,illu/ration3 ,,gass5di4 ,nov4 #g4 #ahfg #aj ,p4,m4 ,,! ,,moon3 ,,consid]$ ,,z ,a ,,planet1 ,a ,,_w1 & ,a ,,satellite4 ,,by ,,james ,,nasmy?1 ,c4,e4 ,,& ,,james ,,c>p5t]1 ,f4,r4,a4,s4 ,,late ,,( ,,! ,,royal ,,obs]vatory1 ,,gre5wi*4 ,,) ,,tw5ty-,,f\r ,,illu/rative ,,plates ,,( ,,lun> ,,objects1 ,,ph5om5a1 ,,& ,,sc5]y2 ,,num]\s ,,woodcuts1 c4 ,,london3 ,,john ,,murray1 ,,albem>le ,,/reet4 #ahgd4 ,,london3 ,,bradbury1 ,,agnew1 ,,co41 ,,pr9t]s1 ,,:itefri>s4 ,,to ,,8 ,,grace ,,! ,,duke ,,( ,,argyll1 ,,9 ,,recognition ,,( ,,8 ,,long ,,cont9u$ ,,int]e/ ,,9 ,,! ,,subject ,,( ,,:i* ,,x ,,treats1 ,?is ,volume ,,is ,,mo/ ,,respectfully ,,d$icat$ ,,by ,,! ,,au?ors4 ,,preface4 ,! reason = ?is book's appe>ance may be set =? 9 a few words4 ,a long c\rse ( reflective scrut9y ( ! lun> surface ) ! aid ( telescopes ( consid]able p[]1 & a consequ5t famili>ity ) ! wond]ful details !re pres5t$1 conv9c$ u t !re 0 yet some?+ to be said ab\t ! moon1 t exi/+ works on ,a/ronomy did n conta94 ,mu* valuable lab\r has be5 be/[$ ^u ! topography ( ! moon1 & ?is subject we d n pret5d to advance4 ,en\gh has also be5 writt5 = ! b5efit ( ^? :o desire an acqua9tance ) ! intricate movem5ts ( ! moon 9 space2 & accord+ly we pass ?is subject )\t notice4 ,b v little has be5 writt5 respect+ ! moon's physiography1 or ! causative ph5om5a ( ! features1 broad & detail$1 t ! surface ( our satellite pres5ts = /udy4 ,our obs]vations _h l$ u to "s conclusions1 respect+ ! cause ( volcanic en]gy & ! mode ( its action z manife/$ 9 ! *>act]i/ic crat]s & o!r eruptive ph5om5a t ab\nd ^u ! moon's surface4 ,we h endeav\r$ to expla9 ^! ph5om5a by ref]5ce to a few natural laws1 & to connect !m ) ! g5]al hypo!sis ( planet =mation :i* is n[ widely accept$ by cosmologi/s4 ,! pr9cipal aim ( our "w is to lay ^! pr(f]$ explanations be=e ! /ud5ts & admir]s ( a/ronomy & sci5ce 9 g5]al2 & we tru/ t :at we h d$uc$ conc]n+ ! moon may be tak5 z ref]r+ to a c]ta9 ext5t to o!r planets4 ,"s reflections ^u ! moon consid]$ z a _w1 9 ref]5ce to que/ions ( habitability1 & to ! peculi> conditions :i* w\ld att5d a soj\rn on ! lun> surface1 h appe>$ to u n inappropriate4 ,^!1 ?\gh in/ructive1 are r curi\s ?an important4 ,m wor?y ( respectful consid]ation are ! few rem>ks we h (f]$ ^u ! moon z a satellite & a b5efactor to ! inhabitants ( ?is ,e>?4 ,9 ref]5ce to ! ,illu/rations accompany+ ?is "w1 m especially ^? :i* repres5t c]ta9 portions ( ! lun> surface z !y are reveal$ by ! aid ( p[]ful telescopes1 su* z ^? :i* we employ$ 9 our scrut9y1 x is prop] t we %\ld say a few words "h on ! means by :i* !y h be5 produc$4---- ,dur+ upw>ds ( ?irty ye>s ( assidu\s obs]vation1 e fav\rable opportunity has be5 seiz$ to educate ! eye n only 9 respect to compreh5d+ ! g5]al "* ( ! moon's surface1 b also to exam9+ m9utely its m>vell\s details "u e v>iety ( phase1 9 ! hope ( rightly und]/&+ _! true nature z well z ! causes :i* _h produc$ !m4 ,?is object 0 aid$ by mak+ c>eful draw+s ( ea* portion or object :5 x 0 mo/ fav\rably pres5t$ 9 ! telescope4 ,^! draw+s 7 aga9 & aga9 repeat$1 revis$1 & comp>$ ) ! actual objects1 ! eye ?us advanc+ 9 correctness & p[] ( appreciat+ m9ute details1 :ile ! h& 0 acquir+1 by assidu\s practice1 ! art ( r5d]+ correct repres5tations ( ! objects 9 view4 ,9 ord] to pres5t ^! ,illu/rations ) z ne> an approa* z possible to ! absolute integrity ( ! orig9al objects1 ! idea occurr$ to u t by translat+ ! draw+s into models :i*1 :5 plac$ 9 ! sun's rays1 w\ld fai?fully reproduce ! lun> effects ( light & %ad[1 & !n photograph+ ! models s treat$1 we %\ld produce mo/ fai?ful repres5tations ( ! orig9al4 ,! result 0 9 e way highly satisfactory1 & has yield$ pictures ( ! details ( ! lun> surface su* z we feel e confid5ce 9 submitt+ to ^? ( our read]s :o h made a special /udy ( ! subject4 ,x is hop$ t ^? also :o h n _h opportunity to become intimately acqua9t$ ) ! details ( ! lun> surface1 w be enabl$ to become s by aid ( ^! ,illu/rations4 ,9 conclusion1 we ?9k x desirable to add t ! photographic illu/rations above ref]r$ to are pr9t$ by well-e/abli%$ pigm5t processes :i* ensure _! entire p]man5cy4 ,,cont5ts4 ,,page ,,*apt] ,i4 ,,on ,,! ,,cosmical ,,orig9 ,,( ,,! ,,planets ,,( ,,! ,,sol> ,,sy/em4 #a ,orig9ation ( ,mat]ial ,?+s--,cele/ial ,vap\rs--,nebul--,_! va/ ,numb]s--,sir ,w4 ,h]s*el's ,obs]vations & ,classification--,buffon's ,cosmogony--,laplace's ,nebul> ,hypo!sis--,d\bts ^u its ,validity--,support f ,spectrum ,analysis ,,*apt] ,,ii4 ,,! ,,g5]ation ,,( ,,cosmical ,,heat4 #aa ,cons]vation ( ,=ce--,inde/ructibility ( ,=ce--,its ,conv]tibility into ,heat--,dawn ( ! ,doctr9e--,may]'s ,d$uctions--,j\le's ,exp]im5ts--,me*anical ,equival5t ( ,heat--,gravitation ! ,s\rce ( ,cosmical ,heat--,calculations ( ,may] & ,helmholtz--,! ,moon z an ,inc&esc5t ,sph]e--,n necess>ily ,burn+--,loss ( ,heat by ,radiation--,cool+ ( ,ext]nal ,cru/--,comm5cem5t ( ,sel5ological ,hi/ory ,,*apt] ,,iii4 ,,! ,,subsequ5t ,,cool+ ,,( ,,! ,,igne\s ,,body4 #ai ,cool+ comm5c$ f ,out] ,surface--,contraction by ,cool+--,expansion ( ,molt5 ,matt] ^u ,solidification--,wat] n exceptional--,simil> ,behavi\r ( ,molt5 ,iron--,float+ ( ,solid on ,molt5 ,metal--,curr5ts 9 a ,pot ( ,molt5 ,metal--,bur/+ ( ,iron ,bottle by ,congelation ( ,bismu? )9--,evid5ce f ,furnace ,slag--,f ! ,crat] ( ,vesuvius--,effects ( ,contraction ( ,moon's ,cru/ & ,expansion ( ,int]ior--,production ( ,ridges & ,wr9kles--,!ory ( ,wr9kles--,examples f %rivell$ ,apple & ,h& ,,*apt] ,,iv4 ,,! ,,=m1 ,,magnitude1 ,,weight1 ,,& ,,d5sity ,,( ,,! ,,lun> ,,globe4 #ca ,=m ( ,moon--,n p]fectly ,sph]ical--,bulg$ t[>ds ,e>?--,diamet]--,angul> ,measure--,l9e> ,measure--,p>allax ( ,moon--,di/ance--,area ( ,lun> ,sph]e--,solid ,cont5ts--,mass ( ,moon--,law ( ,gravitation--,mass det]m9$ by ,tides & o!r ,means--,d5sity--,h[ obta9$--,specific ,gravity ( ,lun> ,matt]--,=ce ( ,gravity at ,surface--,h[ det]m9$--,weights ( simil> ,bodies on ,e>? & ,moon--,effects ( l ,=ces act+ aga9/ ,gravity on ,e>? & ,moon ,,*apt] ,v4 ,,on ,,! ,,exi/5ce ,,or ,,non-,,exi/5ce ,,( ,a ,,lun> ,,atmosph]e4 #ci ,subject ( ,controv]sy--,ph5om5a ( ,t]re/rial ,atmosph]e--,no ,c\nt]p>ts on ,moon--,negative ,evid5ce f ,sol> ,eclipses--,no ,twilight on ,moon--,evid5ce f ,spectrum ,analysis--,f ,occultations ( ,/>s--,abs5ce ( ,wat] or ,moi/ure--,cryophorus--,no ,r$d5+ ( ,sun's ,rays by ,vap\rs on ,moon--,no ,air or ,wat] to complicate ,discussions ( ,lun> ,volcanic ,ph5om5a ,,*apt] ,,vi4 ,,! ,,g5]al ,,aspect ,,( ,,! ,,lun> ,,surface4 #ea ,pre-,telescopic ,ideas--,human ,c\nt5ance--,o!r suppos$ ,resemblances--,portrait ( ,full ,moon--,p]man5ce ( ,features--,rotation ( ,moon--,sol> ,p]iod & ,sol> ,day on ,moon--,libration--,diurnal--,9 ,latitude--,9 ,longitude--,visible & ,invisible ,hemisph]es--,telescopic ,scrut9y--,galileo's ,views--,features ,visible ) ,l[ ,p[]--,l[ ,p[]s on small & l>ge ,telescopes--,sali5t ,features--,crat]s--,pla9s--,bright ,/reaks--,m\nta9s--,high] ,telescopic ,p[]s--,detail ,scrut9y ( ,features !re)--,discussion ( ,high ,p[]s--,education ( ,eye--,highe/ practicable ,p[]--,size ( smalle/ ,visible ,objects ,,*apt] ,,vii4 ,,topography ,,( ,,! ,,moon4 #fe ,reasons = ,mapp+ ! ,moon--,e>ly ,maps--,lab\rs ( ,langre5--,hevelius--,riccioli--,cass9i- -,s*roet]--,mod]n ,maps--,lohrman's--,be] & ,ma$l]'s--,excell5ce ( ! la/--,measurem5t ( ,m\nta9 ,heights--,ne$ ( a ,picture ,map--,=mation ( our own--,skeleton ,map--,table ( conspicu\s ,objects--,descriptions ( special ,objects--,cop]nicus--,gass5di--,eudoxus & ,ari/otle--,triesneck]--,!ophilus1 ,cyrillus1 & ,ca?>9a--,!bit--,plato--,valley ( ! ,alps--,pico--,ty*o--,w>g5t9--,ari/>*us & ,h]odotus--,walt]--,ar*im$es & ! ,ap5n9es ,,*apt] ,,viii4 ,,on ,,lun> ,,crat]s4 #hi ,use ( t]m ,crat] = ,t]re/rial & ,lun> ,=mations--,truly ,volcanic ,nature ( ,lun> ,crat]s--,t]re/rial & ,lun> ,volcanic ,areas comp>$--,simil>ity--,diff]5ce only 9 ,magnitude--,c5tral ,cone--,f\nd 9 great & small ,lun> ,crat]s--,=mative ,process ( ,t]re/rial ,volcanoes--,example f ,vesuvius--,va/ ,size ( ,lun> ,crat]s--,reasons assign$--,orig9 ( ,moon's ,volcanic ,=ce--,aque\s ,vap\r ,!ory unt5able--,expansion ^u ,solidification ,!ory--,=mative ,process ( a ,lun> ,crat]--,volcanic ,v5t--,comm5cem5t ( ,eruption--,erection ( ,ramp>t--,holl[+ ( ,crat]--,=mation ( ,c5tral ,cone--,( ,plateau--,v>i\s ,heights ( ,plateaux--,coneless ,crat]s--,fill$-up ,crat]s--,multiple ,cones--,crat]s on ,plateau--,d\ble ,ramp>ts--,l&slip ,t]races--,rutt$ ,ramp>ts--,ov]lapp+ & ,sup]position ( ,crat]s--,s\rce-,connection ( su*--,fro?-l ,aggregations ( ,crat]s--,maje/ic ,dim5sions ( ,l>g] ,crat]s ,,*apt] ,,ix4 ,,on ,,! ,,great ,,r+-,,=mations ,,n ,,manife/ly ,,volcanic4 #aag ,abs5ce ( ,c5tral ,cones--,va/ ,diamet]s--,difficult ( ,explanation--,hooke's ,idea--,sugge/$ ,cause ( ,true ,circul>ity--,scrope's ,hypo!sis ( ,t]re/rial ,tumesc5ces--,rozet's ,t\rbillonic ,!ory--,dana's ,ebullition ,!ory ,,*apt] ,x4 ,,peaks ,,& ,,m\nta9 ,,ranges4 #abd ,paucity ( ext5sive ,m\nta9 ,sy/ems on ,moon--,contra/ ) ,e>?--,lun> ,m\nta9s f\nd 9 less di/urb$ ,regions--,lun> ,ap5n9es1 ,caucasus1 & ,alps--,valley ( ,alps--8,crag & ,tail0 ,cont\r--,isolat$ ,peaks--,h[ produc$--,analogy f ,freez+ ,f\nta9--,t]re/rial ,c\nt]p>ts & _! ,explanation by ,scrope--,bl[+ ,cone on ,t5]iffe--,comp>ative ,g5tl5ess ( ,m\nta9-=m+ ,action--,relation betwe5 ,m\nta9 ,sy/ems & ,crat] ,sy/ems--,wr9kle ,ridges ,,*apt] ,,xi4 ,,cracks ,,& ,,radiat+ ,,/reaks4 #acc ,description--,div]g5ce f ,focal ,crat]s--,exp]im5tal ,explanation ( _! ,cause--,radial ,crack+ ( ,cru/--,outfl[ ( ,matt] !refrom--,analogy f 8,/>r$0 ,ice--,no ,%ad[s ca/ by ,/reaks--,_! probable ,slight ,elevation--,op5 ,cracks--,great ,numb]s--,l5g?--,dep?--,9-fall5 ,fragm5ts--,%r9kage a ,cause ( ,cracks--,lat5ess ( _! ,production ,,*apt] ,,xii4 ,,col\r ,,& ,,brightness ,,( ,,lun> ,,details3 ,,*ronology ,,( ,,=mations1 ,,& ,,f9ality ,,( ,,exi/+ ,,features4 #adc ,abs5ce ( ,conspicu\s ,col\r--,slight ,t9ts ( 8,seas0--,cause--,probable ,v>iety ( ,t9ts 9 small ,pat*es--,div]sity ( ,brightness ( ,details--,mo/ ,conspicu\s at ,full ,moon--,classification ( ,%ades--,exagg]at$ ,contra/s 9 ,photographs--,brighte/ ,portions probably ! late/ =m$--,*ronology ( ,=mations--,l>ge ,crat]s old] ?an ,small--,m\nta9s old] ?an ,crat]s--,bright ,/reaks comp>atively rec5t--,cracks mo/ rec5t ( all ,features--,"q ( exi/+ ,*ange--,evid5ce f ,obs]vation--,paucity ( su* ,evid5ce--,suppos$ ,case ( ,l9n--,!oretical ,discussion--,relative ,cool+ ,t5d5cies ( ,e>? & ,moon--,e>? ne>ly assum$ its f9al ,condition--,moon probably cool$ ,ages ^u ,ages ago--,possible slight ,*anges f ,sol> ,heat+--,dis9tegrat+ ,action ,,*apt] ,,xiii4 ,,! ,,moon ,,z ,a ,,_w3 ,,day ,,& ,,night ,,^u ,,its ,,surface4 #aee ,exi/5ce ( ,habitants on o!r ,planets--,int]e/ ( ! ,"q--,conditions ( ,life--,abs5ce ( ^! f ,moon--,no ,air or ,wat] & int5se ,heat & ,cold--,possible ,exi/5ce ( ,protog]ms ( ,life--,a ,day on ! ,moon imag9$--,in/ructiv5ess ( ! ,realization--,l5g? ( ,lun> ,day--,no ,dawn or ,twilight--,sudd5 ,appe>ance ( ,light--,sl[ness ( ,sun 9 ,ris+--,no ,atmosph]ic ,t9ts--,blackness ( ,sky & ,visibility ( ,/>s & fa9t] ,lum9osities at ,noon-day--,appe>ance ( ! ,e>? z a ,/ation>y ,moon--,its ,phases--,eclipse ( ,sun by ,e>?--,att5dant ,ph5om5a--,lun> ,l&scape--,height ess5tial to secure a ,po9t ( ,view--,sunrise on a ,crat]--,desolation ( ,sc5e--,no ,ve/ige ( ,life--,col\r ( ,volcanic ,products--,no ,atmosph]ic ,p]spective--,blackness ( ,%ad[s--,impressions on o!r ,s5ses ?an ,sight--,heat ( ,sun untemp]$--,int5se ,cold 9 ,%ade--,dead ,sil5ce--,no ,m$ium to conduct ,s\nd--,lun> ,aft]noon & ,sunset--,night--,! ,e>? a ,moon--,its ,size1 ,rotation1 & ,features--,%ad[ ( ,moon ^u x--,lun> ,night-,sky--,con/ellations--,comets & ,planets--,no ,visible ,meteors--,bomb>dm5t by ,d>k ,meteoric ,masses--,lun> ,l&scape by ,night--,int5sity ( ,cold ,,*apt] ,,xiv4 ,,! ,,moon ,,z ,a ,,satellite3 ,,its ,,relation ,,to ,,! ,,e>? ,,& ,,man4 #aga ,! ,moon z a ,lum9>y--,second>y ,nature ( ,light-giv+ ,function--,prim>y ,(fice z a ,sanit>y ,ag5t--,cleans+ ,effects ( ! ,tides--,tidal ,riv]s & ,transport !reby--,! ,moon a 8,tug0--,available ,p[] ( ,tides--,tide-,mills--,transf] ( ,tidal ,p[] ,inl&--,! ,moon z a ,navigator's ,guide--,longitude f\nd by ! ,moon--,moon's ,motions--,discov]$ by ,obs]vations--,gr\p$ into ,!ories--,repres5t$ by ,tables--,! ,nautical ,almanac--,! ,moon z a ,long-,p]iod ,timekeep]--,reckon+ by 8,moons0--,eclipses ! ,/>t+-,po9ts ( ,*ronologies--,furni% indisputable ,dates--,sol> ,surr\nd+s reveal$ by ,eclipses :5 ,moon scre5s ! ,sun--,sol> ,corona--,moon z a ,m$al ( ,creation1 a ,half-=m$ ,_w--,abuses ( ! ,moon--,sup]/itions--,errone\s ,ideas reg>d+ ,moonlight p\rtray$ by ,arti/s & ,au?ors--,! ,moon & ! ,wea!r--,errors & ,facts--,atmosph]ic ,tides--,w>m? f ,moon--,p>adoxical ,effect 9 cool+ ! ,e>? ,,*apt] ,,xv4 ,,conclud+ ,,summ>y #ahd ,,li/ ,,( ,,plates4 ,,plate ,,page ,gass5di ,frontispiece ,i4--,summit ( ,vesuvius #bf ,,ii4--,wr9kl$ ,h& & ,apple #cj ,,iii4--,full ,moon ,photograph #eb ,,iv4--,picture-,map ( ! ,moon ,to face ea* o!r4 ,v4--,skeleton ,map #fh ,,vi4--,t]re/rial & ,lun> ,volcanic ,areas ,comp>$ #hh ,,vii4--,progressive ,s]ies ( ,crat]s #ib ,,viii4--,cop]nicus #if ,,ix4--,! ,lun> ,ap5n9es1 c41 c4 #ajj ,x4--,ari/otle & ,eudoxus #ajd ,,xi4--,triesneck] #ajh ,,xii4--,!ophilus1 ,cyrillus1 & ,ca?>9a #aab ,,xiii4--,arza*ael1 ,ptolemy1 & ! ,railway #aaf ,,xiv4--,plato1 ! ,valley ( ! ,alps1 ,pico1 c4 #abj ,,xv4--,m]cator & ,campanus #abd ,,xvi4--,ty*o & its ,surr\nd+s #abh ,,xvii4--,w>g5t9 #acb ,,xviii4--,ari/>*us & ,h]odotus #acf ,,xix4--,glass ,globe ,crack$ by ,int]nal ,pressure #adj ,,xx4--,ov]lapp+ ,crat]s #adh ,,xxi4--,lun> ,crat]4 ,ideal ,l&scape #aef ,,xxii4--,sol> ,eclipse z x w\ld be se5 f ! ,moon #afd ,,xxiii4--,gr\p ( ,m\nta9s4 ,ideal ,lun> ,l&scape #agj ,,! ,,moon4 ,,*apt] ,i4 ,,on ,,! ,,cosmical ,,orig9 ,,( ,,! ,,planets ,,( ,,! ,,sol> ,,sy/em4 ,9 ?is ,*apt] we propose to treat briefly ( ! probable =mation ( ! v>i\s memb]s ( ! sol> sy/em f matt] :i* previ\sly exi/$ 9 space 9 a condition diff]5t f t 9 :i* we at pres5t f9d x--i4e41 9 ! =m ( planets & satellites4 ,x is almo/ impossible to conceive t our _w ) its satellite1 & its fell[ worlds ) _! satellites1 & also ! great c5tre ( !m all1 h always1 f ! comm5cem5t ( "t1 possess$ _! pres5t =m3 all our exp]i5ces ( ! work+ ( natural laws rebel aga9/ su* a supposition4 ,9 e ph5om5on ( nature ^u ?is e>?--! great field f :i* we mu/ glean our exp]i5ces & =m our analogies--we see a con/ant succession ( *anges go+ on1 a con/ant progression f "o /age ( developm5t to ano!r tak+ place1 a p]petual mutation ( =m & nature ( ! same mat]ial sub/ance occurr+3 we see ! se$ trans=m$ into ! plant1 ! fl[] into ! fruit1 & ! ovum into ! animal4 ,9 ! inorganic _w we witness ! op]ation ( ! same pr9ciple2 b1 by reason ( _! sl[] rate ( progression1 ! *anges !re are manife/$ to u r by _! result+ effects ?an by _! visible c\rse ( op]ation4 ,& :5 we consid]1 z we are oblig$ to d1 t ! same laws "w 9 ! greate/ z well z ! smalle/ processes ( nature1 we are compell$ to believe 9 an antec$5t /ate ( exi/5ce ( ! matt] t composes ! ho/ ( heav5ly bodies1 & among/ !m ! e>? & its att5dant moon4 ,9 ! pursuit ( ?is c\rse ( argum5t we are l$ to inquire :e!r !re exi/s 9 ! univ]se any matt] f :i* planet>y bodies c\ld be =m$1 & h[ f> _! =mation f su* matt] c be expla9$ by ! op]ation ( kn[n mat]ial laws4 ,be=e ! telescope reveal$ ! hidd5 wond]s ( ! skies1 & br\ght its ri* fruits into our g>n] ( k conc]n+ ! nature ( ! univ]se1 ! philosophic m9ds ( "s e>ly a/ronom]s1 ,kepl] & ,ty*o ,brahe to wit1 ent]ta9$ ! idea t ! sun & ! />s--! suns ( di/ant sy/ems--7 =m$ by ! cond5sation ( cele/ial vap\rs into sph]ical bodies2 ,kepl] bas+ 8 op9ion on ! ph5om5a ( ! sudd5 %9+ =? ( new />s on ! m>g9 ( ! ,milky ,way4 ,b x 0 :5 ! telescope pi]c$ into ! dep?s ( cele/ial space1 & br\ght to light ! ho/ ( ^? m>vell\s objects1 ! nebul1 t ! /ronge/ evid5ce 0 af=d$ ( ! probable validity ( ^! suppositions4 ,! m5tion ( 8nebul\s />s0 made by ! e>li] a/ronom]s ref]s only to clu/]s ( telescopic />s :i* ! nak$ eye p]ceives z small pat*es ( nebul\s light2 & x does n appe> t ev5 ! nebula 9 ,&rom$a1 al?\gh s pla9ly disc]nible z to be (t5 n[-a-days mi/ak5 by ! un9itiat$ = a comet1 0 kn[n1 until x 0 discov]$ by means ( a telescope1 9 #afab1 by ,simon ,m>ius1 :o describ$ x z resembl+ a c&le %9+ ?r\gh semi-transp>5t horn1 z 9 a lant]n1 & )\t any appe>ance ( />s4 ,=ty ye>s aft] ?is date ,huyg5s discov]$ ! spl5did nebula 9 ! sword h&le ( ,orion1 & 9 #affe ano!r 0 detect$ by ,hevelius4 ,9 #affg ,halley 7aft]w>ds ,a/ronom] ,royal7 discov]$ a f\r?2 a fif? 0 f\nd by ,kirs* 9 #afha1 & a six? by ,halley aga9 9 #agad4 ,half a c5tury aft] ?is ! lab\rs ( ,messi] exp&$ ! li/ ( kn[n nebul & clu/]s to #ajc1 a catalogue ( :i* appe>$ 9 ! 8,connaissance du ,temps0 7! ,fr5* 8,nautical ,almanac07 = ! ye>s #aghc-aghd4 ,b ?is bran* ( cele/ial discov]y a*iev$ its mo/ brilliant results :5 ! r>e p5etration1 ! indomitable p]sev]ance1 & ! p[]ful in/rum5ts ( ! eld] ,h]s*el 7 br\ght to be> ^u x4 ,9 ! ye> #aggi ?is great a/ronom] began to se>* aft] nebul ) a sev5-in* reflector1 :i* he subsequ5tly sup]s$$ by ! great "o ( =ty feet focus & f\r feet ap]ture4 ,9 #aghf he publi%$ 8 fir/ catalogue ( #ajjj nebul2 ?ree ye>s lat] he a/oni%$ ! le>n$ _w by a second catalogue conta9+ #ajjj m1 & 9 #ahjb a ?ird came =? compris+ o!r #ejj1 mak+ #bejj 9 all6 ,?is numb] has be5 s f> increas$ by ! lab\rs ( m rec5t a/ronom]s t ! la/ complete catalogue1 t ( ,sir ,john ,h]s*el1 publi%$ a few ye>s ago1 conta9s ! places ( #ejfc nebul & clu/]s4 ,at ! e>li] p]iods ( ,h]s*el's obs]vations1 t illu/ri\s obs]v] appe>s to h incl9$ to ! belief t all nebul 7 b remote clu/]s ( />s1 s di/ant1 s fa9t1 & s ?ickly agglom]at$ z to affect ! eye only by _! comb9$ lum9osity1 & at ?is p]iod ( ! nebul> hi/ory x 0 suppos$ t increas$ telescopic p[] w\ld resolve !m into _! compon5t />s4 ,b ! famili>ity :i* ,h]s*el ga9$ ) ! phases ( ! multitud9\s nebul t pass$ 9 review be=e 8 eyes1 l$ him ultimately to adopt ! op9ion1 advanc$ by previ\s philosoph]s1 t !y 7 compos$ ( "s vap\ry or elem5t>y matt] out ( :i*1 by ! process ( cond5sation1 ! heav5ly bodies 7 =m$2 & ?is l$ him to attempt a classification ( ! kn[n nebul into a cosmical arrangem5t1 9 :i*1 reg>d+ a *aotic mass ( vap\ry matt] z ! primordial /ate ( exi/5ce1 he arrang$ !m into a s]ies ( /ages ( progressive developm5t1 ! individuals ( "o class be+ s ne>ly alli$ to ^? 9 ! next t1 to use 8 own expression1 n s mu* diff]5ce exi/$ betwe5 !m 8z !re w\ld be 9 an annual description ( ! human figure 7 x giv5 f ! bir? ( a *ild till he comes to be a man 9 8 prime40 7,philosophical ,transactions1 ,vol4 ,,ci41 pp4 #bga1 et seq47 ,8 category comprises upw>ds ( ?irty classes or /ages ( progression1 ! titles ( a few ( :i* we ins]t "h to illu/rate ! complet5ess ( 8 s*eme4 ,class #a4 ,( ext5sive diffus$ nebulosity4 7,a table ( #eb pat*es ( su* nebulosity actually obs]v$ is giv51 "s ( :i* ext5d ov] an area ( five or six squ>e degrees1 & "o ( :i* occupies n9e squ>e degrees47 0 #f4 ,( milky nebulosity ) cond5sation4 0 #ae4 ,( nebul t are ( an irregul> figure4 0 #ag4 ,( r\nd nebul4 0 #bj4 ,( nebul t are gradually bright] 9 ! middle4 0 #be4 ,( nebul t h a nucleus4 0 #bi4 ,( nebul t draw progressively t[>ds a p]iod ( f9al cond5sation4 0 #cj4 ,( planet>y nebul4 0 #cc4 ,( /ell> nebul ne>ly approa*+ ! appe>ance ( />s4 ,9 a walk ?r\gh a =e/ we see trees 9 e /age ( gr[?1 f ! t9y sapl+ to ! giant ( ! woods1 & no d\bt c exi/ 9 our m9ds t ! latt] has sprung f ! =m]4 ,we _c at a pass+ glance disc]n ! process ( developm5t actually go+ on2 to satisfy ourselves ( ?is1 we mu/ record ! appe>ance ( "s s+le tree f "t to "t ?r\gh a long s]ies ( ye>s4 ,& :at a walk ?r\gh a =e/ is to an obs]v] ( ! gr[? ( a tree1 a lifetime is to ! obs]v] ( *anges 9 su* objects z ! nebul4 ,! transition f "o /ate to ano!r ( ! nebul\s developm5t is s sl[ t a lifetime is h>dly suffici5t to detect x4 ,nor c any precise evid5ce ( *ange be obta9$ by ! comp>ison ( draw+s or descriptions ( nebul at v>i\s epo*s1 ) :atev] c>e or skill su* draw+s be made1 = x w be admitt$ t no two draughtsm5 w produce ea* a draw+ ( ! mo/ simple object f ! same po9t ( view1 9 :i* e detail 9 ! "o w co9cide exactly ) e detail 9 ! o!r4 ,!re is abundant evid5ce ( ?is 9 ! exi/+ repres5tations ( ! great nebula 9 ,orion2 a comp>ison ( ! draw+s t h be5 lately made ( ?is object1 ) ! mo/ p]fect in/rum5ts & by ! mo/ skilful ( a/ronomical draughtsm51 reveals v>ieties ( detail & ev5 ( g5]al appe>ance su* z c\ld h>dly be imag9$ to occur 9 simil> del9eations ( "o & ! same subject2 & any "o :o himself makes a p]fectly unbiass$ draw+ at ! telescope w f9d ^u comp>ison ( x ) o!rs t x w (f] _m po9ts ( diff]5ce4 ,! fact is t ! draw+ ( a man1 l 8 p5man%ip1 is a p]sonal *>act]i/ic1 peculi> to himself1 & ! draw+s ( two p]sons _c be expect$ to co9cide any m ?an _! h&writ+s4 ,! appe>ance ( a nebula v>ies also to a great ext5t ) ! p[] ( ! telescope us$ to obs]ve x & ! conditions "u :i* x is obs]v$2 ! draw+s ( nebul made ) ! inf]ior telescopes ( a c5tury or two c5turies ago1 ! only ones t1 by comp>ison ) ^? made 9 mod]n times1 c\ld give satisfactory evid5ce ( *anges ( =m or detail1 are s rude & imp]fect z to be useless = ! purpose1 & x is reasonable to suppose t ^? made 9 ! pres5t day w be simil>ly useless a c5tury or two h5ce4 ,s9ce !n we c obta9 no evid5ce ( ! *anges we mu/ assume ^! my/]i\s objects to be und]go+1 ipso facto1 by obs]vation ( "o nebula at v>i\s p]iods1 we mu/ = ! pres5t accept ! prim facie evid5ce (f]$ 7z 9 ! case ( ! trees 9 a =e/7 by ! obs]vation ( v>i\s nebul at "o p]iod4 8,! total dissimilitude10 says ,h]s*el at ! close ( ! obs]vations we h allud$ to1 8betwe5 ! appe>ance ( a diffusion ( ! nebul\s matt] & ( a />1 is s /rik+1 t an idea ( ! conv]sion ( ! "o into ! o!r c h>dly occur to any "o :o has n be=e him ! result ( ! critical exam9ation ( ! nebul\s sy/em :i* has be5 display$ 9 ?is 8 pap]4 ,! end ,i h _h 9 view1 by arrang+ my obs]vations 9 ! ord] 9 :i* !y h be5 plac$1 has be5 to %[ t ! above m5tion$ extremes may be connect$ by su* ne>ly alli$ int]m$iate /eps1 z w make x highly probable t e succe$+ /ate ( ! nebul\s matt] is ! result ( ! action ( gravitation ^u x :ile 9 a =ego+ "o1 & by su* /eps ! successive cond5sation ( x has be5 br\ght up to ! planet>y condition4 ,f ?is ! transit to ! /ell> =m1 x has be5 %[n1 requires b a v small additional compression ( ! nebul\s matt]40 ,:]e ! rese>*es ( ,h]s*el t]m9at$ ^? ( ,laplace comm5c$4 ,h]s*el %[$ h[ a mass ( nebul\s matt] s diffus$ z to be sc>cely disc]nible might be & probably 01 by ! m]e action ( gravitation1 cond5s$ into a mass ( comp>atively small dim5sions :5 view$ 9 relation to ! imm5sity ( its primordial condition4 ,laplace demon/rat$ h[ ! kn[n laws ( gravitation c\ld & probably did f su* a p>tially cond5s$ mass ( matt] produce an entire planet>y sy/em ) all its subord9ate satellites4 ,! fir/ physici/ :o v5tur$ to acc\nt = ! =mation ( ! v>i\s bodies ( our sol> sy/em 0 ,buffon1 ! celebrat$ ,fr5* naturali/4 ,8 !ory1 :i* is fully detail$ 9 8 r5[n$ "w on natural hi/ory1 suppos$ t at "s p]iod ( remote antiquity ! sun exi/$ )\t any att5dant planets1 & t a comet hav+ da%$ obliquely aga9/ x1 pl\gh$ up & drove (f a portion ( its body suffici5t 9 bulk to =m ! v>i\s planets ( our sy/em4 ,he sugge/s t ! matt] ?us c>ri$ (f 8at fir/ =m$ a torr5t ! gross] & less d5se p>ts ( :i* 7 driv5 ! f>!/1 & ! d5se/ p>ts1 hav+ receiv$ only ! l impulsion1 7 n s remotely remov$1 ! =ce ( ! sun's attraction hav+ reta9$ !m30 t 8! e>? & planets !re=e at ! "t ( _! quitt+ ! sun 7 burn+ & 9 a /ate ( liquefaction20 t 8by degrees !y cool$1 & 9 ?is /ate ( fluidity !y took _! =m40 ,he goes on to say t ! obliquity ( ! /roke ( ! comet might h be5 su* z to sep>ate f ! bodies ( ! pr9cipal planets small portions ( matt]1 :i* w\ld pres]ve ! same direction ( motion z ! pr9cipal planets1 & ?us w\ld =m _! att5dant satellites4 ,! hypo!sis ( ,buffon1 h[ev]1 is n suffici5t to expla9 all ! ph5om5a ( ! planet>y sy/em2 & x is imp]fect1 inasmu* z x beg9s by assum+ ! sun to be already exi/+1 :]eas any !ory acc\nt+ = ! prim>y =mation ( ! sol> sy/em ought necess>ily to include ! orig9ation ( ! mo/ important body !re(1 ! sun itself4 ,nev]!less1 x is b due to ,buffon to m5tion 8 ideas1 = ! errors ( "o philosophy s]ve a mo/ useful end by op5+ out fields ( inquiry = subsequ5t & m =tunate speculators4 ,laplace1 dissatisfi$ ) ,buffon's !ory1 s\ght "o m probable1 & ?us 0 l$ to ! proposition ( ! celebrat$ nebul> hypo!sis :i* be>s 8 "n1 & :i*1 9 spite ( its disbeliev]s1 has nev] be5 ov]?r[n1 b rema9s ! only probable1 &1 ) our pres5t k1 ! only possible explanation ( ! cosmical orig9 ( ! planets ( our sy/em4 ,al?\gh ,laplace puts =? 8 conjectures1 to use 8 own words1 8) ! def]5ce :i* ought to inspire ev]y?+ t is n a result ( obs]vation & calculation10 yet ! /rik+ co9cid5ce ( all ! planet>y ph5om5a ) ! conditions ( 8 sy/em gives to ^? conjectures1 aga9 to use 8 mode/ language1 8a probability /rongly approa*+ c]titude40 ,laplace conceiv$ ! sun to h be5 at "o p]iod ! nucleus ( a va/ nebula1 ! att5uat$ surr\nd+ matt] ( :i* ext5d$ beyond :at is n[ ! orbit ( ! remote/ planet ( ! sy/em4 ,he suppos$ t ?is mass ( matt] 9 process ( cond5sation possess$ a rotatory motion r\nd its c5tre ( gravity1 & t ! p>ts ( x t 7 situat$ at ! limits :]e c5trifugal =ce exactly c\nt]balanc$ ! attractive =ce ( ! nucleus 7 ab&on$ by ! contract+ mass1 & ?us 7 =m$ successively a numb] ( r+s ( matt] conc5tric ) & circulat+ ar\nd ! c5tral nucleus4 ,z x w\ld be improbable t all ! conditions necess>y to pres]ve ! /ability ( su* r+s ( matt] 9 _! annul> =m c\ld 9 all cases exi/1 !y w\ld break up into masses :i* w\ld be endu$ ) a motion ( rotation1 & w\ld 9 consequ5ce assume a sph]oidal =m4 ,^! masses1 :i* h5ce con/itut$ ! v>i\s planets1 9 _! turn cond5s+1 aft] ! mann] ( ! p>5t mass1 & ab&on+ _! outly+ matt]1 w\ld become surr\nd$ by simil>ly conc5tric r+s1 :i* w\ld break up & =m ! satellites surr\nd+ ! v>i\s planet>y masses2 &1 z a rem>kable exception to ! rule ( ! in/ability ( ! r+s & _! consequ5t breakage1 ,laplace cit$ ! case ( ,saturn surr\nd$ by 8 r+s z ! only in/ances ( unbrok5 r+s t ! :ole sy/em (f]s u2 unless inde$ we include ! zodiacal light1 t cone ( hazy lum9osity t is frequ5tly se5 /ream+ f our lum9>y %ortly be=e & aft] sunset1 & :i* ,laplace suppos$ to be =m$ ( molecules ( matt]1 too volatile to unite ei!r ) !mselves or ) ! planets1 & :i* mu/ h5ce circulate ab\t ! sun 9 ! =m ( a nebul\s r+1 & ) su* an appe>ance z ! zodiacal actually pres5ts4 ,?is hypo!sis1 al?\gh x c\ld n well be refut$1 has be5 by _m hesitat+ly receiv$1 & = a reason :i* 0 at "o "t cog5t4 ,9 ! e>li] /ages ( nebul> rese>* x 0 cle>ly se51 z we h previ\sly rem>k$1 t _m ( ! s-call$ nebul1 :i* appe>$ at fir/ to consi/ ( masses ( vap\ry matt]1 became1 :5 scrut9is$ ) telescopes ( high] p[]1 resolv$ into clu/]s conta9+ c\ntless numb]s ( />s1 s small & s closely agglom]at$1 t _! unit$ lu/re only impress$ ! m feeble eye z a fa9t nebulosity2 & z x 0 f\nd t ea* accession ( telescopic p[] increas$ ! numb]s ( nebul t 7 ?us resolv$1 x 0 ?\ght t e nebula w\ld at "s p]iod succumb to ! great] p5etration ( m p[]ful in/rum5ts2 & if ?is 7 ! case1 & if no real nebul 7 h5ce f\nd to exi/1 h[1 x 0 argu$1 c\ld ! nebul> hypo!sis be ma9ta9$8 ,"o ( ! mo/ important nebul be>+ ^u ?is "q 0 ! great "o 9 ! sword h&le ( ,orion1 "o ( ! gr&e/ & mo/ conspicu\s 9 ! :ole heav5s4 ,on acc\nt ( ! brightness ( "s portions ( ?is object1 x seem$ z ?\gh x ought to be readily resolvable1 suppos+ all nebul to consi/ ( />s1 b all attempts to resolve x 7 9 va91 ev5 ) ! p[]ful telescopes ( ,sir ,john ,h]s*el & ! cle> z5i?al sky ( ! ,cape ( ,good ,hope4 ,at l5g? ! "q 0 ?\ght to be settl$1 = ^u ! completion ( ,"l ,rosse's giant reflector1 & ^u exam9ation ( ! nebula ) x1 8 lord%ip /at$ t !re c\ld be little1 if any1 d\bt z to its resolvability1 & !n x 0 ma9ta9$1 by ! disbeliev]s 9 ! nebul> !ory1 t ! la/ /ronghold ( t !ory _h be5 brok5 d[n4 ,b ! tru?s ( nature are = ev] play+ at hide & seek ) ^? :o foll[ !m3--! dogmas ( "o era are ! explod$ errors ( ! next4 ,)9 ! pa/ few ye>s a new sci5ce has aris5 t furni%es u ) fre% p[]s ( p5etration into ! va/ & secret laboratories ( ! univ]se2 a new eye1 s to speak1 has be5 giv5 u by :i* we may disc]n1 by ! m]e light t emanates f a cele/ial body1 some?+ ( ! *emical elem5ts ( :i* x is compos$4 ,:5 ,newton two hundr$ ye>s ago toy$ ) ! prism he b\ght at ,/\rbridge fair1 & project$ its pretty ra9b[ t9ts ^u ! wall1 8 great m9d little suspect$ t t phantom rib& ( gorge\s col\rs w\ld "o day be call$ ^u to give evid5ce ^u ! probable cosmical orig9 ( worlds4 ,yet su* 9 tru? has be5 ! case4 ,e sub/ance :5 r5d]$ lum9\s gives (f light ( "s col\r or degree ( refrangibility peculi> to itself1 & al?\gh ! eye _c detect any diff]5ce betwe5 "o "* ( light & ano!r1 ! prism gives ! means ( asc]ta9+ ! quality & degree ( refrangibility ( ! light emanat+ f any s\rce h[ev] di/ant1 & h5ce ( ga9+ "s k ( ! nature ( t s\rce4 ,if1 = in/ance1 a ray ( light f a solid body 9 combu/ion is pass$ ?r\gh a prism1 a spectrum is produc$ :i* exhibits light ( all col\rs or all degrees ( refrangibility2 if ! light f su* a body1 be=e pass+ ?r\gh ! prism1 be made to pass ?r\gh gases or c]ta9 metallic vap\rs1 ! result+ spectrum is f\nd to be cross$ transv]sely by numb]s ( f9e d>k l9es1 app>5tly sep>at+ ! v>i\s col\rs1 or cutt+ ! spectrum into b&s4 ,! sol> spectrum is ( ?is class2 ! once my/]i\s l9es fir/ obs]v$ by ,wolla/on1 & subsequ5tly by ,fraunh(f]1 & kn[n z 8,fraunh(f]'s l9es10 h n[ be5 int]pret$1 *iefly by ! sagaci\s ,g]man *emi/ ,kir*(f1 & id5tifi$ z ! effects ( absorption ( c]ta9 ( ! sun's rays by *emical vap\rs conta9$ 9 8 atmosph]e4 ,! fix$ />s yield spectra ( ! same "*1 b v>y+ consid]ably 9 feature1 ! l9es cross+ ! /ell> spectra diff]+ 9 position & numb] f ^? ( ! sun1 & "o /> f ano!r1 prov+ ! />s to possess v>i$ *emical con/itutions4 ,b !re is ano!r class ( spectra1 exhibit$ :5 light f o!r s\rces is pass$ ?r\gh ! prism4 ,^! consi/1 n ( a lum9\s rib& ( light l ! sol> spectrum1 b ( bright isolat$ l9es ( col\r$ light ) comp>atively wide d>k spaces sep>at+ !m4 ,su* spectra are yield$ only by ! light emitt$ f lum9\s gases & metals or *emical elem5ts 9 ! condition ( inc&esc5t vap\r4 ,e gas or elem5t 9 ! /ate ( lum9\s vap\r yields a spectrum peculi> to itself1 & no two elem5ts :5 vap\riz$ be=e ! prism %[ ! same comb9ations ( lum9\s l9es4 ,n[ 9 ! c\rse ( "s obs]vations ^u ! spectra ( ! fix$ />s by ,dr4 ,hugg9s1 x occurr$ to t g5tleman to turn 8 telescope1 arm$ ) a spectroscope1 ^u "s ( ! bright] ( ! nebul1 & great 0 8 surprise to f9d t in/ead ( yield+ cont9u\s spectra1 z !y mu/ h done _h _! light be5 made up ( t ( a multitude ( />s1 !y gave spectra conta9+ only two or ?ree isolat$ bright l9es2 su* a spectrum c\ld only be produc$ by "s lum9\s gas or vap\r1 & ( ?is =m ( matt] we are n[ ju/ifi$ 9 decl>+1 ^u ! /r5g? ( num]\s mod]n obs]vations1 ^! rem>kable bodies are compos$2 & x is a curi\s & int]e/+ fact t "s ( ! nebul /yl$ resolvable1 f ! fact ( _! exhibit+ po9ts ( light l />s1 yield ^! gase\s spectra1 :5ce ,dr4 ,hugg9s concludes t ! bright] po9ts tak5 = />s are 9 reality nuclei ( great] cond5sation ( ! nebul> matt]3 & s ! fact ( ! app>5t resolvability ( a nebula af=ds no positive pro( ( its non-nebul\s "*4 ,^! obs]vations--:i* h be5 fully confirm$ by ,fa!r ,sec*i ( ! ,roman ,college--by de/roy+ ! evid5ce 9 fav\r ( nebul be+ remote clu/]s1 add ano!r atte/ation to ! probability ( ! tru? ( ! nebul> hypo!sis1 & we h n[ ! confutation ( ! lum9ologi/ to add to t ( ! a/ronom]s :o1 9 ! p]son ( ! illu/ri\s ,arago1 ass]t$ t ! ideas ( ! great au?or ( ! 8,mcanique ,cle/e0 87 ^? only :i* by _! gr&eur1 _! coh]5ce1 & _! ma!matical "* c\ld be truly consid]$ z =m+ a physical cosmogony40 ,conf9+1 !n1 our att5tion to ! s+le object ( ! univ]se x is our task to treat (--! ,moon--& )\t ass]t+ z an indisputable fact t :i* we c nev] hope to "k o!rwise ?an by inf]5ce & analogy1 we may assume t t body once exi/$ 9 ! =m ( a va/ mass ( diffus$ or att5uat$ matt]1 & t1 by ! action ( gravitation ^u ! p>ticles ( t matt]1 x 0 cond5s$ into a comp>atively small & compact planet>y body4 ,b :ile ! process ( cond5sation or compaction 0 go+ on1 ano!r important law ( nature--b rec5tly unfold$ to our k--0 9 p[]ful op]ation1 ! discussion ( :i* law we res]ve = a sep>ate ,*apt]4 ,,*apt] ,,ii4 ,,! ,,g5]ation ,,( ,,cosmical ,,heat4 ,9 ! prec$+ ,*apt] we endeav\r$ to %[ h[ ! action ( gravitation ^u ! p>ticles ( diffus$ primordial matt] w\ld result 9 ! =mation1 by cond5sation & aggregation1 ( a sph]ical planet>y body4 ,we h n[ to consid] ano!r result ( ! gravitat+ action1 & = ?is we mu/ call to our aid a bran* ( sci5tific enquiry & inve/igation unrecogniz$ z su* at ! p]iod ( ,laplace's speculations1 & :i* has be5 develop$ almo/ entirely )9 ! pa/ qu>t] ( a c5tury4 ,! 8great philosophical doctr9e ( ! pres5t era ( sci5ce10 z ! subject ab\t to engage our att5tion has be5 ju/ly t]m$1 be>s ! title ( ! 8,cons]vation ( ,=ce10 or--z "s ambiguity is likely to att5d ! def9ition ( ! t]m 8,=ce0--! 8,cons]vation ( ,en]gy40 ,! basis ( ! doctr9e is ! broad & compreh5sive natural law :i* tea*es u t ! quantity ( =ce compris$ by ! univ]se1 l ! quantity ( matt] conta9$ 9 x1 is a fix$ & inv>iable am\nt1 :i* c be nei!r add$ to nor tak5 f1 b :i* is = ev] und]go+ *ange & trans=mation f "o =m to ano!r4 ,t we _c create =ce ought to be z obvi\s a fact z t we _c create matt]2 & :at we _c create we _c de/roy4 ,z 9 ! univ]se we see no new matt] creat$1 b ! same matt] con/antly disappe>+ f "o =m & reappe>+ 9 ano!r1 s we c f9d no new =ce ev] com+ into action--no description ( =ce t is n to be ref]r$ to "s previ\s mann] ( exi/5ce4 ,)\t ent]+ ^u a metaphysical discussion ( ! t]m 8=ce10 x w be suffici5t = our purpose to consid] x z some?+ :i* produces or resi/s motion1 & h5ce we may argue t ! ultimate effect ( =ce is motion4 ,! =ce ( gravity on ! e>? results 9 ! motion or t5d5cy ( all bodies t[>ds its c5tre1 &1 simil>ly1 ! action ( gravitation ^u ! atoms or p>ticles ( a primeval planet result$ 9 ! motion ( ^? p>ticles t[>ds ea* o!r4 ,we _c conceive =ce o!rwise ?an by its effects1 or ! motion x produces4 ,& =ce we are taught is inde/ructible2 !re=e motion mu/ be inde/ructible also4 ,b :5 a fall+ body /rikes ! e>?1 or a gun%ot /rikes its t>get1 or a hamm] deliv]s a bl[ ^u an anvil1 or a brake is press$ aga9/ a rotat+ :eel1 motion is arre/$1 & x w\ld seem natural to inf] t x is de/roy$4 ,b if we say x is inde/ructible1 :at becomes ( x8 ,! philosophical answ] to ! "q is ?is--t ! motion ( ! mass becomes transf]r$ to ! p>ticles or molecules compos+ x1 & trans=m$ to molecul> motion1 & ?is molecul> motion manife/s itself to u z heat4 ,! p>ticles or atoms ( matt] are held toge!r by cohesion1 or1 9 o!r words1 by ! action ( molecul> attraction4 ,:5 heat is appli$ to ^! p>ticles1 motion is set up among !m1 !y are set 9 vibration1 & ?us1 requir+ & mak+ wid] room1 !y urge ea* o!r ap>t1 & ! well-kn[n expansion by heat is ! result4 ,if ! heat be fur!r cont9u$ a m viol5t molecul> motion ensues1 e increase ( heat t5d+ to urge ! atoms fur!r ap>t1 till at l5g? !y ov]come _! cohesive attraction & move ab\t ea* o!r1 & a liquid or molt5 condition results4 ,if ! heat be /ill fur!r increas$1 ! atoms break away f _! cohesive fett]s altoge!r & leap (f ! mass 9 ! =m ( vap\r1 & ! matt] ?us assumes ! gase\s or vapor\s =m4 ,?us we see t ! ph5om5a ( heat are ph5om5a ( motion1 & ( motion only4 ,?is mutual relation betwe5 heat & "w pres5t$ itself z an embryo idea to ! m9ds ( sev]al ( ! e>li] philosoph]s1 by :om x 0 ma9ta9$ 9 opposition to ! mat]ial !ory :i* held heat to be a k9d ( matt] or subtle fluid /or$ up 9 ! int]-atomic spaces ( all bodies1 capable ( be+ sep>at$ & procur$ f !m by rubb+ !m toge!r1 b n g5]at$ !reby4 ,bacon1 9 8 8,novum ,organum10 says t 8heat itself1 its ess5ce & quiddity1 is motion & no?+ else40 ,locke def9es heat z 8a v brisk agitation ( ! ins5sible p>ts ( an object1 :i* produces 9 u t s5sation f :5ce we d5om9ate ! object hot2 s :at 9 our s5sation is heat1 9 ! object is no?+ b motion40 ,desc>tes & 8 foll[]s upheld a simil> op9ion4 ,ri*>d ,boyle1 two hundr$ ye>s ago1 actually wrote a treatise entitl$ 8,! ,me*anical ,!ory ( ,heat & ,cold10 & ! +5i\s ,c\nt ,rum=d made "s highly int]e/+ & significant exp]im5ts on ! subject1 :i* are describ$ 9 a pap] read be=e ! ,royal ,society 9 #agih1 entitl$ 8,an ,inquiry conc]n+ ! ,s\rce ( ,heat excit$ by ,friction40 ,b ! conceptions ( ^! au?ors rema9$ isolat$ & unfruitful = m ?an a c5tury1 & might h pass$1 meantime1 into ! oblivion ( b>r5 speculation1 b = ! impulse :i* ?is bran* ( inquiry has lately receiv$4 ,n[1 h[ev]1 !y /& =? z notable in/ances ( tru? try+ to =ce itself into recognition :ile yet m5's m9ds 7 unprep>$ or dis9cl9$ to receive x4 ,! key to ! beautiful me*anical !ory ( heat 0 f\nd by ^! se>*+ m9ds1 b ! unclasp+ ( ! lock t %\ld disclose its beauty & value 0 res]v$ = ! philosoph]s ( ! pres5t age4 ,simultane\sly & indep5d5tly1 & )\t ev5 ! k ( ea* o!r1 ?ree m51 f> remov$ f probable int]c\rse1 conceiv$ ! same ideas & work$ out ne>ly simil> results conc]n+ ! me*anical !ory ( heat4 ,see+ t motion 0 conv]tible into heat1 & heat into motion1 x became ( ! utmo/ importance to det]m9e ! exact relation t exi/$ betwe5 ! two elem5ts4 ,! fir/ :o rais$ ! idea to philosophic cle>ness 0 ,dr4 ,julius ,rob]t ,may]1 a physician ( ,heilbronn 9 ,g]many4 ,9 c]ta9 obs]vations connect$ ) 8 m$ical practice x occurr$ to him t !re mu/ be a necess>y equival5t betwe5 "w & heat1 a necess>y num]ical relation betwe5 !m4 8,! v>iations ( ! diff]5ce ( col\r ( art]ial & v5\s blood direct$ 8 att5tion to ! !ory ( respiration4 ,he soon saw 9 ! respiration ( animals ! orig9 ( _! motive p[]s1 & ! comp>ison ( animals to !rmic ma*9es aft]w>ds sugge/$ to him ! important pr9ciple ) :i* 8 "n w rema9 = ev] connect$40 ,next 9 ord] ( publication ( 8 results /&s ! "n ( ,cold+1 a ,dani% eng9e]1 :o ab\t ! ye> #ahdc pres5t$ a s]ies ( memoirs on ! /eam eng9e to ! ,royal ,society ( ,cop5hag51 9 :i* he put =? views almo/ id5tical ) ^? ( ,may]4 ,la/ 9 publication ord]1 b =emo/ 9 ! importance ( 8 exp]im5tal treatm5t ( ! subject1 0 our own c\ntryman1 ,dr4 ,j\le ( ,man*e/]4 8,entirely indep5d5t ( ,may]1 ) 8 m9d firmly fix$ ^u a pr9ciple1 & undismay$ by ! coolness ) :i* 8 fir/ lab\rs appe> to h be5 receiv$1 he p]si/$ = ye>s 9 8 attempts to prove ! inv>iability ( ! relation :i* subsi/s betwe5 heat & ord9>y me*anical p[]40 7,we are quot+ f ,pr(essor ,tyndall's valuable "w on 8,heat consid]$ z a ,mode ( ,motion407 8,he plac$ wat] 9 a suitable vessel1 agitat$ ! wat] by paddles1 & det]m9$ bo? ! am\nt ( heat develop$ by ! /irr+ ( ! liquid & ! am\nt ( lab\r exp5d$ 9 its production4 ,he did ! same ) m]cury & sp]m oil4 ,he also caus$ discs ( ca/ iron to rub aga9/ ea* o!r1 & measur$ ! heat produc$ by _! friction1 & ! =ce exp5d$ 9 ov]com+ x4 ,he urg$ wat] ?r\gh capill>y tubes1 & det]m9$ ! am\nt ( heat g5]at$ by ! friction ( ! liquid aga9/ ! sides ( ! tubes4 ,& ! results ( 8 exp]im5ts leave no %ad[ ( d\bt ^u ! m9d t1 "u all circum/ances1 ! quantity ( heat g5]at$ by ! same am\nt ( =ce is fix$ & inv>iable4 ,a giv5 am\nt ( =ce1 9 caus+ ! iron discs to rotate aga9/ ea* o!r1 produc$ precisely ! same am\nt ( heat z :5 x 0 appli$ to agitate wat]1 m]cury1 or sp]m oil4 99 99 99 99 ,! absolute am\nt ( heat g5]at$ by ! same exp5diture ( p[]1 0 9 all cases ! same40 8,9 ?is way x 0 f\nd t ! quantity ( heat :i* w\ld raise "o p\nd ( wat] "o degree ,fahr5heit 9 temp]ature1 is exactly equal to :at w\ld be g5]at$ if a p\nd weight1 aft] hav+ fall5 ?r\gh a height ( #ggb feet1 _h its mov+ =ce de/roy$ by collision ) ! e>?4 ,conv]sely1 ! am\nt ( heat necess>y to raise a p\nd ( wat] "o degree 9 temp]ature1 w\ld1 if all appli$ me*anically1 be compet5t to raise a p\nd weight #ggb feet high1 or x w\ld raise #ggb p\nds "o foot high4 ,! t]m #8foot p\nds' has be5 introduc$ to express 9 a conv5i5t way ! lift+ ( "o p\nd to ! height ( a foot4 ,?us ! quantity ( heat necess>y to raise ! temp]ature ( a p\nd ( wat] "o degree ,fahr5heit be+ tak5 z a /&>d1 #ggb foot-p\nds con/itute :at is call$ ! me*anical equival5t ( heat40 ,by a process entirely diff]5t1 & by an indep5d5t c\rse ( reason+1 ,may] _h1 a few mon?s previ\s to ,j\le1 det]m9$ ?is equival5t to be #ggad foot-p\nds4 ,su* a rem>kable co9cid5ce arriv$ at by pursu+ diff]5t r\tes gives ?is value a /rong claim to accuracy1 & raises ! ,me*anical ,!ory ( ,heat to ! dignity ( an exact sci5ce1 & its enunciators to ! =emo/ place 9 ! ranks ( physical philosoph]s4 ,9 l9k+ toge!r ! lab\rs ( ! two rem>kable m5 above allud$ to1 ,pr(4 ,tyndall rem>ks1 t 8,may]'s lab\rs h 9 "s measure ! /amp ( pr(\nd intuition1 :i* rose h[ev] to ! en]gy ( und\bt+ conviction 9 ! au?or's m9d4 ,j\le's lab\rs1 on ! contr>y1 are an exp]im5tal demon/ration4 ,may] ?\ght 8 !ory out1 & rose to its gr&e/ applications4 ,j\le work$ 8 !ory out1 & gave x ! solidity ( natural tru?4 ,true to ! speculative in/9ct ( 8 c\ntry1 ,may] drew l>ge & mighty conclusions f sl5d] premises2 :ile ! ,engli%man aim$ above all ?+s at ! firm e/abli%m5t ( facts4444 ,to ea* belongs a reputation :i* w n quickly fade1 = ! %>e he has _h1 n only 9 e/abli%+ ! dynamical !ory ( heat1 b also 9 lead+ ! way t[>ds a "r appreciation ( ! g5]al en]gies ( ! univ]se40 ,b f ^! g5]alities we mu/ pass to ! application ( ! me*anical !ory ( heat to our special subject4 ,we h le>nt t e =m ( motion is conv]tible into heat4 ,we "k t ! fall+ meteor or %oot+ />1 ^: motion is imp$$ by friction aga9/ ! e>?'s atmosph]e1 is heat$ !reby to a temp]ature ( inc&esc5ce4 ,let u !n suppose t myriads ( su* cosmical p>ticles came into collision f ! effect ( _! mutual attraction1 or t ! compon5t atoms ( a va/ nebul\s mass viol5tly conv]g$ "u ! l influ5ce4 ,:at w\ld foll[8 ,obvi\sly ! g5]ation ( an int5se heat by ! arre/ ( conv]g+ motion1 su* a heat z w\ld result 9 ! fusion ( ! :ole into "o mass4 ,may]1 9 "o ( 8 mo/ rem>kable pap]s 78,cele/ial ,dynamics07 rem>ks t ! 8,newtonian !ory ( gravitation1 :il/ x enables u to det]m9e1 f its pres5t =m1 ! e>?'s /ate ( aggregation 9 ages pa/1 at ! same "t po9ts out to u a s\rce ( heat p[]ful en\gh to produce su* a /ate ( aggregation--p[]ful en\gh to melt worlds3 x tea*es u to consid] ! molt5 /ate ( a planet z ! result ( ! me*anical union ( cosmical masses1 & to d]ive ! radiation ( ! sun & ! heat 9 ! b[els ( ! e>? f a common orig940 ,& ! same laws t gov]n$ ! =mation ( ! e>?1 gov]n$ also ! =mation ( ! moon3 ! v>iations ( ,nature's op]ations are quantitative only & n qualitative4 ,! ,div9e ,w t made ! e>? made ! moon also1 & ! means & mode ( work+ 7 ! same = bo?4 ,! geological ph5om5a ( ! e>? af=d unmi/akeable evid5ce ( its orig9al fluid or molt5 condition1 & ! appe>ance ( ! moon is z unmi/akeably t ( a body once 9 an igne\s or molt5 /ate4 ,! enigma ( ! e>?'s prim>y =mation is solv$ by ! application ( ! dynamical !ory ( heat4 ,by ?is !ory ! g5]ation ( cosmical heat is remov$ f ! quicks&s ( conjecture & e/abli%$ ^u ! firm gr\nd ( direct calculation3 = ! absolute am\nt ( heat g5]at$ by ! collision ( a giv5 am\nt ( matt] is 7( c\rse1 ) "s little unc]ta9ty7 d$ucible f a ma!matical =mula4 ,may] has comput$ ! am\nt ( heat t ! matt] ( ! e>? w\ld h g5]at$1 if x _h be5 =m$ orig9ally ( only two p>ts drawn into collision by _! mutual attraction1 & has f\nd t x w\ld be f #j to #cb1jjj or #dg1jjja ,c5tigrade degrees1 accord+ z "o "p 0 inf9itely small z comp>$ ) ! o!r1 or z ! two p>ts 7 ( equal size4 ,pr(essor ,helmholtz1 ano!r lab\r] 9 ! same field ( sci5ce1 has comput$ ! am\nt ( heat g5]at$ by ! cond5sation ( ! :ole ( ! matt] compos+ ! sol> sy/em3 ?is he f9ds w\ld be equival5t to ! heat t w\ld be requir$ to raise ! temp]ature ( a mass ( wat] equal to ! sum ( ! masses ( all ! bodies ( ! sy/em to #bh1jjj1jjj 7tw5ty-eight million7 degrees ( ! ,c5tigrade scale4 ,^! examples af=d abundant evid5ce ( suffici5t heat hav+ be5 g5]at$ by ! aggregation ( ! matt] ( ! moon to r$uce x to a /ate ( fusion1 & s to produce1 f a nebul\s *aos ( diffus$ cosmical matt]1 a molt5 body ( def9ite outl9e & size4 ,x is requisite "h to rem>k t fusion does n necess>ily imply combu/ion4 ,x has be5 frequ5tly ask$1 ,h[ c a volcanic !ory ( ! lun> ph5om5a be upheld consi/5tly ) ! condition t x possesses no atmosph]e to support ,fire8 ,to ?is we w\ld reply t to produce a /ate ( inc&esc5ce or a molt5 condition x is n necess>y t ! body be surr\nd$ by an atmosph]e4 ,! int5sely rapid motion ( ! p>ticles ( matt] ( bodies1 :i* ! dynamical !ory %[s to be ! orig9 ( ! molt5 /ate1 exi/s q indep5d5tly ( su* ext]nal matt] z an atmosph]e4 ,! complex mixture ( gases & vap\rs :i* we t]m 8air10 has no?