,transcriber's ,notes3 ,italic text is denoted thus4 ,the original spelling1 hyphenation1 accentuation and punctuation has been retained1 except for apparent typographical errors4 ,in ,chapter #aj1 the quotation following the #ajth paragaph stated3 ,on her port side she carries a red light1 and it is so shut in that it cannot be seen from the port side or from behind4 ,this has been corrected to read3 ,on her port side she carries a red light1 and it is so shut in that it cannot be seen from the starboard side or from behind4 ,,the ,,book ,,of ,,the ,,ocean ,other books in similar style and binding4 ,,the ,,century ,,world',s ,,fair ,,book ,,for ,,boys ,,girls4 ,,by ,,tudor ,,jenks4 ,the standard young folks' book of the ,fair4 ,the story of two boys who visited the great exhibition with their tutor4 #bej pages1 richly illustrated1 from photographs1 etc4 #a4ej4 ,,by ,,elbridge ,s4 ,,brooks4 ,issued under the auspices of the ,sons and ,daughters of the ,american ,revolution4 ,each with about #bej pages and as many illustrations1 in handsome binding4 #a4ej4 ,,the ,,century ,,book ,,for ,,young ,,americans4 ,telling in attractive story form what every boy and girl ought to know about the government1--the ,president1 ,senate1 etc4 ,introduction by ,general ,horace ,porter4 ,,the ,,century ,,book ,,of ,,the ,,american ,,revolution4 ,the story of the pilgrimage of a party of young folks to the famous ,revolutionary battle-fields from ,lexington to ,yorktown4 ,introduction by the ,hon4 ,chauncey ,m4 ,depew4 ,,the ,,century ,,book ,,of ,,famous ,,americans4 ,describing a trip to the historic homes of ,america--,washington's1 ,lincoln's1 ,grant's1 etc4 ,with an introduction by the ,president-,general of the ,daughters of the ,american ,revolution4 ,the ,century ,co4 ,illustration3 ,original ,image4 ,illustration3 ,,drawn ,,by ,,louis ,,loeb4 ,,engraved ,,by ,m4 ,,haider4 ,,the ,,majesty ,,of ,,the ,,sea4 ,,the ,,book ,,of ,,the ,,ocean ,,by ,,ernest ,,ingersoll ,,author ,,of 8,,knocking ,,round ,,the ,,rockies10 8,,the ,,oyster ,,industries ,,of ,,the ,,united ,,states10 8,,friends ,,worth ,,knowing10 8,,wild ,,neighbors10 8,,the ,,crest ,,of ,,the ,,continent10 ,,etc4 ,illustration3 printers mark ,illustrated ,illustration3 printers mark ,,new ,,york ,,the ,,century ,,co4 #ahih ,copyright1 #ahih1 ,by ,,the ,,century ,,co4 ,,the ,,de ,,vinne ,,press4 ,illustration3 decorative page header ,,contents ,,page ,i ,,the ,,ocean ,,and ,,its ,,origin #a ,,ii ,,waves1 ,,tides1 ,,and ,,currents #i ,,iii ,,the ,,building ,,and ,,rigging ,,of ,,ships #bg ,,iv ,,early ,,voyages ,,and ,,explorations #ci ,part ,i--,previous to the ,discovery of ,america4 ,part ,,ii--,from ,columbus to ,cook4 ,v ,,secrets ,,won ,,from ,,the ,,frozen ,,north #gg ,,vi ,,war-,,ships ,,and ,,naval ,,battles #ajg ,part ,i--,wooden ,walls1 from ,salamis to ,trafalgar4 ,part ,,ii--,the ,present ,era of ,steam and ,steel4 ,,vii ,,the ,,merchants ,,of ,,the ,,sea #aee ,,viii ,,robbers ,,of ,,the ,,seas #aga ,,ix ,,yachting ,,and ,,pleasure-,,boating #ahg ,x ,,dangers ,,of ,,the ,,deep #bja ,,xi ,,fishing ,,and ,,other ,,marine ,,industries #bca ,,xii ,,the ,,plants ,,of ,,the ,,sea ,,and ,,their ,,uses #bdi ,,xiii ,,animal ,,life ,,in ,,the ,,sea #bei ,,index ,,of ,,illustrations #bge ,,general ,,index #bgg ,illustration3 oarsmen towing sailing ship ,,the ,,book ,,of ,,the ,,ocean ,illustration3 rescue of man from the sea ,,chapter ,i ,,the ,,ocean ,,and ,,its ,,origin ,looking at the land1 we divide the surface of the earth into eastern and western hemispheres2 but looking at the water1 we make an opposite classification4 ,encircle the globe in your library with a rubber band1 so that it cuts across ,south ,america from about ,porto ,alegre to ,lima on one side1 and through southern ,siam and the northernmost of the ,philippine ,islands on the other1 and you make hemispheres1 the northern of which 7with ,london at its center7 contains almost all the land of the globe1 while the southern 7with ,new ,zealand as its central point7 is almost entirely water1 ,australia1 and the narrow southern half of ,south ,america being the only lands of consequence in its whole area4 ,observing the map in this way1 noticing that1 besides nearly a complete half-world of water south of your rubber equator1 much of the northern hemisphere also is afloat1 you are willing to believe the assertion that there is almost three times as much of the outside of the earth hidden under the waves as appears above them4 ,the estimate in round numbers is one hundred and fifty million square 7statute7 miles of ocean surface1 as compared with about fifty million square miles of land on the globe4 ,to the people whose speculations in geography are the oldest that have come down to us1 the earth seemed to be an island around which was perpetually flowing a river with no further shore visible4 ,beyond it1 they thought1 lay the abodes of the dead4 ,this river1 as the source of all other rivers and waters1 was deified by the early ,greeks and placed among their highest gods as ,oceanus1 whence our word 8ocean40 ,accompanying1 or belonging to him1 there grew up1 in the fertile imagination of that poetic people1 a large company of gods and goddesses1 while men hid their absence of real knowledge by peopling the deep with quaint monsters4 8,the word for #8ocean' 7mare7 in the ,latin tongue means1 by derivation1 a desert1 and the ,greeks spoke of it as #8the barren brine4'0 ,over these old fables we need not linger4 ,all the myths and guesswork that went before history represented the sea as older than the land1 and told how creation began by lifting the earth above the universal waste of waters4 ,the story in ,genesis is only one of many such stories4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,quiet ,,sea1 ,,and ,,the ,,sun ,,at ,,midnight4 ,from a photograph4 ,scientific men believe that when our planet first went circling swiftly in its orbit it was a glowing1 globular mass of fiery vapors2 but as time passed1 the icy chill of space slowly cooled these vapors1 and chemical changes steadily modified1 sorted1 and solidified the materials into the beginnings of the present form and character1 until at last water came into existence4 ,this must have been at first in the form of a thick envelop of heated vapors1 impregnated with gases1 that inwrapped the globe in a darkness lit only by its own fires4 ,after that1 when further changes had come about1--let us picture it1--what deluges of rain were poured out of and down through those murky clouds where thunders bellowed and lightnings warred6 ,at first all the rains that fell must have been turned to steam again2 but by and by the steady downpour cooled the shaping globe so that all the water was not vaporized1 but some stayed as a liquid where it fell1 and this increased in amount more and more1 until finally1 between the hissing core of the half-hardened planet and the dense clouds which kept out all the sunlight1 there rolled the heated waves of the first ocean--an ocean broken only by the earliest ridges1 like chains of islands1 marking the skeletons of the continents that were to follow--an ocean sending up ceaseless volumes of steam to form new clouds4 ,illustration3 ,,eating ,,away ,,the ,,coast4 ,yet all the while the cooling of the planet went on4 ,now1 when any heated substance cools it contracts1 and the globe as a whole is no exception to the rule2 but a sphere formed of so incompressible a substance as rock can shrink only by some sort of folding or displacement of its surface4 ,therefore1 as the cooling of our globe proceeded1 explosions and swellings constantly occurred at weak points or lines on or near the surface1 where the prodigious strain forced a break4 ,that these upheavals were most prominent and extended in the northern hemisphere is shown by the fact that the great masses and heights of land are grouped there2 and the trend of mountain-ranges seems to show that the range of breakage and upheaval was in general in north-and-south lines4 ,elsewhere1 and mainly in the southern hemisphere1 broad areas of perhaps stiffer crust sank downward1 making the vast depressions into which poured the waters of the primeval sea1 and where our oceans still sway and roll4 ,illustration3 ,,surf ,,at ,,fort ,,dumpling1 ,r4 ,i4 ,all these changes1 however1 have been in the direction of insuring more and more stability2 and when the ocean water had thoroughly cooled1 the very chill of its vast masses in the depths of the troughs assisted in the work1 for the cold water1 by more rapidly withdrawing their heat1 caused the rocks beneath their basins to become denser1 thicker1 stronger1 and consequently less liable to break or change1 than were those rocks forming the foundations of the continents4 ,the moment it had shores to beat upon1 that moment the ocean began to knock them to pieces under its pounding surf1 and to grind the fragments so small that they could be drifted away1 reassorted1 and deposited wherever the water was sufficiently quiet to let them fall4 ,the original rocks--chiefly granite--held the different forms of lime1 magnesia1 etc41 to make the limestones2 the silica to make the gritty sandstones2 the alumina to make the clays2 and so on4 ,the sea not only was the agent to eat this old1 rich crust to pieces and respread it into strata1 but to sort out for us the materials to a considerable extent1 laying down beds of limestone by themselves1 and sandstone1 shales1 marl1 etc41 by themselves4 ,it is probable1 says ,professor ,shaler1 that layers of rock twenty miles in thickness have thus been laid down on the gradually settling ocean floor1 much of which has been raised again to form continental lands4 ,hitherto we have spoken of the waters that surround the continents as if they formed one mass1 as1 practically1 they do2 but for convenience sake we may designate certain areas by separate names1 which ought now to be defined4 ,thus the larger1 more open spaces are known as oceans1 and of these five are recognized1 namely1 ,pacific1 ,atlantic1 ,indian1 ,arctic1 and ,antarctic4 ,parts or branches of these1 more or less inclosed by land and usually comparatively shallow1 are termed seas4 ,the ,pacific ,ocean is the largest1 it alone covering more space than all the continents combined1 having a breadth1 east and west1 of ten thousand miles 7about the length of the ,atlantic71 and an area of seventy million square miles4 ,the equator divides it into the ,north and ,south ,pacific4 ,the former is comparatively free from islands1 and is inclosed northward by the approaching extremities of ,alaska and ,siberia2 while the latter widens at the south into the boundless ,antarctic ,ocean4 ,its basin is a vast depression of fairly uniform depth1 studded in the western part by island peaks1--the summits of submerged volcanic mountain-ranges4 ,the name 8,pacific10 or 8,peaceful10 was given to it by ,magalhaens 7,magellan71 its first navigator1 in #aedj 7see ,chapter ,,iv71 in his joy at having escaped from the tempestuous experience he had long endured in the ,south ,atlantic4 ,on the whole the ,pacific deserves its name as compared with the ,atlantic--a fact chiefly due to its great size4 ,the term 8,south ,sea0 was formerly much used for it1 but ,english-speaking persons now usually mean by that phrase the island-studded district between ,hawaii and ,australia4 ,illustration3 ,,perc ,,rock1 ,,in ,,the ,,gulf ,,of ,,st4 ,,lawrence1 ,,showing ,,destruction ,,of ,,shore-,,rocks ,,by ,,water4 ,the ,atlantic commemorates in its name the myth of ,atlas and his island4 ,atlas seems to have been originally1 among the ,greeks1 the name of the ,peak of ,tenerife1 of which they had vague information from the earlier ,phenician sea-wanderers4 ,then this was forgotten1 and in place of the fact arose a myth of a ,titan who stood upon a vast island in or beyond the 8,western ,sea10 called ,atlantis4 ,legends of wars with its people form a part of the nebulous hero-story of the beginnings of ,athens2 and it is said to have sunk out of sight long before records began4 ,there have always been those who believed this story founded upon fact1 and only a few years ago a book was printed in the ,united ,states arguing that the tale was the history of a real land2 but not only is there no literary or historical evidence that ,atlantis had any firmer foundation than vague memories of the ,cape ,verd or ,canary ,islands1 but every evidence of the geological condition and history of the eastern shores and bed of the middle ,atlantic ,ocean shows that no such convulsion as the destruction of this island calls for ever took place there1 or that there was ever such a land to be submerged4 ,the ,atlantic occupies a long1 winding1 comparatively narrow trough1 that measures about ten thousand miles north and south1 from the ice of the ,antarctic to the ice of the ,arctic ocean1 and has only a few islets south of ,iceland1 the ,faroes and the ,shetlands1 which rise from a plateau stretching from ,labrador to ,great ,britain1 the higher points of which were probably above the water within comparatively recent geological times1 possibly since man appeared upon the globe4 ,the average depth of the ,atlantic south of this ridge is about thirteen thousand feet1 but greater depths are found along the ,african and ,american coasts1 on each side of a long submerged ridge from which rise the isolated islands of ,cape ,verd1 ,st4 ,helena1 and ,tristan da ,cunha4 ,the width from ,norway to ,greenland is only about eight hundred miles1 but between ,montevideo and ,cape ,town it is thirty-six hundred miles1 and the average width is about three thousand miles4 ,the shape and situation of the ,atlantic make it the most stormy of the three great oceans1 and it is the one where the phenomena of tides1 currents1 etc41 are most prominently manifested1 as we shall see4 ,it is also the most frequented and best known1 because it has been necessary to study it for the benefit of commerce4 ,the ,indian ,ocean is simply the extension of the vast southern water-zone northward of parallel #dj1 south latitude1 where1 from the ,cape of ,good ,hope to ,tasmania1 it is six thousand miles in width4 ,at this line the depth suddenly decreases1 as though the edge of a submerged ,antarctic plateau defined the southerly rim of its basin there4 ,this ocean contains several large and some groups of small islands1 but these are mostly near the shore1 and connected with the neighboring continent by shallow waters1 showing that they rise from a submerged plateau4 ,the average depth of the ,indian ,ocean is about fourteen thousand feet2 its surface-water is warmer and salter than that of any other2 and its winds and weather are more regular and peaceful than in either the ,atlantic or the ,north ,pacific4 ,the ,arctic ,ocean is the well-defined body of water around and probably over the north pole4 ,it is connected with the ,pacific only by the narrow and very shallow ,bering ,strait1 and with the ,atlantic by comparatively narrow openings4 ,it has been fairly well explored as far north as the parallel of #hj1 and found to contain many islands2 but it appears that there is great depth of water north of ,spitzbergen and northeast of ,greenland1 making it probable that the trough of the ,atlantic reaches to or beyond the pole itself4 ,most of its area is covered with drifting ice4 ,the ,antarctic ,ocean is regarded as the space of water within the ,antarctic circle2 but this is surrounded by a zone of deep ocean1 unbroken almost half-way to the equator1 except by the narrow southern part of ,south ,america and by ,new ,zealand4 ,it is an area1 apparently rather shallow1 of ice1 fogs1 and tempestuous gales1 inclosing lands of unknown extent4 ,illustration3 ,,wave-,,worn ,,cliffs ,,and ,,pebble-,,beach ,,at ,,etretat1 ,,france4 7,,from ,a ,,painting ,,by ,,william ,p4 ,w4 ,,dana47 ,but these geographical distinctions are merely convenient methods of speech4 ,after all1 there is only one ocean 8poured round all10 and its particles are incessantly changed in place and remingled by means of a world-wide system of tides and currents1 the effect of which is to keep sea-water everywhere uniform in character and perfectly pure and healthful4 ,illustration3 ,,in ,,mid-,,ocean3 ,a ,,great ,,wave4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,waves1 ,,tides1 ,,and ,,currents ,now that we have studied the ancient ocean1 it is time to study its present characteristics and understand the great and important part it plays in the world4 ,a very striking thing about the ocean is its flatness4 ,being water1 it seeks always to find its level2 and we commonly assume that it everywhere does so1 and take the sea-level as the standard from which to calculate all heights above or depths below its surface2 that is1 we assume that every part of the surface of the ocean when calm and at mean tide is exactly the same distance from the center of the globe4 ,this1 however1 is not wholly true4 ,careful observation has shown that the ,pacific is several feet lower on the western shore of the ,isthmus of ,darien than is the ,atlantic on its eastern shore--a fact due1 no doubt1 to the crowding of water by the ,gulf ,stream into the ,caribbean ,sea4 ,the ,mediterranean is known to be somewhat higher than the ,atlantic1 and other differences exist in similar places elsewhere4 ,this introduces the subject of depth--a matter which we have learned accurately only within a very few years4 ,in the early days ropes alone were used for sounding1 and these had to be of considerable size to bear the strain2 but a mile or so of rope became too heavy to handle1 and depths below that length remained unmeasured4 ,then a little machine was tried consisting of a heavy weight having attached to it1 by a trigger1 a wooden float4 ,this was thrown overboard4 ,it sank1 and when it touched bottom the shock released the float4 ,from the time that elapsed before the float reappeared the depth was estimated4 ,this1 however1 was little better than guesswork2 and accurate soundings exceeding one thousand fathoms were not obtained until an ,american naval officer began to use wire instead of rope4 ,from this hint was developed elaborate machinery1 operated by steam1 using steel piano-wire1 having automatic registers of the amount reeled out1 and carried down by weights that were released when the bottom was struck1 making it easier to recover the wire4 ,to these weights 7or rather to the wire just above them7 were attached devices for clutching and bringing to the surface specimens of the bottom1 self-closing jars to fetch water from the lowest layer1 self-registering thermometers that recorded the temperatures at the greatest or at various intermediate depths1 and other means of learning the character of the water1 bottom-material1 and animal life several miles below the surface1 including methods of photographing by aid of a submerged electric light4 ,such investigations1 carried on in ships suitably equipped1 have been prosecuted by several governments1 most notably by the expedition of the ,challenger1 a ,british surveying-ship which circumnavigated the globe during the years from #ahgb to #ahgf4 ,illustration3 ,,sea-,,cave ,,near ,,giant',s ,,causeway1 ,,north ,,of ,,ireland4 ,this and many other expeditions have sounded in all parts of the world1 and explored large tracts where the water uniformly exceeded three miles in depth4 ,the ,united ,states ship ,enterprise1 after passing the ,chatham ,islands in her run from ,new ,zealand to the ,strait of ,magellan1 found the water everywhere more than thirteen thousand feet deep4 ,throughout her run from ,montevideo to ,new ,york the water varied from twelve to eighteen thousand feet deep1 and ,captain ,nares and ,admiral ,belknap found like depths over equally vast breadths elsewhere4 ,yet even in these basins more profound pits and valleys exist4 ,several places are known near ,japan and off ,porto ,rico exceeding five miles in depth2 and an ,english officer sounded #bi1djj feet in the southern ,pacific ,ocean1 nineteen hundred miles east of ,brisbane1 without finding bottom4 ,the average depth of all the oceans is estimated at from twelve thousand to fifteen thousand feet4 ,as1 according to ,humboldt1 the average height of the lands of the globe is only about one thousand feet1 it will be seen that all the land now above the water1 and its foundations1 could be shoveled into the ocean troughs and still leave water more than two miles in depth covering the whole planet4 ,the soundings and dredgings of which ,i have spoken enable us to make a tolerable map of the ocean beds and to describe their features4 ,all the continents are bordered by a shelf reaching out under the shallow shore-water to a greater or less distance1 and then dropping1 usually with much abruptness1 to the ocean trough4 ,this shelf1 perhaps originally a part of the primeval continent1 bears most of the great islands near continents1 such as ,newfoundland1 the ,west ,indies1 ,great ,britain and ,ireland1 ,madagascar1 the ,aleutian1 ,japanese1 and ,philippine groups1 the ,malay ,archipelago1 and others4 ,if you will look at a map that has marked upon it the line of one thousand fathoms' depth along the shores of the various continents1 you will find it reaching far out from the eastern shores of both ,americas1 the western and northern shores of ,europe1 the eastern shores of ,south ,africa1 prolonging ,india hundreds of miles1 and embracing great spaces among the ,east ,indies1 while even the hundred-fathom line would connect many an island with the mainland or with some other island1 as they actually have been connected in times gone by4 ,the fact is1 there is not a single proper mountain-peak rising out of deep water at any great distance from the margins of the continents4 ,all the numerous islands of the wide oceans are either coral reefs or the summits of volcanic cones4 ,upon this shelf1 and for the most part within two hundred miles of the coast1 are deposited all of the materials torn from the land by the sea or brought down by rivers or glaciers1 excepting the very finest1 which currents may float somewhat farther out1 and also excepting the rocks that icebergs carry away and drop in mid-ocean2 but this is not a great amount1 for most icebergs strand on the shallows off ,newfoundland or in ,bering ,sea4 ,almost nothing from the shores1 therefore1 reaches the central depths of the open oceans1 whose beds are in substantially the same condition that they were in at the beginning1 except for two things--volcanic upheavals in some places1 and the remains of animal life everywhere4 ,the former exception is a very important one1 since it is now known1 according to ,professor ,shaler1 that volcanoes1 by their eruptions1 send more dust and broken materials to the seas than the rivers and shores combined4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,volcano ,,krakatoa 7,,sunda ,,strait7 ,,in ,,eruption ,,in #ahhc4 8,although the deeper sea-floors probably lack mountains10 says ,professor ,shaler1 8they are not without striking reliefs1 which1 if they could be seen1 would present all the dignity which their size gives to the ,himalayas or ,andes3 the difference is that these elevations are not true mountains1 but volcanic peaks1 sometimes isolated1 again accumulated in long1 narrow ridges1 but all made up of matter poured out from the craters or through great fissures in the crust4 ,so numerous are these heaped masses of lava and other ejections from these vents that there is hardly any considerable area of the oceans where they do not rise above the surface4 ,there are indeed thousands of these volcanic peaks distributed from pole to pole4444 ,thus on the floor of the ,north ,atlantic there is evidently a long1 irregular chain of these elevations extending from the ,icelandic group of islands southward to the ,azores4 ,if an explorer could view this part of the sea-bottom1 he would probably find that the line of craters was as continuous as that exhibited by the volcanoes of the ,andes4 8,besides the volcanic peaks10 ,professor ,shaler continues1 8the sea-bottom in certain parts of the tropics 444 is beset with the singular elevations formed by coral reefs40 ,but of these ,i shall have more to say toward the end of the book1 and ,i allude to them here only as a feature of the invisible landscape beneath the waves4 ,over the vast1 gently undulating spaces separating these submerged lines of volcanoes and the ridges of coral1 lies a mat of mud of unknown thickness1 which naturalists term 8ooze40 ,it is principally composed of volcanic dust and of the microscopic 8tests10 or flinty limy skeletons of minute animals1 few of which are large enough to be seen by the unaided eye4 8,dwelling in myriads in the superficial parts of the sea1 these foraminifera1 as they are termed1 sink at death to the bottom1 over which they accumulate a thick coating of minutely divided limestone powder1 forming a layer of ooze as unsubstantial as the finest snow40 ,in regions like the ,north ,atlantic this ooze consists almost wholly of such animal matter2 but in other regions1 such as the ,south ,pacific1 where volcanoes prevail1 it is constantly and largely increased by an enormous quantity of mineral matter hurled broadcast by volcanoes1 all of which are on islands or near sea-coasts4 ,a part of this is the merest dust1 which slowly settles from the air1 perhaps hundreds of miles from where it was ejected4 ,a larger part consists of that spongy lava called pumice1 which is so full of holes filled with air and gases that it may float half way around the globe before it sinks1 as happened after the explosion of ,krakatoa4 ,into the oceanic ooze1 too1 sinks so much of all dead fishes and other mid-sea animals as is not dissolved or devoured before reaching it2 and it forms the grave of thousands of men4 ,it is often said that ships and other things would not sink far1 but would float1 suspended by dense water or some miraculous influence1 only a few hundred or a few thousand feet below the surface1 for no one knows how long4 ,but this eerie notion has no foundation in fact4 8,no other fate10 we are assured by those who know1 8awaits the drowned sailor or his ship than that which comes to the marine creatures who die on the bottom of the sea4 ,in time their dust all passes into the great storehouse of the earth1 even as those who receive burial on land40 ,wooden wrecks probably last much longer than those of iron4 ,i have mentioned that a small part of what the sea tears away from the land1 or receives from rivers1 winds1 and other sources1 is dissolved in its waters1 which now contain1 no doubt1 samples of every ingredient of the rocks and soils of the dry land1 and very likely some elements not yet detected4 ,this solvent power of the sea explains its saltness1 and it must go on growing more and more bitter as long as its waves grind at the shores and the rivers run down4 ,the salinity varies in degree1 water at great depths being salter than that near the surface1 and excelling in saltness where evaporation is rapid1 as under the trade-winds1 while fresher in the regions of equatorial calms1 where an immense amount of rain falls2 broadly1 the lightest 7freshest7 water is found at the equator1 and the heaviest in the temperate regions4 ,inclosed1 or nearly inclosed1 areas become very salt4 ,thus the ,dead ,sea is what chemists call a saturated solution1 being nearly one third 7#bh per cent47 salt1 and ,great ,salt ,lake in ,utah is not far behind4 ,the ,red ,sea contains #d per cent41 and some parts of the ,mediterranean nearly as much4 ,taking all the open oceans together1 about #c in every #ajj parts 7#c per cent47 is composed of various salts1 more than three quarters of which is common salt 7chloride of sodium71 and the remainder mainly forms of magnesium4 ,one of the ,challenger authors has estimated that the oceans contain enough salt to make a layer #agj feet thick over their whole area1 and another writer says that the amount1 if heaped up1 would be four times larger than the whole bulk of ,europe above the level of high-water mark1 mountains and all4 ,in early times1 indeed1 sea-water1 which yields about a quarter of a pound of crystallized salt per gallon1 was almost the only source of salt for food4 ,even yet it is the principal source of supply for the manufacture of commercial salt in ,france1 ,portugal1 ,spain1 ,italy1 ,austria1 the ,west ,indies1 and ,central and ,south ,america2 and it is largely used in ,holland1 ,belgium1 and ,great ,britain4 ,the early process1 still extensively practised in some parts of ,europe1 was to admit the sea-water to large partitioned flats floored with clay1 where it evaporated rapidly4 ,the salt-crystals remaining were then collected1 purified to a greater or less degree1 and sold off-hand4 ,it was by similar means that our great-grandfathers in ,new ,england and along the ,southern coasts provided themselves with salt1 only they used large vats arranged over fires instead of earthen basins exposed to the sun4 ,but analysis of sea-water discloses small quantities of many other recognizable minerals4 ,silica must be there to supply the needs of many foraminifers1 sponges1 and other animals2 lime in various forms exists1 or else such sea animals as mollusks could not compose their shells1 nor polyps erect their enormous reefs2 bromine is present1 and to the iodine and other mineral dyes in the water we owe the lovely purples1 crimsons1 and scarlets painting corallines1 seaweeds1 echinoderms1 and some molluscan shells1 as that of the ,sargasso-snail 7,janthina74 ,as for gold and silver1 both are present4 ,i have seen it stated that a voyage of a year or two is sufficient to permit the formation of a film of silver all over the copper sheathing of a ship's bottom1 so that a frigate returning from a long cruise is really silver-plated2 but ,i fancy this is more a matter of imagination than visible reality4 ,gold1 in certain chemical combinations1 certainly exists in sea-water1 and may be extracted therefrom4 ,up to the present1 however1 the cost of the extraction has been more than the precious metal obtained was worth4 ,gold is often washed from sea-sand4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,fiord1 ,,or ,,deep ,,crevice ,,worn ,,in ,,sea-,,cliffs4 ,the ceaseless restlessness of the ocean forms another of the greatest contrasts between it and the immovable land--terra firma1 as those like to call it who have been tossing too long on the 8rolling deep04 ,this characteristic restlessness involves some of the most important and interesting facts in physical geography2 for were the waters still1--that is1 were the oceans simply huge1 quiet ponds1--none of that action could take place along the shores which has been so important an agent in shaping the world and making it a suitable place for human habitation and social development4 ,on a planet with an atmosphere and changing seasons like ours1 however1 a stagnant ocean is as impossible as a motionless air2 indeed1 it is because the air is always in motion that large bodies of water are never at rest1 for it is the changing density and temperature and movements 7winds7 of the air that produce waves and currents4 ,waves are caused by the pressure and friction of the wind upon the surface of the water1 as you may readily see at any pond2 and the water in them simply rises and falls1 driving forward a little at the very surface so as to cause a gentle current called wind-drift4 ,when the waves approach the shallow1 sloping border of the land they are checked at the bottom by the slope of the beach1 while the freer upper part goes forward1 and the waves speedily lose their rounded form and become more and more sharply ridged and steep on the front side as they sweep on until at last they pitch forward in the crash and thunder of surf4 ,in the open ocean the waves are usually doing little work except to cause the surface to rise and fall4 ,the harder the wind blows1 the higher the waves become1 and the faster they travel4 ,this speed has been calculated1 and has been found to be proportionate to size4 8,waves #bjj feet long from hollow to hollow10 we are told1 8travel about #ai knots per hour2 those of #djj feet in length make #bg knots2 and those of #fjj feet rush forward irresistibly at #cb knots40 ,these1 of course1 are under the furious impulse of a gale1 and it is marvelous that ships can be made to ride over them2 nor is it any wonder that excited mariners clinging to the bulwarks of some small and heeling craft1 should call them 8mountain high10 and declare in all seriousness that they have seen their crests rising one hundred feet above their hollows4 ,no such altitude1 nor half of it1 probably1 is ever reached by a storm-wave in the heaviest cyclone4 ,an excellent authority1 ,lieutenant ,qualtrough1 assures us that the highest trustworthy measurements are from forty-four to forty-eight feet4 ,the height of a wave depends upon what mariners call its 8fetch0--that is1 its distance from the place where the waves began to form4 ,this has been worked out mathematically by ,thomas ,stevenson 7father of the late ,robert ,louis ,stevenson1 the novelist71 an eminent engineer and designer of lighthouses1 who gives the following formula3 8,the height of the wave in feet is equal to #a multiplied by the square root of the fetch in nautical miles40 ,if the waves began #ajj miles away from your ship1 the waves about you will be #ae feet high1 because the square root of #ajj is #aj1 and one and a half times #aj is #ae 7feet74 ,the highest waves are not formed in the greatest tempests1 which beat down their crests1 but when the gale is both very strong and long continued4 ,the worst 8seas10 as sailors call big waves1 are those met with off the ,cape of ,good ,hope and ,cape ,horn4 ,the depth to which wave disturbance extends depends on the violence of the wind1 and near shore upon the slope of the bottom4 ,prestwich tells us that pebbles may sometimes be moved at the depth of one hundred feet1 and sand much deeper1 as is shown by the fact that the bottom is disturbed in heavy storms on the ,banks of ,newfoundland4 ,the weight and power of such on-rushing masses of water are tremendous1 as appears from the effect on coasts where they strike2 but this opens up a subject which is too large for treatment here1 and ,i must refer readers to geological treatises1 and to such special works as ,professor ,n4 ,s4 ,shaler's excellent 8,sea and ,land10 where the work of the ocean in tearing down and building up its coasts is fully and entertainingly explained4 ,i shall have something more to say on this point1 also1 when ,i come to the chapter 8,dangers of the ,deep10 and speak of the terrible destruction caused by earthquakes1 and in certain other agitations of the sea not due to the wind1 and often styled 8tidal waves40 ,there is only one kind of 8tidal wave10 properly speaking1 however2 and this is a theoretical rather than an actual one1 perceptible usually only in that rising and falling of the water along coasts twice each twenty-four hours that we call the flow and ebb of the tides2 and here we see the effect rather than the thing itself4 ,illustration3 ,,low ,,tide1 ,,st4 ,,john',s ,,harbor1 ,n4 ,b4 ,the tide has been an inevitable circumstance of the existence on the earth of the ocean1 or any other great body of water1 ever since its origin1 yet it was not until ,sir ,isaac ,newton made us comprehend the law of gravitation that its mystery was explained4 ,we now know with certainty--if you want the mathematical formul and so forth1 consult some good modern encyclopdia under the word tide--that this periodical rising and falling of the sea is due to the attraction of the sun and moon1--to the last three times as much as to the first1 because it is so much nearer4 ,this attraction is exerted toward the globe as a whole2 and its visible effect upon the movable water is to lift it bodily on that side nearest the moon1 and at the same time to pull away the earth from the water on the opposite side1 which amounts to the same thing2 and thus high tides are simultaneously produced at these antipodes1 which accounts for the two a day4 ,at the same time1 however1 the intermediate spaces have low tides caused by an attraction there toward the center of the earth4 8,there are thus always simultaneously and directly under the moon two high waters opposite each other1 and two low waters at equal distances between them4 ,owing to the rotation of the earth1 this permanent system of swells and troughs travels from east to west over every part of the ocean and of its coast1 and explains the regular succession of rising and falling waters1 at equal intervals of time1 which we call the tides40 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,earthquake ,,wave ,,passing ,,over ,,the ,,lighthouse ,,on ,,point ,,anjer4 ,but the sun also exerts a similar but lesser influence1 producing four daily solar tides1 which most of the time are lost to view in the greater lunar tides4 ,when1 however1 the moon gets into line with the earth and the sun1 so that both the heavenly bodies pull together like a tandem team1 as happens twice a month1--at new moon and full moon1--their combined action causes unusually high water1 which is the sum of the lunar and solar tides1 and is called the spring tide4 ,high water is then highest1 and low water lowest4 ,on the other hand1 in the midst of these fortnightly intervals1 when the moon is at its first or third quarter1 the sun is a full quarter of the heavens 7#ij7 away from the moon4 ,its influence1 therefore1 acts at right angles to or practically against that of the moon1 and the solar tides go to swell the low waters and diminish the high waters1 forming what sailors call neap tides1--preserving an old ,english word meaning low4 ,now remember that the globe is not standing still1 even while we make these explanations1 but is revolving at a tremendous speed1 so that the water under the moon lifted by lunar attraction is changing place every instant at the rate of over one thousand miles an hour1 and you have the conception of a low wave on each side of the earth1 reaching north and south1 highest and swiftest on the equator and diminishing toward the poles4 ,these are the true tidal waves4 ,were the globe covered with an unbroken mantle of water1 such waves1 each about twenty inches 7or twenty-nine inches at springtide7 high on the average at the equator1 would follow one another round and round the earth at the rate of one complete circuit in every twenty-four hours4 ,that must have been the case in the primeval ocean before any continents existed2 and something of it still exists in the belt of unobstructed water surrounding the ,antarctic continent of ice4 ,it would then be flood tide or ebb tide at the same hour along the whole length of any one meridian4 ,but in the present condition of the globe1 where the oceans are separated by continents and broken by islands1 the progress of the tidal waves is obstructed1 deflected1 and wholly stopped in a great variety of ways and places1 so that the hours1 amount1 and behavior of the tides are exceedingly varied in different regions1 and are often very puzzling1 forming one of the most difficult matters with which the practical navigator has to deal4 ,interference of tidal currents forms the ,maelstrom1 off the coast of ,norway1 whose revolution is reversed twice daily1 the classic ,scylla and ,charybdis1 in the ,straits of ,messina1 so much dreaded by the navigators of old1 and many other whirlpools of less celebrity4 ,the tidal wave sweeping northward across the ,atlantic has time to round the northern end of ,scotland and flood the ,german ,ocean with southward swelling currents before the rising water pouring into the southern end of the ,english ,channel has time to push its way through that narrow and shallow passage2 hence the two floods meet in the ,straits of ,dover1 which accounts for the miserable chop-sea so sadly prevalent in that unfortunate bit of water4 ,the natural height of the tide seems to be from two to five feet1 as shown in the midst of the broad ,pacific4 8,but when dashing against the land1 and forced into deep gulfs and estuaries10 to quote ,professor ,simon ,newcomb1 8the accumulating tide-waters sometimes reach a very great height4 ,on the eastern coast of ,north ,america1 which is directly in the path of the great ,atlantic wave1 the tide rises on an average from #i to #ab feet4 ,in the ,bay of ,fundy1 which opens its bosom to receive the full wave1 the tide1 which at the entrance is #ah feet1 rushes with great fury into that long and narrow channel1 and swells to the enormous height of #fj feet1 and even to #gj feet in the highest spring tides4 ,in the ,bristol ,channel1 on the coast of ,england1 the spring tides rise to #dj feet1 and swell to #ej in the ,english ,channel at ,st4 ,malo on the coast of ,france40 ,to this cause is also due in some degree those great oceanic currents which form another striking fact in the history of the sea2 but they are mainly due to temperature1 wind1 and the rotation of the earth4 ,the drops that make up a body of water are the most restless things in the world2 they are always sliding down the least slope1 sinking out of the way of lighter substances1 rising to let a heavier object pass beneath them1 or moving hither and thither in an ever hopeful search of that levelness and quiet that we call equilibrium4 ,furthermore1 when water is heated it becomes lighter4 ,should1 therefore1 a portion of the sea grow warmer than the remainder1 it must and will rise to the surface2 and whenever a portion becomes cooled1 it must and will sink4 ,now1 under the continuous blazing sun of the torrid zone the sea-water near the surface gets fairly warm1--having an average temperature of about #he along the equator1--while in the polar regions the ocean is always chilled by permanent or floating ice until it is nearly cold enough to freeze2 but these masses of warm and cold water cannot remain separate in the universal ocean4 ,the hot tropical flood1 continually rising1 must flow away somewhere to find its level2 and it can flow nowhere except toward the poles1 for there the ever-sinking volume of chilled and therefore heavier water sucks it in to take its place1 while it1 in turn1 creeps underneath toward the equator1 there to fill the gap which the escaping warm water leaves behind4 ,so we know there is constantly going on an interchange of water--a constant flowing away from the equator northward and southward on the surface1 and a flowing in toward the equator along the bottom2 an endless springing up in the torrid zone and a steady settling down in the polar seas4 ,one out of many proofs of this fact is that the thalassal abysses below the depth of a mile or so are known to be ice-cold4 ,this could not happen unless they were constantly filled and refilled with new water from the great coolers at the poles2 for if the water at those depths should remain unchanged1 it would soon become very warm from the heat of the interior of the earth1 whence it does constantly extract some heat4 ,but while this invisible vertical circulation is going on1 another more visible and interesting set of movements is in progress on the surface1 forming what are known as ocean currents4 ,these are vast rivers in the ocean flowing across its face in certain directions and to a certain depth1 as rivers make their way along the land4 ,they begin and are kept going mainly by a union of the two causes already explained--heat and wind4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,steamer ,,borne ,,ashore ,,by ,,an ,,earthquake-,,wave4 ,the heat of the sun at the equator1 warming1 lightening1 and evaporating the water1 constantly tends to draw the colder water from the poles1 most copiously from the ,south ,pole2 but the ,antarctic water1 hastening to the equator1 is soon interrupted by the extremities of ,australia1 ,africa1 and ,south ,america1 and so split into three great branches4 ,that which passes into the ,south ,atlantic goes on northward along the western coast of ,africa1 part of it becoming so warm under the hot sun there that it will not sink1 but constantly comes more and more to the surface1 until it strikes against the great shoulder of ,guinea and is turned sharply westward4 ,now it is squarely under the trade-wind and headed the same way2 constantly urged forward by this moderate but endless tugging of the wind upon its waves1 the current can never swerve1 but flows along the equator1 and for half a dozen degrees each side of it1 straight across the ,atlantic4 ,south ,america1 however1 stands in its path1 and the wedge-like coast of ,brazil1 pointed with ,cape ,st4 ,roque1 splits this great river4 ,part of it now turns southward and swings back across toward ,africa1 making an eddy a couple of thousand miles wide in the ,south ,atlantic1 while another arm runs down the ,patagonian coast4 ,but by far the largest part of the divided current is sent northward1 past the coast of upper ,brazil into the ,caribbean ,sea and ,gulf of ,mexico1 where it is well heated1 and thence poured into the ,north ,atlantic1 to become widely celebrated as the ,gulf ,stream4 ,gathered in full force1 the ,gulf ,stream flows northward close along the coast of our ,southern ,states at the rate of eighty or ninety miles a day until ,cape ,hatteras gives it a swerve away1 when it strikes out to sea and pushes straight across to ,spain1 where a branch leaves it and runs northward between ,iceland and the ,british ,islands1 while the main body turns southward to mingle again with the equatorial current from ,africa and repeat its journey all over again4 ,it is in the heart of this great circle of currents in the middle of the ,atlantic that navigators find that dreaded region of heat and calms which they call the ,doldrums2 and here1 too1 float round and round the wide1 buoyant meadows of the ,sargasso ,sea4 ,meanwhile another most important cold stream is making its way through the ,atlantic1 known as the ,arctic current4 ,it comes down out of ,baffin's ,bay1 joins a similar flood from the outer coast of ,greenland1 is thrown up to the surface by the ,banks of ,newfoundland 7where meeting warm air1 it produces those thick and prolonged fogs so common in that region71 fills the ,gulf of ,st4 ,lawrence and the bight between ,nova ,scotia and ,cape ,cod with chilly water1 and finally dips under the ,gulf ,stream amid that commotion of winds and waters that makes the track of the steamships between ,new ,york and ,europe the most tempestuous of ocean highways4 ,it is the mingling of these warm and cold waters there which is chiefly responsible for the stormy condition of the ,north ,atlantic4 ,the ,pacific has a similar arrangement of circulation north and south of the equator4 ,the ,antarctic waters form a cold stream named the ,humboldt current1 which pours up the western side of ,south ,america1 keeping the climate down to a far more wintry condition than it is entitled to by latitude1 until it reaches the southern trade-winds1 which sweep it westward straight across the ,pacific1 where much of it is lost among the archipelagoes of ,oceanica1 and the southern part flows onward into the ,indian ,ocean4 ,north of the ,pacific equator a similar westward current moves steadily over the great waste of waters past the ,sandwich ,islands to the coast of ,china4 ,from the ,philippines and ,japan northward1 however1 there is a far stronger flow1 known to the ,japanese as the ,black ,current 7,kuroshiwo71 which skirts the coast of ,japan and the ,kurile ,islands1 makes these and ,kamchatka habitable1 then turns sharply east along the front of the foggy ,aleutian chain of islands1 and broadening and cooling as it turns1 swings down the temperate coast of ,alaska and gradually disappears4 ,these two great currents and their inclosed eddies are far broader and less distinct than those of the ,north and ,south ,atlantic1 but they follow the same laws4 ,in a similar but lesser way the ,indian ,ocean has a strong westerly stream flowing straight across from ,australia to ,south ,africa1 which is of immense help to ships returning from the ,east around the ,cape of ,good ,hope4 ,from ,mozambique the water turns northward to make the return round1 but here it is complicated by the peculiar conditions made by the inflow and outflow of the ,red ,sea1 ,arabian ,gulf1 and so on1 and by the disturbing influences of the monsoons1 until it can hardly be defined4 ,of all these currents none is as well marked as the ,gulf ,stream4 ,its blue water is in such contrast to the darker1 greenish hue of the remainder of the ocean that sailors can often tell when they enter the edge of the current1 half their vessel being in and half out of the stream4 ,if you approach from the west you find that the water at first shows a warmth of only fifty or sixty degrees near the surface2 but as you sail on1 this increases until1 opposite ,sandy ,hook1 you may get as high a reading on the thermometer as eighty degrees1 and opposite ,florida above one hundred degrees4 ,this difference in temperature between the eastern and western margins of the ,gulf ,stream is owing to the presence of the great river of ,arctic water flowing in an opposite direction between the ,gulf ,stream and the shore4 ,off ,florida the ,gulf ,stream is about sixty miles wide2 off ,new ,york it is over one hundred miles in width1 but is less sharply defined4 ,its depth is hard to determine1 but certainly amounts to several hundred feet4 ,it is worth remembering that1 although some guesses had been made at it before1 ,dr4 ,benjamin ,franklin was the first man to study the ,gulf ,stream and to tell us anything of its origin and course4 ,the way in which some of these ocean currents affect the weather of the lands upon which they border shows how great is the influence of the sea upon land-climates2 indeed1 it may be truthfully said that only the continents and such great islands as ,australia or ,madagascar have any climate essentially distinct from that of the ocean in their quarter of the globe4 ,but the equability that would reign over an ocean of quiet water1 determining the amount of cold and heat by regular gradation in latitude between the equator and the poles1 is completely upset by the great current-movements ,i have outlined4 ,scotland1 for example1 lies as far north as ,labrador1 and the latitude of ,london is above that of ,lake ,superior1 yet neither have those terrible frosts and heavy snows which prevail in ,canada1 and make ,labrador a land of ice almost uninhabitable4 ,this difference is due almost wholly to the fact that the ,gulf ,stream pours its warm flood against the coast of ,great ,britain1 and even tempers the ,norwegian coast1 keeps ,barentz's ,sea largely free from summer ice1 and clothes ,spitzbergen with vegetation1 although within ten degrees of the pole4 ,hence in the forests of northern ,scandinavia ,laps can dwell in much comfort on a line with the frozen barren grounds north of ,hudson ,bay4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,rough ,,night ,,in ,,the ,,gulf ,,stream4 ,on the other hand1 the unfortunate coasts of ,greenland are bathed in water chilled by months of captivity near the pole1 and loaded with ice that cools down all the winds that blow ashore4 ,greenland itself is covered with an unbroken sheet of ice1 hundreds or thousands of feet thick1 yet most of it is no farther north than ,sweden4 ,the whole northeastern coast of ,america1 down to ,labrador1 is incrusted with ice2 and the region south of the ,st4 ,lawrence has a similar climate to ,finland2 while even farther south1 ,boston1 within the protecting arm of ,cape ,cod1 is in winter a city of frost and snow and fog from ,november till ,april1 when it really is little farther north than sunny ,naples1 where one laughs at winter4 ,similarly1 in the ,pacific ,ocean1 the northward movement of the great ,japanese current makes the coast of ,china habitable and pleasant clear to the ,sea of ,okhotsk1 gives the ,aleutian archipelago a pretty decent climate1 and causes the islands and coasts of ,alaska and ,british ,columbia to nourish the most magnificent forests in ,america1 and to have a climate resembling that of ,great ,britain4 ,glasgow and ,sitka are1 in fact1 in the same latitude1 and under very similar climatic conditions1 except that in ,scotland there are no such lofty and cold mountains to precipitate constant rains as is the case along the northwestern margin of ,america4 ,similar examples and contrasts might be drawn in other parts of the world4 ,the weather in the interior of continents is pretty much alike on similar latitudes the world round1 varying with height2 but the climate of all sea-coasts is good or bad as a place to live1 in accordance with the temperature of the water which the currents bring to that part of the ocean4 ,but the currents of the ocean influence something besides the weather4 ,upon them depends to a considerable extent whether a certain part of the coast shall have one or another kind of animals dwelling in the salt water4 ,this is not so much true of fishes as it is of the mollusks or 8shell-fish10 the worms that live in the mud of the tide-flats1 the anemones1 sea-urchins1 starfish and little clinging people of the wet rocks1 and of the jellyfishes1 great and small1 that swim about in the open sea4 ,nothing would injure most of these 8small fry0 more than a change in the water making it a few degrees colder or warmer than they were accustomed to4 ,since the constant circulation of the currents keeps the ocean water in all its parts almost precisely of the same density1 and food seems about as likely to abound in one district as another1 naturalists have concluded that it is temperature which decides the extent of coast or of sea-area where any one kind of invertebrate animal will be found4 ,it thus happens that the life of ,cuban waters is different from that of our ,carolina coast2 and that1 again1 largely separate from what you will see off ,new ,york2 while ,cape ,cod seems to run out as a partition between the shore life south of it and a very different set of shells1 sand-worms1 and so forth1 characteristic of the colder waters to the northward4 ,out in the ocean1 however1 the warm current of the ,gulf ,stream forms a genial pathway along which southern swimming animals1 like the wondrously beautiful ,portuguese-man-o'-war 7,physalia71 may wander northward for hundreds of miles beyond where they are found near shore2 yet if by chance they stray outside the limits of the warm ,gulf ,stream1 they will at once be chilled to death1 as happened once to millions of tile-fish4 ,ocean currents carry floating burdens long distances4 ,they bring the icebergs to form those terrible fogs of ,alaska and ,newfoundland2 and they often bear far away the logs that float out of tropical rivers4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,young ,,ship-,,rigger4 ,these drifting logs often have plants growing upon them or contain quantities of seeds which are not injured by their short voyages4 ,when1 therefore1 the coral polyps build up one of their reef-islands until it appears above the waves1 thither the currents bring roots and seeds from neighboring islands1 and quickly plant them upon the new barren shores1 so that in a few seasons the little islet becomes green and wooded and ready to hold its own against the winds and waves4 ,moreover1 the same drifting stuff will carry land animals as passengers1--insects1 snails of many kinds1 reptiles1 and even four-footed beasts1--and so not only give the island a vegetation1 but populate it with various of the smaller animals4 ,this seems to you1 perhaps1 a very accidental and haphazard way of fitting out a country so that presently it may support human beings1 nor is it the only means by which barren islands become productive2 but it is important as far as it goes1 and when we study into the distribution of plants and animals in an archipelago1 we are pretty sure to find those of the same sort upon islands that lie in the same current--even to the human inhabitants4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,the ,,building ,,and ,,rigging ,,of ,,ships ,as late as #ahfa an exploring ship was visited by natives of ,western ,australia1 riding simple rough logs4 ,to smooth and sharpen the log's end and then to hollow it out has been thought to be the first step taken by primitive man in his progress toward a boat2 but ,i think the dugout probably came later1 or at any rate no earlier1 than the folding of bark into a trough and tying up the ends1 as some savages are still content to do4 ,in ,north ,america1 where materials were favorable1 this germ developed into the very highest type of canoe--the ,algonkin birch-bark4 ,it may have been an attempt to imitate the bark canoe in a more durable form which led to the laborious hollowing of dugouts2 but here again1 in regions where suitable trees grew1 the art developed so highly as to produce the great sea-boats of the ,papuans and our ,northwest ,coast ,indians1 carved from a single log1 yet able to carry sixty or more persons and their luggage4 ,such boats as these1 when provided with sails1 are practically 8ships10 and satisfy every need of their owners4 ,another root of naval architecture lies in the raft1 which long ago reached a high degree of usefulness in the sea-going balsa of western ,south ,america4 ,it is probable that the ,south ,sea catamaran is a clever outgrowth of experience with a raft4 ,in ,polynesia it took the form of two great canoes1 exactly equal1 fastened close together and covered by a single central deck2 and such are the seaworthiness and speed of these double boats1 that the ,polynesians voyage hundreds of miles in them4 ,similar in purpose--namely1 to insure stability--are the various outriggers that at once characterize and distinguish among themselves the native craft of the ,south ,seas4 ,this device consists of a beam of the lightest obtainable wood1 usually about half as long as the canoe1 which rests upon the water parallel to and a few feet away from the side of the boat1 and is connected with its gunwale by elastic rods or planks4 ,sometimes these are covered1 or partly covered1 by a light platform1 and there are many variations in form2 but the idea in all cases is to keep the boat from overturning4 ,in many parts of the world logs could be obtained large enough only for a narrow bottom or hollowed keel1 and the remainder of the boat was built up of planks and pieces ingeniously pegged and knit together with treenails1 ratan1 and cords made of vegetable fibers that tightened when wet4 ,the ,madras surf-boats are a familiar example in civilized waters of boats made in this way which have great elasticity1 and out of them have developed1 without much change1 the swift proas of the ,malays1 and the junks of ,china1 ,korea1 and ,japan4 ,one device for stitching these boats firmly together was the leaving of ridges on the inner side of the planks or pieces1 through holes in which they could be tied to each other and to the inner framework without making a hole reaching the outside4 ,this system seems to have been earlier than the use of treenails4 ,illustration3 ,,proa1 ,,with ,,outrigger4 ,of similar construction1 apparently1 were the boats of the ,egyptians and other peoples about the eastern end of the ,mediterranean and the ,red ,sea1 which1 as far back as three thousand years before ,christ1 at least1 had reached the size and capabilities of true ships1 making1 as we shall presently see1 extensive sea voyages4 ,pictures of them remain in the very ancient tombs1 and show that the planking consisted of pieces about three feet square1 which were laid on overlapping1 like shingles on a roof1 and fastened to the framework by wooden treenails4 ,the ,phenicians1 and their pupils the ,greeks and ,romans1 improved on these methods in various ways1 at last substituting iron1 copper1 and bronze nails or bolts 7which would not rust7 for the wooden pegs of their ancestors4 ,all of these boats and those of all western ,europe 7of which the best outside the ,mediterranean were the vikings' ships7 differed in one essential point of construction from ,oriental ships3 instead of making the shell of the vessel1 and fitting into it a framework of connected braces1 as the ,malays and ,polynesians did 7and yet do71 they laid a keel1 bending it up or setting into it stem- and stern-posts at the ends1 and inserted along its sides curving upright timbers1 well styled 8ribs10 which swelled out amidships1 and narrowed in forward and aft1 making a skeleton of the shape the hull was intended to be4 ,finally1 over and upon this well-braced framework were securely fastened the planks1 which were narrow and ran lengthwise in every case except that of the ancient ,nile boats4 ,the ,scandinavian vikings developed a craft of their own1 one of the most interesting of the ancient ships2 and to these northern craftsmen is traceable the principal influence that has shaped ,british 7and consequently ,american7 ship-building and seamanship4 ,this early ,scandinavian boat was always made of oak1 sharp at both ends1 and rather shallow1 the general form being much like that of a modern whaleboat1 with a great rounding keel--if1 indeed1 this wonderful sea-craft may not be a lineal descendant of the viking ship4 ,the hewn planks were attached to the keel and to the ribs 7usually single1 naturally bent ,v-shaped prongs of oak7 in a most ingenious and serviceable manner1 and they were always overlapping or clinker 7i4 e41 clencher7 built4 ,several of these and other prehistoric boats have been found buried in peat-moss and in mounds in ,germany1 ,denmark1 and ,scandinavia1 and have been described by various writers4 ,the motive power of all the early boats was found in human arms1 wielding paddles or oars4 ,it is said that the oldest forms of paddles of which we have any record among the ,egyptian or ,assyrian hieroglyphs show them to have been shaped somewhat like the arm and hand1 and that similar paddles were to be seen a few decades ago on the canals in ,holland4 ,this is natural1 because undoubtedly the first paddle ever used was the naked hand4 ,short paddles were soon found less powerful than long ones2 but in order to work the latter it was necessary to brace them against something in the middle4 ,notches were therefore cut in the edge of the boat1 or thole-pins were inserted1 the paddle became an oar1 and by and by boatmen learned the art of feathering1 and so forth4 ,steering could be done of old1 as now1 with a turn of the rearmost paddle in a canoe1 and as canoes enlarged1 the steering-paddle was lengthened4 ,as the sterns of the ancient boats were usually either sharp1 like the prows1 or else built up into an ornamental height1 the most convenient place for the steering-oar was over the right side1 where it was balanced in a loop of cable1 or otherwise1 as close to the after end of the boat as practicable1 and then a cross-piece extended inboard from the handle1 enabling the steersman to move it more easily by giving him the benefit of leverage4 ,such was the arrangement of steering-gear in all the ancient ,mediterranean boats1 and it is to a similar arrangement in the sea-going craft of our northern ancestors that we owe our words stern and starboard1 which originally meant 8steering-place0 and 8steering-side40 ,the modern rudder is substantially the same oar1 set upright1 tiller and all1 and hinged to the stern-post2 in fact1 the word has descended from the old ,teutonic name for 8oar10 and all gradations between steering-oar and true rudder may still be found4 ,though some romantic stories are told by the old mythologists as to its origin1 the idea of rigging was as natural and practical in its development as that of hull or steering-gear4 ,that a strong breeze moves a canoe1 and that1 if a man in a canoe holds his robe outstretched or a thick bush upright1 the force will send him along without the labor of paddling1 and lengthwise rather than sidewise1 because that is the direction of least resistance1 were facts quickly and gratefully seized upon by the earliest boatmen4 ,to have a skin ready for the purpose1 and to set up a pole and ropes to hold it in position1 were easy matters2 yet in this simple arrangement you have the first sail4 ,but skins were too heavy and valuable for such a purpose1 except in such limited circumstances as those of the ,arctic ,eskimos4 ,persons who spent much time on the water1 therefore1 like the most ancient ,egyptians and the islanders of the ,chinese and ,south seas1 soon devised a way of weaving rushes or splints of bamboo into broad mats1 and thus were able1 on account of their lightness1 to carry much larger and more effective sails1 which were kept outstretched by one or more cross-poles or spars1 and could be taken down quickly4 ,many such sails are in use to this day not only among ,asiatic and ,african boatmen1 but on the northwest coast of ,canada4 ,a fine example hangs above my desk as ,i write4 ,with the discovery of how to make cloth and cordage of woolen1 silken1 hempen1 and cotton fibers 7and in ,egypt of papyrus71 came a still better material for ropes and sails1 since cloth was so much lighter that a far greater extent of it could be spread than before2 its flexibility enabled it to be handled1 changed1 and rolled up snugly1 and its cheapness encouraged its use and the practice of navigation generally4 ,we read of silken sails on the royal barges of medieval times1 but they could hardly have exceeded in strength or elegance those of the fine ,phenician ships that carried the commerce of the world twenty-five centuries ago4 8,fine linen with broidered work from ,egypt was that which thou spreadest forth to be thy sail10 exclaims the sacred chronicler 7,ezekiel xxvii4 #g74 ,hempen cloth1 indeed1 was preferred for sails until the present century1 as is expressed in our word canvas1 which is derived from the ,latin name of flax2 but now cotton has mainly superseded it4 ,anciently the sails were often colored1 purple or vermilion being the badge of a monarch or an admiral4 ,black denoted mourning4 8,in some cases the topsail seems to have been colored1 while the sail below was plain2 and frequently a patchwork of colors was produced by using different stuffs40 ,various inscriptions and devices were also woven or painted on the sails1 sometimes in gold4 ,the ,venetians and ,greeks do the same to this day1 adding a gaudy feature to the lovely ,levantine sea-scenery2 and the sails of the ,north ,sea fishermen are turned to a rich red and yellow by the tanning mixture in which they soak their canvas4 ,illustration3 ,,reefing ,a ,,topsail ,,in ,a ,,storm4 ,as for the shape1 all rigs seem reducible to two types--the lateen and the square4 ,the former is characteristic of the eastern half of the world1 the latter of the western half1 including primitive ,america1 where1 so far as ,i know1 only plain1 rectangular sails were ever made by the ,indians4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,hong-,,kong 8,,pull-,,away0 ,,boat4 ,showing method of hoisting and reefing matting sails4 ,there must be some good reason for a broad division like this1 and it is found in the different conditions which eastern and western seamen had to meet4 ,the lateen seems to have originated in the ,indian ,ocean1 is seen wherever ,arabs are1 and has been taken eastward by the ,malays as far into the ,south ,sea ,islands as their influence extended4 ,it is a huge1 triangular canvas extended at a steep angle by a long1 flexible yard balanced across the mast to which it is loosely hung1 and controlled by a sheet attached to the free corner4 ,it is thus very lofty1 and therefore suitable to a region of steady and usually light winds4 ,this is the characteristic rig of the ,arab dhow--a model that has come down from remote antiquity and is capable of excellent service on the northern and eastern coasts of ,africa1 where it prevails4 ,it was probably in a small vessel of this kind that the ,apostle ,paul suffered shipwreck2 and an outgrowth and perfection of it is the dahabiyeh of the ,nile1 now become famous as a tourists' pleasure-boat1 whose immensely lofty sail is precisely adapted to catch every faint breath that comes across the river from the deserts4 ,such sails are spread like the great pointed wings of an albatross over the narrow decks of the ,malayan 8flying proas0 and other swift ,south ,sea craft1 and urge upon their fleet errands the xebecs1 saics1 feluccas1 and other light craft of the ,levant and ,barbary coasts1 identified with former piracy and modern smuggling1 as well as with fishing and freighting4 ,some of these boats have two or three masts1 the xebec and felucca being notable because of the curious forward rake of the foremast2 and in that extremely picturesque ,portuguese fishing-boat called the muleta there are1 in addition to the big lateen1 a huge free second sail ballooning out to leeward from the tip of the yard1 and a host of little flying jibs forward1 which somebody has well likened to a flock of birds hovering about the prow4 ,good examples of lateen-rigged boats may be seen in ,louisiana1 built and manned by the ,greek1 ,maltese1 and ,sicilian fishermen4 ,the difficulty of handling in rough or squally weather this long yard and expansive canvas makes it unsuitable for such weather as prevails in the western ,mediterranean or on the ,atlantic2 and to meet these stormy and frequently changing conditions1 and obtain a rig with which they could beat to windward1 the earliest rough-water seamen devised square sails4 ,what the rig of the ancient far-voyaging ,phenician ships was we have no means of knowing1 but the indications are that they carried lug sails1 which appear to be the simplest and earliest of the 8square0 forms2 that is1 sails suspended from short cross-yards1 and controlled by ropes 7sheets7 attached to their lower corners4 ,such at least were the sails of the ,roman and ,greek merchant and war vessels of the classical era1 and they persist to-day in the local fishing-smacks of the stormy ,adriatic4 ,the true home of the square-sailed craft1 however1 was northern ,europe1 where the ,norwegian1 ,dutch1 and ,norman coasters and fishermen of to-day probably represent fairly well the rigs of the bold viking boats of twelve or fifteen centuries ago4 ,of the slow development of ship-building during the middle ages we have little information1 but in the fourteenth century we begin to hear of a revival in the art1 as1 indeed1 was needful when the long voyages were to be undertaken which the discovery of the mariner's compass had then rendered possible4 ,in this revival the ,venetians and ,genoese took the lead1 but the ,english were not far behind4 ,there was a large variety of vessels in that day1 rude though they were1 and called by names we should hardly recognize4 ,though the hulls of these vessels were large and tight1 their shape was poorly adapted for speed or for safety in bad weather4 ,their decks were built up into immensely high structures at the stern and bows1 after the old galley model1 and to form forts for soldiers4 ,our word 8forecastle0 reminds us of this old usage4 ,their masts were single sticks1--not divided into topmasts1--and hence1 necessarily1 were thick and heavy2 and they bore upon their summits large 8top-castles0 where marines stood in battle to shoot down upon the enemy's decks4 ,this weight above1 with the height of surface exposed to the wind and the clumsy rigging1 made it impossible for them to sail safely except with a fair and gentle wind 7they never attempted it otherwise71 and they were required to carry an enormous quantity of ballast4 ,there was so little room for anything except armament1 sleeping-berths1 and a cooking-room in the war-ships that every war fleet had to take with it small vessels carrying provisions2 and the case was little better in respect to merchant vessels4 ,the ships in which ,vasco da ,gama1 ,columbus1 the ,cabots1 and other explorers did their marvelous work were no better than this4 ,strangely inefficient they seem to us1 and we wonder that some of the simplest contrivances in rigging were not adopted centuries before they came into use until we remember that it was not for long1 speedy voyages that vessels were intended previous to the sixteenth century 7with certain exceptions in northern seas71 but simply as a means of carrying slowly from one coast-port to another a great number of men or huge cargoes4 ,however1 as the known world widened and trade grew1 inventions by private ship-owners continually improved the rigging1 though it would be hard to find a class of men slower to change old ways for new than the seamen4 ,columbus's 8caravel0 had four short masts1 the forward one having a square lug-sail and the three after masts lateens4 ,it was very gradually1 indeed1 that lateens were given up1 and most curious combinations of sails were to be seen in this transition period of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries4 ,the old-fashioned ,mediterranean barca1 for example1 had as foremast the forward-raking 8trinchetto0 of the felucca1 with a huge lateen1 while the mainmast bore three square sails and the mizzen two lugs2 and in addition to this two banks of oars were provided6 ,in fact1 it was not until #ahjj that ,english frigates substituted a spanker for the lateen-rigged mizzen4 ,another curiosity of rigging possessed by these solidly built1 beautifully carved vessels 7no such exterior decoration has been seen since as adorned the ships of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries7 was the quaint little spritsail-topmast4 ,by this time the single heavy pole-mast had been superseded by the three built-up masts and topmasts1 braced by stays1 made accessible by rope ladders 7shrouds71 and carrying several tiers of topsails instead of only one4 ,a bowsprit had been added1 also1 and this became almost a fourth mast1 so loaded were it and its stays with various small sails4 ,its outer end bore this miniature spritsail-mast1 with topmast1 shrouds1 and tiny sails all complete1 surmounted by a pole-head1 or jack-staff1 upon which was hoisted the flag since known as the jack1 and always now carried at the prow of any national boat or ship1 even such as the shapeless monitors4 ,but gradually1 out of the experience of long voyages1 the competition of merchants1 and as an effect of improved gunnery and consequent changes in naval tactics1 the lofty deck-structures1 great tops1 needless outworks1 and odd sails1 like this