the current of electricity generated by the machine4 ,fig4 #bah shows a dynamo of the early ,edison type--the names of the principal parts are given in the note below1 as well as those of the other parts of the machine4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bah4 ,this is a two-pole machine1 direct current2 the figure is introduced to show the 8parts0 only--as this dynamo has been largely superseded by others of the four pole type4 ,,note4--,a1 ,magnet yoke2 ,b1 ,magnet and field piece2 ,c1 ,pole piece2 ,d1 ,zinc field piece2 ,e1 ,armature2 ,f1 ,commutator2 ,i1 ,quadrant2 ,,jj1 ,brushes2 ,k1 ,adjusting handle for the brushes2 ,l1 ,switch pivot2 ,m1 ,pilot lamp receptacle2 ,n1 ,negative lug2 ,o1 ,switch lever2 ,p1 ,positive lug2 ,q1 ,positive terminal2 ,r1 ,negative terminal2 ,s1 ,negative rod2 ,t1 ,pole piece2 ,,uu1 ,bearings2 ,x1 ,slides for belt tightener2 ,,vvv1 ,driving pulley2 ,y1 ,connecting blocks1 one on each side of machine4 ,an electric motor is a machine for converting electrical energy into mechanical energy2 in other words it produces mechanical power when supplied with an electric current2 a certain amount of energy must be expended in driving it2 the intake of the machine is the term used in defining the energy expended in driving it2 the amount of power it delivers to the machinery is denominated its out-put4 ,the difference between the out-put to the intake is the real efficiency of the machine2 it is well known that the total efficiency of an electric distribution system1 which may include several machines1 usually ranges from #ge to #hj per cent41 at full load1 and should not under ordinary circumstances fall off more than say #e per cent4 at one-third to half load2 the efficiency of motors varies with their size1 while a one horse-power motor will1 perhaps1 have an efficiency of #fj per cent41 a #ajj horse-power may easily have an efficiency of #ij per cent4 and the larger sizes even more4 ,the general and growing application of electric power to the driving of all kinds of machinery including pumps makes the question of motor driving one of the most important in the power field4 ,for many purposes1 a single speed is sufficient1 but for others1 it is imperative that the speed should be variable2 and for still others1 though not absolutely necessary1 a speed adjustment is very desirable4 ,while the direct-current motor has been in this field so long that its properties are well known and its possibilities fully developed1 in the operation of motors located in the immediate neighborhood of the generator the alternating-current motor has marked advantages where a large area of territory has to be covered and the conditions are nearly uniform1 that is to say-- ,where the current has to be transmitted a long distance and the load is approximately constant1 the alternating system is preferred1 as it can be operated with small main lines or conductors4 ,this effects a saving in copper1 over the direct system which requires larger conductors4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bai4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bbj4 ,fig4 #bag1 on page #bdg1 shows a four-pole generator designed to run by a belt or directly connected to an engine4 ,the five parts named1 as the principal parts of a dynamo1 are all shown in the figure4 ,the machine is arranged ready to be bolted to the floor4 ,fig4 #bai on the opposite page is the armature which is made up of coils of insulated wire1 the free ends of which1 see ,fig4 #bbj1 are united to the arms of the commutator bars4 ,when the armature is finished1 as shown1 the wire forms an unbroken circuit4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bba4 ,fig4 #bba is intended to represent another form of armature1 but the principle upon which it operates1 is the same1 as the other shown4 ,a ,a1 represents the wire coils of the armature1 ,b1 is the shaft with its journals1 ,c1 is the commutator4 ,all commutators both for generators and for motor armatures are insulated by mica between the bars4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bbb4 ,fig4 #bbb shows a woven wire brush4 ,the brushes on the dynamo1 page #bdg1 are made of carbon4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bbc4 ,fig4 #bbc shows an alternating induction motor4 ,induction is a property by virtue of which an electric current is transferred from one conducting line to another without any metallic connection2 it is that influence by which a strong current flowing through a conductor controls or affects a weaker current flowing through another conductor in its immediate neighborhood1--the strong current remaining unaffected4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bbd4 ,fig4 #bbd exhibits the armature for the above alternator2 it is familiarly called a 8squirrel cage armature0 on account of its resemblance to the wheel in a squirrel's cage4 ,its peculiar construction enables it to run without producing any sparks2 this feature renders it safe to run where there are explosive gases which might be ignited by an electric spark4 ,in the machine the bearings are cast solid with the end shields1 thus assuring perfect alignment when properly turned4 ,another feature is the automatic self adjusting bearings which are lubricated mechanically by rings resting upon the shaft4 ,these rings were formerly a failure1 but by the use of mineral oils are now a success4 ,this machine is one of the simplest designs of alternating motors1 the example1 ,fig4 #bbc1 is one developing one hundred horse-power4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bbe4 ,fig4 #bbe shows a revolving field with 8spider40 ,in this construction of generators or motors the field revolves in place of the armatures1 the first object of this design is to reduce the high rotative speed2 it is also claimed to have a better electrical efficiency4 ,the field spider consists of an extra heavy cast iron pulley which is keyed to the shaft2 the low speed at which it runs permits the employment of bolts to secure the field coils and laminated pole pieces to the rim of the spider1 as shown in the engraving4 ,with this construction each individual pole piece can be removed and replaced independent of the others4 ,the laminated pole piece1 one of which is shown in detail in ,figs4 #bbf-bbi1 takes its name from the fact that it is built up of a large number of layers of soft sheet iron1 which it has been demonstrated give a better electrical efficiency than a solid iron4 ,soft iron is the most magnetic of all metals and is better suited for pole pieces than steel4 ,it should be understood that each individual pole piece is insulated from the others as well as from the spider4 ,the pieces of sheet iron are stamped out--like washers and are cut apart and the ends united so as to form a continuous coil1 like a coil of wire and each coil is isolated2 mica is used between the layers4 ,illustration3 ,,figs4 #bbf-bbi4 ,fig4 #bcj is designed to illustrate the front of a continuous current two wire switchboard with circuit breakers2 these are made up usually of marble or slate so that they will not burn2 the ,insurance ,underwriters require a non-combustible material at this place1 as well as hangers1 and insulators used for conductors4 ,the ,switches shown in the middle of the board1 are enlarged in ,fig4 #bcb1 and are used for closing the connections with the generators and lines running to various parts of the field to be lighted or furnished with power4 ,the switch handles are made usually of wood or hard rubber2 the blades are of copper4 ,the connections are soldered into the sockets shown upon the ends of the screws which project beyond the back of the switch-board4 ,the upper row of figures as shown in ,fig4 #bcj and enlarged in the engraving1 #bca1 are circuit-breakers4 ,the use of these is analogous to that of the safety-valve upon a steam boiler1 so that when the pressure in the circuit exceeds that at which it is set the 8breaker0 opens the circuit and thus prevents damage4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bcj4 ,in this case1 the main contact is formed by means of a laminated brush while the final stroke is made on carbon1 the motion of this breaker is by means of a toggle-joint which so multiplies the power applied that it does not require much of an effort to close it2 this device maintains the same speed in operating the breakers when the circuit-breaker is tripped4 ,a ,rheostat is a device for controlling the amount of electricity in a conductor--by the insertion of coils of wire in a box--which may be successively switched in or out of the main circuit by means of a lever and button-switch4 ,the best place to install a rheostat is on a wall or post1 as the resistance transforms a portion of the electric energy into heat1 which heat must be dispersed into the atmosphere4 ,a transformer is an induction coil employed usually for lowering electric pressure1 but it may also be used for raising the same1 in which case it is sometimes called a booster4 ,a compensator is a transformer which works automatically4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bca4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bcb4 ,ammeters record the quantity of current flowing through the circuit1 in amperes4 ,voltmeters record the pressure or strength of the current in volts4 ,an ,ampere is an electric current which would pass through a circuit whose resistance is one ohm under an electro-motive force of one volt4 ,a ,volt is an electro-motive force of sufficient strength to cause a current of one ampere to flow against a resistance of one ohm4 ,the ampere is the unit for calculations relating to the quantity or volume of a current2 the volt is the unit for calculating the pressure or strength of the current4 ,the action of the electric current in producing rotation in an electric motor is really quite simple4 ,while many electrical problems are comparatively complicated1 the principal elements in the operation of electric motors may be readily understood4 ,the fundamental fact in this connection is the relation between an electric current and a magnet4 ,if a piece of round bar iron be surrounded by a coil through which an electric current passes1 it becomes a magnet4 ,in ,fig4 #bcc the passage of a current through the coil of wire around the iron bar in either direction1 renders the iron a magnet1 with all its well-known properties4 ,it will attract iron1 and the space surrounding it becomes magnetic4 ,iron filings will arrange themselves in the direction shown by the dotted lines in the figure4 ,one end of the magnet is the ,north or positive pole and the other the ,south or negative - pole4 ,if a wire1 such as ,,cd1 be moved past either pole of the magnet1 there will be a tendency for current to flow in the wire either from ,c to ,d or ,d to ,c1 according to the character of the pole past which it is moved1 and to the direction of the movement4 ,if the ends of the wire ,,cd are joined by a conductor1 so that there is a complete circuit1 a current of electricity will flow through this circuit4 ,this circuit may be a simple wire1 as shown by the line ,,cefd1 or it may be the wire coils on machines enabling the current to produce mechanical work1 or it may be electric lamps producing light4 ,the indispensable feature is that there shall be a complete unbroken circuit from ,c to ,d for the current to flow1 no matter how complicated or how long this circuit may be4 ,this description of a dynamo and motor carries with it all of the elementary theory of electric generators and motors that is necessary for an attendant to know in order to take reasonably intelligent care of electric machines4 ,further useful knowledge must be acquired by studying the different types of electric motors and dynamos4 ,all these other types of direct current machines have the same elementary theory1 although their construction may be quite different4 ,by suitable illustrations the operation of the electric motor as applied to pumps will be easily understood2 its application to other machines is the same in theory and practice4 8,why an electric motor revolves0 is a question well worth careful1 and1 if necessary1 long study4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bcc4 ,the reason why there is a tendency for an electric current to flow in the wire ,,cd when it is moved in the vicinity of a magnet is not fully known4 ,there are several theories1 all more or less complicated1 and depending upon pure assumptions as to the nature of an electric current4 ,for practical purposes it matters little what the reason is1 the fact that current flows when there ts an electric pressure in a closed circuit1 is the important thing1 and it serves all useful purposes to know that current does flow1 and that its direction and amount are always the same under similar circumstances4 ,there are many facts in mechanics that are accepted and used practically1 about which little is known as to their fundamental and primary causes1 and this fact about motors and dynamos is1 therefore1 only one of many which all must accept without a full and complete explanation4 ,the intensity of the electric pressure1 or electro-motive force1 depends upon the velocity of revolution of the wire sections in the armature and upon the strength of the magnets1 and the quantity of current depends upon the electro-motive force and upon the amount of the resistance in the circuit4 ,other things being equal1 the current1 flowing through a long small wire1 or greater resistance1 will be less than through a short1 thick wire1 or a less resistance4 ,having seen that when a wire is moved in the vicinity of a magnet an electric pressure is produced which will cause a current to flow in a closed circuit1 one can easily conceive of many ways in which1 by combining magnets and wires so that there will be a relative motion between them1 a current of electricity may be generated4 ,in order to cause a continuous flow the relative motion must be continuous2 and if the current is to be uniform the motion must be uniform4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bcd4 ,two electro-magnets are shown in ,fig4 #bcd1 in which the ,north pole of one magnet is near the ,south pole of the other1 and the magnetic field between the two lies in the approximately straight lines between the two magnets1 as indicated by the dotted lines4 ,if the wire ,,cd be moved across this field and its ends be joined1 as by the metallic circuit ,,cefd1 a current will flow in this circuit4 ,the wire ,,cd may be made to revolve around the wire ,,ef1 passing in front of one pole and then in front of the other pole1 as in ,fig4 #bce4 ,the current in the circuit will pass in one direction when the wire is passing one pole1 and in the other direction when it is passing the other pole4 ,the connection between this elementary arrangement and the dynamo is easily recognized4 ,in the dynamo a magnetic field is produced by electric magnets1 called 8pole pieces10 and a considerable number of wires similar to the wire ,,cd are placed upon an armature so that they revolve in front of these poles4 ,each individual wire produces current first in one direction and then in another direction1 as explained above2 but if there be many wires there will always be the same number in front of the ,north1 or positive pole1 and the same number in front of the ,south1 or negative pole1 so that the total or resultant action is practically uniform1 and may be made to produce a continuous current4 ,such a machine is the common direct current dynamo1 or motor4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bce4 ,a dynamo transforms mechanical into electrical energy1 and a motor transforms electrical into mechanical energy4 ,the two operations are reversible1 and may be effected in the same machine2 a dynamo may be used as a motor1 or a motor may become a dynamo4 ,a dynamo is a motor when it is driven by a current of electricity1 and it is a dynamo when it is driven by mechanical power and produces an electric current4 ,if a motor be driven by an engine1 it can deliver a current of electricity which is able to operate other motors or electrical apparatus or lights4 ,a simple form of electric machine is shown in ,fig4 #bcf1 which is a general form of the electric motor4 ,in this there are two projections of steel1 ,h and ,g1 which are made electro-magnets by the current flowing through the wires wound around them from any source of electricity1 such as a battery at ,i and ,j4 ,these magnets have poles facing toward an armature1 ,k1 on a shaft4 ,the poles ,g and ,h are called the 8salient0 poles2 the poles ,m and ,p are called the 8consequent0 poles4 ,the magnetic flow or field is shown by the dotted lines4 ,on the periphery of the armature are wires in the slots shown4 ,as this armature revolves1 there will be a tendency for electricity to flow through the wires4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bcf4 ,in order to distribute a current of electricity through these wires it is necessary to make a complete circuit4 ,as each of the wires in the slots passes in front of a pole1 a pressure or electro-motive force will be generated1 and its direction will depend upon whether the pole is a ,north or a ,south pole1 i4 e41 or -4 ,,note4--,in the above illustrations ,i and ,j represent the ordinary electric battery2 in electrical literature such marks always indicate a battery4 ,the pressure or electro-motive force generated in the wires moving in front of the ,north1 or positive field poles1 will be in one direction1 while that of those in front of the ,south1 or negative field poles1 will be in the opposite direction4 ,therefore1 if two such wires be connected together at one end of the armature1 the free terminals of the wires at the other end of the armature will have the sum of the electro-motive forces generated in the two wires4 ,the wires so connected can be considered as a turn of a single wire instead of two separate wires1 and this turn may be connected in series with other turns1 so that the resulting electro-motive force is the sum of that in all the turns and all the wires so connected4 ,it is customary to connect the coils of an armature so that the electro motive force given is that obtained from half the coils in series4 ,the other half of the coils is connected in parallel with the first half1 so that the currents flowing in the two halves will unite to give a current in the external circuit equal to twice the current in the two armature circuits or paths4 ,it is evident that1 as the armature revolves1 wires which were in front of the positive pole will pass in front of the negative1 and that in order to maintain the electro-motive force it will be necessary to change the connections from the armature winding to the external circuit in such a way that all the wires between the two points of connection will have their electro-motive forces in the proper direction4 ,the connection to the armature must therefore be made not at a definite point in the armature itself1 but at a definite point with reference to the field magnets1 so that all the wires between two points or contacts shall always sustain the same relation to the field magnets4 ,for this purpose a device known as a 8commutator0 is provided4 ,the commutator is made up of a number of segments1 as shown at ,a1 in ,fig4 #bcg1 which are connected to the armature winding4 ,on the commutator1 rest sliding contacts1 or brushes1 which bear on the segments and are joined to an external circuit1 making a continuous path through which current may flow4 ,as the commutator revolves1 the different segments come under the brushes1 so that the relative position of the armature wires between the brushes is dependent on the position of the brushes4 ,the armature wires which connect the brushes are those sustaining the desired definite position to the field magnets1 so that the currents from the armature at all times flow properly into the external circuit1 although individual armature wires carry currents first in one direction and then in the other direction1 depending on the character of the pole in front of which they may be moving4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bcg4 ,on two-pole machines there are two brush-holders1 each containing one or more brushes4 ,on the four-pole machine there may be either two or four brush-holders1 and on a six-pole machine1 either two1 four1 or six brush-holders4 ,a single path of the current through the commutator and armature winding is shown by the arrows on ,fig4 #bcg4 ,the brushes ,b and ,c are placed on the top side of the commutator to make them more accessible1 and this shows a peculiar but simple armature winding4 ,for the sake of simplicity1 the batteries ,i and ,j1 of ,fig4 #bcf1 are not used on common forms of generators or motors1 but the current that flows from the armature through the commutator is made to flow through the electro-magnets either in whole or in part4 ,if all of the armature current flows around the electro-magnets or fields of the machine1 it is a 8series0 machine2 if only a part of the current is used in this way1 it is a 8shunt0 machine2 that is1 some of the current is 8shunted0 through the fields4 ,sometimes both the shunt and series windings are used1 and in that case the machine is called a 8compound wound0 machine4 ,such a machine has a large wire through which the main current passes1 and a fine wire through which the shunted current flows4 ,fig4 #bcg shows how the commutator and the fields are connected1 and how the current flows from the wires in the armature through the commutator in a series machine4 ,if the current delivered by a dynamo does not flow in the desired direction1 it can be reversed by shifting the wires in the binding posts or by throwing a switch4 ,if the motor does not revolve in the desired direction1 it can be made to do so by reversing the connections to the armature or field-coils2 so that1 without knowing which way a current of electricity is to be generated1 any practical man can make a motor revolve in a proper direction by simply changing its connections4 ,it is natural that a machine which gives out electric energy when driven by an external power1 should1 when electric energy is delivered to it1 reverse its action and give out mechanical power and do work4 ,perhaps the simplest way to explain the cause of the movement of an electric motor1 when supplied with a current1 is to compare its action to the well-known attraction of unlike poles or magnets and the repulsion of like poles4 ,unlike poles are ,north and ,south2 like poles are two ,north or two ,south4 ,in all motors a current through the field causes a ,north or ,south pole to be maintained1 and a current through the armature and brushes causes an opposite polarity4 ,these constantly-maintained unlike poles attract each other and pull the armature around on its axis4 ,it has been explained that if a motor be driven by a belt an electro-motive force is produced and the machine acts as a dynamo4 ,it is also a fact that an electro-motive force is produced whether the power for driving the machine is received from a belt or from the electric current1--that is1 whether the machine be driven as a dynamo or as a motor4 ,in a dynamo1 however1 the current follows the direction in which the electro-motive force is acting4 ,in a motor1 the electro-motive force produced has a direction opposed to that of the flow of current4 ,this may be illustrated by the following experiment4 ,two similar machines are driven independently at #fjj revolutions and give an electro-motive force of #ajj volts4 ,similar terminals of the two machines are connected together2 no current flows between the machines1 because the two pressures are the same and are in opposite directions4 ,if now the belt be thrown off from one machine1 its speed will begin to fall2 this will lower its electro-motive force below that of the other machine or dynamo1 but will not change the direction of the force4 ,there will now be a difference of pressure in favor of the machine which is driven1 and it will deliver a current through the other machine and run it as a motor4 ,the speed of the motor will continue to fall until the difference in pressure or electro-motive force between the two machines is only sufficient to cause the flow of enough current to keep the motor running against whatever frictional resistance1 and other resistance there may be4 ,the electro-motive force generated in the motor1 which is against1 or counter to that of the current in the circuit1 is called the 8counter electro-motive force40 ,in order to determine how fast a motor will run without doing work under any given pressure1 it is not necessary to know anything about the dynamo that furnishes the pressure4 ,the pressure alone is sufficient to determine the speed of the motor4 ,for instance1 if a motor will give a pressure of #ejj volts when running free at #ajj revolutions1 it will always run at about #ajj revolutions when not doing work on an electric circuit where the pressure is #ejj volts4 ,,magnetic ,,needle4 ,the figure on page #bdb shows a magnetic compass needle4 ,this is used to test the direction of an electric current flowing through a wire or cable conductor4 ,the plus sign1 1 is the positive and the minus1 -1 sign is the negative end or pole4 ,a continuous current always flows from the positive to the negative end or pole1 hence the north end or pole1 ,n1 is the positive end of the needle and the south pole1 ,s1 is the south pole of the needle4 ,when one of these devices is held in close proximity to a conductor of electricity it immediately assumes a parallel position to the conductor and indicates the direction in which the current is flowing4 ,the long1 upper arrow1 as shown in the figure1 tells the direction of the flow4 ,a small pocket compass may be used in place of this device and is often carried in the pocket of electricians for the purpose of indicating the direction of the current4 ,,pressure ,,is ,,necessary ,,to ,,produce ,,an ,,electric ,,current4 ,it should be understood that an electric dynamo or battery does not generate electricity1 for if it were only the quantity of electricity that is desired1 there would be no use for machines1 as the earth may be regarded as a vast reservoir of electricity1 of infinite quantity4 ,but electricity in quantity without pressure is useless1 as in the case of air or water1 we can get no power without pressure1 a flow of current4 ,as much air or water must flow into the pump or blower at one end1 as flows out at the other4 ,so it is with the dynamo2 for proof that the current is not generated in the machine1 we can measure the current flowing out through one wire1 and in through the other--it will be found to be precisely the same4 ,as in mechanics a pressure is necessary to produce a current of air1 so in electrical phenomena an electro-motive force is necessary to produce a current of electricity4 ,a current in either case can not exist without a pressure to produce it4 ,,electric ,,pumping ,,machinery4 ,since the conditions surrounding pumping plants are so widely different1 it is impossible to treat every practical application in detail1 hence1 the space allotted to this subject has been used in the preceding succinct and plain discussion of the principles upon which electric power is applied to the operation of pumps4 ,the following are some of the advantages claimed for electric pumping machinery3 8,economy in operation and maintenance is the first and most vital consideration that demands the attention in the installation of pumping machinery4 ,in respect to economy1 the electric system has many important advantages4 ,it is saving in the transmission of power1 and thus enables a pumping installation to be situated at a considerable distance from the source of power where the first cost and maintenance expense of other systems would be almost prohibitive4 8,the economy in space required is also worthy of consideration4 ,the driving mechanism of a modern electric pumping outfit occupies a small amount of room and the space required for wiring is negligible4 ,in case of accident1 any mechanical injury to wires can be quickly and easily repaired--thus the economy in time and expenditure for repairs4 ,there is no large loss by condensation4 ,the only loss sustained with the electric system in the transmission of power is a small loss due to line resistance1 increasing directly with the amount of water being pumped and ceasing entirely when the pump is not in operation40 ,a well designed electric pump will give an efficiency of from #ge to #hj per cent42 and1 as the transmission loss depends upon the weight of copper in the transmission line it can be made as low as the cost of power1 and1 #b1 the investment in copper will warrant4 ,,directions ,,for ,,installation4 #a4 ,it is important to locate the electric pump where it will be dry and clean and where it will be thoroughly accessible for proper care4 #b4 ,no pipes should be allowed to pass above the electric motor where liquids are likely to drip upon it4 #c4 ,the suction or supply pipe must be as short and straight as possible and must be air tight1 as air entering the pump through the suction reduces its capacity or prevents it from working altogether4 #d4 ,a tight foot valve and a strainer should invariably be used on the bottom end of the suction pipe when the water is to be lifted from #h ft4 to #aj ft4 below the pump4 ,where the lift is excessive or for any reason the supply be limited1 an air chamber placed on the suction pipe near the pump will prove beneficial in preventing slamming of the valves4 #e4 ,provision should be made for draining both pumps and pipes in cold weather by a proper application of frost cocks4 #f4 ,if the electric pump is kept dry1 clean and well oiled1 it will prove the most desirable and least expensive apparatus to be had for the service4 #g4 ,ascertain the nature of electric current to be used4 ,direct or alternating8 ,voltage8 7,if alternating1 note phase and number of alternations47 #h4 ,also record any unusual or peculiar circumstances connected with the installation or operation of the apparatus2 and if so1 what8 ,,domestic ,,electric ,,pumps4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bch4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bci4 ,in many places the pressure on the mains is insufficient to raise the water to the upper floors or through improperly designed systems of piping the pressure may be so diminished as to make the flow extremely weak or the difficulty in securing proper water supply may be due to inconvenient location with reference to water mains4 ,the automatic electric house tank pumping plant has been designed and perfected to meet these conditions2 the electric plant is connected to some power or lighting circuit and provided with an automatic attachment requiring no more care than can be given by any casual attendant4 ,such an installation avoids the smoke1 ashes1 dust and objectionable odors that accompany steam or gas plants4 ,the accompanying diagram shows the general arrangement of the automatic electric house system used with a tank in the upper part of the building and the pump in the basement or cellar4 ,the operation is as follows3 ,when water is being delivered to the tank1 the float rises until the upper knob makes forcible contact with the switch lever1 opening the switch and stopping the pump4 ,when water is withdrawn from the tank1 the float falls until the lower knob makes contact with the switch lever1 which again closes the switch and starts the pump4 ,the supply of water is thus maintained within the tank without the aid of an attendant4 ,the accompanying illustration1 ,fig4 #bch1 shows a ,worthington house tank pump of #ejj gallons per hour capacity belted to a ,general ,electric direct current motor1 the pump and motor being mounted on the same base4 ,,table ,,of ,,capacity4 ,diameter of ,plungers #b #b-c_/d #c #c-c_/d ---------------------------------------- --------- ,length of ,stroke #d #d #d #d ---------------------------------------- --------- ,revolutions per ,minute #de #de #de #de ---------------------------------------- --------- ,gallons per ,minute #i4h #ah4e #ba4h #cd4d ---------------------------------------- --------- ,maximum ,water ,pressure in ,lbs4 #aej #ge #fj #dj ---------------------------------------- --------- ,gallons per ,hour #ejj #a1jjj #a1bjj #a1hjj ---------------------------------------- --------- ,feet #a ,h4,p4 ,will ,pump ,against #age #hj #gj #ej ---------------------------------------- --------- ,feet #b ,h4,p4 ,will ,pump ,against #cjj #age #adj #ajj ---------------------------------------- --------- ,the above useful table is inserted to show the capacities1 revolutions1 size of plungers1 etc41 in these electrically driven pumps1 the automatic feature of which is truly admirable4 ,it must be remembered that the number of combinations between small electric motors and proportionate pumps for water1 gas1 air1 etc41 afford an endless field for the exercise of engineering skill4 ,,electric ,,motor ,,and ,,air ,,pump4 ,fig4 #bdj is intended to show the application of the electric motor to a triplex pump of small size1 the plungers being #c-a_/h inches in diameter4 ,the ,stroke is #d-g_/h inches which gives a capacity of #ajh cubic inches per revolution1 with a pressure of #ej lbs4 to the square inch4 ,the pumps require about one-half horse power applied at the motor4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bdj4 ,the high speed of the motor is reduced by two belt pulleys and two chain wheels4 ,these pumps may be worked independently to produce pressure or vacuum as desired by a separate pipe for each pump4 ,,motor ,,and ,,centrifugal ,,pump4 ,fig4 #bda is intended to show the application of the electric motor to a centrifugal