+ :atev] to d ) ! fusion ( sub/ances1 :atev] x may h to d ) _! combu/ion4 ,combu/ion is a *emical ph5om5on1 due to ! comb9ation ( ! oxyg5 ( t air ) ! heat$ p>ticles ( ! combu/ible matt]3 oxyg5 is ! sole support] ( combu/ion1 & h5ce combu/ion is to be reg>d$ r z a ph5om5on ( oxyg5 ?an z a ph5om5on ( ! matt] ) :i* t oxyg5 comb9es4 ,! greate/ int5sity ( heat may exi/ )\t oxyg51 & consequ5tly )\t combu/ion4 ,9 support ( ?is argum5t x w be suffici5t to adduce1 ^u ! au?ority ( ,dr4 ,tyndall1 ! fact t a plat9um wire c be rais$ to a lum9\s temp]ature & actually fus$ 9 a p]fect vacuum4 ,b :ile ! mass ( cond5s+ cosmical matt] 0 ?us accumulat+ & =m+ ! globe ( ! moon1 ! heat consequ5t ^u ! aggregation ( its p>ticles 0 suff]+ "s dim9ution f ! effect ( radiation4 ,s long z ! radiat$ heat lo/ fell %ort ( ! dynamical heat g5]at$1 no effect ( cool+ w\ld be manife/2 b :5 ! vis viva ( ! cond5s+ matt] 0 all conv]t$ into its equival5t ( heat1 or :5 ! accession ( heat fell %ort ( t radiat$1 a necess>y cool+ mu/ ensue1 & ?is cool+ w\ld be accompani$ by a solidification ( t "p ( ! mass :i* 0 mo/ free to radiate its heat into surr\nd+ space3 t "p w\ld obvi\sly be ! out] surface4 ,) ! solidification ( ?is ext]nal cru/ began ! 8ye> "o0 ( sel5ological hi/ory4 ,! ph5om5a att5dant ^u ! cool+ ( ! mass we w consid] 9 ! next ,*apt]4 ,,*apt] ,,iii4 ,,! ,,subsequ5t ,,cool+ ,,( ,,! ,,igne\s ,,body4 ,9 ! =ego+ ,*apt]s we h endeav\r$ to %[1 by ! light ( mod]n sci5ce1 fir/1 h[ diffus$ cosmical matt] 0 probably cond5s$ into a planet>y mass by ! mutual gravitation ( its p>ticles1 & secondly1 h[1 ! aft] de/ruction ( ! gravitative =ce1 by ! collision ( ! conv]g+ p>ticles ( matt]1 result$ 9 ! g5]ation ( su* suffici5t heat z to r$uce ! :ole mass to a molt5 condition4 ,our pres5t task is to consid] ! subsequ5t cool+ ( ! mass1 & ! ph5om5a att5dant ^u or result+ !refrom4 ,?is brief ,*apt] is important to our subject1 z we %all h frequ5t occasion to ref] to ! lead+ pr9ciple we %all endeav\r to illu/rate 9 x1 9 subsequ5tly treat+ ( ! causes to :i* ! special sel5ological features are to be attribut$4 ,fir/1 !n1 z reg>ds ! cool+ ( ! igne\s mass t con/itut$ ! moon at ! inconceivably remote p]iod :5 possibly t body 0 really a 8less] light0 %9+ ) a lum9osity ( its own1 due to its !n inc&esc5t /ate1 & n simply a reflector1 z x is n[1 ( light :i* x receives f ! sun4 ,if we c\ld conceive x possible t ! igne\s mass 9 ! act ( cool+ p>t$ ) its heat f ! c5tral "p fir/ & s began to solidify f its c5tre1 or if x _h be5 possible = ! mass to h cool$ uni=mly & simultane\sly ?r\gh\t its :ole dep?1 or t ea* sub/ratum _h cool$ be=e its sup]/ratum1 we %\ld h _h a moon ^: surface w\ld h be5 smoo? & )\t any su* rem>kable asp]ities & excres5ces z are n[ pres5t$ to our view4 ,b ^! suppositions are inadmissible3 on ! contr>y we are compell$ to consid] t ! portion ( ! igne\s or molt5 body t fir/ cool$ 0 its ext]ior surface1 :i*1 radiat+ its heat into surr\nd+ space1 became solid & comp>atively cool :ile ! int]ior reta9$ its hot & molt5 condition4 ,s t at ?is e>ly /age ( ! moon's hi/ory x exi/$ 9 ! =m ( a solid %ell inclos+ a molt5 int]ior4 ,n[ at ?is p]iod ( its =mation1 ! moon's mass1 p>tly cool$ & solidifi$ & p>tly molt51 w\ld be subject to ! influ5ce ( two p[]ful molecul> =ces3 ! fir/ ( ^! w\ld consi/ 9 ! dim9ution ( bulk or contraction ( volume :i* accompanies ! cool+ ( solidifi$ masses ( previ\sly molt5 sub/ances2 ! second w\ld arise f a ph5om5on :i* we may "h obs]ve is by no means s g5]ally kn[n z f its importance x des]ves to be3 & z we %all h frequ5t occasion to ref] to x z "o ( ! *ief ag5cies 9 produc+ ! peculi> /ructural *>act]i/ics ( ! moon's surface1 x may be well "h to give a few examples ( its action1 t our ref]5ce to x h]eaft] may be m cle>ly und]/ood4 ,! broad g5]al pr9ciple ( ! ph5om5on "h ref]r$ to is ?is3--t fusible sub/ances are 7) a few exceptions7 specifically heavi] :ile 9 _! molt5 condition ?an 9 ! solidifi$ /ate1 or 9 o!r words1 t molt5 matt] occupies less space1 weight = weight1 ?an ! same matt] aft] x has pass$ f ! melt$ to ! solid condition4 ,x foll[s z an obvi\s coroll>y t su* sub/ances contract 9 bulk 9 fus+ or melt+1 & exp& 9 becom+ solid4 ,x is ?is expansion ^u solidification t n[ conc]ns u4 ,wat]1 z is well kn[n1 increases 9 d5sity z x cools1 till x rea*es ! temp]ature ( #ci ,fahr5heit1 aft] :i*1 ^u a fur!r decrease ( temp]ature1 its d5sity beg9s to decrease1 or 9 o!r words its bulk exp&s1 & h5ce ! well-kn[n fact ( ice float+ 9 wat]1 & ! inconv5i5t fact ( wat]-pipes bur/+ 9 a fro/4 ,?is action 9 wat] is ( ! utmo/ importance 9 ! gr& economy ( nature1 & x has be5 accept$ z a m>vell\s exception to ! g5]al law ( sub/ances increas+ 9 d5sity 7or %r9k+7 z !y decrease 9 temp]ature4 ,wat] is1 h[ev]1 by no means ! exceptional sub/ance t x has be5 s g5]ally consid]$4 ,x is a fact p]fectly famili> to iron-f\nd]s1 t :5 a mass ( solid ca/-iron is dropp$ into a pot ( molt5 iron ( id5tical quality1 ! solid is f\nd to float p]si/5tly ^u ! molt5 metal--s p]si/5tly t :5 x is int5tionally ?ru/ to ! bottom ( ! pot1 x rises aga9 ! mom5t ! subm]g+ ag5cy is )drawn4 ,z reg>ds ! am\nt ( buoyancy we believe x may be /at$ 9 r\nd numb]s to be at lea/ two or ?ree p] c5t4 ,x has be5 sugge/$ by "s :o are famili> ) ?is ph5om5on t ! solid mass may be kept up by a spuri\s buoyancy imp>t$ to x by a film ( adh]+ air1 or t surface impurities ^u ! solid metal may t5d to r$uce ! specific gravity ( ! mass & !reby prev5t x s9k+1 & t ! fact ( floatation is n absolutely a pro( ( great] specific lightness4 ,b 9 controv]sion ( ^! sugge/ions1 we c /ate z ! result ( exp]im5t t pieces ( ca/-iron :i* h _h _! surface r\ghness entirely remov$1 leav+ ! bright metal expos$1 /ill float on ! molt5 metal1 & fur!r t :51 "u ! influ5ce ( ! great heat ( ! molt5 mass1 ! solid is gradually melt$ away1 & consequ5tly any possible surface impurities or adh]+ air mu/ necess>ily h be5 remov$1 ! rema9+ portion cont9ues to float to ! la/4 ,! inevitable inf]5ce f ?is is t 9 ! case ( ca/-iron ! solid is specifically light] ?an ! molt51 &1 !re=e1 t 9 pass+ f ! molt5 to ! solid condition ?is sub/ance und]goes expansion 9 bulk4 ,we are able to (f] a confirmation ( ?is inf]5ce 9 ! case ( ca/-iron by a rem>kable ph5om5on well kn[n to iron-f\nd]s1 b ( :i* we h nev] met ) special notice4 ,:5 a ladle or pot ( molt5 iron is drawn f ! melt+ furnace & all[$ to /& at re/1 ! surface pres5ts a mo/ rem>kable & sugge/ive appe>ance4 ,in/ead ( rema9+ calm & smoo? x is ! sc5e ( a lively commotion3 ! ?9 coat ( scoria or molt5 oxide :i* =ms on ! o!rwise bright surface ( ! metal is se51 z fa/ z x =ms at ! circumf]5ce ( ! pot1 to be swept by active conv]g5t curr5ts t[>ds ! c5tre1 :]e x accumulates 9 a pat*4 ,:ile ?is action is proce$+1 ! entire upp] surface ( ! metal appe>s z if x 7 cov]$ ) animat$ v]micules ( scoria1 spr++ into exi/5ce at ! circumf]5ce ( ! pot1 & f !nce rapidly /ream+ & wriggl+ !mselves t[>ds ! c5tre4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #a4 ,our illu/ration 7,fig4 #a7 is int5d$1 s f> z su* means c d s1 to convey "s idea ( ?is rem>kable appe>ance at "o in/ant ( its cont9u$ occurr5ce4 ,to int]pret our illu/ration rightly x is necess>y to imag9e ?is v]micul> freckl+ to be con/antly & rapidly /ream+ f all po9ts ( ! p]iph]y ( ! pot t[>ds ! c5tre1 :]e1 z we h said1 x accumulates 9 ! =m ( a float+ isl&4 ,we may obs]ve t ! motion is mo/ rapid :5 ! hot metal is fir/ put into ! cool ladle3 z ! fluid metal p>ts ) "s ( its heat & ! ladle gets hot by absorb+ x1 ?is rem>kable surface di/urbance becomes less en]getic4 ,n[ if we c>efully consid] ?is peculi> action & seek a cause = ! ph5om5on1 we %all be l$ to ! conclusion t x arises f ! expansion ( t portion ( ! molt5 mass :i* is 9 contact ) or close proximity to ! comp>atively cool sides ( ! ladle1 :i* sides act z ! *ief ag5t 9 disp]s+ ! heat ( ! melt$ metal4 ,! motion ( ! scoria betrays t ( ! fluid metal b5ea?1 & c>eful obs]vation w %[ t ! motion 9 "q is ! result ( an upw>d curr5t ( ! metal ar\nd ! circumf]5ce ( ! ladle1 z indicat$ by ! arr[s ,a1 ,b1 ,c 9 ! accompany+ sectional draw+ ( ! ladle 7,fig4 #b74 ,! upw>d curr5t ( ! metal c actually be se5 :5 specially look$ =1 at ! rim ( ! pot1 :]e x is deflect$ into ! conv]g5t horizontal direction & :]e x pres5ts an elevatory appe>ance z %[n 9 ! figure4 ,x is difficult to assign to ?is effect any o!r cause ?an t ( an expansion & consequ5t r$uction ( ! specific gravity ( ! fluid metal 9 contact ) or 9 close proximity to ! cool] sides ( ! pot1 z1 accord+ to ! g5]ally ent]ta9$ idea t contraction univ]sally accompanies cool+1 x w\ld be impossible = ! cool] to float on ! hott] metal1 & ! curi\s surface-curr5ts above ref]r$ to w\ld be 9 contr>y direction to t :i* !y inv>iably take1 i4e41 !y w\ld div]ge f ! c5tre in/ead ( conv]g+ to x4 ,! ext]nal arr[s 9 ! figure repres5t ! radiation ( ! heat f ! out] sides ( ! pot1 :i* is ! *ief cause ( cool+4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #b4 ,turn+ f ca/-iron to o!r metals we f9d fur!r manife/ations ( ?is expansive solidification4 ,bismu? is a notable example4 ,9 8 lectures on ,heat1 ,dr4 ,tyndall exhibit$ an exp]im5t 9 :i* a /\t iron bottle 0 fill$ ) molt5 bismu?1 & ! /opp] tightly clos$4 ,! :ole 0 set aside to cool1 & z ! metal )9 approa*$ consolidation ! bottle 0 r5t op5 by its expansion1 j z w\ld h be5 ! case _h ! bottle be5 fill$ ) wat] & expos$ to freez+ temp]ature4 ,m]cury af=ds ano!r example4 ,!rmomet]s :i* h to be expos$ to ,arctic temp]atures are g5]ally fill$ ) _s in/ead ( quicksilv]1 because ! latt] has be5 f\nd to bur/ ! bulbs :5 ! cold rea*$ ! congeal+ po9t ( ! metal1 ! bur/+ be+ a consequ5ce ( ! expansion :i* accompanies ! act ( congelation4 ,silv] also exp&s 9 pass+ f ! fluid to ! solid /ate1 = we are in=m$ by a practical ref9] t solid floats on molt5 silv] z ice floats on wat]2 x also1 z likewise d gold & copp]1 exhibits surface conv]g+ curr5ts 9 ! melt+-pot l ^? depict$ above = molt5 iron4 ,x may1 h[ev]1 be object$ t metals are too di/antly relat$ to volcanic sub/ances to ju/ify inf]5ces be+ drawn f _! behavi\r 9 explanation ( volcanic ph5om5a4 ,) a view !re=e ( te/+ ! "q at issue ) a sub/ance admitt$ z closely alli$ to volcanic mat]ial1 we appeal$ to ! furnace slag ( iron-works4 ,! foll[+ are extracts f ! lett]s ( an iron manufactur] ( great exp]i5ce#b to :om we ref]r$ ! "q3-- 8,i beg to in=m y t cold slag floats 9 molt5 slag 9 ! same way cold iron floats 9 molt5 iron4 8,i fill$ a box ) hot molt5 slag run quickly f a bla/ furnace2 ! box 0 ab\t #e feet squ>e by #b feet deep1 & ,i dropp$ into ! slag a piece ( cold slag weigh+ #af lbs41 :5 x came to ! top 9 a second4 ,i pu%$ x d[n to ! bottom sev]al times & x always made its appe>ance at ! top3 inde$ a small portion ( x rema9$ above ! molt5 slag40 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #c4 ,"h !n we h a sub/ance closely alli$ to volcanic mat]ial :i* manife/s ! expansile pr9ciple 9 "q2 b we may g /ill fur!r & give evid5ce f ! v f\nta9-head by in/anc+ :at appe>s to be a mo/ cog5t example ( its op]ation :i* we obs]v$ on ! occasion ( a visit to ! crat] ( ,vesuvius 9 #ahfe :ile a modifi$ eruption 0 9 progress4 ,on ?is occasion we obs]v$ :ite-hot lava /ream+ d[n f ap]tures 9 ! sides ( a c5tral cone )9 ! crat] & =m+ a lake ( molt5 lava on ! plateau or bottom ( ! crat]2 on ! surface ( ?is molt5 lake va/ cakes ( ! same lava :i* _h become solidifi$ 7 float+1 exactly 9 ! same mann] z ice floats 9 wat]4 ,! solidifi$ lava _h crack$1 & divid$ into cakes1 9 consequ5ce ( its contraction & also ( ! upris+ ( ! accumulat+ fluid lava on :i* x float$1 m & m space be+ ?us af=d$ = x to sep>ate1 on acc\nt ( ! crat] wid5+ upw>ds1 :ile ?r\gh ! jo9ts or fissures ! fluid lava c\ld be se5 b5ea?4 ,b = ! decrease 9 d5sity & consequ5t expansion 9 volume :i* accompani$ solidification1 ?is float+ ( ! solidifi$ lava on ! molt5 c\ld n h occurr$4 ,ref]5ce to ,fig4 #c1 :i* repres5ts a section ( ! crat] ( ,vesuvius on ! occasion above ref]r$ to1 w p]haps assi/ ! read] to a m cle> idea ( :at we h endeav\r$ to describe4 ,a ,a are ! /reams ( :ite-hot lava issu+ f op5+s 9 ! sides ( ! c5tral cone1 & accumulat+ b5ea? ! solidifi$ cru/ ,b ,b 9 a lake ( molt5 lava at ,c ,c2 ! solidifi$ cru/ ,b ,b z x 0 float$ upw>ds divid+ into sep>ate cakes z repres5t$ 9 ,fig4 #d4 7,see also ,plate ,i47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #d4 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate ,i4 ,,crat] ,,( ,,vesuvius4 #ahfe4 ,let u n[ consid] :at w\ld be ! effect produc$ ^u a sph]ical mass ( molt5 matt] 9 progress ( cool+1 fir/ "u ! action ( ! above describ$ expansion :i* prec$es solidification1 & !n by ! contraction :i* accompanies ! cool+ ( a solidifi$ body4 ,! fir/ portion ( su* a mass to "p ) its heat be+ its ext]nal surface1 ?is portion w\ld exp&1 b !re be+ no ob/acle to resi/ ! expansion !re w\ld be no o!r result ?an a tempor>y slight enl>gem5t ( ! sph]e4 ,?is ext]nal portion w\ld on cool+ =m a solid %ell encompass+ a m or less fluid molt5 nucleus1 b z ?is int]ior has 9 its turn1 on approa*+ ! po9t ( solidification1 to exp& also1 & !re be+1 s to speak1 no room = its expansion1 by reason ( its conf9em5t )9 its solid cas+1 :at w\ld be ! consequ5ce8--! %ell w\ld be r5t or bur/ op51 & a portion ( ! molt5 int]ior eject$ ) m or less viol5ce accord+ to circum/ances1 & _m ( ! *>act]i/ic features ( volcanic action w\ld be ?us produc$3 ! ?ickness ( ! out] %ell1 ! size ( ! v5t made by ! exp&+ matt] = its escape1 & o!r conditions conspir+ to modify ! nature & ext5t ( ! eruption4 ,?us !re w\ld result va/ flood+s ( ! ext]ior surface ( ! %ell by ! s extrud$ molt5 matt]1 volcanoes1 extrud$ m\nta9s1 & o!r manife/ations ( eruptive ph5om5a4 ,! sectional diagram 7,fig4 #e7 w help to convey a cle> idea ( ?is action4 ,bas+ our reason+ on ! pr9ciple we h ?us enunciat$1 namely1 t molt5 telluric matt] exp&s on ne>+ ! po9t ( solidification1 & :i* we h endeav\r$ to illu/rate by ref]5ce to actual examples ( its op]ation1 we consid] we are ju/ifi$ 9 assum+ t su* a c\rse ( volcanic ph5om5a has v probably occurr$ aga9 & aga9 ^u ! moon2 t ?is expansion ( volume :i* accompanies ! solidification ( molt5 matt] furni%es a key to ! solution ( ! enigma ( volcanic action2 & t su* !ories z dep5d ^u ! ag5cy ( gases1 vap\r1 or wat] are at all ev5ts unt5able ) reg>d to ! moon1 :]e no gases1 vap\r1 or wat]1 appe> to exi/4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #e4 ,a ,a4 ,! solidifi$ cru/ cool+1 contract+1 & crack+2 ! crack+ action enhanc$ by ! expansion ( ! sub/ratum ( molt5 matt]1 ,b ,b ,b1 :i*1 exp&+ z x approa*es ! po9t ( solidification1 injects portions ( ! molt5 matt] up ?r\gh ! contractile cracks1 & results 9 produc+ crat]s1 m\nta9s ( exudation1 & di/ricts flood$ ) extrud$ lava1 ,c ,c ,c4 ,! nucleus ( int5sely hot molt5 matt]4 ,t an upheav+ & ejective =ce has be5 9 action ) v>y+ int5sity b5ea? ! :ole ( ! lun> surface is manife/ f ! aspect ( its /ructural details1 & we are impress$ ) ! conviction t ! pr9ciple we h set =?1 namely ! p>oxysms ( expansion :i* successively occurr$ z portions ( its molt5 int]ior approa*$ solidification1 supply u ) a rational cause to :i* su* va/ ejective & upheav+ ph5om5a may be assign$4 ,_m features ( t]re/rial geology likewise require su* an expansive =ce :]eby to expla9 !m2 we !re=e v5ture to recomm5d ?is s\rce & cause ( ejective action to ! c>eful consid]ation ( geologi/s4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #f4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #g4 ,:5 ! molt5 sub/ratum _h bur/ its conf9es1 eject$ its sup]flu\s matt]1 & produc$ ! result+ volcanic features1 x w\ld1 aft] f9al solidification1 resume ! normal process ( contraction ^u cool+1 & s retreat or %r9k away f ! ext]nal %ell4 ,let u n[ consid] :at w\ld be ! result ( ?is4 ,evid5tly ! ext]nal %ell or cru/ w\ld become relatively too l>ge to rema9 at all po9ts 9 close contact ) ! subjac5t matt]4 ,! consequ5ce ( too l>ge a solid %ell hav+ to accommodate itself to a %runk5 body und]nea?1 is t ! sk91 s to t]m ! out] /ratum ( solid matt]1 becomes %rivell$ up into alt]nate ridges & depressions1 or wr9kles4 ,9 its attempt to cru% d[n & foll[ ! contract+ sub/ratum1 x w\ld h to displace ! sup]abundant or sup]flu\s mat]ial ( its =m] l>g] surface by ?ru/+ x 7by ! action ( tang5tial =ce7 into undulat+ ridges z 9 ,fig4 #f1 or brok5 elevat$ ridges z 9 ,fig4 #g1 or ov]lapp+s ( ! out] cru/ z 9 ,fig4 #h1 or ridges capp$ by m or less fluid molt5 matt] extrud$ f b5ea?1 z indicat$ 9 ,fig4 #i1 a class ( action :i* might occur contemporane\sly ) ! elevation ( ! ridge or subsequ5tly to its =mation4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #h4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #i4 ,a long-kept %rivell$ apple af=ds an apt illu/ration ( ?is wr9kle !ory2 ano!r example may be obs]v$ 9 ! human face & h&1 :5 age has caus$ ! fle% to %r9k & s leave ! comp>atively un%r9k+ sk9 relatively too l>ge z a cov]+ = x4 ,we illu/rate bo? ( ^! examples by actual photographs ( ! respective objects1 :i* are reproduc$ on ,plate ,,ii4 ,:5ev] an out] cov]+ has to accommodate & apply itself to an int]ior body t has become too small = x1 wr9kles are inevitably produc$4 ,! same action t %rivels ! human sk9 into creases & wr9kles1 has also %rivell$ c]ta9 regions ( ! igne\s cru/ ( ! e>?4 ,a map ( a m\nta9\s "p ( our globe af=ds abundant evid5ce ( su* a cause hav+ be5 9 action2 su* maps are pictures ( wr9kles4 ,sev]al p>ts ( ! lun> surface1 z we %all by-&-by see1 pres5t u ) ! same appe>ances 9 a modifi$ degree4 ,to ! few prim>y causes we h set =? 9 ?is *apt]--to ! alt]nate expansion & contraction ( successive /rata ( ! lun> sph]e1 :5 9 a /ate ( transition f an igne\s & molt5 to a cool$ & solidifi$ condition1 we believe we %all be able to ref] well nigh all ! rem>kable & *>act]i/ic features ( ! lun> surface :i* w come "u our notice 9 ! c\rse ( our survey4 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate ,,ii4 ,,back ( ,,h& ,,%rivell$ ,,apple4 ,,to ,,illu/rate ! ,,orig9 ( ,,c]ta9 ,,m\nta9 ,,ranges ,,by ,,%r9kage ( ! ,,globe4 ,,*apt] ,,iv4 ,,! ,,=m1 ,,magnitude1 ,,weight1 ,,& ,,d5sity ,,( ,,! ,,lun> ,,globe4 ,we h n hi!rto _h occasion to ref] to :at we may t]m ! physical elem5ts ( ! moon3 by :i* we mean ! v>i\s data conc]n+ =m1 size1 weight1 d5sity1 c4 ( t body1 d]iv$ f obs]vation & calculation4 ,to ?is purpose1 !re=e1 we w n[ devote a few pages1 conf9+ ourselves to su* matt]s z specially be> ^u ! requirem5ts ( our subject1 omitt+ su* z are irrelevant to our purpose1 & t\*+ b lightly ^u su* z are commonly kn[n1 or are expla9$ 9 ord9>y elem5t>y treatises on a/ronomy4 ,fir/1 !n1 z reg>ds ! =m ( ! moon4 ,! =m ( ! lun> disc1 :5 fully illum9at$1 we p]ceive to be a p]fect circle2 t is to say1 ! measur$ diamet]s 9 all directions are equal2 & we are !re=e l$ to inf] t ! real =m ( ! moon is t ( a p]fect sph]e4 ,we "k t ! e>? & ! re/ ( ! planets ( our sy/em are sph]oidal1 or m or less flatt5$ at ! poles1 & we also "k t ?is flatt5+ is a consequ5ce ( axial rotation2 ! ext5t ( ! flatt5+1 or ! oblat5ess ( ! sph]oid1 dep5d+ ^u ! spe$ ( t rotation4 ,b 9 ! case ( ! moon ! axial rotation is s sl[ t ! flatt5+ produc$ !reby1 al?\gh x mu/ exi/1 is s slight z to be imp]ceptible to our obs]vation4 ,we might !re=e conclude t ! moon is a p]fectly sph]ical body1 did n !ory /ep 9 to %[ u t !re is ano!r cause by :i* its =m is di/urb$4 ,assum+ ! moon to h be5 once 9 a fluid /ate1 x is demon/rable t ! attraction ( ! e>? w\ld accumulate a mass ( matt]1 l a tidal elevation1 9 ! direction ( a l9e jo9+ ! c5tres ( ! two bodies3 & z a consequ5ce1 ! real %ape ( ! moon mu/ be an ellipsoid1 or some:at egg-%ap$ body1 ! major axis ( :i* is direct$ t[>ds ! e>?4 ,t "s su* ph5om5on has obta9$ is evid5t f ! co9cid5ce ( ! times ( orbital revolution & axial rotation ( ! lun> sph]e4 8,x w\ld be aga9/ all probability10 says ,laplace1 8to suppose t ^! two motions _h be5 at _! orig9 p]fectly equal20 b x is suffici5t t _! primitive diff]5ce 0 b small1 9 :i* case ! con/ant attraction by ! e>? ( ! protub]ant "p ( ! moon w\ld e/abli% ! equality :i* at pres5t exi/s4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 suffici5t = all purposes ) :i* we are conc]n$ to reg>d ! moon z a sph]e1 & ! next po9t to be consid]$ is its size4 ,to det]m9e ?is1 two data are necess>y--its app>5t or angul> diamet]1 & its di/ance f ! e>?4 ,! fir/ ( ^! is obta9$ by measur+ ! angle compris$ betwe5 two l9es direct$ f ! eye to two opposite 8limbs0 or edges ( ! moon4 ,if1 = in/ance1 we 7 to take a pair ( compasses &1 plac+ ! jo9t at ! eye1 op5 out ! legs till ! two po9ts appe> to t\* two opposite edges ( ! moon1 ! two legs w\ld be incl9$ at an angle :i* w\ld repres5t ! diamet] ( ! moon1 & ?is angle we c\ld measure by apply+ a divid$ arc or protractor to ! compasses4 ,9 practice ?is measurem5t is made by means ( telescopes atta*$ to accurately divid$ circles2 ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! read+s ( ! circle :5 ! telescope is direct$ to opposite limbs ( ! moon giv+ its angul> diamet] at ! "t ( ! obs]vation4 ,b f ! fact t ! orbit ( ! moon is an ellipse1 x is evid5t t %e is at "s times mu* ne>] to u ?an at o!rs1 &1 z a consequ5ce1 h] app>5t magnitude is v>iable3 !re is also a slight v>iation dep5d+ ^u ! altitude ( ! moon at ! "t ( ! measure2 ! mean diamet]1 h[ev]1 or ! diamet] at mean di/ance f ! c5tre ( ! e>? has1 f long c\rse ( obs]vation1 be5 f\nd to be #ca #i4 ,to conv]t ?is app>5t angul> diamet] into real l9e> measurem5t1 x is necess>y to "k ei!r ! di/ance ( ! moon f ! e>?1 or 9 a/ronomical language z lead+ to a k ( t di/ance1 :at is ! am\nt ( ! moon's p>allax4 ,p>allax1 g5]ally1 is an app>5t *ange ( position ( an object aris+ f *ange ( ! po9t ( view4 ,! p>allax ( a heav5ly body is ! angle :i* ! e>? w\ld subt5d if x 7 se5 f t body4 ,suppos+ an obs]v] on ! moon c\ld measure ! e>?'s angul> diamet]1 j z we measure t ( ! moon1 8 measurem5t w\ld repres5t :at is call$ ! p>allax ( ! moon4 ,b we _c g to ! moon to make su* a measurem5t2 nev]!less !re is a simple me?od1 expla9$ 9 mo/ treatises on a/ronomy1 :i* consi/s 9 obs]v+ ! moon f /ations on ! e>? widely sep>at$1 & by :i* we c obta9 a precisely simil> result4 ,)\t detail+ ! process1 x is suffici5t = u to "k t ! angle :i* w\ld be subt5d$ by ! e>? if se5 f ! moon1 or ! moon's p>allax1 is accord+ to ! late/ det]m9ation1 equal to #a #ed #e4 ,?is value1 h[ev]1 v>ies consid]ably ) ! v>iations ( di/ance due to ! elliptic orbit ( ! moon3 ! numb] we h giv5 repres5ts ! mean p>allax1 or ! p>allax at mean di/ance4 ,b we h to turn ^! angul> measurem5ts into miles4 ,to effect ?is we h only to "w a simple rule ( ?ree sum4 ,x w easily be und]/ood t1 z ! angul> diamet] ( ! e>? se5 f ! moon is to ! angul> diamet] ( ! moon se5 f ! e>?1 s is ! diamet] ( ! e>? 9 miles to ! diamet] ( ! moon 9 miles4 ,! diamet] ( ! e>? we "k to be #giab miles3 putt+ ?is !re=e 9 its prop] place 9 ! proportion sum1 & duly work+ x out by ! s*oolboy's rule1 we get3-- #a4 #ed4 #e 3 #ca4 #i 33 #giab miles4 3 #bafj miles4 ,& #bafj miles is !re=e ! diamet] ( ! lun> globe4 ,kn[+ ! diamet]1 we c easily obta9 ! o!r elem5ts ( magnitude4 ,accord+ to ! well-kn[n relation ( ! diamet] ( a sph]e to its area1 we f9d ! area ( ! moon to be #ad1feg1jjj squ>e miles3 or half t numb]1 #g1cbh1ejj miles1 z ! area ( ! hemisph]e at any "o "t pres5t$ to our view4 ,& simil>ly1 f ! relation ( ! solidity ( a sph]e to its diamet]1 we f9d ! solid cont5ts ( ! moon to be #ebgf millions ( cubic miles ( matt]4 ,comp>+ ^! data ) correspond+ dim5sions ( ! e>?1 we f9d t ! diamet] ( ! moon is #a_/cffe2 ! area #a_/acdbde2 & ! volume #a_/diahfe1 ( ! respective elem5ts ( ! e>?4 ,^? :o pref] a graphical to a num]ical comp>ison1 may judge ( ! sizes ( ! two bodies by ! accompany+ illu/ration 7,fig4 #aj74 ,to ga9 an idea ( _! di/ance f ea* o!r x is necess>y to suppose ! two discs 9 ! diagram to be #cj in*es ap>t2 ! real di/ance ( ! moon f ! e>? be+ ab\t #bch1gij miles at its mean position4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aj4 ,next1 we come to :at is te*nically t]m$ ! mass1 b :at 9 common language we may call ! weight ( ! moon4 ,x is important to "k ?is1 because ! weight ( a body tak5 9 connection ) its size furni%es u ) a k ( its d5sity1 or ! specific gravity ( ! mat]ial ( :i* x is compos$4 ,b x is n q s easy to det]m9e ! mass z ! dim5sions ( ! moon3 to measure x1 we h se5 is easy en\gh2 to weigh x is a comp>atively difficult matt]4 ,to solve ! problem we h to appeal to ,newton's law ( univ]sal gravitation4 ,?is law tea*es u t e p>ticle ( matt] 9 ! univ]se attracts e o!r p>ticle ) a =ce :i* is directly proportional to ! mass1 & inv]sely proportional to ! di/ance ( ! attract+ p>ticles4 ,!re are sev]al me?ods by :i* ?is law is appli$ to ! measurem5t ( ! mass ( ! moon4 ,"o ( ! simple/ is by ! ag5cy ( ! ,tides4 ,we "k t ! moon1 attract+ ! wat]s1 produces a c]ta9 am\nt ( elevation ( ! aque\s cov]+ ( ! e>?2 & we "k t ! sun produces also a l elevation1 b to a mu* small] ext5t1 by reason ( its mu* great] di/ance4 ,n[ measur+ accurately ! heights ( ! sol> & lun> tides1 & mak+ all[ance = ! diff]5ce ( di/ance ( ! sun & moon f ! e>?1 we c comp>e directly ! effect t is due to ! sun ) ! effect t is due to ! moon3 & s9ce ! masses ( ! two bodies are j 9 proportion to ! effects !y produce1 x is evid5t t we h a comp>ison betwe5 ! mass ( ! sun & t ( ! moon2 & kn[+ :at is ! sun's mass we c1 by simple proportion1 f9d t ( ! moon4 ,ano!r me?od is z foll[s3--,! moon is reta9$ 9 h] orbital pa? by ! attraction ( ! e>?2 if x 7 n = ?is attraction %e w\ld fly (f f h] c\rse 9 a tang5tial l9e4 ,%e has ?us a con/ant t5d5cy to quit h] orbit1 :i* ! e>?'s attraction z con/antly ov]comes4 ,x is evid5t f ?is t ! e>? pulls ! moon t[>ds itself by a def9ite am\nt 9 e second ( "t4 ,b :ile ! e>? is pull+ ! moon1 ! moon is also pull+ ! e>?3 !y are pull+ ea* o!r toge!r2 & moreov] ea* is ex]t+ a pull :i* is proportional to its mass4 ,kn[+1 !n1 ! mass ( ! e>?1 :i* we d ) consid]able accuracy1 we c f9d :at %>e ( ! :ole pull+ =ce is due to x1 ! residue be+ ! moon's %>e3 ! proportion :i* ?is residue be>s to ! e>?'s %>e gives u ! proportion ( ! moon's mass to t ( ! e>?1 & h5ce ! mass ( ! moon4 ,!re are yet two o!r me?ods3 "o dep5d+ ^u ! ph5om5a ( nutation1 or ! attraction ( ! sun & moon ^u ! protrub]ant matt] ( ! t]re/rial sph]oid2 & ! o!r ^u a displacem5t ( ! c5tre ( gravity ( ! e>? & moon1 :i* %[s itself 9 obs]vations ( ! sun4 ,by ea* & all ( ^! me?ods has ! lun> mass be5 at v>i\s times det]m9$1 & x has be5 f\nd1 z ! late/ & be/ accept$ value1 t ! mass ( ! moon is "o-eightie? t ( ! e>?4 ,f ! kn[n diamet] ( ! e>? we asc]ta9 t its volume is #bei1cfj millions ( cubic miles3 & f ! v>i\s exp]im5ts t h be5 made to det]m9e ! mean d5sity ( ! e>?1 x has be5 f\nd t t mean d5sity is ab\t #e times t ( wat]2 t is to say1 ! e>? weighs #e times heavi] ?an w\ld a sph]e ( wat] ( equal size4 ,n[ a cubic foot ( wat] weighs #fbcbaa p\nds1 & f ?is we c f9d by simple multiplication :at is ! weight ( a cubic mile ( wat]1 &1 simil>ly1 :at w\ld be ! weight ( #bei1cfj cubic miles ( wat]1 & ! la/ result multipli$ by #e w give ! weight ( ! e>? 9 tons3 ,! calculation1 al?\gh extremely simple1 involves a confus+ heap ( figures2 b ! result1 :i* is all t conc]ns u1 is1 t ! weight ( ! e>? is #ehdb trillions ( tons3 & s9ce1 z we h above /at$1 ! mass ( ! e>? is #hj times t ( ! moon1 x foll[s t ! weight ( ! moon is #gc trillions ( tons4 ,! cubical cont5ts ( a body comp>$ ) its weight gives u its d5sity4 ,9 ! moon we h #ebgf millions ( cubic miles ( matt]1 ! total weight ( :i* is #gc trillions ( tons4 ,n[1 #ebgf millions ( cubic miles ( wat] w\ld weigh ab\t #ba trillions ( tons2 & z ?is numb] is to #gc z #a is to #cd1 x is cle> t ! d5sity ( ! lun> matt] is #cd great] ?an wat]3 & inasmu* z ! e>? is #e times d5s] ?an wat]1 we see t ! moon is ab\t #jfb z d5se z ! e>?1 or t ! mat]ial ( ! moon is light]1 bulk = bulk1 ?an ! mean mat]ial ( ! t]raque\s globe 9 ! proportion ( #fb to #ajj1 or1 ne>ly1 #f to #aj4 ,?is specific gravity ( ! lun> mat]ial 7#cd7 we may rem>k is ab\t ! same z t ( fl9t glass or ! diamond3 & curi\sly en\gh x ne>ly co9cides ) t ( "s ( ! arolites t h f "t to "t fall5 to ! e>?2 h5ce support has be5 claim$ = ! !ory t ^! bodies 7 orig9ally fragm5ts ( lun> matt]1 probably eject$ at "s "t f ! lun> volcanoes ) su* =ce z to propel !m s f> )9 ! sph]e ( ! e>?'s attraction t !y h ultimately be5 drawn to its surface4 ,rev]t+1 n[1 to ! mass ( ! moon3 we mu/ be> 9 m9d t ! mass or weight ( a planet>y body det]m9es ! weight ( all objects on its surface4 ,:at we call a p\nd on ! e>?1 w\ld n be a p\nd on ! moon2 = ! foll[+ reason3--,:5 we say t su* & su* an object weighs s mu*1 we really mean t x is attract$ t[>ds ! e>? ) a c]ta9 =ce dep5d+ ^u its own weight4 ,?is attraction we call gravity2 & ! fall+ ( a weight to ! e>? is an example ( ! action ( ! law ( univ]sal gravitation4 ,! e>? & ! weight fall toge!r--or are held toge!r if ! weight is 9 contact ) ! e>?--) a =ce :i* dep5ds directly ^u ! mass ( ! two1 & ^u ! di/ance betwe5 !m4 ,newton prov$ t ! attraction ( a sph]e ^u ext]nal objects is precisely z if ! :ole ( its matt] 7 conta9$ at its c5tre4 ,s t ! attractive =ce ( ! e>? ^u a ton weight at its surface1 is ! attraction :i* #ehdb trillions ( tons ex]t ^u "o ton situat$ #cief miles 7! radius ( ! e>?7 di/ant4 ,if ! weight ( ! e>? 7 only half ! above quantity1 x is cle> t ! attraction w\ld be only half :at x is2 & h5ce ! ton weight1 be+ pull$ by only half ! =ce1 w\ld only be equal to half a ton2 t is to say1 only half z mu* muscul> =ce 7or any o!r =ce b gravity7 w\ld be requir$ to lift x4 ,x is pla91 !re=e1 t :at weighs a p\nd on ! e>? c\ld n weigh a p\nd on ! moon1 :i* is only #a_/hj ( ! weight ( ! e>?4 ,:at1 !n1 is ! relation betwe5 a p\nd on ! e>? & ! same mass ( matt] on ! moon8 ,x w\ld seem1 s9ce ! moon's mass is #a_/hj ( ! e>?1 t ! p\nd transport$ to ! moon ought to weigh ! eightie? "p ( a p\nd !re2 & s x w\ld if ! di/ance f ! c5tre ( ! moon to its surface 7 ! same z ! di/ance ( ! c5tre ( ! e>? f its surface4 ,b ! radius ( ! moon is only #a_/cffe t ( ! e>?2 & ! =ce ( gravity v>ies inv]sely z ! squ>e ( ! di/ance betwe5 ! c5tres ( ! gravitat+ masses4 ,s t ! attraction by ! moon ( a body at its surface1 z comp>$ ) t ( ! e>?1 is #a_/hj multipli$ by ! squ>e ( #a_/cffe2 & ?is1 work$ out1 is equal to #a_/f4 ,! =ce ( gravity ^u ! moon is1 !re=e1 #a_/f ( t on ! e>?2 & h5ce a p\nd ^u ! e>? w\ld be little m ?an #b ounces on ! moon2 & x foll[s z a consequ5ce t any =ce1 su* z muscul> ex]tion1 or ! en]gy ( *emical1 plutonic or explosive =ces1 w\ld be six times m effective ^u ! moon ?an ^u ! e>?4 ,a man :o c\ld jump six feet f ! e>?1 c\ld ) ! same muscul> ef=t jump ?irty-six feet f ! moon2 ! explosive en]gy t w\ld project a body a mile above ! e>? w\ld project a l body six miles above ! surface ( ! moon4 ,x is ! practice1 9 elem5t>y & popul> treatises on a/ronomy1 to /ate m]ely ! num]ical results 9 giv+ data su* z ^? embodi$ 9 ! =ego+ pages2 & un9itiat$ read]s1 n kn[+ ! means by :i* ! figures are arriv$ at1 are sometimes dispos$ to reg>d !m ) a c]ta9 am\nt ( d\bt or unc]ta9ty4 ,on ?is acc\nt we h ?\ght x advisable to give1 9 z brief & concise a =m z possible1 ! v>i\s /eps by :i* ^! seem+ly unatta9able results are obta9$4 ,! data expla9$ 9 ! =ego+ text are "h collect$ to facilitate ref]5ce4 ,diamet] ( ,moon #bafj miles #a_/cffe t ( e>?4 ,area #ad1feg1jjj squ>e miles #a_/acdbd 0 0 ,area ( ! #g1cbh1ejj squ>e miles visible hemisph]e ,solid cont5ts #ebgf millions ( cubic miles #a_/diahf 0 0 ,mass #gc trillions ( tons #a_/hj 0 0 ,d5sity #cci 7wat] #a7 #jfb 0 0 ,=ce ( #a_/f 0 0 gravity at surface ,mean di/ance #bch1gij miles4 f e>? ,,*apt] ,v4 ,,on ,,! ,,exi/5ce ,,or ,,non-,,exi/5ce ,,( ,a ,,lun> ,,atmosph]e4 ,at ! close ( ! prec$+ *apt] we /at$ t any =ce act+ 9 opposition to t ( gravity w\ld be six times m effective on ! moon ?an on ! e>?4 ,b1 9 fact1 x w\ld 9 _m cases be /ill m s2 at all ev5ts1 s f> z projectile =ces are conc]n$2 = ! reason t 8! p[]ful co]c] ( projectile range10 z ! e>?'s atmosph]e has be5 t]m$1 has no c\nt]p>t1 or at mo/ a v disproportionate "o1 ^u ! moon4 ,! exi/5ce ( an atmosph]e surr\nd+ ! moon has be5 ! subject ( consid]able controv]sy1 & a great deal ( evid5ce on bo? sides ( ! "q has be5 (f]$ f "t to "t1 & is to be f\nd scatt]$ ?r\gh ! records ( v>i\s classes ( obs]vations4 ,"s ( ! m important items ( ?is evid5ce x is our purpose to set =? 9 ! c\rse ( ! pres5t *apt]4 ,) ! ph5om5a ( ! t]re/rial atmosph]e1 ) ! effects t are attributable to x1 we are all well famili>1 & our be/ c\rse !re=e is to exam9e1 z f> z we are able1 :e!r c\nt]p>ts ( any ( ^! effects are manife/$ ^u ! moon4 ,= in/ance1 ! cl\ds t are g5]at$ 9 & float ?r\gh our air w\ld1 to an obs]v] on ! moon1 appe> z ev] *ang+ bright or dusky spots1 oblit]at+ c]ta9 ( ! p]man5t details ( ! e>?'s surface1 & probably skirt+ ! t]re/rial disc1 l ! *ang+ belts we p]ceive on ! planet ,jupit]1 or div]sify+ its features ) less regul>ity1 aft] ! mann] exhibit$ by ! planet ,m>s4 ,if su* cl\ds exi/$ on ! moon x is evid5t t ! details ( its surface mu/ be1 f "t to "t1 simil>ly obscur$2 b no trace ( su* obscuration has ev] be5 detect$4 ,:5 ! moon is obs]v$ ) high telescopic p[]s1 all its details come out %>p & cle>1 )\t ! lea/ appe>ance ( *ange or ! slighte/ symptoms ( cl\d9ess o!r ?an ! occasional want ( g5]al def9ition1 :i* may be prov$ to be ! result ( un/ead9ess or want ( homog5eity 9 our own atmosph]e2 = we mu/ tell ! un9itiat$ t nights ( pure1 good def9ition1 su* z give ! a/ronom] opportunity ( exam9+ ) high p[]s ! m9ute details ( planet>y features1 are v few & f> betwe54 ,out ( ! ?ree hundr$ & sixty-five nights ( a ye> !re are probably n a doz5 t an a/ronom] c call really f9e3 usually1 ev5 on nights t are to all common appe>ance sup]bly brilliant1 "s /rata ( air ( diff]5t d5sities or temp]atures1 or 9 rapid motion1 int]v5e betwe5 ! obs]v] & ! object ( 8 obs]vation1 & ?r\gh ^!1 ow+ to ! ev]-*ang+ refractions :i* ! rays ( light com+ f ! object suff] 9 _! c\rse1 obs]vation ( ! delicate m>k+s ( a planet is impossible3 all is blurr$ & confus$1 & no?+ b bold] features c be recogniz$4 ,x has 9 consequ5ce sometimes happ5$ t a slight indi/9ctness ( "s m9ute detail ( ! moon has be5 attribut$ to cl\ds or mi/s at ! lun> surface1 :]eas ! real cause has be5 only a bad condition ( our own atmosph]e4 ,x may be confid5tly ass]t$ t :5 all indi/9ctness due to t]re/rial causes is tak5 acc\nt ( or elim9at$1 !re rema9 no traces :atev] ( any cl\ds or mi/s ^u ! surface ( ! moon4 ,?is is b "o pro( aga9/ ! exi/5ce ( a lun> atmosph]e1 &1 x may be argu$1 n a v conclusive "o2 because !re may /ill be an atmosph]e1 ?\gh x be n suffici5tly aque\s to cond5se into cl\ds & n suffici5tly d5se to obscure ! lun> details4 ,! probable exi/5ce ( an atmosph]e ( su* a "* us$ to be inf]r$ f a ph5om5on se5 dur+ total eclipses ( ! sun4 ,on ^! occasions ! black body ( ! moon is inv>iably surr\nd$ by a lum9\s halo1 or glory1 to :i* ! "n 8corona0 has be5 appli$2 &1 fur!r1 besides ?is corona1 app>5tly float+ 9 x & sometimes seem+ly atta*$ to ! black edge ( ! moon1 are se5 masses ( cl\d-l matt] ( a bright r$ col\r1 :i*1 f ! =m 9 :i* !y 7 fir/ se5 & f _! flame-l t+e1 h become univ]sally kn[n z ! 8r$-flames40 ,x us$ to be said t ?is corona c\ld only be ! consequ5ce ( a lun> atmosph]e lit up z x 7 by ! sun's rays %9+ ?r\gh x1 aft] ! mann] ( a sunbeam light+ up ! atmosph]e ( a du/y *amb]2 & ! r$ flames 7 held by ^? :o fir/ obs]v$ !m to be cl\ds ( d5s] matt] float+ 9 ! said atmosph]e1 & refract+ ! r$ rays ( sol> light z our own cl\ds are se5 to d at sunrise & sunset4 ,b ! evid5ce obta9$1 bo? by simple telescopic obs]vation & by ! spectroscope1 f rec5t ext5sively obs]v$ eclipses ( ! sun has set ?is "q q at re/2 = x has be5 settl$ f9ally & indisputably t bo? ! above appe>ances p]ta9 to ! sun1 & h no?+ :atev] to d ) ! moon4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aa4 ,! occurr5ce ( a sol> eclipse (f]s o!r means 9 addition to ! =ego+ :]eby a lun> atmosph]e w\ld be detect$4 ,we "k t all gases & vap\rs absorb "s portion ( any light :i* may %9e ?r\gh !m4 ,if !n our satellite _h an atmosph]e1 its black nucleus :5 se5 project$ aga9/ ! bright sun 9 an eclipse w\ld be surr\nd$ by a sort ( p5umbra1 or zone ( %ad[1 9 contact ) its edge1 some:at l t we h %[n 9 an exagg]at$ degree 9 ! annex$ cut 7,fig4 #aa71 & ! passage ( ?is p5umbra ov] sol> spots & o!r features ( ! sol> photosph]e w\ld to "s ext5t obscure ! m m9ute details ( su* features4 ,no su* dusky b& has h[ev] be5 at any "t obs]v$4 ,on ! contr>y1 a b& some:at bright] ?an ! g5]al surface ( ! sun has frequ5tly be5 se5 9 contact ) ! black edge ( ! moon3 ?is 9 its turn 0 held to indicate an atmosph]e ab\t ! moon2 b ,sir ,george ,airy has %[n t a lun> atmosph]e1 if x really did exi/1 c\ld n produce su* an appe>ance1 & t ! cause ( x mu/ be s\ght 9 o!r directions4 ,if ?is effect 7 really due to ! passage ( ! sol> rays ?r\gh a lun> atmosph]e a simil> effect ought to be produc$ by ! passage ( ! sun's rays ?r\gh ! t]re/rial atmosph]e3 & we might h5ce expect to see ! %ad[ ( ! e>? project$ on ! moon dur+ a lun> eclipse surr\nd$ by a sort ( bright zone or halo3 we ne$ h>dly say su* an appe>ance has nev] manife/$ itself4 ,simil>ly z we /at$ t ! delicate details ( sol> spots w\ld be obscur$ by a lun> atmosph]e1 small />s pass+ beh9d ! moon w\ld suff] "s dim9ution 9 brightness z !y approa*$ app>5t contact ) ! moon's edge3 ?is fad+ has be5 wat*$ = on _m occasions1 & 9 a few cases su* an appe>ance has be5 suspect$1 b 9 by f> ! majority ( in/ances no?+ l a dim9ution ( brightness or *ange ( col\r ( ! />s has be5 se52 />s ( ! smalle/ magnitude visible "u su* circum/ances reta9 _! feeble lu/re unimpair$ up to ! mom5t ( _! disappe>ance beh9d ! moon's limb4 ,aga91 9 a sol> eclipse1 ev5 if !re 7 an atmosph]e ab\t ! moon n suffici5tly d5se to =m a hazy outl9e or impair ! di/9ctness ( ! details ( a sol> spot1 x w\ld /ill manife/ its exi/5ce 9 ano!r way4 ,z ! moon advances ^u ! sun's disc ! latt] assumes1 ( c\rse1 a cresc5t =m4 ,n[ if air or vap\r envelop$ ! moon1 ! exce$+ly delicate cusps ( ?is cresc5t w\ld be di/ort$ or turn$ out ( %ape4 ,in/ead ( rema9+ symmetrical1 l ! l[] "o 9 ! annex$ draw+ 7,fig4 #ab71 !y w\ld be b5t or de=m$ aft] ! mann] we h %[n 9 ! upp] "o4 ,! slighte/ symptom ( a di/ortion l ?is c\ld n fail to obtrude itself ^u an obs]v]'s eye2 b 9 no in/ance has any?+ ( ! k9d be5 se54 ,rev]t+ to ! consequ5ces ( ! t]re/rial atmosph]e3 "o ( ! mo/ /rik+ ( ^! is ! ph5om5on ( diffus$ daylight1 :i* we ne$ h>dly rem9d ! read] is produc$ by ! scatt]+ or diffusion ( ! sun's rays among ! m9ute p>ticles ( vap\r compos+ or conta9$ 9 t atmosph]e4 ,7 x n = ?is reflexion & diffusion ( ! sun's light1 ^? p>ts ( our e>? n expos$ to direct sun%9e w\ld be hidd5 9 d>kness1 receiv+ no illum9ation beyond ! feeble am\nt t might be reflect$ f proximate t]re/rial objects actually illum9at$ by direct sunlight4 ,twilight is a consequ5ce ( ?is reflexion ( light by ! atmosph]e :5 ! sun is bel[ ! horizon4 ,if1 !n1 an atmosph]e envelop$ ! moon1 we %\ld see by diffus$ light ^? p>ts ( ! lun> details t are n receiv+ ! direct sol> beams2 & be=e ! sun rose & aft] x _h set ^u any region ( ! moon1 t region w\ld /ill be p>tially illum9at$ by a twilight4 ,b1 on ! contr>y1 ! %ad[$ portions ( a lun> l&scape are pit*y black1 )\t a trace ( diffus$-light illum9ation1 & ! effects t a twilight w\ld produce are entirely abs5t f ! moon4 ,once1 inde$1 "o obs]v]1 ,s*roet]1 notic$ some?+ :i* he suspect$ 0 due to an effect ( ?is k9d3 :5 ! moon exhibit$ itself z a v sl5d] cresc5t1 he discov]$ a fa9t crepuscul> light1 ext5d+ f ea* ( ! cusps along ! circumf]5ce ( ! un5light5$ "p ( ! disc1 & he inf]r$ f e/imates ( ! l5g? & bread? ( ! l9e ( light t !re 0 an atmosph]e ab\t ! moon ( #ecgf feet 9 height4 ,?is is ! only in/ance on record1 we believe1 ( su* an appe>ance be+ se54 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ab4 ,spectrum analysis w\ld also betray ! exi/5ce ( a lun> atmosph]e4 ,! sol> rays fall+ on ! moon are reflect$ f its surface to ! e>?4 ,if1 !n1 an atmosph]e exi/$1 x is pla9 t ! sol> rays mu/ fir/ pass ?r\gh su* atmosph]e to rea* ! reflect+ surface1 & return+ f !nce1 aga9 pass ?r\gh x on _! way to ! e>?2 s t !y mu/ 9 reality pass ?r\gh virtually twice ! ?ickness ( any atmosph]e t may cov] ! moon4 ,& if !re be any su* atmosph]e1 ! spectrum =m$ by ! moon's light1 t is1 by ! sun's light reflect$ f ! moon1 w\ld be modifi$ 9 su* a mann] z to exhibit absorption-l9es diff]5t f ^? f\nd 9 ! spectrum ( ! direct sol> rays1 j z ! absorption-l9es v>y accord+ z ! sun's rays h to pass ?r\gh a ?9n] or a d5s] /ratum ( ! t]re/rial atmosph]e4 ,guid$ by ?is reason+1 ,drs4 ,hugg9s & ,mill] made num]\s obs]vations ^u ! spectrum ( ! moon's light1 :i* are detail$ 9 ! 