spritsail1 were got rid of1 and vessels were trimmed down and equalized until they became1 as now1 8ship-shape1 ,bristol-fashion40 ,the rigging of modern sailing-vessels is divided into 8standing0 and 8running02 the former includes the masts1 their stays1 now generally made of wire1 and such other rope-work as is not adjustable4 ,the sails1 also1 may be assigned to two classes3 first1 those attached to a mast1 with or without boom and gaff1 or to a stay1 which are called fore-and-aft sails because they may be ranged lengthwise of the ship2 and1 second1 those suspended by their upper and lower edges to or between spars or 8yards0 swung across the mast1 and known as 8square0 sails1 the lowermost of which are really lugs4 ,all the variations of shape seen in ,america1 except the rare and local lateens1 can be counted in one or the other of these classes4 ,the styles of rig visible in ,american waters are not many1 and are easily learned4 ,let us begin with the simplest--that having one mast4 ,illustration3 ,,ancient ,,caravels4 ,copied from old manuscripts and tapestries4 ,the cat-boat 7i4 e41 cat-rigged boat7 is one having a simple pole-mast stepped very near the bow1 and a fore-and-aft sail laced to a gaff and boom and managed by a sheet4 ,this is the rig of the ordinary ,american sail-boat1 which is noted for its ability in pointing up into the wind4 ,in ,england it is known as a una-boat4 ,sometimes the peak of the sail is sustained by a little loose spar called a 8sprit10 instead of a gaff4 ,in the chapter on ,yachting will be found further illustrations of these small rigs4 ,a sloop has one mast 7with topmast7 set well back from the stem1 and a bowsprit4 ,the sloop-rig consists of a fore-and-aft mainsail1 spread by means of a boom and gaff1 a gaff-topsail1 a forestaysail1 and one or more jibs4 ,a cutter is now substantially the same thing1 though formerly somewhat distinguished4 ,both are derived1 probably1 from the northern lugger1 and old-time pictures show queer intermediate forms1 often having a square topsail instead of a gaff4 ,thus the earlier of the ,hudson ,river sloops1 which were not only the freight-carriers but the packet-boats between ,new ,york and ,albany from the time the ,dutch introduced them until steamboats took their place1 had the top of the mainsail supported1 lug-fashion1 by a short yard1 and carried above that a square topsail2 but this rig was steadily modified toward the modern type to make it faster and safer in the sudden squalls that beset this hill-girt river4 ,of two-masted rigs1 the oldest is the brig1 which has square sails on both masts1 just like the main and mizzen masts of a full-rigged ship4 ,then there is the brigantine1 a slight modification of the brig1 and the hermaphrodite brig1 or brig-schooner1 with fore-and-aft sails on the after mast4 ,this kind of vessel has been greatly modified 7one of its most extraordinary forms was the ketch71 is less common now than formerly1 and took its name1 which is derived from the same source as 8brigand10 from the fact that it was the most common rig of the pirates of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries4 ,its place was largely taken for small vessels by a purely ,american invention1 and one of the greatest of ,yankee notions--the schooner4 ,the schooner was originally small1 and had two masts2 but now is often built of great size1 with as many as five or six masts1 each of which has a fore-and-aft rig--that is1 a sloop's mainsail and gaff-topsail on every mast1 with forestaysail and several jibs in front1 and staysails between4 ,sometimes a square sail is placed on the foretopmast1 which makes the vessel a topsail schooner4 ,the first one was built by a ,gloucester sea-captain about #ahag1 and proved so satisfactory that all the fishing-fleet were soon rigged in that way1 whence the idea has spread to all parts of the world4 ,until recently1 however1 vessels large enough to have three masts were always 8square-rigged10 as barks1 barkentines1 or ships2 for1 although we have come to speak of any big vessel as a 8ship10 yet in proper nautical language a ship is a vessel rigged in a particular way1 and it is nothing else4 ,in fact1 in olden times they were sometimes very small--too small to be economical1 as we now know4 ,the 8,naval ,chronicle0 for #ahjg contained an account of a full-rigged ship of only thirty-six tons' burden1 which for one hundred and thirty years previous to that date had been cruising about the ,english coast1 and may be doing so yet1 for aught ,i know4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,fiji ,,island ,,out-,,rigged ,,canoe1 ,,approaching ,a ,,full-,,rigged ,,ship ,,hove-,,to4 ,masts have their proper names3 the tallest is in the middle of the vessel1 and is called the mainmast2 the next tallest stands in front of it1 and is the foremast2 and the third is in the stern1 and is named mizzenmast1 because it carries the mizzen 7sail74 ,all the rigging1 except that belonging to the bowsprit1 is repeated for each mast1 and each piece is named with reference to the mast or part of the mast or appropriate sail to which it belongs3 as1 for example1 main shrouds1 fore shrouds1 mizzen shrouds1 mizzen-royal1 maintopsail yard1 foretopmast studdingsail downhaul1 and so on4 ,in a proper full-rigged ship all the sails upon the masts1 except the spanker1 are square1 and are named from the sections of the mast opposite which they hang4 ,counting from the deck to the truck1 or tiptop of the mast1 they are as follows3 on the mainmast1 mainsail or maincourse1 maintopsail1 maintopgallant-sail1 mainroyal1 and skysail2 on the foremast1 foresail or forecourse1 foretopsail1 foretopgallant1 foreroyal1 and skysail2 on the mizzenmast1 cross-jack 7and behind it the spanker1 mizzen1 or driver71 mizzentopsail1 mizzentopgallant1 mizzen-royal1 and skysail4 ,the bowsprit sails are the forestaysail1 foretopmast staysail1 jib1 flying jib1 and outer jib1 or jibstaysail4 ,each of the stays running diagonally from mast to mast bears a triangular sail known by the name of the particular stay on which it hangs1 as maintopmast staysail1 and so on--nine in all4 ,in addition to all this1 a little sail is sometimes set above the skysail1 and another under the bowsprit1 while out beyond the ends of the yards are often extended light additional spars carrying studdingsails4 ,in favorable weather1 when the captain wishes to 8crowd all on10 as sometimes can be done for days and weeks together before the trades1 almost forty sails may be spread1 and the ship moves grandly along under a swaying cloud of canvas that reaches far beyond her rails on each side1 and towers more than one hundred feet into the steady air4 ,but the cost of building1 maintaining1 and handling these grand fabrics is so great that they are steadily diminishing in numbers1 and perhaps are destined before long to disappear altogether from the seas to which they have lent so much picturesqueness and romance4 ,the supremacy of the schooner seems likely to prove complete4 ,unwilling to concede everything at once1 many vessels are now rigged with square sails on the foremast and mainmast and fore-and-aft sails on the mizzen 7a bark71 or square sails on the foremast only1 and the others schooner-rigged 7a barkentine72 but even these are disappearing in favor of the three-masted or four-masted schooner4 ,this is due to the fact that the schooner rig will sail closer to the wind and gives as much force in proportion as the ship style1 while it is far less expensive to build1 and more quickly and easily managed1 not requiring nearly as many men1 and therefore being cheaper to run as well as to set up4 ,it is for these reasons that ,i have called it one of the greatest of ,yankee notions4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,muleta1 ,,or ,,portuguese ,,lateen-,,rigged ,,fishing-,,boat4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,early ,,voyages ,,and ,,explorations ,,part ,i--,,previous ,,to ,,the ,,discovery ,,of ,,america ,wherever it may have been that man first appeared upon the earth1 the period must certainly have been incalculably long ago1 for he had time to spread to all parts of the habitable globe long before any sort of record begins4 ,little1 if any1 part of the world has yet been found where the evidences of man's residence in the long-forgotten past do not exist4 ,so long ago that all tradition of it is forgotten1 and only the imperishable stone implements they used remain as traces of their presence1 mankind had reached and settled the farthest northern and eastern coasts of ,europe and ,asia1 and the southern extremities of ,africa and ,india4 ,these might have been reached by land2 but similar traces exist in many islands which1 so far as we can see1 could never have been connected with each other or with any continent by lands now submerged 7as perhaps has been the case in some other islands7 since man originated4 ,such places1 then1 could have been reached and colonized only by means of boats1 and that at an exceedingly remote time4 ,some hint of what these prehistoric navigators might have been able to do may be gathered from the performances that we know of in the ,south ,sea1 where almost every island and coral atoll that could support a colony has apparently been inhabited1 since long before even tradition begins1 although some of them1 like the ,hawaiian group1 are separated from all others by hundreds of miles of open sea4 ,it is exceedingly interesting and suggestive to read in a work like ,professor ,friedrich ,ratzel's 8,history of ,mankind10 of the dispersion of population over the islands of the ,south ,pacific ,ocean1 where a mixed population of black and yellow races possessed themselves of the whole of ,oceanica long before white men had even heard of that part of the world4 ,this astounding fact gains in significance when we remember that wide tracts of very deep ocean divide these islands1 many of which are so small that they were found by exploring navigators only with difficulty4 ,cook and ,beechey and other early voyagers note finding upon certain islands people who had come thither in their own boats over distances of six or eight hundred miles2 and there are many instances of castaways surviving voyages of one thousand or fifteen hundred miles1 even against the trade-winds4 ,but these involuntary voyages were no longer than many others undertaken for war or trade1 or because of famine or a mere love of wandering4 ,over-population of the limited spaces of most islands and groups led to the colonization of others2 and it must often have been necessary to go far away to seek unoccupied or thinly peopled refuges4 ,this could not have been done had men not been good shipwrights1 not only1 but careful students of the heavens by whose sun and moon and stars they steered1 aiding themselves with charts made of sticks4 ,the remotest groups1 like the ,sandwich ,islands and ,easter ,island1 were found and settled too long ago even for tradition to retain more than a fabulous story about it4 8,these ,vikings of the ,pacific10 says ,ratzel1 8continued to discover even small and remote islets4 ,in the whole of the ,pacific there is not one island of any size of which it was left to ,europeans to demonstrate the habitability40 ,it has even been argued that the continent of ,america was peopled by ,pacific ,islanders1 who made their way to it from ,polynesia2 but of this there is no direct evidence1 and it seems unlikely1 because the prevailing winds and currents flow from ,south ,america1 rather than toward it1 in this part of the ,pacific4 ,but leaving these dim old times when barbarous men voyaged far and wide over seas1 and races mingled that were born on opposite sides of wide waters1 let us note what traveling our civilized ancestors did4 ,the evidences of ruined walls1 graves1 carvings1 and stone tools show that that earliest of civilized races of which we now have any knowledge--the ,hittites--were acquainted not only with the coasts of the ,mediterranean ,sea1 but had boldly rounded the headlands of ,spain1 skirted the stormy ,bay of ,biscay1 and settled colonies in ,england and ,france4 ,who were these ,hittites8 ,they were an ,asiatic people1 dwelling in the ,taurus ,mountains of the eastern part of ,asia ,minor1 who increased into the most powerful nation of that part of the world about two thousand years before ,christ1 and carried on wars with the ,egyptians1 among others1 until at last they were overcome by the rise of the empire of ,assyria1 north of them1 about eleven hundred years before ,christ4 ,doubtless they explored the ,african coast somewhat south of the ,red ,sea1 and very likely knew the ,persian ,gulf and the route to ,india4 ,my own opinion is that we are likely to give the people of antiquity too little credit rather than too much in the direction of a knowledge of geography4 ,meanwhile there was rising along the ,mediterranean from ,palestine northward the most able commercial race of antiquity1 who styled themselves ,canaanites1 as in the ,bible1 but whom the ,greeks called ,phenicians1 the name by which we know them best4 ,their capitals were the cities ,tyre and ,sidon1 the ruins of which are still to be seen on the ,syrian coast a little way south of ,beirut1 and the wealth and commercial power of which will give us some interesting paragraphs for a future chapter4 ,suffice it here to say that their rulers were foremost among the loosely organized 8nations0 between the ,nile and the ,euphrates1 and that they maintained their power through a long period1 not only by their wealth and enterprise as traders1 but mainly through their skill and energy as navigators4 ,as we shall see when we come to consider their commerce in ,chapter ,,vii1 they excelled in the building of ships1 in an understanding of how to steer long courses by the heavenly bodies1 and in sea knowledge generally4 ,it is well known that the ,phenicians traded in their ships down the west coast of ,africa to and beyond the ,canary ,islands1 which they also visited2 made repeated voyages to the ,french coast and the ,british ,islands2 and may very likely have gone around into the ,baltic1 for they knew of its amber1 though this might have been obtained by the overland trade routes4 ,it is believed that they ascertained that ,africa was1 in fact1 a huge island2 for it was to prove this supposition that ,pharaoh ,necho 7or ,naku or ,neku7 ,,ii1 an enlightened ,egyptian monarch who reigned in the sixth century before ,christ1 hired a crew of ,phenician seamen to man an expedition whose purpose it was to circumnavigate ,africa4 ,these men started down the ,red ,sea in #faa ,b4 ,c41 and in #fje ,b4 ,c4 came sailing home through the ,strait of ,gibraltar1 to the delight of their friends and confusion of a kingdom full of ,i-told-you-sos4#a ,just twenty centuries elapsed before any one else repeated that feat1 so far as ,i know21 and no wonder it was forgotten4 ,this same ,necho ,,ii did even more for maritime commerce1 for he attempted to complete the canal1 begun long before his time1 connecting the ,mediterranean with the ,red ,sea1 and seems to have made a passage along which barges and small boats might be towed1 which remained open for many centuries1 and in part followed the line now covered by the ,suez ,canal4 ,earlier than that ,darius1 the ,persian conqueror of ,egypt1 had dug a navigable canal from the ,nile to the ,red ,sea2 and this shows that there must have been large traffic in both seas at that time to justify such tasks4 ,illustration3 ,,an ,,early ,,roman ,,bireme4 ,by this time the power and prosperity of ,tyre and ,sidon had declined1 and ,carthage1 originally a colonial city1 had become the most important center of ,phenician influence2 and from this port there sailed a century later 7perhaps about #ejj ,b4 ,c47 an exploring expedition under a ,carthaginian king named ,hanno1 intended to study and establish trade with the ,west ,african coast4 ,it was a large and powerful fleet1 said to number sixty galleys2 and that women were taken as well as men shows that it was intended to form settlements at suitable points1 as1 indeed1 was done4 ,the account of it has been preserved in a short writing called the 8,periplus10 by an ancient but unknown ,greek2 and this inscription is regarded by most scholars as entirely authentic1 since all its details conform to modern knowledge1 even though it is impossible to identify surely the various points mentioned4 ,it tells us that the terminus of ,hanno's exploration was an island beyond a gulf called ,noti ,cornu1 in which he found a company of hairy women1 whom the interpreters called gorillas4 ,it was in memory of this that the manlike apes which a few years ago were discovered on the west coast of ,africa received the same name2 but they are not known anywhere north of the ,kamerun ,mountains1 while the farthest point any critic is willing to believe reached by ,hanno is the ,bight of ,benin1 some distance north of the ,kameruns4 ,it is easy to believe that the inquiring ,carthaginians might have heard of these apes1--or perhaps of chimpanzees1 now found as far north as the ,gambia ,river1--and reported actually seeing them1 in order to add glory to their name4 ,at any rate1 this expedition increased largely the ancient knowledge of the sea in that direction2 and navigators now knew the shores of the ,atlantic from the ,gulf of ,guinea to the ,north ,sea2 but there the knowledge of the world seems to have rested for more than a dozen centuries1 principally1 no doubt1 because there seemed nothing beyond1 either north or south1 to invite the merchants who then1 as ever since1 have been the principal promoters of discovery4 ,it is only within the past century that voyages of discovery have been undertaken purely for the sake of the increase of knowledge4 ,previous to that the object was always either military conquest or the extension of trade4 ,illustration3 ,,ship ,,of ,,ptolemy ,,philopator4 7,about #bdj ,b4 ,c4 ,banks of oars and lug-sails47 ,attention was now turned to the eastern seas1 overland routes to ,india and even to ,china having become well known both to conquering armies and to mercantile caravans4 ,the coasts of ,abyssinia1 of ,arabia1 of the ,persian ,gulf1 and of western ,india were settled by a semi-civilized people for a thousand1 perhaps two thousand1 years before the ,christian era2 but they were broken into many independent tribes2 and their ships1 if they had any1 only crept from one harbor to another near by1 and neither knew nor cared what lay beyond the farther headlands4 ,as time went on1 however1 and strong kingdoms arose in ,egypt1 ,arabia1 ,syria1 and ,persia1 consolidating these scattered tribes into nations1 it became necessary to learn the sea-routes between more distant ports4 ,thus it came about that while the ,pharaohs still flourished1 ,arabic commerce extended regularly along the coast of ,abyssinia1 and doubtless as far southward as ,zanzibar1 while the ,malays had probably already reached and colonized ,madagascar4 ,there seems no reason to doubt that those remarkable ruins in stone which the late ,mr4 ,thomas ,bent has studied at and near ,zimbabwe1 in ,mashonaland1 ,east ,africa1 are the work of ,arabian gold-miners1 made perhaps a thousand or more years ago2 and it is pretty certain that ,arabic seamen even at that date regularly traded as far as the island of ,madagascar4 ,the ,persian ,gulf has been another nursery of a seafaring people since long before the record of history begins2 yet so slow were they to learn of anything outside their capes1 that it was accounted a wonderful thing when1 in the winter of #cbe-d ,b4 ,c41 ,nearchus1 the admiral of the fleet of ,alexander the ,great1 voyaged from the mouth of the ,indus to the head of the ,persian ,gulf4 ,soon afterward1 however1 under the house of the ,ptolemies1 rulers of ,egypt1 fleets sailed regularly between ,red ,sea ports and ,india and ,ceylon4 ,but now for many long centuries the boundaries of the known world were not to be much enlarged 7although methods of navigation were improved and commerce continued within the limits of ,roman and ,arabic dominion71 for we know of the discovery of no new coasts until we begin to hear of the doings of an independent and far northern people1 scarcely known to the civilized world1 and certainly not regarded as a part of it4 ,on the bleak shores of the ,north ,sea1 where the fiords and creek-mouths of ,scandinavia gave shelter not only from foreign enemies1 but from each other1 there had grown up a seafaring race of men1 of ,gothic ancestry1 who had settled on the coasts of what are now ,norway1 ,sweden1 and ,denmark4 ,they styled themselves ,norsemen1 or men of the ,north1 and did not object to the title ,vikings1 or ,fiord-men2 but their enemies called them pirates1 and with much reason1 for they ravaged and ruled all the coasts both north and south of the ,baltic1 voyaging northward to the 8land of the midnight sun10 colonizing northern ,france in the tenth century1 and taking practical possession of all they pleased of the ,british ,isles--,ireland and northern ,scotland in particular4 ,here these ,norsemen met equally fierce foes1 or found congenial partners1 as the case might be1 in the ,scottish and ,irish seamen of that day1 who were themselves bold freebooters and wide voyagers2 and when1 in the middle of the ninth century1 the ,northmen had discovered1 as they supposed1 the ,faroe ,islands and ,iceland1 a little exploration soon showed them that the ,irish culdees1 or priests of the ,christian church planted in ,ireland by ,st4 ,patrick1 had been there before them--first in #gbe1 according to the ,irish chronicles of ,dicuilus1 who seems worthy of credence4 ,indeed1 it is believed by some antiquarians that these ,irish sea-wanderers had colonized ,iceland at the same early age2 had reached ,newfoundland1 and regularly resorted to its banks for fishing and whaling 7five hundred years before ,cabot72 and were even acquainted with the coast of the ,north ,american continent1 where traditions assert that their colonies were planted on what are now the shores of ,virginia and the ,carolinas1 which they called ,new ,ireland4 ,these are entertaining old stories1 and may have some truth in them1 for it seems certain that the ,irish reached ,iceland1 at least1 in the eighth century4 ,icelandic history1 however1 begins with the visits of ,norsemen in #hej1 followed by others1 who1 a few years later1 took colonies there and set up an island population which before a century had elapsed numbered more than fifty thousand people4 ,they had a republican form of government1 and were quite independent of the ,king of ,norway 7,harold the ,fair-haired1 great-great-grandfather of ,william the ,conqueror71 from whom the earlier colonists had fled because of his oppression2 but they kept up acquaintance with the mother-country1 and merchants and adventurers were continually voyaging between ,iceland and all the islands and coasts of that region1 using stanch vessels sometimes one hundred feet in length1 and eminently seaworthy2 yet their only guides were the stars and such signs as seafaring men read in the water and weather about them4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,war ,,expedition ,,of ,,the ,,vikings4 ,it continually happened1 however1 that they were driven far out of their courses1 in such a region of gales1 currents1 and fogs as is the ,north ,atlantic4 ,in one such adventure1 in the year #hgf1 a sea-captain named ,gunnbjrn ,ulfkragesson was driven far to the west of ,iceland1 and when he got back to port told his friends that he had seen land4 ,probably he also told them ,showing build1 steering-oar1 and rig 7colored lug-sail71 of ,scandinavian exploring ships in the ,north ,atlantic4 that so far as he could see there was nothing but icy mountains1 of which they already had enough1 for no one seems to have investigated the matter further until more than a century later1 when a turbulent viking of the rebellious house of ,erik1 called ,erik the ,red1 was banished from ,norway and fled to ,iceland with his followers4 ,he was soon convicted there also of manslaughter in a neighborhood quarrel1 and again condemned to banishment4 ,iceland wanted to get rid of him and his brawlers1 and ,europe would not let him return4 ,whither should he go8 ,then his thoughts turned toward the strange land in the west that tradition said ,gunnbjrn had sighted4 ,it is believed by the most careful students that ,gunnbjrn's 8rocks0 were volcanic islets1 which have now disappeared1 and are represented only by certain shoals2 but it would not be incredible that he had caught a glimpse of the ,greenland coast itself4 ,at any rate1 ,erik had little hesitation in starting out to rediscover them4 ,why should he8 ,those rough-riders of the sea were used to voyages of equal length4 ,it is about #bjj miles from the ,norwegian coast at ,bergen to the ,shetland ,islands2 #bjj miles from the ,shetlands1 or #bbe from the ,hebrides1 to the ,faroes2 and #bge miles thence to the nearest coast of ,iceland1--reckoning all in straight lines1 shorter than any ship could actually follow4 ,if his viking boat and viking crew could span those stretches of sea unguided1 what hindered his crossing the little further space whose tempests had no terrors for this wild sea-king8 ,in that unpossessed land1 could he find it1 he might be free to riot at his will 7but one cannot help thinking there was more in the man than that672 and if he could open to his people a new country1 what wealth and power might not come with it to him1 for the humbling of his rivals at the court of ,norway4 ,so ,red ,erik sailed away to the west in #ihd1 and two years later returned to ,iceland and reported that he had met first a far-extending icy coast1 along whose front he had sailed southward until he could turn to the west and then northward1 thus rounding its narrow southern extremity 7,cape ,farewell72 and there he had found a habitable region1 which he called ,greenland1 in order1 as he said1 to attract settlers by a pleasant name4 ,thus this wicked old ,norseman was the first of ,american 8real-estate boomers40 ,attracted by his story1 a band of adventurers went back with him in #ihf1 and established a settlement near the site of the present ,danish town ,julianshaab1 just inside the cape1 on an inlet that they named ,eriksfiord4 ,among these emigrants was one named ,herjulf1 whose son ,bjarne#b was a merchant captain who owned his own ship1 and was then absent in ,norway4 ,returning to ,iceland shortly after ,erik's departure1 he concluded at once to follow his father1 and1 with a willing crew and still loaded ship1 set sail for the west4 ,but incessant bad weather drove them they knew not whither during many days4 ,at last the wind fell1 the sun shone out1 and they saw land2 but its appearance did not agree with the description of ,greenland1 and knowing they were too far south1 ,bjarne turned north1 and kept on1 occasionally sighting the coast1 until finally he reached ,eriksfiord in safety4 ,no one knows what headlands he looked upon2 but if the ,icelandic versified chronicles called sagas may be believed1--and the wisest students of history put faith in them1--he was the first ,european to see ,america of whom we have definite knowledge4 ,several years passed by1 however1 before any one tried to profit by this accident and seek the lands that had been seen southward4 ,then ,leif1 the eldest son of old ,red ,erik1 resolved to do so4 ,he had talked with ,bjarne and his men until he knew all the details of their story1 and then he bought the same good old ship1 and enlisted a crew of thirty-five men4 ,this happened in ,norway1 where ,leif then was1 and it is said by some that the king aided and authorized the expedition4 ,at any rate1 after a public farewell they sailed away1 and seem to have gone straight across the ocean2 but whether they did this1 or sailed by way of ,iceland and ,greenland1 they easily found the unknown coasts ,bjarne had described1 and landed in ,helluland1 ,markland1 and ,vinland1 in the last of which they built huts and spent the winter of the year #ajjj4 ,the identification of these places has caused much discussion4 ,that 8,helluland0 was ,newfoundland and 8,markland0 ,nova ,scotia seems tolerably certain2 but historians are not agreed as to where that winter was spent in 8,vinland10 so called 7meaning 8,wineland07 because a ,german member of the crew gathered grapes there1 from which wine could be made4 ,when1 in #afjb1 ,gosnold discovered a fruitful island south of ,cape ,cod1 he named it ,martha's ,vineyard1 believing that he had found the place4 ,when ,leif reached ,greenland again1 the next spring1 every one was vastly interested in his discoveries1 and emigrants from ,greenland1 ,iceland1 and even from ,europe went out to colonize the new lands2 but the attempts1 though spasmodically continued for a long time1 seem never to have been really successful1 so that no undisputed trace of the presence of these sea-wanderers on the mainland of ,north ,america is known to exist4 ,that they knew the coast fairly well from ,disco ,island 7#gj ,n4 lat47 southward to ,virginia1 is generally believed2 but where ,leif ,erikson spent that first winter1 or where the ,vinland settlement of subsequent times was1 is thus far a matter of conjecture4 ,some students of the sagas place it in ,new ,york harbor1 others in ,narragansett or ,buzzard's bay1 near ,boston1 or in ,nova ,scotia4 ,formerly the general belief was that ,newport1 ,r4 ,i41 or the shore above there1 was surely the site2 but this was based1 first1 on the supposed ,european inscriptions on a rock in the ,somerset ,river1 at ,dighton1 just above ,fall ,river1 which were in reality only ,indian markings2 and1 second1 upon the 8old round tower0 at ,newport1 which few persons now believe was built prior to the coming of the ,english colonists with ,roger ,williams4 ,the late ,professor ,e4 ,h4 ,horsford believed that he had found the site of the principal ,norse settlement of the tenth century1 called ,norumbega1 at ,watertown1 on the ,charles ,river1 a few miles west of ,boston2 and he made an argument from old maps1 etc41 to support his assertion that the ancient river-walls1 etc41 there were really the remains of a town2 but historians generally do not attach any importance to ,professor ,horsford's theory4 ,perhaps we shall never know where this 8,vinland0 was that ,leif discovered1 and where the queenly ,gudrid dwelt and her son ,schnorr--the first white child in ,america--was born2 nor is it of much consequence that we should1 for the settlements were few and transitory4 ,that they existed1 however1 and that the shores of ,canada and ,new ,england were occasionally visited from the tenth to the fourteenth centuries by ,norsemen1 cannot be gainsaid4 ,that the ,greenlanders did not all migrate to the warmer1 well-timbered1 and fruitful region in the south was probably due to the fact that it was so remote from their kindred1 and so open to attack by the native red men1 whom they called skrellings4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,viking ,,galley4 ,over the long but slow history of these ,american settlements of the ,northmen we need not linger4 ,although ,vinland seems to have been abandoned within a few decades1 the ,greenland settlements were maintained4 ,a republican government was organized2 ,christianity was introduced1 and remains of their stone churches and ,augustinian monasteries have been identified4 ,by the end of the fifteenth century1 however1 these colonies had completely disappeared1 worn out in the hopeless struggle against climate and the savage ,eskimos1 but exterminated1 at last1 perhaps1 by the ,black ,death--for the great plague which almost depopulated ,europe in the fourteenth century seems to have reached even the desolate shores of ,greenland1 and to have consumed the last of these remote people1 causing them to be utterly forgotten4 ,a more definite account of pre-,columbian ,north ,america than that of the sagas and other traditions of the ,vinlanders1 and one accepted as true by ,mr4 ,major of the ,english ,hakluyt ,society and other competent geographical critics1 is that of the voyages and reports of the brothers ,nicol and ,antonio ,zeno4 ,these men belonged to a family distinguished in ,venice2 and toward the close of the fourteenth century they separately or together made many voyages in the ,north ,atlantic1 going far beyond any previous navigators of which they knew4 ,they wrote letters home containing an account of these1 but little publication was given to them1 and they were forgotten until the revival of interest in geography following the early discoveries of ,columbus4 ,the documents possessed by the ,zeno family were then made the basis of a pamphlet by a grand-nephew reciting what his ancestor had done1 long before the time of ,columbus4 ,the most interesting thing in it is an account of how1 about #acij1 ,nicol ,zeno fitted out a ship at the ,faroes1 went over to ,greenland and there learned of an island which was called ,estotiland1 and which we know as ,newfoundland4 ,not very far away to the southwest of it1 he says1 was the country of ,drogeo1 which fishermen whom he saw had visited4 ,they claimed to have 8discovered0 none of these places1 but spoke of them as formerly well known1 although then little frequented by ,europeans4 ,as to ,drogeo1--which he speaks of as if it were the mainland1--that was still occasionally resorted to for fishing2 and he relates the adventures of a white man who had been captured by the mainland savages a few years previously1 and adopted by them on account of his knowledge of how to fish with a net1 and to do other useful things4 ,such a course would be very characteristic of the aborigines of eastern ,north ,america1 as we have since learned to know2 and it is also natural that he should have been fought for by rival chiefs1 as ,zeno says happened to this man1 who1 by capture and exchange1 or of his own motion1 traveled about and saw much of the people of this 8country0 ,drogeo4 ,at any rate1 the information given by ,zeno tallies remarkably well with the truth about primitive ,north ,america and its inhabitants4 8,they have no kind of metal10 reported this wandering refugee1 who finally drifted back to the coast1 and was able to make his escape to a fishing-boat4 ,now the one really remarkable and distinctive fact about the ,north ,americans was just this1--that with a considerable advance in other directions1 they had never learned to fuse and forge or otherwise utilize iron or other metals1 save a little metallic copper and silver in the ,great ,lakes region4 ,but listen to the rest of his brief report3 ,they live by hunting1 and carry lances of wood sharpened at the point4 ,they have bows1 the strings of which are made of beasts' skins4 ,they are very fierce1 and have deadly fights amongst each other1 and eat one another's flesh as was true1 to a limited ceremonial extent1 after battles4 ,they have chieftains and certain laws among themselves1 but differing in the different tribes4 ,the farther you go southwestward1 however1 the more refinement you meet with1 because the climate is more temperate1 and1 accordingly1 there i4 e41 in ,mexico they have cities and temples dedicated to their idols1 in which they sacrifice men and afterwards eat them4 ,in those parts they have some knowledge of gold and silver4 ,now1 whether all this was the observation of a single rude sailor1 or1 as is more likely1 summarizes what ,zeno was able to learn from all sources at his command regarding the new western mainland and its people1 it is correct and forcible4 ,had young ,nicol the editor1 a century afterward1 tried to invent something of the kind1 he would surely have made his invention marvelous1 for that was an age of fable and bombast4 ,on the contrary1 this is a simple and accurate statement of what we now know were the facts4 ,nor did he have any means of knowing anything more of the case than his family archives revealed1 since he wrote and published this account of his uncle's voyages only a few years after the first return of ,columbus1 and before any writer had visited the northern ,american coasts1 or had learned the habits of the natives4 ,i can but believe1 therefore1 that the report was made in good faith1 and records simply what the ,zeni did and saw and heard2 and that these bold ,venetian navigators knew more about ,north ,america1 at least1 before the end of the fourteenth century than ,columbus had learned by the end of the fifteenth4 ,i have run ahead of my story1 but ,i wanted to show how little impression these northern investigations and occupation of a new continent had made upon the ,mediterranean 8world10 which seems rarely to have heard of them1 much less to have profited by the information1 for more than four hundred years1 in spite of the fact that there was constant communication between the ,normans and ,british1 at least1 and the ,mediterranean peoples4 ,let us now go back to those southern countries and see what they had been doing toward maritime exploration during these thousand years and more when the ,scandinavians were so busy in the north4 ,it was principally perfecting the knowledge of the world their fathers knew4 ,from the very first men had tried to make maps1 and succeeded fairly well for small spaces2 but to make a map of the whole world was a task that defied human knowledge for many centuries4 ,after ,aristotle's time all men of education understood that the world was a sphere2 and about #aej ,b4 ,c4 ,hipparchus1 borrowing an idea from the ,babylonians1 taught the ,greeks that the way to place their towns and mountains and rivers and the outlines of the coast correctly upon a model of the world1 was to determine their position by observations of the heavenly bodies4 ,thus the ideas of latitude and longitude originated4 ,he could not apply his method practically very far1 because there were few or no accurate astronomical observations away from a few cities in ,egypt and ,greece2 but two hundred and fifty years later ,ptolemy1 a learned mathematician of ,alexandria1 gathered all the facts obtainable1 and made an attempt which bore a rude resemblance to the truth and served as the best and almost the only account of the world for several hundred years4 ,ptolemy flourished about #aej ,a4 ,d4 ,his book describes ,asia as far east as the ,malayan peninsula1 ,africa south to ,zanzibar and the ,gulf of ,guinea1 and shows a knowledge of ,europe as far north as the ,shetland ,islands 7,ultima ,thule7 and ,denmark2 the original work seems to have contained no maps1 but these were added to it about #ejj ,a4 ,d4 by another mathematician named ,agathodmon4 ,it is called the ,almagest4 ,nothing of value was added to this during the long stagnant period of the world called the middle ages1 when the love of learning declined and men fell back into the old traditions1 even to the extent of being taught by their priests that it was a sin to believe that the world was round4 ,in those times the ,arabs of ,bagdad nourished knowledge more than any one else1 but even they did little for geography4 ,finally the people of ,europe began to wake up and look at things for themselves1 instead of tamely accepting whatever the ,pope of ,rome or somebody else told them1 and going and coming as he directed1 regardless of whether it was for their interest to do so or not4 ,one of the first and one of the most important influences of this revival in a desire for learning and the means for larger activity among men was the sudden extension of navigation2 and this could not have come about1 nor amounted to much1 had the mariner's compass not been invented4 ,illustration3 8,off1 thou ,norseland ,terror1 clouding ,hellas with the jealous wraith ,which1 the gods of old enshrouding1 ,froze their hearts1 the poet saith60 ,nothing is more obscure than the history of this instrument4 ,the ,chinese have certainly known1 from a remote antiquity1 that a magnetized needle1 permitted to move freely1 would turn north and south2 but they seem to have profited as little by it as by so many other useful things that1 long afterward1 in the hands of the more energetic men of the ,west1 contributed so largely to the progress of civilization4 ,they were accustomed to poise a sliver of magnetized steel upon a bit of cork and set it afloat in a bowl of water4 ,one end was marked1 but this1 with characteristic ,chinese perversity1 was the one pointing toward the south1 not toward the north1 as with us4 ,this rude and simple arrangement is still in use among the ,koreans--or was until recently4 ,with such a contrivance and little1 it any1 knowledge of the variation of the needle1 the ,chinese of a thousand years ago made longer voyages than they have done in more modern times1 trading not only with ,india1 but sailing regularly as early at least as the ninth century to the ,red ,sea and the ,persian ,gulf4 ,there is no direct evidence1 but it seems incontestable1 that it was from these eastern mariners that the ,arabs received the compass1 and gradually brought it into use in their home waters1 where it became well known to the crusaders and other sea-going travelers of the middle ages4 ,little reliance could be placed upon it1 however1 until the sixteenth century1 when the need for something trustworthy for long voyages made men turn their attention to the study and betterment of it4 ,toward the end of the fourteenth century1 as ,i have said1 ,europe was beginning to recover from the terrible visitations of the plague1 and to wake from its lethargy and to look abroad2 and various influences were at work to promote exploration by sea and land--and what a grand field for study there was6 ,at this time nearly all the commerce of ,europe1 mainly in ,italian hands1 was with ,india and ,china4 ,the overland route was long1 perilous1 and expensive1 and that across the ,arabian ,gulf hardly less so4 ,at best1 such traffic was slow and limited1 and the first need of the reviving world was the discovery of some straighter and quicker road to the ,east4 ,in this quest ,portugal came forward under the brilliant leadership of ,dom ,henrique 7,prince ,henry71 styled 8the ,navigator10 who was the younger son of ,king ,joo 7or ,john7 ,i1 and half an ,englishman1 since his mother was ,philippa of ,lancaster4 ,it was ,prince ,henry's ambition to extend geographical discovery and improve seamanship1 and he enlisted the help of the best navigators obtainable1 regardless of nationality4 ,in order to observe the heavens to better advantage1 and also to study the tides and other nautical phenomena1 he established an observatory on the bleak headland of ,cape ,sagres1 where he willingly spent a large portion of his time for the sake of science4 ,navigation was sorely in need of such help4 ,except that they had rude compasses1 of whose laws of variation1 etc41 they were ignorant1 the seamen of that day were little1 if any1 better equipped than were those who sailed the 8ships of ,tarshish0 a thousand years before that4 ,astronomers had supplied them with rough tables of the declination of the sun1 pole-star1 etc41 by which1 with the help of a cross-staff1--a simple instrument for ascertaining angles1--they might make a guess at the latitude4 ,longitude was found only by observations of eclipses of the moon1 and noting the difference between the time when it was due at home1 according to the almanac1 and the local time of its actual coming2 but at sea the 8observations0 were little better than guessing4 ,chart-making was an important branch of study at ,sagres4 ,so few and rare were sea-maps then that one was never seen in ,england until #adhi4 ,to the collection of information in this direction1 and the improvement of nautical methods1 ,prince ,henry and his aids applied themselves most diligently2 but he died before much had been accomplished4 ,nautical studies went on1 however1 under the next king1 ,john ,,ii1 for whom ,martin of ,bohemia1 the foremost astronomer of his time1 devised a form of the astrolabe for use on shipboard1 increasing accuracy in finding latitude4 ,it was with no better instruments than these 7and sand-glasses in place of chronometers7 as guides over chartless and unsounded seas that the way was found to ,india and to ,america1 and the globe was circumnavigated2 and that the same thing might be done again is shown by the fact that only last year 7#ahig7 a vessel1 which had barely escaped destruction in a storm and lost all her instruments in the mid-,pacific1 was brought safely into ,san ,francisco by observation of the stars and 8dead-reckoning0 alone4 ,but ,prince ,henry 7for ,i have run ahead of my story again7 was not content to study and teach on land alone4 ,he was fired with the ardor of discovery and conquest likely to augment ,portugal's wealth and influence in the ,east4 ,expedition after expedition was sent southward1 and in #adce ,henry's ships finally passed ,cape ,bojador4 ,great was the wonder and rejoicing thereat1 for it had always been taught by the monks that this cape was the end of the earth2 but it was not until #adfb that the ,cape ,verd ,islands and ,sierra ,leone were reached4 ,prince ,henry had been dead since #adfj1 but the influence of his wise and untiring enthusiasm and work lived on1 and inspired the king and people of ,portugal to renewed efforts at solving that riddle of ,africa that perhaps the ,egyptian sphinx was meant to typify4 ,by #adfi trade had been opened with the ,gold ,coast1 and a few years later the mouth of the ,congo was found4 ,these advances showed that there was nothing unnatural or fearful in the southern latitudes1 as sailors had been taught to believe from time immemorial1--a superstitious dread which the old chart-makers long sustained by their habit of filling the empty sea-spaces on their maps with fearsome and wondrous monsters1--and therefore1 in #adhf1 ,king ,john ,,ii sent ,bartholomew ,dias in two sail-boats--pinnaces of fifty tons each--with orders to go as far as he could2 and this bold captain1 passing the last known headland of the ,guinea coast1 sailed on and on1 tracing the ,west ,african coast1 and landing here and there to examine the swampy shores1 to get fresh water1 and to hoist the castellated banner of ,portugal in token of possession before the wondering eyes of naked negroes4 ,at length he was blown and buffeted for days and days in heavy storms1 and at their close found himself far to the eastward of his former longitude1 whereupon he fought his way on and sighted land which he rightly determined must be the southern extremity of ,africa4 ,this was in #adhg4 ,returning to ,lisbon toward ,christmas of that year1 he reported his experiences1 and dwelling especially upon the rough time he had had in the south1 proposed to style the point of the continent ,cape of all the ,storms2 but ,king ,john1 foreseeing great things to follow for his country1 said1 8,no2 we will call it the ,cape of ,good ,hope02 and so it remains to this day--but all the storms remain about it1 too6 ,illustration3 ,,portion ,,of ,a ,,fifteenth ,,century ,,sea-,,chart1 ,,by ,,toscanelli4 ,copied by permission of ,messrs4 ,houghton1 ,mifflin ,co41 from ,justin ,winsor's 8,narrative and ,critical ,history of ,america40 ,now for some years previous to this time the monarchs of western ,europe were much exercised over rumors of the existence somewhere in the ,orient of an all-powerful and generally marvelous potentate styled 7by them7 ,prester ,john1 and reputed to be a conqueror of ,asiatic1 or perhaps ,african1 infidels who later had become cut off from ,christendom4 ,the whole affair was a myth1 probably arising from an indistinct knowledge of ,abyssinia1 whose negus afterward borrowed the title2 but before this was realized popes and various 8,catholic majesties0 had sent embassies in search of ,prester ,john's court1 some of which incidentally gained valuable information4 ,among the latter was ,pedro ,covilho1 an emissary of ,portugal1 who1 having failed to find ,prester ,john in western ,india or ,persia1 made his way back to ,egypt and ,abyssinia1 whence he sent home in #adhf or #adhg a report of progress that told ,john ,,ii some surprising news of the advancement of the ,arabs of that part of the world in the sciences1 and especially in those belonging to geography and navigation4 ,covilho's messenger was a ,portuguese ,jew1 ,rabbi ,joseph of ,lamego1 who carried voluminous letters1 one of which showed that ,arabic mariners were then familiar with the whole length of the east coast of ,africa1 including ,madagascar1 and were perfectly well aware where it terminated at the south1 and that there was no obstacle to passing around to the western side of the continent2 and just at this interesting juncture ,dias came sailing back in his pinnace to say that it was all true1 for he had seen it4 ,thus the sea-road was open to ,india and ,cathay1 and ,portugal was eager to take advantage of it4 ,she was then one of the leading powers of ,europe1 and the foremost one in colonial and commercial enterprise1 striving to wrest from ,genoa and ,venice the supremacy in trade that they had so long enjoyed4 ,nevertheless almost ten years elapsed before the next expedition was sent southward to confirm ,portugal's possessions1 and establish commerce with the ,orient4 ,john ,,ii had died1 and ,emmanuel the ,fortunate reigned in his stead--a reign that has been called the heroic period of the nation's history2 and it must not be forgotten that 8,little ,portugal0 was then so mighty that a year or so previously 7,may #d1 #adic7 the ,pope 7,alexander ,,vi7 had issued a bull in which he had divided1 with intended equality1 all undiscovered parts of the earth between ,spain and ,portugal1 the former being given everything to the west1 while to ,portugal were reserved all future rights east of a certain north-and-south line4 ,the line of separation designated was the meridian of no variation of the compass-needle4 ,the existence of such a line had been discovered by the same ,christopher ,columbus who was to thrill the world a few years later2 but he did not know1 what only experience developed1 that this meridian was changeable1 swinging many degrees east and then returning west in the course of two or three centuries4 ,at that time the line seemed fixed some three hundred miles west of the ,azores1 and philosophers accounted for it later by a theory that it lay in the middle of the ,atlantic because there it was subject to an equality of attraction toward both continents which held it steady4 ,this was not true1 but it was better than the less learned but more popular explanation of the magnetism of the compass--namely1 that it was 8an effluvium from the root of the tail of the ,little ,bear40 ,a year later1 however 7,june #g1 #adid71 the treaty of ,tordesillas1 between ,spain and ,portugal1 declared that the line of demarcation should be the meridian #cgj leagues west of the ,cape ,verd ,islands1 or as nearly as possible in the center of the ,atlantic4 ,the supposition that there might be valuable lands within1 that is1 east of1 that limit1 inspired several of ,portugal's subsequent searchers4 ,illustration3 ,,drawn ,,by ,,henry ,b4 ,,snell4 8,,the ,,sea-,,road ,,to ,,india ,,and ,,cathay40 ,in #adig ,king ,emmanuel's expedition was ready to sail--the largest and best equipped1 probably1 that had ever been sent out by any government1 and its commander was ,vasco da ,gama1 a young naval officer of renown4 ,his fleet consisted of four vessels1--small caravels1 of course1 one of which was commanded by ,dias1--and left the ,tagus1 after ceremonious farewells1 in ,july4 ,da ,gama stopped at various places1 but reached and safely rounded the stormy cape in ,november4 ,he had with him the information 7and some say an ,arabic map7 sent home by ,covilho1 but his business was not to verify this1 but to reach ,india and establish new ,portuguese possessions4 ,why1 then1 did he not strike straight across from ,cape ,agulhas1 as ,east ,indiamen have done ever since8 ,for the good reason that he had no guide1 no means of finding his way across the southern ocean1 where all the stars were strange2 for sun observations for latitude were then unknown to ,european navigators1 and rarely used on land4 ,instead of this1 he was obliged to turn northward and skirt the coast for a thousand miles1 stopping here and there1 until he had passed far enough north of the equator to bring above the horizon the familiar home stars1 for which he had 8tables40 ,at last1 from the ,arab port of ,melindi1 near ,mombasa1 he turned east and sailed straight away to ,india1 where he anchored before ,calicut1 then the most important port of southern ,india1 on ,may #bj4 ,returning the next year with ships richly laden1 he was received with public rejoicings and given high honors2 and he greatly astonished his friends of the navy by telling them that the ,arabs used the compass1 sea-charts1 quadrants1 and 8had divers maritime mysteries not short of the ,portugals40 ,da ,gama lived many years1 and sailed often to ,india and ,china after that2 but chiefly on political expeditions1 in which he disgraced his otherwise great name by inexcusable rapine and cruelty4 ,meanwhile some exploration had been done toward the far north1 as we shall see in the next chapter2 and so the fifteenth century ended1 with ,europe understood as far as ,nova ,zembla1 ,africa circumnavigated1 and the coasts of ,india1 ,malaya1 southern ,china1 and the larger ,malayan islands fairly familiar to geographers4 ,this is much1 and yet it leaves unmentioned the greatest fact of all--the work of that grand1 sad character1 ,christopher ,columbus1 upon whose grave near ,seville has been written3 ,,he ,,gave ,a ,,new ,,world ,,to ,,spain4 ,illustration3 ,,engraved ,,by ,e4 ,h4 ,,del',,orme4 ,,the ,,flying ,,dutchman4 8,there1 beyond the ,cape of ,storms1 ,where the breaker's voice of thunder ,roars when ships are rent asunder1 ,through a fog of ghostly forms 8,men catch glimpses of the sail1 ,ages old1 and rent and hoary1 ,of that quaint old ship of story1 ,and cry1 #8,vanderdecken1 hail6'0 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,rock ,,in ,,the ,,sea4 ,,footnotes3 #a ,this is related by the ,greek historian ,herodotus1 and has often been denied1 especially by the older writers2 but the 8,encyclopdia ,britannica0 gives it credence1 and tells us that the latest and best critic of the geography of ,herodotus1 ,major ,rennel1 maintains the possibility of such a voyage1 and believes it was made4 ,he argues that the construction of their ships1 with flat bottoms and low masts1 enabled these hardy voyagers to keep close to the land1 and to enter all the rivers and harbors for food and water4 ,i think1 therefore1 that we may believe that ,herodotus recorded what really happened1 even if we reject some details4 #b ,this is not a ,norse1 but an ,irish name1 familiar to us as ,barney4 ,,chapter ,,iv 7,continued7 ,,early ,,voyages ,,and ,,explorations ,,part ,,ii--,,from ,,columbus ,,to ,,cook ,why to ,spain8 ,it is an 8oft-told tale10 and the merest reminder is all that is needed here4 ,columbus was a young seafaring man1 born at ,genoa about #adcd1 and ambitious to become a master of his profession1 and especially to acquire great wealth4 ,he traveled to ,venice1 ,barcelona1 and other cities where learning was to be gained1 and became thoroughly acquainted with all the astronomical and geographical science of the time1 and especially proficient in the art of cartography4 ,attracted by the naval activity in ,portugal under that indefatigable ,prince ,henry1 ,columbus went to ,lisbon about #aded1 and endeavored to find a leading place in the sea-work that country was doing4 ,but ,portugal's eyes were so blinded by the glamour of ,africa and the ,east ,indies that she had no time to follow the gaze of this young and ardent ,genoese captain whose eyes were turned steadily toward the west1 where1 more and more insistently1 he urged that a sea-track1 straight as a line of latitude marked on a globe1 lay open to the ,indies and the coasts of ,cathay4 ,to prove this true would be not only a glorious exploit for any man1 but an achievement of untold advantage to the nation under whose flag he sailed4 ,illustration3 ,,portrait-,,statue ,,of ,,columbus ,,in ,,madrid4 ,just how this conviction arose in the mind of ,columbus we do not know4 ,it was probably first a purely scientific conclusion from the facts of astronomy and geography that he had learned1 encouraged by romantic traditions of western 8,isles of the ,blest40 ,a few scientific men agreed with him1 but the great influence of the ,church of ,rome condemned such notions as opposed to the ,bible and revealed religion2 and the mass of the people1 ignorant and superstitious1 looked upon them as foolish1 and laughed at ,columbus as a dreamer or worse4 ,between his danger of arrest and death as a heretic on the one hand1 and imprisonment as a lunatic on the other1 the man of science in those days had a hard time4 ,columbus therefore sought far and wide for evidence to support his theories and render them acceptable4 ,how much he learned--what1 in the way of facts1 he actually knew--it is hard to say4 ,having fallen in love with a ,portuguese lady of good family1 he married and apparently settled in ,portugal as his home1 but continued his voyaging4 ,he knew the ,mediterranean from end to end4 ,he made several voyages to the ,guinea coast1 and dwelt for a time at ,el ,mina1 then newly founded1 satisfying himself of the foolishness of the common assertion that men could not live 8under the equinoctial0--that is1 near the equator4 ,he went north to and beyond ,iceland1 and acquainted himself with those waters1 and thus convinced himself that the ocean was everywhere navigable1 and subject to uniform laws of tides1 weather1 etc4 ,his mind was cleared more and more of the mists of fable and superstition1 and all he learned brought into clearer view the truth of science as a guide4 ,he devoted more and more attention to improving the means of finding the true position of a vessel at sea1 and of keeping a true course by the compass1 which he continually studied2 and it was he who first discovered that some leagues west of the ,azores lay the meridian of no variation--a meridian that has now moved eastward until it lies near ,london4 ,everywhere he interrogated explorers1 discussed navigation with experienced captains1 and sought the aid of new maps1 improved instruments1 and advancing knowledge2 and yet mixed with all seem to have been a childlike vanity1 credulity1 and superstition1 hard to reconcile with his courage and acumen4 ,how much actual evidence he had of the existence of lands below the ,atlantic horizon unknown to his countrymen can never probably be satisfactorily answered4 ,the latest critical biographer of ,columbus1 the great ,spanish liberal statesman ,emilio ,castelar1 considers that he was led to his discoveries by little1 if anything1 outside of pure reasoning upon the rotundity of the earth and other scientific data1 and dismisses as fables or things unknown to ,columbus all the ,scandinavian discoveries of ,greenland and the rest1 and other stories of men who1 it is said1 had already seen the transatlantic world he sought4 ,we are told that he learned of woods and canes like none that grew in ,africa1 of strange carvings1 and even of the dead bodies of men1 resembling those of the far ,east1 being cast upon the shores of ,africa and the islands near it1 especially the ,azores4 ,it seems impossible that when he was in ,iceland and the other northern regions1 a man of his inquiring mind should not have learned something of ,greenland and the continental shores beyond1 especially when one remembers that for centuries previous ,catholic missionaries had been reporting progress to ,rome from that distant but real field of labor4 ,it is quite likely that some knowledge of these facts1 which must have been known to the professors of the universities of ,pavia and ,barcelona1 where ,columbus studied1 and to other intelligent men of ,italy and ,spain with whom he came in contact1 had caused ,columbus to go to the north1 for we know of no other errand4 ,perhaps he had heard of the ,zeni4 ,illustration3 ships of columbus ,especially to be noted is the allegation that ,columbus possessed information as to the experience of a ,frenchman named ,jean ,cousin1--a ,dieppe sea-captain1 who1 it is asserted1 discovered ,south ,america and the ,amazon ,river in #adhh4 ,this claim has been lately reviewed 78,fortnightly ,review10 ,january1 #ahid7 by ,captain ,gambier of the ,british navy1 and he decides that it is good2 and that it was because ,cousin's first mate was one of the ,pinons that that firm was willing to assist ,columbus1 as a good investment4 ,whatever he knew or did not know1 and whatever may have been the difficulties in his way1 ,columbus spent many weary years in fruitless efforts to interest some government in his schemes4 ,how finally he won ,spain to his support1 secured the aid of the ,pinons1 merchant princes of ,palos1 and sailed from that port on ,august #c1 #adib1--;and it was ,friday6--are details that need not be repeated4 ,equally well remembered are the story of his daring onward voyage1 and of the glorious outcome when1 on ,october #ab1 land was seen1--a new world found4 ,expedition after expedition followed one another from ,spain to the newly found possessions1 some conducted by the earlier companions of ,columbus1 and all filled with adventurers who cared for nothing but plunder4 ,one of these1 led by an officer named ,ojeda1 reached the coast of ,guiana in #adii1 and coasted along the north shore of ,south ,america as far1 probably1 as ,maracaibo4 ,this was the first of the ,spanish expeditions actually to set foot upon the mainland2 and it would not have been mentioned out of its place 7since ,cabot1 as we shall presently see1 had landed on the continent nearly two years before7 but for the fact that one of its members was that ,amerigo ,vespucci whose fortune it was to have his name attached to the continent4 ,amerigo ,vespucci 7or ,vespusze1 as ,columbus spells it7 was a ,florentine engaged in the shipping business who was attracted to ,spain by the maritime activity there1 and became interested in equipping the second flotilla of ,columbus and in other similar enterprises for the government4 ,the wealth and influence thus gained and his general abilities led him to join that expedition of ,ojeda in #adii1 and during the next four years he made three other voyages to ,brazil1 in which the bay of ,rio ,janeiro was entered 7,new ,year's day1 #aeja71 and an exploration southward extended probably as far as ,south ,georgia 7,islands74 ,upon his return from this last voyage1 in #aeje1 he publicly asserted that he had visited1 in #adig1 the coast of what is now the southern ,united ,states4 ,it has lately been shown by ,spanish records1 however1 that at that date he was busy in the government dockyards in ,spain2 therefore his assertion was false4 ,it served1 however1 to deceive a forgetful public1 and to procure for its author the coveted glory of being the first 8discoverer0 of the 8,new ,world10 as he first called it 7though there is no evidence that he understood it to be a continent71 and hence the one entitled to give it his name4 ,this bold claim achieved its purpose4 ,the oldest known map of the whole world1 dated ,a4 ,d4 #aejj1 said to have been drawn by the great artist ,leonardo da ,vinci1 from data furnished by ,juan de la ,cosa1 and hence known to historians as the 8,de la ,cosa ,mappimundi0 7it is preserved in ,madrid71 bears the name 8,america0 across the new countries for the first known time2 but ,juan de la ,cosa was with ,ojeda and ,vespucci on the expedition of #adii1 and doubtless ,vespucci managed the naming4 ,in #aejg1 only a year after the death of ,columbus1 there appeared in ,france the 8,cosmographie ,introductio0 of ,waldseemller 7also called ,hylacomylus71 which was regarded as the most complete and authentic geography of its time2 and here the name of ,america was boldly written across 8a fourth part of the world1 since ,amerigo found it40 ,the name 7a ,latin derivative7 was novel1 easy to pronounce1 no one knew or cared as to the right of it1 and so it stood4 ,illustration3 ,,the 8,,santa ,,maria0--,,the ,,flagship ,,of ,,columbus' ,,fleet4 ,a few lines more as to the ,spanish and ,portuguese navigators in these waters1 and then we shall have done with them for the present4 ,in #adii one of the ,pinons sailed from ,spain straight to the ,amazon1 as has been mentioned1 avoiding the ,west ,indies1 as if he knew precisely whither he was bound1 and reached there in ,january of #aejj4 ,a few months later a large ,portuguese expedition under ,pedro ,cabral1 starting for ,india around the cape1 was blown so far to the west that it ran against ,brazil4 ,everybody was hitting upon untrodden shores in those inspiring days1 and ,cabral promptly took possession for his king4 ,as this shore was outside 7east of7 the hemisphere assigned by the ,pope to the ,spanish1 the ,portuguese kept it for #chi years1 in spite of ,pinon's priority4 ,in #aejh ,ojeda obtained the government of the northern coast of ,south ,america1 and ,nicuesa of the region north of the ,gulf of ,darien2 and with the arrival of these adventurers in ,new ,spain began that era of rapine and horror which will forever disgrace the ,spanish name4 ,the rapacious governors and their wild crews quarreled and fought with each other as well as with the downtrodden natives1 and exploration was carried on by piracy4 ,a learned man1 ,martin ,enciso1 went out to take command in #aeaj1 but he was deposed by his soldiers the next year and sent back to ,europe1 where he made the first book printed in ,spanish 7#aeai7 describing ,america4 ,his place was taken by ,vasco ,nuez ,balboa1 who entered upon a career of exploration and peaceful conquest1 generally conciliating the ,indians1 who told him of another sea not far to the west1 and on ,september #be1 #aeac1 guided him to the summit of a hill near ,panama1 whence he1 first of ,europeans1 gazed upon the ,pacific4 ,who can imagine the emotions of such a sight6--for it told the ,spaniards that this land was not the eastern margin of ,asia1 but a new continent4 ,balboa made his way through the forests as rapidly as he could1 and on the #bith1 wading into the surf1 banner in hand1 took possession of the waters in the name of the ,king of ,castile4 ,balboa at once began preparations to utilize his discovery1 for the ,indians had also excited him and his men by tales of a country to the south abounding in gold4 ,he cut and shaped timbers for small ships1 and had with enormous trouble and labor transported these across the isthmus1 intending there to build a fleet and sail southward1 when he was superseded in command by a new governor1 ,pedrarias4 ,this man1 a jealous and brutal adventurer1 on a false pretext of disloyalty arrested and beheaded ,balboa before he could get away--an act that 8was one of the greatest calamities that could have happened to ,south ,america at that time2 for 444 a humane and judicious man would have been the conqueror of ,peru1 instead of the cruel and ignorant ,pizarro40 ,the frightful destruction of the country of the ,incas soon followed1 while ,corts overran ,mexico and ,de ,soto invaded ,florida4 ,it has doubtless by this time been in the mind of more than one reader to ask whether1 while the men of the ,mediterranean region were making these notable searchings for new shores1 the men of northern ,europe were standing idle4 ,what were the mariners of ,france and the ,netherlands1 ,scandinavia and ,great ,britain1 doing8 ,well1 all were doing something1 and some of them produced results of novel seafaring that were well worth the getting1 but these were principally in far northern waters1 as we shall read in the next chapter4 ,it was not until the opening of the sixteenth century that in ,england1 at least1 that era of far voyaging began which signalized the ,elizabethan age on the sea as much as the poets and dramatists and statesmen-writers of her court distinguished it on land4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,peaceful ,,day ,,on ,,the ,,spanish ,,main4 ,it was1 however1 earlier than that--in the reign of ,henry ,,vii--that ,england's story of discovery begins1 and the first names are those of two ,italians known in ,english as ,john and ,sebastian ,cabot1 father and son1 who were then residents of ,bristol4 ,the ,bristol folk were at that time the foremost mariners of ,england1 who often went to ,iceland and all the nearer isles2 and they firmly believed in certain traditional islands and coasts far away to the west1 which seem to have been composed of no better material than the airy structures of the sunset clouds and the romantic tales of ,phenician sailors and other travelers in the dawn of history4 ,as long ago as when ,strabo wrote1 a century before the birth of ,christ1 these things were of old belief1 and he recounts the delights then told of the 8,isles of the ,blest10 west of the farthest verge of ,africa4 ,when the ,canary ,islands became known as facts1 the myth moved farther west2 and when acquaintance with the ,azores proved them to be only natural earth with a fair share of its ills1 as well as of its good1 people insisted that still other islands must lie farther away1 where the ,elysian ,fields basked in perpetual summer and men were eternally happy4 ,the old idea charms us even yet when we sing 8,sweet fields beyond the swelling flood stand dressed in living green40 ,illustration3 ,,voyaging ,,to ,,the ,,isles ,,of ,,the ,,blest4 ,but no such higher rendering occurred to the men of the earlier time4 ,they believed firmly in the actual existence of these ever-fortunate islands under the sunset horizon of the ,atlantic1 and 7in the north7 called them the ,isles of ,st4 ,brandon1 the 8green isle of ,brazil0 7the root of which word seems to express the idea of redness1 such as appears in low sunset clouds71 the ,isle of the ,seven ,cities or ,antillia1 and by other names4 ,ferdinand ,columbus1 a son of ,christopher1 says in his 8,history0 that his father fully expected to meet1 8before he came to ,india1 a very convenient island or continent from which he might pursue with more advantage his main design40 ,this does not prove that ,columbus put any faith in the reality of these old notions1 nor does he seem to be responsible for the fact that the name ,antilles was immediately attached to the archipelago he actually did meet with1 and ,the ,brazils to a part of the mainland next found4 ,these names had been appearing on conjectural maps of the ,atlantic side of the earth for many years before his time2 and that they represented realities to many hard-headed merchants and sailors of his time is shown conclusively by the fact that between #adhj and #adhg at least two carefully planned naval expeditions had gone from ,bristol1 ,england1 in search of them4 ,how much vague memories of early ,norse and ,irish findings in the west may have given weight in ,bristol to these old myths is hard to say2 but at any rate it was there the search for this pot of gold at the end of the rainbow bore unexpected and momentous results1 but all were surprised at the distance involved4 ,about #adif ,john ,cabot1 then a resident of ,bristol1 proposed to the king an expedition in search of a new route to the ,indies by sailing due west from ,ireland4 ,henry ,,vii was excited by the news of ,columbus' southerly findings1 and was eager to secure something of the kind for ,england4 ,nevertheless1 although the king granted privileges that might prove profitable in case of success1 he seems to have furnished no money4 ,cabot1 therefore1 sailed away1 privately equipped1 in a small caravel named ,matthew1 carrying only eighteen persons4 ,never was a voyage of discovery1 the consequences of which were so far-reaching1 entered upon with less pomp or flourish of trumpets4 ,so little note of it was made at the time that the very name of ,john ,cabot narrowly escaped being lost altogether1 and the record of his work came very near being replaced by a confused account of the doings of his son ,sebastian2 for it was not until certain letters had been found--and that within a very few years--in the contemporary archives of ,spain and other ,european countries1 that we were able to give any sure account of the matter4 ,it is now plain that ,john ,cabot1 in the ,matthew1 leaving ,bristol early in ,may1 #adig1 and having passed ,ireland1 shaped his course toward the north1 then turned to the west and proceeded for many days until he came to land1 where he disembarked on ,june #bd1 and planted an ,english flag4 ,there seems to be no doubt that this was the mainland of ,north ,america1 and the general opinion has prevailed that his landfall was the extremity of ,cape ,breton4 ,cabot stayed some days1 but how far he traced the coast1 and whether he learned of ,newfoundland or ,prince ,edward ,island1 are matters of conjecture4 ,at any rate1 he soon turned homeward1 and arrived in ,bristol probably on ,august #f4 ,we can imagine with what eagerness his story was listened to1 as he told of the fair1 temperate1 well-wooded land1 its people and animals and fruitfulness1 that he had seen4 ,but the thing that impressed the ,bristol men most was the report of the enormous abundance of codfish there4 ,this was something these canny men could see without any illusions1 and possess themselves of regardless of papal bulls2 and they at once abandoned their northern fishing-grounds and began to resort to the ,banks of ,newfoundland1 whither they were quickly followed by large annual fleets of ,norman1 ,breton1 ,spanish1 and ,portuguese fishermen4 ,john ,cabot intended to go again the next year and make his way onward to ,japan1 as he believed he could do1 for1 like the others1 he thought what he had found was only a remote eastern part of ,asia2 and in #adih he actually did sail westward from ,bristol with five ships1 victualed for a year4 ,none of these ships ever returned1 and no evidence exists that they ever reached their goal2 and with them ,john ,cabot1 to whom ,england owed her early supremacy in ,north ,america1 disappears from view4 ,sebastian ,cabot was a son of ,john ,cabot1 and a skilful map-maker4 ,whether he went with his father on the first voyage is disputed2 there seems no direct evidence that he did so4 ,that he did not go on the second voyage is plain1 for he had a long subsequent career1 of which