pump2 these two machines are mounted on one bed plate1 directly connected by a flange coupling between them4 ,the motor shown1 is almost identical with the machine illustrated1 ,fig4 #bag1 and described on page #bea4 ,the pump is so arranged that the discharge can be turned in any direction desired4 ,wherever electric power is available and the centrifugal pump is the form best adapted to the work1 this combination presents advantages over a steam engine operated by a plain slide valve such as is generally used4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bda4 ,,direct ,,driven ,,motor ,,pump4 ,fig4 #bdb shows a double pump driven directly1 without gears or belt1 from the shaft of an electric motor4 ,the pump crossheads are connected directly to cranks at each end of the motor shaft4 ,the cranks are set at right angles and each pump is double acting1 or has two plungers connected by outside rods and with outside packed stuffing-boxes1 so that this portion of the pump is always accessible4 ,the plungers are #c-a_/b inches diameter and #e-a_/b inches stroke4 ,the pump and motor are mounted upon a rigid box girder frame3 this unit is self-contained and occupies a relatively small floor space4 ,electric ,drive for ,fire ,pumps4 ,the importance of instantly operating fire extinguishing apparatus can scarcely be exaggerated4 ,the largest conflagrations are but little flames at the beginning1 and if caught at the critical moment they make no record of destruction2 for such service the electric current is the ideal agent4 ,a notable installation of electric-driven pumps for fire service is in the ,marshall ,field store1 ,chicago1 a building occupying an entire city block4 ,the outfit consists of a ,laidlaw-,dunn-,gordon duplex ,underwriter pump connected by single reduction gearing to a waterproof electric motor4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bdb4 ,the pump cylinders1 #h #ab inches1 have a computed capacity of #gjj gallons per minute at #adj pounds water pressure4 ,the pump1 besides its other special features1 is claimed to be rust proof throughout so that it will not get out of ready running condition4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bdc4 ,,electric-,,mining ,,pumps4 ,the electric system has especial conveniences for mine pumping because of its adaptability to long transmissions of power2 electric power can be transmitted to almost any distance1 and the pumps can be supplied with either direct or alternating current motors4 ,a mining outfit can be easily divided into a number of parts1 to facilitate lowering into a mine1 after which the assembling of the parts is a simple operation4 ,stationary pumps for mine use are made in two classes3 first1 vertical pumps having cylinders in a vertical position in which the over all height is comparatively great and the horizontal dimensions as small as possible2 second1 horizontal pumps with cylinders in a horizontal position and having for cross dimensions the over all length4 ,the class of pump to be selected1 of course1 depends upon the limitations of the location4 ,in either case1 the motor used for driving the pump is mounted on an extension of the pump base1 making a self-contained and compact outfit4 ,engraving1 ,fig4 #bdc1 represents a ,quintuplex pump used principally in mining operations1 or wherever large quantities of water are to be delivered under high pressure in the shortest possible space of time4 ,the pump here shown was designed to deliver #bbe gallons of water per minute under a head of #a1bjj feet4 ,it has five plungers #d inches in diameter each and having a uniform stroke of #ab inches4 ,these pumps driven by electric motors it is said represent the most economical method of transmitting power1 as compared with the best designs of steam pumps4 ,an efficiency of #hj per cent4 is claimed for these pumps4 ,,note4--,it is interesting to know that in one of the largest electric pumping installations which has ever been made for mining work1 the power is carried #b1ejj feet underground at a potential of #c1ejj volts and then transformed into #bbj volts at the motors4 ,no trouble has thus far resulted from the high voltage or any other cause2 in regard to danger from underground electric pumps1 it can be stated that accidents due to the use of electricity in such installations are almost unknown4 ,induction motors are arranged to operate without moving contacts4 ,they are therefore free from sparks and can be used in mines where the presence of gases compels the use of safety lamps4 ,fig4 #bdd exhibits an electric induction motor operating a #e-a_/b #h portable track pump4 ,portability is an important feature in all pumps for mine use2 and1 as track pumps may be put into service immediately at any point on a system of tracks1 they meet this requirement better than pumps of any other form4 ,such an outfit can be hauled to any point in the mine and there operated from some convenient circuit such1 for instance1 as the circuit supplying power to mine locomotives4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bdd4 ,the pump and motor shown in ,fig4 #bdd are mounted on an iron truck1 no wood whatever being used in construction1 so that adjustment cannot be affected by moisture and an easy running and durable pump is assured4 ,the pumps are made as compact and strong as possible for mine service1 which is usually exceptionally rough and continuous4 ,they are of the horizontal type which is best adapted for low passageways and are designed so as to afford easy access to all parts4 ,the pumps are single acting and the plungers are provided with outside stuffing-boxes1 which can be packed1 and being in sight1 any leakage can be quickly detected4 ,access to all valves is made easy by the removal of one large hand-hole cover on the valve chest4 ,,the ,,steam ,,pump ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bde4 ,g4 ,,kirkham ,,the ,,steam ,,pump4 ,the illustration1 ,fig4 #bde1 on the opposite page represents the first practical steam pump ever made2 on pages #fg-fi will be found an interesting account of it4 ,the water end is single acting2 the steam end is1 of necessity1 double acting to produce the reciprocating motion4 ,from this original design has been evolved the piston valve as well as many other designs of valve motion for pumps4 ,having already taken up in some detail the construction of 8the parts of the pump0 and the necessary appliances connected with its use1 it now remains to consider the means by which the steam power generated is made available and the mechanism by which the energy is transformed from pressure into pumping power4 ,it may be well to consider at some length the 8,steam end0 of the pump4 ,this consists primarily of cylinders1 together with their connections2 these constitute the muscular system of the pump4 ,the muscular or operating end is separate and distinct from the water end so far as construction is concerned but in operation the two are closely allied4 ,it is therefore necessary as well as convenient to unite them in one equipment and thus enable the propelling mechanism to furnish a constant source of power4 ,so far as the elastic force of steam itself is concerned its history dates back to a period two hundred years ,b4 ,c41 when1 as described by ,hero1 the force generated by steam was utilized for actuating certain devices constructed rather for curiosity than for any benefit which might be derived from their use4 ,very little advance was made in the construction of practical devices until the latter part of the eighteenth century when ,james ,watt by his improvements placed the stationary engine on an operative basis and gave to the world what has proved to be the greatest invention of all time4 ,the first stationary steam engines were used for pumping water and were of the single acting type1 in which the steam was admitted at one end of the cylinder1 the opposite end being open to the atmosphere4 ,the steam acting on the piston forced it to the limit of its stroke when the supply was cut off4 ,the steam then condensed in the cylinder1 forming a partial vacuum1 and the force of the atmosphere upon the opposite side of the piston forced it back1 causing it to complete its stroke before another supply of steam was admitted4 ,this was a slow process1 wasteful of steam and attended with many other inconveniences4 ,an improvement on this device was made in an engine built by ,watt in #aggd4 ,this was a single acting engine but the condenser was separated from the cylinder4 ,the valves were so arranged as to admit live steam into the upper end of the cylinder on the top of the piston and at the same time open the lower end of the cylinder to the condenser4 ,the steam followed the piston in its downward stroke in which action it was aided by the partial vacuum formed in the condenser4 ,at the completion of the downward stroke the valves were changed so as to close the ports to the steam supply and the condenser1 and at the same time open a communication between the two ends of the cylinder equalizing the pressure above and below the piston4 ,the weight of the pump rod on the beam or lever connection overbalanced the weight of the piston and caused it to complete the return stroke4 ,in #aghb the double acting steam engine was patented by ,watt4 ,this was a device in which the live steam acted on each side of the piston alternately1 the opposite side of the cylinder being in communication with the condenser4 ,the same patent covered the method of applying the principle of expansion of steam in the cylinder2 a non-condensing engine was also described4 ,,note4--,this invention was of great historical importance as it covered all the essential detail of modern practice in steam engine building and constituted the fundamental principle of all steam engines4 ,improvements have been made in form and construction1 necessitated by new adaptations which have been constantly developed4 ,the requirements for higher speed1 increased pressure which implies greater power1 and the constant desire for greater economy in fuel have produced a variety of changes in detail but have not altered the fundamental idea4 ,when the steam after being utilized in the cylinder makes its exit directly to the open air1 the engine is called single expansion for the reason that the action of the steam takes place in one cylinder during a single stroke1 and what expansion takes place must be during one half of a revolution4 ,when the steam from one cylinder instead of exhausting into the open air1 is passed to a second cylinder1 of larger area1 and by expanding exerts a pressure on a second piston to aid in the completion of the revolution1 the engine is called double expansion or compound1 because the steam instead of completing its work in a single operation is afforded a double opportunity for expansion and an increased range of action4 ,in the single cylinder the temperature of the walls is reduced in each revolution to correspond with that of the steam at the exhaust pressure4 ,this temperature must be restored by incoming steam at the beginning of a new stroke which means a reduction of power4 ,with a double cylinder owing to the greater range of expansion1 a higher temperature can be maintained in the first cylinder and a large amount of initial condensation is prevented4 ,a still greater use of expansion may be obtained by the introduction of a condenser which allows the final exhaust to be carried below the atmospheric pressure to the extent of the vacuum formed4 ,in stationary and marine practice triple and quadruple expansion engines are common4 ,these are used in large units to give the greatest possible economy in fuel4 ,properties of ,steam4--,before taking up in detail the valve and other mechanism of the steam pump it may not be out of place to consider briefly the action of steam and its expansive properties4 ,heat is identical with mechanical force and the one can be converted into the other4 ,aside from the means used in converting or developing the action a certain quantity of heat always produces a certain quantity of work4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bdf4 ,relative ,volume of ,steam at #bjj pounds ,pressure from ,one ,cubic ,inch of ,water ,relative ,volume of ,steam at ,atmospheric ,pressure from ,one ,cubic ,inch of ,water ,the temperature of steam at atmospheric pressure 7#ad4g lbs4 absolute7 is #bab ,fahr4 ,as the pressure increases the temperature rises1 but is always the same for a given pressure4 ,the sensible heat required to raise the temperature of water from #cb to #bab is #ahj and the heat absorbed by the water or latent heat at #bab is #iif making the total amount of heat expended #aagf4 ,as the temperature rises the latent heat decreases in nearly the same proportion as the sensible heat increases4 ,this number may therefore be taken as a constant to express the unit of heat in one pound of steam from #cb up to the temperature at which evaporation takes place4 ,then #aagf #ggb #ijg1hgb pounds raised one foot which represents the mechanical equivalent or maximum theoretical duty of the quantity of heat contained in one pound of steam4 ,one cubic inch of water if converted into steam at the pressure of the atmosphere 7#ad4g pounds7 will occupy the space of #afdb cubic inches or nearly one cubic foot4 ,as the pressure increases the volume is relatively diminished and if the same quantity of water is converted into steam say at #bjj pounds pressure it will occupy a space of only #acc cubic inches4 ,assuming that no loss occurred by condensation1 if released at this pressure it would expand and again occupy its relative volume at atmospheric pressure4 ,this is illustrated by the accompanying diagram1 ,fig4 #bdf1 showing a cylinder with an internal capacity of #afdb cubic inches provided with a movable piston4 ,a quantity of steam representing that formed from one cubic inch of water is forced into it1 supposing the weight on the piston to be #bjj lbs4 per square inch1 this weight will be raised until the space under the piston occupied by the steam will be #acc cubic inches4 ,if the supply is now cut off 7assuming that no condensation takes place7 the piston will remain at this place supporting its load4 ,if the load on the piston is diminished the volume of steam will expand and the piston will be correspondingly raised in the cylinder4 ,this action will be continued until all the load is removed and only the weight of the atmosphere remains4 ,the volume of steam under the piston will then be #afdb cubic inches4 ,it will therefore be seen that the same quantity of steam has exerted a lifting pressure upon the piston due to its relative volume commencing at #bjj pounds per square inch and gradually decreasing until the pressure of the atmosphere is reached4 ,the ,english unit of heat is that which is required to raise the temperature of one pound of water one degree ,fahrenheit and is known as the ,british ,thermal ,unit1 or ,b4 ,t4 ,u4 ,dr4 ,joule demonstrated by an ingenious device1 ,fig4 #bdg1 in which a weight operated a paddle wheel agitating water in a closed vessel1 that it required #ggb foot pounds to raise the temperature of one cubic foot of water one degree1 or1 on the other hand1 it was deduced that one unit of heat was capable of raising #ggb pounds one foot high4 ,the mechanical equivalent of heat is therefore accepted as #ggb foot pounds for one ,b4 ,t4 ,u4 based on ,joule's experiment4,a ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bdg4 ,the theoretical efficiency of the use of steam by expansion can never be realized1 owing to losses occasioned by condensation1 caused by contact with the cooler walls of the cylinder1 the unavoidable friction of the working parts1 and from the fact that a certain portion of the pressure must be utilized to create a draft for the fire4 ,all these losses must be taken into consideration in calculating the work actually done4 ,from the foregoing it will be readily understood that if the steam is allowed to exhaust from the cylinders at or near the pressure at which it is admitted the work which it might have accomplished by expansion will be lost4 ,this means not only a loss of the steam but of a part of the fuel used to generate it4 ,it is therefore advisable to get all the work out of the steam that is possible and the nearer to atmospheric pressure the exhaust can be brought the greater will be the economy4 ,footnote ,a3 ,,note4--,this unit has been recently changed to #ggh4 ,,useful ,,definitions ,,relating ,,to ,,steam4 ,steam is water in a gaseous state2 the gas or vapor of water2 it liquifies under a pressure of #adg and temperature of #bab ,f4 ,steam is a joint production of the intermingling of water and heat4 ,water is composed of two gases which have neither color nor taste1 and steam is made up of the same two gases with the addition only of that mysterious property called heat by which the water becomes greatly expanded and is rendered invisible4 ,the ,french have a term for steam which seems appropriate when they call it water-dust4 ,this is what takes place in the formation of steam in a vessel containing water in free communication with the atmosphere4 ,at first1 a vapor is seen to rise that seems to come from the surface of the liquid1 getting more and more dense as the water becomes hotter4 ,then a tremor of the surface is produced1 accompanied by a peculiar noise which has been called the singing of the liquid2 and1 finally1 bubbles1 similar to air bubbles1 form in that part of the vessel which is nearest to the fire1 then rise to the surface where they burst1 giving forth fresh vapor4 ,the curious fact must be here noted that if water be introduced into a space entirely void of air1 like a vacuum1 it vaporizes instantaneously1 no matter how hot or cold1 so that of an apparent and fluid body there only remains an invisible gas like air4 ,that steam is dry at high pressure is proved by an experiment which is very interesting4 ,if a common match head is held in the invisible portion of the steam jet close to the nozzle1 it at once lights1 and the fact seems convincing as to complete dryness1 as the faintest moisture would prevent ignition even at the highest temperature4 ,this experiment proves dryness of the steam at the point of contact1 but if throttling exists behind the jet1 the steam supplied by the boiler may be in itself wet and dried by wire drawing4 ,dead steam is the same as exhaust steam4 ,live steam is steam which has done no work4 ,dry steam is saturated steam without any admixture of mechanically suspended water4 ,high-pressure steam is commonly understood to be steam used in high pressure engines4 ,low-pressure steam is that used at low pressure in condensing engines1 heating apparatus1 etc41 at #ae lbs4 to the inch or under4 ,saturated steam is that in contact with water at the same temperature2 saturated steam is always at its condensing point1 which is always the boiling point of the water1 with which it is in contact2 in this it differs from superheated steam4 ,superheated steam1 also called steam-gas1 is steam dried with heat applied after it has left the boiler4 ,total heat of steam is the same as steam heat4 ,wet steam1 steam holding water mechanically suspended1 the water being in the form of spray4 ,specific gravity of steam is #fbe as compared to air under the same pressure4 ,the properties which make it so valuable are3 #a4 ,the ease with which we can condense it4 #b4 ,its great expansive power4 #c4 ,the small space in which it shrinks when it is condensed either in a vacuum chamber or the air4 ,a cubic inch of water turned into steam at the pressure of the atmosphere will expand into #a1ffi cubic inches4 ,,the ,,davidson4 ,the ,davidson pump is shown complete in ,fig4 #bdh2 the valve motion consists principally of a valve1 valve pistons1 valve pin and cam4 ,the main valve is operated by a positive mechanical connection between it and the main piston rod1 also by the action of steam on the valve pistons4 ,the engraving1 ,fig4 #bdi1 shows the details of valve gear and steam cylinder4 ,the steam end consists of the cylinder1 ,m1 valve1 ,a1 and valve pistons1 ,b and ,b4 ,these pistons are connected with sufficient space between them for the valve1 ,a1 covering the steam ports1 ,f and ,f#a1 ,fig4 #bej4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bdh4 ,the valve is operated by the steel cam1 ,c1 acting on a steel pin1 ,d1 which passes through the valve into the exhaust port1 ,n1 in which the cam is located4 ,in addition to this positive motion steam is alternately admitted to and exhausted from the ends of the valve piston through the ports1 ,e and ,e#a1 which moves the pistons1 ,b and ,b#a4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bdi4 ,assumed that this pump is at rest with the valve1 ,a1 covering the main steam ports1 ,f and ,f#a1 in which position the cam ,c1 holds the main valve by means of the valve pin1 ,d1 so that ports1 ,e and ,e#a1 admit steam to one end of the valve piston at the same time connects the other end with the exhaust port4 ,the steam1 acting on the valve pistons1 moves both1 opening the main ports1 ,f and ,f#a1 admitting steam to one end of the steam cylinder and opening the other end to the exhaust4 ,if the valve occupies any other position than the one described1 the main ports1 ,f and ,f#a1 will be opened for the admission and exhaust of steam2 consequently it is evident that this pump will start from all points of the stroke4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bej4 ,on the admission of steam to the cylinder the main port1 ,f1 the main piston1 cam and valve will move in the direction indicated by the arrows4 ,the first movement of the cam oscillates the valve1 preparatory to bringing it into a proper position for the opening of the auxiliary steam ports1 ,e1 to live steam1 and ,e1 to exhaust also to close the valve mechanically just before the main piston reaches the end of its stroke4 ,this causes a slight cut-off and compression1 and fully opens the auxiliary ports1 ,e1 to steam1 and ,e#a1 to exhaust4 ,by the admission of steam to one end1 the other being open to the exhaust1 the valve pistons move the valve to allow the admission and exhaust of steam from the cylinder for the return stroke4 ,this main valve is as much under the control of the piston rod as is the valve of an ordinary steam engine worked by an eccentric which insures a positive action1 the pump being capable of starting from all positions and maintaining a uniform and full stroke4 ,to set the valve piston1 push the main pistons to the end of the stroke until the inner edge of the port and the piston coincide1 then loosen the side lever1 turn the cam1 ,c1 until the valve piston uncovers the auxiliary steam port1 ,e1 leading to the same end of the steam chest occupied by the main piston4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bea4 ,after setting1 secure the cam and then connect the side lever to the connecting rod4 ,the side lever and cam occupy correct relative positions1 therefore1 the lever should be secured to the cam shaft while in this position4 ,the stroke may be regulated by raising or lowering the end of the connecting rod in the slotted end of the slide lever4 ,raising the connecting rod shortens the stroke and lowering it lengthens the stroke4 ,when making the foregoing adjustments it is well to have the connecting rod at or near the bottom of the slot as shown in the engravings4 ,,laidlaw-,,dunn-,,gordon4 ,the single cylinder pumps of this make are equipped with the gear illustrated in ,fig4 #beb1 in sizes varying from #d inches in diameter by #e inches stroke to #bh inches in diameter by #bd inches stroke4 ,the arrangement of valves and ports is shown in the engravings1 ,figs4 #bec and #bed4 ,the admission of live steam to the cylinder and of exhaust steam to the atmosphere is controlled by a valve piston1 ,a1 shown in ,fig4 #beb4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #beb4 ,assume that the piston is in position shown1 ,fig4 #bec1 and that both the main and auxiliary valves cover their respective steam ports4 ,by means of a starting bar1 operating through a stuffing-box in the valve chest1 the piston valve1 ,a1 is moved toward the head of the steam chest1 ,d1 thus opening the ports1 ,e and ,l1 and admitting live steam through ,l1 from the cavities1 ,s1 of the valve piston to the housing end of the main steam cylinder1 through the port1 ,f1 ,fig4 #bee1 forcing the main piston1 ,p1 toward the opposite end of the stroke1 or toward the left in the figure4 ,the port1 ,e1 ,fig4 #bec1 being open1 the exhaust steam escapes from front of the main piston through the port1 ,f1 ,fig4 #bee1 into the main exhaust port1 ,g1 through the port1 ,e4 ,the piston1 ,p1 travels to its extreme left position and the auxiliary slide valve has been drawn to such a position in the direction indicated by the arrow in the smaller drawing in ,fig4 #beb1 as to bring valve piston1 ,a1 toward the opposite end2 the exhaust steam from the steam chest escapes from before it1 through the exhaust port1 ,k1 the opening of which into the chest is at such a distance from the head as will permit sufficient exhaust steam to remain to afford a cushion to the valve piston4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bec4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bed4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bee4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bef4 ,with the auxiliary slide valve in position to bring the hole1 ,h1 over the port1 ,j1 ,fig4 #bef1 it is plain that the exhaust through the port1 ,k1 will pass into the main exhaust through the port1 ,l4 ,with the main piston at its extreme travel toward the right1 the ports1 ,e and ,l1 which correspond to ,f and ,f1 respectively1 in ,fig4 #bee1 are opened in such a manner as to exhaust steam to the atmosphere from the housing end of the steam cylinder through the port1 ,f1 and live steam from the chest to the head end of the main cylinder1 through the port1 ,f1 thus driving the main piston1 ,p1 toward the housing end of the cylinder1 or toward the right4 ,the piston and reciprocating parts traveling in this direction move the auxiliary slide valve to its maximum point of travel in the opposite direction1 thus opening the opposite auxiliary steam and exhaust ports and again driving the valve piston toward the head1 ,d1 of the steam chest1 whence a new stroke begins4 ,lost motion in the valve gear is taken up by adjustable links1 on all sizes above #g inches diameter by #aj inches stroke and on some smaller sizes4 ,cushioning of the steam pistons in the larger sizes and upwards is accomplished by means of suitable valves called cushion valves4 ,in the smaller sizes sufficient cushioning is done by exhaust steam passing from the clearance space next the head through a small hole drilled into the main steam port4 ,to set the valve of this pump it is only necessary to place the piston in its central position and adjust the lever so that the valve will occupy its central position4 ,by this proceeding the travel of the valve is equalized4 ,,the ,,foster4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #beg4 ,the ,foster single cylinder pump valve motion is a compound valve piston and slide valve in one piece and performs the office of both a main and auxiliary valve4 ,it seats over the main steam cylinder on the web or casting connecting together the valve pistons1 and is provided at the bottom with vents or openings1 ,a and ,b1 ,fig4 #beg1 for opening and closing the main steam ports to the main steam cylinder4 ,the sides of this valve are cut to form the recesses1 ,c and ,d1 which are for the purpose of opening and closing the small steam ports1 which admit steam to the valve pistons2 it is also provided with ,l shape slots for the purpose of alternately exhausting steam from the valve pistons through the steam ports4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #beh4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bei4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bfj4 ,in operation the main piston rod commences its forward stroke1 motion is communicated to the vertical arm1 which moves forward on the rod until it engages with one of the cams1 ,e1 ,fig4 #bei1 adjusted on the valve stem4 ,the arm coming in contact with the inclined faces of the cam imparts a rolling or oscillating movement to the stem and valve1 opens one of the recesses1 ,c or ,d1 cut in the side of the valve and admits steam through a port to one of the valve pistons4 ,at the same time this oscillating movement of the valve opens the slot1 ,f1 ,fig4 #bfj1 opposite the first1 and exhausts steam through the alternate port from the other piston4 ,steam thus admitted to one of the pistons 7while exhausts from the other piston71 carries the valve over its seat1 and by means of the vents1 ,a and ,b1 steam is admitted through one of the main ports and exhausts through the other4 ,when the main piston has completed one stroke1 it moves backward on its return2 the arm strikes against the other cam on the valve stem and communicates a reverse motion to the valve which closes and opens the alternate ports to admit and exhaust steam to and from the pistons4 ,it also cushions the piston at the end of each stroke which prevents the piston from striking the heads4 ,to set the valves4 ,this can best be done by starting the pump slowly and adjusting the cams1 ,e1 so as to open the valve at the proper time to compel the piston to make a full stroke4 ,a little experimenting combined with good judgment is all that is necessary1 unless the piston valve be badly worn1 in which case a new valve must be substituted and fitted to the valve chest4 ,,the ,,cameron4 ,the plunger in the ,cameron pump is reversed by means of two plain tappet valves1 shown in the accompanying engraving1 ,fig4 #bfa1 and the entire valve mechanism consists of four pieces1 all of which work in a direct line with the main piston4 ,this pump is simple and has no delicate parts4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bfa4 ,as here represented--,a is the steam cylinder2 ,c1 the main piston2 ,l1 the steam chest2 ,f1 the valve piston1 the right-hand end of which is shown in section2 ,g1 the slide valve2 ,h1 a lever1 by means of which the valve piston1 ,f1 may be moved by hand when expedient2 ,i1 ,i are reversing valves2 ,k1 ,k are the reversing valve chamber bonnets1 and ,e1 ,e are exhaust ports leading from the ends of steam chest direct to the main exhaust4 ,the passages1 ,m1 ,m1 lead directly into the exhaust 7although the connection is not shown1 being cut away in the sectional view71 and closed by the reversing valves1 ,i1 ,i4 ,the piston1 ,c1 is driven by steam admitted under the ,b slide valve1 ,g1 which1 as it travels backward and forward1 alternately supplies steam to opposite ends of the cylinder1 ,a4 ,the slide valve1 ,g1 is operated by the valve piston1 ,f2 ,f hollow at the ends1 which are filled with steam1 which1 issuing through a hole in each end1 fills the spaces between it and the heads of the steam chest in which it works4 ,the pressure being equal at each end1 the valve piston1 ,f1 under ordinary conditions1 is balanced and motionless2 but when the main piston1 ,c1 has traveled far enough to the left to strike and open the reverse valve1 ,i1 the steam exhausts from behind the valve piston through the port1 ,e4 ,the pressure being now unequal behind the two ends1 the valve piston immediately shifts accordingly and carries with it the slide valve1 ,g1 reversing the piston4 ,no matter how fast the piston may be traveling1 it must instantly reverse when it touches the valve1 ,i4 ,in its movement the valve piston1 ,f1 acts as a slide valve to close the port1 ,e1 and is cushioned on the confined steam between the ports and steam chest cover4 ,the reverse valves1 ,i1 ,i1 as soon as the piston1 ,c1 leaves them1 close by the constant pressure of steam behind supplied direct from the steam chest through the ports1 ,n1 ,n1 shown by dotted lines4 ,to set the valve1 it is only necessary to keep valves tight by occasional grinding4 ,the piston as it nears the end of each stroke strikes the stem and lifts the valve off its seat2 this allows the exhaust steam behind the piston valve to escape4 ,the live steam pushes the piston towards the exhausted end carrying the main slide valve along with it4 ,,the ,,mason4 ,the ,mason pump has a valve piston1 a main valve1 a preliminary valve and a yoke connected directly to the valve stem1 as shown in ,fig4 #bfb4 ,the valve piston is contained in a cylinder above the steam chest1 and moves the main valve by means of a pin1 which projects into a pocket in the top4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bfb4 ,the main valve and preliminary valve travel on the same seat1 and receive their motion from the yoke1 ,e1 ,fig4 #bfc1 which surrounds them4 ,this yoke fits the preliminary valve neatly1 allowing an independent movement of the main valve and valve piston4 ,the preliminary valve is the ordinary ,d type and controls three ports1 as shown in ,fig4 #bfc1 the two steam ports are connected with either end of the auxiliary cylinder and the exhaust1 with the small port1 ,a1 in the main valve seat4 ,the duty of the preliminary valve is to alternately connect each end of the auxiliary cylinder with this port4 ,the main valve controls four ports1 and is also of the ,d type1 having an extended cavity connecting the exhaust from the preliminary valve with the main exhaust4 ,the main valve also controls the main steam and exhaust ports of the pump cylinder4 ,steam enters the chest through the steam pipe1 passes around the central portion of the valve piston and through the passages in the piston to both ends of the valve cylinder1 thus balancing the valve piston4 ,suppose that the yoke and preliminary valve have been carried to