8,philosophical ,transactions0 = ! ye> #ahfd2 & _! result1 quot+ ! words ( ! report1 0 8t ! spectrum analysis ( ! light reflect$ f ! moon is :olly negative z to ! exi/5ce ( any consid]able lun> atmosph]e40 ,^u ano!r occasion1 ,dr4 ,hugg9s made an analog\s obs]vation ( ! spectrum ( a /> at ! mom5t ( its occultation1 :i* obs]vation he records 9 ! foll[+ words3--8,:5 an obs]vation is made ( ! spectrum ( a /> a little be=e1 or at ! mom5t ( its occultation by ! d>k limb ( ! moon1 sev]al ph5om5a *>act]i/ic ( ! passage ( ! />'s light ?r\gh an atmosph]e might possibly pres5t !mselves to ! obs]v]4 ,if a lun> atmosph]e exi/1 :i* ei!r by ! sub/ances ( :i* x is compos$1 or by ! vap\rs diffus$ ?r\gh x1 c ex]t a selective absorption ^u ! />'s light1 ?is absorption w\ld be indicat$ to u by ! appe>ance 9 ! spectrum ( new d>k l9es imm$iately be=e ! /> is occult$ by ! moon40 8,if f9ely divid$ matt]1 aque\s or o!rwise1 7 pres5t ab\t ! moon1 ! r$ rays ( ! />'s light w\ld be enfeebl$ 9 a small] degree ?an ! rays ( high] refrangibilities40 8,if !re be ab\t ! moon an atmosph]e free f vap\r1 & possess+ no absorptive p[]1 b ( "s d5sity1 !n ! spectrum w\ld n be ext+ui%$ by ! moon's limb at ! same in/ant ?r\gh\t its l5g?4 ,! viol5t & blue rays w\ld lay beh9d ! r$ rays40 8,i c>efully obs]v$ ! disappe>ance ( ! spectrum ( ,piscium at its occultation ( ,janu>y #d1 #ahfe1 = ^! ph5om5a2 b no signs ( a lun> atmosph]e 7 detect$40 ,b p]haps ! /ronge/ evid5ce ( ! non-exi/5ce ( any appreciable lun> atmosph]e is af=d$ by ! non-refraction ( ! light ( a /> pass+ beh9d ! edge ( ! lun> disc4 ,refraction1 we "k1 is a b5d+ ( ! rays ( light com+ f any object1 caus$ by _! passage ?r\gh /rata ( transp>5t matt] ( diff]5t d5sities2 we h a famili> example 9 ! app>5t b5d+ ( a /ick :5 half plung$ into wat]4 ,!re is a simple s*oolboy's exp]im5t :i* illu/rates refraction 9 a v cog5t mann]1 b :i* we %\ld1 f its v simplicity1 hesitate to recall to ! read]'s m9d did x n v aptly repres5t ! actual case we wi% to exemplify4 ,a co9 is plac$ on ! bottom ( an empty bas91 & ! eye is br\ght into su* a position t ! co9 is j hidd5 beh9d ! bas9's rim4 ,wat] is !n p\r$ into ! bas9 &1 )\t ! eye be+ mov$ f its =m] place1 z ! dep? ( wat] increases1 ! co9 is br\ght by degrees fully into view2 ! wat] refract+ or turn+ out ( _! c\rse ! rays ( light com+ f ! co91 & lift+ !m1 z x 71 ov] ! edge ( ! bas94 ,n[ a p]fectly simil> ph5om5on takes place at e sunrise & sunset on ! e>?4 ,:5 ! sun is really bel[ ! horizon1 x is nev]!less /ill visible to u because x is br\ght up by ! refraction ( its light by ! d5se /ratum ( atmosph]e ?r\gh :i* ! rays h to pass4 ,! sun is1 !re=e1 exactly repres5t$ by ! co9 at ! bottom ( ! bas9 9 ! boy's exp]im5t1 ! atmosph]e answ]s to ! wat]1 & ! horizon to ! rim or edge ( ! bas94 ,if !re 7 no atmosph]e ab\t ! e>?1 ! sun w\ld n be s br\ght up above ! horizon1 &1 z a consequ5ce1 x w\ld set e>li] & rise lat] by ab\t a m9ute ?an x really does4 ,?is1 ( c\rse1 applies n m]ely to ! sun1 b to all cele/ial bodies t rise & set4 ,e planet & e /> rema9s a %ort] "t bel[ ! horizon ?an x w\ld if !re 7 no atmosph]e surr\nd+ ! e>?4 ,to apply ?is to ! po9t we are discuss+4 ,! moon 9 h] orbital c\rse across ! heav5s is cont9ually pass+ be=e1 or occult+1 "s ( ! />s t s ?ickly /ud h] app>5t pa?4 ,& :5 we see a /> ?us pass beh9d ! lun> disc on "o side & come out aga9 on ! o!r side1 we are virtually obs]v+ ! sett+ & ris+ ( t /> ^u ! moon4 ,if1 !n1 ! moon _h an atmosph]e1 x is cle>1 f analogy to ! case ( ! e>?1 t ! /> mu/ disappe> lat] & reappe> soon] ?an if x has no atmosph]e3 j z a /> rema9s too %ort a "t bel[ ! e>?'s horizon1 or beh9d ! e>?1 9 consequ5ce ( ! t]re/rial atmosph]e1 s w\ld a /> rema9 too %ort a "t beh9d ! moon if an atmosph]e surr\nd$ t body4 ,! po9t is settl$ 9 ?is way3--,! moon's app>5t diamet] has be5 measur$ ov] & ov] aga9 & is kn[n ) great accuracy2 ! rate ( h] motion across ! sky is also kn[n ) p]fect accuracy3 h5ce x is easy to calculate h[ long ! moon w take to travel across a "p ( ! sky exactly equal 9 l5g? to h] own diamet]4 ,suppos+1 !n1 t we obs]ve a /> pass beh9d ! moon & out aga91 x is cle> t1 if !re be no atmosph]e1 ! int]val ( "t dur+ :i* x rema9s occult$ ought to be exactly equal to ! comput$ "t :i* ! moon w\ld take to pass ov] ! />4 ,if1 h[ev]1 f ! exi/5ce ( a lun> atmosph]e1 ! /> disappe>s too late & reappe>s too soon1 z we h se5 x w\ld1 ^! two int]vals w n agree2 ! comput$ "t w be great] ?an ! obs]v$ "t1 & ! diff]5ce1 if any !re be1 w repres5t ! am\nt ( refraction ! />'s light has su/a9$ or suff]$1 & h5ce ! ext5t ( atmosph]e x has _h to pass ?r\gh4 ,comp>isons ( ^! two int]vals ( "t h be5 repeat$ly made1 ! mo/ rec5t & mo/ ext5sive 0 execut$ "u ! direction ( ! ,a/ronom]-,royal sev]al ye>s ago1 & x 0 bas$ ^u no less ?an #bif occultation obs]vations4 ,9 ?is det]m9ation ! measur$ or telescopic semidiamet] ( ! moon 0 comp>$ ) ! semidiamet] d$uc$ f ! occultations1 ^u ! above pr9ciple1 & x 0 f\nd t ! telescopic semidiamet] 0 great] ?an ! occultation semidiamet] by two seconds ( angul> measurem5t or by ab\t a ?\s&? "p ( ! :ole diamet] ( ! moon4 ,sir ,george ,airy1 comm5t+ on ?is result1 says t x appe>s to him t ! orig9 ( ?is diff]5ce is to be s\ght 9 "o ( two causes4 8,ei!r x is due to irradiation#c ( ! telescopic semidiamet]1 & ,i d n d\bt t a "p at lea/ ( ! two seconds is to be ascrib$ to t cause2 or x may be due to refraction by ! moon's atmosph]e4 ,if ! :ole two seconds 7 caus$ by atmosph]ic refraction ?is w\ld imply a horizontal refraction ( "o second1 :i* is only #a_/bjjj "p ( ! e>?'s horizontal refraction4 ,x is possible t an atmosph]e compet5t to produce ?is refraction w\ld n make itself visible 9 any o!r way40 ,?is result accords well1 consid]+ ! relative accuracy ( ! means employ$1 ) t obta9$ a c5tury ago by ! ,fr5* a/ronom] ,du ,sj\r1 :o made a rigor\s exam9ation ( ! subject f\nd$ on obs]vations ( ! sol> eclipse ( #agfd4 ,he conclud$ t ! horizontal refraction produc$ by a possible lun> atmosph]e am\nt$ to #ae--;a second & a half--or ab\t #a_/adjj ( t produc$ by ! e>?'s atmosph]e4 ,! great] weight is ( c\rse to be all[$ to ! m rec5t det]m9ation 9 consid]ation ( ! l>ge numb] ( accurate obs]vations ^u :i* x 0 bas$4 ,b an atmosph]e #b1jjj times r>] ?an our air c sc>cely be reg>d$ z an atmosph]e at all4 ,! cont5ts ( an air-pump receiv] c seldom be r>efi$ to a great] ext5t ?an to ab\t #a_/ajjj ( ! d5sity ( air at ! e>?'s surface1 ) ! be/ ( pneumatic ma*9es2 & ! lun> atmosph]e1 if x exi/ at all1 is ?us prov$ to be twice z att5uat$ z :at we are accu/om$ to recognise z a vacuum4 ,9 discuss+ ! physical ph5om5a ( ! lun> surface1 we are1 !re=e1 p]fectly ju/ifi$ 9 omitt+ all consid]ations ( an atmosph]e1 & adapt+ our argum5ts to ! non-exi/5ce ( su* an app5dage4 ,& if !re be no air ^u ! moon1 we are almo/ =c$ to conclude t !re c be no wat]2 = if wat] cov]$ any "p ( ! lun> globe x mu/ be vap\ris$ "u ! influ5ce ( ! long p]iod ( un9t]rupt$ sun%9e 7upw>ds ( #cjj h\rs7 t con/itutes ! lun> day1 & w\ld manife/ itself 9 ! =m ( cl\ds or mi/s obscur+ c]ta9 p>ts ( ! surface4 ,b1 z we h already said1 no su* oblit]ation ( details ev] takes place2 &1 z we h fur!r se51 no evid5ce ( aque\s vap\r is manife/$ ^u ! occasion ( spectrum obs]vations4 ,s9ce1 !n1 ! effects ( wat]y vap\r are abs5t1 we are =c$ to conclude t ! cause is abs5t also4 ,^? p>ts ( ! moon :i* ! anci5t a/ronom]s assum$1 f _! comp>atively smoo? & dusky appe>ance1 to be seas1 h long s9ce be5 discov]$ to be m]ely ext5sive regions ( less reflective surface mat]ial2 = ! telescope reveals to u irregul>ities & asp]ities cov]+ well nigh ! :ole ( !m1 :i* asp]ities c\ld n be se5 if !y 7 cov]$ ) wat]2 unless1 inde$1 we admit ! possibility ( see+ to ! bottom ( ! wat]1 n only p]p5dicul>ly1 b obliquely4 ,"s obs]v]s h notic$ features t h l$ !m to suppose t wat] 0 at "o "t pres5t ^u ! moon1 & has left its traces 9 ! =m ( appe>ances ( erosive action 9 "s p>ts4 ,b if wat] ev] exi/$1 :]e is x n[8 ,"o writ]1 x is true1 has sugge/$ z possible1 t :atev] air1 & we presume he w\ld include :atev] wat] also1 ! moon may possess1 is hidd5 away 9 sublun>ean caves & holl[s2 b ev5 if wat] exi/$ 9 ^! places x mu/ sometimes assume ! vap\ry =m1 & ?us make its pres5ce kn[n4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ac4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ad4 ,sir ,john ,h]s*el po9t$ out t if any moi/ure exi/s ^u ! moon1 x mu/ be 9 a cont9ual /ate ( migration f ! illum9at$ or hot1 to ! unillum9at$ or cold side ( ! lun> globe4 ,! alt]nations ( temp]ature1 f ! heat produc$ by ! unmitigat$ sun%9e ( #ad days' duration1 to ! int5sity ( cold result+ f ! abs5ce ( any sun%9e :atev] = an equal p]iod1 mu/1 he argu$1 produce an action simil> to t ( ! cryophorus 9 transport+ ! lun> moi/ure f "o hemisph]e to ! o!r4 ,! cryophorus is a little in/rum5t inv5t$ by ! late ,dr4 ,wolla/on2 x consi/s ( two bulbs ( glass connect$ by a b5t tube1 9 ! mann] %[n 9 ! annex$ illu/ration1 fig4 #ac4 ,"o ( ! bulbs1 ,a1 is half-fill$ ) wat]1 &1 all air be+ exhau/$1 ! in/rum5t is h]metically seal$1 leav+ no?+ )9 b ! wat] & ! aque\s vap\r :i* rises !refrom 9 ! abs5ce ( atmosph]ic pressure4 ,:5 ! empty bulb1 ,b1 is plac$ 9 a freez+ mixture1 a rapid cond5sation ( ?is vap\r takes place )9 x1 & z a consequ5ce ! wat] 9 ! bulb ,a gives (f m vap\r4 ,! ab/raction ( heat f ! wat]1 :i* is a natural consequ5ce ( ?is evaporation1 causes x to freeze into a solid mass ( ice4 ,n[ ^u ! moon ! same ph5om5on w\ld occur did ! mat]ial exi/ !re to supply x4 ,9 ! accompany+ diagram let ,a repres5t ! illum9at$ or heat$ hemisph]e ( ! moon1 & ,b ! d>k or cold hemisph]e2 ! =m] be+ probably at a temp]ature ( #cjj above1 & ! latt] #bjj bel[ ,fahr5heit's z]o4 ,^u ! above pr9ciple1 if moi/ure exi/$ ^u ,a x w\ld become vap\ris$1 & ! vap\r w\ld migrate ov] to ,b1 & deposit itself !re z ho>fro/2 x w\ld1 !re=e1 manife/ itself to u :ile 9 ! act ( migrat+ by cl\d+ or dimm+ ! details ab\t ! b\nd>y ( ! illum9at$ hemisph]e4 ,! sun1 ris+ ^u any po9t ^u ! m>g9 ( ! d>k hemisph]e1 w\ld h to %9e ?r\gh a b$ ( moi/ure1 & we may ju/ly suppose1 if ?is 7 ! case1 t ! tops ( m\nta9s cat*+ ! fir/ beams ( sunlight w\ld be t+$ ) col\r1 or be lit up at fir/ ) b a fa9t illum9ation1 j z we see 9 ! case ( t]re/rial m\nta9s ^: summits cat* ! fir/1 or receive ! la/ beams ( ! ris+ or sett+ sun4 ,no?+ ( ?is k9d is1 h[ev]1 p]ceptible3 :5 ! sol> rays tip ! l(ty peaks ( lun> m\nta9s1 ^! %9e at once ) brilliant light1 q z vivid z any ( ^? p>ts t receive less horizontal illum9ation1 or ^u :i* ! sun is almo/ p]p5dicul>ly %9+4 ,all ! evid5ce1 !n1 t we h ! means ( obta9+1 goes to prove t nei!r air nor wat] exi/ ^u ! moon4 ,two complicat+ elem5ts affect+ all que/ions relat+ to ! geology ( ! t]raque\s globe we inhabit may ?us be dismiss$ f our m9ds :ile consid]+ ! physical features ( ! lun> surface4 ,fire on ! "o h& & wat] or ! o!r1 are ! ag5ts to :i* ! configurations ( ! e>?'s surface are ref]rable3 ! fir/ ( ^! produc$ ! igne\s rocks t =m ! v]itable f\ndations ( ! e>?1 ! second has giv5 rise to ! sup]/ructure ( deposits t con/itute ! second>y & t]ti>y =mations3 7 ^! la/ remov$ f ! surface ( our planet1 s z to lay b>e its orig9al igne\s cru/1 t cru/1 s f> z reason+ c picture x to u1 w\ld probably n diff] ess5tially f ! visible surface ( ! moon4 ,9 consid]+ ! causes t h giv5 bir? to ! div]sifi$ features ( t surface1 we may1 !re=e1 ignore ! influ5ce ( air & wat] action & conf9e our reason+ to igne\s ph5om5a alone3 our task 9 ?is matt]1 x is h>dly necess>y to rem>k1 is mat]ially simplifi$ !reby4 ,,*apt] ,,vi4 ,,! ,,g5]al ,,aspect ,,( ,,! ,,lun> ,,surface4 ,we h n[ rea*$ t /age ( our subject at :i* x behoves u to repair to ! telescope = ! purpose ( exam9+ & famili>is+ ourselves ) ! v>i\s classes ( detail t ! lun> surface pres5ts to our view4 ,t ! moon is n a smoo? sph]e ( matt] is a fact t manife/$ itself to ! e>lie/ obs]v]s4 ,! nak$ eye p]ceives on h] face spots exhibit+ m>k$ diff]5ces ( illum9ation4 ,^! v>iations ( light & %ade1 long be=e ! inv5tion ( ! telescope1 induc$ ! belief t %e possess$ surface irregul>ities l ^? t div]sify ! face ( ! e>?1 & f analogy x 0 inf]r$ t seas & cont95ts alt]nat$ ^u ! lun> globe4 ,x 0 evid5t1 f ! p]si/5ce & inv>iability ( ! dusky m>k+s1 t !y 7 n due to atmosph]ic peculi>ities1 b 7 v]itable v>iations 9 ! "* or disposition ( ! surface mat]ial4 ,fancy made pictures ( ^! un*angeable spots3 untutor$ gaz]s detect$ 9 !m ! indications ( a human c\nt5ance1 & p]haps ! e>lie/ map ( ! moon 0 a r\gh reproduction ( a man's face1 ! eyes1 nose & m\? repres5t+ ! m sali5t spots disc]nible ^u ! lun> disc4 ,o!rs recognis$ 9 ^! spots ! configuration ( a human =m1 head1 arms & legs complete1 :i* a ,fr5* sup]/ition t l+]s to ! pres5t day held to be ! image ( ,judas ,isc>iot transport$ to ! moon 9 puni%m5t = 8 treason4 ,aga91 an ,indian notion connects ! lun> spots ) a repres5tation ( a roebuck or a h>e1 & h5ce ! ,sanskrit names = ! moon1 mrigadh>a1 a roebuck-be>]1 & 'sa'sabhrit1 a h>e-be>]4 ,( ^! similitudes ! "o :i* has ! be/ pret5sions to a rude accuracy is t fir/ m5tion$2 = ! resemblance ( ! full moon to a human c\nt5ance1 we>+ a pa9ful or lugubri\s expression1 is v /rik+4 ,our illu/ration ( ! full moon 7,plate ,,iii47 is d]iv$ f an actual photograph2#d ! relative int5sities ( light & %ade are h5ce some:at exagg]at$2 o!rwise x repres5ts ! full moon v ne>ly z ! nak$ eye sees x1 & by gaz+ at ! plate f a %ort di/ance1#e ! well-kn[n features w manife/ !mselves1 :ile !y :o *oose may amuse !mselves by arrang+ ! m>k+s 9 _! imag9ation till !y con=m to ! o!r appe>ances allud$ to4 ,we may rem>k 9 pass+ t by "o sect ( anci5t writ]s ! moon 0 suppos$ to be a k9d ( mirror1 receiv+ ! image ( ! e>? & reflect+ x back to t]re/rial spectators4 ,humboldt affirm$ t ?is op9ion _h be5 pres]v$ to 8 day z a popul> belief among ! p ( ,asia ,m9or4 ,he says1 8,i 0 once v mu* a/oni%$ to he> a v well educat$ ,p]sian f ,ispahan1 :o c]ta9ly _h nev] read a ,greek book1 m5tion :5 ,i %[$ him ! moon's spots 9 a l>ge telescope 9 ,p>is1 ?is hypo!sis z a widely diffus$ belief 9 8 c\ntry3 #8,:at we see 9 ! moon1' said ! ,p]sian1 #8is ourselves2 x is ! map ( our e>?4'0 ,q z extravagant an idea1 ?\gh p]haps a m excusable "o1 0 t held by "s anci5t philosoph]s1 to ! effect t ! spots on ! moon 7 ! %ad[s ( opaque bodies float+ 9 space betwe5 x & ! sun4 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate ,,iii4 ,,full ,,moon4 ,an obs]v] wat*+ ! =ms & positions ( ! lun> face-m>ks1 f night to night & f lunation to lunation1 _c fail to notice ! circum/ance t !y und]go no easily p]ceptible *ange ( position ) respect to ! circul> outl9e ( ! disc2 t 9 fact ! face ( ! moon pres5t$ to our view is always ! same1 or v ne>ly s4 ,if ! moon _h no orbital motion we %\ld be l$ f ! above ph5om5on to conclude t %e _h no axial motion1 no movem5t ( rotation2 b :5 we consid] ! orbital motion 9 connection ) ! p]man5ce ( aspect1 we are driv5 to ! conclusion--"o1 h[ev]1 :i* sup]ficial obs]v]s h "s difficulty 9 recognis+--t ! moon has an axial rotation equal 9 p]iod to h] orbital revolution4 ,s9ce ! moon makes ! circuit ( h] orbit 9 tw5ty-sev5 days & "o-?ird 7m exactly #bg;d4 #g;h4 #dcm4 #aas47 x foll[s t ?is is ! "t ( h] axial rotation1 z ref]r$ to ! />s1 or z x w\ld be made out by an obs]v] locat$ at a fix$ position 9 space outside ! lun> orbit4 ,b if ref]r$ to ! sun ?is p]iod appe>s diff]5t2 because ! moon :ile revolv+ r\nd ! e>? is1 ) ! e>?1 circulat+ ar\nd ! sun4 ,suppose ! ?ree bodies1 moon1 e>?1 & sun1 to be 9 a l9e at a c]ta9 p]iod ( a lunation1 z !y are at full moon3 by ! "t ! moon has complet$ h] tw5ty-sev5 days' j\rney ar\nd ! e>?1 ! latt] w h mov$ along tw5ty-sev5 days' m>* ( its orbit1 :i* is ab\t tw5ty-sev5 degrees ( cele/ial longitude3 ! sun w app>5tly be t mu* di/ant f a /raight l9e pass+ ?r\gh e>? & moon1 & ! moon mu/ !re=e move =w>d to ov]take ! sun be=e %e c assume ! full phase aga94 ,%e w take some?+ ov] two days to d ?is2 h5ce ! sol> p]iod ( h] revolution becomes m ?an tw5ty-n9e days 7to be exact1 #bi;d4 #ab;h4 #ddm4 #bs4 #hg74 ,?is is ! l5g? ( a sol> day ^u ! moon--! int]val f "o sunrise to ano!r at any spot ^u ! equator ( our satellite1 & ! int]val betwe5 successive reappe>ances ( ! same phase to obs]v]s on ! e>?4 ,! physical cause ( ! co9cid5ce ( times ( rotation & revolution 0 t\*$ ^u 9 a previ\s *apt]4 ,we h said t ! moon cont9u\sly pres5ts to u ! same hemisph]e4 ,?is is g5]ally true1 b n entirely s4 ,galileo1 by long scrut9y1 famili>is$ himself ) e detail ( ! lun>-disc t came )9 ! limit$ grasp ( 8 telescopes1 & he recognis$ ! fact t accord+ z ! position ( ! moon v>i$ 9 ! sky1 s ! aspect ( h] face alt]$ to a slight degree2 t c]ta9 regions at ! edge ( h] disc1 alt]nately came 9 sight & rec$$ f 8 view4 ,he p]ceiv$1 9 fact1 an app>5t rock+ to & fro ( ! globe ( ! moon2 a sort ( balanc+ or libratory motion4 ,:5 ! moon 0 ne> ! horizon he c\ld see spots ^u h] upp]mo/ edge1 :i* disappe>$ z %e approa*$ ! z5i?1 or highe/ po9t ( h] nightly pa?2 & z %e ne>$ ?is po9t1 o!r spots1 be=e invisible1 came into view1 ne> to :at _h be5 h] l[] edge4 ,galileo 0 n long 9 ref]r+ ?is ph5om5on to its true cause4 ,! c5tre ( motion ( ! moon be+ ! c5tre ( ! e>?1 x is cle> t an obs]v] on ! surface ( ! latt]1 looks d[n ^u ! ris+ moon z f an em95ce1 & ?us he is enabl$ to see m or less ov] or ar\nd h]4 ,z ! moon increases 9 altitude1 ! l9e ( sight gradually becomes p>allel to ! l9e jo9+ ! obs]v] & ! c5tre ( ! e>?1 & at l5g? he looks h] full 9 ! face3 he loses ! full view & cat*es ano!r side face view z %e ne>s ! horizon 9 sett+4 ,?is ph5om5on1 occurr+ z x does1 ) a daily p]iod1 is kn[n z ! diurnal libration4 ,b a k9dr$ ph5om5on pres5ts itself 9 ano!r p]iod1 & f ano!r cause4 ,! moon rotates ^u h] axis at a spe$ t is rigor\sly uni=m4 ,b h] orbital motion is n uni=m1 sometimes x is fa/]1 & at o!r times sl[] ?an its av]age rate4 ,h5ce1 ! angle ?r\gh :i* %e moves along h] orbit 9 a giv5 "t1 n[ exce$s1 & n[ falls %ort ( ! angle ?r\gh :i* %e turns ^u h] axis4 ,h] visible hemisph]e ?us *anges to an ext5t dep5d+ ^u ! diff]5ce betwe5 ^! orbital & axial angles1 & ! app>5t balanc+ ?us produc$ is call$ ! libration 9 longitude4 ,!n !re is a libration 9 latitude due to ! circum/ance t ! axis ( ! moon is n exactly p]p5dicul> to ! plane ( h] orbit2 ! effect ( ?is incl9ation be+1 t we sometimes see a little m ( ! nor? ?an ( ! s\? pol> regions ( our satellite1 & vice v]s4#f ,! ext5t ( ! moon's librations1 tak+ !m all & 9 comb9ation into acc\nt1 am\nts to ab\t sev5 degrees ( arc ( latitude or longitude ^u ! moon1 bo? 9 ! nor?-s\? & ea/-we/ directions4 ,& tak+ into acc\nt ! :ole effect ( !m1 we may conclude t our view ( ! moon's surface1 in/ead ( be+ conf9$ to "o half1 is ext5d$ really to ab\t f\r-sev5?s ( ! :ole area ( ! lun> globe4 ,! rema9+ ?ree-sev5?s mu/ = ev] rema9 a t]ra incognita to ! habitants ( ?is e>?1 unless1 inde$1 f "s cata/rophe :i* x w\ld be wild fancy to anticipate1 a p]iod ( rotation %\ld be giv5 to ! moon diff]5t f t :i* x at pres5t possesses4 ,"s highly fanciful !ori/s h speculat$ ^u ! possible condition ( ! invisible hemisph]e1 & h prop\nd$ ! absurd notion t ! opposite side ( ! moon is holl[1 or t ! moon is a m]e %ell2 o!rs aga9 h urg$ t ! hidd5 half is m or less cov]$ ) wat]1 & o!rs aga9 t x is peopl$ ) inhabitants4 ,!re is1 h[ev]1 no good reason = suppos+ t :at we may call ! back ( ! moon has a physical /ructure ess5tially diff]5t f ! face pres5t$ t[>ds u4 ,s f> z c be judg$ f ! peeps t libration enables u to obta91 ! same *>act]i/ic features 7?\gh ( c\rse ) diff]5t details7 prevail ov] ! :ole lun> surface4 ,! speculative ideas held by ! philosoph]s ( ! pre-telescopic age1 t\*+ ! causes :i* produc$ ! inequalities ( light & %ade ^u ! moon1 receiv$ _! c\p de grce f ! revelations ( ,galileo's glasses4 ,our satellite 0 "o ( ! e>lie/ objects1 if n actually ! fir/1 ^u :i* ! ,flor5t9e turn$ 8 telescope2 & he f\nd t ! inequalities ^u h] surface 7 due to diff]5ces 9 its configuration analog\s to ! cont95ts & isl&s1 & 7z might !n h be5 ?\ght7 ! seas ( our globe4 ,he c\ld trace1 ev5 ) 8 mod]ate means1 ! semblance ( m\nta9-tops ^u :i* ! sun %one :ile _! l[] p>ts 7 9 %ad[1 ( hills t 7 brightly illum9at$ ^u _! sides t[>ds ! sun1 ( brightly %9+ elevations1 & deeply %ad[$ depressions1 ( smoo? pla9s1 & regions ( m\nta9\s rugg$ness4 ,he saw t ! b\nd>y ( sunlight ^u ! moon 0 n a cle>ly def9$ l9e1 z x w\ld be if ! lun> globe 7 a smoo? sph]e1 z ! ,ari/otelians _h ass]t$1 b t ! t]m9ator 0 unev5 & brok5 into an irregul> outl9e4 ,f ^! obs]vations ! ,flor5t9e a/ronom] conclud$ t ! lun> _w 0 cov]$ n only ) m\nta9s l our globe1 b ) m\nta9s ^: heights f> surpass$ ^? exi/+ ^u ! e>?1 & ^: =ms 7 /rangely limit$ to circul>ity4 ,galileo's be/ telescopes magnifi$ only "s ?irty times1 & ! views :i* he ?us obta9$1 mu/ h be5 simil> to ^? exhibit$ by ! small] photographs ( ! moon produc$ 9 late ye>s by ,mr4 ,de la ,rue & n[ famili> to ! sci5tific public4 ,( c\rse !re is 9 ! natural moon z view$ ) a small telescope a vivid brilliancy :i* no art c imitate1 & 9 photographs especially !re is a t5d5cy to exagg]ation ( ! dep?s ( %ade 9 a lun> picture4 ,?is arises f ! circum/ance t v>i\s regions ( ! moon d n impress a *emically s5sitiz$ plate z !y impress ! ret9a ( ! eye4 ,"s portions1 notably ! s-call$ 8seas0 ( ! moon1 :i* to ! eye appe> b slightly dull] ?an ! bright] p>ts1 give (f s little act9ic light t !y appe> z ne>ly black pat*es ^u a photograph1 & ?us give an undue impression ( ! relative brightness ( v>i\s p>ts ( ! lun> surface4 ,d\btless by suffici5t exposure ( ! plate 9 ! cam]a-telescope ! d>k pat*es might be r5d]$ light]1 b 9 t case ! m /rongly illum9at$ portions1 :i* aft] all are ^? mo/ desirable to be pres]v$1 w\ld be lo/ by ! effect :i* photograph]s und]/& z 8sol>ization40 ,9 speak+ ( a view ( ! moon ) a magnify+ p[] ( ?irty1 x is necess>y to be> 9 m9d t ! visible features w diff] consid]ably ) ! diamet] ( ! object-glass ( ! telescope to :i* ?is p[] is appli$4 ,! same details w\ld n be se5 alike ) ! same p[] ^u an object-glass ( #aj in*es diamet] & "o ( #b in*es4 ,! sup]ior illum9ation ( ! image 9 ! =m] case w\ld br+ into view m9ute details t c\ld n be p]ceiv$ ) ! small] ap]ture4 ,he :o w\ld = curiosity wi% to see ! moon1 or any o!r object1 z ,galileo saw x1 mu/ use a telescope ( ! same size & "* 9 all respects z ,galileo's3 x w n d to put 8 magnify+ p[] ^u a l>g] telescope4 ,) l>ge telescopes1 & l[ p[]s us$ ^u bright objects l ! moon1 !re is a bl9d+ flood ( light :i* t5ds to contract ! pupil ( ! eye & prev5t ! passage ( ! :ole ( ! p5cil ( rays com+ ?r\gh ! eye-piece4 ,al?\gh ?is la/ result may be productive ( no inconv5i5ce1 x is cle>ly a wa/e ( light1 & x po9ts to a rule t ! l[e/ p[] t a telescope %\ld be> is t :i* gives a p5cil ( light equal 9 diamet] to ! pupil ( ! eye "u ! circum/ances ( brightness att5dant ^u ! object view$4 ,9 obs]v+ fa9t objects ?is po9t assumes m importance1 s9ce x is !n necess>y t all available light %\ld ent] ! pupil4 ,! ?\ght sugge/s itself t an artificial enl>gem5t ( ! pupil1 z by a dose ( belladonna1 might be ( assi/ance 9 se>*+ = fa9t objects1 su* z nebul & comets3 b we pref] to leave ! exp]im5t = ^? to try :o pursue t bran* ( a/ronomical obs]vation4 ,a m]ely cursory exam9ation ( ! moon ) ! l[ p[] to :i* we h allud$ is suffici5t to %[ u ! m sali5t features4 ,9 ! fir/ place we _c help be+ /ruck ) ! imm5se prepond]ance ( circul> or crat]=m asp]ities1 & ) ! g5]al t5d5cy to circul> %ape :i* is app>5t 9 ne>ly all ! lun> surface m>k+s2 = ev5 ! l>g] regions kn[n z ! 8seas0 & ! small] pat*es ( ! same "* seem to repeat 9 _! outl9es ! r\nd =m ( ! crat]s4 ,x is at ! b\nd>y ( sunlight on ! lun> globe t we see ^! crat]=m spots to ! be/ advantage1 z x is !re t ! ris+ or sett+ sun ca/s long %ad[s ov] ! lun> l&scape1 & br+s elevations & asp]ities into bold relief4 ,!y v>y greatly 9 size1 "s are s l>ge z to be> an e/imable proportion to ! moon's diamet]1 & ! smalle/ are s m9ute z to ne$ ! mo/ p[]ful telescopes & ! f9e/ conditions ( atmosph]e to p]ceive !m4 ,x is d\btful :e!r ! smalle/ ( !m h ev] be5 se51 = !re is no reason to d\bt t !re exi/ c\ntless numb]s t are beyond ! reveal+ p[]s ( our f9e/ telescopes4 ,f ! great numb] & p]si/5t "* ( ^! circumvallations1 ,kepl] 0 l$ to ?9k t !y 7 ( artificial con/ruction4 ,he reg>d$ !m z pits excavat$ by ! suppos$ habitants ( ! moon to %elt] !mselves f ! long & int5se action ( ! sun4 ,_h he kn[n _! real dim5sions1 ( :i* we %all h to speak :5 we come to describe !m m 9 detail1 he w\ld h hesitat$ 9 prop\nd+ su* a hypo!sis2 nev]!less x 01 to a c]ta9 ext5t1 ju/ifi$ by ! regul> & seem+ly unnatural recurr5ce ( "o p>ticul> =m ( /ructure1 ! l ( :i* is1 too1 s seldom met ) z a /ructural feature ( ! surface ( our own globe4 ,! next mo/ /rik+ features1 reveal$ by a l[ telescopic p[] ^u ! moon1 are ! seem+ly smoo? pla9s t h ! appe>ance ( dusky spots1 & t collectively cov] a consid]able portion--ab\t two-?irds--( ! entire disc4 ,! l>g] ( ^! spots reta9 ! "n ( seas1 ! t]m hav+ be5 giv5 :5 !y 7 suppos$ to be wat]y expanses1 & hav+ be5 reta9$1 possibly to avoid ! confusion inevitable f a *ange ( "n1 aft] ! exi/5ce ( wat] ^u ! moon 0 disprov$4 ,foll[+ ! same ord] ( nom5clature1 ! small] spots h receiv$ ! appellations ( lakes1 bays & f5s4 ,we see t _m ( ^! 8seas0 are p>tially surr\nd$ by ramp>ts or bulw>ks :i*1 "u clos] exam9ation1 & hav+ reg>d to _! real magnitude1 resolve !mselves into imm5se m\nta9 *a9s4 ,! g5]al resemblance 9 =m :i* ! bulw>k$ pla9s ?us exhibit to ! circul> crat]s ( l>ge size1 w\ld lead u to suppose t ! two classes ( objects _h ! same =mative orig91 b :5 we take into acc\nt ! imm5se size ( ! =m]1 & ! process by :i* we inf] ! latt] to h be5 develop$1 ! supposition becomes unt5able4 ,ano!r ( ! prom95t features :i* we notice z highly curi\s1 & 9 "s phases ( ! moon--at ab\t ! "t ( full--! mo/ rem>kable ( all1 are c]ta9 bright l9es t appe> to radiate f "s ( ! m conspicu\s crat]s1 & ext5d = hundr$s ( miles ar\nd4 ,no sel5ological =mations h s sorely puzzl$ obs]v]s z ^! peculi> /reaks1 & a great deal ( fanciful !oriz+ has be5 be/[$ ^u !m4 ,z we are n[ only glanc+ at ! moon1 we d n ent] ^u explanations conc]n+ !m or any o!r class ( details2 all su* w receive due consid]ation 9 _! prop] ord] 9 succe$+ *apt]s4 ,we ?us see t ! classes ( features obs]vable ^u ! moon are n great 9 numb]3 !y may be summ$ up z crat]s & _! c5tral cones1 m\nta9 *a9s1 ) occasional isolat$ peaks1 smoo? pla9s1 ) m or less ( irregul>ity ( surface1 & bright radiat+ /reaks4 ,b :5 we come to /udy ) high] p[]s ! individual examples ( ea* class we meet ) consid]able div]sity4 ,?is is especially ! case ) ! crat]s1 :i* appe> "u v num]\s v>iations ( ! "o ord] ( /ructure1 viz41 ! r+-=m4 ,a high] telescopic p[] %[s u t n only d ^! crat]s exi/ ( all magnitudes )9 a limit ( l>g5ess1 b seem+ly ) no limit ( smallness1 b t 9 _! /ructure & arrangem5t !y pres5t a great v>iety ( po9ts ( diff]5ce4 ,"s are se5 to be consid]ably elevat$ above ! surr\nd+ surface1 o!rs are bas9s holl[$ out ( t surface & ) l[ surr\nd+ ramp>ts2 "s are m]ely l wall$ pla9s or amphi!atres ) flat plateaux1 :ile ! majority h _! l[e/ po9t ( holl[ness consid]ably bel[ ! g5]al level ( ! surr\nd+ surface2 "s are isolat$ ^u ! pla9s1 o!rs are aggregat$ into a ?ick cr[d1 & ov]lapp+ & intrud+ ^u ea* o!r2 "s h elevat$ peaks or cones 9 _! c5tres1 & "s are )\t ^! c5tral cones1 :ile ! plateaux ( o!rs aga9 conta9 sev]al m9ute crat]s in/ead2 "s h _! ramp>ts :ole & p]fect1 o!rs h !m brea*$ or mal=m$1 & _m h !m divid$ into t]races1 especially on _! inn] sides4 ,9 ! pla9s1 :at ) a l[ p[] appe>$ smoo? z a wat] surface becomes1 "u great] magnification1 a r\gh & furr[$ area1 "h g5tly undulat$ & !re brok5 into ridges & declivities1 ) n[ & !n deep r5ts or cracks ext5d+ = miles & spread+ l riv]-b$s into num]\s ramifications4 ,crat]s ( all sizes & classes are scatt]$ ov] ! pla9s2 ^! appe> g5]ally ( a diff]5t t9t to ! surr\nd+ surface1 = ! light reflect$ f ! pla9s has be5 obs]v$ to be slightly t+$ ) col\r1 ,! t9t is n ! same 9 all cases3 "o l>ge sea has a d+y gre5i% t+e1 o!rs are m]ely grey & "s o!rs pres5t a pale r$di% hue4 ,! cause ( ?is div]sity ( col\r is my/]i\s2 x has be5 suppos$ to indicate ! exi/5ce ( vegetation ( "s sort2 b ?is involves conditions t we "k d n exi/4 ,! m\nta9s1 "u high] magnification1 d n pres5t su* div]sity ( =mation z ! crat]s1 or at lea/ ! po9ts ( diff]5ce are n s app>5t2 b !y exhibit a pl5tiful v>iety ( comb9ations4 ,!re are a few p]fectly isolat$ examples t ca/ long %ad[s ov] ! pla9s on :i* !y /& l ^? ( a t[]+ ca!dral 9 ! ris+ or sett+ sun4 ,sometimes !y are collect$ into gr\ps1 b mo/ly !y are connect$ into /up5d\s *a9s4 ,9 "o ( ! gr&e/ ( ^! *a9s1 x has be5 e/imat$ t a good telescope w %[ #cjjj m\nta9s clu/]$ toge!r1 )\t approa* to symmetrical ord]4 ,! sc5]y :i* !y w\ld pres5t1 c\ld we get any o!r ?an ! 8bird's eye view0 to :i* we are conf9$1 mu/ be impos+ 9 ! extreme1 f> exce$+ 9 sublime gr&eur any?+ t ! ,alps or ! ,himalayas (f]2 = :ile on ! "o h& ! lun> m\nta9s equal ^? ( ! e>? 9 altitude1 ! abs5ce ( an atmosph]e1 & consequ5tly ( ! effects produc$ !reby1 mu/ give rise to alt]nations ( dazzl+ light & black dep?s ( %ade comb9+ to =m panoramas ( wild sc5]y t1 = want ( a p>allel on e>?1 we may well call une>?ly4 ,b we are deb>r$ ! pleasure ( actually contemplat+ su* pictures by ! circum/ance t we look d[n ^u ! m\nta9 tops & into ! valleys1 s t ! great height & close aggregation ( ! peaks & hills are n s app>5t4 ,to comp>e ! lun> & t]re/rial m\nta9 sc5]y w\ld be 8to comp>e ! diff]5t views ( a t[n se5 f ! c> ( a balloon1 ) ! m int]e/+ prospects by a progress ?r\gh ! /reets40 ,"s ( ! peculi>ities ( ! lun> sc5]y we h1 h[ev]1 endeav\r$ to realize 9 a subsequ5t ,*apt]4 ,a high p[] gives u little m evid5ce ?an a l[ "o ^u ! nature ( ! long bright /reaks t radiate f "s ( ! m conspicu\s crat]s1 b x enables u to see t ^? /reaks d n arise f any p]ceptible diff]5ce ( level ( ! surface--t !y h no v def9ite outl9e1 & t !y d n pres5t any slop+ sides to cat* m sunlight1 & ?us %9e bright]1 ?an ! g5]al surface4 ,inde$1 "o great peculi>ity ( !m is t !y come out mo/ =cibly :]e ! sun is %9+ p]p5dicul>ly ^u !m2 h5ce !y are be/ se5 :]e ! moon is at full1 & !y are n visible at all at ^? regions ^u :i* ! sun is ris+ or sett+4 ,we also see t !y are n div]t$ by elevations 9 _! pa?1 z !y trav]se 9 _! c\rse crat]s1 m\nta9s1 & pla9s alike1 giv+ a slight additional brightness to all objects ov] :i* !y pass1 b produc+ no o!r effect ^u !m4 ,to employ a commonplace simile1 !y look z ?\gh1 aft] ! :ole surface ( ! moon _h assum$ its f9al configuration1 a va/ bru% *>g$ ) a :iti% pigm5t _h be5 drawn ov] ! globe 9 /raight l9es radiat+ f a c5tral po9t1 leav+ its trail ^u ev]y?+ x t\*$1 b obscur+ no?+4 ,:atev] may be ! cause t produces ?is brightness ( c]ta9 p>ts ( ! moon )\t ref]5ce to configuration ( surface1 ?is cause has n be5 conf9$ to ! =mation ( ! radiat+ l9es1 = we meet ) _m isolat$ spots1 /reaks & pat*es ( ! same bright "*4 ,^u "s ( ! pla9s !re are small areas & l9es ( lum9\s matt] possess+ peculi>ities simil> to ^? ( ! radiat+ /reaks1 z reg>ds visibility ) ! high sun1 & invisibility :5 ! sol> rays fall ^u !m horizontally4 ,"s ( ! crat]s also are surr\nd$ by a k9d ( aureole ( ?is highly reflective matt]4 ,a notable specim5 is t call$ ,l9n1 conc]n+ :i* a great hue & cry ab\t *ange ( appe>ance & inf]r$ cont9uance ( volcanic action on ! moon 0 rais$ "s ye>s ago4 ,?is object is an insignificant little crat] ( ab\t a mile or two 9 diamet]1 9 ! c5tre ( an ill-def9$ spot ( ! "* ref]r$ to1 & ab\t eight or t5 miles 9 diamet]4 ,) a l[ sun ! crat] alone is visible by its %ad[2 b z ! lum9>y rises ! %ad[ %ort5s & becomes all b invisible1 & !n ! :ite spot %9es =?4 ,^! alt]nations1 complicat$ by v>iations ( atmosph]ic condition1 & by ! int]pretations ( diff]5t obs]v]s1 gave rise to /atem5ts ( some:at exagg]at$ "* to ! effect t consid]able *anges1 ( ! nature ( volcanic eruptions1 7 9 progress 9 t p>ticul> region ( ! moon4 ,9 ! =ego+ rem>ks we h allud$ some:at indef9itely to high p[]s2 & an enquir+ b una/ronomical read] may reasonably dem& "s in=mation ^u ?is po9t4 ,x might h be5 in/ructive to h cit$ ! v>i\s details t may be said to come into view ) progressive increases ( magnification4 ,b ?is w\ld be an all b impossible task1 on acc\nt ( ! v>y+ conditions "u :i* all a/ronomical obs]vations mu/ necess>ily be made4 ,:5 we come to delicate te/s1 !re are no /&>ds ( telescopic p[] & def9ition4 ,assum+ ! in/rum5t to be ( good size & high optical "*1 !re is yet a p[]ful influant ( a/ronomical def9ition 9 ! atmosph]e & its v>iable /ate4 ,^u two-?irds ( ! cle> nights ( a ye> ! f9e/ telescopes _c be us$ to _! full advantage1 because ! m9ute flutt]+s result+ f ! passage ( ! rays ( light ?r\gh mov+ /rata ( air ( diff]5t d5sities are magnifi$ j z ! image 9 ! telescope is magnifi$1 till all m9ute details are blurr$ & confus$1 & only ! gross] features are left visible4 ,& suppos+ ! telescope & atmosph]e 9 good /ate1 !re is /ill an important po9t1 ! /ate ( ! obs]v]'s eye1 to be consid]$4 ,aft] all x is ! eye t sees1 & ! be/ telescopic assi/ance to an untra9$ eye is ( small avail4 ,! eye is z susceptible ( education & developm5t z any o!r organ2 a skilful & acute obs]v] is to a m]e casual gaz]1 :at a wat*mak] w\ld be to a pl\ghman1 a m9iature pa9t] to a :itewa%]4 ,?is fact is n g5]ally recogniz$2 no man w\ld ?9k ( tak+ 9 h& an engrav]'s bur91 & expect+ on ! in/ant to use x l an adept1 or ( go+ to a smi?y & )\t previ\s prep>ation try+ to =ge a horse-%oe4 ,yet d folks ent] obs]vatories ) un$ucat$ eyes1 & expect at once to realize all ! wond]ful ?+s t _! m9ds h pictur$ to !mselves f ! p]usal ( a/ronomical books4 ,we h ov] & ov] aga9 rem>k$ ! dissatisfaction :i* att5ds ! fir/ looks ( novices ?r\gh a p[]ful telescope4 ,!y anticipate imm$iately behold+ wond]s1 & !y are disappo9t$ at f9d+ h[ little !y c see1 & h[ f> %ort ! sight falls ( :at !y _h expect$4 ,c\rtesy at times leads !m to express wond] & surprise1 :i* x is easy to see is n really felt1 b sometimes hone/y compels !m to give expression to _! disappo9tm5t4 ,?is arises f ! simple fact t _! eyes are n fit = ! "w :i* is = ! mom5t impos$ ^u !m2 !y "k n :at to look =1 or h[ to look = x4 ,! fir/ essay at telescopic gaz+1 l fir/ essays g5]ally1 s]ves b to tea* u our incapability4 ,to a tutor$ eye a great deal is visible ) a comp>atively l[ p[]1 & practis$ obs]v]s /rive to use magnify+ p[]s z l[ z possible1 s z to dim9i%1 z f> z may be1 ! evils aris+ f an untranquil atmosph]e4 ,) a p[] s small z #cj or #dj1 _m exce$+ly delicate details on ! moon are visible to an eye t is famili> ) !m "u high] p[]s4 ,) #bjj we may say t e ord9>y detail w come out "u fav\rable conditions2 b :5 m9ute po9ts ( /ructure1 m]e nooks & corn]s z x 71 are to be scrut9is$1 #cjj may be us$ ) advantage4 ,ano!r hundr$ diamet]s almo/ passes ! practical limit4 ,unless ! air be n m]ely f9e1 b sup]f9e1 ! details become 8clo?y0 & tremul\s2 ! extra po9ts br\ght out by ! increas$ p[] are !n only caught by mom5t>y glimpses1 ( :i* b a v few are obta9$ dur+ a l5g?y p]iod ( p]si/5t scrut9y4 ,we may set d[n #bej z ! mo/ useful1 & #cej ! utmo/ effective p[] t c be employ$ ^u ! p>ticul> "w ( :i* we are treat+4 ,c\ld e detail on ! moon be ?or\ghly & reliably repres5t$ z ?is am\nt ( magnification %[s x1 ! result w\ld leave little to be wi%$ =4 ,b x may be ask$ by "s1 :at is ! absolute effect ( su* p[]s z ^? we h spok5 (1 9 br++ ! moon app>5tly ne>] to our eyes8 & :at is ! actual size ( ! smalle/ object visible "u ! mo/ fav\rable circum/ances8 ,a l9e> mile ^u ! moon corresponds to an angul> int]val ( #jhg ( a second2 ?is ref]s to regions ab\t ! c5tre ( ! disc2 ne> ! circumf]5ce ! =e%ort5+ makes a diff]5ce1 v great z ! edge is approa*$4 ,p]haps ! smalle/ angle t ! eye c )\t assi/ance appreciate is half a m9ute2 t is to say1 an object t subt5ds to ! eye an arc ( less ?an a half a m9ute c sc>cely be se54#g ,s9ce !re are #fj seconds 9 a m9ute1 x foll[s t we mu/ magnify a spot a second 9 diamet] ^u ! moon ?irty times be=e we c see x2 & s9ce a second repres5ts r m ?an a mile1 really ab\t #bjjj y>ds1 on ! moon1 z se5 f ! e>?1 ! smalle/ object visible ) a p[] ( #cj w be ?is numb] ( y>ds 9 diamet] or bread?4 ,to see an object #bjj y>ds across1 we %\ld require to magnify x #cjj times1 & ?is w\ld only br+ x into view z a po9t2 #bj y>ds w\ld require a p[] ( #cjjj1 & #a y>d #fj1jjj to effect ! same ?+4 ,s9ce1 z we h said1 ! highe/ practicable p[] ) our pres5t telescopes1 & at ord9>y t]re/rial elevations1 is #cej1 or = an extreme say #djj1 x is evid5t t ! m9ute/ lun> object or detail ( :i* we c p]ceive z a po9t mu/ measure ab\t #aej y>ds3 to see ! =m ( an object1 s z to discrim9ate :e!r x be r\nd or squ>e1 x w\ld require to be probably twice ?is size2 = x may be safely assum$ t we _c p]ceive ! outl9e ( an object ^: av]age bread? subt5ds a less angle ?an a m9ute4 ,arago put ?is "q into ano!r %ape3--,! moon is di/ant f u #bcg1jjj miles 7mean74 ,a magnify+ p[] ( a ?\s& w\ld %[ u ! moon z if %e 7 di/ant #bcg miles f ! nak$ eye4 #bjjj w\ld br+ h] )9 #aah miles4 #djjj 0 0 0 #ei 0 #fjjj 0 0 0 #ci 0 ,mont ,blanc is visible to ! nak$ eye f ,lyons1 at ! di/ance ( ab\t #ajj miles2 s t to see ! m\nta9s ( ! moon z ,mont ,blanc is se5 f ,lyons w\ld require ! impracticable p[] ( #bejj4 ,,*apt] ,,vii4 ,,topography ,,( ,,! ,,moon4 ,x is sc>cely necess>y to seek ! reasons :i* prompt$ a/ronom]s1 soon aft] ! inv5tion ( ! telescope1 to map ! surface features ( ! moon4 ,!y may h consid]$ x desirable to record ! positions ( ! spots ^u h] disc1 = ! purpose ( facilitat+ obs]vations ( ! passage ( ! e>?'s %ad[ ov] !m 9 lun> eclipses2 or !y may h be5 actuat$ by a desire to regi/] appe>ances !n exi/+1 9 ord] t if *anges took place 9 aft] ye>s ^! might be readily detect$4 ,s*e9] 0 "o ( ! e>lie/ ( lun> c>tograph]s2 he work$ ab\t ! middle ( ! sev5te5? c5tury2 b 8 del9eations 7 v r\gh & exagg]at$4 ,bett] maps--! be/ ( ! "t1 accord+ to an old au?ority--7 engrav$ by "o ,mellan1 ab\t ! ye>s #afcd or #afce4 ,at ab\t ! same epo*1 ,langre5 & ,hevelius 7 work+ ^u ! same subject4 ,langre5 execut$ "s ?irty maps ( portions ( ! moon1 & introduc$ ! practice ( nam+ ! spots aft] philosoph]s & em95t m54 ,hevelius sp5t sev]al ye>s ^u 8 task1 ! results ( :i* he publi%$ 9 a bulky volume conta9+ "s #ej maps ( ! moon 9 v>i\s phases1 & accompani$ by #ejj pages ( lett]-press4 ,he reject$ ,langre5's sy/em ( nom5clature1 & call$ ! spots aft] ! seas & cont95ts ( ! e>? to :i* he conceiv$ !y bore resemblance4 ,riccioli1 ano!r sel5ograph]1 ^: map 0 compil$ f obs]vations made by ,grimaldi1 re/or$ ,langre5's nom5clature1 b he conf9$ himself to ! names ( em95t a/ronom]s1 & 8 sy/em has ga9$ ! adhesion ( ! map-mak]s ( lat] times4 ,cass9i prep>$ a l>ge map f 8 own obs]vations1 & x 0 engrav$ ab\t ! ye> #afib4 ,x appe>s to h be5 reg>d$ z a /&>d "w1 = a r$uc$ copy ( x 0 repeat$ly issu$ ) ! ye>ly volumes ( ! ,connaissance des ,temps1 7! 8,nautical ,almanac0 ( ,france7 "s "t aft] its publication4 ,^! small copies h no great m]it3 ! l>ge copp] plate ( ! orig9al 01 we are told by ,arago1 :o receiv$ ! /atem5t f ,b\v>d1 sold to a brazi] by a director ( ! ,fr5* ,gov]nm5t ,pr9t+-,(fice1 :o ?\ght prop] to disemb>rass ! /ores ( t e/abli%m5t1 by ridd+ !m ( :at he consid]$ lumb]6 ,la ,hire1 ,may]1 & ,lamb]t1 foll[$ dur+ ! succe$+ c5tury1 9 ?is bran* ( a/ronomical del9eation4 ,at ! comm5cem5t ( ! pres5t c5tury1 ! subject 0 v e>ne/ly tak5 up by ! indefatigable ,s*roet]1 :o1 al?\gh he does n appe> to h produc$ a complete map1 produc$ a topograph ( ! moon 9 a l>ge s]ies ( p>tial maps & draw+s ( special features4 ,s*roet] 0 a f9e obs]v]1 b 8 del9eations %[ him to h be5 an indiff]5t draughtsman4 ,"s ( 8 draw+s are b ! rude/ repres5tations ( ! objects he int5d$ to depict2 _m ( ! bold] features ( conspicu\s objects are sc>cely recognizable 9 !m4 ,a bad arti/ is z likely to mislead po/]ity z a bad hi/orian1 & x _c be surpris+ if obs]v]s ( ?is or future g5]ations1 accept+ ,s*roet]'s draw+s z fai?ful repres5tations1 %\ld inf] f !m rem>kable *anges 9 ! lun> details4 ,x is mu* to be regrett$ t ,s*roet]'s "w %\ld be ?us depreciat$4 ,lohrman ( ,dresd51 0 ! next c>tograph] ( ! moon2 9 #ahbd he put =? a small b v excell5t map ( #ae in*es diamet]1 & publi%$ a book ( descriptive text1 accompani$ by sectional *>ts ( p>ticul> areas4 ,8 "w1 h[ev]1 0 eclips$ by ! great "o :i* we owe to ! jo9t en]gy ( ,,mm4 ,be] & ,ma$l]1 & :i* repres5ts a /up5d\s am\nt ( obs]v+ "w c>ri$ on dur+ sev]al ye>s prior to #ahcf1 ! date ( _! publication4 ,! long & pati5t lab\r be/[$ ^u _! map & ^u ! measures on :i* x dep5ds1 des]ve ! highe/ praise :i* ^? conv]sant ) ! subject c be/[1 & x mu/ be v long be=e _! ef=ts c be sup]s$$4 ,be] & ,ma$l]'s map has a diamet] ( #cg in*es3 x repres5ts ! phase ( ! moon visible 9 ! condition ( mean libration4 ,! details 7 *>t$ by a c>eful process ( triangulation4 ,! disc 0 fir/ divid$ into 8triangles ( ! fir/ ord]10 ! po9ts ( :i* 7conspicu\s crat]s7 7 accurately laid d[n by ref]5ce to ! edges ( ! disc3 "o hundr$ & sev5ty-six ( ^! triangles1 plott$ accurately ^u an or?ographic projection ( ! hemisph]e1 =m$ ! reliable basis = _! *>t+ "w4 ,f ^! a great numb] ( 8po9ts ( ! second ord]0 7 laid d[n1 by measur+ _! di/ance & angle ( position ) reg>d to po9ts fir/ e/abli%$4 ,! skeleton map ?us obta9$ 0 fill$ up by draw+s made at ! telescope3 ! diamet]s ( ! measureable crat]s be+ det]m9$ by ! micromet]4 ,be] & ,ma$l] also measur$ ! heights ( "o ?\s& & n9ety-five lun> m\nta9s & crat]-summits3 ! result+ measures are giv5 9 a table conta9$ 9 ! compreh5sive text-book :i* accompanies _! map4 ,^! heights are f\nd by "o ( two me?ods1 ei!r by measur+ ! l5g? ( ! %ad[ :i* ! object ca/s "u a kn[n elevation ( ! sun above its horizon1 or by measur+ ! di/ance betwe5 ! illum9at$ po9t ( ! m\nta9 & ! 