accurate knowledge is a late acquisition2 here it is only necessary to add that by his statements to ,peter ,martyr and others he allowed the erroneous impression to pass into history1 if he did not directly authorize the lie1 that it was he1 and not his father1 who discovered ,america and the fishing-grounds4 ,now that the way across the ,atlantic was learned1 chivalrous sailors hurried to add what they could to the map4 ,corte-,real1 a ,portuguese of rank1 struck northwest1 and hit upon and named ,labrador as early as #aejj4 ,the next voyage of prominence introduces the ,french as competitors1 ,francis ,i sending the ,florentine ,verrazano1 a typical sea-rover of the period1 who had already been to ,brazil and the ,east ,indies and was finally hanged as a pirate1 to find out what he could about northern ,america4 ,he steered west from the ,madeira ,islands in ,january1 #aebd1 found land near ,cape ,fear 7,north ,carolina71 and claimed to have traced the coast as far north as ,nova ,scotia1 besides entering a large bay 7either ,new ,york or ,narragansett74 ,his whole story1 however1 rests on certain letters and maps the authenticity of which has been hotly disputed2 and at any rate little1 if anything1 came of this voyage4 ,it was far different with the next one1 however1--that one sent from ,france in #aecd1 under the command of ,jacques ,cartier1 who sailed from ,st4 ,malo in two tiny vessels to ,newfoundland1 and learned of the mouth of the ,st4 ,lawrence ,river4 ,then1 like all the other captains1 none of whom could stay over winter in ,america1 because their vessels were too small to store provisions1 and because they were beset by fears1 not only of visible savages1 but of invisible hobgoblins1 he returned to ,france4 ,the next year found him back again1 however1 this time steering his vessels up the ,st4 ,lawrence to 8,hochelaga0 7,montreal71 and later carrying home an account that led to so immediate a movement on the part of ,france that ,canada was the scene of the earliest colonization of the ,new ,world1 properly speaking1 for the ,spanish settlements in the south were thus far nothing but military stations4 ,france1 indeed1 dreamed of obtaining the whole of ,north ,america for herself1 and attempted soon after to colonize ,florida and the ,carolinas2 but these attempts failed1 and she was able to hold only the valley of the ,st4 ,lawrence and the shore of its gulf4 ,these things happened later1 however1 and for many years the ,atlantic coast of ,north ,america was left unclaimed by any one1 while the ,english and ,dutch were busy in the far north1 the ,spanish were rioting in the tropics1 and the ,portuguese turned their attention to the southern and eastern quarters of the globe4 ,it is one of the most striking curiosities of the history of the development of civilization on the globe1 following the stagnation of the middle ages and the desolation of the plague-ridden thirteenth century1 that the most remote1 unprofitable1 unhealthy regions were so fiercely struggled for1 while the best parts of the ,new ,world were left until the last4 ,having found ,brazil1 both ,spaniards and ,portuguese proceeded to trace the continent southward1 hoping to find a practicable way to ,peru around it4 ,several experienced navigators worked southward1 the best known of whom is ,juan ,diaz de ,solis1 who entered the ,la ,plata ,river and was killed there by the ,indians in #aeaf4 ,columbus had not been a moment too soon to be first4 ,nevertheless it was left to a stranger in those waters1 the indomitable ,magellan 7,ferno de ,magalhes71 to reap the reward of success4 ,the ,pope and all the bishops still declared that the earth was flat2 but so little was this now believed1 even by themselves1 that ,magellan1 who had just quitted the service of ,portugal1 dared to propose to 8his most ,catholic majesty0 the ,king of ,spain to sail west instead of east to the ,moluccas1 just as though the earth were globular and might be circumnavigated2 and the king not only dared to listen1 but approved of the proposition1 which seemed entirely practicable if ,south ,america could be passed4 ,that was the problem ,magellan set himself to solve4 ,should he succeed1 could the ,moluccas be reached by sailing westward1 then they would fall into that half of the earth given by the ,pope to ,spain1 and ,portugal's present claim to them would be overthrown4 ,thus the experiment was well worth making in behalf of politics as well as knowledge1 and ,magellan was furnished with five ships1 carrying two hundred and thirty-seven men4 ,the ,trinidad was the admiral's ship2 but the ,san ,vittoria was destined for immortality4 ,he struck boldly for the ,southwest1 not crossing the trough of the ,atlantic as ,columbus had done1 but passing down the length of it1 his aim being to find some cleft or passage in the ,american continent through which he might sail into the ,great ,south ,sea4 ,for seventy days he was becalmed under the line4 ,he then lost sight of the ,north ,star1 but courageously held on toward the 8pole antarktike40 ,he nearly foundered in a storm1 8which did not abate till the three fires called ,st4 ,helen1 ,st4 ,nicholas1 and ,st4 ,clare appeared playing in the rigging of the ships4 ,in a new land1 to which he gave the name ,patagoni1 he found giants of 8good corporature04444 ,his perseverance and resolution were at last rewarded by the discovery of the ,strait named by him ,san ,vittoria1 in affectionate honor of his ship2 but which1 with a worthy sentiment1 other sailors soon changed to the ,straits of ,magellan4 ,on ,november #be1 #aebj1 after a year and a quarter of struggling1 he issued forth from its western portals1 and entered the ,great ,south ,sea1 shedding tears of joy1 as ,pigafetta1 an eye-witness1 relates1 when he recognized its infinite expanse4444 ,admiring its illimitable but placid surface1 and exulting in the meditation of its secret perils soon to be tried1 he courteously imposed upon it the name it is forever to bear--the ,pacific ,ocean4444 ,and now the great sailor1 having burst through the barrier of the ,american continent1 steered for the northwest1 attempting to regain the equator4 ,for three months and twenty days he sailed on the ,pacific1 and never saw inhabited land4 ,he was compelled by famine to strip off the pieces of skin and leather wherewith his rigging was here and there bound1 to soak them in the sea1 and then soften them with warm water1 so as to make a wretched food2 to eat the sweepings of the ship and other loathsome matter2 to drink water that had become putrid by keeping2 and yet he resolutely held on his course1 though his men were dying daily4 ,as is quaintly observed1 8their gums grew over their teeth1 and so they could not eat40 ,this was scurvy1 the dread of all mariners in those times and long afterward4 ,he estimated that he sailed over this unfathomable sea not less than #ab1jjj miles4 ,in the whole history of human undertakings declares ,dr4 ,john ,w4 ,draper1 from whose striking sketch of this achievement in his 8,intellectual ,development of ,europe0 ,i am quoting--in the whole history of human undertakings there is nothing that exceeds1 if1 indeed1 there is anything that equals1 this voyage of ,magellan's4 ,that of ,columbus dwindles away in comparison4 ,it is a display of superhuman courage1 superhuman perseverance--a display of resolution not to be diverted from its purpose by any motive or any suffering4444 ,this unparalleled resolution met its reward at last4 ,magellan reached a group of islands north of the equator--the ,ladrones4 ,in a few days more he became aware that his labors had been successful4 ,he met with adventurers from ,sumatra4 ,but1 though he had thus grandly accomplished his object1 it was not given to him to complete the circumnavigation of the globe4 ,at an island called ,zebu1 or ,mutan1 he was killed1 either1 as has been variously related1 in a mutiny of his men1 or1 as they declared1 in a conflict with the savages1 or insidiously by poison4444 ,hardly was he gone when his crew learned that they were actually in the vicinity of the ,moluccas having previously wandered too far north1 and discovered the ,philippines1 and that the object of their voyage was accomplished4444 ,and now they prepared to bring the news of their success back to ,spain4 ,magellan's lieutenant1 ,sebastian d',elanco1 directed his course for the ,cape of ,good ,hope1 again encountering the most fearful hardships4 ,out of his slender crew he lost #ba men4 ,he doubled the ,cape at last2 and on ,september #g1 #aebb1 in the port of ,st4 ,lucar1 near ,seville1 under his orders1 the good ship ,vittoria came safely to an anchor4 ,she had accomplished the greatest achievement in the history of the human race4 ,she had circumnavigated the earth4 ,the immediate result of this voyage was to impress ,spain's sovereignty upon the ,east ,indies2 but a vaster and more far-reaching consequence was the influence it exerted1 by its proof that the world was really a globe1 to free men's minds from blind belief in and guidance by a tradition1 which had taught that the earth was a flat plain surrounded by water1--an error sanctioned by ,st4 ,augustine and other influential teachers4 ,magellan impressed a name upon the greatest of the oceans1 and has his own name gloriously emblazoned upon both the map of the earth and the map of the sky in the southern hemisphere2 but his greatest title to honor1 after all1 is that he struck dogma the hardest blow it ever received4 ,illustration3 ,,sea-,,surf ,,at ,,santo ,,domingo4 ,the sixteenth century seems to have been1 outside of the ,arctic regions1 an era of surveying rather than of exploration by sea1 yet some notable work was done in the ,east1 where all nations now entered as competitors in the trade1 seizing upon every island or mainland shore that they could1 and holding their possessions as long as possible4 ,even the ,english entered heartily into this rivalry1 the great ,east ,india ,company having been founded in #aeii4 ,with its trading we have nothing to do1 but must note that it extended knowledge of ,oceanica considerably1 and added greatly to ,europe's information as to ,india1 the ,malayan peninsula and larger islands1 ,china1 and ,japan4 ,the ,spanish and ,portuguese found themselves so busy in defending that to which they already laid claim that they had little time to search for new lands2 and this sort of enterprise fell mainly to the ,dutch1 who1 now that the ,netherlands were at last free from the long and cruel tyranny of ,spain1 were energetically making up for lost time4 ,their captain1 ,van ,noort1 went out by way of the ,straits of ,magellan to the ,philippines1 and got back to ,rotterdam between #aeih and #afja4 ,another fleet made the same voyage fifteen years later2 and in #afaf ,cape ,horn was rounded by ,willem ,cornelis ,schouten1 who gave the name of his home village1 ,hoorn1 to that desolate terminus of ,south ,america4 ,for many years geographers had held belief in a vast 8southern continent10--,terra ,australis1--and most of the islands found in the ,south ,pacific were accidental results of some attempt to reach it4 ,new ,guinea had been sighted a century before1 and perhaps ,australia also1 of which several navigators got glimpses here and there early in the sixteenth century1 satisfying them that it also was a great island4 ,it was not until this century was half gone1 however1 that the map of that quarter of the 8,south ,sea0 was filled out with any accuracy2 and this was due to the skill and labor of an eminent ,dutch voyager1 ,abel ,janszen ,tasman1 who was despatched southward with two ships by the colonial government at ,batavia1 where the ,dutch had already gained political ascendancy4 8,this voyage10 we are told1 8proved to be the most important to geography that had been undertaken since the first circumnavigation of the globe40 ,tasman sailed from ,batavia in the yacht ,heemskirk1 on the #adth of ,august1 #afdb1 and from ,mauritius on the #hth of ,october4 ,on ,november #bd high land was sighted in #db #cj ,s41 which was named ,van ,diemen's ,land 7now ,tasmania71 and1 after landing there1 sail was again made1 and ,new ,zealand 7at first called ,staatenland7 was discovered on the #acth of ,december4 ,tasman communicated with the natives and anchored in what he called ,murderers' ,bay1 because several men were massacred there by the natives4 ,thence he took an irregular course east and north1 until he arrived at the ,friendly ,isles of ,cook4 ,in ,april1 #afdc1 he was off the north coast of ,new ,guinea1 having meanwhile sailed around ,new ,britain and ,new ,ireland 7now ,new ,mecklenburg71 and on ,june #ae he returned to ,batavia4 ,the contribution to sea-knowledge of the remaining voyages in this century were mainly in the direction of a better understanding of winds1 currents1 ice movements1 tides1 and an improvement in the methods of building1 rigging1 and navigating vessels intended for long voyages4 ,map-making received a great impetus and was especially cultivated by the ,dutch1 among whom ,mercator became famous by inventing the useful projection that bears his name and is still most commonly used4 ,nevertheless1 the improvement1 especially in instruments of navigation1 was slow4 ,the astrolabe generally gave place to the cross-staff2 and this to a better device called the back-staff1 of which an improved form1 invented by ,john ,davis1 remained long in use4 ,this was called the ,davis quadrant2 and with it 8the observer stood with his back to the sun1 and1 looking through the sights1 brought the shadow of a pin into coincidence with the horizon40 ,many variations of this instrument were made1 until1 in the middle of the next century1 it was superseded by the sextant4 ,thus before the close of the seventeenth century1 astronomers and navigators had learned how to determine latitude fairly accurately1 and the sailor had prepared for him a variety of tables of stars1 almanacs1 and other mathematical guides4 ,the determination of longitude was yet difficult1 however1 owing largely to the imperfection of timepieces2 and it was not until the last year of the century1 signalized by the first recorded sea-voyage made purely for scientific purposes1 that much advance was made4 ,this voyage1 lasting two years 7#afii-agjj71 was undertaken by the eminent ,english astronomer ,edmund ,halley for the express purpose of obtaining information necessary to the improvement of the compass and methods of ascertaining the position of a ship at sea1 was productive of results of the greatest service1 and placed the science of navigation upon a sure footing4 ,it was followed early in the next century by the establishment in ,england of the ,longitude ,board1 a scientific commission charged with the duty of determining longitudes and studying navigation4 ,from this board came the 8,nautical ,almanac10 which first appeared in #agfg1 but similar almanacs are now published annually by the governments of almost all maritime powers1 and the editorship is esteemed in the ,united ,states one of the most honored positions in the naval service4 ,these books contain ephemerides1 or tables of positions for each day of that year of all the heavenly bodies1 8predictions of astronomical phenomena1 and the angular distances of the moon from the sun1 planets1 and fixed stars10 all referred to some stated meridian4 ,with such an almanac1 an improved compass1 and one of ,newton's new sextants as a means of quick and accurate observation of sun and moon and stars1 the navigator had little need to doubt as to where he was2 and maps began to show a corresponding improvement in accuracy4 ,illustration3 8,,buccaneers ,,and ,,many ,,wild ,,sea-,,rovers40 ,the early part of this century1 as we shall see later1 was the era of the buccaneers and of many wild sea-rovers whose far-wandering barks1 in search of adventure1 picked up much information at the expense of human lives and hard-earned property4 ,the foremost of these was ,dampier1 who seems to have gone almost everywhere a ship could go1 and who found out many new things1 which he had the power of telling well1 as to ,australasia2 and the strait between ,new ,guinea and ,new ,britain1 which he discovered1 is named after him4 ,many a commander was now cruising in those waters1 however1 under ,english and ,dutch flags mainly1 finding new lands and pillaging old ones--such as ,roggewein1 ,anson1 ,byron1 ,wallis1 ,carteret1 ,bougainville1 and others2 and such important islands as ,easter1 ,tahiti1 ,charlotte1 and ,gloucester groups1 ,pitcairn1 and others1 were found during the first half of this century4 ,but now the ,english were to redeem their good name by sending out a government expedition1 or series of expeditions1 whose object was scientific discovery and the humane study of the men and resources on the other side of the world1 instead of forced trade or bloody rapine4 ,these were the three expeditions commanded by ,captain ,james ,cook1 one of the most capable officers in the ,british navy4 ,the first voyage was made in #agfg for the purpose of carrying a party of astronomers and naturalists to ,tahiti to observe there a transit of ,venus1 after which a survey was made of the then almost unknown coasts of ,new ,zealand and ,eastern ,australia4 ,the second voyage was to explore the ,antarctic regions1 whither the ,french had preceded him1 as we shall see in the next chapter2 and we need only say here that ,cook finally disposed of the tradition of a vast terra australis--at any rate a habitable one4 ,it is to his third voyage1 then1 that he principally owes his fame4 ,this was undertaken in pursuance of the ruling idea of his day1 that a sea-route might be discovered north of the ,american continent1 which would vastly shorten the trip from ,europe to ,china and the ,spice ,islands4 ,others were seeking it directly by way of ,baffin's ,bay1 and ,cook was sent to attack the problem from the ,pacific side4 ,he was given command of his old ship ,resolution and a new one1 ,discovery1 outfitted in the best possible manner1 and especially guarded1 in the matter of provisions1 against scurvy--that dread of the old-fashioned seamen1 in respect to which ,cook himself had introduced such new and valuable preventives as would alone have entitled his name to grateful remembrance4 ,he was commanded to revisit1 on his way out1 the ,south ,pacific ,islands2 and departed from ,england in ,june1 #aggf1 steering by way of the ,cape of ,good ,hope1 and reaching the archipelagoes in the spring of #aggg1 where he cruised for nearly a year4 ,in ,january1 #aggh1 he sailed north from the ,friendly ,islands1 and a few days later hit upon a large1 inhabited1 unknown group of islands1 whose principal one was called ,hawaii by the people1 but which he named ,sandwich ,islands1 in honor of an ,english earl who had taken great interest in his plans4 ,here he spent some delightful days1 and then bore away to the west coast of ,america1 which the ,english still claimed under ,drake's name of ,new ,albion1 and which he struck near ,puget ,sound4 ,thence he went slowly along the coast northward until he found and penetrated the deep bay since called ,cook's ,inlet4 ,his hope that this might prove a sort of northern ,straits of ,magellan was quickly disappointed1 and he went on into and through ,bering ,sea and ,strait until he was stopped by the ice on the north shore of ,alaska1 at a point still called ,icy ,cape4 ,then he turned back1 surveying both shores of the strait1 and again made his way to the ,sandwich ,islands1 where1 in an unfortunate quarrel with the natives1 he was killed4 ,the ,hawaiians have always said that this was the act of a ruffian among them1 and that the chiefs and the best of the people never wished nor intended any harm to their visitors2 and this is probably true4 ,his executive officer took the ships back to ,england in ,october1 #aghj4 ,the voyages of this able and intelligent commander bore fruit in many ways4 ,one was the colonization of ,australia1 ,tasmania1 and ,new ,zealand by the ,english1 which began in #aghh4 ,another was the voyage of ,vancouver to the west coast of ,america in #agib1 which intercepted the surveys of the ,spaniards there1 under ,quadra and others1 and enforced ,english possession of all the country between the ,californian settlements of the ,spaniards and the ,russian posts in ,alaska1 though he curiously failed to find either ,puget ,sound or the ,columbia ,river4 ,a third direct result1 and from some points of view the most important one1 was the opening of a great number of the ,south ,sea ,islands to ,christian missionaries4 ,by this time there had arisen in the ,new ,world which these voyagers had first stumbled upon1 and then searched for1 and afterward scrutinized so carefully1 a new1 composite nation1 which somehow forgot that all their broad and fertile land had been given away centuries before by an old gentleman in ,rome to his friends the ,spaniards1 and acted as though they thought it belonged to themselves2 and by and by this thriving nation hoisted a starry flag of its own1 and proclaimed itself the ,united ,states of ,america4 ,then1 not to be behind ,european powers1 whose navigators were enriching libraries with magnificent chronicles of scientific studies in sea-science1 such as those of the ,french 8,voyage of the ,astrolabe10 the ,russian narratives of ,krusenstern and ,kotzebue1 and the ,english explorations of ,beechey 7who was accompanied by ,charles ,darwin71 the ,united ,states sent to the ,pacific a well-equipped expedition under ,lieutenant 7afterward ,admiral7 ,charles ,wilkes4 ,this was gone from #ahch to #ahde1 surveyed the west coast of ,south ,america1 wandered about ,oceanica1 and did its best to penetrate the icy limits of the ,antarctic zone4 ,the results were six magnificent folio volumes1 containing not only the narrative of the cruise1 but contributions to science by ,james ,d4 ,dana1 ,horatio ,hale1 ,john ,cassin1 and other men of the last generation great in ,american science4 ,illustration3 end of chapter decoration ,,chapter ,v ,,secrets ,,won ,,from ,,the ,,frozen ,,north ,as soon as the sea-routes between ,europe and the far ,east were learned1 and the ,american coasts had been mapped1 the region within the ,arctic circle became the most attractive field for nautical discovery4 ,all this earlier ,arctic exploration1 however1 was not1 as it has lately become1 a system of scientific research1 but was simply a series of attempts to open new roads for commerce to follow4 ,it occurred to every navigator that as a sea-way had been gained past the southern end of ,america1 so one around its northern border might be disclosed2 and perhaps1 also1 a ship-route along the northern coast of ,siberia4 ,either of these would be far shorter than to go to 8,cathay0 around either ,cape ,horn or ,cape of ,good ,hope1 and would enable the ,english and other northerners to avoid their enemies1 the ,spanish and ,portuguese1 who commanded the southern waters4 ,the first ,arctic voyage of exploration1 properly speaking1 was that of ,willoughby and ,chancellor1 who in #aeec penetrated the seas north of ,scandinavia1 where they became separated4 ,willoughby and his men tried to winter on the coast of ,russian ,lapland1 but all died of scurvy4 ,chancellor1 however1 pushed on into the ,white ,sea1 reached a monastery on the coast1 and thence made his way to ,moscow1 where he was well received1 and thus opened a trade route of incalculable advantage to both ,england and ,russia4 ,it led at once to the organization of the ,muscovy ,company1 and began a commerce now regularly carried on in steam vessels to ,archangel1 which in #ahig was connected with ,moscow by railroad4 ,by #aehj several other commanders had tried to improve on this performance1 but none got past the ,kara ,sea1 and the next important effort was headed toward that 8,northwest ,passage10 which for more than three centuries was the lodestone of ,arctic students and voyagers4 ,it was in charge of ,martin ,frobisher1 later one of ,england's most conspicuous admirals1 who afterward made a larger expedition in which he learned many facts about the ,labrador coast and ,hudson ,strait4 ,another ,english seaman1 and a more scientific one1 ,john ,davis1 made three remarkable voyages1 between #aehe and #aehi1 and increased the map by a careful delineation of both coasts of the strait still called after him4 ,shortly afterward ,dutch merchants had sent three expeditions northward under command of ,william ,barentz to search for a northeast passage1 the third and most important of which sailed in #aeif and found it impossible to penetrate the ice east of ,nova ,zembla 7which had been seen first by ,burrough in #aeef1 who had been shown the way by ,russian fishermen71 but discovered ,bear ,island and ,spitzbergen4 ,the crew of ,barentz's vessel spent the winter of #aeif-ig at ,ice ,haven1 ,nova ,zembla--the first successfully to face a winter in the ,arctic zone4 ,when the next spring came they made their way to ,lapland and homeward in boats1 but ,barentz died on the road4 ,this voyage was highly important in opening to the ,netherlands the whale and seal fisheries of that region which has ever since been known as ,barentz's ,sea1 but it discouraged the hopes of a 8northeast passage40 ,in #ahga ,barentz's winter quarters at ,ice ,haven were found undisturbed1 after a lapse of #bgd years1 and in #ahge part of the journal kept by this brave mariner was recovered4 ,almost every year about this time saw ,english1 ,dutch1 and ,danish ships going north1 each adding some new fact to geography and the knowledge of polar waters and ice4 ,one of them1 in #afjg1 was commanded by ,henry ,hudson1 who searched the ,north ,atlantic1 found ,jan ,mayen1 and pointed the way to the ,spitzbergen whale fisheries2 yet he had hardly more than a sail-boat1 and a crew of only eleven men4 ,the following year this intrepid man tried to go to ,china north of ,asia1 but failed as ,barentz had done1 and returned 8void of hope of a northeast passage40 ,nevertheless1 he tried it again a year later in the service of ,amsterdam merchants1 but his men were obstreperous1 and1 yielding to his own inclination as well as to theirs1 he turned west to find that 8,northwest ,passage0 in which everybody then believed because they hoped1 and because of the difficulty of getting so great a fact as the real ,north ,american continent proved to be accepted by the popular imagination1 which was used to small things in geography4 ,very willingly1 then1 ,hudson's little ship1 the ,half ,moon1 was turned toward the southwest2 and it found something better than it sought1 for the ,hudson ,river and the site of the future metropolis of the ,new ,world were added to the map4 ,hudson's success in this voyage led to his immediate engagement by a company of ,english merchants and speculators1 who were willing to risk additional money in searching for a northwest passage if he would lead4 ,in #afaj1 therefore1 ,hudson took command of a new ship1 the ,discoverie1 and sailing in her to ,baffin's ,bay1 found the great opening of ,hudson ,strait1 and with high hope that his goal was now in view followed it westward into ,hudson ,bay4 ,here he coasted south to what we term ,james ,bay1 and1 after a comfortable winter1 resumed his examination of the west coast1 whereupon the majority of his men mutinied1 set ,hudson and several sick men adrift in a rowboat1 and turned back4 ,most of the mutineers died1 but the vessel was finally taken back to ,london1 where the murderers were promptly questioned and nearly as promptly hanged4 ,the story of another remarkable voyage closes the story of this early attempt at the problem which1 two hundred and fifty years afterward1 was to be solved only by proof of its uselessness4 ,in #afaf another ,discovery--a caravel of only fifty-five tons--went north from ,england in charge of ,william ,baffin4 8,on the #cjth of ,may he had reached ,davis' farthest point1 ,sanderson's ,hope1 in #gb #da ,n41 444 and reached1 #ast ,july1 an open sea1 the #8,north ,water' of the whalers of to-day4 ,passing ,capes ,york1 ,atholl and ,parry1 he yet pushed northward1 and on #eth ,july attained his farthest point within sight of ,cape ,alexander4 ,his latitude1 about #gg #de ,n41 remained unequaled in that sea for two hundred and thirty-six years40 ,arctic success depends on good luck4 ,illustration3 ,,fantastic ,,icebergs ,,in ,,hudson ,,strait4 ,the next century 7#agjj to #ahjj7 was a period of active polar research in the ,old ,world4 ,the ,russians completed their knowledge of their ,arctic coasts1 ,popoff reaching ,east ,cape in #agaa1 and bringing back an account not only of various islands1 but also of a continental shore eastward4 ,it was this report that caused ,peter the ,great to set on foot a costly scheme of research upon the northeastern coasts of ,siberia1 which was placed in the hands of ,vitus ,bering1 a ,dane1 in his navy1 but accomplished nothing of any value2 and it was not until #agdj that ,bering finally crossed over in a blundering sort of way and made a brief examination of the coast of ,alaska1 where his ship was finally wrecked1 and he died of discouragement and chagrin4 ,he saw neither the sea nor the strait that bears his name1 was not the first to reach the ,american continent1 and never learned whether or not it was connected with ,siberia4 ,nevertheless his voyage had fruitful results1 for it led to vast fisheries and fur-gatherings1 and the writings of his naturalist1 ,steller1 had and still have great scientific importance4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,walrus ,,breeding-,,ground1 ,,bering ,,strait4 ,by this time the whaling and allied marine industries1 and the work of such excellent explorers as the ,dutchman ,martens1 had made mariners thoroughly acquainted with the ,north ,atlantic from ,nova ,zembla to ,greenland1 and a vast advance had been effected in the knowledge of navigation amid the ice1 and in the building and equipment of ships and the proper methods of provisioning and clothing and treating crews in order to maintain health and comfort as well as mere safety4 ,these well-fitted and daringly managed whalers had at the beginning of the nineteenth century begun to penetrate far into the waters west of ,greenland1 in spite of a very curious fact1 which would make anybody but a ,british whaleman pause--namely1 that there were no such waters4 ,so their best maps and treatises said6 ,two hundred years had now passed since ,baffin's return from his wonderful voyage of #afaf1 and during all that time not a white man's keel had plowed the chilling solitudes he had left1 except lately these venturesome whalers1 who did not frequent libraries4 ,consequently ,baffin's work had first been forgotten and then disbelieved2 so that at last first-class maps were published which omitted ,baffin's ,bay altogether1 and books were written1 such as ,barrows' 8,arctic ,voyages0 7,london1 #ahah71 that denied the authenticity of his narrative4 ,as the nineteenth century opened1 however1 ,england began to turn her attention to the renewal of polar studies4 ,the ,hudson's ,bay ,company's men were reaching the coast of their ,territories here and there2 but otherwise the whole ,arctic ,ocean north of ,british ,america was unknown4 ,to relieve herself of the shame of this ,great ,britain soon sent into that field a rapid succession of explorers1 many of whom soon became famous4 ,the very first of these1 ,john ,ross1 despatched in #ahah1 confirmed fully the geography laid down by ,baffin as far as ,cape ,york1 in spite of the learned book-makers1 and reported a great number and variety of interesting facts2 whereupon a much larger expedition was at once arranged and placed in command of a naval officer named ,william ,edward ,parry1 who went out in #ahai with orders to find the northwest passage1 and who had in his staff such men as ,sabine1 ,liddon1 ,james ,ross1 ,reid1 ,crozier1 and similar material1 all stimulated not only by naval and scientific pride1 but by the offer by ,parliament of a reward of #ajj1jjj to him who should first discover the desired thoroughfare4 ,this first voyage was a grand success4 ,forcing his way into ,lancaster ,sound in midsummer1 ,parry found that ,ross's report that it was a landlocked bay was erroneous4 ,as ,greely tells it3 ,the mirage-mountains of the previous year had vanished1 and as ,parry crowded sail westward1 he opened a series of magnificent waterways hitherto unknown4 ,the way lay through an archipelago 7,parry71 with ,north ,devon1 ,cornwallis1 ,bathurst and ,melville islands to the north1 and ,cockburn1 ,prince of ,wales1 and ,banks islands to the south4 ,lancaster ,sound1 broken at its western end by ,prince ,regent ,inlet1 gave way to ,barrow ,strait1 which broadened into ,melville ,sound1 while yet farther to the west the encroaching land formed ,banks ,strait wherethrough these channels open into polar ocean4 ,if you will look at the map you will see that this list comprehends pretty nearly everything south of ,smith ,sound4 ,many details of course were lacking1 and these ,parry was sent a second time to work out1 but he added really little to geography by two seasons of hard work2 and a third voyage1 begun in ,may1 #ahbd1 was still more unfortunate4 ,these voyages1 however1 enabled ,parry1 who was one of the greatest of all ,arctic students and navigators1 to state that the western sides of all northerly and southerly bodies of water are always more encumbered with ice than the eastern sides2 and to make many most valuable improvements in ice navigation and equipment4 ,his illustrated narratives remain among the most readable books of ,arctic experience1 and little has been added to their accounts of eastern ,eskimo life and customs4 ,meanwhile 7#ahai7 another navy officer1 who was ardent in the scientific branches of his profession1 as well as distinguished in seamanship and naval warfare1 and who had acquired ,arctic experience under ,buchan in the ill-starred expedition of #ahah1 was sent overland to coperate with others in defining the mainland coast of ,america4 ,this was ,lieutenant ,john ,franklin--a name destined to become the most famous of all among the explorers of the frozen ,north4 ,for several years he and his parties lived and traveled among the ,eskimos1 tracing the coast-line from a considerable distance east of the mouth of the ,coppermine ,river westward almost to ,point ,barrow1 ,alaska1 where they came within one hundred and forty-six miles of meeting ,beechey's coperative examination by sea from ,bering's ,strait2 and it was out of these trips that we got the valuable treatises upon the natural history of ,british ,america1 published by his assistants1 ,hearne and ,richardson4 ,this ended in #ahbf4 ,the next prominent expedition was that of ,captain ,john ,ross and his nephew ,james1 afterward celebrated in ,antarctic exploration2 and it turned out an exceedingly productive one4 ,meeting fortunate conditions in ,lancaster ,sound he easily reached where the ,fury had gone ashore1 and refilled his ship with a portion of the stores ,parry had thoughtfully landed and made safe there--a provision which later kept this expedition from destruction4 ,then he pressed on beyond where ,parry had gone1 and added largely to the details of his map1 but curiously failed to recognize ,bellot ,strait as a thoroughfare1 and so unaccountably missed the thing he was in search of4 ,ross discovered ,boothia ,felix2 and during the three winters spent on its eastern shore1 the younger ,ross1 by sledging1 discovered ,franklin ,passage1 ,victoria ,strait1 and ,king ,william's ,land1 and largely explored their coasts2 but his most important work1 8giving imperishable renown to his name10 as ,greely declares1 was the determination of the position of the north magnetic pole on the west coast of ,boothia ,felix4 8,the experiences1 duration1 and results of this voyage10 writes ,general ,a4 ,w4 ,greely1 8are among the most extraordinary on record4 ,the party passed five years in the ,arctic regions without fatality1 save three 7two from non-,arctic causes71 discovered a new land1 the northern extremity of the continent of ,america1 and made other extensive geographical discoveries4 ,its observations are probably the most valuable single set ever made within the ,arctic circle40 ,illustration3 ,,eskimos ,,in ,,summer ,,tents4 ,during the third winter 7#ahcc7 a rescuing party under ,captain ,c4 ,back had gone from ,england overland in search of ,ross2 and recruited by ,hudson's ,bay ,company men of experience had descended ,fish 7or ,back's7 ,river to its mouth1 thus noting a new point on the map2 but it failed to reach ,ross4 ,by similar overland journeys from their trading-posts on ,great ,slave ,lake and elsewhere1 the ,hudson's ,bay ,company's men1 especially ,simpson1 ,dease1 and ,rae1 connected various points of the coast1 so that before #ahej it was known with substantial accuracy from ,melville ,peninsula to ,bering ,strait4 ,in much the same way ,russian sledge-travelers had traced the northern ,asiatic coast by descending to the mouths of rivers2 but no ship had yet succeeded in passing ,gape ,chelyuskin1 the northernmost point of ,asia or any continental land4 ,then came a period of the keenest rivalry and richest results in the history of polar conquest1 but also one of the greatest catastrophes4 ,the expeditions of ,lieutenant ,john ,franklin in #ahah and #ahai were spoken of a moment ago4 ,his services then and subsequently had been recognized by the ,british king1 who1 among other honors1 had made ,franklin a knight1 and sent him to be governor of ,van ,diemen's ,land 7,tasmania71 where he remained from #ahcf to #ahdc1 founded a prosperous colony1 and was regarded as one of the wisest1 kindest1 and most upright men of his day4 ,upon his return to ,england ,franklin was made commander of the most important expedition that had ever yet been fitted out to search for the ,northwest ,passage1 and his reputation brought the best men as volunteers to his standard4 ,having selected #acd officers and men1 and made the best equipment possible1 ,captain ,sir ,john ,franklin sailed on ,may #ai1 #ahde1 in the ,erebus and ,terror1 ,parry's old ships4 ,on the #bfth of ,july they were seen proceeding prosperously up ,baffin's ,bay by a whaler1 who reported them in due course1 but neither ships or crews were heard of again for many years4 ,anxiety over the long silence at length aroused the people of ,england and the ,united ,states to begin a search for them which lasted through many years4 ,it was fruitless as to its first object1--the rescue of ,franklin or any survivors1--but it gradually cleared up the sad mystery1 and it was the means of learning all1 and more than all1 that ,franklin sought to ascertain4 ,the search began by the despatch1 early in #ahdh1 of ,sir ,james ,ross in two ships1 ,investigator and ,enterprise1 which wintered near the northeast point of ,north ,devon1 and returned the following year with no tidings1 although they afforded the second officer1 ,lieutenant ,f4 ,r4 ,m',clintock1 an opportunity to acquire a knowledge of sledging1 which he afterward used to advantage4 ,this failure only aroused ,england to renewed efforts4 ,many ships were started out at once1 and also parties overland1 of which mention will be made later4 ,the ,herald and ,plover1 during #ahdh and #ahdi1 scanned the whole coast from ,bering ,sea to the mouth of the ,mackenzie1 and discovered ,herald ,island4 ,following them1 in ,march1 #ahej1 went the ,enterprise1 under ,collinson1 and the ,investigator1 under ,m',clure1 via ,bering ,strait1 while the ,assistance and ,resolute1 with two steam tenders1 under ,captain ,austin1 went to renew the search by ,barrow ,strait1 and two brigs1 the ,lady ,franklin and ,sophia1 under a whaling captain named ,penny1 followed them4 ,the eastern expeditions discovered ,franklin's winter quarters of #ahde-df at ,beechey ,island1 but no record of any kind indicating the direction taken by his ships4 ,admirable arrangements were made for passing the winter1 and their combined sailing and sledging work added much to the map of that district1 and to our knowledge of life in polar latitudes1 but it learned nothing whatever of ,franklin's fate4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,floating ,,ice-,,castle ,,of ,,the ,,frozen ,,north4 8,out from the dark1 mysterious ,north1 ,with all its glamour1 every night ,tingling with unforgotten dreams1 ,and every day flood-full of light40 ,meanwhile the expedition via ,bering ,sea had become separated in the ,pacific1 and ,m',clure1 in the ,investigator1 got so far ahead that he was able to pass through ,bering ,strait and work his way eastward north of ,british ,america1 and through the narrow ,prince of ,wales ,strait until he reached ,princess ,royal ,islands1 where he wintered4 ,here he was only thirty miles from ,barrow ,strait2 and when he had climbed a high hill and saw its ice gleaming in the distance1 he had in reality discovered the ,northwest ,passage4 ,yet he was not the first1 as we now know1 for when the survivors of ,franklin's ships1 in their attempt to escape1 had reached ,cape ,herschel1 they1 too1 saw this same passage they had been sent to find1 but then1 as now1 it was closed by perpetual ice1 so that although we now know the way1 we can no more avail ourselves of it than could they1 except by going south of ,king ,william's ,land1 through a strait of which they had not yet learned4 ,the next summer was spent in a fruitless struggle to get north along the western side of ,banks 7or ,baring7 ,land1 in which he succeeded only far enough to get frozen in so firmly on the north shore of that great island that even the summer warmth did not release his ship4 ,he would have perished had it not been that musk-oxen were plentiful2 and by the spring of #ahec1 it was plain that the ,investigator must be abandoned4 ,the ,enterprise meanwhile had followed ,m',clure in the spring of #ahea1 and passed two years in searching every shore and passage she could find1 while her men made sledge-journeys far and near1 as ,m',clure's men were doing1 and once came within a few miles of ,point ,victory1 where ,franklin's remains would have been found4 ,at last1 in the spring of #ahed1 she succeeded in making her way back along the ,american coast1 and returned to ,england1 completing one of the most remarkable of ,arctic voyages4 ,during their absence the friends of ,franklin had not been idle4 ,the apparent sacrifice of this fine character aroused almost or quite as much interest in ,america as in ,england1 and ,yankee shipmasters knew the north as well as did the men of ,england and ,scandinavia4 ,henry ,grinnell1 a prominent merchant in ,new ,york1 furnished the money to fit out two ships1 the ,advance and ,rescue1 commanded by ,lieutenants ,de ,haven and ,griffiths1 of the ,united ,states navy4 ,they assisted in the search about ,beechey ,island1 then struck north and discovered ,grinnell ,land1 after which they returned before the winter had closed in4 ,with them was a young physician and traveler1 ,dr4 ,elisha ,kent ,kane1 who persuaded ,mr4 ,grinnell to send him again to the north1 less to search for ,franklin1 whom he had despaired of1 than to prosecute explorations in higher latitudes4 ,in #ahec1 in command of the little brig ,advance1 manned principally by whaling men1 he left ,new ,london1 ,conn41 and made his way straight up to the head of ,baffin's ,bay1 which narrows northward into ,smith ,sound1 where1 on the eastern1 or ,greenland1 shore of its expansion1 since called ,kane ,basin1 he was stopped by ice and remained a prisoner until rescued in #ahee4 ,dr4 ,kane wrote the histories of these expeditions1 and especially of the latter one1 in books so charmingly expressed1 and abounding in such novel information1 that they were read like romances in every home in the land1 and did more to fire the ardor for ,arctic discovery which has ever since glowed in this country1 than anything else that had been said or done4 ,the most immediate result was that ,dr4 ,i4 ,i4 ,hayes1 who had been with ,kane1 took a ship to ,smith ,sound and spent the winter of #ahfj-fa there1 but with little result4 ,more came from the expeditions led by an enthusiastic journalist of ,cincinnati1 ,charles ,f4 ,hall1 but before speaking of these1 let us return to the ,english search for ,franklin4 ,undeterred by the failure of ,austin and ,penny1 or the silence of ,collinson and ,m',clure1 the ,british government in #aheb despatched again the four vessels used by ,austin1 and added a fifth1 the ,assistance1 and a store-ship1 the ,north ,star1 to form a dept of supplies at ,beechey ,island4 ,the old haphazard ways had given place to very systematic methods of advance and rescue2 but steam was little employed as yet1 because of the trouble and cost of supplying coal1 although two small steam vessels1 as tenders1 accompanied this1 the largest and most bountifully equipped expedition that had yet started out4 ,the fleet1 under command of ,sir ,edward ,belcher1 proceeded through ,lancaster ,sound1 beyond which they scattered somewhat1 and spent the first winter in extensive sledge-journeys1 during which they discovered 7by a message that ,m',clure had left on ,melville ,island7 where the ,investigator was imprisoned1 and rescued all its people in ,june1 #ahec4 ,this great expedition learned nothing of ,franklin1 although it did learn much of other ,arctic matters1 and left the map substantially complete south and west of ,jones ,sound2 but its honors rested upon ,m',clure1 who1 first of all recorded men1 had really made the ,northwest ,passage by sailing and sledging around the northern end of ,america4 ,the settlement of this long-discussed matter had proved it of no practical value2 but the ,british ,parliament kept its word1 and gave #aj1jjj 7half of the promised reward7 to the officers and crew of the ,investigator1 besides raising ,m',clure to knighthood4 ,an incident of this expedition is the fact that ,kellett's abandoned ship ,resolute survived crushing long enough to drift out through ,barrow ,strait and ,lancaster ,sound and down into ,davis ,strait1 where in ,september1 #ahee1 she was found and towed home by an ,american whaler4 ,as she was little injured1 she was presented to the ,british government with the compliments of the ,united ,states1 and a few years later1 when she came to be broken up1 a fine table was made from her oaken timbers1 and returned as a present to ,uncle ,sam2 and it now stands in the private office of the ,president of the ,united ,states in the ,executive ,mansion at ,washington4 ,two great facts had now been ascertained4 ,one was that none of ,franklin's men or ships survived4 ,the other fact was1 that although there was plenty of water north of the ,american continent1 it was so obstructed by permanent ice that probably no vessel could ever make its way through from the ,atlantic to the ,pacific2 none has done so yet1 despite the determined effort of the steam yacht ,pandora in #ahge1 but ships from the east have reached points also reached by ships from the west4 ,the everlasting ice sheet of the polar ocean1 ever crowding down upon this northern coast and into the channels between the islands north of it1 forms a barrier that will very rarely1 if ever1 pause or open long enough to let a vessel through1 even south of ,king ,william and ,victoria lands4 ,the outflowing warm waters of the rivers or other influences may sometimes produce a narrow space comparatively free from ice in summer along the shore of the continent and greater islands2 but everywhere off shore1 and never at a great distance1 begins a thick mass of perpetual ice1 which1 it is believed1 extends across the pole like a cap1 and reaches on the other side nearly to ,petermannland4 ,to this has been given the name of the ,paleocrystic ,sea1 or sea of ancient ice1 and nothing is known of it beyond the blue cliffs of its margin that confronts the explorer as he gazes abroad from the hills of the ,parry ,islands or ,banks ,land1 or vainly seeks in some lone vessel north of ,alaska or ,siberia to penetrate its glassy front4 ,so thoroughly were the islands of this archipelago explored1 and so unpromising seems further study1 that ,arctic voyagers have long ceased to risk their ships there1 and the story of ,franklin's fate was finally learned by land travelers4 ,as early as #ahed ,dr4 ,rae and a party of ,hudson's ,bay ,company's men had traveled over land and ice to ,king ,william's ,land1 proved it an island1 and heard stories of the death by famine and cold of white men who could be no other than the ,franklin crew1 as was further shown by various relics which ,dr4 ,rae obtained from the ,eskimos4 ,dr4 ,rae claimed and received #aj1jjj of the reward offered by the ,british government4 ,the next year another party1 going down the ,great ,fish ,river1 recovered many other articles from ,eskimos at the mouth of the river and on ,montreal ,island4 ,it was evident even then that every one had perished in an attempt1 nearly successful1 to reach the mainland at the mouth of this river4 ,lady ,franklin1 however1 despatched an expedition in the ,fox1 under the command of the experienced ,m',clintock1 which at last brought back1 not her husband1 but the satisfaction of knowing fully his fate4 ,all along the west and south coast remains of articles belonging to the ships were found1 and skeletons--two of them in a broken boat2 and finally in a stone cairn a written record that briefly told the tale of disaster4 ,illustration3 ,,working ,,through ,,an ,,ice-,,floe1 ,,in ,,tow ,,of ,a ,,berg4 ,in #ahde-df ,franklin quartered at ,beechey ,island1 on the southeast coast of ,north ,devon1 after having ascended ,wellington ,channel to latitude #gg1 and returned west of ,cornwallis ,island1 which was an exceedingly successful season's work4 ,in the autumn of #ahdf he had turned toward the south1 but had been stopped by and frozen into the masses of ice that come ceaselessly down ,m',clintock ,channel and press upon ,king ,william's ,land4 ,had he known ,king ,william's ,land to be really an island he need not have exposed himself to this4 ,during all the summer of #ahdg the ships remained firm in their icy bonds4 ,sir ,john ,franklin died1 and ,captain ,crozier took command4 ,the spring of #ahdh brought no hope1 and in ,april the ships were abandoned4 ,the crews started southward along the shore1 dragging two boats 7one of which was soon abandoned7 and many sledges4 ,the ,eskimos said the men dropped down one at a time1 from weakness and hunger2 but it is believed that many of them were killed by the savages for the sake of what few things they had with them--precious articles to those natives4 ,it appears that one of the vessels must have been crushed in the ice1 and the other stranded on the shore of ,king ,william's ,land1 where it lay for years1 forming a mine of wealth for the neighboring ,eskimos4 ,some years later ,lieutenant ,schwatka and ,w4 ,h4 ,gilder1 traveling with ,eskimo parties in the region near the mouth of the ,great ,fish ,river1 found the graves of the last remnant of the party1 and recovered still other relics of this dreadful calamity4 ,let me copy for you here the postscript1 written by ,crozier and ,fitzjames1 to the short record of their work4 ,it is startlingly brief and impressive3 ,april #be1 #ahdh4 ,h4 ,m4 ships ,terror and ,erebus were deserted on #bbnd ,april1 five leagues ,n4 ,n4 ,w4 of this ,point ,victory1 having been beset since #abth ,september1 #ahdf4 ,the officers and crews1 consisting of #aje souls under the command of ,captain ,f4 ,r4 ,m4 ,crozier1 landed here in lat4 #fi #cg #db ,n41 long4 #ih #da ,w4 ,sir ,john ,franklin died on the #aath ,june1 #ahdg2 and the total loss by deaths in the expedition has been to this date #i officers and #ae men4 ,we start on to-morrow1 #bfth ,april1 #ahdh1 for ,back's ,fish ,river4 ,it would be tedious to attempt to chronicle the almost yearly excursions into the north1 but a few ought to be spoken of4 ,one such has been alluded to--that of ,charles ,hall1 a ,cincinnati journalist1--who enlisted the aid of the ,american ,geographical ,society1 and then prepared himself by going upon a whaler and spending the winters of #ahfj-fa and #ahfa-ahfb among the ,eskimos near ,cumberland ,sound1 where he found the remains of a stone house built by ,frobisher in #aegh4 ,again1 from #ahfd to #ahfi he was living with the wandering ,eskimo north of ,hudson's ,bay1 preparing himself to undertake an expedition which may be said to be the first whose avowed object was to try to reach the ,north ,pole4 ,the ,united ,states government furnished him the steamer ,polaris1 and a small but efficient body of scientific assistants1 one of whom was ,emil ,bessels4 ,the ,polaris passed through ,smith ,sound1 and after completing the exploration of ,kennedy ,channel1 and discovering that beyond its expansion into ,hall ,sound it continued straight northeastward1 forming ,robeson ,channel1 ,hall stopped his ship and by sledge-journeys reached ,cape ,brevoort1 above #hb ,n41 whence he could see the open polar sea4 ,this was not only far beyond any previous northing1 but his work added immensely to our knowledge of both ,grinnell ,land and northwestern ,greenland1 and prepared the way for further successes4 ,this sledge-journey was1 however1 too great a strain1 for he had hardly returned to his ship when he sickened and died4 ,the next season 7#ahgb7 ,dr4 ,bessels and ,sergeant ,mayer reached on foot #hb #ji ,n41 a few miles farther than ,hall4 ,this accomplished1 an attempt was made to return1 but the steamer was soon inclosed in the pack1 and drifted helplessly southward for two months1 until off ,northumberland ,island1 when a violent gale loosened the pack and nearly destroyed her4 ,at length the danger became so great that on ,october #aeth boats and provisions were put on the ice1 on which nineteen of the crew had disembarked4 ,suddenly the ship broke away1 and the party on the ice drifted slowly #aie days1 and were picked up off the coast of ,labrador1 in #ec #ce ,n41 by a whaling steamer #a1cjj miles from where they had parted with the ,polaris4 ,the party in the ship reached ,littleton's ,island1 where they passed the winter1 building two boats from the boards of the vessel1 in which they set sail southwards in ,june1 #ahgc4 ,on the #bc;d of that month they were picked up by a ,dundee whaler1 and ultimately reached home4 ,only three years before that a very similar experience had happened to the smaller ship of a ,german expedition under ,captain ,koldewey1 of which the larger went up the east coast of ,greenland to #ge ,n41 where a grim headland was named ,cape ,bismarck4 ,it is just south of the land sighted by ,lambert in #afgj4 ,the little ,hansa1 however1 was crushed in the ice near ,scoresby ,sound4 ,the crew escaped to the floe1 where they built a house of blocks of patent fuel1 filled it with provisions1 and trusted themselves to the great ,arctic current which carried them south1 at the rate of about sixty-five miles a day at first1 until finally1 in ,june1 #ahgj1 it took them to the ,moravian missions near ,cape ,farewell1 more than twelve hundred miles from where they were wrecked4 ,the seas and archipelagoes north of ,europe were being questioned1 all this time1 as well as those north of ,america4 ,the ,norwegian fishermen had been familiar with ,spitzbergen waters from long ago1 but it was not until #ahfc that the group was circumnavigated4 ,the next year ,captain ,tobieson sailed around ,northeast ,land1 and in #ahgj ,nova ,zembla was circumnavigated1 and the mouth of the ,obi reached4 ,the men who did these feats were sealers or shark-fishers in small stanch ,norwegian schooners1 which flocked in ,barentz ,sea at this period1 and they furnished invaluable material1 as did the whalers and sealers of ,american and ,scotch ports1 for the ice-pilots and crews of the scientific expeditions which now began to go to the north3 moreover many of the commanders were trained by amateur service in such vessels4 ,it was thus ,nordenskjld began his experiences in #ahfd4 ,among these earlier expeditions was an ,austrian naval lieutenant1 ,julius von ,payer1 who became notable1 not only because he interested a new nation in ,arctic research1 but because of his discoveries4 ,his first experience was with the ,german expedition to ,greenland in #ahfi1 and in #ahga he and another ,austrian navy officer named ,weyprecht spent the summer in examining the edge of the ice between ,spitzbergen and ,nova ,zembla4 ,their observations led them to project an expedition to try again at that place to penetrate eastward1 and effect the ,northeast ,passage1 which had been regarded as hopeless for the past hundred years4 ,the idea of making an ,austro-,hungarian expedition of it aroused great enthusiasm in that empire1 and ,payer and ,weyprecht were furnished with the large steamer ,tegethoff1 equipped as well as possible1 with ,weyprecht in command1 while von ,payer was to lead all sledge-parties4 ,she reached the northern end of ,nova ,zembla in time to get into comfortable winter quarters1 but instead of escaping in the spring was kept imprisoned in the ice1 drifting steadily northward before the prevailing wind until1 in ,october1 land was approached1 near which the ship again became a fixture for the winter of #ahgc-gd4 ,in ,march ,payer began to make exploratory journeys1 and found that they had discovered a group of mountainous islands1 separated by broad and deep channels1 which he named ,francis ,joseph ,land1 in honor of the ,emperor of ,austria-,hungary4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,summer ,,scene ,,off ,,nova ,,zembla ,by this time summer was approaching1 when it was plain that the ,tegethoff must be abandoned1 and an attempt made to get home afoot4 ,on the #bdth of ,may three boats were placed on sledges1 other sledges were loaded with provisions1 and the ship's company started on another one of those ,arctic marches that often end at so sad a goal4 ,until the #adth of ,august they were plodding over the ice before they reached the edge of the pack and launched their boats1 in which they sailed for three weeks before being picked up by a ,russian vessel4 ,this has always been regarded as one of the greatest achievements in polar work of this century1 not only because of the heroism and skill shown1 and the new lands discovered1 but because it promised so much for the future--a promise that has been largely fulfilled4 ,the next important expedition was another attack upon the ,northeast ,passage1 the hope of which would not 8down02 and it was under the leadership of ,professor ,adolf ,erik ,nordenskjld1 a ,swedish geologist and naturalist of ,stockholm1 although born in ,finland1 who had made several previous journeys to ,greenland1 ,spitzbergen1 etc41 which were fruitful of scientific results4 ,then he turned his attention to ,siberia2 and in #ahge and again in #ahgf he sailed to the mouth of the ,yenisei1 as also ,captain ,wiggins of ,sunderland1 ,england1 was then doing1 in a profitable trade with the ,siberians1 which has been kept up more or less regularly ever since4 ,these experiences convinced him that it was worth while to try once more to work one's way through the ,siberian ocean to ,bering ,strait4 ,he obtained and outfitted the steamer ,vega1 and arranged that a smaller supply-steamer1 the ,lena1 should accompany him as far as the mouth of the river ,lena--a bold proposition in itself1 for that was a thousand miles beyond the ,yenisei4 ,nevertheless1 this program was carried out2 for leaving ,gothenberg on ,july #d1 #ahgh1 a month later they were traversing the ,kara ,sea1 and on ,august #ai passed ,cape ,chelyuskin1 which1 up to that time1 had defied all attempts and has since closed the gate to all but the daring ,nansen4 ,a week later the mouth of the ,lena was reached1 and the little tender1 unloading her coal and other stores into the depleted hold of the ,vega1 turned west1 and actually sailed back to civilization uninjured4 ,the ,vega then hastened on eastward1 and came near getting right through to ,bering ,strait in that one season2 but this was more than the indulgent ,arctic gods could grant1 and at the end of ,september the men found themselves frozen into the ice off ,north ,cape 7where ,cook turned back in #aggh71 only one hundred and twenty miles from ,bering ,strait4 ,here they were near shore1 the country was inhabited by ,tchuktches--a nomadic people1 with herds of reindeer1 who take the place in ,siberia of the ,eskimos of ,arctic ,america2 and the time was well spent in gathering a knowledge of these people and their country1 and in making very valuable collections in zoology and anthropology4 ,it was not until ,july #ah1 #ahgi1 however1 that their prison-gates opened1 and the ,vega steamed on4 ,these waters were familiar enough to navigators2 and ,nordenskjld proceeded straight east1 passed down through ,bering ,strait on the next day but one 7so near was he71 and thus easily accomplished that which had baffled men since first it had been tried by the unfortunate ,willoughby three hundred and twenty-six years before4 ,but though the ,northeast ,passage had thus been found1 it was of no more practical value to commerce than the solving of the ,northwest ,passage had been1 and the value received from the cruise was in the scientific information gained1 the more accurate delineation of the coast1 and the increased knowledge of winds1 currents1 magnetic phenomena1 and the behavior of the floating ice-fields on that side of the polar area4 ,when at last1 however1 the ,vega had circumnavigated the globe by this extraordinary course1 returning home through the ,suez ,canal1 as no ,arctic expedition had ever been expected to do1 its commander was made a baron1 and all his men were loaded with praises and honors1 while his book1 8,the ,voyage of the ,vega10 printed in four or five languages1 spread their fame throughout the world4 ,now while the ,vega was drifting slowly about northeast of ,siberia during that early summer of #ahgi1 not only were ,schwatka hunting for ,franklin relics with the ,eskimos of ,king ,william's ,land1 the ,danish ,captain ,jansen tracing the northeast coast of ,greenland1 and ,dutch and ,english explorers investigating the neighborhood of ,francis ,joseph ,land1 but within a few leagues of ,nordenskjld and his men there was beginning one of the most dreadful of those tragedies that have seared with suffering the track of ,arctic exploration since men began to pry into the secrets of the frozen ,north3 ,i mean the story of the ,jeannette4 ,many readers of this book will easily remember the intense interest which the starting of this expedition created in the ,united ,states1 for it was organized at the suggestion and expense of ,james ,gordon ,bennett1 the proprietor of the ,new ,york ,herald4 ,the government coperated1 however1 lending from its navy the officers and men needful1 and otherwise aiding the project4 ,the vessel itself was the steam yacht ,pandora1 which had been proved a worthy craft by ,sir ,allen ,young in his search for the magnetic pole in #ahge1 and which ,mr4 ,bennett had bought and rechristened4 ,supplied with everything science and experience could suggest1 the ,jeannette sailed from ,san ,francisco on ,july #h1 #ahgi1 and missing the incoming ,vega among the fogs of ,bering ,sea1 passed through into the ,siberian ocean1 bound poleward4 ,the last report of her was that she had been seen ,september #c;d steaming toward ,wrangell ,land1 which had been sighted by ,american whalers in #ahfg1 and was generally regarded as of continental extent northward4 ,it is now known that ,de ,long intended to reach it and winter there2 but to his dismay he could not escape from the ice-pack1 and to his astonishment found himself drifting past the northern margin of ,wrangell ,land1 thus proving it an island about seventy miles long4 ,when two years had passed and no tidings had been received1 the ,united ,states government equipped a search expedition in the steamer ,rodgers1 commanded by ,lieutenant ,berry1 which in #ahha reached and examined ,wrangell ,land1 and then went north farther even than ,collinson1 reaching #gc #dd1 the highest point yet attained immediately north of ,bering ,strait1 where the paleocrystic ice spreads much farther from the pole than on the ,american side4 ,but he found no trace of the ,jeannette1 and himself had a hard time getting home1 for the ,rodgers was burned in her winter quarters4 ,what then had befallen the lost vessel8 ,she had become beset in the ice and drifted with the pack around the north end of ,wrangell ,island1 and then west1 until at the end of twenty-two months she had been crushed1 and sunk on ,june #ab1 #ahha1 in latitude #gg #ae ,n41 and longitude #aee ,e4 ,two small islands1 named ,jeannette and ,henrietta1 had been visited some distance east of the scene of the catastrophe2 but when the crews1 saving themselves and what little they could on the ice1 started to drag their boats and sledges homeward1 they headed directly south1 and soon found a new island1 named ,bennett1 which is the northernmost of the ,new ,siberia group4 ,it would be a sad task1 were it possible1 to relate here the frightful hardships of that journey through the fast-gathering ,arctic night toward the bleak coast of ,siberia4 ,having passed the islands1 open water was found1 and the starving men embarked in their three boats for the mouth of the ,lena2 but soon they were separated in a storm1 and each one proceeded as best he could4 ,one boat foundered in the first gale4 ,another1 in charge of ,melville 7now engineer-in-chief1 ,u4 ,s4 ,n471 reached an eastern mouth of the river and ascended it to a ,russian village4 ,a third boat1 with ,de ,long and others1 also reached the ,lena delta1 but only two seamen were able to proceed afoot to ,bulun1 a far-away ,russian settlement4 ,melville heard of this1 and made haste to start out searching parties1 but they were too late4 ,de ,long and his crew had died of exhaustion1 and it was not until the next season that their bodies and records were fully recovered4 ,nevertheless1 as we are assured by experts1 the results of this unfortunate expedition were important1 physically and geographically4 8,they covered some #ej1jjj square miles of polar ocean1 and clearly indicate the conditions of an equal area between their line of drift and the ,asiatic coast40 ,de ,long believed the ,siberian ocean to be a shallow sea1 dotted with islands2 and his conclusions have been confirmed by the admirable scientific work since of ,toll1 ,bunge1 and other ,europeans who have explored the ,liachoff ,islands and other places in that part of the ,arctic realm4 ,the desire for scientific study of the polar world had now become the motive for northern research1 though men were still ambitious to reach the pole2 and when ,sir ,george ,nares returned from the great ,british expedition of #ahge1 to tell how the men of the ,alert had reached a wintering-point beyond ,robeson ,channel1 on the west coast of ,greenland1 in latitude #hb #bg ,n41 and that ,markham and a sledge-party had gone about one degree farther 7to #hc #bj #bf ,n471 greater pride was felt in this fact1 perhaps1 than in the careful observations and collections that the ships had made4 ,this remained the advance record until the memorable feat of ,lieutenant ,lockwood of the ,american ,greely expedition eight years later4 ,this expedition was one of several acting in concert1 according to a scheme suggested by ,weyprecht1 and perfected at international congresses of interested men meeting at ,hamburg in #ahgi and at ,st4 ,petersburg in #ahhb4 ,this plan was for the establishment by various governments of a ring of stations as far within the ,arctic circle as practicable1 where simultaneous daily observations of the weather1 magnetic conditions1 tides1 currents1 etc41 might be made4 ,the arrangement was begun in the summer of #ahhc1 and observing stations were established by ,austria on ,jan ,mayen ,island2 by ,denmark at ,godthaab1 ,greenland2 by ,germany on ,cumberland ,bay1 west of ,davis ,straits2 by ,great ,britain at ,great ,slave ,lake1 ,canada2 by ,holland at the mouth of the ,yenisei2 by ,norway at ,alten ,fjiord1 ,norway2 by ,russia at the mouth of the ,lena1 and on ,nova ,zembla2 by ,sweden on ,spitzbergen2 and by the ,united ,states at ,point ,barrow1 ,alaska1 and1 farthest north of all1 ,lady ,franklin ,bay1 ,greenland4 ,nothing need be said about most of these stations--all were successful except the ,dutch2 but to the last-named belongs a story that ,americans will not forget4 ,the command of the ,lady ,franklin ,bay ,station was assigned to ,lieutenant ,a4 ,w4 ,greely--not a naval lieutenant1 but1 like ,schwatka1 a cavalry officer1 then assigned to duty in the ,signal ,service1 to which 7because it then supervised the ,weather ,bureau7 the government had intrusted this matter4 ,a steamer easily conveyed ,greely and his party to ,lady ,franklin ,bay1 and left them there with a good house ready to be set up1 and supplies of all sorts for two years4 ,the prescribed series of observations with barometers and thermometers1 wind-gages1 tide-gages1 magnetic instruments and all the rest1 were at once begun1 and two winters passed comfortably enough4 ,dogs and ,eskimo drivers had been obtained1 and several journeys were made1 of which the most important was ,lockwood's advance toward the pole1 of which an account has been succinctly supplied by ,general ,greely himself in his admirable 8,handbook of ,arctic ,discoveries40 ,illustration3 ,,scenery ,,of ,,grinnell ,,land ,,and ,,the ,,arctic ,,sea4 ,lieutenant ,j4 ,b4 ,lockwood1 one of the principal assistants1 who had already displayed great skill and energy in sledging1 even in prolonged temperature as low as #ha ,f4 below freezing1 undertook a long exploring trip up the ,greenland coast1 to or beyond ,cape ,britannia4 ,a large party went with him at first1 but gradually men were sent back1 after establishing supply-depots4 8,the journey onward was marked by severe storms1 rough ice1 broken sledges1 snow-blindness1 minor injuries1 and--worst of all for loaded sledges--soft1 deep snow40 ,at last1 some distance north of ,cape ,bryant1 all turned back except ,lockwood1 ,sergeant ,brainard1 and an ,eskimo1 ,christiansen1 who1 with twenty-five days' rations1 pushed on4 ,in five and one half days they had reached ,cape ,britannia--the farthest north of the ,nares expedition--#hb #bj ,n4 ,halting here only long enough to study the landscape from its summit1 and make sure of the remarkable fact that this northern end of ,greenland is free from the ice-cap1 whose northern limit is about lat4 #hb ,n41 they rounded a cape1 and crossing channel after channel filled with ice1 which showed that all this district is an archipelago1 reached on ,may #ajth ,mary ,murray ,island1 #hc #ai ,n4 8,a violent gale delayed them sixty-three hours1 the cold exhausting them physically and the delay mentally4 ,if weather forbade travel1 life must be sustained2 but they tasted insufficient food only at intervals of fifteen1 twenty-four1 and nineteen hours--the last as clearing weather made progress possible4 ,floes so high that the sledge was lowered by dog-traces1 ice so broken that the ax cleared the way1 and widening water-cracks in increasing numbers impeded progress4 ,but1 despite all obstacles1 they reached1 ,may #ac1 #ahhb1 ,lockwood ,island1 #hc #bd ,n41 #db1 #de ,w41 the farthest of their journey1 and the highest north by land1 then or now40 ,they could see land several miles northeast1 which they named ,cape ,washington1 the highest known land1 and toward the north could overlook a polar sea to within three hundred and fifty miles of the pole4 ,even here plants were numerous1 and foxes1 hares1 lemmings1 and ptarmigans existed4 ,the three heroic travelers returned safely1 reaching headquarters on ,june #c;d4 ,another expedition by ,lockwood and his two companions explored and located the west coast of mountainous and glacier-girt ,grinnell ,land1 where the musk-ox and ,eskimo hunters range to the northern border4 ,the summer of #ahhc brought no relief-ship1 and the plan of escape must be put into execution at once4 ,a ship had1 in fact1 tried to reach ,greely in #ahhb1 but1 failing1 had left supplies of provisions at ,cape ,sabine and elsewhere4 ,in #ahhc another relief expedition sent north was dreadfully mis-managed1 and finally the ship itself was lost1 and1 instead of leaving supplies1 took away all that had been stored at ,cape ,sabine--the precise point where they were to be needed4 ,leaving ,lady ,franklin ,bay in ,august in open boats1 the party managed1 after desperate exertions1 to get near ,cape ,sabine1 and safely landed on ,bedford ,pim ,island1 on the northwestern shore of ,smith ,sound1 ,october #ae1 #ahhc4 ,of the misery that followed1 let ,greely himself tell us3 ,winter had begun1 the polar night was imminent1 clothing in rags1 fuel wanting1 and forty days' rations must tide over #bej days1 till help could come4 ,the main party put up a hut of rocks1 canvas1 boat- and snow-slabs1 while selected men scoured the coasts for caches1 sought land-game1 and watched seal-holes1 until utter darkness drove all to the hut4 ,scientific observations were unremittingly made1 amusements devised1 a spring campaign planned1 and the returning sun found only one dead4 ,efforts to cross ,smith ,sound failed1 and a hunting trip to the west found a new 7,schley7 land1 but no game4 ,finally game came so inadequately that food failed1 and one by one men died--,jens seal-hunting1 and ,rice striving to bring in a cache4 ,courage and solidarity continued2 and if ,greely gave to the maimed ,ellison double food while it lasted1 he did not hesitate to order in writing the execution of a man serving under an assumed name of ,henry1 who repeatedly stole sealskin thongs1 the only remaining food4 ,flowers1 plants1 seaweed1 and lichens eked out life for the six1 till ,june #bb1 #ahhd1 when the relief-ships1 ,thetis and ,bear1 under ,captain ,w4 ,s4 ,schley and ,commander ,w4 ,h4 ,emory1 rescued them4 ,records1 instruments1 and collections were saved to tell the story of an expedition that failed not in aught intrusted to it1 and whose members perished through others4 ,to another piece of brilliant work1 that of ,lieutenant ,r4 ,e4 ,peary1 ,u4 ,s4 ,n41 ,i can give only a few words1 because1 like so much else that might be said of ,arctic researches1 it was by land rather than by sea4 ,by extraordinary courage1 skill1 and endurance1 