the back end of the chest1 and have moved the main valve to bring its auxiliary cavity over the auxiliary port1 ,a1 ,fig4 #bfc1 in the main valve seat1 which connects the back end of the auxiliary cylinder with the main exhaust4 ,the steam from the end of the chest passes up through port1 ,b1 down through port1 ,c1 and up through port1 ,a1 into the exhaust port1 ,d1 in the main valve4 ,this unbalances the auxiliary piston1 which is driven back by pressure on the opposite end1 and carries the main valve independently of the yoke4 ,the travel of the main valve causes it to cut off the exhaust from the auxiliary cylinder1 and the remaining steam cushions the valve piston4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bfc4 ,the travel of the main valve also opens the main steam port to the forward end of the pump cylinder1 and connects the back end of the cylinder with the main exhaust1 thus reversing the motion of the piston4 ,this action is repeated at the end of each stroke4 ,whatever position of the piston1 the pump will start when steam is turned on1 as there is always a connection either directly from the steam inlet to one of the steam ports1 or1 if the main valve has covered both steam ports1 it is in a position to connect the auxiliary cavity in the main valve seat with the main exhaust1 which at once releases the steam from one end of the valve piston1 and the pressure on the other end drives the piston1 thus moving the main valve and giving direct communication between the steam inlet and one of the main steam ports4 ,thus it is seen that the piston cannot get into a position where it is impossible for it to respond to the steam pressure4 ,to set the valve place the piston in the mid-stroke position and set the auxiliary valve with rocker arm plumb1 and the preliminary valve covering all its ports equally4 ,these positions may be secured by adjusting the position of the clamp on the valve stem and move the main piston sufficiently so that the auxiliary valve will open one of its ports4 ,,the ,,blakeslee4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bfd4 ,the accompanying engraving1 ,fig4 #bfd1 shows a section of the slide valve chamber1 which is fitted to the top of cylinder4 ,the slide valve1 ,b1 is fitted in the valve chamber1 ,a1 the cut-off valve1 ,c1 works on top of the slide valve and is operated by the valve stem1 ,d4 ,the lever1 ,f1 which moves the valve1 is attached to the crosshead on the piston rod4 ,while the crosshead moves the length of the stroke1 the cut-off valve1 ,c1 moves twice the width of the steam ports in the cylinder4 ,the opening in the cut-off valve1 ,c1 is equal to the length of the dog1 ,e1 plus the throw of the slide valve1 ,b1 plus one-sixteenth inch4 ,the length of the valve chamber on the inside is equal to the length of the cut-off valve minus the throw of the cut-off valve4 ,the valve stem1 ,d1 is connected to the cut-off valve1 ,c1 so that it moves the latter valve a distance proportional to the movement of the steam piston4 ,the opening through the cut-off valve is equal in width to the distance from inside to inside of the ports on top of the slide valve4 ,as the piston moves to the right1 as shown in the drawing1 the cut-off valve moves to the left1 so as to open the right-hand end of the valve box and admits steam1 which acts upon the slide valve and moves it to the left-hand end of the valve box4 ,this opens the port wide in the slide valve1 which corresponds with the port leading to the cylinder while in the upper side of the slide valve the port is nearly closed by the cut-off valve1 so that little steam is admitted to the cylinder2 consequently1 the piston is gradually started on its return stroke4 ,on the return stroke the cut-off valve begins to move and opens one of the ports on top of slide valve1 which stands still until the piston has made a half stroke4 ,by this time the valve is wide open 8full port0 to the cylinder4 ,the cut-off valve1 ,c1 coming in contact with the dog1 ,e1 both the slide valve and cut-off valve move together to the end of the stroke4 ,notice that as soon as the cut-off valve1 ,c1 engages the slide valve and it begins to move1 the port to the cylinder closes so that at the end of the stroke but little steam can get to the piston4 ,the cut-off valve opens the valve box1 ,a1 to admit steam to complete the stroke of slide valve1 and should the steam fail to throw the slide valve1 the piston1 by means of the cut-off valve1 ,c1 coming in contact with the dog1 ,e1 moves the slide valve1 thereby opening the opposite port and preventing the piston from striking the cylinder head4 ,the lower corner of the slide valve1 ,b1 is removed and a slot cut to the exhaust port1 the slot being of sufficient size to release the steam from the ends of the valve box and exhaust pressure of it into the pocket of the slide valve4 ,the movement of this valve very much resembles that produced by means of an eccentric4 ,the movements of the valves are so timed that as the main piston nears the end of the stroke its movement is sufficiently retarded to permit the water valves to seat quietly and without jar1 also on the return stroke1 the steam is so gradually admitted that the piston starts with ease and gradually increases its speed to the middle of the stroke1 from which point it gradually decreases toward the opposite end4 ,a proper adjustment of the cut-off valve allows the piston to stop momentarily at the ends of the stroke without any possibility of striking the cylinder heads4 ,to ,set the ,valve4 ,adjust all joints so that there will be no lost motion in the valve gear4 ,then move the crosshead to the end of its stroke1 and see that the cut-off valve opens the valve chamber one-sixteenth of an inch1 and that the steam valve closes the port leading to the cylinder to within one-sixteenth of an inch4 ,next move the crosshead to the other end of its stroke and note that the valves are in the same relative position4 ,if1 from any cause the cut-off valve does not open correctly to admit steam to the valve chamber at the ends of the stroke of the piston1 the valve can be shortened by filing off the ends4 ,this should not be done1 however1 until all lost motion has been taken up in the valve gear4 ,,the ,,hooker1 ,,with ,,outside ,,valve ,,gear4 ,in this pump 7see ,figs4 #bff1 #bfg7 the steam is admitted to the center of the valve chamber which contains the main valve1 ,a1 and the supplemental slide valve1 ,b4 ,the recess in the center of the valve piston1 ,c1 receives the main valve and moves it when steam is supplied to or exhausted from either end of the valve piston4 ,in operation live steam passes through the left-hand ports1 ,d and ,e1 drives the main piston to the right and the exhaust passes out of the right-hand port1 ,f1 into the cavity in the main valve1 ,a1 thence through the exhaust port1 ,g1 into the atmosphere4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bfe4 ,as the main piston nears the right-hand port1 the valve lever ,h1 attached to and moving with piston rod brings the dog1 ,i1 on plate1 ,j1 in contact with the valve arm1 ,k4 ,this moves the supplemental valve1 ,b1 to the right and supplies live steam to the right of the valve piston1 ,c1 and exhausts the steam from the left-hand end through the ports1 ,l4 ,the main valve1 being enclosed by the valve piston1 moves with it to the left4 ,as the steam enters the right hand main port and exhausts from the left hand port1 the main piston commences its return stroke and the operation just described becomes practically continuous4 ,as the main piston closes the main port1 ,f1 to the right1 it cushions on compressed exhaust steam1 because the main valve1 ,a1 has then closed the auxiliary port1 ,m1 leading to that end of the main cylinder4 ,the steam in this case is supplied through the main and auxiliary ports1 but exhausts through the main port only4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bff4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bfg4 ,the slow movement of the main piston near the ends of the stroke allows the pump valves to seat quietly1 and gives the pump cylinder time to fill with water1 thus effectually preventing shock and noise4 ,the valve piston1 ,c1 is cushioned by cushion valves1 which are simply loose valves inserted near the ends in the valve piston4 ,by removing the steam valve chamber1 the main and supplemental valves may be readily examined or repaired4 ,these valves are the ordinary plain flat slide with which all engineers are familiar4 ,to set the valve of this pump4 ,place the piston in the center of its travel with the valve lever1 ,h1 plumb and also valve arm1 ,k1 plumb2 adjust the supplemental valve so as to cover equally all the posts1 which is done by lengthening or shortening its valve stem4 ,,the ,,national4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bfh4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bfi4 ,the main valve in this pump is moved by steam acting upon a valve piston4 ,the steam admitted to and released from the auxiliary cylinder is controlled by a small slide valve operated by the valve gear4 ,this small slide valve is in every essential feature identical with the slide valve of a steam engine1 admitting and releasing the steam in precisely the same manner4 ,in this pump the usual collars and tappets on the valve stem are dispensed with1 the stem receiving motion by means of a roller carried by a slide block to which the valve stem is attached4 ,the roller is given a lateral motion by set screws in the forked ends of the rocker arm1 as shown in the engraving1 ,fig4 #bfi4 ,by adjusting these set screws the travel of the small slide valve is made to suit the speed of the pump1 thus preventing the main piston from striking the cylinder heads4 ,a sectional elevation of the cylinder and main valve is also shown2 the connection of the valve piston to the main valve1 also the construction of the small slide valve4 ,the valve gear is provided with roller bearings to reduce the friction4 ,to set the valve4 ,the main piston must be moved to the end of the stroke1 so that the face of the piston and the edge of the steam port are flush1 as a preliminary step to set the small slide valve1 then the set screw in the rocker arm nearest the roller on the valve stem should be adjusted so that when the roller is in contact with the set screw the small slide valve will have opened the steam port corresponding to the position of the main piston4 ,now push the main piston to a corresponding position at the opposite end of the stroke and adjust the other set screw nearest the roller on the valve stem in the same manner as the first one4 ,mark the striking points of piston on the piston rod close to the stuffing-boxes4 ,start the pump slowly1 and if the parts work smoothly1 gradually increase the speed1 keeping close watch of the striking points to see that the piston has ample clearance4 ,if the stroke is too short1 the set screws should be backed out until the stroke is found to be right4 ,screwing the set screws in shortens the stroke and increases the clearance at the ends of the stroke4 ,a full stroke should always be required of every pump4 ,,the ,,hill4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bgj4 ,this pump is for deep wells2 it has a valve piston and two slide valves operated by valve stem1 also supplemental port valves to regulate and control the up and down strokes of the main piston4 ,the main and auxiliary valves are both flat slides1 each covering five ports1 as shown in ,fig4 #bga4 ,the main valve is actuated by means of a valve piston1 the steam being admitted to and exhausted from the ends of the valve piston in precisely the same manner that the main valve controls the admission and release of steam in the main pump cylinder4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bga4 ,one of the auxiliary ports enters the end of the main steam chest1 and the other enters at a point nearer the middle of the chest4 ,the end ports are admission only and the inner ones exhaust4 ,when the auxiliary valve reaches the upper end of its travel1 as shown in the engraving1 the admission port opens at the bottom of the steam chest1 while the one at the top closes4 ,at the same time1 the upper end of the main cylinder is open to the exhaust4 ,the admission of steam drives the valve piston upward1 but before reaching the end of its stroke it closes the exhaust port1 thus entrapping a portion of the exhaust steam1 which cushions the valve piston at the ends of the stroke4 ,the auxiliary slide valve is operated by means of a double-cone tappet on the piston rod1 which strikes a rocker bar pivoted to the frame of the pump4 ,the rocker bar carries an arm or lever at right angles to it and to this arm the valve rod is connected4 ,a short shaft runs across and through the upper part of the steam chest and is provided with a toe1 as shown1 by means of which the valve piston may be moved by hand when necessary and without disconnecting any part of the pump or valve gear4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bgb4 ,the port valves provide a simple means of contracting these passages and regulating the velocity of the up and down strokes to meet the requirements of the water ends of the pump so that uniform strokes are obtained regardless of the resistance against the main piston4 ,when adjusting the auxiliary valve1 place the rocker bar parallel to the piston rod and so that the arm to which the valve rod is connected will stand at right angles to the piston rod4 ,the auxiliary valve must then cover all the ports equally4 ,the upper or outer end of the arm on the rocker bar is slotted1 hence moving the valve rod pin toward the end of the arm lengthens the stroke and moving it toward the piston rod shortens it4 ,to set the valve of this pump it is necessary only to square the levers and equalize the travel4 ,,the ,,guild ,,and ,,garrison4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bgc4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bgd4 ,the steam chest of this pump differs somewhat from other pumps in which valve pistons are employed to operate the main valve4 ,see accompanying engraving1 ,fig4 #bgb4 ,this pump has a steam chest with a cover for inspection and repairs4 ,this chest is bored at each end to form suitable cylinders to receive the valve piston1 ,e4 ,by the side of the valve piston1 ,e1 in the steam chest is an auxiliary slide valve1 ,g1 ,figs4 #bgc and #bgd1 which admits and releases the steam from the ends of the valve piston4 ,the valve piston1 ,e1 has two slots at the center1 the lower one receiving the lug on the back of the main valve and the upper one the toe on the rocker shaft1 ,d4 ,the rocker shaft has two toes1 the larger one1 ,f1 engaging with the valve piston1 and the smaller one with the auxiliary slide valve1 ,g1 as shown in ,fig4 #bgd4 ,the auxiliary1 as well as the main1 valves are plain slides designed to take up the wear automatically4 ,the pendulum lever1 ,j1 ,fig4 #bgc1 is connected with the piston rod as shown and rotates the shaft1 ,d1 and by means of the toes the valves move together4 ,the auxiliary slide valve1 ,g1 admits and exhausts the steam to and from the ends of the valve piston4 ,steam being admitted1 the piston moves toward one end4 ,the two valves also move in the same direction by means of the rocker shaft and the toes4 ,this movement continues until the piston has nearly completed its stroke1 when the auxiliary valve opens one of the small ports leading to the end of the valve piston1 thus admitting steam at one end and exhausting it from the other4 ,the valve piston moving from one end of the steam chest to the other1 shifts the position of the main valve and reverses the motion of the main piston4 ,the valve piston is moved the greater part of its travel by the toe on the rocker shaft1 thus reversing the steam distribution1 by steam pressure1 which brings the opposite end of the slot in the driver to a second engagement by the toe on the rocker shaft which begins the return stroke4 ,the steam acts to throw the main valve only near the ends of the valve travel1 and being already in motion the valve requires but very slight help to complete its stroke quickly without shock4 ,the motion of the auxiliary valve is synonymous with the main piston so there can be no practical dead center4 ,the valves are very durable under such easy motion4 ,with this arrangement of valves no setting is necessary because when assembling the parts the centers of the pendulum lever and the toes on the rocker shaft are adjusted parallel with one another4 ,,the ,mc,g,o,w,a,n4 ,the ,mc,gowan single cylinder steam pump and section is shown in ,fig4 #bge4 ,its main valve is of the ,b form and is driven by a valve piston4 ,steam enters the central port in valve seat and into the cylinder through one of the cavities in the valve and exhausts through the opposite4 ,the two tappet valves cover the auxiliary ports1 shown by dotted lines1 leading to the ends of the steam chest and connect with the main exhaust ports4 ,these tappet valves are raised by means of levers1 the ends of which project downward and into the cylinder so that when the piston nears the end of a stroke it comes in contact with the lever and raises it sufficiently to lift the tappet valves4 ,each tappet valve lever is pivoted on a pin which fits into a recess near the main ports1 as indicated by the dotted lines4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bge4 ,when the piston reaches the end of its stroke it lifts one of the tappet levers and with it the corresponding valve is raised from its seat1 opening the port leading from the end of the steam chest to the main exhaust port4 ,the pressure is thus relieved on one end of the valve piston and the steam pressing on the opposite end forces the valve piston to the opposite end of its stroke1 thus reversing the distribution of steam to the cylinder and starting the piston on its return stroke4 ,the valve piston thus moves back and forth1 the ends of the steam chest being filled with steam at initial pressure4 ,steam escaping from one end of the steam chest causes a difference of pressure on the two ends of the valve piston1 from which we realize the power to move the main valve4 ,the tappet valves1 having a very slight lift1 operate without shock or noise4 ,the main valve is connected with the valve piston so that all lost motion is taken up automatically4 ,a rocker shaft1 extending through the steam chest carries a toe moving in a slot in the top of the valve piston1 so that the valve can be moved by hand4 ,to set the valves of this pump4 ,simply keep the valves in order4 ,the motion of the piston as it nears the end of the stroke opens and closes the valves4 ,,the ,,knowles4 ,in the ,knowles pump a valve piston1 ,g1 ,fig4 #bgg1 in the steam chest moves the main valve4 ,this valve piston is driven alternately backward and forward by the pressure of steam1 carrying with it the main valve1 which admits steam to the main steam piston that operates the pump4 ,the main valve is a plain slide whose section is of ,b form1 working on a flat seat4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bgf4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bgg4 ,the valve piston is slightly rotated back and forth by the rocker bar1 ,h2 this rotative movement places the small steam ports1 ,d ,e ,f1 ,fig4 #bgf1 which are located in the under side of the valve piston in proper position with reference to the corresponding ports1 ,a ,b1 cut in the steam chest4 ,steam enters through the port at one end and fills the space between the valve piston and the head1 drives the valve piston to the end of its stroke and carries the main slide valve with it4 ,when the valve piston has traveled a certain distance1 a corresponding port in the opposite end is uncovered and steam enters1 stopping its progress by giving it the necessary cushion4 ,in other words1 when the reciprocating rotative motion is given to the valve piston through the outside mechanism1 it opens the port to steam admission on one end1 and at the same time opens the port on the other end to the exhaust4 ,there is no point in the stroke at which either the valve piston or the main piston is not open to direct steam pressure1 hence the immunity from any dead position or dead center4 ,the operation of the pump is as follows3 ,the piston rod with its tappet arm1 ,j1 ,fig4 #bgg1 moves backward and forward with the piston4 ,at the lower part of this tappet arm is attached a stud or bolt1 ,k1 on which is a friction roller1 ,i4 ,this friction roller1 lowered or raised1 adjusts the pump for a longer or shorter stroke4 ,this roller coming in contact with the rocker bar at the end of each stroke1 and this motion is transmitted to the valve stem1 causing the valve to roll slightly4 ,this action opens the ports1 admits steam and moves the valve piston1 which carries with it the main slide valve which admits steam to the main piston4 ,the upper end of the tappet arm does not come in contact with the tappets1 ,l ,m1 on the valve rod1 unless the steam pressure from any cause should fail to move the valve piston1 in which case the tappet arm moves it mechanically4 ,to set the valve1 loosen the set screws in the tappets on the valve stem4 ,then place the piston at mid-stroke1 and have the rocker bar1 ,h1 in a horizontal position1 as shown in the engraving4 ,the valve piston should then occupy the position shown at ,c1 ,fig4 #bgf4 ,the valve piston may be rotated slightly in order to obtain this position by adjusting the length of connection between the rocker bar1 ,h1 and the valve stem4 ,then turn the valve piston1 ,g1 one way or the other to its extreme position1 put on the chest cover1 and start the pump slowly4 ,if the pump should make a longer stroke on one end than on the other1 simply lengthen or shorten the rocker connection so that the rocker bar1 ,h1 will touch the rocker roller1 ,i1 equally distant from the center pin1 ,j4 ,in case the pump hesitates in making its return stroke1 it is because the rocker roller1 ,i1 is too low and does not come in contact with the rocker bar1 ,h1 soon enough4 ,to raise it1 take out the rocker roller stud1 ,k1 give the set screw in this stud a sufficient downward turn1 and the stud with its roller may at once be raised to its proper height4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bgh4 ,when the valve rod has a tendency to tremble1 slightly tighten the valve rod stuffing-box nut4 ,when the valve motion is properly adjusted1 the vertical arm should not quite touch the collar1 ,l1 and the clamp1 ,m4 ,rocker roller1 ,i1 coming in contact with the rocker bar1 ,h1 reverses the stroke4 ,the water piston is packed by means of segments that will be seen by taking off the follower4 ,the packing may be quickly set out to insure a good vacuum and at the same time not to be so tight as to bind4 ,all wearing parts are made adjustable4 ,,the ,,moore4 ,the valve for admitting steam to and exhausting it from the cylinder of this pump is contained within the cylinder and moves simultaneously with the steam piston1 having no outside mechanism4 ,see ,fig4 #bgh4 ,the piston1 and also the valve1 are of the form of spools1 each representing a hollow sleeve with a ring packed piston head at either end4 ,the piston is secured to the piston rod and the sleeve connecting the two heads serves as the valve seat for the cylindrical valve4 ,the sleeve of the piston contains two longitudinal ports1 one port communicating with one end of the cylinder1 and the other port communicating with the opposite end4 ,suitable holes drilled through the walls of the sleeve and communicating with the longitudinal ports1 act as admission and exhaust ports1 with which the holes and cavities in the sleeve coincide at proper positions in the stroke4 ,referring to the accompanying engraving1 ,fig4 #bgi1 which represents the valve and piston in the position occupied when ready to commence a stroke from left to right1 the reader will easily understand the action of these parts4 ,when the piston reaches the end of the stroke steam enters through the steam pipe at ,a1 between the pistons1 and forces the valve to the left as shown4 ,this movement opens the port1 ,b1 and also brings the cavity1 ,c1 in communication with port1 ,d1 steam being admitted through ports1 ,b and ,d1 into the longitudinal port1 ,f1 thence into the clearance1 ,g1 of the cylinder4 ,this causes the piston to move toward the right4 ,when the piston has moved a short distance to the right steam is admitted into the space1 ,h1 surrounding the valve1 and passing into the cavity1 ,c1 and through the port1 ,d1 furnishes steam to complete the stroke4 ,should the piston stop at mid-stroke it will start again as soon as steam is turned on1 because the port1 ,d1 remains open until the valve is reversed at the opposite end of the stroke4 ,when the piston reaches the latter position1 ,fig4 #bhj1 the valve is reversed1 due to steam entering at ,a1 and again forcing the pistons apart1 as shown4 ,the steam1 which drove the piston from left to right1 now escapes through the port1 ,i1 into the cavity1 ,j1 and around the sleeve to the holes1 ,k1 ,fig4 #bgi1 where it enters the hollow piston1 and finally escapes through the hollow rod1 ,l1 and the port1 ,m4 ,the live steam for the next stroke from right to left1 now enters through ports1 ,n and ,o1 ,fig4 #bhj1 and flows through the longitudinal port1 ,p1 into the end1 ,q1 of the cylinder4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bgi4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bhj4 ,the exhaust steam may be allowed to flow into the atmosphere or into the suction chamber as desired4 ,a valve is located in the base of the pump1 which changes the course of the steam from the atmospheric discharge to the suction chamber4 ,the valve is operated by a lever shown by dotted lines4 ,when the lever is turned down toward the steam end1 the steam is directed into the atmospheric exhaust1 and when turned in the opposite direction the steam will enter the pump suction and be condensed4 ,there is no valve setting to be done on this pump4 ,should the pump fail to work properly1 due to the failure of the steam end1 all that is necessary is to take out the valve and piston and clean them thoroughly and after replacing them and starting the pump to see that these parts are properly lubricated4 ,the remainder of the pump requires the same care and attention that is1 or should be1 given all pumps4 ,,the ,,snow4 ,the auxiliary valve of this pump is a plain flat slide operated by a valve stem1 the latter being moved back and forth by means of a rocker shaft1 as shown in the engraving1 the upper end of which alternately comes in contact with the collars on the stem4 ,the outer end of the valve stem passes through a sleeve attached to a pin in the upper end of the rocker arm1 as shown4 ,a knuckle joint near the stuffing-box permits the rod to vibrate without causing any derangement in the alignment of valve stem through the stuffing-boxes4 ,on the valve stem at either end of the auxiliary valve is a spring1 which tends to keep the valve in a central position1 so that when the rocker arm engages one of the collars1 the valve is drawn against the spring toward that end of the stroke4 ,the result is that the stem and valve follow the rocker arm on the return stroke to its mid-position1 and are started on the latter half of the stroke by the stem1 but without shock or lost motion4 ,this arrangement is particularly valuable in the case of condensers1 and in pumps where the first part of the stroke is made quickly1 and the piston is then suddenly stopped by coming in contact with a solid body of water1 the latter part of the stroke being made much more slowly4 ,the springs on either side of the auxiliary valve take up lost motion and keep the parts in absolute contact1 thus preventing shocks and unnecessary wear4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bha4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bhb4 ,the auxiliary valve controls the admission and exhaust of steam for the steam chest and valve piston in the manner common to all slide valve engines4 ,the valve piston is connected to the main valve1 which allows the valve to find its own bearings on the seat and not only takes up the wear automatically1 but produces even wear4 ,to set the auxiliary valve1 see that the valve is in its central position when the rocker arm is plumb1 and that the collars on the valve stem are located at equal distances from each end of the sleeve4 ,when the piston moves to one end of the stroke1 the auxiliary valve will open the small port at the opposite end1 provided the collars on the valve stem have been properly placed4 ,setting the collars closer together shortens the stroke of the piston1 and moving them farther apart lengthens the stroke4 ,the piston should always make a full stroke without danger of striking the cylinder heads4 ,,the ,,deane4 ,the details of the valve gear used on the ,deane single cylinder steam pumps are shown in the accompanying engraving4 ,the main valve is operated by a small piston called the valve piston1 shown in ,fig4 #bhf4 ,the ears on the main valve fit freely but without lost motion into a slot cut in the valve piston1 so that when the valve piston moves in either direction it carries the main valve with it4 ,the valve piston is fitted to the valve chest and is operated by steam admitted alternately to the opposite ends of the chest4 ,the movements of this valve piston are controlled by a secondary valve1 which admits and exhausts the steam to the valve piston through the small ports at the sides of the steam chest4 ,the secondary valve derives its motion from the valve stem1 tappets1 links and the piston rod as shown4 ,the valve piston is steam jacketed which insures equal expansion of the parts in starting the pump and prevents the seats from pinching the valve piston before these parts have acquired a uniform temperature4 ,the action of this pump is as follows3 ,suppose the piston moving in the direction of the arrow nears the end of the stroke2 the tappet block comes in contact with the left-hand tappet and throws the secondary valve to the left until it's edge1 ,a1 ,fig4 #bhd1 uncovers the small port1 ,s1 ,fig4 #bhc1 admitting steam to the valve piston4 ,the port1 ,e1 and chamber1 ,f1 in the secondary valve provide for the exhaust of steam from the left-hand end of valve piston in the same manner and at the same time that steam is admitted behind the right-hand end4 ,the exhaust ports in the chest allow for properly cushioning the valve piston4 ,the small ports on the other side of the steam cylinder1 ,fig4 #bhc1 control the motion of the valve in the other direction and act in exactly the same manner as those just described4 ,in case the steam pressure should for any reason fail to start the valve piston in time there is a lug1 ,b1 ,fig4 #bhf1 which forms a part of the valve stem and comes in contact with the valve piston and the entire power of the steam cylinder starts it4 ,the correct timing of the valve movements is controlled by the position of the tappets4 ,if they are too near together1 the valve will be thrown too soon and thus the stroke of the pump will be shortened1 while on the other hand if too far apart1 the pump will complete its stroke without moving the valves4 ,the tappets are set and keyed securely before leaving the factory4 ,illustration3 ,,figs4 #bhc-bhe4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bhf4 ,the exhaust from the cylinder is cut off when the piston covers the inner port1 and forms a steam cushion for the piston to prevent it striking the heads4 ,to set the valve4 ,place the steam piston at the end of stroke nearest stuffing-box and the secondary valve so that it will uncover the steam port1 ,s1 ,fig4 #bhc4 ,set the tappet next to the steam cylinder on the valve stem against the tappet block and secure it in this position4 ,slide the secondary valve forward until the opposite steam port is uncovered and place the steam piston in its extreme outward position1 then set the other tappet against the tappet block4 ,now set the valve so that the inside main steam port is open and the valve piston in position to engage the main steam valve1 put the valve chest on the cylinder and secure it in place4 ,the pump will then be ready to start on the admission of steam to the steam chest4 ,if when steam is turned on the pump refuses to start1 simply move the valve rod by hand to the end of its stroke and the pump will move without trouble4 ,in renewing the packing between the steam chest and cylinder extreme caution should be observed to cut out openings for the small ports4 ,,the ,,buffalo ,,single ,,cylinder ,,pump4 ,the engravings1 ,figs4 #bhg1 #bhh1 show the valve gear1 also section of steam cylinder and steam chest4 ,the piston and valves are in their central position1 which condition never occurs in the operation of this pump2 if it did the pump would stop4 ,the valves and pistons being at one end or the other of the stroke uncovers the ports1 and the moment steam is admitted the pump will start4 ,referring to the engravings1 ,a1 is the main steam pipe1 and ,b1 the auxiliary steam pipe4 ,these pipes are one1 inside the casting1 so that one pipe supplies both4 ,assume the valve1 ,c1 moved to the left so that the port1 ,d1 is uncovered4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bhg4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bhh4 ,live steam then flows through the port1 ,d1 and pushes the balanced piston valve1 ,e1 to the left1 carrying the slide valve1 ,f1 with it to the left1 so that the port1 ,g1 is opened to the steam cylinder4 ,the steam enters through the port1 ,g1 pushes the main piston1 ,h1 to the left1 completing one stroke of the piston4 ,as the piston travels to the left the lever1 ,j1 pushes