8t]m9ator0 9 ! foll[+ mann]4 ,9 ! annex$ figure 7,fig4 #ae7 let ! circle repres5t ! moon & ,m a m\nta9 ^u x3 let ,s ,a be ! l9e ( direction ( ! sun's rays1 pass+ ! normal surface ( ! moon at ,a & j tipp+ ! m\nta9 top4 ,a w be ! t]m9ator1 & !re w be d>kness betwe5 x & ! />-l m\nta9 summit ,m4 ,! di/ance betwe5 ,a & ,m is measur$3 ! di/ance ,a ,b is kn[n1 = x is ! moon's radius4 ,& s9ce ! l9e ,s ,m is a tang5t to ! circle ! angle ,b ,a ,m is a "r angle4 ,we "k ! l5g? ( its two sides ,,ab1 ,,am1 & we c !re=e by ! kn[n prop]ties ( ! "r-angl$ triangle f9d ! l5g? ( ! hypo!nuse ,,bm3 & s9ce ,,bm is made up ( ! radius ,,ba plus ! m\nta9 height1 we h only to subtract ! moon's radius f ! asc]ta9$ :ole l5g? ( ! hypo!nuse & we h ! height ( ! m\nta94 ,,mm4 ,be] & ,ma$l] exhibit$ _! measures 9 ,fr5* toises3 9 ! heights we %all h occasion to quote1 ^! h be5 turn$ into ,engli% feet1 ^u ! assumption t ! toise is equal to #fci ,engli% feet4 ,! nom5clature ( lun> features adopt$ by ,be] & ,ma$l] is t introduc$ by ,riccioli3 m\nta9s & features hi!rto undi/+ui%$ 7 nam$ by !m aft] anci5t & mod]n philosoph]s1 9 cont9uance ( ,riccioli's sy/em1 & occasionally aft] t]re/rial features4 ,"s m9ute objects 9 ! neighb\rhood ( l>ge & nam$ ones 7 includ$ "u ! "n ( ! l>ge "o & di/+ui%$ by ,greek or ,roman lett]s4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ae4 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate ,,iv4 ,,picture ,,map ,,( ,,! ,,moon4 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate ,v4 ,skeleton ,map ( ,moon ,to ,accompany ,picture ,map1 ,*ap4 ,,vii ,! excell5t map result+ f ! ardu\s lab\rs ( ^! a/ronom]s is simply a map3 x does n pret5d to be a picture4 ,! asp]ities & depressions are symboliz$ by a conv5tional sy/em ( %ad+ & no attempt is made to exhibit objects z !y actually appe> 9 ! telescope4 ,a casual obs]v] comp>+ details on ! map ) ! same details on ! moon itself w\ld fail to id5tify or recognize !m except :]e ! features are v conspicu\s4 ,su* an obs]v] w\ld be /ruck by ! %ad[s by :i* ! lun> objects reveal !mselves3 he w\ld get to "k !m mo/ly by _! %ad[s1 s9ce x is ma9ly by ^? t _! =ms are reveal$ to a t]re/rial obs]v]4 ,b su* a map z t "u notice indicates no %ad[s1 & objects h to be id5tifi$ ^u x r by _! positions ) reg>d to "o ano!r or to ! bord]s ( ! moon ?an by any notable features !y actually pres5t to view4 ,?is inconv5i5ce occurr$ to u 9 our e>ly use ( ,be] & ,ma$l]'s *>t1 & we 7 induc$ to prep>e = ourselves a map 9 :i* e object is %[n some:at1 if imp]fectly1 z x actually appe>s at "s p]iod ( a lunation4 ,?is 0 done by copy+ ,be] & ,ma$l]'s outl9es & fill+ !m up by appropriate %ad+4 ,to d ju/ice to our task we enl>g$ our map to a diamet] ( six feet4 ,^u a circle ( ?is diamet] ! positions & dim5sions ( all objects 7 laid d[n f ! ,g]man orig9al4 ,!n f our own obs]vations we depict$ ! g5]al aspect ( ea* object3 & we s adju/$ ! %ad+ t all objects %\ld be %[n "u ab\t ! same angle ( illum9ation--a condition :i* is nev] fulfill$ ^u ! moon itself1 b :i* we consid] ourselves ju/ifi$ 9 exhibit+ = ! purpose ( convey+ a fair impression ( h[ ! v>i\s lun> objects actually appe> at "s "o or o!r "p ( a lunation4 ,! picture-map ?us produc$ has be5 photograph$ to ! size conv5i5t = ?is "w3 & 9 ord] to make x available = ! id5tification ( su* objects z we may h occasion to ref] to1 we h plac$ ar\nd x a co-ord9ate scale ( arbitr>y divisions by :i* any object c be f\nd z by ! latitude & longitude divisions ^u a common geographical map4 ,we h also prep>$ a skeleton map :i* includes ! m conspicu\s objects1 & :i* faces ! picture map 7,plates ,,iv4 & ,v47 ,! numb]s on ! skeleton map are ^? giv5 9 ! second column ( ! accompany+ table4 ,! table also gives ! co-ord9ate positions ( ! v>i\s crat]s1 ! names ( :i* are1 = conv5i5ce ( ref]5ce1 pr9t$ 9 alphabetical ord]4 ,"n4 ,numb]4 ,map ,ord9ates4 ,abulf$a #ajg #cjj #abjg ,agrippa #aea #cab #aajj ,airy #ic #cdg #abcj ,albategnius #aji #cee #aaig ,aliac5sis #fa #ceh #acaj ,almanon #id #bij #abbc ,alpetragius #ib #djh #abbd ,alphonsus #aaj #cif #abji ,apianus #fb #ccf #abic ,apollonius #aed #fe #ajie ,arago #aeb #bdg #ajhg ,ar*im$es #aia #djc #ieh ,ari/>*us #agf #fbc #iib ,ari/illus #aij #cgj #icc ,ari/otle #bji #cjj #hdf ,arza*ael #hd #cie #abdj ,atlas #bbh #bjg #hff ,autolycus #ahi #cfh #iee ,azophi #gf #cjg #abfh ,bacon #ag #cbe #adbj ,baily #bjg #bfj #hed ,b>ocius #cd #cah #ache ,bessel #agi #bgd #ajja ,bett9us #aa #dhh #addi ,bian*9i #bae #eaf #hfc ,billy #aba #fdc #abad ,blancanus #ab #dcg #addh ,bonpl& #aaj #dhe #aagf ,borda #ef #aeb #acaj ,boscovi* #afj #caa #ajfh ,b\v>d #dj #fff #acdc ,briggs #aif #fhj #igb ,bullialdus #hf #eja #abee ,burg #bjf #bee #hge ,calippus #aii #cbd #ijc ,campanus #ga #ebc #abij ,capella #ajd #agh #aahj ,capuanus #dc #eje #acbh ,casatus #g #dcg #adgj ,cass9i #bjj #cee #hig ,ca!r9a #ie #bdg #abdj ,caval]ius #add #gab #ajie ,cav5di% #hh #fce #abgd ,ci*us #dd #dgc #acbh ,clavius #ac #dah #adce ,cleomides #ahc #ajg #igj ,colombo #ih #abh #abbg ,condam9e #bad #dhg #hdb ,condorcet #afd #de #ajdg ,cop]nicus #adg #dih #ajgj ,cyrillus #if #bce #abac ,damoiseau #abd #fib #aagb ,davy #aac #dcb #aaih ,deambrel #abi #bfh #aace ,delisle #aie #eeg #ieb ,desc>tes #ajf #bhe #aaic ,diophantus #aid #eee #ifc ,doppelmay] #gj #ehf #abif ,encke #adj #eig #aajf ,endymion #bbg #bjf #hch ,epig5es #bbc #cij #gie ,era/o!nes #afh #ddf #ajdj ,eudoxus #bjh #big #hhj ,fabricius #ce #bjj #acfh ,f]nelius #cg #cea #acdh ,firmicus #aef #eh #ajgg ,flam/e$ #abf #fbh #aade ,fontana #abb #fei #abcj ,font5elle #bba #dcj #hac ,f\ri] #fg #fbe #acjg ,fraca/orius #gh #bje #abgj ,furn]ius #eb #aag #accj ,gamb>t #ach #dgb #aabb ,g>tn] #bbd #bfe #hbc ,gass5di #ij #eig #abcc ,gauricus #df #dce #acbe ,gauss #bja #ajc #ijc ,gay ,lussac #afi #eja #ajch ,geb] #hc #bif #abdh ,gem9us #ahg #acj #icj ,gr>d #bah #fcg #hhh ,gocl5ius #aja #aah #aahe ,god9 #ace #cac #aaag ,grimaldi #abe #gjh #aafc ,gruemb]g] #f #dad #adeh ,gu]ik #aad #dfe #aaif ,guttemb]g #ajb #aci #aahc ,+hirami #bg #fac #achi ,isidorus #ajc #afg #aahj ,kant #aje #beh #aahe ,kepl] #adf #fjj #ajhj ,kies #gb #dig #abhh ,kir*] #aj #dge #adeh ,klapro? #h #dce #adfg ,la ,caille #gd #cge #abfh ,lagrange #fh #fgj #acac ,la ,hire #agg #edc #iic ,lal&e #aag #dcd #aaec ,lamb]t #aic #dif #igh ,l&sb]g #abg #edj #aacj ,langre5 #ajj #fc #aagg ,letronne #abj #fbj #aaij ,licetus #ba #cda #acif ,li*t5b]g #aig #ffe #idi ,l9nu #ahh #cag #ieg ,littr[ #ahe #bje #iid ,lohrman #adc #gac #aabh ,longomontanus #bc #deg #adjf ,lub9iezky #ia #eac #abce ,macrobius #ahb #acg #ajjb ,mag9us #bb #djj #adjd ,mairan #bag #efg #hie ,manilius #afg #cbb #ajci ,manz9us #d #cac #adfj ,m>aldi #aha #ahf #ajjh ,m>ius #aga #fej #ajee ,maskelyne #acb #aie #aaaj ,mason #bjd #bcg #hhh ,maup]tius #bac #dhg #heh ,maurolycus #cc #cah #acgj ,m5elaus #afe #bhc #ajcj ,m]cator #fe #ead #acjb ,m]s5ius #hi #fag #abeg ,messala #bjb #adj #ije ,messi] #aca #ajh #aadj ,metius #cf #ahh #ajei ,moretus #e #cie #adfe ,moe/+ #abh #daf #aacb ,ne&] #eg #ahg #acaj ,ne>*us #ah #bfh #adbj ,newton #a #daj #adgg ,nonius #di #cfe #accb ,olb]s #agb #gcj #ajgg ,pallas #adi #chf #ajie ,p>rot #ajh #ceh #abaf ,petavius #hj #ie #abge ,phocylides #be #eee #adaf ,piazzi #da #fej #acce ,pic>d #afc #hc #ajdg ,piccolom9i #eh #bag #acaj ,pico #baa #dai #hgc ,pitatus #fc #dda #acjb ,plana #bje #bdh #hhh ,plato #baj #dah #hdh ,playfair #ge #cce #abge ,pl9y #afe #bdb #ajcd ,poisson #fj #cbh #acaj ,polybius #hb #bde #abef ,pontanus #ei #bij #acjb ,posidonius #ahf #bbb #idc ,proclus #afb #aad #ajde ,ptolemy #aaa #cie #aahb ,purba* #gc #chg #abhd ,py?agoras #bbj #ecj #hab ,py!as #agh #dig #ajjd ,ramsd5 #db #ebi #acbe ,reamur #aah #cgc #aadf ,re9] #ade #fgc #ajhe ,re9hold #aci #eae #aaab ,repsold #bai #fjb #heg ,rheita #ea #afa #acdb ,riccioli #adb #gbg #aach ,riccius #ej #bcg #acce ,ritt] #acd #bfj #aaaf ,roem] #ahd #ahc #igf ,ross #afa #bej #ajec ,sab9e #acc #bej #aabj ,sacrobosco #gg #bge #abgg ,santbe* #gi #aeg #abfh ,saussure #ca #cif #acgg ,s*e9] #ad #dee #adce ,s*ick>d #bh #eij #acge ,s*ill] #bd #eac #adaj ,s*roet] #acg #dbc #aajg ,s*ub]t #aee #bc #aajh ,segn] #af #eac #adce ,seleucus #agd #fij #iih ,%>p #baf #edb #hgg ,%ort #b #cig #adgd ,silb]s*lag #aeg #cbj #ajha ,simpelius #c #ceh #adgg ,snell #ee #aac #abif ,soemm]+ #acf #dbh #aabb ,/adius #adh #def #ajgj ,/ev9us #ec #aai #acjg ,/oefl] #cb #cef #acfh ,/rabo #bbf #bcb #haf ,/ruve #bjc #ahc #hhg ,t>untius #aec #aag #ajij ,taylor #acj #bgf #aafb ,?ales #bbe #bdc #hah ,!bit #he #djh #abfh ,!ophilus #ig #bbc #abjj ,timu #bbb #chc #hjh ,timo*>is #aib #dea #igj ,tobias ,may] #agj #ede #ajcj ,triesneck] #aej #cee #ajih ,ty*o #cj #dcj #adbc ,uk]t #aei #cga #ajge ,vasco de ,gama #agc #gbh #ajdi ,v5del9us #ii #fh #abaf ,vieta #fi #fdc #abig ,vitello #ff #eeh #acjg ,vitruvius #ahj #bja #ajbj ,vlacq #ai #bej #adja ,zu*ius #ae #ejg #addb ,! /rong family lik5ess p]vad+ ! crat]s ( ! moon r5d]s x unnecess>y t we %\ld attempt a description ( ea* "o ( !m or ev5 ( "o 9 tw5ty4 ,we h1 h[ev]1 ?\ght t a few rem>ks ^u ! sali5t features ( a few ( ! mo/ important may be acceptable 9 explanation ( our illu/rative plates2 & :at we h to say ( ! few may be tak5 z repres5tative ( ! _m4 ,,cop]nicus1 #adg--7dih--ajgj74 ,plate ,,viii4 ,?is may des]v$ly be consid]$ z "o ( ! gr&e/ & mo/ in/ructive ( lun> crat]s4 ,al?\gh its va/ diamet] 7#df miles7 is exce$$ by o!rs1 yet1 tak5 z a :ole1 x =ms "o ( ! mo/ impressive & int]e/+ objects ( its class4 ,its situation1 ne> ! c5tre ( ! lun> disc1 r5d]s all its wond]ful details1 z well z ^? ( its imm$iately surr\nd+ objects1 s conspicu\s z to e/abli% x z a v fav\rite object4 ,its va/ ramp>t rises to upw>ds ( #ab1jjj feet above ! level ( ! plateau1 ne>ly 9 ! c5tre ( :i* /&s a magnific5t gr\p ( cones1 ?ree ( !m atta9+ ! height ( upw>ds ( #bdjj feet4 ,! ramp>t is divid$ by conc5tric segm5tal t]rac$ ridges1 :i* pres5t e appe>ance ( be+ enorm\s l&slips1 result+ f ! cru%+ ( _! ov]-load$ summits1 :i* h slid d[n 9 va/ segm5ts & scatt]$ _! dbris on to ! plateau4 ,correspond+ vacancies 9 ! ramp>t may be obs]v$ f :5ce ^! prodigi\s masses h brok5 away4 ,! same may be notic$1 al?\gh 9 a some:at modifi$ degree1 ar\nd ! ext]ior ( ! ramp>t4 ,9 ord] to approa* a realization ( ! sublimity & gr&eur ( ?is magnific5t example ( a lun> volcanic crat]1 our read] w\ld d well to endeav\r to fix 8 att5tion on its enorm\s magnitude & attempt to e/abli% 9 8 m9d's eye a correct conception ( ! scale ( its details z well z its g5]al dim5sions1 :i*1 z !y s prodigi\sly transc5d ^? ( ! l>ge/ t]re/rial volcanic crat]s1 require t our ideas z to magnitude ( su* objects %\ld be1 s to speak1 educat$ ^u a special /&>d4 ,x is = ?is reason we are anxi\s our read]1 :5 exam9+ our illu/rations1 %\ld con/antly ref] ! objects repres5t$ 9 !m to ! scale ( miles app5d$ to ea* plate1 o!rwise a j & true conception ( ! gr&eur ( ! objects w escape him4 ,cop]nicus is specially int]e/+1 z be+ evid5tly ! result ( a va/ dis*>ge ( molt5 matt] :i* has be5 eject$ at ! focus or c5tre ( disruption ( an ext5sively upheav$ portion ( ! lun> cru/4 ,a c>eful exam9ation ( ! crat] & ! di/rict ar\nd x1 ev5 to ! di/ance ( m ?an #ajj miles on e side1 w supply unmi/akable evid5ce ( ! va/ ext5t & =ce ( ! orig9al disruption1 manife/$ by a wond]fully complex reticulation ( bright /reaks :i* div]ge 9 e direction f ! crat] z _! common c5tre4 ,^! /reaks d n appe> on our plate1 nor are !y se5 ^u ! moon except at & ne> ! full phase4 ,!y %[ conspicu\sly1 h[ev]1 by _! unit$ lu/re on ! full moon1 ,plate ,,iii4 ,e "o ( ^? bright /reaks1 we conceive1 is a record ( :at 0 orig9ally a crack or *asm 9 ! solid cru/ ( ! moon1 result+ f "s va/ly p[]ful upheav+ ag5cy ov] ! site ( ^: focus ( en]gy ,cop]nicus /&s4 ,! crack+ ( ! cru/ mu/ h be5 foll[$ by ! ejection ( subjac5t molt5 matt] up ?r\gh ! reticulat$ cracks2 ?is1 spread+ some:at on ei!r side ( !m1 has left ^! bright /reaks z a visible record ( ! =ce & ext5t ( ! upheaval2 :ile at ! focus ( disruption f :5ce ! cracks div]ge1 ! gr& outbur/ appe>s to h tak5 place1 leav+ ,cop]nicus z its record & result4 ,_m some:at radial ridges or spurs may be obs]v$ lead+ away f ! ext]ior banks ( ! great ramp>t4 ,^! appe> to be due to ! m free egress :i* ! extrud$ matt] w\ld f9d ne> ! focus ( disruption4 ,! spur-ridges may be trac$ f9+ away = fully #ajj miles on all sides1 until !y become su* delicate objects z to approa* invisibility4 ,sev]al va/ op5 *asms or cracks may be obs]v$ ar\nd ! ext]ior ( ! ramp>t4 ,!y appe> to be due to "s action subsequ5t to ! =mation ( ! great crat]--probably ! result ( contraction on ! cool+ ( ! cru/1 or ( a deep-seat$ upheaval long subsequ5t to t :i* result$ 9 ! =mation ( ,cop]nicus itself1 z !y int]sect objects ( evid5tly prior =mation4 ,"u circum/ances specially fav\rable = 8f9e vision10 = upw>ds ( #gj miles on all sides ar\nd ,cop]nicus1 myriads ( comp>atively m9ute b p]fectly-=m$ crat]s may be obs]v$4 ,! di/rict on ! s\?-ea/ side is specially ri* 9 ^! wond]fully ?ickly-scatt]$ crat]s1 :i* we h reason to suppose /& ov] or ^u ! reticulat$ bright /reaks2 b1 z ! circum/ances ( illum9ation :i* are requisite to enable u to detect ! m9ute crat]s are widely adv]se to ^? :i* r5d] ! bright /reaks visible1 namely1 ne>ly full moon = ! "o & gibb\s = ! o!r1 x is next to impossible to e/abli% ! fact ( co9cid5ce ( ! sites ( ! two by actual simultane\s obs]vation4 ,at ! ea/ side ( ! ramp>t1 multitudes ( ^! comp>atively m9ute crat]s may also be detect$1 al?\gh n s closely cr[d$ toge!r z ^? on ! we/ side2 b among ^? on ! ea/ may be se5 myriads ( m9ute prom95ces r\gh5+ ! surface2 on close scrut9y ^! are se5 to be small m\nds ( extrud$ matt] :i*1 n hav+ be5 eject$ ) suffici5t en]gy to cause ! erupt$ mat]ial to assume ! crat] =m ar\nd ! v5t ( ejection1 h simply assum$ ! m\nd =m s well kn[n to be ! result ( volcanic ejection ( mod]ate =ce4 ,7 we to select a comp>atively limit$ portion ( ! lun> surface ab\nd+ 9 ! mo/ unmi/akable evid5ce ( volcanic action 9 e v>iety t c *>act]ize its sev]al phases1 we c\ld n *oose "o yield+ 9 all respects su* in/ructive examples z ,cop]nicus & its imm$iate surr\nd+s4 ,,gass5di1 #ij--7eig--abcc74 ,frontispiece4 ,an int]e/+ crat] ab\t #ed miles diamet]2 ! height ( ! mo/ elevat$ portion ( ! surr\nd+ wall f ! plateau be+ ab\t #ifjj feet4 ,! c5tre is occupi$ by a gr\p ( conical m\nta9s1 ?ree ( :i* are mo/ conspicu\s objects & rise to ne>ly #gjjj feet above ! level ( ! plateau4 ,z 9 o!r simil> cases1 ^! c5tral m\nta9s are d\btless ! result ( ! expir+ ef=t ( ! eruption :i* _h =m$ ! great circul> wall ( ! crat]4 ,! plateau is trav]s$ by sev]al deep cracks or *asms ne>ly "o mile wide4 ,bo? ! int]ior & ext]ior ( ! wall ( ! crat] are t]rac$ ) ! usual segm5tal ridges or l&slips4 ,a rem>kable deta*$ portion ( ! int]ior bank is to be se5 on ! ea/ side1 :ile on ! we/ ext]ior ( ! wall may be se5 an equally rem>kable example ( an outbur/ ( lava subsequ5t to ! =mation ( ! wall or bank ( ! crat]2 x is ( conical =m & _c fail to secure ! att5tion ( a c>eful obs]v]4 ,int]polat$ on ! nor? wall ( ! crat] may be se5 a crat] ( ab\t #ah miles diamet] :i* has bur/ its bank 9 t[>ds ! great crat]1 ^u ^: plateau ! lava appe>s to h dis*>g$ itself4 ,! neighb\rhood ( ,gass5di is div]sifi$ by a va/ numb] ( m\nds & long ridges ( exudat$ matt]1 & also trav]s$ by enorm\s *asms & cracks1 sev]al ( :i* exce$ "o mile wide & are fully #ajj miles 9 l5g?1 &1 z is usual ) su* cracks1 trav]se pla9 & m\nta9 alike1 disreg>d+ all surface inequalities4 ,numb]s ( small crat]s are scatt]$ ar\nd2 ! :ole =m+ an int]e/+ & in/ructive portion ( ! lun> surface4 ,,eudoxus1 #bjh 7#big--hhj71 & ,,ari/otle1 #bji 7#cjj--hdf74 ,plate ,x4 ,two gigantic crat]s1 ,eudoxus be+ ne>ly #ce miles 9 diamet] & upw>ds ( #aa1jjj feet deep1 :ile ,ari/otle is ab\t #dh miles 9 diamet]1 & ab\t #aj1jjj feet deep 7measur+ f ! summit ( ! ramp>t to ! plateau74 ,^! two magnific5t crat]s pres5t all ! true volcanic *>act]i/ics 9 a rem>kable degree4 ,! outsides z well z ! insides ( _! va/ surr\nd+ walls or banks display on ! gr&e/ scale ! l&slip feature1 ! result ( ! ov]-pil+ ( ! eject$ mat]ial1 & ! consequ5t cru%+ d[n & crumbl+ ( ! sub/ructure4 ,! true eruptive "* ( ! action :i* =m$ ! crat]s is well ev9c$ by ! exi/5ce ( ! gr\ps ( conical m\nta9s :i* occupy ! c5tres ( _! circul> plateaux1 s9ce ^! conical m\nta9s1 !re c be little d\bt1 /& ov] :at 7 once ! v5ts f :5ce ! eject$ matt] ( ! crat]s 0 dis*>g$4 ,on ! we/ side ( ^! gr& crat]s may be se5 myriads ( comp>atively m9ute ones 7we use ! expression 8comp>atively m9ute10 al?\gh mo/ ( !m are fully a mile 9 diamet]74 ,s ?ickly are ^! small crat]s cr[d$ toge!r1 t c\nt+ !m is totally out ( ! "q2 9 our orig9al notes we h t]m$ !m 8,fro? crat]s0 z ! mo/ *>act]i/ic description ( _! aspect4 ,! ext]ior banks ( ,ari/otle are *>act]iz$ by radial ridges or spurs3 ^! are mo/ probably ! result ( ! fl[+ d[n ( great curr5ts ( v fluid lava4 ,to ! ea/ ( ! crat]s "s v l(ty m\nta9s ( exudation may be se51 & imm$iately beyond !m an ext5sive di/rict ( small] m\nta9s ( ! same class1 s ?ickly cr[d$ toge!r z "u fav\rable illum9ation to pres5t a multitude ( brilliant po9ts ( light contra/$ by int]v5+ deep %ade4 ,on ! we/ bank ( ,ari/otle a v p]fect crat] may be se51 #bg miles 9 diamet]1 hav+ all ! usual *>act]i/ic features4 ,ab\t #dj miles to ! ea/ ( ,eudoxus !re is a f9e example ( a crack or fissure ext5d+ fully #ej miles--#cj miles ?r\gh a pla91 & ! rema9+ #bj miles cutt+ ?r\gh a gr\p ( v l(ty m\nta9s4 ,?is great crack is wor?y ( att5tion1 z giv+ evid5ce ( ! deep-seat$ nature ( ! =ce :i* occasion$ x1 inasmu* z x disreg>ds all surface imp$im5ts1 trav]s+ pla9 & gr\p ( m\nta9s alike4 ,!re are sev]al o!r features 9 & ar\nd ^! two magnific5t crat]s well wor?y ( c>eful obs]vation & scrut9y1 all ( !m excell5t types ( _! respective classes4 ,,triesnek]1 #aej 7#cee--ajih74 ,plate ,,xi4 ,a f9e example ( a normal lun> volcanic crat]1 hav+ all ! usual *>act]i/ic features 9 great p]fection4 ,its diamet] is ab\t #bj miles1 & x possesses a good example ( ! c5tral cone & also ( int]ior t]rac+4 ,! mo/ notable feature1 h[ev]1 9 connection ) ?is crat]1 & on acc\nt ( :i* we h *os5 x z a subject = "o ( our illu/rations1 is ! v rem>kable display ( *asms or cracks :i* may be se5 to ! we/ side ( x4 ,sev]al ( ^! great cracks obvi\sly div]ge f a small crat] ne> ! we/ ext]nal bank ( ! great "o1 & !y subdivide or bran* out1 z !y ext5d f ! app>5t po9t ( div]g5ce1 :ile !y are cross$ or int]sect$ by o!rs4 ,^! cracks or *asms 7= _! wid? m]its ! latt] appellation7 are ne>ly "o mile broad at ! wide/ "p1 & aft] ext5d+ to fully #ajj miles1 tap] away till !y become invisible4 ,al?\gh !y are n te/ objects ( ! highe/ ord] ( difficulty1 yet to see !m ) p]fect di/9ctness requires an in/rum5t ( "s p]fection & all ! conditions ( good vision4 ,:5 su* are pres5t1 a ke5 & practis$ eye w f9d _m details to rivet its att5tion1 among :i* are c]ta9 portions ( ! edges ( ^! cracks or *asms :i* h fall5 9 & caus$ int]ruptions to _! cont9uity4 ,,!ophilus1 #ig 7#bbc--abjj74 ,,cyrillus1 #if 7#bce--abac74 ,,ca?>9a1 #ie 7#bdg--abdj74 ,plate ,,xii4 ,^! ?ree magnific5t crat]s =m a v conspicu\s gr\p ne> ! middle ( ! s\?-ea/ qu>t] ( ! lun> disc4 ,_! respective diamet]s & dep?s are z foll[s3-- ,!ophilus1 #fd miles diamet]2 dep? ( plateau f summit ( crat] wall1 #af1jjj feet2 c5tral cone1 #ebjj feet high4 ,cyrillus1 #fj miles diamet]2 dep? ( plateau f summit ( crat] wall1 #ae1jjj feet2 c5tral cone1 #ehjj feet high4 ,ca?>9a1 #fe miles diamet]2 dep? ( plateau f summit ( crat] wall1 #ac1jjj feet2 c5tre ( plateau occupi$ by a confus$ gr\p ( m9or crat]s & dbris4 ,ea* ( ^! ?ree gr& crat]s is full ( int]e/+ details1 pres5t+ 9 e v>iety ! *>act]i/ic features :i* s fasc9ate ! att5tion ( ! c>eful obs]v] ( ! moon's wond]ful surface1 & af=d+ unmi/akable evid5ce ( ! trem5d\s en]gy ( ! volcanic =ces :i* at "s inconceivably remote p]iod pil$ up su* gigantic =mations4 ,!ophilus by its intrusion )9 ! area ( ,cyrillus %[s 9 a v /rik+ mann] t x is ( comp>atively m rec5t =mation ?an ! latt] crat]4 ,!re are _m su* examples 9 o!r p>ts ( ! lun> disc1 b few ( s v di/9ct & m>k$ a "*4 ,! flanks or ext]ior banks ( ,!ophilus1 especially ^? on ! we/ side1 are /udd$ ) app>5tly m9ute crat]s1 all ( :i* :5 c>efully scrut9iz$ are f\nd to be ( ! true volcanic type ( /ructure2 & m9ute z !y are1 by comp>ison1 !y w\ld to a behold] close to !m appe> z v impos+ objects2 b s gigantic are ! m notable crat]s 9 ! neighb\rhood1 t we are apt to ov]look :at are 9 !mselves really l>ge objects4 ,x is only by duly tra9+ ! m9d1 z we h previ\sly urg$1 s z ev] to keep be=e u ! va/ scale on :i* ! volcanic =mations ( ! lun> surface are display$1 t we c d !m ! ju/ice :i* _! intr9sic gr&eur dem&s4 ,we tru/ t our illu/rations may 9 "s measure t5d to educate ! m9d's eye1 s z to d]ive to ! full ! tranquil enjoym5t :i* results f ! /udy ( ! manife/ation ( "o ( ! ,creator's mo/ pot5t ag5cies 9 deal+ ) ! mat]ials ( 8 worlds1 namely1 volcanic =ce4 ,s ri* 9 wond]ful features & *>act]i/ic details is ?is magnific5t gr\p & its neighb\rhood1 t a volume might be fill$ 9 ! attempt to d ju/ice1 by description1 to objects s full ( sugge/ive subject = /udy4 ,,!bit1 #he--7djh--abfh74 ,a crat] ab\t #cb miles 9 diamet] & ab\t #igjj feet deep1 devoid ( a c5tral cone4 ,x appe>s on ! upp] "p & ne> ! middle ( ,plate ,,xiii4 ,! plateau has five m9ute crat]s ^u x4 ,on ! ea/ outside are two small crat]s1 ! less] ( :i*1 ab\t #bge miles diamet]1 has a c5tral cone4 ,we specially note ?is fact1 because x is ! smalle/ crat] b "o 9 :i* we h detect$ a c5tral cone3 no d\bt1 h[ev]1 _m small] crat]s possess ?is unmi/akable /amp ( true volcanic orig91 b s m9ute are ! specks ( light :i* ! c5tral cones ( su* v small crat]s reflect1 t !y fail to be visible to u4 ,ea/ ( ,!bit is a v rem>kable /raight cliff #fj miles long by ab\t #ajjj feet high1 call$ by "s obs]v]s ! 8,railway10 & app>5tly ! result ei!r ( an upheaval or ( a d[n-s9k+ ( ! surface ( ! circul> area across ^: diamet] x /ret*es4 ,"u mod]ate magnify+ p[]1 ?is cliff appe>s /raight1 b ) high] p[] & "u fav\rable conditions1 its face is se5 to be s]rat$1 & along ! upp] edge may be detect$ sev]al v m9ute crat]s4 ,a m conspicu\s small crat] is se5 at ! nor? end ( ! cliff4 ,to ! ea/ ( ! cliff ne>ly opposite ! c5tre are two crat]s1 f ! ea/ side ( ! l>g] ( :i* proce$s a f9e crack p>allel to ! cliff & pass+ ?r\gh a dome-%ap$ hill ( l[ em95ce4 ,,plato1 #baj 7#dah--hah74 ,plate ,,xiv4 ,?is crat]1 besides be+ a conspicu\s object on acc\nt ( its great diamet]1 has _m int]e/+ details 9 & ar\nd x requir+ a f9e in/rum5t & fav\rable circum/ances to r5d] !m di/9ctly visible4 ,! diamet] ( ! crat] is #gj miles2 ! surr\nd+ wall or ramp>t v>ies 9 height f #djjj to upw>ds ( #hjjj feet1 & is s]rat$ ) noble peaks :i* ca/ _! black %ad[s across ! plateau 9 a mo/ picturesque mann]1 l ! t[]s & spires ( a great ca!dral4 ,ref]5ce to our illu/ration w convey a v fair idea ( ?is int]e/+ appe>ance4 ,on ! nor?-ea/ inside ( ! circul> wall or ramp>t may be obs]v$ a f9e example ( l&slip1 or slid+ d[n ( a consid]able mass ( ! int]ior side ( ! crat]'s wall4 ,! l&slip nature ( ?is rem>kable detail is cle>ly e/abli%$ by ! fact ( ! bottom edge ( ! d[nslipp$ mass project+ 9 t[>ds ! c5tre ( ! plateau to a consid]able ext5t4 ,o!r small] l&slip features may be se51 b none on s gr& & /rik+ a scale z ! "o ref]r$ to4 ,a numb] ( exce$+ly m9ute crat]s may be detect$ on ! surface ( ! plateau4 ,! plateau itself is rem>kable = its l[ reflective p[]1 :i* causes x to look l a d+y spot :5 ,plato is view$ ) a small magnify+ p[]4 ,! ext]ior ( ! crat] wall is rem>kable = ! rugg$ "* ( its =mation1 & =ms a great contra/ 9 t respect to ! comp>atively smoo? unbrok5 surface ( ! plateau1 :i* by ! way is devoid ( a c5tral cone4 ,! surr\nd+ features & objects indicat$ 9 our illu/ration are ( ! highe/ int]e/1 & a few ( !m dem& special description4 ,,! ,,valley ,,( ,,! ,,alps 7#cgj--hfj74 ,plate ,,xiv4 ,?is rem>kable object lays some:at diagonally to ! we/ ( ,plato2 :5 se5 ) a l[ magnify+ p[] 7#hj or #ajj71 x appe>s z a rut or groove tap]+ t[>ds ea* extremity4 ,x measures upw>ds ( #ge miles long by ab\t six miles wide at ! broade/ "p4 ,:5 exam9$ "u fav\rable circum/ances1 ) a magnify+ p[] ( f #bjj to #cjj1 x is se5 to be a va/ flat-bottom$ valley bord]$ by gigantic m\nta9s1 "s ( :i* atta9 heights upw>ds ( #aj1jjj feet2 t[>ds ! s\?-ea/ ( ?is rem>kable valley1 & on bo? sides ( x1 are gr\ps ( isolat$ m\nta9s1 sev]al ( :i* are fully #hjjj feet high4 ,?is flat-bottom$ valley1 :i* has reta9$ ! integrity ( its =m amid su* di/urb+ =ces z its imm$iate surr\nd+s indicate1 is "o ( ! _m /ructural enigmas ) :i* ! lun> surface ab\nds4 ,to ! nor?-we/ ( ! valley a va/ numb] ( isolat$ m\nds or small m\nta9s ( exudation may be se52 s num]\s are !y z to defy all attempts to c\nt !m ) any?+ l exactness2 & among !m1 a p[] ( #bjj to #cjj w enable an obs]v]1 "u fav\rable circum/ances1 to detect va/ numb]s ( small b p]fectly-=m$ crat]s4 ,,pico1 #baa 7#dai--hgc74 ,plate ,,xiv4 ,?is is "o ( ! mo/ int]e/+ examples ( an isolat$ volcanic 8m\nta9 ( exudation10 & x =ms a v /rik+ object :5 se5 "u fav\rable circum/ances4 ,its height is upw>ds ( #hjjj feet1 & x is ab\t ?ree times z long at ! base z x is broad4 ,! summit is cleft into ?ree peaks1 z may be asc]ta9$ by ! ?ree-peak$ %ad[ x ca/s on ! pla94 ,five or six m9ute crat]s ( v p]fect =m may be detect$ close to ! base ( ?is magnific5t m\nta94 ,!re are sev]al o!r isolat$ peaks or m\nta9s ( ! same class )9 #cj or #dj miles ( x :i* are well wor?y ( c>eful scrut9y1 b ,pico is ! ma/] ( ! situation1 & (f]s a glori\s subject = realiz+ a lun> day-dream 9 ! m9d's eye1 if we c only by an ef=t ( imag9ation conceive its aspect "u ! fi]cely brilliant sun%9e by :i* x is illum9at$1 contra/$ ) ! int5sely black lun> heav5s /udd$ ) />s %9+ ) a /eady brightness ( :i*1 by reason ( our atmosph]e int]v5+1 we c h no adequate conception save by ! aid ( a well-direct$ imag9ation4 ,,ty*o1 #cj 7#dcj--adbc74 ,plate ,,xvi4 ,?is magnific5t crat]1 :i* occupies ! c5tre ( ! cr[d$ gr\p 9 our ,plate1 is #ed miles 9 diamet]1 & upw>ds ( #af1jjj feet deep1 f ! highe/ ridge ( ! ramp>t to ! surface ( ! plateau1 :5ce rises a gr& c5tral cone #ejjj feet high4 ,x is "o ( ! mo/ conspicu\s ( all ! lun> crat]s1 n s mu* on acc\nt ( its dim5sions z f its occupy+ ! great focus ( disruption f :5ce div]ge ^? rem>kable bright /reaks1 _m ( :i* may be trac$ ov] #ajjj miles ( ! moon's surface1 disreg>d+ 9 _! c\rse all int]pos+ ob/acles4 ,!re is e reason to conclude t ,ty*o is an in/ance ( a va/ disruptive action :i* r5t ! solid cru/ ( ! moon into radiat+ fissures1 :i* 7 subsequ5tly occupi$ by extrud$ molt5 matt]1 ^: sup]ior lum9osity m>ks ! c\rse ( ! cracks 9 all directions f ! crat] z _! common c5tre ( div]g5ce4 ,s num]\s are ^! bright /reaks :5 exam9$ by ! aid ( ! telescope1 & !y give to ?is region ( ! moon's surface su* an extra degree ( lum9osity1 t1 :5 view$ z a :ole1 _! locality c be di/9ctly se5 at full moon by ! unassi/$ eye z a bright pat* ( light on ! s\!rn portion ( ! disc4 7,see ,plate ,,iii47 ,! causative orig9 ( ! /reaks is discuss$ & illu/rat$ 9 ,*apt] ,,xi4 ,! int]ior ( ?is f9e crat] pres5ts /rik+ examples ( ! conc5tric t]race-l =mations t we h else:]e assign$ to va/ l&slip actions4 ,some:at simil> conc5tric t]races may be obs]v$ 9 o!r lun> crat]s2 "s ( ^!1 h[ev]1 appe> to be ! results ( "s tempor>y modification ( ! ejective =ce1 :i* has caus$ ! =mation ( m or less p]fect inn] ramp>ts3 :at we conceive to be true l&slip t]races are always di/+ui%$ f ^! by _! m or less fragm5t>y "*4 ,on ref]5ce to ,plate ,,iii41 %[+ ! full moon1 a v rem>kable & special appe>ance w be obs]v$ 9 a d+y di/rict or zone imm$iately surr\nd+ ! ext]ior ( ! ramp>t ( ,ty*o1 & ( :i* we v5ture to haz>d :at appe>s to u a rational explanation3 namely1 t z ,ty*o may be consid]$ to h act$ z a sort ( safety-valve to ! r5d+ & ejective =ce :i* caus$1 9 ! fir/ in/ance1 ! crack+ ( ?is va/ portion ( ! moon's cru/--! molt5 matt] t appe>s to h be5 =c$ up ?r\gh ^! cracks1 on f9d+ a comp>atively free exit by ! v5t ( ,ty*o1 s reliev$ ! di/rict imm$iately ar\nd him z to h !reby r$uc$1 9 am\nt1 ! exit ( ! molt5 matt]1 & s left a zone comp>atively free f ! extrud$ lava :i*1 accord+ to our view ( ! subject1 came up simultane\sly ?r\gh ! innum]able fissures1 &1 spread+ sideways along _! c\rses1 left ev]la/+ records ( ! orig9al positions ( ! radiat+ cracks 9 ! =m ( ! bright /reaks :i* we n[ behold4 8,,w>g5t910 #bf 7#ege--adjb74 ,plate ,,xvii4 ,?is object is q unique ( its k9d--a crat] ab\t #ec miles across t to all appe>ance has be5 fill$ to ! brim ) lava t has be5 left to consolidate4 ,!re are evid5ces ( ! rema9s ( a ramp>t1 especially on ! s\?-we/ portion ( ! rim4 ,! g5]al aspect ( ?is extraord9>y object has be5 n unaptly comp>$ to a 8?9 *eese40 ,! t]rac$ & rutt$ ext]ior ( ! ramp>t has all ! usual *>act]i/ic details ( ! true crat]4 ,! surface ( ! high plateau is m>k$ by a few ridges bran*+ f a po9t ne>ly 9 its c5tre1 toge!r ) "s o!r slight elevations & depressions2 ^!1 h[ev]1 c only be detect$ :5 ! sun's rays fall ne>ly p>allel to ! surface ( ! plateau4 ,to ! nor? ( ?is int]e/+ object is ! magnific5t r+ =mation ,s*ick>d1 ^: va/ diamet] ( #abc miles contra/s /rik+ly ) t ( ! sixte5 small crat]s )9 8 ramp>t1 & equally s ) a multitude ( small crat]s scatt]$ ar\nd4 ,!re are _m objects ( int]e/ on ! portion ( ! lun> surface includ$ )9 our illu/ration1 b z !y are all ( ! usual type1 we %all n fatigue ! att5tion ( our read]s by special descriptions ( !m4 ,,ari/>*us1 #agf 7#fc--iib71 & ,,h]odotus1 #age 7#fcb--iif74 ,plate ,,xviii4 ,^! two f9e examples ( lun> volcanic crat]s are conspicu\sly situat$ 9 ! nor?-ea/ qu>t] ( ! moon's disc4 ,ari/>*us has a circul> ramp>t ne>ly #bh miles diamet]1 ! summit ( :i* is ab\t #gejj feet above ! surface ( ! plateau1 :ile its height above ! g5]al surface ( ! moon is #bfjj feet4 ,a c5tral cone hav+ sev]al subord9ate peaks completes ! true volcanic "* ( ?is crat]3 its ramp>t banks1 bo? outside & inside1 h f9e examples ( ! segm5tal cresc5t-%ap$ ridges or l&slips1 :i* =m s con/ant & *>act]i/ic a feature 9 ! /ructure ( lun> crat]s4 ,sev]al v notable cracks or *asms may be se5 to ! nor? ( ^! two crat]s4 ,!y are contort$ 9 a v unusual & rem>kable mann]1 ! result probably ( ! =ce :i* =m$ !m hav+ to enc\nt] v v>y+ resi/ance ne> ! surface4 ,"s p>ts ( ^! *asms gape to ! wid? ( two to ?ree miles1 & :5 closely scrut9iz$ are se5 to be "h & !re p>tly fill$ by masses :i* h fall5 inw>d f _! sides4 ,sev]al small] crat]s are scatt]$ ar\nd1 :i*1 toge!r ) ! great *asms & neighb\r+ ridges1 give evid5ce ( v>i$ volcanic activity 9 ?is locality4 ,we mu/ n omit to draw att5tion to ! p>allelism or g5]al simil>ity ( 8/rike0 9 ! ridges ( extrud$ matt]2 ?is appe>ance has special int]e/ 9 ! eyes ( geologi/s1 & is well repres5t$ 9 our illu/ration4 ,ari/>*us is specially rem>kable = ! extraord9>y capability :i* ! mat]ial =m+ its int]ior & ramp>t banks has ( reflect+ light4 ,al?\gh !re are _m portions ( ! lun> surface :i* possess ! same prop]ty1 yet few s rem>kably z 9 ! case ( ,ari/>*us1 :i* %9es ) su* brightness1 z comp>$ ) its imm$iate surr\nd+s1 z to attract ! att5tion ( ! mo/ unpractiz$ obs]v]4 ,"s h suppos$ ?is appe>ance to be due to active volcanic dis*>ge /ill l+]+ on ! lun> surface1 an idea 9 :i*1 = reasons to be duly adduc$1 we h no fai?4 ,cop]nicus1 9 ! rem>kable bright /reaks :i* radiate f x1 & ,ty*o also1 z well z sev]al o!r spots1 are app>5tly compos$ ( mat]ial v ne>ly z highly reflective z t ( ,ari/>*us4 ,b ! comp>ative isolation ( ,ari/>*us1 z well z ! extraord9>y light-reflect+ prop]ty ( its mat]ial1 r5d]s x especially noticeable1 s mu* s z to make x q a conspicu\s object :5 illum9at$ only by e>?-light1 :5 b a sl5d] cresc5t ( ! lun> disc is illum9at$1 or :51 z dur+ a lun> eclipse1 ! disc ( ! moon is )9 ! %ad[ ( ! e>?1 & is light$ only by ! rays refract$ ?r\gh ! e>?'s atmosph]e4 ,!re are no features ab\t ,h]odotus ( any su* speciality z to call = rem>k1 except x be ! brea* ( ! nor? side ( its ramp>t by ! s\!rn extremity ( a v rem>kable contort$ crack or *asm1 :i* to all appe>ance owes its exi/5ce to "s great disruptive action subsequ5t to ! =mation ( ! crat]4 ,,walt]1 #dh 7#cgh--acai71 & adjac5t ,intrusive ,crat]s4 ,plate ,,xx4 ,?is ,plate repres5ts a s\!rn portion ( ! moon's surface measur+ #agj by #bcj miles4 ,x includes upw>ds ( #bjj crat]s ( all dim5sions1 f ,walt]1 ^: ramp>t measures ne>ly #gj miles across1 d[n to ^? ( su* small app>5t diamet] z to require a well practiz$ eye to detect !m4 ,9 ! int]ior ( ! great crat] ,walt] a rem>kable gr\p ( small crat]s may be obs]v$ surr\nd+ 8 c5tral cone1 :i* 9 ?is in/ance is n s p]fectly 9 ! c5tre ( ! ramp>t z is usually ! case4 ,! numb] ( small crat]s :i* we h obs]v$ )9 ! ramp>t is #bj1 exclusive ( ^? on ! ramp>t itself4 ,! entire gr\p repres5t$ 9 ! ,plate sugge/s 9 a /rik+ mann] ! wild sc5]y :i* mu/ *>act]ize _m portions ( ! lun> surface2 ! m s if we keep 9 m9d ! va/ proportions ( ! objects :i* !y comprise1 ^u :i* po9t we may rem>k t ! smalle/ crat] repres5t$ 9 ?is ,plate is consid]ably l>g] ?an t ( ,vesuvius4 ,,ar*im$es1 #aia 7#djc--ieh71 ,,autolycus1 #ahi 7#cfh--iee71 ,,ari/illus1 #aij 7#cgj--icc71 & ! ,,ap5n9es4 ,plate ,,ix4 ,?is gr\p ( ?ree magnific5t crat]s1 toge!r ) _! rem>kable surr\nd+s1 especially includ+ ! noble range ( m\nta9s t]m$ ! ,ap5n9es1 =ms on ! :ole "o ( ! mo/ /rik+ & int]e/+ portions ( ! lun> surface4 ,if ! read] is n acqua9t$ ) :at ! telescope c reveal z to ! gr&eur ( ! effect ( sunrise on ?is v rem>kable portion ( ! moon's surface1 he %\ld c>efully inspect & /udy our illu/ration ( x2 & if he w pay due reg>d to our previ\sly repeat$ sugge/ion conc]n+ ! atta*$ scale ( miles1 he w1 %\ld he h ! good =tune to /udy ! actual objects by ! aid ( a telescope1 be well prep>$ to realize & duly appreciate ! magnific5ce ( ! sc5e :i* w be pres5t$ to 8 sight4 ,7 we to attempt an adequate detail description ( all ! int]e/+ features compris$ )9 our illu/ration1 x w\ld1 ( itself1 fill a goodly volume2 z !re is includ$ )9 ! space repres5t$ e v>iety ( feature :i* s int]e/+ly *>act]izes ! lun> surface4 ,all ! m prom95t details are types ( _! class2 & are s fav\rably situat$ 9 respect to almo/ direct vision1 z to r5d] _! nature1 =ms1 & altitudes above & dep?s bel[ ! av]age surface ( ! moon mo/ di/9ctly & impressively cognizable4 ,ar*im$es is ! l>ge/ crat] 9 ! gr\p2 x has a diamet] ( upw>ds ( #eb miles1 measur+ f summit to summit ( its va/ circul> ramp>t or crat] wall1 ! av]age height ( :i*1 above ! plateau1 is ab\t #dcjj feet2 b "s p>ts ( x rise consid]ably high]1 &1 9 consequ5ce1 ca/ /eeple-l %ad[s across ! plateau :5 ! sun's rays are int]cept$ by !m at a l[ angle4 ,! plateau ( ?is gr& crat] is devoid ( ! usual c5tral cone4 ,two comp>atively m9ute b beautifully-=m$ crat]s may be detect$ close to ! nor?-ea/ int]ior side ( ! surr\nd+ wall ( ! great crat]4 ,bo? outside & inside ( ! crat] wall may be se5 magnific5t examples ( ! l&slip subsid5ce ( its ov]load$ banks2 ^! l&slips =m va/ conc5tric segm5ts ( ! out] & inn] circumf]5ce ( ! great circul> ramp>t1 & d\btless belong to its era ( =mation4 ,two v f9e examples ( cracks1 or *asms1 may be obs]v$ proce$+ f ! opposite ext]nal sides ( ! crat]1 & ext5d+ upw>ds ( #ajj miles 9 ea* direction2 ^! cracks1 or *asms1 are fully a mile wide at _! comm5cem5t next ! crat]1 & n>r[ away to invisibility at _! fur!r extremity4 ,_! c\rse is consid]ably crook$1 & 9 "s p>ts !y are p>tially fill$ by masses ( ! mat]ial ( _! sides1 :i* h fall5 inw>d & p>tially *ok$ !m4 ,! dep?s ( ^! enorm\s *asms mu/ be v great1 z !y probably owe _! exi/5ce to "s mighty upheav+ action1 :i* !re is e reason to suppose orig9at$ at a pr(\nd dep?1 s9ce ! g5]al surface on ea* side ( ! crat] does n appe> to be di/urb$ z to altitude1 :i* w\ld h be5 ! case _h ! upheav+ action be5 at a mod]ate dep? b5ea?4 ,we w\ld v5ture to ascribe a dep? ( n less ?an t5 miles z ! mo/ mod]ate e/imate ( ! pr(undity ( ^! t]rible *asms4 ,if ! read] w\ld realize ! scale ( !m1 let him = a mom5t imag9e himself a travell] on ! surface ( ! moon com+ ^u "o ( !m1 & f9d+ 8 onw>d progress arre/$ by ! sudd5 appe>ance ( its va/ black yawn+ dep?s2 = by reason ( ! angle ( 8 vision be+ almo/ p>allel to ! surface1 no appe>ance ( s pr(\nd a *asm w\ld break ^u 8 sight until he came comp>atively close to its fe>ful edge4 ,our imag9>y lun> travell] w\ld h to make a v long dt\r1 ere he circumv5t$ ?is t]rible int]ruption to 8 progress4 ,if ! read] w only endeav\r to realize 9 8 m9d's eye ! t]rific gr&eur ( a *asm a mile wide & ( su* d>k pr(undity z to be1 to all appe>ance1 fa?omless--portions ( its rugg$ sides fall5 9 wild confusion into ! jaws ( ! tortu\s abyss1 & cat*+ "h & !re a ray ( ! sun suffici5t only to r5d] ! d>kness ( ! *asm m impressive z to its pr(undity--he w1 by s do+1 le>n to appreciate ! romantic gr&eur ( ?is1 "o ( ! _m features :i* ! /udy ( ! lun> surface pres5ts to ! c>eful obs]v]1 & :i* exce$ 9 sublimity ! wilde/ ef=ts ( poetic & romantic imag9ation4 ,! contemplation ( ^! views ( ! lun> _w are1 moreov]1 va/ly enhanc$ by special circum/ances :i* add greatly to ! impressiv5ess ( lun> sc5]y1 su* z ! un*ang+ pit*y-black aspect ( ! heav5s & ! dea?-l sil5ce :i* reigns unbrok5 !re4 ,^! digressions are1 9 "s respects1 a =e/allm5t ( :at we h to say by-&-by1 & s f> !y are out ( place2 b ) ! illu/ration to :i* ! above rem>ks ref] plac$ be=e ! read]1 !y may1 9 "s respects1 enhance ! int]e/ ( its exam9ation4 ,! upp] portion ( our illu/ration is occupi$ by ! magnific5t range ( volcanic m\nta9s nam$ aft] our ,ap5n9es1 ext5d+ to a l5g? ( upw>ds ( #dej miles4 ,?is m\nta9 gr\p rises gradually f a comp>atively level surface t[>ds ! s\?-we/1 9 ! =m ( innum]able comp>atively small m\nta9s ( exudation1 :i* increase 9 numb] & altitude t[>ds ! nor?-ea/1 :]e !y culm9ate & sudd5ly t]m9ate 9 a sublime range ( peaks1 ^: altitude & rugg$ aspect mu/ =m "o ( ! mo/ t]ribly gr& & romantic sc5es :i* imag9ation c conceive4 ,! nor?-ea/ face ( ! range t]m9ates abruptly 9 an almo/ v]tical precipit\s face1 & ov] ! pla9 b5ea? int5se black /eeple or spire-l %ad[s are ca/1 "s ( :i* at sunrise ext5d fully #ij miles1 till !y lose !mselves 9 ! g5]al %ad+ due to ! curvature ( ! lun> surface4 ,no?+ c exce$ ! sublimity ( su* a range ( m\nta9s1 _m ( :i* rise to heights ( #ah1jjj to #bj1jjj feet at "o b\nd f ! plane at _! nor?-ea/ base4 ,! mo/ fav\rable "t to exam9e ! details ( ?is magnific5t range is f ab\t a day be=e fir/ qu>t] to a day aft]1 z x is !n t ! g5]al /ructure ( ! range z well z ! "* ( ! cont\r ( ea* memb] ( ! gr\p c1 f ! circum/ances ( illum9ation !n obta9+1 be mo/ di/9ctly inf]r$4 ,sev]al comp>atively small p]fectly-=m$ crat]s are se5 int]sp]s$ among ! m\nta9s1 giv+ evid5ce ( ! truly volcanic "* ( ! surr\nd+ region1 :i*1 z be=e said1 comprises 9 a comp>atively limit$ space ! mo/ p]fect & /rik+ examples ( ne>ly e class ( lun> volcanic ph5om5a4 ,we h endeav\r$ on ,plate ,,xxiii4 to give "s idea ( a l&scape view ( a small portion ( ?is m\nta9 range4 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate ,,vi4 ,,t]re/rial ,,& ,,lun> ,,volcanic ,,areas ,,comp>$4 ,,portion ,,( ,,! ,,moon',s ,,surface4 ,illu/ration3 ,,vesuvius ,,& ,,neighb\rhood ,,( ,,naples4 ,,*apt] ,,viii4 ,,on ,,lun> ,,crat]s4 ,z we /at$ 9 our brief g5]al description ( ! visible hemisph]e ( ! moon1 & z a cursory glance at our map & plates w h %[n1 ! pr$om9ant features ( ! lun> surface are ! circul> or amphi!atrical =mations t1 by _! numb]1 & f _! almo/ unnatural uni=mity ( design1 induc$ ! belief among e>ly obs]v]s t !y mu/ h be5 ( artificial orig94 ,9 proce$+ n[ to exam9e ! details ( our subject ) m m9ut5ess ?an be=e1 ^! annul> =mations claim ! fir/ %>e ( our att5tion4 ,by g5]al acceptation ! t]m 8crat]0 has be5 us$ to repres5t ne>ly all ! circul> holl[s t we obs]ve ^u ! moon2 & )\t d\bt ! ^w 9 its lit]al s5se1 z indicat+ a cup or circul> cavity1 is s f> aptly appli$4 ,b among geologi/s x has be5 employ$ 9 a m special s5se to def9e ! holl[+ out t is f\nd at ! summit ( "s ext9ct1 & ! majority ( active1 volcanoes4 ,9 ?is special s5se x may be us$ by ! /ud5t ( ! lun> surface1 ?\gh 9 "s1 & inde$ 9 ! majority ( cases1 ! lun> crat] diff]s mat]ially 9 its =m ) respect to its surr\nd+s f ^? on ! e>?2 = :ile1 z we h said1 ! t]re/rial crat] is g5]ally a holl[ on a m\nta9 top ) its flat bottom high above ! level ( ! surr\nd+ c\ntry1 ^? ^u ! moon h _! l[e/ po9ts depress$ m or less deeply bel[ ! g5]al surface ( ! moon1 ! ext]nal height be+ frequ5tly only a half or "o-?ird ( ! int]nal dep?4 ,yet are ! lun> crat]s truly volcanic2 z ,sir ,john ,h]s*el has said1 !y (f] ! true volcanic "* 9 its highe/ p]fection4 ,we h ^u ! e>? "s few in/ances 9 :i* ! geological conditions :i* h det]m9$ ! surface-=mation h be5 id5tical ) ^? t h obta9$ ^u ! moon2 & z a result we h "s t]re/rial volcanic di/ricts t1 c\ld we view !m "u ! same circum/ances1 w\ld be id5tical 9 "* ) :at we see by telescopic aid ^u our satellite4 ,! mo/ rem>kable case ( ?is simil>ity is (f]$ by a c]ta9 tract ( ! volcanic area ab\t ,naples1 kn[n f classic times z ! ,campi ,phlegri1 or burn+ fields1 a "n giv5 to !m 9 e>ly days1 ei!r because !y %[$ traces ( anci5t e>?-fire1 or because !re 7 atta*$ to ! localities traditions conc]n+ hot-spr+s & sulphur\s exhalations1 if n ( actual fi]y eruptions4 ,! resemblance ( :i* we are speak+ is "h s close t ,pr(essor ,phillips1 9 8 "w on ,vesuvius1 :i* by ! way conta9s a hi/orical description ( ! di/rict 9 "q1 calls ! moon a gr& ,phlegreian field4 ,h[ closely ! anci5t crat]s ( ?is fam\s spot resemble ! g5]ality ( ^? ^u ! moon may be judg$ f ,plate ,,vi41 9 :i* repres5tations ( two areas1 t]re/rial & lun>1 ( ! same ext5t1 are exhibit$ side by side1 ! t]re/rial region be+ ! volcanic neighb\rhood ( ,naples1 & ! lun> a portion ( ! surface ab\t ! crat] ,!ophilus4 ,9 comp>+ ^! volcanic circles toge!r1 we are h[ev] br\ght face to face ) a /rik+ diff]5ce t exi/s betwe5 ! lun> & t]re/rial crat]s4 ,?is is ! diff]5ce ( magnitude4 ,none ( ^? ,plutonian amphi!atres includ$ 9 ! t]re/rial area depict$ exce$ a mile 9 diamet]1 & few l>g] volcanic v5ts ?an ^! are kn[n ^u ! e>?4 ,yet :5 we turn to ! moon1 & measure "s ( ! l>g] crat]s !re1 we are a/oni%$ to f9d !m rang+ f an almo/ invisible m9ut5ess to #gd miles 9 diamet]4 ,! same disproportion exi/s betwe5 ! dep?s ( ! two classes ( crat]s4 ,to give an idea ( relative dim5sions1 we w\ld ref] to our illu/ration ( ,cop]nicus#h & its hundr$s ( comp>atively m9ute surr\nd+ crat]s4 ,our t]re/rial ,vesuvius w\ld be repres5t$ by "o ( ^! la/1 :i* ^u ! plate measures ab\t ! tw5tie? ( an in* 9 diamet]6 ,& ?is disproportion /rikes u ! m =cibly :5 we consid] t ! lun> globe has an area only "o-?irte5? ( t ( ! e>?4 ,9 view ( ?is great app>5t discrepancy x is n surpris+ t _m %\ld h be5 incr$ul\s z to ! true volcanic "* ( ! lun> m\nta9s1 & h pref]r$ to designate !m by "s 8non-committal0 t]m1 z an ,am]ican geologi/ 7,pr(essor ,dana7 has express$ x4 ,b !re is a feature 9 ! majority ( ! r+-m\nta9s t1 z we conceive1 demon/rates completely ! fact ( volcanic =ce hav+ be5 9 full action1 & t seems to /amp ! volcanic "* ^u ! crat]-=ms4 ,?is special feature is ! c5tral cone1 s well kn[n z a *>act]i/ic ( t]re/rial volcanoes1 accept$ z ! result ( ! la/ expir+ ef=t ( ! eruptive =ce1 & =m$ by ! deposit1 imm$iately ar\nd ! volcanic orifice1 ( matt] :i* !re 0 n =ce en\gh to project to a great] di/ance4 ,^u ! moon we h ! c5tral cone 9 small crat]s comp>able to ^? on ! e>?1 & we h x 9 progressively l>g] examples1 ^u all scales1 up to crat]s ( #gd miles 9 diamet]1 z we h %[n 9 ,plate ,,vii4 ,:]e1 !n1 c we draw ! l9e8 ,:]e c we say ! p>allel action to t :i* plac$ ,vesuvius 9 or ne> ! c5tre ( ! arc ( ,somma1 or ! cone figur$ 9 our sectional draw+ ( ,vesuvius 7,fig4 #c7 9 ! middle ( its pres5t crat]--:]e c we say t ! action 9 "q ceas$ to manife/ itself on ! moon1 see+ t !re is no break 9 ! cont9uity ( ! crat]-&-cone sy/em ^u ! moon any:]e betwe5 crat]s ( #a miles & #gd miles 9 diamet]8 ,we h1 x is true1 _m examples ( coneless crat]s1 b ^! are ( all sizes1 d[n to ! smalle/1 & up to a l>g5ess t w\ld almo/ seem to r5d] unt5able ! ejective explanation3 ( ^! we %all specially speak 9 turn1 b = ! pres5t we w conf9e ourselves to ! normal class ( lun> crat]s1 ^? t h c5tral cones1 & t are 9 all reasonable probability truly volcanic4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #af4 ,& 9 ! fir/ place let u take a pass+ glance at ! probable =mative process ( a t]re/rial volcano4 ,reject+ ! hypo!sis ( ,von ,bu*1 :i* geologi/s h on ! :ole f\nd to be unt5able1 & :i* ascribes ! =mation ( all m\nta9s to ! elevation ( ! e>?'s cru/ by "s ?ru/+ p[] b5ea?1 we are l$ to reg>d a volcano z a pyramid ( eject$ matt]1 ?r[n out ( & ar\nd an orifice 9 ! ext]nal solid %ell ( ! e>? by commotions eng5d]$ 9 its molt5 nucleus4 ,:at is ! precise nature & s\rce ( ! ejective =ce geologi/s h n p]fectly agre$ ^u1 b we may conceive t highly exp&$ vap\r1 9 all probability /eam1 is its prim>y cause4 ,! escap+ ap]ture may h be5 a weak place s9ce ! f\ndations ( ! e>? 7 laid1 or x may h be5 =m$ by a local expansion ( ! nucleus 9 ! act ( cool+1 ^u ! pr9ciple enunciat$ 9 our ,?ird ,*apt]2 or1 aga91 ! expansile vap\r may h =c$ its own way ?r\gh t po9t ( ! conf9+ %ell t (f]$ x ! lea/ resi/ance4 ,! v5t once =m$1 ! build+ ( ! volcanic m\nta9 comm5c$ by ! out-bel*+ ( ! lava1 a%es1 & scoria1 & ! disp]sion ( ^! ar\nd ! v5t at di/ances dep5d+ ^u ! en]gy ) :i* !y 7 project$4 ,z ! action cont9u$1 ! eject$ matt] w\ld accumulate 9 ! =m ( a m\nd1 ?r\gh ! c5tre ( :i* communication w\ld be ma9ta9$ ) ! s\rce ( ! eject$ mat]ials & ! seat ( ! explosive ag5cy4 ,! height to :i* ! pile w\ld rise mu/ dep5d ^u sev]al conditions3 ^u ! /eady su/5ance ( ! matt]1 & ^u ! =m & weight ( ! compon5t masses1 :i* w det]m9e ! slope ( ! m\nta9's sides4 ,suppos+ ! action to subside gradually1 ! tap]+ =m w be cont9u$ upw>ds by ! comp>atively g5tle deposition ( mat]ial ar\nd ! orifice1 & a p]fect cone w result ( "s su* =m z t repres5t$ bel[1 :i* is ! outl9e ascrib$ by ,pr(essor ,phillips to ,vesuvius 9 pre-hi/oric1 or ev5 pre-traditional times1 & :i* may be se5 9 its full integrity 9 ! cases ( ,etna1 ,t5]iffe1 ,fussi-,yamma1 ! great volcanic m\nta9 ( ,japan1 & _m o!rs4 ,! e>lie/ record$ =m ( ,vesuvius is t ( a truncat$ cone repres5t$ 9 ,fig4 #ag1 :i* %[s its condition1 accord+ to ,/rabo1 9 ! c5tury prec$+ ! ,*ri/ian ,era4 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate ,,vii ,,diagram ,,( ,,lun> ,,crat]s ,,=m+ ,a ,,s]ies ,,rang+ ,,f #a ,,miles ,,to #gh ,,miles ,,diamet]4 ,,all ,,conta9+ ,,c5tral ,,cones4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ag4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ah4 ,n[ ?is =m may h be5 assum$ "u two conditions4 ,if1 z ,phillips has surmis$1 ! m\nta9 orig9ally _h a peak$ summit ) b a small crat]-orifice at ! po9t1 !n we mu/ ascribe its decapitation to a subsequ5t eruption :i* 9 its viol5ce c>ri$ away ! upp] portion1 ei!r sudd5ly1 or ?r\gh a comp>atively sl[ process ( gr9d+ away or wid5+ out ( ! sides ( ! orifice by ! *af+ or flux+ action ( ! out-go+ mat]ials4 ,b x is probable t ! m\nta9 nev] _h ! p]fect summit indicat$ 9 our fir/ outl9e4 ,! viol5t outbur/ t caus$ ! great crat]-op5+ ( our second figure may h be5 b "o p>oxysmal phase ( ! eruption t built ! m\nta93 a sudd5 cessation ( ! eruptive =ce :5 at its greate/ int5sity1 & :5 ! orifice 0 at its wide/1 w\ld leave matt]s 9 an opposite condition to t sugge/$ z ! result ( a sl[ dy+ out ( ! action3 in/ead ( ! peak we %\ld h a wide crat]-m\?4 ,x is ( small consequ5ce = our pres5t purpose :e!r ! crat] 0 contemporane\s ) ! primitive =mation ( ! m\nta91 or :e!r x 0 =m$ c5turies aft]w>ds by ! bl[+ away ( ! m\nta9's head2 = ^u ! va/ scale ( geological "t1 int]vals su* z ^? betwe5 successive p>oxysms ( ! same eruption1 & ^? betwe5 successive eruptions1 are sc>cely to be discrim9at$1 ev5 ?