he twice crossed northern ,greenland1 showed that it is an island having a northern shore free from inland ice in about #hb north latitude1 and made stronger ,greely's conclusion that the lands visited and seen by ,lockwood1 north of ,cape ,britannia1 are detached islands4 ,peary's work may be said to have completed the map of the continental boundary of the ,arctic ,ocean1 but he is still busy there4 ,of ,nansen1 on the contrary1 ,i ought to say as much as ,i can1 because his extraordinary voyage in the ,fram was perhaps more purely an examination of the ,arctic ,sea than any other ever made4 ,dr4 ,fridtjoff ,nansen was a young ,norwegian who had already made his mark in ,greenland1 where1 soon after #ahhj1 articles began to be found that had belonged to the ,jeannette1 and apparently must have drifted thence from where she was lost off ,siberia4 ,this was only a part of the indications that convinced ,dr4 ,nansen that a current flowed across the unknown polar space from the neighborhood of ,alaska to the northeast coast of ,greenland1 and thence became the great ,arctic current that we recognize south of ,iceland4 ,he argued that if a vessel could find this current north of eastern ,siberia1 she would be moved with it until she emerged into the ,atlantic4 ,incidentally she might drift directly over the pole4 ,with this in view1 he raised funds to build and equip a small wooden vessel1 furnished with both steam and sails1 which was so shaped by the roundness of her bottom1 and so amazingly braced and strengthened within1 that before any 8nips0 of the ice would crush her1 the pressure would lift her out of water--as1 in fact1 happened many times in the course of her wonderful excursion4 ,nansen chose twelve companions1#c and though some of them were educated men of science1 others skilful sea-captains1 and others common sailors1 all lived and worked together in one cabin as brothers--the happiest and healthiest lot of men that ever ventured into the hyperborean kingdom of desolation4 ,leaving ,norway in ,july1 #ahic1 he struggled through the ,kara ,sea1 and it was not until late in ,september1 #ahid1 that he found himself permanently frozen into the great polar pack1 north of the ,new ,siberian ,islands2 but even then he was neither so far north nor so far west as he hoped to get1 and feared that he was south of his supposed current4 ,for the story of the strange life led by those thirteen men on that drifting ship1 safe1 abundantly provisioned1 dry1 warm1 lighted by electricity 7power for the dynamos being gained by a windmill71 ,i can only refer you to ,dr4 ,nansen's book1 8,farthest ,north10 one of the most interesting ,arctic volumes ever penned4 ,turning1 zigzagging1 now advancing and again retreating as the constantly moving ice swayed here and there under the pressure of wind or the dragging of currents1 they nevertheless made a gradual progress westward4 ,by ,march they had reached a point near the crossing of the #gjth meridian and #heth parallel1 and were still fixed in the ice4 ,then ,nansen1 taking with him ,lieutenant ,johansen1 started north by dog-sledges1 in an attempt to reach the pole4 ,they could take very few supplies of any sort1 and how far north they would be able to travel must depend upon their ability to return1 not to the ,fram1 which would drift on1 but to the islands of ,francis ,joseph ,land1 far away south4 ,the ice1 bad at first1 grew worse as they proceeded1 being one long stretch of hummocks and jagged ditches1 with now and then a lane of open water around which they would toil in misery only to find a worse one ahead4 ,on ,april #gth it became certain that they must turn back4 ,this was 8farthest north10 indeed--just above the #hfth degree1 hardly #bge miles from the ,north ,pole4 ,then it was a race against death by cold1 or drowning1 or starvation4 ,one by one the dogs were killed to furnish food for the remainder4 ,at last1 after almost superhuman labors and thrilling escapes from freezing and drowning and the attacks of famished bears1 they reached ,francis ,joseph ,land1 and spent a winter in a hut made out of stones1 earth1 and raw walrus hides4 ,the next spring they plodded on1 and by good chance found the camp of the ,jackson ,harmsworth surveying party 7which a few days later would have gone away in its steamer71 by whom ,nansen and ,johansen were carried to ,norway in ,august1 #ahif4 ,a week later the ,fram came in1 with every one well and hearty1 having emerged from the ice just northwest of ,spitzbergen4 ,since ,nansen's return another ,scandinavian1 ,s4 ,a4 ,andre1 with two companions1 has disappeared into this same desert of ice and silence1 in a balloon carrying a boat1 sledge1 tent1 and various supplies4 ,it was his intention to reach the pole if possible1 and to do whatever else circumstances permitted4 ,since his departure1 on ,july #aj1 #ahig1 from ,spitzbergen1 he has not been heard from1 except by a pigeon-message two days later4 ,,the ,,south ,,pole ,we have followed up to date the history of adventurous and scientific exploration of the hardly yielding1 yet steadily narrowed1 circles of unknown coasts and waters about the ,north ,pole4 ,let us now see what1 thus far1 has been done to wrest from the ocean and ice of its ,antarctic antipodes the secrets of the ,south ,pole4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,penguin-,,roost ,,on ,,the ,,beaches ,,of ,,victoria ,,land4 ,drawn by the ,antarctic explorer ,borchgrevink4 ,almost three hundred years ago the existence of islands far to the southward of any continents became known to navigators1 who were driven thither by bad weather1 and little by little was added to the map of this desolate region2 but it was not until #aggb that any one went into that terrible ,antarctic sea for the express purpose of a survey4 ,this man was the intrepid ,captain ,cook1 and though he sailed a third of the way around the globe in his efforts to find an entrance through the icy barrier1 he could never penetrate beyond #ga south latitude1 which is equal to ,north ,cape1 or the town of ,upernavik1 in the ,arctic region4 ,later captains did little better1 until #ahda1 when ,sir ,james ,ross1 in his ships ,erebus and ,terror1--the same vessels which afterward met their destruction with the ill-fated ,franklin expedition1--skirted the edge of the thick ice that everywhere clothed the land1 though it was midsummer1 and finally reached the base of the southernmost land yet known on the globe--a magnificent mountain-chain stretching away to the south from latitude #gh #aj4 ,the most conspicuous point of all this range of polar mountains1 which rises from an unexplored continent or great island called ,victoria ,land1 is the volcano ,mt4 ,erebus4 ,it was in eruption at the time of ,ross's visit1 and the explorer tries to tell us of the splendor of its display when the wide glistening waste of snow and the deep blue of the ocean and the starry sky are lit up by the column of fire hurled thousands of feet heavenward from its crater3 but who can picture the grandeur of such a scene6 ,this volcano is about #ab1djj feet high1 and an extinct neighbor1 ,mt4 ,terror1 is still higher2 while a third peak1 ,mt4 ,melbourne1 exceeds #ae1jjj feet in altitude1 and like all the rest is covered with everlasting snow and glaciers from the tempestuous water's edge to its lonely crest4 ,meager as this information is1 it is about all we know of the surface of the globe within the ,antarctic circle2 and it will be extremely difficult to learn much more4 ,in a latitude much farther from the pole than that where in the north vegetation is abundant1 and men and animals live all the year round1 the severity of the ,antarctic climate cuts off all life1 and constantly seals the water under a cap of ice4 ,the coasts and outlying islands thus far examined appear to be wholly volcanic1 often composed of nothing but alternate layers of ashes and ice2 but the ,challenger staff dredged up from the edge of the ice south of the middle of the ,indian ,ocean pieces of granite-like and other rocks1 such as belong to land regularly formed2 so that probably the whole uplift does not consist of volcanic materials2 and1 furthermore1 rocks containing fossil plants have been found on some of the southernmost islands which show that in past ages--the period of the coal deposits--the climate of that end of the world was mild enough to support forests of trees and1 doubtless1 a large variety of herbage and animals4 ,now most of the coast is unapproachable on account of a border of sea-ice1 or else cliffs of moving land-ice 7glaciers7 that give off the flat1 table-topped icebergs characteristic of the south polar waters4 ,no trace of any land animal--except visiting sea-fowl--has been found1 and only a little of the simplest plants 7lichens72 nor is this surprising when we learn that the highest noonday heat of summer is only a little above the freezing-point4 ,why this intense cold and dreadful desolation exists so much farther from the pole in the southern than in the northern hemisphere1 ,i need hardly explain to you2 for you will recall that in the north the continents are so broad as to form almost an unbroken wall about the narrow polar sea1 confining its cold waters1 warming the air by wide radiation1 and guiding the heated flood of the ,gulf ,stream straight into the northern sea4 ,in the southern hemisphere1 on the other hand1 an immense breadth of ocean south of latitude #dj is broken by no land of any account1 and the southward flowing warm water from the equator becomes spread out so thin upon the vast surface that it is rapidly chilled4 ,it is now generally believed1 as has been hinted1 that the south polar region is a continental mass1 deeply buried in an ice-sheet that is ever fed in the center as fast as it wastes away at the circumference2 for the prevailing winds there tend toward the pole from all sides1 and carry loads of moisture to be condensed and fall in ceaseless snows4 ,illustration3 ,,ice-,,cliffs ,,and ,,table-,,topped ,,bergs1 ,,characteristic ,,of ,,the ,,antarctic ,,region4 ,the ,antarctic seas1 however1 are by no means lifeless1 but abound not only in fishes1--cod are said to throng in these waters in prodigious numbers1--but several varieties of whales1 dolphins1 and their kin 7which will be described in one of the later chapters71 and many kinds of seals1 notably the huge sea-elephant1 now becoming rare elsewhere4 ,then1 too1 the ,antarctic islands and headlands are the resort of enormous flocks of certain sea-birds1 all different from the ,arctic species of their families1 which subsist upon the fishes and less creatures in the water1 and go to the lonely shores outside the ice-cap only for rest and to make their nests4 ,of all these the penguins are most numerous and most hardy1 and a whole chapter might easily be given to their quaint appearance and quainter ways4 ,it also appears probable that certain migratory birds--especially beach-feeding kinds--regularly visit the ,antarctic continent in summer from ,patagonia1 and breed there4 ,now what has been gained by all the expense1 exertion1 and hardship of polar exploration8 ,what has been the charm that has led wise and brave men to overcome terrific obstacles1 and turn again with deeper and deeper longings toward the mystic icy regions8 ,lieutenant ,maury has given one answer3 8,there icebergs are framed and glaciers launched4 ,there the tides have their cradle3 the whales their nursery4 ,there the winds complete their circuits1 and the currents of the sea their round in the wonderful system of interoceanic circulation4 ,there the ,aurora ,borealis is lighted up1 and the trembling needle brought to rest2 and there1 too1 in the mazes of that mystic circle1 terrestrial forces of occult power and vast influence upon the well-being of man are continually at play4444 ,noble daring has made ,arctic ice and waters classic ground4 ,it is no feverish excitement nor vain ambition that leads man there4 ,it is a higher feeling1 a holier motive1 a desire to look into the works of creation1 to comprehend the economy of our planet1 and to grow wiser and better by the knowledge40 ,to polar explorers we owe not only the discovery of the waters1 coasts1 and archipelagoes that now are accurately outlined upon our maps within the ,arctic and ,antarctic circles1 but vast and valuable products--whale-fisheries1 seal-fisheries1 cod-fisheries1 and many other additions to the wealth of the world from the sea1 while the ,arctic lands have yielded furs and other valuable things in great quantity4 ,the study of the people living under those adverse northern conditions has been highly instructive1 assisting us to reconstruct the life in the primitive world2 and what we have learned from the records of the ,arctic rocks has thrown a bright and unexpected light upon the antiquity of the globe4 ,to studies of the ocean and atmosphere in very high latitudes science is largely indebted for new facts in magnetism1 in the movements of the air and causes of climate1 in the formation and behavior of ice and icebergs1 in the action of tides and ocean-currents1 and in many other departments of knowledge1 all of which have been made of use especially to the navigator4 ,nor has this cost over much4 ,attention has been called to every casualty1 and the romantic light of adventure has brought into high relief all the hardships and sometimes horrors of ,arctic experience2 but the records show that the average of loss and suffering in ,arctic work is not greater than that of ordinary seafaring and naval careers4 ,sir ,leopold ,m',clintock has stated publicly that during the thirty-six years when ,great ,britain was most active in polar research1 she lost only one expedition and #abh persons out of forty-two successive expeditions sent out1 and never lost a sledge-party out of a hundred that made overland journeys4 ,after all1 no doubt1 the best result has been the human heroism displayed1 and the human sympathy developed4 8,there are10 exclaims ,professor ,nourse1 8and ever will be1 fair fruits born out of such acts of high aspiration1 energy1 and fortitude1 in those who have gone out1 and in their liberal supporters2 exemplars for the lifting up of the discouraged1 the education of the young4 ,certainly volunteers for the paths of discovery will offer themselves until the fullest additions to the domain of science have had their ingathering40 ,illustration3 ,,eager ,,to ,,be ,,first ,,ashore ,,in ,a ,,new ,,land4 ,illustration3 ,,drawn ,,by ,,howard ,,pyle4 ,,engraved ,,by ,m4 ,,haider4 ,,the 8,,constitution',s0 ,,last ,,fight4 ,,footnote3 #c ,the success of this most hazardous venture1 although its crew numbered thirteen1 is equal to the success of ,columbus's first voyage1 although it began on ,friday6 8,luck0 has no show when it is pitted against pluck4 ,,chapter ,,vi ,,war-,,ships ,,and ,,naval ,,battles ,,part ,i--,,wooden ,,walls1 ,,from ,,salamis ,,to ,,trafalgar ,naval warfare1 properly speaking1 begins with the battle of ,salamis1 #dhj ,b4 ,c41 when the ,greek fleet1 under the guidance of ,themistocles1 destroyed or put to flight a horde of twelve hundred ,persian vessels1 and saved ,athens1 to become the foundation of a strong nation4 ,of these ships at ,salamis we know very little1 except that they were large1 open1 or partly open1 rowboats1 having platforms at the stern and prow1 and perhaps amidships in some cases1 where soldiers might stand and discharge their arrows out of the way of the rowers beneath them1 or leap aboard the enemy's boats whenever they could be reached4 ,they were1 in short1 early types of the galleys which subsequently became vessels of war as powerful and serviceable1 under the conditions they were intended to meet1 as are our battle-ships to-day1 and probably safer as a fighting-place for their crews4 ,that from rowboats rather than from sail-boats should have been developed the highest type of ,mediterranean war-vessel of ancient times is not surprising when one remembers the light and variable winds of that region1 the usually smooth seas1 the abundance of harbors1 and1 above all1 the need of having the vessels under complete control when all fighting had to be done at short range--chiefly by ramming and boarding1 in fact4 ,it must be remembered1 too1 that labor was cheap2 and it was considered that the most proper and economical--not to say humane--use to which prisoners of war could be put was to make them rowers in public ships1 while enough remained to be sold as slaves to the owners of private yachts and privateering galleys4 ,one may imagine a worse fate than this4 ,the earliest war-vessels of the eastern ,mediterranean--those of ,homer's time1 for instance--seem to have been long and rather narrow rowboats1 the best of which had two tiers of oars1 one above the other1 the lower1 shorter tier working through oval holes in the side1 and the upper in notches or thole-pins on the gunwale4 ,this left the upper rowers exposed1 and hence such vessels were called aphract1 or 8unfenced02 and it was not until the ,greeks began to become prominent that the bulwarks were raised high enough to protect all the rowers1 and war-vessels generally became cataphract1 or 8fenced40 ,it appears that in very early times war-ships 7biremes7 with not only two tiers or banks of oars1 but even those 7triremes7 with three banks1 were used2 and the trireme became the type of the most numerous and effective vessels of the ,greek and ,roman navies in their prime4 ,and as weight and power gradually increased1 the crushing power of collision began to be utilized1 and ramming came in as a more and more important feature in naval tactics4 ,as the ,greeks seem to have first applied these new ideas1 it is quite likely that their success at ,salamis was due to these improvements4 ,the arrangement was this3 ,from the side of the vessel 7inside7 projected three rows of benches1 a yard apart1 horizontally supported at their inner ends by timbers that slanted toward the stern at such an angle that the top seat of each row was exactly above the bottom seat of the row behind it4 ,the oars of the top tier 7thranite7 were about fourteen feet long1 those of the middle tier 7zygite7 about ten and one half feet1 and the lowermost one 7thalamite7 seven and one half feet4 ,each oar was so nearly balanced in its oar-port as to work in the easiest manner1 tied there by a thong and surrounded by a loose sleeve of leather which kept out the water4 ,each one of the lowermost oars was worked by a single man1 the middle ones by two1 and those of the third tier by three or four1 as they were of great length4 ,in later times larger vessels were invented for special purposes--four-banked 7quadriremes71 five-banked 7quinquiremes71 and so on1 even up to one of forty banks2 but as we are unable to understand how it was possible for more than five or six tiers of oars to be operated1 we may leave these extraordinary galleys to special students4#d ,the structure of these vessels gave them the greatest strength combined with lightness4 ,they had very strong keels and stems1 the latter peculiarly braced2 and along their sides ran waling-pieces1 or fore-and-aft bracing timbers1 the lowermost curving inward forward1 until they met in front of the stem at the water-line1 where they were braced by massive timbers1 and prolonged into a sharp three-toothed spur1 of which the middle tooth was the longest1 reaching out perhaps ten feet4 ,this was covered with metal1 usually bronze1 and formed the beak4 8,above it1 but projecting less beyond the stem-post1 was the procmbolion1 or second beak1 in which the prolongation of the upper set of waling-pieces met4 ,this was generally fashioned into the figure of a ram's head1 also covered with metal4444 ,these bosses1 when a vessel was rammed1 completed the work of destruction begun by the sharp beak at the water-level1 giving a racking blow which caused it to heel over and so eased it off the beak1 releasing the latter before the weight of the sinking vessel could come upon it40 ,illustration3 ,,hamilcar',s 8,,stairway ,,of ,,the ,,galleys10 ,,at ,,carthage4 ,the stem was often carried up into a curving ornament called the acrostolion1 beneath which was a stout-walled deck-space for sailors or the fighting-men to do their work2 and the stern-post similarly supported a lofty1 richly ornamented structure 7aplustron71 arching over the officers' quarters4 ,platforms extended up and down the center of the ship between the rowers2 and over their heads was a deck having walls or bulwarks where the fighting-men and their various 8engines0 stood4 ,in addition to this an external defended gallery for soldiers and boarders usually ran along the outside of the bulwarks above the oars2 and awnings of rawhide were stretched over all to ward off grappling-irons4 ,it must not be forgotten1 however1 that these galleys also had three pole-masts1 and certain sails--probably a huge split lug1 with possibly a square topsail on the mainmast1 while the fore- and mizzenmasts carried lateens4 ,at the top of each stick was a round1 protected cage filled with archers and slingers--the prototype of our 8military mast40 ,nor are the size and force of these ,greek and ,roman men-of-war to be despised4 ,the ordinary trireme had a crew of #bjj to #bbe men in all1 #agd of whom were rowers4 ,the space for cabins and stowage must have been little1 but this was of small account1 since the war-galleys rarely undertook long cruises1 their tactics being a rush and a sharp fight1 and then a quick return to harbor1 where it was the practice to draw the lighter galleys up on shore each night4 ,the transportation of the ships across the isthmus of ,corinth was not1 then1 so astonishing a feat as it is sometimes called4 ,rome's experience1 however1 gained in war and in suppressing the ,levantine pirates1 taught her to abandon the heavy1 many-banked1 unwieldy vessels she had at first developed from ,greek and ,carthaginian models1 and to trust to a much lighter1 swifter1 and more manageable style1 with far less upper structure and rigging1 and having only two banks of oars4 ,these were called ,liburnian galleys4 ,with this change came naturally one of tactics1 capture by chase and boarding taking the place of the earlier attempt to crush by ramming and overriding the antagonist4 ,the armament comprised not only as many soldiers with bows and javelins as could find room in action1 but various machines of offense and defense1 such as catapults hurling huge stones or marble grape-shot1 spearheaded rams or huge knives that could be run out against an enemy's hull or rigging1 arrangements for smashing the enemy's decks1 caldrons swung at yard-arms1 holding burning pitch or oil to be poured upon the foe1 and often cranes 7corvi71 provided with grapples that1 if one could be made fast1 would lift an adversary out of water1 and turn him upside down4 ,no more vivid picture of the life in cruise and battle of a ,roman man-of-war's man is known to me than that penned by ,general ,lew ,wallace in 8,ben ,hur10 but ,i cannot1 of course1 transfer all of it to my pages1 as ,i should like to do1 and an extract here and there would only spoil the pleasure in store for you in re-reading it all4 ,of medieval naval warfare in the ,mediterranean1 the struggles between the weak 8principalities and powers0 that followed the decay of ,rome and lasted for a dozen centuries1 we know very little4 ,there is more obscurity here than even elsewhere in the dim history of the dark ages4 ,it is evident1 however1 that not much change took place in naval architecture4 ,the ,byzantine empire succeeded to ,rome as mistress of the seas1 and we know that in the ninth century the ,byzantine emperors were still building biremes 7then called dromones7 armed with tubes for spouting ,greek fire4 ,it should be noted that boats having only a single bank of oars came now to be called galleys2 and this is the first and proper use of the word1 though popularly it is now 7or until recently was7 applied to any large many-oared boat4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,combat ,,of ,,roman ,,galleys 7,,biremes74 ,with the introduction of gunpowder and cannon into naval vessels1 the ornamental top-works--a picturesque relic of which remains in the ,venetian gondola of to-day--disappeared1 as we see when the clear light of history begins to shine on the fleets of ,venice and ,genoa1 when these cities were leaders of the world in navigation4 ,turkey--the successor of the old ,byzantine empire and of the ,greek power--was then1 as now1 the great enemy of the west1 but in those days it was aggressive4 ,its fleets were strong and well manned1 and they threatened to cross the ,adriatic and fasten the baneful grasp of the ,moslem upon ,italy in revenge for the persecution of the ,moors in ,spain4 ,perhaps they would have done so had not ,john of ,austria1 admiral of the allied navies of ,spain1 ,venice1 and ,rome1 won that great victory in the harbor of ,lepanto1 near the isthmus of ,corinth1 which destroyed nearly the whole ,turkish fleet1 and released fifteen thousand ,christian galley-slaves4 ,this was in ,october1 #aega1 and it saved the ,west from being overrun by the barbarous ,east1 as exactly fifteen and a half centuries before it had been saved near ,actium1 a famous promontory on the northwestern coast of ,greece1 where ,octavius defeated the forces of ,antony and ,cleopatra4 ,it is doubtful whether the ships that fought in the later battle were much different in either build or rig from those of the earlier conflict1 but their decks no more gleamed with men in armor1 and in place of catapult1 crane1 and caldron were cannonades and falconets1 arquebuses and hand-grenades4 ,perhaps1 however1 they had already taken on more of that long1 low shape characterizing later the ,french and ,italian galleys1 common enough in ,mediterranean ports up to about one hundred years ago1 which differed mainly from the ancient ones in their use of much longer oars or sweeps1 balanced upon a sort of extended outrigger or shelf projecting from the vessel's side4 ,the galleass of which we hear in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries was a large war-ship of this style1 which foreshadowed the ,atlantic ships1 to be spoken of presently1 in having castellated structures fore and aft1 in which were mounted sometimes twenty guns2 besides its two or three lateen-rigged masts1 it often had thirty-two sweeps on each side1 each about forty-five feet long1 and handled with a long1 slow stroke by five or six men--in ,france mainly convicts 8condemned to the galleys40#e ,such vessels continued to be used by the ,spaniards1 ,maltese1 ,italians1 and ,turks long after they had been abandoned by the ,french navy1 but latterly1 after the suppression of piracy1 in which they were of especial service1 for the conveyance of important personages and occasions of ceremony rather than for practical service2 and in the state barge of the ,doge of ,venice1 brought out annually to this day at the ceremony of re-wedding ,venice to the ,adriatic1 we have a magnificent relic of these stately craft4 ,illustration3 ,,type ,,of ,,venetian ,,galley4 ,but such boats were adapted only to the comparatively calm and simple navigation of the ,mediterranean2 and although imitated in the similar waters of the eastern ,baltic1 they never flourished north of ,spain4 ,when they gradually disappeared1 their successor inside the gates of ,gibraltar was the xebec1 which began to appear under ,arab or ,spanish control in the seventeenth century2 this was supposed to be able to withstand any weather1 and carried from fourteen to twenty-two guns on deck1 with small ports for oars between the guns4 ,a picturesque relative was the ,portuguese muleta4 ,the ,english liked this kind of vessel on account of its strong sailing qualities1 but when they took it into their own stormy waters they found it necessary to raise its sides to fit them for breasting the high seas that roll in the open ,atlantic or are tossed by the contending tides of the ,english ,channel1 and developed out of it a style of swift and handy vessel called a frigate4 ,during all these 8middle0 ages the northern nations had been sailing and fighting on the sea as well as the southerners4 ,stories of sturdy battles have come down in tradition and in such chronicles as those of ,froissart2 but those old conflicts seem to have produced little change in ship-building or armament until the experience and wisdom brought back by the ,crusaders began to spread abroad even in the half-savage ,north1 and to produce that revival of learning which by and by was to make such striking changes in western ,europe2 and here the leaders are ,englishmen4 ,illustration3 ,,forecastle ,,of ,,the 8,,great ,,harry0 78,,gr,,ce ,,de ,,dieu074 ,in those days no national navies1 properly speaking1 existed in ,england1 ,france1 or northward4 ,when a monarch wished to transport troops by water to some other land1 or make a naval expedition or campaign1 he fitted out the ships that belonged to the crown as the king's personal property1 and compelled his subjects to furnish the rest1 just as his feudal provinces and cities and lords were expected to equip and bring to his standard any land forces required4 ,it was to systematize this method somewhat in ,england that ,william the ,conqueror 8established the ,cinque ,ports1 and gave them certain privileges on condition of their furnishing #eb ships1 with #bd men in each1 for #ae days1 in cases of emergency40 ,now and then1 at first1 ,englishmen were disposed to resist the 8arrest0 of ships1 which might easily mean the ruin of their business2 and special laws had to be made to quell this reluctance4 ,another quaint and significant feature of that practice was this3 ,in every fleet one or more ships were set apart as 8royal10 and either the king or his representatives occupied them with court ceremony to carry out the fiction of royal dominion over the sea as well as upon the land4 ,it naturally followed in ,england that after her navy had shown its power1 and signalized it especially by a brilliant victory over ,spain in #achj1 ,edward ,,iii should have assumed as an additional title 8,king of the ,seas0--an act which had far-reaching consequences4 ,during the fifteenth century something like an established navy was foreshadowed2 but it was not until the reign of ,henry ,,vii1 when1 at the end of the fifteenth century1 the whole world was exploring the oceans and awakening to the importance of sea power1 that the first vessel1 properly called a national war-ship1 was built1 equipped1 manned1 and sustained at government expense by ,england4 ,this was the ,great ,harry--a floating fortress rather than a ship2 for1 with her towering1 overweighted 8castles0 fore and aft1 she was unseaworthy1 and came near being sunk by a slight rolling which poured the water into her lower ports4 ,but a better known 8,great ,harry0 was the ,henri ,grce de ,dieu1 built by ,henry ,,viii4 ,this king was the real founder of the ,british navy1 providing for it many good ships1 dock-yards1 trained officers1 and regularly enlisted crews4 ,the advantage of this organization and the superiority of ,english seamanship were demonstrated in the next reign by the defeat of the ,spanish ,armada4 ,england was then at war with ,spain1 and ,philip ,,ii thought to end the matter by means of the greatest expedition ever heard of4 ,it began to be prepared in #aehg under the title of the ,most ,fortunate ,armada1#f but an ,english squadron under ,drake attacked the rendezvous at ,cadiz1 destroyed over one hundred vessels and huge quantities of stores1 and then so ravaged the neighboring coasts as to delay ,spain's project for a whole season4 ,in midsummer of #aehh1 however1 after an unlucky start1 in which it was driven back by storms1 the dreaded ,armada appeared in the ,english ,channel1 like a close flock of huge birds drifting along the ,british coast4 ,it consisted of about #acj ships1 seven of which exceeded #ajjj tons burden1 and numerous small craft1 and was armed with nearly #cjjj cannon4 ,its commander was the ,duke of ,medina ,sidonia1 who was a most incompetent man for the post1 and it bore1 besides nearly #aj1jjj sailors and galley-slaves1 over #aj1jjj soldiers2 but this naval force was not intended to attack ,england until after it had ferried over from ,belgium the ,spanish army of the ,duke of ,parma4 ,to such a force as this ,england opposed a miserably small fleet--only #cd vessels that could be called ships2 but she hastily armed as many more smaller ones as she could1 amid great fright and excitement1 until finally ,admiral ,howard commanded #hj or #ij ships and boats4 ,there was no deficiency in his men1 however1--the pick of ,english 8sea-dogs0 was at his call2 and among the leaders of the pack were men we have already met elsewhere--,francis ,drake1 ,john ,hawkins1 ,martin ,frobisher1 and others4 ,what a sight it must have been on that ,august day as these ships1 flying the huge banners of ,castile1 standing high out of the water1 with lofty 8castles0 forward and aft1 gaudy with carving and color1 the light rippling here from silken pennants and flashing there from shining cannon or huge poop-lanterns1 moved past the southern headlands of ,england1 watched by half-raging1 half-fearful crowds6 ,and how mystified and indignant must these watching country people have been when ,admiral ,howard1 their only defender1 calmly let the ,armada sail by ,plymouth1 where the ,english fleet lay hid in the ,solent1 and ,captain ,drake coolly insisted upon finishing a game of bowls before he would go down to his waiting frigate4 ,illustration3 ,,style ,,of ,,ships ,,in ,,the ,,time ,,of ,,the ,,armada4 ,but these captains knew what they were about4 ,in those days1 as now1 in fighting with sailing-vessels the advantage is usually with the one who attacks from the windward side2 for then he can manuver his vessel1 whereas his enemy1 heading toward the wind1 can do so only with difficulty if at all1 and hence cannot easily take a good position or escape from a bad one4 ,howard1 therefore1 waited until the closely crowded squadrons of ,spain had passed beyond him up the ,channel1 when he issued from ,plymouth harbor1 bore down upon their rear from the windward1 and proceeded1 as one of the reports expressed it1 to 8pluck their feathers40 ,then began some wonderful days of sea history and naval schooling4 ,the ,spanish vessels were floating castles armed with heavy guns and crowded with soldiers armed with muskets and 8harquebuses of crock10--that is1 great blunderbusses supported upon a portable rest4 ,they kept in a close crowd1 like a phalanx of old ,swiss infantry1 and supposed that the ,english would move against them in another dense raft1 and that they would fight from deck to deck of grappled ships as if they were on land4 ,but the ,english knew better4 ,they had few ships as large--the ,triumph1 #aajj tons1 was the biggest--or guns as heavy as the ,spaniards'4 ,instead of attacking in a solid mass1 therefore1 they spread out1 hovered on the flanks1 darted a ship here and there1 fired as they saw opportunity1 and kept their own vessels out of danger as much as possible4 ,in the light and variable winds that prevailed1 the great galleons of the ,armada were almost immovable1 while the ,english for the most part had smaller1 lighter vessels1 whose nimbleness and ready obedience to the helm astonished the ,spanish4 ,standing low in the water1 these would drive their shot right through the enemy's hulls1 and make off before the ,spaniard could depress his guns enough to do any damage in return2 while the army of musketeers upon whom he had relied so strongly had little chance to do anything at all4 ,thus for a week the ,english frigates and armed fishing-boats harassed the ,armada on its way up the ,channel1 capturing and sinking many of the ships1 while losing some of its own1 of course1 until at last the worried and baffled squadron managed to gain the roadstead of ,calais1 where the army of the ,duke of ,parma lay4 ,to carry this army across and begin a campaign against ,london seemed now not only out of the question1 but the safety of the fleet itself was a question2 for a few days later1 when a favorable wind arose1 several fire-ships came sailing down upon them from the blockading ,englishmen outside4 ,these fire-ships--an important part of every fleet for two or three centuries--were old vessels intended to set fire to an enemy's ships4 ,their yard-arms were set with great iron hooks1 their hulls and riggings were saturated with oil1 their decks loaded with tar-barrels1 and their old guns overloaded1 so as to spread destruction in every direction by bursting4 ,then bold crews sailed these grappling monsters as near the enemy as they dared1--and it must have been a service dear to the heart of the daring1--set fire to them1 lashed their helms1 and got away in their boats as best they could4 ,to escape these dreadful things the ,spaniards were obliged to up-anchor and put to sea1 losing many ships and lives by fire or the wildly flying cannon-balls1 or by going ashore in the effort2 and then the ,englishmen followed them again1 like wolves after a herd of buffalo in winter4 ,the ,spaniards dared not go back down the ,channel1 and nothing remained to them but the hazardous voyage around the north of ,scotland--a venture for which the towering1 unwieldy galleons were ill-fitted4 ,storms overtook them in the ,north ,sea and on the ,atlantic1 and so many were cast away on the ,irish coast1 where those who reached the shore were slain1 that hardly half of the proud ,armada crept back to ,lisbon and ,cadiz4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,sea-,,fight ,,of ,,the ,,seventeenth ,,century4 ,this incident was one of the most notable in ,european history for two reasons3 ,first1 historically1 it no doubt saved ,england and her colonies from the ,inquisition1 and all the other depressing and horrible burdens that long afterward weighted the papal countries of southern ,europe and their ,american possessions2 and1 second1 it reformed naval warfare not only by confirming the value of a regularly organized national navy1 but by showing that the old-fashioned1 dense fleet formation1 carrying soldiers to fight as they would do on land1 was wrong and ineffective4 ,but though ,spain had been humbled she was by no means crushed1 and sea-fighting went on a long time before either she1 the ,french1 or the ,dutch--and the last were the hardest foes--would fully admit ,england's claim to be sovereign of all the seas around ,britain1 and strike their flags whenever they met one of her 8king's ships0 in acknowledgment of it4 ,england asserted that the domain of her crown covered not only the lands of ,england 7and much of ,france71 but also 8the narrow seas02 and she defined this domain to include all the ,channel waters north of ,cape ,finisterre and thence in a square area westward to the middle of the ,atlantic4 ,this was not an assertion3 8,i can beat the world in sea-fighting10 but was a legal claim to rule--a declaration that her laws extended over that much sea in the same manner that it is now agreed that the laws of all nations extend to a distance of three miles from their coasts4 ,the whole idea of naval warfare in those days was defense of your own commerce and attack upon your enemy's2 and at that time any one you met under another flag was likely to be your 8enemy0 if either party promised spoils worth a fight4 ,hence not only did privateering flourish1--often degenerating into piracy1--not only did all merchant vessels go heavily armed1 but the royal ships were intended principally for convoying or guarding merchantmen4 ,this theory1 which was only a part of the generally unsettled condition of that formative period1 kept up a continual state of fighting on the sea1 even between peoples nominally at peace1 and of course led again and again to open wars4 ,these were almost always popular1 especially among the bold sailors but poor traders of ,england1 on account of the chances for prizes and plunder that often more than repaid the expenses and losses of the conflict2 thus the war with the ,dutch in #afeb-ed1 in which ,william ,penn was a captain1 brought in more than #f1jjj1jjj worth of captures--more than the financial cost of the war4 ,at this time--the first half of the sixteenth century--,holland was the leading commercial nation of the world4 ,not only had her merchants large interests of their own in both the ,east and ,west ,indies1 very extensive fisheries in northern waters1 and trading stations in the ,african and ,american coasts1 but a large part of the commerce of other nations was conducted in ,dutch ships1 including much of ,england itself4 ,it was the unrighteous but determined effort to break this up by any and every means that brought on the second war with ,holland1 one incident of which was the capture of ,new ,amsterdam 7,new ,york72 for fleets no longer stayed close at home1 acting mainly as defenders of coasts1 as in the previous century1 but now cruised and fought on the high seas1 as the ,spanish had learned in many a hard struggle to protect their trading and treasure-ships homeward bound4 ,illustration3 ,,attacking ,,spanish ,,galleons ,,off ,,the ,,azores4 ,illustration3 ,,drawn ,,by ,,warren ,,sheppard4 ,,spanish ,,and ,,french ,,ships ,,of ,,the ,,line ,,taking ,,position ,,for ,,the ,,battle ,,of ,,trafalgar4 ,this new practice1 however1 had required a change in ships and their equipment4 ,the ,english learned this quicker than any one else4 ,they cut down the lofty cabins1 increased the height1 while reducing the weight1 of masts by inventing jointed topmasts1 and replaced the unwieldy lateens by an arrangement of lofty1 quickly handled square sails4 ,by the middle of the seventeenth century ocean-going ships had much the same appearance as at present1--although far more elaborately ornamented and bulging aft with stern-galleries1--the massive1 high-pooped ,spanish galleon surviving longest as a relic of the old type4 ,these changes allowed the armament to be taken from the front and rear of the ship1 where it had formerly been mainly placed1 there being no room in the waist1 and allowed it to be distributed equally up and down the ship1 which now began to deliver the 8broadsides0 that formed such a feature in sea-gunnery before the days of turreted ironclads1 and this1 with the constant improvement in the range and power of the artillery1 soon brought about ideas of battle formation4 ,the early plan was to provide a large number of ships1--eighty or one hundred on each side in a single action were not uncommon1--because each was weak1 and also because a great number of fighting-men was thought necessary1 and then to advance from the windward in a compact mass1 and endeavor to close with the enemy and capture or destroy him by hand-to-hand promiscuous fighting4 ,our word squadron means a square1 and1 as applied to ships1 is a survival from those antiquated methods4 ,but when the practice of using fire-ships became common and effective1 and trimmer1 more active ships superseded the cumbrous galleasses1 it was seen that this close formation only exposed a fleet to destruction1 and an open order had to be adopted1 with a consequent change of tactics4 ,another lesson was1 that a sea-fight was a sailor's battle1 where soldiers were out of place1 and that to take a great number of weak ships into action1 crowded with men1 was only to risk life unnecessarily4 ,hence1 larger and more heavily armed ships1 but fewer of them1 appear in later engagements2 and in place of a bunch of vessels1 8huddled together like a flock of sheep10 at which to shoot1 the open order gave the gunners small and single targets4 ,all these changes combined to enforce the wisdom of meeting an enemy in a widely spaced line1 where the strongest fighting-ships were put forward1 and smaller vessels came up in the rear4 ,those ahead met the battle-ships at the head of the enemy's column1 and the lesser ones1 as they came up1 were paired off against those of their own size1 so that the battle became a series of equalized duels4 ,such was the theory of naval tactics in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries2 and so arose the term line-of-battle ship1 descriptive of such national craft as are shown on the opposite page4 ,these fine old line-of-battle ships were large and powerful before the seventeenth century ended4 ,thus in the ,british navy when #agjj came in there were eight which had from ninety-six to one hundred and ten guns each--fifty-three others carrying more than seventy guns1 and twenty-three more with more than fifty guns--all at that time regarded as fit for the line of battle1 though a hundred years later nothing less than a 8seventy-four0 was so considered4 ,such were the grandly picturesque old vessels that won the day at ,gibraltar1 ,copenhagen1 and ,trafalgar1 and at many another spot where the whole horizon echoed to their thunderous broadsides2 but of them all there now remain only a few honored hulks in harbors1 or a few grand figureheads preserved in docks and museums4 ,each navy1 however1 had a greater number of smaller1 more active vessels1 known as frigates1 corvettes1 sloops-of-war1 gun-brigs1 etc41 which carried from twenty to forty-four guns1 and were the 8eyes of the fleet10 as one old strategist styled them4 ,they answered to what we should now call cruisers1 and often went on duty in distant parts of the world1 or in war were scouting about and supporting the main fleet4 ,this class was especially cultivated by the ,united ,states1 as soon as it began to make a regular navy1 at the close of the ,revolutionary ,war1 and six frigates were built at our six navy-yards during the last years of the last century1 which were intended and proved to be separately 8superior to any single ,european frigate of the usual dimensions0 in speed1 manuvering1 and fighting power1 in proportion to their weight of ordnance4 ,three of them 7,constellation1 ,congress1 and ,chesapeake7 mounted thirty-six guns1 and three 7,united ,states1 ,president1 and ,constitution7 forty-four guns each--mainly #bd-pounders2 and all gave so good an account of themselves1 as ships1 that the high compliment was paid us of their being carefully imitated by foreign naval constructors4 ,this is not a naval history1 so that ,i am not concerned to tell of all the glorious or inglorious work of the navies of ,europe in obtaining and holding1 or failing to get and keep1 trade routes open and territorial possessions intact in various parts of the world4 ,during the seventeenth and eighteenth and far into the nineteenth century1 there was no time when some nations were not fighting on the sea if not on land2 and much of the time all the maritime nations were hard at it1 turning their guns to-day on the allies of yesterday1 and fighting shoulder to shoulder with them the next season against some friend of the year before4 ,a few of the most famous battles ought to be spoken of1 however1 as illustrating the methods and development of naval warfare1 and because we now recognize that their consequences were far-reaching4 ,in the wars which broke out toward the close of the eighteenth century due to ,napoleon's ambition to rule the world1 ,great ,britain found herself engaged in a struggle not only with ,france1 but really with the whole world1 for the command of the seas that washed the western coast of ,europe4 ,the only sign of friendship to ,england from the ,baltic to ,gibraltar was in the doubtful neutrality of ,portugal4 ,england had to abandon the ,mediterranean1 and devote herself to facing the allied powers against her outside the ,gates of ,hercules as best she could4 ,in #agig she made a beginning by crushing a fleet of ,dutch ships off ,camperdown 7,holland71 and a ,spanish fleet off ,cape ,st4 ,vincent2 but1 though both were great battles1 neither had any lasting effect2 and in spite of them ,napoleon planned his celebrated invasion of ,england for the following year1 supposing that by his expedition to ,egypt1 threatening ,england's ,east ,indian possessions1 he would draw away so much of the ,british navy that he and his allies could put an army across the ,english ,channel unhindered4 ,i need not say that his invasion of ,england never was even attempted2 but for a time his fleet did hold command of the ,mediterranean--a state of things to which an end was put by ,england's most famous naval hero1 ,horatio ,nelson4 ,a long series of brilliant exploits had given ,nelson fame1 and the vigorous accounts of them he used to send home helped his great popularity4 ,a large part of his service had been in ,american waters4 ,in #agih ,nelson was a rear-admiral1 and was sent to the ,mediterranean after the ,french fleet1 which1 having convoyed ,napoleon's army to its landing at ,alexandria1 was ready for new operations4 ,it is characteristic of the slow and almost useless methods of gaining intelligence in those days1 that from early ,june to the end of ,july ,nelson searched for this flotilla1 and was unable to get more news of it than an occasional rumor that it had been at some place or other days or weeks before4 ,the ,french knew no more as to the movements of their pursuers1 yet the fleets were twice within a few miles of each other4 ,this was ,nelson's first independent command1 and his patience and nerves were nearly worn out by anxiety4 ,illustration3 ,,when ,,decatur ,,was ,a ,,midshipman4 ,at last1 on the first day of ,august1 the ,english almost stumbled on the ,french at anchor in the ,bay of ,aboukir1 among the mouths of the ,nile1 between ,alexandria and ,rosetta--a shallow roadstead full of shoals and rocks1 for which ,nelson had neither chart nor pilot4 ,in the interior of this bay lay the ,napoleonic squadron1 under ,admiral ,brueys1 in such fancied security that a large part of the crews was ashore1 and some of the ships unprepared for a battle when the ,british appeared4 ,it was anchored in line of battle1 however1 and consisted of thirteen ships of the line1 the central one being the flagship ,orient1 having #abj guns1 and probably the largest and most complete war-ship then afloat4 ,on each side of her were the ,franklin and the ,tonnant1 of #hj guns each1 and none of the others were greatly inferior4 ,the ,british had also thirteen ships1 but none was the equal of the best ,french1 and one of them did not engage in the attack at all4 ,knowing nothing of the harbor1 and aware that all his ships drew much water1--perhaps thirty feet1--,nelson had to make a long and very cautious detour1 throwing the lead every moment and feeling his way in4 ,it was then late in the afternoon1 and half-past six before the ,goliath1 leading the column1 got near enough to attract the ,french fire4 ,replying1 but not halting1 the ,goliath1 followed closely by the ,zealous and ,orion1 made for the head of the line1 and then with a daring unrivaled1 for there was barely enough water to float their keels1 these ships slowly turned around the foremost ,french vessel and dropped their anchors in the rear of the enemy's line4 ,the other ships1 as they came up1 ranged alongside the front of the ,french1 and the deepening twilight resounded with such a roar of broadsides as never will be heard again4 ,in the darkness and smoke an ,english seventy-four1 the ,bellerophon1 had engaged the monstrous ,orient1 and in a short time had been crushed2 all her masts were swept out of her1 two hundred of her people were killed and wounded1 and she drifted out of action4 ,but nearly the same fate had by that time overtaken the ,french ,guerrire1 for the ,theseus had coolly placed herself where she could rake the anchored ship and tear her to pieces4 ,the moment the ,bellerophon drifted off1 however1 her place was taken by two newly arrived frigates1 and the ,orient presently found herself the target of three ships which slowly but surely were cutting her to pieces in spite of her tremendous resistance4 ,her admiral had been killed on her deck1 where half her officers and men lay dead or wounded1 when it was suddenly seen that she was on fire1 and the whole battle was instinctively suspended to watch the magnificent spectacle1 save where some still poured in shot and shell to prevent the ,french crew from extinguishing the flames4 ,powerless either to save their ship or launch their boats1 the remnant of the ,orient's crew could only fling themselves into the water and trust to the mingled boats of friends and foes to pick them up4 ,the ships nearest slipped their cables1 and tried to edge away out of danger as the flames enveloped the towering masts1 burning with amazing fierceness in the tarred rigging and lighting up the desert for miles inland1 while the hull became a furnace4 ,suddenly1 at a quarter before ten1 a volcano-like explosion tore the glowing old battle-ship asunder1 a torrent of burning fragments was hurled aloft1--with how many dead heroes1 no one knows1--and double darkness closed over the appalling scene4 ,then the black waves were lighted anew by the flash of cannon and musketry1 and the battle went on until daylight before the last of the ,french vessels had been conquered1 while two of them had managed to steal away4 ,of the other eleven one had been burned and sunk1 three had gone ashore1 where one burned1 and the remainder had been crushed into surrendering4 ,the ,english did not lose a single vessel1 for even the dismantled ,bellerophon could float1 and their loss in men was far less than that of the ,french4 ,illustration3 ,,drawn ,,by ,,warren ,,sheppard4 ,,the 8,,theseus0 ,,attacking ,,the 8,,guerri,,re40 ,historians tell us that this victory was the grandest naval success on record4 ,nelson himself said that victory was too weak a term--it was a catastrophe4 ,it put an end at once to ,napoleon's campaign in ,egypt1 and to all his designs against ,india4 ,it gave the command of the ,mediterranean to ,england1 emboldened ,turkey and ,russia to recover the ,ionian ,islands1 gave ,naples a chance to assert herself1 and aroused ,austria and ,russia to resist by armies ,napoleon's aggressions1 so that from this battle dates his downfall4 ,its influence soon reached the ,united ,states1 and caused it to break through its neutrality and begin upon the sea that naval war with ,france of which we hear very little nowadays1 but which gave to our own naval record such glorious incidents as ,truxton's battles in the ,constellation with ,l',insurgente and ,la ,vengeance1 and ,captain ,little's capture1 in the corvette ,boston1 of the ,french sloop-of-war ,le ,berceau4 ,nelson remained in the ,mediterranean for some years1 by no means idle1 and then did service of extraordinary value elsewhere1 as at the battle of ,copenhagen1 which in a single remarkable conflict put an end to a northern conspiracy against ,england1 and saved her a vast deal of trouble2 but his final service was the most momentous of all1 at any rate for the fortunes of ,great ,britain alone1 and this was the winning of the battle of ,trafalgar4 ,in #ahje ,napoleon had prepared for another grand invasion of ,england1 and with great skill had gathered a fleet of allied ,french and ,spanish vessels1 which was to protect and coperate with the strong army he proposed to land along the ,kentish shores4 ,this fleet was commanded by ,admiral ,villeneuve1 and assembled at ,cadiz1 where1 in ,october1 #ahje1 it was being watched by an ,english fleet1 commanded by ,nelson and ,collingwood1 consisting of thirty-three ships of the line2 twenty-seven of these were present when1 on the morning of the #bast1 the allies1 twenty-nine battle-ships strong1 came sailing out1 hoping to avoid battle if possible4 ,this1 ,nelson was resolved1 should not happen2 and dividing his forces into two columns1 he made at them in such a way as to strike their line 7then off ,cape ,trafalgar7 in the middle of its crescent4 ,the wind was very light1 and an hour or more elapsed before even the heads of the line struck the enemy1 so that there was plenty of time to make every preparation1 and there was constant instruction by signaling from ,nelson's flagship ,victory4 ,then at the last moment1 when the first gun was ready to be fired1 there rose upon the signal halyards of the ,victory the message that1 received with ringing cheers1 has been an inspiration to patriots the world around ever since since-- ,,england ,,expects ,,every ,,man ,,will ,,do ,,his ,,duty4 ,a few moments later ,collingwood in the ,royal ,sovereign1 and ,nelson in the ,victory1 were in the thick of the foreign fleet1 which awaited them in disorderly array1 but closed about these two1 bent upon destroying them if possible before any others could come up4 ,the fury of the duels that ensued1 where ships were mixed in disorder1 and sometimes three or four against one1 passes adequate description4 ,none1 perhaps1 fared worse than the ,belle ,isle1 a large ,english two-decker that was the first to reach the scene after the ,royal ,sovereign1 and to draw off some of the fire that threatened to pulverize ,collingwood's ship4 ,illustration3 ,england expects every man will do his ,d ,u ,t ,y ,,drawn ,,from ,,the ,,model ,,in ,,the ,,greenwich ,,museum4 ,,nelson',s ,,signal4 ,the wreckage and suffering on other ships were almost as great4 ,the very first broadside of the ,royal ,sovereign1 taking the ,santa ,ana1 struck down #djj out of the #ajjj persons aboard2 and the ,sovereign herself soon lost every mast4 ,the ,santissima ,trinidada1 a ,spanish four-decker1 and the largest ship then afloat1 was reduced to a wreck1 and a dozen others lost a part or all of their masts4 ,as for the ,victory1 she was always in the thick of it1 receiving at one time the concentrated fire of seven hostile battle-ships1 yet was not too much disabled to be manuvered4 ,her captain's aim was to engage directly with the ,french flagship ,bucentaure1 but she was closely attended by three other large ships1 and difficult to reach4 ,nevertheless1 the ,victory finally got across her stern1 and from a few yards distance poured in a broadside which1 sweeping the whole length of her interior1 dismounted twenty guns1 and killed and wounded #djj men4 ,as she passed on1 returning the fire of the other vessels near by1 she was closely followed by the ,temeraire1 the second ,english ship1 which had already become almost unmanageable2 and a lifting of the smoke showed her smashing a little ,french frigate1 the ,redoubtable1 which1 by and by1 was captured after almost every man had been killed1 and she was in a sinking condition4 ,the astonishing resistance of this little vessel1 and the damage she did by soldiers with muskets crowded in her tops and firing down upon the decks of the ,english ships1 form one of the most noteworthy incidents of naval history2 and it is not too much to say that she inflicted upon ,great ,britain as great harm as all the rest of the allies put together1 for it was a musket-ball from the mizzentop of the ,redoubtable that struck down1 early in the action1 the great ,nelson himself4 ,he seemed to have had a feeling1 even before leaving ,england1 that he would not survive this campaign1 and knew his wound was mortal the instant it was received4 ,he was carried below1 and remained alive and conscious about three hours1 eagerly listening to reports of the progress of the fight1 and rejoicing at last in a knowledge of victory4 ,his last words1 murmured again and again1 with his failing breath1 seemed an answer to his signaled injunction1 for they were3 8,thank ,god ,i have done my duty40 ,other men writes ,captain ,mahan have died in the hour of victory1 but to no other has victory so singular and so signal stamped the fulfilment and completion of a great life's work4 8,finis coronat opus0 has of no man been more true than of ,nelson4 ,results momentous and stupendous were to flow from the annihilation of all sea power except that of ,great ,britain1 which was ,nelson's great achievement2 but his part was done when ,trafalgar was fought1 and his death in the moment of completed success has obtained for that superb victory an immortality of fame which even its own grandeur could scarcely have insured4 ,no such fleet actions as this ever occurred in ,north ,american waters in the time of the 8old navy10 though there was plenty of cruising and fighting up and down the coast and in the ,west ,indies4 ,the ,united ,states had made its new flag respected before the end of the eighteenth century1 but it was done mainly in ,european waters1 where that marvelous captain1 ,paul ,jones1 had been defying enemies to the point of rashness4 ,paul ,jones was the first man to hoist our national ensign 7the rattlesnake flag7 on an ,american ship1 and again the first to hoist the stars and stripes1 and was the ranking officer of the continental navy4 ,he records that 8in the ,revolution he had twenty-three battles and solemn rencounters by sea2 made seven descents in ,britain and her colonies2 took of her navy two ships of equal and two of far superior force10 and so on4 ,it is true that he alone of his day steadfastly refused to acknowledge ,england's supremacy of the seas2 that the flag of the ,united ,states alone was never struck to ,great ,britain except under force of honorable combat2 and that on the ships commanded by ,paul ,jones it was never struck at all6 ,every ,yankee school-boy knows of the terrible fight of the crazy old sloop-of-war ,bon ,homme ,richard against the ,serapis1 a new ,english #ej-;gun frigate in the ,north ,sea1 in which a sinking and burning and shot-riddled vessel1 able after the first broadside to bring only three or four small guns into practice1 conquered and captured her twice-greater antagonist4 ,it is not a story one can tell in a few words1 but it was a deed that is regarded in naval annals as among the most extraordinary in the history of the world1 and it won for the new republic a credit in ,europe that was of vast benefit to it and all its wandering citizens4 ,great ,britain1 though humiliated1 had not been seriously hurt by the loss of two or three ships out of her six hundred1 and she still tried to enforce against the rising naval power on the west side of the ,atlantic the subservience which she received along its eastern shores4 ,it took the form of asserting her right to stop and board any ,american vessel1 governmental or private1 and seize and impress into her own service any ,british subject found serving in the crew4 ,this always met with protest and resistance1 and at last became so galling that in #ahab the ,united ,states declared war against ,great ,britain's might rather than continue to submit to it4 ,illustration3 ,drawn from ,life by ,s4 ,de,koster ,dec4#h #ahjj1 ,engraved by ,jd4 ,stow4 ,,baron ,,nelson ,,of ,,the ,,nile4 ,this might gradually overcame us1 and ,british fleets sailed up and down our coasts unhindered1 but not until the enemy had been surprised by many harder knocks than they anticipated1 and had learned one thing for certain1--that while man for man the ,yankees were equally good seamen and fighters1 they were better ship-builders1 and could teach lessons in that art which their enemies were not above learning3 and finally we won by sheer force of victories at sea4 ,i have already spoken of the six frigates which were used in that war1 as admittedly the best of their kind in the world4 ,except the unlucky ,chesapeake1 which was rashly carried unprepared into the fatal action against the ,shannon1 where ,lawrence lost his life1 but won undying fame in the memory of his countrymen by his 8,don't give up the ship10 all did glorious work4 ,thus1 the ,united ,states under ,decatur reduced to a wreck off ,madeira1 and brought as a prize to ,new ,york1 the ,british #dd-;gun frigate ,macedonian in ,october1 #ahab1 itself remaining almost uninjured1--a victory due to superior seamanship and gunnery4 ,the same skill1 using a ship of superior sailing power1 accounted largely for the splendid victory of the ,united ,states sloop-of-war ,wasp 7#ah guns71 a week earlier1 near ,bermuda1 in an encounter with the ,british sloop ,frolic 7#ai guns71 where in three quarters of an hour the ,frolic was totally dismasted and reduced to a rolling wreck1 with ninety killed or wounded out of a crew of one hundred and ten1 while the ,wasp's loss was only ten4 ,a ,british seventy-four then came up and captured both the victor and her prize2 but eighteen months later a second ,wasp1 by reason of her better gunnery1 cut to pieces at different times two other ships with comparatively small injury to herself4 ,nor could the ,president have given so good an account of herself in her unfortunate encounter with the ,belvidera1 and again when chased and finally captured by the squadron led by the ,endymion1 had not her sailing qualities and gunnery been of so high an order--qualities which also distinguished the ,american fleets on ,lake ,erie and ,lake ,champlain4 ,illustration3 ,,the 8,,frolic0 ,,reduced ,,to ,a ,,wreck ,,by ,,the ,,first 8,,wasp0 7#ahab74 ,but the honors of that brilliant naval war belonged chiefly1 after all1 to the ,constitution--8,old ,ironsides10 as the people loved to call her1--which is enshrined in the history and hearts of the ,united ,states as ,nelson's ,victory is in those of ,great ,britain4 ,the ,constitution was the finest1 perhaps1 of the ,united ,states frigates1 and a favorite ship with commanders1 yet her fame began with her success in running away1 ,broke's ,british squadron chasing her three nights and two days1 only to lose her after all4 ,the winds were so light that she sent out her boats to help the sails urge her forward4 ,it was only a few days after that 7,august #ai1 #ahab7 that ,commodore ,isaac ,hull1 cruising in search of the ,british vessel ,guerrire 7the same that had been captured from the ,french in the battle of the ,nile1 and again dismasted at ,trafalgar71 overhauled her off the coast of ,newfoundland4 ,the ,london newspapers had not only been sneering at the ,constitution as 8a bundle of pine boards sailing under a bit of striped bunting10 but ,captain ,dacres had sent a boastful challenge to ,hull to meet him and see what would happen4 ,the vessels1 though nominally of different rate1 were actually in close equality1 and both crews were eager for a fair fight4 ,it was already well along in the afternoon1 and the sea was rough1 but ,hull would not reply to the enemy's fire until he was within pistol-shot1 then his broadside opened4 8,fifteen minutes after the contest began10 to quote ,lossing's lively account1 8the mizzenmast of the ,guerrire was shot away1 her mainyard was in slings1 and her hull1 spars1 sails1 and rigging were torn to pieces4 ,by a skilful movement1 the ,constitution now fell foul of her foe1 her bowsprit running into the larboard quarter of her antagonist4 ,the cabin of the ,constitution was set on fire by the explosion of the forward guns of the ,guerrire1 but the flames were soon extinguished4 ,both parties attempted to board1 while the roar of the great guns was terrific4 ,the sea was rolling heavily1 and would not permit a safe passage from one vessel to the other4 ,at length the ,constitution became disentangled1 and shot ahead of the ,guerrire1 when the mainmast of the latter1 shattered into weakness1 fell into the sea4 ,the ,guerrire1 shivered and shorn1 rolled like a log in the trough of the billows4 ,hull sent his compliments to ,captain ,dacres1 and inquired whether he had struck his flag4 ,dacres1 who was a #8jolly tar1' looking up and down at the stumps of his masts1 coolly and dryly replied3 #8,well1 ,i don't know4 ,our mizzenmast is gone1 our mainmast is gone1--upon the whole you may say we have struck our flag4'0 ,too completely wrecked to be of any further use1 the historic old ship was set on fire and blown up1 and so ended her pride and her story4 ,hull lost only fourteen men killed and wounded1 while the ,british lost seventy1 dead1 and all the survivors prisoners4 ,this calamity1 on the heels of similar successes elsewhere for the 8bit of striped bunting10 spread consternation throughout ,great ,britain not only1 but in the other ,european monarchies1 for it presaged the rise of a new power to be reckoned with1 where novel and superior instruments and methods of warfare opposed uncalculated forces to the old rgime4 ,this conviction was enforced upon ,europe anew only four months later by the ,constitution overtaking and crushing in ,west ,indian waters the #ch-;gun frigate ,java1 which also was burned to the water's edge1 because the wreck was not worth saving2 and again the ,british loss was many times greater than the ,american4 ,captain ,william ,bainbridge1 who had distinguished himself in the ,mediterranean1 was her commander4 ,illustration3 ,,the 8,,constitution0 ,,chased ,,by ,,captain ,,broke',s ,,squadron ,the ports on the upper deck aft were roughly cut to meet the emergency4 ,the sailors in the rigging threw water from buckets upon the sails to make them hold better the faint breeze1 and below hose pipe was used to the same purpose4 ,during the three days' chase boats were sent out to tow1 and kedge-anchors were used to warp the ship forward4 ,various successes marked her career for the next two years1 until1 under the command of ,captain ,charles ,stewart1 she had her memorable adventure off ,madeira1 in which she engaged with the two ,british ships ,cyane1 thirty-six guns1 and ,levant1 eighteen guns1 and captured both1 with a loss of only three men killed and twelve wounded4 ,stewart set sail with his prizes and prisoners for ,porto ,praya1 whence he purposed sending his prisoners to ,new ,york in a captured merchantman4 ,reaching there on ,march #ajth1 he was next day busy at these arrangements1 when the topsails of several men-of-war were seen entering the harbor through the prevailing fog4 ,having no trust that1 if these were ,british1 their commanders would respect the courtesies of a weak neutral port1 ,stewart felt that his only chance was to try to run away in the fog1 and made immediate preparations to do so1 sending word to the ,levant and ,cyane to follow4 ,being discovered by the strangers--three large ,british frigates--at the outlet of the harbor1 their escape immediately became a question of seamanship and sailing4 ,here the ,americans showed their superiority1 and effectually dodging both the ships and the cannon-balls of the pursuers1 the ,levant got back under the protection of the guns of the fort at ,porto ,praya1 while the ,constitution and ,levant fairly outsailed the frigates and escaped4 ,in #ahcj brave ,old ,ironsides was condemned as worn out1 and ordered to be sold4 ,but1 as a similar sad fate overtaking the 8,fighting ,temeraire0 had been made the occasion of an immortal painting by ,turner1 and so1 perhaps1 had caused ,nelson's still more famous battle-ship ,victory to be preserved in the harbor of ,portsmouth as a shrine of naval inspiration1 so the obloquy that menaced the ,constitution now fired the heart of a young poet to write a passionate appeal to patriotism4 ,who does not know ,dr4 ,holmes's ringing stanzas8-- ,oh1 better that her shattered hulk ,should sink beneath the wave2 ,her thunders shook the mighty deep1 ,and there should be her grave4 ,nail to the mast her holy flag1 ,set every threadbare sail1 ,and give her to the ,god of ,storms1 ,the lightning and the gale6 ,illustration3 ,,homeward ,,bound4 ,the country caught the spirit1 and such a cry of protest went up that the vandalism was stayed1 and ,old ,ironsides was again repaired--hardly anything but her ornaments was now left of the original structure--and took several cruises1 one of which was in carrying wheat to famine-stricken ,ireland4 ,later she was used as a school-ship1 but finally became worthless even for that1 and in #ahie the question arose whether she should be broken up at the ,brooklyn navy-yard or towed around to ,portsmouth1 ,new ,hampshire1 and there laid up in a line with the ,macedonian and a few other ancient hulks that were rotting quietly away in honorable age1 and have now wholly disappeared4 ,sentiment dictated the latter course1 and1 with a crew aboard1 prepared to take to their boats at a moment's notice1 the leaking and crazy old warrior1 stately even yet1 and sadly saluted by every fort and vessel she passed1 crept around to her last berth at ,kittery ,point4 ,she is the last and the most glorious representative of the 8old navy40 ,illustration3 ,,types ,,of ,,battle-,,ships--#ahij ,,and #ahjj4 ,,footnotes3 #d ,an example of the so-called forty-bank galley is illustrated1 so far as its forward end will show it1 in the picture of the ship of ,ptolemy ,philopator1 on page #dc4 ,the forty 8banks0 appear to be groups of oars in a few tiers4 #e ,three other terms of similar sound need explanation4 ,the galiot was a small1 fast galley of the ,levant4 ,the gallivat was a large1 swift1 two-masted1 armed sail-boat used by ,malay pirates4 ,the galleon was any ,spanish ship sailing to and from the ,spanish main2 hence1 especially a treasure-ship4 #f ,it was known later as the ,invincible ,armada4 ,,chapter ,,vi 7,continued7 ,,war-,,ships ,,and ,,naval ,,battles ,,part ,,ii--,,the ,,present ,,era ,,of ,,steam ,,and ,,steel ,the introduction of steam made little difference in naval affairs at first1 so far as either strategy or tactics are concerned1 although it changed the conditions of naval action in two principal ways and in many minor ones4 ,ships could now1 like the early galleys1 be placed in any position the commander pleased1 and1 unlike galleys1 this effort could be sustained a long time1 for engines do not tire out like human arms4 ,on the other hand1 ships propelled by steam needed to return to port at frequent intervals to obtain coal1 and naval powers found it necessary to provide1 either by possession or treaty1 safe coaling-stations in various parts of the world for the use of their cruising fleets4 ,the first steam war-ships were naturally fitted with side paddle-wheels2 but as soon as the screw-propeller came into use the navy was quick to adopt it4 8,by its use the whole motive power could be protected by being placed below the water-line4 ,it interfered much less than the paddle with the efficiency and handiness of the vessel under sail alone1 and it enabled ships to be kept generally under sail4 ,great importance was attached to this1 as the handling of a ship under sail was justly thought an invaluable means of training both officers and men in ready resource1 prompt action1 and self-reliance40 ,for this reason masts and sails were retained long after they were admitted to be detrimental