the crosshead1 ,i1 to the right1 which opens corresponding ports in the left-hand end of the cylinder1 and the piston valve1 ,e1 is pushed to the right1 which admits steam on the left-hand side of the main piston through the port1 ,k1 pushing the piston to the right1 completing the second stroke of the piston4 ,the auxiliary slide valve1 ,c1 is operated by the crosshead1 ,i1 coming in contact with the tappets1 ,l ,l4 ,the auxiliary tappets and stem1 ,m ,m1 theoretically could be dispensed with1 but they are put in place for the reason that occasionally the valve1 ,e1 might stick1 due to the pump standing for some time unused or from some other cause4 ,in such a contingency the crosshead1 ,i1 is pushed to the right by the action of the main piston and comes in contact with the tappets1 ,m ,m1 which causes the piston valve to start1 after which steam will complete the work4 ,when the pump is running1 the crosshead1 ,i1 never quite touches the tappets1 ,m ,m1 because it engages the tappets1 ,l ,l1 admitting steam to the piston valve and shifts it before the tappets1 ,m ,m1 are touched4 ,the reason of the double ports in the auxiliary steam chest is to have one port1 ,d1 for steam1 and one port1 ,n1 for the exhaust4 ,steam being imprisoned between these two ports forms a cushion1 preventing the piston valve from striking the heads of the chest4 ,the tappets1 ,l ,l1 set closer together or farther apart control the stroke of the main piston1 ,h4 ,when the pump is running very fast the momentum of the moving parts increases and the tappets will have to be set closer together for high speed than for slow4 ,the tappets1 ,m ,m1 are adjustable to their right relation with the tappets1 ,l ,l4 ,the general design and easy means of adjustment make a reliable single cylinder valve motion4 ,to set the valves4 ,there are no complicated internal parts requiring adjustment1 and almost all parts requiring manipulation can be handled while the pump is running4 ,,the ,,weinman4 ,the accompanying engraving1 ,fig4 #bhi1 represents the ,weinman pump and the sectional engraving1 ,fig4 #bia1 the valve motion4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bhi4 ,the motion of the main piston is controlled by steam valve1 ,a1 which is a hollow cylinder combining a valve piston and slide valve in one and the same casting and sliding horizontally in steam chest1 ,d4 ,this valve is prevented from revolving by a cap screw1 ,b4 ,small drilled openings1 ,c1 ,c1 permit the steam to pass from the steam valve to each end of the steam chest1 ,d4 ,this valve1 ,a1 is moved horizontally in either direction by steam pressure1 and the movement is controlled by an auxiliary valve1 ,e4 ,the openings1 ,f1 ,f 7,fig4 #bij71 conduct the steam from the ends of the steam chest to the auxiliary valve1 which is connected to the piston rod by a tappet rod and the side arm1 ,x4 ,steam being admitted to steam chest1 it passes through steam valve1 ,a1 to ports1 ,h1 ,h4 ,as the construction permits but one of the ports1 ,h1 ,h1 to be in communication at a time with one of the passages1 ,i1 ,i1 leading to the opposite ends of the steam cylinder a dead center becomes an impossibility4 ,while one of the ports1 ,h1 ,h1 is in communication with one of the passages1 ,i1 ,i1 the opposite passage1 ,i1 is in communication with the exhaust1 ,j4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bij4 ,suppose that the steam piston has moved to the end of its stroke1 the auxiliary valve1 which1 as stated above1 is connected to the piston rod1 is shifted4 ,this releases the steam from one end of the steam chest1 ,d1 through port1 ,k1 to exhaust1 ,l4 ,the steam pressure at the opposite end of the steam chest causes the steam valve to slide to opposite end of the steam chest1 thus reversing the motion of the main steam piston4 ,to set the auxiliary valve1 remove the pendulum or tappet lever1 ,x1 and the cap or bonnet1 ,o1 and take out the auxiliary valve1 ,e4 ,with a straight edge and scriber indicate the working edges on the end of the valve1 and mark the edge of the port on the valve seat so that it can be seen when the auxiliary valve is in its proper place4 ,replace the valve1 and the pendulum lever1 omitting the bonnet4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bia4 ,push the steam piston to one end of the stroke1 then swing the pendulum lever toward the end of the cylinder corresponding to the piston1 and until the auxiliary valve uncovers the port leading to the end of the valve chest farthest from the piston4 ,connect the horizontal rod to the bottom of the pendulum lever4 ,then remove the lever from the auxiliary valve stem and replace the bonnet and pendulum lever1 shown by dotted lines4 ,the length of the stroke may be regulated by raising or lowering the end of the horizontal rod in the slotted lower end of the pendulum lever4 ,lowering the rod produces a longer stroke1 and raising it shortens the stroke4 ,,the ,,burnham4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bib4 ,the accompanying engravings illustrate the cylinder valves and valve motion of the ,burnham single cylinder pump4 ,fig4 #bid is a plan of the main cylinder valve face1 having the same arrangement of ports as the cylinder shown in ,fig4 #bic4 ,a longitudinal section of the steam cylinder is shown in ,fig4 #bib4 ,motion is imparted to the slotted arm and cam1 ,a1 by means of a crosshead and a roller on the piston rod4 ,the cam works between and in contact with two blocks on the valve stem1 and by adjusting these two blocks the stroke may be shortened or lengthened1 as the case may require4 ,the valve stem of the auxiliary valve1 ,h1 ,fig4 #bic1 always moves in a direction opposite to that of the piston4 ,the action of this valve alternately admits steam through the double ports1 ,j ,j1 and ,k ,k1 to each end of the valve cylinder1 causing the valve piston1 ,i1 to move the main slide valve1 ,d1 which1 in turn1 admits steam to the main cylinder through the double ports1 ,e ,e1 and ,l ,l4 ,as the travel of the cam is only one-fifth that of the piston travel1 the valve moves slowly1 and without jar or noise which is often caused by long travel and rapid motion4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bic4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bid4 ,steam enters the steam chest at ,b1 and fills the space1 ,f1 between the valve piston heads and the auxiliary valve chest1 ,g1 shown in ,fig4 #bib4 ,with the auxiliary valve1 ,h1 in the position shown1 ,fig4 #bic1 steam passes into both ports1 ,j and ,k1 but as the port1 ,j#a1 is closed by the valve piston1 ,i1 no steam can enter the valve cylinder through it1 but the other port1 ,k 7extending to the extreme end of the valve cylinder71 never being covered by the piston1 is open1 and admits steam into the space1 ,m4 ,as this port is quite small the space fills slowly and the piston moves gradually until it uncovers the last port1 ,j#a1 when the full volume of steam is admitted1 which quickly moves the piston to the opposite end of the valve cylinder4 ,during this movement of the valve piston1 the large port1 ,j1 remains open to the exhaust until it is covered by the valve piston4 ,when the port1 ,j1 is covered by the valve as at ,j#a1 it has no connection with the exhaust1 consequently1 there being no outlet for the exhaust vapor1 it is compressed and forms a cushion for the valve piston1 ,i4 ,the valve piston carries with it the main valve1 ,d1 which admits steam to the main steam cylinder through the double ports1 ,e1 ,e#a1 and ,l1 ,l#a1 ,fig4 #bid4 ,the same cushioning and slow starting of the piston occurs in the main as in the valve cylinder1 each having double ports4 ,this arrangement insures a uniform travel of piston under varying degrees of load4 ,a momentary pause of the piston at each end of the stroke permits the water valves to seat quietly1 without shock or jar1 and the slow initial movement of the piston 7whereby the water columns are started gradually7 relieves the pump and piping of excessive strains4 ,to set the valve4 ,set the lever1 ,a1 plumb and the valve to cover all the ports equally4 ,,the ,,dean ,,bros4 ,,pump4 ,the ,dean ,bros4 pump is shown in ,figs4 #bie1 #bif and #big4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bie4 ,the auxiliary valve1 ,a1 ,fig4 #big1 has in its face two diagonal exhaust cavities1 ,b ,b#a4 ,the ports1 ,c ,c#a1 and the exhaust port1 ,d1 are placed in a triangular position with one another1 the diagonal cavities diverging so that the cavity ,b1 when the valve is in place1 connects the ports1 ,c#a and ,d4 ,cavity ,b#a connects the ports ,c and ,d1 when the valve1 ,a1 is at the end of the stroke4 ,the three small cuts show relation of auxiliary valve to ports4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bif4 ,the piston starts from left to right when the valve1 ,a1 moves in an opposite direction1 opens the port1 ,c1 admitting steam to the auxiliary cylinder at the moment the main piston has reached the end of its stroke4 ,the auxiliary piston1 ,e1 is forced to the left1 opening the main port and admitting steam to the main cylinder1 reversing the movement of the main piston the return stroke of the main piston reverses the movement of the auxiliary valve1 whereby the port1 ,c1 is closed1 at the moment the main piston reaches the end of its outer stroke4 ,the port1 ,c#a1 is opened by the valve1 ,a1 and reverses the valve piston1 ,e1 opens the main port and reverses the motion of the main piston4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #big4 ,this port arrangement admits of a short valve with a long travel4 ,the stroke of the pump can be regulated by moving the stud up or down in the segmental slot1 ,fig4 #bif1 which varies the travel of the auxiliary valve and reverses the stroke of the main piston as desired4 ,by raising the stud the pump will make shorter strokes1 and by lowering it will make longer strokes4 ,the motion of the auxiliary steam slide valve is like that derived from an eccentric4 ,the ports leading to the valve piston1 ,e1 ,fig4 #big1 remain closed1 except at the moment the main piston is reversed2 hence1 there can be no waste of steam from leaks when the valve piston becomes worn4 ,having a long stroke and a rapid motion1 the auxiliary valve insures a certain reversal of the piston at the proper time4 ,to set the valve1 turn the steam chest upside down4 ,put valve stem through the stuffing-box and secure in place the clamp for small slide valve4 ,the diameter of valve stem is smaller where the clamp is attached4 ,now screw up the stuffing-box nut 7having previously removed the packing71 then move the valve and stem so that the small port at right of valve will be open #a_/af inch and make a scratch upon the stem close to stuffing-box nut4 ,the valve should then be moved in the opposite direction to open the other small port #a_/af inch and make a second scratch upon the valve stem next to stuffing-box nut4 ,prepare joint and replace steam chest on cylinder4 ,to square the valve1 slacken the screw in crosshead and move the latter to the end of stroke with edge of crosshead flush with the end of guide1 then set the valve stem so that the first scratch is flush with the face of nut1 same as when the scratch was made4 ,tighten screw in set screw under valve rod dog and move the crosshead to the opposite end of stroke1 and note the position of second scratch4 ,if it does not come to the position in which it was made1 split the difference by slackening the set screw under valve rod dog and move the valve rod to equalize the travel of valve4 ,in replacing steam chest on cylinder1 cover the opening with a thin board1 or piece of sheet iron1 before turning it over to prevent the valve from dropping out of place4 ,this slide valve has a fixed travel and the process of setting is precisely the same as for that upon a steam engine with a plain slide valve4 ,,smith-,,vaile ,,single ,,pump4 ,illustration3 ,,figs4 #bih1 #bii4 ,the accompanying sectional view of steam end of the 8,smith-,vaile0 exhibits some very novel features4 ,so far as the piston and cylinder in this pump are concerned they are not unlike the average first class pump1 but with this difference4 ,it has only one set of cored ports1 ,b1 ,b4 ,the supplemental ports1 ,c1 ,c1 are drilled4 ,the main valve1 ,a1 is a slide and is moved by a valve piston1 ,d4 ,almost all the valve pistons as now made are simply plugs turned accurately to fit the holes in the chest and without any means of adjustment to compensate for wear4 ,after these valve pistons become worn they have to be replaced with new ones1 but there is a period between the time when the valve piston becomes so leaky as to render the action of the pump uncertain and the time when the worn valve is replaced by a new one that the pump is very wasteful of steam4 ,the valve piston in this pump is provided with packing rings1 ,e1 ,e1 which compensate for wear of these parts so that this valve is expected to do efficient service long after a slow valve4 ,the supplemental valve1 ,f1 has a reciprocating rotary motion which is communicated to it by the rock arm1 ,g1 and pitman1 ,h1 connecting with the crosshead1 ,i1 secured to the piston rod4 ,it will be observed that the piston rod1 ,j1 and the rod1 ,k1 of the water end are separated so that should either one give out through wear or accident it can be replaced without sacrificing both1 as would be the case if they were solid in one piece4 ,this supplemental valve1 ,f1 in general appearance very closely resembles the 8,corliss0 valve1 and its action is somewhat similar1 in controlling the action of the valve piston1 which will be understood from the engraving without further description4 ,these pumps all have removable water ends and can be rebored or otherwise manipulated without disturbing the steam end of pump4 ,the cylinder can be separated from the foot by removing the bolt1 ,m4 ,the duplex pump is also shown in the accompanying engraving1 where1 ,a1 ,a1 represents the steam cylinders1 secured to the foot1 ,b1 by bolts1 as previously described4 ,the usual slide valves have been replaced by piston valves1 ,c1 in this instance and are provided with removable seats1 ,d1 ,d4 ,these piston valves have packing rings1 ,e1 ,e1 also to compensate for wear and the valves are cast hollow to reduce their weight as much as possible consistent with good workmanship1 also to serve as ports for steam admission4 ,when these valve seats become worn they may be easily removed and rebored or replaced by new ones1 as desired4 ,it will be observed that these ports are very short to reduce the clearance as much as possible1 and to secure a more satisfactory cushion4 ,each valve is operated by the rock arm connected with the opposite engine in the usual way4 ,,the ,,duplex ,,pump ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cjj4 ,,the ,,duplex ,,steam ,,pump4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cja4 ,the word duplex means two fold1 or double1 and has a wide application1 as the duplex lathe1 the duplex watch1 etc41 hence1 the well-known duplex-pump is one in which two direct acting pumps are placed side by side and so connected that the steam piston of one operates the valve of the other4 ,see ,fig4 #cjj4 ,fig4 #cja shows one of the smallest manufactured patterns of this type of pumps4 ,its dimensions are as follows3 #b-;inch diam4 steam cylinder2 #a-a_/h-;inch water cylinder2 #b-b_/c-;inch stroke4 ,its capacity is 4#jdd gallons per revolution2 rev4 per minute1 #hj2 gallons per minute1 #c4e4 ,steam pipe1 #c_/h-;inch2 exhaust pipe1 #a_/b-;inch2 suction pipe1 #a-;inch2 discharge1 #c_/d-;inch4 ,floor space occupied1 #a #i #g wide2 requires #a_/b ,h4,p4 ,the valve motion 7see ,figs4 #cjb1 #cjc7 of one cylinder is communicated or produced by the piston of the other through the medium of rocker arms and links4 ,by means of the small lost motion of the levers the pistons have a slight pause at the end of each stroke1 which allows the water valves to seat quietly1 thus preventing any slam or jar4 ,with this arrangement1 as one of the steam valves must always be open1 there can be no dead point1 thus removing the liability of the pump to stick4 ,the simplicity of the duplex movement is at once evident1 each valve is dependent upon its counter part1 and both directly control the action of the steam1 which is supplied through one simple throttle valve4 ,,note4--,of the effect produced by the steam-moved direct-acting pump of much greater capacity it may be said there are now in use pumps of this class1 exerting over #bej horse-power1 delivering five million gallons of water in twenty-four hours through main pipes1 say thirty inches diameter and fourteen miles long1 without the use of an air chamber1 and which do their work so quietly1 steadily1 and gently1 that a nickel coin set on edge on the extreme end of the pump would not be overthrown by any jar or motion of the pump while it was doing this work4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cjb4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cjc4 ,the adoption of the ,worthington design of duplex pumps1 has been well nigh universal1 especially so since the expiration of the earlier patents4 ,nearly all leading manufacturers now make 8duplex pumps40 ,single1 compound and triple expansion4 ,compounding consists of adding a second steam cylinder on the end of the high pressure in use1 both using the same piston rod1 the steam from the boiler being first used in the smaller cylinder1 and at the end of the stroke of the piston being exhausted behind the piston of the larger cylinder on its return stroke4 ,in this way the measure of the expansion of the steam used1 was the relation of one cylinder to the other4 ,by this arrangement a much smaller steam cylinder1 for using the high pressure steam1 could be adapted to do the same work1 for in addition to the pressure of steam working full stroke in the small cylinder1 was to be added the pressure of the steam being expanded in the large cylinder4 ,in addition to this1 for large compound and triple expansion engines was added the further economy realized by attaching a condenser to form a vacuum in the large steam cylinders4 ,adapting these newer improvements in the marine engine coupled with what had previously been accomplished in the direct-acting steam pump1 they were at once brought up in size1 capacity1 and economy alongside the previously constructed rotative pumping engines4 ,the history of the invention of this pump is given on pages #fi and #gj2 to these pages a careful attention is advised1 as they briefly describe also the fundamental principles of its operation4 ,this form of steam pump has been so long and generally in use that the valve mechanism is already familiar to most engineers4 ,the simplicity of both its theory and its practical application obviates the necessity of devoting very much space to its consideration4 ,the final improvement made by ,worthington in connection with the steam duplex pump was in the adaptation of triple expansion in its steam ends4 ,,the ,,worthington ,,duplex ,,pump4 ,the illustrations1 ,figs4 #cjb and #cjc1 are sectional views of one side1 or half1 of the ,worthington steam pump1 showing two different designs4 ,they illustrate the interior arrangement of the pump4 ,the valve1 as may be seen at1 ,e1 is an ordinary slide valve2 the motion of this valve is controlled by a vibrating arm1 ,f1 which swings through the whole length of the stroke4 ,the moving parts are always in contact1 which ensures smooth and even motion4 ,this valve motion is the prominent and distinguishing characteristic of the ,worthington duplex pump4 ,two steam pumps are placed side by side and so combined that one piston acts to give steam to the other1 after which it finishes its own stroke and waits for its valve to be acted upon by the other pump before it can renew its motion4 ,this pause allows the water valves to seat quietly1 and removes any harshness of motion4 ,as one or the other of the steam valves is always open1 there is no dead point1 and therefore the pump is always ready to start when the steam is admitted4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cjd4 ,in the plunger and ring pattern1 ,fig4 #cjb1 there is a double-acting plunger1 ,b1 working through a deep metallic ring bored to fit the plunger4 ,the plunger is located some inches above the suction valves1 leaving a settling chamber1 into which any foreign substance may fall out of the way of the wearing surfaces4 ,both the plunger and ring can be taken out and either refitted or1 when necessary1 renewed4 ,the valves consist of small discs of rubber1 or other suitable material1 and are easily accessible through convenient handholes4 ,this pattern is recommended where the liquid to be pumped contains small quantities of grit or foreign material1 or where there is an unusually long or high suction lift4 ,in the piston-pattern pump1 ,fig4 #cjc1 there is a packed water piston1 ,g1 working in a brass-lined cylinder1 ,h4 ,both the suction and the discharge valves are located above the water pistons1 so that the pistons may be at all times submerged4 ,this pattern is recommended where the liquid to be pumped contains no grit or foreign material4 ,fig4 #cjd shows the ,worthington ,admiralty pattern boiler feed pump which is designed to meet the requirements of the ,united ,states ,bureau of ,steam ,engineering for steam boiler pressure up to #bej lbs4 to the square inch4 ,the ordinary slide valves are replaced by piston valves with outside1 adjustable1 lost-motion links1 making it possible to readily adjust the stroke4 ,the water end is made of composition1 gun metal1 or cast-iron1 as desired4 ,when made of cast iron the water end is brass-fitted throughout4 ,,table ,,of ,,sizes1 ,,capacities1 ,,etc4 ,horse-power of ,boiler based on #de pounds of water per hour1 which this ,diameter of,diameter of ,length pump will ,steam ,water of supply at ,cylinders ,pistons ,stroke slow speed4 ---------------------------------------- ------- #d-a_/b #b-c_/d #d #agj #e-a_/d #c-a_/b #e #bhj #f #d #f #dgj #f #d-a_/b #f #eij #g-a_/b #e #f #fgj #i #f #f #ifj #g-a_/b #d-a_/b #aj #hjj #i #f #aj #adjj #aj #g #aj #bbjj #ab #h-a_/b #aj #cbjj #ab #i-a_/d #aj #chjj #ad #aj #ae #dhjj ---------------------------------------- ------- ,sizes of ,pipes for ,short ,lengths ,to be enlarged as length increases4 ----------------------------------- ,diameter of,diameter of ,length ,steam ,water of ,steam ,exhaust ,suction ,delivery ,cylinders ,pistons ,stroke ,pipe ,pipe ,pipe ,pipe ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- #d-a_/b #b-c_/d #d #c_/d #a-a_/d #b #b #e-a_/d #c-a_/b #e #a #a-a_/b #b-a_/b #b-a_/b #f #d #f #a-a_/b #b #d #c #f #d-a_/b #f #a-a_/b #b #d #c #g-a_/b #e #f #a-a_/b #b #e #d #i #f #f #b #b-a_/b #e #d #g-a_/b #d-a_/b #aj #a-a_/b #b #d #c #i #f #aj #b #b-a_/b #e #d #aj #g #aj #b #b-a_/b #f #e #ab #h-a_/b #aj #b-a_/b #c #f #e #ab #i-a_/d #aj #b-a_/b #c #f #f #ad #aj #ae #b-a_/b #c #h #f ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,approximate ,space ,occupied ,inches ----------------------- ,diameter of,diameter of ,length ,steam ,water of ,height ,depth ,width ,cylinders ,pistons ,stroke ---------------------------------------- ------------- #d-a_/b #b-c_/d #d #ch #ah #bc #e-a_/d #c-a_/b #e #df #bb #bi #f #d #f #ej #bc #cb #f #d-a_/b #f #ej #bc #cb #g-a_/b #e #f #ed #bh #cc #i #f #f #eg #bg #cf #g-a_/b #d-a_/b #aj #ff #bh #cc #i #f #aj #fh #bg #cf #aj #g #aj #gg #cd #dj #ab #h-a_/b #aj #hf #ci #dd #ab #i-a_/d #aj #hf #ci #dd #ad #aj #ae #aaj #cf #ej ---------------------------------------- ------------- ,a notable feature in this pump is the location of the exhaust passage2 this opening is underneath the cradle--or the part that the pump rests upon--just forward of the steam cylinders4 ,the flanges of the steam end and cylinders and the steam chest cover have been made heavier than the regular and strengthened to withstand the higher pressures4 ,fig4 #cje is a sectional view of a larger size duplex pump than the one shown in ,fig4 #cjb4 ,the plunger1 ,b1 packing is identical1 but the number of water valves is double2 access for cleaning the suction chamber1 ,c1 is had by removing the hand hold plate at the side and in the center4 ,the discharge valves are reached through the hand hold at ,d4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cje4 ,,setting ,,the ,,valves ,,of ,,the ,,duplex ,,pump4 ,the following rule applies to nearly all duplex pumps of the ,worthington type4 ,the valves are usually of the common 8,d0 valve type1 working on the cylinder iron1 or bronze seats1 and suitably 8set40 ,sufficient cushion at the end of each stroke is provided by separate valves in the ports4 ,,rule4--#a1 ,locate the steam piston in the center of the cylinder1 ,fig4 #cje4 ,this is accomplished by pushing the piston to one end of its stroke against the cylinder head and marking the rod with a scriber at the face of the stuffing-box1 and then bringing the piston in contact with the opposite head2 #b1 divide exactly the length of this contact stroke4 ,shove the piston back to this half mark1 which brings the piston directly in the center of the steam cylinder1 ,f2 #c1 perform the same operation with the other side2 #d1 place the slide valves1 which have no lap1 to cover all the ports1 ,e2 #e1 pass the valve stem through the stuffing-box and gland4 ,the operation of placing the pistons in the center of their cylinders will bring the levers and rock shafts in a vertical position2 #f1 screw the valve stem through the nuts until the hole in the eye of the valve stem head comes in a line with the hole in the links1 connecting the rocker shaft2 then put the pins in their places2 #g1 adjust the nuts on both sides of the lugs of the valves to leave about #a_/d or #a_/h loss motion on each side4 ,this process of adjustment being performed with both cylinders1 the steam valves are set4 ,in short the travel of the two valves is simply equalized4 ,,duplex ,,oil ,,pumps4 ,the pattern of pump shown in ,fig4 #cjf1 is especially designed for use in connection with hydraulic lifts and cranes1 cotton presses1 testing machines1 hydraulic riveting and punching machines1 and hydraulic presses of all kinds4 ,also for oil pipe lines 7see ,table1 page #cda71 mining purposes1 and such services as require the delivery of liquids under heavy pressures4 ,there are four single acting outside packed plungers1 which work into the ends of the water cylinders1 the latter having central partitions2 each individual valve has its own cover or bonnet4 ,the arrangement of compound steam cylinders is shown4 ,the water valves are easily accessible1 and are contained in small chambers1 capable of resisting very heavy pressures4 ,the general arrangement shown in the engraving is subject to numerous alterations1 according to various requirements1 but the general characteristic of four outside packed plungers is in all cases preserved4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cjf4 ,,special ,,duplex ,,pump4 7,outside packed ,plunger ,pattern for ,high ,pressure47 ,,table4 ,steam ,water ,capacity in ,gallons1 ,strokes per ,cylinders4 ,plungers4 ,stroke4 per ,stroke ,minute1 each ,plunger4 each ---------------------------- ,plunger4 ,ins4 ,ins4 ,ins4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------- #af #e #ab #a4jb #ej to #ajj #af #f #ab #a4dg #ej #ajj #af #g #aj #a4ff #ej #ajj #af #g #ah #c4jj #dj #hj #af #h #ab #b4fa #ej #ajj #af #h #ah #c4ia #dj #hj #af #i #ab #c4cj #ej #ajj #ah-a_/b #g #ab #b4jj #ej #ajj #ah-a_/b #g-a_/b #ab #b4cj #ej #ajj #ah-a_/b #h #ah #c4ia #dj #hj #ah-a_/b #i #ah #d4ie #dj #hj #ah-a_/b #aj #ab #d4jh #ej #ajj #ah-a_/b #aj #ah #f4ab #dj #hj #bj #h #ab #b4fa #ej #ajj #bj #h #ah #c4ia #dj #hj #bj #i #ab #c4cj #ej #ajj #bj #i #ah #d4ie #dj #hj #bj #aj #ab #d4jh #ej #ajj #bj #aj #ah #f4ab #dj #hj ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,capacity of ,steam ,water ,both ,cylinders4 ,plungers4 ,stroke4,cylinders1 in ,steam ,pipe4 ,gallons1 ---------------------------- per ,minute4 ------------ ,ins4 ,ins4 ,ins4 ,ins4 ---------------------------------------- ------------- #af #e #ab #ajb to #bjd #b-a_/b #af #f #ab #adg #bid #b-a_/b #af #g #aj #aff #ccb #b-a_/b #af #g #ah #bdj #dhj #b-a_/b #af #h #ab #bfa #ebb #b-a_/b #af #h #ah #cab #fbe #b-a_/b #af #i #ab #ccj #ffj #b-a_/b #ah-a_/b #g #ab #bjj #djj #c #ah-a_/b #g-a_/b #ab #bcj #dfj #c #ah-a_/b #h #ah #cab #fbe #c #ah-a_/b #i #ah #cif #gjb #c #ah-a_/b #aj #ab #djh #haf #c #ah-a_/b #aj #ah #dij #ihj #c #bj #h #ab #bfa #ebb #d #bj #h #ah #cab #fbe #d #bj #i #ab #ccj #ffj #d #bj #i #ah #cif #gib #d #bj #aj #ab #djh #haf #d #bj #aj #ah #dij #ihj #d ---------------------------------------- ------------- ,steam ,water ,cylinders4 ,plungers4 ,stroke4 ,exhaust ,pipe4 ,suction ,pipe4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------- ,ins4 ,ins4 ,ins4 ,ins4 ,ins4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------- #af #e #ab #c #d #af #f #ab #c #e #af #g #aj #c #f #af #g #ah #c #g #af #h #ab #c #g #af #h #ah #c #h #af #i #ab #c #h #ah-a_/b #g #ab #c-a_/b #f #ah-a_/b #g-a_/b #ab #c-a_/b #f #ah-a_/b #h #ah #c-a_/b #h #ah-a_/b #i #ah #c-a_/b #h #ah-a_/b #aj #ab #c-a_/b #aj #ah-a_/b #aj #ah #c-a_/b #aj #bj #h #ab #e #g #bj #h #ah #e #h #bj #i #ab #e #h #bj #i #ah #e #h #bj #aj #ab #e #aj #bj #aj #ah #e #aj ---------------------------------------- ---------------- ,steam ,water ,discharge ,water ,press4 ,cylinders4 ,plungers4 ,stroke4 ,pipe4 ,pump ,end will stand1 in lbs41 per -------------------------------------- square inch4 ,ins4 ,ins4 ,ins4 ,ins4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------ #af #e #ab #c #dej #af #f #ab #d #dej #af #g #aj #e #cjj #af #g #ah #f #dej #af #h #ab #f #cjj #af #h #ah #g #dej #af #i #ab #g #bej #ah-a_/b #g #ab #e #bej #ah-a_/b #g-a_/b #ab #e #cjj #ah-a_/b #h #ah #g #dej #ah-a_/b #i #ah #g #bej #ah-a_/b #aj #ab #h #bej #ah-a_/b #aj #ah #h #bej #bj #h #ab #f #dej #bj #h #ah #g #dej #bj #i #ab #g #bej #bj #i #ah #g #bej #bj #aj #ab #h #bej #bj #aj #ah #h #bej ---------------------------------------- ------------------ ,a test of the superiority of this method of moving1 and controlling long columns of fluids under extreme heavy pressures was made at the time of the introduction of long pipe lines for conveying oil from the wells to the seaboard4 ,,note4--,after trying various kinds of pumps for forcing the oil through these long pipes1 and after having a succession of disasters in the way of burst pipes1 and leaking joints1 it was decided to test the efficiency of the direct-acting duplex steam pump4 ,these pumps were placed in the various stations along the pipe lines1 and after a continued service of many years1 have shown their perfect adaptation to that exceptionally hard service4 ,these pumps convey the oil over mountains where at times the coupled lines have been over one hundred miles long between the pumps1 and where the pressure on the plunger of the pump sometimes rises to #a1ejj lbs4 per square inch4 ,j4 ,f4 ,,holloway4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cjg4 ,,compound ,,duplex ,,pumps4 7,with ,the ,deane ,switch ,valve47 ,the application of this valve is shown in ,fig4 #cjg1 on the opposite page4 ,it can be attached to any regular ,compound or ,triple ,expansion ,pump1 and if not in use does not in any way impede the regular running of the machine4 ,the ,deane switch valve is a device by which compound low service pumps may be converted into powerful fire pumps4 ,this appliance consists of a valve of such construction that steam may be allowed to enter the cylinders as usual for compounding1 or may be diverted by simply moving a lever1 when all four cylinders receive steam at boiler pressure1 each exhausting independently to the atmosphere4 ,the change makes each steam cylinder available for its maximum power1 all four cylinders develop their full power1 and its effect can be utilized in powerful fire streams4 ,it should be borne in mind in justice to the manufacturers that the ,deane switch valve is not to be classed with the ordinary two or four-valve arrangement1 which1 while admitting initial steam to the second cylinders1 develops no power in the first1 or1 as it is sometimes arranged1 uses initial steam in all four cylinders and develops less power than if the second cylinders were used independently4 ,this valve is recommended by the ,insurance companies1 and compound duplex pumps fitted with the ,deane switch valve will be accepted in place of the ,underwriter pump of similar capacity4 ,this valve is also frequently used where two widely differing water pressures are required for other purposes than for fire protection4 ,every machine is subject to rigorous tests before leaving the factory1 including a #cjj-pound test of the water cylinders4 ,every pump is guaranteed to be in full accordance with the specifications4 ,,underwriter ,,fire ,,pumps4 ,the ,insurance ,companies have issued detailed specifications for the construction of fire pumps to be known as ,underwriter ,fire ,pumps4 ,they have agreed that such pumps with their specified attachments be recognized as the approved type1 and that pumps built and fitted up less perfectly be not approved in future installments4 ,the wide experience and systematic methods of the ,insurance ,companies place them in position to give valuable suggestions as a result of their observation and experiment1 and these are embodied in carefully drawn regulations issued by their ,engineering ,department4 ,the specifications are very exacting in every particular1 entering into the design1 material1 and workmanship in minute detail4 ,they call for a number of fittings and attachments not usually furnished1 and a most rigid test at the factory before shipping1 and by the ,inspecting ,engineers of the ,insurance ,companies after the pump is installed1 which secures for the purchaser the