\gh ! fir/ be days & ! second c5turies4 ,we may rem>k t ! wid5+ ( a crat] by a subsequ5t & probably m p[]ful eruption ?an t :i* orig9ally produc$ x is well e/abli%$4 ,we h only to glance at ! sket*1 ,fig4 #ah1 ( ! outl9e ( ,vesuvius z x appe>$ betwe5 ! ye>s ,a4,d4 #gi & #afca to see h[ ! old crat] 0 enl>g$ by ! t]rible ,pompeian eruption ( ! fir/-m5tion$ ye>4 ,"h we h a crat] gr\nd & bl[n away till its orig9al diamet] ( a mile & ?ree-qu>t]s has be5 increas$ to ne>ly ?ree miles4 ,scrope _h no hesitation 9 express+ 8 conviction t ! ext]nal r+s1 su* z ^? ( ,santor91 ,/4 ,jago1 ,/ ,hel5a1 ! ,cirque ( ,t5]iffe1 ! ,curral ( ,madeira1 ! cliff range t surr\nds ! isl& ( ,b\rbon1 & o!rs ( simil> =m & /ructure1 h[ev] wide ! area !y enclose1 are truly ! 8basal wrecks0 ( volcanic m\nta9s t h be5 bl[n into ! air ea* by "s eruption ( peculi> p>oxysmal viol5ce & p]si/5ce2 & t ! circul> or elliptical bas9s :i* !y :olly or 9 "p surr\nd are 9 all cases true crat]s ( eruption4 ,:5 ! viol5t outbur/ t produces a great crat] 9 a volcanic m\nta9-top m or less completely subsides1 ! funnel or escap+ orifice becomes *ok$ ) dbris4 ,/ill ! v5t /rives to keep itself op51 & n[ & !n gives out a small deliv]y ( c9d]y matt]1 :i*1 be+ pil$ ar\nd ! v5t1 aft] ! mann] ( its great prototype1 =ms ! inn] cone4 ,?is la/ may 9 its turn be> an op5 crat] ^u its summit1 & a /ill small] cone may =m )9 x4 ,z ! action fur!r dies away1 ! molt5 lava1 no long] see?+ & boil+1 & spirt+ =? ) ! re/ ( ! eject$ matt]1 wells upw>ds sl[ly1 & cool+ rapidly z x comes 9 contact ) ! atmosph]e1 solidifies & =ms a flat bottom or floor to ! crat]4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ai4 ,x may happ5 t a subsequ5t eruption f ! orig9al v5t w be comp>able 9 viol5ce to ! orig9al "o1 & !n ! inn] cone assumes a magnitude t r5d]s x ! pr9cipal feature ( ! m\nta91 & r$uces ! old crat] to a second>y object4 ,?is has be5 ! case ) ,vesuvius4 ,dur+ ! eruption ( #afca ! great cone :i* we n[ call ,vesuvius 0 ?r[n up1 & ! anci5t crat] n[ di/+ui%$ z ,monte ,somma became a subsidi>y portion ( ! :ole m\nta94 ,!n ! appe>ance 0 t %[n 9 ,fig4 #ai1 & :i* does n diff] greatly f t pres5t$ 9 ! pres5t day4 ,! summit ( ! ,vesuvian cone1 h[ev]1 has be5 v>i\sly alt]$2 x has be5 bl[n away1 leav+ a l>ge crat]al holl[1 & x has rebuilt itself ne>ly ^u its =m] model4 ,:5 we transf] our att5tion to ! volcanoes ( ! moon1 we f9d ourselves n q s well fav\r$ ) means = /udy+ ! process ( _! =mation2 = ! sight ( ! build+ up ( a volcanic m\nta9 su* z man has be5 p]mitt$ to behold ^u ! e>? has n be5 all[$ to an obs]v] ( ! moon4 ,! volcanic activity1 enfeebl$ ?\gh x n[ be1 ( :i* we are witnesses f "t to "t on ! e>?1 has altoge!r ceas$ ^u our satellite1 & left u only its effects z a clue to ! means by :i* !y 7 produc$4 ,if we 9 our "t c\ld h se5 ! actual ?r[+ up ( a lun> crat]1 our task ( description w\ld h be5 simple2 z x is we are compell$ to inf] ! con/ructive action f scrut9y ( ! f9i%$ /ructure4 ,we c sc>cely d\bt t :]e a lun> crat] be>s g5]al resemblance to a t]re/rial crat]1 ! process ( =mation has be5 ne>ly ! same 9 ! "o case z 9 ! o!r4 ,:]e v>iations pres5t !mselves !y may reasonably be ascrib$ to ! diff]5ce ( conditions p]ta9+ to ! two sph]es4 ,! greate/ dissimil>ity is 9 ! po9t ( dim5sions2 ! projection ( mat]ials to #bj or m miles di/ance f a volcanic v5t appe>s almo/ incr$ible1 until we realize ! full effect ( ! conditions :i* ^u ! moon are s fav\rable to ! disp]sive action ( an eruptive =ce4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 ! =ce ( gravity ^u our satellite is only "o-six? ( t to :i* bodies are subject ^u ! e>?4 ,secondly1 by reason ( ! small magnitude ( ! moon & its proportionally mu* l>g] surface 9 ratio to its magnitude1 ! rate at :i* x p>t$ ) its cosmical heat mu/ h be5 mu* m rapid ?an 9 ! case ( ! e>?1 especially :5 enhanc$ by ! abs5ce ( ! heat-cons]v+ p[] ( an atmosph]e ( air or wat] vap\r2 & ! disruptive & eruptive action & en]gy may be assum$ to be great] 9 proportion to ! m rapid rate ( cool+2 op]at+1 too1 z eruptive action w\ld on matt] s mu* r$uc$ 9 weight z x is on ! surface ( ! moon1 we ?us f9d 9 comb9ation conditions mo/ fav\rable to ! display ( volcanic action 9 ! highe/ degree ( viol5ce4 ,moreov]1 z ! eject$ mat]ial 9 its passage f ! c5tre ( dis*>ge _h n to enc\nt] any atmosph]ic resi/ance1 x 0 left free to cont9ue ! prim>y impulse ( its ejection )\t o!r ?an gravitative dim9ution1 & ?us to deposit itself at di/ances f its s\rce va/ly great] ?an ^? ( :i* we h examples on ! e>?4 ,we c ( c\rse only conjecture ! s\rce or nature ( ! moon's volcanic =ce4 ,if geologi/s h _h difficulty 9 assign+ an orig9 to ! p[] t ?rew up our e>?ly volcanoes1 into ^: crat]s !y c p5etrate1 ^: processes !y c wat*1 & ^: mat]ial !y c analyze1 h[ va/ly m difficult mu/ be ! inquiry into ! prim>y s\rce ( ! p[] t has be5 at "w ^u ! moon1 :i* _c be virtually approa*$ by ! eye )9 a di/ance ( six or eight hundr$ miles1 & ! mat]ial ( :i* we _c h&le to see if x be compact$ by heat1 or di/5d$ by vap\rs4 ,/eam is ! ag5t to :i* geologi/s h be5 accu/om$ to look = explanation ( t]re/rial volcanoes2 ! contact ( wat] ) ! molt5 nucleus ( our globe is accept$ z a probable means :]eby volcanic commotions are set up & ejective action is g5]at$4 ,b we are deb>r$ f ref]r+ to /eam z an elem5t ( lun> geology1 by reason ( ! abs5ce ( wat] f ! lun> globe4 ,we might suppose t a small proportion ( wat] once exi/$2 b a small proportion w\ld n acc\nt = ! imm5se display ( volcanic action :i* ! :ole surface exhibits4 ,if we admitt$ a ,neptunian orig9 to ! di/urbances ( ! moon's cru/1 we %\ld be compell$ to suppose t wat] _h exi/$ ne>ly 9 z great quantity1 area = area1 !re z ^u our globe2 b ?is we _c reasonably d4 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate ,,viii4 ,,cop]nicus4 ,aque\s vap\r be+ d5i$ u1 we mu/ look 9 o!r directions = an ejective =ce4 ,( ! nature ( ! lun> mat]ials we c "k no?+1 & we might !re=e assume any?+2 "s h _h rec\rse to ! supposition ( expansive vap\rs giv5 (f by "s volatile compon5t ( ! said mat]ial :ile 9 a /ate ( fusion1 or g5]at$ by *emical comb9ations4 ,pr(essor ,dana ref]s to sulphur z probably an important elem5t 9 ! moon's geology1 sugge/+ ?is sub/ance because ( ! "p :i* x appe>s to play 9 ! volcanic or igne\s op]ations ( our globe1 & on acc\nt ( its pres5ce 9 cosmical meteors t h come )9 range ( our analysis4 ,any matt] sublimat$ by heat 9 ! sub/rata ( ! moon w\ld be cond5s$ ^u rea*+ ! cold surr\nd+ space1 & w\ld be deposit$ 9 a /ate ( f9e p[d]1 or o!rwise 9 a solid =m4 ,ma$l] has attribut$ ! highly reflective portions ( "s p>ts ( ! surface1 su* z ! bright /reams t radiate f "s ( ! crat]s1 ,cop]nicus & ,ty*o = in/ance1 to ! vitrification ( ! surface matt] by gase\s curr5ts4 ,b 9 suppositions l ^! we mu/ rememb] t ! probability ( tru? dim9i%es z ! free gr\nd = speculation wid5s4 ,x does n appe> cle> h[ expansive vap\rs c\ld h la9 dormant till ! moon assum$ a solid cru/1 z all su* w\ld d\btless make _! escape be=e any %ell 0 =m$1 & at an epo* :5 !re 0 ample facility = _! expansion4 ,:ile we are n ins5sible ( ! value ( an expansive vap\r explanation1 if x c\ld be bas$ on any?+ beyond m]e conjecture1 we are dispos$ to atta* great] weight to t af=d$ by ! pr9ciple sket*$ 9 our ?ird *apt]1 viz41 ( expansion ^u solidification4 ,we gave1 z we ?9k1 ample pro( t molt5 matt] ( volcanic nature1 :5 ab\t pass+ to ! solid /ate1 increases its bulk to a consid]able degree1 & we sugge/$ t ! lun> globe at "o p]iod ( its hi/ory mu/ h be51 :at our e>? is n[1 a solid %ell encompass+ a molt5 nucleus2 & fur!r1 t ?is la/1 9 approa*+ its solid condition1 exp&$ & bur/ op5 or r5t its conf9+ cru/4 ,at fir/ sight x may seem t we are ascrib+ too great a degree ( en]gy to ! expansive =ce :i* molt5 sub/ances exhibit 9 pass+ to ! solid condition1 see+ t 9 g5]al su* =ces are sl[ & gradual 9 _! action2 b ?is anomaly disappe>s :5 we consid] ! va/ bulk ( ! s exp&+ matt]1 & ! comp>atively small am\nt t 9 its expansion x _h to displace4 ,x is true t !re are individual m\nta9s on ! moon cov]+ _m squ>e miles ( surface1 t z mu* z a ?\s& cubic miles ( mat]ial may h be5 ?r[n up at a s+le eruption2 b :at is ?is comp>$ to ! entire bulk ( ! moon itself8 ,a gra9 ( mu/>d-se$ ^u a globe ?ree feet 9 diamet] repres5ts ! scale ( ! l(tie/ ( t]re/rial m\nta9s2 a simil> gra9 ^u a globe "o foot 9 diamet]1 w\ld indicate ! proportion ( ! l>ge/ ^u ! moon4 ,a model ( our satellite ) ! elevations to scale w\ld %[ no?+ m ?an a little r\ghness1 or sup]ficial bli/]+4 ,turn = a mom5t to our map 7,plate ,,iv471 ^u :i* ! %ad[s give in=mation z to ! heights ( ! v>i\s irregul>ities1 & suppose x to repres5t ! actual size ( "s sph]e ^: surface has be5 brok5 up by reactions ( "s k9d ( ! int]ior ^u ! ext]ior--suppose x to h be5 a globe ( fragile mat]ial fill$ ) "s visc\s sub/ance1 & t ?is has exp&$1 crack$ its %ell1 ooz$ out 9 ! process ( solidification1 & solidifi$3 ! irregul>ity ( surface :i* ! small sph]e1 r\gh5$ by ! out-leak+ matt]1 w\ld pres5t1 w\ld n be less ?an t exhibit$ 9 ! map "u notice4 ,:5 we say t a lun> crat] has a diamet] ( #cj miles1 we raise a/oni%m5t t su* a /ructure c\ld result f an eruption by ! expansive =ce ( solidify+ matt]2 b :5 we reflect t ?is diamet] is less ?an ! two-hundr$? "p ( ! circumf]5ce ( ! moon1 we ne$ h no difficulty 9 reg>d+ ! upheaval z ! result ( a =ce slight 9 comp>ison to ! bulk ( ! mat]ial giv+ rise to x4 ,we h ^u ! moon evid5ce ( volcanic eruptions be+ ! f9al result ( mo/ ext5sive dislocations ( surface1 su* z c\ld only be produc$ by "s widely diffus$ uplift+ =ce4 ,we allude to ! frequ5t occurr5ce ( *a9s ( crat]s ly+ 9 a ne>ly /raight l9e1 & ( crat]s situat$ at ! conv]g+ po9t ( visible l9es ( surface di/urbance4 ,our map w exhibit _m examples ( bo? cases4 ,an exam9ation ( ! upp] portion 7! s\!rn hemisph]e ( ! moon7 w reveal abundant in/ances ( ! l9e> arrangem5t1 ?ree1 f\r1 five or ev5 m crat]al circles w be f\nd to lie ) _! c5tres ^u ! same great-circle track1 prov+ almo/ und\bt$ly a connexion betwe5 !m s f> z ! orig9al di/urb+ =ce :i* produc$ !m is conc]n$4 ,aga91 9 ! crat]s ,ty*o 7#cj71 ,cop]nicus 7#adg71 ,kepl] 7#adf71 & ,proclus 7#afb71 we see in/ances ( ! situation ( a volcanic outbur/ at an obvi\s focus ( di/urbance4 ,^! manife/ an up-?ru/+ =ce cov]+ a l>ge sub-surface area1 & escap+ at ! po9t ( lea/ resi/ance4 ,su* an ext5t ( action almo/ precludes ! gase\s explanation1 b x is compatible ) ! expansion on consolidation !ory1 s9ce x is reasonable to suppose t 9 ! process ( consolidation ! visc\s nucleus w\ld manife/ its increase ( bulk ov] consid]able areas1 di/urb+ ! sup]impos$ cru/ ei!r 9 "o long crack1 out ( ! wid] op5+ p>ts ( :i* ! exp&$ mat]ial w\ld f9d its escape1 or 8/>r+0 x ) num]\s cracks1 f ! conv]g+ po9t ( :i* ! conf9$ matt] w\ld be eject$ 9 greate/ abundance &1 if eject$ !re ) great en]gy & viol5ce1 w\ld result 9 ! =mation ( a volcanic crat]4 ,! actual process by :i* a lun> crat] w\ld be =m$ w\ld diff] f t p]ta9+ to a t]re/rial crat] only to ! ext5t ( ! diff]5t conditions ( ! two globes4 ,we c sc>cely accept ,scrope's t]m 8basal wrecks0 7( volcanic m\nta9s t h _h ! summits bl[n away7 z applicable to ! crat]s ( ! moon1 = ! reason t ! lun> globe does n (f] u any in/ance ( a m\nta9 comp>able 9 ext5t to ! great crat]s & ^: summit has n be5 bl[n away4 ,scrope's def9ition implies a d\ble1 or divid$ process ( =mation3 fir/ ! build+ up ( a va/ conical hill & !n ! decapitation & 8evisc]ation0 ( x at "s lat] p]iod4 ,!re are gr\nds = ?is inf]r$ d\ble action among ! t]re/rial volcanoes1 s9ce bo? ! p]fect cone & its summitless c\nt]p>t are num]\sly exemplifi$4 ,b ^u ! moon we h no p]fect cone ( great size1 we h no exception :]eby ! rule c be prov$4 ,x is aga9/ probability1 suppos+ e lun> crat] to h once be5 a m\nta91 t 9 e case ! m\nta9's summit %\ld h be5 bl[n away2 & we are !re=e compell$ to consid] t ! moon's volcanic crat]s 7 =m$ by "o cont9u\s outbur/1 & t _! 8evisc]ation0 0 a "p ( ! orig9al =mative process4 ,we d n1 h[ev]1 include ! c5tral cone 9 ?is consid]ation3 t may be reasonably ascrib$ to a second>y action or p]haps1 bett]1 to a weak] or modifi$ phase ( ! orig9al & only eruption4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bj4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ba4 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate ,,ix4 ,,! ,,lun> ,,ap5n9es1 ,,ar*im$es c41 c4 ,"u ^! circum/ances we conceive ! upca/+ & excavat+ ( a normal lun> crat] to h be5 prim>ily caus$ by a local manife/ation ( ! =ce ( expansion ^u solidification ( ! subsurface matt] ( ! moon1 result+ 9 ! creation ( a m]e 8/>0 or crack 9 & ?r\gh ! out]mo/ & solid cru/4 ,z we %all h to rely ^u diagrams to expla9 ! m complicat$ features1 we give "o ( ?is elem5t>y /age also z a comm5cem5t ( ! s]ies2 & ,fig4 #bj !re=e repres5ts a probable section ( ! lun> surface at a po9t :i* 0 subsequ5tly ! location ( a crat]4 ,f ! v5t ?us =m$ we conceive ! p5t-up matt] to h f\nd its escape1 n necess>ily at a s+le outbur/1 b 9 all probability 9 a p>oxysmal mann]1 z volcanic action manife/s itself on our globe4 ,! fir/ outfl[ ( molt5 mat]ial w\ld probably produce no m ?an a m]e hill or tumesc5ce z %ewn sectionally 9 ,fig4 #ba2 & if ! ejective =ce 7 small ?is might increase to ! magnitude ( a m\nta9 by an exudative process to be allud$ to h]eaft]4 ,b if ! ejective =ce 7 viol5t1 ei!r at ! mom5t ( ! fir/ outbur/ or at any subsequ5t p>oxysm1 an action repres5t$ 9 ,fig4 #bb w\ld result3 ! unsupport$ edges or lips ( ! v5t-hole w\ld be bl[n & gr\nd or flux$ away1 & a funnel-=m$ cavity w\ld be produc$1 ! eject$ matt] 7s mu* ( x z 9 fall+ 0 n caught by ! funnel7 be+ deposit$ ar\nd ! holl[ & =m+ an embryo circul> m\nta94 ,! cont9uance ( ?is action w\ld be accompani$ by an enl>gem5t ( ! conical cavity or crat]1 n only by ! outw>d ru% ( ! viol5tly dis*>g$ mat]ial1 b also by ! 8sweat+0 or gr9d+ action ( su* ( x z 9 desc5d+ fell )9 ! holl[4 ,& at ! same "t t ! crat] enl>g$ ! ramp>t w\ld ext5d its circumf]5ce1 = x w\ld be =m$ ( su* mat]ial z did n fall back aga9 into ! crat]4 ,^u ?is view ( ! crat]-=m+ process we base ! sket*1 ,fig4 #bc1 ( ! probable section ( a lun> crat] at "o p]iod ( its developm5t4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bb4 ,s long z ea* succe$+ p>oxysm 0 great] ?an its pr$ecessor1 ?is excavat+ ( ! holl[ & wid5+ ( its m\? & m\nd w\ld be ext5d$4 ,b :5 a weak] outbur/ came1 or :5 ! en]gy ( ! la/ eruption di$ away1 a process ( sl[ pil+ up ( matt] close ar\nd ! v5t w\ld ensue4 ,x is obvi\s t :5 ! ejective =ce c\ld no long] ex]t itself to a great di/ance x mu/ m]ely h lift$ its burd5 to ! reliev+ v5t & dropp$ x 9 ! imm$iate neighb\rhood4 ,ev5 if ! =ce 7 consid]able1 ! effect1 s long z x 0 insuffici5t to ?r[ ! ejecta beyond ! rim ( ! crat]1 w\ld be to pile mat]ial 9 ! l[]mo/ "p ( ! cavity2 = :at 0 n ca/ ov] ! edge w\ld roll or fl[ d[n ! inn] slope & accumulate at ! bottom4 ,& z ! eruption di$ away1 x w\ld add little by little to ! heap1 ea* expir+ ef=t leav+ ! out-giv5 matt] ne>] ! orifice1 & ?us build+ up ! c5tral cone t is s conspicu\s a feature 9 t]re/rial volcanoes1 & :i* is also a m>k$ "o 9 a v l>ge proportion ( ! crat]s ( ! moon4 ,?is =mation ( ! cone is pictorially describ$ by ,fig4 #bd4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bc4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bd4 ,9 ! volcanoes ( ! e>? we obs]ve ano!r action ei!r concurr5t ) or imm$iately subsequ5t to ! erection or =mation ( ! cone3 ?is is ! outfl[ or ! well+ =? ( fluid lava1 :i* 9 cool+ =ms ! well-kn[n plateau4 ,we h ?is feature copi\sly repres5t$ ^u ! moon & x is presumable t x has 9 g5]al be5 produc$ 9 a mann] analog\s to its c\nt]p>ts ^u ! e>?4 ,we may conceive t ! fluid matt] 0 ei!r spirt$ =? ) ! solid or semisolid con/itu5ts ( ! cone1 9 :i* case x w\ld dra9 d[n & fill ! bottom ( ! crat]2 or we may suppose t x issu$ f ! summit ( ! cone & ran d[n its sides1 or t1 z we see ^u ! e>?1 x f\nd its escape be=e rea*+ ! apex1 by =c+ its way ?r\gh ! basal p>ts4 ,^! actions are indicat$ hypo!tically = ! moon 9 ,fig4 #be2 & ! p>allel ph5om5a = ! e>? are %ewn by ! actual case 7repres5t$ 9 ,fig4 #bf & on ,plate ,i47 ( ,vesuvius z x 0 se5 by "o ( ! au?ors 9 #ahfe1 :5 ! pr9cipal cone 0 vomit+ =? a%es1 /ones1 & r$-hot lava1 :ile a v5t at ! side emitt$ v fluid lava :i* 0 settl+ d[n & =m+ ! plateau4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #be4 ,al?\gh we _c1 obvi\sly1 see ^u ! moon evid5ce ( a cone actually ov]topp$ by ! ris+ lake ( lava1 yet x is n unreasonable to suppose t su* a condition ( ?+s actually occurr$ 9 _m ( ^? in/ances 9 :i* we obs]ve crat]s )\t c5tral cones1 b ) plateaux s smoo? z to indicate previ\s fluidity or viscosity4 ,f ! /ate ( ?+s exhibit$ 9 ,fig4 #be ! transition to t %ewn 9 ,fig4 #bg is easily1 & to our view reasonably1 conceivable4 ,we are 9 a mann] l$ up to ?is idea by a review ( ! v>i\s heights ( c5tral cones above _! surr\nd+ plateaux4 ,= in/ance1 9 su* examples z ,ty*o or ,!ophilus1 we h cones high above ! lava floor2 9 ,cop]nicus1 ,arza*ael & ,alphonsus !y are comp>atively l[]2 ! lava 9 ^! & "s o!r crat]s does n appe> to h ris5 s high2 :ile 9 ,ari/otle & ,eudoxus among o!rs1 we h only traces ( cones1 & x is supposable t 9 ^! cases ! lava rose s high z ne>ly to ov]top ! c5tral cones4 ,:y %\ld x n h ris5 s f> z to ov]top & !re=e conceal "s cones entirely8 ,we (f] ?is z at lea/ a feasible explanation ( "s coneless crat]s3 x is n necess>y to suppose t x applies to all su*1 h[ev]3 !re may h be5 _m crat]s1 ! =mation ( :i* ceas$ s abruptly t no cone 0 produc$1 ?\gh ! well+ =? ( lava occurr$ f ! v5t1 :i* may h be5 left fully op51 z 9 ,fig4 #bh1 or s f> *ok$ z to /ay ! egress ( solid ejecta & yet all[ ! fluid mat]ial to ooze upw>ds ?r\gh x1 & s =m a lake ( molt5 lava :i* on consolidation became ! plateau4 ,z mo/ ( ! examples ( coneless crat]s exhibit on c>eful exam9ation m9ute crat]s on ! surface ( ! o!rwise smoo? plateaux1 we may suppose t su* m9ute crat]s are evid5ces ( ! upfl[ ( lava :i* result$ 9 ! plateaux4 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate ,x4 ,,ari/otle ,,eudoxus4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bf4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bg4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bh4 ,we h /rong evid5ce 9 support ( ?is up-fl[ ( lava (f]$ by ! case ( ! crat] ,w>g5t91 7,no4 #bf1 #ege--adjb7 situat$ ne> ! s\?-ea/ bord] ( ! disc1 & ( :i* we give a special plate4 7,plate ,,xvii47 ,x appe>s to be really a crat] 9 :i* ! lava has ris5 almo/ to ! po9t ( ov]fl[+1 = ! plateau is ne>ly level ) ! edge ( ! ramp>t4 ,?is edge appe>s to h be5 high] on "o side ?an ! o!r1 = on ! portion ne>e/ ! c5tre ( ! visible disc we may1 "u fav\rable circum/ances1 detect a segm5t ( ! bas9's brim ris+ above ! smoo? plateau z indicat$ 9 our illu/ration4 ,^u ! opposite side !re is no su* feature visible1 ! plateau =ms a %>p table-l edge4 ,x is j possible t an actual ov]fl[ ( lava took place at ?is "p ( ! crat]1 b f ! unfav\rable situation ( ?is rem>kable object x is impossible to decide ! po9t by obs]vation4 ,!re is no o!r crat] ^u ! visible hemisph]e ( ! moon t exhibits ?is fill$-up condition2 b1 unique z x is1 x is suffici5t to ju/ify our conclusion t ! plateau-=m+ action ^u ! moon has be5 a fl[+-up ( fluid matt] f bel[ subsequ5t to ! =mation ( ! crat]-ramp>t1 & n1 z a casual glance at ! great smoo?-bottom crat]s might lead u to suspect1 a result ( "s sort ( diluvial deposit :i* has fill$ holl[s & cavities & s br\ght up an ev5 surface4 ,! elevat$ bas9 ( ,w>g5t9 c\ld n h be5 fill$ ?us :ile ! surr\nd+ crat]s ) ramp>ts equally or less high rema9$ empty3 its conta9$ matt] mu/ h be5 suppli$ f )91 we mu/ conjecture by ! upfl[ ( lava f ! orifice :i* gave =? ! mat]ial to =m ! crat]al ramp>t 9 ! fir/ in/ance4 ,we are free to conjecture t at "s p]iod ( ?is table-m\nta9's =mation x 0 a crat] ) a c5tral cone1 & t ! ris+ lava ov]-topp$ ?is la/ feature 9 ! mann] %ewn by ! above figure 7,fig4 #bi74 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bi4 ,! "q occurs :e!r o!r crat]s may n h be5 simil>ly fill$ & h empti$ !mselves by ! bur/+ ( ! wall "u ! pressure ( ! accumulat$ lake ( lava )94 ,we "k t ?is brea*+ is a common ph5om5on 9 ! volcanoes ( our globe2 ! di/rict ( ,auv]gne furni%+ u ) _m examples2 & !re are "s suspici\s in/ances ^u ! moon4 ,cop]nicus exhibits signs ( su* disruption1 z also does ! small] crat] intrud+ ^u ! great circle ( ,gass5di4 7,see ,frontispiece47 ,b ! exi/5ce ( su* dis*>g+ brea*es implies ! outp\r+ ( a body ( fluid or semi-fluid mat]ial1 comp>able 9 cubical cont5t to ! capacity ( ! crat]1 & ( ?is we ought to see traces or evid5ce 9 ! =m ( a bulky or ext5sive lava /ream issu+ f ! brea*4 ,b al?\gh !re are fa9t indications ( once visc\s mat]ial ly+ 9 ! direction t escap+ fluid w\ld take1 we d n f9d any?+ ( ! ext5t t we %\ld expect f ! mass ( matt] t w\ld con/itute a crat]full4 ,x is true t if ! escap+ fluid _h be5 v limpid x might h spread ov] a l>ge area & h =m$ a /ratum too ?9 to be detect$4 ,su* a degree ( limpidity z w\ld be requir$ to fulfil ?is condition we are h>dly1 h[ev]1 ju/ifi$ 9 assum+4 ,to return to ! subject ( c5tral cones4 ,al?\gh !re are cases 9 :i* ! simple condition ( a s+le cone exi/s1 yet 9 ! majority we see t ! cone-=m+ process has be5 divid$ or int]rupt$1 ! consequ5ce be+ ! production ( a gr\p ( conical hills in/ead ( a s+le "o4 ,cop]nicus (f]s an example ( ?is "*1 six1 "s obs]v]s say sev51 sep>ate po9ts ( light1 indicat+ z _m peaks tipp$ ) sun%9e1 hav+ be5 se5 :5 ! great] "p ( ! crat] has be5 buri$ 9 %ad[4 ,era/o!nes1 ,bulialdus1 ,maurolicus1 ,petavius1 ,langre51 & ,gass5di1 are a few among _m in/ances ( crat]s possess+ m ?an a c5tral s+le cone4 ,?is multiplication ( peaks ^u ! moon d\btless arose f simil> causes to ^? :i* produce ! same feature 9 t]re/rial volcanoes4 ,our sket* ( ,vesuvius 9 #ahfe 7,fig4 #bf7 %[s ! d\ble cone & ! probable s\rce ( ! second>y "o 9 ! div]t$ *annel ( ! out-com+ mat]ial4 ,a v slight int]ruption 9 ! fir/ in/ance w\ld suffice to div]t ! /ream & =m ano!r c5tre ( action1 or a *ok+ ( ! orig9al v5t w\ld compel ! issu+ matt] to f9d a less resi/+ ?or\ghf>e into op5 space1 & ! process ( cone-build+ w\ld be cont9u$ f ! new orifice1 p]haps to be aga9 int]rupt$ aft] a "t & aga9 driv5 9 ano!r direction4 ,9 ?is mann]1 by repeat$ arre/s & div]sions ( ! ejecta1 cone has gr[n ^u ! side ( cone1 till1 ere ! =ce has entirely sp5t itself1 a clu/] ( peaks has be5 produc$4 ,x may h be5 t ?is action has tak5 place aft] ! =mation ( ! plateau1 9 ! mann] indicat$ by ,fig4 #cj2 a spasmodic outbur/ ( comp>atively slight viol5ce hav+ s\ght relief f ! orig9al v5t1 & ! fl[+ matt]1 f9d+ ! "o orifice n suffici5tly op5 to let x pass1 hav+ =c$ o!r exit ?r\gh ! plateau4 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate ,,xi4 ,,triesneck]4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cj4 ,9 frequ5t in/ances we obs]ve ! /ate ( ?+s repres5t$ 9 ,fig4 #ca1 9 :i* ! plateau is /udd$ ) few or _m small crat]s4 ,?is is ! case ) ,plato1 ) ,arza*ael1 ,hipp>*us1 ,clavius 7:i* conta9s ab\t #ae small int]nal crat]s71 & _m o!rs4 ,x is probable t ^! subsidi>y crat]s 7 produc$ by an aft]-action l t :i* has produc$ duplicat$ cones1 b 9 :i* ! second>y eruption has be5 ( some:at viol5t "*1 = x may almo/ be reg>d$ z an axiom t viol5t eruptions excavate crat]s & weak ones pile up cones4 ,9 ! cases ref]r$ to x seems reasonable to suppose t ! ma9 v5t has be5 ! *annel = an up-ca/ ( mat]ial1 b t at "s dep? bel[ ! surface ?is mat]ial met ) "s ob/ruction or cause ( div]sion1 & t x took a c\rse :i* br\ght x out f> away f ! cone ^u ! floor ( ! plateau4 ,x might ev5 be c>ri$ s f> z to be ^u ! ramp>t1 & x is no uncommon ?+ to see small crat]s 9 su* a situation1 ?\gh :5 !y appe> at su* a di/ance f ! prim>y v5t1 x seems m reasonable to suppose t !y d n belong to x b h aris5 f a subsequ5t & an indep5d5t action4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ca4 ,we f9d sc>cely an in/ance ( a small crat] occurr+ j 9 ! c5tre ( a l>ge "o1 or tak+ ! place ( ! cone4 ,?is is a curi\s circum/ance4 ,:5ev] we h any c5tral feature 9 a great crat]1 t feature is a cone4 ,! t5d5cy ( ?is fact is to prove t cones 7 produc$ by v weak ef=ts ( ?is expir+ =ce1 = _h !re be5 any /r5g? 9 ! la/ p>oxysm x is presumable t x w\ld h bl[n out & left a crat]4 ,no v viol5t eruptions h !re=e tak5 place f ! v5ts t 7 connect$ ) ! great crat]s ( ! moon1 no?+ m p[]ful ?an c\ld produce a cone ( exudation or a c9d]-heap4 ,& ) reg>d to cones1 x is notewor?y t :e!r !y be s+le or multiple1 !y nev] rise s high z ! circul> ramp>ts ( _! respective crat]s4 ,?is supports ! inf]r$ connexion betwe5 ! crat] orig9 & ! cone orig91 = suppos+ ! two to h be5 indep5d5t1 a supposition unt5able 9 view ( ! univ]sality ( ! c5tral position ( ! cone1 x is sc>cely conceivable t ! m\nta9s %\ld h always be5 locat$ )9 ramp>ts high] ?an !mselves4 ,! less height argues less p[] 9 ! upca/+ ag5cy1 & ! dim9i%$ =ce may well be consid]$ z t :i* w\ld almo/ ( necessity prec$e ! expiration ( ! eruption4 ,occasionally a crat] is met ) t has a d\ble ramp>t1 & ! conc5tricity sugge/s t !re h be5 two eruptions f ! same v5t3 "o p[]ful1 :i* =m$ ! ext]ior circle1 & a second r less p[]ful :i* has =m$ ! int]ior circle4 ,x is n1 h[ev] evid5t t ?is duplication ( ! r+ has always be5 due to a d\ble eruption4 ,9 _m cases !re is duplication ( only a portion3 a t]race exhibits itself ar\nd a "p ( ! circul> range1 sometimes ^u ! outside & sometimes ^u ! inside4 ,^! t]races are n likely to h be5 =m$ by any freak ( ! eruption1 & we are l$ to ascribe !m 9 g5]al to l&slip ph5om5a4 ,:51 9 ! c\rse ( a volcano's =mation1 ! pil+-up ( mat]ial ab\t ! v5t has cont9u$ till ! l[] portions h be5 unable to support ! upp]1 or :5 f any cause1 ! mat]ial compos+ ! pile has lo/ its cohesiv5ess1 ! natural consequ5ce has be5 a break+ away ( a portion ( ! /ructure & its precipitation d[n ! incl9$ sides ( ! crat]4 ,va/ segm5ts ( _m ( ! lun> m\nta9-r+s appe> to h be5 ?us dislodg$ f _! orig9al sites & ca/ d[n ! flanks to =m cresc5t ranges ( volcanic rocks ei!r )9 or )\t ! circle4 ,ne>ly e "o ( our plates conta9s crat]s exhibit+ ?is feature 9 m or less ext5sive degree4 ,sometimes ! sep>at$ portion has be5 v small 9 proportion to ! circumf]5ce ( ! crat]3 ,plato is an in/ance 9 :i* a comp>atively small mass has be5 deta*$4 ,9 o!r cases v l>ge segm5ts h slid d[n & lie 9 segm5tal masses on ! plateaux or =m t]races ar\nd ! ramp>t4 ,ari/>*us1 ,treisneck] & ,cop]nicus exhibit ?is l>g] ext5t ( dislocation4 ,x is possible t ^! l&slips occurr$ long aft] ! =mation ( ! crat]s t h be5 subject to !m4 ,!y are probably attributable to rec5t dis9tegration ( ! lun> rocks1 & we h a p[]ful cause = ?is 9 ! alt]nations ( temp]ature to :i* ! lun> cru/ is expos$4 ,we %all h occasion to rev]t to ?is subject by-&-bye2 at pres5t x mu/ suffice to po9t out t ! extremes ( cold & heat1 betwe5 :i* ! lun> soil v>ies1 are1 ) reasonable probability1 assum$ to be on ! "o h& ! temp]ature ( space 7:i* is suppos$ to be ab\t #bjj bel[ z]o71 &1 on ! o!r h&1 a degree ( heat equal to ab\t twice t ( boil+ wat]4 ,a range ( at lea/ #ejj mu/ "w great *anges 9 su* het]og5e\s mat]ials z we may conjecture ^? ( ! lun> cru/ to be1 by ! alt]nate contractions & expansions :i* x mu/ eng5d]1 & :i* mu/ t5d to enl>ge exi/+ fissures & create new ones1 to gr9d contigu\s surfaces & to dislodge un/able masses4 ,?is cause ( *ange1 x is to be rem>k$1 is "o :i* is /ill ex]t+ itself4 ,9 a few cases we h an entirely opposite int]ruption ( ! uni=mity ( a crat]'s cont\r4 ,in/ead ( ! break+ away ( ! r+ 9 segm5ts we see ! entire circuit m>k$ ) deep ruts t run d[n ! flanks 9 a radial direction1 giv+ u evid5ce ( a d[nw>d /ream+ ( semi-fluid matt]1 in/ead ( a disruption ( solid masses4 ,we _c d\bt t ^! ruts h be5 =m$ by lava curr5ts1 & !y indicate a condition ( eject$ mat]ial diff]5t f t :i* exi/$ 9 ! cases :]e ! l&slip "* is f\nd4 ,9 ^! la/ ! ejecta appe>s to h be5 9 ! =m ( masses ( solidifi$ or rapidly solidify+ matt]1 :i* rema9$ :]e deposit$ = a "t & !n gave way f ov]load+ or loss ( cohesiv5ess1 :]eas ! sub/ances ?r[n out 9 ! case ( ! rutt$ banks 7 probably mix$ solid & fluid1 ! =m] rema9+ ^u ! flanks :ile ! latt] trickl$ away4 ,no?+ s well repres5ts1 ^u a small scale1 ?is radial *annell+ z a heap ( wett$ s& left = a :ile = ! wat] to dra9 (f f x4 ,! solid gra9s 9 su* a heap su/a9 its g5]al mass-=m1 b ! liquid 9 pass+ away cuts ! surface into fissures runn+ f ! summit to ! base1 & =ms x into a model ( a volcanic m\nta9 ) e feature ( peak1 crag1 & *asm reproduc$1 ,?is simil>ity ( effect leads u to suspect a p>allelism ( cause1 & ?us to ! inf]5ce t ! mat]ial :i* orig9ally =m$ su* a crat]-m\nta9 z ,ari/illus 7:i* is a mo/ prom95t example ( ?is rutt$ "*1 & appe>s 9 ,plate ,,ix41 side by side ) a crat] t has its banks segm5tally brok571 mu/ h be5 ( ! comp\nd nature indicat$2 & t an action analog\s to t :i* ruts a damp s&-heap1 rutt$ also ! banks ( ! lun> crat]4 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate ,,xii4 ,,!ophilus ,,cyrillus ,,ca?>9a4 ,,sunset ,,aspect4 ,be=e pass+ f ! subject ( crat]s x behoves u to say a few words ^u ! curi\s mann] 9 :i* ^! =mations are complicat$ by int]m+l+ & sup]position4 ,yet1 ^u ?is po9t1 we may be brief1 = 9 ! way ( description our plates speak m =cibly ?an is possible by words4 ,9 p>ticul> we w\ld ref] to ,plate ,,xii41 :i* repres5ts ! conspicu\s gr\p ( crat]s ( :i* ! ?ree l>ge/ memb]s h be5 respectively nam$ ,!ophilus1 ,cyrillus1 & ,ca!r9a4 ,b ! area includ$ 9 ?is plate is by no means an extraord9>y "o2 !re are regions ab\t ,ty*o :]e9 ! crat]s s cr[d & elb[ ea* o!r t1 9 _! intricate comb9ations1 !y almo/ defy accurate depiction4 ,our map & ,plate ,,xvi4 w s]ve to give "s idea ( !m4 ,?is int]m+l+ ( crat]s obvi\sly %[s t all ! lun> volcanoes 7 n simultane\sly produc$1 b t aft] "o _h be5 =m$1 an eruption occurr$ 9 its imm$iate neighb\rhood & blew a portion ( x away2 or x may h be5 t ! same deep-seat$ v5t at diff]5t times gave =? dis*>ges ( mat]ial ! c\rses ( :i* 7 m or less div]t$ on _! way to ! surface4 ,we h be=e allud$ to ! frequ5t occurr5ce ( l9es ( crat]s ^u ! moon4 ,9 ^! l9es ! ov]lapp+ is frequ5tly visible2 x is se5 9 ,plate ,,xii4 be=e ref]r$ to1 :]e ! r+ m\nta9s are l9k$ into a *a9 slightly curv$1 & ^u ! map1 ,plate ,,iv41 ! ne>ly c5tral crat]s ,ptolemy & ,alphonsus1 ! latt] ( :i* ov]laps ! =m]1 are se5 to =m "p ( a l9e ( crat]s m>k+ a connection ( prim>y di/urbance4 ,an ext5sive crack sugge/s itself z a fav\rable cause = ! production ( ?is ov]lay+ ( crat]s1 = x w\ld s]ve z a sort ( 8l9e ( fire0 f v>i\s po9ts at :i* eruptions w\ld bur/ =?1 sometimes weak or f> ap>t1 :5 ! result w\ld be l9es ( isolat$ crat]s1 & sometimes ne> toge!r1 or p[]ful1 :5 ! consequ5ce w\ld be ! intrusion ( "o ^u ! o!r1 & ! p]fect production ( ! late/ =m$ at ! exp5se or to ! detrim5t ( ^? t _h be5 =m$ previ\sly4 ,! l9e> gr\p+ ( volcanoes ^u ! e>? long ago /ruck obs]vant m9ds4 ,! fable ( ! ,typhon ly+ "u ,sicily & ! ,phlegreian fields & di/urb+ ! e>? by its wri?+s1 is a my?ological attempt to expla9 ! p>ticul> case 9 t region4 ,! caprici\s mann] 9 :i* ^! intrusions occur is v curi\s4 ,v commonly a small crat] appe>s ^u ! v ramp>t ( a great] "o1 & a m dim9utive "o /ill w appe> ^u ! ramp>t ( ! p>asite4 ,/oeffl] pres5ts u ) "o example ( ?is "*1 ,hipp>*us ) ano!r1 ,maurolycus ) a ?ird1 & ^! are b a few cases ( _m4 ,"h & !re we obs]ve sev]al crat]s rang$ 9 a l9e ) _! rims 9 "o direction all p]fect1 & ! :ole appe>+ l a r[ ( co9s t h fall5 f a heap4 ,!re is an example ne> to ,ty*o :i* we reproduce 9 ,plate ,,xx4 ,9 ?is case "o is l$ to conjecture t ! ejective ag5cy1 aft] ex]t+ itself 9 "o spot1 travell$ onw>d & r5ew$ itself = a "t2 t x ceas$ aft] =m+ crat] numb] two1 & aga9 j\rney$ =w>d 9 ! same l9e1 recomm5c+ action "s miles fur!r1 & aga9 subsid+2 yet aga9 pu%+ =w>d & repeat+ its outbur/1 till x produc$ ! f\r? crat]1 :5 its p[] became exp5d$4 ,9 ea* ( ^! successive eruptions ! c5tre ( dis*>ge has be5 j outside ! crat] la/ =m$2 & ! close connexion ( ! memb]s ( ! gr\p1 toge!r ) ! fact ( _! ne>ly simil> size1 appe>s to indicate a community ( orig94 ,= x seems feasible t z a g5]al rule ! size ( a crat] may be tak5 z a measure ( ! dep? ( =ce t gave rise to ! eruption produc+ x4 ,?is may n be true = p>ticul> cases1 b x w hold :]e a great numb] are collectively consid]$2 = if we assume ! exi/5ce ( an av]age di/urb+ =ce1 x is app>5tly cle> t x w manife/ itself 9 di/urb+ great] or less surface-areas 9 proportion z x acts f great] or less dep?s4 ,or1 mutatis mut&is1 if we assume an uni=m dep? = ! s\rce ( action1 ! great] or less surface di/urbance w be a measure ( great] or less eruptive int5sity4 ,p]haps ! mo/ rem>kable case ( a va/ numb] ( crat]s1 :i*1 f _! uni=m dim5sions1 sugge/ ! idea ( community ( s\rce-p[] or s\rce-dep?1 is t (f]$ by ! region surr\nd+ ,cop]nicus1 :i*1 z w be se5 by our plate ( t object1 is a va/ ,phlegreian field ( dim9utive crat]s4 ,s c\ntless are ! m9ute crat]s t a high magnify+ p[] br+s into view :5 atmosph]ic circum/ances are fav\rable1 & s closely are !y cr[d$ toge!r1 t ! result+ appe>ance sugge/s ! idea ( fro?1 & we %\ld be dispos$ to *ri/5 ?is ! 8fro?y region0 ( ! moon1 did n a dang] exi/ 9 ! t5d5cy to connect a "n ) a cause4 ,! crat]s t are "h s abundant are d\btless ! rema9s ( true volcanoes analog\s to ! p>asitical cones t are to be f\nd on sev]al t]re/rial m\nta9s1 & n su* accid5tal =mations z ! ,hornitos describ$ by ,humboldt z ab\nd+ 9 ! neighb\rhood ( ! ,mexican volcano1 ,jurillo1 b :i* ! travell] did n consid] to be true cones ( eruption4#i ,al?\gh ^u our plate1 & 9 comp>ison ) ! great crat] t is its *ief feature1 ^! c\ntless holl[s appe> s small z at fir/ sight to appe> insignificant1 we mu/ rememb] t ! m9ute/ ( !m mu/ be gr& objects1 ea* probably equal 9 dim5sions to ,vesuvius4 ,= s9ce1 z we h %[n 9 an e>ly *apt]1 ! smalle/ disc]nible telescopic object mu/ subt5d an angle to our eye ( ab\t a second1 & s9ce ?is angle ext5d$ to ! moon repres5ts a mile ( its surface1 x foll[s t ^! t9y specks ( %ad[ t bespr9kle our picture1 are 9 ! reality crat]s ( a mile diamet]4 ,?is comp>ison may help ! conception ( ! /up5d\s magnitude ( ! moon's volcanic features2 = x is a conception mo/ difficult to realize4 ,x is h>d to br+ ! m9d to grasp ! fact t t holl[ ( ,cop]nicus is fifty miles 9 diamet]4 ,we read ( an army hav+ encamp$ 9 ! once peaceful crat] ( ,vesuvius1 & ( "o ( ! ext9ct volcanoes ( ! ,campi ,phlegri be+ us$ z a hunt+ pres]ve by an ,italian k+4 ,^! facts give an idea ( va/ness to ^? :o h n ! good =tune to see ! actual dim5sions ( a volcanic orifice !mselves4 ,b x is almo/ impossible to conjure up a vision ( :at t fifty-mile crat] w\ld look l ^u ! moon itself2 & = want ( a t]re/rial object z a /&>d ( comp>ison1 our picture1 & ev5 ! telescopic view ( ! moon itself1 fails to r5d] ! imag9ation any help4 ,we may try to realize ! va/ness by consid]+ t "o ( our av]age ,engli% c\nties c\ld be conta9$ )9 its ramp>ts1 or by conceiv+ a m\nta9\s amphi!atre ^: opposite sides are z f> ap>t z ! ca!drals ( ,london & ,cant]bury1 b ev5 ^! comp>isons leave u unimpress$ ) ! true maje/y :i* ! object w\ld pres5t to a spectator ^u ! surface ( our satellite4 ,illu/ration3 ,,! ,,=mation ,,( ,,! ,,c5tral ,,cone4 ,,f9al ,,action ,,( ,a ,,lun> ,,volcano4 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate ,,xiii ,,arza*ael1 ,,ptolemy1 & ! ,,railway4 ,,*apt] ,,ix4 ,,on ,,! ,,great ,,r+-,,=mations ,,n ,,manife/ly ,,volcanic4 ,9 our previ\s *apt] we h giv5 a reason = reg>d+ z true volcanic crat]s all ^? circul> =mations1 ( :atev] size1 t exhibit t di/9ctive feature ! c5tral cone4 ,betwe5 ! smalle/ crat] ) a cone t we c detect "u ! be/ telescopic conditions1 namely1 ! companion to ,hell1 #a mile diamet]1 & ! great "o call$ ,petavius1 #gh miles 9 diamet]1 we f9d no break 9 ! cont9uity ( ! crat]-cum-cone sy/em t w\ld ju/ify u 9 say+ t on ! "o side ! volcanic or eruptive cause ceas$1 & on ! o!r side "s o!r causative action began4 ,b !re are num]\s circul> =mations t surpass ! magnitude ( ,petavius & its pe]s1 b t h no c5tral cone1 & are1 !re=e1 n s manife/ly volcanic z ^? :i* possess ?is feature4 ,our map w %[ _m /rik+ examples ( ?is class at a glance4 ,we may 9 p>ticul> ref] int] alia to ,ptolemy ne> ! c5tre ( ! moon1 to ,grimaldi 7,no4 #abe71 ,%ick>d 7,no4 #bh71 ,s*ill] 7,no4 #bd71 & ,clavius 7,no4 #ac71 all ( :i* exce$ #ajj miles 9 diamet]4 ,ev5 ! great ,m>e ,crisium1 ne>ly #cjj miles 9 diamet]1 appe>s to be a =mation n di/9ct f ^? :i* we h j nam$4 ,^! pres5t little ( ! g5]ic crat] "* 9 _! appe>ance2 & !y h be5 di/+ui%$ !refrom by ! "n ( ,wall$ or ,ramp>t$ ,pla9s4 ,_! actual orig9 is beyond our explanation1 & 9 attempt+ to acc\nt = !m we mu/ p]=ce all[ consid]able fre$om to conjecture4 ,!y c]ta9ly1 z ,hooke sugge/$1 pres5t a 8brok5 bubble0-l aspect2 b "o _c reasonably imag9e ! exi/5ce ( any =m ( m9]al matt] t w\ld su/a9 itself 9 bubble =m ov] areas ( _m hundr$s ( squ>e miles4 ,& if x 7 reasonable to suppose ! great r+s to be ! f\ndations ( su* va/ volcanic domes1 we mu/ conclude ^! to h brok5 :5 !y c\ld no long] su/a9 !mselves1 & 9 t case ! surface b5ea? %\ld be /rew$ ) dbris1 ( :i*1 h[ev]1 we c f9d no trace4 ,moreov]1 we might fairly expect t "s ( ! small] domes w\ld h rema9$ /&+3 we ne$ h>dly say t no?+ ( ! k9d exi/s4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cb4 ,! true circul>ity ( ^! objects appe>s at fir/ view a rem>kable feature4 ,b x ceases to be s if we suppose !m to h be5 produc$ by "s v conc5trat$ sublun> =ce ( an upheav+ nature1 & if only we admit ! homog5eity ( ! moon's cru/4 ,= if ! cru/ be homog5e\s1 !n any upheav+ =ce1 deeply seat$ b5ea? x1 w ex]t itself ) equal effects at equal di/ances f ! s\rce3 ! l9es ( equal effect w obvi\sly be radii ( a sph]e ) ! s\rce ( ! di/urbance = its c5tre1 & !y w meet a surface ov] ! s\rce 9 a circle4 ,?is w be evid5t f ,fig4 #cb1 9 :i* a =ce is suppos$ to act at ,f bel[ ! surface s s s s4 ,! matt] compos+ s s be+ homog5e\s1 ! action ( ,f w be equal at equal di/ances 9 all directions4 ,! l9es ( equal =ce1 ,f f1 ,f f1 w be ( equal l5g?1 & !y w =m1 s to speak1 radii ( a sph]e ( =ce4 ,?is sph]e is cut by ! plane at s s s s1 & z ! int]section necess>ily takes place ev]y:]e at ! extremity ( ^! radii1 ! figure ( int]section is demon/rably a circle 7%[n 9 p]spective z an ellipse 9 ! figure74 ,?us we see t an int5se b extremely conf9$ explosion1 = in/ance1 b5ea? ! moon's cru/ mu/ di/urb a circul> area ( its surface1 if ! int]v5+ mat]ial be homog5e\s4 ,if ?is be n homog5e\s !re w\ld be1 :]e x (f]$ less ?an ! av]age resi/ance to ! di/urbance1 an outw>d di/ortion ( ! circle2 & an opposite int]ruption to circul>ity if x (f]s m ?an ! av]age resi/ance4 ,?is assum$ homog5eity may possibly be ! explanation ( ! g5]al circul>ity ( ! lun> surface features1 small & great4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cc4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cd4 ,we confess to a difficulty 9 acc\nt+ = su* a v local g5]ation ( a deep-seat$ =ce2 &1 grant+ its occurr5ce1 we are unprep>$ ) a satisfactory !ory to expla9 ! resultant effect ( su* a =ce 9 produc+ a rais$ r+ at ! limit ( ! circul> di/urbance4 ,we may inde$1 suppose t a va/ circul> cake or conical fru/ra w\ld be tempor>ily uprais$ z 9 ,fig4 #cc1 & t ^u its subsid5ce a c]ta9 extrusion ( subsurface matt] w\ld occur ar\nd ! l9e or zone ( rupture z 9 ,fig4 #cd4 ,?is supposition1 h[ev]1 implies su* a peculi>ly cohesive condition ( ! matt] ( ! uplift$ cake1 t x is d\btful :e!r x c be consid]$ t5able4 ,we %\ld expect any ord9>y =m ( rocky matt] subject$ to su* an upheaval to be fractur$ & di/ort$1 especially :5 ! orig9al di/urb+ =ce is great] 9 ! c5tre ?an at ! edge1 z1 accord+ to ! above hypo!sis1 x w\ld be2 & 9 subsid+1 ! rocky plateau w\ld ?us reta9 "s traces ( its di/urbance2 b 9 ! circul> areas ^u ! moon !re is no?+ to indicate t !y h be5 subject$ to su* dislocations4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ce4 ,a ,a4 ,fissures gap+ d[nw>ds & inject$ by intumesc5t lava b5ea?4 ,b ,b ,b4 ,fissures gap+ upw>ds & all[+ w$ges ( rock to drop bel[ ! level ( ! int]v5+ masses1 ,c ,c4 ,w$ges =c$ upw>ds by horizontal compression4 ,e ,f4 ,neutral plane or pivot axis1 above & bel[ :i* ! directions ( ! te>+ /ra9 & horizontal compression are sev]ally indicat$ by ! small] arr[s2 ! l>g] arr[s b5ea? repres5t ! direction ( ! prim>y expansive =ce4 ,mr4 ,scrope 9 8 "w on volcanoes has giv5 a hypo!tical section ( a portion ( ! e>?'s cru/1 :i* pres5ts a bulg+ or tumesc5t surface 9 "s measure resembl+ ! effect :i* su* a cause z we h be5 consid]+ w\ld produce4 ,we give a slightly modifi$ v]sion ( 8 sket* 9 ,fig4 #ce1 %[+ :at w\ld be ! probable ph5om5a att5d+ su* an upheaval z reg>ds ! behavi\r ( ! di/urb$ portion ( ! cru/1 & also t ( ! lava or semifluid matt] b5ea?3 &1 z w be se5 by ! sket*1 a possible phase ( ! ph5om5a is ! production ( an elevat$ ridge or ramp>t at ! po9ts ( disruption c c2 & :]e !re is a r+ ( disruption1 z by our hypo!sis !re w\ld be1 ! ridge or ramp>t c c w\ld be a circle4 ,9 ?is draw+ we see ! crack+ & di/ortion to :i* ! elevat$ area w\ld be subject$1 b ( :i*1 z previ\sly rem>k$1 ! circul> areas ( ! moon pres5t no trace ( residual appe>ance4 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate ,,xiv4 ,,plato4 ,^? :o h (f]$ o!r explanations ( ^! va/ r+-=m$ m\nta9 ranges1 h be5 no m happy 9 _! conjectures4 ,m4 ,rozet1 :o communicat$ a pap] on sel5ology to ! ,fr5* ,academy 9 #ahdf1 put =? ! foll[+ !ory4 ,he argu$ t dur+ ! =mation ( ! solid scoriace\s pelicules ( ! moon1 circul> or t\rbillonic movem5ts 7 set up2 & ^!1 by ?r[+ ! scoria f ! c5tre to ! circumf]5ce1 caus$ an accumulation !re( at ! limit ( ! circulation4 ,he consid]$ t ?is ph5om5on cont9u$ dur+ ! :ole process ( solidification1 b t ! amplitude ( ! :irlpool dim9i%$ ) ! decreas+ fluidity ( ! surface mat]ial4 ,fur!r1 he sugge/$ t :5 _m vortices 7 =m$1 & ! di/ances ( _! c5tres1 tak5 two & two1 7 less ?an ! sums ( _! radii1 !re result$ clos$ spaces t]m9at$ by arcs ( circles2 & :5 = any two c5tres ! di/ance 0 great] ?an ! sum ( ! radii ( action1 two sep>ate & complete r+s 7 =m$4 ,we h only to rem>k on ?is1 t we are at a loss to acc\nt = ! orig9ation ( su* vorticose movem5ts1 & ,m4 ,rozet is sil5t on ! po9t4 ,if ! great circles are to be ref]r$ to an orig9al sea ( molt5 matt]1 x appe>s to u m feasible to consid] t :]ev] we see "o ( !m !re has be51 at ! c5tre ( ! r+1 a great outfl[ ( lava t has flood$ ! surr\nd+ surface4 ,!n1 if f any cause1 & x is n difficult to assign "o1 ! outfl[ became int]mitt5t1 or spasmodic1 or subject to sudd5 impulses1 conc5tric waves w\ld be propagat$ ov] ! pool & w\ld ?r[ up ! scoria or ! solidify+ lava 9 a circul> bank at ! limit ( ! fluid area4 ,?is hypo!sis does n diff] greatly f ! ebullition !ory propos$ by ,pr(essor ,dana1 ! ,am]ican geologi/1 to expla9 ^! =mations4 ,he consid]$ t ! lun> r+-m\nta9s 7 =m$ by an action analog\s to t :i* is exemplifi$ on ! e>? 9 ! crat] ( ,kilauea1 9 ! ,hawaiian isl&s4 ,?is crat] is a l>ge op5 pit exce$+ ?ree miles 9 its long] diamet]1 & ne>ly a ?