to the fighting qualities of battle-ships4 ,naval reformers had to wait until the last generation of 8old salts10 trained on 8blue water10 had died off1 and their scornful sneers at 8tea-kettle0 seamanship had been silenced in the only way possible1 before they could persuade governments to build or men to serve in the new style of vessels4 ,in truth1 the transition from the fighting machinery and methods that prevailed until1 say1 the bombardment of ,acre1 in #ahdj1 to those that decided the inferiority of ,china in her struggles with ,japan at the ,yalu and elsewhere1 was rapid enough to make even a sea-dog dizzy4 ,illustration3 ,,the 8,,kearsarge0 ,,getting ,,into ,,position ,,to ,,rake ,,the 8,,alabama0 ,,at ,,the ,,close ,,of ,,the ,,combat4 ,excellent types of the war-steamers1 intermediate between the old two- and three-deckers and the sailless 8ironclads0 that followed1 were those two actors in that most glorious sea-fight of the ,american ,civil ,war--the ,kearsarge and ,alabama4 ,in this great fight1 which took place a few miles off the harbor of ,cherbourg1 ,france1 one beautiful summer ,sunday 7,june #aith7 in #ahfd1 much the same tactics prevailed as in any one of the earlier ocean duels4 ,as the ,alabama came on she began firing the two-hundred-pound pivot-rifle forward1 which was her main gun1 while the ,kearsarge was yet a mile away4 ,the latter waited a little before replying1 but only a few moments elapsed before both were near enough and hard at it1 each doing its best to get a position ahead of its antagonist for raking1--a disadvantage which the other steadily avoided2 and this caused them to follow one another about in advancing circles1 of which seven were described before the end came4 ,we have a story of the battle as seen from the deck of the ,kearsarge1 written by her surgeon1 who had little to do except observe the conflict4 ,the ,kearsarge gunners he tells us had been cautioned against firing without direct aim1 and had been advised to point the heavy guns below rather than above the water-line1 and to clear the deck of the enemy with the lighter ones4 ,though subjected to an incessant storm of shot and shell1 they kept their stations and obeyed instructions4 ,the effect upon the enemy was readily perceived1 and nothing could restrain the enthusiasm of our men4 ,cheer succeeded cheer2 caps were thrown in the air or overboard2 jackets were discarded2 sanguine of victory1 the men were shouting as each projectile took effect3 8,that is a good one60 8,down1 boys60 8,give her another like the last60 8,now we have her60 and so on1 cheering and shouting to the end4 ,after exposure to an uninterrupted cannonade for eighteen minutes without casualties1 a sixty-eight-pounder ,blakely shell passed through the starboard bulwarks below the main rigging1 exploded upon the quarterdeck1 and wounded three of the crew of the after pivot-gun4 ,with these exceptions1 not an officer or man received serious injury4 ,the three unfortunates were speedily taken below1 and so quietly was the act done1 that at the termination of the fight a large number of the men were unaware that any of their comrades were wounded4 ,two shots entered the ports occupied by the thirty-twos1 where several men were stationed1 one taking effect in the hammock-netting1 the other going through the opposite port1 yet none were hit4 ,a shell exploded in the hammock-netting and set the ship on fire2 the alarm calling for fire-quarters was sounded1 and men detailed for such an emergency put out the fire1 while the rest stayed at the guns4 ,the ,kearsarge concentrated her fire and poured in the eleven-inch shells with deadly effect4 ,one penetrated the coal-bunker of the ,alabama1 and a dense cloud of coal-dust arose4 ,others struck near the water-line between the main and mizzen masts1 exploded within board1 or passing through burst beyond4 ,crippled and torn1 the ,alabama moved less quickly and began to settle by the stern1 yet did not slacken her fire1 but returned successive broadsides without disastrous result to us4 ,captain ,semmes witnessed the havoc made by the shells1 especially by those of our after pivot-gun1 and offered a reward for its silence4 ,soon his battery was turned upon this particular offending gun for the purpose of silencing it4 ,it was in vain1 for the work of destruction went on4 ,we had completed the seventh rotation on the circular track and begun the eighth2 the ,alabama1 now settling1 sought to escape by setting all available sail 7fore-trysail and two jibs71 left the circle1 amid a shower of shot and shell1 and headed for the ,french waters2 but to no purpose4 ,in winding the ,alabama presented the port battery with only two guns bearing1 and showed gaping sides through which the water washed4 ,the ,kearsarge pursued1 keeping on a line nearer the shore1 and with a few well-directed shots hastened the sinking condition4 ,then the ,alabama was at our mercy4 ,thus ended the fight after one hour and two minutes4 ,one incident of this battle much talked of at the time1 and given as an excuse for their defeat by the ,confederates 7though without good reason71 was the fact that the waist of the ,kearsarge1 opposite the engines1 was protected by anchor-chains1 hung in close festoons on the outside of the ship1 and kept in place and concealed by a boxing of thin boards4 ,this1 however1 was not the first attempt at protecting ships by armor1 which had now become necessary to meet successfully the better guns and projectiles that year by year were increased in penetrative power4 ,new powders and explosives were constantly being invented also1 each more effective than the preceding2 and as these were not only used in guns but applied to the filling of shells1 these bursting missiles for a time almost displaced solid shot4 ,along with this the discovery and perfection of the ,bessemer and other processes of making steel1 and methods of adapting rifling to great cannon1 produced a rapid and varied increase in size and an improvement in quality in the guns supplied to ships as well as in those used upon shore4 ,against these new weapons the old 8wooden walls0 were of no avail4 ,oak and teak1 however sound and thick1 failed to turn aside the conical projectiles as they had the old round shot and shell4 ,the ponderous missiles would crash clear through1 smashing everything in their path1 and sending showers of death-dealing splinters right and left4 ,the navy had to protect itself by a revival of the armor with which knights of the middle ages guarded against arrows and javelins and sword-points4 ,by and by1 when guns and bullets came1 the knights thickened their armor in an attempt to resist these new missiles1 until at last it reached a weight too great to be carried1 and the whole cumbrous panoply had to be laid aside1 and knightly tactics altogether changed4 ,many persons believe that this history will be repeated in the case of the sea-warriors of the world1 which1 within the memory of many a grizzled admiral1 have changed from buoyant and beautiful ships to grim and shapeless fortresses afloat4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,united ,,states ,,frigate 8,,merrimac0 ,,before ,,and ,,after ,,conversion ,,into ,,an ,,ironclad4 ,compare with illustration on page #aci4 ,the ,americans1 fearless of sea-traditions1 were the first to propose armor for ships1 but the ,french first practically applied it1 building several 8floating batteries10 covered with iron #d inches thick1 in #ahee4 ,the ,english copied them1 in somewhat more ship-shape form2 and then the ,french began boldly to sheathe some of their frigates with iron plates and call them 8ironclads40 ,by this time iron hulls had begun to be used commonly in the ,british merchant service1 but of course the men-of-war's men1 the slowest class of persons on earth to accept any change1 insisted that iron would by no means do for war-ships4 ,nevertheless a few progressive spirits persuaded their high-mightinesses1 the ,lords of the ,admiralty1 to try an experiment in building one1 and1 in #ahfj1 the first iron war-ship was launched and named ,warrior1 while all the old salts wagged their heads and predicted the end of 8,britannia rules the waves10 until there wasn't a really jolly tar to be found from ,penolar ,point to ,pentland ,firth4 ,to a certain extent these hardy old growlers were right1 though their idea of a remedy was wrong4 ,it proved a failure to build old-style battle-ships of iron or even of steel1 or to coat them all over with armor1 even when greatly thickened4 ,not only were they slow and somewhat unmanageable1 but by the time one of them had been built with thicker walls than its latest rival1 somebody had invented artillery whose projectiles would penetrate it4 ,ships that are 8ship-shape10 that is1 possess masts and sails1 but are constructed wholly of iron or steel1 and more or less heavily armored1 have survived1 and will always be a part of the world's navies1 no doubt1 but their uses will be subsidiary to heavy fighting2 and with the disappearance of the wooden sailing line-of-battle ship in the ,crimean war and of the iron war-steamer a quarter of a century later1 all traditions of the 8old navy0 were ended--traditions that went back to the days of ,drake4 ,but who could have foreseen that this swift and momentous upsetting should come about1 not through the efforts of the great sea powers of ,europe1--the giants who had been struggling for the control of the ocean for three hundred years1--but from the brain and purse of landsmen in a country of the ,new ,world not taken into account as a naval power at all4 ,you need not be told that it was ,ericsson's invention and ,henry ,grinnell's building and ,lieutenant ,worden's courageous fighting of the little ,monitor in ,hampton ,roads1 on that fair ,march ,sunday in #ahfb1 that brought about this change4 ,when her turret--the 8cheese-box on a raft0--successfully withstood the assault of that heavily armed floating battery1 the ,merrimac 7or ,virginia71 all the war-ships of the world felt themselves beaten1 too1 and wise seamen saw that they must prepare to face a new foe4 ,illustration3 ,,side ,,elevation ,,and ,,deck-,,plan ,,of ,,the 8,,monitor40 ,at once all maritime governments began to build fighting-vessels which were castles of steel afloat1 and smaller ships for various services that more resembled a ,nootka war-canoe in outline than one of the frigates that used to do their work4 ,so shapeless were they that a new term had to be used1 and we began to call them cruisers4 ,all war-ships1 in fact1 are now classified by their work1 not by their shape or size or rig4 ,first1 fewest1 and heaviest are the harbor-defense vessels--monitors and massively walled floating batteries1 intended to remain in harbors1 or close to the coast1 as movable forts4 ,second1 battle-ships--the strongest1 most thickly armored1 heavily armed style of ships that can be made1 and still be able to go to sea2 but these are not expected to leave their home ports for a long time1 nor to go to any great distance unless compelled to do so in actual war4 ,third1 cruisers4 ,these take the place of the old-fashioned lesser fighting-ships1 the seventy-fours1 frigates1 corvettes1 and sloops1 and vary greatly in size1 model1 speed1 and power of armament4 ,fourth1 small1 swift1 strongly armed but lightly armored1 torpedo-boat chasers1 small gunboats for use in rivers and shallow coastal waters1 despatch-boats1 dynamite-cruisers1 such as our ,american ,vesuvius1 tow-boats1 and similar minor craft--the run-abouts of the naval service4 ,fifth1 torpedo-boats4 ,the material of all these is steel4 ,wood is no longer permitted even in the fittings of their cabins1 because wood will splinter and burn4 ,the great hull of a modern battle-ship1 as described by ,lieutenant ,s4 ,a4 ,staunton1 ,u4 ,s4 ,n41 which supports and carries the vast weights of machinery1 guns1 and armor1 aggregating perhaps more than ten thousand tons1 is built of plates of rolled steel1 varying from #a inches thick at the keel to inch at the water-line4 ,these are closely jointed and fitted1 and bound together with straps1 angle-irons1 and brackets1 so as to make a strong unyielding structure braced in all directions4 ,then1 through the central part of the ship1 at least1 vertical plates are erected upon the frame and outside plating1 which bear a second or inner bottom1 thus forming the 8double bottom0 as high as the water-line1 having the space between the inner and outer sheathing separated into a multitude of small water-tight cells1 so that an injury to the outside hull would not cause the vessel to leak unless the inner bottom were also punctured4 ,throughout the whole length of the vessel1 reaching from side to side and from the keel to the main deck1 are many steel bulkheads1 sufficiently strong to resist the pressure of the water1 and communicating only by water-tight doors1 so that even were an accident1 such as a collision or running upon a rock1 or an enemy's shell1 to open a hole through both bottoms1 the ship would still float1 because the inflowing water would be confined to a single compartment1 leaving the rest of the ship dry and buoyant4 ,nothing less than the blow of a ram1 smashing through everything and throwing several compartments into one1 would be likely to sink such a ship1 and this is one reason why ramming has again become prominent in naval tactics4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,first ,,sea-,,fight ,,of ,,modern ,,war-,,ships4 ,the ,peruvian turret-ship 8,huascar0 between the fire of the ,chilean ironclads 8,almirante ,cochrane0 and 8,blanco ,encalada10 ,october #h1 #ahgi4 ,but while safety from sinking is thus reasonably assured1 this is more a precaution of seaworthiness against the accidents of storms than toward injuries receivable in battle4 ,passenger and freight steamers now have the double bottoms and water-tight compartments1 and the best of these have arrangements for mounting light but powerful guns upon their decks1 so that they may be utilized by the government in a war emergency as light cruisers1 as armed transports1 as swift scouts1 or in other highly important ways2 they will then be coated with a light protective armor1 but will not be expected to engage in a contest with a real fighting-vessel4 ,the idea of armor-plate is1 as has been said1 scarcely half a century old1 and the moment it was put on 7amid the jeers of the old line-of-battle tars1 who thought they had done all that the dignity of the profession permitted when they arranged their rolled-up hammocks along the bulwarks to catch musket-balls1 and spread nettings to prevent somewhat the flight of splinters7 ingenious men began to improve their powder and strengthen their guns to overcome the new defenses4 ,to meet these improvements armor has been increased and perfected1 until now war-vessels are no longer 8ships0 in any proper sense of the word1 but floating fortresses of steel1 the names of whose defensive parts1 even1 have been borrowed from land fortifications1 such as turret and barbette4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,united ,,states ,,battle-,,ship 8,,massachusetts40 ,a limit to this defensive strength is marked in two directions4 ,first1 by the size it is possible to make a vessel1 and still keep her seaworthy and manageable2 and1 second1 by the weight of armor such a vessel can carry1 in addition to the weight of the framework1 machinery1 guns1 and other things necessary4 ,these limits seemed to be reached some time ago in some of the monstrous battle-ships built in ,europe1 and when it was found that even while they were in construction rifled guns had been invented that would drive their projectiles through the thickest wall of wrought-iron or steel that these or any other vessels could carry1 naval constructors began to despair of keeping ahead of the gun-makers1 and there was even talk of abandoning armor altogether1 and fighting battles out with bared breasts as we used to do4 ,the percentage of weight which may be allotted to armor in the design of a ship limits the area which can be wholly protected1 but often permits the partial protection of other areas of less importance to her vitality and destructive force4 ,motive power1 steering-gear1 and magazines stand first upon the list of those features demanding complete protection4444 ,the heavy shells from an enemy's guns may do many other forms of injury besides sinking a vessel and disabling her crew4 ,they may strike and disable her engines1 or pierce her boilers1 causing disastrous explosions4 ,they may injure her steering-gear1 destroy the mechanism which controls her turrets and guns1 or injure the guns themselves and their carriages4 ,in every feature of offense which renders her a formidable and dangerous foe--her speed1 her mobility1 the fire of her guns--a man-of-war is dangerously vulnerable unless she be protected by armor1 unless the enemy's shot be rejected by plates which it cannot penetrate4 ,then came an invention that put a new face upon the matter1--the surface-hardening of plates1 composed of a mixture of nickel with steel1--which1 from one of its perfectors1 is known as 8,harveyizing0 it4 ,other processes also are known4 ,this gave to the surface of the metal such a flinty hardness that the heaviest and most highly tempered steel projectiles would almost invariably break to pieces when they struck it--the same projectiles that were able to punch a hole clear through a target-plate of ordinary wrought-steel twenty-two inches thick6 ,plates thus surface-hardened are now made in ,europe1 and as well1 if not better1 in the ,united ,states1 where we have learned and taught the rest of the world how to make them by rolling--a much better1 as well as cheaper1 process than the former method of hammering them into shape4 ,it was found that with these hard-surfaced plates much less thickness was required to contend successfully with the great guns opposed to them than had been the case before2 and the great saving of weight enabled a much larger extent of armor to be borne upon a ship than was formerly possible1 so arranged as to protect all her hull and vital parts4 ,thus1 in a typical modern battle-ship1 say #cfj feet long1 #gb feet broad1 and drawing #bd feet of water1 having an armor of surface-hardened nickel-steel1 this armor is thus disposed3 amidships1 and a quarter of her length behind the point of the prow1 is built up a semicircular 8barbette10 or wall1 of the thickest armor1 behind which is a 8turret10 moving to the right or left through an arc equal to half the horizon1 no higher than necessary to cover and work the guns1 and having its motor mechanism fully protected by the barbette4 ,this is the forward turret--a swinging fort1 carrying with it1 as it turns1 two of the heaviest guns in the ship4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,united ,,states ,,battle-,,ship 8,,indiana40 ,half-way from the center to the stern stands the after turret and its barbette1 similarly built of the strongest armor1--ten to twelve inches thick1--and sweeping with its guns half the horizon4 ,from a point just in front of the forward barbette two walls of the heaviest possible armor1 reaching vertically from four and a half feet below the water-line 7loaded7 to three feet above it1 extend diagonally backward to the sides of the ship1 then continue along its side in a 8belt0 to points opposite the after barbette1 where they bend inward as before and meet just aft of the after barbette2 but hereafter the increased efficiency of armor1 by further reducing its weight1 will probably enable the armor-belts to be carried to the extreme ends of the ship1 which otherwise can be so seriously damaged by an enemy as to interfere with the speed and control of a ship in action1 even if it does not disable her4 ,but while these upright walls will resist a direct shot1 it is equally necessary to guard against a plunging fire1 and therefore the space between the turrets1 at least1 must be roofed over with a steel deck1 two or three inches thick1 to deflect shot that come just over the top of the armor-belt4 ,in addition to this1 on each side of the vessel are erected one or two smaller turrets1 carrying somewhat smaller guns than those of the forward and after turrets1 and also protected by heavy barbettes which reach down to the armor-belt and thoroughly protect the turning mechanism1 passage of ammunition1 etc4 ,these various upper parts are connected by defenses which may not resist the largest shells1 but are safe against smaller shot4 ,now1 what is the armament of this fortress which thus protects all the motive power and interior machinery of the ship1 by which she can be made so terrible an engine of combative force8 ,well1 it is as different from the bronze 8long-toms0 and carronades of the old three-deckers1 or even from ten-inch smooth-bore 8,dahlgrens0 of the days of our ,civil ,war1 as is the ship itself from old-time models4 ,in place of broadside batteries of forty or fifty cannon hidden in clouds of smoke1 there are now six or eight big rifles1 from whose muzzles wreaths of thin gas only drift to leeward2 and1 more striking still1 in contrast1 a ship is no longer comparatively helpless when headed or turned sternward to an enemy1--when the 8raking10 formerly so justly dreaded1 would be received1--but is rather more able to do damage in that position than by a 8broadside40 ,the guns themselves are marvels of structure and power4 ,all of those used in the ,united ,states navy are made by the government in the gun-shops at the ,washington navy-yard1 and are 8built up40 ,the methods and tools required for this are the invention of ,americans1 as well as the complicated arrangements for closing the breech1 and the carriages and mechanism for overcoming the tremendous recoil and handling the ponderous ammunition2 the latter1 often weighing hundreds of pounds1 is handed up to the gunners from the magazines below by hoists worked by electricity4 ,the history of the development of heavy ordnance1 especially that applied to naval uses1 is one of the most interesting chapters in mechanics2 and a surprising number of ways of making a ship's cannon have been tried and rejected4 ,out of this two things seem now to be settled3 namely1 that a gun composed of steel in separate parts welded together is best1 and that the best missile to shoot from it is a conical shell1 very hard and heavy1 yet containing an explosive small in quantity but exceedingly powerful4 ,such guns are built up of a tube or 8core0 of steel of the required size1 upon which is shrunk a jacket1 covering the rear1 or breech half of the core1 outside of which are shrunk on several broad hoops4 ,the cutting out of the bore to exactly the proper caliber and the plowing of the spiral riflings put the gun in readiness for its breech-closing and other attachments4 ,this process requires several months1 involves large capital and powerful machinery1 and good results imply the very highest workmanship4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,united ,,states ,,cruiser 8,,brooklyn0 7,,stern ,,view74 ,such are the guns of modern men-of-war2 and a first-class battle-ship carries four twelve- or thirteen-inch rifles 7that is1 having a bore twelve or thirteen inches in diameter71 several eight- or ten-inch rifles1 and many smaller guns arranged to be fired with extraordinary speed1 and hence called 8rapid-fire0 guns2 while her upper works and 8military tops0 fairly bristle with fierce little six-1 four-1 and one-pounders1--revolving magazine rifles1 capable of discharging rifle-balls as fast as a man can turn the crank4 ,illustration3 ,,on ,,board ,a ,,battle-,,ship ,,going ,,into ,,action4 ,,working ,,the ,,rapid-,,fire ,,guns4 ,to give some idea of the size and power of one of the #ac-;inch guns1 whose long muzzles1 in pairs1 project so far out of the turrets that hide their mountings and firing-crew1 let me tell you that it is #dj feet long1 more than #d feet in diameter1 and weighs #fj tons4 8,it requires #eej pounds of powder to load it1 and the projectile weighs half a ton4 ,the muzzle-velocity of the projectile is #bajj feet per second1 with the stated charge1 and its energy is sufficient to send it through #bf inches of steel at a distance of #fjj yards4 ,at an elevation of #dj degrees the range of the gun will be not far from #ae miles40 ,in such a ship1 deep down within the fortress is the massive and complicated machinery1 steam and electric1 upon which the life and activity of the whole structure depend4 ,the power is generated in four enormous boilers1 seventeen feet in diameter and twenty in length1 their steel shells one and a half inches thick1 built to carry a working-pressure of #afj pounds to the square inch4 ,each pair of these boilers1 placed fore and aft and side by side1 is installed in a separate compartment1 with fire-rooms at the ends4 ,every boiler has four furnaces in each end1 which give eight to each fire-room1 or a total of thirty-two4 ,the two boiler compartments are separated by a water-tight bulkhead1 and by a deep1 broad coal-bunker4 ,at the sides of the ship are also coal-bunkers1 which supplement the heavy armor-belt by the protection of a mass of coal twelve feet in thickness--in itself a not inconsiderable earthwork1 which might arrest the fragments of a bursting shell that had succeeded in piercing the armor4 ,no casualty of naval combat can be worse than the penetration of high-pressure boilers by heavy shells4 ,their complete protection is an imperative condition1 quite as important as the protection of the magazines4 ,such is a modern battle-ship--a 8wonderful and complex instrument of warfare10 as ,lieutenant ,staunton has expressed it4 ,she is filled he tells us with powerful agencies1 all obedient to the control of man--the creatures of his brain and the servants of his will4 ,steam in its simple application drives her main engines and many auxiliaries4 ,steam transformed into hydraulic power moves her steering-gear and turns her turrets4 ,steam converted into electrical energy produces her incandescent and search-lights1 works small motors in remote places1 and fires her guns when desired4 ,every application of energy1 every device of mechanism1 finds its office somewhere in that vast hull1 and the source of all the varied forms of power lies in the great boilers1 far down below danger of shot and shell1 under which grimy stokers are always shoveling coal4 ,decades of thought and study1 experiment and failure1 trial again with partial success1 and repeated trials with complete success1 have assigned to each agency its appropriate function1 and perfected the mechanism through which its work is performed4 ,these modern developments have added one entirely novel and tremendous adjunct to the fleet1 in the torpedo-boat and its terrible weapon4 ,these take the place to some extent of the fire-ship of a century ago1 which was designed to injure the enemy not by silencing his guns or overcoming his gunners1 but by insidiously destroying his ship itself4 ,the torpedo is1 in its simplest form1 simply some arrangement of a powerful explosive to be set off beneath or against the bottom of a ship1 and shatter or sink it4 ,the idea is as old as gunpowder1 but it is only in recent times that it has been made effective1--how effective we do not yet know4 ,torpedoes are used in two ways3 one is by fixing the torpedo beneath the water1 either to be exploded by means of a percussion-cap when the ship runs against it1 or from the shore by means of electricity4 ,such arrangements as this1 called submarine mines1 are regarded as a most important means of defending harbors against hostile attack4 ,during our ,civil ,war they were extensively used by the ,confederates1 and were sometimes successful1 as when one destroyed the monitor ,tecumseh in ,mobile harbor1 during ,farragut's famous attack there in #ahfd4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,monitor 8,,tecumseh0 ,,sunk ,,by ,a ,,torpedo ,,at ,,mobile1 #ahfd4 ,the former class1 for which the word torpedoes is now reserved1 includes explosive agents which are to be placed or sent against a ship's bottom at sea and exploded there4 ,various devices of that kind1 also1 have been used for a long time in naval warfare4 ,the ,confederates tried hard to destroy several ,northern vessels in the blockading squadron by devising very small1 half-submerged boats1 towing torpedoes astern1 or else projecting on a long spar from their bows2 and now and then they succeeded1 as when one of the latter kind was made to sink the ,housatonic off ,charleston4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,search-,,light ,,revealing ,,the ,,torpedo-,,boat4 ,then there have been invented1 during the past fifty years1 several cigar-shaped machines1 which1 by means of a chemical or compressed-air engine or clockwork1 or some other application of power that might keep motive machinery within them going long enough1 could be launched from shore or from another vessel and sent under water against a hostile ship4 ,at first these were made to glide along just beneath the surface1 carrying little flags that could be seen1 and trailing two electric wires1 enabling a person1 by means of electric currents1 to direct their flight2 but latterly ingenuity has devised such an arrangement of rudders and self-acting balances within the torpedo's mechanism that it will continue perfectly straight upon the course it is aimed for1 swerving neither right nor left1 up nor down1 and will explode the instant it touches an object hard enough to jar the delicate cap of fulminate in its snout4 ,this latter kind1 called the automobile 7self-moving7 torpedo1 is now almost exclusively used1 and some modification of the ,whitehead is most popular4 ,it is cigar-shaped1 and about twelve feet in length2 the forward third is filled with gun-cotton--in quantity sufficiently powerful1 if accurately applied1 to ruin almost instantly the greatest battle-ship afloat4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,self-,,moving ,,torpedo ,,on ,,its ,,way ,,to ,,attack ,a ,,man-,,of-,,war4 ,all large war-ships are now fitted with tubes1 opening near the water-line in various parts of the hull1 which form gun-like exits for these terrible weapons1 which are set in motion by a puff of gunpowder2 but in addition to this every maritime government now has a number 7,great ,britain has more than #bej7 of small1 swift steamers designed wholly for this purpose and called torpedo-boats4 ,most of them are a hundred feet or so in length1 and intended to accompany the fleet wherever it goes and in all weathers2 but some are so small that they may be carried on the deck of a big cruiser4 ,all are made long1 low1 and narrow1 and the speed of many of them exceeds thirty miles an hour4 ,there is almost nothing to catch the wind or show above deck except a pair of short1 flattened smoke-stacks1 one behind the other2 and the steersman stands1 with only his head and shoulders visible1 in a little box with windows that serves the purpose of a wheel-house4 ,a mere wire railing saves the crew from sliding off the deck1 and in action everybody stays below4 ,no weight is carried that can be avoided1 and the engines1 taking steam from two boilers1 are as powerful as can be packed into the space at command4 ,usually only coal enough for a few hours' steaming is carried1 and every bushel of it is carefully selected as to quality1 and is so treated and intelligently fed to the furnaces as to make the hottest possible fire1 although never a spark must escape from the smoke-stack to betray the vessel in the darkness4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,torpedo-,,boat ,,at ,,full ,,speed4 ,next to speed the most important quality is ability to turn quickly1 upon which might often depend the safety of the audacious little craft4 ,torpedo-boats1 however1 are designed for a wider service than simply to carry and discharge the frightful weapon from which they take their name4 ,they are to the navy what scouts and skirmishers are to a land army4 ,they form the cavalry of the sea1 of which the cruisers are the infantry1 and the battle-ships and monitors the artillery arm4 ,they must spy out the position of the enemy's fleet1 hover about his flanks or haunt his anchorage to ascertain what he is about and what he means to do next4 ,they must act as the pickets of their own fleet1 patrolling the neighborhood1 or waiting and watching1 concealed among islands or in inlets and river-mouths1 ready to hasten away to the admiral with warning of any movement of the adversary4 ,illustration3 ,,one ,,form ,,of ,,submarine ,,torpedo-,,boat4 ,it is not their business to fight 7except rarely1 in the one particular way71 but rather to pry and sneak and run1 for the benefit of the fleet they serve4 ,but to insure all these fine results1 both officers and men must be taught the art4 ,constant instruction and drilling are necessary1 and in each navy a regular school of torpedo-practice is maintained1 where the subject is studied in every way4 ,in the ,united ,states such a school is kept at the ,newport 7,r4 ,i47 ,torpedo ,station1 where the torpedoes themselves are fitted for use and supplied to the ships 7the loaded war-heads are kept separately in the ship's magazine71 and where one or more torpedo-boats are reserved for drilling purposes4 ,illustration3 ,,copyright1 #ahig1 ,,by ,c4 ,e4 ,,bolles1 ,,brooklyn1 ,n4 ,y4 ,,the ,,united ,,states ,,battle-,,ship 8,,maine40 ,blown up in the harbor of ,havana1 ,february #ae1 #ahih4 ,but a worse and more insidious foe than even these sneaking1 hiding1 surface torpedo-boats threatens us in the submarine torpedo-boat1 which inventors have been experimenting with since naval warfare first began4 ,it is said that twenty-five hundred years ago divers were lowered into the water in a simply constructed air-box1 to perforate the wooden bottom of an adversary's war-galley and sink it4 ,again1 in our ,revolutionary ,war1 a tiny walnut-shaped boat was made by an ,american1 which was actually tried4 ,it would hold one man1 and air enough for him to breathe for half an hour4 ,he would close the hatch1 let in enough water to sink him a little way1 and then scull himself along by means of a screw-bladed stern-oar until he got underneath the keel of an anchored vessel1 to which1 by ingenious means1 he would attach a can of gunpowder to be fired by clockwork1 giving him time to get away4 ,it was actually tried and nearly succeeded4 ,robert ,fulton1 who made the first success of the steamboat1 tried for years to contrive a submarine boat that would work1 and succeeded so far as to scare ,british blockaders in #ahab very badly indeed2 and the ,confederates repeated the scare when the ,north was blockading their ports in the ,civil ,war4 ,the great advantage of a submarine boat is1 of course1 its invisibility1 and its safety from shot even if discovered2 but the difficulties of progress and control as to depth and direction under water1 and at the same time effective appliance of the explosive and safe retreat1 are so many that they have as yet been only partly overcome4 ,if the thing is ever accomplished1 naval warfare will be demoralized until some adequate means be found to combat this unseen1 destroying agency4 ,illustration3 ,vesuvius in action4 ,the principal agent in submarine attacks would probably be some form of dynamite1 which1 inhuman as its use seems1 is slowly but surely taking its place among the weapons of war4 ,the ,united ,states has one vessel primarily designed to employ dynamite by hurling it in the form of shells4 ,this volcanic craft is suitably named ,vesuvius1 and is a small1 swift vessel having long tubes slanting upward through her forward deck1 as shown in the illustration4 ,these tubes are the muzzles of great air-guns1 through which she sends darts loaded with dynamite to fall upon a hostile ship or fort4 ,it would not be safe1 to say the least1 to fire such bombs with gunpowder2 and therefore pumps and engines in her interior compress air until it has acquired an expansive force sufficient for the purpose4 ,when one of the darts has been laid in the breech of the tube1 down beneath the deck1 and suitably closed in1 a valve is opened1 the compressed air acts like burning powder1 and away goes the dart1 in a graceful curve to its target4 ,in this case1 of course1 it is the vessel rather than the immovable gun that is aimed1 and good marksmanship depends upon accurate calculation of distance2 but remarkable shooting has been done4 ,this system has never yet been tried in actual warfare1 and may prove valuable chiefly in clearing harbors of mines4 ,,chapter ,,vii ,,the ,,merchants ,,of ,,the ,,sea ,the history of shipping in an earlier chapter will also answer as a history of early international commerce4 ,it began with the ,egyptians and ,phenicians1 and was confined to their parts of the ,mediterranean until after the middle ages1 when it moved steadily to the western borders of ,europe4 ,how great1 rich1 and influential were ,tyre and its people we have already seen4 ,a thousand years before the ,christian era they controlled the commerce of the ancient world by reason of their wisdom as traders and their skill and energy as navigators and seamen4 ,turn to the twenty-seventh chapter of ,ezekiel1 and see how the ,phenician metropolis was regarded1 even in the time of that prophet1 six hundred years before ,christ4 ,these ,syrians had gradually extended their commerce until it took in the whole known world2 and by their caravans to and from the interior of ,arabia1 ,persia1 ,india1 and the ,soudan1 by their trains 7perhaps of pack-horses7 across ,europe1 by their marine expeditions to the ,nile1--which they forced open to trade1 for ancient ,egypt was much like ,china in its exclusiveness1--and by their ships to all the ,mediterranean ports1 and up and down the ,atlantic coast1 they gathered and exchanged in the bazaars of ,tyre and ,sidon the products1 manufactures1 and luxuries of every country that had anything to sell4 ,to the ,phenicians1 indeed1 was ascribed1 by the ,latin and ,greek writers of a few centuries later1 the invention of navigation2 and even when ,phenicia had become of little account as a nation1 its conquerors noted with admiration the skill of the men of that coast in seamanship4 8,they steered by the pole-star1 which the ,greeks therefore called the ,phenician star2 and all their vessels1 from the common round gaulos to the great ,tarshish ships1--the ,east-,indiamen1 so to speak1 of the ancient world1--had a speed which the ,greeks never rivaled40 ,later1 in the days of the ,roman supremacy1 the trading-ships were as important to the country as its soldiers1 for nearly every free man was in the army1 and the slaves made poor farmers4 ,a large part of the grain1 as well as cattle1 to supply the wants of the people1 had to be brought from ,egypt1 which was pretty sure to have 8corn10 as the ,bible calls it1 when the rest of the world was suffering from short crops4 ,egypt supplied grain to ,rome during the second ,punic war1 thus enabling her to resist the invasion of ,carthage1 and it is possible that ,rome's later political alliance with ,egypt was largely due to her interest in ,egyptian crops4 ,large fleets of grain-ships1 convoyed by armed vessels1 were continually passing between the ,african coast and the ,tiber1 and so many were the risks they ran of wreck or capture1 that the arrival of a flotilla with its precious freight of food was always a cause of rejoicing1 at any rate1 among the poor4 ,these merchant ships of classical times were broader and heavier than the war-galleys1 and although they carried a few oars to help themselves in a difficulty1 they ordinarily moved by means of sails1 probably lugs4 ,one of the grain-ships plying between ,egypt and ,italy about #aej ,a4 ,d41 according to ,lucian1 was one hundred and eighty feet long1 slightly more than one fourth as broad1 and forty-three and a half feet deep inside1-- more like a barge than a 8ship40 ,the largest used in this trade would carry about two hundred and fifty tons4 ,the transports that accompanied one of ,justinian's fleets1 ,a4 ,d4 #ecc1 are stated to have carried one hundred and sixty to two hundred tons of supplies each4 ,these ,roman vessels were made of pine1 and were coated with a composition of tar and wax1 then painted1 often with elaborate decorations in bright colors1 with pigments mixed with melted wax4 ,now and then one was built of truly vast proportions1 as that one which brought from ,egypt to ,rome the first of the stolen obelisks4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,captain ,,in ,,the ,,merchant ,,marine4 ,with that grand awakening of interest in education1 industry1 and discovery which took place in the fourteenth century1 the city of ,venice gained the lead in power1 and her merchants became the most enterprising and wealthy4 ,it was the expansion of commerce that urged the explorations that marked the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries1 for by this time ,venice had her banks--the first in the world to approach the character of modern banks--and her exchange on the famous ,rialto bridge2 ,genoa was in close rivalry2 ,spain was gathering immense quantities of gold in ,south ,america2 and ,england was coming to the front as a maritime power4 ,the trade with ,cathay--as ,india1 ,china1 and the ,oriental islands were called collectively--was chiefly by caravans across the ,persian deserts1 and ,spain1 ,england1 and ,holland had small shares in it1 since the only water-route known was through the ,mediterranean and ,red seas1 where1 between the perils of the ocean1 the extortionate charges and stealings of the ,arabs 7who carried the cargoes from vessel to vessel across the ,isthmus of ,suez71 and the risk of capture by ,algerian pirates1 there was little chance left for profit to either merchants or ship-owners4 ,to western ,europe1 then1 ,vasco de ,gama's discovery of the route around the ,cape of ,good ,hope was a long advantage1 and ,england and ,holland at least were quick to seize it4 ,the great 8,east ,india ,companies0 of the ,dutch and ,english were formed by a group of powerful merchants in ,london and in ,amsterdam1 who were given vast privileges by their governments in respect to trading in the ,east4 ,the ,dutch company was not founded until #afjb1 two years after the ,english company1 but it soon became the more prominent of the two1 and was one of the principal means by which the ,netherlands secured the preponderance of the carrying trade of the world1 bringing to her ports1 by the middle of the seventeenth century1 almost all the commerce previously enjoyed by ,cadiz1 ,lisbon1 and ,antwerp1 and making very serious inroads upon that of ,london and ,bristol4 ,the ,dutch ,east ,india ships1 copied from the ,genoese carracks1 were the biggest merchant vessels then afloat1 well able to cope with many of the war-ships2 and two hundred of them were at this time engaged in the ,asiatic trade alone4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,clipper ,,escaping ,,from ,,the 8,,alabama40 ,it was in aid of the ,english rival company not only1 but as an attempt to save and revive the commercial position of ,england generally1 that ,cromwell's 8navigation laws0 were enacted1 prohibiting the carriage of goods to or from ,british shores except in ships owned and manned by ,englishmen1-- laws that were aimed directly at the ,dutch1 and led to the long wars of the latter half of the seventeenth century4 ,these were called wars for the supremacy of the sea1 but actually they were a prolonged struggle for the biggest share of the world's trade1 which is the only real value of the 8supremacy of the sea40 ,it is a saying that 8trade follows the flag10 and so it does2 but at the beginning the flag goes were the trade is to be had4 ,these companies were so mixed up in the politics of their respective governments that it would be a long task1 although entertaining1 to trace their growth1 which is really that of western civilization in the ,east4 ,they equipped fleets of merchant and war vessels1 established forts1 carried on small wars along the ,oriental coasts1 and were really little kingdoms within kingdoms1 because of their wide monopoly1 enormous wealth1 and the national importance of all their enterprises4 ,the final result was that1 as ,great ,britain finally overcame the ,dutch and ,french at home1 so her ,east ,india ,company ousted them from ,india2 but it was not until #aheh that old 8,john ,company10 which had come to be regarded by the natives of ,india as the government itself1 was dissolved1 and resigned its territories to the crown and a system of trade open to all the world4 ,those were slow and costly times compared with the present1 though seeming to us full of a romance impossible now4 ,a voyage around the world occupied three years1 and to go from ,london to ,calcutta and back took from ,new ,year's to ,christmas under the most favorable circumstances4 ,another important change1 too1 has gradually come about4 ,formerly1 the vessels were owned almost entirely by the merchants themselves1 or by a company of them2 they paid all a ship's expenses1 and put into her a cargo of their own wares4 ,they would send to ,china1 for instance1 cotton goods1 household furniture1 hatchets1 tools1 cutlery and other hardware1 farming implements1 and fancy goods of all sorts4 ,in return the vessels would bring silks1 tea1 and porcelain1 which would go into the owners' warehouses and be sold in their own shops4 ,shipper1 importer1 and merchant were all one4 ,now this is changed4 ,the importers and merchants of ,london1 ,hamburg1 and ,new ,york are not often those who own vessels and bring their own goods4 ,instead of this they have agents1 who live permanently in each of the foreign ports1 where they buy the merchandise they want and hire a vessel1 or the needed space in a vessel1 belonging to somebody else to bring them home4 ,by the old way1 the nation which had anything to sell carried it to the nation that would buy it1 and brought back the best thing it could get in exchange2 now the merchants go to various parts of the world1 buy their cargoes1 and order them sent home1 in substantially the same way as you go a-shopping in town4 ,this has brought out a new department of sea-labor1 unknown1 as a class1 a century ago--the business of carrying goods which the owners of the vessels have no property in4 ,in ,london1 ,new ,york1 ,hamburg1 and all other seaboard cities of this and other countries1 the great majority of the shipping is owned1 not by the merchants of the city1 but by 8transportation companies10 who agree to carry cargoes at a certain rate4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,saloon ,,of ,a ,,sailing ,,packet-,,ship1 ,,about #ahdj4 ,merchant vessels may be divided into three classes1 of which the first includes steamships and sailing-vessels planned primarily for freight transportation1 which run back and forth between certain ports1 and so constitute 8lines0 for freight4 ,such lines exist along even the remotest coasts1 so that goods may be shipped directly1 or by a single transfer1 from any given seaport to almost any other in the world4 ,some of these lines1 sailing between certain ports1 are devoted to particular uses1 such as those of oil-steamers and cattle-steamers4 ,the oil-steamers run between ,america and ,europe with ,american petroleum1 and in the ,black ,sea and the ,mediterranean with oil from ,russia2 the entire holds are divided into vast iron tanks for this liquid1 which is poured into and pumped out of them as into and out of a great barrel4 ,the cattle-steamers are specially arranged for the transportation of live stock1 but one line1 running between ,america and ,england1 also carries passengers at a cheap rate4 ,the second class of vessels consists of those which make the transportation of passengers their first object1 loading their holds with first-class freight1 for which high rates are paid in consideration of its swift delivery4 ,the third class includes what are known as 8tramp0 steamers1 which run irregularly1 as the old sailing-vessels used to do1 picking up cargoes wherever they find them and carrying them to any port4 ,they are often of great size and power1 but being under less close supervision are often less careful as to the safety of crews and cargoes1 and are sometimes unseaworthy4 ,they are always ready to answer any sudden demand for ships1 their owners keeping watch of the chances and telegraphing to their captains where to go for their next cargoes4 ,without the submarine telegraph these tramp steamers could scarcely compete with the regular lines2 but1 besides the great transoceanic cables1 all the sea-coasts are now festooned with electric cables1 which have frequent stations and connect the important ports of ,america and ,europe with those of ,africa1 ,persia1 ,india1 the ,spice ,islands1 ,australia1 and ,new ,zealand1 and there is now a plan to run a cable across the ,pacific between ,america and ,new ,zealand1 by way of the ,sandwich ,islands1 ,samoa1 and ,fiji4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,corner ,,in ,,the ,,saloon ,,of ,a ,,modern ,,steamship4 ,the passenger-ship is a distinctly modern feature of marine carriage4 ,in former days the few persons who were obliged to cross the seas on business errands1 and the fewer who went abroad for health or pleasure or the love of travel1 had to accept such rough accommodations as the ordinary merchant ships afforded4 ,but as soon as the ,east and ,west ,indies were added to the map of the world1 and colonies of ,europeans began to settle on distant coasts and islands1 the amount of travel justified owners of vessels in enlarging cabins and providing comforts likely to induce patronage of their lines4 ,even two hundred and twenty-five years ago the voyage between ,india and ,england around the ,cape of ,good ,hope1 though it became somewhat tedious1 because it lasted six or seven months1 was by no means a miserable experience in a well-found ship4 ,thus ,dr4 ,john ,fryer has recorded of such a sea-journey in #afhb that 8it passed away merrily with good wine and no bad musick2 but the life of all good company1 and an honest commander1 who fed us with fresh provisions of turkies1 geese1 ducks1 hens1 sucking-pigs1 sheep1 goats1 etc40 ,a century later1 when ,england had come firmly into possession of ,india1 and thousands of her officers1 troops1 and traders1 with their families1 were colonizing her ports1 there were demanded the largest and finest ships that could be built1 combining accommodations for many passengers with great cargo capacity4 ,such were the great ,east ,indiamen2 and in those leisurely days a trip half-way round the world on one of these roomy old vessels was a continuous pleasure to almost every one that undertook it4 ,the ship was a bit of ,old ,england afloat1 where the passenger rented for so many months a well-lighted1 roomy1 unfurnished apartment1 which1 according to his taste and means1 he fitted up for the voyage with numberless comforts and sea stores that none but a yachtsman would think of cumbering himself with at sea to-day2 and1 reading narratives of the old long sea-voyages1 one is constantly coming across expressions of regret by passengers when they 8took leave of the good ship that for so many months had been their floating home40 ,these fine old passenger sailing-ships were1 like a man-of-war1 entirely dismantled at the end of each homeward voyage1 and underwent a complete overhaul and refit before starting out again on an outward one4 ,passengers usually sold their state-room furniture by auction on board the ship on her arrival in port4 ,such a ship1 the ,atlantic packets1 and even men-of-war bound on a long blockading cruise1 did not hesitate to stow aboard all the live stock that room could be found for1 sometimes by comical devices4 ,in that book of charming reminiscences of ways and means afloat before the days of quick steam transit1 8,old ,sea ,wings10 ,mr4 ,leslie has a chapter which he calls 8,the ,old ,ship-,farm10 where one may learn curious particulars of this matter4 ,the man in charge of this part of the stores was the ship's butcher1 and he had as 8mate10 or assistant1 a youth of all work known to all sailors as 8,jemmy ,ducks40 ,their barn1 or storehouse1 was especially the great long-boat1 which often looked more like a model of ,noah's ark than a craft serviceable in case of shipwreck4 ,always securely stowed amidships1 well lashed down and housed over1 the boat1 as she lay upon the ship's deck1 was full of live provender1 being divided1 as to her lower hold1 into pens for sheep and pigs1 while upon the first floor1 or main deck1 quacked ducks and geese1 and above them 7literally in the cock-loft7 were coops for another kind of poultry4 ,this great central dept was closely surrounded by other small farm-buildings1 the most important being the cow-house1 where1 after a short run ashore on the marshes at the end of each voyage1 a well-seasoned animal of the snug ,alderney breed chewed the cud in sweet content4 ,in fact1 when1 in the old days1 a passenger-ship began her voyage1 the hull of her clumsy long-boat was nearly hidden by the number of temporary pens and sheds required to house the live stock for the supply of her cabin table2 and with its many farm-yard and homelike sounds a ship was1 even then1 more like a small bit of the world afloat than it is now4 ,there was always regular traffic between ,america and ,europe1 especially with ,great ,britain1 and the rapid growth of emigration to the ,united ,states and ,canada made it profitable1 early in this century1 to put on fast-sailing packet-ships1 making voyages1 at intervals of a month1 between ,london and ,new ,york4 ,by #ahdj a man might find a large1 well-ordered ship departing every week or so for the transatlantic passage1 which usually required less than a month going east1 but might be two weeks longer coming west4 ,their cabins were as comfortable and perhaps more homelike than any seen now1 and quite as pretty1 with their white and gold paint1 cut-glass door and locker knobs1 damask hangings1 dimity bed-curtains1 and other old-fashioned niceties2 and the fare was abundant and varied1 as it ought to be in a neat ship with a small dairy aboard1 and perhaps a green-salad garden planted in the jolly-boat4 ,none of these packets were more popular than those of the well-remembered ,black ,ball ,line4 ,illustration3 ,,fair ,,weather ,,on ,,the ,,deck ,,of ,a ,,clipper-,,ship ,,carrying ,,gold-,,seekers ,,to ,,california ,,in #ahdi4 ,the steerage passengers were not so well off then1 though they seemed to stand the voyage quite as well as nowadays4 ,the fare was twenty-five dollars1 and the passenger found himself 8in everything but fire and water40 8,steerage passengers then had to cook their own victuals1 weather permitting1 at an open galley-fire on the waist-deck2 444 but in anything like rough weather1 all steerage passengers had either to run the chance of getting constantly wet with salt water or keep below40 ,the 'tween-decks space allotted to them was almost completely filled by rows of bunks1 built in each port by the ship's carpenter1 in three tiers1 one above the other1 though the ceiling was scarcely seven feet from the floor2 and when in a stormy time the hatches were closed the only way the crowd could find room was by most of it stowing itself away in the bunks1 while a few tried to sit or lie on the luggage piled in the narrow aisles4 ,the only light was that of a few candle or whale-oil lanterns1 and in a very bad storm everybody came near smothering1 for then it was impossible to ventilate the steerage properly without flooding it4 ,considering that all the provisions for the steerage people were kept in this crowded1 damp1 and fearfully close room1 it is marvelous that a pestilence did not break out during every voyage1 but1 in fact1 sickness was rare4 ,the introduction of steam into oceanic navigation was experimented with as soon as river steamboats were successfully built4 ,the first vessel to go across the ocean by the aid of a steam-engine is said to have been the ,savannah4 ,this vessel1 built in ,savannah1 ,ga41 and having a steam-engine and paddle-wheels1 certainly crossed to ,liverpool in #ahai2 but it is asserted that she sailed all the way1 using her steam very little1 if at all1 although making the trip in twenty-two days4 ,in #ahbe the ,english steamer ,enterprise went from ,london to ,calcutta2 but it was not until some years later that ocean navigation by steam became successful in the beginning of operations by the ,cunard ,company in #ahcc4 ,these first steamers were side-wheelers1 and their huge boilers and simple engines consumed so much fuel that the space taken up by the coal1 added to that devoted to passengers1 left little room for cargo4 ,moreover1 their speed was less1 often1 than that of the 8clippers10 so that for some time the sailing-packets maintained their competition4 ,the adoption of the screw propeller1 in place of the costly and cumbersome side-paddles1 and the perfection of the compound marine engine1 which effected a great saving in fuel1 soon established the superiority of steam navigation for passenger service1 fast freights1 and service in war1 yet even these improvements were not fairly brought about until the first half of the present century had gone2 and sails are not yet abandoned1 not only because they steady a vessel in a gale1 and may help her decidedly when the wind is fair1 but may save her altogether in case of the disabling of her machinery4 ,great modifications and improvements on old models have grown out of the employment of steam and the screw1 and human invention has been taxed to the uttermost to combine economy of space and expense with the various needs of different climes1 or special cargoes1 or the demands of a traveling public that is growing more fastidious every day4 ,the most obvious changes in naval construction have been in the greatly elongated hull1 the enormous dimensions aimed at1 and the all but universal employment of iron4 ,when the first steamship crossed the ocean the proportions of ships averaged three to five beams in length4444 ,but it was discovered that with a given power and depth and beam the length could be increased without materially affecting the speed1 thus adding to the carrying capacity of steam4 ,great length to beam1 however1 does not necessarily imply great speed2 the speed of beamy vessels has too often been demonstrated4 ,fineness of lines is equally essential1 together with the proper distribution of weights1 and the like4 ,the great average speed exhibited by the modern steamship is due in large part to the momentum of such a vast weight1 which1 once started1 has a tremendous force4 ,long after the transatlantic steamships were regularly running1 sixteen or seventeen days was considered a good passage between ,new ,york and ,liverpool4 ,then the ,inman and ,white ,star lines began to see the importance of faster speed1 and their rivalry had cut this estimate in two by #ahgj1 and ten years later the ,guion ,line's ,arizona and other crack boats took a full day off that4 ,since then there has been a steady improvement in speed1 as is shown by the table below2 and this seems to have followed proportionately the steady increase in length4 ,the ships of #ahej never reached #cjj feet in length1 and few were over #bcjj tons in burden measurement4 ,by #ahhj almost all the first-class 8liners0 of the world exceeded #dej feet1 and some soon approached #fjj1 as the ,city of ,rome 7#ehf feet1 #hhbf tons71 and several of the famous ,hamburg liners1 ,white ,stars1 and ,cunarders nearly equaled her in dimensions 7,paris and ,new ,york1 #ehj feet each2 ,teutonic and ,majestic1 #ehb feet72 while some of the more recent boats are even longer1 as ,campania and ,lucania1 #fbj feet1 and the gigantic ,kaiser ,wilhelm der ,grosse1 #fdh feet4 ,two other ships1 now planned1 will considerably exceed this length4 ,the total number of transatlantic passenger-steamships regularly sailing from ,new ,york alone is now between #ij and #ajj1 belonging to #ad different lines4 ,the table of speed-records between ,new ,york and ,queenstown1 since the time was reduced to less than six days1 is as follows3 ,time4 ,year4 ,steamer4 ,line4 ,direction4 ,date4 ,days4 ,hours4 ,min4 #ahhb ,alaska ,guion ,eastward ,may #cj #f #b #j to ,june #f #ahia ,majestic ,white ,star #e #ah #h #ahia ,teutonic ,white ,star ,westward ,aug4 #ac-ai #e #af #ca #ahib ,paris ,american ,westward ,aug4 #ad-ai #e #ad #bd #ahic ,campania ,cunard #e #ab #g #ahid ,lucania ,cunard ,westward ,sept4 #h-ad #e #h #ch #ahid ,lucania ,cunard ,eastward ,oct4 #ba-bf #e #g #bc ,the approximate distance between ,sandy ,hook 7light-ship71 ,new ,york1 and ,queenstown 7,roche's ,point7 is #bhjj miles4 ,the fastest day's run on record1 however1 was made by the ,kaiser ,wilhelm der ,grosse1 of the ,nord ,deutscher ,lloyds ,line1 averaging #bb4ce knots 7or nautical miles1 of #fjhj feet each7 per hour1 equal to about #be land miles4 ,from ,sandy ,hook to ,queenstown deduct #d hours #bb minutes for difference in time4 ,queenstown to ,sandy ,hook add #d hours #bb minutes for difference in time4 ,this eager rivalry in respect to speed1 which insures not only a larger and more influential passenger service1 but increased business in fast freight and in the carriage of mail--both highly remunerative--is only one feature of the sharp competition between these ocean carriers as to which shall offer the greatest advantages1 and this is of benefit to the public1 though it has not greatly cheapened fares4 ,illustration3 ,,emigrant ,,passengers ,,embarking ,,upon ,a ,,transatlantic 8,,liner40 ,men travel far more now than they were wont in the time of 8good ,queen ,bess10 or even of our own grandfathers1 and the few travelers for pleasure of those days would scarcely believe their eyes if they could look into the floating palaces--almost cities--in which we brave old ocean now4 ,a ship of one of the better passenger lines is a little world in itself1 containing almost all the appliances of the best modern hotels on shore1 and reducing the inevitable inconveniences of life on shipboard by clever devices of every sort4 ,in the one matter of ventilation the ingenuity of the builders is particularly taxed4 ,money is spent lavishly in the finishing and furnishing of these great ships1 not to mention the expense of running them1 which sometimes amounts in cost of fuel1 food1 and wages to #ejjj a day4 ,the steamship lines between ,new ,york and ,great ,britain do not steer straight across the ,atlantic1 but on their way to this country keep well to the northward1 so as to get to the west of the ,gulf ,stream1 and into the favorable current flowing south from ,baffin's ,bay2 then they skirt ,newfoundland1 ,nova ,scotia1 and ,cape ,cod4 ,going east1 however1 the steamers--and sailing-vessels too--keep farther south1 and work along with the ,gulf ,stream as far as they can4 ,from ,europe to ,south ,america1 or through the ,straits of ,magellan on their way to the ,south ,sea islands or ,australia 7though this route is not often taken71 or to the ,pacific coast of the ,americas1 vessels keep close down the ,african coast1 and then steer straight ahead from ,guinea to ,brazil1 and on down the ,american coast4 7,put a map before you and you will understand these courses better47 ,sailing-vessels to ,europe or the ,united ,states from ,cape ,horn1 however1 would swing far out into the ,south ,atlantic to avoid heading against the southward coast-current and to get the benefit of the southwest trade-wind and the equatorial currents4 ,between ,new ,york and the ,cape of ,good ,hope the track is nearly straight4 ,in the ,pacific1 the steamer-route between ,san ,francisco or ,vancouver and ,china and ,japan1 instead of being as direct as a parallel of latitude1 takes a southerly course when bound west1 and a northerly course when bound east1 the exact lines varying with the seasons as the prevailing winds and currents change4 ,what these winds and currents are is explained in another chapter2 but it is interesting to note that there is a difference of many miles in the ordinary westerly and easterly courses1 the latter being much the shorter1 although the vessels of the ,canadian ,pacific ,line often sail so far north with the ,japan warm current as to sight the ,aleutian ,islands4 ,sailing-vessels1 moreover1 curve so much farther south than steamers in going west from ,san ,francisco1 in order to take advantage of the equatorial current and the trade-winds1 that the space is a thousand miles north and south between ships outward bound and those coming home4 ,between ,california and ,honolulu a steamer takes a bee-line1 but sailing-vessels find it best to make detours4 ,in summer1 when outward bound1 this amounts to steering straight northward until under latitude forty degrees1 before turning westward1 making an angular course that looks very unnecessary to a landsman4 ,illustration3 ,a 8,,whaleback0 ,,freight ,,steamer1 ,,also ,,adapted ,,to ,,passenger ,,service4 ,i have said that the finding of a sea-route to the ,east around the ,cape of ,good ,hope was a great boon to western ,europe1 and advanced commerce4 ,it remained so until within the last seventy-five years4 ,lately1 the corsairs being out of the way1 and safety guaranteed in ,egypt1 merchants and sailors both began to wish they had a shorter route between ,england and ,india4 ,then1 with immense labor and sacrifice1 the canal was cut across the ,isthmus of ,suez1 and commerce returned to its ancient channel through the ,red ,sea1 saving thousands of miles of weary distance4 ,from the end of the ,red ,sea at ,aden1 the tracks of steamers both ways are straight courses to ,bombay or ,ceylon1 and thence right up to ,calcutta1 across to ,singapore1 or down to ,australia4 ,except ,east ,african coast lines1 few steamers go around the ,cape of ,good ,hope from ,england1 excepting one line to ,south ,australia1 which steers straight eastward all the way from ,cape ,town to ,adelaide1 #fabe miles4 ,but the ,indian ,ocean is so situated under the equator1 is so filled with prevailing winds and currents and counter currents1 that sailing-vessels must take very roundabout courses there1 and can by no means steer the same track at all seasons of the year4 ,these voyages from ,new ,york and ,london to the ,east are the longest regular sea-roads4 ,a short table of distances between well-known ports along regular steamer-routes will be of interest2 and by reversing them1 or adding them together1 the sailing distance between almost any two ports on the globe may be calculated4 ,,miles4 ,acapulco to ,san ,francisco #a1hej ,aden to ,bombay #a1fce ,aden to ,colombo 7,ceylon7 #b1ajj ,aden to ,zanzibar #a1ggj ,auckland to ,honolulu #c1iae ,auckland to ,suva 7,fiji7 #a1adj ,cadiz to ,teneriffe 7,canaries7 #fih ,cape ,horn to ,rio de ,janeiro #b1cej ,cape ,town to ,plymouth 7,eng47 #f1jaf ,cork to ,st4 ,john's 7,n4 ,f47 #a1gcj ,ceylon to ,west ,australia #c1cje ,glasgow to ,new ,york #b1gij ,havre to ,martinique #c1efj ,havre to ,new ,york #c1afj ,hobart 7,tas47 to ,invercargill 7,n4 ,z47 #icj ,hong ,kong to ,manila #fej ,hong ,kong to ,shanghai #hjj ,hong ,kong to ,yokohama #a1fbj ,leith 7,scot47 to ,iceland #a1jej ,lisbon via ,dakar 7,w4 ,af47 to ,pernambuco #c1big ,lisbon to ,cape ,verd ,islands #a1ecg ,liverpool to ,barbadoes #c1fdf ,lisbon to ,para #d1jjj ,liverpool to ,lisbon #ihc ,liverpool to ,madeira #a1dcj ,liverpool to ,new ,orleans #d1gfg ,liverpool to ,new ,york #c1jeg ,liverpool to ,para #d1jaj ,liverpool to ,quebec #b1fcd ,marseilles to ,algiers #daj ,montevideo to ,magellan ,strait #a1jgj ,new ,orleans to ,havana #egj ,new ,york to ,colon #a1ihj ,new ,york to ,san ,francisco1 about #ag1jjj ,new ,york1 via ,st4 ,thomas1 to ,para #c1acj ,panama to ,san ,francisco #c1bfj ,porto ,rico 7,san ,juan7 to ,havana #a1jcj ,rio de ,janeiro to ,plymouth #d1ida ,san ,francisco to ,honolulu #b1jhj ,san ,francisco to ,yokohama #e1bhj ,shanghai to ,yokohama #a1jcc ,singapore to ,hong ,kong #a1dcj ,suez to ,aden 7length of ,red ,sea7 #a1cjh ,suva to ,honolulu #b1ghc ,sydney to ,auckland #a1bha ,sydney to ,vancouver 7,b4 ,c47 #f1ghj ,teneriffe to ,porto ,rico #b1gij ,trieste to ,bombay #d1cag ,yokohama to ,honolulu #c1dde ,yokohama to ,san ,francisco #d1gej ,yokohama to ,victoria #d1cbj ,zanzibar to ,bombay #b1djj ,illustration3 ,chapter end decoration showing ships ,,chapter ,,viii ,,robbers ,,of ,,the ,,seas ,as the sea has furnished opportunities for so much good1--for manly exertion1 knowledge of the world1 and acquaintance with people outside of one's own country1 and for gaining wealth1--so it has given a chance for unscrupulous men to show the worst that is in them2 and the guarding of shore towns and merchant vessels from piratical attacks has always been a part of the usefulness and duty of a nation's naval force4 ,as on land there are robbers and highwaymen1 so on the ocean robber ships have often been lying in wait for vessels loaded with treasure1 and have landed crews of marauders to make havoc with rich seaboard provinces4 ,such robbers on the high seas are termed pirates1 and their crime was visited by the old laws with torturing punishments2 yet they were never more daring than when the laws against them were severest4 ,the word is ,greek1 and the first pirates who figure in history are those of the ,greek and ,byzantine islands and coasts--bloody ruffians who originated the amusing method of disposing of unransomed prisoners by making them 8walk the plank10 as has been done within the present century4 ,the intricate channels and hidden harbors of the gean ,sea long remained a hiding-place of sea-robbers1 and are still haunted by them1 though every few years1 from ,csar's time till now1 the kings of the surrounding countries have sent expeditions to break them up4 ,in the sixteenth century piracy in that region was especially prevalent4 ,the crews then were chiefly ,turkish1 but the great leaders were two renegade ,greeks1 the brothers ,aruck and ,hayradin ,barbarossa 78,redbeard074 ,illustration3 ,,walking ,,the ,,plank4 ,it happened that ,spain1 having conquered the ,moors of ,granada in #adib and pursued her victories across the straits1 had gained control of ,algeria 7at that time a collection of small ,mohammedan states71 and held it until the death of ,king ,ferdinand in #aeaf4 ,then the ,algerians sent an embassy to ,aruck 7sometimes spelled ,horuk1 or ,ouradjh7 ,barbarossa1 requesting him to aid them in driving out the ,spaniards1 and promising him a share in the spoils4 ,he eagerly accepted this proposition1 seeing a great deal more in it than the ,algerians saw2 and the moment the ,spaniards had been beaten and expelled he murdered the prince he had come there to help1 seized upon the city and port for himself1 and made it the headquarters of that system of desperate piracy which became the dread of all ,europe4 ,these robbers of the sea called themselves corsairs1 from an ,italian word signifying 8a race02 and they generally won1 because they had the best and swiftest vessels of that time1 such as feluccas1 xebecs1 and the like4 ,the black flag which they flew was not blacker than their reputations1 so that even yet to call a man as bad as a ,barbary pirate is to mean that he could not be much worse if he tried4 ,the ,spanish colonies in ,america1 a few years later1 began sending home immense treasures dug in the silver-and gold-mines of ,peru and ,mexico1 and extorted from the natives or stolen from the temples of those unhappy countries4 ,a quantity of ingots and gold and silver ornaments equal in value to fifteen million dollars of our modern money was taken at one time by ,pizarro1 in ,peru1 as the ransom of the ,inca ,atahualpa1 and booty amounting to a similar sum was gained in the sacking of various cities4 ,this great inpouring of wealth caused a general giving up of manufactures and trade in ,spain1 and was one of the reasons of her final decline in power1 and it had the immediate bad effect of making piracy more attractive than ever4 ,the treasure-ships1 though convoyed by war-ships1 were often attacked and captured by the corsairs4 ,barbarossa's fleets were more like armadas of a powerful nation than mere pirate craft2 and whenever it happened that his commanders were defeated1 they would land upon the nearest unprotected coast of ,spain1 ,france1 or ,italy1 and pillage and burn some town in revenge4 ,how galling this was to all merchants and travelers we can hardly understand in these days2 but so strong were the corsairs that the fleets and armies of various governments1 and even of the ,pope1 which were sent against them1 could not gain their stronghold nor suppress their cruisers1 at least for more than a short time4 ,charles ,v of ,spain tried greatly to conquer them2 but although his forces1 attacking ,aruck ,barbarossa from the province of ,oran1 near ,algiers1 defeated and killed him1 ,hayradin 7more properly spelled ,khair-ed-din7 ,barbarossa succeeded his brother1 and1 placing himself under the protection of ,turkey1 continued to build up the power of the pirates4 ,his first care was to fortify the city of ,algiers1 and he expended a great deal of money and labor on the perfection of the harbor1 compelling all his prisoners and thousands of citizens to work as slaves on the defenses4 ,next he conquered ,tunis1 and was selected by the sultan as the only fit man to sail against ,andrea ,doria1 the great ,genoese naval commander of the ,christians in their wars against the ,turks early in the sixteenth century4 ,mediterranean commerce became so unsafe that watch-towers were built all along the coasts1 and guards were kept afoot to give alarm at the approach of the corsairs4 ,charles ,v gathered together a powerful armament1 and sailed to the rescue of ,tunis1 recapturing it for its rightful sovereign in #aece2 but he was never able to capture ,hayradin ,barbarossa1 who lived out his life in ,algiers as 8a friend to the sea and an enemy to all who sailed upon it40 ,after his time the power of the pirates continued under other leaders2 and not ,algeria alone1 but ,tripoli1 ,morocco1 and even ,tunis1 harbored piratical vessels in every port1 and the rulers shared their spoils2 piracy1 indeed1 was the source of their national revenues1 and was encouraged by the ,sultan of ,turkey inasmuch as all these states were his vassals4 ,every few years some ,european power--,spain1 ,france1 ,venice1 or ,england--would lose patience1 send a fleet1 and open a campaign that would be successful in destroying certain strongholds1 releasing a crowd of prisoners1 and burning or sinking many ships4 ,the city of ,algiers was bombarded almost into ruins in #afhb1 and the job completed a year later1 after the ,algerians had tossed the ,french consul out to the fleet1 with their compliments1 from the mouth of a mortar4 ,they were fond of such jokes4 ,nevertheless1 the city speedily recovered1 and piracy1 complicated by ,moslem fanaticism and ,turkish politics1 harassed commerce during all the next century1 partly because ,europe was so busy in its own wars that it had no time for outside matters1 and partly because it was for the advantage of certain nations 7particularly of ,great ,britain1 which1 in possession of ,gibraltar and ,port ,mahon1 might have suppressed this villainy7 to let the corsairs prey upon its foes--especially ,france4 ,the actual result was that most or all of the ,european powers fell into the custom of paying to ,algiers1 ,tunis1 ,tripoli1 and other rulers of the ,barbary 7or ,berber7 ,states large sums of money as annual tribute to restrain them from official depredations upon their coasts and commerce1 besides other large payments for the ransom of such ,christian prisoners as each sultan's lively subjects continued to take in spite of treaties4 ,in this shameful condition of affairs the newly independent ,united ,states was obliged to join during the first years of its existence1 to secure immunity for our commerce in the ,mediterranean1 because we had not yet had time to create a navy4 ,by the end of the century1 however1 the ,united ,states was able to defend itself at sea1 and in #ahja answered the insults of ,tripoli by bombarding its capital seaport until the dey sued for mercy and promised to behave himself4 ,nevertheless1 he needed another lesson1 and in #ahjc a second ,american fleet was sent to the ,mediterranean1 commanded by ,preble1 in the ,constitution1 with such subordinate officers as ,bainbridge1 ,decatur1 ,somers1 ,hull1 ,stewart1 ,lawrence1 and others that later became famous4 ,one incident of this campaign1 which began by frightening the ,sultan of ,morocco at ,tangier into abject submission1 but was especially directed against ,tripoli1 is well worth remembering4 ,illustration3 ,,the 8,,argus0 ,,capturing ,a ,,tripolitan ,,pirate ,,felucca4 ,captain ,bainbridge1 going alone in the fine frigate ,philadelphia into the harbor of the city of ,tripoli1 had unfortunately run aground1 and there1 overpowered by the number of his enemies afloat and ashore1 had been compelled to give up his ship1 and find himself and all his crew taken prisoners4 ,he managed to get word of his misfortune to ,commodore ,preble at ,malta1 and that officer at once took his fleet to ,tripoli--,decatur1 in the ,argus1 gallantly capturing on the way one of the great lateen-sailed piratical crafts of the enemy1 which later proved a useful instrument in the contest4 ,the fleet blockaded ,tripoli for a while1 and shelled the fortifications somewhat1 just to give the bashaw a hint1 and to encourage the poor prisoners2 but none of the big vessels was able to enter the narrow1 tortuous1 and ill-charted harbor in the face of the many batteries1 under whose guns the ,philadelphia could be seen at anchor with the ,tripolitan flag at her main1 so they sailed away to ,syracuse to make preparations for reducing this nest of barbarians4 ,gunboats of light draft and mortar-vessels had to be fitted out2 but the first thing was to try to carry out a plan that ,decatur and all his friends had been maturing ever since they had arrived--the destruction of the ,philadelphia1 not only because she had been refitted into a powerful weapon in the hands of the enemy1 but because it was galling to national as well as naval pride to see her flying a foreign flag4 ,the plan was this3 ,decatur was to take a picked crew of seventy officers and men on the captured felucca 7renamed ,intrepid71 and attempt at night to penetrate to the inner harbor of ,tripoli in the disguise of a trader1 supported as well as possible by the gun-brig ,siren1 also disguised as a merchantman4 ,as his pilot was an ,italian and a competent linguist1 it was hoped the ketch could get near enough to set fire to the ship1 whirl a shotted deck-gun into position to send a shell down the main hatch and through her bottom1 fire it1 and escape before the surprise was over4 ,the chances of failure were enough to daunt the bravest1 yet every man in the fleet wanted to go4 ,on ,february #ae1 #ahjd1 ,decatur in his felucca1 and ,somers commanding the brig1 found themselves1 toward evening1 again in sight of the town1 with its circle of forts crowned by the frowning castle4 ,the great ,philadelphia stood out in bold relief1 closely surrounded by two frigates and more than twenty gunboats and galleys4 ,from the castle and batteries #aae guns could be trained upon an attacking force1 besides the fire of the vessels1 yet the bold tars on the ,intrepid did not quail4 ,the crew having been sent below1 the pilot ,catalona took the wheel1 while ,decatur stood beside him1 disguised as a common sailor4 ,it was now nine o'clock1 and bright moonlight4 ,standing steadily in1 they rounded to close by the ,philadelphia1 and1 boldly hailing her deck-watch1 asked the privilege of mooring to her chains for the night1 explaining that they had lost their anchors in the late storm1 and so forth1 until at last consent was given4 ,having dragged themselves close to the frigate1 it was the work of only a moment to board her with a rush1 overpower her surprised crew1 and make sure of her destruction by means of the combustibles and powder they had brought with them4 ,before their task was done1 however1 they had been discovered1 and it is almost a miracle that they were able to return to their felucca1 and make their way out of the harbor1 through a rain of harmless cannon-balls2 yet they did so1 and ,decatur was justly honored for one of the most gallant exploits in naval annals4 ,a few weeks later ,preble's squadron shelled the pirate city and fortresses into ruin1 forced ,tripoli as well as ,algiers and ,tunis to respect them and thenceforth the ,american flag1 and gave these arrogant rulers the new sensation of paying instead of receiving money for bad deeds4 ,it put an end to the corsairs4 ,turkish and ,barbary pirates were not the only ones in the world1 however4 ,although the old ,norwegian vikings and rough ,norman barons did not go under that name1 they were scarcely anything else1 in fact1 as the neighboring peoples could testify1 though this was far back before modern history began4 ,but when the ,spaniards and the ,french began to colonize the ,west ,indies1 and to dig mines in ,south and ,central ,america1 not only were the ,barbary corsairs given a fresh incentive1 but a new set of pirates sprang up1 the most daring that the world has ever seen4 ,as the archipelago east of ,greece had sheltered the hordes of the ,turkish sea-robbers1 so the many islands1 crooked channels1 reefs unknown to all but the local pilots1 small harbors1 and abundant food of the ,antilles1 made the ,west ,indies the safest place in the world for pirates to pursue their work4 ,to these new and wild regions1 in the sixteenth century1 had flocked desperados and adventurers from all over the world4 ,when the wars with their chances of plunder died out after the campaigns led by ,corts1 ,pizarro1 ,balboa1 and the rest of the ,spanish conquistadores1 many ruffians seized upon vessels by force1 or stole them1 and turned into robbers of the sea4 ,at first1 as a rule1 they had farms and families on some island1 and went freebooting only a portion of the year4 ,the island of ,hayti1 or ,santo ,domingo1 was then settled by farmers1 hunters1 and cattlemen1 the last-named of whom1 mainly ,french1 passed most of their time in the interior of the island1 capturing1 herding1 or killing half-wild cattle and hogs4 ,but the monopolies which ,spain imposed upon the colonists interfered with the market for their produce and induced an illicit trade1 which led to frequent encounters with the ,spanish navy4 ,as the constant wars between ,spain and ,france and ,england increased the difficulties of trade1 large numbers of the colonists joined the freebooters1 who then became extremely numerous and formidable1 losing their old name and becoming known by that of the cattlemen--buccaneers1 from the ,french word boucanier4 ,first ,santo ,domingo1 then ,tortugas1 and finally ,jamaica were headquarters of the buccaneers1 who were made up of men of all nations1 united by a desire to prey upon ,spain as a common enemy4 ,they were thousands in number1 possessed large fleets of ships and boats1 were well armed1 and finally formed a regular organization with a chief and under-officers4 ,the most noted of these chiefs1 perhaps1 was ,henry ,morgan1 a ,welshman1 who was at one time captured and taken home to ,england for trial4 ,to his own surprise1 instead of being executed1 he was knighted by ,charles ,,ii1 who had not been at all grieved at seeing ,spanish commerce harassed2 and ,morgan was returned to ,jamaica as commissioner of admiralty1 where at one time he acted as deputy governor1 using his opportunity to make it unpleasant for those of the buccaneers with whom he had formerly had disagreements as to the distribution of prizes4 ,the earlier buccaneers found ample plunder in the ,spanish fleets4 ,they patrolled the sea in the track of vessels bound to and from ,europe1 and seized them1 allowing or compelling the crews to become pirates1 or else to be killed or carried into slavery4 ,this work1 however1 employed only a portion of the buccaneers2 and early in the seventeenth century1 as the commerce of ,spain declined1 it became too uncertain a means of wealth to suit them4 ,but the rich ,spanish settlements still remained2 and often1 therefore1 they equipped a great fleet1 enlisted men under certain strict rules as to sharing the spoils1 and sailed away to pillage some coast4 ,there was hardly an island in the ,west ,indies from which1 in this way1 they did not extort immense sums of money under threat of destruction of the people4 ,the mainland also suffered from the marauders4 ,great cities1 like ,cartagena in ,venezuela1 ,panama on the ,isthmus1 ,mrida in ,yucatan1 and ,havana in ,cuba1 were attacked by armies of buccaneers numbering thousands of men4 ,sometimes their fortifications held good1 and the enemy was beaten back2 but sooner or later all these cities1 and others1 smaller1 were captured1 robbed of everything valuable that they contained1 and burned or partly burned4 ,for years the buccaneers were the terror of the ,caribbean region1 and after the famous sacking of ,panama1 under ,morgan1 in #afga1 their power spread across the ,isthmus and scourged the southern seas4 ,we have no way of knowing the amount of the treasure which they captured from the merchant vessels and from the coast of ,peru2 for the moment they got home from an expedition they wasted all their booty in wild carousing1 so that the spoils earned by months of exposure1 and wounds1 and danger of death1 would be spent in a single week4 ,at last even ,england and ,france1 after secretly favoring the buccaneers1 became roused to the necessity of controlling them1 and it was with this object in view that a certain ,captain ,william ,kidd was fitted out at private expense toward the end of the seventeenth century1 and armed with ,king ,william's commission for seizing pirates and making reprisals1 ,england being at war with ,france4 ,just why it was1 nobody has explained1 but ,captain ,kidd spent his time in loitering around the coast of ,africa1 where no pirates were to be found1 until he grew quite disheartened1 and1 fearing to be dismissed by his employers and to be 8mark'd out for an unlucky man10 he started a little pirate business for himself1 in which he gained more of a certain kind of fame than any of the rest2 for popular tradition supposes him to have hoarded his booty and buried it4 8,captain ,kidd's treasure0 has been sought for until the whole eastern coast of the ,united ,states is honeycombed with diggings for it2 but probably he had eaten and drunk it up before #agja1 when he was captured and executed in ,england4 ,about this time1 however1 and without his valuable aid1 the combined naval forces of all the nations interested in the commerce of the ,new ,world broke the power of the buccaneers1 and their depredations ceased4 ,their story is one of the wildest1 most romantic1 and most terrible in the history of the world4 ,illustration3 8,in revel and carousing ,we gave the ,new ,year housing1 ,with wreckage for our firing1 ,and rum to heart's desiring40 ,the trade of piracy was carried on during the eighteenth century in the region of the ,west ,indies by unorganized bands of desperados who had all the faults and none of the greatness of the men they succeeded1 and who received little attention from the world at large4 ,at the beginning of the nineteenth century the ,barataria pirates came into notice on the coast of ,louisiana1 taking the place of the buccaneers1 but in a much smaller way4 ,their leaders1 ,pierre and ,john ,lafitte1 carried on business quite openly in ,new ,orleans2 and their settlements on the marshy islands along the coast1 and their 8temple10 to which persons came out from the city to buy goods1 were open secrets4 ,but in the ,war of #ahab1 although the ,british tried to buy their services1 they redeemed themselves by standing true to the ,american government1 which had just been trying to exterminate them1 and so they won public pardon and an added glamour of romance4 ,for the same reasons as those in the case of other island systems1 the ,east ,indies have always been infested with pirates1 whose light1 swift vessels run in and out of the intricate channels among the dangerous coral reefs1 where government cruisers dare not follow1 while the people on shore sympathize more with the pirates than with the police4 ,the ,east ,indian sea-robbers are1 as a rule1 natives of that region--,malays1 ,borneans1 ,dyaks1 and ,chinese1 with many half-savages of the ,south ,sea ,islands4 ,this is more like a continuance of savage resistance to civilization than real piracy1 since the pirates of the ,atlantic are civilized sailors in mutiny against their own people and national commerce4 ,the result is just as bad1 however2 for these ,east ,indians are as bloodthirsty and cruel as the others1 and if they do not kill their victims1 or save them for some cannibal feast 7as would probably happen in the ,new ,hebrides and some other islands71 they condemn them to a life of misery4 ,but in these days of improved sea-craft1 piracy1 even in ,malayan waters1 is weak4 ,our consuls and government agents watch suspicious vessels2 our telegraph warns the naval authorities in a moment2 our steam-cruisers outspeed the swiftest craft of the black flag2 our rifled guns silence their cheap artillery2 and our coast surveys furnish maps so accurate that the pirate no longer holds the secret of channels and harbors where he can safely retreat4 ,if1 therefore1 the old 8,redbeards0 should come back to life and try to be kings of the sea1 as they rejoiced to be a couple of centuries ago1 their pride would soon be humbled1 and they would gladly return to their graves and their ancient glory4 ,there is a form of sea-roving which has been at times not very different from piracy2 it is called privateering1 and history shows a good many cases where it has degenerated into sea-robbery pure and simple4 ,a privateer is a ship1 owned by a private citizen or citizens1 to which authority is given by a government to act as an independent war-vessel4 ,its commission is called a 8letter of marque0 7lettre de marque in ,french71 entitling it to 8take1 burn1 and destroy0 a certain enemy's property on the sea or in its ports4 ,it has no right1 of course1 to attack any one else4 ,the object and plea of the government issuing commissions to privateers is that thus a great many more armed vessels can be sent afloat than the government has money to equip1 and that consequently far more damage will be done to the enemy1 by crippling his trade and resources1 than regular men-of-war alone can accomplish4 ,private capital has been willing to take the risk because rewarded by a large share of the prizes2 and from the end of the fifteenth to the middle of the eighteenth century this was one of the most profitable of marine industries1 for then nearly universal wars made almost any capture legitimate4 ,in the earlier times even the limited regulation that came later was absent1 and there was small choice between a privateer and a pirate4 ,queen ,elizabeth found the hundreds of privateers which she had commissioned against the ,spanish and ,dutch preying upon her own people1 and robbing fishermen1 coasters1 and small shore towns1 to such an extent that she had to suppress them as bandits4 ,those were the times when ,hawkins could use a royal fleet to wage war upon the ,spanish colonies for private reasons2 and when his ablest lieutenant1 ,drake1 could make his notable journey around the world a history of robbery and slaughter4 ,on the west coast of ,south ,america he spent months in destroying ,spanish vessels and ravaging and burning settlements2 yet it was thought remarkable1 when he returned from his circumnavigation of the globe1 that the ,queen hesitated somewhat before recognizing his great achievements as a seaman1 for fear of complications with ,spain6 ,illustration3 ,,malay ,,pirates ,,attacking ,a ,,steamer4 ,spain1 in those days of first harvest from her ,american possessions and the ,east ,indies1 was the prey of everybody on the high seas able to rob her1 and formalities were joyously disregarded by both sides4 ,her galleons carried precious cargoes of spices1 silks1 and ,east ,india goods around the ,cape1 and brought silver ingots and gold bars from the ,spanish ,main4 ,they were usually convoyed by regular war-ships1 and had to run the gantlet of the enemy's fleets whenever ,spain happened to be openly at war with somebody1 as was usually the case2 and otherwise must escape buccaneers in ,west ,indian waters1 ,malayan and ,chinese pirates in the far ,east1 and irregular sea-rovers along the ,west ,african coast1 while the corsairs made the ,mediterranean route doubly dangerous4 ,illustration3 ,,paul ,,jones' ,,fight ,,in ,,the 8,,bon ,,homme ,,richard0 ,,with ,,the 8,,serapis40 ,the gradual growth of organized navies1 the development of international law1 and the increasing organization of the civilized world generally1 slowly tamed these wild practices and reduced privateering to some sort of control4 ,thus ,jean ,bart1 the popular hero of ,french naval history1 who flourished toward the end of the seventeenth century1 was recognized and supported by the ,french monarch as a free-lance in the ,mediterranean1 because his humble birth prohibited him from taking a commission in the regular navy1 which amounted to a sort of apology for his deeds4 ,during the wars of the ,united ,states with ,england privateering was extensively practised on both sides1 and was of especial value to the ,americans4 ,congress issued private commissions as early as ,march1 #aggf1 and the ablest statesmen upheld it as a means of employing the ships1 capital1 and thousands of seamen that must lie idle when the enemy's cruisers were ranging the ocean highways unless permitted to arm themselves and assist the government in an irregular warfare1 trusting to the value of their captures for remuneration4 ,that the chance of such reward was enough inducement is shown by the fact that during the first year of the ,revolution nearly three hundred and fifty ,british vessels were captured1 chiefly ,west ,indiamen1 worth1 with their cargoes1 five million dollars4 ,as ,great ,britain did not recognize the flag of the ,united ,states1 not only these1 but even our regular naval officers1 were regarded by them as pirates1 rather than true privateers--,paul ,jones first of all2 but she never acted on this theory with the severity that would have been visited upon true pirates4 ,in the naval warfare that came later between the ,united ,states and ,france1 privateering again flourished1 and was a source of immense profit to the principal seaports whence these swift1 effective ,yankee vessels were despatched4 ,no less than three hundred and sixty-five ,american privateers were sent out between #aghi and #agii1 and swept the seas almost clean of the ,french merchant flag4 ,then came the second war with ,great ,britain1 which was fought over a question of the sea rather than of the land1--the right of search claimed by the ,british1--and once more ,american and ,british privateers swarmed upon the highways of commerce4 ,of our merchant ships in all parts of the world1 about five hundred were lost2 but this was more than paid for1 since our two hundred and fifty privateers captured or destroyed1 during the three years and nine months of the conflict1 no less than sixteen hundred ,british merchant vessels of all classes4 ,this disparity of results was largely due to the greater number of ,english merchant vessels1 but is also to be credited to the superior speed and handiness of the ,yankee vessels1 most of which were 8,baltimore clippers10 topsail-rigged schooners with raking masts1 that could outsail and out-manuver anything afloat4 8,they usually carried from six to ten guns1 with a single long one1 which was called #8,long ,tom1' mounted on a swivel in the center4 ,they were usually manned with fifty persons besides officers1 all armed with muskets1 cutlasses1 and boarding-pikes40 ,an ,english writer1 ,mr4 ,r4 ,c4 ,leslie1 is of the opinion that this type of vessel grew out of models in vogue in the ,west ,indies1 long before1 for the small piratical craft that made those waters the terror of travelers4 ,illustration3 ,,drawn ,,by ,w4 ,,taber4 ,,engraved ,,by ,,henry ,,wolf4 ,,united ,,states ,,frigate 8,,constellation0 ,,overhauling ,,the ,,slaver 8,,cora40 ,these ,baltimore clippers1 too1 enlarged and square-rigged1 but still the fastest things on the western ocean1 formed the craft with which the slave-trade was continued between ,africa and ,america long after it had been condemned by the civilized world4 ,for many years previous to the ,american ,civil ,war1 which put an end to the larger part of the traffic by destroying its market1 ,england and the ,united ,states kept squadrons patrolling the ,african coast to arrest the slavers and free their 8cargoes40 ,what wild1 wild tales of the sea do these reminiscences of piracy1 privateering1 and the slave-chase bring to mind--tales of horror1 and yet full of such deeds of daring and romance and fierce delight as must stir the heart in spite of brain and conscience6 ,pirates are things of the past--no more to be feared except in a small way in the ,malayan and ,chinese archipelagoes4 ,the ,african slave-trade is extinct1 so far as shipment across the ocean is concerned1 save where1 now and then1 an ,arab dhow steals with its black cargo along the ,east ,african foreland1 or flits across the ,gulf of ,aden or the ,red ,sea4 ,privateering has been forbidden by international treaty among the larger ,european powers1 which now recognize that trade goods1 even of belligerents1 must be held safe in the ships of neutrals 7except articles declared contraband of war71 because the business of the world cannot stop1 or even be put in jeopardy1 by a quarrel between two nations4 ,privateering1 therefore1 has been abandoned in ,europe as a method of war since the treaty of ,paris in #ahef1 though ,prussia came pretty near it in #ahgj1 by organizing what she called a volunteer fleet1 and ,spain reserves the privilege of commissioning privateers4 ,the ,united ,states1 however1 and some other countries whose policy or ability forbid them to have a large navy1 would not enter into the ,european agreement above mentioned1 mutually to abstain from privateering1 on the plea that to do so would be to yield the most powerful weapon of a nation weak in naval armament and sea commerce1 against any of many possible enemies whose large sea-borne commerce would expose it to the most serious wounds4 ,in our ,civil ,war the ,president issued no letters of marque1 although authorized to do so4 ,it was customary to speak of the ,confederate cruisers ,alabama1 ,shenandoah1 ,florida1 etc41 as privateers1 or even pirates1 and they actually played the part with a success woeful to us of the ,north1 and to ,great ,britain1 which had to pay for the damages caused by the ,alabama2 but1 strictly speaking1 they were neither1 because commissioned by a temporary but regular government1 whose flag might have been recognized if its arms had succeeded4 ,illustration3 ,cannon4 ,more lately 7#ahih7 the ,united ,states has announced it as its policy to refrain from privateering1 though no formal signature has been given to any international agreement to that effect4 ,illustration3 ,,steam ,,yacht4 8,,halcyon40 ,,sandy ,,hook ,,light-,,ship4 8,,volunteer40 8,,mayflower40 ,a ,,spin ,,out ,,to ,,sea4--,,well-,,known ,,yachts ,,rounding ,,the ,,sandy ,,hook ,,light-,,ship4 7,from the painting by ,j4 ,o4 ,davidson1 owned by ,f4 ,a4 ,hammond1 ,esq47 ,,chapter ,,ix ,,yachting ,,and ,,pleasure-,,boating ,yacht is a word derived from the ,dutch language1 which has given to the ,english so many of its sea-terms1 meaning1 originally1 a fast boat1 such as was built for chasing pirates and smugglers1 and1 later1 a pleasure-boat4 ,the latter meaning alone is now kept in view by the word1 which is properly applied to anything designed and used for pleasure-sailing1 whether moved by sails1 steam1 or electricity4 ,in ,great ,britain1 where yachting1 as we now understand it1 arose1 it was not until about #afej that races between pleasure craft began to be sailed on the ,thames and in the quiet waters about the ,isle of ,wight1 while the first yacht-club was not formed until #agbj 7at ,cork1 in ,ireland74 ,even then1 a century elapsed before yachting as a sport attracted much attention even among the ,british1 famous for their love of the sea4 ,in #ahab a 8yacht-club0 was founded at ,cowes1 in the ,isle of ,wight4 ,it received a new impetus and became the 8,royal ,yacht-,club0 in #ahag1 the ,prince ,regent having joined it1 and in #ahcc was again reorganized by ,king ,william ,,iii as the 8,royal ,yacht ,squadron10 the designation it bears to-day4 ,it carried on races1 or regattas1 as they soon came to be called 7borrowing from the ,italians a term descriptive of the old ,venetian gondola races71 but all sorts of cruising-boats were matched against one another1 classified by a tonnage rule with no allowances for size or any of the systems by which contestants are now classified and equalized4 ,by this time1 however1 there was peace on the ,north ,atlantic1 and many a good seaman was free to turn his attention to enjoying and improving the tools of his profession4 ,by this time1 also1 the ,americans had made great headway as ship-builders and seamen1 and by rivalry with the ,old ,world for trade1 and by experience in the ,newfoundland fisheries and the ,west ,indies fruit-trade1 had acquired a skill in building and rigging ships that astonished the world by their speed and weatherly qualities4 ,it was natural that these ideas should influence pleasure craft on this side of the water1 as ,great ,britain's long sea-struggles had influenced its sailors2 and when1 in #ahdd1 the ,new ,york ,yacht-,club was founded1 the conditions were favorable for beginning that home development of yachting as a sport which was soon to place the ,americans and ,canadians among the leading yachting peoples of the world1 and to lead to those international tests of speed that nowadays excite so wide-spread and intense an interest4 ,illustration3 8,,america0 7,,as ,,originally ,,rigged7 ,,and 8,,maria40 ,the great preponderance in numbers and value of pleasure-vessels in the ,united ,states1 and in the number of clubs and club-members1 is due not only to our large population and long coast-line1 but to the great extent of inland waters furnished by our rivers and interior lakes1 and to the prevalence of bays or protected lagoons1 such as ,narragansett ,bay1 the ,great ,south ,bay of ,long ,island1 ,new ,york harbor1 ,delaware and ,chesapeake bays1 and the long series of 8sounds0 that border the southern ,atlantic coast from ,barnegat to ,biscayne4 ,the ,great ,lakes are bordered by yacht-clubs on both sides1 and furnish space and weather for quite as serious work as tries the skill of ocean navigators1 while a hundred smaller lakes make fine pleasure-waters and excellent training-grounds for fresh-water sailors4 ,though the first regatta in ,america was sailed in #ahde1 little over half a century ago1 the evolution of ,american yachts began with the building of the sloop ,maria by ,robert ,l4 ,stevens1 one of that family of remarkable inventors1 who had already devised the first practical screw-steamer1 and afterward created the ,monitor4 ,her model1 as we learn from an excellent article in 8,the ,century0 for ,july1 #ahhb1 by ,s4 ,g4 ,w4 ,benjamin1 was suggested by the low1 broad1 almost flat-bottomed sloops employed to steal over the shallows of the ,hudson and the ,sound--vessels depending upon beam rather than on ballast for stability1 and imitated by many of our coasters1 which are so stiff that they sometimes make outside voyages without either cargo or ballast2 but the ,maria had a long1 sharp1 hollowed bow1 whence she expanded aft1 with little taper at the stern1 so that her deck-plan was that of an elongated flat-iron4 ,the principal novelty about her1 however1 was the use of two 8center-boards40 ,a center-board is a plate of wood or metal1 suspended1 usually by a corner pivot1 within a sheath or box in the waist1 which can be let down through the keel into the water1 so as to form an adjustable keel4 ,it is the most convenient form of a very old device for preventing a boat's drift to leeward1 or tendency to capsize under the pressure of the wind4 ,in earliest times1 a mat was hung over the side4 ,later this was replaced by the leeboard1 apparently a ,dutch invention1 which may still be seen on the canal barges in ,holland1 and which was a feature of the pirogues or periaugers 7shallow double-ended sailing-canoes7 that in early times formed almost the only type of small sail-boat in ,new ,york waters4 ,two other novel1 foreshadowing features possessed by ,mr4 ,stevens' boat1 were the use of rubber compressors on the traveler of the main boom to ease the strain of the sheet 7rubber is applied in many places about modern rigging71 and the bolting of lead to the keel as outside ballast4 ,the ,maria justified the expectations aroused by these and other novelties in hull and rig by beating everything in existence1 until a ,swedish gentleman in ,new ,york constructed a much smaller boat1 the ,coquette1 on very different lines1 for although only sixty-six feet long she drew ten feet of water2 and in a match on the open sea she beat the ,maria easily1 showing the superiority of the deep-keeled model for windy weather4 ,profiting by these experiences and widely gathered information1 a new designer essayed the task of making a still better yacht4 ,this was ,george ,steers1 the son of a ,british naval captain and ship-modeler1 who had become an ,american naval officer and was the first man to take charge of the ,washington navy yard4 ,he built several graceful and fleet-winged sloops1 famous in their day1 such as the ,julia1 ,david ,carl's ,gracie1 and many pilot-boats and ships4 ,his most celebrated production1 however1 and the one which gave our yachtsmen an international reputation and established their method of pursuing recreation as the foremost ,american sport1 was the ,america1 from which the 8,america ,cup0 races take origin and name4 ,the origin was really accidental4 ,when the first ,world's ,fair was to be held at the ,crystal ,palace in ,london1 one of the attendant festivities was a great national gathering of ,british yachts in their favorite harbor1 ,cowes1 at which1 it was announced1 foreign yachtsmen were to be welcome1 especially ,americans4 ,in preparation for it1 ,john ,c4 ,stevens1 of ,hoboken1 then ,commodore of the ,new ,york ,yacht-,club1 and some of his friends1 ordered a new yacht from ,george ,steers with which to cross the ,atlantic and meet the ,english racers4 ,this new boat1 completed in the spring of #ahea1 and named ,america1 was schooner-rigged1 but had raking masts1 no topsails except a small main gaff1 and only one jib1 whose foot was laced to a boom4 ,such was the style of the day2 but later she was changed in rig so as to carry far more and bigger sails1 more like those of a modern schooner-yacht4 ,the moment she arrived in ,cowes1 in the early summer of #ahea1 her superiority in speed was conceded1 and no ,british captain would consent to meet her2 but finally a match was extemporized1 open to all nations1 for which a prize was offered in the form of a cup presented by the ,royal ,yacht ,squadron--not by the ,queen1 as usually said4 ,fifteen yachts responded1 but none showed what it could do1 for there was little wind1 and the cup was awarded to the ,america more in general acknowledgment of its excellence than because of any great performance there4 ,not much importance was attached to the incident1 but the silver tankard was brought home and left to ornament ,commodore ,stevens' drawing-room until #aheg1 when its owners dedicated it to the purpose of a perpetual challenge cup1 in charge of the ,new ,york ,yacht-,club1 for international races under specified conditions4 ,fifteen years elapsed1 however1 before the first contestant appeared4 ,the ,america had differed prominently in shape from all her opponents at ,cowes1 by having fine hollowed bows and a wide stern1 instead of the bluff bows and narrowing after part--the 8cod's head and mackerel's tail0 pattern--of ,english craft2 she also had sails that hung very flat instead of bellying out under the wind as was the foreign style4 ,in these directions ,british yachtsmen saw good1 and tried to improve2 but they would have nothing to do with center-boards1 and clung to their cutter-rig4 ,we1 on the other hand1 had gained ideas as to improving rig1 especially in the schooners1 and in the bestowal of ballast1 outside and in4 ,illustration3 ,,from ,a ,,photograph ,,by ,g4 ,,west ,,son1 ,,southsea1 ,,england4 8,,genesta10 8,,tara10 ,,and 8,,irex0--,,the ,,british ,,type ,,of ,,cutter ,,of #ahhd-he4 8,galatea10 #ahhe1 belonged to the same type4 ,at length1 in #ahgj1 an ,english schooner1 the ,cambria1 came over to compete for the cup1 and was pitted against a fleet of crack yachts off ,sandy ,hook2 but again the wind was so light that the boats did little more than drift4 ,the ,englishman1 nevertheless1 was outdrifted by nine others1 and the leader was the little sloop ,magic1 which became the custodian of the cup4 ,the next year1 however1 another challenge was received1 and the ,british keel-yacht ,livonia appeared and was defeated by the ,american keel-schooner ,sappho1 which1 under a new rule1 had won her right to defend the cup by first beating in preparatory ocean races all other rivals for the honor4 ,as this contest was between single representative yachts1 tried in five races1 and in all sorts of weather1 it was a fair and conclusive measure of comparative qualities4 ,the next yacht to come after the international cup was the ,canadian ,countess of ,dufferin1 which was promptly defeated by the ,magic in #ahgf4 ,five years later another ,canadian appeared1 the ,atalanta1 differing from previous contestants in being a single-masted center-board yacht2 but her rigging and finish were so bad that her excellent model could not save her from defeat 7#ahha7 at the hands of the elegant iron sloop ,mischief which had been built especially for the race1 and had won her foremost place through severe trial races1 as before4 ,up to this time1 as ,mr4 ,w4 ,p4 ,stephens tells us in 8,the ,century0 for ,august1 #ahic1 whence many of the portraits of these racers have been taken1 no pleasure-boats had been built except after the rule of thumb--some practical sailor whittled out a model according to his ideas1 and the builder followed it4 ,systematic designing was unknown1 and 444 one type of yacht was in general use1 the wide1 shoal center-board craft1 with high trunk cabin1 large open cockpit1 ballast all inside 7and of iron1 or even slag and stone71 and a heavy and clumsy wooden construction4 ,faulty in every way as this type has since been proved1 in the absence of any different standard it was considered perfect1 and open doubts were expressed of the patriotism if not the sanity of the few ,american yachtsmen who1 about #ahgg1 called into question the merits of the ,american center-board sloop1 and pointed out the opposing qualities of the ,british cutter--her non-capsizability1 due to the use of lead ballast outside of the hull2 her speed in rough water2 and the superiority of her rig both in proportions and in mechanical details4 ,a wordy warfare over these types raged for several years1 gaining strength with the building of the first true ,english cutter1 the ,muriel1 in ,new ,york in #ahgh1 and bearing good fruit a year later in the launching of the ,mischief1 an ,american center-board sloop1 but modified in accordance with the new theories4 ,the plumb stem1 the straight sheer1 and higher free-board1 with quite a shapely though short overhang1 suggested the hull of the cutter1 and though quite wide--nearly twenty feet on sixty-one feet water-line--she drew nearly six feet4 ,even with her sloop rig she was a marked departure from the older boats of her class1 especially as she was built of iron in place of wood1 and consequently carried her ballast1 all lead1 at a very low point4 ,one of the results of this controversy was the sending to this country1 from ,scotland1 of a little ten-ton racing cutter1 the ,madge1 purely to show what capabilities lay in 8a deep1 narrow1 lead-keeled craft with the typical cutter rig40 ,the only ,american able to beat her was the ,shadow1 a famous ,herreshoff sloop of unusual depth1 and she did it but once4 ,nevertheless1 the controversy was not decided in the ,united ,states1 and the ,britishers thought it worth while to try to give us another lesson4 ,in #ahhd they launched two big cutters1 ,irex and ,genesta1 and in #ahhe a third1 ,galatea2 and ,sir ,richard ,sutton1 owner of ,genesta1 and ,lieutenant ,william ,henn1 ,r4 ,n41 owner of ,galatea1 challenged for the ,america ,cup4 ,then the question arose3 ,what should be done to meet them8 ,the ,british cutters differed from those previously met1 in that they were built for racing1 not for general use--were 8racing machines0 instead of cruising-yachts4 ,to meet this1 a scientific designer of marine vessels1 ,mr4 ,a4 ,cary ,smith of ,new ,york1 was called upon to produce a moderately deep1 center-board1 iron sloop-yacht on the lines of the ,mischief1 but much larger1 and he produced the ,priscilla4 ,but while she was building there was quietly begun another yacht1 the ,puritan1 owned and built in ,boston from designs by an almost unheard-of architect1 ,mr4 ,edward ,burgess1 who previously to this performance had been renowned only as a student of insects6 8,the stout oak keel of the new ,puritan was laid upon a lead keel of twenty-seven tons1 carried down into a deep projecting keel2 the plumb stem1 the sheer1 and the long counter suggested the ,british cutter rather than the ,american sloop2 the draft of eight feet six inches was greatly in excess of all of the old center-board boats1 and the rig was essentially that of the cutter rather than of the sloop40 ,a struggle decided that she was better than the ,priscilla1 and in the cup races in ,september she proved herself better than the famous ,english cutter ,genesta4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,cutter 8,,muriel10 ,,showing ,,the ,,english ,,deep-,,draft ,,type ,,of ,,build ,,and ,,rig4 ,nevertheless1 when the ,galatea1 whose challenge had been postponed until #ahhf1 came out1 the ,puritan had already been distanced by an ,american rival1 the ,mayflower1 practically a larger copy of herself1 as ,galatea was of ,genesta1 and1 therefore1 a lead-keeled center-board boat1 having a cutter-like rig4 ,trial races showed that the ,mayflower was able to beat all her beautiful predecessors1 and again the ,british contestant was obliged to take a defeat and leave the prize in ,new ,york4 ,the result of this last contest 7#ahhf7 was to cause ,british yachtsmen to abandon their old tonnage rule of measurement and adopt the far better modern one of load-line and sail-area measurement4 ,another challenge immediately came from ,glasgow1 supported by a boat named ,thistle1 built under the new rule2 and to oppose it ,mr4 ,burgess built the ,volunteer1 which differed from its predecessors mainly in increased draft and tendency toward the cutter model4 ,she easily beat the ,thistle1 and the discouraged foreigners rested for some years before trying again to wrest from us the coveted trophy4 ,illustration3 8,,puritan40 ,illustration3 ,,from ,,photographs ,,by ,j4 ,s4 ,,johnston ,,and ,,purviance4 8,,mayflower40 ,in #ahia1 however1 there came to ,new ,york1 from the yards of the ,herreshoff ,brothers1 in ,rhode ,island1 a new forty-six-foot yacht1 which soon put the fame of the ,volunteer and all her glorious rivals into the background4 ,this was the ,gloriana1 8remarkable as a daring and original departure from the accepted theories40 ,the radical novelty in her form consisted in the great cutting away of her bulk under water while preserving the full extent of the water-line1 and the making of a very deep1 heavily loaded keel1 trusted for stability4 ,her hull was also novel1 consisting of a double skin of thin wood on steel frames1 while the upper part of the hull projected excessively at both ends4 ,she was everywhere a winner1 and was immediately followed by a smaller boat1 the ,dilemma1 whose keel was an almost rectangular plate of steel1 the ballast1 which alone was trusted for stability1 being in the form of a cigar-shaped cylinder of lead bolted to the lower edge of the 8fin10 as this kind of keel was appropriately styled4 ,many boats of this pattern were soon afloat1 most of them highly successful at home and abroad1 and carrying a surprising spread of canvas4 ,the year #ahic brought another challenge for the cup in the person of ,lord ,dunraven1 sailing the yacht ,valkyrie1 but he was met by a new1 well-proved ,herreshoff fin-keel1 the ,vigilant 7built of a new alloy--,tobin bronze71 and handsomely defeated4 ,the following season the ,vigilant went to ,england1 and found herself equally overmatched by the ,britannia1 owned by the ,prince of ,wales1 while ,valkyrie ,,ii was wrecked4 ,in #ahie ,lord ,dunraven sent a second challenge1 backed by a new ,valkyrie 7,,iii72 and this produced a fresh ,american contestant1 again designed and built by the ,herreshoffs1 named ,defender4 ,the races came off amid intense public excitement1 outside of ,sandy ,hook1 but were most unsatisfactory2 8in the first1 ,defender won2 in the second1 ,valkyrie was disqualified as the result of a foul1 and ,lord ,dunraven declined to sail a third40 ,illustration3 ,,comparison ,,of ,,old ,,and ,,new ,,types4 #a4 8,america10 #ahea1 water-line #ij feet4--#b4 8,cambria10 #ahfh1 water-line #ajj feet4--#c4 8,magic10 #aheg-fi1 water-line #gi feet4--#d4 8,sappho10 #ahfg1 water-line #abj feet4--#e4 8,mischief10 #ahgi1 water-line #fa feet4--#f4 8,puritan10 #ahhe1 water-line #ha feet4--#g4 8,genesta10 #ahhd1 water-line #ha feet4--#h4 8,thistle10 #ahhg1 water-line #hf feet4--#i4 8,volunteer10 #ahhg1 water-line #he feet4--#aj4 8,gloriana10 #ahia1 water-line #de feet4--#aa4 8,wasp10 #ahib1 water-line #df feet4--#ab4 8,el ,chico10 #ahib1 water-line #be feet4 ,such has been the history of this long series of races for the ,america ,cup1 and such the development of its defenders2 but while they and their work have stimulated interest in yachting all over the world1 they have really not influenced it greatly1 because all of the later boats competing were not practical yachts1 in which one might cruise and live afloat1 and enjoy life with his friends1 but 8machines0 in which every quality tending to comfort and safety was sacrificed to the requirements of speed4 ,in fact1 the owners of these 8big boats0 kept small1 handy1 comfortable yachts for their own enjoyment1 and the racers were as a rule sailed by a skipper and crew of professional racing sailors4 ,there are said to be over two hundred yacht-clubs in the ,united ,states1 enrolling about four thousand yachts1 an eighth of which are steam or electric boats1 scattered wherever any water suitable for the sport exists4 ,with the lakes and rivers we have nothing to do1 except to say that the yachtsmen of ,montreal and ,quebec are really salt-water sailors1 for they cruise in the ,gulf of ,st4 ,lawrence and elsewhere at sea as well as their fellow-sportsmen of ,new ,brunswick and ,nova ,scotia4 ,at the other extreme the ,havana ,yacht-,club has ,american members who take their boats to the ,west ,indies every winter4 ,bermuda is another favorite resort1 and the scene of lively races with a local1 narrow sort of craft1 called a 8flyer10 which will beat almost anything if only it can be kept right side up4 ,on the ,pacific coast1 444 wherever there is a bay that will afford a harbor1 and a town that will support people1 the yacht is used as a vehicle of pleasure4444 ,many of the ,san ,francisco boats are large schooners1 a number are powerful sea-going sloops1 while of smaller craft there is an abundance of almost every type1 although the ,new ,york catboat and the flat-bottomed sharpie of ,long ,island ,sound are seldom met with1 and seem not to be in favor4444 ,pacific yachters appreciate the good points of the yawl1 for the squalls which blow over the waters of the west coast are sudden and severe1 and no rig meets these conditions of weather so well as does the yawl4 ,illustration3 ,,drawn ,,by ,w4 ,,taber ,,from ,a ,,photograph ,,by ,,walter ,,blackburn4 ,,the ,,newport ,,catboat4 ,the most important and numerous yachting interest of the country1 however1 as would be expected1 is along the northeastern seaboard1 where1 measured by numbers and the investment in boats1 wharves1 club-houses1 and equipments generally1 it surpasses any other district in the world4 ,more than one hundred clubs exist between ,maine and ,philadelphia4 ,the earliest form of yacht as ,mr4 ,f4 ,w4 ,pangborn reminds us in 8,the ,century0 for ,may1 #ahib was1 of course1 a rowboat with a sail4444 ,from the primitive sprit-sail pleasure-boat comes the ever-present and universally favored center-board catboat1 a type of yacht which1 for speed1 handiness1 and unsafeness1 has never been surpassed4 ,keel catboats are also built1 but the typical ,american 8cat0 is the center-board boat of light draft1 big beam1 and huge sail4 ,the two objectionable points about boats of this class are their capsizability1 and their bad habit of yawing when sailing before the wind4 ,yet the cat is the handiest light-weather boat made4 ,it is very fast1 quick in stays1 and simple in rig2 but it can never become a first-class seaworthy type of yacht4 ,it belongs among the fair-weather pleasure-boats4444 ,illustration3 ,,rig ,,of ,,the ,,yawl4 ,from the center-board catboat grew the jib-and-mainsail sloop1 a type of yacht which has always been noted for its great speed and general unhandiness4 ,small yachts of this kind are always racers1 and the interest in racing is sufficient to keep them in the lists of popular boats4 ,in design they are like the catboats1 the only difference being in their rig4 ,these two boats1 the center-board cat and the jib-and-mainsail sloop1 are what yachters call 8sandbaggers02 that is to say1 their ballast consists of bags of sand which are shifted to windward with every tack and thus serve to keep the yachts right side up4 ,a boat ballasted in this manner can carry more sail than rightly belongs on her sticks1 but she cannot be very safe or comfortable4 ,her place is in the regatta4 ,it is not beyond the truth to assert that the sandbaggers constitute probably two fifths of the total of small yachts4 ,they will never cease to be popular1 for the reason that speed and sport are synonymous terms with a great many yachters1 and no one can deny that these boats1 like ,brother ,jasper's sun1 8do move40 ,illustration3 ,,drawn ,,by ,w4 ,,taber1 ,,from ,a ,,photograph ,,by ,,walter ,,blackburn4 ,,engraved ,,by ,a4 ,,negri4 ,a ,,sandbagger ,,sloop4 ,passing the sandbaggers1 the next popular and most universally used yacht is the ballasted sloop4 ,a sloop may be a center-board boat1 or a keel boat1 or a combination of both4 ,she has only one mast and carries a topmast4 ,her sails are many1 and1 like the cutter1 she is permitted to carry clouds of canvas in a race4 ,technically speaking1 a cutter differs from a sloop only in one point1 as the terms 8sloop0 and 8cutter0 really apply to the rig of the yacht4 ,the cutter has a sail set from her stem to her masthead2 the sloop has not4 ,this sail is called a forestay-sail1 and its presence marks the cutter-rig4 ,the term 8cutter10 however1 is usually applied to the long1 narrow1 deep-keeled vessel1 and has in common parlance grown to mean a boat of that type4 ,it is in that sense that it is generally understood4 ,it is worthy of notice that nearly all yachters who cruise about in summer1 and especially those who are fond of speedy boats1 use either sloops or cutters2 and it is remarkable to see how much comfort can be found in boats of these types1 even when quite small4444 ,illustration3 ,a ,,sharpie4 ,the average yachting man1 if he be of that stuff of which good seamen are made1 soon finds his chief delight in being master of his own vessel4 ,he likes to feel that it is his skill1 his prowess1 his intellect1 that rule the ship in which he sails2 and finding this complete mastery of the vessel to be impossible aboard a big boat1 he longs for one which he can handle alone4 ,this independent and sportsmanlike instinct of the ,american yachter has culminated in a liking for certain classes of very small boats1--8single-handers0 they are called1--and this liking has given impetus to the building of some little vessels which are really marvels in their way4 ,simplicity and handiness of rig have been considered in their construction1 and this has led in many cases to the adoption of what is known as the yawl style1 a rig which for safety and convenience has never been surpassed by any other4 ,the yawl is really a schooner with very small mainsail4 ,for small cruising-yachts it is an excellent rig1 and preferable to the cat rig4 ,cat-yawls are also in use2 they are merely yawls without jibs4 ,with such rigs as these a yachter can go alone upon the water without fear of trouble and with no need of assistance4 ,naturally1 with men of moderate means who love the water1 these small single-handers have become very popular4 ,some of them are not over sixteen feet long1 yet the solitary skipper-crew-and-cook1 all in one1 of such a boat finds in his yacht comfortable sleeping-quarters1 cook-stove1 dinner-table1 and all necessary 8fixings40 ,the ingenuity displayed in fitting out the cabins of these little boats is quite remarkable4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,buckeye4 ,of the many nondescript rigs which are applied to small yachts1 two are in common use4 ,one of these is the sharpie1 a simple leg-o'-mutton rig used with flat-bottomed boats4 ,large sharpies have been built with fine cabin accommodations1 and such boats are particularly adapted to the shoal waters of the ,south4 ,they are fast sailers1 but owing to their long1 narrow bodies and light draft1 are not always trustworthy4 ,they are cheaper to build than boats of other designs4444 ,buckeyes are favored only in the ,south4 ,originally the buckeye was a log hollowed out and shaped into a boat1 and was used by the negroes4 ,to-day1 however1 buckeyes are built upon carefully drawn plans1 and many of them are excellent vessels4 ,they are common on the coast waters south of the ,delaware ,bay1 and are used chiefly for hunting-boats1 their cheapness1 handiness1 and roominess rendering them useful to the sportsman4 ,a true buckeye is a double-ender1 but some large ones have been built with an overhang stern1 which destroys the ideal and creates a new kind of craft4 ,illustration3 ,,old-,,style ,,pirogue ,,with ,,leeboard4 ,a few years ago the sailing public was surprised by the appearance upon the waters of a spider-like contrivance which its friends said was a 8catamaran40 ,this new claimant for yachting favor was like the raft of the ,south ,sea ,islanders only in name2 in fact1 it was not a catamaran at all1 but a new device for racing over the water by means of sails4 ,wonderful feats were predicted for the future of the catamaran1 and it certainly did accomplish something2 but after a long and fair trial 7for the yachter1 no matter how bigoted he may be1 will always try a new boat7 it was discarded as a useless1 dangerous1 and decidedly unsatisfactory kind of craft4444 ,leaving the discussion of the odds and ends of yacht styles1 we come1 by natural progress1 to a type which is destined to greater popularity as time goes on1 and yachters learn the ways of the sea and the best methods of dealing with them4 ,although the schooner is generally deemed a big yacht1 it is nevertheless a fact that small schooners are desirable boats to have1 and that the number of schooners of small tonnage is increasing4 ,there is no denying the advantage of the schooner's rig over that of the sloop4 ,a schooner of forty feet is handier1 safer1 and less expensive to run than a forty-foot sloop4 ,the rig of the schooner is peculiarly adapted to all weathers1 and a small crew can handle such a vessel with ease1 when to manage a sloop of equal size would require the best efforts of 8all hands and the cook40 ,the reason for this is that the schooner's sails can be attended to one at a time1 which is not the case with the big-mainsail sloop4 ,illustration3 ,,from ,a ,,photograph ,,by ,,walter ,,blackburn4 ,,yachts ,,waiting ,,for ,a ,,breeze4 ,it is the small yachter ,mr4 ,pangborn declares in conclusion who gives to the sport its wide popularity1 and makes yachting so universally loved by men who are fond of aquatic pleasuring4 ,the small yachter is everywhere upon the waters4 ,from the coast of ,maine1 from the shores of the harbor of the ,golden ,gate1 from the beaches of the ,atlantic seaboard1 and from the borders of the inland lakes1 he can be seen1 all summer long1 sailing about in his little vessel1 and enjoying in all its fullness the excitement and delight of this most noble and health-giving sport4 ,with a pluck and energy that mark the true lover of the sea1 and a tact and skill that bespeak the real sailor1 he handles his little craft1 in fair weather and in foul1 in a manner that leaves no room for doubt as to its fitness for the work which he is doing2 for1 whether he sail alone1 or with the help of his friends1 or that of a hired man to run his boat1 he is always the master of his vessel1--which is seldom the case with the proprietor of the big boat1--and is in reality a 8yachtsman0 under all circumstances1 at all times1 and in all weathers4 ,he must be cool-headed and calm in times of peril1 affable and courteous on all social occasions1 and generous and prompt to respond to all calls upon his courage--in brief1 a gentleman4 ,illustration3 ,,the 8,,adler0 ,,plunging ,,toward ,,the ,,reef ,,at ,,samoa4 ,,chapter ,x ,,dangers ,,of ,,the ,,deep ,neither ships of the stanchest steel1 nor seamen however skilful1 nor pilots never so knowing1 can wholly avoid the dangers of a seafaring life4 ,experience in reading the signs of the ocean and of the skies1 surveyors' charts of coasts and harbors1 added to the appliances of powerful modern machinery1 have lessened the perils1 it is true1 since the old times2 yet even now ships sail proudly out of sunny havens1 their topsails watched by loving eyes till they disappear at sunset1 and are never seen again4 ,on a calm day in #aghb the great hundred-gun line-of-battle-ship ,royal ,george sank at her anchors in the harbor of ,spithead1 carrying down almost a thousand souls2 thirty years ago the ,captain1 then one of the finest of ,england's steam turret-ships1 capsized at sea1 and not a man survived4 ,each of these vessels was perhaps the best of its kind in the world4 ,no better navigators exist than naval officers1 yet they ran the historic old steam-frigate ,kearsarge on ,roncador ,reef1 in the ,caribbean ,sea1 in broad daylight1 and left her there a total wreck4 ,not a year passes that does not record some dire calamity on the ocean1 and many lesser accidents4 ,the wild oceanic storms are responsible for fewer of these than anything else--,i mean the mere power of wind and waves in the open sea4 ,when a captain has sea-room1 and knows in advance1 as he almost always may1 of the coming of a storm1 so that he can make everything snug1 the loss of his vessel1 or even serious damage to her1 is not common4 ,yet the mere violence of the gale has overturned1 beaten down1 and extinguished the greater part of the ,newfoundland fishing-fleet again and again1 and doubtless many of the ships that are recorded as 8missing0 have been sunk simply by overwhelming waves4 ,certain rare and extraordinary mishaps nevertheless may meet a vessel in the open ocean4 ,one of these is a stroke of lightning1 powerful enough to set a ship on fire in spite of her lightning-rods1 and such a fire is likely never to be quenched4 ,another extraordinary occurrence would be an overwhelming waterspout1 such as not infrequently is seen in the tropics1 especially along the ,chinese coast1 where it often plays havoc with fishing junks4 ,a third unusual1 yet possible1 peril is the meeting with those waves of sudden and extraordinary size and volume which sometimes engulf vessels in storms that otherwise might be safely weathered1 or are surmounted only by a miracle1 as it were4 ,these are said to be produced in some cyclones1 as one of the effects of that whirling form of storm1 and are often called tidal waves1 but the tide has nothing to do with their formation or progress4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,u4 ,s4 ,s4 8,,oneida0 ,,after ,,collision ,,with ,a ,,steamship4 ,to say that a ship in mid-ocean might be destroyed by an earthquake seems paradoxical and absurd1 yet it is true4 ,whenever a subterranean convulsion occurs beneath or at the edge of the sea1 the water will be agitated in proportion to its force4 ,strike a tub of water a gentle tap and see how its liquid contents shiver and ripple4 ,watch a railway train running at the edge of a body of water1 and observe how the water trembles under the percussion of the wheels upon the ground4 ,earthquake shocks give rise sometimes to great disturbances1 either by a direct jar to the water1 or by setting in motion waves whose rolling does damage1 especially in confined harbors4 ,sometimes a port will be suddenly invaded by a wave1 the cause of which was an earthquake1 which rolls in upreared like a wall1 and carries death and destruction in its course4 ,the principal port of the island of ,st4 ,thomas1 in the ,west ,indies1 was once devastated by this means4 ,the incoming wave is said to have been over forty feet high1 and broke inland1 destroying much property and causing many deaths4 8,so tremendous was this breaker that it landed a large vessel on a hillside half a mile from the harbor40 ,such catastrophes are not uncommon in volcanic districts1 where the ocean retorts with terrible vengeance when it is struck by the land4 ,that appalling explosion in #ahhc of ,krakatoa1 in the ,strait of ,sunda1 was followed on neighboring coasts by a series of vast billows that rolled inland1 deluging a wide extent of shore1 sweeping away over #aej villages1 and crushing or drowning more than #cj1jjj persons4 ,within a few years the coasts of northern ,japan have been inundated repeatedly by earthquake waves with similar dire calamities1 and they are likely to occur again4 ,now and then earthquakes are felt even in the open sea1 far from land4 ,thus1 ,captain ,lecky1 a scientific writer upon the sea1 tells us that in one instance where he was present1 the inkstand upon the captain's table was jerked upward against the ceiling1 where it left an unmistakable record of the occurrence2 and yet this vessel was steaming along in smooth water1 many hundreds of fathoms deep4 8,the concussions10 he says1 8were so smart that passengers were shaken off their seats1 and1 of course1 thought that the vessel had run ashore40 ,all this disturbance was1 nevertheless1 only the result of a shock at the bottom2 and when the non-elastic nature of water is considered1 the severity of the jar is not surprising4 ,it would seem as though in the vast breadth of the 8world of waters10 and with nothing to obstruct the view1 two ships might easily give one another a wide berth2 yet a collision is one of the ever-present dangers of voyaging1 even far from land4 ,it is to avoid this peril that all the maritime nations have agreed upon certain signals1 and 8rules of the road0 which are the same in all parts of the world1 and without which it would now be almost impossible to carry on commerce or travel on the water4 ,the rules of the road say that when two vessels are approaching one another1 head on1 each shall turn off to the right far enough to avoid the other2 that when two vessels are crossing one another's courses1 the one which has the other on her starboard 7right hand7 must turn to starboard 7the right71 and go behind the other vessel1 while the latter continues along her course2 and that a steam vessel must always get out of the way of a sailing vessel1 one at anchor or disabled1 or a vessel with another in tow4 ,it is presumed that every ship will keep a sharp lookout1 and that in the daytime two approaching ships will see each other in time to keep safely apart2 but in the darkness of night none could be safe unless all carried lights by which the position and character of each could be determined4 ,in ancient times this matter of lights at sea was a much more troublesome one than now4 ,we know that the ,roman navy managed it somehow1 and had methods of signaling by lanterns and torches4 ,in medieval and early times1 say up to a couple of centuries ago1 a ship's lights were a much more conspicuous and bothersome part of her than now1 when1 indeed1 electricity has simplified as well as perfected signaling as much as it has benefited general illumination on ship's board4 ,in such ships as those of the ,armada1 and long afterward1 three huge lanterns made of ornamental iron-work1 sometimes large enough to enable a man to move about inside them1 surmounted the elevated after-quarter2 and these were filled with dozens of great candles4 ,how important candles were in the stores of one of these old ships is shown by the fact that we still call a merchant who outfits vessels a ship-chandler4 ,regular rules were formulated for judging of a ship's position and movements1 and how you ought to steer by the way these beacons grouped themselves4 ,the introduction of whale oil gradually superseded candles and as the sperm-lamp did not require a glass house1 smaller lanterns took the place of the big ones1 until finally1 by aid of lenses1 reflectors1 and kerosene1 and still more lately by the use of electricity1 ship's lights have become the small1 handy1 and powerful ones they are to-day4 ,the present rules as to lights are these--using the language of a ,united ,states navy officer1 ,lieut4 ,john ,m4 ,ellicott1 who has written many instructive and entertaining essays on sea-affairs3 ,when you face toward a ship's bow the side at your right hand is called the starboard side1 and the side at your left hand is called the port side4 ,on her starboard side a ship carries at night a green light1 and it is so shut in by the two sides of a box that it cannot be seen from the port side or from behind4 ,on her port side she carries a red light1 and it is so shut in that it cannot be seen from the starboard side or from behind4 ,if the ship is a steamship she carries a big white light at her foremast-head1 but if she is a sailing vessel she does not4 ,this white masthead light can be seen from all around except from behind4444 ,it is for the red and green lights1 commonly known as the side lights1 that the officer of the deck most intently watches 7when the lookout warns him that lights are in sight71 for by them he can tell which way the vessel is going4 ,if her red light shows1 he knows that her port side is toward him and she is crossing to his left2 if it is her green light1 her starboard side is toward him and she is crossing to his right2 but if both the red and green are showing1 she is heading straight in his direction4444 ,if a vessel has another vessel in tow1 she carries two masthead lights instead of one2 and when a vessel is at anchor she has no side lights or masthead light1 but a single white light made fast to a stay where it can be seen from all around her4 ,in rivers and crowded harbors it is often impossible to follow the rules of the road2 and sometimes even at sea the officer of the deck of one vessel discovers that the other is not heeding the rules4 ,then the steam-whistle is used to tell the other vessel what the first is doing4 ,thus1 one whistle means 8,i am going to the right02 two whistles mean 8,i am going to the left02 and three whistles mean 8,i am backing02 while a series of short toots means 8,look out for yourself2 get out of the way60 ,there is one class of vessels which is most annoying to those who direct the course of large steamers4 ,these are small fishing-vessels4 ,on the ,grand ,banks of ,newfoundland1 on the coast of ,spain1 and on the coasts of ,china and ,japan big fleets of these little vessels are found at all times4 ,they show no lights at night1 preferring to save the expense of oil1 and take their chances of being sent to the bottom2 but when they see a big ship rushing down upon them1 they light a torch and flare it about4 ,often they pay for their folly with their lives4 ,the torch is seen too late1 or not seen at all1 and the great iron bow of the steamship crushes into the frail little craft1 perhaps cutting her clean in two2 and the unhappy fishermen sink into the foaming wake of the churning propellers1 leaving not a soul to tell their wives what became of them4 ,illustration3 ,,electric-,,light ,,signals ,,at ,,sea3 ,,ardois ,,system4 ,signaling with lights is principally of use to men-of-war1 where1 also1 lanterns hung in the rigging in a particular order have a definite significance4 ,for long-distance signaling the best system is that invented by ,lieutenant ,very1 ,u4 ,s4 ,n4 ,these night-signals 8consist of a white1 a red1 and a green star1 each fired into the air from a pistol1 so that by firing one1 two1 or three of them in quick succession and in different orders1 with a pause between the groups1 different letters or signal numbers can be made until a sentence is complete40 ,they can be easily read from vessels twelve miles away4 ,for nearer work the system of the ,spanish navy officer1 ,ardois1 which consists in flashing and extinguishing1 by means of a switchboard on deck1 a series of red and white electric lamps in the rigging1 serves very well2 and close at hand a signal-man waves an incandescent electric bulb by night as he would a flag by day4 ,illustration3 ,,the 8,,very0 ,,rocket-,,signal ,,at ,,sea4 ,it is1 however1 when the land is approached that the sailor's perils become menacing4 ,here ,old ,neptune is still a match for us when he asserts himself4 ,nevertheless1 we must go upon the restless waters1 and must risk a contest with their power along the coasts1 where the ocean's line of battle may be said to be4 ,therefore1 every effort has always been made by men on land to be of aid to their brethren at sea by erecting beacons to guide them by night as well as by day1 by marking the channels1 so that hidden shoals1 rocks1 and obstructions may be avoided1 and by contrivances to save life and property when the fury of the gale renders seamanship futile1 and the noble ship is cast away in the surf thundering on some wild shore1 to break up in a few hours4 ,what could be more humiliating to our pride1 as well as terrifying to our hearts1 than such a scene as that at ,samoa1 in #ahhi1 when a whole fleet of ships1 including powerful men-of-war1 was wrecked while at anchor in the beautiful harbor of ,apia4 ,of small use1 then1 were all their charts and lighthouses1 buoys and breakwaters6 ,the disturbed state of affairs in ,samoa caused the assemblage there1 during ,march1 #ahhi1 of three small ,german men-of-war1 ,adler1 ,olga1 and ,eber1 the ,british corvette ,calliope1 and the ,american steamships ,trenton1 ,vandalia and ,nipsic4 ,the ,trenton1 ,captain ,farquhar1 was one of our largest war-ships at that time1 and the flagship of ,rear-,admiral ,kimberley2 the ,vandalia1 ,captain ,schoonmaker1 was somewhat smaller1 and the ,nipsic1 ,commander ,mullan1 was still less in size4 ,on ,march #ae a hurricane demolished the whole of this fleet1 except one1 and ten merchant vessels besides1 and caused the loss of nearly one hundred and fifty lives4 ,it is an extraordinary story1 which has been fully related by ,mr4 ,john ,p4 ,dunning1 from whose article in 8,st4 ,nicholas0 for ,february1 #ahij1 the accompanying facts and illustrations are drawn4 ,illustration3 ,,the 8,,calliope0 ,,escaping ,,from ,,apia ,,harbor4 ,the harbor in which the disaster occurred is a small semicircular bay1 around the inner side of which lies the town of ,apia4 ,a coral reef1 visible at low water1 extends in front of the harbor from the eastern to the western extremity1 a distance of nearly two miles4 ,a break in this reef1 probably a quarter of a mile wide1 forms a gateway to the harbor4 ,the space within the bay where ships can lie at anchor is very small1 as a shoal extends some distance out from the eastern shore1 and on the other side another coral reef runs well out into the bay4 ,the war-vessels were anchored in the deep water in front of the ,american consulate4 ,the ,eber and ,nipsic were nearest the shore4 ,there were ten or twelve sailing-vessels1 principally small schooners lying in the shallow water west of the men-of-war4 ,the storm was preceded by several weeks of bad weather1 and on ,friday1 ,march #ae1 the wind increased and there was every indication of a hard blow4 ,the war-ships made preparation for it by lowering topmasts and making all the spars secure1 and steam was also raised to guard against the possibility of the anchors not holding4 ,the wind rose to a hurricane and was accompanied by heavy1 wind-driven rain1 and when toward morning it became evident that some smaller ships were already ashore1 and that the war-ships were dragging their anchors in spite of every effort1 the whole town was awake1 and much of it down by the beach seeking what shelter it could from the sleet-like blast4 ,this night of horror gradually lightened into dawn1 when it was seen that all the war-ships had been swept from their former moorings and were bearing down toward the inner reef4 ,the decks swarmed with men clinging to anything affording a hold4 ,the hulls of the ships were tossing about like corks1 and the decks were being deluged with water as every wave swept in from the open ocean4 ,several sailing-vessels had gone ashore in the western part of the bay4 ,those most plainly visible now were the ,eber1 ,adler1 and ,nipsic1 very close together and only a few yards from the reef4 ,the little gunboat ,eber was making a desperate struggle1 but her doom was certain4 ,suddenly she shot forward1 the current bore her off to the right1 and her bow struck the port quarter of the ,nipsic1 carrying away several feet of the ,nipsic's rail and one boat4 ,the ,eber then fell back and fouled with the ,olga1 and after that she swung around broadside to the wind1 was lifted high on the crest of a great wave and hurled with awful force upon the reef4 ,in an instant there was not a vestige of her to be seen4 ,every timber must have been shattered1 and half the poor creatures aboard of her crushed to death before they felt the waters closing above their heads4 ,hundreds of people were on the beach by this time1 and the work of destruction had occurred within full view of them all4 ,they stood for a moment appalled by the awful scene1 and a cry of horror arose from the lips of every man who had seen nearly a hundred of his fellow-creatures perish in an instant4 ,then with one accord they all rushed to the water's edge nearest the point where the ,eber had foundered4 ,the natives ran into the surf far beyond the point where a white man could have lived1 and stood waiting to save any who might rise from the water4 ,there were six officers and seventy men on the ,eber when she struck the reef1 and of these five officers and sixty-six men were lost4 ,this was about six o'clock in the morning4 ,illustration3 8,,the ,,samoans ,,stood ,,battling ,,against ,,the ,,surf1 ,,risking ,,their ,,lives ,,to ,,save ,,the ,,american ,,sailors40 ,during the excitement attending that calamity the other vessels had been for the time forgotten1 but it was soon noticed that the positions of several of them had become more alarming4 ,the ,adler had been swept across the bay1 close to the reef1 and in half an hour she was lifted on top of the reef and turned completely over on her side4 ,nearly every man was thrown into the water1 but as almost the entire hull was exposed1 all but twenty succeeded in regaining her deck1 and the remainder were rescued toward the close of the day when almost exhausted4 ,just after the ,adler struck1 the attention of every one was directed toward the ,nipsic4 ,she was standing off the reef with her head to the wind1 but the three anchors which she had out at the time were not holding2 and orders were given to attach a hawser to a heavy eight-inch rifle on the forecastle and throw the gun overboard4 ,as the men were in the act of doing this1 the ,olga bore down on the ,nipsic and struck her amidships with awful force4 ,her bowsprit passed over the side of the ,nipsic1 and1 after carrying away one boat and splintering the