certainty of having a machine which beyond any reasonable doubt can be relied upon to do its full duty when emergency arises calling for its use4 ,there are a few quite important features not found in pumps of usual construction4 ,the pumps are composition fitted throughout1 the water cylinder bushings and plungers and linings to stuffing-boxes are of composition1 the piston and valve rods1 made unusually heavy1 are of ,tobin bronze4 ,the mixture of the copper and tin composing the plungers and bushings varies for the two so as to prevent their cutting4 ,owing to the very high speed at which these pumps are liable to be run during a fire1 all the working parts are made excessively strong1 and the valve area and water passages are larger than usual4 ,the interior of each ,underwriter pump is treated with a rust-proof coating1 and every precaution taken so that the pump will start instantly after an indefinite period of disuse4 ,figs4 #cjg and #cjh exhibit two somewhat varying but acceptable forms of the duplex steam pump4 ,among the attachments included in an outfit for the underwriter pump may be mentioned3 an elbow or tee for the suction connection with a large suction air chamber1 a set of brass priming pipes with special gate and check valves for the same1 an automatic water pressure relief valve fitted to a cone and overflow pipe1 a steam gauge and a special water gauge with duplex spring1 each of which in the ,underwriter ,pump is mounted on an ornamental plate rigidly attached to the machine4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cjh4 ,straightway hose valves for the proper number of streams are placed in the neck to a very large discharge chamber1 and there is also a large discharge opening for connection to the system of hydrants and sprinklers4 ,a stroke pointer is attached which travels between graduations marked on the yoke1 indicating the length of stroke which pump travels1 a one-point sight feed cylinder lubricator1 a capacity plate with enamelled face giving instructions for operating1 etc41 is attached to each machine4 ,,specifications ,,of ,,the ,national ,board of ,fire ,underwriters ,,for ,,the ,,manufacture ,,of ,,steam ,,fire ,,pumps ,,as ,,recommended ,,by ,,the ,national ,fire ,protection ,association4 ,,edition ,,of #aijd ,,the ,,national ,,standard ,,pump4 ,this pump is merely a pump of the well-known 8duplex0 type1 built in a very substantial manner1 and with certain improvements suggested by the experience of inspectors with ,fire ,pumps4 ,the principal points of difference between the ,national ,standard ,pump and the ordinary commercial pump are3 #ast4 ,its steam ports and water passages and air chamber are made much larger than in common trade pumps1 so that a larger volume of water can be delivered in an emergency without water hammer4 #bnd4 ,it is 8rust proofed0 that it may start instantly after disuse1 by making its piston rods and valve rods of ,tobin ,bronze1 instead of steel2 its water pistons1 stuffing boxes and rock-shaft bearings of brass1 instead of cast iron4 ,its valve levers are made of steel or wrought-iron forgings1 or of steel castings4 #c;d4 ,the following necessary attachments are all included in the price of the 8,national ,standard ,pump10 viz43--a vacuum chamber1 two pressure gauges1 a relief valve1 a set of brass priming pipes1 #b to #f hose valves1 a stroke gauge1 a capacity plate1 an oil pump1 a sight feed lubricator and a cast-iron relief-valve discharge-cone4 ,by reason of the larger ports1 passageways and pipes1 its larger number of valves1 and the added attachments1 and general superior construction a 8,national ,standard0 pump costs more than a common trade fire pump1 but the cost per gallon which these pumps can deliver in an emergency by reason of their large passageways1 etc41 is no greater than for the old style of fire pump and is well worth this extra cost4 ,finally it should be remembered that these specifications cover only the outlines of the design1 and that all pumps built under them are not of equal merit1 for certain of the pump factories possess a broader experience and better shop facilities than others1 and that the responsibility for first-class workmanship and strength of materials rests on the pump manufacturers1 and not on the insurance companies4 ,we advise that all contracts call for strict conformity to the ,national ,standard ,steam ,fire ,pump specifications of the ,national ,board of ,fire ,underwriters4 ,,uniform ,,requirements4 ,the following specifications for the manufacture of ,steam ,fire ,pumps1 developed from those originally drawn by ,mr4 ,john ,r4 ,freeman1 are now used throughout the whole country1 having been agreed upon in joint conference by representatives of the different organizations interested in this class of work4 ,they will be known as 8,the ,national ,standard10 and have been up to this time adopted by the following associations3 ,associated ,factory ,mutual ,fire ,insurance ,companies1 ,national ,board of ,fire ,underwriters1 ,national ,fire ,protection ,association4 ,,national ,,standard ,,specifications ,,for ,,the ,,manufacture ,,of ,,steam ,,fire ,,pumps #a4 ,,workmanship4 a4 ,the general character and accuracy of foundry and machine work must throughout equal that of the best steam-engine practice of the times1 as illustrated in commercial engines of similar horse-power4 ,this refers to strength of details1 accuracy of foundry work1 accuracy of alignment1 accuracy of fits1 quality of steam joints and flanges1 construction of steam pistons and slide-valves1 etc41 and does not apply particularly to exterior finish4 #b4 ,,duplex ,,only4 a4 ,only 8,standard ,duplex pumps0 are acceptable4 ,so-called 8,duplex0 pumps consisting of a pair of pumps with 8steam-thrown valves0 actuated by supplemental pistons are not acceptable4 ,experience shows that duplex pumps are more certain of starting after long disuse4 ,the whole power of the main cylinder is available for moving a corroded valve or valve rod1 whereas on a single pump with a 8steam-thrown0 valve no such surplus of power is available4 ,further1 the direct acting duplex has the great advantage over a fly-wheel pump of not suffering breakage if water gets into steam cylinder4 #c4 ,,sizes ,,of ,,pumps4 a4 ,only the four different sizes given on the next page will be recognized for 8,national ,standard0 pumps4 ,the multiplicity of odd sizes of 8,trade ,pumps0 is confusing1 and different makers have1 in the past1 estimated the capacity in gallons according to different arbitrary standards4 ,,national ,,standard ,,pump ,,sizes4 ,ratio ,capacity ,pump ,sizes4 of ,at #ajj lbs4 ,piston at ,pump4 -------------------- ,areas4----------------------------- ,steam4 ,water4,stroke4 ,number of ,nominal ,actual #a-a_/h in4 ,gals4 ,gals4 ,per ,streams4 ,per ,min4 as per ,about ,minute4 ,art4 #d4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------- #ad #g #ab #d to #a ,two #ejj #dhcj #ad #g-a_/d #ab #ebj ---------------------------------------- ------------------ #af #i #ab #c to #a ,three #gej #hjfj ---------------------------------------- ------------------ #ah #bj #ab #c to #a ,four #ajjj #iiij #ah-a_/b #aj-a_/d #ab #ajej ---------------------------------------- ------------------ #bj #ab #af #b-c_/d ,six #aejj #afee to #a ---------------------------------------- ------------------ ,,national ,,standard ,,pump ,,sizes47continuation7 ,b ,boiler ,pump ,sizes4 ,power ,full ,speed4 ,required ---------------------------------------- --------- ,steam4 ,water4,stroke4,horse ,steam ,rev4 ,piston ,power4 ,pres4 ,per ,travel at ,pump1,minute4,feet ,per lbs4 ,minute4 ---------------------------------------- --------- #ad #g #ab #ajj #dj #gj #adj #ad #g-a_/d #ab ---------------------------------------- ----------- #af #i #ab #aae #de #gj #adj ---------------------------------------- ----------- #ah #bj #ab #aej #de #gj #adj #ah-a_/b #aj-a_/d #ab ---------------------------------------- ----------- #bj #ab #af #bjj #ej #fj #afj ---------------------------------------- ----------- ,footnote ,b3 ,this boiler power is required for continuous running at full speed and pressure4 ,it is1 however1 often best to put in a larger pump than the existing boilers could drive at full capacity1 as a small boiler will drive a #gej-;gallon pump at the #ejj-;gallon speed with very nearly as good economy as it can drive a #ejj-;gallon pump at full speed4 ,the pump then does not have to be changed when the plant is enlarged and the boiler power increased4 ,a steam piston relatively larger than necessary is a source of weakness4 ,it takes more volume of steam1 and gives more power with which to burst the pipes if the throttle is opened wide suddenly during excitement4 ,it has been common to make all fire-pumps with water plunger of only one-fourth the area of steam piston1 with the idea that pump could thereby be more readily run at night1 when steam was low4 ,the capacity in gallons is thus reduced #be per cent4 as compared with a #c to #a plunger on the same steam cylinders4 b4 ,the above sizes of steam and water cylinders and length of stroke have given general satisfaction and will now be considered as standard4 ,often1 especially with large pumps1 8#d to #a0 construction is a mistake1 and gives no additional security1 although the pump might start and give a few puffs with #cj lbs4 of steam on banked fires2 because1 if any pump of whatever cylinder ratio draws #ej or #ajj horse-power of steam from boilers with dead fires1 it can run effectively only a very short time 7ordinarily1 perhaps1 #c to #e minutes71 unless fires are first aroused to make fresh steam to replace that withdrawn4 ,steam pressures stated above must be maintained at the pump1 to give full speed and #ajj lbs4 water pressure4 ,pressure at boilers must be a little more1 to allow for loss of steam pressure between boiler and pump4 ,pumps in poor order1 or too tightly packed1 will require more steam4 ,the boiler horse-powers above are reckoned on the ,a4 ,s4 ,m4 ,e4 basis of #cd-a_/b lbs4 of water evaporated from and at #bab degrees ,fahrenheit as the unit of boiler horse-power4 ,from #ab to #ae square feet of water-heating surface in the boiler is commonly assumed necessary for the generation of one horse-power4 ,smaller boilers than called for above1 if favorably set1 and having excellent chimney draft1 can sometimes be forced to nearly double their nominal capacity for a short run1 as for fire service4 c4 #bej gallons per minute is the standard allowance for a good #a-a_/h-;inch 7smooth nozzle7 fire stream4 ,a so-called 8,ring ,nozzle0 discharges only three-fourths as much water as a smooth nozzle of the same bore1 and is not recommended4 ,from fifteen to twenty automatic sprinklers may be reckoned as discharging about the same quantity as a #a-a_/h-;inch hose stream under the ordinary practical conditions as to pipes supplying sprinkler and hose systems respectively4 #d4 ,,capacity4 a4 ,plunger diameter alone will not tell how many gallons per minute a pump can deliver1 and it is not reasonable to continue the old time notion of estimating capacity on the basis of #ajj feet per minute piston travel4 b4 ,the capacity of a pump depends on the speed at which it can be run1 and the speed depends largely on the arrangement of valves and passageways for water and steam4 c4 ,it is all right to run fire-pumps at the highest speed that is possible without causing violent jar1 or hammering within the cylinders4 ,considerations of wear do not affect the brief periods of fire services or test1 hence these speeds are greater than those allowable for constant daily duty4 d4 ,careful experiments on a large number of pumps of various makes at full speed1 show that in a new pump with clean valves1 and an air-tight suction pipe1 and less than #ae feet lift1 the actual delivery is only from #a-a_/b to #e per cent4 less than plunger displacement4 ,this slip will increase with wear1 and for a good average pump in practical use1 probably #aj per cent4 is a fair allowance to cover slip1 valve leakage1 slight short-stroke1 etc4 e4 ,largely from tests1 but partly from 8average judgment10 and recognizing that a long stroke pump can run at a higher rate of piston travel in lineal feet per minute than a short stroke pump1 and that a small pump can make more strokes per minute than a very large one1 the speeds given in the preceding table have been adopted as standards in fire service for direct acting 7non-fly-wheel7 steam pumps1 which have the large steam and water passages herein specified4 f4 ,rated capacity is to be based on the speed in the preceding table1 correcting the plunger displacement for one-half the rod area and deducting #aj per cent4 for slip1 short-stroke1 etc4 ,men sometimes ask why1 7if they can run a pump smoothly so as to get a delivery of #a1jjj gals4 per minute17 we should not accept as 8a thousand gallon pump10 irrespective of its suction valve area or its exhaust port area or the size of its cylinders4 ,to this we reply that when new and favorably set almost any pump built according to these specifications can run at a much greater delivery than here rated1 but when lift is unusually high or suction pipe long1 or when the pump takes its suction under a head1 no pump can be run so fast as on1 for instance1 a #e-;foot lift4 ,a solid foundation is also a great and indispensable aid in running a pump fast4 ,standard #ejj-;gallon pumps have often delivered #hjj gallons1 and #a1ejj-;gallon pumps have delivered #b1jjj gallons2 but some margin must be allowed for unfavorable conditions and for deterioration as a pump grows old1 or for the absence of an expert to get its utmost duty4 #e4 ,,capacity ,,plate4 a4 ,every steam fire-pump must bear a conspicuous statement of its capacity securely attached to the inboard side of air chamber1 thus3-- ,,national ,,standard ,,fire ,,pump #af #i #ab ,,capacity #gej ,,gallons ,,per ,,minute1 ,,or #c ,,good #a-a_/h-;,,in4 ,,smooth ,,nozzle ,,fire ,,streams ,,full ,,speed #gj ,,revolutions ,,per ,,minute ,,never ,,let ,,steam ,,get ,,below #ej ,,pounds1 ,,nights1 ,,sundays ,,or ,,at ,,any ,,other ,,time ,the name 8,underwriter0 has been largely used for a considerable time to designate the type of pump covered by the principal features of these specifications4 ,while our preferences are against the use of this word as designating any piece of apparatus objections will not be raised at the present time to its being continued on name plates in place of the words 8,national ,standard10 if manufacturers so desire4 b4 ,this plate must have an area of not less than one square foot1 and must be made of an alloy at least two-thirds aluminum and the remainder zinc4 ,the letters must be at least one-half inch in height1 plain and distinct1 with their surfaces raised on a black background and buffed off to a dead smooth finish4 ,the name of pump manufacturer may also be placed on this plate1 if desired4 c4 ,a smaller plate of composition must be attached to steam chest bearing the size of pump1 the shop number1 and the name of shop in which the pump was built4 #f4 ,,strength ,,of ,,parts4 a4 ,the maker must warrant each pump built under these specifications to be at time of delivery1 in all its parts1 strong enough to admit of closing all valves on water outlet pipes while steam valve is wide open and steam pressure eighty pounds1 and agree to so test it before shipment from his works4 b4 ,the pump must be warranted so designed and with such arrangement of thickness of metal that it shall be safe to instantly turn a full head of steam on to a cold pump without cracking or breaking the same by unequal expansion4 #g4 ,,shop ,,inspection4 ,a systematic shop inspection must be given to each pump to ensure completed workmanship1 and to prevent the use of defective parts1 improper materials1 or the careless leaving of foreign matter in any part of the cylinders or chests4 ,several instances have occurred in which chisels1 bolts1 or core irons have been found in steam chests or steam cylinders4 ,this has resulted in a serious crippling of the pump and in some cases requiring repairs to be made before the pump could be used for fire purposes4 ,,the ,,steam ,,end4 #h4 ,,steam ,,cylinders4 a4 ,these must be of hard close iron with metal so distributed as to ensure sound castings and freedom of shrink cracks4 ,the following are the minimum thicknesses acceptable3 #ad ,diam4 #g_/h thick #af #ae_/af #ah #a #bj #a-a_/h b4 ,the inside face of the steam cylinder heads and the two faces of the piston must be smooth surfaces1 fair and true so that if the piston should hit the heads it will strike uniformly all around1 thus reducing to a minimum the chances of cramping the piston rod or injuring the pump4 c4 ,all flanged joints for steam must be fair and true and must be steam tight under #hj lbs4 pressure if only a packing of oiled paper #a_/ajj inch thick covered with graphite were used4 ,jenkins1 8,rainbow0 or equivalent packing of not exceeding #a_/cb inch original thickness is acceptable4 ,oiled paper is not acceptable as a final packing1 as it burns out4 ,for size of steam and exhaust pipes1 standard flanges and bolting1 see ,art4 #ci4 ,the specifications originally required machine facing for all these surfaces4 ,the art of machine molding from metal patterns with draw plates1 etc41 has1 however1 attained such excellence in certain shops1 that in regular practice 8foundry faced0 cylinder heads and piston faces can be made true and fair1 and steam joints can be made1 tight under #hj lbs4 pressure with a packing of oiled paper only #a_/ajj inch thick4 ,under proper assurance that this precision can be obtained in regular practice at the shop in question1 foundry finish may be accepted on cylinder heads and piston faces1 steam chests and steam-chest covers4 ,in the case of built-up pistons1 of separable form1 it must be conclusively shown that the boring and finishing are carried on by such methods as will ensure the faces of pistons being exactly square to the piston rod and exactly parallel to the cylinder head4 ,in the case of solid pistons the two faces must be machine faced1 as proper parallelism cannot well be obtained by foundry methods4 ,ordinary foundry finish secured by the old methods and wooden patterns is not acceptable and acceptance of any foundry-finish can only be secured after a special investigation of shop practices4 d4 ,heads at both ends of cylinder must be beveled off very slightly over a ring about one inch wide1 or equivalent means provided to give steam a quick push at piston1 should it stand at contact stroke4 #i4 ,,bolts ,,and ,,studs4 a4 ,the stress on bolts or studs in connection with steam cylinders must not exceed #g1ejj lbs4 per square inch under a test pressure of #hj lbs4 steam1 disregarding such initial strain as may be due to setting up4 7,compute pressure area out to center line of bolts47 ,no stud or bolt smaller than #c_/d inch should be used to assemble parts subject to the strain of steam pressure as smaller bolts are likely to be twisted off4 #aj4 ,,yoke4 a4 ,the steam cylinders and water cylinders must be connected by such a form of yoke as requires no packing1 a metal to metal joint at this connection being considered necessary4 ,the piston-rod stuffing box heads should concentrically fit the counter-bore of the yoke4 ,if packing is put into these joints1 there is a chance of the steam and water ends getting out of alignment and leaking at the joint between cylinders and yoke4 #aa4 ,,steam ,,ports4 a4 ,the area of each exhaust steam passage1 at its smallest section1 must not be less than #d per cent4 of the area of the piston from which it leads4 ,this is a large increase over the size heretofore common1 but indicator cards which we have taken from pumps of several different makes indicate this to be one of the points in which improvement is most needed to accommodate the high speeds at which fire pumps are always supposed to run1 and this unrestricted exhaust aids very materially in giving steadiness to the jet of water4 b4 ,each admission port must be not less than #b-a_/b per cent4 of area of its piston1 and to avoid wasteful excess of clearance1 these passages should not be bored out larger in interior of casting than at ends or passage4 c4 ,the edges of the steam-valve ports must be accurately milled1 or chipped and exactly filed to templets1 true to line1 and the valve seat must be accurately fitted to a plane surface1 all in a most thorough and workmanlike manner and equal to high-grade steam-engine work4 d4 ,to guard against a piston ring catching in the large exhaust ports1 these ports must have a center rib cast with cylinder at cylinder wall4 ,see also ,art4 #ac d4 #ab4 ,,steam-,,clearance ,,space4 a4 ,clearance 7including nut-recess1 counter-bore1 and valve passages7 must not exceed #e per cent4 for contact stroke or about #h per cent4 for nominal stroke 7i4 e41 contact stroke should overrun nominal stroke not more than one-half inch or not less than one-fourth inch1 at each end74 b4 ,the clearance space between face of piston and cylinder head must be reduced to smallest possible amount1 and these contacting surfaces be flat1 without projections or recesses other than the piston rod nut and its recess4 ,some makers1 with the idea that a fire pump need not be economical1 have not taken pains to keep these waste spaces small4 ,securing small clearance costs almost nothing but care in design1 and is often of value1 since at many factories boiler capacity is scant for the large quantity of steam taken by a fire pump of proper size4 #ac4 ,,steam ,,pistons4 a4 ,may be either built up or solid1 as maker thinks best4 ,it is believed that 8solid0 7cored7 pistons with rings 8sprung in10 are for fire-pumps much preferable to built-up pistons1 since follower bolts do sometimes get loose4 b4 ,piston must not be less than four inches thick between faces4 ,if solid1 walls should be not less than #a_/b inch thick1 and special care should be given to shop inspection to determine uniformity of thickness4 c4 ,if built up pistons are used1 involving follower bolts1 such bolts must be of best machinery steel1 with screw thread cut for about twice the diameter of the bolt and fitting tightly its whole length4 d4 ,the width of each piston ring must exceed the length of the large exhaust port by at least #a_/d inch4 ,this is to avoid the possibility of piston ring catching in the port4 ,see also ,art4 #aa d4 #ad4 ,,steam ,,slide ,,valves4 a4 ,slide valves must be machine fitted on all four of the outer edges1 the exhaust port edges1 and the surfaces in contact with rod connections4 b4 ,the slide valve itself must have its steam and exhaust edges fitted up 8line and line0 with their respective steam and exhaust ports4 ,the adding of lap to these edges in lieu of lost motion is not acceptable further than a possible #a_/cb of an inch to cover inaccuracies of edges4 c4 ,the valves must be guided laterally by guide strips cast in steam chest1 and these strips must be machine fitted4 ,the lateral play at these surfaces should not exceed #a_/af inch4 ,the height of these guide strips should not be less than #a_/b inch1 measuring from valve seat4 ,the construction must be such as to absolutely preclude the possibility of the valve riding up on top of this guide strip4 d4 ,the valves must be guided vertically by the valve-rod itself1 the inside end of which must be kept in alignment by the usual form of tail-rod guide4 ,the vertical play at these parts should not exceed #a_/h of an inch4 e4 ,the surface of valves must be machine faced and accurately fitted to a plane surface1 and be steam tight when in contact with the seat of steam valve4 #ae4 ,,steam ,,slide ,,valve ,,adjustment4 a4 ,the lost motion at the valves and the setting of them must be determined by a solid hub on the rod1 finished in the pump shop to standard dimensions1 so that no adjustment is possible after the pump is once set up4 ,this hub may be forged on the rod and then lathe-finished to standard dimensions1 or it may be made by turning down a rod of the size of the hub4 ,it is believed that ,tobin bronze can be safely forged after a little experience1 if care is taken to maintain the proper heat4 ,it is recognized that the practice of making adjustable valve tappets located outside of the steam chest is a good thing in a large pump in constant service and operated by a skilled engineer1 but for the infrequently used ordinary fire-pump1 the utmost simplicity is desirable1 and it is best not to tempt the ordinary man to readjust the valve gear4 ,the common form of lost motion adjustment consisting of nut and check nut at each end of the slide valve is not acceptable1 as these nuts are liable to become loose and may be incorrectly reset by incompetent persons4 ,a long rectangular nut in the center of the valve is also not acceptable1 as it can be moved out of adjustment4 ,a solid hub made as a part of the rod is required1 as it absolutely avoids the possibility of the hub becoming loose1 an accident possible with a separate hub attached to the rod4 ,the amount of lost motion should generally be such that admission takes place at about #e_/h of the stroke of the piston1 i4 e41 for #ab-;inch stroke ,r4 ,h4 valve will be about to open when ,l4 ,h4 piston has moved #g-a_/b inches to #h inches from the beginning of stroke4 ,when piston is at end of stroke the ports should be full open4 #af4 ,,rock ,,shafts1 ,,cranks1 ,,links1 ,,etc4 a4 ,rock shafts must be either forged iron1 forged steel1 or cold rolled steel4 ,cast iron is not acceptable4 ,the following are the minimum diameters acceptable3 #ejj gallon pump #a-a_/b in4 #gej gallon pump #a-c_/d in4 #ajjj gallon pump #b in4 #aejj gallon pump #b to #b-a_/d in4 b4 ,the rock shaft bearings must be bushed with bronze and the bushings pinned firmly in place4 ,the length of each of these non-corrosive bearings must be not less than #d inches4 c4 ,rock shaft cranks1 valve rod heads1 valve rod links1 and piston rod spools or crossheads may be wrought iron or steel forgings1 or steel castings4 ,if of a heavy1 strong pattern1 these parts1 with the exception of valve rod links1 may be of semi-steel or cast iron4 d4 ,the sectional area of all connections between rock shaft cranks and valve rod must be such as to give a tensile or compressive strength substantially equal to that of the valve rod4 #ag4 ,,valve ,,motion ,,levers4 a4 ,the valve motion levers must be steel1 wrought iron1 or steel castings4 ,cast iron is not acceptable4 ,steel castings1 if used1 must be deeply stamped with the name of the makers1 with letters one-eighth inch high1 near the upper end of each lever1 where it can easily be seen1--thus 844444,steel ,castings40 ,cast-iron arms1 if bulky enough to be safe against external blows1 are awkward in shape4 ,the sectional area necessary for any arm depends upon the means provided for preventing a sidewise strain on the lever1 due to rotation of piston or friction of its connection to piston rod4 ,the spool or crosshead on the piston rod should be so designed that no sidewise strain can be thus produced on the lever4 b4 ,the levers must have a double or bifurcated end at crosshead4 ,the double end is less likely than a single end to put an undue strain on the lever as the rod turns1 and is also likely to give trouble from lack of lubrication or from a loosening of any small parts1 and has proved to be the most satisfactory arrangement4 #ah4 ,,valve ,,motion ,,stand4 a4 ,the valve motion stand must be securely dowel-pinned to the yoke castings1 to prevent any movement after being once adjusted4 #ai4 ,,cushion ,,valves4 a4 ,cushion-release valves regulating the amount of cushion steam retained at ends of stroke must be provided4 b4 ,the cushion release must be through an independent port as shown in ,figs4 #b and #c1 so located as to positively retain a certain amount of cushion steam4 ,the old form of cushion release through bridge between ports is not acceptable4 ,this form while leading into the exhaust passage as formerly1 differs by starting from a small independent port 7about #a_/b-;inch wide #b-a_/b inches long7 through the cylinder wall1 located about #c_/h or #a_/b inch back from the cylinder head4 7,the exact position for affording the best action has to be determined by experiment with each different make of pump1 as it depends somewhat on the extent of clearance space and on the point of closure of exhaust by piston and somewhat on the weight of reciprocating parts47 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c4 ,this style of cushion port makes the pump safer in case cushion valves are unskillfully left open too wide and tends to prevent a pump from pounding itself to pieces in case of a sudden release of load1 as by a break in suction or delivery mains1 or by a temporary admission of air to suction pipe4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #d4 ,pumps made with this form of cushion release1 have given very satisfactory results1 and if the ports are properly located1 there will be no re-bound of piston4 c4 ,cushion valves must be always provided with hand-wheels marked as per sketch1 for the reason that very few men in charge of fire-pumps are found to clearly understand or to remember their use4 ,the lettering must be very open1 clear and distinct1 not liable to be obscured by grease and dirt1 and of a permanent character4 ,it is desirable that spindle or wheel be so formed that a monkey wrench can get a grip to open a jammed valve4 ,fig4 #e shows the stem flattened for this purpose4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #e4 d4 ,the valve and stem of cushion valve must be in one piece without any swivel joint4 ,swivel joints are apt to come apart and make it impossible to operate the valve4 #bj4 ,,piston ,,rods4 a4 ,piston rods for their entire length must be of solid ,tobin ,bronze1 and the distinguishing brand of the manufacturers of this metal must be visible on at least one end of each rod4 b4 ,the sizes must be not less than in table below4 ,size of ,pump4 #ejj gal4#gej gal4 #a1jjj gal4#a1ejj gal4 ---------------------------------------- -------------- ,diameter of rod #b inch4 #b-a_/d inch4#b-c_/h inch4 #b-a_/b inch4 ---------------------------------------- -------------- c4 ,the size and form of connection of rod to piston plunger and cross-head must be such that the stress in pounds per square inch at bottom of screw thread1 or at such other point of reduced area as receives the highest tensile strain1 shall not exceed #h1jjj lbs4 per square inch1 when the steam pressure acting on the piston is #hj lbs4 per square inch4 d4 ,piston rod nuts1 in both steam and water ends1 must be tightly fitted1 and preferably of a finer thread than the ,united ,states ,standard4 ,this is to avoid as much as possible the unnecessary weakening of the rod at the bottom of the thread1 and to reduce the tendency of the nut to work loose4 ,in practice #h threads per inch has been found to give good satisfaction4 e4 ,in addition to a tightly fitting nut1 some reliable device must be provided1 in both steam and water ends1 for absolutely preventing these nuts from working off4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #f4 ,fig4 #f shows one form of such a locking device and illustrates the kind of security desired4 ,this device combines the advantage of a taper key and a split pin1 and the elongated key-slot gives sufficient leeway to always insure that the key can be driven up tight against the nut and thus prevent it from even starting to work off4 ,other methods will be approved in writing1 if found satisfactory4 #ba4 ,,valve ,,rods4 a4 ,valve ,rods for their entire length must be of solid ,tobin ,bronze1 with sizes not less than in table below4 ,size of ,pump4 #ejj gal4#gej gal4 #a1jjj gal4#a1ejj gal4 ---------------------------------------- -------------- ,diameter of rod #a inch4 #a-a_/h inch4 #a-a_/h inch4 #a-a_/d inch4 ---------------------------------------- -------------- b4 ,the net area of valve-rod at its smallest section subject to tensile stress1 must not be smaller than at bottom of ,u4 ,s4 standard screw thread on rod of diameter given above4 ,the construction of this rod as affecting lost motion at slide valve is specified under ,article #ae4 #bb4 ,,stuffing ,,boxes4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #g4 a4 ,all six stuffing boxes must be bushed at the bottom with a brass ring with suitable neck and flange1 and the follower or gland must be either of solid brass1 or be lined with a brass shell #c_/af-;inch thick1 having a flange next the packing1 as shown in the sketch4 ,the bottom of stuffing boxes and the end of glands should taper slightly towards the center as per sketch4 b4 ,these glands should be strong enough to withstand considerable abuse1 so as not to break from the unfair treatment of unskilled men4 #bc4 ,,pressure ,,gauge4 a4 ,a pressure gauge of the ,lane double tube spring pattern with #e inch case must be provided and attached to the steam chest inside the throttle valve4 ,the dial of gauge should be scaled to indicate pressures up to #abj lbs4 and be marked 8,,steam40 ,this kind of gauge is used on locomotives and is the best for withstanding the vibration which causes fire-pump gauges to be often unreliable4 ,moreover1 this double spring is safer against freezing4 #bd4 ,,drain ,,cocks4 a4 ,four brass drain cocks1 each with lever handle and of one-half inch bore1 are to be provided1 and located one on each end of each steam cylinder4 ,care should be taken to select a pattern of cock whose passageway is the full equivalent of a #a_/b-;inch hole4 ,some patterns of #a_/b-;inch commercial cocks although threaded for #a_/b-;inch pipe thread have but a #a_/d-;inch hole through them4 ,such are not acceptable4 #be4 ,,oiling ,,devices4 a4 ,a one-pint hand oil pump1 to be connected below the throttle1 and a one-pint sight feed lubricator1 to be