\s& feet deep4 ,x has cle> bluff walls r\nd a great] "p ( its circuit1 ) an inn] l$ge or pla9 at _! base1 rais$ #cdj feet above ! bottom4 ,?is bottom is a pla9 ( solid lavas1 entirely op5 to day1 :i* may be trav]s$ ) safety 7we are quot+ ,pr(essor ,dana's own /atem5t writt5 9 #ahdf1 & !re=e n correctly apply+ to ! pres5t "t73 ov] x !re are pools ( boil+ lava 9 active ebullition1 & "o is m ?an a ?\s& feet 9 diamet]4 ,!re are also cones at times1 f a few y>ds to two or ?ree ?\s& feet 9 diamet]1 & v>y+ greatly 9 angle ( incl9ation4 ,! l>ge/ ( ^! cones h a circul> pit or crat] at ! summit4 ,! great pit itself is oblong1 ow+ to its situation on a fissure1 b ! lakes ^u its bottom are r\nd1 & 9 !m1 says ,pr(essor ,dana1 8! circul> or slightly elliptical =m ( ! moon's crat]s is exemplifi$ to p]fection40 ,n[ ,dana ref]s ?is great pit crat] & its conta9$ lava-lakes to 8! fact t ! action at ,kilauea is simply boil+1 ow+ to ! extreme fluidity ( ! lavas4 ,! gases or vap\rs :i* produce ! /ate ( active ebullition escape freely 9 small bubbles1 ) little commotion1 l jets ov] boil+ wat]2 :ile at ,vesuvius & o!r l cones !y collect 9 imm5se bubbles be=e !y accumulate =ce en\gh to make _! way ?r\gh2 & consequ5tly ! lavas 9 ! latt] case are eject$ ) s mu* viol5ce t !y rise to a height (t5 ( _m ?\s& feet & fall ar\nd 9 c9d]s4 ,?is action builds up ! po9t$ m\nta91 :ile ! simple boil+ ( ,kilauea makes no c9d]s & no c9d] cones40 ,pr(essor ,dana cont9ues1 8,if ! fluidity ( lavas1 !n1 is suffici5t = ?is active ebullition1 we may h boil+ go+ on ov] an area ( an indef9ite ext5t2 = ! size ( a boil+ lake c h no limits except su* z may arise f a defici5cy ( heat4 ,! size ( ! lun> crat]s is !re=e no my/]y4 ,nei!r is _! circul> =m difficult ( explanation2 = a boil+ pool necess>ily1 by its own action1 ext5ds itself circul>ly ar\nd its c5tre4 ,! comb9ation ( _m circles1 & ! l>ge sea-l areas are z readily und]/ood40#aj ,9 ju/ice to ,pr(essor ,dana x %\ld be /at$ t he includ$ 9 ?is !ory ( =mation all lun> crat]s1 ev5 ^? ( small size & possess+ c5tral cones2 & he put =? 8 views 9 opposition to ! eruptive !ory :i* we h set =?1 & :i* 0 briefly giv5 to ! _w m ?an tw5ty-five ye>s ago4 ,z reg>ds ! smalle/ crat]s ) cones1 we believe few geologi/s w refuse _! compliance ) ! supposition t !y 7 =m$ z our crat]-be>+ volcanoes 7 =m$3 & we h po9t$ out ! logical impossibility ( assign+ any limit ( size beyond :i* ! eruptive action c\ld n be said to hold good1 s long z ! c5tral cone is pres5t4 ,b :5 we come to r+-m\nta9s hav+ no cones1 & ( su* enorm\s size t we are compell$ to hesitate 9 ascrib+ !m to ejective action1 we are oblig$ to face ! possibility ( "s o!r causation4 ,&1 fail+ an explanation ( our own t satisfi$ u1 we h allud$ to ! few hypo!ses pr(f]$ by o!rs1 & ( ^! ,pr(essor ,dana's appe>s ! mo/ rational1 s9ce x is bas$ ^u a p>allel f\nd on ! e>?4 ,9 cit+ x1 h[ev]1 we d necess>ily n endorse x4 ,,*apt] ,x4 ,,peaks ,,& ,,m\nta9 ,,ranges4 ,! lun> features next 9 ord] ( conspicuity are ! m\nta9 ranges1 peaks1 & hill-*a9s1 a class ( em95ces m 9 common ) t]re/rial =mations ?an ! crat]s & circul> /ructures t h engag$ our notice 9 ! prec$+ *apt]s4 ,9 turn+ our att5tion to ^! features1 we are at ! outset /ruck ) ! paucity on ! lun> surface ( ext5sive m\nta9 sy/ems z comp>$ ) its ri*ness 9 respect ( crat]al =mations2 & a field ( speculation is op5$ by ! recognition ( ! rem>kable contra/ :i* ! moon ?us pres5ts to ! e>?1 :]e m\nta9 ranges are ! rule1 & crat]s l ! lun> ones are decid$ly exceptional4 ,ano!r conspicu\s b inexplicable fact is t ! mo/ important ranges ^u ! moon occur 9 ! nor!rn half ( ! visible hemisph]e1 :]e ! crat]s are fewe/ & ! comp>atively featureless di/ricts t]m$ 8seas0 are f\nd4 ,! f9e/ range is t nam$ aft] our ,ap5n9es & :i* is includ$ 9 our illu/rative ,plate1 ,no4 ,,ix4 ,x ext5ds = ab\t #dej miles & has be5 e/imat$ to conta9 upw>ds ( #cjjj peaks1 "o ( :i*--,m\nt ,huygh5s--atta9s ! altitude ( #ah1jjj feet4 ,! ,caucasus is ano!r lun> range :i* appe>s l a div]t$ nor?w>d ext5sion ( ! ,ap5n9es1 &1 al?\gh a f> less impos+ gr\p ?an ! la/ nam$1 conta9s _m l(ty peaks1 "o ( :i* approa*es ! altitude assign$ to ,m\nt ,huygh5s :ile sev]al o!rs range betwe5 #aa1jjj & #ad1jjj feet high4 ,ano!r consid]able range is ! ,alps1 situat$ betwe5 ! ,caucasus & ! crat] ,plato1 & reproduc$ on ,plate ,,xiv4 ,x conta9s "s #gjj peak$ m\nta9s & is rem>kable = ! imm5se valley1 #hj miles long & ab\t five broad1 t cuts x ) seem+ly artificial /raightness2 & t1 7 x n = ! flatness ( its bottom1 might set "o speculat+ ^u ! probability ( "s extrane\s body hav+ ru%$ by ! moon at an enorm\s velocity1 g\g+ ! surface tang5tially at ?is po9t & cutt+ a *annel ?r\gh ! imp$+ mass ( m\nta9s4 ,!re are o!r m\nta9 ranges ( less magnitude ?an ! =ego+2 b ^? we h specifi$ w suffice to illu/rate our sugge/ions conc]n+ ?is class ( features4 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate ,,xv4 ,,m]cator ,,campanus4 ,we rem>k1 too1 t !re is a prevail+ t5d5cy ( ! ranges j m5tion$ to pres5t _! l(tie/ con/itu5ts 9 abrupt t]m9al l9es1 fac+ ne>ly ! same direction1 ! rev]se ( t t[>ds :i* !y are c>ri$ by ! moon's rotation2 & z !y rec$e f ! high t]m9al l9e1 ! m\nta9s gradually fall (f 9 height1 s t 9 bulk ! ranges pres5t ! 8crag & tail0 cont\r :i* individual hills ^u ! e>? s frequ5tly exhibit4 ,isolat$ peaks are f\nd 9 small numb]s ^u ! moon2 !re are a few /rik+ examples ( !m nev]!less1 & ^! are *iefly situat$ 9 ! m\nta9\s region j allud$ to4 ,sev]al are se5 to ! ea/ 7"r h&7 ( ! ,alp9e range depict$ on ,plate ,,xiv4 ,! be/ kn[n ( ^! is ,pico1 :i* rises abruptly f a g5]ally smoo? pla9 to a height ( #gjjj feet4 ,x may be recogniz$ z ! l[] ( ! two long %ad[+ spots locat$ almo/ c5trally above ! crat] ,plato 9 ! illu/ration j m5tion$4 ,above x1 at an actual di/ance ( #dj miles1 !re is ano!r peak 7unnam$7 ab\t #djjj feet high2 & away to ! we/1 beyond ! small crat] jo9$ by a hill-ridge to ,plato1 is a ?ird pyramidal m\nta9 ne>ly z high z ,pico4 ,x seems natural to reg>d ! great m\nta9 *a9s z agglom]ations ( ^? peaks ( :i* we h isolat$ examples 9 ,pico & its compe]s1 & ?us to consid] t ! =mation ( a m\nta9 *a9 has be5 a multiplication ( ! process t =m$ ! s+le pyramid-%ap$ em95ces4 ,at fir/ ?\ght x might appe> t ! great m\nta9 ranges 7 produc$ by bodily up?ru/+s ( ! cru/ ( ! moon by "s subsurface convulsions4 ,b su* an explanation c\ld h>dly hold 9 relation to ! isolat$ peaks1 = x is difficult1 if n impossible1 to conceive t ^! abrupt m\nta9s1 almo/ resembl+ a sug>loaf 9 /eepness1 c\ld h be5 protrud$ en masse ?r\gh a smoo? region ( ! cru/4 ,on ! contr>y x is q consi/5t ) probability to suppose t !y 7 built up by a sl[ process some:at analog\s to t to :i* we h ascrib$ ! pil+ ( ! c5tral cones ( ! great crat]s4 ,we believe !y may be reg>d$ z true m\nta9s ( exudation1 produc$ by ! comp>atively g5tle ooz+ ( lava f a small orifice & its solidification ar\nd x2 ! v5t h[ev] rema9+ op5 & ! summit or dis*>g+ orifice cont9ually ris+ ) ! gr[? ( ! m\nta91 z indicat$ 9 ! annex$ cut1 ,fig4 #cf4 ,?is process is well exemplifi$ 9 ! case ( a wat] f\nta9 play+ dur+ a sev]e fro/2 ! wat] z x falls ar\nd ! lips ( ! orifice freezes into a hillock ( ice1 ?r\gh ! c5tre ( :i*1 h[ev]1 a v5t = ! fluid is pres]v$4 ,z ! wat] trickles ov] ! m\nd x is pil$ high] & high] by accumulat+ lay]s ( ice1 till at l5g? a massive cone is =m$ ^: height w be det]m9$ by ! =ce or 8head0 ( ! wat]4 ,sub/itute lava = wat] & we h at once a =mative process :i* may v fairly be consid]$ z t :i* has giv5 rise to ! isolat$ m\nta9s ( ! moon4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cf4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cg4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ch4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ci4 ,!re are ^u ! e>? m\nta9\s =ms resembl+ ! isolat$ peaks ( ! moon1 & :i* h be5 expla9$ by a simil> !ory to ! above4 ,we reproduce a figure ( "o obs]v$ by ,dana at ,hawaii 7,fig4 #cg71 & a sket* ( ano!r obs]v$ on ! summit ( ! ,volcano ( ,b\rbon1 7,fig4 #ch72 we also reproduce 7,fig4 #ci7 an ideal section ( ! latt]1 giv5 by ,mr4 ,scrope1 & %[+ ! successive lay]s ( lava :i* w\ld be dispos$ by j su* an action z t manife/$ 9 ! case ( ! freez+ f\nta92 & we quote t au?or's words 9 ref]5ce to ?is explanation ( ! =mation ( ,etna & o!r volcanic m\nta9s4 8,on exam9+10 says ,mr4 ,scrope1#aa 8! /ructure ( ! m\nta9 7,etna7 we f9d its entire mass1 s f> z x is expos$ to view by d5udation or o!r causes 7& "o enorm\s cavity1 ! ,val de ,bove p5etrates deeply into its v he>t71 to be compos$ ( b$s ( lava-rock alt]nat+ m or less irregul>ly ) lay]s ( scori1 lapillo & a%es1 almo/ precisely id5tical 9 m9]al "*1 z well z 9 g5]al disposition1 ) ^? erupt$ by ! volcano at kn[n dates )9 ! hi/orical p]iod4 ,h5ce we are fully ju/ifi$ 9 believ+ ! :ole m\nta9 to h be5 built up 9 ! c\rse ( ages 9 a simil> mann] by repeat$ int]mitt5t eruptions4 ,& ! argum5t applies by ! rules ( analogy to all o!r volcanic m\nta9s1 ?\gh ! hi/ory ( _! rec5t eruptions may n be s well record$1 provid$ t _! /ructure corresponds )1 & c be fairly expla9$ by ?is mode ( production4 ,x is also fur!r applicable1 "u ! same res]vation1 to all m\nta9s compos$ entirely1 or = ! mo/ "p1 ( volcanic rocks1 ev5 ?\gh !y may n h be5 9 eruption )9 our "t40 ,to ^! illu/rations furni%$ f ,scrope's "w we add ano!r1 copi$ f a photograph by ,pr(essor ,piazzi ,smy?1 ( a 8bl[+ cone0 at ! base ( ,t5]iffe 7,fig4 #dj71 :i* is b "o ( _m t are to be f\nd on t m\nta9 & :i* has be5 =m$ by a process simil> to t we h be5 consid]+1 b act+ ^u a comp>atively small scale4 ,pr(essor ,smy? describes ?is cone z ab\t #gj feet high & ( p>abolic figure1 compos$ ( h>d lava & ) an upp] ap]ture /ill yawn+1 8:5ce ! burn+ brea? ( fires b5ea? once issu$ 9 fury & ) de/ruction40 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate ,,xvi ,,ty*o1 ,,& ,,its ,,surr\nd+s4 ,rev]t+ n[ to ! moon1 we rem>k t1 if ! =ego+ explanation ( ! isolat$ lun> peaks be t5able1 x %\ld hold equally = ! gr\ps ( !m :i* we see 9 ! lun> ,ap5n9es1 ,alps1 ,caucasus & o!r ranges ( l "*4 ,!re occur 9 "s places int]m$iate gr\ps :i* l9k ! "o to ! o!r4 ,j above ! crat] ,ar*im$es1 on ,plate ,,ix41 = in/ance1 we see sev]al s+le peaks & small clumps ( !m lead+ by successive multiple-peak examples to :at may be call$ *a9s ( m\nta9s l _m t are includ$ 9 ! contigu\s ,ap5n9e sy/em4 ,&1 9 view ( ?is connexion betwe5 ! s+le peaks & ! m\nta9 ranges =m$ ( aggregations ( su* peaks1 x seems to u reasonable to conclude t ! latt] 7 =m$ by ! comp>atively sl[ escape ( lava ?r\gh multitud9\s op5+s 9 a weak "p ( ! moon's cru/1 r ?an to suppose t ! cru/ itself has be5 bodily upheav$ & reta9$ 9 its di/urb$ position4 ,! high peaks t _m m\nta9s 9 su* a *a9 exhibit accord bett] ) ! =m] ?an ! latt] explanation2 = x is difficult to imag9e h[ su* l(ty em95ces c\ld be erect$ by an upheaval1 & we mu/ rememb] t ! moon has none ( ! d5ud+ elem5ts :i* are at "w ^u ! e>?1 wea!r-we>+ its m\nta9 =ms into %>pness & /eepness4#ab ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dj4 ,,small ,,volcanic ,,m\nta9 ,,at ,,! ,,end ,,( ,a ,,/reet ,,at ,,t5]iffe4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #da4 ,& we h gr\nd = believ+ ! m\nta9-=m+ process on ! moon to h be5 a comp>atively g5tle "o1 9 ! fact t ! m\nta9 sy/ems appe> 9 regions o!rwise little di/urb$1 & :]e crat]s1 :i* h all ! appe>ances ( viol5t orig91 are few & f> betwe54 ,evid5tly ! m\nta9 & crat]-=m+ processes1 al?\gh bo? due to extrusive action1 7 9 "s measure diff]5t1 & x is reasonable to suppose t ! diff]5ce 0 9 degree ( int5sity2 s t :ile a viol5t ejection ( volcanic mat]ial w\ld give rise to a crat]1 a m gradual dis*>ge w\ld pile up a m\nta94 ,9 ?is view crat]s are evid5ces ( eruptive1 & m\nta9s ( comp>atively g5tle exudative action4 ,we c h>dly speculate ) any degree ( safety ^u ! cause ( ?is v>y+ int5sity ( volcanic dis*>ge4 ,we may ascribe x to v>iation ( dep? ( ! initial di/urb+ =ce1 or to sudd5ness ( its action2 or x may be t diff]5t degrees ( fluidity ( ! lava h _h modify+ effects2 or on ! o!r h& diff]5t qualities ( ! cru/-mat]ial2 or yet aga9 diff]5ces ( p]iod--! quiet] extrusions hav+ occurr$ at a "t :5 ! volcanic =ces 7 dy+ d[n4 ,!re is an alliance betwe5 lun> crat]s & m\nta9s t goes f> to %[ t !re has be5 no radical diff]5ce 9 _! orig9s4 ,= in/ance1 z we h previ\sly po9t$ out1 crat]s 9 "s cases run 9 l9e> gr\ps1 z if 9 ^? cases !y _h be5 =m$ along a l9e ( disruption or ( lea/ resi/ance ( ! cru/2 & ! m\nta9 *a9s h a correspond+ l9e> arrangem5t4 ,!n we see crat]s & m\nta9 *a9s dispos$ 9 :at seem obvi\sly ! same arcs ( di/urbance4 ,?us ,cop]nicus 7,no4 #adg71 ,era/o!nes 7,no4 #afh71 & ! ,ap5n9es appe> to belong to "o cont9u\s l9e ( eruption2 & x requires no great /ret* ( imag9ation to suppose t ! ,caucasus1 ,eudoxus 7,no4 #bjh7 & ,ari/otle 7,no4 #bji7 =m a cont9uation ( ! same l9e4 ,!n ar\nd ! ,m>e ,s]5etatis we see m\nta9\s ridges & crat]s alt]nat+ "o ) ! o!r z ?\gh ! exud+ action !re1 normally suffici5t to produce ! ridges1 _h at "s po9ts become =cible en\gh to produce a crat]4 ,aga91 ^u ! v m\nta9 ranges !mselves1 z = in/ance among ! ,ap5n9es1 we f9d small crat]s occurr+4 ,we see1 too1 t ! great crat]s are 9 _m cases surr\nd$ by radiat+ sy/ems ( ridges :i* almo/ assume m\nta9\s proportions1 & :i* are d\btless exud$ matt] f 8/>r$0 cracks1 ! c5tres ( :i* are occupi$ by ! crat]s4 ,! same k9d ( ridges "h & !re occur ap>t f crat]s 7see = in/ance ,plate ,,xviii41 bel[ ,ari/>*us & ,h]odotus7 & sometimes !y occur 9 ! neighb\rhood ( ext5sive cracks1 to :i* !y also seem alli$4 ,we mu/ inde$ reg>d a l9e> crack z ! orig9 ei!r ( a ridge 7if ! exudation is slight7 or ( a m\nta9 *a9 7if ! exudation is m copi\s7 or a /r+ ( crat]s 7if ! extrusion rises to eruptive viol5ce74 ,b ! subject ( cracks is important en\gh to be treat$ 9 a sep>ate *apt]4 ,we allud$ 9 ,*ap4 ,,iii4 to ! ph5om5a ( wr9kl+ or puck]+ z productive ( c]ta9 m\nta9\s =mations2 & we po9t$ out ! /rik+ simil>ity 9 "* ( configuration betwe5 a %rivell$ sk9 & a t]re/rial m\nta9 region4 ,we d n p]ceive ^u ! moon su* a decid$ co9cid5ce ( appe>ances ext5d+ ov] any consid]able portion ( h] surface2 b !re are num]\s limit$ areas :]e we behold m\nta9\s ridges :i* p>take /rongly ( ! wr9kle "*2 & 9 "s cases x is difficult to decide :e!r ! puck]+ ag5cy or ! exudative ag5cy j discuss$ has produc$ ! ridges4 ,! di/rict bord]+ ^u ,ari/>*us & ,h]odotus1 above ref]r$ to1 is ( ?is d\btful "*2 & a simil> di/rict is t contigu\s to ,triesneck] 7,plate ,,xi47 ,!re are1 h[ev]1 abundant examples ( less prom95t l9es ( elevation1 :i* may1 ) m probability1 be ascrib$ to a v]itable wr9kl+ or puck]+ action2 !y are f\nd ov] ne>ly ! :ole lun> surface1 "s ( !m /&+ out 9 consid]able relief1 & "s m]ely %[+ g5tle l9es ( elevation1 or giv+ ! surface an undulat+ appe>ance4 ,a close exam9ation ( our picture-map 7,plate ,,iv47 w reveal v num]\s examples1 especially 9 ! s\?-ea/ 7"r-h&-upp]7 quadrant4 ,"s ( ^! l9es ( tumesc5ce are s slightly prom95t t we may suppose !m to h be5 caus$ by ! action indicat$ by ,fig4 #f 7p4 #bh71 :ile o!rs1 f _! great] boldness1 appe> to indicate a =mative action analog\s to t repres5t$ by ,fig4 #i 7p4 #bi74 ,illu/ration3 ,,ideal ,,sket* ,,( ,,pico ,,z ,,x ,,w\ld ,,probably ,,appe> ,,if ,,se5 ,,by ,a ,,spectator ,,locat$ ,,on ,,! ,,moon4 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate ,,xvii4 ,,w>g5t94 ,,*apt] ,,xi4 ,,cracks ,,& ,,radiat+ ,,/reaks4 ,we h hi!rto conf9$ our att5tion to ^? reactions ( ! moon's molt5 int]ior ^u its ext]ior :i* h be5 accompani$ by consid]able extrusions ( sub-surface mat]ial 9 its molt5 or semi-solid condition4 ,we n[ pass to ! consid]ation ( "s ph5om5a result+ 9 "p f t reaction & 9 "p f o!r effects ( cool+1 :i* h be5 accompani$ by comp>atively little ejection or upfl[ ( molt5 matt]1 & 9 "s cases by none at all4 ,( su* ! mo/ conspicu\s examples are ^? bright /reaks t are se51 "u c]ta9 conditions ( illum9ation1 to radiate 9 v>i\s directions f s+le crat]s1 & "s ( ! individual radial bran*es ( :i* ext5d f f\r to sev5 hundr$ miles 9 a great arc on ! moon's surface4 ,!re are sev]al prom95t examples ( ^! bright /reak sy/ems ^u ! visible hemisph]e ( ! moon2 ! focal crat]s ( ! mo/ conspicu\s are ,ty*o1 ,cop]nicus1 ,kepl]1 ,ari/>*us1 ,m5elaus1 & ,proclus4 ,g5]ally ^! focal crat]s h ramp>ts & int]iors di/+ui%$ by ! same peculi> bright or highly reflective mat]ial :i* %[s itself ) su* rem>kable brilliance1 especially at full moon3 "u o!r conditions ( illum9ation !y are n s /rik+ly visible4 ,at or ne>ly full moon ! /reaks are se5 to trav]se ov] pla9s1 m\nta9s1 crat]s1 & all asp]ities2 hold+ _! way totally disreg>dful ( e object t happ5s to lay 9 _! c\rse4 ,! mo/ rem>kable bright /reak sy/em is t div]g+ f ! great crat] ,ty*o4 ,! /reaks t c be easily individualiz$ 9 ?is gr\p numb] m ?an "o hundr$1 :ile ! c\rses ( "s ( !m may be trac$ ?r\gh upw>ds ( six hundr$ miles f _! c5tre ( div]g5ce4 ,^? ar\nd ,cop]nicus1 al?\gh less rem>kable 9 reg>d to _! ext5t ?an ^? div]g+ f ,ty*o1 are nev]!less 9 _m respects well des]v+ ( c>eful exam9ation3 !y are s num]\s z utt]ly to defy attempts to c\nt !m1 :ile _! intricate reticulation r5d]s any endeav\r to del9eate _! arrangem5t equally hopeless4 ,! fact t ^! bright /reaks are inv>iably f\nd div]g+ f a crat]1 impressively indicates a close relation%ip or community ( orig9 betwe5 ! two ph5om5a3 !y are obvi\sly ! result ( "o & ! same causative action4 ,x is no less cle> t ! actuat+ cause or prime ag5cy mu/ h be5 v deep-seat$ & ( enorm\s disruptive p[] to h op]at$ ov] su* va/ areas z ^? ?r\gh :i* _m ( ! /reaks ext5d4 ,) a view to illu/rate exp]im5tally :at we conceive to h be5 ! nature ( ?is actuat+ cause1 we h tak5 a glass globe &1 hav+ fill$ x ) wat] & h]metically seal$ x1 h plung$ x into a w>m ba?3 ! enclos$ wat]1 exp&+ at a great] rate ?an ! glass1 ex]ts a disruptive =ce on ! int]ior surface ( ! latt]1 ! consequ5ce be+ t at ! po9t ( lea/ resi/ance1 ! globe is r5t by a va/ numb] ( cracks div]g+ 9 e direction f ! focus ( disruption4 ,! result is su* a /rik+ly simil> c\nt]p>t ( ! div]g+ bright /reak sy/ems :i* we see proce$+ f ,ty*o & ! o!r lun> crat]s be=e ref]r$ to1 t x is impossible to resi/ ! conclusion t ! disruptive action :i* orig9at$ !m op]at$ 9 ! same mann] z 9 ! case ( our exp]im5tal illu/ration2 ! disruptive =ce 9 ! case ( ! moon be+ t to :i* we h frequ5tly ref]r$ z due to ! expansion :i* prec$es ! solidification ( molt5 sub/ances ( volcanic "*4 ,our illu/ration1 ,plate ,,xix41 is a photograph f "o ( _m glass globes :i* we h crack$ 9 ! mann] describ$3 a c>eful comp>ison betwe5 ! arrangem5t ( ! div]g5t cracks repres5t$ 9 ! photograph & ^? se5 spread+ f ,ty*o & o!r lun> crat]s w1 we tru/1 ju/ify u 9 :at we h /at$ z to ! simil>ity ( ! causes :i* h produc$ su* id5tical results4 ,! accompany+ figures w fur!r illu/rate our views ^u ! causative orig9 ( ! bright /reaks4 ,! prim>y action r5t ! solid cru/ ( ! moon & produc$ a sy/em ( radiat+ fissures 7,fig4 #db73 ^! imm$iately af=d$ egress = ! molt5 matt] b5ea? to make its appe>ance on ! surface simultane\sly along ! entire c\rse ( e crack1 & irrespective ( all surface inequalities or irregul>ities :atev] 7,fig4 #dc74 ,we conceive t ! upfl[+ matt] spread 9 bo? directions sideways & 9 ?is mann] produc$ /reaks ( v mu* great] wid? ?an ! cracks or fissures up ?r\gh :i* x made its way to ! surface4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #db4 ,,illu/rative ,,( ,,! ,,radiat+ ,,cracks ,,:i* ,,prec$e ,,! ,,=mation ,,( ,,! ,,bright ,,/reaks4 ,9 fur!r elucidation ( ?is "p ( our subject we may ref] to a famili> b z we conceive cog5t illu/ration ( an analog\s action 9 ! behavi\r ( wat] b5ea? ! ice ( a froz5 pond1 :i*1 on be+ fractur$ by "s conc5trat$ pressure1 or by a bl[1 is well kn[n to 8/>0 into radiat+ or div]g+ cracks1 up ?r\gh :i* ! wat] imm$iately issues1 mak+ its appe>ance on ! surface ( ! ice simultane\sly along ! entire c\rse ( e crack1 & on rea*+ ! surface1 spread+ on bo? sides to a wid? mu* exce$+ t ( ! crack itself4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dc4 ,,illu/rative ,,( ,,! ,,radiat+ ,,bright ,,/reaks4 ,if ?is famili> illu/ration be duly consid]$1 we d\bt n x w be f\nd to ?r[ consid]able light on ! nature ( ^? actions :i* h result$ 9 ! bright /reaks on ! moon's surface4 ,"s h attempt$ to expla9 ! cause ( ^! bright /reaks by assign+ !m to /reams ( lava1 issu+ f ! crat] at ! c5tre ( _! div]g5ce & fl[+ ov] ! surface1 b we consid] su* an explanation totally unt5able1 z any idea ( lava1 be x ev] s fluid at its fir/ issue f its s\rce1 fl[+ 9 /reams ( ne>ly equal wid?1 ?r\gh c\rses sev]al hundr$ miles long1 up hills1 ov] m\nta9s1 & across pla9s1 appe>s to u beyond all rational probability4 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate ,,xviii4 ,,ari/>*us ,,h]odotus4 ,x may be object$ to our explanation ( ! =mation ( ^! bright /reaks1 t s f> z our means ( obs]vation avail u1 we fail to detect any %ad[s f !m or f su* m>g9al edges z might be expect$ to result f a sideway-spread+ outfl[ ( lava f ! cracks :i* af=d$ x exit 9 ! mann] describ$4 ,7 ! edges ( ^! /reaks t]m9at$ by cliff-l or craggy m>g9s ( su* height z #cj or #dj feet1 we might j be able at l[ angles ( illum9ation & "u ! mo/ fav\rable circum/ances ( vision1 to detect "s slight appe>ance ( %ad[s2 b s f> z we are aw>e1 no su* %ad[s h be5 obs]v$4 ,we are l$ to suppose t ! impossibility ( detect+ !m is due n to _! abs5ce b to ! height ( ! m>g9s be+ s mod]ate z n to ca/ any cognizable %ad[1 inasmu* z an abrupt craggy m>g9 ( #aj or #ae feet high w\ld1 "u ev5 ! mo/ fav\rable circum/ances1 fail to r5d] su* visible to u4 ,ref]5ce to our ideal section ( "o ( ^! bright /reaks 7,fig4 #de71 w %[ h[ ?9 _! edges may be 9 relation to _! spread+ wid?4 ,! abs5ce ( cognizable %ad[s f ! bright /reaks has l$ "s obs]v]s to conclude t !y h no elevation above ! surface ov] :i* !y trav]se1 & x has !re=e be5 sugge/$ t _! exi/5ce is due to possible vap\rs :i* may h issu$ ?r\gh ! cracks1 & cond5s$ 9 "s sublimat$ or pulv]ul5t =m along _! c\rses1 ! cond5s$ vap\rs 9 "q =m+ a surface ( high reflective prop]ties4 ,t metallic or m9]al sub/ances ( "s k9ds d deposit on cond5sation v :ite p[d]s1 or sublimates1 we are q ready to admit1 & su* explanation ( ! high lum9osity ( ! bright /reaks1 & ( ! crat]s situat$ at ! foci or c5tres ( _! div]g5ce is by no means improbable1 s f> z conc]ns _! m]e brightness4 ,b z we inv>iably f9d a crat] occupy+ ! c5tre ( div]g5ce1 & su* crat]s are possess$ ( all ! *>act]i/ic features & details :i* e/abli% _! true volcanic nature z ! results ( en]getic extrusions ( lava & scoria1 we _c resi/ ! conclusion t ! mat]ial ( ! crat]1 & t ( ! bright /reaks div]g+ f x1 are n only ( a common orig91 b are s f> id5tical t ! only diff]5ce 9 ! /ructure ( ! "o z comp>$ ) ! o!r is due to ! m copi\s egress ( ! extrud$ or erupt$ matt] 9 ! case ( ! crat]1 :ile ! re/rict$ outfl[ or ejection ( ! matt] up ?r\gh ! cracks w\ld cause its disp]sion to be s comp>atively g5tle z to flood ! sides ( ! cracks & spread 9 a ?9 %eet m or less sideways simultane\sly along _! c\rses4 ,!re are inde$ evid5ces 9 ! wid] ( ! bright /reaks ( _! be+ ! result ( ! outfl[ ( lava ?r\gh sy/ems ( cracks runn+ p>allel to ea* o!r1 ! conflu5ce ( ! lava issu+ f :i* w\ld naturally yield ! appe>ance ( "o /reak ( great wid?4 ,"s ( ^? div]g+ f ,ty*o are ( ?is class2 _m o!r examples might be cit$1 among :i* we may "n ! wide /reaks proce$+ f ! crat] ,m5elaus & also ^? f ,proclus4 ,"s ( ^! occupy wid?s upw>ds ( #be miles--amply suffici5t to admit ( _m concurr5t cracks ) conflu5t lava outfl[s4 ,we are dispos$ to consid] z relat$ to ! =e-m5tion$ radiat+ /reaks1 ! num]\s1 we may say ! multitud9\s1 long & n>r[ *asms t h be5 sometimes call$ 8canals0 or 8rills10 b :i* are s obvi\sly cracks or *asms1 t x is desirable t ?is "n %\ld be appli$ to !m r ?an "o :i* may mislead by imply+ an aque\s !ory ( =mation4 ,^! cracks1 s+ly & 9 gr\ps1 are f\nd 9 great numb]s 9 _m p>ts ( ! moon's surface4 ,z a few ( ! m conspicu\s examples :i* our plates exhibit we may ref] to ! rem>kable gr\p we/ ( ,treisneck] 7,plate ,,xi471 ! pr9cipal memb]s ( :i* conv]ge to or cross at a small crat]1 & ?us po9t to a cont9uity ( causation !re) analog\s to ! evid5t relation betwe5 ! bright /reaks & _! focal crat]s4 ,less rem>kable1 b no less int]e/+1 are ^? individual examples t appe> 9 ! region nor? ( 7bel[7 ! ,ap5n9es 7,plate ,,ix471 & "s ( :i* by _! p>allelism ( direction ) ! m\nta9-*a9 appe> to po9t to a causative relation also4 ,!re is "o long specim51 & sev]al %ort] 9 ! imm$iate neighb\rhood ( ,m]cator & ,campanus 7,plate ,,xv472 & ano!r curi\s sy/em ( !m1 pres5t+ sugge/ive contortions1 occurs 9 connection ) ! m\nta9s ,ari/>*us & ,h]odotus 7,plate ,,xviii474 ,o!rs1 aga91 appe> to be id5tifi$ ) ! radial excresc5ces ab\t ,cop]nicus 7,plate ,,viii474 ,capuanus1 ,agrippa1 & ,gass5di1 among o!r crat]s1 h m or less notable cracks 9 _! vic9ities4 ,"s ( ^! *asms are conspicu\s en\gh to be se5 ) mod]ate telescopic means1 & f ?is maximum degree ( visibility !re are all grades d[nw>ds to ^? t require ! highe/ optical p[]s & ! be/ circum/ances = _! detection4 ,! e>li] sel5ograph]s detect$ b a few ( !m4 ,s*roet] not$ only #aa2 ,lohrman record$ #ge m2 ,be] & ,ma$l] add$ #ee to ! li/1 :ile ,s*midt ( ,a!ns rais$ ! kn[n numb] to #dbe1 ( :i* he has publi%$ a descriptive catalogue4 ,we take x t ?is increase ( successive discov]ies has be5 due to ! progressive p]fection ( telescopes1 or1 p]haps1 to increas$ education1 s to speak1 ( ! eye1 s9ce ,s*midt's telescope is a mu* small] in/rum5t ?an t us$ by ,be] & ,ma$l]1 & is reg>d$ by its own] z an inf]ior "o = its size4 ,we d\bt n t !re are hundr$s m ( ^! cracks :i* m p]fect in/rum5ts & /ill %>p] eyes w br+ to k 9 ! future4 ,:ile ^! *asms h all l5g?s f #aej miles 7:i* is ab\t ! ext5t ( ^? ne> ,treisneck]7 d[n to a few miles1 !y appe> to h a less v>iable bread?1 s9ce we d n f9d _m t at _! maximum op5+s exce$ two miles across2 ab\t a mile or less is _! usual wid? ?r\gh\t ! great] "p ( _! l5g?1 & g5]ally !y tap] (f to invisibility at _! extremities1 :]e !y d n enc\nt] & t]m9ate at a crat] or o!r asp]ity1 :i* is1 h[ev]1 sometimes ! case4 ,( _! dep? we c =m no precise e/imate1 ?\gh f ! %>pness ( _! edges we may conclude t _! sides approa* p]p5dicul>ity1 &1 !re=e1 t _! dep? is v great2 we h else:]e sugge/$ t5 miles z a possible pr(undity4 ,9 a few cases1 & "u v fav\rable circum/ances1 we h obs]v$ _! g5]ally black int]iors to be int]rupt$ "h & !re ) bright spots sugge/ive ( fragm5ts f ! sides ( ! cracks hav+ fall5 into ! op5+4 ,9 seek+ an explanation ( ^! cracks1 two possible causes sugge/ !mselves4 ,"o is ! expansion ( subsurface matt]1 already sugge/$ z explanatory ( ! bright /reaks2 ! o!r1 a contraction ( ! cru/ by cool+4 ,we d\bt n t bo? causes h be5 at "w1 "o p]haps enhanc+ ! o!r4 ,:]e1 z 9 ! cases we h po9t$ out1 !re are cracks :i* are s connect$ ) crat]s z to imply relation%ip1 we may conclude t an upheav+ or expansive =ce 9 ! sublun> molt5 matt] has giv5 rise to ! cracks1 & t ! c5tral crat]s h be5 =m$ simultane\sly1 by ! release1 ) ejective viol5ce1 ( ! matt] f its conf9+ cru/4 ,! nature ( ! expansive =ce be+ assum$ t ( solidify+ matt]1 ! wide ext5t ( "s *asms indicates a deep location ( t =ce4 ,& dep? 9 ?is matt] implies lat5ess 79 ! scale ( sel5ological "t7 ( op]ation1 s9ce ! c5tral portions ( ! globe w\ld be ! la/ to cool4 ,n[1 we h evid5ce ( comp>ative lat5ess af=d$ by ! fact t 9 _m cases ! cracks h pass$ ?r\gh crat]s & o!r asp]ities :i* ?us obvi\sly exi/$ be=e ! crack+ comm5c$2 & ?us1 s f>1 ! hypo!sis ( ! expansion-crack+ is support$ by absolute fact4 ,x may be object$ t su* an upheav+ =ce z we are invok+1 be+ transitory1 w\ld all[ ! di/5d$ surface to collapse aga9 :5 x ceas$ to op]ate1 & s close ! cracks or *asms x produc$4 ,b we consid] x n improbable t 9 "s cases1 z a consequ5ce ( ! expansion ( subsurface matt]1 an upfl[ !re( may h p>tially fill$ ! crack1 & by solidify+ h held x op52 & x is rational to suppose t !re h be5 v>i\s degrees ( fill+ & ev5 ( ov]fl[--t 9 "s cases ! ris+ matt] has n ne>ly rea*$ ! edge ( ! crack1 z 9 ,fig4 #dd1 :ile 9 o!rs x has ris5 almo/ to ! surface1 & 9 "s in/ances has actually ov]run x & produc$ "s sort ( elevation along ! l9e ( ! crack1 l t repres5t$ sectionally 9 ,fig4 #de4 ,x is probable t "s ( ! slightly tumesc5t l9es on ! moon's surface h be5 ?us produc$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate ,,xix4 ,,glass ,,globe ,,crack$ ,,by ,,int]nal ,,pressure4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dd4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #de4 ,we h sugge/$ %r9kage z a possible explanation ( "s cracks4 ,x c\ld h>dly h be5 ! direct cause ( ^? comp\nd ones :i* are di/+ui%$ by focal crat]s1 ?\gh x may h be5 a co-op]ative cause1 s9ce ! contract+ t5d5cy ( any area ( ! cru/1 by s to speak weak5+ x1 may h virtually increas$ ! /r5g? ( an upheav+ =ce & ?us h aid$ & localiz$ its action4 ,we see1 h[ev]1 no reason :y ! inevitable ultimate contraction :i* mu/ h att5d$ ! cool+ ( ! moon's cru/1 ev5 :5 all int]nal reactions ^u x _h ceas$1 %\ld n h creat$ a class ( cracks )\t accompany+ crat]s1 :ile x w\ld d\btless h a t5d5cy to increase ! l5g? & wid? ( ^? already exi/+ f any o!r cause4 ,"s ( ! m m9ute clefts1 :i* presumably exi/ 9 great] numb]s ?an we yet "k (1 may d\btless be ascrib$ to ?is effect ( cool+ contraction4 ,9 ?is view we %\ld h to reg>d su* cracks z ! late/ ( all lun> features4 ,:e!r ! ag5cy t produc$ !m is /ill at "w--:e!r ! cracks are on ! increase--is a "q impossible ( solution3 = reasons to be pres5tly adduc$1 we incl9e to believe t all cosmical heat pass$ f ! moon1 & !re=e t x arriv$ at its pres5t1 & app>5tly f9al1 condition ages ^u ages ago4 ,besides ! ridges spok5 ( on p4 #adj1 & reg>d$ z cracks up ?r\gh :i* matt] has be5 extrud$1 !re are num]\s ridges ( great] or less ext5t1 :i* we conceive are ( ! nature ( wr9kles1 & h be5 produc$ by tang5tial compression due to ! collapse ( ! moon's cru/ ^u ! %runk5 int]ior1 z expla9$ & illu/rat$ 9 ,*ap4 ,,iii4 ,! di/+ui%+ feature ( ! two classes ( ph5om5a we consid] to be ! pres5ce ( a s]rat$ summit 9 ^? ( ! extrud$ class1 :ile ^? produc$ by 8wr9kl+0 action h _! summits comp>atively free f s]ration or m>k$ irregul>ity4 ,,*apt] ,,xii4 ,,col\r ,,& ,,brightness ,,( ,,lun> ,,details3 ,,*ronology ,,( ,,=mations1 ,,& ,,f9ality ,,( ,,exi/+ ,,features4 ,speak+ g5]ally1 ! details ( ! lun> surface seem to u to be devoid ( col\r4 ,to ! nak$ eye ( ord9>y s5sitiv5ess ! moon appe>s to possess a silv]y :it5ess3 m critical judges ( col\r w\ld describe x z pres5t+ a yell[i% t+e4 ,sir ,john ,h]s*el1 dur+ 8 soj\rn at ! ,cape ( ,good ,hope1 _h frequ5t opportunities ( comp>+ ! moon's lu/re ) t ( ! wea!r$ s&/one surface ( ,table ,m\nta91 :5 ! moon 0 sett+ beh9d x1 & bo? 7 illum9at$ "u ! same direction ( sunlight2 & he rem>k$ t ! moon 0 at su* times 8sc>cely di/+ui%able f ! rock 9 app>5t contact ) x40 ,al?\gh 8 obs]vations _h ref]5ce *iefly to brightness1 x c h>dly be d\bt$ t simil>ity ( col\r is also impli$2 = any diff]5ce 9 ! t9t ( ! two objects w\ld h preclud$ ! use ( ! words 8sc>cely di/+ui%able20 a diff]5ce ( col\r int]f]+ ) a comp>ison ( lu/re 9 su* an obs]vation1 ?\gh x mu/ be rememb]$ t he obs]v$ ?r\gh a d5se /ratum ( atmosph]e4 ,view$ 9 ! telescope1 ! same g5]al yell[i%-:ite col\r prevails ov] all ! moon1 ) a few exceptions (f]$ by ! s-call$ seas4 ,! ,m>e ,crisium1 ,m>e ,s]5etatis1 & ,m>e ,humorum h some:at ( a gre5i% t9t2 ! ,palus ,somnii & ! circul> area ( ,li*t5b]g incl9e to rudd9ess4 ,^! t9ts are1 h[ev]1 extremely fa9t1 & x has be5 sugge/$ by ,arago t !y may be m]e effects ( contra/ r ?an actual col\ration ( ! surface mat]ial4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 c h>dly be ! case1 s9ce all ! 8seas0 are n alike affect$2 ^? t are slightly col\r$ are1 z we h said1 "s gre5 & "s r$1 & contra/ c\ld sc>cely produce su* v>iations4 ,! supposition ( vegetation cov]+ ^! great flats & giv+ !m a local col\r is 9 our view /ill m unt5able1 9 ! face ( ! argum5ts t we %all pres5tly adduce aga9/ ! possibility ( vegetable life exi/+ ^u ! moon4 ,x appe>s to u m rational to consid] ! t9ts due to actual col\r ( ! mat]ial 7presumably lava or "s once fluid m9]al sub/ance7 t has cov]$ ^! areas2 & x may well be conceiv$ t ! v>iety ( t9t is due to diff]5t *>act]s ( mat]ial1 or ev5 v>i\s conditions ( ! same mat]ial com+ f diff]5t dep?s bel[ ! lun> surface2 & we may reasonably suppose t ! same v>i\sly-col\r$ sub/ances occur 9 ! r\gh] regions ( ! lun> surface1 b t !y exi/ !re 9 pat*es too small to be recogniz$ by u1 or are 8put out0 by ! brightness to :i* polyh$ral reflexion gives rise4 ,see+ t volcanic action has _h s l>ge a %>e 9 giv+ to ! moon's surface its /ructural "*1 analogy ( ! mo/ legitimate ord] ju/ifies u 9 conclud+ n only t ! mat]ials ( t surface are ( k9dr$ nature to ^? ( ! unque/ionably volcanic portions ( ! e>?1 b also t ! t9ts & col\rs t *>act]ize t]re/rial volcanic & ,plutonian products h _! c\nt]p>ts on ! moon4 ,^? :o h se5 ! int]ior & surr\nd+s ( a t]re/rial volcano aft] a rec5t eruption1 & be=e atmosph]ic ag5ts h ex]cis$ _! dimm+ influ5ces1 mu/ h be5 /ruck ) ! col\rs ( ! erupt$ mat]ials !mselves & ! v>i$ brilliant t9ts conf]r$ on ^! mat]ials by ! sublimat$ vap\rs ( metals & m9]al sub/ances :i* h be5 deposit$ ^u !m4 ,if1 !n1 analogy is any guide 9 enabl+ u to inf] ! appe>ance ( ! invisible f t :i* we "k to be ( k9dr$ nature & :i* we h se51 we may ju/ly conclude t 7 ! moon br\ght suffici5tly ne> to u to exhibit ! m9ute *>act]i/ics ( its surface1 we %\ld behold ! same bright & v>i$ col\rs 9 & ar\nd its crat]s t we behold 9 & ab\t ^? ( ! e>?2 & 9 all probability ! col\r$ mat]ials ( lun> volcanoes w\ld be m fre% & vivid ?an ^? ( ! e>? by reason ( ! abs5ce ( ^? atmosph]ic elem5ts :i* t5d s rapidly to impair ! brightness ( col\r$ surfaces expos$ to _! influ5ce4 ,situat$ z we are1 h[ev]1 z reg>ds di/ance f ! moon1 we h no *ance ( p]ceiv+ ^! local col\rs 9 _! small] masses2 b x is by no means improbable1 z we h sugge/$1 t ! fa9t t9ts exhibit$ by ! great pla9s are due to broad expanses ( col\r$ volcanic mat]ial4 ,b if we fail to p]ceive div]sity ( col\r ^u ! lun> surface1 we are 9 a v diff]5t position 9 reg>d to div]sity ( brightness or v>iable light-reflective p[] ( diff]5t di/ricts & details4 ,?is w be tol]ably obvi\s to ^? casual obs]v]s :o h rem>k$ no?+ m ( ! moon's physiography ?an ! resemblance to a some:at lugubri\s human c\nt5ance :i* ! full moon exhibits1 & :i* is due to ! accid5tal disposition ( c]ta9 l>ge & small areas ( surface mat]ial :i* h less ( ! light-reflect+ prop]ty ?an o!r portions2 = s9ce all p>ts se5 by a t]re/rial obs]v] may be said to be equally %one ^u by ! sun1 x is cle> t app>5tly bright & %ad$ p>ts mu/ be produc$ by diff]5ces 9 ! nature ( ! surface z reg>ds p[] ( reflect+ ! light receiv$4 ,:5 we turn to ! telescope & survey ! full disc ( ! moon ) ev5 a v mod]ate am\nt ( optical aid1 ! meagre impression z to v>iety ( degree ( brightness :i* ! unassi/$ eye conveys is va/ly ext5d$ & enhanc$1 = ! surface is se5 to be div]sifi$ by %ades ( brilliancy & dullness f almo/ glitt]+ :ite to sombre grey3 & ?is v>iety ( %ad+ is r5d]$ mu* m /rik+ by %ield+ ! eye ) a dusky glass f ! excessive gl>e1 :i* dr[ns ! details 9 a flood ( light4 ,"u ^! circum/ances ! v>ieties ( light & %ade become almo/ bewild]+1 & defy ! p[] ( bru% or p5cil to reproduce !m4 ,we may1 h[ev]1 realize an imp]fect idea ( ?is *>act]i/ic ( ! lun> surface by ref]5ce to ! self-drawn portrait ( ! full moon ^u ,plate ,,iii4 ,?is is1 9 fact1 a photograph tak5 f ! full moon itself1 & enl>g$ suffici5tly to r5d] conspicu\s ! spots & l>ge & small regions t are /rik+ly bright 9 comp>ison ) :at may 9 ?is place be describ$ z ! 8gr\nd0 ( ! disc4 ,z an example ( a wide & irregul>ly ext5sive di/rict ( highly reflective mat]ial1 ! region ( :i* ,ty*o is ! c5tral object1 is v rem>kable4 ,we may ref] also to ! bright 8spla%es0 ( :i* ,cop]nicus & ,kepl] are ! c5tres4 ,s brilliant are ^! spots t !y c easily be detect$ by ! unassi/$ eye ab\t ! "t ( full moon4 ,/ill bright] b less conspicu\s by its size is ! crat] ,ari/>*us1 :i* %9es ) specul> brightness1 & almo/ induces ! belief t its int]ior is compos$ ( "s vitre\s-surfac$ matt]3 ! highly reflective nature ( ?is object has (t5 caus$ x to become conspicu\s :5 9 ! d>k hemisph]e ( ! moon1 unillum9at$ by ! sun1 & light$ only by ! light reflect$ f ! e>?4 ,at ^! times x appe>s s bright t x has be5 tak5 = a volcano 9 actual eruption1 & no small am\nt ( popul> misconception at "o "t arose !refrom conc]n+ ! conditions ( ! moon z respects exi/+ volcanic activity--a misconception t /ill cl+s to ! m9ds ( _m4 ,! p>ts ( ! surface di/+ui%$ by defici5cy ( reflect+ p[] are conspicu\s en\gh4 ,we may cite1 h[ev]1 z an example ( a detail portion especially rem>kable = its d+y aspect1 ! int]ior ( ! crat] ,plato1 :i* is "o ( ! d>ke/ spots 7! d>ke/ well def9$ "o7 ^u ! hemisph]e ( ! moon visible to u4 ,= facilitat+ ref]5ce to %ades ( lum9osity1 ,s*roet] & ,lohrman assort$ ! v>i\sly reflective p>ts into #aj grades1 comm5c+ ) ! d>ke/4 ,grades #a to #c compris$ ! v>i\s deep greys2 #d & #e ! light greys2 #f & #g :ite2 & #h to #aj brilliant :ite4 ,! spots ,grimaldi & ,riccioli came "u class #a ( ?is notation2 ,plato betwe5 #a & #b4 ,! 8seas0 g5]ally rang$ f #b to #c2 ! brighte/ m\nta9\s portions mo/ly betwe5 degrees #d & #f2 ! crat] walls & ! bright /reaks came betwe5 ^! & ! bright peaks1 :i* fell "u ! #i? grade4 ,! maximum brightness1 ! #aj? grade1 is in/anc$ only 9 ! ease ( ,ari/>*us & a po9t 9 ,w]n]1 ?\gh ,proclus ne>ly approa*es x1 z d _m bright spots1 *iefly ! sites ( m9ute crat]s1 :i* make _! appe>ance at ! "t ( full moon4 ,9 photographic pictures produc$ by ! moon ( itself1 !re is always an app>5t exagg]ation 9 ! relation ( light to d>k portions ( ! disc4 ,! dusky p>ts look1 ^u ! photograph1 mu* d>k] ?an to ! eye direct$ to ! moon itself1 :e!r assi/$ or n by optical appliances4 ,x may be t ! real cause ( ?is discrepancy is t ! eye fails to discov] ! actual diff]5ce ^u ! moon itself1 be+ ins5sible to ! high] degrees ( brightness or n e/imat+ !m at _! prop] brilliance ) respect to p>ts less bright4 ,on ! o!r h&1 x is probable t ! enhanc$ contra/ 9 ! photograph is due to "s peculi> condition ( ! d>k] surface matt] affect+ its p[] ( reflect+ ! act9ic con/itu5t ( ! rays t fall ^u x4 ,! /udy ( ! v>y+ brightness or reflective p[] ( diff]5t regions & spots ( ! lun> disc leads u to ! consid]ation ( ! relative antiquity ( ! surface features2 = x is h>dly possible to reg>d ^! v>iations att5tively )\t be+ impress$ ) ! conviction t !y h relation to "s *ronological ord] ( =mation4 ,we _c1 9 ! fir/ place1 resi/ ! conviction t ! brighte/ features 7 ! late/ =m$2 ?is /rikes u z evid5t on prim facie gr\nds2 b x becomes m cle>ly s :5 we rem>k t ! bright =mations1 z a rule1 ov]lie ! dull] features4 ,! elevat$ p>ts ( ! cru/ are bright] ?an ! 8seas0 & o!r areas2 & x is pretty cle> t ! =m] are new] ?an ! latt]1 ^u :i* !y appe> to be sup]-impos$1 or ?r\gh :i* !y seem to h extrud$4#ac ,! va/ dusky pla9s are 9 e in/ance m or less spr9kl$ ) spots & m9ute crat]s1 & ^! la/ 7 obvi\sly =m$ aft] ! area t conta9s !m4 ,"o is almo/ dispos$ to place ! ord] ( =mations 9 ! ord] ( relative brightness1 & s consid] ! d+ie/ p>ts ! olde/ & ! brighte/ spots & crat]s ! newe/ features1 ?\gh1 9 ! abs5ce ( an atmosph]e compet5t to impair ! reflective p[] ( ! surface mat]ials1 we are unable to ju/ify ?is classification by sugge/+ a cause = su* a det]ioration by "t z ! hypo!sis pre-supposes4 ,z we h ent]$ ^u ! "q ( relative age ( ! lun> features1 we may rem>k t !re are evid5ces ( v>i\s epo*s ( =mation ( p>ticul> classes ( details1 irrespective ( _! condition 9 respect ( brightness1 or1 z we may say1 fre%ness ( mat]ial4 ,z a rule1 ! l>ge crat]s are old] ?an ! small ones4 ,?is is prov$ by ! fact t a l>ge object ( ?is class is nev] se5 to int]f]e ) or ov]lap a small "o4 ,^? ( ne>ly equal size are1 h[ev]1 se5 to ov]lap "o ano!r z ?\gh sev]al eruptions ( equal int5sity _h occurr$ f ! same s\rce at diff]5t po9ts4 ,?is is /rik+ly in/anc$ 9 ! gr\p ( crat]s situat$ 9 ! position #ce-ada on our map1 ! ord] ( =mation ( ea* ( :i* is cle>ly app>5t4 ,! region ab\t ,ty*o (f]s an inexhau/ible field = /udy ( ^! ph5om5a ( ov]lapp+ or int]polat+ crat]s1 & x w be f\nd1 ) v few exceptions1 t ! small] crat] is ! imp++ or p>asitical "o1 & mu/ !re=e h be5 =m$ aft] ! l>g]1 ^u :i* x intrudes or imp+es4 ,!re are frequ5t cases 9 :i* a l>ge crat] has _h its ramp>t int]rupt$ by a less] "o1 & ?is aga9 has be5 brok5 into by "o /ill small]2 & in/ances may be f\nd :]e a f\r? crat] small] ?an all has intrud$ itself ^u ! previ\s intrud]4 ,! g5]al t5d5cy ( ^! examples is to %[ t ! crat]s dim9i%$ 9 size z ! moon's volcanic en]gy subsid$3 t ! l>ge/ 7 produc$ 9 ! ?roes ( its e>ly viol5ce1 & t ! smalle/ are ! results ( expir+ ef=ts possibly imp$$ ?r\gh ! deep-seat$ness ( ! ejective s\rce4 ,ano!r g5]al fact ( ?is *ronological ord] is t ! m\nta9 *a9s are nev] se5 to intrude ^u =mations ( ! crat] ord]4 ,we d n any:]e f9d t a m\nta9 *a9 runs absolutely into or ?r\gh a crat]2 b1 on ! o!r h&1 we d f9d t crat]s h =m$ on m\nta9 *a9s4 ,?is leads unmi/akably to ! inf]5ce t ! crat]s 7 n =m$ be=e _! alli$ m\nta9 *a9s2 & we might assume !re=e t ! m\nta9s g5]ally are ! old] =mations1 b t !re is no?