rail1 came in contact with the smokestack1 which was struck fairly in the center and fell to the deck with a crash like thunder4 ,for a moment it was difficult to realize what had happened1 and great confusion followed4 ,the iron smokestack rolled from side to side with every movement of the vessel1 until finally heavy blocks were placed under it4 ,by that time the ,nipsic had swung around and was approaching the reef1 and it seemed certain that she would go down in the same way as had the ,eber4 ,captain ,mullan saw that any further attempt to save the vessel would be useless1 so he gave the orders to beach her4 ,she had a straight course of about two hundred yards to the sandy beach in front of the ,american consulate1 where she stuck and stood firm4 ,two attempts to lower boats were failures and every man crowded to the forecastle4 ,a line was thrown1 double hawsers were soon made fast from the vessel to the shore1 and the natives and others gathered around the lines1 where the voices of officers shouting to the men on deck were mingled with the loud cries and singing of the ,samoans4 ,one by one1 and in a very orderly manner1 the men of the ,nipsic came down the hawsers toward the shore1 but many would never have reached it1 had it not been for the assistance of the ,samoans1 who1 at the peril of their lives1 stood in the boiling torrent1 grasping those whose hold was broken from the rope4 ,meanwhile1 the four large men-of-war1 ,trenton1 ,calliope1 ,vandalia1 and ,olga1 were still afloat and in a comparatively safe position2 but about ten o'clock the ,trenton was seen to be in a helpless condition2 her rudder and propeller were both gone1 and there was nothing but her anchors to hold her up against the unabated force of the storm4 ,the ,vandalia and ,calliope were also in danger1 drifting back toward the reef near the point where lay the wreck of the ,adler2 and they came closer together every minute1 until finally the ,english ship struck the ,vandalia and tore a great hole in her bow4 ,then ,captain ,kane of the ,calliope determined to try to steam out of the harbor as his only hope1 and he at once cut loose from all his anchors4 ,the ,calliope's head swung around to the wind and her engines were worked to their utmost power4 ,great waves broke over her bow and she gained headway at first only inch by inch1 but her speed gradually increased until it became evident that she could leave the harbor4 ,this manuver of the ,british ship is regarded as one of the most daring in naval annals--the one desperate chance offered her commander to save his vessel and the three hundred lives aboard4 ,the ,trenton's fires had gone out by that time1 and she lay helpless almost in the path of the ,calliope4 ,the decks were swarming with men1 but1 facing death as they were1 they recognized the heroic struggle of the ,british ship1 and a great shout went up from aboard the ,trenton4 8,three cheers for the ,calliope60 was the sound that reached the ears of the ,british tars as they passed out of the harbor in the teeth of the storm2 and the heart of every ,englishman went out to the brave ,american sailors who gave that parting tribute to the ,queen's ship4 ,when the excitement on the ,vandalia which followed the collision with the ,calliope had subsided1 it was determined to beach the vessel1 and straining every means at hand to avoid the dreaded reef1 she moved slowly across the harbor until her bow stuck in the sand1 about two hundred yards off shore and probably eighty yards from the stem of the ,nipsic4 ,her engines were stopped and the men in the engine-room and fire-room below were ordered on deck4 ,the ship swung around broadside to the shore1 and it was thought at first that her position was comparatively safe1 as it was believed that the storm would abate in a few hours1 and the two hundred and forty men on board could be rescued then2 but the wind seemed to increase in fury1 and as the hull of the steamer sank lower the force of the waves grew more violent1 yet no one on shore was able to render the least aid4 ,these terrible scenes had detracted attention from the other two men-of-war still afloat2 but about four o'clock in the afternoon the positions of the ,trenton and ,olga became most alarming4 ,the flagship had been in a helpless condition for hours1 being without rudder or propeller1 while volumes of water poured in through her hawser-pipes4 ,men never fought against adverse circumstances with more desperation than the officers and men of the ,trenton displayed during those hours1 yet the vessel was slowly forced over toward the eastern reef4 ,destruction seemed imminent1 as the great vessel was pitching heavily1 and her stern was but a few feet from the reef4 ,this point was a quarter of a mile from shore1 and if the ,trenton had struck the reef there1 it is probable that not a life would have been saved4 ,a skilful manuver1 suggested by ,lieutenant ,brown1 saved the ship from destruction4 ,every man was ordered into the port rigging1 and the compact mass of bodies was used as a sail4 ,the wind struck against the men in the rigging and forced the vessel out into the bay again4 ,she soon commenced to drift back against the ,olga1 which was still standing off the reef and holding up against the storm more successfully than any other vessel in the harbor had done1 and in spite of every effort on the part of both ships a collision took place which severely damaged both4 ,fortunately1 the vessels drifted apart1 whereupon the ,olga steamed ahead toward the mud-flats in the eastern part of the bay1 and was soon hard and fast on the bottom4 ,not a life was lost1 and several weeks later the ship was hauled off and saved4 ,the ,trenton was now about two hundred feet from the sunken ,vandalia1 and seemed sure to strike her and throw into the water the men still clinging to the rigging4 ,it was now after five o'clock1 and the daylight was beginning to fade away4 ,in a half hour more1 the ,trenton had drifted to within a few yards of the ,vandalia's bow1 and feelings hard to describe came to the hundreds who watched the vessels from the shore4 ,presently the last faint rays of daylight faded away1 and night came down upon the awful scene4 ,the storm was still raging with as much fury as at any time during the day4 ,the poor creatures who had been clinging for hours to the rigging of the ,vandalia were bruised and bleeding2 but they held on with the desperation of men who were hanging between life and death4 ,the ropes had cut the flesh on their arms and legs1 and their eyes were blinded by the salt spray which swept over them4 ,weak and exhausted as they were1 they would be unable to stand the terrible strain much longer4 ,the final hour seemed to be upon them4 ,the great1 black hull of the ,trenton was almost ready to crash into the stranded ,vandalia and grind her to atoms4 ,suddenly a shout was borne across the waters4 ,the sound of four hundred and fifty voices was heard above the roar of the tempest4 8,three cheers for the ,vandalia60 was the cry that warmed the hearts of the dying men in the rigging4 ,the shout died away upon the storm1 and there arose from the quivering masts of the sunken ship a response so feeble it was scarcely heard upon the shore4 ,every heart was melted to pity4 8,god help them60 was passed from one man to another4 ,the cheer had hardly ceased when the sound of music came across the water4 ,the ,trenton's band was playing 8,the ,star-,spangled ,banner40 ,the thousand men on sea and shore had never before heard strains of music at such a time as that4 ,an indescribable feeling came over the ,americans on the beach who listened to the notes of the national song mingled with the howling of the storm4 ,but the collision of the ,trenton and ,vandalia1 instead of crushing the latter vessel to pieces1 proved to be the salvation of the men in the rigging4 ,when the ,trenton's stern finally struck the side of the ,vandalia1 there was no shock1 and she swung around broadside to the sunken ship4 ,this enabled the men on the ,vandalia to escape to the deck of the ,trenton1 and in a short time they were all taken off4 ,the storm had abated at midnight1 and when day dawned there was no further cause for alarm4 ,the men were removed from the ,trenton and provided with quarters on shore4 ,during the next few days the evidences of the great disaster could be seen on every side4 ,in the harbor were the wrecks of four men-of-war3 the ,trenton1 ,vandalia1 ,adler1 and ,eber2 and two others1 the ,nipsic and ,olga1 were hard and fast on the beach and were hauled off with great difficulty4 ,the wrecks of ten sailing-vessels also lay upon the reefs4 ,on shore1 houses and trees were blown down1 and the beach was strewn with wreckage from one end of the town to the other4 ,ever since men began to go to sea lights have been placed on shore to guide them to a landing-place2 but in early times these were nothing more than fires on headlands1 kindled1 perhaps1 by the wives and children of the captain and his crew of neighbors1 when these mariners were expected home4 ,these friendly services became a little more systematic when merchants began to risk their property on the water2 and on the shores of the ,mediterranean1 which we have found to be the cradle of civilized navigation and trade1 harbor-beacons were erected in very early times as guides to a safe anchorage4 ,the giant statue known as the ,colossus1 at ,rhodes1 is supposed to have been used as a beacon and lighthouse1 a fire burning in the palm of its uplifted colossal hand at night4 ,although the account of the ,colossus is only a matter of guesswork1 it is historically true that in those ages of ignorant heedlessness of the need of beacons1 a lighthouse was built so grand in proportions1 so enduring in character1 that it became known as one of the ,seven ,wonders of the ,world1 and outlived all the others1 save the ,pyramids1 by centuries1 and in some ways has never been excelled by any similar structure in modern times1 unless it be by our mammoth marble monument to ,washington4 ,this was the lighthouse built on the little island of ,pharos by ,ptolemy ,philadelphus1 king of ,egypt1 two hundred and eighty years before ,christ1 to guide vessels into the harbor of ,alexandria4 ,from all descriptions1 it must have closely resembled our ,washington monument2 for it was built of white stone1 was square at the base1 and tapered toward the apex4 ,open windows were near its top1 through which the fire within could be seen for thirty miles by vessels at sea4 ,the destruction of these beacons in the general smash and ruin that seem to have overtaken the world when the ,roman empire went to pieces is only indicative of the way the darkness of barbarism returned and enveloped the minds as well as the works of men1 until light broke through the clouds again with the rise of organized sea-powers in ,western ,europe4 ,then beacons were gradually rebuilt1 but in almost all cases by private hands--the feudal lords of coast estates1 the master or authorities of sea-ports1 the monks in monasteries near dangerous landings1 and now and then the king at his principal port1 setting up marks for steering by day and lighting fires on dark nights4 ,most of the latter were hardly more than tar-barrels1 which would burn brightly in a gale1 and the better class were towers of stonework1 on top of which a mass of coal was ignited in an iron cage1 and kept stirred into brightness by a watcher4 ,it was an easy matter to imitate such beacons1 and wreckers would often set up false lights4 ,many a fearful tradition has come down of the doings of wreckers1 not only in ,england and ,spain1 but in ,america and in the ,east4 ,one of their tricks1 when they saw a ship approaching in the evening1 was to hang a lantern upon a horse's neck1 and let him graze1 well-hobbled1 along the beach4 ,this would appear like the rocking of a lantern on a vessel at rest--what is called a riding or anchor light2 and1 deceived by this promise of a safe anchorage1 the stranger would not discover that he had been cheated until his keel struck a reef or sandbar1 and the pirates had begun their villainous attack4 ,it is said to have been a device of this kind which caused the wreck in #ahab1 on the ,carolina coast1--whose islands and lagoons are reputed to have been infested by such ruffians1 there known as 8bankers10--of a vessel carrying the beautiful ,theodosia ,burr1 daughter of ,aaron ,burr1 and wife of ,governor ,alston of ,south ,carolina4 ,her death at the hands of these men is illustrated on page #agb4 ,during the reign of ,henry ,,viii of ,england1 an association of mariners called1 in short1 the ,guild of the ,trinity was chartered and given various powers and privileges in connection with the newly instituted royal navy and dockyards4 ,it encouraged coast-lights1 and in #aegc ,queen ,elizabeth formally placed authority to erect and govern lighthouses and coast beacons in the hands of this corporation1 and there it remains to this day2 for its headquarters1 ,trinity ,house1 on ,tower ,hill1 in ,london1 are a recognized office of the ,british government1 answering to our ,lighthouse ,board4 ,it was not long before it encouraged the founding of a permanent light on ,eddystone ,shoals1 a group of reefs near ,plymouth1 exceedingly dangerous because they lie precisely in the track of ships bound up or down the ,english ,channel1 yet almost invisible4 ,upon the mere standing-room afforded by the crest of this rock1 ,sir ,william ,winstanley managed to erect1 two hundred years ago1 a tower of wood and iron trestle-work1 bolted to its foundation and carrying a glass room or lantern containing a coal-grate1 eighty feet above low-water mark4 ,this was completed in #afih4 ,one winter's experience convinced him that it needed strengthening1 and in #afii a case of masonry was built about the tower1 and made solid to the height of twenty feet1 while the whole structure was increased to the height of one hundred and twenty feet4 ,then1 it is related1 ,winstanley boasted that the sea had not strength enough to tear it down1 and all ,england rejoiced in so noble a beacon2 but we now know that the construction was faulty1 in its large diameter1 polygonal outline1 excess of ornament1 and lack of weight4 ,while ,sir ,william was within it making repairs1 four years later1 the memorable hurricane of ,november #bj1 #agjc1 swept the coast1 and left scarcely a trace of the tower4 ,its value had been proved1 however1 and it was replaced1 in #agjf1 by a straight-sided tower of oaken timbers1 weighted in their lower courses by stone4 ,this was designed by an engineer named ,rudyerd1 and lasted until burned down in #agee2 and engineers say it was better for its place than was the round1 solid-based stone tower of ,smeaton that followed it1 and became so celebrated4 ,this was finished in three years1 and in #agfj was lighted1 not by a fire1 as of old1 but by candles--the first use of such an illuminant4 ,this truly illustrious lighthouse remained until a few years ago1 when it became so racked by the assaults of the sea as to be unsafe4 ,it was then replaced by the one that stands there to-day1 rivaling its magnificent neighbor on the ,biscay shore opposite1 the lighthouse of ,carduan1 which was built to support a bonfire of oak1 but has remained to be lighted successively by oil-lamps1 by gas-burners1 and finally by electricity4 ,illustration3 ,,engraved ,,by ,r4 ,c4 ,,collins4 ,,the ,,wreck ,,of ,,the ,,first ,,minot',s ,,ledge ,,lighthouse4 ,a somewhat similar history belongs to some of the lighthouses on this side of the ,atlantic4 ,the first one regularly set up in the ,united ,states was that on the north side of the entrance to ,boston harbor1 erected in #agaf2 but many others go back to ,colonial days--that on ,sandy ,hook1 for instance4 ,perhaps the most interesting history is attached to the light on ,minot's ,ledge1 in ,boston harbor4 ,this is a dangerous reef1 concealed at high water and so exposed that the problem of lighting it was much the same as that presented at ,eddystone1 ,bell ,rock1 ,dhu ,heartach1 and other well known islets on the ,british coast4 ,the first lighthouse on ,minot's ,ledge was built in #ahdh1 and was an octagonal tower resting on the tops of eight wrought-iron piles sixty feet high1 eight inches in diameter1 and sunk five feet into the rock4 ,these piles were braced together in many ways1 and1 as they offered less surface to the waves than a solid structure1 the lighthouse was considered by all authorities upon the subject to be exceptionally strong4 ,its great test came in ,april1 #ahea4 ,on the fourteenth of that month1 two keepers being in the lighthouse1 an easterly gale set in1 steadily increasing in force4444 ,on ,wednesday1 the sixteenth1 the gale had become a hurricane2 and when at times the tower could be seen through the mists and sea-drift1 it seemed to bend to the shock of the waves4 ,at four o'clock that afternoon an ominous proof of the fury of the waves on ,minot's ,ledge reached the shore--a platform which had been built between the piles only seven feet below the floor of the keeper's room4 ,the raging seas1 then1 were leaping fifty feet in the air4 ,would they reach ten feet higher8--for if so1 the house and the keepers were doomed4 ,nevertheless1 when darkness set in the light shone out as brilliantly as ever1 but the gale seemed1 if possible1 then to increase4 ,what agony those two men must have suffered6 ,how that dreadful abode must have swayed in the irresistible hurricane1 and trembled at each crashing sea6 ,the poor unfortunates must have known that if those seas1 leaping always higher and higher1 ever reached their house1 it would be flung down into the ocean1 and they would be buried with it beneath the waves4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,screw-,,pile ,,ocean ,,lighthouse4 ,to those hopeless1 terrified watchers the entombing sea came at last4 ,at one o'clock in the morning the lighthouse bell was heard by those on shore to give a mournful clang1 and the light was extinguished4 ,it was the funeral knell of two patient heroes4 ,next day there remained on the rock only eight jagged iron stumps4 ,thus1 everywhere1 and in all latitudes1 the beacons and wooden towers and huge pyramids of long ago have given place to slender spires of solid masonry1 holding powerful signals perhaps hundreds of feet above the waves1 and visible as far as the curve of the earth's surface will permit4 ,yet in place of the sturdy bonfire of oak1 or the huge iron cage full of coals1 there is only a single lamp1 whose rays are gathered by deep reflectors into a compact bundle of unwasted rays1 and doubled and redoubled by rows of magnifying lenses until they can dart to the furthest horizon in a strong beam of steady light4 ,no longer does the mariner trust to his wife to kindle the tar-barrel to guide him home4 ,he knows that nowhere is his government more watchful of its subjects than in its lighthouse service1 and that he may trust to having that bright signal to welcome him in the darkness1 as well as he can trust his own eyes to see it4 ,the ,united ,states alone expends over #b1ejj1jjj annually in looking after her lighthouses1 lightships1 and buoys4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,lighthouse ,,at ,,st4 ,,augustine1 ,,florida4 ,indeed1 these beacons have become so thickly planted that it has been found necessary to distinguish between them in order to avoid mistaking one for another4 ,at first this was done by doubling1 as in the case of ,new ,york's 8,highland ,lights10 or the twin lights of ,thatcher's ,island off ,cape ,ann1 or even trebling them as at ,nauset1 on ,cape ,cod1 but now the display is made to vary4 ,thus some of them are simply fixed white lights2 some are white and revolve--the whole lantern on the summit of the tower being turned on wheels by machinery1 and the flame disappears for a longer or shorter time2 while others are white 8flash0 lights1 glancing only for an instant1 and then lost for a few seconds1 or giving a long wink and then a short one with a space of darkness between4 ,some lighthouses show a steady red light2 others1 alternate red and white4 ,by these colors and varying periods of appearance and disappearance 7noted on charts1 and published by the government in a general seaman's guide called the 8,coast ,pilot071 navigators know which light they are looking at when several are in sight4 ,for daylight recognition the towers may be painted half black and half white1 or in stripes or bands or spirals1 like the big barber's pole in front of ,st4 ,augustine1 ,florida4 ,it is impossible here to describe in detail the beautiful machinery by which the rays from the large but simple argand kerosene lamp are condensed into a single beam and projected through the ,fresnel system of condensers and lenses1 and by which the revolution and 8flashing0 are effected4 ,petroleum has superseded all other oils for general use1 but electricity is now being extensively employed in the illumination of coast lights1 especially in ,france1 where they are introducing new principles1 such as producing lightning-like flashes with a certain recognized regularity1 and waving stupendous search-light beams in the sky1 so that the approach to the coast may be seen when the land and lighthouse themselves are still below the horizon4 ,if you have an opportunity to go into the lantern of a lighthouse1 by all means take advantage of it2 and if you can be there when a storm is raging1 or when1 on some misty night1 the lantern is besieged by migrating birds1 you will never forget the scene4 ,on some especially dangerous--because hidden--shoals1 reefs1 or bars1 like those off ,nantucket or the extreme point of ,sandy ,hook1 it may be out of the question or bad policy to erect a lighthouse4 ,here its place is taken by anchoring a stout vessel1 built to withstand the severest weather1 and arranged to carry lanterns at its mastheads4 ,these are called 8lightships10 and they are manned by a crew of keepers who have a very monotonous and uncomfortable time of it2 yet in some cases men have spent twenty years or more in the service4 ,the most desolate and dangerous lightship station is that of ,no4 #a1 ,nantucket4 8,upon this tossing island1 out of sight of land1 exposed to the fury of every tempest1 and without a message from home during all the stormy months of winter1 and sometimes even longer1 ten men1 braving the perils of wind and wave1 and the worse terrors of isolation1 trim the lamps whose light warns thousands of vessels from certain destruction1 and hold themselves ready to save life when the warning is vain40 ,seven years ago ,mr4 ,gustav ,kobb1 and the artist1 ,william ,taber1 spent several days on the lightship and gave a graphic account of the life there1 which ,i wish ,i were able to quote in full4 ,the anchorage is twenty-four miles out at sea beyond ,sankaty head1 at the extremity of the shoals and rips which make all that space of water beyond the visible coast of ,nantucket fatal to ships1 hundreds of which are known to have been beaten to pieces on its treacherous bars4 ,she is moored to a #fejj-pound mushroom anchor by a chain two inches in thickness1 yet she has been torn adrift twenty-three times1 and has wandered widely before returning or being overtaken4 8,no4 #a1 ,nantucket ,new ,south ,shoals10 to quote ,mr4 ,kobb1 is a schooner of two hundred and seventy-five tons1 one hundred and three feet long1 with twenty-four feet breadth of beam1 and stanchly built of white and live oak4 ,she has two hulls1 the space between them being filled through holes at short intervals in the inner side of the bulwarks with salt4444 ,she has fore-and-aft lantern-masts seventy-one feet high1 including topmasts1 and directly behind each of the lantern masts a mast for sails forty-two feet high4 ,forty-four feet up the lantern-masts are day-marks1 reddish brown hoop-iron gratings1 which enable other vessels to sight the lightship more readily4 ,the lanterns are octagons of glass in copper frames five feet in diameter1 four feet nine inches high1 with the masts as centers4 ,each pane of glass is two feet long and two feet three inches high4 ,there are eight lamps1 burning a fixed white light1 with parabolic reflectors in each lantern1 which weighs1 all told1 about a ton4 ,some nine hundred gallons of oil are taken aboard for service during the year4 ,the lanterns are lowered into houses built around the masts4 ,the house around the main lantern-mast stands directly on the deck1 while the foremast lantern-house is a heavily-timbered frame three feet high4 ,this is to prevent its being washed away by the waves the vessel ships when she plunges into the wintry seas4 ,when the lamps have been lighted and the roofs of the lantern-houses opened1--they work on hinges1 and are raised by tackle1--the lanterns are hoisted by means of winches to a point about twenty-five feet from the deck4 ,were they to be hoisted higher they would make the ship top-heavy4 ,illustration3 ,,lightship ,,no4 #a1 ,,nantucket ,,new ,,south ,,shoals4 ,a conspicuous object forward is the large fog-bell swung ten feet above the deck4 ,the prevalence of fog makes life on the ,south ,shoal ,lightship especially dreary4 ,during one season fifty-five days out of seventy were thick1 and for twelve consecutive days and nights the bell was kept tolling at two-minute intervals4 ,the actual work to be done is small1 the daily cleaning of the lamps requiring only two or three hours1 and other chores being very light1 and the men nearly die of loneliness and 8nothing to do40 ,it is pathetic to read how intense and friendly an interest they take in a single red buoy anchored near them2 and they admit that fog is dreaded more because it hides this neighbor than for any other reason4 ,mr4 ,kobb tells us that the emotional stress under which this crew labors can hardly be realized by any one who has not been through a similar experience4 ,the sailor on an ordinary ship has at least the inspiration of knowing that he is bound for somewhere2 that in due time his vessel will be laid on her homeward course2 that storm and fog are but incidents of the voyage3 he is on a ship that leaps forward full of life and energy with every lash of the tempest4 ,but no matter how the lightship may plunge and roll1 no matter how strong the favoring gales may be1 she is still anchored two miles southeast of the ,new ,south ,shoal4 ,illustration3 ,,cleaning ,,the ,,lamps ,,on ,a ,,lightship4 ,besides enduring the hardships incidental to their duties aboard the lightship1 the ,south ,shoal crew have done noble work in saving life4 ,while the care of the lightship is considered of such importance to shipping that the crew are instructed not to expose themselves to dangers outside their special line of duty1 and they would therefore have the fullest excuse for not risking their lives in rescuing others1 they have never hesitated to do so4 ,when1 a few winters ago1 the ,city of ,newcastle went ashore on one of the shoals near the lightship1 and strained herself so badly that although she floated off1 she soon filled and went down stern foremost1 all hands1 twenty-seven in number1 were saved by the ,south ,shoal crew and kept aboard of her over two weeks1 until the story of the wreck was signaled to some passing vessel and the lighthouse tender took them off4 ,this is the largest number saved at one time by the ,south ,shoal1 but the lightship crew have faced great danger on several other occasions4 ,this is1 perhaps1 the extreme picture of lightship life1 but apart from the prolonged isolation and continuous roughness of the water1 the experiences of the men off ,sandy ,hook and elsewhere are not greatly removed from it1 and no philanthropy is more worthy of support than that which seeks to mitigate the loneliness of these exiles by providing them with reading matter4 ,the ,lighthouse ,board provides a small circulating library for these ships1 and contributions of books and files of illustrated periodicals will be gratefully received and put to good use by the ,superintendent of the ,lighthouse ,service in ,washington4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,fog-,,bell4 ,but there are times--and they occur very frequently in northern waters--when fogs which no light can penetrate envelop sea and coast1 and that is the most dangerous of all times to an approaching ship4 ,the only means by which a warning can be given1 in such an emergency1 is by sound4 ,in many places bells are rung1 but often the place to be avoided is so situated that the roar of the surf would drown a bell's note1 and then fog-horns are blown4 ,these fog-horns are of a size so immense1 and voices so stentorian1 that it requires a steam engine to blow them1 and they utter a booming1 hollow blast1 a dismal note as we hear it when we are safe on the land1 but sweet to the anxious captain whose vessel is laboring through the gloom under close-reefed topsails1 and uncertain of her exact position4 ,one kind of these horns is very complicated in its structure1 and screeches in a rough1 broken blare1 a note far-reaching beyond any smooth1 whistling sound that could be made4 ,this shriek is so hideous1 so ear-splitting1 when heard near at hand1 that no name bad enough to express it could be found2 so its inventors went to the other extreme1 and called it a siren1 after those most enchanting of sweet singers who tried to entice ,ulysses out of his course4 ,this name is opposite in a double sense1 indeed1 for the sirens of old lured sailors to wreck1 while our siren hoarsely bids them keep off4 ,finally1 buoys1 which at first were simply tight casks1 but now are usually made of boiler-iron1 are anchored on small reefs1 to which are hung bells1 rung constantly by the tossing of their support2 and on other reefs buoys are fixed having a hollow cap so arranged that when a big wave rushes over1 it shuts in a body of air1 under great and sudden pressure1 which can only escape through a whistle in the top of the cap1 uttering a long warning wail to tell its position4 ,it is in such times as this that the pilot comes out strong4 ,a pilot is a man who has made himself thoroughly acquainted with certain waters where navigation is dangerous1 and who is licensed by some proper authority1 after training and examination1 to direct vessels in safety in entering harbors or passing through other intricate places4 ,a ship-captain may be an excellent navigator1 but he is not expected to know every rock and sandbar crouching under the waves1 and all the twistings and turnings of the entrance and channel of a foreign harbor1 especially as these channels are subject to constant change4 ,in this country1 indeed1 although coasting-vessels may refuse a pilot1 the law will not permit captains coming from or bound to a foreign port to do so2 and if any accident happens when no pilot is aboard the insurance money will not be paid1 and the ship's officers may be punished4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,siren ,,rigged ,,upon ,a ,,merchant ,,steamship4 ,pilots1 then1 are important men and are able to charge very high prices for their services 7generally rated according to the draft of the vessel71 and their profession is so organized and guarded that not only must a man be thoroughly competent1 but he must wait for a vacancy in the regular number before he will be admitted to their ranks4 ,their method of work is very exciting4 ,a dozen or so together will form the crew of a trim1 stanch schooner1 provisioned for a fortnight or more1 which can outsail anything but a racing yacht1 and is built to ride safely through the highest seas4 ,a few steamers are coming into use1 but the procedure is much the same4 ,you will now and then see one of these beautiful little vessels sailing up the quiet harbor1 threading its way through the black steamers and sputtering tug-boats and great ships1 as a shy and graceful girl walks among the guests at a lawn party1 and you know from its air as well as the big number on its white mainsail that it is a pilot boat1 even if it does not carry the regular pilot-flag1 which in the ,united ,states is simply the 8union0 or starry canton of the ensign4 ,illustration3 ,,burning ,a 8,,flare0 ,,on ,a ,,pilot-,,boat4 ,but these fine schooners and the brave men they carry are rarely in port4 ,their time is spent far in the offing of the harbor1 cruising back and forth in wait for incoming ships1 and the ,new ,york pilots often go two and three hundred miles out to sea1 and in storms may be blown much farther away4 ,other pilot-boats are waiting also1 and the lookout at the reeling mast-head must keep the very keenest watch upon the horizon4 ,suddenly he catches sight of a white speck which his practised eye tells him is a ship's top-sails1 or of a blur upon the sky that advertises a steamer's approach4 ,the schooner's head is instantly turned toward it1 and all the canvas is crowded on that she will bear1 for away off at the right a second pilot-boat1 well down1 is also seen to be aiming at the same point and trying hard to win4 ,the first pilots of ,new ,york harbor were stationed at ,sandy ,hook1 and visited incoming vessels in whale-boats2 and many a stately ,british frigate or colonial trader was forced to wait anxiously outside the bar1 rolling and tossing in the sea-way1 or tacking hither and yon1 hoping for a glimpse of that tiny speck where flashing oars told of the coming pilot4 ,it is in this way1 as the late ,mr4 ,j4 ,o4 ,davidson1 the artist1 who knew all about such things1 told us in 8,st4 ,nicholas0 7,january1 #ahij71 that many vessels are still met1 off some of our smaller harbors1 and at the mouth of the ,mississippi ,river4 ,there the waters of the great river pouring into the ,gulf of ,mexico through the ,port ,eads ,jetties make a turbulent swell with foam-crested billows that roll the stoutest ship's gunwale under1 even in calm weather2 yet the little whale-boats1 swift and buoyant1 dash out bravely in a race for the sail on the distant horizon1 for there are two pilot-stations at the ,jetties1 and it is 8first come first engaged40 ,sometimes1 on the other hand1 it is the ship that looks for the pilot1 cruising about with the code-letters ,p ,t flying from her signal-halyards in token of her need4 ,she may even run past a pilot-boat in the night and get into danger without being aware of it4 ,to prevent this1 says ,mr4 ,davidson1 the pilots burn what is known as a 8flare0 or torch1 consisting of a bunch of cotton or lamp-wick dipped in turpentine1 on the end of a short handle4 ,it burns with a brilliant flame1 lighting up the sea for a great distance and throwing the sails and number of the pilot-boat into strong relief against the darkness4 ,on a dark clear night1 the reddish glare which the signal projects on the clouds looks like distant heat lightning4 ,having sighted his vessel1 the pilot whose turn it is to go on duty hurries below and packs the valise which contains such things as he wishes to take home1 for this is his method of going ashore2 and when he has departed1 if he is the last one of the pilot-crew1 the little vessel returns herself to port in charge of the sailing-master1 cook1 and 8boy10 to refit and take on a new set of men4 ,the storm may be howling in the full force of the winter's fury1 and the waves running 8mountain-high10 but the pilot must get aboard by some means4 ,it is rough weather indeed when his mates cannot launch their yawl and row him to where he can climb up the stranger's side with the aid of a friendly rope's end4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,pilot ,,boarding ,a ,,steamer4 ,yet frequently this is out of the question4 ,then a 8whip0 is rigged beyond the end of a lee yard-arm1 carrying a rope rove through a snatch-block1 and having a noose at its end4 ,the steamer slows her engines1 or the ship heaves to1 and the pilot-schooner1 under perfect control1 runs up under the lee of the big ship1 as near as she dares in the gale4 ,then1 just at the right instant1 a man on the ship's yard hurls the rope1 it is caught by the schooner1 the pilot slips one leg through the bowline-noose1 and a second afterward the schooner has swept on and he is being hoisted up to the yard-arm1 but generally not in time to save himself a good ducking in the coaming of some big roller4 ,going on shipboard in this fashion is not favorable to an imposing effect2 nevertheless1 the pilot is welcomed by both crew and passengers1 who admire his courage and trust his skill1 but smile at the high hat beloved of all pilots4 ,now the pilot is master--stands ahead of the captain even--and his orders are absolute law4 ,he inspects the vessel to form his opinion of how she will behave1 and then goes to the wheel or stands where best he can give his orders to the steersman and to the men in the fore-chains heaving the sounding lead4 ,he must never abandon his post1 he must never lose his control of the ship1 or make a mistake as to its position in respect to the lee-shore1 or fail to be equal to every emergency4 ,if it is too dark and foggy and stormy to see1 he must feel2 and if he cannot do this he must have the faculty of going right by intuition4 ,to fail is to lose his reputation if not his life4 ,this is what is expected of pilots1 and this is what they actually do in a hundred cases1 the full details of any one of which would make a long and thrilling tale of adventurous fighting for life4 ,it is to help pilots and navigators of all sorts to avoid the perils that beset them that governments not only spend large sums in surveying coasts and harbors1 publishing charts and descriptions1 and maintaining lighthouses and lightships1 but mark out bars and channels with floating guides1 and their borders with shore-beacons and 8ranges10 to form so many finger-posts for the right road4 ,were it not for these sign-posts no ship could safely enter any commercial harbor in the world2 and it will be valuable to quote somewhat from an article1 with capital illustrations1 written for 8,st4 ,nicholas0 7,march1 #ahif7 by an officer of the ,united ,states ,navy1 ,lieut4 ,john ,m4 ,ellicott1 since it describes how the long1 winding approaches to one of the greatest ports of the world are marked out by day and by night--,i mean the harbor of ,new ,york4 ,suppose1 then1 that we are on a big transatlantic steamer approaching the ,united ,states from ,europe4444 ,having secured his pilot1 it is the captain's next aim to make a 8land-fall0--that is to say1 he wishes to come in sight of some well-known object on shore1 which1 being marked down on his chart1 will show him just where he is and how he must steer to find the entrance to the harbor4 ,a special lighthouse is usually the object sought1 and in approaching ,new ,york harbor it is customary for steamers from ,europe to first find1 or sight1 ,fire ,island ,lighthouse4 ,this is on a sandy island near the coast of ,long ,island4 ,when1 therefore1 the liner steams in sight of ,fire ,island ,light she hoists two signals1 one of which tells her name and the other the welfare of those on board4 ,the operator then telegraphs to the ship's agents in ,new ,york that she has been sighted1 and that all on board are well or otherwise4 ,other despatches go to the newspapers1 who have observing stations and telegraph arrangements here and at ,sandy ,hook4 ,illustration3 ,,day-,,marks ,,in ,,new ,,york ,,harbor4 ,the ship's course is then laid to reach the most prominent object at the harbor entrance1 in this case ,sandy ,hook ,lightship4 ,she is easily recognized4 ,the course from this lightship to the harbor entrance is laid down on the chart 8west-northwest1 one quarter west10 and1 steering this course1 a group of three buoys is reached4 ,one is a large 8nun10 or cone-shaped1 buoy1 painted black and white in vertical stripes2 another has a triangular framework built on it1 and in the top of this framework is a bell which tolls mournfully as the buoy is rocked2 while the third is surmounted by a big whistle4444 ,these mark the point where ocean ends and harbor begins1 and can be found in fair weather or in fog by their color and shape1 or noise4 ,they are the mid-channel buoys at the entrance to ,gedney ,channel1 the deep-water entrance to ,new ,york harbor4 ,here it may be noted that mid-channel buoys in all harbors in the ,united ,states are painted black and white in vertical stripes1 and1 being in mid-channel1 should be passed close to by all deep-draft vessels4 ,at this point the pilot takes charge4 ,ahead the water seems now to be dotted in the most indiscriminate manner with buoys and beacons1 and on the shores around the harbor1 far and near1 there seem to be almost a dozen lighthouses4 ,if1 however1 you watch the buoys as the pilot steers the ship between them1 you will soon see that all those passed on the right-hand side are red1 and all on the left are black4 ,where more than one channel runs through the same harbor1 the different channels are marked by buoys of different shapes4 ,principal channels are marked by 8nun0 buoys1 secondary channels by 8can0 buoys1 and minor channels by 8spar0 buoys4 ,illustration3 ,,nun ,,buoys4 ,illustration3 ,,can ,,buoys4 ,illustration3 ,,spar ,,buoys4 ,gedney ,channel is a short1 dredged lane leading over the outer bar1 or barrier of sand1 which lies between harbor and ocean4 ,its buoys are lighted at night by electricity1 through submarine cables1 the red ones with red lights1 the black ones with white lights4 ,moreover1 a little lighthouse off to the left1 known as ,sandy ,hook ,beacon1 has in its lamp a red sector which throws a red beam just covering ,gedney ,channel4 ,thus this channel can be passed through in safety by night as well as by day4 ,if it is night the pilot knows when he is through it by the change of color in ,sandy ,hook ,beacon light from red to white4 ,then he looks away past that light to his left for two fixed white lights on the ,new ,jersey shore and hillside1 known as ,point ,comfort ,beacon and ,waackaack ,beacon1 for he knows that by keeping them in range1 that is to say1 in line with one another and himself1 and by steering toward them he is in the main ship channel4 ,by day the main ship channel buoys would guide him1 as in ,gedney ,channel1 but at night these buoys are not lighted4 ,only a short distance is now traversed when the ship comes to a point where two unseen channels meet4 ,this is indicated by a buoy having a tall spindle1 or 8perch10 surmounted by a latticed square4 ,from here1 if she continues on her course1 she will remain in the main ship-channel1 which1 although deeper1 is a more circuitous route into port2 so1 if she does not draw too much water1 she is turned somewhat to the right1 and1 leaving the buoy with the perch and square on her right1 because it is red1 she is steered between the buoys which mark ,swash ,channel4 ,if it were night this channel would be revealed by two range-lights on the ,staten ,island shore and hillside1 known as ,elm ,tree ,beacon and ,new ,dorp ,beacon1 both being steady-burning1 white lights2 but we are entering by daylight1 and when half-way through ,swash ,channel we notice a buoy painted red and black in horizontal stripes4 ,to this is given a wide berth by the pilot4 ,it is an 8obstruction0 buoy marking a shoal spot or a wreck4 ,illustration3 ,,obstruction ,,buoy4 ,channel buoys are all numbered in sequence from the sea inward1 the red ones with even1 and the black ones with odd numbers1 and the larger ones are anchored with 8mushrooms0 while the smaller have 8sinkers0 of iron or stone4 ,they are made of iron plates in water-tight compartments1 so that if punctured by an over-running ship or some other accident1 they will not be likely to sink4 ,in harbors where ice forms in winter1 large summer buoys are replaced in winter by a smaller sort less liable to be torn adrift4 ,buoys do go adrift1 however1 now and then1 and sometimes take a voyage across the ocean or far down the coast before they can be found by the tenders of the ,lighthouse ,service1 which is constantly looking after these and other marks4 ,lieutenant ,ellicott tells us that all changes in the position of buoys or lightships1 or the placing of new buoys to mark a change of channel1 or an obstruction1 are published promptly in pamphlets called 8,notices to ,mariners10 which are distributed as quickly as possible through well organized means of communication4 ,a few years ago one of the largest of our handsome new cruisers was approaching ,new ,york harbor from the ,west ,indies in a light fog4 ,sandy ,hook ,lightship had been found1 the usual course laid for ,gedney ,channel1 and the ship was steaming onward at full speed1 her captain1 having been inspector of that very lighthouse district but a short time before1 feeling that he knew his way into that port better than the most experienced pilot4 ,presently1 however1 he was startled by the alarming cry of breakers ahead6 ,a large hotel also loomed up1 and1 as the ship was backed full speed astern1 all hands realized that they had barely escaped running high and dry on ,rockaway ,beach4 ,when the vessel got into port it was learned that ,sandy ,hook ,lightship had been moved considerably from its old position1 and that the notice of this change had failed to reach the captain of the cruiser before he sailed from the ,west ,indies4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,whistling ,,buoy1 ,,out ,,of ,,commission4 ,shipwrecks still occur1 however1 in spite of lighthouses and sirens and buoys and coast-surveys2 therefore we add to our precautions arrangements to help those cast away4 ,societies to save wrecked persons have existed1 it is said1 for many centuries in ,china1 but in ,europe they are hardly a hundred years old4 ,the early humane societies1 like that of ,great ,britain1 placed life-boats and rescuing gear in certain shore towns1 and organized crews1 who promised to go out to the aid of any lost ship1 and to take good care of the persons rescued4 ,in ,america1 however1 our coasts are so extensive1 and so much of the dangerous part of them is far away from villages1 or even a farmhouse1 that the government has been obliged to do whatever was necessary4 ,thus came about the ,life ,saving ,service1 which now has its stations close together along our whole sea-coast1 and upon the great lakes1 covering more than ten thousand miles in all4 ,each of these stations is a snug house on the beach1 tenanted by a keeper and six men1 all of whom are chosen for their skill in swimming1 and in handling a boat in the surf--something every man who 8follows the sea0 cannot do successfully4 ,beaching a boat through surf is an art4 ,illustration3 ,,patrolmen ,,exchanging ,,their ,,checks4 ,during all the season1 from ,october till ,may1 two men from each station are incessantly patrolling the beach at night1 each walking until he meets the patrolman from the next station4 ,no matter how foul the weather1 these watchmen are out until daylight looking for disasters4 ,the moment they discover a vessel ashore1 or likely to become disabled1 they summon their companions and hasten to launch their boat4 ,these boats are of two kinds4 ,on the lakes and on the steep ,pacific coast is used the very heavy ,english life-boat1 fitted with masts and sails if necessary1 which a steam tug is required to tow to the scene of the wreck1 unless it is close in shore4 ,but upon our flat1 sandy ,atlantic beaches only a lighter kind of surf-boat1 made of cedar1 can be handled4 ,this is built with air-cases at each end and under the thwarts1 so that it cannot sink4 ,the station men drag it on its low wagon to the scene of its use1 unless horses are to be had1 and when it is launched they sit at the six oars1 each with his cork belt buckled around him1 and his eye fixed on the steersman1 who stands in the stern1 ready to obey his slightest motion of command1 for rowing through the angry waves that dash themselves on a storm-beaten beach is a matter requiring extraordinary skill and strength4 ,then1 when the vessel is reached1 comes another struggle to avoid being struck and crushed by the plunging ship1 or the broken spars and rigging pounding about the hull4 ,but skill and caution generally enable the crew to rescue the unfortunate castaways one by one1 though frequently several trips must be made1 in each one of which every surfman risks his life1 and in many a sad case loses it2 yet there is no lack of men for the service4 ,illustration3 ,,saving ,a ,,sailor ,,by ,,means ,,of ,,the ,,breeches-,,buoy4 ,it is a common occurrence1 however1 that the sea will run so high that no boat could possibly be launched4 ,then the only possibility of rescue for the crew is by means of a line which shall bridge the space between the ship and the land before the hull falls to pieces4 ,we read in old tales of wrecks of how some brave seaman would tie a light line around his waist1 and dare the dreadful waves1 and the more dreadful undertow1 to save his comrades4 ,if he got safely upon the beach1 he drew a hawser on shore and made it fast4 ,now we do not ask this2 but with a small cannon made for the purpose1 a strong cord attached to a cannon-ball is fired over the ship1 even though it be several hundred yards distant4 ,seizing this line as it falls across their vessel1 the imperiled sailors haul to themselves a larger line1 called a 8whip10 which they fasten in a tackle-block in such a way that a still heavier cable can be stretched between the wreck and the land and made fast4 ,then by means of a small side-line and pulleys a double canvas bag1 shaped like a pair of knee-breeches1 is sent back and forth between the ship and the shore1 bringing a man each time1 until all are saved4 ,should there be many persons on board1 though1 and great haste necessary1 instead of the breeches-buoy a small covered metallic boat1 called the life-car1 is sent out1 into which several persons may get at once4 ,these varied means are so skilfully employed1 that now hardly one in two hundred is lost of those whose lives are endangered on the ,american coasts4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,self-,,righting ,,life-,,boat4 ,,chapter ,,xi ,,fishing ,,and ,,other ,,marine ,,industries ,the grandest sea-chase is that after the whale--the most gigantic of mammals1 the most extraordinary in appearance and habits1 and the most valuable to man1 for the capture of one may mean ten times as much reward as the ivory of an elephant or the rarest otter-skin would afford1 and perhaps a hundred times as much1 if ambergris be found within its body4 ,men have had the hardihood to chase these huge and often savage creatures in their own turbulent element1 and with the most primitive weapons1 ever since the art of navigation was acquired4 ,the ,japanese and other ,asiatics of the western shore of the ,north ,pacific have dared to go out in rowboats and attack the largest whales since the origin of their traditions1 and they had a method of entangling these leviathans in nets1 which must have produced exciting scenes1 as the monster struggled amid the bloody turmoil of waters to free himself from the innumerable connected cords that embarrassed his movements1 rather than subdued his strength1 until his life ebbed away through a hundred wounds4 ,illustration3 ,,an ,,old ,,whaler4 ,on the ,alaskan coast1 and southward as far as ,oregon1 the ,indians1 and especially those of the ,queen ,charlotte ,islands and the coasts of the ,strait of ,juan de ,fuca1 were accustomed1 hundreds1 perhaps thousands of years ago1 to go far away into the ocean in their dug-out canoes1 searching for and spearing the whales with lances made of flint or bone1 having detachable barbed heads4 ,these were attached to shafts by rawhide lines1 and to the shafts were attached buoys of large inflated bladders4 ,when the animal was struck1 the heavy pole would drive the lancehead through the skin and then fall off4 ,the barbs would not only hold the instrument there1 but cause it to work deeper and deeper1 and the whale1 darting away or diving1 would be so impeded by dragging the poles and buoys after him1 that he would soon return to receive other darts1 and so1 between loss of blood and exhaustion1 would ultimately be killed4 ,it is extremely interesting to read the stories1 gathered by early travelers from the lips of the ,indians1--old ,haidas or ,makahs are living yet who have taken part in such nerve-testing canoe-chases1--of their fights with this gigantic foe far from land1 and their hair's-breadth escapes2 and it is not strange that many quaint ceremonies were devised to placate the waters and the power of the whale-god in advance1 and to honor the sea-hunters when they returned4 ,the ,greenlanders and ,eastern ,eskimos do not seem to have been able in their small skin boats to conquer the largest sort of whales1 but the smaller ones1 such as the white whale1 fell to their spears in a similar way2 and they took great pains to secure any dead or stranded cetacean that came within their reach1 the bones of which were as valuable to them1 in the absence of wood1 as were the flesh1 oil1 and sinews4 ,the history of ,european whaling begins with the excursions of the ,basques1 who1 as long ago at least as the tenth century1 were accustomed to go out from their shore-towns in search of the southern right whale which frequents the ,bay of ,biscay and its offing4 ,doubtless their boats were small1 half-decked1 lugger-rigged 8shyppes10 carrying ten to fifteen men1 and looking much like many of the ,channel fishermen of to-day4 ,this 8fishery0 supplied all ,europe during the ,middle ,ages with the whalebone and oil which were among the luxuries of the rich at that time2 but by the time the sixteenth century had arrived1 whales had become so scarce in the ,eastern ,atlantic--where now they are almost extinct--that this industry must have ceased had not the ,cabots shown the way to ,newfoundland1 to whose shores the ,basques at once extended their voyages with excellent results1 for in those days whales were commonly seen all along the ,american shore of the ,north ,atlantic4 ,but this remote fishery would have been too precarious and costly to be of great consequence had it not been for the early efforts1 related in ,chapter ,v1 to find a passage to the ,east north of the continents4 ,the earliest of these failed1 but they brought back reports that the edge of the frozen sea abounded in whales1 and men rushed into this newly discovered field of wealth1 as1 centuries later1 they abandoned everything in headlong haste to go to the gold-fields of ,california1 ,australia1 ,south ,africa or the ,yukon ,valley4 ,the ,english did their best to monopolize the whale fishery at once1 but the ,dutch sent war-vessels1 and in a fleet action almost at the edge of the ice in #afah the ,dutch conquered and opened the seas to all comers1 while separate districts on the coast of ,spitzbergen were assigned to each nationality4 ,the ,english interest in the fishery declined1 but the ,dutch increased their attention to it1 taking over one thousand whales each year4 8,about #afhj10 we read1 8they had two hundred and sixty vessels and fourteen thousand seamen employed4 ,their fishery continued to flourish on almost as extensive a scale until #aggj1 when it began to decline1 and finally1 owing to the war1 came to an end before the end of the century40 ,the ,germans were always associated with them1 and continued to send a whaling fleet to ,barentz ,sea and the ,jan ,mayen waters until #ahgc4 ,meanwhile the ,greenland whaling-grounds had begun to attract ,british whalemen1 followed by the ,danes in the early part of the last century2 then this local industry fell off1 but was revived about #ahjj1 remained prosperous for many years1 and is still the support of ,peterhead and a few other ,scotch ports4 ,illustration3 ,,whalers ,,trying ,,oil ,,out ,,of ,,blubber4 ,the abundance of whales near the coast was one of the prime inducements held out to colonists by ,north ,america1 where whales often appeared close to the shore1 or in harbors1 as occasionally they do yet4 ,here1 at first1 whale-fishing was pursued wholly in rowboats launched from the beach4 ,many shore towns owned whaleboats and gear1 each with its trained crew1 and some kept a regular lookout1 day by day1 whose duty it was promptly to announce the appearance of any whale in the offing4 ,such was the case at ,southampton1 ,long ,island1 for many years1 and even now1 occasionally1 the town-crew there rushes away through the breakers after some stray visitor amid the excitement of the whole neighborhood1 but this happens only at intervals of several years4 ,before the end of the seventeenth century1 however1 the people of ,nantucket ,island were wont to cruise about the neighboring ocean for right whales1 their voyage lasting six weeks or so as a rule1 and now and then they would pick up a sperm whale4 ,by the middle of the eighteenth century1 however1 sperm whaling was no longer profitable in the ,northern ,atlantic1 while the ,greenland grounds were overrun by ,european ships4 ,american fishermen therefore turned their attention to the ,west1 and for many years confined themselves mainly to catching the sperm whale1 finding at first their best 8grounds0 in the south-middle ,pacific4 ,when the ,war of ,independence came on1 ,nantucket was the leading whaling-port of the country1 but all the ,new ,england towns were more or less engaged1 and no less than three hundred and sixty vessels1 large and small1 were out4 ,the ,revolutionary ,war nearly destroyed the industry1 and before it could well revive1 the ,war of #ahab again subjected the whaling-ships to capture by ,english privateers and men-of-war all over the world4 ,after that1 however1 they spread all over the ,southern seas1 and between #ahdj and #ahej more than seven hundred were flying the flag of the ,united ,states4 ,the whaling vessels were large1 stanch craft1 usually bark-rigged1 distinguished by their old-fashioned shape1 weather-stained1 smoky appearance1 enormous boats swinging from end to end of the ship from lofty davits1 and try-works forward4 ,they kept longer than any one else many relics of rigging1 custom1 and language1 belonging to the seamanship of earlier generations2 and no sea-peril could daunt either the vessel or its crew4 ,they would sail on voyages lasting two or three years1 and sometimes would circumnavigate the globe and return without having touched at a port4 ,as a rule1 however1 they would gain part of a cargo1 and then go to some port1 ship it to ,london or ,new ,york1 and refit for a new voyage4 ,the profits of a trip were thus very great sometimes1 but other trips were attended only by expense and misfortune4 ,illustration3 ,,drawn ,,by ,w4 ,,taber4 ,a ,,race ,,for ,a ,,whale4 ,the capture of whales in those days had more danger if not more excitement than now1 for the only method was by rowing after them1 helped by the sails1 in the #bh-;foot1 double-ended rowboats made for the purpose 7of which every vessel carried six or eight71 and sinking into their vitals darts and lances until they died4 ,they were then towed to the vessel's side1 held by tackle from the yard-arms in a suitable position1 and cut up4 ,the oil in early days was packed in casks1 but later has been run into iron tanks built into the hold1 after having been tried out of the blubber in the great caldrons set in brick on the forward deck1 which gave a whaler so peculiar an appearance1 at all times1 and would lead any one to suppose her on fire while the process of trying-out was going on1 and the great volumes of black smoke caused by the use of whale-fat and waste as fuel were drifting to leeward4 ,one of the best accounts of a chase published is that by the late ,temple ,brown1 of the ,united ,states ,fish ,commission1 in an article in 8,the ,century0 for ,february1 #ahic1 from which ,i am permitted to make an extract3 ,while cruising on the coast of ,new ,zealand1 one day about #aa4cj ,a4 ,m41 the lookout at the main hailed the deck with3 8,thar sh' b-l-o-w-s6 ,thar sh' b-l-o-w-s6 ,blows6 ,b-l-o-w-s60 8,where away80 promptly responded the officer of the deck4 8,four points off the lee bow6 ,blows sperm-whales6 ,blows6 ,blows60 came from aloft4 8,how far off80 shouted the captain1 roused out of his cabin by the alarm1 as his head and shoulders appeared above deck4 8,where are they heading80 he continued1 as he went up the rigging on all-fours4 8,blows about two miles and a half off1 sir10 replied ,mr4 ,braxton1 the mate1 looking off the lee-bow with his glasses1 8and coming to windward1 ,i believe40 8,call all hands60 said the captain4 8,haul up the mainsail1 and back your main-yards4 ,hurry up there6 ,get your boats ready1 ,mr4 ,braxton60 ,at the first alarm the men came swarming up the companionway of the forecastle1 divesting themselves of superfluous articles of clothing1 and scattering them indiscriminately about the deck4 ,rolling up their trousers1 and girding their loins with their leather belts1 taking a double reef until supper-time1 they flitted nervously here and there in their bare legs and feet1 observing every order with the greatest alacrity1 and holding themselves in readiness to go over the side of the vessel at the word of command4 ,there is a certain order1 systematic action1 or red tape1 observed on all first-class whaling-vessels1 however imperfectly disciplined some of the boat-crews may be4 ,the captain indicates the boats he wishes to attack the whales2 the boat-header 7an officer7 and the boat-steerer 7the harpooner7 take their proper positions in the boat1 the former at the stern and the latter at the bow1 while suspended in the davits4 ,at the proper moment the davit-tackles are run out by men on deck1 and the boats drop with a lively splash2 the sprightly oarsmen meantime leap the ship's rail1 and1 swinging themselves down the side of the vessel1 tumble promiscuously into the boats just about the time the latter strike the water4 ,although it may be said that there is a general scramble1 there is not the least confusion4 ,every person and thing has the proper place assigned to it in a whaleboat2 the officer has full command1 but he is subject to the orders of the captain1 who signals his instructions from the ship1 usually by means of the light sails4 ,the manner of going on to a whale1 the number of men and their positions in the boat1 and the kind of instruments and the manner of using them1 have been perpetuated in this fishery for more than two centuries4 8,clear away the larboard and bow boats60 shouted the captain4 8,get in ahead of the whales1 ,mr4 ,braxton1 if you can4 ,here1 cook1 you and cooper lend a hand there with them davy-taycles4 ,are you ready8 ,hoist and swing your boats40 ,down went the larboard boat and the bow boat almost simultaneously4 8,shove off6 ,up sail6 ,out oars6 ,pull ahead60 were the orders from ,mr4 ,braxton1 the officer of the larboard boat1 in rapid succession4 8,let's get clear of the ship4 ,come1 bear a hand with that sail1 do10 he added1 coaxingly1 with his eye on the third mate's boat4 8,don't let 'em get in ahead of us40 8,all right1 sir2 here you go1 sheet10 replied ,vera1 the harpooner1 a well-developed and intelligent ,american-,portuguese1 with his accustomed good spirits4 ,hastily laying aside his paddle1 like a tiger couchant1 with eager eyes upon his prey1 he picked up his harpoon1 and stood erect1 his tall1 muscular frame swaying above the head of the boat4 ,he placed his thigh in the clumsy-cleat1--a contrivance to steady the harpooner against the motions of the waves1-- and with his long1 springy arms turned and balanced the harpoon-pole previous to poising the instrument in the air4444 ,under the motive power of sail and paddle the space between the boat and whale was rapidly diminishing1 and apparently they would soon come into collision4 ,the enormous head of the cetacean1 as it plowed a wide furrow in the ocean1 and the tall column of vapor rising from the blow-holes1 as it spouted ten or twelve feet in the air1 were to be seen right ahead2 the expired air1 as it rushed like steam from a valve1 could be heard near by2 the bunch of the neck and the hump were plainly visible as they rose and fell with the swell of the waves2 and the terrible commotion of the troubled waters1 fanned by the gigantic flukes1 left a swath of foaming and dancing waves clearly outlined upon the surface of the sea4444 ,mr4 ,braxton laid the boat off gracefully to starboard1 and the mastodonic head of a genuine spermaceti whale loomed up on our port bow4 ,the junk was seamed and scarred with many a wound received in fierce and angry struggles for supremacy with individuals of its own species1 or perhaps with the kraken2 the foaming waters ran up and down the great shining black head1 exposing from time to time the long1 rakish under-jaw2 but what small eyes6 8,now60 shouted the officer1 as if ,vera was a half-mile off1 instead of about twenty-five feet4 8,give him some1 boy6 ,give him--60 ,but his well-trained and faithful harpooner had already darted the harpoon into the glistening black skin just abaft the fin2 the boat was enveloped in a foam-cloud--the 8white water0 of the whalemen1 stirred up by the tremendous flukes of the whale4 8,stern all60 shouted the officer2 and the boat was quickly propelled backward by the oarsmen1 to clear it from the whale4 8,are you fast1 boy80 8,fust iron in1 sir2 can't tell second10 replied ,vera2 but the zip-zip-zip of the line as it fairly leaped from the tub and went spinning round the loggerhead and through the chocks1 sending up a cloud of smoke produced by friction1 indicated the presence of healthy game4 8,wet line6 wet line60 shouted ,mr4 ,braxton1 as he went forward to kill the whale1 and ,vera came aft to steer the boat1 unstepping the mast on his way2 for all whales are now struck under sail4 ,the whale1 however1 soon turned flukes1 and went head first to the depths below4 ,meantime1 the other whales had taken the alarm1 and with their noses in the air1 were showing a 8clean pair of heels0 to windward4 ,the boat lay by awaiting the 8rising0 of the cetacean4 ,twenty minutes passed1 twenty-five1 stroke-oarsman began to feel hungry2 thirty1 thirty-five1 and still the line was either slowly running out or taut2 but soon it began to slacken4 8,haul line6 haul line60 said the officer1 peering into the water4 8,he's stopped40 ,the line was retrieved as fast as possible and carefully laid in loose coils on the after platform4 8,haul line1 he's coming6 ,coil line clear1 ,vera60 said ,mr4 ,braxton1 shading his eyes with his hand and looking over the gunwale at an immense opaque spot beginning to outline itself in the depths below4 ,illustration3 ,,drawn ,,by ,w4 ,,taber4 ,,engraved ,,by ,j4 ,w4 ,,evans4 ,,fast ,,to ,a ,,whale4 8,look out6 ,here he comes6 ,stern all6 ,look out for whale60 ,but the mate's injunctions were received too late4 ,the whale1 fairly out of breath1 came up with a bound and a puff1 scattering the water in all directions1 and catching the keel of the boat on the bunch of its neck4 ,the boat bounded from this part of the whale's anatomy to the hump1 and1 careening to starboard1 shot the crew first on the whale's side and then into the water4 ,the stroke-oarsman now began to feel wet4 ,the whale1 terrified beyond measure by the tickling sensation of the little thirty-foot boat creeping down its back1 caught the frail cedar craft on one corner of its flukes1 and tossed it gracefully1 but perhaps not intentionally1 into the air1 as one would play with a light rubber ball4 ,as the boat descended1 with one tremendous 8side wipe0 of the mighty caudal fin1 and with a terrible crash that was heard on the ship nearly two miles away1 the whale smashed it into kindling-wood4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,whale-,,boat ,,cut ,,in ,,two4 ,this is only one of the exciting tales ,mr4 ,brown has to tell1 and the history of whaling in every country could add many more4 ,he tells us that approaching a whale at all times is like going into battle1 and says that many of the deeds remembered by old hands were purely heroic1 since the danger might have been avoided by declining to attack the animal under the especially hazardous conditions that often present themselves4 ,the persecution suffered by whales of all kinds in all parts of the world made the more valuable kinds so scarce by the middle of the present century that many voyages were almost fruitless1 not only by reason of small catches1 but because the substitutes invented for whalebone1 and the constantly increasing use of mineral oils had lowered prices to an almost ruinous level4 ,the ,american fleets suffered with the rest1 until during the ,civil ,war they were nearly swept from the seas by the ravages of the ,shenandoah and other ,confederate privateers4 ,since then there has been only a partial revival1 accompanied by a good many changes4 ,a few ,scotch and ,german whalers still go to the northern seas1 working in the ice1 and some ,american vessels from the ,eastern ,states1 and a greater number from ,california search the ,pacific and the waters off ,alaska4 ,all or nearly all of these whalers are provided with steam-propellers1 having an arrangement by which they can lift the screw out of water and use their sails for ordinary purposes4 ,many of them chase with a steam-launch instead of the old-fashioned whaleboats1 and save their men the back-straining labor of towing a prize perhaps two or three miles to the ship4 ,in place of the hand harpoon they have several forms of swivel-guns and shoulder-guns discharging harpoons and explosive darts by gunpowder1 so that a large share of the danger as well as the labor is saved to modern whalemen1 who are also much better housed and fed in their large iron steamships than those used to be who wrestled with scurvy in the grim old hulks of half a century ago4 ,the ships that go up through ,davis ,straits now frequently winter there1 in order to be on hand in ,may to meet the whales that appear in the first open water1 to which the men drag their boats over the ice between their ships and the first open channels4 ,for the same purpose many vessels of the ,american fleet are accustomed to pass the winter in company under the shelter of islands near the mouth of the ,mackenzie ,river4 ,here they have a rendezvous where buildings have been erected and means for social comfort have been established1 such as billiard tables1 books1 etc4 ,these western vessels do not force their way into and through the ice1 as do those among the eastern archipelagoes1 but operate in comparatively open water1 as long as it lasts1 along the edge of the paleocrystic ice4 ,delaying the departure of those who mean to return to the ,pacific and home until the last moment1 it occasionally happens that some are caught and frozen in4 ,these are usually destroyed1 but thus far their crews have managed to escape either to more fortunate vessels or to the shore1 where1 at ,point ,barrow1 the government has built and keeps furnished a strong house1 with stores1 fuel1 and provisions1 as a refuge for shipwrecked mariners4 ,walrus-hunting is not much followed nowadays by civilized seamen1 though the animal is still of great value to the ,eskimo and ,siberians4 ,it has become very scarce in easily accessible waters1 but is occasionally taken by whalers1 who find a market for the ivory of its tusks4 ,sealing is an industry which still claims considerable attention from the ,scandinavians and ,scotchmen who go to the coasts and waters about ,spitzbergen1 ,jan ,mayen1 and ,greenland1 as well as to nearer resorts1 in pursuit of several species yielding oil and valuable hides2 and in the ,north ,pacific the pursuit of the fur seal still occupies many small vessels1 but seems likely to come soon to an end4 ,antarctic seals are practically extinct4 ,the industry of fishing is probably one of the oldest in the world1 and it remains among the most important1 for the fisheries not only furnish a vast amount of nutritious and pleasant1 yet remarkably cheap1 food1 but many other things useful to mankind4 ,hence it is not strange to find that in all the early reports of the discovery of new lands and waters that followed one another so rapidly from the fourteenth to the eighteenth centuries1 the fish and other sea-animals to be found were always given a prominent place in the list of valuable assets pertaining to each locality4 ,even the ,spaniards and ,portuguese1 in their insane rush for gold and silver1 to the neglect and ruin of everything else1 had to pay some little attention to fishing and allied industries in both the ,east and ,west ,indies2 while in the case of the exploitations of new regions by the calmer1 more prudent people of western ,europe--the ,british1 ,french1 ,dutch and ,scandinavians1--the value of the harvest of the sea was really more in view1 at first1 than that of the land1 at least when they began to visit and colonize ,north ,america4 ,take1 as an example1 the history of ,st4 ,pierre1 ,miquelon1 and the others that form a group of islets in the ,gulf of ,newfoundland1 half way between ,prince ,edward ,island and ,newfoundland4 ,mr4 ,s4 ,g4 ,w4 ,benjamin1 in whose 8,cruise of the ,alice ,may0 you may find many interesting and picturesque materials for an account of them1 tells us a ,french settlement was begun on ,st4 ,pierre as early as #afjd1 and that tradition says the islands were resorted to by the ,basques two centuries before that1 as is very likely true4 ,in #agac the colony numbered three thousand souls1 and had become a very important fishing port4 ,in that very year ,st4 ,pierre was ceded to ,great ,britain1 together with ,newfoundland1 the ,french being merely allowed permission to dry their fish on the adjacent shores4 ,but when the victory of ,wolfe resulted in the loss of ,canada to ,france1 she was once more awarded this little group of isles lying off ,fortune ,bay1 to serve as a depot for her fishermen4 ,the ,french now gave themselves in earnest to developing the cod-fisheries1 determined1 apparently1 that what they had lost on land should be made up by the sea4 ,in twelve years the average exportation of fish amounted to six thousand quintals1 giving employment to over two hundred smacks1 sailed by eight thousand seamen4 ,the ,english recaptured the isles in #aggh1 destroyed all the stages and store-houses1 and forced the inhabitants to go into exile4 ,the peace of ,versailles restored ,st4 ,pierre to ,france in #aghc1 and the fugitives returned to the island at the royal expense4 ,the fisheries now became more prosperous than ever1 when the war of '#ic once more brought