connected above the throttle1 must be furnished with each pump4 b4 ,oiling holes must be provided for all valve motion pins1 and for each end of both rock shafts4 #bf4 ,,stroke ,,gauge4 a4 ,a length-of-stroke-index must be provided for each side of pump4 ,these must be of simple form for at all times rendering obvious the exact length of stroke which each piston is making1 and thus calling attention to improper adjustments of cushion valves or stuffing boxes4 b4 ,the gauge piece over which the index slides must have deep1 conspicuous marks at ends of nominal stroke1 and also light marks at extreme positions2 it need contain no other graduations4 c4 ,this stroke index must be rigidly secured to cross-head in such a way that it cannot get loose or out of adjustment4 ,,the ,,water ,,end4 #bg4 ,,water ,,cylinders4 a4 ,these must be of hard close iron with metal so distributed as to ensure sound castings1 and freedom from shrink cracks4 b4 ,the design should be along lines best calculated to resist internal pressure so as to avoid as much as possible the need of ribs for stiffening4 c4 ,they must be capable of withstanding1 without showing signs of weakness1 the pressures and shocks due to running under the conditions mentioned in ,chapter 8,tests for ,acceptance10 ,art4 #dh-ed4 ,the suction chamber should be able to withstand a water pressure of #ajj lbs4 ,although suction chambers are not regularly subject to a pressure1 it is sometimes desired to connect them to public water supplies1 and where foot valves are used there is a chance of getting pressure on the suction1 so that ample strength is necessary4 ,foundry finish may be permitted on the joints at water cylinder heads and at hand-hole plates1 provided surfaces are so true that a rubber packing not over #a_/af of an inch in thickness is sufficient to secure perfect tightness4 d4 ,conveniently placed hand-holes of liberal size must be provided for the ready examination and renewal of valve parts at the yoke end of water cylinders and in the delivery chamber4 ,this will necessitate holes not less than #f #h inches1 or its equivalent1 for the two largest-size pumps1 and holes proportionately as large for the #ejj and #gej-;gallon pumps4 ,the easy access to the valve parts is of vital importance1 and must receive careful attention4 e4 ,the thickness of metal for cylinder shell1 valve decks1 partitions1 ribs1 etc41 will depend largely upon the form of construction1 but1 in a general way1 to establish safe minimums for the average water cylinder1 of nearly cylindrical form1 whose flat surfaces are stiffly ribbed1 we submit the table below3 ,size of ,pump4 #ejj gal4#gej gal4#a1jjj gal4#a1ejj gal4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,thickness of cylinder ,inches4 ,inches4 ,inches4 ,inches4 shell when of nearly cylindrical form #g_/h #a #a-a_/h #a-a_/d ,thickness of valve decks when well ribbed #a-a_/d #a-a_/d #a-a_/d #a-a_/d ,thickness of transverse #a-a_/d #a-a_/d #a-a_/b #a-a_/b partition1 depending to to to to on ribbing #a-a_/b #a-a_/b #b #b ,thickness of longitudinal #a-a_/d #a-a_/d #a-a_/d #a-a_/b partition1 depending on to to to to ribbing #a-a_/b #a-a_/b #b #b ,thickness of ribs #c_/d #g_/h #a #a ,thickness of suction chamber #e_/h #c_/d #c_/d #g_/h ,thickness of delivery chamber #g_/h #a #a-a_/h #a-a_/d ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,lighter construction than herein specified will not be regarded as satisfactory1 and any construction will be finally passed upon on examination of drawings4 f4 ,the bolting of all parts of the water end is to be of such strength that the maximum stress at bottom of screw thread will not exceed #aj1jjj lbs4 per square inch 7disregarding for the moment the initial stress due setting up nuts7 for a water pressure of #bjj lbs4 per square inch1 computed on an area out to centre line of bolts4 ,no stud or bolt smaller than #c_/d-;inch should be used to assemble parts subject to the strain of water pressure1 as smaller bolts are likely to be twisted off4 ,although these pumps are not expected to be designed for a regular working water-pressure of #bdj or #cbj lbs41 it is expected that bolts1 shells1 rods1 etc41 will be figured to stand this comparatively quiet1 temporary1 high pressure1 exclusive of further allowance for initial strain due setting up of bolts1 with a factor of safety of at least four4 ,this high test pressure is analogous to the custom of proving all common cast-iron water pipes to #cjj lbs4 and all common lap-welded steam pipes to #ejj lbs4 per square inch1 and common water-works gate valves to #djj lbs41 even though these are to be regularly used at much less pressure4 ,we are assured that castings no heavier than at present used by the best makers will stand this test1 if properly shaped and liberally bolted4 g4 ,for requirements for stuffing boxes1 see ,art4 #bb4 #bh4 ,,water ,,plungers ,,and ,,bushings4 a4 ,the 8inside plunger and bushing0 is preferred for all situations where the water is free from grit or mud4 b4 ,water-plungers must be of solid brass or bronze1 and the bushing in which they slide must also be of brass or bronze4 ,the composition of the plunger and its bushing should be of very hard1 though dissimilar alloys1 to ensure good wearing qualities4 ,for material and size of piston rods and lock for nuts1 see ,art4 #bj4 ,with poor alignment or bad workmanship or lack of skill in mixing the alloys1 brass plungers are liable to score and give trouble2 but with proper selection of alloys and true cylinders accurately aligned1 they can be made to run all right wherever iron ones can4 ,it is quite a fine point to get these wearing surfaces just right2 and this is wherein the experience1 skill and shop practice of one maker is likely to be much superior to that of another working under the same specification4 c4 ,the length of machined cylindrical bearing within the partition must be not less then #b inches4 ,the plunger bushing must have a faced seat transverse to its axis against partition1 forming a water-tight ground joint not less than one-half inch wide4 ,any rubber gasket or other compressible packing for making this joint water-tight is not acceptable4 d4 ,the construction of bushing and hole in partition must be such that a cylindrical shell for use with a packed piston can be interchangeably inserted in its place and secured by the same bolts4 ,this can readily be arranged and enables a packed piston to be inserted in place of a plunger subsequent to the installation of the pump with a minimum of expense1 should this become desirable from change of conditions at any future time4 e4 ,small transverse grooves cut within the sliding surface of the plunger bushing1 with a view to lessen the leakage1 are not acceptable4 ,although a slight advantage in this respect for clean water1 they are a disadvantage on the whole1 as dirt catches in them in the ordinary situation and cuts the plungers4 #bi4 ,,standard ,,dimensions ,,of ,,plungers ,,and ,,plunger ,,bushings4 a4 ,to bring all these expensive parts to the same standard of weight and bearing surface1 the following dimensions are specified as the least that will be acceptable4 ,these are based on a length of plunger which uncovers the bushings one inch at end of nominal stroke4 ,,solid ,,bronze ,,plungers ,,and ,,bushings4 ,size of ,pump4 #ejj gal4 #gej gal4 #ajjj gal4 #aejj gal4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,plunger4 ,diameter #g or #g-a_/d-;in4 #i-;in4 #aj or #aj-a_/d-;in4 #ab-;in4 ,length #ag-;in4 #ag #ah-;in4 #bd ,thickness of transverse partition #e_/h #e_/h #c_/d #c_/d ,thickness next to partition #a_/b #a_/b #e_/h #c_/d ,thickness next to end #e_/af #c_/h #c_/h #a_/b ,number of ribs #d #d #f #f ,thickness of ribs #e_/af #e_/af #c_/h #c_/h ,bushing4 ,length #g #g #h #aj ,thickness at end #e_/af #c_/h #c_/h #a_/b ,thence tapered evenly to a thickness next to bearing of not less than #a_/b #e_/h #e_/h #c_/d ,thickness at the center bearing not less than #c_/d #c_/d #c_/d #ac_/af ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- #cj4 ,,water ,,pistons ,,and ,,bushings4 a4 ,the 8water piston with fibrous packing0 is preferred for many situations in the ,west or ,south1 or for water containing grit or mud1 like that of the ,ohio ,river2 and1 for the comparatively few cases where pump pressure governors are used1 the packed piston will give better service and longer wear4 b4 ,the removable bushing or cylinder in which this piston works must be of solid bronze4 c4 ,as stated in ,art4 #bh d1 this bushing should be so constructed as to be readily interchangeable with the bushing of the inside plunger type4 d4 ,the length of bushing must be such that the ends of piston will barely come short of the edges of cylinder at contact stroke and not uncover4 e4 ,the thickness of the cylindrical bushings must be not less than is given in the following table3 ,,bushings ,,for ,,packed ,,water ,,pistons4 ,size of ,pump4 #ejj #gej #ajjj #aejj gal4 gal4gal4 gal4 ---------------------------------------- ---------- ,solid ,bronze4 ,thickness at #g_/af-;in4#a_/b-;in4#a_/b-;in4#i_/af-;i n4 extreme end ,tapered evenly from #i_/af #e_/h #aa_/af #c_/d end to a thickness next to bearing of not less than ,thickness at center #c_/d #c_/d #c_/d #ac_/af bearing at least ---------------------------------------- ---------- f4 ,in other respects1 the specifications for plunger bushings1 already given in ,art4 #bh1 will apply to the above4 g4 ,the water piston used in the shell described above must expose not less than #b inches in width of fibrous packing1 and must be of bronze1 with disc and follower accurately turned to a sliding fit1 so that the leakage past it will be a minimum1 even when no fibrous packing is in place4 ,there must be at least #b inches in length of metallic bearing on both disc and follower4 ,the follower must be accurately centered and fitted to hub of piston1 so that alignment will not be disturbed if taken apart4 h4 ,the water piston must be of simple and strong construction1 with follower bolts tightly fitted1 and with fibrous packing so cut as to prevent by-passing4 i4 ,all materials used in construction of piston1 except packing1 must be brass1 bronze1 or other non-corrosive metal4 j4 ,bushing studs must be of ,tobin ,bronze1 and of such size and number1 that the maximum stress at the bottom of the screw thread shall not exceed #aj1jjj lbs4 per square inch1 in the event of plunger becoming fast in the bushing with #hj lbs4 of steam in the steam cylinders4 k4 ,for each bushing stud there must be provided a composition nut and check nut4 l4 ,all minor parts exposed to the action of water in water cylinder1 that are not herein specified1 must be of brass1 bronze1 or other non-corrosive material4 #ca4 ,,pump ,,valves4 a4 ,all the suction and discharge valves in any one pump must be of the same size and interchangeable4 b4 ,there must be a clear space around each rubber valve1 between it and the nearest valve1 equal to at least one-fourth of the diameter of the valve1 or between it and the wall of the chamber of at least one-eighth of the diameter of the valve4 c4 ,these valves must be of the very best quality of rubber1 of medium temper1 with a face as soft as good wearing quality will permit4 ,they must be double-faced1 so they can be reversed when one face is worn4 ,the quality of rubber is almost impossible of determination by brief inspection or by chemical analysis4 ,the relative amount of pure gum and of cheaper composition may vary1 or good material may be injured by defective vulcanization4 ,the only safe way to secure excellence and uniformity is for the pump manufacturer to test samples of each new lot under severe duty 7as by a week's run in a small special pump1 with say #aej pounds pressure and heavy water hammer1 or by some equivalent means7 and to furthermore require the rubber manufacturer to mould a date mark as 87,name of pump manufacturer1 lot #bja--;,april #c1 #aijd470 on the edge of every valve1 by which the pump manufacturer can keep track of those which prove defective4 #cb4 ,,size ,,and ,,number ,,of ,,pump ,,valves4 a4 ,the diameter of the disc of rubber forming the valve must not be greater than #d inches or less than #c inches4 ,three and a half inches diameter is probably the most favorable size1 but is not insisted upon4 ,there is some confusion between different shops about designating size of valves4 ,the practice is here adopted1 which is much the most widely used1 of naming the diameter of the disc of rubber which covers the ports1 and it is hereby specified that this shall be about #a_/b-;inch greater than the diameter of the valve-port circle which it covers1 thus affording about #a_/d-;inch overlap or bearing for the rubber disc all around its edge4 ,if valves are larger than #d-;inch there is an increased tendency to valve-slam at the very high speed at which the pump is designed to run1 and if valves are smaller than #c inches diameter the greater number tends to unnecessary multiplication of parts1 and the ports being so small are a little more liable to become obstructed by rubbish4 b4 ,the thickness of the rubber valve must in no cases be less than #e_/h-;inch4 #cc4 ,,suction ,,valve ,,area4 a4 ,the total lift of suction valves must not exceed #a_/b-;inch4 b4 ,the net suction valve port area and the total suction valve outlet area under valves lifted #a_/b inch high must not be smaller than the figures given in the table below4 7#a7 ,length of ,stroke #ab #af 7in inches7 ---------------------------------------- --------- 7#b7 ,greatest ,no4 revolutions per #gj #fj minute4 ---------------------------------------- --------- 7#c7 ,corresponding ,piston travel #adj #afj ft4 per minute4 ---------------------------------------- -------- ,approx4 7#d7 ,feet #cjh #ceb actual max4 ,piston per minute4 velocity at full ------------------------------ speed1 per row 7#e7 ,feet #e4a #e4i 7#c7 #b4b4 per second4 ---------------------------------------- -------- 7#f7 ,net ,suction ,valve-port area #ef #fd speed regarded necessary for this per cent4 of ,plunger area4 ---------------------------------------- --------- 7#g7 ,total ,suction ,valve ,outlet #ef #fd ,area under ,valves lifted #a_/b in4 high4 ---------------------------------------- --------- 7#h7 ,discharge ,valve ,area4 #b_/c of ,suction ,valve ,area4 ---------------------------------------- ---------- ,by 8valve-outlet area10 we mean the vertical cylindrical surface over the outer edge of the valve ports1 i4 e41 the distance ,l multiplied by the circumference at the outer edge of the valve ports ,c1 ,fig4 #h4 ,thus for a #d-;inch valve1 with ports inscribed in a #c-a_/b-;inch circle1 whose circumference is #ce #cadaf #aa inches2 the valve 8outlet area0 for #a_/b-;inch lift would be #e-a_/b inches4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #h4 ,the actual velocity of piston during the middle portion of stroke is from #b4j to #b4d 7average #b4b7 times as great as the piston travel per minute 7as determined in experiments by ,mr4 ,j4 ,r4 ,freeman on several duplex pumps of different manufacture74 ,this is because each piston stands still nearly half the time1 or while its mate is working1 and1 moreover1 moves more slowly near start and finish of stroke4 ,the words 8piston speed0 are commonly incorrectly used and refer to 8piston travel40 ,a clear understanding that the actual piston speed is more than twice as great leads to more generous valve design4 ,large aggregate valve areas are necessary for pumps designed to run as fast as these1 and experience has shown that to prevent valve slam at high speed and to accommodate high suction lifts1 it is just as important to have a large 8valve outlet area0 as to have a large area of valve port4 ,it is valve slam or water hammer which commonly limits the highest speed at which a pump can be run4 ,this water hammer may originate from the pulsations in a long or small suction pipe4 ,the vacuum chamber lessens it1 but there is commonly some point of high water in the vacuum chamber that will give much smoother action than any other4 ,valve slam in this style of pump is caused chiefly by the short rebound of the steam piston against the elastic steam cushion at the end of the stroke4 ,this in turn snaps the valves down with a jump when the speed is high4 ,dividing this impact or slam on numerous valves of low lift1 tends to break up and lessen the shock1 therefore with valves of the size and style used in fire-pumps1 other things being equal1 the less they have to rise and drop to let the water through them1 the less will be the valve slam4 ,this height of rise and drop is governed by the circumference rather than the port area4 ,experience and practice has shown that a #a_/b-;inch limit of lift is reasonable and does ensure a smooth working pump under all ordinary conditions4 c4 ,the following table gives minimums for aggregate valve port area and aggregate valve outlet area1 for the different size plungers1 figured on a basis of #ef of plunger area for a #ab-;inch stroke1 and #fd for a #af-;inch stroke4 ,size of ,pump4 #ejj #gej #ajjj #aejj ,gal4 ,gal4 ,gal4 ,gal4 ---------------------------------------- --------------- #a ,diameter of plunger4 ,inches #g-a_/d #i #aj #ab ---------------------------------------- --------------- #b ,area of plunger in sq4 inches #dabh #fcfb #hed #aacaj ---------------------------------------- --------------- #ef of plunger area1 or ,minimum aggregate #c valve port area allowed per section4 #fd ,square inches #bcaa #cefc #dcih #gbch ---------------------------------------- --------------- ,minimum aggregate #d valve port circumference1 allowed per section4 ,inches #dfbb #gabf #hgif #addgf ---------------------------------------- --------------- ,minimum aggregate valve outlet area #e allowed per section for valves lifted #a_/b inch high4 ,square inches #bcaa #cefc #dcih #gbch ---------------------------------------- ------------------ d4 ,if we consider using any one of the three sizes of valves below1 whose port areas may be assumed approximately as ,diam4 ,diam4 of ,valve ,circ4 of ,valve ,port ,valve4 ,port4 ,circ4 ,v4 ,c4 ,area 7,net74 ,circle4 ,square inches4 ---------------------------------------- ------------ #c #b-a_/b #ghe #ce #c-a_/b #c #idb #dg #d #c-a_/b #ajii #fc ---------------------------------------- ------------ given1 then the necessary number of valves per section will be as in the table following3 ,size of ,pump4 #ejj #gej #ajjj #aejj gal4 gal4 gal4 gal4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------ ,size of ,valves4#cc-a_/bdcc-a_/bdcc-a_/bdcc-a_/b d ---------------------------------------- ------------------ ,necessary number of valves to satisfy 7#d7 under c #f #e #e #i #h #gaa #aj #hai #af #ad ---------------------------------------- ------------------ ,necessary number of valves to satisfy 7#c7 under c #g #e #daj #h #fac #aj #gba #af #ab ---------------------------------------- ------------------ ,the exact number and size of valves will1 however1 not be insisted upon provided the aggregate valve area and the aggregate valve outlet area for each section is not less than that given in the table under c for the limiting lift of #a_/b inch4 ,manufacturers will note that with the established lift of #a_/b inch1 the #c-a_/b-;inch valve will permit a valve outlet area more nearly equal to its port area than will either the #c-;inch or #d-;inch valves1 and a relatively less number of valves will satisfy the specifications4 #cd4 ,,delivery ,,valves4 a4 ,the total lift of delivery valves must not exceed one-half inch4 ,this is to avoid valve slam1 as explained in ,art4 #cc4 b4 ,the aggregate valve-port area should be restricted to about two-thirds the suction-valve area4 ,a small restriction of water-way through the delivery valves steadies the action of the pump and tends to prevent undue pulsations of pressure in the delivery pipe or fire hose4 ,fewer delivery valves than suction valves are1 therefore1 preferred1 and if extra holes in the delivery deck are cast for shop purposes these had better be plugged than fitted with valves4 ,the suction valves require more generous port-circumference and port-area than delivery valves because when a pump has to suck its supply through a considerable height or through a long pipe there should be the least practicable waste of the atmospheric pressure in getting the water into the plunger chamber1 or in retarding it from following the plunger in full contact4 ,with the water once into the plunger chamber there is plenty of steam pressure available to force it out through the delivery valves4 #ce4 ,,valve ,,springs1 ,,guards ,,and ,,covers4 a4 ,all valve springs must be of the best spring brass wire1 and must be coiled on a cylindrical arbor4 ,conical valve springs are not approved because the strain is not uniform throughout spring1 thereby increasing the liability to breakage and the chance of their getting out of center and becoming 8hooked up40 b4 ,the valve spring must be held centrally at its top by resting in a groove in valve guard1 substantially as shown in ,fig4 #i4 c4 ,a light1 rustless metallic plate must be interposed between the bottom of the spring and the rubber valve1 and must be the full area of the valve4 ,this plate must also be formed with a raised bead to guide the spring at the bottom4 ,the weight of this plate should be small1 for the inertia of the lifting parts of the valves should be the least possible1 to permit quick action and to avoid pounding4 d4 ,for the average condition of a #aj or #ae-;foot lift1 the stiffness of suction valve springs should be such that a force of about one pound per square inch of net port area will lift valve #a_/d inch off its seat4 ,the springs on the delivery valves should ordinarily be from two to three times as stiff as just specified1 but any other reasonable degree of stiffness which is proved to work well in practice will not be objected to4 ,for suction under a head1 the greater snap with which water enters the plunger chamber when thus pushed in by say twice the atmospheric pressure renders it difficult to avoid water hammer at high speed4 ,extra stiff suction valve springs will commonly aid in controlling this and should be used wherever pumps are to work under a head4 ,an approved type of indicator water gate on the suction pipe near the pump1 which can be partly closed1 will enable the pump to run quietly at high speed4 ,such a gate is an extra not included in price of the pump4 #cf4 ,,sticking ,,of ,,valves4 a4 ,steam fire-pumps should be started1 to limber them up1 at least once a week4 ,although vulcanized ,india-rubber is much the best material yet used for fire-pump valves1 unfortunately the brass is sometimes corroded by the free sulphur contained in the rubber1 so that if the pump is left standing for several weeks the rubber valve discs may become stuck to their brass seats1 and1 if suction has a high lift1 there may not be vacuum enough to tear all the suction valves open when pump is started4 #cg4 ,,valve ,,seats4 a4 ,all water valve seats must be of bronze composition4 ,they may be either screwed into the deck on a taper or forced in on a smooth taper fit4 ,with either arrangement1 the seat must be either flanged out on the under side all the way round or be provided with a substantial lug opposite each rib1 these lugs being expanded out after the valve is inserted4 ,if the valve seats are not expanded after being put in place1 there is a possibility that now and then a valve seat will work loose and come out1 thus crippling the pump4 b4 ,the under side of the valve deck must be rounded over to give good bearing for the expanded part of the seat4 c4 ,three-inch valves must have four or five ribs1 three and a half inch valves five or six ribs1 and four inch-valves six ribs4 ,enough ribs must be provided to give proper support to the rubber valve1 but too many are objectionable1 as small ports would be liable to obstruction by refuse4 d4 ,the edges of the valve-seat ports must be moderately rounded over1 to remove such sharp edges and points1 as would be liable to cut1 or damage the rubber valve when under pressure4 #ch4 ,,valve ,,stems4 a4 ,all valve stems must be of #c_/d-;inch ,tobin bronze and of the fixed type1 and must have the guard fastened on by one of the methods shown in ,figs4 #i and #aj4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #i4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aj4 ,other methods may be approved1 in writing1 if found by test and experience to have especial merit4 b4 ,these stems must be screwed into the seats on a straight1 tightly fitting thread1 and the lower end then well headed over into a countersink4 ,the valve guard and nut must be of composition4 ,in ,fig4 #i the upper part of the stem is slabbed off on two opposite sides and fits a corresponding hole in the guard4 ,the guard1 therefore1 cannot turn4 ,the outside of the special nut is fitted on a taper to the inside of the guard1 and the nut tapped out to fit the #e_/h ,u4 ,s4 thread on the stem4 ,the action of the valve1 whether with the spring or without1 tends to drive these taper fits together1 producing a frictional lock similar to that of a friction clutch2 and although the nut may be loose on the thread1 it cannot possibly work off4 ,it will be apparent that the taper fit on the nut must be so made as to always bear on the taper fit in the guard1 and not bottom in the guard4 ,it is believed that with the present screw machine practice in shops of to-day these small parts can readily be turned out accurately and cheaply in large quantities4 ,the nuts and guards made in any one shop must be exactly of standard dimensions1 so that the product of different periods will be interchangeable4 ,the taper should be about one inch to one foot4 ,with this taper the nut can be readily turned in or out1 but there is friction enough to hold the guard and nut together even if the spring is off4 ,in ,fig4 #aj1 the top of the guard is recessed in the form of a hollow inverted pyramid of six sides1 to correspond to a hexagonal nut4 ,the angle of two opposite sides of this recess1 which should be about #ge degrees1 will both surely lock the nut and still permit of its being turned with a wrench4 ,the guard is kept from turning by slabbing off the stem1 in the same manner as described and shown in ,fig4 #i4 ,to facilitate the removal of the nut1 the edges should be slightly chamfered4 ,an unfinished nut simply drilled and tapped is all that is desired4 ,any hexagonal or square nut within the size of the tapered recess will be locked4 ,with this construction1 the nut cannot turn in either direction without compressing the spring and is therefore locked1 and1 in the event of the spring breaking or being left off1 the nut is well protected in its recess from the possible turning effects of water currents1 and experiments have shown that it will still stay in place4 ,with machine molding it will be possible to make these guards complete in foundry1 requiring no machine work further than a possible broaching out of hole to fit the stem1 as a fairly good fit is necessary4 ,while both of these devices are effective even though not tightened down to a shoulder1 they should be so tightened for greater safety and to fix the lift at the half-inch limit4 #ci4 ,,pipe ,,sizes4 a4 ,water and steam pipe connections must have standard flanges to connect with pipes of the sizes given below4 ,size of ,pump4 ,diameter of ,diameter ,steam ,exhaust ,gal4 ,per ,min4 ,suction ,pipe4,discharge ,pipe4 ,pipe4 ,pipe4 ,inches4 ,inches4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------ #ejj #h #f #c #d #gej #aj #g or #h;,c #c-a_/b #d #a1jjj #ab #h #d #e #a1ejj #ad #aj #e #f ---------------------------------------- ------------------ ,footnote ,c3 ,eight-inch preferred1 this being the more common size for valves1 fittings1 and pipes4 ,these suction pipe sizes1 although larger than common for trade pumps of the same size1 are believed to be amply justified by experience1 and exert a powerful influence toward enabling the pump to run smoothly at high speed with water cylinders filling perfectly at each stroke4 ,no defect is more common than restricted suction pipes4 b4 ,a single suction entrance at the end of the pump is to be provided unless otherwise specified by the purchaser4 ,some situations render desirable side suction entrances1 for permitting drafting water from two different sources of supply4 ,these additional openings are to be considered as extras4 ,ordinarily1 the purchaser can provide for such situations by proper piping at the single end suction entrance4 ,if there is to be but one suction opening on casting1 this had best be at center1 for the reason that1 if suction pipe ever gets to leaking air1 this air stands a better chance of being distributed equally to the two plungers1 and has less tendency to make the pump run unevenly4 c4 ,standard flanges and standard bolt layouts as adopted by the ,master ,steam ,fitters1 ,july #ah1 #ahid1 must be used on all the above pipe connections1 as per table given below4 ,,schedule ,,of ,,standard ,,flanges4 ,size of ,pipe ,diameter ,number ,size ,flange ,diam4 of of of ,thickness of ,flange4 ,bolt ,circle4 ,bolts4 ,bolts4 at ,edge4 ,inches4 ,inches4 ,inches4 ,inches4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------- #c #g-a_/b #f #d #e_/h #b-a_/b #ac_/af #c-a_/b #h-a_/b #g #d #e_/h #b-a_/b #g_/h #d #i #g-a_/b #d #c_/d #b-c_/d #ae_/af #d-a_/b #i-a_/d #g-c_/d #h #c_/d #c #ae_/af #e #aj #h-a_/b #h #c_/d #c #ae_/af #f #aa #i-a_/b #h #c_/d #c #a #g #ab-a_/b #aj-c_/d #h #c_/d #c-a_/d #a-a_/af #h #ac-a_/b #aa-c_/d #h #c_/d #c-a_/b #a-a_/h #i #ae #ac-a_/d #ab #c_/d #c-a_/b #a-a_/h #aj #af #ad-a_/d #ab #g_/h #c-e_/h #a-c_/af #ab #ai #ag #ab #g_/h #c-c_/d #a-a_/d #ad #ba #ah-c_/d #ab #a #d-a_/d #a-c_/h ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,do not drill bolt holes on center line1 but symmetrically each side of it4 ,on steam and exhaust openings loose flanges threaded for wrought-iron pipe must be provided4 ,where the situation will not permit of a standard flange on exhaust opening for lack of room1 a special flange threaded to fit the proper size wrought-iron pipe may be used4 #dj4 ,,air ,,and ,,vacuum ,,chambers4 a4 ,air and vacuum chambers in accordance with the sizes given in the following table must be provided with all pumps4 ,if the air chamber is cast iron1 the pump manufacturers must warrant that it has been subjected to a hydraulic test of #djj lbs4 per square inch before it is connected to pump4 ,it is to be thoroughly painted inside and out to diminish its porosity4 ,,size ,,of ,,vacuum ,,and ,,air ,,chambers4 ,vacuum ,chamber is ,air ,chamber is to contain3-- to contain3-- ---------------------------------------- --------------- #ejj-;gallon pump4 #ac gallons4 #ag gallons4 #gej #ah #be #a1jjj #bd #cj #a1ejj #cj #dj ---------------------------------------- --------------- ,the air chamber1 combined with connections for discharge pipe1 relief valve1 and hose valves1 should be carefully designed to make the whole weight as small as possible4 ,keeping this weight down makes the pump run steadier and brings less strain on the flanges at high speeds4 ,an air chamber of hammered copper and warranted tested under a hydraulic pressure not less than #cjj lbs4 per square inch is a little better than cast iron as it holds air better1 and being lighter it wrenches and strains the pump less when running fast and shaking1 but because it costs from #be to #ej more than cast iron1 it is not often adopted4 b4 ,the vacuum chamber must be attached to the pump in the most direct way practicable1 but provision must be made for attaching it in such manner as not to prevent readily taking off the cylinder heads4 c4 ,every vacuum chamber should be provided on one side near the top with a #a_/d-;inch pipe hole plugged4 ,this to be used for attaching a vacuum gauge if desired4 #da4 ,,pressure ,,gauge4 a4 ,a pressure gauge of the ,lane double tube spring pattern with #e-;inch case1 must be provided with the pump1 and connected near to inboard side of air chamber1 as shown in ,fig4 #ab1 by a #a_/d-;inch cock1 with lever handle4 ,the dial of this gauge should be scaled to indicate pressures up to #bdj lbs4 and be marked 8,,water40 ,this kind of gauge is used on locomotives and is the best for withstanding the vibration which causes fire-pump gauges to be often unreliable4 ,moreover1 this double spring form is safer against freezing4 #db4 ,,hose ,,valves4 a4 ,hose valves must be attached to the pump 7and included in its price7 as follows3-- ,for the #b stream or #ejj-;gal4 pump1 #b hose valves4 ,for the #c stream or #gej-;gal4 pump1 #c hose valves4 ,for the #d stream or #a1jjj-;gal4 pump1 #d hose valves4 ,for the #f stream or #a1ejj-;gal4 pump1 #f hose valves4 ,these are to be #b-a_/b-;inch straightway brass valves1 without cap1 and similar and equal in quality to those made by the ,chapman ,valve ,company1 the ,ludlow ,valve ,company1 or the ,lunkenheimer ,company4 ,the hose-screw at end of these valves is to be fitted to a hose coupling furnished by the customer1 or where this cannot be procured may be left with the thread uncut4 ,to accommodate locations where all the lines of hose must lead off from one side of the pump--makers can furnish a spool piece or special casting to which the hose valves can be attached--but this is an extra not included in the regular price4 #dc4 ,,safety ,,valve4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aa4 a4 ,a safety or relief valve of the ,ashton1 ,crosby1 ,american1 or other make agreed upon in writing with this office1 is to be regularly included in the price1 and is to be attached to each pump2 preferably extending horizontally inboard from base of air chamber1 as shown in ,fig4 #ab1 so that its hand-wheel for regulating pressure is within easy reach4 ,this hand-wheel must be marked