+ to prove t ! two classes ( features1 :]e !y int]m+le1 z 9 ! ,ap5n9es & ,caucasus1 7 n erupt$ cotemporane\sly4 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate ,,xx4 ,,ov]lapp+ ,,crat]s4 ,^u ! assumption t ! late/ eject$ or extrud$ matt] is t :i* is brighte/1 we %\ld place ! bright /reaks among ! m rec5t features4 ,be ?is z x may1 x is tol]ably c]ta9 t ! cracks1 ^: app>5tly close relation to ! radiat+ /reaks we h endeav\r$ to po9t out1 are relatively ( a v late =mative p]iod4 ,we are inde$ dispos$ to consid] !m z ! mo/ rec5t features ( all3 ! evid5ce 9 support ( ?is consid]ation be+ ! fact t !y are sometimes f\nd int]sect+ small crat]s t1 f ! way 9 :i* !y are cut ?r\gh by ! cracks1 mu/ h be5 9 situ be=e ! crack+ ag5cy came into op]ation4 ,x is 9 accordance ) our hypo!sis ( ! moon's transition f a fluid to a solid body to consid] t a crack+ ( ! surface w\ld be ! late/ ( all ! ph5om5a produc$ by contraction 9 f9al cool+4 ,! =ego+ rem>ks naturally lead u to ! "q :e!r *anges are /ill go+ on ^u ! surface ( our satellite3 :e!r !re is /ill left 9 x a sp>k ( its volcanic activity1 or :e!r t activity has become totally ext9ct4 ,we %all consid] ?is "q f ! obs]vational & !oretical po9t ( view4 ,fir/ z reg>ds obs]vations4 ,?is mu* may be affirm$ indisputably--t no object or detail visible to ! e>lie/ sel5ograph]s 7^: p]iod may be dat$ #bjj ye>s back7 has alt]$ f ! date ( _! maps to ! pres5t4 ,:5 we pass f ! bold] features to ! m m9ute details we f9d ourselves at a loss = mat]ials = =m+ an inf]5ce2 ! only map pret5d+ to accuracy ev5 ( ! l>g] among small objects be+ t ( ,be] & ,ma$l]1 :i*1 truly admirable z x is1 is n v safely to be reli$ ^u = settl+ any "q ( alleg$ *ange1 on acc\nt ( ! conv5tional sy/em adopt$ = exhibit+ ! =ms ( objects1 e object be+ mapp$ r ?an drawn1 & %[n z x nev] is or c be pres5t$ to view on ! moon itself4 ,?is difficulty w\ld pres5t itself if a "q ( *ange 7 ev] rais$ ^u ! evid5ce ( ,be] & ,ma$l]'s map3 x may inde$ h prev5t$ su* a "q be+ rais$1 = c]ta9ly no "o has hi!rto be5 bold en\gh to ass]t t any portion or detail ( ! map fails to repres5t ! actual /ate ( ! moon at ! pres5t "t4 ,9 default ( publi%$ maps1 we are ?r[n = evid5ce on ?is "q ^u obs]vations & recollections ( individual obs]v]s ^: famili>ity ) ! lun> details ext5ds ov] l5g?y p]iods4 ,speak+ = ourselves1 & ^u ! /r5g? ( close scrut9ies cont9u$ ) assiduity ?r\gh ! pa/ ?irty ye>s1 we may say t we h nev] _h ! suspicion sugge/$ to our eye ( any actual *ange :atev] hav+ tak5 place 9 any feature or m9ute detail ( ! lun> surface2 & our scrut9ies h ?r\gh\t be5 made ) ample optical means1 mo/ly ) a #bj-;in* reflector4 ,?is exp]i5ce has made u n unnaturally 9 "s slight degree sceptical conc]n+ ! *anges alleg$ to h be5 detect$ by o!rs4 ,^? ass]t$ by ,s*roet] & ,grui?uis5 7 long ago reject$ by ,be] & ,ma$l]1 :o expla9$ !m1 :]e ! accuracy ( ! obs]v] 0 n que/ion$1 by v>iations ( illum9ation1 a cause ( illusory *ange :i* is n always suffici5tly tak5 into acc\nt4 ,a notable in/ance ( ?is deception occurr$ a few ye>s ago 9 ! case ( ! m9ute bright crat] ,l9n1 :i* 0 = a consid]able p]iod decl>$1 ^u ! /r5g? ( obs]vations ( v promiscu\s "*1 to be v>y+ 9 =m & dim5sions almo/ daily1 b ! alleg$ con/ant *anges ( :i* h s9ce be5 tacitly reg>d$ z due to v>y+ circum/ances ( illum9ation induc$ by comb9ations ( libratory effects ) ! ord9>y *anges dep5d+ ^u ! direction ( ! sun's rays z due to ! age ( ! moon4 ,?is explanation does n1 h[ev]1 dispose ( ! "q :e!r ! crat] "u notice suff]$ any actual *ange be=e ! hue & cry 0 rais$ conc]n+ x4 ,att5tion 0 fir/ direct$ to x by ,s*midt1 ( ,a!ns1 ^: p[]s ( obs]vation are kn[n to be rem>kable1 & ^: lab\rs ^u ! moon are ( su* ext5t & m9ut5ess z to claim = 8 ass]tions ! mo/ respectful consid]ation4#ad ,he affirm$ 9 #ahff t ! crat] at t date pres5t$ an appe>ance decid$ly diff]5t f t :i* x _h _h s9ce #ahda3 t :]eas x _h be5 f ! e>li] epo* always easily se5 z a v deep crat]1 9 ,octob] #ahff & !nce=w>d x pres5t$ only a :ite spot1 ) at mo/ b a v %all[ ap]ture1 v difficult to be detect$4 ,s*midt is "o ( ! v few obs]v]s ^: long famili>ity ) ! moon entitles him to speak ) confid5ce ^u su* a "q z t be=e u ^u ! sole /r5g? ( 8 own exp]i5ce2 & ?is case is b an isolat$ "o1 at lea/ x is ! only "o he has br\ght =w>d4 ,he is1 h[ev]1 /ill firmly conv9c$ t x is an in/ance ( actual *ange1 & n an illusion result+ f "s peculi> condition ( illum9ation ( ! object4 ,x %\ld be add$ also on ?is side ( ! discussion t an ,engli% obs]v]1 ! ,rev4 ,t4 ,w4 ,webb1 :ile app>5tly indispos$ to conc$e ! supposition ( any notable *anges 9 ! lun> features1 has yet f\nd f 8 own obs]vations t1 aft] all due all[ance = diff]5ces ( light & %ade ^u objects at diff]5t times1 !re is /ill a 8residuum ( m9ute v>iations n ?us dispos$ (0 :i* seem to indicate t eruptive action 9 ! moon has n yet entirely di$ out1 ?\gh its manife/ation at pres5t is v limit$ 9 ext5t4 ,x appe>s to u t1 if evid5ce ( cont9u+ volcanic action is to be s\ght on ! moon1 ! place to look = x is ar\nd ! circumf]5ce ( ! disc1 :]e eruption f any m>g9al orifice w\ld manife/ itself 9 ! =m ( a protrud+ haz9ess1 some:at z illu/rat$ to an exagg]at$ ext5t 9 ! annex$ cut4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #df4 ,! !oretical view ( ! "q1 :i* we h n[ to consid]1 has l$ u1 h[ev]1 to ! /rong belief t no ve/ige ( its =m] volcanic activity l+]s 9 ! moon--t x assum$ its f9al condition an inconceivable numb] ( ages ago1 & t ! high int]e/ :i* w\ld atta* to ! close scrut9y ( our satellite if x 7 /ill ! !atre ( volcanic reactions _c be hop$ =4 ,if x be j & all[able to assume t ! e>? & ! moon 7 cond5s$ into planet>y =m at ne>ly ! same epo* 7& ! only rational s*eme ( cosmogony ju/ifies ! assumption7 !n we may in/itute a comp>ison betwe5 ! condition ( ! two bodies z respects _! volcanic age1 us+ ! "o z a basis = inf]5ce conc]n+ ! /ate ( ! o!r4 ,we h reason to believe t ! e>?'s cru/ has ne>ly assum$ its f9al /ate s f> z volcanic reactions ( its int]ior ^u its ext]ior are conc]n$3 we may affirm t )9 ! hi/orical p]iod no igne\s convulsions ( any consid]able magnitude h occurr$2 & we may consid] t ! volcanoes n[ active ov] ! surface ( ! globe repres5t ! la/ expir+ ef=ts ( its eruptive =ce4 ,n[ 9 ! e>? we p]ceive sev]al conditions :]efrom we may inf] t x p>t$ ) its cosmical heat 7& !re=e ) its prime s\rce ( volcanic ag5cy7 at a rate :i* w appe> relatively v sl[ :5 we come to comp>e ! l conditions 9 ! moon4 ,we may1 we ?9k1 take = grant$ t ! surface ( a planet>y body g5]ally det]m9es its heat disp]s+ p[]1 :ile its volume det]m9es its heat reta9+ p[]4 ,giv5 two sph]ical bodies ( simil> mat]ial b ( unequal magnitude & orig9ally possess+ ! same degree ( heat1 ! small] body w cool m rapidly ?an ! l>g]1 by reason ( ! great] proportion :i* ! surface ( ! small] sph]e be>s to its volume ?an t ( ! l>g] sph]e to its volume--?is proportion dep5d+ ^u ! geometrical ratio :i* ! surfaces ( sph]es be> to _! volumes1 ! cont5ts ( sph]es be+ z ! cubes & ! surfaces z ! squ>es ( _! diamet]s4 ,! volume ( ! e>? is #di times z great z t ( ! moon1 b its surface is only #ac times z great2 !re is consequ5tly 9 ! e>? a p[] ( reta9+ its cosmical heat ne>ly f\r times z great z 9 ! case ( ! moon2 9 o!r words1 ! moon & e>? be+ suppos$ at "o "t to h _h an equally high temp]ature1 ! moon w\ld cool d[n to a giv5 l[ temp]ature 9 ab\t "o f\r? ! "t t ! e>? w\ld require to cool to ! same temp]ature4 ,b ! e>?'s cosmical heat has )\t d\bt be5 consid]ably cons]v$ by its vapor\s atmosph]e1 & /ill m by ! ocean 9 its antec$5t vapor\s =m4 ,yet not)/&+ all ?is1 ! e>?'s surface has ne>ly assum$ its f9al condition s f> z volcanic ag5cies are conc]n$3 x has s f> cool$ z to be subject to no consid]able di/ortions or disruptions ( its surface4 ,:at !n mu/ be ! /ate ( ! moon1 :i*1 f its small volume & l>ge proportionate area1 p>t$ ) its heat at ! above comp>atively rapid rate8 ,! matt] ( ! moon is1 too1 less d5se ?an ! e>?1 & h5ce d\btless f ?is cause dispos$ to m rapid cool+2 & x has no atmosph]e or vapor\s envelope to ret>d its radiat+ heat4 ,we are driv5 ?us to ! conclusion t ! moon's loss ( cosmical heat mu/ h be5 s rapid z to h all[$ its surface to assume its f9al con=mation ages on ages ago1 & h5ce t x is unreasonable & hopeless to look = evid5ce ( *ange ( any volcanic "* /ill go+ on4 ,we conceive x possible1 h[ev]1 t m9ute *anges ( a non-volcanic "* may be proce$+ 9 ! moon1 aris+ f ! viol5t alt]nations ( temp]ature to :i* ! surface is expos$ dur+ a lun> day & night4 ,! sun1 z we "k1 p\rs d[n its heat un9t]mitt+ly = a p]iod ( fully #cjj h\rs ^u ! lun> surface1 & ! exp]im5tal inve/igations ( ,"l ,rosse1 ess5tially confirm$ by ^? ( ! ,fr5* obs]v]1 ,m>ie ,davy1 %[ t "u ?is p[]ful insolation ! surface becomes heat$ to a degree :i* is e/imat$ at ab\t #ejj ( ,fahr5heit's scale1 ! fus+ po9t ( t9 or bismu?4 ,?is heat1 h[ev]1 is entirely radiat$ away dur+ ! equally long lun> night1 &1 z ,sir ,john ,h]s*el surmis$1 ! surface probably cools d[n aga9 to a temp]ature z l[ z t ( int]/ell> space3 ?is has be5 assum$ z repres5t+ ! absolute z]o ( temp]ature1 :i* has be5 calculat$ f exp]im5ts to be #bej bel[ ! z]o ( ,fahr5heit's scale4 ,n[ su* a sev]e range ( heat & cold c h>dly be )\t effect ^u "s ( ! compon5t mat]ials ( ! lun> surface4#ae ,if !re be any su* mat]ials z ! vitre\s lavas t are f\nd ab\t our volcanoes1 su* z obsidian = in/ance1 !y are d\btless crack$ & %iv]$ by ^! extreme transitions ( temp]ature2 & ?is comp>atively rapid succession ( *anges cont9u$ ?r\gh long ages w\ld1 we may suppose1 result 9 a dis9tegration ( "s p>ts ( ! surface & at l5g? some:at modify ! sel5ographic cont\r4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 possible t ! surface matt] is ma9ly compos$ ( m cry/all9e & por\s lavas1 & ^! might )/& ! fi]ce extremes l ! 8fire-brick0 ( mundane manufacture1 to :i* 9 molecul> /ructure !y may be consid]$ comp>able4 ,lavas z a rule are 7^u ! e>?7 ( ?is unvitre\s nature1 & if !y are ( l con/itution on ! moon1 !re w be little reason to suspect *anges f ! cause we are consid]+4 ,:]e1 h[ev]1 ! mat]ial1 :atev] its nature1 is pil$ 9 m or less deta*$ masses1 !re w d\btless be a grat+ & fractur+ at ! po9ts ( contact ( "o mass ) ano!r1 produc$ by alt]nate expansions & contractions ( ! entire masses1 :i* 9 ! long run ( ages mu/ br+ ab\t dislocations or dislodgm5ts ( matt] t might consid]ably affect ! surface features f a close po9t ( view1 b :i* c h>dly be ( suffici5t magnitude to be detect$ by a t]re/rial obs]v] ^: be/ aids to vision give him no p]ception ( m9ute configurations4 ,& x mu/ always be borne 9 m9d t *anges c only be prov$ by ref]5ce to previ\s obs]vations & del9eations ( unque/ionable accuracy4 ,speak+ by our own lights1 f our own exp]i5ce & reason+1 we are dispos$ to conclude t 9 all visible aspects ! lun> surface is un*angeable1 t 9 fact x arriv$ at its t]m9al condition eons ( ages ago1 & t 9 ! survey ( its wond]ful features1 ev5 9 ! smalle/ details1 we are pres5t$ ) ! sight ( objects ( su* transc5d5t antiquity z to r5d] ! olde/ geological features ( ! e>? mod]n by comp>ison4 ,,*apt] ,,xiii4 ,,! ,,moon ,,z ,a ,,_w3 ,,day ,,& ,,night ,,^u ,,its ,,surface4 ,a wide int]e/1 if n a deep "o1 atta*es to ! g5]al "q z to ! exi/5ce ( liv+ be+s1 or at lea/ ! possibility ( organic exi/5ce1 on planet>y bodies o!r ?an our own4 ,! "q has be5 exam9$ 9 all ages1 by ! lights ( ! sci5ce peculi> to ea*4 ,) e important accession to our a/ronomical k x has be5 re-rais$3 e consid]able discov]y has giv5 rise to "s new /ep or phase 9 ! discussion1 & 9 ?is way !re has gr[n up a some:at ext5sive lit]ature exclusively relat+ to mundane plurality4 ,x w readily be und]/ood t ! moon1 f its proximity to ! e>?1 has f ! fir/ receiv$ a l>ge1 p]haps ! l>ge/1 %>e ( att5tion f w&]]s into ?is field ( speculation3 & we might add greatly to ! bulk ( ?is volume by m]ely review+ "s ( ! m curi\s &1 9 _! way1 in/ructive conjectures specially relat+ to ! moon z a _w--to imag9>y j\rneys t[>ds h]1 & to ! be+s conjectur$ to dwell ^u & )9 h]4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 we feel !re is no occasion to d1 = x is our purpose m]ely to po9t out ! two or ?ree almo/ conclusive argum5ts aga9/ ! possibility ( any life1 animal or vegetable1 hav+ exi/5ce on our satellite4 ,we well "k :at are ! requisite conditions ( life on ! e>?2 & we c g no fur!r = gr\nds ( inf]5ce2 = if we 7 to />t by assum+ =ms ( life capable ( exi/5ce "u conditions widely & ess5tially diff]5t f ^? p]ta9+ to our planet1 !re w\ld be no ne$ = discuss+ our subject fur!r3 we c\ld revel 9 conjectures1 )\t a ?\ght z to _! extravagance4 ,! only legitimate phase ( ! "q we c ent]ta9 is ?is3--c !re be on ! moon any k9d ( liv+ ?+s analog\s to any k9d ( liv+ ?+s ^u ! e>?8 ,& ?is "q1 we ?9k1 admits only ( a negative answ]4 ,! l[e/ =ms ( vitality _c exi/ )\t air1 moi/ure1 & a mod]ate range ( temp]ature4 ,x may be true1 z rec5t exp]im5ts seem to %[1 t organic g]ms w reta9 _! vitality )\t ei!r ( ! fir/1 & ) exposure to int5se cold & to a consid]able degree ( heat2 & x is conceivable t ! m]e g]ms ( life may be pres5t on ! moon4#af ,b ?is is n ! case ) liv+ organisms !mselves4 ,we h1 9 ,*apt] ,v41 specially devot$ to ! subject1 cit$ ! evid5ce f :i* we "k t !re c be at ! mo/1 no m air on ! moon ?an is left 9 ! receiv] ( an air-pump aft] ! ord9>y process ( exhau/ion4 ,& ) reg>d to moi/ure1 x c\ld n exi/ 9 any b ! vapor\s /ate1 & we "k t no appreciable am\nt ( vap\r c be discov]$ by any obs]vation 7& "s ( !m are crucial en\gh7 t we are capable ( mak+4 ,we may suppose x j )9 ! v]ge ( possibility t "s l[ =ms ( vegetation might exi/ ^u ! moon ) a paucity ( air & moi/ure su* z w\ld be beyond ev5 our mo/ sev]e p[]s ( detection3 b grant+ ev5 ?is1 we are met by ! temp]ature difficulty2 = x is inconceivable t any plant-life c\ld survive exposure fir/ to a degree ( cold va/ly surpass+ t ( our arctic regions1 & !n 9 a %ort "t 7#ad days7 to a degree ( heat capable ( melt+ ! m fusible metals--! total range be+ equal1 z we h else:]e %[n1 to p]haps #fjj or #gjj degrees ( our !rmometric scale4 ,! high] =ms ( vegetation c\ld n reasonably be expect$ to exi/ "u conditions :i* ! l[] =ms c\ld n survive4 ,& z reg>ds ! possibility ( ! exi/5ce ( animal life 9 any =m or condition on ! lun> surface1 ! reasons we h adduc$ 9 ref]5ce to ! non-exi/5ce ( vegetable life be> /ill m /rongly aga9/ ! possibility ( ! exi/5ce ( ! =m]4 ,we "k ( no animal t c\ld live 9 :at may be consid]$ a vacuum & "u su* !rmal conditions z we h indicat$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate ,,xxi4 ,,normal ,,lun> ,,crat]4 ,z to man1 aronautic exp]i5ce tea*es u t human life is endang]$ :5 ! atmosph]e is /ill suffici5tly d5se to support #ab in*es ( m]cury 9 ! b>omet] tube2 :at !n w\ld be 8 condition 9 a m$ium only suffici5tly d5se to su/a9 "o-t5? ( an in* ( ! b>ometric column8 ,we h evid5ce f ! mo/ delicate te/s t no atmosph]e or vap\r approa*+ ev5 ?is degree ( att5uation exi/s ar\nd ! moon's surface4 ,tak+ all ^! adv]se conditions into consid]ation we are 9 e respect ju/ifi$ 9 conclud+ t !re is no possibility ( animal or vegetable life exi/+ on ! moon1 & t our satellite mu/ !re=e be reg>d$ z a b>r5 _w4 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 ,aft] ?is disquisition ^u lun> un9habitability x may appe> some:at inconsi/5t = u to attempt a description ( ! sc5]y ( ! moon & "s o!r effects t w\ld be visible to a spectator1 & ( :i* he w\ld be o!rwise s5sible1 dur+ a day & a night ^u h] surface4 ,b we c (f] ! suffici5t apology t an imag9>y soj\rn ( "o complete lun> day & night ^u ! moon af=ds an opportunity ( m>%all+ be=e our read]s "s ph5om5a t are prop] to be notic$ 9 a "w ( ?is "*1 & t h necess>ily be5 pass$ ov] 9 ! s]ies ( *apt]s on consecutive & special po9ts t h gone be=e4 ,x may be urg$ t1 9 depict+ ! moon f su* a /&po9t z t n[ to be tak51 we are describ+ sc5es t nev] h be5 su* 9 ! lit]al s5se ( ! ^w1 s9ce no eye has ev] beheld !m4 ,/ill we h ?is ju/ification--t we are invok+ ! conception ( ?+s t actually exi/2 & t we are n1 l "s imag9>y voyag]s to ! moon1 indulg+ 9 m]e flights ( fancy4 ,al?\gh x is impossible = a habitant ( ?is e>? fully to realise exi/5ce ^u ! moon1 x is yet possible1 inde$ almo/ inevitable1 = a ?\ghtful telescopi/--wat*+ ! moon night aft] night1 obs]v+ ! sun rise ^u a lun> sc5e1 & not+ ! c\rse ( effects t foll[ till x sets--x is almo/ inevitable1 we say1 = su* an obs]v] to id5tify himself s f> ) ! object ( 8 scrut9y1 z sometimes to become 9 ?\ght a lun> be+4 ,seat$ 9 sil5ce & 9 solitude at a p[]ful telescope1 ab/ract$ f t]re/rial influ5ces1 & gaz+ ^u ! reveal$ details ( "s /rik+ly *>act]i/ic region ( ! moon1 x requires b a small ef=t ( ! imag9ation to suppose "o's self actually ^u ! lun> globe1 view+ "s di/ant l&scape !reupon2 & "u ^! circum/ances !re is an irresi/ible t5d5cy 9 ! m9d to pass beyond ! actually visible1 & to fill 9 ) :at x kn[s mu/ exi/ ^? accessory features & ph5om5a t are only hidd5 f u by di/ance & by our peculi> po9t ( view4 ,:]e ! mat]ial eye is baffl$1 ! clairvoyance ( reason & analogy comes to its aid4 ,let u !n endeav\r to realize ! /range consequ5ces :i* ! position & conditions ( ! moon produce ^u ! aspect ( a lun> l&scape 9 ! c\rse ( a lun> day & night4 ,! moon's day is a long "o4 ,f ! "t t ! sun rises ^u a sc5e#ag till x sets1 a p]iod ( #cjd h\rs elapses1 & ( c\rse d\ble ?is int]val passes betwe5 "o sunrise & ! next4 ,! consequ5ces ( ?is sl[ m>* ( ! sun beg9 to %[ !mselves f ! in/ant t he rises above ! lun> horizon4 ,dawn1 z we h x on e>?1 c h no c\nt]p>t ^u ! moon4 ,no atmosph]e is !re to reflect ! sol> beams :ile ! lum9>y is yet out ( actual sight1 & only ! glimm] ( ! zodiacal light h]alds ! approa* ( day4 ,f ! black horizon ! sun sudd5ly d>ts 8 bright untemp]$ beams ^u ! m\nta9 tops1 cr[n+ !m ) dazzl+ brilliance :ile _! flanks & valleys are yet 9 utt] d>kness4 ,!re is no bl5d+ ( ! night into day4 ,& yet !re is a gr[? ( illum9ation t 9 its e>ly /ages may be call$ a twilight1 & :i* is caus$ by ! sl[ rise ( ! sun4 ,^u ! e>?1 9 c5tral latitudes1 ! av]age "t occupi$ by ! sun 9 ris+1 f ! fir/ gl9t ( 8 upp] edge till ! :ole disc is 9 sight1 is b two m9utes & a qu>t]4 ,^u ! moon1 h[ev]1 ?is "t is ext5d$ to a few m9utes %ort ( an h\r1 &1 !re=e1 dur+ ! fir/ few m9utes a dim light w be %$ by ! small visible *ord ( ! sol> disc1 & ?is w give a proportionately modifi$ degree ( illum9ation ^u ! prom95t portion ( ! l&scape1 & imp>t to x some?+ ( ! weird aspect :i* s /rikes an obs]v] ( a total sol> eclipse on e>? :5 ! sc5e is lit by ! ?9 cresc5t ( ! re-appe>+ sun4 ,?is impair$ illum9ation con/itutes ! only dawn t a lun> spectator c\ld behold4 ,& x mu/ be ( %ort duration2 = :51 9 ! c\rse ( half an h\r1 ! sol> disc has ris5 half into view ! light+ w\ld no d\bt appe> ne>ly z bright to ! eye z :5 ! entire disc ( ! sun is above ! horizon4 ,9 ?is lun> sunrise1 h[ev]1 !re is none ( t gild+ & gl[+ :i* makes ! ph5om5on on e>? s gorge\s4 ,^? crimson sky-t9ts ) :i* we are famili> are due to ! absorption ( c]ta9 ( ! poly*rom\s rays ( light by our atmosph]e4 ,! blue & violet compon5ts ( ! sol> beams are int]cept$ by our envelope ( vap\r1 & only ! r$ portions are free to pass2 :ile on ! moon1 z !re is no atmosph]e1 ?is selective absorption does n occur4 ,if x did1 an obs]v] gaz+ f ! e>? ^u ! regions ( ! moon ^u :i* ! sun is j ris+ w\ld see ! surface t9t$ ) rosy light4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 is n ! case2 ! fa9te/ lun> features j cat*+ ! sun are se5 simply "u :ite light dilut$ to a l[ degree ( brightness4 ,only ^u r>e occasions is ! lun> sc5]y suffus$ ) col\r$ illum9ation1 & ^! are :51 z we %all pres5tly h to describe1 ! sol> rays rea* ! moon aft] trav]s+ ! e>?'s atmosph]e dur+ an eclipse ( ! sun4 ,?is atmosph]e ( ours is ! mo/ influ5tial elem5t 9 beautify+ our t]re/rial sc5]y1 & ! abs5ce ( su* an app5dage f ! moon is ! great modify+ cause t affects lun> sc5]y z comp>$ ) t ( ! e>?4 ,we are accu/om$ to ! sun ) its dazzl+ brightness--ov]p[]+ ?\gh x be--subdu$ & s(t5$ by our vapor\s scre54 ,^u ! moon !re is no su* modification4 ,! sun's intr9sic brilliancy is undim9i%$1 its app>5t di/ance is %ort5$1 & x gleams out 9 fi]ce spl5d\r only to be realis$1 & !n imp]fectly1 by ! conception ( a gigantic electric light a few feet f ! eye4 ,& ! brightness is r5d]$ ! m /rik+ by ! blackness ( ! surr\nd+ sky4 ,s9ce !re is no atmosph]e !re c be no sky-light1 = !re is no?+ above ! lun> _w to diffuse ! sol> beams2 n a trace ( t moi/ure :i* ev5 9 our tropical skies scatt]s "s ( ! sun's light & gives a c]ta9 degree ( opacity or blu5ess1 deep ?\gh x be1 to ! heav5s by day4 ,^u ! moon1 ) no light-diffus+ vap\r1 ! sky mu/ be z d>k or ev5 d>k] ?an t ) :i* we are famili> ^u ! f9e/ ( moonless nights4 ,& ?is blackness prevails 9 ! full blaze ( ! lun> noon-day sun4 ,if ! eye 7^u ! moon7 c\ld be> to gaze ^u ! sol> orb 7:i* w\ld be less possible ?an ^u e>?7 or c\ld x be scre5$ f ! direct beams1 z d\btless x c\ld by int]v5+ objects1 x w\ld p]ceive ! nebul\s & o!r app5dages :i* we "k z ! corona1 ! zodiacal light1 & ! r$ sol> protub]ances3 or if ^! app5dages c\ld n be view$ ) ! sun above ! horizon !y w\ld c]ta9ly be se5 9 glori\s p]fection :5 ! lum9>y 0 ab\t to rise or imm$iately aft] x _h set4 ,&1 not)/&+ ! sun's pres5ce1 ! planets & />s w\ld be se5 to %9e m brilliantly ?an we see !m on ! cle>e/ ( nights2 ! con/ellations w\ld h ! same configurations1 ?\gh !y w\ld be diff]5tly situat$ ) respect to ! cele/ial pole ab\t :i* !y w\ld appe> to turn1 = ! axis ( rotation ( ! moon is direct$ t[>ds a po9t 9 ! con/ellation ,draco4 ,! />s w\ld nev] tw9kle or *ange col\r z !y appe> to u to d1 = sc9tillation or tw9kl+ is a ph5om5on ( atmosph]ic orig91 & !y w\ld reta9 _! full brightness1 d[n ev5 to ! horizon1 s9ce !re w\ld be no haze to dim9i% _! light4 ,! planets1 & ! bright] />s at lea/1 w\ld be se5 ev5 :5 !y 7 situat$ v ne> to ! sun4 ,! planet ,m]cury1 s seldom detect$ by t]re/rial gaz]s1 w\ld be almo/ con/antly 9 view dur+ ! lun> day1 manife/+ 8 close att5dance on ! c5tral lum9>y by mak+ only %ort excursions ( ab\t two 7lun>7 days' l5g?1 fir/ on "o side & !n on ! o!r4 ,v5us w\ld be ne>ly z cont9u\sly visible1 ?\gh h] w&]+s w\ld be m ext5sive on ei!r side4 ,! zodiacal light also1 :i* 9 our ,engli% latitude & climate is b r>ely se5 & 9 m fav\rable climes appe>s only :5 ! sun itself is hidd5 b5ea? ! horizon1 w\ld ^u ! moon be se5 z a con/ant accompanim5t to ! lum9>y ?r\gh\t 8 daily c\rse across ! lun> sky4 ,! o!r planets w\ld appe> g5]ally z !y d to u on e>?1 b1 nev] be+ lo/ 9 daylight1 _! c\rses among ! />s c\ld be trac$ ) sc>cely any int]ruption4 ,"o planet1 h[ev]1 t adorns ! sky ( ! lun> hemisph]e :i* is turn$ t[>ds u des]ves special m5tion f ! conspicu\s & highly int]e/+ appe>ance x mu/ pres5t4 ,we allude to ! e>?4 ,to ne>ly "o-half ( ! moon 7t :i* we nev] see7 ?is impos+ object c nev] be visible2 b to ! half t faces u ! t]re/rial planet mu/ appe> almo/ fix$ 9 ! sky4 ,a lun> spectator 9 7:at is to u7 ! c5tre ( ! disc1 or ab\t ! region nor? ( ! lun> m\nta9s ,ptolemy & ,hipp>*us1 w\ld h ! e>? 9 8 z5i?4 ,f regions ^u ! moon a little out ( :at is to u ! c5tre1 a spectator w\ld see ! e>? a little decl9+ f ! z5i?1 & ?is decl9ation w\ld increase z ! regions correspond+ to ! 7to u7 app>5t edge ( ! moon 7 approa*$1 till at ! actual edge x w\ld be se5 only ^u ! horizon4 ,f ! ph5om5a ( libration 7expla9$ 9 ,*ap4 ,,vi47 ! e>? w\ld appe> f ne>ly all p>ts ( ! lun> hemisph]e to :i* x is visible at all to describe a small circle 9 ! sky4 ,to an obs]v]1 h[ev]1 ^u ! 7to u7 m>g9al regions ( ! lun> globe1 x w\ld appe> only dur+ a portion ( ! lun> day--be+ visible 9 fact only 9 t "p ( its small circul> pa? :i* happ5$ to lie above ! obs]v]'s horizon3 9 "s regions only a portion ( ! t]re/rial disc w\ld make its brief appe>ance4 ,f ! lun> hemisph]e beyond ?is m>g9al l9e ! e>? c nev] be se5 at all4 ,! lun> spectator ^: situation enabl$ him to view ! e>? w\ld see x z a moon2 & a glori\s moon inde$ x mu/ be4 ,its diamet] w\ld be f\r times z great z t ( ! moon itself z se5 by u1 & ! area ( its full disc #ac times z great4 ,x w\ld be se5 to pass ?r\gh its phases1 j z does our satellite1 once 9 a lun> day or a t]re/rial mon?1 & dur+ t cycle ( phases1 s9ce #bi ( our days w\ld be occupi$ by x1 ! axial rotation w\ld br+ all ! features ( its surface configuration into view s _m times 9 succession4 ,b ! greate/ beauty ( ?is noble moon w\ld be se5 dur+ ! lun> night1 9 consid]+ :i* we %all aga9 allude to x2 = :5 x is full-moon to ! e>? x is new-e>? to ! moon4 ,at lun> midnight ?is globe ( ours is fully illum9at$2 z morn+ ne>s1 ! e>?-moon wanes1 its disc sl[ly pass+ ?r\gh ! gibb\s phases until at sunrise x w\ld be j half-illum9at$4 ,dur+ ! long =5oon x assumes a cresc5t :i* n>r[s & n>r[s till at midday ! sun is 9 l9e ) ! e>? & ! latt] is invisible1 save p]haps by a ?9 l9e ( light m>k+ its upp] or l[] edge1 accord+ly z ! sun is app>5tly above or bel[ x4 ,9 ! lun> aft]noon an illum9at$ cresc5t appe>s ^u ! opposite side ( ! t]re/rial globe1 & ?is wid5s & wid5s till x becomes a half disc by lun> sunset & a full disc by lun> midnight4 ,! sun 9 8 daily c\rse passes at v>i\s di/ances1 sometimes above & sometimes bel[1 ! ne>ly /ation>y e>?4 ,obvi\sly x w at times pass actually beh9d x1 & !n ! lun> spectator w\ld behold ! sublime spectacle ( a total sol> eclipse1 & t "u circum/ances :i* r5d] ! ph5om5on f> m impos+ ?an its c\nt]p>t c appe> f ! e>?2 = :]eas1 :5 we see ! moon eclipse ! sun1 ! ne>ly simil> 7app>5t7 diamet]s ( ! two bodies r5d]s ! duration ( totality extremely %ort--at mo/ #g m9utes--a lun> spectator1 ! e>? appe>+ to him f\r times ! diamet] ( ! sun1 & he & ! e>? be+ relatively /ation>y1 w\ld enjoy a view ( ! totality ext5d+ ov] sev]al h\rs4 ,dur+ ! passage ( ! sol> disc beh9d t ( ! e>?1 a beautiful succession ( lum9\s ph5om5a w\ld be obs]v$ to foll[ f ! refractions & disp]sions :i* ! sunbeams w\ld suff] 9 pass+ tang5tially ?r\gh ^? p>ts ( our atmosph]ic envelope :i* lie 9 _! c\rse2 ^?1 = in/ance1 on ! m>g9 ( ! e>?1 z se5 f ! moon4 ,z ! sun pass$ beh9d ! e>?1 ! latt] w\ld be encircl$ ^u ! 9-go+ side ) a beautiful l9e ( gold5 light1 deep5+ 9 places to gl[+ crimson1 due to ! absorption1 already spok5 (1 ( all b ! r$ & orange rays ( ! sun's light by ! vap\rs ( our atmosph]e4 ,z ! eclipse proce$$ & totality came on1 ?is ruddy gl[ w\ld ext5d itself ne>ly1 if n all1 ar\nd ! black e>?1 & s bright w\ld x be1 t ! :ole lun> l&scape cov]$ by ! e>?'s %ad[ w\ld be illum9at$ ) fa9t crimson light1#ah save1 p]haps1 9 "s p>ts ( ! f> di/ance1 ^u :i* ! e>? _h n yet ca/ its %ad[1 or (f :i* ! %ad[ _h pass$4 ,al?\gh ! crimson light w\ld prepond]ate1 x w\ld n appe> bright & r$ alike all ar\nd ! e>?'s p]iph]y4 ,! circle ( light w\ld be1 9 fact1 ! r+ ( twilight r\nd our globe1 & x w\ld only appe> r$ 9 ^? places :]e ! atmosph]e *anc$ to be 9 t condition fav\rable = produc+ :at on e>? we "k z r$ sunset & sunrise4 ,we "k t ! sun1 ev5 9 cle> sky1 does n always set & rise ) ! beautiful r$ gl[1 :i* may be det]m9$ by m]ely local causes1 & w !re=e v>y 9 diff]5t p>ts ( ! e>?4 ,n[ a lun> spectator wat*+ ! sun eclips$ by ! e>?1 w\ld see1 dur+ totality & at a c\p d'il1 e po9t ar\nd our _w ^u :i* ! sun is sett+ on "o side & ris+ ^u ! o!r4 ,to e "p ( ! e>? ar\nd :at is !n ! m>g91 z se5 f ! moon1 ! sun is ^u ! horizon1 %9+ ?r\gh a great ?ickness ( atmosph]e1 r$d5+ x1 & be+ r$d5$ by x :]ev] ! vapor\s conditions conduce to t col\ration4 ,& at all p>ts :]e ^! conditions obta91 ! lun> eclipse-obs]v] w\ld see ! r+ ( light ar\nd ! black e>?-globe brilliantly crimson$2 at o!r p>ts x w\ld h o!r %ades ( r$ & yell[1 & ! :ole effect w\ld be to make ! gr& e>?-ball1 hang+ 9 ! lun> sky1 l a d>k sph]e 9 a circle ( glitt]+ gold & rubies4 ,dur+ ! e>ly /ages ( ! eclipse1 ?is *aplet ( brilliant-col\r$ lights w\ld be brighte/ ^u ! side ( ! disappe>+ sun2 at ! "t ( c5tral eclipse ! radiance 7suppos+ ! sun to pass c5trally beh9d ! e>?7 w\ld be equally di/ribut$1 & dur+ ! lat] /ages x w\ld prepond]ate ^u ! side ( ! reappe>+ sun4 ,we h endeav\r$ to give a pictorial realization ( ?is ph5om5on & ( ! effect ( ! eclipse ^u ! lun> l&scape1 b su* a picture _c b fall v1 v f> %ort ( ! reality4 7,see ,plate ,,xxii47 ,& n[ = a "t let u turn att5tion f ! lun> sky to ! sc5]y ( ! lun> l&scape4 ,let u1 9 imag9ation1 take our /& high ^u ! ea/]n side ( ! ramp>t ( "o ( ! great crat]s4 ,height1 x mu/ be rem>k$1 is m ess5tial on ! moon to comm& ext5t ( view ?an ^u ! e>?1 = on acc\nt ( ! comp>ative smallness ( ! lun> sph]e ! dip ( ! horizon is v rapid4 ,su* height1 h[ev]1 w\ld be atta9$ )\t great ex]cise ( muscul> p[]1 s9ce equal am\nts ( climb+ en]gy w\ld1 f ! smallness ( lun> gravity1 take a man six times z high on ! moon z on ! e>?4 ,let u *oose1 = in/ance1 ! hill-side ( ,cop]nicus4 ,! day beg9s by a sudd5 transition4 ,! fa9t loom+ ( objects "u ! unit$ illum9ation ( ! half-full e>? & ! zodiacal light is ! lun> precursor ( day-break4 ,sudd5ly ! highe/ m\nta9 peaks receive ! direct rays ( a portion ( ! sun's disc z x em]ges f bel[ ! horizon4 ,! brilliant light+ ( ^! summits s]ves b to increase1 by contra/1 ! prevail+ d>kness1 = !y seem to float l isl&s ( light 9 a sea ( gloom4 ,at a rate ( motion tw5ty-eight times sl[] ?an we are accu/om$ to1 ! light t>dily creeps d[n ! m\nta9-sides1 & 9 ! c\rse ( ab\t twelve h\rs ! :ole ( ! circul> ramp>t ( ! great crat] bel[ u1 & t[>ds ! ea/1 %9es out 9 brilliant light1 uns(t5$ by a trace ( m\nta9-mi/4 ,b on ! opposite side1 look+ into ! crat]1 no?+ b blackness is to be se54 ,z h\r succe$s h\r1 ! sunbeams rea* peak aft] peak ( ! circul> ramp>t 9 sl[ succession1 till at l5g? ! circle is complete & ! va/ crat]-rim1 #ej miles 9 diamet]1 gli/5s l a silv]-m>g9$ abyss ( d>kness4 ,by-&-by1 9 ! c5tre1 appe>s a gr\p ( bright peaks or bosses4 ,^! are ! n[ illum9at$ summits ( ! c5tral cones1 & ! developm5t ( ! great m\nta9 clu/] !y =m h5ce=? becomes an impos+ feature ( ! sc5e4 ,f our high /&po9t1 & look+ backw>ds to ! sunny side ( our cosmorama1 we glance ov] a va/ region ( ! wilde/ volcanic desolation4 ,crat]s f five miles diamet] d[nw>ds cr[d toge!r 9 c\ntless numb]s1 s t ! surface1 z f> z ! eye c rea*1 looks v]itably fro!d ov] ) !m4 ,ne>] ! base ( ! ramp>t on :i* we /&1 ext5sive m\nta9 *a9s run to nor? & to s\?1 ca/+ long %ad[s t[>ds u2 & away to s\?w>d run sev]al great *asms a mile wide & ( appall+ blackness & dep?4 ,ne>] /ill1 almo/ b5ea? u1 crag rises on crag & precipice ^u precipice1 m+l$ ) crat]s & yawn+ pits1 t[]+ p9nacles ( rock & piles ( scoria & volcanic dbris4 ,b we behold no sign ( exi/+ or ve/ige ( pa/ organic life4 ,no hea?s or mosses s(t5 ! %>p edges & h>d surfaces3 no t9ts ( cryptogam\s or li*5\s vegetation give a complexion ( life to ! h>d fire-worn c\nt5ance ( ! sc5e4 ,! :ole l&scape1 z f> z ! eye c rea*1 is a realization ( a fe>ful dream ( desolation & lifelessness--n a dream ( dea?1 = t implies evid5ce ( preexi/+ life1 b a vision ( a _w ^u :i* ! light ( life has nev] dawn$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate ,,xxii4 ,,aspect ,,( ,,an ,,eclipse ,,( ,,! ,,sun ,,by ,,! ,,e>?1 ,,z ,,x ,,w\ld ,,appe> ,,z ,,se5 ,,f ,,! ,,moon4 ,look+ aga91 aft] "s h\rs' int]val1 into ! great crat]al amphi!atre1 we see t ! rays ( ! morn+ sun h crept d[n ! di/ant side ( ! ramp>t1 opposite to t on :i* we /&1 & light$ up its va/ l&slipp$ t]races into a s]ies ( seem+ hill-circles ) all ! rude & rugg$ features ( a t]re/rial m\nta9 view1 & none ( ! beauties save ^? ( desolate gr&eur4 ,! plateau ( ! crat] is half 9 %ad[ #aj1jjj feet bel[1 ) its gr& gr\p ( cones1 n[ fully 9 sight1 ris+ f its c5tre4 ,al?\gh ^! la/ are tw5ty miles away & ! base ( ! opposite ramp>t fully d\ble t di/ance1 we h no means ( judg+ _! remot5ess1 = 9 ! abs5ce ( an atmosph]e !re c be no arial p]spective1 & di/ant objects appe> z brilliant & di/9ct z ^? :i* are close to ! obs]v]4 ,n ! brightness only1 b ! v>i\s col\rs also ( ! di/ant objects are pres]v$ 9 _! full int5sity2 = col\r we may fairly assume !re mu/ be4 ,m9]al *lorates & sublimates w give vivid t9ts to c]ta9 p>ts ( ! l&scape surface1 & !re mu/ be all ! m sombre col\rs :i* are common to m9]al matt]s t h be5 subject$ to fi]y influ5ce4 ,all ^! t9ts w %9e & gl[ ) _! great] or less intr9sic lu/res1 s9ce !y h n be5 det]iorat$ by atmosph]ic ag5cies1 & f> & ne> !y w appe> cle> alike1 s9ce !re is no arial m$ium to veil !m or t>ni% _! pri/9e brightness4 ,9 ! lun> l&scape1 9 ! l9e ( sight1 !re are no means ( e/imat+ di/ances2 only f an em95ce1 :]e ! int]v5+ gr\nd c be se51 is x possible to realize magnitude 9 a lun> cosmorama & compreh5d ! dim5sions ( ! objects x includes4 ,& ) no air !re c be no diffusion ( light4 ,z a consequ5ce1 no illum9ation rea*es ^? p>ts ( ! sc5e :i* d n receive ! direct sol> rays1 save ! feeble am\nt reflect$ f contigu\s illum9at$ objects1 & a small quantity %$ by ! cresc5t e>?4 ,! %ad[s h an awful blackness4 ,z we /& ^u our *os5 po9t ( obs]vation1 we see on ! light$ side ( ! ramp>t almo/ dazzl+ brightness1 :ile b5ea? u1 on ! side away f ! sun1 !re is a region _m miles 9 area imp5etrable to ! sight1 = !re is no object )9 x receiv+ suffici5t light to r5d] x disc]nible2 & all ar\nd u1 f> & ne>1 !re is ! viol5t contra/ betwe5 int5se brightness ( insolat$ p>ts & deep gloom ( ^? 9 equally int5se %ad[4 ,! black ?\gh />lit sky helps ! viol5ce ( ?is contra/1 = ! bright m\nta9s 9 ! di/ance ar\nd u /& =? ^u a backgr\nd =m$ by ! d>kness ( int]planet>y space4 ,! visible effects ( ^! conditions mu/ be 9 e s5se une>?ly & truly t]rible4 ,! h>d1 h>% gl[+ light & pit*y %ad[s2 ! abs5ce ( all ! conditions t give t5d]ness to an e>?ly l&scape2 ! black noonday sky1 ) ! gl>+ sun gha/ly 9 its brightness2 ! entire abs5ce ( ve/iges ( any life save t ( ! long s9ce expir$ volcanoes--all ^! conspire to make up a sc5e ( dre>y1 desolate gr&eur t is sc>cely conceivable by an e>?ly habitant1 & t ! description we h attempt$ b insuffici5tly p\rtrays4 ,a legitimate ext5sion ( ! imag9ation leads u to impressions ( lun> conditions ^u o!r s5ses ?an t ( sight1 to :i* we h hi!rto conf9$ our fancy4 ,we are met at ! outset ) a difficulty 9 ?is ext5sion2 = x is impossible to conceive ! s5sations :i* ! abs5ce ( an atmosph]e w\ld produce ^u ! mo/ important ( our bodily functions4 ,if we w\ld attempt ! task we mu/ conjure up feel+s ( suffocation1 ( :i* ! ?\ghts are1 h[ev]1 too horrible to be dwelt ^u2 we mu/ !re=e ma9ta9 ! delusion t we c exi/ )\t air1 & attempt to realize "s ( ! less discom=t+ effects ( ! abs5ce ( ?is m$ium4 ,mo/ notable among ^! are ! untemp]$ heat ( ! direct sol> rays1 & ! influ5ce !re( ^u ! surface mat]ial ^u :i* we suppose ourselves to /&4 ,dur+ a p]iod ( ov] ?ree hundr$ h\rs ! sun p\rs d[n 8 beams ) unmitigat$ f]ocity ^u a soil nev] %elt]$ by a cl\d or cool$ by a %[]1 till t soil is heat$1 z we h %[n1 to a temp]ature equal ne>ly to t ( melt+ lead2 & ?is scor*+ influ5ce is felt by ev]y?+ ^u :i* ! sun %9es on ! lun> globe4 ,b :ile regions directly insolat$ are ?us heat$1 ^? p>ts turn$ f ! sun w\ld rema9 int5sely cold1 & t scor*+ 9 sun%9e & freez+ 9 %ade ) :i* m\nta9e]s on ! e>? are famili> w\ld be exp]i5c$ 9 a t]ribly exagg]at$ degree4 ,among ! consequ5ces1 already allud$ to1 ( ! alt]nations ( temp]ature to :i* ! moon's cru/ is ?us expos$1 are d\btless m or less consid]able expansions & contractions ( ! surface mat]ial1 & we may conceive t a crack+ & crumbl+ ( ! m brittle con/itu5ts w\ld ensue1 toge!r ) a grat+ ( contigu\s b disconnect$ masses1 & an occasional dislocation ( !m4 ,we ref] aga9 to ^! ph5om5a to rem>k t if an atmosph]ic m$ium exi/$ !y w\ld be att5d$ ) noisy manife/ations4 ,!re are abundant causes = grat+ & crackl+ s\nds1 & su* are ! only s\rces ( noise ^u ! moon1 :]e !re is no life to raise a hum1 no w9d to murmur1 no ocean to boom & foam1 & no brook to pla%4 ,yet ev5 ^! cru/-crack+ commotions1 ?\gh !y might be felt by ! vibrations ( ! gr\nd1 w\ld n manife/ !mselves audibly1 = )\t air !re c be no communication betwe5 ! grat+ or crack+ body & ! n]ves ( he>+4 ,dead sil5ce reigns on ! moon3 a ?\s& cannons might be fir$ & a ?\s& drums beat5 ^u t airless _w1 b no s\nd c\ld come f !m3 lips might quiv] & tongues essay to speak1 b no action ( !irs c\ld break ! utt] sil5ce ( ! lun> sc5e4 ,at a rate tw5ty-eight times sl[] ?an ^u e>?1 ! %ad[s %ort5 till ! sun atta9s 8 m]idian height1 & !n1 f ! tropical region ^u :i* we h 9 imag9ation /ood1 no?+ is to be se5 on any side1 save t[>ds ! black sky1 b dazzl+ light4 ,! relief ( aft]noon %ad[ comes b t>dily1 & ! d>kness drags its sl[ l5g? along ! valleys & creeps sluggi%ly up ! m\nta9-sides till1 9 a hundr$ h\rs or m1 ! "t ( sunset approa*es4 ,?is ph5om5on is b daybreak rev]s$1 & is unaccompani$ by any ( ! gorge\s sky t9ts t make ! k9dr$ ev5t s enraptur+ on e>?4 ,! sun decl9es t[>ds ! d>k horizon )\t los+ "o jot ( its brilliancy1 & d>ts ! full int5sity ( its heat ^u all x %9es on to ! la/4 ,its disc t\*es ! horizon1 & 9 half an h\r dips half-way b5ea? x1 its intr9sic brightness & col\r rema9+ un*ang$4 ,! brief int]val ( twilight occurs1 z 9 ! morn+1 :5 only a small *ord ( ! disc is visible1 & ! long %ad[s n[ %>p5 z ! area ( light t ca/s !m decreases4 ,= a :ile ! zodiacal light vies ) ! e>?-moon high 9 ! heav5s 9 illum9at+ ! sc5e2 b 9 a few h\rs ?is sol> app5dage passes out ( view1 & our _w becomes ! que5 ( ! lun> night4 ,at ?is sunset "t ! e>?1 ne>ly 9 ! z5i? ( u1 w be at its half-illum9at$ phase1 & ev5 !n x w %$ m light ?an we receive ^u ! brighte/ ( moonlight nights4 ,z ! night proce$s1 ! e>?-phase w increase ?r\gh ! gibb\s /ages until at midnight x w be 8full10 & our orb w be se5 9 its entire beauty4 ,x w p]=m at lea/ "o ( its tw5ty-f\r-h\rly rotations dur+ ! "t t x appe>s q full1 & ! :ole ( its surface features w 9 t "t pass be=e ! lun> spectator's eye4 ,at times ! nor!rn pole w be turn$ t[>ds our view1 at times ! s\!rn2 & its pol> ice-caps w appe> z bright :ite spots1 m>k+ its axis ( rotation4 ,if our lun> soj\rn 7 prolong$ we %\ld obs]ve ! nor!rn ice-cap creep d[nw>ds to l[] latitudes 7dur+ our w9t]7 & retreat aga9 7dur+ our summ]72 & ?is v>iation w\ld be p]ceptible 9 a less degree at ! s\!rn pole1 on acc\nt ( ! wat]y area surr\nd+ x4 ,! seas w\ld appe> 7s f> z c be inf]r$7 ( pale blue-gre5 t9t2 ! cont95ts p>ti-col\r$3 & ! t9t$ spots w\ld v>y ) ! *ang+ t]re/rial seasons1 z ^! are indicat$ by ! positions & magnitudes ( ! pol> ice-caps4 ,! p]man5t m>k+s w\ld be ev] und]go+ app>5t modification by ! v>iations ( ! :ite cl\d-belts t encircle ! t]re/rial sph]e4 ,( ! nature ( ^! v>iations meteorological sci5ce is n z yet 9 a position to speak3 x w\ld inde$ be va/ly to ! b5efit ( t sci5ce if a view ( ! di/ribution ( cl\ds & vap\rs ov] ! e>?'s surface1 z compreh5sive z t we are imag9+1 c\ld really be obta9$4 ,x might happ5 at 8full-e>?10 t a black spot ) a fa9t] p5umbral fr+e w\ld appe> on "o side ( ! illum9at$ disc & pass some:at rapidly across x4 ,?is w\ld occur :5 ! moon pass$ exactly betwe5 ! sun & ! e>?1 & ! %ad[ ( ! moon 0 ca/ ^u ! t]re/rial disc4 ,we ne$ h>dly say t ^! %ad[-transits w\ld occur ^u ^? a/ronomically important occasions :5 an eclipse ( ! sun is beheld f ! e>?4 ,! o!r features ( ! sky dur+ ! long lun> night w\ld n diff] greatly f ^? to :i* we allud$ 9 speak+ ( its day aspects4 ,! />s w\ld be ! m brightly visible1 f ! great] p[] ( ! eye-pupil to op5 9 ! abs5ce ( ! gl>+ sun1 & on ?is acc\nt ! milky-way w\ld be v conspicu\s & ! bright] nebul w\ld come into view4 ,! con/ellations w\ld m>k ! night by _! positions1 or ! h\rs might be told (f 79 p]iods ( tw5ty-f\r ea*7 by ! successive reappe>ances ( surface features on c]ta9 p>ts ( ! t]re/rial disc4 ,! planets 9 opposition to ! sun w\ld n[ be se51 & a comet might appe> to v>y ! monotony ( ! long lun> night4 ,b a meteor w\ld nev] fla% across ! sky1 ?\gh d>k meteoric p>ticles & masses w\ld cont9ually bomb>d ! lun> surface1 sometimes s+ly1 sometimes 9 %[]s4 ,& ^! w\ld fall ) a comp\nd =ce due to _! initial velocity add$ to t ( ! moon's attraction4 ,z !re is no atmosph]e to consume ! meteors by frictional heat or break by its resi/ance ! velocity ( _! desc5t1 !y mu/ /rike ! moon ) a =ce to :i* t ( a cannon-ball /rik+ a t>get is feeble inde$4 ,a position on ! moon w\ld be an un5viable /&-po9t f ?is cause alone4 ,! lun> l&scape by night ne$s little description3 x w\ld be lit by ! e>?-moon suffici5tly to all[ sali5t features1 ev5 at a di/ance1 to be easily made out1 = its moon 7i4e4 ! e>?7 has ?irte5 times ! light-reflect+ area t our's has4 ,b ! night illum9ation w *ange 9 int5sity1 s9ce ! e>?-moon v>ies f half-full to full1 & aga9 to half-full1 betwe5 sunset & ! next sunrise4 ,! direction ( ! light1 & h5ce ! positions ( ! %ad[s1 w sc>cely alt] on acc\nt ( ! app>5t fixity ( ! e>? 9 ! lun> sky4 ,a slight degree ( w>m? might possibly be felt ) ! reflect$ e>?-light2 b x w\ld be insuffici5t to mollify ! int5sity ( ! prevail+ cold4 ,! heat accumulat$ by ! gr\nd dur+ ! ?ree hundr$ h\rs' sun%9e radiates rapidly into space1 !re be+ no atmosph]ic coat to reta9 x1 & a cool+ process ensues t goes on till1 all w>m? hav+ rapidly dep>t$1 ! previ\sly p>*$ soil assumes a temp]ature approa*+ t ( cele/ial space itself1 & :i* has be51 z we h /at$1 e/imat$ at ab\t #bjj bel[ ! ,fahr5heit z]o4 ,if moi/ure exi/$ ^u ! moon1 its night-side w\ld be b\nd 9 a grip ( fro/ to :i* our ,arctic regions w\ld be comp>atively tropical4 ,b s9ce !re is no wat]1 ! aspect ( ! lun> sc5]y rema9s unmodifi$ by effects ( *ang+ temp]ature4 ,su*1 !n1 are ! mo/ prom95t effects t w\ld manife/ !mselves to ! visual & o!r s5ses ( a be+ transport$ to ! moon4 ,! picture is n on ! :ole a pleasant "o1 b x is in/ructive2 & our r5d]+ ( x1 imp]fect ?\gh x be1 may s]ve to sugge/ o!r inf]5ces t _c b add to ! int]e/ :i* always atta*es to ! contemplation ( natural sc5es & ph5om5a f po9ts ( view diff]5t f ^? :i* we ord9>ily occupy4 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate ,,xxiii4 ,,gr\p ( ,,lun> ,,m\nta9s4 ideal lun> l&scape4 ,,*apt] ,,xiv4 ,,! ,,moon ,,z ,a ,,satellite3 ,,its ,,relation ,,to ,,! ,,e>? ,,& ,,man4 ,ap>t f ! recondite functions ( ! moon consid]$ z "o ( ! int]dep5d5t memb]s ( ! sol> family1 into :i* x w\ld be beyond our purpose to inquire1 !re are c]ta9 means by :i* x subs]ves human int]e/s & m9i/]s to ! wants ( civiliz$ man to :i* we deem x desirable to call att5tion1 especially z "s ( !m are n s self-app>5t z to h attract$ popul> att5tion4 ,! mo/ g5]ally appreciat$ because ! mo/ evid5t ( ! uses ( ! moon is t ( a lum9>y4 ,popul> reg>d = x is usually conf9$ to its s]vice 9 t "*1 & 9 t "* poets & pa9t]s h nev] tir$ 9 _! ef=ts to glorify x4 ,& obvi\sly ?is s]vice z a 8less] light0 is suffici5tly prom95t to excite our w>me/ admiration4 ,b moonlight is1 f ! v conditions ( its production1 ( su* a *angeable & fugitive nature1 & x af=ds aft] all s p>tial & imp]fect an alleviation ( night's d>kness1 t we are fa9 to reg>d ! light-giv+ (fice ( ! moon z "o ( second>y importance4 ,f> m valuable to mank9d 9 g5]al1 s e/imable z to lead u to place x =emo/ 9 our category ( lun> (fices1 is ! duty :i* ! moon p]=ms 9 ! "* ( a sanit>y ag5t4 ,we c conceive no direful consequ5ces t w\ld foll[ f a )drawal ( ! moon's m]e light2 b x is easy to imag9e :at highly dang]\s results w\ld ensue if ! moon ceas$ to produce ! tides ( ! ocean4 ,motion & activity 9 ! elem5ts ( ! t]raque\s globe appe> to be among ! prime conditions 9 creation4 ,re/ & /agnation are fraught ) mis*ief4 ,:ile ! sun keeps ! atmosph]e 9 con/ant & heal?y circulation ?r\gh ! ag5cy ( ! w9ds1 ! moon p]=ms an analog\s s]vice to ! wat]s ( ! sea & ! riv]s t fl[ into !m4 ,x is z ! *ief produc] ( ! tides--= we mu/ n =get t ! sun ex]cises its tidal influ5ces1 ?\gh 9 mu* less] degree--t we ought to place ! highe/ value on ! s]vices ( ! moon3 b = its aid z a mighty scav5g]1 our %ores1 :]e riv]s t]m9ate1 w\ld become /agnant deltas ( fatal corruption4 ,twice 7to speak g5]ally7 a day1 h[ev]1 ! organic matt] :i* riv]s deposit 9 a decompos+ /ate at _! emb\*ures is swept away by ! tidal wave2 & ?us1 ?anks to ! moon1 a s\rce ( direful pe/il5ce is prev5t$ f aris+4 ,riv]s !mselves are provid5tially cleans$ by ! same means1 :]e !y are pollut$ by bord]+ t[ns & cities :i*1 f ! nature ( ?+s1 are sure to arise on riv] banks2 & x seems to be also 9 ! nature ( ?+s t ! riv] trav]s+ a city mu/ become its ma9 sew]4 ,! f\l additions may be c>ri$ d[n by ! /ream 9 its natural c\rse t[>ds ! ocean1 b :]e ! riv] is l>ge !re w be a decrease 9 velocity ( ! curr5t ne> ! m\? or :]e x jo9s ! sea1 ?us caus+ p>tial /agnation & consequ5t deposition ( ! delet]i5t matt]s4 ,all ?is1 h[ev]1 is remov$1 & its inconceivable evils are av]t$ by our mighty & ev] active 8sanit>y commission]10 ! moon4 ,we c sc>cely d\bt t a heal?y influ5ce ( less obvi\s degree is ex]t$ 9 ! wide ocean itself2 b1 consid]+ m]ely human int]e/s1 we _c suppress ! conviction t man is m widely & imm$iately b5efit$ by ?is purify+ (fice ( ! moon ?an by any o!r4 ,b ! sanit>y s]vice is n ! only "o t ! moon p]=ms ?r\gh ! ag5cy ( ! tides4 ,!re is ! "w ( tidal transport to be consid]$4 ,^u tidal riv]s & on c]ta9 coa/s1 not)/&+ w9d & ! use ( /eam1 a v l>ge proportion ( ! heavy m]*&ize is transport$ by t sl[ b p[]ful 8tug0 ! flood-tide2 & a simil> s]vice1 = :i*1 h[ev]1 ! moon is n to be entirely cr$it$1 is done by ! d[n-fl[ ( ! ebb-tide4 ,l>ge %ips & heavily-lad5 rafts & b>ges are quietly tak5 9 t[ by ?is unobtrusive prime mov]1 & mov$ f ! riv]'s m\? to ! f>-up city1 & f :>f to :>f along its banks2 & a va/ am\nt ( me*anical "w is ?us gratuit\sly p]=m$ :i*1 if x _h to be provid$ by artificial means1 w\ld repres5t an am\nt ( money value :i* = su* a city z ,london w\ld h to be c\nt$ by ?