the ,english fleets to ,st4 ,pierre4 ,again the inhabitants were forced to fly4 ,by the peace of ,amiens1 in #ahjb1 ,france regained possession of this singularly evanescent possession1 and lost it the following year1 when the town was destroyed4 ,in #ahaf ,st4 ,pierre and ,miquelon were finally re-ceded to ,france1 in whose power they have ever since remained4 ,illustration3 ,,curing ,,fish ,,at ,,st4 ,,pierre4 ,as these islands were of no use to any one for any other purpose1 all this struggle for their possession was in order to retain the privilege and naval control of fishing in those waters4 ,the ,french government has carefully fostered this interest ever since1 and now the islands not only have a settled population of several thousand1 but at the height of the season sometimes as many as ten thousand strangers 7sailors and fishermen7 congregate at the principal port1 ,st4 ,pierre1 which is one of the most important centers in the world for the marketing1 curing1 and export of sea-caught fish4 ,of all waters those of the ,north ,atlantic seem to excel in useful fishes2 from the oil-shark hand-lining off the coast of ,lapland1 or the sardine-catching of ,spain1 to ,yankee sword-fishing1 this ocean is alive with fish and fishermen1 on both sides and at all seasons of the year4 ,the whole coast of ,norway supports this industry1 especially around the far northern ,lafoden ,islands4 ,the ,north ,sea1 shallow and cold1 is the home of many valuable species that are sought by extensive fleets from ,denmark1 ,holland1 and the north of ,france1 while thousands of ,british sailors make a living along their own eastern coasts and among the islands north of ,scotland2 but the waters on all sides of the ,british ,isles are fishing waters1 especially the ,english and ,irish channels and the western lochs of ,scotland2 the herring-catch alone is worth eight and a half millions of dollars a year1 while ,great ,britain's mackerel-catch amounts to two millions1 and her share of the codfishery to another two millions4 ,nearly half of all the products of ,british fisheries are obtained by the use of the beam-trawl--a huge dredge-like bag-net1 handled and towed by steamers in pretty deep water1 which scoops in everything near the bottom1 where the most desirable sea-fishes stay4 ,among the prizes are the turbot and sole--toothsome and valuable species not known along ,american shores4 ,more southerly are the profitable fisheries for pilchards1 sprats1 and especially sardines--little fishes taken in vast numbers and canned or preserved in various ways4 ,the abundance of sardines1 a recent writer tells us1 may be inferred from the fact that the ,spanish fishermen take annually about one hundred thousand tons of these little fishes1 having a value of from #djj1jjj to #fjj1jjj4 ,a peculiar method of capturing the sardines at night prevails in the ,adriatic4 ,the location of the shoals of fish is literally felt out by a light sounding-line1 and by means of the attraction of a fire of resinous pine the fish are slowly coaxed into some creek or estuary and surrounded with a seine4 ,the demand for wood for use in this and other night fisheries causes a serious drain on the neighboring pine-forests4 ,the great fishery of the ,mediterranean1 however1 is that for tunnies--huge fishes allied to mackerel1 sometimes weighing several hundredweight1 and regarded in ,america as poor food4 ,they have been taken by means of pounds and strong enclosing nets ever since classical antiquity1 and preserved tunny flesh is still popular in ,spain1 ,italy1 and ,north ,africa1 while the same fish is the object of one of the principal sea-industries of ,japan4 ,but important as are the catching1 preserving1 and utilization of these and many other ,european fishes1 they are far outranked by the marine fisheries for the cod and its relatives1 the halibut1 haddock1 hake1 etc41 in waters about ,newfoundland1 ,labrador1 and ,iceland1 where also great quantities of mackerel1 herring1 and other food fishes are regularly obtained4 ,the principal grounds are on the ,banks of ,newfoundland1 which have been resorted to for more than three hundred years by men from both continents4 ,illustration3 ,,hand-,,line ,,fishing ,,on ,,the ,,grand ,,banks4 ,the ,banks of ,newfoundland are a series of shoals--submerged islands1 in fact--which lie off the northeastern coast of ,america from ,cape ,cod to the farther end of ,newfoundland4 ,the shallowness of the water over them makes them advantageous places for fishing1 because many of the species caught remain near the bottom1 and in deep water are therefore beyond convenient reach4 ,it is possible1 also1 to anchor there--often a necessity4 ,but just here are presented some of the worst perils to which fishermen are exposed4 ,nowhere are old ocean's storms worse than on these ,banks1 where the sand is sometimes stirred five hundred feet below the surface4 ,the best fishing comes in winter--the season of the heaviest gales4 ,the vessels must anchor close together1 too1 for the areas of good fishing are small1 and if one breaks its hawser1 or the anchor drags1 there is great danger of drifting afoul of some neighbor1 which is likely to end in the destruction of both4 ,then there is ever present the danger1 in these latitudes of almost ceaseless fog1 of being run down by the transatlantic steamers1 in whose track the fishing fleets must anchor4 ,the skipper keeps his bell tolling1 or a great horn blowing1 but if a steamer comes down the wind her lookout will hardly be able to hear it before it is too late to stop or change the course of the monster rushing at full speed through the thickness of mist and flying spray4 8,before anything can be done the relentless iron prow cuts into the schooner1 which for a moment quivers and then disappears into the depths4444 ,one of these great iron ships might cut the bows off a fishing schooner of sixty or eighty tons and not1 perhaps1 experience a sufficient shock to alarm the passengers sleeping calmly in their staterooms40 ,the vessels which go upon this perilous quest are the stanchest1 swiftest1 and withal handsomest little vessels that sail our seas4 ,their rig is adapted to this purpose1 and spreads almost as much canvas as a racing-yacht1 which1 in fact1 on this side of the ,atlantic has been modeled from ,banks fishermen4 ,the best of them probably are those hailing from ,gloucester1 ,mass41 and these are never used for any other purpose4 ,the old-fashioned hand-line fishing1 such as still holds a place in the mackerel fisheries--although even there it has given way in most vessels to purse-netting1--is no longer practised in the ,american codfishery1 which now uses the trawl-line altogether1 by which the men have added to the hardship and danger of their adventurous life as well as to its profits4 ,this trawl is not a huge dredge as is the beam-trawl of the ,north ,sea fishermen1 from which it has unfortunately copied its name1 but is a strong rope between three and four hundred feet long1 having at each end an anchor and a flag-buoy4 ,it is so arranged that when it is stretched out and anchored the line will be several fathoms beneath the surface4 ,to this line1 at intervals of six feet or so1 are hung short lines1 each carrying a stout hook4 ,when the fishing-ground has been reached1 the captain anchors his vessel1 or1 if the weather permits1 he sails gently to and fro4 ,previously1 six trawls have been baited with clams brought from home1 and one put in each of the six small boats which the vessel carries4 ,two men now put off in each of these boats and anchor the trawls at convenient distances from each other1 in such a way that the trawl-line1 with its fringe of hooks1 shall be stretched taut and at the proper depth4 ,how long they stay down depends on the weather--five or six hours1 or from evening until morning1 is the usual period4 ,then the men go out1 and taking up the anchors at one end1 haul each trawl into the boat1 coiling it in the bottom and taking off the hooks each captive fish as fast as they come to it4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,fishing ,,schooner 8,,hove ,,to0 ,,in ,a ,,gale ,,on ,,the ,,banks4 ,simple as this sounds1 it is terribly hard work4 ,the trawls are heavy and stiff1 and armed with dangerously sharp hooks4 ,the busiest season is midwinter1 and no dread of cold or danger must stop the fisherman1 who boldly ventures in his little dory into the teeth of a howling snow-storm and fast increasing gale1 piling the water 8mountain-high0 about him and encasing his body in a sheet of icy spray2 this must he do1 in spite of discomfort and the imminent risk of death1 if he would save from destruction his valuable trawls and the booty they may have hooked for him4 ,a fine day on the ,banks of ,newfoundland is a rare thing2 fog and snow and icy gales are the rule1 and only the boldest courage1 endurance1 and skill will enable a man to resist that ocean and wrest from it his self-support4 ,a vivid picture of the hardships and dangers of fishing on the ,banks is to be found in ,rudyard ,kipling's story1 8,captains ,courageous40 ,the intrepid and skilful voyages of our whalers and fishermen1 daring every fatigue and danger in the open sea1 have been schools for the best seamen of the world4 ,every nation is glad to draw these sailors into their navies1 and it is they who make the bravest yet most cautious captains of our merchant marine1 showing to their comrades and to landsmen splendid examples of heroism and fortitude4 ,this is the schooling ,i meant when ,i said that in its industries we get not only food1 but formation of character1 from old ,ocean1--and this is the highest result attainable from either land or sea4 ,illustration3 shipwreck ,,chapter ,,xii ,,the ,,plants ,,of ,,the ,,sea ,,and ,,their ,,uses ,the ocean was the home of the first living thing1 either plant or animal1 that appeared on our planet2 seaweeds and salt-water animals are found in much older rocks than any that contain the fossils of land life4 ,moreover1 though called a 8wide waste of waters10 and seeming a complete desert as we gaze upon its restless surface on a dull morning1 there is a greater number of animals and plants by count1 and quite as large a variety1 under the waves as above them1 and the bottom of the sea--at all events near its margin--is more populous than any bit of woods you ever saw4 ,there exists in our ponds and ditches a race of plants so minute that it requires a powerful microscope to examine them4 ,under this instrument it is seen that they have delicate1 flinty shells or armor1 which is of a great variety of forms1--coiled1 globular1 boat-shaped1 spindle-like1 and so on1--and always beautifully sculptured4 ,these minute and beautiful diatoms1 as they are called1 move about freely1 and were long supposed to be animals2 now they are known to be the simplest of seaweeds1 consisting of only one cell4 ,since life first began1 these diatoms1 and other microscopic plants much like them1 have swarmed not only in the fresh waters1 but in all the oceans of the globe1 furnishing food for mollusks and all the lowly animals whose food is brought into their mouths by the currents4 ,innumerable1 and as wide-spread as the salt water itself1 every one of these myriads of minute plants has left a record2 for its delicate1 glass-like shell was indestructible1 and when the bit of life was lost1 it sank slowly down to the bottom4 ,what effect toward perceptible sediment could come from a thing so small that it would scarcely be felt in your eye8 ,one or two1 or even a million1 would go for little2 but century after century1 through ages too long for us to comprehend1 a steady rain of these exquisitely engraved particles of flint showered down upon the still sea-floor1 almost as thickly as you have seen motes in a sunbeam1 until there was deposited a layer1 many feet in thickness1 of nothing but diatom-skeletons4 ,though this went on to a greater or less extent everywhere in the sea1 such deposits are not now to be discovered everywhere1 because disturbing causes swept the shells away1 or broke up the floor after it had been laid down2 but in various parts of the world to-day1 you may find wide beds of rock made up wholly of such skeletons1 soldered together into hard stone2 while in some regions the mud of our sea-bottom appears to consist of almost nothing else4 ,the mighty chalk cliffs of ,great ,britain and the ,french coast were built up in precisely this way at the bottom of an ancient sea1 whence they have been lifted1 but they are composed of much besides diatoms4 ,from the simplicity of diatoms the vegetation of the sea can be traced upward through larger and more complicated kinds of plants until we reach the enormous alg that break the gloom of black headlands by their brilliant tints1 and furnish a lurking-place under their wide-spreading and dense foliage for hosts of marine animals--some hiding for safety1 others to watch for prey4 ,seaweeds grow in all latitudes1 even close to the pole1 but mainly along the shore1 for below the depth of about one hundred fathoms none but microscopic forms are known4 ,these latter float about1 of course1 and many of them have been thought to be animals because they seem able to move at their own will4 ,they come to the surface as well as haunt the depths2 and the ,red ,sea takes its name from the fact that a minute carmine-tinted alga occasionally rises to the surface in throngs so dense and wide as to tinge the water for miles at a stretch4 ,the same thing occurs in the ,pacific1 where the sailors call it 8sea-sawdust40 ,the proper home of the seaweed1 however1 is a rocky shore between tide-marks or just below them1 and it is because the eastern coast of the ,united ,states is deficient in rocks--at least south of ,cape ,cod--that this is poor in alg1 compared with other regions4 ,the seaweed has no roots1 and only clings to the rock for support2 shifting sand therefore would not hold it1 and there are great sandy deserts under the ocean1 bare of alg1 as some land regions are sandy deserts naked of terrestrial plants4 ,it often happens1 however1 that masses of weed will be torn away from their moorings and set adrift4 ,this does not necessarily kill them1 for they go on flourishing while afloat1 and such is supposed to be the origin of those great areas of 8gulfweed0 vegetation in mid-ocean called 8sargasso seas40 ,you will remember that a branch of the ,gulf ,stream1 striking over toward the ,moorish coast of ,africa1 is turned southward there1 and sweeps down to the equator1 then westward again1 circumscribing a broad region in the middle ,atlantic whose only currents go round and round in a slow whirlpool2 and here it is that the gulfweed concentrates in masses sometimes dense enough to impede the progress of a ship--,columbus reported among the wonders of his first voyage the trouble he had in sailing through it--and covering an area between the ,azores and the ,bahamas as large as the ,mississippi valley4 ,this is the ,sargasso ,sea ordinarily referred to in books1 but it is not the only one4 ,a thousand miles west of ,san ,francisco there is a similar collection of floating plants1 and others exist under like conditions in the southern oceans4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,marbled ,,angler ,,on ,,its ,,gulfweed ,,raft4 ,these floating meadows1 as it were1 are chosen as the abode of a long list of animals that rarely quit the safety and plenty of their precincts4 ,among these are innumerable pretty jelly-fishes1 sea-worms1 and mollusks without shells1 which cling to the buoyant plants1 and perhaps feed solely upon them4 ,here are to be had in abundance the fairy-like1 rare pteropods1 the richly purple janthinas towing their curious rafts of eggs1 and no end of small crabs4 ,here a small fish1 something like a perch1 spends his whole time building a nest like a bird's in the tangled weed-masses1 and carefully guarding his treasures against the large marauding fishes that haunt the place to the dread of its peaceful inhabitants2 and here those far-flying birds1 the wandering albatross and the petrels1 hover about in search of something to capture and eat4 ,the ,sargasso ,sea is an extremely interesting part of the ocean1 except to the luckless sailor becalmed and balked in its midst1 as was ,sir ,john ,hawkins when he penned the following quaint observations1 some three centuries ago3 ,were it not for the ,moving of the ,sea1 by the ,force of ,winds1 ,tides and ,currents1 it would corrupt all the ,world4 ,the ,experience of which ,i ,saw ,anno #aeij1 lying with a ,fleet about the ,islands of ,azores1 almost ,six ,months1 the greatest ,part of the time we were becalmed1 with which all the ,sea became so replenished with several sorts of ,gellies and ,forms of ,serpents1 ,adders and ,snakes1 as seem'd ,wonderful2 some green1 some black1 some yellow1 some white1 some of divers ,colours1 many of them had ,life1 and some there were a ,yard a half1 some two ,yards long2 which had ,i not seen1 ,i could hardly have believed4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,piece ,,of ,,gulfweed4 ,it is inhabited by two sea-slugs1 protected by their resemblance to its leaflets1 and by small crustaceans1 hydroids1 etc4 ,in favorable places a surprising variety of seaweeds can be picked out1 and books exist by which you may learn the method of classification and names of the different species1 the chief of which1 for ,america1 is ,harvey's splendid work1 published by the ,smithsonian ,institution4 ,not only in the shape and colors of the fronds 7as the leaf-like expansions or branching tufts of the stem are called7 do seaweeds differ greatly among themselves1 but in size1 varying from many diminutive or even microscopic sorts to the cable-like growths of ,california1 which would measure a quarter of a mile in length if stretched out4 ,alg1 as ,i have said1 constitute1 with very few exceptions1 the whole vegetation of the salt water1 together with a large part of the vegetation in fresh water2 and they serve the same useful purpose there that land-plants do for the dry parts of the globe1 continually making and throwing off the oxygen which is necessary to keep the water as well as the air pure4 ,to this end they do a very important work4 ,this is not the whole of their service in ocean matters1 however4 ,i think it may be said that if it were not for seaweeds animals could not live in the ocean1 as truthfully as that if it were not for herbage no animals would be able to exist on land4 ,seaweeds are fed upon directly by all sorts of salt-water life1 from mollusks as big as your thumb to turtles the size of a dining-table1 and they make a shelter for thousands of little fellows who never leave their shadow4 ,but this is a small part of the story4 ,the diatoms1 and other minute plants like them1 form the main portion1 if not all1 of the food of a large number of sponges1 polyps1 mollusks1 and other stationary1 sluggish creatures1 that otherwise1 so far as ,i see1 would not be able to live at all4 ,these1 in turn1 are fed upon by larger predaceous animals4 ,thus1 though the fishes and cetaceans may never bite a seaweed themselves 7those large marine herbivores1 the manatee and dugongs1 subsist almost wholly upon it1 however71 they depend for food upon creatures that do4 ,we may say1 therefore1 that the alg form the basis of all ocean life4 ,men have been able to make marine plants of service to them also--a resource more important formerly than now4 ,in the last century1 for example1 the kelp trade was the one great industry of the islands at the west of ,ireland and ,scotland1 employing thousands of persons1 and paying vast revenues to the lordly owners of the shores4 ,kelp is the name of any large1 leathery sort of seaweed1 whose leaves float at or near the surface1 supported by bladder-like expansions2 but in this case the word meant the ashes of any seaweed dried in the sun and then slowly burned in kilns1 clouding the air with huge volumes of strongly odorous smoke4 ,the slow burning of the seaweed left the ashes fused into a solid mass1 which was broken up like stone before being sold4 ,in ,france this substance was called varec2 and in ,spain1 where the alg were mixed with beach-plants1 cultivated for the purpose1 and burned in shallow pits in the ground1 it went to market as barilla4 ,in those days1 kelp ash was the only source of the valuable alkali soda needed in manufacturing glass and soap4 ,then a ,french chemist discovered how to make such soda out of common salt1 and the kelp ovens were abandoned1 except a few in ,scotland1 supplying the demand for iodine and several other chemicals contained in this residuum which is so rich in iodine1 used in photography and in medicine1 that a ton of kelp ash will sometimes yield twenty pounds2 yet only about #ajj1jjj pounds are now produced in this way1 while five times as much is obtained by chemical treatment of ,chile saltpeter4 ,it is a curious fact that barbarous people have long chewed seaweeds as a remedy in diseases for which physicians now prescribe iodine4 ,iodine is a violet dye1 and the bluish and purple tints of many alg1 shells1 and sea-animals appear to be due to the large amount of this element in sea-water4 ,seaweeds and other marine plants1 like eel-grass1 are collected in great quantities by farmers in all parts of the world to be used as a fertilizer4 ,shell-mud1 dead fish1 and other marine products are also of high value as manure1 on account of the large proportion of lime1 carbon1 and soda which they contain4 ,indeed1 there is a kind of seaweed growing at great depths called the nullipore1 which takes up so much lime from the water that its substance becomes almost like stone1 so that the plant retains its shape and full size when dried4 ,some of these nullipores are beautifully fan-shaped1 scarlet or pink1 and are often seen in museums1 marked corallines4 ,illustration3 ,,seaweeds4 #a4 ,laminaria digitata4 #b4 ,l4 longicruris4 ,to return to the gathering of seaweeds by farmers1 nowhere is it more customary than in some parts of ,new ,england4 ,thus the well-known ,second ,beach1 just east of ,newport1 is in the fall of the year the scene of a vast activity in this direction4 8,it may easily happen10 we are told1 8that the pilgrim to ,whitehall1 topping the hill on a brilliant autumn morning1 shall come upon a scene in which quiet plays no part4 ,the seaweed1 that harvest which1 ripening without labor1 is neither bought nor sold1 is setting inshore under the urgings of wind and tide1 and scores of farmers have crowded to the spot to gather it4 ,an artist could hardly wish a better subject for his pencil than one of these wild harvestings--the plunging horses1 forced far out into the surf1 their slow return1 half swimming1 half wading1 dragging the heavily loaded rakes which leave behind them a long furrow of foam1 the heaped-up kelp glistening in the sunshine1 the oxen1 yoked by fours1 waiting for their load1 the shouts of the men1 the dash1 the excitement1 and beyond and above all1 the wonderful blues and iridescent greens which are the peculiar property of ,newport waters and the ,newport sky40 ,cattle and horses that are accustomed to rough pastures1 like the ,scotch and ,irish moors1 eat seaweed and thrive on it1 especially as winter fodder1 and from several species are derived dishes for our own tables4 ,the ,irish moss1 or carrageen1--which is not a moss at all1 but a seaweed1--is the most important of these1 and grows on both sides of the northern ,atlantic4 ,in ,england the market supply comes chiefly from the western coast of ,ireland1 while ,massachusetts ,bay gives ,america all that is wanted1 principally the red1 coral-like ,chondrus crispus4 ,the little port of ,scituate1 ,massachusetts1 is the chief point of supply1 where many thousands of pounds are gathered4 ,in early ,june1 two or three hundred men and women go to the rocks at low tide and pick off the small brown plants1 each man getting about a barrel in one day's work4 ,when the tide rises1 the people get into small boats and pull up the moss with rakes4 ,the moss gathered each day is taken to the beach1 where a gravelly space has been prepared1 and is spread out to lie bleaching during all of the next day1 when it is taken up1 washed in tubs1 and again spread out4 ,the washing and drying in the sun continue for seven days1 by which time it has bleached to a yellowish white4 ,in cookery1 jellies1 blanc mange1 and various methods of boiling in milk and mixing in soups are used to make it palatable4 ,besides being of value for food1 carrageen serves to make sizing used by paper-makers1 cloth-printers1 hatters1 and so on1 to clarify beer in the brewery vats1 as a medicine1 and to make bandoline for stiffening the hair4 ,other species beside the ,irish moss serve as food in ,europe1 generally in a raw state1 often proving the only salty relish which the ,irish peasant has to eat with his potatoes4 ,one of these is the dulse of the ,scotch 7the dillisk of ,ireland71 which also abounds in the ,mediterranean1 and is there made into a soup4 ,the natives of the ,south ,sea ,islands eat alg1 which are extraordinarily abundant and varied in ,oriental latitudes2 and the poor among the ,japanese and in the interior of ,china1 where the weed is sent dried1 prize it especially1 because it has a sea flavor and saves salt1 which with them is a costly luxury4 ,these people mix it with vegetables and other materials1 to form thick1 delicious soups and dressings4 ,a peculiarly bad-smelling sauce1 prepared from seaweed1 is among the exports ,china sends to ,europe as a condiment4 ,along the shores from ,japan to ,sumatra grows an alga which the natives of those coasts dry and keep as long as they please4 ,when the substance is wanted they steep some of the dried pieces in hot water1 where the weed dissolves1 and then1 having been taken off the fire1 stiffens into a glue which is said to be the strongest cement in the world4 ,a kind of false isinglass1 also1 is a product of the ,eastern seaweeds1 and it not only enters into the pastry and confectionery of ,chinese bakers1 but serves to varnish and glue thin paper and to stiffen the light transparent gauzes of fine silk used in making ,oriental screens1 fans1 hangings1 etc41 so that painters can decorate them4 ,with a poorer quality the bamboo stretchers of paper umbrellas1 lanterns1 and various toys are smeared to give them hard and polished surfaces4 ,seaweed has also been used in the manufacture of paper1 and its complete success in this branch of industry is as yet hindered only by the difficulty of perfect bleaching4 ,certain species of it are utilized in enormous quantities by upholsterers as stuffing for sofas1 chairs1 and mattresses2 in ,japan it is formed into a substitute for window-glass2 ornaments and small articles of use1 like knife-handles1 are made by several nations out of large dried seaweeds2 and1 finally1 albums of preserved fronds are one of the prettiest things to be found in a naturalist's cabinet4 ,the great majority of seaweeds grow between tide-marks1 and they undoubtedly perform an important service in preventing the wear and tear of the coast in many situations4 ,some1 however1 grow in much deeper waters1 and these1 also1 may serve as breakwaters of no mean strength4 ,such is the case1 for instance1 at ,san ,pedro1 near ,los ,angeles1 ,california1 where the abundant growth offshore forms such a barrier to the ocean rollers as to turn the open roadstead into a calm harbor within it4 ,this belongs to the group of gigantic kelps of which those at the ,falkland ,islands and about ,tierra del ,fuego are other and noted species4 ,were it not for the growth of this strong1 cable-like1 buoyant plant1 large numbers of other plants and sea-animals would find it impossible to exist exposed to the violence of the ,south ,pacific waves4 ,sometimes the stems reach twelve hundred feet in length1 and the bladders by which the immense fronds are buoyed up are as big as kegs4 ,this gigantic seaweed is plentiful all along the ,pacific coast of ,america to ,alaska1 and the natives of our northwest coast used to make extensive use of it in the way of ropes1 etc4 ,it was from this weed that1 by a careful preparation1 they made the lines for their harpoons and deep-sea fishing2 and the bladders furnished them ready-made receptacles for eulachon oil1 for water for their seatrips1 and for other liquids4 ,a ,california correspondent of the ,new ,york 8,evening ,post0 gave a pretty picture1 not long ago1 of one of the kelp patches at ,st4 ,nicholas ,island1 where the beds of this wonderful plant reach out for a mile or more1 growing up from the rocks below and forming an effectual break2 the seas losing their force in their effort to pass through the submarine meshwork4 ,the vines constitute a veritable forest1 and1 drifting over it in fifty or sixty feet of water1 you may see a perfect maze of stems with broad leaves waving gracefully in the current1 forming arbors1 arches1 and colonnades4 ,here1 poised idly1 in rich contrast to the olive-hued mass1 may be seen fish of a bright golden color1 others in tints of blue and green4 ,the sea swell coming in causes an undulatory movement1 and the long colonnades seem to melt one into another1 reappearing in different shapes4 ,when the leaves reach the surface1 the shore wind1 sweeping down from the hills1 lifts them from the water1 and they flutter in the air like mimic sails4 ,each leaf is a study4 ,many are encrusted with a delicate bryozon1 which presents the effect of white lace upon the surface1 while a close inspection will reveal minute anemones1 coiled tubular worms1 which throw out flower-like organs of exquisite beauty2 while flat shells lie among them1 and crawling here and there are marvels of animal life1 shell-less mollusks1 which so mimic the weed that it is almost impossible to distinguish them4 ,illustration3 ,,diatoms1 ,,magnified1 ,,in ,a ,,drop ,,of ,,water4 ,this protective feature is a characteristic of life among the kelp forests that line the entire ,pacific shores of ,north and ,south ,america1 many animals simulating it so perfectly in color that the best-trained eyes often fail to observe them4 ,this is especially true of the crabs and shell-less mollusks4 ,the latter have not only assumed the exact tint of the weed1 but are often covered with barbels of flesh that simulate the tangles of the substance4 ,upon the backs of the crabs are singular markings in green and white1 which so resemble the minute incrustations of the kelp that the resultant protection is complete4 ,compare illustration on page #beb4 ,each vine is fastened to a stone1 and the clinging roots shelter hordes of creatures of various kinds--deep-water crabs1 octopods1 starfishes1 and a host of others4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,marine ,,naturalist4 ,,chapter ,,xiii ,,animal ,,life ,,in ,,the ,,sea ,the primitive idea of the ocean was that it was a vast desert1 and a strange disbelief in its being inhabited by more than the very few forms that everybody was compelled to recognize persisted up to quite modern times among those who should have known better4 ,pliny boldly asserted1 for example1 that nothing remained in the ,mediterranean ,sea unknown to him after he had made a list of #agf marine animals6 ,but now we know that the sea teems with living beings as densely as do the fresh waters or the air4 ,in it began the life of the globe1 for the fossil records of the rocks show that the first animals lived in the ocean1 and that ages passed before any of them began to people the newly formed lands and breathe the atmosphere instead of the air in the water2 and1 abundant as oceanic life now is1 the paleozoic seas held immensely greater hordes1 of which many forms were giants as compared with those of our day4 ,some of the old straight chambered shells were twelve feet long2 and ,i have seen fossil ammonites1 extinct relatives of our coiled pearly nautilus1 which when alive must have been too heavy for a man to lift4 ,the fishes1 too1 could tell great stories of the glory of their ancestors in size and strength and numbers4 ,some of them wore solid coats of mail upon their heads1 and could do battle even with the huge swimming reptiles that were the dreaded tyrants of the ,mesozoic deep4 ,life in the ocean in those old geologic days was a long guerrilla warfare--every animal guarding against attack1 and at the same time watching sharply for an opportunity to seize and prey upon some weaker companion4 ,as for the foraminifers and other microscopic creatures1 they were countless1 and their skeletons1 singly invisible1 have by accumulation built up great masses of rock1 like the chalk-beds of ,england and ,france4 ,though lessened in numbers and reduced in size1 because the land has gradually won over to its side many sorts of animals which in former ages were exclusively confined to the water1 and for other reasons1 the sea still holds its share of every 8branch0 and 8class0 7except birds1 and it may almost claim some of them1 such as the albatross1 penguins1 and petrels71 and a majority of the 8orders0 of animal life4 ,glance at the catalogue3 ,foraminifers1 sponges1 and polyps are chiefly confined to salt water2 starfishes1 urchins 7or sea-eggs71 and the like1 wholly so3 mollusks 7next higher7 are principally oceanic1 and the majority of the crabs inhabit salt water4 ,among the last-named one species1 the common horse-foot 7,limulus7 of our shores1 remains as the solitary representative of that immense and varied group1 the trilobites1 which so crowded the ,paleozoic sea-bottom that some rocks--for instance1 the limestones of ,iowa--are packed almost as full of their fossils as is a raisin-box of raisins4 ,none of the insects is truly marine1 yet some of them are seafaring1 truly1 for they spend their lives on drifting sea-wrack1 or on beaches just out of reach of the tides2 but most of the true worms are dwellers in the mud of sea-shores and sea-bottoms4 ,no one knows of any land fishes2 but ,i need not tell you that fishes throng in the fresh waters as well as in the salt1 and that many species inhabit both at different seasons4 ,in respect to the reptiles1 of which the ancient oceans contained gigantic and horrid types1 ,i do not know any now that are truly oceanic except the turtles1 if you leave out the 8sea-serpent10 of which we hear so many wonderful and not quite satisfactory tales4 ,you will hear of 8sea-snakes0 in the ,east ,indies1 but they are only certain kinds of serpents which swim well1 and pass the most of their time in the salt water1 as several species of our own country do in the rivers and ponds2 all the oriental sea-snakes are venomous4 ,it is in this manner1 too1 that we may count certain birds1 such as the petrels1 auks1 penguins1 albatrosses1 frigate-birds1 and their kin1 as belonging to the ocean4 ,they spend all their life flying over the waves1 seeking their food there1 and some of them rarely go ashore1 except to lay their eggs and hatch their young on remote rocks1 resting and sleeping on the billows1 when not busy at their hunting4 ,in the highest rank of all1 however1 the mammals1 several families are natives of the 8great deep0--the whales1 dolphins1 and porpoises1 the seals and walruses1 and the manatees and dugongs4 ,but all these must come to the surface to breathe1 not having gills like fishes1 but true lungs4 ,as it is only within the last thirty years that machinery suitable for deep-sea dredging has been invented1 so it is only lately that we have been able to learn much as to the population of the ocean beneath the surface layer and marginal shallows4 ,now by means of beam-trawls1 dredges1 tangle-bars1 etc41 worked by steam-machinery on shipboard1 naturalists may scrape up the bottom-ooze and obtain living objects or their bony relics at the depth of even #cjjj to #djjj fathoms or more than four miles1 for living beings are found in these profound abysses4 ,many scientific expeditions1 such as those of the ,english exploring steamer ,challenger1 about #ahgd1 have carried out these dredging investigations1 and the ,united ,states ,fish ,commission possesses the large1 specially built1 sea-going ,albatross1 provided with all the necessary apparatus for deep-sea exploration4 ,by means of these and other vessels an enormous amount of study--all useful in ascertaining the habits and methods of reproduction of food-fishes--has been carried on by ,american marine naturalists4 ,it appears that as you go further and further from shore1 and into deeper and deeper water1 the fewer animals and plants are obtained1 and that very few species indeed which live along shore are to be found also at a depth greater than about #ajj fathoms4 ,illustration3 ,,landing ,,the ,,beam-,,trawl ,,on ,,deck4 ,almost all animals1 moreover1 have a limited distribution in the sea1 as is the case among those on land1 though we cannot always1 or perhaps often1 say why the limits we find should exist2 one sort of crab1 or mollusk1 or polyp1 appearing here and another different one exclusively there1 when the conditions seem to us very similar1 and no barrier is perceptible4 ,it is not easy to explain why a certain sort of cowry1 for example1 should be found only along a particular strip of coast1 when nothing that we can see prevents its extending its range much further4 ,it is believed that the temperature of the water is the chief fact which sets these invisible boundaries to the wanderings of animals living near the surface1 only a few of which are very wide-spread in their distribution4 ,the direction and character of the ocean currents have much to do with the geographic distribution of oceanic life1 as has been mentioned in ,chapter ,,ii 7page #be74 ,now in deep-sea life the case is different4 ,here temperature cannot be of so much account1 since only a short distance down1 the water becomes almost as cold as ice1 and preserves this uniform chill all around the globe4 ,the life found at a great depth1 too1 is very wide-spread1 instead of restricted in its range1 often occurring in two or more ocean basins2 but here the restriction is an up-and-down one1 rather than horizontal1 and the secret is found in the word pressure4 ,few animals are able to live both in the shallows and under the enormous weight of sea water three or four miles deep4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,typical ,,jellyfish4 ,this species 7,pelagia cyanella7 is a characteristic oceanic discophorous medusa1 common along the ,atlantic coast of the ,united ,states2 it is semi-transparent and lustrous pink4 ,this has recently 7#ahig7 been summed up very clearly by ,prof4 ,arthur ,p4 ,crouch1 in an article in 8,the ,nineteenth ,century10 from which it will be worth while to quote a paragraph or two3 ,the conditions under which they that is1 deep-sea animals have to live in the abysmal areas seem very unfavorable to animal existence4 ,the temperature at the bottom of the ocean is nearly down to freezing-point1 and sometimes actually below it4 ,there is a total absence of light1 as far as sunlight is concerned1 and there is an enormous pressure1 reckoned at about one ton to the square inch in every #ajjj fathoms1 which is #afj times greater than that of the atmosphere we live in4 ,at #bejj fathoms the pressure is thirty times more powerful than the steam pressure of a locomotive when drawing a train4#g ,as late as #ahhj a leading zologist explained the existence of deep-sea animals at such depths by assuming that their bodies were composed of solids and liquids of great density1 and contained no air4 ,this1 however1 is not the case with deep-sea fish1 which are provided with air-inflated swimming-bladders4 ,if one of these fish1 in full chase after its prey1 happens to ascend beyond a certain level1 its bladder becomes distended with the decreased pressure1 and carries it1 in spite of all its efforts1 still higher in its course4 ,in fact1 members of this unfortunate class are liable to become victims to the unusual accident of falling upwards1 and no doubt meet with a violent death soon after leaving their accustomed level1 and long before their bodies reach the surface4444 ,the fauna of the deep sea--with a few exceptions hitherto only known as fossils--are new and specially modified forms of families and genera inhabiting shallow waters in modern times1 and have been driven down to the depths of the ocean by their more powerful rivals in the battle of life1 much as the ancient ,britons were compelled to withdraw to the barren and inaccessible fastnesses of ,wales4 ,some of their organs have undergone considerable modification in correspondence to the changed conditions of their new habitats4 ,thus down to #ijj fathoms their eyes have generally become enlarged1 to make the best of the faint light which may possibly penetrate there4 ,after #ajjj fathoms these organs are either still further enlarged or so greatly reduced that in some species they disappear altogether and are replaced by enormously long feelers4 ,the only light at great depths which would enable large eyes to be of any service is the phosphorescence given out by deep-sea animals4 ,we know that at the surface this light is often very powerful1 and ,sir ,wyville ,thomson has recorded one occasion on which the sea at night was 8a perfect blaze of phosphorescence1 so strong that lights and shadows were thrown on the sails and it was easy to read the smallest print40 ,it is thought possible by several naturalists that certain portions of the sea bottom may be as brilliantly illumined by this sort of light as the streets of a ,european city after sunset4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,bottle-,,fish ,,and ,,the ,,pelican-,,fish4 ,illustration3 ,,at ,,the ,,bottom ,,of ,,the ,,tropical ,,sea4 ,the large floating object is the phosphorescent1 compound1 oceanic hydrozoan ,agalma elegans1 a physophore related to the jellyfishes4 ,its tentacles trail over dead corals1--madrepore1 brain-corals1 etc42 while the living reef beyond is crowned by branching corals1 corallines and seaweeds4 ,one of the most striking examples of this vertical distribution1 which forms layers of animal life1 as it were1 in the ocean from the abysses to the shallows1 is shown by the coral-reefs4 ,the foundations of these polyp-built barriers or islands are laid by the millions of minute individuals of one solid1 heavy kind of coral which can flourish only in pretty deep water4 ,when these have reached their highest growth they cease to propagate there1 and a second kind comes and colonizes upon the summit of this massive foundation and carries the work a little farther up4 ,then these die off1 and a third kind plants itself upon their remains and carries the structure to the top1 near the surface of the sea1 where many surface-corals1 corallines1 and various other limy and flinty plants and animals help to erect a dry reef1 upon which land vegetation can find a root-hold1 and where1 after a while1 men may dwell4 ,when these coral-built islands are ring-shaped they are called atolls1 and are believed to be living crowns about the summits of submerged mountains4 ,men make use of something in nearly every branch of ocean life1 from humblest to highest4 ,the lowest of all1 as ,i have already said1 are the foraminifers2 it is their skeletons which make up our common chalk4 ,a close ally of theirs is the sponge1 of which a dozen or so varieties are sold in the shops4 ,sponges come chiefly from the ,mediterranean1 the ,persian and ,ceylonese waters of the ,indian ,ocean1 and from the ,gulf coast of ,florida4 ,in the ,old ,world they are obtained chiefly by diving4 ,men who are trained from boyhood to this work go out to the sponge-ground in boats on fine days4 ,fastening a netting-bag about their waists1 and taking a heavy stone in their hands1 they dive head-foremost to the bottom1--often twelve or fifteen fathoms below1--tear the sponges from the rocks1 and rise with a bagful1 to be dragged almost utterly exhausted into their boat1 often fainting immediately after4 ,this requires them to hold their breath under the water for two minutes or more2 but none but the most expert can do that1 and a diver does not live long4 ,in ,florida1 however1 the sponge-gatherers do not dive1 but go in ships to where the sponges grow1 and then cruise about in small boats1 each of which contains two men3 one steers1 while the other leans over the side searching the bottom4 ,in order to see it plainly1 he has what he calls a 8water-glass0--a common wooden pail the bottom of which is glass4 ,pressing this down into the water a few inches1 he thrusts in his face1 and can then perceive everything on the bottom with great distinctness4 ,when he sees a sponge he thrusts down a long1 stout pole1 on the end of which is a double hook1 like a small pitchfork1 set at right angles to the handle1 and drags up the captive4 ,the sponges1 having been obtained1 must be put through long operations of rotting1 beating1 rinsing1 drying1 and bleaching before their skeletons--the serviceable part--are fit for use4 ,only a few1 however1 out of the large number of species of sponges have any commercial value4 ,the limy skeletons of the coral polyps form what we term 8corals40 ,the round white ones and the variously branching ones may come from any one of several parts of the equatorial half of the globe1 and are of value chiefly as mantel ornaments4 ,the red coral of which necklaces and other bits of jewelry are made1 especially at ,naples1 is procured by divers about the shores of ,sicily and ,sardinia1 and its gathering1 cutting and mounting into ornaments1 form a flourishing industry in southern ,italy4 ,rising in the zological scale to starfishes and sea-urchins1 ,i can only say that the starfishes interest oystermen because they prey upon their oysters1 and the former often do enormous damage to planted beds1 especially in ,long ,island ,sound4 ,in the old days it was thought that medicines made out of the 8stars0 and the 8sea-eggs0 were very potent in certain diseases4 ,the trepang--some one of several sorts of holothurian1 an elongated creature related to the starfish1 and covered with a prickly1 leathery hide1 so that it looks like a sort of sea-cucumber--which is dried and eaten by the ,chinese and ,malayans1 belongs here too2 considerable quantities of these queer food-creatures are gathered by the ,chinese along the coasts of ,mexico1 ,southern ,california and the outlying islands1 and are sold in ,san ,francisco mainly for export to ,asia4 ,the sea-urchin itself is eagerly sought as food by the ,indians of the ,american northwest coast4 ,coming to crustaceans--do we not eat crabs gladly1 from the 8shedder0 to the huge lobster8 ,on the coast of ,maine whole villages of sea-side people get their support almost wholly by catching lobsters and canning them to send abroad4 ,in ,virginia and ,north ,carolina1 at certain seasons1 hundreds of men are engaged in catching and shipping crabs for market1 and in ,louisiana large factories are devoted to canning shrimps1 which are also extensively used as food in the ,old ,world1 where they are cooked by parching or boiling1 and sold by peddlers in the streets4 ,this brings us to the mollusks1 in our glance at the useful animals of the ocean2 and to prove their importance1 it is enough to remind the reader that these include the 8shell-fish0 of our coasts--the oyster1 clam1 mussel1 scallop1 cockle1 and all the rest--not a few6 ,i found by my long study of the subject1 when1 in #ahgi and #ahhj1 ,i was gathering statistics of the ,united ,states shell-fisheries for the ,united ,states ,fish ,commission and the ,tenth ,census1 that at that time there were taken from our waters1 of oysters alone1 almost #bc1jjj1jjj bushels each year1 worth to the oystermen about #ac1ejj1jjj4 ,during the twenty years that have elapsed since that investigation--the figures of which you may obtain in full in my ,report to the ,tenth ,census upon the ,oyster ,industries--these amounts have largely increased4 ,this business employs over #ajj1jjj persons in this country alone2 and oysters1 clams1 and other shell-fish are gathered all round the globe1 forming one of the most important of all natural supplies of food4 ,in the most thickly populated parts of the world the natural supply of oysters long ago ceased to suffice for the demand1 and artificial propagation and cultivation were resorted to and now prevail on both sides of the ,north ,atlantic1 and to a less degree elsewhere4 ,illustration3 ,,starfishes ,,at ,,home4 ,this is the common eastern ,american form 7,asterias vulgaris7 upper and under views4 ,the ,romans1 away back in the days of ,horace1 raised oysters in ponds along the ,italian coast1 and ,eastern nations preserved the custom during the middle ages1 when ,europe was doing little except quarreling and making pretty pictures on parchment4 ,more recently the ,french of the ,channel coast took it up1 and the ,english followed1 finding that their natural oyster and mussel beds were becoming exhausted4 ,the same fate has overtaken our oyster-beds everywhere north of the ,chesapeake1 and largely there2 so that now nearly all the oysters brought to market are those which have been raised upon private planted beds1 which men own or lease and attend to as they do to estates on shore2 indeed1 it is common to speak of such under-water estates as 8farms40 ,illustration3 ,,sea-,,shells ,,in ,,the ,,surf4 ,an oyster-farm may be conducted in two ways4 ,one is to place upon a certain space of bottom1 in some shallow bay1 as many young oysters as it will conveniently hold4 ,these young oysters1 generally hardly bigger than your thumb-nail1 are dredged in summer from certain reefs in deep water1 where the oysters are never allowed to grow to full size2 and to a large extent they are brought northward by the ship-load from ,maryland and ,virginia1 which have more 8seed10 as it is called1 than they need for their own planting4 ,these young oysters1 protected from harm1 and having plenty of space to grow1 come to a proper size for market in about three years1 and are then gathered by their owners and sold4 ,another method is to spread old shells1 pebbles1 etc41 on the bottom1 to which the floating eggs emitted by adult oysters in the neighborhood adhere4 ,the thick 8catch0 of infant mollusks hatched from these captive eggs is then taken up and respread in a more scattered way upon new ground1 and is allowed to grow to maturity4 ,the oysters raised by either of these methods are of better appearance and taste1 as a rule1 than those that grow naturally1 because each has room enough to perfect its proportions4 ,illustration3 ,,meleagrina4 ,meleagrina 7,avicula7 margaritifera4 b4 byssal foramen or notch2 g4 suspensors of the gills4 ,mussels1 clams of many varieties1 and even sponges and peak-shells1 are also cultivated to some extent1 each according to the plan its natural habits make advisable4 ,in this way certain great areas of favorable ocean-bottom have become as valuable as the neighboring shore-land1 or even far more so1 if you compare1 acre for acre1 the yield of the crops below with those above the water-line4 ,but mollusks are useful in many other ways than as human food4 ,as they are known to be the principal food of several valuable fishes1 enormous quantities are devoted to baiting hooks in both hand-lining and trawling for cod and similar commercial species4 ,the quaint squids are mollusks1 and these are especially useful for bait in certain places and seasons1 and are taken in the ,north ,atlantic in vast numbers for that purpose4 ,the shells of mollusks are applied to a surprising variety of purposes1 from paving roads to making shirt-studs1 while their natural beauty has suggested their utilization as ornaments in a hundred ways4 ,we cut them up by the million into buttons and various small objects1 such as parasol handles1 and polish and fashion them into all sorts of knickknacks1 thus giving employment to thousands of persons4 ,many ship-loads of shells are brought to ,new ,york from the ,west ,indies every year for such purposes4 ,i need not dwell upon this1 but turn to the interesting subject of pearls4 ,illustration3 ,,cassidid4 ,helmet-shell 7,cassis flammea74 ,mother-of-pearl is the bright inside surface1 or nacre1 of the large oyster that gives us pearls1 which are themselves composed of the same substance formed in a nodule around some intruding substance1 like a grain of sand1 which irritates the mollusk's skin until it is made smooth and comfortable by this iridescent coating4 ,bivalves yielding this beautiful substance exist in various parts of the world2 but in ,america the only fishery for the pearl-oyster is in the ,gulf of ,california1 and that is by no means as productive as it used to be4 ,the season for pearl-fishing on the ,pacific coast of ,mexico is from ,june to ,december1 but the diving can be done only in good weather1 and for about three hours at the time of low water1 since the tide there rises twenty feet1 which would make a large dive of itself2 and1 besides1 the currents are troublesome during high water4 ,illustration3 ,,scorpion-,,shell4 7,pteroceras lambis47 ,at the right hour the ,mexicans go out in their canoes1 one man of the four or five in each canoe paddling1 while the rest scrutinize the bottom4 ,it may be rocky and weed-grown1 but the water is clear1 and their practised eyes detect a single round oyster where you or ,i certainly would overlook a dozen of them4 ,then down a man goes and brings up his prize1 with perhaps some additional ones4 ,sixty or eighty feet is not too deep for these adventurous divers1 who will stay a whole minute upon the bottom4 ,no food is eaten by these men on the day they dive until their labor has been done4 ,western ,australia is another fruitful field for pearl-oysters1 and until a few years ago they were taken there by native blackfellows1 diving without weights or any other assistance in any water not more than ten fathoms deep4 ,the inshore shallows have now been so cleared of shells that the only profitable industry is to go down in deep water in diving-dress and make a thorough clean-up of each 8patch0 where the shells seem numerous4 ,the divers find it an interesting and curious world where they work1 but one full of fright and peril4 ,some men who attempt it are so unnerved that they will never make a second descent4 ,none can endure the practice long without ill health resulting2 and the native ,australians will never enter a diver's dress1 declining to go down where it is too deep to dive naked4 ,illustration3 ,,miter-,,shells4 a4 ,mitra vulpecula4 b4 ,mitra episcopalis4 ,as for the dangers1 drowning by some accident to the apparatus1 or through the stupidity of the boatmen above1 is only one of them4 ,the warm waters in which these men work are the home of the largest and most deadly sharks1 and of various other submarine creatures one would rather not meet in their own element4 ,of them all the sharks are most to be dreaded1 especially by the naked men4 ,as a rule1 however1 they are easily frightened away1 or can be avoided by the clever swimmer1 who quickly stirs up the mud of the bottom1 and rises in the fog before the dull shark discovers that he has gone4 ,east ,indians are said to fight sharks quite fearlessly1 stabbing them with a knife as they roll over preparatory to a close attack4 ,i have read a story to the effect that formerly the ,mexican ,indian divers on our western coast used to take down with them a stick of hard wood about two feet long and sharpened at both ends4 ,when a shark was encountered from which they could not readily escape1 they would snatch this weapon from their belts1 grasp it in the middle1 and thrust it dexterously crosswise into the widely distended mouth of the monster1 opened to seize them4 ,to shut down his jaws upon such a skewer would undoubtedly discomfit a shark or anything else2 but when one thinks of the time1 nerve1 and sure aim it would require to accomplish this feat1 he begins to doubt whether it really ever was tried4 ,i advise you1 therefore1 to prove the story better than ,i have been able to do1 before you pin all your faith to it4 ,illustration3 ,,venus' ,,comb1 ,,one ,,of ,,the ,,murices ,,of ,,china4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,murex 78,,murex ,,palma-,,ros07 ,,of ,,ceylon4 ,an ,australian pearl-diver1 writing about this matter in 8,the ,century0 magazine a few years ago1 assures us that a fifteen-foot shark1 magnified by the water1 and making a bee-line for one1 is sufficient to make the stoutest heart quake1 in spite of the assertion that sharks have never been known to attack a man in a rubber diving-dress4 ,he adds3 ,neither is the sight of a large turtle comforting when one does not know exactly what it is1 and the coiling of a sea-snake around one's legs1 although it has only one's hands to bite at1 is1 to say the least1 unpleasant4 ,a little fish called the stone-fish is one of the enemies of the diver4 ,it seems to make its habitation under the pearl-shell1 as it is only when picking up a shell that any one has been known to be bitten4 ,i remember well the first time ,i was bitten by this spiteful member of the finny tribe4 ,i dropped my bag of shells1 and hastened to the surface2 but in this short space of time my hand and arm had so swollen that it was with difficulty ,i could get the dress off1 and then was unable to work for three days1 suffering intense pain the while4 ,afterward ,i learned that staying down a couple of hours after a bite will stop any further discomfort1 the pressure of water causing much bleeding at the bitten part1 and thus expelling the poison4 ,all the oysters when brought ashore are opened in vats of water1 and carefully examined for the pearls they may contain half embedded in their mantles2 but very few reward the diver with gems worth selling separately or otherwise than by weight as 8seed0 pearls4 ,many divers1 therefore1 do not themselves take the trouble of opening what they catch1 but sell them unopened at a few cents a dozen1 preferring the small and steady assured income to the chances of failure or a fortune4 ,the round1 flat1 beautiful shells are saved1 and their sale 7for mother-of-pearl work7 brings nearly as much money into the pearl-fishing communities in the course of a season as is derived from the pearls themselves4 ,what beauty1 as well as usefulness1 have shells6 ,and how wide is the science 7conchology7 that deals with them1 and tells us not only their structure and manner of life1 but interprets the part which their extraordinary forms1 ornaments1 colors1 and appendages play in their 8struggle for existence0 down in that populous green under-world of the waters6 ,illustration3 ,,on ,,the ,,gulf ,,stream ,,slope1 ,,from ,,one ,,to ,,two ,,miles ,,below ,,the ,,surface4 ,i know a picturesque old house writes a charming pen in one of the early volumes of 8,scribner's ,monthly0 that has a many-shelved pantry devoted to the exhibition and sale of shells1 collected in many a long voyage to the remotest parts of the five oceans4 ,apart from their scientific interest1 their associations with alien races and far-off countries1 how beautiful these shells are in themselves6 and how readily might the prevailing vulgarities and absurdities in the decoration of glass and porcelain be corrected by studying the ceramics of nature6 ,how1 for instance1 is our sense of cleanliness served and our appetite wooed by the extreme smoothness1 hardness of surface1 and pearly white of the oyster-shell6 ,what decoration in the part that receives the viand1 what metallizing the surface or changing it into artificial marble1 or covering it up with pictures1 would take the place of the pure1 colorless shell8 ,every species of these shells has a principle of growth1 or law of form1 peculiar to itself and yet based upon some more general law of form common to other species4444 ,in the comb of ,venus1 for instance1 the initial impulse of structure tends to produce a series of spines of a peculiar curvature1 and arranged after a certain order that involves the use of similar curves4 ,it is interesting to study the development of this simple principle into the complex and singular form of beauty comprised in the shell itself1 the idea being carried into the most minute particulars--even the dark markings at the mouth being shaped like spines1 and every small projection on the surface evidently being an arrested development of spines4 ,in the ,murex haustellum1 on the contrary1 nodules take the place of spines4 ,in the ,m4 endivia an entirely different idea is developed4 ,notice the cross-striations4 ,instead of prolonging themselves into cylindrically pointed spines1 as in the case of the ,venus' comb1 or bunching themselves into knobs1 as in the ,m4 haustellum1 they expand into wonderful foliated projections1 the edges of which are beautifully fluted1 like the leaves of the lettuce4 ,another fine effect is afforded by the different texture of the inside and outside surfaces1 down to the smallest foliation1 the inner parts exhibiting a polished pearly white1 and the outside a gray and wrinkled skin4 ,observe that1 however rough or dull of hue the outside of a shell1 its lips are always pure and often flushed with lovely color2 for1 as a rule 7and here is another hint to decorators71 ,nature distinguishes by some adornment the most significant parts of her creatures1 where life and use are centered4444 ,the ocean1 indeed1 beautifies all it touches4 ,give it any rough shard1 and it will so roll it about1 and lick it with its waves1 and smooth it with their soft attrition1 that it will return you a polished and shapely nodule1 exhibiting all the beauty of color and surface of which the material is capable4 ,illustration3 molluscs and plants ,,footnote3 #g ,it does not follow that these creatures are conscious of this pressure1 any more than we are of the pressure upon us of the fourteen pounds to the square inch of our atmosphere4 ,the point is that they do feel it when they rise upward to a point where the pressure is distinctly less1 just as we are conscious of a difference when we ascend in a balloon or climb a very high mountain1 and after a time we find that we cannot go any farther4 ,land animals therefore have a vertical limit to their distribution as well as sea animals1 and for analogous reasons4--,e4 ,i4 ,illustration3 ,page heading decoration ,,index ,,of ,,illustrations ,adler at ,samoa1 #bjj4 ,agalma elegans1 #bfd4 ,alabama1 the1 in action1 #acf1 #aeh4 ,alg1 typical1 #beb1 #bed4 ,almirante ,cochrane1 in action with ,huascar1 #ada4 ,america1 the yacht1 #aeh1 #aie4 ,antarctic scenery1 #aja4 ,ardois night-signals at sea1 #bje4 ,argonaut shell1 #bgd4 ,armada1 style of ships of the1 #aae4 ,balloon-sail1 #aeh1 #ahf4 ,battle-ships1 modern steel1 #acd1 #adb1 #add1 #adg1 #aej1 #aec4 ,see also ,,line-,,of-,,battle ,,ships4 ,beam-trawl for deep-sea dredging1 #bfa4 ,biremes1 ,roman1 #db4 ,see ,,galleys4 ,boat-davits1 #bbc1 #bcb4 ,bon ,homme ,richard1 the1 #ahb4 ,bottle-fish1 the1 #bfc4 ,bowsprit1 the1 and its rigs1 #ch1 #fc1 #aac1 #abj1 #aeh1 #age4 ,see ,,cutters and ,,sloops4 ,breeches-buoy1 method of using1 #bbi4 ,buckeye1 or 8bugeye10 a1 #aih4 ,buoys1 #bbe1 #bbf1 #bbg4 ,cambria1 model of1 #aie4 ,cameos1 shell used for1 #bgj4 ,can-buoys1 #bbe4 ,canoes1 #bh1 #cg1 #de1 #aih4 ,caravels1 #ce1 #fa1 #fc1 #fe1 #gf4 ,carronade1 an old1 #ahe4 ,cassis1 a typical1 #bgj4 8,castles10 fore and aft1 on ancient ships1 #ce1 #eg1 #fc1 #fe1 #aab1 #aac1 #aae1 #aai4 ,catboat1 a ,newport1 #aie4 ,center-board boats1 models of1 #aie4 ,chain-plates1 #agb4 ,channels1 #agb4 ,chart1 an early1 #ed4 ,chinese boats1 #cb4 ,compare ,,malay ,,boats4 ,clewed-up1 mainsails1 #abj1 #ahd4 ,clipper-ship1 a1 #aeh1 #afd4 ,coast1 destruction of1 by the sea1 #c1 #e1 #g1 #aj1 #ae1 #eh4 ,collision1 scene in a1 #bjb4 ,columbia1 the1 #adf4 ,columbus1 ,christopher1 flag-ship of1 #fc4 ,columbus1 ,christopher1 statue of1 #fj4 ,constellation1 #ahd4 ,constitution frigate1 #ajf1 #acb4 ,costumes of mariners1 #aag1 #abc1 #adb1 #adg1 #aeg1 #agb1 #agi4 ,cruisers1 modern steel1 #adf1 #aej1 #aed1 #bje4 ,crustaceans of the deep sea1 #bgc4 ,cutters1 #ahh1 #aia1 #aic4 ,day-marks 7for pilots71 #bbe4 ,deck scenes1 modern1 #adb1 #adg1 #aed1 #afd1 #bfa4 ,deck scenes on old-time vessels1 #aag1 #acj4 ,deep-sea dredging apparatus1 #bfa4 ,diatoms1 #beg4 ,diving-dress1 #beh4 ,driver 7sail74 ,see ,,spanker4 ,dynamite-cruiser1 in action1 #aed4 ,earthquake waves1 #ah1 #ba4 ,el ,chico1 model of1 #aie4 ,eskimos in summer1 #hc4 ,felucca1 a1 #age4 ,fin-keel yachts1 models of1 #aie4 ,fiord1 a1 in ,new ,zealand1 #ae4 ,fish-curing at ,st4 ,pierre1 #bdc4 ,fishes1 deep-sea1 #bfc4 ,fishing-boats1 ,american1 #bde1 #bdg4 ,fishing-boats1 ,canadian1 #e1 #ag1 #bdc4 ,fishing-boats1 ,french1 #g4 ,fishing-boats of the ,mediterranean1 #ch4 ,fishing-pound1 at low tide1 #ag4 ,flare1 burning a1 at sea1 #bba4 ,flying ,dutchman1 the1 #eg4 ,fog-bell1 a1 #bai4 ,fore-and-aft rig1 #bba4 ,frigates1 #abe1 #acb1 #acf1 #ahb1 #ahd4 ,full-rigged ship4 ,see ,,ship4 ,gaff-topsail1 #ahf1 #aic1 #bba4 ,see ,,cutters and ,,sloops4 ,galleons1 ,spanish1 #aai4 ,galleys1 ancient1 #db1 #dc1 #aji1 #aaa1 #aab4 ,genesta1 the yacht1 #aia1 #aie4 ,gloriana1 model of1 #aie4 ,great ,harry1 bow of1 #aac4 ,guerrire1 frigate1 in action1 #abe4 ,gulfweed and its inhabitants1 #beb4 ,halcyon1 the1 yacht1 #ahf4 ,hamilcar's stairway of the galleys1 #aji4 ,hand-line fishing1 #bde4 ,helmet-shell1 a1 #bgj4 ,homeward-bound pennant1 #acc4 8,hove to10 attitude of sails1 #cg1 #bdg4 ,huascar1 in action1 #ada4 ,hydroid1 a compound1 #bfd4 ,icebergs and ice-floes1 #gi1 #hj1 #he1 #hi1 #ib1 #ig1 #ajc1 #aje4 ,indiana1 the1 #add4 ,irex1 the yacht1 #aia4 ,ironclads1 early1 #acd1 #ach1 #aci1 #ada4 ,jellyfish1 a typical1 #bfb4 ,jib-sails1 #abj1 #aeh1 #age1 #ahf4 ,jib-staysails1 #hi1 #aeh1 #age1 #bba4 ,kearsarge1 the1 in action with the ,alabama1 #acf4 ,krakatoa1 in eruption1 #ab4 ,lanterns1 stern1 of old ships1 #eg1 #aae4 ,lateen rigs1 #bh1 #ce1 #cg1 #ch1 #fa1 #aha4 ,launch1 a steam1 #aec4 ,leeboard1 a1 #aih4 ,leg-of-mutton sails1 #aih4 ,life-boat1 a self-righting1 #bcj4 ,life-saving service1 the1 #bbh1 #bbi1 #bcj4 ,light-houses1 #ah1 #bac1 #bad1 #bae4 ,light-ship1 ,nantucket1 #bag1 #bah4 ,light-ship1 ,sandy ,hook1 #ahf4 ,line-of-battle ships1 wooden1 #abj1 #acd4 ,lugsail rigs1 #db1 #dc1 #de1 #dh4 ,magic1 model of1 #aie4 ,main chains1 #agb4 ,maine1 the1 #aec4 ,mainsail or main course1 #abj1 #aeh1 #afd1 #age1 #ahd1 #bba4 ,malay boats1 #bh1 #aha4 ,maria1 the yacht1 #ahh4 ,massachusetts1 the1 #adb4 ,matting sails1 #cb1 #aha4 ,mayflower1 the yacht1 #ahf1 #aid4 ,medieval vessels1 various forms of1 #ce1 #fc1 #fe1 #aab1 #aae1 #aai4 ,meleagrina1 #bgj4 ,merrimac1 the1 #ach4 ,midnight sun at sea1 #b4 ,midshipmen of #ahab1 #abc4 ,military masts1 ancient1 #aaa4 ,military masts1 modern1 #acd1 #ada1 #add1 #adf1 #aej1 #aec1 #bje4 ,minot's ,ledge lighthouse1 #bac4 ,mischief model of1 #aie4 ,miter-shells 7,mitra71 #bgj4 ,mizzen1 the ancient 7compare ,,spanker71 #fc4 ,models of hulls of yachts1 #aie4 ,mollusks1 shells of4 ,see ,,sea-,,shells4 ,monitor1 the1 #aci4 ,monitors1 #aci1 #adi1 #aej4 ,muleta1 a1 #ch4 ,compare ,,felucca4 ,murex-shells1 #bfc1 #bgb4 ,muriel1 the yacht1 #aic4 ,nelson1 portrait of1 #abi4 ,nelson1 signal of1 at ,trafalgar1 #abg4 ,nun buoys1 #bbe4 ,obstruction buoy1 #bbf4 ,olive-shell 7,oliva71 #bfh4 ,outriggers1 forms of1 #bh1 #cg4 ,packet1 a ,liverpool1 #afj4 ,paper-nautilus1 the1 #bgd4 ,pearl-oyster1 the1 #bgj4 ,pelagia cyanella1 #bfb4 ,pelican-fish1 the1 #bfc4 ,penguins1 ,antarctic1 #aja1 #ajc4 ,physophore1 a1 #bfd4 ,pilot-boat1 #bba1 #bbc4 ,pirates1 at home1 #agi4 ,pirates1 ,malay1 #aha4 ,proas1 ,malay1 #bh1 #cg4 ,pteroceras lambis1 #bgj4 ,puritan1 the yacht1 #aid1 #aie4 ,raking masts1 #ahh1 #aih4 ,rapid-fire guns1 #adg4 ,reefing a topsail1 #ca4 ,reef-points1 #dc1 #abj1 #acb1 #aeh1 #ahh4 ,rowboats1 #de1 #bcf1 #bci1 #bdh4 ,see also ,,galleys and ,,yawl4 ,royal sails1 #acb1 #aeh1 #ahd4 ,sails1 decorated1 #de1 #dh1 #fc4 ,sails1 various forms of1 #ca1 #cb1 #aac1 #aae1 #aai1 #aha4 ,see also names of sails and rigs4 ,saloon of a modern steamship1 #afa4 ,saloon of a packet-ship1 #afj4 ,samoans battling with surf1 #bjh4 ,sandbagger-sloop1 a1 #aig4 ,sappho1 model of1 #aie4 ,sargassum1 a piece of1 #beb4 ,schooners1 #bf1ahf1 #ahh1 #bba1 #bbc1 #bdg4 ,scorpion-shell1 the1 #bgj4 ,sea-anemones1 #bgc4 ,sea-caves1 #aj4 ,sea-fights1 #gd1 #ajf1 #aaa1 #aae1 #aag1 #aai1 #abe1 #acj1 #acf1 #ada1 #adg1 #age1 #ahb4 ,search-lights1 #aej1 #aec4 ,sea-shells1 #bfh1 #bgj1 #bga1 #bgb1 #bgd4 ,sea-slugs 7,doris71 #beb4 ,seaweeds1 #beb1 #bed4 ,serapis1 the1 #ahb4 ,ship1 a full-rigged1 #cg1 #hi1 #ib1 #abj1 #acb1 #acc1 #aeh1 #ahd1 #bcb1 #bcd4 ,ship of the line4 ,see ,,line-,,of-,,battle ,,ships4 ,ship weathering a gale with sails furled1 #h1 #ef1 #hi1 #bjg4 ,ships' boats1 #bcb1 #bcf1 #bci4 ,sharpie1 a1 #aih4 ,shrouds1 #afd1 #agb4 ,sidewheel steamer1 a1 #ba4 ,signal flags1 #abg4 ,signaling at sea1 #bje1 #bjf1 #bba4 ,signal-mast1 a1 #adb4 ,siren1 on a steamship1 #bbj4 ,sky-scraper sails1 #acb1 #ahd4 ,sloops1 #bd1 #ahf1 #aid1 #aig1 #aii4 ,sloops-of-war1 #acj1 #bjg4 ,spanker-1 driver-1 or mizzen-sail1 #hi1 #aif4 ,spar buoys1 #bbe4 ,sponsons1 #add1 #aec4 ,starfish1 the common1 #bfg4 ,staysails1 #bba4 ,steam frigates1 #acf1 #ach4 ,steamships1 modern mercantile1 #afa1 #afg1 #aha1 #bbc4 ,steam-yacht1 a1 #ahf4 ,steering oar1 a modern1 #bci4 ,storm scenes1 #ah1 #ba1 #bd1 #ca1 #ef1 #bjj1 #bjg1 #bjh1 #bac1 #bag1 #bdg4 ,studding-sails1 #acb1 #acc1 #aeh1 #ahd4 ,surf1 and its effect1 #c1 #ba1 #ga1 #bjh4 ,tara1 the yacht1 #aia4 ,tecumseh1 the monitor1 #adi4 ,theseus and ,guerrire1 #abe4 ,thistle1 model of1 #aie4 ,tides--scene at low tide1 #ag4 ,topcastles1 #fc1 #aaa4 ,topgallantsails1 #abj1 #acb1 #aeh1 #ahd4 ,topsails1 #abj1 #abe1 #aeh1 #age4 ,topsails1 square1 #abj1acb1 #ahd4 7,see also ,,ships1 ,,full-,,rigged47 ,torpedo-boats1 #aej1 #aea4 ,torpedo-boats1 submarine1 #aeb4 ,torpedoes and their effect1 #adi1 #aej4 ,towing a barge1 #agj4 ,trying out whale-blubber1 #bcd4 ,turrets1 #adb1 #add1 #aej1 #aec4 ,venus' ,comb1 #bga4 ,very night-signals1 #bjf4 ,vesuvius1 the1 #aed4 ,viking ships1 #de1 #dh1 #ea4 ,volcanoes on the sea-shore1 #ab4 ,volunteer1 model of1 #ahf1 #aie4 ,walking the plank1 #agb4 ,walruses on the ice1 #hj4 ,ward-room of a war-ship1 #abc4 ,wasp1 in action with ,frolic1 #acj4 ,wasp1 model of the yacht1 #aie4 ,waves1 oceanic1 #h1 #ae1 #bd1 #ef1 #eg4 ,whale1 sperm1 head of1 #bdj4 ,whaleback1 a1 #afi4 ,whaleboats1 #bcb1 #bcf1 #bci1 #bdj4 ,whalers1 #bcb-bdj4 ,whistling buoy1 #bbg4 ,wreck1 #acj1 #adi1 #bjb1 #bbi1 #bcj4 ,yachts1 models of1 #aie4 ,yachts1 racing1 #ahf1 #ahh1 #aia1 #aic1 #aie4 ,yawl1 a ship's1 #aje1 #bbc4 ,yawl-rig1 the1 #aig4 ,illustration3 ,lighthouse ,illustration3 ,page heading decoration ,,general ,,index ,africa1 first circumnavigated1 #da4 8,america10 origin of the name1 #fc4 ,america1 visited by ,norsemen1 #de1 #dh4 ,america ,cup1 races for1 #aij-aie4 ,american ,arctic exploration1 #hf1 #hi1 #ij4 ,atlantic1 ,north1 early voyages in1 #dd4 ,atlantic ,ocean1 defined1 #e4 ,atlantis1 the fabled land of1 #f4 ,alert1 ,arctic expedition of1 #if4 ,alg4 ,,see ,,seaweeds4 ,algerian pirates1 #agc4 ,ancient sea-animals1 #bei4 ,andre's ,arctic balloon1 #ajj4 ,,animal ,,life ,,in ,,the ,,sea1 #bei-bgd4 ,animals inhabiting seaweeds1 #bea1 #beb1 #beg4 ,antarctic ,ocean1 defined1 #g4 ,arabic commerce1 #dc4 ,arabs1 as navigators1 #eb1 #eg4 ,arctic ,american coast traced1 #ha1 #hb1 #hc1 #hh4 ,arctic exploration1 #gg-ajj4 ,arctic ,ocean1 defined1 #g4 ,armada1 the ,spanish1 #aad-aag4 ,armor for ships1 #acf1 #ach1 #ade4 ,astrolabe1 the1 #ec1 #gc4 ,australia1 discovery of1 #gb1 #gf4 ,baffin1 voyage to ,baffin's ,bay1 #gi1 #ha4 ,balboa1 discovers the ,pacific1 #fd4 ,banks of ,newfoundland1 fishing on1 #bde4 ,barataria pirates of ,louisiana1 #agi4 ,barbarossa1 the brothers1 #aga4 ,barbary ,states1 the1 #agd4 ,barentz and ,barentz's ,sea1 #gh1 #ia4 ,barks described1 #cf1 #ch4 ,battle-ships1 modern steel1 #adj-adh4 ,bering1 expeditions of1 #hj4 ,biremes1 ,greek and ,roman1 #ajh4 ,bjrne's discoveries1 #df4 ,boats of the ,egyptians1 #bh1 #cj1 #cb4 ,boats of the ,phnicians1 #bh1 #cj1 #cc4 ,boats of early ,scandinavians1 #bi1 #cj4 ,boats1 primitive1 #bg4 ,bon ,homme ,richard and ,serapis1 #abh4 ,bowsprit sails1 #cd1 #cg4 ,brazil1 discovery of1 #fb1 #fd4 ,brazil1 the name1 #ff4 ,brigs described1 #cf4 ,buccaneers1 career of the1 #agg4 ,buckeye1 or 8bugeye10 #aih4 ,buoys and channel marks1 #bbe4 ,cabot's voyage to ,america1 #fe1 #fg4 ,canada discovered1 #fh4 ,cape ,horn1 first rounded1 #gb4 ,cape of ,good ,hope discovered1 #ed4 ,captain capsized1 #bja4 ,caravels of ,columbus1 #cd1 #ce1 #fa1 #fc4 ,carrageen or ,irish moss1 #bee4 ,carthaginians as navigators1 #db4 ,cartier discovers ,canada1 #fh4 ,catboat described1 #ce4 ,center-board1 explained1 #ahi4 ,challenger expedition1 #aj1 #bgb4 ,chancellor1 voyage of1 to the ,white ,sea1 #gg4 ,charybdis1 whirlpool of1 #ai4 ,chesapeake and ,shannon1 #abi4 ,chinese as navigators1 #eb4 ,clippers1 ,baltimore1 #ahc4 ,colossus of ,rhodes1 #baa4 ,columbus1 ,christopher1 #ei4 ,commerce at sea1 history of1 #aee-agj4 ,commerce1 early ,european1 #eb1 #aee4 ,commerce1 medieval1 #aef4 ,commerce1 modern1 #aei4 ,compass1 the mariner's1 #ea4 ,constitution1 ,u4 ,s4 frigate1 #acj-acc4 ,constitution1 in the war with ,tripoli1#agd4 ,cook1 ,captain ,james1 voyage of1 #ge4 ,copenhagen1 battle of1 #abf4 ,corals and coral polyps1 #bfe4 ,corsairs1 the1 #agb4 ,corte-,real1 voyage of1 #fh4 ,crabs1 caught for market1 #bff4 ,cruisers1 service of1 #aba1 #adj4 ,currents in the ocean4 ,,see ,,ocean ,,currents4 ,cutter1 rig of a1 #ce4 ,dampier1 voyages of1 #gc4 ,,dangers ,,of ,,the ,,deep1 #bjj-bcj4 ,davis1 exploration of ,davis's ,strait1 #gh4 ,decatur's exploit at ,tripoli1 #age4 ,deep-sea conditions of life1 #bfc4 ,de ,long1 death of ,lieutenant1 #ie4 ,dias1 ,bartholomew1 voyage of1 #ec4 ,diatoms described1 #bdi1 #beg4 ,distribution of animals in the sea1 #bfa4 8,don't give up the ship10 #abi4 ,drake1 ,francis1 #aad1 #aha4 ,dredging1 deep-sea1 #bfj4 ,dynamite-throwing1 #aed4 ,earthquake-waves1 #bjc4 ,east ,india ,companies1 #aeg1 #aei4 8,east ,indiaman10 an1 #afb4 ,east ,indian pirates1 #ahj4 ,east ,indies1 the1 #fi1 #ga1 #gd4 ,eddystone lighthouse1 #bab4 ,egypt's grain-trade1 #aef4 8,england expects every man will do his duty10 #abf1 #abg4 ,england's sea-wars1 #aad1 #abi1 #aeg4 ,erik the ,red1 #de4 ,faroes discovered1 #dd4 ,,fishing ,,and ,,other ,,marine ,,industries1 #bca-bdh4 ,fishing in the ,north ,atlantic1 #bdd4 ,fin keels1 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