very conspicuously as shown in ,fig4 #aa4 b4 ,this valve is to be set ordinarily at a working pressure of #ajj pounds to the square inch1 and is to be of such capacity1 that when set at #ajj pounds it can pass all the water discharged by the pump at full speed1 at a pump pressure not exceeding #abe pounds per square inch4 ,for #ejj-;gallon pump a #c inch valve4 ,for #gej-;gallon pump #c-a_/b inch valve4 ,for #a1jjj-;gallon pump #d inch valve4 ,for #a1ejj-;gallon pump #e inch valve4 ,the relief valve must discharge in a vertical downward direction into a cone or funnel secured to the outlet of the valve4 7,see ,art4 #dd47 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ab4 ,the valve must be so attached to the delivery elbow and discharge cone by flange connections as to permit of its ready removal for repairs without disturbing the waste piping4 #dd4 ,,discharge ,,cone4 a4 ,this cone should be so constructed that the pump operator can easily see any water wasting through the relief valve1 and its passages should be of such design and size as to avoid splashing water over into the pump room4 b4 ,the cone must also have a one-inch tapped connection for the air-vent pipe required by ,art4 #de1 and the arrangement must be such that the pump operator can easily tell whether water is coming from the air pipe or is wasting through the relief valve4 c4 ,the cone should be piped to some point outside of the pump house where water can be wasted freely1 the waste pipes being as below4 ,,size ,,of ,,diameter ,,of ,,waste ,,pump4 ,,pipe ,,from ,,cone4 ----------------------------------- #ejj-;gallon4 #e inches4 #gej #f #a1jjj #g #a1ejj #h ----------------------------------- ,the waste pipe can pass down to floor between the yokes at middle of pump4 ,it should be piped in such a way that steam and gases from other drains or waste pipes will not work back through it1 and1 by being troublesome in the pump room1 suggest the covering of the cone in any way1 as it is desirable that the pump operator should always be able to see instantly any waste from the relief valve or air vent4 ,this cast-iron cone1 connected to the safety valve and air vent1 is included in price of pump1 but the waste pipe beyond it is not4 #de4 ,,air ,,valve4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ac4 a4 ,an air vent with a brass gate valve and brass pipe for connecting up1 must be provided and connected with delivery elbow and discharge cone4 b4 ,the size of this air vent should be one inch for #ejj-;gallon and #gej-;gallon pumps1 and one and one-fourth inches for the #ajjj-;gallon and #aejj-;gallon sizes4 c4 ,the hand wheel of this valve must be marked as per ,fig4 #ac4 ,the lettering must be very open1 clear and distinct1 not liable to be obstructed by grease and dirt1 and of a permanent character4 ,the object of this valve is to reduce the pressure above force valves and secure a prompt riddance of all air that may come through the water cylinders when first starting up4 ,this valve1 of course1 should be closed when once pump is under way1 to prevent waste of water4 #df4 ,,priming4 a4 ,each pump must be fitted with a set of brass priming pipes and valves1 according to either one or the other of the following methods3 b4 ,for #a1jjj and #a1ejj gallon pumps1 the priming pipes must be #a-a_/d inches4 ,for the #ejj and #gej gallon pumps1 the pipes must be #a inch4 ,pump-makers are to furnish these pipes and the fittings called for below1 and are to connect them up providing a #b-;inch outlet1 looking upwards1 ready for the supply from the priming tank4 ,the pipe from the priming tank to this outlet should be at least #b-;inch1 and may be of iron1 and is to be furnished by the purchaser4 ,all parts furnished by the pump-maker are to be of brass1 and are to be included in the price of the pump4 ,,controllable ,,valve ,,arrangement4 c4 ,four #b-seat controllable valves1 one for each pulsation chamber1 and of the general type illustrated in ,fig4 #ad1 must be provided4 ,in these the inlet of water and outlet of air are simultaneously opened and closed by the pump operator4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ad4 ,objection has been raised to this double-seated valve from the possible difficulty of keeping both seats tight4 ,if desired1 the valve may be fitted with a flange instead of a screw connection1 and the stem between the two seats somewhat enlarged and provided with a suitable spring1 thus giving flexibility between the two seats and preventing all trouble from uneven wear4 d4 ,the hand-wheel of each of these valves must be marked as per ,fig4 #ae1 so that the pump operator ,i may clearly understand their use4 ,the lettering must be very open1 clear and distinct1 not liable to be obscured by grease and dirt1 and of a permanent character4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ae4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #af4 e4 ,there must be provided and fitted to each combined valve a check and umbrella-top air vent1 as shown in ,fig4 #af4 ,this fitting must have a clear passageway through it1 the full equivalent of a #a_/b-;inch bore4 ,the check-valve is to permit the outflow of air1 but to prevent the influx when the plunger is sucking4 ,this method is preferred to the one using rubber priming checks1 as now and then a rubber valve will stick on its seat and thus prevent priming of one of the chambers4 ,in this arrangement the pump operator has absolute control over the priming water into each chamber4 ,another advantage is that the connection of the air-vent with the priming valve ensures that the air-vents will be opened2 and further1 by the vigorous spurting out of water as soon as the pump is primed1 the pump operator is reminded that the priming valve should be closed4 ,should the pump operator1 however1 through a mistaken idea of the proper method of operation1 think that the priming should be continued until all air was exhausted from the suction pipe and the pump running in normal condition1 there would be some by-passing between chambers1 but as there is a free vent for the air1 the main result would be simply to limit the amount of air exhausted per stroke1 from the main suction1 by the amount of water which entered a chamber in this way4 ,the amount of water thus entering1 however1 would not be appreciably greater than that which would enter from the priming-tank with the check-valve arrangement4 ,if1 even in spite of the warning given by the spurting air-vents1 the pump operator should neglect to close the priming-valves when the pump was running normally1 the priming-tank would eventually be overflowed2 but this would not be as serious as the drawing in of air from an exhausted priming-tank1 which would result with the check-valve method1 were the main #b-;inch valve similarly neglected4 ,,rubber ,,check ,,valves4 f4 ,four rubber check valves1 one for each pulsation chamber1 and similar to ordinary pump valves1 must be provided4 ,the chambers for these should preferably be made as a part of the pump cylinder1 thus securing a compact arrangement4 ,figure #ab shows this arrangement in outline4 g4 ,the valve seat should have three ribs to the central hub1 supporting the rubber valve4 ,the net port area through the valve should be not less than #a-a_/b square inches4 ,this valve seat should rest in an inverted position1 and can be so fitted up as to be readily removed4 ,the valve stems can be of the removable type screwing into the seat1 but must be made long enough to receive a check nut on the opposite side of seat4 ,this will effectually lock the stem in place4 h4 ,care must be taken to arrange the water passages through and about these priming checks1 so as to avoid all air pockets and so as to reduce to a minimum the possibility of the valves becoming choked up by refuse4 i4 ,the valve seats1 stems and all parts must be of composition and of strong rugged design1 so fitted up that there is the least chance for the rubber valves to stick1 and with all parts securely put together the valves must be readily accessible4 j4 ,the valve springs must have only sufficient strength to keep the valves on their seats1 so that they will freely open even with the low head of priming water often existing4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ag4 k4 ,there must be provided1 and attached to the top of each plunger chamber1 a brass check valve and air cock with umbrella top1 as shown in ,fig4 #ag4 ,this cock and valve must have a clear passageway through them--the full equivalent of a #a_/b-;inch bore4 ,the check valve is to permit the outflow of air1 but to prevent the influx when the plunger is sucking4 ,cocks with lever handles are used1 as these show clearly whether they are open or shut4 l4 ,there must also be provided a #b-;inch brass gate valve for the general control of the water to the four-check valves4 ,the hand wheel of this valve must be marked as per ,fig4 #ae4 ,the lettering must be very clear1 open1 and distinct1 not liable to be obscured by grease1 and of a permanent character4 ,it is essential for a properly working pump that the main #b-;inch priming-valve should be closed as soon as the pump is primed4 ,otherwise1 water will be drawn from the priming tank1 lessening the lifting power of the pump through the main suction1 and if this is continued the priming tank will often be exhausted and air drawn into the pump1 interfering with its proper action4 ,it is for this reason that the marking on the priming valve is required4 ,for all average situations1 either method of priming permits of getting the pump under way in a very few minutes1 but1 for cases where the suction pipe is over #cjj or #djj feet in length1 or sometimes where the lift is over #ah feet1 or where there is a combination of long length and lift within these limits1 so much time is consumed in exhausting the air from the suction pipe that it becomes desirable to supplement this method4 ,for such situations1 a steam ejector connected to the suction pipe near the pump is advised1 and may be required in addition to the regular priming pipes and tank4 ,the size of the ejector should be sufficient to exhaust the suction pipe within about three minutes4 ,such ejectors will be considered as extras not included in the ordinary pump fittings4 ,for cases where pump can only take its suction under a head1 if absolutely certain that the level of the suction water will never fall below level of center of pump1 these priming pipes may be omitted1 but openings for them into the pump shell must be provided and capped or plugged4 ,a foot valve on a fire-pump suction is not advised except in very rare cases1 as with a lift of #ah feet or a suction pipe #ejj feet or more long4 ,a foot valve is not needed when there is a good efficient set of priming arrangements as described above and it is commonly found this gives a false sense of security1 and that with a fire-pump left standing several days the water will often be found to have leaked back1 so that it is no better than if no foot valve had been used4 ,a foot valve must of necessity generally be located where it is inaccessible for quick repairs1 and as they grow old1 foot valves are often a source of trouble4 ,where a suction pipe is exposed even slightly to frost1 a foot valve is specially objectionable4 ,a priming tank is provided for the purchaser in all cases where there is ever to be any lift on the suction4 ,it is generally advised that this tank have a capacity of one-half of what the pump can throw at full speed in a minute4 ,this means #bej gallons for a #ejj-;gallon pump and #ejj gallons for a #a1jjj-;gallon pump1 etc4 ,it is the intention to make the pump a truly 8independent source0 of supply1 therefore the need of a special priming tank4 ,,older ,,priming ,,arrangements4 ,the form of priming arrangement heretofore used1 with metal check valves1 one main #b-;inch priming valve1 and #a-;inch priming pipes1 separate controllable air cocks1 may be retained on all pumps at present in service1 and will be considered satisfactory1 if kept in good order4 ,if in any case such checks give trouble the priming arrangement may be changed and valves like ,fig4 #ad or rubber checks as described in sections f-j1 made up in detachable form1,d may be put on if desired1 where the connections on the pump permit them4 ,where neither method is desired or where neither is feasible the faulty checks may be replaced by a special type such as are now made for this use1 by the ,locke ,regulator ,company1 of ,salem1 ,mass4 ,these are #a-;inch check valves1 adapted to use a small disc of medium hard rubber1 similar to a pump valve4 ,these fittings are very near the dimensions of the commercial check valve1 so that with slight shortening of piping connections they will fit into the present arrangements1 and give satisfaction4 #dg4 ,,drain ,,cocks4 a4 ,five brass drain cocks1 each with a lever handle and of #a_/b-;inch bore1 are to be provided1 and located one on each end of each water cylinder1 and one above the upper valve deck4 ,care should be taken to select a pattern of cock whose passageway is the practical equivalent of a #a_/b-;inch hole4 ,some patterns of #a_/b-;inch commercial cocks although threaded for #a_/b-;inch pipe thread have but a #a_/d-;inch hole through them4 ,such are not acceptable4 ,footnote ,d3 ,such detachable rubber check valves are now made up in regular form by the ,george ,f4 ,blake ,mfg4 ,co41 ,east ,cambridge1 ,mass4 ,,tests ,,for ,,acceptance4 #dh4 ,,test ,,for ,,smoothness ,,of ,,action4 a4 ,provide outlets for the water2 start the pump slowly1 gradually open steam-throttle to bring the pump to full speed4 ,the pump should run smoothly at the rated full speed of #gj revolutions per minute 7or #fj revolutions if a #a1ejj-;gallon pump7 with full length of stroke1 and meanwhile maintain a water pressure of #ajj lbs4 per square inch4 ,if the hose lines are short1 or discharge is too free1 partly close the water outlet valves1 thus throwing an extra back pressure on the pump equivalent to that which would be produced through a greater length of hose4 ,during this trial it is preferable to discharge the water through lines of #b-a_/b-;inch cotton rubber-lined hose1 preferably each #aej feet long1 each connected directly to the hose outlets on the pump1 and each line having a #a-a_/h-;inch smooth nozzle at its outer end4 ,two lines should be connected for a #ejj-;gallon pump1 three for a #gej1 and so on1 having as many lines as rating of pump requires4 ,a hose line #aej feet long1 with an inside surface of average smoothness1 and with a #a-a_/h-;inch nozzle attached1 will require about #hj pounds pressure at the pump to discharge #bej gallons per minute1 and the nozzle pressure will be about #de pounds4 ,therefore1 with lines attached as above1 a pressure at the pump of about #hj pounds should represent a discharge about equal to the rated capacity of the pump1 and would ordinarily correspond with the rated full speed revolutions4 ,if the pump runs smoothly under these conditions1 it is well to open the throttle somewhat further1 and bring the pressure at the pump up to #ajj pounds4 ,this will give a discharge of about #bhj gallons per stream1 or about #ab per cent4 in excess of the rated capacity4 ,the revolutions will1 of course1 correspondingly increase1 and under all ordinary conditions a pump should run smoothly at this higher capacity though a little more vibration and pounding would be expected than when running simply at its rated speed4 ,after cushion valves are adjusted there should be no noteworthy water hammer or valve-slam4 ,sometimes valve-slam is not the fault of the pump1 but arises from an obstructed suction pipe4 ,it is objectionable to doctor water hammer in a pump by 8snifting0 air into the suction1 as this cuts down the efficiency and is a poor expedient4 ,the quietness of that part of the hose near the pump1 or its freedom from rubbing back and forth crosswise an inch or more with each pulsation of the pump1 is a good index of the pump maker's skill in securing uniform delivery4 ,bad pulsation quickly wears holes in the hose1 and to reveal this is the object of testing with hose connected directly to the pump4 #di4 ,,test ,,of ,,the ,,internal ,,friction4 a4 ,this is shown by the reading of steam gauge compared with water pressure gauge at air chamber4 ,tests have generally run about as follows1 for pumps running at full rated speed3 ,size ,gallons #ejj #gej #a1jjj #a1ejj ,per ,minute ,capacity4 ---------------------------------------- --------------- ,ratio of ,steam #d ,times#c ,times#c ,times#b-c_/d ,times ,piston ,area to ,water ,piston ,area4 ---------------------------------------- --------------- ,water #ajj #ajj #ajj #ajj ,pressure lbs4 ,per ,sq4 in4 ---------------------------------------- --------------- ,steam ,pressure #be #cc #cc #cfe ,theoretically ,necessary1 ,disregarding ,friction4 ---------------------------------------- --------------- ,excess of ,steam #ae #ab #ab #ace ,pressure ,needed to ,overcome ,friction1 ,back ,pressure1 ,etc4 ---------------------------------------- --------------- ,actual ,steam #dj #de #de #ej ,pressure ,found ,necessary at the ,pump4 ---------------------------------------- --------------- b4 ,the steam pressure needed will vary slightly with the freedom of the exhaust pipe and with the tightness of the packings1 etc41 but a steam pressure of #de pounds at the steam chest should suffice for #ajj pounds water pressure on pump in proper adjustment4 #ej4 ,,test ,,of ,,strength ,,and ,,tightness4 a4 ,first1 shut the main valve between the pump and the fire system lest a sprinkler head be burst1 then shut all water outlets nearly1 but not quite tight1 so pump will move very slowly4 ,screw safety valve down hard4 ,slowly and carefully admit steam pressure sufficient to give #bdj pounds per square inch water pressure4 b4 ,with this extreme pressure all joints should remain substantially tight1 and the slow motion of the pump should be tolerably smooth and uniform4 7,the leakage of a few drops here and there and a little unsteadiness of motion are to be expected47 c4 ,if boiler pressure is above #he pounds1 the safety valve on pump should be attached and screwed down only enough to hold the required pressure4 ,for with #ajj pounds or more of steam the water pressure might be carried too high4 ,after completing the above test slack off on safety valve1 setting it so that it will begin to open at about #ajj pounds pressure4 #ea4 ,,test ,,of ,,capacity ,,of ,,safety ,,valve4 a4 ,the relief valve may next be tested by first adjusting it to 8pop0 at #ajj pounds1 then shut the main outlet to pump1 and then shut the hose gates one by one1 and thus force all the discharge through the relief valve1 meanwhile opening steam throttle1 so as to run pump first at two-thirds speed or about #ej revolutions per minute1 and finally at full speed 7#gj revolutions74 ,the safety valve 7relief valve7 should carry all this and not let the pressure rise above #abe pounds4 ,the pressure in a quick-moving fire-pump necessarily fluctuates #e to #ae pounds at different points in stroke1 and an air chamber of reasonable size cannot wholly remove this4 ,therefore the safety valve must be set at about #ae pounds higher than the intended average working pressure2 otherwise it will get to jumping with almost every stroke4 #eb4 ,,test ,,of ,,internal ,,leakage ,,or ,,slip4 a4 ,set safety-valves at #aae lbs41 shut all water outlets1 admit steam enough to give #ajj pounds water pressure1 then pump will move very slowly under the influence of the leakage past plungers4 ,about one revolution of pump per minute shows a proper accuracy of fit4 ,anywhere from #a_/c to #b revolutions per minute is satisfactory4 ,too tight a fit is bad1 as if not exceedingly uniform it induces scoring or cutting of the metals4 ,moreover1 should the pump happen to be run dry for a few minutes before catching its suction a slight warming and expansion of the plunger may cause it to stick and cut4 #ec4 ,,test ,,with ,,maximum ,,working ,,pressure4 a4 ,for this1 alternately shut down the main outlet gate and adjust the hand-wheel of the safety valve1 and open up on the throttle as may be required1 running pump at say one-half speed 7or1 in experienced hands1 at full rated speed71 and note the greatest water pressure which the full boiler pressure 7unless boiler pressure is above #he lbs47 will yield with pump at full speed4 ,sometimes it may be necessary to force water through very long lines of hose1 or to an unusual height4 ,steam fire engines are not infrequently called on to give #bjj pounds per square inch water pressure4 ,to test short hose lines with anywhere near so high a pump-pressure is dangerous1 lest nozzle kick and pull itself away from the man holding it and thrash around2 but the ability of the pump may be tested by putting this high pressure-delivery mainly through the safety valve1 or in part through the partially closed main outlet gate4 ,it is not advisable to carry this water pressure above #bjj pounds in this test at the factory1 7although in the shop test the water pressure is carried to #bdj pounds7 and engine driver should stand with his hand on the throttle4 #ed4 ,,test ,,for ,,maximum ,,delivery4 a4 ,this can best be tried by adding one or1 in some cases1 two more streams than the pump is rated to deliver by attaching the extra lines of hose to some hydrant near1 and then speed up the pump gradually1 to see how fast it may be run before violent pounding or slamming of valves begins4 ,sometimes the increased delivery can be drawn off through an open hydrant-butt meanwhile holding sufficient back pressure to show #ajj pounds on the water gauge by partly closing the discharge valve4 ,the engine driver should stand with his hand on or near the throttle when thus speeding the pump4 ,it is all right to run a fire-pump up to the utmost speed possible before water hammer begins1 and very often a pump1 while new and if favorably set up1 can deliver #be to #ej per cent4 more than rated capacity2 nevertheless1 although expert treatment can force #a1jjj gallons from a #af #i #ab pump we can rate it as only a #gej-;gallon pump4 ,there must be some margin to allow for wear and for the possible absence of the expert at time of fire4 ,,the ,,main ,,points ,,of ,,difference ,,between ,,the 8,,national ,,standard0 ,,and ,,the 8,,trade ,,pump0 ,,are3 ,brass ,plungers instead of cast-iron plungers4 ,wrought iron side levers instead of cast iron4 ,bronze piston rods and valve rods instead of iron or steel4 ,pump has brass-lined stuffing boxes instead of cast iron4 ,rock shafts are brass bushed4 ,area of water valves is #be to #ej per cent4 greater4 ,steam and exhaust passages #bj to #ej per cent4 greater4 ,suction pipe connections two to four inches greater diameter4 ,cushion valves better arranged4 ,air chamber is made much larger4 ,shells and bolting are warranted especially strong4 ,the following necessary fittings are included in the price1 and regularly furnished as a part of this pump1 viz43 ,a capacity plate4 ,a stroke gauge4 ,a vacuum chamber4 ,two best quality pressure gauges4 ,a water relief valve of large capacity4 ,a cast iron relief valve discharge cone4 ,a set of brass priming pipes and special priming valves4 ,from two to six hose valves4 ,a sight feed cylinder lubricator connected above throttle4 ,a one-pint hand oil pump connected below throttle4 ,information regarding tests made under these specifications can be obtained by addressing ,underwriters' ,laboratories1 ,chicago1 ,ill4 ,,index ,,to ,,pump ,,specifications4 ,article ,no4 and section4 ,acceptance1 tests for1 #dh to #ed ,air chamber1 #dj ,air valve1 #de ,automatic sprinklers1 discharge of1 #c c ,boiler power required for driving pumps1 #c a ,bolts1 allowable stress and size1 #i1 #bg f ,bolting standards required1 #ci c ,bushings for packed water pistons1 #cj ,bushings for plungers1 #bh1 #bi ,capacity of pumps1 method of computing1 #d ,capacity plate1 #e ,chambers1 air and vacuum1 #dj ,clearance in steam cylinders1 #ab ,cone1 discharge1 #dd ,cover plates for water valves1 #ce ,cranks1 #af ,crossheads1 #af c ,cushion valves1 #ai ,cylinders1 steam1 #h ,cylinders1 water1 #bg ,delivery1 test of maximum1 #ed ,discharge cone1 #dd ,drain cocks1 #bd1 #dg ,duplex pumps required1 #b ,fire stream1 standard1 #c c ,flanges1 standards required1 #ci c ,friction1 internal1 tests for1 #di ,guards for valves1 #ce ,gauges1 pressure1 #bc1 #da ,gauges1 stroke1 #bf ,hose valves1 #db ,inspection at shop1 #g ,leakage1 test of internal1 #eb ,levers1 valve motion1 #ag ,links1 #af ,name plates1 #e ,oiling devices1 #be ,pipe1 sizes1 steam and water1 #ci ,piston areas1 ratio1 #c a ,pistons1 packed water1 #cj ,piston rods and nuts1 #bj ,pistons1 steam1 #ac ,plunger bushings1 #bh1 #bi ,plunger1 water1 #bh1 #bi ,pressure1 maximum1 working tests for1 #ec ,priming1 methods required1 #df ,rock shafts1 #af ,rods1 piston1 #bj ,rods1 valve1 #ba ,safety valves1 #dc ,safety valve1 test of capacity1 #ea ,shop inspection1 #g ,single pumps not acceptable1 #b ,sizes of pumps1 standards1 #c a ,slip1 #d f ,slip1 test of internal1 #eb ,smoothness of action1 test for1 #dh ,speed of pumps1 #c a1 #cc b ,speed of pumps1 revolutions per minute1 #c and #d ,springs1 valve1 #ce ,steam cylinders1 #h ,steam1 clearance space1 #ab ,steam joints1 #h c ,steam pistons1 #ac ,steam ports1 #aa ,steam slide valves1 #ad1 #ae ,strength of parts1 #f ,strength1 tests for1 #ej ,stuffing box1 #bb ,tests for acceptance1 #dh to #ed ,tightness1 tests for1 #ej ,vacuum chamber1 #dj ,valves1 water valve areas1 #cc-cd ,valve1 air1 #de ,valve1 cover plates1 #ce ,valves1 delivery1 #cd ,valve guards1 #ce ,valves1 hose1 #db ,valve motion stand1 #ah ,valves1 pump1 general requirements1 #ca ,valves1 pump1 size and number1 #cb ,valve rods1 #ba ,valve rod heads1 #af c ,valves1 safety1 #dc ,valve seats1 water1 construction of1 #cg ,valve springs1 #ce ,valve1 steam slide1 #ad ,valves1 steam slide adjustment1 #ae ,valve stems1 types required1 #ch ,valves1 sticking of water valves1 #cf ,valve1 suction valve area1 #cc ,water cylinders1 #bg ,workmanship1 character of1 #a ,yoke1 #aj ,,index ,,to ,,part ,,one ,any one1 and more especially the attentive student1 can with the least trouble avail himself of the subject matter contained in this work by doing as indicated in the following old ,english couplet quoted by ,chas4 ,reade4 8,for index-reading turns no student pale1 ,yet takes the eel of science by the tail40 ,,the ,,index ,,to ,,part ,,one ,,of ,,rogers ,,pumps ,,and ,,hydraulics4 ,,page ,accumulator1 an1 des41 #aea hydraulic1 ills4 and des41 #aga-agc rule for calculating capacity of1 #agb ,acid1 muriatic1 specific gravity of1 #if sulphuric1 specific gravity of1 #if ,adjustment of the slide valves of the underwriter steam fire pumps1 #cfj ,advantages of a duplex pump as a fire pump1 #cea ,ariform fluids1 des41 #ae ,air1 des41 composition of1 #ae1 #af and vacuum chambers for the underwriter pump1 #cha ,practically the reverse of each other1 #bba ,air-bound1 def41 #ag ,air chamber of pump1 ills41 #bbc chambers1 ills4 and des41 #bbj ,air-cock1 def41 #ag ,air1 gravity and elasticity of1 #af ,air pump1 #ac and electric motor1 ills4 and des41 #bga valve1 marking of1 for the underwriter pump1 #che ,alcohol1 specific gravity of1 #if ,alcometer1 def41 #id ,allen1 ,frank1 annotations1 ,,iv1 ,,viii ,alternating motor1 des4 and ills41 #beb ,ammeters1 des4 and ills41 #bef ,ampere1 def41 #bef ,angle for crank positions of duplex1 triplex and quadruplex pumps1 #bcj of check valve1 ills4 and des41 #bbg ,animal power1 #ahg ,animals1 when drinking are natural bellows pumps1 ,note1 #aii ,annular valve1 def41 #ag ,antimony1 specific gravity of1 #if ,apparatus1 hydraulic1 def41 #aeg ,archimedes and the hydrostatic balance1 #ic ,area1 def41 #ag ,armature1 des4 and ills41 #bdg1 #bea ,armored pump valves1 ills4 and des41 #bag ,armstrong1 ,sir ,william1 designer of the hydraulic accumulator1 #aga ,arsenic1 specific gravity of1 #if ,asphalt1 melted1 raised by pumps1 #ahh ,assembling1 def41 #ag ,atmospheric electricity1 #bde pressure1 def41 #ag ,attraction1 capillary1 def41 #ajc of gravitation1 #he ,auxiliary1 def41 #ag ,bag pump1 ills4 and des41 #aih ,balanced valve1 def41 #ah ,ball check-valve1 def41 #ah ,barrel or cylinder of a pump1 des41 #ahi ills41 #aie ,base of hand pump1 ills41 #aie ,basket1 def41 #ah ,battery1 how indicated by the signs and -1 #bfa ,bellows-pump1 illustrated and des41 #ahf1 #aih1 #aii ,belted pumps1 des4 and ills41 #bbe ,belt-pumps1 hydraulic1 #bjj pumps1 why so called1 #ahg ,bends1 def41 #ah ,bethesda1 pool of1 historical def41 #di ,bibb-cock1 def41 #ah ,blakeslee steam pump1 ills4 and des41 #bii-cja ,bodies soluble in water1 how weighed1 #id ,boiler feed pump duplex power1 ills4 and des41 #bcj-bca pumps1 ills4 and des41 #bbe-bcd table of capacity of1 #bbf ,boiling point of water1 #gf ,bolt-extractor1 des4 and ills41 #afd ,bolts and stubs to be used in the underwriter steam fire pump1 #cef ,bonnets1 def41 #ah ills41 #bbc ,boss1 def41 #ai ,boulton1 ,matthew1 inventor of hydraulic ram note1 #age ,bourdon spring1 of metallic barometer des41 #aae-aaf ,bounarbashi fountains of1 historical def41 #ej ,braden pump valve1 ills4 and des41 #bae-baf ,bramah1 time of his invention of the hydraulic press1 #afi ,brass1 specific gravity of1 #if ,breast1 water wheel des4 and ills41 #abb ,brick1 specific gravity of1 #if ,bronze1 specific gravity of1 #if ,brotherhood three cylinder hydraulic engine1 #aej-aeb ,brushes1 dynamo1 des4 and ills41 #bea1 #bfb ,buckets1 gaining and losing1 historical1 des4 and ills41 #ei1 #fj part of water wheel1 #acj ,buffalo single cylinder pump1 ills4 and des41 #cai-cba ,burnham steam pump1 ills4 and des41 #cbd-cbf ,bushing1 def41 #ai ,caffee1 ,alberto ,h41 dedication of work to1 ,v ,calabash1 des41 #ch ,cameron steam pump1 ills4 and des41 #bie1 #bif ,capacity of a pump1 depends upon speed1 etc41 #cec-ced ,capacity plate of the underwriter steam fire pump1 #cee ,capillary attraction1 def41 #ajc facts and ills41 #ajc1 #ajd note1 containing examples of1 #ajd ,care and management of electric pumps1 #bfh ,carlyle1 quotation1 ,,iv ,cases for turbines1 des4 and ills41 #acf ,castor oil1 specific gravity of1 #if ,cauldron1 ills41 #ce ,centrifugal pump and electric motor1 ills4 and des41 #bgb pumps1 why so called1 #ahh ,chain of pots1 des4 and ills41 #fc pumps1 why so called1 #ahg ,chambers1 air and vacuum for the underwriter pump1 #cha ,charcoal1 specific gravity of1 #if ,check-nut1 def41 #ai valve1 def41 #ai office of1 #chh of the underwriter pump1 method of use1 #chg1 #chh wing pattern1 ills4 and des41 #bbg ,chemicals1 pump for handling1 ills4 and des41 #bcc ,chinese windlass1 des4 and ills41 #dg1 #fb 8,chutes0 of water wheel1 ills41 #aci ,circuit breakers1 #bee ,circulating pump1 def41 #ai ,clack valve1 def41 #ai ,classification of pumps1 #ahe ,clay1 specific gravity of1 #if ,clearance1 def41 #ai space of the underwriter steam fire pump1 #cef ,clepsydra1 des4 and ills41 #ci ,coal1 specific gravity of1 #if ,cock1 def41 #ai ,cocks1 drain1 for the underwriter pump1 #cij ,coefficient of friction1 def41 #ii ,collecting-brushes1 part of dynamo1 #bdh ,column pipe1 def41 #ai ,commutator1 ills4 and des41 #bdg1 #bfb bars1 des4 and ills41 #bea ,compensator1 #bef ,compound duplex pumps1 with the ,deane switch valves1 #cdc steam pumps1 #fe ,compounding1 what it consists of1 #cce ,compression gauge cock1 def41 #bj ,compton hydraulic motor1 des4 and ills41 #aec ,computation of capacity of the underwriter fire pump1 method of1 #cec-ced ,computation relating to specific gravity of various bodies1 #ie-ih relating to the velocity of falling bodies1 #hi1 #ij ,conditions of service required of a pump1 #bbd ,cone1 discharge1 of the underwriter pump1 ,i1 #chd ,construction of the water ends of single cylinder and duplex pumps1 #bji ,contents1 ,table of1 part one1 #ae ,controllable valve arrangement1 des4 and ills41 for underwriter pump1 #chf ,copper1 specific gravity of1 #if ,copyright1 page1 ,,viii ,cork1 specific gravity of1 #if ,corliss valves applied to the ,riedler belt driven pumps1 #bdj ,cornish 7engine7 pump1 des41 #fe pumping engines1 history of1 #fe ,corrosion1 def41 #bj ,covers1 valve springs and guards for the underwriter pump1 #cgf ,crane1 ,anglo-,saxon1 historical ref4 and ills41 #dh ,cranes1 lifts and hydraulic1 #ahj ,crow1 def41 #bj ,cup leather packing1 #bj1 #aed1 #aij ,current delivered from a dynamo1 how reversed1 #bfd ,current electricity1 #bdd ,current water wheel1 des4 and ills41 #abc ,cushioning1 def41 #bj ,cushion valves of the underwriter fire pump1 #cfb ,cylinder head or cylinder cover1 def41 #bj of hydraulic jack1 des4 and ills41 #aeh1 #aei or barrel of a pump1 des41 #ahi pumps1 why so called1 #ahh ,cylinders for the water end of the underwriter steam fire pump1 #cfg of the underwriter fire pump1 thicknesses of1 #cef ,davidson steam pump1 ills4 and des41 #bhg-bhi ,dead end of a pipe1 def41 #bj ,dean ,bros4 pump1 ills4 and des41 #cbf-cbh ,deane single acting triplex power pump1 #bcd switch valve1 special features of1 #cd steam pump1 ills4 and des41 #cag-cai ,dedication of work1 ,v ,delivery valves of the underwriter pump1 #cgf ,dial of pressure gauge of the underwriter pump1 how marked1 #chb ,diaphragm pumps1 why so called1 #ahg ,direct acting duplex steam pump1 des41 #fi pumps1 des41 #ff-fh ,direct current motor1 des41 #bdi ,discharge cone of the underwriter pump1 #chd pipe connection1 ills41 #bbc how made1 #bjd ,disk or disc1 def41 #bj ,domestic electric pumps1 ills4 and des41 #bfi ,double acting power pump1 with #d check valves1 ills4 and des41 #bbg pumps1 how they do their work1 #ahg1 #ahh pump1 when invented1 #ec ,double-eye or knuckle joint1 def41 #bj seated poppet valve1 def41 #ba ,drafting water1 des41 #ba ,draft tube of a water wheel1 des41 #ace ,drain cocks for the underwriter pump1 #cij ,drip-pipe1 des41 #ba ,driven or tube wells1 #bjb ,dry steam1 def41 #bhf ,duct1 def41 #ba ,duplex fire pump1 shop name and shop number required on plate attached to underwriters1 #cee underwriters steam end1 #cef-cff oil pumps1 ills4 and des41 #cci power pump not to be confounded with 8,duplex pumps01 #bcj pump1 ills4 and des41 #cca-cih outside packed plunger pattern for high pressure1 #cda setting valves of1 #cch pumps1 history of1 #fe1 #fi only acceptable for fire pumps1 #cea with ,deane switch valve1 #cdc ,worthington admiralty pattern of1 ills4 and des41 #ccg steam fire pump1 underwriters1 water end of1 #cfg-chj steam pump1 important note1 #ccc valve motion1 #ccc-ccd underwriters steam1 fire pump1 #cdc-cih 8,dutchman10 def41 #ba 8,duty0 of pumps1 def41 #bj ,dynamics1 def41 #bde ,dynamo1 def41 #bdg early ,edison type1 #bdh electric current from a1 how reversed1 #bfd five principal parts1 #bdg when it becomes a motor1 #bfj ,dynamometer1 turbine1 des41 #abh ,eccentrics of the triplex power pump1 how set1 #bcb ,edison dynamo1 early type1 #bdh ,efficiency of an electric pump1 #bfh ,efflux of water under pressure1 #aje-aac ,elbow1 def41 #ba shown in piping1 ills4 and des41 #bbc ,electric circuit breakers1 #bee ,electric current1 action of1 #beg from a dynamo1 how reversed1 #bfd ,electric drive for fire pumps1 ills4 and des41 #bgc house tank pumping plant1 ills4 and des41 #bfi ,electricity and electrical machinery1 #bdc how classified and defined1 #bdd how measured1 #bdf important note1 #bdc in vibration1 #bdd vitreous1 negative1 positive1 etc41 #bde whence derived1 #bdc ,electric mining pumps1 ills4 and des41 #bgd-bgf ,electric motor and air pump1 ills4 and des41 #bga motor1 des41 #bdi operating a portable track pump1 ills4 and des41 #bgf pump1 ills4 and des41 #bgb-bgc pump1 #bda-bgf pumping installation1 notable example1 #bge pumping machinery1 #bfg-bgf pumps1 care and management1 #bfh properly power pumps1 #bjh why so called1 #ahg ,electric-rheostat1 transformer1 compensator1 #bef ,electric-switches and switchboards1 #bed-bee ,electro-magnets1 ills4 and des41 #bei ,electro-motive force1 def41 #bdf ,elementary hydraulics1 #ga-gc ,elements1 phial of four1 7mercury1 water1 alcohol and petroleum7 des41 #ha ,elevator pumps1 why so called1 #ahg ,emery1 specific gravity of1 #if ,e4 ,m4 ,f41 def41 #bdf ,energy1 mechanical and electrical1 how transformed1 #bfj ,engineering1 as a branch of hydraulics1 #gd ,engine1 ,rife hydraulic1 #agg-agi ,english unit of heat1 ills4 and des41 #bhd ,equilibrium of superposed liquids1 data1 #ha ,equilibrium-valve1 def41 #ba ,ewbank1 ,thomas1 author1 ref4 to1 #df 8,ewbank's hydraulics10 credit given for use of1 #eb ,ewers1 golden1 used by rich ,egyptians1 #ch ,expansion joint1 des41 #ba ,face1 def41 #ba ,factor of safety1 def41 #bb ,feather1 or sunk key1 def41 #bb ,field magnets1 #bdg ,field1 ,marshall1 reference to1 #bgc ,field spider1 electrical1 def41 #bec ,fire-engine1 historical reference1 #ce ,fire-pumps1 electric drive for1 ills4 and des41 #bgc national standard specification for the manufacture of1 #cea steam to be started once a week1 #cgg underwriter1 #cdd uniform requirements for the underwriter's steam1 #cej ,flange packing1 hydraulic1 ills4 and des41 #aed ,flanges1 table of standard sizes for underwriter pump1 #cha ,flax1 plaited1 recommended for packing power pumps1 #bcj ,flow1 def41 #bb of water result of gravity1 #hi under pressure1 #c cases of1 #aje ,fluid condition of matter1 #gc ,fluids1 aeriform1 des41 #ae data relating to1 #gg-hd division into liquids and vapors or gases1 #gc elastic1 two classes of1 #gc friction of1 des41 #ii ,flume1 def41 #bb for water wheel1 size of1 #ach water1 how to construct1 #ach ,flutter-wheels1 des41 #aba ,foot valve and strainer1 ills4 and des41 #bbc ,force pumps1 classification of1 #ahg two-cylinder1 #aib when invented1 #ec ,formula for obtaining the efficiency of hydraulic rams1 #agg ,foster steam pump1 ills4 and des41 #bib-bid ,foundations for hand pumps1 des41 #bjd ,fourneyron's turbine1 historical note1 #abh ,francis ,weir table formula1 #abb ,frictional ,electricity1 #bdd resistance of water1 three laws of1 #ajj ,friction and viscosity of fluids1 def41 #ii sliding1 def41 #ajj two kinds of1 #ii ,fulcrum of the lever of a hand pump1 #aie ,fusee windlass1 historical note1 #fb ,gaining and losing buckets1 historical1 des4 and ills41 #ei-fj ,gang pumps1 triplex power1 ills4 and des41 #bca ,garner1 ,maj4 ,abram ,b41 dedication of work to1 ,v ,gas a condition or state of matter def41 #gc ,gaseous condition of matter1 #gc ,gases1 permanent1 des41 #gc ,gas pumps1 why so called1 #ahg ,gate valve1 des41 #bb of the underwriter pump1 how marked1 #chi ,gate-wheel of turbine water wheel1 ills41 #aci ,gauge1 pressure1 for the underwriter pump1 #chb ,gauges1 hydraulic1 des4 and ills41 #aae ,generator1 electric1 def41 #bdg four-pole1 des4 and ills41 #bea ,gland1 def41 #bb and stuffing-box1 ills4 and des41 #baa ,glass1 specific gravity of1 #if ,globe valve1 def41 #bb ,glossary of pump and hydraulic terms1 #ag-cd ,gold1 specific gravity of1 #if ,goose neck1 def41 #bb ,gould triplex single acting power pump1 ills4 and des41 #bcf1 #bcg ,gourd1 ills41 #ce1 #ch ,granite1 specific gravity of1 #if ,gravitation1 important note1 #hh universal1 #he ,gravity1 law of1 #he influence in weight of water1 note1 #hj specific1 #ia ,gridiron valve1 def41 #bc 8,guides0 of water wheels1 des41 #aca ,guild and ,garrison steam pump1 ills4 and des41 #cjg-cjh ,gutter1 double1 des4 and ills41 #ed ,gyle and gyle-tun1 def41 also note1 #aeg ,gypsum1 specific gravity of1 #if ,hand-nut1 def41 #bc ,hand pumps1 classification of1 #ahg points for erecting and operating1 #bjd ,hand rotary force pump1 ills4 and des41 #aig ,hand wheel for safety valve of the underwriter pump1 ills41 #chc 8,hat0 or flange hydraulic packing1 ills4 and des41 #aed 8,head of water10 def41 #bc ,heat units1 def41 #bc ,hercules 7turbine7 wheel1 des4 and ills41 #acb1 #acc ,hero1 his first mention of steam1 #bjj years ,b4 ,c41 #bgi ,hero's water clock1 des4 and ills41 #ci 8,hesitates10 def41 #bc ,high pressure steam1 def41 #bhf ,high speed in pumps1 disadvantages of1 #bae ,hill steam pump1 ills4 and des41 #cje-cjf ,history of hydraulic engines1 #adi invention of the duplex steam pump1 #cce ,holloway1 ,j4 ,f41 historical quotation1 #cg note relating to pumping oil1 #cda ,hooker steam pump1 with outside valve gear1 #cja-cjc ,horizontal jack1 ills4 and des41 #afc1 #afd pumps1 why so called1 #ahg turbine wheel1 des41 #acc ,horse power apparatus1 combined pump1 #bja theoretic1 of ,niagara ,falls water wheels1 #adc of a pump1 def41 #bc ,hose valves1 sizes for the underwriter pump1 #chc 8,hump10 def41 #bc ,hydrant1 def41 #bc ,hydraulic accumulator1 ills4 and des41 #aga-agc ,hydraulic apparatus1 #aed-ahd pumps as1 #aha ,hydraulic belt1 def41 #bc pump1 #bjj ,hydraulic bolt extractor1 ills4 and des41 #afd data1 #gg-hd engine of ,huelgoat1 interesting note1 #adi ,ramsbottom's1 des4 and ills41 #adh1 #aej-aeb ,brotherhood three-cylinder1 #aej-aeb gauges1 des4 and ills41 #aae ,hydraulic intensifier1 des41 #agc ,hydraulic jack1 des4 and ills41 #aeh-afb ,hydraulic jacks1 pulling1 horizontal1 etc41 #afc1 #afd relating to repairs and use1 #afa1 #afb lifts and cranes1 #ahj machinery1 broadly divided1 #aai machine tools1 #ahc1 #ahd motors1 #adg-aec motors1 resemblance to high pressure steam engines1 #adi ,hydraulic motor1 the ,compton1 #aec packings1 #aec1 #aed pivot1 def41 #bd press1 des4 and ills41 #afi1 #agj when invented1 #ec punch1 des4 and ills41 #afe-afg ,hydraulic ram1 double1 #agg table of capacity1 #agd des4 and ills41 #ahj ,hydraulics1 as a branch of engineering1 #gc1 #gd as a term1 how formed1 #gd def41 #gc ,hydraulics1 elementary1 #ga1 #gc-aaf ,hydraulic shears1 def41 #bd shock1 def41 #ade tourniquet1 des4 and ills41 #abf valve1 def41 #bd wheel1 def41 #bd ,hydro-dynamics1 def41 #gc1 #gd ,hydro-mechanics1 def41 #gd as a branch of natural philosophy1 #gd stress considered in a pressure1 is always1 #adg ,hydro-meters1 see note1 #ib ,hydro-pneumatics1 #ae1 #ge ,hydrostatics1 def41 #gd ,hydrostatic balance1 des4 and ills41 #ic paradox1 data1 ills41 #gh ,impact1 def41 #bd water wheels1 #aba ,india rubber best for fire pump valves1 #cgg ,induction motors1 as used in mines1 #bge special electrical quality of1 #beb ,inspection shop1 required of the underwriters steam fire pump makers1 #cef ,installation of electric pumps1 #bfh ,intensifier1 hydraulic1 des41 #agc ,introduction1 historical1 #ce-gj ,introductory ,considerations1 #gj ,invention of pressure engines1 a new mode of employing water as a motive agent1 #adg ,inventions1 successive1 #fe water lifting1 #ec ,iron cases for turbine water wheels1 des4 and ills41 #acf ,iron draft tube1 des41 #acg ,iron1 specific gravity of1 #if ,italian mode of raising water1 des4 and ills41 #ea ,jantu1 the historical1 des4 and ills41 #ed ,jet pumps1 why so called1 #ahh ,jets1 direction of1 from orifices1 #aac ,joseph's well1 ,cairo1 ills41 #de use of chain of pots in1 #fc1 #fd ,joule's experiment1 #bhd ,knowles steam pump1 ills4 and des41 #caj-cab ,knuckle-joint1 def41 #bj ,laidlaw-,dunn-,gordon duplex underwriter pump1 ills4 and des41 #bgc steam pump1 ills4 and des41 #bij-bib ,laminated pole piece1 def4 and ills41 #bed ,law of gravity1 #he ,laws of falling bodies1 #hf ,table1 #hg ,lead1 specific gravity of1 #if 8,leakage10 def41 #bd ,leather collar hydraulics1 the invention of ,bramah1 #aec1 #aed the1 of a hand pump1 how held in place1 #aia valve of hand pump1 ills41 #aie ,leffel-,samson turbine water wheel1 des4 and ills41 #acj ,leffel water wheel1 ills41 #abh1 #acj1 #acb1 #acd1 #acf1 #add ,levator1 quotation from1 ,x 8,lift and drop of a valve10 def41 #bd ,lifting-jack1 def41 #bi ,lifts and cranes1 hydraulic1 #ahj ,line of direction1 or line of a falling body1 #hh 8,liner10 def41 #bd ,liquid1 def41 #gc ,liquids1 as a condition or state of matter1 #gc equilibrium of superposed1 data1 #ha three cases of flow under pressure1 #aje veins1 form and constitution of1 #ajf1 #ajg ,live steam1 def41 #bhf 8,losing water10 def41 #be 8,lost motion10 def41 #be ,low pressure steam1 def41 #bhf1 #be 8,lug10 def41 #be ,magnetic current1 pressure necessary to produce a1 #bdb field of how produced1 #bfj needle1 des41 #bff ills41 #bdb ,magnetism1 #bdd ,magneto-electricity1 #bde ,magnets1 electro1 ills4 and des41 #bei ,magnitudes1 three-time1 length and quality1 #hg1 #hh 8,main10 def41 #be ,manual power1 #ahg ,marble1 specific gravity of1 #if ,mason1 ,chas4 ,j41 quotation from1 ,,vii ,mason steam pump1 ills4 and des41 #big-bii ,matter1 def41 #hh solid1 liquid and gaseous1 states of1 #gc three physical conditions1 des41 #gc ,mc,gowan steam pump1 ills4 and des41 #cjh-caj ,mean gradient1 def41 #be ,measurement of water pressure1 #aac ,mercury1 specific gravity of1 #if ,mica1 specific gravity of1 #if ,mica1 where used1 #bea ,millstone1 specific gravity of1 #if ,miner's inch1 def41 #be ,mining outfit1 how divided1 #bge ,mississippi ,river gauge cock1 def41 #be ,model of suctions and force pumps1 glass1 #aha 8,modulus0 of a steam pump1 def41 #be ,momenta1 equal1 principle of applied to fluids1 #hc ,montgolfier's hydraulic ram1 note1 #age ,moore steam pump1 ills4 and des41 #cac-cae ,motor1 alternating induction1 des4 and ills41 #beb and centrifugal pump1 ills4 and des41 #bgb direct current1 des41 #bdi electric1 and air pump1 ills4 and des41 #bga electric1 des41 #bdi electric1 why revolves1 explanation1 #beh ,motors1 division of water1 des41 #aai giving names to pumps1 #ahg hydraulic1 #adg1 #aec induction1 as used in mines1 #bge ,motor1 water1 simplicity of1 #abj note1 #abj when it becomes a dynamo1 #bfj ,mud1 pump for handling1 ills4 and des41 #bcc ,national standard duplex fire pump1 ills4 and des41 #cdc-cih points of difference between it and the trade pump1 #cie pump1 #cdi specifications for the manufacture of steam fire pumps1 #cdi1 #cea ,national steam pump1 ills4 and des41 #cjc1 #cjd ,natural philosophy1 hydro-mechanics as a branch of1 #gd ,needle1 magnetic1 des41 #bff ills41 #bdb ,negative electricity1 #bde ,newcomen pumping engines1 history of1 #fe ,thomas1 historical ref41 #cf ,niagara ,falls turbine wheels1 notes1 #adb1 #adc des4 and ills41 #adj1 #add ,nipple1 def41 #bf ,nitrogen1 what part of air1 #ae ,noria1 the1 or ,egyptian wheel1 des4 and ills41 #eg ,nozzles1 kind of1 to be used in connections with the national steam fire pump1 #cec ,oak1 specific gravity of1 #if ,oil pump1 ills4 and des41 #bcc duplex1 ills4 and des41 #cci ,olive oil1 specific gravity of1 #if ,oscillating pumps1 why so called1 #ahh ,outboard delivery pipe1 def41 #bf 8,outfit0 of underwriter pump1 #bgc 8,out-put0 of electric motor1 #bdi ,over-shot water wheel1 des4 and ills41 #abc1 #abe ,oxygen1 what part of air1 #ae ,packings1 hydraulic1 #aec1 #aed most suitable for power pumps1 #bcj ,packing of hand pumps1 #bjd loss of power in use of hydraulic1 #aed ,parts of a pump1 #bji ,parts of pitcher pump1 ills4 and des41 #aie ,penstock1 ills41 #acd1 #ace def41 #bf ,persian wheel1 des4 and ills41 #eh ,pet-cock1 def41 #bf ,pewter1 specific gravity of1 #if ,picotah of ,hindostan1 des4 and ills41 #di ,pine1 specific gravity of1 #if ,piston1 actual velocity of1 #cgd ,piston and valve rods of the underwriter fire pump1 ills4 and des41 #cfd ,pistons1 steam1 of the underwriter steam fire pumps1 #cei ,piston1 the1 is nucleus of power of pumps and engines1 #adi ,pitcher pump1 def41 #bf spout pump1 des4 and ills41 #aie 8,pitman0 of a pump1 des41 #aij ,pipe-clamp1 def41 #bf ,pipe sizes1 table of1 for underwriter pump1 #chj 8,pipette10 def41 #bf ,piping a pump1 ills4 and des41 #bbb1 #bbc ,pipkin1 ills41 #ce ,phial of four elements 7mercury1 water1 alcohol and petroleum71 des41 #ha ,phosphorus1 specific gravity of1 #if ,plate1 capacity1 of underwriter steam fire pump1 #cee ,platinum1 specific gravity of1 #if ,plug-valve1 def41 #bf ,plumb-bob1 def41 #bf ,plunger of a pump1 how indicated in ,fig4 #aha and succeeding ills41 #bji of hand pump1 ills41 #aie pumps1 single acting1 ills4 of two1 #bbh1 #bbi ,plungers1 proportion of water and steam1 advised by the ,underwriters ,associat'n1 #ceb1 #cec water1 of the underwriter steam fire pump1 #cfh ,pneumatics1 #ae def41 #gd hydro1 #ae 8,points0 for erecting and operating hand pumps1 #bjd ,pole-piece1 laminated1 def4 and ills41 #bed ,pole-pieces1 part of dynamo1 #bdg ,poplar1 specific gravity of1 #if ,porcelain1 specific gravity of1 #if ,positive electricity1 #bde ,pots1 chain of1 des4 and ills41 #fc ,power or steam ends of pumps1 #baa ,power pump1 double acting 7#d check valves71 #bbg duplex1 ills4 and des41 #bcj1 #bca classification of1 #ahg1 #bjg ,power transmission by water pressure engines1 #ade ,preface1 ,,ii ,press1 hydraulic1 des4 and ills41 #afi1 #agj ,pressure gauge for the underwriter pump1 #chb necessary to produce a magnetic current1 #bdb of electric currents1 how measured1 #bef of water1 table of1 #aad reducing valve1 def41 #bg ,priming1 def41 #bg arrangement1 des41 #cij pipe of pump connections1 #bbc place for the underwriter pump1 ills4 and des41 #chg ,prizometer or pressure guage1 def41 #aae ,properties of steam1 explanation1 #bha-bhe ,pulley and bucket1 historical des4 and ills41 #df1 #dh and windlass1 historical1 des41 #fj1 #fa ,pulling-jack1 hydraulic1 des4 and ills41 #afa1 #afc ,pump and combined horse power apparatus1 #bja bag1 ills4 and des41 #aih bellows1 ills4 and des41 #ahf1 #aih1 #aii ,pump-box1 def41 #bg ,pump-brake1 def41 #bg ,pump1 ,buffalo single cylinder1 ills4 and des41 #cai-cba ,pump1 ,burnham steam1 ills4 and des41 #cbd-cbf ,pump-chain1 def41 #bg ,pump-cheeks1 def41 #bg ,pump1 conditions of service required of a1 #bbd ,pump1 ,dean ,bros41 ills4 and des41 #cbf-cbh ,deane single acting triplex power pump1 ills4 and des41 #bcd1 #bce ,deane steam1 ills4 and des41 #cag-cai double acting low service1 belt driven1 #bbg duplex1 ills4 and des41 #cca-cih duplex1 outside packed plunger pattern for high pressure1 #cda duplex power1 ills4 and des41 #bcj duplex steam1 explanation1 #ccc electric1 direct driven motor1 ills4 and des41 #bgb-bgc electric induction motor1 ills4 and des41 #bgf electric mining1 ills4 and des41 #bgd-bgf ,gould single acting triplex power pump1 ills4 and des41 #bcf1 #bcg ,pump1 ,guild and ,garrison steam1 ills4 and des41 #cjg-cjh hand rotary force1 ills4 and des41 #aig hydraulic belt1 #bjj ,pumping engine1 historical reference1 #cf ,pumping machinery1 electric1 #bfg-bgf ,pump1 ,knowles steam1 ills4 and des41 #caj-cab ,laidlaw-,dunn-,gordon1 ills4 and des41 #bij-bib ,laidlaw-,dunn-,gordon duplex underwriter1 ills4 and des41 #bge ,mc,gowan steam1 ills4 and des41 #cjh-caj ,moore steam1 ills4 and des41 #cac-cae ,pump parts1 ills4 and des41 #bji ,pump1 parts of a1 #ahi pitcher spout1 des4 and ills41 #aie quintuplex1 used for mining operations1 #bge rope1 ills4 and des41 #bjj ,pumps and ,hydraulics1 in two parts1 ,part ,one1 ,i-,,iii ,pumps as hydraulic apparatus1 #aha ,pumps1 belted1 des4 and ills41 #bbe boiler feed1 ills4 and des41 #bbe-bcd duplex oil1 ills4 and des41 #cci for thick stuff1 #bcc high speed in1 a disadvantage1 #bae single acting triplex plunger1 ills4 and des41 #bcc ,pump sizes and capacities1 standard of1 given in underwriter table1 #ceb ,pump slip or slippage1 #bad ,pump1 ,smith-,vaile single1 ills4 and des41 #cbi-ccj ,snow steam1 ills1 and des41 #cae-cag ,pumps1 power driven1 how classified1 #bjg ,pump1 spray hand1 ills4 and des41 #bja ,pumps1 single acting1 ills4 of two1 #bbh1 #bbi stationary1 for mine use1 how classified1 #bge steam end of1 explanation1 #bgi-bhe steam1 ills4 and des41 #bgg-ccj suction and force1 models of1 glass1 #aha suction1 for vessels and irrigation1 #aic steam1 the ,mason1 ills4 and des41 #big-bii their operation and management1 #bjh triplex power1 gang1 ills4 and des41 #bca two-cylinder force1 #aic underwriter fire1 #cdd water ends of1 des4 and ills41 #bji ,pump1 the air1 #ac the ,blakeslee steam1 ills4 and des41 #bii-cja the ,cameron steam1 ills4 and des41 #bie1 #bif the ,davidson steam1 ills4 and des41 #bhg-bhi the ,foster steam1 ills4 and des41 #bib-bid the ,hill steam1 ills4 and des41 #cje-cjf the ,hooker steam1 with outside gear1 ills4 and des41 #cja-cjc the ,national steam1 ills4 and des41 #cjc1 #cjd the practical operation of a1 note1 #ahi the ,riedler belt driven1 ills4 and des41 #bch-bdj the ,riedler express1 #bdj the theoretical action of a1 #ahi ,pump valves1 des4 and ills41 #bji of the underwriter steam fire pump1 #cgb reinforced1 des4 and ills41 #bae size and number of1 for the underwriter pump1 #cgc ,pump1 ,weinman steam1 ills4 and des41 #cbb-cbd ,pump-well1 def41 #bg ,pump1 ,worthington duplex1 #ccf ,worthington house tank1 ills4 and des41 #bfi-bgj ,punch1 hydraulic1 des4 and ills41 #afe-aff ,quintuplex pump1 used in mining operations1 #bge ,quotations1 ,i1 ,,ii ,radiated electricity1 #bde ,rain-gauge1 def41 #bh ,ram1 double hydraulic1 #agg hydraulic1 table of capacity1 #agd des4 and ills41 #ahj of hydraulic jack1 des4 and ills41 #aeh1 #aei ,rife hydraulic1 #agg ,ramsbottom hydraulic engine1 des4 and ills41 #adh1 #aej-aeb ,reaction turbine water wheel1 #abg water wheel1 des4 and ills41 #abf ,reducing-coupling1 def41 #bh ,riedler express pump1 #bdj the belt driven pump1 ills4 and des41 #bch-bdj ,reinforced pump valves1 des4 and ills41 #bae ,relief valve of the underwriter pump1 #chd ,resinous electricity1 #bde ,resistance1 def41 #bh three laws of1 in flow of water1 #ajj ,rheostat1 des41 #bef ,rife hydraulic ram1 or engine1 #agg-agi ,right-hand thread1 def41 #bh ,rock shafts1 cranks1 links1 etc41 of the underwriter fire pump1 #cfa ,racks1 water1 for water wheels1 how best made1 #aca ,roberts torpedo for clearing wells1 note1 #bjb ,roman screw for raising water1 des4 and ills41 #eb wells1 historical ref41 #dh ,rope pump1 ills4 and des41 #bjj pumps1 why so called1 #ahg socket1 def41 #bh ,rotary1 hand1 force pump1 ills4 and des41 #aig pumps1 why so called1 #ahh ,rotative engine pumps1 des41 #fe ,rubber1 how to determine quality of1 #cgb ,rule for calculating capacity of accumulator1 #agb for finding the specific gravity of a solid body1 #ie for velocity of water in flume1 pipes and tail race1 #ach relating to the velocities of fluids flowing from orifices1 #aje1 #ajf relating to velocity of falling bodies1 #hi to find weight of a cubic foot of anything in the table of specific gravities1 #ig 8,runner0 of turbine wheels1 des41 #aca ,rust-joint1 def41 #bh ,safety valve for the underwriter pump1 des41 #chc ,salt1 specific gravity of1 #if ,sand1 specific gravity of1 #if ,saturated steam1 def41 #bhf ,savery1 ,capt4 ,thomas1 historical ref41 #cf ,scoop wheel1 des4 and ills41 #ef ,screw jack or lifting jack1 def41 #bi ,roman1 for raising water1 des4 and ills41 #eb ,sea injection1 def41 #bi ,seats1 valve1 of the underwriter pump1 #cgg ,sea water1 how many cubic feet to ton1 #ig specific gravity of1 #if ,selden's packing1 recommended for packing power pumps1 #bcj ,semi-liquids1 def41 #ge pump for handling1 ills4 and des41 #bcc ,setting of a turbine wheel in penstock1 des4 and ills41 #acd ,setting chamber of duplex pump1 des41 #ccf ,sewage1 pump for handling1 ills4 and des41 #bcb ,shawinigan turbine wheel1 des41 #acc ills41 ,,ii1 ,,iv ,shield for prevention of accident in gear pumps1 #bcc ,ship pumps1 working1 by ropes1 ills41 #ad 8,shocks10 def41 #bi ,shop name1 and shop number required on plate attached to the underwriter steam fire pump1 #cee ,siloah's fountain1 historical ref41 #di ,silver1 specific gravity of1 #if ,single acting pumps1 how they do their work1 #ahh why so called1 #ahg 8,slams10 def41 #bi ,slate1 specific gravity of1 #if ,sleeve-coupling1 def41 #bi ,sliding friction1 def41 #ajj 8,slippage10 def41 #bi of water in pumps1 #bad ,sluice1 def41 #bi ,slurry pump1 def41 #bi ,smith-,vaile single pump1 ills4 and des41 #cbi-ccj ,snow steam pump1 ills4 and des41 #cae-cag ,soap1 pump for handling1 ills4 and des41 #bcc ,solid1 def41 #gc ,solids1 a condition or state of matter1 #gc ,socket-wrench1 def41 #bi ,spanner1 def41 #bi ,specific gravity of liquids1 #if of steam1 #bhf rule for finding the1 of a solid body1 #ie standard for1 #ia tables1 rule to find weight of anything in1 #ig ,spline or feather1 def41 #bi ,split-pin or cutter1 def41 #bi ,spray pump1 ills4 and des41 #bja 8,spread10 def41 #bi ,spring1 a conical1 employed to hold the valve to its seat1 #bji ,spring-seat1 def41 #bi ,springs1 valve1 guards and covers for the underwriter pump1 #cgf ,standard1 ,national1 specification for the manufacture of steam fire pumps1 #cea ,statics1 def41 #bdd what it treats of1 #gd electricity1 #bdd ,steam end of a pump1 def41 #cj1 #bgi-bhe of the underwriter steam fire pump1 details of1 #cef-cff ,steam engines1 compound1 adapted to pump1 #gj ,steam fire pumps1 to be started once a week1 #cgg ,steam gas1 def41 #bhf history of steam and the steam engine1 #bhj how produced1 #bhe or power ends of pumps1 #bji parts of the underwriter steam fire pump1 #cef properties of1 explanation1 #bha-bhe properties which make it valuable1 #bhf ,steam pump1 ills4 and early patent of ,h4 ,r4 ,worthington1 #bgh-ccj how classified1 #ahh why so called1 #ahg ,steam1 relative volume of1 diagram1 #bhb specific gravity of1 #bhf thrown valves1 def41 #cj total heat of1 #bhf useful definitions relating to1 #bhe-bhf ,steel1 specific gravity of1 #if ,stems1 valve1 of the underwriter pump1 #cgi ,step for water wheel1 danger of heating1 #acg 8,sticking of valves10 def41 #cj des41 #cgg ,strainer1 def41 #cj foot valve1 ills4 and des41 #bbc for suction pipe1 ills41 #bjd for tube wells1 ills4 and des41 #bjc ,streams1 velocities of1 ills41 #aaj 8,stroke0 of pump1 def41 #cj ,stub-end1 def41 #cj ,stud-bolt1 def41 #cj ,stuffing-box1 def41 #cj and gland1 ills4 and des41 #baa of the underwriter steam fire pump1 #cfe ,submerged pump1 def41 #cj ,sucker-rod1 couplings1 des4 and ills41 #bjc1 #bjd 8,sucking wind10 def41 #ca ,suction and force pumps1 classification of1 #ahg glass models of1 #aha two-cylinder1 arranged with extension levers1 ills41 #aif ,suction-force pump with air chamber1 ills4 and des41 #bbf ,suction or lift pumps1 classification of1 #ahg pump1 for vessels1 ills41 #aic pipe1 how made and placed1 #bjd pipe1 proper1 ills4 and des41 #bbc valve area of the underwriter pump1 #cgc of the ,riedler express pump1 peculiarities of1 #bdj ,sulphur1 specific gravity of1 #if ,superheated steam1 def41 #bhf ,supplemental piston1 def41 #ca ,supply channel1 leading water from falls1 #aai ,swape or sweep1 historical ref4 and ills41 #dh ,swing check valve1 def41 #ca ,switch1 automatic1 #bfi ,switch-cock or valve1 def41 #ca ,switches and switch boards1 des4 and ills41 #bed-bee ,switch valve1 ,deane1 with duplex pump1 #cic ,syphon1 des41 #dj ills41 #da-dd cock1 def41 #ca ,syringe1 des41 #dd ,table for underwriter pump1 pipe sizes1 #chj of capacity1 etc41 of boiler feed pumps1 #bbf etc41 of triplex power pumps1 #bca for single acting triplex plunger pump1 #bcc of hydraulic ram1 #agd of ,worthington house tank pump1 #bgj sizes1 etc41 of two-cylinder force and suction pump1 #aif ,table of ,contents of ,part ,one1 #ae diameters of waste pipe of the underwriter pump1 #chd temperatures of water1 #ge ,national standard of sizes for duplex steam fire pumps1 #ceb pressure of water1 #aad pressure of water at different depths1 #gg size1 capacities1 etc41 ,worthington admiralty pattern boiler feed pump1 #ccg sizes1 etc41 of belted pumps1 #bbe sizes of vacuum and air chambers for the underwriter pump1 #chb ,table of specific gravities1 #if standard flanges for the underwriter pump1 #cha suction valve area of the underwriter pump1 #cgc test of the internal friction of the underwriter pump1 #cib valve port area and valve outlet area for underwriter pumps1 #cge volume of one pound of water1 #gf weight of one cubic foot of water1 #gf inch of water1 #gf weight1 volume and pressure of water1 #ge-gg ,table1 showing relation of time1 space and velocity1 #hg ,tail race leading from water falls1 #aai water1 des41 #aca level of1 ills41 #acd1 #acf of turbine1 des41 #ace ,tank1 electric house pumping plant1 ills4 and des41 #bfi ,tan-liquor1 pump for handling1 ills4 and des41 #bcc ,tar1 pump for handling1 ills4 and des41 #bcc ,test for acceptance of the underwriter pump1 #cia-cic maximum delivery1 #cid ,test of the quality of rubber1 #cgb ,thumb-nut1 def41 #cb ,tide water wheel1 des4 and ills41 #abc ,tin1 specific gravity of1 #if ,tobin-bronze1 def41 #cb 8,toe0 upon a disc of pump1 des41 #aij ,tools1 hydraulic machine1 #ahc ,torpedo1 ,robert's1 for clearing wells1 note1 #bjb ,torricelli's theorem1 relating to flow of fluids flowing from an orifice1 and note1 #aje ,tourniquet1 hydraulic1 des4 and ills41 #abf ,trade pumps1 underwriters criticism of1 #cea 8,trailing water10 def41 #cb ,transformer1 des41 #bef ,transmission of power by water pressure engines1 #ade ,triplex power gang pump1 table of capacity1 etc41 #bca pump1 how to set the #f eccentric1 #bcb 8,trompe10 def41 #cb ,tube1 or driven wells1 #bjb ,tube-plug1 def41 #cb wells1 how driven1 ills4 and des41 #bjc ,turbine1 def41 #cb ,turbine-dynamometer1 des4 of1 #abh ,fourneyron's1 des4 and ills41 #abh pump1 def41 #cb water-tight1 des4 and ills41 #aci water-wheels1 des4 and ills41 #abf-add outward1 vertical and central discharge of1 #abg des4 of parallel flow1 #abh the ,hercules1 des4 and ills41 #acb1 #acc horizontal1 des41 #acc ,turbine wheels1 ,niagara ,falls1 des4 and ills41 #adj-add ,turbine wheel1 setting of1 in penstock1 des4 and ills41 #acd ,turpentine oil1 specific gravity of1 #if ,tweddel1 design of the hydraulic accumulator1 #agb ,two cylinder force pump1 #aib arranged with extension levers1 #aif ,tympanum1 ,the1 des4 and ills41 #ee ,undershot water wheel1 des4 and ills41 #abb ,underwriter fire pumps1 #cdd list of attachments for1 #cde area for suction valve for the1 #cgc test for acceptance of1 #cia ,underwriter steam fire pump1 des4 and ills41 #cdc-cih ,union1 def41 #cc ,unit of heat1 ,english1 ills4 and des41 #chd ,v packing1 hydraulic1 ills4 and des41 #aed ,vacuum1 def41 #cc and air chambers practically the reverse of each other1 #bba for the underwriter pump1 #cha ills4 and des41 #bbj ,vacuum pumps1 how classified1 #ahh ,valve1 def41 #cc air1 def41 and marking of1 for the underwriter pump1 #che areas1 size necessary for1 #cgd gate of the underwriter pump1 how marked1 #chi motion of duplex pump1 #ccc1 #ccd of the ,worthington duplex pump1 #ccf of hand pump1 lower or suction1 ills41 #aie ,valve of ,riedler belt-driven pump1 ills4 and des41 #bch-bdj ,valve port area and valve outlet area1 table of1 for underwriter pump1 #cgd1 #cge relief of the underwriter pump1 #chd seats1 bolts and springs should be of the best composition1 metal1 etc41 #bah ,valve setting of the ,blakeslee steam pump1 #cja ,buffalo single cylinder pump1 #cba ,burnham steam pump1 #cbf ,cameron steam pump1 #bif ,davidson steam pump1 #bhg-bhi ,dean ,bros' steam pump1 #cbh ,deane steam pump1 #cai ,duplex steam pump1 #cch ,foster steam pump1 #bib-bid ,guild and ,garrison steam pump1 #cjh ,hill steam pump1 #cjf ,hooker steam pump with outside valve gear1 #cjc ,knowles steam pump1 #caa ,dunn-,gordon steam pump1 #bij ,laidlaw1 #bib ,mason steam pump1 #bii ,mc,gowan steam pump1 #caj ,moore steam pump1 #cae ,national steam pump1 #cjd ,smith-,vaile single steam pump1 #ccj ,snow steam pump1 #caf ,weinman steam pump1 #cbc ,valve slam1 def41 #cgd ,valve springs1 guards and covers for the underwriter pump1 #cgf ,valve stems of the underwriter pump1 #cgi ,valves1 delivery1 of the underwriter pump1 #cgf hose1 size for the underwriter pump1 #chc pump1 des4 and ills41 #cji ,valves1 pump1 size and number of1 for the underwriter pump1 #cgc reinforced pump1 des4 and ills41 #bae-baf small ones preferable1 #bac steam slide of the underwriter fire pump1 #cfj ,valves1 sticking of1 def41 #cgg the lift of valves1 #bad ,vapors1 des41 #gc ,vapor1 when it becomes a gas1 #gc ,velocity of falling bodies1 valves to find1 #hi fluids flowing from an orifice1 #aje1 #ajf streams1 ills41 #aaj water in flumes and pipes1 #ach in tail-race1 ,rule1 #ach in water pressure engines1 #ade ,ventres1 def41 #ajf ,vertical pumps1 why so called1 #ahg ,vinegar1 specific gravity of1 #if ,viscosity1 def41 #cc1 #ge of fluids1 des41 #ii1 #ajb ,vis viva1 def41 #ajb ,vitreous electricity1 #bde ,vitruvius1 quotation from1 #eg ,volt1 def41 #bef ,voltaic electricity1 #bdf ,voltmeters1 def41 #bef ,v thread1 def41 #cc ,washer1 def41 #cc ,waste channel of water-falls1 #aai ,waste pipe1 sizes for the underwriter pump1 #chd ,water and steam1 one an elastic and the other a non-elastic liquid1 #adi ,water arch1 def41 #cc ,water as an example of a fluid1 #gc ,water-bellows1 def41 #cc ,water1 boiling point of1 #gf cap1 def41 #cc chemical composition of1 #ge clocks1 des4 and ills41 #ci conditions of1 #ge-gg considered from a chemical standpoint1 #ge data relating to1 #ge ,water dust1 ,french term for steam1 #bhe end1 def41 #cc of the underwriter steam fire pump1 ills4 and des41 #cfg-chj pumps1 des4 and ills41 #bji ,waterfalls1 des4 of supply and waste channels1 #aai division of parts deriving energy1 #aai ,water1 flow of1 result of gravity1 #hi four notable temperatures of1 #ge ,water-hammer1 def41 #cd or valve slam1 def41 #cgd influence of gravity on weight of1 note1 #hj ,water-lifting inventions1 #ec-gj of what composed1 #bhe practically non-elastic1 data1 #ge-gg pressure engines1 care of1 to prevent freezing1 etc41 #ade1 #adf ,water pressure machines1 #aag-aed measurement of1 #aac due to its weight1 data1 #hc pressure of1 table1 #aad pressure on column of1 data1 #gg how transmitted1 data and ills41 #gi proportioned to its depth1 data1 #hc table1 #gg ,water pressure or hydraulic motors1 des41 #adg ,water pumps1 why so called1 #ahg racks for turbine wheels1 how best made1 #aca ,water ram1 def41 #cd rises to same level in opposite arms of tube1 data1 #hc salt1 boiling point of1 #gf sea1 how many cubic feet to ton1 #ig tables of weight and volume1 etc41 #gf temperature of1 for calculations1 #ge ,water1 theoretical and actual flow1 note1 #ajf three laws of frictional resistance of1 #ajj ,water-tight turbine1 ills4 and des41 #aci under pressure1 efflux of1 #aje-aac velocity of1 in flumes and pipes1 rule1 #ach tail race1 rule1 #ach weight and volume of1 tables1 #gf1 #gg in round numbers1 #gf one cubic foot of1 #gf ,water wheel1 #acb1 #acc ,water wheels1 #aai-add des4 and ills4 of 8chutes10 gate-seats1 8gates0 and 8buckets0 of turbine1 des4 and ills41 #aci des4 and ills4 of flutter wheels1 etc41 #aba-abe des4 of 8runners10 8guides0 and water racks1 #acj des4 of the 8step0 buckets1 etc41 #acj des4 8tail water0 and 8draft tube01 #ace setting of1 in penstock1 #acd ,leffel1 #acj when the water is measured1 #acj ,water will rise as high as its source1 data1 #hc ,watt1 ,jas41 account of his discovery of the properties of steam1 #bhj1 #bha ,watt1 ,jas41 historical1 ref41 #ce ,weinman steam pump1 ills4 and des41 #cbb-cbd ,weirs1 def41 #abb ,weir tables1 allusion to in note1 #abb ,wells1 des4 and ills41 #de-eb driven or tube1 #bjb historical note1 #ej ,roman1 historical ref41 #dh tube1 how driven1 ills4 and des41 #bjc with stairs1 historical des41 #ea ,wet steam1 def41 #bhf ,wheel and axle1 use of1 in wells1 #fd ,wheel1 scoop1 des4 and ills41 #ef ,wheel1 the ,egyptian1 des4 and ills41 #eg ,wheel1 the ,noria1 des4 and ills41 #eg the ,persian1 des4 and ills41 #eh ,whirlpool-chamber1 def41 #ce ,why an electric motor revolves1 #beh ,willow1 specific gravity of1 #if ,windlass1 ,chinese1 historical ref4 and ills41 #dg1 #fb ,wind pumps1 why so called1 #ahg ,wing-nut1 def41 #ce pattern check valve1 ills4 and des41 #bbg ,working barrel1 def41 #cd ,work1 useful1 done in water pressure engines1 #ade ,worthington1 ,henry ,rossiter1 historical notes1 #fh-gj engraved portrait of1 vi death of1 #gj ills4 of first patented steam pump1 #bgh ,worthington duplex pump1 #ccf ,y1 def41 #ce ,yoke1 def41 #ce of the underwriter steam fire pump1 #cef ,zinc1 specific gravity of1 #if