\s&s1 possibly millions1 ( p\nds ye>ly4 ,= ?is s]vice we owe ! moon ! gratitude t we ought to feel = a direct pecuni>y b5efactor4 ,9 ! exi/+ /ate ( civilization & prosp]ity1 we d n1 h[ev]1 utilize ! p[] ( ! tides ne>ly to ! ext5t ( _! capabilities4 ,our coal m9es1 ri* ) 8! light ( o!r days0--= coal 0 long ago decl>$ by ,/ev5son to be 8bottl$ sun%9e0--at pres5t furni% u ) s abundant a supply ( p[]-g5]at+ mat]ial t 9 our eag]ness to use x ^u all possible occasions we are los+ sight1 or putt+ out ( m9d1 _m o!r valuable prime mov]s1 & among/ !m t ( ! rise & fall ( ! wat]s1 :i* c be imm$iately conv]t$ into any =m ( me*anical p[] by ! aid ( tide-mills4 ,su* mills may be f\nd 9 exi/5ce "h & !re1 b = ! pres5t !y are g5]ally out-rivall$ by ! /eam-eng9e ) all its conv5i5ces & adaptabilities2 & h5ce !y h n %>$ ! b5efits ( t inv5tive +5uity :i* has a*iev$ su* wond]s ( me*anical appliance :ile /eam has be5 9 ! asc5dant4 ,b x mu/ be rememb]$ t 9 our extravagant use ( coal we are draw+ f a bank into :i* no?+ is be+ paid4 ,we are consum+ an exhau/ive /ore1 & ! "t mu/ come :5 x w be ne$ful to look ar\nd 9 que/ ( 8p[]s t may be40 ,!n an impetus may be giv5 to ! application ( ! tides to me*anical purposes z a prime mov]4#ai ,= ! p ( ! ,briti% ,isl&s ! problem w\ld h an especial importance1 view+ ! ext5t ( our seabo>d & ! numb] ( our tidal riv]s4 ,! s\rce ( motion t (f]s itself is ( almo/ incalculable ext5t4 ,!re is n m]ely ! onw>d fl[+ motion ( /reams to be utiliz$1 b also ! lift ( wat]1 :i*1 if small 9 ext5t1 is /up5d\s 9 am\nt2 & )9 c]ta9 limits x matt]s little to ! me*anician :e!r ! 8foot-p\nds0 ( "w plac$ at 8 disposal are 9 ! =m ( a great mass lift$ to a small height or a small mass lift$ to a great height4 ,!re is no reason ei!r :y ! utilization ( ! tides %\ld be conf9$ to riv]s4 ,! sea-side might well become ! circle ( manufactur+ indu/ry1 & ! millions ( tons ( wat] lift$ sev]al feet twice daily on our %ores might be conv]t$1 ev5 by s*emes already propos$1 to furni% ! prime movem5t ( ?\s&s ( factories4 ,& we mu/ n =get h[ completely mod]n sci5ce has demon/rat$ ! int]-conv]tibility ( all k9ds ( =ce1 & ?us op5$ ! way = ! introduction ( sy/ems ( transport+ p[] t1 9 su* a /ate ( ?+s z we are = ! mom5t consid]+1 might be ( imm5se b5efit4 ,gravity1 = in/ance1 c be conv]t$ into electricity2 & electricity gives u t wond]ful p[] ( transmitt+ =ce )\t transmitt+ 7or ev5 mov+7 matt]1 :i* p[] we use 9 ! telegraph1 :]e we g5]ate a =ce at "o end ( a wire & use x to r+ bells or deflect ne$les at ! o!r end1 :i* may be ?\s&s ( miles away4 ,:at we d ) ! slight am\nt ( =ce ne$ful = telegraphy is capable ( be+ done ) any great] am\nt4 ,a tide-mill might conv]t its me*anical en]gy by an electro-magnetic eng9e1 & 9 ! =m ( electricity its =ce c\ld be convey$ inl& by prop] wires & !re reconv]t$ back to me*anical or mov+ p[]4 ,true1 !re w\ld be a consid]able loss ( p[]1 b t p[] w\ld co/ no?+ = its fir/ production4 ,ano!r means ready to h& = transport+ p[] is by compress$ air1 :i* has already done good s]vice2 ano!r is ! sy/em s admirably work$ out by ,sir ,w4 ,arm/rong1 ( transmitt+ wat]-p[] ?r\gh ! ag5cy ( an 8accumulator10 n[ s g5]ally us$ at our ,docks & else:]e1 = work+ cranes & su* o!r uses4 ,& z ! :ole duty ( ! eng9e] is to conv]t ! =ces ( nature1 !re is a ri* field op5 = 8 inv5tion1 & ^u :i* he may "o day h to ent]1 9 adapt+ ! pull+ =ce ( ! moon to 8 fell[ man's me*anical wants ?r\gh ! int]m$iation ( ! tides4 ,ano!r ( ! high functions ( ! moon is t by :i* %e subs]ves ! wants ( ! navigator1 & enables him to track 8 c\rse ov] ! pa?less ocean4 ,( ! two co-ord9ates1 ,latitude & ,longitude1 t are ne$ful to det]m9e ! position ( a %ip at sea 7or ( any /&po9t ^u ! e>?'s surface7 ! fir/ is easily f\nd1 inasmu* z x is always equal to ! altitude ( ! cele/ial pole at ! place ( obs]vation4 ,b ! det]m9ation ( ! longitude has always be5 a difficult problem1 & "o ^u :i* a va/ am\nt ( +5uity has be5 exp5d$4 ,:5 x 0 fir/ attack$ x 0 soon discov]$ t ! moon 0 ! object ( all o!rs by :i* x c\ld be mo/ accurately &1 all ?+s consid]$1 mo/ readily det]m9$4 ,we mu/ premise t ! longitude ( "o place f ano!r is 9 effect ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! local times at ! two places1 s t :5 we say t a place or a %ip is1 = in/ance1 sev5 h\rs1 tw5ty-f\r m9utes1 t5 seconds1 we/ ( ,gre5wi*1 we mean t ! "t-o'-day at ! place or %ip is sev5 h\rs tw5ty-f\r m9utes t5 seconds e>li] ?an t at ,gre5wi*4 ,h5ce1 f9d+ ! longitude at sea or at any place & mom5t means f9d+ :at "t x is at ,gre5wi* at t mom5t4 ,( c\rse ?is c\ld be mo/ easily done if we c\ld set a timekeep] at ,gre5wi* & rely ^u its keep+ "t dur+ a long sea voyage2 & ?is plan appe>$ s feasible t our ,gov]nm5t long ago (f]$ a prize ( #bj1jjj = a timekeep] :i* w\ld p]=m to a /at$ degree ( accuracy aft] a c]ta9 sea voyage4 ,"o ,john ,h>rison did make su* a timekeep]1 t actually satisfi$ ! conditions1 & obta9$ ! prize3 & *ronomet]s are n[ l>gely us$ = longitude1 _! con/ruction hav+ be5 br\ght to great p]fection1 especially 9 ,engl&1 ow+ to a cont9uance 79 a less lib]al degree1 h[ev]17 ( ,gov]nm5t inducem5t4 ,b *ronomet]s are n entirely to be reli$ on1 ev5 :]e sev]al are c>ri$1 :i* 9 o!r ?an ,gov]nm5t %ips is r>ely ! case3 rec\rse mu/ be _h to ! heav5ly bodies = *eck ^u ! timekeep]4 ,& ! moon is1 z we h said1 ! body t be/ s]ves ! requirem5ts ( ! problem4 ,! lun> me?od = longitude am\nts practically to ?is4 ,! />s are fix$2 ! sun1 moon1 & planets move among/ !m2 ! sun & planets ) v sl[ rates ( app>5t motion1 ! moon ) a v rapid "o4 ,if1 !n1 x be pr$ict$ t at a c]ta9 in/ant ( ,gre5wi* "t ! moon w be a c]ta9 di/ance f a fix$ />1 & if ! m>9] at sea obs]ves :5 ! moon has t exact di/ance1 he w "k ! ,gre5wi* "t at ! in/ant ( 8 obs]vation4#bj ,! moon ?us becomes to him z ! h& ( a timepiece1 :]e( ! />s are ! h\r & m9ute m>ks1 ! :ole be+1 z x 71 set to ,gre5wi* "t4 ,!n if he kn[s 7:i* he does by o!r obs]vations easily obta9$7 ! local "t at 8 %ip1 he c take ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! ,gre5wi* "t & 8 "t1 :i* diff]5ce is 9 fact 8 longitude f ,gre5wi*4 ,! requisite pr$ictions ( ! di/ance ( ! moon f sev]al fix$ />s ne> h] are giv5 to ! utmo/ exactness = e ?ree h\rs ( e day & night 7:5 ! moon c possibly be se57 9 ! navigator's vade mecum1 ! 8,nautical ,almanac10 & f ^! giv5 di/ances ! navigator c1 by a simple process ( diff]5c+1 obta9 ! di/ance1 & h5ce ! ,gre5wi* "t1 = any int]m$iate in/ant at :i* he may *ance to make 8 obs]vation4 ,:5ev] he c see ! moon he c obta9 ,gre5wi* "t4 ,( c\rse ! :ole value ( ?is me?od dep5ds ^u ! exactitude ( ! pr$ict$ di/ances correspond+ to ! giv5 ,gre5wi* times4 ,^! di/ances are obta9$ by tables ( ! moon's motions1 :i* mu/ be f\nd f obs]vations4 ,! motions 9 "q are ( an intricacy almo/ pa/ compreh5sion1 on acc\nt ( ! di/urb+ =ces to :i* ! moon is subject$ by ! sun & planets4 ,! p[]s ( ! pr(\nde/ ma!maticians1 f ,newton d[nw>ds1 h be5 sev]ely ex]cis$ 9 ef=ts to gr\p !m into a !ory1 & repres5t !m by tables capable ( furni%+ ! requisite exact pr$ictions ( lun> positions = nautical purposes4 ,accurate obs]vations ( ! moon's place night aft] night h1 f ! dawn ( ?is lun> me?od = longitude1 be5 9 urg5t reque/ by ma!maticians = ! purposes specifi$1 & x 0 solely to procure ^! obs]vations t ! ,obs]vatory at ,gre5wi* 0 e/abli%$1 & ma9ly = _! cont9u$ prosecution 7& = ! /ell> obs]vations necess>y = _! utilization7 t x is su/a9$4 ,= two c5turies ! moon has be5 unremitt+ly obs]v$ at ,gre5wi*1 & ! tables at pres5t us$ = mak+ ! 8,nautical ,almanac0 7^? =m$ by ,pr(4 ,hans57 dep5d ^u ! obs]vations !re obta9$4 ,! "w /ill goes on1 = ev5 n[ ! degree ( exactitude is n :at is desir$1 & a/ronom]s are look+ =w>d ) "s int]e/ to new lun> tables :i* 7 left complete by ! late ,m4 ,delaunay1 =m]ly ! head ( a/ronomy 9 ,france1 bas$ ^u a !ory :i* he evolv$4 ,?is use ( ! moon is ! gr&e/ ( all 9 respect ( ! results to :i* x has l$4 ,!n1 too1 reg>d+ ! moon z a timekeep]1 we mu/ n =get ! s]vice t x r5d]s 9 furni%+ a division ( "t int]m$iate betwe5 ! day--:i* is measur$ by ! e>?'s rotation--& ! ye>1 :i* is def9$ by ! e>?'s orbital revolution4 ,not)/&+ ! survival ( lun> reckon+ 9 our religi\s s]vices1 we1 9 our "t & c\ntry1 sc>cely ne$ a moon to m>k our mon?s2 b we mu/ n =get t ) _m anci5t p ! moon 01 & ) "s is /ill1 ! *ief timekeep]1 ! cal5d>s ( su* p be+ lun> ones1 & all _! ev5ts be+ reckon$ & dat$ by 8moons40 ,to u1 h[ev]1 ! moon is ( great s]vice 9 ?is dep>tm5t by enabl+ u to fix dates to _m hi/orical ev5ts1 ! times ( occurr5ce ( :i* are unc]ta91 by reason ( defective records or by dep5d5ce ^u su* unc]ta9 data z 8lives ( emp]ors10 ye>s ( ?is or t k+'s reign1 or g5]ations ( "o or ano!r family4 ,! moon n[ & !n cle>s up a my/]y1 or decides a disput$ po9t 9 *ronology1 by furni%+ ! accurate date ( an anci5t eclipse1 :i* 0 a ph5om5on t always inspir$ awe & secur$ = itself c>eful record4 ,! *ronolog] is cont9ually apply+ to ! a/ronom] = ! date & place ( visibility ( "s total eclipse1 ( :i* he has f\nd an imp]fect record1 v]itable z to ! fact1 b dat$ only by ref]5ce to "s ye> ( a s-&-s's reign1 or by "s battle or o!r hi/orical occurr5ce4 ,! eclipses t occurr$ ne> ! "t are !n exam9$1 & :5 "o is f\nd t tallies ) record$ conditions 9 o!r respects 7su* z ! "t ( day & ! place ( obs]vation71 its indisputable date becomes a />t+-po9t f :i* ! *ronolog] works backw>ds & =w>ds 9 safety4 ,!re is "o fam\s eclipse--t pr$ict$ by ,?ales six c5turies be=e ,*ri/1 :i* put an end to ! battle betwe5 ! ,m$es & ,lydians by ! t]ror its d>kness creat$ 9 bo? armies--:i* is mo/ intimately associat$ ) anci5t *ronology1 & has be5 us$ to rectify a proximate date 7! fir/ ye> ( ,cyrus ( ,babylon7 :i* =ms ! f\ndation ( all ,scripture *ronology4 ,sacr$ & pr(ane hi/ory alike are cont9ually receiv+ assi/ance f ! accurate dates :i* ! moon1 by hav+ caus$ eclipses ( ! sun1 enables ! a/ronom] to fix beyond cavil or d\bt4 ,! m5tion ( eclipses rem9ds u1 too1 ( ! use :i* ! moon has be5 9 increas+1 ?r\gh !m1 our k ( ! physical condition ( ! sun4 ,if ! moon _h nev] int]v5$ to cut (f ! bl9d+ gl>e ( ! sol> disc1 we %\ld h be5 to ?is day left to assume t ! sun is all-conta9$ by ! dazzl+ globe t we ord9>ily see4 ,b1 ?anks to ! moon's int]v5tion1 we n[ "k t ! sun is by no means ! m]e nak$ sph]e we %\ld h suspect$4 ,eclipses h taught u t x is surr\nd$ by an envelope ( gl[+ gases1 & t x has a va/ vapor\s surr\nd+1 beyond its gl[+ atmosph]e1 :i* appe>s to be compos$ ( matt] /ream+ away f ! sun into surr\nd+ space4 ,) ^! discov]ies /ill 9 _! infancy1 x is impossible to =esee ! k to :i* !y w ev5tually lead1 b !y c h>dly be b>r5 ( fruit1 & :atev] !y ultimately tea* w be s mu* insight ga9$ into ! sublime/ problem t human sci5ce has be=e x--! det]m9ation ( ! s\rce & ma9ta9+ p[] ( ! light & heat & vivify+ ag5cy ( ! sun4 ,9 accord+ our ?ankful reflections to ! moon = ^! revelations1 we mu/ n =get t1 %\ld !re be inhabitants ^u our neighb\r+ worlds1 ,m]cury1 ,v5us1 & ,m>s1 :i* h no satellites1 !y1 ! suppos$ inhabitants1 c ga9 no su* k ^u ! surr\nd+s ( ! rul] ( ! sol> sy/em4 ,on ! o!r h&1 any rational be+ :o may be suppos$ to dwell ^u ,saturn or ,jupit]1 w\ld1 ?r\gh ! int]v5tion ( _! num]\s moons1 h1 9 ! latt] case especially1 f> m abundant opportunities ( acquir+ ! k 9 "q ?an we h4 ,f9ally1 !re is a use ( ! moon :i* t\*es u1 au?or & read]1 v closely4 ,x has taught u ( a _w 9 a condition totally diff]5t f our own2 ( a planet )\t wat]1 )\t air1 )\t ! ess5tials to life developm5t1 b r ) ! conditions = life de/ruction2 a planet left by ! ,creator--= wise purposes t we _c fully "k--z x 7 b half-=m$1 ) all ! igne\s f\ndations fre% f ! cosmical fire1 & ) its r\gh-ca/ surface 9 its orig9al /ate1 its fire & m\ld-m>ks expos$ to our view4 ,f ^! we h essay$ to resolve "s ( ! processes ( =mation1 & ?us to le>n some?+ ( ! cosmical ag5cies t are call$ =? 9 ! purely igne\s era ( a planet's hi/ory4 ,we tru/ t we1 on our "p1 h %[n t ! /udy ( ! moon may be a b5efit n m]ely to ! a/ronom]1 b to ! geologi/2 = we behold 9 x a mighty 8m$al ( creation0 d\btless =m$ ( ! same mat]ial & /ruck ) ! same die t m\ld$ our e>?2 b :ile ! du/ ( c\ntless ages & ! action ( p[]ful dis9tegrat+ & d5ud+ elem5ts h erod$ & oblit]at$ ! e>?ly impression1 ! sup]scriptions on ! lun> surface h rema9$ ) _! pri/9e cle>ness unsulli$1 e ve/ige %>p & bright z :5 x left ! ,almighty ,mak]'s h&s4 ,! moon s]ves no second-rate or insignificant s]vice :5 x tea*es u ( ! v>iety ( creative design 9 ! worlds ( our sy/em1 & exalts our e/imation ( ?is peopl$ globe ( ours by %[+ u t all ! planet>y worlds h n be5 deem$ wor?y to become ! habitations ( intellig5t be+s4 ,reflections ^u ! uses ( ! moon n unnaturally lead our ?\ghts to "s matt]s t may be reg>d$ z abuses4 ,^! ma9ly take ! =m ( sup]/itions1 errone\s beliefs 9 ! moon's influ5ce ov] t]re/rial conditions1 & occasionally ( errone\s ideas ^u ! moon's functions z a lum9>y4 ,! fir/-m5tion$ are almo/ b5ea? notice1 = !y include su* my?ical suspicions z t ! moon influ5ces human sanity & o!r affections ( m9d & body2 t ! moon's rays h a decompos+ effect ^u organic matt]2 t !y produce bl9dness by %9+ ^u a sleep]'s eyes2 t ! moon det]m9es ! h\rs ( human dea?1 :i* is suppos$ to occur ) ! *ange ( ! tide1 etc4 ,all su*1 hav+ no f\ndation on fact1 are put beyond our consid]ation4 ,! ?ird matt] we h m5tion$ may also be dismiss$ 9 a v few words4 ,! errone\s ideas ^u ! moon's functions z a lum9>y1 to :i* we allude1 are ^? :i* are manife/$ by poets & pa9t]s1 & ev5 hi/orians1 :o d n hesitate to br+ ! moon ^u a sc5e 9 any =m & at any "t !y please )\t ref]5ce to actual lun> circum/ances4 ,x is no uncommon ?+ to see1 9 a picture repres5t+ an ev5+ sc5e1 a moon introduc$ :i* c only be se5 9 ! morn+--a wan+ moon in/ead ( a wax+ "o2 & a/ronomical critics h1 inde$1 caught arti/s s f> tripp+ z to put a moon 9 a picture repres5t+ "s ev5t t occurr$ ^u a date :5 ! moon 0 new1 & !re=e invisible4 ,writ]s take ! same lib]ties v frequ5tly4 ,a newspap] correspond5t1 dur+ ! ,franco-,prussian w>1 describ$ ! full moon z %9+ ^u a sc5e ( desolation on a p>ticul> night1 :5 really !re 0 no moon to be se54 ,"o ( ! mo/ flagrant cases ( ?is k9d1 h[ev]1 occurs 9 ,wolfe's ballad on 8,! dea? ( ,sir ,john ,moore10 :]e x is writt5 t ! h]o 0 buri$ 8,by ! /ruggl+ moonbeam's mi/y light40 ,b ! int]m5t actually took place at a "t :5 ! moon 0 out ( sight4 ,we m5tion ^! abuses ( ! moon 9 ! hope ( promot+ a bett] obs]vance ( ! moon's lum9>y (fice4 ,!y :o wi% to br+ ! moon ^u a sc5e1 n kn[+ ipso facto t x 0 !re1 %\ld fir/ take ! advice ( ,nick ,bottom 9 ! 8,midsumm] ,night's ,dream10 & make sure ( _! object by consult+ an almanac4 ,! second ( ! specifi$ abuses to :i* ! moon is subject ref]s to its suppos$ influ5ce on ! wea!r2 & 9 ! ext5t to :i* x goes ?is is "o ( ! mo/ deeply root$ ( popul> errors4 ,t !re is an inf9itesimal influ5ce ex]t$ by ! moon on our atmosph]e w be se5 f ! evid5ce we h to (f]1 b x is ( a "* & ext5t va/ly diff]5t f :at is commonly believ$4 ,! popul> error is %[n 9 its mo/ absurd =m :5 ! m]e aspect ( ! moon1 ! m]e transition f "o phase ( illum9ation to ano!r1 is ass]t$ to be productive ( a *ange ( wea!r2 z if ! gradual passage f fir/ qu>t] to second qu>t]1 or f t to ?ird1 c\ld ( itself upset an exi/+ condition ( ! atmosph]e2 or z if ! conjunction ( ! moon ) ! sun c\ld inv]t ! ord] ( ! w9ds1 g5]ate cl\ds1 & p\r d[n ra9s4 ,a mom5t's reason+ ought to %[ t ! suppos$ cause & ! obs]v$ effect h no necess>y connection4 ,9 our climate ! wea!r may be said to *ange at lea/ e ?ree days1 & ! moon *anges--to reta9 ! popul> t]m--e sev5 days2 s t ! probability ( a co9cid5ce ( ^! *anges is v great inde$3 :5 x occurs1 ! moon is sure to be cr$it$ ) caus+ x4 ,b a !ory ( ?is k9d is ( no use unless x c be %[n to apply 9 e case2 &1 moreov]1 ! *ange mu/ always be 9 ! same direction3 to suppose t ! moon c turn a f9e day to a wet "o1 & a wet day to a f9e morr[ indiscrim9ately1 is to make our satellite bl[ hot & cold ) ! same m\?1 & s to r$uce ! supposition to an absurdity4 ,if any m>k$ connection exi/$ betwe5 ! /ate ( ! air & ! aspect ( ! moon1 x mu/ inevitably h =c$ itself uns\ght ^u ! att5tion ( meteorologi/s4 ,9 ! weekly return ( ,bir?s1 ,dea?s1 & ,m>riages1 issu$ by ! ,regi/r>-,g5]al1 a table is giv51 %[+ all ! meteorological elem5ts at ,gre5wi* = e day ( ! ye>1 & a column is set ap>t = not+ ! *anges & positions ( ! moon4 ,^! reports ext5d backw>ds ne>ly a qu>t] ( a c5tury4 ,"h1 !n1 is a rep]tory ( data t ought to reveal at a glance any su* connection1 & w\ld c]ta9ly h done s _h x exi/$4 ,b no con/ant relation betwe5 ! moon columns & ^? conta9+ ! in/rum5t read+s has ev] be5 trac$4 ,our meteorological obs]vatories furni% cont9u\s & unbrok5 records ( atmosph]ic v>iations1 ext5d+ ov] long s]ies ( ye>s3 ^! af=d /ill m abundant means = te/+ ! validity ( ! lun> hypo!sis4 ,! collation has frequ5tly be5 made = special po9ts 9 ! inquiry1 & c]ta9ly "s connection has be5 f\nd to obta9 betwe5 c]ta9 positions ( ! moon 9 h] orbit & c]ta9 in/rum5tal av]ages2 b s small are ! effects traceable to lun> influ5ce1 t !y are almo/ inappreciable among ! gross] irregul>ities t arise f o!r & z yet unexpla9$ causes4 ,! lun> influ5ces ^u our atmosph]e mo/ likely to be detect$ are ^? ( a tidal "*1 & ^? due to ! radiation ( ! heat :i* ! moon receives f ! sun4 ,! fir/ w\ld be %[n by ! b>omet]1 :i* may be call$ an 8atmosph]ic tide gauge40 ,"s ye>s ago ,sir ,edw>d ,sab9e in/itut$ a s]ies ( obs]vations at ,/4 ,hel5a1 to det]m9e ! v>iations ( b>ometric indications f h\r to h\r ( ! lun> day4 ,! greate/ diff]5ces 7 f\nd to occur betwe5 ! times :5 ! moon 0 on ! m]idian1 & :5 x 0 six h\rs away f ! m]idian2 9 o!r words1 betwe5 atmosph]ic high tide & l[ tide4 ,b ! av]age ( ^! diff]5ces am\nt$ only to ! f\r-hundr$? "p ( an in* on ! in/rum5t's scale2 a quantity t no wea!r obs]v] w\ld he$1 t none b ! be/ b>omet]s w\ld %[1 & t c h no p]ceptible effect on wea!r *anges4 ,! di/ance ( ! moon f ! e>? v>ies1 z is well kn[n1 9 consequ5ce ( ! elliptical =m ( h] orbit3 ?is v>iation ought also to produce an effect ^u ! in/rum5t's indications2 b ,colonel ,sab9e's analysis %[$ t x 0 next to ins5sible2 ! mean read+ at apogee diff]+ f t at p]igee by only ! two-?\s&? "p ( an in*4 ,s*ubl]1 a ,g]man meteorologi/1 _h arriv$ at simil>ly negative results "s ye>s previ\sly4 ,h5ce x appe>s t ! great index ( ! wea!r is n s5sibly affect$ by ! /ate ( ! moon3 ! conclusion to be drawn ) reg>d to ! wea!r itself is obvi\s en\gh4 ,z reg>ds ! heat receiv$ f ! moon1 we "k1 f ! rec5t exp]im5ts ( ,"l ,rosse 9 ,engl&1 & ,m>ie ,davy 9 ,france1 else:]e allud$ to1 t a degree ( w>m? appreciable to ! highly s5sitive !rmopile is ex]t$ by ! moon ^u ! e>? ne> to ! "t ( full moon1 :5 ! sun's rays h be5 p\r+ _! unmitigat$ heat ^u ! lun> surface cont9u\sly = f\rte5 days4 ,& z x is improbable t ! :ole ( ! heat s5t e>?w>ds f ! moon rea*es ! e>?'s surface1 we mu/ inf] t a consid]able am\nt is absorb$ 9 ! high] atmosph]e1 & does "w 9 evaporat+ ! light] cl\ds & ?9n+ ! d5s] ones4 ,! effect ( ?is ^u ! e>? is to facilitate ! radiation ( its heat into space1 & s to cool ! l[] atmosph]ic /rata4 ,& ?is effect has be5 %[n to be a v]itable "o by an exhau/ive tabulation ( temp]ature records f v>i\s obs]vatories1 :i* 0 und]tak5 by ,mr4 ,p>k ,h>rison4 ,! g5]al conclusion f ^! 01 t ! temp]ature at ! e>?'s surface is l[] by ab\t #b degrees at moon's la/ qu>t] ?an at fir/ qu>t]2 ! p>adoxical result be+ :at w\ld naturally foll[ f ! =ego+ consid]ation4 ,! t5d5cy ( ! full moon to cle> ! sky has be5 rem>k$ by sev]al di/+ui%$ au?orities1 to wit1 ,sir ,john ,h]s*el1 ,humboldt1 & ,arago2 & 9 g5]al ! cle>+ may be accept$ z a meteorological fact1 ?\gh 9 "o case ( close exam9ation x has be5 negativ$4 ,x _c be d\bt$ t a full moon sometimes %[s a night to be cle> t w\ld 9 ! abs5ce ( ! moon be call$ cl\dy4 ,:5 close comp>isons are made betwe5 ! moon's positions & records ( ra9-fall & w9d-direction1 dim indications ( relation exhibit !mselves1 :i* may be ! feeble consequ5ces ( ! *ange ( temp]ature j spok5 (2 b 9 e case :]e an effect has be5 trac$ x has be5 ( ! mo/ insignificant k9d1 & no app>5t connexion has be5 recogniz$ betwe5 "o effect & ano!r4 ,c]ta9ly !re is no?+ t c support ! ext5sive popul> belief 9 lun> influ5ce on wea!r1 & no?+ t c modify ! conviction t ?is belief z at pres5t ma9ta9$ is an absurd delusion4 ,yet its acceptance is s g5]al1 & runs ?r\gh su* v>i$ grades ( society1 t we h felt x our duty to dwell ^u x to ! ext5t t we h done4 ,,*apt] ,,xv4 ,,conclud+ ,,summ>y4 ,hav+ arriv$ at ! conclusion ( our subject1 x appe>s to u desirable t we %\ld recall to ! read]1 by a rapid review1 its sali5t features4 ,our ma9 object be+ to attempt :at we conceiv$ to be a rational explanation ( ! surface details ( ! moon :i* %\ld be 9 accordance ) ! g5]ally receiv$ !ory ( planet>y =mation1 & ) ! peculi> physical conditions ( ! lun> globe--! op5+ ( our "w 0 a summ>y ( ! nebul> hypo!sis z x 0 />t$ by ! fir/ ,h]s*el & sy/emis$ by ,laplace4 ,foll[+ ^! philosoph]s we endeav\r$ to %[ h[ a *aotic mass ( primordial matt] exi/+ 9 space w\ld1 "u ! action ( gravitation1 become trans=m$ into a sy/em ( planet>y bodies circulat+ ab\t a common c5tre ( gravity2 & fur!r1 h[1 9 "s cases1 ! circulat+ planet>y masses w\ld !mselves become sub-c5tres ( satellitic sy/ems2 our e>? be+ "o ( ^! sub-c5tres ) only "o satellitic att5dant--to wit1 ! moon1 ! subject ( our /udy4 ,! moon be+ ?us consid]$ z evolv$ f ! p>5t nebul\s mass1 & exi/+ z an isolat$ & compact body1 we _h next to consid] :at 0 ! effect ( ! cont9u$ action ( ! gravitat+ =ce4 ,by ! light ( ! beautiful 8me*anical !ory ( heat0 we argu$ t ?is =ce1 n be+ de/ructible1 b be+ conv]tible1 0 turn$ into heat2 & t :atev] may h be5 ! orig9al condition ( ! p>5t nebul\s mass1 z reg>ds temp]ature1 its planet>y (fspr+ became elevat$ to an int5se degree ( heat z !y assum$ ! =m ( sph]es "u ! influ5ce ( gravitation4 ,! inc&esc5t sph]e hav+ atta9$ its maximum degree ( heat by ! total conv]sion !re9to ( ! gravitat+ =ce x embodi$1 we expla9$ h[ !re mu/ h ensu$ a disp]sion ( t heat by radiation into surr\nd+ space1 result+ 9 ! cool+ & consequ5t solidification ( ! out]mo/ /ratum ( ! lun> sph]e1 & subsequ5tly 9 ! cont9uation ( ! cool+ process d[nw>ds or inw>ds to ! c5tre4 ,& "h we essay$ to prove t 9 ?is second /age ( ! cool+ process1 :5 ! cru/ 0 solid & ! subjac5t portion ( ! molt5 sph]e 0 ab\t to solidify1 !re w\ld come into op]ation a pr9ciple :i* appe>s to gov]n ! behavi\r ( c]ta9 fusible sub/ances1 & :i* may be concisely t]m$ ! pr9ciple ( pre-solidify+ expansion4 ,we adduc$ sev]al examples ( ! manife/ation ( ?is pr9ciple1 solicit+ = x ! c>eful consid]ation ( physici/s & geologi/s1 & look+ to x z furni%+ ! key to ! my/]y ( volcanic action ^u ! moon1 s9ce1 )\t ne$+ rec\rse to aque\s or gase\s s\rces ( eruptive p[]1 x af=d$ a rationale ( ! ejection ( ! fluid & semifluid matt] ( ! moon ?r\gh ! solidifi$ cru/ !re(1 & also ( ! dislocations ( t cru/1 unatt5d$ by actual ejection ( subsurface matt]1 ( :i* our satellite pres5ts a v>iety ( examples1 & :i* ! e>? also appe>s to h exp]i5c$ at "s p]iod ( its =mative hi/ory4 ,arriv$ at ?is /age ( our subject we ?\ght x ne$ful to introduce "s pages ( data & descriptive detail4 ,accord+ly 9 "o *apt] we discuss$ ! =m1 magnitude1 weight1 & d5sity ( ! moon1 & ! =ce ( gravity at its surface3 & ! m s\ndly to fix ^! data 9 ! m9d1 we devot$ a few l9es to explanation ( ! me?ods :]eby ea* has be5 asc]ta9$4 ,we !n exam9$ ! "q 7s important to our subject7 ( ! exi/5ce or non-exi/5ce ( a lun> atmosph]e1 giv+ ! evid5ce1 :i* may be reg>d$ z conclusive1 9 pro( ( ! abs5ce ( bo? air & wat] f ! moon1 &1 !re=e1 refut+ ! claim ( ^! elem5ts to be consid]$ z s\rces or influants ( ! moon's volcanic manife/ations4 ,a g5]al c\p-d'il ( ! lun> hemisph]e fac+ ! e>? next engag$ our att5tion1 & we consid]$ ! aspect ( ! disc z x is view$ by ! nak$ eye & ) telescopes ( v>i\s p[]s4 ,f ?is g5]al survey we pass$ to ! topography ( ! moon1 trac+ briefly ! admirable lab\rs ( ^? :o h advanc$ ?is subject1 &1 by aid ( picture & skeleton maps & a table ( position co-ord9ates1 plac+ x )9 ! read]'s p[] to become m ?an suffici5tly acqua9t$ = ! purposes ( ?is "w ) ! names & positions ( detail objects & features ( int]e/4 ,special descriptions ( int]e/+ & typical spots & regions 7 giv5 9 "s few cases :]e su* appe>$ to be call$ =4 ,^! descriptive matt]s dispos$ (1 we proce$$ to discuss ! v>i\s classes ( surface features ) a view to expla9+ ! precise actions :i* appe> to u to h l$ to _! =mation4 ,naturally ! crat]s fir/ dem&$ our att5tion4 ,we po9t$ out ! reasons = reg>d+ ! great majority ( ! circul> =mations ( ! moon z crat]s1 z truly volcanic z ^? ( :i* we h examples1 modifi$ by obvi\s causes1 ^u ! e>?2 &1 trac+ ! causative ph5om5a ( t]re/rial volcanoes1 we %[$ h[ ! explanations :i* h be5 (f]$ to acc\nt = !m sc>cely apply to ^? ( ! moon3 & ?us1 driv5 to o!r hypo!ses1 we endeav\r$ to demon/rate ! probability ( ! lun> crat]s hav+ be5 produc$ by eruptive =ce1 g5]at$ by t pre-solidify+ expansion ( successive portions ( ! moon's molt5 int]ior1 :i* we enunciat$ 9 our ?ird *apt]4 ,! precise c\rse ( ph5om5a :i* result$ 9 ! production ( a crat] ( ! normal lun> type1 ) or )\t ! significant c5tral cone1 7 !n illu/rat$ by a s]ies ( /ep-by-/ep diagrams ) accompany+ descriptive p>agraphs4 ,& aft] treat+ ( crat]s ( ! normal type we po9t$ out & expla9$ "s v>iations !reupon t are "h & !re to be met )1 & likewise ^? curi\s complications ( arrangem5t :i* exhibit crat]s sup]impos$ "o ^u ano!r & int]m+l$ 9 /range confusion4 ,f crat]s manife/ly volcanic we pass$ to ! consid]ation ( ^? circul> =mations :i*1 f _! va/ness ( size1 sc>cely admit ( satisfactory explanation by a volcanic hypo!sis4 ,we summ>iz$ sev]al pr(f]$ !ories ( _! orig91 & po9t$ out :at we consid]$ might be a possible key to ! solution ( ! sel5ological enigma :i* !y con/itute1 )\t1 h[ev]1 express+ ourselves entirely satisfi$ ) ! validity ( our sugge/ion4 ,! less my/]i\s features pres5t$ by peaks & m\nta9 ranges 7 !n discuss$ to ! ext5t t we consid]$ requisite1 view+ _! comp>atively simple "* & ! second>y position !y occupy 9 po9t ( num]ical importance ^u ! moon4 ,at great] l5g? we dealt ) ! cracks & *asms & ! alli$ ph5om5a ( radiat+ /reaks1 po9t+ out ) reg>d to ^! latt] ! /rik+ly beautiful correspond5ce 9 effect 7& !re=e presumably 9 cause7 betwe5 !m & crack-sy/ems ( a glass globe 8/>r$0 by an exp&+ int]nal m$ium4 ,! m notable objects & features ( ! lun> surface be+ dispos$ (1 we _h next to say a few words ^u "s residual ph5om5a1 *iefly ^u ! col\r ( lun> surface details1 & ^u _! v>i\s degrees ( brightness or reflective p[]4 ,&1 inasmu* z v>y+ brightness seem$ to u to be relat$ to v>y+ antiquity1 we 7 !nce l$ to ! "q ( ! *ronology ( sel5ological =mations1 & to ! disputation ^u ! cont9uance ( volcanic action ^u ! moon 9 rec5t ye>s4 ,we reg>d$ ?is "q f ! obs]vational & ! inf]5tial po9ts ( view1 & 7 l$ to ! conclusion t ! moon's surface arriv$ at its t]m9al condition ages ago1 & t x is next to hopeless to look = evid5ce ( exi/+ *ange4 ,?us f> our "w dealt ) ! moon z a planet>y body m]ely4 ,x occurr$ to u1 h[ev]1 t we might add to ! int]e/ atta*+ to our satellite 7 we to reg>d x = a "t z a _w1 & consid] its conditions z respects fitness = habitation by be+s l ourselves4 ,! argum5ts aga9/ ! possibility ( ! moon be+ ?us fitt$ = human creatures1 or1 inde$1 = any high organism1 7 decisive en\gh to require little en=c+4 ,x appe>$ to u1 nev]!less1 t mu* might be le>nt by imag9+ "o's self locat$ ^u ! moon dur+ a p]iod embrac+ "o lun> day 7a mon? ( our reckon+71 ) p[] to compreh5d ! peculi> circum/ances & conditions ( su* a situation4 ,we !re=e attempt$ a description ( an imag9>y soj\rn ^u ! moon1 & po9t$ out "s ( ! m /rik+ aspects & ph5om5a :i* we "k by legitimate inf]5ce w\ld be !re manife/$4 ,we tru/1 t :ile our mode/ ef=ts 9 ! *apt] ref]r+ to ?is bran* ( our subject may prove 9 "s degree ent]ta9+1 !y may be 9 a great] degree in/ructive1 inasmu* z c]ta9 facts are br\ght into prom95ce :i* w\ld n unnaturally be ov]look$ 9 contemplat+ ! moon f ! e>?1 ! only real /&-po9t t is available to u4 ,9 our f9al *apt] we consid]$ ! moon z a satellite1 & s\ght to enhance popul> reg>d = x on acc\nt ( c]ta9 high functions :i* x p]=ms = man's b5efit on ?is e>?2 b :i* are 9 great risk ( be+ ov]look$4 ,we %[$ t1 not)/&+ ! moon's occasionally useful s]vice z a nocturnal lum9>y1 x fills a f> high] (fice z a sanit>y ag5t by cleans+ ! %ores ( our seas & riv]s ?r\gh ! ag5cy ( ! tides4 ,we po9t$ out ! va/ am\nt ( absolutely me*anical "w & comm]cial lab\r :i* ! same tidal ag5cy executes 9 transport+ m]*&ize up & d[n our riv]s--an am\nt t1 to take ! port ( ,london alone1 repres5ts a money value p] annum t may be reckon$ 9 millions /]l+1 see+ t if our riv] 0 tideless all transport w\ld h to be done by manual or /eam p[]4 ,we !n h9t$ at ! /up5d\s res]voir ( p[] t ! tidal wat]s con/itute1 a =m ( p[] :i* has n z yet be5 suffici5tly call$ into op]ation1 b :i* may be invok$ by-&-by1 :5 we h begun to feel m acutely ! consequ5ces ( our pres5t prodigal use ( ! fuel t 0 /or$ up = u by b\ntiful nature ages ^u ages ago4 ,! moon's s]vices to ! navigator1 9 af=d+ him a ready means ( f9d+ 8 longitude at sea2 to ! *ronologi/ & hi/orian1 z a timekeep]1 c\nt+ p]iods too va/ = accurate reckon+ by o!r means2 to ! a/ronom] & /ud5t ( nature1 9 reveal+ c]ta9 wond]ful surr\nd+s ( ! sol> globe1 :i*1 b = ! ph5om5a ( eclipses caus$ by ! moon's int]position1 w\ld nev] h be5 suspect$ to exi/--^! 7 o!r functions t we dwelt ^u1 all too briefly = _! des]ts2 &1 la/ly1 we spoke ( ! moon z a m$al ( creation fraught ) in/ructive sugge/ions1 :i* x has be5 our endeav\r to br+ to notice 9 ! c\rse ( ?is "w4 ,& f uses we pass$ to abuses1 direct+ att5tion to a few popul> errors & widespread illusions relat+ to lun> influ5ce ^u & 9 connection ) ?+s t]re/rial4 ,?is "p ( our "w might h be5 consid]ably exp&$1 =1 9 tru?1 ! moon has be5 a misund]/ood & misjudg$ body4 ,"s ju/ice we tru/ we h done to h]3 we h br\ght h] face to ! fireside2 we h analys$ h] features1 & told ( virtues t few ( h] admir+ behold]s conceiv$ h] to possess4 ,we h trac$ out h] hi/ory1 fraught ) wond]ful int]e/1 & d\btless typical ( ! hi/ory ( o!r sph]es t 9 c\ntless numb]s p]vade ! univ]se3 & n[1 hav+ done our be/ to make all ^! po9ts famili>1 we comm5d ! moon to /ill fur!r /udy & /ill m intimate acqua9tance1 confid5t t %e w repay all att5tions1 be !y address$ to h] z ,a ,,planet1 ,a ,,_w1 ,,or ,a ,,satellite4 ,,! ,,end4 ,,footnotes #a,! melt+ temp]ature ( iron is #aejj ,c5tigrade4 #b,mr4 ,t4 ,heunt]1 ,manag] ( ! ,iron-works ( ,james ,murray1 ,esq41 ( ,dalmell+ton1 ,ayr%ire4 ,ano!r au?ority 7,mr4 ,snelus1 ( ! ,we/ ,cumb]l& ,iron ,company71 writes z foll[s3 8,i _h a hole dug on ! #8c9d]-fall1' & all[$ ! runn+ slag to fl[ ?r\gh x s z to =m a tol]ably l>ge pool & yet keep fluid4 ,any cru/ t =m$ 0 skimm$ (f4 ,a portion ( ! same slag 0 cool$1 & ! solid lump ?r[n into ! pool4 ,x float$ j at ! surface40 ,mr4 ,snelus adds1 by ! way1 t he tri$ 8,bessem]-,pig0 9 ! same way1 & t ! solid pig sunk 9 ! molt5 = a m9ute & !n rose & float$ j at ! surface1 ) ab\t "o-tw5tie? ( its bulk above ! level ( ! fluid4 #c;,irradiation is an ocul> ph5om5on 9 virtue ( :i* all /rongly illum9at$ objects appe> to ! eye to be l>g] ?an !y really are4 ,! impression produc$ by light ^u ! ret9a appe>s to ext5d itself ar\nd ! focal image =m$ by ! l5ses ( ! eye4 ,x is f ! effect ( irradiation t a :ite disc on a black gr\nd looks l>g] ?an a black disc ( ! same size on a :ite gr\nd4 #d;,= ! orig9al photograph f :i* ?is plate 0 produc$1 & = p]mission to reproduce x1 we owe our ackn[l$gm5ts to ,w>r5 ,de la ,rue & ,joseph ,beck1 ,esquires4 #e,! prop] di/ance = realis+ ! conditions "u :i* ! moon itself is se5 w be t at :i* our disc is j cov]$ by a waf] ab\t a qu>t] ( an in* 9 diamet]1 held at arm's l5g?4 ,?is w subt5d an angle ( ab\t half a degree1 :i* is ne>ly ! angul> diamet] ( ! moon4 #f,! libratory movem5t has be5 tak5 advantage (1 at ! sugge/ion ( ,sir ,*as4 ,:eat/one1 = produc+ /]eoscopic photographs ( ! moon4 ,9 ! e>ly days ( /]eoscopic photography ! object to be photograph$ 0 plac$ ^u a k9d ( turn-table1 &1 aft] a picture _h be5 tak5 ( x 9 "o position1 ! table 0 turn$ ?r\gh a small angle = ! tak+ ( ! second picture2 ! two plac$ side by side !n repres5t$ ! object z x w\ld h be5 se5 by two eyes widely sep>at$1 or ^: visual rays incl9$ at an angle equal to t ?r\gh :i* ! table 0 turn$2 & :5 ! pictures 7 view$ ?r\gh a /]eoscope1 !y comb9$ to produce ! wond]ful effect ( solidity n[ famili> to e "o4 ,! moon1 by its librations1 imitates ! turn-table movem5t2 &1 f a l>ge numb] ( photographs ( h]1 tak5 at diff]5t po9ts ( h] orbit & at diff]5t seasons ( ! ye>1 x is possible to select two :i*1 :ile !y exhibit ! same phase ( illum9ation1 at ! same "t pres5t ! requisite diff]5ce 9 ! po9ts ( view f :i* !y are tak5 to give ! effect ( /]eoscopicity :5 view$ b9ocul>ly4 ,mr4 ,de la ,rue1 ! fa!r ( cele/ial photography1 has be5 enabl$ to produce sev]al su* pairs ( pictures f ! va/ collection ( lun> photographs t he has accumulat$4 ,any "o ( ^! pairs ( portraits1 :5 /]eoscopically comb9$1 reproduces1 to quote ! words ( ,sir ,john ,h]s*el1 8! sph]ical =m j z a giant might see x ^: /ature 7 su* t ! int]val betwe5 8 eyes %\ld equal ! di/ance betwe5 ! place :]e ! e>? /ood :5 "o view 0 tak51 & t to :i* x w\ld h to be remov$ 7our moon be+ fix$7 to get ! o!r4 ,no?+ c surpass ! impression ( real corporeal =m ?us convey$ by "s ( ^! pictures z tak5 by ,mr4 ,de la ,rue ) 8 p[]ful reflector1 ! production ( :i* 7z a /ep 9 "s sort tak5 by man outside ( ! planet he inhabits7 is "o ( ! mo/ rem>kable & unexpect$ triumphs ( sci5tific art40 #g,?is is a po9t ( "s unc]ta9ty4 ,dr4 ,"y /at$ 7,lectures ,vol4 ,,ii4 p4 #ege7 t 8a m9ute is p]haps ne>ly ! smalle/ int]val at :i* two objects c be di/+ui%$1 al?\gh a l9e subt5d+ only a t5? ( a m9ute 9 bread? may sometimes be p]ceiv$ z a s+le object40 #h,plate ,,viii4 #i8;,cosmos10 ,bohn's ,edition1 ,vol4 ,v4 p4 #cbb4 #aj;,am]ican ,j\rnal ( ,sci5ce1 ,second ,s]ies1 ,vol4 ,,ii4 #aa8,volcanoes10 page #aee4 #ab;,9 ref]5ce to su* prom95ces on ! lun> surface z ca/ /eeple-l %ad[s1 x is well to rem>k t we mu/ n 9 all cases inf]1 f ! acute spire-l =m ( ! %ad[1 t ! object :i* ca/s ! %ad[ is ( a simil> %>p or spire-l =m1 :i* ! fir/ impression w\ld naturally lead u to suppose4 ,a comp>atively blunt or r\nd$ em95ce w project a long & po9t$ %ad[ :5 ! rays ( light fall on ! object at a l[ angle1 & especially s :5 ! %ad[ is project$ on a convex surface4 ,we illu/rate ?is ) a copy ( an actual photograph ( ! %ad[ ca/ by half a pea1 ,fig4 #da4 #ac,we meet a difficulty 9 reconcil+ ?is idea ) ! p>tial crat]s ( :i* we h a conspicu\s example 9 ,fraca/orius1 ,no4 #gh1 ( our ,map1 :i* seem to be p>tially sunk bel[ ! contigu\s surface4 ,?is looks z ?\gh ! crat]-rim belong$ to an old] epo* ?an ! pla9 f :i* x rises4 #ad,we are in=m$ by a fri5d1 :o has lately visit$ ,a!ns1 t ,s*midt's detail draw+s ( ! ,moon1 compris+ ! "w ( =ty ye>s1 =m a small libr>y 9 !mselves4 ,! map embody+ !m is s l>ge 7#f ft4 #f 94 9 diamet]7 & s full ( detail t !re is small hope ( its complete publication1 unless !re %\ld be su* a wide ext5sion ( int]e/ 9 ! m9ute /udy ( our satellite z to ju/ify ! co/ ( reproduc+ x4 #ae;,x is conceivable t ! alleg$ *anges 9 ! crat] ,l9n may h be5 caus$ by a fill+ ( ! crat] by "s su* crumbl+ action z we are "h contemplat+4 #af;,is x n conceivable t ! protog]ms ( life p]vade ! :ole univ]se1 & h be5 locat$ ^u e planet>y body !re98 ,sir ,william ,?omson's sugge/ion t life came to ! e>? ^u a se$-be>+ meteor 0 weak1 9 s f> t x %ift$ ! locus ( life-g5]ation f "o planet>y body to ano!r4 ,is x n m philosophical1 m consi/5t ) our conception ( ,creative omnipot5ce & imp>tiality1 to suppose t ! protog]ms ( life h be5 s[n broadca/ ov] all space1 & t !y h fall5 "h ^u a planet "u conditions fav\rable to _! developm5t1 & h sprung into vitality :5 ! fit circum/ances h arriv$1 & !re ^u a planet t is1 & t may be = ev]1 unfitt$ = _! vivification8 #ag,our rem>ks h g5]al ref]5ce to a region ( ! moon ne> h] equator2 ne> ! poles "s ( ! conditions we %all describe w\ld be some:at modifi$4 #ah,we see ?is r$d5+ dur+ an eclipse ( ! moon 7:5 ! ev5t we are describ+--an eclipse ( ! sun visible f ! moon--really takes place74 ,! blood-r$ col\r has (t5 /ruck obs]v]s v =cibly1 & x has inde$ be5 sugge/$ t ! appe>ance may be ! innoc5t & (t-repeat$ fulfilm5t ( ! prophetic allusion to ! moon be+ 8turn$ into blood40 #ai;,ab\t #ajj ye>s ago ,london 0 suppli$ ) wat] *iefly by pumps work$ by tidal mills at ,london ,bridge4 #bj,! sun & planets are comp>atively useless = ?is object1 because ( _! sl[ movem5t among ! />s2 ! *ange ( _! positions f h\r to h\r is s small z to r5d] unc]ta9 ! ,gre5wi* times d$ucible !refrom4 ,_! use w\ld be comp>able to tak+ ! "t f ! h\r-h& ( a clock4 ,,bradbury1 ,,agnew1 ,,co41 ,,pr9t]s1 ,,:itefri>s4 ,albem>le ,/reet1 ,decemb]1 #ahgc4 ,,works ,,on ,,sci5ce1 c4 ,a ,,naturali/',s ,,voyage ,,r\nd ,,! ,,_w4 ,by ,*>les ,d>w91 ,f4,r4,s4 ,) ,illu/rations4 ,po/ #hvo4 #is4 ,,! ,,orig9 ,,( ,,species1 ,,by ,,means ,,( ,,natural ,,selection2 or1 ! ,pres]vation ( ,fav\r$ ,races 9 ! ,/ruggle = ,life4 ,by ,*>les ,d>w91 ,f4,r4,s4 ,) ,illu/rations4 ,po/ #hvo4 #gs4 #f;d4 ,,! ,,f]tilization ,,( ,,or*ids ,,?r\gh ,,insect ,,ag5cy4 ,by ,*>les ,d>w91 ,f4,r4,s4 ,) ,woodcuts4 ,po/ #hvo4 #is4 ,,! ,,v>iation ,,( ,,animals ,,& ,,plants ,,"u ,,dome/ication4 ,by ,*>les ,d>w91 ,f4,r4,s4 ,) ,illu/rations4 #b vols4 #hvo4 #bhs4 ,,! ,,desc5t ,,( ,,man1 ,,& ,,on ,,selection ,,9 ,,relation ,,to ,,sex4 ,by ,*>les ,d>w91 ,f4,r4,s4 ,) ,illu/rations4 #b vols4 ,cr[n #hvo4 #bds4 ,,! ,,expression ,,( ,,! ,,emotions ,,9 ,,man ,,& ,,animals4 ,by ,*>les ,d>w91 ,f4,r4,s4 ,) ,illu/rations4 ,cr[n #hvo4 #abs4 ,,facts ,,& ,,argum5ts ,,= ,,d>w94 ,by ,fritz ,mull]4 ,translat$ by ,w4 ,s4 ,dallas1 ,f4,l4,s4 ,) ,illu/rations4 ,po/ #hvo4 #fs4 ,,! ,,/ud5t',s ,,elem5ts ,,( ,,geology4 ,by ,sir ,*>les ,lyell1 ,f4,r4,s4 ,) #fjj ,woodcuts4 ,po/ #hvo4 #is4 ,,pr9ciples ,,( ,,geology2 or1 ! ,mod]n ,*anges ( ! ,e>? & its ,inhabitants1 consid]$ z illu/rative ( ,geology4 ,by ,sir ,*>les ,lyell1 ,f4,r4,s4 ,) ,illu/rations4 #b vols4 #hvo4 #afs4 ea*4 ,,! ,,antiquity ,,( ,,man1 ,,f ,,geological ,,evid5ces2 ) ,rem>ks on ,!ories ( ! ,orig9 ( ,species by ,v>iation4 ,by ,sir ,*>les ,lyell1 ,f4,r4,s4 ,) ,illu/rations4 #hvo4 #ads4 ,a ,,geographical ,,h&book ,,( ,,all ,,! ,,kn[n ,,f]ns1 ) ,tables to %[ _! di/ribution4 ,by ,k4 ,m4 ,lyell4 ,po/ #hvo4 #gs4 #f;d4 ,a ,,manual ,,( ,,sci5tific ,,inquiry4 ,= ! ,use ( ,travell]s4 ,edit$ by ,sir ,j4 ,f4 ,h]s*el & ,rev4 ,rob]t ,ma94 ,po/ #hvo4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,! ,,connection ,,( ,,! ,,physical ,,sci5ces4 ,by ,m>y ,som]ville4 ,po/ #hvo4 #is4 ,,physical ,,geography4 ,by ,m>y ,som]ville4 ,po/ #hvo4 #is4 ,,molecul> ,,& ,,microscopic ,,sci5ce4 ,by ,m>y ,som]ville4 ,illu/rations4 #b vols4 ,po/ #hvo4 #bas4 ,,p]sonal ,,recollections ,,f ,,e>ly ,,life ,,to ,,old ,,age ,,( ,,m>y ,,som]ville4 ,) ,selections f h] ,correspond5ce4 ,by ,h] ,daught]4 ,) ,portrait4 ,cr[n #hvo4 #abs4 ,,! ,,riv]s1 ,,m\nta9s1 ,,& ,,sea-,,coa/ ,,( ,,york%ire4 ,) ,essays on ! ,climate1 ,sc5]y1 & ,anci5t ,inhabitants ( ! ,c\ntry4 ,by ,john ,phillips1 ,f4,r4,s4 ,plates1 #hvo4 #aes4 ,,records ,,( ,,! ,,rocks2 or1 ,notes on ! ,geology1 ,natural ,hi/ory1 & ,antiquities ( ,nor? & ,s\? ,wales1 ,devon1 & ,cornwall4 ,by ,rev4 ,w4 ,s4 ,symonds1 ,f4,g4,s4 ,) ,illu/rations4 ,cr[n #hvo4 #abs4 ,,rese>*es ,,into ,,! ,,e>ly ,,hi/ory ,,( ,,mank9d1 ,,& ,,! ,,developm5t ,,( ,,civilization4 ,by ,e4 ,b4 ,tylor1 ,f4,r4,s4 #hvo4 #abs4 ,,primitive ,,culture2 ,rese>*es into ! ,developm5t ( ,my?ology1 ,philosophy1 ,religion1 ,art1 & ,cu/om4 ,by ,e4 ,b4 ,tylor1 ,f4,r4,s4 #b vols4 #hvo4 #bds4 ,,siluria2 a ,hi/ory ( ! ,olde/ ,rocks 9 ! ,briti% ,isles & o!r ,c\ntries1 ) a ,sket* ( ! ,di/ribution ( ,native ,gold4 ,by ,sir ,rod]ick ,mur*ison1 ,f4,r4,s4 ,) ,illu/rations4 #b vols4 #hvo4 #ahs4 ,,! ,,/r5g? ,,( ,,iron ,,& ,,/eel4 ,by ,k4 ,/yffe4 ,translat$ f ! ,sw$i%4 ,by ,*ri/] ,p4 ,s&b]g1 ,c4,e4 ,) ,li?ographs4 #hvo4 #abs4 ,a ,,practical ,,treatise ,,on ,,%ip-,,build+ ,,9 ,,iron ,,& ,,/eel4 ,by ,e4 ,j4 ,re$1 ,c4,b4 ,) ,illu/rations4 #hvo4 ,,our ,,iron-,,clad ,,%ips2 _! ,qualities1 ,p]=mances1 & ,co/1 ) ,*apt]s on ,turret ,%ips1 ,iron-clad ,rams1 c4 ,by ,e4 ,j4 ,re$1 ,c4,b4 ,) ,illu/rations4 #hvo4 #abs4 ,,! ,,naturali/ ,,9 ,,nic>agua2 a ,n>rative ( a ,resid5ce at ! ,gold ,m9es ( ,*ontales2 ,j\rneys 9 ! ,savannahs & ,=e/s2 ) ,obs]vations on ,animals & ,plants 9 ref]5ce to ! ,!ory ( ,evolution ( ,liv+ ,=ms4 ,by ,?omas ,belt4 ,) ,illu/rations4 ,po/ #hvo4 #abs4 ,,! ,,naturali/ ,,on ,,! ,,riv] ,,amazons2 ,dur+ ,elev5 ,ye>s ( ,travels & ,adv5tures4 ,by ,h4 ,w4 ,bates4 ,) ,illu/rations4 ,po/ #hvo4 #gs4 #f;d4 ,,lives ,,( ,,briti% ,,eng9e]s2 f ! ,e>lie/ ,times to ! ,dea? ( ,rob]t ,/eph5son4 ,compris+ a ,hi/ory ( ! ,inv5tion & ,introduction ( ! ,/eam ,eng9e & ,railway ,locomotive4 ,) ,portraits & #cej ,illu/rations4 #d vols4 ,m$ium #hvo4 #hds4 ,,hi/ory ,,( ,,! ,,mod]n ,,/yles ,,( ,,ar*itecture4 ,by ,james ,f]gusson1 ,f4,r4,s41 ,d4,c4,l41 ,fell[ ( ! ,royal ,in/itute ( ,briti% ,ar*itects4 ,) #ccj ,illu/rations4 ,m$ium #hvo4 #cas4 #f;d4 ,,rude ,,/one ,,monum5ts ,,9 ,,all ,,c\ntries2 _! ,age & ,uses4 ,by ,james ,f]gusson1 ,f4,r4,s4 ,) #bcj ,illu/rations4 ,m$ium #hvo4 #bds4 ,a ,,hi/ory ,,( ,,pott]y3 ,egyptian1 ,assyrian1 ,greek1 ,etruscan1 & ,roman4 ,by ,samuel ,bir*1 ,f4,s4,a4 ,) ,col\r$ ,plates1 & #bjj ,woodcuts4 ,m$ium #hvo4 #dbs4 ,a ,,hi/ory ,,( ,,pott]y3 ,m$ival & ,mod]n4 ,by ,joseph ,m>ryat4 ,) ,col\r$ ,plates1 & #cjj ,woodcuts4 ,m$ium #hvo4 #dbs4 ,,! ,,national ,,memorial ,,to ,h4,r4,h4 ,,! ,,pr9ce ,,consort1 ,,at ,,k5s+ton4 ,consi/+ ( ,col\r$ ,views & o!r ,engrav+s ( ! ,monum5t & its ,decorations1 its ,sculptur$ ,gr\ps1 ,/atues1 ,mosaics1 ,ar*itecture1 & ,details ( ,metalwork1 c41 design$ & execut$ by ! mo/ em95t ,briti% ,arti/s4 ,) ,descriptive ,text4 ,) #bd ,plates1 & ,woodcuts4 ,folio1 #abl4 #abs4 ,l>ge ,pap] 7only #ej pr9t$71 #ael4 #aes41 half-b\nd2 or ,special ,copies1 9 full morocco1 #ahl4 #ahs4 ,,brick ,,& ,,m>ble ,,ar*itecture ,,( ,,! ,,middle ,,ages4 ,) ,notes ( ,t\rs nor? ( ! ,ap5n9es1 includ+ ,aquilei1 ,ud9e1 ,vic5za1 ,f]r>a1 ,bologna1 ,piac5za1 ,mod5a1 & ,v]celli4 ,by ,g4 ,e4 ,/reet1 ,r4,a4 ,) ,illu/rations4 ,royal #hvo4 ,,! ,,go?ic ,,ar*itecture ,,( ,,spa93 f ,p]sonal ,obs]vations made dur+ ,sev]al ,j\rneys4 ,by ,g4 ,e4 ,/reet4 #bnd ,edition4 ,) #ajj ,illu/rations4 ,royal #hvo4 #cjs4 ,,horse-,,%oe+2 ,,z ,,x ,,is1 ,,& ,,z ,,x ,,%\ld ,,be4 ,by ,william ,d\glas1 late ( #aj? ,huss>s4 ,) ,illu/rations4 ,po/ #hvo4 #gs4 #f;d4 ,,! ,,h>ve/ ,,( ,,! ,,sea4 ,includ+ ,sket*es ( ,fi%]ies & ,fi%] ,folk4 ,by ,james ,g4 ,b]tram4 ,) #ej ,illu/rations4 ,po/ #hvo4 #is4 ,,! ,,longevity ,,( ,,man3 ,,its ,,facts ,,& ,,its ,,fictions4 ,includ+ an ,inquiry into "s ( ! m ,rem>kable ,in/ances & ,sugge/ions = ,te/+ ,reput$ ,cases4 ,illu/rat$ by ,examples4 ,by ,william ,j4 ,?oms1 ,f4,s4,a4 ,po/ #hvo4 #ajs4 #f;d4 ,,metallurgy3 ! ,art ( ,extract+ ,metals f _! ,ores1 & adapt+ !m to v>i\s purposes ( ,manufacture4 ,by ,john ,p]cy1 ,f4,r4,s4 ,) ,illu/rations4 #hvo4 ,vol4 ,i4--,fuel1 ,wood1 ,peat4 ,coal1 ,*>coal1 ,coke4 ,fire-,clays4 ,copp]1 ,z9c1 & ,brass4 ,) #aej ,illu/rations4 #hvo4 ,vol4 ,,ii4--,iron & ,/eel4 ,) #bbj ,illu/rations4 #hvo4 ,vol4 ,,iii4--,lead1 includ+ ,desilv]ization & ,cupellation4 ,) ,illu/rations4 #hvo4 #cjs4 ,vols4 ,,iv4 & ,v4--,gold1 ,silv]1 & ,m]cury4 ,plat9um1 ,t91 ,nickel1 ,cobalt1 ,antimony1 ,bismu?1 ,ars5ic & o!r ,metals4 ,) ,illu/rations4 #hvo4 ,9 prep>ation4 ,,manufacture ,,( ,,russian ,,%eet-,,iron1 ) e detail ( ! process illu/rat$4 ,by ,john ,p]cy1 ,f4,r4,s4 ,) ,illu/rations4 #hvo4 #bs4 #f;d4 ,,john ,,murray1 ,,albem>le ,,/reet4 ,transcrib]'s ,notes --,reta9$ copyright in=mation f ! pr9t$ edition3 ?is e,book is public-doma9 9 ! c\ntry ( publication4 --,sil5tly correct$ a few palpable typos4 --,9 ! text v]sions only1 text 9 italics is delimit$ by und]scores4